,illustration3 ,,grotto ,,del ,,cani4 ,illustration3 ,engraved for the ,book of ,curiosities4 p4 #hgg ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,curiosities3 ,,containing ,,ten ,,thousand ,,wonders ,,and ,,curiosities ,,of ,,nature ,,and ,,art2 ,,and ,,of ,remarkable and ,astonishing ,,places1 ,,beings1 ,,animals1 ,,customs1 ,,experiments1 ,,phenomena1 etc41 of both ,ancient and ,modern ,times1 on all ,parts of the ,,globe3 comprising ,authentic ,accounts of the most ,,wonderful ,,freaks of ,,nature and ,,arts of ,,man4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,i4 ,,platts4 ,,first ,,american ,,edition4 ,,complete ,,in ,,one ,,volume4 ,,philadelphia3 ,,published ,,by ,,leary ,,getz4 #ahed4 ,,contents4 ,abderites1 or inhabitants of ,abdera1 curious account of1 #de ,abstinence1 wonders of1 #fg ,act of faith1 #fch ,adansonia2 or1 ,african calabash tree1 #cgh ,agnesi1 ,maria ,gaetana1 account of1 #abj ,agrigentum1 in ,sicily1 ruins of1 #edj ,air1 its pressure and elasticity1 #hci ,alarm bird1 #bdc ,alexandria1 buildings and library of1 #edi ,alhambra1 #eei ,alligators1 #afd ,american natural history1 #ahb ,anagrams1 #dej ,andes1 #dae ,androides1 #gja ,anger1 surprising effects of1 #hb ,animalcules1 #ceg ,animal generation1 curiosities respecting1 #aci ,animals1 formation of1 #adb ,animals1 preservation of1 #add ,animals1 destruction of1 #aej ,animal reproductions1 #aed ,animals and plants1 winter sleep of1 #hjh ,animals1 remarkable strength of affection in1 #ahd ,animals1 surprising instances of sociality in1 #ahe ,animals1 unaccountable faculties possessed by some1 #ahg ,animals1 remarkable instances of fasting in1 #ahi ,animal flower1 #cib ,anthropophagi1 or men-eaters1 account of1 #ge ,ants1 curiosities of1 #bij ,ants1 green1 #caa ,ants1 white1 or termites1 #cja ,ant1 lion1 #cab ,ants1 visiting1 #cab ,aphis1 curiosities respecting1 #cca ,aqueducts1 remarkable1 #gie ,arc1 ,joan of1 #ibg ,ark of ,noah1 #ehb ,artificer1 unfortunate1 #gde ,artificial figure to light a candle1 #hcj ,asbestos1 #djb ,athos1 mount1 #dbc ,attraction1 examples of1 #hcg ,augsburg1 curiosities of1 #egf ,aurora borealis1 #fhd ,automaton1 description of1 #gjj ,b ,babylon1 #eeg ,bacon flitch1 custom at ,dunmow1 ,essex1 #fje ,balbeck1 ancient ruins of1 #ech ,bannian tree1 #cgd ,baptism1 a curious one1 #fdb ,baratier1 ,john ,philip1 premature genius of1 #abe ,barometer1 rules for predicting the weather by it1 #hfd ,beards1 remarks concerning1 #ca ,beaver1 description of1 #aef ,beavers1 habitations of the1 #aeh ,bee1 the honey1 #bfe ,bees1 wild1 curiosities of1 ,clothier ,bee1 ,carpenter ,bee1 ,mason ,bee1 ,upholsterer ,bee1 ,leaf-cutter ,bee1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhj ,bees1 account of an idiot-boy and1 #bhc ,bees1 ,mr4 ,wildman's curious exhibitions of1 explained1 #bhc ,bells1 baptism of1 #fci ,benefit of clergy1 origin and history of1 #fbc ,bird of ,paradise1 #bcj ,bird1 singular account of one inhabiting a volcano in ,guadalope1 #bdf ,bird-catching fish1 #aif ,bird-catching1 curious method of1 #bfj ,birds1 method of preserving1 #hfe ,birds1 hydraulic1 #gac ,birds1 song of1 #bfa ,birds' nests1 #bea ,bisset1 ,samuel1 the noted animal instructor1 #abd ,bletonism1 #ie ,blind clergyman of ,wales1 #ijc ,blind persons1 astonishing acquisitions made by some1 #df ,blind ,jack of ,knaresborough1 #ijj ,blood1 circulation of1 #bd ,blunders1 book of1 #gfa ,boa ,constrictor1 #bag ,boat-fly1 #cdb ,body1 human1 curiosities of the1 #ac ,bolea1 ,monte1 #dah ,books1 curious account of the scarcity of1 #geg ,borrowdale1 #deh ,bottles1 to uncork1 #hcf ,boverick's curiosities1 #gac ,bowthorpe oak1 #chb ,bread-fruit tree1 #cgb ,bread1 old1 curious account of1 #hjg ,brine1 to ascertain the strength of1 #hci ,brown1 ,simon1 and his curious dedication to queen ,caroline1 #ajh ,bunzlau curiosities1 #gad ,buonaparte1 principal events in the life of1 #abf ,burning spring in ,kentucky1 #dic ,burning and hot springs1 #did1 #die1 #dif1 #dig ,burning1 extraordinary cures by1 #gib ,burning-glasses1 #gag ,bustard1 the great1 #bdc ,butterflies1 beauty and diversities of1 #cdd ,butterflies1 to take an impression of their wings1 #hff ,c ,camera obscura1 to make1 #hcj ,candiac1 ,john ,lewis1 account of1 #aac ,candlemas-day1 #fcb ,cannon1 extraordinary1 #hjg ,cards1 origin of1 #gfg ,carrier1 or courier pigeon1 #bdd ,carthage1 ancient grandeur of1 #edb ,case1 ,john1 celebrated quack doctor1 #aac ,catching a hare1 curious custom respecting1 #fja ,caterpillar1 #bai ,caterpillar-eaters1 #bbj ,cave of ,fingal1 #deb ,cave near ,mexico1 #deg ,centaurs and ,lapith1 #ghe ,chameleon1 particulars respecting1 #age ,changeable flower1 #chg ,cheese-mite1 curiosities respecting1 #ceh ,chemical illuminations1 #hdd ,chick1 formation of in the egg1 #bdi ,child1 extraordinary arithmetical powers of a1 #hh ,chiltern hundreds1 #fcd ,china1 great wall of1 #egi ,chinese1 funeral ceremonies of the1 #faj ,christmas-boxes1 origin of1 #fcc ,cinchona1 or ,peruvian bark1 curious effects of1 #cij ,clepsydra1 #gjf ,clock-work1 extraordinary pieces of1 #gjd ,clouds1 electrified1 terrible effects of1 #fef ,coal-pit1 visit to one1 #dfi ,cocoa-nut tree1 #cga ,coins of the kings of ,england1 #had ,cold1 surprising effects of extreme1 #fei ,colossus1 #egj ,colours1 experiments on1 #hfg ,colours1 incapacity of distinguishing1 #ef ,combustion of the human body by the immoderate use of spirits1 #ig ,common house-fly1 curiosities of the1 #ccg ,company of ,stationers1 singular custom annually observed by the1 #gff ,conscience1 instances of the power of1 #hd ,cormorant1 #bdb ,coruscations1 artificial1 #hdi ,cotton wool1 curious particulars of a pound weight of1 #cia ,countenance1 human1 curiosities of the1 #ah ,cromwell1 ,a4 ,m4 of ,hammersmith1 a rich miser1 #hig ,creeds of the ,jews1 #gge ,crichton1 the admirable1 #iaa ,crichup ,linn1 #gig ,crocodile1 #afc ,crocodile1 fossil1 curiosity of1 #afe ,cuckoo1 curiosities respecting1 #bdj ,curfew bell1 why so called1 #fce ,curious historical fact1 #gdd ,d ,dancer1 ,daniel1 account of1 #ajd ,dajak1 inhabitants of ,borneo1 curious funeral ceremonies of1 #fab ,deaf1 to make the1 perceive sounds1 #hbh ,deaths1 poetical1 grammatical1 and scientific1 #gc ,death-watch1 #cdg ,diamond mine1 on the river ,tigitonhonha1 in the ,brazilian territory1 #dfj ,diamond1 wonderful1 #dje ,diana1 temple of1 at ,ephesus1 #eed ,dictionary1 modern1 #iej ,dimensions1 c4 of some of the largest trees growing in ,england1 #chb ,diseases peculiar to particular countries1 #ghi ,dismal swamp1 #gih ,dog1 remarkable1 #aid ,dog1 curious anecdotes of a1 #aie ,dogs1 sagacity of1 #aic ,dreams1 instances of extraordinary1 #gj ,dwarfs1 extraordinary1 #dj ,e ,eagle1 the golden1 #bcg ,ear1 curious structure of the1 #bb ,earl of ,pembroke1 curious extracts from the will of an1 #ggc ,earth-eaters1 #ijh ,earthquakes1 and their causes1 #dii ,eating1 singularities of different nations in1 #eie ,eclipses1 #fgf ,eddystone rocks1 #gig ,egg1 to soften an1 #hea ,electricity1 illumination by1 #gic ,electrical experiments1 #hda ,elephant1 account of an1 #afh ,elephant1 docility of the1 #agj ,elwes1 ,john1 account of1 #ajd ,english ladies turned ,hottentots1 #gdd ,ephemeral flies1 #cdc ,ephesus1 temple of ,diana at1 #eed ,escurial1 #egg ,etna1 #ddc ,extraordinary custom1 #fja ,eye1 curious formation of the1 #bj ,f ,fact1 the most extraordinary on record1 #gdd ,fairy rings1 #ffg ,falling stars1 #fha ,faquirs1 travelling1 #idj ,fasting1 extraordinary instances of1 #fe ,fata ,morgana1 #ffe ,feasts1 among the ancients of various nations1 #fad ,female beauty and ornaments1 #eif ,fiery fountain1 #hdd ,fire-balls1 #fee ,fire of ,london1 #gdh ,fire1 perpetual1 #hjf ,fisher1 ,miss ,clara1 #ije ,fishes1 air bladder in1 #bja ,fishes1 respiration in1 #bjb ,fishes1 shower of1 #bjc ,flea1 account of a1 #cbe ,flea1 on the duration of the life of a1 #cbh ,florence statues1 #egi ,fly1 the common house1 #ccg ,fly1 the ,hessian1 #ccf ,fly1 the ,may1 #cdj ,fly1 the vegetable1 #cda ,fly1 the boat1 #cdb ,flying1 artificial1 #gaf ,fountain trees1 #cge ,freezing mixture1 to form1 #hei ,freezing1 astonishing expansive force of1 #ffa ,friburg1 curiosities of1 #ege ,friendship1 curious demonstrations of1 #eid ,friendship1 true ,roman1 recipe for establishing1 #iea ,fright1 or terror1 remarkable effects of1 #hb ,frog1 the common1 #afj ,frog-fish1 #aif ,frosts1 remarkable1 #ecc ,flower1 the animal1 #cib ,fruits1 injuries from swallowing the stones of1 #gia ,funeral ceremonies of the ancient ,ethiopians1 #fji ,fungi1 #cie ,g ,galley of ,hiero1 #ehd ,galvanism1 #fhi ,gardens1 floating1 #ehj ,gardens1 hanging1 #eeh ,garter1 origin of the order of the1 #fbc ,gas lights1 miniature1 #hcf ,gauts1 or ,indian ,appenines1 #dba ,giants1 curious account of1 #ci ,giant's causeway1 #eij ,gipsies1 #gcb ,glaciers1 #ebi ,glass1 ductility of1 #gbj ,glass1 to cut1 without a diamond1 #hcc ,glass1 to write on1 by the sun's rays1 #heh ,gluttony1 instances of extraordinary1 #fd ,gold1 remarkable ductility and extensibility of1 #gba ,graham1 the celebrated ,dr4 #iji ,gravity1 experiments respecting the1 #hch ,great events from little causes1 #gdf ,grosbeak1 the social1 #bcd ,grosbeak1 the ,bengal1 #bce ,grotto in ,south ,america1 #dde ,grotto del ,cani1 #ddf ,grotto of ,antiparos1 #ddg ,grotto of ,guacharo1 #dej ,growth1 extraordinary instances of rapid1 #cg ,guinea1 explanation of all the letters on a1 #gfh ,gulf stream1 #dij ,h ,hagamore1 ,rev4 ,mr4 a most singular character1 #hif ,hail1 surprising showers of1 #eah ,hair of the head1 account of1 #bh ,hair1 instances of the internal growth of1 #cj ,hair1 ancient and modern opinions respecting the1 #bi ,halo1 or corona1 and similar appearances1 #fhj ,hand-fasting1 #fji ,harmattan1 #eaa ,harrison1 a singular instance of parsimony1 #ijc ,heat1 diminished by evaporation1 #hci ,hecla1 #ddb ,heidelberg clock1 #gje ,heinecken1 ,christian ,henry1 account of1 #aad ,hell1 opinions respecting1 #hab ,henderson1 ,john1 the ,irish ,crichton1 #hhc ,henry1 ,john1 singular character of1 #ajg ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 #ecf ,herschel's grand telescope1 #gac ,hessian fly1 #cci ,hobnails1 origin of the sheriff's counting1 #fbb ,holland1 ,north1 curious practice in1 #fcj ,honour1 extraordinary instances of1 #hj ,horse1 remarkable instances of sagacity in a1 #aib ,human heart1 structure of the1 #bd ,humming bird1 #bcf ,huntingdon1 ,william1 eccentric character of1 #acd ,hurricane1 curious particulars respecting a1 #eaa ,husband long absent1 returned1 #gda ,hydra1 or polypes1 account of1 #cei ,i ,ice1 ,greenland or polar1 #ebe ,ice1 tremendous concussions of fields of1 #ebh ,ice1 showers of1 #ecc ,ignis ,fatuus1 #fdd ,improvement of the learned1 #gfe ,incubus1 or nightmare1 #ida ,indian jugglers1 #hig ,individuation1 #ghj ,indulgences1 ,romish1 #fcf ,ingratitude1 shocking instances of1 #gh ,inks1 various sympathetic1 #hec to #heg ,insects1 metamorphoses of3 the butterfly1 the common fly1 the grey-coated gnat1 the shardhorn beetle1 #cde ,insects blown from the nose1 -- ,integrity1 striking instances of1 #gg ,inverlochy castle1 #egd ,island1 new1 starting from the sea1 #dia ,j ,jew's harp1 #gie ,john ,bull1 origin of the term of1 #fcd ,k ,killarney1 the lake of1 #dhg ,kimos1 singular nation of dwarfs1 #dc ,knout1 #hjd ,kraken1 #baj ,l ,labrador stone1 #djb ,lady of the ,lamb1 #fja ,lama1 #haj ,lambert1 ,daniel1 account of1 #hhg ,lamps1 remarkable1 #hje ,lamp1 phosphoric1 #hdd ,lanterns1 feast of1 #fba ,laocoon1 monument of1 #eef ,leaves1 to take an impression of them1 #hff ,letter1 curious1 from ,pomare1 king of ,otaheite1 to the ,missionary ,society1 #ggc ,libraries1 celebrated1 #gfj ,light produced under water1 #hej ,lightning1 extraordinary properties and effects of1 #fea ,lightning1 to produce artificial1 #hdd ,liquids1 to produce changeable-coloured1 #heh ,liquids1 to exchange two in different bottles1 #hgb ,literary labour and perseverance1 #gef ,lizard1 imbedded in coal1 #bbe ,locusts1 and their uses in the creation1 #cdi ,london1 compendious description of1 #hac ,london1 intellectual improvement in1 #gfa ,longevity1 extraordinary instances of1 #if ,louse1 #cbh ,love-letter1 and answer1 curious1 #ggd ,luminous insects1 #cai ,m ,m',avoy1 ,miss ,margaret1 #iai ,maelstrom1 #dhi ,magdalen's hermitage1 #ege ,magic oracle1 #hde ,magical bottle1 #hea ,magical drum1 #hjf ,magnetism1 #fic ,magnetic experiments1 #hdh ,magnify1 to1 small objects1 #hhb ,mahometan paradise1 #haa ,maiden1 #eii ,mammoth1 or ,fossil ,elephant1 found in ,siberia1 #agj ,man with the iron mask1 #gbg ,mandrake1 #chg ,marmot1 or the ,mountain ,rat of ,switzerland1 #afg ,marriage custom of the ,japanese1 #fjd ,marriage ceremonies1 curious1 in different nations1 #fjb ,masons1 free and accepted1 #gcg ,mathematical talent1 curious instance of1 #ic ,matrimonial ring1 #fjh ,matter1 divisibility of1 #gic ,may-fly1 #cdj ,may poles and garlands1 the origin of1 #fbi ,memnon1 palace of1 #eeb ,memory1 remarkable instance of1 #hf ,metals1 different1 to discover1 #hbh ,metals1 mixed1 to detect1 #hga ,metcalf1 ,john1 alias ,blind ,jack of ,knaresborough1 #ijj ,microscopic experiments1 #hei ,migration of birds1 #bec ,mills1 remarkable1 #gii ,mint of ,segovia1 #gii ,miraculous vessel1 #heb ,mirage1 account of1 #eba ,miners1 curious effects of1 #hcc ,mite1 the cheese1 curiosities respecting1 #ceh ,mock suns1 #fgc ,mocking bird of ,america1 #bcc ,mole1 the common1 #aei ,money1 test of good or bad1 #hcd ,monkey1 sagacity of a1 #aib ,monsoons1 or trade winds1 #eab ,monster1 #ggg ,montague1 ,edward ,wortley1 #aaj ,mont ,blanc1 in ,switzerland1 #dbg ,moon1 account of three volcanoes in the1 #fhb ,morland1 ,george1 account of1 #aad ,moscow1 great bell of1 #gbf ,mosquitoes1 and their uses1 #cee ,mourning1 ancient modes of1 #fac ,mountains1 natural descriptions of1 #djf ,mountains ,written1 ,mountains of ,inscription1 or ,jibbel ,el ,mokatteb1 #dbb ,mount ,snowden1 excursion to the top of1 #dab ,mud and ,salt1 volcanic eruptions of1 in the island of ,java1 #dfg ,murdering statue1 #hja ,museum1 #eff ,mushroom1 #cie ,mushroom-stone1 #djb ,n ,names1 curious1 adopted in the civil war1 #ggb ,naphtha springs1 #dib ,national debt1 singular calculation respecting1 #haf ,natural productions1 resembling artificial compositions1 #hjd ,natural history1 curious facts in1 #bdg ,nautilus1 #aig ,navigation1 perfection of1 #dha ,needles1 #gbb ,needle's eye1 #dei ,news1 origin of the word1 #gfb ,newspapers1 origin of1 #gfb ,new studies in old age1 instances of1 #gfc ,new year's gifts1 origin of1 #fcc ,niagara1 and its falls1 #dhe ,nicholas ,pesce1 #aag ,nitre caves of ,missouri1 #deg ,nokes1 ,edward1 a miser1 #hhh ,numbers1 remarkable instance of skill in1 #hf ,numbers1 curious arrangements of1 #hfh1 #hga ,nuns1 particulars respecting1 #haa ,nuovo1 ,monte1 #dai ,o ,oak-tree1 remarkable account of1 #chj ,oakham1 custom at1 #fcj ,obelisk1 remarkable1 near ,forres1 in ,scotland1 #egc ,okey ,hole1 #deh ,orang-,outang1 #agh ,origin of ',that's a ,bull1' #fce ,origin of the old adage respecting ,st4 ,swithin1 and rainy weather1 #fce ,ornithorhynchus paradoxus1 #aff ,ostrich1 curiosities of the1 #bca ,owl1 adventure of an1 #bdg ,p ,pausilippo1 #dai ,peacock1 the common1 #bbf ,peak in ,derbyshire1 description of1 #dji ,peeping ,tom of ,coventry1 #gdj ,peg1 to make a1 to fit three differently shaped holes1 #hgb ,pelican1 the great1 #bbi ,penance1 curious account of a1 #fdc ,performances of a female1 blind almost from her infancy1 #ec ,persons born defective in their limbs1 wonderful instances of adroitness of1 #ed ,peruke1 #ghc ,peru1 mines of1 #dfe ,pesce1 ,nicholas1 extraordinary character of1 #aag ,pharos of ,alexandria1 #edi ,phosphoric fire1 sheet of1 #ffi ,phosphorus1 #fgj ,pichinca1 #dae ,pico1 #dbb ,pigeon1 wild1 its multiplying power1 #bde ,pigeon1 carrier1 or courier1 #bdd ,pin-making1 #gba ,pitch-wells1 #dfh ,plague1 dreadful instances of the1 in ,europe1 #gdg ,plant1 curious1 #chf ,plants1 curious dissemination of1 #cff ,plants upon the earth1 prodigious number of1 #cfg ,plough-,monday1 origin of1 #fcb ,poison-eater1 remarkable account of1 #id ,pompey's pillar1 #edg ,pope ,joan1 #ica ,portland vase1 #hjj ,praxiteles' ,venus1 #gab ,praying machines of ,kalmuck1 #fdb ,price1 ,charles1 the renowned swindler1 #hhi ,prince ,rupert's drops1 #hec ,prolificness1 extraordinary instances of1 #cg ,psalmanazar1 ,george1 noted impostor1 #aab ,pulpit1 curious1 #hja ,pyramids of ,egypt1 #edd ,q ,quaint lines1 #ggb ,queen ,charlotte1 curious address to1 #gfi ,queen1 a blacksmith's wife become a1 #gdi ,queen ,elizabeth's dinner1 curious account of the ceremonies at1 #gdi ,queen ,elizabeth1 quaint lines on1 #ggb ,r ,recreations1 amusing1 in optics1 c4 #hgc to #hhb ,recreations1 amusing1 with numbers1 #hbj to #hbg ,religion1 celebrated speech on1 #idd ,reproduction1 #gha ,repulsion1 examples of1 #hcg ,respiration1 interesting facts concerning1 #bf ,revivified rose1 #heh ,rhinoceros1 #afb ,rings1 on the origin of1 #fjf ,rosin bubbles1 #hea ,royal progenitors1 #gdd ,ruin at ,siwa in ,egypt1 #ecd ,s ,salutation1 various modes of1 #eih ,sand-floods1 account of1 #eba ,savage1 ,richard1 extraordinary character of1 #abh ,scaliot's lock1 #gab ,scarron1 ,paul1 account of1 #aai ,schurrman1 ,anna ,maria1 #abc ,scorpion1 #bac ,sea1 curiosities of the1 #dga ,sea1 on the saltness of1 #dgf ,sea1 to measure the depth of the1 #hbi ,sea serpent1 ,american1 #bah ,seal1 common account of1 #ahj ,seal1 ursine1 #aha ,seeds1 germination of1 #cfe ,sensibility of plants1 #cfh ,sensitive plant1 #cfi ,seraglio1 #efd ,serpents1 fascinating power of1 #bai ,sexes1 difference between the1 #cd ,sexes at birth1 comparative number of the1 #cf ,shark1 #aih ,sheep1 extraordinary adventures of one1 #aij ,shelton oak1 description of1 #chb ,ship worm1 #bbd ,ship at sea1 to find the burden of a1 #hbi ,shoes1 curiosities respecting1 #gbd ,shoe-makers1 literary1 #gfd ,shower of gossamers1 curious phenomenon of a1 #ebc ,shrovetide1 #fcj ,silk-mill at ,derby1 #hjj ,silk stockings1 electricity of1 #hdb ,silkworm1 #bbj ,singular curiosity1 #dje ,skiddaw1 #dad ,sleep-walker1 #fi ,sleeping woman of ,dunninald1 #gj ,smeaton1 ,john1 #aac ,sneezing1 curious observations on1 #cc ,snow grotto1 #dea ,solfatara1 the lake of1 #dhh ,sound1 experiments on1 #hdj ,spectacle of a sea-fight at ,rome1 #gaa ,spectacles1 a substitute for1 #hjg ,spectre of the ,broken1 #dbj ,spider1 curiosities of the1 #cad ,spider1 tamed1 #caf ,spider1 ingenuity of a1 #caf ,spider1 curious anecdote of a1 #cah ,spirits of wine1 to ascertain the strength of1 #hci ,spontaneous inflammations1 #ghf ,sports1 book of1 #gff ',squire1 old ,english1 #ibe ,stalk1 animated1 #cib ,star1 falling or shooting1 #dja ,stephenson1 the eccentric1 #hie ,steel1 to melt1 #hcj ,stick1 to break a1 on two wine-glasses1 #hga ,stone1 the meteoric1 #dja ,stone1 the ,labrador1 #djb ,stone1 the changeable1 #djd ,stone-eater1 remarkable account of1 #id ,stonehenge1 #eib ,storks1 #bbi ,storm1 singular effects of a1 #eai ,strasburg clock1 #gje ,sugar1 antiquity of1 #cij ,sulphur mountains1 #dbd ,sun1 diminution of the1 #fgc ,sun1 spots in the1 #fga--to shew ditto1 #heb ,surgical operation1 extraordinary1 #gia ,swine's concert1 #gej ,sword-swallowing1 #fb ,sympathetic inks1 #hec to #heg ,t ,tallow-tree1 #cgh ,tantalus' cup1 #heb ,tape-worm1 #bbb ,tea1 ,chinese method of preparing1 #chh ,telegraph1 #gjh ,temple of ,tentira1 in ,egypt1 #eej ,tenures1 curious1 #fbh ,thermometrical experiments1 #hfc ,thermometer1 moral and physical1 #hag ,thread burnt1 not broken1 #hdd ,thunder powder1 #hcf ,thunder rod1 #fed ,tides1 #dgi ,titles of books1 #gee ,toad1 common1 description of1 #afa ,topham1 ,thomas1 character of1 #aae ,tornado1 description of a1 #eaj ,torpedo1 #bjj ,tortoise1 the common1 #agf ,tree of ,diana1 #heb ,trees1 account of a country1 in which the inhabitants reside in1 #de ,u ,unbeliever's creed1 #ggf ,unfortunate artificer1 #gde ,unicorn1 #agi ,upas1 or poison tree1 #chc ,v ,valentine's-day1 origin of1 #fcb ,van ,butchell1 ,mrs4 preservation of her corpse1 #ijb ,vegetable kingdom1 curiosities in the1 #cfc ,vegetables1 number of known1 #cfg ,vegetable fly1 #cda ,velocity of the wind1 #eag ,ventriloquism1 #eh ,vesuvius1 #dcd1 #idg ,vicar of ,bray1 #gdh ,voltaic pile1 to make a cheap1 #hdg ,vulture1 ,egyptian1 #bbh ,vulture1 secretary1 #bbh ,w ,wasp1 curiosities respecting the1 #bhe ,watch1 the mysterious1 #hce ,watches1 invention of1 #gjg ,water1 to boil without heat1 #hce ,water1 to weigh1 #hcd ,water1 to retain1 in an inverted glass1 #hce ,waterspout1 #ffc ,waves stilled by oil1 #dhj ,weaving engine1 #gab ,whale1 great northern1 or ,greenland1 #bjd ,whale fishery1 #bjh ,whig and ,tory1 explanation of the terms1 #ggf ,whirlpool near ,sudero1 #dhi ,whirlwinds of ,egypt1 #eji ,whispering places1 and extraordinary echoes1 #hjb ,whitehead's ship1 #gab ,whittington1 ,sir ,richard1 #icb ,wild man1 account of a1 #gf ,wind1 velocity of1 #eag ,winds1 remarkable1 in ,egypt1 #ejg ,wine cellar1 curious1 #gii ,winter in ,russia1 #ebd ,wolby1 ,henry1 extraordinary character of1 #aje ,women with beards1 curious account of1 #cb ,wooden eagle1 and iron fly1 #gaa ,writing1 origin of the materials of1 #gea ,writing1 minute1 #gec ,x ,xerxes' bridge of boats over the ,hellespont1 #ehf ,z ,zeuxis1 celebrated painter1 #aaf4 ,,introduction4 ,ye curious minds1 who roam abroad1 ,and trace ,creation's wonders o'er6 ,confess the footsteps of the ,god1 ,and bow before him1 and adore4 ,it was well observed by ,lord ,bacon1 that ,it would much conduce to the magnanimity and honour of man1 if a collection were made of the extraordinaries of human nature1 principally out of the reports of history2 that is1 what is the last and highest pitch to which man's nature1 of itself1 hath ever reached1 in all the perfection of mind and body4 ,if the wonders of human nature1 and virtues as well of mind as of body1 were collected into a volume1 they might serve as a calendar of human triumphs4 ,the present work not only embraces the ,curiosities of human nature1 but of ,nature and ,art in general1 as well as ,science and ,literature4 ,surrounded with wonders1 and lost in admiration1 the inquisitive mind of man is ever anxious to know the hidden springs that put these wonders in motion2 he eagerly inquires for some one to take him by the hand1 and explain to him the curiosities of the universe4 ,and though the works of the ,lord1 like his nature and attributes1 are great1 and past finding out1 and we cannot arrive at the perfection of science1 nor discover the secret impulses which nature obeys1 yet can we by reading1 study1 and investigation1 dissipate much of the darkness in which we are enveloped1 and dive far beyond the surface of this multifarious scene of things--,the noblest employment of the human understanding is1 to contemplate the works of the great ,creator of the boundless universe2 and to trace the marks of infinite wisdom1 power1 and goodness1 throughout the whole4 ,this is the foundation of all religious worship and obedience2 and an essential preparative for properly understanding1 and cordially receiving1 the sublime discoveries and important truths of divine revelation4 ,every man1 says our ,saviour1 that hath heard1 and hath learned of the ,father1 cometh unto me4 ,and no man can come properly to ,christ1 or1 in other words1 embrace the christian religion1 so as to form consistent views of it1 and enter into its true spirit1 unless he is thus drawn by the ,father through a contemplation of his works4 ,such is the inseparable connection between nature and grace4 ,a considerable portion of the following pages is devoted to ,curiosities in the works of ,nature1 or1 more properly1 the works of ,god1 for1 ,nature is but an effect1 and ,god the cause4 ,the ,deity is the ,father of all that is1 or heard1 or hears6 ,father of all that is1 or seen1 or sees6 ,father of all that is1 or shall arise6 ,father of this immeasurable mass ,of matter multiform2 or dense1 or rare2 ,opaque1 or lucid2 rapid1 or at rest2 ,minute1 or passing bound6 ,in each extreme ,of like amaze1 and mystery1 to man4 ,the invisible ,god is seen in all his works4 ,god is a spirit1 spirit cannot strike ,these gross material organs3 ,god by man ,as much is seen1 as man a ,god can see4 ,in these astonishing exploits of power ,what order1 beauty1 motion1 distance1 size6 ,concertion of design1 how exquisite6 ,how complicate1 in their divine police6 ,apt means6 great ends6 consent to general good6 ,this work also presents to the reader1 a view of the great achievements of the human intellect1 in the discoveries of science2 and the wonderful operations of the skill1 power1 and industry of man in the invention and improvement of the arts1 in the construction of machines1 and in the buildings and other ornaments the earth exhibits1 as trophies to the glory of the human race4 ,but we shall now give the reader a short sketch of what is provided for him in the following pages4 ,the work is divided into eighty-seven chapters4 ,the ,curiosities respecting ,man occupy eleven chapters4 ,the next four chapters are devoted to ,animals2 then two to ,fishes2 one to ,serpents and ,worms2 three to ,birds2 eleven to ,insects2 six to ,vegetables2 three to ,mountains2 two to ,grottos1 ,caves1 c42 one to ,mines2 two to the ,sea2 one to ,lakes1 ,whirlpools1 c42 one to ,burning ,springs2 one to ,earthquakes2 one to ,remarkable ,winds2 one to ,showers1 ,storms1 c42 one to ,ice2 one to ,ruins2 four to ,buildings1 ,temples1 and other ,monuments of ,antiquity2 and one to ,basaltic and ,rocky ,curiosities4 ,the fifty-eighth chapter is devoted to the ,ark of ,noah--the ,galley of ,hiero--and the ,bridge of ,xerxes4 ,the next six chapters detail at length the various ,customs of ,mankind in different parts of the ,world1 and also explain many ,old ,adages and ,sayings4 ,the next five chapters exhibit a variety of curious phenomena in nature1 such as the ,ignis ,fatuus2 ,thunder and ,lightning2 ,fire ,balls2 ,water ,spouts2 ,fairy ,rings2 ,spots in the ,sun2 ,volcanoes in the ,moon2 ,eclipses2 ,shooting ,stars2 ,aurora ,borealis1 or ,northern ,lights2 c4 c4 ,the seventieth chapter is on ,galvanism4 ,the seventy-first on ,magnetism4 ,the next three chapters delineate the principal ,curiosities respecting the ,arts4 ,then follow five chapters on some of the principal ,curiosities in ,history2 three on the ,curiosities of ,literature2 and five on ,miscellaneous ,curiosities4 ,an ,appendix is added1 containing a number of easy1 innocent1 amusing ,experiments and ,recreations4 ,this is ,a ,new ,compilation1 inasmuch as not one article is taken from any book bearing the title of ,beauties1 ,wonders1 or ,curiosities4 ,the ,compiler trusts the work will afford both entertainment and instruction for the leisure hour1 of the ,philosopher or the ,labourer1 the ,gentleman or the ,mechanic4 ,in short1 all classes may find in the present work something conducive to their pleasure and improvement1 in their hours of seriousness1 as well as those of gaiety2 and it will afford a constant source of subjects for interesting and agreeable conversation4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,curiosities4 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4 ,the ,human ,body--the ,countenance--the ,eye--the ,ear--the ,heart--the ,circulation of the ,blood--,respiration--the ,hair of the ,head--the ,beard--,women with ,beards--,sneezing4 ,come1 gentle reader1 leave all meaner things ,to low ambition1 and the pride of kings4 ,let us1 since life can little more supply ,than just to look about us1 and to die2 ,expatiate free o'er all this scene of ,man1 ,a mighty maze6 but not without a plan4 ,a wild1 where weeds and flow'rs promiscuous shoot2 ,or garden1 tempting with forbidden fruit4 ,together let us beat this ample field1 ,try what the open1 what the covert yield2 ,the latent tracts1 the giddy heights1 explore1 ,of all who blindly creep1 or sightless soar3 ,eye nature's walks1 shoot folly as it flies1 ,and catch the manners living as they rise2 ,laugh where we must1 be candid where we can1 ,but vindicate the ways of ,god to man4 ,we shall1 in the first place1 enter on the consideration of ,,the ,,curiosities ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,body4--,the following account is abridged from the works of the late ,drs4 ,hunter and ,paley4 ,dr4 ,hunter shows that all the parts of the human frame are requisite to the wants and well-being of such a creature as man4 ,he observes1 that1 first the mind1 the thinking immaterial agent1 must be provided with a place of immediate residence1 which shall have all the requisites for the union of spirit and body2 accordingly1 she is provided with the brain1 where she dwells as governor and superintendant of the whole fabric4 ,in the next place1 as she is to hold a correspondence with all the material beings around her1 she must be supplied with organs fitted to receive the different kinds of impression which they will make4 ,in fact1 therefore1 we see that she is provided with the organs of sense1 as we call them3 the eye is adapted to light2 the ear to sound2 the nose to smell2 the mouth to taste2 and the skin to touch4 ,further1 she must be furnished with organs of communication between herself in the brain1 and those organs of sense2 to give her information of all the impressions that are made upon them2 and she must have organs between herself in the brain1 and every other part of the body1 fitted to convey her commands and influence over the whole4 ,for these purposes the nerves are actually given4 ,they are soft white chords which rise from the brain1 the immediate residence of the mind1 and disperse themselves in branches through all parts of the body4 ,they convey all the different kinds of sensations to the mind in the brain2 and likewise carry out from thence all her commands to the other parts of the body4 ,they are intended to be occasional monitors against all such impressions as might endanger the well-being of the whole1 or of any particular part2 which vindicates the ,creator of all things1 in having actually subjected us to those many disagreeable and painful sensations which we are exposed to from a thousand accidents in life4 ,moreover1 the mind1 in this corporeal system1 must be endued with the power of moving from place to place2 that she may have intercourse with a variety of objects2 that she may fly from such as are disagreeable1 dangerous1 or hurtful2 and pursue such as are pleasant and useful to her4 ,and accordingly she is furnished with limbs1 with muscles and tendons1 the instruments of motion1 which are found in every part of the fabric where motion is necessary4 ,but to support1 to give firmness and shape to the fabric2 to keep the softer parts in their proper places2 to give fixed points for1 and the proper directions to its motions1 as well as to protect some of the more important and tender organs from external injuries1 there must be some firm prop-work interwoven through the whole4 ,and in fact1 for such purposes the bones are given4 ,the prop-work is not made with one rigid fabric1 for that would prevent motion4 ,therefore there are a number of bones4 ,these pieces must all be firmly bound together1 to prevent their dislocation4 ,and this end is perfectly well answered by the ligaments4 ,the extremities of these bony pieces1 where they move and rub upon one another1 must have smooth and slippery surfaces for easy motion4 ,this is most happily provided for1 by the cartilages and mucus of the joints4 ,the interstices of all these parts must be filled up with some soft and ductile matter1 which shall keep them in their places1 unite them1 and at the same time allow them to move a little upon one another2 these purposes are answered by the cellular membrane1 or edipose substance4 ,there must be an outward covering over the whole apparatus1 both to give it compactness1 and to defend it from a thousand injuries2 which1 in fact1 are the very purposes of the skin and other integuments4 ,say1 what the various bones so wisely wrought8 ,how was their frame to such perfection brought8 ,what did their figures for their uses fit1 ,their numbers fix1 and joints adapted knit2 ,and made them all in that just order stand1 ,which motion1 strength1 and ornament1 demand8 ,blackmore4 ,lastly1 the mind being formed for society and intercourse with beings of her own kind1 she must be endued with powers of expressing and communicating her thoughts by some sensible marks or signs1 which shall be both easy to herself1 and admit of great variety4 ,and accordingly she is provided with the organs and faculty of speech1 by which she can throw out signs with amazing facility1 and vary them without end4 ,thus we have built up an animal body1 which would seem to be pretty complete2 but as it is the nature of matter to be altered and worked upon by matter1 so in a very little time such a living creature must be destroyed1 if there is no provision for repairing the injuries which she must commit upon herself1 and those which she must be exposed to from without4 ,therefore a treasure of blood is actually provided in the heart and vascular system1 full of nutritious and healing particles2 fluid enough to penetrate into the minutest parts of the animal2 impelled by the heart1 and conveyed by the arteries1 it washes every part1 builds up what was broken down1 and sweeps away the old and useless materials4 ,hence we see the necessity or advantage of the heart and arterial system4 ,what more there was of the blood than enough to repair the present damages of the machine1 must not be lost1 but should be returned again to the heart2 and for this purpose the venous system is provided4 ,these requisites in the animal explain the circulation of the blood1 a priori4#a ,all this provision1 however1 would not be sufficient2 for the store of blood would soon be consumed1 and the fabric would break down1 if there was not a provision made by fresh supplies4 ,these1 we observe1 in fact1 are profusely scattered round her in the animal and vegetable kingdoms2 and she is furnished with hands1 the fittest instruments that could be contrived for gathering them1 and for preparing them in their varieties for the mouth4 ,but these supplies1 which we call food1 must be considerably changed2 they must be converted into blood4 ,therefore she is provided with teeth for cutting and bruising the food1 and with a stomach for melting it down2 in short1 with all the organs subservient to digestion3 the finer parts of the aliments only can be useful in the constitution2 these must be taken up and conveyed into the blood1 and the dregs must be thrown off4 ,with this view1 the intestinal canal is provided4 ,it separates the nutritious parts1 which we call chyle1 to be conveyed into the blood by the system of the absorbent vessels2 and the coarser parts pass downwards to be ejected4 ,we have now got our animal not only furnished with what is wanting for immediate existence1 but also with powers of protracting that existence to an indefinite length of time4 ,but its duration1 we may presume1 must necessarily be limited2 for as it is nourished1 grows1 and is raised up to its full strength and utmost perfection2 so it must in time1 in common with all material beings1 begin to decay1 and then hurry on into final ruin4 ,thus we see1 by the imperfect survey which human reason is able to take of this subject1 that the animal man must necessarily be complex in his corporeal system1 and in its operations4 ,he must have one great and general system1 the vascular1 branching through the whole circulation3 another1 the nervous1 with its appendages--the organs of sense1 for every kind of feeling3 and a third1 for the union and connection of all these parts4 ,besides these primary and general systems1 he requires others1 which may be more local or confined3 one1 for strength1 support1 and protection1--the bony compages3 another1 for the requisite motions of the parts among themselves1 as well as for moving from place to place1--the muscular system3 another to prepare nourishment for the daily recruit of the body1--the digestive organs4 ,dr4 ,paley observes1 that1 of all the different systems in the human body1 the use and necessity are not more apparent1 than the wisdom and contrivance which have been exerted1 in putting them all into the most compact and convenient form3 in disposing them so1 that they shall mutually receive from1 and give helps to one another3 and that all1 or many of the parts1 shall not only answer their principal end or purpose1 but operate successfully and usefully in a variety of secondary ways4 ,if we consider the whole animal machine in this light1 and compare it with any machine in which human art has exerted its utmost1 we shall be convinced1 beyond the possibility of doubt1 that there are intelligence and power far surpassing what humanity can boast of4 ,one superiority in the natural machine is peculiarly striking4--,in machines of human contrivance or art1 there is no internal power1 no principle in the machine itself1 by which it can alter and accommodate itself to injury which it may suffer1 or make up any injury which admits of repair4 ,but in the natural machine1 the animal body1 this is most wonderfully provided for1 by internal powers in the machine itself2 many of which are not more certain and obvious in their effects1 than they are above all human comprehension as to the manner and means of their operation4 ,thus1 a wound heals up of itself2 a broken bone is made firm again by a callus2 a dead part is separated and thrown off2 noxious juices are driven out by some of the emunctories2 a redundancy is removed by some spontaneous bleeding2 a bleeding naturally stops of itself2 and the loss is in a measure compensated1 by a contracting power in the vascular system1 which accommodates the capacity of the vessels to the quantity contained4 ,the stomach gives intimation when the supplies have been expended2 represents1 with great exactness1 the quantity and quality1 of what is wanted in the present state of the machine2 and in proportion as she meets with neglect1 rises in her demand1 urges her petition in a louder tone1 and with more forcible arguments4 ,for its protection1 an animal body resists heat and cold in a very wonderful manner1 and preserves an equal temperature in a burning and in a freezing atmosphere4 ,a farther excellence or superiority in the natural machine1 if possible1 still more astonishing1 more beyond all human comprehension1 than what we have been speaking of1 is the distinction of sexes1 and the effects of their united powers4 ,besides those internal powers of self-preservation in each individual1 when two of them1 of different sexes1 unite1 they are endued with powers of producing other animals or machines like themselves1 which again are possessed of the same powers of producing others1 and so of multiplying the species without end4 ,these are powers which mock all human invention or imitation4 ,they are characteristics of the ,divine ,architect4--,thus far ,paley4 ,galen takes notice1 that there are in the human body above #fjj muscles1 in each of which there are1 at least1 #aj several intentions1 or due qualifications1 to be observed2 so that1 about the muscles alone1 no less than #fjjj ends and aims are to be attended to6 ,the bones are reckoned to be #bhd2 and the distinct scopes or intentions of these are above #dj--;in all1 about #ab1jjj6 and thus it is1 in some proportion1 with all the other parts1 the skin1 ligaments1 vessels1 and humours2 but more especially with the several vessels1 which do1 in regard to their great variety1 and multitude of their several intentions1 very much exceed the homogeneous parts4 --------------------,how august1 ,how complicate1 how wonderful1 is man6 ,how passing wonder ,he who made him such6-- ,from different natures marvellously mixt2-- ,though sully'd and dishonour'd1 still ,,divine6 ,young4 ,come6 all ye nations6 bless the ,,lord1 ,to him your grateful homage pay3 ,your voices raise with one accord1 ,,jehovah',s praises to display4 ,from clay our complex frames he moulds1 ,and succours us in time of need3 ,like sheep when wandering from their folds1 ,he calls us back1 and does us feed4 ,then thro' the world let's shout his praise1 ,ten thousand million tongues should join1 ,to heav'n their thankful incense raise1 ,and sound their ,,maker',s love divine4 ,when rolling years have ceas'd their rounds1 ,yet shall his goodness onward tend2 ,for his great mercy has no bounds1 ,his truth and love shall never end6 ,so curious is the texture or form of the human body in every part1 and withal so fearfully and wonderfully made1 that even atheists1 after having carefully surveyed the frame of it1 and viewed the fitness and usefulness of its various parts1 and their several intentions1 have been struck with wonder1 and their souls kindled into devotion towards the all-wise ,maker of such a beautiful frame4 ,and so convinced was ,galen of the excellency of this piece of divine workmanship1 that he is said to have allowed ,epicurus a hundred years to find out a more commodious shape1 situation1 or texture1 for any one part of the human body6 ,indeed1 no understanding can be so low and mean1 no heart so stupid and insensible1 as not plainly to see1 that nothing but ,infinite ,wisdom could1 in so wonderful a manner1 have fashioned the body of man1 and inspired into it a being of superior faculties1 whereby ,he teacheth us more than the beasts of the field1 and maketh us wiser than the fowls of the heaven4 --------------,thrice happy men1 ,and sons of men1 whom ,god hath thus advanc'd2 ,created in his image1 here to dwell1 ,and worship him2 and1 in return1 to rule ,o'er all his works4 ,milton4 ,we now proceed to consider ,,the ,,curiosities ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,countenance4--,on this subject we shall derive considerable assistance from the same ,german philosopher that was quoted in the last section4 ,indeed1 we shall make a liberal use of ,sturm's ,reflections in our delineations of the ,curiosities of the human frame4 ,the exterior of the human body at once declares the superiority of man over all living creatures4 ,his ,face1 directed towards the heavens1 prepares us to expect that dignified expression which is so legibly inscribed upon his features2 and from the countenance of man we may judge of his important destination1 and high prerogatives4 ,when the soul rests in undisturbed tranquillity1 the features of the face are calm and composed2 but when agitated by emotions1 and tossed by contending passions1 the countenance becomes a living picture1 in which every sensation is depicted with equal force and delicacy4 ,each affection of the mind has its particular impression1 and every change of countenance denotes some secret emotion of the heart4 ,the ,eye may1 in particular1 be regarded as the immediate organ of the soul2 as a mirror1 in which the wildest passions and the softest affections are reflected without disguise4 ,hence it may be called with propriety1 the true interpreter of the soul1 and organ of the understanding4 ,the colour and motions of the eye contribute much to mark the character of the countenance4 ,the human eyes are1 in proportion1 nearer to one another than those of any other living creatures2 the space between the eyes of most of them being so great1 as to prevent their seeing an object with both their eyes at the same time1 unless it is placed at a great distance4 ,next to the eyes1 the eye-brows tend to fix the character of the countenance4 ,their colour renders them particularly striking2 they form the shade of the picture1 which thus acquires greater force of colouring4 ,the eye-lashes1 when long and thick1 give beauty and additional charms to the eye4 ,no animals1 but men and monkeys1 have both eye-lids ornamented with eye-lashes2 other creatures having them only on the lower eye-lid4 ,the eye-brows are elevated1 depressed1 and contracted1 by means of the muscles upon the forehead1 which forms a very considerable part of the face1 and adds much to its beauty when well formed3 it should neither project much1 nor be quite flat2 neither very large1 nor small2 beautiful hair adds much to its appearance4 ,the ,nose is the most prominent1 and least moveable part of the face2 hence it adds more to the beauty than the expression of the countenance4 ,the ,mouth and ,lips are1 on the contrary1 extremely susceptible of changes2 and1 if the eyes express the passions of the soul1 the mouth seems more peculiarly to correspond with the emotions of the heart4 ,the rosy bloom of the lips1 and the ivory white of the teeth1 complete the charms of the human face divine4 ,another ,curiosity on this subject is1 the wonderful diversity of traits in the human countenance4 ,it is an evident proof of the admirable wisdom of ,god1 that though the bodies of men are so similar to each other in their essential parts1 there is yet such a diversity in their exterior1 that they can be readily distinguished without the liability of error4 ,amongst the many millions of men existing in the universe1 there are no two that are perfectly similar to each other ,each one has some peculiarity pourtrayed in his countenance1 or remarkable in his speech2 and this diversity of countenance is the more singular1 because the parts which compose it are very few1 and in each person are disposed according to the same plan4 ,if all things had been produced by blind chance1 the countenances of men might have resembled one another as nearly as balls cast in the same mould1 or drops of water out of the same bucket3 but as that is not the case1 we must admire the infinite wisdom of the ,creator1 which1 in thus diversifying the traits of the human countenance1 has manifestly had in view the happiness of men2 for if they resembled each other perfectly1 they could not be distinguished from one another1 to the utter confusion and detriment of society4 ,we should never be certain of life1 nor of the peaceable possession of our property2 thieves and robbers would run little risk of detection1 for they could neither be distinguished by the traits of their countenance1 nor the sound of their voice4 ,adultery1 and every crime that stains humanity1 might be practiced with impunity1 since the guilty would rarely be discovered2 and we should be continually exposed to the machinations of the villain1 and the malignity of the coward3 we could not shelter ourselves from the confusion of the mistake1 nor from the treachery and fraud of the deceitful2 all the efforts of justice would be useless1 and commerce would be the prey of error and uncertainty3 in short1 the uniformity and perfect similarity of faces would deprive society of its most endearing charms1 and destroy the pleasure and sweet gratification of individual friendship4 ,we may well exclaim with a celebrated writer1-- ,what a piece of work is man6 how noble in reason6 how infinite in faculties6 in form1 and moving1 how express and admirable6 in action1 how like an angel6 in apprehension1 how like a god6 ,the next subject is1 ,,the ,,curious ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,eye4--,the ,eye infinitely surpasses all the works of man's industry4 ,its structure is one of the most wonderful things the human understanding can become acquainted with2 the most skilful artist cannot devise any machine of this kind which is not infinitely inferior to the eye2 whatever ability1 industry1 and attention he may devote to it1 he will not be able to produce a work that does not abound with the imperfections incident to the works of men4 ,it is true1 we cannot perfectly become acquainted with all the art the ,divine ,wisdom has displayed in the structure of this beautiful organ2 but the little that we know suffices to convince us of the admirable intelligence1 goodness1 and power of the ,creator4 ,in the first place1 how fine is the disposition of the exterior parts of the eye1 how admirably it is defended6 ,placed in durable orbits of bone1 at a certain depth in the skull1 they cannot easily suffer any injury2 the over-arching eye-brows contribute much to the beauty and preservation of this exquisite organ2 and the eye-lids more immediately shelter it from the glare of light1 and other things which might be prejudicial2 inserted in these are the eye-lashes1 which also much contribute to the above effect1 and also prevent small particles of dust1 and other substances1 striking against the eye4#b ,the internal structure is still more admirable4 ,the globe of the eye is composed of tunics1 humours1 muscles1 and vessels2 the coats are the cornea1 or exterior membrane1 which is transparent anteriorly1 and opake posteriorly2 the charoid1 which is extremely vascular2 the uvea1 with the iris1 which being of various colours1 gives the appearance of differently coloured eyes2 and being perforated1 with the power of contraction and dilatation1 forms the pupil2 and1 lastly1 the retina1 being a fine expansion of the optic nerve1 upon it the impressions of objects are made4 ,the humours are the aqueous1 lying in the forepart of the globe1 immediately under the cornea2 it is thin1 liquid1 and transparent2 the crystalline1 which lies next to the aqueous1 behind the uvea1 opposite to the pupil1 it is the least of the humours1 of great solidity1 and on both sides convex2 the vitreous1 resembling the white of an egg1 fills all the hind part of the cavity of the globe1 and gives the spherical figure to the eye4 ,the muscles of the eye are six1 and by the excellence of their arrangement it is enabled to move in all directions4 ,vision is performed by the rays of light falling on the pellucid and convex cornea of the eye1 by the density and convexity of which they are united into a focus1 which passes the aqueous humours1 and pupil of the eye1 to be more condensed by the crystalline lens4 ,the rays of light thus concentrated1 penetrate the vitreous humour1 and stimulate the retina upon which the images of objects1 painted in an inverse direction1 are represented to the mind through the medium of the optic nerves4 ------------------,the visual orbs ,remark1 how aptly station'd for their task2 ,rais'd to th' imperial head's high citadel1 ,a wide extended prospect to command4 ,see the arch'd outworks of impending lids1 ,with hairs1 as palisadoes fenc'd around ,to ward annoyance from without4 ,bally4 ,again3-- ,who form'd the curious organ of the eye1 ,and cloth'd it with its various tunicles1 ,of texture exquisite2 with crystal juice ,supply'd it1 to transmit the rays of light2 ,then plac'd it in its station eminent1 ,well fenc'd and guarded1 as a centinel ,to watch abroad1 and needful caution give8 ,needler4 ,the next subject is1 ,,the ,,curious ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,ear4 ,the channel'd ear1 with many a winding maze1 ,how artfully perplex'd1 to catch the sound4 ,and from her repercussive caves augment6 ,bally4 ,dark night1 that from the eye his function takes1 ,the ear more quick of apprehension makes2 ,wherein it doth impair the seeing sense1 ,it pays the ,,hearing--double recompense4 ,shakspeare4 ,although the ear1 with regard to beauty1 yields to the eye1 its conformation is not less perfect1 nor less worthy of the ,creator4 ,the position of the ear bespeaks much wisdom2 for it is placed in the most convenient part of the body1 near to the brain1 the common seat of all the senses4 ,the exterior form of the ear merits considerable attention2 its substance is between the flexible softness of flesh1 and the firmness of bone1 which prevents the inconvenience that must arise from its being either entirely muscular or wholly formed of solid bone4 ,it is therefore cartilaginous1 possessing firmness1 folds1 and smoothness1 so adapted as to reflect sound2 for the chief use of the external part is to collect the vibrations of the air1 and transmit them to the orifice of the ear4 ,the internal structure of this organ is still more remarkable4 ,within the cavity of the ear is an opening1 called the meatus auditorius1 or auditory canal1 the entrance to which is defended by small hairs1 which prevent insects and small particles of extraneous matter penetrating into it2 for which purpose there is also secreted a bitter ceruminous matter1 called ear-wax4 ,the auditory canal is terminated obliquely by a membrane1 generally known by the name of drum1 which instrument it in some degree resembles2 for within the cavity of the auditory canal is a kind of bony ring1 over which the membrana tympani is stretched4 ,in contact with this membrane1 on the inner side1 is a small bone 7malleus7 against which it strikes when agitated by the vibrations of sound4 ,connected with these are two small muscles3 one1 by stretching the membrane1 adapts it to be more easily acted upon by soft and low sounds2 the other1 by relaxing1 prepares it for those which are very loud4 ,besides the malleus1 there are some other very small and remarkable bones1 called incus1 or the anvil1 as orbiculare1 or orbicular bone1 and the stapes1 or stirrup3 their use is1 to assist in conveying the sounds received upon the membrana tympani4 ,behind the cavity of the drum1 is an opening1 called the ,eustachian tube1 which begins at the back part of the mouth with an orifice1 which diminishes in size as the tube passes towards the ear1 where it becomes bony2 by this means1 sounds may be conveyed to the ear through the mouth1 and it facilitates the vibrations of the membrane by the admission of air4 ,we may next observe the cochlea1 which somewhat resembles the shell of a snail1 whence its name2 its cavity winds in a spiral direction1 and is divided into two by a thin spiral lamina3 and lastly is the auditory nerve1 which terminates in the brain4 ,the faculty of hearing is worthy of the utmost admiration and attention3 by putting in motion a very small portion of air1 without even being conscious of its moving1 we have the power of communicating to each other our thoughts1 desires1 and conceptions4 ,but to render the action of air in the propagation of sound more intelligible1 we must recollect that the air is not a solid1 but a fluid body4 ,throw a stone into a smooth stream of water1 and there will take place undulations1 which will be extended more or less according to the degree of force with which the stone was impelled4 ,conceive then1 that when a word is uttered in the air1 a similar effect takes place in that element1 as is produced by the stone in the water4 ,during the action of speaking1 the air is expelled from the mouth with more or less force2 this communicates to the external air which it meets1 an undulatory motion2 and these undulations of the air entering the cavity of the ear1 the external parts of which are peculiarly adapted to receive them1 strike upon the membrane1 or drum1 by which means it is shaken1 and receives a trembling motion3 the vibration is communicated to the malleus1 the bone immediately in contact with the membrane1 and from it to the other bones2 the last of which1 the stapes or stirrup1 adhering to the fenestra ovalis1 or oval orifice1 causes it to vibrate2 the trembling of which is communicated to a portion of water contained in the cavity called the vestibulum1 and in the semicircular canals1 causing a gentle tremor in the nervous expansion contained therein1 which is transmitted to the brain2 and the mind is thus informed of the presence of sound1 and feels a sensation proportioned to the force or to the weakness of the impression that is made4 ,let us rejoice that we possess the faculty of hearing2 for without it1 our state would be most wretched and deplorable2 in some respects1 more sorrowful than the loss of sight2 had we been born deaf1 we could not have acquired knowledge sufficient to enable us to pursue any art or science4 ,let us never behold those who have the misfortune to be deaf1 without endeavoring better to estimate the gift of which they are deprived1 and which we enjoy2 or without praising the goodness of ,god1 which has granted it to us3 and the best way we can testify our gratitude is1 to make a proper use of this important blessing4 ,we now proceed to a more particular description of ,,the ,,curiosities ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,heart2 ,,and ,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood4 ------,though no shining sun1 nor twinkling star ,bedeck'd the crimson curtains of the sky2 ,though neither vegetable1 beast1 nor bird1 ,were extant on the surface of this ball1 ,nor lurking gem beneath2 though the great sea ,slept in profound stagnation1 and the air ,had left no thunder to pronounce its ,maker3 ,yet ,man at home1 within himself might find ,the ,deity immense1 and in that frame ,so fearfully1 so wonderfully made6 ,see and adore his providence and power4 ,smart4 ,with what admirable skill and inimitable structure is formed that muscular body1 situated within the cavity of the chest1 and called the human heart6 ,its figure is somewhat conical1 and it is externally divided into two parts3 the base1 which is uppermost1 and attached to vessels2 and the apex1 which is loose and pointing to the left side1 against which it seems to beat4 ,its substance is muscular1 being composed of fleshy fibres1 interwoven with each other4 ,it is divided internally into cavities1 called auricles and ventricles2 from which vessels proceed to convey the blood to the different parts of the body4 ,the ventricles are situated in the substance of the heart1 and are separated from each other by a thick muscular substance2 they are divided into right and left1 and each communicates with its adjoining auricle1 one of which is situated on each side the base of the heart4 ,the right auricle receives the blood from the head and superior parts of the body1 by means of a large vein2 and in the same manner the blood is returned to it from the inferior parts1 by all the veins emptying their stores into one1 which terminates in this cavity2 which1 having received a sufficient portion of blood1 contracts1 and by this motion empties itself into the right ventricle1 which also contracting1 propels the blood into an artery1 which immediately conveys it into the lungs1 where it undergoes certain changes1 and then passes through veins into the left auricle of the heart1 thence into the left ventricle1 by the contraction of which it is forced into an artery1 through whose ramifications it is dispersed to all parts of the body1 from which it is again returned to the right auricle2 thus keeping up a perpetual circulation1 for1 whilst life remains1 the action of the heart never ceases4 ,in a state of health the heart contracts about seventy times in a minute1 and is supposed1 at each contraction1 to propel about two ounces of blood2 to do which1 the force it exerts is very considerable1 though neither the quantity of force exerted1 nor of blood propelled1 is accurately determined4 ,the heart comprises within itself a world of wonders1 and whilst we admire its admirable structure and properties1 we are naturally led to consider the wisdom and power of ,him who formed it1 from whom first proceeded the circulation of the blood1 and the pulsations of the heart2 who commands it to be still1 and the functions instantly cease to act4 ,this important secret of the circulation of blood in the human body was brought to light by ,william ,harvey1 an ,english physician1 a little before the year #afjj3 and when it is considered thoroughly1 it will appear to be one of the most stupendous works of ,,omnipotence4 ,the blood1 the fountain whence the spirits flow1 ,the generous stream that waters every part1 ,and motion1 vigour1 and warm life conveys ,to every particle that moves or lives1 ----------------through unnumber'd tube4 ,pour'd by the heart1 and to the heart again ,refunded4---------- ,armstrong4 ,who in the dark the vital flame illum'd1 ,and from th' impulsive engine caused to flow ,th' ejaculated streams through many a pipe ,arterial with meand'ring lapse1 then bring ,refluent their purple tribute to their fount3 ,who spun the sinews' branchy thread1 and twin'd ,the azure veins in spiral knots1 to waft ,life's tepid waves all o'er2 or1 who with bones ,compacted1 and with nerves the fabric strung3 ,their specious form1 their fitness1 which results ,from figure and arrangement1 all declare ,th' ,artificer ,divine6 ,bally4 ,again3-- ------,the nerves1 with equal wisdom made4 ,arising from the tender brain1 pervade ,and secret pass in pairs the channel'd bone4 ,and thence advance through paths and roads unknown4 ,form'd of the finest complicated thread1 ,the num'rous cords are through the body spread4 ,these subtle channels1 such is every nerve1 ,for vital functions1 sense1 and motion serve2-- ,they help to labour and concoct the food1 ,refine the chyle1 and animate the blood4 ,blackmore4 ,we now proceed to some ,,curious ,,and ,,interesting ,,facts ,,concerning ,,respiration1 ,,or ,,the ,,act ,,of ,,breathing4 ,anatomists have1 not unaptly1 compared the lungs to a sponge2 containing1 like it1 a great number of small cavities1 and being also capable of considerable compression and expansion4 ,the air cells of the lungs open into the windpipe1 by which they communicate with the external atmosphere3 the whole internal structure of the lungs is lined by a transparent membrane1 estimated by ,haller at only the thousandth part of an inch in thickness2 but whose surface1 from its various convolutions1 measures fifteen square feet1 which is equal to the external surface of the body4 ,on this extensive and thin membrane innumerable branches of veins and arteries are distributed1 some of them finer than hairs2 and through these vessels all the blood in the system is successively propelled1 by an extremely curious and beautiful mechanism1 which will be described in some future article4 ,the capacity of the lungs varies considerably in different individuals4#c ,on a general average1 they may be said to contain about #bhj cubic inches1 or nearly five quarts of air4 ,by each inspiration about forty cubic inches of air are received into the lungs1 and at each expiration the same quantity is discharged4 ,if1 therefore1 we calculate that twenty respirations take place in a minute1 and forty cubic inches to be the amount of each inspiration1 it follows1 that in one minute1 we inhale #hjj cubic inches2 in an hour1 the quantity of air inspired will be #dh1jjj cubic inches2 and in the twenty-four hours1 it will amount to #a1aeb1jjj cubic inches4 ,this quantity of air will almost fill #gh wine hogsheads1 and would weigh nearly #ec pounds4 ,from this admirable provision of nature1 by which the blood is made to pass in review1 as it were1 of this immense quantity of air1 and over so extensive a surface1 it seems obvious1 that these two fluids are destined to exert some very important influence on each other2 and it has been proved1 by a very decisive experiment of ,dr4 ,priestley's1 that the extremely thin membrane1 which is alone interposed1 does not prevent the exercise of the chemical affinity which prevails between the air which is received in the lungs1 and the blood which is incessantly circulating through them4 ,it must surely1 therefore1 be of the first importance to health1 that the fluid of which we hourly inhale1 at least1 three hogsheads1 should not be contaminated by the suspension of noxious effluvia4 ,the purity of the atmosphere may be impaired either by the operation of what some denominate natural causes1 or by the influence of circumstances resulting from our social condition4 ,its chemical constitution is changed by respiration2 the vital principle is destroyed1 and its place supplied by a highly poisonous gas4 ,the emanations from the surface of our bodies contribute1 in a still greater degree1 to vitiate the atmosphere1 and to render it less fit for the healthful support of life4 ,many of the organs which compose our wonderfully complicated frame are engaged in discharging the constituent parts of our bodies1 which1 by the exercise of the various animal functions1 are become useless1 and1 if retained1 would become noxious4 ,physiologists have instituted a variety of experiments1 to ascertain the amount of the exhalations from the surface of the body4 ,sanctorius1 an eminent ,italian physician1 from a series of experiments performed during a period of thirty years1 estimates it as greater than the aggregate of all our other discharges4 ,from his calculations it would appear1 that if we take of liquid and solid food eight pounds in the twenty-four hours1 that five pounds are discharged by perspiration alone1 within that period2 and of this1 the greater part is what has been denominated insensible perspiration1 from its not being cognizable to the senses4 ,we may estimate the discharge from the surface of the body1 by sensible and insensible perspiration1 as from half an ounce to four ounces per hour4 ,the exhalations from the lungs and the skin are1 to a certain extent1 offensive even in the most healthy individuals2 but when proceeding from those labouring under disease1 they are in a state very little removed from putrefaction4 ,animal miasmata1 like all other poison1 become more active in proportion to the quantity which we imbibe4 ,when1 therefore1 the air is stagnant1 and when many individuals contribute their respective supplies of effluvia to vitiate it1 the atmosphere necessarily becomes satured with the poison2 and when inhaled1 conveys it in a more virulent and concentrated state to the extensive and delicate surface of the lungs4 ,the collection of animal effluvia in confined places1 is the source of the generation and diffusion of febrile infection3 but when the miasmata are respired1 in a diluted state1 the ill effects which they produce1 though slower in their operation1 are equally certain4 ,they1 to a certain extent1 pollute the fountain of life1 and ultimately break down the vigour of the most robust frame2 impairing the action of the digestive organs1 engendering the whole train of nervous disorders1 and rendering the body more susceptible of disease4 ,the lungs and the skin may equally become the means of introducing poisonous or infectious matter into the constitution4 ,the venom of a poisonous animal1 the matter of small-pox1 and many other contagions1 produce their influence through the medium of the skin4 ,infectious diseases are communicated by the reception of air in our lungs1 impregnated with contagious matter4 ,the influence of the constant respiration of air in any degree impure1 is fully evinced in the pallid countenances and languid frames of those who live in confined and ill-ventilated places2 and the health of all classes of society suffers precisely in proportion to the susceptibility of their constitutions1 and according to the greater or less impurities of the air which they habitually respire4 ,of the offensive nature of animal effluvia1 the senses of every one who enters a crowded assembly1 must immediately convince him4 ,when1 therefore1 we reflect on the state of the air which we breathe in churches1 theatres1 schools1 and all crowded assemblies2 and when we consider the amount of the exhalations emitted by each individual1 and the very offensive nature of those emitted by many2 and when1 on the other hand1 we take into consideration the importance of air to life1 and the great quantity of this fluid which we daily respire1 we must be naturally led to the adoption of such measures as would secure in our private dwellings1 as well as in our public buildings1 a full and unintermitting supply of fresh atmospheric air4 ,it is curious to observe the influence of habit1 in reconciling us to many practices which would otherwise be considered in the highest degree offensive4 ,thus1 while1 with a fastidious delicacy1 we avoid drinking from a cup which has been already pressed to the lips of our friends1 we feel no hesitation in receiving into our lungs an atmosphere contaminated by the breath and exhalations of every promiscuous assembly4 ,were once the energy of air deny'd1 ,the heart would cease to pour its purple tide ,the purple tide forget its wonted play1 ,nor back again pursue its curious way4 ,the next ,subject of ,curiosity we shall consider1 is1 ,,the ,,hair ,,of ,,the ,,head4 ,if we consider the curious structure1 and different uses of the hair of our heads1 we shall find them very well worth our attention1 and discover in them proofs of the wisdom and power of ,god4 ,in each entire hair we perceive with the naked eye1 an oblong slender filament1 and a bulb at the extremity thicker and more transparent than the rest of the hair4 ,the filament forms the body of the hair1 and the bulb the root4 ,the large hairs have their root1 and even part of the filament1 enclosed in a small membraneous vessel or capsule4 ,the size of this sheath is proportionate to the size of the root1 being always rather larger1 that the root may not be too much confined1 and that some space may remain between it and the capsule4 ,the root or bulb has two parts1 the one external1 the other internal4 ,the external is a pellicle composed of small lamin2 the internal is a glutinous fluid1 in which some fibres are united2 it is the marrow of the root4 ,from the external part of the bulb proceed five1 and sometimes1 though rarely1 six small white threads1 very delicate and transparent1 and often twice as long as the root4 ,besides these threads1 small knots are seen rising in different places2 they are viscous1 and easily dissolved by heat4 ,from the interior part of the bulb proceeds the body of the hair1 composed of three parts2 the external sheath1 the interior tubes1 and the marrow4 ,when the hair has arrived at the pore of the skin through which it is to pass1 it is strongly enveloped by the pellicle of the root1 which forms here a very small tube4 ,the hair then pushes the cuticle before it1 and makes of it an external sheath1 which defends it at the time when it is still very soft4 ,the rest of the covering of the hair1 is a peculiar substance1 and particularly transparent at the point4 ,in a young hair this sheath is very soft1 but in time becomes so hard and elastic1 that it springs back with some noise when it is cut4 ,it preserves the hair a long time4 ,immediately beneath the sheath are several small fibres1 which extend themselves along the hair from the root to the extremity4 ,these are united amongst themselves1 and with the sheath that is common to them1 by several elastic threads2 and these bundles of fibres form together a tube filled with two substances2 the one fluid1 the other solid2 and these constitute the marrow of the hair4 ,the wonders of creating power are seen in every thing1 even in the hair that adorns our surface4 ,all are but parts of one stupendous whole1 ,whose body ,nature is1 and ,god the soul4 ,that1 chang'd thro' all1 and yet in all the same2 ,great in the earth1 as in th' ethereal frame2 ,warms in the sun1 refreshes in the breeze1 ,glows in the stars1 and blossoms in the trees1 ,lives thro' all life1 extends thro' all extent1 ,spreads undivided1 operates unspent2 ,breathes in our soul1 informs our mortal part1 ,as full1 as perfect1 in a hair as heart2 ,as full1 as perfect1 in vile ,man that mourns1 ,as the rapt seraph that adores and burns3 ,to him no high1 no low1 no great1 no small2 ,he fills1 he bounds1 connects1 and equals all4 ,pope4 ,we shall now introduce to our readers some ,ancient and ,modern ,opinions respecting the ,hair4 ,the ancients held the hair a sort of excrement1 fed only with excrementitious matters1 and no proper part of a living body4 ,they supposed it generated of the fuliginous parts of the blood1 exhaled by the heat of the body to the surface1 and then condensed in passing through the pores4 ,their chief reasons were1 that the hair being cut1 will grow again1 even in extreme old age1 and when life is very low2 that in hectic and consumptive people1 where the rest of the body is continually emaciating1 the hair thrives2 nay1 that it will even grow again in dead carcases4 ,they added1 that hair does not feed and grow like the other parts1 by introsusception1 i4 e4 by a juice circulating within it1 but1 like the nails1 by juxtaposition4 ,but the moderns are agreed1 that every hair properly and truly lives1 and receives nutriment to fill it1 like the other parts2 which they prove hence1 that the roots do not turn grey in aged persons sooner than the extremities1 but the whole changes colour at once2 which shews that there is a direct communication1 and that all the parts are affected alike4 ,in strict propriety1 however1 it must be allowed1 that the life and growth of hairs is of a different kind from that of the rest of the body1 and is not immediately derived therefrom1 or reciprocated therewith4 ,it is rather of the nature of vegetation4 ,they grow as plants do1 or as some plants shoot from the parts of others2 from which1 though they draw their nourishment1 yet each has1 as it were1 its distinct life and economy4 ,they derive their food from some juices in the body1 but not from the nutritious juices of the body2 whence they may live1 though the body be starved4 ,wulferus1 in the ,philosophical ,collections1 gives an account of a woman buried at ,nurenberg1 whose grave being opened forty-three years after her death1 hair was found issuing forth plentifully through the clefts of the coffin4 ,the cover being removed1 the whole corpse appeared in its perfect shape2 but1 from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot1 covered over with thick-set hair1 long and curled4 ,the sexton going to handle the upper part of the head with his fingers1 the whole fell at once1 leaving nothing in his hand but a handful of hair3 there was neither skull nor any other bone left3 yet the hair was solid and strong4 ,mr4 ,arnold1 in the same collection1 gives a relation of a man hanged for theft1 who1 in a little time1 while he yet hung upon the gallows1 had his body strangely covered over with hair4 ,before we dismiss this subject1 we shall give the following curious ,instances of the ,internal ,growth of ,hair4 ,though the external surface of the body is the natural place for hairs1 we have many well-attested instances of their being found also on the internal surface4 ,amatus ,lusitanus mentions a person who had hair upon his tongue4 ,pliny and ,valerius ,maximus say1 that the heart of ,aristomenes the ,messenian1 was hairy4 ,cllus ,rhodiginus relates the same of ,hermogenes the rhetorician2 and ,plutarch1 of ,leonidas king of ,sparta4 ,hairs are said to have been found in the breasts of women1 and to have occasioned the distemper called trichiasis2 but some authors are of opinion1 that these are small worms1 and not hairs4 ,there have been1 however1 various and indisputable evidences of hairs found in the kidneys1 and voided by natural discharge4 ,hippocrates says1 that the glandular parts are the most subject to hair2 but bundles of hair have been found in the muscular parts of beef1 and in parts of the human body equally firm4 ,hair has been often found in abscesses and imposthumations4 ,schultetus1 opening the abdomen of a human body1 found twelve pints of water1 and a large lock of hair swimming loosely in it4 ,it has1 however1 been found on examination1 that some of the internal parts of the body are more subject to an unnatural growth of hair than others4 ,this has long been known to anatomists2 and many memorable instances have been recorded by ,dr4 ,tyson1 and others4 ,in some animals1 hairs of a considerable length have been discovered growing in the internal parts2 and on several occasions1 they have been found lying loosely in the cavities of the veins4 ,there are instances of mankind being affected in the same manner4 ,cardan relates1 that he found hair in the blood of a ,spaniard2 ,slonatius1 in that of a gentlewoman of ,cracovia2 and ,schultetus declares1 from his own observation1 that those people1 who are afflicted with the plica polonica1 have very often hair in their blood4 ,we shall1 in the next place1 call the reader's attention to some ,,curious ,,remarks ,,concerning ,,the ,,beard4 ,a beard gives to the countenance a rough and fierce air1 suited to the manners of a rough and fierce people4 ,the same face without a beard appears milder2 for which reason1 a beard becomes unfashionable in a polished nation4 ,demosthenes1 the orator1 lived in the same period with ,alexander the ,great1 at which time the ,greeks began to leave off beards4 ,a bust1 however1 of that orator1 found in ,herculaneum1 has a beard1 which must either have been done for him when he was young1 or from reluctance in an old man to a new fashion4 ,barbers were brought to ,rome from ,sicily1 the #dedth year after the building of ,rome4 ,and it must relate to a time after that period1 what ,aulus ,gellius says1 that people accused of any crime were prohibited to shave their beards till they were absolved4 ,from ,hadrian downward1 the ,roman emperors wore beards4 ,julius ,capitolinus reproaches the ,emperor ,verus for cutting his beard at the instigation of a concubine4 ,all the ,roman generals wore beards in ,justinian's time4 ,the pope shaved his beard1 which was held a manifest apostasy by the ,greek church1 because ,moses1 ,jesus ,christ1 and even ,god the ,father1 were always drawn with beards by the ,greek and ,latin painters4 ,upon the dawn of smooth manners in ,france1 the beaus cut the beards into shapes1 and curled the whiskers4 ,that fashion produced a whimsical effect3 men of gravity left off beards altogether4 ,a beard1 in its natural shape1 was too fierce even for them2 and they could not1 for shame1 copy after the beaus4 ,this accounts for a regulation1 anno #aecd1 of the ,university of ,paris1 forbidding the professors to wear a beard4 ,now follows1 ,a curious account of ,,women with ,beards4 ,of women remarkably bearded we have several instances4 ,in the cabinet of curiosities at ,stutgard1 in ,germany1 there is the portrait of a young woman1 called ,bartel ,graetje1 whose chin is covered with a very large beard4 ,she was drawn in #aghg1 at which time she was but twenty-five years of age4 ,there is likewise1 in another cabinet1 the same portrait of her when she was more advanced in life1 but likewise with a beard4 ,it is said1 that the ,duke of ,saxony had the portrait of a poor ,swiss woman taken1 remarkable for her long bushy beard2 and those who were at the carnival of ,venice in #agbf1 saw a female dancer astonish the spectators1 not more by her talents1 than by her chin covered with a black bushy beard4 ,charles ,,xii4 had in his army a female grenadier1 who wanted neither courage nor a beard to be a man4 ,she was taken at the battle of ,pultowa1 and carried to ,petersburg1 where she was presented to the czar1 in #agbd3 her beard measured a yard and a half4 ,we read in the ,trevoux ,dictionary1 that there was a woman seen at ,paris1 who had not only a bushy beard on her face1 but her body likewise covered all over with hair4 ,among a number of other examples of this nature1 that of the great ,margaret1 the governess of the ,netherlands1 is very remarkable4 ,she had a very long stiff beard1 which she prided herself on3 and being persuaded that it contributed to give her an air of majesty1 she took care not to lose a hair of it4 ,it is said1 that the ,lombard women1 when they were at war1 made themselves beards with the hair of their heads1 which they ingeniously arranged on their cheeks1 that the enemy1 deceived by the likeness1 might take them for men4 ,it is asserted1 after ,suidas1 that in a similar case the ,athenian women did as much4 ,these women were more men than our ,jemmy-,tessamy countrymen4 ,about a century ago1 the ,french ladies adopted a mode of dressing their hair in such a manner1 that curls hung down their cheeks as far as their bosom4 ,these curls went by the name of whiskers4 ,this custom1 undoubtedly1 was not invented after the example of the ,lombard women1 to fight men4 ,we shall close this chapter with some curious observations ,,on ,,sneezing4 ,the practice of saluting the person who sneezed existed in ,africa1 among nations unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,strada1 in his ,account of ,monomotapa1 informs us1 7,prol4 ,acad47 that when the prince sneezes1 all his subjects in the capital are advertised of it1 that they may offer up prayers for his safety4 ,the author of the conquest of ,peru assures us1 that the cacique of ,gachoia having sneezed in the presence of the ,spaniards1 the ,indians of his train fell prostrate before him1 stretched forth their hands1 and displayed to him the accustomed marks of respect1 while they invoked the sun to enlighten him1 to defend him1 and to be his constant guard4 ,the ancient ,romans saluted each other on these occasions3 and ,pliny relates1 that ,tiberius exacted these signs of homage when drawn in his chariot4 ,superstition1 whose influence debases every thing1 had degraded this custom for several ages1 by attaching favourable or unfavourable omens to sneezing1 according to the hour of the day or night1 according to the signs of the zodiac1 according as a work was more or less advanced1 or according as one had sneezed to the right or to the left4 ,if a man sneezed at rising from table1 or from his bed1 it was necessary for him to sit or lie down again4 ',you are struck with astonishment1' said ,timotheus to the ,athenians1 who wished to return into the harbour with their fleet1 because he had sneezed2 'you are struck with astonishment1 because among ten thousand there is one man whose brain is moist4' ,it is singular enough1 that so many ridiculous1 contradictory1 and superstitious opinions1 have not abolished those customary civilities which are still preserved equally among high and low4 ,the reason is obvious3 they are preserved1 because they are esteemed civilities1 and because they cost nothing4 ,among the ,greeks1 sneezing was almost always a good omen4 ,it excited marks of tenderness1 of respect1 and attachment4 ,the young ,parthenis1 hurried on by her passion1 resolved to write to ,sarpedon an avowal of her love2 she sneezes in the most tender and impassioned part of her letter3 this is sufficient for her2 this incident supplies the place of an answer1 and persuades her that ,sarpedon is her lover4 ,penelope1 harassed by the vexatious courtship of her suitors1 begins to curse them all1 and to pour forth vows for the return of ,ulysses4 ,her son ,telemachus interrupts her by a loud sneeze4 ,she instantly exults with joy1 and regards this sign as an assurance of the approaching return of her husband4 7,hom4 ,odyss4 lib4 xvii474 ,xenophon was haranguing his troops2 a soldier sneezed in the moment when he was exhorting them to embrace a dangerous but necessary resolution4 ,the whole army1 moved by this presage1 determined to pursue the project of their general2 and ,xenophon orders sacrifices to ,jupiter the preserver4 ,this superstitious reverence for sneezing1 so ancient1 and so universal even in the times of ,homer1 excited the curiosity of the ,greek philosophers1 and of the rabbins4 ,these last have a most absurd tradition respecting it4 ,aristotle remounts likewise to the sources of natural religion1 because the brain is the origin of the nerves1 of our sentiments1 sensations1 c4 ,such were the opinions of the most ancient and sagacious philosophers of ,greece2 and mythologists affirmed1 that the first sign of life ,prometheus's artificial man gave1 was by sternutation4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,difference between the ,sexes--,comparative ,number of the ,sexes at a ,birth--,extraordinary ,prolification--,extraordinary ,instances of ,rapid ,growth--,giants--,dwarfs--,kimos--,curi ous ,account of the ,abderites--,account of a ,country in which the ,inhabitants reside in ,trees4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,sexes4 ,o woman1 lovely woman6 ,nature made you ,to temper man6------------ ,angels are painted fair to look like you4 ,there's in you all that we believe of heav'n1 ,amazing brightness1 purity1 and truth1 ,eternal joy1 and everlasting love6 ,otway4 ,under his forming hands a creature grew2 --------------------------------adorn'd ,with what all earth or heaven could bestow1 ,to make her amiable4---- ,grace was in all her steps1 heav'n in her eye1 ,in every gesture dignity and love4 ,milton4 ,lavater has drawn the following characteristic distinctions between the male and female of the human species4 ,the primary matter of which women are constituted1 appears to be more flexible1 irritable1 and elastic1 than that of man4 ,they are formed to maternal mildness and affection2 all their organs are tender1 yielding1 easily wounded1 sensible1 and receptible4 ,among a thousand females1 there is scarcely one without the generic feminine signs1--the flexible1 the circular1 and the irritable4 ,they are the counterpart of man1 taken out of man1 to be subject to man2 to comfort him like angels2 and to lighten his cares4 ,this tenderness1 this sensibility1 this light texture of their fibres and organs1 this volatility of feeling1 render them so easy to conduct and to tempt1 so ready of submission to the enterprise and power of the man2 but more powerful1 through the aid of their charms1 than man with all his strength4 ,the female thinks not profoundly2 profound thought is the power of the man4 ,women feel more4 ,,sensibility is the power of woman3 they often rule more effectually1 more sovereignly1 than man4 ,they rule with tender looks1 tears1 and sighs1 but not with passion and threats2 for if1 or when1 they so rule1 they are no longer women but abortions4 ,they are capable of the sweetest sensibility1 the most profound emotion1 the utmost humility1 and the excess of enthusiasm4 ,in their countenance are the signs of sanctity and inviolability1 which every feeling man honours1 and the effects of which are often miraculous4 ,therefore1 by the irritability of their nerves1 their incapacity for deep inquiry and firm decision1 they may easily1 from their extreme sensibility1 become the most irreclaimable1 the most rapturous enthusiasts4 ,their love1 strong and rooted as it is1 is very changeable2 their hatred almost incurable4 ,men are most profound2 women are more sublime4 ,man hears the bursting thunder1 views the destructive bolt with serene aspect1 and stands erect amidst the fearful majesty of the streaming clouds2 woman trembles at the lightning1 and the voice of distant thunder2 and sinks into the arms of man4 ,woman is in anguish when man weeps1 and in despair when man is in anguish2 yet has she often more faith than man4 ,man1 without religion1 is a diseased creature1 who would persuade himself he is well1 and needs not a physician2 but women without religion are monstrous4 ,a woman with a beard is not so disgusting as a woman who is a free-thinker2 her sex is formed to piety and religion3 to them ,christ first appeared4 ,the whole world is forgotten in the emotion caused by the presence and proximity of him they love4 ,they sink into the most incurable melancholy1 as they also rise to the most enraptured heights4 ,male sensations is more imagination1 female more heart4 ,when communicative1 they are more communicative than man2 when secret1 more secret4 ,in general they are more patient1 long-suffering1 credulous1 benevolent1 and modest4 ,they differ also in their interior form and appearance4 ,man is the most firm2 woman is the most flexible4 ,man is the straightest2 woman the most bending4 ,man is serious2 woman is gay4 ,man is the tallest and broadest2 woman the smallest and weakest4 ,man is rough and hard2 woman smooth and soft4 ,man is brown2 woman is fair4 ,man is wrinkly2 woman is not4 ,the hair of man is more strong and short2 of woman more long and pliant4 ,the eye-brows of man are compressed2 and of woman less frowning4 ,man has most convex lines2 woman most concave4 ,man has most straight lines2 woman most curved4 ,the countenance of man1 taken in profile1 is more seldom perpendicular than that of woman4 ,man is most angular2 woman most round4 ,in determining the comparative merit of the two sexes1 if it should be found 7what is indeed the fact7 that women fill up their appointed circle of action with greater regularity than men1 the claim of preference must decide in their favour4 ,in the prudential and economical parts of life1 they rise far above us4 ,the following is a very curious calculation of ,,the ,,comparative ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,sexes ,,at ,a ,,birth4 ,the celebrated ,m4 ,hufeland1 of ,berlin1 has inserted in his ,journal of ,practical ,medicine1 some interesting observations in illustration of the comparative numbers of the sexes at a birth4 ,the number of males born1 to that of females1 observes the learned ,professor1 seems to be #ba to #bj over the whole earth2 and before they reach the age of puberty1 the proportion of the sexes is reduced to perfect equality2 more boys than girls die before they are fourteen4 ,after extending his interesting comparison over animated nature in general1 ,professor ,hufeland enters into an inquiry1 peculiar to himself1 in endeavouring to ascertain the principles and commencement of the equality of the sexes4 ,in some families1 says he1 equality evidently does not hold4 ,in some1 the children are all boys2 in others1 all girls4 ,he next proceeds to take several families1 as #bj1 #cj1 #dj1 or #ej1 in one place1 in conjunction2 or small villages of #aej or #cjj inhabitants4 ,but even then1 the just proportion was not yet established4 ,in some years1 only boys1 in others only girls were born2 nay1 this disproportion continued for a series of a year or two2 but by uniting ten or fifteen years together1 the regular equality appeared4 ,he next considered1 that what took place in small populations must take place every year in larger societies2 and he accordingly found it confirmed by actual enumeration4 ,he went so far as1 by the aid of the minister of state1 ,schackman1 to ascertain the comparative number of boys and girls born in one day over the whole ,prussian dominions1 and the result corresponded with his anticipations4 ,the general conclusions arrived at by ,m4 ,hufeland1 are as follow3-- #ast4 ,there is an equal number of males and females born in the human race4--#b;d4 ,the equality occurs every day in a population of ten millions4--#c;d4 ,every week in #ajj1jjj4--dth4 ,every month in #ej1jjj4--eth4 ,every year in #aj1jjj4--fth4 ,and in small societies of several families1 every ten or fifteen years4--#gth4 ,that it does not occur in individual families4 ,the reader will be amused by the following instances of ,,extraordinary ,,prolification4 ,the prolific powers of some individuals among mankind are very extraordinary4 ,instances have been found where children1 to the number of six1 seven1 eight1 nine1 and sometimes sixteen1 have been brought forth at one birth4 ,the wife of ,emmanuel ,gago1 a labourer near ,valladolid1 was delivered1 the #adth of ,june1 #agii1 of five girls4 ,the celebrated ,tarsin was brought to bed in the seventh month1 at ,argenteuil near ,paris1 #agth of ,july1 #aggi1 of three boys1 each fourteen inches and a half long1 and of a girl thirteen inches3 they were all baptized1 but did not live twenty-four hours4 ,in ,june1 #agii1 one ,maria ,ruiz1 of ,lucena in ,andalusia1 was successively delivered of sixteen boys1 without any girls3 seven of them were alive on the #agth of ,august following4 ,in #aece1 a ,muscovite peasant1 named ,james ,kyrloff1 and his wife1 were presented to the ,empress of ,russia4 ,this peasant had been twice married1 and was then seventy years of age4 ,his first wife was brought to bed twenty-one times2 namely1 four times of four children each time1 seven times of three1 and ten times of two2 making in all fifty-seven children1 who were then alive4 ,his second wife1 who accompanied him1 had been delivered seven times1 once of three children1 and six times of twins4 ,thus he had seventy-two children by his two marriages4 ,we now proceed to narrate some ,,extraordinary ,,instances ,,of ,,rapid ,,growth4 ,a remarkable instance of rapid growth in the human species was noticed in ,france1 in #agbi1 by the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,it was a lad1 then only seven years old1 who measured four feet eight inches and four lines high1 without his shoes4 ,his mother observed his extraordinary growth and strength at two years old1 which continued to increase with such rapidity1 that he soon arrived at the usual standard4 ,at four years old he was able to lift and throw the common bundles of hay in stables into the horses' racks2 and at six years old1 he could lift as much as a sturdy fellow of twenty4 ,but although he thus increased in bodily strength1 his understanding was no greater than is usual with children of his age2 and their playthings were also his favourite amusements4 ,another boy1 a native of ,bouzanquet1 in the diocese of ,alais1 though of a strong constitution1 appeared to be knit and stiff in his joints1 till he was about four years and a half old4 ,during this time1 nothing farther was remarkable respecting him1 than an extraordinary appetite1 which nothing could satisfy1 but an abundance of the common aliments of the inhabitants of the country1 consisting of rye bread1 chesnuts1 bacon1 and water4 ,his limbs1 however1 soon becoming supple and pliable1 and his body beginning to expand itself1 he grew up in such an extraordinary manner1 that at the age of five years he measured four feet three inches4 ,some months after1 he was four feet eleven inches2 and at six1 five feet1 and bulky in proportion4 ,his growth was so rapid1 that every month his clothes required to be made longer and wider2 yet it was not preceded by any sickness1 nor accompanied with any pain4 ,at the age of five years his voice changed1 his beard began to appear2 and at six1 he had as much as a man of thirty2 in short1 all the unquestionable marks of maturity were visible in him4 ,though his wit was riper than is commonly observable at the age of five or six1 yet its progress was not in proportion to that of his body4 ,his air and manner still retained something childish1 though by his bulk and stature he resembled a complete man1 which at first sight produced a very singular contrast4 ,his voice was strong and manly1 and his great strength rendered him already fit for the labours of the country4 ,at five1 he could carry to a great distance1 three measures of rye1 weighing eighty-four pounds2 when turned of six1 he could lift up easily to his shoulders1 and carry loads of one hundred and fifty pounds weight to a great distance2 and these exercises were exhibited by him as often as the curious engaged him thereto by some liberality4 ,such beginnings made people think that he should soon shoot up into a giant4 ,a mountebank was already soliciting his parents for him1 and flattering them with hopes of putting him in a way of making a great fortune4 ,but all these hopes suddenly vanished4 ,his legs became crooked1 his body shrunk1 his strength diminished1 his voice grew sensibly weaker1 and he at last sunk into a total imbecility2--thus his rapid maturity was followed by as swift decay4 ,in the ,paris ,memoirs1 there is an account of a girl1 who1 when four years old1 was four feet six inches in height1 and had her limbs well proportioned1 and her breasts fully expanded1 like those of a girl of eighteen4 ,these things are more singular and marvellous in the northern than in the southern climates1 where females come sooner to maturity4 ,in some places of the ,east ,indies1 they have children at nine years of age4 ,it seems at first view astonishing1 that children of such early and prodigious growth do not become giants2 but it appears evident1 that the whole is only a premature expansion of the parts2 and accordingly1 such children1 instead of becoming giants1 always decay and die apparently of old age1 long before the natural term of human life4 ,as it is our intention in this work to keep as close as possible to facts1 we shall not1 knowingly1 deal in fiction or fable4 ,it is from a most respectable source that we have derived the following ,,curious ,,account ,,of ,,giants4 ,m4 ,le ,cat1 in a memoir read before the ,academy of ,sciences at ,rouen1 gives the following account of giants that are said to have existed in different ages4 ,profane historians have given seven feet of height to ,hercules1 their first hero2 and in our days we have seen men eight feet high4 ,the giant1 who was shown in ,rouen1 in #agce1 measured eight feet some inches4 ,the emperor ,maximin was of that size4 ,shenkins and ,platerus1 physicians of the last century1 saw several of that stature2 and ,goropius saw a girl who was ten feet high4 ,the body of ,orestes1 according to the ,greeks1 was eleven feet and a half2 the giant ,galbara1 brought from ,arabia to ,rome1 under ,claudius ,csar1 was near ten feet2 and the bones of ,secondilla and ,pusio1 keepers of the gardens of ,sallust1 were but six inches shorter4 ,funnam1 a ,scotsman1 who lived in the time of ,eugene ,,ii4 king of ,scotland1 measured eleven feet and a half2 and ,jacob ,le ,maire1 in his voyage to the ,straits of ,magellan1 reports1 that on the #agth of ,december1 #afae1 they found at ,port ,desire1 several graves covered with stones2 and having the curiosity to remove the stones1 they discovered human skeletons of ten and eleven feet long4 ,the ,chevalier ,scory1 in his voyage to the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 says1 that they found1 in one of the sepulchral caverns of that mountain1 the head of a gaunche1 which had eighty teeth1 and that the body was not less than fifteen feet long4 ,the giant ,ferragus1 slain by ,orlando1 nephew of ,charlemagne1 was eighteen feet high4 ,rioland1 a celebrated anatomist1 who wrote in #afad1 says1 that some years before1 there was to be seen1 in the suburbs of ,st4 ,germain1 the tomb of the great giant ,isoret1 who was twenty feet high4 ,in ,rouen1 in #aeji1 in digging in the ditches near the ,dominicans1 they found a stone tomb1 containing a skeleton whose skull held a bushel of corn1 and whose shin bone reached up to the girdle of the tallest man there1 being about four feet long2 and1 consequently1 the body must have been seventeen or eighteen feet high4 ,upon the tomb was a plate of copper1 whereon was engraved1 ,in this tomb lies the noble and puissant lord1 the ,chevalier ,ricon ,de ,vallemont1 and his bones4 ,platerus1 a famous physician1 declares1 that he saw at ,lucerne1 the true human body of a subject which must have been at least nineteen feet high4 ,valence1 in ,dauphin1 boasts of possessing the bones of the giant ,bucart1 tyrant of the ,vivarias1 who was slain with an arrow by the ,count ,de ,cabillon1 his vassal4 ,the ,dominicans had a part of the shin bone1 with the articulation of his knee1 and his figure painted in fresco1 with an inscription1 showing that this giant was twenty-two feet and a half high1 and that his bones were found in #agje1 near the banks of the ,morderi1 a little river at the foot of the mountain of ,crusal1 upon which 7tradition says7 the giant dwelt4 ,m4 ,le ,cat adds1 that skeletons have been discovered of giants1 of a still more incredible height1 viz4 of ,theutobochus1 king of the ,teutones1 found on the #aath of ,january1 #afac1 twenty-five feet and a half high2 of a giant near ,mazarino1 in ,sicily1 in #aeaf1 thirty feet2 of another1 in #aedh1 near ,palermo1 thirty feet2 of another1 in #aeej1 of thirty-three feet2 of two found near ,athens1 thirty-three and thirty-six feet2 and of one at ,tuto1 in ,bohemia1 in #ageh1 whose leg bones alone measured twenty-six feet6 ,but whether these accounts are credited or not1 we are certain that the stature of the human body is by no means fixed4 ,we are ourselves a kind of giants1 in comparison of the ,laplanders2 nor are these the most diminutive people to be found upon the earth4 ,the ,abb ,la ,chappe1 in his journey into ,siberia1 to observe the last transit of ,venus1 passed through a village inhabited by people called ,wotiacks1 who were not above four feet high4 ,the accounts of the ,patagonians likewise1 which cannot be entirely discredited1 render it very probable1 that somewhere in ,south ,america there is a race of people very considerably exceeding the common size of mankind2 and consequently that we cannot altogether discredit the relations of giants1 handed down to us by ancient authors1 though what degree of credit we ought to give them1 is not easy to be determined4 ,no less true than remarkable is the following ,,curious ,,account ,,of ,,dwarfs4 ,jeffery ,hudson1 the famous ,english dwarf1 was born at ,oakham in ,rutlandshire1 in #afai2 and about the age of seven or eight1 being then but eighteen inches high1 was retained in the service of the ,duke of ,buckingham1 who resided at ,burleigh on the ,hill4 ,soon after the marriage of ,charles ,i4 the king and queen being entertained at ,burleigh1 little ,jeffrey was served up to table in a cold pie1 and presented by the duchess to the queen1 who kept him as her dwarf4 ,from seven years till thirty1 he never grew taller2 but after thirty he shot up to three feet nine inches1 and there fixed4 ,jeffery became a considerable part of the entertainment of the court4 ,sir ,william ,davenant wrote a poem called ,jeffreidos1 on a battle between him and a turkey cock2 and in #afch was published a very small book1 called the ,new ,year's ,gift1 presented at court by the ,lady ,parvula to the ,lord ,minimus1 7commonly called ,little ,jeffery17 her majesty's servant1 written by ,microphilus1 with a little print of ,jeffery prefixed4 ,before this period1 ,jeffery was employed on a negociation of great importance3 he was sent to ,france to fetch a midwife for the queen2 and on his return with this gentlewoman1 and her majesty's dancing-master1 and many rich presents to the queen from her mother ,mary de ,medicis1 he was taken by the ,dunkirkers4 ,jeffery1 thus made of consequence1 grew to think himself really so4 ,he had borne with little temper the teazing of the courtiers and domestics1 and had many squabbles with the king's gigantic porter4 ,at last1 being provoked by ,mr4 ,crofts1 a young gentleman of family1 a challenge ensued3 and ,mr4 ,crofts coming to the rendezvous armed only with a squirt1 the little creature was so enraged1 that a real duel ensued2 and the appointment being on horseback1 with pistols1 to put them more on a level1 ,jeffery1 at the first fire1 shot his antagonist dead4 ,this happened in ,france1 whither he had attended his mistress during the troubles4 ,he was again taken prisoner by a ,turkish rover1 and sold into ,barbary4 ,he probably did not remain long in slavery1 for1 at the beginning of the civil war1 he was made a captain in the royal army2 and in #afdd1 attended the queen to ,france1 where he remained till the ,restoration4 ,at last1 upon suspicion of his being privy to the ,popish plot1 he was taken up in #afhb1 and confined in the ,gate-house of ,westminster1 where he ended his life in the sixty-third year of his age4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,orang-,,outang1 ,satyr1 ,great ,ape1 or ,man of the ,woods4--,page #agh4 ,illustration3 ,,jeffrey ,,hudson4--,page #dj4 ,a remarkable ,english dwarf who flourished in the reigns of ,charles the ,first and ,charles the ,second4 ,the female figure is the midwife whom he brought from ,france for the ,queen4 ,in the memoirs of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 a relation is given by the ,count de ,tressau1 of a dwarf1 called ,bebe1 kept by ,stanislaus ,,iii4 king of ,poland2 who died in #agfd1 aged twenty-three1 when he measured only thirty-three inches4 ,at his birth1 he measured only between eight and nine inches4 ,diminutive as were his dimensions1 his reasoning faculties were not less scanty2 appearing indeed not to have been superior to those of a well-taught pointer3 but1 that the size and strength of the intellectual powers are not affected by the diminutiveness or tenuity of the corporeal organs1 is evident from a still more striking instance of littleness1 given us by the same nobleman1 in the person of ,monsieur ,borulawski1 a ,polish gentleman1 whom he saw at ,luneville1 whence he visited ,paris1 and who1 at the age of twenty-two1 measured only twenty-eight inches4 ,this miniature of a man1 considering him only as to his bodily dimensions1 appears a giant with regard to his mental powers and attainments4 ,he is described by the count as possessing all the graces of wit1 united with a sound judgment and an excellent memory2 so that we may with justice say of ,m4 ,borulawski1 in the words of ,seneca1 and nearly in the order in which he has used them1 ,posse ingenium1 fortissimum ac beatissimum1 sub quolibet corpusculo latere4 ,epist4 #ff4 ,count ,borulawski was the son of a ,polish nobleman attached to the fortunes of ,king ,stanislaus1 who lost his property in consequence of that attachment1 and who had six children2 three dwarfs1 and three well grown4 ,what is singular enough1 they were born alternately1 a big one and a little one1 though both parents were of the common size4 ,the little count's youngest sister was much less than him1 but died at the age of twenty-three4 ,the count continued to grow till he was about thirty1 when he had attained the height of three feet two inches3 he lived to see his fifty-first year4 ,he never experienced any sickness1 but lived in a polite and affluent manner1 under the patronage of a lady1 a friend of the family1 till love1 at the age of forty-one1 intruded into his little peaceful bosom1 and involved him in matrimony1 care1 and perplexity4 ,the lady he chose was of his own country1 but of ,french extraction1 and the middle size4 ,they had three children1 all girls1 and none of them likely to be dwarfs4 ,to provide for a family now became an object big with difficulty1 requiring all the exertion of his powers 7which could promise but little7 and his talents1 of which music alone afforded any view of profit4 ,he played extremely well upon the guitar2 and by having concerts in several of the principal cities in ,germany1 he raised temporary supplies4 ,at ,vienna he was persuaded to turn his thoughts to ,england1 where1 it was believed1 the public curiosity might in a little time benefit him sufficiently to enable him to live independent in so cheap a country as ,poland4 ,he was furnished by very respectable friends with recommendations to several of the most distinguished characters in this kingdom1 as the ,duchess of ,devonshire1 ,rutland1 c4 whose kind patronage he was not backward to acknowledge4 ,he was advised to let himself be seen as a curiosity1 and the price of admission was fixed at a guinea4 ,the number of his visitors1 of course1 was not very great4 ,after a pretty long stay in ,london1 he went to ,bath and ,bristol2 visited ,dublin1 and some other parts of ,ireland2 whence he returned by way of ,liverpool1 ,manchester1 and ,birmingham1 to ,london4 ,he also visited ,edinburgh1 and some other towns in ,scotland4 ,in every place he acquired a number of friends4 ,in reality1 the ease and politeness of his manners and address pleased no less than the diminutive yet elegant proportions of his figure1 astonished those who visited him4 ,his person was pleasing and graceful1 and his look manly and noble4 ,he spoke ,french fluently1 and ,english tolerably4 ,he was remarkably lively and cheerful1 though fitted for the most serious and rational conversation4 ,such was this wonderful little man--an object of curiosity really worthy the attention of the philosopher1 the man of taste1 and the anatomist4 ,his life has been published1 written by himself4 ,the following account of a singular nation of dwarfs1 is taken from the ,monthly ,review for #agib1 being ,vol4 #g1 of the new series4 ,the subject is a review of ,a ,voyage to ,madagascar2 by the ,abb ,rochon4 ,they are called ,,the ,,kimos4 ,the ,kimos are a nation of pigmies1 said to inhabit the mountains in the interior part of the island of ,madagascar1 of whom tradition has long encouraged the belief3--but ,flacourt1 in the last century1 treated the stories then in circulation with great contempt4 ,the ,abb ,rochon1 however1 has revived them2 and has not only given them the sanction of his own belief1 but that of ,m4 ,commerson1 and of ,m4 de ,modave1 the late ,governor of ,fort ,dauphin4 ,as their opinions are of weight1 and as the subject is curious1 we shall present our readers with an epitome of the memoirs which these gentlemen drew up concerning the ,kimos1 and which our author has inserted entire in the body of his work4 ,lovers of the marvellous1 7says ,m4 ,commerson17 who would be sorry to have the pretended size of the ,patagonian giants reduced to six feet1 will perhaps be made some amends by a race of pigmies1 who are wonderful in the contrary extreme4 ,i mean those half men1 who inhabit the interior part of the great island of ,madagascar1 and form a distinct nation1 called1 in the language of the country1 ,kimos4 ,these little men are of a paler colour than the rest of the natives1 who are in general black4 ,their arms are so long1 that when stretched out1 they reach to the knees1 without stooping4 ,the women have scarcely breasts sufficient to mark their sex1 except at the time of lying-in2 and even then they are obliged to have recourse to cow's milk1 to feed their children4 ,the intellectual faculties of this diminutive race are equal to those of the other inhabitants of the island1 who are by no means deficient in understanding1 though extremely indolent4 ,indeed1 the ,kimos are said to be much more active and warlike1 so that their courage being in a duplicate ratio of their size1 they have never suffered themselves to be oppressed and subdued by their neighbours1 who have often attempted it4 ,it is astonishing1 that all we know of this nation is from the neighbouring people2 and that neither the governors of the ,isle of ,france1 of ,bourbon1 nor the commanders of our forts on the coast of ,madagascar1 have ever endeavoured to penetrate into this country4 ,it has indeed been lately attempted1 but without success4 ,i shall however attest1 as an eye-witness1 that in a voyage which ,i made in #aggj to ,fort ,dauphin1 ,m4 de ,modave1 the last governor1 gratified my curiosity1 by shewing me1 among his slaves1 a female of the ,kimos tribe1 about thirty years of age1 and three feet seven inches high4 ,she was of a much paler colour than any other natives of ,madagascar that ,i had seen1 was well-made1 and did not appear misshapen1 nor stinted in her growth1 as accidental dwarfs usually are4 ,her arms were indeed too long1 in proportion to her height1 and her hair was short and woolly3 but her countenance was good1 and rather resembled that of an ,european than an ,african4 ,she had a natural habitual smile on her face1 was good-humoured1 and seemed1 by her behaviour1 to possess a good understanding4 ,no appearance of breasts was observable1 except nipples3 but this single instance is not sufficient to establish an exception so contrary to the general law of nature4 ,a little before our departure from ,madagascar1 the desire of recovering her liberty1 joined to the fear of being carried into ,france1 stimulated this little slave to run away into the woods4 ,on the whole1 ,i conclude1 in firmly believing the existence of this diminutive race of human beings1 who have a character and manners peculiar to themselves4 ,the ,laplanders seem to be the medium between men of the common size and these dwarfs4 ,both inhabit the coldest countries and the highest mountains upon the earth4 ,these of ,madagascar1 on which the ,kimos reside1 are sixteen or seventeen hundred toises1 or fathoms1 above the level of the sea4 ,the plants and vegetables which grow on these heights1 are naturally dwarfs4 ,m4 de ,modave says1--,when ,i arrived at ,fort ,dauphin1 in #agfh1 ,i had a memoir put into my hands1 which was ill drawn up1 giving an account of a pigmy race of people1 called ,kimos1 who inhabit the middle region of ,madagascar1 in latitude #bb4 ,i tried to verify the fact1 by preparing for an expedition into the country which is said to be thus inhabited3 but by the infidelity and cowardice of the guides1 my scheme failed4 ,yet ,i had such indisputable information of this extraordinary fact1 that ,i have not the least doubt of the existence of such a nation4 ,the common size of the men is three feet five inches4 ,they wear long round beards4 ,the women are some inches shorter than the men1 who are thick and stout4 ,their colour is less black and swarthy than that of the natives2 their hair is short and cottony4 ,they forge iron and steel1 of which they make their lances and darts2 the only weapons that they use4 ,the situation of their country is about sixty leagues to the north-west of ,fort ,dauphin4 ,i procured a female of this nation1 but she was said to be much taller than usual among the ,kimos1 for she was three feet seven inches in height4 ,she was very thin1 and had no more appearance of breasts than the leanest man4 ,to these relations1 the ,abb ,rochon says1 he might add that of an officer who had procured a ,kimos man1 and would have brought him to ,europe1 but ,m4 de ,surville1 who commanded the vessel in which he was to embark1 refused to grant his permission4 ,respectable historians have presented us with the following curious account of the ,,abderites1 or ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,abdera4 ,it is reported1 that in the reign of ,cassander1 king of ,macedon1 they were so pestered with frogs and rats1 that they were obliged to desert their city for some time3 and ,lucian tells us1 that in the reign of ,lysimachus1 they were for some months afflicted with a fever of a most extraordinary nature1 whose crisis was always on the seventh day1 and then it left them2 but it so distracted their imaginations1 that they fancied themselves players4 ,after this1 they were ever repeating verses from some tragedy1 and particularly out of the ,andromeda of ,euripides1 as if they had been upon the stage2 so that many of these pale1 meagre actors1 were pouring forth tragic exclamations in every street4 ,this delirium continued till the winter following2 which was a very cold one1 and therefore fitter to remove it4 ,lucian1 who has described this disease1 endeavours to account for it in this way3--,archelaus1 an excellent player1 acted the ,andromeda of ,euripides before the ,abderites1 in the height of a very hot summer4 ,several had a fever at their coming out of the theatre1 and as their imaginations were full of the tragedy1 the delirium1 which the fever raised1 perpetually represented ,andromeda1 ,perseus1 ,medusa1 c4 and the several dramatic incidents1 and called up the ideas of those objects1 and the pleasure of the representation1 so strongly1 that they could not forbear imitating ,archelaus' action and declamation3 and from these the fever spread to others by infection4 ,a most respectable writer 7,madame ,de ,genlis7 has given us the following curious account of a ,,country1 ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,which ,,reside ,,in ,,trees4 ,a young ,spanish adventurer1 of the name of ,vasco ,nugnez1 whom a handsome figure1 united to a natural wit and courage1 advanced to the highest eminence of glory and fortune2 pursuing his researches over the ,darien1 a region abounding in lakes and marshes1 arrived in a country where the houses were of a very singular contrivance1 being built in the largest trees1 the branches of which enveloped the sides1 and formed the roof4 ,they contained chambers and closets of a tolerable construction4 ,each family was separately lodged4 ,every house had two ladders1 one of which reached from the foot to the middle of the tree1 and the other from thence to the entrance of the highest chamber3 they were composed of cane1 and so light as to be easily lifted up1 which was done every night1 and formed a security from the attacks of tigers and other wild beasts1 with which this province abounds4 ,the chief of the country was in his palace1 that is to say--his tree1 when the ,castilians came among them4 ,on seeing the strangers1 he hastened to draw up his ladders1 while the ,spaniards called to him aloud to descend without fear4 ,he replied1 that being unconscious of having offended any one1 and having no concern with strangers1 he begged he might be suffered to remain undisturbed in his habitation4 ,on this they threatened to cut down or set fire to his tree1 and at length obliged him to descend with his two sons4 ,to their inquiries1 'if he had any gold1' he replied1 that he had none there1 because it was of no use to him2 but1 if they would suffer him to go1 he would fetch them some from a neighbouring mountain4 ,the ,castilians the more readily believed the promise1 as he consented to leave with them his wife and children4 ,but after having waited some days for his return1 they discovered that this pretence was only a stratagem to withdraw himself from their hands2 that their hostages likewise1 during the night1 had found an opportunity of escaping by means of their ladders1 and that the inhabitants of every neighbouring tree had1 in the same manner1 fled4 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,astonishing ,acquisitions made by ,blind ,persons--,wonderful ,performances of a ,female1 blind almost from ,infancy--,wonderful ,instances of ,adroitness of ,persons born defective in their ,limbs--,curious ,account of ,incapacity of distinguishing ,colours--,ventriloquism--,sword-swallow ing4 ,,astonishing ,,acquisitions ,,made ,,by ,,blind ,,persons4 ,we find various recompenses for blindness1 or substitutes for the use of the eyes1 in the wonderful sagacity of many blind persons1 recited by ,zahnius1 in his ',oculus ,artificialis1' and others4 ,in some1 the defect has been supplied by a most excellent gift of remembering what they had seen2 in others1 by a delicate nose1 or the sense of smelling2 in others1 by an exquisite touch1 or a sense of feeling1 which they have had in such perfection1 that1 as it has been said of some1 they learned to hear with their eyes1 so it may be said of these1 that they taught themselves to see with their hands4 ,some have been enabled to perform all sorts of curious and subtle works in the nicest and most dexterous manner4--,aldrovanus speaks of a sculptor who became blind at twenty years of age1 and yet1 ten years after1 made a perfect marble statue of ,cosmo ,,ii4 de ,medicis2 and another of clay1 like ,urban ,,viii4 ,bartholin tells us of a blind sculptor in ,denmark1 who distinguished perfectly well1 by mere touch1 not only all kinds of wood1 but all the colours2 and ,f4 ,grimaldi gives an instance of the like kind2 besides the blind organist1 living in ,paris1 who is said to have done the same4 ,the most extraordinary of all is a blind guide1 who1 according to the report of good writers1 used to conduct the merchants through the sands and deserts of ,arabia4 ,james ,bernouilli contrived a method of teaching blind persons to write4 ,an instance1 no less extraordinary1 is mentioned by ,dr4 ,bew1 in the ,transactions of the ,manchester ,society4 ,it is that of a person1 whose name is ,john ,metcalf1 a native of the neighbourhood of ,manchester1 who became blind at so early an age as to be altogether unconscious of light1 and its various effects4 ,his employment in the younger period of his life was that of a waggoner1 and occasionally as a guide in intricate roads during the night1 or when the common tracks were covered with snow4 ,afterwards he became a projector and surveyor of highways in difficult and mountainous parts2 and1 in this capacity1 with the assistance merely of a long staff1 he traverses the roads1 ascends precipices1 explores valleys1 and investigates their several extents1 forms1 and situations1 so as to answer his purpose in the best manner4 ,his plans are designed1 and his estimates formed1 with such ability and accuracy1 that he has been employed in altering most of the roads over the ,peak in ,derbyshire1 particularly those in the vicinity of ,buxton2 and in constructing a new one between ,wilmslow and ,congleton1 so as to form a communication between the great ,london road1 without being obliged to pass over the mountain4 ,although blind persons have occasion1 in a variety of respects1 to deplore their infelicity1 their misery is in a considerable degree alleviated by advantages peculiar to themselves4 ,they are capable of a more fixed and steady attention to the objects of their mental contemplation1 than those who are distracted by the view of a variety of external scenes4 ,their want of sight naturally leads them to avail themselves of their other organs of corporeal sensation1 and with this view to cultivate and improve them as much as possible4 ,accordingly1 they derive relief and assistance from the quickness of their hearing1 the acuteness of their smell1 and the sensibility of their touch1 which persons who see are apt to disregard4 ,many contrivances have also been devised by the ingenious1 for supplying the want of sight1 and for facilitating those analytical or mechanical operations1 which would otherwise perplex the most vigorous mind1 and the most retentive memory4 ,by means of these1 they have become eminent proficients in various departments of science4 ,indeed1 there are few sciences in which1 with or without mechanical helps1 the blind have not distinguished themselves4 ,the case of ,professor ,saunderson at ,cambridge1 is well known4 ,his attainments and performances in the languages1 and also as a learner and teacher in the abstract mathematics1 in philosophy1 and in music1 have been truly astonishing2 and the account of them appears to be almost incredible1 if it were not amply attested and confirmed by many other instances of a similar kind1 both in ancient and modern times4 ,cicero mentions it as a fact scarcely credible1 with respect to his master in philosophy1 ,diodotus1 that he exercised himself in it with greater assiduity after he became blind2 and1 which he thought next to impossible to be performed without sight1 that he professed geometry1 and described his diagrams so accurately to his scholars1 as to enable them to draw every line in its proper direction4 ,jerome relates a more remarkable instance of ,didymus in ,alexandria1 who though blind from his infancy1 and therefore ignorant of the letters1 appeared so great a miracle to the world1 as not only to learn logic1 but geometry also to perfection2 which seems 7he adds7 the most of any thing to require the help of sight4 ,professor ,saunderson1 who was deprived of his sight by the small-pox when he was only twelve months old1 seems to have acquired most of his ideas by the sense of feeling2 and though he could not distinguish colours by that sense1 which1 after repeated trials1 he said was pretending to impossibilities1 yet he was able1 with the greatest exactness1 to discriminate the minutest difference between rough and smooth on a surface1 or the least defect of polish4 ,in a set of ,roman medals1 he could distinguish the genuine from the false1 though they had been counterfeited in such a manner as to deceive a connoisseur1 who judged of them by the eye4 ,his sense of feeling was so acute1 that he could perceive the least variation in the state of the air2 and1 it is said1 that in a garden where observations were made on the sun1 he took notice of every cloud that interrupted the observation1 almost as justly as those who could see it4 ,he could tell when any thing was held near his face1 or when he passed by a tree at no great distance1 provided the air was calm1 and there was little or no wind2 this he did by the different pulse of air upon his face4 ,he possessed a sensibility of hearing to such a degree1 that he could distinguish even the fifth part of a note2 and1 by the quickness of this sense1 he not only discriminated persons with whom he had once conversed so long as to fix in his memory the sound of their voice1 but he could judge of the size of a room into which he was introduced1 and of his distance from the wall2 and if he had ever walked over a pavement in courts1 piazzas1 c4 which reflected a sound1 and was afterwards conducted thither again1 he could exactly tell in what part of the walk he was placed1 merely by the note which it sounded4 ,sculpture and painting are arts which1 one would imagine1 are of very difficult and almost impracticable attainment to blind persons2 and yet instances occur1 which shew1 that they are not excluded from the pleasing1 creative1 and extensive regions of fancy4 ,de ,piles mentions a blind sculptor1 who thus took the likeness of the ,duke de ,bracciano in a dark cellar1 and made a marble statue of ,king ,charles ,i4 with great justness and elegance4 ,however unaccountable it may appear to the abstract philosopher1 yet nothing is more certain in fact1 than that a blind man may1 by the inspiration of the ,muses1 or rather by the efforts of a cultivated genius1 exhibit in poetry the most natural images and animated descriptions even of visible objects1 without deservedly incurring the charge of plagiarism4 ,we need not recur to ,homer and ,milton for attestations to this fact2 they had probably been long acquainted with the visible world before they had lost their sight1 and their descriptions might be animated with all the rapture and enthusiasm which originally fired their bosoms1 when the grand and delightful objects delineated by them were immediately beheld4 ,we are furnished with instances in which a similar energy and transport of description1 at least in a very considerable degree1 have been exhibited by those on whose minds visible objects were never impressed1 or have been entirely obliterated4 ,dr4 ,blacklock affords a surprising instance of this kind2 who1 though he had lost his sight before he was six months old1 not only made himself master of various languages1 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,italian1 and ,french2 but acquired the reputation of an excellent poet1 whose performances abound with appropriate images and animated descriptions4 ,dr4 ,nicholas ,bacon1 a blind gentleman1 descended from the same family with the celebrated ,lord ,verulam1 was1 in the city of ,brussels1 with high approbation created ,,ll4 ,d4 ,he was deprived of sight at nine years of age by an arrow from a cross-bow1 whilst he was attempting to shoot it4 ,when he had recovered his health1 which had suffered by the shock1 he pursued the same plan of education in which he had been engaged2 and having heard that one ,nicasius de ,vourde1 born blind1 who lived towards the end of the fifteenth century1 after having distinguished himself by his studies in the university of ,louvain1 took his degree as ,d4 ,d4 in that of ,cologne1 he resolved to make the same attempt4 ,after continuing his studies in learning philosophy and law a sufficient time1 he took his degree1 commenced pleading as counsellor or advocate in the council of ,brabant1 and has had the pleasure of terminating almost every suit in which he has been engaged to the satisfaction of his clients4 ,another instance1 which deserves being recorded1 is that of ,dr4 ,henry ,moyes1 in our own country2 who1 though blind from his infancy1 by the ardour and assiduity of his application1 and by the energy of native genius1 not only made incredible advances in mechanical operations1 in music1 and in the languages2 but acquired an extensive acquaintance with geometry1 optics1 algebra1 astronomy1 chemistry1 and all other branches of natural philosophy4 ,from the account of ,dr4 ,moyes1 who occasionally read lectures on philosophical chemistry at ,manchester1 delivered to the ,manchester ,society by ,dr4 ,bew1 it appears1 that mechanical exercises were the favourite employment of his infant years3 and that at a very early age he was so well acquainted with the use of edge-tools1 as to be able to construct little windmills1 and even a loom4 ,by the sound1 and the different voices of the persons that were present1 he was directed in his judgment of the dimensions of the room in which they were assembled2 and in this respect he determined with such a degree of accuracy1 as seldom to be mistaken4 ,his memory was singularly retentive2 so that he was capable of recognizing a person on his first speaking1 though he had not been in company with him for two years4 ,he determined with surprising exactness the stature of those with whom he conversed1 by the direction of their voices2 and he made tolerable conjectures concerning their dispositions1 by the manner in which they conducted their conversation4 ,his eyes1 though he never recollected having seen1 were not totally insensible to intense light3 but the rays refracted through a prism1 when sufficiently vivid1 produced distinguishable effects upon them4 ,the red produced a disagreeable sensation1 which he compared to the touch of a saw4 ,as the colours declined in violence1 the harshness lessened1 until the green afforded a sensation that was highly pleasing to him1 and which he described as conveying an idea similar to that which he gained by running his hand over smooth polished surfaces4 ,such surfaces1 meandering streams1 and gentle declivities1 were the figures by which he expressed his ideas of beauty2 rugged rocks1 irregular points1 and boisterous elements1 furnished him with expressions for terror and disgust4 ,he excelled in the charms of conversation2 was happy in his allusions to visual objects1 and discoursed on the nature1 composition1 and beauty of colours1 with pertinence and precision4 ,this instance1 and some others which have occurred1 seem to furnish a presumption1 that the feeling or touch of blind persons may be so improved as to enable them to perceive that texture and disposition of coloured surfaces by which some rays of light are reflected1 and others absorbed2 and in this manner to distinguish colours4 ,in music1 there are at present living instances of how far the blind may proceed4 ,in former periods we shall find illustrious examples1 how amply nature has capacitated the blind to excel1 both in the scientific and practical departments of music4 ,in the sixteenth century1 when the progress of improvement both in melody and harmony was rapid and conspicuous1 ,,francis ,,salinas was eminently distinguished4 ,he was born ,a4 ,d4 #aeac1 at ,burgos in ,spain2 and was son to the treasurer of that city4 ,though afflicted with incurable blindness1 he was profoundly skilled both in the theory and practice of music4 ,as a performer1 he is celebrated by his contemporaries with the highest encomiums4 ,as a theorist1 ,sir ,john ,hawkins says1 his book is equal in value to any now extant in any language4 ,though he was deprived of sight in his earliest infancy1 he did not content himself to delineate the various phenomena in music1 but the principles from whence they result1 the relations of sound1 the nature of arithmetical1 geometrical1 and harmonical ratios1 which were then esteemed essential to the theory of music1 with a degree of intelligence which would have deserved admiration1 though he had been in full possession of every sense requisite for these disquisitions4 ,he was taken to ,rome in the retinue of ,petrus ,sarmentus1 archbishop of ,compostella1 and having passed twenty years in ,italy1 he returned to ,salamanca1 where he obtained the professorship of music1 an office at that time equally respectable and lucrative4 ,having discharged it with reputation and success for some time1 he died at the venerable age of seventy-seven4 ,in the same period flourished ,,caspar ,,crumbhom1 blind from the third year of his age2 yet he composed several pieces in many parts with so much success1 and performed both upon the flute and violin so exquisitely1 that he was distinguished by ,augustus1 elector of ,saxony4 ,but preferring his native country1 ,silesia1 to every other1 he returned to it1 and was appointed organist of the church of ,st4 ,peter and ,paul in ,lignitz1 where he had often the direction of the musical college1 and died ,june #aa1 #afba4 ,to these might be added ,,martin ,,pesenti of ,venice1 a composer of vocal and instrumental music almost of all kinds1 though blind from his nativity2 with other examples equally worthy of public attention4 ,but if vulgar prejudice is capable of blushing at its own contemptible character1 or of yielding to conviction1 those already quoted are more than sufficient to shew the musical jugglers of our time that their art is no monopoly1 with which those alone who see are invested1 by the irrevocable decree of heaven4 ,in the ,annual ,register for #agfb1 the following narrative of the surprising acquisitions of a blind lady is inserted4 ,a young gentlewoman of a good family in ,france1 now in her eighteenth year1 lost her sight when only two years old1 her mother having been advised to lay some pigeon's blood on her eyes1 to preserve them in the small-pox2 whereas1 so far from answering the end1 it eat into them4 ,nature1 however1 may be said to have compensated for the unhappy mistake1 by beauty of person1 sweetness of temper1 vivacity of genius1 quickness of conception1 and many talents which certainly much alleviate her misfortune4 ,she plays at cards with the same readiness as others of the party4 ,she first prepares the pack allotted to her1 by pricking them in several parts2 yet so imperceptibly1 that the closest inspection can scarce discern her indexes3 she sorts the suits1 and arranges the cards in their proper sequence1 with the same precision1 and nearly the same facility1 as they who have their sight4 ,all she requires of those who play with her1 is to name every card as it is played2 and these she retains so exactly1 that she frequently performs some notable strokes1 such as shew a great combination and strong memory4 ,the most wonderful circumstance is1 that she should have learned to read and write2 but even this is readily believed on knowing her method4 ,in writing to her1 no ink is used1 but the letters are pricked down on the paper1 and by the delicacy of her touch1 feeling each letter1 she follows them successively1 and reads every word with her finger ends4 ,she herself in writing makes use of a pencil1 as she could not know when her pen was dry2 her guide on the paper is a small thin ruler1 and of the breadth of the writing4 ,on finishing a letter1 she wets it1 so as to fix the traces of her pencil1 that they are not obscured or effaced2 then proceeds to fold and seal it1 and write the direction2 all by her own address1 and without the assistance of any other person4 ,her writing is very straight1 well cut1 and the spelling no less correct4 ,to reach this singular mechanism1 the indefatigable cares of her affectionate mother were long employed1 who accustomed her daughter to feel letters cut in cards of pasteboard1 brought her to distinguish an ,a from a ,b1 and thus the whole alphabet1 and afterwards to spell words2 then1 by the remembrance of the shape of the letters1 to delineate them on paper2 and1 lastly1 to arrange them so as to form words and sentences4 ,she has learned to play on the guitar1 and has even contrived a way of pricking down the tunes1 as an assistance to her memory4 ,so delicate are her organs1 that in singing a tune1 though new to her1 she is able to name the notes4 ,in figured dances she acquits herself extremely well1 and in a minuet1 with inimitable ease and gracefulness4 ,as for the works of her sex1 she has a masterly hand2 she sews and hems perfectly well2 and in all her works she threads her needles for herself1 however small4 ,by the watch her touch never fails telling her exactly the hour and minute4 ,diderot gives a very curious account of a blind lady4 ,it is so remarkable1 that we shall distinguish it by the separate title of ,,wonderful ,,performances ,,of ,a ,,female1 ,,blind ,,almost ,,from ,,infancy4 ,the name of this remarkable person was1 ,mademoiselle ,melanie de ,salignac1 a young lady1 who had been blind almost from her birth4 ,her feeling1 hearing1 and smell1 were exquisite4 ,she could distinguish1 by the impression of the air1 whether it was fine or cloudy1 whether she was in an open place or a street1 and whether the street was open at the end2--also1 whether she was in a room or not1 and of what size it was4 ,having once gone over a house1 she became so well acquainted with the different parts1 as to be able to warn others of any danger they were exposed to1 by the existence of a step1 or the lowness of a door4 ,she could thread the smallest needle1 with the greatest dexterity2 and could execute every sort of needle-work4 ,she played very well at many games at cards1 which she distinguished by some little mark1 known to herself by the touch1 but imperceptible to the sight of any other person4 ,she had learnt1 and understood very well1 music1 geography1 geometry1 and dancing4 ,she was1 indeed1 extremely clever2 what made her more interesting1 she was modest1 mild1 cheerful1 and affectionate4 ,she wrote with a pin1 by pricking a sheet of paper1 stretched on a frame1 and read what she had written1 by feeling the pin-marks on the other side of the paper4 ,she could read a book1 printed on one side only2 some were printed expressly for her1 in this manner4 ,in a piece of twelve or fifteen lines1 if the number of letters in each word1 together with the letter which it began with1 was given her1 she could tell every word1 however oddly composed4 ,this fact1 says ,diderot1 was attested by every one of her family1 by myself1 and twenty other persons1 still alive4 ,she died at the age of twenty-two4 ,she was the daughter of ,madame de ,blacy1 a woman distinguished for the eminence of her moral qualities1 and moving in a respectable sphere of life4--,see ,grimn's ,memoirs4 ,we now proceed to detail the following ,,wonderful ,,instances ,,of ,,adroitness ,,of ,,persons ,,born ,,defective ,,in ,,their ,,limbs4 ,several instances of such births have occurred1 and the wonderful acquirements of persons thus maimed by nature have often been the subject of public astonishment1 and proved a source of gain to themselves or their relations4 ,giraldus ,cambriensis speaks of a young woman born without arms1 whom he saw at ,chester1 in the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 ,he mentions her working very dexterously with her needle4 ,stowe gives an account of a ,dutchman born without arms1 who in #aeha1 exhibited surprising feats of activity in ,london2 such as flourishing with a rapier1 shooting an arrow near a mark1 c4 ,bulwer1 in his ,artificial ,changeling1 speaks of ,john ,simons1 a native of ,berkshire1 born without arms or hands1 who could write with his mouth2 thread a needle2 tie a knot2 shuffle1 cut1 and deal a pack of cards1 c4 ,he was shewn in public in #afec4 ,john ,sear1 a ,spaniard1 born without arms1 was shewn in ,london in ,king ,william's reign1 who could comb and shave himself1 fill a glass1 thread a needle1 embroider1 write six sorts of hands1 and play on several instruments of music4 ,matthew ,buckinger1 a ,german1 born without arms or legs1 who came to ,england1 wrote a good hand1 7many specimens of which are extant17 and performed several wonderful feats4 ,he died in #agbb1 aged forty-eight4 ,thomas ,pinnington1 a native of ,liverpool1 born without legs or arms1 performed much the same feats as ,sear1 in #agdd1 and several years ensuing2 since which1 a ,miss ,hawtin1 from ,coventry1 born without arms1 and others whose names have not been mentioned1 have exhibited themselves at ,bartholomew ,fair and other places4 ,thomas ,inglefield1 born without arms or legs1 at ,hook1 in ,hampshire1 7anno #agfi7 died a few years ago in ,london4 ,he was not publicly shewn1 but got his bread by writing and drawing4 ,there are two portraits of him1 one of which was etched by himself4 ,there was1 a short time since1 a farmer living at ,ditch-heat in ,somersetshire1 born without arms1--,william ,kingston1 of whom frequent mention has been made in the public papers4 ,he surpasses1 according to accounts which seem very well attested1 all that have been yet spoken of4 ,the following account was given a few years since1 in the papers1 by a person who visited him4 ,in order to give the public a satisfactory account of ,william ,kingston1 says the writer1 ,i went to ,ditcheat and the next morning got him to breakfast with me at ,mrs4 ,goodfellow's1 and had ocular proof of his dexterity4 ,he highly entertained us at breakfast1 by putting his half-naked feet upon the table as he sat1 and carrying his tea and toast between his great and second toe to his mouth1 with as much facility as if his foot had been a hand1 and his toes fingers4 ,i put half a sheet of paper upon the floor1 with a pen and ink-horn4 ,he threw off his shoes as he sat1 took the ink-horn in the toes of his left foot1 and held the pen in those of his right4 ,he then wrote three lines as well as most ordinary writers1 and as swiftly4 ,he writes all his own bills and other accounts4 ,he then shewed me how he shaves himself with the razor in his toes2 and he can comb his own hair4 ,he can dress and undress himself1 except buttoning his clothes4 ,he feeds himself1 and can bring both his meat or his broth to his mouth1 by holding the fork or spoon in his toes4 ,he cleans his own shoes1 lights the fire1 and does almost any domestic business as well as any other man4 ,he can make hen-coops4 ,he is a farmer by occupation4 ,he can milk his cows with his toes1 and cuts his own hay1 binds it up in bundles1 and carries it about the field for his cattle4 ,last winter he had eight heifers constantly to fodder4 ,the last summer he made all his hay-ricks4 ,he can do all the business of the hay-field 7except mowing7 as fast and as well with his feet as others can with rakes and forks4 ,he goes to the field1 and catches his horse4 ,he saddles and bridles him with his teeth and toes4 ,if he has a sheep among his flock that ails any thing1 he can separate it from the rest1 and drive it into a corner when nobody else can3 he then examines it1 and applies a remedy to it4 ,he is so strong in his teeth1 that he can lift ten pecks of beans with them4 ,he can throw a great sledge-hammer as far with his feet1 as other men can with their hands4 ,in a word1 he can nearly do as much without as others can with their arms4 ,he began the world with a hen and chickens4 ,with the profit on these he procured a ewe4 ,the sale of these procured a ragged colt 7as he termed it7 and a sheep1 and he now occupies a small farm4 ,necessity is the mother of invention4 ,this proverb was never more fully exemplified than in the cases above mentioned4 ,habit1 early acquired and long practised1 may render the toes almost as useful as the fingers3 the lips are also endued with acute feeling and great flexibility1 and may become powerful assistants where the hands are wanting4 ,one lesson1 at least1 may be taught by this maimed tribe3--that few things are so difficult1 that they cannot be acquired by perseverance and application4 ,while some persons are noted for their extraordinary and wonderful faculties1 others are remarkable for defects in natural capacities4 ,the reader will feel interested in the following ,,curious ,,account ,,of ,,incapacity ,,of ,,distinguishing ,,colours4 ,of this extraordinary defect in vision1 we have the following instances in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #aggg4 ,one of the persons lived at ,maryport in ,cumberland4 ,the account was communicated by ,mr4 ,huddart to ,dr4 ,priestley2 and is as follows3--,his name was ,harris2 by trade a shoemaker4 ,i had often heard from others that he could discern the form and magnitude of all objects very distinctly1 but could not distinguish colours4 ,this report had excited my curiosity2 ,i conversed with him frequently on the subject4 ,the account he gave was this3 ,that he had reason to believe other persons saw something in objects which he could not see3 that their language seemed to mark qualities with precision and confidence1 which he could only guess at with hesitation1 and frequently with error4 ,his first suspicion of this arose when he was about four years old4 ,having by accident found in the street1 a child's stocking1 he carried it to a neighbouring house to inquire for the owner3 he observed the people called it a red stocking1 though he did not understand why they gave it that denomination1 as he himself thought it completely described by being called a stocking4 ,this circumstance1 however1 remained in his memory1 and together with subsequent observations1 led him to the knowledge of this defect4 ,he also observed1 that when young1 other children could discern cherries on a tree by some pretended difference of colour1 though he could only distinguish them from the leaves1 by the difference of their size and shape4 ,he observed also1 that by means of this difference of colour they could see the cherries at a greater distance than he could1 though he could see other objects at as great a distance as they1 that is1 where the sight was not assisted by the colour4 ,large objects he could see as well as other persons2 and even the smaller ones1 if they were not enveloped in other things1 as in the case of cherries among the leaves4 ,i believe he could never do more than guess the name of any colour2 yet he could distinguish white from black1 or black from any light or bright colour4 ,dove or straw colour he called white1 and different colours he frequently called by the same name2 yet he could discern a difference between them when placed together4 ,in general1 colours of an equal degree of brightness1 however they might otherwise differ1 he confounded together4 ,yet a striped ribbon he could distinguish from a plain one2 but he could not tell what the colours were with any tolerable exactness4 ,dark colours1 in general1 he often mistook for black2 but never imagined white to be a dark colour1 nor dark to be a white colour4 ,he was an intelligent man1 and very desirous of understanding the nature of light and colours1 for which end he had attended a course of lectures in natural philosophy4 ,he had two brothers in the same circumstances as to sight2 and two others 7brothers and sisters7 who1 as well as their parents1 had nothing of this defect4 ,one of the first mentioned brothers1 who is now living1 ,i met with at ,dublin1 and wished to try his capacity to distinguish the colours in a prism2 but not having one by me1 ,i asked him1 whether he had ever seen a rainbow8 he replied1 he had often2 and could distinguish the different colours2 meaning only1 that it was composed of different colours1 for he could not tell what they were4 ,i then procured1 and shewed him a piece of ribbon3 he immediately1 and without any difficulty1 pronounced it a striped1 and not a plain1 ribbon4 ,he then attempted to name the different stripes3 the several stripes of white he uniformly1 and without hesitation1 called white3 the four black stripes he was deceived in2 for three of them he thought brown1 though they were exactly of the same shade with the other1 which he properly called black4 ,he spoke1 however1 with diffidence1 as to all those stripes2 and it must be owned1 that the black was not very distinct3 the light green he called yellow2 but he was not very positive3 he said1 ,i think this what you call yellow4 ,the middle stripe1 which had a slight tinge of red1 he called a sort of blue4 ,but he was most of all deceived by the orange colour3 of this he spoke very confidently1 saying1 ,this is the colour of grass1 this is green4 ,i also shewed him a great variety of ribbons1 the colour of which he sometimes named rightly1 and sometimes as differently as possible from the true colour4 ,i asked him1 whether he imagined it possible for all the various colours he saw to be mere difference of light and shade2 and that all colours could be composed of these two mixtures only8 ,with some hesitation he replied1 ,no1 he did imagine there was some other difference4 ,it is proper to add1 that the experiment of the striped ribbon was made in the day-time1 and in a good light4 ,incredible as the above phenomena may appear1 we can add the following fact in confirmation of them1 from personal knowledge4 ,there is a gentleman now living in ,edinburgh1 whose optical nerves have laboured under a defect perfectly similar1 since his infancy2 but whose powers of vision are in other respects so much superior to those of most other people1 that he draws the most striking likenesses1 being a limner by profession1 and requires for this purpose only once to see the person whose portrait is intended to be drawn1 scarcely desiring a single sitting1 much less repeated visiting4 ,and what is still more extraordinary1 he can1 from such a momentary glance1 retain the idea of the features1 and even the gait and manner of the person1 for years afterwards1 so exactly as to be able to finish either a miniature head1 or full portrait1 at that distant period1 as well as if the person were present4 ,his friends1 incredulous of this phenomenon1 have1 by placing his colours out of the order in which he keeps them1 sometimes made him give a gentleman a green beard1 and paint a beautiful young lady with a pair of blue cheeks4 ,we now proceed to the consideration of a very remarkable acquirement of man1 called ,,ventriloquism4 ,this is an art of speaking1 by means of which the human voice and other sounds are rendered audible1 as if they proceeded from several different places2 though the utterer does not change his place1 and in many instances does not appear to speak4 ,it has been supposed to be a natural peculiarity2 because few1 if any persons1 have learned it by being taught1 and we have had no rules laid down for acquiring it4 ,it seems to have been in consequence of this notion1 that the name ',ventriloquism' has been applied to it1 from a supposition that the voice proceeds from the thorax or chest4 ,it has seldom been practised but by persons of the lower classes of society2 and as it does not seem to present any advantages beyond that of causing surprise and entertainment1 and cannot be exhibited on an extended theatre1 the probability is1 that it will continue amongst them4 ,mr4 ,gough1 in his ,manchester ,memoirs1 and in various parts of ,nicholson's ,journal1 has entertained the opinion that the voice of ventriloquists is made to proceed1 in appearance1 from different parts of a room1 by the management of an echo4 ,but the facts themselves do not support this hypothesis1 as a great and sudden variety and change of echoes would be required2 and his own judicious remarks1 in the same work1 on the facility with which we are deceived as to the direction of sound1 are adverse to his theory4 ,from numerous attentive observations1 it appears manifest that the art is not peculiar to certain individuals1 but may with facility be acquired by any person of accurate observation4 ,it consists merely in an imitation of sounds1 as they occur in nature1 accompanied with appropriate action1 of such a description as may best concur in leading the minds of the observers to favour the deception4 ,any one who shall try1 will be a little surprised to find how easy it is to imitate the noise made by a saw1 or by a snuff-box when opened and shut1 or by a large hand-bell1 or cork-cutter's knife1 a watch while going1 and numberless other inanimate objects2 or the voices of animals1 in their various situations and necessities1 such as a cat1 a dog1 or a hen enraged1 intimidated1 confined1 c42 or to vary the character of the human voice by shrillness or depth of tone1 rapidity or drawling of execution1 and distinctness or imperfection of articulation1 which may be instantly changed by holding the mouth a little more opened or more closed than usual1 altering the position of the jaw1 keeping the tongue in any determinate situation1 c4 ,and every one of the imitations of the ventriloquist will be rendered more perfect by practising them at the very time the sounds are heard1 instead of depending on the memory4 ,the leading condition of performance is1 that the voices and sounds of the dramatic dialogue to be exhibited1 should succeed each other so rapidly that the audience should lose sight of the probability that one actor gives effect to the whole1 and that where the business is simple1 the aid of scenery or local circumstance should be called in4 ,we have seen an eminent philosopher of our own time1 who had no previous practice of this art1 but when speaking on the subject in a mixed company1 took up a hat1 and folding the flaps together1 said1 by way of example1 ,suppose ,i had a small monkey in this hat2 and then cautiously putting his hand in1 as if to catch it1 he imitated the chatter of the supposed struggling animal1 at the same time that his own efforts to secure it had a momentary impression on the spectators1 which left no time to question whether there was a monkey in it or not3 this impression was completed when1 the instant afterwards1 he pulled out his hand as if hurt1 and exclaimed1 ,he has bit me6 ,it was not till then that the impression of the reality gave way to the diversion arising from the mimic art2 and one of the company1 even then1 cried out1 ,is there really a monkey in the hat8 ,in this manner it was that1 at the beginning of the last century1 the famous ,tom ,king1 who is said to have been the first man who delivered public lectures on experimental philosophy in the country1 was attended by the whole fashionable world1 for a succession of many nights1 to hear him kill a calf4 ,this performance was done in a separated part of the place of exhibition1 into which the exhibiter retired alone2 and the imagination of his polite hearers was taxed to supply the calf and three butchers1 besides a dog who sometimes raised his voice1 and was checked for his unnecessary exertions4 ,it appears1 from traditional narrative1 that the calf was heard to be dragged in1 not without some efforts and conversation on the part of the butchers1 and noisy resistance from the calf2 that they conversed on the qualities of the animal1 and the profits to be expected from the veal2 and that1 as they proceeded1 all the noises of knife and steel1 of suspending the creature1 and of the last fatal catastrophe1 were heard in rapid succession1 to the never-failing satisfaction of the attendants2 who1 upon the rise of the curtain1 saw that all these imaginary personages had vanished1 and ,tom ,king alone remained to claim the applause4 ,a similar fact may be quoted in the person of that facetious gentleman1 who has assumed and given celebrity to the name of ,peter ,pindar4 ,this great poet1 laughing at the proverbial poverty of his profession1 is sometimes pleased to entertain his friends with singular effusions of the art we speak of4 ,one of these is managed by a messenger announcing to the ,doctor 7in the midst of company7 that a person wants to speak with him3 he accordingly goes out1 leaving the door a-jar1 and immediately a female voice is heard1 which1 from the nature of the subject1 appears to be that of the ,poet's laundress1 who complains of her pressing wants1 disappointed claims1 and of broken promises no longer to be borne with patience4 ,it is more easy to imagine than describe the mixed emotions of the audience4 ,the scene1 however1 goes on by the ,doctor's reply2 who remonstrates1 promises1 and is rather angry at the time and place of this unwelcome visit4 ,his antagonist unfortunately is neither mollified nor disposed to quit her ground4 ,passion increases on both sides1 and the ,doctor forgets himself so far as to threaten the irritated female2 she defies him1 and this last promise1 very unlike the former ones1 is followed by payment2 a severe smack on the face is heard2 the poor woman falls down stairs1 with horrid outcries2 the company1 of course1 rises in alarm1 and the ,doctor is found in a state of perfect tranquillity1 apparently a stranger to the whole transaction4 ,a very able ventriloquist1 ,fitz-,james1 performed in public1 in ,soho-square1 about four years ago4 ,he personated various characters by appropriate dresses2 and by a command of the muscles of his face he could very much alter his appearance4 ,he imitated many inanimate noises1 and among others1 a repetition of noises of the water machine at ,marli4 ,he conversed with some statues1 which replied to him2 and also with some persons supposed to be in the room above1 and on the landing-place2 gave the watchman's cry1 gradually approaching1 and when he seemed opposite the window1 ,fitz-,james opened it and asked what the time was1 received the answer1 and during his proceeding with his cry1 ,fitz-,james shut the window1 immediately upon which the sound became weaker1 and at last insensible4 ,in the whole of his performance1 it was clear that the notions of the audience were governed by the auxiliary circumstances1 as to direction1 c4 ,this mimic had1 at least1 six different habitual modes of speaking1 which he could instantly adapt one after the other1 and with so much rapidity1 that when in a small closet1 parted off in the room1 he gave a long1 confused1 and impassioned debate of democrats 7in ,french1 as almost the whole of his performance was27 it seemed to proceed from a multitude of speakers3 and an inaccurate observer might have thought that several were speaking at once4 ,a ludicrous scene of drawing a tooth was performed in the same manner4 ,these examples1 and many more which might be added1 are sufficient1 in proof that ventriloquism is the art of mimicry1 an imitation applied to sounds of every description1 and attended with circumstances which produce an entertaining deception1 and lead the hearers to imagine that the voice proceeds from different situations4 ,when distant low voices are to be imitated1 the articulation may be given with sufficient distinctness1 without moving the lips1 or altering the countenance4 ,it was by a supposed supernatural voice of this kind1 from a ventriloquist1 that the famous musical small-coal man1 ,thomas ,britton1 received a warning of his death1 which so greatly affected him1 that he did not survive the affright4 ,the following quotation from ,richerand's ,physiology will be sufficient to give the reader a further idea of the mechanism of this singular art4 ,at first1 says ,richerand1 ,i had conjectured that a great portion of the air driven out by expiration did not pass out by the mouth and nostrils1 but was swallowed and carried into the stomach1 reflected in some part of the digestive canal1 and gave rise to a real echo2 but after having attentively observed this curious phenomenon1 in ,mr4 ,fitz-,james1 who represents it in its greatest perfection1 ,i was enabled to convince myself that the name ventriloquism is by no means applicable1 since the whole of its mechanism consists in a slow gradual expiration1 drawn in such a way that the artist either makes use of the influence exerted by volition over the muscles or parietis of the thorax1 or that he keeps the epiglottis down by the base of the tongue1 the apex of which is not carried beyond the dental arches4 ,he always makes a strong inspiration just before this long expiration1 and thus conveys a considerable mass of air into the lungs1 the exit of which he afterwards manages with such address4 ,therefore1 repletion of the stomach greatly incommodes the talent of ,mr4 ,fitz-,james1 by preventing the diaphragm from descending sufficiently to admit of a dilatation of the thorax1 in proportion to the quantity of air that the lungs should receive4 ,by accelerating or retarding the exit of the air1 he can imitate different voices1 and induce his auditors to a belief that the interlocutors of a dialogue1 which is kept up by himself alone1 are placed at different distances2 and this illusion is the more complete in proportion to the perfection of his peculiar talent4 ,no man possesses1 to such a degree as ,mr4 ,fitz-,james1 the art of deceiving persons who are least liable to delusion1 he can carry his execution to five or six different tones1 pass rapidly from one to another1 as he does when representing an animated dispute in the midst of a popular assembly4 ,some persons are of opinion that the witch of ,endor was a ventriloquist1 and that she practised this art before ,king ,saul1 and deceived him in the resurrection of ,samuel2 the present writer1 however1 does not vouch for this opinion4 ,another very extraordinary acquirement1 and which the present writer has been witness to1 is1 ,,sword-,,swallowing4 ,this surprising act is performed by the ,indian ,jugglers2 the following account of which1 is extracted from ,forbes's ,oriental ,memoirs4 ,i have elsewhere mentioned some feats of the ,indian ,jugglers3 at ,zinore ,i saw one which surpassed every thing of the kind ,i had before witnessed1 ,i mean the swallowing a sword up to the hilt4 ,had ,i not afterwards met with the same set on the island of ,salsette1 exhibiting before the ,english chief at ,tannah1 ,i should have doubted the evidence of my senses4 ,i witnessed the fact more than once1 and am convinced there was no deception4 ,finding my tale generally disbelieved in ,europe1 ,i suppressed it2 but having since read a clear and satisfactory account of this extraordinary transaction1 drawn up by ,mr4 ,johnson1 surgeon in the navy1 who1 in the year #ahjd1 was an eye-witness of this performance1 and having described it as a professional man1 ,i shall transcribe the account from his memoir3-- ',having been visited by one of these conjurers1 ,i resolved to see clearly his mode of performing this operation2 and for that purpose ordered him to seat himself on the floor of the veranda4 ,the sword he intended to use has some resemblance to a common spit in shape1 except at the handle1 which is merely a part of the blade itself1 rounded and elongated into a little rod4 ,it is from twenty-two to twenty-six inches in length1 about an inch in breadth1 and about one-fifth of an inch in thickness2 the edges and point are blunt1 being rounded1 and of the same thickness as the rest of the blade2 it is of iron or steel1 smooth1 and a little bright4 ,having satisfied himself with respect to the sword1 by attempting to bend it2 and by striking it against a stone1 ,i firmly grasped it by the handle1 and ordered him to proceed4 ,he first took a small phial of oil1 and with one of his fingers rubbed a little of it over the surface of the instrument2 then1 stretching up his neck as much as possible1 and bending himself a little backwards1 he introduced the point of it into his mouth1 and pushed it gently down his throat1 until my hand1 which was on the handle1 came in contact with his lips4 ,he then made a sign to me with one of his hands1 to feel the point of the instrument between his breast and navel3 which ,i could do1 by bending him a little more backwards1 and pressing my fingers on his stomach1 he being a very thin and lean fellow4 ,on letting go the handle of the sword1 he instantly fixed on it a little machine that spun round1 and disengaged a small fire-work1 which encircling his head with a blue flame1 gave him1 as he then sat1 a truly diabolical appearance4 ,on withdrawing the instrument1 several parts of its surface were covered with blood1 which shewed that he was still obliged to use a degree of violence in the introduction4 ',i was at first a good deal surprised at this transaction altogether2 but when ,i came to reflect a little upon it1 there appeared nothing at all improbable1 much less impossible1 in the business4 ,he told me1 on giving him a trifle1 that he had been accustomed1 from his early years1 to introduce at first small elastic instruments down his throat1 and into his stomach2 that by degrees he had used larger ones1 until at length he was able to use the present iron sword4' ,oriental ,memoirs1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #eae-eag4 ,two of these jugglers have lately visited ,england1 and performed the above exploit1 with many others1 almost equally surprising1 to the satisfaction of crowded audiences4 ,we may learn from various instances in this chapter the value of perseverance2 this will overcome difficulties1 which at first appear insuperable2 and it is amazing to consider1 how great and numerous obstacles may be removed by a continual attention to any particular point4 ,by such attention and perseverance1 what may not man effect6 ,any man1 unless he be an absolute idiot1 may by these means raise himself to excellence in some branch or other2 and what is best of all1 by divine assistance1 and by unwearied and keen application1 he may resist temptation1 conquer the evil principle1 rise superior to all the difficulties and trials of life1 excel in wisdom and goodness1 and thus be fitted for a better country1 when death summons him away from the present world4 --------------------------------,man must soar4 ,an obstinate activity within1 ,an insuppressive spring1 will toss him up1 ,in spite of fortune's load4 ,not kings alone1 ,each villager has his ambition too2 ,no sultan prouder than his fetter'd slave4 ,slaves build their little ,babylons of straw1 ,echo the proud ,assyrian1 in their hearts1 ,and cry--,behold the wonders of my might6 ,and why8 ,because immortal as their lord2 ,and souls immortal must for ever heave ,at something great2 the glitter1 or the gold2 ,the praise of mortals1 or the praise of heav'n4 ,young4 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,instances of ,extraordinary ,gluttony--,instances of ,extraordinary ,fasting--,wonders of ,abstinence--,sleep ,walking--,sleeping ,woman of ,dunninald--,instances of ,extraordinary ,dreams--,poetical1 ,grammatical1 and ,scientific ,deaths--,anthropophagi1 or ,men-,eaters--,account of a ,wild ,man4 ,,instances ,,of ,,extraordinary ,,gluttony4 ,habitual gluttons may be reckoned among the monsters of nature1 and even punishable for endeavouring to bring a famine into the places where they live4 ,king ,james ,i4 when a man was presented to him who could eat a whole sheep at one meal1 asked1 ,what work could he do more than another man8 and being answered1 ,he could not do so much1 said1 ,hang him1 then2 for it is unfit a man should live1 that eats as much as twenty men1 and cannot do so much as one4 ,the emperor ,clodius ,albinus devoured more than a bushel of apples at once4 ,he ate #ejj figs to his breakfast1 #ajj peaches1 #aj melons1 #bjlbs4 of grapes1 #ajj gnat-snappers1 and #djj oysters4 ,hardi ,canute1 the last of the ,danish kings in ,england1 was so great a glutton1 that an historian calls him ,bocca di ,porco1 ,swine's-mouth4 ,his tables were covered four times a day with the most costly viands that either the air1 sea1 or land1 could furnish2 and as he lived he died2 for1 revelling at a banquet at ,lambeth1 he fell down dead4 ,one ,phagon1 in the reign of ,aurelianus1 at one meal1 ate a whole boar1 #ajj loaves of bread1 a sheep1 and a pig1 and drank above three gallons of wine4 ,one ,mallet1 a counsellor at law1 in the reign of ,charles ,i4 ate at one time a dinner provided in ,westminster for #cj men4 ,his practice not being sufficient to supply him with better meat1 he fed generally on offals1 ox livers1 hearts1 c4 ,he lived to near #fj years of age1 but during the seven last years of his life ate as moderately as other men4 ,among the many accounts of extraordinary eaters1 there are1 perhaps1 none that have exceeded those of ,nicholas ,wood1 of ,harrison1 in ,kent1 related in ,fuller's ,worthies1 p4 #hf1 whose enormous appetite appears to exceed all probability4 ,he ate at one meal a whole sheep1 of sixteen shillings price1 raw2 at another time1 thirty dozen of pigeons4 ,at ,sir ,william ,sidley's1 in the same county1 he ate as much victuals as would have sufficed thirty men4 ,at ,lord ,wotton's mansion-house1 in ,kent1 he devoured1 at one dinner1 #hd rabbits1 which1 at the rate of half a rabbit a man1 would have served #afh men4 ,he ate to his breakfast #ah yards of black-pudding4 ,he devoured at one meal a whole hog2 and after it1 being accommodated with fruit1 he ate three pecks of damsons4 ,gluttony is a most degrading vice4 ,be sober2 be temperate2 be virtuous2 for ,health consists with temperance alone4 ,and peace1 ,o ,virtue6 peace is all thy own4 ,pope4 ,we shall1 with the readers permission1 now introduce some ,,extraordinary ,,instances ,,of ,,fasting4 ,a full account of a very uncommon case is given in the ,phil4 ,trans1 vol4 lxvii4 part ,i4 ,janet ,m',leod1 an inhabitant in the parish of ,kincardine1 in ,ross-shire1 continued healthy till she was fifteen years of age1 when she had a pretty severe epileptic fit2 after this she had an interval of health for four years1 and then another epileptic fit1 which continued a whole day and a night4 ,a few days afterwards she was seized with a fever1 which continued with violence several weeks1 and from which she did not perfectly recover for some months4 ,at this time she lost the use of her eyelids2 so that she was under the necessity of keeping them open with the fingers of one hand1 whenever she wanted to look about her4 ,in other respects she continued in pretty good health2 only she periodically spit up blood in pretty large quantities1 and at the same time it flowed from the nose4 ,this discharge continued several years2 but at last it ceased2 and soon after she had a third epileptic fit1 and after that a fever1 from which she recovered slowly4 ,six weeks after the crisis1 she stole out of the house unknown to her parents1 who were busied in their harvest work1 and bound the sheaves of a ridge before she was observed4 ,in the evening she took to her bed1 complaining much of her heart 7probably meaning her stomach7 and her head4 ,from that time she never rose for five years1 but was occasionally lifted out of bed4 ,she seldom spoke a word1 and took so little food1 that it seemed scarcely sufficient to support a sucking infant4 ,even this small quantity was taken by compulsion2 and at last1 about ,whitsunday1 #agfc1 she totally refused every kind of food or drink4 ,her jaws now became so fast locked1 that it was with the greatest difficulty her father was able to open her teeth a little1 in order to admit a small quantity of gruel or whey2 but of this so much generally run out at the corners of her mouth1 that they could not be sensible any had been swallowed4 ,about this time they got some water from a noted medical spring in ,brae-,mar1 some of which they attempted to make her swallow1 but without effect4 ,they continued their trials1 however1 for three mornings2 rubbing her throat with the water which ran out at the corners of her mouth4 ,on the third morning1 during the operation1 she cried out1 ,give me more water2 and swallowed with ease all that remained in the bottle4 ,she spoke no more intelligibly for a year1 though she continued to mutter some words1 for #ad days1 which her parents only understood4 ,she continued to reject all kinds of food and drink till ,july1 #agfe4 ,at this time her sister thought1 by some signs she made1 that she wanted her jaws opened2 and this being done1 not without violence1 she called intelligibly for some liquid1 and drank with ease about an ,english pint of water4 ,her father then asked why she would not make some signs when she wanted to drink8 ,to which she answered1--why should she1 when she had no desire8 ,it was now supposed that she had regained the faculty of speech2 and her jaws were kept open for about three weeks1 by means of a wedge4 ,but in four or five days she became totally silent1 and the wedge was removed1 because it made her lips sore4 ,she still1 however1 continued sensible2 and when her eyelids were opened1 knew every body4 ,this could be guessed from the signs she made4 ,by continuing their attempts to force open her jaws1 two of the under fore teeth were driven out2 and of this opening her parents endeavoured to avail themselves1 by putting some thin nourishing drink into her mouth1 but without effect1 as it always returned by the corners4 ,sometimes they thought of thrusting a little dough of oatmeal through this gap of the teeth1 which she would retain a few seconds1 and then return with something like a straining to vomit1 without one particle going down4 ,nor were the family sensible of any thing like swallowing for four years1 excepting the small draught of ,brae-,mar water1 and an ,english pint of common water4 ,for the last three years she had no natural discharge1 except that once or twice a week she passed a few drops of water4 ,in this situation she was visited by ,dr4 ,mackenzie1 who communicated the account to the ,royal ,society4 ,he found her not at all emaciated2 her knees were bent1 and the hamstrings tight1 so that her heels were drawn up behind her body4 ,she slept much1 and was very quiet2 but when awake1 kept a constant whimpering like a new-born weakly infant4 ,she never could remain a moment on her back1 but always fell to one side or another2 and her chin was drawn close to her breast1 nor could it by any force be moved backwards4 ,the ,doctor paid his first visit in ,october1 #agfg2 and five years afterwards1 viz1 in ,october1 #aggb1 was induced to pay her a second visit1 by hearing that she was recovering1 and had begun to eat and drink4 ,the account given him was most extraordinary4 ,her parents one day returning from their country labours1 7having left their daughter fixed to her bed as usual17 were greatly surprised to find her sitting upon her hams1 in a part of the house opposite to her bed-place1 spinning with her mother's distaff4 ,all the food she took at that time was only to crumble a little oat or barley cake in the palm of her hand1 as if to feed a chicken4 ,she put little crumbs of this into the gap of her teeth2 rolled them about for some time in her mouth2 and then sucked out of the palm of her hand a little water1 whey1 or milk2 and this only once or twice a day1 and even that by compulsion4 ,she never attempted to speak2 her jaws were fast locked1 and her eyes shut4 ,on opening her eyelids1 the balls were found to be turned up under the edge of the os frontis2 her countenance was ghastly1 her complexion pale1 and her whole person emaciated4 ,she seemed sensible and tractable1 except in taking food4 ,this she did with the utmost reluctance1 and even cried before she yielded4 ,the great change of her looks1 ,dr4 ,mackenzie attributed to her spinning flax on the distaff1 which exhausted too much of the saliva2 and therefore he recommended to her parents to confine her totally to the spinning of wool4 ,in #agge1 she was visited again1 and found to be greatly improved in her looks as well as strength2 her food was also considerably increased in quantity2 though even then she did not take more than would be sufficient to sustain an infant of two years of age4 ,in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 for #aghi1 p4 #abaa1 is recorded the death of one ,caleb ,elliot1 a visionary enthusiast1 who meant to have fasted #dj days1 and actually survived #af without food1 having obstinately refused sustenance of every kind4 ,at the same time that we should guard against superstitious fasting1 we should be cautious not to transgress the bounds of temperance4 ,occasional abstinence is useful and praiseworthy1 and we shall now give some instances of ,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,abstinence4 ,many wonders are related of the effects of abstinence1 in the cure of several disorders1 and in protracting the term of life4 ,the noble ,venetian1 ,cornaro1 after all imaginable means had proved vain1 so that his life was despaired of at #dj1 recovered1 and lived to near #ajj1 by mere dint of abstinence2 as he himself gives account4 ,it is indeed surprising to what a great age the primitive ,christians of the ,east1 who retired from the persecutions into the deserts of ,arabia and ,egypt1 lived1 healthful and cheerful1 on a very little food4 ,cassian assures us1 that the common rate for #bd hours was #ab ounces of bread1 and mere water2 with this1 ,st4 ,anthony lived #aje years2 ,james the hermit1 #ajd2 ,arsenius1 tutor of the ,emperor ,arcadius1 #abc2 ,s4 ,epiphanius1 #aae2 ,simeon1 the ,stylite1 #aab2 and ,romauld1 #acj4 ,indeed1 we can match these instances of longevity at home4 ,buchanan writes1 that one ,lawrence preserved himself to #adj1 by force of temperance and labour2 and ,spottiswood mentions one ,kentigern1 afterwards called ,st4 ,mongah1 or ,mungo1 who lived to #ahe1 by the same means4 ,abstinence1 however1 is to be recommended only as it means a proper regimen2 for in general it must have bad consequences1 when observed without a due regard to constitution1 age1 strength1 c4 ,according to ,dr4 ,cheyne1 most of the chronical diseases1 the infirmities of old age1 and the short lives of ,englishmen1 are owing to repletion2 and may be either cured1 prevented1 or remedied1 by abstinence3 but then the kinds of abstinence which ought to obtain1 either in sickness or health1 are to be deduced from the laws of diet and regimen4 ,among the brute creation1 we see extraordinary instances of long abstinence4 ,the serpent kind1 in particular1 bear abstinence to a wonderful degree4 ,rattlesnakes are reported to have subsisted many months without any food1 yet still retained their vigour and fierceness4 ,dr4 ,shaw speaks of a couple of cerastes1 7a sort of ,egyptian serpents17 which had been kept five years in a bottle close corked1 without any sort of food1 unless a small quantity of sand1 wherein they coiled themselves up in the bottom of the vessel1 may be reckoned as such3 yet when he saw them1 they had newly cast their skins1 and were as brisk and lively as if just taken4 ,but it is even natural for divers species of creatures to pass four1 five1 or six months' every year1 without either eating or drinking4 ,accordingly1 the tortoise1 bear1 dormouse1 serpent1 c4 are observed regularly to retire1 at those seasons1 to their respective cells1 and hide themselves1--some in the caverns of rocks or ruins2 others dig holes under ground2 others get into woods1 and lay themselves up in clefts of trees2 others bury themselves under water1 c4 ,and yet these animals are found as fat and fleshy after some months' abstinence as before4--,a gentleman 7,phil4 ,trans4 ,no4 #aid47 weighed his tortoise several years successively1 at its going to earth in ,october1 and coming out again in ,march2 and found that1 of four pounds four ounces1 it only used to lose about one ounce4--,indeed1 we have instances of men passing several months as strictly abstinent as other creatures4 ,in particular1 the records of the ,tower mention a ,scotchman imprisoned for felony1 and strictly watched in that fortress for six weeks2 in all which time he took not the least sustenance2 for which he had his pardon4 ,numberless instances of extraordinary abstinence1 particularly from morbid causes1 are to be found in the different periodical ,memoirs1 ,transactions1 ,ephemerides1 c4 ,it is to be added1 that1 in most instances of extraordinary human abstinence related by naturalists1 there were said to have been apparent marks of a texture of blood and humour1 much like that of the animals above mentioned2 though it is not an improbable opinion1 that the air itself may furnish something for nutrition4 ,it is certain1 there are substances of all kinds1 animal1 vegetable1 c4 floating in the atmosphere1 which must be continually taken in by respiration4 ,and that an animal body may be nourished thereby1 is evident from the instance of vipers1 which1 if taken when first brought forth1 and kept from every thing but air1 will yet grow very considerably in a few days4 ,the eggs of lizards1 also1 are observed to increase in bulk after they are produced1 though there be nothing to furnish the increment but air alone1 in like manner as the eggs or spawn of fish grow and are nourished by the water4 ,and hence1 say some1 it is1 that cooks1 turnspit dogs1 c4 though they eat but little1 yet are usually fat4 ,we shall next offer the reader a few remarks on ,,sleep-,,walking4 ,many instances are related of persons who were addicted to this practice4 ,a very remarkable one has been published from a report made to the ,physical ,society of ,lausanne1 by a committee of gentlemen appointed to examine a young man who was accustomed to walk in his sleep4 ,the disposition to sleep-walking seems1 in the opinion of this committee1 to depend on a particular affection of the nerves1 which both seizes and quits the patient during sleep4 ,under the influence of this affection1 the imagination represents to him the objects that struck him while awake1 with as much force as if they really affected his senses2 but it does not make him perceive any of those that are actually presented to his senses1 except in so far as they are connected with the dreams which engross him at the time4 ,if1 during this state1 the imagination has no determined purpose1 he receives the impression of objects as if he were awake2 only1 however1 when the imagination is excited to bend its attention towards them4 ,the perceptions obtained in this state are very accurate1 and1 when once received1 the imagination renews them occasionally with as much force as if they were again acquired by means of the senses4 ,lastly1 these academicians suppose1 that the impressions received during this state of the senses1 disappear entirely when the person awakes1 and do not return till the recurrence of the same disposition in the nervous system4 ,our next article is1 ,a ,,curious ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,sleeping ,,woman ,,of ,,dunninald1 ,,near ,,montrose4 ,the following narrative was communicated to the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 by ,dr4 ,brewster4 ,margaret ,lyall1 aged #ba1 daughter of ,john ,lyall1 labourer at ,dunninald1 was first seized with a sleeping fit on the #bgth of ,june1 #ahae1 which continued to the #cjth of ,june2 next morning she was again found in a deep sleep3 in this state she remained for seven days1 without motion1 food1 or the use of any animal function4 ,but at the end of this time1 by the moving of her left hand1 and by plucking at the coverlet of the bed and pointing to her mouth1 a wish for food being understood1 it was given her4 ,this she took2 but still remained in her lethargic state till ,tuesday the #hth of ,august1 being six weeks from the time she was seized with the lethargy1 without appearing to be awake1 except on the afternoon of ,friday the #cjth of ,june4 ,during the first two weeks1 her pulse was generally about #ej1 the third week about #fj1 and previous to her recovery1 at #gj to #gb4 ,though extremely feeble for some days after her recovery1 she gained strength so rapidly1 that before the end of ,august1 she began to work at the harvest1 on the lands of ,mr4 ,arkley1 and continued without inconvenience to perform her labour4 ,the account is drawn up by the clergyman of the parish1 and is accompanied with the medical report of the surgeons who attended2 to whose attestations are added those of ,mr4 ,arkley1 the proprietor of ,dunninald1 and ,lyall1 the father2 and the statement is1 in every respect1 entitled to the fullest credit4 ,we shall proceed to some ,,instances ,,of ,,extraordinary ,,dreams4 ,the following account is by no means intended either to restore the reign of superstition1 or to induce the reader to put faith in the numberless ridiculous interpretations1 given by some pretenders to divination1 of the ordinary run of dreams4 ,the absurdity of the many traditional rules1 laid down by such persons2 such as1 that dreaming of eggs prognosticates anger2 of the washing of linens1 forebodes flitting2 of green fields1 sickness2 of hanging1 honour2 of death1 marriage2 of fish1 children2 and of raw flesh1 death1 c4 c4 can only be exceeded by the folly of those who put faith in such fooleries4 ,but instances have occurred of particular persons1 whose veracity cannot be doubted1 having dreams of so singular a nature1 and so literally and exactly fulfilled1 that it may be well to mention one or two of them1 for the entertainment1 at least1 of the reader1 if they should not contribute to his improvement4-- ,mr4 ,richard ,boyle1 manufacturer1 residing in ,stirling1 about #agha1 dreamed that he saw a beautiful young woman1 with a winding sheet over her arm1 whose image made a deep impression on his mind4 ,upon telling his mother the dream1 she said1 you will probably marry that woman1 and if you do1 she will bury you4 ,going to ,glasgow in #aghc1 he met with a young woman in a friend's house1 exactly resembling the person he had dreamed of2 and notwithstanding the disheartening interpretation he had got1 and the additional discouraging circumstance told him1 that she was already engaged with another young man1 was sure she was to be his wife1 and did not give up his pursuit till he made her his own4 ,the melancholy part of his dream was soon fulfilled4 ,he lived only #ae months with her2 a short1 but happy period4 ,his widow1 during his life1 dreamed with equal exactness of her second husband1 whom she did not see till three years afterwards1 when the sight of him1 at church1 in ,montrose1 disturbed her devotion so much1 upon recollecting her dream1 that she hardly knew a word the minister said afterwards4 ,within less than two months1 they were introduced to each other2 and within four1 were married4--,another young lady had dreamed so often1 and so particularly1 about the gentleman who afterwards married her1 that at their first meeting1 she started back1 as if she had seen a ghost4--,the editors of the ,encyclopedia ,perthensis declare they knew the parties concerned in the foregoing relations4 ,but these instances of prophetic dreams1 they observe1 are trifling1 compared to one narrated in the ,weekly ,mirror1 printed at ,edinburgh1 in #agha1 and signed ,verax2 and which1 they say1 they quote the more readily1 as also1 from personal acquaintance with the parties1 they know the narrative to be true3 ,in ,june1 #ageb1 ,mr4 ,robert ,aikenhead1 farmer1 in ,denstrath1 of ,arnhall1 in the ,mearns1 about #e miles north of ,brechin1 and #g from ,montrose1 went to a market called ,tarrenty-fair1 where he had a large sum of money to receive4 ,his eldest son1 ,robert1 a boy about #h years of age1 was sent to take care of the cattle1 and1 happening to lie down upon a grassy bank before sun-set1 fell fast asleep4 ,although the boy had never been far from home1 he was immediately carried in his imagination to ,tarrenty market1 where1 he dreamed1 that his father1 after receiving the money1 set out on his return home1 and was followed all the way by two ill-looking fellows1 who1 when he had got to the western dykes of ,inglis-,mauldy1 7the seat of the then ,lord ,halkerton1 afterwards ,earl of ,kintore17 and little more than a mile from home1 attacked and attempted to rob him4 ,whereupon the boy thought he ran to his assistance1 and1 when he came within a gun-shot of the place1 called out some people1 who were just going to bed1 who put the robbers to flight4 ,he immediately awoke in a fright1 and1 without waiting to consider whether it was a vision or a reality1 ran as fast as he could to the place he had dreamed of1 and had no sooner reached it1 than he saw his father in the very spot and situation he had seen in his dream1 defending himself with his stick against the assassins4 ,he therefore immediately realized his own part of the visionary scene1 by roaring out1 ,murder6 which soon brought out the people1 who running up to ,mr4 ,aikenhead's assistance1 found him victor over one of the villains1 whom he had previously knocked down with a stone1 after they had pulled him off his horse2 but almost overpowered by the other1 who repeatedly attempted to stab him with a sword2 against which he had no other defence than his stick and his hands1 which were considerably mangled by grasping the blade4 ,upon sight of the country people1 the villain who had the sword ran off2 but the other not being able1 was apprehended and lodged in gaol4 ,meantime there was no small hue and cry after young ,robert1 whose mother missing him1 and finding the cattle among the corn1 was in the utmost anxiety1 concluding that he had fallen into some water or peat moss4 ,but her joy and surprise were equally great1 when her husband returned with the boy1 and told her how miraculously both his money and life had been preserved by his son's dream2 although she was at first startled at seeing her husband's hands bloody4 ,to those who deny the existence of a ,god1 7adds the writer17 or the superintendence of a divine providence1 the above narrative will appear as fabulous as any story in ,ovid4 ,to those who measure the greatness and littleness of events by the arbitrary rules of human pride and vanity1 it will perhaps appear incredible that such a miracle should have been wrought for the preservation of the life of a country farmer4 ,but all who found their opinions upon the unerring rule of right and truth1 which assures us that a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without the permission of our heavenly ,father1 7and who know1 that in the sight of ,him1 with whom there is no respect of persons or dignities1 the life of the greatest monarch on earth1 and that of the lowest of his subjects1 are of equal value17 will laugh at such silly objections1 when opposed to well-attested facts4 ,that the above is one1 could be attested upon oath1 were it necessary1 by ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,aikenhead1 from whom ,i had all the particulars above narrated about #ae months ago4--,edinburgh1 ,march #ab1 #agha4--;,indeed1 whoever can persuade himself that such facts as are stated above1 can happen by chance1 may easily adopt the system of those philosophers1 who tell us that the universe was formed by the fortuitous concourse of atoms4 ,the title of our next subject is curious1--,,poetical1 ,,grammatical1 ,,and ,,scientific ,,deaths4 ,the ,emperor ,adrian1 dying1 made that celebrated address to his soul1 which is so happily translated by ,pope1 in the following words3 ,vital spark of heav'nly flame1 ,quit1 oh quit this mortal frame4 ,trembling1 hoping1 ling'ring1 flying1 ,oh the pain1 the bliss of dying6 ,cease1 fond ,nature1 cease thy strife1 ,and let me languish into life4 ,hark6 they whisper2 angels say1 ,sister spirit1 come away4 ,what is this absorbs me quite8 ,steals my senses1 shuts my sight8 ,drowns my spirits1 draws my breath8 ,tell me1 my soul1 can this be death6 ,the world recedes2 it disappears6 ,heav'n opens on my eyes6 my ears ,with sounds seraphic ring3 ,lend1 lend your wings6 ,i mount6 ,i fly6 ,o ,grave6 where is thy victory8 ,o ,death6 where is thy sting8 ,lucan1 when he had his veins opened by order of ,nero1 expired reciting a passage from his ,pharsalia1 in which he has described the wound of a dying soldier4 ,petronius did the same thing on the same occasion4 ,patris1 a poet of ,caen1 perceiving himself expiring1 composed some verses which are justly admired4 ,in this little poem he relates a dream1 in which he appeared to be placed next to a beggar1 when1 having addressed him in the haughty strain he would probably have employed on this side of the grave1 he received the following reprimand3 ,here all are equal2 now thy lot is mine6 ,i on my dunghill1 as thou art on thine4 ,des ,barreaux1 it is said1 wrote1 on his death-bed1 that sonnet which is well known1 and which is translated in the ,spectator4 ,margaret of ,austria1 when she was nearly perishing in a storm at sea1 composed for herself the following epitaph in verse3 ,beneath this tomb is high-born ,margaret laid1 ,who had two husbands1 and yet died a maid4 ,she was betrothed to ,charles ,,viii4 of ,france1 who forsook her4 ,being next intended for the ,spanish ,infant1 in her voyage to ,spain she wrote these lines in a storm4 ,roscommon1 at the moment he expired1 with an energy of voice 7says his biographer7 that expressed the most fervent devotion1 uttered two lines of his own version of ,dies ,ir6 ,waller1 in his last moments1 repeated some lines from ,virgil3 and ,chaucer took his farewell of all human vanities by a moral ode1 entitled1 ,a ballad made by ,geffrey ,chauycer upon his dethe-bedde lying in his grete anguysse4 ,the muse that has attended my course 7says the dying ,gleim1 in a letter to ,klopstock#d7 still hovers round my steps to the very verge of the grave4 ,a collection of songs1 composed by old ,gleim on his death-bed1 it is said1 were intended to be published4 ,chatellard1 a ,french gentleman1 beheaded in ,scotland1 for having loved the ,queen1 and even for having attempted her honour1 ,brantome says1 would not have any other viaticum than a poem of ,ronsard4 ,when he ascended the scaffold1 he took the hymns of this poet1 and for his consolation read that on death2 which1 he says1 is well adapted to conquer its fear4 ,he preferred the poems of ,ronsard to either a prayer-book or his confessor3 such was his passion4 ,the ,marquis of ,montrose1 when he was condemned by his judges to have his limbs nailed to the gates of four cities1 the brave soldier said that1 he was sorry he had not limbs sufficient to be nailed to all the gates of the cities in ,europe1 as monuments of his loyalty4 ,as he proceeded to his execution1 he put this thought into beautiful verse4 ,philip ,strozzi1 when imprisoned by ,cosmo the ,first1 great ,duke of ,tuscany1 was apprehensive of the danger to which he might expose his friends1 7who had joined in his conspiracy against the duke17 from the confessions which the rack might extort from him4 ,having attempted every exertion for the liberty of his country1 he considered it no crime therefore to die4 ,he resolved on suicide4 ,with the point of the sword1 with which he killed himself1 he first engraved on the mantle-piece of the chimney1 this verse of ,virgil3 ,exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor4 ,rise1 some avenger1 from our blood6 ,such persons realize that beautiful fiction of the ancients1 who represent the swans of ,cayster singing at their death2 and have been compared to the nightingale singing with a thorn on its breast4 ,the following anecdotes are of a different complexion3 they may perhaps excite a smile4 ,we have given them the title of ,,grammatical ,,deaths4 ,pere ,bouhours was a ,french grammarian1 who had been justly accused of paying too scrupulous an attention to the minuti of letters4 ,he was more solicitous of his words than his thoughts4 ,it is said1 that when he was dying1 he called out to his friends 7a correct grammarian to the last17 ,je ,,vas1 ou je ,,vais mourir2 l'un ou l'autre se dit6 ,when ,malherbe was dying1 he reprimanded his nurse for making use of a solecism in her language6 ,and when his confessor represented to him the felicities of a future state in low expressions1 the dying critic interrupted him3 ,hold your tongue1 he said1 your wretched style only makes me out of conceit with them6 ,several persons of science have died in a scientific manner4--,haller1 the greatest of physicians1 beheld his end approach with the utmost composure4 ,he kept feeling his pulse to the last moment1 and when he found that life was almost gone1 he turned to his brother physician1 and observed1 ,my friend1 the artery ceases to beat1--and almost instantly expired4 ,de ,lagny1 who was intended by his friends for the study of the law1 having fallen on an ,euclid1 found it so congenial to his disposition1 that he devoted himself to mathematics4 ,in his last moments1 when he retained no further recollection of the friends who surrounded his bed1 one of them1 perhaps to make a philosophical experiment1 thought proper to ask him the square of #ab2 the dying mathematician instantly1 and perhaps without knowing that he answered it1 replied1 #add4 ,the following lines1 from the pen of ,mrs4 ,barbauld1 in an address to the ,deity1 express the desires and hopes of a real ,christian in the contemplation of death3 ,o when the last1 the closing hour draws nigh1 ,and earth recedes before my swimming eye2 ,when trembling on the doubtful edge of fate1 ,i stand1 and stretch my view to either state2 ,teach me to quit this transitory scene ,with decent triumph and a look serene2 ,teach me to fix my ardent hopes on high1 ,and1 having liv'd to thee1 in thee to die6 ,the following article is not of a pleasing description1 but nevertheless proper to be inserted in ,the ,book of ,curiosities4 ,it is ,,anthropophagi1 ,,or ,,men-,,eaters3 ,the ,cyclops1 the ,lestrygons1 and ,scylla1 are all represented in ,homer as ,anthropophagi1 or man-eaters1 and the female phantoms1 ,circe and the ,syrens1 first bewitched with a show of pleasure1 and then destroyed4 ,this1 like the other parts of ,homer's poetry1 had a foundation in the manners of the times preceding his own4 ,it was still in many places the age spoken of by ,orpheus1 ,when men devour'd each other like the beasts1 ,gorging on human flesh4 ,history gives us divers instances of persons driven by excess of hunger to eat their own relations4 ,and also out of revenge and hatred1 where soldiers1 in the heat of battle1 have been known to be carried to such an excess of rage1 as to tear their enemies with their teeth4 ,the violence of love has sometimes produced the same effect as the excess of hatred4 ,among the ,essedonian ,scythians1 when a man's father died1 his neighbours brought him several beasts1 which they killed1 mixed up their flesh with that of the deceased1 and made a feast4 ,among the ,massageti1 when any person grew old1 they killed him1 and ate his flesh2 but if the party died of sickness1 they buried him1 esteeming him unhappy4 ,idolatry and superstition have caused the eating more human flesh1 than both love and hatred put together4 ,there are few nations but have offered human victims to their deities2 and it was an established custom to eat part of the sacrifices they offered4 ,it appears pretty certain1 from ,dr4 ,hawkesworth's account of the voyages to the ,south ,seas1 that the inhabitants of ,new ,zealand ate the bodies of their enemies4 ,mr4 ,petit has a learned dissertation on the nature and manners of the ,anthropophagi4 ,among other things1 he disputes whether or no the ,anthropophagi act contrary to nature8 ,the philosophers1 ,diogenes1 ,chrysippus1 and ,zeno1 followed by the whole body of ,stoics1 held it a very reasonable thing for men to eat each other4 ,according to ,sextus ,empiricus1 the first laws were those made to prevent men from eating each other1 as had been done until that time4 ,the ,greek writers represent ,anthropophagi as universal before ,orpheus4 ,leonardus ,floroventius informs us1 that having fed a hog with hog's flesh1 and a dog with dog's flesh1 he found a repugnance in nature to such food2 the former lost all his bristles2 the latter its hair1 and the whole body broke out in blotches4 ,if even this horrid practice of eating human flesh originates from hunger1 still it must be perpetuated from revenge3 as death must lose much of its horror among those who are accustomed to eat the dead2 and where there is little horror at the sight of death1 there must be less repugnance to murder4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with ,,an ,,account ,,of ,a ,,wild ,,man1 given by ,m4 ,le ,roy4 ,in #aggd1 a wild man was discovered in the neighbourhood of ,yuary4 ,this man1 who inhabited the rocks near a forest1 was very tall1 covered with hair like a bear1 very nimble1 and of a gay humour4 ,he neither did1 nor seemed to intend1 harm to any body4 ,he often visited the cottages1 without ever attempting to carry off any thing4 ,he had no knowledge of bread1 milk1 or cheese4 ,his greatest amusement was to see the sheep running1 and to scatter them2 and he testified his pleasure at this sight by loud fits of laughter1 but never attempted to hurt them4 ,when the shepherds 7as was frequently the case7 let loose their dogs at him1 he fled with the swiftness of an arrow1 and never allowed the dogs to come too near him4 ,one morning he came to the cottage of some workmen1 and one of them endeavouring to catch him by the leg1 he laughed heartily1 and then made his escape4 ,he seemed to be about thirty years of age4 ,as the forest is very extensive1 and had a communication with a vast wood that belongs to the ,spanish territories1 it is natural to suppose that this solitary1 but cheerful creature1 had been lost in his infancy1 and subsisted on herbs4 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,striking ,instances of ,integrity--,shocking ,instances of ,ingratitude--,extraordinary ,instances of ,honour--,surprising ,effects of ,anger--,remarkable ,effects of ,fright1 or ,terror--,notable ,instance of the ,power of ,conscience4 ,,striking ,,instances ,,of ,,integrity4 ,a man of integrity will never listen to any reason1 or give way to any measure1 or be misled by any inducement1 against conscience4 ,the inhabitants of a great town offered ,marshal de ,turenne #ajj1jjj crowns1 upon condition he would take another road1 and not march his troops their way4 ,he answered them1 ,as your town is not on the road ,i intend to march1 ,i cannot accept the money you offer me4--,the ,earl of ,derby1 in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 making a descent in ,guienne1 carried by storm the town of ,bergerac1 and gave it up to be plundered4--,a ,welsh ,knight happening to light upon the receiver's office1 found such a quantity of money1 that he thought himself obliged to acquaint his general with it1 imagining that so great a booty belonged to him4 ,but he was agreeably surprised1 when the ,earl wished him joy of his good fortune1 and said he did not make the keeping of his word depend on the great or little value of what he had promised4--,in the siege of ,falisci1 by ,camillus1 ,general of the ,romans1 the schoolmaster of the town1 who had the children of the senators under his care1 led them abroad1 under the pretext of recreation1 and carried them to the ,roman camp2 saying to ,camillus1 that1 by this artifice1 he had delivered ,falisci into his hands4 ,camillus1 abhorring his treachery1 said1 ,that there were laws for war as well as for peace2 and that the ,romans were taught to make war with integrity1 not less than with courage4 ,he ordered the schoolmaster to be stripped1 his hands to be bound behind his back1 and to be delivered to the boys1 to be lashed back into the town4 ,the ,falerians1 hitherto obstinate in resistance1 struck with an act of justice so illustrious1 delivered themselves up to the ,romans2 convinced that they would be far better to have the ,romans for their allies1 than their enemies4 ,,shocking ,,instances ,,of ,,ingratitude4--,herodotus informs us1 that when ,xerxes1 king of ,persia1 was at ,celene1 a city of ,phrygia1 ,pythius1 a ,lydian1 who resided there1 and1 next to ,xerxes1 was the most opulent prince of those times1 entertained him and his whole army with an incredible magnificence1 and made him an offer of all his wealth towards defraying the expenses of his expedition4 ,xerxes1 surprised at so generous an offer1 inquired to what sum his riches amounted4 ,pythius answered1 that having the design of offering them to his service1 he had taken an exact account of them1 and that the silver he had by him1 amounted to #bjjj talents1 7about #bee1jjj sterling71 and the gold to #c1iic1jjj darics 7about #a1gjj1jjj sterling74 ,all this money he offered him1 telling him1 that his revenue was sufficient for the support of his household4 ,xerxes made him very hearty acknowledgments1 and entered into a particular friendship with him1 and declined accepting his present4 ,some time after this1 ,pythius having desired a favour of him1 that out of his five sons1 who served in his army1 he would be pleased to leave him the eldest1 to comfort him in his old age2 ,xerxes was so enraged at the proposal1 though so reasonable in itself1 that he caused the eldest son to be killed before his father's eyes1 giving the latter to understand1 that it was a favour he spared him and the rest of his children4 ,yet1 this is the same ,xerxes who is so much admired for his humane reflection at the head of his numerous army4--,the emperor ,basilius ,i4 exercised himself in hunting3 a great stag running furiously against him1 fastened one of the branches of his horns in the emperor's girdle1 and1 pulling him from his horse1 dragged him a good distance1 to the imminent danger of his life2 which a gentleman of his retinue perceiving1 drew his sword1 and cut the emperor's girdle asunder1 which disengaged him from the beast1 with little or no hurt to his person4 ,but1 observe his reward6 ,he was sentenced to lose his head for putting the sword so near the body of the emperor2 and suffered death accordingly4 7,zonor4 ,annal4 tom4 #c4 p4 #aee47--;,in a little work entitled ,friendly ,cautions to ,officers1 the following atrocious instance is related4 ,an opulent city1 in the west of ,england1 had a regiment sent to be quartered there3 the principal inhabitants1 glad to shew their hospitality and attachment to their sovereign1 got acquainted with the officers1 invited them to their houses1 and shewed them every civility in their power4 ,a merchant1 extremely easy in his circumstances1 took so prodigious a liking to one officer in particular1 that he gave him an apartment in his own house1 and made him in a manner master of it1 the officer's friends being always welcome to his table4 ,the merchant was a widower1 and had two favourite daughters3 the officer cast his wanton eyes upon them1 and too fatally ruined them both4 ,dreadful return to the merchant's misplaced friendship6 ,the consequence of this ungenerous action was1 that all officers ever after were shunned as pests to society2 nor have the inhabitants yet conquered their aversion to a red coat4--,we read in ,rapin's ,history1 that during ,monmouth's rebellion1 in the reign of ,james ,,ii4 a certain person1 knowing the humane disposition of one ,mrs4 ,gaunt1 whose life was one continued exercise of beneficence1 fled to her house1 where he was concealed and maintained for some time4 ,hearing1 however1 of the proclamation1 which promised an indemnity and reward to those who discovered such as harboured the rebels1 he betrayed his benefactress3 and such was the spirit of justice and equity which prevailed among the ministry1 that he was pardoned1 and recompensed for his treachery1 while she was burnt alive for her charity6--,the following instance is also to be found in the same history4 ,humphrey ,bannister and his father were both servants to1 and raised by1 the ,duke of ,buckingham2 who being driven to abscond by an unfortunate accident befalling the army he had raised against the usurper ,richard ,,iii4 he retired to ,bannister's house near ,shrewsbury1 as to a place where he might be quite safe4 ,bannister1 however1 upon the king's proclamation promising #ajjjl4 reward to him that should apprehend the duke1 betrayed his master to ,john ,merton1 high sheriff of ,shropshire1 who sent him under a strong guard to ,salisbury1 where the king then was2 and there1 in the market-place1 the duke was beheaded4 ,but ,divine vengeance pursued the traitor ,bannister2 for1 demanding the #ajjjl4 that was the price of his master's blood1 ,richard refused to pay it him1 saying1 ,he that would be false to so good a master1 ought not to be encouraged4 ,he was afterwards hanged for manslaughter2 his eldest son went mad1 and died in a hog-sty2 his second became deformed and lame2 and his third son was drowned in a small puddle of water2 his eldest daughter became pregnant by one of his carters1 and his second was seized with a leprosy whereof she died4 ,hist4 of ,eng4 i4 p4 #cjd4 ,let us guard against this odious vice1 ingratitude1 being assured that sooner or later the bitter effects of this1 as well as of all other sins1 will find us out4 ,our following article consists of some ,,extraordinary ,,instances ,,of ,,honour4 ,the ,spanish historians relate a memorable instance of inviolable regard to the principles of honour and truth4 ,a ,spanish cavalier1 in a sudden quarrel1 slew a ,moorish gentleman1 and fled4 ,his pursuers soon lost sight of him1 for he had1 unperceived1 leaped over a garden wall4 ,the owner1 a ,moor1 happening to be in his garden1 was addressed by the ,spaniard on his knees1 who acquainted him with his case1 and implored concealment4 ,eat this1 said the ,moor 7giving him half a peach71 you now know that you may confide in my protection4 ,he then locked him up in his garden1 telling him1 as soon as it was night he would provide for his escape to a place of greater safety4 ,the ,moor then went into his house1 where he had but just seated himself1 when a great crowd1 with loud lamentations1 came to his gate1 bringing the corpse of his son1 who had just been killed by a ,spaniard4 ,when the first shock of surprise was a little over1 he learned1 from the description given1 that the fatal deed was done by the very person then in his power4 ,he mentioned this to no one2 but1 as soon as it was dark1 retired to his garden1 as if to grieve alone1 giving orders that none should follow him4 ,then accosting the ,spaniard1 he said1 ,christian1 the person you have killed is my son1 his body is now in my house4 ,you ought to suffer2 but you have eaten with me1 and ,i have given you my faith1 which must not be broken4 ,he then led the astonished ,spaniard to his stables1 mounted him on one of his fleetest horses1 and said1 ,fly far while the night can cover you2 you will be safe in the morning4 ,you are indeed guilty of my son's blood2 but ,god is just and good2 and thank him1 ,i am innocent of your's1 and that my faith given is preserved4 ,this point of honour is most religiously observed by the ,arabs and ,saracens1 from whom it was adopted by the ,moors of ,africa1 and by them was brought into ,spain4--,the following instance of ,spanish honour may still be in the memory of many living1 and deserves to be handed down to the latest posterity4 ,in #agdf1 when ,britain was at war with ,spain1 the ,elizabeth of ,london1 captain ,william ,edwards1 coming through the gulf from ,jamaica1 richly laden1 met with a most violent storm1 in which the ship sprung a leak1 that obliged them to run into the ,havannah1 a ,spanish port1 to save their lives4 ,the captain went on shore1 and directly waited on the governor1 told the occasion of his putting in1 and that he surrendered the ship as a prize1 and himself and his men as prisoners of war1 only requesting good quarter4 ,no1 ,sir1 replied the ,spanish governor1 if we had taken you in fair war at sea1 or approaching our coast with hostile intentions1 your ship would then have been a prize1 and your people prisoners2 but when1 distressed by a tempest1 you come into our ports for the safety of your lives1 we1 though enemies1 being men1 are bound1 as such1 by the laws of humanity1 to afford relief to distressed men who ask it of us4 ,we cannot1 even against our enemies1 take advantage of an act of ,god4 ,you have leave therefore to unload your ship1 if that be necessary1 and to stop the leak2 you may refit her here1 and traffic so far as shall be necessary to pay the charges2 you may then depart1 and ,i will give you a pass to be in force till you are beyond ,bermuda3 if after that you are taken1 you will then be a lawful prize2 but now you are only a stranger1 and have a stranger's right to safety and protection4 ,the ship accordingly departed1 and arrived safe in ,london4--,a remarkable instance of honour is also recorded of an ,african negro1 in captain ,snelgrave's account of his voyage to ,guinea4 ,a ,new-,england sloop1 trading there in #ageb1 left her second mate1 ,william ,murray1 sick on shore1 and sailed without him4 ,murray was at the house of a black1 named ,cudjoe1 with whom he had contracted an acquaintance during their trade4 ,he recovered2 and the sloop being gone1 he continued with his black friend till some other opportunity should offer of his getting home4 ,in the mean time a ,dutch ship came into the road1 and some of the blacks coming on board her1 were treacherously seized and carried off as slaves4 ,the relations and friends1 transported with sudden rage1 ran to the house of ,cudjoe1 to take revenge by killing ,murray4 ,cudjoe stopped them at the door1 and demanded what they wanted4 ,the white men1 said they1 have carried away our brothers and sons1 and we will kill all white men4 ,give us the white man you have in your house1 for we will kill him4 ,nay1 said ,cudjoe1 the white men that carried away your relations are bad men1 kill them when you can take them2 but this white man is a good man1 and you must not kill him4--,but he is a white man1 they cried1 and the white men are all bad men1 we will kill them all4--,nay1 says he1 you must not kill a man that has done no harm1 only for being white4 ,this man is my friend1 my house is his post1 ,i am his soldier1 and must fight for him2 you must kill me before you can kill him4 ,what good man will ever come again under my roof1 if ,i let my floor be stained with a good man's blood8 ,the negroes1 seeing his resolution1 and being convinced by his discourse that they were wrong1 went away ashamed4 ,in a few days ,murray went abroad again with his friend ,cudjoe1 when several of them took him by the hand1 and told him1 they were glad they had not killed him2 for1 as he was a good man1 their god would have been very angry1 and would have spoiled their fishing4 ,as it is our intention to record whatever we meet with1 that is curious or wonderful1 we hesitate not in inserting the following ,,surprising ,,effects ,,of ,,anger4 ,physicians and naturalists afford instances of very extraordinary effects of this passion4 ,borrichius cured a woman of an inveterate tertian ague1 which had baffled the art of physic1 by putting the patient in a furious fit of anger4 ,valeriola made use of the same means1 with the like success1 in a quartan ague4 ,the same passion has been equally salutary to paralytic1 gouty1 and even dumb persons2 to which last it has sometimes given the use of speech4 ,etmuller gives divers instances of very singular cures wrought by anger2 among others1 he mentions a person laid up in the gout1 who1 being provoked by his physician1 flew upon him1 and was cured4 ,it is true1 the remedy is somewhat dangerous in the application1 when a patient does not know how to use it with moderation4 ,we meet with several instances of princes1 to whom it has proved mortal2 e4 g4 ,valentinian ,i4 ,wenceslaus1 ,matthias ,corvinus1 king of ,hungary1 and others4 ,there are also instances wherein it has produced the epilepsy1 jaundice1 cholera morbus1 diarrhoea1 c4 ,in fact1 this passion is of such a nature1 that it quickly throws the whole nervous system into preternatural commotions1 by a violent stricture of the nervous and muscular parts2 and surprisingly augments1 not only the systole of the heart1 and its contiguous vessels1 but also the tone of the fibrous parts in the whole body4 ,it is also certain1 that this passion1 by the spasmodic stricture it produces in the parts1 exerts its power principally on the stomach and intestines1 which are highly nervous and membraneous parts2 whence the symptoms are more dangerous1 in proportion to the greater consent of the stomach and intestines with the other nervous parts1 and almost with the whole body4 ,the unhappy influence of anger likewise on the biliary and hepatic ducts1 is very surprising2 since1 by an intense constriction of these1 the liver is not only rendered scirrhous1 but stones also are often generated in the gall-bladder and biliary ducts3 these accidents have scarcely any other origin than an obstruction of the free motion and efflux of the bile1 by means of this violent stricture4 ,from such a stricture1 likewise1 proceeds the jaundice1 which1 in process of time1 lays a foundation for calculous concretions in the gall-bladder4 ,by increasing the motion of the fluid1 or the spasms of the fibrous parts1 by means of anger1 a large quantity of blood is forcibly propelled to certain parts2 whence it happens1 that they are too much distended1 and the orifices of the veins distributed there1 opened4 ,it is evident1 from experience1 that anger has a great tendency to excite enormous hemorrhages1 either from the nose1 the aperture of the pulmonary artery1 c4 ,the effects of this passion are well described by ,armstrong in the following lines3-- ,but there's a passion1 whose tempestuous sway ,tears up each virtue planted in the heart1 ,and shakes to ruin proud philosophy3 ,for pale and trembling anger rushes in ,with falt'ring speech1 and eyes that wildly stare1 ,fierce as the tiger1 madder than the seas1 ,desp'rate1 and arm'd with more than human strength2 ,but he whom anger stings1 drops1 if he dies1 ,at once1 and rushes apoplectic down2 ,or a fierce fever hurries him to hell4 ,now follows an account of some ,,remarkable ,,effects ,,of ,,fright1 ,,or ,,terror4 ,out of many instances of the fatal effects of fear1 the following is selected as one of the most singular3--,george ,grochantzy1 a ,polander1 who had enlisted as a soldier in the service of the king of ,prussia1 deserted during the last war4 ,a small party was sent in pursuit of him1 and1 when he least expected it1 surprised him singing and dancing among a company of peasants in an inn4 ,this event1 so sudden1 and so dreadful in its consequences1 struck him in such a manner1 that1 giving a great cry1 he became altogether stupid and insensible1 and was seized without the least resistance4 ,they carried him away to ,glocau1 where he was brought before the council of war1 and received sentence as a deserter4 ,he suffered himself to be led and disposed of at the will of those about him1 without uttering a word1 or giving the least sign that he knew what had happened or would happen to him4 ,he remained immoveable as a statue wherever he was placed1 and was wholly regardless of all that was done to him or about him4 ,during all the time that he was in custody1 he neither ate1 nor drank1 nor slept1 nor had any evacuation4 ,some of his comrades were sent to see him2 after that1 he was visited by some officers of his corps1 and by some priests2 but he still continued in the same state1 without discovering the least signs of sensibility4 ,promises1 entreaties1 and threatenings1 were equally ineffectual4 ,it was at first suspected that these appearances were feigned2 but such suspicions gave way1 when it was known that he took no sustenance1 and that the involuntary functions of nature were in a great measure suspended4 ,the physicians concluded that he was in a state of hopeless idiocy2 and after some time they knocked off his fetters1 and left him at liberty to go where he would4 ,he received his liberty with the same insensibility that he had shewn on other occasions2 he remained fixed and immoveable1 his eyes turned wildly here and there1 without taking cognizance of any object1 and the muscles of his face were fallen and fixed1 like those of a dead body4 ,he passed twenty days in this condition1 without eating1 drinking1 or any evacuation1 and died on the #bjth day4 ,he had been sometimes heard to fetch deep sighs2 and once he rushed with great violence on a soldier who had a mug of liquor in his hand1 forced the mug from him1 and having drank the liquor with great eagerness1 let the mug drop to the ground4--,among the ludicrous effects of fear1 the following instance1 quoted from a ,french author1 by ,mr4 ,andrews1 in his volume of ,anecdotes1 shews upon what slight occasions this passion may be sometimes excited in a very high degree1 and even in persons the most unlikely to entertain fear4 ,charles ,gustavus 7successor to ,christina1 queen of ,sweden17 was besieging ,prague1 when a boor of a most extraordinary visage desired admittance to his tent2 and being allowed entrance1 offered1 by way of amusing the king1 to devour a whole hog of #ajj weight in his presence4 ,the old general1 ,konigsmarc1 who stood by the king's side1 and who1 soldier as he was1 had not got rid of the prejudices of his childhood1 hinted to his royal master that the peasant ought to be burnt as a sorcerer4 ',sir1' said the fellow1 irritated at the remark1 'if your majesty will but make that old gentleman take off his sword and his spurs1 ,i will eat him1 before ,i begin the hog4' ,konigsmarc 7who had1 at the head of a body of ,swedes1 performed wonders against the ,austrians1 and who was looked upon as one of the bravest men of the age17 could not stand this proposal2 especially as it was accompanied by a most hideous and preternatural expansion of the frightful peasant's jaws4 ,without uttering a word1 the veteran turned round1 ran out of the court1 nor thought himself safe until he had arrived at his quarters1 where he remained above #bd hours locked up securely1 before he had got rid of the panic which had so severely affected him4 ,such is the influence of fright or terror4 ,the following is a notable instance of ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,conscience4 ,it is a saying1 that no man ever offended his own conscience1 but first or last it was revenged upon him4 ,the power of conscience indeed has been remarked in all ages1 and the examples of it upon record are numerous and striking4--,the following is related by ,mr4 ,fordyce1 in his ,dialogues on ,education1 7vol4 ii4 p4 #eja47 as a real occurrence1 which happened in a neighbouring state not many years ago4 ,a jeweller1 a man of good character and considerable wealth1 having occasion1 in the way of his business1 to travel to some distance from the place of his abode1 took along with him a servant1 in order to take care of his portmanteau4 ,he had with him some of his best jewels1 and a large sum of money1 to which his servant was likewise privy4 ,the master having occasion to dismount on the road1 the servant watching his opportunity1 took a pistol from his master's saddle1 and shot him dead on the spot2 then rifled him of his jewels and money1 and1 hanging a large stone to his neck1 threw him into the nearest canal4 ,with his booty he made off to a distant part of the country1 where he had reason to believe that neither he nor his master were known4 ,there he began to trade in a very low way at first1 that his obscurity might screen him from observation1 and in the course of a good many years seemed to rise1 by the natural progress of business1 into wealth and consideration2 so that his good fortune appeared at once the effect and reward of industry and virtue4 ,of these he counterfeited the appearance so well1 that he grew into great credit1 married into a good family1 and by laying out his sudden stores discreetly1 as he saw occasion1 and joining to all an universal affability1 he was admitted to a share of the government of the town1 and rose from one post to another1 till at length he was chosen chief magistrate4 ,in this office he maintained a fair character1 and continued to fill it with no small applause1 both as a governor and a judge2 till one day1 as he sat on the bench1 with some of his brethren1 a criminal was brought before him1 who was accused of murdering his master4 ,the evidence came out full1 the jury brought in their verdict that the prisoner was guilty1 and the whole assembly waited the sentence of the president of the court 7which he happened to be that day7 with great suspense4 ,meanwhile he appeared to be in unusual disorder and agitation of mind1 and his colour changed often2 at length he rose from his seat1 and coming down from the bench1 placed himself by the unfortunate man at the bar4 ,you see before you 7said he1 addressing himself to those who had sat on the bench with him17 a striking instance of the just awards of heaven1 which1 this day1 after #cj years' concealment1 presents to you a greater criminal than the man just now found guilty4 ,then he made an ample confession of his guilt1 and of all the aggravations3 ,nor can ,i feel 7continued he7 any relief from the agonies of an awakened conscience1 but by requiring that justice be forthwith done against me in the most public and solemn manner4 ,we may easily suppose the amazement of all the assembly1 and especially of his fellow judges4 ,however1 they proceeded1 upon this confession1 to pass sentence upon him1 and he died with all the symptoms of a penitent mind4 ,let it be our constant aim to keep a conscience void of offence towards ,god1 and towards man2 being assured that1 ,one self-approving hour whole years outweighs ,of stupid starers1 and of loud huzzas4 ,pope4 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,remarkable ,instance of ,memory--,surprising ,instance of ,skill in ,numbers--,extraordinary ,arithmetical ,powers of a ,child--,curious ,instance of ,mathematical ,talent--,stone ,eater--,poison ,eater--,bletonism--,longevity4 ,,remarkable ,,instance ,,of ,,memory4 ,whence came the active and sagacious mind1 ,self-conscious1 and with faculties endued ,of understanding1 will1 and memory1 ,and reason1 to distinguish true from false8 ------------,whence1 but through an infinite1 ,almighty ,god1 supremely wise and just8 ,newler4 ,,hortensius1 one of the most celebrated orators of ancient ,rome1 had so happy a memory1 that after studying a discourse1 though he had not written down a single word of it1 he could repeat it exactly in the same manner in which he had composed it4 ,his powers of mind in this respect were really astonishing2 and we are told1 that in consequence of a wager with one ,sienna1 he spent a whole day at an auction1 and1 when it was ended1 recapitulated every article that had been sold1 together with the prices1 and the names of the purchasers1 in their proper order1 without erring in one point1 as was proved by the clerk1 who followed him with his book4 ,the following is a very ,,surprising ,,instance ,,of ,,skill ,,in ,,numbers4 ,jedidiah ,buxton1 was a prodigy1 with respect to skill in numbers4 ,his father1 ,william ,buxton1 was schoolmaster of the parish where he was born1 in #agjd3 yet ,jedediah's education was so much neglected1 that he was never taught to write2 and with respect to any other knowledge but that of numbers1 seemed always as ignorant as a boy of ten years of age4 ,how he came first to know the relative proportions of numbers1 and their progressive denominations1 he did not remember2 but to this he applied the whole force of his mind1 and upon this his attention was constantly fixed1 so that he frequently took no cognizance of external objects1 and1 when he did it1 it was only with respect to their numbers4 ,if any space of time was mentioned1 he would soon after say it was so many minutes2 and if any distance of way1 he would assign the number of hair-breadths1 without any question being asked1 or any calculation expected by the company4 ,when he once understood a question1 he began to work with amazing facility1 after his own method1 without the use of a pen1 pencil1 or chalk1 or even understanding the common rules of arithmetic1 as taught in the schools4 ,he would stride over a piece of land1 or a field1 and tell the contents of it almost as exactly as if one had measured it by the chain4 ,in this manner he measured the whole lordship of ,elmton1 belonging to ,sir ,john ,rhodes1 and brought him the contents1 not only of some thousands in acres1 roods1 and perches1 but even in square inches4 ,after this1 for his own amusement1 he reduced them into square hair-breadths1 computing #dh to each side of the inch4 ,his memory was so great1 that while resolving a question1 he could leave off1 and resume the operation again1 where he left off1 the next morning1 or at a week1 a month1 or several months1 and proceed regularly till it was completed4 ,his memory would doubtless have been equally retentive with respect to other objects1 if he had attended to them with equal diligence2 but his perpetual application to figures prevented the smallest acquisition of any other knowledge4 ,he was sometimes asked1 on his return from church1 whether he remembered the text1 or any part of the sermon3 but it never appeared that he brought away one sentence2 his mind1 upon a closer examination1 being found to have been busied1 even during divine service1 in his favourite operation1 either dividing some time1 or some space1 into the smallest known parts1 or resolving some question that had been given him as a test of his abilities4 ,as this extraordinary person lived in laborious poverty1 his life was uniform and obscure4 ,time1 with respect to him1 changed nothing but his age2 nor did the seasons vary his employment1 except that in winter he used a flail1 and in summer a ling-hook4 ,in #aged1 he came to ,london1 where he was introduced to the ,royal ,society1 who1 in order to prove his abilities1 asked him several questions in arithmetic2 and he gave them such satisfaction1 that they dismissed him with a handsome gratuity4 ,in this visit to the metropolis1 the only object of his curiosity1 except figures1 was to see the king and royal family2 but they being at ,kensington1 ,jedidiah was disappointed4 ,during his stay in ,london1 he was taken to see ,king ,richard ,,iii4 performed at ,drury-,lane playhouse2 and it was expected1 either that the novelty and the splendour of the show would have fixed him in astonishment1 or kept his imagination in a continual hurry1 or that his passions would1 in some degree1 have been touched by the power of action1 though he did not perfectly understand the dialogue4 ,but ,jedidiah's mind was employed in the playhouse just as it was employed in every other place4 ,during the dance1 he fixed his attention upon the number of steps2 he declared1 after a fine piece of music1 that the innumerable sounds produced by the instruments had perplexed him beyond measure2 and he attended even to ,mr4 ,garrick1 only to count the words that he uttered1 in which1 he said1 he perfectly succeeded4 ,jedidiah returned to the place of his birth1 where1 if his enjoyments were few1 his wishes did not seem to be greater4 ,he applied to his labour with cheerfulness2 he regretted nothing that he left behind him in ,london2 and it continued to be his opinion1 that a slice of rusty bacon afforded the most delicious repast4 ,the following account of the ,extraordinary ,arithmetical ,powers of a ,child1 is extracted from the ,annual ,register of #ahab4 ,it is entitled1 ,,some ,,particulars ,,respecting ,,the ,,arithmetical ,,powers ,,of ,,zerah ,,colburn1 ,a ,,child ,,under ,,eight ,,years ,,of ,,age4 ,the attention of the philosophical world1 7says the writer17 has been lately attracted by the most singular phenomenon in the history of the human mind1 that perhaps ever existed4 ,it is the case of a child1 under eight years of age1 who1 without any previous knowledge of the common rides of arithmetic1 or even of the use and power of the ,arabic numerals1 and without having given any particular attention to the subject1 possesses1 as if by intuition1 the singular faculty of solving a great variety of arithmetical questions by the mere operation of the mind1 and without the usual assistance of any visible symbol or contrivance4 ,the name of the child is ,zerah ,colburn1 who was born at ,cabut1 7a town lying at the head of ,onion river1 in ,vermont1 in the ,united ,states of ,america17 on the #ast of ,september1 #ahjd4 ,about two years ago 7,august1 #ahaj17 although at that time not six years of age1 he first began to shew those wonderful powers of calculation1 which have since so much attracted the attention1 and excited the astonishment1 of every person who has witnessed his extraordinary abilities4 ,the discovery was made by accident4 ,his father1 who had not given him any other instruction than such as was to be obtained at a small school established in that unfrequented and remote part of the country1 7and which did not include either writing or ciphering17 was much surprised one day to hear him repeating the products of several numbers4 ,struck with amazement at the circumstance1 he proposed a variety of arithmetical questions to him1 all of which the child solved with remarkable facility and correctness4 ,the news of this infant prodigy soon circulated through the neighbourhood2 and many persons came from distant parts to witness so singular a circumstance4 ,the father1 encouraged by the unanimous opinion of all who came to see him1 was induced to undertake1 with this child1 the tour of the ,united ,states4 ,they were every where received with the most flattering expressions2 and in the several towns which they visited1 various plans were suggested1 to educate and bring up the child1 free from all expense to his family4 ,yielding1 however1 to the pressing solicitations of his friends1 and urged by the most respectable1 and powerful recommendations1 as well as by a view to his son's more complete education1 the father has brought the child to this country1 where they arrived on the #abth of ,may last3 and the inhabitants of this metropolis have for these last three months had an opportunity of seeing and examining this wonderful phenomenon1 and verifying the reports that have been circulated respecting him4 ,many persons of the first eminence for their knowledge in mathematics1 and well known for their philosophical inquiries1 have made a point of seeing and conversing with him2 and they have all been struck with astonishment at his extraordinary powers4 ,it is correctly true1 as stated of him1 that--',he will not only determine1 with the greatest facility and despatch1 the exact number of minutes or seconds in any given period of time2 but will also solve any other question of a similar kind4 ,he will tell the exact product arising from the multiplication of any number1 consisting of two1 three1 or four figures1 by any other number1 consisting of the like number of figures2 or any number1 consisting of six or seven places of figures1 being proposed1 he will determine1 with equal expedition and ease1 all the factors of which it is composed4 ,this singular faculty consequently extends not only to the raising of powers1 but also to the extraction of the square and cube roots of the number proposed2 and likewise to the means of determining whether it be a prime number 7or a number incapable of division by any other number27 for which case there does not exist1 at present1 any general rule amongst mathematicians4' ,all these1 and a variety of other questions connected therewith1 are answered by this child with such promptness and accuracy 7and in the midst of his juvenile pursuits7 as to astonish every person who has visited him4 ,at a meeting of his friends1 which was held for the purpose of concerting the best methods of promoting the views of the father1 this child undertook1 and completely succeeded in raising the number #h progressively up to the sixteenth power666 and1 in naming the last result1 viz4 #bha1dgd1igf1gaj1fef1 he was right in every figure4 ,he was then tried as to other numbers1 consisting of one figure2 all of which he raised 7by actual multiplication1 and not by memory7 as high as the tenth power1 with so much facility and despatch1 that the person appointed to take down the results1 was obliged to enjoin him not to be so rapid6 ,with respect to numbers consisting of two figures1 he would raise some of them to the sixth1 seventh1 and eighth power2 but not always with equal facility3 for the larger the products became1 the more difficult he found it to proceed4 ,he was asked the square root of #ajfibi2 and before the number could be written down1 he immediately answered #cbg4 ,he was then required to name the cube root of #bfh1ccf1abe2 and with equal facility and promptness he replied1 #fde4 ,various other questions of a similar nature1 respecting the roots and powers of very high numbers1 were proposed by several of the gentlemen present2 to all of which he answered in a similar manner4 ,one of the party requested him to name the factors which produced the number #bdg1dhc3 this he immediately did1 by mentioning the two numbers #ida and #bfc2 which indeed are the only two numbers that will produce it1 viz4 #e #cdbgi1 #g #bddhe1 #ei #bije1 #hc #bjfe1 #ce #dhig1 #bie #eha1 and #dac #dae4 ,he was then asked to give the factors of #cfjhc3 but he immediately replied that it had none2 which1 in fact1 was the case1 as #cfjhc is a prime number4 ,other numbers were indiscriminately proposed to him1 and he always succeeded in giving the correct factors1 except in the case of prime numbers1 which he discovered almost as soon as proposed4 ,one of the gentlemen asked him how many minutes there were in forty-eight years3 and before the question could be written down1 he replied1 #be1bbh1hjj2 and instantly added1 that the number of seconds in the same period was #a1eac1gbh1jjj4 ,various questions of the like kind were put to him2 and to all of them he answered with nearly equal facility and promptitude1 so as to astonish every one present1 and to excite a desire that so extraordinary a faculty should 7if possible7 be rendered more extensive and useful4 ,it was the wish of the gentlemen present1 to obtain a knowledge of the method by which the child was enabled to answer1 with so much facility and correctness1 the questions thus put to him2 but to all their inquiries upon this subject 7and he was closely examined upon this point7 he was unable to give them any information4 ,he positively declared 7and every observation that was made seemed to justify the assertion7 that he did not know how the answers came into his mind4 ,in the act of multiplying two numbers together1 and in the raising of powers1 it was evident 7not only from the motion of his lips1 but also from some singular facts which will be hereafter-mentioned7 that some operation was going forward in his mind2 yet that operation could not1 from the readiness with which the answers were furnished1 be at all allied to the usual mode of proceeding with such subjects3 and1 moreover1 he is entirely ignorant of the common rules of arithmetic1 and cannot perform1 upon paper1 a simple sum in multiplication or division4 ,but in the extraction of roots1 and in mentioning the factors of high numbers1 it does not appear that any operation can take place1 since he will give the answer immediately1 or in a very few seconds1 where it would require1 according to the ordinary method of solution1 a very difficult and laborious calculation2 and moreover1 the knowledge of a prime number cannot be obtained by any known rule4 ,it has been already observed1 that it was evident1 from some singular facts1 that the child operated by certain rules known only to himself4 ,this discovery was made in one or two instances1 when he had been closely pressed upon that point4 ,in one case he was asked to tell the square of #dcie3 he at first hesitated1 fearful that he should not be able to answer it correctly2 but when he applied himself to it1 he said1 it was #ai1caf1jbe4 ,on being questioned as to the cause of his hesitation2 he replied1 that he did not like to multiply four figures by four figures3 but1 said he1 ',i found out another way2 ,i multiplied #bic by #bic1 and then multiplied this product twice by the number #ae1 which produced the same result4' ,on another occasion1 his highness the duke of ,gloucester asked him the product of #ba1gcd1 multiplied by #edc3 he immediately replied1 #aa1hja1efb2 but1 upon some remark being made on the subject1 the child said that he had1 in his own mind1 multiplied #febjb by #aha4 ,now1 although1 in the first instance1 it must be evident to every mathematician1 that #dcie is equal to #bic #ae1 and consequently that 7#dcie7b 7#bic7b 7#ae7b2 and1 further1 that in the second case1 #edc is equal to #aha #c1 and consequently that #bagcd 7#aha #c7 7#bagcd #c7 #aha2 yet it is not the less remarkable1 that this combination should be immediately perceived by the child1 and we cannot the less admire his ingenuity in thus seizing instantly the easiest method of solving the question proposed to him4 ,it must be evident1 from what has here been stated1 that the singular faculty which this child possesses is not altogether dependent upon his memory4 ,in the multiplication of numbers1 and in the raising of powers1 he is doubtless considerably assisted by that remarkable quality of the mind3 and in this respect he might be considered as bearing some resemblance 7if the difference of age did not prevent the justness of the comparison7 to the celebrated ,jedidiah ,buxton1 and other persons of similar note4 ,but1 in the extraction of the roots of numbers1 and in determining their factors1 7if any17 it is clear1 to all those who have witnessed the astonishing quickness and accuracy of this child1 that the memory has little or nothing to do with the process4 ,and in this particular point consists the remarkable difference between the present and all former instances of an apparently similar kind4 ,it has been recorded as an astonishing effort of memory1 that the celebrated ,culer 7who1 in the science of analysis1 might vie even with ,newton himself17 could remember the first six powers of every number under #ajj4 ,this1 probably1 must be taken with some restrictions3 but1 if true to the fullest extent1 it is not more astonishing than the efforts of this child2 with this additional circumstance in favour of the latter1 that he is capable of verifying1 in a very few seconds1 every figure which he may have occasion for4 ,it has been further remarked1 by the biographer of that eminent mathematician1 that 'he perceived1 almost at a single glance1 the factors of which his formul were composed2 the particular system of factors belonging to the question under consideration2 the various artifices by which that system may be simplified and reduced2 and the relation of the several factors to the conditions of the hypothesis4 ,his expertness in this particular probably resulted1 in a great measure1 from the ease with which he performed mathematical investigations by head4 ,he had always accustomed himself to that exercise2 and1 having practised it with assiduity1 7even before the loss of sight1 which afterwards rendered it a matter of necessity17 he is an instance to what an astonishing degree it may be acquired1 and how much it improves the intellectual powers4 ,no other discipline is so effectual in strengthening the faculty of attention3 it gives a facility of apprehension1 an accuracy and steadiness to the conceptions2 and 7what is a still more valuable acquisition7 it habituates the mind to arrangement in its reasonings and reflections4' ,it is not intended to draw a comparison between the humble1 though astonishing1 efforts of this infant prodigy1 and the gigantic powers of that illustrious character1 to whom a reference has just been made3 yet we may be permitted to hope and expect that those wonderful talents1 which are so conspicuous at this early age1 may1 by a suitable education1 be considerably improved and extended2 and that some new light will eventually be thrown upon those subjects1 for the elucidation of which his mind appears to be peculiarly formed by nature1 since he enters the world with all those powers and faculties which are not even attainable by the most eminent1 at a more advanced period of life4 ,every mathematician must be aware of the important advantages which have sometimes been derived from the most simple and trifling circumstance2 the full effect of which has not always been evident at first sight4 ,to mention one singular instance of this kind3--,the very simple improvement of expressing the powers and roots of quantities by means of indices1 introduced a new and general arithmetic of exponents3 and this algorithm of powers led the way to the invention of logarithms1 by means of which all arithmetical computations are so much facilitated and abridged4 ,perhaps this child possesses a knowledge of some more important properties connected with this subject3 although he is incapable at present of giving any satisfactory account of the state of his mind1 or of communicating to others the knowledge which it is so evident he does possess2 yet there is every reason to believe1 that1 when his mind is more cultivated1 and his ideas more expanded1 he will be able not only to divulge the mode by which he at present operates1 but also point out some new sources of information on this interesting subject4 ,the case is certainly one of great novelty and importance2 and every literary character1 and every friend to science1 must be anxious to see the experiment fairly tried1 as to the effect which a suitable education may produce on a mind constituted as his appears to be4 ,with this view1 a number of gentlemen have taken the child under their patronage1 and have formed themselves into a committee for the purpose of superintending his education4 ,application has been made to a gentleman of science1 well known for his mathematical abilities1 who has consented to take the child under his immediate tuition3 the committee1 therefore1 propose to withdraw him for the present from public exhibition1 in order that he may fully devote himself to his studies4 ,but whether they shall be able to accomplish the object they have in view1 will depend upon the assistance which they may receive from the public4 ,what further progress this child made under the patronage and tuition of his kind and benevolent friends1 the editor is not1 at present1 able to ascertain4 ,we proceed to a ,,curious ,,instance ,,of ,,mathematical ,,talent4 ,a singular instance of early mathematical talent has been made known by ,mr4 ,gough1 in the ,philosophical ,magazine4--,thomas ,gasking1 the son of a journeyman shoemaker of ,penrith1 was but nine years of age when the account was written3 he was1 7says the writer71 however1 in consequence of the education given him by his father1 7an acute and industrious man17 become well acquainted with the leading propositions of ,euclid1 reads and works algebra with facility1 understands and uses logarithms1 and has entered on the study of fluxions4 ,on being examined1 he demonstrated propositions from the first books of ,euclid2 discovered the unknown side of a triangle1 from the two sides and the angle given2 and solved cases in spherical trigonometry4 ,in algebra1 he gave the solutions of a number of quadratic equations2 answered questions which contained two unknown quantities2 and applied algebra to geometry4 ,he answered problems relating to the maxima of numbers and of geometrical magnitudes1 with ease2 and1 on many other mathematical points1 gave very high promises of future excellence4 ,the following remarkable account of a ,,stone ,,eater1 is given as a fact in several respectable works4 ,in #agfj1 was brought to ,avignon1 a true lithophagus1 or stone-eater4 ,he not only swallowed flints of an inch and a half long1 a full inch broad1 and half an inch thick2 but such stones as he could reduce to powder1 such as marble1 pebbles1 c4 he made into paste1 which was to him a most agreeable and wholesome food4 ,i examined this man1 says the writer1 with all the attention ,i possibly could2 ,i found his gullet very large1 his teeth exceedingly strong1 his saliva very corrosive1 and his stomach lower than ordinary1 which ,i imputed to the vast number of flints he had swallowed1 being about five-and-twenty1 one day with another4 ,upon interrogating his keeper1 he told me the following particulars3 ,this stone-eater1 says he1 was found three years ago1 in a northern uninhabited island1 by some of the crew of a ,dutch ship4 ,since ,i have had him1 ,i make him eat raw flesh with the stones2 ,i could never get him to swallow bread4 ,he will drink water1 wine1 and brandy1 which last liquor gives him infinite pleasure4 ,he sleeps at least twelve hours in a day1 sitting on the ground1 with one knee over the other1 and his chin resting on his right knee4 ,he smokes almost all the time he is not asleep1 or is not eating4 ,the flints he has swallowed1 he voids somewhat corroded1 and diminished in weight2 the rest of his excrements resembles mortar4 ,the following account of a ,,poison ,,eater is said to be an undoubted fact4 ,a man1 about #ajf years of age1 formerly living in ,constantinople1 was known all over that city by the name of ,solyman1 the eater of corrosive sublimate4 ,in the early part of his life1 he accustomed himself1 like other ,turks1 to the use of opium2 but not feeling the desired effect1 he augmented his dose to a great quantity1 without feeling any inconvenience1 and at length took a drachm of sixty grains daily4 ,he went into the shop of a ,jew apothecary1 to whom he was unknown1 asked for a drachm of sublimate1 which he mixed in a glass of water1 and drank directly4 ,the apothecary was dreadfully alarmed1 because he knew the consequence of being accused of poisoning a ,turk3 but what was his astonishment1 when he saw the same man return the next day for a dose of the same quantity4 ,it is said that ,lord ,elgin1 ,mr4 ,smith1 and other ,englishmen1 knew this man1 and have heard him declare1 that his enjoyment after having taken this active poison1 is the greatest he ever felt from any cause whatever4 ,we now proceed to give an account of a very extraordinary faculty1 entitled ,,bletonism4 ,this is a faculty of perceiving and indicating subterraneous springs and currents by sensation4 ,the term is modern1 and derived from a ,mr4 ,bleton1 who excited universal attention by possessing this faculty1 which seems to depend upon some peculiar organization4 ,concerning the reality of this extraordinary faculty1 there occurred great doubts among the learned4 ,but ,m4 ,thouvenel1 a ,french philosopher1 seems to have put the matter beyond dispute1 in two memoirs which he published upon the subject4 ,he was charged by ,louis ,,xvi4 with a commission to analyze the mineral and medicinal waters of ,france2 and1 by repeated trials1 he had been so fully convinced of the capacity of ,bleton to assist him with efficacy in this important undertaking1 that he solicited the ministry to join him in the commission upon advantageous terms4 ,all this shews that the operations of ,bleton have a more solid support than the tricks of imposture or the delusions of fancy4 ,in fact1 a great number of his discoveries are ascertained by respectable affidavits4 ,the following is a strong instance in favour of ,bletonism4--,for a long time the traces of several springs and their reservoirs in the lands of the ,abbey de ,verveins had been entirely lost4 ,it appeared1 nevertheless1 by ancient deeds and titles1 that these springs and reservoirs had existed4 ,a neighbouring abbey was supposed to have turned their waters for its benefit into other channels1 and a lawsuit was commenced upon this supposition4 ,m4 ,bleton was applied to3 he discovered at once the new course of the waters in question2 his discovery was ascertained2 and the lawsuit terminated4 ,m4 ,thouvenel assigns principles upon which the impressions made by subterraneous waters and mines may be accounted for4 ,having ascertained a general law1 by which subterraneous electricity exerts an influence on the bodies of certain individuals1 eminently susceptible of that influence1 and shewn that this law is the same whether the electrical action arise from currents of warm or cold water1 from currents of humid air1 from coal or metallic mines1 from sulphur1 and so on1 he observes1 that there is a diversity in the physical and organical impressions which are produced by this electrical action1 according as it proceeds from different fossile bodies1 which are more or less conductors of electrical emanations4 ,there are also artificial processes1 which concur in leading us to distinguish the different conductors of mineral electricity2 and in these processes the use of electrometrical rods deserves the attention of philosophers1 who might perhaps1 in process of time1 substitute in their place a more perfect instrument4 ,their physical and spontaneous mobility1 and its electrical causes1 are demonstrated by indisputable experiments4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 ,thouvenel proves1 by very plausible arguments1 the influence of subterraneous electrical currents1 compares them with the electrical currents of the atmosphere1 points out the different impressions they produce1 according to the number and quality of the bodies which act1 and the diversity of those which are acted upon4 ,the ordinary sources of cold water make impressions proportional to their volume1 the velocity of their currents1 and other circumstances4 ,their stagnation destroys every species of electrical influence2 at least1 in this state they have none that is perceptible4 ,their depth is indicated by geometrical processes1 founded upon the motion and divergence of the electrical rays4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with some ,,extraordinary ,,instances ,,of ,,longevity4 ,in ,october1 #agab1 a prodigy is said to have appeared in ,france1 in the person of one ,nicholas ,petours1 who one day entered the town of ,coutances4 ,his appearance excited curiosity1 as it was observed that he had travelled on foot3 he therefore gave the following account of himself1 viz4 ,that he was one hundred and eighteen years of age1 being born at ,granville1 near the sea1 in the year #aeid2 that he was by trade a shoemaker2 and had walked from ,st4 ,malo's to ,coutances1 which is twenty-four leagues distant1 in two days4 ,he seemed as active as a young man4 ,he said1 ,he came to attend the event of a lawsuit1 and that he had had four wives2 with the first of whom he lived fifty years1 the second only twenty months1 and the third twenty-eight years and two months1 and that to the fourth he had been married two years2 that he had had children by the three former1 and could boast a posterity which consisted of one hundred and nineteen persons1 and extended to the seventh generation4 ,he further stated1 that his family had been as remarkable for longevity as himself2 that his mother lived until #afia2 and that his father1 in consequence of having been wounded1 died at the age of one hundred and twenty-three1 that his uncle and godfather1 ,nicholas ,petours1 curate of the parish of ,balcine1 and afterward canon and treasurer of the cathedral of ,coutances1 died there1 aged above one hundred and thirty-seven years1 having celebrated mass five days before his decease4 ,jacqueline ,fauvel1 wife to the park-keeper of the bishop of ,coutances1 7he said17 died in consequence of a fright1 in the village of ,st4 ,nicholas1 aged one hundred and twenty-one years1 and that she was able to spin eight days before her decease4 ,among the refugees from this part of ,france1 we have known and heard of many instances of longevity1 but certainly none equal to these4 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,combustion of the ,human ,body1 produced by the long immoderate ,use of ,spirituous ,liquors4 ,from the ,journal de ,physique1 ,pluviose1 ,year #h3 written by ,pierre ,aime ,lair4 ,in natural as well as civil history1 there are facts presented to the meditation of the observer1 which1 though confirmed by the most convincing testimony1 seem1 on the first view1 to be destitute of probability4 ,of this kind is that of people consumed without coming into contact with common fire1 and of bodies being thus reduced to ashes4 ,how can we conceive that fire1 in certain circumstances1 can exercise so powerful an action on the human body as to produce this effect8 ,one might be induced to give less faith to these instances of combustion1 as they seem to be rare4 ,i confess1 that at first they appeared to me worthy of very little credit2 but they are presented to the public as true1 by men whose veracity seems unquestionable4 ,bianchini1 ,mossei1 ,rolli1 ,le ,cat1 ,vicq4 d',azyr1 and several men distinguished by their learning1 have given certain testimony of the facts4 ,besides1 is it more surprising to experience such incineration than to void saccharine urine1 or to see the bones softened1 or of the diabetes mellitus4 ,this marbific disposition1 therefore1 would be one more scourge to afflict humanity2 but in physics1 facts being always preferable to reasoning1 ,i shall here collect those which appear to me to bear the impression of truth2 and1 lest ,i should alter the sense1 ,i shall quote them just as they are given in the works from which ,i have extracted them4 ,we read in the transactions of ,copenhagen1 that in #afib1 a woman of the lower class1 who for three years had used spirituous liquors to such excess that she would take no other nourishment1 having sat down one evening on a straw chair to sleep1 was consumed in the night-time1 so that next morning no part of her was found1 but the skull1 and the extreme joints of the fingers2 all the rest of her body1 says ,jacobeus1 was reduced to ashes4 ,the following extract of the memoir of ,bianchini1 is taken from the ,annual ,register for #agfc3--,the ,countess ,cornelia ,bandi1 of the town of ,cesena1 aged #fb1 enjoyed a good state of health4 ,one evening1 having experienced a sort of drowsiness1 she retired to bed1 and her maid remained with her till she fell asleep4 ,next morning1 when the girl entered to awaken her mistress1 she found nothing but the remains of her mistress1 in a most horrid condition4 ,at the distance of four feet from the bed was a heap of ashes1 in which could be distinguished the legs and arms untouched4 ,between the legs lay the head1 the brain of which1 together with half the posterior part of the cranium1 and the whole chin1 had been consumed2 three fingers were found in the state of a coal2 the rest of the body was reduced to ashes1 and contained no oil2 the tallow of two candles was melted on a table1 but the wicks still remained1 and the feet of the candlesticks were covered with a certain moisture4 ,the bed was not damaged2 the bed-clothes and coverlid were raised up and thrown on one side1 as is the case when a person gets up4 ,the furniture and tapestry were covered with a moist kind of soot1 of the colour of ashes1 which had penetrated the drawers and dirtied the linen4 ,this soot having been conveyed to a neighbouring kitchen1 adhered to the walls and the utensils4 ,a piece of bread in the cupboard was covered with it1 and no dog would touch it4 ,the infectious odour had been communicated to other apartments4 ,the ,annual ,register states1 that the ,countess ,cesena was accustomed to bathe all her body in camphorated spirits of wine4 ,bianchini caused the detail of this deplorable event to be published at the time when it took place1 and no one contradicted it3 it was also attested by ,sapio ,maffei1 a learned contemporary of ,bianchini1 who was far from being credulous3 and1 in the last place1 this surprising fact was confirmed to the ,royal ,society of ,london1 by ,paul ,rolli4 ,the ,annual ,register mentions also two other facts of the same kind1 which occurred in ,england2 one at ,southampton1 and the other at ,coventry4 ,an instance of the like kind is preserved in the same work1 in a letter of ,mr4 ,wilmer1 surgeon3--,mary ,clues1 aged #ej1 was much addicted to intoxication4 ,her propensity to this vice had increased after the death of her husband1 which happened a year and a half before3 for about a year1 scarcely a day had passed1 in the course of which she did not drink at least half a pint of rum or aniseed-water4 ,her health gradually declined1 and about the beginning of ,february she was attacked by the jaundice1 and confined to her bed4 ,though she was incapable of much action1 and not in a condition to work1 she still continued her old habit of drinking every day1 and smoking a pipe of tobacco4 ,the bed in which she lay1 stood parallel to the chimney of the apartment1 the distance from it about three feet4 ,on ,saturday morning1 the #ast of ,march1 she fell on the floor2 and her extreme weakness having prevented her from getting up1 she remained in that state till some one entered and put her to bed4 ,the following night she wished to be left alone3 a woman quitted her at half past eleven1 and1 according to custom1 shut the door and locked it4 ,she had put on the fire two large pieces of coal1 and placed a light in a candlestick1 on a chair1 at the head of the bed4 ,at half after five in the morning1 a smoke was seen issuing through the window2 and the door being speedily broken open1 some flames which were in the room were soon extinguished4 ,between the bed and the chimney were found the remains of the unfortunate ,clues2 one leg and a thigh were still entire1 but there remained nothing of the skin1 the muscles1 or the viscera4 ,the bones of the cranium1 the breast1 the spine1 and the upper extremities1 were entirely calcined1 and covered with a whitish efflorescence4 ,the people were much surprised that the furniture had sustained so little injury4 ,the side of the bed which was next to the chimney1 had suffered the most2 the wood of it was slightly burnt1 but the feather-bed1 the clothes1 and covering1 were safe4 ,i entered the apartment about two hours after it had been opened1 and observed that the walls and every thing in it were blackened2 that it was filled with a very disagreeable vapour2 but that nothing except the body exhibited any strong traces of fire4 ,this instance has great similarity to that related by ,vicq4 d',azyr1 in the ,encyclopedie ,methodique1 under the head of ,pathologic ,anatomy of ,man4 ,a woman1 about #ej years of age1 who indulged to excess in spirituous liquors1 and got drunk every day before she went to bed1 was found entirely burnt1 and reduced to ashes4 ,some of the osseous parts only were left1 but the furniture of the apartment had suffered very little damage4 ,vicq4 d',azyr1 instead of disbelieving this phenomenon1 adds1 that there has been many other instances of the like nature4 ,we find also a circumstance of this kind1 in a work entitled1 ,acta ,medica et ,philosophica ,hafniensia1 and in the work of ,henry ,bohanser1 entitled1 ,le ,nouveau ,phosphore ,enflamme4--,a woman at ,paris1 who had been accustomed1 for three years1 to drink spirit of wine to such a degree that she used no other liquor1 was one day found entirely reduced to ashes1 except the skull and the extremities of the fingers4 ,the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london present also an instance of human combustion1 no less extraordinary4 ,it was mentioned at the time it happened1 in all the journals2 it was then attested by a great number of eye-witnesses1 and became the subject of many learned discussions4 ,three accounts of this event1 by different authors1 all nearly coincide4 ,the fact is related as follows3--,grace ,pitt1 the wife of a fishmonger1 of the parish of ,st4 ,clement1 ,ipswich1 aged about #fj1 had contracted a habit1 which she continued for several years1 of coming down every night from her bed-room1 half-dressed1 to smoke a pipe4 ,on the night of the #ith of ,april1 #agdd1 she got up from her bed as usual4 ,her daughter1 who slept with her1 did not perceive she was absent till next morning when she awoke1 soon after which she put on her clothes1 and1 going down into the kitchen1 found her mother stretched out on the right side1 with her head near the grate1 the body extended on the hearth1 with the legs on the floor1 which was of deal1 having the appearance of a log of wood1 consumed by a fire without apparent flames4 ,on beholding this spectacle1 the girl ran in great haste1 and poured over her mother's body some water1 contained in two large vessels1 in order to extinguish the fire2 while the fetid odour and smoke which exhaled from the body1 almost suffocated some of the neighbours who had hastened to the girl's assistance4 ,the trunk was in some measure incinerated1 and resembled a heap of coals1 covered with white ashes4 ,the head1 the arms1 the legs1 and the thighs1 had also participated in the burning4 ,this woman1 it is said1 had drunk a large quantity of spirituous liquor1 in consequence of being overjoyed to hear that one of her daughters had returned from ,gibraltar4 ,there was no fire in the grate1 and the candle had burnt entirely out in the socket of the candlestick1 which was close to her4 ,besides1 there were found near the consumed body1 the clothes of a child1 and a paper screen1 which had sustained no injury by the fire4 ,the dress of this woman consisted of a cotton gown4 ,le ,cat1 in a memoir on spontaneous burning1 mentions several other instances of combustion of the human body4--,having 7says he7 spent several months at ,rheims in the year #agbd and #agbe1 ,i lodged with ,sieur ,millet1 whose wife got intoxicated every day4 ,the domestic economy of the family was managed by a pretty young girl2 which ,i must not omit to remark1 in order that the circumstances which accompanied the fact ,i am about to relate1 may be better understood4--,this woman was found consumed on the #bjth of ,february1 #agbe1 at the distance of a foot and a half from the hearth in her kitchen4 ,a part of the head only1 with a portion of the lower extremities1 and a few of the vertebr1 had escaped combustion4 ,a foot and a half of the flooring under the body had been consumed1 but a kneading-trough and a powdering-tub1 which were near the body1 sustained no injury4 ,m4 ,criteen1 a surgeon1 examined the remains of the body with every judicial formality4 ,jean ,millet1 the husband1 being interrogated by the judges who instituted the inquiry into the affair1 declared1 that about eight in the evening on the #aith ,february1 he had retired to rest with his wife1 who not being able to sleep1 had gone into the kitchen1 where he thought she was warming herself2 that1 having fallen asleep1 he was awakened about two o'clock with a disagreeable odour1 and that1 having run to the kitchen1 he found the remains of his wife in the state described in the report of the physicians and surgeons4 ,the judges having no suspicion of the real cause of this event1 prosecuted the affair with the utmost diligence4 ,it was very unfortunate for ,millet that he had a handsome servant-maid1 for neither his probity nor innocence was able to save him from the suspicion of having got rid of his wife by a concerted plot1 and of having arranged the rest of the circumstances in such a manner as to give it the appearance of an accident4 ,he experienced1 therefore1 the whole severity of the law2 and though1 by an appeal to a superior and very enlightened court1 which discovered the cause of the combustion1 he came off victorious1 he suffered so much from uneasiness of mind1 that he was obliged to pass the remainder of his melancholy days in a hospital4 ,le ,cat relates another instance1 which has a most perfect resemblance to the preceding3 ,m4 ,boinnean1 cur of ,plerquer1 near ,dol1 7says he17 wrote to me the following letter1 dated ,february #bb1 #agdi3--';,allow me to communicate to you a fact which took place here about a fortnight ago4 ,madame de ,boiseon1 #hj years of age1 exceedingly meagre1 who had drunk nothing but spirits for several years1 was sitting in her elbow chair before the fire1 while her waiting-maid went out of the room for a few moments4 ,on her return1 seeing her mistress on fire1 she immediately gave an alarm2 and some people having come to her assistance1 one of them endeavoured to extinguish the flames with his hand1 but they adhered to it as if it had been dipped in brandy or oil on fire4 ,water was brought1 and thrown on the lady in abundance1 yet the fire appeared more violent1 and was not extinguished until the whole flesh had been consumed4 ,her skeleton1 exceedingly black1 remained entire in the chair1 which was only a little scorched2 one leg only1 and the two hands1 detached themselves from the rest of the bones4 ,it is not known whether her clothes had caught fire by approaching the grate4 ,the lady was in the same place in which she sat every day2 there was no extraordinary fire1 and she had not fallen4 ,what makes me suppose that the use of spirits might have produced this effect is1 my having been assured1 that at the gate of ,dinan an accident of the like kind happened to another woman1 under similar circumstances4' ,to these instances1 which ,i have multiplied to strengthen the evidence1 ,i shall add two other facts of the same kind1 published in the ,journal de ,medicine4 ,the first took place at ,aix1 in ,provence1 and is thus related by ,muraire1 a surgeon3--,in the month of ,february1 #aggi1 ,mary ,jauffret1 widow of ,nicholas ,gravier1 shoemaker1 of a small size1 exceedingly corpulent1 and addicted to drinking1 having been burnt in her apartment1 ,m4 ,rocas1 my colleague1 who was commissioned to make a report respecting her body1 found only a mass of ashes1 and a few bones1 calcined in such a manner1 that on the least pressure they were reduced to dust4 ,the bones of the cranium1 one hand1 and a foot1 had in part escaped the action of the fire4 ,near these remains stood a table untouched1 and under the table a small wooden stove1 the grating of which1 having been long burnt1 afforded an aperture1 through which1 it is probable1 the fire that occasioned the melancholy accident had been communicated3 one chair1 which stood too near the flames1 had the seat and fore feet burnt4 ,in other respects1 there was no appearance of fire1 either in the chimney or in the apartments2 so that1 except the fore part of the chair1 it appears to me1 that no other combustible matter contributed to this speedy incineration1 which was effected in the space of seven or eight hours4 ,the other instance mentioned in the ,journal de ,medicine1 took place at ,caen1 and is thus related by ,merille1 a surgeon of that city1 still alive3 ,being requested1 on the #c;d of ,june1 #aghb1 by the king's officers1 to draw up a report of the state in which ,i found ,mademoiselle ,thuars1 who was said to have been burnt1 ,i made the following observations3--,the body lay with the crown of the head resting against one of the hand-irons1 at the distance of eighteen inches from the fire1 the remainder of the body was placed obliquely before the chimney1 the whole being nothing but a mass of ashes4 ,even the most solid bones had lost their form and consistence2 none of them could be distinguished except the coronal1 the two parietal bones1 the two lumbar vertebr1 a portion of the tibia1 and a part of the omoplate2 and even these were so calcined1 that they became dust by the least pressure4 ,the right foot was found entire1 and scorched at its upper junction1 the left was more burnt4 ,the day was cold1 but there was nothing in the grate1 except two or three bits about an inch diameter1 burnt in the middle4 ,none of the furniture in the apartment was damaged4 ,the chair on which ,mademoiselle ,thuars had been sitting1 was found at the distance of a foot from her1 and absolutely untouched4 ,i must here observe1 that this lady was exceedingly corpulent1 that she was about sixty years of age1 and much addicted to spirituous liquors2 that the day of her death she had drunk three bottles of wine1 and about a bottle of brandy2 and that the consumption of the body had taken place in less than seven hours1 though1 according to appearance1 nothing around the body was burnt but the clothes4 ,the town of ,caen affords several other instances of the same kind4 ,i have been told by many people1 and particularly a physician of ,argentan1 named ,bouffet1 author of an ,essay on ,intermittent ,fevers1 that a woman of the lower class1 who lived at ,place ,villars1 and who was known to be much addicted to strong liquors1 had been found in her house burnt4 ,the extremities of her body only were spared1 but the furniture was very little damaged4 ,the town of ,caen records the history of another old woman1 addicted to drinking4 ,i was assured1 by those who told me the fact1 that the flames which proceeded from the body1 could not be extinguished by water3 but ,i think it needless to relate this1 and the particulars of another event which took place in the same town1 because they were not attested by a procs verbal1 and not having been communicated by professional men1 they do not inspire the same degree of confidence4 ,this collection of instances is supported1 therefore1 by all those authentic proofs1 which can be required to form human testimony2 for while we admit the prudent doubt of ,descartes1 we ought to reject the universal doubt of the ,pyrrhonists4 ,the multiplicity and uniformity even of these facts1 which occurred in different places1 and were attested by so many enlightened men1 carry with them conviction2 they have such a relation to each other1 that we are inclined to ascribe them to the same cause4 ,difficulties would1 no doubt1 be offered from reasoning against these facts2 but the writer remarks1 that human testimony is not to be rejected1 unless the probability that the facts must be impossible1 shall be greater than that arising from the concurrence of evidence3 and he adds1 that the narratives1 though varying so widely as to time and place1 do very remarkably agree in their tenor4 ,the circumstances are1 that1 7#a7 ,the combustion has usually destroyed the person by reducing the body to a mass of pulverulent fatty matter1 resembling ashes4 7#b7 ,there were no signs of combustion in surrounding bodies1 by which it could be occasioned1 as these were little1 if at all1 injured2 though1 7#c7 ,the combustion did not seem to be so perfectly spontaneous1 but that some slight cause1 such as the fire of a pipe1 or a taper1 or a candle1 seems to have begun it4 7#d7 ,the persons were generally much addicted to the use of spirituous liquors2 were very fat2 in most instances women1 and old4 7#e7 ,the extremities1 such as the legs1 hands1 or cranium1 escaped the fire4 7#f7 ,water1 instead of extinguishing the fire1 gave it more activity1 as happens when fat is burned4 7#g7 ,the residue was oily and fetid ashes1 with a greasy soot1 of a very penetrating and disagreeable smell4 ,the theory of the author may be considered as hypothetical1 until maturer observations shall throw more light on the subject4 ,the principal fact is1 that charcoal and oil1 or fat1 are known in some instances to take fire spontaneously1 and he supposes the carbon of the alcohol to be deposited in the fat parts of the human system1 and to produce this effect4 ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,john ,elwes--,daniel ,dancer--,henry ,wolby--,john ,henley--,simon ,brown1 and his ,curious ,dedication to ,queen ,caroline--,edward ,wortley ,montague--,blaise ,pascal--,old ,parr--,george ,psalmanazar--,john ,case--,john ,lewis ,cardiac--,john ,smeaton--,george ,morland--,henry ,christian ,heinecken--,thomas ,topham--,zeuxis4 ,,biographical4 ,,john ,,elwes4--,the family name of this extraordinary miser was ,meggot1 which he altered in pursuance of the will of ,sir ,harvey ,elwes1 his uncle1 who left him at least #bej1jjj1 and he was possessed of nearly as much of his own4 ,at this time he attended the most noted gaming houses1 and after sitting up a whole night at play for thousands1 he would proceed to ,smithfield to meet his cattle1 which were coming to market from his seat in ,essex1 and there would he stand disputing with a cattle-butcher for a shilling4 ,if the cattle did not arrive1 he would walk on to meet them2 and more than once he has gone the whole way to his farm without stopping1 which was seventeen miles from ,london4 ,he would walk in the rain in ,london1 sooner than pay a shilling for a coach2 sit in wet clothes1 to save the expense of a fire2 eat his provisions in the last stage of putrefaction2 and he wore a wig for a fortnight1 which he picked up in a lane4 ,in #aggd he was chosen knight of the shire for ,berkshire1 and his conduct in parliament was perfectly independent4 ,he died in #aghi1 aged about #gg1 leaving a fortune of #ejj1jjj1 besides entailed estates4 ,another extraordinary miser was ,,daniel ,,dancer4 ,he was born in #agaf1 near ,harrow1 in ,middlesex4 ,in #agcf he succeeded to his family estate1 which was considerable2 but his fathers before him were too great lovers of money to lay out any in improvements3 ,daniel followed their example1 and the farm went worse and worse4 ,he led the life of a hermit for above half a century2 his only dealing with mankind arose from the sale of his hay2 and he was seldom seen1 except when he was out gathering logs of wood from the common1 or old iron1 or sheep's dung under the hedges4 ,he was frequently robbed2 to prevent which1 he fastened his door up1 and got into his house through the upper window1 to ascend which he made use of a ladder1 which he drew up after him4 ,his sister1 who lived with him many years1 left him at her death a considerable increase to his wealth2 on which he bought a second-hand pair of black stockings1 to put himself in decent mourning4 ,this was an article of luxury1 for at other times ,daniel wore hay-bands on his legs4 ,he died in #agid1 and left his estates to ,lady ,tempest1 who had been very charitable to the poor man and his sister4 ,another extraordinary character was ,,henry ,,wolby1 ,esq4--,he was a native of ,lincolnshire1 and inherited a clear estate of more than #ajjjl4 a year4 ,he was regularly bred at the university1 studied for some time in one of the inns of court1 and in the course of his travels had spent several years abroad4 ,on his return1 this very accomplished gentleman settled on his paternal estate1 lived with great hospitality1 matched to his liking1 and had a beautiful and virtuous daughter1 who was married1 with his entire approbation1 to a ,sir ,christopher ,hilliard1 in ,yorkshire4 ,he had now lived to the age of forty1 respected by the rich1 prayed for by the poor1 honoured and beloved by all2 when1 one day1 a youngster1 with whom he had some difference in opinion1 meeting him in the field1 snapped a pistol at him1 which happily flashed in the pan4 ,thinking that this was done only to frighten him1 he coolly disarmed the ruffian1 and1 putting the weapon carelessly in his pocket1 thoughtfully returned home2 but1 after examination1 the discovery of bullets in the pistol had such an effect on his mind1 that he instantly conceived an extraordinary resolution of retiring entirely from the world1 in which he persisted to the end of his life4 ,he took a very fair house in the lower end of ,grub-street1 near ,cripplegate1 ,london1 and contracting a numerous retinue into a small family1 having the house prepared for his purpose1 he selected three chambers for himself2 the one for his diet1 the other for his lodging1 the other for his study4 ,as they were one within another1--while his diet was set on the table by an old maid1 he retired into his lodging room2 and when his bed was making1 into his study2 still doing so till all was clear4 ,out of these chambers1 from the time of his entry into them1 he never issued1 till he was carried thence1 #dd years after1 on men's shoulders2 neither1 in all that time1 did his son-in-law1 daughter1 or grand-child1 brother1 sister1 or kinsman1 young or old1 rich or poor1 of what degree or condition soever1 look upon his face1 save the ancient maid1 whose name was ,elizabeth4 ,she only made his fire1 prepared his bed1 provided his diet1 and dressed his chambers4 ,she saw him but seldom1 never but in cases of extraordinary necessity1 and died not six days before him4 ,in all the time of his retirement1 he never tasted fish or flesh2 his chief food was oatmeal gruel2 now and then1 in summer1 he had a salad of some choice cool herbs2 and for dainties1 when he would feast himself upon a high day1 he would eat the yoke of a hen's egg1 but no part of the white2 what bread he did eat1 he cut out of the middle of the loaf1 but the crust he never tasted2 his constant drink was four-shilling beer1 and no other1 for he never tasted wine or strong drink4 ,now and then1 when his stomach served1 he would eat some kind of sackers1 and he sometimes drank red cow's milk1 which was fetched hot from the cow4 ,nevertheless1 he kept a bountiful table for his servant1 and sufficient entertainment for any stranger or tenant1 who had occasion of business at his house4 ,every book that was printed was bought for him1 and conveyed to him2 but such as related to controversy he always laid aside1 and never read4 ,in ,christmas holidays1 at ,easter1 and other festivals1 he was provided with all dishes in season1 served into his own chamber1 with stores of wine1 which his maid brought in4 ,then1 after thanks to ,god for his good benefits1 he would pin a clean napkin before him1 and putting on a pair of clean holland sleeves1 which reached to his elbows1 cutting up dish after dish in order1 he would send one to a poor neighbour1 the next to another1 whether it were brawn1 beef1 capon1 goose1 c4 till he had left the whole table empty2 when1 giving thanks again1 he laid by his linen1 and caused the dishes to be taken away3 and this he would do1 at dinner and supper1 upon these days1 without tasting of any thing whatsoever4 ,when any clamoured impudently at his gate1 they were not1 therefore1 immediately relieved2 but when1 from his private chamber1 he espied any sick1 weak1 or lame1 he would presently send after them1 to comfort1 cherish1 and strengthen them1 and not a trifle to serve them for the present1 but so much as would relieve them many days after4 ,he would moreover inquire which of his neighbours were industrious in their callings1 and who had great charge of children2 and withal1 if their labour and industry could not sufficiently supply their families3 to such he would liberally send1 and relieve them according to their necessities4 ,he died at his house in ,grub-street1 after an anchoretical confinement of forty-four years1 ,october #bi1 #afcf1 aged #hd4 ,at his death1 his hair and beard was so overgrown1 that he appeared rather like a hermit of the wilderness1 than the inhabitant of one of the first cities in the world4 ,a very singular character was ,,john ,,henley1 ,m4 ,a4 commonly called ,orator ,henley4 ,he was born at ,melton-,mowbray1 ,leicestershire1 in #afia4 ,his father1 the ,rev4 ,simon ,henley1 and his maternal grandfather1 ,john ,dowel1 ,m4 ,a4 were both vicars of that parish4 ,having passed his exercises at ,cambridge1 and obtained the degree of ,b4 ,a4 he returned to his native place1 where he was desired by the trustees to take the direction of the school1 which he soon raised to a flourishing condition4 ,here he began his ,universal ,grammar2 finished ten languages1 with dissertations prefixed2 and wrote his poem on ,esther1 which was well received4 ,he was ordained a deacon by ,dr4 ,wake1 then ,bishop of ,lincoln2 and having taken his degree of ,m4 ,a4 was admitted to priest's orders by ,dr4 ,gibson4 ,after preaching many occasional sermons1 he went to ,london1 recommended by above thirty letters from the most considerable men in the country1 both of the clergy and laity4 ,he there published ,translations of ,pliny's ,epistles1 of several works of ,abb ,vertot1 of ,montfaucon's ,italian ,travels1 in folio1 and many original lucubrations4 ,his most generous patron was the ,earl of ,macclesfield1 who gave him a benefice in the country1 the value of which1 to a resident1 would have been above #hj a year2 he had likewise a lecture in the city2 sermons about town2 was more numerously followed1 and raised more for the poor children1 than any other preacher1 except the celebrated ,george ,whitfield4 ,but when he pressed his promise from a great man1 of being fixed in town1 it was negatived4 ,he then gave up his benefice and lecture1 believing the public would be a more hospitable protector of learning and science1 than some of the higher ranks in his own order4 ,he preached on ,sundays on theological matters1 and on ,wednesdays upon all other sciences4 ,he declaimed several years against the greatest persons1 and occasionally1 says ,warburton1 did ,pope that honour4 ,that great poet1 however1 retaliated in the following satirical lines3 ,imbrown'd with native bronze1 lo1 ,henley stands1 ,tuning his voice1 and balancing his hands4 ,how fluent nonsense trickles from his tongue6 ,how sweet the periods1 neither said nor sung6 ,still break the benches1 ,henley1 with thy strain1 ,while ,kennet1 ,hare1 and ,gibson1 preach in vain1 ,o great restorer of the good old age1 ,preacher at once1 and zany1 of thy age6 ,instead of tickets1 this extraordinary person struck medals1 which he dispersed among his subscribers3 ,a star rising to the meridian1 with this motto1 ,ad ,summa2 and below1 ,inveniam viam1 aut faciam4 ,each auditor paid us4 ,he was author of a weekly paper1 called ,the ,hyp ,doctor1 for which he had #ajj a year4 ,in his advertisements and lectures1 he often introduced satirical and humorous remarks on the public transactions of the times4 ,he once collected an audience of a great number of shoemakers1 by announcing that he could teach them a speedy mode of operation in their business2 which proved only to be1 the making of shoes from ready-made boots4 ,he died on the #adth of ,october1 #agef1 in his #feth year4 ,the next character we introduce is ,,simon ,,browne1 with his ,curious ,dedication to ,queen ,caroline4 ,simon ,browne was a most extraordinary dissenting minister1 and began to preach before he was twenty1 at ,portsmouth1 but afterwards became the pastor at ,old ,jewry4 ,in #agbc1 he lost his wife and son1 which so affected him1 that he quitted his office1 and would not even attend public worship1 alleging1 that he had fallen under the displeasure of ,god1 who had caused his rational soul to perish1 and left him only an animal life1 common with brutes2 that though he might appear rational to others1 he knew no more what he said than a parrot2 that it was in vain for him to pray2 and as such1 he no longer accounted himself a moral agent4 ,yet he frequently amused himself with translating the ancient ,latin and ,greek poets4 ,at the same time1 he wrote two very able works in defence of ,christianity against ,woolston and ,tindal4 ,he dedicated one of these works to the ,queen1 but the ,dedication was suppressed by his friends4 ,being a curiosity of its kind1 we shall annex it4 ,to the ,queen4--,madam3 ,of all the extraordinary things that have been tendered to your royal hands1 since your first happy arrival in ,britain1 it may be boldly said1 what now bespeaks your majesty's acceptance is the chief4 ,not in itself indeed2 it is a trifle unworthy your exalted rank1 and what will hardly prove an entertaining amusement to one of your majesty's deep penetration1 exact judgment1 and fine taste2 but on account of the author1 who is the first being of the kind1 and yet without a name4 ,he was once a man1 and of some little name2 but of no worth1 as his present unparalleled case makes but too manifest3 for1 by the immediate hand of an avenging ,god1 his very thinking substance has for more than seven years been continually wasting away1 till it is wholly perished out of him1 if it be not utterly come to nothing4 ,none1 no1 not the least remembrance of its very ruins1 remain2 not the shadow of an idea is left1 nor any sense1 so much as one single one1 perfect or imperfect1 whole or diminished1 ever did appear to a mind within him1 or was perceived by it4 ,such a present1 from such a thing1 however worthless in itself1 may not be wholly unacceptable to your majesty1 the author being such as history cannot parallel2 and if the fact1 which is real1 and no fiction1 or wrong conceit1 obtains credit1 it must be recorded as the most memorable1 and indeed1 astonishing event1 in the reign of ,george ,,ii4 that a tract composed by such a thing1 was presented to the illustrious ,caroline2--his royal consort need not be added2 fame1 if ,i am not misinformed1 will tell that with pleasure to all succeeding times4 ,he has been informed1 that your majesty's piety is genuine and eminent1 as your excellent qualities are great and conspicuous4 ,this can1 indeed1 be truly known to the great searcher of hearts only4 ,he alone1 who can look into them1 can discern if they are sincere1 and the main intention corresponds with the appearance2 and your majesty cannot take it amiss1 if such an author hints1 that his secret approbation is of infinitely greater value than the commendation of men1 who may be easily mistaken1 and are too apt to flatter their superiors4 ,but1 if he has been told the truth1 such a case as his will certainly strike your majesty with astonishment2 and may raise that commiseration in your royal breast1 which he has in vain endeavoured to excite in those of his friends2 who1 by the most unreasonable and ill-founded conceit in the world1 have imagined that a thinking being could not1 for seven years together1 live a stranger to its own powers1 exercises1 operations1 and state2 and to what the great ,god has been doing in it1 and to it4 ,if your majesty1 in your most retired address to the ,king of kings1 should think of so singular a case1 you may perhaps make it your devout request1 that the reign of your beloved sovereign and consort may be renowned to all posterity1 by the recovery of a soul now in the utmost ruin1 the restoration of one utterly lost at present amongst men2 and should this case affect your royal breast1 you will commend it to the piety and prayers of all the truly devout1 who have the honour to be known to your majesty3 many such doubtless there are2 though courts are not usually the places where the devout resort1 or where devotion reigns4 ,and it is not improbable1 that multitudes of the pious throughout the land may take a case to heart1 that1 under your majesty's patronage1 comes thus recommended4 ,could such a favour as this restoration be obtained from heaven1 by the prayers of your majesty1 with what transport of gratitude would the recovered being throw himself at your majesty's feet1 and1 adoring the divine power and grace1 profess himself4 ,i am1 c4 ,,simon ,,browne4 ,the next curious character we shall exhibit is ,,edward ,,wortley ,,montague4 ,he was son of the celebrated ,lady ,mary ,wortley ,montague4 ,he passed through such various scenes1 that he is well entitled to a place in this collection of curiosities4 ,from ,westminster school1 where he was placed for education1 he ran away thrice4 ,he exchanged clothes with a chimney-sweeper1 and followed for some time that sooty occupation4 ,he next joined a fisherman1 and cried flounders in ,rotherhithe4 ,he then sailed as a cabin-boy for ,spain2 where he had no sooner arrived1 than he ran away from the vessel1 and hired himself to a driver of mules4 ,after thus vagabondizing it for some time1 he was discovered by the consul1 who returned him to his friends in ,england4 ,they received him with joy1 and a private tutor was employed to recover those rudiments of learning which a life of dissipation1 blackguardism1 and vulgarity1 might have obliterated4 ,wortley was sent to the ,west ,indies1 where he remained some time2 then returned to ,england1 acted according to the dignity of his birth1 was chosen a member1 and served in two successive parliaments4 ,his expenses exceeding his income1 he became involved in debt1 quitted his native country1 and commenced that wandering traveller he continued to the time of his death4 ,having visited most of the eastern countries1 he contracted a partiality for their manners4 ,he drank little wine1 but a great deal of coffee2 wore a long beard2 smoked much2 and even whilst at ,venice1 was habited in the eastern style4 ,he sat cross-legged in the ,turkish fashion1 from choice4 ,with the ,hebrew1 the ,arabic1 the ,chaldaic1 and the ,persian languages1 he was as well acquainted as with his native tongue4 ,he published several pieces3 one on the ,rise and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire2 another on the ,causes of ,earthquakes4 ,he had seraglios of wives2 but the lady whom he married in ,england was a washerwoman1 with whom he did not cohabit4 ,when she died without leaving issue to him1 being unwilling that his estate should go to the ,bute family1 he set out for ,england1 to marry a young woman already pregnant1 whom a friend had provided for him2 but he died on his journey4 ,the next character that comes before us is ,,blaise ,,pascal4 ,he was one of the sublimest geniuses the world ever produced2 was born at ,clermont1 in ,auvergne1 in #afbc4 ,he never had any preceptor but his father4 ,so great a turn had he for the mathematics1 that he learned1 or rather invented1 geometry1 when but twelve years old2 for his father was unwilling to initiate him in that science early1 for fear of its diverting him from the study of the languages4 ,at sixteen1 he composed a curious mathematical piece4 ,about nineteen1 he invented his machine of arithmetic1 which has been much admired by the learned4 ,he afterwards employed himself assiduously in making experiments according to the new philosophy1 and particularly improved upon those of ,toricellius4 ,at the age of twenty-four his mind took a different turn2 for1 all at once1 he became as great a devotee as any age has ever produced1 and gave himself up entirely to prayer and mortification4 ,the next is a character famous for longevity4--,,thomas1 or ,,old ,,parr1 a remarkable ,englishman1 who lived in the reign of ten kings and queens4 ,he was the son of ,john ,parr1 a husbandman1 of ,winnington1 in the parish of ,alderbury1 ,salop4 ,following the profession of his father1 he laboured hard1 and lived on coarse fare4 ,being taken up to ,london by the ,earl of ,arundel1 the journey proved fatal to him4 ,owing to the alteration of his diet1 to the change of the air and his general mode of life1 he lived but a very short time2 though one ,robert ,samber says1 in his work entitled ,long ,livers1 that ,parr lived #af years after his presentation to ,charles ,,ii4 ,he was buried in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,after his death his body was opened1 and an account was drawn up by the celebrated ,dr4 ,harvey1 of which the following is an extract3 ,he had a large breast1 not fungous1 but sticking to his ribs1 and distended with blood2 a lividness in his face1 as he had a difficulty of breathing a little before his death2 and a long lasting warmth in his arm-pits and breast after it2 which sign1 together with others1 were so evident in his body as they use to be on those who die by suffocation4 ,his heart was great1 thick1 fibrous1 and fat2 the blood in the heart1 blackish and diluted2 the cartilages of the sternum not more bony than in others1 but flexile and soft4 ,his viscera were sound and strong1 especially the stomach2 and he used to eat often1 by night and day1 though contented with old cheese1 milk1 coarse bread1 small beer1 and whey2 and1 which is more remarkable1 he ate at midnight a little before he died4 ,his kidneys were covered with fat1 and pretty sound2 only on the interior surface were found some aqueous or serous abscesses1 whereof one was near the bigness of a hen's egg1 with a yellowish water in it1 having made a roundish cavity1 impressed on that kidney2 whence some thought it came1 that1 a little before his death1 a suppression of urine had befallen him2 though others were of opinion1 that his urine was suppressed upon the regurgitation of all the serosity into his lungs4 ,there was not the least appearance of any stony matter1 either in the kidneys or bladder4 ,his bowels were also sound1 a little whitish without4 ,his spleen very little1 hardly equal to the bigness of one kidney4 ,in short1 all his inward parts appeared so healthy1 that if he had not changed his diet and air1 he might1 perhaps1 have lived a good while longer4 ,the cause of his death was imputed chiefly to the change of food and air2 forasmuch as coming out of a clear1 thin1 and free air1 he came into the thick air of ,london2 and1 after a constant1 plain1 and homely country diet1 he was taken into a splendid family1 where he fed high1 and drank plentifully of the best wines1 whereupon the natural functions of the parts of his body were overcharged1 his lungs obstructed1 and the habit of the whole body quite disordered2 upon which there could not but ensue a dissolution4 ,his brain was sound1 entire1 and firm2 and though he had not the use of his eyes1 nor much of his memory1 several years before he died1 yet he had his hearing and apprehension very well2 and was able1 even to the #acjth year of his age1 to do any husbandman's work1 even threshing of corn4--,the following summary of his life is from ,oldy's ,,ms4 ,notes on ,fuller's ,worthies3 ,old ,parr was born #adhc2 lived at home until #aejj1 aged #ag1 when he went out to service4 #aeah1 aged #ce1 returned home from his master4 #aebb1 aged #ci1 spent four years on the remainder of his father's lease4 #aedc1 aged #fj1 ended the first lease he renewed of ,mr4 ,lewis ,porter4 #aefc1 aged #hj1 married ,jane1 daughter of ,john ,taylor1 a maiden2 by whom he had a son and a daughter1 who both died very young4 #aefd1 aged #ha1 ended the second lease which he renewed of ,mr4 ,john ,porter4 #aehe1 aged #ajb1 ended the third lease he had renewed of ,mr4 ,hugh ,porter4 #aehh1 aged #aje1 did penance in ,alderbury church1 for having a criminal connection with ,katherine ,milton1 by which she proved with child4 #aeie1 aged #aab1 he buried his wife ,jane1 after they had lived #cb years together4 #afje1 aged #abb1 having lived ten years a widower1 he married ,jane1 widow of ,anthony ,adda1 daughter of ,john ,lloyd1 of ,gilsells1 in ,montgomeryshire1 who survived him4 #afce1 aged #aeb and #i months1 he died1 after they had lived together #cj years1 and after #ej years' possession of his last lease4--,length of years are of no use1 unless they be spent in the practice of virtue4 ,the next character is a noted impostor1 under the assumed name of ,,george ,,psalmanazar4 ,he was a very extraordinary genius1 born in ,france1 and educated in a ,jesuit's college2 upon leaving which1 he fell into a mean1 rambling way of life4 ,at ,liege1 he entered into the ,dutch service1 and afterwards into that of ,cologne4 ,having stolen the habit and staff of a pilgrim out of a church1 he begged through several countries1 in elegant ,latin1 and1 accosting only gentlemen and clergymen1 received liberal supplies1 which he spent as freely4 ,in ,germany1 he passed for a native of ,formosa1 a convert to ,christianity1 and a sufferer for it4 ,at ,rotterdam he lived upon raw flesh1 roots1 and vegetables4 ,at ,sluys he fell in with ,brigadier ,lauder1 a ,scots colonel1 who introduced him to the chaplain2 who1 to recommend himself to the bishop of ,london1 took him over to that city4 ,the bishop patronised him with credulous humanity1 and a large circle of his great friends considered him as a prodigy4 ,he published a ,history of ,formosa1 and1 what was most extraordinary1 invented a character and language for that island1 and translated the ,church ,catechism in to it1 which was examined by learned critics1 and approved4 ,some of the learned1 however1 doubted him1 particularly ,drs4 ,halley1 ,mead1 and ,woodward4 ,he was allowed the use of the ,oxford ,library1 and employed in compiling ,the ,universal ,history4 ,some errors in his history first led him to be suspected as an impostor4 ,he died in #agec2 and in his last will confessed the imposture4 ,the next subject is a celebrated ,quack ,doctor1 named ,,john ,,case4 ,he was a native of ,lyme ,regis1 in ,dorsetshire1 was a noted empyric and astrologer1 and looked upon as the successor of the famous ,lilly1 whose magical utensils he possessed4 ,he is said to have got more by this distich over his door1 than ,dryden1 by all his poetry3 ,within this place ,lives ,doctor ,case4 ,and he was1 doubtless1 well paid for composing that which he affixed to his pill boxes3 ,here's fourteen pills for thirteen pence1 ,enough in any man's own conscience4 ,there is a story told of him and ,dr4 ,radcliff3 being together at a tavern1 ,radcliff said1 ,here1 brother ,case2 ,i drink to all the fools your patients4--,thank ye1 quoth ,case2 let me have all the fools1 and you are welcome to the rest4 ,he wrote a nonsensical rhapsody1 called the ,angelical ,guide1 shewing men and women their lot and chance in this elementary life4 ,our next character is famous for prematurity of genius1 and named ,,john ,,lewis ,,candiac4 ,he was born at ,candiac1 in the diocese of ,nismes1 in ,france1 in #agai4 ,in the cradle he distinguished his letters2 at thirteen months he knew them perfectly2 at three years of age he read ,latin1 either printed or in manuscript2 at four1 he translated from that tongue2 at six1 he read ,greek and ,hebrew1 was master of the principles of arithmetic1 history1 geography1 heraldry1 and the science of medals2 and had read the best authors on almost every branch of literature4 ,he died of a complication of disorders1 at ,paris1 in #agbf4 ,the next character deserves to be recorded as one that was eminently useful in his day and generation4 ,,john ,,smeaton1 born near ,leeds1 in #agbd1 was an eminent civil engineer4 ,the strength of his understanding1 and the originality of his genius1 appeared at an early age3 his playthings were not the playthings of children1 but the tools which men employ3 and he appeared to have greater entertainment in seeing the men in the neighbourhood work1 and in asking them questions1 than in any thing else4 ,one day he was seen 7to the distress of his friends7 on the top of his father's barn1 fixing up something like a windmill3 another time he attended some men fixing a pump1 at a neighbouring village1 and observing them cut off a piece of bored pipe1 he was so lucky as to procure it1 and he actually made with it a working pump that raised water4 ,this happened while he was in petticoats1 and most likely before he had attained his sixth year4 ,while we admire the ingenuity of the next character1 we must lament that his conduct was licentious4 ,it is the well-known ,,george ,,morland1 an ingenious1 dissipated1 and unfortunate painter4 ,as he had no other education than what was connected with the pencil and pallet1 he shunned the society of the well-informed and well-bred2 and his pictures accordingly are taken1 for the most part1 from low life1 and from the most humble1 if not the most shocking1 situations in which mankind consort4 ,the following anecdote will give a sufficient view of ,morland's character1 upon which it would give us pain to dwell at greater length4 ,he was found 7says his biographer7 at one time in a lodging in ,somer's-,town1 in the following extraordinary circumstances3 his infant child1 that had been dead nearly three weeks1 lay in its coffin in one corner of the room2 an ass and foal stood munching barley straw out of the cradle2 a sow and pigs were solacing themselves in the recess of an old cupboard2 and himself whistling over a beautiful picture that he was finishing at his easel1 with a bottle of gin hung upon the side1 and a live mouse sitting 7or if you please1 kicking7 for its portrait4 ,his constitution1 exhausted by dissipation1 rapidly gave way1 and he died before he had reached his fortieth year4 ,the next character was indeed a prodigy1 that shone like a meteor1 and soon vanished away4 ,we shall introduce him under the name of ,,christian ,,henry ,,heinecken4 ,he was born at ,lubeck1 ,february #f1 #agba1 and died there1 ,june #bg1 #agbe1 after having displayed the most amazing proofs of intellectual powers4 ,he could talk at ten months old1 and had scarcely completed his first year1 when he already knew and recited the principal facts contained in the five books of ,moses1 with a number of verses on the creation3 at thirteen months1 he knew the history of the ,old ,testament2 and the ,new1 at fourteen2 in his thirtieth month1 the history of the nations of antiquity1 geography1 anatomy1 the use of maps1 and nearly #ejjj ,latin words4 ,before the end of his third year1 he was well acquainted with the history of ,denmark1 and the genealogy of the crowned heads of ,europe2 in his fourth year he had learned the doctrines of divinity1 with their proofs from the ,bible2 ecclesiastical history2 the institutes2 #bjj hymns1 with their tunes2 #hj psalms2 entire chapters of the ,old and ,new ,testaments2 #aejj verses and sentences from ancient ,latin classics2 almost the whole ,orbis ,pictus of ,comenius1 whence he had derived all his knowledge of the ,latin language2 arithmetic2 the history of the ,european empires and kingdoms2 could point out1 in the maps1 whatever place he was asked for1 or passed by in his journeys2 and recited all the ancient and modern historical anecdotes relating to it4 ,his stupendous memory caught and retained every word he was told3 his ever active imagination used1 whatever he saw or heard1 instantly to apply some example or sentence from the ,bible1 geography1 profane or ecclesiastical history1 the ,orbis ,pictus1 or from ancient classics4 ,at the court of ,denmark1 he delivered twelve speeches without once faltering2 and underwent public examination on a variety of subjects1 especially the history of ,denmark4 ,he spoke ,german1 ,latin1 ,french1 and low ,dutch1 and was exceedingly good-natured1 and well-behaved1 but of a most tender and delicate bodily constitution2 never ate any solid food1 but chiefly subsisted on nurse's milk1 not being weaned till within a very few months of his death1 at which time he was not quite four years old4 ,there is a dissertation on this1 published by ,m4 ,martini1 at ,lubeck1 #agcj1 where the author attempts to assign the natural causes for the astonishing capacity of this great man in embryo1 who was just shewn to the world1 and snatched away4 ,the next character is of a different description1 being famous for strength of body2 he is named ,,thomas ,,topham4 ,this person was remarkable for muscular strength4 ,he kept a public-house at ,islington1 and used to perform surprising feats1 such as breaking a broomstick of the first magnitude1 by striking it against his bare arm2 lifting two hogsheads of water2 heaving his horse over the turnpike-gate2 carrying the beam of a house as a soldier would his firelock1 c4 ,he also could roll up a pewter dish of seven pounds1 as a man rolls up a sheet of paper2 squeeze a pewter quart together at arms' length2 and lift two hundred weight with his little finger1 over his head4 ,at ,derby1 he broke a rope fastened to the floor1 that would sustain twenty hundred weight2 and lifted an oak table1 six feet long1 with his teeth1 though half a hundred weight was hung at the extremity4 ,he took ,mr4 ,chambers1 vicar of ,all ,saints1 who weighed twenty-seven stone1 and raised him with one hand4 ,he stabbed himself1 after quarrelling with1 and wounding his wife1 #agdi4--;,extraordinary strength of body is of little value1 if strength of virtue be wanting4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with a celebrated ,painter of ,antiquity1 named ,,zeuxis4 ,this celebrated painter flourished about #djj years ,b4 ,c4 ,he was born at ,heraclea2 but as there have been many cities of that name1 it cannot be certainly determined which of them had the honour of his birth4 ,some conjecture1 that it was ,heraclea1 near ,crotona1 in ,italy4 ,he carried painting to a much higher degree of perfection than ,apollodorus had left it2 discovered the art of properly disposing of lights and shades1 and particularly excelled in colouring4 ,he amassed immense riches2 and then resolved to sell no more of his pictures1 but gave them away2 saying1 ,that he could not set a price on them equal to their value4 ,pliny observes1 that this admirable painter1 disputing for the prize of painting with ,parrhasius1 painted some grapes so naturally1 that the birds flew down to peck them3 ,parrhasius1 on the other hand1 painted a curtain so very artfully1 that ,zeuxis1 mistaking it for a real one1 that hid his rival's work1 ordered the curtain to be drawn aside1 to shew what ,parrhasius had done2 but having found his mistake1 he ingenuously confessed himself vanquished1 since he had only imposed upon birds1 while ,parrhasius had deceived even a master of the art4 ,another time he painted a boy loaded with grapes2 when the birds also flew to this picture1--at which he was vexed1 and confessed that his work was not sufficiently finished1 since1 had he painted the boy as perfectly as the grapes1 the birds would have been afraid of him4 ,archelaus1 king of ,macedon1 made use of ,zeuxis's pencil for the embellishment of his palace4 ,one of this painter's finest pieces was a ,hercules strangling two ,serpents in his ,cradle1 in the presence of his affrighted ,mother2 but he himself chiefly esteemed his ,athleta1 or ,champion1 under which he placed a ,greek verse1 that afterwards became very famous1 and in which he says1 ,that it was easier to criticize than to imitate the picture4 ,he made a present of his ,alcmena to the ,agrigentines4 ,zeuxis did not value himself on speedily finishing his pictures2 but knowing that ,agatharcus gloried in his being able to paint with ease and in a little time1 he said1 ,that for his part1 he1 on the contrary1 gloried in his slowness2 and if he was long in painting1 it was because he painted for eternity4 ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,nicholas ,pesce--,paul ,scarron--,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi--,anna ,maria ,schurman--,samuel ,bisset1 the noted ,animal ,instructor--,john ,philip ,baratier--,buonaparte4 ,,biographical4 ,,nicholas ,,pesce1 the first extraordinary character we shall introduce1 was a famous diver1 of whom ,f4 ,kircher gives the following account4 ,in the time of ,frederick king of ,sicily1 7says ,kircher17 lived ,nicholas1 who1 from his amazing skill in swimming1 and his perseverance under water1 was surnamed the ,fish4 ,this man had from his infancy been used to the sea2 and earned his scanty subsistence by diving for coral and oysters1 which he sold to villagers on shore4 ,his long acquaintance with the sea1 at last brought it to be almost his natural element4 ,he was frequently known to spend five days in the midst of the waves1 without any other provisions than the fish which he caught there1 and ate raw4 ,he often swam over from ,sicily to ,calabria1 a tempestuous and dangerous passage1 carrying letters from the king4 ,he was frequently known to swim among the gulfs of the ,lipari islands1 no way apprehensive of danger4 ,some mariners out at sea1 one day observed something at some distance from them1 which they regarded as a sea-monster2 but1 upon its approach1 it was known to be ,nicholas1 whom they took into their ship4 ,when they asked him whither he was going in so strong and rough a sea1 and at such a distance from land2 he shewed them a packet of letters1 which he was carrying to one of the towns of ,italy1 exactly done up in a leather bag1 in such a manner that they could not be wetted by the sea4 ,he kept them thus company for some time in their voyage1 conversing and asking questions2 and after eating a hearty meal with them1 he took his leave1 and1 jumping into the sea1 pursued his voyage alone4 ,in order to aid his powers of enduring in the deep1 nature seemed to have assisted him in a very extraordinary manner3 for the spaces between his fingers and toes were webbed1 as in a goose2 and his chest became so very capacious1 that he could take in at one inspiration as much breath as would serve him for several hours4 ,the account of so extraordinary a person did not fail to reach the king himself2 who commanded ,nicholas to be brought before him4 ,it was no easy matter to find ,nicholas1 who generally spent his time in the solitudes of the deep2 but1 at last1 after much searching1 he was found1 and brought before his majesty4 ,the curiosity of this monarch had been long excited by the accounts he had heard of the bottom of the gulf of ,charybdis4 ,he now1 therefore1 conceived that it would be a proper opportunity to have more certain information4 ,accordingly1 he commanded our poor diver to examine the bottom of this dreadful whirlpool2 and as an incitement to his obedience1 he ordered a golden cup to be flung into it4 ,nicholas was not insensible of the danger to which he was exposed3 dangers best known only to himself2 and therefore he presumed to remonstrate2 but the hopes of the reward1 the desire of pleasing the king1 and the pleasure of shewing his skill1 at last prevailed4 ,he instantly jumped into the gulf1 and was as instantly swallowed up in its bosom4 ,he continued for three-quarters of an hour below1 during which time the king and his attendants remained on shore1 anxious for his fate2 but he at last appeared1 holding the cup in triumph in one hand1 and making his way good among the waves with the other4 ,it may be supposed he was received with applause when he came on shore2 the cup was made the reward of his adventure2 the king ordered him to be taken proper care of2 and1 as he was somewhat fatigued and debilitated by his labour1 after a hearty meal1 he was put to bed1 and permitted to refresh himself by sleeping4 ,when his spirits were thus restored1 he was again brought1 to satisfy the king's curiosity with a narrative of the wonders he had seen1 and his account was to the following effect4 ,he would never1 he said1 have obeyed the king's commands1 had he been apprised of half the dangers that were before him4 ,these were four things1 he said1 which rendered the gulf dreadful1 not only to men1 but to fishes themselves3 #a4 ,the great force of the water bursting up from the bottom1 which required great strength to resist4 #b4 ,the abruptness of the rocks1 that on every side threatened destruction4 #c4 ,the force of the whirlpool dashing against those rocks4 ,and1 #d4 ,the number and magnitude of the polypous fish1 some of which appeared as large as a man2 and which1 every where sticking against the rocks1 projected their long and fibrous arms to entangle him4 ,being asked how he was able so readily to find the cup that had been thrown in1 he replied1 that it happened to be flung by the waves into the cavity of a rock1 against which he himself was urged in his descent4 ,this account1 however1 did not satisfy the king's curiosity4 ,being requested to venture once more into the gulf for further discoveries1 he at first refused2 but the king1 desirous of having the most exact information possible of all things to be found in the gulf1 repeated his solicitations2 and1 to give them still greater weight1 produced a larger cup than the former1 and added also a purse of gold4 ,upon these considerations1 the unfortunate diver once again plunged into the whirlpool1 and was never heard of more4 ,,paul ,,scarron4--,this famous ,french burlesque writer1 was the son of a counsellor in parliament1 and was born at ,paris1 about the end of #afaj1 or beginning of #afaa4 ,his father marrying a second wife1 he was compelled to assume the ecclesiastical profession4 ,at the age of #bd1 he visited ,italy1 and freely indulged in licentious pleasures4 ,after his return to ,paris1 he persisted in a life of dissipation1 till a long and painful disease convinced him that his constitution was almost worn out4 ,at length1 when engaged in a party of pleasure1 at the age of #bg1 he lost the use of those legs which had danced so gracefully1 and of those hands which once could paint1 and play on the lute1 with so much elegance4 ,this happened in the following manner3 ,in #afch he was attending the carnival at ,mentz1 of which he was canon4 ,having dressed himself one day as a savage1 his singular appearance excited the curiosity of the children of the town4 ,they followed him in multitudes1 and he was obliged to take shelter in a marsh4 ,this wet and cold situation produced a numbness which totally deprived him of the use of his limbs2 yet he continued gay and cheerful4 ,he took up his residence in ,paris1 and by his pleasant humour soon attracted to his house all the men of wit about the city4 ,the loss of his health was followed by the loss of his fortune4 ,on the death of his father he entered into a process with his step-mother2 and pleaded his own cause in a ludicrous manner1 though his whole fortune depended on the decision4 ,he was unsuccessful1 and was ruined4 ,mademoiselle de ,hautefort1 compassionating his misfortunes1 procured for him an audience of the queen4 ,the poet requested to have the title of ,valetudinarian to her majesty3 the queen smiled1 and ,scarron considered the smile as a commission to his new office4 ,cardinal ,mazarine gave him a pension of #ejj crowns2 but that minister having received disdainfully the dedication of his ,typhon1 the poet immediately wrote a ,mazarinade1 and the pension was withdrawn4 ,he then attached himself to the prince of ,cond1 and celebrated his victories4 ,he at length formed the extraordinary resolution of marrying1 and was accordingly1 in #afea1 married to ,madame d',aubigne1 afterwards celebrated by the name of ,maintenon4 ,at this time 7says ,voltaire7 it was considered as a great acquisition for her to gain for a husband1 a man who was disfigured by nature1 impotent1 and very little enriched by fortune4 ,she restrained by her modesty his indecent buffooneries2 and the good company which had formerly resorted to his house again frequented it4 ,scarron now became more decent in his manners and conversation2 and his gaiety was thus more agreeable4 ,but he lived with so little economy1 that his income was soon reduced to a small annuity1 and his marquisate of ,quinet1 i4 e4 the profits of his publications1 which were printed by one ,quinet4 ,he was accustomed to talk to his superiors with great freedom in his jocular style1 as appears from the dedication of his ,don ,japhet d',armenie to the king4 ,though ,scarron wrote comedies1 he had not patience to study the rules of dramatic poetry4 ,aristotle and ,horace1 ,plautus and ,terence1 would have frightened him4 ,he saw an open path before him1 and he followed it4 ,it was the fashion of the times to pillage the ,spanish writers4 ,scarron was acquainted with that language1 and he found it easier to use materials already prepared1 than to rack his brain by inventing subjects4 ,as he borrowed liberally from them1 a dramatic piece cost him little labour4 ,the great success of his ,jodelet ,maitre was a vast allurement to him4 ,the comedians who acted it1 requested more of his productions4 ,they were written with little toil1 and they procured him large sums4 ,they also served to amuse him4 ,he dedicated his books to his sister's greyhound bitch4 ,fouquet gave him a pension of #afjj livres4 ,christiana1 queen of ,sweden1 having come to ,paris1 was anxious to see ,scarron1 ,i permit you 7said she to ,scarron7 to fall in love with me4 ,the queen of ,france has made you her ,valetudinarian1 and ,i create you my ,roland4 ,scarron did not long enjoy that title2 he was seized with a violent hiccough4 ,he retained his gaiety to his last moment4 ,he died on the #adth of ,october1 #affj1 aged #ea4 ,his works have been collected1 and published by ,bruzen de la ,martiniere1 in #aj vols4 #abmo4 #agcg4 ,his ,comic ,romance1 in prose1 merits attention4 ,it is written with much humour and purity of style1 and contributed to the improvement of the ,french language4 ,it had a prodigious run2 it was the only one of his works that ,boileau could submit to read4 ,scarron can raise a laugh on the most serious subjects2 but his sallies are rather those of a buffoon1 than the effusions of ingenuity and taste4 ,he is continually falling into the mean and the obscene4 ,sterne seems to have imitated ,scarron in his ,tristram ,shandy4 ,we shall now introduce two female characters of note4 ,the first is ,,maria ,,gaetana ,,agnesi1 a lady of extraordinary genius1 and most extensive acquirements1 who was born at ,milan1 on the #afth of ,may1 #agah4 ,her father1 ,pietro ,agnesi1 of ,milan1 was royal feudatory of ,monteveglia1 and its dependencies2 and being a man of some rank and consequence1 he was disposed1 from paternal affection1 to provide suitably for the education of his infant daughter1 who gave the most striking indications of talent4 ,from her tenderest years1 she discovered a wonderful aptness1 and a vehement desire1 for acquiring languages4 ,under the direction of proper masters1 she studied at the very same time the ,latin and ,greek1 the ,french and ,german2 and while the rapidity of her progress excited astonishment1 such were the prodigious powers of her memory1 that she could easily pursue those diversified objects without feeling the smallest degree of confusion4 ,when yet scarcely nine years old1 this surprising child delivered a ,latin oration1 to prove that the cultivation of letters is not inconsistent with the female character1--before an assembly of learned persons1 invited to her father's house4 ,at the age of eleven1 the young ,agnesi could not only read ,greek1 and translate it instantly into ,latin1 but could even speak that refined language with the same apparent ease and fluency as if it had been her native tongue4 ,nor did these acquisitions absorb her whole attention2 a nobler field was opened to the exercise of her mental faculties4 ,she now began to read ,euclid's ,elements1 and proceeded in algebra as far as quadratic equations4 ,thus prepared1 she advanced with ardour to the study of natural philosophy2 but not content with the sober proofs there unfolded1 she soared to the height of metaphysics1 and engaged in the most abtruse and intricate disquisitions of that contentious science4 ,after this young lady had attained the age of #ad1 her father1 anxious to forward her ardour for improvement1 and willing to gratify her ambition for literary distinction1 invited occasionally to his house a number of persons1 the most respectable in ,milan for their rank and learning4 ,in the midst of this grave auditory1 ,donna ,agnesi made her appearance2 and1 without resigning the native delicacy of her sex1 she maintained a succession of new theses on various difficult parts of philosophy1 and handled the arguments with such dexterity and commanding eloquence1 as singly to vanquish every opponent that entered the field of controversy4 ,these disputations were all of them carried on in the ,latin language1 which she spoke with the utmost ease1 purity1 and copious elegance4 ,every thing conspired to heighten the impression produced on the admiring spectators4 ,in the full bloom of youth1 her person agreeable1 her manner graceful1 an air of gentleness and modesty gave irresistible charms to her whole demeanour4 ,such1 for several years1 was the great theatre of her glory4 ,but having nearly completed the circle of philosophy1 and exhausted the chief topics of discussion1 she resolved at length to close that career with a solemnity suitable to the occasion4 ,in the year #agch1 ,agnesi made her last brilliant display1 before an august assembly1 composed of the most learned and illustrious of the ,milanese nobility1 the senators1 and foreign ministers1 with the most distinguished professors in all the branches of science and literature4 ,the substance of these philosophical conferences was afterwards published in a quarto volume1 entitled1 ,propositiones ,philosophic1 quas1 crebris ,disputationibus domi habitis1 coram clarissimis viris1 explicabat extempore1 et ab objectis vindicabat ,maria ,cajetana de ,agnesi ,mediolanensis4 ,agnesi now bent her whole attention to the culture of mathematics2 and1 without guide or assistance1 she composed a very useful commentary on ,l',hospital's ,conic ,sections1 which is said to exist still in manuscript4 ,in the sublimer departments of that science1 her studies were directed by the matured experience of ,rampinelli1 professor of mathematics in the university of ,pisa2 but she soon gave proofs of her amazing proficiency1 in digesting a complete body of the modern calculus4 ,this excellent work1 entitled1 ,analytical ,institutions1 for the ,use of the ,italian ,youth1 appeared in #agdh1 in two volumes quarto1 and was highly esteemed by the best judges1 and justly regarded as exhibiting the fullest and clearest view of the state of the science at that period4 ,she was1 in consequence1 elected by acclamation a member of the ,institute of ,sciences of ,bologna2 and the pope farther conferred on her the title of ,professor of ,mathematics in the university of that city4 ,but ,agnesi was already sated with literary fame4 ,that sun1 which in its ascent had shone forth with such dazzling radiance1 was1 through the rest of its course1 shrouded in clouds and darkness4 ,the fever of genius had preyed on her mind1 and the high fit of excitement was quickly succeeded by a hopeless depression of spirits4 ,she repelled the seductions of human learning1 and abandoned for ever her favourite mathematical pursuits4 ,renouncing the vanities of this world1 she withdrew from society1 embraced a life of religious seclusion1 and sunk by degrees into the languor of religious melancholy4 ,she studied nothing but ,hebrew1 and the rhapsodies of the ,greek fathers of the church4 ,for upwards of twenty years she denied all access to strangers4 ,the famous ,lalande complains1 in his ,travels through ,italy1 that he was not allowed the honour of visiting that prodigy2 and ,father ,boscovick himself1 whose religious principles must have been unexceptionable1 experienced1 notwithstanding his repeated importunities1 a similar refusal4 ,indulging that gloomy temper1 she retired into a convent1 and assumed the habit of a ,blue ,nun4 ,she sought to forget the world1 and was herself forgotten4 ,she died about the year #aggj4 ,the ,inshhizioni ,analytiche of ,agnesi were translated into ,english1 many years ago1 by ,mr4 ,colson1 ,lucasian professor of mathematics at ,cambridge4 ,the translation was discovered among the papers of that ingenious mathematician1 by the learned ,baron ,maseres1 who put the manuscript into the hands of ,mr4 ,hellins1 as editor1 and generously defrayed the expenses attending the publication4 ,,anna ,,maria ,,schurman1 the other distinguished female character1 was born at ,cologne1 #afjg1 of parents sprung from noble ,protestant families4 ,from her infancy she discovered an uncommon dexterity of hand2 for1 at six years of age1 she cut with her scissors all sorts of figures upon paper1 without any pattern or model4 ,at eight1 she learned in a few days to design flowers in a very agreeable manner2 and two years after1 took no more than three hours in learning to embroider4 ,she was afterwards instructed in music1 painting1 sculpture1 and engraving2 and succeeded to admiration in all these arts4 ,her hand-writing in all languages was inimitable2 and some curious persons have preserved specimens of it in their cabinets4 ,mr4 ,joby1 in his journey to ,munster1 relates1 that he had a view of the beauty of her writing in ,french1 ,greek1 ,hebrew1 ,syriac1 and ,arabic2 and was an eye-witness of her skill in drawing in miniature1 and making portraits upon glass with the point of a diamond4 ,she painted her own picture2 and made artificial pearls1 so nearly resembling natural ones1 that they could not be distinguished1 except by pricking them with a needle4 ,the powers of her understanding were equally capacious2 for1 at eleven years of age1 when her brothers were examined in their ,latin exercises1 she frequently whispered them what to answer1 though she had only heard them say their lessons en passant1 which her father observing1 and perceiving she had a genius for literature1 determined to cultivate those talents he saw she was possessed of1 and accordingly assisted her in gaining that noble stock of learning1 for which she was afterwards so eminent4 ,the ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew languages were so familiar to her1 that she not only wrote1 but spoke them fluently1 to the surprise of the most learned men4 ,she made a great progress also in the ,oriental languages which had an affinity with the ,hebrew1 as the ,syriac1 ,chaldee1 ,arabic1 and ,ethiopic2 understood the living languages perfectly well1 and could converse readily in ,french1 ,english1 and ,italian4 ,she was likewise competently versed in geography1 astronomy1 philosophy1 and the sciences2 but as her mind was naturally of a religious cast1 these learned amusements gave her but little satisfaction2 and at length she applied herself to divinity1 and the study of the holy scriptures4 ,while she was an infant1 her father had settled at ,utrecht1 but afterwards1 for the more convenient education of his children1 removed to ,praneker1 where he died #afbc4 ,upon which his widow returned to ,utrecht1 where ,anna ,maria continued her studies very intensely2 which undoubtedly kept her from marrying1 as she might advantageously have done with ,mr4 ,cotts1 pensionary of ,holland1 and a celebrated poet1 who wrote verses in her praise1 when she was no more than fourteen years of age4 ,her modesty1 which was as remarkable as her knowledge1 would have kept her merit and learning in obscurity1 if ,rivetus1 ,spanheim1 and ,vossius1 had not produced her1 contrary to her own inclination1 upon the stage of the world4 ,to these three divines we may add ,salmasius1 ,beveronicius1 and ,huygens1 who maintained a literary correspondence with her1 and1 by shewing her letters1 spread her fame into foreign countries4 ,this procured her letters from eminent men2 and her name became so famous1 that persons of the first distinction1 even princesses1 paid her visits2 and cardinal ,richelieu shewed her marks of his esteem4 ,about the year #afej1 she made a visible alteration in her religious system4 ,she no longer went to public worship1 but performed her devotions in private2 which occasioned a report that she was inclined to popery3 but the truth was1 she had attached herself to ,labadie1 the famous ,quietist1 and embracing his principles and practices1 accompanied him wherever he went4 ,she lived some time with him at ,altena1 in ,holstein1 where she attended him at his death in #afgd4 ,she afterwards retired to ,weimart1 in ,friesland1 where ,mr4 ,william ,penn1 the quaker1 visited her in #afgg2 and died at this place1 #afgh4 ,she took for her device these words of ,st4 ,ignatius1 ,amor meus crucifixus est1 ,my ,love is crucified4 ,,samuel ,,bisset1 the noted animal instructor1 next follows4--,a most singular character1 famous for teaching quadrupeds to perform very remarkable actions4 ,he was born at ,perth1 in #agba4 ,he first tried his skill on a horse and a dog which he bought in ,london1 and he succeeded beyond all expectation4 ,two monkeys were the next pupils he took in hand2 one of these he taught to dance and tumble on the rope1 whilst the other held a candle with one paw for his companion1 and with the other played a barrel organ4 ,these antic animals he also instructed to play several fanciful tricks1 such as drinking to the company1 riding and tumbling upon the horse's back1 and going through several regular dances with the dog4 ,being a man of unwearied patience1 three young cats were the next objects of his tuition4 ,he taught those domestic tigers1 to strike their paws in such directions on the dulcimer1 as to produce several tunes1 having music-books before them1 and squalling at the same time in different keys or tones1 first1 second1 and third1 by way of concert4 ,in such a city as ,london1 these feats could not fail of exciting attention4 ,the well-known ,cat's ,opera was performed at the ,haymarket2 the horse1 the dog1 the monkeys1 and the cats1 went through their several parts with uncommon applause1 to crowded houses2 and in a few days ,bisset found himself in possession of nearly a thousand pounds to reward his ingenuity4 ,this success excited a desire of extending his dominion over other animals1 including even the feathered kind4 ,he procured a leveret1 and reared it to beat several marches on the drum with its hind-legs1 until it became a good stout hare4 ,this creature1 which is always set down as the most timid1 he declared to be as mischievous and bold an animal1 to the extent of its power1 as any with which he was acquainted4 ,he taught canary-birds1 linnets1 and sparrows1 to spell the name of any person in company1 to distinguish the hour and minute of time1 and play many other surprising tricks2 he trained six turkey cocks to go through a regular country dance4 ,in the course of six months' teaching1 he made a turtle fetch and carry like a dog2 and having chalked the floor1 and blackened his claws1 could direct it to trace out any given name in the company4 ,the following is a surprising instance of premature genius1 in the person of ,,john ,,philip ,,baratier4 ,a most extraordinary person1 born #agba1 in the margravate of ,anspach1 of such extraordinary powers of memory1 that1 at the age of four1 he conversed with his mother in ,french1 with his father in ,latin1 and with his servants in ,german4 ,the rapidity of his improvement augmented with his years1 so that he became acquainted with ,greek at six1 with ,hebrew at eight1 and in his eleventh year translated from the ,hebrew into ,french the ,travels of ,benjamin of ,tudela1 which he enriched with valuable annotations4 ,his proficiency in mathematics was so great1 that he submitted to the ,london ,royal ,society1 a scheme for finding the longitude1 which1 though insufficient1 exhibited the strongest marks of superior abilities4 ,he visited ,halle with his father in #agce1 where he was offered by the university the degree of ,m4 ,a4 ,the young philosopher drew up #ad theses1 which he printed1 and the next morning disputed upon them with such logical precision1 that he astonished a most crowded audience4 ,at ,berlin he was received with kindness by the king of ,prussia1 and honoured with marks of distinction4 ,his abilities1 however1 shone but like a meteor3 a constitution1 naturally delicate1 was rendered still more weak by excessive application2 and a cough1 spitting of blood1 and fever on the spirits1 put an end to his life at ,halle1 #agdj1 in his #bjth year4 ,baratier is mentioned as a prodigy of learning and of genius2 his memory was universally retentive1 and his application scarcely credible1 when it is recollected that he spent twelve hours in bed till his tenth year1 and ten afterwards4 ,in one winter he read twenty great folios1 with all the attention of a vast comprehensive mind2 and the large work which he prepared on ,egyptian antiquities1 shewed the most judicious and laborious arrangement4 ,in his domestic economy he was very temperate2 he ate little flesh1 lived totally on milk1 tea1 bread1 and fruit2 he disliked wine2 he had an aversion to dancing1 music1 and the sports of the field2 so that he wished for no recreation from study1 but in walking1 or in the conversation of a few friends4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with an account of the principal events in the life of-- ,,buonaparte4--#agfi1 ,born at ,ajaccio1 ,corsica1 ,aug4 #ae4--aggi1 ,placed at the ,military ,school of ,brienne1 ,march4--#agid1 ,an ,officer of artillery at the siege of ,toulon1 and appointed ,general of ,brigade4--#agid1 ,commands the ,conventional ,troops1 and defeats the ,parisians1 ,oct4 #d4--agif1 ,appointed to the command of the ,army of ,italy4 ,battle of ,lodi1 ,may #aj4 ,battle of ,castiglione1 ,aug4 #c4 ,battle of ,arcola1 ,nov4 #af4--agig1 ,surrender of ,mantua1 ,feb4 #b4 ,trieste surrenders1 ,march #bc4 ,preliminaries with ,austria signed at ,leoben1 ,april #ah4 ,french take possession of ,venice1 ,may #af4 ,treaty of ,campo ,formeo1 with ,austria1 #ag4--agih1 ,buonaparte sails for ,egypt1 ,may #bj4 ,battle of ,embabe1 or of the ,pyramids1 ,july #ba4 ,insurrection at ,cairo1 ,oct4 #bd4--agii1 ,siege of ,acre raised1 ,may #ba4 ,sails from ,egypt for ,france1 ,aug4 #bc4 ,lands at ,frejus1 ,oct4 #g4 ,dissolves the ,conventional ,government1 ,nov4 #i4 ,declared ,first ,consul1 #aj4--ahjj1 ,peace with the ,chouans1 ,feb4 #ae4 ,buonaparte crosses ,mount ,st4 ,bernard1 ,may4 ,battle of ,marengo1 ,june #af4 ,preliminaries with ,austria signed at ,paris4 ,battle of ,hohenlinden1 ,dec4 #c4 ,explosion of the ,infernal ,machine1 #bd4--ahja1 ,treaty of ,luneville with ,austria1 ,feb4 #i4 ,nelson attacks the ,buologne ,flotilla1 ,aug4 #af4 ,preliminaries with ,england1 ,oct4 #h4--ahjb1 ,the ,cisalpine ,republic placed under ,buonaparte1 ,jan4 #bf4 ,definitive ,treaty with ,england1 ,march #bg4 ,legion of ,honour instituted1 ,may #ae4 ,declared ,consul for ,life1 ,aug4 #b4 ,swiss form of ,government changed by the interference of the ,french1 #bh4--ahjc1 ,english ,declaration of ,war1 ,may #ah4 ,hanover conquered1 ,june #e4--ahjd1 ,moreau arrested1 ,feb4 ,duc ,d',enghien shot1 ,march #bj4 ,pichegru dies in prison1 ,april #h4 ,buonaparte made ,emperor1 ,may #ah4 ,crowned by the ,pope1 ,nov4 #ai4--ahje1 ,writes a pacific letter to the ,king of ,england1 ,feb4 ,treaty of ,petersburgh1 between ,england1 ,russia1 ,austria1 and ,sweden1 ,april #aa4 ,buonaparte declared ,king of ,italy1 ,may #bf4 ,buonaparte heads his army against ,austria1 ,sept4 #bd4 ,mack's army surrenders at ,ulm1 ,oct4 #bj4 ,french enter ,vienna1 ,nov4 #ac4 ,battle of ,austerlitz1 ,dec4 #b4 ,treaty of ,vienna with ,prussia1 #ae4 ,treaty of ,presburg with ,austria1 #bf4--ahjf1 ,joseph ,buonaparte declared ,king of ,naples1 ,march #cj4 ,louis ,buonaparte declared ,king of ,holland1 ,june #e4 ,convocation of the ,jews1 ,july #bf4 ,confederation of the ,rhine published1 #bg4 ,buonaparte marches against ,prussia1 ,sept4 #bd4 ,battle of ,auerstadt1 or ,jena1 ,oct4 #ad4 ,buonaparte enters ,berlin1 #bg4 ,hamburgh taken1 ,nov4 #ai4 ,berlin ,decree4--#ahjg1 ,battle of ,eylau1 ,feb4 #h4 ,battle of ,friedland1 ,june #ad4 ,treaty of ,tilsit1 ,july #g4--ahjh1 ,joseph ,buonaparte declared ,king of ,spain1 ,july #g4 ,surrender of ,dupont's army at ,baylen1 #bj4 ,joseph ,buonaparte evacuates ,madrid1 #bi4 ,battle of ,vimeira1 ,august #ba4 ,conferences at ,erfurth1 ,sept4 #bj4 ,buonaparte arrives at ,vittoria1 ,nov4 #e4 ,surrender of ,madrid1 ,dec4 #d4--ahji1 ,battle of ,corunna1 ,jan4 #af4 ,buonaparte returns to ,paris1 #bb4 ,war declared by ,austria1 ,april #f4 ,bonaparte heads his army against ,austria1 #ac4 ,french enter ,vienna1 ,may #aj4 ,battle of ,esling1 or ,asperne1 #bb4 ,battle of ,wagram1 ,july #f4 ,flushing taken by the ,english1 ,august #ad4 ,treaty of ,vienna1 ,oct4 #ad4 ,lucien ,buonaparte arrives in ,england1 ,dec4 #ac4 ,buonaparte's marriage with ,josephine dissolved1 #af4 ,walcheren evacuated by the ,english1 #bc4--ahaj1 ,buonaparte marries ,maria ,louisa1 daughter of ,francis ,,ii4 ,march #aa4 ,holland and the ,hanse ,towns annexed to ,france1 ,july #i4 ,bernadotte elected ,crown ,prince of ,sweden1 ,aug4 #ba4 ,decree for restraining the liberty of the ,press1 ,dec4--#ahaa1 ,hamburgh annexed to the empire1 ,jan4 #a4 ,the ,empress delivered of a son1 who is styled ,king of ,rome1 ,april #bj4 ,buonaparte present at an engagement between the ,boulogne flotilla and an ,english cruiser1 ,sept4 #b4--ahab1 ,swedish ,pomerania seized by ,buonaparte1 ,jan4 #bb4 ,he heads the army against ,russia1 ,may #b4 ,arrives at ,konigsberg1 ,june #aa4 ,enters ,wilna1 #bh4 ,smolensko taken1 ,aug4 #ah4 ,battle of ,moskwa1 ,sept4 #g4 ,french enter ,moskow1 #ad4 ,evacuate it1 ,october #bb4 ,buonaparte at ,smolensko1 ,nov4 #i4 ,deserts the army1 ,dec4 #e4 ,arrives at ,paris1 #ah4--ahac1 ,takes the command of the army on the ,elbe1 ,april4 ,battle of ,lutzen1 ,may #a4 ,battle of ,bautzen1 #bj4 ,armistice agreed on1 ,june #d4 ,battle of ,vittoria1 #ba4 ,hostilities re-commence1 ,aug4 #ag4 ,battle of ,dresden1 ,moreau killed1 #bh4 ,english enter ,france1 ,sept4 #g1 ,buonaparte evacuates ,dresden1 #bh4 ,battle of ,leipsic1 ,oct4 #ah4 ,revolution in ,holland1 ,nov4 #ae4 ,declaration of the ,allies at ,frankfort1 ,dec4 #a4 ,english army cross the ,nive1 #h4--ahad1 ,allies cross the ,rhine1 ,jan4 #d4 ,battle of ,montmartre1 ,march #cj4 ,allies enter ,paris1 #ca4 ,buonaparte abdicates the throne1 ,april #aa4 ,arrives at ,elba1 ,may #h4--ahae1 ,sails from ,elba to ,france1 ,march #a4 ,arrives at ,paris1 and reascends the throne1 #bj4 ,is declared an outlaw by the ,sovereigns of ,europe then assembled at ,vienna1 #be4 ,calls a new ,house of ,peers and ,chamber of ,representatives of the people4 ,calls a ,champ de ,mai1 ,april4 ,defeats the ,prussians1 ,june #af4 ,loses his army in the great battle of ,waterloo1 #ah4 ,abdicates the throne a second time1 #ba4 ,surrenders himself to ,capt4 ,maitland1 commanding the ,english ship of war1 the ,bellerophon1 in ,basque ,roads1 ,july #ae4 ,arrives at ,torbay1 #bb4 ,sailed from ,england in the ,northumberland1 for ,st4 ,helena1 ,aug4 #aa4--ahba1 ,died at ,st4 ,helena1 ,may #e4 ,buried there1 #i4 ,,chap4 ,x4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,continued47 ,,richard ,,savage1 one of the most extraordinary characters that is to be met with in all the records of biography1 was the son of ,anne1 countess of ,macclesfield1 by the earl of ,rivers1 according to her own confession2 and was born in #afih4 ,this confession of adultery was made1 to procure a separation from her husband1 the earl of ,macclesfield3 yet1 having obtained this end1 no sooner was a spurious offspring brought into the world1 than she resolved to disown him2 and1 as long as he lived1 she treated him with the most unnatural cruelty4 ,she delivered him over to a poor woman to educate as her own2 maliciously prevented the earl of ,rivers from leaving him a legacy of #fjjj1 by declaring him dead2 and deprived him of another legacy which his godmother1 ,mrs4 ,lloyd1 had left him1 by concealing from him his birth1 and thereby rendering it impossible for him to prosecute his claim4 ,she endeavoured to send him secretly to the plantations2 but this plan being frustrated1 she placed him apprentice with a shoemaker4 ,in this situation1 however1 he did not long continue2 for his nurse dying1 he went to take care of the effects of his supposed mother1 and found in her boxes some letters1 which discovered to young ,savage his birth1 and the cause of its concealment4 ,from the moment of this discovery he became dissatisfied4 ,he conceived that he had a right to share in the affluence of his real mother2 and therefore he applied to her1 and tried every art to attract her regard4 ,but in vain did he solicit this unnatural parent2 she avoided him with the utmost precaution1 and took measures to prevent his ever entering her house4 ,meantime1 while he was endeavouring to rouse the affections of a mother1 in whom all natural affection was extinct1 he was destitute of the means of support4 ,having a strong inclination to literary pursuits1 especially poetry1 he wrote poems2 and afterwards two plays1 ,woman's a ,riddle1 and1 ,love in a ,veil3 he was allowed no part of the profits from the first2 but by the second he acquired the acquaintance of ,sir ,richard ,steel and ,mr4 ,wilkes1 by whom he was pitied1 caressed1 and relieved4 ,but the kindness of his friends not affording him a constant supply1 he wrote the tragedy of ,sir ,thomas ,overbury2 which not only procured him the esteem of many persons of wit1 but brought him #bjj4 ,the celebrated ,aaron ,hill1 ,esq4 was of great service to him in correcting and fitting this piece for the stage and the press2 and extended his patronage still farther4 ,but ,savage was1 like many other wits1 a bad economist4 ,as fast as his friends raised him out of one difficulty1 he sunk into another2 and when he found himself greatly involved1 he rambled about like a vagabond1 with scarcely a shirt on his back4 ,he was in one of these situations all the time he wrote his tragedy above mentioned2 without a lodging1 and often without a dinner4 ,mr4 ,hill also promoted a subscription to a volume of his ,miscellanies1 and furnished part of the poems of which it was composed4 ,to this ,miscellany ,savage wrote a preface1 in which he gives an account of his mother's cruelty1 in a very uncommon strain of humour4 ,the profits of his tragedy and his ,miscellanies had now somewhat raised him1 both in circumstances and credit1 so that the world began to behold him with a more favourable eye1 when both his fame and life were endangered by a most unhappy event3 a drunken frolic1 in which he one night engaged1 ended in a fray1 and ,savage unfortunately killed a man1 for which he was condemned to be hanged3 his friends earnestly solicited the mercy of the crown1 while his mother as earnestly exerted herself to prevent his receiving it4 ,the ,countess of ,hertford1 at length1 laid his whole case before ,queen ,caroline1 and ,savage obtained a pardon4 ,savage now lost that affection for his mother which the whole series of her cruelty had not been able wholly to repress2 and considering her as an implacable enemy1 whom nothing but his blood could satisfy1 threatened to harass her with lampoons1 and to publish a copious narrative of her conduct1 unless she consented to allow him a pension4 ,this expedient proved successful2 and ,lord ,tyrconnel1 upon his promise of laying aside his design of exposing his mother's cruelty1 took him into his family1 treated him as an equal1 and engaged to allow him a pension of #bjj a year4 ,this was the happy period of ,savage's life4 ,he was courted by all who wished to be thought men of genius and taste4 ,at this time he published the ,temple of ,health and ,mirth1 on the recovery of ,lady ,tyrconnel from a languishing illness2 and the ,wanderer1 a moral poem1 which he dedicated to ,lord ,tyrconnel1 in strains of the highest panegyric3 but these praises he soon was inclined to retract1 being discarded by the man on whom they were bestowed4 ,of this quarrel1 ,lord ,tyrconnel and ,mr4 ,savage gave very different accounts4 ,but our author's conduct was ever such as made all his friends1 sooner or later1 grow weary of him1 and even forced most of them to become his enemies4 ,being thus once more turned adrift upon the world1 ,savage1 whose passions were very strong1 and whose gratitude was very small1 exposed the faults of ,lord ,tyrconnel4 ,he also took revenge upon his mother1 by publishing the ,bastard1 a poem1 remarkable for the vivacity of its beginning 7where he humorously enumerates the imaginary advantages of base birth27 and for the pathetic conclusion1 wherein he recounts the real calamities which he suffered by the crime of his parents4 ,the following lines1 in the opening of the poem1 are a specimen of this writer's spirit and versification3 ,blest be the bastard's birth6 thro' wondrous ways ,he shines eccentric1 like a comet's blaze4 ,no sickly fruit of faint compliance he2 ,he6 stamp'd in nature's mint with ecstasy6 ,he lives to build1 not boast1 a generous race2 ,no tenth transmitter of a foolish face4 ,he1 kindling from within1 requires no flame2 ,he glories in a bastard's glowing name4 ,nature's unbounded son1 he stands alone1 ,his heart unbias'd1 and his mind his own4 ,o mother6 yet no mother6--'tis to you ,my thanks for some distinguish'd claims are due4 ,this poem had an extraordinary sale2 and its appearance happening at the time when his mother was at ,bath1 many persons there repeated passages from it in her hearing4 ,this was perhaps the first time that ever she discovered a sense of shame1 and1 on this occasion1 the power of wit was very conspicuous4 ,the wretch1 who had without scruple proclaimed herself an adulteress1 and who had first endeavoured to starve her son1 then to transport him1 and afterwards to hang him1 was not able to bear the representation of her own conduct1 but fled from reproach1 though she felt no pain from guilt2 and left ,bath in haste1 to shelter herself among the crowds of ,london4 ,some time after this1 ,savage formed the resolution of applying to the ,queen2 who1 having once given him life1 he hoped she might extend her goodness to him1 by enabling him to support it4 ,with this view1 he published a poem on her birth-day1 which he entitled ,the ,volunteer ,laureat2 for which she was pleased to send him #ej1 accompanied with an intimation that he might annually expect the same bounty4 ,but this annual allowance was nothing to a man of his strange and singular extravagance4 ,his usual custom was1 as soon as he had received his pension1 to disappear with it1 and secrete himself from his most intimate friends1 till every shilling of it was spent2 which done1 he again appeared penniless as before3 but he would never inform any person where he had been1 nor in what manner his money had been dissipated4 ,from the reports1 however1 of some who penetrated his haunts1 he expended both his time and his cash in the most sordid and despicable sensuality2 particularly in eating and drinking1 in which he would indulge in the most unsocial manner1 sitting whole days and nights by himself1 in obscure houses of entertainment1 over his bottle and trencher1 immersed in filth and sloth1 with scarcely decent apparel2 generally wrapped up in a horseman's great coat2 and1 on the whole1 with his very homely countenance1 exhibiting an object the most disgusting to the sight1 if not to some other of the senses4 ,his wit and parts1 however1 still raised him new friends1 as fast as his misbehaviour lost him his old ones4 ,yet such was his conduct1 that occasional relief only furnished the means of occasional excess2 and he defeated all attempts made by his friends to fix him in a decent way4 ,he was even reduced so low as to be destitute of a lodging2 insomuch that he often passed his nights in those mean houses that are set open for casual wanderers2 sometimes in cellars1 amidst the riot and filth of the most profligate of the rabble2 and not seldom would he walk the streets till he was weary1 and then lie down1 in summer1 on a bulk1--or1 in winter1 with his associates1 among the ashes of a glasshouse4 ,yet1 amidst all his penury and wretchedness1 this man had so much pride1 and so high an opinion of his own merit1 that he was always ready to repress1 with scorn and contempt1 the least appearance of any slight towards himself1 in the behaviour of his acquaintance2 among whom he looked upon none as his superior4 ,he would be treated as an equal1 even by persons of the highest rank4 ,he once refused to wait upon a gentleman1 who was desirous of relieving him1 when at the lowest distress1 only because the message signified the gentleman's desire to see him at nine in the morning4 ,his life was rendered still more unhappy1 by the death of the ,queen1 in #agch4 ,his pension was discontinued2 and the insolent manner in which he demanded of ,sir ,robert ,walpole to have it restored1 for ever cut off his supply1 which probably might have been recovered by proper application4 ,his distress now became so notorious1 that a scheme was at length concerted for procuring him a permanent relief4 ,it was proposed that he should retire into ,wales1 with an allowance of #ej a year1 on which he was to live privately1 in a cheap place1 for ever quitting his town haunts1 and resigning all farther pretensions to fame4 ,this offer he seemed gladly to accept2 but his intentions were only to deceive his friends1 by retiring for awhile to write another tragedy1 and then to return with it to ,london4 ,in #agci1 he set out for ,swansey1 in the ,bristol stage-coach1 and was furnished with #ae guineas1 to bear the expense of his journey4 ,but1 on the #adth day of his departure1 his friends and benefactors1 the principal of whom was ,mr4 ,pope1 who expected to hear of his arrival in ,wales1 were surprised with a letter from ,savage1 informing them that he was yet upon the road1 and could not proceed for want of money4 ,there was no other remedy than a remittance1 which was sent him1 and by the help of which he was enabled to reach ,bristol1 whence he was to proceed to ,swansey by water4 ,at ,bristol1 however1 he found an embargo laid upon the shipping2 so that he could not immediately obtain a passage4 ,here1 therefore1 being obliged to stay for some time1 he so ingratiated himself with the principal inhabitants1 that he was often invited to their houses1 distinguished at their public entertainments1 and treated with a regard that highly gratified his vanity4 ,at length1 with great reluctance1 he proceeded to ,swansey2 where he lived about a year1 very much dissatisfied with the diminution of his salary1 for he had1 in his letters1 treated his contributors so insolently1 that most of them withdrew their subscriptions4 ,here he finished his tragedy1 and resolved to return with it to ,london2 which was strenuously opposed by his constant friend ,mr4 ,pope2 who proposed that ,savage should put this play into the hands of ,mr4 ,thomson and ,mr4 ,mallet1 that they might fit it for the stage2 that his friends should receive the profits it might bring in2 and that the author should receive the produce by way of annuity4 ,this kind and prudent scheme was rejected by ,savage with contempt4 ,he declared he would not submit his works to any one's correction2 and that he would no longer be kept in leading-strings4 ,accordingly1 he soon returned to ,bristol1 in his way to ,london2 but at ,bristol1 meeting with a repetition of the same kind treatment he had before found there1 he was tempted to make a second stay in that opulent city for some time4 ,here he was not only caressed and treated1 but the sum of #cj was raised for him2 with which it would have been happy if he had immediately departed for ,london4 ,but he never considered that a frequent repetition of such kindness was not to be expected4 ,in short1 he remained here till his company was no longer welcome4 ,his visits in every family were too often repeated1 his wit had lost its novelty1 and his irregular behaviour grew troublesome4 ,necessity came upon him before he was aware2 his money was spent1 his clothes were worn out1 his appearance was shabby1 and his presence was disgustful at every table4 ,he now began to find every man from home at whose house he called1 and he found it difficult to obtain a dinner4 ,thus reduced1 it would have been prudent in him to have withdrawn from the place2 but prudence and ,savage were never acquainted4 ,he staid1 in the midst of poverty1 hunger1 and contempt1 till the mistress of a coffee-house1 to whom he owed about #hl4 arrested him for the debt4 ,he remained for some time at the house of the sheriff's officer1 in hopes of procuring bail2 which expense he was enabled to defray by a present of five guineas from ,mr4 ,nash at ,bath4 ,no bail1 however1 was to be found2 so that poor ,savage was at last lodged in ,newgate1 a prison in ,bristol4 ,but it was the fortune of this extraordinary mortal always to find more friends than he deserved4 ,the keeper of the prison took compassion on him1 and greatly softened the rigours of his confinement by every kind of indulgence2 he supported him at his own table1 gave him a commodious room to himself1 allowed him to stand at the door of the gaol1 and often took him into the fields for the benefit of the air and exercise2 so that1 in reality1 ,savage endured fewer hardships here than he had usually suffered during the greatest part of his life4 ,while he remained in this agreeable prison1 his ingratitude again broke out1 in a bitter satire on the city of ,bristol2 to which he certainly owed great obligations1 notwithstanding his arrest1 which was but the lawful act of an individual4 ,this satire is entitled1 ,london and ,bristol delineated2 and in it he abused the inhabitants of the latter with such a spirit of resentment1 that the reader would imagine he had never received any other than the worst of treatment in that city4 ,when ,savage had remained about six months in this hospitable prison1 he received a letter from ,mr4 ,pope1 7who still allowed him #bj a year17 containing a charge of very atrocious ingratitude2 and though the particulars have not transpired1 yet1 from the notorious character of the man1 there is reason to fear that ,savage was but too justly accused3 ,he1 however1 solemnly protested his innocence2 but he was very unusually affected on this occasion3--in a few days after1 he was seized with a disorder1 which1 at first1 was not suspected to be dangerous2 but growing daily more languid and dejected1 at last a fever seized him1 and he died on the #ast of ,august1 #agdc1 in the #dfth year of his age4 ,thus lived1 and thus died1 ,richard ,savage1 ,esq4 leaving behind him a character strangely chequered with vices and good qualities4 ,of the former we have mentioned a variety of instances2 of the latter1 his peculiar situation in the world gave him but few opportunities of making any considerable display4 ,he was1 however1 undoubtedly a man of excellent parts2 and had he received the full benefits of a liberal education1 and had his natural talents been cultivated to the best advantage1 he might have made a respectable figure in life4 ,he was happy in a quick discernment1 a retentive memory1 and a lively flow of wit1 which made his company much coveted2 nor was his judgment of men and writings inferior to his wit3 but he was too much a slave to his passions1 and his passions were too easily excited4 ,he was warm in his friendships1 but implacable in his enmity2 and his greatest fault was ingratitude4 ,he seemed to think every thing due to his merit1 and that he was little obliged to any one for those favours which he thought it their duty to confer upon him4 ,he therefore never rightly estimated the kindness of his many friends and benefactors1 or preserved a grateful sense of their generosity towards him4 ,the works of this original writer1 after having long lain dispersed in magazines and fugitive publications1 were collected and published in an elegant edition1 in #b vols4 #hvo4 to which are prefixed the admirable ,memoirs of ,savage1 written by ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson4 ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4--7,concluded47 ,,william ,,huntingdon1 a very eccentric personage1 who was originally a coal-heaver1 and afterwards became a popular preacher of the ,calvinistic persuasion4 ,the following account1 formed principally from the preacher's own words1 was first presented to the public in the first volume of ,the ,pulpit1 #ahji4 ,excepting the circumstance of enlarging his name from ,hunt to ,huntingdon1 which is stated as one of the inevitable consequences of the follies of his youth1 ,mr4 ,huntingdon has already written1 with tolerable truth1 the greater portion of the history of himself4 ,he was born1 he says1 in the ,weald of ,kent2 and suffered much from his parents' poverty1 when young4 ,he long felt other disadvantages attending his birth4 ,being born in none of the most polite parts of the world1 he retained a good deal of his provincial dialect2 so that many of his expressions sounded very harsh and uncouth4 ,of this he complains1 with some cause1 as it afterwards occasioned numbers of unsanctified critics to laugh and cavil at him4 ,he was first an errand boy1 then a daily labourer1 then a cobbler2 and1 though he worked by day1 and cobbled by night1 he1 at one time1 lived upon barley4 ,his first ministerial preparation is thus told3 ,i had now 7says ,mr4 ,h47 five times a week to preach constantly3 on which account ,i was forced to lay the ,bible in a chair by me1 and now and then read a little1 in order to furnish myself with matter for the pulpit4 ,it sometimes happened that ,i was under sore temptations and desertions3 the ,bible1 too1 appeared a sealed book1 insomuch that ,i could not furnish myself with a text2 nor durst ,i leave my work in order to study or read the ,bible2 if ,i did1 my little ones would soon want bread2 my business would also run very cross at those times4 ,his earnings did not then amount to more than eight shillings per week4 ,even when his state grew better1 when he got his first parsonic livery on his back1 he could not study at his ease4 ,my little cot 7he says7 was placed in a very vulgar neighbourhood1 and the windows were so very low1 that ,i could not study at any of them1 without being exposed to the view of my enemies2 who often threw stones through the glass1 or saluted me with a volley of oaths or imprecations4 ,this must have been painful enough to one whose memory was naturally bad4 ,providence had long furnished him with very superior accommodations4 ,after many years of itinerant and irregular preaching1 ,william ,huntingdon1 weary of living at ,thames ,ditton1 secretly longed to leave it1 fully persuaded that he should end his ministry in ,london4 ,having unsuccessfully laboured in the vineyard of the country1 and as he did not see that ,god had any thing more for him to do there1 he1 like one ,durant of late1 saw the ,lord himself open the door for his removal4 ,he had resolved to be off2 and he contrived to get off4 ,he was now1 as he himself says1 to perch upon the thick boughs4 ,ditton was to be left for ,london4 ,yet had poor ,ditton not been so unkind to him4 ,some few years before ,i was married1 says ,mr4 ,h4 all my personal effects used to be carried in my hand1 or on my shoulders1 in one or two large handkerchiefs2 but after marriage1 for some few years1 ,i used to carry all the goods that we had gotten1 on my shoulders1 in a large sack3 but when we removed from ,thames ,ditton to ,london1 we loaded two large carts with furniture and other necessaries2 besides a post-chaise1 well filled with children and cats4 ,being viewed as ludicrous while in the country1 he was fearful of being considered as ridiculous elsewhere4 ,i here transcribe his words3 ,at this 7says ,mr4 ,h4--having been advertised in ,margaret-street ,chapel17 ,i was sorely offended1 being very much averse to preaching in ,london1 for several reasons4 ,first1 because ,i had been told it abounded so much with all sorts of errors1 that ,i was afraid of falling into them1 there were so many that lay in wait to deceive4 ,secondly1 because ,i had no learning1 and therefore feared ,i should not be able to deliver myself with any degree of propriety2 and as ,i knew nothing of ,greek or ,hebrew1 nor even of the ,english ,grammar1 that ,i should be exposed to the scourging tongue of every critic in ,london4 ,during many weeks1 7he adds17 ,i laboured under much distress of mind respecting my want of abilities to preach in this great metropolis4 ,i think this one of the few rational passages to be found in the ,bank of ,faith4 ,mr4 ,huntingdon here candidly confesses his own conviction of his then ministerial incompetency1 and expresses his apprehension as to the probable nullity of his divine mission4 ,his call seems to fail him now4 ,he feels just as most men would feel in the same state1--fears just as they would fear1--and takes the same chance as to the great end he had in view4 ,during the space of three years1 7says ,mr4 ,huntingdon17 ,i secretly wished in my soul1 that ,god would favour me with a chapel of my own1 being sick of the errors that were perpetually broached by some one or other in ,margaret-street ,chapel1 where ,i then preached4 ,but though ,i so much desired this1 yet ,i could not ask ,god for such a favour1 thinking it was not to be brought about by one so very mean1 low1 and poor as myself4 ,however1 ,god sent a person1 unknown to me1 to look at a certain spot1 who afterwards took me to look at it2 but ,i trembled at the very thought of such an immense undertaking4 ,then ,god stirred up a wise man to offer to build a chapel1 and to manage the whole work without fee or reward4 ,god drew the pattern on his imagination1 while he was hearing me preach a sermon4 ,i then took the ground2 this person executed the plan2 and the chapel sprung up like a mushroom4 ,as soon as it was finished1 this precious scripture came sweet to my soul1 ',he will fulfil the desire of them that fear him3' ,psa4 cxlv4 #ai4 ,i will now inform my reader of the kind providence of my ,god at the time of building the chapel1 which ,i named ,providence ,chapel 7#aghh72 and also mention a few free-will-offerings which the people brought4 ,they first offered about eleven pounds1 and laid it on the foundation at the beginning of the building4 ,a good gentleman1 with whom ,i had but little acquaintance1 and of whom ,i bought a load of timber1 sent it in with a bill and receipt-in-full1 as a present to the ,chapel of ,providence4 ,another good man came with tears in his eyes1 and blessed me1 and desired to paint my pulpit1 desk1 c4 as a present to the chapel4 ,another person gave half a dozen chairs for the vestry2 and my friends1 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,lyon1 furnished me with a tea-chest1 well stored1 and a set of china4 ,my good friends1 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,smith1 furnished me with a very handsome bed1 bedstead1 and all its furniture and necessaries1 that ,i might not be under the necessity of walking home in the cold winter nights4 ,a daughter of mine in the faith1 gave me a looking-glass for my chapel study4 ,another friend gave me my pulpit-cushion1 and a book-case for my study4 ,another gave me a book-case for the vestry4 ,and my good friend1 ,mr4 ,e4 seemed to level all his displeasure at the devil2 for he was in hopes ,i should be enabled1 through the gracious arm of the ,lord1 to cut ,rahab in pieces2 therefore he furnished me with a sword of the ,spirit--a new ,bible1 with ,morocco binding and silver clasps4 ,i had got one old cart-horse1 7says ,w4 ,h47 that ,i had bought with the rest of the stock on the farm1 and ,i wanted two more1 but money ran short2 and ,i determined also to have a large tilted cart1 to take my family to chapel1 and the man should drive it on the ,sunday and on lecture nights1 and ,i would ride my little horse4 ,this was the most eligible plan that ,i could adopt2 and on this ,i determined1 as soon as ,god should send money to procure them4 ,i came to this conclusion on a ,friday2 and on the next day1 toward evening1 came two or three friends from town to see me4 ,i wondered not a little at their coming1 as they knew that on a ,saturday ,i never like to see any body1 and therefore ,i conceived that they must be come with some heavy tidings2 some friend was dead1 or something bad had happened4 ,but they came to inform me that some friends had agreed among themselves1 and bought me a coach and a pair of horses1 which they intended to make me a present of4 ,i informed them that the assessed taxes ran so high1 that ,i should not be able to keep it4 ,but they stopped my mouth by informing me1 that the money for paying the taxes for the coach and horses was subscribed also2 so that nothing lay upon me1 but the keep of the horses4 ,thus1 instead of being at the expense of a tilted cart1 ,god sent me a coach without cost1 and two horses without my purchasing them2 and which1 with my other old horse1 would do the work of the farm1 as well as the work of the coach2 and my bailiff informed me that he could drive it1 having formerly drove one4 ,thus was ,i set up4 ,but at this time the pocket was bare1 and many things were wanting1 both in the house and on the farm1 and a place to fit up for my bailiff and dairy-woman to live in4 ,and it was but a few days afterward before a gentleman out of the country called upon me2 and1 being up in my study with me1 he said1 ',my friend1 ,i often told you1 you would keep your coach before you died2 and ,i always promised1 that whenever you had a coach1 ,i would give you a pair of horses2 and ,i will not be worse than my word4 ,i have inquired of ,father ,green1 and he tells me that the horses cost forty-five pounds1 and there is the money4' ,in a day or two after1 the coach1 horses1 and harness1 came2 and1 having now a little money1 ,i wrote to a friend in the country to send me twelve ewes1 and a male with them2 and he sent me twelve excellent ones1 and the male with them1 but would not be paid for them2 they were a present to the farm4 ',whoso is wise and will observe these things1 even they shall understand the loving-kindness of the ,lord4' ,ps4 cvii4 #dc4 ,much did ,mr4 ,huntingdon owe to the singularity of his ways4 ,singular in his outset and career1 singular in his opinions1 singular in his own appearance1 singular in his chapel1 singular in his style of preaching1 he seemed to know1 as well as most men1 the value of singularity4 ,he not only excelled in extempore eloquence1 but his peculiarities distinguished him from most other preachers4 ,having formally announced his text1 he laid his ,bible at once aside1 and never referred to it again4 ,having laid on one side the volume of inspiration1 and disdaining the trammels of transcription1 he proceeded directly to his object2 and1 excepting incidental digressions1 as1 ,take care of your pockets6 ,wake that snoring sinner6 ,silence that noisy numscull6 ,turn out that drunken dog6 excepting such occasional digressions1 which1 like the episodes of poetry1 must1 when skilfully introduced1 be understood to heighten the effect of the whole1 our orator never deviated from the course in which he commenced his eccentric career of ministerial labour4 ,he had other advantages over many of his pulpit compeers4 ,being of the metaphorical and allegorical school1 as well as possessing his citations by rote1 there is seldom to be found the passage1 from the book of ,genesis to the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john1 that may not have1 remotely or allusively1 some connection with the subject immediately under his investigation4 ,hence the variety1 as well as the fertility1 of his eloquence4 ,hence the novelty of his commentaries2 his truly astonishing talent of reconciling texts1 else undoubtedly incongruous2 and of discovering dissimilarities1 and asserting difficulties1 where none were believed to exist4 ,nothing could exceed the dictatorial dogmatism of this famous preacher4 ,believe him1 none but him1--and that is enough4 ,if he aimed thus to pin the faith of those who hear him1 he would say over and over1 ,as sure as ,i am born1 'tis1 c4 or1 ,i believe this1 or1 ,i know this1 ,i am sure of it1 or1 ,i believe the plain ,english of it 7some difficult text7 to be1 c4 ,when he adds1 as he was wont1 by way of fixing his point1 ,now1 you can't help it1 or1 ,so it is1 or1 ,it must be so in spite of you1 he did this with a most significant shake of his head1 with a sort of beldam hauteur1 with all the dignity of defiance4 ,action he seemed to have none1 except that of shifting his handkerchief from hand to hand1 and hugging his cushion as though it were his bolster4 ,he therefore owed his distinction to the absence of those qualities by which most men rise4 ,self has done great things for him3 self-taught1 self-raised1 all of self4 ,god 7says ,mr4 ,h47 enabled me to put out several little books1 which were almost universally exclaimed against1 both by preachers and professors1 and by these means ,god sent them into all winds2 so that ,i soon rubbed off one hundred1 and soon after another1 so that1 in a short time1 ,i had reduced my thousand pounds 7debt7 down to seven hundred4 ,of his works1 he adds1 that they are calculated 7as he thinks17 to suit the earnest inquirer2 the soul in bondage1 in the furnace1 in the path of tribulation1 or in the strong hold of ,satan2 and 7says he7 ,i have heard of them from ,wales1 from ,scotland1 from ,ireland1 from various parts of ,america1 from ,cadiz in ,spain1 from ,alexandria in ,egypt1 and1 ,i believe1 from both the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,his ,bank of ,faith has proved a bank of gold6 ,when he wrote so much of what came to him as gifts1 was it not to rouse more to give8 ,the man who says he lives by gifts1 will1 as he gets his friends1 find gifts by which he may live4 ,he died at ,london1 in #ahac2 and such was the avidity of his adherents to obtain a relic of him1 that his furniture sold at ten times the original value4 ,an old chair went off at forty pounds4 ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,animals4 ,animal ,generation--,formation of ,animals--,preservation of ,animals--,destruction of ,animals--,animal ,reproductions4 ,see1 thro' this air1 this ocean1 and this earth1 ,all matter quick1 and bursting into birth4 ,above1 how high progressive life may go6 ,around1 how wide6 how deep extend below6 ,vast chain of ,being6 which from ,god began1 ,natures ethereal1 human1 angel1 man1 ,beast1 bird1 fish1 insect1 what no eye can see1 ,no glass can reach2 from ,infinite to thee1 ,from thee to nothing4 ,pope4 ,in entering upon the subject of ,curiosities respecting ,animals1 we shall first introduce to the reader some interesting observations respecting the generation1 formation1 preservation1 destruction1 and reproduction1 of animals in general2 and1 first1 of animal generation4 ,animal generation holds the first place among all that raise our admiration when we consider the ,works of the ,creator1 and chiefly that appointment by which he has regulated the propagation1 which is wisely adapted to the disposition and mode of life of every different species of animals1 that people earth1 air1 or sea4 ,increase and multiply1 said the benevolent ,author of nature1 when he pronounced his blessing on the new made world4 ,by virtue of this powerful mandate1 all the various tribes of sentient beings have not only been preserved1 but increased in an astonishing degree4 ,it is not in our province to describe the laws of gestation2 we will content ourselves with a few brief hints upon this subject2 and we shall find1 that in different animals1 nature operates in different ways1 in order to produce the same general end4 ,the human female1 and the female of quadrupeds1 are possessed of a temperate cherishing warmth2 this fits them for easy gestation1 and enables them to afford proper nourishment to their young1 till the time of birth4 ,birds are intended to soar in the air1 or to flit from place to place in search of food4 ,gestation1 therefore1 would be burdensome to them4 ,for this reason1 they lay eggs1 covered with a hard shell3 these1 by natural instinct1 they sit upon1 and cherish till the young be excluded4 ,the ostrich and the cassowary are said to be exempt from this law2 as they commit their eggs to the sand1 where the intense heat of the sun hatches them4 ,fishes inhabit the waters1 and most of them have cold blood1 unfit for nourishing their young4 ,the all-wise ,creator1 therefore1 has ordained that most of them should lay their eggs near the shore2 where1 by means of the solar rays1 the water is warmer1 and also fitter for that purpose2 and also because water insects abound more there1 which afford nourishment to the young fry4 ,salmon1 when they are about to deposit their eggs1 are led by instinct to ascend the stream1 where purity and freshness are to be found in the waters3 and to procure such a situation for its young1 this fish will endure incredible toil and hazard4 ,the butterfly-fish is an exception to this general law1 for that brings forth its young alive4 ,the species of fish whose residence is in the middle of the ocean1 are also exempt4 ,providence has given to these1 eggs that swim2 so that they are hatched among the sea-weeds1 which also swim on the surface4 ,the various kinds of whales have warm blood1 and therefore bring forth their young alive1 and suckle them with their teats4 ,some amphibious animals also bring forth their young alive1 as the viper1 c4 ,but such species as lay eggs1 deposit them in places where the heat of the sun supplies the want of warmth in the parent4 ,thus the frog1 and the lizard1 drop their's in shallow waters1 which soon receive a genial heat by the rays of the sun2 the common snake1 in dunghills1 or other warm places4 ,the crocodile and sea-tortoise go ashore to lay their eggs in the sand2 in these cases1 ,nature1 as a provident nurse1 takes care of all4 ,the multiplication of animals is not restrained to the same rule in all2 for some have a remarkable power of increase1 while others are1 in this respect1 confined within very narrow limits4 ,yet1 in general1 we find1 that nature observes this order1 that the least animals1 and those which are most useful for food to others1 usually increase with the greatest rapidity4 ,the mite1 and many other insects1 will multiply to a thousand within the compass of a few days2 while the elephant hardly produces a young one in two years4 ,birds of the hawk-kind seldom lay more than two eggs2 while poultry will produce from fifteen to thirty4 ,the diver1 or loon1 which is eaten by few animals1 lays also only two eggs2 but the duck-kind1 moor game1 partridges1 c4 and small birds in general1 lay a great many4 ,most of the insect tribes neither bear young nor hatch eggs2 yet they are the most numerous of all living creatures2 and were their bulk proportionable to their numbers1 there would not be room on the earth for any other animals4 ,the ,creator has wisely ordained the preservation of these minute creatures4 ,the females lay not their eggs indiscriminately1 but are endued with instinct to choose such places as may supply their infant offspring with proper nourishment3 in their case1 this is absolutely necessary1 for the mother dies as soon as she has deposited her eggs1 the male parent having died before this event takes place2 so that no parental care ever falls to the lot of this orphan race4 ,and indeed1 were the parents to live1 it does not appear that they would possess any power to assist their young4 ,butterflies1 weevils1 tree-bugs1 gall-insects1 and many others1 lay their eggs on the leaves of plants2 and every different tribe chooses its own species of plants4 ,nay1 there is scarce any plant which does not afford nourishment to some insect2 and still more1 there is hardly any part of a plant which is not preferred by some of them4 ,thus one feeds upon the flower2 another upon the leaves2 another upon the trunk2 and still another upon the root4 ,but it is particularly curious to observe how the leaves of some trees of plants are formed into dwellings for the convenience of these creatures4 ,thus the gall-insect1 fixes her eggs in the leaves of an oak2 the wounded leaf swells1 and a knob arises like an apple1 which includes1 protects1 and nourishes the embryo4 ,in the same manner are the galls produced1 which are brought from ,asiatic ,turkey1 and which are used both as a medicine1 and as a dye in several of our manufactories4 ,when the tree-bug has deposited its eggs in the boughs of the fir-tree1 excrescences arise1 shaped like pearls4 ,when another insect of the same species has deposited its eggs in the mouse-ear1 chick-weed1 or speedwell plants1 the leaves contract in a wonderful manner into the shape of a head4 ,the water spider excludes eggs either on the extremities of juniper1 which from thence forms a lodging that resembles the arrow-headed grass2 or on the leaves of the poplar1 from whence a red globe is produced4 ,the tree-louse lays its eggs on the leaves of the black poplar1 which turn into a kind of inflated bag2 and so in many other instances4 ,nor is it only upon plants that insects live and lay their eggs4 ,the gnat commits her's to stagnant waters2 the flesh-fly1 in putrified flesh2 another kind of insect deposits her's in the cracks of cheese4 ,some insects exclude their eggs on certain animals2 the mill-beetle1 between the scales of fishes2 a species of the gadfly1 on the back of bullocks2 another of the same species1 on the back of the rein-deer2 another1 in the noses of sheep2 another still1 in the intestinal tube1 or the throat of horses4 ,nay1 even insects themselves are generally surrounded with the eggs of other insects2 so that there is1 perhaps1 no animal to be found1 but what affords both lodging1 and nourishment1 and food1 to other animals3 even man himself1 the haughty lord of this lower world1 is not exempt from this general law4 ,we shall next call the reader's attention to some particulars respecting the ,,formation ,,of ,,animals4 ,whatever matter may be in itself as to its essence1 it is certain that it appears to our senses as various and heterogeneous3 however1 the modus of the formation of animals is still unknown4 ,the inspired writers express themselves here1 at least1 according to the capacity of the learned1 as well as the vulgar1 when they acknowledge the ignorance of mankind1--how the bones do at first grow in their embryo state1--and that we are fearfully and wonderfully made1 when we are fashioned secretly in the lower parts of the earth4 ,however1 it seems not probable1 that one part of matter acting upon another1 should produce animal existence1 though we grant it may have a strange and unaccountable power in the alteration of matter purely insensible or inanimate4 ,fermentation may dilate1 and extremely alter the parts of animated matter1 when they are delineated and marked out by the finger of the ,almighty2 but still1 matter being a principle purely passive and irrational1 we cannot conceive how it should become an animal1 any more than a world1 it being much more easy for stones to leap out of a quarry1 and make an ,escurial1 without asking the architect's leave1 or calling for the mason1 with his mortar and trowel1 to assist them4 ,nor seems it necessary1 or rational1 that the first seed of every creature should formally include all those seeds that should be afterwards produced from it2 since it is1 we think1 sufficient that it should potentially include them1 just as ,abraham did ,levi2 or as one kernel does all those indeterminate kernels that may be thence afterwards raised2 the first seeds being doubtless of the same nature with those that now exist1 after so many thousand years1 the order of time making only an accidental difference2 which if we do not grant1 we must run into this absurdity1 that every thing does not produce its like1--a bird a bird1 or a horse a horse1--which would be to fill all the world with monsters1 which nature does so much abhor4 ,but every vegetable seed1 or kernel1 for example1 does now actually and formally contain all the seeds or kernels which may be at any time afterwards produced from them4 ,a kernel has indeed1 as we have found by microscopes1 a pretty fair and distinct delineation of the tree and branches into which it may be afterwards formed by the fermentation of its parts1 and addition of suitable matter2 as in the tree are potentially contained all the thousands and millions of kernels1 and so of trees1 that shall or may be thence raised afterwards3 and some are apt to believe it must be similar in the first animals2 whereas the finest glasses1 which are brought to an almost incredible perfection1 cannot discover actual seeds in seeds1 or kernels in kernels2 though1 if there were any such thing as an actual least atom1 they might1 one would think1 be discovered by them1 since they have shewn us not only seeds1 but even new animals1 in many parts of matter where we never suspected them1 and even in some of the smallest animals themselves1 whereof our naked sight can take no cognizance4 ,as for the parts of matter1 be they how they will1 finite or infinite1 it makes no great alteration2 for1 if these parts are not all seminal1 we are no nearer4 ,nay1 at best1 an absurdity seems to be the consequence of this hypothesis2 because1 if those parts are infinite1 and include all successive generations of animals1 it would follow that the number of animals too should be infinite2 and1 instead of one1 we should have a thousand infinites2 and it would be strange too if they should not1 some of them1 be greater or less than one another4 ,for that pleasant fancy1 that all the seeds of animals were distinctly created at the beginning of time and things1 that they are mingled with all the elements1 that we take them in with our food1 and the he and she atoms either fly off or stay1 as they like their lodgings2 we hope there is no need of being serious to confute it4 ,and we may ask of this1 as well as the former hypothesis1--what need of them1 when the work may be done without them8 ,the kernel1 as before1 contains the tree1 the tree a thousand other fruits1 and ten thousand kernels2 the first animal several others2 and as many of them as ,nature can dispose of1 and provide fit nourishment for1 are produced into what we may call actual being1 in comparison to what they before enjoyed4 ,if it be asked1 whether these imperfect creatures have all distinct souls while lurking yet in their parent8 we answer1 that there is no need of it2 they are not yet so much as well-defined bodies1 but rather parts of the parent3 there is required yet a great deal more of the chemistry and mechanism of nature1 and that in both sexes1 to make one or more of these embryo beings1 the offspring of man1 capable of receiving a rational soul2 but when that capacity comes1 and wherein it consists1 perhaps he only knows1 who is the ,father of spirits1 as well as the former of the universe4 ,,on ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,animals4--,with respect to the preservation of animals1 it maybe observed1 that in tender age1 while the young are unable to provide for themselves1 the parent possesses the most anxious care for them4 ,the lioness1 the tigress1 and every other savage of the wilderness1 are gentle and tender towards their offspring2 they spare no pains1 no labour1 for their helpless progeny2 they scour the forest with indescribable rage2 destruction marks their path2 they bear their victim to the covert1 and teach their whelps to quaff the blood of the slain4 ,there is one great law1 which the all-wise ,creator has implanted in animals towards their offspring1 which is1 that1 according to their nature1 they should provide for their nourishment1 defence1 and comfort4 ,all quadrupeds give suck to their young1 and support them by a liquor of a most delicate taste1 and perfectly easy of digestion1 till they are capable of receiving nourishment from more solid food4 ,birds build their nests in the most artificial manner1 and line them as soft as possible1 that the eggs or young may not be injured4 ,nor do they build promiscuously1 but chuse such places as are most concealed1 and likely to be free from the attacks of their enemies3 thus the hanging-bird of the tropical countries1 makes its nest of the fibres of withered plants lined with down1 and fixes it at the extremity of some bough hanging over the water1 that it may be out of reach2 and the diver places its swimming nest upon the water itself1 among the rushes4 ,the male rooks and crows1 during the time of incubation1 bring food to the females4 ,pigeons1 and most of the small birds which pair1 sit by turns2 but where polygamy prevails1 the males scarcely take any care of the young4 ,birds of the duck kind pluck the feathers off their breast1 and cover their eggs with them1 lest they should be injured by cold when they quit their nest for food2 and when the young are hatched1 they shew the utmost solicitude in providing for them1 till they are able to fly1 and shift for themselves4 ,young pigeons are fed with hard seeds1 which the parents first have prepared in their own crops1 that so the infant bird may digest them easily4 ,and the eagle makes its nest on the highest precipices of mountains1 and in the warmest spot1 facing the sun2 here the prey which it brings is corrupted by the heat1 and made digestible to the young4 ,there is1 indeed1 an exception to this fostering care of animals in the cuckoo1 which lays its eggs in the nest of some small bird1 generally the wagtail1 yellow-hammer1 or white-throat1 and leaves both the incubation and preservation of the young to them4 ,but naturalists inform us that this apparent want of instinct in the cuckoo proceeds from the structure and situation of its stomach1 which disqualifies it for incubation2 still its care is conspicuous in providing a proper1 though a foreign situation1 for its eggs4 ,amphibious animals1 fishes1 and insects1 which cannot come under the care of their parents1 yet owe this to them1 that they are deposited in places where they easily find proper nourishment4 ,when animals come to that maturity as no longer to want parental care1 they exercise the utmost labour and industry for the preservation of their own lives4 ,but the different species are many1 and the individuals of each species are very numerous4 ,in order1 therefore1 that all may be supported1 the ,creator has assigned to each class its proper food1 and set bounds and limits to their appetites4 ,some live on particular species of plants1 which are produced only in particular animalcula2 others on carcases1 and some even on mud and dung4 ,for this reason1 ,providence has ordained that some should swim in certain regions of the watery element2 that others should fly2 and that some should inhabit the torrid1 the frigid1 or the temperate zones4 ,different animals also are confined to certain spots in the same zone3 some frequent the deserts1 others the meadows1 or the cultivated grounds2 thus the mountains1 the woods1 the pools1 the gardens1 have their proper inhabitants4 ,by this means there is no terrestrial tract1 no sea1 no river1 no country1 but what teems with life4 ,hence one species of animals does not injuriously invade the aliment of another2 and hence the world at all times affords support to so many1 and such various inhabitants1 and nothing which it produces is in vain4 ,we ought to remark1 also1 the wisdom and goodness of ,providence in forming the structure of the bodies of animals for their peculiar manner of life1 and in giving them clothing which is suitable both to the country and element in which they live4 ,thus the elephant1 the rhinoceros1 and the various kinds of monkeys1 are destined to live in the torrid regions1 where the sun darts its fiercest rays2 their skins are therefore naked1 for were they covered with hair1 they would perish with heat4 ,they are also of such conformation of body as to suit their different manner of life4 ,the rein-deer has his habitation in the coldest parts of ,lapland2 his food is the liverwort1 which grows nowhere else so abundantly2 and as the cold is in that country intense1 this useful animal is covered with hair of the densest kind2 by this means he easily defies the keenness of the arctic regions4 ,the rough-legged partridge passes its life in the ,lapland ,alps1 where it feeds on the seeds of the dwarf birch3 while1 to withstand the cold1 and to enable it to run freely among the snow1 even its feet are thickly beset with feathers4 ,the camel is a native of the arid sandy deserts1 which1 with their dreadful sterility1 are yet capable of yielding him support4 ,how wisely has the ,creator formed him6 his foot is made to traverse the burning sands2 and as the place of his habitation affords but little water1 he is made capable of enduring long journeys1 and going many days without quenching his thirst2 for he is furnished with a natural reservoir1 in which1 when he drinks1 he stores up a quantity of water1 and has the power of using it in a frugal and sparing manner1 when1 for his food1 he crops the dry thistle of the desert4 ,the bullock delights in low rich grounds1 because there he finds the food which is most palatable to him4 ,the wild horse chiefly resorts to woods1 and feeds upon leafy plants4 ,sheep prefer hills of moderate elevation1 where they find a short sweet grass1 of which they are very fond4 ,goats climb up the precipices of mountains1 that they may brouse on the tender shrubs2 and1 in order to fit them for their situation1 their feet are made for jumping4 ,swine chiefly get provision by turning up the earth2 for which purpose their snouts are peculiarly formed4 ,in this employment they find succulent roots1 insects1 and reptiles4 ,so various is the appetite of animals1 that there is scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some1 and left untouched by others4 ,thus the horse refuses the water hemlock1 which the goat will eat3 the goat will not feed on monkshood1 but the horse eats it with avidity4 ,the long-leafed water hemlock is avoided by the bullock2 yet the sheep is fond of it4 ,the spurge is poisonous to man2 but the caterpillar finds it a wholesome nourishment4 ,some animals live on the leaves of certain plants1 others on the stalks1 and others still on the rind1 or even the roots of the same vegetable4 ,it should seem from hence1 that no plant is absolutely poisonous1 but only relatively so3 that is1 there is no plant but what is wholesome food to some animal or other4 ,thus divine wisdom has assigned an use for all its productions4 ,the care of ,providence is further evident in giving to each animal an instinctive knowledge of its proper aliment2 but that delicacy of taste and smell1 by which they accurately distinguish the wholesome from the pernicious1 is not so evident in domestic animals as in those which are in a state of nature4 ,all birds of the goose kind pass great part of their lives in water1 feeding on water-insects1 fishes1 and their eggs4 ,it is evident that they are calculated for this mode of existence2 their beaks1 their necks1 their feet1 and their feathers1 are formed for it4 ,all other birds are as aptly fitted for their manner of life as these4 ,the sea-swallow is said to get his food in a very singular way4 ,fish are his support1 but he is not capable of diving in order to catch them like other aquatic birds2 the sea-gull1 therefore1 is his caterer3 when this last has gorged himself1 he is pursued by the former1 who buffets him till he casts up a part of his prey1 which the other catches before it reaches the water2 but in those seasons when the fishes hide themselves in deep water1 the merganser supplies even the gull himself with food1 being capable of plunging deeper into the sea4 ,small birds are generally supposed to live principally upon the berries of ivy and hawthorn2 but modern naturalists contradict this1 and affirm that their winter food is the knot-grass1 which bears heavy seeds1 like those of the black bind-weed4 ,this is a very common plant1 not easily destroyed2 it grows in great abundance by the sides of roads1 and trampling on it will not kill it2 it is extremely plentiful in corn-fields after harvest1 and gives a reddish hue to them by the multitude of its seeds4 ,wherever the husbandman ploughs1 this plant will grow1 nor can all his art prevent it3 thus a part of his labours are necessarily destined for the propagation of a plant which our heavenly ,father has designed immediately for the support of the fowls of the air2 for though they sow not1 neither gather into barns1 yet are they fed by him4 ,some birds who live on insects1 migrate every year to foreign regions1 in order to seek food in a milder climate2 while all the northern countries1 where they live well in summer1 are covered with snow4 ,some naturalists reckon the different species of the ,hirundo1 or swallow1 among the birds of passage2 while others affirm that they do not migrate1 but1 at the approach of winter1 seek an asylum from the cold in the clefts of rocks1 with which our island is surrounded1 or take refuge in the bottom of pools and lakes1 among the reeds and rushes2 others still1 who have made their observations with more attention and patience than either of the former1 allow that the old swallows with their early brood do migrate2 but that the latter hatches1 which are incapable of distant flight1 lay themselves up1 and become torpid during the winter2 and at the approach of spring1 by the wonderful appointment of ,nature1 they come forth again with renewed life and activity4 ,in these1 and all other animals which become torpid in the winter1 the peristaltic motion of the bowels ceases while they are dormant1 so that they do not suffer by hunger4 ,dr4 ,lister remarks1 concerning this class of animals1 that their blood1 when poured into a vessel1 does not coagulate1 like that of all other animals2 and therefore is no less fit for circulation when they revive1 than before4 ,the birds called moor-fowl1 during great snows1 work out paths for themselves under its surface1 where they live in safety1 and get their food4 ,they moult in summer1 so that about the latter end of ,august they cannot fly1 and are therefore obliged to run in the woods2 but then the blackberries and bilberries are ripe1 from whence they are abundantly supplied with food3 but the young do not moult the first year1 and therefore1 though they cannot run so well1 are enabled to escape danger by flight4 ,the migration of birds is not only a fact1 but1 as it relates to many kinds of them1 is an useful fact to mankind4 ,this remark applies to such of them as feed on insects1 the number of which is so great1 that if these birds did not destroy them1 it would be almost impossible for us to live4 ,of the various kinds of water-fowl that are known in ,europe1 there is hardly any but what1 in the spring1 are found to repair to ,lapland4 ,this is a country of lakes1 rivers1 swamps1 and mountains1 covered with thick and gloomy forests1 that afford shelter during summer to these birds4 ,in these arctic regions1 by reason of the thickness of the woods1 the ground remains moist and penetrable1 and the waters contain the larv of the gnat in innumerable quantities4 ,the days there are long1 and the beautiful and splendid meteors of the night indulge them with every opportunity of collecting so minute a food2 at the same time1 men are very sparingly scattered over that vast northern waste4 ,yet1 ,linnus1 that great explorer of nature1 in his excursion to ,lapland1 was astonished at the myriads of water-fowl that migrated with him out of that country1 which exceeded in multitude the army of ,xerxes1 covering1 for eight whole days and nights1 the surface of the river ,calix6 ,the surprise of ,linnus was occasioned by his supposing their support to be furnished chiefly by the vegetable kingdom1 almost denied to the ,lapland waters2 not knowing that the all-bountiful ,creator had plenteously provided insect food for them in that dreary wilderness4 ,certain beasts1 also1 as well as birds1 become torpid1 or at least inactive1 when they are1 by the rigour of the season1 excluded from the necessaries of life4 ,thus the bear1 at the end of autumn1 collects a quantity of moss1 into which he creeps1 and there lies all the winter1 subsisting upon no other nourishment than his fat1 collected during the summer in the cellulous membrane1 and which1 without doubt1 during his fast1 circulates through his vessels1 and supplies the place of food4 ,the hedge-hog1 badger1 and some kinds of mice1 fill their winter quarters with vegetables1 which they eat during mild weather in the winter1 and sleep during the frosts4 ,the bat seems cold and quite dead1 but revives in the spring3 while most of the amphibious animals get into dens1 or the bottom of lakes and pools4 ,among other instances of the preservation of animals1 we ought to mention that of the pole-cat of ,america1 commonly called the squash or skink4 ,this is a small animal of the weasel kind1 which some of the planters of that country keep about their premises to perform the office of a cat4 ,this creature has always a very strong and disagreeable smell1 but when affrighted or enraged1 it emits so horrible a stench1 as to prevent any other creature from approaching it3 even dogs in pursuit of it1 when they find this extraordinary mode of defence made use of1 will instantly turn1 and leave him undisputed master of the field2 nor can any attempts ever bring them to rally again4 ,kalm1 as quoted by ,buffon1 says1 ,one of these animals came near the farm where ,i lived in the year #agdi4 ,it was in the winter season1 during the night2 and the dogs that were upon the watch1 pursued it for some time1 until it discharged against them4 ,although ,i was in bed a good way off1 ,i thought ,i should have been suffocated2 and the cows and oxen themselves1 by their lowings1 shewed how much they were affected by the stench4 ,nor is even the serpent1 in its various kinds1 destitute of the care of the common ,father of nature4 ,this reptile1 which has neither wings to fly1 nor the power to run with much speed1 would not have the means to take its prey1 were it not endowed with superior cunning to most other creatures4 ,in favour of the serpent1 also1 there is a terror attending its appearance1 which operates with such power upon birds and other small animals1 as often to cause them to fall an easy prey to it4 ,hence1 probably1 has arisen the fiction of the power of fascination1 which has been confidently ascribed to the rattlesnake and some other serpents4 ,on the ,,destruction ,,of ,,animals4 ,in considering the destruction of animals1 we may observe that ,nature is continually operating3 she produces1 preserves for a time1 and then destroys all her productions4 ,man himself is subject to this general order2 for he also1 like other creatures1 returns to the dust from whence he was taken4 ,this process of nature is marked even in the vicissitudes of the seasons4 ,spring1 like the jovial1 playful infancy of all living creatures1 represents childhood and youth2 for then plants spread forth their flowers1 fishes play in the waters1 birds sing1 and universal nature rejoices4 ,summer1 like middle age1 exhibits plants and trees full clothed in green2 fruits ripen2 and every thing is full of life4 ,but autumn is comparatively gloomy2 for then the leaves fall from the trees1 and plants begin to wither1 insects grow torpid1 and many animals retire to their winter quarters4 ,the day proceeds with steps similar to the year4 ,in the morning every thing is fresh and playful2 at noon all is energy and action2 evening follows1 and every thing is inert and sluggish4 ,thus the age of man begins from the cradle2 pleasing childhood succeeds2 then sprightly youth2 afterwards manhood1 firm1 severe1 and intent on self-preservation2 lastly1 old age creeps on1 debilitates1 and1 at length1 totally destroys our tottering bodies4 ,but we must consider the destruction of animals more at large4 ,we have before observed1 that all animals do not live on vegetables1 but there are some which feed on animalcula2 others on insects4 ,nay1 some there are which subsist only by rapine1 and daily destroy some or other of the peaceable kind4 ,the destruction of animals by each other1 is generally in progression1--the strong prevailing against the weak4 ,thus1 the tree-louse lives on plants2 the fly called musca amphidivora1 lives on the tree-louse2 the hornet and wasp-fly1 on the musca amphidivora2 the dragon-fly1 on the hornet and wasp-fly2 the larger spider1 on the dragon-fly2 small birds feed on the spider2 and lastly1 the hawk kind on the small birds4 ,in like manner1 the monoculus delights in putrid waters2 the gnat eats the monoculus2 the frog eats the gnat2 the pike eats the frog2 and the sea-calf eats the pike4 ,the bat and the goat-sucker make their excursions only at night1 that they may catch the moths1 which at that time fly about in great quantities4 ,the woodpecker pulls out the insects which lie hid in the trunks of trees4 ,the swallow pursues those which fly about in the open air4 ,the mole feeds on worms and grubs in the earth4 ,the large fishes devour the small ones4 ,and perhaps there is not an animal in existence1 which has not an enemy to contend with4 ,among quadrupeds1 wild beasts are most remarkably pernicious and dangerous to others4 ,but that they may not1 by their cruelty1 destroy a whole species1 these are circumscribed within certain bounds3 as to the fiercest of them1 they are few in number1 when compared with other animals2 sometimes they fall upon and destroy each other2 and it is remarked also1 that they seldom live to a great age1 for they are subject1 from the nature of their diet1 to various diseases1 which bring them sooner to an end than those animals which live on vegetables4 ,it has been asked1 why has the ,supreme ,being constituted such an order in nature1 that1 it should seem1 some animals are created only to be destroyed by others8 ,to this it has been answered1 that ,providence not only aimed at sustaining1 but also keeping a just proportion amongst all the species1 and so preventing any one of them from increasing too much1 to the detriment of men and other animals4 ,for if it be true1 as it assuredly is1 that the surface of the earth can support only a certain number of creatures1 they must all perish1 if the same number were doubled or trebled4 ,there are many kinds of flies1 which bring forth so abundantly1 that they would soon fill the air1 and1 like clouds1 intercept the light of the sun1 unless they were devoured by birds1 spiders1 and other animals4 ,storks and cranes free ,egypt from frogs1 which1 after the inundation of the ,nile1 cover the whole country4 ,falcons clear ,palestine from mice4 ,bellonius1 on this subject1 says1 ,the storks come to ,egypt in such abundance1 that the fields and meadows are quite white with them4 ,yet the ,egyptians are not displeased with them1 as frogs are generated in such numbers1 that1 did not the storks devour them1 they would over-run every thing4 ,besides1 they also catch and eat serpents4 ,between ,belba and ,gaza1 the fields of ,palestine are often injured by mice and rats2 and were these vermin not destroyed by the falcons1 that come here by instinct1 the inhabitants could have no harvest4 ,the white fox is of equal advantage in the ,lapland ,alps2 as he destroys the ,norway rat1 which1 by its prodigious increase1 would otherwise entirely destroy vegetation in that country4 ,it is sufficient for us to believe that ,providence is wise in all its works1 and that nothing is made in vain4 ,when rapacious animals do us mischief1 let us not think that the ,creator planned the order of nature according to our private principles of economy2 for the ,laplander has one way of living1 the ,european husbandman another1 and the ,hottentot differs from them both2 whereas the stupendous ,deity is one throughout the globe2 and if ,providence do not always calculate according to our method of reckoning1 we ought to consider this affair in the same light as when different seamen wait for a fair wind1 every one with respect to the port to which he is bound3 these we plainly see cannot all be satisfied4 ,we shall conclude this branch1 by turning once more to ,man1 and tracing him through his progressive stages of decay1 until death puts a final period to his earthly existence4 ,the human form has no sooner arrived at its state of perfection1 than it begins to decline4 ,the alteration is at first insensible1 and often several years are elapsed before we find ourselves grown old4 ,the news of this unwelcome change too generally comes from without2 and we learn from others that we grow old1 before we are willing to believe the report4 ,when the body is come to its full height1 and is extended into its just dimensions1 it then also begins to receive an additional bulk1 which rather loads than assists it4 ,this is formed of fat1 which1 generally1 at about the age of forty1 covers all the muscles1 and interrupts their activity4 ,every exertion is then performed with greater labour1 and the increase of size only serves as the forerunner of decay4 ,the bones also become every day more solid4 ,in the embryo they are almost as soft as the muscles and the flesh1 but by degrees they harden1 and acquire their proper vigour2 but still1 for the purpose of circulation1 they are furnished through all their substance with their proper canals4 ,nevertheless1 these canals are of very different capacities during the different stages of life4 ,in infancy they are capacious1 and the blood flows almost as freely through the bones as through any other part of the body2 in manhood their size is greatly diminished1 the vessels are almost imperceptible1 and the circulation is proportionably slow4 ,but in the decline of life1 the blood which flows through the bones1 no longer contributing to their growth1 must necessarily serve to increase their hardness4 ,the channels which run through the human frame may be compared to those pipes that we see crusted on the inside1 by the water1 for a long continuance1 running through them4 ,both every day grow less and less1 by the small rigid particles which are deposited within them4 ,thus1 as the vessels are by degrees diminished1 the juices also1 which circulate through them1 are diminished in proportion2 till at length1 in old age1 these props of the human frame are not only more solid1 but more brittle4 ,the cartilages1 likewise1 grow more rigid2 the juices circulating through them1 every day contribute to make them harder1 so that those parts which in youth are elastic and pliant1 in age become hard and bony1 consequently the motion of the joints must become more difficult4 ,thus1 in old age1 every action of the body is performed with labour1 and the cartilages1 formerly so supple1 will now sooner break than bend4 ,as the cartilages acquire hardness1 and unfit the joints for motion1 so also that mucous liquor1 which is always secreted between the joints1 and which serves1 like oil to a hinge1 to give them an easy and ready play1 is now grown more scanty4 ,it becomes thicker and more clammy1 more unfit for answering the purposes of motion1 and from thence1 in old age every joint is stiff and awkward4 ,at every motion this clammy liquor is heard to crack2 and it is not without a great effort of the muscles1 that its resistance is overcome4 ,old persons have been known1 that seldom moved a single joint without thus giving notice of the violence that was done to it4 ,the membranes that cover the bones1 joints1 and the rest of the body1 become1 as we grow old1 more dense and more dry4 ,those which surround the bones soon cease to be ductile4 ,the fibres1 of which the muscles or flesh is composed1 become every day more rigid2 and while1 to the touch1 the body seems1 as we advance in years1 to grow softer1 it is in reality increasing in hardness4 ,it is the skin1 and not the flesh1 that we feel on such occasions4 ,the fat1 and the flabbiness of it1 seem to give an appearance of softness1 which the flesh itself is very far from having4 ,none can doubt this after trying the difference between the flesh of young and old animals4 ,the first is soft and tender1 the last is hard and dry4 ,the skin is the only part of the body that age does not harden2 that stretches to every degree of tension2 and we have often frightful instances of its pliancy1 in many disorders which are incident to humanity4 ,in youth1 while the body is vigorous and increasing1 it continues to give way to its growth4 ,but although it thus adapts itself to our increase1 its does not in the same manner conform to our decay4 ,the skin1 in youth and health1 is plump1 glossy1 veined1 and clear2 but when the body begins to decline1 it has not elasticity enough to shrink entirely with its diminution2 it becomes dark or yellow1 and hangs in wrinkles1 which no cosmetic can remove4 ,the wrinkles of the body in general proceed from this cause2 but those of the face seem to proceed from another1 namely1 from that variety of positions into which it is put by the speech1 the food1 or the passions4 ,every grimace1 every passion1 and every gratification of appetite1 puts the visage into different forms4 ,these are visible enough in young persons2 but what at first was accidental or transitory1 becomes1 by habit1 unalterably fixed in the visage as it grows older4 ,hence1 as we advance in age1 the bones1 the cartilages1 the membranes1 the flesh1 and every fibre of the body1 becomes more solid1 more dry1 and more brittle4 ,every part shrinks1 motion becomes more slow1 the circulation of the fluids is performed with less freedom2 perspiration diminishes2 the secretions alter2 the digestion becomes laborious2 and the juices no longer serve to convey their accustomed nourishment4 ,thus the body dies by little and little1 and all its functions are diminished by degrees2 life is driven from one part of the frame to another2 universal rigidity prevails2 and death1 at last1 seizes upon the remnant that is left4 ,as the bones1 the cartilages1 the muscles1 and all other parts of the body1 are softer in women than in men1 these parts must1 of consequence1 require a longer time to arrive at that state of hardness which occasions death4 ,women1 therefore1 ought to be longer in growing old than men1 and this is1 generally speaking1 the case4 ,if we consult the tables which have been drawn up respecting human life1 we shall find that1 after a certain age1 they are more long-lived than men1 all other circumstances the same4 ,thus a woman of sixty has a greater probability1 than a man of the same age1 of living till eighty4 ,we shall close this chapter with an account of ,,animal ,,reproductions4 ,here we discover a new field of wonders1 that seems entirely to contradict the principles that we had adopted concerning the formation of organized bodies4 ,it was long thought that animals could only be multiplied by eggs1 or by young ones4 ,but it is now found that there are some exceptions to this general rule1 since certain animal bodies have been discovered1 that may be divided into as many complete bodies as you please2 for each part thus separated from the parent body1 soon repairs what is deficient1 and becomes a complete animal4 ,it is now no longer doubtful that the polypus belongs to the class of animals1 though it much resembles plants1 both in form1 and in its mode of propagating4 ,the bodies of these creatures may be either cut across or longitudinally1 and the pieces will become so many complete polypi4 ,even from the skin1 or least part1 cut off from the body1 one or more polypi will be produced2 and if several pieces cut off be joined together by the extremities1 they will perfectly unite1 nourish each other1 and become one body4 ,this discovery has given rise to other experiments1 and it has been found that polypi are not the only animals which live and grow after being cut in pieces4 ,the earth-worm will multiply after being cut in two2 to the tail there grows a head1 and the two pieces then become two worms4 ,after having been divided1 they cannot be joined together again2 they remain for some time in the same state1 or grow rather smaller2 we then see at the extremity which was cut1 a little white button begin to appear1 which increases and gradually lengthens4 ,soon after1 we may observe rings at first very close together1 but insensibly extending on all sides2 a new stomach1 and other organs1 are then formed4 ,we may at any time make the following experiment with snails3 cut off their heads close by the horns1 and in a certain space of time the head will be reproduced4 ,a similar circumstance takes place in crabs2 if one of their claws is torn off1 it will again be entirely reproduced4 ,a very remarkable experiment was made by ,duhamel1 on the thigh of a chicken4 ,after the thigh-bone which had been broken was perfectly restored1 and a callus completely formed1 he stripped off the flesh down to the bone2--the parts were gradually reproduced1 and the bone1 and the circulation of the blood1 again renewed4 ,we know then that some animals may be multiplied by dividing them into pieces2 and we no longer doubt that the young of certain insects may be produced in the same manner as a branch is from a tree2 that1 being cut in pieces1 they will live again in the smallest piece2 that they may be turned inside out like a glove1 divided into pieces1 then turned again1 and yet live1 eat1 grow1 and multiply4 ,here a question offers itself1 which perhaps no naturalist can resolve in a satisfactory manner3 ,how does it happen that the parts thus cut off1 can be again reproduced8 ,we must suppose that germs are distributed to every part of the body2 whilst in other animals they are only contained in certain parts4 ,these germs unfold themselves when they receive proper nourishment4 ,thus1 when an animal is cut in pieces1 the germ is supplied with the necessary juices1 which would have been conveyed to other parts1 if they had not been diverted into a different channel4 ,the superfluous juices develop those parts which without them would have continued attached to each other4 ,every part of the polypus and worm1 contains in itself1 as the bud does the rudiments of a tree1 all the viscera necessary to the animal4 ,the parts essential to life are distributed throughout the body1 and the circulation is carried on even in the smallest particles4 ,as we do not understand all the means that the ,author of nature makes use of to distribute life and feeling to such a number of animals1 we have no reason to maintain1 that the creatures of which we have been speaking1 are the only ones that are exceptions to the general rule in their mode of propagating4 ,the fecundity of nature1 and the infinite wisdom of the ,creator1 always surpass our feeble conceptions4 ,the same hand that has formed the polypus and the worm1 has shewn us that it is able to simplify the structure of animals4 ,,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,animals4--7,continued47 ,the ,beaver1 and its ,habitations--,the ,mole--,the ,frog--,the ,toad--,the ,rhinoceros--,crocodiles and ,alligators--,fossil ,crocodile--,the ,ornithorhynchus ,paradoxus--,the ,marmot1 or ,mountain ,rat1 of ,switzerland4 ,nature's unnumber'd family combine ,in one beneficent1 one vast design2 ,e'en from inanimates to breathing man1-- ,a heaven-conceiv'd1 heaven-executed plan2 ,onward1 from those who soar or lowly creep1 ,the wholesome equipoise through all to keep1 ,as faithful agents in earth1 sea1 and air1 ,the lower world to watch with constant care2 ,her due proportion wisely to conserve3-- ,a wondrous trust1 from which they never swerve4 ,pratt4 ,it would not be consistent with the plan of this work to embrace the whole natural history of the animal and vegetable kingdom4 ,this is a ,book of ,curiosities2 and it is our intention to present the reader with a sketch of the most remarkable things in the universe3 our present subject1 therefore1 being curiosities respecting animals1 we shall commence with-- ,,the ,,beaver4--,this animal was known to the ancients for its possession of that sebaceous matter called castor1 secreted by two large glands near its genitals and anus1 and of which each animal has about two ounces2 but they appear to have been unacquainted with its habits and economy1 with that mental contrivance and practical dexterity1 which in its natural state so strikingly distinguish it4 ,beavers are found in the most northern latitudes of ,europe and ,asia1 but are most abundant in ,north ,america4 ,in the months of ,june and ,july1 they assemble in large companies to the number of two hundred1 on the banks of some water1 and proceed to the formation of their establishment4 ,if the water be subject to risings and fallings1 they erect a dam1 to preserve it at a constant level2 where this level is naturally preserved1 this labour is superseded4 ,the length of this dam is occasionally eight feet4 ,in the preparation of it1 they begin with felling some very high1 but not extremely thick tree1 on the border of a river1 which can be made to fall into the water2 and1 in a short time1 this is effected by the united operation of many1 with their fore-teeth1 the branches being afterwards cleared by the same process4 ,a multitude of smaller trees are found necessary to complete the fabric1 and many of these are dragged from some distance by land1 and formed into stakes2 the fixing of which is a work of extreme difficulty and perseverance1 some of the beavers with their teeth raising their large ends against the crossbeam1 while others at the bottom dig with their fore-feet the holes in which the points are to be sunk4 ,a series of these stakes1 in several rows1 is established from one bank of the river to the other1 in connection with the cross-tree1 and the intervals between them are filled up by vast quantities of earth1 brought from a distance1 and plashed with materials adapted to give it tenacity1 and prevent its being carried off4 ,the bark is formed at the bottom1 of about the width of twelve feet1 diminishing as it approaches the surface of the water1 to two or three2 being thus judiciously constructed to resist its weight and efforts by the inclined plane instead of perpendicular opposition4 ,these preparations1 of such immense magnitude and toil1 being completed1 they proceed to the construction of their mansions1 which are raised on piles near the margin of the stream or lake1 and have one opening from the land1 and another by which they have instant access to the water4 ,these buildings are usually of an orbicular form1 in general about the diameter of ten feet1 and comprehending frequently several stories4 ,the foundation walls are nearly two feet in thickness1 resting upon planks or stakes1 which constitute also their floors4 ,in the houses of one story only1 the walls1 which in all cases are plastered with extreme neatness both externally and within1 after rising about two feet perpendicularly1 approach each other1 so as at length to constitute1 in closing1 a species of dome4 ,in the application of the mortar to their habitations1 the tails as well as feet of the beavers are of essential service4 ,stone1 wood1 and a sandy kind of earth1 are employed in their structures1 which1 by their compactness and strength1 completely preclude injury from winds and rain4 ,the alder1 poplar1 and willow1 are the principal trees which they employ2 and they always begin their operations on the trunk1 at nearly two feet above the ground2 nor do they ever desist from the process till its fall is completed4 ,they sit instead of stand1 at this labour1 and while reducing the tree to the ground1 derive a pleasure at once from the success of their toils1 and from the gratification of their palate and appetite by the bark1 which is a favourite species of food to them1 as well as the young and tender parts of the wood itself4 ,for their support in winter1 ample stores are laid up near each separate cabin2 and occasionally to give variety and luxury to their repasts during a long season1 in which their stores must have become dry and nearly tasteless1 they will make excursions into the neighbouring woods for fresh supplies4 ,depredations by the tenants of one cabin on the magazines of another are unknown1 and the strictest notions of property and honesty are universal4 ,some of their habitations will contain six only1 others twelve1 and some even twenty or thirty inhabitants2 and the whole village or township contains in general about twelve or fourteen habitations4 ,strangers are not permitted to intrude on the vicinity2 but1 amidst the different members of the society itself1 there appears to prevail that attachment and that friendship which are the natural result of mutual co-operation1 and of active and successful struggles against difficulty4 ,the approach of danger is announced by the violent striking of their tails against the surface of the water1 which extends the alarm to a great distance2 and1 while some throw themselves for security into the water1 others retire within the precincts of their cabins1 where they are safe from every enemy but man4 ,the neatness as well as the security of their dwellings is remarkable1 the floors being strewed over with box and fir1 and displaying the most admirable cleanness and order4 ,their general position is that of sitting1 the upper part of the body1 with the head1 being considerably raised1 while the lower touches1 and is somewhat indeed immersed in1 the water4 ,this element is not only indispensable to them in the same way as to other quadrupeds1 but they carefully preserve access to it even when the ice is of very considerable depth1 for the purpose of regaling themselves by excursions to a great extent under the frozen surface4 ,the most general method of taking them is by attacking their cabins during these rambles1 and watching their approach to a hole dug in the ice at a small distance1 to which they are obliged1 after a certain time1 to resort for respiration4 ,if a man1 who had never been informed of the industry of beavers and their manner of building1 were shewn the edifices that they construct1 he would suppose them to be the work of most eminent architects4 ,every thing is wonderful in the labours of these amphibious animals2 the regular plan1 the size1 the solidity1 and the admirable art of these buildings1 must fill every attentive observer with astonishment4 ,the works of beavers have a great resemblance to those of men2 and upon their first appearance we may imagine them to be produced by rational and thinking beings2 but when we examine them nearer1 we shall find that in all their proceedings1 these animals do not act upon the principles of reason1 but by an instinct which is implanted in them by nature4 ,if reason guided their labours1 we should naturally conclude that the buildings which they now construct would be very different from those they formerly made1 and that they would gradually advance towards perfection4 ,but we find that they never vary in the least from the rules of their forefathers1 never deviate from the circle prescribed to them by nature1 and the beavers of to-day build exactly after the same plan as those which lived before the deluge4 ,but they are not the less worthy of our admiration4 ,in these sagacious creatures we have an example of the great diversity there is in the instinct of animals--how superior is the instinct of the beaver to that of the sheep6 ,the flesh of the anterior part of the bodies of beavers resembles that of land animals in substance and flavour2 while that of the lower possesses the taste1 and smell1 and lightness of fish4 ,the sexual union among these animals is connected with considerable individual choice1 sentiment1 and constancy4--,every couple pass together the autumn and winter1 with the most perfect comfort and affection4 ,about the close of winter1 the females1 after a gestation of four months1 produce1 in general1 each two or three young1 and soon after this period they are quitted by the males1 who ramble into the country to enjoy the return of spring2 occasionally returning to their cabins1 but no longer dwelling in them4 ,when the females have reared their young1 which happens in the course of a few weeks1 to a state in which they can follow their dams1 these also quit their winter residence1 and resort to the woods1 to enjoy the opening bloom and renovated supplies of nature4 ,if their habitations on the water should be impaired by floods1 or winds1 or enemies1 the beavers assemble with great rapidity to repair the damage4 ,if no alarm of this nature occurs1 the summer is principally spent by them in the woods1 and on the advance of autumn they assemble in the scene of their former labours and friendships1 and prepare with assiduity for the confinement and rigours of approaching winter4 ,when taken young1 the beaver may be tamed without difficulty2 but it exhibits few or no indications of superior intelligence4 ,some beavers are averse to that association which so strikingly characterizes these animals in general1 and satisfy themselves with digging holes in the banks of rivers1 instead of erecting elaborate habitations4 ,the fur of these is comparatively of little value4 ,another subject of animal curiosity is1 ,,the ,,mole4--,this animal is about six inches in length1 without the tail4 ,its body is large and cylindrical1 and its snout strong and cartilaginous4 ,its skin is of extraordinary thickness1 and covered with a fur1 short1 but yielding to that of no other animal in fineness4 ,it hears with particular acuteness1 and1 notwithstanding the popular opinion to the contrary1 possesses eyes1 which it is stated to be able to withdraw or project at pleasure4 ,it lives partly on the roots of vegetables1 but principally on animal food1 such as worms and insects1 and is extremely voracious and fierce4 ,shaw relates1 from ,sir ,thomas ,brown1 that a mole1 a toad1 and a serpent1 have been repeatedly inclosed in a large glass vase1 and that the mole has not only killed the others1 but has devoured a very considerable part of them4 ,it abounds in soft ground1 in which it can dig with ease1 and which furnishes it with a great supply of food4 ,it forms its subterraneous apartments with great facility by its snout and feet1 and with a very judicious reference to escape and comfort4 ,it produces four or five young in the spring1 in a nest a little beneath the surface1 composed of moss and herbage4 ,it is an animal injurious to the grounds of the farmer1 by throwing up innumerable hills of mould1 in the construction of its habitation1 or the pursuit of its food1 and many persons obtain their subsistence from the premiums1 which are1 on this account1 given for their destruction4 ,moles can swim with considerable dexterity1 and are thus furnished with the means of escape in sudden inundations1 to which they are frequently exposed4 ,in ,ireland1 the mole is unknown4 ,,the ,,common ,,frog4--,this is an animal so well known1 that it needs no description3 but some of its properties are very singular4 ,its spring1 or power of taking large leaps1 is remarkably great1 and it is the best swimmer of all four-footed animals4 ,its parts are finely adapted for those ends1 the fore members of the body being very lightly made1 the hind legs and thighs very long1 and furnished with very strong muscles4 ,while in a tadpole state1 it is entirely a water animal1 for in this element the spawn is cast4 ,as soon as frogs are released from their tadpole state1 they immediately take to land2 and if the weather has been hot1 and there fall any refreshing showers1 the ground for a considerable space is perfectly blackened by myriads of these animalcules1 seeking for some secure lurking places4 ,some persons not taking time to examine into this phenomenon1 imagined them to have been generated in the clouds1 and showered on the earth3 but had they1 like ,mr4 ,derham1 traced them to the next pool1 they would have found a better solution of the difficulty4 ,as frogs adhere closely to the backs of their own species1 so we know they will do the same by fish4 ,that they will injure1 if not entirely kill carp1 is a fact indisputable1 from the following relation4 ,not many years ago1 on fishing a pond belonging to ,mr4 ,pitt1 of ,encomb1 ,dorsetshire1 great numbers of the carp were found1 each with a frog mounted on it1 the hind legs clinging to the back1 and the fore legs fixed to the corner of each eye of the fish1 which were thin and greatly wasted1 teased by carrying so disagreeable a load4 ,the croaking of frogs is well known2 and from that1 in fenny countries1 they are distinguished by ludicrous titles1--thus they are styled ,dutch nightingales1 and ,boston waites4 ,yet there is a time of the year when they become mute1 neither croaking nor opening their mouths for a whole month2 this happens in the hot season1 and that is in many places known to the country people by the name of the paddock-moon4 ,it is said1 that during that period their mouths are so closed1 that no force 7without killing the animal7 will be capable of opening them4 ,these1 as well as other reptiles1 feed but a small space of the year4 ,their food is flies1 insects1 and snails4 ,during winter1 frogs and toads remain in a torpid state2 the last of which will dig into the earth1 and cover themselves with almost the same agility as the mole4 ,not less remarkable is ,,the ,,common ,,toad4--,this is the most deformed and hideous of all animals4 ,the body is broad1 the back flat1 and covered with a pimply dusky hide2 the belly large1 swagging1 and swelling out2 the legs short1 and its pace laboured and crawling2 its retreat gloomy and filthy3 in short1 its general appearance is such as to strike one with disgust and horror4 ,yet it is said that its eyes are fine4 lian and other ancient writers tell many ridiculous fables of the poison of the toad4 ,this animal was believed by some old writers to have a stone in its head fraught with great virtues1 medical and magical3 it was distinguished by the term of1 the reptile1 and called the toad-stone1 bufonites1 krottenstern1 and other names1 but all its fancied powers vanished on the discovery of its being nothing but the fossil tooth of the sea-wolf1 or of some other flat-toothed fish1 not unfrequent in our island1 as well as several other countries4 ,but these fables have been long exploded4 ,and as to the notion of its being a poisonous animal1 it is probable that its excessive deformity1 joined to the faculty it has of emitting a juice from its pimples1 and a dusky liquid from its hind parts1 is the foundation of the report4 ,that it has any noxious qualities1 there seem to be no proofs in the smallest degree satisfactory1 though we have heard many strange relations on that point4 ,on the contrary1 many have taken them in their naked hands1 and held them long without receiving the least injury4 ,it is also well known that quacks have eaten them1 and have squeezed their juices into a glass1 and drank them with impunity4 ,they are also a common food to many animals2 to buzzards1 owls1 ,norfolk plovers1 ducks1 and snakes1 which would not touch them1 were they in any degree noxious4 ,the fullest information concerning the nature and qualities of this animal is contained in letters from ,mr4 ,arscott and ,mr4 ,pitfield to ,dr4 ,milles1 communicated to ,mr4 ,pennant2 concerning a toad that lived above thirty-six years with them1 was completely tame1 and became so great a favourite that most of the ladies in the neighbourhood got the better of their prejudices so far as to be anxious to see it fed4 ,its food was insects1 such as millepedes1 spiders1 ants1 flies1 c4 but it was particularly fond of flesh worms1 which were bred on purpose for it4 ,it never appeared in winter1 but regularly made its appearance in the spring1 when the warm weather commenced1 climbing up a few steps1 and waiting to be taken up1 carried into the house1 and fed upon a table4 ,before it attacked the insects1 it fixed its eyes on them1 and remained motionless for a quarter of a minute1 when it attacked them by an instantaneous motion of its tongue1 darted on the insect with such rapidity that the eye could not follow it1 whereby the insect stuck to the tip of its tongue1 and was instantly conveyed to its mouth4 ,this favourite toad at last lost its life1 in consequence of being attacked by a tame raven1 which picked out one of its eyes2 and although the toad was rescued1 and lived a year longer1 it never recovered its health or spirit4 ,it never showed any signs of rage1 being never provoked4 ,our next subject is an animal of great bulk1 ,,the ,,rhinoceros4--,this quadruped is exceeded in size only by the elephant4 ,its usual length1 not including the tail1 is twelve feet1 and the circumference of its body nearly the same4 ,its nose is armed with a horny substance1 projecting1 in the full-grown animal1 nearly three feet1 and is a weapon of defence1 which almost secures it from every attack4 ,even the tiger1 with all his ferocity1 is but very rarely daring enough to assail the rhinoceros4 ,its upper lip is of considerable length and pliability1 acting like a species of snout1 grasping the shoots of trees and various substances1 and conveying them to the mouth2 and it is capable of extension and contraction at the animal's convenience4 ,the skin is1 in some parts1 so thick and hard as scarcely to be penetrable by the sharpest sabre1 or even by a musket-ball4 ,these animals are found in ,bengal1 ,siam1 ,china1 and in several countries of ,africa2 but are far less numerous than the elephant1 and of sequestered solitary habits4 ,the female produces only one at a birth2 and at the age of two years the horn is only an inch long1 and at six only of the length of nine inches4 ,the rhinoceros is not ferocious1 unless provoked1 when he exhibits paroxysms of rage and madness1 and is highly dangerous to those who encounter him4 ,he runs with great swiftness1 and rushes through brakes and woods with an energy to which every thing yields4 ,he is generally1 however1 quiet and inoffensive4 ,its food consists entirely of vegetables1 the tender branches of trees1 and succulent herbage1 of which it will devour immense quantities4 ,it delights in retired and cool situations1 near lakes and streams1 and appears to derive one of the highest satisfactions from the practice of rolling and wallowing in mud1--in this respect bearing a striking resemblance to the hog4 ,illustration3 ,,rhinoceros4--,page #afb4 ,many varieties of this formidable animal are found in ,asia and ,africa4 ,the above figure represents the ,asiatic variety1 which has but one horn4 ,illustration3 ,,rhinoceros4--,page #afb4 ,of the ,african rhinoceros1 ,mr4 ,cumming1 the famous hunter1 describes several kinds4 ,the above figure represents the two-horned kind1 which is found nowhere but in ,africa4 ,mr4 ,cumming killed many of this kind4 ,this animal was exhibited1 by ,augustus1 to the ,romans1 and is supposed to be the unicorn of the scripture1 as it possesses the properties ascribed to that animal1 of magnitude1 strength1 and swiftness1 in addition to that peculiarity of a single horn1 which may be considered as establishing their identity4 ,this animal can distinguish1 by its sight1 only what is directly before it1 and always1 when pursued1 takes the course immediately before it1 almost without the slightest deviation from a right line1 removing every impediment4 ,its sense of smelling is very acute1 and also of hearing1 and1 on both these accounts1 the hunters approach him against the wind4 ,in general1 they watch his lying down to sleep1 when1 advancing with the greatest circumspection1 they discharge their muskets into his belly4 ,the flesh is eaten both in ,africa and ,india4 ,we now proceed to ,,the ,,crocodile4--,this animal is a native both of ,africa and ,asia1 but is most frequently found in the former1 inhabiting its vast rivers1 and particularly the ,niger and the ,nile4 ,it has occasionally been seen of the length of even thirty feet1 and instances of its attaining that of twenty are by no means uncommon4 ,it principally subsists on fish1 but such is its voracity1 that it seizes almost every thing that comes within its reach4 ,the upper part of its body is covered with a species of armour1 so thick and firm1 as to be scarcely penetrable with a musket-ball2 and the whole body has the appearance of an elaborate covering of carved work4 ,it is an oviparous animal1 and its eggs scarcely exceed in size those of a goose4 ,these eggs are regarded as luxuries by the natives of some countries of ,africa1 who will also with great relish partake of the flesh of the crocodile itself4 ,when young1 the small size and weak state of the crocodile prevent its being injurious to any animal of considerable bulk or strength2 and those which have been brought living to ,england have by no means indicated that ferocious and devouring character which they have been generally described to possess2 a circumstance probably owing to the change of climate1 and the reducing effect of confinement4 ,in its native climate its power and propensity to destruction are unquestionably great1 and excite in the inhabitants of the territories near its haunts a high degree of terror4 ,it lies in wait near the banks of rivers1 and1 with a sudden spring1 seizes any animal that approaches within its reach1 swallowing it with an instantaneous effort1 and then rushing back into its watery recesses1 till renewed appetite stimulates the repetition of its insidious exertions4 ,these animals were occasionally exhibited by the ,romans among their collections of the natural wonders of the provinces2 and ,scaurus and ,augustus are both recorded to have entertained the people with a sight of these new and formidable objects4 ,it is reported by some travellers1 that crocodiles are capable of being tamed1 and are actually kept in a condition of harmless domestication at the grounds and artificial lakes of some ,african princes1 chiefly as appendages of royal splendour and magnificence4 ,a single negro will often attack a crocodile1 and by spearing it between the scales of the belly1 where it is easily penetrable1 secure its destruction4 ,in some regions these animals are hunted by dogs1 which1 however1 are carefully disciplined to the exercise1 and are armed with collars of iron spikes4 ,aristotle appears to have been the first who asserted that the under jaw of the crocodile was immoveable1 and from him it was transmitted and believed for a long succession of ages4 ,but the motion of the jaw in this animal is similar to that of all other quadrupeds4 ,the ancients also thought it destitute of a tongue2 an idea equally false4 ,the tongue1 however1 is more fixed in this than in other animals1 to the sides of its mouth1 and less capable1 therefore1 of being protruded4--,the eggs of the crocodile are deposited in the mud or sand of the banks of rivers1 and immediately on being hatched1 the young move towards the water2 in their passage to which1 however1 vast numbers are intercepted by ichneumons and birds1 which watch their progress4 ,the ,,alligator1 or ,,american ,,crocodile1 has a vast mouth1 furnished with sharp teeth2 from the back to the end of the tail1 it is serrated2 its skin is tough and brown1 and covered on the sides with tubercles4 ,this dreadful species1 which grows to the length of #ag or #ah feet1 is found in the warmer parts of ,north ,america1 and is most numerous1 fierce1 and ravenous1 towards the south4 ,yet1 in ,carolina1 it never devours the human species1 but on the contrary1 shuns mankind2 it1 however1 kills dogs as they swim the rivers1 and hogs which feed in the swamps4 ,it is often seen floating like a log of wood on the surface of the water1 and is mistaken for such by dogs and other animals1 which it seizes1 draws under water1 and devours4 ,like the wolf1 when pressed by long hunger1 it will swallow mud1 and even stones1 and pieces of wood4 ,they often get into the wears in pursuit of fish1 and do much mischief by tearing them to pieces4 ,they are torpid during winter1 in ,carolina1 and retire into their dens1 which they form by burrowing far under ground4 ,they make the entrance under water1 and work upwards4 ,in spring they quit their retreats1 and resort to the rivers1 and chiefly seek their prey near the mouth1 where the water is brackish4 ,they roar and make a dreadful noise at first leaving their dens1 and against bad weather4 ,the female lays a vast number of eggs in the sand1 near the banks of lakes and rivers1 and leaves them to be hatched by the sun3 multitudes are destroyed as soon as hatched1 either by their own species1 or by fish of prey4 ,in ,south ,america1 the carrion vulture is the instrument of ,providence to destroy multitudes2 and it thus prevents the country from being rendered uninhabitable4 ,the following account of ,,eastern ,,alligators is extracted from ,forbes's ,oriental ,memoirs4 ,the eastern districts of ,travancore1 intersected by lakes and rivers1 abound with amphibious animals1 especially alligators and seals4 ,there seems to be no essential difference between the alligator of ,india1 and the ,egyptian crocodile2 lacerta alligator1 and lacertus crocodilus4 ,naturalists seem to confine the alligator to ,south ,america1 the crocodile to ,asia and ,africa2 but in ,india the lacerta crocodilus1 generally called the alligator1 is from five to twenty feet long1 shaped like the genus to which he belongs2 the back is covered with impenetrable scales2 the legs short1 with five spreading toes on the fore feet1 and four in a straight line on the hinder1 armed with claws3 the alligator moves slowly1 its whole formation being calculated for strength1 the back bone firmly jointed1 and the tail a most formidable weapon3 in the river1 he eagerly springs on the wretch unfortunately bathing within his reach1 and either knocks him down with his tail1 or opens his wide mouth for his destruction1 armed with numerous sharp teeth of various lengths2 by which1 like the shark1 he sometimes severs the human body at a single bite3 the annals of the ,nile and ,ganges1 although wonderful1 are not fabulous4 ,the upper jaw only of the alligator was thought to be moveable2 but that is now completely disproved3 the eyes are of a dull green1 with a brilliant pupil1 covered by a transparent pellicle1 moveable as in birds3 from the heads of those of large size1 musk is frequently extracted4 ,it may not be improper in this place to introduce to the reader's notice1 one of the greatest curiosities of its kind1 which late ages have produced2 that is1 a ,,fossil ,,crocodile4 ,this is the skeleton of a large crocodile1 almost entire1 found at a great depth under ground1 bedded in stone4 ,this was in the possession of ,linkius1 who wrote many pieces in natural history1 and particularly an accurate description of this curious fossil4 ,it was found in the side of a large mountain in the midland part of ,germany1 and in a stratum of black fossil stone1 somewhat like our common slate1 but of a coarser texture1 the same with that in which the fossil fishes in many parts of the world are found4 ,this skeleton had the back and ribs very plain1 and was of a much deeper black than the rest of the stone2 as is also the case with the fossil fishes1 which are preserved in this manner4 ,the part of the stone where the head lay was not found2 this being broken off just at the shoulders1 but that irregularly2 so that in one place a part of the back of the head was visible in its natural form4 ,the two shoulder-bones were very fair1 and three of the feet were well preserved3 the legs were of their natural shape and size2 and the feet preserved even to the extremities of the five toes of each4 ,our next subject is named ,,the ,,ornithorhynchus ,,paradoxus1 and is a very singular quadruped1 remarkable for its structure4 ,the head is similar to that of a duck1 which would lead to the supposition that it belonged to an aquatic bird4 ,both jaws are as broad and low as those in a duck1 and the calvaria has no traces of a suture1 as is generally the case in full-grown birds4 ,in the cavity of the skull there is a considerably bony falx1 which is situated along the middle of the os frontis1 and the ossa bregmatis4 ,the mandible of this animal consists of a beak1 the under part of which has its margin indented as in ducks1 and of the proper instrument for chewing that is situated behind within the cheeks4 ,dr4 ,shaw says it has no teeth1 though ,mr4 ,home found1 in a specimen examined by him1 two small and flat molar teeth on each side of the jaws4 ,the fore part of this mandible1 or beak1 is covered and bordered with a coriaceous skin1 in which three parts are to be distinguished1 within the proper integument of the beak4 ,into these three parts of that membrane numerous nerves are distributed1 intended1 probably1 as the organs of feeling1 a sense which1 besides men1 few mammalia enjoy2 that is1 few animals possess the faculty of distinguishing the form of external objects and their qualities1 by organs destined for that purpose1--a property very different from the common feeling1 by which every animal is able to perceive the temperature and presence of sensible objects1 but without being informed1 by the touch1 of their peculiar qualities4 ,thus the skin in the wings of the bat1 and its ear1 are supposed the organs of common feeling1 by means of which they are enabled to flutter1 after being blinded1 without flying against any thing4 ,the whiskers of many animals appear likewise to serve the same purpose of informing them of the presence of sensible bodies1 and hence they have been compared to the antenn of insects4 ,but to return to the ornithorhynchus3 ,it is an animal which from the similarity of its abode1 and the manner of searching for food1 agrees much with the duck1 on which account it has been provided with an organ for touching1 viz4 with the integument of the beak1 richly endowed with nerves4 ,this instance of analogy in the structure of a singular organ of sense in two species of animals1 from classes quite different1 is a most curious circumstance in comparative physiology1 and hence the ornithorhynchus is looked upon as one of the most remarkable phenomena in zoology4 ,we shall close this chapter with an account of ,,the ,,marmot1 or ,,mountain-,,rat ,,of ,,switzerland4--,this rat is almost the size of a leveret1 and resembles a common rat very much in appearance4 ,these little creatures live together in societies1 and have different dwellings for winter and summer2 their fore paws are remarkably strong1 which qualifies them for scooping out their burrows4 ,the same form is always preserved in the construction of their dwellings1 which consist of a long passage1 just big enough to let the marmot enter1 leading to two apartments2 the largest of these serves the whole family for a chamber1 where they lie close together1 in a torpid state1 rolled up like hedge-hogs1 during the cold season1 as dormice do in ,england4 ,when they betake themselves to their winter quarters1 after having lined their chamber with soft hay1 they carefully stop up the entrance with a sort of cement1 which they make of earth1 mixed with stones and dry grass4 ,before they collect the grass1 either for food1 or for their winter habitations1 they form themselves into a circle1 sitting on their hind legs1 looking with a cautious eye on every side4 ,if the least thing stirs that alarms them1 the first which perceives it makes a particular kind of cry1 which its next neighbour repeats1 and so on till it goes round1 when they hastily make their escape4 ,they are often seen upon the slopes of the ,alps1 where grass is in plenty2 but they love a warm sheltered situation1 and change their residence according to the season4 ,,chap4 ,,xiv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,animals4--7,continued47 ,the ,elephant--,fossil ,elephant--,the ,chameleon--,the ,common ,tortoise--,orang-,outang--,the ,unicorn--,the ,common ,seal--,the ,ursine ,seal--,american ,natural ,history4 ,let no presuming impious railer tax ,creative wisdom1 as if aught was form'd ,in vain1 or not for admirable ends4 ,thomson4 ,,the ,,elephant4--,this is a very wonderful animal2 and has1 both in ancient and modern times1 been duly estimated in the ,eastern world4 ,his virtues are thus enumerated by ,buffon3--,to form a just estimation of the elephant1 he must be allowed to possess the sagacity of the beaver1 the address of the ape1 the sentiment of the dog1 together with the peculiar advantages of strength1 largeness1 and long duration of life4 ,neither should we overlook his arms or tusks1 which enable him to transfix and conquer the lion6 ,we should also consider that the earth shakes under his feet2 that with his trunk1 as with a hand1 he tears up trees2 that by a push of his body he makes a breach in a wall2 that1 though tremendous in strength1 he is rendered still more invincible by his enormous mass1 and by the thickness of his skin2 that he can carry on his back an armed tower1 filled with many warriors2 that he works machines1 and carries burdens1 which six horses are unable to move2 that to this prodigious strength he adds courage1 prudence1 coolness1 and punctual obedience2 that he preserves moderation even in his most violent passions2 that he is constant and impetuous in love2 that when in anger1 he mistakes not his friends2 that he never attacks any but those who offend him2 that he remembers favours as long as injuries2 that having no appetite for flesh1 he feeds on vegetables alone1 and is born an enemy to no living creature2 and1 in fine1 that he is universally beloved1 because all animals respect1 and none have any reason to fear him6 ,the following account is extracted from ,forbes's ,oriental ,memoirs1 a highly interesting work4 ,the largest ,elephants are from ten to eleven feet in height1 some are said to exceed it2 the average is eight or nine feet4 ,they are fifty or sixty years before they arrive at their full growth2 the female goes with young eighteen months1 and seldom produces more than one at a birth1 which she suckles until it is five years old3 its natural life is about one hundred and twenty years4 ,the ,indians are remarkably fond of these animals1 especially when they have been long in their service4 ,i have seen an elephant valued at twenty thousand rupees3 the common price of a docile well-trained elephant is five or six thousand2 and in the countries where they are indigenous1 the ,company contract for them at five hundred rupees each1 when they must be seven feet high at the shoulders4 ,the mode of catching and training the wild elephants is now well known2 their price increases with their merit during the course of education4 ,some1 for their extraordinary qualities1 become in a manner invaluable2 when these are purchased1 no compensation induces a wealthy owner to part with them4 ,the skin of the elephant is generally of a dark grey1 sometimes almost black2 the face frequently painted with a variety of colours2 and the abundance and splendour of his trappings add much to his consequence4 ,the ,mogul princes allowed five men and a boy to each elephant3 the chief of them1 called the mahawut1 rode upon his neck1 to guide him2 another sat upon his rump1 and assisted in battle2 the rest supplied him with food and water1 and performed the necessary services4 ,elephants bred to war1 and well disciplined1 will stand firm against a volley of musketry1 and never give way unless severely wounded4 ,i have seen one of those animals1 with upwards of thirty bullets in the fleshy parts of his body1 perfectly recovered from his wounds4 ,all are not equally docile2 and when an enraged elephant retreats from battle1 nothing can withstand his fury2 the driver having no longer a command1 friends and foes are involved in undistinguished ruin4 ,the elephants in the army of ,antiochus were provoked to fight by shewing them the blood of grapes and mulberries4 ,the history of the ,maccabees informs us1 that to every elephant they appointed a thousand men1 armed with coats of mail1 and five hundred horsemen of the best3 these were ready at every occasion2 wherever the beast was1 and whithersoever he went1 they went also2 and upon the elephant were strong towers of wood1 filled with armed men1 besides the ,indian that ruled them4 ,elephants in peace and war know their duty1 and are more obedient to the word of command than many rational beings4 ,it is said they can travel1 on an emergency1 two hundred miles in forty-eight hours2 but will hold out for a month at the rate of forty or fifty miles a day1 with cheerfulness and alacrity4 ,i performed many long journeys upon an elephant given by ,ragobah to ,colonel ,keating4 ,nothing could exceed the sagacity1 docility1 and affection1 of this noble quadruped3 if ,i stopped to enjoy a prospect1 he remained immoveable until my sketch was finished2 if ,i wished for ripe mangoes growing out of the common reach1 he selected the most fruitful branch1 and breaking it off with his trunk1 offered it to the driver for the company in the houdah1 accepting of any part given to himself with a respectful salem1 by raising his trunk three times above his head1 in the manner of the ,oriental obeisance1 and as often did he express his thanks by a murmuring noise4 ,when a bough obstructed the houdah1 he twisted his trunk around it1 and1 though of considerable magnitude1 broke it off with ease1 and often gathered a leafy branch1 either to keep off the flies1 or as a fan to agitate the air around him1 by waving it with his trunk2 he generally paid a visit at the tent door during breakfast1 to procure sugar-candy or fruit1 and be cheered by the encomiums and caresses he deservedly met with2 no spaniel could be more innocent1 playful1 or fonder of those who noticed him1 than this docile animal1 that on particular occasions appeared conscious of his exaltation above the brute creation4 ,the following account of the docility of the elephant1 from ancient writers1 will interest the reader4 ,they have been taught to adore the king1 says ,aristotle1 to dance1 to throw stones at a mark1 to cast up stones at a mark1 to catch them again in their fall1 and to walk upon ropes3 ,galba was the first1 says ,suetonius1 that exhibited this at ,rome4 ,and these things they learned with such care1 that they have often been found practising in the night what had been taught them in the day4 ,they write too1 says ,pliny1 speaking of one which wrote in the ,greek tongue1 ,ipse ego hc scripsi et spolia lettica dicavi4 ,i myself saw1 says lian1 one of them writing ,roman letters on a tablet with his trunk2 and the letters he made were not ragged1 but straight and even2 and his eyes were fixed upon the tablet1 as one that was serious4 ,and in the plays that ,germanicus ,csar shewed at ,rome1 there were twelve elephants1 six males and six females2 these were clothed as men and women4 ,at the command of their keeper1 they danced1 and performed all the gestures of a mimic4 ,at last they were brought where they were to feast2 a table was covered with all kinds of dainties1 and beds were covered with purple carpets1 after the manner of the ,roman eating1 for them to lie upon4 ,upon these they lay down1 and1 at the signal given1 they reached out their trunks to the table1 and with great modesty fell to eating1 and ate and drank as civil men would do4 ,this seems to be the most proper place for introducing an account of ,,the ,,mammoth4 ,the ,mammoth is a fossil ,elephant2 a most remarkable one of which was found in the ice1 at the mouth of the river ,lena1 in ,siberia4 ,the following account is extracted from an abridgment of a paper by ,dr4 ,tilesius1 from the ,journal of ,science4 ,in the year #ahje1 when the ,russian expedition under ,krusenstern returned for the third time to ,kamschatka1 ,patagof1 master of a ,russian ship1 bringing victualling stores from ,okotsk1 related that he had lately seen a mammoth elephant1 dug up on the shores of the ,frozen ,ocean1 clothed with a hairy skin2 and shewed1 in confirmation of the fact1 some hair three or four inches long1 of a reddish black colour1 a little thicker than horse hair1 which he had taken from the skin of the animal3 this he gave to me1 says ,dr4 ,tilesius1 and ,i sent it to professor ,blumembach4 ,no further knowledge has been obtained on this subject1 and unfortunately ,patagof was not employed by any of our ,societies to return to ,siberia4 ,thus was this curious fact consigned to oblivion2 nor should we now possess any information respecting the carcase of the mammoth1 if the rumour of its discovery had not reached ,mr4 ,adams1 a man of great ardour in pursuit of science1 who undertook the labour of a journey to these frozen regions1 and of preparing these gigantic remains1 and transporting them to a great distance4 ,the preservation of the flesh of the mammoth through a long series of ages1 is not to be wondered at1 when we recollect the constant cold and frost of the climate in which it was found4 ,it is a common practice to preserve meat and berries throughout the winter1 by freezing them1 and to send fish1 and all other provisions1 annually at that period1 from the most remote of the northern provinces1 to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and other parts of the empire4 ,i was told1 at ,jakutsk1 says ,mr4 ,adams1 by the merchant ,papoff1 chief of the body of merchants in that town1 that there had been discovered on the shores of the ,frozen ,ocean1 near the mouth of the river ,lena1 an animal of extraordinary magnitude4 ,the flesh1 the skin1 and the hair1 were in a state of preservation1 and it was supposed that the fossil production known under the name of mammoth's horns1 must have belonged to an animal of this species4 ,the news of this interesting discovery determined me to hasten the journey which ,i had in contemplation1 for the purpose of visiting the shores of the ,lena1 as far as the ,frozen ,ocean2 wishing to preserve these precious remains1 which might otherwise be lost4 ,the third day of our journey we pitched our tents1 at some hundred paces distant from the mammoth1 on a hill1 called ,kembisaga-,shta4 ,schumachof1 a ,tungusian chief1 related to me1 nearly in these terms1 the history of the discovery of the mammoth4 ,the ,tungusians1 who are a wandering people1 remain but a little time in the same place4 ,those who live in the forests1 often take ten years or more1 to travel over the vast regions between the mountains3 during this time1 they do not once return to their habitations4 ,each family lives isolated1 and knows no other society4 ,if1 during the course of several years1 two friends meet by chance1 they then communicate to each other their adventures1 their different successes in hunting1 and the number of skins they have obtained4 ,after having passed some days together1 and consumed the few provisions they had1 they separate cheerfully1 carrying each other's compliments to their acquaintance1 and trusting to ,providence for another meeting4 ,the ,tungusians inhabiting the coast differ from the former1 in having more regular and fixed habitations1 and in collecting together at certain seasons for fishing and hunting4 ,during winter1 they inhabit cottages1 built side by side1 so that they form villages4 ,it is to one of these annual trips that we owe the discovery of the mammoth4 ,towards the end of the month of ,august1 when the fishing season in the ,lena is over1 ,schumachof generally goes with his brothers to the peninsula of ,tamut1 where they employ themselves in hunting1 and where the fresh fish of the sea offer them a wholesome and agreeable food4 ,in #agii1 he had constructed for his wife some cabins on the banks of the lake ,oncoul1 and had embarked1 to seek along the coasts for mammoth horns4 ,one day1 he perceived along the blocks of ice a shapeless mass1 not at all resembling the large pieces of floating wood which are commonly found there4 ,to observe it nearer1 he landed1 climbed up a rock1 and examined this new object on all sides1 but without being able to discover what it was4 ,the following year1 #ahjj1 he found the carcase of a ,walrus1 7,trichecus ,rosmarus47 ,he perceived1 at the same time1 that the mass he had before seen was more disengaged from the blocks of ice1 and had two projecting parts1 but was still unable to make out its nature4 ,towards the end of the following summer1 #ahja1 the entire side of the animal1 and one of his tusks1 were quite free from the ice4 ,on his return to the borders of the lake ,oncoul1 he communicated this extraordinary discovery to his wife and some of his friends2 but the way in which they considered the matter filled him with grief4 ,the old men related1 on this occasion1 their having heard their fathers say1 that a similar monster had been formerly seen in the same peninsula1 and that all the family of the discoverer had died soon afterwards4 ,the mammoth was therefore considered as an augury of future calamity1 and the ,tungusian chief was so alarmed1 that he fell seriously ill2 but becoming convalescent1 his first idea was the profit which he might obtain by selling the tusks of the animal1 which were of extraordinary size and beauty4 ,he ordered that the place where the mammoth was found should be carefully concealed1 and that strangers should1 under different pretexts1 be diverted from it1 at the same time charging trust-worthy people to watch that the treasure was not carried off4 ,but the summer of #ahjb1 which was less warm and more windy than common1 caused the mammoth to remain buried in the ice1 which had scarcely melted at all4 ,at length1 towards the end of the fifth year1 #ahjc1 the ardent wishes of ,schumachof were happily accomplished2 for the part of the ice between the earth and the mammoth having melted more rapidly than the rest1 the plane of its support became inclined1 and this enormous mass fell1 by its own weight1 on a bank of sand4 ,of this1 two ,tungusians1 who accompanied me1 were witnesses4 ,in the month of ,march1 #ahjd1 ,schumachof came to his mammoth1 and having cut off his horns 7or tusks7 he exchanged them with the merchant ,bultunof1 for goods of the value of fifty rubles4 ,two years afterwards1 or the seventh after the discovery of the mammoth1 ,i fortunately traversed these distant and desert regions1 and ,i congratulate myself in being able to prove a fact which appears so improbable4 ,i found the mammoth still in the same place1 but altogether mutilated4 ,the prejudices being dissipated1 because the ,tungusian chief had recovered his health1 there was no obstacle to prevent approach to the carcase of the mammoth2 the proprietor was content with his profit from the tusks1 and the ,jakutski of the neighbourhood seized upon the flesh1 with which they fed their dogs during the scarcity4 ,wild beasts1 such as white bears1 wolves1 wolverenes1 and foxes1 also fed upon it1 and the traces of their footsteps were seen around4 ,the skeleton1 almost entirely cleared of its flesh1 remained whole1 with the exception of one fore leg4 ,the head was covered with a dry skin2 one of the ears1 well preserved1 was furnished with a tuft of hairs4 ,all these parts have necessarily been injured in transporting them a distance of #aa1jjj wersts 7#g1ccj miles37 yet the eyes have been preserved1 and the pupil of the left eye can still be distinguished4 ,the point of the lower lip had been gnawed2 and the upper one having been destroyed1 the teeth could be perceived4 ,the brain was still in the cranium1 but appeared dried up4 ,the parts least injured are one fore foot and one hind foot2 they are covered with skin1 and have still the sole attached4 ,according to the assertion of the ,tungusian chief1 the animal was so fat and well fed1 that its belly hung down below the joints of the knees4 ,this mammoth was a male1 with a long mane on the neck1 but without tail or proboscis4#e ,the skin1 of which ,i possess three-fourths1 is of a dark grey colour1 covered with a reddish wool1 and black hairs4 ,the dampness of the spot where the animal had lain so long1 had in some degree destroyed the hair4 ,the entire carcase1 of which ,i collected the bones on the spot1 is four archines 7#i ft4 #d in47 high1 and seven archines 7#af ft4 #d in47 long1 from the point of the nose to the end of the tail1 without including the tusks1 which are a toise and a half#f in length2 the two together weighed #cfj lbs4 avoirdupois2 the head alone1 without the tusks1 weighs #aa poods and a half1 #dad lbs4 avoirdupois4 ,the principal object of my care was to separate the bones1 to arrange them1 and put them up safely1 which was done with particular attention4 ,i had the satisfaction to find the other scapula1 which had remained not far off4 ,i next detached the preserved parts4 ,the skin was of such extraordinary weight1 that ten persons found great difficulty in transporting it to the shore4 ,after this1 ,i dug the ground in different places1 to ascertain whether any of its bones were buried1 but principally to collect all the hairs1#g which the white bears had trod into the ground1 while devouring the flesh4 ,although this was difficult1 for the want of proper instruments1 ,i succeeded in collecting more than a pood 7#cf pounds7 of hair in a few days the work was completed1 and ,i found myself in possession of a treasure which amply recompensed me for the fatigues and dangers of the journey1 and the considerable expenses of the enterprise4 ,the place where ,i found the mammoth is about sixty paces distant from the shore1 and nearly #ajj paces from the escarpment of the ice from which it had fallen4 ,this escarpment occupies exactly the middle between the two points of the peninsula1 and is three wersts long 7two miles71 and in the place where the mammoth was found1 this rock has a perpendicular elevation of #cj or #dj toises4 ,its substance is a clear pure ice2 it inclines towards the sea2 its top is covered with a layer of moss and friable earth1 half an archine 7#ad inches7 in thickness4 ,during the heat of the month of ,july a part of this crust is melted1 but the rest remains frozen4 ,curiosity induced me to ascend two other hills at some distance from the sea2 they were of the same substance1 and less covered with moss4 ,in various places were seen enormous pieces of wood1 of all the kinds produced in ,siberia2 and also mammoths' horns1 in great numbers1 appeared between the hollows of the rocks2 they all were of astonishing freshness4 ,how all these things could become collected there1 is a question as curious as it is difficult to resolve4 ,the inhabitants of the coast call this kind of wood ,adamschina1 and distinguish it from the floating pieces of wood which are brought down by the large rivers to the ocean1 and collect in masses on the shores of the ,frozen ,sea4 ,the latter are called ,noachina4 ,i have seen1 when the ice melts1 large lumps of earth detached from the hills1 mix with the water1 and form thick muddy torrents1 which roll slowly towards the sea4 ,this earth forms wedges1 which fill up the spaces between the blocks of ice4 ,the escarpment of ice was #ce to #dj toises high2 and1 according to the report of the ,tungusians1 the animal was1 when they first saw it1 seven toises below the surface of the ice1 c4 ,on arriving with the mammoth at ,bonchaya1 our first care was to separate the remaining flesh and ligaments from the bones1 which were then packed up4 ,when ,i arrived at ,jakutsk1 ,i had the good fortune to re-purchase the tusks1 and from thence expedited the whole to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the skeleton is now put up in the museum of the ,academy1 and the skin still remains attached to the head and feet4 ,the mammoth is described by ,m4 ,cuvier as a different species from either of the two elephants living at the present day1 the ,african or the ,indian4 ,it is distinguished from them by the teeth1 and by the size of the tusks1 which are from ten to fifteen feet long1 much curved1 and have a spiral turn outwards4 ,the alveali of the tusks are also larger1 and are protruded farther4 ,the neck is shorter1 the spinal processes larger1 all the bones of the skeleton are stronger1 and the scabrous surfaces for the insertion of the muscles more prominent1 than in the other species4 ,the skin being covered with thick hair1 induces ,m4 ,cuvier to consider that it was the inhabitant of a cold region4 ,the form of the head is also different from that of the living species1 as well as the arrangement of the lines of the enamel of the teeth4 ,the mammoth more nearly resembles the ,indian than the ,african species of elephant4 ,a part of the skin1 and some of the hair of this animal1 was sent by ,mr4 ,adams to the late ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 who presented them to the museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons4 ,from ,forbes's work we extract the following particulars respecting ,,the ,,chameleon4 ,the greatest curiosity in the ,east1 says ,forbes1 is the ,chameleon1 found in every thicket4 ,i kept one for several weeks1 of which1 as it differed in many respects from those described in ,arabia1 and other places1 ,i shall mention a few particulars4 ,the chameleon of the ,concan1 including the tail1 is about nine inches long2 the body only half that length1 varying in circumference1 as it is more or less inflated2 the head1 like that of a fish1 is immoveably fixed to the shoulders2 but every inconvenience is removed by the structure of its eyes1 which1 like spheres rolling on an invisible axis1 are placed in deep cavities1 projecting from the head2 through a small perforation in the exterior convexity1 appears a bright pupil1 surrounded with a yellow iris1 which1 by the singular formation and motion of the eye1 enables the animal to see what passes before1 behind1 or on either side2 and it can give one eye all these motions1 while the other remains perfectly still2 a hard rising protects these delicate organs1 another extends from the forehead to the nostrils3 the mouth is large1 and furnished with teeth1 with a tongue half the length of the body1 and hollow like an elephant's trunk2 it darts nimbly at flies and other insects1 which it seems to prefer to the arial food generally supposed to be its sustenance4 ,the legs are longer than usual in the licerta genus2 on the fore feet are three toes nearest the body1 and two without2 the hinder exactly the reverse2 with these claws it clings fast to the branches1 to which it sometimes entwines itself by the tail1 and remains suspended2 the skin is granulated like shagreen1 except a range of hard excrescences1 or denticulations1 on the ridge of the back1 which are always of the same colour as the body2 whereas a row of similar projections beneath continue perfectly white1 notwithstanding any metamorphosis of the animal4 ,the general colour of the chameleon so long in my possession1 was a pleasant green1 spotted with pale blue2 from this it changed to a bright yellow1 dark olive1 and a dull green2 but never appeared to such advantage as when irritated1 or a dog approached it2 the body was then considerably inflated1 and the skin clouded like tortoise-shell1 its shades of yellow1 orange1 green1 and black4 ,a black object always caused an almost instantaneous transformation3 the room appropriated for its accommodation was skirted by a board painted black2 this the chameleon carefully avoided2 but if he accidentally drew near it1 or we placed a black hat in his way1 he was reduced to a hideous skeleton1 and1 from the most lively tints1 became black as jet3 on removing the cause1 the effect as suddenly ceased2 the sable hue was succeeded by a brilliant colouring1 and the body was again inflated4 ,our next subject is ,,the ,,common ,,tortoise4--,the weight of this animal is three pounds1 and the length of its shell about seven inches4 ,it abounds in the countries surrounding the ,mediterranean1 and particularly in ,greece1 where the inhabitants not only eat its flesh and eggs1 but frequently swallow its warm blood4 ,in ,september or ,october it conceals itself1 remaining torpid till ,february1 when it re-appears4 ,in ,june it lays its eggs1 in holes exposed to the full beams of the sun1 by which they are matured4 ,the males frequently engage in severe conflicts1 and strike their heads against each other with great violence1 and very loud sounds4 ,tortoises attain most extraordinary longevity1 and one was ascertained to have lived in the gardens of ,lambeth to the age of nearly #abj years4 ,its shell is preserved in the archiepiscopal palace4 ,so reluctant is the vital principle to quit these animals1 that ,shaw informs us1 from ,redi1 that one of them lived for six months after all its brain was taken out1 moving its limbs1 and walking1 as before4 ,another lived twenty-three days after its head was cut off1 and the head itself opened and closed its jaws for a quarter of an hour after its separation from the body4 ,it may not only be tamed1 but has in several instances exhibited proofs1 in that state1 of considerable sagacity in distinguishing its benefactors1 and of grateful attachment in return for their kindness1 notwithstanding its general sluggishness and torpor4 ,it will answer the purpose of a barometer1 and uniformly indicates the fall of rain before night1 when it takes its food with great rapidity1 and walks with a sort of mincing and elate step4 ,it appears to dislike rain with extreme aversion1 and is discomfited and driven back by only a few and scarcely perceivable drops4 ,the following particulars respecting the ,instinct of the ,tortoise1 are copied from ,vaillant's ,travels in ,africa4--,it is very remarkable1 that when the waters are dried up by excessive heat1 the tortoises1 which always seek for moisture1 bury themselves under the earth1 in proportion as the surface of it becomes dry4 ,to find them1 it is then sufficient to dig to a considerable depth1 in the spot where they have concealed themselves4 ,they remain as if asleep1 and never awake1 or make their appearance1 until the rainy season has filled the ponds and small lakes1 on the borders of which they deposit their eggs1 where they continue exposed to the air2 they are as large as those of a pigeon2 they leave to the heat and the sun the care of hatching them4 ,these eggs have an excellent taste2 the white1 which never grows hard by the force of fire1 preserves the transparency of a bluish jelly4 ,i do not know whether this instinct be common to every species of water tortoises1 and whether they all employ the same means2 but this ,i can assert1 that every time1 during the great droughts1 when ,i wished to procure any of them1 by digging in those places where there had been water1 ,i always found as many as ,i had occasion for4 ,this method of fishing1 or whatever else it may be called1 was not new to me2 for at ,surinam a stratagem of the same kind is employed to catch two species of fish1 which bury themselves also2 and which are called1 one the varappe1 and the other the gorret or the kevikwi4 ,the next curious animal which we shall consider1 is1 ,,the ,,orang-,,outang4--,this animal is sometimes called the satyr1 great ape1 or man of the woods4 ,it is a native of the warmer parts of ,africa and ,india1 as well as of some of the ,indian islands1 where it resides principally in woods1 and is supposed to feed1 like most others of this genus1 on fruits4 ,the orang-outang appears to admit of considerable variety in point of colour1 size1 and proportions2 and there is reason to believe1 that1 in reality1 there may be two or three kinds1 which1 though nearly approximated as to general similitude1 are yet specifically distinct4 ,the specimens imported into ,europe have rarely exceeded the height of two or three feet1 and were supposed to be young animals2 but it is said the full-grown ones are1 at least1 six feet in height4 ,the general colour seems to be dusky or brown1 in some ferruginous or reddish brown2 and in others coal-black1 with the skin itself white4 ,the face is bare2 the ears1 hands1 and feet1 nearly similar to the human1 and the whole appearance such as to exhibit the most striking approximation to the human figure4 ,the likeness1 however1 is only a general one1 and the structure of the hands and feet1 when examined with anatomical exactness1 seems to prove1 in the opinion of those most capable of judging with accuracy on the subject1 that the animal was principally designed by nature for the quadrupedal manner of walking1 and not for an upright posture1 which is only occasionally assumed1 and which1 in those exhibited to the public1 is1 perhaps1 rather owing to instruction1 than truly natural4 ,the ,count de ,buffon1 indeed1 makes it one of the distinctive characters of the real or proper apes1 7among which the orang-outang is the chief17 to walk erect on two legs only2 and it must be granted1 that these animals support an upright position much more easily and readily than most other quadrupeds1 and may probably be very often seen in this attitude even in a state of nature4 ,the manners of the orang-outang1 when in captivity1 are gentle1 and perfectly void of that disgusting ferocity so conspicuous in some of the larger baboons and monkeys4 ,the orang-outang is mild and docile1 and may be taught to perform1 with dexterity1 a variety of actions in domestic life4 ,thus1 it has been taught to sit at table1 and1 in its manner of feeding and general behaviour1 to imitate the company in which it was placed2 to pour out tea1 and drink it1 without awkwardness or constraint2 to prepare its bed with exactness1 and compose itself to sleep in a proper manner4 ,such are the actions of one which was exhibited in ,london1 in the year #agch2 and the ,count de ,buffon relates nearly similar particulars of that which he saw at ,paris4 ,dr4 ,tyson1 who1 about the close of the last century1 gave a very exact description of a young orang-outang1 then exhibited in the metropolis1 assures us1 that in many of its actions it seemed to display a very high degree of sagacity1 and was of a disposition uncommonly gentle2 the most gentle and loving creature that could be4 ,those that he knew on shipboard1 he would come and embrace with the greatest tenderness1 opening their bosoms1 and clasping his hands about them2 and1 as ,i was informed1 though there were monkeys on board1 yet it was observed1 he would never associate with them1 and1 as if nothing akin to them1 would always avoid their company4 ,but1 however docile and gentle when taken young1 and instructed in its behaviour1 it is said to be possessed of great ferocity in its native state1 and is considered as a dangerous animal1 capable of readily overpowering the strongest man4 ,its swiftness is equal to its strength1 and for this reason it is but rarely to be obtained in its full-grown state1 the young alone being taken4 ,the next is1 ,,the ,,unicorn4--,the following account is extracted from the ,st4 ,james's ,chronicle of ,dec4 #ai to #ba1 #ahbj4 ,we have no doubt that a little time will bring to light many objects of natural history1 peculiar to the elevated regions of central ,asia1 and hitherto unknown in the animal1 vegetable1 and mineral kingdoms1 particularly in the two former4 ,this is an opinion which we have long entertained2 but we are led to the expression of it on the present occasion1 by having been favoured with the perusal of a most interesting communication from ,major ,latter1 commanding in the ,rajah of ,sikkim's territories1 in the hilly country east of ,nepaul1 addressed to ,adjutant-,general ,nicol1 and transmitted by him to the ,marquis of ,hastings4 ,this important paper explicitly states1 that the ,unicorn1 so long considered a fabulous animal1 actually exists at this moment in the interior of ,thibet1 where it is well known to the inhabitants4 ,this 7we copy from the ,major's letter7 is a very curious fact1 and it may be necessary to mention how the circumstance became known to me4 ,in a ,thibetian manuscript1 containing the names of different animals1 procured the other day from the hills1 the ,unicorn is classed under the head of those whose hoofs are divided2 it is called the ,one-horned ,tso'-po4 ,upon inquiring what kind of animal it was1 to our astonishment1 the person who brought me the manuscript1 described exactly the ,unicorn of the ancients3 saying1 that it was a native of the interior of ,thibet1 about the size of a tattoo 7a horse from #ab to #ac hands high17 fierce1 and extremely wild2 seldom1 if ever1 caught alive1 but frequently shot2 and that the flesh was used for food4 ,the person 7,major ,latter adds7 who gave me this information1 has repeatedly seen these animals1 and eaten the flesh of them4 ,they go together in herds1 like our wild buffaloes1 and are very frequently to be met with on the borders of the great desert1 about a month's journey from ,lassa1 in that part of the country inhabited by the wandering ,tartars4 ,this communication is accompanied by a drawing1 made by the messenger from recollection3 it bears some resemblance to a horse1 but has cloven hoofs1 a long curved horn growing out of the forehead1 and a boar-shaped tail1 like that of the 'fera monoceros1' described by ,pliny4#h ,from their herding together1 as the ,unicorns of the scripture are said to do1 as well as from the rest of the description1 it is evident that this singular animal cannot be the rhinoceros1 which is a solitary creature2 besides that1 in the ,thibetian manuscript1 the rhinoceros is described under the name of ,servo1 and classed with the elephant4 ,neither can it be the wild horse1 well known in ,thibet1 for that also has a different name1 and is classed in the ,,ms4 with the animals which have the hoofs undivided4--,i have written 7he subjoins7 to the ,sachia ,lama1 requesting him to procure me a perfect skin of the animal1 with the head1 horn1 and hoofs2 but it will be a long time before ,i can get it down1 for they are not to be met with nearer than a month's journey from ,lassa4 ,we now make a few remarks on ,,seals4--,first1 the ,,common ,,seal4 ,these animals are found on the coasts of the polar regions1 both to the north and south1 often in extreme abundance1 and are generally about five feet in length1 closely covered with short hair4 ,they swim with great vigour and rapidity1 and subsist on various kinds of fish1 which they are often observed to pursue within a short distance of the shore4 ,they possess no inconsiderable sagacity1 and may1 without much difficulty1 if taken young1 be familiarized to their keepers1 and instructed in various gesticulations4 ,they are supposed to attain great longevity4 ,the female is particularly attentive to her young1 and scarcely ever produces more than two at a birth1 which1 after being suckled a fortnight on the shore1 where they are always born1 are conducted to the water1 and taught by their dam the means of defence and subsistence2 and when they are fatigued by their excursions1 are relieved by being taken on her back4 ,they distinguish her voice1 and attend at her call4 ,the flesh of seals is sometimes eaten1 but they are almost always destroyed for their oil and skins4 ,the latter are manufactured into very valuable leather1 and the former is serviceable in a vast variety of manufactures4 ,a young seal will supply about eight gallons of oil4 ,the smell of these animals1 in any great number upon the shore1 is highly disagreeable4 ,in the month of ,october1 they are generally considered as most valuable2 and as they abound in extended caverns on the coast1 which are washed by the tide1 the hunters proceed to these retreats about midnight1 advancing with their boat as far into the recess as they are able1 armed with spears and bludgeons1 and furnished with torches1 to enable them to explore the cavern4 ,they begin their operations by making the most violent noises1 which soon rouse the seals from their slumbers1 and awaken them to a sense of extreme danger1 which they express by the most hideous yellings of terror4 ,in their eagerness to escape1 they come down from all parts of the cavern1 running in a promiscuous and turbulent mass along the avenue to the water4 ,the men engaged in this perilous adventure oppose no impediment to this rushing crowd1 but1 as this begins to diminish1 apply their weapons with great activity and success1 destroying vast numbers1 and principally the young ones4 ,the blow of the hunter is always levelled at the nose of the seal1 where a slight stroke is almost instantly fatal4 ,this leads us to the consideration of ,,the ,,ursine ,,seal4--,this animal grows to the length of eight feet1 and to the weight of an hundred pounds4 ,these are found in vast abundance in the islands between ,america and ,kamschatka1 from ,june till ,september1 when they return to the ,asiatic or ,american shores4 ,they are extremely strong1 surviving wounds and lacerations which almost instantly destroy life in other animals1 for days1 and even weeks4 ,they may be observed1 not mearly by hundreds1 but by thousands1 on the shore1 each male surrounded by his females1 from eight to fifty1 and his offspring1 amounting frequently to more than that number4 ,each family is preserved separate from every other4 ,the ursine seals are extremely fat and indolent1 and remain1 with little exercise1 or even motion1 for months together1 upon the shore4 ,but if jealousy1 to which they are ever alive1 once strongly operates1 they are roused to animation by all the fierceness of resentment and vengeance2 and conflicts arising from this cause between individuals1 soon spread through families1 till at length the whole shore becomes a scene of the most horrid hostility and havoc4 ,when the conflict is finished1 the survivors plunge into the water1 to wash off the blood1 and recover from their exhaustion4 ,those which are old1 and have lost the solace of connubial life1 are reported to be extremely captious1 fierce1 and malignant1 and to live apart from all others1 and so tenaciously to be attached to the station which pre-occupancy may be supposed to give each a right to call his own1 that any attempt at usurpation is resented as the foulest indignity1 and the most furious contests frequently occur in consequence of the several claims for a favourite position4 ,it is stated1 that in these combats two never fall upon one4 ,these seals are said1 in grief1 to shed tears very copiously4 ,the male defends his young with the most intrepid courage and fondness1 and will often beat the dam1 notwithstanding her most supplicating tones and gestures1 under the idea that she has been the cause of the destruction or injury which may have occurred to any of them4 ,the flesh of the old male seal is intolerably strong2 that of the female and the young is considered as delicate and nourishing1 and compared1 in tenderness and flavour1 to the flesh of young pigs4 ,the bottle-nosed seal is found on the ,falkland ,islands2 is twenty feet long2 and will produce a butt of oil1 and discharge1 when struck to the heart1 two hogsheads of blood4 ,we shall close this chapter with an extract from the ,public ,journals of #ahba1 on ,,american ,,natural ,,history4 ,on the unfrequented1 solitary1 remote banks of the ,missouri1 grows one of the most ornamental trees that adorn creation--the ,ten-petalled ,bartonia4 ,its height is four feet2 flowers1 beautifully white1 expand as the sun sets1 and close at the approach of morning4--,shall we say that all things were made for the gratification of man only1 when he is daily taught that some of the loveliest objects the world contains1 he is destined never to behold8--,shall we believe that the sylvan natives are not formed with taste1 and enjoy the scenery with which the great ,artist has decorated their abode8 ,a ,leopard was killed on the #fth day of ,june1 #ahbj1 by ,john ,six1 living on the waters of ,green river1 ten miles south-east of ,hartford1 in the ,ohio county3 length from the end of the nose to the buttock1 five feet1 and a tail two feet long2 under the jaw the colour was black1 with white spots equally proportioned2 the sides and back are yellow1 with black spots1 curiously arranged2 a row of black spots on its back1 much larger than those on its sides1 extending half way of the tail2 small round ears1 black outside1 white inside2 around its nose and mouth were long stiff bristles2 some appeared to grow out black half the length1 then white six inches long4 ,the hair on the end of the tail is longer than elsewhere2 tail slim2 its legs short1 and its feet like a cat's1 only much larger1 with large claws2 large teeth2 supposed to weigh about one hundred and fifty pounds4 ,two-headed ,snake4--,an extraordinary snake was recently killed in ,mason1 ,massachusetts4 ,it was first discovered basking in the sun1 and1 after much exertion1 although its astonishing agility baffled for a considerable time its pursuers' efforts1 it was taken4 ,it measured two feet in length1 had two heads1 and two legs4 ,the legs were nearly three inches long1 were placed about four inches from the heads1 and appeared well calculated to assist the animal in running4 ,a large ,black ,snake was lately killed near ,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia1 which measured eleven feet nine inches4 ,it was first noticed by a slight crack which it made with its tail1 not unlike the cracking of a horse-whip1 and appeared to be in great agony2 jumping up from the ground1 twisting1 coiling1 c4 ,after it was killed1 this was accounted for satisfactorily4 ,out of its mouth the tail of another snake was observed to be sticking2 on pulling it out1 it actually measured five feet three inches4 ,this was the cause of the uneasiness in the living snake2 having no doubt been partly strangled by its large mouthful4 ,this great snake was long the terror of the cow-hunters in the neighbourhood of the place where it was killed1 and no doubt would have continued so for a long time1 had it not been for its voraciousness1 which prevented it from running4 ,it was fleeter than any horse1 and bade defiance to the puny efforts of man to overtake it4 ,,chap4 ,,xv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,animals4--7,concluded47 ,remarkable ,strength of ,affection in ,animals--,surprising ,instances of their ,sociality--,unaccountable ,faculties possessed by some ,animals--,remarkable ,instances of ,fasting in ,animals--,extraordinary ,adventures of a ,sheep--,sagacity of a ,monkey--,astonishing ,instance of ,sagacity in a ,horse--,sagacity of ,dogs--,curious ,anecdotes of a ,dog--,remarkable ,dog4 ,far as creation's ample range extends1 ,the scale of sensual1 mental powers1 ascends3 ,mark1 how it mounts to man's imperial race1 ,from the green myriads in the peopled grass6 ,what modes of sight1 betwixt each wide extreme1 ,the mole's dim curtain1 and the lynx's beam3 ,of smell1 the headlong lioness between1 ,and hound sagacious1 on the tainted green3 ,of hearing1 from the life that fills the flood4 ,to that which warbles thro' the vernal wood3 ,the spider's touch1 how exquisitely fine6 ,feels at each thread1 and lives along the line3 ,in the nice bee1 what sense so subtly true1 ,from pois'nous herbs extracts the healing dew3 ,how instinct varies in the grovelling swine1 ,compar'd1 half-reasoning elephant1 with thine6 ',twixt that and reason1 what a nice barrier1 ,for ever separate1 yet for ever near6 ,pope4 ,,remarkable ,,strength ,,of ,,affection ,,in ,,animals4--,mr4 ,white1 in his ,natural ,history1 c4 of ,selborne1 speaking of the natural affection of brutes1 says1 ,the more ,i reflect on it1 the more ,i am astonished at its effects4 ,nor is the violence of this affection more wonderful1 than the shortness of its duration4 ,thus1 every hen is in her turn the virago of the yard1 in proportion to the helplessness of her brood2 and will fly in the face of a dog or sow in defence of those chickens1 which1 in a few weeks1 she will drive before her with relentless cruelty4 ,this affection sublimes the passions1 quickens the invention1 and sharpens the sagacity1 of the brute creation4 ,thus1 a hen1 just become a mother1 is no longer that placid bird she used to be1 but1 with feathers standing on end1 wings hovering1 and clucking note1 she runs about like one possessed4 ,dams will throw themselves in the way of the greatest danger1 in order to avert it from their progeny4 ,thus a partridge will tumble along before a sportsman1 in order to draw away the dogs from her helpless covey4 ,in the time of nidification1 the most feeble birds will assault the most rapacious4 ,all the hirundines of a village are up in arms at the sight of a hawk1 whom they will persecute till he leaves that district4 ,a very exact observer has often remarked1 that a pair of ravens1 nestling in the rock of ,gibraltar1 would suffer no vulture or eagle to rest near their station1 but would drive them from the hill with amazing fury2 even the blue thrush1 at the season of breeding1 would dart out from the clefts of the rocks1 to chase away the kestrel or the sparrow-hawk4 ,if you stand near the nest of a bird that has young1 she will not be induced to betray them by an inadvertent fondness1 but will wait about at a distance with meat in her mouth for an hour together4 ,the fly-catcher builds every year in the vines that grow on the walls of my house4 ,a pair of these little birds had one year inadvertently placed their nest on a naked bough1 perhaps in a shady time1 not being aware of the inconvenience that followed2 but a hot sunny season coming on before the brood was half fledged1 the reflection of the wall became insupportable1 and must inevitably have destroyed the tender young1 had not affection suggested an expedient1 and prompted the parent birds to hover over the nest all the hotter hours1 while1 with wings expanded and mouths gaping for breath1 they screened off the heat from their suffering offspring4 ,a farther instance ,i once saw of notable sagacity in a willow-wren1 which had built in a bank in my fields4 ,this bird1 a friend and myself had observed as she sat in her nest2 but we were particularly careful not to disturb her1 though we saw she eyed us with some degree of jealousy4 ,some days after1 as we passed that way1 we were desirous of remarking how this brood went on2 but no nest could be found1 till ,i happened to take up a large bundle of long green moss as it were carelessly thrown over the nest1 in order to deceive the eye of any impertinent intruder4 ,next in order is the account of ,,surprising ,,instances ,,of ,,sociality ,,in ,,animals4--,a wonderful spirit of sociality in the brute creation1 independent of sexual attachment1 has been frequently remarked4 ,many horses1 though quiet with company1 will not stay one minute in a field by themselves2 the strongest fences cannot restrain them4 ,a horse has been known to leap out of a stable window1 through which dung was thrown1 after company2 and yet in other respects was remarkably quiet4 ,oxen and cows will not fatten by themselves1 but will neglect the finest pasture that is not recommended by society4 ,it would be needless to instance in sheep1 which constantly flock together4 ,but this propensity seems not to be confined to animals of the same species4 ,mr4 ,white mentions a doe that was brought up from a little fawn with a dairy of cows4 ,with them it goes to the field1 and with them it returns to the yard4 ,the dogs of the house take no notice of this doe1 being used to her2 but if strange dogs come by1 a chase ensues2 while the master smiles to see his favourite securely leading her pursuers over hedge1 or gate1 or style1 till she returns to the cows1 who with fierce lowings and menacing horns drive the assailants quite out of the pasture4--,even great disparity of kind and size does not always prevent social advances and mutual fellowship4 ,of this the following remarkable instance is given by the same author4 ,a very intelligent and observant person has assured me1 that in the former part of his life1 keeping but one horse1 he happened also on a time to have but one solitary hen4 ,these two incongruous animals spent much of their time together in a lonely orchard1 where they saw no creature but each other4 ,by degrees an apparent regard began to take place between these two sequestered individuals4 ,the fowl would approach the quadruped with notes of complacency1 rubbing herself gently against his legs2 while the horse would look down with satisfaction1 and move with the greatest caution and circumspection1 lest he should trample on his diminutive companion4 ,thus by mutual good offices each seemed to console the vacant hours of the other4 ,in the ,gentleman's ,magazine for ,march1 #aghh1 we have the following anecdotes of a raven1 communicated by a correspondent who does not sign his name1 but says it is at the service of the doubtful4 ,the raven alluded to lived at the ,red ,lion at ,hungerford2 his name was ,ralph4 ,you must know then1 7says the writer17 that coming into that inn1 my chaise ran over or bruised the leg of my ,newfoundland dog1 and while we were examining the injury done to the dog's foot1 ,ralph was evidently a concerned spectator2 for1 the minute the dog was tied up under the manger with my horse1 ,ralph not only visited him1 but fetched him bones1 and attended upon him with particular and repeated proofs of kindness4 ,the bird's notice of the dog was so marked1 that ,i observed it to the hostler2 for ,i had not heard a word before of the history of this benevolent creature4 ,john then told me1 that he had been bred from his pin-feather in intimacy with a dog2 that the affection between them was mutual2 and that all the neighbourhood had often been witnesses of the innumerable acts of kindness they had conferred upon each other4 ,ralph's poor dog1 after a while1 unfortunately broke his leg2 and during the long time he was confined1 ,ralph waited upon him constantly1 carried him provisions daily1 and scarcely ever left him alone6 ,one night by accident the hostler had shut the stable-door1 and ,ralph was deprived of his friend the whole night2 but the hostler found in the morning the bottom of the door so pecked away1 that had it not been opened1 ,ralph would in another hour have made his own entrance-port4 ,i then inquired of my landlady1 7a sensible woman17 and heard what ,i have related confirmed by her1 with several other singular traits of the kindnesses this bird shews to all dogs in general1 but particularly to maimed or wounded ones4 ,i hope and believe1 however1 ,ralph is still living2 and the traveller will find ,i have not over-rated this wonderful bird's merit4 ,to these instances of attachment between incongruous animals from a spirit of sociality1 or the feelings of sympathy1 may be added the following instance of fondness from a different motive1 recounted by ,mr4 ,white1 in the work already so often quoted4 ,my friend had a little helpless leveret brought to him1 which the servants fed with milk in a spoon2 and about the same time his cat kittened1 and the young were dispatched and buried4 ,the hare was soon lost1 and supposed to be gone the way of most foundlings1 or to be killed by some dog or cat4 ,however1 in about a fortnight1 as the master was sitting in his garden in the dusk of the evening1 he observed his cat1 with tail erect1 trotting towards him1 and calling with little short inward notes of complacency1 such as they use towards their kittens1 and something gambolling after1 which proved to be the leveret1 which the cat had supported with her milk1 and continued to support with great affection4 ,thus was a graminivorous animal nurtured by a carnivorous and predacious one6 ,why so cruel and sanguinary a beast as a cat1 of the ferocious genus of ,felis1 the murian leo1 7the lion of the mice17 as ,linnus calls it1 should be affected with any tenderness towards an animal which is its natural prey1 is not so easy to determine4 ,the strange affection probably was occasioned by that sympathy1 and those tender maternal feelings1 which the loss of her kittens had awakened in her breast2 and by the complacency and ease she derived to herself from the procuring her teats to be drawn1 which were too much distended with milk2 till from habit she became as much delighted with this foundling1 as if it had been her real offspring4 ,this incident is no bad solution of that strange circumstance which grave historians1 as well as poets1 assert1 of exposed children being sometimes nurtured by female wild beasts1 that probably had lost their young2 for it is not one whit more marvellous that ,romulus and ,remus1 in their infant state1 should be nursed by a she-wolf1 than that a poor little suckling leveret should be fostered and cherished by a bloody grimalkin4 ,we shall now give the history of the ,,unaccountable ,,faculties ,,possessed ,,by ,,some ,,animals4--,besides reflection and sagacity1 often in an astonishing degree1 and besides the sentiments and actions prompted by social or natural attachments1 brutes seem on many occasions inspired with a superior faculty1 a kind of presentiment or second sight1 as it were1 with regard to events and designs altogether unforeseen by the rational beings whom they concern4 ,the following account is of unquestionable authenticity4 ,at the seat of the late ,earl of ,litchfield1 three miles from ,blenheim1 there is a portrait in the dining-room of ,sir ,henry ,lee1 by ,johnston1 with that of a mastiff dog which saved his life4 ,a servant had formed the design of assassinating his master1 and robbing the house2 but the night he had fixed on1 the dog1 which had never been much noticed by ,sir ,henry1 for the first time followed him up stairs1 got under his bed1 and could not be got from thence by either master or man3 in the dead of night1 the same servant entered the room to execute his horrid design1 but was instantly seized by the dog1 and1 being secured1 confessed his intentions4 ,upon what hypothesis can we account for a degree of foresight and penetration such as this8 ,will it be suggested1 as a solution of the difficulty1 that a dog may possibly become capable in a great measure of understanding human discourse1 and of reasoning and acting accordingly2 and that1 in the present instance1 the villain had either uttered his design in soliloquy1 or imparted it to an accomplice1 in the hearing of the animal8 ,it has been disputed whether the brutes have any language whereby they can express their minds to each other2 or whether all the noise they make consists only of cries1 inarticulate and unintelligible even to themselves4 ,father ,bougeant gives the following instance1 among others1 to prove that brutes are capable of forming designs1 and of communicating those designs to others4--,a sparrow1 finding a nest that a martin had just built1 standing very conveniently for him1 possessed himself of it4 ,the martin1 seeing the usurper in her house1 called for help to expel him4 ,a thousand martins came full speed1 and attacked the sparrow2 but the latter being covered on every side1 and presenting only his large beak at the entrance of the nest1 was invulnerable1 and made the boldest of them who durst approach him repent of their temerity4 ,after a quarter of an hour's combat1 all the martins disappeared3 the sparrow thought he had got the better1 and the spectators judged that the martins had abandoned the undertaking4 ,not in the least2 immediately they returned to the charge1 and each of them having procured a little of that tempered earth with which they make their nests1 they all at once fell upon the sparrow1 and enclosed him in the nest1 to perish there1 though they could not drive him thence4--,can it be imagined that the martins could have been able to hatch and concert this design all of them together1 without speaking to each other1 or without some medium of communication equivalent to language8 ,remarkable ,instances of ,,fasting ,,in ,,animals4--,the following remarkable instances of brutes being able to live long without food1 are related by ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 in his account of the earthquakes in ,italy1 7,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 #gc47 ,at ,soriano1 two fattened hogs1 that had remained buried under a heap of ruins1 were taken out alive the #db;d day2 they were lean and weak1 but soon recovered4--,at ,messina1 two mules belonging to the ,duke de ,belviso1 remained under a heap of ruins1 one of them #bb days1 and the other #bc3 they would not eat for some days1 but drank water plentifully1 and are now recovered4--,there are numberless instances of dogs remaining many days in the same situation2 and a hen belonging to the ,british vice-consul at ,messina1 that had been closely shut up under the ruins of his house1 was taken out the #bb;d day1 and is now recovered3 it did not eat for some days1 but drank freely2 it was emaciated1 and shewed little signs of life at first4 ,from these instances1 and several others of the same kind that have been related to me1 but which1 being less remarkable1 ,i omit1 one may conclude1 that long fasting is always attended with great thirst and total loss of appetite4 ,an instance not less remarkable than any of these1 we find in the ,gent4 ,mag4 for ,jan4 #aghe4 ,during the heavy snow which fell in the night of the #gth of ,january1 #aggf1 a parcel of sheep belonging to ,mr4 ,john ,wolley1 of ,matlock1 in ,derbyshire1 which were pastured on that part of the ,east ,moor that lies within the manor of ,matlock1 were covered with the drifted snow4 ,in the course of a day or two all the sheep that were covered with the snow were found again1 except two1 which were consequently given up as lost1 but on the #adth of ,feb4 following 7some time after the break of the snow in the valleys1 and #ch days after the fall7 as a servant was walking over a large parcel of drifted snow1 which remained on the declivity of a hill1 a dog he had with him discovered one of the two sheep that had been lost1 by winding 7or scenting7 it1 through a small aperture which the breath of the sheep had made in the snow4 ,the servant thereupon dug away the snow1 and released the captive from its prison2 it immediately ran to a neighbouring spring1 at which it drank for a considerable time1 and afterwards rejoined its old companions1 as though no such accident had befallen it4 ,on inspecting the place where it was found1 it appeared to have stood between two stones which lay parallel with each other1 at about two feet and a half distance1 and probably were the means of protecting it from the great weight of the snow1 which in that place lay several yards thick3 from the number of stones around it1 it did not appear that the sheep had been able to pick up any food during its confinement4 ,soon afterwards its owner removed it to some low lands2 but as it had nearly lost its appetite1 it was fed with bread and milk for some time3 in about a fortnight after its enlargement1 it lost its sight and wool2 but in a few weeks afterwards they both returned again1 and in the course of the following summer it was quite recovered4 ,the remaining sheep was found dead1 about a week after the discovery of the other4 ,the following authentic history of the ,,extraordinary ,,adventures ,,of ,a ,,sheep1 which was transmitted to a respectable periodical journal1 from ,salisbury1 where the animal died1 will1 we doubt not1 prove interesting to our readers1 as it affords an instance of animal sagacity1 in that species on which ,nature has bestowed it with a sparing hand4 ,she was born in the ,north ,highlands of ,scotland2 embarked1 in #ahjd1 in the ,arab1 and visited ,iceland1 ,greenland1 and ,norway3 here she was sent on shore to graze2 the next day1 seeing the boat row past the place where she was feeding1 she leaped into the water1 and swam to the boat3 this circumstance protected her ever after from the butcher1 and her life was one scene of gratitude4 ,she was in fourteen different actions with the enemy's flotilla and batteries off ,boulogne1 in the last of which she lost part of one of her horns4 ,after that she traversed the whole of the western extent of ,africa1 across the equator to the ,brazils1 and along the ,guiana coast of ,south ,america to the ,west ,indies2 from thence to ,ireland1 and then home4 ,she was so tame as to feed from the hand1 and1 like the dog1 followed her protector2 would dance for a cabbage leaf2 preferred the house and fire-side to the stable2 for several months was never known to touch hay or grass1 living with the sailors on pudding and grog1 and nibbling the ends of rope or canvass4 ,the paring of an apple or a potato was her highest luxury4 ,the docility of the animal was highly amusing3 putting her head under your arm1 she would eat off your plate at dinner2 would drink wine or spirits1 and tea1 if well sweetened2 run up and down the stairs2 and1 if she got into the kitchen1 would take the cover from the pot1 and peep into it4 ,her wool was of a soft and silky nature4 ,after having weathered so many storms and hardships1 she was brought as a present by ,lieut4 ,bagnold1 of the royal navy1 to a lady in ,salisbury2 where1 alas6 their fleecy friend died of a bowel complaint the second day after her arrival1 most sincerely lamented1 the #bb;d of ,january1 #ahjh4 ,lines written on the preceding most remarkable ,sheep4 ,scarce thirty suns had brighten'd o'er her head1 ,when to ,arab's deck young ,jack#i was led2 ,here from her master's side she ne'er would stray1 ,ate of his meat1 and on his hammock lay4 ,grateful for this1 when left on ,norway's beach1 ,she brav'd the sea1 the distant ship to reach4 ,this act heroic stays the murd'rous knife1 ,and all the crew demand to save her life4 ,thus spar'd1 she visits each far distant main3 ,in fourteen battles1 amid heroes slain4 ,she 'scapes unhurt2 save that the whizzing lead ,bears off one horn1 then gently graz'd her head4 ,all perils past1 she reach'd her native shore1 ,to tempt the rage of war and seas no more4-- ,go1 my dear ,jack1 her grateful master said1 7,as on her snow-white head his hand he laid27 ,go seek the shady grove1 the verdant mead2 ,there rest securely1 and securely feed4 ,a thousand joys shall thy long life attend1 ,blest with that greatest good1 a faithful friend4-- ,vain were these hopes6 at ,sarum safe arriv'd1 ,sudden she sicken'd1 and as sudden died4-- ,well1 then1 dear ,jack1 since fate has seal'd thy doom1 ,be thine the honours of the sculptur'd tomb4 ,there too shall this just eulogy appear1 ,a sheep1 a much-lov'd sheep1 reposes here4 ,merits in thee some future bard shall trace1 ,such as ne'er yet adorn'd the fleecy race4 ,a patient temper1 to all ills resign'd1 ,sense almost human1 to good nature join'd4 ,no charms for her had flow'ry lawn or grove1 ',twas man she sought--to man gave all her love4 ,had she but liv'd in fiction's classic days1 ,the muse had sung her fame in deathless lays2 ,had fondly told1 that her not mortal frame ,return'd from earth to heav'n1 from whence it came2 ,advanc'd to share with ,aries on high1 ,the space assign'd him in her native sky4 ,the following is a notable instance of the ,,sagacity ,,of ,a ,,monkey4--,some strolling showmen1 being at ,stonin1 a town of ,lithuania1 belonging to ,count ,ogienski1 grand general of that province1 diverted the inhabitants by exhibiting the tricks and gambols of half a dozen monkeys they had along with them3 this new spectacle roused the curiosity of people of all degrees1 insomuch that the overseers of the improvements which were carrying on in that neighbourhood saw themselves deserted by all their workmen4 ,desirous to recall them to their duty1 yet unwilling to drive the strollers away by main force1 they offered the chief a round sum of money1 on condition of his leaving the town immediately3 the man agreed to this2 and1 with his two assistants1 and company of four-footed comedians1 set off from ,stonin4 ,they had hardly proceeded out of town1 when they were beset by some banditti1 who robbed and murdered not only them1 but all their harmless followers1 except one1 who escaped the general slaughter1 and1 unperceived1 climbed up a tree1 whence he could spy all the proceedings of the villains1 who had no sooner made sure of their spoils1 than they proceeded to inter the bodies1 both of the men and beasts1 covering the place with earth and boughs1 and then made off4 ,sometime after1 a coach-and-four approached2 which the surviving monkey no sooner descried1 than he set up a most dismal yell4 ,the gentleman1 who1 as it afterwards proved1 was going on a visit to the grand-general1 amazed at so unusual a noise1 ordered the coachman to stop1 when1 alighting1 he was still more surprised to see the animal coming down the tree1 and making towards him2 the monkey1 taught perhaps to reverence people of rank1 began to lick his feet1 and1 by several gestures1 seemed to intimate that he had something extraordinary to discover2 the animal led the way1 and the gentleman followed with his servant4 ,as soon as they came to the place1 the monkey rent the air with the most piteous accents2 then taking up some of the branches1 he began to scratch the earth1 and throw it up with all his might3 the gentleman seeing this1 ordered his man to fall to work1 and in a few minutes the whole scene of horror opened to his view4 ,fearing a similar fate1 the ,lithuanian1 forgetting the sagacious animal1 got into his carriage1 and posted to the grand-general as fast as his horses could carry him4 ,poor pug1 rather than be left behind1 fastened about the coach as well as he could1 and arrived likewise at the count's1 who1 having heard the gentleman's report1 sent a proper force after the banditti3 they were overtaken1 and committed to prison4 ,the grand-general ordered the monkey to be taken into his palace1 and kept with the greatest care4 ,this surprising mark of instinct and gratitude is deemed the more wonderful1 as that animal generally turns his natural sagacity to mischief and treachery4 ,we shall in the next place give an astonishing instance of ,,sagacity ,,in ,a ,,horse4 ,at ,chepstow1 in ,monmouthshire1 there is a bridge1 the construction of which is extremely curious1 as the planks that form the floor rise with the tide1 which1 at certain times1 is said to attain to the height of seventy feet4 ,this floor of the bridge it was necessary at one time to remove2 which was accordingly done1 and only one or two of the planks remained for the convenience of the foot passengers4 ,this way was well lighted1 and a man placed at the end to warn those that approached of their danger4 ,but it so happened1 that one dreadful stormy night the lamps blew out1 and the monitor1 supposing that no one would in such a hurricane attempt to pass1 wisely retired to shelter4 ,after midnight1 a traveller knocked at the door of an inn at ,chepstow4 ,who is there8 said the landlord1 who had long retired to rest1 and was now called out of bed4 ,the traveller mentioned his name1 which was well known4 ,how did you come8 said the landlord4 ,how did ,i come8 ,why1 over the bridge to be sure6 ,what6 on horseback8 ,yes4 ,no6 said the landlord1 that is impossible6 however1 as you are here1 ,i'll let you in4 ,the host1 when the traveller repeated his assertion1 was staggered4 ,he was certain that he must have come over the bridge1 because there was no other way2 but also knowing the state in which the passage was1 he could only attribute the escape of the traveller and his horse to witchcraft4 ,he1 however1 said nothing to him that night2 but the next morning took him to the bridge1 and showed him the plank that his horse must have passed over1 at the same time that he pointed to the raging torrent beneath4 ,struck with this circumstance1 the traveller1 it is said1 was seized with an illness from which he did not speedily recover4 ,it is from a respectable source that we insert the following narrative of the ,,sagacity ,,of ,,dogs4 ,m4 ,la ,valee1 in his ,journey through the ,departments of ,france1 published in #agib1 gives the following curious account of the manner in which the country people1 in the neighbourhood of ,peronne and ,doulens1 had trained their dogs to elude the vigilance of the officers of the revenue4--,at night1 these animals were laden1 each with a parcel of goods proportioned to its size2 except one alone1 who was their leader1 and went without any burden4 ,a crack of a whip was a signal for them to set out4 ,the leader travelled a little distance before the rest2 and1 if he perceived the traces of any stranger1 he returned to the other dogs3 these either took a different way1 or1 if the danger was pressing1 concealed themselves behind the hedges1 and lay close till the patrole had passed4 ,when they arrived at the habitation of their master's associate1 they hid themselves in the neighbouring fields and hedges1 while their leader went to the house1 and scratched at the door1 or barked1 till he was admitted1 when he lay quietly down1 as at home3 by this the smuggler knew that the caravan was come2 and1 if the coast was clear1 he went out1 when he gave a loud whistle1 and the dogs came running to him from their several hiding-places6 ,peltier1 in his ,annals of ,paris1 ,no4 #afd1 for ,december1 #agih1 records the following anecdote3--,at the beginning of the ,revolution1 a dog went daily to the parade before the palace of the ,thuilleries1 thrust himself between the legs of the musicians1 marched with them1 halted with them1 and after the parade1 disappeared until the next morning1 when he resumed his occupation4 ,the constant appearance of this dog1 and the pleasure which he seemed to take in the music1 made him a favourite with the band1 who nicknamed him1 ,parade4 ,one gave him food to-day1 another to-morrow2 and he understood1 by a slight signal1 and a word or two1 whom he was to follow for his dinner2 after which1 faithful to his independence1 the dog always withdrew1 in spite of any caresses or threats4 ,sometimes he went to the opera1 sometimes to the ,comedie ,italienne1 and sometimes to the ,theatre ,feydeau2 in each of which houses he found his way to the orchestra1 and would lie down silently in one corner of it1 until the performance was over4 ,i know not1 7says ,peltier7 whether this dog be now alive3 but ,i know many musicians1 to whom his name1 his figure1 and the singularity of his habits1 are perfectly familiar4 ,in ,petit's ,campaign of ,italy1 under the chief consul ,buonaparte1 published in #ahjj1 we have the following anecdote1 which places this animal in the most engaging light3 ,in traversing the ,alps over the mountain ,great ,st4 ,bernard1 many people perish among the almost inaccessible rocks1 whose summits are covered with eternal snow4 ,at the time we crossed them1 the chapel of the monastery of ,st4 ,bernard was filled with dead bodies1 which their dogs had discovered suffocated and benumbed under the snow4 ,with what emotions of pleasure did ,i caress these dogs1 so useful to travellers6 how can one speak of them without being moved by their charitable instinct6 ,notwithstanding the paucity of our eatables1 there was not a ,french soldier who did not manifest an eagerness to give them some biscuit1 some bread1 and even a share of their meat4 ,morning and evening1 these dogs go out on discovery2 and if in the midst of their wandering courses the echo of some unfortunate creature ready to perish reaches their attentive ears1 they run towards those who call out1 express their joy1 and seem to bid the sufferer take courage1 till they have been to procure assistance2 in fact1 they hasten back to the convent1 and1 with an air of inquietude and sadness1 announce in a very discernible manner what they have seen4 ,in that case1 a small basket is fastened round the dog's neck1 filled with food proper for reanimating life almost exhausted2 and1 by following the benevolent messenger1 an unhappy creature is thus frequently snatched from impending destruction4 ,a ,florentine nobleman possessed a dog1 which would attend his table1 change his plates1 and carry his wine to him1 with the utmost steadiness1 and the most accurate attention to his master's notices4 ,it is related by the illustrious ,leibnitz1 that a ,saxon peasant was in possession of a dog of the middling size1 then about three years of age4 ,the peasant's son1 perceiving accidentally1 as he imagined1 some resemblance in its sounds to those of the human voice1 attempted to teach it to speak4 ,by the perseverance of the lad1 the dog acquired the power1 we are told1 of pronouncing about thirty words4 ,it would1 however1 exercise this extraordinary faculty only with reluctance1 the words being always first spoken by the preceptor1 and then echoed by the pupil4 ,this circumstance is attested by ,leibnitz1 who himself heard it speak2 and it was communicated by him in a memoir to the ,royal ,academy of ,france4 ,in the theatre of ,marcellus1 a case occurred1 which many will consider more probable1 but which is almost as extraordinary1 as mentioned by ,plutarch4--,a dog was here exhibited which excelled in various dances of great complication and difficulty1 and represented also the effects of disease and pain upon the frame1 in all the contortions of countenance and writhings of the body1 from the first access1 to that paroxysm which often immediately precedes dissolution4 ,having thus apparently expired in agony1 he would suffer himself to be carried about motionless1 as in a state of death2 and after a sufficient continuance of the jest1 he would burst upon the spectators with an animation and sportiveness1 which formed a very interesting conclusion of this curious interlude1 by which the animal seemed to enjoy the success of his scenic efforts1 and to be delighted with the admiration which was liberally and universally bestowed upon him4 ,a tinker 7says ,pezelius7 brought a wonderful dog to ,constantinople2 and a number of people being assembled to behold him1 many of them laid their rings in a heap confusedly before him4 ,at the command of his master1 he would restore to every man his own1 without any mistake4 ,also1 when his master asked him which of the company was a captain1 which a poor man1 which a wife1 which a widow1 and the like1 he would discover all this without error1 by taking the garment of the party inquired after in his mouth4 ,,chap4 ,,xvi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,fishes4 ,the ,frog-fish--,bird-catching ,fish--,the ,nautilus--,the ,air-bladder in ,fishes--,respiration in ,fishes--,shower of ,fishes4 ----------------,the scaly brood ,in countless myriads cleave the crystal flood4 ,who can old ,ocean's pathless bed explore1 ,and count her tribes that people ev'ry shore4 ,,the ,,frog-,,fish4--,there is a very singular animal of ,surinam1 bearing this name1 of which a figure is given by ,mr4 ,edwards1 in his ,history of ,birds1 vol4 ,i4 but of which no specimen is to be found either in the ,british ,museum1 or in any private collection1 except that of ,dr4 ,fothergill4 ,it was brought from ,surinam1 in ,south ,america4 ,frogs1 both in ,asia and ,africa1 according to ,merian1 change gradually from fishes to frogs1 as those in ,europe2 but after many years1 revert again into fishes1 though the manner of their change has never been investigated4 ,in ,surinam these fishes are called ,jakjes3 they are cartilaginous1 of a substance like our mustela1 and exquisite food2 they are formed with regular vertebr1 and small bones all over the body1 divided into equal parts2 are first darkish1 and then gray2 and their scales make a beautiful appearance4 ,whether this animal is1 in its perfect state1 a species of frog with a tail1 or a kind of water-lizard1 ,mr4 ,edwards does not pretend to determine2 but he observes1 that when its size is considered1 if it should be deemed a tadpole1 at first produced from spawn1 and in its progress towards a frog1 such an animal1 when full-grown2 if it bears the same proportion to its tadpole state that those in ,europe do to theirs1 it must be of enormous size2 for our full-grown frogs exceed the tadpoles at least fifty times4 ,another curiosity is1 ,,the ,,bird-,,catching ,,fish4--,this fish is called by the natives of ,canada1 ,chaousaron2 its body is nearly the shape of a jack or pike1 but is covered with scales that are proof against the stab of a dagger2 its colour is a silver gray1 and there grows under its mouth a fin that is flat1 jagged at the edges1 and pierced at the end1 which gives reason to conjecture that it breathes by that part4 ,this fish is about five feet in length1 and as thick as a man's thigh2 but some of them1 it is said1 are eight or ten feet long4 ,in order to catch birds1 it hides itself among the reeds in such a manner1 that no part of it can be seen but the fin just mentioned2 this it erects upright out of the water1 and birds that want to rest themselves1 take this fin for a reed1 or a dry piece of wood2 but no sooner have they alighted on it1 than the fish opens his mouth1 and makes such a quick motion to seize its prey1 that it seldom escapes4 ,another curious object is1 ,,the ,,nautilus4 ,learn of the little ,nautilus to sail1 ,spread the thin oar1 and catch the driving gale4 ,pope4 ,the shell of this animal consists of one spiral valve1 divided into several apartments4 ,there are seventeen species1 chiefly distinguished by peculiarities in their shells4 ,the most remarkable division of the ,nautilus is into the thin and thick-shelled kinds4 ,the first is called ,nautilus ,papyraceus2 and its shell is indeed no thicker than a piece of paper1 when out of the water4 ,this species is not at all fastened to its shell2 but there is an opinion1 as old as the days of ,pliny1 that this creature creeps out of its shell1 and goes on shore to feed4 ,when this species is to sail1 it expands two of its arms on high1 and between these supports a membrane1 which it throws out on this occasion3 this serves for its sail1 and the two other arms it hangs out of its shell1 to serve occasionally either as oars or as a steerage2 but this last office is generally served by the tail4 ,when the sea is calm1 numbers of these creatures may frequently be seen diverting themselves in this manner1 in the ,mediterranean3 but as soon as a storm rises1 or any thing gives them disturbance1 they draw in their legs1 and take in as much water as makes them specifically heavier than that in which they float2 and then they sink to the bottom4 ,when they rise again1 they void this water by a number of holes1 of which their legs are full4 ,the other nautilus1 whose shell is thick1 never quits its habitation4 ,this shell is divided into forty or more partitions1 which grow smaller and smaller as they approach the extremity or centre of the shell3 between each of these cells there is a communication by means of a hole in the centre of the partitions4 ,through this hole there runs a pipe1 of the whole length of the shell4 ,it is supposed by many1 that by means of this pipe the fish occasionally passes from one cell to another2 but this seems by no means probable1 as the fish must undoubtedly be crushed to death by attempting to pass through it4 ,it is much more likely that the fish always occupies the largest chamber in its shell2 that is1 that it lives in the cavity between the mouth and the first partition1 and that it never removes out of this2 but that all the apparatus of cells1 and a pipe of communication1 which we so much admire1 serve only to admit occasionally air or water into the shell1 in such proportion as may serve the creature in its intentions of swimming4 ,some authors call this shell the concha margaritifera3 but this can be only on account of the fine colour on its inside1 which is more beautiful than any other mother-of-pearl2 for it has not been observed than this species of fish ever produced pearls4 ,it must be observed1 that the polypus is by no means to be confounded with the paper-shelled nautilus1 notwithstanding the great resemblance in the arms and body of the inclosed fish2 nor is the cornu ammonis1 so frequently found fossil1 to be confounded with the thick-shelled nautilus1 though the concamerations and general structure of the shell are alike in both3 for there are great and essential differences between all these genera4 ,there is a pretty copious and minute account of this curious animal in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 vol4 xxii4 p4 #f1 #g1 #h1 and #cja1 and vol4 xxv4 p4 #abh4 ,we now proceed to describe that destructive inhabitant of the mighty deep1 ,,the ,,shark4--,sharks1 though voracious creatures1 are seldom destructive in the temperate regions2 it is in the torrid zone that their ravages are most frequent4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 accidents happen from them daily4 ,during the ,american war in #aghj1 while the ,pallas frigate was lying in ,kingston harbour1 a young ,north ,american jumped overboard one evening1 to make his escape1 and perished by a shark in a shocking manner4 ,he had been captured in a small vessel1 lost all his property1 and was detained by compulsion in the ,english navy1 to serve in a predatory war against his country4 ,but he1 animated with that spirit which pervaded every bosom in ,america1 resolved1 as soon as he arrived at some port1 to release himself from the mortifying state of employing his life against his country1 which1 as he said when dying1 he was happy to lay down1 as he could not employ it against her enemies4 ,he plunged into the water3 the ,pallas was a quarter of a mile from the shore4 ,a shark perceived him1 and followed him very quietly1 till he came near the shore2 where1 as he was hanging by a rope that moored a vessel to a wharf1 scarcely out of his depth1 the shark seized his right leg1 stripped the flesh entirely from the bones1 and took the foot off at the ancle4 ,he still kept his hold1 and called to the people in the vessel near him1 who were standing on the deck1 and saw the affair4 ,the shark then seized his other leg1 which the man by his struggling disengaged from his teeth1 but with the flesh cut through down to the bone1 into a multitude of narrow slips4 ,the people in the vessel threw billets of wood into the water1 and frightened the shark away4 ,the young man was brought on shore4 ,dr4 ,mosely was called to him2 but he had lost so much blood before any assistance could be given him1 that he expired before the mangled limbs could be taken off4 ,a few weeks before this1 a shark of twelve feet in length was caught in the harbour2 and on being opened1 the entire head of a man was found in his stomach4 ,the scalp and flesh of the face were macerated to a soft pulpy substance2 which1 on being touched1 separated entirely from the bones4 ,the bones were somewhat softened1 and the sutures loosened4--7,moseley on ,tropical ,diseases47 ,illustration3 ,,terrible ,,adventure ,,with ,a ,,shark--,page #aii4 ,a very extraordinary instance of intrepidity and friendship is given by ,m4 ,hughes1 in his ,natural ,history of ,barbadoes4 ,it happened about the end of ,queen ,anne's wars1 at ,barbadoes4--,the sailors of the ,york ,merchant1 having ventured into the sea to wash themselves1 a large shark made towards them2 upon which they swam back1 and all reached the boat except one1 whom the monster overtook1 and1 griping him by the small of his back1 soon cut him asunder1 and swallowed the lower part of his body2 the remaining part was taken up and carried on board1 where was a comrade of the deceased1 between whom friendship had been long reciprocal4 ,when he saw the severed trunk of his friend1 with a horror and emotion too great for words to paint1 he vowed that he would make the devourer disgorge1 or be swallowed himself in the same grave1 and plunged into the deep1 armed with a sharp-pointed knife4 ,the shark no sooner saw him1 than he made furiously toward him3 both were equally eager1 the one of his prey1 the other of revenge4 ,the moment the shark opened his rapacious jaws1 his adversary dexterously diving1 and grasping him with his left hand somewhat below the upper fins1 successfully employed his knife in his right hand1 giving him repeated stabs in the belly4 ,the enraged shark1 after many unavailing efforts1 finding himself overmatched in his own element1 endeavoured to disengage himself1 sometimes plunging to the bottom1 then1 mad with pain1 rearing his uncouth form1 now stained with his own streaming blood1 above the foaming waves4 ,the crews of the surrounding vessels saw the doubtful combat1 uncertain from which of the combatants the streams of blood issued2 till at length the shark1 much weakened by the loss of blood1 made towards the shore1 and with him his conqueror2 who1 now assured of victory1 pushed his foe with redoubled ardour1 and1 by the help of an ebbing tide1 dragged him on shore1 ripped up his bowels1 and united and buried the severed carcase of his friend4 ,it is evident1 7says ,dr4 ,moseley17 that digestion in these animals is not performed by trituration1 nor by the muscular action of the stomach2 though nature has furnished them with a stomach of wonderful force and thickness1 and far exceeding that of any other creature4 ,whatever their force of digestion is1 it has no effect upon their young ones1 which always retreat into their stomachs in time of danger4 ,that digestion is not performed by heat in fish1 is equally evident4 ,the coolness of the stomach of these fishes is far greater than the temperature of the water out of which they are taken2 or of any other part of the fish1 or of any other substance of animated nature ,i ever felt4 ,on wrapping one of them round my hand1 immediately on being taken out of the fish1 it caused so much aching and numbness that ,i could not endure it long4 ,of these voracious sea monsters1 there are thirty three species4 ,,the ,,torpedo4--,the torpedo inhabits the ,mediterranean and the ,north ,seas1 and grows to the weight of twenty pounds4 ,this fish possesses a strong electrical power1 and is capable of giving a very considerable shock through a number of persons forming a communication with it4 ,this power was known to the ancients1 but exaggerated by them with all the fables natural to ignorance2 and it is only recently that the power has been ascertained to be truly electric4 ,it is conducted by the same substances as electricity1 and intercepted by the same4 ,in a minute and a half1 no fewer than fifty shocks have been received from this animal1 when insulated4 ,the shocks delivered by it in air1 are nearly four times as strong as those received from it in water4 ,this power appears to be always voluntarily exercised by the torpedo1 which occasionally may be touched and handled without its causing the slightest agitation4 ,when the fish is irritated1 however1 this quality is exercised with proportional effect to the degree of irritation2 and its exercise is stated1 in every instance1 to be accompanied by a depression of the eyes4 ,when that animal exerts the benumbing power1 from which it derives its name1 and when it operates by separate and repeated efforts1 this is always the case4 ,both in the continued1 and in the instantaneous process1 the eyes1 which are at other times prominent1 are withdrawn into their sockets2 a circumstance very naturally attaching both to the condensation and discharge of the subtle fluid4 ,specimens have been known of this fish weighing fifty1 and even eighty pounds4 ,it commonly lies in forty fathoms of water1 and is supposed to stupify its prey by this extraordinary faculty4 ,it is sometimes nearly imbedded in the sands of shallows2 and it is stated1 in these cases1 to give to any who happens to tread upon it1 an astonishing and overwhelming shock4 ,on dissection1 it was found to exhibit no material difference from the general structure of the ray1 excepting with respect to the electric or galvanic organs1 which have been minutely examined and detailed by the celebrated anatomist1 ,john ,hunter3 he states them to be placed on each side of the cranium and gills1 reaching thence to each great fin1 and extending longitudinally from the anterior extremity of the animal1 to the transverse cartilage which divides the thorax from the abdomen4 ,from the whole description1 it appears that these organs1 as ,mr4 ,shaw observes1 constitute a pair of galvanic batteries1 disposed in the form of perpendicular hexagonal columns2 while1 in the gymnotus electricus1 the galvanic battery is disposed lengthwise on the lower part of the animal4 ,it is stated1 that the torpedo1 in its dying state1 communicates shocks in more than usually rapid succession1 but in proportional weakness2 and in seven minutes1 in these circumstances1 three hundred and sixty small shocks were distinctly felt4 ,on the same authority 7that of ,spallanzani7 it is reported1 that the young torpedo can exercise this power at the moment after its birth1 and even possesses it while a foetus1 several of these having been taken from the parent fish1 and being found to communicate perceivable shocks1 which1 however1 were most distinctly felt when these animals were insulated on a plate of glass4 ,a very curious object is1 ,,the ,,air-,,bladder ,,in ,,fishes4--,there is no doubt that fishes extract air from water by means of their gills1 since it is through them that they renew the air of their air-bladder4 ,this bladder is an oblong bag1 consisting of two or three membranes easily separated2 sometimes it has only a single lobe or cavity1 as in the case of pikes1 whitings1 trouts1 c42 at other times it has two lobes1 as in the case of barbel and carp2 three1 as in that of the sea tench2 or four1 as in the ,chinese gold fish4 ,it is by expanding or compressing this bladder1 that the fish occupies more or less space in the water1 becomes more or less heavy1 and ascends or descends as it chooses4 ,the division of the bladder into different lobes has proceeded from a very sufficient reason4 ,when the bladder has only one cavity1 as in the case of fishes of prey1 the motion of ascent or descent takes place slowly1 and without a break2 because1 as they compress the whole bladder at once1 the whole body is moved horizontally1 upwards or downwards1 as the case may be2 a circumstance which has the effect of lessening1 in consequence of the resistance of the water1 the swiftness of those tyrants of the deep4 ,when the bladder has two lobes1 as in the case of the carp1 which lives on insects1 that fish1 by expanding the anterior and compressing the posterior lobe1 rises rapidly with the head foremost to the surface of the water1 or sinks to the bottom with equal expedition1 by compressing its two lobes in different ways4 ,the consequence is1 an increased promptitude of movement1 and additional means of escaping from its enemies4 ,when the bladder has four lobes1 as in the case of the gold fish1 that fish is thus enabled to vary greatly its contractions and expansions4 ,it rises1 sinks1 bends1 erects1 or turns itself in a thousand ways1 and plays in the water1 like a bird in the air4 ,it displays all the richness of the colours of gold1 silver1 or purple1 with which ,nature has adorned it4 ,its attitudes are so graceful1 and its movements so varied1 that the ,chinese1 from whom we originally received it1 are said to pass whole days in looking at it1 in the basins of the fountains in their gardens1 or in crystal vessels4 ,it is evidently indebted for the ease and grace of its motions1 to the modulations consequent on the four divisions of its air-bladder4 ,another subject of curiosity is1 ,,the ,,respiration ,,in ,,fishes4--,fish derive air from the water which they are inaccessantly swallowing through the mouth1 and throwing out by the gills4 ,the gills are formed with infinite skill1 and may be called a delicate kind of sieve1 adapted for separating air from water4 ,their operation proves the radical difference between these two elements1 and leads to the conclusion1 that they are not joined even when mixed4 ,the gills are placed in the back part of the sides of the head1 and are contained in a cavity adapted for them4 ,they are a kind of red and flexible leaflets1 consisting of a row of thin plates1 like the blade of a knife1 pressed against each other1 and forming a succession of barbs or fringed substances1 similar to those on the side of a goose-quill4 ,these gills are covered with a small lid1 and with a membrane1 supported by cartilaginous threads4 ,both are capable of being raised and lowered2 and1 by being thus opened1 they afford a passage to the water swallowed by the animal4 ,a prodigious number of muscles give motion to these minute particles4 ,it may appear almost incredible1 that the number of particles connected with the respiration of the carp is not fewer than #dchf4 ,of these1 sixty-nine are muscles2 while the arteries of the gills1 in addition to eight principal branches1 throw forth #dcbj smaller ramifications1 while each of the latter gives birth to a number of cross arteries4 ,add to this1 that the quantity of nerves is not smaller than that of the arteries2 and that the veins are divided and subdivided1 like the arteries1 inasmuch as they do not give rise to any transverse capillary vessels4 ,in this manner the blood flowing from the heart of the fish is spread over all the plates or blades of which the gills are composed2 so that a very small quantity of blood is exposed to the action of the water1 for the purpose1 no doubt1 that each part may be easily penetrated by the particles of air detached from the water4 ,it is not easy to explain in what manner these particles are detached from the water by the operation of the gills2 but there seems no doubt of the fact1 nor of the redness of the gills being a consequence of the operation of the air4 ,that redness is exactly similar to the vermilion of the blood in the veins of animals with lungs1 a vermilion considerably brighter than that of the arteries4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with an account of a ,,shower ,,of ,,fishes4--,in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #afih1 ,mr4 ,robert ,conny gives the following account of a phenomenon of this kind4 ,on ,wednesday before ,easter1 anno #afff1 a pasture field at ,cranstead1 near ,wrotham1 in ,kent1 about two acres1 which is far from any part of the sea1 or branch of it1 and a place where there are no fish-ponds1 but a scarcity of water1 was all overspread with little fishes1 conceived to be rained down1 there having been at that time a great tempest of thunder and rain3 the fishes were about the length of a man's little finger1 and judged by all who saw them to be young whitings4 ,many of them were taken up1 and shewed to several persons4 ,the field belonged to one ,ware1 a yeoman1 who was at that ,easter sessions one of the grand inquest1 and who carried some of the fish to the sessions of ,maidstone1 in ,kent1 and shewed them1 among others1 to ,mr4 ,lake1 a bencher of the ,middle ,temple1 who procured one of them1 and brought it to ,london4 ,the truth of it was averred by many that saw the fishes lie scattered all over the field4 ,there were none in the other fields adjoining3 the quantity of them was estimated to be about a bushel4 ,it is probable that these fishes were absorbed from the surface of the water by the electric power of a water-spout2 or brushed off by the violence of a hurricane4 ,the phenomenon1 though surprising1 has occurred in various countries1 and occasionally in situations far more remote from the coast than that before us4 ,,chap4 ,,xvii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,fishes4--7,concluded47 ,the ,whale--,whale ,fishery--,the ,kraken4 ----------------------------,the whales ,toss in foam their lashing tails4 ,wallowing unwieldly1 enormous in their gait1 ,they seem a moving land1 and at their gills ,draw in1 and at their trunk spout out1 a sea4 ,the following account of the great ,northern1 or ,,greenland ,,whale1 was first published by ,mr4 ,w4 ,scoresby1 jun4 ,m4 ,w4 ,s4 in the ,memoirs of the ,wernerian ,society1 vol4 ,i4 ,the whale1 when fullgrown1 is from #ej to #fe feet in length1 and from #cj to #dj in circumference1 immediately before the fins4 ,it is thickest a little behind the fins1 and from thence gradually tapers towards the tail1 and slightly towards the neck4 ,it is cylindrical from the neck until near the junction of the tail and body1 where it becomes rigid4 ,the head has a triangular shape4 ,the bones of the head are very porous1 and full of a fine kind of oil4 ,when the oil is drained out1 the bone is so light as to swim in water4 ,the jaw-bones1 the most striking portions of the head1 are from #bj to #be feet in length1 are curved1 and the space between them is #i or #aj feet1 by #ah or #bj4 ,they give shape to the under part of the head1 which is almost perfectly flat1 and is about #bj feet in length by #ab in breadth4 ,the tongue is of great size1 and yields a ton or more of oil4 ,the lips1 which are at right angles to the flat part of the base of the head1 are firm and hard1 and yield about two tons of oil4 ,to the upper jaw is attached the substance called whalebone1 which is straight in some individuals1 and in others convex4 ,the lamin1 or blades1 are not all of equal length3 neither are the largest exactly in the middle of the series1 but somewhat nearer the throat2 from this point they become gradually shorter each way4 ,in each side of the mouth are about #bjj lamin of whalebone4 ,they are not perfectly flat2 for besides the longitudinal curvature already mentioned1 they are curved transversely4 ,the largest lamin are from ten to fourteen feet1 very rarely fifteen feet1 in length4 ,the breadth of the largest1 at the thick ends1 or where they are attached to the jaw1 is about a foot4 ,the ,greenland fishers estimate the size of the whale by the length of the whalebone3 where the whalebone is six feet long1 then the whale is said to be a size-fish4 ,in suckers1 or young whales still under the protection of the mother1 the whalebone is only a few inches long4 ,the whalebone is immediately covered by the two under lips1 the edges of which1 when the mouth is shut1 overlap the upper part in a squamous manner4 ,on the upper part of the head there is a double opening1 called the spout-holes1 or blow-holes4 ,their external orifices are like two slits1 which do not lie parallel1 but form an acute angle with each other4 ,through these openings the animal breathes4 ,the eyes are very small1 not larger than those of an ox2 yet the whale appears to be quick of sight4 ,they are situated about a foot above where the upper and under lip join4 ,in the whale1 the sense of hearing seems to be rather obtuse4 ,the throat is so narrow as scarcely to admit a hen's egg4 ,the fins are from four to five feet broad1 and eight to ten feet long1 and seem only to be used in bearing off their young1 in turning1 and giving a direction to the velocity produced by the tail4 ,the tail is horizontal1 from #bj to #cj feet in breadth1 indented in the middle1 and the two lobes pointed and turned outwards4 ,in it lies the whole strength of the animal4 ,by means of the tail1 the whale advances itself in the water with greater or less rapidity2 if the motion is slow1 the tail cuts the water obliquely1 like forcing a boat forward by the operation of sculling2 but if the motion is very rapid1 it is effected by an undulating motion of the rump4 ,the skin in some whales is smooth and shining2 in others1 it is furrowed1 like the water-lines in laid paper1 but coarser4 ,the colour is black1 gray1 and white1 and a tinge of yellow about the lower parts of the head4 ,the back1 upper part of the head1 most of the belly1 the fins1 tail1 and part of the under jaw1 are deep black4 ,the fore part of the under jaw1 and a little of the belly1 are white1 and the junction of the tail with the body gray4 ,such are the common colours of the adult whale4 ,i have seen piebald whales4 ,such whales as are below size are almost entirely of a bluish black colour4 ,the skin of suckers is of a pale bluish colour4 ,the cuticle1 or scarf-skin1 is no thicker than parchment2 the true skin is from three-fourths to an inch in thickness all over the body4 ,immediately beneath the skin lies the blubber1 or fat1 from #aj to #bj inches in thickness1 varying in different parts of the body1 as well as in different individuals4 ,the colour1 also1 is not always the same1 being white1 red1 and yellow2 and it also varies in denseness4 ,it is principally for the blubber that the ,greenland fishery is carried on4 ,it is cut from the body in large lumps1 and carried on board the ship1 and then cut into smaller pieces4 ,the fleshy parts1 and skin connected with the blubber1 are next separated from it1 and it is again cut into such pieces as will admit of its being passed into casks by the bung-hole1 which is only three or four inches in diameter4 ,in these casks it is conveyed home1 where it is boiled in vessels capable of containing from three to six tons1 for the purpose of extracting the oil from the fritters1 which are tendinous fibres1 running in various directions1 and containing the oil1 or rather connecting together the cellular substance which contains it4 ,these fibres are finest next the skin1 thinnest in the middle1 and coarsest near the flesh4 ,the whales1 according to their size1 produce from two to twenty tons of oil4 ,the flesh of the young whale is of a fine red colour2 that of the old approaches to black1 and is coarse1 like that of a bull1 and is said to be dry and lean when boiled1 because there is little fat intermixed with the flesh4 ,the food of the whale is generally supposed to consist of different kinds of sepi1 medus1 or the clio limacina of ,linnus2 but ,i have great reason to believe1 that it is chiefly1 if not altogether1 of the squill or shrimp tribe2 for1 on examining the stomach of one of large size1 nothing else was found in it2 they were about half an inch long1 semi-transparent1 and of a pale red colour4 ,i also found a great quantity in the mouth of another1 having been apparently vomited by it4 ,when the whale feeds1 it swims with considerable velocity under water1 with its mouth wide open2 the water enters by the forepart1 but is poured out again at the sides1 and the food is entangled and sifted as it were by the whalebone1 which does not suffer any thing to escape4 ,it seldom remains longer below the surface than twenty to thirty minutes2 when it comes up again to blow1 it will perhaps remain ten1 twenty1 or thirty minutes at the surface of the water1 when nothing disturbs it4 ,in calm weather1 it sometimes sleeps in this situation4 ,it sometimes ascends with so much force1 as to leap entirely out of the water2 when swimming at its greatest velocity1 it moves at the rate of seven to nine miles an hour4 ,its maternal affection deserves notice4 ,the young one is frequently struck for the sake of its mother1 which will soon come up close by it1 encourage it to swim off1 assist it by taking it under its fin1 and seldom deserts it while life remains4 ,it is then very dangerous to approach1 as she loses all regard for her own safety in anxiety for the preservation of her cub1 dashing about most violently1 and not dreading to rise even amidst the boats4 ,except1 however1 when the whale has young to protect1 the male is in general more active and dangerous than the female1 especially males of about nine feet bone4 ,to the above account of ,mr4 ,scoresby's1 we shall add the following particulars3 ,the fidelity of whales to each other exceeds whatever we are told even of the constancy of birds4 ,some fishers1 as ,anderson informs us1 having struck one of two whales1 a male and a female1 that were in company together1 the wounded fish made a long and terrible resistance2 it struck down a boat with three men in it1 with a single blow of its tail1 by which all went to the bottom4 ,the other still attended its companion1 and lent it every assistance2 till1 at last1 the fish that was struck sunk under the number of its wounds2 while its faithful associate1 disdaining to survive the loss1 with great bellowing stretched itself upon the dead fish1 and shared its fate4 ,inoffensive as the whale is1 it is not without enemies4 ,there is a small animal1 of the shell-fish kind1 called the whale-louse1 that sticks to its body1 as we see shells sticking to the foul bottom of a ship4 ,this insinuates itself chiefly under the fins2 and whatever efforts the great animal makes1 it still keeps its hold1 and lives upon the fat1 which it is provided with instruments to arrive at4 ,the sword-fish is1 however1 the whale's most terrible enemy4 ,at the sight of this little animal1 the whale seems agitated in an extraordinary manner1 leaping from the water as if with affright1 wherever it appears2 the whale perceives it at a distance1 and flies from it in the opposite direction4 ,the whale has no instrument of defence except the tail2 with that it endeavours to strike the enemy1 and a single blow taking place would effectually destroy its adversary2 but the sword-fish is as active as the other is strong1 and easily avoids the stroke2 then bounding into the air1 it falls upon its enemy1 and endeavours not to pierce with its pointed beak1 but to cut with its toothed edges4 ,the sea all about is soon dyed with blood1 proceeding from the wounds of the whale2 while the enormous animal vainly endeavours to reach its invader1 and strikes with its tail against the surface of the water with impotent fury1 making a report at each blow louder than the noise of a cannon4 ,there is still another powerful enemy of this fish1 which is called the oria1 or killer4 ,a number of these are said to surround the whale in the same manner as dogs get round a bull4 ,some attack it with their teeth behind2 others attempt it before2 until1 at last1 the great animal is torn down1 and its tongue is said to be the only part they devour1 when they have made it their prey4 ,but of all the enemies of these enormous fishes1 man is the greatest and most formidable2 he alone destroys more in a year than the rest in an age1 and actually has thinned their numbers in that part of the world where they are chiefly sought4 ,the reader will be interested in the following account of ,,the ,,whale ,,fishery4 ,as when enclosing harpooners assail1 ,in hyperborean seas1 the slumbering whale2 ,soon as their javelins pierce the scaly side1 ,he groans1 he darts impetuous down the tide2 ,and rack'd all o'er with lacerating pain1 ,he flies remote beneath the flood in vain4 ,falconer4 ,whales are chiefly caught in the ,north ,sea3 the largest sort are found about ,greenland1 or ,spitzbergen4 ,at the first discovery of this country1 whales not being used to be disturbed1 frequently came into the very bays1 and were accordingly killed almost close to the shore1 so that the blubber being cut off1 was immediately boiled into oil on the spot4 ,the ships1 in those times1 took in nothing but the pure oil and the fins1 and all the business was executed in the country2 by which means1 a ship could bring home the product of many more whales1 than she can according to the present method of conducting this trade4 ,the fishery also was then so plentiful1 that they were obliged sometimes to send other ships to fetch off the oil they had made1 the quantity being more than the fishing ships could bring away4 ,but time and change of circumstances have shifted the situation of this trade4 ,the ships coming in great numbers from ,holland1 ,denmark1 ,hamburgh1 and other northern countries1 all intruders upon the ,english1 who were the first discoverers of ,greenland1 disturbed the whales1 which gradually1 as other fish often do1 forsaking the place1 were not to be killed so near the shore as before2 but they are now found1 and have been so ever since1 in the openings and spaces among the ice1 where they have deep water1 and where they go sometimes a great many leagues from the shore4 ,the whale fishery begins in ,may1 and continues all ,june and ,july2 but whether the ships have good or bad success1 they must come away1 and get clear of the ice by the end of ,august1 so that in the month of ,september1 at farthest1 they may be expected home2 but a ship that meets with a fortunate and early fishery in ,may1 may return in ,june or ,july4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,whale ,,fishery4--,page #bjh4 ,the engraving represents the lancing of the whale1 who has already been harpooned1 and is in a dying state4 ,in his last struggles he has broken one of the whalers' boats4 ,the manner of taking whales at present is as follows3 ,as soon as the fishermen hear the whale blow1 they cry out1 ,fall6 fall6 and every ship gets out its long-boat1 in each of which there are six or seven men1 who row till they become pretty near the whale2 then the harpooner strikes it with the harpoon3 this requires great dexterity1 for through the bone of his head there is no striking1 but near his spout there is a soft piece of flesh1 into which the iron sinks with ease4 ,as soon as he is struck1 they take care to give him rope enough1 otherwise1 when he goes down1 as he frequently does1 he would inevitably sink the boat3 this rope he draws with such violence1 that1 if it were not well watered1 it would1 by its friction against the sides of the boat1 be soon set on fire4 ,the line fastened to the harpoon is six or seven fathoms long1 and is called the fore-runner2 it is made of the finest and softest hemp1 that it may slip the easier3 to this they join a heap of lines of #ij or #ajj fathoms each1 and when there are not enough in one long-boat1 they borrow from another4 ,the man at the helm observes which way the rope goes1 and steers the boat accordingly1 that it may run exactly out before2 for the whale runs away with the line with so much rapidity1 that he would overset the boat if it were not kept straight4 ,when the whale is struck1 the other long-boats row before1 and observe which way the line stands1 and sometimes pull it3 if they feel it stiff1 it is a sign the whale still pulls in strength2 but if it hangs loose1 and the boat lies equally high before and behind upon the water1 they pull it in gently1 but take care to coil it1 that the whale may have it again easily1 if he recovers strength3 they take care1 however1 not to give him too much line1 because he sometimes entangles it about a rock1 and pulls out the harpoon4 ,the fat whales do not sink as soon as dead1 but the lean ones do1 and come up some days afterwards4 ,as long as they see whales1 they lose no time in cutting up what they have taken1 yet keep fishing for others3 when they see no more1 or have taken enough1 they begin with taking off the fat and whiskers in the following manner4 ,the whale being lashed alongside1 they lay it on one side1 and put two ropes1 one at the head and the other in the place of the tail1 7which1 together with the fins1 is struck off as soon as he is taken17 to keep those extremities above water4 ,on the off-side of the whale are two boats1 to receive the pieces of fat1 utensils1 and men1 that might otherwise fall into the water on that side4 ,these precautions being taken1 three or four men1 with irons at their feet to prevent slipping1 get on the whale1 and begin to cut out pieces of about three feet thick and eight long1 which are hauled up at the capstan or windlass4 ,when the fat is all cut off1 they cut off the whiskers of the upper jaw with an axe1 previously lashing them together to keep them firm1 which also facilitates the cutting1 and prevents them from falling into the sea2 when on board1 five or six of them are bundled together1 and properly stowed3 and after all is got off1 the carcase is turned adrift1 and devoured by the bears1 who are very fond of it4 ,in proportion as the large pieces of fat are cut off1 the rest of the crew are employed in slicing them smaller1 and picking out all the lean4 ,when this is prepared1 they stow it under the deck1 where it lies till the fat of all the whales is on board2 then cutting it still smaller1 they put it up in tubs in the hold1 cramming them very full and close4 ,nothing now remains but to sail homewards1 where the fat is to be boiled1 and melted down into train oil4 ,during the summer of #ahba1 an attempt was made to kill whales with ,sir ,william ,congreve's rockets4 ,the trial was conducted by ,william ,scoresby1 ,esq4 who took out with him1 on board of the ,fame1 in which he sailed1 several rockets1 by way of experiment4 ,success attended his expectation2 and little doubt can remain1 if they continue to be skilfully applied1 that the danger attending the harpoon will be nearly done away2 and1 consequently1 this valuable branch of commerce will be essentially benefited by the discovery4 ,we shall conclude this short sketch of some of the curiosities respecting fishes1 with an account of ,,the ,,kraken4--,this is a most amazingly large sea animal1 said to be seemingly of a crab-like form2 the credit of whose existence rests upon the evidence produced by ,bishop ,pontoppidan1 in his ,natural ,history of ,norway4 ,our fishermen 7says the author7 unanimously and invariably affirm1 that1 when they are several miles from the land1 particularly in the hot summer days1 and1 by their distance1 and the bearings of some points of land1 expect from eighty to a hundred fathoms depth1 and do not find but from twenty to thirty1--and especially if they find a more than usual plenty of cod and ling1--they judge the kraken to be at the bottom3 but if they find by their lines that the water in the same place still shallows on them1 they know he is rising to the surface1 and row off with the greatest expedition till they come into the usual soundings of the place2 when1 lying on their oars1 in a few minutes the monster emerges1 and shews himself sufficiently1 though the whole body does not appear4 ,its back or upper part1 which seems an ,english mile and a half in circumference1 7some have affirmed1 considerably more than this17 looks at first like a number of small islands1 surrounded with something that floats like sea-weeds2 at last several bright points of horns appear1 which grow thicker the higher they emerge1 and sometimes stand up as high and large as the masts of middle-sized vessels4 ,in a short time it slowly sinks1 which is thought as dangerous as its rising2 as it causes such a swell and whirlpool as draws every thing down with it1 like that of ,maelstrom4 ,the ,bishop justly regrets the omission of probably the only opportunity that ever has or may be presented of surveying it alive1 or seeing it entire when dead4 ,this1 he informs us1 once did occur1 on the credit of the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,frs1 minister at ,nordland1 and vicar of the college for promoting ,christian knowledge2 who informed him1 that in #afhj1 a kraken 7perhaps a young and careless one1 as they generally keep several leagues from land7 came into the waters that run between the rocks and cliffs near ,alstahong2 where1 in turning about1 some of its long horns caught hold of some adjoining trees1 which it might easily have torn up1 but that it was also entangled in some clefts of the rocks1 whence it could not extricate itself1 but putrefied on the spot4 ,our author has heard of no person destroyed by this monster2 but he relates a report of the danger of two fishermen1 who came upon a part of the water full of the creature's thick slimy excrements1 7which he voids for some months1 as he feeds for some other27 they immediately strove to row off1 but were not quick enough in turning to save the boat from one of the kraken's horns1 which so crushed the head of it1 that it was with difficulty they saved their lives on the wreck1 though the weather was perfectly calm1 the monster never appearing at other times4 ,his excrement is said to be attractive of other fish on which he feeds2 which expedient was probably necessary1 on account of his slow unwieldy motion1 to his subsistence2 as this slow motion again may be necessary to the security of ships of the greatest force and burden1 which must be overwhelmed on encountering such an immense animal1 if his velocity were equal to his weight2 the ,norwegians supposing1 that if his arms1 on which he moves1 and with which he takes his food1 were to lay hold of the largest man of war1 they would pull it down to the bottom4 ,in confirmation of the reality of this animal1 our learned author cites ,debes's ,description of ,faroe1 for the existence of certain islands1 which suddenly appear and as suddenly vanish4 ,many seafaring people1 he adds1 give accounts of such1 particularly in the ,north ,sea2 which their superstition has either attributed to the delusion of the ,devil1 or considered as inhabited by evil spirits4 ,but our honest historian1 who is not for wronging even the ,devil himself1 supposes such mistaken islands to be nothing but the kraken1 called by some the soe trolden1 or sea-mischief2 in which opinion he was greatly confirmed by the following quotation of ,dr4 ,hierne1 a learned ,swede1 from ,baron ,grippenheilm2 and which is certainly a very remarkable passage1 viz4 ,among the rocks about ,stockholm1 there is sometimes seen a tract of land1 which at other times disappears1 and is seen again in another place4 ,burus has placed it as an island1 in his map4 ,the peasants1 who call it ,gummars-ore1 say1 that it is not always seen1 and that it lies out in the open sea2 but ,i could never find it4 ,one ,sunday1 when ,i was out amongst the rocks1 sounding the coast1 it happened1 that in one place ,i saw something like three points of land in the sea1 which surprised me a little1 and ,i thought ,i had inadvertently passed them over before4 ,upon this1 ,i called to a peasant1 to inquire for ,gummars-ore2 but when he came1 we could see nothing of it2 upon which1 the peasant said1 all was well1 and that this prognosticated a storm1 or a great quantity of fish4 ,to which our author subjoins1 ,who cannot discover that this ,gummars-ore1 with its points and prognostications of fish1 was the kraken1 mistaken by ,burus for an island1 which may keep itself about that spot where he rises8 ,he takes the kraken1 doubtless1 from his numerous tentaculi1 which serve him as feet1 to be of the polypus kind2 and the contemplation of its enormous bulk led him to adapt a passage from ,ecclesiasticus1 xliii4 #ca1 #cb4 to it4 ,whether by it may be intended the dragon that is in the sea1 mentioned ,isaiah xxvii4 #a4 we refer to the conjecture of the reader4 ,after paying but a just respect to the moral character1 the reverend function1 and diligent investigations1 of our author1 we must admit the possibility of its existence1 as it implies no contradiction2 though it seems to encounter a general prepossession of the whale's being the largest animal on or in our globe1 and the eradication of any long prepossession is attended with something irksome to us4 ,but were we to suppose a salmon or a sturgeon the largest fish any number of persons had seen or heard of1 and the whale had discovered himself as seldom1 and but in part1 as the kraken1 it is easy to conceive that the existence of the whale had been as indigestible to such persons then1 as that of the kraken may be to others now4 ,some may incline to think such an extensive monster would encroach on the symmetry of nature1 and would be over proportionate to the size of the globe itself2 as a little calculation will inform us1 that the breadth of what is seen of him1 supposing him nearly round1 must be full #bfjj feet1 7if more oval1 or crab-like1 full #bjjj feet17 and his thickness1 which may rather be called altitude1 at least #cjj feet2 our author declaring he has chosen the least circumference mentioned of this animal1 for the greater certainty4 ,these vast dimensions1 nevertheless1 we apprehend will not argue conclusively against the existence of the animal1 though considerably against a numerous increase or propagation of it4 ,in fact1 the great scarcity of the kraken1 his confinement to the ,north ,sea1 and perhaps to equal latitudes in the south2 the small number propagated by the whale1 which is viviparous2 and by the largest land animals1 of which the elephant is said to go nearly two years with young2 all induce us to conclude1 from analogy1 that this creature is not numerous2 which coincides with a passage in a manuscript ascribed to ,svere1 king of ,norway1 and it is cited by ,ol4 ,wormius1 in his ,museum1 p4 #bhj1 in ,latin1 which we shall exactly translate3-- ,there remains one kind1 which they call hasgufe1 whose magnitude is unknown1 as it is seldom seen4 ,those who affirm they have seen its body1 declare1 it is more like an island than a beast1 and that its carcase was never found2 whence some imagine that there are but two of the kind in nature4 ,whether the vanishing island ,lemair1 of which captain ,rodney went in search1 was a kraken1 we submit to the fancy of our readers4 ,in fine1 if the existence of the creature is admitted1 it will seem a fair inference1 that he is the scarcest as well as the largest in our world2 and that if there are larger in the universe1 they probably inhabit some sphere or planet more extended than our own1 and such we have no pretence to limit2 but that fiction can devise a much greater than this1 is evident from the cock of ,mahomet1 and the whale in the ,bava ,bathra of the ,talmud1 which were intended to be credited2 and to either of which1 our kraken is a very shrimp in dimensions4 ,we conclude this account in the words of ,goldsmith3 ,to believe all that has been said of these animals1 would be too credulous2 and to reject the possibility of their existence1 would be a presumption unbecoming mankind4 ,,chap4 ,,xviii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,serpents ,,and ,,worms4 ,the ,scorpion--,the ,boa ,constrictor--,the ,american ,sea ,serpent-- ,fascinating ,serpents--,the ,caterpillar--,caterpillar-,eaters--,the ,silk-,worm--,the ,tape-,worm--,the ,ship-,worm--,the ,lizard imbedded in ,coal4 ,,the ,,scorpion4 ,their flaming crests above the waves they shew1 ,their bellies seem to burn the seas below2 ,their speckled tails advance to steer their course1 ,and on the sounding shore the flying billows force4 ,and now the strand and now the plain they held2 ,their ardent eyes with bloody streaks are fill'd2 ,their nimble tongues they brandish'd as they came1 ,and lick'd their hissing jaws that sputter'd flame4 ,dryden4 ,of all the classes of noxious insects1 the scorpion is the most terrible4 ,its shape is hideous2 its size among the insects is enormous2 and its sting is generally fatal4 ,happily for ,britain1 the scorpion is entirely unknown among us4 ,in several parts of the continent of ,europe1 it is too well known1 though it seldom grows above four inches long2 but in the warm tropical climates1 it is seen a foot in length1 and in every respect as large as a lobster1 which it somewhat resembles in shape4 ,there have been enumerated nine different kinds of this dangerous insect1 including species and varieties1 chiefly distinguished by their colour2 there being scorpions yellow1 brown1 and ash-coloured2 others that are the colour of rusty iron1 green1 pale yellow1 black1 claret colour1 white1 and gray4 ,there are four principal parts distinguishable in this creature2 the head1 the breast1 the belly1 and the tail4 ,the scorpion's head seems1 as it were1 jointed to the breast1 in the middle of which are seen two eyes2 and a little more forward1 two eyes more1 placed in the fore part of the head2 these eyes are so small1 that they are scarcely perceivable1 and it is probable the creature has but little occasion for them4 ,the mouth is furnished with two jaws2 the undermost is divided into two1 and the parts notched into each other1 which serve the creature as teeth1 and with which it breaks its food1 and thrusts it into its mouth2 these the scorpion can at pleasure pull back into its mouth1 so that no part of them can be seen4 ,on each side of the head are two arms1 each composed of four joints2 the last of which is large1 with strong muscles1 and made in the manner of the claw of a lobster4 ,below the breast are eight articulated legs1 each divided into six joints2 the two hindmost of which are each provided with two crooked claws1 here and there covered with hair4 ,the belly is divided into seven little rings2 from the lowest of which is continued a tail1 composed of six joints1 which are bristly1 and formed like little globes2 the last being armed with a crooked sting4 ,this is that fatal instrument which renders this insect so formidable2 it is long1 pointed1 hard1 and hollow2 it is pierced near the base with two small holes1 through which1 when the creature stings1 it ejects a drop of poison1 which is white1 caustic1 and fatal4 ,the reservoir in which this poison is kept1 is a small bladder near the tail1 into which the venom is distilled by a peculiar apparatus4 ,if this bladder be greatly pressed1 the venom will be seen issuing out through the two holes above mentioned2 it therefore appears1 that when the creature stings1 the bladder is pressed1 and the venom issues through the two apertures into the wound4 ,there are few animals more formidable1 or more truly mischievous1 than the scorpion4 ,as it takes refuge in a small place1 and is generally found sheltering in houses1 it must frequently sting those among whom it resides4 ,in some of the towns of ,italy1 and in ,france1 in the ci-devant province of ,languedoc1 it is one of the greatest pests that torment mankind2 but its malignity in ,europe is trifling1 when compared to what the natives of ,africa and the ,east are known to experience4 ,in ,batavia1 where they grow twelve inches long1 there is no removing any piece of furniture without the utmost danger of being stung by them4 ,bosman assures us1 that along the ,gold ,coast they are often found larger than a lobster1 and that their sting is inevitably fatal4 ,in ,europe1 however1 they are by no means so large1 so venomous1 or so numerous4 ,the general size of this animal does not exceed two or three inches1 and its sting is very seldom fatal4 ,no animal in the creation seems endued with such an irascible nature2 they have often been seen1 when taken and put into a place of security1 to exert all their rage against the sides of the glass vessel that contained them4 ,they will attempt to sting a stick when put near them1 and attack a mouse or a frog1 while these animals are far from offering any injury4 ,maupertuis put three scorpions and a mouse into the same vessel together1 and they soon stung the little animal in different places4 ,the mouse1 thus assaulted1 stood for some time upon the defensive1 and at last killed them all1 one after another4 ,he tried these experiments1 in order to see whether the mouse1 after it had killed1 would eat the scorpions2 but the little quadruped seemed satisfied with the victory1 and even survived the severity of the wounds it had received4 ,wolkemar tried the courage of the scorpion against the large spider1 and inclosed several of both kinds in glass vessels for that purpose4 ,the success of this combat was very remarkable4 ,the spider at first used all his efforts to entangle the scorpion in his web1 which it immediately began spinning2 but the scorpion rescued itself from the danger1 by stinging its adversary to death2 and soon after cut off1 with its claws1 all the legs of the spider1 and then sucked all the internal parts at its leisure4 ,if the scorpion's skin had not been so hard1 ,wolkemar is of opinion that the spider would have obtained the victory2 for he had often seen one of these spiders destroy a toad4 ,the fierce spirit of this animal is equally dangerous to its own species1 for scorpions are the cruellest enemies to each other4 ,maupertuis put about a hundred of them together in the same glass2 and they scarcely came in contact before they began to exert all their rage in mutual destruction3 there was nothing to be seen but one universal carnage1 without any distinction of age or sex2 so that in a few days there remained only fourteen1 which had killed and devoured all the rest4 ,but their unnatural malignity is still more apparent1 in their cruelty to their offspring4 ,he inclosed a female scorpion1 big with young1 in a glass vessel1 and she was seen to devour them as fast as they were excluded2 there was but one of the number that escaped the general destruction1 by taking refuge on the back of its parent2 and this soon after revenged the cause of its brethren1 by killing the old one in its turn4 ,such is the terrible and unrelenting nature of this insect1 that it is asserted1 when driven to an extremity1 that the scorpion will even destroy itself4 ,the following experiment was ineffectually tried by ,maupertuis3 ,but 7says ,mr4 ,goldsmith7 ,i am so well assured of it by many eye-witnesses1 who have seen it both in ,italy and ,america1 that ,i have no doubt remaining of its veracity4 ,a scorpion newly caught is placed in the midst of a circle of burning charcoal1 and thus an egress prevented on every side2 the scorpion1 as ,i am assured1 runs about a minute round the circle1 in hopes of escaping1 but finding that impossible1 it stings itself on the back of the head1 and in this manner the undaunted suicide instantly expires4 ,it is happy for mankind that these animals are so destructive to each other2 since otherwise they would multiply in so great a degree as to render some countries uninhabitable4 ,the male and female of this insect are very easily distinguishable2 the male being smaller1 and less hairy4 ,the female brings forth her young alive1 and perfect in their kind4 ,redi having bought a quantity of scorpions1 selected their females1 and1 putting them in separate glass vessels1 kept them for some days without food4 ,in about five days one of them brought forth thirty-eight young ones1 well shaped1 and of a milk-white colour1 which changed every day more and more into a dark rusty hue4 ,another female1 in a different vessel1 brought forth twenty-seven of the same colour2 and the day following1 the young ones seemed all fixed to the back and belly of the female4 ,for near a fortnight all these continued alive and well1 but afterwards some of them died daily2 until1 in about a month1 they all died1 except two4 ,were it worth the trouble1 these animals might be kept living as long as curiosity should think proper4 ,their chief food is worms and insects2 and upon a proper supply of these1 their lives might be lengthened to their natural extent3 how long that may be we are not told2 but1 if we may argue from analogy1 it cannot be less than seven or eight years1 and perhaps1 in the larger kind1 double that duration4 ,as they have somewhat the form of a lobster1 so they resemble that animal in casting their shell2 or1 more properly1 their skin1 since it is softer by far than the covering of the lobster1 and set with hairs1 which grow from it in great abundance1 particularly at the joinings4 ,the young1 prior to their birth1 lie each covered up in its own membrane to the number of forty or fifty1 and united to each other by an oblong thread1 so as to exhibit altogether the form of a chaplet4 ,such is the manner in which the common scorpion produces its young2 but there is a scorpion of ,america1 produced from the egg1 in the manner of the spider4 ,the eggs are no larger than pin's points2 and they are deposited in a web1 which they spin from their bodies1 and carry about with them till they are hatched4 ,as soon as the young ones are excluded from the shell1 they get upon the back of the parent1 who turns her tail over them1 and defends them with her sting4 ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that captivity produces that unnatural disposition in the scorpion1 which induces it to destroy its young2 since1 at liberty1 it is found to protect them with such unceasing assiduity4 ,another subject of curiosity belonging to this class1 is1 ,,the ,,boa ,,constrictor4--,a serpent very remarkable for its vast size2 some of the principal species of which are met with in ,india1 ,africa1 and ,south ,america1 and have been seen between thirty and forty feet long1 possessed of so much strength as to be able to kill cattle by twisting around them1 and crushing them to death by pressure1 after which they devour them1 eating till they are almost unable to move2 and in that state they may be easily shot4 ,dr4 ,shaw observes1 that these gigantic serpents are become less common1 in proportion to the increased population of the parts where they are found2 they are1 however1 still to be seen1 and they will approach the abodes of man in the vicinity of their residence4 ,this species is beautifully variegated with rhombic spots2 the belly is whitish2 it is of vast strength1 and from thirty to thirty-six feet long4 ,with respect to age1 sex1 and climate1 it is subject to great variations4 ,it is supposed that an individual of this species once diffused terror and dismay through a whole ,roman army2 a fact alluded to by ,livy in one of the books that have not come to us1 but which is quoted by ,valerius ,maximus1 in words to the following effect3 ,since we are on the subject of uncommon phenomena1 we may here mention the serpent so eloquently recorded by ,livy1 who says1 that near the river ,bagrada1 in ,africa1 a snake was seen of such enormous magnitude1 as to prevent the army of ,attilius ,regulus from the use of the river2 and after snatching up several soldiers with its enormous mouth1 and devouring them1 and killing several more by striking and squeezing them with the spires of its tail1 it was at length destroyed by assailing it with all the force of military engines and showers of stones1 after it had withstood the attack of their spears and darts2 that it was regarded by the whole army as a more formidable enemy than even ,carthage itself2 and that the whole adjacent region being tainted with the pestilential effluvia proceeding from its remains1 and the waters with its blood1 the ,roman army was obliged to remove its station4 ,the skin of the monster was #abj feet long1 and was sent to ,rome as a trophy4 ,another account says1 that it caused so much trouble to ,regulus1 that he found it necessary to contest the possession of the river with it1 by employing the whole force of the army1 during which a considerable number of soldiers were lost1 while the serpent could neither be vanquished nor wounded2 the strong armour of its scales easily repelling the force of all the weapons that were directed against it3 upon which recourse was had to battering engines1 with which the animal was attacked in the manner of a fortified tower1 and was thus at length overpowered4 ,several discharges were made against it without success1 till its back being broken by an immense stone1 the monster began to lose its powers1 and was with difficulty destroyed1 after having diffused such a horror among the army1 that they confessed they would rather attack ,carthage itself1 than such another monster4 ,the flesh of the serpent is eaten by the ,indians and ,negroes of ,africa1 and they make its skin into garments4 ,the following account of ,,the ,,american ,,sea ,,serpent1 is given in the words of an eye-witness3--,i1 the undersigned ,joseph ,woodward1 captain of the ,adamant schooner1 of ,hingham1 being on my rout from ,penobscot to ,hingham1 steering ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 and being about ten leagues from the coast1 perceived1 last ,sunday1 at two ,p4 ,m4 something on the surface of the water1 which seemed to me to be of the size of a large boat4 ,supposing that it might be part of the wreck of a ship1 ,i approached2 but when ,i was within a few fathoms of it1 it appeared1 to my great surprise1 and that of my whole crew1 that it was a monstrous serpent4 ,when ,i approached nearer1 it coiled itself up1 instantly uncoiling itself again1 and withdrew with extreme rapidity4 ,on my approaching again1 it coiled itself up a second time1 and placed itself at the distance of sixty feet at most1 from the bow of the ship4 ,i had one of my guns loaded with a cannon ball and musket bullets4 ,i fired it at the head of the monster2 my crew and myself distinctly heard the ball and bullets strike against the body1 from which they rebounded1 as if they had struck against a rock4 ,the serpent shook his head and tail in an extraordinary manner1 and advanced toward the ship with open jaws4 ,i had caused the cannon to be reloaded1 and pointed it at his throat2 but he had come so near1 that all the crew were seized with terror1 and we thought only of getting out of his way4 ,he almost touched the vessel1 and had not ,i tacked as ,i did1 he would certainly have come on board4 ,he dived2 but in a moment we saw him appear again1 with his head on one side of the vessel1 and his tail on the other1 as if he was going to lift us up and upset us4 ,however1 we did not feel any shock4 ,he remained five hours near us1 only going backward and forward4 ,the fears with which he at first inspired us having subsided1 we were able to examine him attentively4 ,i estimate1 that his length is at least twice that of my schooner1 that is to say1 #acj feet2 his head is full twelve or fourteen2 the diameter of the body below the neck1 is not less than six feet2 the size of the head is in proportion to that of the body4 ,he is of a blackish colour1 his ear-holes1 7ornes17 are about twelve feet from the extremity of his head4 ,in short1 the whole has a terrible look4 ,when he coils himself up1 he places his tail in such a manner1 that it aids him in darting forward with great force3 he moves in all directions with the greatest facility and astonishing rapidity4 7,signed17 ,joseph ,woodward4 ,hingham1 ,may #ab1 #ahah4 ,this declaration is attested by ,peter ,holmes and ,john ,mayo1 who made affidavit of the truth of it before a justice of peace4 ,on the ,,fascinating ,,power ,,of ,,serpents4--,major ,alexander ,garden1 of ,south ,carolina1 has1 in a paper read to the ,new ,york ,historical ,society1 attributed the supposed power of fascination possessed by serpents1 to a vapour which they can spread around them1 and to objects at a little distance1 at pleasure4 ,he first reduces the exaggerated idea which has been entertained of this power1 and then adduces instances of the effect of a sickening and stupifying vapour1 perceived to issue from the animal4 ,a negro is mentioned1 who1 from a very peculiar acuteness in smell1 could discover the rattlesnake at a distance of two hundred feet1 when in the exercise of this power2 and on following this indication1 always found some animal suffering from its influence4 ,we shall now give some curiosities respecting ,worms2 and first1 of ,,the ,,caterpillar4--,the larv of butterflies are universally known by the name of caterpillars1 and are extremely various in their forms and colours1 some being smooth1 others beset with either simple or ramified spines1 and some are observed to protrude from their front1 when disturbed1 a pair of short tentacula1 or feelers1 somewhat analogous to those of a snail4 ,a caterpillar1 when grown to its full size1 retires to some convenient spot1 and1 securing itself properly by a small quantity of silken filaments1 either suspends itself by the tail1 hanging with its head downwards1 or else in an upright position1 with the body fastened round the middle by a number of filaments4 ,it then casts off the caterpillar-skin1 and commences chrysalis1 in which state it continues till the butterfly is ready for birth1 which1 liberating itself from the skin of the chrysalis1 remains till its wings1 which are at first short1 weak1 and covered with moisture1 are fully extended2 this happens in about a quarter of an hour1 when the animal suddenly quits the state of inactivity to which it had been so long confined1 and becomes at pleasure an inhabitant of the air4 ,it will now be proper to give some account of ,,the ,,caterpillar-,,eaters4--,caterpillar-ea ters are a species of worms bred in the body of the caterpillar1 and which eat its flesh4 ,these are produced by a certain kind of fly1 that lodges her eggs in the body of this insect2 and they1 after their proper changes1 become flies like their parents4 ,mr4 ,reaumur has given us1 in his ,history of ,insects1 some very curious particulars respecting these little worms4 ,each of them spins itself a very beautiful case1 of a cylindric figure1 of a very strong sort of silk1 in which this animal spends its state of chrysalis2 and they have a mark by which they may be known from all other animal productions of this kind1 which is1 that they have always a broad stripe or band surrounding their middle1 which is black when the rest of the case is white1 and white when that is black4 ,mr4 ,reaumur has had the patience to find out the reason of this singularity4 ,the whole shell is spun of a silk produced out of the creature's body2 this at first runs all white1 and towards the end of the spinning turns black4 ,the outside of the case must necessarily be formed first1 as the creature works from within2 consequently this is truly white all over1 but it is transparent1 and shews the last spun1 or black silk1 through it4 ,it might be supposed that the whole inside of the shell should be black2 but this is not the case3 the whole is fashioned before this black silk comes2 and this is employed by the creature1 not to line the whole1 but to fortify certain parts only2 and therefore is all applied either to the middle1--or to the two ends1 omitting the middle1--or a blackness at both ends1 leaving the white in the middle to appear4 ,it is not uncommon to find a sort of small cases1 in garden walks1 which appear to move of themselves2 when these are opened1 they are found to contain a small living worm4 ,this is one of the species of these caterpillar-eaters2 which1 as soon as it comes out of the body of that animal1 spins itself a case for its transformation1 and lives in it without food till that change comes on1 when it becomes a fly1 like that to which it owed its birth4 ,in the next place we shall introduce a subject of great curiosity1 well known by the name of ,,the ,,silk-,,worm4--,the silk-worm is a species of caterpillar1 and1 like it1 is formed of several moveable rings1 and is well furnished with feet and claws1 to rest and fix itself where it pleases4 ,it has two rows of teeth1 which do not move upwards and downwards1 but from right to left1 which enables it to press1 cut1 and tear the leaves in every direction4 ,along the whole length of its back we perceive through its skin a vessel which performs the functions of a heart4 ,on each side of this insect are nine orifices1 which answer to as many lungs1 and assist the circulation of the chyle1 or nutritive juice4 ,under the mouth it has a kind of reel with two holes1 through which pass two drops of the gum with which its bag is filled2 they act like two distaffs1 continually furnishing it with the materials of which it makes its silk4 ,the gum which distils through the two holes takes their form1 lengthens into a double thread1 which suddenly loses the fluidity of the liquid gum1 and acquires the consistence necessary to support or to envelope the worm4 ,when that time arrives1 it joins the two threads together1 by gluing them one over the other with its fore feet4 ,this double thread is not only very fine1 but also very strong1 and of great length4 ,each bag has a thread which is nearly five hundred ells long2 and as this thread is double1 and joined together throughout its length1 each bag will be found to contain a thousand ells of silk1 though the whole weight does not exceed two grains and a half4 ,the life of this insect in its vermiform state is very short1 and it passes through different states till it gradually arrives at its greatest degree of perfection4 ,when it first emerges from the egg1 it is extremely small1 perfectly black1 and its head of a still brighter black than the rest of its body3 in a few days it begins to grow white1 or of an ash colour2 its coat becomes dirty and ruffled2 it casts it off1 and appears in a new dress2 it becomes larger and much whiter1 though a little tinged with green1 from feeding upon green leaves4 ,after a few more days 7the length of time varying according to the degree of heat and quality of its nourishment7 it ceases to eat1 and sleeps for about two days2 it then agitates and frets itself extremely1 becoming red with the efforts it makes2 its skin wrinkles and shrivels up1 and it throws it off a second time1 together with its feet4 ,within the space of three weeks or a month1 we see it fresh dressed three times4 ,it now begins to eat again1 and might be taken for a different creature1 so much is the appearance of its head1 colour1 and figure1 altered4 ,after continuing to eat for some days1 it falls again into a lethargic state2 on recovering from which1 it once more changes its coat1 which makes the third since it issued from its shell4 ,it continues to eat for some time1 then1 entirely ceasing to take any nutriment1 prepares for itself a retreat1 and draws out a silken thread1 which it wraps round its body in the same manner as we might wind thread round an oval piece of wood4 ,it remains quietly in the bag it has formed1 and at the end of fifteen days would pierce it1 to issue forth1 if it was not killed by being exposed to the heat of the sun1 or shut up in an oven4 ,the silk-bags are thrown into hot water1 and stirred about with birch twigs to draw out the heads or beginning of the threads1 and the silk is afterwards wound upon reels made for the purpose4 ,thus we are indebted to this little insect for our greatest luxury in clothing3 a reflection which ought to humble our pride2 for how can we be vain of the silk which covers us1 when we reflect to what we are indebted for it1 and how little we are instrumental in the formation of those beauties in our clothing1 of which we are vain8 ,thus we find the most insignificant and despicable objects are the instruments of ornament and advantage to man2 an insect that we scarcely condescended to look at1 becomes a blessing to thousands of human beings1 forms an important article of trade1 and is the source of great riches4 ,our next subject is1 ,,the ,,tape-,,worm4--,this genus of worms is destined to feed on the juices of various animals1 and they inhabit the internal parts of almost every species of living beings4 ,the structure and physiology of the tnia are curious1 and it may be amusing as well as instructive to consider it with attention4 ,the tnia appears destined to feed upon such juices of animals as are already animalized2 and it is therefore most commonly found in the alimentary canal1 and in the upper part1 where there is the greatest abundance of chyle1 for chyle seems to be the natural food of the tnia4 ,as it is thus supported by food which is already digested1 it is destitute of the complicated organs of digestion4 ,as the tnia solium is most frequent in this country1 it may be proper to describe it more particularly4 ,it is from three to thirty feet long2 some say sixty feet4 ,it is composed of a head1 in which are a mouth adapted to drink up fluids1 and an apparatus for giving the head a fixed situation4 ,the body is composed of a great number of distinct pieces articulated together1 each joint having an organ by which it attaches itself to the neighbouring part of the inner court of the intestine4 ,the joints nearest the head are always small1 and they become gradually enlarged as they are farther removed from it2 but towards the tail a few of the last joints again become diminished in size4 ,the extremity of the body is terminated by a small semicircular joint1 which has no opening in it4 ,the head of this animal is composed of the same kind of materials as the other parts of its body2 it has a rounded opening at its extremity1 which is considered to be its mouth4 ,this opening is continued by a short duct into two canals2 these canals pass round every joint of the animal's body1 and convey the aliment4 ,surrounding the opening of the mouth1 are placed a number of projecting radii1 which are of a fibrous texture1 and whose direction is longitudinal4 ,these radii appear to serve the purpose of tentacula1 for fixing the orifice of the mouth1 from their being inserted along the brim of that opening4 ,after the rounded extremity or head has been narrowed into the neck1 the lower part becomes flatted1 and has two small tubercles placed on each flatted side2 the tubercles are concave in the middle1 and appear destined to serve the purpose of suckers1 for attaching the head more effectually4 ,the internal structure of the joints composing the body of this animal is partly vascular and partly cellular2 the substance itself is white1 and somewhat resembles in its texture the coagulated lymph of the human blood4 ,the alimentary canal passes along each side of the animal1 sending a cross canal over the bottom of each joint1 which connects the two lateral canals together4 ,mr4 ,carlisle injected1 with a coloured size1 at a single push with a small syringe1 three feet in length of these canals1 in the direction from the mouth downwards4 ,he tried the injection the contrary way1 but it seemed to be stopped with valves4 ,the alimentary canal is impervious at the extreme joint1 where it terminates without any opening analogous to an anus4 ,each joint has a vascular joint occupying the middle part1 which is composed of a longitudinal canal1 from which a great number of lateral canals branch off at right angles4 ,these canals contain a fluid like milk4 ,the tnia seems to be one of the simplest vascular animals in nature4 ,the way in which it is nourished is singular2 the food being taken in by the mouth1 passes into the alimentary canal1 and is thus made to visit in a general way the different parts of the animal4 ,as it has no excretory ducts1 it would appear that the whole of its alimentary fluid is fit for nourishment2 the decayed parts probably dissolve into a fluid1 which transudes through the skin1 which is extremely porous4 ,this animal has nothing resembling a brain or nerves1 and seems to have no organs of sense1 but those of touch4 ,it is most probably propagated by ova1 which may easily pass along the circulating vessels of other animals4 ,we cannot otherwise explain the phenomena of worms being found in the eggs of fowls1 and in the intestines of a foetus before birth1 except by supposing their ova to have passed through the circulating vessels of the mother1 and by this means to have been conveyed to the foetus4 ,the chance of an ovum being placed in a situation where it will be hatched1 and the young find convenient subsistence1 must be very small2 hence the necessity for their being very prolific4 ,if they had the same powers of fecundity which they now possess1 and their ova were afterwards very readily hatched1 then the multiplication of these animals would be immense1 and become a nuisance to the other parts of the creation4 ,another mode of increase allowed to tnia1 7if we may call it increase17 is by an addition to the number of their joints4 ,if we consider the individual joints as distinct beings1 it is so2 and when we reflect upon the power of individuality given to each joint1 it makes this conjecture the more probable4 ,we can hardly suppose that an ovum of a tnia1 which at its full growth is thirty feet long1 and composed of four hundred joints1 contained a young tnia composed of this number of pieces2 but we have seen young tnia not half a foot long1 and not possessed of fifty joints1 which still were entire worms4 ,we have also many reasons to believe1 that when a part of this animal is broken off from the rest1 it is capable of forming a head for itself1 and of becoming an independent being4 ,the simple construction of the head makes its regeneration a much more easy operation than that of the tails and feet of lizards1 which are composed of bones and complicated vessels2 but this last operation has been proved by the experiments of ,spallanzani1 and many other naturalists4 ,an article of great curiosity is1 ,,the ,,ship-,,worm4--,this worm has a very slender1 smooth1 cylindrical shell2 it inhabits the ,indian seas1 whence it was imported into ,europe4 ,it penetrates easily into the stoutest oak planks1 and produces dreadful destruction to the ships1 by the holes it makes in their sides3 and it is to avoid the effects of this insect that vessels require sheathing4 ,the head of this creature is coated with a strong armour1 and furnished with a mouth like that of the leech4 ,a little above this it has two horns1 which seem a kind of continuation of the shell2 the neck is furnished with several strong muscles2 the rest of the body is only covered by a very thin transparent skin1 through which the motion of the intestines is plainly seen by the naked eye4 ,this creature is wonderfully minute when newly excluded from the egg1 but it grows to the length of four or six inches1 and sometimes more4 ,when the bottom of a vessel1 or any piece of wood which is constantly under water1 is inhabited by these worms1 it is full of small holes2 but no damage appears till the outer parts are cut away4 ,then their shelly habitations come into view1 in which there is a large space for inclosing the animal1 and surrounding it with water4 ,there is an evident care in these creatures never to injure each other's habitations2 by which means each case or shell is preserved entire4 ,these worms will appear1 on a very little consideration1 to be most important beings in the great chain of creation1 and pleasing demonstrations of the infinitely wise and gracious ,power1 which formed1 and still preserves the whole1 in such wonderful order and beauty2 for if it were not for the rapacity of these and such animals1 tropical rivers1 and indeed the ocean itself1 would be choked with the bodies of trees which are annually carried down by the rapid torrents1 as many of them would last for ages1 and probably be productive of evils1 of which1 happily1 we cannot in the present state of things form any idea2 whereas1 being consumed by these animals1 they are more easily broken in pieces by the waves2 and the fragments which are not devoured become specifically lighter1 and are consequently more readily and more effectually thrown on shore1 where the sun1 wind1 insects1 and various other instruments1 speedily promote their entire dissolution4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with an account of a singular curiosity that was found in a colliery4 ,it is ,a ,,living ,,lizard1 ,,imbedded ,,in ,,coal4--,this animal1 preserved in spirits1 is now in the possession of ,mr4 ,james ,scholes1 engineer to ,mr4 ,fenton's colliery1 near ,wakefield4 ,it is about five inches long2 its back of a dark brown colour1 and it appears rough and scaly2 its sides are of a lighter colour1 and spotted with yellow2 the belly yellow1 streaked with bands of the same colour as the back4 ,mr4 ,s4 related to me the following circumstances of its being found4 ,in ,august last1 they were sinking a new pit or shaft1 and after passing through measures of stone1 gray-bind1 and blue stone1 and some thin beds of coal1 to the depth of one hundred and fifty yards1 they came upon that intended to be worked1 which is about four feet thick4 ,when they had excavated about three inches of it1 one of the miners 7as he supposed7 struck his pick1 or mattock1 into a crevice1 and shattered the coal around into small pieces2 he then discovered the animal in question1 and immediately carried it to ,mr4 ,s43 it continued very brisk and lively for about ten minutes1 then drooped and died4 ,about four inches above the coal in which the animal was found1 numbers of muscle-shells1 in a fossil state1 lay scattered in a loose gray earth4 ,,chap4 ,,xix4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,birds4 ,the ,common ,peacock--,the ,egyptian ,vulture--,the ,secretary ,vulture--,the ,stork--,the ,great ,pelican--,the ,bird of ,paradise--,the ,ostrich--,the ,mocking-,bird of ,america--,the ,social ,grosbeak--,the ,bengal ,grosbeak--,the ,humming-,bird--,the ,golden ,eagle4 ,,the ,,peacock4 ,how rich the peacock6 what bright glories run ,from plume to plume1 and vary in the sun6 ,he proudly spreads them to the golden ray1 ,and gives his colours to adorn the day2 ,with conscious state the spacious round displays1 ,and slowly moves amid the waving blaze4 ,young4 ,this very beautiful and interesting bird has a compressed crest and solitary spurs4 ,it is about the size of a turkey2 the length from the top of the bill to the end of the tail being three feet eight inches4 ,the bill is nearly two inches long1 and is of a brown colour4 ,the irides are yellow4 ,on the crown there is a sort of crest1 composed of twenty-four feathers1 not webbed1 except at the ends1 which are gilded green4 ,the shafts are of a whitish colour2 and the head1 neck1 and breast1 are of a green gold colour4 ,over the eye there is a streak of white1 and beneath there is the same4 ,the back and rump are of a green gold colour1 glossed over with copper2 the feathers are distinct1 and lie over each other like shells4 ,above the tail springs an inimitable set of long beautiful feathers1 adorned with a variegated eye at the end of each2 these reach considerably beyond the tail1 and the longest of them in many birds are four feet and a half long4 ,this beautiful train1 or tail1 as it is improperly called1 may be expanded in the manner of a fan1 at the will of the bird4 ,the true tail is hid beneath this group of feathers1 and consists of eighteen gray-brown feathers1 one foot and a half long1 marked on the sides with rufous gray2 the scapulars1 and lesser wing coverts1 are reddish cream colour1 variegated with black2 the middle coverts deep blue1 glossed with green gold2 the greatest and bastard wing1 rufous2 the quills are also rufous1 some of them variegated with rufous1 blackish1 and green2 the belly and vent are greenish black1 the thighs yellowish1 the legs stout1 those of the male furnished with a strong spur1 three-quarters of an inch in length1 the colour of which is gray-brown4 ,these birds1 now so common in ,europe1 are of ,eastern origin4 ,they are found wild in the islands of ,ceylon and ,java1 in the ,east ,indies2 and at ,st4 ,helena1 ,barbuda1 and other ,west ,india islands4 ,they are not natural to ,china2 but they are found in many places in ,asia and ,africa4 ,they are1 however1 no where so large or so fine as in ,india1 in the neighbourhood of the ,ganges1 whence they have spread into all parts1 increasing in a wild state in the warmer climates1 but requiring care in the colder regions4 ,in ours1 this species does not come to its full plumage till the third year4 ,the female lays five or six grayish white eggs2 in hot climates twenty1 the size of those of a turkey4 ,these1 if let alone1 she lays in some secret place1 at distance from the usual resort1 to prevent their being broken by the male1 which he is apt to do if he find them4 ,the time of sitting is from twenty-seven to thirty days4 ,the young may be fed with curds1 chopped leeks1 barley-meal1 c4 moistened2 and they are fond of grasshoppers1 and some other insects4 ,in five or six months they will feed as the old ones1 on wheat and barley1 with what else they can pick up in the circuit of their confinement4 ,they seem to prefer the most elevated places to roost on during the night2 such as high trees1 tops of houses1 and the like4 ,their cry is loud and inharmonious1--a perfect contrast to their external beauty4 ,they are caught in ,india1 by carrying lights to the trees where they roost1 and having painted representations of the bird presented to them at the same time2 when they put out the neck to look at the figure1 the sportsman slips a noose over the head1 and secures his game4 ,in most ages they have been esteemed a salutary food4 ,hortensius gave the example at ,rome1 where it was counted the highest luxury1 and sold dear1 and a young peacock is thought a dainty1 even in the present times4 ,the life of these birds is reckoned by some at about twenty-five years2 by others a hundred4 ,so beautiful a species of birds as the peacock could not long remain unknown3 so early as the days of ,solomon1 we find1 among the articles imported in his ,tarshish navies1 apes and peacocks4 lian relates1 that they were brought into ,greece from some barbarous country2 and that they were held in such high esteem1 that a male and female were valued at ,athens at #ajjj drachm1 or #cb4 #es4 #aj;d4 ,at ,samos they were preserved about the temple of ,juno1 being sacred to that goddess2 and ,gellius1 in his ,noctes ,attic1 c4 xvi4 commends the excellency of the ,samian peacocks4 ,when ,alexander was in ,india1 he found vast numbers of wild ones on the banks of the ,hyarotis2 and was so struck with their beauty1 as to appoint a severe punishment on any person that killed them4 ,peacocks' crests1 in ancient times1 were among the ornaments of the kings of ,england4 ,ernald de ,aclent was fined to king ,john in one hundred and forty palfreys1 with sackbuts1 lorams1 gilt spurs1 and peacocks' crests1 such as would be for his credit4 ,we shall now introduce ,,the ,,egyptian ,,vulture4--,the appearance of this bird is as horrid as can well be imagined4 ,the face is naked and wrinkled2 the eyes are large and black2 the beak black and hooked2 the talons large1 and extended1 ready for prey2 and the whole body polluted with filth3 these are qualities enough to make the beholder shudder with horror4 ,notwithstanding this1 the inhabitants of ,egypt cannot be thankful enough to ,providence for this bird4 ,all the places round ,cairo are filled with the dead bodies of asses and camels1 and thousands of these birds fly about and devour the carcases before they putrefy1 and fill the air with noxious exhalations4 ,the inhabitants of ,egypt say1 7and after them ,maillet1 in his description of ,egypt17 that they yearly follow the caravan to ,mecca1 and devour the filth of the slaughtered beasts1 and the carcases of the camels which die on the journey4 ,they do not fly high1 nor are they afraid of men4 ,if one of them is killed1 all the rest surround it in the same manner as do the ,royston crows2 they do not quit the places they frequent1 though frightened by the explosion of a gun1 but immediately return4 ,,the ,,secretary ,,vulture4--,this is a most singular species1 being particularly remarkable from the great length of its legs1 which at first sight would induce us to think it belonged to waders3 but the characters of the vulture are so strongly marked throughout1 as to leave no doubt to which class it belongs4 ,this bird1 when standing erect1 is full three feet from the top of the head to the ground4 ,the bill is black1 sharp1 and crooked1 like that of an eagle2 the head1 neck1 breast1 and upper parts of the body1 are of a bluish ash-colour2 the legs are very long1 stouter than those of a heron1 and of a brown colour2 claws shortish1 but crooked1 not very sharp1 and of a black colour4 ,from behind the head spring a number of long feathers1 which hang loose behind1 like a pendent crest2 these feathers rise by pairs1 and are longer as they are lower down on the neck2 this crest1 the bird can erect or depress at pleasure2 it is of a dark colour1 almost black2 the webs are equal on both sides1 and rather curled1 and the feathers1 when erected1 somewhat incline towards the neck2 the two middle feathers of the tail are twice as long as any of the rest4 ,this singular species inhabits the internal parts of ,africa1 and is frequently seen at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,it is also met with in the ,philippine islands4 ,as to the manners of this bird1 it is on all hands allowed that it principally feeds on rats1 lizards1 snakes1 and the like2 and that it will become familiar2 whence ,sonnerat is of opinion1 that it might be made useful in some of our colonies1 if encouraged1 towards the destruction of those pests4 ,they call it at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 flang-eater1 i4 e4 snake-eater4 ,a great peculiarity belongs to it1 perhaps observed in no other1 which is1 the faculty of striking forwards with its legs1 never backwards4 ,dr4 ,solander saw one of these birds take up a snake1 small tortoise1 or such like1 in its claws2 when1 dashing it against the ground with great violence1 if the victim were not killed at first1 it repeated the operation till that end was answered2 after which it ate it up quietly4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster mentioned a further circumstance1 which he says was supposed to be peculiar to this bird1--that should it by any accident break the leg1 the bone would never unite again4 ,the curious reader will be interested by the following singular particulars respecting ,,the ,,stork4--,the veneration shewn by the ,germans for storks1 is a very remarkable superstition4 ,the houses which these birds light upon1 are considered as under the special favour of ,heaven4 ,it is usual to contrive a small flat square spot on the top of the roof1 for them to rest upon1 and build their nests4 ,catholic curates1 as well as ,protestant ministers1 endeavour to allure them to their churches4 ,i observed 7says a ,french traveller7 four or five steeples dignified by such visitors4 ,there are people so lucky as to attract some of them into their poultry-yard1 where they stalk about with the hens1 but without yielding up any particle of their freedom4 ,were any one to kill a stork1 he would be pursued like an ,egyptian of old for killing an ibis1 or for fricaseeing a cat4 ,in a fire1 by which the town of ,delft in ,holland was burnt to ashes1 a stork1 which had built her nest upon a chimney1 strove all she could to save her little ones3 she was seen spreading her wings around them1 to keep off the sparks and burning embers4 ,already the flame began to seize upon her1 but1 unmindful of herself1 she cared only for her offspring1 bemoaning their loss1 and at length fell a prey to the fire1 under the eyes of a sympathizing crowd2 prefering death with the pledges of her love1 to life without them4 ,this interesting anecdote was celebrated by a ,flemish poet1 who lived in #aejc1 in an effusion bearing the title of the ,stork of ,delft2 or1 the ,model of ,maternal ,love4 ,,the ,,great ,,pelican4--,this bird is sometimes of the weight of twenty-five pounds1 and of the width1 between the extreme points of the wings1 of fifteen feet2 the skin1 between the sides of the upper mandible1 is extremely dilatable1 reaching more than half a foot down the neck1 and capable of containing many quarts of water4 ,the skin is often used by sailors for tobacco-pouches1 and has been occasionally converted into ladies' elegant work bags4 ,about the ,caspian and ,black seas1 these birds are very numerous2 and they are chiefly to be found in the warmer regions1 inhabiting almost every country of ,africa4 ,they build in the small isles of lakes1 far from the habitations of man4 ,the nest is a foot and a half in diameter2 and the female1 if molested1 will remove her eggs into the water till the cause of annoyance is removed1 and then return them to her nest of reeds and grass4 ,these birds1 though living principally upon fish1 often build in the midst of deserts1 where that element is rarely to be found4 ,they are extremely dexterous in diving for their prey1 and1 after having filled their pouch1 will retire to some rock1 and swallow what they have taken at their leisure4 ,they are said to unite with other birds in the pursuit of fish4 ,the pelicans dive1 and drive the fish into the shallows2 the cormorants assist by flapping their wings on the surface1 and1 forming a crescent1 perpetually contracting1 they at length accomplish their object1 and compel vast numbers into creeks and shallows1 where they gratify their voracity with perfect ease1 and to the most astonishing excess4 ,another curiosity is1 ,,the ,,bird ,,of ,,paradise4--,in natural history1 a genus of birds of the order ,pic4 ,generic character3 bill covered at the base with downy feathers2 nostrils covered by the feathers2 tail of ten feathers1 two of them1 in some species1 very long2 legs and feet very large and strong4 ,these birds chiefly inhabit ,north ,guinea1 whence they emigrate in the dry season to the neighbouring islands4 ,their feathers are used in these countries as ornaments for the head-dress2 and the ,japanese1 ,chinese1 and ,persians1 import them for the same purpose4 ,the rich and great among the latter attach these brilliant collections of plumage1 not only to their own turbans1 but to the housings and harnesses of their horses4 ,they are found only within a few degrees of the equator4 ,gmelin enumerates twelve species1 and ,latham eight4 ,p4 apoda1 or the greater ,paradise bird1 is about as large as a thrush4 ,they pass in companies of thirty or forty together1 headed by one whose flight is higher than that of the rest4 ,they are often distressed by means of their long feathers1 in sudden shiftings of the wind1 and unable to proceed in their flight2 are easily taken by the natives1 who catch them with bird-lime1 and shoot them with blunted arrows4 ,they are sold at ,aroo for an iron nail each1 and at ,banda for half a rix-dollar4 ,their food is not ascertained1 and they cannot be kept alive in confinement4 ,the smaller bird of ,paradise is supposed1 by ,latham1 to be a mere variety of the above4 ,it is found only in the ,papuan islands1 where it is caught by the natives often by the hand1 and exenterated and seared with a hot iron in the inside1 and then put into the hollow of a bamboo1 to secure its plumage from injury4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,bustard4--,page #bdc4 ,found in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 but in no part of the ,new ,world4 ,illustration3 ,,ostriches ,,of ,,south ,,africa--,page #bca4 ,they are so fleet as easily to distance the swiftest horse4 ,the following account of the curiosities of ,,the ,,ostrich1 is taken from ,lichtenstein's ,travels in ,south ,africa1 vol4 ,,ii4--,the habits of the ostrich are so remarkable1 and have been so imperfectly described by travellers in general1 that ,i cannot forbear bringing together here all the knowledge ,i acquired upon the subject1 both in this and subsequent journeys4 ,i have noticed1 on a former occasion1 a large flock of ostriches1 which we met in the neighbourhood of ,komberg4 ,in that country1 the drought and heat sometimes compel these gigantic birds to leave the plains1 and then they pursue their course together in large flocks to the heights1 where they find themselves more commodiously lodged4 ,at the time of sitting1 there are seldom more than four or five seen together1 of which only one is a cock1 the rest are hens4 ,these hens lay their eggs all together in the same nest1 which is nothing more than a round cavity made in the clay1 of such a size as to be covered by one of the birds1 when sitting upon it4 ,a sort of wall is scraped up round with their feet1 against which the eggs in the outermost circle rest4 ,every egg stands upon its point in the nest1 that the greatest possible number may be stowed within the space4 ,when ten or twelve eggs are laid1 they begin to sit1 the hens taking their turns1 and relieving each other during the day2 at night the cock alone sits1 to guard the eggs against the jackals and wild cats1 who will run almost any risk to procure them4 ,great numbers of these smaller beasts of prey have often been found crushed to death about the nests2 a proof that the ostrich does not fight with them1 but knows very well how to conquer them at once by her own resistless power2 for it is certain1 that a stroke of her large foot trampling upon them1 is enough to crush any such animal4 ,the hens continue to lay during the time they are sitting1 and that1 not only till the nest is full1 which happens when about thirty eggs are laid1 but for some time after4 ,the eggs laid after the nest is filled are deposited round about it1 and seem designed by nature to satisfy the cravings of the above-mentioned enemies1 since they very much prefer the new-laid eggs to those which have been brooded4 ,but they seem also to have a more important designation1 that is1 to assist in the nourishment of the young birds4 ,these1 when first hatched1 are as large as a common pullet1 and since their tender stomachs cannot digest the hard food eaten by the old ones1 the spare eggs serve as their first nourishment4 ,the increase of the ostrich race would be incalculable1 had they not so many enemies1 by which great numbers of the young are destroyed after they quit the nest4 ,the ostrich is a very prudent1 wary creature1 which is not easily ensnared in the open field1 since it sees to a very great distance1 and takes to flight upon the least idea of danger4 ,for this reason the quaggas generally attach themselves1 as it were instinctively1 to a troop of ostriches1 and fly with them1 without the least idea that they are followed4 ,xenophon relates1 that the army of ,cyrus met ostriches and wild asses together1 in the plains of ,syria4 ,the ostriches are particularly careful to conceal1 if possible1 the places where their nests are made4 ,they never go directly to them1 but run round in a circle at a considerable distance before they attempt to approach the spot4 ,on the contrary1 they always run directly up to the springs where they drink1 and the impressions they make on the ground1 in the desolate places they inhabit1 are often mistaken for the footsteps of men4 ,the females1 in sitting1 when they are to relieve each other1 either both remove awhile to a distance from the nest1 or change so hastily1 that any one who might by chance be spying about1 could never see both at once4 ,in the day-time1 they occasionally quit the nest entirely1 and leave the care of warming the eggs to the sun alone4 ,if at any time they find that the place of their nest is discovered1 that either a man or a beast of prey has been at it1 and has disturbed the arrangement of the eggs1 or taken any away1 they immediately destroy the nest themselves1 break all the eggs to pieces1 and seek out some other spot to make a new one4 ,when the colonist therefore finds a nest1 he contents himself with taking one or two of the spare eggs that are lying near1 observing carefully to smooth over any footsteps which may have been made1 so that they may not be perceived by the birds4 ,thus visits to the nest may be often repeated1 and it may be converted into a storehouse of very pleasant food1 where1 every two or three days1 as many eggs may be procured as are wanted to regale the whole household4 ,an ostrich's egg weighs commonly near three pounds1 and is considered as equal in its square contents to twenty-four hen's eggs4 ,the yolk has a very pleasant flavour1 yet1 it must be owned1 not the delicacy of a hen's egg4 ,it is so nourishing and so soon satisfies1 that no one can eat a great deal at once4 ,four very hungry persons would be requisite to eat a whole ostrich's egg2 and eight ,africans1 who are used to so much harder living1 might make a meal of it4 ,these eggs will keep for a very long time3 they are often brought to the ,cape ,town1 where they are sold at the price of half a dollar each4 ,in the summer months of ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 the greatest number of ostriches' nests are to be found2 but the feathers1 which are always scattered about the nest at the time of sitting1 are of very little value4 ,i have1 however1 at all times of the year1 found nests with eggs that have been brooded3 the contrasts of the seasons being much less forcible in this part of the world than in ,europe1 the habits of animals are consequently much less fixed and regular4 ,the ostrich sits from thirty-six to forty days before the young are hatched4 ,it is well known that the male alone furnishes the beautiful white feathers which have for so long a time been a favourite ornament in the head-dress of our ,european ladies4 ,they are purchased from the people who collect them1 for as high as three or four shillings each2 they are1 however1 given at a lower price1 in exchange for ,european wares and clothing4 ,almost all the colonists upon the borders have a little magazine of these feathers laid by1 and when they would make a friendly present to a guest1 it is generally an ostrich's feather4 ,few of them are1 however1 prepared in such a manner as to be wholly fit for the use of the ,european dealers4 ,the female ostriches are entirely black1 or rather1 in their youth1 of a very dark gray1 but have no white feathers in the tail4 ,in every other respect1 the colour excepted1 their feathers are as good as those of the males4 ,it is very true1 as ,mr4 ,barrow says1 that small stones are sometimes found in the ostrich's eggs2 it is not1 however1 very common2 and1 among all that ,i ever saw opened1 ,i never met with one4 ,we must not omit to give some account of ,,the ,,mocking-,,bird ,,of ,,america4--,those who have not heard the mocking-bird1 can have no conception of his great superiority of song3 he seems the merryandrew among birds1 and the most serious and laboured efforts of the best performers appear to him only sport3 he performs an antic dance to the sound of his own music2 like jack-pudding1 too1 he seems to make game of his audience1 for often1 when he has secured the attention by the most delightful warblings1 he will stop suddenly1 and surprise them by the quack of a duck1 the hiss of a goose1 the monstrous note of the whip-poor-will1 or any other unexpected sound3 he possesses also the power of a ventriloquist1 in being able to deceive his hearers as to the direction of the sound4 ,when he is not seen1 and while his listeners are looking for the enchanter on the roof of their own houses1 he is perhaps playing his antic tricks on the chimney-top of some house at a considerable distance4 ,when1 however1 there are no spectators during the stillness of night1 he lays aside his frolic1 and pours his love-laboured songs2 and surely1 if there is fascination in sweet sounds1 it must be in the song of this delightful bird1 perched on the chimney-top1 or on some tree near to the dwelling of man4 ,he seems never to tire4 ,the next subject of curiosity is ,,the ,,social ,,grosbeak4--,this bird inhabits the interior country of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 where it was discovered by ,mr4 ,paterson4 ,these birds live together in large societies1 and their mode of nidification is extremely uncommon4 ,they build in a species of mimosa1 which grows to an uncommon size1 and which they seem to select for that purpose1 as well on account of its ample head1 and the great strength of its branches1 calculated to admit and to support the extensive buildings which they have to erect1 as for the tallness and smoothness of its trunk1 which their great enemies1 the serpent tribe1 are unable to climb4 ,the method in which the nests themselves are fabricated1 is highly curious4 ,in the one described by ,mr4 ,paterson1 there could be no less a number 7he says7 than from eight hundred to a thousand1 residing under the same roof4 ,he calls it a roof1 because it perfectly resembles that of a thatched house2 and the ridge forms an angle so acute and so smooth1 projecting over the entrance of the nest below1 that it is impossible for any reptile to approach them4 ,the industry of these birds is almost equal1 in his opinion1 to that of the bee3 throughout the day they appear to be busily employed in carrying a fine species of grass1 which is the principal material they employ for the purpose of erecting this extraordinary work1 as well as for additions and repairs4--,though my short stay in the country was not sufficient to satisfy me1 by ocular proof1 that they added to their nest as they annually increased in numbers1 still1 from the many trees which ,i have seen borne down with the weight1 and others which ,i have observed with their boughs completely covered over1 it would appear1 that this is really the case2 when the tree1 which is the support of this arial city1 is obliged to give way to the increase of weight1 it is obvious they are no longer protected1 and are under the necessity of building in other trees4 ,one of these deserted nests ,i had the curiosity to break down1 so as to inform myself of the internal structure of it1 and found it equally ingenious with that of the external4 ,there many entrances1 each of which forms a regular street1 with nests on both sides1 at about two inches distant from each other4 ,the grass with which they build1 is called1 the ,boshman's grass2 and ,i believe the seed of it to be their principal food2 though1 on examining their nests1 ,i found the wings and legs of different insects4 ,from every appearance1 the nest which ,i dissected had been inhabited for many years2 and some parts of it were much more complete than others3 this therefore ,i conceive nearly to amount to a proof1 that the animals added to it at different times1 as they found necessary from the increase of the family1 or rather of the nation or community4 ,,the ,,bengal ,,grosbeak4--,this is an ,indian bird1 and is thus described by ,mr4 ,latham4 ,this little bird 7called bay1 in ,hindu2 berbera1 in ,sanscrit2 bbi1 in the dialect of ,bengal2 cb1 in ,persian2 and tenauwit1 in ,arabic1 from its remarkably pendent nest7 is rather larger than a sparrow1 with yellow brown plumage1 a yellowish head and feet1 a light coloured breast1 and a conic beak1 very thick in proportion to his body4 ,this bird is exceedingly common in ,hindostan2 he is astonishingly sensible1 faithful1 and docile1 never voluntarily deserting the place where his young were hatched1 but not averse1 like most other birds1 to the society of mankind1 and easily taught to perch on the hand of his master4 ,in a state of nature1 he generally builds his nest on the highest tree that he can find1 especially on the palmyra1 or on the ,indian fig-tree1 and he prefers that which happens to overhang a well or rivulet3 he makes it of grass1 which he weaves like cloth1 and shapes like a large bottle1 suspending it firmly on the branches1 but so as to rock with the wind1 and placing it with its entrance downwards1 to secure it from birds of prey4 ,his nest usually consists of two or three chambers2 and it is the popular belief that he lights them with fire-flies1 which he catches alive at night1 and confines with moist clay or cow-dung4 ,that such flies are often found in his nest1 where pieces of cow-dung are also stuck1 is indubitable3 but as their light could be of little use to him1 it seems probable that he only feeds on them4 ,he may be taught with ease to fetch any small thing that his master points out to him3 it is an attested fact1 that if a ring be dropped into a deep well1 and a signal be given to him1 he will fly down with amazing celerity1 catch the ring before it touches the water1 and bring it up with apparent exultation2 and it is asserted1 that if a house or any other place be shewn to him once or twice1 he will carry a note thither immediately on a proper signal4 ,one instance of his docility1 ,i can myself mention with confidence1 having often been an eye-witness of it4 ,the young ,hindoo women at ,benares1 and in other places1 wear very thin plates of gold1 called ticas1 slightly fixed by way of ornament between their eye-brows2 and when they pass through the streets1 it is not uncommon for the youthful libertines1 who amuse themselves with training bayas1 to give them a signal1 which they understand1 and send them to pluck the pieces of gold from the foreheads of their mistresses1 which they bring in triumph to the lovers4 ,the baya feeds naturally on grasshoppers and other insects1 but will subsist1 when tame1 on pulse macerated in water3 his flesh is warm and drying1 and easy of digestion4 ,the female lays many beautiful eggs1 resembling large pearls2 the white of them1 when boiled1 is transparent1 and the flavour is exquisitely delicate4 ,when many bayas are assembled on a high tree1 they make a lively din1 but it is rather chirping than singing2 their want of musical talents is1 however1 amply supplied by their wonderful sagacity1 in which they are not excelled by any feathered inhabitant of the forest4 ,another subject of acknowledged curiosity is1 ,,the ,,humming ,,bird4--,there are sixty species enumerated by ,latham1 and ,gmelin has sixty-five4 ,the birds of this genus are the smallest of all birds4 ,these diminutive creatures subsist on the juices of flowers1 which they extract1 like bees1 while on the wing1 fluttering over their delicate repast1 and making a considerable humming sound1 from which they derive their designation4 ,they are gregarious1 and build their nests with great neatness and elegance1 lining them with the softest materials they can possibly procure4 ,the red-throated humming-bird is rather more than three inches long1 and is frequent in various parts of ,north ,america4 ,its plumage is highly splendid and varying2 it extracts the nectar of flowers1 particularly those of a long tube1 like the convolvulus or tulip4 ,they will suffer themselves to be approached very near1 but on observing an effort to seize them1 dart off with the rapidity of an arrow4 ,a flower is frequently the subject of bitter conflict between two of these birds2 they will often enter an open window1 and1 after a short contest1 retire4 ,they sometimes soar perpendicularly to a considerable height1 with a violent scream4 ,if a flower which they enter furnishes them with no supply1 they pluck it1 as it were in punishment and revenge1 from its stalk4 ,they have been kept alive in cages for several weeks1 but soon perish for want of the usual food1 for which no adequate substitute has yet been found4 ,latham1 however1 mentions a curious circumstance of their being preserved alive by ,captain ,davies for four months1 by the expedient of imitating tubular flowers with paper appropriately painted1 and filling the bottom of the tubes with sugar and water as often as they were emptied4 ,they then took their nourishment in the same manner as when unconfined1 and soon appeared familiarized and happy4 ,they build on the middle of the branch of a tree1 and lay two eggs in an extremely small and admirably constructed nest4 ,the smallest of all the species is said1 when just killed1 to weigh no more than twenty grains4 ,its total length is an inch and a quarter4 ,it is found in the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america1 and is exceeded both in weight and magnitude by several species of bees4 ,we shall close this chapter with an account of ,,the ,,golden ,,eagle4--,this bird weighs above twelve pounds1 and is about three feet long1 the wings1 when extended1 measuring seven feet four inches4 ,the sight and sense of smelling are very acute2 the head and neck are clothed with narrow1 sharp-pointed feathers1 of a deep brown colour1 bordered with tawny2 the hind part of the head is of bright rust colour4 ,these birds are very destructive to fawns1 lambs1 kids1 and all kinds of game1 particularly in the breeding season1 when they bring a vast quantity of prey to their young4 ,smith1 in his ,history of ,kerry1 relates1 that a poor man in that country got a comfortable subsistence for his family1 during a summer of famine1 out of an eagle's nest1 by robbing the eaglets of the food the old ones brought1 whose attendance he protracted beyond the natural time1 by clipping the wings and retarding the flight of the former4 ,it is very unsafe to leave infants in places where eagles frequent2 there having been instances in ,scotland of two being carried off by them2 but1 fortunately1 the thefts were discovered in time1 and the children were restored unhurt out of the eagles' nests4 ,in order to extirpate these pernicious birds1 there is a law in the ,orkney isles1 which entitles every person that kills an eagle to a hen out of every house in the parish where it was killed4 ,eagles seem to give the preference to the carcases of dogs and cats4 ,people who make it their business to kill those birds1 lay one of these carcases by way of bait2 and then conceal themselves within gun-shot4 ,they fire the instant the eagle alights2 for she that moment looks about before she begins to prey4 ,yet1 quick as her sight may be1 her sense of hearing seems still more exquisite4 ,if hooded crows or ravens happen to be nearer the carrion1 and resort to it first1 and give a single croak1 the eagle instantly repairs to the spot4 ,these eagles are remarkable for their longevity1 and for sustaining a long abstinence from food4 ,mr4 ,keysler relates1 that an eagle died at ,vienna after a confinement of #ajd years4 ,this pre-eminent length of days is alluded to by the ,psalmist1 ,thy youth is renewed like the eagle's4 ,one of this species1 which was nine years in the possession of ,owen ,holland1 ,esq4 of ,conway1 lived thirty-two years with the gentleman who made him a present of it2 but what its age was1 when the latter received it from ,ireland1 is unknown4 ,the same bird also furnishes us with a proof of the truth of the other remark2 having once1 through the neglect of servants1 endured hunger for twenty-one days without any sustenance whatever4 ,here it is proper to take notice of a very singular variety of the ,golden ,eagle1 described by ,mr4 ,bruce1 in his ,travels in ,abyssinia2 for1 whether it properly belongs to this species or not1 we do not find that it has been1 as yet1 either arranged under any other1 or ranked as a different genus1 7which indeed it appears to be17 by ,mr4 ,kerr1 or any other ornithologist4 ,mr4 ,bruce says1 it is not only the largest of the eagle kind1 but the largest bird that flies4 ,by the natives it is vulgarly called abon duchem1 or1 father long-beard4 ,it is not an object of any chase1 nor stands in need of any stratagem to bring it within reach4 ,upon the highest top of mount ,lamalmon1 while ,mr4 ,bruce's servants were refreshing themselves after their toilsome ascent1 and enjoying the pleasure of a most delightful climate1 eating their dinner in the open air1 with several large dishes of boiled goat's flesh before them1 this eagle suddenly made its appearance2 he did not stoop rapidly from a height1 but came flying slowly along the ground1 and sat down close to the meat1 within the ring the men had made around it4 ,a great shout1 or rather cry of distress1 which they raised1 made the bird stand for a minute as if to recollect himself2 but while the servants ran for their lances and shields1 his attention was fully fixed upon the flesh4 ,he put his foot into the pan1 where was a large piece in water nearly boiling2 but feeling the smart1 he withdrew it1 and forsook the piece which he held4 ,there were two large pieces1 a leg and a shoulder1 lying on a wooden platter3 into these he struck his claws1 and carried them off1 skimming slowly along the ground1 as he had come1 till he disappeared behind a cliff4 ,but being observed1 at his departure1 to look wistfully at the large piece which remained in the warm water1 it was concluded that he would soon return2 in expectation of which1 ,mr4 ,bruce loaded a rifle gun with ball1 and sat down close to the platter by the meat4 ,it was not many minutes before he came2 and a prodigious shout was raised by the attendants1 ,he is coming1 he is coming6 enough to have discouraged a less courageous animal4 ,whether he was not quite so hungry as at his first visit1 or suspecting something from ,mr4 ,bruce's appearance1 he made a small turn1 and sat down about ten yards from him1 the pan with the meat being between them4 ,in this situation ,mr4 ,bruce fired1 and shot him with the ball through the middle of his body1 about two inches below the wing1 so that he lay down upon the grass without a single flutter4 ,upon laying hold of his monstrous carcase1 our author was not a little surprised at seeing his hands covered and tinged with yellow dust4 ,upon turning him upon his belly1 and examining the feathers of his back1 they produced a brown dust1 the colour of the feathers there4 ,the dust was not in small quantities1 for1 upon striking his breast1 the yellow powder flew in a greater quantity than from a hair-dresser's powder-puff4 ,the feathers of the belly and breast1 which were of a gold colour1 did not appear to have any thing extraordinary in their formation1 but the large feathers in the shoulders and wings seemed apparently to be fine tubes1 which1 upon pressure1 scattered the brown dust upon the finer part of the feathers4 ,upon the side of the wing1 the ribs1 or hard part of the feather1 seemed to be bare1 as if worn1 or1 in our author's opinion1 were rather renewing themselves1 having before failed in their function4 ,what the reason is of this extraordinary provision of nature1 ,mr4 ,bruce does not attempt to determine4 ,but as it is an unusual one1 it is probably meant1 he thinks1 for a defence against the climate in favour of those birds1 which live in those almost inaccessible heights of a country1 doomed even in its lower parts to several months' of excessive rain4 ,this bird1 from wing to wing1 was eight feet four inches2 and from the tip of his tail to the point of his beak1 four feet seven inches4 ,he was remarkably short in the legs1 being only four inches from the foot to the junction of the leg with the thigh2 and from that to the body six inches4 ,the thickness of his thigh was little less than four inches2 it was extremely muscular1 and covered with flesh4 ,his middle claw was about two inches and a half long1 not very sharp at the point1 but extremely strong4 ,from the root of the bill to the point was three inches and a quarter1 and one inch and three-quarters in breadth at the root4 ,a forked brush of strong hair1 divided at the point into two1 proceeded from the cavity of his lower jaw at the beginning of his throat4 ,his eye was remarkably small in proportion to his bulk1 the aperture being scarcely half an inch4 ,the crown of his head1 and the front1 where the bill and skull joined1 were bald4 ,,chap4 ,,xx4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,birds4--7,continued47 ,the ,cuckoo--,the ,cormorant--,the ,great ,bustard--,the ,alarm-,bird--,the ,carrier1 or ,courier1 ,pigeon--,the ,wild ,pigeon1 its multiplying ,power--,singular ,bird1 inhabiting a ,volcano in ,guadaloupe--,curious ,adventure of an ,owl--,curious ,facts in ,natural ,history--,the ,chick in the ,egg4 ,,the ,,cuckoo4--,we shall introduce this curious bird1 with the following well-known beautiful piece of poetry3-- ,hail1 beauteous stranger of the wood1 ,attendant on the spring6 ,now heav'n repairs thy rural seat1 ,and woods thy welcome sing4 ,soon as the daisy decks the green1 ,thy certain voice we hear3 ,hast thou a star to guide thy path1 ,or mark the rolling year8 ,delightful visitant6 with thee ,i hail the time of flow'rs1 ,when heaven is fill'd with music sweet ,of birds among the bow'rs4 ,the school-boy1 wand'ring in the wood1 ,to pull the flow'rs so gay1 ,starts1 thy curious voice to hear1 ,and imitates thy lay4 ,soon as the pea puts on the bloom1 ,thou fly'st thy vocal vale1 ,an annual guest1 in other lands1 ,another spring to hail4 ,sweet bird6 thy bow'r is ever green1 ,thy sky is ever clear2 ,thou hast no sorrow in thy song1 ,no winter in thy year6 ,o could ,i fly1 ,i'd fly with thee2 ,we'd make1 with social wing ,our annual visit o'er the globe1 ,companions of the spring4 ,this bird is described1 in natural history1 as a genus of the order of ,pic4 ,generic character3 bill smooth1 somewhat bending and weak2 nostrils surrounded by a small rim2 tongue short and arrowed2 toes1 two forward and two backward2 tail wedge-formed1 of ten soft feathers4 ,gmelin enumerates fifty-five species1 and ,latham forty-six4 ,the following are the most general characteristics of the ,cuckoo3-- ,this bird is about fourteen inches long4 ,it is found in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,its food consists of insects and the larv of moths1 but when domesticated1 which it may be without much difficulty1 it will eat bread1 fruits1 eggs1 and even flesh4 ,when fattened1 it is said to be excellent for the table4 ,it is in this country a bird of passage1 appearing first about the middle of ,april1 and cheering the vicinity of its habitation with that well-known note1 with which so many exquisite ideas and feelings are associated4 ,this note is used only by the male bird1 and this is the intimation of love4 ,it has been heard1 7though very rarely17 like the song of the nightingale1 in the middle of the night4 ,about the close of ,june this note ceases1 but the cuckoo remains in ,england till towards the end of ,september4 ,it is imagined sometimes to continue in the country for the whole of the year1 as it has occasionally been seen here so early as ,february4 ,cuckoos are supposed to winter in ,africa1 as they are seen twice a year in the island of ,malta4 ,with the history of these birds have been blended much fable and superstition2 their manners1 however1 are unquestionably very curious2 and fable in this1 as in many other cases1 is in a great degree connected with fact4 ,it is almost universally agreed by naturalists1 that the cuckoo does not hatch its own eggs1 but deposits them in the nest of some other bird4 ,buffon mentions the names of twenty birds1 or more1 on which the cuckoo passes this fraud4 ,those most frequently duped by it1 however1 in this manner1 are the yellow-hammer1 the water-wagtail1 and the hedge-sparrow2 and of these three1 by far more than the other two1 the hedge-sparrow4 ,the most minute and attentive examiner into this extraordinary peculiarity1 is ,mr4 ,edward ,jenner2 from whose observations on this interesting subject we shall select a few of the most important4 ,he states1 that the hedge-sparrow is generally four or five days in completing her number of eggs1 during which time the cuckoo finds an opportunity of introducing one of its own into the nest1 leaving the future management of it to the hedge-sparrow2 and that1 though it frequently occurs that the latter is much discomposed by this intrusion1 and several of the eggs are injured by her1 and obliged to be removed from the nest1 yet the egg of the cuckoo is never of this number4 ,when the usual time of incubation is completed1 and the young sparrows and cuckoo are disengaged from the eggs1 the former are ejected from the nest1 and the stranger obtains exclusive possession4 ,a nest1 built in a situation extremely convenient for minute observation1 fell under the particular examination of this gentleman1 and was found on the first day to contain a cuckoo's and three hedge-sparrows' eggs4 ,on the day following1 he observed a young cuckoo and a hedge-sparrow1 and as he could distinctly perceive every thing passing1 he was resolved to watch the events which might take place4 ,he soon1 with extreme surprise1 saw the young cuckoo1 hatched only the day before1 exerting itself with its rump and wings to take the young sparrow on its back1 which it actually accomplished1 and then climbed backwards with its burden to the verge of the nest1 from which1 with a sudden jerk1 it clearly threw off its load2 after which it dropped back into the nest1 having first1 however1 felt about with the extremities of its wings1 as if to ascertain whether the clearance were completely effected4 ,several eggs were afterwards put in to the young usurper1 which were all similarly disposed of4--,he observes1 that in another instance1 two cuckoos and a hedge-sparrow were hatched in the same nest1 and one hedge-sparrow's egg remained unhatched4 ,within a few hours1 a conflict began between the two cuckoos for the possession of the nest1 which was conducted with extreme spirit and vigour1 and in which each appeared occasionally to have the advantage1 lifting its adversary to the very brink of the nest1 and then1 from exhaustion of strength1 sinking with it again to the bottom4 ,these vicissitudes of success were repeated and reiterated2 but towards the close of the following day1 the contest was decided by one of them1 which was rather the larger of the two1 completely expelling his rival2 after which1 the egg and the young hedge-sparrow were dislodged with extreme facility4 ,the infant conqueror was brought up by the step-mother with the most assiduous affection4 ,the sagacity of the female cuckoo appears not inconsiderable1 in her introducing her egg into the nests of birds whose young are inferior in size and strength to the young cuckoo1 and which the latter is consequently able to exclude without difficulty from its usurped dominions4 ,we shall now call the reader's attention to ,,the ,,cormorant4--,this bird1 which is nearly as large as a goose1 is found in many places both of the old and the new world2 it is to be met with in the northern parts of this island1 and one of them1 not very long since1 was shot while perched on the castle of ,carlisle4 ,these birds are shy and crafty1 but frequently eat to so great an excess1 as to induce a species of lethargy1 in which they are caught by nets thrown over them without their making an effort to escape4 ,they are trained by the ,chinese to fish for them4 ,by a ring placed round their necks1 they are prevented from swallowing what they take1 and1 when their pouches are filled1 they unload them1 and at the command of their owners1 renew their divings4 ,two will sometimes be seen combining their efforts to secure a fish too large for the management of one only4 ,when their work is finished to the employer's satisfaction1 the birds have a full allotment of the spoil1 for their reward and encouragement4 ,in ,macao1 also1 these birds are thus domesticated1 taking extreme delight in the exercise1 and constituting a source of very considerable profit to their owners4 ,they were formerly trained1 and used in the same manner in ,england2 and ,charles ,i4 had an officer of his household1 called master of the cormorants4 ,the next curiosity among birds which we shall introduce1 is1 ,,the ,,great ,,bustard4--,this bird is found in the plains of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 but it has never been observed in the ,new ,continent4 ,in ,england1 it is occasionally met with on ,salisbury ,plain1 and on the wolds of ,yorkshire1 and formerly it was not uncommonly seen in flocks of forty or fifty4 ,it is the largest of ,british land birds1 weighing often twenty-five or thirty pounds4 ,it runs with great rapidity1 so as to escape the pursuit of common dogs1 but falls speedily a victim to the greyhound1 which often overtakes it before it has power to commence its flight1 the preparation for which1 in this bird1 is slow and laborious4 ,the female lays her eggs on the bare ground1 never more than two in number1 in a hole scratched by her for the purpose1 and if these are touched or soiled during her occasional absence1 she immediately abandons them4 ,the male is distinguished by a large pouch1 beginning under the tongue1 and reaching to the breast1 capable of holding1 according to ,linnus1 seven quarts of water4 ,this is sometimes useful to the female during incubation1 and to the young before they quit their nest2 and it has been observed to be eminently advantageous to the male bird himself1 who1 on being attacked by birds of prey1 has often discomfited his enemies by the sudden and violent discharge of water upon them4 ,these birds are solitary and shy1 and feed principally upon grasses1 worms1 and grain4 ,they were formerly much hunted with dogs1 and considered as supplying no uninteresting diversion4 ,they swallow stones1 pieces of metal1 and other hard substances4 ,buffon states1 that one was opened by the academicians of ,france1 which contained in its stomach ninety doubloons1 and various stones1 all highly smoothed by the attrition of the stomach4 ,the following deserves to be ranked among the curiosities of the feathered tribe2 ,,the ,,alarm-,,bird4--,near the ,coppermine ,river1 which falls into ,hudson's ,bay1 live a tribe of ,indians1 who traverse the immense and dreary solitudes that surround them1 in pursuit of deer or other game1 from which they derive their only subsistence4 ,the animals1 however1 taught by experience to shun the haunts of men1 and instinctively led to conceal themselves in the most sequestered spots1 would with difficulty be discovered1 were it not for one of the winged tribe of the owl genus1 called the alarm-bird4 ,no sooner does this bird descry man or beast1 than it directs its flight towards them1 and1 hovering over them1 forms gyrations round their head4 ,should two objects at once arrest its attention1 it flies from one to the other alternately1 with a loud screaming1 resembling the crying of a child2 and in this manner it will follow travellers1 or attend a herd of deer1 for the space of a day4 ,by means of this guide1 whose qualities so well correspond with its name1 the ,copper ,indians are apprised of the approach of strangers1 or directed to the herds of deer and musk-oxen1 which otherwise they would frequently miss4 ,is it to be wondered at1 then1 that they hold the alarm-bird in the highest veneration8 ,it seems1 indeed1 to have been intended by ,providence for the solace and friend of the miserable inhabitants of those wild and sterile regions2 and will furnish a new evidence of that superintending care which watches over all4 ,the ,cuculus ,indicator1 so celebrated in the warmer climates for detecting the treasures of the bees1 in the deep recesses of the woods1 within the hollow trunks of trees1 has1 or may be thought to have1 a view and an object in its services4 ,it feels the want of human assistance1 to enable it to enjoy the fruits of its discoveries1 and therefore instinctively calls for it1 in hopes of being recompensed with a share of the honey1 which1 we are told1 the natives readily allow it2 but the alarm-bird appears perfectly disinterested in its labours1 it answers no purpose of its own1 and therefore may be considered as one of the bounties of ,heaven1 to a people and a country almost shut out from the participation of the common blessings of life4 ,it confers benefits without the prospect of a reward2 and1 for this reason1 is entitled to the greater regard4 ,to contemplate the various animals that are dispersed over the globe1 and the various blessings and advantages of different climates1 will naturally lead us to the ,source and ,dispenser of all2 and though some parts of the works of ,creation are more conspicuously beneficial1 and cannot escape the most common observer1 yet we may1 from analogy and reason1 conceive that nothing was made in vain4 ,a subject of great curiosity1 and pleasing admiration1 is1 ,,the ,,carrier1 or1 ,,courier ,,pigeon4--,these birds1 though carried1 hoodwinked1 twenty1 thirty1 or even a hundred miles1 will find their way in a very little time to the place where they were bred4 ,they are trained to this service in ,turkey and ,persia2 and are carried first1 while young1 short flights of half a mile1 afterwards more1 till at length they will return from the farthest part of the kingdom4 ,every bashaw has a basket of these pigeons bred in the seraglio1 which from a distance1 upon any emergent occasion1 7as an insurrection1 or the like17 he dispatches1 with letters braced under their wings1 to the seraglio2 which proves a more speedy method1 as well as a more safe one1 than any other3 he sends out more than one pigeon1 however1 for fear of accidents4 ,lithgow assures us1 that one of these birds will carry a letter from ,babylon to ,aleppo1 which is thirty days' journey1 in forty-eight hours4 ,this practice is very ancient3 ,hirtius and ,brutus1 at the siege of ,modena1 held a correspondence by pigeons2 and ,ovid tells us1 that ,taurosthenes1 by a pigeon stained with purple1 gave notice to his father of his victory at the ,olympic games1 sending it to him at gina4 ,in modern times1 the most noted were the pigeons of ,aleppo1 which served as couriers at ,alexandretta and ,bagdad4 ,but this use of them has been laid aside for the last thirty or forty years1 because the ,curd robbers killed the pigeons4 ,the manner of sending advice by them1 was this3 they took pairs which had young ones1 and carried them on horseback to the place whence they wished them to return1 taking care to let them have a full view4 ,when the news arrived1 the correspondent tied a billet to the pigeon's foot1 and let her loose4 ,the bird1 impatient to see its young1 flew off like lightning1 and arrived at ,aleppo in ten hours from ,alexandretta1 and in two days from ,bagdad4 ,it was easy for them to find their way back1 as ,aleppo may be discovered at an immense distance4 ,this pigeon has nothing peculiar in its form1 except its nostrils1 which1 instead of being smooth and even1 are swelled and rough4 ,it is presumed it will not be out of place to insert the following curious particulars respecting the ,,multiplying ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,pigeon4--,the following account is extracted from ,janson's ,stranger in ,america4 ,mr4 ,richard ,hazen1 a land-surveyor1 who1 in #agda1 drew the line which divides ,massachusetts from ,vermont1 gives an interesting account of the multiplying power of nature in the wild pigeon3 ,for three miles together1 7says he17 the pigeons' nests were so thick1 that five hundred might be reckoned on beech-trees at one time1 and1 could they have been counted on the hemlocks as well1 he did not doubt that five thousand might be seen at one turn round4 ,twenty-five nests were frequently found in one beech-tree1 in ,new ,england4 ,the earth was covered with these trees and with hemlocks1 thus loaded with the nests of pigeons4 ,for one hundred acres together1 the ground was covered with their dung1 to the depth of two inches4 ,their noise in the evening was extremely troublesome1 and so great1 that the traveller could not get any sleep where their nests abounded4 ,about an hour before sun-rise they rose in such quantities as to darken the air4 ,when the young pigeons were grown to a proper size1 it was common for the first settlers to cut down the trees1 and gather a horse-load in a few minutes4 ,the markets at this season1 even at ,philadelphia1 are often overstocked with them2 a score of them have lately been purchased for sixpence4 ,but as the land becomes settled1 they retire into the back forests1 where they are at this day in equal numbers6 ,in ,north ,carolina1 wild pigeons or doves pass over the country in such numbers as to darken the air1 devouring all kinds of grain in their progress4 ,a large musket1 loaded with small shot1 fired among them1 has killed scores2 and boys knock them down with sticks and stones4 ,i did not see this destructive phenomenon2 but was credibly informed at ,edenton1 that it occurs once in seven1 and sometimes in ten years4 ,during my residence in that state1 ,i cut holes in the top of my barn1 and1 by placing food on the roof1 soon enticed about half a dozen from the adjacent woods4 ,in a short time they became domesticated1 and fed with the fowl1 affording a constant and an agreeable food4 ,when ,i left my residence1 they had1 notwithstanding the use ,i made of the young ones1 increased to many scores4 ,they grew so familiar1 that they would watch my appearance in the morning1 and perch upon me1 in hopes of obtaining food1 with which it was my practice to supply them4 ,they distinguished me from my domestics1 whom they would not suffer to approach them4 ,they would permit me to go into their dovecot1 without retreating2 but the dam would often oppose my taking her young ones4 ,the following account of ,a ,,singular ,,bird ,,inhabiting ,a ,,volcano ,,in ,,guadaloupe1 is taken from a respectable source4 ,father ,dutertre1 in his ,description of ,guadaloupe1 the best and most beautiful1 in his opinion1 of all the ,leeward islands1 speaks of an extraordinary bird which inhabits its volcanic mountain1 called ,la ,souffriere4 ,this creature1 called the ,devil by the inhabitants1 on account of its deformity1 is both a night and sea bird4 ,during the day1 its vision appears to be indistinct1 and it takes refuge near the top of the mountain1 where it has its nest in the ground1 and where it hatches its eggs4 ,during the night1 it flies about1 and goes to prey on fish4 ,its flesh is so delicate1 7adds ,father ,dutertre17 that no huntsman returns from the ,souffriere without ardently desiring to have a dozen of these birds suspended at his neck4 ,labat1 the colleague of ,dutertre1 confirms and adds to the account of the latter4 ,the bird called the ,devil1 of ,la ,souffriere1 has 7he says7 membranes at his feet like a duck1 and claws like a bird of prey1 a sharp and curved beak1 large eyes1 which cannot bear the light of day1 or discern almost any object1 so that when surprised in the day-time1 at a distance from his nest1 he runs against every thing in his way1 and falls to the ground2 but during the night he is active in extracting his prey from the sea4 ,he adds1 that he is a bird of passage1 and is considered a kind of petrel4 ,i have taken pleasure in occasionally observing fishermen catch fish during the night by the light of a straw torch2 but here we have a sea-bird of much greater ingenuity1 which fishes by the light of a volcano1 and hatches his eggs by the warmth of its sulphureous discharge4 ,the following story is recorded in history as a fact1 under the title of ,a ,,curious ,,adventure ,,of ,,an ,,owl4 ,in a council held at ,rome by ,pope ,john ,,xxiii4 at the first session1 happened the ,adventure of the ,owl4--,after the mass of the ,holy ,ghost1 all being seated1 and ,john sitting on his throne1 suddenly a frightful owl came screaming out of his hole1 and placed himself just before the pope1 staring earnestly upon him4 ,the arrival of this nocturnal bird in the day-time1 caused many speculations3 some took it for an ill omen1 and were terrified2 others smiled1 and whispered to each other4 ,as to the ,pope1 he blushed1 was in a sweat1 arose1 and brake up the assembly4 ,but at the next session1 the owl took his place again1 fixing his eyes upon ,john2 who was more dismayed than before1 and ordered the bird to be driven away4 ,a pleasant sight it was1 to behold the prelates occupied in hunting him1 for he would not decamp6 ,at last they killed him1 as an incorrigible heretic1 by throwing their canes at him4--,jortin's ,ecclesiastical ,history1 vol4 v4 p4 #dhe1 #dhf4 ,we shall next record some ,,curious ,,facts ,,in ,,natural ,,history4--,we often meet in our aviaries with what are called mule canary birds1 that is1 the offspring of the gray linnet and the canary4 ,in the country1 where the domestic fowls are accustomed to wander to a considerable distance from the farm-yard1 ,i believe it is no uncommon occurrence for a chicken to make its appearance1 that is evidently the offspring of the partridge and common hen4 ,indeed1 ,i am inclined to think that the breed between fowls of the same genus are oftener crossed than we are aware of4 ,it is a common practice in the country1 to set a hen1 as it is called1 with ducks' eggs2 and the agony which she suffers1 when she sees her young charge first take to their natural element1 the water1 has often been observed with sympathy4 ,the following anecdote may be relied upon1 as the circumstance was observed by a gentleman of science3-- ,a hen1 which was employed to hatch some ducks' eggs in the neighbourhood of a dyer's mill1 where there was a small pond1 was observed to exhibit the usual symptoms of terror and alarm when the ducklings first took to the water2 but by degrees she became quite reconciled to their habits1 and was accustomed to enjoy herself1 in great quietness1 on the banks1 while they gamboled in the pool4 ,for two or three years she uniformly brought out ducklings1 and at last1 as regularly led them to the water as their natural dam would have done4 ,in the course of time1 however1 she brought out a brood of chickens4 ,these she immediately led to the side of the pool also2 but1 on finding they did not enter the water1 she became quite uneasy1 invited them close to it1 made every motion for them to enter it1 flew over the pond1 and then called them to follow1 but all to no purpose4 ,when she found that nothing would entice them to enter the water1 she actually seized upon one or two of them1 and threw them into it2 and1 if she had not been prevented1 it is believed she would have drowned her whole progeny4 ,this shews how much the native habits1 even of fowls1 may be changed by circumstances2 and proves1 in some degree1 the existence of memory without judgment in the feathered tribes4 ,some years ago1 a farmer in the lower district of ,annandale1 took it into his head to rob a wild duck of her eggs1 and to place them under one of his tame ducks1 that was sitting at that time4 ,the young brood 7twelve in number7 came into the world at the usual period1 but one only continued with her stepdame4 ,this extraordinary bird1 however1 never perfectly acquired the habits or dispositions of her new sisterhood3 she never would associate with the tame drakes1 but every spring left the farm-yard1 and proceeded to the wilds in quest of mates2 and1 what was remarkably singular1 she seemed to have a malicious pleasure in leading them into a snare1 and was at great pains to draw them into such situations as admitted of their being easily shot1 or otherwise destroyed4 ,she always hatched her young in a peat moss1 at some distance from the house1 but never failed to bring them to the farm-yard1 as soon as they were able to follow her4 ,when this duck was about four years old1 the owner was visited by a kinsman from ,fife1 who was so much taken up with her1 that he begged for1 and obtained her1 as a present4 ,she was put into a cage1 and by him conveyed to his house near ,kinross4 ,she was kept in confinement for a night and a day2 when1 seeming perfectly contented1 she was let out into the yard1 where she set about adjusting herself for some time2 she then suddenly took wing1 and in the course of a few hours was among her old companions in ,annandale4 ,she was a second time conveyed to ,fife1 and her wings clipped4 ,she continued perfectly happy1 to appearance1 till her feathers grew1 when she again bade her new friends farewell4 ,she was shot in the neighbourhood of ,biggar1 by a gentleman1 who communicated the circumstance to the owner1 whose name he learned from the collar that was found about her neck1 containing his name and place of abode4 ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,chick ,,in ,,the ,,egg4--,scarcely has the hen sat upon the eggs twelve hours1 before some lineaments of the head and body of the chick are discernible in the embryo2 at the end of the second day1 the heart begins to beat1 but no blood is to be seen4 ,in forty-eight hours we may distinguish two vesicles with blood1 the pulsation of which is evident2 one of them is the left ventricle1 the other1 the root of the great artery2 soon after1 one of the auricles of the heart is perceptible1 in which pulsation may be remarked as well as in the ventricle4 ,so early as the seventh hour1 the wings may be distinguished1 and on the head two globules for the brain1 one for the beak1 and two others for the front and hind part of the head4 ,towards the end of the fourth day1 the two auricles1 now distinctly visible1 approach nearer the heart than they did before4 ,about the fifth day the liver may be perceived2 at the end of one hundred and thirty-eight hours1 the lungs and stomach become visible2 and in a few hours more1 the intestines1 veins1 and upper jaw4 ,on the seventh day1 the brain begins to assume a more consistent form4 ,one hundred and ninety hours after incubation1 the beak opens1 and flesh appears on the breast4 ,in two hundred and ten1 the ribs are formed1 and the gall bladder is visible4 ,the bile1 in a few hours more1 is seen of a green colour2 and if the chick be separated from its coverings1 it will be seen to move4 ,the feathers begin to shoot towards the two hundred and fortieth hour1 and at the same time the skull becomes cartilaginous2 in twenty-four hours more1 the eyes appear2 at the two hundred and eighty-eighth1 the ribs are perfected2 and at the three hundred and thirty-first1 the lungs1 the stomach1 and the breast1 assume their natural appearance4 ,on the eighteenth day of incubation1 the first faint piping of the chick is heard4 ,it then continually increases in size and in strength till it emerges from its prison4 ,by so many different gradations does the adorable wisdom of ,god conduct these creatures into life2 all their progressive evolutions are arranged with order1 and there are none without sufficient cause4 ,if the liver is always formed on the fifth day1 it is from the preceding state of the chick4 ,no part of its body could appear sooner or later1 without some injury to the embryo1 and each of its members appears at the most convenient moment4 ,the wise and invariable order in the production of this little body1 is evidently the work of supernal power2 and we shall be more convinced of it1 if we consider the manner in which the chick is formed from the parts which compose the egg4 ,how admirable is that principle of life1 the source of a new being1 contained in the egg2 all the parts of the animal being invisible till they become developed by warmth6 ,what a wonderful order and regularity is observed in this amazing process1--the same evolutions taking place at once in twenty eggs6 ,neither does changing the position of the egg at all injure the embryo1 or retard the formation of the chick2 which1 at the time when it breaks the shell1 is found to be heavier than the whole egg was at first4 ,these1 however admirable1 are far from being all the wonders displayed in the progress of incubation4 ,the microscope1 and the penetrating investigations of the curious1 have only discovered what comes more immediately under the observation of our senses2 whilst the discovery of many things remains for those who are to follow us1 or perhaps they may never be known in this state of our existence4 ,much might be asked concerning the mystery connected with the formation of animal bodies1 which at present is impenetrable to our researches2 but let not this discourage us2 let us only endeavour to improve1 and make a good use of1 the little knowledge we are permitted to acquire1 and we shall have a sufficiency to discover at every step the wisdom and power of ,god1 and enough to employ for the benefit of our fellow-creatures4 ,,chap4 ,,xxi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,birds4--7,concluded47 ,birds' ,nests--,migration of ,birds--,curious ,method of ,bird-,catching in the ,faro ,isles--,song of ,birds4 ,,birds' ,,nests4 ----------,it wins my admiration1 ,to view the structure of that little work1 ,a bird's nest3 mark it well within1 without2 ,no tool had he that wrought1 no knife to cut1 ,no nail to fix1 no bodkin to insert1 ,no glue to join6 his little beak was all2 ,and yet how neatly finish'd6 ,hurdis4 ,the structure of ,bird's ,nests discovers to us many curious objects1 which cannot be uninteresting to the reflecting mind4 ,and who does not admire those little regular edifices composed of so many different materials1 collected and arranged with so much pains and skill1 and constructed with so much industry1 elegance1 and neatness1 with no other tools than a bill and two feet8 ,that men can erect great buildings according to certain rules of art1 is not surprising1 when we consider that they enjoy the reasoning faculty1 and that they possess tools and instruments of various kinds1 to facilitate their work2 but that a delicate little bird1 in want of almost every thing necessary for such an undertaking1 with only its bill and claws1 should know how to combine so much skill1 regularity of form1 and solidity of composition1 in constructing its nest1 is truly wonderful1 and never enough to be admired4 ,we shall therefore consider it more minutely4 ,nothing is more curious than the nest of a goldfinch or a chaffinch4 ,the inside of it is lined with cotton1 wool1 and fine silky threads1 while the outside is interwoven with thick moss2 and that the nest may be less remarkable1 and less exposed to the eye of observers1 the colour of the moss resembles that of the bark of the tree1 or of the hedge1 where the nest is built4 ,in some nests1 the hair1 the down1 and the straws1 are curiously laid across each other1 and interwoven together4 ,there are others1 all the parts of which are neatly joined and fastened together by a thread which the bird makes of flax1 horse or cow hair1 and often of spiders' webs4 ,other birds1 as the blackbird and the lapwing1 after having constructed their nest1 plaster the outside with a thin coating of mortar1 which cements and binds together all the lower parts1 and which1 with the help of some cow-hair or moss1 stuck to it whilst the plaster is wet1 keeps it compact and warm4 ,the nests of swallows are differently constructed from the rest4 ,they use neither sticks1 straws1 nor strings2 but they compose a sort of cement1 with which they make themselves nests1 perfectly neat1 secure1 and convenient4 ,to moisten the dust of which they form their nests1 they frequently skim over the surface of some lake or river1 and1 dipping their breasts into the water1 shake their wet feathers upon the dust till it is sufficiently moist1 and then knead it up into a kind of clay with their bills4 ,but the nests most worthy of our admiration are those of certain ,indian birds1 which suspend them with great art from the branches of trees1 that they may be secure from the pursuit of several animals and insects4 ,in general1 each species of bird has a peculiar mode of fixing its nest2 some build them on houses1 others in trees1 some in the grass1 others on the ground1 and always in that way which is most adapted for the rearing of their young1 and the preservation of their species4 ,such1 therefore1 is the wonderful instinct of birds1 even in the structure and disposition of their nests alone1 that we may safely conclude they cannot be mere machines4 ,but is it not also apparent1 that in all their works they propose to themselves certain ends8 ,they construct their nests hollow1 forming the half of a sphere1 that the heat may be more concentric4 ,the nest is covered without by substances more or less coarse1 not only to serve as a foundation1 but to prevent the wind and insects from entering4 ,within1 it is lined with the most delicate materials1 such as wool and feathers1 that the nestlings may be soft and warm4 ,is it not something nearly approaching to reason1 which teaches the bird to place its nest in such a manner as to be sheltered from rain1 and out of the reach of destructive animals8 ,where have they learned that they are to produce eggs1 which will require a nest to prevent them from being broken1 and to keep them in the necessary temperature8 that the heat would not be sufficiently concentrated if the nest were larger2 and that1 if it were smaller1 all the young ones could not be contained in it8 ,who has taught them not to mistake the time1 but to calculate so exactly1 that the eggs are not laid before the nest is finished8 ,these questions have never been satisfactorily answered1 neither can this mystery in nature be clearly explained2 all we can do is1 to refer it to an instinct1 which some animals seem to possess in a manner almost equal to reason3 and instinct to them is much more happy and beneficial than reason would be2 for they seem to enjoy all the sweets of life without their moments being imbittered by the consideration of their inferior rank in the creation1 and without the pain of anticipating evil4 ,the following account is principally abridged from that very interesting work1 ,the ,contemplative ,philosopher4 ,the present compiler acknowledges his obligations to that work on many occasions1 and gives it his warmest recommendations to the public4 ,,migration ,,of ,,birds4--,the migration of birds has been justly considered as one of the most wonderful exhibitions of nature4 ,this migration1 which is common to the quail1 the stork1 the crane1 the fieldfare1 the woodcock1 the cuckoo1 the martin1 the swallow1 and various others1 is1 indeed1 a very curious article in natural history1 and furnishes a very striking instance of a powerful instinct impressed by the ,creator4 ,dr4 ,derham observes two circumstances remarkable in this migration3 the first1 that these untaught1 unthinking creatures1 should know the proper times for their passage1 when to come and when to go2 as also1 that some should come when others retire4 ,no doubt1 the temperature of the air as to heat and cold1 and their natural propensity to breed their young1 are the great incentives to these creatures to change their habitations4 ,but why should they at all change their habitations8 ,and why is some certain place to be found1 in all the terraqueous globe1 that1 all the year round1 can afford them convenient food and habitation8--,the second remarkable circumstance is1 that they should know which way to steer their course1 and whither to go4 ,what instinct is it that can induce a poor foolish bird to venture over vast tracts of land and sea4 ,if it be said1 that by their high ascents into the air1 they can see across the seas2 yet what shall instruct or persuade them1 that another land is more proper for their purpose than this8 that ,great ,britain1 for instance1 should afford them better accommodation than ,egypt1 the ,canaries1 ,spain1 or any of the other intermediate countries8--,physico-,theology1 book vii4 chap4 #c4 ,birds of passage1 moreover1 are all peculiarly accommodated1 by the structure of their parts1 for long flights2 and it is remarked1 that in their migrations1 they observe a wonderful order and polity3 they fly in troops1 and steer their course1 without the aid of a compass1 to vast unknown regions4 ,the flight of the wild geese1 in a wedge-like figure1 has been often observed2 to which it is added1 by the natural historian of ,norway1 that the three foremost1 who are the soonest tired1 retreat behind1 and are relieved by others1 who are again succeeded by the rest in order4 ,but this circumstance has been observed1 many ages before1 by ,pliny1 who describes certain birds of passage flying in the form of a wedge1 and spreading wider and wider2 those behind resting upon those before1 till the leaders being tired1 are1 in their turn1 received into the rear4 ,wild ducks and cranes 7says ,abb de la ,pluche7 fly1 at the approach of winter1 in quest of more favourable climates4 ,they all assemble at a certain day1 like swallows and quails4 ,they decamp at the same time1 and it is very agreeable to observe their flight4 ,they generally range themselves in a long column like an ,i1 or in two lines united in a point like a reversed4 ,and thus1 as ,milton says ,rang'd in figure1 wedge the way4 ,the duck or quail that forms the point 7adds the ,abb7 cuts the air1 and facilitates a passage to those that follow3 but he is charged with this commission only for a certain time1 at the conclusion of which he wheels into the rear1 and another takes his post4 ,and thus again1 as ,milton says1 ----------,with mutual wing ,easing their flight4 ,it has been observed of the storks1 that for about the space of a fortnight before they pass from one country to another1 they constantly resort together1 from all the circumjacent parts1 to a certain plain1 and there forming themselves once every day into a dou-wanne1 7according to the phrase of the people17 are said to determine the exact time of their departure1 and the places of their future abode4 ,mr4 ,biberg1 an ingenious naturalist of ,sweden1 has observed1 that the starling1 finding1 after the middle of summer1 that worms are less plentiful in that country1 goes annually into ,scania1 ,germany1 and ,denmark4 ,the female chaffinches1 every winter1 about ,michaelmas1 go in flocks to ,holland2 but as the males stay in ,sweden1 the females come back next spring4 ,in the same manner1 the female ,carolina yellow-hammer1 in the month of ,september1 while the rice on which she feeds is laid up in granaries1 goes towards the south1 and returns in the spring to seek her mate4 ,our aquatic birds 7continues he7 are forced by necessity to fly toward the south every autumn1 before the water is frozen4 ,thus we know1 that the lakes of ,poland and ,lithuania are filled with swans and geese every autumn1 at which time they go in great flocks1 along many rivers1 as far as the ,euxine ,sea4 ,but in the beginning of spring1 as soon as the heat of the sun molests them1 they return back1 and go again to the northern ponds and lakes1 in order to lay their eggs4 ,for there1 and especially in ,lapland1 there is a vast abundance of gnats1 which afford them excellent nourishment1 as all of this kind live in the water before they get their wings4--,mr4 ,biberg proceeds to enumerate many other birds that migrate to different regions2 and he then adds3 ,by these migrations1 birds become useful to many different countries1 and are distributed almost over all the globe2 and ,i cannot here forbear expressing my admiration1 that all of them exactly observe the times of coming and going1 and that they never mistake their way4--,biberg on the ,economy of ,nature1 in ,stillingfleet's ,misc4 ,tracts4 ,the principal food of the birds of passage1 while in ,great ,britain1 is the fruit of the whitethorn1 or haws1 which hang on our hedges in winter in prodigious plenty2 but where they breed1 and seem to be most at ease1 as in ,sweden1 c4 there are no haws2 nor indeed in many of the countries through which they journey on their way3 so that it is evident they change their food in their passage4 ,the manner in which the birds of passage journey to their southern abodes is supposed to vary1 according to the different structure of their bodies1 and their power of supporting themselves in the air4 ,the birds with short wings1 such as the red-start1 black-cap1 c4 though they are incapable of such long flights as the swallow1 or of flying with such celerity1 yet may pass to less distant places1 and by slower movements4 ,swallows and cuckoos may perform their passage in a very short time2 but there is for them no necessity for speed1 since every day's passage affords them an increase of warmth1 and a continuance of food4 ,swallows are often observed1 in innumerable flocks1 on churches1 rocks1 and trees1 previous to their departure hence2 and ,mr4 ,collinson proves their return here1 perhaps in equal numbers1 by two curious relations of undoubted credit2 the one communicated to him by ,mr4 ,wright1 the master of a ship1 and the other by ,admiral ,sir ,charles ,wager4--,returning home1 7says ,sir ,charles17 in the spring of the year1 as ,i came into soundings in our channel1 a great flock of swallows came and settled on my rigging2 every rope was covered2 they hung on one another1 like a swarm of bees2 the decks and awning were filled with them4 ,they seemed almost famished and spent1 and were only feathers and bones2 but1 being recruited with a night's rest1 they took their flight in the morning4 ,this apparent fatigue proves that they must have had a long journey1 considering the amazing swiftness of these birds2 so that1 in all probability1 they had crossed the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and were returning from the shores of ,senegal1 or other parts of ,africa4 ,naturalists are much divided in their opinion concerning the periodical appearance and disappearance of swallows4--,some assert1 that they remove from climate to climate1 at those particular seasons when winged insects1 their natural food1 fail in one country and are plentiful in another1 where they likewise find a temperature of air better suited to their constitution4 ,in support of this opinion1 we have the testimony of ,sir ,charles ,wager1 and of ,mr4 ,adamson1 who1 in the account of his voyage1 informs us1 that1 about fifty leagues from the coast of ,senegal1 four swallows settled upon the ship1 on the #fth day of ,october2 that these birds were taken2 and that he knew them to be the true swallow of ,europe1 which he conjectures were then returning to the coast of ,africa4 ,but ,mr4 ,daines ,barrington1 in a curious essay on this subject1 has adduced many arguments and facts1 to prove that no birds1 however strong and swift in their flight1 can possibly fly over such large tracts of ocean as has been commonly supposed4 ,he is of opinion1 therefore1 that the swallows mentioned by ,mr4 ,adamson1 instead of being on their passage from ,europe1 were only fluttering from the ,cape de ,verde islands to the continent of ,africa2 a much nearer flight1 but to which they seemed to be unequal1 as they were obliged1 from fatigue1 to alight upon the ship1 and fall into the hands of the sailors4 ,and ,mr4 ,kalm1 another advocate for the torpidity of swallows during the winter1 having remarked1 however1 that he himself had met with them nine hundred and twenty miles from any land2 ,mr4 ,barrington endeavours to explain these1 and similar facts1 by supposing that birds discovered in such situations1 instead of attempting to cross large branches of the ocean1 have been forcibly driven from some coast by storms1 and that they would naturally perch upon the first vessel they could see4 ,in a word1 ,mr4 ,barrington is further of opinion1 with some other naturalists1 that the swallows do not leave this island at the end of autumn1 but that they lie in a torpid state1 till the beginning of summer1 in the banks of rivers1 in the hollows of decayed trees1 the recesses of old buildings1 the holes of sand-banks1 and in similar situations4 ,among other facts1 ,mr4 ,barrington communicated one to ,mr4 ,pennant1 that numbers of swallows have been found in old dry walls1 and in sand-hills1 near the seat of the late ,lord ,belhaven1 in ,east ,lothian2 not once only1 but from year to year2 and that1 when they were exposed to the warmth of a fire1 they revived4 ,these1 and other facts of the same kind1 are allowed to be incontrovertible2 and ,mr4 ,pennant1 in particular1 infers from them1 that we must divide our belief relative to these two so different opinions1 and conclude1 that one part of the swallow tribe migrate1 and that others have their winter quarters near home4 ,but there are still more wonderful facts related4 ,mr4 ,kalm remarks1 that swallows appear in the ,jerseys about the beginning of ,april2 that1 on their first arrival1 they are wet1 because they have just emerged from the sea or lakes1 at the bottom of which they had remained1 in a torpid state1 during the whole winter4 ,other naturalists have asserted1 that swallows pass the winter immersed under the ice1 at the bottom of lakes1 or beneath the waters of the sea4 ,olaus ,magnus1 archbishop of ,upsal1 seems to have been the first who adopted this opinion4 ,he informs us1 that swallows are found in great clusters at the bottoms of the northern lakes1 with mouth to mouth1 wing to wing1 foot to foot1 and that in autumn they creep down the reeds to their subaqueous retreats4 ,in other instances1 ,mr4 ,pennant remarks1 the good archbishop did not want credulity4 ,but the submersion of the swallows under water does not rest upon his testimony alone4 ,klein asserts the same2 and gives the following account of the manner of their retiring1 which he had from some countrymen3 ,they asserted1 that the swallows sometimes assembled in numbers on a reed1 till it broke1 and sunk them to the bottom2 that their immersion was preceded by a kind of dirge1 which lasted more than a quarter of an hour2 that others united1 laid hold of a straw with their bills1 and plunged down in society2 that others1 by clinging together with their feet1 formed a large mass1 and in this manner committed themselves to the deep4 ,bishop ,pontoppidan asserts1 that clusters of swallows1 in their torpid winter state1 have sometimes been found by fishermen1 among reeds and bushes in lakes2 and he charges ,mr4 ,edwards with having1 in his ,natural ,history of ,birds1 groundlessly contradicted this incontestable truth4 ,and ,mr4 ,heerkens1 a celebrated ,dutch naturalist1 in a poem on the birds of ,friesland1 speaks in positive terms of the torpid state1 and submersion1 of the swallows3 ,ere winter his somnif'rous power exerts1 ,six dreary months the swallow-tribes are seen ,in various haunts conceal'd2 in rocks1 and caves1 ,and structures rude1 by cold benumb'd1 asleep2 ,bill within bill inserted1 clust'ring thick3 ,or solitary some1 of mate bereft4 ,but1 wonderful to tell6 some lie immers'd1 ,inanimate1 beneath the frigid waves1 ,as if a species of the finny kinds4 ,mr4 ,heerkens1 after reciting many instances1 and producing in his notes many authorities1 of swallows having been found in a torpid state1 proceeds1 in his poem1 to describe1 very minutely1 their ascent out of the water4 ,the drowsy birds appear on the shore1 as if unconscious still of life4 ,some inhale the soft breeze1 like one of the finny tribe exiled from its stream4 ,some begin to adjust their dishevelled wings4--,others1 almost revived1 essay1 with busy bill1 to assist their aged companions4 ,all1 at length1 restored to the unrestrained use of their wings1 range1 in numerous flights1 the arial way4 ,two reasons have1 been adduced to prove this supposed submersion of swallows impossible4 ,in the first place1 7says ,mr4 ,smellie17 no land animal can exist so long without some degree of respiration4 ,the otter1 the seal1 and water fowls of all kinds1 when confined under the ice1 or entangled in nets1 soon perish2 yet it is well known1 that animals of this kind can remain much longer under water than those who are destitute of that peculiar structure of the heart1 which is necessary for any considerable residence beneath that penetrating element4 ,mr4 ,john ,hunter1 in a letter to ,mr4 ,pennant1 informs us1 that he had dissected many swallows1 but found nothing in them different from other birds1 as to the organs of respiration2 that all those animals which he had dissected1 of the class that sleep during the winter1 such as lizards1 frogs1 c4 had a very different conformation as to those organs2 that all those animals1 he believes1 do breathe in their torpid state1 and1 as far as his experience reaches1 he knows they do2 and that1 therefore1 he esteems it a very wild opinion1 that terrestrial animals can remain any long time under water without drowning4 ,another argument against their submersion arises from the specific gravity of the animals themselves4 ,of all birds1 the swallow tribes are perhaps the lightest4 ,their plumage1 and the comparative smallness of their weight1 indicates that ,nature destined them to be almost perpetually on the wing1 in quest of food4 ,from this specific lightness1 the submersion of swallows1 and their continuing for months underwater1 amount to a physical impossibility4 ,even water fowls1 when they wish to dive1 are obliged to rise and plunge with considerable exertion1 in order to overcome the resistance of the water4 ,klein's idea of swallows employing reeds and straws as means of submersion1 is rather ludicrous2 for these light substances1 instead of being proper instruments for assisting them to reach the bottom1 would infallibly contribute to support them on the surface1 and prevent the very object of their intention4 ,besides1 admitting the possibility of their reaching the bottom of lakes and seas1 and supposing they could exist for several months without respiration1 what would be the consequence8 ,the whole would soon be devoured by otters1 seals1 and fishes1 of various kinds4 ,nature is always anxious for the preservation of its species4 ,but if the swallow tribes were destined to remain torpid during the winter months1 at the bottom of lakes and seas1 she would act in opposition to her own intentions2 for1 in a season or two1 the whole genus would be annihilated4 ,this reasoning is very ingenious1 but1 on the other hand1 the facts related above are very stubborn2 and the celebrated ,buffon does not hesitate to yield to the force of such strong and concurrent evidence4 ,he had procured some chimney-swallows1 and kept them some time in an icehouse1 in order to ascertain whether they were of the torpid kind1 and he thus relates the result of his experiments4 ,none of them fell into the torpid state2 the greater part died1 and not one of them revived by being moved into the warmth of the sun4 ,those that had not long suffered the cold of the icehouse1 had all their movements1 and went out briskly4 ,from these experiments ,i thought ,i might conclude1 that this species of the swallow was not liable to that state of torpor and insensibility1 which supposes1 notwithstanding1 and very necessarily1 the fact of their remaining at the bottom of the water during the winter4 ,having had recourse1 moreover1 to the most creditable travellers1 ,i found them agreed as to the passage of swallows over the ,mediterranean4 ,and ,mr4 ,adamson has positively assured me1 that during the long stay he made in ,senegal1 he observed the long-tailed swallow1 the same with the chimney-swallow we are now speaking of1 arrive constantly in ,senegal about the time it leaves ,france1 and as constantly leave ,senegal in the spring4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be doubted1 that this species of the swallow passes from ,europe into ,africa in the autumn1 and from ,africa to ,europe in the spring2 of consequence1 it neither sleeps nor hides itself in holes1 nor plunges into the water on the approach of winter4 ,there is1 besides1 another well authenticated fact1 which comes in proof here1 and shews that this swallow is not reduced to a torpid state by cold1 which it can bear to a certain degree1 7and if that degree is exceeded1 it dies17 for if we observe these birds towards the end of the warm season1 we shall see them1 a little before their departure1 flying together in families1 the father1 the mother1 and the young brood4 ,afterwards several families unite1 and form themselves into flocks1 more or less numerous in proportion as the time of their departure draws near4 ,at last they go all together1 three or four days before the end of ,september1 or about the beginning of ,october4 ,still1 however1 some remain1 and do not set off till a week1 a fortnight1 or three weeks after the rest3 and some too there are which do not go at all1 but stay and perish under the first rigours of the cold4 ,these swallows that delay their flight1 or never undertake it1 are such as find their young too weak to follow them2 such as have had the misfortune to have their nests destroyed after laying1 and have been obliged to rebuild them a second or a third time4 ,they stay for the love of their little ones1 and choose rather to endure the rigour of the season1 than to abandon their offspring4 ,thus they remain some time after the rest for the purpose of taking their young with them2 and if they are unable to carry them off in the end1 they perish with them4 ,these facts then plainly demonstrate 7concludes ,mr4 ,buffon7 that the chimney-swallows pass successively and alternately from our climate to another that is warmer2 that they spend their summer here1 and their winter there2 and of consequence never fall into a state of insensibility4 ,but1 on the other hand1 what have we to oppose to the precise testimony of those1 who1 on the approach of winter1 have seen these swallows in troops throw themselves into the water2 nay1 not only this1 but have seen them taken out in nests from beneath the ice8 ,what answer shall we make to those who have beheld them in the torpid state1 and seen them gradually recover motion and life1 when they were brought into the warmth1 and moved cautiously towards a fire8 ,i know but of one means of reconciling these facts3 we must suppose that the sleeping and travelling swallow are of different species1 though the difference1 for want of attention1 has not been observed4 ,thus this great philosopher concurs with ,mr4 ,pennant1 in his solution1 already mentioned1 of the difficulty1 by supposing two species--the migrating1 and the sleeping swallow4 ,with respect to the principal objects of this wonderful instinct1 that teaches such various kinds of the feathered race to migrate to different countries1 it is obvious1 from what has already been said1 that they are governed by their food1 temperature of air1 and convenient situations for breeding4 ,we shall now give an account of the ,,curious ,,method ,,of ,,bird-,,catching ,,in ,,the ,,faro ,,isles4--,the manner of bird-catching in the ,faro ,islands1 is exceedingly strange and hazardous4 ,necessity compels man to wonderful attempts4 ,the cliffs which contain the objects of their search1 are often two hundred fathoms in height1 and are attempted both from above and below4 ,in the first case1 the fowlers provide themselves with a rope eighty or a hundred fathoms in length4 ,the fowler fastening one end about his waist1 and between his legs1 recommends himself to the protection of the ,almighty1 and is lowered down by six others1 who place a piece of timber on the margin of the rock1 to preserve the rope from wearing against the sharp edge4 ,they have1 besides1 a small line fastened to the body of the adventurer1 by which he gives signals1 that they may lower or raise him1 or shift him from place to place4 ,the last operation is attended with great danger1 by the loosening of the stones1 which often fall on his head1 and would infallibly destroy him1 were he not protected by a strong thick cap2 but even this is found unequal to save him against the weight of the larger fragments of rock4 ,the dexterity of the fowlers is amazing2 they will place their feet against the front of the precipice1 and dart themselves some fathoms from it2 with a cool eye survey the places where the birds nestle1 and again shoot into their haunts4 ,in some places the birds lodge in deep recesses4 ,the fowler will alight there1 disengage himself from the rope1 fix it to a stone1 and at his leisure collect the booty1 fasten it to his girdle1 and resume his pendulous seat4 ,at times he will again spring from the rock1 and in that attitude1 with a fowling-net placed on a staff1 catch the old birds that are flying to and from their retreats4 ,when he has finished his dreadful employ1 he gives a signal to his friends above1 who pull him up1 and share his hard-earned profit4 ,the feathers are preserved for exportation3 the flesh is partly eaten fresh1 but the greater part is dried for winter's provision4 ,illustration3 ,,perilous ,,adventure ,,of ,a ,,bird-,,catcher4 ,the engraving represents the situation of a bird-catcher at ,st4 ,kilda4 ,a tale is told of one of these men who had entered such a cavern1 and in the excitement produced by finding its floor all strewn over with eggs1 forgot the rope and loosened his hold3 in a moment it was gone1 and as he turned he saw it swinging at the mouth of the cavern4 ,in vain he tried to reach it1 it was beyond his grasp2 he tried again and again1 but all to no purpose1 while1 as if in mockery of his dismay1 it swung idly in the air1 just passing beyond his reach4 ,what was he to do8 ,a projection of rock concealed him from the observation of those above1 while the roar of the sea prevented their hearing his cries4 ,if they drew up the rope and found him not there1 he knew they would conclude he had lost his hold and dropped into the sea1 and he would then be left to starve in the cave4 ,the rope still kept passing backwards and forwards1 as if tantalizing him with the hope of escape4 ,every minute now seemed an age2 at length1 almost wild with despair1 he formed the desperate resolution to spring at the rope as it passed by him4 ,he watched for a favorable opportunity and leaped from the cave3 fortunately he was successful in catching it with a firm grasp1 and was safely drawn again to the top4 ,the fowling from below has also its share of danger4 ,the party goes on the expedition in a boat2 and when it has attained the base of the precipice1 one of the most daring1 having fastened a rope about his waist1 and furnished himself with a long pole1 with an iron hook at one end1 either climbs or is thrust up by his companions1 who place a pole under his breech1 to the next footing spot he can reach4 ,he1 by means of the rope1 brings up one of the boat's crew2 the rest are drawn up in the same manner1 and each is furnished with his rope and fowling-staff4 ,they then continue their progress upwards in the same manner1 till they arrive at the regions of the birds1 and wander about the face of the cliff in search of them4 ,they then act in pairs2 one fastens himself to the end of his associate's rope1 and1 in places where the birds have nestled beneath his footing1 he permits himself to be lowered down1 depending for his security on the strength of his companion1 who has to haul him up again2 but it sometimes happens that the person above is overpowered by the weight1 and both inevitably perish4 ,they fling the fowl into the boat1 which attends their motions1 and receives the booty4 ,they often pass seven or eight days in this tremendous employ1 and lodge in the crannies which they find in the face of the precipice4 ,we shall close this division of our work with ,a ,,curious ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,birds4--,we introduce the subject by the following poetical quotations2 which1 we have no doubt1 will interest every admirer of nature1 and nature's ,god4 --------------------------,every copse ,deep-tangled1 tree irregular1 and bush ,bending with dewy moisture1 o'er the heads ,of the coy choristers that lodge within1 ,are prodigal of harmony4 ,thomson4 ----------------------------,each bird1 ,or high in air1 or secret in the shade1 ,rejoicing1 warbles wild his grateful hymn4 ,mallet4 ,from branch to branch the smaller birds with song ,solace the woods1 and spread their painted wings ,till even2 nor then the solemn nightingale ,ceases to warble3 in shadiest covert hid1 ,she all the night tunes her soft lays4 ,milton4 ,again3-- ----------------,the sweet poet of the vernal groves ,melts all the night in strains of am'rous woe4 ,armstrong4 ,again3-- --------,when the spring renews the flow'ry field1 ,and warns the pregnant nightingale to build1 ,she seeks the safest shelter of the wood1 ,where she may trust her little tuneful brood4 ,fond of the chosen place1 she views it o'er1 ,sits there1 and wanders through the grove no more3 ,warbling1 she charms it each returning night2-- ,and gives the pensive mind a calm delight4 ,rowe4 ,the lark1 that shuns on lofty boughs to build ,her humble nest1 sits silent in the field2 ,but if the promise of a cloudless day1 7,aurora smiling17 bids her rise and play1 ,then straight she shews 'twas not for want of voice1 ,or pow'r to climb1 she made so low a choice2 ,singing she mounts1 her airy wings are stretch'd ,tow'rds heaven1 as if from heav'n her note she fetch'd4 ,waller4 --------------------,birds of sweetest song ,attune from native boughs their various lay1 ,and cheer the forest2 those of brighter plume ,with busy pinion skim the glitt'ring wave1 ,or tempt the sun1 ambitious to display ,their several merit4 ,shenstone4 ,the ,song of ,birds is defined1 by the ,hon4 ,daines ,barrington1 to be a succession of three or more different notes1 which are continued without interruption1 during the same interval1 with a musical bar of four crotchets1 in an adagio movement1 or whilst a pendulum swings four seconds4 ,it is affirmed1 that the notes of birds are no more innate than language in man1 and that they depend upon imitation1 as far as their organs will enable them to imitate the sounds which they have frequent opportunities of hearing3 and their adhering so steadily1 even in a wild state1 to the same song1 is owing to the nestling attending only to the instruction of the parent bird1 whilst they disregard the notes of all others that may be singing around them4 ,birds in a wild state do not usually sing above ten weeks in the year2 whereas birds that have plenty of food in a cage1 sing the greatest part of the year3 the female of no species of birds ever sings4 ,this is a wise provision1 because her song would discover her nest4 ,in the same manner1 we may account for her inferiority of plumage4 ,the faculty of singing is confined to the cock birds2 and accordingly ,mr4 ,hunter1 in dissecting birds of several species1 found the muscles of the larynx to be stronger in the nightingale than in any other bird of the same size2 and in all those instances where he dissected both cock and hen1 the same muscles were stronger in the cock4 ,it is an observation as ancient as the time of ,pliny1 that a capon does not crow4 ,some ascribe the singing of the cock in the spring solely to the motive of pleasing his mate during incubation2 others1 who allow that it is partly for this end1 believe it is partly owing to another cause1 viz4 the great abundance of plants and insects in spring1 which are the proper food of singing birds at that time of the year1 as well as seeds4 ,mr4 ,barrington remarks1 that there is no instance of any singing bird which exceeds our blackbird in size2 and this1 he supposes1 may arise from the difficulty of concealing itself1 should it call the attention of its enemies1 not only by its bulk1 but by the proportionate loudness of its notes4 ,he further observes1 that some passages of the song in a few kinds of birds correspond with the intervals of our musical scale1 of which the cuckoo is a striking and known instance2 but the greater part of their song cannot be reduced to a musical scale2 partly because the rapidity is often so great1 and it is also so uncertain when they may stop1 that we cannot reduce the passages to form a musical bar in any time whatsoever2 partly also1 because the pitch of most birds is considerably higher than the most shrill notes of those instruments which have the greatest compass2 and principally1 because the intervals used by birds are commonly so minute1 that we cannot judge of them from the more gross intervals into which we divide our musical octave4 ,this writer apprehends1 that all birds sing in the same key2 and he found by a nightingale1 as well as a robin which was educated under him1 that the notes reducible to our intervals of the octave were always precisely the same4 ,most people1 who have not attended to the notes of birds1 suppose1 that every species sing exactly the same notes and passages3 but this is not true2 though there is a general resemblance4 ,thus the ,london bird-catchers prefer the song of the ,kentish goldfinches1 and ,essex chaffinches2 and some of the nightingale fanciers prefer a ,surrey bird to those of ,middlesex4 ,of all singing birds1 the song of the nightingale has been most universally admired2 and its superiority consists in the following particulars3 its tone is much more mellow than that of any other bird1 though1 at the same time1 by a proper exertion of its musical powers1 it can be very brilliant4 ,another superiority is1 its continuance of song without a pause1 which is sometimes twenty seconds2 and when respiration becomes necessary1 it takes it with as much judgment as an opera singer4 ,the skylark1 in this particular1 as well as in compass and variety1 is only second to the nightingale4 ,the nightingale also sings with judgment and taste4 ,mr4 ,barrington says1 that his nightingale began softly1 like the ancient orators1 reserving its breath to swell certain notes1 which thus had a most astonishing effect4 ,he adds1 that the notes of birds which are annually imported from ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 both singly and in concert1 are not to be compared to those of ,european birds4 ,he has also formed a table1 to exhibit the comparative merits of the ,british singing birds2 wherein twenty being the point of perfection1 he states the nightingale at nineteen2 the woodlark and skylark at eighteen2 the blackcap at fourteen2 the titlark1 linnet1 goldfinch1 and robin1 at twelve2 with some variations respecting mellowness1 sprightliness1 execution1 c4 for which1 with the proportional differences of other birds1 we refer to his work4 ,we cannot resist the temptation to insert the following well-known ,,invitation ,,to ,,the ,,feathered ,,race4 ,written at ,claverton1 near ,bath ,again the balmy zephyr blows1 ,fresh verdure decks the grove2 ,each bird with vernal rapture glows1 ,and tunes his notes to love4 ,ye gentle warblers1 hither fly1 ,and shun the noontide heat2 ,my shrubs a cooling shade supply1 ,my groves a safe retreat4 ,here freely hop from spray to spray1 ,or weave the mossy nest1 ,here rove and sing the live-long day1 ,at night here sweetly rest4 ,amidst this cool translucent rill1 ,that trickles down the glade1 ,here bathe your plumes1 here drink your fill1 ,and revel in the shade4 ,no schoolboy rude1 to mischief prone1 ,e'er shows his ruddy face1 ,or twangs his bow1 or hurls a stone1 ,in this sequester'd place4 ,hither the vocal thrush repairs1 ,secure the linnet sings3 ,the goldfinch dreads no slimy snares1 ,to clog her painted wings4 ,sad ,philomel6 ah1 quit thy haunt1 ,yon distant woods among1 ,and round my friendly grotto chaunt ,thy sweetly plaintive song4 ,let not the harmless redbreast fear1 ,domestic bird1 to come ,and seek a sure asylum here1 ,with one that loves his home4 ,my trees for you1 ye artless tribe1 ,shall store of fruit preserve3 ,o let me thus your friendship bribe6 ,come1 feed without reserve4 ,for you these cherries ,i protect1 ,to you these plums belong2 ,sweet is the fruit that you have pick'd1 ,but sweeter far your song4 ,let then this league betwixt us made1 ,our mutual int'rest guard2 ,mine be the gift of fruit and shade1 ,your songs be my reward4 ,graves4 ,,chap4 ,,xxii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4 ,to their delicious task the fervent bees1 ,in swarming millions1 tend2 around1 athwart1 ,through the soft air the busy nations fly1 ,cling to the bud1 and with inserted tube ,suck its pure essence1 its ethereal soul2 ,and oft1 with bolder wing1 they1 soaring1 dare ,the purple heath1 or where the wild thyme grow1 ,and yellow load them with the luscious spoil4 ,thomson4 ,what various wonders may observers see ,in a small insect--the sagacious bee6 ,mark how the little untaught builders square ,their rooms1 and in the dark their lodgings rear2 ,nature's mechanics1 they unwearied strive ,and fill1 with curious labyrinths1 the hive4 ,see what bold strokes of architecture shine ,through the whole frame1 what beauty1 what design6 ,blackmore4 ,,the ,,honey ,,bee4 ,this important insect has been long and justly celebrated for its wonderful polity1 the neatness and precision with which it constructs its cells1 and the diligence with which it provides1 during the warmth of summer1 a supply of food for the support of the hive during the rigours of the succeeding winter4 ,the general history of this interesting insect has been amply detailed by various authors1 as ,swammerdam1 ,reaumur1 c4 c4 ,among the most elaborate accounts of later times1 may be mentioned that of ,mr4 ,john ,hunter1 which made its appearance in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #agib2 and that of ,m4 ,huber1 contained in his ,nouvelles ,observations sur les ,abeilles1 addressed to ,m4 ,bonnet1 the celebrated author of the ,contemplations de la ,nature4 ,the following account is drawn principally from ,hunter and ,huber4 ,there are three periods1 observes ,hunter1 at which the history of the bee may commence3 first1 in the spring1 when the queen begins to lay her eggs2 in the summer1 at the commencement of a new colony2 or in the autumn1 when they go into winter-quarters4 ,we shall begin the particular history of the bee with the new colony1 when nothing is formed4 ,when a hive sends off a colony1 it is commonly in the month of ,june2 but that will vary according to the season1 for1 in a mild spring1 bees sometimes swarm in the middle of ,may1 and very often at the latter end of it4 ,before they come off1 they commonly hang about the mouth of the hole or door of the hive for some days1 as if they had not sufficient room within for such hot weather1 which we believe is very much the case2 for if cold or wet weather come on1 they stow themselves very well1 and wait for fine weather4 ,but swarming appears to be rather an operation arising from necessity2 for they do not seem to remove voluntarily1 because if they have an empty space to fill1 they do not swarm2 therefore1 by increasing the size of the hive1 the swarming is prevented4 ,this period is much longer in some than in others4 ,for some evenings before they come off1 is often heard a singular noise1 a kind of ring1 or sound of a small trumpet2 by comparing it with the notes of a piano-forte1 it seemed to be the same sound with the lower ,a of the treble4 ,the swarm commonly consists of three classes2 a female or females1 males1 and those commonly called mules1 which are supposed to be of no sex1 and are the labourers2 the whole1 about two quarts in bulk1 making about six or seven thousand4 ,it is a question that cannot easily be determined1 whether this old stock sends off only young of the same season1 and whether the whole of their young ones1 or only a part4 ,as the males are entirely bred in the same season1 part go off2 but part must stay1 and most probably it is so with the others4 ,they commonly come off in the heat of the day1 often immediately after a shower4 ,when one goes off1 they all immediately follow1 and fly about1 seemingly in great confusion1 although there is one principle actuating the whole4 ,they soon appear to be directed to some fixed place2 such as the branch of a tree or bush1 the cavities of old trees1 or holes of houses leading into some hollow place2 and whenever the stand is made1 they immediately repair to it till they are all collected4 ,but it would seem1 in some cases1 that they had not fixed upon any resting-place before they come off1 or1 if they had1 that they were either disturbed1 if it was near1 or that it was at a great distance2 for1 after hovering some time1 as if undetermined1 they fly away1 mount up into the air1 and go off with great velocity4 ,when they have fixed upon their future habitation1 they immediately begin to make their combs for they have the materials within themselves4 ,i have reason1 says ,mr4 ,hunter1 to believe that they fill their crops with honey when they come away1 probably from the stock in the hive4 ,i killed several of those that came away1 and found their crops full1 while those that remained in the hive had their crops not near so full3 some of them came away with farina on their legs1 which ,i conceive to be rather accidental4 ,i may just observe here1 that a hive commonly sends off two1 sometimes three swarms in a summer1 but that the second is commonly less than the first1 and the third less than the second2 and this last has seldom time to provide for the winter4 ,the materials of their dwelling or comb1 which is the wax1 is the next consideration1 with the mode of forming1 preparing1 or disposing of it4 ,in giving a totally new account of the wax1 ,i shall first shew it can hardly be what it has been supposed to be4 ,first1 ,i shall observe that the materials1 as they are found composing the comb1 are not to be found in the same state 7as a composition7 in any vegetable1 where they have been supposed to be got4 ,the substance brought in on the legs1 which is the farina of the flowers of plants1 is1 in common1 ,i believe1 imagined to be the materials of which the wax is made1 for it is called by most1 the wax3 but it is the farina1 for it is always of the same colour as the farina of the flower where they are gathering2 and1 indeed1 we see them gathering it1 and we also see them covered almost all over with it like a dust3 nevertheless1 it has been supposed to be the wax1 or that the wax was extracted from it4 ,reaumur is of this opinion4 ,i made several experiments1 to see if there was such a quantity of oil in it1 as would account for the quantity of wax to be formed1 and to learn if it was composed of oil4 ,i held it near the candle2 it burnt1 but did not smell like wax1 and had the same smell when burning1 as farina when it was burnt4 ,i observed1 that this substance was of different colours on different bees1 but always of the same colour on both legs of the same bee2 whereas a new-made comb was all of one colour4 ,i observed1 that it was gathered with more avidity for old hives1 where the comb is complete1 than for those hives where it was only begun1 which we could hardly conceive1 admitting it to be the materials of wax4 ,also we may observe1 that at the very beginning of a hive1 the bees seldom bring in any substance on their legs for two or three days1 and after that1 the farina gatherers begin to increase2 for now some cells are formed to hold it as a store1 and some eggs are laid1 which1 when hatched1 will require this substance as food1 and which will be ready when the weather is wet4 ,the wax is formed by the bees themselves2 it may be called an external secretion of oil1 and ,i have found that it is formed between each scale of the under side of the belly4 ,when ,i first observed this substance1 in my examination of the working bee1 ,i was at a loss to say what it was3 ,i asked myself if it were scales forming1 and whether they cast the old1 as the lobster1 c4 does8 but it was to be found only between the scales on the lower side of the belly4 ,on examining the bees through glass hives1 while they were climbing up the glass1 ,i could see that most of them had this substance1 for it looked as if the lower or posterior edge of the scale was double1 or that there were double scales2 but ,i perceived it was loose1 not attached4 ,finding that the substance brought in on their legs was farina1 intended1 as appeared from every circumstance1 to be the food of the bee1 and not to make wax2 and not having yet perceived any thing that could give me the least idea of wax2 ,i conceived these scales might be it1 at least ,i thought it necessary to investigate them4 ,i therefore took several on the point of a needle1 and held them to a candle1 where they melted1 and immediately formed themselves into round globules2 upon which ,i no longer doubted that this was the wax1 which opinion was confirmed to me by not finding those scales but in the building season4 ,the cells1 or rather the congeries of cells1 which compose the comb1 may be said to form perpendicular plates1 or partitions1 which extend from top to bottom of the cavity in which they build1 and work downwards2 but if the upper part of this vault to which their combs are fixed1 is removed1 and a dome is put over1 they begin at the upper edge of the old comb1 and work up into the new cavity at the top4 ,they generally may be guided1 as to the directions of their new plates1 by forming ridges at top1 to which they begin to attach their combs4 ,in a long hive1 if these ridges are longitudinal1 their plates of comb will be longitudinal2 if placed transversely1 so will be the plates2 and if obliquely1 the plates of comb will be oblique also4 ,each plate consists of a double set of cells1 whose bottoms form the partition between each set4 ,the plates themselves are not very regularly arranged1 not forming a regular plane where they might have done so1 but are often adapted to the situation or shape of the cavity in which they are built4 ,the bees do not endeavour to shape their cavity to their work1 as the wasps do1 nor are the cells of equal depths1 also fitting them to their situation2 but as the breeding cells must all be of a given depth1 they reserve a sufficient number for breeding in1 and they put the honey into the others1 as also into the shallow ones4 ,the attachment of the comb round the cavity is not continued1 but interrupted1 so as to form passages in the middle of the plates1 especially if there be a cross-stick to support the comb2 these allow of bees to go across from plate to plate4 ,the substance which they use for attaching their combs to surrounding parts1 is not the same as the common wax2 it is softer and tougher1 a good deal like the substance with which they cover in their chrysalis1 or the humblebee surrounds her eggs4 ,it is probably a mixture of wax with farina4 ,the cells are placed nearly horizontal1 but not exactly so2 the mouth raised a little1 which probably may be to retain the honey the better3 however1 this rule is not strictly observed1 for often they are horizontal1 and towards the lower edge of a plane of comb they are often declining4 ,the first combs that a hive forms are the smallest1 and much neater than the last or lowermost4 ,their sides or partitions1 between cell and cell1 are much thinner1 and the hexagon is much more perfect4 ,the wax is purer1 being probably little else but wax1 and it is more brittle4 ,the lower combs are considerably larger1 and contain much more wax1 or perhaps1 more properly1 more materials2 and the cells are at such distances as to allow them to be of a round figure2 the wax is softer1 and there is something mixed with it4 ,i have observed that the cells are not all of equal size1 some being a degree larger than others2 and that the small are the first formed1 and of course at the upper part1 where the bees begin2 and the larger are nearer the lower part of the comb1 or last made3 however1 in hives of a particular construction1 where the bees may begin to work at one end1 and can work both down and towards the other end1 we often find the larger cells both on the lower part of the combs1 and also at the opposite end2 these are formed for the males to be bred in3 in the hornet and wasp combs there are larger cells for the queens to be bred in2 these are also formed in the lower tier1 and are the last formed4 ,the first comb made in a hive is all of one colour1 viz4 almost white2 but is not so white towards the end of the season1 having then more of a yellow cast4 ,what follows is principally abridged from ,huber1 who in many instances is more correct than ,hunter4--,a hive contains three kind of bees4 #a4 ,a single queen bee1 distinguishable by the great length of her body1 and the proportional shortness of her wings4 #b4 ,working-bees1 female non-breeders1 or1 as they were formerly called1 neuters1 to the amount of many thousands2 these are the smallest bees in the hive1 and are armed with a sting4 #c4 ,drones1 or males1 to the number perhaps of fifteen hundred or two thousand2 these are larger than the workers1 and of a dark colour2 they make a great noise in flying1 and have no sting4 ,the whole labour of the community is performed by the workers3 they elaborate the wax1 and construct the cells2 they collect the honey1 and feed the brood4 ,the drones1 numerous as they are1 serve no other purpose than to ensure the increase of the hive1 and are regularly massacred by the workers at the beginning of autumn4 ,it is the office of the queen-bee to lay the eggs4 ,these remain about three days in the cells before they are hatched4 ,a small white worm then makes its appearance1 7called indifferently1 worm1 larva1 maggot1 or grub27 this larva is fed with honey for some days1 and then changes into a nymph or pupa4 ,after passing a certain period in this state1 it comes forth a perfect winged insect4 ,m4 ,huber1 after noticing the propagation of this industrious race1 next states the accidental discovery of the very singular and unexpected consequences which follow from retarding the impregnation of the queen-bee beyond the twentieth or twenty-first day of her life4 ,in the natural order of things1 or when impregnation is not retarded1 the queen begins to lay the eggs of workers forty-six hours after1 and she continues for the subsequent eleven months to lay none but these2 and it is only after this period1 that a considerable and uninterrupted laying of the eggs of drones commences4 ,when1 on the contrary1 impregnation is retarded after the twenty-eighth day1 the queen begins1 from the forty-sixth hour1 to lay the eggs of drones2 and she lays no other kind during her whole life4 ,it would be tedious to detail the experiments2 they were numerous1 and the results uniform4 ,i occupied myself 7says ,m4 ,huber7 the remainder of #aghg1 and the two subsequent years1 with experiments on retarded fecundation1 and had constantly the same results4 ,it is undoubted1 therefore1 that when the course of natural instinct is retarded beyond the twentieth day1 only an imperfect generation is produced2 as the queen1 instead of laying the eggs of workers and of males equally1 will lay those of males only4 ,this discovery is entirely ,m4 ,huber's own3 and so difficult is it to offer any plausible explanation of the fact1 that he himself has scarcely attempted it4 ,the working-bees had been for ages considered as entirely destitute of sex2 and hence1 in the writings of many authors1 they are denominated neuters1 but from the experiments of ,schirach and ,huber1 it seems now to be clearly ascertained1 that the workers are really of the female sex4 ,m4 ,huber confirms the curious discovery of ,m4 ,schirach1 that when bees are by any accident deprived of their queen1 they have the power of selecting one or two grubs of workers1 and of converting them into queens2 and that they accomplish this by greatly enlarging the cells of those selected larv1 by supplying them more copiously with food1 and with that of a more pungent sort than is given to the common larv4 ,m4 ,huber gives the following curious account of the manner in which bees proceed in forming capacious cells for the workers' grubs destined to royalty4--,bees soon become sensible of having lost their queen1 and in a few hours commence the labour necessary to repair their loss4 ,first they select the young common worms1 which the requisite treatment is to convert into queens1 and immediately begin with enlarging the cells where they are deposited4 ,their mode of proceeding is curious2 and the better to illustrate it1 ,i shall describe the labour bestowed on a single cell1 which will apply to all the rest containing worms destined for queens4 ,having chosen a worm1 they sacrifice three of the contiguous cells2 next they supply it with food1 and raise a cylindrical enclosure around1 by which the cell becomes a perfect tube1 with a rhomboidal bottom2 for the parts forming the bottom are left untouched4 ,if the bees damaged it1 they would lay open three corresponding cells on the opposite surface of the comb1 and consequently destroy their worms1 which would be an unnecessary sacrifice1 and nature has opposed it4 ,therefore1 leaving the bottom rhomboidal1 they are satisfied with raising a cylindrical tube around the worm1 which1 like the other cells in the comb1 are horizontal4 ,but this habitation remains suitable to the worm called to the royal state1 only during the first three days of its existence3 another situation is requisite for the other two days it is a worm4 ,during that time1 though so small a portion of its life1 it must inhabit a cell nearly of a pyramidical figure1 and hanging perpendicularly4 ,the workers1 therefore gnaw away the cells surrounding the cylindrical tube1 mercilessly sacrifice their worms1 and use the wax in constructing a new pyramidical tube1 which they solder at right angles to the first1 and work it downwards4 ,the diameter of this pyramid decreases insensibly from the base1 which is very wide1 to the point4 ,in proportion as the worm grows1 the bees labour in extending the cell1 and bring food1 which they place before its mouth1 and near its body1 forming a kind of cord around it4 ,the worm1 which can move only in a spiral direction1 turns incessantly to take the food before its head3 it insensibly descends1 and at length arrives at the orifice of the cell4 ,now is the time of transformation to a nymph4 ,as any further care is unnecessary1 the bees close the cell with a peculiar substance appropriated for it1 and there the worm undergoes both its metamorphoses4 ,m4 ,huber relates some experiments which confirm the singular discovery of ,m4 ,riems1 concerning common working bees that are capable of laying eggs1--which1 we may remark1 is certainly a most convincing proof of their being of the female sex4 ,eggs were observed to increase in number daily1 in a hive in which there were no queens of the usual appearance2 but small queens considerably resemble workers1 and to discriminate them1 required minute inspection4 ,my assistant1 7says ,m4 ,huber17 then offered to perform an operation that required both courage and patience1 and which ,i could not resolve to suggest1 though the same expedient had occurred to myself4 ,he proposed to examine each bee in the hive separately1 to discover whether some small queen had not insinuated herself among them1 and escaped our first researches4 ,it was necessary1 therefore1 to seize every one of the bees1 notwithstanding their irritation1 and to examine their specific character with the utmost care4 ,this my assistant undertook1 and executed with great address4 ,eleven days were employed in it2 and1 during all that time1 he scarcely allowed himself any relaxation but what the relief of his eyes required4 ,he took every bee in his hand2 he attentively examined the trunk1 the hind limbs1 and the sting2 and he found that there was not one without the characteristics of the common bee1 that is1 the little basket on the hind legs1 the long trunk1 and the straight sting4 ,when a supernumerary queen is produced in a hive1 or is introduced into it in the course of experiment1 either she or the rightful owner soon perishes4 ,the ,german naturalists1 ,schirach and ,riems1 imagined that the working bees assailed the stranger1 and stung her to death4 ,reaumur considered it as more probable1 that the sceptre was made to depend on the issue of a single combat between the claimants2 and this conjecture is verified by the observations of ,huber4 ,the same hostility towards rivals1 and destructive vengeance against royal cells1 animates all queens1 whether they be virgins1 or in a state of impregnation1 or mothers of numerous broods4 ,the working bees1 it may here be remarked1 remain quiet spectators of the destruction1 by the first-hatched queen1 of the remaining royal cells2 they approach only to share in the plunder presented by their havock-making mistress1 greedily devouring any food found at the bottom of the cells1 and even sucking the fluid from the abdomen of the nymphs before they toss out the carcase4 ,the following fact1 connected with this subject1 is one of the most curious perhaps in the whole history of this wonderful insect4 ,whenever the workers perceive that there are two rival queens in the hive1 numbers of them crowd around each2 they seem to be perfectly aware of the approaching deadly conflict1 and willing to prompt their ,amazonian chieftains to the battle2 for as often as the queens shew a disinclination to fight1 or seem inclined to recede from each other1 or to fly off1 the bees immediately surround and detain them2 but when either combatant shews a disposition to approach her antagonist1 all the bees forming the clusters instantly give way1 to allow her full liberty for the attack4 ,it seems strange that those bees1 who in general shew so much anxiety about the safety of their queen1 should1 in particular circumstances1 oppose her preparations to avoid impending danger1--should seem to promote the battle1 and to excite the fury of the combatants4 ,when a queen is removed from a hive1 the bees do not immediately perceive it2 they continue their labours1 watch over their young1 and perform all their ordinary occupations4 ,but1 in a few hours1 agitation ensues2 all appears a scene of tumult in the hive4 ,a singular humming is heard2 the bees desert their young1 and rush over the surface of the combs with a delirious impetuosity4 ,they have now evidently discovered that their sovereign is gone2 and the rapidity with which the bad news spreads through the hive1 to the opposite side of the combs1 is very remarkable4 ,on replacing the queen in the hive1 tranquillity is almost instantly restored4 ,the bees1 it is worthy of notice1 recognize the individual person of their own queen4 ,if another be palmed upon them1 they seize and surround her1 so that she is either suffocated1 or perishes by hunger2 for it is very remarkable1 that the workers are never known to attack a queen bee with their stings4 ,if1 however1 more than eighteen hours have elapsed before the stranger queen be introduced1 she has some chance to escape3 the bees at first seize and confine her1 but less rigidly2 and they soon begin to disperse1 and at length leave her to reign over a hive1 in which she was at first treated as a prisoner4 ,if twenty-four hours have elapsed1 the stranger will be well received from the first1 and at once admitted to the sovereignty of the hive4 ,in short1 it appears that the bees1 when deprived of their queen1 are thrown into great agitation2 that they wait about twenty hours1 apparently in hopes of her return2 but that1 after this interregnum1 the agitation ceases1 and they set about supplying their loss by beginning to construct royal cells4 ,it is when they are in this temper1 and not sooner1 that a stranger queen will be graciously received2 and upon her being presented to them1 the royal cells1 in whatever state of forwardness they may happen to be1 are instantly abandoned1 and the larv destroyed4 ,reaumur must therefore have mistaken the result of his own experiments1 when he asserts1 that a stranger queen is instantly well received1 though presented at the moment when the other is withdrawn4 ,he had seen the bees crowding around her at the entrance of the hive1 and laying their antenn over her2 and this he seems to have taken for caressing4 ,the structure of the hives he employed prevented him from seeing further3 had he used the leaf-hive1 or one of similar construction1 he would have perceived that the apparent caresses of the guards were only the prelude to actual imprisonment4 ,it is well known1 that after the season of swarming1 a general massacre of the drones is commenced4 ,several authors assert1 in their writings1 that the workers do not sting the drones to death1 but merely harass them till they are banished from the hive and perish4 ,m4 ,huber contrived a glass table1 on which he placed several hives1 and he was thus able to see distinctly what passed at the bottom of the hive1 which is generally dark and concealed3 he witnessed a real and furious massacre of the males1 the workers thrusting their stings so deep into the bodies of the defenceless drones1 that they were obliged to turn on themselves as on a pivot1 before they could extricate them4 ,the work of death commenced in all the hives much about the same time4 ,it is not1 however1 by a blind or indiscriminating instinct1 that the workers are impelled thus to sacrifice the males2 for if a hive be deprived of its queen1 no massacre of the males takes place in it1 while the hottest persecution rages in all the surrounding hives4 ,in this case1 the males are allowed to survive the winter4 ,mr4 ,bonner had observed this fact2 he supposed1 however1 that the workers thus tolerated the drones for the sake of the additional heat they generated in the hive2 but we now see the true reason to be1 that without them the new queen would not be fruitful4 ,the drones are also suffered to exist in hives that possess fertile workers1 but no proper queen2 and1 what is remarkable1 they are likewise spared in hives governed by a queen whose fecundity has been retarded4 ,here1 then1 we perceive a counter-instinct opposed to that which would have impelled them to the usual massacre4 ,upon the subject of swarming1 ,m4 ,huber commences with an interesting account of the hatching of the queen bee4 ,when the pupa is about to change into the perfect insect1 the bees render the cover of the cell thinner1 by gnawing away part of the wax2 and with so much nicety do they perform this operation1 that the cover at last becomes pellucid1 owing to its extreme thinness4 ,this must not only facilitate the exit of the fly1 but1 ,m4 ,huber remarks1 it may possibly be useful in permitting the evaporation of the superabundant fluids of the nymph4 ,after the transformation is complete1 the young queens would1 in common course1 immediately emerge from their cells1 as workers and drones do2 but the bees always keep them prisoners for some days in their cells1 supplying them in the mean time with honey for food2 a small hole being made in the door of each cell1 through which the confined bee extends its proboscis to receive it4 ,the royal prisoners continually utter a kind of song1 the modulations of which are said to vary4 ,the final cause of this temporary imprisonment1 it is suggested1 may possibly be1 that they may be able to take flight at the instant they are liberated4 ,when a young queen at last gets out1 she meets with rather an awkward reception2 she is pulled1 bitten1 and chased1 as often as she happens to approach the other royal cells in the hive4 ,the purpose of nature here seems to be1 that she should be impelled to go off with a swarm as soon as possible4 ,a curious fact was observed on these occasions3 when the queen found herself much harassed1 she had only to utter a peculiar noise1 7the commanding voice1 we may presume1 of sovereignty17 and all the bees were instantaneously constrained to submission and obedience4 ,this is1 indeed1 one of the most marked instances in which the queen exerts her sovereign power4 ,the conclusions at which ,m4 ,huber arrives on the subject of swarms are the following3-- ,first1 ,a swarm is always led off by a single queen1 either the sovereign of the parent hive1 or one recently brought into existence4 ,if1 at the return of spring1 we examine a hive well peopled1 and governed by a fertile queen1 we shall see her lay a prodigious number of male eggs in the course of ,may1 and the workers will choose that moment for constructing several royal cells4 ,this laying of male eggs in ,may1 ,m4 ,huber calls the great laying2 and he remarks1 that no queen ever has a great laying till she be eleven months old4 ,it is only after finishing this laying1 that she is able to undertake the journey implied in leading a swarm2 for1 previously to this1 latum trahit alvum1 which unfits her for flying4 ,there appears to be a secret relation between the production of the male eggs1 and the construction of royal cells4 ,the great laying commonly lasts thirty days2 and regularly1 on the twentieth or twenty-first1 several royal cells are founded4 ,secondly1 ,when the larv hatched from the eggs laid by the queen in the royal cells are ready to transform to nymphs1 this queen leaves the hive1 conducting a swarm along with her2 and the first swarm that proceeds from the hive is uniformly conducted by the old queen4 ,m4 ,huber remarks1 that it was necessary that instinct should impel the old queen to lead forth the first swarm3 for1 that she being the strongest1 would never have failed to have overthrown the younger competitors for the throne4 ,an old queen1 as has already been said1 never quits a hive at the head of a swarm1 till she has finished her laying of male eggs2 but this is of importance1 not merely that she may be lighter and fitter for flight1 but that she may be ready to begin with the laying of workers' eggs in her new habitation1 workers being the bees first needed1 in order to secure the continuance and prosperity of the newly-founded commonwealth4 ,thirdly1 ,after the old queen has conducted the first swarm from the hive1 the remaining bees take particular care of the royal cells1 and prevent the young queens1 successively hatched1 from leaving them1 unless at an interval of several days between each4 ,under this head he introduces a number of general remarks1 some of which may prove useful4 ,a swarm 7he observes7 is never seen unless in a fine day1 or1 to speak more correctly1 at a time of the day when the sun shines1 and the air is calm4 ,sometimes we have observed all the precursors of swarming1 disorder and agitation3 but a cloud passed before the sun1 and tranquillity was restored2 the bees thought no more of swarming4 ,an hour afterwards1 the sun having again appeared1 the tumult was renewed2 it rapidly augmented1 and the swarm departed4 ,a certain degree of tumult commences as soon as the young queens are hatched1 and begin to traverse the hive3 the agitation soon pervades the whole bees2 and such a ferment soon rages1 that ,m4 ,huber has often observed the thermometer in the hive to rise suddenly from about #ib to above #ajd3 this suffocating heat he considers as one of the means employed by nature for urging the bees to go off in swarms4 ,in warm weather1 one strong hive has been known to send off four swarms in eighteen days4 ,the cause of the bees1 which has been so eloquently and pathetically pleaded by the ,poet of the ,seasons1 is supported by ,m4 ,huber1 on a principle more intelligible1 perhaps1 and more persuasive1 to most country bee-masters1 viz4 interest4 ,he deprecates the destruction of bees1 and recommends to the cultivator to be content with a reasonable share of the wealth of the hive2 arguing very justly1 we believe1 that a little taken from each of a number of hives1 is ultimately much more profitable than a greater quantity obtained by a total destruction of a few4 ,we conclude our observations on this curious insect by two poetical quotations4 ,of all the race of animals1 alone ,the bees have common cities of their own4 ,mindful of coming cold1 they share the pain1 ,and hoard for winter's use the summer's gain4 ,some o'er the public magazines preside1 ,and some are sent new forage to provide2 ,these drudge in fields abroad1 and those at home ,lay deep foundations for the labour'd comb2 ,to pitch the waxen flooring some contrive2 ,some nurse the future nation of the hive4 ,their toil is common1 common is their sleep2 ,they shake their wings when morn begins to peep3 ,rush through the city gates without delay1 ,nor ends their work but with declining day4 ,churchill1 after the following beautiful and picturesque description1 introduces a sovereign1 drawing from it1 in a soliloquy1 the most natural reflections on the momentous duties of his station4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,strength in her limbs1 and on her wings dispatch1 ,the bee goes forth2 from herb to herb she flies1 ,from flow'r to flow'r1 and loads her lab'ring thighs ,with treasur'd sweets1 robbing those flow'rs1 which left1 ,find not themselves made poorer by the theft1 ,their scents as lively1 and their looks as fair1 ,as if the pillager had not been there4 ,ne'er doth she flit on pleasure's silken wing1 ,ne'er doth she loit'ring let the bloom of spring ,unrifled pass1 and on the downy breast ,of some fair flow'r indulge untimely rest4 ,ne'er doth she1 drinking deep of those rich dews ,which chemist ,night prepar'd1 that faith abuse ,due to the hive1 and1 selfish in her toils1 ,to her own private use convert the spoils4 ,love of the stock first call'd her forth to roam1 ,and to the stock she brings her honey home4 ,,chap4 ,,xxiii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,the ,clothier ,bee4--,the ,carpenter ,bee4--,the ,mason ,bee4--,the ,upholsterer ,bee4--,the ,leaf-cutter ,bee4--,curious ,account of an ,idiot ,boy and ,bees4--,mr4 ,wildman's ,curious ,exhibitions of ,bees explained4 ,,wild ,,bees4 ,,the ,,clothier ,,bee4 ,learn each small people's genius1 policies1 ,the ants' republic1 and the realm of bees2 ,how those in common all their wealth bestow ,and anarchy without confusion know2 ,and these for ever1 though a monarch reign1 ,their separate cells and properties maintain4 ,mark what unvary'd laws preserve each state1 ,laws1 wise as ,nature1 and as fixt as ,fate4 ,pope4 ,the following curious account of wild bees is principally abridged from ,kirby and ,spence's very interesting work on entomology4 ,the clothier bee is a lively and gay insect4 ,it does not excavate holes for their reception1 but places them in the cavities of old trees1 or of any other object that suits its purpose4 ,sir ,thomas ,cullum discovered the nest of one in the inside of the lock of a garden gate1 in which ,mr4 ,kirby also since twice found them4 ,it should seem1 however1 that such situations would be too cold for the grubs without a coating of some non-conducting substance4 ,the parent bee1 therefore1 after having constructed the cells1 laid an egg in each1 and filled them with a store of suitable food1 plasters them with a covering of vermiform masses1 apparently composed of honey and pollen2 and having done this1 aware 7long before ,count ,rumford's experiments7 what materials conduct heat most slowly1 she attacks the woolly leaves of ,stachy's lanata1 ,agrostemma coronaria1 and similar plants1 and with her mandibles industriously scrapes off the wool1 which with her fore legs she rolls into a little ball1 and carries to her nest4 ,this wool she sticks upon the plaster that covers her cells1 and thus closely envelopes them with a warm coating of down1 impervious to every change of temperature4 ,,the ,,carpenter ,,bee4--,a numerous family of wild bees may properly be compared to carpenters1 boring with incredible labour1 out of the solid wood1 long cylindrical tubes1 and dividing them into various cells4 ,amongst these1 one of the most remarkable is the ,apis violacea1 ,l4 7,xylacopa1 ,latr47 a large species1 a native of southern ,europe1 distinguished by beautiful wings of a deep violet colour1 and found commonly in gardens1 in the upright putrescent espaliers1 or vine props1 of which1 and occasionally in the garden seats1 doors1 and window-shutters1 she makes her nest4 ,in the beginning of spring1 after repeated and careful surveys1 she fixes upon a piece of wood suitable for her purpose1 and with her strong mandibles begins the process of boring4 ,first proceeding obliquely downwards1 she soon points her course in a direction parallel with the sides of the wood1 and at length with unwearied exertion forms a cylindrical hole or tunnel not less than twelve or fifteen inches long1 and half an inch broad4 ,sometimes1 where the diameter will admit of it1 three or four of these pipes1 nearly parallel with each other1 are bored in the same piece4 ,herculean as this task 7which is the labour of several days7 appears1 it is but a small part of what our industrious bee cheerfully undertakes4 ,as yet she has completed1 but the shell of the destined habitation of her offspring2 each of which1 to the number of ten or twelve1 will require a separate and distinct apartment4 ,in excavating her tunnel1 she has detached a large quantity of fibres1 which lie on the ground like a heap of saw-dust4 ,this material supplies all her wants4 ,having deposited an egg at the bottom of the cylinder1 along with the requisite store of pollen and honey1 she next1 at the height of about three-quarters of an inch1 7which is the depth of each cell17 constructs of particles of the saw-dust glued together1 and also to the sides of the tunnel1 what may be called an annular stage or scaffolding4 ,when this is sufficiently hardened1 its interior edge affords support for a second ring of the same materials1 and thus the ceiling is gradually formed of these concentric circles1 till there remains only a small orifice in its centre1 which is also closed with a circular mass of agglutinated particles of saw-dust4 ,when this partition1 which serves as the ceiling of the first cell1 and the flooring of the second1 is finished1 it is about the thickness of a crown piece1 and exhibits the appearance of as many concentric circles as the animal has made pauses in her labour4 ,one cell being finished1 she proceeds to another1 which she furnishes and completes in the same manner1 and so on1 until she has divided her whole tunnel into ten or twelve apartments4 ,such a laborious undertaking as the constructing and furnishing these cells1 cannot be the work of one1 or even of two days4 ,considering that every cell requires a store of honey and pollen1 not to be collected but with long toil1 and that a considerable interval must be spent in agglutinating the floors of each1 it will be very obvious that the last egg in the last cell must be laid many days after the first4 ,we are certain1 therefore1 that the first egg will become a grub1 and consequently a perfect bee1 many days before the last4 ,what then becomes of it8 ,it is impossible that it should make its escape through eleven superincumbent cells1 without destroying the immature tenants2 and it seems equally impossible that it should remain patiently in confinement below them until they are all disclosed4 ,this dilemma our heaven-taught architect has provided against4 ,with forethought1 never enough to be admired1 she has not constructed her tunnel with one opening only1 but at the farther end has pierced another orifice1 a kind of back door1 through which the insects produced by the first-laid eggs successively emerge into day4 ,in fact1 all the young bees1 even the uppermost1 go out by this road2 for1 by an exquisite instinct1 each grub1 when about to become a pupa1 places itself in its cell1 with its head downwards1 and thus is necessitated1 when arrived at its last state1 to pierce its cell in this direction4 ,we shall now describe ,,the ,,mason-,,bee4--,there is a family of wild bees which carry on the trade of masons1 building their solid houses solely of artificial stone4 ,the first step of the mother bee1 ,apis mururia1 ,oliv4 7,anthophara1 ,f4 ,megachile1 ,latr47 is to fix upon a proper situation for the future mansion of her offspring4 ,for this she usually selects an angle1 sheltered by any projection1 on the south side of a stone wall4 ,her next care is to provide materials for the structure4 ,the chief of these is sand1 which she carefully selects1 grain by grain1 from such as contain some mixture of earth2 these grains she glues together with her viscid saliva into masses the size of small shot1#aj and transports by means of her jaws to the site of her castle4 ,with a number of these masses1 which are the artificial stone of which her building is to be composed1 united by a cement preferable to ours1 she first forms the basis or foundation of the whole4 ,next she raises the walls of a cell1 which is an inch long and half an inch broad1 and1 before its orifice is closed1 in form resembles a thimble4 ,this1 after depositing an egg1 and a supply of honey and pollen1 she covers in1 and then proceeds to the erection of a second1 which she finishes in the same manner1 until the whole number1 which varies from four to eight1 is completed4 ,the vacuities between the cells1 which are not placed in any regular order1 some being parallel to the wall1 others being perpendicular to it1 and others inclined to it at different angles1 this laborious architect fills up with the same material of which the cells are composed1 and then bestows upon the whole group a common covering of coarser grains of sand4 ,the form of the whole nest1 which1 when finished1 is a solid mass of stone1 so hard as not to be easily penetrated with the blade of a knife1 is an irregular oblong1 of the same colour as the sand1 and1 to a casual observer1 more resembling a splash of mud than an artificial structure4 ,these bees sometimes are more economical of their labour1 and repair old nests1 for the possession of which they have very desperate combats4 ,one would have supposed that the inhabitants of a castle so fortified might defy the attack of an insect marauder4 ,yet an ichneumon1 and a beetle 7,clerius apiarius1 ,f47 both contrive to introduce their eggs into the cells1 and the larv proceeding from them devour their inhabitants4--,reaum4 vi4 #eg1 #eh4 ,mon4 ,ap4 ,angl4 i4 #agi4 ,other bees of the same family use different materials in the construction of their nests4 ,some employ fine earth made into a kind of mortar made with gluten4 ,another1 7,a4 coerulescens1 ,l47 as we learn from ,de ,geer1 forms its nest of argillaceous earth1 mixed with chalk1 upon stone walls1 and sometimes probably builds in chalk-pits4 ,apis bicornis1 ,l4 selects the hollows of large stones for the site of its dwelling2 whilst others prefer the holes in wood4 ,we now proceed to ,,the ,,upholsterer-,,bee4--,such may those be denominated which line the holes excavated in the earth for the reception of their young1 with an elegant coating of flowers or of leaves4 ,amongst the most interesting of these is ,apis ,papaveris1 7,megachile1 ,latr41 ,anthophora1 ,f47 a species whose manners have been admirably described by ,reaumur4 ,this little bee1 as though fascinated with the colour most attractive to our eyes1 invariably chooses for the hangings of her apartments the most brilliant scarlet1 selecting for its material the petals of the wild poppy1 which she dexterously cuts into the proper form4 ,her first process is to excavate in some pathway a burrow1 cylindrical at the entrance1 but swelled out below1 to the depth of about three inches4 ,having polished the walls of this little apartment1 she next flies to a neighbouring field1 cuts out oval portions of the flowers of poppies1 seizes them between her legs1 and returns with them to her cell2 and though separated from the wrinkled petal of a half-expanded flower1 she knows how to straighten their folds1 and1 if too large1 to fit them for her purpose by cutting off the superfluous parts4 ,beginning at the bottom1 she overlays the walls of her mansion with this brilliant tapestry1 extending it also on the surface of the ground round the margin of the orifice4 ,the bottom is rendered warm by three or four coats1 and the sides have never less than two4 ,the little upholsterer1 having completed the hangings of her apartment1 next fills it with pollen and honey to the height of about half an inch2 then1 after committing an egg to it1 she wraps over the poppy lining1 so that even the roof may leave this material2 and lastly1 closes its mouth with a small hillock of earth4--,reaum4 #f4 #aci to #adh4 ,the great depth of the cell1 compared with the space which the single egg and the accompanying food deposited in it occupy1 deserves particular notice4 ,this is not more than half an inch at the bottom1 the remaining two inches and a half being subsequently filled with earth4 ,,the ,,leaf-,,cutter ,,bee4--,there is a species of wild bee1 that cover the walls of their cells with coatings of sober-coloured materials1 generally selecting for their hangings the leaves of trees1 especially of the rose1 whence they have been known by the name of the leaf-cutter bees4 ,they differ also from ,a4 ,papaveris in excavating longer burrows1 and filling them with several thimble-shaped cells1 composed of portions of leaves so curiously convoluted1 that1 if we were ignorant in what school they have been taught to construct them1 we should never credit their being the work of an insect4 ,their entertaining history1 so long ago as #afgj1 attracted the attention of our countrymen1 ,ray1 ,lister1 ,willoughby1 and ,sir ,edw4 ,king2 but we are indebted for the most complete account of the procedure1 to ,reaumur4 ,the mother bee first excavates a cylindrical hole eight or ten inches long1 in a horizontal direction1 either in the ground or in the trunk of a rotten willow-tree1 or occasionally in other decaying wood4 ,this cavity she fills with six or seven cells1 wholly composed of portions of leaf in the shape of a thimble1 the convex end of one closely fitting into the open end of another4 ,her first process is to form the exterior coating1 which is composed of three or four pieces1 of larger dimensions than the rest1 and of an oval form4 ,the second coating is formed of portions of equal size1 narrow at one end1 but gradually widening towards the other1 where the width equals half the length4 ,one side of these pieces is the serrate margin of the leaf from which it was taken1 which1 as the pieces are made to lap one over the other1 is kept on the outside1 and that which has been cut within4 ,the little animal now forms a third coating of similar materials1 the middle of which1 as the most skilful workman would do in similar circumstances1 she places over the margins of those that form the first tube1 thus covering and strengthening the junctures4 ,repeating the same process1 she gives a fourth and sometimes a fifth coating to her nest1 taking care1 at the closed end or narrow extremity of the cell1 to bend the leaves so as to form a convex termination4 ,having thus finished a cell1 her next business is to fill it1 to within half a line of the orifice1 with a rose-coloured conserve1 composed of honey and pollen1 usually collected from the flowers of thistles2 and then having deposited her egg1 she closes the orifice with three pieces of leaf so exactly circular1 that a pair of compasses could not define their margin with more truth1 and coinciding so precisely with the walls of the cell1 as to be retained in their situation merely by the nicety of their adaptation4 ,after this covering is fitted in1 there remains still a concavity1 which receives the convex end of the succeeding cell2 and in this manner the indefatigable little animal proceeds until she has completed the six or seven cells composing her cylinder4 ,the process which one of these bees employs in cutting the pieces of leaf that compose her nest1 is worthy of attention4 ,nothing can be more expeditious2 she is not longer about it than we should be with a pair of scissors4 ,after hovering for some moments over a rose bush1 as if to reconnoitre the ground1 the bee alights upon the leaf which she has selected1 usually taking her station upon its edge1 so that the margin passes between her legs4 ,with her strong mandibles she cuts without intermission in a curve line1 so as to detach a triangular portion4 ,when this hangs by the last fibre1 lest its weight should carry her to the ground1 she balances her little wings for flight1 and the very moment it parts from the leaf1 flies off with it in triumph2 the detached portion remaining bent between her legs in a direction perpendicular to her body4 ,thus without rule or compasses do these diminutive creatures mete out the materials of their work into portions of an ellipse1 into ovals or circles1 accurately accommodating the dimensions of the several pieces of each figure to each other4 ,what other architect could carry impressed upon the tablet of his memory the entire idea of the edifice which he has to erect1 and1 destitute of square or plumb-line1 cut out his materials in their exact dimensions without making a single mistake8 ,yet this is what our little bee invariably does4 ,so far are human art and reason excelled by the teaching of the ,almighty4--,reaum4 vi4 #iga-id4 ,mor4 ,ap4 ,angl4 i4 #aeg4 ,apis c4 #b4 ,a ,,curious ,,account ,,of ,,an ,,idiot ,,boy1 ,,and ,,bees4--,mr4 ,white has given the following curious account of an idiot boy4 ,from a child he shewed a strong propensity to bees4 ,they were his food1 his amusement1 his sole object4 ,in the winter he dozed away his time in his father's house1 by the fire-side1 in a torpid state1 seldom leaving the chimney-corner3 but in summer he was all alert1 and in quest of his game4 ,hive-bees1 humble-bees1 and wasps1 were his prey1 wherever he found them4 ,he had no apprehension from their stings1 but would seize them with naked hands1 and at once disarm them of their weapons1 and suck their bodies for the sake of their honey-bags4 ,sometimes he would fill his bosom between his shirt and skin with these insects2 and sometimes he endeavoured to confine them in bottles4 ,he was very injurious to men that kept bees1 for he would glide into their bee-gardens1 and1 sitting down before the stools1 would rap with his fingers1 and so take the bees as they came out4 ,he has even been known to overturn the hives for the sake of the honey1 of which he was passionately fond4 ,where metheglin was making1 he would linger round the tubs and vessels1 begging a draught of what he called bee-wine4 ,as he ran about1 he used to make a humming noise with his lips1 resembling the buzzing of bees4 ,this lad was lean and sallow1 and of a cadaverous complexion2 and1 except in his favourite pursuit1 in which he was wonderfully adroit1 discovered no manner of understanding4 ,had his capacity been better1 and directed to the same object1 he had perhaps abated much of our wonder at the feats of a more modern exhibiter of bees2 and we may justly say of him now1 --------------------------,thou ,had thy presiding star propitious ,shouldst ,wildman be4 ,white's ,natural ,history4 ,we conclude this chapter with an explanation of the preceding lines4 ,,mr4 ,,wildman',s ,,curious ,,exhibitions ,,of ,,bees4--,mr4 ,wildman1 by his dexterity in the management of bees1 some years ago1 surprised the whole kingdom4 ,he caused swarms to light where he pleased1 almost instantaneously2 he ordered them to settle on his head1 then removed them to his hand1 and commanded them to settle on a window1 table1 c4 at pleasure4 ,we subjoin the method of performing these feats1 in his own words3 ,long experience has taught me1 that as soon as ,i turn up a hive1 and give it some taps on the sides and bottom1 the queen immediately appears1 to know the cause of this alarm2 but soon retires again among her people4 ,being accustomed to see her so often1 ,i readily perceive her at first glance2 and long practice has enabled me to seize her instantly1 with a tenderness that does not in the least endanger her person4 ,this is of the utmost importance2 for the least injury done to her brings immediate destruction to the hive1 if you have not a spare queen to put in her place1 as ,i have too often experienced in my first attempts4 ,when possessed of her1 ,i can1 without injury to her1 or exciting that degree of resentment that may tempt her to sting me1 slip her into my other hand1 and1 returning the hive to its place1 hold her there1 till the bees missing her1 are all on wing1 and in the utmost confusion4 ,when the bees are thus distressed1 ,i place the queen wherever ,i would have the bees to settle4 ,the moment a few of them discover her1 they give notice to those near them1 and those to the rest2 the knowledge of which becomes so general1 that in a few minutes they all collect themselves round her1 and are so happy in having recovered this sole support of their state1 that they will long remain quiet in their situation3 nay1 the scent of her body is so attractive of them1 that the slightest touch of her along any place or substance1 will attach the bees to it1 and induce them to any path she takes4--,this was the only witchcraft used by ,mr4 ,wildman1 and is that alone which is practised by others1 who have since made similar exhibitions4 ,,chap4 ,,xxiv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,the ,wasp4 ,the laws of life1 why need ,i call to mind1 ,obey'd by insects1 too1 of ev'ry kind6 ,of these1 none uncontroll'd and lawless rove1 ,but to some destin'd end spontaneous move3 ,led by that instinct ,heav'n itself inspires1 ,or so much reason as their state requires4 ,see all with skill acquire their daily food1 ,all use those arms which nature has bestow'd2 ,produce their tender progeny1 and feed ,with care parental1 while that care they need4 ,in these lov'd offices completely blest1 ,no hopes beyond them1 nor vain fears molest4 ,jenyns4 ,for the following account of the ,,wasp1 we are indebted to ,kirby and ,spence2 and we take this opportunity of making a general acknowledgment of our obligations to those gentlemen1 for the assistance we have derived from their highly interesting treatise1 in drawing up this account of the curiosities respecting insects4 ,compared with hive-bees1 wasps may be considered as a horde of thieves and brigands3 while the bees are peaceful1 honest1 and industrious subjects2 the wasps attack their persons1 and plunder their property4 ,yet1 with all this love of pillage and other bad propensities1 they are not altogether disagreeable or unamiable2 they are brisk and lively2 they do not usually attack unprovoked2 and their object in plundering us is not purely selfish1 but is principally to provide for the support of the young brood of their colonies4 ,the societies of wasps1 like those of ants1 and other social ,hymenoptera1 consist of females1 males1 and workers4 ,the females may be considered as of two sorts3 first1 the females1 by way of eminence1 are much larger than any other individuals of the community2 they equal six of the workers 7from which in other respects they do not materially differ7 in weight1 and lay both male and female eggs3 then the small females1 not larger than the workers1 which lay only male eggs4 ,this last description of females1 which are found also both amongst the humble-bees and hive-bees1 were first observed among wasps1 by ,m4 ,perrot1 a friend of ,huber's4 ,the large females are produced later than the workers1 and make their appearance in the next spring2 and whoever then destroys one of them1 destroys an entire colony1 of which she would be the founder4 ,different from the queen-bee1 the female wasp is at first an insulated being1 that has had the fortune to survive the rigours of winter4 ,when in the spring she lays the foundation of her future empire1 she has not a single worker at her disposal2 with her own hands and teeth she often hollows out a cave wherein she may lay the first foundations of her paper metropolis3 she must herself build the first houses1 and produce from her own body their first inhabitants2 which in their infant state she must feed and educate1 before they can assist her in her great design4 ,at length she receives the reward of her perseverance and labour2 and from being a solitary unconnected individual1 in the autumn is enabled to rival the queen of the hive in the number of her children and subjects1 and in the edifices which they inhabit--the number of cells in a vespiary sometimes amounting to more than sixteen thousand1 almost all of which contain either an egg1 a grub1 or a pupa1 and each cell serving for three generations in a year2 which1 after making every allowance for failures and other casualties1 will give a population of at least thirty thousand4 ,even at this time1 when she has so numerous an army of coadjutors1 the industry of this creature does not cease1 but she continues to set an example of diligence to the rest of the community4 ,if by any accident1 before the other females are hatched1 the queen-mother perishes1 the neuters cease their labours1 lose their instincts1 and die4 ,the number of females in a populous vespiary is considerable1 amounting to several hundreds2 they emerge from the pupa about the latter end of ,august1 at the same time with the males1 and fly in ,september and ,october1 when they pair4 ,of this large number of females1 very few survive the winter4 ,those that are so fortunate1 remain torpid till the vernal sun recalls them to life and action4 ,they then fly forth1 collect provision for their young brood1 and are engaged in the other labours necessary for laying the foundation of their empire2 but in the summer months they are never seen out of the nest4 ,the male wasps are much smaller than the female1 but they weigh as much as two workers4 ,their antenn are longer than those of either1 not1 like theirs1 thicker at the end1 but perfectly filiform2 and their abdomen is distinguished by an additional segment4 ,their numbers about equal those of the females1 and they are produced at the same time4 ,they are not so wholly given to pleasure and idleness as the drones of the hive4 ,they do not1 indeed1 assist in building the nest1 and in the care of the young brood2 but they are the scavengers of the community1 for they sweep the passages and streets1 and carry off all the filth4 ,they also remove the bodies of the dead1 which are sometimes heavy burdens for them2 in which case two unite their strength1 to accomplish the work2 or1 if a partner be not at hand1 the wasp thus employed cuts off the head of the defunct1 and so effects its purpose4 ,as they make themselves so useful1 they are not1 like the male bees1 devoted by the workers to an universal massacre when the great end of their creation is answered2 but they share the general lot of the community1 and are suffered to survive till the cold cuts off them and the workers together4 ,the workers are the most numerous1 and to us the only troublesome part of the community2 upon whom devolves the main business of the nest4 ,in the summer and autumnal months they go forth by myriads into the neighbouring country to collect provisions2 and on their return to the common den1 after reserving a sufficiency for the nutriment of the young brood1 they divide the spoil with great impartiality2 part being given to the females1 part to the males1 and part to those workers that have been engaged in extending and fortifying the vespiary4 ,this division is voluntarily made1 without the slightest symptom of compulsion4 ,several wasps assemble round each of the returning workers1 and receive their respective portions4 ,it is curious and interesting to observe their motions on this occasion4 ,as soon as a wasp that has been filling itself with the juice of fruits arrives at the nest1 it perches upon the top1 and1 disgorging a drop of its saccharine fluid1 is attended sometimes by two at once1 who share the treasure2 this being thus distributed1 a second1 and sometimes a third drop1 is produced1 which falls to the lot of others4 ,wasps1 though ferocious and cruel towards their fellow-insects1 are civilized and polished in their intercourse with each other1 and form a community whose architectural labours will not suffer on comparison even with those of the peaceful inhabitants of a bee-hive4 ,like these1 the great object of their industry is the erection of a structure for their beloved progeny1 towards which they discover the greatest affection and tenderness1 and1 like bees1 construct combs consisting of hexagonal cells for their reception2 but the substance which they make use of is very dissimilar to the wax employed by bees1 and the general plan of their city differs in many respects from that of a bee-hive4 ,the common wasp's nest1 usually situated in a cavity under ground1 is of an oval figure1 about sixteen or eighteen inches long1 by twelve or thirteen broad4 ,externally1 it is surrounded by a thick coating of numerous leaves of a sort of grayish paper1 which do not touch each other1 but have a small interval between each1 so that if the rain should chance to penetrate one or two of them1 its progress is speedily arrested4 ,on removing this external covering1 we perceive that the interior consists of from twelve to sixteen circular combs of different sizes1 not ranged vertically1 as in a bee-hive1 but horizontally1 so as to form so many distinct and parallel stories4 ,each comb is composed of a numerous assembiage of hexagonal cells1 formed of the same paper-like substance as the exterior covering of the nest1 and1 according to a discovery of ,dr4 ,barclay1 each1 as in those of bees1 a distinct cell1 the partition walls being double4--,memoirs of the ,wernerian ,society1 ii4 #bfj4 ,these cells1 which1 as wasps do not store up any food1 serve merely as the habitations of their young1 are not1 like those of the honey-bee1 arranged in two opposite layers1 but in one only1 their entrance being always downwards3 consequently the upper part of the comb1 composed of the bases of the cells1 which are not pyramidal1 but slightly convex1 forms a nearly level floor1 on which the inhabitants can conveniently pass and repass1 spaces of about half an inch high being left between each comb4 ,although the combs are fixed to the sides of the nest1 they would not be sufficiently strong without further support4 ,the ingenious builders1 therefore1 connect each comb to that below it by a number of strong cylindrical columns or pillars1 having1 according to the rules of architecture1 their base and capital wider than the shaft1 and composed of the same paper-like material used in other parts of the nest1 but of a more compact substance4 ,the middle combs are connected by a rustic colonnade of from forty to fifty of these pillars2 the upper and lower combs by a smaller number4 ,the cells are of different sizes1 corresponding to that of the three orders of individuals which compose the community2 the largest for the grubs of females1 the smallest for those of workers4 ,the last always occupy an entire comb1 while the cells of the males and females are often intermixed4 ,besides openings which are left between the walls of the combs to admit of access from one to the other1 there are at the bottom of each nest two holes1 by one of which the wasps uniformly enter1 and through the other issue from the nest1 and thus avoid all confusion or interruption of their common labours4 ,as the nest is often a foot and a half under ground1 it is requisite that a covered way should lead to its entrance4 ,this is excavated by the wasps1 who are excellent miners1 and is often very long and tortuous1 forming a beaten road to the subterranean city1 well known to the inhabitants1 though its entrance is concealed from curious eyes4 ,the cavity itself1 which contains the nest1 is either the abandoned habitation of moles or field-mice1 or a cavern purposely dug out by the wasps1 which exert themselves with such industry as to accomplish the arduous undertaking in a few days4 ,when the cavity and entrance to it are completed1 the next part of the process is to lay the foundations of the city to be included in it1 which1 contrary to the usual customs of builders1 wasps begin at the top1 continuing downwards4 ,it has already been observed1 that the coatings which compose the dome1 are a sort of rough but thin paper1 and that the rest of the nest is composed of the same substance variously applied4 ,whence do the wasps derive it8 ,they are manufacturers of the article1 and prepare it from a material even more singular than any of those which have of late been proposed for this purpose2 namely1 the fibres of wood4 ,these they detach by means of their jaws from window-frames1 posts1 and rails1 c4 and1 when they have amassed a heap of the filaments1 moisten the whole with a few drops of a viscid glue from their mouth1 and1 kneading it with their jaws into a sort of paste1 or papier mch1 fly off with it to their nest4 ,this ductile mass they attach to that part of the building upon which they are at work1 walking backwards1 and spreading it into lamin of the requisite thinness by means of their jaws1 tongue1 and legs4 ,this operation is repeated several times1 until at length1 by aid of fresh supplies of the material1 and the combined exertions of so many workmen1 the proper number of layers of paper1 that are to compose the roof1 is finished4 ,this paper is as thin as the leaf you are reading2 and you may form an idea of the labour which even the exterior of a wasp's nest requires1 on being told that no fewer than fifteen or sixteen sheets of it are usually placed above each other1 with slight intervening spaces1 making the whole upwards of an inch and a half in thickness4 ,when the dome is completed1 the uppermost comb is next begun1 in which1 as well as all the other parts of the building1 precisely the same material and the same process1 with little variation1 are employed4 ,in the structure of the connecting pillars1 there seems a greater quantity of glue made use of than in the rest of the work1 doubtless with the view of giving them superior solidity4 ,when the first comb is finished1 the continuation of the roof or walls of the building is brought down lower2 a new comb is erected2 and thus the work successively proceeds until the whole is finished4 ,as a comparatively small proportion of the society is engaged in constructing the nest1 its entire completion is the work of several months3 yet1 though the fruit of such severe labour1 it has scarcely been finished a few weeks before winter comes on1 when it merely serves for the abode of a few benumbed females1 and is entirely abandoned at the approach of spring1 as wasps are never known to use the same nest for more than one season4 ,there is good reason for thinking1 and the opinion had the sanction of the late ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 that wasps have sentinels placed at the entrances of their nests1 which1 if you can once seize and destroy1 the remainder will not attack you4 ,this is confirmed by an observation of ,mr4 ,knight1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 7vol4 #a4 #b;d ,ed4 p4 #eje27 that if a nest of wasps be approached without alarming the inhabitants1 and all communication be suddenly cut off between those out of the nest and those within it1 no provocation will induce the former to defend it and themselves4 ,but if one escapes from within1 it comes with a very different temper1 and appears commissioned to avenge public wrongs1 and prepared to sacrifice its life in the execution of its orders4 ,he discovered this when quite a boy4 ,in ,october1 wasps seem to become less savage and sanguinary2 for even flies1 of which1 earlier in the summer1 they are the pitiless destroyers1 may be seen to enter their nests with impunity4 ,it is then1 probably1 that they begin to be first affected by the approach of the cold season1 when nature teaches them it is useless longer to attend to their young4 ,they themselves all perish1 except a few of the females1 upon the first attack of frost4 ,reaumur1 from whom most of these observations are taken1 put the nests of wasps under glass hives1 and succeeded so effectually in reconciling these little restless creatures to them1 that they carried on their various works under his eye4 ,,chap4 ,,xxv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,ants--,white ,ants--,green ,ants--,visiting ,ants--,the ,ant-,lion4 ,these emmets1 how little they are in our eyes6 ,we tread them to dust1 and a troop of them dies ,without our regard or concern3 ,yet1 as wise as we are1 if we went to their school1 ,there's many a sluggard1 and many a fool1 ,a lesson of wisdom might learn4 ,watts4 ,the societies of ,,ants1 as also of other ,hymenoptera1 differ from those of the ,termites1 in having inactive larv and pup1 the neuter1 or workers1 combining in themselves both the military and civil functions4 ,besides the helpless larv and pup1 which have no locomotive powers1 these societies consist of females and workers4 ,the office of the females1 at their first exclusion distinguished by a pair of ample wings1 7which however1 they soon cast17 is the foundation of new colonies1 and the furnishing of a constant supply of eggs1 for the maintenance of the population in the old nests1 as well as in the new4 ,these are usually the least numerous part of the community4 ,gould indeed says1 that the males and females are nearly equal in number1 p4 #fb2 but from ,huber's observations it seems to follow that the former are the most numerous1 p4 #if4 ,upon the workers devolves1 except in nascent colonies1 all the work1 as well as the defence of the community1 of which they are the most numerous portion4 ,in the warm days that occur from the end of ,july to the beginning of ,september1 and sometimes later1 the habitations of the various species of ants may be seen to swarm with winged insects1 which are the males and females1 preparing to quit for ever the scene of their nativity and education4 ,every thing is in motion3 and the silver wings1 contrasted with the jet bodies which compose the animated mass1 add a degree of splendour to the interesting scene4 ,the bustle increases1 till at length the males rise1 as it were by a general impulse1 into the air1 and the females accompany them4 ,the whole swarm alternately rises and falls with a slow movement to the height of about ten feet1 the males flying obliquely with a rapid zigzag motion2 and the females1 though they follow the general movement of the column1 appearing suspended in the air1 like balloons1 seemingly with no individual motion1 and having their heads turned towards the wind4 ,sometimes the swarms of a whole district unite their infinite myriads1 and1 seen at a distance1 produce an effect resembling the flashing of an aurora borealis4 ,rising with incredible velocity in distinct columns1 they soar above the clouds4 ,each column looks like a kind of slender net-work1 and has a tremulous undulating motion1 which has been observed to be produced by the regular alternate rising and falling just alluded to4 ,the noise emitted by myriads and myriads of these creatures1 does not exceed the hum of a single wasp4 ,the slightest zephyr disperses them2 and if in their progress they chance to be over your head1 if you walk slowly on1 they will accompany you1 and regulate their motions by yours4 ,captain ,haverfield1 ,r4 ,n4 gives an account of an extraordinary appearance of ants observed by him in the ,medway1 in the autumn of #ahad1 when he was first-lieutenant of the ,clorinde2 which is confirmed by the following letter1 addressed by the surgeon of that ship1 now ,dr4 ,bromley1 to ,mr4 ,mac ,leay4 ,in ,september1 #ahad1 being on the deck of the bulk to the ,clorinde1 my attention was drawn to the water by the first-lieutenant 7,haverfield7 observing there was something black floating down with the tide4 ,on looking with a glass1 ,i discovered they were insects4 ,the boat was sent1 and brought a bucket full of them on board2 they proved to be a large species of ant1 and extended from the upper part of ,salt-pan ,reach out towards the ,great ,nore1 a distance of five or six miles4 ,the column appeared to be in breadth eight or ten feet1 and in height about six inches1 which ,i suppose must have been from their resting one upon another4 ,purchas seems to have witnessed a similar phenomenon on shore4 ,other sorts 7of ants71 says he1 there are many1 of which some become winged1 and fill the air with swarms1 which sometimes happens in ,england4 ,on ,bartholomew-day1 #afac1 ,i was in the island of ,foulness1 on our ,essex shore1 where were such clouds of these flying pismires1 that we could no where flee from them1 but they filled our clothes2 yea1 the floors of some houses where they fell were in a manner covered with a black carpet of creeping ants2 which1 they say1 drown themselves about that time of the year in the sea4--,pilgrimage1 #ajij4 ,these ants were winged2 but whence this immense column came1 was not ascertained4 ,from the numbers here accumulated1 one would think that all the ant-hills of the counties of ,kent and ,surrey could scarcely have furnished a sufficient number of males and females to form it4 ,when ,colonel ,sir ,augustus ,frazer1 of the ,horse ,artillery1 was surveying1 on the #fth of ,october1 #ahac1 the scene of the battle of the ,pyrenees1 from the summit of the mountain called ,pena de ,aya1 or ,les ,quatre ,couronnes1 he and his friends were enveloped with a swarm of ants1 so numerous as entirely to intercept their view1 so that they were glad to remove to another station1 in order to get rid of these troublesome little creatures4 ,the females that escape from the injury of the elements and their various enemies1 become the founders of new colonies1 doing all the work that is usually done by the neuters4 ,m4 ,p4 ,huber has found incipient colonies1#aa in which were only a few workers engaged with their mother in the care of a small number of larv2 and ,m4 ,perrot1 his friend1 once discovered a small nest1 occupied by a solitary female1 who was attending upon four pupa only4 ,such is the foundation and first establishment of those populous nations of ants with which we every where meet4 ,but though the majority of females produced in a nest probably thus desert it1 all are not allowed this liberty4 ,the prudent workers are taught by their instinct1 that the existence of their community depends upon the presence of a sufficient number of females4 ,some1 therefore1 that are fecundated in or near the spot1 they forcibly detain1 pulling off their wings1 and keeping them prisoners till they are ready to lay their eggs1 or are reconciled to their fate4 ,de ,geer1 in a nest of ,f4 rufa1 observed that the workers compelled some females that were come out of the nest to re-enter it2 7vol4 ii4 #ajga17--;and from ,m4 ,p4 ,huber we learn1 that1 being seized at the moment of fecundation1 they are conducted into the interior of the formicary1 when they become entirely dependent upon the neuters1 who1 hanging pertinaciously to each leg1 prevent their going out1 but at the same time attend upon them with the greatest care1 feeding them regularly1 and conducting them where the temperature is suitable to them1 but never quitting them a single moment4 ,by degrees these females become reconciled to their condition1 and lose all desire of making their escape2 their abdomen enlarges1 and they are no longer detained as prisoners1 yet each is still attended by a body-guard1 a single ant1 which always accompanies her1 and prevents her wants4 ,its station is remarkable1 being mounted upon her abdomen1 with its posterior legs upon the ground4 ,these sentinels are constantly relieved2 and to watch the moment when the female begins the important work of oviposition1 and carry off the eggs1 of which she lays four or five thousand or more in the course of the year1 seems to be their principal office4 ,when the female is acknowledged as a mother1 the workers begin to pay her a homage very similar to that which the bees render to their queen4 ,all press round her1 offer her food1 conduct her by her mandibles through the difficult or steep passages of the formicary2 nay1 they sometimes even carry her about their city3 she is then suspended upon their jaws1 the ends of which are crossed2 and1 being coiled up like the tongue of a butterfly1 she is packed so close as to incommode the carrier but little4 ,when these set her down1 others surround and caress her1 one after another tapping her on the head with their antenn4 ,in whatever apartment 7says ,gould7 a queen condescends to be present1 she commands obedience and respect4 ,a universal gladness spreads itself through the whole cell1 which is expressed by particular acts of joy and exultation4 ,they have a particular way of skipping1 leaping1 and standing upon their hind-legs1 and prancing with the others4 ,these frolics they make use of1 both to congratulate each other when they meet1 and to shew their regard for the queen3 some of them walk gently over her1 others dance round her2 she is generally encircled with a cluster of attendants1 who1 if you separate them from her1 soon collect themselves into a body1 and inclose her in the midst4 ,nay1 even if she dies1 as if they were unwilling to believe it1 they continue sometimes for months the same attentions to her1 and treat her with the same courtly formality as if she were alive1 and they will brush her and lick her incessantly4 ,that the ants1 though they are mute animals1 have the means of communicating to each other information of various occurrences1 and use a kind of language which is mutually understood1 will appear evident from the following facts4 ,if those at the surface of a nest are alarmed1 it is wonderful in how short a time the alarm spreads through the whole nest4 ,it runs from quarter to quarter2 the greatest inquietude seems to possess the community2 and they carry with all possible dispatch their treasures1 the larv and pup1 down to the lowest apartments4 ,amongst those species of ants that do not go much from home1 sentinels seem to be stationed at the avenues of their city4 ,disturbing once the little heaps of earth thrown up at the entrances into the nest of ,f4 flava1 which is of this description1 7says ,huber17 ,i was struck by observing a single ant immediately come out1 as if to see what was the matter1 and this three separate times4 ,the ,f4 herculanea1 ,l4 inhabits the trunks of hollow trees on the ,continent1 for it has not yet been found in ,england1 upon which they are often passing to and fro4 ,m4 ,huber observed1 that when he disturbed those that were at the greatest distance from the rest1 they ran towards them1 and1 striking their head against them1 communicated their cause of fear or anger that these1 in their turn1 conveyed in the same way the intelligence to others1 till the whole colony was in a ferment1 those neuters which were within the tree running out in crowds to join their companions in the defence of their habitation4 ,the same signals that excited the courage of the neuters1 produced fear in the males and females1 which1 as soon as the news of the danger was thus communicated to them1 retreated into the tree as to an asylum4 ,the legs of one of this gentleman's artificial formicaries were plunged into pans of water1 to prevent the escape of the ants2 this proved a source of great enjoyment to these little beings1 for they are a very thirsty race1 and lap water like dogs4--7,gould1 #ib4 ,de ,geer1 ii4 #ajhg4 ,huber1 #e1 #acb47 ,one day1 when he observed many of them tippling very merrily1 he was so cruel as to disturb them1 which sent most of the ants in a fright to the nest2 but some1 more thirsty than the rest1 continued their potations3 upon this1 one of those that had retreated1 returns to inform his thoughtless companions of their danger2 one he pushes with his jaws2 another he strikes first upon the belly1 and then upon the breast2 and so obliges three of them to leave off their carousing1 and march homewards2 but the fourth1 more resolute to drink it out1 is not to be discomfited1 and pays not the least regard to the kind blows with which his compeer1 solicitous for his safety1 repeatedly belabours him2 at length1 determined to have his way1 he seizes him by one of his hind-legs1 and gives him a violent pull3 upon this1 leaving his liquor1 the loiterer turns round1 and opening his threatening jaws with every appearance of anger1 goes very coolly to drinking again2 but his monitor1 without further ceremony1 rushing before him1 seizes him by his jaws1 and at last drags him off in triumph to the formicary4--,huber1 #acc4 ,the language of ants1 however1 is not confined merely to giving intelligence of the approach or presence of danger2 it is also co-extensive with all their other occasions for communicating their ideas to each other1 or holding any intercourse4 ,some engage in military expeditions1 and often previously send out spies1 to collect information4 ,these1 as soon as they return from exploring the vicinity1 enter the nest2 upon which1 as if they had communicated their intelligence1 the army immediately assembles in the suburbs of their city1 and begins its march towards that quarter whence the spies had arrived4 ,upon the march1 communications are perpetually making between the van and the rear2 and when arrived at the camp of the enemy1 and the battle begins1 if necessary1 couriers are dispatched to the formicary for reinforcements4--,huber1 #afg1 #bag1 #bcg4 ,if you scatter the ruins of an ant's nest in your apartment1 you will be furnished with another proof of their language4 ,the ants will take a thousand different paths1 each going by itself1 to increase the chance of discovery2 they will meet and cross each other in all directions1 and perhaps will wander long before they can find a spot convenient for their re-union4 ,no sooner does any one discover a little chink in the floor1 through which it can pass below1 than it returns to its companions1 and1 by means of certain motions of its antenn1 makes some of them comprehend what route they are to pursue to find it1 sometimes even accompanying them to the spot2 these1 in their turn1 become the guides of others1 till all know which way to direct their steps4--,huber1 #acg4 ,it is well known also1 that ants give each other information when they have discovered any store of provision4 ,bradley relates a striking instance of this4 ,a nest of ants in a nobleman's garden discovered a closet1 many yards within the house1 in which conserves were kept1 which they constantly attended till the nest was destroyed4 ,some in their rambles must have first discovered this dept of sweets1 and informed the rest of it4 ,it is remarkable that they always went to it by the same track1 scarcely varying an inch from it1 though they had to pass through two apartments2 nor could the sweeping and cleaning of the rooms discomfit them1 or cause them to pursue a different route4--,bradley1 #acd4 ,here may be related a very amusing experiment of ,gould's4 ,having deposited several colonies of ants 7,f4 fusca7 in flowerpots1 he placed them in some earthen pans of water1 which prevented them from making excursions from their nest4 ,when they had been accustomed some days to this imprisonment1 he fastened small threads to the upper part of the pots1 and extending them over the water-pans1 fixed them in the ground4 ,the sagacious ants soon found out that by these bridges they could escape from their moated castle4 ,the discovery was communicated to the whole society1 and in a short time the threads were filled with trains of busy workers passing to and fro4--,gould1 #he4 ,legion's account of the ants in ,barbadoes1 affords another most convincing proof of this3 as he has told his tale in a very lively and interesting manner1 it shall be given nearly in his own words4 ,the next of these moving little animals are ants1 or pismires3 these are but of a small size1 but great in industry2 and that which gives them means to attain to this end is1 they have all one soul4 ,if ,i should say they are here or there1 ,i should do them wrong1 for they are every where3--under ground1 where any hollow or loose earth is2 amongst the roots of trees2 upon the bodies1 branches1 leaves1 and fruit of all trees2 in all places without the houses and within2 upon the sides1 walls1 windows1 and roofs1 without2 and on the floors1 side-walls1 ceilings1 and windows1 within2 tables1 cupboards1 beds1 stools1 all are covered with them1 so that they are a kind of ubiquitaries4 ,we sometimes kill a cockroach1 and throw him on the ground2 and mark what they will do with him3 his body is bigger than a hundred of them1 and yet they will find the means to take hold of him1 and lift him up2 and having him above ground1 away they carry him1 and some go by as ready assistants1 if any be weary2 and some are the officers that lead and shew the way to the hole into which he must pass2 and if the vancouriers perceive that the body of the cockroach lies across1 and will not pass through the hole or arch through which they mean to carry him1 order is given1 and the body turned endwise1 and this is done a foot before they come to the hole1 and that without any stop or stay2 and it is observable1 that they never pull contrary ways4 ,a table being cleared with great care1 7by way of experiment17 of all the ants that are upon it1 and sugar being put upon it1 some1 after a circuitous route1 will be observed to arrive at it2 and again departing1 without tasting the treasure1 will hasten away to inform their friends of the discovery1 who1 upon this1 will come by myriads3 you may then1 while they are thickest upon the table1 clap a large book1 or any thing fit for that purpose1 upon them1 so hard as to kill all that are under it2 and when you have done so1 take away the book1 and leave them to themselves but a quarter of an hour1 and when you come again1 you shall find all these bodies carried away4--,other trials we make of their ingenuity1 as thus3 ,take a pewter dish1 and fill it half full of water1 into which put a little gallipot filled with sugar1 and the ants will presently find it1 and come upon the table1 but when they perceive it environed with water1 they try about the brims of the dish where the gallipot is nearest2 and there the most venturous amongst them commits himself to the water1 though he be conscious how bad a swimmer he is1 and is drowned in the adventure2 the next is not warned by his example1 but ventures too1 and is alike drowned2 and many more1 so that there is a small foundation of their bodies to venture2 and then they come faster than ever1 and so make a bridge of their own bodies4--,hist4 of ,barbadoes1 p4 #fc4 ,the fact being certain1 that ants impart their ideas to each other1 we are next led to inquire by what means this is accomplished4 ,it does not appear that1 like the bees1 they emit any significant sounds2 their language1 therefore1 must consist of signs or gestures1 some of which ,i shall now detail4 ,in communicating their fear1 or expressing their anger1 they run from one to another in a semicircle1 and strike with their head or jaws the trunk or abdomen of the ant to which they mean to give information on any subject of alarm4 ,but those remarkable organs1 their antenn1 are the principal instruments of their speech1 if ,i may so call it1 supplying the place both of voice and words4 ,when the military ants before alluded to go upon their expeditions1 and are out of the formicary1 previously to setting off1 they touch each other on the trunk with their antenn and forehead2 this is the signal for marching1 for1 as soon as any one has received it1 he is immediately in motion4 ,when they have any discovery to communicate1 they strike with them those that they meet in a particularly impressive manner4 ,if a hungry ant wants to be fed1 it touches with its two antenn1 moving them very rapidly1 those of the individual from which it expects its meal3--and not only ants understand this language1 but even aphides and cocci1 which are the milch kine of our little pismires1 do the same1 and will yield them their saccharine fluid at the touch of these imperative organs4 ,the helpless larv also of the ants are informed1 by the same means1 when they may open their mouths to receive their food4 ,next to their language1 and scarcely different from it1 are the modes by which they express their affections and aversions4 ,whether ants1 with man and some of the larger animals1 experience any thing like attachment to individuals1 is not easily ascertained2 but that they feel the full force of the sentiment which we term patriotism1 or the love of the community to which they belong1 is evident from the whole series of their proceedings1 which all tend to promote the general good4 ,distress or difficulty falling upon any member of their society1 generally excites their sympathy1 and they do their utmost to relieve it4 ,m4 ,latreille once cut off the antenn of an ant2 and its companions1 evidently pitying its sufferings1 anointed the wounded part with a drop of transparent fluid from their mouth3 and whoever attends to what is going forward in the neighbourhood of one of their nests1 will be pleased to observe the readiness with which they seem disposed to assist each other in difficulties4 ,when a burden is too heavy for one1 another will soon come to ease it of part of the weight2 and if one is threatened with an attack1 all hasten to the spot1 to join in repelling it4 ,the satisfaction they express at meeting after absence is very striking1 and gives some degree of individuality to their attachment4 ,m4 ,huber witnessed the gesticulations of some ants1 originally belonging to the same nest1 that1 having been entirely separated from each other four months1 were afterwards brought together4 ,though this was equal to one-fourth of their existence as perfect insects1 they immediately recognized each other1 saluted mutually with their antenn1 and united once more to form one family4 ,they are also ever intent to promote each other's welfare1 and ready to share with their absent companions any good thing that they may meet with4 ,those that go abroad feed those which remain in the nest1 and if they discover any stock of favourite food1 they inform the whole community1 as we have seen above1 and teach them the way to it4 ,m4 ,huber1 for a particular reason1 having produced heat1 by means of a flambeau1 in a certain part of an artificial formicary1 the ants that happened to be in that quarter1 after enjoying it for a time1 hastened to convey the welcome intelligence to their compatriots1 whom they even carried suspended upon their jaws 7their usual mode of transporting each other7 to the spot1 till hundreds might be seen thus laden with their friends4 ,if ants feel the force of love1 they are equally susceptible of the emotions of anger2 and when they are menaced or attacked1 no insects shew a greater degree of it4 ,providence1 moreover1 has furnished them with weapons and faculties which render them extremely formidable to their insect enemies1 and sometimes1 as ,i have related on a former occasion1 a great annoyance to man himself1 7vol4 i4 #b;d ed4 p4 #abc47 ,two strong mandibles arm their mouth1 with which they sometimes fix themselves so obstinately to the object of their attack1 that they will sooner be torn limb from limb than let go their hold2 and1 after their battles1 the head of a conquered enemy may often be seen suspended to the antenn or legs of the victor1 a trophy of his valour1 which1 however troublesome1 he will be compelled to carry about with him to the day of his death4 ,their abdomen is also furnished with a poison-bag1 7ioterium17 in which is secreted a powerful and venomous fluid1 long celebrated in chemical researches1 and once called formic acid1 though now considered a modification of the acetic and malic2#ab which1 when their enemy is beyond the reach of their mandibles1 7it is spoken here particularly of the hill ant1 or ,f4 rufa17 standing erect on their hind legs1 they discharge from their anus with considerable force1 so that from the surface of the nest ascends a shower of poison1 exhaling a strong sulphurous odour1 sufficient to overpower or repel any insect or small animal4 ,such is the fury of some species1 that with the acid1 according to ,gould1 p4 #cd4 they sometimes partly eject the poison-bag itself4 ,if a stick be stuck into one of the nests of the hill ant1 it is so saturated with the acid as to retain the scent for many hours4 ,a more formidable weapon arms the species of the genus ,myrmica latr42 for1 besides the poison-bag1 they are furnished with a sting2 and their aspect is also often rendered peculiarly revolting1 by the extraordinary length of their jaws1 and by the spines which defend their head and trunk4 ,but weapons without valour are of but little use2 and this is one distinguishing feature of this pigmy race4 ,their courage and pertinacity are unconquerable1 and are often sublimed into the most inconceivable rage and fury4 ,it makes no difference to them whether they attack a mite or an elephant2 and man himself instils no terror into their warlike breasts4 ,point your finger towards any individual of ,f4 rufa2 instead of running away1 it instantly faces about1 and1 that it may make the most of itself1 stiffening its legs into a nearly straight line1 it gives its body the utmost elevation it is capable of2 and thus-- ,collecting all its might1 dilated stands1 prepared to repel your attack4 ,put your finger a little nearer1 it immediately opens its jaws to bite you1 and rearing upon its hind legs1 bends its abdomen between them1 to eject its venom into the wound4#ac ,this angry people1 so well armed and so courageous1 we may readily imagine1 are not always at peace with their neighbours2 causes of dissension may arise1 to light the flame of war between the inhabitants of nests not far distant from each other4 ,to these little bustling creatures1 a square foot of earth is a territory worth contending for2 their droves of aphides being equally valuable with the flocks and herds that cover our plains2 and the body of a fly or a beetle1 or a cargo of straws and bits of stick1 an acquisition as important as the treasures of a ,lima fleet to our seamen4 ,their wars are usually between nests of different species2 sometimes1 however1 those of the same1 when so near as to interfere with and incommode each other1 have their battles2 and with respect to ants of one species1 ,myrmica rubra1 combats occasionally take place1 contrary to the general habits of the tribe of ants1 between those of the same nest4 ,the wars of the red ant 7,m4 rubra7 are usually between a small number of the citizens2 and the object1 according to ,gould1 is to get rid of a useless member of the community1 7it does not argue much in favour of their humanity1 that it is all one if it be by sickness that this member is disabled17 rather than any real civil contest4 ,the red colonies1 7says this author17 are the only ones ,i could ever observe to feed upon their own species4 ,you may frequently discern a party of from five or six to twenty1 surrounding one of their own kind1 or even fraternity1 and pulling it to pieces4 ,the ant they attack is generally feeble1 and of a languid complexion1 occasioned perhaps by some accident or other4--,gould1 #ajd4 ,i once saw one of these ants dragged out of the nest by another1 without its head2 it was still alive1 and could crawl about4 ,a lively imagination might have fancied that this poor ant was a criminal1 condemned by a court of justice to suffer the extreme sentence of the law4 ,it was more probably1 however1 a champion that had been decapitated in an unequal combat1 unless we admit ,gould's idea1 and suppose it to have suffered because it was an unprofitable member of the community4#ad ,at another time ,i found three individuals that were fighting with great fury1 chained together by their mandibles2 one of these had lost two of the legs of one side1 yet it appeared to walk well1 and was as eager to attack and seize its opponents1 as if it was unhurt4 ,this did not look like languor or sickness4 ,the wars of ants that are not of the same species take place usually between those that differ in size2 and the great endeavouring to oppress the small1 are nevertheless often outnumbered by them1 and defeated4 ,their battles have long been celebrated2 and the dates of them1 as if they were events of the first importance1 have been formally recorded4 neas ,sylvius1 after giving a very circumstantial account of one contested with much obstinacy by a great and small species1 on the trunk of a pear-tree1 gravely states1 ,this action was fought in the pontificate of ,eugenius the ,fourth1 in the presence of ,nicholas ,pistoriensis1 an eminent lawyer1 who related the whole history of the battle with the greatest fidelity6 ,a similar engagement between great and small ants is recorded by ,olaus ,magnus1 in which the small ones being victorious1 are said to have buried the bodies of their own soldiers1 but left those of their giant enemies a prey to the birds4 ,this event happened previous to the expulsion of the tyrant ,christian the ,second from ,sweden4--,mouffet1 ,theatr4 ,ins4 #bdb4 ,m4 ,p4 ,huber is the only modern author that appears to have been witness to these combats4 ,he tells us1 that when the great attack the small1 they seek to take them by surprise1 7probably to avoid their fastening themselves to their legs17 and1 seizing them by the upper part of the body1 they strangle them with their mandibles2 but when the small have time to foresee the attack1 they give notice to their companions1 who rush in crowds to their succour4 ,sometimes1 however1 after suffering a signal defeat1 the smaller species are obliged to shift their quarters1 and to seek an establishment more out of the way of danger4 ,in order to cover their march1 many small bodies are then posted at a little distance from the nest4 ,as soon as the large ants approach the camp1 the foremost sentinels instantly fly at them with the greatest rage2 a violent struggle ensues1 multitudes of their friends come to their assistance1 and1 though no match for their enemies singly1 by dint of numbers they prevail1 and the giant is either slain or led captive to the hostile camp4 ,the species whose proceedings ,m4 ,huber observed1 were ,f4 herculanea1 ,l4 and ,f4 sanguinea1 ,latr42 neither of which have yet been discovered in ,britain4--,huber1 #afj4 ,,the ,,white ,,ants1 or ,,termites4--,the majority of these animals are natives of tropical countries1 though two species are indigenous to ,europe2 one of which1 thought to have been imported1 is come so near to us as ,bourdeaux4 ,their society consists of five different descriptions of individuals3 workers or larv1 nymphs or pup1 neuters or soldiers1 males1 and females4 #a4 ,the workers or larv1 answering to the hymenopterous neuters1 are the most numerous1 and1 at the same time1 most active part of the community2 upon whom devolves the office of erecting and repairing the buildings1 collecting provision1 attending upon the female1 conveying the eggs1 when laid1 to the nurseries1 and feeding the young larv till they are old enough to take care of themselves4 ,they are distinguished from the soldiers by their diminutive size1 by their round heads1 and shorter mandibles4 #b4 ,the nymphs1 or pup1 differ in nothing from the larv1 and probably are equally active1 except that they have rudiments of wings1 or rather wings folded up in cases4 #c4 ,the neuters are much less numerous than the workers1 bearing the proportion of one to one hundred1 and exceeding them greatly in bulk4 ,they are also distinguishable by their long and large heads1 armed with very long tubulate mandibles4 ,their office is that of sentinels2 and when the nest is attacked1 to them is committed the task of defending it4 ,these neuters seem to be a kind of abortive females1 and there is nothing analogous to them in any other department of entomology4 #d and #e4 ,males and females1 or the insects arrived at a state of perfection1 and capable of continuing the species4 ,there is only one of each in every separate society2 they are exempted from all participation in the labours and employments occupying the rest of the community1 that they may be wholly devoted to the furnishing of a constant accession to the population of the colony4 ,though at their first disclosure from the pup they have four wings1 like the female ants1 they soon cast them2 but they may then be distinguished from the blind larv1 pup1 and neuters1 by their large and prominent eyes4 ,the different species of ,termites1 which are numerous1 build nests of very various forms4 ,some construct upon the ground a cylindrical turret of clay1 about three-quarters of a yard high1 surrounded by a projecting conical roof1 so as in shape considerably to resemble a mushroom1 and composed interiorly of innumerable cells1 of various figures and dimensions4 ,others prefer a more elevated site1 and build their nests1 which are of different sizes1 from that of a hat to that of a sugar-cask1 and composed of pieces of wood glued together1 amongst the branches of trees1 often seventy or eighty feet high4 ,but by far the most curious habitations1 are those formed by the ,termes bellicosus1 a species very common in ,guinea1 and other parts of the coasts of ,africa1 of whose proceedings we have a very particular and interesting account in the #gast volume of the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,these nests are formed entirely of clay1 and are generally twelve feet high1 and broad in proportion2 so that when a cluster of them1 as is often the case in ,south ,america1 are placed together1 they may be taken for an ,indian village1 and are in fact sometimes larger than the huts which the natives inhabit4 ,the first process in the erection of these singular structures1 is the elevation of two or three turrets of clay1 about a foot high1 and in shape like a sugar-loaf4 ,these1 which seem to be the scaffolds of the future building1 rapidly increase in number and height1 until at length being widened at the base1 joined at the top into one dome1 and consolidated all around into a thick wall of clay1 they form a building of the size above-mentioned1 and of the shape of a haycock1 which1 when clothed1 as it generally soon becomes1 with a coating of grass1 it at a distance very much resembles4 ,when the building has assumed this its final form1 the inner turrets1 all but the tops1 which project like pinnacles from different parts of it1 are removed1 and the clay employed over again in other services4 ,it is the lower part alone of the building that is occupied by the inhabitants2 the upper portion1 or dome1 which is very strong and solid1 is left empty1 serving principally as a defence from the vicissitudes of the weather and the attacks of natural or accidental enemies1 and to keep up in the lower part a genial warmth and moisture1 necessary to the hatching of the eggs and cherishing of the young ones4 ,the inhabited portion is occupied by the royal chamber1 or habitation of the king and queen2 the nurseries for the young2 the storehouses for food2 and innumerable galleries1 passages1 and empty rooms1 arranged according to the following plan3-- ,in the centre of the building1 just under the apex1 and nearly on a level with the surface of the ground1 is placed the royal chamber1 an arched vault of a semi-oval shape1 or not unlike a long oven2 at first not above an inch long1 but enlarged1 as the queen increases in bulk1 to the length of eight inches or more4 ,in this apartment the king and queen constantly reside1 and1 from the smallness of the entrances1 which are barely large enough to admit their more diminutive subjects1 can never possibly come out2 thus1 like many human potentates1 purchasing their sovereignty at the dear rate of the sacrifice of liberty4 ,immediately adjoining the royal chamber1 and surrounding it on all sides to the extent of a foot or more1 are placed the royal apartments1 an inextricable labyrinth of innumerable arched rooms1 of different shapes and sizes1 either opening into each other1 or communicating by common passages1 and intended for the accommodation of the soldiers and attendants1 of whom many thousands are always in waiting on their royal master and mistress4 ,next to the royal apartments come the nurseries and the magazines4 ,the former are invariably occupied by the eggs and young ones1 and1 in the infant state of the nest1 are placed close to the royal chamber2 but when the queen's augmented size requires a larger apartment1 as well as additional rooms for the increased number of attendants wanted to remove her eggs1 the small nurseries are taken to pieces1 rebuilt at a greater distance1 a size larger1 and their number increased at the same time4 ,in substance they differ from all the other apartments1 being formed of particles of wood1 apparently joined together with gums4 ,a collection of these compact1 irregular1 and small wooden chambers1 not one of which is half an inch in width1 is inclosed in a common chamber of clay1 sometimes as big as a child's head4 ,intermixed with the nurseries1 lie the magazines1 which are chambers of clay1 always well stored with provisions1 consisting of particles of wood1 gums1 and the inspissated juices of plants4 ,these magazines and nurseries1 separated by small empty chambers and galleries1 which run round them1 or communicate from one to the other1 are continued on all sides to the outer wall of the building1 and reach up within it two-thirds or three-fourths of its height4 ,they do not1 however1 fill up the whole of the lower part of the hill1 but are confined to the sides1 leaving an open area in the middle1 under the dome1 very much resembling the nave of an old cathedral1 having its roof supported by two very large ,gothic arches1 of which those in the middle of the area are sometimes two and three feet high1 but as they recede on each side1 rapidly diminish1 like the arches of aisles in perspective4 ,a flattish roof1 imperforated1 in order to keep out the wet1 if the dome should chance to be injured1 covers the top of the assemblage of chambers1 nurseries1 c42 and the area1 which is a short height above the royal chamber1 has a flattish floor1 also waterproof1 and so contrived as to let any rain1 that may chance to get in1 run off into the subterraneous passages4 ,these passages or galleries1 which are of an astonishing size1 some being above a foot in diameter1 perfectly cylindrical1 and lined with the same kind of clay of which the hill is composed1 served originally1 like the catacombs of ,paris1 as the quarries whence the materials of the building were derived1 and afterwards as the grand outlets by which the termites carry on their depredations at a distance from their habitations4 ,they run in a sloping direction1 under the bottom of the hill1 to the depth of three or four feet1 and then branching out horizontally on every side1 are carried under ground1 near to the surface1 to a vast distance4 ,at their entrance into the interior1 they communicate with other small galleries1 which ascend the outside of the outer shell in a spiral manner1 and1 winding round the whole body to the top1 intersect each other at different heights1 opening either immediately in the dome in various places1 and into the lower half of the building1 or communicating with every part of it by other smaller circular or oval galleries of different diameters4 ,the necessity for the vast size of the main underground galleries1 evidently arises from the circumstance of their being the great thoroughfares for the inhabitants1 by which they fetch their clay1 wood1 water1 or provision2 and their spiral and gradual ascent is requisite for the easy access of the termites1 which cannot1 but with great difficulty1 ascend a perpendicular4 ,to avoid this inconvenience1 in the interior vertical parts of the building1 a flat pathway1 half an inch wide1 is often made to wind gradually1 like a road cut out of the side of a mountain2 by which they travel with great facility up ascents otherwise impracticable4 ,the same ingenious propensity to shorten their labour1 seems to have given birth to a contrivance still more extraordinary3 this is a kind of bridge1 or vast arch1 sprung from the floor of the area to the upper apartments at the side of the building1 which answers the purpose of a flight of stairs1 and must shorten the distance exceedingly in transporting eggs from the royal chambers to the upper nurseries1 which in some hills would be four or five feet in the straightest line1 and much more if carried through all the winding passages which lead through the inner chambers and apartments4 ,mr4 ,smeathman measured one of these bridges1 which was half an inch broad1 a quarter of an inch thick1 and ten inches long1 making the size of an elliptic arch of proportionable dimensions1 so that it is wonderful it did not fall over1 or break by its own weight1 before they got it joined to the side of the column above4 ,it was strengthened by a small arch at the bottom1 and had a hollow or groove all the length of the upper surface1 either made purposely for the greater safety of the passengers1 or else worn by frequent treading4 ,it is not the least surprising circumstance attending this bridge1 the ,gothic arches before spoken of1 and in general all the arches of the various galleries and apartments1 that1 as ,mr4 ,smeathman saw every reason for believing1 the termites project them1 and do not1 as one would have supposed1 excavate them4 ,consider what incredible labour and diligence1 accompanied by the most unremitting activity1 and the most unwearied celerity of movement1 must be necessary to enable these creatures to accomplish 7their size considered7 these truly gigantic works4 ,that such diminutive insects1 for they are scarcely the fourth of an inch in length1 however numerous1 should1 in the space of three or four years1 be able to erect a building twelve feet high1 and of proportionable bulk1 covered by a vast dome1 adorned without by numerous pinnacles and turrets1 and sheltering under its ample arch myriads of vaulted apartments1 of various dimensions1 and constructed of different materials1--that they should moreover excavate1 in different directions and at different depths1 innumerable subterranean roads or tunnels1 some twelve or thirteen inches in diameter1 or throw an arch of stone over other roads leading from the metropolis into the adjoining country1 to the distance of seven hundred feet1--that they should project and finish the vast interior staircases or bridges1 lately described1--and finally1 that the millions necessary to execute such ,herculean labours1 perpetually passing to and fro1 should never interrupt and interfere with each other1 is a miracle of nature1 far exceeding the most boasted works and structures of man2 for1 did these creatures equal him in size1 retaining their usual instincts and activity1 their buildings would soar to the astonishing height of half a mile1 and their tunnels would expand to a magnificent cylinder of more than three hundred feet in diameter2 before which1 the pyramids of ,egypt1 and the aqueducts of ,rome1 would lose their celebrity1 and dwindle into nothing4 ,the most elevated of the pyramids of ,egypt is not more than six hundred feet high1 which1 setting the average height of man at only five feet1 is not more than a hundred and twenty times the height of the workmen employed4 ,whereas1 the nests of the termites being at least twelve feet high1 and the insects themselves not exceeding a quarter of an inch in stature1 their edifices are upwards of five hundred times the height of the builders2 which1 supposing them of human dimensions1 would be more than half a mile4 ,the shaft of the ,roman aqueducts was lofty enough to permit a man on horseback to travel in them4 ,the first establishment of a colony of termites takes place in the following manner4 ,in the evening1 soon after the first tornado1 which at the latter end of the dry season proclaims the approach of the ensuing rains1 these animals1 having attained to their perfect state1 in which they are furnished and adorned with two pair of wings1 emerge from their clay-built citadels by myriads and myriads1 to seek their fortune4 ,borne on these ample wings1 and carried by the wind1 they fill the air1 entering the houses1 extinguishing the lights1 and are sometimes driven on board the ships that are not far from the shore4 ,the next morning1 they are discovered covering the earth and waters1 deprived of the wings which enabled them to avoid their numerous enemies1 and which were only calculated to carry them a few hours4 ,they now look like large maggots2 and1 from the most active1 industrious1 and rapacious creatures1 they are become the most helpless and cowardly beings in nature1 the prey of innumerable enemies1 to the smallest of which they make not the least resistance4 ,insects1 especially ants1 which are always on the hunt for them1 leave no place unexplored3 birds1 reptiles1 beasts1 and even man himself1 look upon this event as their harvest1 and1 as the reader has been told before1 make them their food1 so that scarcely a pair in many millions get into a place of safety4 ,the workers1 who are continually prowling about in their covered ways1 occasionally meet with one of these pairs1 and being impelled by their instinct1 pay them homage1 and they are elected as it were to be king and queen1 or rather founders1 of a new colony3 all that are not so fortunate1 inevitably perish2 and1 considering the infinite host of their enemies1 probably in the course of the following day4 ,the workers1 as soon as this election takes place1 begin to inclose their new rulers in a small chamber of clay1 before described1 suited to their size1 the entrances to which are only large enough to admit themselves and the neuters1 but much too small for the royal pair to pass through2--so that their state of royalty is a state of confinement1 and so continues during the remainder of their existence4 ,the female1 after this confinement1 soon begins to furnish the infant colony with new inhabitants4 ,the care of feeding her and her companion1 devolves upon the industrious larv1 which supply them both with every thing that they want4 ,as she increases in dimensions1 they continue to enlarge the cell in which she is detained4 ,when the business of oviposition commences1 they take the eggs from her1 and deposit them in their nurseries4 ,her abdomen now begins gradually to extend1 till in process of time it is enlarged to fifteen hundred or two thousand times the size of the rest of her body1 and her bulk equals that of twenty or thirty thousand workers4 ,this part1 often more than three inches in length1 is now a vast matrix of eggs1 which make long circumvolutions through numberless slender serpentine vessels3 it is also remarkable for its peristaltic motion1 7in this resembling the female ant2 see ,gould's ,account of ,english ,ants1 p4 #bb47 which1 like the undulations of water1 produces a perpetual and successive rise and fall over the whole surface of the abdomen1 and occasions a constant extrusion of the eggs1 amounting sometimes in old females to sixty in a minute1 or eighty thousand and upwards in twenty-four hours4 ,as these females live two years in their perfect state1 how astonishing must be the number produced in that time6 ,this incessant extrusion of eggs must call for the attention of a large number of the workers in the royal chamber1 7and indeed it is always full of them17 to take them as they come forth1 and carry them to the nurseries1 in which1 when hatched1 they are provided with food1 and receive every necessary attention1 till they are able to shift for themselves4 ,one remarkable circumstance attends these nurseries2 they are always covered with a kind of mould1 amongst which arise numerous globules1 about the size of a pin's head4 ,this is probably a species of mucor2 and by ,mr4 ,kenig1 who found them also in nests of an ,east ,indian species of termes1 is conjectured to be the food of the larv4 ,the royal cell has also some soldiers in it1 a kind of body-guard to the royal pair that inhabit it2 and the surrounding apartments contain always many1 both labourers and soldiers1 in waiting1 that they may successively attend upon and defend the common father and mother1 on whose safety depend the happiness and even existence of the whole community2 and whom these faithful subjects never abandon even in the last distress4 ,these little busy creatures are taught by ,providence always to work under cover4 ,if they have to travel over a rock1 or up a tree1 they vault1 with a coping of earth1 the route they mean to pursue1 and they form subterranean paths and tunnels1 some of a diameter wider than the bore of a large cannon1 on all sides from their habitation1 to their various objects of attack1 or which sloping down1 7for they cannot well mount a surface quite perpendicular17 penetrate to the depth of three or four feet under their nests into the earth1 till they arrive at a soil proper to be used in the erection of their buildings4 ,were they1 indeed1 to expose themselves1 the race would soon be annihilated by their innumerable enemies4 ,if any accident happen to their various structures1 or if they are dislodged from any of their covered ways1 they are active and expeditious in repairing it2 and in a single night they will restore a gallery of three or four yards in length4 ,if1 attacking the nest1 you divide it into halves1 leaving the royal chamber1 and thus lay open thousands of apartments1 all will be shut up with their sheets of clay by the next morning2 nay1 even if the whole be demolished1 provided the king and the queen be left1 every interstice between the ruins1 at which either cold or wet can possibly enter1 will be covered1 and1 in a year1 the building will be raised nearly to its pristine size and grandeur4 ,besides building and repairing1 a great deal of their time is occupied in making necessary alterations in their mansion and its approaches4 ,the royal presence chamber1 as the female increases in size1 must be gradually enlarged2 the nurseries must be removed to a greater distance2 the chambers and interior of the nest receive daily accessions1 to provide for a daily increasing population2 and the direction of their covered ways must often be varied1 when the old stock of provision is exhausted1 and new sources are discovered4 ,the collection of provisions for the use of the colony is another employment1 which necessarily calls for incessant attention3 these1 to the naked eye1 appear like raspings of wood2 but when examined by the microscope1 they are found to consist chiefly of gums and the inspissated juices of plants1 which1 formed into little masses1 are stored up in magazines made of clay4 ,when any one is bold enough to attack their nest1 and make a breach in its walls1 the labourers1 who are incapable of fighting1 retire within1 and give way to another description of its inhabitants1 whose office it is to defend the fortress when assailed by enemies2 these1 as observed before1 are the neuters or soldiers4 ,if the breach be made in a slight part of the building1 one of these comes out to reconnoitre2 he then retires and gives the alarm4 ,two or three others next appear1 scrambling as fast as they can one after the other2 to these succeed a large body1 who rush forth with as much speed as the breach will permit1 their numbers continually increasing during the attack4 ,it is not easy to describe the rage and fury by which these diminutive heroes seem actuated4 ,in their haste they frequently miss their hold1 and tumble down the sides of their hill3 they soon1 however1 recover themselves1 and1 being blind1 bite every thing they run against4 ,if the attack proceeds1 the bustle and agitation increase to a tenfold degree1 and their fury is raised to its highest pitch4 ,wo to him whose hands or legs they can come at6 for they will make their fanged jaws meet at the very first stroke1 drawing as much blood as will counterpoise their whole body1 and never quitting their hold1 even though they are pulled limb from limb4 ,the naked legs of the negroes expose them frequently to this injury2 and the stockings of the ,europeans are not thick enough to defend them4 ,on the other hand1 if1 after the first attack1 you get a little out of the way1 giving them no further interruption1 supposing the assailant of their citadel is gone beyond their reach1 in less than half an hour they will retire into the nest2 and before they have all entered1 you will see the labourers in motion1 hastening in various directions towards the breach1 every one carrying in his mouth a mass of mortar1 half as big as his body1 ready tempered2 this mortar is made of the finest parts of the gravel1 which they probably select in the subterranean pits or passages before described1 which1 worked up to a proper consistence1 hardens to the solid substance resembling stone1 of which their nests are constructed3 they never appear to embarrass or interrupt one another4 ,by the united labours of such an infinite host of creatures1 the wall soon rises1 and the breach is repaired4 ,while the labourers are thus employed1 almost all the soldiers have retired quite out of sight1 except here and there one1 who saunters about amongst the labourers1 but never assists in the work4 ,one in particular places himself close to the wall which they are building2 and turning himself leisurely on all sides1 as if to survey the proceedings1 appears to act the part of an overseer of the works4 ,every now and then1 at the interval of a minute or two1 by lifting up his head and striking his forceps upon the wall of the nest1 he makes a particular noise1 which is answered by a loud hiss from all the labourers1 and appears to be a signal for dispatch2 for1 every time it is heard1 they may be seen to redouble their pace1 and apply to their work with increased diligence4 ,renew the attack1 and this amusing scene will be repeated3 in rush the labourers1 all disappearing in a few seconds1 and out march the military1 as numerous and vindictive as before4 ,when all is once more quiet1 the busy labourers re-appear1 and resume their work1 and the soldiers vanish4 ,repeat the experiment a hundred times1 and the same will always be the result2 you will never find1 be the peril or emergency ever so great1 that one order attempts to fight1 or the other to work4 ,we have seen how solicitous the termites are to move and work under cover1 and concealed from observation3 this1 however1 is not always the case2 there is a species larger than ,t4 bellicosus1 whose proceedings we have been principally describing1 which ,mr4 ,smeathman calls the marching ,termes 7,termes viarum74 ,he was once passing through a thick forest1 when on a sudden1 a loud hiss1 like that of serpents1 struck him with alarm4 ,the next step produced a repetition of the sound1 which he then recognized to be that of white ants2 yet he was surprised at seeing none of their hills or covering ways4 ,following the noise1 to his great astonishment and delight1 he saw an army of these creatures emerging from a hole in the ground2 their number was prodigious1 and they marched with the utmost celerity4 ,when they had proceeded about a yard1 they divided into two columns1 chiefly composed of labourers1 about fifteen abreast1 and following each other in close order1 and going straight forward4 ,here and there was seen a soldier1 carrying his vast head with apparent difficulty1 and looking like an ox in a flock of sheep1 who marched on in the same manner4 ,at the distance of a foot or two from the columns1 many other soldiers were to be seen1 standing still or pacing about as if upon the look-out1 lest some enemy should suddenly surprise their unwarlike comrades2 other soldiers1 7which was the most extraordinary and amusing part of the scene17 having mounted some plants1 and placed themselves on the points of their leaves1 elevated from ten to fifteen inches from the ground1 hung over the army marching below1 and by striking their forceps upon the leaf1 produced at intervals the noise above-mentioned4 ,to this signal the whole army returned a hiss1 and obeyed it by increasing their pace4 ,the soldiers at these signal-stations sat quite still during the interval of silence1 except now and then making a slight turn of the head1 and seemed as solicitous to keep their posts as regular sentinels4 ,the two columns of this army united1 after continuing separate from twelve to fifteen paces1 having in no part been above three yards asunder1 and then descended into the earth by two or three holes4 ,mr4 ,smeathman continued watching them for above an hour1 during which time their numbers appeared neither to increase nor diminish3 the soldiers1 however1 who quitted the line of march and acted as sentinels1 became much more numerous before he quitted the spot4 ,the larv and neuters of this species are furnished with eyes4 ,the societies of ,termes lucifergus1 discovered by ,latreille1 at ,bourdeaux1 are very numerous2 but instead of erecting artificial nests1 they make their lodgment in the trunks of pines and oaks1 where the branches diverge from the tree4 ,they eat the wood nearest the bark1 or the alburnum1 without attacking the interior1 and bore a vast number of holes and irregular galleries4 ,that part of the wood appears moist1 and is covered with little gelatinous particles1 not unlike gum-arabic4 ,these insects seem to be furnished with an acid of a very penetrating odour1 which1 perhaps1 is useful to them for penetrating the wood4 ,the soldiers in these societies are as about one to twenty-five of the labourers4 ,the anonymous author of the observations on the termites of ,ceylon1 seems to have discovered a sentry-box in his nests4 ,i found1 says he1 in a very small cell in the middle of the solid mass1 7a cell about half an inch in height1 and very narrow17 a larva with an enormous head4 ,two of these individuals were in the same cell2 one of the two seemed placed as sentinel at the entrance of the cell4 ,i amused myself by forcing the door two or three times2 the sentinel immediately appeared1 and only retreated when the door was on the point of being stopped up1 which was done by the labourers4 ,,the ,,green ,,ants4--,captain ,cook gives the following account of a very peculiar kind of ants1 which he met with at ,botany ,bay4--,they are as green as a leaf4 ,they live upon trees1 where they build their nests4 ,the nests are of a very curious structure3 they are formed by bending down several of the leaves1 each of which is as broad as a man's hand2 they glue the points of them together1 so as to form a purse4 ,the viscus used for this purpose is an animal juice1 which nature has enabled them to elaborate4 ,their method of first bending down the leaves1 our naturalists had not an opportunity of observing2 but they saw thousands uniting all their strength to hold them in this position1 while other busy multitudes were employed within1 in applying the gluten that was to prevent their returning back4 ,to satisfy themselves that the leaves were bent and held down by the efforts of these diminutive artificers1 our people disturbed them in their work1 and1 as soon as they were driven from their station1 the leaves on which they were employed sprang up with a force much greater than they could have thought them able to conquer1 by any combination of their strength4 ,,the ,,visiting ,,ants4--,at ,paramaribo1 a ,dutch colony in the province of ,surinam1 there is a species of ants1 which the ,portuguese call visiting ants3 they march in troops1 and as soon as they appear1 all the coffers and chests of drawers are laid open1 which they clear of rats1 mice1 and a peculiar sort of insect in that country1 called cackerlacks1 and of other noxious animals4 ,if any one chance to molest them1 they fall upon him1 and tear in pieces his stockings and shoes4 ,their visits are rare2 and sometimes they do not appear for three years4--,templeman's ,obs4 vol4 i4 p4 #cf4 ,we conclude this chapter with an account of ,,the ,,ant-,,lion4--,there is no insect more remarkable for its dexterity than the ant-lion1 though its figure announces nothing extraordinary4 ,it nearly resembles the woodlouse2 its body being provided with six feet1 composed of several membranous rings1 and terminated in a point4 ,its head1 flat and square1 is armed with two moveable crooked horns1 whose singular structure shews how admirable ,nature is1 even in the least of her works4 ,this insect is the most subtle and dangerous enemy the ant has2 the plans which he forms to ensnare his prey1 are very ingenious4 ,he mines a portion of land in the form of a funnel1 at the bottom of which he waits to seize the ants1 which coming by chance to the edge of the precipice1 are thence hurried down to their merciless foe4 ,in order to dig it1 he first traces in the sand a circular furrow1 whose circumference forms precisely the mouth of the funnel1 the diameter of which is always equal to the depth he gives to his ditch4 ,when he has determined the space of this opening1 and traced the first furrow1 he immediately digs a second1 concentric to the other1 in order to throw out all the sand contained in the first circle4 ,he makes all these operations with his head1 which serves him instead of a shovel1 and its flat and square form admirably adapts it to this purpose4 ,he also takes some sand with one of his fore feet1 to throw it beyond the first furrow2 and this work is repeated till the insect has reached a certain depth of sand4 ,sometimes1 in digging1 he meets with grains of sand larger than usual1 or with little bits of dry earth1 which he will not suffer to remain in his tunnel2 of these he disencumbers himself by a sudden and well-timed manoeuvre of his head4 ,should he find particles yet larger1 he endeavours to push them away with his back1 and he is so assiduous in this labour1 that he repeats it six or seven times4 ,at length the ant-lion comes to collect the fruits of his toil4 ,his nets being once well laid1 he has nothing to do but to put himself on the watch2 accordingly1 immoveable and concealed at the bottom of the ditch which he has dug1 he patiently waits for the prey which he cannot pursue4 ,if some unhappy ant is inadvertently drawn to the borders of this fatal precipice1 she is almost sure to roll down to the bottom1 because the brink is made sloping1 and thus the sand giving way beneath her feet1 she is forced to follow the dangerous declivity till she falls into the power of her destroyer1 who1 by means of his horns1 draws her under the sand1 and feasts upon her blood4 ,when he has sucked all the juices from her body1 he contrives to eject from his habitation the dry and hollow carcase1 repairs any damage his trench may have sustained1 and puts himself again in ambush4 ,he does not always succeed in seizing his prey at the moment of its fall2 it frequently escapes him1 and endeavours to remount the funnel2 but then the ant-lion works with his head1 and causes a shower of sand to descend upon his captive1 and precipitate it once more to the bottom4 ,all the actions of this little animal display an art so extraordinary1 that we might often examine them without being wearied4 ,the ant-lion employs itself in preparing trenches even before having seen the animal which they are to ensnare1 and which is to serve it for nourishment2 and yet its actions are regulated in a manner the best adapted to accomplish these purposes4 ,how would an animal1 so destitute of agility1 have been able to entrap its prey more easily than by digging in a moveable sand1 and giving a sloping declivity to this funnel8 ,what better stratagem could it have devised for recovering the ants which were on the point of escaping even from this skilfully constructed snare1 than in overwhelming them with showers of sand1 and thus cutting off all hopes of a retreat8 ,all its actions have fixed principles by which they are directed4 ,the trench must be dug in the sand1 or it could not answer the desired purpose2 and it must1 according to the structure of its body1 work backwards1 using its horns like a pair of pincers1 in order to throw the sand over the brink of the funnel4 ,the instinct which governs this insect1 discovers to us a ,first ,cause1 whose intelligence has foreseen and ordained every thing that was necessary for the preservation and well-being of such an animal4 ,,chap4 ,,xxvi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,the ,spider--,ingenuity of the ,spider--,spider tamed--,curious ,anecdote of a ,spider1 c4 ,,the ,,spider4 ,the spider's touch1 how exquisitely fine6 ,feels at each thread1 and lives along the line4 ,pope4 ,one of the largest of the ,european spiders is the ,aranea diadema of ,linnus1 which is extremely common in our own country1 and is chiefly seen during the autumnal season1 in gardens1 c4 ,the body of this species1 when full grown1 is not much inferior in size to a small hazel-nut3 the abdomen is beautifully marked by a longitudinal series of round or drop-shaped milk-white spots1 crossed by others of similar appearance1 so as to represent1 in some degree1 the pattern of a small diadem4 ,this spider1 in the months of ,september and ,october1 forms1 in some convenient spot or shelter1 a large round close or thick web of yellow silk1 in which it deposits its eggs1 guarding the round web with a secondary one of a looser texture4 ,the young are hatched in the ensuing ,may1 the parent insects dying towards the close of autumn4 ,the aranea diadema being one of the largest of the common spiders1 serves to exemplify some of the principal characters of the genus in a clearer manner than most others4 ,at the tip of the abdomen are placed five papill1 or teats1 through which the insect draws its thread2 and as each of these papill is furnished with a vast number of foramina or outlets1 disposed over its whole surface1 it follows1 that what we commonly term a spider's thread1 is in reality formed of a collection of a great many distinct ones2 the animal possessing the power of drawing out more or fewer at pleasure2 and if it should draw from all the foramina at once1 the thread might consist of many hundred distinct filaments4 ,the eyes1 which are situated on the upper part or front of the thorax1 are eight in number1 placed at a small distance from each other1 and have the appearance of the stemmata in the generality of insects4 ,the fangs1 or piercers1 with which the animal wounds its prey1 are strong1 curved1 sharp-pointed1 and each furnished on the inside1 near the tip1 with a small oblong hole or slit1 through which is injected a poisonous fluid into the wound made by the point itself1 these organs operating in miniature on the same principle with the fangs in poisonous serpents4 ,the feet are highly curious1 the two claws1 with which each is terminated1 being furnished on its under side with several parallel processes1 resembling the teeth of a comb1 and enabling the animal to dispose and manage1 with the utmost facility1 the disposition of the threads in its web1 c4 ,the ,aranea tarantula1 or ,tarantula spider1 of which so many idle recitals have been detailed in the works of the learned1 and which1 even to this day1 continues in some countries to exercise the faith and ignorance of the vulgar1 is a native of the warmer parts of ,italy1 and other warm ,european regions1 and is generally found in dry and sunny plains4 ,it is the largest of all the ,european spiders2 but the extraordinary symptoms supposed to ensue from the bite of this insect1 as well as their supposed cure by the power of music alone1 are entirely fabulous1 and are now sufficiently exploded among all rational philosophers4 ,the gigantic ,aranea avicularia1 or ,bird-catching spider1 is not uncommon in many parts of the ,east ,indies and ,south ,america1 where it resides among trees1 frequently seizing on small birds1 which it destroys by wounding with its fangs1 and sucking their blood4 ,during the early part of the last century1 a project was entertained by a ,french gentleman1 ,monsieur ,bon1 of ,montpellier1 of instituting a manufacture of spiders' silk2 and the ,royal ,academy1 to which the scheme was proposed1 appointed the ingenious ,reaumur to repeat the experiments of ,m4 ,bon1 in order to ascertain how far the proposed plan might be carried3 but1 after making the proper trials1 ,m4 ,reaumur found it to be impracticable1 on account of the natural disposition of these animals1 which is such as will by no means admit of their living peaceably together in large numbers4 ,m4 ,reaumur also computed that #ffc1ebb spiders would scarcely furnish a single pound of silk4 ,monsieur ,bon1 however1 the first projector1 carried his experiments so far as to obtain two or three pairs of stockings and gloves of this silk1 which were of an elegant gray colour1 and were presented1 as samples1 to the ,royal ,academy4 ,it must be observed1 that in this manufacture it is the silk of the egg-bags alone that can be used1 being far stronger than that of the webs4 ,monsieur ,bon collected twelve or thirteen ounces of these1 and having caused them to be well cleared of dust1 by properly beating with sticks1 he washed them perfectly clean in warm water4 ,after this1 they were laid to steep1 in a large vessel1 with soap1 saltpetre1 and gum-arabic4 ,the whole was left to boil over a gentle fire for three hours1 and was afterwards again washed to get out the soap2 then laid to dry for some days1 after which it was carded1 but with much smaller cards than ordinary4 ,the silk is easily spun into a fine and strong thread2 the difficulty being only to collect the silk-bags in sufficient quantity4 ,there remains one more particularity in the history of spiders1 viz4 the power of flight4 ,it is principally in the autumnal season that these diminutive adventurers ascend the air1 and contribute to fill it with that infinity of floating cobwebs1 which are so peculiarly conspicuous at that period of the year4 ,when inclined to make these arial excursions1 the spider ascends some slight eminence1 as the top of a wall1 or the branch of a tree2 and turning itself with its head towards the wind1 protrudes several threads1 and1 rising from its station1 commits itself to the gale1 and is thus carried far beyond the height of the loftiest towers1 and enjoys the pleasure of a clearer atmosphere4 ,during their flight1 it is probable that spiders employ themselves in catching such minute winged insects as may happen to occur in their progress2 and when satisfied with their journey and their prey1 they suffer themselves to fall1 by contracting their limbs1 and gradually disengaging themselves from the thread4 ,these insects are but ill calculated to live in society4 ,whenever thus stationed1 they never fail to wage war with each other4 ,the females1 in particular1 are of a disposition peculiarly capricious and malignant2 and it is observed1 that they sometimes spring upon the males1 and destroy them4 ,on this occasion1 says ,linnus1 if ever1 may be justly applied the ,ovidian line3-- ,res est solliciti plena timoris amor6 ,the following is a notable instance of the ,,ingenuity ,,of ,,the ,,spider4 ,t4 ,a4 ,knight1 ,esq4 of ,herefordshire1 has1 in a ,treatise on the ,culture of the ,apple and ,pear1 introduced the following concerning this curious insect4-- ,i have frequently placed a spider on a small upright stick1 whose base was surrounded by water1 to observe its most singular mode of escape4 ,after having discovered that the ordinary means of escape are cut off1 it ascends the point of the stick1 and1 standing nearly on its head1 ejects its web1 which the wind readily carries to some contiguous object4 ,along this1 the sagacious insect effects its escape1 not however till it has previously ascertained1 by several exertions of its whole strength1 that its web is properly attached to the opposite end4 ,i do not know that this instance of sagacity has been mentioned by any entomological writer1 and ,i insert it here in consequence of the erroneous accounts of some periodical publications1 of the spider's threads1 which are observed to pass from one tree or bush to another in dewy mornings4 ,the reader will be pleased with the following account of ,a ,,spider ,,tamed1 given by the ,abb d',olivet1 author of the ,life of ,pelisson1 in the following passage3-- ,confined at that time in a solitary place1 and where the light of day only penetrated through a mere slit1 having no other servant than a stupid and dull clown1 a ,basque1 who was continually playing on the bagpipes1 ,pelisson studied by what means to secure himself against an enemy1 which a good conscience alone cannot always repel2 ,i mean1 the attacks of unemployed imagination1 which1 when it once exceeds proper limits1 becomes the most cruel torture of a recluse individual4 ,he adopted the following stratagem3--,perceiving a spider spinning her web at the spiracle1 he undertook to tame her2 and to effect this1 he placed some flies on the edge of the opening1 while the ,basque was playing on his favourite bagpipe4 ,the spider by degrees accustomed herself to distinguish the sound of that instrument1 and to run from her hole to seize her prey2 thus1 by means of always calling her out by the same tune1 and placing the flies nearer and nearer his own seat1 after several months' exercise1 he succeeded in training the spider so well1 that she would start at the first signal1 to seize a fly at the farthest end of the room1 and even on the knees of the prisoner4 ,it has been stated1 that a prisoner confined in the ,bastile1 retained his senses1 contrary to expectation1 by playing daily so many games at push-pin2 he having1 unknown to his keepers1 secreted a battalion or two of these hostile implements4 ,the device of ,pelisson is more interesting to us1 as we learn from it1 that the spider1 though amongst the most quarrelsome of insects1 yet is capable of being rendered familiar by the reason and perseverance of man4 ,in the introduction to a modern ,entomology there is a description of the process by which the spider weaves its web4 ,after describing the four spinners1 as they are termed1 from which the visible threads proceed1 the writer makes the following curious observations3--,these are machinery1 through which1 by a process more singular than that of rope-spinning1 the thread is drawn4 ,each spinner is pierced1 like the plate of a wire-drawer1 with a multitude of holes1 so numerous1 and exquisitely fine1 that a space often not larger than a pin's point includes a thousand4 ,through each of these holes proceeds a thread of inconceivable tenuity1 which1 immediately after issuing from the orifice1 unites with all the other threads from the spinner1 into one4 ,hence1 from each spinner proceeds a compound thread2 and these four threads1 at the distance of about one-tenth of an inch from the apex of the spinner1 again unite1 and form the thread we are accustomed to see1 which the spider uses in forming its web4 ,thus1 a spider's web1 even spun by the smallest species1 and when so fine that it is almost imperceptible to our senses1 is not1 as we suppose1 a straight line1 but a rope1 composed of at least #djj yarns4 ,we shall close this chapter with a ,,curious ,,anecdote ,,of ,a ,,spider1 connected with observations on the utility of ants in destroying venomous creatures2 by ,captain ,bagnold4 ,desirous of ascertaining the natural food of the scorpion1 ,i inclosed one 7which measured three-quarters of an inch from the head to the insertion of the tail7 in a wide-mouthed phial1 together with one of those large spiders so common in the ,west ,indies1 and closed it with a cork1 perforated by a quill for the admission of air4 ,the insects seemed carefully to avoid each other1 retiring to opposite ends of the bottle1 which was placed horizontally4 ,by giving it a gradual inclination1 the scorpion was forced into contact with the spider1 when a sharp encounter took place1 the latter receiving repeated stings from his venomous adversary1 apparently without the least injury2 while1 with his web1 he soon lashed the scorpion's tail to his back1 and afterwards secured his legs and claws with the same materials4 ,in this state ,i left them some time1 in order to observe what effect would be produced on the spider1 by the wounds he had received4 ,on my return1 however1 ,i was disappointed1 the ants having entered1 and destroyed them both4 ,in the ,west ,indies ,i have daily witnessed crowds of these little insects destroying the spider or cockroach1 which1 as soon as he is dispatched1 they carry to their nest4 ,i have frequently seen them drag their prey perpendicularly up the wall1 and1 although the weight would overcome their united efforts1 and fall to the ground1 perhaps twenty times in succession1 yet1 by unremitting perseverance1 and the aid of reinforcements1 they always succeeded4 ,a struggle of this description once amused the officers of his majesty's ship ,retribution1 for nearly half an hour3 a large centipede entered the gun-room1 surrounded by an immense concourse of ants2 the deck1 for four or five feet round1 was covered with them2 his body and limbs were encrusted with his lilliputian enemies2 and although thousands were destroyed by his exertions to escape1 they ultimately carried him in triumph to their dwelling4 ,in the woods near ,sierra ,leone1 ,i have several times seen the entire skeletons of the snake beautifully dissected by these minute anatomists4 ,from these circumstances it would appear1 that ants are a considerable check to the increase of those venomous reptiles1 so troublesome in the torrid zone2 and their industry1 perseverance1 courage1 and numerical force1 seem to strengthen the conjecture3 in which case they amply remunerate us for their own depredations4 ,,chap4 ,,xxvii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,luminous ,insects4 ,many insects are possessed of a luminous preparation or secretion1 which has all the advantages of our lamps and candles1 without their inconveniences2 which gives light sufficient to direct our motion2 which is incapable of burning2 and whose lustre is maintained without needing fresh supplies of oil1 or the application of snuffers4 ,of the insects thus singularly provided1 the common ,,glow-,,worm 7,lampyris noctiluca7 is the most familiar instance4--,this insect in shape somewhat resembles a caterpillar1 only it is much more depressed2 and the light proceeds from a pale-coloured patch that terminates1 the under side of the abdomen4 ,it has been supposed by many1 that the males of the different species of lampyris do not possess the property of giving out any light2 but it is now ascertained that this supposition is inaccurate1 though their light is much less vivid than that of the female4 ,ray first pointed out this fact with respect to 7,l4 noctiluca47 ,geoffrey also observed1 that the male of this species has four small luminous points1 two on each of the two last segments of the belly3 and his observation has been recently confirmed by ,miller4 ,this last entomologist1 indeed1 saw only two shining spots2 but from the insects having the power of withdrawing them out of sight1 so that not the smallest trace of light remains1 he thinks it is not improbable that at times two other points1 still smaller1 may be exhibited1 as ,geoffrey has described4 ,in the males of ,l4 splendidula1 and of ,l4 hemiptera1 the light is very distinct1 and may be seen in the former while flying4 ,the females have the same faculty of extinguishing or concealing their light2 a very necessary provision to guard them from the attacks of nocturnal birds4 ,mr4 ,white even thinks that they regularly put it out between eleven and twelve every night1 and they have also the power of rendering it for a while more vivid than ordinary4 ,though many of the females of the different species of lampyris are without wings1 and even elytra1 7in ,coleoptera17 this is not the case with all4 ,the female of ,l4 ,italica1 a species common in ,italy1 and which1 if we may trust to the accuracy of the account given by ,mr4 ,waller1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #afhd1 would seem to have been taken by him in ,hertfordshire1 is winged2 and when a number of these moving stars are seen to dart through the air in a dark night1 nothing can have a more beautiful effect4 ,dr4 ,smith says1 that the beaus of ,italy are accustomed in an evening to adorn the heads of the ladies with these artificial diamonds1 by sticking them into their hair2 and a similar custom prevails amongst the ladies of ,india4 ,besides the golden species of the genus ,lampyris1 all of which are probably more or less luminous1 another insect of the beetle tribe1 ,elater noctilucus1 is endowed with the same property1 and that in a much higher degree4 ,this insect1 which is an inch long1 and about one-third of an inch broad1 gives out its principal light from two transparent eye-like tubercles placed upon the thorax2 but there are also two luminous patches concealed under the elytra1 which are not visible except when the insect is flying1 at which time it appears adorned with four brilliant gems of the most beautiful golden-blue lustre3 in fact1 the whole body is full of light1 which shines out between the abdominal segments when stretched4 ,the light emitted by the two thoracic tubercles alone is so considerable1 that the smallest print may be read by moving one of these insects along the lines2 and in the ,west ,india islands1 particularly in ,st4 ,domingo1 where they are very common1 the natives were formerly accustomed to employ those living lamps1 which they called cucuij1 instead of candles1 in performing their evening household occupations4 ,in travelling at night1 they used to tie one to each great toe2 and in fishing and hunting1 required no other flambeau4--,pietro ,martire's ,decades of the ,new ,world1 quoted in ,madoc1 p4 #edc4 ,southey has happily introduced this insect in his ,madoc1 as furnishing the lamp by which ,coatel rescued the ,british hero from the hands of the ,mexican priests4 ,she beckon'd and descended1 and drew out1 ,from underneath her vest1 a cage1 or net ,it rather might be called1 so fine the twigs ,which knit it1 where1 confined1 two fire-flies gave ,their lustre4 ,by that light did ,madoc first ,behold the features of his lovely guide4 ,pietro ,martire tells us1 that cucuij serve the natives of the ,spanish ,west ,india islands not only instead of candles1 but as extirpators of the gnats1 which are a dreadful pest to the inhabitants of the low grounds4 ,they introduce a few fire-flies1 to which the gnats are a grateful food1 into their houses1 and by means of these commodious hunters1 are soon rid of the intruders4 ,how they are a remedy 7says this author7 for so great a mischiefe1 it is a pleasant thing to hear4 ,hee who understandeth that he has those troublesome guestes 7the gnattes7 at home1 diligently hunteth after the cucuij4 ,whoso wanteth cucuij1 goeth out of the house in the first twilight of the night1 carrying a burning fire-brande in his hande1 and ascendeth the next hillock1 that the cucuij may see it1 and hee swingeth the fire-brande about1 calling ,cucuie aloud1 and beating the ayre with often calling out1 ,cucuie1 ,cucuie4 ,he goes on to observe1 that the simple people believe the insect is attracted by their invitations2 but that1 for his part1 he is rather inclined to think that the fire is the magnet4 ,having obtained a sufficient number of cucuij1 the beetle-hunter returns home1 and lets them fly loose in the house1 where they diligently seek the gnats about the beds and the faces of those asleep1 and devour them4--,martire ubi supr4 ,colonies1 i4 #abh4 ,these insects are also applied to purposes of decoration4 ,on certain festival-days1 in the month of ,june1 they are collected in great numbers1 and tied all over the garments of young people1 who gallop through the streets on horses similarly ornamented1 producing on a dark evening the effect of a large moving body of light4 ,on such occasions1 the lover displays his gallantry by decking his mistress with these living gems4--,walton's ,present ,state of the ,spanish ,colonies4 ,and according to ,p4 ,martire1 many wanton wilde fellowes rub their faces with the flesh of a killed cucuij1 as boys with us use phosphorus1 with purpose to meet their neighbours with a flaming countenance1 and derive amusement from their fright4 ,besides ,elater noctilucus1 ,e4 ignitus1 and several others of the same genus1 are luminous3 not fewer than twelve species of this family are described by ,illiger in the ,berlin ,naturalist ,society's ,magazine4 ,the brilliant nocturnal spectacle presented by these insects to the inhabitants of the countries where they abound1 cannot be better described than in the language of the poet above referred to1 who has thus related its first effect upon ,british visitors of the new world3 ------------------------sorrowing we beheld ,the night come on3 but soon did night display ,more wonders than it veil'd2 innumerable tribes ,from the wood-cover swarm'd1 and darkness made ,their beauties visible2 one while they stream'd ,a bright blue radiance upon flowers that clos'd ,their gorgeous colours from the eye of day2 ,now motionless and dark1 eluding search1 ,self-shrouded2 and anon starring the sky1 ,rose like a shower of fire4 ,if we are to believe ,mouffet1 7and the story is not incredible17 the appearance of the tropical fire-flies on one occasion led to a more important result than might have been expected from such a cause4 ,he tells us1 that when ,sir ,thos4 ,cavendish and ,sir ,john ,dudley first landed in the ,west ,indies1 and saw in the evening an infinite number of moving lights in the woods1 which were merely these insects1 they supposed that the ,spaniards were advancing upon them1 and immediately betook themselves to their ships3 a result as well entitling the elatera to a commemoration feast1 as a similar good office by the land-crabs of ,hispaniola1 which1 as the ,spaniards tell1 7and the story is confirmed by an anniversary ,fiesta de los ,cangrejos17 by their clattering being mistaken for the sound of ,spanish cavalry close upon their heels1 in like manner scared away a body of ,english invaders from the city of ,st4 ,domingo4--,walton's ,hispaniola1 i4 #ci4 ,an anecdote less improbable1 perhaps1 and certainly more ludicrous1 is related by ,sir ,james ,smith1 of the effect of the first sight of the ,italian fire-flies upon some ,moorish ladies1 ignorant of such appearances4 ,these females had been taken prisoners at sea1 and1 until they could be ransomed1 lived in a house in the outskirts of ,genoa1 where they were frequently visited by the respectable inhabitants of the city2 a party of whom1 on going one evening1 were surprised to find the house closely shut up1 and their ,moorish friends in the greatest grief and consternation4 ,on inquiring into the cause1 they ascertained that some of the ,lampyris ,italica had found their way into the dwelling1 and that the ladies within had taken it into their heads that these brilliant guests were no other than the troubled spirits of their relations2 and some time elapsed before they could be divested of this idea4 ,the common people in ,italy have a superstition respecting these insects somewhat similar1 believing that they are of a spiritual nature1 and proceed out of the graves2 and hence carefully avoid them4--,tour on the ,continent1 #b;d ed4 iii4 #he4 ,the insects hitherto adverted to have been beetles1 or of the order ,coleoptera4 ,but1 besides these1 a genus in the order ,hemiptera1 called ,fulgora1 includes several species1 which emit so powerful a light1 as to have obtained in ,english the generic appellation of lantern-flies4 ,two of the most conspicuous of this tribe are the ,f4 lanternaria and ,f4 candelaria2 the former a native of ,south ,america1 the latter of ,china4 ,both1 as indeed is the case with the whole genus1 have the material which diffuses their light included in a hollow subtransparent projection of the head4 ,in ,f4 candelaria this projection is of a subcylindrical shape1 recurved at the apex1 above an inch in length1 and the thickness of a small quill4 ,we may easily conceive1 as travellers assure us1 that a tree studded with multitudes of these living sparks1 some at rest and others in motion1 must during the night have a superlatively splendid appearance4 ,in ,f4 lanternaria1 which is an insect two or three inches long1 the snout is much larger and broader1 and more of an oval shape1 and sheds a light1 the brilliancy of which transcends that of any other luminous insect4 ,madam ,merian informs us1 that the first discovery she made of this property caused her no small alarm4 ,the servants had brought her several of these insects1 which by day-light exhibited no extraordinary appearance1 and she inclosed them in a box till she should have an opportunity of drawing them1 placing them upon a table in her lodging-room4 ,in the middle of the night the confined insects made such a noise as to awake her1 and she opened the box1 the inside of which1 to her great astonishment1 appeared all in a blaze2 and in her fright letting it fall1 she was not less surprised to see each of the insects apparently on fire4 ,she soon1 however1 divined the cause of this unexpected phenomenon1 and re-inclosed her brilliant guests in their place of confinement4 ,she adds1 that the light of one of these fulgora was sufficiently bright to read a newspaper by4 ,another species1 ,f4 pyrrhorynchus1 is described by ,donovan1 in his ,insects of ,india2 of which the light1 though from a smaller snout than that of ,f4 lanternaria1 must assume a more splendid and striking appearance1 the projection being of a rich deep purple from the base to near the apex1 which is of a fine transparent scarlet2 and these tints will of course be imparted to the transmitted light4 ,with regard to the immediate source of the luminous properties of these insects1 ,mr4 ,macartney1 to whom we are indebted for the most recent investigation on the subject1 has ascertained1 that in the common glow-worm1 and in ,elater noctilucus and ignitus1 the light proceeds from masses of a substance not generally differing1 except in its yellow colour1 from the interstitial substance corps graisseux1 of the rest of the body1 closely applied underneath those transparent parts of the insects' skin which afford the light4 ,in the glowworm1 besides the last-mentioned substance1 which1 when the season for giving light is passed1 is absorbed1 and replaced by the common interstitial substance1 he observed on the inner side of the last abdominal segment two minute oval sacks1 formed of an elastic spirally-wound fibre1 similar to that of the trachea1 containing a soft yellow substance1 of a closer texture than that which lines the adjoining region1 and affording a more permanent and brilliant light4 ,this light he found to be less under the control of the insect than that from the adjoining luminous substance1 which it has the power of voluntarily extinguishing1 not by retracting it under a membrane1 as ,carradori imagined1 but by some inscrutable change which depends upon its will3 and when the latter substance was extracted from living glowworms1 it afforded no light1 while the two sacks in like circumstances shone uninterruptedly for several hours4 ,mr4 ,macartney conceives1 from the radiated structure of interstitial substance surrounding the oval yellow masses immediately under the transparent spot in the thorax of ,elater noctilucus1 and the subtransparency of the adjoining crust1 that the interstitial substance in this situation has also the property of shining2 a supposition which1 if ,de ,geer and other authors be correct in stating1 that this insect has two luminous patches over its elytra1 and that the incisures between the abdominal segments shine when stretched1 may probably be extended to the whole of the interstitial substance of its body4 ,with respect to the remote cause of the luminous property of insects1 philosophers are considerably divided in opinion4 ,the disciples of modern chemistry have in general1 with ,dr4 ,darwin1 referred it to the slow combustion of some combination of phosphorus secreted from their fluids by an appropriate organization1 and entering into combination with the oxygen supplied in respiration4 ,this opinion is very plausibly built upon the ascertained existence of phosphoric acid as an animal secretion2 the great resemblance between the light of phosphorus in slow combustion1 and animal light2 the remarkably large spiracula in glowworms2 and upon the statement1 that the glowworm is rendered more brilliant by the application of heat and oxygen gas1 and is extinguished by cold and by hydrogen and carbonic acid gases4 ,from these last facts1 ,spallanzani was led to regard the luminous matter as a compound of hydrogen and carburetted hydrogen gas4 ,carradori having found that the luminous portion of the belly of the ,italian glowworm1 lampyris ,italica1 shone in vacuo1 in oil1 in water1 and when under other circumstances where the presence of oxygen gas was precluded1--with ,brugnatelli1 ascribed the property in question to the imbibition of light1 separated from the food or air taken in the body1 and afterwards secreted in a sensible form4#ae ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,macartney having ascertained1 by experiment1 that the light of a glowworm is not diminished by immersion in water1 or increased by the application of heat2 that the substance affording it1 though poetically employed for lighting the fairies' tapers1#af is incapable of inflammation1 if applied to the flame of a candle or red-hot iron2 and when separated from the body1 exhibits no sensible heat on the thermometer's being applied to it1--rejects the preceding hypothesis as unsatisfactory1 but without substituting any other explanation2 suggesting1 however1 that the facts he observed are more favourable to the supposition of light being a quality of matter1 than a substance4 ,which of these opinions is the more correct1 is left for future philosophers to decide4 ,the general use of this singular provision is not much more satisfactorily ascertained than its nature4 ,it is conjectured that it may be a means of defence against its enemies4 ,in different kinds of insects1 however1 it may probably have a different object4 ,thus in the lantern-flies1 7,fulgora17 whose light precedes them1 it may act the part that their name imports1 enable them to discover their prey1 and to steer themselves safely in the night4 ,in the fire-flies1 7,elater17 if we consider the infinite numbers1 that in certain climates and situations present themselves every where in the night1 it may distract the attention of their enemies1 or alarm them4 ,and in the glowworm1 since their light is usually more brilliant in the female1 it is most probably intended to conduct the sexes to each other4 ,thine is an unobtrusive blaze1 ,content in lowly shades to shine2 ,and much ,i wish1 while yet ,i gaze1 ,to make thy modest merit mine6 ,mrs4 ,opie4 ,,chap4 ,,xxviii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,the ,flea--,on the ,duration of the ,life of a ,flea--,the ,louse4 ,,the ,,flea1--has two eyes and six feet1 fitted for leaping2 the feelers are like threads2 the rostrum is inflected1 setaceous1 and armed with a sting2 and the belly is compressed4 ,fleas bring forth eggs1 which they deposit on animals that afford them a proper food4 ,of these eggs are hatched white worms of a shining pearl colour1 which feed on the scurfy substance of the cuticle1 the downy matter gathered in the piles or folds of clothes1 or other similar substances4 ,in a fortnight they come to a tolerable size1 and are very lively and active2 and1 if at any time disturbed1 they suddenly roll themselves into a kind of ball4 ,soon after this1 they come to creep1 after the manner of silk-worms1 with a very swift motion4 ,when arrived at their size1 they hide themselves as much as possible1 and spin a silken thread out of their mouth1 wherewith they form themselves a small round bag1 or case1 white within as paper1 but without always dirty1 and fouled with dust4 ,here1 after a fortnight's rest1 the animalcule bursts out1 transformed into a perfect flea1 leaving its exuvi in the bag4 ,while it remains in the bag1 it is milk-white till the second day before its eruption1 when it becomes coloured1 grows hard1 and gets strength2 so that1 upon its first delivery1 it springs nimbly away4 ,the flea is covered all over with black1 hard1 and shelly scales or plates1 which are curiously jointed1 and folded over each other in such a manner as to comply with all the nimble motions of the creature4 ,these scales are finely polished1 and beset about the edges with short spikes1 in a very beautiful and regular order4 ,its neck is finely arched1 and resembles the tail of a lobster3 the head is also very extraordinary2 for from the snout-part of it proceed the two fore-legs1 and between these is placed the piercer1 or sucker1 with which it penetrates the skin to get its food4 ,its eyes are very large and beautiful1 and it has two short horns1 or feelers4 ,it has four other legs1 joined all at the breast4 ,these1 when it leaps1 fold short1 one within another2 and then1 exerting their spring all at the same instant1 they carry the creature to a surprising distance4 ,the legs have several joints1 are very hairy1 and terminate in two long and hooked sharp claws4 ,the piercer1 or sucker1 of the flea1 is lodged between its fore-legs1 and includes a couple of darts or lancets1 which1 after the piercer has made an entrance1 are thrust farther into the flesh1 to make the blood flow from the adjacent parts1 and occasion that round red spot1 with a hole in the centre of it1 vulgarly called a flea-bite4 ,this piercer1 its sheath opening sidewise1 and the two lancets within it1 are very difficult to be seen1 unless the two fore-legs1 between which they are hid1 be cut off close to the head2 for the flea rarely puts out its piercer1 except at the time of feeding1 but keeps it folded inwards2 and the best way of seeing it1 is by cutting off first the head1 and then the fore-legs1 and then it is usually seen thrust out in convulsions4 ,by keeping fleas in a glass tube corked up at both ends1 but so as to admit fresh air1 their several actions may be observed4 ,they may be thus seen to lay their eggs1 c4 ,they do not lay their eggs all at once1 but by ten or twelve in a day1 for several days successively1 which eggs will be afterwards found to hatch successively1 in the same order4 ,the flea may easily be dissected in a drop of water2 and thus the stomach and bowels1 with their peristaltic motion1 may be discovered very plainly1 with the veins and arteries1 though minute beyond all conception4 ,this bloodthirsty insect1 which fattens at the expense of the human species1 prefers the more delicate skin of women1 but preys neither upon epileptic persons1 nor upon the dead or dying4 ,it loves to nestle in the fur of dogs1 cats1 and rats4 ,the nests of river-swallows are sometimes plentifully stored with them4 ,fleas are apterous1 walk but little1 but leap to a height equal to two hundred times that of their own body4 ,this amazing motion is performed by means of the elasticity of their feet1 the articulations of which are so many springs4 ,thus it eludes1 with surprising agility1 the pursuit of the person on whom it riots4 ,mercurial ointment1 brimstone1 a fumigation with the leaves of pennyroyal1 or fresh-gathered leaves of that plant1 sewed up in a bag1 and laid in the bed1 are remedies pointed out as destructive of fleas4 ,in the ,athenian ,oracle1 a lady desires to know whether fleas have stings1 or whether they only suck or bite1 when they draw blood from the body8 ,to which an ingenious author returns the following humorous answer3 ,not to trouble you1 madam1 with the ,hebrew or ,arabic name of a flea1 or to transcribe ,bochart's learned dissertations on the little animal1 we shall1 for your satisfaction1 give such a description thereof as we have yet been able to discover4-- ,its skin is of a lovely deep red colour1 most neatly polished1 and armed with scales1 which can resist any thing but fate1 and your ladyship's unmerciful fingers3 the neck of it is exactly like the tail of a lobster1 and1 by the assistance of those strong scales it is covered with1 springs backwards and forwards much in the same manner1 and with equal violence3 it has two eyes on each side of its head1 so pretty1 that ,i would prefer them to any1 madam1 but yours2 and which it makes use of to avoid its fate1 and flee from its enemies1 with as much nimbleness and success1 as your sex manage those fatal weapons1 lovely basilisks as you are1 for the ruin of your adorers4 ,nature has provided it six substantial legs1 of great strength1 and incomparable agility1 jointed like a cane1 covered with large hairs1 and armed each of them with two claws1 which appear of a horny substance1 more sharp than lancets1 or the finest needle you have in your needle-book4 ,it was a long while before we could discover its mouth1 which1 we confess1 we have not yet so exactly perceived as we could wish1 the little bashful creature always holding up its two fore-feet before it1 which it uses instead of a fan or mask1 when it has no mind to be known2 and we were forced to be guilty of an act both uncivil and cruel1 without which we could never have resolved your question4 ,we were obliged to unmask this modest one1 and cut off its two fore-legs to get to the face2 which being performed1 though it makes our tender hearts1 as well as yours1 almost bleed to think of it1 we immediately discovered what your ladyship desired1 and found ,nature had given it a strong proboscis1 or trunk1 as a gnat or muschetto1 though much thicker and stouter1 with which we may very well suppose it penetrates your fair hand1 feasts itself on the nectar of your blood1 and then1 like a little faithless fugitive of a lover1 skips away1 almost invisibly1 nobody knows whither4 ,we close our remarks on this well-known insect1 with the following interesting particulars on the ,,duration ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,flea2 by ,borrichius2 from the ,acts of ,copenhagen4--,pliny represents to us a ,greek philosopher1 whose chief occupation1 for several years together1 was to measure the space skipped over by fleas4 ,without giving in to such ridiculous researches1 ,i can relate an anecdote1 which chance discovered to me in regard to this insect4 ,being sent for to attend a foreign lady1 who was greatly afflicted with the gout1 and having staid1 by her desire1 to dine with her1 she bade me take notice of a flea on her hand4 ,surprised at such discourse1 ,i looked at the hand1 and saw indeed a plump and pampered flea sucking greedily1 and kept fast to it by a little gold chain4 ,the lady assured me1 she had nursed and kept the little animal1 at that time1 full six years1 with exceeding great care1 having fed it twice every day with her blood2 and when it had satisfied its appetite1 she put it up in a little box1 lined with silk4 ,in a month's time1 being recovered from her illness1 she set out from ,copenhagen with her flea2 but having returned in about a year after1 ,i took an opportunity of waiting upon her1 and1 among other things1 asked after her little insect4 ,she answered me with great concern1 that it died through the neglect of her waiting-woman4 ,what ,i found remarkable in this story was1 that the lady1 being attacked by chronical pains in her limbs1 had recourse in ,france to very powerful medicines during six weeks2 and all this time the flea had not ceased to feed upon her blood1 imbued with the vapours1 and yet was not the worse for it4 ,,the ,,louse4--,this insect has six feet1 two eyes1 and a sort of sting in the mouth2 the feelers are as long as the thorax2 and the belly is depressed and sublobated4 ,it is an oviparous animal4 ,they are not peculiar to man alone1 but infest other animals1 as quadrupeds and birds1 and even fishes and vegetables2 but these are of peculiar species on each animal1 according to the particular nature of each1 some of which are different from those which infest the human body4 ,nay1 even insects are infested with vermin1 which feed on and torment them4 ,several kinds of beetles are subject to lice1 but particularly that kind called by way of eminence the lousy beetle4 ,the lice on this are very numerous1 and will not be shook off4 ,the earwig is often infested with lice1 just at the setting on of its head3 these are white and shining1 like mites1 but they are much smaller2 they are round-backed1 flat-bellied1 and have long legs1 particularly the foremost pair4 ,snails of all kinds1 but especially the large naked sorts1 are very subject to lice2 which are continually seen running about them1 and devouring them4 ,numbers of little red lice1 with a very small head1 and in shape resembling a tortoise1 are often seen about the legs of spiders1 and they never leave the animal while he lives2 but if he be killed1 they almost instantly forsake him4 ,a sort of whitish lice is found on humblebees2 they are also found upon ants2 and fishes are not less subject to them than other animals4 ,kircher tells us1 that he found lice also on flies1 and ,m4 de la ,hire has given a curious account of the creature which he found on the common fly4 ,having occasion to view a living fly with the microscope1 he observed on its head1 back1 and shoulders1 a great number of small animals crawling very nimbly about1 and often climbing up the hairs which grow at the origin of the fly's legs4 ,he with a fine needle took up one of these1 and placed it before the microscope used to view the animalcules in fluids4 ,it had eight legs1 four on each side2 these were not placed very distant from each other1 but the four towards the head were separated by a small space from the four towards the tail4 ,the feet were of a particular structure1 being composed of several fingers1 as it were1 and fitted for taking fast hold of any thing1 but the two nearest the head were also more remarkable in this particular than those near the tail2 the extremities of the legs for a little way above the feet were dry1 and void of flesh1 like the legs of birds1 but above this part they appeared plump and fleshy4 ,it had two small horns upon its head1 formed of several hairs arranged closely together2 and there were some other clusters of hairs by the side of these horns1 but they had not the same figure2 and towards the origin of the hind-legs there were two other such clusters of hairs1 which took their origin at the middle of the back4 ,the whole creature was of a bright yellowish red2 the legs1 and all the body1 except a large spot in the centre1 were perfectly transparent4 ,in size1 he computed it to be about #a_/djjjth part of the head of the fly2 and he observes1 that such kind of vermin are rarely found on flies4 ,the louse which infests the human body1 makes a very curious appearance through a microscope4 ,it has such a transparent shell or skin1 that we are able to discover more of what passes within its body1 than in most other living creatures4 ,it has naturally three divisions1 the head1 the breast1 and the tail part4 ,in the head appear two fine black eyes1 with a horn that has five joints1 and is surrounded with hairs standing before each eye2 and from the end of the nose1 or snout1 there is a pointed projecting part1 which serves as a sheath or case to a piercer1 or sucker1 which the creature thrusts into the skin to draw out the blood and humours which are its destined food2 for it has no mouth that opens in the common way4 ,this piercer1 or sucker1 is judged to be seven hundred times smaller than a hair1 and is contained in another case within the first1 and can be drawn in or thrust out at pleasure4 ,the breast is very beautifully marked in the middle2 the skin is transparent1 and full of little pits2 and from the under part of it proceed six legs1 each having five joints1 and their skin all the way resembling shagreen1 except at the ends1 where it is smoother4 ,each leg is terminated by two claws1 which are hooked1 and are of an unequal length and size4 ,these it uses as we would a thumb and middle finger2 and there are hairs between these claws1 as well as all over the legs4 ,on the back part of the tail there may be discovered some ring-like divisions1 and a sort of marks which look like the strokes of a rod on the human skin2 the belly looks like shagreen1 and towards the lower end it is very clear1 and full of pits3 at the extremity of the tail there are two semicircular parts1 all covered over with hairs4 ,when the louse moves its legs1 the motion of the muscles1 which all unite in an oblong dark spot in the middle of the breast1 may be distinguished perfectly2 and so may the motion of the muscles of the head1 when it moves its horns4 ,we may likewise see the various ramifications of the veins and arteries1 which are white1 with the pulse regularly beating in the arteries4 ,the peristaltic motion of the intestines may be distinctly seen1 from the stomach down to the anus4 ,if one of these creatures1 when hungry1 be placed on the back of the hand1 it will thrust its sucker into the skin1 and the blood which it sucks may be seen passing in a fine stream to the fore part of the head2 where1 falling into a roundish cavity1 it passes again in a fine stream to another circular receptacle in the middle of the head2 from thence it runs through a small vessel to the breast1 and then to a gut which reaches to the hinder part of the body1 where1 in a curve1 it turns again a little upward in the breast and gut2 the blood is moved without intermission with great force1 especially in the former1 where it occasions a surprising contraction4 ,in the upper part of the crooked ascending gut above-mentioned1 the propelled blood stands still1 and seems to undergo a separation1 some of it becoming clear and waterish1 while other black particles are pushed forward to the anus4 ,if a louse is placed on its back1 two bloody darkish spots appear2 the larger in the middle of the body1 the smaller towards the tail2 the motions of which are followed by the pulsation of the dark bloody spot1 in or over which the white bladder seems to lie4 ,this motion of the systole and diastole is best seen when the creature begins to grow weak2 and on pricking the white bladder1 which seems to be the heart1 it instantly dies4 ,the lower dark spot is supposed to be the excrement4 ,,chap4 ,,xxix4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,in the vast1 and the minute1 we see ,th' unambiguous footsteps of a ,god1 ,who gives its lustre to an insect's wing1 ,and wheels his throne upon the rolling worlds4 ,cowper4 ,,the ,,aphis4 ,this is an insect which has engaged the attention of naturalists for various reasons3 their generation is equivocal1 and their instinctive economy differs1 in some respects1 from that of most other animals4 ,linnus defines the generic character of the aphis thus3 beak inflected1 sheath of five articulations1 with a single bristle2 antenn setaceous1 and longer than the thorax2 either four erect wings1 or none2 feet formed for walking2 posterior part of the abdomen usually furnished with two little horns4 ,geoffrey says1 the aphides have two beaks1 one of which is seated in the breast1 the other in the head2 this last extends to1 and is laid upon1 the base of the pectoral one1 and serves1 as that writer imagines1 to convey to the head a part of that nourishment which the insect takes or sucks in by means of the pectoral beak4 ,gmelin enumerates about seventy species1 all of which1 and doubtless many others1 are found in different parts of ,europe4 ,they infest an endless variety of plants2 and it is believed that each species is particularly attached to one kind of vegetable only3 hence each sort has been hitherto named after the individual species or genus of plants on which it feeds2 or if that could not be ascertained1 that on which it had been found2 for some species are rather uncommon and little known1 though others are infinitely too numerous4 ,the aphides are sufficiently known by the indiscriminate term of plant-lice2 they abound with a sweet and grateful moisture1 and are therefore eagerly devoured by ants1 the larv coccinell1 and many other creatures1 or they would become1 very probably1 more destructive to the whole vegetable creation than any other race of insects known4 ,if ,bonnet was not the first naturalist 7as is generally acknowledged7 who discovered the mysterious course of generation in the aphides1 or1 as he calls them1 pucerons1 his experiments1 together with those of his countryman1 ,trembley1 tended at least to confirm1 in a most satisfactory manner1 the almost incredible circumstances respecting it1 that an aphis1 or puceron1 brought up in the most perfect solitude from the moment of its birth1 in a few days will be found in the midst of a numerous family2 and that if the experiment be again repeated on one of the individuals of this family1 a second generation will multiply like its parent2 and the like experiment may be many times repeated with the same effect4 ,the history of aphides has also been very copiously treated upon by ,dr4 ,richardson1 in a paper printed in the #dast vol4 of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 and by the late ingenious ,mr4 ,curtis1 in the #fth vol4 of the ,transactions of the ,linnan ,society4 ,the tenor of ,dr4 ,richardson's remarks is briefly this3 ,the great variety of species which occur in the insects now under consideration1 may render an inquiry into their particular natures not a little perplexing2 but by reducing them under their proper genus1 the difficulty is considerably diminished4 ,we may reasonably suppose all the insects comprehended under any distinct genus1 to partake of one general nature2 and by diligently examining any particular species1 we may thence gain some insight into the nature of all the rest4 ,with this view1 ,dr4 ,richardson chose out of the various sorts of aphides1 the largest of those found on the rose-tree2 not only as its size makes it more conspicuous1 but as there are few of so long duration4 ,this sort appears early in the spring1 and continues late in autumn2 while several are limited to a much shorter term1 in conformity to the different trees and plants whence they draw their nourishment4 ,if1 at the beginning of ,february1 the weather happens to be so warm as to make the buds of the rose-tree swell and appear green1 small aphides are frequently to be found on them1 though not larger than the young ones in summer1 when first produced4 ,it will be found1 that those aphides which appear only in spring1 proceed from small black oval eggs1 which were deposited on the last year's shoot2 though it happens that1 when the insects make too early an appearance1 the greater part suffer from the sharp weather that usually succeeds1 by which means the rose-trees are some years freed from them4 ,the same kind of animal is then at one time of the year viviparous1 and at another oviparous4 ,those aphides which withstand the severity of the weather1 seldom come to their full growth before the month of ,april1 at which time they usually begin to breed1 after twice casting off their exuvia1 or outward covering4 ,when they first come from the parent1 they are enveloped in a thin membrane1 having the appearance of an oval egg2 these egg-like appearances adhere by one extremity to the mother1 while the young ones contained in them extend to the other1 and by that means gradually draw the ruptured membrane over the head and body to the hind-feet4 ,being thus suspended in the air1 the insect soon frees itself from the membrane in which it was confined1 and1 after its limbs are a little strengthened1 is set down on some tender shoots1 and left to provide for itself4 ,in the spring months there appear on the rose-trees but two generations of aphides1 including those which proceed immediately from the last year's eggs2 the warmth of the summer adds so much to their fertility1 that no less than five generations succeed each other in the interval4 ,one is produced in ,may1 which casts off their covering2 while the months of ,june and ,july each supply two more1 which cast off their coverings three or four times1 according to the different warmth of the season4 ,this frequent change of their outward coat is the more extraordinary1 because it is repeated more often when the insects come the soonest to their growth1 which sometimes happens in ten days1 when they have had plenty of warmth and nourishment4 ,early in the month of ,june1 some of the third generation1 which were produced about the middle of ,may1 after casting off the last covering1 discover four erect wings1 much longer than their bodies2 and the same is observable in all the succeeding generations which are produced during the summer months1 but1 like all the others1 without any diversity of sex3 for some time before the aphides come to their full growth1 it is easy to distinguish which will have wings1 by a remarkable fulness of the breast1 which in the others is hardly to be distinguished from the body4 ,when the last covering is ejected1 the wings1 which were before folded up in a very narrow compass1 are gradually extended in a surprising manner1 till their dimensions are at last very considerable4 ,the increase of these insects in the summer time is so very great1 that by wounding and exhausting the tender shoots1 they would frequently suppress all vegetation1 had they not many enemies to restrain them4 ,notwithstanding these insects have a numerous tribe of enemies1 they are not without their friends1 if those maybe considered as such1 who are officious in their attendance1 for the good things they expect to reap thereby4 ,the ant and bee are of this kind1 collecting the honey in which the aphides abound1 but with this difference1 that the ants are constant visitors1 the bee only when flowers are scarce2 the ants will suck in the honey while the aphides are in the act of discharging it2 the bees only collect it from the leaves on which it has fallen4 ,in the autumn1 three more generations of aphides are produced1 two of which generally make their appearance in the month of ,august1 and the third before the middle of ,september4 ,the two first differ in no respect from those which are found in summer1 but the third differs greatly from all the rest4 ,though all the aphides which have hitherto appeared were female1 in this generation several male insects are found1 but not by any means so numerous as the females4 ,the females have1 at first1 the same appearance as those of the former generations1 but in a few days their colour changes from a green to a yellow1 which is gradually converted into an orange before they come to their full growth2 they differ also1 in another respect1 from those which occur in summer1 for all these yellow females are without wings4 ,the male insects are1 however1 still more remarkable1 their outward appearance readily distinguishing them from this and all other generations4 ,when first produced1 they are not of a green colour like the rest1 but of a reddish brown1 and have afterwards a dark line along the back2 they come to their full growth in about three weeks1 and then cast off their last covering1 the whole insect being1 after this1 of a bright yellow colour1 the wings only excepted1 but after this change they become a deeper yellow1 and1 in a very few hours1 of a dark brown1 if we except the body1 which is something lighter coloured1 and has a reddish cast4 ,where there are a number crowded together1 they of course interfere with each other1 in which case they will frequently deposit their eggs on other parts of the branches4 ,it is highly probable that the aphides derive considerable advantages by living in society3 the reiterated punctures of a great number of them may attract a larger quantity of nutritious juices to that part of the tree or plant where they have taken up their abode4 ,the observations of ,mr4 ,curtis1 on the aphides1 are chiefly intended to shew that they are the principal cause of blights in plants1 and the sole cause of the honey-dew4 ,he therefore calls this insect the aphis1 or blighter2 and after observing1 that1 in point of numbers1 the individuals of the several species composing it surpass those of any other genus in the country1 speaks thus1 in general terms1 of the whole tribe4--,these insects live entirely on vegetables4 ,the loftiest tree is no less liable to their attacks1 than the most humble plant4 ,they prefer the young shoots on account of their tenderness1 and1 on this principle1 often insinuate themselves into the very heart of the plant1 and do irreparable mischief before they are discovered4 ,but1 for the most part1 they beset the foliage1 and are always found on the under side of the leaf1 which they prefer1 not only on account of its being the most tender1 but as it affords them protection from the weather1 and various injuries to which they would otherwise be exposed4 ,sometimes the root is the object of their choice1 which1 from the nature of these insects1 one would not1 priori1 expect3 yet ,i have seen the roots of lettuces thickly beset with them1 and the whole crop rendered sickly and of little value2 but such instances are rare4 ,they seldom attach themselves to the bark of trees1 like the aphis salicis1 which being one of our largest species1 and hence possessing superior strength1 is enabled to penetrate a substance harder than the leaves themselves4 ,in the quality of the excrement voided by these insects1 there is something wonderfully extraordinary4 ,were a person accidentally to take up a book1 in which it is gravely asserted1 that in some countries there were certain animals that voided liquid sugar1 he would lay it down1 regarding it as a fabulous tale1 calculated to impose on the credulity of the ignorant2 and yet such is literally the truth4 ,mr4 ,curtis collected some on a piece of writing-paper1 from a brood of the aphis salicis1 and found it to be as sweet as sugar2 and observes1 that were it not for the wasps1 ants1 flies1 and other insects1 that devour it as quickly as it is produced1 it might1 no doubt1 be collected in considerable quantities1 and1 by the processes used with other saccharine juices1 might be converted into the choicest sugar or sugar-candy4 ,the sweetness of this excrementitious substance1 the glossy appearance it gave the leaves it fell upon1 and the swarms of insects this matter attracts1 led him to imagine the honey-dew of plants was no other than this secretion1 which further observation has since been fully confirmed2 and not1 as its name implies1 a sweet substance falling from the atmosphere4 ,on this opinion it is further remarked1 that it neither falls from the atmosphere1 nor issues from the plant itself1 as is easily demonstrated4 ,if it fell from the atmosphere1 it would cover every thing it fell upon indiscriminately2 whereas we never find it but on certain living plants and trees4 ,we find it also on plants in stoves and greenhouses covered with glass4 ,if it exuded from the plant1 it would appear on all the leaves generally and uniformly2 whereas its appearance is extremely irregular1 not alike on any two leaves of the same tree or plant1 some having none of it1 and others being covered with it but partially4 ,it is probable that there never exists any honey-dew but where there are aphides2 though such often pass unnoticed1 being hidden on the under side of the leaf3 and wherever honey is observable upon a leaf1 aphides will be found on the underside of the leaf or leaves immediately above it1 and under no other circumstance whatever4 ,if by accident any thing should intervene between the aphides and the leaf next beneath them1 there will be no honey-dew on that leaf3 and thus he conceives it is incontrovertibly proved1 that aphides are the true and only source of honey-dew4 ,of the ,british species of aphides1 one of the largest and most remarkable is the aphis salicis1 which is found on the different kinds of willows4 ,when bruised1 these insects stain the fingers with red4 ,towards the end of ,september1 multitudes of the full-grown insects of this species1 both with and without wings1 desert the willows on which they feed1 and ramble over every neighbouring object in such numbers1 that we can handle nothing in their vicinity without crushing some of them2 while those in a younger or less advanced state1 still remain in large masses upon the trees4 ,aphis ros is very frequent1 during the summer months1 on young shoots and buds of roses2 it is of a bright green colour3 the males are furnished with large transparent wings4 ,aphis vitis is most destructive to vines1 as ,aphis ulmi is to the elm-tree4 ,it is found that where the saccharine substance has dropped from aphides for a length of time1 as from the aphis salicis in particular1 it gives to the surface of the bark1 foliage1 c4 that sooty kind of appearance which arises from the explosion of gunpowder2 it looks like1 and is sometimes taken for1 a kind of black mildew4 ,in most seasons1 the natural enemies of the aphis are sufficient to keep them in check1 and to prevent them from doing essential injury to plants in the open air2 but there are times1 once perhaps in four1 five1 or six years1 in which they are multiplied to such an excess1 that the usual means of diminution fail in preventing them from doing irreparable injury to certain crops4 ,to prevent the calamities which would infallibly result from an accumulated multiplication of the more prolific animals1 it has been ordained by the ,author of nature1 that such should be diminished by serving as food for others4 ,on this principle1 most animals of this kind have one or more natural enemies4 ,the helpless aphis1 which is the scourge of the vegetable kingdom1 has to contend with many3 the principal are the coccinella1 the ichneumon aphidum1 and the musca aphidivora4 ,the greatest destroyer of the aphides is the coccinella1 or common lady-bird4 ,during the winter1 this insect secures itself under the bark of trees1 and elsewhere4 ,when the spring expands the foliage of plants1 the female deposits her eggs on them in great numbers1 from whence1 in a short time1 proceeds the larva1 a small grub1 of a dark lead-colour1 spotted with orange4 ,these may be observed in summer running pretty briskly over all kinds of plants2 and1 if narrowly watched1 they will be found to devour the aphides wherever they find them4 ,the same may be observed of the lady-bird1 in its perfect state4 ,another most formidable enemy to the aphis1 is a very minute1 black1 and slender ichneumon fly1 which eats its way out of the aphis1 leaving the dry inflated skin of the insect adhering to the leaf like a small pearl3 such may always be found where aphides are in plenty4 ,different species of aphides are infested with different ichneumons4 ,there is scarcely a division of nature1 in which the musca1 or fly1 is not found3 of these1 one division1 the aphidivora1 feeds entirely on aphides4 ,of the different species of aphidivorous flies1 which are numerous1 having mostly bodies variegated with transverse stripes1 their females may be seen hovering over plants infested with aphides1 among which they deposit their eggs on the surface of the leaf4 ,the larva1 or maggot1 produced from such eggs1 feeds1 as soon as hatched1 on the younger kinds of aphis1 and1 as it increases in size1 attacks and devours those which are larger4 ,the larva of the hemerolicus feeds also on the aphides1 and deposits its eggs on the leaves of such plants as are beset with them4 ,the earwig is likewise an enemy to them1 especially such as reside in the curled leaves of fruit-trees1 and the purses formed by certain aphides on the poplars and other trees4 ,to these may be added the smaller soft-billed birds that feed on insects4 ,,chap4 ,,xxx4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,the ,common ,house ,fly--,the ,hessian ,fly--,the ,may ,fly--,the ,vegetable ,fly--,the ,boat ,fly--,the ,ephemeral ,flies--,butterflies--,metamorphoses of ,insects--,the ,death-,watch4 ,what atom-forms of insect life appear6 ,and who can follow ,nature's pencil here8 ,their wings with azure1 green1 and purple gloss'd1 ,studded with colour'd eyes1 with gems emboss'd2 ,inlaid with pearl1 and mark'd with various stains ,of lively crimson through their dusky veins4 ,barbauld4 ,,the ,,common ,,house ,,fly4 ,gordart has reckoned up forty-eight varieties of the fly1 without including them all in this enumeration4 ,the multitude of these lively insects1 which the first genial sunshine calls forth into life1 has limits which the human eye is incapable of exploring4 ,the female fly is easily distinguishable from the male3 she is larger than the latter1 fuller in the body1 of a lighter colour1 and1 when she is nearly ready to deposit her eggs1 the abdomen is so transparent1 that they may be perceived lying on both sides1 opposite to each other4 ,nature has instructed her not to deposit her eggs in dry1 but in damp substances1 which keep them from being dried up1 and at the same time afford nourishment to the maggot or worm4 ,the latter issues from the egg generally in twenty-four hours1 but1 in the sun1 within twelve hours after it is laid4 ,about half an hour before1 annular circles become visible in the egg1 an undulatory motion succeeds1 the egg opens at the end1 and the worm makes its appearance4 ,its entrance into the world is extremely tedious2 for the three or four minutes taken by the worm to work its way out of the egg1 are1 for it1 certainly so many days4 ,it is endowed1 on the other hand1 with vital powers1 which enable it to defy inconveniences which cost other animals their lives4 ,nothing but turpentine1 the general destroyer of insects1 kills it in half an hour4 ,on the fourteenth or fifteenth day1 it begins to prepare for its transformation into a nymph1 and in this form appears at first of a light yellow1 and afterwards of a dark red4 ,you would take it1 in this state1 for some kind of seed1 rather than for the habitation of a living creature4 ,the change of the nymph into a fly requires as much time as the preceding transformation4 ,a thrust with the head then bursts the prison in which it is confined1 and the fly1 perfectly formed1 sallies forth4 ,the sun hastens its birth1 which is then the business of but a moment2 but in unfavourable weather1 this probably painful operation often takes four or five hours4 ,the insect is now as perfect as its parents1 and not to be distinguished from them4 ,as soon as it issues from the nymph1 it flies away2 and only those are unable to use their wings immediately1 which have the misfortune to come out in gloomy weather4 ,leuwenhock reckons1 that every fly has eight thousand hexagons or eyes1 on each of the hemispheres composing its face1 and consequently sixteen thousand on both4 ,m4 ,von ,gleichen1 a ,german naturalist1 observes1 that the law of retaliation is in some measure established1 in regard to these animals2 for if they annoy us1 they are in their turn persecuted by others4 ,small yellow insects1 discovered by means of the magnifying glass1 crawling among the hairs that grow on their bodies1 are supposed to be destined for this purpose4 ,the fecundity of flies is prodigious4 ,on this head1 the last-mentioned naturalist has made the following calculation3-- ,a fly lays four times during the summer1 each time eighty eggs1 which makes #cbj ,half of these are supposed to be females1 so that each of the four broods produces forty3 #a4 ,first eighth1 or the forty females of the first brood1 also lay four times in the course of the summer1 which makes #ab1hjj ,the first eighth of these1 or #a1fjj females1 three times #chd1jjj ,the second eighth1 twice #bef1jjj ,the third and fourth eighth1 at least one each #bef1jjj #b4 ,the second eighth1 or the forty females of the second brood1 lay three times1 the produce of which is #i1fjj ,one sixth of these1 or #a1fjj females1 three times #chd1jjj ,the second sixth1 twice #bef1jjj ,the third sixth1 once #abh1jjj #c4 ,the third eighth1 or the forty females of the third brood1 lay twice1 and produce #f1djj ,one fourth of these1 or #a1fjj females1 lay twice more #bef1jjj #d4 ,the fourth eighth1 or forty females of the fourth brood1 once #c1bjj ,half of these1 or #a1fjj females1 at least once #abh1jjj --------- ,total produce of a single fly1 in one summer #b1jhj1cbj ,another curious insect is1 ,,the ,,hessian ,,fly4--,this is a very mischievous insect1 which a few years ago appeared in ,north ,america1 and whose depredations threatened then to destroy the crops of wheat in that country entirely4 ,it is1 in its perfect state1 a small winged insect1 but the mischief it does1 is while in the form of a caterpillar2 and the difficulty of destroying it is increased1 by its being as yet unknown where it deposits its eggs1 to be hatched before the first appearance of the caterpillars4 ,these mischievous insects begin their depredations in autumn1 as soon as the wheat begins to shoot up through the ground4 ,they devour the tender leaf and stem with great voracity1 and continue to do so till stopped by the frost2 but no sooner is this obstacle removed by the warmth of the spring1 than the fly appears again1 laying its eggs now1 as has been supposed1 upon the stems of the wheat just beginning to spire4 ,the caterpillars hatched from these eggs1 perforate the stems of the remaining plants at the joints1 and lodge themselves in the hollow within the corn1 which shews no sign of disease till the ears begin to turn heavy4 ,the stems then break1 and being no longer able to perform their office in supporting and supplying the ears with nourishment1 the corn perishes about the time that it goes into a milky state4 ,these insects attack also rye1 barley1 and timothy-grass1 though they seem to prefer wheat4 ,the destruction occasioned by them1 is described in the ,american ,museum1 7published at ,philadelphia17 for ,feb4 #aghg1 in the following words3-- ,it is well known that all the crops of wheat in all the land over which it has extended1 have fallen before it1 and that the farmers beyond it dread its approach2 the prospect is1 that unless means are discovered to prevent its progress1 the whole continent will be overrun2--a calamity more to be dreaded1 than the ravages of war4 ,this terrible insect appeared first in ,long ,island1 during the ,american war1 and was supposed to have been brought from ,germany by the ,hessians2 whence its name4 ,from thence it proceeded inland at the rate of about fifteen or twenty miles annually2 and1 in #aghi1 had reached two hundred miles from the place where it was first observed4 ,at that time it continued to proceed with unabating increase2 being apparently stopped neither by rivers nor mountains4 ,in the fly state it is likewise exceedingly troublesome1 by getting into houses in swarms1 falling into victuals and drink1 filling the windows1 and flying perpetually into the candles4 ,,the ,,may ,,fly4--,this insect is called the ,may fly1 from its annual appearance in that month4 ,it lies all the year1 except a few days1 at the bottom or sides of rivers1 nearly resembling the nymph of the small libella2 but when it is mature1 it rises up to the surface of the water1 and splits open its case2 then1 with great agility1 up springs the new animal1 having a slender body1 with four black-veined1 transparent1 shining wings1 with four black spots in the upper wings2 the under wings are much smaller than the upper ones2 and with three long hairs in its tail4 ,the husk it leaves behind floats upon the water4 ,after this creature is discharged from the water1 it flies about to find a proper place to fix on1 7as trees1 bushes1 c47 to wait for its approaching change1 which is effected in two or three days4 ,the first hint ,i received of this wonderful operation1 was by seeing their exuvi hanging on a hedge4 ,i then collected a great many1 and put them into boxes2 and by strictly observing them1 ,i could tell when they were ready for this surprising change4 ,i had the pleasure to shew my friends one1 which ,i held in my fingers all the time it performed this great work2 it was surprising to see how easily the back part of the fly split open1 and produced the astonishing transformation4 ,in the new fly1 a remarkable difference is seen in their sexes1 which is not so easy to be perceived in their first state1 the male and female being much of a size2 but afterwards the male is much the smallest1 and the hairs of their tails much the longest4 ,when the females are about to deposit their eggs1 they seek the rivers1 keeping constantly playing up and down upon the water4 ,it is very plainly seen1 that every time they dart down1 they eject a cluster of eggs1 which appears like a little bluish speck1 or a small drop of milk1 as they sink to the bottom of the river4 ,thus they continue until they have spent their strength1 being so weak1 that they can rise no more1 but fall a prey to the fish4 ,but by much the greatest number perish on the waters1 which are covered with them4 ,this is the end of the females4 ,the males never resort to the river1 but1 after a time1 drop down1 languish1 and die1 under the trees and bushes4 ,the species of libella abounds most with females1 which is very necessary1 considering the many enemies they have in their short appearance2 for both birds and fishes are fond of them1 and1 no doubt1 under water they are the prey of aquatic animals4 ,what is further surprising in this remarkable creature is1 that during a life which consists only of three or four days1 it eats nothing1 and seems to have no apparatus for this purpose1 but brings up with it1 out of the water1 sufficient support to enable it to shed its skin1 and perform the principal ends of life with great vivacity4 ,,the ,,vegetable ,,fly4--,this is a very curious natural production1 chiefly found in the ,west ,indies4 ,it resembles the drone1 both in size and colour1 more than any other ,british insect1 excepting that it has no wings4 ,in the month of ,may1 it buries itself in the earth1 and begins to vegetate4 ,by the end of ,july1 the tree has arrived at its full growth1 and resembles a coral branch2 it is about three inches in height1 and bears several little pods1 which1 dropping off1 become worms1 and thence flies1 like the ,british caterpillar4 ,such was the account originally given of this extraordinary production4 ,but several boxes of these flies having been sent to ,dr4 ,hill for examination1 his report was as follows3--,there is in ,martinique a fungus of the clavaria kind1 different in species from those hitherto known4 ,it produces soboles from its sides2 ,i call it therefore clavaria sobolifera4 ,it grows on putrid animal bodies1 as our fungus 7ex pede equino7 from the dead horse's hoof4 ,the cicada is common in ,martinique1 and in its nymph state1 in which the old authors call it tettigometra1 it buries itself under the dead leaves1 to await its change2 and1 when the season is unfavourable1 many perish4 ,the seeds of the clavaria find a proper bed in these dead insects1 and grow4 ,the tettigometra is among the cicada in the ,british ,museum2 the clavaria is but just now known4 ,this is the fact1 and all the fact2 though the untaught inhabitants suppose a fly to vegetate1 and though there is a ,spanish drawing of the plants growing into a trifoliate tree2 and it has been figured with the creature flying with this tree upon its back4--,thus does ignorance delight in the marvellous6 ,,the ,,boat ,,fly4--,this insect1 called ,notonecta glauca1 is thus described by ,barbut4 ,it has a head somewhat round1 of which the eyes seem to take up the greatest part4 ,these eyes are brown1 and very large1 the rest of the head being yellow4 ,in the fore-part it has a sharp trunk1 that projects1 and is inflected between the fore feet4 ,on the sides are seen the antenn1 very small1 yellowish1 and which spring from under the head4 ,the thorax1 which is broad1 short1 and smooth1 is yellow on the fore1 and black on the back part4 ,the escutcheon is large1 of a rough black1 and as it were nappy4 ,the elytra1 rather large1 and crossed over each other1 are a mixture of brown and yellow1 not unlike the colour of rust1 which makes it look cloudy4 ,the under part of the body is brown2 and at the extremity of the abdomen are to be seen a few hairs4 ,the feet1 six in number1 are of a light brown1 the two hindermost having on the leg and tarsus hairs that give them the shape of fins1 nor are they terminated by nails4 ,the four anterior ones are somewhat flat1 and serve the animal to swim with2 but at their extremity they have nails1 and no hairs4 ,this insect is seen in stagnating waters1 where it swims on its back1 and presents its abdomen upwards2 for which reason it has been called by the ,greek name of notonecta4 ,the hinder feet1 longer than the rest1 serve it as paddles4 ,it is very nimble1 and dives down when you go to take hold of it2 after which1 it rises again to the surface of the water4 ,it must be cautiously handled1 if one would avoid being pricked by it1 for the point of its rostrum is exceedingly sharp1 and intolerably painful1 but it goes off in a few minutes4 ,the larva very much resembles the perfect insect4 ,such is the account that ,mr4 ,barbut gives of this beautiful nimble little creature4 ,to this account1 however1 we shall add the following3--,its legs are long2 when taken out of the water1 it hops2 it is very common in the ponds of water in ,hyde ,park1 and in several other places about ,london4 ,it is of a very particular form1 being flattish at the belly1 and rising to a ridge on the middle of the back2 so that when it swims1 which is almost always on the back1 its body has much the resemblance of a boat in figure1--whence its vulgar name4 ,it is eight lines long1 three broad1 and two and a half thick4 ,the belly is jointed1 striated1 and1 as ,barbut observes1 hairy4 ,nature has provided it with an offensive weapon resembling a sting1 which it thrusts out when hurt1 from a large opening at the tail4 ,the head is large and hard2 the eyes nearly of a triangular form4 ,the nose is a long1 green1 hollow proboscis1 ending in a hard and sharp point1 which in its natural posture remains under the belly1 and reaches to the middle pair of legs4 ,the outer part of its wings are of a pale flesh-colour1 with spots of a dead white2 these are long1 narrow1 and somewhat transparent2 they terminate in a roundish point1 and perfectly cover the whole body4 ,the triangular piece which stands between the top of the wings is hard1 and perfectly black2 the inner wings are broader and shorter than the outer ones2 they are thin and perfectly transparent1 and are of a pale pearl-colour4 ,the hinder pair being greatly longer than all the rest1 they serve as oars2 and nature has tufted them with hair at the end for that purpose4 ,this creature mostly lives in the water1 where it preys on small insects1 killing them1 and sucking their juices with its proboscis1 in the manner of the water scorpion and many other aquatic insects3 it seizes its prey violently1 and darts with incredible swiftness to a considerable distance after it4 ,though it generally lives in the water1 it sometimes1 however1 crawls out in good weather2 and drying its wings by expanding them in the sun1 takes flight1 and becomes an inhabitant of the air1 not to be known as the same creature1 unless to those who had accurately observed it before3 when tired of flying1 or in danger of an enemy1 it immediately plunges into the water4 ,we are told that there are fourteen species of it1 seven of which are common in ,europe1 in waters1 c4 ,,ephemeral ,,flies4--,this species of insect is named ephemeral1 because of its very short existence in the fly state4 ,it is one of the most beautiful species of flies1 and undergoes five changes4 ,at first1 the egg contains its vital principle2 it comes forth a small caterpillar1 which is transformed into a chrysalis1 then into a nympha1 and lastly1 into a fly1 which deposits its eggs upon the surface of water1 where the sun's rays bring them to life4 ,each egg produces a little red worm1 which moves in a serpentine manner4 ,they are found in abundance during the summer1 in ponds and marshes2 and as soon as cold weather sets in1 the little worm makes for itself a shell or lodging1 where it passes the winter2 at the end of which it ceases to be a worm1 and enters into its third state1 that of a chrysalis4 ,it then sleeps till spring1 and gradually becomes a beautiful nympha1 or a sort of mummy1 something in the form of a fish4 ,at the time of its metamorphosis1 the nympha at first seems inactive and lifeless2 in six days1 the head appears1 raising itself gradually above the surface of the water2 the body next disengages itself slowly and by degrees1 till at length the whole animal comes out of its shell4 ,the new-born fly remains for some minutes motionless upon the water1 then gradually revives1 and feebly shakes its wings1 then moves them quicker1 and attempts first to walk1 then to fly4 ,as these insects are all hatched nearly at the same time1 they are seen in swarms for a few hours flitting and playing upon the surface of the water2 they then lay their eggs1 and soon after die4 ,thus they terminate their short life in the space of a few hours1 and the same day that saw them born1 witnesses their death4 ,,the ,,butterfly4 ,behold1 ye pilgrims of this earth1 behold6 ,see all but man with unearn'd pleasure gay ,see her bright robes the butterfly unfold1 ,broke from her wintry tomb in prime of ,may6 ,what youthful bride can equal her array8 ,who can with her for easy pleasure vie8 ,from mead to mead with gentle wing to stray1 ,from flower to flower on balmy gales to fly1 ,is all she has to do beneath the radiant sky4 ,thomson4 ,the first thing which fixes our attention on beholding these arial inhabitants1 is1 the clothing with which they are adorned4 ,yet some of them have nothing in this respect to engage our notice1 their vestment is simple and uniform2 others have a few ornaments on the wings2 but with some1 those ornaments amount to profusion1 and they are covered with them all over4 ,this last species will occupy us for a short interval4 ,how beautiful are the gradations of colour which decorate them6 what harmony in those spots which relieve the other parts of their attire6 with what delicacy has nature pencilled them6 ,but1 whatever may be my admiration when ,i consider this insect by the naked eye1 how greatly is it augmented1 when ,i behold this beautiful object through the medium of the microscope6 ,would any one ever have imagined1 that the wings of butterflies were furnished with feathers8 ,nothing1 however1 is more true2 and what we commonly call dust1 is found in reality to be feathers4 ,their structure and arrangement are adjusted to as perfect symmetry1 as their colours are soft and brilliant4 ,the parts which form the centre of these little feathers1 and which immediately touch the wing1 are the strongest2 those1 on the contrary1 which compose the exterior circumference1 are much more delicate1 and of an extraordinary fineness4 ,all these feathers have a quill at their base1 but the superior part is more transparent than the quill from which it proceeds4 ,if we lay hold of the wing too rudely1 we destroy the most delicate part of the feathers2 but if we remove all that we term dust1 there remains only a thin transparent skin1 where may be distinguished the little orifices in which the quill of each feather was lodged4 ,this skin1 from the nature of its texture1 may be as easily discerned from the rest of the wing1 as a fine gauze from the cloth on which it is fastened2 it is more porous1 more delicate1 and seems as if embroidered by the needle2 to complete its beauty1 its extremity finishes by a fringe1 whose minute threads succeed each other with the utmost regularity4 ,what are our most laboured dresses1 what is all their boasted ornament1 in comparison of that refined tissue with which nature has invested this simple insect8 ,our finest laces are only like coarse cloth1 when brought to vie with that luxurious clothing which covers the wings of the butterfly2 and our smallest thread1 by their infinitely delicate fibres1 swells into hempen cord4 ,such is the wonderful difference to be observed between the works of nature and those of art1 when viewed through a microscope4 ,the former are finished to all imaginable perfection2 the others1 even the most beautiful of their kind1 appear incomplete and coarsely wrought4 ,how fine a piece of delicate cambric appears to us6 nothing more slender than the threads1 nothing more uniform than the texture3 and yet in the microscope these threads resemble hempen strings1 and we should rather be tempted to believe that they had been interlaced by the hand of a basket-maker1 than wrought on the loom of a skilful weaver4 ,what is most astonishing in this brilliant insect1 is1 that it proceeds from a worm1 than which nothing has a more abject and vile appearance4 ,behold how the butterfly displays to the sun his splendid wings1 how he sports in his rays1 how he rejoices in his existence1 and1 in respiring the vernal airs1 how he flutters in the meadow from flower to flower4 ,his rich wings present to us the magnificence of the rainbow4 ,how beautiful is he now1 who but a little while ago crept a worm in the dust1 in perpetual danger of being crushed to death6 ,who has raised him above the earth8 ,who has given to him the faculty of inhabiting the ethereal regions8 ,who has furnished him with his painted wings8 ,it is ,god4 ,in down of ev'ry variegated dye1 ,shines1 flutt'ring soft1 the gaudy butterfly2 ,that powder1 which thy spoiling hand distains1 ,the form of quills and painted plumes contains3 ,not courts can more magnificence express1 ,in all their blaze of gems and pomp of dress4 ,browne4 ,their wings1 all glorious to behold1 ,bedropt with azure1 jet1 and gold1 ,wide they display2 the spangled dew ,reflects their eyes and various hue4 ,gay4 ,we shall now briefly describe ,,the ,,metamorphoses ,,of ,,insects4 ,and first1 ,,the ,,butterfly3 ,from form to form they pass in wondrous change4 ,virgil4 ,at the first exclusion from the egg1 and for some months of its existence afterwards1 the creature which is to become a butterfly1 is a worm-like caterpillar1 crawling upon sixteen short legs1 greedily devouring leaves with two jaws1 and seeing by means of twelve eyes1 so minute1 as to be nearly imperceptible without the aid of a microscope4 ,we now view it furnished with wings capable of rapid and extensive flights2 of its sixteen feet1 ten have disappeared1 and the remaining six are in most respects wholly unlike those to which they have succeeded2 its jaws having vanished1 are replaced by a curled-up proboscis1 suited only for sipping liquid sweets2 the form of its head is entirely changed1 two long horns projecting from its upper surface2 and1 instead of twelve invisible eyes1 you behold two1 very large1 and composed of at least twenty thousand convex lenses1 each supposed to be a distinct and effective eye6 ,were we to push our examination further1 and1 by dissection1 to compare the internal conformation of the caterpillar with that of the butterfly1 we should witness changes even more extraordinary4 ,in the former we should find some thousands of muscles1 which in the latter are replaced by others1 of a form and structure entirely different4 ,nearly the whole body of the caterpillar is occupied by a capacious stomach4 ,in the butterfly1 this has become converted into an almost imperceptible thread-like viscus2 and the abdomen is now filled by two large packets of eggs1 or other organs1 not visible in the first state4 ,in the former1 two spirally-convoluted tubes were filled with a silky gum2 in the latter1 both tubes and silk have almost totally vanished1 and changes equally great have taken place in the economy and structure of the nerves and other organs4 ,what a surprising transformation6 ,nor was this all4 ,the change from one form to the other was not direct2 an intermediate state1 not less singular1 intervened4 ,after casting its skin1 even to its very jaws1 several times1 and attaining its full growth1 the caterpillar attached itself to a leaf by a silken girth4 ,its body became greatly contracted2 its skin once more split asunder1 and disclosed an oviform mass1 without exterior mouth1 eyes1 or limbs1 and exhibiting no other symptom of life than a slight motion when touched4 ,in this state of death-like torpor1 and without tasting food1 the insect existed for several months1 until at length the tomb burst1 and out of a case not more than an inch long1 and a quarter of an inch in diameter1 proceeded the butterfly1 which covers a surface of nearly four inches square4 ,,the ,,common ,,fly4--,this winged insect1 whose delicate palate selects out the choicest viands1 one while extending his proboscis to the margin of a drop of wine1 and then gaily flying to take a more solid repast from a pear or a peach2 now gambolling with his comrades in the air1 now gracefully carrying his furled wings with his taper feet2--was but the other day a disgusting grub1 without wings1 without legs1 without eyes1 wallowing1 well pleased1 in the midst of a mass of excrement4 ,,the ,,greycoated ,,gnat4--,this creature1 whose humming salutation1 while she makes her airy circles about our bed1 gives terrific warning of the sanguinary operation in which she is ready to engage1 was a few hours ago the inhabitant of a stagnant pool1 more in shape like a fish than an insect4 ,then to have been taken out of the water would have been speedily fatal2 now it could as little exist in any other element than air4 ,then it breathed through its tail2 now through openings in its sides4 ,its shapeless head1 in that period of its existence1 is now exchanged for one adorned with elegantly tufted antenn1 and furnished1 instead of jaws1 with an apparatus more artfully constructed than the cupping-glasses of the phlebotomist2 an apparatus1 which1 at the same time that it strikes in the lancets1 composes a tube for pumping up the flowing blood4 ,,the ,,shardhorn ,,beetle4--,this species of beetle1 whose sullen hum1 as he directs his droning flight close past our ears in our evening walk1 was not in his infancy an inhabitant of air1 the first period of his life being spent in gloomy solitude1 as a grub1 under the surface of the earth4 ,the shapeless maggot1 which we scarcely fail to meet with in some one of every handful of nuts we crack1 would not always have grovelled in that humble state4 ,if our unlucky intrusion upon its vaulted dwelling had not left it to perish in the wide world1 it would have continued to reside there until its full growth had been attained4 ,then it would have gnawed itself an opening1 and1 having entered the earth1 and passed a few months in a state of inaction1 would at length have emerged an elegant beetle1 furnished with a slender and very long ebony beak2 two wings1 and two wing-cases1 ornamented with yellow bands2 six feet2 and in every respect unlike the worm from which it proceeded4 ,,the ,,death-,,watch4--,this appalling name is applied to a harmless1 diminutive insect1 because it emits a sound resembling the ticking of a watch1 and is supposed to predict the death of some one of the family1 in the house in which it is heard4 ,thus sings the muse of the witty ,dean of ,st4 ,patrick on this subject3-- ------------------------------,a wood worm ,that lies in old wood1 like a hare in her form3 ,with teeth or with claws1 it will bite or will scratch1 ,and chambermaids christen this worm a death-watch2 ,because like a watch it always cries click3 ,then woe be to those in the house who are sick6 ,for1 sure as a gun1 they will give up the ghost1 ,if the maggot cries click1 when it scratches the post3 ,but a kettle of scalding-hot water injected ,infallibly cures the timber affected2 ,the omen is broken1 the danger is over1 ,the maggot will die1 and the sick will recover4 ,to add to the effect of this noise1 it is said to be made only when there is a profound silence in an apartment1 and every one is still4 ,authors were formerly not agreed concerning the insect from which this sound of terror proceeded1 some attributing it to a kind of woodlouse1 and others to a spider2 but it is now a received opinion1 adopted upon satisfactory evidence1 that it is produced by some little beetles belonging to the timber-boring genus1 ,anobium1 ,f4 ,swammerdam observes1 that a small beetle1 which he had in his collection1 having firmly fixed its fore-legs1 and put its inflexed head between them1 makes a continual noise in old pieces of wood1 walls1 and ceilings1 which is sometimes so loud1 that upon hearing it1 people have fancied that hobgoblins1 ghosts1 or fairies1 were wandering around them4 ,evidently this was one of the death-watches4 ,latreille observed ,anobium striatum1 ,f4 produce the sound in question1 by a stroke of its mandibles upon the wood1 which was answered by a similar noise from within it4 ,but the species whose proceedings have been most noticed by ,british observers1 is1 ,a4 tessellatum1 ,f4 ,when spring is far advanced1 these insects are said to commence their ticking1 which is only a call to each other1 to which1 if no answer be returned1 the animal repeats it in another place4 ,it is thus produced3 ,raising itself upon its hind-legs1 with the body somewhat inclined1 it beats its head with great force and agility upon the plane of its position2 and its strokes are so powerful1 as to make a considerable impression if they fall upon any substance softer than wood4 ,the general number of distinct strokes in succession1 is from seven to nine or eleven2 they follow each other quickly1 and are repeated at uncertain intervals4 ,in old houses1 where these insects abound1 they may be heard in warm weather during the whole day4 ,the noise exactly resembles that produced by tapping moderately with the nail upon a table2 and1 when familiarized1 the insect will answer very readily the tap of the nail4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,continued47 ,locusts and ,mosquitoes1 and their ,uses in the ,creation2--from ,kirby1 ,spence1 and ,fothergill4 ,,locusts4--,if we could discover the use of every animal in the creation1 we should gain a very clear insight into the grand designs of the ,almighty1 respecting creatures inferior to ourselves1 and perceive the immediate cause and necessity of their existence1 and how far we have a right to interfere with their economy4 ,that man should ever attain the whole extent of this knowledge1 in this state of existence1 can scarcely be hoped for2 but1 that he may learn much1 there can be no doubt4 ,because the utility of some animals1 in a general view1 is not palpably obvious1 we ought not pettishly or hopelessly to give up the inquiry4 ,some of the most numerous are apparently the most noxious1 and the least useful1 as the locust 7gryllus migratorius7 for example4 ,it has never been my fortune to visit countries subject to the devastations of these insects2 and the travellers who describe them1 seem1 either through want of inclination1 or astonishment at the desolating effects produced by their incursions1 unable to give those facts which an industrious and attentive naturalist1 with enlarged views1 might collect and apply to some useful purpose2 for there can be no doubt that ,infinite ,wisdom would not have permitted these insects to be so numerous as they are1 if their existence was not absolutely necessary4 ,to look at a locust in a cabinet of insects1 we should not1 at first sight1 deem it capable of being the source of so much evil to mankind as stands on record against it4 ,yet1 although this animal be not very tremendous for its size1 nor very terrific in its appearance1 it is the very same whose ravages have been the theme of naturalists and historians in all ages1 and1 upon a close examination1 it will be found to be peculiarly fitted and furnished for the execution of its office4 ,it is armed with two pair of very strong jaws1 the upper terminating in short1 and the lower in long teeth1 by which it can both lacerate and grind its food2 its stomach is of extraordinary capacity and powers2 its hind-legs enable it to leap to a considerable distance1 and its ample vans are calculated to catch the wind as sails1 and so carry it sometimes over the sea2 and although a single individual can effect but little evil1 yet1 when the entire surface of a country is covered by them1 and every one makes bare the spot on which it stands1 the mischief produced may be as extensive as their numbers4 ,so well do the ,arabians know their power1 that they make a locust say to ,mahomet1 ,we are the army of the ,great ,god2 we produce ninety-nine eggs3 if the hundred were completed1 we should consume the whole earth1 and all that is in it4--,bochart4 ,the earliest plague produced by the locusts1 which has been recorded1 appears also to have been the most direful in its immediate effects1 that ever was inflicted upon any nation4 ,it is that with which the ,egyptian tyrant and his people were visited for their oppression of the ,israelites4 ,only conceive of a country so covered by them1 that no one can see the face of the ground--a whole land darkened1 and all its produce1 whether herb or trees1 so devoured1 that not the least vestige of green is left in either4--,exod4 x4 #e1 #ad1 #ae4 ,but it is not necessary to enlarge upon a history1 the circumstances of which are so well known4 ,to this species of devastation1 ,africa in general seems always to have been peculiarly subject4 ,this may be gathered from the law in ,cyrenaica mentioned by ,pliny1 by which the inhabitants were enjoined to destroy the locusts in three different states1 three times in the year2 first their eggs1 then their young1 and lastly the perfect insect4#ag ,and not without reason was such a law enacted2 for ,orosius tells us1 that in the year of the world #c1hjj1 ,africa was infested by such infinite myriads of these animals1 that1 having devoured every green thing1 after flying off to sea they were drowned1 and1 being cast upon the shore1 they emitted a stench greater than could have been produced by the carcases of #ajj1jjj men6--,oros4 contra ,pag4 l4 v4 c4 #b4 ,st4 ,augustine also mentions a plague to have arisen in that country from the same cause1 which destroyed no less than #hjj1jjj persons 7octoginta hominum millia7 in the kingdom of ,masanissa alone1 and many more in the territories bordering upon the sea4--,less4 l4 #bdg4 note #df4 ,from ,africa this plague was occasionally imported into ,italy and ,spain2 and an historian quoted in ,mouffet relates1 that in the year #eia an infinite army of locusts1 of a size unusually large1 grievously ravaged part of ,italy2 and being at last cast into the sea1 from their stench arose a pestilence which carried off near a million of men and beasts4 ,in the ,venetian territory also1 in the year #adgh1 more than #cj1jjj persons are said to have perished in a famine occasioned by these terrific scourges4 ,many other instances of their devastations in ,europe1 in ,france1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,germany1 and other countries1 are recorded by the same author4 ,in #afej a cloud of them was seen to enter ,russia in three different places1 which from thence passed over into ,poland and ,lithuania1 where the air was darkened by their numbers4 ,in some places they were seen lying dead1 heaped one upon another to the depth of four feet2 in others they covered the surface like a black cloth2 the trees bent with their weight2 and the damage they did exceeded all computation4--,bingley1 iii4 #beh4 ,at a later period1 in ,languedoc1 when the sun became hot1 they took wing1 and fell upon the corn1 devouring both leaf and ear1 and that with such expedition1 that in three hours they would consume a whole field4 ,after having eaten up the corn1 they attacked the vines1 the pulse1 the willows1 and lastly1 the hemp1 notwithstanding its bitterness4--,philos4 ,trans4 #afhf4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy informs us 7,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry1 #bcc47 that the ,french government in #ahac issued a decree with a view to occasion the destruction of grasshoppers4 ,even this happy island1 so remarkably distinguished by its exemption from most of those scourges to which other nations are exposed1 was once alarmed by the appearance of locusts4 ,in #agdh they were observed here in considerable numbers1 but providentially they soon perished without propagating4 ,these were evidently stragglers from the vast swarms which in the preceding year did such infinite damage in ,wallachia1 ,moldavia1 ,transylvania1 ,hungary1 and ,poland4 ,one of these swarms1 which entered ,transylvania in ,august1 was several hundred fathoms in width1 7at ,vienna the breadth of one of them was three miles17 and extended to so great a length1 as to be four hours in passing over the ,red ,tower2 and such was its density1 that it totally intercepted the solar light1 so that when they flew low1 one person could not see another at the distance of twenty paces4--,philos4 ,trans4 xlvi4 #cj4 ,a similar account has been given by ,major ,moor1 long resident in ,india4 ,he relates1 that when at ,poonah1 he was witness to an immense army of locusts which ravaged the ,mahratta country1 and was supposed to come from ,arabia3 this1 if correct1 is a strong proof of their power to pass the sea under favourable circumstances4 ,the column they composed1 extended five hundred miles2 and so compact was it1 when on the wing1 that1 like an eclipse1 it completely hid the sun1 so that no shadow was cast by any object2 and some lofty tombs1 distant from his residence not more than two hundred yards1 were rendered quite invisible4 ,this was not the ,gryllus migratorius1 ,l4 but a red species2 which circumstance much increased the horror of the scene1 for1 clustering upon the trees after they had stripped them of their foliage1 they imparted to them a sanguine hue4 ,the peach was the last tree they touched4 ,dr4 ,clarke1 to give some idea of the infinite numbers of these animals1 compares them to a flight of snow when the flakes are carried obliquely by the wind4 ,they covered his carriage and horses2 and the ,tartars assert1 that people are sometimes suffocated by them4 ,the whole face of nature might have been described as covered by a living veil4 ,they consisted of two species1 ,g4 tartaricus1 and migratorius1 ,l42 the first is almost twice the size of the second1 and1 because it precedes it1 is called by the ,tartars1 the herald or messenger4--,travels1 i4 #cdh4 ,the account of another traveller1 ,mr4 ,barrow1 of their ravages in the southern parts of ,africa1 in #aghd1 and #agig1 is still more striking3 an area of nearly two thousand square miles might be said literally to be covered by them4 ,when driven into the sea by a ,n4 ,w4 wind1 they formed upon the shore1 for fifty miles1 a bank three or four feet high2 and when the wind was ,s4 ,e4 the stench was so powerful1 as to be smelt at the distance of a hundred and fifty miles4--,travels1 c4 #beg4 ,from #aggh to #aghj1 the empire of ,morocco was terribly devastated by them2 every green thing was eaten up1 not even the bitter bark of the orange and pomegranate escaping4 ,a most dreadful famine ensued3 the poor were seen to wander over the country1 deriving a miserable subsistence from the roots of plants2 and women and children followed the camels1 from whose dung they picked the undigested grains of barley1 which they devoured with avidity3 in consequence of this1 vast numbers perished1 and the roads and streets exhibited the unburied carcases of the dead4 ,on this sad occasion1 fathers sold their children1 and husbands their wives4--,southey's ,thalaba1 i4 #aga4 ,when they visit a country1 7says ,mr4 ,jackson1 speaking of the same empire17 it behoves every one to lay in provision for a famine1 for they stay from three to seven years4 ,when they have devoured all other vegetables1 they attack the trees1 consuming first the leaves and then the bark4 ,from ,mogadar to ,tangier1 before the plague in #agii1 the face of the earth was covered by them3 at that time a singular incident occurred at ,el ,arisch4 ,the whole region from the confines of ,sahara was ravaged by them2 but on the other side of the river ,el ,kos1 not one of them was to be seen1 though there was nothing to prevent their flying over it4 ,till then1 they had proceeded northward2 but1 upon arriving at its banks1 they turned to the east1 though all the country north of ,arisch was full of pulse1 fruits1 and grain1 exhibiting a most striking contrast to the desolation of the adjoining district4 ,at length they were all carried by a violent hurricane into the western ocean2 the shore1 as in former instances1 was covered by their carcases1 and a pestilence was caused by the horrid stench which they emitted3 but when this evil ceased1 their devastations were followed by a most abundant crop4 ,the ,arabs of the desert1 whose hands are against every man1 ,gen4 xvi4 #ab4 and who rejoice in the evil that befalls other nations1 when they behold the clouds of locusts proceeding from the north1 are filled with gladness1 anticipating a general mortality1 which they call el khere1 7the benediction27 for1 when a country is thus laid waste1 they emerge from their arid deserts1 and pitch their tents in the desolated plains4--,jackson's ,travels in ,morocco1 #ed4 ,the noise the locusts make when engaged in the work of destruction1 has been compared to the sound of a flame of fire driven by the wind1 and the effect of their bite to that of fire4--,bochart4 ,a poet of our own day has very strikingly described the noise produced by their flight and approach3-- ,onward they came1 a dark continuous cloud ,of congregated myriads1 numberless1 ,the rushing of whose wings was as the sound ,of a broad river1 headlong in its course ,plung'd from a mountain summit1 or the roar ,of a wild ocean in the autumn storm1 ,shattering its billows on a shore of rocks6 ,southey's ,thalaba1 i4 #afi4 ,but no account of the appearance and ravages of these terrific insects1 for correctness and sublimity1 comes near to that of the prophet ,joel3 ,a day of darkness and of gloominess1 a day of clouds and of thick darkness1 as the morning spread upon the mountains3 a great people and a strong2 there hath not been ever the like1 neither shall be any more after it1 even to the years of many generations4 ,a fire devoureth before them2 and behind them a flame burneth3 the land is as the garden of ,eden before them1 and behind them a desolate wilderness2 yea1 and nothing shall escape them4 ,the appearance of them is as the appearance of horses2 and as horsemen1 so shall they run4 ,like the noise of chariots#ah on the tops of mountains shall they leap1 like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble1 as a strong people set in battle-array4 ,before their face the people shall be much pained2 all faces shall gather blackness4 ,they shall run like mighty men2 they shall climb the wall like men of war2 and they shall march every one on his ways1 and they shall not break their ranks3 neither shall one thrust another2 they shall walk every one in his path3 and when they fall upon the sword1 they shall not be wounded4 ,they shall run to and fro in the city2 they shall run upon the wall1 they shall climb up upon the houses2 they shall enter in at the windows like a thief4 ,the earth shall quake before them1 the heavens shall tremble3 the sun and the moon shall be dark1 and the stars shall withdraw their shining6 ,the usual way in which they are destroyed1 is also noticed by the prophet4 ,i will remove far off from you the northern army1 and will drive him into a land barren and desolate1 with his face toward the east sea1 and his hinder part toward the utmost sea1 and his stink shall come up1 because he hath done great things6--,joel ii4 #b-aj1 #bj4 ,the best method of destroying locusts1 would be to recommend them as an article of food4 ,in the ,crimea1 they are often eaten by the inhabitants4 ,some ,french emigrants1 who had been directed in this manner1 assured me1 that when fried1 they were very palatable and very wholesome4 ,the ,arabs1 according to ,hasselquist1 eat them roasted1 and are glad to get them4 ,it is quite certain that there is nothing endued by nature with peculiar functions1 in vain2 and it is equally certain1 that matter1 however modified1 whether in the form of animated or inanimated bodies1 is continually undergoing change4 ,the more deeply we investigate the works of creation1 the more strong will be our conviction of these truths4 ,we know that many animals1 and particularly insects1 have apparently no other employment1 than that of clearing or purifying the surface of the earth of superfluous matter1 the residuum of decayed bodies1 or of reconverting it into useful forms1 as ,i shall attempt to illustrate hereafter4 ,now1 if we survey those regions which give birth to1 and support1 the vast clouds of locusts alluded to1 our view will be confined principally to the extensive deserts of ,africa and ,asia2 the vegetation of many of which1 according to the reports of travellers1 is abundant and luxuriant1 beyond the conception of those who have not beheld them2 insomuch1 that the crops of grass1 and other annual vegetables1 absolutely load the earth2 and these1 perishing upon each other1 would form an impenetrable1 putrid mass1 if not consumed by some animals appointed for the purpose4 ,that locusts support existence by vegetable food1 is well known2 but whether they have no other object than to consume the superabundant produce of the regions they frequent1 and to procreate1 is not so easily proved4 ,one who has had no opportunity of witnessing their manners1 from their birth to their final destruction1 can scarcely be able positively to decide2 but ,i have no doubt that an intelligent naturalist1 7governed by the principles this chapter is intended1 in some measure1 to illustrate17 with the necessary opportunities1 such as ,dr4 ,shaw1 in particular1 had1 would be able to get at facts that would indisputably prove the existence of locusts to be a blessing rather than a curse4 ,whatever may be the direct object of their existence1 locusts are of great use to many other animals1 for there are some1 particularly birds1 that entirely prey upon them2 and1 if man himself refuses this food1 it is rather from the prejudice1 perhaps1 of an absurd education1 than from any improper or bad quality of the food itself4#ai ,the inhabitants of several eastern nations have a relish for this diet3 and it is recorded of him who cried in the wilderness1 ,prepare ye the way of the ,lord1 that his meat was locusts and wild honey4--,matthew iii4 #d4 ,after this1 we cannot listen to the feeble remonstrances of any modern epicure4 ,,mosquitoes1 ,,and ,,their ,,uses4--,the mosquito is accounted one of the most noxious and the most numerous of insects2 at least of such as are esteemed noxious by the vulgar and the ignorant4 ,in some countries1 indeed1 their numbers1 and the effects produced by them1 are wonderful4 ,there is no instance on record more striking than the following1 as related by ,dr4 ,clarke3-- ,no contrivance on our part could prevent millions of mosquitoes from filling the inside of our carriage1 which1 in spite of gloves1 clothes1 and handkerchiefs1 rendered our bodies one entire wound4 ,the ,cossacks light numerous fires1 to drive them from the cattle during the night2 but so insatiate is their thirst of blood1 that hundreds will attack a person attempting to shelter himself even in the midst of smoke4 ,at the same time1 the noise they make in flying cannot be conceived by persons who have only been accustomed to the humming of such insects in our country4--,almost exhausted by fatigue1 pain1 and heat1 ,i sought shelter in the carriage1 sitting in water and mud4 ,it was the most sultry night ,i ever experienced2 not a breath of air was stirring2 nor could ,i venture to open the windows1 though almost suffocated1 through fear of the mosquitoes4 ,swarms1 nevertheless1 found their way to my hiding-place2 and when ,i opened my mouth1 it was filled with them4 ,my head was bound in handkerchiefs2 yet they forced their way into my ears and nostrils4 ,in the midst of this torment1 ,i succeeded in lighting a lamp over the sword-case2 which was instantly extinguished by such a prodigious number of these insects1 that their dead bodies actually remained heaped in a large cone over the burner for several days afterward3 and ,i know not any mode of description which can convey a more adequate idea of their afflicting visitation1 than by simply relating this fact3 to the truth of which1 those who travelled with me1 and who are now living1 bear indisputable testimony4 ,those who have laboured under so painful a visitation1 as that to which this lively account refers1 may not perhaps be so ready to admit the general utility of these irritating insects1 though their usefulness is more evident1 and far more easily proved1 than that of the locust1 or indeed of most other animals of a similar nature4 ,bred in the midst of stagnant pools1 of bogs1 and marshes1 in regions unwholesome to man1 and where the effluvia arising from animal bodies1 and from rank decaying vegetable substances1 are so abundant1 as to form thick pestilential vapours1 that would inflict almost instant destruction on the human inhabitant1 and most other creatures1 if not removed as quickly as they were formed2--bred in such regions1 and gifted with functions and propensities directed to the proper ends1 the mosquito supports its existence by consuming the noxious particles exhaled from the swamps2 and the bodies of animals1 as rapidly as they are generated2--thereby preventing that horrible putrefaction of the air1 and consequent pestilence1 which would infallibly take place1 if the mosquitoes1 and similar insects1 were not employed to purify the atmosphere4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,insects4--7,concluded47 ,animalcules--,the ,cheese ,mite--,the ,hydra1 or ,polypes4 ,the smallest creature in existence ,has limbs and sinews1 blood1 and heart1 and brain1 ,life and her proper functions to sustain1 ,through the whole fabric1 smaller than a grain6 ,what more can our penurious reason grant ,to the large whale1 or castled elephant2-- ,to those enormous terrors of the ,nile1 ,the crested snake1 and long-tail'd crocodile2-- ,than that all differ but in shape and name1 ,each destin'd to a less or larger frame8 ,prior's ,solomon4 ,,animalcules4 ,the microscope discovers legions of animalcules in most liquors1 as water1 vinegar1 beer1 dew1 c4 ,they are also found in rain1 and several chalybeate waters1 and in infusions of both animal and vegetable substances1 as the seminal fluids of animals1 pepper1 oats1 wheat1 and other grain1 tea1 c4 c4 ,the contemplation of animalcules has rendered the term1 infinitely small bodies1 extremely familiar to us4 ,a mite was anciently thought the limits of littleness2 but we are not now surprised1 to be told of animals twenty-seven millions of times smaller than a mite4 ,minute animals are found proportionably much stronger1 more active and vivacious1 than large ones4 ,the spring of a flea in its leap1 how vastly does it outskip any thing the larger animals are capable of6 ,a mite1 how vastly swifter does it run than a race-horse6 ,m4 ,de4 ,l',isle has given the computation of the velocity of a little creature1 scarcely visible by its smallness2 which he found to run three inches in half a second3 supposing now its feet to be the fifteenth part of a line1 it must make five hundred steps in the space of three inches2 that is1 it must shift its legs five hundred times in a second1 or in the ordinary pulsation of an artery4 ,the excessive minuteness of microscopical animalcules conceals them from the human eye4 ,one of the wonders of modern philosophy is1 to have invented means for bringing objects1 to us so imperceptible1 under our cognizance and inspection3 creatures1 a thousand times too little to be able to affect our sense1 should seem to have been very safe2 yet we have extended our views over animals1 to whom these would be mountains4 ,in reality1 most of our microscopical animalcules are of so small a magnitude1 that through a lens1 whose focal distance is the tenth-part of an inch1 they only appear as so many points2 that is1 their parts cannot be distinguished1 so that they appear from the vertex of that lens under an angle not exceeding a minute4 ,if we investigate the magnitude of such an object1 it will be found nearly equal to #c_/ajjjjj of an inch long4 ,supposing1 therefore1 these animalcules of a cubic figure1 that is1 of the same length1 breadth1 and thickness1 their magnitude would be expressed by the cube of the fraction #c_/ajjjjj1 that is1 by the number #bg_/ajjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj that is1 so many parts of a cubic inch1 is each animalcule equal to4 ,leuwenhoek calculates1 that a thousand millions of animalcules1 which are discovered in common water1 are not altogether so large as a grain of sand4 ,in the milt of a single cod-fish1 there are more animals than there are upon the whole earth2 for a grain of sand is bigger than four millions of them4 ,the white matter that sticks to the teeth also abounds with animalcules of various figures1 to which vinegar is fatal2 and it is known1 that vinegar contains animalcules in the shape of eels4 ,in short1 according to this author1 there is scarcely any thing which corrupts1 without producing animalcules4 ,animalcules are said to be the cause of various disorders4 ,the itch is known to be a disorder arising from the irritation of a species of animalcules found in the pustules of the body2 when the communication of it by contact from one to another is easily conceived1 as also the reason of the cure being effected by cutaneous applications4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 vol4 #hi1 is a curious account of animalcules produced from an infusion of potatoes1 and another of hemp-seed1 by the late ,mr4 ,ellis4 ,on the #beth of ,may1 #agfh1 he says1 ,fahrenheit's thermometer #gj1 ,i boiled a potato in the ,new-,river water1 till it was reduced to a mealy consistence3 ,i put part of it1 with an equal proportion of the boiling liquor1 into a cylindrical glass vessel1 that held something less than half a wine pint1 and immediately covered it close with a glass cover4 ,at the same time ,i sliced an unboiled potato1 and1 as near as ,i could judge1 put the same quantity into a glass vessel of the same kind1 with the same proportion of ,new-,river water1 not boiled2 and1 covering it with a glass cover1 placed both vessels together4 ,on the #bfth of ,may1 twenty-four hours afterwards1 ,i examined a small drop of each by the first magnifier of ,wilson's microscope1 whose focal distance is reckoned #a_/ejth part of an inch2 and1 to my amazement1 they were both full of animalcules1 of a linear shape1 very distinguishable1 moving to and fro with great celerity1 so that there appeared to be more particles of animal than vegetable life in each drop4 ,this experiment ,i have repeatedly tried1 and always found it to succeed in proportion to the heat of the circumambient air2 so that even in winter1 if the liquors are kept properly warm for two or three days1 the experiment will succeed4 ,i procured hemp-seed from different seedsmen1 in different parts of the town2 some of it ,i put into the ,new-,river water1 some into distilled water1 and some into very hard pump-water3 the result was1 that in proportion to the heat of the weather1 or warmth in which they were kept1 there was an appearance of millions of minute animalcules in all the infusions2 and1 some time after1 oval ones made their appearance1 much larger than the first1 which still continued2 these wriggled to and fro in an undulatory motion1 turning themselves round very quick all the time they moved forwards4 ,,the ,,cheese-,,mite4--,this minute creature is a favourite subject for microscopic observations4 ,it is covered with hairs or bristles1 which resemble in their structure the awns of barley1 being barbed on each side with numerous sharp-pointed processes4 ,the mite is oviparous3 from the eggs proceed the young animals1 resembling the parents in all respects1 except in the number of legs1 which at first amount only to six1 the pair from the head not making their appearance till after casting their first skin4 ,the eggs1 in warm weather1 hatch in about a week1 and the young animal may be seen sometimes for a day together struggling to get rid of its egg-shell4 ,the mite is a very voracious animal1 feasting equally upon animal and vegetable substances4 ,it is also extremely tenacious of life3 for1 upon the authority of ,leuwenhoek1 though highly discreditable to his sense of humanity1 we are assured that a mite lived eleven weeks after he had glued it to a pin1 in order to make his observations4 ,we shall close the account of the curiosities of insects with a description of ,,the ,,hydra1 or ,,polypes4--,in natural history1 this is a genus of the ,vermes ,zoophyta class and order2 an animal fixing itself by the base2 linear1 gelatinous1 naked1 contractile1 and furnished with setaceous tentacul1 or feelers2 inhabiting fresh waters1 and producing its deciduous offspring1 or eggs1 from the sides4 ,there are five species1 ,h4 gelatinosa1 minute and gelatinous1 milk-white1 cylindrical1 with twelve tentacul shorter than the body3 it inhabits ,denmark1 in clusters on the under side of ,fuci4 ,but on the viridis1 the fusca1 and the grisca1 the greatest number of experiments have been made by naturalists1 to ascertain their true nature and very wonderful habits4 ,they are generally found in ditches4 ,whoever has carefully examined these1 when the sun is very powerful1 will find many little transparent lumps of the appearance of jelly1 the size of a pea1 and flatted upon one side4 ,the same kind of substances are likewise to be met with on the under side of the leaves of plants that grow in such places4 ,these are the polypes in a quiescent state1 and apparently inanimate4 ,they are generally fixed by one end to some solid substance1 with a large opening1 which is the mouth2 the other having several arms fixed round it1 projecting as rays from the centre4 ,they are slender1 pellucid1 and capable of contracting themselves into a very small compass1 or of extending to a considerable length4 ,the arms are capable of the same contraction and expansion as the body1 and with these they lay hold of minute worms and insects1 bringing them to the mouth1 and swallowing them4 ,the indigestible parts are again thrown out by the mouth4 ,the green polype was that first discovered by ,m4 ,trembley3 and the first appearances of spontaneous motion were perceived in its arms1 which it can contract1 expand1 and twist about in various directions4 ,on the first appearance of danger1 they contract to such a degree1 that they seem little longer than a grain of sand1 of a fine green colour1 the arms disappearing entirely4 ,soon afterwards1 he found the grisca1 and afterwards the fusca4 ,the bodies of the viridis and grisca diminish almost insensibly from the anterior to the posterior extremity2 but the fusca is for the most part of an equal size1 for two-thirds of its length1 from the anterior to the posterior extremities1 from which it becomes abruptly smaller1 and then continues of a regular size to the end4 ,these three kinds have at least six1 and at most twelve or thirteen arms4 ,they can contract themselves till their bodies do not exceed one-fourth of an inch in length1 and they can stop at any intermediate degree of expansion or contraction4 ,they are of various sizes1 from an inch to an inch and a half long4 ,their arms are seldom longer than their bodies1 though some have them an inch1 and some even eight inches long4 ,the thickness of their bodies decreases as they extend themselves1 and vice vers2 and they may be made to contract themselves1 either by agitating the water in which they are contained1 or by touching the animals themselves4 ,when taken out of the water1 they all contract so much1 that they appear only like a little lump of jelly4 ,they can contract or expand one arm1 or any number of arms1 independently of the rest2 and they can likewise bend their bodies or arms in all possible directions4 ,they can also dilate or contract their bodies in various places1 and sometimes appear thick set with folds1 which1 when carelessly viewed1 appear like rings4 ,their progressive motion is performed by that power which they have of contracting and dilating their bodies4 ,when about to move1 they bend down their heads and arms2 lay hold by means of them1 or some other substance to which they design to fasten themselves2 then they loosen their tail1 and draw it towards the head2 then either fix it in that place1 or stretching forward their head as before1 repeat the same operation4 ,they ascend or descend at pleasure in this manner upon aquatic plants1 or upon the sides of the vessel in which they are kept2 they sometimes hang by the tail from the surface of the water1 or sometimes by one of their arms2 and they can walk with ease upon the surface of the water4 ,on examining the tail with a microscope1 a small part of it will be found to be dry above the surface of the water1 and1 as it were1 in a little concave space1 of which the tail forms the bottom2 so that it seems to be suspended on the surface of the water1 on the same principle that a small pin or needle is made to swim4 ,when a polype1 therefore1 means to pass from the sides of the glass to the surface of the water1 it has only to put that part out of the water by which it is supported1 and to give it time to dry1 which it always does upon these occasions2 and they attach themselves so firmly by the tail to aquatic plants1 stones1 c4 that they cannot be easily disengaged3 they often further strengthen these attachments by means of one or two of their arms1 which serve as a kind of anchors for fixing them to the adjacent substances4 ,the fusca has the longest arms1 and makes use of the most curious manoeuvres to seize its prey4 ,they are best viewed in a glass seven or eight inches deep1 when their arms commonly hang down to the bottom4 ,when this or any other kind is hungry1 it spreads its arms in a kind of circle to a considerable extent1 inclosing in this1 as in a net1 every insect which has the misfortune to come within the circumference4 ,while the animal is contracted by seizing its prey1 the arms are observed to swell like the muscles of the human body when in action4 ,though no appearance of eyes can be observed in the polype1 they certainly have some knowledge of the approach of their prey1 and shew the greatest attention to it as soon as it comes near them4 ,it seizes a worm the moment it is touched by one of the arms1 and in conveying it to the mouth1 it frequently twists the arm into a spiral line like a corkscrew1 by which means the insect is brought to the mouth in a much shorter time than otherwise it would be2 and so soon are the insects on which the polypes feed killed by them1 that ,m4 ,fontana thinks they must contain the most powerful kind of poison2 for the lips scarcely touch the animal1 when it expires1 though there cannot be any wound perceived on it when dead4 ,the worm1 when swallowed1 appears sometimes single1 sometimes double1 according to circumstances4 ,when full1 the polype contracts itself1 hangs down as in a kind of stupor1 but extends again in proportion as the food is digested1 and the excrementitious part is discharged4 ,the manner in which the polypes propagate1 is most perceptible in the grisca and fusca1 as being considerably larger than the viridis4 ,if we examine one of them in summer1 when the animals are most active1 and prepared for propagation1 some small tubercles will be found proceeding from its sides1 which constantly increase in bulk1 until at last1 in two or three days1 they assume the figure of small polypes4 ,when they first begin to shoot1 the excrescence becomes pointed1 assuming a conical figure and deeper colour than the rest of the body4 ,in a short time it becomes truncated1 and then cylindrical1 after which the arms begin to shoot from the anterior end4 ,the tail adheres to the body of the parent animal1 but gradually grows smaller1 until at last it hangs only by a point1 and is then ready to be separated4 ,when this is the case1 both the mother and young ones fix themselves to the sides of the glass1 and are separated from each other by a sudden jerk4 ,the time requisite for the formation of the young ones is very different1 according to the warmth of the weather1 and the nature of the food eaten by the mother4 ,sometimes they are fully formed1 and ready to drop off1 in twenty-four hours2 in other cases1 when the weather is cold1 fifteen days have been requisite for bringing them to perfection4 ,the polypes produce young ones indiscriminately from all parts of their bodies1 and five or six young ones have frequently been produced at once2 nay1 ,m4 ,trembley has observed nine or ten produced at the same time4 ,when a polype is cut transversely1 or longitudinally1 into two or three parts1 each part in a short time becomes a perfect animal2 and so great is this prolific power1 that a new animal will be produced1 even from a small portion of the skin of the old one4 ,if the young ones be mutilated while they grow upon the parent1 the parts so cut off will be re-produced2 and the same property belongs to the parent4 ,a truncated portion will send forth young ones before it has acquired a new head and tail of its own1 and sometimes the head of the young one supplies the place of that which should have grown out of the old one4 ,if we slit a polype longitudinally through the head to the middle of the body1 we shall have one formed with two heads2 and by again slitting these in the same manner1 we may form one with as many heads as we please4 ,a still more surprising property of these animals is1 that they may be grafted together4 ,if the truncated portions of a polype be placed end to end1 and gently pushed together1 they will unite into a single one4 ,the two portions are first joined together by a slender neck1 which gradually fills up and disappears1 the food passing from one part into the other2 and thus we may form polypes1 not only from different portions of the same animal1 but from those of different animals4 ,we may fix the head of one to the body of another1 and the compound animal will grow1 eat1 and multiply1 as if it had never been divided4 ,by pushing the body of one into the mouth of another1 so far that their heads may be brought into contact1 and kept in that situation for some time1 they will at last unite into one animal1 only having double the usual number of arms4 ,the hydra fusca may be turned inside out like a glove1 at the same time that it continues to eat and live as before4 ,the lining of the stomach now forms the outer skin1 and the former epidermis constitutes the lining of the stomach4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxiii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,vegetables4 ,curiosities in the ,vegetable ,kingdom--,germination of ,seeds--,dissemination of ,plants--,number of ,plants upon the ,earth--,sensibility of ,plants--,the ,sensitive ,plant4 ,your contemplation further yet pursue2 ,the wondrous world of vegetables view6 ,see various trees their various fruits produce1 ,some for delightful taste1 and some for use4 ,see sprouting plants enrich the plain and wood1 ,for physic some1 and some design'd for food4 ,see fragrant flow'rs1 with different colours dy'd1 ,on smiling meads unfold their gaudy pride4 ,blackmore4 ,,curiosities ,,in ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 ,the difference between animals and vegetables is so great1 that at first we do not perceive any resemblance between them4 ,some animals only live in water2 others on the earth1 or in the air2 and some are amphibious1 or live equally well in water as upon land4 ,and this is literally the case with vegetables3 some of them only grow upon land1 others in the water2 some can scarcely bear any moisture1 others live either in earth or water2 and some even are found that exist in the air4 ,there is a tree in the island of ,japan1 which1 contrary to the nature of all others1 to which moisture is necessary1 cannot bear the least portion4 ,as soon as it is watered it perishes3 the only way to preserve it in such a case1 is to cut it off by the root1 which is to be dried in the sun1 and afterwards planted in a dry and sandy soil4 ,a peculiar species of mushroom1 some mosses1 and other small plants1 float in the air2 but what is still more extraordinary1 a branch of rosemary1 which1 as is the custom of some countries1 was put in the hand of a corpse1 sprouted out to the right and left so vigorously1 that after a lapse of some years1 the grave being opened1 the face of the defunct was overshadowed with rosemary leaves4 ,the vegetation of the truffle is still more singular3 this extraordinary tubercle has neither roots1 stem1 leaves1 flowers1 nor seeds2 it derives its nourishment through the pores of its bark4 ,but it may be asked1 how is it produced8 why is there commonly no kind of herb in the places where this species of fungus grows8 and why is the land there dry and full of crevices8 ,these things have never been explained4 ,no plant so much resembles animals1 as that species of membranous moss called nostoch2 it is an irregular substance1 of a pale green colour1 and somewhat transparent2 it trembles upon the slightest touch1 and easily breaks4 ,it can only be seen after rain1 and is then found in many places1 particularly in uncultivated soils and sandy roads4 ,it exists in all seasons1 even in winter2 but is never so abundant as after rain in summer4 ,the most remarkable circumstance about it is1 its speedy growth1 being formed almost instantaneously3 sometimes walking in the garden in summer1 not a trace of it is seen1 when a sudden shower of rain falling1 if the same place is visited in an hour1 the walks are entirely covered with it4 ,the nostoch was long supposed to have descended from the sky2 but it is now known to be a leaf1 which attracts and imbibes water with great avidity4 ,this leaf1 to which no root appears to belong1 is in its natural state when impregnated with water2 but a strong wind or great heat soon dissipating the water1 the leaf contracts1 and loses its colour and transparency3 hence it appears to grow so suddenly1 and to be so miraculously produced by a shower of rain2 for when the rain falls upon it in its dried and imperceptible state1 it becomes reanimated1 and appears a fresh production4 ,we might readily enumerate a variety of plants that bear a resemblance to animals2 but there are other peculiarities in vegetables1 which solicit our attention4 ,the whole atmosphere is pregnant with plants and invisible seeds1 and even the largest grains are dispersed by the wind over the earth2 and as soon as they are transported to the places where they may germinate1 they become plants1 and often so little soil is necessary for this purpose1 that we can scarcely conceive whence they derive the necessary degree of nourishment4 ,there are plants1 and even trees1 which take root and grow in the clefts of rocks1 without any soil4 ,vegetation is sometimes very rapid2 of which we have instances in mushrooms1 and the common cresses1 the seed of which1 if put into a wet cloth1 will be fit for a salad in twenty-four hours4 ,there are plants that exist with scarcely any perceptible vitality4 ,we often see willows1 which are not only hollowed and decayed within1 but their external bark is so much injured that very little of it remains2 yet from these seemingly sapless trunks1 buds sprout in the spring1 and they are crowned with leaves and branches4 ,how admirable1 that plants should not only imbibe nutriment by their roots1 but that their leaves also should assist in this important function1 by inspiring air6 and an inverted tree will flourish as well as when in its proper position1 for the branches will grow in the earth and become roots6 ,the advanced age that some trees attain1 is also very wonderful4 ,some apple-trees are above a thousand years old2 and if we calculate the amount of the annual produce of such a tree for the above space of time1 we shall find that a single pippin might supply all ,europe with trees and fruit4 ,,the ,,germination ,,of ,,seeds4--,seeds are composed of different parts1 according to the variety of species1 the principal of which parts is the germ4 ,each germ has two parts3 the one simple1 which becomes the root2 and the other laminated1 which becomes the stem of the plant4 ,the substance of most seeds is composed of two pieces1 called lobes1 which contain a farinaceous matter1 and serve as seminal leaves to the plants4 ,mosses have the most simple seed1 consisting only of the germ1 without pellicle1 and without lobes4 ,to make seeds germinate1 air1 and a certain degree of heat and moisture1 are necessary4 ,the augmented heat1 and the difference observable in the taste and smell1 seem to denote a degree of fermentation2 and the farinaceous substance becomes fitted to nourish the tender germ4 ,it has been ascertained by experiments made with coloured fluids1 that this substance imbibes a moisture1 which1 in conjunction with the air and heat1 forms a proper nourishment till the plant has acquired strength enough to make use of the juices furnished by the root4 ,the lobes1 exhausted of their farinaceous matter1 gradually dry1 and fall off of themselves in a few weeks1 when the plant has no further need of their assistance4--,certain herbs which grow on the mountains are of a very peculiar nature3 their duration being very short1 it often happens that the seed has not time to ripen2 and1 that the species may not be lost1 the bud which contains the germ is formed upon the top of the plant1 puts forth leaves1 falls1 and takes root4 ,when the delicate plant shoots up from the earth1 it would run too great a risk1 if it were immediately exposed to the air1 and to the influence of the sun4 ,its parts therefore remain folded close to each other1 nearly the same as when in the seed4 ,but as the root grows strong and branches out1 it furnishes the superior vessels with an abundance of juice1 by means of which all the organs are developed4 ,at first the plant is nearly gelatinous2 but it soon acquires more firmness1 and continually increases in size4 ,this short account of the germination of seeds may suffice to shew1 to the inquisitive in the wonders of nature1 what preparations and means nature uses to produce a single plant4 ,when1 therefore1 we see a seed that we have placed in the earth sprout1 we shall no longer consider it as beneath our notice1 but shall rather be disposed to regard it as one of those wonders of nature which have excited the observation and attention of some of the greatest of men4 ,go1 mark the matchless workings of that ,power ,that shuts within the seed the future flower2 ,bids these in elegance of form excel2 ,in colour these1 and those delight the smell ,sends nature forth1 the daughter of the skies1 ,to dance on earth1 and charm all human eyes4 ,cowper4 ,,dissemination ,,of ,,plants4--,when seeds are come to maturity1 their dissemination is absolutely necessary1 since without it no future crop would follow4 ,the great ,author of nature has wisely provided for this in various ways4 ,the stems of many plants are long and slender1 and being raised above the ground1 the wind shakes them to and fro1 and by this means are the ripe seeds conveyed to a distance4 ,the seed-vessels of most plants are shut till the seeds are ripe1 that so the winds may not scatter them prematurely2 and when the proper season arrives1 many of these open with such a degree of elasticity as to throw the seeds to a considerable distance4 ,other seeds have a kind of wings given them1 by which they are conveyed to a distance of some miles from the parent plant4 ,these wings consist either of a down1 as in most of the composite-flowered plants1 or of a membrane1 as in the birch1 alder1 ash1 elm1 c4 ,hence woods1 which happen to be destroyed by fire1 or any other accident1 are soon restored again by new plants4 ,some seeds are rough1 or provided with a sort of hooks1 by means of which they are apt to stick to animals that pass by them1 and by this means are carried to the mouths of their burrows1 where they meet with proper soil and manure for their growth4 ,berries and other pericarpies are by nature allotted for aliment to animals2 but it is on condition that they shall sow the seed while they eat it3 this they do by dispersing the seeds as they are eating2 and also after eating1 by voiding many of them unhurt1 and even in a better state for vegetation than they were before4 ,thus many kinds of nuts are sown2 and thus did the doves of the ,moluccas replant with nutmegs those islands of the ,east1 which the sordid avarice of the ,dutch had destroyed3 ,providence thereby frustrating1 by feeble but certain means1 the contemptible selfishness of that commercial people4 ,in this manner the woods of northern countries are sown with junipers1 by the thrushes and other birds which feed upon these heavy berries4 ,the cross-bill lives upon fir-cones1 and the hawfinch upon pine-cones2 by means of which the fir and the pine1 of various species1 are continually planted in vast abundance4 ,in our own country1 the common rook has been observed1 not only to feed on acorns1 but to make holes in the ground with the bill1 and hide many3 probably they mean only to lay in a stock for future necessity by this process2 but certain it is1 that thousands of oaks are annually planted by this means4 ,swine1 also1 in searching for food1 turn up the earth2 and moles1 by throwing up hillocks1 prepare the ground for seeds of various kinds4 ,seas1 lakes1 and rivers1 by their streams and currents1 often convey seeds unhurt to distant countries4 ,in assimilating the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 ,linnus denominates seeds the eggs of plants4 ,the fecundity of plants is frequently marvellous3 from a single plant or stalk of ,indian ,turkey wheat1 are produced1 in one summer1 #bjjj seeds2 of elecampane1 #cjjj2 of sun-flower1 #djjj2 of poppy1 #cb1jjj2 of a spike of cat's-tail1 #aj1jjj and upwards2 a single fruit or seed-vessel of tobacco1 contains #ajjj seeds2 that of white poppy1 #hjjj4 ,mr4 ,ray relates1 from experiments made by himself1 that #ajab tobacco seeds are equal in weight to one grain2 and that the weight of the whole quantum of seeds in a single tobacco plant1 is such as must1 according to the above proportion1 determine their number to be #cfj1jjj4 ,the same author estimates the annual produce of a single stalk of spleen-wort to be upwards of #a1jjj1jjj of seeds4 ,,prodigious ,,number ,,of ,,plants ,,upon ,,the ,,earth4--,it is said1 that there are about #dd1jjj different plants already discovered1 to which new ones are daily added4 ,by means of the microscope1 some have been found where they were least expected4 ,the different varieties of mosses and sponges have been classed among vegetables1 and have presented to the observation of the naturalist1 seeds and flowers before unknown4 ,freestone is sometimes covered with brown and blackish spots2 the mouldy substance which composes them adheres to various other matters1 and may be considered as a little garden in vegetation4 ,when we reflect upon the quantity of moss which covers the hardest stones1 the trunks of trees1 and the most barren places2--when we consider the quantity of vegetables upon the surface of the earth2 the different species of flowers which delight and refresh us2 the trees and bushes1 add to these the aquatic plants1 some of which exceed a hair in fineness2--we may be able to form some idea of the multitude of plants in the vegetable kingdom4 ,all these species grow up1 and are preserved without detriment or injury1 each having that place assigned it1 which is most suited to its properties4 ,such is the wisdom displayed in their distribution over the surface of the earth1 that there is no part of it wholly destitute1 and no part enjoys them in too great abundance4 ,some plants require the open field1 where1 unsheltered by trees1 they may receive the sun's rays2 others can only exist in water2 some grow in the sand2 others in marshes and fens1 which are frequently covered with water1 and some bud on the surface of the earth1 whilst others unfold themselves in its bosom4 ,the different strata which compose the soil of the earth1 as sand1 clay1 chalk1 c4 favour different vegetables2 and hence it is1 that in the vast garden of nature nothing is absolutely sterile2 from the finest sand to the flinty rock1 from the torrid to the frozen zone1 each soil and climate supports plants peculiar to itself4 ,another circumstance highly worthy of attention is3 the ,creator has so ordered1 that1 among this immense variety of plants1 those which are most proper for food or medicine multiply in greater abundance than those which are of less utility4 ,herbs are much more numerous than trees and brambles2 grass is in greater abundance than oaks2 and cherry-trees more plentiful than apricots3 had oaks been more frequent than grass1 or trees than herbs and roots1 it would have been impossible for animals to subsist4 ,according to the calculation of ,baron ,von ,humboldt1 #fjjj plants are agamous1 that is1 plants which have no sexual organs1 such as champignons1 lichens1 c4 ,of the remainder there are found-- ,in ,europe #g1jjj ,in the temperate regions of ,asia #a1ejj ,in ,equinoxial ,asia1 and the adjacent ,islands #d1ejj ,in ,africa #c1jjj ,in the temperate regions of ,america1 in both hemispheres #d1jjj ,in ,equinoxial ,america #ac1jjj ,in ,new ,holland1 and the ,islands of the ,pacific ,ocean #e1jjj ------ ,total #ch1jjj ------ ,,sensibility ,,of ,,plants4--,there are certain motions observable in plants1 that make it doubtful whether they are not possessed of sensibility4 ,some plants shrink and contract their leaves upon being touched2 others open and shut their flowers at certain fixed hours in the day1 so regularly as to denote with precision the time of day2 some assume a peculiar form during the night1 folding up their leaves2 and these different changes take place whether they are in the open air1 or shut up in close apartments4 ,those which live under water during the time of fecundation1 raise their flowers above the surface4 ,the motions of a marshy plant discovered some time since1 in the province of ,carolina1 are still more singular4 ,its round leaves are furnished above1 and on the sides1 with a multitude of notches that are extremely irritable4 ,when an insect happens to creep upon the superior surface of the leaves1 they fold up1 and inclose the insect till it dies2 the leaves then open of themselves4 ,we may daily observe regular motions in some plants in our gardens4 ,tulips expand their petals when the weather is fine1 and close them again at sun-set1 or during rain4 ,vegetables with pods1 such as peas and beans1 open their shells when dry1 and curl themselves up like shavings of wood4 ,wild oats1 when placed upon a table1 will move spontaneously1 more especially if warmed in the hand4 ,and the heliotrope1 or sunflower1 with various other plants1 always turns towards the sun4 ,these are incontestable facts1 of the certainty of which every person may be easily convinced4 ,from them1 some conclude that we ought not to deny sensibility to be an attribute of plants2 and certainly the facts which are alleged in favour of such an opinion1 give it great appearance of probability4 ,but1 on the other hand1 plants have no other sign of sensibility2 and all that they have is entirely mechanical4 ,we plant a shrub and destroy it1 without finding any analogy between it and an animal1 that we bring up and kill4 ,we see a plant bud1 blossom1 and bear seed1 insensibly1 as the hand of a watch runs round the points of the dial4 ,the most exact anatomy of a plant does not unfold to us any organ which has the least relation to those of animal sensibility4 ,when we oppose these observations to those from which we might infer the sensibility of plants1 we remain in uncertainty1 and we cannot explain the phenomena related above4 ,our knowledge upon this subject is very imperfect1 and is confined to simple conjecture4 ,we neither attribute sensibility to plants1 nor deny it to them1 with certainty4 ,,the ,,sensitive ,,plant4--,this singular plant rises from a slender woody stalk seven or eight feet in height1 armed with short recurved thorns2 the leaves grow upon long footstalks1 which are prickly1 each sustaining two pair of wings2 from the place where these are inserted1 come out small branches1 having three or four globular heads of pale purplish flowers coming out from the side1 on short peduncles2 the principal stalk has many of those heads of flowers on the upper part1 for more than a foot in length2 this1 as also the branches1 is terminated by like heads of flowers2 the leaves move but slowly when touched1 but the footstalks fall1 when they are pressed pretty hard4 ,it is a native of ,brazil1 7,m4 pudica1 humble plant17 having the roots composed of many hairy fibres1 which mat slowly together2 from these come out several woody stalks1 declining towards the ground1 unless supported2 they are armed with short recurved spines1 having winged or pinnate leaves2 flowers from the axils1 on short peduncles1 collected in small globular heads1 of a yellow colour4 ,naturalists 7says ,dr4 ,darwin7 have not explained the immediate cause of the collapsing of the sensitive plant2 the leaves meet and close in the night1 during the sleep of the plant1 or when exposed to much cold in the day-time1 in the same manner as when they are affected by external violence1 folding their upper surfaces together1 and in part over each other like scales or tiles1 so as to expose as little of the upper surface as may be to the air1 but do not1 indeed1 collapse quite so far2 for when touched in the night during their sleep1 they fall still further1 especially when touched on the footstalks between the stems and the leaflets1 which seem to be their most sensitive or irritable part4 ,now1 as their situation after being exposed to external violence resembles their sleep1 but with a greater degree of collapsion1 may it not be owing to a numbness or paralysis consequent to too violent irritation1 like the pantings of animals from pain or fatigue8 ,a sensitive plant being kept in a dark room till some hours after day-break1 its leaves and leaf-stalks were collapsed as in its most profound sleep1 and on exposing it to the light1 above twenty minutes passed before the plant was thoroughly awake1 and had quite expanded itself4 ,during this night the upper surfaces of the leaves were oppressed2 this would seem to shew that the office of this surface of the leaf was to expose the fluids of the plant to the light1 as well as to the air4 ,dr4 ,darwin has thus characterized these plants4-- ,weak with nice sense the chaste ,mimosa stands1 ,from each rude touch withdraws her timid hands ,oft as light clouds o'erpass the summer glade1 ,alarm'd1 she trembles at the moving shade2 ,and feels alive through all her tender form1 ,the whisper'd murmurs of the gathering storm2 ,shuts her sweet eyelids to approaching night1 ,and hails with freshen'd charms the rising light4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxiv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,vegetables4--7,continued47 ,the ,cocoa-,nut ,tree--,the ,bread-,fruit ,tree--,the ,bannian ,tree--,fountain ,trees--,the ,tallow ,tree--,the ,paper ,tree--,the ,calabash ,tree--,remarkable ,oak--,dimensions1 c4 of some of the largest ,trees now growing in ,england--,upas1 or ,poison ,tree4 ,admiration1 feeding at the eye1 ,and still unsated1 dwells upon the theme4 ,cowper4 ,,the ,,cocoa-,,nut ,,tree4 ,of all the gifts which ,providence has bestowed on the ,oriental world1 the cocoa-nut tree most deserves our notice3 in this single production of nature1 what blessings are conveyed to man6 ,it grows a stately column1 from thirty to fifty feet in height1 crowned by a verdant capital of waving branches1 covered with long spiral leaves2 under this foliage1 branches of blossoms1 clusters of green fruit1 and others arrived at maturity1 appear in mingled beauty4 ,the trunk1 though porous1 furnishes beams and rafters for our habitations2 and the leaves1 when platted together1 make an excellent thatch1 common umbrellas1 coarse mats for the floor1 and brooms2 while their finest fibres are woven into very beautiful mats for the rich4 ,the covering of the young fruit is extremely curious1 resembling a piece of thick cloth1 in a conical form1 close and firm as it came from the loom2 it expands after the fruit has burst through its inclosure1 and then appears of a coarser texture4 ,the nuts contain a delicious milk1 and a kernel sweet as the almond3 this1 when dried1 affords abundance of oil2 and when that is expressed1 the remains feed cattle and poultry1 and make good manure4 ,the shell of the nut furnishes cups1 ladles1 and other domestic utensils1 while the husk which incloses it is of the utmost importance2 it is manufactured into ropes and cordage of every kind1 from the smallest twine to the largest cable1 which are far more durable than those of hemp4 ,in the ,nicobar islands1 the natives build their vessels1 make the sails and cordage1 supply them with provisions and necessaries1 and provide a cargo of arrack1 vinegar1 oil1 gagpree or coarse sugar1 cocoa-nuts1 coir1 cordage1 black paint1 and several inferior articles1 for foreign markets1 entirely from this tree4 ,many of the trees are not permitted to bear fruit2 but the embryo bud1 from which the blossoms and nuts would spring1 is tied up1 to prevent its expansion2 and a small incision being then made at the end1 there oozes in gentle drops a cool pleasant liquor1 called ,trace1 or ,toddy1 the palm wine of the poets4 ,this1 when first drawn1 is cooling and salutary2 but when fermented and distilled1 produces an intoxicating spirit4 ,thus1 a plantation of cocoa-nut trees yields the proprietor considerable profits1 and generally forms part of the government revenue4 ,,the ,,bread-,,fruit ,,tree4--,the systematic name of this plant is ,artocarpus1 which is merely the ,english name translated into ,greek4 ,there are several species2 particularly ,a4 incisa1 and ,a4 integrifolia4 ,the genuine bread-fruit tree is the artocarpus incisa4 ,in captain ,cook's ,voyage1 it is observed1 that the bread-fruit tree is about the size of a middling oak2 its leaves are frequently a foot and a half long1 oblong1 deeply sinuated1 like those of the fig-tree1 which they resemble in consistence and colour1 and in exuding a milky juice when broken4 ,the fruit is the size and shape of a child's head1 and the surface is reticulated1 not much unlike a truffle2 it is covered with a thin skin1 and has a core about as big as the handle of a small knife2 the eatable part lies between the skin and core2 it is as white as snow1 and of the consistence of new bread4 ,it must be roasted before it is eaten1 being first divided into three or four parts2 its taste is insipid1 with a slight sweetness1 somewhat resembling that of the crumb of wheaten bread1 mixed with ,jerusalem artichoke4 ,the fruit not being in season all the year1 there is a method of supplying this defect1 by reducing it to sour paste1 called makie2 and besides this1 cocoa-nuts1 bananas1 plantains1 and a great variety of other fruits1 come in aid of it4 ,this tree not only supplies food1 but also clothing1 for the bark is stripped off the suckers1 and formed into a kind of cloth4 ,to procure the fruit for food costs the ,otaheiteans no trouble or labour1 but climbing a tree4 ,this most useful tree is distributed very extensively over the ,east ,indian continent and islands1 as well as the innumerable islands of the ,south ,seas4 ,in ,otaheite1 however1 and some others1 the evident superiority of the seedless variety for food has caused the other to be neglected1 and it is consequently almost worn out4 ,we are informed by ,captain ,king1 that in the ,sandwich islands these trees are planted1 and flourish with great luxuriance on rising grounds2 that they are not indeed in such abundance1 but that they produce double the quantity of fruit to those growing on the rich plains of ,otaheite2 that the trees are nearly of the same height1 but that the branches begin to strike out from the trunk much lower1 and with greater luxuriance2 and that the climate of these islands differs very little from that of the ,west ,indian islands which lie in the same latitude4 ,this reflection probably first suggested the idea of conveying this valuable tree to our islands in the ,west ,indies4 ,for this purpose his ,majesty's ship the ,bounty sailed for the ,south ,seas1 on the #bc;d of ,december1 #aghg1 under the command of ,lieutenant ,william ,bligh4 ,but a fatal mutiny prevented the accomplishment of this benevolent design4 ,his ,majesty1 however1 not discouraged by the unfortunate event of the voyage1 and fully impressed with the importance of securing so useful an article of food as the bread-fruit to our ,west ,indian ,islands1 determined1 in the year #agia1 to employ another ship1 for a second expedition on this service2 and1 in order to secure the success of the voyage as much as possible1 it was thought proper that two vessels should proceed together on this important business4 ,accordingly1 a ship of #djj tons1 named the ,providence1 was engaged for the purpose1 and the command of her given to ,captain ,bligh2 and a small tender1 called the ,assistant1 commanded by ,lieut4 ,nathaniel ,portlock4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 as in the former voyage1 directed the equipment of the ship for this particular purpose4 ,two skilful gardeners were appointed to superintend the trees and plants1 from their transplantation at ,otaheite1 to their delivery at ,jamaica2 and ,captain ,bligh set sail on the #b;d of ,august1 #agia4 ,the number of plants taken on board at ,otaheite1 was #bfcd1 in #abha pots1 tubs1 and cases2 and of these #aaea were bread-fruit trees4 ,when they arrived at ,coupang1 #bjj plants were dead1 but the rest were in good order4 ,here they procured ninety-two pots of the fruits of that country4 ,they arrived at ,st4 ,helena1 with #hcj fine bread-fruit trees1 besides other plants4 ,here they left some of them1 with different fruits of ,otaheite and ,timor1 besides mountain rice and other seeds2 and hence the ,east ,indies may be supplied with them4 ,on their arrival at ,st4 ,vincent's1 they had #eea cases1 containing #fgh bread-fruit trees1 besides a great number of other fruits and plants1 to the number of #abde4 ,near half this cargo was deposited here under the care of ,mr4 ,alexander ,anderson1 the superintendant of his ,majesty's botanic garden1 for the use of the ,windward islands2 and the remainder1 intended for the ,leeward islands1 was conveyed to ,jamaica1 and distributed as the governor and council of ,jamaica were pleased to direct4 ,the exact number of bread-fruit trees brought to ,jamaica1 was #ceb2 out of which1 five only were reserved for the botanic garden at ,kew4 ,captain ,bligh had the satisfaction1 before he quitted ,jamaica1 of seeing the trees1 which he had brought with so much success1 in a most flourishing state2 insomuch that no doubt remained of their growing well1 and speedily producing fruit3 an opinion which subsequent reports have confirmed4 ,the bread-fruit1 when perfectly ripe1 is pulpy1 sweetish1 putrescent1 and in this state is thought to be too laxative2 but when green it is farinaceous1 and esteemed a very wholesome food1 either baked under the coals1 or roasted over them4 ,the taste is not unlike that of wheaten bread1 but with some resemblance to that of ,jerusalem artichokes or potatoes4 ,it was mentioned before1 that a sort of cloth was made of the inner bark3 to this we may add1 that the wood is used in building boats and houses2 the male catkins serve for tinder2 the leaves for wrapping their food in1 and for wiping their hands instead of towels2 and the juice for making bird-lime1 and as a cement for filling up the cracks of their vessels1 and for holding water4 ,three trees are supposed to yield sufficient nourishment for one person4 ,,the ,,bannian ,,tree4--,the bannian1 or ,indian fig-tree1 is a native of several parts of the ,east ,indies1 and has a woody stem1 branching to a great height and vast extent4 ,it is universally considered as one of the most beautiful of nature's productions2 and1 contrary to most other things in animal and vegetable nature1 appears exempted from decay4 ,every branch from the main body throws out its own roots1 at first in small tender fibres1 several yards from the ground1 but which thicken considerably before they reach the surface1 and then1 striking in1 they increase to large trunks1 and become parent trees1 shooting out new branches from the top2 these in time suspend their roots1 which1 swelling into trunks1 produce other branches1 thus continuing in a progressive state as long as the earth1 the common parent of them all1 continues her sustenance4 ,the ,hindoos are peculiarly fond of the bannian tree2 they regard it as an emblem of the ,deity1 from its long duration and overshadowing beneficence1 and almost pay it divine honours4 ,near this tree their most esteemed pagodas are generally erected2 and under their shade the ,brahmins spend their days in religious solitude1 wandering among the cool recesses and beautiful walks of this umbrageous canopy1 impervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun4 ,a remarkably fine tree of this kind grows on an island in the river ,narbedda1 in the province of ,guzerat4 ,it is distinguished from others of the same species by the name of ,cubbeer ,bur1 which was given it in honour of a famous saint4 ,it was once much larger than it is at present1 high and violent floods having carried away the banks of the island on which it grew1 and with them such parts of the tree as have thus far extended its roots4 ,what remains1 is two thousand feet in circumference1 measured round the principal stems2 the overhanging branches1 which have not yet struck down1 cover a much larger space4 ,the chief trunks of this single tree1 each of which in size exceeds our ,english oaks or elms1 amount to #cej1 the smaller stems to more than #cjjj1 all casting out new branches and hanging roots1 to form in time parent trunks4 ,cubbeer ,bur is famed through ,india for its amazing extent and beauty4 ,the ,indian armies frequently encamp around it1 and at stated periods solemn festivals are held under its branches1 where thousands of votaries repair from various parts of the empire4 ,it is even said that #gjjj persons found ample room under its shade4 ,the ,english gentlemen sometimes form elegant and extensive encampments1 where they spend whole weeks together under this delightful pavilion1 which is inhabited by green wood-pigeons1 doves1 and peacocks1 and also a variety of feathered songsters2 families of monkeys are also in every quarter playing their antic tricks2 and bats1 to the astonishing size of six feet1 from the extremity of one wing to that of the other4 ,this tree not only shelters1 but affords sustenance to these numerous inhabitants1 being covered1 amidst its bright leaves1 with small figs of a rich scarlet1 on which they regale4 ,,fountain ,,trees4--,these are very extraordinary vegetables1 growing in one of the ,canary ,islands1 and likewise said to exist in some other places1 which distil water from their leaves in such plenty1 as to answer all the purposes of the inhabitants who live near them4 ,of these trees we have the following account1 in ,glasse's ,history of the ,canary ,islands4 ,there are three fountains of water in the whole island of ,hiero1 wherein the fountain tree grows4 ,the larger cattle are watered at those fountains1 and at a place where water distils from the leaves of a tree4 ,many writers have made mention of this famous tree1 some in such a manner as to make it appear miraculous3 others again deny the existence of any such tree2 among whom is ,father ,feyjoo1 a modern ,spanish author4 ,but he1 and those who agree with him in this matter1 are as much mistaken as those who would make it appear to be miraculous4 ,the author of the ,history of the ,discovery and ,conquest1 has given us a particular account of it1 which ,i shall here relate at large4-- ,the district in which this tree stands is called ,tigulabe2 near to which1 and in the cliff or steep rocky ascent that surrounds the whole island1 is a gutter or gully1 which commences at the sea1 and continues to the summit of the cliff1 where it joins or coincides with a valley1 which is terminated by the steep front of a rock4 ,on the top of this rock grows a tree1 called1 in the language of the ancient inhabitants1 garse1 sacred or holy tree1 which for many years has been preserved sound1 entire1 and fresh4 ,its leaves constantly distil such a quantity of water as is sufficient to furnish drink to every living creature in ,hiero1 nature having provided this remedy for the drought of the island4 ,it is situated about a league and a half from the sea4 ,nobody knows of what species it is1 only that it is called til4 ,it is distinct from other trees1 and stands by itself4 ,the circumference of the trunk is about twelve spans1 the diameter four1 and in height1 from the ground to the top of the highest branch1 forty spans3 the circumference of all the branches together is #abj feet4 ,the branches are thick and extended1 the lowest commence about the height of an ell from the ground4 ,its fruit resembles the acorn1 and tastes something like the kernel of a pine-apple1 but is softer and more aromatic4 ,the leaves of this tree resemble those of the laurel1 but are larger1 wider1 and more curved2 they come forth in a perpetual succession1 so that the tree always remains green4 ,near to it grows a thorn1 which fastens on many of its branches1 and interweaves with them2 and at a small distance from the garse are some beech-trees1 bresoes1 and thorns4 ,on the north side of the trunk are two large tanks or cisterns1 of rough stone1 or rather one cistern divided1 each half being twenty feet square1 and sixteen spans in depth4 ,one of these contains water for the drinking of the inhabitants2 and the other1 that which they use for their cattle1 washing1 and such like purposes4 ,every morning1 near this part of the island1 a cloud or mist arises from the sea1 which the south or easterly winds force against the forementioned steep cliff2 so that the cloud1 having no vent but by the gutter1 gradually ascends it1 and from thence advances slowly to the extremity of the valley1 where it is stopped and checked by the front of the rock which terminates the valley2 and then rests upon the thick leaves and wide spreading branches of the tree1 from whence it distils in drops during the remainder of the day1 until it is at length exhausted1 in the same manner that we see water drip from the leaves of trees after a heavy shower of rain4 ,this distillation is not peculiar to the garse or til1 for the bresoes1 which grow near it1 likewise drop water2 but their leaves being but few and narrow1 the quantity is so trifling1 that1 though the natives save some of it1 yet they make little or no account of any but what distils from the til2 which1 together with the water of some fountains1 and what is saved in the winter season1 is sufficient to serve them and their flocks4 ,a person lives on the spot near which this tree grows1 to take care of it and its waters2 and is allowed a house to live in1 with a certain salary4 ,he every day distributes to each family of the district1 seven pots or vessels full of water1 besides what he gives to the principal people of the island4 ,whether the tree which yields water at this present time1 be the same as that mentioned in the above description1 ,i cannot determine3 but it is probable there has been a succession of them2 for ,pliny1 describing the ,fortunate ,island1 says1 ,in the mountains of ,ombrion1 are trees resembling the plant ferula1 from which water may be procured by pressure4 ,what comes from the black kind is bitter1 but that which the white yields is sweet and potable4 ,trees yielding water are not peculiar to the island of ,hiero2 for travellers inform us of one of the same kind on the island of ,st4 ,thomas1 in the bight or gulf of ,guinea4 ,in ,cockburn's ,voyages1 we find the following account of a dropping tree1 near the mountains of ,fera ,paz1 in ,america4-- ,on the morning of the fourth day1 we came out on a large plain1 where were great numbers of fine deer2 and in the middle stood a tree of unusual size1 spreading its branches over a vast compass of ground4 ,curiosity led us up to it4 ,we had perceived1 at some distance1 the ground about it to be wet2 at which we began to be somewhat surprised1 as well knowing there had no rain fallen for nearly six months past1 according to the certain course of the season in that latitude3 that it was impossible to be occasioned by the fall of dew on the tree1 we were convinced1 by the sun's having power to exhale away all moisture of that nature a few minutes after its rising4 ,at last1 to our great amazement1 as well as joy1 we saw water dropping1 or as it were distilling1 fast from the end of every leaf of this wonderful1 7nor had it been amiss if ,i had said miraculous7 tree2 at least it was so with respect to us1 who had been labouring four days through extreme heat1 without receiving the least moisture1 and were now almost expiring for the want of it4 ,we could not help looking on this as liquor sent from heaven1 to comfort us under great extremity4 ,we catched what we could of it in our hands1 and drank very plentifully of it2 and liked it so well1 that we could hardly prevail with ourselves to give over4 ,a matter of this nature could not but incite us to make the strictest observations concerning it2 and accordingly we staid under the tree near three hours1 and found we could not fathom its body in five times4 ,we observed the soil where it grew to be very strong2 and upon the nicest inquiry we could afterwards make1 both of the natives of the country and the ,spanish inhabitants1 we could not learn there was any such tree known throughout ,new ,spain1 nor perhaps all ,america over3 but ,i do not relate this as a prodigy in nature1 because ,i am not philosopher enough to ascribe any natural cause for it2 the learned may perhaps give substantial reasons in nature1 for what appeared to us a great and marvellous secret1 and far beyond our power to account for4 ,,the ,,tallow ,,tree4--,this is a remarkable tree1 growing in great plenty in ,china2 so called from its producing a substance like tallow1 and which serves for the same purpose3 it is about the height of a cherry-tree1 its leaves in form of a heart1 of a deep shining red colour1 and its bark very smooth4 ,its fruit is inclosed in a kind of pod1 or cover1 like a chesnut1 and consists of three round white grains1 of the size and form of a small nut1 each having its peculiar capsule1 and a little stone within4 ,this stone is encompassed with a white pulp1 which has all the properties of true tallow1 both as to consistence1 colour1 and even smell1 and accordingly the ,chinese make their candles of it2 which would doubtless be as good as those in ,europe1 if they knew how to purify their vegetable1 as well as we do our animal tallow4 ,all the preparation they give it1 is to melt it down1 and mix a little oil with it1 to make it softer and more pliant4 ,it is true1 the candles made of it yield a thicker smoke and a dimmer light than ours2 but those defects are owing in a great measure to the wicks1 which are not of cotton1 but only a little rod of dry light wood1 covered with the pith of a rush wound round it2 which1 being very porous1 serves to filtrate the minute parts of the tallow1 attracted by the burning stick1 and by this means is kept alive4 ,,the ,,paper ,,tree4--,the name of this tree is ,aouta4 ,it is a mulberry-tree1 found at ,otaheite1 in the ,south ,sea1 from which a cloth is manufactured1 that is worn by the principal inhabitants4 ,the bark of the trees is stripped off1 and deposited to soak in running water2 when it is sufficiently softened1 the fibres of the inner coat are carefully separated from the rest of the bark2 they are then placed in lengths of about eleven or twelve yards1 one by the side of another1 till they are about a foot broad2 and two or three layers are put one upon another4 ,this is done in the evening2 and next morning the water is drained off1 and the several fibres adhere together in one piece4 ,it is afterwards beaten on a smooth piece of wood with instruments marked lengthways1 with small grooves of different degrees of fineness2 and by means of this it becomes as thin as muslin4 ,after bleaching it in the air1 to whiten it1 it is fit for use4 ,another article worthy of the reader's attention1 is the ,,adansonia1 ,,ethiopian ,,sour ,,gourd1 ,,monkeys' ,,bread1 or ,,african ,,calabash ,,tree4--,there is but one known species belonging to this genus1 the baobal1 which is perhaps the largest production of the whole vegetable kingdom4 ,it is a native of ,africa4 ,the trunk is not above twelve or fifteen feet high1 but from sixty to seventy feet round4 ,the lowest branches extend almost horizontally1 and as they are about sixty feet in length1 their own weight bends their extremities to the ground1 and thus form an hemispherical mass of verdure of about #abj or #acj feet diameter4 ,the roots extend as far as the branches3 that in the middle forms a pivot1 which penetrates a great way into the earth2 the rest spread near the surface4 ,the flowers are in proportion to the size of the tree1 and are followed by an oblong pointed fruit1 ten inches long1 five or six broad1 and covered with a kind of greenish down1 under which is a ligneous rind1 hard1 and almost black1 marked with rays1 which divide it lengthwise into sides4 ,it is very common in ,senegal1 and the ,cape de ,verd islands2 and is found #ajj leagues up the country1 at ,gulam1 and upon the sea-coast as far as ,sierra ,leone4 ,the age of this tree is no less remarkable than its enormous size4 ,mr4 ,adanson relates1 that1 in a botanical excursion to the ,magdalen ,islands1 he discovered some calabash-trees1 from five to six feet diameter1 on the bark of which were engraved1 or cut to a considerable depth1 a number of ,european names4 ,two of these names1 which he was at the trouble to repair1 were dated1 one in the fourteenth1 the other in the fifteenth century4 ,the inscribed trees1 mentioned by this ingenious ,frenchman1 had been seen in #aeee1 almost two centuries before1 by ,thevet1 who mentions them in his relation of his ,voyage to ,terra ,antarctia1 or ,australis4 ,adanson saw them in #agdi4 ,the virtues and uses of this tree and its fruits are various4 ,the negroes of ,senegal dry the bark and leaves in the shaded air1 and then reduce them to powder1 which is of a pretty good green colour4 ,this powder they preserve in bags of linen or cotton1 and call it lillo4 ,they use it every day1 putting three or four pinches of it into a mess1 whatever it happens to be1 as we do pepper and salt3 but their view is1 not to give a relish to their food1 but to preserve a perpetual and plentiful perspiration1 and to attemper the too great heat of the blood2 purposes to which it certainly answers1 as several ,europeans have proved by repeated experiments2 preserving themselves from the epidemic fever1 which1 in that country1 is as fatal to them as the plague1 and generally rages during the months of ,september and ,october3 when the rains have suddenly ceased1 the sun exhales the water left by them on the ground1 and fills the air with a noxious vapour4 ,m4 ,adanson1 in the critical season1 made a light ptisan of the leaves of the baobal2 which he had gathered in the ,august of the preceding year1 and had dried in the shade2 and drank constantly about a pint of it every morning1 either before or after breakfast1 and the same quantity of it every evening1 after the heat of the sun began to abate3 he also took the same quantity in the middle of the day1 but this was only when he felt some symptoms of an approaching fever4 ,by this precaution he preserved himself1 during the five years he resided at ,senegal1 from the diarrha and fever1 which are so fatal there1 and which are1 however1 the only diseases of the place2 while other officers suffered very severely1 only one of them excepted1 upon whom ,m4 ,adanson prevailed to use this remedy1 which for its simplicity was despised by the rest4 ,this ptisan alone prevents that heat of urine which is common in these parts1 from the month of ,july to ,november1 provided the person abstains from wine4 ,the fruit is not less useful than the leaves and the bark4 ,the pulp that envelopes the seeds has an agreeable acid taste1 and is eaten for pleasure3 it is also dried and powdered1 and used medicinally in pestilential fevers1 the dysentery1 and bloody flux3 the dose is a drachm1 passed through a fine sieve1 taken either in common water1 or in an infusion of the plantain4 ,this powder is brought into ,europe under the name of terra sigillata ,lemnia4 ,the woody bark of the fruit1 and the fruit itself1 when spoiled1 help to supply the negroes with an excellent soap1 which they make by drawing a lie from the ashes1 and boiling it with palm-oil that begins to be rancid4 ,the trunks of such of these trees as are decayed1 the negroes hollow out into burying places for their poets1 musicians1 and buffoons4 ,persons of these characters they esteem greatly while they live1 supposing them to derive their superior talents from sorcery1 or a commerce with demons2 but they regard their bodies with horror when dead1 and will not give them burial in the usual manner1 neither suffering them to be put into the ground1 nor thrown into the sea or any river1 because they imagine that the water would not then nourish the fish1 nor the earth produce its fruits4 ,the bodies shut up in these trunks become dry without rotting1 and form a kind of mummies without the help of embalming4 ,the baobal is very distinct from the calabash-tree of ,america1 with which it has been confounded by ,father ,labat4 ,the following is an account of a ,,remarkable ,,oak ,,tree3-- ,behold the oak does young and verdant stand ,above the grove1 all others to command2 ,his wide-extended limbs the forest crown'd1 ,shading the trees1 as well as they the ground3 ,young murm'ring tempests in his boughs are bred1 ,and gathering clouds from round his lofty head2 ,outrageous thunder1 stormy winds1 and rain1 ,discharge their fury on his head in vain2 ,earthquakes below1 and lightnings from above1 ,rend not his trunk1 nor his fix'd root remove4 ,blackmore4 ,mr4 ,gilpin1 in his forest scenery1 gives the following account of an aged oak3-- ,close by the gate of the ,water-walk1 at ,magdalen ,college in ,oxford1 grew an oak1 which perhaps stood there a saplin when ,alfred the ,great founded the university4 ,this period only includes a space of nine hundred years1 which is no great age for an oak4 ,it is a difficult matter indeed to ascertain the age of a tree4 ,the age of a castle or abbey is the object of history3 even a common house is recorded by the family that built it4 ,all these objects arrive at maturity in their youth1 if ,i may so speak4 ,but the tree gradually completing its growth1 is not worth recording in the early part of its existence3 it is then only a common tree2 and afterwards1 when it becomes remarkable for its age1 all memory of its youth is lost4 ,this tree1 however1 can almost produce historical evidence for the age assigned to it4 ,about five hundred years after the time of ,alfred1 ,william of ,wainfleet1 ,dr4 ,stukely tells us1 expressly ordered this college to be founded near the great oak2 7,itiner4 ,curios47 and an oak could not1 ,i think1 be less than five hundred years of age1 to merit that title1 together with the honour of fixing the site of a college4 ,when the magnificence of ,cardinal ,wolsey erected that handsome tower which is so ornamental to the whole building1 this tree might probably be in the meridian of its glory2 or rather1 perhaps it had attained a green old age4 ,but it must have been manifestly in its decline1 at that memorable ra1 when the tyranny of ,james gave the fellows of ,magdalen so noble an opportunity of withstanding bigotry and superstition4 ,it was afterwards much injured in the time of ,charles ,,ii1 when the present walks were laid out3 its roots were disturbed2 and from that period it declined fast1 and became reduced by degrees to little more than a mere trunk4 ,the oldest members of the university can scarcely recollect it in better plight3 but the faithful records of history#bj have handed down its ancient dimensions4 ,it once flung its boughs through a space of sixteen yards on every side from its trunk2 and under its magnificent pavilion could have sheltered with ease three thousand men3 though in its decayed state1 it could1 for many years1 do little more than shelter some luckless individual1 whom the driving shower had overtaken in his evening walk4 ,in the summer of the year #aghh1 this magnificent ruin fell to the ground1 alarming the college with its crashing sound4 ,it then appeared how precariously it had stood for many years4 ,its grand taproot was decayed2 and it had hold of the earth only by two or three roots1 of which none was more than a couple of inches in diameter4 ,from a part of its ruins1 a chair has been made for the president of the college1 which will long continue its memory4 ,this will be a proper place for introducing the history of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,largest ,,trees ,,now ,,growing ,,in ,,england4--,in ,hainault ,forest1 near ,barking in ,essex1 there is an oak which has attained the enormous bulk of thirty-six feet in circumference4 ,this extraordinary tree has been known for ages by the name of ,fairlop4 ,the tradition of the country traces it half way up the ,christian ra4 ,beneath its shade1 which overspreads an area of three hundred feet in circuit1 an annual fair has long been held on the first ,friday in ,july1 and no booth is suffered to be erected beyond the extent of its boughs4 ,at ,cromwell ,park1 near ,letbury in ,gloucestershire1 the seat of ,lord ,dacre1 is a huge chesnut tree1 probably as remarkable for antiquity as size2 having been mentioned 7according to ,sir ,richard ,atkins7 in king ,john's days1 six centuries ago1 as the wonder of the neighbourhood1 and measuring at present1 at the foot1 fifty-seven feet in circumference4 ,it is supposed to be at least eight hundred years old4 ,in ,darley church-yard1 near ,matlock in ,derbyshire1 is a yew tree1 thirty-three feet in girt4 ,in the church-yard of ,aldworth1 in ,berkshire1 is a yew tree1 the trunk of which1 four feet from the ground1 measures nine yards in circumference4 ,it is of considerable height3 all recollection of its age is lost4 ,,the ,,shelton ,,oak4--,about a mile and a half from ,shrewsbury1 where the ,pool road diverges from that which leads to ,oswestry1 there stands an ancient decayed oak4 ,there is a tradition1 that ,owen ,glendwr 7,glynder7 ascended this tree to reconnoitre2 and finding that the king was in great force1 and that the ,earl of ,northumberland had not joined his son ,hotspur1 he fell back to ,oswestry1 and immediately after the battle of ,shrewsbury1 retreated precipitately to ,wales4 ,this tree is now in a complete state of decay1 and hollow1 even in the larger ramifications4 ,the following are the dimensions of the ,shelton ,oak3 ft4 in4 ,girt1 at bottom1 close to the ground #dd #c ,ditto1 #e feet from ditto #be #a ,ditto1 #h feet from ditto #bg #d ,height of the tree #da #f ,vide ,gent4 ,mag4 vol4 lxxxi4 p4 #cje4 ,,the ,,bowthorpe ,,oak1 situate in the park between ,bourne and ,stamford-- ,on a fine eminence1 of slow ascent1 ,the landscape round stretch'd to a vast extent1 --is the property of ,philip ,duncombe ,pauncefort1 ,esq4 ,the trunk is thirty-nine feet six inches in circumference4 ,the inside of the body is hollow1 and the lower part of it was formerly used as a feeding place for calves1 the upper1 as a pigeon-house4 ,the late possessor1 ,george ,pauncefort1 ,esq4 7in whose family it has been for many centuries17 in #agfh had it floored1 with benches placed round1 and a door of entrance3 frequently twelve persons have dined in it with ease4 --------------crowds yearly flock to see ,in leafy pomp the celebrated tree2 ,charm'd to contemplate ,nature's giant son1 ,fed by the genial seasons as they run4 ,no tradition is to be found respecting it1 it having1 ever since the memory of the oldest inhabitants1 or their ancestors1 been in the same state of decay4 ,we conclude this chapter with an essay on the ,,upas1 or ,,poison-,,tree ,,of ,,java2 by ,thomas ,horsefield1 ,m4 ,d4--,from the ,seventh ,volume of the ,transactions of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society of ,java4 ,the literary and scientific world has in few instances been more grossly and impudently imposed upon1 than by the account of the ,bohan ,upas1 published in ,holland about the year #aghj4 ,the history and origin of this celebrated forgery still remains a mystery4 ,foersch1 who put his name to the publication1 certainly was 7according to the information ,i have received from credible persons1 who have long resided on the island17 a surgeon in the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company's service1 about the time the account of the ,upas appeared4 ,it would be in some degree interesting to become acquainted with his character4 ,i have been led to suppose that his literary abilities were as mean1 as his contempt of truth was consummate4 ,having hastily picked up some vague information concerning the ,upas1 he carried it to ,europe1 where his notes were arranged1 doubtlessly by a different hand1 in such a form as1 by their plausibility and appearance of truth1 to be generally credited4 ,but though the account just mentioned1 in so far as relates to the situation of the ,poison ,tree1 to its effects on the surrounding country1 and to the application said to have been made of the ,upas on criminals in different parts of the island1 as well as the description of the poisonous substance itself1 and its mode of collection1 has been demonstrated to be an extravagant forgery1--the existence of a tree in ,java1 from whose sap a poison is prepared1 equal in fatality1 when thrown into the circulation1 to the strongest animal poisons hitherto known1 is a fact1 which it is at present my object to establish and to illustrate4 ,the tree which produces this poison1 is called ,antshar1 and grows in the eastern extremity of the island4 ,the ,antshar is one of the largest trees in the forests of ,java4 ,the stem is cylindrical1 perpendicular1 and rises completely naked to the height of sixty1 seventy1 or eighty feet4 ,near the surface of the ground it spreads obliquely1 dividing into numerous broad appendages or wings1 much like the ,canarium commune1 and several others of our large forest trees4 ,it is covered with a whitish bark1 slightly bursting in longitudinal furrows4 ,near the ground this bark is1 in old trees1 more than half an inch thick2 and1 upon being wounded1 it yields plentifully the milky juice from which the celebrated poison is prepared4 ,a puncture or incision being made in the tree1 the juice or sap appears oozing out1 of a yellowish colour1 somewhat frothy2 from old trees1 paler2 and nearly white from young ones3 when exposed to the air1 its surface becomes brown4 ,the consistence very much resembles milk1 only it is thicker and viscid4 ,this sap is contained in the true bark1 or cortex1 which1 when punctured1 yields a considerable quantity1 so that in a short time a cupful may be collected from a large tree4 ,the inner bark1 or liber1 is of a close fibrous texture1 like that of the ,morus papyrifera1 and when separated from the other bark1 and cleansed from the adhering particles1 resembles a coarse piece of linen4 ,it has been worked into ropes1 which are very strong1 and the poorer class of people employ the inner bark of younger trees1 which is more easily prepared1 for the purpose of making a coarse stuff1 which they wear when working in the fields4 ,but it requires much bruising1 washing1 and a long immersion in water1 before it can be used2 and even when it appears completely purified1 persons wearing this dress1 on being exposed to the rain1 are affected with an intolerable itching1 which renders their flimsy covering almost insupportable4 ,it will appear1 from the account of the manner in which the poison is prepared1 that the deleterious quality exists in the gum1 a small portion of which still adhering to the bark1 produces1 when it becomes wet1 this irritating effect2 and it is singular1 that this property of the prepared bark is known to the ,javanese1 in all places where the tree grows1 7for instance1 in various parts of the provinces of ,bangil and ,malang1 and even at ,onarang17 while the preparation of a poison from its juice1 which produces a mortal effect when introduced into the body by pointed weapons1 is an exclusive art of the inhabitants of the eastern extremity of the island4 ,one of the regents in the eastern districts informed me1 that having many years ago prepared caps or bonnets from the inner bark of the ,antshar1 which were stiffened in the usual manner with thick rice-water1 and handsomely painted1 for the purpose of decorating his mantries1 they all decidedly refused to wear them1 asserting that they would cause their hair to fall off4 ,i first met with the ,antshar in the province of ,poegar1 on my way to ,bangoowangee3 in the province of ,blambangan1 ,i visited four or five different trees1 from which this description has been made1 while two of them furnished the juice for the preparation of the upas4 ,the largest of these trees had1 where the oblique appendages of the stem entered the ground1 a diameter of at least ten feet2 and where the regularly round and straight stem began1 a distance of at least ten feet from the points of the two opposite appendages at the surface of the ground1 its diameter was full three feet4 ,i have since found a very tall tree in ,passooroowang1 near the boundary of ,malang1 and very lately ,i have discovered several young trees in the forests of ,japara1 and one tree in the vicinity of ,onarang4 ,in all these places1 though the inhabitants are unacquainted with the preparation and effect of the poison1 they distinguish the tree by the name of ,antshar4 ,from the tree ,i found in the province of ,passooroowang1 ,i collected some juice1 which was nearly equal in its operation to that of ,blambangan4 ,one of the experiments to be related below1 was made with the upas prepared by myself1 after my return to the chief village4 ,i had some difficulty in inducing the inhabitants to assist me in collecting the juice1 as they feared a cutaneous eruption and inflammation1 resembling1 according to the account they gave of it1 that produced by the ,ingas of this island1 the ,rhus vernix of ,japan1 and the ,rhus radicans of ,north ,america2 but they were only affected by a slight heat and itching of the eyes4 ,in clearing the new grounds in the environs of ,bangoowangee for cultivation1 it is with much difficulty the inhabitants can be made to approach the tree1 as they dread the cutaneous eruption which it is known to produce when newly cut down4 ,but except when the tree is largely wounded1 or when it is felled1 by which a large portion of the juice is disengaged1 the effluvia of which1 mixing with the atmosphere1 affects the persons exposed to it with the symptoms just mentioned1 the tree may be approached and ascended like the other trees in the forests4 ,the ,antshar1 like trees in its neighbourhood1 is on all sides surrounded by shrubs and plants2 in no instance have ,i observed the ground naked or barren in its immediate circumference4 ,the largest tree ,i met with in ,blambangan1 was so closely environed by the common trees and shrubs of the forest in which it grew1 that it was with difficulty ,i could approach it4 ,several vines and climbing shrubs1 in complete health and vigour1 adhered to it1 and ascended to nearly half its height4 ,and at the time ,i visited the tree and collected the juice1 ,i was forcibly struck with the egregious misrepresentation of ,foersch4 ,several young trees1 spontaneously sprung from seeds that had fallen from the parent1 reminded me of a line in ,darwin's ,botanic ,garden1 ,chained at his root two scion demons dwell2 while in recalling his beautiful description of the ,upas1 my vicinity to the tree gave me reason to rejoice that it is founded on fiction4 ,the wood of the ,antshar is white1 light1 and of a spongy appearance4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,vegetables4--7,continued47 ,curious ,plant near the ,cape of ,good ,hope--,the ,mandrake--,changeable ,flower--,chinese ,method of ,preparing ,tea--,antiquity of ,sugar--,curious ,effects of ,cinchona1 or ,peruvian ,bark--,curious ,particulars of a ,pound ,weight of ,cotton-wool--,animated ,stalk--,animal ,flower4 ,soft roll your incense1 herbs1 and fruits1 and flowers1 ,in mingled clouds to ,him1 whose sun exalts1 ,whose breath perfumes you1 and whose pencil paints4 ,,curious ,,plant ,,near ,,the ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope4 ,the following account of a curious plant is taken from ,thunberg's ,travels3-- ,the fruit of a species of ,mesembryan ,thermum1 7says the writer17 was sometimes brought to the tavern as a rarity1 and was called ,rosa de ,jericho4 ,when it is put into water1 it gradually opens all its seed-vessels1 and exactly resembles a sun2 and when it becomes dry again1 it contracts itself1 and closes by degrees4 ,this is a no less necessary than singular property1 which points out the admirable institution of an all-wise ,creator2 inasmuch as this plant1 which is found in the most arid plains1 keeps its seeds fast locked up in time of drought1 but when the rainy season comes1 and the seeds can grow1 it opens its receptacles1 and lets fall the seeds1 in order that they may be dispersed abroad4 ,the water in which this fruit has lain1 is sometimes given to women that are near their time1 and is thought to procure them an easy delivery4 ,,the ,,mandrake4--,this plant possesses a long taper root resembling the parsnip1 running three or four feet into the ground2 immediately from the crown of the root arises a circle of leaves1 at first standing erect1 but when grown to the full size1 they spread open and lie upon the ground2 these leaves are more than a foot in length1 and about five inches broad in the middle1 of a dark green colour1 and a fetid scent2 among these come out the flowers1 each on a scape three inches in length2 they are five-cornered1 of an herbaceous white colour1 spreading open at top like a primrose1 having five hairy stamens1 and a globular germ supporting an awl-shaped style1 which becomes a globular soft berry1 when full-grown as large as a nutmeg1 of a yellowish green colour1 and when ripe1 full of pulp4 ,many singular facts are related of this plant1 among which we select the following3 the roots have been supposed to bear a resemblance to the human form1 and are figured as such in the old herbals1 being distinguished into the male with a long beard1 and the female with a prolix head of hair4 ,mountebanks carry about fictitious images1 shaped from roots of bryony and other plants1 cut into form1 or forced to grow through moulds of earthenware1 as mandrake-roots4 ,it was fabled to grow under a gallows1 where the matter falling from the dead body1 gave it the shape of a man2 to utter a great shriek1 or terrible groans1 at the digging up3 and it was asserted1 that he who would take up a plant of mandrake1 should in common prudence tie a dog to it for that purpose1 for1 if a man should do it himself1 he would surely die soon after4 ,to this curious vegetable the poet alludes in the following lines3-- ,mark how that rooted mandrake wears ,his human feet1 his human hands2 ,oft as his shapely form he rears1 ,aghast the frighted ploughman stands4 ,,the ,,changeable ,,flower4--,on the island of ,lewchew1 7says ,mr4 ,m',leod17 is found a remarkable production1 about the size of a cherry-tree1 bearing flowers1 which1 alternately on the same day1 assume the tint of the rose or lily1 as they are exposed to sunshine or the shade4 ,the bark of this tree is of a dark green1 and the flowers bear a resemblance to our common roses4 ,some of our party1 whose powers of vision were strong1 7assisted by a vigorous imagination47 fancied that1 by attentive watching1 the change of hue1 from white to red1 under the influence of the solar ray1 was actually perceptible to the eye3 that1 however1 they altered their colour in the course of a few hours1 was very obvious4 ,as this is a chapter devoted to miscellaneous articles of this class1 it may not be amiss to insert ,,the ,,chinese ,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,tea4--,tea grows on a small shrub1 the leaves of which are collected twice or thrice every year4 ,those who collect the leaves three times a year1 begin at the new moon which precedes the vernal equinox1 whether it falls at the end of ,february or the beginning of ,march4 ,at that period most of the leaves are perfectly green1 and hardly fully expanded3 but these small and tender leaves are accounted the best of all2 they are scarce1 and exceedingly dear4 ,the second crop1 or the first with those who collect the leaves only twice a year1 is gathered about the end of ,march or beginning of ,april4 ,part of the leaves have then attained to maturity2 and though the rest have acquired only half their size1 they are both collected without any distinction4 ,the third 7or second with some7 and last crop1 is more abundant1 and is collected about the end of ,april1 when the leaves have attained their full growth1 both of size and number4 ,some people neglect the two first crops1 and confine themselves entirely to this1 the leaves of which are selected with great care1 and distributed into classes1 according to their size or goodness4--,tea ought to be rejected as of a bad quality1 when old1 and withered leaves are found amongst it1 which may be easily known by infusing a little of it in water1 for then the leaves dilate1 and return to their natural state4 ,the leaves of the tea shrub are oblong1 sharp-pointed1 indented on the edges1 and of a very beautiful green colour4 ,the flower is composed of five white petals1 disposed in the form of a rose1 and is succeeded by a pod1 of the size of a filbert1 containing two or three small green seeds1 which are wrinkled1 and have a disagreeable taste4 ,its root is fibrous1 and spreads itself out near the surface of the ground4 ,this shrub grows equally well in a rich1 as in a poor soil4 ,it is to be found all over ,china1 but there are certain places where the tea is of a better quality than in others4 ,some people give the preference to the tea of ,japan1 but we have reason to doubt whether there is any real difference4 ,the manner of preparing tea is very simple4 ,when the leaves are collected1 they are exposed to the steam of boiling water1 in order to soften them2 and they are then spread out upon metal plates1 and placed over a moderate fire1 where they acquire that shrivelled appearance which they have when brought to ,europe4 ,in ,china1 there are only two kinds of the tea shrub2 but the ,chinese1 by their industry1 have considerably multiplied each of them4 ,if there are1 therefore1 large quantities of tea in that country which are excessively dear1 there is some also very common1 and sold at a low rate4 ,the ,chinese1 however1 are very fond of good tea1 and take as much pains to procure it of an excellent quality1 as the ,europeans do to procure excellent wine4 ,bohea ,tea4--,the ,chinese name of this tea is vou-y-tcha1 that is to say1 tea of the third kind1 called vou-y4 ,it takes its name from a mountain in the province of ,fokien4 ,there are three kinds of this tea3 the first of which1 called common ,bohea1 grows at the bottom of the mountain2 the second1 called cong fou1 or camphou1 grows at the top2 and the third1 named saot-chaon1 grows in the middle4 ,these names in ,england are corrupted into congo1 and souchong4 ,bohea teas in general ought to be dry1 and heavy in the hand3 this is a sign that the leaves have been full and juicy4 ,when infused1 they ought to communicate to the water a yellow colour1 inclining a little to green1 which indicates that they are fresh1 for old tea produces a red colour4 ,care must be taken above all to avoid red leaves1 and to choose such as are large and entire4 ,this is also a sign of freshness2 for the longer tea is kept1 the more it is shaken1 which breaks the leaves1 and mixes them with a great deal of dust4 ,it sometimes happens1 however1 that the tea-dust is owing to the manner in which it is put into the box1 as the ,chinese tread upon it with their feet1 to make the box hold a large quantity4 ,the leaves of the cong-fou and saot-chaon ought to have a beautiful black shining tint1 and to communicate to water a very bright yellow and a mild taste4 ,the ,pekoe is a particular kind of tea-shrub1 the leaves of which are all black on the one side1 and all white on the other4 ,as the real ,pekoe tea is very scarce and dear1 the ,chinese adulterate it1 by mixing with it some of the small half-grown leaves1 as yet white1 which grow on the top of the common ,bohea tea4 ,this changes the quality of the ,pekoe1 for these leaves being scarcely formed1 can have very little sap or flavour4 ,green ,teas4--,green teas do not grow in the same place as the ,bohea tea4 ,they are brought from the province of ,nankin1 and are distinguished into three sorts4 ,the first is known under the name of songlo tea1 but oftener under that of green toukay2 the second is called bing tea2 and the third hayssuen tea1 or hyson4 ,there are also some other kinds1 but the greater part of them are unknown1 or of little importance to foreigners4 ,the songlo and hayssuen teas come from the same shrub2 their only difference is in the manner of their being prepared4 ,bing tea grows on a different shrub1 the leaves of which are thicker and larger than those of other kinds4 ,all teas ought to have a green leaden tint3 the older they are1 the leaves become more yellow1 which is a very great fault4 ,they ought also to have a burnt or scorched smell1 not too strong1 but agreeable2 for when they have been long kept1 they have a filthy smell1 somewhat like that of pilchards4 ,the ,french wish to find in green teas1 and particularly in songlo and imperial1 an odour similar to that of soap4 ,in these several kinds of tea1 there is a particular distinction to be made1 as they are generally classed into one1 two1 or three kinds1 according to the periods at which they were gathered4 ,,antiquity ,,of ,,sugar4--,from the few remains of the ,grecian and ,roman authors which have survived the ravages of time1 we can find no proof that the juice of the sugar-cane was known at a very early period4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that in those countries where it was indigenous1 its value was not long concealed4 ,it is not improbable that it was known to the ancient ,jews2 for there is some reason to suppose1 that the ,hebrew word1 which occurs frequently in the ,old ,testament1 and which is by our translators rendered sometimes calamus1 and sometimes sweet-cane1 does in fact mean the sugar-cane4 ,the sugar-cane was first made known to the western parts of the world1 by the conquest of ,alexander the ,great4 ,strabo relates1 that ,nearchus's admiral found it in the ,east ,indies1 ,a4 ,c4 #cbe4 ,it is evidently alluded to in a fragment of ,theophrastus1 preserved in ,photius4 ,varro1 who lived ,a4 ,c4 #fh4 describes it in a fragment quoted by ,isidorus1 as a fluid pressed from reeds of a large size1 which was sweeter than honey4 ,dioscorides1 about ,a4 ,c4 #ce1 says1 that there is a kind of honey called saccharon1 which is found in ,india and ,arabia ,felix4 ,it has the appearance of salt1 and is brittle when chewed4 ,if dissolved in water1 it is beneficial to the bowels and stomach1 is useful in diseases of the bladder and kidneys1 and1 when sprinkled on the eye1 removes those substances that obscure the sight4 ,this is the first account we have of its medicinal qualities4 ,galen often prescribed it as a medicine4 ,lucan relates1 that an ,oriental nation in alliance with ,pompey used the juice of the cane as a common drink4 ,pliny says it was produced in ,arabia and ,india1 but that the best came from the latter country4 ,it is also mentioned by ,arrian1 in his ,petiplus of the ,red ,sea1 by the name of ,greek3 ,sachar 7sachar7 as an article of commerce from ,india to the ,red ,sea4 lian1 ,tertullian1 and ,alexander ,aphrodisus1 mention it as a species of honey procured from canes4 ,,curious ,,effects ,,of ,,cinchona1 or ,,peruvian ,,bark4--,an account has been published in the ,journal de ,pharmacie1 for ,may #ahai1 of some curious effects produced by ,peruvian ,bark4 ,a ,french merchant1 ,m4 ,delpech1 residing at ,guayra1 in the ,caraccas1 had stored up a large quantity of fresh cinchona1 in apartments which were afterwards required for the reception of some travellers as guests4 ,these apartments contained each eight or ten thousand pounds of bark2 and in consequence of its fermentation1 the heat was much greater here than in the other parts of the house1 rendering the place somewhat disagreeable4 ,one of the beds placed in these rooms1 was occupied by a traveller1 ill of a malignant fever3 after the first day he found himself much better1 though he had taken no medicine2 in a few days he felt himself quite recovered1 without any medical treatment whatsoever4 ,this unexpected success induced ,m4 ,delpech to make some other trials3 several persons ill of fever1 were placed successively in his magazine of cinchona1 and they were all speedily cured1 simply by the effluvia of the bark4 ,it happened that a bale of coffee1 and some common ,french brandy1 were kept in the same place for some months3 one of the brandy bottles happened to be uncorked1 and1 on examination1 was found to possess a slight aromatic taste1 to be more tonic1 and very superior to common brandy4 ,the coffee was also much altered2 when roasted1 it was more bitter than common coffee1 and left in the mouth a taste similar to that of an infusion of bark4 ,it is to be observed1 that the bark which produced all these effects was fresh2 and the question whether that of commerce would produce the same effects can only be answered by experiment4 ,,curious ,,particulars ,,of ,a ,,pound ,,weight ,,of ,,cotton-,,wool4--,the wool came from the ,east ,indies to ,london2 from ,london it went to ,manchester1 where it was manufactured into yarn2 from ,manchester it was sent to ,paisley1 where it was woven2 it was then sent to ,ayrshire1 where it was tamboured2 it came back to ,paisley1 and was there veined2 afterwards it was sent to ,dumbarton1 where it was hand-sewed1 and again brought to ,paisley1 whence it was sent to ,renfrew to be bleached2 and was returned to ,paisley1 whence it went to ,glasgow and was finished2 and from ,glasgow was sent per coach to ,london4 ,the time taken to bring this article to market was three years1 from the time it was packed in ,india1 till the time it arrived in cloth at the merchant's warehouse in ,london2 when it must have been conveyed #ejjj miles by sea1 and #ibj by land1 and contributed to support no less than #aej people1 by which the value had been increased #bjjj per cent4--,thus1 from materials of little value in their native state1 do arts and manufactures administer to individual comfort and national revenue4 ,we shall close this chapter with an account of two curious articles1 not strictly vegetable1 denominated the animated stalk1 and the animal flower4 ,,the ,,animated ,,stalk4--,this very remarkable animal was found by ,mr4 ,ives1 at ,cuddalore1 and he mentions several kinds of it3 some appearing like dry straws tied together1 others like grass2 some have bodies much larger than others1 with the addition of two scaly imperfect wings2 their neck is no bigger than a pin1 but twice as long as their body2 their heads are like those of a hare1 and their eyes vertical and very brisk4 ,they live upon flies1 and catch these insects very dexterously with the two fore feet1 which they keep doubled up in three parts1 close to their head1 and dart out very quick on the approach of their prey2 and when they have caught it1 they eat it very voraciously1 holding it in the same manner as a squirrel does its food4 ,on the outer joints of the fore feet are several very sharp hooks1 for the easier catching and holding of their prey2 while1 with the other feet1 which are four in number1 they take hold of trees1 or any other thing1 the better to surprise whatever they lie in wait for4 ,they drink like a horse1 putting their mouths into the water4 ,their excrements1 which are very white1 are almost as large as the body of the animal1 and1 as the natives say1 dangerous to the eyes4 ,,the ,,animal ,,flower4--,animal flower1 in zoology1 is a name given to several species of animals belonging to the genus of ,actinia of ,linnus4 ,they have likewise been distinguished by the names of ,urtica marina1 or ,sea-nettle1 and ,sea-anemone1 from their claws or tentacles being disposed in regular circles1 and tinged with a variety of bright lively colours1 resembling the petals of some of our most beautiful flowers4 ,as to one species particularly1 mentioned by ,abb ,diequemarre1 in the ,phil4 ,trans4 for #aggc1 article #cg1 the purest white1 carmine1 and ultramarine1 are said to be scarcely sufficient to express their brilliancy4 ,the bodies of some of them are hemispherical1 of others cylindrical1 and others are shaped like a fig4 ,their substance likewise differs3 some are stiff and gelatinous1 others fleshy and muscular2 but all of them are capable of altering their figure1 when they extend their bodies and claws in search of food4 ,they are found in many of the rocky coasts of the ,west ,india ,islands1 and likewise on some parts of the coast of ,england4 ,they have only one opening1 which is the centre of the uppermost part of the animal2 round this are placed rows of fleshy claws2 this opening is the mouth of the animal1 and is capable of great extension4 ,the animals themselves1 though exceedingly voracious1 will bear long fasting4 ,they may be preserved alive a whole year1 or perhaps longer1 in a vessel of sea water1 without any visible food2 but1 when food is presented1 one of them will successively devour two muscles in their shells1 or even swallow a whole crab as large as a hen's egg4 ,in a day or two the crab-shell is voided at the mouth1 perfectly cleared of all the meat4 ,the muscle-shells are likewise discharged whole1 with the two shells joined together1 but entirely empty1 so that not the least particle of fish is to be perceived on opening them4 ,an anemone of one species1 will even swallow an individual of another species2 but1 after retaining it ten or twelve hours1 will throw it up alive and uninjured4 ,through this opening also1 it produces its young ones alive1 already furnished with little claws1 which1 as soon as they fix themselves1 they begin to extend in search of food4 ,in ,hughes's ,natural ,history of ,barbadoes1 an account is also given of several species of animal flowers4 ,they are described as only found in a bason in one particular cave2 and of the most remarkable species mentioned by him1 we have the following description3--,in the middle of the bason1 there is a fixed stone or rock1 which is always under water4 ,round its sides1 at different depths1 seldom exceeding eighteen inches1 are seen at all times of the year1 issuing out of little holes1 certain substances that have the appearance of fine radiated flowers1 of a pale yellow or a bright straw colour1 slightly tinged with green1 having a circular border of thick-set petals1 about the size of1 and much resembling those of a single garden marigold1 except that this seeming flower is narrower at the discus1 or setting on of the leaves1 than any flower of that kind4 ,i have attempted to pluck one of these from the rock1 to which they are always fixed1 but never could effect it2 for as soon as my fingers came within two or three inches of it1 it would immediately contract close together its yellow border1 and shrink back into the hole of the rock2 but1 if left undisturbed for about four minutes1 it would come gradually in sight1 expanding1 though at first very cautiously1 its seeming leaves1 till at last it appeared in its former bloom4 ,however1 it would again recoil with a surprising quickness1 when my hand came within a small distance of it4 ,having tried the same experiment by attempting to touch it with my cane1 and a small slender rod1 the effect was the same4 ,though ,i could not by any means contrive to take or pluck from the rock one of these animals entire1 yet ,i once cut off 7with a knife1 which ,i had held for a long time out of sight1 near the mouth of a hole out of which one of these animals appeared7 two of these seeming leaves4 ,these1 when out of the water1 retained their shape and colour1 but1 being composed of a membrane-like substance surprisingly thin1 it soon shrivelled up and decayed4 ,the ,abb ,diequemarre1 by many curious1 though cruel experiments1 related in the ,phil4 ,trans4 for #aggc1 has shewn1 that these animals possess1 in a most extraordinary degree1 the power of reproduction1 so that scarce any thing more is necessary to produce as many sea anemones as we please1 than to cut a single one into as many pieces4 ,a sea anemone being cut in two by a section through the body1 that part where the limbs and mouth are placed1 ate a piece of a muscle1 offered to it soon after the operation1 and continued to feed and grow daily for three months after4 ,the food sometimes passed through the animal1 but was generally thrown up again1 considerably changed1 as in the perfect sea anemone4 ,in about two months1 two rows of limbs were perceived growing out of the part where the incision was made4 ,on offering food to this new mouth1 it was laid hold of1 eaten1 and1 the limbs continually increasing1 the animal gradually became as perfect as those which had never been cut4 ,in some instances1 however1 he found that when one of these creatures was cut through1 new limbs would be produced from the cut place1 those at the mouth remaining as before2 so that a monstrous animal was the consequence1 having two mouths1 and feeding at both ends4 ,having put some of them into a pan of water1 set over a slow fire1 he found that they lost their life at fifty degrees of ,reaumur's thermometer4 ,to avoid the imputation of cruelty in these experiments1 the author argues the favourable consequences that have attended his operations on the sea anemones1 which have been so fortunate as to fall into his hands3 as he has not only multiplied their existence1 but also renewed their youth1 which last1 he adds1 is surely no small advantage4 ,the reproductive power of the ,barbadoes animal flower is prodigious4 ,many people coming to see these strange creatures1 and occasioning some inconvenience to a person through whose grounds they were obliged to pass1 he resolved to destroy the objects of their curiosity2 and1 that he might do so effectually1 he caused all the holes out of which they appeared1 to be carefully bored and drilled with an iron instrument1 so that we cannot suppose but their bodies must have been entirely crushed to a pulp3 nevertheless1 they again appeared in a few weeks1 from the very same places4 ,animal flowers are found in as great beauty and variety on the coast of ,galloway1 as any where in the ,west ,indies4 ,they are repeatedly taken notice of in ,sir ,j4 ,sinclair's ,statistical ,account of ,scotland4 ,mr4 ,little1 minister of ,colvend1 mentions the polypus1 or sea anemone1 among the productions of that coast4 ,mr4 ,muirhead1 minister of ,urr1 gives the following particular description of them3--,about five years ago1 ,i discovered in the parish of ,colvend1 the animal flower1 in as great perfection and variety as it is in ,jamaica4 ,the lively colours1 and the various and elegant forms of the polypus on this coast1 are truly equal to any thing related by natural historians1 respecting the sea-flowers of any other country4 ,to see a flower of purple1 of green1 blue1 yellow1 c4 striving to catch a worm1 is really amusing4 ,and ,mr4 ,marshall1 minister of ,brittle1 has allotted a section of his ,statistical ,account of his parish1 to animal flowers2 wherein he says1 ,till of late perhaps it has not been much adverted to1 that the animal flower1 or water polypus1 is even common along the shores of ,brittle1 ,colvend1 and very likely round the whole coast of the stewartry of ,galloway4 ,the form of these polypi is elegant1 and pleasantly diversified4 ,some are found resembling the sunflower1 some the hundred-leaved rose1 but the greater number bear the likeness of the poppy4 ,the colours differ as much as the form4 ,sometimes the animal flower is of a deep purple1 frequently of a rose colour1 but mostly of a light red or fleshy hue4 ,the most beautiful of them1 that could be picked up1 have often been carried from the shore of ,colvend1 twelve or fifteen miles up into the country1 where they have lived1 fed on worms1 and even bred for several weeks1 and might have existed much longer1 if they could have been supplied with sea-water4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxvi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,vegetables4--7,concluded47 ,if to this lower planet we advert1 ,seat of our birth and nurture1 proofs abound ,of infinite contrivance1 matchless skill4 ,whether the site or figure we regard1 ,or distribution of the various parts ,perfective of the system1 strokes appear ,too exquisite for bungling chance to hit4 ,bally4 ,,fungus1 ,,or ,,mushroom4 ,by fungus1 we mean the mushroom tribe4 ,the ancients called them the children of the earth1 to indicate the obscurity of their origin4 ,the moderns have likewise been at a loss in what rank to place them2 some referring them to the animal1 some to the vegetable1 and others to the mineral kingdom4 ,messrs4 ,wilck and ,minchausen1 have not scrupled to rank these bodies among animal productions2 because1 when fragments of them or their seeds were macerated in water1 these gentlemen perceived a quantity of animalcules discharged1 which they supposed capable of being changed into the same substance4 ,it was an ancient opinion1 that beef could produce bees2 but it was reserved for ,messrs4 ,wilck and ,minchausen1 to suppose that bees could produce beef4 ,the former asserts1 that fungi consist of innumerable cavities1 each inhabited by a polype2 and he does not hesitate to ascribe the formation of them to their inhabitants1 in the same way as it has been said that the coral1 the lichen1 and the mucor1 were formed4 ,hedwig has lately shewn how ill-founded this opinion is with respect to the lichen2 and ,m4 ,durande has demonstrated its falsity with regard to the corallines4 ,indeed1 7says ,m4 ,bonnet1 speaking of the animality of fungi17 nothing but the rage for paradox could induce any one to publish such a fable2 and ,i regret that posterity will be able to reproach our times with it4 ,observation and experiment should enable us to overcome the prejudices of modern philosophy1 now that those of the ancient have disappeared and are forgotten4 ,it cannot be denied1 that the mushroom is one of the most perishable of all plants1 and it is therefore the most favourable for the generation of insects4 ,considering the quickness of its growth1 it must be furnished with the power of copious absorption2 the extremity of its vessels must be more dilated than in other plants4 ,its root seems1 in many cases1 to be merely intended for its support2 for some species grow upon stones1 or moveable sand1 from which it is impossible they can draw much nourishment4 ,we must therefore suppose1 that it is chiefly by the stalk that they absorb4 ,these stalks grow in a moist and tainted air1 in which float multitudes of eggs1 so small1 that the very insects they produce are with difficulty seen by the microscope4 ,these eggs may be compared to the particles of the byssus1 #ajj1jjj of which1 as ,m4 ,gleditsch says1 are not equal to one-fourth of a grain4 ,may we not suppose that a quantity of such eggs are absorbed by the vessels of the fungus1 and that they remain there without any change1 till the plant begins to decay8 ,besides1 the eggs may be only deposited on the surface of the plant1 or they may exist in water1 into which they are thrown for examination4 ,do not we see that such eggs1 dispersed through the air1 are hatched in vinegar1 in paste1 c4 and wherever they find a convenient nidus for their development8 ,can it be surprising1 then1 that the corruption of the mushroom should make the water capable of disclosing certain beings that are really foreign to both8 ,it is not more easy to acquiesce in the opinions of those naturalists who place the fungi in the mineral kingdom1 because they are found growing on porous stones1 thence called lapides fungarii2 which1 however1 must be covered with a little earth1 and be watered with tepid water1 in order to favour the growth4 ,such mushrooms are no more the produce of the stone1 than the lichen is of the rock to which it adheres1 or the moss1 of the tree on which it is found4 ,we have only to observe the growth of mushrooms1 to be convinced that this happens by development1 and not by addition or combination of parts1 as in minerals4 ,the opinion of ,boccone1 who attributed them to an unctuous matter performing the function of seed1 and acquiring extension by apposition of similar parts2 and that of ,morison1 who conceived that they grew spontaneously out of the earth by a certain mixture of salt and sulphur1 joined with oils from the dung of quadrupeds2 have now no longer any adherents4 ,fungi are produced1 they live1 they grow by development2 they are exposed to those vicissitudes natural to the different periods of life which characterize living substances2 they perish and die2 they extract1 from the extremity of their vessels1 the juices with which they are nourished2 they elaborate and assimilate them to their own substance3 they are1 therefore1 organized and living beings1 and consequently belong to the vegetable kingdom4 ,but whether they are real plants1 or only the production of plants1 is still a matter in dispute with the ablest naturalists4 ,some ancient authors have pretended to discover the seed of mushrooms2 but the opinion was never generally received4 ,petronius1 when he is laughing at the ridiculous magnificence of his hero ,trimalcio1 relates1 that he had written to the ,indies for the seed of morelle4 ,these productions were generally attributed to the superfluous humidity of rotten wood1 or other putrid substances4 ,the opinion took its rise from observing that they grew most copiously in rainy weather4 ,such was the opinion of ,trajus1 king of ,bauhin1 and even of ,columna1 who1 talking of the peziza1 says1 that its substance was more solid and harder1 because it did not originate from rotten wood1 but from the pituita of the earth4 ,it is not surprising1 that1 in times when the want of experiment and observation made people believe that insects could be generated by putrefaction1 we should find the opinion general1 that fungi owed their origin to the putrescence of bodies1 or to a viscous humour analogous to putridity4 ,malpighi could not satisfy himself as to the existence of seeds1 which other botanists have pretended to discover4 ,he only says1 that these plants must have them1 or that they perpetuate themselves1 and shoot by fragments4 ,micheli1 among the moderns1 appears to have employed himself most successfully on this subject4 ,he imagined1 that he not only saw the seeds1 but even the stamina1 as well as the little transparent bodies destined to favour the dissemination and fecundation of these seeds4 ,before this author1 ,lister thought he perceived seeds in the ,fungus perosus crassus magnus of ,john ,bauhin3 the little round bodies that are found in the peziz and belvell1 at that time1 passed for seeds2 which did not appear at all probable to ,marsigli1 considering that the eye1 when assisted with the very best microscopes1 could perceive nothing similar in much larger fungi4 ,indeed1 these bodies may be the capsules or covers of the seeds1 if they are not the seeds themselves4 ,however this may be1 ,marsigli1 observing that fungi were often without roots or branches1 and that they wanted flowers and seeds1 the means which nature employs for the production of perfect plants1 thought himself warranted in doubting whether these beings could be ranked in the number of vegetables4 ,the doubts of ,marsigli prompted him to observe the formation of fungi4 ,their matrix he called situs3 he imagined they grew in places where they met with an unctuous matter1 composed of oil mixed with nitrous salt1 which1 by fermentation1 produced heat and moisture1 and insinuated itself between the fibres of wood2 that is1 he imagined them the production of a viscous and putrescent humour4 ,lancisi1 in like manner1 considered fungi as owing their existence to the putrefaction of vegetables1 and supposed them a disease in the plants2 but he imagined that the fibres of the trees were necessary to their production1 as is the case in the formation of galls2 and compared them to the warts and other excrescences of the human body4 ,he added1 that such fungous vegetable tumors must necessarily assume various forms and figures1 from the fluids which distend the tubes and vessels relaxed by putrescence1 from the ductility of the fibres and their direction1 and from the action of the air4 ,this opinion has been refuted by the celebrated naturalist ,m4 de ,jussieu1 in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences for #agbh4 ,he maintains1 that the fungi have a great analogy with the lichen1 which is allowed to be a vegetable2 that1 like the lichen1 they are divested of stalks1 branches1 and leaves2 that1 like it1 they grow and are nourished upon the trunks of trees1 on pieces of rotten wood1 and on all sorts of putrid vegetables2 that they resemble the lichen too in the rapidity of their growth1 and the facility with which many of them may be dried1 and restored to their former figure upon being immersed in water2 and lastly1 that there is a great similarity in the manner in which their seeds are produced4 ,he affirms1 that only the warts and excrescences which grow on animal bodies1 and the knots and other tumors that are to be found on trees1 can be compared with each other2 for they are composed equally of the solid and liquid substance of the plant or animal on which they grow2 whereas1 the matter of the fungi is not only quite distinct from that of the plants on which they are found1 but often entirely similar to the substance of those that spring immediately from the earth4 ,the organization 7says ,m4 de ,jussieu7 which distinguishes plants and other productions of nature1 is visible in the fungi1 and the particular organization of each species is constant at all times1 and in all places2 a circumstance which could not happen1 if there were not an animal reproduction of species1 and consequently a multiplication and propagation by seed4 ,this is not1 he says1 an imaginary supposition1 for the seeds may be felt like meal upon mushrooms with gills1 especially when they begin to decay2 they may be seen with a magnifying glass1 in those that have gills with black margins3 and1 lastly1 says he1 botanists can have no doubt that fungi are a distinct class of plants2 because1 by comparing the observations made in different countries1 with the figures and descriptions of such as have been engraved1 the same genera and the same species are every where found4 ,notwithstanding this refutation by ,m4 de ,jussieu1 another naturalist1 ,m4 de ,necker1 has lately maintained1 in his ,mycitologia1 ,that the fungi ought to be excluded from the three kingdoms of nature1 and be considered as intermediate beings4 ,he has observed1 like ,marsigli1 the matrix of the fungi2 and has substituted the word carchte 7initium faciens7 instead of situs2 imagining that the rudiment of the fungus cannot exist beyond that point in which the development of the filaments of fibrous roots is perceived4 ,he allows1 that fungi are nourished and grow like vegetables2 but he thinks that they differ very much from them in respect of their origin1 structure1 nutrition1 and rapidity of growth4 ,he says1 that the various vessels which compose the organization of vegetables1 are not to be found in the fungi1 and that they seem entirely composed of cellular substance and bark2 so that this simple organization is nothing more than an aggregation of vessels endowed with a common nature1 that suck up the moisture in the manner of a sponge2 with this difference1 that the moisture is assimilated into a part of the fungus1 and not merely imbibed for nutrition4 ,lastly1 ,that the fructification1 the only essential part of a vegetable1 and which distinguishes it from all other organized bodies1 being wanting1 fungi cannot be considered as plants4 ,this1 he thinks1 is confirmed by the constant observation of those people who gather the morelle and the mushroom1 and who never find them in the same spots where they had formerly grown4 ,as the generation of fungi 7says ,m4 ,necker7 is always performed when the parenchymatous cellular substance has changed its nature1 form1 and function1 we must conclude that it is the degeneration of that part which produces these bodies4 ,but if fungi were owing merely to the degeneration of plants1 they would be still better entitled to constitute a new kingdom4 ,they would then be a decomposition1 not a new formation1 or new bodies4 ,besides1 we cannot deny1 that in those bodies which form the limit between the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 the organization becomes simple1 as the organs destined for nutrition are multiplied2 but1 as the last in the class of insects belongs to the animal kingdom1 fungi ought1 notwithstanding the simplicity of their organization1 still to belong to the vegetable kingdom4 ,the parenchymatous1 or cellular substance1 which1 as ,m4 ,bonnet says1 is universally extended1 embraces the whole fibrous system1 and becomes the principal instrument of growth1 must naturally be more abundant in those productions2 and this accounts for the rapidity of their enlargement4 ,besides1 growth1 whether slow or rapid1 never was employed to determine the presence or absence of the vegetable or animal character4 ,the draba verma1 which1 in a few weeks1 shoots1 and puts forth its leaves1 flowers1 and fruit1 is not less a plant than the palm4 ,the insect that exists but for a day1 is as much an animal1 as the elephant that lives for centuries4 ,as to the seeds of the fungi1 it is probable that nature meant to withdraw from our eyes the dissemination of these plants1 by making the seeds almost imperceptible2 and it is likewise probable1 that naturalists have seen nothing but their capsules4 ,since1 however1 from the imperfection of our senses1 we are unable to perceive these seeds1 because those bodies which have been called their seeds1 and the fragments or cuttings of the plants themselves1 have not produced others of the same species2 ,nature seems to have reserved for herself the care of disseminating certain plants3 it is in vain1 for instance1 that the botanist sows the dust found in the capsules of the orchis1 though every one allows it to be the seed4 ,but1 after all1 what are those parts in the fungi casually observed by naturalists1 and which they have taken for the parts of fructification8 ,these are quite distinct from the other parts2 and whatever may be their use1 they cannot have been formed by the prolongation of the cellular substance1 or of the fibres of the tree on which the fungus grows3 they are1 therefore1 owing1 like flower and fruit1 to the proper organization of the plant4 ,the plants1 however1 have a particular existence1 independent of their putrefying nidus4 ,the gills of certain fungi1 which differ essentially from the rest of the plant in their conformation1 would be sufficient to authorize this latter opinion4 ,but can putrefaction create an organic substance8 ,nature undoubtedly disseminates through the air1 and over the surface of the earth1 innumerable seeds of fungi1 as well as eggs of insects4 ,the plant and the animal are excluded1 when the nidus1 in which they are deposited1 or the temperature1 is favourable for their development4 ,no fortuitous concourse1 either of atoms or fluids1 could produce bodies so exquisitely and so regularly organized4 ,it is sufficient1 to throw one's eye on the beautiful plates which ,schoeffer has published of them1 and compare them1 by the glass1 with the warts and other excrescences of animals1 to be convinced that they have not the same origin4 ,the function of the cellular substance in vegetables must be greatly superior to that in animals1 if it could produce any thing but deformities4 ,the greater part of fungi exhibit a configuration much too regular1 constant1 and uniform1 to be the effect of chance or putrefaction4 ,as this form is preserved the same in all places where fungi have been found1 it follows1 that they contain in themselves the principles of reproduction4 ,they resemble the misletoe1 and other parasitic plants1 which are perfectly distinct from the trees on which they grow4 ,the fungi1 therefore1 are organized and living substances1--or true plants4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxvii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,stones4 ,the ,meteoric ,stone--,labrador ,stone--,asbestos--,mushroom ,stone--,the ,changeable ,stone--,a ,wonderful ,diamond--,a ,singular ,curiosity4 ,there are more things in heaven and earth ,than are dreamt of in our philosophy4 ,shakspeare4 ,,the ,,meteoric ,,stone4 ,the following description of a meteoric stone1 which fell in the year #aeaa1 is taken from a set of observations on natural history1 meteorology1 c4 made in the early part of the sixteenth century1 by ,andrea da ,prato1 of ,milan4 ,these have not been published2 but various copies of them exist4 ,they have been commented upon by ,dr4 ,louis ,rossi1 in the ,giomale di ,fisica1 ,chemica1 c4 from whence this description is taken4--,on the #dth of ,september1 #aeaa1 at the second hour of the night1 and also at the seventh1 there appeared in the air1 at ,milan1 a running fire1 with such splendour1 that1 the day seemed to have returned2 and some persons beheld the appearance of a large head1 which caused great wonder and fear in the city4 ,the same thing happened on the following night at the ninth hour4 ,a few days after1 beyond the river ,adela1 there fell from heaven many stones1 which being collected at ,cremasco 7,crema71 were found to weigh eight1 and even eleven pounds each4 ,their colour was similar to that of burnt stones4--,dr4 ,bossi considers this as an authentic description of the fall of an arolite4 ,,the ,,labrador ,,stone1 is a curious species of ,feld-spar1 or ,rhombic ,quartz1 which exhibits all the colours of a peacock's tail4 ,it was discovered some years ago by the ,moravians1 who have a colony among the ,esquimaux1 in ,labrador4 ,it is found of a light or deep gray colour1 but for the most part of a blackish gray4 ,when held in the light in various positions1 it discovers a diversity of colours1 such as the blue of lapis lazuli1 grass-green1 apple-green1 pea-green1 and sometimes1 but more seldom1 a citron yellow4 ,sometimes it has a colour between that of red copper and tornbuck-gray2 at other times the colours are between gray and violet4 ,for the most part1 these colours are in spots1 but sometimes in stripes on the same piece4 ,the stones are found in pretty large angular pieces1 appear foliated when broken1 and the fragments are of a rhomboidal figure4 ,we shall next introduce ,,the ,,asbestos4--,this is a stone found in several places in ,europe and ,asia1 and particularly in ,sweden1 ,corsica1 ,cornwall1 and the island of ,anglesea in ,wales4 ,it is of a silky nature1 very fine1 and of a grayish colour1 insipid1 and indissoluble in water4 ,it may be split into threads and filaments1 from one to ten inches in length4 ,it is indestructible by fire2 whence it may be employed for many useful purposes4 ,there are some sorts whose filaments are rigid and brittle1 and others more flexible4 ,the former cannot be spun into cloth1 and the latter with difficulty4 ,in consequence of its incombustibility1 it was very much valued by the ancients for wrapping up the bodies of the dead4 ,in the year #agjb1 an urn was discovered at ,rome1 with the bones of a human body wrapped in a cloth made of flexible asbestos4 ,the method of preparing it is as follows3 the stone is laid to soak in warm water1 then opened and divided by the hands1 that the earthy matter may be washed out4 ,this earth is white like chalk1 and makes the water thick and milky4 ,this being several times repeated1 the filaments are afterwards collected and dried3 they are commodiously spun with flax4 ,when the cloth is woven1 it is best preserved by oil from breaking4 ,it is then put into the fire2 and the flax being burnt out1 the cloth remains pure and white4 ,it might also be made into paper2 and1 from its incombustibility1 wills1 or any other thing of importance1 could be written on it4 ,the ,chinese make furnaces of this mineral1 which are very portable4 ,,the ,,mushroom ,,stone1 or stone capable of producing mushrooms4--,in the ,ephemerides of the ,curious mention is made1 of a stone1 so called by ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wolckamerus1 who saw one in ,italy1 which never ceases to produce1 in a few days1 mushrooms of an excellent flavour1 by the most simple and easy process imaginable4 ,it is 7says he7 of the bigness of an ox's head1 rough and uneven on its surface1 and on which are also perceived some clefts and crevices4 ,it is black in some parts1 and in others of a lighter and grayish colour4 ,internally it is porous1 and nearly of the nature of pumice stone1 but much heavier2 and it contains a small piece of flint1 which is so incorporated with it as to appear to have been formed at the same time the stone itself received its form4 ,this gives room to judge1 that these stones have been produced by a fat and viscid juice1 which has the property of indurating whatever matter it filtrates into4 ,the stone1 when lightly covered with earth1 and sprinkled with warm water1 produces mushrooms of an exquisite flavour1 which are usually round1 sometimes oval1 and whose borders1 by their inflections and different curvities1 represent in some measure human ears4 ,the principal colour of these mushrooms is sometimes yellowish1 and sometimes of a bright purple1 but they are always diversified with spots of a deep orange colour1 or reddish brown2 and when these spots are recent1 and still in full bloom1 they produce a very agreeable effect to the sight4 ,but what appears admirable is1 that the part of the stalk which remains adhering to the stone when the mushroom has been separated from it1 grows gradually hard1 and petrifies in time2 so that it seems that this fungus restores to the stone the nutritive juice it received from it1 and that it thus contributes to its increase4 ,john ,baptist ,porta says1 that this stone is found in several parts of ,italy2 and that it is not only to be met with at ,naples1 taken out of mount ,vesuvius1 but also on mount ,pantherico1 in the principality of ,arellino2 on mount ,garganus1 in ,apulia2 and on the summit of some other high mountains4 ,as to the form of these mushrooms1 their root is strong1 uneven1 divided according to its longitudinal direction1 and composed of fibres as fine as hairs1 interwoven one with another4 ,their form1 on first shooting out1 resembles a small bladder1 scarcely larger than the bud of a vine2 and if in this state they are squeezed between the fingers1 an aqueous subacid liquor issues out4 ,when at their full growth1 their pedicle is of a finger's length1 larger at top than at bottom1 and becomes insensibly slenderer in proportion as it is nearer the earth4 ,these mushrooms are also formed in an umbrella shape1 and variegated with an infinity of little specks1 situated very near one another4 ,they are smooth and even on the upper part1 but underneath leafy1 like the common mushrooms4 ,their taste is likewise very agreeable1 and the sick are not debarred from eating them when dressed in a proper manner4--,some naturalists and physicians submitted these stones to chemical analysis1 in order to be more competent judges of the uses they might be put to in medicine2 when there first came forth1 by distillation1 an insipid water1 and afterwards a spirituous liquor4 ,the retort having been heated to a certain point1 there arose an oil1 which had nearly the smell and taste of that of guaiacum2 and a very acid salt was extracted from the ashes4 ,we must not omit ,,the ,,changeable ,,stone4--,there are three of these remarkable stones in the ,british ,museum2 the largest of them about the size of a cherry-stone1 but of an oval form4 ,it is opaque1 and coloured like a common yellow pea2 it may be scratched1 though not without difficulty1 by a common knife1 notwithstanding which1 it seems to leave a mark upon glass4 ,it does not ferment with nitrous acid4 ,when it has lain some hours in water1 it becomes transparent1 and of a yellow amber colour4 ,the change begins soon after the immersion1 and at one end1 in form of a little shot2 but in a small one of the same kind1 the transparency begins round the edges4 ,by degrees the spot increases1 until the whole stone becomes uniformly clear throughout3 when out of the water it loses its transparency1 first at one end1 and then gradually over the remainder1 until the whole has become opaque1 which change happens in less than it takes to become transparent4 ,this change is not entirely peculiar to the hydrophanes4 ,bergman informs us1 that some steatites produce the same effect2 and ,m4 ,magellan1 that the crust of chalcedonies and agates frequently produce the same appearance4 ,messrs4 ,buckman and ,veltheim were the first who particularly inquired into the nature of this stone1 and investigated its properties4 ,their account is as follows3--,as soon as the stone is put into water1 it exhales a musty smell1 several air-bubbles arise1 and it becomes gradually transparent4 ,some of the stones become colourless as soon as they are thoroughly transparent2 others have a more or less deep yellow colour1 some acquire a beautiful ruby colour2 and others gain a fine colour of mother-of-pearl1 or of a bluish opal4 ,whatever be the colour of the liquor in which the hydrophanes is immersed1 it gains only its usual degree of transparency with the colour peculiar to it4 ,when we look at it in its moist state1 we perceive a luminous point1 varying its situation as the position of the eye is altered4 ,this luminous point is not1 according to ,mr4 ,bruckman1 the immediate image of the sun1 but a reflection of that image refracted in the substance of the stone itself2 a phenomenon which probably gave rise to its name of ,,oculus ,,mundi4 ,mr4 ,bruckman left a piece of this stone1 weighing #ce grains1 seven hours in water1 the space requisite to make it perfectly transparent2 and in that time he found that it had gained three grains in weight4 ,the hydrophanes becomes much sooner transparent when put into hot water2 and the same happens if it be dipped in a very dilute acid1 or rather a very dilute solution of alkali4 ,when dipped in oil of vitriol1 it becomes very quickly transparent1 and will continue so on account of the strong attraction of that acid for moisture1 which takes as much from the atmosphere as is necessary to keep the stone transparent2 but its opacity will return1 if it be dipped in an alkaline liquor1 and then dried4 ,an account of a ,,wonderful ,,diamond1 ,,in ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,bornou4--,the rajah of ,mathan possesses the finest and largest diamond in the world1 that has hitherto been discovered4 ,this diamond1 which is said to be of the finest water1 weighs #cfg carats4 ,the celebrated ,pitt diamond weighs only #abg carats4 ,the ,mathan diamond is shaped like an egg1 with an indented hollow near the smaller end4 ,it was discovered at ,landak1 about ninety years ago2 and though the possession of it has occasioned numerous wars1 it has been about eighty years in the possession of the ,mathan family4 ,many years ago1 the governor of ,batavia sent a ,mr4 ,stuvart to ascertain the weight1 quality1 and value of this diamond1 and to endeavour to purchase it2 and in his mission1 he was accompanied by the sultan of ,pontiana4 ,after examining it1 ,mr4 ,stuvart offered #aej1jjj dollars for the diamond1 the sum to which he was limited2 and1 in addition to this sum1 two war-brigs1 with their guns and ammunition1 together with a certain number of great guns1 and a quantity of powder and shot4 ,the rajah1 however1 refused to deprive his family of so valuable an hereditary possession1 to which the ,malays attach the miraculous power of curing all kinds of diseases1 by means of the water in which it is dipped1 and with which they imagine the fortune of the family is connected4 ,we shall close our department of remarkable ,stones1 with the following account of ,a ,,singular ,,curiosity4--,mr4 ,sloughton1 the ,spanish ,consul at ,boston1 in ,north ,america1 has in his possession a flint pebble1 obtained amongst ballast stone1 thrown from a vessel at an eastern port4 ,when broken1 it presented two half heads in profile2 all the outlines of feature and hair were perfectly distinct1 and the heads were of a darker colour than the rest of the stone4 ,what is most surprising is1 that the one face was male and the other female2 and even the putting up of the hair was appropriate to the sexes3 they were situated1 in the stone1 face to face4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxviii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,mountains4 ,natural ,description of ,mountains--,the ,peak in ,derbyshire--,snowden in ,wales--,skiddaw in ,cumberland4 --------,sublime the uplifted mountains rise1 ,and with their pointed heads invade the skies2 ,while the high cliffs their craggy arms extend1 ,distinguish states1 and sever'd realms defend4 ,blackmore4 ,,natural ,,description ,,of ,,mountains4 ,almost all the tops of the highest mountains are bare and pointed2 which proceeds from their being continually assaulted by storms and tempests4 ,all the earthy substances with which they might have been once covered1 have for ages been washed away from their summits2 and nothing is left but immense rocks1 which no tempest has hitherto been able to destroy4 ,nevertheless1 time is every day making depredations1 and huge fragments are seen tumbling down the precipices1 either loosened from their summits by the rains and frost1 or struck down by lightning4 ,nothing can exhibit a more terrible picture than one of these enormous masses1 commonly larger than a house1 falling from its height1 and rolling down the side of the mountain with a noise louder than thunder4 ,dr4 ,plot tells us of one in particular1 which being loosened from its bed1 rolled down the precipice1 and was partly shattered into a thousand pieces4 ,one of the largest fragments1 however1 still preserving its motion1 travelled over the plain below1 crossed a rivulet in the midst1 and at last stopped on the other side of the bank6 ,these fragments are often struck off by lightning1 and sometimes undermined by rains2 but the most usual manner in which they are disunited from the mountain is by frost3 the rains first insinuate and find their way between the interstices of the mountain1 and continue there until by the intense cold they are converted into ice1 when the water swells with an irresistible force1 and produces the same effect as gunpowder1 splitting the most solid rocks1 and thus shattering their summits4 ,sometimes whole mountains are1 by various causes1 disunited from each other4 ,in many parts of the ,alps1 there are amazing clefts1 the sides of which so exactly correspond with the opposite1 that no doubt can be entertained of their having been once joined4 ,at ,cajeta1 in ,italy1 a mountain was split in this manner by an earthquake2 and there is a passage opened through it1 that appears as if done by the industry of man4 ,in the ,andes these breaches are often seen4 ,that at ,thermopyl in ,greece has been long famous4 ,the mountain of the ,troglodytes in ,arabia has thus a passage through it2 and that in the late duchy of ,savoy1 which ,nature began1 and which ,victor ,amadeus completed1 is an instance of the same kind4 ,in ,june1 #agad1 a part of the mountain of ,diableret1 in the district of ,valais1 in ,france1 suddenly fell down1 between two and three ,p4 ,m4 the weather being very calm and serene4 ,this mountain1 which was of a conical figure1 destroyed fifty-five cottages in its fall4 ,fifteen persons1 with about one hundred beasts1 were also crushed beneath its ruins1 which covered an extent of ground of a league square4 ,the dust it occasioned instantly enveloped all the neighbourhood in darkness4 ,the heaps of rubbish were more than three hundred feet high4 ,they stopped the current of a river that ran along the plain1 which now is formed into several new and deep lakes4 ,there appeared1 through the whole of this rubbish1 none of those substances that seemed to indicate that this catastrophe had been occasioned by means of subterraneous fires4 ,most probably1 the base of this rocky mountain had been decomposing through the lapse of many ages1 and thus fell without any extraneous violence4 ,in #afah1 the town of ,fleurs1 in ,france1 was buried beneath a rocky mountain1 at the foot of which it was situated4 ,such accidents are produced by various causes3 by earthquakes2 by being decayed at the bottom2 or by the foundation of one part of the mountain being hollowed by waters1 and1 thus wanting a support1 breaking from the other4 ,thus it generally has been found in the great chasms in the ,alps2 and it is almost always the case in those disruptions of hills1 called land-slips3 these are nothing more than the sliding down of a higher piece of ground1 driven from its situation by subterraneous inundations1 and settling upon the plain below4 ,there is not an appearance in nature that so much astonished our ancestors as these land-slips4 ,to behold a large upland1 with its houses1 corn1 and cattle1 at once loosened from its place1 and floating as it were upon the subjacent water1--to see it quitting its ancient situation1 and sailing forward like a ship1--is certainly one of the most extraordinary appearances that can be imagined1 and1 to a people ignorant of the powers of nature1 might well be considered as a prodigy4 ,accordingly1 we find all our old historians mentioning it as an omen of approaching calamities4 ,in this more enlightened age1 however1 its cause is well known2 and1 instead of exciting ominous apprehensions in the populace1 it only gives rise to some very ridiculous law-suits among the several claimants1 whose the property thus divided from its kindred soil shall be2 whether the land shall belong to the original possessor1 or to him upon whose grounds it has encroached and settled4 ,in the lands of ,hatberg1 in ,ireland1 there stood a declivity gradually ascending for nearly half a mile4 ,on the #ajth of ,march1 #agac1 the inhabitants perceived a crack on its side1 like a furrow made with a plough1 which they imputed to the effects of lightning1 as there had been a thunder-storm the night before4 ,however1 on the evening of the same day1 they were surprised to hear a hideous confused noise issuing all around from the side of the hill2 and their curiosity being awakened1 they resorted to the place4 ,there1 to their amazement1 they found an extent of ground1 of nearly five acres1 all in gentle motion1 and sliding down the hill upon the subjacent plain4 ,this motion1 together with the noise1 continued the remaining part of the day1 and the whole of the following night2 the noise proceeding1 probably1 from the attrition of the ground beneath4 ,the day following1 this strange journey down the hill ceased2 and above an acre of the meadow below was found covered with what before composed a part of the declivity4 ,but such tremendous land-slips1 when a whole mountain's side descends1 happen very rarely4 ,there are some of another kind1 however1 much more common2 and as they are always sudden1 much more dangerous4 ,these are snow-slips1 or avalanches1 well known1 and greatly dreaded by travellers4 ,they are justly described in the following beautiful lines of one of our poets3-- ,by an hundred winters piled1 ,where the glaciers1 dark with death1 ,hang o'er precipices wild1 ,hang suspended by a breath4 ,if a pulse but throb alarm1 ,headlong down the steeps they fall2 ,for a pulse will break the charm1 ,bounding1 bursting1 burying all4 ,it often happens1 that when snow has long been accumulated on the tops and on the sides of mountains1 it is borne down the precipice either by tempests1 or by its own melting4 ,at first1 when loosened1 the volume in motion is but small1 but it gathers as it continues to roll2 and by the time it has reached the habitable parts of the mountain1 it is generally grown to an enormous bulk4 ,wherever it rolls1 it levels all things in its way1 or buries them in unavoidable destruction4 ,instead of rolling1 it sometimes is found to slide along from the top2 yet even thus1 it is generally fatal4 ,nevertheless1 we had an instance a few years ago1 of a small family in ,germany1 that lived for above a fortnight under one of these snow-slips4 ,although they were buried during the whole of that time in utter darkness1 and under a bed of some hundreds of feet deep1 yet they were providentially taken out alive2 the weight of the snow being supported by a beam that kept up the roof1 and nourishment supplied to them by the milk of a she-goat1 that was buried under the same ruin4 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,peak ,,in ,,derbyshire1 from ,moritz's ,travels in several parts of ,england4 ,having arrived in ,derbyshire1 a distance of #agj miles from ,london1 the author thus describes the town of ,castleton1 in which the ,peak is situated3-- ,i ascended one of the highest hills1 and all at once perceived a beautiful vale below me1 which was traversed by rivers and brooks1 and inclosed on all sides by hills4 ,in this vale lies ,castleton1 a small town1 with low houses2 so named from an old castle1 whose ruins are still to be seen here4 ,a narrow path1 which wound itself down the side of the rock1 led me through the vale into the street of ,castleton1 where ,i found an inn1 and dined4 ,after dinner1 ,i made the best of my way to the cavern4 ,a little rivulet1 which runs through the middle of the town1 led me to its entrance4 ,i stood here a few moments1 full of wonder and astonishment at the amazing height of the steep rock before me1 covered on each side with ivy and other shrubs4 ,at its summit are the decayed walls and towers of an ancient castle1 which formerly stood on this rock2 and at its foot the monstrous aperture1 or mouth to the entrance of the cavern2 where it is totally dark1 even at mid-day4 ,as ,i was standing here full of admiration1 ,i perceived at the entrance of the cavern1 a man of a rude and rough appearance1 who asked me if ,i washed to see the ,peak2 and an echo strongly reverberated his coarse voice4 ,answering him in the affirmative1 he next inquired if ,i should want to be carried to the other side of the stream2 telling me at the same time what the sum would be which ,i must pay for it4 ,this man had1 along with his black stringy hair1 and his dirty and tattered clothes1 such a singularly wild and infernal look1 that he actually struck me as a real ,charon3 his voice1 and the questions he asked me1 were not of a kind to remove this notion2 so that far from its requiring any effort of imagination1 ,i found it not easy to avoid believing1 that at length ,i had actually reached ,avernus1--was about to cross ,acheron1--and to be ferried by ,charon6 ,i had no sooner agreed to his demand1 than he told me1 all ,i had to do was boldly to follow him1--and thus we entered the cavern4 ,in the entrance of the cavern lay the trunk of a tree that had been cut down1 on which several of the boys of the town were playing4 ,our way seemed to be altogether on a descent1 though not steep2 so that the light1 which came in at the mouth of the cavern near the entrance1 gradually forsook it2 and when we had gone forward a few steps farther1 ,i was astonished by a sight1 which1 of all others1 ,i here the least expected3 ,i perceived to the right1 in the hollow of the cavern1 a whole subterranean village1 where the inhabitants1 on account of its being ,sunday1 were resting from their work1 and with happy and cheerful looks were sitting at the doors of their huts along with their children4 ,we had scarcely passed these small subterranean houses1 when ,i perceived a number of large wheels1 on which on weekdays these human moles1 the inhabitants of the cavern1 made ropes4 ,i fancied ,i here saw the wheel of ,ixion1 and the incessant labour of the ,danades4 ,the opening through which the light came1 seemed1 as we descended1 every moment to become less and less1 and the darkness at every step to increase1 till at length only a few rays appeared1 as if darting through a crevice1 and just tingeing the small clouds of smoke which at dusk raised themselves to the mouth of the cavern4 ,this gradual increase of darkness awakens in a contemplative mind a soft melancholy4 ,as you go down the gentle descent of the cavern1 you can hardly help fancying the moment is come when you are about to bid a final farewell to the abodes of mortals4 ,at length the great cavern in the rock closed itself1 in the same manner as heaven and earth seem to join in the horizon4 ,we then approached a little door1 where an old woman came out of one of the huts1 and brought two candles1 of which we each took one4 ,my guide now opened the door1 which completely shut out the faint glimmering of daylight1 which till then it was still possible to perceive1 and led us to the inmost centre of this dreary temple of old ,chaos and ,night1 as if till now we had only been traversing the outer coasts of their dominions4 ,the rock was here so low that we were obliged to stoop very much for some few steps1 in order to get through2 but how great was my astonishment1 when we had passed this narrow passage1 and again stood upright1 at once to perceive1 as well as the feeble light of the candles would permit1 the amazing length1 breadth1 and height of the cavern1 compared to which1 the monstrous opening through which we had already passed was nothing4 ,after we had wandered here more than an hour1 as beneath a dark and dusky sky1 on a level sandy soil1 the rock gradually lowered itself1 and we suddenly found ourselves on the edge of a broad river1 which1 from the glimmering of our candles amid the total darkness1 suggested a variety of interesting reflections4 ,to the side of this river a small boat was moored1 with some straw in its bottom4 ,into this vehicle my guide desired me to step1 and lay myself down in it quite flat1 because1 as he said1 towards the middle of the river the rock would almost touch the water4 ,when ,i had laid myself down as directed1 he himself jumped into the water1 and drew the boat after him4 ,all around us was one still1 solemn1 and deadly silence2 and as the boat advanced1 the rock seemed to stoop1 and come nearer and nearer to us1 till at length it nearly touched my face2 and1 as ,i lay1 ,i could hardly hold the candle upright4 ,i seemed to myself to be in a coffin rather than in a boat1 as ,i had no room to stir hand or foot till we had passed this frightful strait1 and the rock rose again on the other side1--where my guide once more handed me ashore4 ,the cavern was now become all at once broad and high1 and then suddenly it was again low and narrow4 ,i observed on both sides1 as we passed along1 a prodigious number of great and small petrified plants and animals2 but these we could not examine1 unless we had been disposed to spend some days in the cavern4 ,and thus we arrived at the opposite side1 at the second river or stream1 which1 however1 was not so broad as the first1 as one may see across it to the other side3 over this stream my guide carried me on his shoulders1 because there was here no boat to ferry us4 ,from thence we only went a few steps farther1 when we came to a very small piece of water1 which extended itself lengthways1 and led us to the end of the cavern4 ,the path along the edge of this water was wet and slippery1 and sometimes so very narrow that ,i could hardly set one foot before the other4 ,notwithstanding1 ,i wandered with pleasure on this subterraneous shore1 and was regaling myself with the interesting contemplation of all these various wonderful objects1 in this land of darkness1 and shadow of death1--when1 all at once1 something like music at a distance sounded in my ears4 ,i instantly stopped1 full of astonishment1 and eagerly asked my guide what this might mean4 ,he answered1 ,only have patience1 and you shall soon see4 ,but as we advanced1 the sounds of harmony seemed to die away1 the noise became weaker1 and at length it appeared to dwindle into a gentle hissing or hum1 like distant drops of falling rain4 ,it is not difficult to imagine how great was my wonder1 when ere long ,i actually saw and felt a violent shower of rain falling from the rock as from a thick cloud1 threatening to extinguish our candles1 and leave us in entire darkness4 ,it was this that had caused the melancholy sound which ,i had heard at a distance1 the soft notes of which had been assisted by the distant echo4 ,to this shower which fell from the ceiling or roof of the cavern through the veins of the rock1 the inhabitants had given the name of a mizzling rain4 ,we continued our march along the sides of the water1 and often saw on its banks large apertures of the rock1 which seemed to be new or subordinate caverns1 all of which we passed without looking into4 ,at length my guide prepared me for one of the finest sights we had yet beheld1 and which was now soon to burst on our view4 ,we had gone but a few paces farther1 when we entered what might easily be taken for a majestic temple1 with lofty arches1 supported by beautiful pillars1 formed by the plastic hand of some ingenious artist4 ,this subterraneous temple1 in the structure of which no human hand had borne a part1 appeared to me at that moment to surpass all the most stupendous buildings ,i had ever seen1 in point of regularity1 magnificence1 and beauty4 ,deeply impressed with awe and reverence at this grand display of the ,creator's works1 my mind became insensibly solemnized2 and ,i felt that it became me silently to adore the ,author of all1 and acknowledge the hand of the divine ,architect4 ,from the ,peak in ,derbyshire1 we shall conduct our reader to ,,snowden ,,in ,,wales2 to the top of which ,miss ,elizabeth ,smith1 a young lady of uncommon attainments1 made an excursion1 and published an account of her adventure1 in nearly the following language4 ,snowden is the loftiest of the ,welsh mountains1 being #cjbj feet above the level of the sea4 ,we set off1 about eleven at night1 for the foot of ,snowden1 and travelled eight miles through a fine mountainous country1 by moon-light4 ,before one1 we arrived at a little hut where the guide lives2 and after having him called up1 and loaded with a basket of bread and milk1 and a tin box for specimens1 we began our march at a quarter past one4 ,the clouds were gathering over the mountains1 and threatening us with either darkness or rain4 ,we however escaped both1 and were only amused with every variety they could give the landscape1 by hiding or obscuring the moon1 and blotting out now one mountain1 and now another1 from our view2 till about two o'clock1 when the dawn began to appear1 they covered the moon1 and we saw her no more4 ,we proceeded by a very easy ascent over boggy ground till half past two1 when1 coming suddenly to the top of the first range of hills1 and meeting with a violent wind which blew from the quarter where the sun was to rise1 7for we ascended the mountain on the south west17 ,mrs4 ,g4 ,s4 was frightened1 and seeing a very steep ascent before her1 said she would sit down and wait our return4 ,my mother said she would stay with her1 and ,i proposed our all going back together2 but my mother very kindly insisted on my proceeding4 ,we therefore divided our provisions2 the ladies returned to the hut from which they had set out1 and ,i went on with the guide1 who could not speak a word of ,english4 ,we steered our course more towards the south1 and toiled up several mountains1 in some parts covered with loose stones1 which had fallen from their broken summits1 but in general overgrown with different sorts of moss1 and a kind of short grass1 mixed with immense quantities of the galium pusillum4 ,i picked up a few other plants1 but on the whole was disappointed in the botanical way1 as ,i found very little that ,i had not before met with on the mountains in this neighbourhood2 however1 this is not the time of the year 7,july7 for mountain curiosities4 ,i went on as fast as ,i could1 without stopping1 except now and then for a moment to look down on the mountains under my feet1 as clouds passed over them1 thinking each summit ,i saw before me was the last1 and unable to gain any information from my guide to satisfy my impatience1 for ,i wished to be at the top before sun-rise1 and pink clouds now began to appear over the steep ,i was climbing4 ,i also knew that the ladies would be very impatient for my return2 nor was ,i without anxiety on their account1 as ,i was not sure they would find their way back to the hut4 ,these ideas occupied my mind all the way up2 and if that deceitful1 but comforting lady1 ,hope1 had not continually presented to me the range of hills ,i was ascending as the last step in ambition's ladder1 ,i am not sure that1 with all my eagerness to get on the top1 ,i should not have returned back4 ,i was debating this point very earnestly with myself1 in ascending an almost perpendicular green slope1 when1 on a sudden1 ,i saw at my feet an immense chasm1 all in darkness1 and of a depth ,i cannot guess1 certainly not less than a hundred feet2 ,i should suppose much more4 ,it answers in some respects to the idea ,i have formed of the crater of a violent valcano1 but evidently is not that1 as there is no mark of fire1 the rock being composed1 as it is in general throughout this country1 of a sort of slate4 ,nor does the mountain appear to have been thrown down1 but the pit to have sunk in2 which must probably has been occasioned by subterranean waters1 as there is water at the bottom of the pit1 and the mountain is full of springs4 ,you think now you are at the top1 but you are mistaken4 ,i am standing indeed at the top of the abyss1 but with a high rocky peak on each side of me1 and descending almost perpendicularly into the lake at the bottom4 ,i have been taking a rough sketch of one of these peaks1 with the lake in the deepest shadow2 ,i am turning over my paper1 which the wind renders very difficult1 in order to draw another2 ,i look up1 and the upper part illuminated by a beautiful rose-coloured light1 while the opposite part still casts a dark shade over its base1 and conceals the sun from my view4 ,if ,i were ready to jump into the pit with delight at first seeing it1 my ecstasy now was still greater4 ,the guide seemed quite delighted to see me so much pleased1 and took care1 in descending1 to lead me to the edge of every precipice1 which he had not done in going up4 ,i1 however1 presently recollected1 that ,i was in a great hurry to get back1 and set off along the brink of the cavity for the highest peak1 where ,i arrived at a quarter past four1 and saw a view1 of which it is impossible to form any idea from description4 ,for many miles around1 it was composed of tops of high mountains1 of all the various forms that can be imagined3 some appeared swimming in an ocean of vapour2 on others1 the clouds lay like a cap of snow1 appearing as soft as down4 ,they were all far below ,snowden1 and ,i was enjoying the finest blue sky1 and the purest air ,i ever breathed4 ,the whole prospect was bounded by the sea1 except to the east and south-east1 and the greatest part of the lands in those parts were blotted out by clouds4 ,the sun1 however1 rose so far toward the north-east1 as to be still hanging over the sea4 ,i took a sketch of a small part of the mountains1 with some of the little lakes which appear at their feet1--sat down1 for the first time1 on a circle of stones which is built on the top of the hill1--and made great havock in the bread and milk1 in which achievement the guide equalled1 if not surpassed me1--and at half past four1 almost frozen1 ,i began to descend4 ,my anxiety about my friends increased1 as ,i came near the spot where ,i had left them2 ,i made all possible haste1 and found them safe in the hut1 at ten minutes past six4 ,it certainly would have been pleasanter to have had more time1 and some one to enjoy the expedition with me2 but ,i am delighted that ,i have been1 and would not for any thing give up the recollection of the sublime scene4 ,we shall close this chapter with an account of ,,skiddaw4--,this is a mountain of ,england1 in ,cumberland1 one of the most remarkable in the kingdom1 being above #cjjj feet in perpendicular height1 from the surface of the ,derwent-water1 which lake is far distant from the sea1 and high above its level from this circumstance4 ,skiddaw is reckoned the highest mountain in ,england4 ,the prospect from its top is very extensive1 and1 being detached from other mountains1 forms a grand object from various points of view4 ,it is easy of access1 and the sides are covered with grass4 ,at the top1 the atmosphere is uncommonly rare4 ,it is covered with loose brown slate-stone4 ,,chap4 ,,xxxix4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,mountains4--7,continued47 ,the ,andes--,pichinca--,monte ,bolea--,pausilipo--,monte ,nuovo--,spectre of the ,broken--,gauts1 or ,indian ,appenines--,pico--,written ,mountains--,athos--,sulphur ,mountains4 ----,his proud head the airy mountain hides1 ,among the clouds2 his shoulders and his sides1 ,a shady mantle clothes4 ,denham4 ,,the ,,andes4 ,the ,andes is a great chain of mountains in ,south ,america1 which1 running from the most northern part of ,peru1 to the ,straits of ,magellan1 between #cjjj and #djjj miles1 are the longest and most remarkable in the world4 ,the ,spaniards call them the ,cordilleras de los ,andes3 they form two ridges2 the lowermost of which is overspread with woods and groves1 and the uppermost covered with everlasting snow4 ,those who have been at the top1 affirm that the sky is always serene and bright1 the air cold and piercing1 and yet so thin that they were scarce able to breathe4 ,when they looked downwards1 the country was hid by the clouds that hovered on the mountain's sides4 ,the mountains just mentioned1 which have been frequently ascended1 are much inferior in height to many others in this enormous chain4 ,the following is the account given of the mountain called ,pichincha1 by ,don ,george ,juan1 and ,don ,antonio de ,ulloa1 two mathematicians1 sent by the kings of ,france and ,spain1 to make observations in relation to the figure of the earth4 ,these mathematicians suffered extremely1 as well from the severity of the cold1 as from the impetuosity of the winds1 which on these heights blow with incessant violence2 difficulties the more painful1 as they had been little used to such sensations4 ,thus1 in the torrid zone1 nearly under the equinoctial line1 where it is natural to suppose they had most to fear from the heat1 their greatest pain was caused by the excessiveness of the cold4 ,their first scheme1 for shelter and lodging in these uncomfortable regions1 was to pitch a field-tent for each company3 but on ,pichinca1 this could not be done1 from the narrowness of the summit2 they were therefore obliged to be contented with a hut so small1 that the whole of the company could scarcely creep into it4 ,nor will this appear strange1 if the reader considers the bad situation and smallness of the place1 it being one of the loftiest crags of a rocky mountain1 #ajj fathoms above the highest desert of ,pichinca4 ,such was the position of their mansion1 when all the other adjacent parts soon became covered with ice and snow4 ,the ascent up this stupendous rock1 from the base1 or the place where the mules could come to their habitation1 was so craggy1 as only to be climbed on foot2 and to perform it1 cost them four hours' continual labour and pain1 arising not only from the violent efforts of the body1 but the subtilty of the air1 which was so thin1 and probably overcharged with the lighter respirable gases1 as to render respiration difficult4 ,our philosophers generally kept within their hut4 ,indeed1 they were obliged to do this1 on account of the intenseness of the cold1 the violence of the wind1 and their being continually involved in so thick a fog1 that an object at six or eight paces was hardly discernible4 ,when the mist cleared up1 the clouds1 by their gravity1 moved nearer to the surface of the earth1 and on all sides surrounded the mountains to a vast distance1 forming no bad representation of the sea1 with their rock1 like an island1 stationed in its centre4 ,when this happened1 they heard the horrid noises of the tempests1 which then spent their fury on ,quito and the neighbouring country4 ,they saw the lightnings issue from the clouds1 and heard the thunders roll far beneath them2 and whilst the lower parts were involved in tempests of thunder and rain1 they enjoyed a delightful serenity1 the wind was hushed1 the sky became clear1 and the enlivening rays of the sun moderated the severity of the cold4 ,but their circumstances were very different1 when the clouds reascended3 their thickness rendered respiration difficult2 the snow and hail fell continually2 and the wind returned with all its violence2 so that it was impossible entirely to overcome the fears of being1 together with their hut1 blown down the precipice1 on the edge of which it was built1 or of being buried by the daily accumulations of ice and snow4 ,the wind was often so violent in these regions1 that its velocity dazzled the sight1 whilst their fears were increased1 from the dreadful concussions of the precipice1 caused by the all of enormous fragments of rocks4 ,these crashes were the more alarming1 as no other noises are heard in such solitary abodes3 and during the night1 their rest1 which they so greatly wanted1 was frequently disturbed by these sudden sounds4 ,when the weather was fair near their hut1 and the clouds gathered about some of the other mountains which they had selected for their observations1 so that they could not make all the use they desired of this interval of good weather1 they left their hut1 to exercise themselves4 ,sometimes they descended to a small distance2 and1 at other times1 amused themselves with rolling large fragments of rocks down the precipice2 and these frequently required the joint strength of them all1 though they often saw the same effected by the mere force of the wind4 ,but they always took care1 in their excursions1 not to go so far out1 but that1 on the least appearance of the clouds gathering about their cottage1 which often happened very suddenly1 they could regain their shelter4 ,the door of their hut was fastened with thongs of leather1 and on the inside not the smallest crevice was left unstopped2 besides which1 it was very compactly covered with straw3 but1 notwithstanding all their care1 the wind penetrated through4 ,the days were often little better than the nights2 and all the light they enjoyed1 was that of a lamp or two1 which they kept continually burning4 ,though their hut was small1 and crowded with inhabitants1 besides the heat of the lamps1 yet the intenseness of the cold was such1 that every one of them was obliged to have a chafing-dish of coals4 ,these precautions would have rendered the rigour of the climate supportable1 had not the imminent danger of perishing1 by being blown down the precipice1 roused them every time it snowed1 to encounter the severity of the outward air1 and sally out1 with shovels1 to force from the roof of their hut1 the masses of snow which were gathering on it4 ,nor would it1 without this precaution1 have been able to support the weight4 ,they were not indeed without servants and ,indians1 but these were so benumbed with the cold1 that it was with great difficulty they could get them out of a small tent1 where they kept a continual fire4 ,so that1 all our artists could obtain from them1 was to take their turns in this labour2 and even then they went very unwillingly about it1 and consequently performed it but slowly4 ,the reader may easily judge what our philosophers suffered from the asperities of such a climate4 ,their feet were swelled1 and so tender1 that they could not even bear the heat of the fire1 and walking was attended with extreme pain4 ,their hands were covered with chilblains2 their lips swelled and chopped1 so that every motion in speaking drew blood2 consequently they were obliged to observe strict taciturnity1 and were little disposed to laugh1 as1 by causing an extension of the lips1 it produced such wounds as were very painful for two or three days after4 ,their common food in this inhospitable region was a little rice boiled with some flesh or fowl1 procured from ,quito2 and1 instead of fluid water1 their pot was filled with ice3 they had the same resource with regard to what they drank2 and while they were eating1 every one was obliged to keep his plate over a chafing-dish of coals1 to prevent his provisions from freezing4 ,the same was done respecting the water4 ,at first they imagined the drinking of strong liquors would diffuse a heat through the body1 and consequently render it less sensible of the painful sharpness of the cold2 but1 to their surprise1 they felt no manner of strength in such liquors1 nor were they any greater preservatives against the cold than even common water4 ,it is affirmed1 that there are in the ,andes sixteen volcanoes1 or burning mountains1 which throw out fire and smoke with a terrible noise4 ,the height of ,chimborazo1 said to be the highest peak of the ,andes1 has been determined by geometrical calculations to be #bj1bhb feet4 ,as all or most rivers have their source in mountains1 it is no wonder a great number run down the sides of the ,andes4 ,some hurry along with a prodigious rapidity1 while others form beautiful cascades1 or run through holes in rocks1 which look like bridges of a stupendous height4 ,there is a public road through the mountains1 #ajjj miles in length1 part of which runs from ,quito to ,cusco4 ,,monte ,,bolea4--,this is a hill or mount in the neighbourhood of ,verona1 in the north of ,italy1 celebrated for the uncommon abundance and remarkable variety of the organic remains which it exhibits1 as well as for the striking relations these bear to minerals of volcanic origin4 ,this spot has long attracted the attention of philosophic inquirers1 and even excited the curiosity of the vulgar4 ,various collections of its petrifactions have been made1 and a considerable number of labourers are occasionally employed in digging and preparing specimens4 ,there are many treatises purposely devoted to the description and arrangement of its fossils1 to a minute examination of its geognostic relations1 and to laborious disquisitions on the manner in which it must have been formed4 ,in the neighbourhood of the mount1 and over a great part of the territory of ,verona1 there are seen undoubted products of volcanic eruptions1 together with masses of petrified animal and vegetable substances4 ,the hill itself presents a great variety and singular combination of mineral phenomena1 of different origin and nature4 ,its greater proportion is composed of an aggregation of organic remains1 and seems a cemetery of shells1 fishes1 marine animals1 birds1 and quadrupeds4 ,some of its beds consist of a range of certain species possessing a considerable similarity2 while in others1 animals of the most opposite habits1 and inhabiting different regions of the globe1 as well as different elements of nature1 are strangely brought into contact1 and confusedly blended in one heterogeneous mass4 ,shell-fish of the rivers and of the sea1 corals1 fishes of various kinds1 insects1 bones of different species of birds1 remains of elephants1 bears1 and other quadrupeds1 requiring for their existence different climates1 are here united in an extraordinary assemblage4 ,connected with these1 we find basaltic columns1 scori1 lava1 and other volcanic productions4 ,these facts lead us to conclude1 that this spot has witnessed wonderful revolutions1 and that it has been subject1 at different periods of its history1 or perhaps nearly at the same time1 to the dominion of two powerful elements1 of which the ravages only are now visible4 ,,pausilipo1--which is the next we would speak of1 is a celebrated mountain of ,naples1 five miles from ,puzzoli1 famous for its grotto1 or rather a subterraneous passage through it1 which is near a mile long1 about twenty feet broad1 and from thirty to forty in height4 ,the gentry who go there to gratify their curiosity1 generally drive through it with lighted torches2 but the country people find their way with little difficulty1 by the light which enters at each end1 and by two holes pierced through the mountain from the top1 near the middle of the passage4 ,this mountain is rendered an object of still greater fame and veneration1 by possessing the tomb of ,virgil1 which is overgrown with ivy1 and shadowed with the spreading boughs of an ancient laurel tree4 ,,monte ,,nuovo1--is a mountain in the environs of ,naples1 which blocks up the valley of ,averno4 ,this mountain 7,mr4 ,swinburne tells us7 arose in #aech3 after repeated quakings the earth burst asunder1 and made way for a deluge of hot ashes and flames1 which rising extremely high1 and darkening the atmosphere1 fell down again and formed a circular mound four miles in circumference1 and one thousand feet high1 with a large cup in the middle4 ,the wind rising afterwards1 wafted the lighter particles over the country1 blasted vegetation1 and killed the animals which grazed2 the consequence was1 that the place was deserted1 till ,don ,pedro de ,toledo1 viceroy of ,naples1 encouraged the inhabitants by his example to return4 ,part of ,monte ,nuovo is cultivated1 but the larger portion of its declivity is wildly overgrown with prickly broom1 and rank weeds that emit a very fetid sulphureous smell4 ,the water in the valley is shallow1 its inside towards the mountain is clad with shrubs1 and the little area at the bottom planted with fig and mulberry trees2 a most striking specimen of the amazing vicissitudes that take place in this extraordinary country4 ,i saw no traces of lava1 or melted matter1 and few stones within4 ,near the foot of this mountain the subterraneous fires act with such immediate power1 that even the sand at the bottom of the sea is heated to an intolerable degree4 ,the next object that claims our attention is ,,the ,,spectre ,,of ,,the ,,broken4--,a curious phenomenon observed on the ,broken1 one of the ,hartz mountains in ,hanover1 of which the following account is given by ,m4 ,haree1 ,on being here1 says he1 for the thirtieth time1 and having procured information respecting the above-mentioned atmospheric phenomenon1 ,i was at length1 on the #bc;d of ,may1 #agig1 so fortunate as to have the pleasure of seeing it for myself2 and perhaps a description of it may afford satisfaction to others who visit the ,broken through curiosity4 ,the sun rose about four o'clock1 and the atmosphere being quite serene towards the east1 his rays could pass without any obstruction over the ,heinrichshhe4 ,in the ,s4 ,w4 however1 towards ,achtermannshe1 a brisk west wind carried before it thin transparent vapours1 which were not yet formed into thick heavy clouds4 ,about a quarter past four ,i went towards the inn1 and looked round to see whether the atmosphere would permit me to have a free prospect to the ,s4 ,w42 when ,i observed1 at a very great distance1 towards ,achtermannshhe1 a human figure of a monstrous size4 ,a violent gust of wind having almost carried away my hat1 ,i clapped my hand to it1 by moving my arm towards my head2 and the colossal figure did the same4 ,the pleasure which ,i felt on this discovery can hardly be described1 for ,i had already walked many a weary step in the hopes of seeing this shadowy image1 without being able to gratify my curiosity4 ,i immediately made another movement by bending my body2 and the colossal figure before me repeated it4 ,i was desirous of doing the same thing once more1--but my colossus had vanished4 ,i remained in the same position1 waiting to see whether it would return2 and in a few minutes it again made its appearance on the ,achtermannshhe4 ,i paid my respects to it a second time2 and my compliment was returned by a similar inclination of the body1 in the figure before me4 ,i then called the landlord of the ,broken1 and having both put ourselves in the same position ,i had taken alone1 we looked towards the ,achtermannshhe1 but saw nothing4 ,we had not1 however1 stood long1 before two similar colossal figures were formed over the above eminence1 which1 after repeating the various gesticulations of our bodies1 vanished4 ,we1 however1 still retained our position1 keeping our eyes fixed on the same spot1 and in a little while the two figures again stood before us1 and were joined by a third1 who had by this time added himself to our company4 ,every movement that we made by bending our bodies1 these figures imitated1--but with this difference1 that the phenomenon sometimes was weak and faint1 and at others strong and well defined4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway4 ,a stupendous collection of natural columns of basalt1 on the coast of ,ireland4--,page #eij4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spectre ,,of ,,the ,,broken4--,page #dbj4 ,this wonderful and startling phenomenon is often observed in the ,hartz ,mountains in ,germany4 ,having thus had an opportunity of discovering the whole secret of this extraordinary appearance1 ,i can give the following information to such of my readers as may be desirous of seeing it for themselves4 ,when the rising sun1 and1 according to analogy1 the case will be the same when the setting sun throws his rays over the ,broken1 upon the body of a man standing opposite to fine light clouds floating around1 or hovering past him1 he needs only fix his eyes stedfastly upon them1 and in all probability he will see the singular spectacle of his own shadow1 extending to the length of five or six hundred feet1 at the distance of about two miles before him4 ,it is said1 there is1 in the ,manchester ,transactions1 an account of a similar phenomenon observed by ,dr4 ,ferrier1 on a hill in ,england4 ,,the ,,gauts1 or ,,indian ,,appenines4--,these form a stupendous wall of mountains1 which extends from ,cape ,comorin1 the southern point of the ,peninsula of ,hindoostan1 to the ,tapty1 or ,surat river1 at unequal distances from the sea coast2 it is seldom more than sixty miles1 commonly about forty1 and in one part approaches within six miles4 ,these mountains rise abruptly from the country of ,concan1 bounding1 in the form of a terrace1 a vast extent of fertile and populous plains1 which are so elevated as to render the air cool and pleasant4 ,the height is supposed to be from #cjjj to #djjj feet4 ,this celebrated ridge does not terminate in a point when it approaches the ,tapty2 but1 departing in this place from its meridional course1 it bends eastward in a serpentine line1 parallel to the river1 and is afterwards lost among the hills in the neighbourhood of ,burrhampour4 ,in its course along the ,tapty1 it forms several passes or descents towards that river1 from whence it derives the name of ,gauts1 which means a landing-place4 ,the alternate ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,w4 winds1 called monsoons1 occasion a rainy season only on one side1 viz4 on the windward side of these mountains4 ,we would now wish to draw the attention of the reader from the ,indian ,appenines1 to ,pico1 a mountain which rears its lofty head in an island of the same name4--,it is filled with dismal dark caverns1 or volcanoes1 which frequently emit flame1 smoke1 and ashes1 to a great distance4 ,at the foot of it1 towards the east1 is a spring of fresh water1 which is generally cold1 but sometimes is so heated with subterraneous fire1 as to rush forth in torrents1 with a kind of ebullition like boiling water2 equalling that in heat1 and sending forth a steam of sulphureous fetid vapours1 mixed with liquefied stones1 minerals1 and flakes of earth1 all on fire1 in such quantities1 and with such violence1 as to form a kind of promontory1 on the declivity of the coast1 and at the distance of #abjj paces from the fountain1 which is vulgarly called ,mysterious4--,such is the account given by ,ortelius4 ,,written ,,mountains1 ,,mountains ,,of ,,inscriptions1 or ,,jibbel ,,el ,,mokatteb4--,this is a mountain1 or chain of mountains1 said to be in the wilderness of ,sinai2 and the marble1 of which it is composed1 is reported to be inscribed to a considerable extent with innumerable characters1 reaching from the ground sometimes to the height of twelve or fourteen feet4 ,these were mentioned by a ,greek author in the third century2 but although some of them have been copied by ,pococke1 ,montague1 and other late writers1 some have affected to entertain doubts whether even the mountains themselves really exist4 ,the vast number of these inscriptions1 the desert place in which they are found1 and the length of time requisite for executing the task1 induced a notion that they are the work of the ,israelites during their forty years' wandering in the wilderness4 ,others are of opinion1 that they consist merely of the names of travellers1 and the dates of their journeys4 ,m4 ,niebuhr1 who visited this country in ,september1 #agfb1 made every attempt in his power1 though without success1 to obtain a sight of this celebrated mountain4 ,after much vain inquiry1 he was at last conducted to some rocks1 upon which there were inscriptions in unknown characters4 ,they are most numerous in a narrow pass between two mountains1 named ,omer-ridstein2 and1 says ,m4 ,niebuhr1 the pretended ,jibbel ,el ,mokatteb1 may possibly be in its neighbourhood4 ,some of these inscriptions were copied by our author1 but he does not look upon them to be of any consequence4 ,at length1 when ,m4 ,niebuhr arrived at the mountain to which the shiek had promised to conduct him1 he found no inscription2 but on climbing up to the top1 he discovered an ,egyptian cemetery1 the stones of which were covered with hieroglyphics4 ,the tomb-stones were from five to seven feet long1 some being erect1 and others lying flat2 and the more carefully they are examined1 7says he17 the more certainly do they appear to be sepulchral stones1 having epitaphs inscribed on them4 ,the translator of ,volney's ,travels ascribes these inscriptions to the pilgrims who have visited ,mount ,sinai2 but they ought surely to have been written in a language which somebody could understand2 yet from the copies that have been taken of them by ,dr4 ,pococke and others1 it does not appear that they could be explained by any person4 ,when ,dr4 ,clayton1 bishop of ,clogher1 visited this part of the world1 about #agbc1 he expressed the greatest desire to have the matter concerning these written mountains ascertained1 and even made an offer of #ejj sterling to any literary person1 who would undertake the journey1 and endeavour to decipher the inscriptions2 but no such person appeared4 ,the next object that rises in our view is ,,mount ,,athos1--a mountain of ,chalcidia in ,macedonia1 equally celebrated in ancient and modern times4 ,the ancients entertained extravagant notions concerning its height4 ,mela affirmed it to be so high as to reach above the clouds1 which at that time might have been considered a bold assertion2 and ,martianus ,capellinus says1 that its elevation was six miles4 ,it was a received opinion1 that mount ,athos was above the middle region of the air1 and that it never rained upon or near its summit1 because the ashes left on the altars there1 were always found as they had been left1 dry and unscattered4 ,the modern ,greeks1 struck with its singular situation1 and the venerable appearance of its towering ascent1 erected so many churches1 monasteries1 hermitages1 c4 upon it1 that it became in a manner inhabited by a company of religious devotees2 and from thence received the name of ,monte ,santo1 or the ,holy ,mountain2 which appellation it still retains1 though many of those consecrated buildings are now fallen into ruin and decay4 ,according to the accounts of modern travellers1 this mountain advances into the ,archipelago1 on the south of the gulf of ,contessa1 and is joined to the continent by an isthmus about half a league in breadth4 ,it is estimated to be thirty miles in circumference1 and two in perpendicular height4 ,it may be travelled over in about three days1 and is to be seen at the great distance of ninety miles4 ,there is a fine prospect from the top2 but1 like all other high mountains1 the cold on its summit is excessive4 ,it abounds with many different kinds of plants and trees1 particularly the pine and fir4 ,in the valleys grows a plant called elegia1 whose branches serve to make pens for writing4 ,in short1 this mountain is said to be adorned with a variety of herbage and evergreens1 a multitude of springs and streams1 with woods extending almost to the sea shore1 which happy combination of circumstances renders it one of the most agreeable places in the world4 ,there are twenty-four large old monasteries upon it1 surrounded with high walls1 and inhabited by ,camoyers1 a certain description of ,greek monks4 ,through this mountain1 or rather through the isthmus behind it1 ,xerxes king of ,persia is said to have cut a passage for his fleet1 when about to invade ,greece4 ,in this arduous task he spent three whole years1 and employed in it all the forces on board his fleet4 ,he is also said1 before the work begun1 to have written the following ridiculous letter to the mountain3 ,athos1 thou proud and aspiring mountain1 that liftest up thy head to the very skies1 ,i advise thee not to be so audacious1 as to put rocks and stones1 that cannot be cut1 in the way of my workmen4 ,if thou makest that opposition1 ,i will cut thee entirely down1 and throw thee headlong into the sea6 ,the directors of this enterprise are said to have been ,bubaris1 the son of ,megabysus1 and ,artacheus1 the son of ,arbeus1 both ,persians2 but as no traces of such a great work remains1 the truth of the whole relation has justly been questioned4 ,this venerable mountain constitutes one entire chain1 extending seven miles in length1 and three in breadth1 and is situated about seventy miles east of ,salonichi1 the ancient ,thessalonica4 ,we will now accompany ,sir ,george ,mackenzie to ,,the ,,sulphur ,,mountains1 ,,in ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,iceland4--,having taken an early breakfast1 7says he17 we set out towards the ,sulphur ,mountain1 which is about three miles distant from ,krisuvik4 ,at the foot of the mountain was a small bank1 composed chiefly of white clay mixed with sulphur1 from all parts of which steam issued4 ,ascending it1 we got upon a ridge immediately above a deep hollow1 from which a profusion of vapour arose1 and heard a confused noise of boiling and splashing1 joined to the roaring of steam excaping from narrow crevices in the rock4 ,this hollow1 together with the whole side of the mountain opposite1 as far up as we could see1 was covered with sulphur and clay1 chiefly of a white or yellowish colour4 ,walking over this soft and steaming surface1 we found to be very hazardous1 and we were frequently very uneasy when the vapour concealed us from each other4 ,the day1 however1 being dry and warm1 the surface was not so slippery as to occasion much risk of our falling4 ,the danger of the crust of sulphur breaking1 or of the clay sinking with us1 was great2 and we were several times in imminent peril of being scalded4 ,mr4 ,bright ran at one time a great hazard1 and suffered considerable pain from accidentally plunging one of his legs into the hot clay4 ,from whatever spot the sulphur was removed1 steam instantly escaped2 and in many places1 the sulphur was so hot that we could scarcely handle it4 ,from the smell1 we perceived that the steam was mixed with a small quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,when the thermometer was sunk a few inches into the clay1 it rose generally to within a few degrees of the boiling point4 ,by stepping cautiously1 and avoiding every little hole from which steam issued1 we soon discovered how far we might venture4 ,our good fortune1 however1 ought not to tempt any person to examine this wonderful place1 without being provided with two boards1 with which every part of the banks may be traversed in perfect safety4 ,at the bottom of this hollow1 we found a caldron of boiling mud1 about fifteen feet in diameter1 similar to that on the top of the mountain1 which we had seen the evening before2 but this boiled with much more vehemence4 ,we went within a few yards of it1 the wind happening to be remarkably favourable for our viewing every part of this singular place4 ,the mud was in constant agitation1 and often thrown up to the height of six or eight feet4 ,near this spot was an irregular space1 filled with water boiling briskly4 ,at the foot of the hill1 is a hollow formed by a bank of clay and sulphur1 whence steam rushed with great force and noise from among the loose fragments of rock4 ,further up the mountain1 we met with a spring of cold water1 a circumstance little expected in a place like this4 ,ascending still higher1 we came to a ridge composed entirely of sulphur and clay1 joining two summits of the mountain ,here we found a much greater quantity of sulphur than on any other part of the surface1 over which we had yet gone4 ,it formed a smooth crust1 from a quarter of an inch to several inches in thickness4 ,the crust was beautifully crystallized1 and immediately beneath it we found a quantity of loose granular sulphur1 which appeared to be collecting and crystallizing1 as it was sublimed along with the steam4 ,sometimes we met with clay of different colours1 white1 red1 and blue1 under the crust2 but we could not examine this place to any depth1 as1 the moment the crust was removed1 steam issued1 and proved extremely annoying4 ,we found several pieces of wood1 which were probably the remains of planks that had been formerly used in collecting the sulphur1 small crystals of which partially covered them4 ,there appeared to be a constant sublimation of this substance2 and were artificial chambers constructed for the reception and condensation of vapours1 much of it might probably be collected4 ,as it is1 there is a large quantity on the surface2 and1 by searching1 there is little doubt that great stores may be found4 ,the inconvenience proceeding from the steam issuing on every side1 and from the heat1 is certainly considerable2 but1 by proper precautions1 neither would be felt so much as to render the collection of the sulphur a matter of any great difficulty4 ,the chief obstacle to working these mines1 is their distance from a port whence the produce could be shipped4 ,but there are so many horses in the country1 whose original price is trifling1 and whose maintenance during summer costs nothing1 that the conveyance of sulphur to ,reikiavik1 presents no difficulties which might not probably be surmounted4 ,below the ridge on the farther side of this great bed of sulphur1 we saw a great deal of vapour escaping with much noise4 ,we crossed to the opposite side of the mountain1 and found the surface sufficiently firm to admit of walking cautiously upon it4 ,we had now to make our way towards the principal spring1 as it is called2 and this was a task of much apparent danger1 as the side of the mountain1 for the extent of about half a mile1 is covered with loose clay1 into which our feet sunk at every step4 ,in many places there was a thin crust1 below which the clay was wet1 and extremely hot4 ,good fortune attended us2 and without any serious inconvenience1 we reached the object we had in view4 ,a dense column of steam1 mixed with a little water1 was forcing its way impetuously through a crevice in the rock1 at the head of a narrow valley1 or break in the mountain4 ,the violence with which it rushes out is so great1 that the noise thus occasioned1 may often be heard at the distance of several miles2 and1 during night1 while lying in our tent at ,krisuvik1 we more than once listened to it with mingled emotions of awe and astonishment4 ,behind the column of vapour was a dark-coloured rock1 which gave it its full effect4 ,it is quite beyond our power to offer such a description of this extraordinary place1 as to convey adequate ideas of its wonders or its terrors4 ,the sensations of a person1 even of firm nerves1 standing on a support which feebly sustains him1 over an abyss1 where1 literally1 fire and brimstone are in dreadful and incessant action1--having before his eyes tremendous proofs of what is going on beneath him1--enveloped in thick vapours1--and his ears stunned with thundering noises2 must be experienced before they can be understood4 ,,chap4 ,,xl4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,mountains4--7,continued47 ,so pleas'd at first the tow'ring mounts we try1 ,mount o'er the vales1 and seem to tread the sky2 ,th' eternal snows appear already past1 ,and the first clouds and mountains seem the last4 ,but1 those attain'd1 we tremble to survey ,the growing labours of the lengthen'd way2 ,th' increasing prospect tires our wand'ring eyes1 ,hills peep o'er hills1 and mounts on mounts arise4 ,,mont ,,blanc1 ,,in ,,savoy4 ,narrative of a ,journey from the village of ,chamouni1 to the summit of ,mont ,blanc1 undertaken on ,august #h1 #aghg2 by ,colonel ,beaufoy4 ,from the ,annals of ,philosophy4-- ,the desire of ascending to the highest part of remarkably elevated land is so natural to every man1 and the hope of repeating various experiments in the upper regions of the air is so inviting to those who wish well to the interests of science1 that1 being lately in ,switzerland1 ,i could not resist the inclination ,i felt to reach the summit of ,mont ,blanc4 ,one of the motives1 however1 which prompted the attempt1 was much weakened by the consideration that ,i did not possess1 and in that country could not obtain1 the instruments that were requisite for many of the experiments which ,i was anxious to make2 and the ardour of uncommon curiosity was diminished1 when ,i learned that ,dr4 ,paecard and his guide1 who in the year #aghf had reached the supposed inaccessible summit of the hill1 were not the only persons who had succeeded in the attempt2 for that1 five days before my arrival at the foot of the mountain1 ,m4 de ,saussure1 a professor in the university of ,geneva1 had gained the top of the ascent4 ,but while ,i was informed of the success which had attended the efforts of ,m4 de ,saussure1 ,i was told of the difficulties and dangers that accompanied the undertaking2 and was often assured1 with much laborious dissuasion1 that1 to all the usual obstacles1 the lateness of the season would add the perils of those stupendous masses of snow which are often dislodged from the steeps of the mountain1 together with the hazard of those frightful chasms which present immeasurable gulfs to the steps of the traveller1 and the width of which was hourly increasing4 ,m4 ,bourrt1 whose name has often been announced to the world by a variety of tracts1 and by many excellent drawings1 confirmed the account1 and assured me that he himself had made the attempt on the next day to that on which ,m4 de ,saussure descended1 but was obliged1 as on many former occasions1 to abandon the enterprise4 ,having1 however1 formed my resolution1 ,i sent to the different cottages of the vale of ,chamouni1 from the skirts of which the mountain takes its rise1 to inquire if any of them were willing to go with me as my assistants and guides2 and had soon the satisfaction to find that ten were ready to accept the proposal4 ,i engaged them all4 ,having announced to them my intention of setting out the next morning1 ,i divided among them provisions for three days1 together with a kettle1 a chafing-dish1 a quantity of charcoal1 a pair of bellows1 a couple of blankets1 a long rope1 a hatchet1 and a ladder1 which formed the stores that were requisite for the journey4 ,after a night of much solicitude1 lest the summit of ,mont ,blanc should be covered with clouds1 in which case the guides would have refused the undertaking as impracticable1 ,i rose at five in the morning1 and saw1 with great satisfaction1 that the mountain was free from vapour1 and that the sky was every where serene4 ,my dress was a white flannel jacket1 without any shirt beneath1 and white linen trowsers1 without drawers4 ,the dress was white1 that the sunbeams might be thrown off2 and it was loose1 that the limbs might be unconfined4 ,besides a pole for walking1 ,i carried with me cramp-irons for the heels of my shoes1 by means of which the hold on the frozen snow is firm1 and in steep ascents the poise of the body is preserved4 ,my guides being at length assembled1 each with his allotted burden2 one of them1 a fellow of great bodily strength and vigour of mind1 ,michael ,cachet by name1 who had accompanied ,m4 de ,saussure1 desired to take the lead4 ,we ranged ourselves in a line1 and at seven o'clock1 in the midst of the wives1 and children1 and friends1 of my companions1 and indeed of the whole village of ,chamouni1 we began our march4 ,the end of the first hour brought us to the ,glacier des ,boissons1 at which place the rapid ascent of the mountain first begins1 and from which1 pursuing our course along the edge of the rocks that form the eastern side of this frozen lake1 we arrived in four hours more at the second glacier1 called the ,glacier de la ,cot4 ,here1 by the side of a stream of water which the melting of the snow had formed1 we sat down to a short repast4 ,to this place the journey is neither remarkably laborious1 nor exposed to danger1 except that name should be given to the trifling hazard that arises from the stones and loose pieces of the broken rock1 which the goats1 in leaping from one projection to another1 occasionally throw down4 ,our dinner being finished1 we fixed our cramp-irons to our shoes1 and began to cross the glacier2 but we had not proceeded far1 when we discovered that the frozen snow1 which lay in the ridges between the waves of ice1 often concealed1 with a covering of uncertain strength1 the fathomless chasms which traverse this solid sea2 yet the danger was soon in a great degree removed by the expedient of tying ourselves together with our long rope1 which being fastened at proper distances to our waists1 secured from the principal hazard such as might fall within the opening of the gulf4 ,trusting to the same precaution1 we also crossed upon our ladder1 without apprehension1 such of the chasms as were exposed to view2 and1 sometimes stopping in the middle of the ladder1 looked down in safety upon an abyss which baffled the reach of vision1 and from which the sound of the masses of ice that we repeatedly let fall1 in no instance ascended to the ear4 ,in some places we were obliged to cut foot-steps with our hatchet2 yet1 on the whole1 the difficulties were far from great1 for in two hours and a half we had passed the glacier4 ,we now1 with more ease1 and much more expedition1 pursued our way1 having only snow to cross1 and in two hours arrived at a hut which had been erected in the year #aghf1 by the order1 and at the expense1 of ,m4 de ,saussure4 ,the hut was situated on the eastern side of a rock1 which had all the appearance of being rotten with age1 and which in fact was in a state of such complete decay1 that on my return the next evening1 ,i saw scattered on the snow many tons of its fragments1 which had fallen in my absence2 but the ruin was not on the side on which the hut was built4 ,immediately on our arrival1 which was at five in the afternoon1 the guides began to empty the hut of its snow1 and at seven we sat down to eat2 but our stomachs had little relish for food1 and felt a particular distaste for wine and spirits4 ,water1 which we obtained by melting snow in a kettle1 was the only palatable drink4 ,some of the guides complained of a heavy disheartening sickness2 and my ,swiss servant1 who had accompanied me at his own request1 was seized with excessive vomiting1 and the pains of the severest headach4 ,but from these complaints1 which apparently arose from the extreme lightness of the air in those elevated regions1 ,i myself and some of the guides were free1 except1 as before observed1 that we had little appetite for food1 and a strong aversion to the taste of spirituous liquors4 ,we now prepared for rest2 on which two of the guides1 preferring the open air1 threw themselves down at the entrance of the hut1 and slept upon the rock4 ,i too was desirous of sleep2 but my thoughts were troubled with the apprehension that1 although ,i had now completed one half of the road1 the vapours might collect on the summit of the mountain1 and frustrate all my hopes4 ,or if at any time the rest ,i wished for came1 my repose was soon disturbed by the noise of the masses of snow1 which were loosened by the wind from the heights around me1 and which1 accumulating in bulk as they rolled1 tumbled at length from the precipices into the vales below1 and produced upon the ear the effect of redoubled bursts of thunder4 ,at two o'clock ,i threw aside my blankets1 and went out of the hut to observe the appearance of the heavens4 ,the stars shone with a lustre that far exceeded the brightness which they exhibit when seen from the usual level2 and had so little tremor in their light1 as to leave no doubt on my mind1 that1 if viewed from the summit of the mountain1 they would have appeared as fixed points4 ,how improved in those altitudes would be the aids which the telescope gives to vision6 indeed1 the clearness of the air was such as led me to think that ,jupiter's satellites might be distinguished by the naked eye2 and had he not been in the neighbourhood of the moon1 ,i might possibly have succeeded4 ,he continued distinctly visible for several hours after the sun was risen1 and did not wholly disappear till almost eight4 ,at the time ,i rose1 my thermometer1 which was on ,fahrenheit's scale1 and which ,i had hung on the side of the rock without the hut1 was #h below the freezing point4 ,impatient to proceed1 and having ordered a large quantity of snow to be melted1 ,i filled a small cask with water for my own use1 and at three o'clock we left the hut4 ,our route was across the snow2 but the chasms which the ice beneath had formed1 though less numerous than those that we had passed on the preceding day1 embarrassed our ascent4 ,one in particular had opened so much in the few days that intervened between ,m4 de ,saussure's expedition and our own1 as for the time to bar the hope of any further progress2 but at length1 after having wandered with much anxiety along its bank1 ,i found a place which ,i hoped the ladder was sufficiently long to cross4 ,the ladder was accordingly laid down1 and was seen to rest upon the opposite edge1 but its bearing did not exceed an inch on either side4 ,we now considered that1 should we pass the chasm1 and should its opening1 which had enlarged so much in the course of a few preceding days1 increase in the least degree before the time of our descent1 no chance of return remained4 ,we also considered that1 if the clouds which so often envelop the hill should rise1 the hope of finding1 amidst the thick fog1 our way back to this only place in which the gulf1 even in its present state1 was passable1 was little less than desperate4 ,yet1 after a moment's pause1 the guides consented to go with me1 and we crossed the chasm4 ,we had not proceeded far1 when thirst1 which1 since our arrival in the upper regions of the air1 had been always troublesome1 became almost intolerable4 ,no sooner had ,i drank than the thirst returned1 and in a few minutes my throat became perfectly dry4 ,again ,i had recourse to the water1 and again my throat was parched4 ,the air itself was thirsty2 its extreme of dryness had robbed my body of its moisture4 ,the guides were equally affected3 wine they would not taste1 but the moment my back was turned1 their mouths were equally applied to my cask of water4 ,yet we continued to proceed till seven o'clock1 when1 having passed the place where ,m4 de ,saussure1 who was provided with a tent1 had slept the second night1 we sat down to breakfast4 ,all this time the thermometer was #d below the freezing point4 ,we were now at the foot of ,mont ,blanc itself2 for1 though it is usual to apply that term to the whole assemblage of several successive mountains1 yet the name properly belongs only to a small mountain of a pyramidal form1 that rises from a narrow plain1 which at all times is covered with snow4 ,here the thinness of the atmosphere began to affect my head with a dull and heavy pain4 ,i also found1 to my great surprise1 an acute sensation of pain1 very different from that of weariness1 immediately above my knees4 ,having finished our repast1 we pursued our journey1 and soon arrived at a chasm which could not have existed many days1 for it was not formed at the time of ,m4 de ,saussure's ascent4 ,misled by this last circumstance1 7for we concluded1 that as he had seen no rents whatever from the time that he passed the place where he slept the second night1 none were likely to be formed17 we had left our ladder about a league behind2 but as the chasm was far from wide1 we passed it on the poles that we used for walking1 an expedient which suggested to me that the length of our ladder might be easily increased by the addition of several poles laid parallel1 and fastened to its end2 and that the hazard of finding our retreat cut off from the enlargement of the chasms1 might by this means be materially diminished4 ,at this place ,i had an opportunity of measuring the height of the snow which had fallen during the preceding winter1 and which was distinguished by its superior whiteness from that of the former year4 ,i found it to be five feet4 ,the snow of each particular year appeared as a separate stratum2 that which was more than a twelvemonth old1 was perfect ice1 while that of the last winter was fast approaching to a similar state4 ,at length1 after a difficult ascent1 which lay among precipices1 and during which we were often obliged to employ the hatchet in making a footing for our feet1 we reached1 and reposed ourselves upon1 a narrow flat1 which is the last of three from the foot of the small mountain1 and which1 according to ,m4 de ,saussure1 is but #aej fathoms below the level of the summit4 ,upon this platform ,i found a beautiful dead butterfly1 the only appearance which1 from the time ,i entered on the snow1 ,i had seen of any animal4 ,the pernicious effects of the thinness of the air were now evident on us all2 a desire1 of sleep1 almost irresistible1 came on2 my spirits had left me3 sometimes indifferent to the event1 ,i wished to lie down2 at others1 ,i blamed myself for the expedition2 and1 though just at the summit1 had thoughts of turning back1 without accomplishing my purpose4 ,of my guides1 many were in a worse situation2 for1 exhausted by excessive vomiting1 they seemed to have lost all strength1 both of mind and body4 ,but shame at length came to our relief4 ,i drank the last pint of water that was left1 and found myself amazingly refreshed1 and invigorated for renewed toil4 ,yet the pain in my knees had increased so much1 that at the end of every twenty or thirty paces ,i was obliged to rest till its sharpness was abated4 ,my lungs with difficulty performed their office1 and my heart was affected with violent palpitation4 ,at last1 however1 but with a sort of apathy which scarcely admitted the sense of joy1 we reached the summit of this mountain2 when six of our guides1 and with them my servant1 threw themselves on their faces1 and were immediately asleep4 ,i envied them their repose1 but my anxiety to obtain a good observation for the latitude subdued my wishes for indulgence4 ,the time of my arrival was half an hour after ten1 so that the hours which elapsed from our departure from ,chamouni1 were only twenty-seven and a half1 ten of which we had passed in the hut4 ,the summit of the hill is formed of snow1 which spreads into a sort of plain1 which is much wider from east to west than from north to south1 and in its greatest width is perhaps thirty yards4 ,the snow is every where hard1 and in many places is covered with a sheet of ice4 ,when the spectator begins to look around him from this elevated height1 a confused impression of immensity is the first effect produced upon his mind2 but the blue colour of the canopy above him1 deep almost to blackness1 soon arrests his attention4 ,he next surveys the mountains1 many of which1 from the clearness of the air1 are to his eye within a stone's throw from him2 and even those of ,lombardy 7one of which appears of an altitude but little inferior to that of ,mont ,blanc7 seem to approach his neighbourhood2 while those on the other side of the vale of ,chamouni1 glittering with the sunbeams1 are to the view directly below his feet1 and affect his head with giddiness4 ,on the other hand1 all objects1 of which the distance is great1 and the level low1 are hid from his eye by the blue vapour which intervenes1 and through which ,i could not discern the ,lake of ,geneva1 7at the height of #ae1gjj ,english feet1 which1 according to ,m4 de ,saussure1 was the level on which ,i stood17 though even the ,mediterranean ,sea must have been within the line of vision4 ,the air was still1 and the day so remarkably fine1 that ,i could not discover in any part of the heavens the appearance of a single cloud4 ,as the time of the sun passing the meridian now approached1 ,i prepared to take my observation4 ,i had with me an admirable ,hadley's sextant1 and an artificial horizon1 and ,i corrected the mean refraction of the sun's rays4 ,thus ,i was enabled to ascertain with accuracy1 that the latitude of the summit of ,mont ,blanc is #de #di' #ei north4 ,i now proceeded to such other observations as the few instruments which ,i had brought permitted me to make4 ,at twelve o'clock the mercury in the thermometer stood at #ch in the shade2 at ,chamouni1 at the same hour1 it stood1 when in the shade1 at #gh4 ,i tried the effect of a burning-glass on paper1 and on a piece of wood1 which ,i had brought with me for the purpose1 and found 7contrary1 ,i believe1 to the generally received opinion17 that its power was much greater than in the lower regions of the air4 ,having continued two hours on the summit of the mountain1 ,i began my descent at half an hour after twelve4 ,i found that1 short as my absence had been1 many new rents were opened1 and that several of those which ,i had passed in my ascent were considerably wider4 ,in less than six hours we arrived at the hut in which we had slept the evening before1 and should have proceeded much further down the mountain1 had we not been afraid of passing the ,glacier de la ,cot at the close of the day1 when the snow1 from the effect of the sunbeams1 was extremely rotten4 ,our evening's repast being finished1 ,i was soon asleep2 but in a few hours ,i was awakened with a tormenting pain in my face and eyes4 ,my face was one continued blister1 and my eyes ,i was unable to open2 nor was ,i without apprehensions of losing my sight for ever1 till my guides told me1 that if ,i had condescended to have taken their advice1 of wearing1 as they did1 a mask of black crape1 the accident would not have befallen me1 but that a few days would perfectly restore the use of my eyes4 ,after ,i had bathed them with warm water for half an hour1 ,i found1 to my great satisfaction1 that ,i could open them a little2 on which ,i determined upon an instant departure1 that ,i might cross the ,glacier de la ,cot before the sun was sufficiently high for its beams to be strongly reflected from the snow4 ,but1 unluckily1 the sun was already above the horizon2 so that the pain of forcing open my eyes in the bright sunshine1 in order to avoid the chasms and other hazards of my way1 rendered my return more irksome than my ascent4 ,fortunately1 one of the guides1 soon after ,i had passed the glacier1 picked up in the snow a pair of green spectacles1 which ,m4 ,bourret had lost1 and which gave me wonderful relief4 ,at eleven o'clock of ,august #aj1 after an absence of fifty-two hours1 of which twenty were passed in the hut1 ,i returned again to the village of ,chamouni4 ,from the want of instruments1 7the scale of the barometer ,i had being graduated no lower than twenty inches1 which was not sufficiently extended17 the observations ,i made were but few1 yet the effects which the air in the heights ,i visited produced on the human body1 may not perhaps be considered as altogether uninteresting2 nor will the proof ,i made of the power of the lens on the summit of ,mont ,blanc1 if confirmed by future experiments1 be regarded as of no account in the theories of light and heat4 ,at any rate1 the having determined the latitude of ,mont ,blanc may assist in some particulars the observations of such persons as shall visit it in future2 and the knowledge which my journey has afforded1 in addition to that which is furnished by ,m4 de ,saussure1 may facilitate the ascent of those who1 with proper instruments1 may wish to make on that elevated level1 experiments in natural philosophy4 ,,chap4 ,,xli4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,mountains4--7,concluded47 ,description of ,vesuvius--,hecla--,etna4 ----------,the fluid lake that works below1 ,bitumen1 sulphur1 salt1 and iron scum1 ,heaves up its boiling tide4 ,the lab'ring mount ,is torn with agonizing throes4 ,at once1 ,forth from its side disparted1 blazing1 pours ,a mighty river1 burning in prone waves1 ,that glimmer thro' the night1 to yonder plain4 ,divided there1 a hundred torrent streams1 ,each ploughing up its bed1 roll dreadful on1 ,resistless4 ,villages1 and woods1 and rocks1 ,fall flat before their sweep4 ,the region round1 ,where myrtle walks1 and groves of golden fruit ,rose fair1 where harvest wav'd in all its pride1 ,and where the vineyard spread its purple store1 ,maturing into nectar1--now despoil'd ,of herb1 leaf1 fruit1 and flow'r1 from end to end ,lies buried under fire1 a glowing sea6 ,mallet4 ,,volcanic ,,mountains4 ,,vesuvius1--is a celebrated volcano of ,italy1 six miles east of ,naples4 ,this mountain has two tops2 one only of which goes by the name of ,vesuvius1 the other being now called ,somma2 but ,sir ,william ,hamilton is of opinion1 that the latter is what the ancients called ,vesuvius4 ,the perpendicular height of ,vesuvius is only three thousand seven hundred feet1 though the ascent from the foot to the top is three ,italian miles4 ,one side of the mountain is well cultivated and fertile1 producing great plenty of vines2 but the south and west sides are entirely covered with cinders and ashes1 while a sulphureous smoke constantly issues from the top1 sometimes attended with the most violent explosions of stones1 the emission of great streams of lava1 and all the other attendants of a most formidable volcano4 ,the first eruption recorded in history1 took place in the year #gi2 at which time the two cities of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum were entirely buried under the stones and ashes thrown out4 ,incredible mischief was also done to the neighbouring country1 and numbers of people lost their lives1 among whom was ,pliny the elder4 ,it is the opinion of the best judges1 however1 that this eruption was by no means the first that had ever happened3 the very streets of those cities which were at that time overwhelmed1 are unquestionably paved with lava4 ,since that time thirty different eruptions have been recorded1 some of which have been extremely violent4 ,in #aech1 a mountain three miles in circumference1 and a quarter of a mile in perpendicular height1 was thrown up in the course of one night4 ,in #agff1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton began to observe the phenomena of this mountain2 and since that time the public have been favoured with more exact and authentic accounts of the various changes which have taken place in ,vesuvius1 than were to be obtained before4 ,the first great eruption taken notice of by this gentleman was that of #agfi1 when ,vesuvius never ceased for ten years to send forth smoke1 nor were there many months in which it did not throw out stones1 scori and cinders1 which increasing to a certain degree1 were usually followed by lava2 so that from the year #agfg to #agfi there were nine eruptions1 some of which were very considerable4 ,in the month of ,august that year1 an eruption took place1 which1 for its extraordinary and terrible appearance1 may be reckoned among the most remarkable of any recorded concerning this or any other volcano4 ,during the whole of ,july1 the mountain continued in a state of fermentation4 ,subterraneous explosions and rumbling noises were heard2 quantities of smoke were thrown up with great violence1 sometimes with red-hot stones1 scori1 and ashes2 and towards the end of the month1 these symptoms increased to such a degree1 as to exhibit1 in the night1 the most beautiful fireworks4 ,on ,thursday the fifth of ,august1 the volcano appeared most violently agitated3 a white and sulphureous smoke issued with unceasing impetuosity from its crater1 one puff seeming to impel another2 so that a mass of vapour was soon accumulated1 to all appearance1 four times the height and size of the volcano itself4 ,these clouds of smoke were exceedingly white1 resembling an immense accumulation of bales of the whitest cotton4 ,in the midst of this very white smoke1 vast quantities of stones1 scori1 and ashes1 were thrown up to the height of two thousand feet2 and a quantity of liquid lava1 seemingly very heavy1 was lifted up just high enough to clear the rim of the crater1 and take its way down the sides of the mountain4 ,this lava1 having run violently for some hours1 suddenly ceased1 just before it had reached the cultivated parts of the mountain1 near four miles from the spot whence it issued4 ,the heat1 all this day1 was intolerable at the towns of ,somma and ,ottaiano2 and was sensibly felt at ,palma and ,lauri1 which are much farther off4 ,reddish ashes fell so thick on the two former1 that the air was darkened to such a degree1 that objects could not be distinguished at the distance of ten feet4 ,long filaments of a vitrified matter1 like spun-glass1 were mixed1 and fell with these ashes2 several birds in cages were suffocated2 and the leaves of the trees in the neighbourhood of ,somma were covered with white and very corrosive salt4 ,about twelve at night1 on the seventh1 the fermentation of the mountain seemed greatly to increase4 ,our author was watching the motions of the volcano from the mole at ,naples1 which has a full view of it4 ,several awfully fine and picturesque effects had been observed from the reflection of the deep red fire within the crater of ,vesuvius1 and which mounted high amongst those huge clouds on the top of it2 when a summer storm1 called in that country a tropea1 came on suddenly1 and blended its heavy watery clouds with the sulphureous and mineral ones1 which were already1 like so many other mountains1 piled up on the top of the volcano4 ,at this moment a fountain of fire was shot up to an incredible height1 casting so bright a light1 that the smallest objects were clearly distinguishable at any place within six miles or more of ,vesuvius4 ,the black stormy clouds1 passing swiftly over1 and at times covering the whole or part of the bright column of fire1 at other times clearing away and giving a full view of it1 with the various tints produced by its reverberated light on the white clouds above1 in contrast with the pale flashes of forked lightning that attended the tropea1 formed such a scene as no combination of language can express4 ,one of the king's gamekeepers1 who was out in the fields near ,ottaiano while this storm was at its height1 was surprised to find the drops of rain scald his face and hands2 a phenomenon probably occasioned by the clouds having acquired a great degree of heat in passing through the above-mentioned column of fire4 ,on the eighth1 the mountain was quiet till towards six ,p4 ,m4 when a great smoke began to gather over its crater2 and about an hour after1 a rumbling subterranneous noise was heard in the neighbourhood of the volcano2 the usual throws of red-hot stones and scori began and increased every instant4 ,the crater1 viewed through a telescope1 seemed much enlarged by the violence of the explosions on the preceding night2 and the little mountain on the top was entirely gone4 ,about nine1 a most violent report was heard at ,portici and its neighbourhood1 which shook the houses to such a degree as made the inhabitants run out into the streets4 ,many windows were broken1 and walls cracked1 by the concussion of the air on this occasion1 though the noise was but faintly heard at ,naples4 ,in an instant1 a fountain of liquid transparent fire began to rise1 and1 gradually increasing1 arrived at last to the amazing height of ten thousand feet and upwards4 ,puffs of smoke1 as black as can possibly be imagined1 rapidly succeeded one another1 and1 accompanying the red-hot transparent and liquid lava1 interrupted its splendid brightness here and there by patches of the darkest hue4 ,within these puffs of smoke1 at the very moment of emission1 a bright but pale electrical fire was observed playing briskly about in zigzag lines4 ,the wind was south-west1 and1 though gentle1 was sufficient to carry these puffs of smoke out of the column of fire1 and a collection of them by degrees formed a black and extensive curtain behind it2 in other parts of the sky it was perfectly clear1 and the stars bright4 ,a fiery fountain of such immense magnitude1 on the dark ground just mentioned1 made the finest contrast imaginable2 and the blaze of it1 reflected from the surface of the sea1 which was at that time perfectly smooth1 added greatly to this sublime spectacle4 ,the lava1 mixed with stones and scori1 having risen to the amazing height already mentioned1 was partly directed by the wind towards ,ottaiano1 and partly falling1 still red-hot and liquid1 upon the top of ,vesuvius1 covered its whole cone1 as well as that of the summit of ,somma1 and the valley between them4 ,the falling matter being nearly as inflamed and vivid as that which was continually issuing fresh from the crater1 formed with it one complete body of fire1 which could not be less than two miles and a half in breadth1 and of the extraordinary height above mentioned1 casting a heat to the distance of at least six miles round4 ,the brushwood on the mountain of ,somma was soon in a blaze2 and the flame of it being of a different colour1 from the deep red of the matter thrown out by the volcano1 and from the silvery blue of the electrical fire1 still added to the contrast of this most extraordinary scene4 ,the black cloud increasing greatly1 spread over ,naples1 and threatened the city with speedy destruction2 for it was charged with electrical fire1 which kept constantly darting about in bright zigzag lines4 ,this fire1 however1 rarely quitted the cloud1 but usually returned to the great column of fire whence it proceeded2 though once or twice it was seen to fall on the top of ,somma1 and set fire to some dry grass and bushes4 ,fortunately1 the wind carried back the cloud just as it reached the city1 and had begun to occasion great alarm4 ,the column of fire1 however1 still continued1 and diffused such a strong light1 that the most minute objects could be discerned at the distance of ten miles or more from the mountain4 ,mr4 ,morris informed our author1 that at ,sorrento1 which is twelve miles distant from ,vesuvius1 he read the title page of a book by that volcanic light4 ,all this time the miserable inhabitants of ,ottaiano were involved in the utmost distress and danger by the showers of stones which fell upon them1 and which1 had the eruption continued for a longer time1 would most certainly have reduced their town to the same situation with ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,the mountain of ,somma1 at the foot of which the town of ,ottaiano is situated1 hides ,vesuvius from the view of its inhabitants2 so that till the eruption became considerable1 it was not visible to them4 ,on ,sunday night1 when the noise increased1 and the fire began to appear above the mountain of ,somma1 many of the inhabitants flew to the churches1 and others were preparing to quit the town1 when a sudden and violent report was heard2 soon after which1 they found themselves involved in a thick cloud of smoke and ashes1 a horrid clashing noise was heard in the air1 and presently fell a vast shower of stones and large pieces of scori1 some of which were of the diameter of seven or eight feet1 which must have weighed more than #ajjlbs4 before they were broken1 as some of the fragments which ,sir ,william ,hamilton found in the streets still weighed upwards of #fjlbs4 ,when these large vitrified masses either struck against one another in the air1 or fell on the ground1 vivid sparks of fire proceeded from them1 which communicated to every thing that was combustible4 ,these masses were formed of the liquid lava2 the exterior parts of which were become black and porous1 by cooling in their fall through such a vast space2 whilst the interior parts1 less exposed1 retained an extreme heat1 and were perfectly red4 ,in an instant1 the town and country about it were on fire in many parts1 for there were several straw huts in the vineyards1 which had been erected for the watchmen of the grapes1 all of which were burnt to the ground4 ,a great magazine of wood in the heart of the town became one sheet of fire2 and had there been much wind1 the flames must have spread universally1 and the inhabitants have perished in their houses2 for it was impossible for them to make their escape by flight4 ,some1 who attempted it with pillows1 tables1 chairs1 the tops of wine casks1 c4 on their heads1 were either knocked down by the falling masses1 or soon driven to make a speedy retreat under arches1 and in the cellars of their houses4 ,many were wounded1 but only two persons died of their wounds4 ,to add to the horror of the scene1 incessant volcanic lightning was darting its corruscations about the black cloud that surrounded the inhabitants1 and the sulphureous smell and heat would scarcely allow them to draw their breath4 ,in this dreadful situation they remained about twenty-five minutes1 when the volcanic storm ceased all at once1 and ,vesuvius assumed a sullen silence4 ,sometime after the eruption had ceased1 the air continued greatly impregnated with electrical matter4 ,the duke of ,cottosiano told our author1 that having1 about half an hour after the great eruption had ceased1 held a leaden bottle1 armed with a pointed wire1 out at his window at ,naples1 it soon became considerably charged3 but whilst the eruption was in force1 its appearance was too alarming to allow any one to think of such experiments4 ,he was informed also by the prince of ,monte ,mileto1 that his son1 the duke of ,populi1 who was at ,monte ,mileto on the #hth of ,august1 had been alarmed by a shower of cinders that fell there1 some of which he had sent to ,naples1 weighing two ounces2 and that stones of an ounce weight had fallen upon an estate of his1 ten miles farther off4 ,monte ,mileto is about thirty miles from the volcano4 ,the ,abb ,cagliani also related1 that his sister1 a nun in a convent at ,manfredonia1 had written to inquire after him1 imagining that ,naples must have been destroyed1 when they1 at so great a distance1 had been so much alarmed by a shower of ashes which fell on the city at eleven ,p4 ,m4 as to open all the churches1 and go to prayers4 ,as the great eruption began at nine1 these ashes must have travelled #ajj miles in two hours4 ,nothing could be more dismal than the appearance of ,ottaiano after this eruption4 ,many of the houses were unroofed1 and some lay half buried under the black scori and ashes2 all the windows toward the mountain were broken1 and some of the houses themselves burnt2 the streets were choked up with ashes1 and in some narrow places it was not less than four feet deep4 ,a few of the inhabitants1 who had just returned1 were employed in clearing them away1 and piling them up in hillocks1 to get at their ruined houses4 ,the palace of the prince of ,ottaiano is situated on an eminence above the town1 and nearer the mountain4 ,the steps leading up to it were deeply covered with volcanic matter2 the roof was totally destroyed1 and the windows broken2 but the house itself being strongly built1 had not suffered much dilapidation4 ,an incredible number of fragments of lava were thrown out during the eruption1 some of which were of immense magnitude4 ,the largest measured by ,sir ,william ,hamilton was #ajh feet in circumference1 and seventeen in height3 this was thrown at least a quarter of a mile clear of the mouth of the volcano4 ,another1 sixty-six feet in circumference1 and nineteen in height1 being nearly of a spherical figure1 was thrown out at the same time1 and fell near the former3 this last had all the marks of being rounded1 nay1 almost polished1 by continual exposure to rolling torrents1 or the still rougher beat of a sea-shore4 ,our author conjectures that it might be a spherical volcanic salt1 such as that of forty-five feet in circumference mentioned by ,m4 de ,st4 ,fond1 in his ,treatise on ,extinguished ,volcanoes4 ,a third1 of sixteen feet in height1 and ninety-two in circumference1 was carried much farther1 and lay in the valley between ,vesuvius and the ,hermitage3 it appeared1 also1 from the large fragments that surrounded this mass1 that it had been much larger while in the air4 ,vesuvius continued to emit smoke for a considerable time after this great eruption1 so that our author was apprehensive that another would soon ensue2 but from that time nothing comparable to the above has taken place4 ,from the period of this great eruption1 to #aghf1 our informant kept an exact diary of the operations of ,vesuvius1 with drawings2 which shewed1 by the comparative quantity of smoke emitted each time1 the degree of fermentation within the volcano4 ,the operations of these subterraneous fires1 however1 appear to be very capricious and uncertain3 one day there will be the appearance of a violent fermentation1 and the next every thing will be calmed2 but whenever there has been a considerable ejection of scori and cinders1 it has been constantly observed1 that the lava soon made its appearance1 either by boiling over the crater1 or forcing its way through the crevices in the conical part of the mountain4 ,in the year #agid1 there was a very tremendous eruption1 and the mischief done was very considerable3 the lava covered and totally destroyed #ejjj acres of rich vineyards and cultivated land1 and drove the inhabitants of ,torre del ,greco from the town1 a great part of the houses being either buried1 or so injured as to be uninhabitable2 the damage done in the vineyards by the ashes was also immense4 ,eruptions of this volcano also took place in #ahjd and #ahje2 but this article will conclude by noticing only the eruption that happened on the evening of the #cast of ,may1 #ahjf1 when a bright flame rose from the mountain to the height of about #fjj feet1 sinking and rising alternately1 and affording so clear a light1 that a letter might have been read at the distance of a league round the mountain4 ,on the following morning1 without any earthquake preceding1 as had been customary1 the volcano began to eject inflamed substances from three new mouths1 pretty near to each other1 and about #fej feet from the summit4 ,the lava took the direction of ,torre del ,greco and ,annunciata1 approaching ,portici on the road leading from ,naples to ,pompeii4 ,throughout the whole of the #b;d of ,june1 a noise was heard1 resembling that of two armies engaged1 when the discharges of artillery and musketry are very brisk4 ,the current of lava now resembled a wall of glass in a state of fusion2 sparks and flashes issuing from it from time to time with a powerful detonation4 ,vines1 trees1 houses1 in short1 whatever objects it encountered on its way1 were instantly overthrown and destroyed4 ,in one part1 where it met with the resistance of a wall1 it formed a cascade of fire4 ,in a few days1 ,portici1 ,resina1 and ,torre del ,greco1 were covered with ashes thrown out by the volcano2 and on the #ith1 the two former places were deluged with a thick black rain1 consisting of a species of mud1 filled with sulphureous particles4 ,on the #ast of ,july1 the ancient crater had wholly disappeared1 being filled with ashes and lava1 and a new one was formed in the eastern part of the mountain1 about #fjj feet in depth1 and having about the same width at the opening4 ,several persons1 on the above day1 descended about half way down this new mouth1 and remained half an hour very near the flames1 admiring the spectacle presented by the liquid lava1 which bubbled up at the bottom of the crater1 like the fused matter in a glasshouse4 ,this eruption continued until ,september1 made great ravages1 and was considered as one of the most terrible that occurred within the memory of the oldest inhabitants4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton observes1 that the inhabitants of ,naples1 in general1 pay so little attention to the operations of this volcano1 that many of its eruptions pass unnoticed by at least two-thirds of them4 ,it is remarkable to observe1 with what readiness and sang froid they inhabit the towns and villas on the brow of the mountain1 and how quickly they return to spots which have suffered the most severely4 ,the inhabitants are not much alarmed by a stream of lava1 which moves slowly1 from which they can always remove1 and carry off their moveable property2 their greatest danger consists in the clouds of burning ashes1 which fly to a great distance1 and the fall of which can neither be anticipated nor avoided4 ,,mount ,,hecla4--,this is a volcano of ,iceland1 and one of those whose operations are the most powerful of any in the world4 ,it was visited in #agbb1 by ,dr4 ,van ,troil1 a ,swedish gentleman1 together with ,mr4 7afterwards ,sir ,joseph7 ,banks1 ,dr4 ,solander1 and ,dr4 ,james ,lind1 of ,edinburgh4 ,on their first landing1 they found a tract of land sixty or seventy miles in extent1 entirely ruined by lava1 which appeared to have been in the highest state of liquefaction4 ,having undertaken a journey to the top of the mountain1 they travelled from #cjj to #cfj ,english miles1 over an uninterrupted tract of lava1 and had at length the pleasure of being the first who had arrived at the summit of the mountain4 ,hecla1 according to their accounts1 is situated in the south part of the island1 about four miles from the sea coast2 and is divided into three parts at the top1 the middle point being the highest4 ,from an exact observation with ,ramsden's barometer1 it is #ejjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,they were obliged to quit their horses at the first opening from which the fire had burst4 ,they describe this as a place with lofty walls and high glazed cliffs1 unlike any thing which they had ever seen before4 ,a little higher up they found a large quantity of grit and stones2 and still farther1 another opening1 which1 though not deep1 descended lower than that of the highest point4 ,here1 they imagined1 they plainly discerned the effects of boiling water2 though not far from thence the mountain was covered with snow1 excepting some spots1 which difference they perceived to be occasioned by the hot vapour issuing from the crevices in the mountain4 ,as they ascended towards the top1 they found the spots become larger2 and about #bjj yards below the summit1 a hole about a yard and a half in diameter was observed1 whence issued so hot a steam1 that they could not measure the degree of heat with the thermometer4 ,the cold began now to be very intense2 ,fahrenheit's thermometer1 which at the foot of the mountain was at fifty-four1 now fell to twenty-four2 the wind also became so violent1 that they were sometimes obliged to lie down1 for fear of being blown down the most dreadful precipices4 ,on the very summit1 they experienced at the same time a high degree of heat and of cold2 for1 in the air1 ,fahrenheit's thermometer stood constantly at twenty-four1 but when set on the ground1 rose to #aec2 the barometer stood at #bb4bdg4 ,though they wished very much to remain here for some time1 they found that they could not effect their purpose with safety2 they therefore descended quickly4 ,the mountain seems to be made up1 not of lava1 but of sand1 grit1 and ashes2 which are thrown up with discoloured stones1 partly melted by the fire4 ,several sorts of pumice stones were found on it1 among which was one with some sulphur4 ,sometimes the pumice was so much burnt1 that it was as light as tow4 ,its form and colour were sometimes very fine1 but at the same time so soft1 that it was difficult to remove it from one place to another4 ,the common lava was found in both large and small pieces2 as well as a quantity of black jasper1 burned at the extremities1 and resembling trees and branches4 ,some slate1 of a strong red colour1 was observed among the stones thrown out by the volcano4 ,in one place the lava had taken the form of chimney-stacks half broken down4 ,as they descended the mountain1 they observed three openings4 ,in one1 every thing looked as red as brick2 from another1 the lava had flowed in a stream about fifty yards broad1 and1 after proceeding some length1 had divided into three large branches4 ,further on they perceived an opening1 at the bottom of which was a mount in form of a sugar loaf2 in throwing up of which1 the fire appeared to have exhausted itself4 ,the reason that no one before them had ever ascended to the top of this mountain1 was partly owing to superstition1 and partly to the steepness and difficulty of the ascent1 which was in a great measure removed by an eruption in #agff4 ,we now proceed to describe the celebrated ,,mount ,,etna4-- ,now ,etna roars with dreadful ruins nigh1 ,now hurls a bursting cloud of cinders high1 ,involv'd in smoky whirlwinds to the sky2 ,with loud displosion to the starry frame1 ,shoots fiery globes and furious floods of flame2 ,now from her bellowing caverns burst away ,vast piles of melted rocks in open day4 ,her shatter'd entrails wide the mountain throws1 ,and deep as hell her flaming centre glows4 ,warton4 ,etna is a famous volcanic or burning mountain in ,sicily1 situated on the eastern coast1 not far from ,catania4 ,the height of this mountain is more than #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 and its circumference at the base is #ahj miles4 ,over its sides are seventy-seven cities1 towns1 and villages1 the number of the inhabitants of which is about #aae1jjj4 ,from ,catania to the summit1 the distance is thirty miles2 and the traveller must pass through three distinct climates1 which may be denominated the torrid1 the temperate1 and the frigid4 ,accordingly1 the whole mountain is divided into three distinct regions1 called the fertile1 the woody1 and the barren4 ,the first1 or lowest region1 extends through a beautiful ascent from twelve to eighteen miles4 ,the city of ,catania1 and several villages1 are situated in this first zone1 and it abounds in pastures1 orchards1 and various kinds of fruit trees4 ,its great fertility is ascribed to the decomposition of lava1 and of those vegetables which have been introduced by the arts of agriculture1 and the exertions of human industry4 ,the figs and fruit in general1 in this part1 are reckoned the finest in ,sicily4 ,the lava of this region flows from a number of small mountains1 which are dispersed over the immense declivity of ,etna4 ,the woody region1 or temperate zone1 extends from eight to ten miles in a direct line1 towards the top of the mountain2 and comprehends a surface of about forty or forty-five square leagues4 ,it forms a zone of the brightest green all around the mountain1 which exhibits a pleasing contrast to its white and hoary summits4 ,it is called the woody region1 because it abounds with oaks1 beeches1 and firs4 ,the soil is similar to that of the lower region2 the air is cool and refreshing1 and every breeze is loaded with a thousand perfumes1 the whole ground being covered over with the richest aromatic plants4 ,many parts of this space are the most heavenly spots upon earth2 and if ,etna resemble ,hell within1 it may with equal justice be said to resemble ,paradise without4 ,the upper region1 called the frigid zone1 is marked out by a circle of snow and ice4 ,the surface of this zone is for the most part flat and even1 and the approach to it is indicated by the decline of vegetation1 by uncovered rocks of lava and heaps of sand1 by near views of an expanse of snow and ice1 as well as of torrents of smoke issuing from the crater of the mountain1 and by the difficulty and danger of advancing amidst streams of melted snow1 sheets of ice1 and gusts of chilling wind4 ,the curious traveller1 however1 thinks himself amply recompensed1 upon gaining the summit1 for the peril which he has encountered4 ,at night1 the number of stars seem increased1 and their light appears brighter than usual4 ,the lustre of the milky-way is like a pure flame1 that shoots across the heavens1 and with the naked eye we may observe clusters of stars totally invisible in the lower regions4 ,dr4 ,woodward mentions the existence of volcanoes as a special favour of ,providence1 and says1 ,there are scarcely any countries1 that are much annoyed with earthquakes1 that have not one of these fiery vents4 ,and these are constantly all in flames whenever any earthquake happens1 as they disgorge that fire1 which1 whilst underneath1 was the cause of the disaster4 ,indeed1 7saith he17 were it not for these diverticula1 whereby it thus gains an exit1 it would rage in the bowels of the earth much more furiously1 and make greater havock than it now does4 ,so that1 though those countries where there are such volcanoes are usually more or less troubled with earthquakes2 yet1 were these volcanoes wanting1 they would be much more annoyed with them than they now are1 yea1 in all probability1 to that degree as to render the earth1 for a vast space around them1 perfectly uninhabitable4 ,in one word1 so beneficial are these to the territories where they are1 that there do not want instances of some which have been rescued from earthquakes by the breaking forth of a new volcano there2 this continually discharging that matter1 which being till then barricaded up and imprisoned in the bowels of the earth1 was the occasion of very great and frequent calamities4 ,in every case1 where we cannot discern the beneficent tendency of particular phenomena in the universe1 we ought to attribute this to our limited capacities1 and not arraign the almighty ,sovereign4 ,however dreadful and destructive subterraneous fires may appear2 on proper reflection1 it may be inferred that they are as necessary in promoting and sustaining the operations of this part of the universe1 as the natural heat in men's bodies is to the preservation and support of their being4 ,,chap4 ,,xlii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,grottos1 ,,caves1 c4 ,grotto in ,south ,africa--,grotto del ,cani--,grotto of ,antiparos--,grotto of ,guacharo--,snow ,grotto--,cave of ,fingal--,cave near ,mexico--,the ,nitre ,caves of ,missouri--,okey ,hole--,borrowdale--,needle's ,eye4 ----------------------------,sweet interchange ,of hill and valley1 rivers1 woods1 and plains1 ,now land1 now sea1 and shores with forests crown'd4 ,milton4 ,,grotto ,,in ,,south ,,africa4 ,from ,thom's account of his ,journey to ,south ,africa4--,in the country of ,kango is the greatest natural curiosity of ,south ,africa1 a grotto of unknown extent4 ,this ,i visited1 and spent four or five hours in it4 ,it was generally supposed that the end of it had been discovered1 but we proved it to be still unknown2 though1 from the information ,i received1 we proceeded into it further than any others1 and our entrance into the third newly discovered chambers1 or cave1 was only prevented by a descent of fourteen feet4 ,this great and astonishing work of ,god is divided into various apartments1 from fourteen to seventy feet in length1 and eight to one hundred in breadth4 ,by measurement1 ,i found that we had proceeded about nine hundred feet into the cavern of a mountain1 of five hundred feet in perpendicular height2 the grotto is about two hundred feet above the level of the river running by the hill4 ,the stalactites1 united or disunited1 form a hundred figures1 so that1 without any effort of imagination1 nature would seem here to have assumed the province of art3 for her canopies1 organs1 pulpits1 vast candles1 immense pillars1 heads even of men and animals1 meet the astonished visitor on all sides2 so that he supposes himself in a new part of the universe4 ,eye1 thought1 and feeling1 are equally overpowered2 and1 to complete this remarkable assemblage1 there are various baths1 or cisterns of water1 as clear as crystal1 divided by partitions1 as if a most ingenious sculptor had wrought for some weeks in this subterraneous place of nature4 ,ten young colonists1 with two slave guides1 and my servant1 were with me4 ,we had a flambeau and a number of large candles2 but even these did not chase away the darkness which eclipsed the beauties of this great work of nature1 which had been forming from age to age1 and was first discovered in the year #aghh4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance1 that no traveller appears to have visited it1 or the various sub-districts which ,i have described above1 since that time till we entered it4 ,,the ,,grotto ,,del ,,cani4--,this is a little cavern near ,pozzuoli1 four leagues from ,naples3 the air contained in it is of a mephitical or noxious quality2 it is in truth carbonic acid gas1 whence also it is called ,bocca ,venenosa1 the ,poisonous ,mouth4 ,two miles from ,naples1 7says ,dr4 ,mead17 just by the ,lago de ,agnano1 is a celebrated mofeta1 commonly called ,la ,grotto del ,cani1 which is destructive of all animal life that comes within the reach of its vapours4 ,it is a small grotto1 about eight feet high1 twelve long1 and six broad2 from the ground arises a thin1 subtile1 warm fume1 visible enough to a discerning eye1 which does not spring up in little parcels here and there1 but in one continued stream1 covering the whole surface of the bottom of the cave2 having this remarkable difference from common vapours1 that it does not1 like smoke1 disperse into the air1 but quickly after its rise falls back again1 and returns to the earth1 or hovers to a certain height1 above which it never rises4 ,this fact is ascertained by the colour of the sides of the grotto1 which1 as high as the vapour ascends1 is of a darkish green1 but above this it has only the appearance of common earth4 ,as ,i found no inconvenience from standing in it myself1 so ,i believe no animal1 if its head were kept above this mark1 would be in the least injured4 ,but when1 as is often the case1 a dog1 or any other creature1 is forcibly kept below it1 or the animal is so small that it cannot hold its head above this noxious vapour1 it presently loses all voluntary motion1 falls down as dead1 or in a swoon2 the limbs at first become convulsed and trembling1 till at last no more signs of life appear1 than a very weak and almost insensible beating of the heart and arteries2 which1 if the animal is left a little longer1 quickly ceases also1 and then its fate is irrevocable2 but if it be snatched out and laid in the air1 it soon revives1 and1 if thrown into the adjacent lake1 resuscitation is still more rapid4 ,we now proceed to the famous ,,grotto ,,of ,,antiparos4--,this grotto takes its name from the small island in which it is situated4 ,the following is ,mr4 ,charles ,saunders's account of his descent into this celebrated grotto4 ,its entrance lies in the side of a rock1 and is a spacious arch1 formed of rough crags1 overhung with fantastic wreaths of climbing shrubs4 ,our party amounted to six1 attended by the same number of guides1 furnished with lighted torches4 ,we presently lost every ray of daylight1 but following our leaders1 we entered into a low narrow passage1 lined on all sides with stones1 that1 from the reflection of the torches1 glittered like diamonds1 and displayed the colours of the rainbow4 ,at the end of this passage1 our guides desired us to tie a rope about our waists1 and then led us to the brink of a frightful precipice4 ,the descent was steep1 and the place dark and gloomy4 ,the exchange of the lane of diamonds for this abyss of darkness was very unwelcome2 but ,i had travelled far to gratify my curiosity1 and ,i hazarded the event4 ,the rope being held by the guides at top1 ,i was first let down1 and1 after dangling a minute or two1 reached the bottom with my feet4 ,my friends1 encouraged by my example1 followed2 and we pursued our way under a roof of ragged rocks for thirty yards1 hoping every moment to see the opening of the expected grotto2 but our guides plainly told us we had far to go1 and much to encounter1 before we should reach it1 and those who wanted courage and perseverance had better return4 ,none of us1 however1 would act so cowardly a part1 though the sight of another precipice1 much deeper and more formidable than the first1 almost shook our resolution4 ,by the light of the torches1 we could perceive that we were to plunge into a place encumbered with vast pieces of rough rugged rocks1 and that we should be forced sometimes to climb over1 and sometimes to creep under them2 while on the other side were numerous dark caverns1 like so many wells1 which if one's foot should slip1 would swallow us up4 ,two of our guides went before us1 and as we stood on the edge1 we were terrified to see them go lower1 till they appeared at a frightful depth beneath us4 ,when they were at the bottom1 they hallooed to us1 and we very reluctantly followed4 ,in the midst of the way1 we came to a place where a rock that was perpendicular1 and a vast cavern1 on one side threatened us with destruction1 whilst a wall of rugged rock seemed impassable on the other4 ,here again we hesitated whether to proceed or not3 but the guides assured us they had often gone the same way with safety1 we therefore took fresh resolution1 and on we went to a corner1 where was placed an old1 slippery1 rotten ladder1 which we ventured to descend4 ,at the bottom we perceived ourselves at the entrance of another passage1 which was rather dismal1 but not wholly without beauty4 ,a wide gradual descent led us into a noble vault1 with a bottom of fine1 green1 glossy marble1 over which we were to slide on our seats2 and it was with difficulty we could keep ourselves from going too fast1 and tumbling over one another4 ,the walls and arch of the roof is as smooth in most places as if chiselled by a skilful workman1 and are formed of a glistering red and white granite1 supported in several places with columns of a deep blood-coloured shining porphyry4 ,here1 to our terror1 we lost sight of the two guides that went before us1 and at the end of the passage found ourselves at the brink of another precipice1 the bottom of which we reached by the help of a ladder1 not much better than the former4 ,had not the dread of falling taken up my attention1 ,i should have admired many of the natural ornaments of this obscure cavity4 ,the rock to which the ladder was fixed was one mass of red marble1 covered with white branches of rock crystal1 and might be compared1 from the hue of the rock behind1 to an immense sheet of amethysts4 ,from the foot of this ladder1 we were compelled to slide1 face downwards1 through another shallow vault of polished green and white marble1 for about twenty feet2 and we then rejoined our guides1 who prudently gave us some refreshment1 to enable us to face the dangers we had yet to encounter4 ,we now advanced through a narrow slanting passage of rough coarse stone1 so much resembling snakes curled round1 that nothing was wanting but a hissing sound1 to make us fancy that thousands of those noisome reptiles surrounded us4 ,there was still another terrible precipice to pass2 but as we heard that it was the last1 we made no hesitation in descending the ladder4 ,after this1 we proceeded upon even ground for about forty yards1 when we were again entreated by our guides to fasten the ropes about our waists2 not for the purpose of suspending us over a height1 but as a means of security against the lakes and deep waters that are numerous in this part of the cavern4 ,at length we reached the last passage1 the dismal gloom of which might furnish images for a poetical description of ,tartarus4 ,the sides and roof were formed of black stone1 and the way was so rugged1 that we were often obliged to slide upon our backs4 ,the angles of the rocks cut our clothes1 and bruised our flesh in a miserable manner4 ,though ,i believed myself so near the object of my curiosity1 ,i wished sincerely that ,i had never been allured1 by the accounts of travellers1 to venture into such a horrible place1 when suddenly we lost sight of four out of our six guides4 ,the want of their torches increased the melancholy gloom2 and the supposition that they had fallen into some of the black pools of water that abound here1 added to the apprehension for our own safety1 as well as concern for their fate4 ,the two remaining guides assured us1 that their companions were safe1 and that we should soon be rewarded for all that we had suffered1 if we would but advance4 ,our passage was now become very narrow1 and we were obliged to crawl on all fours over rugged rocks1 when1 hearing a little hissing noise1 in an instant we were left in utter darkness4 ,to our inexpressible terror1 the guides told us that they had accidentally dropped their torches into one of the pools2 but that there was no danger in crawling forward1 as we should soon overtake their fellows4 ,i now gave myself up for lost1 and expected that ,i must perish in this dreadful cavern4 ,whilst ,i thus yielded to despair1 one of the guides came to me1 blindfolded me with his hand1 and dragged me a few paces forward4 ,i imagined his design was to rob and murder me2 however1 in the midst of my panic1 he lifted me over a huge stone1 and set me on my feet1 withdrawing his hand from my eyes at the same time4 ,what words can express my transport and astonishment3 instead of darkness and despair1 all was splendour and magnificence4 ,the six guides welcomed me into the ,grotto of ,antiparos4 ,those whom we had missed1 only went before to prepare the grotto for our reception1 which was illuminated with fifty torches1 and produced an effect no words can describe4 ,imagine yourself in an arched cavern1 #dhe yards deep1 #abj yards wide1 #aac long1 and1 as near as we could measure by the eye1 about #fj yards high1 lined on every part with brilliant crystallized white marble1 and well illuminated4 ,the roof is a grand vaulted arch1 hung all over with pendent icicles of shining white marble1 some of them ten feet long1 and covered with clusters of the same material1 resembling festoons and garlands of flowers1 glittering like precious stones4 ,from the sides of the arch proceed fantastic forms of the same glittering spar1 that fancy can easily shape into trees1 entwined with flowers and climbing shrubs2 and in some parts the congelations have taken the appearance of the meanders of a winding stream4 ,the floor1 though rough and uneven1 is full of crystals of all colours4 ,it is impossible to convey any adequate idea of the splendours of this natural temple1 the ornaments of which are formed of the droppings of water1 that1 in great length of time1 become congealed into a kind of brilliant spar4 ,having contemplated this charming spectacle with delight1 and raised our aspiration to that ,being1 whose creative powers are displayed in the most obscure1 as well as in the most visible part of his works1 we returned1 impressed with the conviction1 that no good can be attained without difficulty and perseverance4 ,,the ,,grotto ,,of ,,guacharo4--,the gulf of ,cariacho is frequented by innumerable flocks of marine birds1 of various kinds4 ,when the natives wish to catch any of these wild fowl1 7says ,m4 ,lavayse17 they go into the water1 having their heads covered each with a calabash1 in which they make two holes for seeing through4 ,they thus swim towards the birds1 throwing a handful of maize on the water from time to time1 which becomes scattered on the surface4 ,the ducks and other birds approach to feed on the maize1 and at that moment the swimmer seizes them by the feet1 pulls them under water1 and wrings their necks before they can make the least movement1 or1 by their noise1 spread an alarm among the flock4 ,the swimmer attaches those he has caught to his girdle1 and he generally takes as many as are necessary for his family4 ,amongst the natural curiosities of this neighbourhood1 is a lake full of crocodiles1 and various other reptiles1 one of which1 if we are to believe a common tradition of the people1 resembles the winged dragon of the poets4 ,in going from ,carupano to ,guiria1 our author passed through the smiling valley of ,rio ,corbe1 watered by numerous streams1 and which he calls the ,temple and ,compagna of ,venezuela4 ,speaking of the celebrated ,grotto of ,guacharo1 in the mountains of ,bergantin1 ,m4 ,lavayse observes1 ,in every country the same causes have produced similar effects on the imagination of our species4 ,the grotto of ,guacharo is1 in the opinion of the ,indians1 a place of trial and expiation3 souls1 when separated from their bodies1 go to this cavern2 those men who die without reproach do not remain in it1 but immediately ascend1 to reside with the great ,manitou in the dwellings of the blessed2 and such men as have committed but slight faults1 of a venial nature1 are kept there for a longer or shorter period1 according to their crime2 while those of the wicked are retained there eternally4 ,immediately after the death of their parents and friends1 the ,indians proceed to the entrance of this cavern1 to listen to their groans4 ,if they think they hear their voices1 they also lament1 and address a prayer to the ,great ,spirit1 and another to the devil1 ,muboya2 after which they drown their grief with intoxicating beverages3 but1 if they do not hear the voices of their friends1 they express their joy by dances and festivals4 ,in all this1 there is but one circumstance that creates surprise2 it is1 that the ,indian priests have not availed themselves of such credulity to augment their revenues4 ,many ,indians1 though otherwise converted to ,christianity1 have not ceased to believe1 that to be in the cave of ,guacharo is synonymous with dying4 ,thus1 in the majestic forests of ,south ,america1 as in the ancient civilization of ,hindoostan2 under the harsh climates of the north of ,europe and ,canada1 as in the burning regions of ,africa2 in all parts1 men of every colour are distinguished from other animals by this irresistible foreboding of a future life1 in which an ,omnipotent ,being recompenses the good and punishes evil doers4 ,whatever may be the modifications1 differences1 or absurdities1 with which imagination1 ignorance1 and greedy imposture1 have enveloped this belief1 it appears to be one of the strongest moral proofs of the identity of our species1 and to be a natural consequence of reflection4--,sketches of ,south ,america4 ,we will now beg the attention of our readers1 while we relate some particulars respecting ,,the ,,snow ,,grotto4--,this is an excavation made by the waters on the side of ,mount ,etna1 by making their way under the layers of lava1 and carrying away the bed of pozzolano below them4 ,it occurred to the proprietor1 that this place was very suitable for a magazine of snow2 for in ,sicily1 at ,naples1 and particularly at ,malta1 they are obliged1 for want of ice1 to make use of snow for cooling their wine1 sherbet1 and other liquors1 and for making sweetmeats4 ,this grotto was hired1 or bought1 by the knights of ,malta1 who having neither ice nor snow on the burning rock which they inhabit1 have hired several caverns on ,etna1 into which1 people whom they employ1 collect and preserve quantities of snow1 to be sent to ,malta when needed4 ,this grotto has therefore been repaired within1 at the expense of the order2 flights of steps are cut into it1 as well as two openings from above1 through which they throw in the snow1 and by means of which the grotto is enlightened4 ,above the grotto they have also levelled a piece of ground of considerable extent3 this they have inclosed with thick and lofty walls1 so that when the winds1 which at this elevation blow with great violence1 carry the snow from the higher parts of the mountain1 and deposit it in this inclosure1 it is retained and amassed by the walls4 ,the people then remove it into the grotto1 through the two openings2 and it is there laid up and preserved in such a manner as to resist the force of the summer heats1 as the layers of lava1 with which the grotto is arched above1 prevent them from making any impression4 ,when the season for exporting the snow comes on1 it is put into large bags1 into which it is pressed as closely as possible2 it is then carried by men out of the grotto1 and laid upon mules1 which convey it to the shore1 where small vessels are waiting to carry it away4 ,but before those lumps of snow are put into bags1 they are wrapped in fresh leaves2 so that while they are conveyed from the grotto to the shore1 the leaves may prevent the rays of the sun from making any impression upon them4 ,the ,sicilians carry on a considerable trade in snow1 which affords employment to some thousands of men1 horses1 and mules4 ,they have magazines of it on the summits of their loftiest mountains1 from which they distribute it through all their cities1 towns1 and houses2 for every person in the island makes use of the snow4 ,they consider the practice of cooling their liquors as absolutely necessary for the preservation of health2 and in a climate1 the heat of which is constantly relaxing the fibres1 cooling liquors1 by communicating a proper tone to the fibres of the stomach1 must greatly strengthen them for the performance of their functions4 ,in this climate a scarcity of snow is no less dreaded than a scarcity of corn1 wine1 or oil4 ,we are informed by a gentleman who was at ,syracuse in #aggg1 when there was a scarcity of snow1 that the people of the town learned that a small vessel laden with that article was passing the coast3 without a moment's deliberation1 they ran in a body to the shore1 and demanded her cargo2 which when the crew refused to deliver up1 the ,syracusans attacked and took1 though with the loss of several men4 ,the next object that claims our regard is ,,the ,,cave ,,of ,,fingal1 or ,,an-,,ua-,,vine1 ,,in ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,staffa4 ,from ,faujas ,st4 ,fond's ,travels in ,england1 ,scotland1 and the ,hebrides4 ,this superb and magnificent monument of a grand subterraneous combustion1 the date of which has been lost in the lapse of ages1 presents an appearance of order and regularity so wonderful1 that it is difficult for the coldest observer1 and a person the least sensible to the phenomena which relate to the convulsions of the globe1 not to be singularly astonished by this prodigy1 which may be considered as a kind of natural palace4 ,to shelter myself from all critical observation on the emotions which ,i experienced while contemplating the most extraordinary of any cavern known1 ,i shall borrow the expressions of him who first described it4 ,those who are acquainted with the character of this illustrious naturalist1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 will not be apt to accuse him of being liable to be hurried away by the force of a too ardent imagination2 but the sensation which he felt at the view of this magnificent scene was such1 that it was impossible to escape a degree of just enthusiasm4 ,the impatience which every body felt to see the wonders we have heard so largely described1 prevented our morning's rest2 every one was up and in motion before the break of day1 and with the first light arrived at the south-west part of the island1 the seat of the most remarkable pillars4 ,we were no sooner arrived at this place1 than we were struck with a scene of magnificence which exceeded our expectation1 though formed as we thought upon the most sanguine foundations4 ,the whole of that end of the island is supported by ranges of natural pillars1 mostly above fifty feet high1 standing in natural colonnades1 according as the bays or points of land formed themselves1 upon a firm basis of solid shapeless masses of rock4 ,in a short time we arrived at the mouth of the cave1 the most magnificent1 ,i suppose1 that has ever been described by travellers4 ,the mind can hardly form an idea of any thing more magnificent than such a space1 supported on each side by ranges of columns1 and roofed by the bottoms of those from which they have been broken1 in order to form it1 between the angles of which a yellow stalagmitic matter has exuded2 this serves to define the angles precisely1 and at the same time vary the colour with a great deal of elegance1 and1 to render it still more agreeable1 the whole is lighted from without2 so that the farthest extremity is very plainly seen from the outside1 and the air within1 being agitated by the flux and reflux of the tides1 is perfectly dry and wholesome1 entirely free from the vapours with which natural caverns in general abound4 ,the following description of the same place by ,mr4 ,troil1 is also worthy of our notice3-- ,how splendid 7says this prelate7 do the porticos of the ancients appear in our eyes1 from the ostentatious magnificence of the descriptions we have received of them6 and with what admiration are we seized1 on seeing even the colonnades of our modern edifices6 but when we behold the cave of ,fingal1 formed by nature in the isle of ,staffa1 it is no longer possible to make a comparison1 and we are forced to acknowledge that this piece of architecture1 executed by nature1 far surpasses that of the ,louvre1 that of ,st4 ,peter at ,rome1 and even what remains of ,palmira and ,pestum1 and all that the genius1 the taste1 and the luxury of the ,greeks1 were ever capable of inventing4--,letters on ,iceland4 ,such also was the impression made by the cave of ,fingal1 on ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 and on the ,bishop of ,linckoeping4-- ,i have seen many ancient volcanoes1 and have given descriptions of several superb basaltic causeways and delightful caverns in the midst of lavas2 but ,i have never found any thing which comes near this1 or can bear any comparison with it1 either for the admirable regularity of the columns1 the height of the arch1 the situation1 the forms1 the elegance of this production of nature1 or for its resemblance to the masterpieces of art1 though this had no share in its construction4 ,it is therefore not at all surprising that tradition should have made it the abode of a hero4 ,this amazing monument of nature is thirty-five feet wide at the entrance1 fifty-six feet high1 and a hundred and forty feet long4 ,the upright columns which compose the frontispiece1 are of the most perfect regularity4 ,their height1 to the beginning of the curvature1 is forty-five feet4 ,the arch is composed of two unequal segments of a circle1 which form a sort of natural pediment4 ,the mass which crowns1 or rather which forms the roof1 is twenty feet thick in the lowest part4 ,it consists of small prisms1 more or less regular1 inclining in all directions1 closely united and cemented underneath1 and in the joints1 with a yellowish white calcareous matter1 and some zeolitic infiltrations1 which give this fine ceiling the appearance of mozaic work4 ,the sea reaches to the very extremity of the cave4 ,it is fifteen feet deep at the mouth2 and its waves1 incessantly agitated1 beat with great noise against the bottom and walls of the cavern1 and every where break into foam4 ,the light also penetrates through its whole length1 diminishing gradually inwards1 and exhibiting the most wonderful varieties of colour4 ,the right side of the entrance presents1 on its exterior part1 a vast amphitheatre1 formed of different ranges of large truncated prisms1 the top of which may be easily walked on4 ,several of these prisms are jointed1 that is1 concave on the one side1 and convex on the other2 and some of them are divided by simple transverse intersections4 ,these prisms1 consisting of a very durable and pure black basaltes1 are from one to three feet in diameter4 ,their forms are triangular1 tetrapedral1 pentagonal1 and hexagonal2 and some of them have seven or eight sides4 ,i saw several large prisms1 on the truncatures of which are distinctly traced the outlines of a number of smaller prisms2 that is1 these prisms are formed of a basaltes1 which has a tendency to subdivide itself likewise into prisms4 ,i had before observed the same phenomenon in the basaltic prisms of ,vivarais4 ,the cave can be entered only by proceeding along the platform on the right side1 which ,i have mentioned above4 ,but the way grows very narrow and difficult as it advances2 for this sort of interior gallery1 raised about fifteen feet above the level of the sea1 is formed entirely of truncated perpendicular prisms of a greater or less height1 between which considerable address is necessary to choose one's steps1 the passages being so strait and so slippery1 owing to the droppings from the roof1 that ,i took the very prudent resolution1 suggested by our two guides1 to proceed barefooted1 and take advantage of their assistance1 especially in a particular place1 where ,i had room only to plant one foot1 whilst ,i clung with my right hand to a large prism to support myself1 and held the hand of one of the guides by the other4 ,this difficult operation took place at the darkest part of the cave2 and one half of the body was at the time suspended over an abyss1 where the sea dashed itself into a cloud of foam4 ,i was desirous of penetrating to the farthest extremity1 and ,i accomplished my purpose1 though not without considerable difficulty and danger4 ,i more than once found my attention distracted from the observations which ,i was happy to have an opportunity of making1 to the thought of how ,i should get back again4 ,as ,i drew near to the bottom of the cave1 the bold balcony1 on which ,i walked1 expanded into a large sloping space1 composed of thousands of broken vertical columns4 ,the bottom was bounded by a compact range of pillars of an unequal height1 and resembling the front of an organ4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that at the time when ,mr4 ,troil visited the cave1 the sea1 by one of those uncommon chances which do not happen once in ten years1 was so calm1 that it permitted him to enter with a boat4 ,at the very bottom of the cave1 7says he17 and a little above the surface of the water1 there is a kind of small cave1 which sends forth a very agreeable noise every time that the water rushes into it4--,letters on ,iceland4 ,as the sea was far from being completely still when ,i visited it1 ,i heard a noise of a very different nature every time that the waves1 in a rapid succession1 broke against its bottom4 ,this sound resembled that which is produced by striking a large hard body with great weight and force against another hard body in a subterraneous cavity4 ,the shock was so violent1 that it was heard at some distance1 and the whole cavern seemed to shake with it4 ,being close to the place whence the sound issued1 and where the water is not so deep1 upon the retreat of the wave1 ,i endeavoured to discover the cause of this terrible collision4 ,i soon observed1 that1 a little below the basis which supported the organ-fronted colonnade1 there was an aperture which formed the outlet of a hollow1 or perhaps a small cave4 ,it was impossible to penetrate into this cavity2 but it may be presumed that the tremendous noise was occasioned by a broken rock1 driven by the violent impetuosity of the surge against its sides4 ,by the boiling motion of the water1 however1 in the same place1 it is evident that there are several other small passages1 through which it issues1 after rushing into the principal aperture in a mass4 ,it is therefore not impossible1 when the sea is not sufficiently agitated to put the imprisoned rock in motion1 that the air1 strongly compressed by the weight of the water1 which is in incessant fluctuation1 should1 on rushing out by the small lateral passages1 produce a particularly strange sound4 ,it might then be truly regarded as an organ created by the hand of nature2 and this circumstance would fully explain why the ancient and real name of this cave1 in the ,erse language1 is1 ,the ,melodious ,cave4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 in the description which he has given us of the cave of ,staffa1 says1 that between the angles a yellow stalagmitic matter has exuded1 which seemed to define the angles precisely4 ,that is true2 but the learned naturalist has not told us the nature of this yellowish matter4 ,mr4 ,troil mentions it also3 he says1 that the colour of the columns is a dark gray1 but that the joints are filled with a quartzose stalactites1 which distinctly marks the separation of the columns1 and which1 by the variety of its tints1 has the most agreeable effect on the eye4 ,on breaking off several pieces of it1 which it is not very easy to do1 owing to the height of the vault1 ,i found that it was nothing but a calcareous matter1 coloured by the decomposition of the iron of the lava1 and intermixed with a little argillaceous earth4 ,this stalactites has also very little adhesion1 and is1 in general1 of an earthy nature4 ,in several of the prisms ,i found some globules of zeolites1 but in very small quantity4 ,i also broke off from between two prisms1 which were so apart as to admit of introducing my hand1 an incrustation in which the white and transparent zeolites was formed into very perfect small cubical crystals1 several of which were coloured red by the ferruginous lime arising from the decomposition of the lava4 ,but ,i must repeat1 that zeolites is very rare in this cave1 and having myself broken off all the specimens that ,i was able to see1 ,i doubt whether those who may visit the place after me will find any quantity of it4 ,dimensions of the ,cave of ,fingal4--,breadth of the entrance1 taken at the mouth and at the level of the sea1 thirty-five feet2 height1 from the level of the sea to the pitch of the arch1 fifty-six feet2 depth of the sea1 opposite to the entrance1 and twelve feet distant from it1 at noon of the #bgth of ,september1 fifteen feet2 thickness of the roof1 measured from the pitch of the arch without to its highest part1 twenty feet2 interior length of the cave from the entrance to the extremity1 one hundred and forty feet2 height of the tallest columns on the right side of the entrance1 forty-five feet2 depth of the sea in the interior part of the cave1 ten feet nine inches1 in some places eight feet1 and towards the bottom somewhat less4 ,,cave ,,near ,,mexico4--,a traveller of credit gives us an account1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 of a remarkable cave1 some leagues to the north-west of ,mexico1 gilded all over with a sort of leaf-gold1 which had deluded many ,spaniards by its promising colour1 but they could never reduce it into a body1 either by quicksilver or fusion4 ,this traveller went thither one morning with an ,indian for his guide1 and found its situation was pretty high1 and in a place very proper for the generation of metals4 ,as he entered into it1 the light of the candle soon discovered on all sides1 but especially over his head1 a glittering canopy of these mineral leaves1 at which he greedily snatching1 there fell down a great lump of sand1 that not only put out his candle1 but almost blinded him1 and calling aloud to his ,indian1 who stood at the entrance of the cave1 as being afraid of spirits and hobgoblins1 it occasioned such thundering and redoubled echoes1 that the poor fellow1 imagining he had been wrestling with some infernal ghosts1 soon quitted his station1 and thereby left a free passage for some rays of light to enter1 and serve him for a better guide4 ,the traveller's sight was somewhat affected by the corrosive acrimony of the mineral dust2 but having relighted his candle1 he proceeded in the cave1 heaped together a quantity of the mineral mixed with sand1 and scraped off from the surface of the earth some of the glittering leaves1 none of which exceeded the breadth of a man's nail1 but with the least touch were divided into many lesser spangles1 and with a little rubbing they left his hand gilded all over4 ,we must not neglect to notice ,,the ,,nitre ,,caves ,,of ,,missouri4--,on the banks of the ,merrimack and the ,gasconade are found numerous caves1 which yield an earth impregnated largely with nitre1 which is procured from it by lixiviation4 ,on the head of ,current's river are also found several caves from which nitre is procured1 the principal of which is ,ashley's cave1 or ,cave ,creek1 about eighty miles south-west of ,potosi4 ,this is one of those stupendous and extensive caverns1 that cannot be viewed without exciting our wonder and astonishment1 which is increased by beholding those complete works for the manufacture of nitre1 situated in its interior4 ,the native nitrate of potash is found in beautiful white crystals1 investing the fissures of the limestone rock which forms the walls of this cave2 and several of those in its vicinity exhibit the same phenomenon4--,schoolcroft1 on the ,lead ,mines of ,missouri4 ,,okey ,,hole4--,this is a famous natural cavern of ,england1 on the south side of ,mendip hills4 ,the entrance is in the fall of those hills1 which is beset all about with rocks1 and there is near it a precipitate descent of twelve fathoms deep1 at the bottom of which there continually issues from the rocks a considerable current of water4 ,the naked rocks above the entrance are about thirty fathoms high1 and the whole ascent of the hill above1 which is very steep1 is about a mile4 ,the entrance into this vault is at first upon a level1 but advancing farther1 the way is rocky and uneven1 sometimes ascending1 and sometimes descending4 ,the roof of this cavern1 in the highest part1 is about eight fathoms from the ground1 but in many places it is so low1 that one must stoop to get along4 ,the breadth is not less various than the height1 for in some places it is five or six fathoms wide1 and in others not more than one or two4 ,it is in length about two hundred yards4 ,at the farthest part of the cavern there is a stream of water1 large enough to drive a mill1 which passes all along one side of the cavern1 and at length slides down about six or eight fathoms among the rocks1 and1 finding its way through the clefts1 falls into the valley beneath4 ,the river within the cavern is well stored with eels1 and has some trouts4 ,in dry summers1 a great number of frogs are seen all along this cavern1 even to the farthest part of it2 and on the roof are vast numbers of bats4 ,from ,okey ,hole we proceed to ,,borrowdale1--which is a most romantic valley among the ,derwent-,water ,fells1 in the county of ,cumberland4 ,these fells or hills are some of the loftiest in ,england1 and it is in one of them that the black lead1 or wadd1 is found1 from which all parts of the world are supplied4 ,the mines are opened once in seven years1 and when a sufficient quantity of this valuable and singular mineral is taken out1 they are carefully closed again4 ,in travelling among these mountains1 the idea that presents itself to the astonished spectator1 is that of the earth having been agitated like the ocean in a storm2 the hills appear like waves1 one behind another1 and were it not for the abrupt and sudden scarps1 and the immense masses of rugged rocks1 that give the idea of fixedness and stability1 the fancy might be bewildered so far as to imagine they were in a state of undulation1 and ready to mingle with each other4 ,borrowdale is watered by the clearest brooks1 which1 precipitated from the hills1 form many beautiful waterfalls1 and then meet together in the dale in one large stream1 and pass out of it under the name of ,borrowdale ,beck1 when they spread out into an extensive lake1 forming many beautiful islands2 the lake is called ,derwent-water1 or ,keswick ,lake4 ,borrowdale is four miles from ,keswick1 in passing from which1 the traveller has the lake on his left hand1 and stupendous rocky precipices on the other2 with huge stones1 or rugged masses of rock1 which have tumbled from above1 perhaps rent from the mountain by the expansion of the water in its crevices or fissures1 which1 congealing into ice1 occasions the scattered fragments that lie in his way4 ,as he approaches the dale1 he sees the shelves1 or ledges of the rocks1 covered with herbage1 shrubs1 and trees1 and villages and farms rise in his view2 the larger cattle are seen feeding in the lower grounds1 and the sheep in very large flocks upon the mountains4 ,we shall close this division with an account of ,,the ,,needle',s ,,eye4--,this name is given to a subterraneous passage on the coast of ,banffshire1 one hundred and fifty yards long from sea to sea1 but through which a man can with difficulty creep4 ,at the north end of it is a cave1 twenty feet high1 thirty broad1 and one hundred and fifty long1 containing a space of ninety thousand cubic feet4 ,the whole is supported by immense columns of rocks1 is exceedingly grand1 and has a surprisingly fine effect on the spectator1 after creeping through the narrow passage4 ,,chap4 ,,xliii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,mines4 ,diamond ,mine in the ,brazils--,mines of ,peru--,volcanic ,eruptions of ,mud and ,salt--,pitch ,wells--,visit to a ,coal-,pit4 ,through dark retreats pursue the winding ore1 ,search ,nature's depths1 and view her boundless store2 ,the secret cause in tuneful numbers sing1 ,how metals first were fram'd1 and whence they spring ,whether the active sun1 with chemic flames1 ,through porous earth transmits its genial beams2 ,with heat impregnating the womb of night1 ,the offspring shines with its paternal light3 ,or whether1 urged by subterraneous flames1 ,the earth ferments1 and flows in liquid streams ,purg'd from their dross1 the nobler parts refine1 ,receive new forms1 and with fresh beauties shine3 ,or whether by creation first they sprung1 ,when yet unpois'd the world's great fabric hung3 ,metals the basis of the earth were made1 ,the bars on which its fix'd foundations laid2 ,all second causes they disdain to own1 ,and from th' ,almighty's fiat sprung alone4 ,yalden4 ,description of a ,,diamond ,,mine on the river ,tigitonhonha1 in the ,brazilian territory2 by ,mr4 ,mawe4 ,i could not 7says the writer7 resist the favourable opportunity now offered me of gratifying the curiosity which had so long occupied my mind1 by visiting the diamond mines1 in company with the principal officer in the administration of them1 who was therefore qualified to furnish me with the amplest information4 ,a fine horse was waiting for me at the door1 and ,i rode up to the house of the governor1 who introduced me to his amiable lady1 daughters1 and family1 with whom ,i had the honour to take breakfast4 ,several officers of the diamond establishment arrived on horseback to accompany us1 their presence being required on this occasion4 ,having arrived at the place1 ,i remained here five days1 during which ,i was occupied in viewing and examining various parts of the works1 of which ,i shall here attempt to give a general description4 ,the river ,tigitonhonha is formed by a number of streams1 and is as wide as the ,thames at ,windsor1 and in general from three to nine feet deep4 ,the part now in working is a curve or elbow1 from which the current is diverted into a canal cut across the tongue of land round which it winds1 the river being stopped1 just below the head of the canal1 by an embankment formed of several thousand bags of sand4 ,this is a work of considerable magnitude1 and requires the co-operation of all the negroes to complete it2 for the river being wide and not very shallow1 and also occasionally subject to overflow1 they have to make the embankment so strong as to resist the pressure of the water1 admitting it to rise four or five feet4 ,the deeper parts of the channel of the river are laid dry by means of large caissons or chain-pumps1 worked by a water-wheel4 ,the mud is then carried off1 and the cascalhao is dug up1 and removed to a convenient place for washing4 ,this labour was1 until lately1 performed by the negroes1 who carried the cascalhao in gamellas on their heads2 but ,mr4 ,camara has formed two inclined planes1 about one hundred yards in length1 along which carts are drawn by a large water-wheel1 divided into two parts1 the ladles or buckets of which are so constructed1 that the rotary motion may be altered by changing the current of water from one side to the other2 this wheel1 by means of a rope made of untanned hides1 works two carts1 one of which descends empty on one inclined plane1 while the other1 loaded with cascalhao1 is drawn to the top of the other1 where it falls into a cradle1 empties itself1 and descends in its turn4 ,at a work called ,canjeca1 formerly of great importance1 about a mile up the river on the opposite side1 there are three cylindrical engines for drawing the cascalhao1 like those used in the mining country of ,derbyshire1 and also railways over some uneven ground4 ,this was the first and only machinery of consequence1 which ,i saw in the diamond district1 and there appear many obstacles to the general introduction of it4 ,timber1 when wanted of large size1 has to be fetched a distance of one hundred miles1 at a very heavy expense2 there are few persons competent to the construction of machines1 and the workmen dislike to make them1 fearing that this is only part of a general plan for suspending manual labour4 ,the stratum of cascalhao consists of the same materials with that in the gold district4 ,on many parts1 by the edge of the river1 are large conglomerate masses of rounded pebbles cemented by oxide of iron1 which sometimes envelop gold and diamonds4 ,they calculate on getting as much cascalhao in the dry season1 as will occupy all their hands during the months which are more subject to rain4 ,when carried from the bed of the river whence it is dug1 it is laid in heaps1 containing apparently from five to fifteen tons each4 ,water is conveyed from a distance1 and is distributed to the various parts of the works by means of aqueducts1 constructed with great ingenuity and skill4 ,the method of washing for diamonds at this place1 is as follows3--,a shed is erected in the form of a parallelogram1 twenty-five or thirty yards long1 and about fifteen wide1 consisting of upright posts1 which support a roof thatched with long grass4 ,down the middle of the area of this shed1 a current of water is conveyed through a canal1 covered with strong planks1 on which the cascalhao is laid two or three feet thick4 ,on the other side of the area is a flooring of planks1 from four to five yards long1 imbedded in clay1 extending the whole length of the shed1 and having a slope1 from the canal1 of three or four inches to a yard4 ,this flooring is divided into about twenty compartments or troughs1 each about three feet wide1 by means of planks placed on their edge4 ,the upper ends of all these troughs 7here called canoes7 communicate with the canal1 and are so formed that water is admitted into them between two planks that are about an inch separate4 ,through this opening the current falls about six inches into the trough1 and may be directed to any part of it1 or stopped1 at pleasure1 by means of a small quantity of clay4 ,for instance1 sometimes water is required only from one corner of the aperture1 then the remaining part is stopped2 sometimes it is wanted from the centre1 then the extremes are stopped2 and sometimes only a gentle rill is wanted1 then the clay is applied accordingly4 ,along the lower ends of the troughs a small channel is dug1 to carry off the water4 ,on the heap of cascalhao1 at equal distances1 are placed three high chairs1 for the officers or overseers4 ,after they are seated1 the negroes enter the troughs1 each provided with a rake of a peculiar form1 and short handle1 with which he rakes into the trough about fifty or eighty pounds weight of cascalhao4 ,the water being then let in upon it1 the cascalhao is spread abroad1 and continually raked up to the head of the trough1 so as to be kept in constant motion4 ,this operation being performed for the space of a quarter of an hour1 the water then begins to run clearer2 having washed the earthy particles away1 the gravel-like matter is raked up to the end of the trough2 after the current flows away quite clear1 the largest stones are thrown out1 and afterwards those of inferior size1 then the whole is examined with great care for diamonds4 ,when a negro finds one1 he immediately stands upright and claps his hands1 then extends them1 holding the gem between his fore finger and thumb2 an overseer receives it from him1 and deposits it in a gamella or bowl1 suspended from the centre of the structure1 half full of water4 ,in this vessel all the diamonds found in the course of the day1 are placed1 and at the close of work are taken out1 and delivered to the principal officer1 who1 after they have been weighed1 registers the particulars in a book kept for that purpose4 ,when a negro is so fortunate as to find a diamond of the weight of #ag-a_/b carats1 much ceremony immediately takes place2 he is crowned with a wreath of flowers1 and carried in procession to the administrator1 who gives him his freedom1 by paying his owner for it4 ,he also receives a present of new clothes1 and is permitted to work on his own account4 ,when a stone of eight or ten carats is found1 the negro receives two new shirts1 a complete new suit1 with a hat1 and a handsome knife4 ,for smaller stones of trivial amount1 proportionate premiums are given4 ,during my stay at ,tejuco1 a stone of #af-a_/b carats was found3 it was pleasing to see the anxious desire manifested by the officers that it might prove heavy enough to entitle the poor negro to his freedom2 and when1 on being delivered and weighed1 it proved only a carat short of the requisite weight1 all seemed to sympathize in his disappointment4 ,many precautions are taken to prevent the negroes from embezzling diamonds4 ,although they work in a bent position1 and consequently never know whether the overseers are watching them or not1 yet it is easy for them to omit gathering any which they see1 and to place them in a corner of the trough for the purpose of secreting them at leisure hours2 to prevent which they are frequently changed while the operation is going on4 ,a word of command being given by the overseers1 they instantly move into each others' troughs1 so that no opportunity of collusion can take place4 ,if a negro be suspected of having swallowed a diamond1 he is confined in a strong room until the fact can be ascertained4 ,formerly1 the punishment inflicted upon a negro for smuggling diamonds1 was confiscation of his person to the state3 but it being thought too hard for the owner to suffer for the offence of his servant1 the penalty has been commuted for personal imprisonment and chastisement4 ,this is a much lighter punishment than that which their owners1 or any white man1 would suffer for a similar offence4 ,there is no particular regulation respecting the dress of the negroes3 they work in the clothes most suitable to the nature of their employment1 generally in a waistcoat and a pair of drawers1 and not naked1 as some travellers have stated4 ,their hours of labour are from a little before sunrise until sunset1 half an hour being allowed for breakfast1 and two hours at noon4 ,while washing1 they change their posture as often as they please1 which is very necessary1 as the work requires them to place their feet on the edges of the trough1 and to stoop considerably4 ,this posture is particularly prejudicial to young growing negroes1 as it renders them in-kneed4 ,four or five times during the day1 they all rest1 when snuff1 of which they are very fond1 is given to them4 ,the negroes are formed into working parties1 called troops1 containing #bjj each1 under the direction of an administrator and inferior officers4 ,each troop has a clergyman and a surgeon to attend it4 ,with respect to the subsistence of the negroes1 although the present governor has in some degree improved it1 by allowing a daily portion of fresh beef1 which was not allowed by his predecessors1 yet ,i am sorry to observe that it is still poor and scanty2 and that in other respects they are more hardly dealt with than those of any other establishment which ,i visited3 notwithstanding this1 the owners are all anxious to get their negroes into the service1 doubtless from sinister motives4 ,the officers are liberally paid1 and live in a style of considerable elegance1 which a stranger would not be led to expect in so remote a place4 ,our tables were daily covered with a profusion of excellent viands1 served up on fine ,wedgewood ware1 and the state of their household generally corresponded with this essential part of it4 ,they were ever ready to assist me in my examination of the works1 and freely gave me all the necessary information respecting them4 ,having detailed the process of washing for diamonds1 ,i proceed to a general description of the situation in which they are found4 ,the flat pieces of ground on each side the river are equally rich throughout their extent1 and hence the officers are enabled to calculate the value of an unworked place1 by comparison with the amount found on working with the part adjoining4 ,these known places are left in reserve1 and trial is made of more uncertain grounds4 ,the following observation ,i often heard from the intendant3 ',that piece of ground 7speaking of an unworked flat by the side of the river7 will yield me ten thousand carats of diamonds1 whenever we shall be required to get them in the regular course of working1 or when1 on any particular occasion1 an order from government arrives1 demanding an extraordinary and immediate supply4' ,the substances accompanying diamonds1 and considered good indications of them1 are bright bean-like iron ore1 a slaty flint-like substance1 approaching ,lydian stone1 of fine texture1 black oxide of iron in great quantities1 rounded bits of blue quartz1 yellow crystals1 and other materials entirely different from anything known to be produced in the adjacent mountains4 ,diamonds are by no means peculiar to the beds of rivers or deep ravines2 they have been found in cavities and watercourses on the summits of the most lofty mountains4 ,i had some conversation with the officers1 respecting the matrix of the diamond1 not a vestige of which could ,i trace4 ,they informed me1 that they often found diamonds cemented in pudding-stone1 accompanied with grains of gold1 but that they always broke them out1 as they could not enter them in the treasury1 or weigh them with matter adhering to them4 ,i obtained a mass of pudding-stone1 apparently of very recent formation1 cemented by ferruginous matter enveloping many grains of gold2 and likewise a few pounds weight of the cascalhao in its unwashed state4 ,this river1 and other streams in its vicinity1 have been in washing many years1 and have produced great quantities of diamonds1 which have ever been reputed of the finest quality4 ,they vary in size3 some are so small that four or five are required to weigh one grain1 consequently sixteen or twenty to the carat3 there are seldom found more than two or three stones of from seventeen to twenty carats in the course of a year1 and not once in two years is there found throughout the whole washings a stone of thirty carats4 ,during the five days ,i was here1 they were not very successful2 the whole quantity found amounted only to forty1 the largest of which was only four carats1 and of a light green colour4 ,from the great quantity of debris1 or worked cascalhao1 in every part near the river1 it is reasonable to calculate that the works have been in operation above forty years2 of course there must arrive a period at which they will be exhausted1 but there are grounds in the neighbourhood1 particularly in the ,cerro de ,st4 ,antonio1 and in the country now inhabited by the ,indians1 which will probably afford these gems in equal abundance4 ,,the ,,mines ,,of ,,peru4--,there are great numbers of very rich mines which the waters of the ocean have invaded4 ,the disposition of the ground1 which from the summit of the ,cordilleras goes continually shelving to the ,south ,sea1 renders such events more common at ,peru than in other places4 ,this has been in some instances remedied4 ,joseph ,salcedo1 about #affj1 discovered1 near ,puna1 the mine of ,laycacoto4 ,it was so rich that they often cut the silver with a chisel4 ,it was at last overflowed with water2 but in #agdj1 ,diego de ,bacua associated with others to divert the springs4 ,the labours which this difficult undertaking required1 were not finished till #aged4 ,the mine yields as much as it did at first4 ,but mines still richer have been discovered2 such as that of ,potosi1 which was found in the same country where the ,incas worked that of ,parco4 ,an ,indian1 named ,hualpa1 in #aede1 pursuing some deer1 in order to climb certain steep rocks1 had hold of a bush1 the roots of which loosened from the earth1 and brought to view an ingot of silver4 ,the indian had recourse to it for his own use4 ,the change in his fortunes was remarked by one of his countrymen1 and he discovered to him the secret4 ,the two friends could not keep their counsel and enjoy their good fortune4 ,they quarrelled2 on which the indiscreet confidant discovered the whole to his master ,villaroel1 a ,spaniard4 ,upon this the mine was worked1 and a great number of others were found in its vicinity1 the principal of which are in the northern part of the mountain1 and their direction is from north to south4 ,the fame of ,potosi soon spread abroad2 and there was quickly built at the foot of the mountain a town1 consisting of #fj1jjj ,indians1 and #aj1jjj ,spaniards4 ,the sterility of the soil did not prevent its being immediately peopled4 ,corn1 fruit1 flocks1 ,american stuffs1 and ,european luxuries1 arrived from every quarter4 ,in #agch these mines produced annually near #igh1jjj1 without reckoning the silver which was not registered1 and what had been carried off by fraud4 ,from that time the produce has been so much diminished1 that not above one-eighth part of the coin which was formerly struck1 is now made4 ,at all the mines of ,peru1 the ,spaniards1 in purifying their gold and silver1 use mercury1 with which they are supplied from ,guanca ,velica4 ,the common opinion is1 that this mine was discovered in #aefd4 ,the trade of mercury was then free2 it became an exclusive trade in #aega4 ,at this period all the mines of mercury were shut2 and that of ,guanca ,velica alone was worked2 the property of which the king reserved to himself4 ,it is not found to diminish4 ,the mine is dug in the very large mountain of ,potosi1 sixty leagues from ,lima4 ,in its profound abyss are seen streets1 squares1 and a chapel1 where the mysteries of religion on all festivals are celebrated4 ,millions of flambeaus are continually kept to enlighten it4 ,the mine of ,guanca ,velica generally affects those who work in it with convulsions2 and the other mines1 which are not less unhealthy1 are all worked by the ,peruvians4 ,these unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice are crowded all together1 and plunged naked into these abysses1 the greatest part of which are deep1 and all excessively cold4 ,tyranny has invented this refinement in cruelty1 to render it impossible for any thing to escape its restless vigilance4 ,if there are any wretches who long survive such barbarity1 it is the use of cocoa that preserves them4 ,we shall incorporate in this chapter1 the following interesting account of ,,volcanic ,,eruptions ,,of ,,mud ,,and ,,salt1 in the ,island of ,java2 by ,t4 ,s4 ,goad1 ,esq4 of the ,honourable ,company's ,bengal ,civil ,service4 ,having received 7says the writer7 an extraordinary account of a natural phenomenon in the plains of ,grobogan1 fifty pals 7or miles7 north-east of ,solo1 a party1 of which ,i was one1 set off from ,solo on the eighth of ,september1 #ahae1 to examine it4 ,on approaching the village of ,kuhoo1 we saw1 between two trees in a plain1 an appearance like the surf breaking over rocks1 with a strong spray falling to leeward4 ,the spot was completely surrounded by huts1 for the manufacture of salt1 and at a distance looked like a large village4 ,alighting1 we went to the ,bludugs1 as the ,javanese call them4 ,they are situated in the village of ,kuhoo1 and by ,europeans are called by that name4 ,we found them to be on an elevated plain of mud1 about two miles in circumference1 in the centre of which immense bodies of salt mud were thrown up1 to the height of from ten to fifteen feet1 in the form of large globes1 which1 bursting1 emitted volumes of dense white smoke4 ,these large globes or bubbles1 of which there were two1 continued throwing up1 and bursting seven or eight times in a minute ,at times they throw up two or three tons of mud4 ,we got to leeward of the smoke1 and found it to smell like the washing of a gun-barrel4 ,as the globes burst1 they threw the mud out from the centre with a pretty loud noise1 occasioned by the falling of the mud upon that which surrounded it1 and of which the plain is composed4 ,it was difficult and dangerous to approach the large globes or bubbles1 as the ground was all a quagmire1 except where the surface of the mud had become hardened by the sun2 upon this we approached cautiously to within fifty yards of the largest bubble1 or mud pudding1 as it might very properly be called1 for it was of the consistency of a custard-pudding1 and of very considerable diameter3 here and there1 where the foot accidentally rested on a spot not sufficiently hardened1 it sunk1 to the no small distress of the walker4 ,we also got close to a small globe or bubble1 7the plain being full of them of different sizes17 and observed it closely for some time4 ,it appeared to heave and swell1 and when the internal air had raised it to some height1 it burst1 and fell down in concentric circles1 in which shape it remained quiet until a sufficient quantity of air was again formed internally1 to raise and burst another bubble4 ,this continued at intervals from about one-half to two minutes4 ,from various other parts of the quagmire round the large globes or bubbles1 there were occasionally small quantities of mud shot up like rockets to the height of twenty or thirty feet1 and accompanied by smoke4 ,this was in parts where the mud was of too stiff a consistency to rise in globes or bubbles4 ,the mud at all the places we came near was cold on the surface1 but we were told it was warm beneath4 ,the water which drains from the mud is collected by the ,javanese1 and by being exposed in the hollows of split bamboos to the rays of the sun1 deposits crystals of salt4 ,the salt thus made is reserved exclusively for the ,emperor of ,solo4 ,in dry weather it yields thirty dudjins1 of one hundred catties each1 every month2 but in wet or cloudy weather1 less4 ,in the afternoon we rode to a place in a forest1 called ,ramsam1 to view a salt lake1 a mud hillock1 and various boiling1 or rather bubbling1 pools4 ,the lake was about half a mile in circumference1 of a dirty looking water1 boiling up all over in gurgling bodies1 but more particularly in the centre1 which appeared like a strong spring2 the water was quite cold1 and tasted bitter1 salt1 and sour1 and had an offensive smell4 ,about thirty yards from the lake stood the mud hillock1 which was about fifteen feet high from the level of the earth4 ,the diameter of its base was about twenty-five yards1 its top about eight feet1 and in form an exact cone4 ,the top is open1 and the interior keeps constantly working1 and heaving up mud in globular forms1 like the ,bludugs4 ,the hillock is entirely formed of mud which has flowed out of the top2 every rise of the mud was accompanied by a rumbling noise from the bottom of the hillock1 which was distinctly heard for some seconds before the bubbles burst4 ,the outside of the hillock was quite firm4 ,we stood on the edge of the opening and sounded it1 and found it to be eleven fathoms deep4 ,the mud was more liquid than at the ,bludugs1 and no smoke was emitted from the lake1 hillock1 or pools4 ,close to the foot of the hillock was a small pool of the same water as the lake1 which appeared exactly like a pot of water boiling violently2 it was shallow1 except in the centre1 into which we thrust a stick twelve feet long1 but found no bottom4 ,the hole not being perpendicular1 we could not sound it with a line4 ,about #bjj yards from the lake1 were several large pools or springs1 two of which were eight or ten feet in diameter4 ,they were like the small pool1 but boiled more violently1 and smelt excessively4 ,the ground around them was hot to the feet1 and the air which issued from them quite hot1 so that it was most probably inflammable2 but we did not ascertain this4 ,we heard the boiling at the distance of thirty yards from the pools1 resembling in noise a waterfall4 ,the pools did not overflow2 of course the bubbling was occasioned by the rising of air alone4 ,the water of one of the pools appeared to contain a mixture of earth and lime1 and1 from the taste1 to be combined with alkali4 ,the water of the ,bludugs and the lake is used medicinally by the ,javanese1 and cattle drinking of the water are poisoned4 ,now follows an account of ,,pitch-,,wells2 from ,dr4 ,holland's ,travels in the ,ionian ,isles1 c4--,the pitch-wells of ,zante are a natural phenomenon1 which may be regarded as among the antiquities of the isle2 since they were known and described as early as the time of ,herodotus1 and are mentioned since by ,pausanias1 ,pliny1 and other authors4 ,they are situated about ten miles from the city1 and near the shore of the bay1 on the southern side of the island4 ,we visited this spot1 which is called ,chieri1 a day or two after our arrival in ,zante4 ,a small tract of marshy ground1 stretching down to the sea1 and surrounded on other sides by low eminences of limestone1 or a bituminous shale1 is the immediate situation of the springs2 they are found in three or four different places of the morass1 appearing as small pools1 the sides and bottom of which are thickly lined with petroleum1 in a viscid state1 and1 by agitation1 easily raised in large flakes to the surface4 ,the most remarkable of these pools is one of a circular form1 about fifty feet in circumference1 and a few feet in depth1 in which the petroleum has accumulated to a considerable quantity4 ,the water of the spring1 which is doubtless the means of conveying the mineral upwards to the surface1 forms a small stream from the pool1 sensibly impregnated with bituminous matter1 which it deposits in parts as it flows through the morass3 the other pools are of similar character4 ,the petroleum is collected generally once in the year2 and the average quantity obtained from the springs is said to be about #ajj barrels2 it is chiefly used for the caulking of vessels1 not being found to answer equally well for cordage4 ,we close this chapter with ,mrs4 ,wakefield's account of her ,,visit to a ,,coal-,,pit4--,near the town of ,newcastle1 in the county of ,northumberland1 are vast beds of coal1 which lie far beneath the surface of the earth3 they are often found at the depth of #ajj feet4 ,our visit to one of them was rather a droll adventure4 ,the first ceremony was1 to put on a kind of frock that covered us all over1 to prevent spoiling our clothes4 ,we were then shewn a prodigious steam-engine at work1 at the mouth of the pit1 in order to drain off the water2 and close to it1 a ventilator for purifying the air in the pit4 ,our guides now seated us on a piece of board1 slung in a rope like the seat of a swing1 and hooked to an iron chain1 which was let gently down the suffocating hole by the assistance of six horses4 ,i must confess1 ,i did not like this mode of travelling3 my spirits were1 however1 rather cheered when ,i reached the solid bottom1 and saw my friend at my side4 ,he congratulated me on my safe arrival2 and pointed to a huge fire1 burning for the purpose of keeping the air in proper temperature4 ,gaining courage by a nearer examination1 ,i walked about the chambers with as much ease as if they had been the apartments of a dwelling-house4 ,the coal is hollowed out in spaces of four yards wide1 between which are left pillars of coal to support the roof1 ten yards broad1 and twenty deep4 ,after exploring a dozen or two of these little apartments1 our curiosity was satisfied1 as there was nothing more to be seen but a repetition of the same objects to a vast extent4 ,a number of horses live here for years together1 and seem to enjoy themselves very comfortably3 they are employed to draw the coal from the subterraneous passages to the bottom of the opening of the pit4 ,the machine which raises the coal to the surface of the earth1 is worked by stout horses4 ,the coal is brought in strong baskets1 made of osier2 they contain each #ab cwt4 and while one ascends1 the other descends4 ,a man receives these baskets as they arrive at the top1 and places them on a dray1 having hooked an empty basket on1 instead of the full one4 ,before he drives the dray to a shed at a little distance1 where he empties his load1 the dust passes through holes prepared to receive it2 while the large coals roll down the declivity in heaps1 where they are loaded in waggons1 and carried to wharfs on the river side1 to be put on board the vessels that wait to convey them to distant parts4 ,the waggons1 very heavily laden1 run without horses to the water side1 along a road ingeniously formed in a sloping direction1 with grooves to fit the waggon wheels1 and make them go more readily4 ,the dust1 which is too small for common fires1 is put into a kiln well heated1 and when it is burnt1 the particles unite1 and run into large cakes or masses3 in that state it is called coke1 and this substance is used in many manufactories1 where a strong heat is required4 ,there are also coal-mines in several other parts of ,england4 ,near ,whitehaven1 in the county of ,cumberland1 are some that extend half a mile under the sea4 ,the collieries employ a great number of hardy sailors1 who1 in their frequent coasting-voyages1 are accustomed to face all the dangers of a sea-life4 ,in time of war they contribute to man our navy2 and1 from their courage and skill1 form a very valuable part of the crews4 ,,chap4 ,,xliv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,sea4 ,general ,observations respecting the ,sea1 or ,ocean--,particular ,curiosities of the ,sea--,on the ,saltness of the ,sea--,on the ,tides--,waves stilled by ,oil4 ------------------,and thou1 majestic main1 ,a secret world of wonders in thyself6 ,sound ,his stupendous praise1 whose greater voice ,or bids you roar1 or bids your roaring fall6 ,,general ,,observations ,,respecting ,,the ,,sea1 ,,or ,,ocean4 ,the sea1 or ocean1 is that vast tract of water which encompasses the whole earth4 ,what proportion the superficies of the sea bears to that of the land1 is not precisely known1 though it is said to be somewhat more than two-thirds4 ,as the waters of the earth must necessarily rise to the surface thereof1 it being specifically lighter than the earth1 it was necessary there should be large cavities therein1 as receptacles to contain them1 otherwise they would have overspread all the surface of the earth1 and so have rendered it utterly uninhabitable for terrestrial animals3 it is well known1 that the centre of the earth is the common centre of gravity1 and that the nature of fluids is such1 that they equally yield to equal powers2 hence it follows1 that where the power of attraction is every where the same at equal distances from the centre1 the superficial parts of the water will every where conform themselves to this attractive power1 at an equidistant situation from the centre1 and1 it is evident1 will form the surface of a sphere1 so far as they extend4 ,the reason then that the sea seems higher than the land1 results from the fallacy of vision1 whereby all objects1 whether on the land or sea1 appear higher as they become more distant3 and the reason will be plain to those who are acquainted with optics2 for it is well known1 that the denser any medium is1 through which we behold objects1 the greater is the refraction1 or the more their images appear above the horizontal level2 while the greater the quantity of medium through which the rays pass1 the more they will be bent from their first direction3 on both these accounts1 the appearances of things at a great distance1 both on the land and the sea1 will be somewhat above the horizon1 and the more so as they are the more remote4 ,with regard to the depth or profundity of the sea1 ,varenius affirms1 that it is in some places unfathomable1 in other places very various1 being from fifty yards to four and a half ,english miles1 in some places deeper1 and that the depth is much less in bays than in oceans4 ,in general1 the depths of the sea bear a great analogy to the height of mountains on the land1 so far as discoveries have hitherto extended4 ,it is a general rule among sailors1 and is found to hold true in many instances1 that the more the shores of any place are steep and high1 forming perpendicular cliffs1 the deeper the sea is below2 and that1 on the contrary1 level shores denote shallow waters4 ,thus1 the deepest part of the ,mediterranean is generally allowed to be under the heights of ,malta4 ,and the observation of the strata of earth and other fossils1 on and near the shores1 may serve to form a good judgment as to the materials to be found in the bottom of the sea2 for the veins of salt and bitumen doubtless run on in the same order as we see them on the shore4 ,if we may reason from analogy1 the strata of rocks1 that serve as a foundation for hills and elevated places on shore1 serve also1 in the same continued chain1 to support the immense quantity of water in the basin of the sea4 ,the coral fisheries have given occasion to observe1 that there are many1 and those very large caverns or hollows in the bottom of the sea1 especially where it is rocky1 and that the like caverns are sometimes found in the perpendicular rocks which form the steep sides of those fisheries4 ,these caverns are often of great depth as well as extent1 and have sometimes wide mouths1 and sometimes only narrow entrances1 into large and spacious hollows4 ,the bottom of the sea is covered with a variety of materials1 such as could not be imagined by any but those who have examined into them1 especially in deep water1 where the surface only is disturbed by tides and storms2 the lower part1 and consequently its bed at the bottom1 remaining1 for ages perhaps1 undisturbed4 ,the soundings1 when the plummet first touches the ground1 on approaching the shores1 give some idea of this4 ,the bottom of the plummet is hollowed1 and in that hollow there is placed a lump of tallow1 which is the first part that touches the ground2 and the soft nature of the fat receives into it some part of those substances which it meets with at the bottom3 the substances thus brought up1 are sometimes pure sand1 sometimes a kind of sand made of the fragments of shells beaten to a sort of powder1 sometimes they are composed of a like powder to the several sorts of corals1 and sometimes they are composed of fragments of rocks2 but besides these appearances1 which are natural enough1 and are what might well be expected1 it brings up substances which are of the most beautiful colours4 ,dr4 ,donati1 in an ,italian work1 containing an essay on a natural history of the ,adriatic ,sea1 has related many curious observations on this subject3 having carefully examined the soil and productions of the various countries that surround the ,adriatic ,sea1 and compared them with those which he took up from the bottom of the sea1 he found that there was very little difference between the former and the latter4 ,at the bottom of the water there are mountains1 plains1 valleys1 and caverns1 similar to those upon land4 ,the soil consists of different strata1 placed one upon another1 and mostly parallel and correspondent to those of the rocks1 islands1 and neighbouring continents4 ,they contain stones of different sorts1 minerals1 metals1 various petrified bodies1 pumice stones1 and lavas formed by volcanoes4 ,one of the objects which most excited his attention1 was a crust1 which he discovered under the water1 composed of crustaceous and testaceous bodies1 with beds of polypes of different kinds1 confusedly blended with earth1 sand1 and gravel3 the different marine bodies1 which form this crust1 are found at the depth of a foot or more1 entirely petrified1 and reduced into marble2 these1 he supposes1 are the natural beds of the sea1 and not made so by means of volcanoes and earthquakes1 as some have conjectured4 ,on this account1 he imagines that the bottom of the sea is constantly rising higher and higher1 with which other obvious causes of increase concur2 and from this rising of the bottom of the sea1 that of its level or surface naturally results2 in proof of which1 this writer recites a great number of facts4 ,m4 ,dassie has been at great pains to prove1 that the sea has a general motion1 independently of winds and tides1 and that it is of more consequence in navigation than is generally supposed4 ,he affirms1 that this motion is from east to west2 inclining towards the north1 when the sun has passed the equinoctial northward1 during the time he is passing through the northern signs2 but the contrary way1 after the sun has passed the said equinoctial southward3 adding1 that when this general motion is changed1 the diurnal flux is changed also2 whence it happens1 that in several places the tides come in during one part of the year1 and go out during the other1 as on the coasts of ,norway1 in the ,indies at ,goa1 ,cochin-china1 c4 where1 while the sun is in the summer signs1 the sea runs to the shore2 and when in the winter signs1 runs from it4 ,on the most southern coasts of ,tonquin and ,china1 for the six summer months1 the diurnal course runs from the north with the ocean2 but the sun having repassed the line toward the south1 the course declines also southward4 ,there are two principal reasons why the sea does not increase by means of rivers1 c4 falling every where into it4 ,the first is1 because waters return from the sea by subterranean cavities and aqueducts1 through various parts of the earth4 ,secondly1 because the quantity of vapours raised from the sea1 and falling on the land1 only cause a circulation1 but no increase of water4 ,it has been found1 by calculation1 that in a summer's day there may be raised in vapours1 from the ,mediterranean ,sea1 #e1bhj1jjj1jjj tons of water1 and yet this sea receiveth not1 from all its nine great rivers1 above #a1hbg1jjj1jjj tons per day1 which is but a third part of what is exhausted in vapours4 ,the ascent of the sea for the formation of springs1 by a subterranean circulation of its water to their sources1 has been a great objection1 with many1 against the system which ascribes their origin to the ocean2 but ,dr4 ,plot has observed1 that there are many ways by which the water may ascend above its own level3 #a4 ,by the means of subterranean heat4 #b4 ,by filtration4 #c4 ,by the unequal height of several seas4 #d4 ,by the distance of the centre of magnitude from the centre of gravity in the terraqueous globe2 the superficies of the ,pacific ,sea being said to be further from the centre of gravity than the top of the highest hill on the adverse part of the globe4 ,and1 #e4 ,by the help of storms4 ,the sea water actually ascends above its own level1 and finds its way into wells1 whose bottoms lie higher than the surface of the sea at high-water mark4 ,we shall now enter more particularly on ,,the ,,curiosities ,,of ,,the ,,sea4--,for the following observations we are principally indebted to ,sturm4 ,instead of regarding the sea as an object of terror1 let us consider the wonders and the benefits which it presents to us4 ,it must be granted that when the waves swell into mountains1 and the tempest roars1 its aspect is terrific2 and we must be hardy indeed1 not to consider it as a most formidable element in such times of awful visitation1 when ships1 breaking from their anchor1 or driven from their course1 rush before the winds that beat upon them with ungovernable fury1 till1 dismasted1 and their rigging shivered in fragments1 they sink1 overwhelmed with a weight of waters1 or strike some sand-bank1 or shelving rock1 and are at once dashed to pieces4 ,sometimes whirlpools1 or vast masses of water with a violently circular motion1 whirl the unfortunate vessel that fate urges into their vortex1 with irresistible force1 till the helpless victim sinks an easy prey to the tremendous gulf1 and the cries of the unfortunate wretches are lost in the roar of the waves3 these whirlpools are occasioned by rocks in the ocean1 and the meeting of numerous currents and eddies4 ,not less dangerous are the waterspouts1 that the wind raises from the sea to the clouds2 they hover in the air high above the ocean1 and the wind whirls them round with violence4 ,they often burst with a great crash1 and occasion much mischief2 for if they fall upon a vessel1 they destroy its rigging1 and sometimes sink it to the bottom4 ,but it would be highly unjust and ungrateful1 only to consider the losses occasioned by the sea1 without reflecting upon the magnificent and stupendous works of ,god1 and that goodness which even visits the unfathomable depths of the ocean4 ,the first thing that strikes us1 upon the investigation of sea water1 is its saltness2 a pound of the water containing about two ounces of salt4 ,sea salt appears lighter than that we commonly use1 and yet it is not attracted by the air1 nor lessened by the continual influx of fresh water2 the cause of this is unknown4 ,if this peculiar quality arose from mountains of salt contained in the sea1 it would be salter in some places than in others1 of which we have no proof4 ,but whatever is the occasion of this saline property of the sea1 it is absolutely necessary to accomplish certain ends4 ,it is that which preserves such a vast body of water from corruption1 and renders it capable of supporting a greater weight4 ,the colour of sea water is also deserving of attention3 it is not every where alike1 which perhaps arises in part from its reflecting the colour of the bottom and that of the sky4 ,it often appears dark and black in deep abysses1 white and foaming during a storm1 silvery1 and gilded with reflections of the most beautiful hue1 when the last rays of the setting sun play upon the unruffled surface3 the colour of the sea1 in addition to these1 varies1 from numberless insects1 marine plants1 and the combination of the different substances which the rivers and torrents carry with them into the ocean4 ,when it is calm1 and not a breeze skims over its bosom1 it sometimes glitters with the most brilliant stars2 and the track of a ship cleaving the waves has often a luminous appearance1 like a river of fire4 ,the creatures which inhabit the sea excite our surprise and admiration2 we there discover a new world1 and the number of beings which compose it is prodigious4 ,aquatic animals are not so numerous in their species as the land animals2 but they surpass them in size and duration4 ,the elephant and ostrich yield in bulk to the whale1 the largest fish of the ocean1 its length being often from sixty to seventy feet2 and no land animal can vie with it in longevity1 for it lives as long as the oak4 ,if we may rely upon certain accounts1 there are creatures in the ocean1 far exceeding the size of the whale2 as the animal called kraken1 said to exist in the northern seas1 and whose circumference is half a ,german league4 ,who is able to number the different species of animals which people the seas8 or who can determine their form1 structure1 size1 and properties8 ,how infinitely great is that ,god who has created the sea6 will be the conclusion of all who investigate the subject1 and it is not without the wisest reasons that the ,creator has made the ocean and the seas to occupy two-thirds of the whole globe4 ,the seas were designed not only to form great reservoirs of water1 but by means of their evaporation to be the sources of rain1 snow1 and various meteors4 ,what wisdom is displayed in the connection which the seas have with each other1 and in their continual motion6 ,and it is not less wonderful that the bottom of the ocean is of the same nature as the surface of the earth4 ,there are found in the sea1 rocks1 caverns1 plains1 springs1 plants1 and animals2 and the islands are only the summits of a long chain of mountains4 ,when we consider that the seas form a part of the globe the least investigated1 we are disposed to believe that they contain many more wonders1 which neither the senses nor the understanding of man can penetrate1 while all acknowledge the adorable wisdom and power of the ,most ,high4 ,to ,him then1 who has established the monuments of his grandeur and the sceptre of his glory in the ocean1 as upon the earth1 be ascribed all admiration and praise6 ,the following opinions of a late celebrated philosopher and divine1 ,,on ,,the ,,saltness ,,of ,,the ,,sea1 may not be unacceptable to our readers3--,there are few questions1 7observes ,bishop ,watson17 respecting the natural history of our globe1 which have been discussed with more attention1 or decided with less satisfaction1 than that concerning the primary cause of the saltness of the sea4 ,the solution of it had perplexed the philosophers before the time of ,aristotle2 it surpassed his own great genius2 and those of his followers1 who have attempted to support his arguments1 have been betrayed into very ill-grounded conclusions concerning it4 ,father ,kircher1 after having consulted three and thirty authors upon the subject1 could not help remarking1 that the fluctuations of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions of men concerning the origin of its saline impregnation4 ,the question does not seem capable of admitting an illustration from experiment2 at least no experiments have hitherto been made for that purpose1 and therefore we may be the less surprised at its remaining nearly as problematical in the present age1 as it has been in the preceding4 ,had there1 indeed1 been any observation made three or four centuries ago1 ascertaining the saltness of the sea at any particular time and place2 we might1 by similar observations at the same place and the same season1 have been able to know whether the saltness at that particular place was an increasing1 decreasing1 or an invariable quantity2 and this kind and degree of knowledge would have served as a clue to direct us to a full investigation of this matter in general2 but it is to be regretted1 that no such observations have1 till very lately1 been made with any tolerable precision4--,there are three principal opinions on this subject1 which have been maintained by philosophers of modern date2 some1 observing that river water1 almost in every part of the globe1 is in a greater or less degree impregnated with sea salt1 have thought that the sea has gradually acquired its present quality of salt from the long-continued influx of rivers4 ,other philosophers1 observing that large beds of fossil salt are not unfrequent in any quarter of the globe2 and conceiving1 with great probability1 the bottom of the sea to be analogous in its formation to the surface of the earth1 have undertaken to derive its saltness from the beds of rock salt1 which they have supposed to be situated at its bottom2 and they are further of opinion1 that without such a permanent saline principle1 the sea would long since have become insipid from the fresh water poured into it by an infinity of rivers4 ,strange6 that what1 according to the fore-mentioned hypothesis1 was thought sufficient to account for the saltness of the sea1 should in this be esteemed instrumental in annihilating the saltness already supposed to exist4 ,boyle unites1 as it were1 and takes the two preceding hypotheses1 and imagines the saltness of the sea to be supplied1 not only from rocks and other masses of salt1 which at the beginning were1 and in some countries may yet be found1 either at the bottom of the sea1 or at the sides1 where the water can reach them1 but also from the salt which the rivers1 rains1 and other waters1 dissolve in their passage through divers parts of the earth1 and at length carry with them into the sea4 ,buffon1 and the generality of philosophers1 acquiesce in the opinion of ,boyle4--,after all1 7says he17 it may be observed1 that we are inquiring into the cause of a phenomenon1 which it may be said had no secondary cause at all4 ,it is taken for granted1 in this disquisition1 that the water which covered the globe in its chaotic state1 was not impregnated with salt as at present1 but quite fresh3 now this is an opinion concerning a matter of fact1 which can never be proved either way2 and surely we extend our speculations very far1 when we attempt to explain a phenomenon1 primeval to1 or coeval with1 the formation of the earth4 ,this sensible writer then states the different experiments which have been made to discover the saltness of the sea1 round the shores of ,britain2 and proposes the following simple method of ascertaining it with tolerable certainty3-- ,as it is not every person who can make himself expert in the use of common means of estimating the quantity of salt contained in sea water1 ,i will mention a method of doing it1 which is so easy and simple1 that every common sailor may understand and practise it2 and which1 at the same time1 from the trials ,i have made of it1 seems to be as exact a method as any that has yet been thought of4--,take a clean towel1 or any other piece of cloth2 dry it well before the sun or before the fire1 then weigh it accurately1 and note down its weight2 dip it in the sea water1 and1 when taken out1 wring it a little till it will not drip when hung up to dry2 weigh it in this wet state1 then dry it in the sun or at the fire1 and when it is perfectly dry1 weigh it again3 the excess of the weight of the wetted cloth above its original weight1 is the weight of the sea water imbibed by the cloth2 and the excess of the weight of the cloth after being dried1 above its original weight1 is the specific gravity of the salt retained by the cloth2 and by comparing this weight with the weight of the sea water imbibed by the cloth1 we obtain the proportion of salt contained in that species of sea water4 ,whoever undertakes to ascertain the quantity of salt contained in sea water1 either by this or any other method1 would do well to observe the state of the weather preceding the time when the sea water is taken out of the sea2 for the quantity of salt contained in the water near the surface1 may be influenced1 both by the antecedent moisture1 and the antecedent heat of the atmosphere4 ,and this leads to the consideration of a question proposed by ,aristotle1--,why are the upper parts of the sea salter and warmer than the lower8 ,some philosophers1 admitting the fact1 have followed him in attempting to explain it2 whilst others have thought themselves authorized by experiment to deny the truth of the position2 and those1 perhaps1 will argue with the greatest justness1 who shall affirm that it is neither generally to be admitted1 nor generally to be rejected1 but that the sea in some places1 and under certain circumstances1 is salter and warmer at the surface1 than at any considerable depth beneath it1 while in many others the reverse is true4 ,the question consists of two parts1 betwixt which1 though there probably is a connection1 yet it is not so necessary a one as to hinder us from considering each part by itself4 ,with regard to the use of this salt property of sea water1 it is observed1 that the saltness of the sea preserves its waters pure and sweet1 which otherwise would corrupt1 and emit a stench like a filthy lake1 and consequently that none of the myriads of creatures which now live therein could exist4 ,from thence also the sea water becomes much heavier1 and therefore ships of greater size and burden are safely borne thereon4 ,salt water also does not freeze so soon as fresh water1 hence the seas are more free for navigation4 ,we shall now make a few observations on ,,the ,,tides3-- ,say1 why should the collected main ,itself within itself contain8 ,why to its caverns should it sometimes cree ,and with delighted silence sleep ,on the lov'd bosom of its parent deep8 ,why should its num'rous waters stay ,in comely discipline and fair array1 ,till winds and tides exert their high commands8 ,then prompt and ready to obey1 ,why do the rising surges spread ,their op'ning ranks o'er earth's submissive head1 ,marching through different paths to different lands8 ,prior4 ,the tides consist of two periodical motions of the waters of the sea1 called the flux and reflux1 or the flow and ebb4 ,the cause of the tides is the attraction of the sun and moon1 but chiefly of the latter2 the waters of the immense ocean1 forgetful1 as it were1 of their natural rest1 move and roll in tides1 obsequious to the strong attractive power of the moon1 and weaker influence of the sun4 ,that the tides may have their full motion1 the ocean in which they are produced ought to be extended from east to west #ij1 or a quarter of a great circle of the earth1 at least2 because the places where the moon raises most1 and most depresses the water1 are at that distance from one another4 ,hence it appears1 that it is only in the great oceans that such tides can be produced1 and why1 in the large ,pacific ocean1 they exceed those in the ,atlantic4 ,from this it is also obvious why the tides are not so great in the torrid zone1 between ,africa and ,america1 where the ocean is narrower1 as in the temperate zones on either side2 and from this also1 we may understand why the tides are so small in islands that are very far distant from the shore4 ,it is manifest1 that1 in the ,atlantic ocean1 the water cannot rise on one shore1 but by descending on the other2 so that1 on these shores1 at an intermediate distance1 it must continue at about a mean height between its elevation on the one1 and descent on the other shore4 ,as the tides pass over shoals1 and run through streights into bays of the sea1 their motion becomes more various1 and their height depends on a great many circumstances4 ,the tide that is produced in the western coast of ,europe corresponds to the theory above described3 thus1 it is high water on the coast of ,spain1 ,portugal1 and the west of ,ireland1 about the third hour after the moon has passed the meridian2 from thence it flows into the adjacent channels1 as it finds the easiest passage4 ,one current from it1 for example1 runs up by the south of ,england1 and another comes in by the north of ,scotland3 they take a considerable time to move all this way1 and it is high water sooner in the places to which they first come2 and the tides even begin to fall at those places1 while the two currents are yet going on to others that are further in their course4 ,as they return1 they are not able to raise a tide2 because the water runs faster off than it returns1 till by a new tide propagated from the ocean1 the return of the current is stopped1 and the water begins to rise again4 ,the tide takes twelve hours to come from the ocean to ,london bridge1 so that1 when it is high water there1 a new tide is already come to its height in the ocean1 and1 in some intermediate place1 it must be low water at the same time4 ,in channels1 therefore1 and narrow seas1 the progress of the tides may be1 in some respects1 compared to the motion of the waves of the sea4 ,it may be observed1 that when the tide runs over shoals1 and flows upon flat shores1 the water is raised to a greater height than in the open and deep oceans that have steep banks2 because the force of its motion cannot be broken upon these level shores1 till the water rises to a greater height4 ,if a place communicates with two oceans1 7or two different ways with the same ocean1 one of which is a readier and easier passage than the other17 two tides may arrive at that place in different times1 which1 interfering with each other1 may produce a greater variety of phenomena4 ,an extraordinary instance of this kind is mentioned at ,bathsha1 a port in the kingdom of ,tonquin in the ,east ,indies1 of northern latitude #bj #ej'4 ,the day in which the moon passes the equator1 the water stagnates there without any motion3 as the moon removes from the equator1 the water begins to rise and fall once a day2 and it is high water at the setting of the moon1 and low water at her rising4 ,this daily tide increases for about seven or eight days1 and then decreases for as many days by the same degrees1 till this motion ceases when the moon has returned to the equator4 ,when she has passed the equator1 and declines towards the south pole1 the water rises and falls again1 as before2 but it is high water now at the rising1 and low water at the setting1 of the moon4 ,we shall close this chapter with an account of the remarkable fact of ,,waves ,,stilled ,,by ,,oil4--,this wonderful property1 though well known to the ancients1 as appears from the writings of ,pliny1 was for many ages either quite unnoticed1 or treated as fabulous by succeeding philosophers1 till ,dr4 ,franklin again attracted the attention of the learned to this subject2 though it appears1 from some anecdotes1 that seafaring people have always been acquainted with it4 ,mr4 ,pennant1 in his ,british ,zoology1 vol4 iv4 under the article ,seal1 takes notice1 that when these animals are devouring a very oily fish1 which they always do under water1 the waves above are remarkably smooth2 and by this the fishermen know where to find them4 ,sir ,gilbert ,lawson1 who served long in the army at ,gibraltar1 assured ,dr4 ,franklin1 that the fishermen in that place are accustomed to pour a little oil on the sea1 in order to still its motion1 that they may be enabled to see the oysters lying at its bottom1 which are there very large1 and which they take up with a proper instrument4 ,a similar practice is followed among fishermen in various other parts2 and ,dr4 ,franklin was informed by an old sea captain1 that the fishermen of ,lisbon1 when about to return into the river1 if they saw too great a surf upon the bar1 would empty a bottle or two of oil into the sea1 which would suppress the breakers1 and allow them to pass freely4 ,the ,doctor having revolved in his mind all these pieces of information1 became impatient to try the experiment himself4 ,at last1 having an opportunity of observing a large pond very rough with the wind1 he dropped a small quantity of oil upon it4 ,but having at first applied it on the lee side1 the oil was driven back again upon the shore4 ,he then went to the windward side1 and poured on about a tea-spoonful of oil2 this produced an instant calm over a space several yards square1 which spread amazingly1 and extended itself gradually till it came to the lee-side2 making all that quarter of the pond1 perhaps half an acre1 as smooth as glass4 ,this experiment was often repeated in different places1 and was always attended with success4 ,,chap4 ,,xlv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,sea4--7,concluded47 --------------------,adoring1 own ,the hand ,almighty1 who its channel'd bed ,immeasurable sunk1 and pour'd abroad1 ,fenc'd with eternal mounds1 the fluid sphere2 ,with every wind to waft large commerce on1 ,join pole to pole1 consociate sever'd worlds1 ,and link in bonds of intercourse and love ,earth's universal family4 ,,on ,,the ,,perfection ,,of ,,navigation4 ,the following account of the present wonderful perfection of navigation1 is taken from a ,history of ,voyages and ,discoveries made in the ,north2 translated from the ,german of ,john ,reinhold ,foster1 ,,ll4,d4-- ,of all the arts and professions which have at any time attracted notice1 none has ever appeared to be more astonishing and marvellous than that of navigation1 in the state in which it is at present2 an art which doubtless affords one of the most certain irrefragable proofs of the amazing powers of the human understanding4 ,this cannot be made more evident1 than when1 taking a retrospective view of the tottering inartificial craft to which navigation owes its origin1 we compare it to a noble and majestic edifice1 containing #ajjj men1 together with their provisions1 drink1 furniture1 wearing-apparel1 and other necessaries1 for many months1 besides #ajj pieces of heavy ordnance2 and bearing all this vast apparatus safely1 and as it were on the wings of the wind1 across immense seas to the most distant shores4 ,the following example may serve for the present to delineate at full length1 as it were1 the idea above alluded to4 ,but first ,i must premise1 that a huge unwieldy log of wood1 with the greatest difficulty1 and in the most uncouth manner1 hollowed out in the inside1 and somewhat pointed at both ends1 and in this way set on a river for the purpose of transporting two or three persons belonging to one and the same family1 across a piece of water a few feet deep1 by the assistance of a pole pushed against the ground1 cannot with any propriety be considered as the image of navigation in its first and earliest stage4 ,for it seems evident to me1 that people in the beginning only took three or four trunks of trees1 and fastened them together1 and then1 by means of this kind of raft1 got across such waters as were too deep for them to ford1 and across which they could not well swim1 with their children1 and various kinds of goods which they might wish to preserve from being wet4 ,the canoe1 however1 is a specimen of the art in a more advanced state1 as this kind of craft is capable of having direction given to it1 and even of so capital an improvement as that of having a sail added to it4 ,for this reason ,i choose this vehicle for a standard1 in preference to a mere raft1 to which1 imperfect as it is1 it is so much superior4 ,let us1 then1 compare this with a large majestic floating edifice1 the result of the ingenuity and labour of many hundreds of hands1 and composed of a number of well-proportioned pieces1 nicely fastened together by iron nails and bolts2 and rendered so tight with tow and pitch1 that no water can penetrate it4 ,now1 in order to give motion and direction to this enormous machine1 some astonishingly lofty pieces of timber have been fixed upright in it1 and so many moveable cross pieces have been added to it1 together with such a variety of pieces of strong linen cloth1 for the purpose of catching the wind1 and of receiving its impulse and propelling power1 that the number of them amounts to upwards of thirty4 ,for changing the direction of the yards and sails1 according to particular circumstances1 it has also been requisite to add a vast quantity of cordage and tackling2 and nevertheless1 even all this would not be sufficient for the perfect direction and government of the vessel1 if there were not fastened to the hinder part of it1 by means of hinges and hooks1 a moveable piece of wood1 very small indeed1 in proportion to the whole machine1 but the least inclination of which to either side is sufficient to give immediately a different direction to this enormously large mass1 and that even in a storm1 so that two men may direct and govern this swimming island with the same1 or with greater ease1 than a single man can do a boat4 ,but if1 besides1 we consider1 that1 in a vessel like this1 not a single piece is put in at random1 but that every part of it has its determinate measure and proportion1 and is fixed precisely in that place which is the most advantageous for it2 that1 throughout every part of it1 there is distributed an astonishing quantity of blocks1 stays1 and pulleys1 for the purpose of diminishing the friction1 and of accelerating the motion of these parts2 that even the bellying and vaulted part of the fabric1 together with its sharp termination underneath1 are proportioned according to the nicest calculations1 and the most accurately determined rules2 that the length and the thickness of the masts1 the size of the booms and yards1 the length1 width1 and strength of the sails and tackling1 are all in due proportion to each other1 according to certain rules founded upon the principles of motion3 when we consider all this1 ,i say1 our admiration increases more and more at this great masterpiece of human power and understanding4 ,still1 however1 there are wanting a few traits to complete this description4 ,a man in health consumes1 in the space of twenty-four hours1 about eight pounds of victuals and drink3 consequently1 #hjjjlb4 of provisions are required daily in such a ship4 ,now1 let us suppose a ship to be fitted out for three months only1 and we shall find that she must be laden with #gbj1jjjlb4 of provisions4 ,a large forty-two pounder weighs about #fajjlb4 if made of brass1 and about #eejjlb4 if iron2 and generally there are twenty-eight or thirty of these on board a ship of #ajj guns1 the weight of which1 exclusive of that of their carriages1 amounts to #ahc1jjjlb4--on the second deck1 thirty twenty-four pounders1 each of which weighs about #eajjlb4 and therefore altogether #aec1jjjlb4--the weight of the twenty-six or twenty-eight twelve-pounders on the lower deck1 amounts to about #ge1djjlb4--that of the fourteen six-pounders on the upper deck1 to about #bf1fjjlb4--besides which1 on the round tops1 there are even three-pounders and swivels4 ,now1 if to this we add1 that the complete charge of a forty-two pounder weighs about #fdlb4 and that at least upwards of #ajj charges are required for each gun1 we shall find this to amount nearly to the same weight as the guns themselves4 ,in addition to this1 we must reflect1 that every ship must have1 by way of providing against exigencies1 at least a second set of sails1 cables1 cordage1 and tacklings1 which altogether amount to a considerable weight4 ,the stores1 likewise1 consisting of planks1 pitch1 and tow2 the chests belonging to the officers and sailors2 the surgeon's stores1 and various other articles requisite on a long voyage2 as also the small arms1 bayonets1 swords1 and pistols1 are no inconsiderable load2 to which we must finally add the weight of the crew1 which is not very trifling3 so that one of these large ships carries at least #bafb tons burden1 or #d1cbd1jjjlb4 and at the same time is steered and governed with as much ease as the smallest boat4 ,now1 the consideration of these circumstances alone1 is sufficient to excite the most serious reflections in a contemplative mind2 and yet1 if such a ship sailed along the coast only1 and never lost sight of the shore1 as the navigators of old used to do1 we might still be tempted to look upon navigation as an easy and trifling business4 ,but the finding the straightest and shortest way over an ocean of more than sixty or eighty degrees in longitude1 and thirty or forty in latitude2 or across a track from #djjj to #fjjj miles in extent1 by day and by night1 in fair weather or in foul2 as well when the sky is overcast as when it is clear1 and often with no other guide than the compass1 and the being able to determine the true position of the ship at sea1 by the height of the sun1 though this latter be enveloped in clouds1 or to direct its course by the moon and stars with such exactness and precision1 as not to make a mistake of the value of half a degree1 or thirty miles2 this at least shews the progress and great perfection of an art practised by a class of people1 of whose understanding many conceited and supercilious landsmen have but a mean opinion1 and whose plain and simple manners they frequently take the liberty of turning into ridicule1 forgetting how much they are indebted to their skill and prowess4 ,a violent storm of wind will make us tremble with fear1 even in a strong well-built house1 and in the midst of a populous city2 yet we have seldom or never either seen or experienced the vast power of the enraged waves1 when beat about by the winds1 and dashed against each other till they seem transformed into froth and vapour1 and the whole surface of the ocean presents to the eye a confused scene of immense watery mountains and bottomless precipices2 and yet on such a sea as this the true seaman1 provided he has but a good ship1 rides with calm and unshaken courage1 and thinks himself as safe in the midst of the ocean as in the best fortified castle4 ,with gallant pomp and beauteous pride1 ,the floating pile in harbour rode2 ,proud of her freight1 the swelling tide ,reluctant left the vessel's side1 ,and rais'd it as it flow'd4 ,the waves1 with eastern breezes curl'd1 ,had silver'd half the liquid plain2 ,the anchors weigh'd1 the sails unfurl'd1 ,serenely mov'd the wooden world1 ,and stretch'd along the main4 ,,chap4 ,,xlvi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,waterfalls1 ,,lakes1 ,,gulfs1 ,,whirlpools1 c4 ,the ,falls of ,niagara--,lake of ,killarney--,lake ,solfatara--,whirlpool near ,suderoe--,maelstrom--,gulf ,stream--,new ,island starting from the ,sea4 ,fountains and ponds he adds1 and lakes immense1 ,descending streams the winding borders fence2 ,this1 deep-absorb'd1 the darksome cavern laves1 ,these to the ocean roll their azure waves2 ,there1 uncontroll'd1 they meet the roaring tide1 ,and dash1 for verdant banks1 the hoar cliff's side4 ,ovid4 ,,niagara is a river of the ,united ,states1 which flows from ,lake ,erie1 and runs by a north-west course into the south-west end of ,lake ,ontario1 constituting part of the boundary between the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,it is thirty-four miles long1 including its meanders4 ,about twenty miles below ,lake ,erie is the great cataract1 called ,,the ,,falls ,,of ,,niagara1 which is justly reckoned one of the greatest natural curiosities in the world4 ,these falls run from south-south-east to north-north-west2 and the rock of the falls crosses them1 not in a right line1 but forms a kind of figure like a hollow semicircle1 or horse-shoe4 ,above the falls1 in the middle of the river1 is an island called ,grand ,isle1 about nine hundred or one thousand feet long1 the lower end of which is just at the perpendicular edge of the fall4 ,on both sides of this island runs all the water that comes from the lakes of ,canada2 viz4 ,lakes ,superior1 ,michigan1 ,huron1 and ,erie4 ,before the water comes to this island1 it runs but slowly1 compared with its motion afterwards1 when it grows the most rapid in the world1 running with a surprising swiftness before it comes to the fall4 ,it is perfectly white1 and in many places is thrown high up into the air4 ,at this island1 the river divides into two channels3 the perpendicular descent of the north-east channel1 as measured by ,dr4 ,m',causlin1 is one hundred and sixty-three feet2 that of the north-west1 one hundred and forty-three2 and the breadth of the cataract and island1 above a mile4 ,the water that runs down on the west side is more rapid1 flows in greater abundance1 and is whiter1 than that on the east side1 and seems to outfly an arrow in swiftness4 ,at the principal fall1 on looking up the river1 one may see that the water is every where exceedingly steep1 almost like the side of a hill2 but upon looking at the fall itself1 it is impossible to express the amazement it occasions4 ,the height of it1 as measured by mathematical instruments1 is exactly one hundred and thirty-seven feet2 and when the water is come to the bottom1 it rebounds back to a very great height in the air4 ,the noise is heard at the distance of forty-five miles4 ,at fort ,niagara1 when they hear the noise of the fall more loud than ordinary1 they are sure that a north-east wind will follow2 which is the most surprising1 as the fort lies south-west from the fall4 ,sometimes the fall makes a much greater noise than at others1 and this is held for an infallible sign of approaching rain or bad weather4 ,from the place where the water falls1 there arises a great quantity of vapour1 like very thick smoke1 insomuch1 that when viewed at a distance1 one would think that the ,indians had set the forests on fire4 ,these vapours rise high in the air when it is calm1 but are dispersed by the wind when it blows hard4 ,in ,september and ,october1 such quantities of dead water-fowl are found every morning below the fall1 on the shore1 that the garrison of the fort live chiefly upon them4 ,besides the fowls1 they find several sorts of dead fish1 also deer1 bears1 and other animals1 which have tried to cross the water above the fall3 the larger animals are generally found broken to pieces4 ,just below1 a little way from the great fall1 the water is not rapid1 but goes in circles1 and whirls like a boiling pot2 which however does not hinder the ,indians going upon it in small canoes a fishing2 but a little further1 and lower1 the other smaller falls begin4 ,there is an island in the middle of the river above the fall1 where the ,indians go often to kill deer1 which have tried to cross the river1 and are driven upon it by the stream4 ,on the west side of this island are some small islands or rocks of no consequence4 ,the east side of the river is almost perpendicular1 the west side more sloping4 ,in former times1 a part of the rock1 at the fall which is on the west side of the island1 hung over in such a manner1 that the water which fell perpendicularly from it1 left a vacancy below1 so that people could go under between the rock and the water2 but the prominent part some years ago broke off1 and fell down4 ,the breadth of the great fall1 as it runs in a semicircle1 is reckoned to be about #cjj feet4 ,below the fall1 in the holes of the rocks1 are great plenty of eels1 which the ,indians and ,french catch with their hands4 ,every day1 when the sun shines1 may be seen from ten ,a4 ,m4 till two ,p4 ,m4 below the fall1 a glorious rainbow1 and sometimes two1 one within the other4 ,the more vapours that float1 the brighter and clearer is the rainbow4 ,when the wind carries the vapours from that place1 the rainbow is gone1 but appears again as soon as new vapours arise4 ,from the fall to the landing above it1 where the canoes from the ,lake ,erie put ashore1 7or from the fall to the upper end of the carrying place17 is half a mile4 ,lower than this1 the canoes dare not venture4 ,they have often found below the fall1 fragments of human bodies1 that have unhappily been precipitated over the fall4 ,the ,french say1 that they have often thrown great trees into the water above1 to see them carried over this precipice with the vast body of water1 which nothing can resist3 these go down with surprising swiftness1 but can never be seen afterwards2 from whence has arisen the conjecture that there was a bottomless abyss just under the fall4 ,but the most reasonable supposition is1 that1 by the powerful agency of the water1 they were broken into such diminutive fragments1 as to render it impossible that they should ever be recognized for the same4 ,the rock of the fall is composed of a gray limestone4 ,we shall next take a view of some of the most remarkable lakes2 and the first we would notice1 is the ,,lake ,,of ,,killarney4--,this is a beautiful lake of ,ireland1 in the county of ,kerry1 otherwise called ,,lough ,,lean1 from its being surrounded by high mountains4 ,it is divided into three parts1 called the ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,lake4 ,the northern1 or lower lake1 is six miles in length1 and from three to four in breadth4 ,on the side of one of the mountains is ,o',sullivan's ,cascade1 which falls into the lake with a roar that strikes the timid with awe4 ,the view of this sheet of water is uncommonly fine2 it appears as if it were descending from an arch of wood1 which overhangs it above seventy feet in height4 ,the promontory of ,mucruss1 which divides the upper from the lower lake1 is quite enchanting2 and a road is carried through the centre of its promontory1 which unfolds all the interior beauties of the place4 ,among the distant mountains1 ,turk appears an object of magnificence2 while ,mangerton's more lofty1 though less interesting summit1 soars above the whole4 ,the passage to the upper lake is round the extremity of ,mucruss1 which confines it on one side1 and the approaching mountains on the other4 ,here is a celebrated rock1 called the ,eagle's ,nest1 which produces wonderful echoes2 the report of a single cannon is answered by a succession of peals resembling the loudest thunder1 and at length dies away among the distant mountains4 ,the upper is four miles long1 and from two to three broad4 ,it is almost surrounded by mountains1 from which descend a number of beautiful cascades4 ,the islands in this lake are numerous1 and afford an amazing variety of picturesque views4 ,the centre lake1 which communicates with the upper1 is small in comparison with the other two1 and cannot boast of equal variety2 but the shores are1 in many places1 indented with beautiful bays1 surrounded by dark groves of trees4 ,the east boundary is formed by the base of ,mangerton1 down the steep side of which descends a cascade1 visible for #aej yards4 ,this fall of water is supplied by a circular lake1 near the summit of the mountain1 called the ,devil's ,punch ,bowl2 which1 on account of its immense depth1 and the continual overflow of water1 is considered as one of the greatest curiosities in ,killarney4 ,one of the most delightful prospects which this universally admired lake affords1 is from a rising ground near the ruined cathedral of ,aghadoe4 ,,lake ,,solfatara4--,this lake is in the ,compagna of ,rome1 near ,tivoli1 anciently called ,albulus4 ,it has what are called three floating islands1 but they are only apparently so1 being composed of bunches of sedges and bulrushes1 glued together by the bitumen which swims on the lake1 and the sulphur with which it is impregnated1 and covered with sand and dust blown from the adjacent banks of the lake4 ,these islands are from twelve to fifteen yards long1 and the soil is strong enough to bear six persons1 who1 by a pole1 may move to different parts of the lake4 ,this lake has an outlet1 whence its waters run1 forming a whitish muddy stream1 into the ,teverone1 the ancient ,anio1 emitting a vapour of a sulphureous smell as they flow4 ,the ground near this rivulet1 as well as on the banks of the lake1 resounds with a hollow sound when a horse gallops over it4 ,the water has also a petrifying quality1 covering every substance that it passes over with a hard white stony substance4 ,on throwing a bundle of sticks or shrubs into the lake1 they will in a few days be covered with this stony crust2 and this petrifying quality is even stronger in the rivulet that runs from it1 than in the lake itself1 and still increases till it falls into the ,teverone4 ,these small white incrustations that cover the pebbles in the bottom of the lake and rivulet1 being somewhat like sugar-plums1 are called ,confections of ,tivoli4 ,fish abound in the ,teverone above and below ,tivoli1 till it receives the petrifying water2 after which1 during the remainder of its course to the ,tiber1 there are none4 ,our next object of curiosity is a ,,whirlpool near ,,suderoe4--,suderoe is one of the ,fero isles1 situated to the north of ,scotland4 ,near this place there is a remarkable whirlpool1 occasioned by a crater sixty-one fathoms deep in the centre1 and from fifty to fifty-five on the sides4 ,the water forms four fierce circumgyrations4 ,the point they begin at is on the side of a large bason1 where commences a range of rocks1 running spirally1 and terminating at the verge of the crater4 ,this range is extremely rugged1 and covered with water1 from the depth of twelve to eight fathoms only4 ,it forms four equidistant wreaths1 with a channel from thirty-five to twenty fathoms deep between each4 ,on the outside1 beyond that depth1 the sea suddenly sinks to eighty and ninety4 ,on the south border of the bason is a lofty rock1 called ,sumboe ,munk1 noted for the multitude of birds which frequent it4 ,on one side the water is only three or four fathoms deep1 on the other fifteen4 ,the danger at most times1 especially in storms1 is very great4 ,ships are irresistibly drawn in2 the rudder loses its power2 and the waves beat as high as the masts2 so that an escape is almost miraculous3 yet at the reflux1 in fine weather1 the inhabitants venture for the sake of fishing4 ,our next subject is the celebrated ,,maelstrom4--,this is a very dangerous whirlpool on the coast of ,norway1 in the province of ,nordland1 and district of ,lofoden1 near the island of ,moskoe1 whence it also has its name of ,moskoe-strom4 ,of this amazing whirlpool1 ,jonas ,ramus gives the following account3--,the mountain of ,helseggen1 in ,lofoden1 lies a league from the island of ,ver1 and betwixt these two runs that large and dreadful stream called ,moskoe-strom1 from the island of ,moskoe1 which is in the middle of it2 together with several circumjacent isles1 as ,ambaaran1 half a quarter of a league north1 ,iflesen1 ,hoeholm1 ,kiedholm1 ,suarven1 and ,buckholm4 ,moskoe lies about half a quarter of a mile south of the island of ,ver1 and betwixt them these small islands1 ,otterholm1 ,flimen1 ,sandfiesen1 and ,stockholm4 ,betwixt ,lofoden and ,moskoe1 the depth of the water is between thirty-six and forty fathoms2 but on the side towards ,ver1 the depth decreases so as not to afford a convenient passage for a vessel1 without the risk of splitting on the rocks1 which sometimes happens even in the calmest weather3 when it is flood1 the stream runs up the country between ,lofoden and ,moskoe with a boisterous rapidity2 but the roar of its impetuous ebb to the sea is scarce equalled by the loudest and most dreadful cataracts1 the noise being heard several leagues off2 and the vortices1 or pits1 are of such an extent and depth1 that if a ship comes within its attraction1 it is inevitably absorbed and carried down to the bottom1 and there beaten to pieces against the rocks2 and when the water relaxes1 the fragments thereof are thrown up again3 but these intervals of tranquillity are only at the turn of the ebb and flood1 in calm weather1 and last but a quarter of an hour1 its violence gradually returning4 ,when the stream is most boisterous1 and its fury heightened by a storm1 it is dangerous to come within a ,norway mile of it2 boats1 ships1 and yachts1 having been carried away1 by not guarding against it before they were within its reach4 ,it likewise happens frequently1 that whales come too near the stream1 and are overpowered by its violence2 and then it is impossible to describe their howlings and bellowings1 in their fruitless struggles to disengage themselves4 ,a bear1 once attempting to swim from ,lofoden to ,moskoe1 with a design of preying upon the sheep at pasture in the island1 afforded the like spectacle to the people2 the stream caught him1 and bore him down1 whilst he roared terribly1 so as to be heard on shore4 ,large stocks of fir and pine trees1 after being absorbed by the current1 rise again1 broken and torn to such a degree as if bristles grew on them4 ,this plainly shews the bottom to consist of craggy rocks1 among which they are whirled to and fro4 ,this stream is regulated by the flux and reflux of the sea1 it being constantly high and low water every six hours4 ,in #afde1 early in the morning of ,sexagesima ,sunday1 it raged with such noise and impetuosity1 that on the island of ,moskoe1 the very stones of the houses fell to the ground4 ,when this whirlpool is agitated by a storm1 its vortex will reach vessels five or six miles distant4 ,,gulf-,,stream4--,this is a remarkable current in the ocean1 which runs along the coast1 at unequal distances1 from ,cape ,florida to the ,isle of ,sables and the banks of ,newfoundland1 where it turns off and runs through the ,western ,islands1 thence to the coast of ,africa1 and along that coast in a southern direction till it arrives at and supplies the place of those waters carried by the constant trade-winds from the coast of ,africa towards the west2 thus producing a constant circulating current4 ,this stream is about seventy-five miles from the shores of the southern states1 and the distance increases as you proceed northward4 ,the breadth of it is about forty or fifty miles1 widening towards the north4 ,its common rapidity is three miles an hour4 ,a north-east wind narrows the stream1 renders it more rapid1 and drives it nearer the coast4 ,north-west and west winds produce a contrary effect4 ,the ,gulf-stream is supposed to be occasioned by the trade-winds1 that are constantly driving the water to the westward1 which being compressed in the gulf of ,mexico1 finds a passage between ,florida and the ,bahama islands1 and runs to the north-east along the ,american coast4 ,a chart of this ,gulf-stream was published by ,dr4 ,franklin1 in #agfh1 principally from the information of ,captain ,folger4 ,this was confirmed by the ingenious experiments of ,dr4 ,blagden1 published in #agha1 who found that the water of the gulf-stream was from six to eleven degrees warmer than the water of the sea1 through which it runs2 which must have been occasioned by its being brought from a hotter climate4 ,we close the present chapter with an ,,account ,,of ,a ,,new ,,island ,,emerging ,,from ,,the ,,sea4--,the description is taken from the ,edinburgh ,review1 ,no4 #df1 ,september1 #ahad4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,oonalashca1 which is situated about the centre of the ,alentian chain1 a new island1 nearly twenty miles in circumference1 has been formed within these twenty years4 ,the following is the account of it1 which ,m4 ,lisiansky collected from eye-witnesses at ,cadinck3-- ,in the evening1 while ,i was alone1 employed in writing the memorandums of my journal1 a ,russian introduced himself1 who had resided on the island of ,oonalashca1 when a new island started up in its vicinity4 ,i had heard of this phenomenon1 and was therefore desirous to learn what he knew respecting it4 ,he said1 that about the middle of ,april1 #agig1 a small island was seen where none had been seen before3 that the first intimation of its appearance had been brought by some ,alentians to ,captain's ,harbour1 who1 returning from fishing1 observed a great smoke issuing out of the sea3 that this was the smoke of the volcano1 which was then gradually rising above the surface of the sea1 and which1 in ,may1 #agih1 burst forth with a blaze1 that was distinctly seen from a settlement called ,macooshina1 on the island of ,oonalashca1 at the distance of no less than forty miles to the north-west4 ,this new island is tolerably high1 and about twenty miles in circumference4 ,it has been remarked1 that it has not increased in size since the year #agii2 and that no alteration has taken place in its appearance1 except that some of the highest points have been thrown down by violent eruptions4 ,,chap4 ,,xlvii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,burning ,,springs4 ,naphtha ,springs--,burning ,springs in ,kentucky--,hot ,springs of ,iceland--,hot ,springs of ,ouachitta--,other ,burning ,springs4 ,adored ,artificer6 what skill divine1 ,what wonders1 in the wide creation shine6 ,,naphtha ,,springs4--,dr4 ,james ,mounsey1 and ,jonas ,hanway1 ,esq41 have given a particular account of these springs4 ,both gentlemen1 by their travels1 their residence in ,muscovy1 and their acquaintance with several people who have been upon the spot1 have had great opportunities of becoming perfectly informed of every thing relating to the subject2 and whose judgment and veracity may be depended on4 ,both their accounts agree1 that on the western coast of the ,caspian ,sea1 not far from the city of ,baku1 there is a large spot of ground1 where1 on taking off two or three inches of the surface of the earth1 and then applying a live coal1 and blowing1 a flame immediately issues forth1 without either burning the reed or paper1 provided the edges be covered with clay4 ,this method supplies the want of candle in their houses4 ,three or four of these will also boil water in a pot1 and they dress their victuals in this way4 ,the flame may be blown out like that of a lamp1 but otherwise it continues burning2 it smells somewhat sulphureous1 or rather like naphtha1 but very little offensive4 ,the ground is dry and stony1 and the more stony the ground1 the stronger and clearer the flame4 ,near this place they dig out brimstone1 and here are also the naphtha springs4 ,but the chief place for naphtha is ,swieten ,island1 a small tract of land on the western coast of the ,caspian ,sea1 and uninhabited1 except at such seasons as they fetch naphtha from thence1 which the ,persians load in their wretched embarkations1 without barrels or any other vessels1 so that sometimes you see the sea covered with it for leagues together4 ,the springs boil up highest in thick and heavy weather1 and the naphtha sometimes takes fire on the surface1 and runs lighted or burning into the sea in great quantities1 and to great distances4 ,in clear weather1 it does not bubble above two or three feet4 ,people make cisterns near the springs1 into which they convey what overflows by troughs1 taking off the naphtha from the surface1 under which there is a mixture of water1 or some other heavier fluid4 ,the greater part is of a dark gray colour1 very unpleasant to the smell1 but used in lamps by the poorer sort4 ,there are also springs of black naphtha1 which is thick1 and in distillation grows not clear1 but yellow2 but the most valuable is the white naphtha1 which is naturally clear and yellowish1 and bears a great price4 ,the ,russians drink it as a cordial1 but it does not intoxicate3 it is used externally in paralytic disorders1 and is carried into ,india as a great rarity1 where they make with it the most beautiful and lasting ,japan that has ever yet been known4 ,what the ,indians call the ,everlasting ,fire1 lies about ten ,english miles north-east-by-east from the city of ,baku1 on dry rocky ground4 ,there are several ancient temples1 built with stone1 supposed to have been all dedicated to ,fire3 most of them are low arched vaults1 from ten to fifteen feet high4 ,amongst the rest1 there is a temple in which the ,indians now worship2 near the altar1 about three feet high1 there is a large hollow cave1 from the end of which issues a flame1 in colour and gentleness1 not unlike a lamp that burns with spirits4 ,the ,indians affirm that this flame has continued burning some thousands of years1 and believe it will last to the end of the world2 and that if it was resisted or suppressed in this place1 it would rise in some other4 ,by the number of temples1 it is probable there were formerly a great number of worshippers of fire1 as well ,indians as ,persians3 they are called ,gouers4 ,at present there are about twenty persons1 who reside there constantly1 and go almost naked4 ,in summer it is very hot2 and in winter they dwell within doors1 and keep what fire they please1 in the manner above described3 they live upon roots and herbs for the most part1 and are supposed to attend as mediators for the sins of many who are absent2 and by their applications to this fire1 in which the ,deity is supposed to be present and visible1 they atone for the sins of others4 ,a little way from the temple just now mentioned1 near ,baku1 is a low cliff of a rock1 in which there is a horizontal gap1 two feet from the ground1 between five and six long1 and about three feet broad1 out of which issues a constant flame1 much of the colour mentioned already1 being a light blue4 ,it rises sometimes eight feet high1 but is lower in still weather4 ,they do not perceive the rock waste in the least4 ,this also the ,indians worship1 and say it cannot be put out4 ,about twenty yards on the back of this cliff is a well1 and a rock twelve or fourteen fathoms deep1 with exceedingly good water4 ,we shall next introduce an account of a ,,burning ,,spring ,,in ,,kentucky4--,this is a phenomenon which has for several years excited the attention of travellers1 under the name of a burning spring3 it exists in one of the principal forks of ,licking river in ,kentucky4 ,it is situated about three-fourths of a mile from the banks of the river1 and about eighty miles above its junction with ,ohio1 opposite ,cincinnati4 ,a spring here breaks out at the foot of a hill1 forming a basin of water about six feet in diameter and two feet deep1 at the bottom of which issues a stream of gas1 which in volume and force is about equal to the blast forced from a common smith's bellows2 but there is no cessation of its force1 which is such as to create a violent ebullition in the water4 ,being heavier than common atmospheric air1 the gas1 on passing up through the water1 constantly occupies the surface1 which is still the lower part of an indenture in the earth at that place4 ,on presenting a taper1 this gas instantly takes fire1 and burns with great brilliancy4 ,there is no absorption of it by the water1 which possesses the purity of common spring water1 neither is any offensive odour thrown off4 ,this spring has been known to dry up entirely in the summer1 when the air rushes out with increased force1 accompanied by a hissing noise4 ,there is nothing like smoke emitted4--,schoolcroft1 on the ,lead ,mines of ,missouri1 p4 #baf4 ,,hot ,,springs ,,of ,,iceland4--,from ,sir ,g4 ,mackenzie's ,travels in ,iceland4 ,the hot springs in the valley of ,reikholt1 or ,reikiadal1 though not the most magnificent1 are not the least curious among the numerous phenomena of this sort that are found in ,iceland4 ,on entering the valley1 we saw numerous columns of vapour ascending from different parts of it4 ,the first springs we visited1 issued from a number of apertures in a sort of platform of rock1 covered by a thin coating of calcareous incrustations4 ,from several of the apertures the water rose with great force1 and was thrown two or three feet into the air4 ,on plunging the thermometer into such of them as we could approach with safety1 we found that it stood at #bab4 ,a little further up the valley1 there is a rock in the middle of the river1 about ten feet high1 twelve yards long1 and six or eight feet in breadth3 from the highest part of this rock a jet of boiling water proceeded with violence2 dashing the water up to the height of several feet4 ,near the middle1 and not more than two feet from the edge of the rock1 there is a hole1 about two feet in diameter1 full of water boiling strongly4 ,there is a third hole near the other end of the rock1 in which water also boils briskly4 ,at the time we saw these springs1 there happened to be less water in the river than usual1 and a bank of gravel was left dry a little higher up than the rock4 ,from this bank a considerable quantity of boiling water issued4 ,about a mile further down1 at the foot of the valley1 is the ,tungahver1 an assemblage of springs the most extraordinary1 perhaps1 in the whole world4 ,a rock 7waoke 87 rises from the bog1 about twenty feet1 and is about fifty yards in length1 the breadth not being considerable4 ,this seems formerly to have been a hillock1 one side of which remains covered with grass1 while the other has been worn away1 or perhaps destroyed at the time when the hot water burst forth4 ,along the face of the rock are arranged no fewer than sixteen springs1 all of them boiling furiously1 and some of them throwing the water to a considerable height4 ,one of them1 however1 deserves particular notice4 ,on approaching this place1 we observed a high jet of water near one extremity of the rock4 ,suddenly this jet disappeared1 and another1 thicker but not so high1 rose within a very short distance of it4 ,at first we supposed that a piece of the rock had given way1 and that the water had at that moment found a more convenient passage4 ,having left our horses1 we went directly to the place where this had apparently happened2 but we had scarcely reached the spot1 when this new jet disappeared1 and the one we had seen before was renewed4 ,we observed that there were two irregular holes in the rock1 within a yard of each other2 and while from one a jet proceeded to the height of twelve or fourteen feet1 the other was full of boiling water4 ,we had scarcely made this observation1 when the first jet began to subside1 and the water in the other hole to rise2 and as soon as the first had entirely sunk down1 the other attained its greatest height1 which was about five feet4 ,in this extraordinary manner1 these two jets played alternately4 ,the smallest and highest jet continued about four minutes and a half1 and the other about three minutes4 ,we remained admiring this very remarkable phenomenon for a considerable time1 during which we saw many alternations of the jets1 which happened regularly at the intervals already mentioned4 ,i have taken the liberty to give a name to this spring1 and to call it ',the ,alternating ,geyser4' ,these springs have been formerly observed1 though the singularity of the alternations does not seem to have been attended to as any thing remarkable4 ,olafson and ,paulson mention1 that the jets appear and disappear successively1 in the second1 third1 and fourth openings4 ,we observed no cessations in any of the springs1 except in the two under consideration4 ,to form a theory of this regular alternation is no easy matter2 and it seems to require a kind of mechanism very different from the simple apparatus usually employed by nature in ordinary intermittent or spouting springs4 ,the prime mover in this case is evidently steam1 an agent sufficiently powerful for the phenomena4 ,the two orifices are manifestly connected2 for1 as the one jet sinks towards the surface1 the other rises1 and this in a regular and uniform manner4 ,i observed once1 that when one of the jets was sinking1 and the other beginning to rise1 the first rose again a little before it was quite sunk down1 and then when this happened1 the other ceased to make any efforts to rise1 and returned to its former state1 till the first again sunk1 when the second rose and played as usual4 ,this communication must be formed in such a manner1 that it is never complete1 but alternately interrupted1 first on one side1 and then on the other4 ,to effect this without the intervention of valves1 seems to be impossible2 and yet it is difficult to conceive the natural formation of a set of permanent valves3 so that this fountain becomes one of the greatest curiosities ever presented by nature1 even though1 in attempting to explain the appearances it exhibits1 we take every advantage that machinery can give us4 ,if it is occasioned by natural valves1 these must be of very durable materials1 in order to withstand the continual agitation and consequent attrition4 ,we next proceed to a description of the ,,hot ,,springs ,,of ,,ouachitta1 7,,washitaw47--,these springs1 which have been known for many years1 are situated on a stream called ,hot ,spring ,creek1 which falls into the ,washitaw ,river1 eight miles below4 ,they lie fifty miles south of the ,arkansa ,river1 in ,clark county1 territory of ,arkansa1 7lately ,missouri17 and six miles west of the road from ,cadron to ,mount ,prairie1 on ,red ,river4 ,the approach to the springs lies up the valley of the creek4 ,on the right of the valley rises the hot mountain1 with the springs issuing at its foot2 on the left1 the cold mountain1 which is little more than a confused and mighty pile of stones4 ,the hot mountain is about #cjj feet high1 rising quite steep1 and presenting occasionally ledges of rocks2 it terminates above in a confused mass of broken rocks4 ,the steep and otherwise sterile sides are covered with a luxuriant growth of vines4 ,the valley between this and the cold mountain is about fifty yards wide4 ,the springs issue at the foot of the hot mountain1 at an elevation of about ten feet above the level of the creek2 they are very numerous all along the hill-side1 and the water1 which runs in copious streams1 is quite hot2 it will scald the hand1 and boil an egg hard in ten minutes4 ,its temperature is considered that of boiling water1 but ,dr4 ,andrews1 of ,red ,river1 thinks it is not above #bjj ,fahr4 ,there is a solitary spring1 situated seventy feet higher than the others on the side of the mountain1 but it is of an equal temperature1 and differs in no respect from those below4 ,a dense fog continually hangs over the springs and upon the side of the hill1 which at a distance looks like a number of furnaces in blast4 ,to this fog1 condensed into water1 is attributed the rank growth of the vines on the side of the mountain4 ,very little is known of the chemical nature of the water2 an analysis is said to have been made1 which indicated a little carbonate of lime4 ,an abundance of beautiful green moss grows at the edges of the springs1 and the paths of their waters are marked by a brighter vegetation than occurs elsewhere4 ,the substance of the rocks here1 are1 limestone1 slate1 and quartz4--,schoolcroft1 ,lead ,mines of ,missouri1 p4 #beh4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with an account of ,,various ,,other ,,burning ,,springs4--,there are many burning springs in different parts of the world1 particularly one in ,france1 in the department of ,isere1 near ,grenoble2 another near ,hermanstadt1 in ,transylvania2 a third at ,chermay1 a village near ,switzerland2 a fourth in the canton of ,friburg2 and a fifth not far from the city of ,cracow1 in ,poland4 ,there also is1 or was1 a famous spring of this kind at ,wigan1 in ,lancashire1 which1 upon the approach of a lighted candle1 would take fire and burn like spirit of wine for a whole day4 ,but the most remarkable one in ,england1 or at least that of which we have the minutest description1 was discovered in #agaa1 at ,brosely1 in ,shropshire4 ,the following account of this remarkable spring was given by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,mason ,woodwardin1 ,professor at ,cambridge1 dated ,feb4 #ahth4 #agdf3--,the well1 for four or five feet deep1 is six or seven feet wide2 within that1 is another less hole of like depth1 dug in the clay1 in the bottom whereof is placed a cylindric earthen vessel1 of about four or five inches diameter at the mouth1 having the bottom taken off1 and the sides well fixed in the clay1 which is rammed close about it4 ,within the pot is a brown water1 thick and puddly1 continually forced up with a violent motion beyond that of boiling water1 and a rumbling hollow noise1 rising or falling by fits1 five or six inches2 but there was no appearance of any vapour rising1 which perhaps might have been visible1 had not the sun shone so bright4 ,upon putting a candle down at the end of a stick1 at about a quarter of a yard distance1 it took fire1 darting and flashing after a very violent manner for about half a yard high1 much in the manner of spirits in a lamp1 but with great agitation4 ,it was said1 that a teakettle had been made to boil in nine minutes1 and that it had been left burning for forty-eight hours without any sensible diminution4 ,it was extinguished by putting a wet mop upon it2 which must be kept there for a little time1 otherwise it would not go out4 ,upon the removal of the mop1 there arises a sulphureous smoke1 lasting about a minute1 and yet the water is very cold to the touch4 ,in #agee1 this well totally disappeared1 by the sinking of a coal-pit in its neighbourhood4 ,the cause of the inflammable property of such waters is with great probability supposed to be their mixture with petroleum1 which is one of the most inflammable substances in nature1 and has the property of burning on the surface of water4 ,,chap4 ,,xlviii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,earthquakes4 ,earthquakes1 ,nature's agonizing pangs1 ,oft shake the astonish'd isles2 the ,solfaterre ,or sends forth thick1 blue1 suffocating steams1 ,or shoots to temporary flames4 ,a din1 ,wild1 thro' the mountain's quivering rocky caves1 ,like the dread crash of tumbling planets1 roars4 ,when tremble thus the pillars of the globe1 ,like the tall cocoa by the fierce north blown1 ,can the poor brittle tenements of man ,withstand the dread convulsion8 ,their dear homes1 ,which shaking1 tottering1 crashing1 bursting1 fall1 ,the boldest fly2 and1 on the open plain ,appall'd in agony1 the moment wait1 ,when1 with disrupture vast1 the waving earth ,shall whelm them in her sea-disgorging womb4 ,nor less affrighted are the bestial kind3 ,the bold steed quivers in each panting vein1 ,and staggers1 bath'd in deluges of sweat3 ,the lowing herds forsake their grassy food1 ,and send forth frighted1 woful1 hollow sounds3 ,the dog1 thy trusty centinel of night1 ,deserts the post assign'd1 and piteous howls4 ,wide ocean feels-------- ,the mountain waves1 passing their custom'd bounds1 ,make direful loud incursions on the land1 ,all overwhelming3 sudden they retreat1 ,with their whole troubled waters2 but anon ,sudden return1 with louder1 mightier force2 ,the black rocks whiten1 the vext shores resound2 ,and yet1 more rapid1 distant they retire4 ,vast corruscations lighten all the sky ,with volum'd flames1 while thunder's awful voice1 ,from forth his shrine by night and horror girt1 ,astounds the guilty1 and appals the good4 ,grainger4 ,,earthquakes ,,and ,,their ,,causes4--,from ,a4 de ,humboldt's ,personal ,narrative of ,travels1 translated by ,helen ,maria ,williams4 ,it is a very old and commonly received opinion at ,cumana1 ,acapulca1 and ,lima1 that a perceptible connection exists between earthquakes1 and the state of the atmosphere that precedes these phenomena4 ,on the coast of ,new ,andalusia1 the inhabitants are alarmed1 when1 in excessively hot weather1 and after long droughts1 the breeze suddenly ceases to blow1 and the sky1 clear and without clouds at the zenith1 exhibits near the horizon1 at six or eight degrees elevation1 the appearance of a reddish vapour4 ,these prognostics are however very uncertain2 and when the whole of the meteorological variations1 at the times when the globe has been the most agitated1 are called to mind1 it is found1 that violent shocks take place equally in dry and in wet weather1 when the coolest winds blow1 or during a dead and suffocating calm4 ,from the great number of earthquakes1 which ,i have witnessed to the north and south of the equator2 on the continent1 and in the bason of the seas2 on the coasts1 and at #bejj toises height2 it appears to me1 that the oscillations are generally very independent of the previous state of the atmosphere4 ,this opinion is embraced by a number of enlightened persons1 who inhabit the ,spanish colonies2 and whose experience extends1 if not over a greater space of the globe1 at least to a greater number of years than mine4 ,on the contrary1 in parts of ,europe where earthquakes are rare compared to ,america1 natural philosophers are inclined to admit an intimate connection between the undulations of the ground1 and certain meteors1 which usually take place at the same epocha4 ,in ,italy1 for instance1 the sirocco and earthquakes are suspected to have some connection2 and at ,london1 the frequency of falling stars1 and those southern lights which have since been often observed by ,mr4 ,dalton1 were considered as the forerunners of those shocks which were felt from #agdh to #agef4 ,illustration3 ,,effects ,,of ,,an ,,earthquake4--,page #dii4 ,the engraving represents the great earthquake of #agee1 in which the city of ,lisbon1 in ,portugal1 was entirely destroyed1 and #bj1jjj persons were killed4 ,illustration3 ,,sand ,,storm ,,or ,,sand ,,flood ,,in ,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,arabia4--,page #eba4 ,in these terrible whirlwinds of sand1 whole caravans are sometimes overwhelmed and destroyed4 ,on the days when the earth is agitated by violent shocks1 the regularity of the horary variations of the barometer is not disturbed under the tropics4 ,i have verified this observation at ,cumana1 at ,lima1 and at ,riobamba2 and it is so much the more worthy of fixing the attention of natural philosophers1 as in ,st4 ,domingo1 at the town of ,cape ,franois1 it is asserted that a water barometer was observed to sink two inches and a half immediately before the earthquake of #aggj4 ,it is also related1 that at the time of the destruction of ,oran1 a druggist fled with his family1 because1 observing accidentally1 a few minutes before the earthquake1 the height of the mercury in his barometer1 he perceived that the column sunk in an extraordinary manner4 ,i know not whether we can give credit to this assertion3 but as it is nearly impossible to examine the variations of the weight of the atmosphere during the shocks1 we must be satisfied in observing the barometer before or after these phenomena have taken place4 ,in the temperate zone1 the aurora borealis does not always modify the variation of the needle1 and the intensity of the magnetic forces3 perhaps also earthquakes do not act constantly in the same manner on the air that surrounds us4 ,we can scarcely doubt1 that the earth1 when opened and agitated by shocks1 occasionally sends forth gaseous exhalations through the atmosphere1 in places remote from the mouths of volcanoes not extinct4 ,at ,cumana1 as we have already observed1 flames and vapours1 mixed with sulphureous acid1 spring up from the most arid soil4 ,in other parts of the same province1 the earth ejects water and petroleum4 ,at ,riobamba1 a muddy and inflammable mass1 which is called moya1 issues from crevices that close again1 and accumulates into elevated hills4 ,at seven leagues from ,lisbon1 near ,colares1 during the terrible earthquake of the #ast of ,november1 #agee1 flames1 and a column of thick smoke1 were seen to issue from the flanks of the rocks of ,alvidras1 and1 according to some witnesses1 from the bosom of the sea4 ,this smoke lasted several days1 and it was the more abundant in proportion as the subterraneous noise1 which accompanied the shocks1 was louder4 ,elastic fluids thrown into the atmosphere may act locally on the barometer1 not by their mass1 which is very small compared to the mass of the atmosphere2 but because1 at the moment of the great explosions1 an ascending current is probably formed1 which diminishes the pressure of the air4 ,i am inclined to think1 that in the greater number of earthquakes1 nothing escapes from the agitated earth1 and that1 when gaseous exhalations and vapours take place1 they oftener accompany or follow1 than precede1 the shocks4 ,this last circumstance explains a fact1 which seems indubitable2 ,i mean that mysterious influence1 in equinoctial ,america1 of earthquakes accompanying a change of climate1 and the order of the dry and rainy seasons4 ,if the earth generally acts on the air only at the moment of the shocks1 we can conceive why it is so rare that a sensible meteorological change becomes the presage of these great revolutions of nature4 ,the hypothesis1 according to which1 in the earthquakes of ,cumana1 elastic fluids escape from the surface of the soil1 seems confirmed by the observation of the dreadful noise which is heard during the shocks at the borders of the wells in the plain of ,charas4 ,water and sand are sometimes thrown out twenty feet high4 ,similar phenomena have not escaped the observation of the ancient inhabitants of ,greece and ,asia ,minor1 abounding with caverns1 crevices1 and subterraneous rivers4 ,nature1 in its uniform progress1 every where suggests the same ideas of the causes of earthquakes1 and the means by which man1 forgetting the measure of his strength1 pretends to diminish the effect of the subterraneous explosions4 ,what a great ,roman naturalist has said of the utility of wells and caverns1 is repeated in the ,new ,world by the most ignorant ,indians of ,quito1 when they shew travellers the guaicos1 or crevices of ,pichincha4 ,the subterraneous noise1 so frequent during earthquakes1 is generally not in the ratio of the strength of the shocks4 ,at ,cumana it constantly precedes them2 while at ,quito1 and lately at ,caraccas1 and in the ,west ,india ,islands1 a noise like the discharge of a battery was heard a long time after the shocks had ceased4 ,a third kind of phenomenon1 the most remarkable of the whole1 is the rolling of those subterraneous thunders1 which last several months1 without being accompanied by the least oscillating motion of the ground4 ,in every country subject to earthquakes1 the point where 7probably by a disposition of the stony strata7 the effects are the most sensible1 is considered as the cause and the focus of the shocks4 ,thus1 at ,cumana1 the hill of the castle of ,st4 ,antonio1 and particularly the eminence on which the convent of ,st4 ,francis is placed1 are believed to contain an enormous quantity of sulphur1 and other inflammable matter4 ,we forget1 that the rapidity with which the undulations are propagated to great distances1 even across the basin of the ocean1 proves that the centre of action is very remote from the surface of the globe4 ,from this same cause1 no doubt1 earthquakes are not restrained to certain species of rocks1 as some naturalists pretend1 but all are fitted to propagate the movement4 ,in order to keep within the limits of my own experience1 ,i shall here cite the granites of ,lima and ,acapulco2 the gneiss of ,caraccas2 the mica-slate of the peninsula of ,araya2 the primitive thonschiefer of ,tepecuacuilco1 in ,mexico2 the secondary limestones of the ,apennines2 ,spain1 and new ,andalusia2 and finally1 the trappean porphyries of ,quito and ,popayan4 ,in these different places the ground is frequently agitated by the most violent shocks2 but sometimes1 in the same rock1 the superior strata form invincible obstacles to the propagation of the motion4 ,thus1 in the mines of ,saxony1 we have seen workmen hasten up1 affrighted by oscillations which were not felt at the surface of the ground4 ,if1 in regions the most remote from each other1 primitive1 secondary1 and volcanic rock1 share equally in the convulsive movements of the globe2 we cannot but admire also1 that in ground of little extent1 certain classes of rocks oppose themselves to the propagation of the shocks4 ,at ,cumana1 for instance1 before the catastrophe of #agig1 the earthquakes were felt only along the southern and calcareous coast of the gulf of ,cariaco1 as far as the town of this name2 while in the peninsula of ,araya1 and at the village of ,marinaquez1 the ground did not partake of the same agitation4 ,the inhabitants of this northern coast1 which is composed of mica-slate1 built their huts on a motionless earth2 a gulf three or four thousand fathoms in breadth separated them from a plain covered with ruins1 and overturned by earthquakes4 ,this security1 founded on the experience of several ages1 has vanished2 and since the fourteenth of ,december1 #agig1 new communications appear to have been opened in the interior of the globe4 ,at present the peninsula of ,araya is not merely subject to the agitation of the soil of ,cumana2 the promontory of mica-slate is become in its turn a particular centre of the movements4 ,the earth is sometimes strongly shaken at the village of ,marinaquez1 when on the coast of ,cumana the inhabitants enjoy the most perfect tranquillity4 ,the gulf of ,cariaco nevertheless is only sixty or eighty fathoms deep4 ,it is thought1 from observations made both on the continent and in the islands1 that the western and southern coasts are most exposed to shocks4 ,this observation is connected with the ideas which geologists have long formed of the position of the high chains of mountains1 and the direction of their steepest declivities3 the volcanic phenomena of the ,cordilleras and ,caraccas1 and the frequency of the oscillations on the eastern and northern coast of ,terra ,firma1 in the gulf of ,paria1 at ,carupano1 at ,cariaco1 and at ,cumana1 are proofs of the certainty of this opinion4 ,in ,new ,andalusia1 as well as in ,chili and ,peru1 the shocks follow the course of the shore1 and extend but little inland4 ,this circumstance1 as we shall soon find1 indicates an intimate connection between the causes that produce earthquakes and volcanic eruptions4 ,if the earth was most agitated on the coasts1 because they are the lowest part of the land1 why should not the oscillations be equally strong and frequent on those vast savannas or meadows1 which are scarcely eight or ten toises above the level of the ocean8 ,the earthquakes of ,cumana are connected with those of the ,west ,india ,islands2 and it has even been suspected1 that they have some connection with the volcanic phenomena of the ,cordilleras of the ,andes4 ,on the fourth of ,november1 #agig1 the soil of the province of ,quito underwent such a destructive commotion1 that1 notwithstanding the extreme thinness of the population of that country1 near forty thousand natives perished1 buried under the ruins of their houses1 swallowed up in the crevices1 or drowned in lakes that were suddenly formed4 ,at the same period1 the inhabitants of the eastern ,antilles were alarmed by shocks1 which continued during eight months1 when the volcano of ,guadaloupe threw out pumice stones1 ashes1 and gusts of sulphureous vapours4 ,this eruption of the twenty-seventh of ,september1 during which very long-continued subterraneous noises were heard1 was followed on the fourteenth of ,december by the great earthquake of ,cumana4 ,another volcano of the ,west ,india ,islands1 that of ,st4 ,vincent's1 has lately given a fresh instance of these extraordinary connections4 ,this volcano had not emitted flames since #agah1 when they burst forth anew1 in #ahab4 ,the total ruin of the city of ,caraccas preceded this explosion thirty-five days1 and violent oscillations of the ground were felt1 both in the islands1 and on the coasts of ,terra ,firma4 ,it has long been remarked1 that the effects of great earthquakes extend much farther than the phenomena arising from burning volcanoes4 ,in studying the physical revolutions of ,italy1 and carefully examining the series of the eruptions of ,vesuvius and ,etna1 we can scarcely recognize1 notwithstanding the proximity of these mountains1 any traces of simultaneous action4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 undeniable1 that at the period of the last and preceding destruction of ,lisbon1 the sea was violently agitated even as far as the ,new ,world1 for instance1 at the island of ,barbadoes1 more than twelve hundred leagues distant from the coasts of ,portugal4 ,several facts tend to prove1 that the causes which produce earthquakes have a near connection with those that act in volcanic eruptions4 ,we learnt at ,pasto1 that the column of black and thick smoke1 which in #agig issued for several months from the volcano near this shore1 disappeared at the very hour when1 sixty leagues to the south1 the towns of ,riobamba1 ,hambato1 and ,tacunga1 were overturned by an enormous shock4 ,when1 in the interior of a burning crater1 we are seated near those hillocks formed by ejections of scoria and ashes1 we feel the motion of the ground several seconds before each partial eruption takes place4 ,we observed this phenomenon at ,vesuvius in #ahje1 while the mountain threw out scoria2 we were witnesses of it in #ahab1 on the brink of the immense crater of ,pichincha1 from which nevertheless at that time clouds of sulphureous acid vapours only issued4 ,every thing in earthquakes seems to indicate the action of elastic fluids seeking an outlet to spread themselves in the atmosphere4 ,often1 on the coasts of the ,south ,sea1 the action is almost instantaneously communicated from ,chili to the gulf of ,guayaquil1 a distance of six hundred leagues2 and1 what is very remarkable1 the shocks appear to be so much the stronger1 as the country is more distant from burning volcanoes4 ,the granitic mountains of ,calabria1 covered with very recent breccia1 the calcareous chain of the ,apennines1 the country of ,pignerol1 the coasts of ,portugal and ,greece1 and those of ,peru and ,terra ,firma1 afford striking proofs of this assertion4 ,the globe1 it may be said1 is agitated with greater force1 in proportion as the surface has a smaller number of funnels communicating with the caverns of the interior4 ,at ,naples and ,messina1 at the foot of ,cotopaxi and of ,tunguragua1 earthquakes are dreaded only when vapours and flames do not issue from the crater4 ,in the kingdom of ,quito1 the great catastrophe of ,riobamba1 which we have before mentioned1 has led several well-informed persons to think1 that this unfortunate country would be less often desolate1 if the subterraneous fire would break the porphyritic dome of ,chimborazo2 and this colossal mountain should become a burning volcano4 ,at all times analogous facts have led to the same hypothesis4 ,the ,greeks1 who1 like ourselves1 attributed the oscillations of the ground to the action of elastic fluids1 cited1 in favour of their opinion1 the total cessation of the shocks at the island of ,euboea1 by the opening of a crevice in the ,lelantine plain4 ,the following is an account of an ,earthquake of ,caraccas2 by ,m4 ,palacio ,faxar3-- ,the ridge of mountains1 which branches out from the ,andes near the isthmus of ,panama1 and which1 taking the direction of the eastern coast1 crosses part of ,new ,granada and ,venezuela1 seems to have been the seat of that earthquake1 which1 on the #bfth ,march1 #ahab1 destroyed many populous towns of the province of ,caraccas4 ,it is this branch of the ,cordilleras1 that forms the ,sierra-nevada of ,chita1 that of ,merida de ,maracaybo1 and the height called ,la ,silla de ,caracca2 and it is between these three remarkable points that the gold mines of ,pamplona1 the mineral water of ,merida de ,maracaybo1 and the copper mines of ,aroa1 are found4 ,between the picturesque ,sierra-nevada of ,merida de ,maracaybo1 and ,la ,silla de ,caracca1 where spring is perpetual1 the earthquake was most strongly felt4 ,at the south-east of this ridge of mountains1 there are plains of an immense extent1 covered with different species of grasses1 and watered by innumerable torrents1 which falling from the mountains1 and uniting in different bodies1 majestically enter the ,orinoco4 ,these plains were likewise convulsed for above #abj leagues in ,venezuela3 the towns situate immediately at the foot of the ,cordilliera1 or in the valleys between them1 suffered most severely3 those seated in the plains did not suffer considerable injury1 though violently shaken4 ,for five months a continued drought had parched the earth1 no rain having fallen1 and in the preceding month of ,december1 a slight shock of an earthquake had been felt at ,caraccas4 ,it was on the eve of the ,crucifixion1 when ,catholics assembled together in their churches1 to commemorate1 with public prayers and processions1 the sufferings and merits of their ,redeemer1 that this sad catastrophe had happened4 ,the weather was fine1 and the air serene1 when between four and five ,p4 ,m4 a hollow sound like the roar of a cannon was heard1 which was followed by a violent oscillatory motion from west to east1 which lasted about seventeen seconds1 and which stopped all the public clocks2 the convulsion diminished for some moments1 but was succeeded by a more violent shock than the first1 for nearly twenty seconds1 keeping the same direction2 a calm followed1 which lasted about fourteen seconds1 after which1 a most alarming trepidation of the earth took place for fifteen seconds3 the total duration about one minute and fifteen seconds4 ,the inhabitants of ,caraccas1 struck with terror1 unitedly and loudly implored the protection of ,heaven3 some ran wildly through the streets2 some remained immoveable with astonishment2 while others1 crowding into the churches1 sought refuge at the foot of the altar4 ,the crash of falling buildings1 the clouds of dust which filled the air1 and the anxious cries of mothers1 who inquired in vain for their children lost in the tumult1 increased the horrors of this sad day4 ,to this scene of disorder succeeded the most horrible despair4 ,dead bodies1 wounded persons crying for protection1 presented themselves every where to those who had escaped from the catastrophe1 and who could not turn their eyes from these objects of pity and horror1 without meeting with heaps of ruin1 which had buried hundreds of unfortunate persons1 whose lamentations uselessly pierced their hearts1 for it was impossible to give relief or assistance to all4 ,it has been computed1 that in this calamitous day1 near #bj1jjj persons perished at ,venezuela4 ,a great part of the veteran troops were of this number2 and all the arms destined for the defence of their country1 were buried under the ruins of the barracks4 ,the towns of ,caraccas1 ,merida de ,maracaybo1 and ,laguaira1 were totally destroyed2 those of ,barquirineto1 ,sanfelipe1 and others1 suffered considerably4 ,it is to be remarked1 that ,truxillo1 which is situate between ,merida de ,maracaybo and ,sanfelipe1 experienced very little damage4 ,at the last place1 near the mines of ,aroa1 the first signal they had of the earthquake was an electric shock1 which deprived many persons of their power of motion2 and in ,valencia1 ,caraccas1 and the neighbouring country1 the inhabitants were1 for about twenty days after the earthquake1 in an extraordinary state of irritability4 ,many persons1 who suffered from intermittent fevers1 recovered immediately1 in consequence of the effect of the earthquake4 ,at ,vallecillo1 near ,valencia1 a rivulet spouted out from a hill1 which continued to flow for some hours after the earthquake1 and which ,i visited a few days after4 ,the river ,guaire1 which runs through the valley of ,caraccas1 was greatly swelled soon after the earthquake1 and remained in that state for several days4 ,the water of the bay of ,maracaybo withdrew considerably1 and it is said that the mountain ,avila1 which separates ,caraccas from ,laguaira1 sunk several feet into the earth4 ,the earthquakes continued for many days1 we may say1 without interruption3 they diminished as it were by degrees1 though the last were remarkably strong4 ,so late as the month of ,october in the same year1 there was a violent shock4 ,the earthquake of the #bfth ,march was felt at ,santaf de ,bogot1 and even at ,carthagena1 though it was very little felt at ,cumana4 ,in the following ,april1 a volcano burst out in the island of ,st4 ,vincent4 ,about the time of the eruption1 a noise like that occasioned by the discharge of a cannon was heard at ,caraccas and ,laguaira1 which caused a general alarm1 the inhabitants of each place supposing that the neighbouring town was attacked by the enemy4 ,this roaring noise was distinctly heard where the river ,nula falls into the ,apure1 which is more than #ajj leagues from ,caraccas4 ,in the same year1 #ahab1 many strong shocks of an earthquake were felt at ,samaica and ,curaoa4 ,the earthquake of the #bfth ,march alarmed so deeply the inhabitants of ,venezuela1 that they expected to see the earth open and swallow them at every convulsion2 and as it happened on the anniversary of their political revolution1 they supposed that event had incurred the displeasure of the ,almighty4 ,the clergy1 who were enemies to the revolution1 as their privileges had been diminished by the new constitution of ,venezuela1 availed themselves of the disposition of the people1 and preached every where against the new republic4 ,such was the beginning of the civil war at ,venezuela2 a war1 which has desolated those beautiful countries1 and which has destroyed the tenth part of their population4 ,the celebrated poet ,cowper1 in the second book of his admirable poem1 ,the ,task1 has given us a very accurate and sublime description of the effects of ,earthquakes1 from which the following is an extract3-- ,the rocks fall headlong1 and the valleys rise1 ,the rivers die into offensive pools1 ,and1 charg'd with putrid verdure1 breathe a gross ,and mortal nuisance into all the air4 ,what solid was1 by transformation strange1 ,grows fluid2 and the fixt and rooted earth1 ,tormented into billows1 heaves and swells1 ,or with vortiginous and hideous whirl ,sucks down its prey insatiable4 ,immense ,the tumult and the overthrow1 the pangs ,and agonies of human and of brute ,multitudes1 fugitive on ev'ry side1 ,and fugitive in vain4 ,the sylvan scene ,migrates uplifted2 and1 with all its soil1 ,alighting on far distant fields1 finds out ,a new possessor1 and survives the change4 ,ocean has caught the frenzy1 and1 upwrought ,to an enormous and o'erbearing height1 ,not by a mighty wind1 but by that voice ,which winds and waves obey1 invades the shore ,resistless4 ,never such a sudden flood1 ,upridg'd so high1 and sent on such a charge1 ,possess'd an inland scene4 ,where now the throng ,that press'd the beach1 and1 hasty to depart1 ,look'd to the sea for safety8 ,they are gone1 ,gone with the refluent wave into the deep-- ,a prince with half his people4 ,it is a consolation to every good man1 to consider that the world is governed by a wise and good1 as well as powerful ,,being1 who gives liberty to the powers of nature to range1 or restrains them1 as may best suit his divine purposes2 which have always the ultimate good of the whole creation in view4 ,,chap4 ,,xlix4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,winds1 ,,hurricanes1 c4 ,remarkable ,winds in ,egypt--,whirlwinds of ,egypt--,tornado--,harmattan-- ,hurricane--,monsoons--,velocity of the ,wind4 ,bound as they are1 and circumscrib'd in place1 ,they rend the world1 resistless where they pass1 ,and mighty marks of mischief leave behind2 ,such is the rage of their tempestuous kind4 ,first1 ,eurus1 to the rising morn is sent1 ,the regions of the balmy continent1 ,and eastern realms1 where early ,persians run ,to greet the blest appearance of the sun4 ,westward the wanton ,zephyr wings his flight1 ,pleas'd with the remnant of departing light2 ,fierce ,boreas1 with his offspring1 issues forth ,t' invade the frozen waggon of the north2 ,while frowning ,auster seeks the southern sphere4 ,ovid4 ,,remarkable ,,winds ,,in ,,egypt4 ,egypt is infested with the destructive blasts common to all warm countries which have deserts in their neighbourhood4 ,these have been distinguished by various names1 such as ,poisonous winds1 ,hot winds of the desert1 ,samiel1 the wind of ,damascus1 ,camseen1 and ,simoom4 ,in ,egypt they are denominated ,winds of fifty days1 because they most commonly prevail during the fifty days preceding and following the equinox1 though1 should they blow constantly during one half of that time1 an universal destruction would be the consequence4 ,of these1 travellers have given various descriptions4 ,m4 ,volney says1 that the violence of their heat may be compared to that of a large oven at the moment of drawing out the bread4 ,they always blow from the south1 and are undoubtedly owing to the motion of the atmosphere over such vast tracts of hot sand1 which cannot be supplied with a sufficient quantity of moisture4 ,when they begin to blow1 the sky loses its usual serenity1 and assumes a dark1 heavy1 and alarming aspect1 the sun laying aside his usual splendour1 and becoming of a violet colour4 ,this terrific appearance seems not to be occasioned by any real haze or cloud in the atmosphere at that time1 but solely by the vast quantity of fine sand carried along by those winds1 and which is so excessively subtile that it penetrates every where4 ,the motion of this wind is always rapid1 but its heat is not intolerable till it has continued for some time4 ,its pernicious qualities are evidently occasioned by its excessive aridity2 for it dries and shrivels up the skin1 and1 by affecting the lungs in a similar manner1 soon produces suffocation and death4 ,the danger is greatest to those of a plethoric habit1 or who have been exhausted by fatigue2 and putrefaction very soon takes place in the bodies of such as are destroyed by it4 ,its extreme dryness is such1 that water sprinkled on the floor evaporates in a few minutes2 all the plants are withered and stripped of their leaves1 and a fever is instantly produced in the human species by the suppression of perspiration4 ,it usually lasts three days1 but is altogether insupportable if it continue beyond that time4 ,the danger is greatest when the wind blows in squalls1 and to travellers who happen to be exposed to its fury without any shelter4 ,the best method1 in this case1 is to stop the nose and mouth with a handkerchief3 camels1 by a natural instinct1 bury their noses in the sand1 and keep them there till the squall is over4 ,the inhabitants1 who have an opportunity of retiring to their houses1 instantly shut themselves up in them1 or go into pits made in the earth1 till the destructive blast is over4 ,the description of a blast of this kind1 which overtook ,mr4 ,bruce1 in the desert of ,nubia1 is still more terrible4--,the sun was now obscured by them1#ba and the transmission of his rays gave them a dreadful appearance1 resembling pillars of fire4 ,this was pronounced by the guide to be a sign of the approaching simoom1 or hot wind2 and he directed1 that when it came1 the people should fall upon their faces1 and keep their mouths on the sand1 to avoid drawing in this pernicious blast with their breath4 ,on his calling out that the simoon was coming1 ,mr4 ,bruce turned for a moment to the quarter from whence it came1 which was the south-east4 ,it appeared like a haze or fog of a purple colour1 but less bright than the purple part of the rainbow2 seemingly about twenty yards in breadth1 and about twelve feet high from the ground4 ,it moved with such rapidity1 that before he could turn about and fall down1 he felt the vehement heat of its current upon his face2 and even after it passed over1 which was very quickly1 the air which followed was of such a heat as to threaten suffocation4 ,mr4 ,bruce had unfortunately inspired some part of the pernicious blast2 by which means he almost entirely lost his voice1 and became subject to an asthmatic complaint1 from which he did not get free for two years4 ,the same phenomenon occurred twice over on their journey through this desert4 ,the second time it came from the south a little to the east1 but it seemed to have a shade of blue along with the purple1 and its edges were less perfectly defined1 resembling rather a thin smoke1 and having about a yard in the middle tinged with blue and purple4 ,the third time1 it was preceded by an appearance of sandy pillars1 more magnificent than any they had yet observed2 the sun shining through them in such a manner as to give those which were nearest a resemblance of being spangled with stars of gold4 ,the simoom which followed had the same blue and purple appearance as before1 and was followed by a most suffocating wind for two hours1 which reduced our travellers to the lowest degree of weakness and despondency4 ,it was remarkable1 that this wind always came from the south-east1 while the sandy pillars1 which prognosticated its approach1 seemed to keep to the westward1 and to occupy the vast circular space inclosed by the ,nile to the west of their route1 going round by ,chaigie towards ,dongola4 ,the heaps of sand left by them when they fell1 or raised by the whirlwinds which carried them up1 were twelve or thirteen feet high1 exactly conical1 tapering to a fine point1 and their bases well proportioned4 ,the following account of the ,,whirlwinds ,,of ,,egypt1 is from ,belzoni's ,narrative3--,a strong wind which arose this day leads me to mention some particulars of the phenomena that often happen in ,egypt4 ,the first ,i shall notice is the whirlwinds1 which occur all the year round1 but especially at the time of the camseen wind1 which begins in ,april1 and lasts fifty days4 ,hence the name of camseen1 which in ,arabic signifies fifty4 ,it generally blows from the south-west1 and lasts four1 five1 or six days without varying1 so very strong that it raises the sands to a great height1 forming a general cloud1 so thick that it is impossible to keep the eyes open1 if not under cover4 ,it is troublesome1 even to the ,arabs2 it forces the sand into the houses through every cranny1 and fills every thing with it4 ,the caravans cannot proceed in the deserts2 the boats cannot continue their voyages2 and travellers are obliged to eat sand1 in spite of their teeth4 ,the whole is like a chaos4 ,often a quantity of sand and small stones gradually ascends to a great height1 and forms a column of sixty or seventy feet in diameter1 and so thick1 that were it steady on one spot1 it would appear a solid mass4 ,this not only revolves within its own circumference1 but runs in a circular direction over a great space of ground1 sometimes maintaining itself in motion for half an hour1 and wherever it falls it accumulates a small hill of sand4 ,god help the poor traveller who is caught under it6 ,we shall now describe a ,,tornado4--,this is a sudden and vehement gust of wind from all points of the compass1 and frequent on the coast of ,guinea4 ,a tornado seems to partake much of the nature of a whirlwind1 or perhaps of a water-spout1 but is more violent in its effects4 ,it commences very suddenly3 several clouds being previously drawn together1 a spout of wind1 proceeding from them1 strikes the ground1 in a round spot of a few rods or perches in diameter1 and proceeds thus half a mile or a mile4 ,the proneness of its descent makes it rebound from the earth1 throwing such things as are moveable before it1 sideways1 or in a lateral direction from it4 ,a vapour1 mist1 or rain1 descends with it1 by which the path of it is marked with wet4 ,the following is a description of one which happened a few years since at ,leicester1 about fifty miles from ,boston1 in ,new ,england3 it happened in ,july1 on a hot day1 about four o'clock in the afternoon4 ,a few clouds having gathered westward1 and coming over-head1 a sudden motion of their running together in a point1 being observed1 immediately a spout of wind struck the west end of a house1 and instantly carried it away1 with a negro man in it1 who was afterwards found dead in its path4 ,two men and a woman1 by the breach of the floor1 fell into the cellar2 and one man was driven forcibly up into the chimney corner4 ,these were preserved1 though much bruised2 they were wet with a vapour or mist1 as were the remains of the floor1 and the whole path of the spout4 ,this wind raised boards1 timbers1 c4 ,a joist was found on one end1 driven nearly three feet into the ground4 ,the spout probably took it in its elevated state1 and drove it forcibly down4 ,the tornado moved with the celerity of a moderate wind1 and declined in strength till it entirely ceased4 ,,harmattan4--,this is a name given to a singular wind1 which blows periodically from the interior parts of ,africa1 towards the ,atlantic ocean4 ,it prevails in ,december1 ,january1 and ,february1 and is generally accompanied by a fog or haze1 that conceals the sun for whole days together4 ,extreme dryness is the characteristic of this wind3 no dew falls during its continuance1 which is sometimes for a fortnight or more4 ,the whole vegetable creation is withered1 and the grass becomes at once like hay4 ,the natives take the opportunity which this wind gives them1 of clearing the land1 by setting fire to trees and plants in this their exhausted state4 ,the dryness is so extreme1 that household furniture is damaged1 and the wainscot of the rooms flies to pieces4 ,the human body is also affected by it1 so as to cause the skin to peel off2 but in other respects it is deemed salutary to the constitution1 by stopping the progress of infection1 and curing almost all cutaneous diseases4 ,we now proceed to some curious particulars1 under the term ,,hurricane4--,this is indeed a general name for any violent storm of wind1 but is peculiarly applied to those storms which happen in the warmer climates1 and which greatly exceed the most violent ones known in this country4 ,dr4 ,mosely1 in his ,treatise on ,tropical ,diseases1 observes1 that the ruin and desolation accompanying a hurricane can scarcely be described4 ,like fire1 its resistless force consumes every thing in its track1 in the most terrible and rapid manner4 ,it is generally preceded by an awful stillness of the elements1 and a closeness and mistiness in the atmosphere1 which makes the sun appear red1 and the stars larger4 ,but a dreadful reverse succeeds3 the sky is suddenly overcast and wild2 the sea rises at once from a profound calm into mountains2 the wind rages and roars like the noise of cannon2 the rain descends in a deluge2 a dismal obscurity envelops the earth with darkness2 and the superior regions appear rent with lightning and thunder4 ,the earth on these occasions often does1 and always seems to tremble2 whilst terror and consternation distract all nature3 birds are carried from the woods into the ocean2 and those whose element is the sea1 seek for refuge on land2 the frightened animals in the field assemble together1 and are almost suffocated by the impetuosity of the wind in searching for shelter1 which1 when found1 is but the prelude to destruction4 ,the roofs of houses are carried to vast distances from their walls1 which are beat to the ground1 burying their inhabitants under them4 ,large trees are torn up by the roots1 and huge branches shivered off1 and driven through the air in every direction with immense velocity4 ,every tree and shrub that withstands the shock is stripped of its boughs and foliage2 plants and grass are laid flat on the earth2 and luxuriant spring is changed in a moment to dreary winter4 ,this direful tragedy ended1 7when it happens in a town17 the devastation is surveyed with accumulated horror3 the harbour is covered with wrecks of boats and vessels2 and the shore has not a vestige of its former state remaining4 ,mounds of rubbish and rafters in one place2 heaps of earth and trunks of trees in another2 deep gullies from torrents of water2 and the dead and dying bodies of men1 women1 and children1 half buried1 and scattered about1 where streets stood but an hour before1--present the miserable survivors with the shocking conclusion of a spectacle1 to be followed by famine1 and1 when accompanied by an earthquake1 by mortal diseases4 ,philosophers are now inclined to attribute these terrible phenomena to electricity1 though the manner in which it acts in this case is by no means known4 ,it seems probable1 indeed1 that not only hurricanes1 but even the most gentle gales of wind1 are produced by the action of the electric fluid4 ,in the next place we shall treat of ,,monsoons1 or ,,trade-,,winds4 ,trade-winds1 observing well their stated course1 ,to human good employ their pow'rful force2 ,the loaded ships across the ocean fann'd ,by steady gales1 spread commerce through the land3 ,these you observe--but have you no desire ,the hidden spring of such effects t'inquire8 ,or1 when contending winds around you blow1 ,do you ne'er wish the cause of them to know8 ,monsoons are those winds which blow six months constantly the same way1 and the contrary way the other six months4 ,mr4 ,olinthus ,gregory observes1 that though the winds in a temperate zone of the earth are very inconstant and changeable1 yet this is not the case in every part of the terrestrial globe2 for in the torrid zone1 and some other parts1 the winds are generally very uniform and constant in their direction1 as will appear from the following facts relative thereto3-- #a4 ,over the ,atlantic1 and ,pacific oceans1 particularly between thirty degrees of north and thirty degrees of south latitude1 the trade-winds1 as they are called1 blow uniformly from east to west1 all the year round1 with a small variation in the different seasons4 #b4 ,when the sun is on the equator1 the trade-winds1 in sailing northward1 veer more and more from the east towards the north2 so that about their limit they become nearly north-east2 and vice versa in sailing southward1 they become at last nearly south-east4 #c4 ,when the sun is near the tropic of ,cancer1 the trade-winds north of the equator become more nearly east than at other times1 and those south of the equator more nearly south2 and vice versa1 when the sun is near the tropic of ,capricorn4 #d4 ,the trade-winds are not due east upon the equator1 but about four degrees to the north of it4 ,to account for these facts relative to the winds1 is a most curious and important1 though mysterious1 inquiry2 having employed the pens of several very eminent philosophers3 but amongst all the explanations ,i have seen1 there is none in my opinion more agreeable to nature than one given by ,mr4 ,john ,dalton1 of ,manchester1 in his ,meteorological ,observations and ,essays4 ,the method of reasoning applied to the subject in that work1 ,i shall here make use of4 ,the inequality of heat in the different climates and places1 and the earth's rotation on its axis1 appears to be the principal causes of all winds1 regular and irregular4 ,it may be observed1 that whenever the heat is greatest1 there the air will ascend1 and a supply of colder air will be received from the neighbouring parts3 it will be willingly allowed1 that the heat is at all times greatest in the torrid zone1 and decreases gradually in proceeding northward or southward2 also that the poles may at all times be considered as the centres of cold4 ,hence it reasonably follows1 that abstracting from accidental circumstances1 there will be a constant ascent of air over the torrid zone1 which air will afterwards fall northward and southward1 whilst the colder air below is determined by a continual impulse towards the equator4 ,when the effects of the earth's rotation are taken into consideration1 our reasoning must be as follows3 the air over any part of the earth's surface1 when apparently at rest1 or calm1 will have the same rotatory velocity as that part2 but if a quantity of air in the northern hemisphere receive an impulse in the direction of the meridian1 either northward or southward1 its rotatory velocity will be greater in the former case1 and less in the latter1 than that of the air into which it moves2 consequently1 if it move northward1 it will have a greater velocity eastward than the air1 or surface of the earth over which it moves1 and will therefore become a south-west wind1 or a wind between the south and west2 and1 vice versa1 if it move southward1 it becomes a north-east wind4 ,from similar considerations it will appear1 that in the southern hemisphere the winds will be north-west and south-east respectively4 ,the trade-winds may therefore be explained thus3 ,the two general masses of air proceeding from both hemispheres towards the equator1 as they advance are constantly deflected more and more towards the east1 by reason of the earth's rotation2 that from the southern hemisphere1 originally a south wind1 is made to veer more and more towards the east2 in like manner1 that from the northern hemisphere is made to change its directions from the north towards the east3 these two masses meeting near the equator1 their velocities south and north destroy each other1 and they proceed afterwards with their common velocity from east to west round the torrid zone1 excepting the irregularities produced by the continents4 ,the equator is not in reality the place of concourse1 but the northern parallel of four degrees2 because the centre of heat is thereabouts1 the sun being longer on the north side of the equator1 than on the south side4 ,moreover1 when the sun is near one of the tropics1 the centre of heat upon the earth's surface is then nearer that tropic than usual1 and therefore the winds about the tropic are more nearly east at that time1 and those about the other tropic more nearly north and south4 ,if all the terrestrial globe were covered with water1 or if the variations of the earth's surface in heat were regular and constant1 so that the heat was the same in every part of the same parallel of latitude1 the winds would then be very nearly regular also3 but this is not the case2 for we find the irregularities of heat1 arising from the interspersion of land and sea1 are such1 that though all the parts of the atmosphere in some measure conspire to produce regular winds about the torrid zone1 yet very striking irregularities are often found to take place4 ,a remarkable instance we have in monsoons1 which are winds that in the ,indian ocean1 c4 blow for six months together one way1 and the next six months the contrary way3 these1 with sea and land breezes1 do not seem easily to be accounted for on any other principle than that of rarefaction4 ,perhaps some persons may be led to suppose1 that the winds in the northern temperate zone should be between the north and east towards the poles1 and between the south and west nearer the equator1 almost as regular as the trade-winds3 but when the change of seasons1 the different capacities of land and water for heat1 the interference and opposition of the two general currents1 be considered1 it might be concluded almost next to impossible that the winds in the temperate zone should exhibit any thing like regularity3 however1 notwithstanding this1 observations sufficiently evince1 that the winds therein are1 for the most part1 in the direction of one of the general currents2 namely1 somewhere between the south and west1 or more commonly between the north and east2 and that winds in other directions happen only as accidental varieties1 chiefly in unsettled weather4 ,illustration3 ,,falling ,,or ,,shooting ,,stars4--,page #fha4 ,the engraving represents an extraordinary shower of these remarkable meteors1 which took place at the ,falls of ,niagara4 ,the view comprises the entire falls1 with ,goat ,island in the centre4 ,illustration3 ,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,south-,,west ,,monsoon ,,in ,,india4--,page #eae4 ,we may have frequently taken notice1 that several winds1 particularly stormy ones1 are attended with a cloudy sky2 to this it may be added1 that we have more winds than usually occur in rather less latitudes1 where the atmosphere is generally more serene3 these considered1 make it exceedingly probable1 that the aqueous vapours which are sustained by the air1 from whence come clouds and rains1 may be one great cause of irregular winds4 ,it has been determined1 from very accurate experiments1 that one inch of water when evaporated will fill more than #bjjj inches of space3 hence it appears that the water which falls in drops of rain1 c4 occupied more than #bjjj times the space when it floated in the atmosphere in vapours2 the condensation thereof must therefore occasion vacua of such a nature1 as will cause winds of different kinds and degrees1 according to the deficiency which is to be supplied4 ,the economy of winds1 an illustration of which has been here attempted1 is admirably adapted to the various purposes of nature1 and to the general intercourse of mankind3--if the earth had been fixed1 and the sun had revolved about it1 the air over the torrid zone1 and particularly about the equator1 would have been almost always stagnant2 and in the other zones the winds would have had little variation either in direction or strength2 in this case navigation would have been greatly impeded1 and a communication between the two hemispheres by sea1 rendered impracticable4 ,on the present system of things1 however1 the irregularity of winds is of the happiest consequence1 by being subservient to navigation3 and a general circulation of air constantly takes place between the eastern and western hemispheres1 as well as between the polar and equatorial regions2 by reason of which1 that diffusion and intermixture of the different arial fluids1 so necessary for the life1 health1 and prosperity of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 is accomplished3--such is the transcendent wisdom and providential care of the beneficent ,father of all6 ,the following interesting description of the ,,south-,,west ,,monsoon ,,in ,,india1 is taken from ,elphinstone's ,account of ,cabul4--,the most remarkable rainy season1 is that called in ,india the ,south-west ,monsoon4 ,it extends from ,africa to the ,malay ,peninsula1 and deluges all the intermediate countries within certain lines of latitude1 for four months in the year4 ,in the south of ,india1 this monsoon commences about the beginning of ,june1 but it gets later as we advance towards the north4 ,its approach is announced by vast masses of clouds that rise from the ,indian ocean1 and advance towards the north-east1 gathering and thickening as they approach the land4 ,after some threatening days1 the sky assumes a troubled appearance in the evenings1 and the monsoon in general sets in during the night4 ,it is attended with such a thunder-storm as can scarcely be imagined by those who have only seen that phenomenon in a temperate climate4 ,it generally begins with violent blasts of wind1 which are succeeded by floods of rain4 ,for some hours1 lightning is seen almost without intermission2 sometimes it only illuminates the sky1 and shews the clouds near the horizon2 at others1 it discovers the distant hills1 and again leaves all in darkness2 when in an instant it re-appears in vivid and successive flashes1 and exhibits the nearest objects in all the brightness of day4 ,during all this time the distant thunder never ceases to roll1 and is only silenced by some nearer peal1 which bursts on the ear with such a sudden and tremendous crash1 as can scarcely fail to strike the most insensible heart with awe4 ,at length the thunder ceases1 and nothing is heard but the continued pouring of the rain1 and the rushing of the rising streams4 ,the next day presents a gloomy spectacle3 the rain still descends in torrents1 and scarcely allows a view of the blackened fields2 the rivers are swollen and discoloured1 and sweep down along with them the hedges1 the huts1 and the remains of the cultivation1 which was carried on during the dry season1 into their beds4 ,this lasts for some days1 after which the sky clears1 and discovers the face of nature1 changed as if by enchantment4 ,before the storm1 the fields were parched up1 and1 except in the beds of the rivers1 scarce a blade of vegetation was to be seen2 the clearness of the sky was not interrupted by a single cloud1 but the atmosphere was loaded with dust1 which was sufficient to render distant objects dim1 as in a mist1 and to make the sun appear dull and discoloured1 till he attained a considerable elevation3 a parching wind blew like a blast from a furnace1 and heated wood1 iron1 and every other solid material1 even in the shade2 and immediately before the monsoon1 this wind had been succeeded by still more sultry calms4 ,but when the first violence of the storm is over1 the whole earth is covered with a sudden but luxuriant verdure3 the rivers are full and tranquil1 the air is pure and delicious2 and the sky is varied1 and embellished with clouds4 ,the effect of the change is visible on all the animal creation1 and can only be imagined in ,europe1 by supposing the depth of a dreary winter to start at once into all the freshness and brilliancy of spring4 ,from this time the rain falls at intervals for about a month1 when it comes on again with great violence1 and in ,july the rains are at their height2 during the third month1 they rather diminish1 but are still heavy2 and in ,september they gradually abate1 and are often entirely suspended till near the end of the month1 when they depart amidst thunders and tempests1 as they came4 ,the following ,table1 which gives some particulars respecting the ,,velocity ,,of ,,the ,,wind1 was calculated by ,mr4 ,john ,smeaton1 the celebrated engineer1 and is founded on a correct series of practical observations3-- ,miles ,feet per hour4 per second4 #a #a4dg #b #b4ic ,light airs4 #c #d4dj #d #e4hg ,breeze4 #e #g4cc #aj #ad4fg ,brisk gale4 #ae #bb4 #bj #bi4cd ,fresh gale4 #be #cf4fg #cj #dj4ja ,strong gale4 #ce #ea4cd #dj #eh4fh ,hard gale4 #de #ff4ja #ej #gc4ce ,storm4 #fj #hh4jb #hj #aag4cf ,hurricane1 tearing #ajj #adf4gj up trees1 c4 ,we conclude this chapter with a poetical enumeration of the benefits arising from the wind3-- ,of what important use to human kind1 ,to what great ends subservient1 is the wind6 ,where'er the arial active vapour flies1 ,it drives the clouds1 and ventilates the skies2 ,sweeps from the earth infection's noxious train1 ,and swells to wholesome rage the sluggish main4 ,for should the sea unagitated stand1 ,death1 with huge strides1 would desolate the land2 ,the scorching sun1 with unpropitious beam1 ,would give to grief an everlasting theme2 ,and baneful vapours1 lurking in the veins1 ,would fiercely burn with unabating pains4 ,nor thus alone air purities the seas1 ,o'er torrid climes it pours the healthful breeze3 ,climes where the sun direct flings scorching day1 ,feel cooling air his sultry rage allay2 ,unceasing goodness1 with unceasing skill1 ,educing certain good from seeming ill4 ,his guardian care extends o'er ev'ry shore1 ,and blends his favours with what men deplore2 ,the sable nations hence1 and burning skies1 ,see luscious fruits in varying beauty rise2 ,spontaneous ,nature laugh at culture's toil1 ,and rich luxuriance bless the grateful soil4 ,,chap4 ,l4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,showers1 ,,storms1 c4 ,surprising ,showers of ,hail--,singular ,effects of a ,storm--,the ,mirage--,sand ,floods--,showers of ,gossamers--,winter in ,russia4 ,ye vapours1 hail1 and snow1 ,praise ye th' ,almighty ,lord1 ,and stormy winds that blow ,to execute his word4 ,watts4 ,then from arial treasures downwards pours ,sheets of unsully'd snow in lucid show'rs2 ,flake after flake1 thro' air thick wav'ring flies ',till one vast shining waste all nature lies4 ,then the proud hills a virgin whiteness shed1 ,a dazzling brightness glitters from the mead2 ,the hoary trees reflect a silver show1 ,and groves beneath the lovely burden low4 ,broome4 ,,surprising ,,showers ,,of ,,hail4 ,natural historians record various instances of surprising showers of hail1 in which the hailstones were of extraordinary magnitude4 ,mezeray1 speaking of the war of ,lewis ,,xii4 in ,italy1 in #aeaj1 relates1 that there was for some time a horrible darkness1 thicker than that of night2 after which the clouds broke into thunder and lightning1 and there fell a shower of hailstones1 or rather 7as he calls them7 pebble-stones1 which destroyed all the fish1 birds1 and beasts1 of the country4 ,it was attended with a strong smell of sulphur2 and the stones were of a bluish colour1 some of them weighing #ajjlb4--,hist4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #cci4 ,at ,lisle1 in ,flanders1 in #afhf1 hailstones fell of a very large size2 some of which contained in the middle1 a dark brown matter1 which1 thrown on the fire1 gave a very great report4--,phil4 ,trans4 ,no4 #bjc4 ,dr4 ,halley and others relate1 that in ,cheshire1 ,lancashire1 c4 ,april #bi1 #afig1 a thick black cloud1 coming from ,carnarvonshire1 disposed the vapours to congeal in such a manner1 that for about the breadth of two miles1 which was the limit of the cloud1 in its progress for sixty miles it did inconceivable damage2 not only killing all sorts of fowls and other small animals1 but splitting trees1 knocking down horses and men1 and even ploughing up the earth1 so that the hailstones buried themselves underground an inch or an inch and a half deep4 ,the hailstones1 many of which weighed five ounces1 and some half a pound1 being five or six inches in circumference1 were of various figures2 some round1 others half round2 some smooth1 others embossed and crenated2 the icy substance of them was very transparent and hard1 but there was a snowy kernel in the centre4 ,in ,hertfordshire1 ,may #d1 #afig1 after a severe storm of thunder and lightning1 a shower of hail succeeded1 which far exceeded the former3 some persons were killed by it1 their bodies beat all black and blue2 vast oaks were split1 and fields of rye cut down as with a scythe4 ,the stones measured from ten to fourteen inches round4 ,their figures were various1 some oval1 some flat1 c4--,phil4 ,trans4 ,no4 #bbi4 ,the following account of the ,,singular ,,effects ,,of ,a ,,storm1 was communicated to the ,dublin ,philosophical ,society1 by the secretary3-- ,mrs4 ,close gave ,mr4 ,molyneux the following account of the effects of thunder and lightning on her house at ,new ,forge1 in the county of ,down1 in ,ireland1 on ,august #i1 #agjg3 ,she observed1 that the whole day was close1 hot1 and sultry1 with little or no wind stirring till towards the evening1 when there was a small breeze1 with some mizzling rain1 which lasted about an hour2 that as the air darkened after sunset1 she saw several faint flashes of lightning1 and heard some thunder-claps at a distance2 that between ten and eleven o'clock1 both were very violent and terrible1 and so increased1 and came on more frequently until a little before twelve o'clock2 that one flash of lightning and clap of thunder came both at the same time1 louder and more dreadful than the rest1 which1 as she thought1 shook and inflamed the whole house2 and being sensible at that instant of a violent strong sulphureous smell in her chamber1 and feeling a thick gross dust falling on her hands and face as she lay in bed1 she concluded that part of her house was thrown down by the thunder1 or set on fire by the lightning2 that1 arising in this fright1 she called up her family1 and candles being lighted1 she found her bedchamber1 and the kitchen beneath it1 full of smoke and dust1 and the looking-glass in her chamber was broken4 ,the next day she found1 that part of the cornice of the chimney1 which stood without the gabel-end of the house where her chamber was1 had been struck off2 that part of the coping of the splay of the gable-end itself was broken down1 and twelve or sixteen of the shingles on the adjoining roof were raised or ruffled1 but none shattered or carried away2 that a part of the ceiling in her chamber beneath those shingles was forced down1 and part of the plaster and pinning stones of the adjoining wall was also broken off and loosened1 the whole breach being sixteen or twenty inches broad2 that at this place there was left on the wall a smutted scar or trace1 as if blacked by the smoke of a candle1 which pointed downwards towards another place on the same wall1 where a like breach was made1 partly behind the place of the looking-glass2 that the boards on the back of a large hair-trunk1 full of linen1 standing beneath the looking-glass1 were forced in1 and splintered as if by the blow of a smith's sledge2 that two-thirds of the linen within this trunk were pierced or cut through1 the cut appearing of a quadrangular figure1 and between two or three inches over2 that one end of the trunk was forced out1 as the back was driven in2 that at about two feet distance from the end of the trunk1 where the floor and the side-wall of the house joined1 there was a breach made in the plaster1 where a small chink or crevice was to be seen between the sideboard of the floor and the wall1 so wide that a man could thrust his lingers down2 and that just beneath this1 in the kitchen1 the ceiling was forced down1 and some of the plaster of the wall broken off2 that exactly under this there stood a large tub or vessel of wood1 inclosed with a crib of brick and lime1 which was broken and splintered all to pieces1 and most of the brick and lime work of it scattered about the kitchen4 ,the looking-glass was broken with such violence1 that there was not a piece of it to be found of the size of half-a-crown1 and several pieces of it were sticking like hail-shot in the chamber door1 which was of oak1 and on the other side of the room2 several of the edges and corners of some of the pieces of the broken glass were tinged of a light flame colour1 as if heated in the fire2 the curtains of the bed were cut in several places1 supposed to be done by the pieces of the glass4 ,several pieces of muslin and wearing linen1 left on the large hair-trunk1 were thrown about the room1 no way singed or scorched1 and yet the hair on the back of the trunk1 where the breach was made1 was singed2 the uppermost part of the linen within the trunk was not touched1 and the lowermost parcel1 consisting of more than #cej ply of linen1 was pierced through1 of which none was anywise smutted1 except the uppermost ply of a tablecloth1 that lay over all the rest2 there was a yellow tinge or stain perceivable on some part of the damaged linen1 and the whole smelt strongly of sulphur2 the glass of two windows in the bed-chamber above1 and two windows in the kitchen below1 were so shattered1 that there was scarcely one whole frame left1 in many of them4 ,the pewter1 brass1 and iron furniture in the kitchen1 were thrown down1 and scattered about2 particularly1 a large girdle1 about twenty pounds weight1 that hung upon an iron hook near the ceiling1 was found lying on the floor4 ,a cat was found dead next morning in the kitchen1 with her legs extended in a moving posture1 with no other sign of being hurt1 than that the fur was singed a little about the rump4 ,it was further remarkable1 that the wall1 both above and below a little window in the same gable-end1 was so shattered1 that the light could be seen through the crevices in the wall1 and upon a large stone on the outside of the wall2 beneath this window was a mark1 as if made by the stroke of a smith's1 sledge1 and a splinter of the stone was broken off1 of some pounds weight4 ,i was further informed1 that from the time of the great thunder-clap1 both the thunder and lightning diminished gradually1 so that in an hour's time all was still and quiet again4 ,we proceed to give an account of ,,the ,,mirage4--,from ,belzoni's ,narrative4 ,this phenomenon is often described by travellers1 who assert having been deceived by it1 as at a distance it appears to them like water4 ,this is certainly the fact1 and ,i must confess that ,i have been deceived myself1 even after ,i was aware of it4 ,the perfect resemblance to water1 and the strong desire for this element1 made me conclude1 in spite of all my caution not to be deceived1 that it was really water ,i saw4 ,it generally appears like a still lake1 so unmoved by the wind1 that every thing above it is to be seen most distinctly reflected1 which is the principal cause of the deception4 ,if the wind agitate any of the plants that rise above the horizon of the mirage1 the motion is seen perfectly at a great distance4 ,if the traveller stands elevated much above the mirage1 the water seems less united and less deep1 for1 as the eyes look down upon it1 there is not thickness enough in the vapour of the surface of the ground to conceal the earth from the sight2 but if the traveller be on a level with the horizon of the mirage1 he cannot see through it1 so that it appears to him clear water4 ,by putting my head first to the ground1 and then mounting a camel1 the height of which from the ground might have been ten feet at the most1 ,i found a great difference in the appearance of the mirage4 ,on approaching it1 it becomes thinner1 and appears as if agitated by the wind1 like a field of ripe corn4 ,it gradually vanishes as the traveller approaches1 and at last entirely disappears when he is on the spot4 ,we shall now introduce to the reader a curious account of ,,sand ,,floods2 a name given to the flowing of sand so common in the deserts of ,arabia4 ,mr4 ,bruce gives the following description of some that he saw in travelling through that long and dreary desert4--,at one o'clock 7says he7 we alighted among some acacia trees at ,waadi el ,halboub1 having gone twenty-one miles4 ,we were here at once surprised and terrified by a sight1 surely one of the most magnificent in the world4 ,in that vast expanse of desert from west to north-west of us1 we saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different distances1 at times moving with great celerity1 at others stalking on with a majestic slowness3 at intervals we thought they were coming in a few minutes to overwhelm us2 and small quantities of sand did actually more than once reach us4 ,again they would retreat so as to be almost out of sight1 their tops reaching to the very clouds4 ,here the tops often separated from the bodies2 and these1 once disjoined1 dispersed in the air1 and did not appear more4 ,sometimes they were broken near the middle1 as if struck with a large cannon-shot4 ,about noon they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon us1 the wind being very strong at north4 ,eleven of them ranged alongside of us about the distance of three miles4 ,the greatest diameter of the largest appeared to me1 at that distance1 as if it would measure ten feet4 ,they retired from us with a wind at south-east1 leaving an impression upon my mind to which ,i can give no name1 though surely one ingredient in it was fear1 with a considerable deal of wonder and astonishment4 ,it was in vain to think of flying2 the swiftest horse1 or fastest sailing ship1 could not carry us out of this danger2 and the full persuasion of this riveted me as if to the spot where ,i stood1 and let the camels gain on me so much in my state of lameness1 that it was with some difficulty ,i could overtake them4 ,the same appearance of moving pillars of sand presented themselves to us this day1 in form and disposition like those we had seen at ,waadi el ,halboub1 only they seemed to be more in number and less in size4 ,they came several times in a direction close upon us1 that is1 ,i believe1 within less than two miles4 ,they became1 immediately after sun-rise1 like a thick wood1 and almost darkened the sun3 his rays shining through them for near an hour1 gave them an appearance of pillars of fire4 ,our people now became desperate3 the ,greek shrieked out1 and said it was the day of judgment2 ,ismael pronounced it to be hell2 and the ,tucorories1 that the world was on fire4 ,i asked ,idris if ever he had before seen such a sight8 ,he said he had often seen them as terrible1 though never worse2 but what he feared most was that extreme redness in the air1 which was a sure presage of the coming of the simoom4 ,the flowing of sand1 though far from being so tremendous and hurtful as in ,arabia1 is of very bad consequences in ,britain1 as many valuable pieces of land have thus been entirely lost2 of which we give the following instances from ,mr4 ,pennant1 together with a probable means of preventing them in future4--,i have more than once 7says he7 on the east coasts of ,scotland1 observed the calamitous state of several extensive tracts1 formerly in a most flourishing condition1 at present covered with sands1 unstable as those of the deserts of ,arabia4 ,the parish of ,fyrie1 in the county of ,aberdeen1 is now reduced to two farms1 and above five hundred pounds a year lost to the ,errol family1 as appears by the oath of the factor in #afjj1 made before the court of session1 to ascertain the minister's salary3 not a vestige is to be seen of any buildings1 unless a fragment of the church4 ,the estate of ,coubin1 near ,forres1 is another melancholy instance4 ,this tract was once worth three hundred pounds a year1 but at this time is overwhelmed with sand4 ,this strange inundation was still in motion in #agfi1 chiefly when a strong wind prevailed4 ,its motion is so rapid1 that ,i have been assured1 that an apple-tree has been so covered with it one season1 that only the very summit appeared4 ,this distress was brought on about ninety years ago and was occasioned by the cutting down some trees1 and pulling up the bent or star which grew on the sand-hills2 which at last gave rise to the act of #ae ,george ,,ii4 c4 #cc4 to prohibit the destruction of this useful plant4 ,i beg leave to suggest to the public a possible means of putting a stop to these destructive ravages4 ,providence has kindly formed this plant to grow only in pure sand4 ,mankind was left to make1 in after times1 an application of it suitable to their wants4 ,the sand-hills on a portion of the ,flintshire shores1 in the parish of ,llanasa1 are covered with it naturally1 and kept firm in their place4 ,the ,dutch perhaps owe the existence of part at least of their country1 to the sowing of it on the mobile solum1 their sand-banks4 ,my humane and amiable friend1 the late ,benjamin ,stillingfleet1 ,esq4 recommended the sowing of this plant on the sandy wilds of ,norfolk1 that its matted roots might prevent the deluges of sand which that country experiences4 ,it has been already remarked1 that wheresoever this plant grows1 the salutary effects are soon observed to follow4 ,a single plant will fix the sand1 and gather it into a hillock2 these1 by the increase of vegetation1 are formed into larger1 till by degrees a barrier is often made against the encroachments of the sea1 and might often prove preventive of the calamity in question4 ,i cannot1 therefore1 but recommend the trial to the inhabitants of many parts of ,north ,britain3 the plant grows in most places near the sea1 and is known to the ,highlanders by the name of murah1 and to the ,english by that of bent-star4 ,the following is a singular but authentic account of the curious phenomenon of a ,,shower ,,of ,,gossamers4--,from ,white's ,natural ,history of ,selborne4 ,on ,september #ba1 #agda1 being intent on field diversions1 ,i rose before daybreak3 when ,i came into the inclosures1 ,i found the stubbles and clover grounds matted all over with a thick coat of cobweb1 in the meshes of which a copious and heavy dew hung so plentifully1 that the whole face of the country seemed1 as it were1 covered with two or three setting nets1 drawn one over another4 ,when the dogs attempted to hunt1 their eyes were so blinded and hoodwinked1 that they could not proceed1 but were obliged to lie down and scrape the incumbrances from their faces with their fore feet4 ,as the morning advanced1 the sun became bright and warm1 and the day turned out one of those most lovely ones1 which no season but the autumn produces2 cloudless1 calm1 serene1 and worthy the south of ,france itself4 ,about nine1 an appearance1 very unusual1 began to demand our attention2 a shower of cobwebs falling from very elevated regions1 and continuing without any interruption till the close of day4 ,there webs were not single filmy threads1 floating in the air in all directions1 but perfect flakes or rags1 some near an inch broad1 and five or six long4 ,on every side1 as the observer turned his eyes1 might he behold a continual succession of fresh flakes falling into his sight1 and twinkling like stars as they turned their sides towards the sun4 ,neither before nor after1 was any shower observed2 but on this day the flakes hung on the trees and hedges so thick1 that a diligent person might have gathered baskets full4 ,this chapter closes with a description of ,,winter ,,in ,,russia4--,the winter1 in the climate of ,russia1 approaches very suddenly4 ,there is something very wonderful in the instantaneous change of weather about the time of winter4 ,on one day the warmth shall be that of spring1 while on the following day the winter shall break forth in all its horrors2 snow and ice are spread in the course of a few hours1 and the abruptness of this instant change affects even a ,russian constitution4 ,nothing can defend the shivering inhabitant1 but the artificial heat of his own house2 where he seals himself up during the hibernal rigours1 yet even there they reach him4 ,there is a pleasing description of these sudden winters in one of the letters of the poet ,metastasio1 while residing at ,vienna4 ,the passage is very interesting1 and finely describes the instantaneous change which occurred4 ,within these few days the ,teutonic winter has unexpectedly appeared1 with all his magnificent train1 and without the least precursor to announce his arrival4 ,all is covered with snow4 ,the rivers1 as well as lakes1 were instantly frozen in a most solid manner2 and the cold blown from the seven neighbouring hills is so subtle and penetrating1 that we cannot exclude it from our warmest apartment4 ,but notwithstanding all this unforeseen and violent change of nature1 ,i still find much amusement here1 having been more formed for ,arcadian tranquillity than the bustle and magnificence of courts4 ,i am pleased with the silent concord of all existence2 the roving about in search of well-known paths1 fields1 bushes1 pastoral borders1 and every known object1 of which1 though the fall of snow has changed the colouring1 yet the design is still faithfully preserved4 ,i reflect with sentiments of gratitude1 that the friendly forest1 which by its shade but lately defended me from the burning rays of the sun1 now affords me materials for combating the extreme fury of the season4 ,i laugh at winter with all its horrors1 which ,i see without feeling1 having it in our power to compose an artificial spring in our apartments at pleasure2 but by an impulse of self-love1 what pleases me more is1 the finding out1 that1 compared with other seasons1 winter has still its conveniences1 beauties1 and advantages4 ,,chap4 ,,li4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,ice4 ,on the ,greenland1 or ,polar ,ice--,on the ,tremendous ,concussion of ,fields of ,ice--,icebergs--,magnitude of ,icebergs--,the ,glaciers--,shower of ,ice--,remarkable ,frosts4 ,there winter1 arm'd with terrors here unknown1 ,sits absolute on his unshaken throne2 ,piles up his stores amid the frozen waste1 ,and bids the mountains he has built1 stand fast2 ,beckons the legions of his storms away ,from happier scenes1 to make this land a prey2 ,proclaims the soil a conquest he has won1 ,and scorns to share it with the distant sun4 ,cowper4 ,another poet thus describes the polar regions3-- ,vast regions1 dreary1 bleak1 and bare6 ,there on an icy mountain's height1 ,seen only by the moon's pale light1 ,stern winter rears his giant form1 ,his robe a mist1 his voice a storm3 ,his frown the shiv'ring nations fly1 ,and1 hid for half the year1 in smoky caverns lie4 ,scott4 ,,the ,,greenland1 ,,or ,,polar ,,ice4 ,the following account of the ,greenland1 or ,polar ,ice1 is abridged by the ,editor of this work from a paper1 by ,w4 ,scoresby1 jun4 ,m4 ,w4 ,s4 published in ,the ,memoirs of the ,wernerian ,natural-,history ,society3-- ,greenland is a country where every object is strikingly singular1 or highly magnificent4 ,the atmosphere1 the land1 and the ocean1 each exhibit remarkable or sublime appearances4 ,with regard to the atmosphere1 several peculiarities may be noticed1 viz4 its darkness of colour1 and density2 its frequent production of crystallized snow in a wonderful perfection and variety of form and texture2 and its astonishingly sudden changes from calm to storm1 from fair weather to foul1 and vice vers4 ,the land is of itself a sublime object2 its stupendous mountains rising by steep acclivities from the very margin of the ocean to an immense height1 terminating in rigid1 conical1 or pyramidical summits2 its surface1 contrasting its native protruding dark-coloured rocks1 with its burden of purest snow2--the whole viewed1 under the density of a gloomy sky1 forms a picture impressive and grand4 ,of the inanimate productions of ,greenland1 none perhaps excites so much interest and astonishment in a stranger1 as the ice1 in its great abundance and variety4 ,the stupendous masses known by the name of ,ice ,islands1 ,floating ,mountains1 or ,icebergs1 common to ,davis' ,straits1 and sometimes met with here1 from their height1 various forms1 and the depth of water in which they ground1 are calculated to strike the beholder with wonder3 yet the fields of ice1 more peculiar to ,greenland1 are not less astonishing4 ,their deficiency in elevation is sufficiently compensated by their amazing extent of surface4 ,some of them have been observed near #ajj miles in length1 and more than half that breadth2 each consisting of a single sheet of ice1 having its surface raised in general four or six feet above the level of the water1 and its base depressed to the depth of nearly twenty feet beneath4 ,the various kinds of ,ice described4--,the ice in general is designated by a variety of appellations1 distinguishing it according to the size or number of pieces1 their form of aggregation1 thickness1 transparency1 c4 ,i perhaps cannot better explain the terms in common acceptation amongst the whale-fishers1 than by marking the disruption of a field4 ,the thickest and strongest field cannot resist the power of a heavy swell2 indeed1 such are much less capable of bending without being dissevered1 than the thinner ice1 which is more pliable4 ,when a field1 by the set of the current1 drives to the southward1 and1 being deserted by the loose ice1 becomes exposed to the effects of a ground swell1 it presently breaks into a great many pieces1 few of which will exceed forty or fifty yards in diameter4 ,now1 such a number of these pieces collected together in close contact1 so that they cannot1 from the top of the ship's mast1 be seen over1 are termed a pack4 ,when the collection of pieces can be seen across1 if it assume a circular or polygonal form1 the name of patch is applied1 and it is called a stream when its shape is more of an oblong1 how narrow soever it may be1 provided the continuity of the pieces is preserved4 ,pieces of very large dimensions1 but smaller than fields1 are denominated floes3 thus1 a field may be compared to a pack1 and a floe to a patch1 as far as regards their size and external form4 ,small pieces which break off1 and are separated from the larger masses by the effect of attrition are called brash-ice1 and may be collected into streams or patches4 ,ice is said to be loose or open1 when the pieces are so far separated as to allow a ship to sail freely amongst them3 this has likewise been called drift-ice4 ,a hummock is a protuberance raised upon any plane of ice above the common level4 ,it is frequently produced by pressure1 where one piece is squeezed upon another1 often set upon its edge1 and in that position cemented by the frost4 ,hummocks are likewise formed by pieces of ice mutually crushing each other1 the wreck being heaped upon one or both of them4 ,to hummocks1 the ice is indebted for its variety of fanciful shapes1 and its picturesque appearance4 ,they occur in great numbers in heavy packs1 on the edges1 and occasionally in the middle of1 fields and floes4 ,they often attain the height of thirty feet or upwards4 ,a calf1 is a portion of ice which has been depressed by the same means as a hummock is elevated4 ,it is kept down by some larger mass1 from beneath which it shews itself on one side4 ,i have seen a calf so deep and broad1 that the ship sailed over it without touching1 when it might be observed on both sides of the vessel at the same time3 this1 however1 is attended with considerable danger1 and necessity alone warrants the experiment1 as calves have not unfrequently 7by a ship's touching them1 or disturbing the sea near them7 been called from their submarine situation to the surface1 and with such an accelerated velocity1 as to stave the planks and timbers of the ship1 and in some instances to reduce the vessel to a wreck4 ,any part of the upper superficies of a piece of ice1 which comes to be immersed beneath the surface of the water1 obtains the name of a tongue4 ,a bight signifies a bay or sinuosity1 on the border of any large mass or body of ice4 ,it is supposed to be called bight1 from the low word bite1 to take in1 or entrap2 because1 in this situation1 ships are sometimes so caught by a change of wind1 that the ice cannot be cleared on either tack2 and in some cases1 a total loss has been the consequence4 ,,on ,,the ,,tremendous ,,concussions ,,of ,,fields ,,of ,,ice4--,the occasional rapid motion of fields1 with the strange effects produced on any opposing substance1 exhibited by such immense bodies1 is one of the most striking objects this country presents1 and is certainly the most terrific4 ,they not unfrequently acquire a rotary movement1 whereby the circumference attains a velocity of several miles per hour4 ,a field1 thus in motion1 coming in contact with another at rest1 or1 more especially1 with a contrary direction of movement1 produces a dreadful shock4 ,the consequences of a body of more than ten thousand millions of tons in weight1 meeting with resistance when in motion1 may be better conceived than expressed6 ,the weaker field is crushed with an awful noise2 sometimes the destruction is mutual3 pieces of huge dimensions and weight are not unfrequently piled upon the top1 to the height of twenty or thirty feet1 whilst doubtless a proportionate quantity is depressed beneath4 ,the view of these stupendous effects1 in safety1 exhibits a picture sublimely grand2 but where there is danger of being overwhelmed1 terror and dismay must be the predominant feelings4 ,the whale-fishers at all times require unremitting vigilance to secure their safety1 but scarcely in any situation so much1 as when navigating amidst those fields3 in foggy weather1 they are particularly dangerous1 as their motions cannot then be distinctly observed4 ,it may easily be imagined1 that the strongest ship can no more withstand the shock of two fields1 than a sheet of paper can stop a musket-ball4 ,numbers of vessels1 since the establishment of the fishery1 have been thus destroyed2 some have been thrown upon the ice1 some have had their hulls completely torn open1 and others have been buried beneath the heaped fragments of the ice4 ,,icebergs4--,the term icebergs has commonly been applied to those immense bodies of ice situated on the land1 'filling the valleys between the high mountains1' and generally exhibiting a square perpendicular towards the sea4 ,they recede backward inland to an extent never explored4 ,martin1 ,crantz1 ,phipps1 and others1 have described those wonders of nature1 and all agree as to their manner of formation1 in the congelation of the sleet and rains of summer1 and of the accumulated snow1 partly dissolved by the summer sun1 which1 on its decline1 freezes to a transparent ice4 ,they are as permanent as the rocks on which they rest3 for although large portions may be frequently separated1 yet the annual growth replaces the loss1 and probably on the whole1 produces a perpetual increase4 ,i have seen those styled the ,seven ,icebergs1 situated in the valleys of the north-west coast of ,spitzbergen2 their perpendicular front maybe about #cjj feet in height1 the green colour1 and glistening surface of which1 form a pleasing variety in prospect1 with the magnificence of the encompassing snow-clad mountains1 which1 as they recede from the eye1 seem to rise 'crag above crag1' in endless perspective4 ,illustration3 ,,icebergs ,,of ,,greenland4--,page #ebf4 ,illustration3 ,,icebergs ,,of ,,spitzbergen4--,page #ebh4 ,large pieces may be separated from those icebergs in the summer season1 when they are particularly fragile1 by their ponderous overhanging masses overcoming the force of cohesion2 or otherwise1 by the powerful expansion of the water1 filling any excavation or deep-seated cavity1 when its dimensions are enlarged by freezing1 thereby exerting a tremendous force1 and bursting the whole asunder4 ,pieces thus or otherwise detached1 are hurled into the sea with a dreadful crash3 if they are received into deep water1 they are liable to be drifted off the land1 and1 under the form of ice-islands1 or ice-mountains1 they likewise still retain their parent name of icebergs4 ,i much question1 however1 if all the floating bergs seen in the seas west of ,old ,greenland1 thus derive their origin1 their number being so great1 and their dimensions so vast4 ,,magnitude ,,of ,,icebergs4--,if all the floating islands of ice thus proceed from disruptions of the icebergs generated on the land1 how is it that so few are met with in ,greenland1 and those comparatively so diminutive1 whilst ,baffin's ,bay affords them so plentifully1 and of such amazing size8 ,the largest ,i ever saw in ,greenland1 was about #ajjj yards in circumference1 nearly square1 of a regular flat surface1 twenty feet above the level of the sea2 and as it was composed of the most dense kind of ice1 it must have been #aej or #afj feet in thickness1 and in weight about #b1jjj1jjj of tons4 ,but masses have been repeatedly seen in ,davis' ,straits1 nearly two miles in length1 and one-third as broad1 whose rugged mountain summits were reared with various spires to the height of more than #ajj feet1 whilst their base must have reached to the depth of #aej yards beneath the surface of the sea4 ,others1 again1 have been observed1 possessing an even surface of five or six square miles in area1 elevated thirty yards above the sea1 and fairly run aground in water of #ij or #ajj fathoms in depth2 the weight of which must have been upwards of two thousand millions of tons4 ,,the ,,glaciers4--,those vast piles of eternal ice with which it has pleased the ,author of nature to crown the immense chasms between the summits of the ,alps1 are objects more grand1 sublime1 and terrific1 than any others of the phenomena of nature which remain stationary4 ,these tremendous spires and towers1 of uncertain and brittle fabric1 seem to forbid the attempts of travellers to explore the depth between them1 or even the rocks and rich valleys around them2 but courage and perseverance have been attended with commensurate success1 and we are enabled by their labours to learn previously concealed wonders1 and to reason upon the causes which produced them4 ,mr4 ,bourrit1 precentor of the cathedral church at ,geneva1 mentions1 in the relation of his journey to the glaciers of ,savoy1 the enterprise of ,messrs4 ,windham and ,pocock1 in #agda1 who1 inspired by the artless relations of the peasants1 descriptive of the sublimity of their country1 when they descended with honey and crystals for sale1 determined to visit those frightful regions of ice which had received the appellation of ,les ,montagnes ,maudites2 or the ,accursed ,mountains4 ,the gentlemen alluded to took every precaution for securing their safety2 but entertaining many well-grounded fears1 naturally arising from a first attempt1 they did not reach any considerable distance beyond the edge of the ice in the valley of ,montanvert1 yet their example operated so powerfully as to induce several others to imitate them1 and proceed to the boundary whence they returned3 at length ,m4 de ,saussure had the resolution and courage to penetrate across the ice to the very extremities of the valleys2 ,mr4 ,coxe followed soon after3 and from their publications every possible information may be obtained1 of which the nature of the subject will admit4 ,the most astonishing phenomenon attending the glaciers1 is their near approach to the usual vegetation of summer2 for what can be more wonderful than to view wheat ready for the sickle1 parched brown by the rays of the sun1 and separated only by the intervention of a few feet1 from the chilling influence of an endless bed of ice1 which seems impenetrable to its rays4 ,many systems and theories have been ingeniously suggested1 to ascertain the first cause of the glaciers1 their maintenance1 and whether they increase or diminish in extent2 of which1 ,gruner's1 improved and illustrated with actual observations by ,m4 de ,saussure1 is the most rational and probable1 and ,mr4 ,coxe implicitly adopts it4 ,admitting that a person could be raised sufficiently above the summits of the ,alps of ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 and ,dauphiny1 to comprehend the whole at one view1 he would observe a vast chaos of mountains and valleys1 with several parallel chains1 the highest of which are situated in the centre1 and the remainder gradually lessening as they retire from it4 ,the central chain he would find to be surmounted by stupendous fragments of rock1 towering in rude masses1 which bear vast accumulations of snow and ice1 where they are not decidedly perpendicular1 or do not overhang their bases3 on each side he would see the intervening chasms and gulfs1 filled with ice1 descending thence even into the verdant valleys1 rich with foliage and cultivation4 ,the inferior ranges of mountains1 next the central1 present the same appearance in a less degree2 but in those more remote1 the snow and ice are confined to the most elevated points2 and others1 still farther removed1 are covered with grass and plants1 which1 in their turn1 give place to such hills and valleys as are common in any part of the world4 ,mr4 ,coxe divides the glaciers1 in the above general survey1 into two classes3 the first occupy the deep valleys situated in the bosom of the ,alps1 and the second adhere to the sides and summits of the mountains4 ,those in the valleys are far more extensive than the upper glaciers2 some are several leagues in length2 and that of ,des ,bois is three miles broad and fifteen long3 but they do not communicate with each other1 and there are few parallel to the central chain2 their upper extremities are connected with inaccessible precipices1 and the lower proceed1 as already mentioned1 quite into the vales4 ,the depth of these astonishing accumulations of frozen fluid vary from eighty to six hundred feet1 and they generally rest on an inclined plane1 where1 urged forward by their own enormous weight1 and but weakly supported by the pointed rocks inserted in their bases1 they are universally intersected by yawning chasms1 of dreadful aspect to the curious investigator1 who beholds fanciful representations of walls1 towers1 and pyramids1 on every side of him2 but upon reaching those parts where the glacier rests upon an horizontal plane1 his progress is seldom impeded by considerable fissures1 and he walks in safety over a surface nearly uniform1 and not so perfectly polished as that of ponds and rivers suddenly and violently frozen4 ,the absence of transparency1 the various marks of air-bubbles1 and the general roughness1 so perfectly resemble the congelation of snow when half restored to fluidity1 that ,m4 de ,saussure was immediately led to form the following probable theory of the formation of the glaciers4 ,snow is constantly accumulating in the recesses or depths of the mountains1 during nine months of the year1 by the usual fall of moisture1 and the descent of vast masses1 borne down by their weight1 from the precipices and crags above4 ,part of this is necessarily reduced to water by slight thaws and casual rains1 and1 being frozen in this state1 the glacier is composed of a porous opaque ice4 ,the upper glaciers ,mr4 ,coxe subdivides into those which cover the summits1 and those which extend along the sides of the ,alps2 the former originate from the snow frequently falling and congealing into a firm body1 though not becoming actual ice1 which the brilliancy of the projections has induced some philosophers to suppose it to be4 ,m4 de ,saussure1 having explored ,mont ,blanc1 ascertained that the top was encrusted with ice1 7which might be penetrated by a stick17 covering a mass of snow on the declivities1 so chilled and dry as to be incapable of coherence4 ,the sides of the ,alps support a congelation of half-dissolved snow1 which is different from the pure snow of the summits1 and the ice of the lower glaciers4 ,two causes operate to produce this effect2 the first is the descent of water from the higher regions1 where a dissolution of snow sometimes occurs2 and the second arises from the more favourable situation of these parts for reflecting the rays of the sun1 and the consequent melting of the snow4 ,from hence downwards1 the ice adhering to the cavities becomes gradually more solid by the freezing of the snow-water1 then nearly divested of that air which in the less dissolved portions renders the ice1 formed from it1 porous1 opaque1 and full of bubbles4 ,an idea of the sublimity of the glaciers may be formed by reading the account of ,m4 ,bourrit1 who appears to have viewed and described them with all that enthusiasm which such splendid objects must have inspired4--,to come at this collected mass of ice1 7,des ,bois17 we crossed the ,arve1 and travelling in a tolerable road1 passed some villages or hamlets1 whose inhabitants behaved with much politeness2 they invited us to go in and rest ourselves1 apologized for our reception1 and offered us a taste of their honey4 ,after amusing ourselves some time amongst them1 we resumed our road1 and entered a beautiful wood of lofty firs1 inhabited by squirrels4 ,the bottom is a fine sand1 left there by the inundations of the ,arveron2 it is a very agreeable walk1 and exhibits some extraordinary appearances4 ,in proportion as we advanced into this wood1 we observed the objects gradually to vanish from our sight2 surprised at this circumstance1 we were earnest to discover the cause1 and our eyes sought in vain for satisfaction1 till1 having passed through it1 the charm ceased4 ,judge of our astonishment1 when we saw before us an enormous mass of ice1 twenty times as large as the front of our cathedral of ,st4 ,peter1 and so constructed1 that we have only to change our situation to make it resemble whatever we please4 ,it is a magnificent palace1 cased over with the purest crystal2 a majestic temple1 ornamented with a portico2 and columns of several shapes and colours2 it has the appearance of a fortress1 flanked with towers and bastions to the right and left2 and at the bottom is a grotto1 terminating in a dome of bold construction4 ,this fairy dwelling1 this enchanted residence1 or cave of fancy1 is the source of the ,arveron1 and of the gold which is found in the ,arve4 ,and if we add to all this rich variety1 the ringing tinkling sound of water dropping from its sides1 with the glittering refraction of the solar rays1 whilst tints of the most lively green1 blue1 yellow1 or violet1 have the effect of different compartments in the several divisions of the grotto1 the whole is so theatrically splendid1 so completely picturesque1 so great and beautiful beyond imagination1 that ,i can hardly believe the art of man has ever yet produced1 or ever will produce1 a building so grand in its construction1 or so varied in its ornaments4 ,desirous of surveying every side of this mass1 we crossed the river about four hundred yards from its source1 and1 mounting upon the rocks and ice1 approached the vault2 but while we were attentively employed in viewing all its parts1 astonished at the sportiveness of nature1 we cast our eyes at one considerable member of the pile above us1 which was most unaccountably supported1 for it seemed to be held by almost nothing3 our imprudence was too evident1 and we hastened to retreat2 yet scarcely had we stepped back thirty paces1 before it broke off all at once with a prodigious noise1 and tumbled1 rolling to the very spot where we were standing just before4 ,,shower ,,of ,,ice4--,a very uncommon kind of shower fell in the west of ,england1 in ,december #afgb1 whereof we have various accounts in the ,philos4 ,trans4--,this rain1 as soon as it touched any thing above ground1 as a bough or the like1 immediately settled into ice2 and1 by multiplying and enlarging the icicles1 broke every thing down by its weight4 ,the rain that fell on the ground immediately became frozen1 without sinking into the snow at all4 ,it made an incredible destruction of trees1 beyond any thing mentioned in history4 ,had it concluded with a gust of wind1 7says a gentleman who was on the spot17 it might have been of terrible consequence4 ,i weighed the sprig of an ash tree1 of just three-quarters of a pound1 the ice on which weighed sixteen pounds4 ,some were frightened with the noise in the air1 till they discerned that it was the clatter of icy boughs1 dashed against each other4 ,dr4 ,beale remarks1 that there was no considerable frost observed on the ground during the above3 whence he concludes1 that a frost may be very intense and dangerous on the tops of some hills and plains2 while at other places it keeps at two1 three1 or four feet distance above the ground1 rivers1 lakes1 c4 and may wander about very furiously in some places1 and be mild in others not far off4 ,the frost was followed by glowing heats1 and a wonderful forwardness of flowers and fruits4 ,we close this division with an account of ,,remarkable ,,frosts4--,in the year #bbj1 a frost in ,britain lasted five months4--,in #bej1 ,the ,thames was frozen nine weeks4--#bia1 ,most rivers in ,britain frozen six weeks4--#cei4 ,severe frost in ,scotland for fourteen weeks4--#ejh1 ,the rivers in ,britain frozen for two months4--#eeh1 ,danube quite frozen over4--#fie1 ,thames frozen six weeks1 and booths built on it4--#gei1 ,frost from ,oct4 #a till ,feb4 #bf following4--#hbg1 ,frost in ,england for nine weeks4--#hei1 ,carriages used on the ,adriatic4--#ijh1 ,most rivers in ,england frozen two months4--#ibc1 ,the ,thames frozen thirteen weeks4--#ihg1 ,frost lasted #acj days2 begun ,dec4 #bb4--iih1 ,thames frozen five weeks4--#ajce1 ,severe frost on ,june #bd3 the corn and fruits destroyed4--#ajfc1 ,the ,thames frozen fourteen weeks4--#ajgf1 ,frost in ,england from ,nov4 till ,april4--#aaad1 ,several wooden bridges carried away by ice4--#abje1 ,frost from ,jan4 #ae till ,march #bb4--adjg1 ,frost that lasted fifteen weeks4--#adcd1 ,from ,nov4 #bd till ,feb4 #aj1 ,thames frozen down to ,gravesend4--#afhc1 ,frost for thirteen weeks4--#agjh-i1 ,an extraordinary frost throughout the most parts of ,europe1 though scarcely felt in ,scotland or ,ireland4--#agae1 ,severe frost for many weeks4--#agci1 ,one for nine weeks2 begun ,dec4 #ad4--agdb1 ,severe frost for many weeks4--#agdg1 ,severe frost in ,russia4--#aged1 ,severe one in ,england4--#agfj1 ,the same in ,germany4--#aggf1 ,the same in ,england4--#aghh1 ,the ,thames frozen below ,london bridge2 and booths erected on it4--#agie1 ,the ,zuyder ,zee frozen over1 and the rivers of ,holland passed by the ,french4 ,,chap4 ,,lii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,ruins4 ,ruin at ,siwa1 in ,egypt--,ruins of ,palmyra--,ruins of ,herculaneum1 and ,pompeii--,ancient ,ruins of ,balbec--,ruins of ,agrigentum1 in ,sicily--,ancient ,grandeur of ,carthage4 ,the cloud-capt towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 ,the solemn temples1 the great globe itself1 ,yea1 all which it inherit1 shall dissolve4 ,shakspeare4 ,,ruin ,,at ,,siwa1 ,,in ,,egypt4--,a great curiosity about ,siwa1 is a ruin1 of undoubted antiquity1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,browne1 resembles exactly those of ,upper ,egypt1 and was erected and adorned by the same intelligent race of men4 ,the figures of ,isis and ,anubis are conspicuous among the sculptures2 and the proportions are those of the ,egyptian temples1 though in miniature4 ,what remains of it1 is a single apartment1 built of massy stones1 of the same kind as those of which the pyramids consist4 ,the length is thirty-two feet1 the height eighteen1 the width fifteen4 ,a gate at one end forms the principal entrance2 and two doors open opposite to each other4 ,the other end is quite ruinous4 ,in the interior are three rows of emblematical figures1 representing a procession2 and the space between them is filled with hieroglyphic characters4 ,it has been supposed1 with some degree of probability1 that ,siwa is the ,siropum of ,pliny1 and that this building was coeval with the famous temple of ,jupiter ,ammon1 and a dependency on it4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,palmyra4--,these celebrated ruins consist of temples1 palaces1 and porticos1 of ,grecian architecture2 and lie scattered over an extent of several miles4 ,they were accidentally discovered by some ,english travellers from ,aleppo1 above a century ago4 ,the most remarkable of them is the temple of the sun1 of which the ruins are spread over a square of #bbj yards4 ,it was encompassed with a stately wall1 built of large square stones1 and adorned with pilasters within and without1 to the number of sixty-two on a side4 ,within the court are the remains of two rows of noble marble pillars1 thirty-seven feet high1 with their capitals1 of most exquisite workmanship4 ,of these1 only fifty-eight remain entire1 but they appear to have gone round the whole court1 and to have supported a double piazza4 ,the walks opposite the castle appear to have been spacious4 ,at each end of this line are two niches for statues1 with their pedestals1 borders1 supporters1 and canopies1 carved with the utmost propriety and elegance4 ,the space within this inclosure seems to have been an open court1 in the middle of which stood the temple1 encompassed with another row of pillars of a different order and much taller1 being fifty feet high2 but of these1 sixteen only remain4 ,the whole space contained within these pillars is fifty-nine yards in length1 and near twenty-eight in breadth4 ,the temple is thirty-three yards long1 and thirteen or fourteen broad4 ,it points north and south2 and exactly in the middle of the building on the west side1 is a most magnificent entry1 on the remains of which are some vines and clusters of grapes1 carved in the most masterly imitation of nature that can be conceived4 ,just over the door are discerned a pair of wings1 which extend its whole breadth2 but the body1 whether of an eagle or an angel1 is destroyed4 ,the north end of this temple is adorned with the most curious fret-work in bas-relief2 and in the middle is a dome1 or cupola1 about ten feet diameter4 ,north of this place is an obelisk1 consisting of seven large stones1 besides its capital4 ,it is about fifty feet high1 and just above the pedestal is twelve feet in circumference4 ,about a quarter of a mile from this pillar1 to the east and west1 are two others1 besides the fragment of a third4 ,about #ajj paces from the middle obelisk1 is a magnificent entry to a piazza1 which is forty feet broad1 and more than half a mile long1 inclosed with two rows of marble pillars twenty-six feet high1 and eight or nine in compass4 ,of these there still remain #abi1 but there must originally have been no less than #efj4 ,the upper end of the piazza was closed by a row of pillars4 ,to the left are the ruins of a stately banqueting-house1 built of better marble1 and finished with yet greater elegance1 than the piazza4 ,the pillars which supported it were of one entire stone4 ,it measures twenty-two feet in length1 and in compass eight feet nine inches4 ,in the west side of the piazza are several apertures for gates into the court of the palace4 ,each of these were adorned with four porphyry pillars1 placed by couples in the front of the gate facing the palace1 two on each side4 ,two of these only remain entire4 ,they are thirty feet long1 and nine in circumference4 ,on the east side of the piazza stands a great number of marble pillars1 some perfect1 but the greater part mutilated4 ,at a little distance are the remains of a small temple1 without a roof4 ,before the entry1 which looks to the south1 is a piazza supported by six pillars1 two on each side of the door1 and one at each end4 ,the pedestals of those in front have been filled with inscriptions1 both in the ,greek and ,palmyrene languages1 which are become totally illegible4 ,among these ruins are many sepulchres4 ,they are all square towers1 four or five stories high4 ,there is a walk across the whole building2 the space on each hand is subdivided into six partitions by thick walls4 ,the space between the partitions is wide enough to receive the largest corpse2 and in these niches there are six or seven piled one upon another4 ,many inscriptions have been found at ,palmyra1 which have occupied much of the attention of the learned4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,herculaneum ,,and ,,pompeii1--two ancient cities of ,campania in ,italy1 which were destroyed by an eruption of ,vesuvius1 in the first year of the emperor ,titus1 or the #gith of the ,christian ra1 and lately rendered famous on account of the curious monuments of antiquity discovered in their ruins2 an account of which has been published by order of the king of ,naples1 in a work of six volumes folio4 ,the epocha of the foundation of ,herculaneum is unknown4 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus conjectures that it maybe referred to sixty years before the war of ,troy1 or about #acdb ,b4 ,c42 and therefore that it lasted about #adjj years4 ,the thickness of the heaps of lava1 by which the city was overwhelmed1 has been much increased by fiery streams vomited since that catastrophe1 and now forms a mass twenty-four feet deep1 of dark grey stone1 which is easily broken in pieces4 ,by its non-adhesion to foreign bodies1 marbles and bronzes are preserved in it as in a case made to fit them1 and exact moulds of the faces and limbs of statues are frequently found in this substance4 ,the precise situation of this subterraneous city was not known till #agac1 when it was accidentally discovered by some labourers1 who1 in digging a well1 struck upon a statue on the benches of the theatre4 ,many others were afterwards dug out1 and sent to ,france by the prince of ,elboeuf4 ,but little progress was made in the excavations1 till ,charles1 infant of ,spain1 ascended the ,neapolitan throne1 by whose unwearied efforts and liberality a very considerable part of ,herculaneum has been explored1 and such treasures of antiquity drawn out1 as form the most curious museum in the world4 ,it being too arduous a task to attempt removing the covering1 the king contented himself with cutting galleries to the principal buildings1 and causing the extent of one or two of them to be cleared4 ,of these1 the theatre is the most considerable4 ,on a balustrade which divided the orchestra from the stage1 was found a row of statues2 and1 on each side of the pulpitum1 the equestrian figure of a person of the ,nonian family4 ,they are now placed under porticos of the palace2 and from the great rarity of equestrian statues in marble1 would be very valuable objects1 were the workmanship even less excellent than it is3 one of them in particular is a very fine piece of sculpture4 ,the collection of curiosities brought out of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 consist not only of statues1 busts1 altars1 inscriptions1 and other ornamental appendages of opulence and luxury2 but also comprehend an entire assortment of the domestic1 musical1 and chirurgical instruments used by the ancients2 tripods of elegant form and exquisite execution1 lamps in endless variety1 vases and basons of noble dimensions1 chandeliers of the most beautiful shapes1 pateras and other appurtenances of sacrifice2 looking-glasses of polished metal2 coloured glass1 so hard1 clear1 and well stained1 as to appear like emeralds1 sapphires1 and other precious stones2 a kitchen completely fitted up with copper pans lined with silver1 cisterns for heating water1 and every utensil necessary for culinary purposes2 specimens of various sorts of combustibles1 retaining their form1 though burnt to a cinder2 corn1 bread1 fish1 oil1 wine1 and flour2 a lady's toilet1 fully furnished with combs1 thimbles1 rings1 paint1 ear-rings1 and other articles4 ,among the statues1 which are numerous1 a ,mercury and a sleeping fawn are most admired by connoisseurs4 ,the busts fill several rooms2 but very few of the originals whom they were meant to imitate are known4 ,the floors are paved with ancient mosaic4 ,few rare medals have been found in these ruins3 the most curious is a gold medallion of ,augustus1 struck in ,sicily1 in the fifteenth year of his reign4 ,the fresco paintings1 which1 for the sake of preservation1 have been torn off the walls1 and framed and glazed1 are to be seen in another part of the palace4 ,the streets of the city of ,pompeii are said to be daily disencumbered4 ,mr4 ,williams1 a late traveller1 informs us1 that he entered by the ,appian ,way through a narrow street of small tombs1 beautifully executed1 with the names of the deceased1 plain and legible4 ,at the gate was a sentry-box1 in which the skeleton of a soldier was found1 with a lamp in his hand4 ,the streets are lined with public buildings1 the painted decorations of which are fresh and entire4 ,there were several tradesmen's shops also discovered--such as1 a baker's1 an oilman's1 an ironmonger's1 a wine shop1 with money in the till1 and a surgeon's house1 with chirurgical instruments2 also a great theatre1 a temple of justice1 an amphitheatre #bbj feet long1 various temples1 a barrack for soldiers1 7the columns of which are scribbled with their names and jests17 and stocks for prisoners1 in one of which a skeleton was likewise discovered4 ,the principal streets are about sixteen feet wide2 the subordinate ones from six to ten feet4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,ruins ,,of ,,balbec4--,to give a just idea of these ruins1 we must suppose ourselves descending from the interior of the town4 ,after having crossed the rubbish and huts with which it is filled1 we arrive at a vacant place1 which appears to have been a square2 there1 in front1 towards the west1 we perceive a grand ruin1 which consists of two pavilions ornamented with pilasters1 joined at their bottom angle by a wall one hundred and sixty feet in length4 ,this front commands the open country from a terrace1 on the edge of which we distinguish with difficulty the bases of twelve columns1 which formerly extended from one pavilion to the other1 and formed a portico4 ,the principal gate is obstructed by heaps of stones2 but1 that obstacle surmounted1 we enter an empty space1 which is an hexagonal court of one hundred and eighty feet in diameter4 ,this court is strewed with broken columns1 mutilated capitals1 and the remains of pilasters1 entablatures1 and cornices2 around it is a row of ruined edifices1 which display all the ornaments of the richest architecture4 ,at the end of this court1 opposite the west1 is an outlet1 which formerly was a gate1 through which we perceive a still more extensive range of ruins1 whose magnificence strongly excites curiosity4 ,to have a full prospect of these1 we must ascend a slope1 up which were the steps to this gate2 and we then arrive at the entrance of a square court1 much more spacious than the former1 being three hundred and fifty feet wide1 and three hundred and thirty-six in length4 ,the eye is first attracted by the end of this court1 where six enormous and majestic columns render the scene astonishingly grand and picturesque4 ,another object1 not less interesting1 is a second range of columns to the left1 which appear to have been part of the peristyle of a temple2 but before we pass thither1 we cannot refuse particular attention to the edifices which inclose this court on each side4 ,they form a sort of gallery1 which contains various chambers1 seven of which may be reckoned in each of the principal wings1 viz4 two in a semicircle1 and five in an oblong square4 ,the bottom of these apartments still retains pediments of niches and tabernacles1 the supporters of which are destroyed4 ,on the side of the court they are open1 and present only five or six columns totally destroyed4 ,the beauty of the pilasters1 and the richness of the frieze of the entablature1 are admirable4 ,the singular effect which results from the mixture of the garlands1 the large foliage of the capitals1 and the sculpture of wild plants with which they are every where ornamented1 is peculiarly pleasing4 ,in traversing the length of the court1 we find in the middle a little square esplanade1 where was a pavilion1 of which nothing remains but the foundation4 ,on arriving at the foot of the six columns1 we perceive all the boldness of their elevation1 and the richness of their workmanship4 ,their shafts are twenty-one feet eight inches in circumference1 and fifty-eight high2 so that the total height1 including the entablature1 is from seventy-one to seventy-two feet4 ,the sight of this superb ruin1 thus solitary and unaccompanied1 at first strikes us with astonishment2 but1 on a more attentive examination1 we discover a series of foundations1 which mark an oblong square of two hundred and sixty-eight feet in length1 and one hundred and forty-six wide1 and which1 it seems probable1 was the peristyle of a grand temple1 the primary purpose of the whole structure4 ,it presented to the great court1 on the east1 a front of ten columns1 with nineteen on each side1 which1 with the other six1 made in all fifty-four4 ,the ground on which it stood is an oblong square1 on a level with this court1 but narrower1 so that there was only a terrace of twenty-seven feet wide round the colonnade2 the esplanade this produces fronts the open country towards the west1 by a sloping wall of about thirty feet4 ,this descent1 near the city1 becomes less steep1 so that the foundation of the pavilion is level with the foot of the hill2 whence it is evident that the whole ground of the courts has been artificially raised4 ,such was the former state of this edifice2 but the southern side of the grand temple was afterwards blocked up to build a smaller one1 the peristyle and walls of which are still remaining4 ,this temple1 situated somewhat lower than the other1 presents a side of thirteen columns by eight in front1 7in all thirty-four17 which are likewise of the ,corinthian order2 their shafts are fifteen feet eight inches in circumference1 and forty-four in height4 ,the building they surround is an oblong square1 the front of which1 turned towards the east1 is out of the line of the left wing of the great court4 ,to reach it1 we must cross trunks of columns1 heaps of stone1 and a ruinous wall1 by which it is now hid4 ,after surmounting these obstacles1 we arrive at the gate1 where we may survey the inclosure1 which was once the habitation of a god2 but instead of the solemn scene of a prostrate people1 and sacrifices offered by a multitude of priests1 the sky1 which is open1 from the falling in of the roof1 only lets in light to shew a chaos of ruins covered with dust and weeds4 ,the walls1 formerly enriched with all the ornaments of the ,corinthian order1 now present nothing but pediments of niches and tabernacles1 of which almost all the supporters are fallen to the ground4 ,between these niches is a range of fluted pilasters1 whose capitals support a broken entablature2 but what remains of it displays a rich frieze of foliage1 resting on the heads of satyrs1 horses1 bulls1 c4 ,over this entablature was the ancient roof1 which was fifty-seven feet wide1 and one hundred and ten in length4 ,the walls which supported it are thirty-one feet high1 and without a window4 ,it is impossible to form any idea of the ornaments of this roof1 except from the fragments lying on the ground2 but it could not have been richer than the gallery of the peristyle3 the principal remaining parts contain tablets in the form of tables1 on which are represented ,jupiter seated on his eagle1 ,leda caressed by the swan1 ,diana with her bow and crescent1 and several busts1 which seem to be figures of emperors and empresses4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,agrigentum1 ,,in ,,sicily4--,the present town1 ,girgenti1 occupies the mountain on which the ancient citadel stood4 ,at the north-east angle of the ancient limits1 upon some foundations of large irregular stones1 a church has been erected2 a road appears hewn in the solid rock1 for the convenience of votaries1 who visited this temple in ancient days4 ,it was then dedicated to ,ceres and her daughter ,proserpine1 the peculiar patronesses of ,sicily4 ,bishop ,blaise has succeeded to their honours4 ,at the south-east corner1 where the ground1 rising gradually1 ends in a bold eminence1 which is crowned with majestic columns1 are the ruins of a temple1 said to have been consecrated to ,juno4 ,to the west of this1 stands the building commonly called the ,temple of ,concord2 the stone of which1 and the other buildings1 is the same as that of the neighbouring mountains and cliffs1 a conglutination of sea-sand and shells1 full of perforations1--of a hard and durable texture1 and a deep reddish brown colour4 ,this ,doric temple has all its columns1 entablature1 pediments1 and walls1 entire2 only part of the roof is wanting4 ,it owes its preservation to the piety of some ,christians1 who have covered half the nave1 and converted it into a church1 consecrated under the invocation of ,st4 ,gregory1 bishop of ,girgenti4 ,in the same direction are rows of sepulchres cut in the rock4 ,some masses of it are hewn into the shape of coffins2 others are drilled full of small square holes1 employed in a different mode of interment1 and serving as receptacles of urns4 ,one ponderous piece of it lies in an extraordinary position2 by the failure of its foundation1 or the shock of an earthquake1 it has been loosened from the general quarry1 and rolled down the declivity1 where it now remains supine1 with the cavities turned upwards4 ,only a single column marks the confused heap of moss-grown ruins belonging to the temple of ,hercules4 ,it stood on a projecting rock above a chasm in the ridge1 which was cut through for a passage to the port4 ,in the same tract1 over some hills1 is situated the ,tomb of ,thero4 ,it is surrounded by aged olive-trees1 which cast a wild irregular shade over the ruin4 ,the edifice inclines to the pyramidal shape1 and consists at present of a triple plinth1 and a base supporting a square pedestal3 upon this plain solid foundation is raised a second order1 having a window in each front1 and at each angle two ,ionic pilasters1 crowned with an entablature of the ,doric order4 ,its inside is divided into a vault1 a ground room1 and one in the ,ionic story1 communicating with each other by means of a small internal staircase4 ,in the plain are seen the fragments of the temple of sculapius3 part of two columns and two pilasters1 with an intermediate wall1 support the end of a farm-house1 and were probably the front of the cells4 ,towards the west are the gigantic remains of the temple of ,jupiter ,olympus1 minutely described by ,diodorus ,siculus4 ,it may literally be said1 that it has not one stone left upon another2 and it is barely possible1 with the help of much conjecture1 to discover the traces of its plan and dimensions4 ,diodorus calls it the largest temple in the whole island2 but adds1 that the calamities of war caused the work to be abandoned before the roof could be put on2 and that the ,agrigentines were ever after reduced to such a state of poverty and dependence1 that they never had it in their power to finish this superb monument of the taste and opulence of their ancestors4 ,the length of this temple was #cgj ,greek feet1 its breadth #fj1 and its height #bbj1 exclusive of the foundation2 the extent and solidity of its vaults and underworks1 its spacious porticos and exquisite sculpture1 were suited to the grandeur of the whole4 ,the next ruin belongs to the temple of ,castor and ,pollux3 vegetation has covered the lower parts of the building1 and only a few fragments of columns appear between the vines4 ,this was the point of the hill where the wall stopped on the brink of a large fishpond1 spoken of by ,diodorus3 it was cut in the solid rock thirty feet deep1 and water was conveyed to it from the hills4 ,in it was bred a great quantity of fish1 for the use of public entertainments2 swans1 and various other kinds of wild fowl1 swam along its surface1 for the amusement of the citizens2 and the great depth of water prevented an enemy from surprising the town on that side4 ,it is now dry1 and used as a garden4 ,on the opposite bank are two tapering columns without their capitals1 placed in a tuft of carob trees4 ,monte ,toro1 where ,hanna encamped with the ,carthaginian army1 before the ,roman consuls drew him into an engagement that ruined his defensive plan1 is a noble back-ground in this picturesque group of objects4 ,the whole space1 comprehended within the walls of the ancient city1 abounds with traces of antiquity1 foundations1 brick arches1 and little channels for the conveyance of water2 but in no part are there any ruins that can be presumed to have belonged to places of public entertainment4 ,this is the more extraordinary1 as the ,agrigentines were fond of shows and dramatic performances2 and the ,romans never dwelt in any place long1 without introducing their savage games4 ,we conclude this division of ,curiosities by a description of the ,,ancient ,,grandeur ,,of ,,carthage4--,at the third ,punic war1 ,carthage appears to have been one of the first cities in the world4 ,it was no less than #cfj stadia1 or forty-five miles1 in circumference1 and was joined to the continent by an isthmus1 twenty-three stadia1 or three miles and a furlong1 in breadth4 ,on the west side projected a long tract of land1 half a stadium broad2 which shooting out into the sea1 separated it from a lake1 or morass1 and was strongly fortified on all sides by rocks and a single wall4 ,in the middle of the city stood the citadel of ,byrsa1 having on the top of it a temple sacred to sculapius1 seated upon rocks1 to which the ascent was by sixty steps4 ,on the south side the city was surrounded by a triple wall1 thirty cubits high2 flanked all round by parapets and towers1 at equal distances of #dhj feet4 ,every tower had its foundation sunk thirty-two feet deep1 and was four stories high1 though the walls were but two3 they were arched2 and in the lower part1 corresponding in depth with the foundations above-mentioned1 were stalls1 large enough to hold #cjj elephants1 with their fodder1 c4 ,over these were stalls and other conveniences for #djjj horses2 and there was likewise room for lodging #bj1jjj foot and #djjj cavalry1 without incommoding the inhabitants4 ,there were two harbours1 which had one common entrance1 seventy feet broad1 and shut up with chains4 ,the first was appropriated to the merchants1 and included in it a vast number of places of refreshment1 and all kinds of accommodations for seamen4 ,the second1 as well as the island of ,cothon in the midst of it1 was lined with large quays1 in which were receptacles for sheltering #bbj ships of war4 ,over these were magazines of all sorts of naval stores4 ,the entrance into each of these receptacles was adorned with two marble pillars of the ,ionic order1 so that both the harbour and island represented on each side two magnificent galleries4 ,near this island was a temple of ,apollo1 in which was a statue of the god1 of massy gold2 and the inside of the temple was lined with plates of the same metal1 weighing #ajjj talents4 ,the city was twenty-three miles in circumference1 and contained #gjj1jjj inhabitants4 ,all that remains1 7says ,dr4 ,shaw17 of this once famous city1 are1--the area of a spacious room upon one of the hills on which it stood1 commanding the south-east shore1 with several smaller ones at a little distance from it2 the common sewers1 which time has not in the least injured or impaired2 and the cisterns1 which have shared only in a small degree the general ruin of the city4 ,,chap4 ,,liii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,ancient ,,buildings1 ,,temples1 ,,other ,,monuments ,,of ,,antiquity4 ,,egyptian ,,curiosities3--,pompey's ,pillar--,buildings1 and ,library1 of ,alexandria--,temple of ,tentyra--,palace of ,memnon--,temple of ,osiris4 ,if glorious structures and immortal deeds ,enlarge the thought1 and set our souls on fire2 ,my tongue has been too cold in ,egypt's praise1 ,the queen of nations1 and the boast of times1 ,mother of science1 and the house of gods6 ,scarce can ,i open wide my labouring mind1 ,to comprehend the vast idea1 big ,with arts and arms1 so boundless is its fame4 ,young4 ,,pyramids ,,of ,,egypt--,from ,cabillia's ,researches1 as recorded in ,belzoni's ,narrative4-- ,the enterprise of ,captain ,cabillia was hazardous and bold1 and nothing but an enthusiasm for discovery could induce a man to take such a step4 ,the consul1 with ,mr4 ,briggs1 ,mr4 ,beechey1 and myself1 went to see the operations that were going on4 ,captain ,cabillia's circumstances were much better than mine2 but he had no superfluous wealth at command1 to continue what he had begun1 which required a supply beyond his means4 ,mr4 ,briggs was the first who generously offered to furnish money for this purpose2 and1 after a consultation with ,mr4 ,salt1 they agreed to support the work to any extent that might be required4 ,this gentleman not only encouraged the undertaking at the pyramid1 but has exerted his influence with ,mohammed ,ali1 for the general advantage of the commerce of ,europe4 ,the enterprise of ,captain ,cabillia is worthy the attention of every one interested in antiquities1 as he had solved a question by which the learned world has been puzzled for many centuries4 ,the famous well1 which has given rise to so much conjecture1 turns out to be a communication with a lower passage1 leading into an inferior chamber1 discovered and opened by himself4 ,he first descended the well to the depth of thirty-eight feet1 where his progress was stopped by four large stones4 ,three of these being removed1 there was space enough for a man to pass through2 but the fourth he could not stir1 though he had the help of ,mr4 ,kabitsch1 a young man in the employment of ,mr4 ,baghos1 who bore a share of the expense with the captain4 ,twenty-one feet below this place they found a grotto1 seventeen feet long and four high2 and seven feet below this1 a platform1 from which the well descended two hundred feet lower4 ,the captain went down1 and at the bottom found earth and sand2 but from the hollow sound under his feet1 he judged that the passage must communicate with some other apartment below4 ,he then set some ,arabs at work to remove the sand2 but the heat was so great1 and the candles so incapable of burning1 for want of oxygen1 that they were compelled to desist4 ,the captain then turned his researches to another quarter1 and began to enlarge the entrance into the first passage of the pyramid4 ,for this operation he was well rewarded2 for by it he found that the passage continued downward1 and having employed several men1 and taken out a great deal of earth and rubbish1 at last1 after a long and ardent toil1 he came in contact with the bottom of the well1 where he found the baskets and rope which had been left there4 ,the same day that this occurred1 was that on which we had agreed to visit the pyramids1 and ,i had the pleasure to be an eye-witness of the arduous task of ,captain ,cabillia4 ,proceeding in his laborious researches1 he found that the passage led into a chamber cut out of the rock1 under the centre of the pyramid4 ,captain ,cabillia made several researches round the pyramids also1 but none exceeded his toil in uncovering the temple sphinx4 ,he found a small temple between the two paws1 and a large tablet of granite on its breast4 ,the tablet is adorned with several figures and hieroglyphics1 and two representations of sphinxes are sculptured on it4 ,before the entrance into the small temple was a lion1 placed as if to guard the approach4 ,farther on from the front of the sphinx1 is a staircase of thirty-two steps1 at the bottom of which is an altar1 with a ,greek inscription1 of the time of the ,ptolemies4 ,at each side of the altar was a sphinx of calcareous stone1 much mutilated4 ,from the base of the temple to the summit of the head1 is sixty-five feet2 the legs of the sphinx are fifty-seven feet long1 from the breast to the extremity of the paws1 which are eight feet high4 ,forty-five feet from the first altar1 he found another1 with an inscription1 alluding to the emperor ,septimus ,severus2 and near to the first step was a stone1 with another ,greek inscription1 alluding to ,antoninus4 ,notwithstanding his own occupation about the sphinx1 ,captain ,cabillia employed other people to carry on researches4 ,he opened some of the mausoleums which were choked up with sand1 and found several small chambers1 with hieroglyphics and figures1 some of them pretty well executed1 and in good preservation4 ,in one of the pits he found some mummies1 in their linen envelopes1 and various fragments of ,egyptian antiquity4 ,he also opened some of the smaller pyramids1 and from the suggestion of ,mr4 ,briggs to follow a certain direction1 he succeeded in finding the entrance into one of them2 but it appears1 that it was so decayed in the interior1 he could advance only a few feet4 ,no doubt this led into some chamber or apartment1 containing perhaps a sarcophagus1 c4 ,belzoni's own ,researches4--,m4 ,belzoni determined on penetrating one of the famous pyramids1 and1 after an immense labour1 succeeded in discovering the entrance1 and reached a portcullis2 but here a large block of stone stared him in the face1 and appeared to say1 ,ne plus ultra4 ,he persevered until the stone was removed and the passage opened1 which is only four feet high1 and three feet six inches wide4 ,after thirty days' exertion1 he reached the central chamber1 where he found a sarcophagus4 ,this chamber is forty-six feet three inches long1 sixteen feet three inches wide1 and twenty-three feet six inches high4 ,it is cut out of the solid rock1 from the floor to the roof1 which is composed of large blocks of calcareous stone1 meeting in the centre1 and forming a roof of the same slope as the pyramid itself4 ,the sarcophagus is eight feet long1 three feet six inches wide1 and two feet three inches deep in the inside4 ,it is surrounded by large blocks of granite1 apparently to prevent its removal1 which could not be effected without great labour4 ,the lid had been broken at the side1 so that the sarcophagus was quite open4 ,it is of the finest granite2 but1 like the other1 in the first pyramid1 there is not one hieroglyphic on it4 ,on the wall1 at the west end of the chamber1 was an inscription in ,arabic1 which has been thus translated by ,mr4 ,salame3-- ,the master ,mohammed ,ahmed1 lapicide1 has opened them2 and the master ,ottoman attended this 7opening27 and the ,king ,alij ,mohammed at first 7from the beginning7 to the closing up4 ,m4 ,belzoni refutes the general assertion1 that the pyramids were built of stone brought from the east side of the ,nile2 since stones of immense size have been cut from the very rocks around the pyramids1 and there is yet stone enough to build many others if required4 ,he is of opinion1 that the pyramids were erected before writing in hieroglyphics was invented1 and that they were erected as sepulchres4 ,by the measurement which he took of the second pyramid1 he found it to be as follows3-- ,feet4 ,the base #fhd ,apotome1 or central line down the front1 from the top to the base #efh ,perpendicular #def ,coating1 from the top to the place where it ends #adj ,,pompey',s ,,pillar ,,at ,,alexandria2 with an account of a surprising ,exploit of some ,british ,sailors4 ,the ,pillar4--,this pillar is situated a quarter of a league from the southern gate4 ,it is composed of red granite4 ,the capital is ,corinthian1 with palm leaves1 and not indented4 ,it is nine feet high4 ,the shaft and upper member of the base are of one piece of ninety feet long1 and nine in diameter4 ,the base is a square of about fifteen feet on each side4 ,this block of marble1 sixty feet in circumference1 rests on two layers of stone1 bound together with lead2 which1 however1 has not prevented the ,arabs from forcing out several of them1 to search for an imaginary treasure4 ,the whole column is one hundred and fourteen feet high4 ,it is perfectly well polished1 and only a little shivered on the eastern side4 ,nothing can equal the majesty of this monument3 seen from a distance1 it overtops the town1 and serves as a signal for vessels2 approaching it nearer1 it produces an astonishment mixed with awe4 ,one can never be tired with admiring the beauty of the capital1 the length of the shaft1 and the extraordinary simplicity of the pedestal4 ,this last has been somewhat damaged by the instruments of travellers1 who are curious to possess a relic of this antiquity4 ,learned men and travellers have made many fruitless attempts to discover1 in honour of what prince it was erected4 ,the best informed have concluded that it could not be in honour of ,pompey1 since neither ,strabo nor ,diodorus ,siculus has spoken of it4 ,the ,arabian ,abulfeda1 in his description of ,egypt1 calls it the ,pillar of ,severus4 ,and history informs us1 that this emperor 'visited the city of ,alexandria2' that he granted a senate to its inhabitants1 who1 until that time1 under the subjection of a ,roman magistrate1 had lived without any national council1 as under the reign of the ,ptolemies1 when the will of the prince was their only law2 and that he did not terminate his benefactions here1 but changed several laws in their favour4 ,this column1 therefore1 ,mr4 ,savoy concludes to have been erected by the inhabitants as a mark of their gratitude to ,severus2 and in a ,greek inscription1 now half defaced1 but visible on the west side when the sun shines upon it1 and which probably was legible in the time of ,abulfeda1 he supposes the name of ,severus to have been preserved4 ,he further observes1 that this was not the only monument erected to him by the gratitude of the ,alexandrians1 for there is still seen1 in the ruins of ,antine1 built by ,adrian1 a magnificent pillar1 the inscription of which is still remaining1 dedicated to ,alexander ,severus4 ,the exploit of some ,british ,seamen4--,one of the volutes of the column was prematurely brought down some years ago1 by a prank of some ,english captains2 which is thus related by ,mr4 ,irwin4 ,these jolly sons of ,neptune had been pushing about the can on board one of the ships in the harbour1 until a strange freak entered into one of their brains4 ,the eccentricity of the thought occasioned it immediately to be adopted3 and its apparent impossibility was but a spur for the putting it into execution4 ,the boat was ordered2 and with proper implements for the attempt1 these enterprising heroes pushed ashore1 to drink a bowl of punch on the top of ,pompey's pillar6 ,at the spot they arrived1 and many contrivances were proposed to accomplish the desired point4 ,but their labour was vain2 and they began to despair of success1 when the genius who struck out the frolic1 happily suggested the means of performing it4 ,a man was dispatched to the city for a paper kite2 and the inhabitants1 by this time apprised of what was going forward1 flocked in crowds to be witnesses of the address and boldness of the ,english4 ,the governor of ,alexandria was told that these seamen were about to pull down ,pompey's pillar4 ,but whether he gave them credit for their respect to the ,roman warrior1 or to the ,turkish government1 he left them to themselves2 and politely answered1 that the ,english were too great patriots to injure the remains of ,pompey4 ,he knew little1 however1 of the disposition of the people who were engaged in this undertaking4 ,had the ,turkish empire risen in opposition1 it would not at that moment have deterred them4 ,the kite was brought1 and flown directly over the pillar2 so that when it fell on the other side1 the string lodged upon the capital4 ,the chief obstacle was now overcome4 ,a two-inch rope was tied to one end of the string1 and drawn over the pillar by the end to which the kite was affixed4 ,by this rope1 one of the seamen ascended to the top2 and in less than an hour1 a kind of shroud was constructed1 by which the whole company went up1 and drank their punch1 amidst the shouts of the astonished multitude4 ,to the eye below1 the capital of the pillar does not appear capable of holding more than one man upon it2 but our seamen found it could contain no less than eight persons very conveniently4 ,it is astonishing that no accident befel these madcaps1 in a situation so elevated1 that it would have turned a landman giddy in his sober senses4 ,the only detriment which the pillar received1 was the loss of the volute before-mentioned1 which came down with a thundering sound1 and was carried to ,england by one of the captains1 as a present to a lady who had commissioned him to procure her a piece of it4 ,the discovery which they made amply compensated for this mischief2 as without their evidence1 the world would not have known at this hour1 that there was originally a statue on this pillar1 one foot and ancle of which are still remaining4 ,the statue must have been of a gigantic size1 to have appeared of a man's proportion at so great a height4 ,there are circumstances in this story which might give it an air of fiction1 were it not proved beyond all doubt4 ,besides the testimonies of many eye-witnesses1 the adventurers themselves have left a token of the fact1 by the initials of their names1 which are very legibly painted in black just beneath the capital4 ,,buildings1 ,,and ,,library1 ,,of ,,alexandria4--,the architect employed by ,alexander1 in this undertaking1 was the celebrated ,dinocrates1 who had acquired so much reputation by rebuilding the temple of ,diana at ,ephesus4 ,the city was first rendered populous by ,ptolemy ,soter1 one of ,alexander's captains1 who1 after the death of the ,macedonian monarch1 being appointed governor of ,egypt1 soon assumed the title of king1 and took up his residence at ,alexandria1 about three hundred and four years before ,christ4 ,in the thirtieth year of his reign he made his son1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 partner with him in the empire2 and by this prince the city of ,alexandria was much embellished4 ,in the first year of his reign1 the famous watch-tower of ,pharos was finished4 ,it had been begun several years before by ,ptolemy ,soter2 and1 when finished1 was looked upon as one of the wonders of the world4 ,the same year1 the island of ,pharos itself1 originally seven furlongs distant from the continent1 was joined to it by a causeway4 ,this was the work of ,dexiphanes1 who completed it at the same time that his son put the last hand to the tower4 ,the tower was a large square structure of white marble1 on the top of which1 fires were kept constantly burning for the direction of sailors4 ,the building cost #hjj talents2 which1 if ,attic1 amounted to #afe1jjj2 if ,alexandrian1 to twice that sum4 ,the architect employed in this famous structure1 fell upon the following contrivance to usurp the whole glory to himself4 ,being ordered to engrave upon it the following inscription1 ,king ,ptolemy1 to the ,gods the ,saviours1 for the ,benefit of ,sailors2 instead of the king's name1 he substituted his own1 and then filling up the marble with mortar1 wrote upon it the above-mentioned inscription4 ,in process of time1 the mortar being worn off1 the following inscription appeared3 ,sostratus the ,cnidian1 the son of ,dexiphanes1 to the ,gods the ,saviours1 for the ,benefit of ,sailors4 ,this year1 also1 was remarkable for bringing the image of ,serapis from ,pontus to ,alexandria4 ,it was set up in one of the suburbs of the city called ,rhacotis1 where a temple was afterwards erected to his honour1 suitable to the greatness of that stately metropolis1 and called1 from the god worshipped there1 ,serapium4 ,this structure1 according to ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 surpassed in beauty the magnificence of all others in the world1 except the capitol at ,rome4 ,within the verge of this temple was the famous ,alexandrian library4 ,it was founded by ,ptolemy ,soter1 for the use of an academy he instituted in this city2 and1 from continual additions by his successors1 became at last the finest library in the world1 containing no fewer than seven hundred thousand volumes4 ,one method adopted in collecting books for this library1 was1 to seize all those which were brought into ,egypt by the ,greeks1 or other foreigners4 ,the books were transcribed in the museum by persons appointed for that purpose2 the copies were then delivered to the proprietors1 and the originals laid up in the library4 ,ptolemy ,euergetes1 having borrowed from the ,athenians the works of ,sophocles1 ,euripides1 and schylus1 returned them only the copies1 which he caused to be transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible1 presenting the ,athenians at the same time with #ac talents 7upwards of #cjjj sterling7 for the exchange4 ,as the museum was at first in that quarter of the city called ,bruchion1 near the royal palace1 the library was placed there likewise2 but when it came to contain four hundred thousand volumes1 another library within the ,serapium was erected1 by way of supplement to it1 and on that account called the ,daughter of the former4 ,in this second library1 three hundred thousand volumes1 in process of time1 were deposited2 and both libraries together contained the seven hundred thousand volumes already mentioned4 ,in the war carried on by ,julius ,csar against the inhabitants of this city1 the library in the ,bruchion1 with the four hundred thousand volumes it contained1 was reduced to ashes4 ,the library in the ,serapium1 however1 still remained2 and here ,cleopatra deposited two hundred thousand volumes of the ,permagean library1 with which ,marc ,antony presented her4 ,these1 and others added from time to time1 rendered the new library at ,alexandria more numerous and considerable than the former2 and though it was often plundered during the revolutions and troubles of the ,roman ,empire1 yet it was again and again repaired1 and filled with the same number of books4 ,,temple ,,of ,,tentyra1 ,,in ,,egypt4--,from ,belzoni's ,narrative4 ,little could be seen of the temple1 till we came near to it1 as it is surrounded by high mounds of rubbish of the old ,tentyra4 ,on our arriving before it1 ,i was for some time at a loss to know where ,i should begin my examination2 the numerous objects before me1 all equally attractive1 leaving me for a while in a state of suspense and astonishment4 ,the enormous masses of stone employed in the edifice1 are so well disposed1 that the eye discovers the most just proportion every where4 ,the majestic appearance of its construction1 the variety of its ornaments1 and1 above all1 the singularity of its preservation1 had such an effect on me1 that ,i seated myself on the ground1 and1 for a considerable time1 was lost in admiration4 ,it is the first ,egyptian temple the traveller sees on ascending the ,nile1 and it is certainly the most magnificent4 ,it has an advantage over most others1 from the good state of preservation it is in2 and ,i should have no scruple in saying1 that it is of a much later date than any other4 ,the superiority of the workmanship gives us sufficient reason to believe it to be of the time of the first ,ptolemy2 and it is not improbable1 that he who laid the foundation of the ,alexandrian library1 instituted the philosophical society of the museum1 and studied to render himself beloved by his people1 might erect such an edifice1 to convince the ,egyptians of his superiority of mind over the ancient kings of ,egypt1 even in religious devotion4 ,this is the cabinet of the ,egyptian arts1 the product of study for many centuries1 and it was here that ,denon thought himself in the sanctuary of the arts and sciences4 ,the front is adorned with a beautiful cornice1 and a frieze covered with figures and hieroglyphics1 over the centre of which the winged globe is predominant1 and the two sides are embellished with compartments of sacrifices and offerings4 ,the columns that form the portico are twenty-four in number1 divided into four rows1 including those in the front4 ,on entering the gate1 the scene changes1 and requires more minute observation4 ,the quadrangular form of the capitals first strikes the eye4 ,at each side of the square there is a colossal head of the goddess ,isis1 with cow's ears4 ,there is not one of these heads but is much mutilated1 particularly those on the columns in the front of the temple1 facing the outside3 but1 notwithstanding this disadvantage1 and the flatness of their form1 there is a simplicity in their countenance that approaches to a smile4 ,the shafts of the columns are covered with hieroglyphics and figures1 which are in basso relievo1 as are all the figures in the front and lateral walls4 ,the front of the door-way1 which is in a straight line with the entrance1 and the sanctuary1 is richly adorned with figures of smaller size than the rest of the portico4 ,the ceiling contains the zodiac1 inclosed by two long female figures1 which extend from one side to the other of it4 ,the walls are divided into several square compartments1 each containing figures representing deities1 and priests in the act of offering or immolating victims4 ,on all the walls1 columns1 ceiling1 or architraves1 there is nowhere a space of two feet that is not covered with some figures of human beings1 animals1 plants1 emblems of agriculture1 or of religious ceremony4 ,wherever the eyes turn1 wherever the attention is fixed1 every thing inspires respect and veneration1 heightened by the solitary situation of this temple1 which adds to the attraction of these splendid recesses4 ,the inner apartments are much the same as the portico1 all covered with figures in basso relievo4 ,on the top of the temple the ,arabs had built a village2 ,i suppose1 to be the more elevated1 and exposed to the air3 but it is all in ruins1 as no one now lives there4 ,from the top ,i descended into some apartments on the east side of the temple2 there ,i saw the famous zodiac on the ceiling4 ,the circular form of this zodiac led me to suppose1 in some measure1 that this temple was built at a later period than the rest1 as nothing like it is seen any where else4 ,in the front of the edifice there is a propylon1 not inferior to the works in the temple1 and1 though partly fallen1 it still shews its ancient grandeur4 ,on the left1 going from the portico1 there is a small temple1 surrounded by columns4 ,in the inside is a figure of ,isis sitting with ,orus in her lap2 and other female figures1 each with a child in her arms1 are observable4 ,the capitals of the columns are adorned with the figures of ,typhon4 ,the gallery1 or portico1 that surrounds the temple1 is filled up with rubbish1 to a great height1 and walls of unburnt bricks have been raised from one column to another4 ,farther on1 in a right line with the propylon1 are the remains of an hypthral temple1 which form a square of twelve columns1 connected with each other by a wall1 except at the door-way1 which fronts the propylon4 ,the eastern wall of the great temple is richly adorned with figures in intaglio relevato2 they are perfectly finished2 the female figures are about four feet high1 disposed in different compartments4 ,behind the temple is a small ,egyptian building1 quite detached from the large edifice2 and1 from its construction1 ,i would venture to say1 that it was the habitation of the priests4 ,at some distance from the great temple are the foundations of another1 not so large as the first4 ,the propylon is still standing1 in good preservation4 ,two objects of great curiosity are1 ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,memnon1 ,,and ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,osiris1 ,,at ,,abidos4--,abidos1 an inland town of ,egypt1 between ,ptolemais and ,diospolis ,parva1 towards ,cyrene1 is famous for the ,palace of ,memnon1 and the ,temple of ,osiris1 and inhabited by a colony of ,milesians4 ,it was the only one in the country into which the singers and dancers were forbid to enter4 ,this city1 reduced to a village under the empire of ,augustus1 now presents to our view only an heap of ruins1 without inhabitants2 but to the west of these ruins is still found the celebrated ,tomb of ,ismandes4 ,the entrance is under a portico sixty feet high1 and supported by two rows of massy columns4 ,the immoveable solidity of the edifice1 the huge masses which compose it1 the hieroglyphics it is loaded with1 stamp it as a work of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,beyond it1 is a temple three hundred feet long1 and one hundred and fifty-five wide4 ,upon entering the monument1 we meet with an immense hall1 the roof of which is supported by twenty-eight columns1 sixty feet high1 and nineteen in circumference at the base4 ,they are twelve feet distant from each other4 ,the enormous stones that form the ceiling1 perfectly joined and incrusted as it were one into the other1 offer to the eye nothing but one solid platform of marble1 one hundred and twenty-six feet long1 and twenty-six wide4 ,the walls are covered with hieroglyphics4 ,here are seen a multitude of animals1 birds1 and human figures with pointed caps on their heads1 and a piece of stuff hanging down behind1 dressed in loose robes1 that come down only to the waist4 ,the sculpture1 however1 is clumsy2 and the forms of the body1 with the attitudes and proportions of the members1 are ill observed4 ,amongst these we may distinguish some women suckling their children1 and men presenting offerings to them4 ,here also we meet with the divinities of ,india4 ,monsieur ,chevalier1 formerly governor of ,chandernagore1 who resided twenty years in that country1 carefully visited this monument on his return from ,bengal4 ,he remarked here the gods ,juggernaut1 ,gonez1 and ,vechnon1 or ,wistnou1 such as they are represented in the temples of ,indostan4 ,a great gate opens at the bottom of the first hall1 which leads to an apartment1 forty-six feet long by twenty-two wide4 ,six square pillars support the roof of it1 and at the angles are the doors of four other chambers1 but so choked up with rubbish that they cannot now be entered4 ,the last hall1 sixty-four feet long by twenty-four wide1 has stairs which form a descent into the subterraneous apartments of this grand edifice4 ,the ,arabs1 in searching after treasure1 have piled up heaps of earth and rubbish4 ,in the part we are able to penetrate1 sculpture and hieroglyphics are discoverable1 as in the upper story4 ,the natives say that they correspond exactly with those above ground1 and that the columns are as deep in the earth1 as they are lofty above ground4 ,it would be dangerous to go far into those vaults2 for the air of them is so loaded with a mephitic vapour1 that a candle can scarcely be kept burning in them4 ,six lions' heads1 placed on the two sides of the temple1 serve as spouts to carry off the water4 ,one mounts to the top by a staircase of a very singular structure4 ,it is built with stones incrusted in the wall1 and projecting six feet out2 so that1 being supported only at one end1 they appear to be suspended in the air4 ,the walls1 the roof1 and the columns of this edifice1 have suffered nothing from the injuries of time2 and did not the hieroglyphics1 by being corroded in some places1 mark its antiquity1 it would appear to have been newly built4 ,the solidity is such1 that unless people make a point of destroying it1 the building must last a great number of ages4 ,except the colossal figures1 whose heads serve as an ornament to the capitals of the columns1 and which are sculptured in relievo1 the rest of the hieroglyphics which cover the inside are carved in stone4 ,to the left of this great building we meet with another much smaller1 at the bottom of which is a sort of altar4 ,this was probably the sanctuary of the temple of ,osiris4 ,,chap4 ,,liv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,buildings1 ,,etc4--7,continued47 ,temple of ,diana at ,ephesus--,laocoon--,babylon--,alhambra4 ,,temple ,,of ,,diana1 ,,at ,,ephesus4--,the chief ornament of ,ephesus was the temple of ,diana1 built at the common charge of all the states in ,asia1 and1 for its structure1 size1 and furniture1 accounted among the wonders of the world4 ,this great edifice was situated at the foot of a mountain1 and at the head of a marsh2 which place they chose1 if we believe ,pliny1 as the least subject to earthquakes4 ,this site doubled the charges2 for they were obliged to be at a vast expense in making drains to convey the water that came down the hill into the morass and the ,cayster4 ,philo ,byzantius tells us1 that in this work they used such a quantity of stone1 as almost exhausted all the quarries in the country2 and these drains1 or vaults1 are what the present inhabitants take for a labyrinth4 ,to secure the foundations of the conduits or sewers1 which were to bear a building of such prodigious weight1 they laid beds of charcoal1 says ,pliny1 well rammed1 and upon them others of wood3 ,pliny says1 four hundred years were spent in building this wonderful temple1 by all ,asia3 others say1 only two hundred and twenty4 ,it was four hundred and twenty-five feet in length1 and two hundred in breadth1 supported by one hundred and twenty-seven marble pillars1 seventy feet high1 of which twenty-seven were most curiously carved1 and the rest polished4 ,these pillars were the works of so many kings1 and the bas-reliefs of one were done by ,scopas1 the most famous sculptor of antiquity2 the altar was almost wholly the work of ,praxiteles4 ,cheiromocrates1 who built the city of ,alexandria1 and offered to form ,mount ,athos into a statue of ,alexandria1 was the architect employed on this occasion4 ,the temple enjoyed the privilege of an asylum1 which at first extended to a furlong1 was afterwards enlarged by ,mithridates to a bow-shot1 and doubled by ,marc ,antony1 so that it took in part of the city3 but ,tiberius1 to put a stop to the many abuses and disorders that attended privileges of this kind1 revoked them all1 and declared that no man1 guilty of any wicked or dishonest action1 should escape justice1 though he fled to the altar itself4 ,the priests who officiated in this temple were held in great esteem1 and entrusted with the care of sacred virgins1 or priestesses1 but not till they were made eunuchs4 ,they were called ,estiatores and ,essen1 had a particular diet1 and were not allowed to go into any private house4 ,they were maintained out of the profits accruing from the lake ,selinusius1 and another that fell into it2 which must have been very considerable1 since they erected a golden statue to one ,artemidorus1 who being sent to ,rome1 recovered them1 after they had been seized by the farmers of the public revenues4 ,all the ,ionians resorted yearly to ,ephesus1 with their wives and children1 where they solemnized the festival of ,diana with great pomp and magnificence1 making on that occasion rich offerings to the goddess1 and valuable presents to her priests4 ,the ,asiarch1 mentioned by ,st4 ,luke1 7,acts xix4 #ca17 were1 according to ,beza1 priests who regulated the public sports annually performed at ,ephesus1 in honour of ,diana2 and were maintained with the collections during the sports1 for all ,asia flocked to see them4 ,the great ,diana of the ,ephesians1 as she was styled by her blind adorers1 was1 according to ,pliny1 a small statue of ebony1 made by one ,canitia1 though believed by the superstitious to have been sent down from heaven by ,jupiter4 ,this statue was first placed in a niche1 which1 as we are told1 the ,amazons caused to be made in the trunk of an elm4 ,such was the first rise of the veneration that was paid to ,diana in this place4 ,in process of time the veneration for the goddess daily increasing among the inhabitants of ,asia1 a most stately and magnificent temple was built near the place where the elm stood1 and the statue of the goddess placed in it4 ,this was the first temple and was not quite so sumptuous as the second1 though reckoned1 as well as it1 one of the wonders of the world4 ,the second temple of the great ,diana1 was remaining in the times of ,pliny and ,strabo2 and is supposed to have been destroyed in the reign of ,constantine1 pursuant to the edict of that emperor1 commanding all the temples of the heathens to be demolished3--the former was burnt the same day that ,alexander was born1 by one ,erostratus1 who owned on the rack1 that the only thing which had prompted him to destroy so excellent a work1 was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages4 ,whereupon the common council of ,asia made a degree1 forbidding any one to name him2 but this prohibition served only to make his name the more memorable1 such a remarkable extravagance1 or rather madness1 being taken notice of by all the historians who have written of those times4 ,alexander offered to rebuild the temple at his own expense1 provided the ,ephesians would agree to put his name on the front2 but they received his offer in such a manner as prevented the resentment of that vain prince1 telling him1 it was not fit that one god should build a temple to another4 ,the pillars1 and other materials1 that had been saved out of the flames1 were sold1 with the jewels of the ,ephesian women1 who on that occasion willingly parted with them2 and the sum thus raised served for the carrying on of the work till other contributions came in1 which1 in a short time1 amounted to an immense treasure4 ,this is the temple which ,strabo1 ,pliny1 and other ,roman writers1 speak of4 ,it stood between the city and the port1 and was built1 or rather finished1 as ,livy tells us1 in the reign of king ,servius4 ,of this wonderful structure there is nothing at present remaining but some ruins1 and a few broken pillars1 forty feet long1 and seven in diameter4 ,another curious monument of antiquity1 which demands the reader's attention1 is1 ,,laocoon4--,this is a celebrated monument of ,greek sculpture1 exhibited in marble1 by ,polydorus1 ,athenodorus1 and ,agesander1 the three famous artists of ,rhodes4 ,this relic of antiquity was found at ,rome1 among the ruins of the palace of ,titus1 in the beginning of the sixteenth century1 under the pontificate of ,julius ,,ii4 and since deposited in the ,farnese palace4 ,laocoon is represented with his two sons1 with two hideous serpents clinging round his body1 gnawing it1 and injecting their poison4 ,virgil has given us a beautiful description of the fact1 n4 lib4 ii4 #bja-bbb4 ,this statue exhibits the most astonishing dignity and tranquillity of mind1 in the midst of the most excruciating torments4 ,pliny says of it1 that it is1 opus omnibus pictur et statuari artis prferendum4--,lib4 xxxvi4 c4 #e4 ,the ,laocoon 7,dr4 ,giles observes7 may be regarded as the triumph of ,grecian sculpture2 since bodily pain1 the grossest and most ungovernable of all our passions1 and that pain united with anguish and torture of mind1 are yet expressed with such propriety and dignity1 as afford lessons of fortitude superior to any taught in the schools of philosophy4 ,the horrible shriek which ,virgil's ,laocoon emits1 is a proper circumstance for poetry2 but the expression of this shriek would have totally degraded the statue4 ,it is softened1 therefore1 into a patient sigh1 with eyes turned to heaven in search of relief4 ,the intolerable agony of suffering nature is represented in the lower part1 and particularly the extremity of the body2 but the manly breast struggles against calamity4 ,the contention is still more plainly perceived in his furrowed forehead2 and his languishing paternal eye demands assistance1 less for himself than for his miserable children1 who look up to him for help4--,hist4 of ,greece1 ii4 #agg4 ,the ,laocoon was sent to ,paris by ,bonaparte1 in #agig4 ,,babylon4--,the following account of this city1 in its greatest splendour1 is borrowed principally from ,herodotus1 who had been on the spot1 and is the oldest author who has treated of the subject4 ,the city of ,babylon was square1 being a hundred and twenty furlongs1 that is1 fifteen miles1 or five leagues1 every way2 and the whole circuit of it was four hundred and eighty furlongs1 or twenty leagues4 ,the walls were built with large bricks1 cemented with bitumen1 a thick glutinous fluid1 which rises out of the earth in the neighbouring country1 and which binds stronger than mortar1 and becomes harder than brick itself4 ,these walls were eighty-seven feet thick1 and three hundred and fifty high4 ,those who mention them as only fifty cubits high1 refer to their condition after ,darius1 son of ,hystaspes1 had commanded them to be reduced to that height1 to punish a rebellion of the ,babylonians4 ,the city was encompassed with a vast ditch1 which was filled with water1 and the sides of which were built up with brick-work4 ,the earth which was dug out1 was used in making bricks for the walls of the city2 so that the depth and width of the ditch may be estimated by the extreme height and thickness of the walls4 ,there were a hundred gates to the city1 twenty-five on each of the four sides4 ,these gates1 with their posts1 c4 were all of brass4 ,between every two gates were three towers1 raised ten feet above the walls1 where necessary2 for the city being encompassed in several places with marshes1 which defended the approach to it1 those parts stood in no need of towers4 ,a street corresponded with each gate2 so that there were fifty streets1 which cut one another at right angles1 and each of which was fifteen miles in length1 and one hundred and fifty-one feet in width4 ,four other streets1 which had houses on one side1 and the ramparts on the other1 encompassed the whole city1 and were each of them two hundred feet wide4 ,by the streets crossing each other1 the whole city was divided into six hundred and seventy-six squares1 each of which was four furlongs and a half on every side1 and two miles and a quarter in circuit4 ,the houses of these squares were three or four stories high1 and their fronts were embellished2 and the inner space was filled with courts and gardens4 ,the city was divided into two parts by the ,euphrates1 which ran from north to south4 ,a bridge of admirable structure1 about a furlong in length1 and sixty feet in width1 formed the communication across the river2 and at the two extremities of this bridge were two palaces on the east1 and the new palace on the west side of the river4 ,the ,temple of ,belus1 which stood near the old palace1 occupied one entire square4 ,the city was situated in a vast plain1 the soil of which was extremely fat and fruitful4 ,to people this immense city1 ,nebuchadnezzar transplanted hither an infinite number of captives1 from the many nations that he subdued4 ,it would appear1 however1 that the whole of it was never inhabited4 ,the famous ,hanging ,gardens1 which adorned the palace in ,babylon1 were ranked among the wonders of the world4 ,they contained four hundred feet square1 and were composed of several large terraces2 and the platform of the highest terrace was equal in height to the walls of ,babylon1 that is1 three hundred and fifty feet4 ,the assent from terrace to terrace was by steps ten feet wide4 ,the whole mass was supported by large vaults1 built upon each other1 and strengthened by a wall twenty-two feet thick4 ,the tops of these arches were covered with stones1 rushes and bitumen1 and plates of lead1 to prevent leakage4 ,the depth of earth was so great1 that in it the largest trees might take root4 ,here was every thing that could please the sight2 as1 large trees1 flowers1 plants1 and shrubs4 ,upon the highest terrace was a reservoir1 supplied with water from the river4 ,the predictions of the prophets against ,babylon1 gradually received their accomplishment4 ,berosus relates1 that ,cyrus1 having taken this city1 demolished its walls1 lest the inhabitants should revolt4 ,darius1 son of ,hystaspes1 destroyed the gates1 c4 ,alexander the ,great intended to rebuild it1 but was prevented by death from accomplishing his design4 ,seleucus ,nicator built ,seleucia on the ,tigris1 and this city insensibly deprived ,babylon of its inhabitants4 ,strabo assures us1 that under ,augustus1 ,babylon was almost forsaken2 and that it was no longer any thing more than a great desert4 ,st4 ,jerome relates1 on the testimony of a monk who dwelt at ,jerusalem1 that in his time1 ,babylon and its ancient precincts were converted into a great park1 in which the kings of ,persia were accustomed to hunt4 ,a ,german traveller1 named ,rauwolf1 who in #aegd passed through the place where ,babylon formerly stood1 speaks of its ruins as follows3 ,the village of ,elugo now stands where ,babylon of ,chaldea was formerly situated4 ,the harbour is distant from it a quarter of a league1 and people go on shore to proceed by land to the celebrated city of ,bagdad1 which is distant a journey of a day and a half eastward1 on the ,tigris4 ,the soil is so dry and barren1 that they cannot till it2 and so naked1 that ,i could scarcely believe1 that this powerful city1 once the most stately and renowned in all the world1 and situated in the most fruitful country of ,shinar1 could ever have stood in this place4 ,my doubts1 however1 on this point1 were removed1 by the situation1 and by many antiquities of great beauty1 which are still to be seen1 and particularly by the old bridge over the ,euphrates1 of which some piles and arches of brick remain1 so strong as to excite admiration4 ,the whole front of the village of ,elugo is the hill upon which the castle stood2 and the ruins of its fortifications1 though demolished and uninhabited1 are still visible4 ,behind1 and at a small distance beyond1 was the tower of ,babylon1 which is still to be seen1 and is half a league in diameter4 ,it is1 however1 so ruinous1 so low1 and so full of venomous creatures1 which lodge in holes made by them in the rubbish1 that no one dares approach nearer to it than within half a league1 except during two months in winter1 when these animals never leave their holes4 ,in particular1 one sort1 which the inhabitants of the country call eglo1 possesses a very active poison1 and is larger than our lizard4 ,we shall close this chapter with a full description of an ancient fortress called ,,alhambra4 ,this place was the residence of the ,moorish monarchs of ,grenada4 ,it derives its name from the red colour of the materials with which it was originally built1 ,alhambra signifying a red house4 ,it appears to a traveller as huge a heap of ugly buildings as can well be seen1 all huddled together1 seemingly without the least intention of forming one habitation out of them4 ,the walls are entirely unornamented1 consisting chiefly of gravel and pebbles1 daubed over with plaster in a very coarse manner3 yet this was the palace of the ,moorish kings of ,grenada1 and it is indisputably the most curious place that exists in ,spain1 perhaps in the world4 ,in many countries may be seen excellent modern1 as well as ancient architecture1 both entire and in ruins2 but nothing to be met with any where else1 can convey an idea of this edifice1 except the decorations of an opera1 or the tales of the genii4 ,passing round the corner of the emperor's palace1 one is admitted at a plain unornamented door in a corner4 ,on my first visit1 7says ,mr4 ,swinburne1 in his ,travels in ,spain17 ,i confess ,i was struck with amazement1 as ,i stepped over the threshold1 to find myself on a sudden transported into a species of fairy land4 ,the first place you come to is the court called the ,communa1 or ,delmesucar1 that is1 the common baths2 an oblong square1 with a deep bason of clear water in the middle2 two flights of marble steps leading down to the bottom2 on each side a parterre of flowers1 and a row of orange trees4 ,round the court runs a peristyle paved with marble2 the arches bear upon very slight pillars1 in proportions and style different from all the regular orders of architecture4 ,the ceilings and walls are incrusted with fretwork in stucco1 so minute and intricate1 that the most patient draughtsman would find it difficult to follow it1 unless he made himself master of the general plan4 ,this would facilitate the operation exceedingly2 for all this work is frequently and regularly repeated at certain distances1 and has been executed by means of square moulds applied successively1 and the parts joined together with the utmost nicety4 ,in every division are ,arabic sentences of different lengths1 most of them expressive of the following meanings2 ',there is no conqueror but ,god2' or1 ',obedience and honour to our lord ,abouabdoula4' ,the ceilings are gilt or painted1 and time has caused no diminution in the freshness of their colours1 though constantly exposed to the air4 ,the lower part of the wall is mosaic1 disposed in fantastic knots and festoons4 ,the porches at the end are more like grotto-work than any thing else to which they can be compared4 ,that on the right hand opens into an octagon vault1 under the emperor's palace1 and forms a perfect whispering gallery1 meant to be a communication between the offices of both houses4 ,opposite to the door of the ,communa through which you enter1 is another leading into the ,quarto de los leones1 or apartment of the lions1 which is an oblong court1 one hundred feet in length1 and fifty in breadth1 environed with a colonnade1 seven feet broad on the sides1 and ten at the end4 ,two porticos or cabinets1 about fifteen feet square1 project into the court at the two extremities4 ,the square is covered with coloured tiles2 the colonnade1 with white marble4 ,the walls are covered1 five feet up from the ground1 with blue and yellow tiles1 disposed chequerwise4 ,above and below is a border of small escutcheons1 enamelled blue and gold1 with an ,arabic motto on a bend1 signifying1 ,no conqueror but ,god4 ,the columns that support the roof and gallery are of white marble1 very slender1 and fantastically adorned4 ,they are nine feet high1 including base and capital1 and eight and a half inches diameter4 ,they are very irregularly placed2 sometimes singly1 at others1 in groups of three1 but more frequently two together4 ,the width of the horse-shoe arches above them1 is four feet two inches for the large ones1 and three for the smaller4 ,the ceiling of the portico is finished in a much finer and more complicated manner than that of the ,communa1 and the stucco laid on the walls with inimitable delicacy2 in the ceiling it is so artfully frosted and handled1 as to exceed belief4 ,the capitals are of various designs1 though each design is repeated several times in the circumference of the court1 but not the least attention has been paid to placing them regularly1 or opposite to each other4 ,not the smallest representation of animal life can be discovered amidst the variety of foliages1 grotesques1 and strange ornaments4 ,about each arch is a large square of arabesques1 surrounded with a rim of characters1 that are generally quotations from the ,koran4 ,over the pillars is another square of delightful foliage work4 ,higher up is a wooden rim1 or kind of cornice1 as much enriched with carving as the stucco that covers the part underneath4 ,over this projects a roof of red tiles1 the only thing that disfigures this beautiful square4 ,this ugly covering is modern1 put on by order of ,mr4 ,wall1 the late prime minister4 ,in the centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions1 muzzled1 their fore parts smooth1 their hind parts rough2 which bear upon their backs an enormous bason1 out of which a lesser rises4 ,while the pipes were kept in good order1 a great volume of water was thrown up1 that1 falling down into the basons1 passed through the beasts1 and issued out of their mouths into a large reservoir1 where it communicated by channels with the jets d'eau in the apartments4 ,this fountain is of white marble1 embellished with many festoons and ,arabic distichs1 complimenting the monarch and his princess4 ,passing along the colonnade1 and keeping on the south side1 you come to a circular room1 used by the men as a place for drinking coffee and forbets in4 ,a fountain in the middle refreshed the apartment in summer4 ,the form of this hall1 the elegance of its cupola1 the cheerful distribution of light from above1 and the exquisite manner in which the stucco is designed1 painted1 and finished1 exceed all powers of description4 ,every thing in it inspires the most pleasing voluptuous ideas2 yet in this sweet retreat1 they say1 that ,abouabdoula assembled the ,abbencarrages1 and caused their heads to be struck off into the fountain4 ,continuing your walk round1 you are next brought to a couple of rooms at the head of the court1 which are supposed to have been tribunals1 or audience chambers4 ,opposite to the ,sala de los ,abbencarrages1 is the entrance into the ,torre de las dos ,hermanas1 or the tower of the ,two ,sisters2 so named from two very beautiful pieces of marble laid as flags in the pavement4 ,this gate exceeds all the rest in profusion of ornaments1 and in the beauty of prospect which it affords through a range of apartments1 where a multitude of arches terminate in a large window open to the country4 ,in a gleam of sunshine1 the variety of tints and lights thrown upon this enfilade1 are uncommonly rich4 ,the first hall is the concert-room1 where the women sat2 the musicians played above in four balconies4 ,in the middle is a jet d'eau4 ,the marble pavement is equal to the finest existing1 for the size of the flags and evenness of the colour4 ,the two sisters are slabs1 that measure fifteen feet by seven and a half1 without flaw or stain4 ,the walls1 up to a certain height1 are mosaic1 and above are divided into very neat compartments of stucco1 all of one design1 which is also followed in many of the adjacent halls and galleries4 ,the ceiling is a fretted cove4 ,to preserve this vaulted roof1 as well as some of the other principal cupolas1 the outward walls of the towers are raised ten feet above the top of the dome1 and support another roof over all1 by which means no damage can ever be caused by wet weather1 or excessive heat and cold4 ,from this hall you pass round the little myrtle garden of ,lindarax1 into an additional building made to the east end by ,charles ,v4 ,the rooms are small and low4 ,his favourite motto1 ',plus outr1' appears on every beam4 ,this leads to a tower1 projecting from the line of the north wall1 call ,el ,tocador1 or the dressing-room of the sultana4 ,it is a small square cabinet1 in the middle of an open gallery1 from which it received light by a door and three windows4 ,the view is charming4 ,in one corner is a large marble flag1 drilled full of holes1 through which the smoke of perfumes ascended from furnaces below2 and here1 it is presumed1 the ,moorish queen was wont to sit1 to fumigate and sweeten her person4 ,the emperor caused this pretty room to be painted with representations of his wars1 and a great variety of grotesques1 which appear to be copies1 or at least imitations1 of those in the lobby of the ,vatican4 ,from hence you go through a long passage to the hall of ambassadors1 which is magnificently decorated with innumerable varieties of mosaics1 and the mottos of all the kings of ,grenada4 ,this long narrow antichamber opens into the ,communa on the left hand1 and on the right into the great audience hall in the tower of ,comares2 a noble apartment1 thirty-six feet square1 thirty-six high up to the cornice1 and eighteen from thence to the centre of the cupola4 ,the walls on three sides are fifteen feet thick1 on the other nine2 the lower range of windows thirteen feet high4 ,the wall is inlaid with mosaic of many colours1 disposed in intricate knots1 stars1 and other figures4 ,in every part1 various ,arabic sentences are repeated4 ,having completed the tour of the upper apartments1 which are upon a level with the offices of the new palace1 you descend to the lower floor1 which consisted of bedchambers and summer rooms3 the back stairs and passages1 that facilitated the intercourse between them1 are without number4 ,the most remarkable room below is the king's bedchamber1 which communicated1 by means of a gallery1 with the upper story4 ,the beds were placed in two alcoves1 upon a raised pavement of blue and white tiles2 but as it was repaired by ,philip ,v4 who passed some time here1 it cannot be said how it may have been in former times4 ,a fountain played in the middle1 to refresh the apartment in hot weather4 ,behind the alcoves are small doors1 that conduct you to the royal baths4 ,these consist of one small closet1 with marble cisterns for washing children1 two rooms for grown-up persons1 and vaults for boilers and furnaces1 that supplied the baths with water1 and the stoves with vapour4 ,the troughs are formed of large slabs of white marble2 the walls are ornamented with party-coloured earthenware1 and light is admitted by holes in the ceiling4 ,hard by1 is a whispering gallery1 and a kind of gallery1 said to have been made for the diversion of the women and children4 ,one of the passages of communication is fenced off with a strong iron gate1 and called the ,prison of the ,sultana2 but it seems more probable that it was put up to prevent any body from climbing up into the women's quarter4 ,under the council-room is a long slip1 called the ,king's ,study3 and adjoining to it are several vaults1 said to be the place of burial of the royal family4 ,in the year #aegd1 four sepulchres were opened1 but1 as they contained nothing but bones and ashes1 were immediately closed again4 ,this description of the ,alhambra1 concludes by observing how admirably every thing was planned and calculated for rendering this palace the most voluptuous of all retirements3 what plentiful supplies of water were brought to refresh it in the hot months of summer2 what a free circulation of air was contrived1 by the judicious disposition of doors and windows2 what shady gardens of aromatic trees2 what noble views over the beautiful hills and fertile plains6 ,no wonder the ,moors regretted ,granada2 no wonder they still offer up prayers to ,god every ,friday1 for the recovery of this city1 which they esteem a terrestrial paradise4 ,,chap4 ,,lv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,temples1 ,,etc4--7,continued47 ,seraglio--,museum--,colossus--and ,obelisk4 ,,seraglio4--,this word is commonly used to express the house or palace of a prince4 ,in this sense it is frequently used at ,constantinople3 the houses of foreign ambassadors are called seraglios4 ,but it is commonly used1 by way of eminence1 for the palace of the grand seignior at ,constantinople2 where he keeps his court1--where his concubines are lodged--and where the youth are trained up for the chief posts of the empire4 ,it is a triangle1 about three ,italian miles round1 wholly within the city1 at the end of the promontory ,chrysoceras1 now called the ,seraglio ,point4 ,the buildings run back to the bottom of the hill1 and thence are gardens that reach to the edge of the sea4 ,it is inclosed with a very high and strong wall1 upon which there are several watch-towers2 and it has many gates1 some of which open towards the sea-side1 and the rest into the city3 but the chief gate is one of the latter1 which is constantly guarded by a company of capooches1 or porters3 and in the night it is well guarded towards the sea4 ,the outward appearance is not elegant2 the architecture being irregular1 consisting of separate edifices in the form of pavilions and domes4 ,the ladies of the seraglio are a collection of beautiful young women1 chiefly sent as presents from the provinces and ,greek islands1 and most of them the children of ,christian parents4 ,the brave prince ,heraclicus for some years abolished the infamous tribute of children of both sexes1 which ,georgia formerly paid every year to the ,porte4 ,the number of women in the ,harem depends on the taste of the reigning sultan4 ,selim had two thousand1 ,achmet had but three hundred1 and the late sultan had nearly one thousand six hundred4 ,on their admission1 they are committed to the care of the old ladies1 taught sewing1 embroidery1 music1 dancing1 c4 and furnished with the richest clothes and ornaments4 ,they all sleep in separate beds1 and between every fifth there is a preceptress4 ,their chief governess is called ,katon ,kiaga1 or governess of the noble young ladies4 ,there is no servant1 for they are obliged to wait on one another by rotation2 the last that is entered serves her who preceded her1 and herself4 ,these ladies are scarcely ever suffered to go abroad1 except when the grand seignior removes from one place to another1 when a troop of black eunuchs convey them to the boats1 which are inclosed with lattices and linen curtains2 and when they go by land they are put into close chariots1 and signals are made at certain distances1 to give notice that none approach the roads through which they march4 ,the boats of the ,harem1 which carry the grand seignior's wives1 are manned with twenty-four rowers1 and have white covered tilts1 shut alternately by ,venetian blinds4 ,among the emperor's attendants are a number of mutes1 who act and converse by signs with great quickness1 and some dwarfs1 who are exhibited for the sultan's amusement4 ,when he permits the women to walk in the gardens of the seraglio1 all people are ordered to retire1 and on every side is a guard of black eunuchs1 with sabres in their hands1 while others go their rounds to hinder any person from seeing them4 ,if any one is found in the garden1 even through ignorance or inadvertence1 he is instantly killed1 and his head brought to the feet of the grand seignior1 who rewards the guard for their vigilance4 ,sometimes the grand seignior passes into the gardens to amuse himself when the women are there1 and it is then they make use of all their utmost efforts1 by dancing1 singing1 seducing gestures1 and amorous blandishments1 to attract his affections4 ,it is not permitted that the monarch should take a virgin to his bed1 except during the solemn festivals1 and on occasion of some extraordinary rejoicings1 or the arrival of some good news4 ,upon such occasions1 if the sultan chooses a new companion to his bed1 he enters into the apartment of the women1 who are ranged in files by the governesses1 to whom he speaks1 and intimates the person he likes best4 ,as soon as the grand seignior has chosen the girl destined to be the partner of his bed1 all the others follow her to the bath1 washing and perfuming her1 and dressing her superbly1 and thus conduct her1 with singing1 dancing1 and rejoicing1 to the bedchamber of the grand seignior2 and if by a certain time she becomes pregnant1 and is delivered of a boy1 she is called asaki-sultaness1 that is to say1 sultaness-mother4 ,for the first son she has the honour to be crowned1 and she has the liberty of forming her court3 eunuchs are also assigned for her guard1 and for her particular service4 ,no other ladies1 though delivered of boys1 are either crowned or maintained with such costly distinction at the first2 but they have their service apart1 and handsome appointments4 ,at the death of the sultan1 the mothers of the male children are shut up in the old seraglio1 whence they can never come out any more1 unless any of their sons ascend the throne4 ,baron de ,tott informs us1 that the female slave who becomes the mother of the sultan1 and lives long enough to see her son mount the throne1 is the only woman who at that period acquires the distinction of sultana-mother2 she is till then in the interior of her prison with her son4 ,the title bachl-kadun1 or principal woman1 is the first dignity of the grand seignior's ,harem2 and she has a larger allowance than those who have the title of second1 third1 and fourth woman1 which are the four free women the ,koran allows4 ,it must strike every reader1 that the present happy condition of females in ,christian countries is directly attributable to ,christianity2 and this stamps an inestimable value on the gospel4 ,females should consider it as the charter of their privileges4 ,the ,christian religion has1 by its letter or spirit1 exploded customs and practices which were the immediate causes of female degradation and wretchedness4 ,it has made marriage pure and honourable1 by prohibiting polygamy1 and restricting within very narrow limits the dangerous liberty of divorce2 two customs which violate the plain order and design of ,providence in creation1 which degrade woman to insignificance and slavery1 and which brought on that dissoluteness and corruption of manners in most ancient and some modern nations4 ,,museum1--is a collection of rare and interesting objects1 selected from the whole circle of natural history and the arts1 and deposited in apartments or buildings1 either by the commendable generosity of rich individuals1 general governments1 or monarchs1 for the inspection of the learned1 and the great mass of the public4 ,the term1 which means literally a study1 or place of retirement1 is said to have been given originally to that part of the royal palace at ,alexandria1 appropriated for the use of learned men1 and the reception of the literary works then extant4 ,according to ancient writers1 they were formed into classes or colleges1 each of which had a competent sum assigned for their support2 and we are further informed1 that the establishment was founded by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 who added a most extensive library4 ,it would answer little purpose to trace the history of ,museums1 as the earlier part of it is involved in obscurity2 and as we approach our own times1 they multiply beyond a possibility of noticing even the most important4 ,within our brief limits we shall1 therefore1 confine ourselves to those at the ,vatican1 ,florence1 ,paris1 ,oxford1 and ,london4 ,the ,museum of the ,vatican might originally have been said to occupy all the apartments of the palace1 which are more numerous than in any other royal residence in the world3 the pictures1 the books1 the manuscripts1 statues1 bas-reliefs1 and every other description of the labours of ancient artists1 were select1 uncommon1 and valuable in the extreme1 particularly the ,laocoon1 already described1 and said1 by ,pliny1 to have been made from a single mass of marble2 which circumstance has since caused a doubt whether that of the ,vatican is really the original1 as ,michael ,angelo discovered that it is composed of more than one piece4 ,it was found1 in #aejf1 near the baths of ,titus1 and1 whether an original or a copy1 has obtained and deserves every possible admiration4--,this invaluable collection continued to increase for several centuries1 and till nearly the present period4 ,the grand dukes of ,tuscany were for a long series of years ardent admirers of the arts1 ancient and modern1 and regretted no expense in obtaining the most rare and beautiful objects which vast treasures were capable of procuring2 consequently their ,museum at ,florence vied with that of ,rome1 and1 in some instances1 the value of particular articles exceeded any possibility of rivalship3 we allude to the ,venus de ,medicis1 of which ,keysler speaks thus1 in his excellent account of that part of the continent3 ,i shall conclude this short criticism on the celebrated ,venus de ,medicis1 with the following observation1 made by some able connoisseurs1 namely1 that if the different parts of this famous statue be examined separately1 as the head1 nose1 c4 and compared with the like parts of others1 it would not be impossible to find similar parts equal1 if not superior1 to those of the ,venus de ,medicis2 but if the delicacy of the shape1 the attitude1 and symmetry of the whole1 be considered as an assemblage of beauties1 it cannot be paralleled in the whole world4 ,this beautiful statue is placed between two others of the same goddess1 both which would be admired by spectators in any other place2 but here all their beauties are eclipsed by those of the ,venus de ,medicis1 to which they can be considered only as foils to augment the lustre of that admired statue4 ,little is known in ,england of the present state of the ,florentine ,museum1 but it is feared to be deplorable4 ,we shall now turn our attention to the ,muse ,central des ,arts1 formed in the ,louvre at ,paris1 composed with the best collections on the continent1 and consequently consisting of the finest specimens of human art4 ,the method adopted for arranging the paintings here assembled is judicious1 as they are classed in nations1 by which means the eye is conducted gradually to the acme of the art1 in the works of the ,italian masters4 ,the gallery of antiquities is directly below the gallery of pictures2 and1 to give some idea of the nature of the general contents1 we shall mention the names of the several divisions1 which are3 ,la ,salle de ,saisons1--,la ,salle des ,hommes illustres1--,la ,salle des ,romains1--,la ,salle de ,laocoon1--,la ,salle de l',apollon1--and ,la ,salle des ,muses4 ,the ,laocoon1 which we have noticed in our account of the ,vatican1 here received distinguished honours1 within a space railed in2 and the ,apollo ,belvidere is equally honoured1 in giving name to one of the halls4 ,these exquisite works are described in a catalogue1 which may be obtained in the gallery2 and of the manner we shall venture to give a specimen1 hoping that a similar method may be adopted1 to explain the objects offered to view in our national repository4 ,under the head ',pythian ,apollo1' called the ,apollo ,belvidere1 the author of the catalogue observes1 ,this statue1 the most sublime of those preserved by time1 was found1 near the close of the fifteenth century1 twelve leagues from ,rome1 at ,cape d',anzo1 on the borders of the sea1 in the ruins of ancient ,antium1 a city equally celebrated for its ,temple of ,fortune1 and for its pleasant mansions1 erected by successive emperors1 which1 emulous of each other1 they decorated with the most rare and excellent works of art4 ,julius ,,ii4 when a cardinal1 obtained this statue1 and placed it in the palace where he resided1 near the church of the ,holy ,apostles4 ,after his elevation to the pontificate1 he had it removed to the ,belvidere of the ,vatican1 where it remained three centuries an object of universal admiration4 ,a hero1 conducted by victory1 drew it from the ,vatican1 and causing it to be conveyed to the banks of the ,seine1 has fixed it here for ever4 ,another ,museum established at ,paris after the return of order1 is that of the ,national ,monuments4 ,these were indiscriminately destroyed1 or mutilated1 during the first frantic emotions of the revolution2 and this act contributed not a little to the general dislike it excited3 at length the most enlightened part of the ,national ,convention decreed imprisonment in chains to those who should thenceforward injure or destroy the marble and bronze records of their country4 ,le ,noir1 a man of taste and learning1 seized this opportunity of rescuing the ,french nation from the reproach it had incurred by destroying what was honourable to themselves2 and conceived that1 though late1 it might still be possible to collect whole monuments in some instances1 and fragments in others1 sufficient to interest foreigners in favour of his country1 or at least to evince to them that a change in sentiment had taken place4 ,fortunately his plan received public encouragement1 and he has1 through the assistance of government1 procured an astonishing number of specimens from all parts of the kingdom4 ,mr4 ,pinkerton observes of this collection1 ,it will not escape the attention of the reader of taste1 that the arrangement is confused1 nay1 often capricious1 and is capable of great improvement4 ,and ,le ,maitre says1 upon the same subject1 ,after several hours employed in this second view1 ,i continue of my former opinion1 that the spot 7formerly a convent7 in which these monuments are collected1 is infinitely too small2 that the garden1 meant to be the tranquil site of sepulchral honours1 and the calm retreat of departed grandeur1 is on so limited a scale1 so surrounded with adjoining houses1 and altogether so ill arranged1 that instead of presenting the model of ,those deep solitudes 444 ,where heav'nly pensive contemplation dwells1 ,and ever musing melancholy reigns2 it might easily be mistaken for the working yard of a statuary1 or the pleasure ground of a tasteless citizen1 decked out with ,cupids1 ,mercuries1 and ,fawns4 ,both these authors1 however1 agree in praising the motives and perseverance of ,le ,noir4 ,oxford has the honour of producing the first1 and not the least important ,museum in ,england2 which was founded in #afgi1 and the building completed in #afhc1 at the expense of the university4 ,the students1 the public1 and the professors1 are indebted to ,elias ,ashmole1 ,esq4 for an invaluable collection of interesting objects presented by him for their use1 and immediately placed within it2 since which period it has been called the ,ashmolean ,museum4 ,the structure1 in the ,corinthian order of architecture1 has a magnificent portal2 and the variety and value of the articles contained in it1 renders a visit to the apartments highly gratifying1 particularly as they are increased from time to time1 as often as rare objects can be procured4 ,the ,british ,museum1 in ,london1 a repository under the immediate care of government1 and itself governed by fifteen trustees1 selected from the highest and most honourable offices of the state1 promises to exceed every other national institution1 which is not supported by the spoliation and plunder of others4 ,however inferior it may appear to those splendid collections1 which consist of the most exquisite productions of the chisel and the pencil ever accomplished by man1 we have the consolation to reflect1 that1 had it been possible to procure them by purchase1 the liberality of the ,british nation is such1 that ,italy and many other countries would have long since been drained2 but as the case is1 each inhabitant of ,england may exclaim1 with his characteristic integrity1 as he views the vast collection which he in common with all his countrymen possesses1 ,these are individually our own by fair purchase or gift6 ,sir ,robert ,cotton may be said to have laid the foundation of the ,british ,museum1 by his presenting his excellent collection of manuscripts to the public2 those1 and the offer of ,sir ,hans ,sloane's books1 manuscripts1 and curious articles in antiquity and natural history1 for #bj1jjj1 suggested the propriety of accepting the latter1 and providing a place for the reception of both3 from this time government proceeded rapidly in forming the plan1 and at length every interior regulation for officers1 trustees1 c4 being made1 ,montague ,house1 situated in ,russell-street1 ,bloomsbury1 was purchased for #aj1bej1 and fitted for the reception of the articles then possessed1 and to be bought at the further expense of #ad1dhd4 #fs4 #d;d43 after which ,lord ,oxford's manuscripts were procured for #aj1jjj1 to which the ,king added others2 and since the above period1 vast numbers of interesting things have been placed there1--,sir ,william ,hamilton's discoveries1 a vast variety of valuable medals1 fossils1 minerals1 manuscripts1 and printed books1 together with several ,egyptian antiquities1 and the late ,mr4 ,townsley's marbles and bas-reliefs from ,italy4 ,the latter were given to the public under the express condition that a proper place should be built for their reception1 which has been complied with1 and they are now exhibited1 with the rest of the ,museum1 to an admiring people4 ,various alterations have taken place in the regulations adopted for the convenience of those who read at the ,museum1 and the visitors1 since #ageg1 when it was first opened for inspection and study2 and it is but justice to say1 each was intended well1 though till lately it was thought that too many impediments existed in the way of visiting that which was solely intended for the use of the community3 at present1 however1 no such complaint can be made with truth1 as any decently dressed persons1 presenting themselves at certain hours1 are admitted free of every kind of expense4 ,admission even to the reading room1 is attended with no other difficulty than necessarily follows the ascertaining whether the applicant is deserving of the indulgence1 or likely to injure the interests of the institution2 when there1 every facility is afforded him by commodious tables1 with pens and ink for writing1 and a messenger in waiting to bring him any books he may think proper to select from the vast stores of literature submitted in this generous way to his use4 ,,colossus1--is a statue of vast or gigantic size4 ,the most eminent of this kind was the ,colossus of ,rhodes1 a brazen statue of ,apollo1 one of the wonders of the world4 ,it was the workmanship of ,chares1 a disciple of ,lysippus1 who spent twelve years in making it2 and was at length overthrown by an earthquake1 ,b4 ,c4 #bbd1 after having stood about sixty-six years4 ,its height was a hundred and five feet2 there were few people who could encompass its thumb1 which is said to have been a fathom in circumference1 and its fingers were larger than most statues4 ,it was hollow1 and in its cavities were large stones1 employed by the artificer to counterbalance its weight1 and render it steady on its pedestal4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoa-,,nut ,,trees4--,page #ega4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pyramids ,,of ,,egypt4--,page #edd4 ,on occasion of the damage which the city of ,rhodes sustained by the above-mentioned earthquake1 the inhabitants sent ambassadors to all the princes and states of ,greek origin1 in order to solicit assistance for repairing it2 and they obtained large sums1 particularly from the kings of ,egypt1 ,macedon1 ,syria1 ,pontus1 and ,bithynia1 which amounted to a sum five times exceeding the damages which they had suffered4 ,but instead of setting up the ,colossus again1 for which purpose the greatest part of it was given1 they pretended that the oracle of ,delphos had forbidden it1 and converted the money to other uses4 ,accordingly1 the ,colossus lay neglected on the ground for the space of eight hundred and ninety-four years1 at the expiration of which period1 or about the year of our ,lord #fec or #fgb1 ,moawyas1 the sixth caliph1 or emperor of the ,saracens1 made himself master of ,rhodes1 and afterwards sold the statue1 reduced to fragments1 to a ,jewish merchant1 who loaded nine hundred camels with the metal2 so that1 allowing eight hundred pounds weight for each load1 the brass of the ,colossus1 after the diminution which it had sustained by rust1 and probably by theft1 amounted to seven hundred and twenty thousand pounds weight4 ,the basis that supported it was of a triangular figure3 its extremities were sustained by sixty pillars of marble4 ,there was a winding staircase to go up to the top of it2 where might be discovered ,syria1 and the ships that went to ,egypt1 in a great looking-glass that was hung about the neck of the statue4 ,this enormous statue was not the only one that attracted attention in the city of ,rhodes4 ,pliny reckons one hundred other colossuses1 not so large1 which rose majestically in its different quarters4 ,,obelisk1--in architecture1 is a truncated1 quadrangular1 and slender pyramid1 raised for the purpose of ornament1 and frequently charged either with inscriptions or hieroglyphics4 ,obelisks appear to be of very great antiquity1 and to have been first raised to transmit to posterity precepts of philosophy1 which were cut in hieroglyphical characters3 afterwards they were used to immortalize the great actions of heroes1 and the memory of persons beloved and venerated for having performed eminent services to their country4 ,the first obelisk mentioned in history was that of ,rameses1 king of ,egypt1 in the time of the ,trojan war1 which was forty cubits high2 ,phuis1 another king of ,egypt1 raised one of fifty-five cubits2 and ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 another of eighty eight cubits1 in memory of ,arsino4 ,augustus erected one at ,rome1 in the ,campus ,martius1 which served to mark the hours on an horizontal dial1 drawn on the pavement4 ,they were called by the ,egyptian priests1 the ,fingers of the ,sun1 because they were made in ,egypt to serve also as stiles or gnomons1 to mark the hours on the ground4 ,the ,arabs still call them ,pharaoh's ,needles2 whence the ,italians call them ,aguglia1 and the ,french ,aiguilles4 ,the famous obelisks called the ,devil's ,arrows1 now reduced to three1 the fourth having been taken down in the seventeenth century1 stand about half a mile from the town of ,boroughbridge1 to the south-west1 in three fields1 separated by a lane1 nearly two hundred feet asunder1 on elevated ground1 sloping every way4 ,mr4 ,drake urges many arguments for their ,roman antiquity1 and plainly proves them to be natural1 and brought from ,plumpton quarries1 about five miles off2 or from ,tekly1 sixteen miles off4 ,the cross in the town1 twelve feet high1 is of the same kind of stone4 ,the easternmost1 or highest1 is twenty-two feet and a half high1 by four broad1 and four and a half in girth2 the second1 twenty-one and a half by fifty-five and a quarter2 the third1 sixteen and a half by eighty-four4 ,stukeley's measures differ4 ,the flutings are cut in the stone1 but not through3 the tallest stands alone1 and leans to the south4 ,plot and ,stukeley affirm them to be ,british monuments1 originally hewn square4 ,dr4 ,gale supposed that they were ,mercuries1 which had lost their heads and inscriptions2 but in a manuscript note in his ,antoninus1 he acknowledges that he was misinformed1 and that there was no cavity to receive a bust4 ,on the north side of ,penrith1 in the church-yard1 are two square obelisks1 of a single stone each1 eleven or twelve feet high1 about twelve inches diameter1 and twelve by eight at the sides2 the highest about eighteen inches diameter1 with something like a transverse piece to each1 and mortised into a round base4 ,they are fourteen feet asunder1 and between them is a grave1 which is inclosed between four semicircular stones1 of the unequal lengths of five1 six1 four and a half1 and two feet high1 having on the outsides rude carving1 and the tops notched4 ,this is called the ,giant's ,grave1 and ascribed to ,sir ,evan ,csarius1 who is said to have been as tall as one of the columns1 and capable of stretching his arms from one to the other2 to have destroyed robbers and wild boars in ,englewood forest2 and to have had an hermitage1 called ,sir ,hugh's ,parlour4 ,a little west of these is a stone called the ,giant's ,thumb1 six feet high1 fourteen inches at the base1 contracted to ten1 which is only a rude cross4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with a description of a ,,remarkable ,,obelisk1 ,,near ,,forres1 ,,in ,,scotland4 ,about a mile from ,forres1 on the left-hand side of the road1 is a remarkable obelisk1 said to be the most stately monument of the ,gothic kind in ,europe2 and supposed to have been erected in memory of the treaty between ,malcolm ,,ii4 and ,canute the ,great1 in #ajjh4 ,it has been the subject of many able pens2 and is thus described by ,mr4 ,cordiner1 in a letter to ,mr4 ,pennant3 ,in the first division1 underneath the ,gothic ornaments1 at the top are nine horses1 with their riders1 marching forth in order3 in the next is a line of warriors on foot1 brandishing their weapons1 and appear to be shouting for the battle4 ,the import of the attitudes in the third division is very dubious1 their expression indefinite4 ,the figures1 which form a square in the middle of the column1 are pretty complex1 but distinct2 four sergeants with their halberts1 guarding a company1 under which are placed several human heads1 which have belonged to the dead bodies piled up at the left of the division3 one appears in the character of executioner1 severing the head from another body2 behind him are three trumpeters sounding their trumpets1 and before him two pair of combatants fighting with sword and target4 ,a troop of horse next appear1 put to flight by infantry1 whose first lines have bows and arrows1 and the three following swords and targets4 ,in the lowermost division now visible1 the horses seem to be seized by the victorious party1 their riders beheaded1 and the head of their chief hung in chains1 or placed in a frame2 the others being thrown together beside the dead bodies1 under an arched cover4 ,the greatest part of the other side of the obelisk1 occupied by a sumptuous cross1 is covered over with a uniform figure1 elaborately raised1 and interwoven with great mathematical exactness4 ,under the cross are two august personages1 with some attendants1 much obliterated1 but evidently in an attitude of reconciliation2 and if the monument was erected in memory of the peace concluded between ,malcolm and ,canute1 upon the final retreat of the ,danes1 these large figures may represent the reconciled monarchs4 ,on the edge1 below the fretwork1 are some rows of figures joined hand in hand1 which may also imply the new degree of confidence and security that took place after the feuds were composed1 which are characterized on the front of the pillar4 ,but to whatever particular transaction it may allude1 it can hardly be imagined1 that in so early an age of the arts in ,scotland1 as it must have been raised1 so elaborate a performance would have been undertaken1 but in consequence of an event of the most general importance2 it is therefore surprising1 that no more distinct tradition of it arrived at the ra when letters were known4 ,the height of this monument1 called ,king ,sueno's ,stone1 above the ground1 is twenty-three feet1 besides twelve or fifteen feet under ground4 ,its breadth is three feet ten inches1 by one foot three inches in thickness4 ,,chap4 ,,lvi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,temples1 ,,etc4--7,concluded47 ,inverlochy ,castle--,magdalen's ,hermitage--,curiosities of ,friburg--,curiosities of ,augsburg--,escurial--,florence ,statues--,great ,wall of ,china--,floating ,gardens--,curiosity at ,palermo4 ,,inverlochy ,,castle1--is an ancient castle near ,fort ,william1 in ,inverness-shire4 ,it is adorned with large towers1 which1 by the mode of building1 seem to have been the work of the ,english1 in the time of ,edward ,i4 who laid large fines on the ,scotch ,barons1 for the purpose of erecting castles4 ,the largest of these is called ,cummin's ,tower4 ,the castle1 7says the ,rev4 ,thomas ,ross1 in his ,statistical ,account of ,kilmanivaig7 has survived the burgh1 and now stands alone in ancient magnificence1 after having seen the river ,lochy1 that formerly filled its ditches1 run in another course1 and has outlived all history and tradition of its own builder and age4 ,it is a quadrangular building1 with round towers at the angles1 measuring thirty yards every way within the walls4 ,the towers and ramparts are solidly built of stone and lime1 nine feet thick at the bottom1 and eight feet above4 ,the towers are not entire1 nor are they all equally high4 ,the western is the highest and largest1 and does not seem to have been less than fifty feet when entire2 the rampart between them1 from twenty-five to thirty4 ,ten or twelve yards without the walls the ditch begins1 which surrounded the castle1 from thirty to forty feet broad4 ,the whole building covers about one thousand six hundred yards2 and within the outside of the ditch are seven thousand square yards1 nearly an acre and a half ,english4 ,the whole building would require from five hundred to six hundred men to defend it4 ,from the name of the western tower1 it is probable this castle was occupied by the ,cummins in the time of ,edward ,i4 and previous to that period by the ,thanes of ,lochaber2 among others by the noted ,bancho1 predecessor of the race of ,stuart4 ,there is a tradition that this castle was once a royal residence1 and that the famous league betwixt ,charles the ,great of ,france1 and ,achaius king of ,scots1 had been signed there on the part of the ,scotch monarch1 ,a4 ,d4 #gij4 ,,magdalen',s ,,hermitage4--,this place is situated about a league from ,friburg1 in ,switzerland1 and is described by ,mr4 ,blainville1 and also by ,mr4 ,addison4 ,they both say it is situated among woods and rocks1 in the prettiest solitude imaginable4 ,the hermit1 7they say17 who was then alive1 had worked out of the rock a pretty chapel1 with an altar1 sacristy1 and steeple2 also five chambers1 a parlour1 refectory1 kitchen1 cellar1 and other conveniences4 ,the funnel of his chimney1 which pierces from his kitchen to the top of the rock1 slanting all the way1 is ninety feet high1 and cost him so much toil1 that he was a whole year about it1 and often despaired of finishing his design4 ,all this must appear the more surprising1 when we consider the dimensions of the different parts of this hermitage1 the chapel being sixty-three feet in length1 thirty-six in breadth1 and twenty-two in height4 ,the sacristy1 or vestry1 is twenty-two feet square1 and the height of the steeple seventy feet4 ,the chamber between the chapel and the refectory1 is above forty feet long2 the refectory itself is twenty-one long2 and the cellar is twenty-five feet long1 and ten feet deep4 ,but the hall or parlour is particularly admired1 being twenty-eight paces in length1 twelve in breadth1 and twenty feet in height1 with four openings for windows1 much higher and wider than those of our best houses4 ,at one end of this hall was the hermit's cabinet1 with a small collection of books and other curiosities4 ,to add to the pleasantness and convenience of this habitation1 he had cut the side of the rock into a flat1 and having covered it with good mould1 had formed a pretty garden1 planted with divers sorts of fruit-trees1 herbs1 and flowers2 and by following the veins of water that dropped from several parts of the rock1 he had made himself two or three fountains1 which supplied his table1 and watered his little garden4 ,this hermit1 whose name was ,jean du ,pre1 began this laborious undertaking at the age of thirty1 and said he was twenty-five years in completing it1 having had no sort of assistance from any person whatsoever1 except one servant4 ,he intended to have carried on his work still farther1 but was drowned in #agjh1 as he was crossing a neighbouring river in a boat1 with some company that came to visit him on ,st4 ,anthony's day1 the patron of his chapel4 ,his place is supplied by a priest1 who subsists by the generosity of strangers that come to see the hermitage1 whom he generally entertains with bread and wine1 and a nosegay4 ,,curiosities ,,of ,,friburg4--,friburg is a large town of ,switzerland1 seated on the ,sanen1 in a most singular and picturesque situation4 ,mr4 ,cox1 in his ,travels in ,switzerland1 thus describes it3 ,it stands partly in a small plain1 partly on bold acclivities on a ridge of rugged rocks1 half encircled by the river ,sanen1 and is so entirely concealed by the circumjacent hills1 that the traveller scarcely catches the smallest glimpse1 until he bursts upon a view of the whole town from the overhanging eminence4 ,the fortifications1 which consist of high stone walls and towers1 inclose a circumference of about four miles2 within which space the eye comprehends a singular mixture of houses1 rocks1 thickets1 and meadows1 varying instantly from wild to agreeable1 from the bustle of a town to the solitude of the deepest retirement4 ,the ,sanen winds in such a serpentine manner1 as to form in its course1 within the space of two miles1 five obtuse angles1 between which the intervening parts of the current are parallel to each other4 ,on all sides the descent to the town is extremely steep2 in one place the streets often pass over the roofs of the houses4 ,many of the edifices are raised in regular gradation1 like the seats of an amphitheatre2 and many overhang the edge of a precipice in such a manner1 that1 on looking down1 a weak head would be apt to turn giddy4 ,but the most extraordinary point of view is from the ,pont-neuf4 ,on the north-west a part of the town stands boldly on the sides and the piked back of an abrupt ridge2 and from east to west1 a semicircle of high perpendicular rocks is seen1 whose base is washed and undermined by the winding ,sanen1 and whose tops and sides are thinly scattered with shrubs and underwood4 ,on the highest points of the rocks1 and on the very edge of the precipice1 appears1 half hanging in the air1 the gate called ,bourguillon3 a stranger standing on the bridge would compare it to ,laputa1 or the ,flying ,island1 in ,gulliver's ,travels2 and would not conceive it to be accessible1 but by means of a cord and pulleys4 ,the houses1 constructed with a gray sandstone1 are neat and well built2 and the public edifices1 particularly the cathedral1 are extremely elegant4 ,,curiosities ,,of ,,augsburg4--,in the square1 near the town-house1 is the ,fountain of ,augustus1 which is a marble bason1 surrounded with iron balustrades finely wrought3 at the four corners are four brass statues as large as life1 two of women1 and two of men2 in the middle of the bason is a pedestal1 at the foot which are four sphinxes1 squirting water2 a little above these1 are four infants holding four dolphins in their arms1 which pour water out of their mouths2 and over these are festoons and pine-apples of brass2 upon the pedestal is the statue of ,augustus1 as large as life4 ,the fountain most remarkable next to this1 is that of ,hercules1 which is an hexagon bason with several brass figures1 particularly ,hercules engaging the hydra4--,another curiosity is the ,secret ,gate1 which was contrived to let in persons safely in time of war3 it has so many engines and divisions with gates and keys1 and apartments for guards1 at some distance from each other1 where passengers are examined1 that it is impossible for the town to be surprised this way2 the gates are bolted and unbolted1 opened and shut1 by unseen operators1 so that it looks like enchantment4--,the ,water ,towers are also very curious1 of which there are three1 seated on a branch of the ,lech1 which runs through the city in such a torrent1 as to drive many mills1 which work a number of pumps1 that raise the water in large leaden pipes to the top of the towers4 ,one of these sends water to the public fountains2 and the rest1 to near one thousand houses in the city4 ,,the ,,escurial1--is a royal residence of ,spain1 fifteen miles north-west of ,madrid4 ,it is the largest and most superb structure in the kingdom1 and one of the finest in ,europe4 ,the word is ,arabic1 meaning a place full of rocks4 ,it is built in a dry barren spot1 surrounded with rugged mountains1 insomuch that every thing which grows there is owing to art4 ,this place was chosen1 it is said1 for the sake of the stone wherewith the fabric is built1 which is got from a mountain just by1 and is very durable2 and the design of erecting it was to commemorate a victory which ,philip ,,ii4 obtained over the ,french 7by the assistance of the ,english forces7 at ,st4 ,quintin1 on ,st4 ,lawrence's day1 in the year #aeeg4 ,the ,spanish description of this structure forms a sizeable quarto volume4 ,its founder expended upon it six millions of ducats4 ,the apartments are decorated with an astonishing variety of paintings1 sculpture1 tapestry1 ornaments of gold and silver1 marble1 jasper1 gems1 and other curious stones1 surpassing all imagination4 ,this building1 besides its palace1 contains a church1 large and richly ornamented2 a mausoleum2 cloisters2 a convent2 a college2 and a library1 containing about thirty thousand volumes2 besides large apartments for all kinds of artists and mechanics1 noble walks1 with extensive parks and gardens1 beautified with fountains and costly ornaments4 ,the fathers that live in the convent are two hundred1 and they have an annual revenue of #ab1jjj4 ,it was begun by ,philip in #aefb1 five years after the battle1 and completed in twenty-two years4 ,it consists of several courts and quadrangles1 which all together are disposed in the shape of a gridiron1 the instrument of the martyrdom of ,st4 ,lawrence2 the apartment where the king resides1 forming the handle4 ,the building is a long square1 of six hundred and forty by five hundred and eighty feet1 and the height up to the roof is sixty feet all round1 except on the garden side1 where the ground is more taken away4 ,at each angle is a square tower1 two hundred feet high4 ,the number of windows in the west front is exactly #bjj2 in the east front1 #cff4 ,the orders are ,doric and ,ionic4 ,there are three doors in the principal front4 ,over the grand entrance are the arms of ,spain1 carved in stone2 and a little higher1 in a niche1 a statue of ,st4 ,lawrence in a deacon's habit1 with a gilt gridiron in his right hand1 and a book in his left4 ,directly over the door is a basso-relievo of two enormous gridirons1 in stone4 ,this vast structure1 however1 with its narrow high towers1 small windows1 and steep sloping roof1 exhibits a very uncouth style of architecture2 at the same time that the domes1 and the immense extent of its fronts1 render it a wonderfully grand object from every point of view4 ,the church is in the centre1 is large1 awful1 and richly ornamented4 ,the cupola is bold and light4 ,the high altar is composed of rich marbles1 agates1 and jaspers of great rarity1 the produce of this kingdom4 ,two magnificent catafalcos fill up the side arcades of this sanctuary3 on one1 the emperor ,charles ,v4 his wife1 daughter1 and two sisters1 are represented in bronze1 larger than life1 kneeling2 opposite are the effigies of ,philip ,,ii4 and of his three wives1 of the same materials1 and in the same devout attitude4 ,underneath1 is the burial-place of the royal family1 called the ,pantheon3 twenty-five steps lead down to this vault1 over the door of which is a ,latin inscription1 denoting1 that this place1 sacred to the remains of the ,catholic kings1 was intended by ,charles the emperor1 resolved upon by ,philip ,,ii4 begun by ,philip ,,iii4 and completed by ,philip ,,iv4 ,the mausoleum is circular1 thirty-six feet in diameter1 and incrusted with fine marbles in an elegant taste4 ,the bodies of the kings and queens lie in tombs of marble1 in niches1 one above the other4 ,the plan of these sepulchres is grand1 and executed with a princely magnificence2 but1 as a modern traveller observes1 in a style rather too gay1 too light1 and too delicately fitted up1 for the idea we are apt to form of a chapel destined for the reception of the dead4 ,the collection of pictures dispersed about various parts of the church1 sacristy1 and convent1 has been considered as equal1 if not superior1 to any gallery in ,europe1 except that of ,dresden4 ,formed out of the spoils of ,italy1 and the wasted cabinet of that unfortunate monarch1 ,charles ,i4 of ,england1 it contains some of the most capital works of the greatest painters that have flourished since the revival of the art4 ,in the sacristy is an altar called ,la ,santa ,forma3 this is a kind of tabernacle of gems1 marbles1 woods1 and other precious materials1 inlaid in gilt bronze2 in which1 rather than in the excellence of the workmanship1 or taste of the design1 consists the merit of this rock of riches4 ,before it hangs a curtain1 on which ,coello has represented ,charles ,,ii4 and all his court1 in procession1 coming to place this ,forma4 ,this is esteemed one of the most curious collections of portraits in the world2 for all the persons are drawn with the greatest strength of colour and truth of expression1 and are said to be perfect resemblances1 not only of the monarch and grandees1 but even of the monks1 servants1 and guards4 ,the statues1 busts1 and the medallions of the ,escurial1 are neither very numerous1 nor remarkable for their excellence2 but the library contains a most precious collection of manuscripts1 many fine drawings1 and other curiosities4 ,notwithstanding the coldness of the exposure1 the late king1 for the sake of hunting1 used to pass several months of the year at this palace4 ,,florence ,,statues4--,in the ,duke of ,florence's garden at ,pratoline1 is the statue of ,pan2 sitting on a stool1 with a wreathed pipe in his hand1 and that of ,syrinx1 beckoning him to play on his pipe4 ,pan1 putting away his stool1 and standing up1 plays on his pipe2 this done1 he looks on his mistress1 as if he expected thanks from her1 takes the stool again1 and sits down with a sad countenance4--,there is also the statue of a ,laundress at her work1 turning the clothes up and down with her hand and battledore1 wherewith she beats them in the water4--,there is the statue of ,fame1 loudly sounding her trumpet2 an artificial toad creeping to and fro2 a dragon bowing down his head to drink water1 and then vomiting it up again2 with divers other pieces of art1 that administer wonder and light to the beholders4 ,,the ,,great ,,wall ,,of ,,china4--,the principal defence of the empire against a foreign enemy is the ,great ,wall1 which separates ,china from ,tartary1 extending more than fifteen hundred miles in length1 and of such thickness1 that six horsemen may easily ride abreast upon it4 ,it is flanked with towers1 two bow-shots distant from one another3 ,walker says1 there are forty-five thousand of these towers1 7a number rather incredible17 and that the wall extends two thousand miles4 ,it is said1 that a third of the able-bodied men in the empire were employed in constructing this wall4 ,the workmen were ordered1 under pain of death1 to place the materials so closely1 that not the least entrance might be afforded for any instrument of iron2 and thus the work was constructed with such solidity1 that it is still almost entire1 though two thousand years have elapsed since it was constructed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,wall ,,of ,,china4--,page #egi4 ,erected to protect the empire from the incursions of the ,tartar cavalry4 ,this extraordinary work is carried1 not only through the low lands and valleys1 but over hills and mountains2 the height of one of which was computed by ,f4 ,verbiest1 at one thousand two hundred and thirty-six feet above the level of the spot where he stood4 ,according to ,f4 ,martini1 it begins at the gulf of ,leatong1 and reaches to the mountains near the city of ,kin1 on the ,yellow ,river2 between which places it meets with no interruption except to the north of the city of ,suen1 in ,peche-li1 where it is interrupted by a ridge of inaccessible mountains1 to which it is closely united4 ,it is likewise interrupted by the river ,hoang-ho2 but for others of an inferior size1 arches have been constructed1 through which the water passes freely4 ,mr4 ,bell informs us1 that it is carried across rivers1 and over the tops of the highest hills1 without the least interruption1 keeping nearly along that circular range of barren rocks which incloses the country2 and1 after running about one thousand two hundred miles1 ends in impassable mountains and sandy deserts4 ,the foundation consists of large blocks of stone laid in mortar2 but all the rest is of brick4 ,the whole is so strong and well-built1 that it scarcely needs any repairs2 and in the dry climate in which it stands1 may remain in the same condition for many ages4 ,when carried over steep rocks1 where no horse can pass1 it is about fifteen or twenty feet high2 but when running through a valley1 or crossing a river1 it is about thirty feet high1 with square towers and embrasures at equal distances4 ,the top is flat1 and paved with cut stone2 and where it rises over a rock or eminence1 there is an ascent made by an easy stone stair4 ,this wall 7our author adds7 was begun and completely finished in the short space of five years2 and it is reported1 that the labourers stood so close for many miles1 that they could hand the materials from one to another4 ,this seems the more probable1 as the rugged rocks among which it is built must have prevented all use of carriages2 and neither clay for making bricks1 nor any kind of cement1 are to be found among them4 ,,floating ,,gardens4--,abb ,clavigero1 in his ,history of ,mexico1 says1 that when the ,mexicans were brought under subjection to the ,colhuan and ,tapanecan nations1 and confined to the miserable little islands on the ,lake of ,mexico1 they had no land to cultivate1 until necessity compelled them to form moveable fields and gardens1 which floated on the waters of the lake4 ,the method which they adopted to make these1 and which they still practise1 is extremely simple4 ,they plat and twist together willows and roots of marsh plants1 or other materials1 which are light1 but capable of supporting the earth firmly united4 ,upon this foundation they lay the light bushes which float on the lake2 and over all1 the mud and dirt which they draw up from the bottom4 ,their regular figure is quadrangular2 their length and breadth various2 but generally they are about eight perches long1 and not more than three in breadth1 and have less than a foot of elevation above the surface of the water4 ,these were the first fields which the ,mexicans had after the foundation of ,mexico2 there they first cultivated maize1 pepper1 and other plants4 ,in time1 as these fields became numerous from the industry of the people1 they cultivated gardens of flowers and odoriferous plants1 which they employed in the worship of their gods1 and for the recreation of their nobles4 ,at present they cultivate flowers1 and every sort of garden herbs1 upon them4 ,every day at sunrise1 innumerable vessels loaded with various kinds of flowers and herbs1 cultivated in those gardens1 arrive by the canals1 at the great market-place of that capital4 ,all plants thrive in them surprisingly2 the mud of the lake affords a very fertile soil1 and requires no water from the clouds4 ,in the large gardens there is commonly a little tree1 and even a little hut1 to shelter the cultivator1 and defend him from rain or the sun4 ,when the chinampa1 or owner of a garden1 wishes to change his situation1 to remove from a disagreeable neighbour1 or to come nearer to his own family1 he gets into his little vessel1 and by his own strength alone1 if the garden is small1 he tows it after him1 and conducts it wherever he pleases4 ,that part of the lake1 where these floating gardens are1 is a place of high recreation1 where the senses receive all possible gratification4 ,we conclude this chapter with an account of ,a ,,curious ,,sight ,,at ,,palermo4 ,among the remarkable objects in the vicinity of ,palermo1 pointed out to strangers1 they fail not to particularize a convent of ,capuchins1 at a small distance from the town1 the beautiful gardens of which serve as a public walk4 ,you are shewn under the fabric a vault1 divided into four great galleries1 into which the light is admitted by windows cut out at the top of each extremity4 ,in this vault are preserved1 not in flesh1 but in skin and bone1 all the ,capuchins who have died in the convent since its foundation1 as well as the bodies of several persons from the city4 ,there are here private tombs belonging to opulent families1 who1 even after death1 disdain to be confounded with the vulgar part of mankind4 ,it is said1 that in order to secure the preservation of the bodies1 they are prepared by being gradually dried before a slow fire1 so as to consume the flesh without greatly injuring the skin4 ,when perfectly dry1 they are invested with the ,capuchin habit1 and placed upright on tablets1 disposed step above step along the sides of the vault2 the head1 the arms1 and the feet1 are naked4 ,a preservation like this is horrid4 ,the skin1 discoloured1 dry1 and as if it had been tanned1 nay1 torn in some places1 is glued close to the bone4 ,it is easy to imagine1 from the different grimaces of this numerous assemblage of fleshless figures1 rendered still more frightful by a long beard on the chin1 what a hideous spectacle this must exhibit2 and whoever has seen a ,capuchin alive1 may form an idea of the singular effect produced by this repository of dead friars4 ,,chap4 ,,lvii4 ,curiosities respecting the ,ark of ,noah--,the ,galley of ,hiero--and the ,bridge of ,xerxes4 ,,the ,,ark ,,of ,,noah4--,that such a wonderful structure as this once existed1 admits not of any doubt in the ,jewish1 ,christian1 and ,mahommedan world2 yet its dimensions far exceed any vessel of modern date1 even of the most extensive range1 and appear to have been equally unrivalled in ancient times4 ,there are nevertheless various difficulties which have been proposed in regard to it1 among those by whom its existence has been admitted4 ,one question is1 as to the time employed by ,noah in building it4 ,interpreters generally believe1 that he was an hundred and twenty years in forming this vast structure2 but some allow only fifty-two years2 some no more than seven or eight1 and others still much less4 ,the ,mahommedans say1 he had but two years allowed him for this work4 ,another question sometimes agitated is1 what kind of wood is meant by gopher wood8 ,some think cedar1 or box2 others cypress1 the pine1 fir-tree1 and the turpentine tree4 ,pelletier prefers the opinion of those who hold the ark to be made of cedar3 the reasons he urges for this preference are1 the incorruptibilty of that wood2 the great plenty thereof in ,asia2 whence ,herodotus and ,theophrastus relate1 that the kings of ,egypt and ,syria built whole fleets of it in lieu of deal3 and the common tradition throughout the ,east imports1 that the ark is preserved entire to this day on mount ,ararat4 ,the dimensions of the ark1 as delivered by ,moses1 are three hundred cubits in length1 fifty in breadth1 and thirty in height2 which1 compared with the great number of things it was to contain1 seem to many to have been too scanty4 ,and hence an argument has been drawn against the authority of the relation4 ,celsus long ago laughed at it1 calling it the absurd ark4 ,this difficulty is solved by ,buteo and ,kircher1 who1 supposing the common cubit of a foot and a half1 prove1 geometrically1 that the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals supposed to be lodged therein4 ,the capacity of the ark will be doubled1 if we admit1 with ,cumberland1 c4 that the ,jewish cubit was twenty-one thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight inches4 ,smellius computes the ark to have been above half an acre in area4 ,cuneus1 and others1 have also calculated the capacity of the ark4 ,dr4 ,arbuthnot computes it to have been eighty-one thousand and sixty-two tons4 ,father ,lamy says1 that it was an hundred and ten feet longer than the church of ,st4 ,mary at ,paris1 and sixty-four feet narrower2 to which his ,english translator adds1 that it must have been longer than ,st4 ,paul's church in ,london1 from west to east1 broader than that church is high in the inside1 and about fifty-four feet in height of our measure4 ,the vast assemblage of things contained in the ark1 besides eight persons of ,noah's family1 consisted of one pair of every species of unclean animals1 with provisions for them all1 during the whole year4 ,the former appears1 at first view1 almost infinite1 but if we come to a calculation1 the number of species of animals will be found much smaller than is generally imagined2 out of which1 in this case1 are to be excepted such animals as can live in the water2 and ,bishop ,wilkins imagines1 that only seventy-two of the quadruped kind needed a place in the ark4 ,it appears to have been divided into three stories2 and it is agreed on1 as most probable1 that the lowest story was destined for the beasts1 the middle for the food1 and the upper for the birds1 with ,noah and his family2 each story being subdivided into different apartments1 stalls1 c4 ,though ,josephus1 ,philo1 and other commentators1 add a kind of fourth story1 under all the rest2 being1 as it were1 the hold of the vessel1 to contain the ballast1 and receive the filth and ordure of so many animals4 ,drexelius makes three hundred apartments2 father ,fournier1 three hundred and three2 the anonymous author of the ,questions of ,genesis1 four hundred2 ,buteo1 ,temporarius1 ,arias ,montanus1 ,wilkins1 ,lamy1 and others1 suppose as many partitions as there were different sorts of animals4 ,pelletier only makes seventy-two1 viz4 thirty-six for the birds1 and as many for the beasts3 his reason is1 that if we suppose a greater number1 as three hundred and thirty-three1 or four hundred1 each of the eight persons in the ark must have had thirty-seven1 forty-one1 or fifty stalls to attend and cleanse daily1 which he thinks impossible4 ,but there is not much in this3 to diminish the number of stalls1 without a diminution of the animals1 is vain2 it being1 perhaps1 more difficult to take care of three hundred animals in seventy-two stalls1 than in three hundred4 ,buteo computes1 that all the animals contained in the ark1 could not be equal to five hundred horses2 he even reduces the whole to the dimensions of fifty-six pair of oxen4 ,father ,lamy enlarges it to sixty-four pair1 or an hundred and twenty-eight oxen2 so that1 supposing one ox equal to two horses1 if the ark had room for two hundred and fifty-six horses1 there must have been room for all the animals4 ,and the same author demonstrates1 that one floor of it would suffice for five hundred horses1 allowing nine square feet to a horse4 ,of the food contained in the second story1 it is observed by ,beauteo1 from ,columella1 that thirty or forty pounds of hay ordinarily suffices an ox for a day2 and that a solid cubit of hay1 as usually pressed down in our hay-ricks1 weighs about forty pounds2 so that a square cubit of hay is more than enough per day for an ox4 ,now it appears1 that the second story contained one hundred and fifty thousand square cubits2 which1 divided between two hundred and six oxen1 will afford to each1 more hay by two-thirds than he can eat in a year4 ,bishop ,wilkins computes all the carnivorous animals equivalent1 as to the bulk of their bodies1 and their food1 to twenty-seven wolves2 and all the rest to two hundred and eighty beeves4 ,for the former he allows the sustenance of eighteen hundred and twenty-five sheep2 and for the latter1 one hundred and nine thousand five hundred cubits of hay3 all which will be easily contained in the two first stories1 and much room to spare4 ,as to the third story1 nobody doubts of its being sufficient for the fowls1 with ,noah1 his sons1 and daughters4 ,upon the whole1 the learned ,bishop remarks1 that of the two1 it appears much more difficult to assign a sufficient number and bulk of necessary things to answer the capacity of the ark1 than to find room enough for the several species of animals already known to have been there4 ,this he attributes to the imperfection of our lists of animals1 especially those of the unknown parts of the earth2 adding1 that the most expert mathematician1 at this day1 could not assign the proportions of a vessel better accommodated to the purpose1 than is here done2 and hence finally concludes1 that the capacity of the ark1 which has been made an objection against scripture1 ought to be esteemed a confirmation of its divine authority3 since1 in those ruder ages1 men1 being less versed in arts and philosophy1 were more obnoxious to vulgar prejudices than now2 so that1 had it been of human invention1 it would have been contrived according to those wild apprehensions which arise from a confused and general view of things2 as much too big1 as it has been represented too little4 ,,the ,,galley ,,of ,,hiero4--,it is to ,hiero that ,syracuse was indebted for those amazing machines of war1 which the ,syracusans made use of when besieged by the ,romans4 ,the public buildings1 such as palaces1 temples1 arsenals1 c4 which were erected in ,syracuse1 by his order1 and under the direction of ,archimedes1 were the greatest ornaments of that stately metropolis4 ,he caused also an infinite number of ships to be built1 for the exportation of corn1 in which the whole riches of the island consisted4 ,we are told of a galley built by his order1 which was looked upon as one of the wonders of that age4 ,archimedes1 who was overseer of the work1 spent a whole year in finishing it1 ,hiero daily animating the workmen with his presence4 ,this ship had twenty benches of oars1 three spacious apartments1 and all the conveniences of a large palace4 ,the floors of the middle apartment were all inlaid1 and represented in various colours the stories of ,homer's ,iliad4 ,the ceilings1 windows1 and all other parts1 were finished with wonderful art1 and embellished with all kinds of ornaments4 ,in the uppermost apartment there was a spacious gymnasium1 or place of exercise1 and walks1 with gardens1 and plants of all kinds1 disposed in wonderful order4 ,pipes1 some of hardened clay1 and others of lead1 conveyed water all round to refresh them4 ,but the finest of the apartments was that of ,venus3 the floors were inlaid with agates1 and other precious stones2 the inside was lined with cypress-wood2 and the windows were adorned with ivory1 paintings1 and small statues4 ,in this apartment there was a library1 a bath with three great coppers1 and a bathing vessel made of one single stone1 of various colours1 containing two hundred and fifty quarts4 ,it was supplied with water from a great reservoir at the head of the ship1 which held a hundred thousand quarts4 ,the vessel was adorned on all sides with fine paintings1 and had eight towers of equal dimensions1 two at the head1 two at the stern1 and four in the middle4 ,round these towers were parapets1 from whence stones might be discharged against the enemy's vessels when they approached4 ,each tower was constantly guarded by four young men completely armed1 and two archers4 ,to the side of the vessel was fastened an engine1 made by ,archimedes1 which threw a stone of three hundred pounds weight1 and an arrow eighteen feet in length1 the distance of a stadium1 or a hundred and twenty-five feet4 ,though the hold of this vessel was exceedingly deep1 a single man could soon clear it of water1 with a machine invented for that purpose by ,archimedes4 ,the story of this magnificent vessel was celebrated in poetic numbers by an ,athenian poet1 for which he was rewarded by ,hiero1 who understood the value of verse1 with a thousand medimni1 that is1 six thousand bushels of wheat1 which he caused to be carried to the ,pyrus1 or port of ,athens4 ,hiero afterwards made a present of this great vessel to ,ptolemy1 7probably ,philadephus17 king of ,egypt1 and sent it to ,alexandria4 ,as there was at that time a great famine in ,egypt1 good king ,hiero sent along with it several other ships of less burden1 with three hundred thousand quarters of corn1 ten thousand great earthen jars of salt fish1 twenty thousand quintals of salt meat1 and an immense quantity of other provisions4 ,,xerxes' ,,bridge ,,of ,,boats ,,over ,,the ,,hellespont4--,xerxes1 having resolved to attack ,greece1 that he might omit nothing which could contribute to the success of his undertaking1 entered into an alliance with the ,carthaginians1 who were1 at that time1 the most powerful people of the west2 whereby it was agreed1 that1 while the ,persians invaded ,greece1 the ,carthaginians should fall upon the ,greek colonies in ,sicily and ,italy1 that thereby they might be diverted from helping each other4 ,the ,carthaginians appointed ,hamilcar their general1 who not only raised what forces he could in ,africa1 but with the money sent him by ,xerxes1 hired a great many mercenaries in ,spain1 ,gaul1 and ,italy2 so that his army consisted of three hundred thousand men1 besides a proportionable number of ships for transporting his forces1 and the necessary provisions4 ,thus ,xerxes1 agreeable to the prophecy of ,daniel1 having1 by his strength through his riches1 stirred up all the nations of the then known world1 against the realm of ,greece1 that is1 all the west under the command of ,hamilcar1 and all the east under his own banners1 set out from ,susa1 to enter upon this war1 in the fifth year of his reign1 after having spent three years in making vast preparations throughout all the provinces of his wide-spreading empire4 ,from ,susa he marched to ,sardis1 which was the place appointed for the general rendezvous of all his land forces1 while his navy advanced along the coasts of ,asia ,minor1 towards the ,hellespont4 ,two things ,xerxes commanded to be done before he came to the sea-side2 one of which was1 that a passage should be cut through ,mount ,athos4 ,this mountain reaches a great way into the sea1 in the form of a peninsula1 and is joined to the land by an isthmus twelve furlongs over4 ,the sea in this place is very tempestuous1 and the ,persian fleet had formerly suffered shipwreck in doubling this promontory4 ,to prevent the like disaster1 ,xerxes caused this passage to be cut through the mountain1 broad enough to let two galleys1 with three banks of oars each1 pass in front4 ,by this means1 he severed from the continent the cities of ,dion1 ,olophyxus1 ,acrothoon1 ,thysus1 and ,cleone4 ,it is said1 however1 that ,xerxes undertook this enterprise only out of ostentation1 and to perpetuate the memory of his name1 since he might1 with far less trouble1 have caused his fleet to be conveyed over the isthmus1 as was the practice in those days4 ,he likewise commanded a bridge of boats to be laid over the ,hellespont1 for the passing of his forces from ,asia into ,europe4 ,the sea which separates ,sestos and ,abydos1 where the bridge was built1 is seven furlongs over4 ,the work was carried on with great expedition by the ,phoenicians and ,egyptians1 who had no sooner finished it1 but a violent storm arising1 broke it in pieces1 and dispersed or dashed against the shore the vessels of which it was composed3 which when ,xerxes heard1 he fell into such a violent transport of anger1 that he commanded three hundred stripes to be inflicted on the sea1 and a pair of fetters to be thrown into it2 enjoining those who were trusted with the execution of his orders1 to pronounce these words3--,thou salt and bitter element1 thy master has condemned thee to this punishment1 for offending him without cause2 and is resolved to pass over thee1 in spite of thy billows1 and insolent resistance4 ,the extravagant folly and madness of this prince did not stop here1 for1 to crown the whole1 he commanded the heads of those who had the direction of the work to be struck off4 ,in their room he appointed more experienced architects to build two other bridges1 one for the army1 the other for the beasts of burden1 and the baggage4 ,when the whole work was completed1 and the vessels which formed the bridges secure against the violence of the winds1 and the current of the water1 ,xerxes departed from ,sardis1 where the army had wintered1 and directed his march to ,abydos4 ,when he arrived at that city1 he desired to see all his forces together2 and1 to that end1 ascending a stately edifice of white stone1 which the ,abydenians had built1 on purpose to receive him in a manner suitable to his greatness1 he had a free prospect to the coast1 seeing at one view both his fleet and land forces4 ,the sea was covered with his ships1 and the large plains of ,abydos with his troops1 quite down to the shore4 ,while he was surveying the vast extent of his power1 and deeming himself the most happy of mortals1 his joy was suddenly turned into grief2 he burst into a flood of tears3 which ,artabanus perceiving1 asked him what had made him1 in a few moments1 pass from an excess of joy to so great a grief4 ,the king replied1 that1 considering the shortness of human life1 he could not restrain his tears2 for1 of all these numbers of men1 not one1 said he1 will be alive a hundred years hence4 ,artabanus1 who neglected no opportunity of instilling into the young prince's mind sentiments of kindness towards his people1 finding him touched with a sense of tenderness and humanity1 endeavoured to make him sensible of the obligation that is incumbent upon princes1 to alleviate the sorrows1 and sweeten the bitterness1 which the lives of their subjects are liable to1 since it is not in their power to prolong them4 ,in the same conversation1 ,xerxes asked his uncle1 whether1 if he had not seen the vision which made him change his mind1 he would still persist in the same opinion1 and dissuade him from making war upon ,greece4 ,artabanus sincerely owned1 that he still had his fears1 and was very uneasy concerning two things1 the sea and the land2 the sea1 because there were no ports capable of receiving and sheltering such a fleet1 if a storm should arise2 and the land1 because no country could maintain so numerous an army4 ,the king was very sensible of the strength of his reasoning2 but as it was now too late to go back1 he made answer1 that1 in great enterprises1 men ought not to enter into so nice a discussion of all the inconveniences that may attend them3 that bold and daring undertakings1 though subject to many evils and dangers1 are preferable to inaction1 however safe3 that great successes are not otherwise to be obtained than by venturing boldly2 and that1 if his predecessors had observed such scrupulous and timorous rules of politics1 the ,persian empire would never have attained to so high a degree of glory and grandeur4 ,all things being now in readiness1 and a day appointed for the passing over of the army1 as soon as the first rays of the sun began to appear1 all sorts of perfumes were burnt upon the bridge1 and the way strewed with myrtle4 ,at the same time1 ,xerxes1 pouring a libation into the sea out of a golden cup1 and addressing the sun1 implored the assistance of that deity1 begging that he might meet with no impediment so great1 as to hinder him from carrying his conquering arms to the utmost limits of ,europe4 ,this done1 he threw the cup into the ,hellespont1 with a golden bowl1 and a ,persian cimeter2 and the foot and horse began to pass over that bridge which was next to the ,euxine1 while the carriages and beasts of burden passed over the other1 which was placed nearer the gean sea4 ,the bridges were boarded1 and covered over with earth1 having rails on each side1 that the horses and cattle might not be frightened at the sight of the sea4 ,the army spent seven days and nights in passing over1 though they marched day and night1 without intermission1 and were1 by frequent blows1 obliged to quicken their pace4 ,at the same time1 the fleet made to the coasts of ,europe4 ,after the whole army was passed1 ,xerxes advanced with his land forces1 through the ,thracian ,chersonessus to ,doricus1 a city at the mouth of the river ,hebrus1 in ,thrace3 but the fleet steered a quite different course1 standing to the westward for the promontory of ,sarpedon1 where they were commanded to attend farther orders4 ,xerxes1 having encamped in the large plains of ,doriscus1 and judging them convenient for reviewing and numbering his troops1 dispatched orders to his admirals to bring the fleet to the adjacent shore1 that he might take an account both of his sea and land forces4 ,his land army1 upon the muster1 was found to consist of one million seven hundred thousand foot1 and fourscore thousand horse2 which1 together with twenty thousand men that conducted the camels1 and took care of the baggage1 amounted to one million eight hundred thousand men4 ,his fleet consisted of twelve hundred and seven large ships1 and three thousand galleys and transports3 on board of all these vessels1 there were found to be five hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and ten men4 ,so that the whole number of sea and land forces1 which ,xerxes led out of ,asia to invade ,greece1 amounted to two millions three hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and ten men4 ,we are told1 that1 on his passing the ,hellespont1 to enter ,europe1 an inhabitant of that country cried out3 ,o ,jupiter1 why art thou come to destroy ,greece1 in the shape of a ,persian1 and under the name of ,xerxes1 with all mankind following thee2 whereas thy own power is sufficient to do this1 without their assistance8 ,after he had entered ,europe1 the nations on this side the ,hellespont that submitted to him1 added to his land forces three hundred thousand more1 and two hundred and twenty ships to his fleet1 on board of which were twenty-four thousand men4 ,so that the whole number of his forces1 when he arrived at ,thermopyl1 was two millions six hundred and forty-one thousand six hundred and ten men1 without including servants1 eunuchs1 women1 sutlers1 and other people of that sort1 who were computed to equal the number of the forces3 so that the whole multitude of persons that followed ,xerxes in this expedition1 amounted to five millions two hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred and twenty4 ,among these millions of men1 there was not one that could vie with ,xerxes1 either in comeliness or stature1 or that seemed more worthy of that great empire4 ,but this is a poor recommendation1 when unaccompanied with other qualifications of more sterling worth4 ,accordingly1 ,justin1 after he has mentioned the number of his troops1 emphatically concludes1 but this vast body wanted a head4 ,besides the subordinate generals of each nation1 who commanded the troops of their respective countries1 the whole army was under the command of six ,persian generals3 viz4 ,mardonius1 the son of ,gobryus3 ,triatatchmes1 the son of ,artabanus2 ,smerdones1 the son of ,otanes 7the two latter were cousins to ,xerxes27 ,masistus1 the son of ,darius by ,atossa2 ,gerges1 the son of ,ariazus2 and ,megabyzus1 the son of the celebrated ,zopyrus4 ,the ten thousand ,persians1 who were called the ,immortal ,band1 obeyed no other commander but ,hydarnes4 ,the fleet was commanded by four ,persian admirals3 and likewise the cavalry had their particular generals and commanders4 ,,chap4 ,,lviii4 ,,basaltic ,,and ,,rocky ,,curiosities4 ,giant's ,causeway--,stonehenge4 ,,giant',s ,,causeway1 ,,in ,,ireland4--,the following account is taken from notes of a mineralogical excursion to the ,giant's ,causeway1 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,grierson1 as published in the ,annals of ,philosophy4 ,i left 7says the ,doctor7 ,colerain on the morning of ,sept4 #ag1 in company with a gentleman of that place1 whose obligingness1 intelligence1 hospitality1 and kindness1 afforded me a most agreeable specimen of the ,irish character1 and proceeded to ,giant's ,causeway4 ,the day was charming2 and it is not easy for me to express the gratification ,i felt1 as we made our way through a fine and gently varied district1 at the idea of having it in my power soon to contemplate in favourable circumstances one of the most stupendous and interesting natural phenomena1 that are any where to be seen4 ,from ,coleraine to the ,causeway is eight miles in a northerly direction1 and ,i could observe no rock on our way1 but the trap formation4 ,on crossing the river ,bush1 at the village called ,bushmills1 the country begins gradually to rise1 and we descry1 about two miles before us1 a ridge of considerable height1 seeming to terminate quite abruptly on the other side4 ,what we perceive is the land side of the precipice of the ,giant's ,causeway4 ,it seems to have been a hill of basalt1 with nearly perpendicular columnar concretions1 cut in two1 as it were1 by a vertical section1 and the half of the hill next the sea carried away4 ,on getting in front of this precipice1 which you do by a pass on the west side of it1 a most stupendous scene presents itself4 ,the precipice1 extending for a mile or two along the shore1 is in many places quite perpendicular1 and often three hundred and fifty and four hundred feet high1 consisting of pure columnar basalt1 some of the columns fifty feet in perpendicular height1 straight and smooth1 as if polished with a chisel4 ,in other parts the columns are smaller1 inclined1 or bent2 and a less length of them strikes the eye4 ,from the bottom of this precipice issues1 with a gentle slope of about one foot in thirty towards the sea1 an immense and surprising pavement1 as it were1 consisting of the upper ends of the fragments of vertical columns of basalt1 that have been left when the seaward half of the basaltic hill was carried off4 ,the ends of these columns are in general fifteen or twenty inches in diameter1 some of them of three sides1 some four1 five1 six1 seven1 eight1 or even nine4 ,five or six sides seem to prevail most4 ,from the bottom of the precipice to the sea at low water1 along this pavement or causeway1 which1 from the artificial appearance it puts on1 has doubtless1 in a rude age1 given name to the place1 is a length of seven hundred and thirty feet4 ,it has been observed to proceed into the ocean as far as can be traced by the eye in a calm and clear day4 ,to any person who has seen both this place and ,staffa1 the idea naturally enough suggests itself1 that they are parts of the same once continuous immense bed of columnar basalt4 ,there are properly three pavements proceeding into the sea1 distinguished by the names of the ,great ,causeway1 the ,middle ,causeway1 and the ,west ,causeway4 ,these are three large gently sloping ridges of the ends of basaltic columns1 with depressions between them1 covered with large blocks or masses1 that seem to have been from time to time detached1 and rolled from the precipice4 ,i had no opportunity of perceiving with what rocks the basalt of the ,giant's ,causeway is connected4 ,i am told conchoidal white lime-stone meets it on both the east and west sides4 ,there is in one place1 near the east side of the ,great ,causeway1 a green-stone vein1 eight or ten feet wide1 intersecting the basalt from north-west to south-east4 ,there was now pointed out to us by the guides a very rare and curious phenomenon1 and which is particularly interesting1 as it has been thought1 by those who hold the igneous origin of basalt1 to be a confirmation of their doctrine4 ,nearly opposite to the ,west ,causeway1 and within about eighty feet of the top of the cliff1 is found to exist a quantity of slags and ashes1 unquestionably the production of fire4 ,on ascending to this spot1 which can be easily done1 ,i found the slags and ashes deposited in a sort of bed about four feet thick1 and running horizontally along the face of the basaltic precipice twenty or thirty feet4 ,the ashes are in general observed to lie undermost1 and the slags above them4 ,they are covered with a considerable quantity of earth and stones1 which all consist of basalt1 are of a large size1 some of them three or four feet or more in diameter1 and the ashes likewise rest on the same sort of materials4 ,what struck me here was1 that these ashes and slags are entirely unconnected with any rock or formation which seems to be in situ1 or in its original position4 ,they are therefore1 in my opinion1 distinctly artificial1 and nothing more than the remains of some large and powerful fire1 which had been kept burning for a long while on the top of this precipice1 used either as a signal1 or for some other purpose which we cannot now ascertain2 and that1 owing to the part of the cliff on which the ashes were lying having given way and tumbled down1 they have been thus buried beneath the ruins1 and there remain4 ,a considerable way from the repository of the ashes and slags1 and to the east of the ,great ,causeway1 is another curious appearance4 ,here1 in the pure basalt1 seventy or eighty feet from the top of the cliff1 is a horizontal bed of wood coal1 eight feet thick4 ,the coal to all appearance rests immediately on the basalt below1 and the ends of perpendicular basaltic columns are seen distinctly to rest on it above4 ,the basalt is not in the least changed by the contact of the coal1 nor the coal by that of the basalt4 ,the coal is very beautiful and distinct1 and in one place is seen a coalified tree1 7if ,i may use the word17 ten or twelve inches in diameter1 running directly in below the basalt4 ,within sight of this spot1 and about three hundred yards to the east of it1 are the beautifully conspicuous basaltic pillars1 forty-five feet long1 and vertical1 with the longest ones in the middle1 and others gradually shortening towards each side1 like the columns of an organ4 ,from this appearance they have received the appropriate name of ,the ,organ4 ,at the bottom of this cliff1 by examining and breaking the loose columnar pieces of the rock that have fallen down1 we found many fine specimens of calcedony1 zeolite1 and semi-opal4 ,these occur in cavities in the basalt4 ,sometimes the cavity is not completely filled with the calcedony or opal2 and when that is the case1 the empty space is observed to be always the upper part of the cavity1 while the rock is in situ4 ,moreover1 the surface of the calcedony or opal1 next to the empty space1 is always found to be flat and horizontal1 which would shew that the substance must have been filtered into its situation in a fluid state1 and afterwards consolidated4 ,,stonehenge1--a celebrated monument of antiquity1 stands in the middle of a flat area1 near the summit of a hill six miles from ,salisbury4 ,it is inclosed by a circular double bank and ditch near thirty feet broad1 after crossing which1 we ascend thirty yards before we reach the work4 ,the whole fabric consisted of two circles and two ovals4 ,the outer circle is about one hundred and eight feet diameter1 consisting1 when entire1 of sixty stones1 thirty uprights1 and thirty imposts1 of which remain only twenty-four uprights1 seventeen standing1 and seven down1 three and a half feet asunder2 and eight imposts4 ,eleven uprights have their five imposts on them by the grand entrance4 ,these stones are from thirteen to twenty feet high4 ,the lesser circle is somewhat more than eight feet from the inside of the outer one1 and consisted of forty lesser stones 7the highest six feet17 of which only nineteen remain1 and only eleven standing3 the walk between these two circles is three hundred feet in circumference4 ,the adytum1 or cell1 is an oval formed of ten stones1 7from sixteen to twenty-two feet high17 in pairs1 with imposts1 which ,dr4 ,stukeley calls trilithons1 and above thirty feet high1 rising in height as they go round1 and each pair separate1 and not connected as the outer pair2 the highest eight feet4 ,within these are nineteen smaller single stones1 of which only six are standing4 ,three of the five trilithons at the west end fell flat westward1 levelling also in their descent1 a stone of the second circle that stood in the line of their precipitation1 on the #c;d of ,january1 #agig4 ,at the upper end of the adytum is the altar1 a large slab of blue coarse marble1 twenty inches thick1 sixteen feet long1 and four broad2 pressed down by the weight of the vast stones that have fallen upon it4 ,the whole number of stones1 uprights and altar1 is exactly one hundred and forty4 ,the stones are far from being artificial1 but were most probably brought from those called the ,grey ,weathers1 on ,marlborough ,downs1 fifteen or sixteen miles off2 and if tried with a tool1 they appear of the same hardness1 grain1 and colour1 generally reddish4 ,the heads of oxen1 deer1 and other beasts1 have been found on digging in and about ,stonehenge2 and human bones in the circumjacent barrows4 ,there are three entrances from the plain to this structure1 the most considerable of which is from the north-east1 and at each of them were raised1 on the outside of the trench1 two huge stones1 with two smaller within1 parallel to them4 ,it has long been a dispute among the learned1 by what nation1 and for what purpose1 these enormous stones were collected and arranged4 ,the first account of this structure we meet with1 is in ,geoffrey of ,monmouth1 who1 in the reign of ,king ,stephen1 wrote the ,history of the ,britons1 in ,latin4 ,he tells us1 that it was erected by the counsel of ,merlin1 the ,british enchanter1 at the command of ,aurelius ,ambrosius1 the ,british king1 in memory of four hundred and sixty ,britons1 who were murdered by ,hengist the ,saxon4 ,the next account is that of ,polydore ,virgil1 who says that the ,britons erected this as a sepulchral monument of ,boadicea1 the famous ,british queen4 ,inigo ,jones is of opinion1 that it was a ,roman temple1 from a stone sixteen feet long1 and four broad1 placed in an exact position to the east1 altar-fashion4 ,mr4 ,charlton attributed it to the ,danes1 who where two years masters of ,wiltshire3 a tin tablet1 on which were some unknown characters1 supposed to be ,runic1 was dug up near it1 in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 but is lost4 ,its common name1 ,stonehenge1 is ,saxon1 and signifies a ,stone ,gallows1 to which these stones1 having transverse imposts1 bear some resemblance4 ,it is also called1 in ,welsh1 ,choir ,gawr1 or the ,giant's ,dance4 ,mr4 ,grose thinks that ,dr4 ,stukeley has completely proved this structure to have been a ,british temple1 in which the ,druids officiated4 ,he supposes it to have been the metropolitan temple of ,great ,britain1 and translates the words choir gawr1 the great choir1 or temple4 ,mr4 ,bryant is of opinion1 that it was erected by a colony of ,cuthites1 probably before the time of the ,druids2 because it was usual with them to place one vast stone upon another1 for a religious memorial2 and these they often placed so equally1 that a breath of wind would sometimes make them vibrate4 ,of such stones1 one remains in the pile of ,stonehenge4 ,the ancients distinguished stones erected with a religious view1 by the name of ,amber2 by which was signified any thing solar and divine4 ,the ,grecians called them petr ambrosi4 ,stonehenge1 according to ,mr4 ,bryant1 is composed of these amber stones3 hence the next town is denominated ,ambresbury2 not from a ,roman ,ambrosius1 but from the ambrosia petr1 in whose vicinity it stood4 ,some of these were ,rocking ,stones2 and there was a wonderful monument of this sort near ,penzance1 in ,cornwall1 which still retains the name of ,main-amber1 or the ,sacred ,stones4 ,such a one is mentioned by ,apollonius ,rhodius1 supposed to have been raised in the time of the ,argonauts1 in the island of ,tenos1 as the monument of the two-winged sons of ,boreas1 slain by ,hercules2 and there are others in ,china1 and other countries4 ,,chap4 ,,lix4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,various ,,customs ,,of ,,mankind4 ,curious ,demonstrations of ,friendship--,singularities of different ,nations in ,eating--,female ,beauty and ,ornaments--,various ,modes of ,salutation--,maiden--,lady of the ,lamb--,curious ,custom respecting ,catching a ,hare--,extraordinary ,ancient ,custom4 ----------------------------,customs1 ,though they be never so ridiculous1 ,nay1 let e'm be unmanly1 yet are follow'd4 ,shakspeare4 ,,curious ,,demonstrations ,,of ,,friendship4--,the demonstrations of friendship in a rude state have a savage and gross character1 which it is not a little curious to observe4 ,the ,tartars pull a man by the ear to press him to drink1 and they continue tormenting him till he opens his mouth2 and when they have accomplished their object1 they clap their hands and dance before him4 ,no customs seem more ridiculous1 than those practised by a ,kamtschadale1 when he wishes to make another his friend4 ,he first invites him to his hut to eat4 ,if the invitation is accepted1 the host and his guest strip themselves in a cabin1 which is heated to an uncommon degree4 ,while the guest devours the food with which they serve him1 the other continually stirs the fire4 ,the stranger must bear the excess of the heat1 as well as of the repast4 ,he discharges the food from his stomach ten times before he will yield2 but at length1 obliged to acknowledge himself overcome1 he begins to compound matters4 ,he purchases a moment's respite by a present of clothes or dogs2 for his host threatens to heat the cabin1 and to oblige him to eat till he dies4 ,the stranger has the right of retaliation allowed to him3 he treats the other in the same manner1 and exacts the same presents4 ,should his host not accept the invitation of his guest1 whom he has so handsomely regaled1 he would come and inhabit his cabin1 till he had obtained from him the presents he had in so singular a manner given to him4 ,for this extravagant custom a curious reason has been alleged4 ,it is meant to put the person to a trial1 where friendship is sought4 ,the ,kamtschadale1 who is at the expense of the fires and the repast1 is desirous to know if the stranger has the strength to support pain with him1 and if he is generous enough to share with him some part of his property4 ,while the guest is employed on his meal1 he continues heating the cabin to an insupportable degree1 and1 as a last proof of the stranger's constancy and attachment1 he exacts more clothes and more dogs4 ,the host passes through the same ceremonies in the cabin of the stranger2 and he shews in his turn1 with what degree of fortitude he can defend his friend4--,it is thus the most singular customs would appear simple1 if it were possible for the philosopher to contemplate them on the spot4 ,as a distinguishing mark of esteem1 two friendly ,negroes of ,ardra drink out of one cup at the same time4 ,the king of ,loango eats in one house1 and drinks in another4 ,a ,kamtschadale kneels before his guest2 he cuts an enormous slice from a sea-calf2 he crams it entire into the mouth of his friend1 furiously crying out1 ,tana6 7,there67 and cutting away what hangs about his lips1 snatches and swallows it with avidity4 ,,singularities ,,of ,,different ,,nations ,,in ,,eating4--,the ,maldivian islanders eat alone4 ,they retire into the most hidden parts of their houses2 when they draw down the cloths that serve as blinds to their windows1 that they may eat unobserved4 ,this custom probably arises from the savage1 in the early periods of society1 concealing himself to eat1 from a fear that another with as sharp an appetite1 but possessing more bodily strength than himself1 should come and ravish his meal from him4 ,the powerful ideas of witchcraft1 too1 are widely spread among barbarians2 and they are not a little fearful that some incantation may be made use of while devouring their victuals4 ,in noticing the solitary meal of the ,maldivian islander1 another reason may be alleged for this misanthropical repast4 ,they never will eat with any one who is inferior to them in birth1 in riches1 or in dignity2 and as it is a difficult matter to settle this equality1 they are condemned to lead this unsociable life4 ,on the contrary1 the islanders of the ,philippines are remarkably sociable4 ,whenever one of them finds himself without a companion to partake of his meal1 he runs till he meets with one2 and we are assured1 that1 however keen his appetite may be1 he ventures not to satisfy it without a guest4 ,the tables of the rich ,chinese shine with a beautiful varnish1 and are covered with silk carpets very elegantly worked4 ,they do not make use of plates1 or knives and forks3 every guest has two little ivory or ebony sticks1 which he handles very adroitly4 ,the ,otaheiteans1 who are lovers of society1 and very gentle in their manners1 feed separately from each other4 ,at the hour of repast1 the members of each family divide2 two brothers1 two sisters1 and even husband and wife1 father and mother1 have each their respective basket4 ,they place themselves at the distance of two or three yards from each other2 they turn their backs to their companions1 and take their meal in profound silence4 ,various are the opinions and customs of mankind with respect to ,,female ,,beauty ,,and ,,ornaments1--as will be perceived from the following prejudices of different nations4 ,the ladies in ,japan gild their teeth2 and those of the ,indies paint them red4 ,the blackest teeth are esteemed the most beautiful in ,guzerat1 and in some parts of ,america4 ,in ,greenland the women colour their faces with blue and yellow2 and a ,muscovite lady would consider her beauty incomplete1 unless she were plastered over with paint1 however prodigal nature may have been in her gifts4 ,the ,chinese must have their feet as diminutive as those of the she-goats1 and to render them thus1 their youth is passed in tortures4 ,in ancient ,persia1 an aquiline nose was often thought worthy of the crown2 and if there was any competition between two princes1 the people generally went by this criterion of majesty4 ,in some countries1 the mothers break the noses of their children2 and others press the head between two boards1 that it may become square4 ,the modern ,persians have a strong aversion to red hair3 the ,turks1 on the contrary1 are warm admirers of it4 ,the ,indian beauty is thickly smeared with bear's fat2 while the female ,hottentot regrets not the absence of silks and wreaths of flowers1 if she can but receive from the hand of her lover the warm entrails and reeking tripe of animals he has just slaughtered1 that she may deck herself with these enviable ornaments4 ,in ,china1 small eyes are liked2 and the girls are continually plucking their eyebrows1 that they may be small and long4 ,the ,turkish women dip a gold brush in the tincture of a black drug1 which they pass over their eyebrows4 ,this is too visible by day1 but it looks shining by night4 ,they also tinge their nails with a rose colour4 ,an ornament for the nose appears to us perfectly unnecessary4 ,the ,peruvians1 however1 think otherwise2 and they hang on it a weighty ring1 the thickness of which is regulated by the rank of their husbands4 ,the custom of boring the nose1 as our ladies do their ears1 is very common in several nations4 ,through the perforation are hung various materials2 such as green crystal1 gold1 stones1 a single and sometimes a great number of gold rings1 which become at times rather troublesome to them4 ,the female head-dress is carried in some countries to singular extravagance4 ,the ,chinese fair carries on her head the figure of a certain bird4 ,this bird is composed of copper or of gold1 according to the quality of the person3 the wings spread out1 fall over the front of the head-dress1 and conceal the temples2 the tail1 long and open1 forms a beautiful tuft of feathers2 the beak covers the top of the nose2 the neck is fastened to the body of the artificial animal by a spring1 that it may the more freely play1 and tremble at the slightest motion4 ,the extravagance of the ,myantses is far more ridiculous than the above4 ,they carry on their heads a slight board1 rather longer than the foot1 and about six inches broad3 with this they cover their hair1 and seal it with wax4 ,they cannot lie down1 nor lean1 without keeping the neck very straight2 and the country being very woody1 it is not uncommon to find them with their head-dress entangled in the trees4 ,whenever they comb their hair1 they pass an hour by the fire in melting the wax2 but this combing is only performed once or twice a year4 ,to this curious account1 extracted from ,duhalde1 we must join that of the inhabitants of the land of ,natal4 ,they wear caps or bonnets1 from six to ten inches high1 composed of the fat of oxen4 ,they then gradually anoint the head with a purer grease1 which mixing with the hair1 fastens these bonnets for their lives4 ,the reader will be amused with the following account of ,,the ,,various ,,modes ,,of ,,salutation4--,when men1 says the compiler of ,l',esprit des ,usages et des ,coutumes1 salute each other in an amicable manner1 it signifies little whether they move a particular part of the body1 or practise a particular ceremony4 ,in these actions there must exist different customs4 ,every nation imagines it employs the most reasonable ones4 ,this infinite number of ceremonies may be reduced to two kinds2 to reverences or salutations1 and to the touch of some part of the human body4 ,modes of salutation have very different characters1 and it is not uninteresting to examine their shades4 ,many display a refinement of delicacy2 while others are remarkable for their simplicity1 or sensibility4 ,the islanders near the ,philippines take the hand or foot of him they salute1 and with it they gently rub their face4 ,the ,laplanders apply their nose strongly against that of the persons they salute4 ,dampier says1 that at ,new ,guinea they are satisfied in placing on their heads the leaves of trees1 which have ever passed for symbols of friendship and peace4 ,other salutations are very incommodious3 it requires great practice to enable a man to be polite in an island in the straits of the ,sound4 ,houtman tells us1 they raised his left foot1 which they passed gently over the right leg1 and thence over his face4 ,the inhabitants of the ,philippines bend their bodies very low1 in placing their hands on their cheeks1 and raising at the same time one foot in the air1 with their knee bent4 ,an ,ethiopian takes the robe of another1 and ties it about his own waist1 so that he leaves his friend half naked4 ,this custom of undressing takes other forms3 sometimes men place themselves naked before the person whom they salute1 to show their humility1 and that they are unworthy of a covering in his presence4 ,this was practised before ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 when he received the visit of two ,otaheitan ladies4 ,their innocent simplicity did not appear immodest in the eyes of the virtuoso4 ,sometimes they only undress partially4 ,the ,japanese only take off a slipper2 the people of ,arracan their sandals in the street1 and their stockings in the house4 ,the grandees of ,spain claim the right of appearing covered before the king1 to shew that they are not so much subjected to him as the rest of the nation4 ,snelgrave gives an odd representation of the embassy which the king of ,dahomy sent to him4 ,the ceremonies of salutations consisted in the most ridiculous contortions4 ,when two negro monarchs visit1 they salute by snapping three times the middle finger4 ,barbarous nations frequently imprint on their salutations their character4 ,when the inhabitants of ,carmena 7says ,athenus7 would shew a peculiar mark of esteem1 they breathed a vein1 and presented for the beverage of their friend the blood as it issued4 ,the ,franks tore hair from their head1 and presented it to the person whom they saluted4 ,the slave cut his hair1 and offered it to his master4 ,the ,chinese are singularly affected in their personal civilities3 they even calculate the number of their reverences4 ,the men move their hands in an affectionate manner1 while they are joined together on their breast1 and bow their head a little4 ,if two persons meet after a long separation1 they both fall on their knees and bend their faces to the earth1 and this they repeat two or three times4 ,they substitute artificial ceremonies for natural actions4 ,their expressions mean as little as their ceremonies4 ,if a ,chinese is asked how he finds himself in health8 ,he answers1 ,very well1 thanks to your abundant felicity4 ,if they would tell a man that he looks well1 they say1 ,prosperity is painted on your face2 or1 ,your air announces your happiness4 ,all these and many other answers are prescribed by the ,chinese academy of compliments4 ,there are determined the number of bows1 the expressions to be employed1 the genuflections1 and the inclinations to be made to the right or left hand1 the salutations of the master before the chair1 where the stranger is to be seated1 for he salutes it most profoundly1 and wipes the dust away with the skirts of his robe4 ,the lower class of people are equally nice in these punctilios2 and ambassadors pass forty days in practising them before they can appear at court4 ,a tribunal of ceremonies has been erected1 and every day very odd decrees are issued1 to which the ,chinese most religiously submit4 ,the marks of honour are frequently arbitrary3 to be seated1 with us1 is a mark of repose and familiarity2 to stand up1 that of respect4 ,there are countries1 however1 in which princes will only be addressed by persons who are seated1 and it is considered as a favour to be permitted to stand in their presence4 ,this custom prevails in despotic countries3 a despot cannot suffer1 without disgust1 the elevated figure of his subjects2 he is pleased to bend their bodies with their genius2 his presence must lay those who behold him prostrate on the earth2 he desires no eagerness1 no attention2 he would only inspire terror4 ,we shall next give an account of ,,the ,,maiden4--,this term is applied to an ancient ,english custom1 or1 more properly1 to an instrument for beheading criminals2 of the use and form of which ,mr4 ,pennant gives the following account3 ,it seems to have been confined to the limits of the forest of ,hardwick1 or the eighteen towns and hamlets within its precincts4 ,the time when this custom took place is unknown2 whether ,earl ,warren1 lord of this forest1 might have established it among the sanguinary laws then in use against the invaders of the hunting rights1 or whether it might not take place after the woollen manufactures at ,halifax began to gain strength1 is uncertain4 ,the last is very probable1 for the wild country around the town was inhabited by a lawless set1 whose depredations on the cloth-tenters might soon stifle the efforts of infant industry4 ,for the protection of trade1 and for the greater terror of offenders by speedy execution1 this custom seems to be established1 so as at last to receive the force of law1 which was ',that if a felon be taken within the liberty of the forest of ,hardwick1 with goods stolen out1 or within the said precincts1 either handhaband1 backberand1 or confessioned1 to the value of thirteen-pence-halfpenny1 he shall1 after three market days1 or meeting days1 within the town of ,halifax1 next after such his apprehension1 and being condemned1 be taken to the gibbet1 and there have his head cut from his body4' ,the offender had always a fair trial2 for as soon as he was taken1 he was brought to the lord's bailiff1 at ,halifax3 he was then exposed to the three markets1 7which here were held thrice in a week17 placed in the stocks1 with the goods stolen on his back1 or1 if the theft was of the cattle kind1 they were placed by him2 and this was done both to strike terror into others1 and to produce new informations against him4 ,the bailiff then summoned four freeholders of each town within the forest1 to form a jury4 ,the felon and prosecutors were brought face to face2 and the goods1 the cow1 or horse1 or whatsoever was stolen1 produced4 ,if he was found guilty1 he was remanded to prison1 had a week's time allowed for preparation1 and then was conveyed to this spot1 where his head was struck off with this machine4 ,i should have premised1 that if the criminal1 either on apprehension1 or in the way of execution1 should escape out of the limits of the forest1 7part being close to the town17 the bailiff had no further power over him2 but if he should be caught within the precincts at any time after1 he was immediately executed on his former sentence4 ,this privilege was very freely used during the reign of ,elizabeth2 the records before that time are lost4 ,twenty-five suffered in her reign1 and at least twelve from #afbc to #afej2 after which1 ,i believe1 the privilege was no more exerted4 ,this machine of death is now destroyed2 but ,i saw one of the same kind in a room under the parliament-house at ,edinburgh1 where it was introduced by the regent ,morton1 who took a model of it as he passed through ,halifax1 and at length suffered by it himself4 ,it is in form of a painter's easel1 and about ten feet high3 at four feet from the bottom is a cross bar1 on which the felon lays his head1 which is kept down by another placed above4 ,in the inner edges of the frames are grooves2 in these is placed a sharp axe1 with a vast weight of lead1 supported at the very summit with a peg3 to that peg is fastened a cord1 which the executioner cutting1 the axe falls1 and does the affair effectually1 without suffering the unhappy criminal to undergo a repetition of strokes1 as has been the case in the common method4 ,i must add1 that if the sufferer is condemned for stealing a horse or a cow1 the string is tied to the beast1 which1 on being whipped1 pulls out the peg1 and becomes the executioner4 ,this apparatus is now in possession of the ,scottish ,antiquarian ,society4 ,,lady ,,of ,,the ,,lamb4--,at ,kidlington1 in ,oxfordshire1 there is a custom1 that on the next ,monday after ,whitsun-week1 there is a fat live lamb provided1 and the maids of the town1 having their thumbs tied behind them1 run after it2 and she that with her mouth takes and holds the lamb1 is declared ,lady of the ,lamb1--which being dressed by the butcher1 with the skin hanging on1 is carried on a long pole before the lady and her companions to the green1 attended with music1 and a morisco-dance of men1 and another of women1 where the rest of the day is spent in dancing1 mirth1 and merry glee4 ,the next day the lamb is part baked1 boiled1 and roasted1 for the lady's feast2 where she sits majestically1 at the upper end of the table1 and her companions with her1 with music and other attendants1 which ends the ceremony4 ,the following is a ,,curious ,,custom ,,respecting ,,catching ,a ,,hare4--,they have an ancient custom at ,coleshill1 in the county of ,warwick1 that if the young men of the town can catch a hare1 and bring it to the parson of the parish1 before ten of the clock on ,easter ,monday1 the parson is bound to give them a calf's head1 and an hundred of eggs for their breakfast1 and a groat in money4 ,this chapter concludes with an account of an ,,extraordinary ,,ancient ,,custom4--,a court1 called ,lawless ,court1 is held annually on ,kingshill1 at ,rochford1 in ,essex1 on ,wednesday morning next after ,michaelmas-day1 at cock-crowing1 at which court the whole of the business is transacted in a whisper2 no candle is allowed in the court1 nor any pen and ink1 but the proceedings are written with a piece of charcoal2 and he that holds suit and service there1 and does not appear1 forfeits double the amount of his rent to the lord of the manor ,this court is mentioned by ,camden1 who says1 the servile attendance was imposed on the tenants for conspiring at the like unseasonable time to raise a commotion4 ,it belongs to the honour of ,raleigh1 and is called ,lawless1 because held at an unlawful hour1 or1 quia dicta sine lege4 ,,chap4 ,,lx4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,customs ,,of ,,mankind4--7,continued47 ,marriage ,ceremonies of different ,nations--,marriage ,custom of the ,japanese--,bacon ,flitch ,custom at ,dunmow1 ,essex--,on the ,origin of ,rings in general--,matrimonial ,ring--,extraordinary ,marriage ,custom--,hand-,fasting4 ,tho' fools spurn ,hymen's gentle pow'rs1 ,they who improve his golden hours1 ,by sweet experience know1 ,that marriage1 rightly understood1 ,gives to the tender and the good ,a paradise below4 ,cotton4 ,,marriage ,,ceremonies ,,of ,,different ,,nations4--,marriage ceremonies vary in different countries1 and at different times4 ,where the practice is to purchase a wife1 whether among savages1 or among luxurious people in hot climates1 payment of the price completes this marriage1 without any other ceremony4 ,other ceremonies1 however1 are sometimes practised4 ,in old ,rome1 the bride was attended to the bridegroom's house1 with a female slave carrying a distaff and a spindle1 importing that she ought to spin for the family4 ,among the savages of ,canada1 and of neighbouring countries1 a strap1 a kettle1 and a faggot1 are put in the bride's cabin1 as symbols of her duty1 viz4 to carry burdens1 to dress victuals1 and to provide wood4 ,on the other hand1 the bride1 in token of her slavery1 takes her axe1 cuts wood1 bundles it up1 and lays it before the door of the bridegroom's hut4 ,all the salutation she receives is1 ,it is time to go to rest4 ,the inhabitants of ,sierra ,leone1 on the coast of ,africa1 have in all their towns a boarding-school1 where young ladies are educated for a year1 under the care of a venerable old gentleman4 ,when their education is completed1 they are carried in their best attire to a public assembly2 which may be termed a matrimonial market1 because there young men convene to make a choice4 ,those who fit themselves to their fancy pay the dowry2 and1 over and above1 reward the old superintendant for his extraordinary care in educating the bride4 ,in the island of ,java1 the bride1 in token of subjection1 washes the bridegroom's feet2 and this is a capital ceremony4 ,in ,russia1 the bride presents to the bridegroom a bundle of rods1 to be used against her when she deserves to be chastised2 and at the same time she pulls off his boots4 ,very different were the manners of ,peru before the ,spanish conquest4 ,the bridegroom carried shoes to the bride1 and put them on with his own hands2 but there1 purchasing wives is unknown4 ,marriage ceremonies in ,lapland are directed by the same principle4 ,it is the custom there1 for a man to make presents to his children of rein-deer2 and young women who have a large stock of these animals1 have lovers in plenty4 ,a young man looks for such a wife at a fair1 or at a meeting for paying taxes4 ,being solicitous1 in particular1 to have an eloquent pleader1 he carries to the house of the young woman some of his relations4 ,they are all admitted except the lover1 who must wait till he be called in4 ,after drinking some spirits1 brought with them for the purpose1 the spokesman addresses the father in humble terms1 bowing the knee1 as if he were introduced to a prince4 ,he styles him the worshipful father1 the high and mighty father1 the best and most illustrious father1 c4 ,the marriage ceremonies among the ,hottentots are of a singular nature4 ,after all matters are adjusted among the old people1 the young couple are shut up by themselves2 and pass the night in struggling for superiority1 which proves a very serious work1 where the bride is reluctant4 ,if she persevere to the last without yielding1 the young man is discarded2 but1 if he prevail1 which commonly happens1 the marriage is completed by another ceremony1 no less singular4 ,the men and women squat on the ground in different circles1 the bridegroom in the centre of one1 and the bride in the centre of another1 where ceremonies of a most indelicate nature take place4 ,the ceremonies among the present ,greeks are no less remarkable4 ,among other particulars1 the bridegroom and bride walk three rounds2 during which they are kicked and cuffed heartily4 ,tournefort adds1 that he only and his companions forbore to join in the ceremony2 which was ascribed to their rusticity1 and ignorance of polite manners4 ,marriage ceremonies among the ,kamtschadales are extremely whimsical4 ,a young man1 after making his proposals1 enters into the presence of his intended father-in-law4 ,if he prove agreeable1 he is admitted to the trial of the touch4 ,the young woman is swaddled up in leathern thongs1 and in that condition is put under the guard of some old women4 ,watching every opportunity of a slack guard1 he endeavours to uncase her1 in order to touch what is always the most concealed4 ,the bride must resist1 in appearance at least2 and therefore cries out for her guards1 who fall with fury on the bridegroom1 tear his hair1 scratch his face1 and act in violent opposition4 ,the attempts of the lover sometimes prove unsuccessful for months2 but the moment the touch is achieved1 the bride testifies her satisfaction1 by pronouncing the word ,ni1 ,ni1 with a soft and loving voice4 ,the next night they associate together without any opposition4 ,one marriage ceremony among the island negroes is singular4 ,as soon as preliminaries are adjusted1 the bridegroom1 with a number of his companions1 set out at night1 and surround the house of the bride1 as if intending to carry her off by force4 ,she and her female attendants1 pretending to make all possible resistance1 cry aloud for help1 but no person appears4 ,this resembles strongly a marriage ceremony that is1 or was1 customary in ,wales4 ,on the morning of the wedding-day1 the bridegroom1 accompanied with his friends on horseback1 demands the bride4 ,her friends1 who are likewise on horseback1 give a positive refusal2 upon which a mock scuffle ensues4 ,the bride1 mounted behind her nearest kinsman1 is carried off1 and is pursued by the bridegroom and his friends1 with loud shouts4 ,it is not uncommon on such an occasion to see two or three hundred sturdy ,cambro-,britons riding at full speed1 crossing and jostling1 to the no small amusement of the spectators4 ,when they have fatigued themselves and their horses1 the bridegroom is suffered to overtake his bride4 ,he leads her away in triumph1 and the scene is concluded with feasting and festivity4 ,the same marriage ceremony was usual in ,muscovy1 ,lithuania1 and ,livonia1 as reported by ,olaus ,magnus4 ,,marriage ,,custom ,,of ,,the ,,japanese4--,a very singular custom at the marriages of the ,japanese1 is1 that the teeth of the bride are made black by some corrosive liquid4 ,the teeth remain black ever after1 and serve to shew that a woman is married1 or a widow4 ,another circumstance is1 at the birth of every child1 to plant a tree in a garden or court-yard1 which attains its full growth in as many years as a man requires to be mature for the duties of marriage4 ,when he marries1 the tree is cut down1 and the wood is made into chests and boxes1 to contain the clothes and other things which are made for the new-married couple4 ,the ,japanese may marry as often as they please3 marriages with sisters are prohibited1 but they can marry any other relative4 ,,bacon ,,flitch ,,custom ,,at ,,dunmow1 ,,essex4--,many persons who are so often jocular about a certain ,flitch of ,bacon1 with those who are supposed to be in a much happier state than themselves1 are not always familiar with the origin of this institution1 and with the whimsical rhyming oath to be taken with the flitch4 ,old ,fuller has preserved it1 in his very scarce work of the ,worthies2 and it will probably amuse those who have more wit than reading on this occasion4 ,the celebrated flitch of bacon of ,dunmow1 in ,essex1 which can only be claimed1 without perjury1 by a select few in the married state1 was a jocular institution by the monks of a monastery1 in the priory of ,dunmow1 in ,essex4 ,fuller observes1 that these mortified men would be mirthful at times1 as hereby may appear4-- ,any person from any part of ,england1 coming hither1 and humbly kneeling on two stones at the church door 7which are yet to be seen17 before the priory or convent1 might demand a gammon or flitch of bacon1 upon the solemn taking of the prescribed oath4 ,the following is a copy of the register of the form and ceremony observed on a claim made more than a century ago1 to this flitch of bacon1 by ,william ,parsley1 of ,much-,easton1 and ,jane1 his wife4 ,dunmow1 ,nuper4--,at a court baron of the ,priorat' right worshipful ,sir ,thomas ,may1 knight1 there holden upon ,friday the seventh of ,june1 in the thirteenth year of the reign of our sovereign ,lord ,william ,,iii4 by the grace of ,god1 c4 and in the year of our ,lord1 #agja1 before ,thomas ,wheeler1 gent steward of the said manor4 ,it is thus enrolled3-- ,,elizabeth ,,beaumont1 spinster1 ,,henrietta ,,beaumont1 spinster1 ,homage4 ,,annabella ,,beaumont1 spinster1 ,jurat4 ,,jane ,,beaumont1 spinster1 ,,mary ,,wheler1 spinster1 ,be it remembered1 that at this court1 in full and open court1 it is found1 and presented by the homage aforesaid1 that ,william ,parsley1 of ,much-,easton1 in the county of ,essex1 butcher1 and ,jane his wife1 have been married for the space of three years the last past1 and upward2 and it is likewise found1 presented1 and adjudged1 by the homage aforesaid1 that the said ,william ,parsley1 and ,jane his wife1 by means of their quiet1 peaceable1 tender1 and loving cohabitation1 for the space of time aforesaid1 7as appears by the said homage17 are fit and qualified persons to be admitted by the court to receive the ancient and accustomed oath1 whereby to entitle themselves to have the bacon of ,dunmow delivered unto them1 according to the custom of the manor4 ,whereupon1 at this court1 in full and open court1 came the said ,william ,parsley1 and ,jane his wife1 in their proper persons1 and humbly prayed1 they might be admitted to take the oath aforesaid2 whereupon the said steward1 with the jury1 suitors1 and other officers of the court1 proceeded1 with the usual solemnity1 to the ancient and accustomed place for the administration of the oath and receiving the gammon aforesaid1 7that is to say7 the two great stones lying near the church door1 within the said manor2 where the said ,william ,parsley1 and ,jane his wife1 kneeling down on the said two stones1 and the said steward did administer unto them the above-mentioned oath in these words1 or to this effect following1 viz4 ,you do swear by custom of confession4 ,that you ne'er made nuptial transgression2 ,nor since you were married man and wife1 ,by household brawls1 or contentious strife1 ,or otherwise1 in bed or at board1 ,offended each other in deed or in word2 ,or in a twelve months' time and a day1 ,repented not in thought any way2 ,or since the church clerk said ,amen1 ,wish'd yourselves unmarried again2 ,but continue true1 and in desire ,as when you join'd hands in holy quire4 ,and immediately thereupon1 the said ,william ,parsley1 and ,jane his wife1 claiming the same gammon of bacon1 the court pronounced the sentence for the same1 in these words1 or to the effect following3 ,since to these conditions1 without any fear1 ,of your own accord you do freely swear1 ,a whole gammon of bacon you do receive1 ,and bear it away with love and good leave1 ,for this is the custom of ,dunmow well known2-- ,though the pleasure be ours1 the bacon's your own4 ,and accordingly a gammon of bacon was delivered unto the said ,william ,parsley1 and ,jane his wife1 with the usual solemnity4 ,examined per ,thomas ,wheeler1 steward4 ,the same day a gammon was delivered to ,mr4 ,reynolds1 steward to ,sir ,charles ,barington1 of ,hatfield1 ,broad ,oak4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,rings ,,in ,,general4--,the origin of rings1 their matter and uses1 together with the supposed virtue of the precious stones set in them1 afford a subject well deserving the notice of the curious4 ,according to the accounts of the heathen mythology1 ,prometheus1 who in the first times had discovered a great number of secrets1 having been delivered from the chains by which he was fastened to ,mount ,caucasus for stealing fire from heaven2 in memory or acknowledgment of the favour he received from ,jupiter1 made himself1 of one of those chains1 a ring1 in whose collet he represented the figure of part of the rock where he had been detained1 or rather1 as ,pliny says1 set in it a bit of the same rock1 and put it on his finger4 ,this was the first ring1 and the first stone4 ,but we otherwise learn that the use of rings is very ancient1 and that the ,egyptians were the first inventors of them2 which seems confirmed by the history of ,joseph1 who1 as we read in ,genesis1 chap4 xli4 for having interpreted ,pharaoh's dream1 received not only his liberty1 but was rewarded with this prince's ring1 and the superintendency of ,egypt4 ,josephus1 in the third book of the ,jewish ,antiquities1 says1 the ,israelites had the use of them after passing the ,red ,sea1 because ,moses1 on his return from ,mount ,sinai1 found that they had forged the golden calf from their wives' rings4 ,the same ,moses 7which was upwards of four hundred years before the wars of ,troy7 permitted the priests to have established the use of gold rings1 enriched with precious stones4 ,the high-priest wore upon his ephod1 which was a kind of camaieu1 rings1 that served him as clasps2 a large emerald was set1 and engraved with mysterious names4 ,the ring he wore on his finger was of estimable value and celestial virtue4 ,had not ,aaron1 the high priest of the ,hebrews1 a ring on his finger1 whereof the diamond1 by its virtue1 operated prodigious things8 for it changed its vivid lustre into a dark colour1 when the ,hebrews were to be punished by death for their sins3 when they were to fall by the sword1 it appeared of a blood colour2 if they were innocent1 it sparkled as usual4 ,it is observable1 that the ancient ,hebrews used rings in the time even of the war of ,troy4 ,queen ,jezebel1 to destroy ,nabath1 as it is related in the first book of ,kings1 made use of the ring of ,ahab1 king of the ,israelites1 her husband1 to seal the counterfeit letters that ordered the death of that unfortunate man4 ,did not ,judah1 as mentioned in the thirty-eighth chapter of ,genesis1 deceive his daughter-in-law ,tamar1 7who had disguised herself17 by giving her his ring and bracelets as a pledge of the faith he had promised her8 ,though ,homer is silent in regard to rings both in his ,iliad and ,odyssey1 they were1 notwithstanding1 used in the time of the ,greeks and ,trojans2 and it is from them that several other nations received them4 ,the ,lacedemonians1 as related by ,alexander ab ,alexandro1 pursuant to the orders of their king ,lycurgus1 had only iron rings1 despising those of gold2 probably because their king was willing thereby to retrench luxury1 and discourage the use of effeminate ornaments among his subjects1 as inconsistent with the manly plainness of ,spartan virtue4 ,the ring was reputed1 by some nations1 a symbol of liberality1 esteem1 and friendship1 particularly among the ,persians1 none being permitted to wear any1 except given to him from the king himself4 ,this is what may also be remarked in the person of ,apollonius ,thyaneus1 who1 as a token of singular esteem and great liberality1 received one from the great ,jarchas1 prince of the gymnosophists1 who were the ancient priests of the ,indies1 and dwelt in forests1 as our bards and ,druids1 where they applied themselves to the study of wisdom1 and to the speculation of the heavens and stars4 ,this philosopher1 by the means of that ring1 learned every day the greatest secrets in nature4 ,though the ring found by ,gyges1 shepherd to the king of ,lydia1 has more of fable than truth in it1 it will not1 however1 be amiss to relate what is said concerning ,herodotus1 ,clius after ,plato1 and ,cicero1 in the third book of his ,offices4 ,this ,gyges1 after a great flood1 passed into a very deep cavity in the earth1 where having found1 in the belly of a brasen horse1 with a large aperture in it1 a human body of enormous size1 he pulled from off one of the fingers1 a ring of surprising virtue2 for the stone on the collet rendered him who wore it invisible1 when the collet was turned towards the palm of the hand2 so that the party could see1 without being seen1 all manner of persons and things4 ,gyges1 having made trial of its efficacy1 bethought himself that it would be a means for ascending the throne of ,lydia1 and for gaining the queen by it4 ,he succeeded in his designs1 having killed ,candaules1 her husband4 ,the dead body this ring belonged to was that of an ancient ,brahmin1 who in his time was chief of all4 ,the rings of the ancients often served for seals4 ,alexander the ,great1 after the defeat and death of ,darius1 used his ring for sealing the letters he sent into ,asia1 and his own for those he sent to ,europe4 ,it was customary in ,rome for the bridegroom to send the bride1 before marriage1 a ring of iron1 without either stone or collet1 to denote how lasting their union ought to be1 and the frugality they were to observe together2 but luxury herein soon gained ground1 and there was a necessity of moderating it4 ,caius ,marius did not wear one of gold till his third consulship3 and ,tiberius1 as ,suetonius says1 made some regulation in the authority of wearing rings2 for besides the liberty of birth1 he required a considerable revenue1 both on the father and grandfather's side4 ,in the preceding dissertation we have anticipated the ,,matrimonial ,,ring1 therefore our further observations need be but few4 ,swinburne says1 the iron ring was adorned with an adamant2 the metal hard and durable1 signifying the duration and prosperity of the contract4 ,howbeit1 he says1 it skilleth not at this day what metal the ring be of4 ,the form of it being found1 and without end1 doth import that their love should circulate and flow continually4 ,the finger on which this ring is to be worn1 is the fourth finger on the left hand1 next unto the little finger1 because there was supposed a vein of blood to pass from thence into the heart4 ,we shall conclude this chapter with an account of an ancient custom1 called ,,hand-,,fasting4 ,this custom formerly took place at an annual fair1 in the parish of ,eskdale-muir1 in ,dumfriesshire1 thus described by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,brown1 in his ,statistical ,account of that parish3 ,at that fair it was the custom for the unmarried persons of both sexes1 to choose companions with whom they were to live till that time next year4 ,if they were pleased with each other at that time1 then they continued together for life2 if not1 they separated1 and were free to make another choice1 as at first4 ,the fruit of their connection1 if there were any1 was always attached to the disaffected person4 ,a priest1 whom they named ,book-i'-bosom1 7because he carried in his bosom a ,bible1 or a register of the marriages17 came from time to time to confirm the marriages4 ,mr4 ,brown traces this custom from the ,romans4--,see ,sir ,j4 ,sinclair's ,statistical ,account1 vol4 xii4 p4 #fae4 ,,chap4 ,,lxi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,customs ,,of ,,mankind4--7,continued47 ,funeral ,ceremonies of the ,ancient ,ethiopians--,funeral ,ceremonies of the ,chinese--,ancient ,funeral ,ceremonies of the ,dajakkese--,ancient ,modes of ,mourning--,feasts among the ,ancients of various ,nations--,feast of ,lanterns4 ,,funeral ,,ceremonies ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,ethiopians4--,the ,ethiopians had very particular ceremonies in their funerals4 ,according to ,ctesias1 after having salted the bodies1 they put them into a hollow statue of gold1 which resembled the deceased1 and are placed in a niche1 on a pillar set up for that purpose4 ,the remains of the richest ,ethiopians were thus honoured3 the bodies of those of the next class were contained in silver statues2 the poor were enshrined in statues of earthenware4 ,herodotus informs us1 that the nearest relations of the dead kept the body a year in their houses1 and offered sacrifice and first-fruits during that time to their deceased friend2 and at the end of the year1 they fixed the corpse in a place set apart for the purpose near their town4 ,the inhabitants of the country above ,mero had various methods of paying respect to their deceased friends4 ,some threw their bodies into the river1 thinking that the most honourable sepulchre4 ,others kept them in their houses in niches1 thinking that their children would be stimulated to virtuous deeds by the sight of their ancestors2 and that grown people1 by the same objects1 would retain their parents in their memories4 ,others put their dead bodies into coffins of earthenware1 and buried them near their temples4 ,to swear with their hand laid upon a corpse1 was their most sacred and inviolable oath4 ,,funeral ,,ceremonies ,,or ,,the ,,chinese4--,the funeral ceremonies are considered by the ,chinese as the most important of any4 ,a few moments after a person has expired1 he is dressed out in his richest attire1 and adorned with every badge of his dignity2 after which he is placed in the coffin4 ,the preparation of a coffin1 in which his body may be inclosed after death1 is one of the chief objects of attention to a ,chinese during his life1 and great expense is often thrown away upon it2 insomuch that the poor will give all they are worth1 and the rich expend one thousand crowns2 nay1 a son will sell himself for a slave1 to purchase a coffin for his father4 ,sometimes the coffin1 when purchased with all this labour and expense1 will remain twenty years useless in the family2 but it is considered as the most valuable piece of furniture in his possession4 ,the manner of interment is as follows3--,first1 they sprinkle some lime in the bottom of the coffin2 then they lay the body in it1 taking care to place the head on a pillow1 and to add a great deal of cotton1 that it may remain steady4 ,the body remains thus exposed seven days2 but the time may be reduced to three1 if any weighty reason makes it necessary2 and1 during this interval1 all the relations and friends1 who are purposely invited1 come and pay their respects to the deceased1 the nearest relations remaining in the house4 ,the coffin is exposed in the hall of ceremony1 which is then hung with white1 but some pieces of black or violet-coloured silk are here and there interspersed1 as well as some other ornaments of mourning4 ,before the coffin is placed a table1 on which stands the image of the deceased1 or a carved ornament inscribed with his name2 and these are always accompanied with flowers1 perfumes1 and lighted wax candles4 ,in the mean time1 those who enter the hall salute the deceased1 as if still in life4 ,they prostrate themselves before the table1 and knock their foreheads several times against the earth2 after which they place on the table some perfumes and wax candles4 ,their salutations are returned by the eldest son1 accompanied by his brothers4 ,the latter come forth from behind a curtain1 which hangs on one side of the coffin1 creeping along the ground until they reach the spot where those stand whom they are going to salute2 after which1 they return without rising up4 ,the women are also concealed behind the same curtain1 from whence they every now and then send forth dismal cries4 ,the funeral procession at last commences4 ,a troop of men march in a file1 carrying different figures made of pasteboard1 and representing slaves1 lions1 tigers1 horses1 c4 ,others follow1 marching in two files2 some of whom carry standards1 some flags1 or censers filled with perfumes2 while melancholy and plaintive airs are played by others1 on musical instruments4 ,these musicians immediately precede the coffin1 which is covered with a canopy1 in form of a dome1 of violet-coloured silk3 its four corners are ornamented with tufts of white silk1 neatly embroidered1 and covered at the top with net-work4 ,the coffin is placed on the bottom of this machine1 and is carried by sixty-four men4 ,the eldest son1 clothed in a frock of canvass1 having his body bent1 and leaning on a staff1 follows near the coffin2 and behind him his brothers and nephews1 but none of them clothed in canvass4 ,then come the relations and friends1 all clad in mourning1 and followed by a great number of chairs1 covered with white stuff1 containing the wives and female slaves of the deceased4 ,these make great show of sorrow1 by doleful1 yet methodical cries4 ,when they arrive at the burying-place1 the coffin is deposited in a tomb appropriated for it1 not far from which there are tables arranged in different halls1 on which the assistants are entertained with great splendour4 ,the entertainment is sometimes followed by fresh marks of homage to the corpse2 but these are often changed into thanks to the eldest son1 who1 however1 answers only by signs4 ,but if the deceased was a grandee of the empire1 a certain number of his relations do not leave the tomb for a month or two2 but reside in apartments provided for them1 and every day renew their marks of grief1 with the children of the deceased4 ,the magnificence of these funeral ceremonies is proportioned to the wealth or dignity of the deceased4 ,that of one of the brothers of the emperor1 was attended by sixteen thousand people1 each of whom had a particular office assigned him relating to the ceremony4 ,mourning continues in ,china for three years2 during all which time they must abstain from flesh and wine1 nor can they assist at any entertainment1 or attend any public assembly4 ,at first they are not even permitted to go abroad2 and when they do so1 they are carried in a chair1 covered with a white cloth4 ,sometimes the filial piety of the ,chinese is carried to such a length1 that they preserve the bodies of their fathers in their houses for three or four years1 and impose upon themselves a great number of other duties1 using no other seat during the day1 but a stool covered with a white serge1 and no other bed but a plain mat made of reeds1 which is placed near the coffin4 ,,funeral ,,and ,,marriage ,,ceremonies ,,of ,,the ,,dajakkese ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,borneo4--,the corpse is placed in a coffin1 and remains in the house till the son1 the father1 or the nearest of blood1 can procure or purchase a slave1 who is beheaded at the time that the corpse is burnt1 in order that he may become the slave of the deceased in the next world4 ,the ashes of the deceased are then placed in an earthen urn1 on which various figures are exhibited2 and the head of the slave is dried1 and prepared in a peculiar manner with camphor and drugs1 and deposited near it4 ,it is said that this practice often induces them to purchase a slave guilty of some capital crime1 at five-fold his value1 in order that they may be able to put him to death on such occasions4 ,marriage ,ceremonies4--,nobody can be permitted to marry till he can present a human head of some other tribe to his proposed bride1 in which case she is not permitted to refuse him4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary that this should be obtained entirely by his own personal prowess4 ,when a person is determined to go a head-hunting1 as it is often a very dangerous service1 he consults with his friends and acquaintances1 who frequently accompany him1 or send their slaves along with him4 ,the head-hunter then proceeds with his party in the most cautious manner to the vicinity of the villages of another tribe1 and lies in ambush till they surprise some heedless unsuspecting wretch1 who is instantly decapitated4 ,sometimes1 too1 they surprise a solitary fisherman in a river1 or on the shore1 who undergoes the same fate4 ,when the hunter returns1 the whole village is filled with joy1 and old and young1 men and women1 hurry out to meet him1 and conduct him with the sound of brasen cymbals1 dancing in long lines to the house of the female he admires1 whose family likewise come out to greet him with dances1 provide him a seat1 and give him meat and drink4 ,he still holds the bloody head in his hand1 and puts part of the food into its mouth1 after which1 the females of the family receive the head from him1 which they hang up to the ceiling over the door4 ,if a man's wife die1 he is not permitted to make proposals of marriage to another1 till he has provided another head of a different tribe1 as if to revenge the death of his deceased wife4 ,the heads procured in this manner1 they preserve with great care1 and sometimes consult in divination4 ,the religious opinions connected with this practice1 are by no means correctly understood4 ,some assert1 that they believe that every person whom a man kills in this world1 becomes his slave in the next4 ,the ,idaan1 it is said1 think that the entrance into paradise is over a long tree1 which serves for a bridge1 over which it is impossible to pass without the assistance of a slave slain in this world4 ,the practice of stealing heads causes frequent wars among the different tribes of the ,idaan4 ,many persons never can obtain a head1 in which case they are generally despised by the warriors and the women4 ,to such a height is it carried1 however1 that a person who had obtained eleven heads1 has been seen by ,mr4 ,burn2 and he pointed out his son1 a young lad1 who had procured three4 ,,ancient ,,modes ,,of ,,mourning4--,amongst the ancient ,jews1 on the death of their relations or intimate friends1 mourning was expressed by weeping1 tearing their clothes1 smiting their breasts1 or lacerating them with their nails1 pulling or cutting off their hair and beards1 walking softly1 i4 e4 barefoot1 lying upon the ground1 fasting1 or eating upon the ground4 ,they kept themselves close shut up in their houses1 covered their faces1 and abstained from all work1 even reading the law1 and saying their usual prayers4 ,they neither dressed themselves1 nor made their beds1 nor cut their nails1 nor went into the bath1 nor saluted any body4 ,the time of mourning was generally seven days1 less or more1 according to circumstances1 but thirty days were thought sufficient upon the severest occasions4 ,the different periods of the time of mourning required different degrees of grief1 and different tokens of it4 ,the ,greeks1 on the death of their friends1 shewed their sorrow by secluding themselves from all gaiety1 entertainments1 games1 public solemnities1 wine1 and music4 ,they sat in gloomy and solitary places1 stripped themselves of all external ornaments1 put on a coarse black stuff by way of mourning1 tore their hair1 shaved their heads1 rolled themselves in the dust and mire1 sprinkled ashes on their heads1 smote their breasts with their palms1 tore their faces1 and frequently cried out with a lamentable voice and drawling tone4 ,at the funerals of soldiers1 their fellow soldiers1 as a testimony of their affliction1 held their shields1 their spears1 and the rest of their armour1 inverted4 ,the tokens of private grief among the ,romans1 were the same as those among the ,greeks4 ,black or dark brown were the colours of the mourning habits worn by the men2 they were also common to the women4 ,the mourning of the emperors at first was black4 ,in the time of ,augustus1 the women wore white veils1 and the rest of their dress was black4 ,from the time of ,domitian1 they wore nothing but white habits1 without any ornaments of gold1 jewels1 or pearls4 ,the men let their hair and beards grow1 and wore no wreaths of flowers on their heads1 while the days of mourning continued4 ,the longest time of mourning was ten months3 this was ,numa's establishment1 and took in his whole year4 ,for a widow to marry during this time1 was infamous4 ,mourning was not used for children who died under three years of age4 ,from this age to ten1 they mourned as many months as the child was years old4 ,a remarkable victory1 or other happy event1 occasioned the shortening of the time of mourning4 ,the birth of a child1 or the attainment of any remarkable honour in the family1 certain feasts in honour of the gods1 or the consecration of a temple1 had the same effect4 ,after the defeat at ,cann1 the commonwealth decreed that mourning should not be worn for more than thirty days1 that the loss might be forgot as soon as possible4 ,when public magistrates died1 or persons of great note1 also when any remarkable calamity happened1 all public meetings were intermitted1 the schools of exercise1 baths1 shops1 temples1 and all places of concourse1 were shut up1 and the whole city put on a face of sorrow2 the senators laid aside the laticlave1 and the consuls sat in a lower seat than ordinary4 ,this was the custom of ,athens also1 and was observed upon the death of ,socrates1 when the fickle ,athenians became sensible of the calamity their state had suffered in the loss of that great and virtuous man4 ,the modes of mourning differ in various countries1 as well as the colours used for that end4 ,in ,europe1 the ordinary colour for mourning is black2 in ,china1 it is white2 in ,turkey1 blue or violet2 in ,egypt1 yellow2 in ,ethiopia1 brown4 ,white obtained formerly in ,castile1 on the death of their princes4 ,herrera observes1 that the last time it was used was in #adih1 at the death of prince ,john4 ,each people assign their reasons for the particular colour of their mourning3 white is supposed to denote purity2 yellow1 that death is the end of human hopes1 in regard that leaves when they fall1 and flowers when they fade1 become yellow2 brown denotes the earth1 whither the dead return2 black1 the privation of light2 blue expresses the happiness which it is hoped the deceased does enjoy2 and purple or violet1 sorrow on the one side1 and hope on the other1 as being a mixture of black and blue4 ,,feasts ,,among ,,the ,,ancients ,,of ,,various ,,nations4--,all nations1 whether savage or civilized1 have regarded the pleasures of the table as the occasion of the most agreeable society4 ,this species of enjoyment 7abstracted from its susceptibility of abuse7 makes but one family of all that it brings together4 ,it levels the distinctions introduced by policy or prejudice1 and disposes men to regard one another as brethren4 ,here people feel the equality established by nature2 here they forget the evils of life2 extinguish their animosities1 and drop their enmities4 ,for this reason ,aristotle considers as a breach of the social principle1 that custom of the ,egyptians of eating apart1 and praises the convivial repasts established by ,minos and ,lycurgus4 ,we learn from ,herodotus1 that the ancients had neither cups nor bowls at their feasts1 but that they drank out of little horns tipt with silver or gold4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans kept a domestic1 for the purpose of reading during their meals and feasts4 ,sometimes the chief of the family himself performed the office of reader2 and history informs us1 that the ,emperor ,severus often read while his family ate4 ,the time of reading was generally at supper2 and guests were invited to a reading as they are now-a-days to play at cards4 ,the ,greeks1 in their flourishing times1 did not profane1 7according to their own expression7 the holiness of the table1 but rather adorned it with ingenious and elegant conversation3 they proposed moral topics1 of which ,plutarch has preserved a collection4 ,heroes rarely assembled convivially1 without bringing affairs of consequence into discourse1 or deliberating upon those that regarded either present events or future contingencies4 ,the ,scythians1 while at meat1 used to make the strings of their bows resound1 lest their warlike virtues might be enfeebled or lost in the season of pleasure4 ,people of rank among the ,rhodians1 by a fundamental law of the state1 were obliged to dine daily with those who had the management of affairs1 in order to deliberate with them concerning such things as were necessary or useful for the country2 and on this account the principal ministers of the kingdom were obliged to keep open table for all who could be of use to the state4 ,the ,persians also generally deliberated on business at table1 but never determined1 or put their determinations in execution1 except in the morning before eating4 ,among the ,romans1 the place where they supped was generally the vestibule1 that a more retired part of the house might not encourage licentiousness and disorder4 ,there were several laws that restricted their meals to these vestibules4 ,when luxury reigned in ,rome1 they had superb halls for their entertainments4 ,lucullus had many1 each of which bore the name of some deity2 and this name was a mark which indicated to the servants the expense of the entertainment4 ,the expense of a supper in ,lucullus's hall of ,apollo1 amounted to fifty thousand drachmas4 ,singers1 dancers1 musicians1 stage-players1 jesters1 and buffoons1 were brought into these halls to amuse the guests4 ,plutarch informs us1 that ,csar1 after his triumphs1 treated the ,roman people at twenty-two thousand tables2 and by calculation it would seem1 that there were at these tables upwards of two hundred thousand persons4 ,the hall in which ,nero feasted1 by the circular motion of its walls and ceiling1 imitated the revolutions of the heavens1 and represented the different seasons of the year1 changing at every course1 and showering down flowers and perfumes on the guests4 ,the ,romans did not1 as we do1 use but one table at their feasts2 they had generally two3 the first was for the service of animal food1 which was afterwards removed1 and another introduced with fruits2 at this last they sung1 and poured out their libations4 ,the ,greeks and eastern nations had the same custom1 and even the ,jews in their solemn feasts1 and at sacrifices4 ,the ,romans1 in the time of ,nero1 had tables made of citron-wood brought from ,mauritania2 they were varnished with purple and gold4 ,dion ,cassius affirms1 that ,seneca had five hundred of these1 which he made use of one after another2 and ,tertullian tells us1 that ,cicero had but one4 ,the ,romans chose the king of the feast by a throw of the dice4 ,at the conclusion of the feast they drank out of a large cup1 as often as there were letters in the names of their mistresses4 ,feasting seems to have been the chief delight of the ,britons1 ,germans1 ,gauls1 and all the other ,celtic nations2 in which they indulged themselves to the utmost1 as often as they had opportunity4 ,among these nations 7says ,m4 ,pellontier1 in his ,hist4 ,celt4 lib4 ii4 c4 #ab4 p4 #dfc47 there is no public assembly1 either for civil or religious purposes1 duly held2 no birth-day1 marriage1 or funeral1 properly celebrated2 no treaty of peace or alliance rightly cemented1--without a great feast4 ,when the ,germans1 says ,tacitus1 wanted to reconcile enemies1 to make alliances1 to name chiefs1 or to treat of war and peace1 it was during the repast that they took counsel2 a time in which the mind is most open to the impressions of simple truths1 or most easily animated to great attempts4 ,these artless people1 during the conviviality of the feast1 spoke without disguise4 ,next day they weighed the counsels of the former evening3 they deliberated at a time when they were not disposed to feign1 and took their resolution when they were least liable to be deceived4 ,it was by frequent entertainments of this kind1 that the great men or chieftains gained the affections and rewarded the services of their followers2 and those who made the greatest feasts were sure to be most popular1 and to have the greatest retinue4 ,these feasts1 in which plenty was more regarded than elegance1 lasted commonly several days1 and the guests seldom retired until they had consumed all the provisions and exhausted all the liquors4 ,athenus describes an entertainment that was given by ,arcamnes1 a very wealthy prince of ,gaul1 which continued a whole year without interruption1 and at which all the people of ,gaul1 and even all strangers who passed through that country1 were made welcome4 ,at these feasts they sometimes consulted about the most important affairs of state1 and formed resolutions relating to peace and war2 imagining that men spoke their real sentiments with the greatest freedom1 and were apt to form the boldest designs1 when their spirits were exhilarated with the pleasures of the table4 ,the conversation at these entertainments very frequently turned on the great exploits1 which the guests themselves1 or their ancestors1 had performed in war2 which sometimes occasioned quarrels1 and even bloodshed4 ,it was at a feast that the two illustrious ,british princes1 ,carbar and ,oscar1 quarrelled about their own bravery and that of their ancestors1 and fell by mutual wounds4--,ossian1 vol4 ii4 p4 #h1 c4 ,as to the drink used at those feasts1 particularly in ,britain1 it seems probable1 that before the introduction of agriculture into the island1 mead1 or honey diluted with water1 was the only strong liquor known to its inhabitants1 as it was to many other ancient nations in the same circumstances4 ,this continued to be a favourite beverage among the ancient ,britons and their posterity1 long after they had become acquainted with other liquors1 7,see ,mead47 ,after the introduction of agriculture1 ale or beer became the most general drink of all the ,british nations who practised that art1 as it had long been of all the ,celtic people on the continent1 7,see ,ale47 ,if the ,phoenicians or ,greeks imported any wine into ,britain1 it was only in very small quantities2 that liquor being very little known in this island before it was conquered by the ,romans4 ,the drinking vessels of the ,gauls1 ,britons1 and other ,celtic nations1 were for the most part made of the horns of oxen and other animals2 but those of the ,caledonians consisted of large shells1 which are still used by some of their posterity in the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,the dishes in which the meat was served up were either of wood or earthenware1 or a kind of baskets made of osiers4 ,these last were most used by the ,britons1 as they very much excelled in the art of making them1 both for their own use and for exportation4 ,the guests sat in a circle upon the ground1 with a little hay1 grass1 or the skin of some animal1 under them4 ,a low table or stool was set before each person1 with the portion of meat allotted to him upon it4 ,in this distribution1 they never neglected to set the largest and best pieces before those who were most distinguished for their rank1 their exploits1 or their riches4 ,every guest took the meat set before him in his hands1 and1 tearing it with his teeth1 fed upon it in the best manner he could4 ,if any one found difficulty in separating any part of his meat with his hands and teeth1 he made use of a large knife1 that lay in a particular place for the benefit of the whole company4 ,servants1 or young boys and girls1 the children of the family1 stood behind the guests1 ready to help them to drink1 or any thing they wanted4 ,as the ancient ,britons greatly excelled1 and very much delighted in1 music1 all their feasts were accompanied with the joys of song1 and the music of harps4 ,in the words of ,ossian1 7vol4 ii4 p4 #i1 c47 whenever the feast of shells is prepared1 the songs of bards arise4 ,the voice of sprightly mirth is heard4 ,the trembling harps of joy are strung4 ,they sing the battles of heroes1 or the heaving breasts of love4 ,some of the poems of that illustrious ,british bard appear to have been composed in order to be sung by the hundred bards of ,fingal1 at the feasts of ,selma1 7see vol4 i4 p4 #hg1 #bji47 ,many of the songs of the bards1 which were sung and played at the feasts of the ancient ,britons1 were of a grave and solemn strain1 celebrating the brave actions of the guests1 or of the heroes of other times2 but these were sometimes intermixed with sprightly and cheerful airs1 to which the youth of both sexes danced4 ,it has been observed by some authors1 that no nation comes near the ,english in the magnificence of their feasts4 ,those made at our coronations1 instalments1 consecrations1 c4 transcend the belief of foreigners2 and yet it is doubted whether those now in use are comparable to the feasts of former ages4 ,william the ,conqueror1 after he was peaceably settled on the throne of ,england1 sent agents into different countries1 to collect the most admired and rare dishes for his table2 by which means1 says ,john of ,salisbury1 this island1 which is naturally productive of plenty and variety of provisions1 was overflowed with every thing that could inflame a luxurious appetite4 ,the same writer tells us1 that he was present at an entertainment which lasted from three ,p4 ,m4 to midnight1 at which delicacies were served up1 which had been brought from ,constantinople1 ,babylon1 ,alexandria1 ,palestine1 ,tripoli1 ,syria1 and ,phoenicia4 ,these delicacies were doubtless very expensive4 ,thomas ,becket 7says his historian ,fitz-,stephen7 gave #e1 equivalent to #ge at present1 for one dish of eels4 ,the sumptuous entertainments which the kings of ,england gave to their nobles and prelates1 at the festivals of ,christmas1 ,easter1 and ,whitsuntide1 in which they spent a great part of their revenues1 contributed very much to diffuse a taste for profuse and expensive banqueting4 ,it was natural for a proud and wealthy baron to imitate1 in his own castle1 the entertainments he had seen in the palace of his prince4 ,many of the clergy1 too1 both seculars and regulars1 being very rich1 kept excellent tables4 ,the monks of ,st4 ,swithin's1 at ,winchester1 made a formal complaint to ,henry ,,ii4 against their abbot1 for taking away three of the #ac dishes they used to have every day at dinner4 ,the monks of ,canterbury were still more luxurious3 for they had at least #ag dishes every day1 besides a dessert2 and these dishes were dressed with spiceries and sauces1 which excited the appetite as well as pleased the taste4 ,great men had some kinds of provisions at their tables1 that are not now to be found in ,britain4 ,when ,henry ,,ii4 entertained his own court1 the great officers of his army1 with all the kings and great men of ,ireland1 in ,dublin1 at the feast of ,christmas1 ,a4 ,d4 #aaga1 the ,irish princes and chieftains were quite astonished at the profusion and variety of provisions which they beheld1 and were with difficulty prevailed upon by ,henry to eat the flesh of cranes1 a kind of food to which they had not been accustomed4 ,in the remaining monuments of this period1 we meet with the names of several dishes1 as dellegrout1 maupigyrnum1 karumpie1 c4 the composition of which is now unknown4 ,the coronation feast of ,edward ,,iii4 cost #bhce4 #ahs4 #b;d4 equivalent to about #dj1jjj of our money4 ,at the installation of ,ralph1 abbot of ,st4 ,augustine1 ,canterbury1 ,a4 ,d4 #acji1 #fjjj guests were entertained with a dinner1 consisting of #cjjj dishes1 which cost #bhg4 #es4 equal in value to #dcjj in our times4 ,it would require a long treatise 7says ,matthew ,paris7 to describe the astonishing splendour1 magnificence1 and festivity1 with which the nuptials of ,richard ,earl of ,cornwall1 and ,cincia daughter of ,raymund ,earl of ,provence1 were celebrated at ,london1 ,a4 ,d4 #abdc4 ,to give the reader some idea of it1 in a few words1 above #cj1jjj dishes were served up at the marriage dinner4 ,the nuptials of ,alexander ,,iii4 of ,scotland1 and the princess ,margaret of ,england1 were solemnized at ,york1 ,a4 ,d4 #abea1 with still greater pomp and profusion4 ,if ,i attempted 7says ,m4 ,paris7 to display all the grandeur of this solemnity1--the numbers of the noble and illustrious guests1--the richness and variety of the dresses1--the sumptuousness of the feasts1--the multitudes of the minstrels1 mimics1 and others whose business it was to amuse and divert the company1 those of my readers who were not present1 would imagine that ,i was imposing upon their credulity4 ,the following particular will enable them to form a judgment of the whole4 ,the archbishop of ,york made the ,king of ,england a present of #fj fat oxen2 which made only one article of provision for the marriage feast1 and were all consumed at that entertainment4 ,the marriage feast of ,henry ,,iv4 and his queen1 ,jane of ,navarre1 consisted of six courses2 three of flesh and fowl1 and three of fish4 ,all these courses were accompanied and adorned with suttleties1 as they were called4 ,these suttleties were figures in pastry1 of men1 women1 beasts1 birds1 c4 placed on the table1 to be admired1 but not touched4 ,each figure had a label affixed to it1 containing some wise or witty saying1 suited to the occasion of the feast1 which was the reason they were called suttleties4 ,the installation feast of ,george ,neville1 archbishop of ,york1 and chancellor of ,england1 exceeded all others in splendour and expense1 and in the number and quality of the guests4 ,the reader may form some idea of this enormous feast1 from the following list of provisions prepared for it4 ,in wheat1 #cjj quarters2 in ale1 #cjj tuns2 in wine1 #ajj tuns2 in ypocrasse pipes1 #a2 in oxen1 #ajd2 in wild bulls1 #f2 in muttons1 #ajjj2 in veals1 #cjd2 in porks1 #cjd2 in swans1 #djj2 in geese1 #bjjj2 in capons1 #ajjj2 in pigs1 #bjjj2 in plovers1 #djj2 in quails1 #abjj2 in fowls called rees1 #bdjj2 in peacocks1 #ajd2 in mallards and teals1 #djjj2 in cranes1 #bjd2 in kids1 #bjd2 in chickens1 #bjjj2 in pigeons1 #bjjj2 in conies1 #djjj2 in bitterns1 #bjd2 in heronshaws1 #djj2 in pheasants1 #bjj2 in partridges1 #ejj2 in woodcocks1 #djj2 in curlews1 #ajj2 in egritis1 #ajjj2 in stags1 bucks1 and roes1 #ejj and more2 in pasties of venison1 cold1 #djjj2 in parted dishes of jellies1 #ajjj2 in plain dishes of jellies1 #cjjj2 in cold tarts1 baked1 #djjj2 in cold custards1 baked1 #cjjj2 in hot pasties of venison1 #aejj2 in hot custards1 #bjjj2 in pikes and breams1 #cjh2 in porpoises and seals1 #ab3 spices1 sugared delicates1 and wafers1 plenty4 ,no turkeys are mentioned in this enormous bill of fare1 because they were not then known in ,england4 ,cranes1 heronshaws1 porpoises1 and seals1 are seldom seen at modern entertainments4 ,one of the most expensive singularities attending the royal feasts in those days1 consisted in what they called ,intermeats4 ,these were representations of battles1 sieges1 c4 introduced between the courses1 for the amusement of the guests4 ,the ,french excelled in exhibitions of this kind4 ,at a dinner given by ,charles ,v4 of ,france to the emperor ,charles ,,iv4 ,a4 ,d4 #acgh1 the following intermeat was exhibited3 a ship1 with masts1 sails1 and rigging1 was seen first2 she had for colours the arms of the city of ,jerusalem3 ,godfrey of ,bouillon appeared upon deck1 accompanied by several knights armed cap-a-pi3 the ship advanced into the middle of the hall1 without the machine which moved it being perceptible4 ,then the city of ,jerusalem appeared1 with all its towers lined with ,saracens4 ,the ship approached the city2 the ,christians landed1 and began to assault1 while the besieged made a good defence3 several scaling-ladders were thrown down2 but at length the city was taken4 ,intermeats at ordinary banquets consisted of certain delicate dishes1 introduced between the courses1 and designed rather for gratifying the taste1 than for satisfying hunger4 ,at those feasts1 besides ale and cider1 there were great quantities of wine of various kinds4 ,of these1 a poet who wrote in the fourteenth century1 gives an ample enumeration2 wherein he mentions ypocrasse1 malespine1 algrade1 garnade1 and other kinds now hardly known4 ,some of these liquors1 as ypocrasse1 pyment1 and claret1 were compounded of wine1 honey1 and spices1 of different kinds1 and in different proportions4 ,the chapter concludes with the ,,feast ,,of ,,lanterns4--,in ,china1 this is a celebrated festival1 held from the thirteenth to the sixteenth day of the first month2 so called from the immense number of lanterns hung out of the houses and streets2 which1 it is said1 is no less than two hundred millions4 ,on this day are exposed lanterns of all prices1 whereof some are said to cost two thousand crowns4 ,some of their grandees retrench somewhat every day out of the regular expenses of their table1 dress1 equipage1 c4 to appear the more magnificent in their lanterns4 ,they are adorned with gilding1 sculpture1 painting1 japanning1 c4 and their size is extravagant2 some being from twenty-five to thirty feet diameter1 representing halls and chambers4 ,two or three such machines together would make handsome houses2 so that in ,china they are able to eat1 lodge1 receive visits1 hold balls1 and act plays1 in a lantern4 ,to illuminate them1 they light up in them an incredible number of torches or lamps1 which at a distance have a beautiful effect4 ,in these they exhibit various kinds of shows1 to divert the people4 ,besides these enormous lanterns1 there is a multitude of smaller ones1 each about four feet high1 and one and a half broad4 ,,chap4 ,,lxii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,customs ,,of ,,mankind4--7,continued47 ,origin of the ,sheriff's counting ,hobnails--,origin of the ,order of the ,garter--,origin and ,history of the ,claim and ,allowance of the ',benefit of ,clergy' in ,criminal ,convictions--,curious ,tenures--,the ,origin of ,may ,poles and ,garlands--,curious ,custom at ,oakham--,curious ,practice in ,north ,holland4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,sheriff',s ,,counting ,,hobnails4--,this is not an absurd custom of antiquity1 such as nobody knows when it begun1 or why it is continued2 but it originated from the following circumstances3-- ,in former times1 when money was very scarce1 and when we had no larger coin than a penny1 the reserved rents or grants of lands or tenements1 especially small ones1 were usually paid in something that had a reference to the nature of the thing granted1 or the occupation of the grantee4 ,the two following extracts from records in the ,exchequer1 with the translation1 will clear up the point4 ,walter de ,brun ,mareschallus1 de ,stranda1 redit compotum de sex femis equorum1 pro habenda quadam placea in ,parochia ,st4 ,clementis1 ad fabrica quam ibidem locandam4--,mag4 ,rot4 #ai4 ,henry ,,iii4 ,walter ,mareschallus1 ad ,crucem ,lapideam1 redit sex ferra equorum cum clavibus1 pro quadam fabrica quam de ,rege tenet in capite ex opposito crucis lapidea4--,memor4 #a4 ,edward ,i4 ,walter le ,brun1 ,mareshall1 or farrier1 of the ,strand1 renders six horse-shoes1 to have a certain place in the parish of ,st4 ,clement's1 to build a forge there4--,great ,rolls of the #aith ,henry ,,iii4 ,walter ,mareshall1 or the farrier at the ,stone ,cross1 renders six horse-shoes with their nails1 for 7or as a reserved rent7 a certain forge1 opposite to the stone cross1 which he holds of the king in capite4--,memoranda ,rolls in the ,exchequer of the first year of ,king ,edward the ,first4 ,the first of these points out the beginning1 as well as the reason1 of the payment of these horse-shoes and nails2 for it was to have a piece of ground to build a forge on1 therefore that must be the first payment4 ,the nineteenth year of ,henry the ,third falls in with #abcd1 now five hundred and eighty-eight years ago4 ,in process of time1 this piece of ground1 and buildings on it1 came to the mayor and citizens of ,london2 and they1 by the sheriffs1 have continued to render them into the ,exchequer annually to this day4 ,the spot where the stone cross once stood had afterwards a ,maypole erected on it1 which many now living can well remember4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,the ,,garter4--,this is variously related by historians4 ,the common and not improbable account is1 that the ,countess of ,salisbury1 happening at a ball to drop her garter1 the ,king took it up1 and presented it to her in these words1 ,honi soit qui mal y pense2 i4 e4 ,evil to him that evil thinks4 ,this accident gave rise to the order and the motto2 it being the spirit of the times to mix love and war together4 ,in the original statutes1 however1 there is not the least hint of allusion to such a circumstance1 farther than is conveyed in the motto4--,camden1 ,fern1 c4 take the order to have been instituted on occasion of the victory obtained by ,edward over the ,french1 at the battle of ,cressy4 ,that prince1 says some historians1 ordered his garter to be displayed as a signal of battle2 in commemoration whereof1 he made a garter the principal ornament of the order erected in memory of this signal victory1 and the symbol of this indissoluble union of the knights4 ,and they account for the motto1 that king ,edward having laid claim to the kingdom of ,france1 denounced shame and defiance upon him that should dare to think amiss of the just enterprise he had undertaken for recovering his lawful rights to that crown2 and that the bravery of those knights whom he had elected into this order was such as would enable him to maintain the quarrel against those that thought ill of it4 ,this interpretation1 however1 appears to be rather forced4--,a still more ancient origin of this order is given in ,rostel's ,chronicle1 lib4 vi4 quoted by ,granger1 in the ,supplement to his ,biographical ,history3 viz4 that it was devised by ,richard ,i4 at the siege of ,acre1 when he caused twenty-six knights1 who firmly stood by him1 to wear thongs of blue leather about their legs2 and that it was revived and perfected in the nineteenth year of ,edward ,,iii4 ,,origin ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,claim ,,and ,,allowance ,,of ,,the ',,benefit ,,of ,,clergy' ,,in ,,criminal ,,convictions4 ,the following learned dissertation is extracted from ',chitty's ,practical ,treatise on the ,criminal ,law4' ,by far the most important circumstance intervening between conviction and judgment1 is the claim and allowance of the ,benefit of ,clergy1 in those cases where it is by law to be granted4 ,it is of course claimed immediately before judgment at the assizes4 ,this is one of the most singular relics of old superstition1 and certainly the most important4 ,that1 by a mere form1 without the shadow of existing reason to support it1 the severity of the common law should be tempered1 may seem strange to those who have been accustomed to regard our criminal law as a regular fabric1 not only attaining great practical benefit1 but built upon solid and consistent principles4 ,the ,benefit of ,clergy is1 no doubt1 of great practical advantage1 compared to the dreadful list of offences which would otherwise be punished as capital2 but it would be well worthy of an enlightened age to forsake such a subterfuge1 and at once1 without resorting to it1 to apportion the degree of suffering to the atrocity and the danger of the crimes4 ,the history of this singular mode of pardon1 if so it can be termed1 is both curious and instructive4 ,in the early periods of ,european civilization1 after the final destruction of the ,roman empire1 the church obtained an influence in the political affairs of nations1 which threw a peculiar colouring over their original institutions4 ,monarchs who were desirous of atoning for atrocious offences1 or of obtaining the sanction of heaven to their projects of ambition1 were easily persuaded to confer immunities on the clergy1 whom they regarded as the vicegerents of ,god4 ,presuming on these favours1 that aspiring body soon began to claim as a right what had been originally conferred as a boon1 and to found their demand to civil exemptions on a divine and indefeasible charter1 derived from the text of scripture1 ,touch not mine anointed1 and do my prophets no harm4 ,it need exceed no surprise that they were anxious to take advantage of their dominion over the conscience1 to exempt themselves from the usual consequences of crime4 ,to the priests1 impunity was a privilege of no inconsiderable value4 ,and so successful was the pious zeal to shield those who were dedicated to religion from the consequences of any breach of temporal enactments1 that in several countries they obtained complete exemption from all civil liabilities1 and declared themselves responsible only to the pope and his ecclesiastical ministers4 ,they erected themselves into an independent community1 and even laid the temporal authorities under subjection4 ,nobles were intimidated into vast pecuniary benefactions1 and princes trembled at the terrors of spiritual denunciation4 ,in ,england1 however1 this authority was always comparatively feeble4 ,the complete exemption of the clergy from secular punishments1 though often claimed1 was never universally admitted3 for repeated objections were made to the demand of the bishop and ordinary to have the clerks remitted to them as soon as they were indicted4 ,at length1 however1 it was finally settled in the reign of ,henry ,,vi4 that the prisoner should first be arraigned and might then claim the ,benefit of the ,clergy as an excuse for pleading1 or might demand it after conviction3 and the latter of these courses has been almost invariably adopted1 to allow the prisoner the chance of a verdict of acquittal4 ,but if the privileges of the church were less dangerous in ,england than on the continent1 they soon became more extensive4 ,they not only embraced every order of clergymen1 but were claimed for every subordinate officer of religious houses1 with the numerous classes of their retainers4 ,and so liberal was the application of these dangerous benefits1 that1 at length1 every one who in those days of ignorance was able to read1 though not even initiated in holy orders1 began to demand them1 such reading being deemed evidence of his clerical profession4 ,the privileges of the clergy were recognized and confirmed by statute in the reign of ,edward the ,third4 ,it was then enacted1 that all manner of clerks1 secular as well as religious1 should enjoy the privileges of holy church for all treasons or felonies except those immediately affecting his majesty4 ,to the advantage of this provision1 all who could read were admitted4 ,but as learning became more common1 this extensive interpretation was found so injurious to the security of social life1 that the legislature1 notwithstanding the opposition of the church1 were compelled to afford a partial remedy4 ,in the reign of ,henry the ,seventh1 a distinction was drawn between persons actually in holy orders1 and those who1 in other respects secular1 were able to read2 by which the latter were only allowed the benefit of their learning once1 and1 on receiving it1 to be branded in the left thumb with a hot iron1 in order to afford evidence against them on any future occasion4 ,the church seems to have lost ground in the succeeding reign1 probably in consequence of the separation of ,england from the sway of the ,roman pontiff2 for all persons1 though actually in orders1 were rendered liable to be branded1 in the same way as the learned class of laymen4 ,but1 in the time of ,edward the ,sixth1 the clergy were restored to all the rights of which they were deprived by his predecessor1 except as to certain atrocious crimes1 which it became necessary more uniformly to punish4 ,at the same time1 some of the more enormous evils attendant on this general impunity were done away4 ,murder1 poisoning1 burglary1 highway-robbery1 and sacrilege1 were excepted from all that privilege which was confirmed as to inferior offences4 ,but peers of the realm1 for the first offence were to be discharged1 in every case1 except murder and poisoning1 even though unable to read4 ,but here we must pause1 before we proceed to follow the gradual improvement of this privilege1 to inquire what was originally done with an offender to whom it was allowed by those ecclesiastical authorities who claimed the right of judging him1 and in what manner the power of the church in this respect was ultimately destroyed4 ,it appears1 that after a layman was burnt in the hand1 a clerk discharged on reading1 or a peer without either burning or penalty1 he was delivered to the ordinary1 to be dealt with according to the ecclesiastical canons4 ,upon this1 the clerical authorities instituted a kind of purgation1 the real object of which was to make him appear innocent1 who had already been shewn to be guilty1 and to restore him to all those capacities of which his conviction had deprived him4 ,to effect this1 the party himself was required to make oath of his innocence1 though before he might have confessed himself guilty4 ,then twelve compurgators were called to testify their belief in the falsehood of the charges4 ,afterwards he brought forward witnesses completely to establish that innocence1 of which he had induced so weighty a presumption4 ,finally1 it was the office of the jury to acquit him2 and they seldom failed in their duty4 ,if1 however1 from any singular circumstance1 they agreed in the justice of the conviction1 the culprit was degraded1 and compelled to do penance4 ,as this seldom occurred1 and the most daring perjuries were thus perpetually committed1 the courts of common law were soon aroused to abridge the power of these clerical tribunals4 ,they1 therefore1 sometimes delivered over the privileged of felony1 when his guilt was very atrocious1 without allowing him to make purgation2 the effect of which proceedings was1 his perpetual imprisonment1 and incapacity to acquire personal or to enjoy real estate1 unless released by his majesty's pardon4 ,but the severity of this proceeding almost rendered it useless2 and it became absolutely necessary for the legislature to interfere1 in order to prevent the contemptible perjuries which this absurd ceremony produced under the sanction and pretence of religion4 ,this desirable object was effected in the reign of ,elizabeth2 and the party1 after being allowed his clergy1 and burnt in the hand1 was to be discharged without any interference of the church to annul his conviction4 ,the clerical process being thus abolished1 it was thought proper1 at the same time1 to empower the temporal judges to inflict a further punishment where they should regard it as proper4 ,the eighteenth ,elizabeth1 c4 vii4 empowered them1 therefore1 to direct the convict to be imprisoned for a year or any shorter period4 ,but the law on this subject was still in many respects imperfect4 ,females were still liable to the punishment of death1 without any exemption1 in all cases of simple felony2 because1 being never eligible to the clerical office1 they were not included in any of the extensions of the ,benefit of ,clergy4 ,no other proof need be adduced to shew the absurdity of the very foundations of the system4 ,at length it was enacted that women convicted of simple larcenies under the value #ajs4 should be punished with burning in the hand and whipping1 exposure in the stocks1 or imprisonment for any period less than a year4 ,and in the reign of ,william and ,mary they were admitted to all the privileges of men1 in clergiable felonies1 on praying the benefit of the statute2 though they can only once be allowed this means of escaping4 ,in the same reign1 the punishment of burning in the hand was changed for a more visible stigma on the cheek1 but was soon afterwards brought back to the original practice4 ,hitherto all laymen except peers1 who1 on their conviction1 were found unable to read1 were liable to suffer death for every clergiable felony4 ,but it was at length discovered1 that ignorance1 instead of an aggravation1 was an excuse for guilt1 and that the ability to read was no extenuation of crime2 and1 therefore1 by fifth ,ann1 c4 vi4 the idle ceremony of reading was abolished1 and all those who were before entitled to clergy on reading1 were now to be admitted without any such form to its benefits4 ,at the same time it was sensibly felt that the branding1 which had dwindled into a mere form1 and the year's imprisonment which the judges were empowered to inflict1 were very inadequate punishments for many clergiable offences2 and1 therefore1 the court were authorized to commit the offenders to the house of correction for any time not less than six months nor exceeding two years1 and to double it in case of escaping4 ,further alterations have since been made in the penalties consequent upon clergy4 ,the fourth ,geo4 ,i4 c4 xi4 and sixth ,geo4 ,i4 c4 xxiii4 provide1 that the court1 on the allowance of this benefit for any larceny whether grand or petty1 or other felonious theft not excluded from the statutable indulgence1 may1 instead of judgment of burning in case of men1 and whipping in that of females1 direct the offender to be transported for seven years to ,america1 which has been since altered to any part of his majesty's colonies4 ,to return within the period1 was1 at the same time1 made felony without ,benefit of ,clergy4 ,and by several subsequent provisions1 many wise alterations have been made respecting transportation1 and the mode of treating offenders while under its sentence4 ,at length the burning in the hand was entirely done away1 and the judges were empowered to sentence the criminal1 in its room1 and in addition to the former penalties1 to a pecuniary fine1 or1 except in the case of manslaughter1 to private whipping1 not more than thrice to be inflicted1 in the presence of three witnesses4 ,provisions were at the same time made for the employment of this description of convicts in penitentiary houses1 where a system of reformation might be adopted1 and an experiment made how far punishment might become conducive to its noblest and most legitimate use--the reformation and benefit of the offender4 ,but this regulation1 though applauded by ,blackstone and other humane writers1 after having been continued by several subsequent acts1 was recently suffered to expire4 ,it appears from these several modern regulations1 that1 as observed by ,mr4 ,justice ,foster1 we now consider ,benefit of ,clergy1 or rather the benefit of the statutes1 as a relaxation of the rigour of the law1 a condescension to the infirmities of the human frame1 exempting offending individuals in some cases from the punishment of death1 and subjecting them to milder punishment2 and therefore1 in the case of clergiable felonies1 we now profess to measure the degree of punishment by the real enormity of the offence1 and not1 as the ignorance and superstition of former times suggested1 by a blind respect for sacred persons or sacred functions1 nor by an absurd distinction between subject and subject1 originally owing to impudent pretension on one hand1 and to mere fanaticism on the other4 ,,curious ,,tenures4--,a farm at ,broadhouse1 in ,langsett1 in the parish of ,peniston1 and county of ,york1 pays yearly to ,godfrey ,bosville1 ,esq4 'a snow-ball at ,midsummer1 and a red rose at ,christmas4' ,william de ,albermarle holds the manor of ,loston1 'by the service of finding1 for our lord the king1 two arrows1 and one loaf of oat bread1 when he should hunt in the forest of ,eartmoor4' ,solomon ,attefield held land at ,repland and ,atterton1 in the county of ,kent1 upon condition 'that as often as our lord the king would cross the sea1 the said ,solomon and his heirs ought to go along with him1 to hold his head on the sea1 if it was needful4' ,john ,compes had the manor of ,finchfield given him by ,edward ,,iii4 for the service of 'turning the spit at his coronation4' ,geoffrey ,frumbrand held sixty acres of land in ,wingfield1 in the county of ,suffolk1 by the service of paying yearly to our lord the king two white doves4 ,john de ,roches holds the manor of ,winterslew1 in ,wiltshire1 by the service that when the king should abide at ,clarendon1 he should go into the butlery of the king's palace there1 and draw1 out of whatever vessel be chose1 as much wine as should be needful for making a pitcher of claret1 which he should make at the king's expense1 and that he should serve the king with a cup1 and should have the vessel whence he took the wine1 with all the wine then in it1 together with the cup whence the king should drink the claret4 ,the town of ,yarmouth is1 by charter1 bound to send the sheriffs of ,norwich a hundred herrings1 which are to be baked in twenty-four pies or patties1 and delivered to the lord of the manor of ,east ,carlton1 who is to convey them to the king4 ,at the coronation of ,james ,,ii4 the lord of the manor of ,heyden1 in ,essex1 claimed to hold the basin and ewer to the king by virtue of one moiety1 and the towel by virtue of the other moiety of the manor1 whenever the king washed before dinner2 but the claim was allowed only as to the towel4 ,the privileges of the great officers of the ancient ,british court1 were particularly striking4 ,each was annually presented by the king and queen with a piece of linen and woollen cloth1 besides some old clothes from the royal wardrobe4 ,the king's riding-coat was three times a year given to the master of the mews2 his caps1 saddles1 bits1 and spurs1 became the perquisite of the master of the horse2 and the chamberlain appropriated to himself his old clothes and bed-quilts4 ,the third in rank1 in the court of the ,anglo-,saxon kings1 was1 the steward1 who had a variety of perquisites1 of which the following were the most remarkable3--',as much of every cask of plain ale1 and as much of every cask of ale with spiceries1 as he could reach with the second joint of the middle finger2 and as much of every cask of mead1 as he could reach with the first joint of the same finger4' ,our next article is on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,may ,,poles ,,and ,,garlands4--,it was a custom among the ancient ,britons1 before they were converted to ,christianity1 to erect ,may-poles1 adorned with flowers1 in honour of the goddess ,flora2 and the dancing of milkmaids on the first of ,may before garlands1 ornamented with flowers1 is only a corruption of the ancient custom1 in compliance with other rustic amusements4 ,the leisure days after seed-time had been chosen by our ,saxon ancestors for folk-motes1 or conventions of the people4 ,it was not till after the ,norman conquest that the ,pagan festival of ,whitsuntide fully melted into the ,christian holiday of ,pentecost4 ,its original name is ,whittentide1 the time of choosing the wits or wisemen to the wittenagemotte4 ,it was consecrated to ,hertha1 the goddess of peace and fertility2 and no quarrels might be maintained1 no blood shed1 during this truce of the goddess4 ,each village1 in the absence of the baron at the assembly of the nations1 enjoyed a kind of saturnalia4 ,the vassals met upon the common green around the ,may-poles1 where they erected a village lord1 or king1 as he was called1 who chose his queen4 ,he wore an oaken1 and she a hawthorn wreath2 and together they gave laws to the rustic sports during these sweet days of freedom4 ,the ,maypole1 then1 was the ,english tree of liberty4 ,how are these times of village simplicity and merriment vanished6 ,,curious ,,custom ,,at ,,oakham4--,oakham is remarkable for the following curious custom4 ,every peer of the realm1 the first time he comes within the precincts1 forfeits a shoe from his horse to the lord of the manor and castle1 unless he agrees to redeem it with money2 in which case a shoe is made according to his direction1 ornamented in proportion to the sum given by way of fine1 and nailed on the castle hall door4 ,some shoes are of curious workmanship1 and stamped with the names of the donors3 some are made very large1 and some gilt4 ,an ancient poet says of this county1 ,small shire that can produce to thy proportion good1 ,one vale of special name1 one forest1 and one flood4 ,a ,,curious ,,practice ,,in ,,north ,,holland4--,to every house1 of whatever quality1 there is an artificial door1 elevated near three feet above the level of the ground1 and never opened but upon two occasions4 ,when any part of the family marries1 the bride and bridegroom enter the house by this door2 and when either of the parties die1 the corpse is carried out by the same door4 ,immediately after the due ceremonies are performed in either of these cases1 this door is fastened up1 never to turn on its hinges again1 till some new event of a similar nature demands its services4 ,,chap4 ,,lxiii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,customs ,,of ,,mankind4--7,continued47 ,shrovetide--,candlemas ,day--,origin of ,valentine's ,day--,origin of ,plough ,monday--,new ,years ,gifts--,origin of ,christmas ,boxes--,chiltern ,hundreds--,origin of the ,term ,john ,bull--,origin of the ,old ,adage1 ,if it rains on ,st4 ,swithin's ,day1 it will rain ,forty ,days afterwards--,curfew ,bell4 ,,shrovetide1--in its original meaning1 signifies the time of confessing sins to a priest4 ,tide refers to time2 and shrove1 shrive1 or shrift1 are derived from the ,saxon1 and signify confession4 ,in the earlier constitution of the church1 it is ordered1 ,that on the week next before ,lent1 every man should go to his shrift1 and his shrift should shrive him in such a manner as the deeds which he had done required4 ,this custom of confessing to the priest at this season1 was laid aside at the ,reformation4 ,fitzstephen informs us1 that anciently1 on ,shrove-,tuesday1 schoolboys used to bring cocks of the game to their masters1 and entertain themselves with cock-fighting4 ,the masters presided at the battle1 and claimed the runaway cocks as their perquisite4 ,the custom of throwing at cocks on this day is not of very ancient institution3 it is gradually growing out of use2 to which amendment of our manners1 the ingenious pencil of ,hogarth probably contributed4 ,shrove-,tuesday is1 in the north1 called ,fastern's ,e'en1 because the following day is the commencement of ,lent4 ,shrove-,monday is also termed ,collop-,monday2 in the north1 collops and eggs being on that day a constant dish1 as on the next day the ,papists take leave of flesh4 ,our custom of eating pancakes on ,shrove-,tuesday1 was probably borrowed from the ,greek church4 ,the ,russians begin their ,lent always eight weeks before ,easter2 the first week they eat eggs1 milk1 cheese1 and butter1 and make great cheer with pancakes1 and such other things4 ,in the ,oxford almanacks1 the ,saturday preceding this day is termed ,festum ,overum1 ,egg feast4 ,on ,shrove-,tuesday1 the people in every parish throughout ,england were obliged1 one by one1 to confess their sins to their own parish priests1 in their own parish churches4 ,and that this might be done more regularly1 the great bell in every parish was rung at ten o'clock1 or perhaps sooner1 that it might be heard by all1 and that they might attend according to the custom then in use4 ,and though we are now ,protestants1 yet the custom of ringing the great bell in an ancient parish church still continues1 and has the name of the pancake bell1 probably1 because after the confession it was customary to dine on pancakes or fritters2 and many people even now have these articles as part of their dinner on this day4 ,this used to be a great holiday amongst apprentices2 but a contempt of old customs seems gaining ground in this country1 and those1 or many of them above-mentioned1 will probably soon be forgotten4 ,another account of the origin of frying pancakes on ,shrove-,tuesday1 has been given4 ,it is said that one ,simon ,eyre1 a shoemaker1 being chosen lord-mayor of ,london1 made a pancake feast on ,shrove-,tuesday for all the apprentices in ,london2 and from that it became a custom4 ,he ordered1 that upon ringing of a bell in every parish1 the apprentices should leave work1 and shut up their shops for that day2 which being ever since yearly observed1 is called the pancake bell3 he made them a large feast of puddings1 pies1 and pancakes1 and what remained1 when all had dined1 was given to the poor3 afterwards in that year 7#addf17 he built ,leadenhall4 ,,candlemas ,,day4--,this is the feast of the purification1 which was formerly celebrated with many lights in churches4 ,the custom of going in procession on ,candlemas-day with lighted candles in the hand1 is said to have been derived from the ,romans1 who went about ,rome with torches1 and candles brenning 7burning7 in worship of ,februa1 the mother of ,mars4 ,this was afterwards1 by ,pope ,fergius1 converted into the worship of our ,lady1 and her ,son1 the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,wheatley says1 ,the practice of using abundance of lights1 both in churches and processions1 continued in ,england till the second year of ,edward ,,vi4 when ,bishop ,cranmer forbade it1 by order of the ,privy ,council4 ,,valentine',s ,,day4--,valentine was a pope1 or bishop of ,rome1 that lived in the ninth century2 who1 on this day1 established an annual custom of the poorer clergy drawing patrons by lots for the commenced year2 and these patrons1 or benefactors1 were called ,valentines4 ,after his death he was canonized for a saint1 and his feast-day kept on the fourteenth day of ,february1 which was thought to be his birth-day4 ,mr4 ,john ,gordon1 in his memoirs and account of the popes1 says1 that ,valentine was too good a man to be a good pope1 and died forty days after his consecration1 or instalment2 being choked with a fish-bone4 ,this custom1 in ,britain1 evidently appears to have been copied by the laity from the clergy1 in the days of popery1 and is a very ancient custom1 being almost of a thousand years standing4 ,the birds too are supposed to choose their mates1 and pair1 on this day2 which1 no doubt1 is an additional reason to our youth of both sexes who are approaching to maturity1 to write their verses1 and with much ingenuity ply scissars1 pen1 and pencil1 in honour of their selected or allotted lovers4 ,,plough-,,monday4--,this day is held on the ninth of ,january1 the ,monday after ,twelfth-day4 ,the ploughmen1 in the north country1 draw a plough from door to door1 and beg money for drink2 from whence this took its name4 ,plough-day had its origin when the feudal system prevailed in this country1 when the lords and barons had their lands tilled by their vassals1 or tenants4 ,the ,christmas holidays terminated on ,twelfth-day1 and the ploughing season for the new year commenced the first ,monday after2 on which day1 the sock-men 7as this sort of ploughmen were then called7 were obliged to appear with their ploughs1 c4 at a place appointed there1 to have them examined1 whether they were in a proper condition to perform their lord's work2 for ploughs were then scarce1 and it was a mark of some consequence to possess one in good order4 ,hence the appellation of ,plough-,monday has ever since being applied to the first ,monday after ,twelfth-day4 ,it is conjectured1 that the system of begging money arose at a time when they could not plough the land on account of its being frozen1 as watermen drag about a boat in severe frosts1 and beg money1 because they are then unable to ply on the river4 ,,new ,,year',s ,,gifts4--,nonius ,marcellus refers the origin of ,new ,year's ,gifts among the ,romans to ,titus ,tatius1 king of the ,sabines1 who reigned at ,rome conjointly with ,romulus1 and who1 having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to ,strenua1 the goddess of strength1 which he received on the first day of the new year1 authorized this custom afterwards1 and gave to these persons the name of ,stren4 ,the ,romans on that day celebrated a festival in honour of ,janus1 and paid their respects at the same time to ,juno2 but they did not pass it in idleness1 lest they should become indolent during the rest of the year4 ,they sent presents to one another of figs1 dates1 honey1 c4 to shew their friends that they wished them a happy and agreeable life4 ,clients1 or those who were under the protection of the great1 carried presents of this kind to their patrons1 adding to them a small piece of silver4 ,under ,augustus1 the senate1 the knights1 and the people1 presented such gifts to him1 and in his absence deposited them in the capitol4 ,of the succeeding princes1 some adopted this custom1 and others abolished it2 but it always continued among the people4 ,the early ,christians condemned it1 because it appeared to be a relic of paganism1 and a species of superstition2 but when it began to have no other object than that of being a mark of esteem1 the church ceased to disapprove of it4 ,,christmas ,,boxes4--,on looking into history1 we find that this custom derived its existence much about the time that mass was first said by a ,catholic priest4 ,rome1 which originally gave birth to superstition1 had an incredible number of clergy to support1 and1 among other devices1 this was invented as one1 and took its name of ,mass from the ,latin word mitto1 to send4 ,this word mitto was a kind of remembrancer1 or rather dictator1 which said1 ,send gifts1 offerings1 and oblations to the priests1 that they may intercede with ,christ to save your soul by saying so many masses4 ,hence it was called ,christ's mass1 or1 as it is now abbreviated1 ,christmas4 ,thus far the etymology of the word is indisputable1 and every man who has attended to the minuti of sacred history1 must know the fact to be as here related4 ,the word box1 is a part of the same priestcraft trade1 and took its origin from the following circumstance3-- ,whenever a ship sailed from any of those ports where the religious profession was under the authority of ,rome1 a certain saint was always named1 unto whose protection it's safety was committed1 and in that ship there was a box1 and into that box every poor person put something1 in order to induce the priests to pray to that saint for the safe return of the vessel2 which box was locked up by the priests1 who said the money should not be taken out until the vessel came back4 ,,chiltern ,,hundreds4--,frequent mention is made of members of parliament accepting the ,chiltern ,hundreds4 ,the following is the explanation3-- ,the ,chiltern ,hundreds are hundreds1 or divisions of counties1 parcelled out by the wise ,alfred1 and now annexed to the crown2 they still retain their peculiar courts4 ,the stewards of these courts are appointed by the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer2 their salary is #bjs4 a year4 ,as the law enacts that a member of parliament who receives a place under the ,crown1 may not sit1 unless re-elected1--accepting the stewardship of the ,chiltern ,hundreds is merely a formal manner of resigning a seat1 when the member wishes to be rechosen4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,term ,,john ,,bull4--,dr4 ,john ,bull was the first ,gresham professor of music1 and organist and composer to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,john1 like a true ,englishman1 travelled for improvement2 and having heard of a famous musician at ,st4 ,omer's1 he placed himself under him as a novice2 but a circumstance very soon convinced the master1 that he was inferior to the scholar4 ,the musician shewed ,john a song1 which he had composed in forty parts6 telling him at the same time1 that he defied all the world to produce a person capable of adding another part to his composition4 ,bull desired to be left alone1 and to be indulged for a short time with pen and ink4 ,in less than three hours1 he added forty parts more to the song4 ,upon which the ,frenchman was so much surprised1 that he swore in great ecstasy1 he must be either the ,devil1 or ,john ,bull2 which has ever since been proverbial in ,england4 ,origin of the ,old ,adage1 ,,if ,,it ,,rains ,,on ,,saint ,,swithin',s ,,day1 ,,it ,,will ,,rain ,,for ,,forty ,,days ,,afterwards4 ,in the year #hje1 ,st4 ,swithin1 bishop of ,winchester1 dying1 was canonized by the then pope4 ,he was singular in his desire to be buried in the open church-yard1 and not in the chancel of the minister1 as was customary with the bishops2 which request was complied with3 but the monks1 on his being canonized1 taking it into their heads that it was disagreeable for the saint to lie in the open church-yard1 resolved to move his body into the choir1 which was to have been done in solemn procession on the #aeth of ,july4 ,it rained1 however1 so violently on that day1 and for forty days succeeding1 as had hardly ever been known1 which made them set aside their design1 as contrary to the will of ,heaven2 and instead of removing the body1 they shewed their veneration by erecting a chapel over his grave4 ,origin of the ,saying1 when people speak improperly1 ,,that',s ,a ,,bull4--,this became a proverb from the repeated blunders of one ,obadiah ,bull1 a lawyer of ,london1 who lived in the reign of king ,henry ,,vii4 ,,curfew ,,bell4--,the curfew bell 7called1 in the low ,latin of the middle ages1 ignitegium1 or peritegium1 and in ,french1 couvrefew7 was a signal for all persons to extinguish their fires at a certain hour4 ,in those ages1 people made fires in their houses in a hole or pit in the centre of the floor1 under an opening formed in the roof2 and when the fire was burnt out1 or the family went to bed1 the hole was shut by a cover of wood or earth4 ,this practice still prevails among the cottagers in some parts of ,scotland1 and perhaps in other parts of the kingdom4 ,in the dark ages1 when all ranks of people were turbulent1 a law was almost every where established1 that the fire should be extinguished at a certain time in the evening2 that the cover should be put over the fire-place1 and that all the family should retire to rest1 or at least keep within doors4 ,the time when this ought to be done1 was signified by the ringing of a bell1 called therefore the curfew bell1 or ignitegium4 ,this was the law of ,william the ,conqueror1 who first introduced the practice into ,england1 and which was abolished by ,henry the ,first1 in #aajj4 ,the ringing of the curfew bell gave rise to the ,prayer ,bell1 as it is called1 which is still retained in some ,protestant countries4 ,pope ,john the ,twenty-third1 with a view to avert certain apprehended misfortunes which rendered his life uncomfortable1 gave orders1 that every person1 on hearing the ignitegium1 should repeat the ,ave ,maria three times4 ,when the appearance of a comet1 and the dread of ,turks1 alarmed all ,christendom1 ,pope ,calixtus the ,third increased these periodical times of prayer1 by ordering the prayer bell to be rung also at noon4 ,,chap4 ,,lxiv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,customs ,,of ,,mankind4--7,concluded47 ,romish ,indulgences--,act of ,faith--,baptism of ,bells--,curious ,baptism--,kalmuck ,praying ,machines--,curious ,penance at ,calcutta4 ,,religious ,,customs4 ,,romish ,,indulgences4--,in the ,romish church1 indulgences are a remission of the punishment due to sins1 granted by the church1 and supposed to save the sinner from purgatory4 ,according to the ,romish doctrine1 all the good works of the saints1 over and above those which were necessary towards their own justification1 are deposited1 together with the infinite merits of ,jesus ,christ1 in one inexhaustible treasury4 ,the keys of this were committed to ,st4 ,peter1 and to his successors the popes1 who may open it at pleasure1 and by transferring a portion of this superabundant merit to any particular person1 for a sum of money1 may convey to him either the pardon of his own sins1 or a release for any one in whom he is interested1 from the pains of purgatory4 ,indulgences were first invented in the eleventh century1 by ,urban ,,ii4 as a recompense for those who went in person upon the glorious enterprise of conquering the ,holy ,land4 ,they were afterwards granted to those who hired a soldier for that purpose2 and in process of time were bestowed on such as gave money for accomplishing any pious work enjoined by the pope4 ,this power of granting indulgences was greatly abused4 ,pope ,leo ,x4 in order to carry on the magnificent structure of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 published indulgences1 and plenary remission1 to all who should contribute money towards it4 ,finding the project take1 he granted to ,albert1 elector of ,mentz1 and archbishop of ,magdeburg1 the benefit of the indulgences of ,saxony and the neighbouring parts1 and farmed out those of other countries to the highest bidders2 who1 to make the best of their bargain1 procured the ablest preachers to cry up the value of the ware4 ,the form of these indulgences was as follows3 ,may our ,lord ,jesus ,christ have mercy upon thee1 and absolve thee by the merits of his most holy passion4 ,and ,i1 by his authority1 that of his blessed apostles ,peter and ,paul1 and of the most holy ,pope1 granted and committed to me in these parts1 do absolve thee1 first from all ecclesiastical censures1 in whatever manner they have been incurred1 then from all thy sins1 transgressions1 and excesses1 how enormous soever they may be1 even for such as are reserved for the cognizance of the holy see1 and as far as the keys of the holy church extend3 ,i remit to you all punishment which you deserve in purgatory on their account2 and ,i restore you to the holy sacraments of the church1 to the unity of the faithful1 and to that innocence and purity which you possessed at baptism2 so that when you die1 the gates of punishment shall be shut1 and the gates of the paradise of delight shall be opened2 and if you shall not die at present1 this grace shall remain in full force when you are at the point of death4 ,in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the terms in which the retailers of indulgences described their benefits1 and the necessity of purchasing them1 are so extravagant1 that they appear almost incredible4 ,they maintain1 that if any man purchase letters of indulgence1 his soul may rest secure with respect to its salvation4 ,that the souls confined in purgatory1 for whose redemption indulgences are purchased1 as soon as the money tinkles in the chest1 instantly escape from that place of torment1 and ascend into heaven3 ,that the efficacy of indulgences is so great1 that the most heinous sins1 even if one should violate 7which was impossible7 the ,mother of ,god1 would be remitted and expiated by them1 and the person be freed both from punishment and guilt3 ,that this was the unspeakable gift of ,god1 in order to reconcile men to himself3 ,that the cross erected by the preachers of indulgences was equally efficacious with the cross of ,christ4 ,lo6 7say they7 the heavens are open2 if you enter not now1 when will you enter8 ,for twelve-pence you may redeem the soul of your father out of purgatory2 and are you so ungrateful1 that you will not rescue your parent from torment8 ,if you had but one coat1 you ought to strip yourself instantly1 and sell it1 in order to purchase such benefits1 c4--,this monstrous abuse of indulgences contributed greatly to the ,reformation of religion in ,germany1 where ,martin ,luther first began to declaim against the preachers of indulgences1 and afterwards against indulgences themselves4 ,since that period1 the popes have been more sparing in the exercise of this power3 however1 they still carry on a great trade with them to the ,indies1 where they are purchased at two rials apiece1 and sometimes more4 ,the pope likewise grants indulgences to persons at the point of death2 that is1 he grants them1 by a brief1 power to choose what confessor they please1 who is authorized thereby to absolve them from all their sins in general4 ,we proceed to another custom of the ,romish church1 called the ,,act ,,of ,,faith4--,auto da ,f1 in the ,romish church1 is a solemn day observed by the ,inquisition1 for the punishment of heretics1 and the absolution of the innocent persons who have been accused4 ,it is usually contrived to fall on some grand festival1 that the execution may take place with the greater pomp and solemnity4 ,at least1 it is always on a ,sunday4 ,the auto da f may be considered as the last act of the inquisitorial tragedy2 it is a kind of gaol delivery1 appointed as often as a sufficient number of prisoners in the ,inquisition are convicted of heresy1 either by their own voluntary or extorted confession1 or on the evidence of witnesses4 ,the process is as follows3--,in the morning they are brought into a great hall1 where they are clothed in certain habits1 which they are to wear in the procession1 and by which they know their doom4 ,the procession is led on by the ,dominican friars1 who enjoy this privilege1 because ,st4 ,dominic1 their founder1 instituted the ,inquisition4 ,before them is carried the standard of the holy office1 in which the image of the founder is wrought in rich embroidery1 holding a sword in one hand1 and an olive branch in the other1 with the inscription1 ,justice and ,mercy4 ,these friars are followed by the penitents1 who have narrowly escaped burning1 and who over their black coats have flames painted1 with their points turned downwards4 ,next come the negative and relapsed who are intended to be burnt1 and who have flames on their habits pointing upwards4 ,after these follow such as profess doctrines contrary to the faith of ,rome1 and who1 besides flames pointing upwards1 have their pictures painted on their breasts1 and surrounded by dogs1 serpents1 and devils1 all open-mouthed4 ,each prisoner is attended by a familiar of the ,inquisition2 and those intended to be burnt1 have also on each side a ,jesuit1 who is continually advising them to abjure4 ,after the prisoners1 follow a troop of familiars on horseback2 after them1 the ,inquisitors1 and other officers1 upon mules2 and lastly1 the inquisitor-general1 upon a white horse1 led by two men with black hats and green hatbands4 ,a scaffold is erected sufficiently large for containing two or three thousand people2 at one end of the scaffold are the prisoners1 at the other end the inquisitors4 ,after a sermon1 consisting of encomiums on the ,inquisition1 and of invectives against heretics1 a priest ascends a desk near the scaffold1 and1 having received the abjuration of the penitents1 recites the final sentence of those who are to be put to death1 and delivers them to the secular power1 at the same time earnestly beseeching that their blood be not touched1 nor their lives put in danger666 ,the prisoners being thus in the hands of the civil magistrate1 are immediately loaded with chains1 and carried first to the secular gaol1 and thence1 in an hour or two1 brought before the civil judge4 ,after inquiring in what religion they intend to die1 the civil judge pronounces sentence on such as declare they die in the communion of the church of ,rome1 that they shall be first strangled1 and then burnt to ashes2 on such as die in any other faith1 that they be burnt alive4 ,both are immediately carried to the place of execution1 where as many stakes are set up as there are prisoners to be burnt1 and about each stake is laid a quantity of dry furze4 ,the stakes of the professed1 or of such as persist in their heresy1 are about four yards in height1 and towards the top have a small board1 on which the prisoner is seated4 ,the negative and relapsed being first strangled and burnt1 the professed mount their stakes by a ladder2 and the ,jesuits1 after repeatedly exhorting them to be reconciled to the church1 part with them1 and say that they leave them to the devil1 who is standing at their elbow to receive their souls1 and to carry them with him to the flames of hell4 ,on hearing this1 a great shout is raised by the people1 who cry1 ',let the dogs' beards be made6' ,this is performed by thrusting flaming furze1 fastened to long poles1 against their chins1 till their faces are burned to a coal4 ,this inhuman act is accompanied with the loudest acclamations of joy4 ,at last1 fire is set to the furze at the bottom of the stakes1 over which the professed are chained so high1 that the top of the flame seldom reaches higher than the seat upon which they sit1 and they seem rather roasted than burnt4 ,there cannot be a more lamentable spectacle3 the sufferers continually cry out1 while they are able1 ',pity1 for the love of ,god6' ,yet it is beheld by all ages1 and by both sexes1 with transports of joy and admiration6 ,another curious custom in the same church1 is1 ,,the ,,baptism ,,of ,,bells4--,being come to ,veletre1 the abbot took up his lodging with one of his friends1 and ,i betook myself to an inn1 near the ,piazza4 ,my host asked me if ,i had not a mind to see the ceremony which was to be celebrated the next day at the dome1 7so they call the cathedral churches in ,italy27 he told me there was a bell to be baptized1 whereof a great lord was to be the godfather1 and a lady of quality the godmother2 and that there would be a great appearance of the nobility1 who had been invited to the solemnity from all parts4 ,i had before this seen bells baptized in ,france2 but because ,i knew that the ,italians surpass all other nations in the magnificence of their ceremonies1 and that they commonly season them with a double portion of superstition1 ,i resolved with myself to see it baptized1 and with that design ,i staid all the next day at ,veletre4 ,i went to the church in the morning1 to take a view of the preparatives that had taken up a whole week's time1 which ,i found to be great and sumptuous indeed4 ,the bell was placed at the lower end of the body of the church1 hanging upon two gudgeons1 covered with rich hangings of velvet of a violet colour1 and the bell itself was accoutred with a kind of robe of the same stuff4 ,there were two theatres built on each side of it for the musicians1 and an amphitheatre for the ladies who were to be present at the ceremony4 ,the pillars and walls of the church were richly adorned with curious sheets of silk1 and pictures4 ,near to the bell was erected an altar very neatly set forth1 and on it lay a white satin robe1 which was to be put upon the bell as soon as it should be baptized1 with a great and choice garland of flowers3 there was also upon the altar a ,roman ritual1 a censer1 and a vessel with holy water1 and round about the altar rich elbow chairs for the priests who were to perform the ceremony4 ,just over against it a throne was seen1 most magnificently hung1 for the godfather and godmother of the bell4 ,about ten o'clock the company came1 and having taken their several places1 the priests began their function4 ,he who officiated was a bishop in partibus1 whom the bishop of ,veletre1 being at that time very sick1 had deputed for this purpose1 and his chair was placed upon the steps of the high altar4 ,he struck up the first ,psalm1 which was continued by the music4 ,the psalms1 by the way1 which may be seen in the ,roman ritual1 have as much reference to the baptizing of the moon1 as to the baptizing of a bell3 for the prophet ,david very probably had not the least notion of the baptism of bells4 ,after the psalms were ended1 the bishop began the blessing of holy water1 to sanctify it in the first place1 to the end that afterwards it might sanctify the bell also4 ,this benediction is very long1 and no less ridiculous2 which being finished1 the bishop and priests dipped spunges in it1 with which they rubbed over the bell1 from the top to the bottom1 within and without1 being in this regard certainly much better baptized than children are1 upon whose heads only they pour or sprinkle it4 ,they repeated1 in the mean time1 abundance of prayers1 which speak of nothing else but heavenly blessings1 that are to purify1 sanctify1 and consecrate the bell4 ,ut hoc tintinnabulum 7say they7 coeleste benedictione perfundere1 purificare1 sanctificare1 et consecrare digneris3 ',that thou wouldest be pleased to rinse1 purify1 sanctify1 and consecrate this bell with thy heavenly benediction4' ,the bell being thus washed1 they dried it with clean napkins2 and the bishop having taken the vial of holy oils1 which are those they bless on ,holy ,thursday for the whole year following1 he therewith anointed the cross of metal1 which is on the top of the bell1 in order to make the devils flee at the sound or ringing of it3 ,ut hoc audientes tintinnabulum1 tremiscant et fugiant ante crucis in eo depictum vexillum3 ',that hearing this bell1 they may tremble and flee before the banner of thy cross designed upon it4' ,he afterwards made seven other crosses with the said oil upon the outside of the bell1 and four on the inside4 ,this done1 he made the godfather and godmother draw near1 and demanded of them in ,italian1 ',whether they were the persons that presented this bell to be consecrated8' ,who having answered that they did1 he then asked them1 ',whether the metal of the bell1 and the workmanship of it1 had been paid for to the artificers8' ,to which they answered1 ',yea4'--,they make this demand1 because it had sometimes happened1 that for want of proper payment1 the workmen have seized and fetched away their bells the same day1 or the day after they had been baptized1 and have melted them down to be employed to profane uses4 ,the third question he asked of them was1 ',whether they believed all that the ,catholic apostolic churches believes concerning the holiness and virtue of bells8' ,the answer to which was affirmative also4 ,in the last place1 he demanded of them1 ',what name they desired should be put upon the bell8' ,to which the lady replied1 ',mary4' ,then the bishop took two great silk ribands1 which had been fastened to the gudgeons of the bell1 and gave each of them one in their hands1 and pronounced1 with a loud intelligible voice1 the words of consecration1 which are these1--,consecretur et sanctificetur signum istud1 in nomine ,patris1 et ,filii1 et ,spiritus ,sancti4 ,amen4 ',let this sign be consecrated and sanctified in the name of the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost4 ,amen4' ,then turning himself to the people1 he said1 ',the name of this bell is ,mary4' ,he then takes the censer1 and censeth it on the outside round about1 and afterwards puts the censer under the bell1 filling it with sacred fumes1 and repeating prayers and invocations1 that it might be filled with the dew of the ,holy ,spirit1 that at the sound of it the enemy of all good may take his flight4 ,the office was carried on with a great number of psalms1 which they repeated1 the music all the while performing wonders2 and then the bishop1 to sum up the whole ceremony1 arrayed the bell with the white robe of a proselyte1 or convert1 and with a loud voice read the gospel of ',mary and ,martha4' ,i supposed at that time that the reason of their reading this gospel was1 because the bell was called ,mary2 but ,i have since seen1 in the ,roman ritual1 that the same gospel is read at the consecration of all bells1 whatever their names be4 ,this is what ,i am astonished at1 because that gospel hath no reference at all to the ceremony4 ,the whole solemnity being thus ended1 the bishop gave his benediction1 and the priests received great presents from the godfather and godmother4 ,a ,,curious ,,baptism1 which took place at ,,dublin1 in the year #ahjg4--;,a ,moor1 a native of ,mogadore1 in ,africa1 a strict observer of the religion of ,mahomet1 wearing always1 of course1 the costume of his country1 resided a few months in the above city4 ,a family1 where he occasionally visited1 being about to baptize their infant1 solicited the stranger to stand godfather1 which was immediately consented to2 and on the appointed day1 he appeared splendidly arrayed in his turban and robes1 at the sacred font1 where1 with due solemnity1 he answered to the accustomed interrogatives1--,all this ,i stedfastly believe4 ,to add still further to the oddity of the circumstance1 the father was a member of the ,roman ,catholic church1 and the mother of the ,established one4 ,some account of ,,kalmuck ,,praying ,,machines3 from ,travels in the ,caucasus and ,georgia4--,among the most remarkable of the sacred utensils of the temples1 is the ,krd1 a cylindrical vessel of wood or metal1 either very small1 or of immense size4 ,in its centre is fixed an iron axle2 but the interior of the cylinder1 which is quite hollow1 is filled with sacred writings1 the leaves of which are all stuck one to another at the edge1 throughout the whole length4 ,this paper is rolled tightly round the axis of the cylinder till the whole space is filled up4 ,a close cover is fixed on at each end1 and the whole krd is very neatly finished1 painted on the outside with allegorical representations1 or ,indian prayers1 and varnished4 ,this cylinder is fastened upright in a frame by the axis2 so that the latter1 by means of a wheel attached to it below1 may be set a-going with a string1 and with a slight pull kept in a constant rotatory motion4 ,when this cylinder is large1 another1 twice as small1 and filled with writing1 is fixed for ornament at the top of it4 ,the inscription on such prayer-wheels commonly consists of masses for souls1 psalms1 and the six great general litanies1 in which the most moving petitions are preferred for the welfare of all creatures4 ,the text they sometimes repeat a hundred1 or even a thousand times1 attributing1 from superstition1 a proportionably augmented effect to this repetition1 and believing that by these frequent copies1 combined with their thousands of revolutions1 they will prove so much the more efficacious4 ,you frequently see1 as well on the habitations of the priests1 as on the whole roof of the temple1 small krd placed close to each other1 in rows1 by way of ornament2 and not only over the gates1 but likewise in the fields1 frames set up expressly for these praying-machines1 which1 instead of being moved by a string1 are turned by the wind1 by means of four sails1 shaped and hollowed out like spoons4 ,other similar krd are fastened to sticks of moderate thickness2 a leaden weight is then fastened to the cylinder by a string1 which1 when it is once set a-going1 keeps it1 with the help of the stick1 in constant motion4 ,such like prayer-wheels1 neatly wrought1 are fastened upon short sticks to a small wooden pedestal1 and stand upon the altars1 for the use of pious persons4 ,while the prayer-wheel is thus turned round with one hand1 the devotee takes the rosary in the other1 and at the same time repeats penitential psalms4 ,a fourth kind of these krd is constructed on the same principle as those which are turned by wind1 only it is somewhat smaller1 and the frame is adapted to be hung up by a cord1 in the chimneys of the habitations or huts of the ,monguls4 ,when there is a good fire1 they are likewise set in motion by the smoke and the current of air1 and continue to turn round as long as the fire is kept up4 ,a fifth kind of krd is erected on a small stream of water1 upon a foundation like that of a mill1 over which a small house is built to protect it from the weather4 ,by means of the wheel attached to it1 and the current1 the cylinder is in like manner kept in a constant circular motion4 ,these water krd are commonly constructed on a large scale1 and maintained at the joint expense of the inhabitants of a whole district4 ,they have a reference to all aquatic animals1 whether alive or dead1 whose temporal and eternal happiness is the aim of the writings contained in them1 in like manner as the object of the fire4 ,krd is the salvation of the souls of all animals suffering by fire4 ,,curious ,,account ,,of ,,an ,,expiatory ,,penance ,,at ,,calcutta4--,about a mile from the town is a plain1 where the natives annually undergo a very strange kind of penance on the #ith of ,april2 some for the sins they have committed1 others for those they may commit1 and others in consequence of a vow made by their parents4 ,this ceremony is performed in the following manner4 ,thirty bamboos1 each about the height of twenty feet1 are erected in the plain above-mentioned4 ,on the top of these they contrive to fix a swivel1 and another bamboo of thirty feet or more crosses it1 at both ends of which hangs a rope4 ,the people pull down one end of this rope1 and the devotee1 placing himself under it1 the brahmin pinches up a large piece of skin under both the shoulder blades1 sometimes in the breasts1 and thrusts a strong iron hook through each4 ,these hooks have lines of ,indian grass hanging to them1 which the priest makes fast to the rope at the end of the cross bamboo1 and at the same time puts a sash round the body of the devotee1 laying it loosely in the hollow of the hooks1 lest1 by the skin giving way1 he should fall to the ground4 ,the people then haul down the other end of the bamboo3 by which the devotee is immediately lifted up thirty feet or more from the ground1 and they run round as fast as their legs can carry them4 ,thus the devotee is thrown out the whole length of the rope1 where1 as he swings1 he plays a thousand antic tricks2 being painted and dressed in a very particular manner1 on purpose to make him look more ridiculous4 ,some of them continue swinging half an hour1 others less4 ,the devotees undergo a preparation of four days for this ceremony4 ,on the first and third1 they abstain from all kinds of food2 but eat fruit on the other two4 ,during this time of preparation they walk about the streets in their fantastical dresses1 dancing to the sound of drums and horns2 and some1 to express the greater ardour of devotion1 run a wire of iron quite through their tongues1 and sometimes through their cheeks4 ,happy are ,christians in being delivered from the darkness1 absurdities1 and horrors of superstition1 by the bright effulgence of the ,sun of righteousness6 ,,chap4 ,,lxv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,various ,,phenomena ,,or ,,appearances ,,in ,,nature4 ----------------,a wand'ring fire ,compact of unctuous vapour1 which the night ,condenses1 and the cold environs round1 ,kindled through agitation to a flame1 7,which oft1 they say1 some evil spirit attends17 ,hovering1 and blazing with delusive light1 ,misleads th' amaz'd night-wanderer from his way ,through bogs and mire4 ,milton4 ,,on ,,the ,,ignis ,,fatuus4 ,the ,ignis ,fatuus is a luminous appearance1 which is most frequently observed in boggy districts and near rivers1 though sometimes also in dry places4 ,by its appearance1 benighted travellers are said to have been sometimes led into imminent danger1 taking it for a candle at a distance2 from which seemingly mischievous property it has been thought by the vulgar to be a spirit of a malignant nature1 and been named accordingly1 ,will-with-a-,wisp1 or ,jack-with-a-,lantern2 for the same reason that it had its ,latin name ,ignis ,fatuus4 ,this light is frequently seen about burying-places and dunghills4 ,some countries are also remarkable for it1 as about ,bologna in ,italy1 and some parts of ,spain and ,ethiopia4 ,its forms are so uncertain and variable1 that they can scarcely be described1 especially as philosophical observers seldom meet with it4 ,dr4 ,derham1 however1 one night perceived one of them1 and got so near that he had a very advantageous view of it4 ,this is very difficult to be obtained2 for1 among other singularities of the ignis fatuus1 it avoids the approach of any person1 and flies from place to place as if it were animated4 ,that which ,dr4 ,derham observed1 was in some boggy ground betwixt two rocky hills2 and the night was dark and calm1 by which means he was enabled to advance within two or three yards of it4 ,it appeared like a complete body of light without any division1 so that he was sure it could not be occasioned by insects4 ,it kept dancing about a dead thistle1 till a very slight motion of the air1 occasioned1 as he supposed1 by his near approach to it1 made it jump to another place2 after which it kept flying before him as he advanced4 ,beccari obtained information1 that two of these lights appeared in the plains about ,bologna1 the one north1 the other south of that city1 and were to be seen almost every dark night1 especially that to the eastward1 giving a light equal to an ordinary faggot4 ,the latter appeared to a gentleman of his acquaintance1 as he was travelling2 moved constantly before him for about a mile1 and gave a better light than a torch which was carried before him4 ,both these appearances gave a very strong light1 and were constantly in motion4 ,sometimes they would rise1 sometimes sink2 but commonly they would hover about six feet from the ground2 they would also frequently disappear on a sudden1 and appear again in some other place4 ,they differed also in size and figure1 sometimes spreading pretty wide1 and then contracting themselves2 sometimes breaking into two1 and then joining again4 ,sometimes they would appear like waves1 at others they would seem to drop sparks of fire3 they were but little affected by the wind2 and in wet or rainy weather1 were frequently observed to cast a stronger light than in dry weather3 they were also observed more frequently when snow lay upon the ground1 than in the hottest summer2 but he was assured1 that there was not a dark night throughout the whole year1 in which they were not to be seen4 ,the ground east of ,bologna1 where the largest of these was observed1 is a hard chalky soil mixed with clay1 which retains moisture long1 but breaks and cracks in hot weather4 ,on the mountains1 where the soil is looser1 the ignes fatui were less4 ,from the best information1 ,m4 ,beccari found that these lights were very frequent about rivers and brooks4 ,he concludes his narrative with the following singular account4-- ,an intelligent gentleman travelling in the evening1 between eight and nine o'clock1 in a hilly road about ten miles south of ,bologna1 perceived a light which shone very strongly upon some stones which lay on the banks of the ,rio ,verde4 ,it seemed to be about two feet above the stones1 and near the water4 ,in size and figure it had the appearance of a parallelo-piped1 above a foot in length1 and half a foot high1 the largest side being parallel to the horizon4 ,its light was so strong1 that he could plainly see by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the water of the river2 only in the east corner of it the light was rather faint1 and the square figure less perfect1 as if it were cut off or darkened by the segment of a circle4 ,on examining it a little nearer1 he was surprised to find that it changed gradually from a bright red to a yellowish1 and then to a pale colour1 in proportion as he drew nearer2 and when he came to the place itself it quite vanished4 ,upon this1 he stepped back1 and not only saw it again1 but found that the farther he went from it1 the stronger and brighter it grew4 ,when he examined the place of this luminous appearance1 he could perceive no smell1 nor any other mark of fire1 ,another gentleman informed ,m4 ,beccari1 that he had seen the same light five or six different times in spring and autumn2 and that it always appeared of the same shape1 and in the very same spot4 ,one night in particular1 he observed it come out of a neighbouring field to settle in the usual place4 ,a very remarkable account of an ignis fatuus is given by ,dr4 ,shaw1 in his ,travels to the ,holy ,land4 ,it appeared in the valleys of mount ,ephraim1 and attended him and his company for above an hour4 ,sometimes it appeared globular1 or like the flame of a candle1 at others it spread to such a degree as to involve the whole country in a pale inoffensive light1 then contracted itself1 and suddenly disappeared1 but in less than a minute it would appear again2 sometimes1 running swiftly along1 it would expand itself at certain intervals over more than two or three acres of the adjacent mountains4 ,the atmosphere from the beginning of the evening had been remarkably thick and hazy2 and the dew1 as they felt it on the bridles of their horses1 was very clammy and unctuous4 ,lights resembling the ignis fatuus are sometimes observed at sea1 skipping about the masts and rigging of ships2 and ,dr4 ,shaw informs us1 that he has seen these in such weather as that just mentioned1 when he saw the ignis fatuus in ,palestine4 ,similar appearances have been observed in various other situations2 and we are told of one which appeared about the bed of a woman in ,milan1 surrounding it1 as well as her body1 entirely4 ,this light fled from the hand which approached2 but was at length entirely dispersed by the motion of the air4 ,of the same kind also1 most probably1 are those small luminous appearances which sometimes appear in houses1 or near them1 called1 in ,scotland1 ,elf-candles1 and which are supposed to portend the death of some person about the house4 ,in general these lights are harmless1 though not always2 for some of them have encompassed stacks of hay and corn1 and set them on fire2 so that they became objects of great terror to the country people4 ,of these1 it was observed1 that they would avoid a drawn sword1 or sharp-pointed iron instrument2 and that they would be driven away by a great noise4 ,several philosophers have endeavoured to account for these appearances1 but hitherto with no great success2 nor indeed does there seem to be sufficient data for solving all their phenomena4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton calls it a vapour shining without heat2 and supposes that there is the same difference between a vapour of the ignis fatuus and flame1 that there is between the shining of rotten wood and burning coals4 ,but though this seems generally to be the case1 there are exceptions1 as has been instanced in the vapours which set fire to the stacks of corn4 ,dr4 ,priestley supposes that the light is of the same nature with that produced by putrescent substances2 others1 that the electrical fluid is principally concerned2 but none have attempted to give any particular solution of the phenomena4 ,from the frequent appearance of the ignis fatuus in marshes1 moist ground1 burying-places1 and dunghills1 putrefaction seems to be concerned in the production of it4 ,this process is attended with the emission of an aqueous steam1 together with a quantity of fixed inflammable and alkaline air1 blended together in one common vapour4 ,it is likewise attended with some degree of heat1 and there are some vapours1 that of sulphur particularly1 which becomes luminous with a degree of heat much less than that sufficient to set fire to combustibles4 ,the putrid vapour1 therefore1 may be capable of shining with a still smaller degree of heat than that of sulphur1 and consequently may become luminous by that which putrefaction alone affords4 ,this would account for the ignis fatuus1 were it only a steady luminous vapour arising from places where putrid matters are contained2 but its extreme mobility1 and flying from one place to another on the approach of any person1 cannot be accounted for on this principle4 ,if one quantity of the putrid vapour becomes luminous by means of heat1 all the rest ought to do so likewise2 so that though we may allow heat and putrefaction to be concerned1 yet of necessity we must have recourse to some other agent1 which can be no other than electricity4 ,without this1 it is impossible to conceive how any body of moveable vapour should not be carried away by the wind2 but so far is this from being the case1 that the ignes fatui described by ,m4 ,beccari1 were but little affected by the wind4 ,it is1 besides1 proved by undoubted experiment1 that electricity is always attended with some degree of heat2 and this1 however small1 may be sufficient to give a luminous property to any vapour on which it acts strongly3 not to add1 that the electric fluid itself is no other than light1 and may therefore by its action easily produce a luminous appearance independent of any vapour4 ,we have a strong proof that electricity is concerned1 or indeed the principal agent1 in producing the ignis fatuus1 from an experiment related by ,dr4 ,priestley1 of a flame of this kind being artificially produced4 ,a gentleman1 who had been making many electrical experiments for a whole afternoon in a small room1 on going out of it1 observed a flame following him at some little distance4 ,this was doubtless a true ignis fatuus1 and the circumstances necessary to produce it were then present1 viz4 an atmosphere impregnated with animal vapour1 and likewise strongly electrified1 for the quantity of perspiration emitted by a human body is by no means inconsiderable2 and it1 as well as the electricity1 would be collected by reason of the smallness of the room4 ,in this case1 however1 there seems to have been a considerable difference between the artificial ignis fatuus1 and those commonly met with2 for this flame followed the gentleman as he went out of the room1 but the natural ones commonly fly from those who approach them4 ,this may be accounted for1 from a difference between the electricity of the atmosphere in the one room and the other2 in which case the flame would naturally be attracted towards that place where the electricity was either different in quality or in quantity2 but in the natural way1 where all bodies may be supposed equally electrified for a great way round1 a repulsion will as naturally take place4 ,still1 however1 this does not seem to be always the case4 ,in those instances where travellers have been attended by an ignis fatuus1 we cannot suppose it to have been influenced by any other power than what we call attraction1 and which electricity is very capable of producing4 ,its keeping at some distance1 is likewise easily accounted for2 as we know that bodies possessed of different quantities of electricity may be made to attract one another for a certain space1 and then repel without having ever come into contact4 ,on this principle we may account for the light which surrounded the woman at ,milan1 but fled from the hand of any other person4 ,on the same principle may we account for those mischievous vapours which set fire to the hay and corn stacks1 but were driven away by presenting to them a pointed iron instrument1 or by making a noise4 ,both these are known to have a great effect upon the electric matter2 and by means of either1 lightning may occasionally be made to fall upon1 or to avoid1 particular places1 according to the circumstances by which the general mass happens to be effected4 ,on the whole1 therefore1 it seems most probable1 that the ignis fatuus is a collection of vapours of the putrescent kind1 very much affected by electricity2 according to the degree of which1 it will either give a weak or strong light1 or even set fire to certain substances4 ,this opinion seems to be confirmed from some luminous appearances observed in privies1 where the putrid vapours have been collected into balls1 and exploded violently on the approach of a candle4 ,this last effect1 however1 we cannot so well ascribe to the electricity1 as to the ascension of the inflammable air which abounds in such places4 ,in the ,appendix to ,dr4 ,priestley's third volume of ,experiments and ,observations on ,air1 ,mr4 ,warltire gives an account of some very remarkable ignes fatui1 which he observed on the road to ,bromsgrove1 about five miles from ,birmingham4 ,the time of observation was the #abth of ,december1 #aggf1 before daylight4 ,many of these lights were playing in an adjacent field1 in different directions2 from some of which suddenly sprang up bright branches of light1 somewhat resembling the explosion of a rocket that contained many brilliant stars1 if the discharge was upwards1 instead of the usual direction2 and the hedge1 and trees on each side of the hedge1 were illuminated4 ,this appearance continued but a few seconds1 and then the jack-with-a-lantern played as before4 ,mr4 ,warltire was not near enough to observe if the apparent explosion was attended with any report4 ,cronstedt gives it as his opinion1 that ignes fatui1 as well as falling stars1 are owing to collections of inflammable air raised to a great height in the atmosphere4 ,but1 with regard to the latter1 the vast height at which they move1 evidently shews that they cannot be the effect of any gravitating vapour whatever2 for the lightest inflammable air is one-twelfth of that of the common atmosphere3 and we have no reason to believe1 that at the distance of forty or fifty miles from the earth1 the latter has near one-twelfth of its weight at the surface4 ,from the account given by ,mr4 ,warltire1 we should be apt to conclude1 that there is a strong affinity betwixt the ignes fatui and fireballs1 insomuch that the one might be very easily converted into the other4 ,electricity can assume both these appearances1 as is evident in the case of points2 or even when the atmosphere is violently electrified1 as around the string of an electrified kite1 which always will appear to be surrounded with a blue flame in the night1 if the electricity be very strong4 ,on the whole1 it appears that electricity1 acting upon a small quantity of atmospherical air with a certain degree of vigour1 will produce an appearance resembling an ignis fatuus2 with a superior force it will produce a fire-ball2 and a sudden increase of electrical power might produce those sparks and apparent explosions observed by ,mr4 ,warltire4 ,this appearance has produced many superstitious fears in the ignorant and uneducated4 ,to those who have1 unfortunately1 been badly educated in this respect1 a friendly act would be1 to endeavour with sound reasoning to convince them of their error1 and dissuade them from giving heed1 in future1 to idle1 superstitious1 or inconsistent stories of any kind2 advising them to furnish themselves with such knowledge1 as may have a tendency to produce true pleasure and happiness through life1 and which1 when dying1 they can reflect upon without uneasiness4 ,the natural offspring of prevailing superstition is infidelity4 ,of the truth of this1 the present times afford us a lamentable example4 ,where ignorance and fear once ruled supreme1 there has rash philosophy but too successfully planted presumption and atheism4 ',tis the diffusion of pure and solid knowledge1 which alone can preserve us from the dominion of these opposite tyrants4 ,how should this consideration increase our zeal and stimulate our endeavours6 ,the immediate sphere of our action may be circumscribed1 but our exertions will not on that account be entirely lost4 ,in that circumscribed sphere let us labour to root out every superstitious lying vanity1 and plant pure religion and unsophisticated truth in its stead4 ,how charming1 how enlivening to the soul1 to gaze upon the dawning beams of opening light1 to behold them irradiate that dismal gloom of intellectual darkness1 which long overwhelmed the millions of mankind3 how supremely pleasing1 to view them wider and wider spreading their invigorating influence3 how rapturously transporting1 to contemplate the resplendent prospect of pure and perfect day6 --------------,power supreme6 ,o everlasting ,king6 to thee we kneel1 ,to thee we lift our voice6-- ,o spread thy benign1 thy vivifying light over the dwellings of the sons of men2 dispel the yet impending mists of ignorance and superstition3 and1 ,o preserve us from the dismal gulf of infidelity and atheism2 let thy truth run and prevail gloriously2 let pure celestial wisdom overspread the earth as the waters cover the sea6--,then shall millions kneel before thee with grateful and enraptured hearts2 then shall they rejoice to sing the praises of thee1 their ,benefactor1 their ,father1 and their ,god3 then shall this vale of tears be filled with the mansions of joy and gladness1 and become a blissful foretaste of those regions1 where thy saints1 crowned with unfading glory and felicity1 surround thy throne with never-ceasing hallelujahs6 ,see ,naylor on ,vulgar ,superstitions4 ,,chap4 ,,lxvi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,various ,,phenomena ,,or ,,appearances ,,in ,,nature4--7,continued47 ,extraordinary ,properties and ,effects of ,lighting--,thunder ,rod--,fire ,balls--,terrible ,effects of ,electrified ,clouds--,surprising ,effects of extreme ,cold--,astonishing ,expansive ,force of ,freezing4 ----,by conflicting winds together dashed1 ,the thunder holds his black tremendous throne3 ,from cloud to cloud the rending lightnings rage2 ,till1 in the furious elemental war ,dissolv'd1 the whole precipitated mass ,unbroken floods and solid torrents pours4 ,thomson4 ,,extraordinary ,,properties ,,and ,,effects ,,of ,,lightning4--,a very surprising property of lightning of the zigzag kind1 especially when near1 is1 its seeming omnipresence4 ,if two persons are standing in a room looking different ways1 and a loud clap of thunder1 accompanied with zigzag lightning1 happens1 they will both distinctly see the flash1 not only by that indistinct illumination of the atmosphere which is occasioned by fire of any kind1 but the very form of the lightning itself1 and every angle it makes in its course1 will be as distinctly perceptible as if both had looked directly at the cloud from whence it proceeded4 ,if a person happened at that time to be looking on a book1 or other object which he held in his hand1 he would distinctly see the form of the lightning between him and the object at which he looked4 ,this property seems peculiar to lightning1 and to belong to no other kind of fire whatever4 ,in ,august #agfc1 a most violent storm of thunder1 rain1 and hail1 happened at ,london1 which did damage in the adjacent country to the amount of #ej1jjj4 ,hailstones fell of an immense size1 from two to ten inches in circumference1 but the most surprising circumstance attending the hurricane was1 the sudden flux and reflux of the tide in ,plymouth pool1 exactly corresponding with the like agitation in the same place1 at the time of the great earthquake at ,lisbon4 ,instances have also occurred where lightning1 by its own proper force1 without any assistance from those less common agitations of the atmosphere or electric fluid1 has thrown stones of immense weight to considerable distances2 torn up trees by the roots1 and broke them in pieces2 shattered rocks2 beat down houses1 and set them on fire1 c4 ,the following singular effect of lightning1 upon a pied bullock1 is recorded in the sixty-sixth volume of the ,philosophical ,transactions4-- ,in the evening of ,sunday the #bhth of ,august1 #aggd1 there was an appearance of a thunder storm1 but we heard no report4 ,a gentleman who was riding near the marshes not far from this town1 7,lewes7 saw two strong flashes of lightning running along the ground of the marsh1 at about nine o'clock ,p4 ,m4 ,on ,monday morning1 when the servants of ,mr4 ,roger1 a farmer at ,swanborough1 went into the marsh to fetch the oxen to their work1 they found one of them1 a four-year-old steer1 standing up1 to appearance much burnt1 and so weak as to be scarcely able to walk4 ,the animal seemed to have been struck by lightning in a very extraordinary manner4 ,he was of a white and red colour2 the white in large marks1 beginning at the rump bone1 and running in various directions along both sides2 the belly was all white1 and the whole head and horns white likewise4 ,the lightning1 with which he must have been undoubtedly struck1 fell upon the rump bone1 which was white1 and distributed itself along the sides in such a manner as to take off all the hair from the white marks as low as the bottom of the ribs1 but so as to leave a list of white hair1 about half an inch broad1 all round where it joined to the red1 and not a single hair of the red appears to have been touched4 ,the whole belly was unhurt1 but the end of the sheath of the penis had the hair taken off2 it was also taken off from the dewlap3 the horns and the curled hair on the forehead were uninjured2 but the hair was taken off from the sides of the face1 from the flat part of the jaw-bones1 and from the front of the face1 in stripes4 ,there were a few white marks on the side and neck1 which were surrounded with red2 and the hair was taken off from them1 leaving half an inch of white adjoining to the red4 ,the farmer anointed the ox with oil for a fortnight2 the animal purged very much at first1 and was greatly reduced in flesh1 but afterwards recovered4 ,in another account of this accident1 the author supposes that the bullock had been lying down at the time he was struck2 which shews the reason that the under parts were not touched4 ,the lightning1 conducted by the white hair1 from the top of the back down the sides1 came to the ground at the place where the white hair was left entire4 ,the author of this account says1 that he inquired of ,mr4 ,tooth1 a farrier1 whether he ever knew of a similar accident2 and that he told him the circumstance was not new to him2 that he had seen many pied bullocks struck by lightning in the same manner2 that the texture of the skin under the white hair was always destroyed1 though looking fair at first2 but after a while it became sore1 throwing out a putrid matter in pustules1 like the small-pox with us1 which in time falls off1 when the hair grows again1 and the bullocks receive no farther injury2 which was the case with the bullock in question4 ,in a subsequent letter1 however1 the very same author informs us1 that he had inquired of ,mr4 ,tooth1 whether he ever saw a stroke of lightning actually fall upon a pied bullock1 so as to destroy the white hair1 and shew evident marks of burning1 leaving the red hair uninjured8 ,he said he never did2 nor did he recollect any one that had4 ,he gave an account1 however1 of a pied horse1 belonging to himself1 which had been struck dead by lightning in the night time4 ,the explosion was so violent1 that ,mr4 ,tooth imagined his house had been struck1 and therefore immediately got up4 ,on going into the stable1 he found the horse almost dead1 though it kept on its legs near half an hour before it expired4 ,the horse was pied white on the shoulder1 and greatest part of the head1 viz4 the forehead and nose1 where the greatest force of the stroke came4 ,the hair was not burnt nor discoloured1 only so loosened at the root1 that it came off with the least touch4 ,and this is the case1 according to ,mr4 ,tooth's observation1 with all that he has seen or heard of1 viz4 the hair is never burnt1 but the skin always affected4 ,in the horse1 all the blood in the veins under the white parts of the head was quite stagnated1 though he could perceive it to flow in other parts as usual2 and the skin1 together with one side of the tongue1 was parched and dried up to a greater degree than he had ever seen before4 ,another instance is mentioned of this extraordinary effect of lightning upon a bullock1 in which even the small red spots on the sides were unaffected2 and in this1 as well as the former1 the white hair on the under part of the belly1 and on the legs1 was left untouched4 ,one very singular effect of lightning is1 that it has been observed to kill alternately1 that is1 supposing a number of people standing in a line2 if the first person was killed1 the second would be safe2 the third would be killed1 and the fourth safe2 the fifth killed1 c4 ,effects of this kind are generally produced by the most violent kind of lightning2 namely1 that which appears in the form of balls1 which frequently divide themselves into several parts before they strike4 ,if one of these parts of a fire-ball strike a man1 another will not strike the person who stands immediately close to him2 because there is always a repulsion between bodies electrified the same way4 ,now1 as these parts into which the balls break have all the same kind of electricity1 it is evident that they must for that reason repel one another1 and this repulsion is so strong1 that a man may be interposed within the stroke of two of them1 without being hurt by either4 ,,thunder ,,rod4--,dr4 ,franklin has demonstrated the identity of thunder with the electric explosion4 ,he availed himself of many curious discoveries which he had made of electrical laws3 in particular1 having observed that electricity was drawn off at a great distance1 and without the least violence of action1 by a sharp metallic point1 he proposed to philosophers to erect a tall mast or pole on the highest part of a building1 and to furnish the top of it with a fine metallic point1 properly insulated1 with a wire leading to an insulated apparatus for exhibiting the common electrical appearances4 ,to the whole of this contrivance he gave the name of ,thunder ,rod1 which it still retains4 ,he had not a proper opportunity of doing this himself1 at the time of his writing his dissertation in a letter from ,philadelphia to the ,royal ,society of ,london2 but the contents were so scientific1 and so interesting1 that in a few weeks they were known over all ,europe4 ,his directions were followed in many places4 ,in particular1 the ,french academicians1 encouraged by the presence of their monarch1 and the great satisfaction which he expressed at the repetition of ,dr4 ,franklin's most instructive experiments1 which discovered and made known the theory of positive and negative electricity1 as it is now received1 were eager to execute his orders1 and make his grand experiment1 which promised so fairly to bring this tremendous operation of nature1 not only within the pole of science1 but in the management of human power4 ,but in the mean time1 ,dr4 ,franklin1 impatient of delay1 and perhaps incited by the honourable desire of well-deserved fame1 put his own scheme in practice4 ,his inventive mind suggested to him a method of presenting a point to a thunder cloud at a considerable distance4 ,this was1 by fixing his point on the head of a paper kite1 which the wind should raise to the clouds1 while the wet string that held it should serve for a conductor of the electricity4 ,with a palpitating heart1 ,dr4 ,franklin1 unknown to his neighbours1 and accompanied only by his son1 went into the fields1 and sent up his messenger that was to bring him news from the heavens4 ,he obtained only a few sparks from his apparatus that day2 but returned to his house in a state of perfect satisfaction with his success4 ,we may justly consider this as one of the greatest of philosophical discoveries1 and as doing the highest honour to the inventor2 for it was not a suggestion from an accidental observation1 but arose from a scientific comparison of facts1 and a sagacious application of the doctrine of positive and negative electricity2 a doctrine wholly ,dr4 ,franklin's1 and the result of the most acute and discriminating observation4 ,it was this alone1 that suggested the whole2 and1 by explaining to his satisfaction the curious property of sharp points1 gave him the courage to handle the thunderbolt of the heavens4 ,it is now a point fully ascertained1 that thunder and lightning are the electric snap and spark1 as much superior to our puny imitations as we can conceive from the immense extent of the instruments in the hands of ,nature4 ,if 7says ,dr4 ,franklin17 a conductor1 one foot thick1 and five feet long1 will produce such snaps as agitate the whole human frame1 what may we not expect from a surface of ten thousand acres of electrified clouds8 ,how loud must be the explosion6 how terrible the effects6 ,to this wonderful discovery1 ,dr4 ,darwin alludes in the following lines3-- ,led by the phosphor light1 with daring tread ,immortal ,franklin sought the fiery bed2 ,where1 nurs'd in night1 incumbent tempest shrouds ,the seeds of thunder in circumfluent clouds1 ,besieg'd with iron points his airy cell1 ,and pierc'd the monster slumb'ring in his shell4 ,,fire ,,balls1--are a kind of luminous bodies1 commonly appearing at a great height above the earth1 with a splendour surpassing that of the moon1 and sometimes equalling her apparent size4 ,they generally proceed in this hemisphere from north to south with vast velocity1 frequently breaking into several smaller ones1 sometimes vanishing with a report1 and sometimes not4 ,these luminous appearances1 no doubt1 constitute one branch of the ancient prodigies1 or blazing stars4 ,they sometimes resemble comets1 in being attended with a train2 but frequently they appear with a round well-defined disk4 ,the first of these1 of which we have any accurate account1 was observed by ,dr4 ,halley and others1 at different places1 in #agai4 ,from the slight observations they could take of its course among the stars1 its perpendicular height was computed at about seventy miles from the surface of the earth4 ,the height of others has also been computed1 and found to be various2 though in general it is supposed to be beyond the limits assigned to our atmosphere1 or where it loses its refractive power4 ,the most remarkable of these on record appeared on the #ahth of ,august1 #aghc1 about nine o'clock in the evening4 ,it was seen to the northward of ,shetland1 and took a southerly direction for an immense space1 being observed as far as the southern provinces of ,france and ,rome4 ,during its course1 it appears frequently to have changed its shape2 sometimes appearing in the form of one ball1 sometimes two or more2 sometimes with a train1 sometimes without one4 ,it passed over ,edinburgh nearly in the zenith1 and had then the appearance of a well-defined round body1 extremely luminous1 and of a greenish colour2 the light which it diffused on the ground giving likewise a greenish cast to objects4 ,after passing the zenith1 it was attended by a train of considerable length1 which1 continually augmenting1 at last obliterated the head entirely2 so that it looked like a wedge1 flying with the obtuse end foremost4 ,the motion was not apparently swift1 by reason of its great height2 though in reality it must have moved with great rapidity1 on account of the vast space it travelled over in a short time4 ,in other places its appearance was very different4 ,at ,greenwich1 we are told1 that two bright balls1 parallel to each other1 led the way1 the diameter of which appeared to be about two feet2 these were followed by an expulsion of eight others1 not elliptical1 seeming gradually to fall to pieces1 for the last was small4 ,between each two balls a luminous serrated body extended1 and at the last a blaze issued1 which terminated in a point4 ,minute particles dilated from the whole4 ,the balls were tinted first by a pure bright light1 then followed a delicate yellow1 mixed with azure1 red1 green1 c4 which1 with a coalition of bolder tints1 and a reflection from the other balls1 gave the most beautiful rotundity and variation of colours1 that the human eye could be charmed with4 ,the sudden illumination of the atmosphere1 and the form and singular transition of this bright luminary1 contributed much to render it awful3 nevertheless1 the amazingly vivid appearance of the different balls1 and other rich connecting parts1 not very easy to delineate1 gave an effect equal to the rainbow in the zenith of its glory4 ,,terrible ,,effects ,,of ,,electrified ,,clouds4--,the most extraordinary instance of this kind perhaps on record1 happened in the island of ,java1 in the ,east ,indies1 in ,august1 #aggb4 ,on the #aath of that month1 at midnight1 a bright cloud was observed covering a mountain in the district called ,cheribou1 and at the same time several reports were heard like those of a gun4 ,the people who dwelt on the upper parts of the mountain1 not being able to fly fast enough1 a great part of the cloud1 almost three leagues in circumference1 detached itself under them1 and was seen at a distance1 rising and falling like the waves of the sea1 and emitting globes of fire so luminous1 that the night became as clear as day4 ,the effects of it were astonishing3 every thing was destroyed for seven leagues round2 the houses were demolished2 plantations were buried in the earth2 and two thousand one hundred and forty people lost their lives1 besides fifteen hundred head of cattle1 and a vast number of horses1 goats1 c4 ,another instance of a very destructive cloud1 the electric qualities of which at present can scarcely be doubted1 is related by ,mr4 ,brydone1 in his ,tour through ,malta4 ,it appeared on the #bith of ,october1 #ageg4 ,about three-quarters of an hour after midnight1 there was seen1 to the south-west of the city of ,valetta1 a great black cloud1 which1 as it approached1 changed its colour1 till at last it became like a flame of fire mixed with black smoke4 ,a dreadful noise was heard on its approach1 which alarmed the whole city4 ,it passed over the port1 and came first on an ,english ship1 which in an instant was torn in pieces1 and nothing left but the hull2 part of the masts1 sails1 and cordage1 were carried to a considerable distance with the cloud4 ,the small boats and selloques1 that fell in its way1 were all broken to pieces and sunk4 ,the noise increased1 and became more frightful4 ,a sentinel1 terrified at its approach1 ran into his box2 but both he and it were lifted up and carried into the sea1 where he perished4 ,it then traversed a considerable part of the city1 and laid in ruins almost every thing that stood in its way4 ,several houses were laid level with the ground1 and it did not leave one steeple in its passage4 ,the bells of some of them1 together with the spires1 were carried to a considerable distance2 the roofs of the churches demolished and beat down1 c4 ,it went off at the north-east point of the city1 and1 demolishing the lighthouse1 is said to have mounted up into the air with a frightful noise1 and passed over the sea to ,sicily1 where it tore up some trees1 and did other inconsiderable damage2 but nothing material1 as its fury had been spent at ,malta4 ,the number of killed and wounded amounted to near two hundred2 and the loss of shipping1 c4 was very considerable4--,the effects of thunder storms1 and the vast quantity of electric matter formed in the clouds which produce these storms1 are so well known1 that it is superfluous to mention them4 ,it appears1 however1 that even these clouds are not so highly electrified as to produce their fatal effects on those who are immersed in them4 ,it is only the discharge of part of their electricity upon such bodies as are either not electrified at all1 or not so highly electrified as the cloud1 that does all the mischief4 ,we have1 however1 only the following instance on record1 of any persons' being immersed in the body of a thunder cloud4 ,professor ,saussure1 and young ,mr4 ,jalabert1 when travelling over one of the high ,alps1 were caught among clouds of this kind2 and1 to their astonishment1 found their bodies so full of electrical fire1 that spontaneous flashes darted from their fingers with a crackling noise1 and the same kind of sensation as when strongly electrified by art4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the awful phenomena of nature1 none have excited more terror than lightning and thunder4 ,some of the profligate ,roman emperors1 of whom history records that they procured themselves to be deified1 confessed1 by their trembling and hiding themselves1 when they heard the thunder1 that there was a divine power greater than their own--,coela tonantem ,jovem4 ,the greatest security against the terrors of a thunder-storm1 although no certain one against its effects1 is that life of piety and virtue1 which is the best guardian of every earthly blessing4 ,the good man1 who knows that every event is under the direction of an overruling ,providence1 and that this life is only a part of his existence1 introductory to the blissful scenes of immortality1 will behold the terrors of the storm with unshaken resolution3 grateful to the ,supreme ,being1 if permitted to escape from the danger2 and acquiescing in the ,divine ,will1 if thus to be conveyed1 by an easy and instantaneous passage1 to that heaven where his conversation had long been1 and to that ,god with whom he delighted to walk4 ,these sentiments are beautifully expressed in the following lines1 written in a midnight thunder-storm1 by the celebrated ,mrs4 ,carter1 and addressed to a lady3-- ,let coward guilt with pallid fear ,to shelt'ring caverns fly1 ,and justly dread the vengeful fate ,that thunders thro' the sky3 ,protected by that hand1 whose law ,the threat'ning storms obey1 ,intrepid virtue smiles secure1 ,as in the blaze of day4 ,in the thick cloud's tremendous gloom1 ,the lightning's lurid glare1 ,it views the same ,all-gracious ,pow'r1 ,that breathes the vernal air4 ,thro' nature's ever-varying scene1 ,by diff'rent ways pursu'd1 ,the one eternal end of ,heav'n ,is universal good4 ,the same unchanging mercy rules ,when flaming ether glows1 ,as when it tunes the linnet's voice1 ,or blushes in the rose4 ,by reason taught to scorn those fears ,that vulgar minds molest1 ,let no fantastic terrors break ,my dear ,narcissa's rest4 ,thy life may all the tend'rest care ,of ,providence defend1 ,and delegated angels round ,their guardian wings extend4 ,when thro' creation's vast expanse ,the last dread thunders roll1 ,untune the concord of the spheres1 ,and shake the rising soul2 ,unmov'd may'st thou the final storm ,of jarring worlds survey1 ,that ushers in the glad serene ,of everlasting day4 ,the following lines on the same subject were written by ,mrs4 ,chapone3-- ,in gloomy pomp1 whilst awful midnight reigns1 ,and wide o'er earth her mournful mantle spreads2 ,whilst deep-voiced thunders threaten guilty heads1 ,and rushing torrents drown the frighted plains2 ,and quick-glanc'd lightnings1 to my dazzled sight1 ,betray the double horrors of the night3 ,a solemn stillness creeps upon my soul1 ,and all its powers in deep attention die2 ,my heart forgets to beat2 my stedfast eye ,catches the flying gleam2 the distant roll1 ,advancing gradual1 swells upon my ear ,with louder peals1 more dreadful as more near4 ,awake1 my soul1 from thy forgetful trance6 ,the storm calls loud1 and meditation wakes3 ,how at the sound pale superstition shakes1 ,whilst all her train of frantic fears advance6 ,children of darkness1 hence6 fly far from me6 ,and dwell with guilt and infidelity6 ,but come1 with look compos'd and sober pace1 ,calm ,contemplation1 come6 and hither lead ,devotion1 that on earth disdains to tread2 ,her inward flame illumes her glowing face1 ,her upcast eye1 and spreading wings1 prepare ,her flight for heaven1 to find her treasure there4 ,she sees1 enraptur'd through the thickest gloom1 ,celestial beauty beam1 and 'midst the howl ,of warring winds1 sweet music charms her soul2 ,she sees1 while rifted oaks in flames consume1 ,a ,father ,god1 that o'er the storm presides1 ,threatens to save1--and loves when most he chides4 ,,surprising ,,effects ,,of ,,extreme ,,cold4--,by extreme degrees of cold1 trees are burst1 rocks rent1 and rivers and lakes frozen several feet deep3 metallic substances blister the skin like red-hot iron3 the air1 when drawn in by respiration1 hurts the lungs1 and excites a cough3 even the effects of fire in a great measure seem to cease2 and metals1 though kept for a considerable time before a strong fire1 will still freeze water when thrown upon them4 ,when the ,french mathematicians wintered at ,tornea1 in ,lapland1 the external air1 when suddenly admitted into their rooms1 converted the moisture of the air into whirls of snow2 their breasts seemed to be rent when they breathed it2 the contact of it was intolerable to their bodies2 and the spirit of wine1 which had not been highly rectified1 burst some of their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous parts4 ,extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals1 in countries where the winters are very severe4 ,thus seven thousand ,swedes perished at once1 in attempting to pass the mountains which divide ,norway from ,sweden4 ,it is not necessary1 indeed1 that the cold1 in order to prove fatal to human life1 should be so very intense as has been just mentioned4 ,there is only requisite a degree somewhat below #cb of ,fahrenheit1 accompanied with snow or hail1 from which shelter cannot be obtained4 ,the snow which falls upon the clothes1 or the uncovered parts of the body1 then melts1 and1 by a continual evaporation1 carries off the animal heat to such a degree1 that a sufficient quantity is not left for the support of life4 ,in such cases1 the person first feels himself extremely chill and uneasy2 he begins to grow listless1 unwilling to walk or use exercise to keep himself warm2 and at last turns drowsy1 sits down to refresh himself with sleep1 but wakes no more4 ,an instance of this was seen not many years ago at ,terra del ,fuego2 where ,dr4 ,solander1 with some others1 having taken an excursion up the country1 the cold was so intense1 that one of their number died4 ,the ,doctor himself1 though he had warned his companions of the danger of sleeping in that situation1 yet could not be prevented from making that dangerous experiment himself2 and though he was awaked with all possible expedition1 his body was so much shrunk in bulk1 that his shoes fell off his feet1 and it was with the utmost difficulty that he was recovered4 ,in those parts of the world where vast masses of ice are produced1 the accumulation of it1 by absorbing the heat of the atmosphere1 occasions an absolute sterility in the adjacent countries1 as is particularly the case with the island of ,iceland2 where the vast collections of ice floating out from the ,northern ,ocean1 and stopped on that coast1 are sometimes several years in thawing4 ,indeed1 where great quantities of ice are collected1 it would seem to have a power like fire1 of both augmenting its own intenseness and that of the adjacent bodies4 ,,astonishingly ,,expansive ,,force ,,of ,,freezing ,,water4--,although cold1 in general1 contracts most bodies1 and heat expands them1 yet there are some instances to the contrary1 especially in the extreme cases or states of these qualities of bodies4 ,thus1 though iron1 in common with other bodies1 expands with heat2 yet1 when melted1 it is always found to expand in cooling again4 ,thus also1 though water expands gradually as it is heated1 and contracts as it cools1 yet in the act of freezing it suddenly expands again1 and that with an enormous force1 capable of rending rocks1 or bursting the very thick shells of metal1 c4 ,a computation of the force of freezing water1 has been made by the ,florentine academicians1 from the bursting of a very strong brass globe or shell by freezing water in it2 when1 from the known thickness and tenacity of the metal1 it was found that the expansive power of a spherule of water only one inch in diameter1 was sufficient to overcome a resistance of more than twenty-seven thousand pounds1 or thirteen tons and a half4 ,such a prodigious effect of expansion1 almost double that of the most powerful steam-engines1 and exerted in so small a mass1 seemingly by the force of cold1 was thought a very material argument in favour of those who supposed that cold1 like heat1 is a positive substance4 ,dr4 ,black's discovery of latent heat1 however1 has afforded a very easy and natural explication of this phenomenon4 ,he has shewn1 that1 in the act of congelation1 water is not cooled more than it was before1 but rather grows warmer3 that as much heat is discharged and passes from a latent and a sensible state1 as1 had it been applied to water in its fluid state1 would have heated it to #ace4 ,in this process1 the expansion is occasioned by a great number of minute bubbles suddenly produced4 ,formerly these were supposed to be cold in the abstract1 and to be so subtile1 that1 insinuating themselves into the substances of the fluid1 they augmented its bulk1 at the same time that1 by impeding the motion of its particles upon each other1 they changed it from a fluid to a solid4 ,but ,dr4 ,black shews1 that these are only air extricated during the congelation2 and to the extrication of this air he ascribes the prodigious expansive force exerted by freezing water4 ,the only question1 therefore1 is1 by what means this air comes to be extricated1 and to take up more room than it naturally does in the fluid8 ,to this it may be answered1 that perhaps part of the heat1 which is discharged from the freezing water1 combines with air in its unelastic state1 and1 by restoring its elasticity1 gives it that extraordinary force2 as is seen in the case of air suddenly extricated in the explosion of gunpowder4 ,the degree of expansion of water1 in the state of ice1 is by some authors computed at one tenth of its volume4 ,oil and quicksilver shrink and contract after freezing4 ,mr4 ,boyle relates several experiments of vessels made of metals1 very thick and strong2 in which1 when filled with water1 closely stopped1 and exposed to the cold1 the water being expanded in freezing1 and not finding either room or vent1 burst the vessels4 ,a strong barrel of a gun1 with water in it1 close stopped and frozen1 was rent the whole length4 ,huygens1 to try the force with which it expands1 filled a cannon with it1 whose sides were an inch thick1 and then closed up the mouth and vent1 so that none could escape2 the whole being exposed to a strong freezing air1 the water froze in about twelve hours1 and burst the piece in two places4 ,hence mathematicians have computed the force of the ice upon this occasion2 and they say1 that such a force would equal twenty-seven thousand seven hundred and twenty pounds4 ,major ,edward ,williams1 of the ,royal ,artillery1 made many experiments on the force of freezing water1 at ,quebec1 in #aghd-aghe4 ,he filled all sizes of bomb shells with water1 then plugged the fuze-hole close up1 and exposed them to the strong freezing air of the winter in that climate2 sometimes driving in the iron plugs as hard as possible with a sledge hammer2 and yet they were all thrown out by the sudden expansion of the water in the act of freezing1 like a ball shot by gunpowder1 sometimes to the distance of between four and five hundred feet1 though they weighed near three pounds2 and when the plugs were screwed in1 or furnished with hooks or barbs to lay hold of the inside of the shell by1 so that they could not possibly be forced out1 in this case the shell was always split in two1 though the thickness of the metal of the shell was about an inch and three-quarters4 ,through the circular crack1 round about the shells1 where they burst1 there stood out a thin film or sheet of ice1 like a fin2 and in the cases where the plugs were projected by freezing water1 there suddenly issued out from the fuze-hole a bolt of ice of the same diameter1 and stood over it to the height sometimes of eight inches and a half4 ,,chap4 ,,lxvii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,various ,,phenomena1 ,,or ,,appearances ,,in ,,nature4--7,continued47 ,water ,spout--,fata ,morgana--,fairy ,rings--,sheet of ,phosphoric ,fire--,phosphorus4 --------,every object of creation ,can furnish hints to contemplation4 ,gay4 ,,water ,,spout4--,this extraordinary meteor is most frequently observed at sea4 ,it generally begins by a cloud1 which appears very small1 and which is called1 by sailors1 the ,squall4 ,this augments in a little time into an enormous cloud of a cylindrical form1 or that of a cone on its apex1 and produces a noise like the roaring of an agitated sea1 sometimes accompanied with thunder and lightning1 and also large quantities of rain or hail1 sufficient to inundate large vessels2 and to carry away in their course1 7when they occur by land17 trees1 houses1 and every thing that opposes their impetuosity4 ,sailors1 dreading the fatal consequences of water-spouts1 endeavour to dissipate them by firing a cannon into them just before they approach the ship4 ,we shall give an account of one1 as described by ,m4 ,tournefort1 in his ,voyage to the ,levant4 ,illustration3 ,,water ,,spouts4--,page #ffc4 ,these phenomena are the great terror of sailors1 who endeavour to dissipate them by firing cannon into them4 ,the first of these 7says this traveller7 that we saw1 was about a musket-shot from our ship4 ,there we perceived the water begin to boil1 and to rise about a foot above its level4 ,the water was agitated1 and whitish2 and above its surface there seemed to stand a smoke1 such as might be imagined to come from wet straw before it begins to blaze4 ,it made a sort of a murmuring sound1 like that of a torrent heard at a distance1 mixed1 at the same time1 with a hissing noise1 like that of a serpent3 shortly after we perceived a column of this smoke rise up to the clouds1 at the same time whirling about with great rapidity4 ,it appeared to be as thick as one's finger2 and the former sound still continued4 ,when this disappeared1 after lasting for about eight minutes1 upon turning to the opposite quarter of the sky1 we perceived another1 which began in the manner of the former2 presently after1 a third appeared in the west2 and instantly beside it1 still another arose4 ,the most distant of these three could not be above a musket-shot from the ship4 ,they all appeared like so many heaps of wet straw set on fire1 and continued to smoke1 and to make the same noise as before4 ,we soon after perceived each1 with its respective canal1 mounting up in the clouds2 and spreading1 where it touched the cloud1 like the mouth of a trumpet2 making a figure 7to express it intelligibly7 as if the tail of an animal was pulled at one end by a weight4 ,these canals were of a whitish colour1 and so tinged1 as ,i suppose1 by the water which was contained in them2 for1 previous to this1 they were apparently empty1 and of the colour of transparent glass4 ,these canals were not straight1 but bent in some parts1 and far from being perpendicular1 by rising in their clouds with a very inclined ascent4 ,but what is very remarkable1 the spouts crossed each other1 in the form of a ,st4 ,andrew's cross4 ,in the beginning they were all about as thick as one's finger1 except at the top1 where they were broader1 and two of them disappeared2 but shortly after1 the last of the three increased considerably1 and its canal1 which was at first so small1 soon became as thick as a man's arm1 then as his leg1 and at last thicker than his whole body4 ,we saw distinctly1 through this transparent body1 the water1 which rose up with a kind of spiral motion2 and it sometimes diminished a little of its thickness1 and again resumed the same1 sometimes widening at top1 and sometimes at the bottom1 exactly resembling a gut filled with water1 pressed with the fingers to make the fluid rise or fall2 and ,i am well convinced that this alteration in the spout was caused by the wind1 which pressed the cloud1 and compelled it to give up its contents4 ,after some time its bulk was so diminished as to be no thicker than a man's arm again1 and thus swelling and diminishing1 it at last became very small4 ,in the end1 ,i observed the sea which was raised about it to resume its level by degrees1 and the end of the canal that touched it to become as small as if it had been tied round with a cord2 and this continued till the light1 striking through the cloud1 took away the view4 ,i still1 however1 continued to look1 expecting that its parts would join again1 as ,i had before seen in one of the others1 in which the spout was more than once broken1 and yet the parts again came together2 but ,i was disappointed1 for the spout appeared no more4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 7volume xxii4 and xxiii47 we have descriptions of several of these phenomena3 their effects1 in some instances1 are probably much exaggerated4 ,one at ,topsham is said to have cut down an apple-tree1 several inches in diameter3 another1 we are told1 seemed to be produced by a concourse of winds1 turning like a screw1 the clouds dropping into it3 it threw trees and branches about with a gyratory motion4--,one in ,deeping ,fen1 ,lincolnshire1 was first seen moving across the land and water of the fen3 it raised the dust1 broke some gates1 and destroyed a field of turnips3 it vanished with an appearance of fire4--,dr4 ,franklin supposes that a vacuum is made by the rotatory motion of the ascending air1 as when water is running through a funnel1 and that the water of the sea is thus raised4 ,but ,dr4 ,young says1 no such cause could do more than produce a slight rarefaction of the air1 much less raise the water to the height of thirty or forty feet1 or more4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fata ,,morgana1 ,as observed in the harbour of ,messina4--,page #ffe4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fata ,,morgana1 ,as observed at ,reggio4--,page #fff4 ,professor ,wolke describes a water-spout1 which passed immediately over the ship in which he was sailing1 in the gulf of ,finland3 it appeared to be twenty-five feet in diameter1 consisting of drops about the size of cherries4 ,the sea was agitated round its base1 through a space of about one hundred and thirty feet in diameter4 ,one of the latest accounts of the phenomenon of a water-spout1 is that read to the ,royal ,society in the year #ahjc1 from a letter written to ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 by ,captain ,ricketts1 of the royal navy4 ,in the month of ,july1 #ahjj1 ,captain ,ricketts was called on deck1 on account of the rapid approach of a water-spout1 among the ,lipari islands4 ,it had the appearance of a viscid fluid1 tapering in its descent1 proceeding from the cloud to join the sea4 ,it moved at the rate of about two miles an hour1 with a loud sound of rain4 ,it passed the stern of the ship1 and wetted the afterpart of the main-sail3 hence it was inferred1 that water-spouts are not continuous columns of water2 and subsequent observations confirmed the opinion4 ,in ,november1 #ahja1 about twenty miles from ,trieste1 a water-spout was seen eight miles to the south2 round its lower extremity was a mist1 about twelve feet high1 somewhat in the form of an ,ionian capital1 with very large volutes1 the spout resting obliquely on its crown4 ,at some distance from this spout the sea began to be agitated1 and a mist rose to the height of about four feet2 then a projection descended from the black cloud that was impending1 and met the ascending mist about twenty feet above the sea2 the last ten yards of the distance were described with very great rapidity4 ,a cloud of a light colour appeared to ascend in this spout1 something like quicksilver in a tube4 ,the first spout then snapped at about one-third of its height1 the inferior part subsiding gradually1 and the superior curling upwards4 ,several other projections from the cloud appeared1 with corresponding agitations of the water below1 but not always in spots vertically under them3 seven spouts in all were formed2 two other projections being re-absorbed4 ,some of the spouts were not only oblique1 but curved3 the ascending cloud moved most rapidly in those which were vertical3 they lasted from three to five minutes1 and their dissipation was attended by no fall of rain4 ,,fata ,,morgana4--,this is a very remarkable arial phenomenon1 which is sometimes observed from the harbour of ,messina1 and adjacent places1 at a certain height in the atmosphere4 ,the name1 which signifies the ,fairy ,morgana1 is derived from an opinion of the superstitious ,sicilians1 that the whole spectacle is produced by fairies1 or such like visionary invisible beings4 ,the populace are delighted whenever it appears2 and run about the streets shouting for joy1 calling every body out to partake of the glorious sight4 ,this singular meteor has been described by various authors2 but the first who mentioned it with any degree of precision was ,father ,angelucci1 whose account is thus quoted by ,mr4 ,swinburne in his ,tour through ,sicily3 ,on the #aeth of ,august1 #afdc1 as ,i stood at my window1 ,i was surprised with a most wonderful delectable vision4 ,the sea that washes the ,sicilian shore swelled up1 and became1 for ten miles in length1 like a chain of dark mountains2 while the waters near our ,calabrian coast grew quite smooth1 and in an instant appeared as one clear polished mirror1 reclining against the aforesaid ridge4 ,on this glass was depicted1 in chairo scuro1 a string of several thousands of pilasters1 all equal in altitude1 distance1 and degree of light and shade4 ,in a moment they lost half their height1 and bent into arcades1 like ,roman aqueducts4 ,a long cornice was next formed on the top1 and above it arose castles innumerable1 all perfectly alike4 ,these soon split into towers1 which were shortly after lost in colonnades1 then windows1 and at last ended in pines1 cypresses1 and other trees1 even and similar4 ,this is the ,fata ,morgana1 which for twenty-six years ,i had thought a mere fable4 ,to produce this pleasing deception1 many circumstances must concur1 which are not known to exist in any other situation4 ,the spectator must stand with his back to the east1 in some elevated place behind the city1 that he may command a view of the whole bay2 beyond which the mountains of ,messina rise like a wall1 and darken the back ground of the picture4 ,the winds must be hushed1 the surface quite smoothed1 the tide at its height1 and the waters pressed up by currents to a great elevation in the middle of the channel4 ,all these events coinciding1 as soon as the sun surmounts the eastern hills behind ,reggio1 and rises high enough to form an angle of forty-five degrees on the water before the city1 every object existing or moving at ,reggio1 will be repeated one thousand-fold upon this marine looking-glass1 which1 by its tremulous motion1 is as it were cut into facets4 ,each image will pass rapidly off in succession1 as the day advances1 and the stream carries down the wave on which it appeared4 ,thus the parts of this moving picture will vanish in the twinkling of an eye4 ,sometimes the air is at that moment so impregnated with vapours1 and undisturbed by winds1 as to reflect objects in a kind of arial screen1 rising about thirty feet above the level of the sea4 ,in cloudy heavy weather1 they are drawn on the surface of the water1 bordered with fine prismatical colours4 ,to the above account we shall add the following1 given by ,m4 ,houel1 whose judgment and veracity render his authority highly respectable4 ,in fine summer days1 when the weather is calm1 there rises above the great current a vapour1 which acquires a certain density1 so as to form in the atmosphere horizontal prisms1 whose sides are disposed in such a manner1 that when they come to their proper degree of perfection1 they reflect and represent successively1 for some time1 7like a moveable mirror17 the objects on the coast1 or in the adjacent country4 ,they exhibit by turns1 the city and suburbs of ,messina1 trees1 animals1 men1 and mountains4 ,they are certainly beautiful arial moving pictures4 ,there are sometimes two or three prisms1 equally perfect2 and they continue in this state eight or ten minutes4 ,after this1 some shining inequalities are observed upon the surface of the prism1 which render confused to the eye1 the objects which had been before so accurately delineated1 and the picture vanishes4 ,the vapour forms other combinations1 and is dispersed in the air4 ,different accounts have been given of this singular appearance2 which for my part ,i attribute to a bitumen that issues from certain rocks at the bottom of the sea1 and which is often seen to cover a part of its surface in the canal of ,messina4 ,the subtile parts of this bitumen being attenuated1 combined1 and exhaled with the aqueous globules that are raised by the air1 and formed into bodies of vapour1 give to this condensed vapour more consistence2 and contribute1 by their smooth and polished particles1 to the formation of a kind of arial crystal1 which receives the light1 reflects it to the eye1 and transmits to it all the luminous points which colour the objects exhibited in this phenomenon1 and render them visible4 ,,fairy ,,rings1--are circles of dark green grass frequently observed in old pastures2 they have long been known under the name of fairy rings1 and have generally been supposed to be occasioned1 in some way or other1 by electricity4 ,dr4 ,wollaston has1 in a late volume of the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society1 given a new and very ingenious theory1 of which we shall present our readers with a brief account1 premising1 that ,mr4 ,davy1 in the course of his lectures at the ,royal ,institution1 had occasion to refer to the subject1 and seemed to coincide in opinion with ,dr4 ,wollaston4 ,that which first attracted his notice was the position of certain fungi1 which are always found growing upon these circles1 if examined in a proper season4 ,the position of these fungi led him to imagine that the progressive increase from a central point was the probable mode of formation of the ring3 hence he conjectured that the soil1 which had once contributed to the support of the fungi1 might be so exhausted of some peculiar pabulum necessary for their production1 as to be rendered incapable of producing a second crop4 ,the second year's crop would1 if this theory be just1 appear in a small ring surrounding the original centre of vegetation2 and at every succeeding year the defect of nutriment on one side1 would necessarily cause the new roots to extend themselves solely in the opposite direction1 and would occasion the circle of fungi continually to proceed1 by an annual enlargement1 from the centre outwards4 ,an appearance of luxuriance of the grass would follow as a natural consequence1 as the soil of an interior circle would always be enriched1 by the decayed roots of fungi of the year's growth4 ,this theory is supported by some observations of ,dr4 ,withering2 and ,dr4 ,wollaston says1 by way of confirmation1 that whenever two adjacent circles are found to interfere1 they not only do not cross each other1 but both circles are invariably obliterated between the points of contact3 the exhaustion occasioned by each obstructs the progress of the other1 and both are starved4--,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahjg1 ,part ,,ii4 ,though it cannot be doubted that most fairy rings1 if not all of them1 have considerable relation to the running of a fungus2 there1 nevertheless1 seems reason to conclude that electricity may likewise be concerned in their production4 ,the electrical effect may relate to fairy rings of a different kind from those occasioned by the fungus1 or it may have been antecedent to the production of the vegetable4 ,it is a familiar effect in our experiments1 that the spark proceeding from a positive conductor1 breaks or radiates at about one-third of its course1 and strikes the receiving conductor by a central spark surrounded by other smaller ones4 ,the concentric rings produced upon polished metallic surfaces by the strong explosion of a battery1 as first observed by ,dr4 ,priestley1 appears to be a fact of the same kind2 and the forked radiations of lightning are well known4 ,there is related1 in the ,philosophical ,journal1 volume ,i4 #dto1 some events which happened in ,kensington ,gardens in ,june1 #agha1 when a powerful thunder-storm passed over the western extremity of ,london4 ,the explosions were very marked and distinct1 and in many instances forked at the lower end1 but never at the top2 from which it seems proper to conclude1 that the general mass of clouds1 or1 at least1 that extremity which passed over ,london1 was in the state called positive4 ,five days afterwards1 upon visiting ,kensington ,gardens1 it was observed1 that every part of that extensive piece of ground shewed marks of the agency of the lightning1 chiefly by discoloration of the grass in zigzag streaks1 some of which were fifty or sixty yards in length4 ,instances of this superficial course of the lightning along the ground1 before it enters the earth1 are sufficiently frequent4 ,but the circumstance applicable to our present subject is1 that several trees had been struck by the lightning4 ,two of them1 which stood on the outside to the westward1 had holes torn in the ground1 close to the trunk2 and round one of these trees was a space of six feet in diameter1 in which the grass was very much scorched4 ,another tree on the west was surrounded by a faint ring of burnt or faded grass1 which seemed to be occasioned by some earlier stroke1 as the vegetation had begun to shoot up again4 ,another tree1 standing on the out side to the south1 was surrounded by a ring of twelve feet diameter1 and eighteen inches broad4 ,within the ring the grass was fresh2 but on the surface of the ring1 the grass and the ground were much burned4 ,to the eastward of the tree1 upon the ring itself1 were two holes1 in which the ground had the appearance of ashes4 ,another tree1 on the east side of the grove1 had the half of a faint ring to the westward4 ,and1 lastly1 a tree which stood in the middle was surrounded by a faint ring of twelve feet diameter1 within which the grass was unhurt2 and to the westward1 at the distance of about three feet from the inner ring1 was part of another similar ring1 of nearly the same appearance2 the verdure being unhurt in the interval between the rings4 ,a ,,sheet ,,of ,,phosphoric ,,fire4--,a curious instance of this occurred to ,monsieur ,peron1 in his voyage from ,europe to the ,isle of ,france4 ,between three and four degrees north latitude1 during the obscurity of a night intensely dark1 the wind blowing a hurricane1 and the vessel making a rapid progress1 he was struck by the sudden appearance of a vast sheet of phosphoric fire1 floating before the ship1 and covering a considerable space4 ,the vessel presently made its way through this inflamed part of the sea1 which enabled the observant navigator to discover that this prodigious light was occasioned entirely by an immense number of small animalcules1 which swam at different depths1 and appeared to assume various forms4 ,those which were most immersed in the water1 looked like great red-hot cannon balls3 whilst those on the surface resembled cylinders of red-hot iron4 ,some of them were soon caught1 and found to vary in size1 from three to seven inches4 ,all the outside surface of the animal was bristled with thick oblong tubercles1 shining like so many diamonds2 and these seemed to be the principal seat of its wonderful phosphorescence4 ,the inside1 also1 appeared furnished with a multitude of little1 narrow1 oblong glands1 which possessed the phosphoric virtue in a high degree4 ,when in a tranquil state1 the colour of these brilliant inhabitants of the ocean is an opal yellow1 mixed with green2 but1 on the slightest movement of those voluntary contractions exercised by the creature1 or those which the observer can at pleasure excite by the least irritation1 the animal seems to inflame1 and it becomes instantly like a piece of red-hot iron of the most vivid brilliancy4 ,when its phosphorescency declines1 it assumes a succession of light elegant tints1 that are very pleasing to the eye1 such as red1 aurora1 orange1 green1 and azure blue2 the last is particularly lively and pure4 ,the organization of this animal1 which is called the ,pyrosoma ,atlanticum1 ranks it amongst the most singular of the zoophite tribe2 whilst its extraordinary phosphoric powers render it the most beautiful that has yet been seen4 ,it may be not amiss to conclude this chapter with an account of that very curious substance1 ,,phosphorus4--,this singular production was accidentally discovered1 in #afgg1 by an alchymist of ,hamburgh1 named ,brandt1 when he was engaged in searching for the philosopher's stone4 ,kunkel1 another chemist1 who had seen the new product1 associated himself with one of his friends1 named ,krafft1 to purchase the secret of its preparation2 but the latter deceiving his friend1 made the purchase for himself1 and refused to communicate it4 ,kunkel1 who at this time knew nothing further of its preparation1 than that it was obtained by certain processes from urine1 undertook the task1 and succeeded4 ,it is on this account that the substance long went under the name of ,kunkel's phosphorus4 ,mr4 ,boyle is also considered as one of the discoverers of phosphorus4 ,he communicated the secret of the process for preparing it1 to the ,royal ,society of ,london1 in #afhj4 ,it is asserted1 indeed1 by ,krafft1 that he discovered the secret to ,mr4 ,boyle1 having1 in the year #afgh1 carried a small piece of it to ,london1 to shew it to the royal family2 but there is little probability that a man of such integrity as ,mr4 ,boyle would claim the discovery of the process as his own1 and communicate it to the ,royal ,society1 if this had not been the case4 ,mr4 ,boyle communicated the process to ,godfrey ,hankwitz1 an apothecary of ,london1 who for many years supplied ,europe with phosphorus1 and hence it went under the name of ,english ,phosphorus4 ,in the year #aggd1 the ,swedish chemists1 ,gahn and ,scheele1 made the important discovery1 that phosphorus is contained in the bones of animals2 and they improved the processes for procuring it4 ,when phosphorus is heated to the temperature of #adh1 it takes fire1 burns with a bright flame1 and gives out a great quantity of white smoke4 ,phosphorus enters into combination with oxygen1 azote1 hydrogen1 and carbon4 ,phosphorus is soluble in oils1 and1 when thus dissolved1 forms what has been called liquid phosphorus1 which may be rubbed on the face and hands without injury4 ,it dissolves too in ether2 and a very beautiful experiment consists in pouring this phosphoric ether in small portions1 and in a dark place1 on the surface of hot water4 ,the phosphoric matches consist of phosphorus extremely dry1 minutely divided1 and perhaps a little oxygenized4 ,the simplest mode of making them1 is to put a little phosphorus1 dried by blotting paper1 into a small phial2 heat the phial1 and when the phosphorus is melted1 turn it round1 so that the phosphorus may adhere to the sides4 ,cork the phial closely1 and it is prepared4 ,on putting a common sulphur match into the bottle1 and stirring it about1 the phosphorus will adhere to the match1 and will take fire when brought out into the air4 ,,chap4 ,,lxviii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,various ,,phenomena1 ,,or ,,appearances ,,in ,,nature4--7,continued47 ,spots in the ,sun--,diminution of the ,sun--,parhelia1 or ,mock ,suns--,eclipses--,halo1 or ,corona2 and similar ,appearances--,falling or ,shooting ,star--,volcanoes in the ,moon4 ,hail1 sacred source of inexhausted light6 ,prodigious instance of creating might6 ,his distance man's imagination foils2 ,numbers will scarce avail to count the miles4 ,his globose body how immensely great6 ,how fierce his burnings6 how intense his heat6 ,as swift as thought1 he darts his radiance round ,to distant worlds1 his system's utmost bound2 ,of all the planets the directing soul1 ,that heightens and invigorates the whole4 ,brown4 ,,spots ,,in ,,the ,,sun4--,the following account of the spots in the sun is taken from a ,french paper4 ,the spots were seen for the first time in #afaa2 and nearly about the same time by ,j4 ,fabricius1 at ,wittenberg1 by the ,jesuit ,scheiner1 and by ,galileo4 ,this great man watched their course with so much attention1 and so well developed their phenomena1 that very little has been since added to the descriptions which he gave1 except more precise measures4 ,the spots of the sun are at present viewed with astronomical telescopes1 in which the great brilliancy of that luminary is mitigated1 and not effaced1 by the coloured glass placed between the telescope and the eye4 ,there are in the interior of the telescope1 at the focus of the object1 some very fine threads stretched crosswise1 and moveable parallel to each other1 by means of which the distance of the spot from the nearest border of the sun's disk may be ascertained1 which determines its position on the disk at the moment of observation4 ,by following in this manner the same spot for several days1 it is perceived to change its place4 ,its size also varies much4 ,the spots sometimes grow thinner1 and disperse from one day to another3 and hence it is1 that1 though in one month rather a large number was visible1 in the following only two are to be seen4 ,but during the whole time of their presence they pursue a regular course1 of which the aspects are common to all4 ,when they first come in sight1 they appear on the sun's border1 like a slender thread4 ,in proportion as they advance towards the middle of the disk1 they appear1 from day to day1 to enlarge in the direction of their movement4 ,they then decrease periodically2 and if they last long enough to traverse the whole disk1 they go off by the opposite side1 narrowing to a single thread4 ,these appearances are evidently such as a small body1 adhering to a spherical surface1 and revolving with or upon that surface1 must present4 ,the diminution of the spots1 in proportion as they approximate the borders of the disk1 results from this--that they then project more obliquely1 and are only seen sidewise2 but when in the middle of the disk1 they are seen in their full extent4 ,in fine1 upon comparing the direction and rapidity of their course1 it soon becomes evident1 that the supposition of their adhering to the body of the sun is the only admissible one4 ,on thus tracing the route of all those which appear1 it is ascertained that they move in courses exactly parallel1 describing circles which all have their centre on a common axis1 passing through the centre of the sun4 ,the size of these circles varies on different points of the disk1 according to the same laws as on a sphere2 and the rate of movement is modified in such a way1 that all the circles are run through in equal times4 ,this perfect concordance of revolution in spots so changeable in other respects1 evidently shews that they must be attached to one and the same round body1 which makes them revolve altogether with a common motion4 ,hence it has been concluded1 that the sun revolves upon itself with the general motion of these spots1 that is1 in twenty-five days and a half1 in like manner as our earth revolves in twenty-four hours4 ,the same calculation1 applied to the spots which have been discovered on the other planets1 has in like manner made us acquainted with their rotation4 ,illustration3 ,,parhelia1 ,,or ,,mock ,,sun4--,page #fgc4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ignis ,,fatuus1 ,will-with-a-,wisp1 or ,jack-with-a-,lantern4--,page #fdd4 ,as to the nature of these solar spots1 it is absolutely unknown4 ,herschel is of opinion1 that luminous clouds float in the inflamed atmosphere of this luminary1 as clouds of vapour float in ours4 ,he supposes that the body of the sun is opaque and dark2 and that the black spots observed there at intervals1 are merely the summits of very elevated mountains1 which the solar clouds permit us to see between their openings4 ,other astronomers think that the globe of the sun is on fire1 and that the spots are merely immense scoria1 launched on the surface of that mass by some terrible explosions1 of which our terrestrial volcanoes afford but a feeble picture4 ,but whatever may be thought of these conjectures1 it seems sufficient for us to know1 that the solar spots are trifling compared with the immense mass of that body2 and that the eruptions1 of which they are perhaps the effect1 take place at too great a distance from our earth to produce the least effect upon it4 ,generally speaking1 the physical state of our little world is incomparably more stable and steady than its moral state4 ,,diminution ,,of ,,the ,,sun4--,baron ,lindeneau1 who recently published a work on the diminution of the solar mass1 says1 that the sun may have been imperceptibly subject to successive diminution since the science of astronomy has been cultivated4 ,baron ,lindeneau supposes the sun's diameter to be #hjj1jjj miles1 #d1bjd1jjj1jjj feet1 or nearly #bjjj seconds4 ,we have not1 he observes1 hitherto possessed any instrument for measuring the diameter of the heavenly bodies to a second4 ,the sun may therefore diminish #ab1jjj of its diameter1 or #b1ajb1jjj feet1 without the possibility of being perceived4 ,supposing the sun to diminish daily two feet1 it would require three thousand years to render the diminution of a second of its diameter visible4 ,account of those singular ,appearances1 called1 ,,parhelia1 ,,or ,,mock ,,suns4-- ,as when two suns appear in th' azure sky1 ,mounted in ,phoebus' chariot fierie bright3 ,both darting forth fair beams to each man's eye2 ,and both adorn'd with lamps of flaming light1 ,all that behold such strange prodigious sight1 ,not knowing nature's work1 nor what to weene1 ,are wrapt with wonder1 and with rare affrighte4 ,spenser4 ,a ,parhelion is a meteor in form of a bright light1 appearing on one side of the sun4 ,phenomena of this kind have been mentioned both by the ancients and moderns4 ,aristotle observes1 that in general they are seen only when the sun is near the horizon1 though he takes notice of two that were seen in ,bosphorus from morning till evening2 and ,pliny has related the times when such phenomena were observed at ,rome4 ,gassendi says1 that in #afce-afcf he often saw one mock sun4 ,two were observed by ,m4 de la ,hire in #afhi2 and the same number by ,cassini in #afic2 by ,mr4 ,grey in #agjj1 and by ,dr4 ,halley in #agjb2 but the most celebrated phenomena of this kind were seen at ,rome by ,scheiner2 by ,muschenbroek at ,utrecht2 and by ,hevelius at ,ledan4 ,by the two former1 four mock suns were observed2 and by the latter1 seven4 ,parhelia are apparently of the same size with the sun1 though not always of the same brightness1 nor even of the same shape2 and when a number appear at once1 there is some difference in both respects among them4 ,externally they are tinged with colours like the rainbow2 and many have a long fiery tail opposite the sun1 but paler towards the extremity4 ,parhelia are generally accompanied with coronas1 some of which are tinged with rainbow colours1 but others are white4 7,see ,halo47 ,they differ in number and size2 but all agree in breadth1 which is that of the apparent diameter of the sun4 ,a very large white circle1 parallel to the horizon1 generally passes through all the parhelia2 and1 if it were entire1 it would go through the centre of the sun4 ,sometimes there are arcs of lesser circles concentric to this1 touching those coloured circles which surround the sun4 ,they are also tinged with colours1 and contain other parhelia4 ,other circles are said to have been obliquely situated with respect to all these4 ,the order of the colours in these circles is the same as in the rainbow2 but on the inside1 with respect to the sun1 they are red1 as is also observed in many haloes4 ,parhelia have been visible for one1 two1 three1 and four hours together2 and in ,north ,america1 they are said to continue some days1 and to be visible from sunrise to sunset4 ,when the parhelia disappear1 it sometimes rains1 or snow falls in the form of oblong spicul1 as ,maraldi1 ,weidler1 ,krafft1 and others1 have observed2 and because the air in ,north ,america abounds with such frozen spicul1 which are even visible to the eye1 according to ,ellis and ,middleton1 such particles have been thought to be the cause of all coronas and parhelia4 ,mr4 ,wales says1 that at ,churchill1 in ,hudson's ,bay1 the rising of the sun is always preceded by two long streams of red light1 one on each side1 and about twenty degrees distant from him4 ,these rise as the sun rises2 and as they grow longer1 they begin to bend towards each other1 till they meet directly over the sun1 just as he rises1 forming there a parhelion1 or mock sun4 ,these two streams of light1 he says1 seem to have their source in two other parhelia1 which rise with the true sun2 and in winter1 when the sun never rises above the haze or fog1 which he says is constantly seen near the horizon1 all these accompany him the whole day1 and set with him4 ,once or twice he saw a fourth parhelion1 directly under the sun2 but this is not common4 ,these facts being constant1 are very valuable1 and may throw great light on the theory of these remarkable phenomena4 ,sometimes parhelia appear in a different manner2 as when three suns have been seen in the same vertical circle1 well defined1 and touching one another4 ,the true sun was in the middle1 and the lowest touched the horizon1 and they set one after the other4 ,this appearance was seen by ,maleziew1 in #agbb4 ,other appearances similar to this are recited by ,mr4 ,muschenbroek4 ,sometimes the sun has risen or set with a luminous tail projecting from him1 of the same breadth with his diameter1 and perpendicular to the horizon4 ,such an appearance was seen by ,cassini in #afgb and #afib2 by ,de la ,hire in #agjb2 and by ,mr4 ,ellis in ,hudson's ,bay4 ,as ,m4 ,feuile was walking on the banks of the river ,la ,plata1 he saw the sun rising over the river1 with a luminous tail projecting downwards1 which continued till he was six degrees high4 ,parasel1 or mock moons1 have also been seen1 accompanied with tails and coloured circles1 like those which accompany the parhelia4 ,an account of several1 and a particular description of a fine appearance of this kind1 may be seen in ,muschenbroek4 ,the following account of this phenomenon is extracted from a pamphlet1 entitled1 ',somewhat written by occasion of ,three ,sunnes' seene1 at ,tregorie1 in ,cornwall1 the #bbnd of ,december last2 with other memorable occurrents in other places4 ,imprinted #afbb3 #bj pages small #dto4' ,since this strange apparition1 namely1 upon the #ajth of ,january last1 there happened in ,devonshire1 yet not farre from the other place1 being on the edge of ,cornwalle1 another wonder1 which1 did as much affrighte the eares of men1 as this did their eyes3 for in the afternoone of that day1 being the ,thursday after ,twelfth-day1 there were heard in the aire unusuall cracks or claps of thunder1 resembling in all points the sound of many drums together1 sometimes beating charges1 sometimes retreats1 sometimes marches1 and all other points of warre3 which1 after it had continued a good time1 it seemed that the same thunder did most lively expresse many volleyes of small-shot1 and afterwards the like volleyes of ordnance1 with so great and yet so distinct noyse1 that many of them who dwelt neare the sea1 went toward the shore to see what it might meane1 as verily supposing there had beene some sea fight neere upon that coast4 ,these severall fearfull noyses were againe and againe renewed in the same order1 till at length with an horrible and extraordinary cracke of thunder1 there fell in a ground of one ,robert ,pierce1 where there were divers workemen planting apple-trees1 7which ground lay neere the house of one ,master ,george ,chidley17 a thunder-bolt1 if ,i may so call it1 being a stone of three foot and an halfe in length1 of two foot and an halfe in breadth1 and one foot and an halfe in thicknesse1 the substance whereof was in hardnesse and colour not much unlike a flint1 as appeares by many pieces thereof1 which are shewed up and downe by many credible and honest gentlemen1 who1 with their own hands1 brake them off from the maine stone4 ,after the fall of this stone1 which with the weight thereof was cleane buried in the ground above a yard deepe1 the thunder ceased1 and people began as much to won--at that which they now saw1 as they had lately done at that1 which with so much feare and amazement they had heard4 ,observations on ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,moon4-- ,give me the ways of wand'ring stars to know1 ,the depths of heav'n above and earth below2 ,teach me the various labours of the ,moon1 ,and whence proceed th' ,eclipses of the ,sun4 ,virg4 ,georg4 ii ,the deprivation of the light of the sun1 or some heavenly body1 by the interposition of another heavenly body between our sight and it is1 called an ,eclipse4 ,thus1 eclipses of the sun happen by the moon's intervening between it and the earth2 by which means the shadow of the moon falls upon the earth1 when the latitude of the moon does not prevent it1 by elevating her orb above1 or depressing it below the earth4 ,on the other hand1 an eclipse of the moon can only happen when the earth is interposed between the sun and it2 for then1 if the latitude of the moon does not prevent it1 the shadow of the earth may fall on the moon1 and thereby cause either a partial1 or total eclipse4 ,a total eclipse of the sun or moon1 is when their whole bodies are obscured2 and a partial one1 is when part only of their bodies is darkened3 again1 a central eclipse is when it is not only total1 but the eclipsed body passes through the centre of the shadow4 ,as total solar eclipses are by no means common1 we shall give an interesting description of one1 by ,dr4 ,stukeley1 sent to his friend1 the celebrated ,dr4 ,edmund ,halley4 ,according to my promise1 ,i send you what ,i observed of the solar eclipse1 though ,i fear it will not be of any great use to you4 ,i was not prepared with any instruments for measuring time or the like1 and proposed to myself only to watch all the appearances that nature would present to the naked eye upon so remarkable an occasion1 and which generally are overlooked1 or but grossly regarded4 ,i chose for my station a place called ,haradon ,hill1 two miles eastward from ,amsbury1 and full east from the opening of ,stonehenge avenue1 to which it is as the point of view4 ,before me lay the vast plain where that celebrated work stands1 and ,i knew that the eclipse would appear directly over it2 besides1 ,i had the advantage of a very extensive prospect every way1 this being the highest hill hereabouts1 and nearest the middle of the shadow4 ,full west of me1 and beyond ,stonehenge1 is a pretty copped hill1 like the top of a cone1 lifting itself above the horizon2 this is ,clay-hill1 near ,warminster1 twenty miles distant1 and near the central line of darkness1 which must come from thence1 so that ,i could have notice enough beforehand of its approach4 ,abraham ,sturgis and ,stephen ,ewens1 both of this place1 and sensible men1 were with me4 ,though it was very cloudy1 yet now and then we had gleams of sunshine1 rather more than ,i could perceive at any other place around us4 ,these two persons1 looking through smoked glasses1 while ,i was taking some bearings of the country with a circumferentor1 both confidently affirmed the eclipse was begun1 when1 by my watch1 ,i found it just half an hour after five2 and accordingly from thence the progress of it was visible1 and very often to the naked eye2 the thin clouds doing the office of glasses4 ,from the time of the sun's body being half covered1 there was a very conspicuous circular iris round the sun1 with perfect colours4 ,on all sides we beheld the shepherds hurrying their flocks into fold1 the darkness coming on2 for they expected nothing less than a total eclipse for an hour and a quarter4 ,when the sun looked very sharp like a new moon1 the sky was pretty clear in that spot2 but soon after a thicker cloud covered it1 at which time the iris vanished2 the copped hill before-mentioned grew very dark1 together with the horizon on both sides1 that is1 to the north and south1 and looked blue1 just as it appears at the declension of day4 ,we had scarcely time to tell them1 when ,salisbury steeple1 six miles off southward1 became very black2 the copped hill was quite lost1 and a most gloomy night with full career came upon us3 at this instant we lost sight of the sun1 whose place among the clouds was hitherto sufficiently distinguishable1 but now not the least trace of it was to be found1 any more than if really absent3 then ,i saw by my watch1 though with difficulty1 and only by help of some light from the northern quarter1 that it was six hours thirty-five minutes3 just before this1 the whole compass of the heavens and earth looked of a lurid complexion1 properly speaking1 for it was black and blue1 only on the earth upon the horizon the blue prevailed2 there was likewise in the heavens1 among the clouds1 much green interspersed1 so that the whole appearance was really very dreadful1 and as symptoms of sickening nature4 ,now ,i perceived we were involved in total and palpable darkness1 as ,i may aptly call it2 for though it came quickly1 yet ,i was so intent1 that ,i could perceive its steps1 and feel it as it were drop upon us1 and fall on the right shoulder 7we looking westward7 like a great dark mantle1 or coverlet of a bed1 thrown over us1 or like the drawing of a curtain on that side4 ,the horses we held in our hands were very sensible of it1 and crowded close to us1 startling with great surprise2 and as much as ,i could see of the men's faces that stood by me1 they had a horrible aspect4 ,at this instant ,i looked around me1 not without exclamations of admiration1 and could discern colours in the heavens1 but the earth had lost its blue1 and was wholly black4 ,for some time1 among the clouds1 there were visible streaks of rays1 tending to the place of the sun as their centre2 but immediately after1 the whole appearance of earth and sky was entirely black3 of all things ,i ever saw in my life1 or can by imagination fancy1 it was a sight the most tremendous4 ,towards the north-west1 whence the eclipse came1 ,i could not in the least find any distinction in the horizon between heaven and earth1 for a good breadth of about sixty degrees1 or more2 nor the town of ,amsbury underneath us1 nor scarcely the ground we trod on4 ,i turned myself round several times during this total darkness1 and remarked at a good distance from the west on both sides1 that is1 to the north and south1 the horizon very perfectly2 the earth being black1 the lower parts of the heavens light2 for the darkness above hung over us like a canopy1 almost reaching the horizon in those parts1 or as if made with skirts of a lighter colour2 so that the upper edges of all the hills were as a black line1 and ,i knew them very distinctly by their shape or profile2 and northward1 ,i saw perfectly1 that the interval of light and darkness in the horizon was between ,martinsal-hill and ,st4 ,ann's-hill2 but southward it was more indefinite4 ,i do not mean that the verge of the shadow passed between those hills1 which were but twelve miles distant from us2 but1 so far ,i could distinguish the horizon2 beyond it not at all4 ,the reason of it was this2 the elevation of ground ,i was upon gave me an opportunity of seeing the light of the heavens beyond the shadow2 nevertheless1 this verge of light looked of a dead yellowish1 and greenish colour2 it was broader to the north than south2 but the southern was of a tawny colour3 at this time behind us1 or eastward toward ,london1 it was dark too1 where otherwise ,i could see the hills beyond ,andover2 for the foremost end of the shadow was past thither2 so that the whole horizon was now divided into four parts of unequal bulk1 and degrees of light and dark2 the part to the north-west broadest and blackest1 to the south-west lightest and longest4 ,all the change ,i could perceive during the totality1 was1 that the horizon by degrees drew into two parts1 light and dark3 the northern hemisphere growing still longer1 lighter1 and broader2 and the two opposite dark parts uniting into one1 and swallowing up the southern enlightened part4 ,as at the beginning the shade came feelingly upon our right shoulders1 so now the light from the north1 where it opened as it were2 though ,i could discern no defined light or shade upon the earth that way1 which ,i earnestly watched for1 yet it was manifestly by degrees1 and with oscillation1 going back a little1 and quickly advancing further1 till at length1 upon the first lucid point appearing in the heavens1 where the sun was1 ,i could distinguish pretty plainly a rim of light running alongside of us a good while together1 or sweeping by at our elbows from west to east4 ,just then1 having reason to suppose the totality ended with us1 ,i looked on my watch1 and found it to be full three minutes and a half more4 ,now the hill-tops changed their black into blue again1 and ,i could distinguish an horizon where the centre of darkness was before3 the men cried out1 they saw the copped-hill again1 which they had eagerly looked for2 but still it continued dark to the south-east1 yet ,i cannot say that ever the horizon that way was undistinguishable4 ,immediately we heard the larks chirping1 and singing very briskly1 for joy of the restored luminary1 after all things had been hushed into a most profound and universal silence4 ,the heavens and earth now appeared exactly like morning before sunrise1 of a greyish cast1 but rather more blue interspersed2 and the earth1 so far as the verge of the hill reached1 was of a dark green1 or russet colour4 ,as soon as the sun emerged1 the clouds grew thicker1 and the light was very little amended for a minute or more1 like a cloudy morning slowly advancing4 ,after about the middle of the totality1 and so after the emersion of the sun1 we saw ,venus very plainly1 but no other star4 ,salisbury steeple now appeared2 but the clouds never removing1 we could take no account of it afterwards2 but in the evening it lightened very much4 ,i hastened home to write this letter1 and the impression was so vivid upon my mind1 that ,i am sure1 ,i could for some days after have written the same account of it1 and very precisely4 ,after supper ,i made a drawing of it from my imagination1 upon the same paper on which ,i had taken a prospect of the country before4 ,i must confess to you1 that ,i was 7,i believe7 the only person in ,england1 that regretted not the cloudiness of the day1 which added so much to the solemnity of the sight1 and which incomparably exceeded1 in my apprehension1 that of #agae1 which ,i saw very perfectly from the top of ,boston steeple1 in ,lincolnshire1 where the air was very clear2 but the night of this was more complete and dreadful3 there1 indeed1 ,i saw both sides of the shadow come from a great distance1 and pass beyond us to a considerable extent2 but this eclipse had much more of variety and majestic terror2 so that ,i cannot but felicitate myself upon the opportunity of seeing these two rare accidents of nature1 in so different a manner4 ,yet ,i should willingly have lost this pleasure1 for your more valuable advantage of perfecting the noble theory of the celestial bodies1 which1 last time1 you gave the world so nice a calculation of2 and ,i wish the sky had now as much favoured us for an addition to your honour and great skill1 which ,i doubt not to be as exact in this as before4 ,we now proceed to describe ,,the ,,halo1 ,,or ,,corona2 ,,and ,,similar ,,appearances4--,an ,halo is a luminous circle surrounding the sun1 moon1 planets1 or fixed stars4 ,occasionally these circles are white1 and sometimes they are coloured like the rainbow4 ,sometimes one only is visible1 and at others several concentric halos appear at the same time4 ,mr4 ,huygens observed red next the sun1 and a pale blue outwards4 ,sometimes they are red on the inside1 and white on the outside4 ,in ,france1 one was observed in #afhc1 the middle of which was white2 after which followed a border of red1 next to it was blue1 then green1 and the outermost circle was a bright red4 ,in #agbh1 one was seen of a pale red outwardly1 then followed yellow1 and then green1 terminated by a white4 ,in ,holland1 ,m4 ,muschenbroek says1 fifty may be seen in the day-time1 almost every year2 but they are difficult to be observed1 except the eye be so situated1 that not the body of the sun1 but only the neighbouring parts of the heavens1 can be seen4 ,mr4 ,middleton says1 that this phenomenon is very frequent in ,north ,america2 for that there is generally one or two about the sun every week1 and as many about the moon every month4 ,halos round the sun are very frequent in ,russia4 ,m4 pinus says1 that from the #bc;d of ,april1 #ageh1 to the #bjth of ,september1 he himself had observed no less than twenty-six1 and that he has sometimes seen twice as many in the same space of time4 ,similar1 in some respects1 to the halo1 was the remarkable appearance which ,m4 ,bouguer describes1 as observed on the top of ,mount ,pichinca1 in the ,cordilleras4 ,when the sun was just rising behind them1 so as to appear white1 each of them saw his own shadow projected upon it1 and no other4 ,the distance was such1 that all the parts of the shadow were easily distinguishable1 as the arms1 the legs1 and the head2 but what surprised them most was1 that the head was adorned with a kind of glory1 consisting of three or four small concentric crowns1 of a very lively colour1 each exhibiting all the varieties of the primary rainbow1 and having the circle of red on the outside4 ,the intervals between these circles continued equal1 though the diameters of them all were constantly changing4 ,the last of them was very faint2 and at a considerable distance was another great white circle1 which surrounded the whole4 ,this phenomenon never appeared but in a cloud consisting of frozen particles1 and never in drops of rain like the rainbow4 ,when the sun was not in the horizon1 only part of the white circle was visible1 as ,m4 ,bouquer frequently observed afterwards4 ,similar to this curious appearance1 was one seen by ,dr4 ,m',fait in ,scotland2 who observed a rainbow round his shadow in the mist1 when he was upon an eminence above it4 ,in this situation the whole country round seemed buried under a vast deluge1 and nothing but the tops of distant hills appeared here and there above the flood4 ,in those upper regions1 the air1 he says1 is at that time very pure and agreeable4 ,at another time he observed a double range of colours round his shadow4 ,the colours of the outermost range were broad and very distinct1 and every where about two feet distant from the shadow4 ,then there was a darkish interval1 and after that another narrower range of colours1 closely surrounding the shadow1 which was very much contracted4 ,he thinks that these ranges of colours are caused by the inflection of the rays of light1 the same that occasions the ring of light which surrounds the shadow of all bodies1 observed by ,m4 ,maraldi1 and others4 ,we next proceed to the phenomenon generally called ,,falling ,,or ,,shooting ,,star4--,this is a luminous meteor1 darting rapidly through the air1 and resembling a star falling from the heavens4 ,the explication of this phenomenon had puzzled all philosophers1 till the modern discoveries in electricity led to the most probable account of it4 ,signior ,beccari makes it pretty evident1 that it is an electrical appearance1 and recites the following fact in proof of his opinion4 ,about an hour after sunset1 he1 and some friends that were with him1 observed a falling star directing its course towards them1 and apparently growing larger and larger1 but it disappeared not far from them4 ,when it vanished1 it left their faces1 hands1 and clothes1 with the earth1 and all the neighbouring objects1 suddenly illuminated with a diffused and lambent light1 but not attended with any noise4 ,during their surprise at this appearance1 a servant informed them1 that he had seen a light shine suddenly in the garden1 and especially upon the streams which he was throwing to water it4 ,all these appearances were evidently electrical2 and ,beccari was confirmed in his conjecture1 that electricity was the cause of them1 by the quantity of electric matter which he had seen gradually advancing towards a kite he had elevated1 which had very much the appearance of a falling star4 ,sometimes1 also1 he saw a kind of glory round the kite1 which followed it when it changed its place1 but left some light1 for a small space of time1 in the place it had quitted4 ,captain ,bagnold says1 whilst passing through the straits of ,bahama1 in the autumn of #agii1 he witnessed the following singular atmospheric phenomenon4 ,it was a fine star-light morning1 about two o'clock1 the atmosphere remarkably clear1 with a light air from the north-east2 the sky to windward1 from north-north-east to south-south-east1 was illuminated by a profusion of those meteors1 vulgarly denominated falling stars1 but of a description far more vivid than those usually seen in the higher latitudes2 the head of each was an oblong ignited mass1 followed by a long luminous tail1 which1 after three or four seconds1 gradually vanished4 ,they were formed1 to all appearance1 in the air1 at an elevation of from thirty-five to sixty-four degrees1 none being observed in the zenith1 and few to commence nearer the horizon than the first-mentioned angles4 ,at the mean of these elevations1 the greatest numbers were seen darting in different directions1 forming portions of a large curve1 all slightly inclined to the horizon4 ,multitudes were constantly visible at the same moment1 and they succeeded each other so rapidly1 that the eye of the spectator was kept in motion between the above points of the compass4 ,in about ten minutes they became less frequent1 and at length ceased altogether4 ,the apparent distance of this phenomenon would1 by a seaman1 be estimated at fifteen or twenty miles2 and if it really was what ,i have always considered it1 namely1 a nocturnal shower of meteoric stones1 it was perhaps fortunate for all on board1 that we were not within the sphere of its action3 whatever it was1 never shall ,i forget the splendour of the spectacle4--,see ,humboldt's ,personal ,narrative1 volume ,,iii4 page #cca1 #cce4 ,we close this chapter with ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,three ,,volcanoes ,,in ,,the ,,moon2 by ,dr4 ,herschel4 ,it will be necessary to say a few words by way of introduction to the account ,i have to give of some appearances upon the moon4 ,the phenomena of nature1 especially those that fall under the inspection of the astronomer1 are to be viewed1 not only with the usual attention to facts as they occur1 but with the eye of reason and experience4 ,in this we are1 however1 not allowed to depart from plain appearances1 though their origin and signification should be indicated by the most characterizing features4 ,thus1 when we see on the surface of the moon a great number of elevations1 from half a mile to a mile and a half in height1 we are strictly entitled to call them mountains2 but when we attend to their particular shape1 in which many of them resemble the craters of our volcanoes1 and thence argue that they owe their origin to the same cause which has modelled many of these1 we may be said to see by analogy1 or with the eye of reason4 ,now1 in this latter case1 though it may be convenient1 in speaking of phenomena1 to use expressions that can only be justified by reasoning upon the facts themselves1 it will certainly be the safest way not to neglect a full description of them1 that it may appear to others how far we have been authorized to use the mental eye4 ,this being premised1 ,i may safely proceed to give my observations4 ,april #aith1 #aghg1 #aj;h4 #cf'1 sidereal time3 ,i perceive three volcanoes in different places of the dark part of the new moon4 ,two of them are either already nearly extinct1 or otherwise in a state of going to break out2 which1 perhaps1 may be decided next lunation4 ,the third shews an actual eruption of fire1 or luminous matter4 ,i measured the distance of the crater from the northern limb of the moon1 and found it #c' #eg4c4 ,its light is much brighter than the nucleus of the comet which ,m4 ,mechain discovered at ,paris the #ajth of this month4--,april #bjth1 #aghg1 #aj;h4 #b'1 sidereal time3 ,the volcano burns with greater violence than last night4 ,i believe its diameter cannot be less than #c1 by comparing it with that of the ,georgian planet3 as ,jupiter was near at hand1 ,i turned the telescope to his third satellite1 and estimated the diameter of the burning part of the volcano to be equal to at least twice that of the satellite4 ,hence we may compute that the shining or burning matter must be above three miles in diameter4 ,it is of an irregular round figure1 and very sharply defined on the edges4 ,the other two volcanoes are much farther towards the centre of the moon1 and resemble large pretty faint nebul1 that are gradually much brighter in the middle2 but no well-defined luminous spot can be discerned in them4 ,these three spots are plainly to be distinguished from the rest of the marks upon the moon2 for the reflection of the sun's rays from the earth is1 in its present situation1 sufficiently bright1 with a ten-feet reflector1 to shew the moon's spots1 even the darkest of them2 nor did ,i perceive any similar phenomena last lunation1 though ,i then viewed the same places with the same instrument4 ,the appearance of what ,i have called the actual fire1 or eruption of a volcano1 exactly resembled a small piece of burning charcoal1 when it is covered by a very thin coat of white ashes1 which frequently adhere to it after it has been some time ignited2 and it had a degree of brightness about as strong as that with which such a coal would be seen to glow in faint daylight4 ,all the adjacent parts of the volcanic mountain seemed to be faintly illuminated by the eruption1 and were gradually more obscure as they lay at a greater distance from the crater4 ,this eruption resembled much that which ,i saw on the fourth of ,may1 in the year #aghc2 an account of which1 with many remarkable particulars relating to volcanic mountains in the moon1 ,i shall take an early opportunity of communicating to the ,royal ,society4 ,it differed1 however1 considerably in magnitude and brightness2 for the volcano of the year #aghc1 though much brighter than that which is now burning1 was not near so large in the dimensions of its eruption2 the former seen in the telescope resembled a star of the fourth magnitude1 as it appears to the natural eye3 this1 on the contrary1 shews a visible disk of luminous matter1 very different from the sparkling brightness of star-light4 ,,chap4 ,,lxix4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,various ,,phenomena1 ,,or ,,appearances ,,in ,,nature4--7,concluded47 ,the ,aurora ,borealis4 --------------,silent from the north ,a blaze of meteors shoots3 ensweeping first ,the lower skies1 they all at once converge ,high to the crown of heav'n1 and all at once ,relapsing quick1 as quickly reascend1 ,and mix and thwart1 extinguish and renew1 ,all ether coursing in a maze of light ,thomson4 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis1 sometimes called ,streamers1 is an extraordinary meteor1 or luminous appearance1 shewing itself in the night time in the northern part of the heavens2 and most usually in frosty weather4 ,it is generally of a reddish colour1 inclining to yellow1 and sends out frequent corruscations of pale light1 which seem to rise from the horizon in a pyramidical undulating form1 and shoot with great velocity up to the zenith4 ,the ,aurora ,borealis appears frequently in form of an arch1 chiefly in the spring and autumn1 after a dry year4 ,the arch is partly bright1 partly dark1 but generally transparent3 and the matter of which it consists1 is also found to have no effect on rays of light which pass through it4 ,dr4 ,hamilton observes1 that he could plainly discern the smallest speck in the ,pleiades through the density of those clouds which formed the ,aurora ,borealis in #agfc1 without the least diminution of its splendour1 or increase of twinkling4 ,illustration3 ,,aurora ,,borealis4--,page #fhd4 ,this is an extraordinary appearance of the ,aurora ,borealis1 observed by ,captain ,parry in his expedition to the ,arctic regions4 ,illustration3 ,,aurora ,,borealis4--,page #fhd4 ,this is an aspect of the ,aurora ,borealis sometimes observed in ,scotland4 ,the view embraces a portion of ,loch ,leven1 with the island and the castle in which the unfortunate ,mary ,queen of ,scots was imprisoned4 ,this kind of meteor1 which is more uncommon as we approach towards the equator1 is almost constant during the long winter1 and appears with the greatest lustre in the polar regions4 ,in the ,shetland isles1 the ,merry ,dancers1 as the northern lights are there called1 are the constant attendants of clear evenings1 and afford great relief amidst the gloom of the long winter nights4 ,they commonly appear at twilight1 near the horizon1 of a dun colour1 approaching to yellow2 they sometimes continue in that state for several hours1 without any perceptible motion2 and sometimes they break out into streams of stronger light1 spreading into columns1 and altering slowly into ten thousand different shapes1 and varying their colours from all the tints of yellow1 to the most obscure russet4 ,they often cover the whole hemisphere1 and then exhibit the most brilliant appearance4 ,their motions at this time are most amazingly quick2 and they astonish the spectator with the rapid changes of their form4 ,they break out in places where none were seen before1 skimming briskly among the heavens1 are suddenly extinguished1 and are succeeded by a uniform dusky tract4 ,this again is brilliantly illuminated in the same manner1 and as suddenly left a dark space4 ,in some nights1 they assume the appearance of large columns1 on one side of the deepest yellow1 and on the other1 gradually changing1 till it becomes undistinguished from the sky4 ,they have generally a strong tremulous motion from one end to the other1 and this continues till the whole vanishes4 ,as for us1 who see only the extremities of these northern phenomena1 we can have but a faint idea of their splendour and motions4 ,according to the state of the atmosphere1 they differ in hue2 and sometimes assuming the colour of blood1 they make a dreadful appearance4 ,the rustic sages who observe them1 become prophetic1 and terrify the spectators with alarms of war1 pestilence1 and famine4 ,nor1 indeed1 were these superstitious presages peculiar to the northern islands3 appearances of a similar nature are of ancient date2 and they were distinguished by the appellations of phasmata1 trabes1 and balides1 according to their forms and colours4 ,in old times they were either more rare1 or less frequently noticed3 they were supposed to portend great events1 and the timid imagination formed of them arial conflicts4 ,in the northern latitudes of ,sweden and ,lapland1 the ,auror ,boreales are not only singularly beautiful in their appearance1 but they afford travellers1 by their almost constant effulgence1 a very beautiful light during the whole night4 ,in ,hudson's ,bay the ,aurora ,borealis diffuses a variegated splendour1 which is said to equal that of the full moon4 ,in the northeastern parts of ,siberia1 according to the description of ,gmelin1 these northern lights are observed to begin with single bright pillars1 rising in the north1 and almost at the same time in the north-east1 which1 gradually increasing1 comprehend a large space of the heavens1 rush about from place to place with incredible velocity1 and1 finally1 almost cover the whole sky up to the zenith1 and produce an appearance as if a vast tent were expanded in the heavens1 glittering with gold1 rubies1 and sapphire4 ,a more beautiful spectacle cannot be painted2 but whoever should see such a northern light for the first time1 could not behold it without terror4 ,for1 however fine the illumination may be1 it is attended1 as ,i have learned from the relation of many persons1 with such a hissing1 crackling1 and rushing noise through the air1 as if the largest fire-works were played off4 ,to describe what they then hear1 they make use of the expression1 ',the raging host is passing4' ,the hunters1 who pursue the white and blue foxes in the confines of the ,icy ,sea1 are often alarmed in their course by these northern lights4 ,their dogs are then so much frightened1 that they will not move1 but lie obstinately on the ground1 till the noise has passed4 ,commonly1 clear and calm weather follows this kind of northern lights4 ,this account has been confirmed by the uniform testimony of many1 who have spent part of several years in these northern regions1 and inhabited different countries from the ,yenisei to the ,lena2 so that no doubt of its truth can remain4 ,this seems1 indeed1 to be the real birth-place of the ,aurora ,borealis4 ,a person who resided seven years at ,hudson's ,bay1 confirms ,m4 ,gmelin's relation of the fine appearance and brilliant colours of the northern lights1 and particularly of their rushing noise1 which he affirms he has frequently heard1 and he compares it to the sound produced by whirling round a stick swiftly at the end of a string4 ,a similar noise has likewise been noticed in ,sweden4 ,mr4 ,nairne also1 being in ,northampton at the time when the northern lights were remarkably bright1 is confident he heard a hissing or whizzing sound4 ,mr4 ,belknap1 of ,dover1 in ,new ,hampshire1 ,north ,america1 testifies to this fact4 ,m4 ,cavallo says1 that the cracking noise is distinctly audible1 and that he has heard it more than once4 ,similar lights1 called ,auror ,australes1 have been long since observed towards the south pole1 and their existence has been lately ascertained by ,mr4 ,forster1 who assures us1 that in his voyage round the world with ,captain ,cook1 he observed them in high southern latitudes1 though attended with phenomena somewhat different from those which are seen here4 ,on ,february #ag1 #aggc1 in south latitude #eh1 a beautiful phenomenon 7he says7 was observed during the preceding night1 which appeared again this and several following nights4 ,it consisted of long columns of a clear white light1 shooting up from the horizon to the eastward1 almost to the zenith1 and gradually spreading on the whole southern part of the sky4 ,the columns were sometimes bent sideways at their upper extremities2 and though in most respects similar to the northern lights 7,aurora ,borealis7 of our hemisphere1 yet they differed from them in being always of a whitish colour1 whereas ours assume various tints1 especially those of a fiery and purple hue4 ,the sky was generally clear when they appeared1 and the air sharp and cold1 the thermometer standing at the freezing point4 ,the periods of the appearance of these northern lights are very inconstant4 ,in some years they occur very frequently1 and in others they are more rare2 and it has been observed1 that they are more common about the time of the equinoxes than at other seasons of the year4 ,dr4 ,halley 7see ,philos4 ,trans4 ,no4 #cdg1 p4 #djf17 has collected together several observations1 which form a kind of history of this phenomenon4 ,after having particularly described the various circumstances which attended that observed by himself1 and many others1 in ,march1 #agaf1 and which was singularly brilliant1 he proceeds with informing us1 that the first account of similar phenomena recorded in the ,english annals1 is that of the appearance noticed ,january #cj1 #aefj1 and called1 ,burning ,spears1 by the author of a book entitled1 ,a ,description of ,meteors1 by ,w4 ,f4 ,d4,d42 reprinted at ,london1 in #afed4 ,the next appearance of a like kind1 recorded by ,stow1 occurred on ,october #g1 #aefd4 ,in #aegd1 as ,camden and ,stow inform us1 an ,aurora ,borealis was seen for two successive nights1 viz4 on the #adth and #aeth of ,november1 with appearances similar to those observed in #agaf1 and which are now commonly noticed4 ,the same phenomenon was twice seen in ,brabant1 in #aege1 viz4 on the #acth of ,february1 and the #bhth of ,september2 and the circumstances attending it were described by ,cornelius ,gemma1 who compares them to spears1 fortified cities1 and armies fighting in the air4 ,in the year #aehj1 ,m4 ,masline observed these phasmata1 as he calls them1 at ,baknang1 in the county of ,wirtemberg1 in ,germany1 no less than seven times in the space of twelve months2 and again at several different times1 in #aeha4 ,on ,september #b;d1 #afba1 the same phenomenon was seen over all ,france2 and it was particularly described by ,gassendus1 in his ,physics1 who gave it the name of ,aurora ,borealis4 ,another was seen all over ,germany1 in ,november1 #afbc1 and was described by ,kepler4 ,since that time1 for more than eighty years1 we have no account of any such phenomenon1 either at home or abroad4 ,in #agjg1 ,mr4 ,neve observed one of small continuance in ,ireland2 and in the same year1 a similar appearance was seen by ,romer1 at ,copenhagen2 and during an interval of eighteen months1 in the years #agjg and #agjh1 this sort of light had been seen no less than five times4 ,hence it should seem1 7says ,dr4 ,halley17 that the air or earth1 or both1 are not at all times disposed to produce this phenomenon1 though it is possible it may happen in the day-time1 in bright moonshine1 or in cloudy weather1 and so pass unobserved4 ,dr4 ,halley further observes1 that the ,aurora ,borealis of #agaf1 which he described1 was visible from the west of ,ireland to the confines of ,russia1 and to the east of ,poland2 extending at least near thirty degrees of longitude1 and from about the fiftieth degree of north latitude1 over almost all the north of ,europe2 and in all places at the same time1 it exhibited appearances similar to those which he observed in ,london4 ,he regrets1 however1 that he was unable to determine its height1 for want of contemporary observations at different places4 ,father ,boscovich has determined the height of an ,aurora ,borealis1 observed on the #afth of ,december1 #agcg1 by the ,marquis of ,poleni1 to have been eight hundred and twenty-five miles2 and ,mr4 ,bergman1 from a mean of thirty computations1 makes the average height of the ,aurora ,borealis to be seventy-two ,swedish1 or 7supposing a ,swedish mile to be about six and a half ,english miles7 four hundred and sixty-eight ,english miles4 ,euler supposes the height to be several thousands of miles2 and ,mairan also assigns to these phenomena a very elevated region1 the far greater number of them being1 according to him1 about two hundred leagues above the surface of the earth4 ,dr4 ,blagden1 speaking of the height of some fiery meteors1 7,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 lxxiv4 p4 #bbg17 says1 that the ,aurora ,borealis appears to occupy as high1 if not a higher region1 above the surface of the earth1 as may be judged from the very distant countries to which it has been visible at the same time3 he adds1 that the great accumulation of electric matter seems to lie beyond the verge of our atmosphere1 as estimated by the cessation of twilight4 ,but as it is difficult to make such observations on this phenomenon as are sufficient to afford a just estimate of its altitude1 they must be subject to considerable variation1 and to material error4 ,dr4 ,blagden informs us1 that instances are recorded1 in which the northern lights have been seen to join1 and form luminous balls1 darting about with great velocity1 and even leaving a train behind them like the common fire-balls4 ,this ingenious author1 however1 conjecturing that distinct regions are allotted to the electrical phenomena of our atmosphere1 assigns the appearance of fire-balls to that region which lies beyond the limits of our crepuscular atmosphere2 and a greater elevation above the earth1 to that accumulation of electricity in a lighter and less condensed form1 which produces the wonderfully diversified streams and coruscations of the ,aurora ,borealis4 ,,chap4 ,,lxx4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,galvanism4 ,nature1 exhaustles still1 has power to warm1 ,and every change presents a novel charm4 ,,galvani1 a professor of anatomy in the university of ,bologna1 was one day making experiments on electricity4 ,in his laboratory1 near the machine1 were some frogs that had been flayed2 the limbs of which became convulsed every time a spark was drawn from the apparatus4 ,galvani1 surprised at this phenomenon1 made it a subject of investigation1 and discovered that metals1 applied to the nerves and muscles of these animals1 occasioned powerful and sudden contractions1 when disposed in a certain manner4 ,he gave the name of ,animal ,electricity to this order of new phenomena1 from the analogy that he considered existing between these effects and those produced by electricity4 ,the name1 ,animal ,electricity1 has been superseded1 notwithstanding the great analogy that exists between the effects of electricity and of ,galvanism1 in favour of the latter term2 which is not only applicable to the generality of the phenomena1 but likewise serves to perpetuate the memory of the discoverer4 ,in order to give rise to galvanic effects1 it is necessary to establish a communication between two points of one series of nervous and muscular organs4 ,in this manner a circle is formed1 one arch of which consists of the animal parts1 rendered the subject of experiment1 while the other arch is composed of exciting instruments1 which generally consists of those animal parts called supporters2 others1 destined to establish a communication between the latter1 are called conductors4 ,to form a complete galvanic circle1 take the thigh of a frog1 deprived of its skin2 detach the crural nerve1 as far as the knee2 put it on a piece of zinc2 lay the muscles of the leg on a piece of silver2 then finish the exciting arch1 and complete the galvanic circle by establishing a communication by means of the two supporters1 by iron or copper wire1 pewter1 or lead4 ,the instant that the communicators touch the two supporters1 a part of the animal arch formed by the two supporters will be convulsed4 ,although this disposition of the animal parts1 and of galvanic instruments1 be most favourable to the development of the phenomena1 yet the composition of the animal and excitatory arch may be much varied4 ,thus contractions are obtained1 by placing the two supporters under the nerve1 and leaving the muscle out of the circle2 which proves that nerves essentially constitute the animal arch4 ,it is not necessary for nerves to be entire1 in order to produce contractions4 ,they take place whether the organs be tied or cut through1 provided there exists a simple contiguity between the divided ends4 ,this proves that we cannot strictly conclude what happens in muscular action1 from that which takes place in galvanic phenomena2 since1 if a nerve be tied or divided1 the muscles on which the energy is distributed lose the power of action4 ,the cuticle is an obstacle to galvanic effects2 they are always feebly manifested in parts covered by it4 ,when it is moist1 fine1 and delicate1 the effect is not entirely interrupted4 ,humboldt1 after having detached the cuticle from the posterior part of the neck and back1 by means of two blisters1 applied plates of metal to the bare cutis1 and1 at the moment of establishing a communication1 he experienced sharp prickings1 accompanied with a serosanguinous discharge4 ,if a plate of zinc be placed under the tongue1 and a flat piece of silver on its superior surface1 on making them touch each other1 an acerb taste will be perceived1 accompanied with a slight trembling4 ,the exciting arch may be constructed with two or three metals1 or even one metal only2 with alloys1 amalgams1 or other metallic or mineral combinations1 carbonated substances1 c4 ,it is observed1 that metals1 which are in general the most powerful exciters1 induce contractions so much the more as they have an extent of surface4 ,metals are all more or less excitants2 and it has been noticed that zinc1 gold1 silver1 and pewter1 are of the highest rank2 then copper1 lead1 nickel1 antimony1 c4 ,galvanic susceptibility is exhausted by too long-continued exercise1 and is recruited by repose4 ,immersion of nerves in alkohol and opiate solutions diminishes1 and even destroys1 this susceptibility2 in the same manner1 doubtless1 as the immoderate use of these substances in the living man1 blunts1 and induces paralysis in muscular action4 ,immersion in oxygenated muriatic acid1 revests the fatigued parts1 in being acted on by the stimulus4 ,animals killed by the repeated discharge of an electric battery1 acquire an increase of galvanic susceptibility2 and this property subsists unchanged in animals destroyed by submersions in mercury1 pure hydrogen gas1 azote1 and ammoniac2 and finally1 it is totally annihilated in animals suffocated by the vapour of charcoal4 ,galvanic susceptibility is extinct in the muscles of animals of warm blood1 in proportion as vital heat is dissipated2 sometimes even when life is terminated in convulsions1 contractibility cannot be put into action1 although warmth be not completely gone1 as though the vital property were consumed by the convulsions amidst which the animals had expired4 ,in those of cold blood1 on the contrary1 it is more durable4 ,the thighs of frogs1 long after being separated from every thing1 and even to the instant of incipient putrefaction1 are influenced by galvanic stimuli2 doubtless1 because irritability1 in these animals1 is less intimately connected with respiration1 and life more divided among the different organs1 which have less occasion to act on each other for the execution of its phenomena4 ,the galvanic chain does not produce sensible actions 7that is1 contractions7 until the moment it is completed1 by establishing a communication with the parts constituting it4 ,during the time it is complete1 that is1 throughout the whole space of time that the communication remains established1 every thing remains tranquil2 nevertheless1 galvanic influence is not suspended2 in fact1 excitability is evidently increased or diminished1 in muscles that have been long continued in the galvanic chain1 according to the difference of the reciprocal situation of the connecting metals4 ,if silver has been applied to the nerves1 and zinc to the muscles1 the irritability of the latter increases in proportion to the time they have remained in the chain4 ,by this method1 the thighs of frogs have been revivified in some degree1 and afterwards became sensible to stimuli that before had ceased to act on them4 ,by distributing the metals in an inverse manner1 applying zinc to the nerves1 and silver to the muscles1 an effect absolutely contrary is observed2 and the muscles that possessed the most lively irritability when placed in the chain1 seem to be rendered entirely paralytic if they remain long in this situation4 ,this difference evidently depends on the direction of the galvanic fluid1 determined towards the muscles or nerves1 according to the manner in which these metals are disposed2 and this is of some importance to be known for the application of galvanic means to the cure of diseases4 ,m4 ,volta's apparatus is as follows3--,raise a pile1 by placing a plate of zinc1 a flat piece of wet card1 and a plate of silver1 successively2 then a second piece of zinc1 c4 until the elevation is several feet high2 for the effects are greater in proportion to its height2 then touch both extremities of the pile1 at the same instant1 with one piece of iron wire3 at the moment of contact1 a spark is excited from the extremities of the pile1 and luminous points are often perceived at different heights1 where the zinc and silver come into mutual contact4 ,the zinc end of this pile appears to be negatively electrified2 that formed by the silver1 on the contrary1 indicates marks of positive electricity4 ,if we touch both extremities of the pile1 after having dipped our hands into water1 or1 what is better1 a saline solution1 a commotion1 followed by a disagreeable pricking in the fingers and elbow1 is felt4 ,if we place1 in a tube filled with water1 and hermetically closed by two corks1 the extremities of two wires of the same metal1 which are in contact at the other extremity1 one with the summit1 the other with the base of the pile2 these ends1 even when separated only by the space of a few lines1 experience evident changes at the instant the extremities of the pile are touched3 the wire in contact with that part of the pile composed of zinc1 becomes covered with bull of hydrogen gas2 that which touches the extremity formed by silver1 becomes oxydated4 ,fourcroy attributes this phenomenon to the decomposition of water by the galvanic fluid1 which abandons the oxygen to the iron that touches the positive extremity of the pile2 then conducts the other gas invisibly to the end of the other wire1 there to be disengaged4 ,from the numerous experiments of ,mr4 ,davy1 many new and important facts have been established1 and ,galvanism has been found to be one of the most powerful agents in chemistry4 ,by its influence1 platina wire has been melted2 gold1 silver1 copper1 and most of the metals1 have easily been burnt6 the fixed alkalis1 and many of the earths1 have been made to appear as consisting of a metallic base and oxygen2 compound substances1 which were before extremely difficult to decompose1 are now1 by the aid of ,galvanism1 easily resolved into their constituent4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxi4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,magnetism4 ,almighty ,cause6 'tis thy preserving care ,that keeps thy works for ever fresh and fair3 ,hence life acknowledges its glorious ,cause1 ,and matter owns its great ,disposer's laws2 ,hence flow the forms and properties of things2 ,hence rises harmony1 and order springs4 ,thy watchful providence o'er all intends2 ,thy works obey their great ,creator's ends4 ,thee1 ,infinite6 what finite can explore8 ,imagination sinks beneath thy power4 ,yet present to all sense that power remains1 ,reveal'd in nature1 ,nature's ,author reigns4 ,boyse4 ,the obedient steel with living instinct moves1 ,and veers for ever to the pole it loves1 ,so turns the faithful needle to the pole1 ,tho' mountains rise between1 and oceans roll4 ,darwin4 ,,magnetism is supposed to have been first rendered useful about the end of the twelfth1 or at least very early in the thirteenth1 century1 by ,john de ,gioja1 a handicraft of ,naples1 who noticed the peculiar attraction of metals1 and iron in particular1 towards certain masses of rude ore2 the touch of which communicated to other substances of a ferruginous nature1 especially iron or steel bars1 the property of attraction3 these touched bars he observed to have a peculiar and similar tendency towards one particular point2 that when suspended in equilibrio1 by means of threads around their centres1 they invariably turned towards the same point2 and that1 when placed in a row1 however adversely directed1 they soon disposed themselves in perfectly parallel order4 ,in this instance he improved upon the property long known to1 but not comprehended or applied to use by1 the ancients1 who considered the loadstone simply as a rude species of iron ore1 and curious only so far as it might serve to amuse4 ,gioja being possessed of a quick understanding1 and of a strong mind1 was not long in further ascertaining the more sensible purposes to which the magnet might be appropriated4 ,he accordingly fixed various magnets upon pivots1 supporting their centres in such a manner as allowed the bars to traverse freely4 ,finding that1 however situated within the reach of observation and comparison1 they all had the same tendency1 he naturally concluded them to be governed by some attraction1 which might be ultimately ascertained and acted upon4 ,he therefore removed into various parts of ,italy1 to satisfy himself whether or not the extraordinary impulse which agitated these bars1 that had been magnetized by friction1 existed only in the vicinity of ,naples1 or was general4 ,the result of his researches appears to be1 that the influence was general1 but that the magnets were rendered extremely variable1 and fluctuated much1 when near large masses of iron4 ,the experiments of ,gioja gave birth to many others1 and at length to a trial of the magnetic influence on the surface of the water4 ,to establish this1 a vessel was moored out at sea1 in a direction corresponding with that of the magnet2 and a boat1 having a magnet equipoised on a pivot at its centre1 was sent out at night in the exact line indicated thereby2 which1 being duly followed1 carried them close to the vessel that was at anchor4 ,thus the active power of attraction appeared to be established on both elements1 and in the course of time the magnet was fixed to a card1 marked with thirty-two points1 whereby the mariner's compass was presented to us4 ,the points to which the magnet always turned itself1 being generally in correspondence with the meridian of the place where it acted1 occasioned the extremities of the bars to be called poles4 ,succeeding experiments proved1 that the magnetic bar never retained an exactly horizontal position2 but that one of its poles invariably formed an angle with any perfect level1 over which it was placed3 this was not so very measurable in a short bar1 but in one of a yard in length was formed to give several degrees of inclination4 ,this1 which is called the dip of the needle1 7or magnet17 seems to indicate that the attracting power is placed within the earth4 ,what that attracting power is1 we cannot determine2 some consider it to be a fluid1 while others conjecture it to be an immense mass of loadstone1 situated somewhere about the north pole4 ,the difficulty is1 however1 considerably increased by the known fact of the needles of compasses not always pointing due north2 but in many places varying greatly from the meridional lines respectively2 and from each other at different times and places4 ,the facility with which a meridional line may be drawn by solar observation1 and especially by taking an azimuth1 fortunately enables navigators to establish the variation between the true northern direction1 and that indicated by the magnet attached to the card of the compass4 ,nevertheless1 we have great reason to believe1 that1 for want either of accurate knowledge of the prevalent variations1 or from inattention thereto1 many vessels1 of which no tidings were ever heard1 have been cast away2 it being obvious1 that a false indication of the northern point1 in many places amounting to nearly the extent of twenty-five degrees1 must produce so important an error in a vessel's course1 as to subject her to destruction on those very shoals1 rocks1 c4 of which the navigator unhappily thinks he steers perfectly clear4 ,to obviate such danger1 as far as possible1 all modern sea-charts have the variations of the compass in their several parts duly noted down2 and in reckoning upon the course steered by the compass1 an allowance is usually made for the difference between the apparent course by the compass1 and the real course1 as ascertained by celestial observation4 ,under circumstances so completely contradictory1 the principle of magnetism must remain unknown3 we know not of any hypothesis which strikes conviction on our minds1 or which seems to convey any adequate idea of the origin1 or modus operandi1 of this wondrous influence4 ,all we can treat of is1 the effect2 also of the appearances which guide our practice1 and of the manner in which the attractive power may be generated and increased4 ,in regard to the latter point1 namely1 the generation and increase of the magnetic attraction1 we shall endeavour to give a brief but distinct view of what relates thereto3 observing1 that where volcanic eruptions are frequent1 and in those latitudes where the ,aurora ,borealis is distinctly seen1 the needle or magnet is sensibly affected4 ,previously to earthquakes1 as well as during their action1 and while the northern lights are in full display1 no reliance can be placed on the compass2 the card of which will appear much agitated4 ,this has given rise to the opinion held by some1 that the power is a fluid3 to this1 however1 there appear so many objections1 that we are more disposed to reject than to favour it1 although under the necessity of confessing1 that we are not able to offer one that may account satisfactorily for the various phenomena attendant upon magnetism4 ,we have already stated1 that every magnet has two poles2 that is1 one end is called the north1 the other the south pole3 the former being considered as capable of attraction2 the other1 as we shall infer from the subjoined explanations1 being far more inert1 if at all possessed of an attractive power4 ,when two magnets are brought together with their north poles in contact1 they will1 instead of cohering1 be obviously repelled to a distance corresponding with their respective powers of attraction1 when applied individually to unmagnetized needles4 ,the south poles will1 in like manner1 repel each other2 but the north pole of one1 and the south pole of the other1 will1 when approximated1 be evidently attracted1 and will cohere so as to sustain considerable weights4 ,iron is the only metal1 hitherto known1 which is capable of receiving and communicating the magnetic power2 but quiet1 and the absence of contact1 in some respects1 are indispensably necessary towards its perfect retention4 ,thus1 when a bar has been impregnated1 however abundantly1 with the magnetic principle1 if it be heated or hammered1 the power of attraction will be dissipated2 or if a tube filled with iron filings have their surface magnetized1 by shaking the tube the magnetic influence will likewise be lost4 ,in some respects the magnetic influence resembles caloric2 for it very rapidly communicates to iron1 devoid of magnetism1 a certain portion of its own powers2 which1 however1 appear to be reproduced instantaneously4 ,as various small fires under one large vessel will thereby heat it1 and cause the water it contains to boil1 though neither of them individually would produce that effect2 so1 many weak magnets may1 by being united1 communicate a power equal to its own1 and be made to create an accumulated power1 larger than that contained by either of them individually4 ,there is1 however1 a seeming contradiction to be found in some authors1 who recommend that the weakest magnets should be first applied1--and those more forcible1 in succession1 according to the power they may possess2 the reason assigned being1 that the weaker magnets would else1 in all probability1 draw off some of the accumulated power from the new magnet4 ,but of this there appears no danger1 since experience proves that magnets rather gain than lose efficiency by contact1 not only with each other1 but even with common iron4 ,in fact1 the magnetic power may at any time be created by various means3 the friction of two pieces of flat and polished bars of iron1 will cause them for a short time to attract and to suspend light weights4 ,soft iron is more easily influenced1 but steel will retain the influence longer4 ,lightning1 electricity1 and galvanism1 being all of the same nature1 equally render iron magnetic4 ,it is also peculiar1 that when two or more magnets are left for any time with their several north poles in contact1 the whole will be thereby weakened2 whereas1 by leaving a piece of common iron attached to a magnet1 the latter will acquire strength4 ,it is also well known that some pieces of steel quickly receive the magnetic influence1 while others require considerable labour1 and after all are scarcely impregnated4 ,the oxide of iron cannot be impregnated1 and those bars that have been so1 when they become partially oxydized1 lose their power4 ,hence we see the necessity of preserving the needles of compasses from rust4 ,magnets have the power to act notwithstanding the intervention of substances in any degree porous between them and the body to be acted upon3 thus1 if a needle be put on a sheet of paper1 and a magnet be drawn under it1 the needle will follow the course of the magnet4 ,the peculiar affinity of the loadstone for iron1 is employed with great success1 by those who work in precious metals1 for the separation of filings1 c4 of iron from the smaller particles of gold1 c4 ,a magnet being dipped into the vessel1 in which the whole are blended1 will attract all ferruginous particles4 ,to communicate the magnetic power to a needle1 let it be placed horizontally2 and with a magnet in each hand1 let the north pole of one1 and the south pole of the other1 be brought obliquely in contact over the centre of the needle3 draw them asunder1 taking care to press firmly1 and preserving the same angle or inclination to the very ends of the needles1 which should be supported by two magnets1 whose ends ought to correspond in polarity with those of the needle4 ,observe to carry the magnets you press with clear away from the ends of the needle1 at least a foot therefrom2 repeat the friction in the same manner several times1 perhaps six1 eight1 or ten1 and the needle will be permanently magnetized2 and1 as we have already stated1 by using other magnets in succession1 the powers of the needle will be proportionably increased4 ,but no effect will result from the friction if the bars are rusty1 or1 indeed1 not highly polished2 their angles must be perfect1 and their several sides and ends completely flat4 ,it is1 perhaps1 one of the most curious of the phenomena attendant on this occult property1 that the centre of every magnet is devoid of attraction2 yet1 that when a needle is placed in a line with a magnet1 and within the influence of its pole1 that needle almost becomes magnetic1 or rather1 a conductor1 possessing a certain portion of attractive power3 and it is no less extraordinary1 that the magnet retains its power even in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump2 which seems to be a formidable objection to its being influenced by any fluid4 ,perhaps the opinion entertained by many of our most popular lecturers on this subject1 viz4 that the earth itself is the great attractor1 may be nearest the truth4 ,we are the more inclined towards such an hypothesis1 knowing that1 at the true magnetic equator1 the needle does not dip2 and from the well-ascertained fact1 that bars of iron1 placed for a length of time exactly perpendicular1 receive a strong magnetic power1 their lower ends repelling the south1 but attracting the north poles of magnets applied to them respectively4 ,the direction of the dipping needle was ascertained by one ,robert ,norman1 about two hundred and fifty years ago4 ,he suspended a small magnetic needle1 by means of a fine thread round its centre1 so as to balance perfectly1 over a large magnet3 the south pole of the former was instantly attracted by the north pole of the latter4 ,he found1 that so long as the needle was held exactly centrical1 at about two inches above the magnet1 it remained horizontal2 but so soon as withdrawn a little more towards one end than the other of the magnet1 the equilibrium was destroyed1 and that pole of the needle which was nearest to either pole of the magnet was instantly attracted1 and pointed downwards thereto4 ,by the magnetic equator1 we mean a circle passing round the earth at right angles with the magnetic poles1 which do not correspond with the geographical poles1 as may be fully understood by the indications of all compasses to points differing from the latter2 and as the indications of compasses vary so much both at different times and places1 we may reasonably conclude1 that the magnetic poles are not fixed4 ,the variation of the dipping-needle has not1 in our latitude at least1 varied more than half a degree since its depressive tendency was first discovered by ,norman4 ,by means of the mariner's compass1 ,tall navies hence their doubtful way explore1 ,and ev'ry product waft from ev'ry shore2 ,hence meagre want expell'd1 and sanguine strife1 ,for the mild charms of cultivated life4 ,blacklock4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,arts1 c4 ,early ,invention of several useful ,arts--,automaton--,androides-- ,extraordinary ,pieces of ,clockwork--,heidelberg ,clock--,strasburg ,clock--,clepsydra--,invention of ,watches4 ,what cannot art and industry perform1 ,when science plans the progress of their toil6 ,they smile at penury1 disease1 and storm2 ,and oceans from their mighty mounds recoil4 ,when tyrants scourge1 or demagogues embroil ,a land1 or when the rabble's headlong rage ,order transforms to anarchy and spoil2 ,deep vers'd in man1 the philosophic sage ,prepares with lenient hand their frenzy t' assuage2 ',tis he alone1 whose comprehensive mind1 ,from situation1 temper1 soil1 and clime ,explor'd1 a nation's various pow'rs can bind1 ,and various orders1 in one form sublime ,of polity1 that 'midst the wrecks of time1 ,secure shall lift its head on high1 nor fear ,th' assault of foreign or domestic crime1 ,while public faith1 and public ,,love sincere1 ,and industry and law maintain their sway severe4 ,beattie4 ,,early ,,invention ,,of ,,several ,,useful ,,arts4--,some useful arts must be nearly coeval with the human race2 for food1 clothing1 and habitation1 even in their original simplicity1 require some display of ingenuity4 ,many arts are of such antiquity as to place the inventors beyond the reach of tradition2 while several have gradually crept into existence without an inventor4 ,the busy mind1 however1 accustomed to date the progress of science from some particular era1 cannot rest till it finds or conjectures a beginning to every art4 ,in all countries where the people are illiterate1 the progress of arts is extremely slow4 ,it is vouched by an old ,french poem1 that the virtues of the loadstone were known in ,france before the year #aahj4 ,the mariner's compass was exhibited at ,venice1 ,a4 ,d4 #abfj1 by ,paulus ,venetus1 as his own invention4 ,john ,goya1 of ,amalphi1 was the first1 who1 many years afterwards1 used it in navigation1 and also passed for being the inventor4 ,though it was used in ,china for navigation long before it was known to the western nations1 yet to this day it is not so perfect as in ,europe4 ,instead of suspending it in order to make it act freely1 it is placed upon a bed of sand1 by which every motion of the ship disturbs its operation4 ,hand-mills1 termed querns1 were early used for the grinding of corn2 and when corn came to be raised in greater quantities1 horse-mills succeeded4 ,water-mills for grinding corn are described by ,vitruvius4 ,windmills were known in ,greece and ,arabia1 so early as the seventh century2 and yet no mention is made of them in ,italy till the fourteenth4 ,that they were not known in ,england in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 appears from a household book of an earl of ,northumberland1 contemporary with that king1 stating an allowance for three mill horses1 two to draw in the mill1 and one to carry stuff to the mill4 ,water-mills for corn must in ,england have been of a late date4 ,the ancients had mirror glasses1 and employed glass to imitate crystal vases and goblets2 yet they never thought of using it in windows4 ,in the thirteenth century1 the ,venetians were the only people who had the art of making crystal glass for mirrors4 ,a clock that strikes the hours was unknown in ,europe till the end of the twelfth century4 ,and hence the custom of employing men to proclaim the hours during night2 which to this day continues in ,germany1 ,flanders1 and ,england4 ,galileo was the first who conceived an idea that a pendulum might be useful for measuring time2 and ,huygens was the first who put the idea in execution1 by making a pendulum clock4 ,hook1 in #affj1 invented a spiral spring for a watch1 though a watch was far from being a new invention4 ,paper was made no earlier than the fourteenth century2 and the invention of printing was a century later4 ,silk manufactures were long established in ,greece1 before silk-worms were introduced there4 ,the manufacturers were provided with raw silk from ,persia2 but that commerce being frequently interrupted by war1 two monks1 in the reign of ,justinian1 brought eggs of the silk-worm from ,hindoostan1 and taught their countrymen the method of managing them4 ,the art of reading made a very slow progress4 ,to encourage that art in ,england1 the capital punishment for murder was remitted1 if the criminal could but read1 which in law language is termed benefit of clergy4 ,one would imagine that the art must have made a very rapid progress when so greatly favoured3 but there is a signal proof of the contrary1 for so small an edition of the ,bible as six hundred copies1 translated into ,english in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 was not wholly sold off in three years4 ,the people of ,england must have been profoundly ignorant in ,queen ,elizabeth's time1 when a forged clause1 added to the twentieth article of the ,english creed1 passed unnoticed till about sixty years ago4 ,the discoveries of the ,portuguese on the west coast of ,africa1 afford a remarkable instance of the slow progress of the arts4 ,in the beginning of the fifteenth century1 they were totally ignorant of that coast beyond ,cape ,non1 in #bh degrees1 north latitude4 ,in #adaj1 the celebrated ,prince ,henry of ,portugal fitted out a fleet for discoveries1 which proceeded along the coast to ,cape ,bajadore1 in #bf degrees1 but had not courage to double it3 and seventy-six years elapsed before this was done by ,bartholomew ,diaz1 in #adhf6 ,description of ,,an ,,automaton4--,this is a machine1 so constructed by means of weights1 levers1 springs1 wheels1 c4 as to move for a considerable time1 as if it were endued with animal life4 ,according to this definition1 clocks1 watches1 and all machines of that kind1 may be ranked as a species of automata4 ,but the word is most commonly applied to such machines as are made in the form of men and other animals1 at the same time that their internal machinery is so contrived1 that they seem voluntarily to act like the animals they represent4 ,archytas of ,tarentum1 who lived ,a4 ,c4 #djj1 is said to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly4 ,it is also recorded1 that ,archimedes made similar automata2 that ,regiomontanus made a wooden eagle1 which flew forth from the city of ,nuremburg1 met the emperor1 saluted him1 and returned2 also that he made an iron fly1 which flew out of his hand at a feast1 and returned again after flying about the room4 ,dr4 ,hook made the model of a flying chariot1 capable of supporting itself in the air4 ,many other surprising automata have been exhibited in the present age4 ,m4 ,vaucanson made a duck1 which could eat1 drink1 and imitate exactly the voice of a natural one2 and what is still more surprising1 the food it swallowed was evacuated in a digested state1 or at least considerably altered1 on the principles of solution4 ,the wings1 viscera1 and bones1 were so formed1 as greatly to resemble those of a living duck2 and the actions of eating and drinking shewed the strongest resemblance1 even to muddling the water with its bill4 ,m4 de ,droz1 of la ,chaux de ,fonds1 in the province of ,neuchatel1 has also executed some curious pieces of mechanism4 ,one was a clock1 presented to the king of ,spain1 which had1 among other curiosities1 a sheep that imitated the bleating of a natural one1 and a dog that watched a basket of fruit1 and which barked and snarled if any one attempted to take it away2 if it was actually taken1 it would bark till it was restored4 ,a son of this gentleman has also made some extraordinary pieces1 particularly an oval gold snuff-box1 about four inches long1 three broad1 and one and a half thick4 ,it is double1 having an horizontal partition1 with a lid to each of its parts4 ,one contains snuff2 but in the other1 as soon as the lid is opened1 there rises up a very small bird1 7for it is only three-quarters of an inch from the beak to the extremity of the tail17 of green-enamelled gold1 sitting on a gold stand1 which immediately wagging its tail and shaking its wings1 and opening its bill of white-enamelled gold1 pours forth a clear melodious song1 capable of filling a room of twenty or thirty feet square with its melody4 ,the same gentleman exhibited an automaton in ,england1 of the figure of a man1 as large as life4 ,it held in its hand a metal style1 under which was a card of ,dutch vellum4 ,a spring was then touched1 and the internal machinery being thus set a-going1 the figure began to draw elegant portraits1 and likenesses of the king and queen facing each other2 and it was curious to observe1 with what precision the figure lifted up its pencil1 in the transition of it from one point of the picture to another1 without making the least blunder whatever2 for instance1 in passing from the forehead to the eye1 nose1 and chin1 or from the waving curls of the hair to the ear1 c4 ,the first card being finished1 the figure rested1 until a second was completed1 and so on through five separate cards put to it1 on all of which it delineated different subjects1 but five or six was the extent of its surprising powers4 ,,androides4--,this is an automaton1 in the figure of a man1 which1 by virtue of certain springs1 c4 duly contrived1 walks1 and performs other external functions of a man4 ,albertus ,magnus is recorded as having made a famous androides1 which is said not only to have moved1 but to have spoken4 ,thomas ,aquinas is said to have been so frightened when he saw this head1 that he broke it to pieces2 upon which ,albert exclaimed1 ,periit opus triginta annorum6 ,artificial puppets1 which1 by internal springs1 run upon a table1 and1 as they advance1 move their heads1 eyes1 or hands1 were common among the ,greeks1 and from thence they were brought to the ,romans4 ,figures1 or puppets1 which appear to move of themselves1 were formerly employed to work miracles2 but this use is now superseded1 and they serve only to display ingenuity1 and to answer the purposes of amusement4 ,one of the most celebrated figures of this kind1 was constructed and exhibited at ,paris1 in #agch2 and a particular account of it was published in the memoirs of the academy for that year4 ,this figure represents a flute-player1 which was capable of performing various pieces of music1 by wind issuing from its mouth into a ,german flute1 the holes of which it opened and shut with its fingers3 it was about five and a half feet high1 placed upon a square pedestal four and a half feet high1 and three and a half broad4 ,the air entered the body by three separate pipes1 into which it was conveyed by nine pairs of bellows1 that expanded and contracted1 in regular succession1 by means of an axis of steel turned by clock-work4 ,these bellows performed their functions without any noise1 which might have discovered the manner by which the air was conveyed to the machine4 ,the three tubes1 which received the air from the bellows1 passed into three small reservoirs in the trunk of the figure4 ,here they united1 and1 ascending towards the throat1 formed the cavity of the mouth1 which terminated in two small lips1 adapted in some measure to perform their proper functions4 ,within this cavity was a small moveable tongue1 which by its motion1 at proper intervals1 admitted the air1 or intercepted it in its passage to the flute4 ,the fingers1 lips1 and tongue1 derived their proper movements from a steel cylinder1 turned by clock-work4 ,this was divided into fifteen equal parts1 which1 by means of pegs1 pressing upon the ends of fifteen different levers1 caused the other extremities to ascend4 ,seven of these levers directed the fingers1 having wires and chains fixed to their ascending extremities1 which1 being attached to the fingers1 made them to ascend in proportion as the other extremity was pressed down by the motion of the cylinder1 and vice vers2 then the ascent or descent of one end of a lever produced a similar ascent or descent in the corresponding fingers1 by which one of the holes of the flute was occasionally opened or stopped1 as it might have been by a living performer4 ,three of the levers served to regulate the ingress of the air1 being so contrived as to open and shut1 by means of valves1 the three reservoirs above-mentioned1 so that more or less strength might be given1 and a higher or lower note produced1 as occasion required4 ,the lips were1 by a similar mechanism1 directed by four levers1 one of which opened them1 to give the air a freer passage1 the other contracted them1 the third drew them backward1 and the fourth pushed them forward4 ,the lips were projected upon that part of the flute which receives the air1 and1 by the different motions already mentioned1 modified the tune in a proper manner4 ,the remaining lever was employed in the direction of the tongue1 which it easily moves so as to shut or open the mouth of the flute4 ,the just succession of the several motions1 performed by the various parts of this machine1 was regulated by the following simple contrivance4 ,the extremity of the axis of the cylinder terminated on the right side by an endless screw1 consisting of twelve threads1 each placed at the distance of a line and a half from the other4 ,above this screw was fixed a piece of copper1 and in it a steel pivot1 which1 falling in between the threads of the screw1 obliged the cylinder to follow the threads2 and1 instead of turning directly round1 it was continually pushed to one side4 ,hence1 if a lever was moved1 by a peg placed on cylinder1 in any one revolution1 it could not be moved by the same peg in the succeeding revolution1 because the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it by the lateral motion of the cylinder4 ,thus1 by an artificial disposition of these pegs in different parts of the cylinder1 the statue was made1 by the successive elevation of the proper levers1 to exhibit all the different motions of a flute-player1 to the admiration of every one who saw it4 ,another figure1 constructed by the same artist1 ,vaucanson1 played on the shepherd's pipe1 held in its left hand1 and with the right beat upon a drum4 ,the performances of ,vaucanson were imitated1 and even exceeded1 by ,m4 de ,kempelin1 of ,presburg1 in ,hungary4 ,the androides constructed by this gentleman in #agfi1 was capable of playing at chess4 ,it was first brought over to ,england in #aghc1 and has often been exhibited since that period4 ,it is thus described3 ,the figure is as large as life1 in a ,turkish dress1 seated behind a table1 with doors three and a half feet long1 two deep1 and two and a half high4 ,the chair on which it sits is fixed to the table1 which is made to run on four wheels4 ,it leans its right arm on the table1 and in its left hand holds a pipe2 with this hand it plays after the pipe is removed4 ,a chess-board of eighteen inches is fixed before it4 ,the table1 or rather chest1 contains wheels1 levers1 cylinders1 and other pieces of mechanism1 all of which are publicly displayed4 ,the vestments of the figure were then lifted over its head1 and the body was seen full of similar wheels4 ,there is a little door in its thigh1 which is likewise opened3 and with this1 and the table also open1 and the figure uncovered1 the whole is wheeled about the room4 ,the doors are then shut1 and the automaton is ready to play2 but it always takes the first move4 ,at every motion the wheels are heard2 the image moves its head1 and looks over every part of the chess-board4 ,when it checks the queen1 it shakes its head twice2 and thrice in giving check to the king4 ,it likewise shakes its head when a false move is made1 replaces the piece1 and makes its own move1 by which means the adversary loses one4 ,m4 de ,kempelin exhibited his automaton at ,petersburg1 ,vienna1 ,paris1 and ,london1 before thousands1 many of whom were mathematicians1 and chess players1 and yet the secret by which he governed the motion of its arm was never discovered4 ,he valued himself upon the construction of a mechanism1 by which the arm could perform ten or twelve moves4 ,it then needed to be wound up like a watch1 after which it was capable of continuing the same number of motions4 ,this automaton could not play unless ,m4 de ,kempelin1 or his assistant1 was near it to direct its movements4 ,a small square box was frequently consulted by the exhibiter during the game1 and in this consisted the secret1 which the inventor declared he could communicate in a moment4 ,any person who could beat ,m4 de ,kempelin at chess1 was sure of conquering the automaton4 ,,extraordinary ,,pieces ,,of ,,clock-,,work4--,amongst the modern clocks1 those at ,strasburg and ,lyons are very eminent for the richness and variety of their furniture1 and for their motions and figures4 ,in the former1 a cock claps his wings1 and proclaims the hour1 and an angel opens a door1 and salutes the ,virgin2 while the ,holy ,spirit descends on her1 c4 ,in the latter1 two horsemen encounter1 and beat the hour on each other2 a door opens1 and there appears on the theatre the ,virgin1 with ,jesus ,christ in her arms2 the ,magi1 with their retinue1 marching in order1 and presenting their gifts2 two trumpeters sounding all the while to proclaim the procession4 ,these1 however1 are excelled by two which were lately made by ,english artists1 and sent as a present from the ,east ,india ,company to the ,emperor of ,china4 ,these clocks are in the form of chariots1 in which are placed1 in a fine attitude1 a lady1 leaning her right hand upon a part of the chariot1 under which is a clock of curious workmanship1 little larger than a shilling1 that strikes and repeats1 and goes eight days4 ,upon her finger sits a bird finely modelled1 and set with diamonds and rubies1 with its wings expanded in a flying posture1 and it actually flutters for a considerable time on touching a diamond button below it2 the body of the bird 7which contains part of the wheels that in a manner give life to it7 is not the bigness of the #afth part of an inch4 ,the lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much thicker than a large pin1 on the top of which is a small round box1 to which a circular ornament1 set with diamonds not larger than a sixpence1 is fixed1 which goes round nearly three hours in a constant regular motion4 ,over the lady's head1 supported by a small fluted pillar not bigger than a quill1 are two umbrellas1 under the largest of which a bell is fixed1 at a considerable distance from the clock1 and seems to have no connection with it2 but from which a communication is secretly conveyed to a hammer that regularly strikes the hour1 and repeats the same to the clock below4 ,at the feet of the lady is a golden dog2 before which1 from the point of the chariot1 are two birds fixed on spiral springs1 the wings and feathers of which are set with stones of various colours1 and appear as if flying away with the chariot1 which1 from another secret motion1 is continued to run in a straight1 circular1 or any other direction2 while a boy that lays hold of the chariot behind1 seems also to push it forward4 ,above the umbrella are flowers and ornaments of precious stones2 and it terminates with a flying dragon set in the same manner4 ,the whole is of gold1 most curiously executed1 and embellished with rubies and pearls4 ,,heidelberg ,,clock4--,at ,heidelberg1 in ,germany1 upon the town-house1 was a clock with divers motions2 and when the clock struck1 the figure of an old man pulled off his hat1 a cock crowed1 and clapped his wings1 soldiers fought with one another1 c43 but this curious piece of workmanship1 with the castle and town1 were burnt by the ,french1 who committed at the same time the most inhuman barbarities upon the people1 when they took those garrisons1 in the year #afic4 ,,strasburg ,,clock4--,at ,strasburg1 there is a clock1 of all others the most famous1 invented by ,conradus ,dasipodius1 in the year #aegc4 ,before the clock stands a globe on the ground1 shewing the motions of the heavenly bodies4 ,the heavens are carried about by the first mover1 in twenty-four hours2 ,saturn1 by his proper motion1 is carried about in thirty years2 ,jupiter in twelve1 ,mars in two1 the ,sun1 ,mercury1 and ,venus1 in one year2 and the ,moon in one month4 ,in the clock itself there are two tables on the right and left hand1 shewing the eclipses of the ,sun and ,moon from the year #aegc1 to the year #afbd4 ,the third table in the middle is divided into three parts4 ,in the first part1 the statue of ,apollo and ,diana shews the course of the year1 and the day thereof1 being carried about in one year2 the second part shews the year of our ,lord1 and the equinoctial days1 the hours of each day1 the minutes of each hour1 ,easter-day1 and all other feasts1 and the ,dominical ,letter4 ,the third part has the geographical description of all ,germany1 and particularly of ,strasburg1 with the names of the inventor1 and of all the workmen4 ,in the middle frame of the clock is an astrolabe1 shewing the sign in which each planet is every day1 and there are the statues of the seven planets1 upon a round piece of iron1 lying flat2 so that every day the statue of the planet that rules the day comes forth1 the rest being hid within the frames1 till they come out by course at their day1 as the sun upon ,sunday1 and so for all the week4 ,and there is also a terrestrial globe1 which shews the quarter1 the half hour1 and the minutes4 ,there is also the skull of a dead man1 and statues of two boys1 one of whom turns the hour-glass when the clock has struck1 the other puts forth the rod in his hand at each stroke of the clock4 ,moreover1 there are the statues of the ,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn1 and ,winter1 and many observations of the moon4 ,in the upper part of the clock are four old men's statues1 which strike the quarters of the hour2 the statue of ,death comes out at each quarter to strike1 but is driven back by the statue of ,christ1 with a spear in his hand1 for three-quarters2 but in the fourth quarter1 that of ,christ goes back1 and that of ,death strikes the hour1 with a bone in his hand1 and then the chimes sound4 ,on the top of the clock is an image of a cock1 which twice in the day cries aloud1 and claps his wings4 ,besides1 this clock is decked with many rare pictures3 and being on the inside of the church1 carries another frame to the outside of the wall1 wherein the hours of the sun1 the courses of the moon1 the length of the day1 and such other things1 are set out with great art4 ,,clepsydra--is a water-clock1 or instrument to measure time by the fall of a certain quantity of water1 and is constructed on the following principles4--,suppose a cylindrical vessel1 whose charge of water flows out in twelve hours1 were required to be divided into parts1 to be discharged each hour4 #a4 ,as the part of time is to the whole time1 ,twelve1 so is the same time ,twelve to a fourth proportional ,hundred-and-forty-four4 ,divide the altitude of the vessel into one hundred and forty-four equal parts3 here the last will fall to the last hour2 the three next above1 to the last part but one2 the five next1 to the tenth hour2 lastly1 the twenty-three last to the first hour4 ,for since the times increase in the series of the natural numbers #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 c4 and the altitudes1 if the numeration be in a retrograde order from the twelfth hour1 increase in the series of the unequal numbers #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 c4 the altitudes computed from the twelfth hour will be as the squares of the times #a1 #d1 #i1 #af1 #be1 c4 ,therefore the squares of the whole time1 one hundred and forty-four1 comprehend all the parts of the altitude of the vessel to be emptied4 ,but a third proportional to #a and #ab1 is the square of twelve1 and consequently it is the number of equal parts in which the altitude is to be distributed1 according to the series of the unequal numbers1 through the equal interval of hours4 ,there were many kinds of clepsydr among the ancients2 but they all had this in common1 that the water ran generally through a narrow passage1 from one vessel to another1 and in the lower was a piece of cork1 or light wood1 which1 as the vessel filled1 rose up by degrees1 and shewed the hour4 ,we shall in the next place make a few remarks on the ,,invention ,,of ,,watches4--,the invention of spring or pocket watches belongs to the #agth century4 ,it is true1 we find mention made of a watch presented to ,charles ,v4 in the history of that prince3 but this1 in all probability1 was no more than a kind of clock to be set on a table1 some resemblance whereof we have still remaining in the ancient pieces made before the year #afgj4 ,there was also a story of a watch having been discovered in ,scotland1 belonging to ,king ,robert ,bruce2 but this we believe has turned out altogether erroneous4 ,the glory of this very useful invention lies between ,dr4 ,hooke and ,m4 ,huygens2 but to which of them it properly belongs1 has been greatly disputed2 the ,english ascribing it to the former1 and the ,french1 ,dutch1 c4 to the latter4 ,mr4 ,derham1 in his ,artificial ,clockmaker1 says1 roundly1 that ,dr4 ,hooke was the inventor2 and adds1 that he contrived various ways of regulation4 ,one way was1 with a loadstone2 another with a tender straight spring1 one end whereof played backwards and forwards with the balance1 so that the balance was to the spring as the bob to a pendulum1 and the spring as the rod thereof4 ,a third method was1 with two balances1 of which there were divers sorts2 some having a spiral spring to the balance for a regulator1 and others not4 ,but the way that prevailed1 and which still continues to prevail1 was1 with one balance1 and one spring running round the upper part of the verge2 though this has a disadvantage1 from which those with two springs1 c4 were free1 since a sudden jerk1 or confused shake1 will alter its vibrations1 and disturb its motion4 ,the time of these inventions was about the year #afeh2 as appears1 among other evidences1 from an inscription on one of the double-balance watches presented to ,king ,charles ,,ii4 viz4 ,rob4 ,hooke inven4 #afeh4 ,t4 ,tompion fecit1 #afge4 ,the invention presently got into reputation1 both at home and abroad3 and two of them were sent for by the dauphin of ,france4 ,soon after this1 ,m4 ,huygens' watch with a spiral spring got abroad1 and made a great noise in ,england1 as if the longitude could be found by it4 ,it is certain1 however1 that his invention was later than the year #afgc1 when his book ,de ,horol4 ,oscillat4 was published2 wherein he has not one word of this1 though he has of several other contrivances in the same way4 ,one of these the ,lord ,brouncker sent for out of ,france1 where ,m4 ,huygens had got a patent for them4 ,this watch agreed with ,dr4 ,hooke's1 in the application of the spring to the balance2 only ,m4 ,huygens' had a long spiral spring1 and the pulses and beats were much slower4 ,the balance1 instead of turning quite round1 as ,dr4 ,hooke's1 turns several rounds every vibration4 ,mr4 ,derham suggests1 that he has reason to think ,m4 ,huygens' fancy was first set to work by some intelligence he might have of ,dr4 ,hooke's invention from ,mr4 ,oldensworth1 or some other of his correspondents in ,england2 and this1 notwithstanding ,mr4 ,oldensworth's attempt to vindicate himself in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 appears to be the truth4 ,huygens invented divers other kinds of watches1 some of them without any string or chain at all2 which he called particularly1 pendulum watches4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxiii4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,arts4--7,continued47 ,telegraph--,spectacle of a ,sea ,fight at ,rome--,wooden ,eagle2 and ,iron ,fly--,whitehead's ,ship--,scaliot's ,lock1 c4--,praxiteles' ,venus--,weaving ,engine--,hydraulic ,birds--,herschell's ,grand ,telescope--,boverick's ,curiosities--,bunzlau ,curiosities--,artificial ,flying4 ,,telegraph4--,this is a word derived from the ,greek1 and which is very properly given to an instrument1 by means of which information may be almost instantaneously conveyed to a considerable distance4 ,the telegraph1 though it has been generally known and used by the moderns only for a few years1 is by no means a modern invention4 ,there is reason to believe1 that amongst the ,greeks there was some sort of telegraph in use4 ,the burning of ,troy was certainly known in ,greece very soon after it happened1 and before any person had returned from thence4 ,now that was altogether so tedious a piece of business1 that conjecture never could have supplied the place of information4 ,a ,greek play begins with a scene1 in which a watchman descends from the top of a tower in ,greece1 and gives the information that ,troy was taken4 ,i have been looking out these ten years 7says he7 to see when that would happen1 and this night it is done4 ,of the antiquity of a mode of conveying intelligence quickly to a great distance1 this is certainly a proof4 ,the ,chinese1 when they send couriers on the great canal1 or when any great man travels there1 make signals by fire1 from one day's journey to another1 to have every thing prepared2 and most of the barbarous nations used formerly to give the alarm of war by fires lighted on the hills1 or rising grounds4 ,it does not appear that the moderns had thought of such a machine as a telegraph1 till the year #affc1 when the ,marquis of ,worcester1 in his ,century of ,inventions1 affirmed1 that he had discovered a method by which1 at a window1 as far as eye can discover black from white1 a man may hold discourse with his correspondent1 without noise made1 or notice taken1 being1 according to occasion given1 or means afforded1 ex re nata1 and no need of provision beforehand2 though much better if foreseen1 and course taken by mutual consent of parties4 ,this could be done only by means of a telegraph1 which1 in the next sentence1 is declared to have been rendered so perfect1 that by means of it the correspondence could be carried on by night as well as by day1 though as dark as pitch is black4 ,about forty years afterwards1 ,m4 ,amontons proposed a new telegraph4 ,his method was this3--,let there be people placed in several stations1 at such a distance from one another1 that1 by the help of a telescope1 a man in one station may see a signal made in the next before him2 he must immediately make the same signal1 that it may be seen by persons in the station next after him1 who are to communicate it to those in the following station1 and so on4 ,these signals may be as letters of the alphabet1 or as a cipher1 understood only by the two persons who are in the distant places1 and not by those who make the signals4 ,the person in the second station making the signal to the person in the third1 the very moment he sees it in the first2 the news may be carried to the greatest distance in as little time as is necessary to make the signals in the first station4 ,the distance of the several stations1 which must be as few as possible1 is measured by the reach of a telescope4 ,amontons tried this method in a small tract of land1 before several persons of the highest rank at the court of ,france4 ,it was not1 however1 till the ,french revolution1 that the telegraph was applied to useful purposes4 ,whether ,m4 ,chappe1 who is said to have invented the telegraph first used by the ,french about the end of #agic1 knew any thing of ,amonton's invention or not1 it is impossible to say2 but his telegraph was constructed on principles nearly similar4 ,the manner of using this telegraph was as follows3--,at the first station1 which was on the roof of the palace of ,louvre1 at ,paris1 ,m4 ,chappe1 the inventor1 received in writing from the ,committee of ,public ,welfare1 the words to be sent to ,lisle1 near which the ,french army at that time was4 ,an upright post was erected on the ,louvre1 at the top of which were two transverse arms1 moveable in all directions by a single piece of mechanism1 and with inconceivable rapidity4 ,he invented a number of positions for these arms1 which stood as signs for the letters of the alphabet2 and these1 for the greater celerity and simplicity1 he reduced in number as much as possible4 ,the grammarian will easily conceive that sixteen signs may amply supply all the letters of the alphabet1 since some letters may be omitted1 not only without detriment1 but with advantage4 ,these signs1 as they were arbitrary1 could be changed every week2 so that the sign of ,b for one day1 might be the sign of ,m the next2 and it was only necessary that the persons at the extremities should know the key4 ,the intermediate operators were only instructed generally in these sixteen signals2 which were so distinct1 so marked1 so different the one from the other1 that they were remembered with the greatest ease4 ,the construction of the machine was such1 that each signal was uniformly given in precisely the same manner at all times3 it did not depend on the operator's manual skill2 and the position of the arm could never1 for any one signal1 be a degree higher or a degree lower1 its movement being regulated mechanically4 ,m4 ,chappe having received1 at the ,louvre1 the sentence to be conveyed1 gave a known signal to the second station 7which was ,mont ,martre7 to prepare4 ,at each station there was a watch-tower1 where telescopes were fixed1 and the person on watch gave the signal of preparation which he had received1 and this communicated successively through all the line1 which brought them all into a state of readiness4 ,the person at ,mont ,martre then received1 letter by letter1 the sentence from the ,louvre1 which he repeated with his own machine2 and this was again repeated from the next height1 with inconceivable rapidity1 to the final station at ,lisle4 ,various experiments were in consequence tried upon telegraphs in this country2 and one was soon after set up by government1 in a chain of stations from the admiralty-office to the sea-coast4 ,it consists of six octagon boards1 each of which is poised upon an axis in a frame1 in such a manner that it can be either placed vertically1 so as to appear with its full size to the observer at the nearest station1 or it becomes invisible to him by being placed horizontally1 or with only the narrow edge exposed4 ,these six boards make thirty-six changes1 by the most plain and simple mode of working2 and they will make many more1 if more were necessary4 ,we submit to the reader the following account of a ,,spectacle ,,of ,a ,,sea ,,fight ,,at ,,rome4--,augustus1 to divert his mind from fixing on his domestic misfortunes1 exhibited the most magnificent and expensive shows that had ever been seen at ,rome4 ,chariot-races in the circus1 representations on the stage1 combats by gladiators1 c4 were now become common4 ,augustus1 therefore1 the better to divert both himself and the people1 revived these sports1 which had been for a considerable time laid aside1 on account of the extraordinary charges that attended them4 ,he caused a canal to be dug1 eighteen hundred paces in length1 and two hundred in breadth1 conveying into it the ,flaminian waters1 and building scaffolds quite round it1 capable of holding a prodigious multitude of spectators4 ,and indeed the concourse of people was so great1 that the emperor was obliged to place guards in all quarters of the city1 lest the thieves should lay hold of that opportunity to plunder the empty and abandoned houses4 ,augustus had frequently entertained the people with fights of lions1 tigers1 elephants1 rhinoceroses1 c4 but now the new canal appeared all on a sudden covered with crocodiles1 of which thirty-six were killed by ,egyptians1 brought from the banks of the ,nile for that purpose4 ,the multitude were highly delighted by this sight1 which was quite new2 but the sea-fight which ensued1 afforded them still greater diversion3 for1 at the opposite ends of the lake1 or canal1 two fleets appeared1 the galleys of one being built after the ,greek1 and those of the other after the ,persian manner4 ,both fleets engaged2 and1 as they fought in good earnest1 most of the combatants being persons sentenced to death1 the battle proved very bloody4 ,a ,,wooden ,,eagle1 ,,and ,,an ,,iron ,,fly4--,petrus ,ramus tells us of a ,wooden ,eagle and an ,iron ,fly1 made by ,regiomontanus1 a famous mathematician at ,nuremberg3 whereof the first flew forth out of the city1 aloft in the air1 met the ,emperor ,maximilian a good way off1 coming towards it2 and1 having saluted him1 returned again1 waiting on him at the city gates4 ,the second1 at a feast1 whereto the ,emperor had invited his familiar friends1 flew forth from his hand1 and1 taking a round1 returned thither again1 to the great astonishment of the beholders3 both which1 the excellent pen of the noble ,du ,bartas has expressed in the following lines3 ,why should ,i not that ,wooden ,eagle mention1 ,a learned ,german's late admir'd invention1 ,which1 mounting from his fist that fram'd her1 ,flew far to meet the ,german ,emperor8 ,and1 having met him1 with her nimble train ,and pliant wings turning about again1 ,follow'd him close unto the castle gate ,of ,nuremberg2 whom all their shows of state1 ,streets hung with arras1 arches curious built1 ,grey-headed senate1 and youth's gallantries1 ,grac'd not so much as only this device4 ,he goes on1 and thus describes the ,fly3 ,once1 as this artist1 more with mirth than meat2 ,feasted some friends whom he esteemed great1 ,forth from his hand an ,iron ,fly flew out2 ,which having flown a perfect round about1 ,with weary wings returned to his master1 ,and as judicious on his arm he plac'd her4 ,oh6 wit divine1 that in the narrow womb ,of a small ,fly could find sufficient room ,for all those springs1 wheels1 counterpoise1 and chains1 ,which stood instead of life1 and blood1 and veins4 ,,whitehead',s ,,ship4--,george ,whitehead1 an ,englishman1 made a ship1 with all her tackling1 to move itself on a table1 with rowers plying the oars1 a woman playing on the lute1 and a little whelp crying on the deck1--says ,scottus1 in his ,itinerary4 ,,scaliot',s ,,lock1 c4--,in the twentieth year of ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,mark ,scaliot1 a blacksmith1 made a lock1 consisting of eleven pieces of iron1 steel1 and brass1 all which1 together with a pipe-key to it1 weighed but one grain of gold3 he made also a chain of gold1 consisting of forty-three links1 whereunto having fastened the lock and key before mentioned1 he put the chain about a flea's neck1 which drew them all with ease4 ,all these together1 lock and key1 chain and flea1 being weighed1 the weight of them was but one grain and a half4 ,,praxiteles' ,,venus4--,praxiteles1 who was an ingenious worker in imagery1 made a statue of ,venus for the ,cnidians1 so much resembling life1 that a certain young man became enamoured of it to such a degree1 that the excess of his love deprived him of his senses4 ,this piece of art was so eagerly coveted by king ,nicomedes1 that1 though the ,cnidians owed him an immense sum of money1 he offered to take the statue in full satisfaction for his debt2 but was refused4 ,the next subject is a curious ,,weaving ,,engine4--,at ,dantzic in ,poland1 there was set up a rare invention for weaving four or five webs at a time1 without any human help4 ,it was an engine that moved of itself1 and would work night and day4 ,this invention was suppressed1 because it would have ruined the poor people of the town2 and the artificer was secretly destroyed1 as ,lancelotti1 the ,italian abbot1 relates from the mouth of ,m4 ,muller1 a ,pole1 who had seen the device4 ,,hydraulic ,,birds4--,at ,tibur1 in ,tivoli1 near ,rome1 in the gardens of ,hippolitus d',este1 ,cardinal of ,ferrara1 there are the representations of sundry birds sitting on the tops of trees1 which1 by hydraulic art1 and secret conveyances of water through the trunks and branches of the trees1 are made to sing and clap their wings2 but at the sudden appearance of an owl out of a bush of the same artifice1 they immediately become all mute and silent4 ,it was the work of ,claudius ,gallus1 as ,possivenus informs us4 ,,herschell',s ,,grand ,,telescope4--,the tube of this telescope is thirty-nine feet four inches in length1 and four feet ten inches in diameter1 every part being made of iron4 ,it stands in the open air1 appears to be considerably elevated1 and is encircled with a complicated scaffolding1 by which its steadiness is secured4 ,the concave face of its speculum is forty-eight inches of polished surface in diameter1 and it weighs nearly two thousand one hundred and eighteen pounds6 ,with proper eye-glasses it magnifies above six thousand times3 it is the largest instrument1 and has the greatest magnifying power1 of any that has been made4 ,by its aid1 ,dr4 ,herschell has been able to observe the lightning in the atmosphere of the moon1 and has found out several celestial bodies1 unknown to preceding astronomers4 ,the whole was finished on ,august the #bhth1 #aghi1 on which day the sixth satellite of ,saturn was discovered4 ,the observer1 suspended at the end of the instrument1 with his back towards the object he views1 looks down the tube1 and sees the image reflected from the mirror2 whilst a man below turns gently round the instrument1 to accord with the apparent rotatory motion of the heavens1 thus preserving the image of the object on the mirror with stability4 ,,boverick',s ,,curiosities4--,mr4 ,baker1 in his ,treatise on the ,microscope1 says1 ,i myself have seen1 near ,durham ,yard1 in the ,strand1 and have examined with my microscope1 a chaise1 7made by one ,mr4 ,boverick1 a watch-maker17 having four wheels1 with all the proper apparatus belonging to them1 turning readily on their axles1 together with a man sitting in the chaise1 all formed of ivory1 and drawn along by a flea1 without any seeming difficulty4 ,i weighed it with the greatest care ,i was able2 and found the chaise1 man1 and flea1 were barely equal to a single grain4 ,i weighed also1 at the same time and place1 a brass chain made by the same hand1 about two inches long1 containing two hundred links1 with a hook at one end1 and a padlock and key at the other2 and found it less than the third part of a grain4 ,i have seen 7made by the same artist7 a quadrille table with a drawer in it1 an eating-table1 a sideboard table1 a looking-glass1 twelve chairs1 with skeleton backs1 two dozen of plates1 six dishes1 a dozen knives1 and as many forks1 twelve spoons1 two salts1 a frame and castors1 together with a gentleman1 lady1 and footman1 all contained in a cherry-stone1 and not filling much more than half of it4 ,,bunzlau ,,curiosities4--,mr4 ,adams1 in his ,letters on ,silesia1 gives the following account of two ingenious mechanics he met with at ,bunzlau4 ,their names were ,jacob1 and ,huttig2 the one was a carpenter1 the other a weaver1 and they were next-door neighbours to each other4 ,the first 7says ,mr4 ,adams7 has made a machine1 in which1 by the means of certain clock-work1 a number of puppets1 about six inches high1 are made to move upon a kind of stage1 so as to represent in several successive scenes the passion of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the first exhibits him in the garden at prayer1 while the three apostles are sleeping at a distance4 ,in the last1 he is shewn dead in the sepulchre1 guarded by two ,roman soldiers4 ,the intervening scenes represent the treachery of ,judas1 the examination of ,jesus before ,caiaphas1 the dialogue between ,pilate and the ,jews concerning him1 the denial of ,peter1 the scourging1 and the crucifixion4 ,it is all accompanied by a mournful dirge of music2 and the maker1 by way of explanation1 repeats the passages of ,scripture which relate the events he has undertaken to shew4 ,i never saw a stronger proof of the strength of the impression of objects1 which are brought immediately home to the senses4 ,i have heard and read more than one eloquent sermon upon the passion2 but ,i confess1 none of their most laboured efforts at the pathetic ever touched my heart with one-half the force of this puppet-show4 ,the traitor's kiss1 the blow struck by the high-priest's servant1 the scourging1 the nailing to the cross1 the sponge of vinegar1 every indignity offered1 and every pain inflicted1 occasioned a sensation1 when thus made perceptible to the eye1 which ,i had never felt at mere description4 ,hultig1 the weaver1 with an equal1 or superior mechanical genius1 has applied it in a different manner1 and devoted it to geographical1 astronomical1 and historical pursuits4 ,in the intervals of his leisure from the common weaver's work1 which affords him subsistence1 he has become a very learned man4 ,the walls of his rooms are covered with maps and drawings of his own1 representing1 here the course of the ,oder1 with all the towns and villages through which it runs2 there1 the mountains of ,switzerland1 and those of ,silesia1 over both of which he has travelled in person4 ,in one room he has two very large tables1 one raised above the other3 on one of them he has ranged all the towns and remarkable places of ,germany2 and on the other1 of all ,europe3 they are placed according to their respective geographical bearings4 ,the names of the towns are written on a small square piece of paper1 and fixed in a slit on the top of a peg1 which is stuck into the table4 ,the remarkable mountains are shewn by some pyramidical black stones2 and little white pyramids are stationed at all the spots which have been distinguished by any great battle1 or other remarkable incident4 ,the man himself1 in explaining his work1 shews abundance of learning1 relative to the ancient names of places1 and the former inhabitants of the countries to which he points2 and amused us with anecdotes of various kinds1 connected with the lands he has marked out4 ,thus1 in shewing us the ,alps1 he pointed to the very spot over which the ,french army of reserve so lately passed1 and where ,buonaparte so fortunately escaped being taken by an ,austrian officer2 and then he gave us a short comment of his own1 upon the character and extraordinary good fortune of the ,first ,consul4 ,in a second room he has a large machine1 representing the ,copernican system of the universe3 it is made in such a manner1 that the whole firmament of fixed stars moves round our solar system once in every twenty-four hours1 and thus always exhibits the stars1 in the exact position1 relative to our earth1 in which they really stand4 ,internally1 he has stationed all the planets which belong to our system1 with their several satellites1 and all the comets that have been observed during the last three centuries4 ,in a third room he has another machine1 exhibiting in different parts the various phases of the moon1 and those of ,jupiter's satellites1 the apparent motion of the sun round the earth1 and the real motion of the earth round the sun4 ,in his garret he has another work1 upon which he is yet occupied1 and which1 being his last labour1 seems to be that in which he takes the most delight4 ,upon a very large table1 similar to that in the first room1 he has inlaid a number of thin plates of wood1 formed so as to represent a projection of the earth under ,mercator's plan4 ,all the intervals between the plates of wood designate that portion of the world which is covered with water4 ,he has used a number of very small ropes of two colours1 drawn over the surface in such a manner as to describe the tracks of all the celebrated circumnavigators of the globe4 ,the colours of the ropes distinguish the several voyages which claim especial pre-eminence above the rest4 ,to ,columbus1 ,anson1 and ,cook1 he has shewn a special honour by three little models of ships bearing their names1 which are placed upon the surface of his ocean1 in some spot of their respective courses4 ,the names of all the other voyagers1 and the times at which their voyages were performed1 are marked by papers fixed at the points of their departure4 ,such is the imperfect description ,i can give you1 from a short view of the labours of this really curious man4 ,he must be nearly1 or quite seventy years old1 and has all his lifetime been of an infirm constitution4 ,but this taste for the sciences1 he told us1 was hereditary in his family1 and had been common to them all1 from his great-grandfather down to himself4 ,his dress and appearance were those of a common weaver3 but his expressive countenance1 at once full of enthusiastic fire and of amiable good-nature1 was a model1 upon which ,lavater might expatiate with exultation4 ,the honest and ingenious weaver1 on our taking leave1 made us smile by exclaiming1 that now1 if he could but have a traveller from ,africa come to see his works1 he could boast of having had visitors from all the four quarters of the globe4 ,,artificial ,,flying4--,the art of flying has been attempted by several persons in all ages4 ,the ,leucadians1 out of superstition1 are reported to have had a custom of precipitating a man from a high cliff into the sea1 first fixing feathers1 variously expanded1 round his body1 in order to break his fall4 ,friar ,bacon1 who lived near five hundred years ago1 not only affirms the art of flying possible1 but assures us1 that he himself knew how to make an engine1 wherein a man1 sitting1 might be able to cenvey himself through the air1 like a bird2 and further adds1 that there was one who had then tried it with success3 but this method1 which consisted of a couple of large thin hollow copper globes1 exhausted of the air1 and sustaining a person who sat thereon1 ,dr4 ,hooke shews to be impracticable4 ,the philosophers of ,king ,charles the ,second's reign were mightily busied about this art4 ,bishop ,wilkins was so confident of success in it1 that he says1 he does not question but1 in future ages1 it will be as usual to hear a man call for his wings1 when he is going a journey1 as it is now to call for his boots4 ,the art of flying has in some measure been brought to bear in the construction and use of balloons4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxiv4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,the ,,arts4--7,concluded47 ,burning ,glasses--,ductility of ,glass--,remarkable ,ductility and ,extensibility of ,gold--,pin ,making--,needles--,shoes--,the ,great ,bell of ,moscow4 ,,burning ,,glasses4--,we have some extraordinary instances and surprising accounts of prodigious effects of burning-glasses4 ,those made of reflecting mirrors are more powerful than those made with lenses1 because the rays from a mirror are reflected all to one point nearly2 whereas by a lens1 they are refracted to different points1 and are therefore not so dense or ardent4 ,the whiter also the metal or substance is1 of which the mirror is made1 the stronger will be the effect4 ,the most remarkable burning-glasses1 or rather mirrors1 among the ancients1 were those of ,archimedes and ,proclus2 by the first of which the ,roman ships1 besieging ,syracuse1 7according to the testimony of several writers17 and by the other1 the navy of ,vitalian besieging ,byzantium1 were reduced to ashes4 ,among the moderns1 the burning mirrors of greatest eminence1 are those of ,vilette1 and ,tschirnhausen1 and the new complex one of ,m4 de ,buffon4 ,that of ,m4 de ,vilette was three feet eleven inches in diameter1 and its focal distance was three feet two inches4 ,its substance is a composition of tin1 copper1 and tin glass4 ,some of its effects1 as found by ,dr4 ,harris and ,dr4 ,desaguliers1 are1 that a silver sixpence melted in seven seconds and a half2 a king ,george's halfpenny melted in sixteen seconds1 and ran in thirty-four seconds2 tin melted in three seconds2 and a diamond weighing four grains1 lost seven-eighths of its weight4 ,that of ,m4 de ,buffon is a polyhedron1 six feet broad1 and as many high1 consisting of one hundred and sixty-eight small mirrors1 or flat pieces of looking-glass1 each six inches square2 by means of which1 with the faint rays of the sun in the month of ,march1 he set on fire boards of beechwood at one hundred and fifty feet distance4 ,besides1 his machine has the conveniency of burning downwards1 or horizontally1 at pleasure2 each speculum being moveable1 so as1 by the means of three screws1 to be set to a proper inclination for directing the rays towards any given point2 and it turns either in its greater focus1 or in any nearer interval1 which our common burning-glasses cannot do1 their focus being fixed and determined4 ,m4 de ,buffon1 at another time1 burnt wood at the distance of two hundred feet4 ,he also melted tin and lead at the distance of above one hundred and twenty feet1 and silver at fifty4 ,mr4 ,parker1 of ,fleet-street1 ,london1 was induced1 at an expense of upwards of #gjj1 to contrive1 and at length to complete1 a large transparent lens1 that would serve the purpose of fusing and vitrifying such substances as resist the fires of ordinary furnaces1 and more especially of applying heat in vacuo1 and in other circumstances in which it cannot be applied by any other means4 ,after directing his attention for several years to this object1 and performing a great variety of experiments in the prosecution of it1 he at last succeeded in the construction of a lens1 of flint-glass1 three feet in diameter1 which1 when fixed in its frame1 exposes a surface two feet eight inches and a half in the clear1 without any other material imperfection1 except a disfigurement of one of the edges by a piece of the scoria of the mould1 which unfortunately found its way into its substance4 ,this lens was double-convex1 both sides of which were a portion of a sphere of eighteen feet radius4 ,it is difficult to form an accurate estimate of the burning power of this lens2 inasmuch as it is next to impossible to discover what should be deducted for the loss of power1 in consequence of the impediments that the glass of which it was made must occasion1 as well as the four reflections1 and two more by way of diminution2 but we will endeavour to appreciate it1 after a full allowance for these deductions1 which must necessarily result from every means of concentrating the solar rays1 and must be considered as the friction of an engine1 of which nature they really partake4 ,the solar rays received on a circular surface of two feet eight inches and a half1 when concentrated within the diameter of an inch1 will be #aje1fbf times its intensity1 or this number of times greater than the heat of the sun as it is experienced on the surface of the earth4 ,we will suppose1 that as the heat of the air1 in ordinary summer weather1 is #fe degrees1 and in sultry weather is #ge degrees1 the average of which is #gj degrees1 and that we take this as the average effect1 the accumulated power of the lens1 on the supposition of an uniform heat over the whole surface of the focus1 will be equal to #gc1ich degrees4 ,it must be recollected1 by those who have an opportunity of examining the effects of this lens1 that the external part of the focal light was less intense than that part which was near the centre of it2 or rather1 that the effect was very much accumulated in the centre2 but as it is possible that the refraction of the light and of the caloric fluid may not take place in the same angles1 we think it safest to consider it as of uniform effect1 and alter deducting one fourth part thereof as a compensation1 there remains #eede as the expression of its power4 ,as the application of the second lens reduced the diameter of the focus to half an inch1 the effect1 without allowing for the reduction of its power1 would be equal to #bba1haf degrees2 but deducting one-fourth for the second transmission1 there remains #aff1cfb degrees1 as the expression of its power4 ,mr4 ,parker further informs us1 that a diamond1 weighing ten grains1 exposed to this lens for thirty minutes1 was reduced to six grains2 during which operation it opened and foliated like the leaves of a flower1 which emitted whitish fumes1 and when closed again1 bore a polish1 and retained its form4 ,gold remained in its metallic state without apparent diminution1 notwithstanding an exposure at intervals of many hours3 but what is remarkable1 the rest1 or cupel1 which was composed of bone-ash1 was tinctured with a beautiful pink colour4 ,the experiments on platina evince that the specimens were in different states of approach to a complete metallic form2 several of them threw off their parts in sparks1 which in most instances were metallic4 ,copper1 after three minutes' exposure1 was not found to have lost in weight4 ,what is remarkable with regard to experiments on iron1 is1 that the lower part1 i4 e4 that part in contact with the charcoal1 was first melted1 when that part which was exposed to the focus remained unfused2 an evidence of the effect of flux on this metal4 ,several of the semi-crystalline substances1 exposed to the focal heat1 exhibited symptoms of fusion2 such as the agate1 oriental flint1 cornelian1 and jasper3 but as the probability is1 that these substances were not capable of complete vitrification1 it is enough that they were rendered externally of a glassy form4 ,garnet completely fused on black lead in #abj seconds1 lost a quarter of a grain1 became darker in colour1 and was attracted by the magnet4 ,ten cut garnets taken from a bracelet began to run the one into the other in a few seconds1 and at last formed into one globular garnet4 ,the clay used by ,mr4 ,wedgwood to make his pyrometric test1 run in a few seconds into a white enamel4 ,seven other kinds of clay1 sent by ,mr4 ,wedgwood1 were all vitrified4 ,several experiments were made on limestone1 some of which were vitrified1 but all of which were agglutinated2 it is1 however1 suspected that some extraneous substance must have been intermixed4 ,a globule produced from one of the specimens1 on being put into the mouth1 flew into a thousand pieces1 occasioned1 it is presumed1 by the moisture4 ,a subscription was proposed for raising the sum of seven hundred guineas1 towards indemnifying the charges of the inventor1 and retaining the very curious and useful machine above described in our own country2 but from the failure or the subscription1 and some other concurring circumstances1 ,mr4 ,parker was induced to dispose of it to ,capt4 ,mackintosh1 who accompanied ,lord ,macartney in the embassy to ,china3 and it was left1 much to the regret of philosophers in ,europe1 at ,pekin2 where it remains in the hands of persons1 who most probably know neither its value nor use4 ,,ductility ,,of ,,glass4--,we all know1 that when glass is well penetrated with the heat of the fire1 the workmen can figure and manage it like soft wax2 but1 what is most remarkable1 it may be drawn1 or spun out1 into threads exceedingly long and fine4 ,our ordinary spinners do not form their threads of silk1 flax1 or the like1 with half the ease and expedition the glass-spinners do threads of this brittle matter4 ,we have some of them used in plumes for children's heads1 and divers other works1 much finer than any hair1 and which bend and wave1 like hair1 with every wind4 ,nothing is more simple and easy than the method of making them4 ,there are two workmen employed3 the first holds one end of a piece of glass over the flame of a lamp2 and when the heat has softened it1 a second operator applies a glass hook to the metal thus in fusion1 and1 withdrawing the hook again1 it brings with it a thread of glass1 which still adheres to the mass2 then1 fitting his hook on the circumference of a wheel about two feet and a half in diameter1 he turns the wheel as fast as he pleases1 which1 drawing out the thread1 winds it on its run1 till1 after a certain number of revolutions1 it is covered with a skein of glass-thread4 ,the mass in fusion over the lamp diminishes insensibly1 being wound out like a clue of silk upon the wheel2 and the parts cooling as they recede from the flame1 become more coherent to those next to them1 and this by many degrees3 the parts nearest the fire are always the least coherent1 and1 of consequence1 must give way to the effort the rest make to draw them towards the wheel4 ,the circumference of these threads is usually a flat oval1 being three or four times as broad as thick3 some of them seem scarcely bigger than the thread of a silkworm1 and are surprisingly flexible4 ,if the two ends of such threads are knotted together1 they may be drawn and bent1 till the aperture1 or space in the middle of the knot1 does not exceed one-fourth of a line1 or one forty-eighth of an inch in diameter4 ,hence ,m4 ,reaumur maintains1 that the flexibility of glass increases in proportion to the fineness of the threads2 and that1 probably1 had we but the art of drawing threads as fine as a spider's web1 we might weave stuffs and cloths of them for wear4 ,accordingly1 he made some experiments this way2 and found that he could make threads fine enough1 viz4 as fine1 in his judgment1 as spider's thread1 but not long enough for the purposes of any manufacture4 ,,remarkable ,,ductility ,,and ,,extensibility ,,of ,,gold4--,gold is the most ductile1 as well as the most malleable1 of all metals4 ,according to ,cronstedt1 one grain of it may be stretched out so as to cover #ih ,swedish ells1 equal to #fc4ff ,english yards of silver wire2 but ,wallerius asserts1 that a grain may be stretched out in such a manner1 as to cover #ejj ells of wire4 ,at any rate1 the extension is prodigious2 for1 according to the least of the calculations1 the millionth part of a grain of gold may be made visible to the naked eye4 ,nor is its malleability inferior to its ductility4 ,boyle1 quoted by ,apligny1 in his treatise on ,colours1 says1 that one grain and a half of gold may be beaten into #ej leaves of an inch square1 which1 if intersected by parallel lines drawn at right angles to each other1 and distant only the hundredth part of an inch from each other1 will produce twenty-five millions of little squares1 each very easily discernible by the naked eye4 ,mr4 ,magellan tells us1 that its surface may be extended by the hammer #aei1jib times4 ,i am informed1 7says he7 by an intelligent goldbeater in ,england1 that the finest gold leaf is that made in new skins1 and must have an alloy of three grains of copper to the ounce of pure gold1 or else it would be too soft to pass over the irregularities of the skins4 ,he affirms1 that #hj books1 or #bjjj leaves of gold1 each leaf containing #aj4hi square inches1 weigh less than #chd grains4 ,each book1 therefore1 of #be leaves1 or #bgb4be inches1 weighs less than #d4h grains2 so that each grain of the metal will produce about #eg square inches of gold leaf4 ,from further calculation it appears1 that the thickness of these leaves is less than the #bhb1jjjth part of an inch2 and that #af ounces of gold would be sufficient to gild a silver wire1 equal in length to the whole circumference of the globe we inhabit6 ,,pin-,,making4--,though pins are apparently simple1 their manufacture is not a little curious and complex4 ,when the brass wire1 of which the pins are formed1 is first received at the manufactory1 it is generally too thick for the purpose of being cut into pins4 ,the first operation1 therefore1 is that of winding it off from one wheel to another with great velocity1 and causing it to pass between the two1 through a circle in a piece of iron of smaller diameter4 ,the wire being thus reduced to its proper dimensions1 is straightened by drawing it between iron pins1 fixed in a board in a zigzag manner1 but so as to leave a straight line between them3 afterwards it is cut into lengths of three or four yards1 and then into smaller ones1 every length being sufficient to make six pins4 ,each end of these is ground to a point1 which was performed1 7where these observations were made17 by boys1 who sat each with two small grinding-stones before him1 turned by a wheel4 ,taking up a handful1 he applied the ends to the coarsest of the two stones1 being careful at the same time to keep each piece moving round between his fingers1 so that the points may not become flat3 he then gives them a smoother and sharper point by applying them to the other stone1 and by that means a lad of twelve or fourteen years of age1 is able to point about sixteen thousand pins in an hour4 ,when the wire is thus pointed1 a pin is taken off at each end1 and this is repeated till it is cut into six pieces4 ,the next operation is1 that of forming the heads1 or1 as they term it1 head-spinning1 which is done by means of a spinning-wheel1 one piece of wire being thus with astonishing rapidity wound round another1 and the interior one being drawn out1 leaves a hollow tube between the circumvolutions3 it is then cut with shears1 every two circumvolutions1 or turns of the wire1 forming one head2 these are softened by throwing them into iron pans1 and placing them in a furnace till they are red hot4 ,as soon as they are cold1 they are distributed to children1 who sit with hammers and anvils before them1 and catching one at the extremity1 they apply them immediately to the anvil and hammer1 and by a motion or two of the foot1 the top and the head are fixed together in much less time than it can be described1 and with a dexterity only to be acquired by practice4 ,the pin is now finished as to its form1 but still it is merely brass2 it is therefore thrown into a copper containing a solution of tin and the lees of wine4 ,here it remains for some time1 and1 when taken out1 assumes a white1 though dull appearance3 in order therefore to give it a polish1 it is put into a tub containing a quantity of bran1 which is set in motion by turning a shaft that runs through its centre1 and thus1 by means of friction1 it becomes perfectly bright4 ,the pin being complete1 nothing remains but to separate it from the bran1 which is perfectly similar to the winnowing of corn1 the bran flying off1 and leaving the pin behind it for immediate sale4 ,we must not forget to present to the reader some curious particulars respecting the manufacture of ,,needles4--,needles make a very considerable article in commerce1 though there is scarcely any commodity cheaper1 the consumption of them being almost incredible4 ,the sizes are from ,no4 #a1 the largest1 to ,no4 #be1 the smallest4 ,in the manufacture of needles1 ,german and ,hungarian steel are of most repute4 ,in the making of them1 the first thing is1 to pass the steel through a coal fire1 and under a hammer1 to bring it out of its square figure into a cylindrical one4 ,this done1 it is drawn through a large hole of a wire-drawing iron1 and returned into the fire1 and drawn through a second hole of the iron1 smaller than the first2 and thus successively from hole to hole1 till it has acquired the degree of fineness required for that species of needles2 observing1 every time it is to be drawn1 that it be greased over with lard1 to render it more manageable4 ,the steel1 thus reduced to a fine wire1 is cut in pieces of the length of the needles intended4 ,these pieces are flatted at one end on the anvil1 by force of a puncheon of well-tempered steel1 and laid on a leaden block to bring out1 with another puncheon1 the little piece of steel remaining in the eye4 ,the corners are then filed off the square of the heads1 and a little cavity filed on each side of the flat of the head2 this done1 the point is formed with a file1 and the whole filed over3 they are then laid to heat red-hot on a long narrow iron1 crooked at one end1 in a charcoal fire2 and when taken out thence1 are thrown into a bason of cold water to harden4 ,on this operation a good deal depends2 too much heat burns them1 and too little leaves them soft2 the medium is learned by experience4 ,when they are thus hardened1 they are laid in an iron shovel on a fire more or less brisk in proportion to the thickness of the needles2 taking care to move them from time to time4 ,this serves to temper them1 and take off their brittleness2 great care here too must be taken of the degree of heat4 ,they are then straightened one after another with the hammer1 the coldness of the water used in hardening them having twisted the greatest part of them4 ,the next process is the polishing of them4 ,to do this1 they take #ab1jjj or #ae1jjj needles1 and range them in little heaps against each other1 on a piece of new buckram sprinkled with emery-dust4 ,the needles being thus disposed1 emery-dust is thrown over them1 which is again sprinkled with oil of olives2 at last the whole is made up into a roll1 well bound at both ends4 ,this roll is then laid on a polishing table1 and over it a thick plank loaded with stones1 which two men work backwards and forwards a day and a half1 or two days1 successively2 by which means the roll thus continually agitated by the weight and motion of the plank over it1 the needles withinside being rubbed against each other with oil and emery1 are insensibly polished4 ,after polishing1 they are taken out1 and the filth washed off them with hot water and soap3 they are then wiped in hot bran1 a little moistened1 placed with the needles in a round box suspended in the air by a cord1 which is kept stirring till the bran and needles are dry4 ,the needles thus wiped in two or three different brans1 are taken out and put in wooden vessels1 to have the good separated from those whose points or eyes have been broken either in polishing or wiping2 the points are then all turned the same way1 and smoothed with an emery-stone turned with a wheel4 ,this operation finishes them1 and there remains nothing but to make them into packets4 ,needles were first made in ,england by a native of ,india1 in #aede1 but the art was lost at his death2 it was1 however1 recovered by ,christopher ,greening1 in #aefj1 who was settled1 with his three children1 ,elizabeth1 ,john1 and ,thomas1 by ,dr4 ,damar1 ancestor of the present ,lord ,milton1 at ,long ,crendon1 in ,bucks1 where the manufactory has been carried on from that time to the present day4 ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,shoes4--,among the ,jews1 shoes were made of leather1 linen1 rush1 or wood2 those of soldiers were sometimes of brass or iron4 ,they were tied with thongs1 which passed under the soles of the feet4 ,to put off their shoes1 was an act of veneration2 it was also a sign of mourning and humiliation3 to bear one's shoes1 or to untie the latchets of them1 was considered as the meanest service1 as appears in the ,baptist's declaration of his own inferiority to ,christ4 ,among the ,greeks1 shoes of various kinds were used4 ,sandals were worn by women of distinction4 ,the ,lacedemonians wore red shoes4 ,the ,grecian shoes generally reached to the middle of the leg4 ,the ,romans used two kinds of shoes3 the calceus1 which covered the whole foot1 somewhat like our shoes1 and was tied above with latchets or strings2 and the solea1 or slipper1 which covered only the sole of the foot1 and was fastened with leathern thongs4 ,the calceus was always worn along with the toga1 when a person went abroad3 slippers were put on during a journey1 and at feasts1 but it was reckoned effeminate to appear in public with them4 ,black shoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank1 and white ones by the women4 ,red shoes were sometimes worn by the ladies1 and purple ones by the coxcombs of the other sex4 ,red shoes were put on by the chief magistrates of ,rome1 on days of ceremony and triumphs4 ,the shoes of senators1 patricians1 and their children1 had a crescent upon them1 which served for a buckle2 these were called calcei lunati4 ,slaves wore no shoes2 hence they were called cretori1 from their dusty feet4 ,phocion also1 and ,cato ,uticensis1 went without shoes4 ,the toes of the ,roman shoes were turned up in the point2 hence they were called calcei rostrati1 repandi1 c4 ,in the ninth and tenth centuries1 the greatest princes of ,europe wore wooden shoes1 or the upper part of leather1 and the sole of wood4 ,in the reign of ,william ,rufus1 a great beau1 ,robert1 surnamed ,the ,horned1 used shoes with long sharp points1 stuffed with tow1 and twisted like a ram's horn4 ,it is said1 the clergy being highly offended1 declaimed against the long-pointed shoes with great vehemence4 ,the points1 however1 continued to increase1 till1 in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 they were of so enormous a length1 that they were tied to knees with chains1 sometimes of gold1 sometimes of silver4 ,the upper parts of these shoes1 in ,chaucer's time1 were cut in imitation of a church window4 ,the long-pointed shoes were called crackowes1 and continued in fashion for three centuries1 in spite of the bulls of popes1 the decrees of councils1 and the declamations of the clergy4 ,at length the parliament of ,england interposed1 by an act ,a4 ,d4 #adfc1 prohibiting the use of shoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in length1 and prohibiting all shoemakers from making shoes or boots with longer pikes1 under severe penalties4 ,but even this was not sufficient3 it was necessary to denounce the dreadful sentence of excommunication against all who wore shoes or boots with points longer than two inches4 ,the present fashion of shoes was introduced in #afcc1 but the buckle was not used till #afgj4 ,in ,norway1 they use shoes of a particular construction1 consisting of two pieces1 and without heels2 in which the upper-leather sits close to the foot1 the sole being joined to it by many plates or folds4 ,the shoes or slippers of the ,japanese1 as we are informed by ,professor ,thunberg1 are made of rice-straw1 woven2 but sometimes1 for people of distinction1 of fine slips of ratan4 ,the shoe consists of a sole1 without upper-leather or hind-piece3 forwards1 it is crossed by a strap1 of the thickness of one's finger1 which is lined with linen2 from the tip of the shoe to the strap1 a cylindrical string is carried1 which passes between the great and second toe1 and keeps the shoe fast on the foot4 ,as these shoes have no hind-piece1 they make a noise1 when people walk in them1 like slippers4 ,when the ,japanese travel1 their shoes are furnished with three strings made of twisted straw1 with which they are tied to the legs and feet1 to prevent them from falling4 ,some people carry one or more pairs of shoes with them on their journeys1 in order to put on new when the old ones are worn out4 ,when it rains1 or the roads are very dirty1 these shoes are soon wetted through2 and a great number of worn-out shoes are continually seen lying on the roads1 especially near the brooks1 where travellers have changed their shoes after washing their feet4 ,instead of these1 in rainy or dirty weather1 they wear high wooden clogs1 which underneath are hollowed out in the middle1 and at top have a band across1 like a stirrup1 and a string for the great toe2 so that they can walk without soiling their feet4 ,some of them have their straw shoes fastened to these wooden clogs4 ,the ,japanese never enter their houses with their shoes on2 but leave them in the entry1 or place them on the bench near the door1 and thus are always barefooted in their houses1 so as not to dirty their neat mats4 ,,great ,,bell ,,of ,,moscow4 ,from ,dr4 ,clarke's ,travels4--,the great bell of ,moscow1 known to be the largest ever founded1 is in a deep pit in the midst of the ,kremlin4 ,the history of its fall is a fable2 and as writers are accustomed to copy each other1 the story continues to be propagated4 ,the fact is1 the bell remains in the place where it was originally cast4 ,it never was suspended2 the ,russians might as well attempt to suspend a first-rate line-of-battle ship1 with all her guns and stores4 ,a fire took place in the ,kremlin2 the flames caught the building erected over the pit where the bell yet remains2 in consequence of this1 the bell became hot1 and water being thrown to extinguish the fire1 fell upon the bell1 causing the fracture which has taken place4 ,the bell reaches from the bottom of the cave to the roof4 ,the entrance is by a trap-door1 placed even with the surface of the earth4 ,we found the steps very dangerous2 some were wanting1 and others broken4 ,in consequence of this1 ,i had a severe fall down the whole extent of the first flight1 and a narrow escape for my life1 in not having my skull fractured upon the bell4 ,after this accident1 a sentinel was placed at the trap-door1 to prevent people becoming victims to their curiosity4 ,he might have been as well employed in mending the ladders1 as in waiting all day to say they were broken4 ,the bell is truly a mountain of metal4 ,it is said to contain a very large proportion of gold and silver4 ,while it was in fusion1 the nobles and the people cast in1 as votive offerings1 their plate and money3 ,i endeavoured in vain to assay a small part3 the natives regard it with superstitious veneration1 and they would not allow even a grain to be filed off4 ,at the same time1 it may be said1 the compound has a white shining appearance1 unlike bell-metal in general2 and1 perhaps1 its silvery aspect has strengthened1 if not excited1 a conjecture respecting the costliness of its constituents4 ,on festival days1 peasants visit the bell as they would resort to a church2 considering it an act of devotion1 and crossing themselves as they descend and ascend the steps4 ,the bottom of the pit is covered with water1 mud1 and large pieces of timber2 these1 added to the darkness1 render it always an unpleasant and unwholesome place2 in addition to the danger arising from the ladders leading to the bottom4 ,i went frequently there1 in order to ascertain the dimensions of the bell with exactness4 ,to my great surprise1 during one of those visits1 half a dozen ,russian officers1 whom ,i found in the pit1 agreed to assist me in the admeasurement4 ,it so nearly agreed with the account published by ,jonas ,hanway1 that the difference is not worth notice4 ,this is somewhat remarkable1 considering the difficulty of exactly measuring what is partly buried in the earth1 and the circumference of which is not entire4 ,no one1 ,i believe1 has yet ascertained the size of the base2 this would afford still greater dimensions than those we obtained2 but it is entirely buried4 ,about ten persons were present when ,i measured the part exposed to observation4 ,we applied a strong cord close to the metal1 in all parts of its periphery1 and round the lower part1 where it touches the ground1 taking care at the same time not to stretch the cord4 ,from the piece of the bell broken off1 it was ascertained that we had thus measured within two feet of its lower extremity4 ,the circumference obtained was sixty-seven feet four inches2 allowing a diameter of twenty-two feet five inches1 and one-third4 ,we then took the perpendicular height from the top1 and found it to correspond exactly with the statement made by ,hanway2 namely1 twenty-one feet four inches and a half4 ,in the stoutest part1 that in which it should have received the blow of the hammer1 its thickness equalled twenty-three inches4 ,we were able to ascertain this1 by placing our hands under water1 where the fracture has taken place2 this is above seven feet high from the lip of the bell4 ,the weight of this enormous mass of metal has been computed to be #ddc1ggb cwt4 which1 if valued at three shillings a pound1 amounts to #ff1efe #afs4 lying unemployed1 and of no use to any one4 ,it was founded1 according to ,augustine1 in #afec1 during the reign of ,alexis4 7,see ,voyage de ,moscow1 page #aag47 ,the ,russians and people of ,moscow maintain1 that it was cast during the reign of their empress ,anne1 probably from the female figure represented4 ,augustine proves that it is larger than the famous bell of ,erford1 and even than that of ,pekin4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxv4 ,,curiosities ,,in ,,history1 c4 ,,man ,,with ,,the ,,iron ,,mask4--,there was a remarkable personage1 so denominated1 who existed as a state prisoner in ,france during the latter part of the seventeenth century4 ,the circumstances of this person form an historical enigma1 which has occasioned much inquiry1 and many conjectures4 ,the authenticated particulars concerning the ,iron ,mask are as follows3--,a few months after the death of ,cardinal ,mazarin1 there arrived at the isle of ,saint ,marguerite1 in the sea of ,provence1 a young prisoner whose appearance was peculiarly attracting3 his person was above the middle size1 and elegantly formed2 his mien and deportment were noble1 and his manners graceful2 and even the sound of his voice had in it something uncommonly interesting4 ,on the road he constantly wore a mask made with iron springs1 to enable him to eat without taking it off4 ,it was at first believed that this mask was made entirely of iron1 whence he acquired the title of ,the ,man with the ,iron ,mask4 ,his attendants had received orders to dispatch him1 if he attempted to take off his mask or discover himself4 ,he had been first confined at ,pignerol1 under the care of the governor1 ,m4 de ,st4 ,mars2 and being sent thence to ,st4 ,marguerite1 he was accompanied thither by the same person1 who continued to have the charge of him4 ,he was always treated with the utmost respect3 he was served constantly in plate2 and the governor himself placed his dishes on the table1 retiring immediately after1 and locking the door behind him4 ,he tu-to' yoit 7thee'd and thou'd7 the governor2 who1 on the other hand1 behaved to him in the most respectful manner1 and never wore his hat before him1 nor ever sat down in his presence without being desired4 ,the ,marquis of ,louvoisis1 who went to see him at ,st4 ,marguerite1 spoke to him standing1 and with those marks of attention which denote high respect4 ,during his residence there1 he attempted twice1 in an indirect manner1 to make himself known4 ,one day he wrote something with his knife on a plate1 and threw it out of his window1 to a boat that was drawn on shore near the foot of the tower4 ,a fisherman picked it up1 and carried it to the governor4 ,m4 de ,st4 ,mars was alarmed at the sight2 and asked the man with great anxiety1 whether he could read1 and whether any one else had seen the plate8 ,the man answered1 that he could not read1 that he had but just found the plate1 and that no one else had seen it4 ,he was1 however1 confined till the governor was well assured of the truth of his assertions4 ,another attempt to discover himself proved equally unsuccessful4 ,a young man who lived in the isle1 one day perceived something floating under the prisoner's window2 and on picking it up1 he discovered it to be a very fine shirt written all over4 ,he carried it immediately to the governor2 who1 having looked at some parts of the writing1 asked the lad1 with some appearance of alarm1 if he had not had the curiosity to read it8 ,he protested repeatedly that he had not2 but two days afterwards he was found dead in his bed4 ,the ,masque de ,fer remained in that isle till #afih1 when ,m4 ,st4 ,mars1 being promoted to the government of the ,bastile1 conducted his prisoner to that fortress4 ,in his way thither1 he stopt with him at his estate near ,palteau4 ,the ,mask arrived there in a litter1 surrounded by a numerous guard on horseback4 ,m4 de ,st4 ,mars ate at the same table with him all the time they resided at ,palteau2 but the latter was always placed with his back towards the windows2 and the peasants1 who came to pay their compliments to their master1 whom curiosity kept constantly on the watch1 observed that ,m4 de ,st4 ,mars always sat opposite to him1 with two pistols by the side of his plate4 ,they were waited on by one servant only1 who brought in and carried out the dishes1 always carefully shutting the door1 both in going out and returning4 ,the prisoner was always masked1 even when he passed through the court2 but the people saw his teeth and lips1 and observed that his hair was grey4 ,the governor slept in the same room with him1 in a second bed1 that was placed in it on that occasion4 ,in the course of his journey1 the ,mask was one day heard to ask his keeper1 whether the king had any design on his life8 ,no1 ,prince1 he replied2 provided that you quietly allow yourself to be conducted1 your life is perfectly secure4 ,the stranger was accommodated as well as it was possible to be in the ,bastile4 ,an apartment had been prepared for him by order of the governor before his arrival1 fitted up in the most convenient style2 and every thing he expressed a wish for1 was instantly procured him4 ,his table was the best that could be provided1 and he was supplied with as rich clothes as he desired2 but his chief taste in this last particular was for lace1 and for linen remarkably fine4 ,he was allowed the use of such books as he requested1 and he spent much of his time in reading4 ,he also amused himself with playing on the guitar4 ,he had the liberty of going to mass2 but was then strictly forbid to speak1 or uncover his face3 orders were even given to the soldiers to fire upon him1 if he attempted either2 and their pieces were always pointed towards him as he passed through the court4 ,when he had occasion to see a surgeon or a physician1 he was obliged1 under pain of death1 constantly to wear his mask4 ,an old physician of the ,bastile1 who had often attended him when he was indisposed1 said1 that he never saw his face1 though he had frequently examined his tongue1 and different parts of his body2 and that he never complained of his confinement1 nor let fall any hint1 by which it might be guessed who he was4 ,he often passed the night in walking up and down his room4 ,this unfortunate prince died on the #aith of ,november1 #agjc1 after a short illness2 and was interred next day1 in the burying-place of the parish of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the expense of his funeral amounted only to forty livres4 ,the name given him was ,marchiali2 and even his age1 as well as his real name1 it seemed of importance to conceal1 for in the register made of his funeral1 it was mentioned that he was about forty years old1 though he had told his apothecary1 some time before his death1 that he thought he must be sixty4 ,immediately after his death1 his apparel1 linen clothes1 mattresses1 and in short1 every thing that had been used by him1 were burnt2 the walls of his room were scraped1 and the floor taken up1 evidently from the apprehension that he might have found means of writing something that would have discovered who he was4 ,nay1 such was the fear of his having left a letter1 or any mark which might lead to a discovery1 that his plate was melted down2 the glass was taken out of the window of his room1 and pounded to dust2 the window-frames and doors burnt2 and the ceiling of the room1 and the plaster of the inside of the chimney1 demolished4 ,several writers have affirmed1 that the body of this unfortunate personage was buried without a head2 and ,m4 de ,st4 ,foix informs us1 in his ,essais ,historiques1 that a gentleman having bribed the sexton1 had the body taken up in the night1 but found a stone instead of the head4 ,the natural inference from these extraordinary accounts1 is1 that the ,iron ,mask was not only a person of high birth1 but that he must have been of great consequence2 and that his being concealed was of the utmost importance to the king and ministry4 ,among the various conjectures that have been formed1 concerning the real name and condition of this remarkable man1 none appears to have any probability except the following3--,that he was a son of ,anne of ,austria1 queen to ,louis ,,xiii4 and consequently that he was a brother of ,louis ,,xiv2 but whether a bastard-brother1 a brother-german1 or a half-brother1 is a question that has given rise to three several opinions1 viz4 #a4 ,that the queen proved with child at a time when it was evident it could not have been by her husband1 who1 for some months before1 had never been with her in private4 ,the supposed father of this child is said to have been the duke of ,buckingham1 who came to ,france1 in ,may1 #afbe1 to conduct the princess ,henrietta1 wife of ,charles ,i4 to ,england4 ,the private letters and memoirs of those times speak very suspiciously of the ,queen and ,buckingham3 his behaviour at ,amiens1 whither the queen and queen-mother accompanied the princess in her way to ,boulogne1 occasioned much whispering2 and it appears1 that the king1 on this occasion1 was extremely offended at her1 and that it required all the influence and address of the queen-mother to effect a reconciliation4 ,it is said1 that this child was privately brought up in the country2 that when ,mazarin became a favourite1 he was entrusted with the care of him2 and that ,louis ,,xiv4 having discovered the secret on the death of the cardinal1 thought it necessary to confine him in the manner above related4 ,the second1 and the most probable opinion1 is1 that he was the twin-brother of ,louis ,,xiv4 born some hours after him4 ,this opinion first appeared in a short anonymous work1 published without date1 or name of place1 or printer4 ,it is therein said1 ,louis ,,xiv4 was born at ,st4 ,germains-en-,laye1 on the #eth of ,september1 #afch1 about noon2 and the illustrious prisoner1 known by the appellation of the ,iron ,mask1 was born the same day1 while ,louis ,,xiii4 was at supper4 ,the king and the cardinal1 fearing that the pretensions of a twin-brother might one day be employed to renew those civil wars with which ,france had been so often afflicted1 cautiously concealed his birth1 and sent him away1 to be brought up privately4 ,this opinion was confirmed1 in a work1 entitled1 ,memoires de ,marechal ,duc de ,richelieu1 written by the ,abb ,soulavie2 in which it is asserted1 that ,the birth of the prisoner happened in the evening of the #eth ,september1 #afch1 in presence of the chancellor1 the bishop of ,meaux1 the author of the ,,ms4 a midwife1 named ,peronte1 and a sieur ,honorat4 ,this circumstance greatly disturbed the king's mind2 he observed1 that the ,salic law had made no provision for such a case4 ,by the advice of cardinal ,richelieu1 it was therefore resolved to conceal his birth1 but to preserve his life1 in case1 by the death of his brother1 it should be necessary to avow him4 ,a declaration was drawn up1 and signed and sworn to by all present2 in which every circumstance was mentioned1 and several marks on his body described4 ,this document being sealed by the chancellor with the royal seal1 was delivered to the king2 and all took an oath never to speak on the subject1 not even in private and among themselves4 ,the child was delivered to the care of ,madame ,peronte1 to be under the direction of cardinal ,richelieu1 at whose death the charge devolved to cardinal ,mazarin4 ,mazarin appointed the author of the ,,ms4 his governor1 and entrusted to him the care of his education4 ,but as the prisoner was extremely attached to ,madame ,peronte1 and she equally so to him1 she remained with him till her death4 ,his governor carried him to his house in ,burgundy1 where he paid the greatest attention to his education4 ,as the prisoner grew up1 he became impatient to discover his birth1 and often importuned his governor on that subject4 ,his curiosity had been roused1 by observing that messengers from the court frequently arrived at the house2 and a box1 containing letters from the queen and the cardinal1 having one day been inadvertently left out1 he opened it1 and saw enough to guess at the secret4 ,from that time he became thoughtful and melancholy1 which1 7says the author17 ,i could not then account for4 ,he shortly after asked me to get him a portrait of the late and present king2 but ,i put him off1 by saying1 that ,i could not procure any that were good4 ,he then desired me to let him go to ,dijon2 which ,i have known since was with an intention of seeing a portrait of the king there1 and of going secretly to ,st4 ,john de ,las1 where the court then was1 on occasion of the marriage with the ,infanta4 ,he was beautiful1 and love helped him to accomplish his wishes4 ,he had captivated the affections of a young housekeeper1 who procured him a portrait of the king4 ,it might have served for either of the brothers2 and the discovery put him into so violent a passion1 that he immediately came to me with the portrait in his hand1 saying1 ,voila mon frere1 et voila qui je suis1 shewing me at the same time a letter of the cardinal de ,mazarin that he had taken out of the box6 ,upon this discovery1 his governor immediately sent an express to court1 to communicate what had happened1 and to desire new instructions2 the consequence of which was1 that the governor1 and the young prince under his care1 were arrested and confined4 ,the author of this memoir concludes1 ,i have suffered with him in our common prison3 ,i am now summoned to appear before my ,judge on high2 and for the peace of my soul1 ,i cannot but make this declaration1 which may point out to him the means of freeing himself from his present ignominious situation1 in case the king his brother should die without children4 ,can an extorted oath compel me to observe secrecy on a thing so incredible1 but which ought to be left on record to posterity8 ,the third opinion is1 that he was a son of the queen by cardinal ,mazarin1 born about a year after the death of her husband1 ,louis ,,xiii42 that he was brought up secretly2 and that1 soon after the death of the cardinal1 on the #ith of ,march1 #affa1 he was sent to ,pignerol4 ,to this account ,father ,griffet justly objects1 that it was needless to mask a face that was unknown2 and therefore this opinion does not merit discussion4--7,traite de la ,verit de l',histoire1 p4 #cah47 ,indeed1 it seems totally unaccountable1 that so much care should have been taken to conceal a child of the queen by the cardinal1 who1 whether they were privately married or not1 could never have had the most distant claim to the crown of ,france4 ,the conjectures advanced by other authors1 that he was the duke of ,monmouth's1 the count of ,vermandois'1 or the duke of ,beaufort's1 c4 are still more improbable4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,curiosities ,,in ,,history1 ,,etc4--7,continued47 ,,gipsies4--,mr4 ,lyons1 in his entertaining work of the ,environs of ,london1 has given the following curious account of the ,queen of the ,gipsies1 and the extraordinary people under her dominion4 ,from the register of the parish of ,bockenham1 in ,kent2 extract3 ',margaret ,finch1 buried ,october #bd1 #agdj4'--,this remarkable person lived to the age of one hundred and nine years4 ,she was one of the people called ,gipsies2 and had from them the title of ,queen4 ,after travelling over various parts of the kingdom1 during the greater part of a century1 she settled at ,norwood1 whither her age1 and the fame of her fortune-telling1 attracted numerous visitors4 ,from a habit of sitting on the ground with her chin resting on her knees1 the sinews at length became so contracted1 that she could not rise from that posture4 ,after her death1 they were obliged to enclose her body in a deep square box4 ,her funeral was attended by two mourning coaches1 a sermon was preached on the occasion1 and a great concourse of people attended the ceremony4 ,her portrait adorns the sign-post of a house of entertainment in ,norwood1 called the ,gipsy-,house4 ,in an adjoining cottage lives an old woman1 grand-daughter of queen ,margaret1 who inherits her title4 ,she is niece of queen ,bridget1 who was buried at ,dulwich1 in #agfh4 ,her rank seems to be merely titular3 ,i do not find that the gypsies pay her any particular deference2 or that she differs in any other respect from the rest of her tribe1 than that of being a householder4 ,to the above he adds some leading facts concerning this extraordinary race of people1 who are scattered over most parts of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,the gipsies1 7continues he17 in most places on the ,continent are called ,cingari1 or ,zingari3 the ,spaniards call them ,gitanos4 ,it is not certain when they first appeared in ,europe2 but mention is made of them1 in ,hungary and ,germany1 so early as the year #adag4 ,within ten years afterwards1 they made their appearance in ,france1 ,switzerland1 and ,italy4 ,the date of their arrival in ,england is more uncertain3 it is most probable1 that it was not till nearly a century afterwards4 ,in the year #aecj1 they are thus spoken of in the penal statutes3 ',forasmuch as before this time1 divers and many outlandish people1 calling themselves ,egyptians1 using no craft nor feat of merchandise1 have come into this realm1 and gone from shire to shire1 and from place to place1 in great companies1 and used great subtilty and crafty means to deceive the people2 bearing them in hand1 that they1 by palmistry1 could tell men's and women's fortunes2 and so1 many times1 by craft and subtilty1 have deceived the people of their money2 and also have committed many heinous felonies and robberies1 to the great hurt and deceit of the people they have come among1 c4' ,it was afterwards made death to them to continue in the kingdom2 and it remains on record1 that thirteen were executed for a violation of this law1 a few years before the ,restoration3 nor was this cruel act repealed till about the year #aghc4 ,the gipsies were expelled from ,france in #aefj1 and from ,spain in #aeia2 but it does not appear that they have been entirely extirpated in any country4 ,their collective numbers1 in every quarter of the globe1 have been calculated at seven or eight hundred thousand4 ,they are most numerous in ,asia1 and in the northern parts of ,europe4 ,various have been the opinions relating to their origin4 ,that they came from ,egypt has been the most prevalent4 ,this opinion 7which has procured them here the name of ,gipsies1 and in ,spain that of ,gitanos17 arose1 from some of the first who arrived in ,europe1 pretending that they came from that country2 which assertion they made1 perhaps1 to heighten their reputation for skill in palmistry#bb and the occult sciences4 ,it is now1 ,i believe1 pretty generally agreed1 that they came originally from ,hindostan2 since their language so far coincides with the ,hindostanic1 that even now1 after a lapse of more than three centuries1 during which they have been dispersed in various foreign countries1 nearly one half of their words are precisely those of ,hindostan2 and scarcely any variation is to be found in vocabularies procured from the gipsies in ,turkey1 ,hungary1 ,germany1 and those in ,england4 ,their manners1 for the most part1 coincide1 as well as their language1 in every quarter of the world where they are found2 being the same idle1 wandering race of beings1 and seldom professing any ostensible mode of livelihood1 except that of fortune-telling4 ,though they are no great frequenters either of mosques or churches1 they generally conform to rites and ceremonies as they find them established4 ,upon the whole1 we may certainly agree with ,grellman1 who has written their history1 by regarding them as a singular phenomenon in ,europe4 ,for the space of between three or four hundred years1 they have gone wandering about like pilgrims and strangers1 yet neither time nor example has made in them any alteration3 they remain ever1 and every where1 what their fathers were4 ,africa makes them no blacker1 nor does ,europe make them whiter4 ,it is not the least singular feature in the history of this wandering and vagabond race1 that they should have so long maintained their credit for foretelling events1 when the fallacy of their predictions must have been so often experienced1 and their ignorance and want of principle so well known4 ,what reliance can be placed on the oracular decisions of a man1 who has not sufficient foresight of his own affairs1 to escape the hands of justice for robbing a hen-roost8 ,the desire of prying into futurity seems to be a natural propensity in the human mind4 ,in the ancient world1 the consultation of oracles1 soothsayers1 and augurs1 divining by the flight of birds1 the entrails of the victims1 or the feeding of chickens1 were so many efforts of a weak endeavour to withdraw that veil1 which in mercy is appointed to conceal from our view the events that are to befal us4 ,in modern times1 the impudent pretensions of astrologers1 conjurers1 and fortune-tellers1 have deluded the credulous1 even of that rank1 in which men should set a more rational example4 ,about sixty years ago1 a celebrated professor of this dark science lived in ,london1 in a place called ,frying-pan ,alley2 and crowds of carriages were daily seen waiting in the neighbourhood1 whilst the artful impostor was distributing different allotments to their owners1 according to his arbitrary caprice1 or what he thought would bring most money into his purse4 ,the following account is taken from a ,liverpool weekly magazine1 entitled ',the ,freeman1' published some years since3-- ,of late years some attempts have been made to reduce the numbers1 or at any rate to civilize the habits1 of that vagabond and useless race1 the gipsies4 ,in pursuance of such purpose1 a society of gentlemen have been making all the preliminary inquiries requisite to a proper understanding of the subject4 ,a series of questions have been proposed to competent persons in the different counties of ,england and ,scotland2 and answers have been received4 ,the following are specimens of these replies3 #a4 ,all gipsies believe that ,egypt was the residence of their most remote ancestors4 #b4 ,they cannot form any idea of their number in ,england4 #c4 ,the gipsies of ,bedfordshire1 ,hertfordshire1 some parts of ,buckinghamshire1 ,cambridgeshire1 and ,huntingdonshire1 are continually making revolutions within the ranges of those counties4 #d4 ,they are either ignorant of the number of gipsies in the counties through which they travel1 or unwilling to disclose their knowledge4 #e4 ,the most common names are ,smith1 ,cooper1 ,draper1 ,taylor1 ,boswell1 ,lee1 ,lovel1 ,loversedge1 ,allen1 ,mansfield1 ,glover1 ,williams1 ,carew1 ,martin1 ,stanley1 ,buckley1 ,plunkett1 and ,corrie4 #f4 and #g4 ,the gangs in different towns have not any regular connection or organization2 but those who take up their winter quarters in the same city or town1 appear to have some knowledge of the different routes each horde will pursue2 probably with a desire to prevent interference with each other4 #h4 ,in the county of ,herts1 it is computed there may be sixty families1 having many children4 ,whether they are quite so numerous in ,buckinghamshire1 ,bedfordshire1 and ,northamptonshire1 the answers are not sufficiently definite to determine4 ,in ,cambridgeshire1 ,oxfordshire1 ,warwickshire1 ,wiltshire1 and ,dorsetshire1 greater numbers are calculated upon4 ,in various counties1 the attention has not been competent to the procuring data for any estimate of families or individuals4 #i4 ,more than half their number follow no business3 some are dealers in horses and asses3 while others profess themselves to be farriers1 smiths1 tinkers1 braziers1 grinders of cutlery1 basket-makers1 chair-bottomers1 and musicians4 #aj4 ,the children are brought up in the habits of their parents1 particularly to music and dancing1 and are of dissolute habits4 #aa4 ,the women mostly carry baskets with trinkets and small wares2 and tell fortunes4 #ab4 ,they are too ignorant to have acquired accounts of genealogy1 and perhaps indisposed by the irregularity of their habits4 #ac4 ,in most counties there are particular situations to which they are partial4 ,there is a marsh1 near ,newbury in ,berkshire1 much frequented by them2 and ,dr4 ,clark states1 that in ,cambridgeshire1 their principal rendezvous is near the western villages4 #ad4 ,it cannot be ascertained whether this attachment to particular places has prevailed from their first coming into the nation4 #ae1 #af1 and #ag4 ,when among strangers1 they elude inquiries respecting their peculiar language1 calling it ,gibberish4 ,they know of no person that can write it1 or of any written specimen of it4 #ah4 ,their habits and customs in all places are peculiar4 #ai4 ,those who profess any religion1 represent it to be that of the country in which they reside3 but their description of it seldom goes beyond repeating the ,lord's ,prayer2 and only a few of them are capable of that4 ,instances of their attending any place for worship are very rare4 #bj4 ,they marry for the most part by pledging to each other1 without any ceremony4 ,a few exceptions have occurred1 when money was plentiful4 #ba4 ,they do not teach their children religion4 #bb1 and #bc4 ,not one in a thousand can read4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxvii4 ,,curiosities ,,in ,,history1 ,,etc4--7,continued47 ,,free ,,and ,,accepted ,,masons4--,this very ancient society is so called1 either from some extraordinary knowledge of masonry1 of which they are supposed to be masters1 or because the first founders of the society were persons of this profession4 ,they are now very considerable1 both on account of their numbers1 and the rank they hold in society1 being found in every country in ,europe1 as well as ,north ,america2 and they consist principally of persons of merit and consideration4 ,they make no small pretensions to antiquity1 for they claim a standing of some thousands of years4 ,what the design of their institution is1 seems still in some measure a secret3 the members are said to be admitted into the fraternity by being put in possession of a great number of secrets1 called the mason's word1 which have been religiously kept from age to age4 ,in a treatise on ,masonry1 published in #agib1 by ,william ,preston1 master of the ,lodge of ,antiquity1 the origin of masonry is traced from the creation4 ,ever since symmetry began1 and harmony displayed her charms1 7says he17 our order has had a being4 ,by other accounts the antiquity of masonry has only been traced as far back as the building of ,solomon's temple4 ,in ,dr4 ,henry's history of ,great ,britain1 we find the origin of the ,free ,mason ,society attributed to the difficulty found in former times to procure workmen to build the vast number of churches1 monasteries1 and other religious edifices1 which either the pretended piety or the superstition of those ages prompted the people to raise4 ,hence the masons were greatly favoured by the popes1 and many indulgences were granted1 to augment their numbers4 ,in those times1 it may well be supposed1 that such encouragement from the supreme pastors of the church must have been productive of the most beneficial results to the fraternity2 and hence the society rapidly increased4 ,an ancient author1 who was well acquainted with their history and constitution1 says1 ,the ,italians1 with some ,greek refugees1 and with them ,french1 ,germans1 and ,flemings1 joined into a fraternity of architects1 procuring papal bulls for their encouragement2 they styled themselves ,free ,masons1 and ranged from one nation to another1 as they found churches to be built3 their government was regular2 and where they fixed near the building in hand1 they made a camp of huts4 ,a surveyor governed in chief2 while every tenth man was called a warden1 and superintended the other nine4 ,masonry had a very early introduction into ,britain1 but never attained to any degree of importance1 until the year #eeg of the ,christian era2 when ,st4 ,austin1 with forty monks1 among whom the sciences had been preserved1 came into ,england4 ,by these ,christianity was propagated2 all the kings of the heptarchy were converted2 masonry was patronized by ,st4 ,austin2 and the ,gothic style of building was introduced into ,england1 by numerous foreigners1 who resorted at this time to the kingdom4 ,austin appeared at the head of the fraternity in founding the old cathedral of ,canterbury1 in #fjj2 that of ,rochester1 in #fjb2 ,st4 ,paul's in ,london1 in #fjd2 ,st4 ,peter's in ,westminster1 in #fje3 to which may be added many others4 ,the number of masons was thus greatly increased1 as well as by other buildings1 such as castles1 c4 throughout the kingdom4 ,masonry found a zealous protector in ,alfred the ,great1 the liberal patron of all arts and manufactures4 ,he appropriated a seventh part of his revenue for maintaining a number of masons1 whom he employed in rebuilding the cities1 castles1 c4 ruined by the ,danes4 ,under his successor1 ,edward1 the masons continued to hold their lodges2 they were patronized by ,ethred1 husband to the king's sister1 and ,ethelwald his brother1 to whom the care of this fraternity was entrusted4 ,the latter was a great architect1 and founded the university of ,cambridge4 ,the complete re-establishment of masonry in ,england1 however1 is dated from the reign of king ,athelstan3 and the grand masons at ,york trace their existence from this period4 ,the ,grand ,lodge of ,york1 the most ancient in ,england1 was founded in #ibf1 under the patronage of ,edwin the king's brother1 who obtained for them a charter from ,athelstan1 and became grand-master himself4 ,by virtue of this charter all the masons in the kingdom were convened at a general assembly in that city1 where they established a grand lodge for their government2 and for many centuries afterwards1 no general meetings were held in any other place4 ,hence the appellation of ,ancient ,york ,masons is well known both in ,ireland and ,scotland2 and the general tradition is1 that they originated at ,auldby near ,york1 which was a seat belonging to ,edwin4 ,it was the glory and boast of the brethren1 in almost every country where masonry was established1 to be accounted descendants of the original ,york masons2 and from the universality of the idea that masonry was first established at ,york by charter1 the masons of ,england have received tribute from the first states in ,europe4 ,at present1 however1 this social intercourse is abolished4 ,the duke of ,buccleugh1 who1 in #agbc1 succeeded the duke of ,wharton as grand-master1 first proposed the scheme of raising a general fund for distressed masons4 ,the duke's motion was supported by ,lord ,paisley1 ,colonel ,houghton1 and a few other brethren2 and the grand lodge appointed a committee to consider of the most effectual means of carrying the scheme into execution4 ,the disposal of the charity was first vested in seven brethren2 but this number being found too small1 nine more were added4 ,it was afterwards resolved1 that twelve masters of contributing lodges1 in rotation with the grand officers1 should form the committee2 and by another regulation since made1 it has been determined that all past and present grand officers1 with the masters of all regular lodges1 which shall have contributed within twelve months to the charity1 shall be members of the committee4 ,this committee meets four times in the year1 by virtue of a summons from the grand-master or his deputy4 ,the petitions of the distressed brethren are considered at these meetings2 and if the petitioner be considered as a deserving object1 he is immediately relieved with five pounds4 ,if the circumstances of the case are of a peculiar nature1 his petition is referred to the next communication1 where he is relieved with any sum the committee may have specified1 not exceeding twenty guineas at one time4 ,thus the distressed have always found ready relief from this general charity1 which is supported by the voluntary contributions of different lodges out of their private funds1 without being burdensome to any member in the society4 ,thus has the committee of charity for free masons been established2 and so liberal have the contributions been1 that though the sums annually expended1 for the relief of the distressed brethren1 have for several years past amounted to many thousand pounds1 there still remains a considerable fund4 ,the most remarkable event which of late has taken place in the affairs of masonry1 is the initiation of ,omitul ,omrah ,bahauder1 eldest son of the nabob of the ,carnatic1 who was received by the lodge of ,trinchinopoly1 in the year #aggi4 ,the news being officially transmitted to ,england1 the grand lodge determined to send a congratulatory letter to his highness on the occasion1 accompanied with an apron elegantly decorated1 and a copy of the book of ,constitutions superbly bound4 ,the execution of this commission was entrusted to ,sir ,john ,duy1 advocate-general of ,bengal2 and in the beginning of #aghj1 an answer was received from his highness1 acknowledging the receipt of the present1 and expressing the warmest attachment and benevolence to his brethren in ,england4 ,the letter was written in the ,persian language1 and inclosed in an elegant cover of cloth of gold1 and addressed to the grand-master and grand lodge of ,england4 ,a proper reply was made2 and a translation of his highness's letter was ordered to be copied on vellum2 and1 with the original1 elegantly framed and glazed1 and hung up in the hall at every public meeting of the society4 ,it must be natural to inquire into the uses of the institution1 and for what purpose it has been patronized by so many great and illustrious personages4 ,the profound secrecy1 however1 in which every thing relating to masonry is involved1 prevents us from being very particular on this head4 ,the masons themselves say in general1 that it promotes philanthropy1 friendship1 and morality2 that in proportion as masonry has been cultivated1 countries have become civilized1 c4 ,how far this can be depended upon1 the fraternity best know4 ,another advantage1 however1 seems less equivocal1 viz4 that its signs serve as a kind of universal language2 so that by means of them1 people of the most distant nations may become acquainted1 and enter into friendship with one another4 ,this certainly must be accounted a very important circumstance2 and considering the great numbers that have been1 and daily are1 admitted to the society1 and their inviolable attachment to the art1 we must certainly conclude1 that if it contains nothing of great importance to mankind at large1 it must at least be extremely agreeable1 and even fascinating1 to those who are once initiated4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxviii4 ,,curiosities ,,in ,,history1 ,,etc4--7,continued47 ,peeping ,tom of ,coventry--,long absent ,husband returned--,curious ,historical ,fact--,the most ,extraordinary ,fact on ,record4 ,,peeping ,,tom ,,of ,,coventry4--,the following are the particulars of the event which1 it is said1 gave birth to the above appellation4 ,the wife of ,leofric1 earl of ,mercia1 with her husband1 founded a monastery1 for an abbot and twenty-four ,benedictine monks1 at ,coventry1 in #ajdc2 which was dedicated to the ,virgin ,mary1 ,st4 ,peter1 and ,st4 ,osburg4 ,leofric and his ,lady1 who both died about the latter end of the reign of ,edward the ,confessor1 were buried in the church of the abbey which they had founded4 ,the former seems to have been the first lord of ,coventry1 and the latter its greatest benefactress1 as will appear from the following extraordinary and indeed romantic tradition1 which is not only firmly believed at ,coventry1 but is recorded by many of our own historians3-- ,the earl had granted the convent and city many valuable privileges2 but the inhabitants having offended him1 he imposed on them very heavy taxes2 for the great lords to whom the town belonged1 under the ,anglo-,saxons1 had those privileges1 which cannot be exercised at present by any but the house of commons4 ,the people complained grievously of the severity of the taxes1 and applied to ,godeva1 the earl's lady1 a woman of great piety and virtue1 to intercede in their favour4 ,she willingly complied with the request2 but the earl remained inexorable6 he told his lady1 that were she to ride naked through the streets of the city1 he would remit the tax2 meaning1 that no persuasion whatever should prevail with him1 and thinking to silence her by the strange proposal3 but she1 sensibly touched by the distress of the city1 generously accepted the terms4 ,she therefore sent notice to the magistrates of the town1 with the strictest orders that all doors and windows should be shut1 and that no person should attempt to look out on pain of death4 ,these precautions being taken1 the lady rode through the city1 covered only with her fine flowing locks4 ,while riding in this manner through the streets1 no one dared to look at her1 except a poor tailor1 who1 as a punishment1 it is said1 for his violating the injunctions of the noble lady1 which had been published with so pious and benevolent a design1 was struck blind4 ,this tailor has been ever since remembered by the name of ,peeping ,tom2 and in memory of the event1 his figure is still kept up in the window of the house1 from whence1 it is said1 he gratified his curiosity4 ,the lady having thus discharged her engagements1 the earl performed his promise1 and granted the city a charter1 by which the inhabitants were exempted from all taxes4 ,as a proof of this circumstance1 in a window of ,trinity church are the figures of the ,earl and his ,lady1 and beneath the following inscription3-- ,i1 ,luriche1 for the love of thee1 ,doe set ,coventre toll free4 ,to this day1 the love of ,godeva is annually commemorated on ,friday in ,trinity week1 when a valiant fair one rides1 not literally like the good countess1 but in silk1 closely fitted to her limbs1 and of colour emulating her complexion4 ,the figure of ,peeping ,tom1 in the great street1 is also new dressed on the occasion4 ,mr4 ,o',keefe has produced a musical entertainment on this subject1 written with all the delicacy the subject would admit4 ,,the ,,long ,,absent ,,husband ,,returned3 7,from ,dr4 ,king's ,anecdotes47--,about the year #agjf1 ,i knew1 said ,dr4 ,king1 one ,mr4 ,howe1 a sensible well-natured man1 possessed of an estate of #gjj or #hjj per annum2 he married a young lady of good family1 in the west of ,england2 her maiden name was ,mallet2 she was agreeable in her person and manners1 and proved a very good wife4 ,seven or eight years after they had been married1 he arose one morning very early1 and told his wife he was obliged to go to the ,tower to transact some particular business3 the same day1 at noon1 his wife received a note from him1 in which he informed her that he was under the necessity of going to ,holland1 and should probably be absent three weeks or a month4 ,he was absent from her seventeen years1 during which time she never heard from him or of him4 ,the evening before he returned1 while she was at supper1 and with some of her friends and relations1 particularly one ,dr4 ,rose1 a physician1 who had married her sister1 a billet1 without any name subscribed1 was delivered to her1 in which the writer requested the favour of her to give him a meeting the next evening1 in the ,birdcage-walk1 in ,st4 ,james's ,park4 ,when she had read the billet1 she tossed it to ,dr4 ,rose1 and laughing1 said1 ',you see1 brother1 old as ,i am1 ,i have got a gallant4' ,rose1 who perused the note with more attention1 declared it to be ,mr4 ,howe's hand-writing3 this surprised all the company1 and so much affected ,mrs4 ,howe1 that she fainted away2 however1 she soon recovered1 when it was agreed that ,dr4 ,rose and his wife1 with the other gentlemen and ladies who were then at supper1 should attend ,mrs4 ,howe the next evening to the ,birdcage-walk3 they had not been there more than five or six minutes1 when ,mr4 ,howe came to them1 and after saluting his friends1 and embracing his wife1 walked home with her1 and they lived together in great harmony from that time to the day of his death4 ,but the most curious part of my tale remains to be related4 ,when ,howe left his wife1 they lived in a house in ,jermyn-street1 near ,st4 ,james's church2 he went no farther than a little street in ,westminster1 where he took a room1 for which he paid five or six shillings a week1 and changing his name1 and disguising himself by wearing a black wig1 7for he was a fair man17 he remained in this habitation during the whole time of his absence6 ,he had two children by his wife when he departed from her1 who were both living at that time2 but they both died young1 in a few years after4 ,however1 during their lives1 the second or third year after their father disappeared1 ,mrs4 ,howe was obliged to apply for an act of parliament1 to procure a proper settlement of her husband's estate1 and a provision for herself out of it1 during his absence1 as it was uncertain whether he was alive or dead2 this act he suffered to be solicited and passed1 and enjoyed the pleasure of reading the progress of it in the votes1 in a little coffee-house which he frequented1 near his lodging4 ,upon quitting his house and family in the manner ,i have mentioned1 ,mrs4 ,howe at first imagined1 as she could not conceive any other cause for such an abrupt elopement1 that he had contracted a large debt unknown to her1 and by that means involved himself in difficulties which he could not easily surmount2 and for some days she lived in continual apprehension of demands from creditors1 or seizures1 executions1 c4 ,but nothing of this kind happened2 on the contrary1 he did not only leave his estate free and unencumbered1 but he paid the bills of every tradesman with whom he had any dealings2 and upon examining his papers1 in due time after he was gone1 proper receipts and discharges were found from all persons1 whether tradesmen or others1 with whom he had any manner of transactions or money concerns4 ,mrs4 ,howe1 after the death of her children1 thought proper to lessen her establishment of servants1 and the expenses of her housekeeping3 and therefore removed from her house in ,jermyn-street1 to a little house in ,brewer-street1 near ,golden-square4 ,just over-against her lived one ,salt1 a corn-chandler4 ,about ten years after ,howe's abdication1 he contrived to form an acquaintance with ,salt1 and was at length in such a degree of intimacy with him1 that he usually dined with ,salt once or twice a week4 ,from the room in which they sat1 it was not difficult to look into ,mrs4 ,howe's dining-room1 where she generally ate1 and received her company2 and ,salt1 who believed ,howe to be a bachelor1 frequently recommended ,mrs4 ,howe as a suitable match4 ,during the last seven years of this gentleman's absence1 he went every ,sunday to ,st4 ,james's church1 and used to sit in ,mr4 ,salt's seat1 where he had a view of his wife1 but could not be easily seen by her4 ,after he returned home1 he never would confess1 even to his most intimate friends1 what was the real cause of such a singular conduct3 apparently there was none2 but whatever there was1 he was certainly ashamed to own it4 ,dr4 ,rose has often said to me1 that he believed his brother ,howe would never#bc have returned to his wife1 if the money which he took with him1 which was supposed to have been #ajjj or #bjjj1 had not been all spent3 indeed1 he must have been a good economist1 and frugal in his manner of living1 otherwise his money would scarcely have held out2 for ,i imagine he had his whole fortune by him2 ,i mean what he carried away with him in money and bank-bills3 and he daily took out of his bag1 like the ,spaniard in ,gil ,blas1 what was sufficient for his expenses4 ,a ,,curious ,,historical ,,fact4--,during the troubles in the reign of ,charles ,i4 a country girl came to ,london1 in search of a place as a servant maid2 but not succeeding1 she hired herself to carry out beer from a brewhouse1 and was one of those called tub-women4 ,the brewer1 observing a good looking girl in this low occupation1 took her into his family as a servant1 and1 after a short time1 married her2 but he died while she was yet a young woman1 and left her the bulk of his fortune4 ,the business of the brewery was dropped1 and the young widow was recommended to ,mr4 ,hyde1 as a skilful lawyer to arrange her husband's affairs4 ,hyde1 7who was afterwards the great ,earl of ,clarendon17 finding her fortune considerable1 married her4 ,of this marriage there was no other issue than a daughter1 who was afterwards the wife of ,james ,,ii41 and mother of ,mary and ,anne1 queens of ,england4 ,the following is said to be ,,the ,,most ,,extraordinary ,,fact ,,on ,,record4--,in the appendix to the ,rev4 ,john ,campbell's ,travels in ,south ,africa1 is recorded one of the strangest occurrences in the moral annals of mankind4 ,it will be recollected1 that some years ago the ,grosvenor1 ,east ,indiaman1 was wrecked off the coast of ,caffraria1 7a district divided from the country of the ,hottentots by the ,great ,fish ,river17 and that nearly the whole of the passengers and crew perished on the occasion4 ,it was1 however1 discovered1 that two young ladies had survived the miseries of this dreadful event1 and were resident in the interior of a country uninhabited by ,europeans4 ,mr4 ,campbell does not relate this occurrence from personal evidence1 but we cannot doubt the extraordinary fact4 ,the ,landdrost of ,graaf ,ragrel had been deputed by the ,british government to pay a visit to the king of ,caffraria1 for the purpose of ascertaining whether there were any survivors from the wreck of the ,grosvenor4 ,finding there were two females1 he succeeded in procuring an introduction to them4 ,he saw them habited like ,caffre women2 their bodies were painted after the fashion of the native inhabitants2 and their manners and appearance were altogether anti-,european4 ,the ,landdrost1 however1 sought to obtain their confidence by a liberal offer of his best services to restore them to their country and friends4 ,but they were unmoved by his solicitations4 ,they stated that they had fallen into the hands of the natives after they had been cast ashore from the wreck2 that their companions had been murdered1 and that they had been compelled to give themselves in marriage2 that having affectionate husbands1 children1 and grand-children1 their attachments were bounded by their actual enjoyments4 ,upon being repeatedly urged to depart with the ,landdrost1 they replied1 that probably at their return to ,england they might find themselves without connections or friends1 and that their acquired habits ill fitted them to mingle with polished society2 in short1 that they would not quit ,caffraria4 ,such1 then1 is the powerful influence of habit6 ,two young ladies1 highly educated1 and in all probability lovely in their persons1 are taught by habit to forget those scenes of gaiety they were so well calculated to ornament1 and the anticipated enjoyments of high matrimonial connections2 to forget their parents1 their relations1 the accomplished companions of their youth1 and all the refinements of life6 ,among a savage people1 they acquire congenial feelings1 and their vitiated nature ceases to repine3 they love the untutored husbands given to them by fate2 they rear their children in the stupidity of ,hottentot faith2 they designate their wretched hovel with the sacred name of ,home2 they expel memory from their occupations2 and regret no longer mingles with their routine of barbarous pleasures4 ,is this1 in reality1 a picture of the human mind1 with all its boasted attributes1 its delicacies1 its refinements1 its civilized superiority8 ,yes6 for custom is a second nature4 ,this fact is also related by ,vaillant1 in his ,travels in the interior parts of ,africa4 ,he says1 volume i4 page #bhf1 ,i was told1 almost six weeks prior to my visiting that coast1 that an ,english vessel had been wrecked on these barbarous shores2 that being driven on the sands1 a part of the crew had fallen into the hands of the ,caffres1 who had put them all to death1 except a few women1 whom they had cruelly reserved4 ,,unfortunate ,,artificer4--,there was an artificer in ,rome1 who made vessels of glass of so tenacious a temper1 that they were as little liable to be broken as those that are made of gold and silver3 when therefore he had made a vial of the purer sort1 and such as he thought a present worthy of ,csar alone1 he was admitted into the presence of their then ,emperor ,tiberius4 ,the gift was praised1 the skilful hand of the artist applauded1 and the donation of the giver accepted4 ,the artist1 that he might enhance the wonder of the spectators1 and promote himself yet further in the favour of the ,emperor1 desired the vial out of ,csar's hand1 and threw it with such force against the floor1 that the most solid metal would have received some damage or bruise thereby4 ,csar was not only amazed1 but affrighted with the act2 but he1 taking up the vial from the ground1 7which was not broken1 but only bruised together1 as if the substance of the glass had put on the temperature of brass17 he drew out an instrument from his bosom1 and beat it out to its former figure4 ,this done1 he imagined that he had conquered the world1 as believing that he had merited an acquaintance with ,csar1 and raised the admiration of all the beholders2 but it fell out otherwise1 for the ,emperor inquired if any other person besides himself was privy to the like tempering of glass8 ,when he had told him1 ,no1 he commanded his attendants to strike off his head1 saying1 ,that should this artifice come once to be known1 gold and silver would be of as little value as the dirt of the street4 ,long after this1 viz4 in #afaj1 we read1 that amongst other rare presents1 then sent from the ,sophy of ,persia to the king of ,spain1 were six mirrors of malleable glass1 so exquisitely tempered that they could not be broken4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxix4 ,,curiosities ,,in ,,history1 ,,etc4--7,concluded47 ,great ,events from ,little ,causes--,dreadful ,instances of the ,plague1 in ,europe--,fire of ,london--,vicar of ,bray--,curious ,account of the ,ceremonies at ,queen ,elizabeth's ,dinner--,a ,blacksmith's ,wife become a ,queen--,swine's ,concert4 ,,great ,,events ,,from ,,little ,,causes4--,the most important events sometimes take place from little and insignificant causes4 #a4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton's sublime genius1 set a-going by the fall of an apple1 never stopped till it had explained the laws of nature4 #b4 ,hospinian 7who wrote so successfully against the ,popish ceremonies7 was first convinced of the necessity of such a work by the talk of an ignorant country landlord1 who thought that religious fraternities were as old as the creation1 that ,adam was a monk1 and that ,eve was a nun4 #c4 ,metius was led to the discovery of optic glasses1 by observing some schoolboys play upon the ice1 who made use of their copy-books1 rolled up in the shape of tubes1 to look at each other1 to which they sometimes added pieces of ice at the end1 to view distant objects4 #d4 ,luther's quarrelling with ,pope ,leo4 ,x4 and bringing himself into difficult and dangerous circumstances1 perhaps led him to search1 think1 and judge for himself1 and consult the scriptures2 by which he overthrew errors1 which had been received as truths for ages4 #e4 ,to this we may add the marriage of ,henry ,,viii4 with ,ann ,boleyn1 which was the occasion of ,england's renouncing the supremacy of the ,pope1 and of bringing about the ,reformation4 #f4 ,an apothecary's chariot 7says one7 very probably produced ,no4 #de4 of the ,north ,briton1 and its consequences the ,american war1 the ,french revolution1 and the dreadful events that have since taken place in ,europe4 ,,dreadful ,,instances ,,of ,,the ,,plague1 ,,in ,,europe4--,thucydides1 lib4 ii4 gives an account of a dreadful plague which happened in ,athens about ,b4 ,c4 #dcj1 and with which he was himself infected1 while the ,peloponnesians under the command of ,archidamus wasted all her territory abroad2 but of these two enemies the plague was by far the most severe4 ,the most dreadful plague that ever raged at ,rome1 was in the reign of ,titus1 ,a4 ,d4 #hj4 ,the emperor left no remedy unattempted to abate the malignity of the distemper1 acting during its continuance like a father to his people4 ,the same fatal disease raged in all the provinces of the ,roman empire1 in the reign of ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,a4 ,d4 #afg1 and was followed by a dreadful famine1 earthquakes1 inundations1 and other calamities4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #dcj1 the plague visited ,britain1 just after the ,picts and ,scots had made a formidable invasion of the southern part of the island4 ,it raged with uncommon fury1 and swept away most of those whom the sword and famine had spared1 so that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #acdh1 the plague became almost general over ,europe4 ,many authors give an account of this plague1 which is said to have appeared first in the kingdom of ,kathay1 in #acdf1 and to have proceeded gradually west to ,constantinople and ,egypt4 ,from ,constantinople it passed into ,greece1 ,italy1 ,france1 and ,africa1 and by degrees along the coast of the ocean into ,britain and ,ireland1 and afterwards into ,germany1 ,hungary1 ,poland1 ,denmark1 and the other northern kingdoms4 ,according to ,antonius1 archbishop of ,florence1 the distemper carried off #fj1jjj people in that city4 ,in #afef1 the plague was brought from ,sardinia to ,naples1 being introduced into the city by a transport with soldiers on board4 ,it raged with excessive violence1 carrying off1 in less than six months1 #djj1jjj of the inhabitants4 ,in #agbj1 the city of ,marseilles was visited with this destructive disease1 brought in a ship from the ,levant2 and in seven months1 during which time it continued1 it carried off not less than #fj1jjj people4 ,the ravages of this disease have been dreadful wherever it has made its appearance4 ,on the first arrival of the ,europeans at the island of ,grand ,canaria1 it contained #ad1jjj fighting men2 soon after which1 two-thirds of these inhabitants fell a sacrifice to the plague4 ,the destruction it has made in ,turkey in ,europe1 and particularly in ,constantinople1 must be known to every reader2 and its fatal effects have been particularly heightened there by that firm belief which prevails among the people of predestination1 c4 ,it is generally brought into ,european ,turkey from ,egypt2 where it is very frequent1 especially at ,grand ,cairo4 ,to give even a list of all the plagues which have desolated many flourishing countries1 would extend this article beyond all bounds1 and minutely to describe them all is impossible4 ,respecting the plague which raged in ,syria in #agfj1 we refer to the ,abbe ,mariti's ,travels through ,cyprus1 ,syria1 and ,palestine1 volume i4 pages #bgh1 #bif4 ,this plague was one of the most malignant and fatal that ,syria ever experienced2 for it scarcely had made its appearance in any part of the body1 before it carried off the patient4 ,some particulars respecting ,,the ,,great ,,fire ,,of ,,london4--,the following is part of the inscription on the ,monument1 which records this calamitous event4 ,the second day of ,september1 #afff1 at the distance of two hundred and two feet1 the height of this column1 a terrible fire broke out about midnight4 ,it consumed in its progress eighty-nine churches1 the city gates1 ,guildhall1 many public structures1 hospitals1 schools1 libraries1 a vast number of stately edifices1 thirteen thousand two hundred dwelling-houses1 and four hundred streets4 ,the ruins of the city were four hundred and thirty-six acres1 from the ,tower by the ,thames side to the ,temple church1 and from the north-east gate along the city wall1 to ,holborn bridge4 ,three days after1 when this fatal fire had baffled all human counsels and endeavours1 it stopped1 as it were by a command from ,heaven1 and was on every side extinguished4 ,,vicar ,,of ,,bray4--,every one has frequently heard this reverend son of the church mentioned2 probably his name may have outlived the recollection of his pious manoeuvres3 he was in his principles a ,,sixtus ,,the ,,fifth4 ,the vicar of ,bray1 in ,berkshire1 was a ,papist under the reign of ,henry the ,eighth1 and a ,protestant under ,edward the ,sixth2 he was a ,papist again under ,mary1 and once more became a ,protestant in the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,when this scandal to the gown was reproached for his versatility of religious creeds1 and taxed for being a turn-coat and an inconstant changeling1 as ,fuller expresses it1 he replied1 ,not so1 neither6 for if ,i changed my religion1 ,i am sure ,i kept true to my principle2 which is1 to live and die the ,vicar of ,bray6 ,this vivacious and reverend hero has given birth to a proverb peculiar to his county1 ,the ,vicar of ,bray will be ,vicar of ,bray still4 ,fuller tells us1 in his facetious chronicle of his ,worthies1 that this vicar had seen some martyrs burnt two miles off at ,windsor1 and found this fire too hot for his tender temper4 ,he was one of those who1 though they cannot turn the wind1 will turn their mills1 and set them so1 that wheresoever it bloweth1 their grist shall certainly be ground4 ,the following ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,ceremonies ,,at ,,queen ,,elizabeth',s ,,dinner1 deserves to be recorded4--,a ,german traveller1 7,hentzner7 talking of ,queen ,elizabeth1 thus describes the solemnity of her dinner4 ,while she was at prayers1 we saw her table set out in the following solemn manner3 a gentleman entered the room1 bearing a rod1 and along with him another who had a table-cloth1 which1 after they had both kneeled three times with the utmost veneration1 he spread upon the table2 and1 after kneeling again1 they both retired4 ,then came two others1 one with the rod again1 the other with a salt-cellar1 a plate1 and bread3 when they had kneeled1 as the others had done1 and placed what was brought upon the table1 they too retired with the same ceremonies performed by the first4 ,at last came an unmarried lady1 7we were told she was a countess17 and along with her a married one1 bearing a lasting knife3 the former1 who was dressed in white silk1 when she had prostrated herself three times in the most graceful manner1 approached the table1 and rubbed the plates with bread and salt1 with as much care as if the queen had been present3 when they had waited there a little while1 the yeomen of the guard entered1 bareheaded1 clothed in scarlet1 with a golden rose upon their backs1 bringing in at each turn a course of twenty-four dishes1 served in plate1 most of it gilt2 these dishes were received by a gentleman in the same order they were brought1 and placed upon the table1 while the lady-taster gave to each of the guards a mouthful to eat1 of the particular dish he had brought1 for fear of any poison4 ,during the time that this guard1 which consists of the tallest and stoutest men that could be found in all ,england1 were bringing dinner1 twelve trumpets and two kettledrums made the hall ring for half an hour together4 ,at the end of this ceremonial1 a number of unmarried ladies appeared1 who1 with particular solemnity1 lifted the meat off the table1 and conveyed it into the queen's inner and more private chamber1 where1 after she had chosen for herself1 the rest went to the ladies of the court4 ,a ,,blacksmith',s ,,wife ,,become ,a ,,queen4--,it is a curious circumstance1 that the present queen of the ,sandwich islands1 was formerly1 or rather is at this time1 the wife of a ,russian blacksmith4 ,an ,english vessel lying off what we usually call the ,fox ,island1 several years ago1 one of the officers became enamoured of the fair spouse of a son of ,vulcan there2 and1 his passion being returned1 he contrived to smuggle her on board the vessel1 and keep her there concealed without the knowledge of his captain1 till they had cleared the port4 ,in the course of the voyage1 however1 the circumstance became known to the captain1 who being highly enraged at such a breach of faith and discipline1 kept her confined till they arrived at the ,sandwich ,islands1 where she was put on shore4 ,the forlorn ,ariadne1 however1 found a ,bacchus for her ,theseus1--a royal lover1 to replace her lost lieutenant4 ,the king of the island became enamoured of the fair ,russian1 made her his wife1 and raised her to his throne4 ,he was no every-day king4 ,he was a statesman and a hero1 though we should call him a savage4 ,he progressively created a respectable navy of several well-built frigates2 taught his subjects to be excellent sailors2 raised armies2 subdued the surrounding islands2 and at the close of a prosperous reign1 left his possessions and his sovereignty to his queen1 who now reigns as his successor4 ,she is well obeyed by her subjects2 possesses great wealth in flocks1 herds1 and rice-ground2 and sends frequent presents to her former deserted husband1 who still continues to hammer horses' shoes in a ,russian colony1 while his faithless1 but it seems not quite ungrateful spouse1 stretches her sceptre over several prosperous isles4 ,,the ,,swine',s ,,concert4--,the abbot of ,baigne1 a man of great wit1 and who had the art of inventing new musical instruments1 being in the service of ,louis ,,xi4 king of ,france1 was ordered by that prince to get him a concert of swine's voices1 thinking it impossible4 ,the abbot was not surprised1 but asked money for the performance1 which was immediately delivered him2 and he wrought a thing as singular as ever was seen4 ,for out of a great number of hogs1 of several ages1 which he got together1 and placed under a tent or pavilion covered with velvet1 before which he had a table of wood painted1 with a certain number of keys1 he made an organical instrument2 and as he played upon the said keys1 he1 by means of little spikes1 which pricked the hogs1 made them cry in such order and consonance1 as highly delighted the king and all his company4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxx4 ,,curiosities ,,of ,,literature4 ,origin of the ,materials of ,writing--,minute ,writing--,titles of ,books--,literary ,labour and ,perseverance--,curious ,account of the ,scarcity of ,books--,celebrated ,libraries--,book of ,blunders--,curious ,account of the ,means of ,intellectual ,improvement in ,london4 ,of all the pleasures1 noble and refin'd1 ,which form the taste and cultivate the mind2 ,in ev'ry realm where science darts its beam1 ,from ,zembla's ice to ,afric's golden stream2 ,from climes where ,phoebus pours his orient ray1 ,to the fair regions of declining day3 ,the 'feast of reason' which from reading springs1 ,to reas'ning man the highest solace brings4 ',tis books a lasting pleasure can supply1 ,charm while we live1 and teach us how to die4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,materials ,,of ,,writing4--,the most ancient mode of writing was on bricks1 and on tables of stone2 afterwards on plates of various materials1 on ivory1 on the bark of trees1 and on their leaves4 ,specimens of most of these modes of writing may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,no4 #cdgh1 in the ,sloanian library1 is a ,nabob's letter1 on a piece of bark about two yards long1 and richly ornamented with gold4 ,no4 #cbjg1 is a book of ,mexican hieroglyphics1 painted on bark4 ,in the same collection are various species1 many from the ,malabar coast1 and other parts of the ,east4 ,the latter writings are chiefly on leaves4 ,the prophecies of the ,sibyls were on leaves4 ,there are several copies of ,bibles written on palm-leaves1 still preserved in various collections in ,europe4 ,the ancients1 doubtless1 wrote on any leaves they found adapted for the purpose4 ,hence the leaf of a book1 as well as that of a tree1 is derived4 ,in the book of ,job1 mention is made of writing on stone1 and on sheets of lead4 ,the law of ,moses was written on stone4 ,hesiod's works were written on leaden tables2 lead was used for writing1 and rolled up like a cylinder1 as ,pliny states4 ,the laws of the ,greeks were engraven on bronze tables4 ,in the shepherd state1 they wrote their songs with thorns and awls1 on leather4 ,the ,icelanders wrote on walls2 and ,olaf1 according to one of the sagas1 built a large house1 on the balks and spars of which he had engraven the history of his own and more ancient times2 while another northern hero appears to have had nothing better than his own chair and bed1 on which to perpetuate his own heroic acts4 ,the ,arabs took the shoulder-bones of sheep1 on which they carved remarkable events with a knife1 and after tying them with a string1 they hung these chronicles up in their cabinets4 ,these early inventions led to the discovery of tablets of wood2 and as cedar is incorruptible1 from its bitterness1 they chose this wood for cases or chests to preserve their most important writings4 ,from this custom arises the celebrated expression of the ancients1 when they meant to give the highest eulogium of an excellent work1 et cedro digna locuti2 that it was worthy to be written on cedar4 ,these tablets were made of the trunks of trees2 the use of them still exists1 but in general they are made of other materials than wood4 ,the same reason which led them to prefer the cedar to other trees1 induced them to write on wax1 which is incorruptible from its nature4 ,men generally used it to write their testaments1 in order the better to preserve them3 thus ,juvenal says1 ,ceras implere capaces4 ,this thin paste of wax was also spread on tablets of wood1 that it might more easily admit of erasure4 ,they wrote with an iron bodkin1 as they did on the other substances we have noticed4 ,the stylus was made sharp at one end to write with1 and blunt and broad at the other1 to deface and correct easily2 hence the phrase vertere stylum1 to turn the stylus1 was used to express blotting out4 ,but the ,romans forbade the use of this sharp instrument1 from the circumstance of many persons having used them as daggers4 ,a schoolmaster was killed by the pugillares1 or table-book1 and the styles of his own scholars4 ,they substituted a stylus made of the bone of a bird1 or other animal1 so that their writings resembled engravings4 ,when they wrote on softer materials1 they employed reeds and canes1 split like our pens at the points1 which the ,orientalists still use to lay their colour or ink neater on the paper4 ,by the word pen in the translation of the ,bible1 we are to understand an iron style4 ,table-books of ivory are still used for memoranda1 written by black-lead pencils4 ,the ,romans used ivory to write the edicts of the senate on2 and the expression of libris elephantinis1 which1 some authors imagine1 alludes to books which for their size were called elephantine1 others more rationally conclude1 were composed of ivory1 the tusk of the elephant4 ,pumice was likewise a writing material of the ancients1 which they used to smooth the roughness of the parchment1 or to sharpen their reeds4 ,in the progress of time1 the art of writing consisted in painting with different kinds of ink4 ,this novel mode of writing occasioned them to invent other materials proper to receive their writing4 ,they now chose the thin bark of certain trees and plants2 they wrote on linen1 and at length1 when this was found apt to become mouldy1 they prepared the skins of animals4 ,those of asses are still in use2 and on those of serpents1 c4 were once written the ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,the first place where they began to dress these skins was ,pergamus1 in ,asia2 whence the ,latin name is derived of ,pergamen1 or parchment4 ,these skins are1 however1 better known amongst the authors of the purest ,latin1 under the name of membrana1 so called from the membranes of animals of which they were composed4 ,the ancients had parchments of three different colours1 white1 yellow1 and purple4 ,at ,rome1 white parchment was disliked1 because it was more subject to be soiled than the others1 and dazzled the eye4 ,they generally wrote letters of gold and silver on purple or violet parchment4 ,this custom continued in the early ages of the church2 and copies of the ,evangelists of this kind are preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,when the ,egyptians employed for writing the bark of a plant or reed1 called papyrus1#bd or paper-rush1 it superseded all former modes1 because this was the most convenient4 ,formerly there grew great quantities of it on the sides of the ,nile4 ,it is this plant which has given the name to our paper1 although the latter is composed of linen or rags4 ,after the eighth century the papyrus was superseded by parchment4 ,the ,chinese make their paper with silk4 ,the use of paper is of great antiquity2 it is what the ancient ,latinists call charta1 or chart4 ,before the use of parchment and paper passed to the ,romans1 they contrived to use the thin peel which was found on trees1 between the wood of these trees and their bark4 ,this second skin they called liber1 whence the ,latin word liber1 a book1 and library and librarian1 in the ,european languages1 and the ,french livre for book2 but we of northern origin derive our book from the ,danish bog1 the beech-tree1 because that being the most plentiful in ,denmark1 was used to engrave on4 ,anciently1 instead of folding this bark1 this parchment1 or paper1 as we fold ours1 they rolled it according as they wrote on it2 and the ,latin name which they gave these rolls has passed into our language as well as the others4 ,we say a volume or volumes1 although our books are composed of pages cut and bound together4 ,the books of the ancients on the shelves of their libraries1 were rolled up on a pin1 and placed erect1 titled on the outside in red letters1 or rubrics1 and appeared like a number of small pillars on the shelves4 ,curious information respecting small1 or ,,minute ,,writing4--,the ,iliad of ,homer in a nut-shell1 which ,pliny says that ,cicero once saw1 it is pretended might have been a fact1 however to some it may appear impossible4 lian notices an artist who wrote a distich in letters of gold1 which he inclosed in the rind of a grain of corn4 ,antiquity1 and modern times1 have recorded many penmen1 whose glory consisted in writing so small a hand1 that it could not be legible to the naked eye4 ,one wrote a verse of ,homer on a grain of millet2 and another1 more indefatigably industrious in this important trifling1 is said by ,menage to have written whole sentences which were not perceptible to the eye without the microscope3 pictures and portraits1 also1 appeared at first to be lines and scratches thrown down at random2 one of these formed the face of the ,dauphiness1 with the most pleasing delicacy and correct resemblance4 ,he read an ,italian poem in praise of this princess1 containing some thousands of verses1 written by an officer1 in the space of a foot and a half4 ,this species of curious idleness has not been lost in our own country3 about a century ago1 this minute writing was a fashionable curiosity4 ,a drawing of the head of ,charles ,i4 is in the library of ,st4 ,john's college1 at ,oxford4 ,it is wholly composed of minute written characters1 which at a small distance resemble the lines of engraving4 ,the lines of the head and ruff1 are said to contain the book of ,psalms1 the ,creed1 and the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,in the ,british ,museum we find a drawing representing the portrait of ,queen ,anne1 not much above the size of the hand4 ,on this drawing appear a number of lines and scratches1 which1 the librarian assures the marvelling spectator1 includes the entire contents of a thin folio volume1 that on this occasion is carried in the hand1 as if to vouch for the truth of a statement so liable to be received with hesitation4 ,on this subject it may be worth noticing1 that the learned ,huet asserts that he1 like the rest of the world1 for a long time considered as a fiction the story of that industrious writer1 who is said to have inclosed the ,iliad in a nut-shell4 ,but having examined the matter more closely1 he thought it possible4 ,one day1 in company at the ,dauphin's1 this learned man trifled half a hour in proving it4 ,a piece of vellum1 about ten inches in length and eight in width1 pliant and firm1 can be folded up and enclosed in the shell of a large walnut4 ,it can hold in its breadth one line1 which can contain #cj verses1 and in its length #bej lines4 ,with a crow-quill the writing can be perfect4 ,a page of this vellum will then contain #gejj verses1 and the reverse as much2 the whole #ae1jjj verses of the ,iliad4 ,and this he proved in their presence1 by using a piece of paper1 and with a common pen4 ,the thing is possible to be effected2 and if some occasion should happen1 when paper is excessively rare1 it may be useful to know1 that a volume of matter may be contained in a very small space4 ,we submit the following curious particulars respecting the ,,titles ,,of ,,books4--,the ,jewish1 and many ,oriental authors1 were fond of allegorical titles1 which always shews the most puerile age of taste4 ,the titles were usually adapted to their obscure works4 ,it might exercise an able enigmatist to explain their allusions2 for we must understand by ,the ,heart of ,aaron1 a commentary on several of the prophets4 ,the ,bones of ,joseph is an introduction to the ,talmud4 ,the ,garden of ,nuts1 and ,the ,golden ,apples1 are theological questions1 and ,the ,pomegranate with its ,flower1 is a treatise of ceremonies no longer practised4 ,jortin gives a title1 which he says1 of all the fantastical titles he can recollect1 is one of the prettiest4 ,a ,rabbin published a catalogue of ,rabbinical writers1 and called it ,labia ,dormientium1 from ,cantic4 vii4 #i4 ,like the best wine of my beloved1 that goeth down sweetly1 causing the lips of those that are asleep to speak4 ,it has a double meaning1 of which he was not aware1 for most of his ,rabbinical brethren talk very much like men in their sleep4 ,almost all their works bear such titles as1 ,bread1 ,gold1 ,silver1 ,roses1 ,eyes1 c42 in a word1 any thing that meant nothing4 ,affected title-pages were not peculiar to the ,orientalists2 but the ,greeks and the ,romans have shewn a finer taste4 ,they had their ,cornucopias1 or horns of abundance2 ,limones1 or meadows2 ,pinakidions1 or tablets2 ,pancarpes1 or all sorts of fruits3 titles not unhappily adapted for the miscellanists4 ,the nine books of ,herodotus1 and the nine epistles of schines1 were respectively honoured by the name of a ,muse2 and three orations of the latter1 by those of the ,graces4 ,the modern fanatics have had a most barbarous taste for titles4 ,we could produce numbers from abroad1 and also at home4 ,some works have been called1 ,matches ,lighted at the ,divine ,fire1 and one ,the ,gun of ,penitence3 a collection of passages from the ,fathers1 is called1 ,the ,shop of the ,spiritual ,apothecary3 we have ,the ,bank of ,faith1 and ,the ,sixpennyworth of ,divine ,spirit3 one of these works bears the following elaborate one2 ,some fine ,baskets baked in the ,oven of ,charity1 carefully conserved for the ,chickens of the ,church1 the ,sparrows of the ,spirit1 and the sweet ,swallows of ,salvation4 ,sometimes their quaintness has some humour4 ,one ,sir ,humphrey ,lind1 a zealous puritan1 published a work1 which a ,jesuit answered by another1 entitled1 ,a ,pair of ,spectacles for ,sir ,humphrey ,lind4 ,the doughty knight retorted1 by ,a ,case for ,sir ,humphrey ,lind's ,spectacles4 ,some of these obscure titles have an entertaining absurdity2 as1 ,the ,three ,daughters of ,job1 which is a treatise on the three virtues of patience1 fortitude1 and pain4 ,the ,innocent ,love1 or the ,holy ,knight1 is a description of the ardours of a saint for the ,virgin4 ,the ,sound of the ,trumpet1 is a work on the day of judgment2 and ,a ,fan to drive away ,flies1 is a theological treatise on purgatory4 ,the title which ,george ,gascoigne1 who had great merit in his day1 has given to his collection1 may be considered as a specimen of the titles of his times4 ,it was printed in #aegf4 ,he calls it ,a hundred sundrie ,floures bounde up in one small ,poesie2 gathered partly by translation in the fyne and outlandish gardens of ,euripides1 ,ovid1 ,petrarche1 ,ariosto1 and others2 and partly by invention out of our own fruitefull orchardes in ,englande2 yielding sundrie sweet savours of tragicall1 comicall1 and morall discourses1 both pleasaunt and profitable to the well-swelling noses of learned readers4 ,,literary ,,labour ,,and ,,perseverance4--,the ,rev4 ,william ,davy1 curate of ,lustleigh1 ,devon1 in the year #ahjg1 finished a work in twenty-six volumes1 of which the following is the title3-- ,a ,system of ,divinity1 in a ,course of ,sermons on the first ,institutions of ,religion--on the ,being and ,attributes of ,god--on some of the most important ,articles of the ,christian ,religion1 in ,connection--and on the several ,virtues and ,vices of ,mankind2 with ,occasional ,discourses4 ,being a ,compilation of the best ,sentiments of the ,polite ,writers and eminent sound ,divines1 both ancient and modern1 on the same subjects1 properly connected1 with ,improvements2 particularly adapted for the ,use of ,chief ,families1 and ,students in ,divinity1 for ,churches1 and for the ,benefit of ,mankind in general4 ,the author of the work bearing this astounding title1 once attempted to publish it by subscription2 in which he failed3 he being poor1 and unable to venture its publication1 resolved to print it himself2 for which purpose he procured as many worn-out types from a country printing-office as enabled him to print two pages at once2 which1 with the addition of a press of his own manufacture1 he set to work in the year #agie1 serving every office himself1 from compositor to printer's-devil2 and proceeding regularly page by page1 he struck off forty copies of the first three hundred pages1 half of which he distributed among the reviews1 the bishops1 and the universities1 with a view of attracting public attention2 but here also he failed3 when he became determined to treat a misjudging world with contempt1 and accordingly continued to print off fourteen copies of each1 and at the end of twelve years finished the whole six-and-twenty volumes4 ,curious account of the ,,scarcity ,,of ,,books--,of the scarcity and value of books during the seventh and many subsequent centuries1 the following curious account is given by ,mr4 ,warton1 in his ,history of ,english ,poetry1 vol4 i4 ,towards the close of the seventh century1 7says he17 even in the papal library at ,rome1 the number of books was so inconsiderable1 that pope ,st4 ,martin requested ,sanctamand1 bishop of ,maestricht1 if possible1 to supply this defect from the remotest parts of ,germany4 ,in #hee1 ,lupus1 abbot of ,ferriers1 in ,france1 sent two of his monks to pope ,benedict ,,iii4 to beg a copy of ,cicero de ,oratore1 and ,quintilian's ,institutes1 and some other books3 'for 7says the abbot7 although we have part of these books1 yet there is no whole or complete copy of them in all ,france4' ,albert1 abbot of ,gemblours1 who with incredible labour and immense expense had collected one hundred volumes on theological1 and fifty on profane subjects1 imagined he had formed a splendid library4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #gij1 ,charlemagne granted an unlimited right of hunting1 to the abbot and monks of ,sithin1 for making covers for their books of the skins of the deer they killed4 ,these religious were probably more fond of hunting than reading2 and1 under these circumstances1 did not manufacture many volumes4 ,at the beginning of the tenth century1 books were so scarce in ,spain1 that one copy of the ,bible1 ,st4 ,jerome's epistles1 and some volumes of ecclesiastical offices and martyrologies1 often served several different monasteries4 ,in an inventory of the goods of ,john de ,pontissara1 bishop of ,winchester1 in his palace of ,wulvesey1 all the books are only septemdecim speciem librorum de diversis scientiis4 ,this was in #abid4 ,the same prelate1 in #abii1 borrows of his cathedral convent of ,st4 ,swithin1 at ,winchester1 ,bibliam bene glossatam2 i4 e4 the ,bible with marginal annotations1 in two large folio volumes2 but gives a bond for due return of the loan1 drawn up with great solemnity4 ,this ,bible had been bequeathed to the convent by ,pontissara's predecessor1 bishop ,nicholas de ,ely3 and in consideration of so important a bequest1 pro bona ,biblia dicti episcopi bene glossata1 and one hundred marks in money1 the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the donor4 ,when a single book was bequeathed to a friend1 it was seldom without many restrictions4 ,if any person gave a book to a religious house1 he believed that so valuable a donation merited eternal salvation2 and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony4 ,the most formidable anathemas were peremptorily denounced against those who should dare to alienate a book presented to the cloister1 or library of a religious house4 ,the prior and convent of ,rochester declare1 that they will every year pronounce the irrevocable sentence of damnation on him who shall purloin or conceal a ,latin translation of ,aristotle's ,physics1 or even obliterate the title4 ,sometimes a book was given to a monastery1 on condition that the donor should have the use of it during his life2 and sometimes to a private person1 on the terms that he who received it should pray for the soul of his benefactor4 ,when a book was bought1 the affair was of so much importance1 that it was customary to assemble persons of consequence and character1 and to make a formal record that they were present4 ,among the royal manuscripts in the book of the ,sentences of ,peter ,lombard1 an archdeacon of ,lincoln has left this entry3 ,this book of the ,sentences belongs to master ,robert1 archdeacon of ,lincoln1 which he bought of ,geoffrey the chaplain1 brother of ,henry1 vicar of ,northelkington1 in the presence of master ,robert de ,lee1 master ,john of ,lirling1 ,richard of ,luda1 clerk1 ,richard the almoner1 the said ,henry the vicar1 and his clerk1 and others3 and the said archdeacon gave the said book to ,god and ,st4 ,oswald1 and to ,peter abbot of ,barton1 and the convent of ,barden4 ,the disputed property of a book often occasioned the most violent altercations4 ,many claims appear to have been made to a manuscript of ,matthew ,paris1 belonging to the last mentioned library2 in which ,john ,russel1 bishop of ,lincoln1 conditionally defends or explains his right of possession2 and concludes thus1 ,a4 ,d4 #adhh1 ,whoever shall obliterate or destroy this writing1 let him be anathema4 ,about #abbe1 ,roger de ,insula1 dean of ,york1 gave several ,latin ,bibles to the university of ,oxford1 on the condition1 that the students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge4 ,the library of that university1 before ,a4 ,d4 #acjj1 consisted only of a few tracts1 chained or kept in chests in the choir of ,st4 ,mary's church4 ,in #acbg1 the scholars and citizens of ,oxford pillaged the opulent ,benedictine abbey of the neighbouring town of ,abingdon4 ,among the books they found there1 were one hundred psalters1 as many grayles1 forty missals1 which undoubtedly belonged to the choir of the church1 and twenty-two codices1 on common subjects4 ,and although the invention of paper1 at the close of the eleventh century1 contributed to multiply manuscripts1 and consequently to facilitate knowledge1 yet1 even so late as the reign of ,henry ,,vi4 the following remarkable instance occurred of the inconveniences and impediments to study1 which must have been produced by a scarcity of books4 ,it is in the statutes of ,st4 ,mary's college at ,oxford1 founded as a seminary to ,oseney abbey1 in #addf3 ,let no scholar occupy a book in the library above one hour1 or two hours at most2 so that others shall not be hindered from the use of the same6 ,the famous library established in the university of ,oxford1 by that munificent patron of literature1 ,humphrey duke of ,gloucester1 contained only six hundred volumes4 ,about the commencement of the fourteenth century1 there were only four classics in the royal library at ,paris4 ,there was one copy of ,cicero1 ,ovid1 ,lucan1 and ,boetius4 ,the rest were chiefly books of devotion1 which included but few of the ,fathers3 many treatises of astrology1 geomancy1 chiromancy1 and medicine1 originally written in ,arabic1 and translated into ,latin or ,french3 pandects1 chronicles1 and romances4 ,this collection was principally made by ,charles ,v4 who began his reign in #acfe4 ,this monarch was passionately fond of reading2 and it was the fashion to send him presents of books from every part of the kingdom of ,france4 ,these he ordered to be elegantly transcribed1 and richly illuminated2 and he placed them in a tower of the ,louvre1 from thence called ,la ,toure de la ,libraire4 ,the whole consisted of nine hundred volumes4 ,they were deposited in three chambers1 wainscoted with ,irish oak1 and ceiled with cypress curiously carved4 ,the windows were of painted glass1 fenced with iron bars and copper wire4 ,the ,english became masters of ,paris in the year #adbe2 on which event the ,duke of ,bedford1 regent of ,france1 sent the whole library1 then consisting of only eight hundred and fifty-three volumes1 and valued at #bbbc livres1 into ,england2 where perhaps they became the groundwork of ,duke ,humphrey's library4 ,even so late as the year #adga1 when ,louis ,,xi4 of ,france borrowed the works of the ,arabian physician1 ,rhasis1 from the faculty of medicine at ,paris1 he not only deposited by way of pledge a quantity of valuable plate1 but was obliged to procure a nobleman to join with him as a surety in a deed1 by which he bound himself to return it1 under a considerable forfeiture4 ,the excessive prices of books in the middle ages afford numerous and curious proofs of the caution with which literary property was secured in those times of general ignorance4 ,in #aagd1 ,walter1 prior of ,st4 ,swithin's at ,winchester1 a writer in ,latin of the lives of the bishops who were his patrons1 purchased of the monks of ,dorchester1 in ,oxfordshire1 ,bede's ,homilies and ,st4 ,austin's ,psalter1 for twelve measures of barley1 and a pall1 on which was richly embroidered in silver the history of ,st4 ,birinus converting a ,saxon king4 ,among the royal manuscripts in the ,british ,museum1 there is ,comestor's ,scholastic ,history in ,french2 which1 as it is recorded in a blank page at the beginning1 was taken from the king of ,france at the battle of ,poictiers2 and being purchased by ,william ,montague1 ,earl of ,salisbury1 for #ajj marcs1 was ordered to be sold by the last will of his countess1 ,elizabeth1 for #dj livres4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #adjj1 a copy of ,john of ,meun's ,romance de la ,rose1 was sold before the palace gate at ,paris for a sum equal to #cc4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,celebrated ,,libraries4--,the first who erected a library at ,athens was the tyrant ,pisistratus4 ,this was transported by ,xerxes into ,persia1 and afterwards brought back by ,seleucus ,nicanor to ,athens4 ,plutarch says1 that under ,eumenes there was a library at ,pergamus which contained two hundred thousand books4 ,that of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 according to ,a4 ,gellius1 contained forty thousand1 which were all burnt by ,csar's soldiers4 ,the celebrated library of ,alexandria1 begun by ,ptolemy ,soter1 and enlarged by his successors1 consisting of seven hundred thousand volumes1 contained nearly all the literary treasures of the world4 ,this was burnt by order of the ,caliph ,omar1 in the seventh century1 and the loss must for ever remain irreparable4 ,on this calamity1 literature can never reflect without a sigh4 ,constantine and his successor erected a magnificent one at ,constantinople1 which in the eighth century contained three hundred thousand volumes1 and among the rest1 one in which the ,iliad and ,odyssey were written in letters of gold1 on the entrails of a serpent2 but this library was burnt1 by order of ,leo ,isaurus4 ,the most celebrated libraries of ancient ,rome1 were the ,ulpian and the ,palatine2 and in modern ,rome1 that of the ,vatican1 the foundation of which was laid by ,pope ,nicholas in the year #adej4 ,it was afterwards diminished in the sacking of ,rome by the constable of ,bourbon1 and restored by ,pope ,sixtus ,v4 and has been considerably enriched with the ruins of that of ,heidelberg1 plundered by count ,tilly in #afhb4 ,one of the most complete libraries in ,europe1 was that erected by ,cosmo de ,medicis2 though it was afterwards exceeded by that of the ,french king1 which was begun by ,francis ,i4 augmented by cardinal ,richelieu1 and completed by ,m4 ,colbert4 ,the emperor's library at ,vienna1 according to ,lambecius1 consists of eighty thousand volumes1 and fifteen thousand nine hundred and forty curious medals4 ,the ,bodleian library at ,oxford exceeds that of any university in ,europe1 and even those of any of the sovereigns1 except those of the emperors of ,france and ,germany1 which are each of them older by a hundred years4 ,it was first opened in #afjb1 and has since been increased by a great number of benefactors3 indeed the ,medicean library1 that of ,bessarion at ,venice1 and those just mentioned1 exceed it in ,greek manuscripts1 but it outdoes them all in ,oriental manuscripts2 and as to printed books1 the ,ambrosian at ,milan1 and that of ,wolfenbuttle1 are two of the most famous libraries on the continent1 and yet both are considerably inferior to the ,bodleian4 ,the ,cottonian library consists wholly of manuscripts1 particularly of such as relate to the history and antiquities of ,england2 which1 as they are now bound1 make about one thousand volumes4 ,,book ,,of ,,blunders4--,one of the most egregious1 shall we add illustrious1 of all literary blunders1 is that of the edition of the ,vulgate1 by ,sixtus ,v4 ,his holiness carefully superintended every sheet as it passed through the press2 and1 to the amazement of the world1 the work remained without a rival--it swarmed with errata6 ,a multitude of scraps were printed1 to paste over the erroneous passages1 in order to give the true text4 ,the book makes a whimsical appearance with these pasted corrections2 and the heretics exulted in the demonstration of papal infallibility6 ,the copies were called in1 and violent attempts made to suppress it2 however1 a few still remain for the pursuit of biblical collectors3 at a late sale1 the ,bible of ,sixtus ,v4 fetched above sixty guineas--a tolerable sum for a mere book of blunders6 ,the world was highly amused at the bull of the ,pope and editor prefixed to the first volume1 which excommunicates all printers1 c4 who in reprinting the work should make any alteration in the text6 ,curious account of ,,the ,,means ,,of ,,intellectual ,,improvement ,,in ,,london4--,the following is an estimate made of the means of intellectual improvement in ,london4 ,there are four hundred and seven places of public worship2 four thousand and fifty seminaries for education1 including two hundred and thirty-seven parish charity schools2 eight societies for the express purpose of promoting good morals2 twelve societies for promoting the learned1 the useful1 and the polite arts2 one hundred and twenty-two asylums and alms-houses for the helpless and indigent1 including the ,philanthropic ,society for reclaiming criminal children2 thirty hospitals and dispensaries for sick and lame1 and for the delivery of poor pregnant women2 seven hundred friendly or benefit societies2 about thirty institutions for charitable and humane purposes2 about thirty institutions for teaching some thousands of poor children the arts of reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 on the plans of ,mr4 ,lancaster and ,dr4 ,bell2 and these several establishments1 including the poor's rate1 are supported at the almost incredible cost of one million per annum4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxxi4 ,,curiosities ,,of ,,literature4--7,continued47 ,origin of the ,word ,news--,origin of ,newspapers--,instances of ,new ,studies in ,old ,age--,literary ,shoemakers--,imprisonment of the ,learned--,singular ,customs annually observed by the ,company of ,stationers--,book of ,sports--,origin of ,cards--,explanation of all the ,letters on a ,guinea4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,word ,,news4--,the four cardinal points of the compass1 marked with the letters ,n4 ,e4 ,w4 ,s4 standing for ,north1 ,east1 ,west1 and ,south1 form the word ,news1 which coming from all parts of the world1 gave derivation to the word4 ,,origin ,,of ,,newspapers4--,we are indebted to the ,italians for the idea of ,newspapers4 ,the title of the ,gazettas1 was perhaps derived from ,gazzera1 a magpie or chatterer2 or more probably from a farthing coin1 peculiar to the city of ,venice1 called ,gazetta1 which was the common price of the newspapers4 ,another learned etymologist is for deriving it from the ,latin ,gaza1 which would colloquially lengthen into ,gazetta1 and signify a little treasury of news4 ,the ,spanish derive it indeed from the ,latin ,gaza2 and likewise their ,gazatero1 and our ,gazetteer1 for a writer of the ,gazette2 and1 what is peculiar to themselves1 ,gazetista1 for a lover of the ,gazette4 ,newspapers then took their birth in that principal land of modern politicians1 ,italy1 and under the government of that aristocratical republic1 ,venice4 ,the first paper was a ,venetian one1 and only monthly3 but it was the newspaper of the government only4 ,other governments afterwards adopted the ,venetian name for it2 and from one solitary government ,gazette1 we see what an inundation of newspapers has burst out upon us in this country4 ,mr4 ,chalmers gives1 in his life of ,ruddiman1 a curious particular of these ,venetian ,gazettes4 ,a jealous government did not allow a printed newspaper2 and the ,venetian ,gazetta continued long after the invention of printing to the close of the sixteenth century1 and even to our own days1 to be distributed in manuscript4 ,in the ,magliabechian library at ,florence are thirty volumes of ,venetian ,gazettas1 all in manuscript4 ,those who first wrote newspapers1 were called by the ,italians ,menanti2 because1 says ,vossius1 they intended commonly by these loose papers to spread about defamatory reflections1 and were therefore prohibited in ,italy by ,gregory ,,xiii4 in a particular bull1 under the name of ,menantes1 from the ,latin ,minantes1 threatening4 ,menage1 however1 derives it from the ,italian ,menare1 which signifies1 to lead at large1 or spread afar4 ,mr4 ,chalmers discovers in ,england the first newspaper4 ,it may gratify national pride1 says he1 to be told1 that mankind are indebted to the wisdom of ,elizabeth and the prudence of ,burleigh for the first newspaper4 ,the epoch of the ,spanish ,armada is also the epoch of a genuine newspaper4 ,in the ,british ,museum are several newspapers which had been printed while the ,spanish fleet was in the ,english ,channel1 during the year #aehh4 ,it was a wise policy to prevent1 during a moment of general anxiety1 the danger of false reports1 by publishing real information4 ,the earliest newspaper is entitled ,the ,english ,mercurie1 which by authority was imprinted at ,london by her highness's printer1 #aehh4 ,these were1 however1 but extraordinary ,gazettes1 not regularly published4 ,the following are curious ,,instances ,,of ,,new ,,studies ,,in ,,old ,,age4--,socrates learnt to play on musical instruments in his old age2 ,cato1 at eighty1 thought proper to learn ,greek2 and ,plutarch1 almost as late in life1 ,latin4 ,theophrastus began his admirable work on the characters of men1 at the extreme age of ninety4 ,he only terminated his literary labours by his death4 ,peter ,ronsard1 one of the fathers of ,french poetry1 applied himself late to study4 ,his acute genius1 and ardent application1 rivalled those poetic models which he admired4 ,the great ,arnauld retained the vigour of his genius1 and the command of his pen1 to his last day2 and at the age of eighty-two was still the great ,arnauld4 ,sir ,henry ,spelman neglected the sciences in his youth1 but cultivated them at fifty years of age1 and produced good fruit4 ,his early years were chiefly passed in farming1 which greatly diverted him from his studies2 but a remarkable disappointment respecting a contested estate1 disgusted him with these rustic occupations1 and resolving to attach himself to regular studies and literary society1 he sold his farms1 and became a most learned antiquary and lawyer4 ,colbert1 the famous ,french minister1 almost at sixty returned to his ,latin and law studies4 ,tellier1 the chancellor of ,france1 learnt logic1 merely for an amusement1 to dispute with his grandchildren4 ,dr4 ,johnson applied himself to the ,dutch language but a few years before his death4 ,but on this head the ,marquis de ,saint ,anlaire may be regarded as a prodigy2 at the age of seventy he began to court the ,muses1 and they crowned him with their freshest flowers4 ,his verses are full of fire1 delicacy1 and sweetness4 ,voltaire says1 that ,anacreon1 less old1 produced less charming compositions4 ,chaucer's ,canterbury ,tales were the composition of his latest years3 they were begun in his fifty-fourth year1 and finished in his sixty-first3 it is on these works his fame is established1 at least they are those which are most adapted to attract all classes of poetical readers4 ,the celebrated ,boccacio was thirty-five years of age when he began his studies in polite literature4 ,he has1 however1 excelled many whose whole life has been devoted to this branch of letters4 ,such is the privilege of genius4 ,ludovico ,monaldesco1 at the extraordinary age of #aae1 wrote the memoirs of his time3 a singular exertion1 noticed by ,voltaire1 who himself is one of the most remarkable instances of the progress of age in new studies4 ,koonhert began at forty to learn the ,latin and ,greek languages1 of which he became a master2 several students1 who afterwards distinguished themselves1 have commenced as late in life their literary pursuits4 ,ogilby1 the translator of ,homer and ,virgil1 knew little of ,latin or ,greek1 till he was past fifty2 and ,franklin's philosophical pursuits began when he had nearly reached his fiftieth year4 ,accorso1 a great lawyer1 being asked why he began the study of the law so late1 answered1 that indeed he began it late1 but should therefore master it the sooner4 ,dryden's complete works form the largest body of poetry from the pen of one writer in the ,english language2 yet he gave no public testimony of poetical abilities till his twenty-seventh year4 ,in his sixty-eighth year he proposed to translate the whole ,ilias2 his most pleasing productions were written in his old age4 ,michael ,angelo preserved his creative genius even in extreme old age2 for he worked almost to his last day1 and he reached his ninetieth year4 ,he alludes1 doubtless1 to himself in an ingenious device1 if it be of his own invention3 ,a venerable old man is represented in a go-cart1 an hour-glass upon it1 with the inscription1 ,,ancora ,,imparo6 ,,yet ,i ,,am ,,learning6 ,,literary ,,shoemakers4--,the fraternity of shoemakers have unquestionably given rise to some characters of worth and genius4 ,the late ,mr4 ,holcroft was originally a shoemaker4 ,his dramatic pieces must rank among the best of those on the ,english stage4 ,robert ,bloomfield wrote his poem of ,the ,farmer's ,boy1 while employed at this business1 and ,dr4 ,william ,carey1 professor of ,sanscrit and ,bengalee at the college of ,fort ,william1 ,calcutta1 and the able and indefatigable translator of the ,scriptures into many of the ,eastern languages1 was in early life a shoemaker in ,northamptonshire4 ,the present ,mr4 ,gifford1 the translator of ,juvenal1 and the supposed editor of the ,quarterly ,review1 spent some of his early days in learning the craft and mystery of a shoemaker2 as he tells us1 in one of the most interesting pieces of auto-biography ever penned1 and prefixed to his nervous and elegant version of the great ,roman satirist4 ,,imprisonment ,,of ,,the ,,learned4--,imprisonment seems not much to have disturbed the men of letters in the progress of their studies4 ,it was in prison that ,boethius composed his excellent book on the ,consolations of ,philosophy4 ,grotius wrote1 in his confinement1 his ,commentary on ,st4 ,matthew4 ,buchanan1 in his dungeon of a monastery in ,portugal1 composed his excellent ,paraphrases on the ,psalms of ,david4 ,pelisson1 during five years' confinement for some state affairs1 pursued with ardour his studies in the ,greek language1 in philosophy1 and particularly in theology1 and produced several good compositions4 ,michael ,cervantes composed the best and most agreeable book in the ,spanish language1 during his captivity in ,barbary4 ,fleta1 a well-known and very excellent little law production1 was written by a person confined in the fleet prison for debt1 but whose name has not been preserved4 ,louis ,,xii4 when he was ,duke of ,orleans1 being taken prisoner at the battle of ,st4 ,aubin1 was long confined in the tower of ,bourges1 and applying himself to his studies1 which he had hitherto neglected1 he became1 in consequence1 an able and enlightened monarch4 ,margaret1 ,queen of ,henry ,,iv4 ,king of ,france1 confined in the ,louvre1 pursued very warmly the study of elegant literature1 and composed a very skilful apology for the irregularities of her conduct4 ,charles ,i4 during his cruel confinement at ,holmsby1 wrote that excellent book1 entitled ,the ,portrait of a ,king1 which he addressed to his son1 and where the political reflections will be found not unworthy of ,tacitus4 ,this work1 however1 has been attributed1 by his enemies1 to a ,dr4 ,gowden1 who was incapable of writing a single paragraph of it4 ,queen ,elizabeth1 while confined by her sister ,mary1 wrote some very charming poems1 which we do not find she ever could equal after her enlargement3 and ,mary ,queen of ,scots1 during her long imprisonment by ,elizabeth1 produced many beautiful poetic compositions4 ,,singular ,,custom ,,annually ,,observed ,,by ,,the ,,company ,,of ,,stationers4--,on the annual aquatic procession of the ,lord ,mayor of ,london to ,westminster1 the barge of the ,company of ,stationers1 which is usually the first in the show1 proceeds to ,lambeth palace1 where for time immemorial they have received a present of sixteen bottles of the ,archbishop's prime wine4 ,this custom originated at the beginning of the last century4 ,when archbishop ,tenison enjoyed the see1 a very near relation of his1 who happened to be master of the ,stationers' ,company1 thought it a compliment to call there in full state1 and in his barge3 when the archbishop was informed that the number of the company within the barge was thirty-two1 he thought that a pint of wine for each would not be disagreeable2 and ordered1 at the same time1 that a sufficient quantity of new bread and old cheese1 with plenty of strong ale1 should be given to the watermen and attendants3 and from that accidental circumstance it has grown into a settled custom4 ,the ,company1 in return1 presents to the ,archbishop a copy of the several almanacks which they have the peculiar privilege of publishing4 ,,book ,,of ,,sports4--,a book1 or declaration1 drawn up by bishop ,morton1 in the reign of king ,james ,i4 to encourage recreations and sports on the ,lord's day4 ,it was to this effect3 ,that for his good people's recreation1 his majesty's pleasure was1 that1 after the end of divine service1 they should not be disturbed1 letted1 or discouraged1 from any lawful recreations2 such as dancing1 either of men or women2 archery for men2 leaping1 vaulting1 or any such harmless recreations2 nor having of may-games1 whitsun-ales1 or morrice-dances2 or setting up of may-poles1 or other sports therewith used1 so as the same may be had in due and convenient time1 without impediment or let of divine service2 and that women should have leave to carry rushes to the church for the decorating of it1 according to their old customs3 withal prohibiting all unlawful games to be used on ,sundays only2 as bear-bating1 bull-bating1 interludes1 and at all times 7in the meaner sort of people prohibited7 bowling4 ,two or three restraints were annexed to the declaration1 which deserve notice3--#a4 ,no recusant 7i4 e4 papist7 was to have the benefit of this declaration4 #b4 ,nor such as were not present at the whole of divine service4 #c4 ,nor such as did not keep to their own parish churches1 that is1 puritans4 ,this declaration was ordered to be read in all the parishes of ,lancashire1 which abounded with papists2 and ,wilson adds1 that it was to have been read in all the churches of ,england1 but that archbishop ,abbot1 being at ,croydon1 flatly forbade its being read there4 ,in the reign of king ,charles ,i4 archbishop ,laud put the king upon republishing this declaration1 which was accordingly done4 ,the court had their balls1 masquerades1 and plays1 on the ,sunday evenings2 while the youth of the country were at their morrice-dances1 may-games1 church and clerk ales1 and all such kind of revelling4 ,the severe pressing of this declaration made sad havock among the puritans1 as it was to be read in the churches4 ,many poor clergymen strained their consciences in submission to their superiors4 ,some1 after publishing1 immediately read the fourth commandment to the people3--,remember the sabbath day1 to keep it holy3 adding1 ,this is the law of ,god2 the other1 ,the injunction of man4 ,some put it upon their curates2 whilst great numbers absolutely refused to comply3 the consequence of which was1 that several clergymen were actually suspended for not reading it4 ,,origin ,,of ,,cards4--,about the year #acij1 cards were invented1 to divert ,charles ,,vi4 then king of ,france1 who was fallen into a melancholy disposition4 ,that they were not in use before1 appears highly probable1 #ast4 ,because no cards are to be seen in any paintings1 sculpture1 tapestry1 c4 more ancient than the preceding period1 but are represented in many works of ingenuity since that age4 #b;dly4 ,no prohibitions relative to cards1 by the king's edicts1 are mentioned1 although1 some few years before1 a most severe one was published1 forbidding by name1 all manner of sports and pastimes1 in order that the subjects might exercise themselves in shooting with bows and arrows1 and be in a condition to oppose the ,english4 ,now it is not to be presumed1 that so luring a game as cards would have been omitted in the enumeration1 had they been in use4 #c;dly4 ,in all the ecclesiastical canons prior to the said time1 there occurs no mention of cards2 although1 twenty years after that date1 card-playing was interdicted by the clergy1 by a ,gallican synod4 ,about the same time is found1 in the account book of the king's cofferer1 the following charge3--,paid for a pack of painted leaves bought for the king's amusement1 three livres4 ,printing and stamping being then not discovered1 the cards were painted1 which made them so dear4 ,thence1 in the above synodical canons1 they are called gill pict1 painted little leaves4 #dthly4 ,about thirty years after this1 came a severe edict against cards in ,france2 and another by ,emanuel1 duke of ,savoy2 only permitting the ladies this pastime1 pro spinulis1 for pins and needles4 ,of their design4--,the inventor proposed1 by the figures of the four suits1 or colours1 as the ,french call them1 to represent the four states1 or classes1 of men in the kingdom4 ,by the ,csars 7,hearts7 are meant the gens de choeur1 choir men1 or ecclesiastics2 and therefore the ,spaniards1 who certainly received the use of cards from the ,french1 have copas1 or chalices1 instead of hearts4 ,the nobility1 or prime military part of the kingdom1 are represented by the ends or points of lances or pikes2 and our ignorance of the meaning or resemblance of the figure induced us to call them ,spades4 ,the ,spaniards have espaces 7swords7 in lieu of pikes1 which is of similar import4 ,by ,diamonds1 are designed the order of citizens1 merchants1 and tradesmen1 carreaux 7square stone tiles or the like47 ,the ,spaniards have a coin dineros1 which answered to it2 and the ,dutch call the ,french word carreaux stieneen1 stones and diamonds1 from their form4 ,treste1 the trefoil leaf1 or clover-grass 7corruptly called ,clubs7 alludes to the husbandmen and peasants4 ,how this suit came to be called clubs is not explained1 unless1 borrowing the game from the ,spaniards1 who have bastos 7staves or clubs7 instead of the trefoil1 we gave the ,spanish signification to the ,french figure4 ,the history of the four ,kings1 which the ,french in drollery sometimes call the cards1 is ,david1 ,alexander1 ,csar1 and ,charles1 7which names were then1 and still are1 on the ,french cards47 ,these respectable names represent the four celebrated monarchies of the ,jews1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,franks under ,charlemagne4 ,by the ,queens are intended ,argine1 ,esther1 ,judith1 and ,pallas1 7names retained in ,french cards17 typical of birth1 piety1 fortitude1 and wisdom1 the qualifications residing in each person4 ,argine is an anagram for ,regina1 queen by descent4 ,by the ,knaves were designed the servants to knights 7for knave originally meant only servant2 and in an old translation of the ,bible1 ,st4 ,paul is called the knave of ,christ7 but ,french pages and valets1 now indiscriminately used by various orders of persons1 were formerly only allowed to persons of quality1 esquires1 7escuiers17 shield or armour-bearers4 ,others fancy that the knights themselves were designed by those cards1 because ,hogier and ,lahire1 two names on the ,french cards1 were famous knights at the time cards were supposed to be invented4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,all ,,the ,,letters ,,on ,a ,,guinea4--,the ,inscription on a ,guinea runs thus3--,,georgius ,,iii4 ,,dei ,,gratia1 ,m4 ,b4 ,f4 ,,et ,h4 ,,rex1 ,f4 ,d4 ,b4 ,,et ,l4 ,d4 ,s4 ,r4 ,i4 ,a4 ,t4 ,,et ,e4 ,that is1--,georgius ,tertius1 ,dei ,gratia1 ,magn ,brittanni1 ,franci et ,hiberni ,rex1 ,fidei ,defensor1 ,brunswicii et ,lunenburgi ,dux1 ,sacri ,romani ,imperii ,archi-,thesaurarius et ,elector4 ,in ,english1--,george the ,third1 by the ,grace of ,god1 ,king of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,ireland1 ,defender of the ,faith1 ,duke of ,brunswick and ,lunenburgh1 ,arch-,treasurer and ,elector of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxxii4 ,,curiosities ,,of ,,literature4--7,concluded47 ,curious ,address to the late ,queen ,charlotte--,quaint ,lines on ,queen ,elizabeth--,curious ,names adopted in the ,civil ,wars--,curious ,extracts from the ,will of an ,earl of ,pembroke--,curious ,letter from ,pomare1 ,king of ,otaheite1 to the ,missionary ,society--,curious ,love ,letter and ,answer--,creeds of the ,jews--,the ,unbeliever's ,creed--,explanation of the ,terms ,whig and ,tory4 ,,curious ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,late ,,queen ,,charlotte4 ,the ,address of the ,burgomaster1 ,magistrates1 and ,citizens of ,strelitz1 to her ,royal ,highness the ,most ,illustrious ,princess ,sophia ,charlotte1 ,duchess of ,mecklenburgh1 ,princess of ,wenden1 ,schrouin1 and ,piotzburgh1 and ,countess of ,schwerin1 and the countries of ,rostock and ,slangard1 on her leaving the ,territories of the said ,city in her ,way to ,england1 as the ,royal ,bride of his ,most ,illustrious ,majesty ,george the ,third1 ,king of ,great ,britain1 c4 c4 ,aug4 #bg1 #agfa4 ,illustrious ,dutchess1 most gracious ,princess and ,lady2 your ,royal ,highness is at present leaving that country whose happiness it has hitherto been to admire you1 the model of a perfect ,princess2 you leave it to share with the greatest monarch in ,europe1 a throne respected through every part of the universe4 ,the instant is at hand when your ,royal ,highness will for ever be withdrawn from our eyes3 but it affects us the more sensibly1 from the apprehension that the many great and brilliant objects1 with which you will henceforth be connected1 will efface so small a place as ours from your inestimable remembrance4 ,yet that goodness which we have hitherto with transport admired in your ,royal ,highness1 revives our spirits2 it assures us1 that you will ever from the throne condescend graciously to look back on our town2 and continue the patroness of those whose happiness it is to be the subjects of your illustrious ,family4 ,we1 therefore1 in full confidence1 give ourselves up to that lively joy excited in us all1 on the glorious union to which the ,divine ,providence has called your ,royal ,highness1 and beg leave to accompany you with our most cordial wishes for your safe journey and continual welfare and prosperity4 ,may the ,eternal ,ruler of all things1 who has appointed this great event1 make your ,royal ,highness the most perfect instance of felicity1 the delight of that ,royal ,family into which you are now entering1 the joy of ,britain1 and the glory of the illustrious ,mecklenburg6 ,may our illustrious ,sovereign1 the beloved ,adolphus ,frederic1 long1 and in all earthly happiness1 together with his faithful and happy subjects1 rejoice in these felicities6 ,your ,royal ,highness will graciously permit that ,twelve of our ,daughters1 here present in the attire of innocence1 may1 as a memorial of this fortunate event1 second the ardent sentiments of their ,fathers1 and in artless words1 most humbly wish you a safe and pleasant journey3-- ,eleonora ,dorothea ,maria ,bentghoven4 ,hail ,princess6 with each shining virtue bright1 ,all pure within1 without all glorious light1 ,whose form divine1 whose goodness we adore2 ,heaven bless thy parting from the ,german shore6 ,christiana ,juliana ,elizabeth ,berendsden4 ,as ,consort of a mighty ,monarch shine1 ,restore the honour of an ancient line2 ,for this thy coming1 ,britain's ,king invites1 ,for this he calls to ,hymen's soft delights4 ,dorothea ,elizabeth ,tetlington4 ,thy soul with each divinest virtue fraught1 ,thy wisdom perfect1 both in word and thought2 ,each ,british bosom shall with rapture fire1 ,and faction sleep whilst gazing crowds admire4 ,sophia ,elizabeth ,gradhandlan4 ,when seated by thy royal ,consort's side1 ,new lustre he shall gain from such a ,bride2 ,her worth shall grace the sacred nuptial ties1 ,and ,britain's throne in dignity shall rise4 ,carolina ,henrietta ,tangate4 ,o ,god6 whose mercies through the world abound1 ,whose power supports the ,king thy hand has crown'd1 ,waft o'er the main the ,bride's transcendent charms1 ,in safety to the ,bridegroom's longing arms4 ,dorothea ,gaven4 ,may she1 with each endearing art possest1 ,to pleasure ever soothe the ,monarch's breast6 ,may all the royal virtues of her heart1 ,to faithful subjects joy sincere impart6 ,anna ,maria ,elizabeth ,christen4 ,britons1 rejoice1 receive with loud acclaim ,sophia ,charlotte1 ever dear to fame2 ,delight of ,mecklenburg6 she comes to shower ,on ,britain's isle new blessings every hour4 ,madalen ,elizabeth ,colterjahn4 ,thrice happy ,bride6 who soon shall cross the main1 ,whom to behold again we wish in vain2 ,may happiness increasing with thee dwell1 ,to every age may fame thy glory tell6 ,christiana ,sophia ,sealon4 ,from ,ganges to where ,mississippi flows1 ,diffusing wealth and plenty as it goes2 ,from ,senegal1 still scorch'd by ,phoebus' beams1 ,to where ,st4 ,lawrence rolls his silver streams1 ,proclaim ,britannia's bliss the world around1 ,from pole to pole1 to earth's remotest bound4 ,christiana ,elizabeth ,phoelen4 ,it's wish auspicious ,flavel hastes to bring1 ,for fair ,charlotta and his ,britain's ,king2 ,on ,britain's isle all blessing he implores1 ,and rolls his friendly wave to ,albion's shores4 ,dorothea ,christiana ,elizabeth ,rexsehen4 ,beneath the ,lord's anointed may she thrive1 ,still may his influence keep the palm alive1 ,still may it flourish1 branches still extend1 ,afford us shelter1 and from heat defend4 ,catharine ,sophia ,bertrowen4 ,nought can our brothers' ardent zeal restrain1 ,fain would they tempt with thee the roaring main2 ,permit them1 ,queen1 thy person to be near1 ,that of thy safety tidings we may hear4 ,chorus4 ,yet for one favour more we must apply1 ,but little can these barren tracts supply2 ,permit us1 since both gold and pearls you scorn1 ,your royal brows with myrtle to adorn6 ,,quaint ,,lines ,,on ,,queen ,,elizabeth4--,queen ,elizabeth1 who died at ,greenwich1 was brought thence to ,whitehall by water1 in a grand procession4 ,on this occasion1 as ,camden informs us1 the following quaint lines were written3-- ,the ,queen was brought by water to ,whitehall2 ,at every stroke the oars did tears let fall2 ,more clung about the barge2 fish under water ,wept out their eyes of pearl1 and swam blind after4 ,i think the bargemen might1 with easier thighs1 ,have row'd her thither in her people's eyes2 ,for howsoe'er1 thus much my thoughts have scann'd1 ,she had come by water1 had she come by land4 ,,curious ,,names ,,adopted ,,in ,,the ,,civil ,,wars4--,a curious style of naming individuals was exceedingly common in the time of the civil wars4 ,it was said that the genealogy of our ,saviour might be learned from the names in ,cromwell's regiments4 ,the muster-master used no other list than the first chapter of ,matthew4 ,a ,jury was returned in the county of ,sussex of the following names3 ,accepted ,trevor1 of ,horsham4 ,redeemed ,compton1 of ,battle4 ,faint-not ,hewet1 of ,heathfield4 ,make-peace ,heaton1 of ,hare4 ,god-reward ,smart1 of ,fivehurst4 ,stand-fast-on-high ,stringer1 of ,crowhurst4 ,earth ,adams1 of ,warbleton4 ,called ,lower1 of ,warbleton4 ,kill-sin ,pimple1 of ,witham4 ,return ,spelman1 of ,watling4 ,be-faithful ,joiner1 of ,britling4 ,fly-debate ,robert1 of ,britling4 ,fight-the-good-fight-of-faith ,white1 of ,emer4 ,more-fruit ,fowler1 of ,east ,hadley4 ,hope-for ,bending1 of ,east ,hadley4 ,graceful ,harding1 of ,lewes4 ,weep-not ,billings1 of ,lewes4 ,meek ,brewer1 of ,okeham4 ,a noted character in those days was a divine of the name of ,praise-,god ,barebone4 ,he is little known as a divine1 but is celebrated for having been an active member in ,cromwell's parliament1 and indeed for giving a name to it which is yet preserved in history4 ,praise-,god ,barebone had two brothers1 namely1 ,christ-came-into-the-world-to-save ,barebone1 and ,if-,christ-had-not-died-thou-hadst-been -damned ,barebone3 some are said to have omitted the former part of the latter name1 and to have called him only ,damned ,barebone4 ,the reader will be amused with the following ,,curious ,,extracts ,,from ,,the ,,will ,,of ,,an ,,earl ,,of ,,pembroke4 ,imprimis4--,for my soul2 ,i confess ,i have heard very much of souls1 but what they are1 or whom they are1 or what they are for1 ,god knows1 ,i know not3 they tell me now of another world1 where ,i never was1 nor do ,i know one foot of the way thither4 ,while the king stood1 ,i was of his religion1 made my son wear a cassock1 and thought to make him a bishop1 but then came the ,scots1 and made me a ,presbyterian2 and since ,cromwell entered1 ,i have been an ,independent4 ,these1 ,i believe1 are the kingdom's three estates2 and if any of these can save a soul1 ,i may claim one2 therefore if my executors do find ,i have a soul1 ,i give it to him who gave it me4 ,item4--,i give my body1 for ,i cannot keep it1 to be buried4 ,do not lay me in the church-porch1 for ,i was a ,lord1 and would not be buried where ,colonel ,pride was born4 ,item4--,my will is1 that ,i have no monument1 for then ,i must have epitaphs and verses1 and all my life long ,i have had too much of them4 ,item4--,i give all my deer to the ,earl of ,salisbury1 who ,i know will preserve them1 because he denied the king a buck out of one of his own parks4 ,item4--,i give nothing to the ,lord ,say2 which legacy ,i give him1 because ,i know he will bestow it on the poor4 ,item4-,to ,tom ,may ,i give five shillings3 ,i intended him more3 but whoever has seen his history of the parliament1 thinks five shillings too much4 ,item4--,i give ,lieutenant ,general ,cromwell one word of mine1 because hitherto he never kept his own4 ,item4--,i give up the ghost1 concordat cum originati4 ,,curious ,,letter ,,from ,,pomare1 ,,king ,,of ,,otaheite1 ,,to ,,the ,,missionary ,,society4 7,translation47 ,matavae1 ,otaheite1 ,jan4 #a1 #ahjg4 ,,friends1 ,i wish you every blessing1 friends1 in your residence in your country1 with success in teaching this bad land1 this foolish land1 this wicked land1 this land which is ignorant of good1 this land that knoweth not the true ,god1 this regardless land4 ,friends1 ,i wish you health and prosperity2 may ,i also live1 and may ,jehovah save us all6 ,friends1 with respect to your letter you wrote to me1 ,i have this to say to you1 that your business with me1 and your wishes1 ,i fully consent to1 and shall consequently banish ,ore 7his chief idol7 and send him to ,racatea4 ,friends1 ,i do therefore believe and shall obey your word4 ,friends1 ,i hope you also will consent to my request1 which is this2 ,i wish you to send a great number of men1 women1 and children1 here4 ,friends1 send also property and cloth for us1 and we also will adopt ,english customs4 ,friends1 send also plenty of muskets and powder1 for wars are frequent in our country3--should ,i be killed1 you will have nothing in ,tahete2 do not come here when ,i am dead4 ,tahete is a regardless country2 and should ,i die with sickness1 do not come here4 ,this also ,i wish1 that you would send me all the curious things that you have in ,england3 also send me every thing necessary for writing2 paper1 ink1 and pens1 in abundance2 let no writing utensil be wanting4 ,friends1 ,i have done1 and have nothing at all more to ask you for3 as for your desire to instruct ,tahete1 'tis what ,i fully acquiesce in4 ',tis a common thing for people not to understand at first2 but your object is good1 and ,i fully consent to it2 and shall cast off all evil customs4 ,what ,i say is truth1 and no lie2 it is the real truth4 ,this is all ,i have to write4 ,i have done4 ,friends1 write to me1 that ,i may know what you have to say4 ,i wish you life and every blessing4 ,may ,i also live1 and ,jehovah save us all6 ,,pomare1 ,king of ,tahete1 c4 c4 ,for my ,friends1 the ,missionary ,society1 ,london4 ,,curious ,,love ,,letter4 ,madam1--,most worthy of estimation6 ,after long consideration1 and much meditation1 on the great reputation you possess in the nation1 ,i have a strong inclination to become your relation4 ,on your approbation of this declaration1 ,i shall make preparation to remove my situation1 to a more convenient station1 to profess my admiration2 and if such oblation is worthy of observation1 and can obtain commiseration1 it will be an aggrandization beyond all calculation of the joy and exultation1 ,of your's1 ,,sans ,,dissimulation4 ,,the ,,answer4 ,sir1--,i perused your oration with much deliberation1 and a little consternation1 at the great infatuation of your imagination1 to shew such veneration on so slight a foundation4 ,but after examination and much serious contemplation1 ,i supposed your animation was the fruit of recreation1 or had sprung from ostentation1 to display your education1 by an odd enumeration1 or rather multiplication1 of words of the same termination1 though of great variation in each respective signification4 ,now without disputation1 your laborious application in so tedious an occupation1 deserves commemoration1 and thinking imitation a sufficient gratification1 ,i am1 without hesitation1 ,your's1 ,,mary ,,moderation4 ,,creeds ,,of ,,the ,,jews4--,the following piece is transcribed from the ,common ,prayer now in use among the ,jews1 and is entitled the ,thirteen ,creeds4 ,it will give some idea of the theoretic branch of religion now prevailing among this singular people4 #a4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that ,god is the ,creator of all things2 that he doth guide and support all creatures2 that he alone has made every thing2 and that he still acts1 and will act1 during the whole eternity4 #b4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that ,god is one2 there is no unity like his3 he alone hath been1 and shall be eternally1 our ,god4 #c4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that ,god is not corporeal2 he cannot have any material properties2 and no corporeal essence can be compared with him4 #d4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that ,god is the beginning and end of all things4 #e4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that ,god alone ought to be worshipped1 and none but he ought to be adored4 #f4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 whatever hath been taught by the ,prophets4 #g4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that the doctrine of ,moses is true4 ,he is the father and the head of all the doctors that lived before or since1 or shall live after him4 #h4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that the law we have is the same as was given by ,moses4 #i4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that this law shall never be altered1 and ,god will give no other4 #aj4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that ,god knoweth all the thoughts and actions of men4 #aa4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that ,god will reward the works of all those who perform his commandments1 and punish those who transgress his laws4 #ab4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 that the ,messiah is to come4 ,although he tarrieth1 ,i will wait1 and expect daily his coming6 #ac4 ,i believe1 with a firm and perfect faith1 the ,resurrection of the ,dead shall happen when ,god shall think fit4 ,blessed1 and glorified eternally1 be the name of the ,creator6 ,amen4 ,,the ,,unbeliever',s ,,creed4 ,i believe that there is no ,god1 but that matter is ,god1 and ,god is matter1 and that it is no matter whether there is any ,god or not4 ,i believe1 also1 that the world was not made2 that the world made itself2 that it had no beginning2 that it will last for ever1 world without end4 ,i believe that a man is a beast1 that the soul is the body1 and the body is the soul2 and that after death there is neither body nor soul4 ,i believe there is no religion2 that natural religion is the only religion2 and that all religion is unnatural4 ,i believe not in ,moses2 ,i believe in the first philosophy2 ,i believe not in the ,evangelists2 ,i believe in ,chubb1 ,collins1 ,toland1 ,tindal1 ,morgan1 ,mandeville1 ,woolston1 ,hobbes1 and ,shaftsbury2 ,i believe in lord ,bolingbroke2 ,i believe not in ,st4 ,paul4 ,i believe not in revelation2 ,i believe in tradition2 ,i believe in the ,talmud2 ,i believe in the ,alcoran2 ,i believe not in the ,bible2 ,i believe in ,socrates2 ,i believe in ,confucius2 ,i believe in ,sanchoneathon2 ,i believe in ,mahomet2 ,i believe not in ,christ4 ,lastly1 ,i believe in all unbelief4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,terms ,,whig ,,and ,,tory4--,burnet1 who was contemporary with the introduction of these terms1 gives the following account of the former3-- ,the south-west counties of ,scotland have seldom corn enough to serve them through the year2 and the northern parts producing more than they need1 those in the west come in the summer to buy at ,leith1 the stores that come from the north2 and from a word 7whiggam7 used in driving their horses1 all that drove were called ,whiggamors1 and1 shorter1 the ,whigs4 ,now in that year1 before the news came down of the duke of ,hamilton's defeat1 the ministers animated the people to rise and march to ,edinburgh2 and they came up1 marching at the head of their parishes with an unheard-of fury1 praying and preaching all the way as they came4 ,this was called the ,whiggamor's inroad2 and ever after1 all that opposed the court came in contempt to be called ,whigs4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 in his ,dictionary1 quotes this passage2 yet by placing against the term ,whig1 the ,saxon word ,whoeg1 synonymous to whey1 or sour milk1 he seems not to reject another derivation1 which has been assigned to it by some writers4 ,echard says--,great animosities were created by these petitioners and abhorrers1 and they occasioned many feuds and quarrels in private conversations2 and about the same time1 #afhj1 and from the same cause1 arose the pernicious terms and distinctions of ,whig and ,tory1 both exotic names1 which the parties invidiously bestowed upon each other4 ,all that adhered to the interest of the crown and lineal succession1 were by the contrary branded with the title given to the ,irish robbers2 and they1 in return1 gave the others the appellation of ,whig1 or sour milk1 formerly appropriated to the ,scotch presbyterians and rigid covenanters4--p4 #ihh4 ,tindal1 in his introduction to the ,continuation of ,rapin's ,history1 notices the distinction between the principles of the parties1 but does not inquire into the etymology of the terms4--,vol4 i4 p4 #ae4 ,toland1 in his ,state ,anatomy1 considers the words as mere terms of reproach1 first applied to each party by its enemies1 and then adopted by each as a distinction4 ,the words themselves are but late nicknames1 given by each party to the other in ,king ,charles the ,second's reign3 ,tories in ,ireland1 and ,whigs in ,scotland1 being what we in ,england call highwaymen2 and you1 public robbers4--,part ,i4 ,hume1 the historian1 says-- ,this year1 #afhj1 is remarkable for being the epoch of the well-known epithets ,whig and ,tory1 by which1 and sometimes without any material difference1 this island has been so long divided4 ,the court party reproached their antagonists with their affinity to the fanatical conventiclers1 who were known by the name of ,whigs2 and the country party found a resemblance between the courtiers and the ,popish banditti in ,ireland1 who were known by the name of ,tories4--,vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #abe4 ,these are the principal writers in which the origin of the terms is noticed4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxxiii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,curiosities4 ,monster--,individuation--,reproduction- -,peruke--,centaurs and ,lapith4 ,,monster4--,a birth or production of a living being1 degenerating from the proper and usual disposition of parts in the species to which it belongs2 as1 when there are too many members1 or too few2 or some of them are extravagantly out of proportion1 either on the side of defect or excess1--is generally denominated a monster4 ,f4 ,malebranche accounts for the production of monsters in the animal world in the following manner3--,the ,creator has established such a communication between the several parts of his creation1 that we are naturally led to imitate one another1 i4 e4 to have a disposition to do the same things1 and assume the same manners1 with those about which we converse2 we have also certain natural dispositions1 which incline us to compassion as well as imitation4 ,of these things most men are sensible1 and therefore they need not be proved4 ,the animal spirits1 then1 are not only naturally carried into the respective parts of the body to perform the same actions and the same motions which we see others do1 but also to receive in some manner their wounds1 and take part in their sufferings4 ,experience tells us1 that when we look attentively on any person severely beaten1 or that has a large wound1 ulcer1 or the like1 the spirits immediately flow into those parts of our bodies which answer to those we see suffer in the other2 unless their course be stopped from some other principle4 ,this flux of spirits is very sensible in persons of delicate constitutions1 who frequently shudder1 and find a kind of trembling in the body on these occasions2 and this sympathy in bodies produces compassion in the mind4 ,now it must be observed1 that the view of a wound1 c4 affects the person who views it the more strongly and sensibly1 as the person is more weak and delicate2 the spirits making a stronger impression on the fibres of a delicate body1 than in those of a robust one4 ,thus1 strong and vigorous men1 c4 see an execution without much concern1 while women1 c4 are struck with pity and horror4 ,as to children that are unborn1 the fibres of their flesh being incomparably finer than those in women1 the course of the animal spirits must necessarily produce much greater alterations4 ,these things being laid down1 monsters are easily accounted for4 ,suppose1 for instance1 a child to be born a fool1 and also with its legs and arms broken in the same manner as those are of criminals executed2 the phenomena may be accounted for thus3 ,every stroke given to the poor man struck forcibly the imagination of the mother1 and1 by a kind of counter-stroke1 the tender and delicate brain of the child4 ,now1 though the fibres of the woman's brain were strongly shaken by the violent flux of animal spirits on this occasion1 yet they had strength and consistence enough to prevent an entire disorder2 whereas the fibres of the child's brain1 being unable to bear the shock of those spirits1 were quite ruined1 and the ravage was great enough to deprive him of reason all his lifetime4 ,again1 the view of an execution frightening the mother1 the violent course of the animal spirits was directed forcibly from the brain to all those parts of the body corresponding to the suffering parts of the criminal and the same thing must happen in the child4 ,but as the bones were strong enough to resist the impulse of those spirits1 they were not damaged2 and yet the rapid course of these spirits could easily overpower and break the tender and delicate fibres of the bones of the child2 the bones being the last parts of the body that are formed1 and having a very slender consistence1 while the child is yet in the womb4 ,to this it may here be added1 that had the mother determined the course of these spirits towards some other part of her body1 by tickling or scratching herself vehemently1 the child would not in all probability have had its bones broken2 but the part answering that to which the motion of the spirits was determined1 would have been the sufferer4 ,hence appears the reason why women1 in the time of gestation1 seeing persons1 c4 marked in such a manner in the face1 impress the same mark on the same parts of the child2 and why1 upon rubbing some other part of the body when startled at the sight of any thing1 or agitated with any extraordinary passion1 the mark or impression is fixed on that hidden part1 rather than on the face of the child4 ,from the principles here laid down1 most1 if not all1 of the phenomena of monsters1 may be easily accounted for4 ,various other theories have been formed by different philosophers and phisiologists4 ,but1 after all1 it must be confessed that we seem as yet to be very little acquainted with nature in her numerous variations4 ,monsters are more common and more extraordinary in the vegetable than in the animal kingdom1 because the different juices are more easily deranged and confounded together4 ,leaves are often seen1 from the internal part of which other leaves spring forth2 and it is not uncommon to see flowers of the ranunculus1 from the middle of which issues a stalk bearing another flower4 ,m4 ,bonnet informs us1 that in certain warm and rainy years he has frequently met with monsters of this kind in rose-trees4 ,this observer saw a rose1 from the centre of which issued a square stalk of a whitish colour1 tender1 and without prickles1 which at its top bore two flower-buds opposite to each other1 and totally destitute of a calix2 a little above the buds issued a petal of a very irregular shape4 ,upon the prickly stalk which supported the rose1 a leaf was observed which had the shape of trefoil1 together with a broad flat pedicle4 ,in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences1 for #agjg1 p4 #ddh1 mention is made of a rose1 from the centre of the leaves of which issued a rose-branch two or three inches long1 and furnished with leaves4 ,see the same ,memoirs for #agbd1 p4 #bj1 and for #agdi1 p4 #dd4 ,in the ,memoirs for #agee1 a very singular instance is mentioned of a monstrosity observed by ,m4 ,duhamel1 in an apple-tree ingrafted with clay4 ,at the place of the insertion there appeared a bud1 which produced a stalk and some leaves2 the stalk and the pedicle of the leaves were of a pulpy substance1 and had the most perfect resemblance both in taste and smell to the pulp of a green apple4 ,an extraordinary chammelum is mentioned in the ,acta ,helvetica4 ,m4 ,bonnet1 in his ,recherches sur l',usage des ,feuilles1 mentions likewise some monstrous productions which have been found in fruits with kernels1 analogous in their nature to those which occur in the flowers of the ranunculus and of the rose-tree4 ,he has seen a pear1 from the eye of which issued a tuft of thirteen or fourteen leaves1 very well shaped1 and many of them of the natural size4 ,he has seen another pear which gave rise to a ligneous and knotty stalk1 on which grew another pear somewhat larger than the first4 ,the stalk had probably flourished1 and the fruit had formed4 ,the lilium album polyanthos1 observed some years ago at ,breslaw1 which bore on its top a bundle of flowers1 consisting of one hundred and two lilies1 all of the common shape1 is well-known4 ,m4 ,regnier has mentioned some individuals monstrous with respect to the flower1 in the ,journal de ,physique et d',histoire ,naturelle1 for ,november1 #aghe4 ,he has likewise mentioned a monstrous tulip1 which is seen in the gardens of some amateurs2 juniper berries with horns2 a balsamine with three spurs1 c4 ,,individuation1--is the unity of a thing with itself1 or that whereby a thing is what it is4 ,to begin with those species of body that are not properly organized1 which have neither life nor sense1 as stones1 metals1 c4 ,in these1 individuation seems to consist in nothing but greater or less3 take the less part of a stone away1 you may still call it the same stone2 take an equal part with the remains1 that individuation ceases1 and they are two new individuals4 ,divide a stone1 c4 as often as you please1 every part of it will be a stone still1 another individual stone1 as much as any in the mountain or quarry out of which it was first cut1 even though reduced to the minutest sand1 or1 if possible1 a thousand times less4 ,but when we take one step farther1 and proceed a degree higher1 to the vegetable kingdom1 the case is far otherwise2 and indeed ,nature seems to be still more distinct1 and1 as it were1 careful in its individuation1 the higher it rises1 till at last it brings us to that great transcendental individual1 the only proper uncompounded essence1 the ,one ,god1 blessed for ever4 ,to return to plants3 their individuation consists in that singular form1 contexture1 and order of their parts1 whereby they are disposed for those uses to which ,nature has designed them1 and by which they receive and maintain their beings4 ,for example1 in a tree1 though you take away the branches1 it grows1 receives nourishment from the earth1 maintains itself1 and is still a tree1 which the parts thereof are not when separated from the rest2 for we cannot say that every part of a tree is a tree1 as we can that every part of a stone is still a stone1 but if this tree be cloven in two or more pieces1 or felled by the roots1 this contexture1 or orderly respect of the parts one to another1 ceases2 its essence as a tree is destroyed2 its individuation perishes2 and it is no more a tree1 but a stump1 or piece of timber4 ,let us proceed a degree higher1 to merely sensible creatures1 who are not so immediately depending on the earth1 the common mother1 as the plants1 nor rooted to it as they are1 but walk about1 and have a kind of independent existence1 and are a sort of world by themselves4 ,and here the individuation consists in such a particular contexture of their essential parts1 and their relation one toward another1 as enables them to exert the operations of the sensible or animal life4 ,thus1 cut off the legs or any other parts of an animal1 it is the same animal still2 but cut off its head1 or take away its life1 and it is no longer that individual animal1 but a mere carcase1 and will1 by degrees1 resolve itself into common matter again4 ,to ascend now to the highest rank of visible beings1--the rational4 ,the individuation of man appears to consist in the union of a rational soul with any convenient portion of fitly organized matter4 ,any portion of matter duly qualified1 and united to the soul by such a union as we experience1 is immediately individuated by it1 and1 together with that soul1 makes a man2 so that1 if it were possible for one soul to be clothed over and over at different times with all the matter in the universe1 it would in all those distinct shapes be the same individual man4 ,nor can a man be supposed in this case to differ more from himself1 than he does from what he really was when an infant1 or just passed an embryo1 when compared with what he is when of adult or decrepit age2 he having1 during that intermediate time1 changed his portion of matter over and over2 as1 being fat and lean1 sick and well1 having been exhausted by bleeding1 effluvia1 perspiration1 c42 and reunited again by aliment2 so that perhaps not one particle1 or but very few of the first matter which he took from his parents1 and brought with him into the world1 is now remaining4 ,the preceding article is naturally followed by ,,reproduction4--,reproduction is usually understood to mean the restoration of a thing before existing1 and since destroyed4 ,it is very well known that trees and plants may be raised from slips and cuttings2 and some late observations have shewn1 that there are some animals which have nearly the same property4 ,the polype 7,see ,hydra7 was the first instance we had of this kind2 but we had scarcely time to wonder at the discovery ,m4 ,trembley had made1 when ,m4 ,bonnet discovered the same property in a species of water-worm4 ,amongst the plants which may be raised from cuttings1 there are some which seem to possess this quality in so eminent a degree1 that the smallest portion of them will become a complete tree again4 ,a twig of willow1 poplar1 or many other trees1 being planted in the earth1 takes root1 and becomes a tree1 every piece of which will in the same manner produce other trees4 ,the case is the same with these worms3 they are cut to pieces1 and these several pieces become perfect animals2 and each of these may be again cut into a number of pieces1 each of which will in the same manner produce an animal4 ,it has been supposed by some1 that these worms were oviparous2 but1 ,m4 ,bonnet1 on cutting one of them to pieces1 having observed a slender substance1 resembling a small filament1 to move at the end of one of the pieces1 separated it1 and on examining it with glasses1 found it to be a perfect worm1 of the same form with its parent1 which lived and grew larger in a vessel of water into which he put it4 ,these small bodies are easily divided1 and very readily complete themselves again1 a day usually serving for the production of a head to the part that wants one2 and1 in general1 the smaller and more slender the worms are1 the sooner they complete themselves after this operation4 ,when the bodies of the large worms are examined by the microscope1 it is very easy to see the appearance of the young worms alive1 and moving about within them2 but it requires great precision and exactness to be certain of this1 since the ramifications of the great artery have very much the appearance of young worms1 and they are kept in a sort of continual motion by the systoles and diastoles of the several portions of the artery1 which serve as so many hearts4 ,it is very certain1 that what we force in regard to these animals by our operations1 is done also naturally every day in the brooks and ditches where they live4 ,a curious observer will find in these places many of them without heads or tails1 and some without either2 as also1 other fragments of various kinds1 all of which are in the act of completing themselves2 but whether accidents have reduced them to this state1 or they thus purposely throw off parts of their own bodies for the production of more animals1 it is not easy to determine4 ,they are plainly liable to many accidents1 by which they lose the several parts of their bodies2 and they must perish very early1 if they had not a power of reproducing what was lost4 ,they are often broken into two parts1 by the resistance of some hard piece of mud which they enter2 and they are subject to a disease1 a kind of gangrene1 rotting off the several parts of their bodies1 by which they must inevitably perish1 were they not possessed of this surprising property4 ,the reproduction of several parts of lobsters1 crabs1 c4 is one of the greatest curiosities in natural history4 ,it seems1 indeed1 inconsistent with the modern philosophical system of generation1 which supposes the animal to be wholly formed in the egg2 that1 in lieu of an organical part of an animal cut off1 another should arise perfectly like it3 the fact1 however1 is too well attested to be denied4 ,the legs of lobsters1 c4 consist each of five articulations2 now1 when any of the legs happen to break by any accident1 as by walking1 c4 which frequently occurs1 the fracture is always found to be at the suture near the fourth articulation2 and what they thus lose is exactly reproduced in some time afterwards2 that is1 a part of the leg shoots out1 consisting of four articulations1 the first whereof has two claws1 as before2 so that the loss is entirely repaired4 ,if the leg of a lobster be broken off by design at the fourth or fifth articulation1 what is thus broken off is always reproduced1 even after a second or third accident4 ,but if the fracture be made in the first1 second1 or third articulation1 the reproduction is not so certain4 ,and it is very surprising1 that if the fracture be made at these articulations1 at the end of two or three days1 all the other articulations are generally found broken off to the fourth1 which1 it is supposed1 is done by the creature itself1 to make the reproduction certain4 ,the part reproduced1 is not only perfectly similar in form to that retrenched1 but also1 in a certain space of time1 it grows equal to it4 ,the creature is1 however1 frequently taken before this is accomplished4 ,hence it is that we frequently see lobsters1 which have their two large legs unequal in all proportions4 ,,peruke4--,it appears that this term was originally applied to describe a fine natural head of long hair1 and if this appellation had been retained1 we should never have associated wigs with monsters4 ,but whatever may have been the ancient use or meaning of the word1 it has now almost become obsolete1 though it was for more than a century in constant application to those artificial heads of hair1 made probably at first to conceal natural or accidental baldness1 but which afterwards became so ridiculously fashionable1 as to be worn in preference to the most beautiful locks1 absurdly shaved off the head to make room for them4 ,ancient authors might be quoted1 to prove1 that the great and luxurious of that time1 had recourse to this mode of concealing defects1 and of decorating the head2 nay1 it might perhaps be proved1 that the peruke of the ,emperor ,commodus was more absurdly composed than any modern peruke has ever been2 and indeed it must be admitted1 that a wig powdered with scrapings of gold1 in addition to oils and glutinous perfumes1 must have made a more wonderful appearance than our immediate ancestors ever witnessed4 ,it was in the reign of our ,charles the ,first1 that perukes were introduced throughout ,europe1 when the moralists attacked them without mercy1 as they perceived that the folly of youth even extended to the cutting off nature's locks1 to be replaced by the hair of the dead1 and of horses1 woven into a filthy piece of canvass4 ,admonition and ridicule were1 however1 of little avail1 and the clergy began to be affected by the general mania4 ,those on the ,continent being almost universally ,roman ,catholics1 were so completely subject to their superiors1 that the peruke was soon routed from their body2 but as the dignified clergy of ,england conceive that their consequence is increased by the enormous bushes of hair upon their heads1 and the judges have adopted their sentiments in this particular1 it is probable many years will elapse before the shape and absurdity of two particular species of perukes are forgotten4 ,about the close of the seventeenth century1 the peruke was made to represent the natural curl of the hair1 but in such profusion1 that ten heads would not have furnished an equal quantity1 as it flowed down the back1 and hung over the shoulders halfway down the arms4 ,by #agba1 it had become fashionable to tie one half of it on the left side into a club4 ,between #agcj and #agdj1 the bag-wig came into fashion1 and the peruke was docked considerably1 and sometimes plaited behind into a queue1 though even till #ageb the long flowing locks maintained their influence4 ,after #aggj those were rarely seen2 and since that time persons wearing perukes have generally had substantial reasons for so doing1 from baldness1 and complaints in the head4 ,at one time1 indeed1 when the stern virtues of ,brutus were much in vogue1 the young men of ,europe wore perukes of black or dark hair1 dressed from his statues4 ,many particulars on this subject have been preserved by ,mr4 ,malcolm1 in his ,anecdotes of the ,manners and ,customs of ,london1 from which we learn1 that a young countrywoman obtained #fj for her head of hair in the year #agjj1 when human hair sold at #c per ounce2 and in #agbj1 the grey locks of an aged woman sold for #ej after her decease4 ,wigs of peculiar excellence were sold at #dj each4 ,a petition from the master peruke-makers of ,london and ,westminster1 presented to the ,king1 in #agfc1 points out the great decline of their use to have taken place at that time4 ,in this they complain of the public wearing their own hair2 and say1 ,that this mode1 pernicious enough in itself to their trade1 is rendered excessively more so by swarms of ,french hair-dressers already in those cities1 and daily increasing4 ,we close this chapter with an account of ,,centaurs ,,and ,,lapith4--,under the reign of ,ixion1 king of ,thessaly1 a company of bulls which fed upon ,pelion ran mad1 by which means the mountain was inaccessible4 ,they also descended into the inhabited parts1 ruining the trees and fruits1 and killing the larger cattle4 ,upon which ,ixion declared that he would give a great reward to any person that would destroy these bulls4 ,riding on horseback was never practised before that time4 ,but some young men that lived in a village at the foot of ,pelion1 had attempted successfully to train horses fit to back1 and had accustomed themselves to that exercise4 ,these youths undertook to clear the mountain of the bulls1 which they effected by pursuing them on horseback1 and piercing them with their arrows as they fled2 but when the bulls stopped or followed them1 they retired without receiving any hurt4 ,and from hence they were called ,centaurs1 viz4 ,pierce bulls4 ,having received of ,ixion the recompense he promised them1 they became so fierce and proud1 that they committed a thousand insolences in ,thessaly1 not sparing even ,ixion himself1 who dwelt in the town of ,larissa4 ,the inhabitants of the country were at that time called ,lapith1 who one day invited the ,centaurs to a feast which they celebrated3 but the ,centaurs abused their civility2 for1 having drunk too much1 they took the ,lapithites' women from them1 set them on their horses1 and carried them away4 ,this violence kindled a long war between the ,centaurs and the ,lapith3 the ,centaurs in the night came down into the plain1 and laid ambushes for their enemies1 and1 as soon as day appeared1 retired again into the mountain1 with whatever they had taken4 ,thus1 as they retired1 the ,lapith saw only the hinder parts of their horses1 and the men's heads2 so that they seemed but as one animal1 whence they believed the ,centaurs had become half men and half horses1 and that they were clouds1 because the village where they dwelt was called ,nophelus1 which signified a cloud4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxxiv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,curiosities4--7,continued47 ,spontaneous ,inflammation--,diseases peculiar to ,particular ,countries--,injuries from ,swallowing the ,stones of ,fruits--,extraordinary ,surgical ,operation--,extraordinary ,cures by ,burning--,illumination by ,electricity--,divisibility of ,matter4 ,,spontaneous ,,inflammation4--,a paper on this subject1 which appeared in the ,repertory of ,arts1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dbe1 induced the ,rev4 ,w4 ,tooke to publish some remarks in vol4 iii4 p4 #ie1 of that work1 from which the following is an extract1 respecting the spontaneous inflammation of animal and vegetable substances4 ,one ,rde1 7says he17 an apothecary at ,bautzen1 had prepared a pyrophorus from rye-bran and alum4 ,not long after he had made the discovery1 there broke out1 in the next village of ,nauslitz1 a great fire1 which did much mischief1 and was said to have been occasioned by the treating of a sick cow in the cow-house4 ,mr4 ,rde knew that the countrymen were accustomed to lay an application of parched rye-bran to their cattle1 for curing the thick neck2 he knew also that alum and rye-bran1 by a proper process1 yielded a pyrophorus2 and now1 to try whether parched rye-bran alone would have the same effect1 he roasted a quantity of it by the fire1 till it had acquired the colour of roasted coffee4 ,this roasted bran he wrapped up in a linen cloth2 in a few minutes there arose a strong smoke1 with a smell of burning4 ,soon after1 the rag grew as black as tinder1 and the bran1 now become hot1 fell through it on the ground in little balls4 ,mr4 ,rde repeated the experiment1 and always with the same result4 ,who now will doubt1 that the frequency of fires in cow-houses1 which in those parts are mostly wooden buildings1 is occasioned by this practice1 of binding roasted bran about the necks of the cattle8 ,montet relates1 in the ,memoires de l',acadmie de ,paris1 #agdh1 that animal substances kindle into flame2 and that he himself has been witness to the spontaneous accension of dunghills4 ,the woollen stuff prepared at ,sevennes1 named ,emperor's stuff1 has kindled of itself1 and burnt to a coal4 ,it is usual for this to happen to woollen stuffs1 when in hot summers they are laid in a heap1 in a room but little aired4 ,in ,june1 #agha1 this happened at a woolcomber's in ,germany1 where a heap of wool-combings1 piled up in a close warehouse seldom aired1 took fire of itself4 ,this wool burnt from within outwards1 and became quite a coal2 though neither fire nor light had been used at the packing4 ,in like manner cloth-workers have certified1 that after they have bought wool that was become wet1 and packed it close in their warehouse1 this wool has burnt of itself4 ,the spontaneous accension of various matters from the vegetable kingdom1 as wet hay1 corn1 and madder1 and at times wet meal and malt1 is well known4 ,hemp1 flax1 and hemp-oil1 have also often given rise to dreadful conflagrations4 ,in the spring of #aghj1 a fire was discovered on board a frigate lying in the roads off ,cronstadt1 which endangered the whole fleet4 ,after the severest scrutiny1 no cause of the fire was to be found2 and the matter remained without explanation1 but with strong surmises of some wicked incendiary4--,in ,august1 #aghj1 a fire broke out at the hemp magazine at ,st4 ,petersburg1 by which several hundred thousand poods 7about #cflb4 ,english7 of hemp and flax were consumed4 ,the walls of the magazine are of brick1 the floors of stone1 and the rafters and covering of iron2 it stands alone on an island in the ,neva1 on which1 as well as on board the ships lying in the ,neva1 no fire is permitted4--,in ,st4 ,petersburg1 in the same year1 a fire was discovered in the vaulted shop of a furrier4 ,in these shops1 which are all vaults1 neither fire nor candle is allowed1 and the doors of them are all of iron4 ,at length the probable cause was found to be1 that the furrier1 the evening before the fire1 had got a roll of new cerecloth1 and had left it in his vault1 where it was found almost consumed4--,in the night between the #bjth and #bast of ,april1 #agha1 a fire was seen on board the frigate ,maria1 at anchor1 with several other ships1 in the roads off the island of ,cronstadt2 the fire was1 however1 soon extinguished1 but1 by the severest examination1 nothing could be extorted concerning the manner in which it had arisen4 ,the garrison was threatened with a scrutiny that should cost them dear2 and while they were in this cruel suspense1 the wisdom of the sovereign gave a turn to the affair1 which quieted the minds of all1 by pointing out the proper method to be pursued by the commissioners of inquiry1 in the following order to ,czernichef3 ,when we perceived1 by the report you have delivered in of the examination into the accident that happened on board the frigate ,maria1 that1 in the cabin where the fire broke out1 there were found parcels of matting1 tied together with packthread1 in which the soot of burnt fir-wood had been mixed with oil1 for the purpose of painting the ship's bottom1 it came into our mind1 that1 for the fire which happened last year at the hemp-warehouses1 the following cause was assigned2 that the fire might have proceeded from the hemp being bound up in greasy mats1 or even from such mats having lain near the hemp3 therefore1 neglect not to guide your farther inquiries by this remark4 ,as1 upon juridical examination as well as private inquiry1 it was found that1 in the ship's cabin1 where the smoke appeared1 there lay a bundle of matting1 containing ,russian lamp-black1 prepared from fir-soot moistened with hemp-oil varnish1 which was perceived to have sparks of fire in it at the time of the extinction1 the ,russian admiralty gave orders to make various experiments1 to see whether a mixture of hemp-oil varnish and the forementioned ,russian black1 folded up in a mat and bound together1 would kindle of itself4 ,they shook #djlb4 of fir-wood soot into a tub1 and poured about #celb4 of hemp-oil varnish upon it2 this they let stand for an hour1 after which they poured off the oil4 ,the remaining mixture they now wrapped up in a mat1 and the bundle was laid close to the cabin where the midshipmen had their birth4 ,two officers sealed both the mat and door with their own seals1 and stationed a watch of four officers1 to take notice of all that passed during the whole night2 and as soon as any smoke should appear1 immediately to give information to the commandant of the port4 ,the experiment was made on the #bfth of ,april1 about eleven o'clock ,a4 ,m4 in presence of all the officers4 ,early on the #bgth1 about six o'clock ,a4 ,m4 a smoke appeared1 of which the chief commandant was immediately informed3 he came with speed1 and1 through a small hole in the door1 saw the mat smoking4 ,he dispatched a messenger to the members of the commission2 but as the smoke became stronger1 and fire began to appear1 he found it necessary to break the seals and open the door4 ,no sooner was the air thus admitted1 than the mat began to burn with greater force1 and presently it burst into a flame4 ,the ,russian admiralty1 being now fully convinced of the self-enkindling property of this composition1 transmitted their experiment to the ,imperial ,academy of ,sciences2 who appointed ,mr4 ,georgi1 a very learned adjunct of the academy1 to make farther experiments on the subject4 ,three pounds of ,russian fir-black were slowly impregnated with #elb4 of hemp-oil varnish2 and when the mixture had stood open five hours1 it was bound up in linen4 ,by this process it became clotted2 but some of the black remained dry4 ,when the bundle had lain sixteen hours in a chest1 it was observed to emit a very nauseous1 and rather putrid smell1 not unlike that of boiling oil4 ,some parts of it became warm1 and steamed much2 eighteen hours after the mixture was wrapt up1 one place became brown1 emitted smoke1 and directly afterwards glowing fire appeared4 ,the same thing happened in a second or third place2 though other places were scarcely warm4 ,the fire crept slowly around1 and gave a thick1 grey1 stinking smoke4 ,mr4 ,georgi took the bundle out of the chest1 and laid it on a stone pavement2 when1 on being exposed to the free air1 there arose a slow burning flame1 a span high1 with a strong body of smoke4 ,not long afterwards1 there appeared1 here and there1 several chaps1 or clefts1 as from a little volcano1 the vapour issuing from which burst into flames4 ,on his breaking the lump1 it burst into a very violent flame1 full three feet high1 which soon grew less1 and then went out4 ,the smoking and glowing fire lasted six hours2 and the remainder continued to glow without for two hours longer4 ,the grey earthy ashes1 when cold1 weighed five and a half ounces4 ,mr4 ,tooke concludes with a case of self-accension1 noticed by ,mr4 ,hagemann1 an apothecary1 at ,bremen4 ,he prepared a boiled oil of hyoscyamus1 or henbane1 in the usual way1 with common oil4 ,the humidity of the herb was nearly evaporated1 when he was called away by other affairs1 and was obliged to leave the oil on the fire4 ,the evaporation of the humidity was hereby carried so far1 that the herb could easily be rubbed to powder4 ,the oil had lost its green colour1 and had become brownish4 ,in this state it was laid on the straining cloth1 and placed in the garden1 behind the house1 in the open air4 ,in half an hour1 on coming again to this place1 he perceived a strong smoke there1 though he thought the oil must have long been cooled3 on closer inspection1 he found that the smoke did not proceed from the oil1 but from the herb on the straining cloth2 at the same time the smell betrayed a concealed fire4 ,he stirred the herb about1 and blew into it with a bellows1 whereupon it broke out into a bright flame4 ,,diseases ,,peculiar ,,to ,,particular ,,countries4--,the inhabitants of particular places are peculiarly subject to particular diseases1 owing to their manner of living1 or to the air and effluvia of the earth and waters4 ,hoffman has made some curious observations on diseases of this kind4 ,he remarks1 that swellings of the throat have always been common to the inhabitants of mountainous countries3 and the old ,roman authors say1 ',who wonders at a swelled throat in the ,alps8' ,the people of ,switzerland1 ,carinthia1 ,stiria1 the ,hartz forest1 ,transylvania1 and the inhabitants of ,cronstadt1 he observes1 are all subject to this disease4 ,the ,french are peculiarly troubled with fevers1 worms1 hydroceles1 and sarcoceles2 and all these disorders seem to be owing originally to their eating very large quantities of chestnuts4 ,the people of ,britain are affected with hoarsenesses1 catarrhs1 coughs1 dysenteries1 consumptions1 and the scurvy2 the women with the fluor albus2 and children with a disease scarcely known elsewhere1 which we call the rickets4 ,in different parts of ,italy1 different diseases reign4 ,at ,naples1 the venereal disease is more common than in any other part of the world4 ,at ,venice1 people are peculiarly subject to the bleeding piles4 ,at ,rome1 tertian agues and lethargic distempers are most common2 in ,tuscany1 the epilepsy2 and in ,apulia1 burning fevers1 pleurisies1 and that sort of madness which is attributed to the bite of the tarantula1 and fancied to be cured by music4 ,in ,spain1 apoplexies are common1 as also melancholy1 hypochondriacal complaints1 and bleeding piles4 ,the ,dutch are peculiarly subject to the scurvy1 and to the stone in the kidneys4 ,the people of ,denmark1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,pomerania1 and ,livonia1 are all terribly afflicted with the scurvy3 and it is remarkable1 that in ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway1 fevers are very common2 but in ,iceland1 ,lapland1 and ,finland1 there is scarcely ever such a disease met with4 ,the ,russians and ,tartars are afflicted with ulcers1 made by the cold1 of the nature of what we call chilblains1 but greatly worse2 and in ,poland and ,lithuania1 there reigns a peculiar disease1 called the ,plica ,polonica1 so terribly painful and offensive1 that scarcely any thing can be thought worse4 ,the people of ,hungary are very subject to the gout and rheumatism3 they are also more infested with lice and fleas than any other people in the world2 and they have a peculiar disease which they call cremor4 ,the ,germans1 in different parts of the empire1 are subject to different reigning diseases4 ,in ,westphalia1 they are peculiarly troubled with peripneumonies and the itch4 ,in ,silesia1 ,franconia1 ,austria1 and other places thereabout1 they are very liable to fevers of the burning kind1 to bleedings at the nose1 and other hmorrhages2 and to the gout1 inflammations1 and consumptions4 ,in ,misnia they have purple fevers2 and the children are peculiarly infested with worms4 ,in ,greece1 ,macedonia1 and ,thrace1 there are very few diseases2 but what they have are principally burning fevers and phrenzies4 ,anciently1 the most common diseases in ,egypt were blindness1 ulcers in the legs1 consumptions1 and the leprosy1 called elephantiasis1 which was peculiar to that country2 as ,pliny observes1 ,egypti peculiare hoc malum elephantiasis4 ,at ,constantinople the plague always rages2 and in the ,west ,indian islands1 malignant fevers1 and the most terrible colics4 ,these diseases are called endemic4 ,in general1 it is observed1 that the colder the country is1 the fewer and the less violent are the diseases4 ,schoeffer tells us1 that the ,laplanders know no such thing as the plague1 or fevers of the burning kind2 nor are they subject to half the distempers we are4 ,they are robust and strong1 and live to eighty1 ninety1 and many of them to more than one hundred years2 and at this great age they are not feeble and decrepit1 but a man of ninety is able to work or travel as well as a man of sixty with us4 ,they are subject1 however1 to some diseases1 more than other nations4 ,they have often distempers of the eyes1 owing to their living in smoke1 or being blinded by snow4 ,pleurisies1 inflammations of the lungs1 and violent pains of the head1 are also very frequently found among these hardy inhabitants of the north2 and the small-pox rages with great violence4 ,they have one general remedy against these and all other internal diseases2 this is1 the root of that sort of moss which they call jerth4 ,they make a decoction of this root in the whey of rein-deer's milk1 and drink very large doses of it warm1 to keep up a breathing sweat2 if they cannot get this1 they use the stalks of angelica boiled in the same manner3 but the keeping in a sweat1 and drinking plentifully of diluting liquors1 may go a great way in the cure4 ,they cure pleurisies by this method in a very few days1 and get so well through the small-pox with it1 that very few die of the disease4 ,,injuries ,,from ,,swallowing ,,the ,,stones ,,of ,,fruits4--,the dangers arising from swallowing the stones of plums and other fruits are very great4 ,the ,philosophical ,transactions give an account of a woman who suffered violent pains in her bowels for thirty years1 the malady returning once in a month or less4 ,at length1 a strong purge being given her1 the occasion of all these complaints was discovered to be a stone of an oval figure1 of about ten drams in weight1 and measuring five inches in circumference4 ,this had caused all the violent fits of pain1 which she had suffered for so many years2 after this1 she became perfectly well4 ,the ball extracted looked like a stone1 and felt very hard1 but swam in water4 ,on cutting it through with a knife1 there was found in the centre1 a plum-stone1 round which several coats of this hard and tough matter had gathered4 ,another instance is given in the same papers1 of a man1 who1 dying of an incurable colic1 which had tormented him many years1 and baffled the effects of medicines1 was opened after death2 and in his bowels was found a ball similar to that above-mentioned1 but somewhat larger1 being six inches in circumference1 and weighing an ounce and a half4 ,in the centre of this1 as of the other1 there was found the stone of a common plum1 and the coats were of the same nature with those of the former4 ,these and similar instances mentioned in the same work1 sufficiently shew the folly of that common opinion1 that the stones of fruits are wholesome4 ,even cherry stones1 swallowed in great quantities1 have occasioned death4 ,,extraordinary ,,surgical ,,operation4--,the most surprising and honourable operation of surgery ever performed1 was1 without any contradiction1 that executed by ,m4 ,richerand1 by taking away a part of the ribs and of the pleura4 ,the patient was himself a medical man1 and not ignorant of the danger he ran in this operation being had recourse to2 but he also knew that his disorder was otherwise incurable4 ,he was attacked with a cancer on the internal surface of the ribs and of the pleura1 which continually produced enormous fungosities1 that had been in vain attempted to be repressed by the actual cautery4 ,m4 ,richerand was obliged to lay the ribs bare1 to saw away two1 to detach them from the pleura1 and to cut away all the cancerous part of that membrane4 ,as soon as he had made the opening1 the air rushing into the chest1 occasioned the first day great suffering1 and distressing shortness of breath2 the surgeon could touch and see the heart through the pericardium1 which was as transparent as glass1 and could assure himself of the total insensibility of both4 ,much serous fluid flowed from the wound1 as long as it remained open2 but it filled up slowly by means of the adhesion of the lung with the pericardium1 and the fleshy granulations that were formed in it4 ,at length the patient got so well1 that on the twenty-seventh day after the operation1 he could not resist the desire of going to the ,medicinal ,school1 to see the fragments of the ribs that had been taken from him2 and in three or four days afterwards he returned home1 and went about his ordinary business4 ,the success of ,m4 ,richerand is the more important1 because it will authorize1 in other cases1 enterprises1 which1 according to received opinions1 would appear impossible2 and we shall be less afraid of penetrating into the interior of the chest4 ,m4 ,richerand even hopes1 that by opening the pericardium itself1 and using proper injections1 we may cure a disease that has hitherto always been fatal1 the dropsy of that cavity4--,thomson's ,annals4 ,,extraordinary ,,cures ,,by ,,burning4--,the following case is recorded in the memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences1 by ,m4 ,homberg4 ,a woman1 of about thirty-five1 became subject to a headach1 which at times was so violent1 that it drove her out of her senses1 making her sometimes stupid and foolish1 at other times raving and furious4 ,the seat of the pain was in the forehead1 and over the eyes1 which were inflamed1 and looked exceedingly red and sparkling2 and the most violent fits of it were attended with nausea and vomiting4 ,in the time of the fits1 she could take no food2 but at all others she had a very good appetite4 ,m4 ,homberg had in vain attempted her cure for three years1 with all kinds of medicines3 only opium succeeded2 and that but little1 all its effect being only to take off the pain for a few hours4 ,the redness of her eyes was always the sign of an approaching fit4 ,one night1 feeling a fit coming on1 she went to lie down upon the bed2 but first walked up to the glass with the candle in her hand1 to see how her eyes looked3 in observing this1 the candle set fire to her cap2 and as she was alone1 her head was terribly burnt before the fire could be extinguished4 ,m4 ,homberg was sent for1 and ordered bleeding and proper dressings3 but the expected fit this night never came on2 the pain of the burning wore off by degrees2 and the patient found herself from that hour cured of the headach1 which had never once returned in four years after2 such being the time when the account was communicated4 ,another case1 not less remarkable1 was communicated to ,m4 ,homberg by a physician at ,bruges4 ,a woman1 who for several years had her legs and thighs swelled in an extraordinary manner1 found some relief from rubbing them before the fire with brandy every morning and evening4 ,one evening1 the brandy she had rubbed herself with took fire1 and slightly burnt her4 ,she applied some brandy to her burn2 and in the night all the water with which the afflicted parts were swelled1 was entirely discharged1 and the swelling did not again return4 ,,illumination ,,by ,,electricity4--,professor ,meinecke1 of ,hallchas1 in ,gilbert's ,annals1 #ahai1 ,number #e1 proposed to illuminate halls1 houses1 and streets1 by the electric spark2 and expresses his strong persuasion that one day it will afford a more perfect and less expensive light than gas-illumination1 and ultimately replace it4 ,his plan is1 to arrange1 what are called1 in electricity1 luminous tubes1 glasses1 c42 i4 e4 insulating substances1 having a series of metallic spangles at small distances from each other1 along the place to be illuminated2 and then1 by a machine1 send a current of electricity through them3 sometimes also partially exhausted glasses1 as the luminous receiver1 conductor1 c41 are used4 ,in this way ,professor ,meinecke obtained from a two-feet plate machine1 a constant light in his apartment equal to that of the moon1 and even surpassing it2 and by enclosing his system of sparks in tubes filled with rarified hydrogen gas1 in which gas it is assumed that the electric spark is more than doubled in brilliancy1 he thinks it will be easy to enlarge the plan to any extent4 ,,divisibility ,,of ,,matter4--,we may be readily convinced of the infinite divisibility of bodies1 by simply walking in a garden1 and inhaling the sweet incense that rises from a thousand flowers4 ,how inconceivably small must be the odoriferous particles of a carnation1 which diffuse themselves through a whole garden1 and every where strike our sense of smell6 ,if this is not sufficient1 let us consider some other objects of nature2 as1 for instance1 one of those silk threads1 the work of a poor worm4 ,suppose this thread is three hundred and sixty feet long1 it will weigh but a single grain4 ,again1 consider into how many perceptible parts a length of three hundred and sixty feet can be divided4 ,a single inch may be divided into six hundred parts1 each as thick as a hair1 and consequently be perfectly visible4 ,hence a single grain of silk can be divided into at least two millions five hundred and ninety-two thousand parts1 each of which may be seen without the help of a microscope4 ,and as every one of these parts may be again divided into several more millions of parts1 till the division is carried beyond the reach of thought1 it is evident that this progression may be infinite4 ,the last particles1 which are no longer divisible by human industry1 must still have extension1 and be consequently susceptible of division1 though we are no longer able to effect it4 ,if we examine the animal kingdom1 we shall discover still further proofs of the infinite divisibility of matter4 ,pepper has been put into a glass of water1 and on looking through a microscope1 a multitude of animalcules were seen in the water1 a thousand million times less than a grain of sand6 ,how inconceivably minute then must be the feet1 muscles1 vessels1 nerves1 and organs of sense1 in these animals6 ,and how small their eggs and their young ones1 and the fluids which circulate in them6 ,here the imagination loses itself1 our ideas become confused1 and we are incapable of giving form to such very small particles4 ,what still more claims our attention is1 that the more we magnify1 by means of glasses1 the productions of nature1 the more perfect and beautiful do they appear3 whilst with works of art it is generally quite contrary2 for when these are seen through a microscope1 we find them rough1 coarse1 and imperfect1 though executed by the most able artists1 and with the utmost care4 ,thus the ,almighty has impressed even upon the smallest atom the stamp of his infinity4 ,the most subtile body is as a world1 in which millions of parts unite and are arranged in the most perfect order4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxxv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,curiosities4--7,continued47 ,the ,jew's ,harp--,remarkable ,aqueducts--,crichup ,linn--,eddystone ,rocks--,dismal ,swamp--,curious ,wine ,cellar--,mint of ,segovia--,remarkable ,mills--,silk ,mill at ,derby--,portland ,vase--,murdering ,statue--,a ,curious ,pulpit4 ,,the ,,jew',s ,,harp4--,the ,jew's trump1 or ,jew's harp1 as it is often called1 though now a boy's instrument1 is of ancient origin1 for ,mr4 ,pennant informs us1 7,tour to ,scotland1 p4 #aie17 that one made of gilt brass was found in ,norway1 deposited in an urn4 ,there appears to be an allusion1 in the name1 to the inhabitants of ,judea2 and it is to be observed1 that in ,dodsley's old plays1 vol4 iv4 p4 #aga1 ,quick calls the usurer1 on account of his ,jewish avarice1 a notable ,jew's trump4 ,in the plate1 however1 of ,jewish musical instruments1 in ,calmet's ,dictionary1 nothing of this kind occurs2 so that perhaps there is a corruption here of jeu-trompe1 a plaything1 or play-tromp1 as it is now only used by boys for that purpose2 or it may be a corruption of ,jew's harp1 from the circumstance of its being placed between the teeth when played4 ,,remarkable ,,aqueducts4--,aqueducts are conveyances for carrying water from one place to another2 made on uneven ground1 to preserve the level4 ,aqueducts of every kind were long ago the wonders of ,rome2 the vast quantity of them which they had2 the prodigious expense employed in conducting waters over arcades from one place to another1 at the distance of thirty1 forty1 sixty1 and even one hundred miles1 which were either continued or supplied by other labours1 as by cutting mountains and piercing rocks3 all this may well surprise us1 as nothing like it is undertaken in our times2 we dare not purchase conveniency at so dear a rate4 ,appius ,claudius1 the censor1 devised and constructed the first aqueduct4 ,his example gave the public luxury a hint to cultivate these objects2 and the force of prodigious and indefatigable labour diverted the course of rivers and floods to ,rome4 ,agrippa1 in that year when he was edile1 put the last hand to the magnificence of these works4 ,the aqueduct of the ,aqua ,martia1 had an arch of sixteen feet in diameter4 ,the whole was composed of three different kinds of stone2 one of them reddish1 another brown1 and a third of an earth colour4 ,above1 there appeared two canals1 of which the highest was fed by the new waters of the ,tiverone1 and the lower by what they called the ,claudian river4 ,the entire edifice is seventy ,roman feet high4 ,near this aqueduct1 we have1 in ,father ,montfaucon1 the plan of another1 with three canals2 the highest supplied by the ,aqua ,julia1 that in the middle from ,tepula1 and the lowest from the ,aqua ,martia4 ,the arch of the aqueduct of the ,aqua ,claudia is of hewn stone1 very beautiful2 that of the aqueduct of the ,aqua ,neronia is of bricks3 they are each of them seventy-two ,roman feet in height4 ,the canal of the aqueduct which was called ,aqua ,appia1 deserves to be mentioned for a singularity which is observed in it2 for it is not1 like the others1 plain1 nor gradual in its descent1 but much narrower at the lower than the higher end4 ,the consul ,frontinus1 who superintended the aqueducts under the emperor ,nerva1 mentions nine of them which had each #ac1eid pipes of an inch in diameter4 ,vigerus observes1 that1 in the space of twenty-four hours1 ,rome received #ejj1jjj hogsheads of water4 ,not to mention the aqueducts of ,drusus and ,rhiminius1 that which gives the most striking idea of ,roman magnificence1 is the aqueduct of ,metz1 of which a great number of arcades still remain4 ,these arcades crossed the ,moselle1 a river which is of vast breadth at that place4 ,the copious sources of ,gorze furnished water for the representation of a sea-fight4 ,this water was collected in a reservoir2 whence it was conducted by subterraneous canals formed of hewn-stone1 and so spacious1 that a man could walk erect in them3 it traversed the ,moselle upon its superb and lofty arcades1 which may still be seen at the distance of two leagues from ,metz2 so nicely wrought1 and so finely cemented1 that except those parts in the middle which have been carried away by the ice1 they have resisted1 and will still resist1 the severest shocks of the most violent seasons4 ,from these arcades1 other aqueducts conveyed the waters to the baths1 and to the place where the naval engagement was exhibited4 ,if we may trust ,colmenarus1 the aqueduct of ,segovia may be compared with the most admired labours of antiquity4 ,there still remain one hundred and fifty-nine arcades1 wholly consisting of stones enormously large1 and joined without mortar4 ,these arcades1 with what remains of the edifice1 are one hundred and two feet high2 they are formed in two ranges1 one above another4 ,the aqueduct flows through the city1 and runs beneath the greatest number of houses1 which are at the lower end4 ,after these enormous structures1 we may be believed when we speak of the aqueduct which ,louis ,,xiv4 caused to be built near ,maintenon1 for carrying water from the river ,bucq to ,versailles3 it is perhaps the greatest aqueduct now in the world1 being #gjjj fathoms in length1 above #befj in height1 and containing no fewer than two hundred and forty-two arcades4 ,,crichup ,,linn4--,this is a very beautiful cascade1 formed by the rivulet ,crichup1 in ,berwickshire4 ,it falls over a precipice about eighty-five or ninety feet high1 and almost perpendicular4 ,about a half a mile below this1 descends a hill of red free-stone1 forming a linn1 or waterfall1 peculiarly romantic4 ,the linn from top to bottom is upwards of a hundred feet1 and though twenty deep1 it is yet so narrow at the top1 that one might easily leap across it1 were it not for the tremendous prospect below1 and the noise of the water running its dark course1 and by its deep murmuring1 affrighting the imagination4 ,in the time of persecution1 7says the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,yorstoun17 the religious flying from their persecutors found an excellent hiding-place in ,crichup ,linn2 and there is a seat1 cut out by nature in the rock1 which1 having been the retreat of a shoemaker in those times1 has ever since borne the name of the ,sutor's ,seat4 ,nothing can be more striking than the appearance of this linn from its bottom4 ,the darkness of the place1 upon which the sun never shines2 the ragged rocks rising over one's head1 and seeming to meet at the top1 with here and there a blasted tree bursting from the crevices2 the roaring of the water1 together with some degree of danger to the spectator1 while he surveys the striking objects--all naturally tend to work upon the imagination4 ,hence many fabulous stories which are told1 were once believed concerning this curious linn4 ,,eddystone ,,rocks4--,this is the name of some rocks in the ,english ,channel1 so called from the variety of contrary currents in their vicinity4 ,they are situated nearly ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 from the middle of ,plymouth ,sound1 their distance from the port is about fourteen miles1 and from ,rame ,head1 the nearest point of land1 twelve and a half4 ,they are almost in the line which joins the ,start and ,lizard points2 and as they lie nearly in the direction of vessels coasting up and down the channel1 they were very dangerous1 and ships were sometimes wrecked on them1 before the lighthouse was established4 ,they are so exposed to the swells of the ocean1 from all the south and west points of the compass1 that the heavy seas come uncontrolled1 and break on them with the utmost fury4 ,sometimes after a storm1 when the sea in general is1 to all appearance1 quite smooth1 and its surface unruffled by the slightest breeze1 the growing swell or under current1 meeting the slope of the rocks1 the sea beats dreadfully upon them1 and even rises above the lighthouse in a magnificent manner1 overtopping it1 for the moment1 as with a canopy of frothy wave4 ,notwithstanding this tremendous swell1 ,mr4 ,henry ,winstanley1 in #afif1 undertook to build a lighthouse on the principal rock2 and he completed it #agjj4 ,this ingenious mechanic was so confident of the stability of his structure1 that he declared his wish to be in it during the most tremendous storm that could blow4 ,unfortunately he obtained his wish1 for he perished in it1 during the dreadful storm which destroyed it on the #bgth of ,november1 #agjc4 ,in #agji1 another lighthouse was erected of wood on this rock1 but on a different construction1 by ,mr4 ,john ,rudyard4 ,it stood till #agee1 when it was burnt4 ,a third one1 of stone1 was begun by the late celebrated ,mr4 ,john ,smeaton1 on the #b;d of ,april1 #ageg1 and finished #bdth of ,august1 #agei2 and has withstood the rage of all weathers ever since4 ,the rock which slopes towards the south-west is cut into horizontal steps2 into which are dove-tailed1 and united by a strong cement1 ,portland stone1 and granite3 for ,mr4 ,smeaton discovered1 that it was impossible to make use of the former entirely1 as there is a marine animal that can destroy it2 and that he could not use the latter solely1 as the labour of working it would have been too expensive4 ,he therefore used the one for the internal1 and the other for the external part of the structure4 ,upon the principle of a broad base and accumulation of matter1 the whole1 to the height of thirty-five feet from the foundation1 is a solid mass of stones engrafted into each other1 and united by every kind of additional strength4 ,the lighthouse has four rooms1 one over another1 and at the top a gallery and lantern4 ,the stone floors are flat above1 but concave below1 and are kept from pressing against the sides of the building by a chain let into the walls4 ,the lighthouse is nearly eighty feet high1 and withstands the most violent storms1 without sustaining the smallest injury4 ,it has now stood above sixty-three years1 during which time it has been often assaulted by all the fury of the elements2 and1 in all probability1 as ,mr4 ,smeaton said1 nothing but an earthquake can destroy it4 ,the wooden part of it1 however1 was burnt in #aggj1 but renewed in #aggd4 ,,dismal ,,swamp1--is a morass in ,north ,america1 reaching from ,albermarle ,sound1 in ,north ,carolina1 to the neighbourhood of ,portsmouth1 on the opposite side of the harbour to ,norfolk4 ,it is supposed to contain about two hundred and fifty square miles1 or one hundred and fifty thousand acres4 ,some of the interior parts of this vast swampy plain are seldom explored1 being full of danger2 yet several adventurous huntsmen sometimes pursue their game within its precincts1 but they cannot advance far without great risk of forfeiting their lives to their temerity4 ,mr4 ,janson1 a late traveller1 relates1 that in one of these excursions he was often knee-deep1 though1 in other parts1 the ground supported him firmly4 ,in endeavouring to pass one of these fenny spots1 he attempted to avail himself of a sort of bridge1 formed of the body of a very large tree2 when1 to his surprise1 he was suddenly immersed in dust up to his waist1 the tree having become rotten1 or probably eaten out by insects1 though it retained its shape1 and appearance of solidity4 ,wild beasts lurk in this impenetrable recess3 cattle also stray there1 and often become wild3 hogs are turned into it by their owners1 to fatten upon the acorns that fall from the oaks4 ,lake ,drummond is situated near the centre of the swamp1 and is formed by the drainings of this immense bog4 ,it is crowded with fish of various kinds1 which1 living unmolested1 attain a prodigious size4 ,,curious ,,wine ,,cellar4--,the monastery of ,arcadi1 in ,candia1 surpasses every other part of the island1 though fertile in religious houses1 both in the number of monks1 and the endowment of the convents4 ,it is supposed to be built on the spot where the ancient ,arcadia once stood4 ,the house itself contains nearly one hundred inhabitants1 while about two hundred more are dispersed over the lands belonging to the monastery1 and are employed in agriculture4 ,the cellar is by far the finest part of the building4 ,it contains two hundred casks of wine1 of which the choicest is marked with the name of the superior1 and no one may touch it without his permission4 ,this cellar receives a solemn annual benediction immediately after the vintage4 ,the prayer recited by the superior on this occasion1 is printed in the ,greek ,spiritual2 it is as follows3--,lord ,god6 who lovest mankind1 look on this wine1 and on those that shall drink it2 bless those vessels as thou hast blessed the wells of ,jacob1 the fishpool of ,siloa1 and the beverage of thy holy apostles4 ,lord1 who didst condescend to be present at the marriage of ,cana1 where thou didst manifest thy glory to thy disciples by changing water into wine1 send thy holy ,spirit on this wine1 and bless it in thy name4 ,,mint ,,of ,,segovia4--,at the mint of ,segovia1 in ,spain1 there is an engine moved by water1 but so artificially made1 that one part of it distends an ingot of gold into the breadth and thickness requisite to make coin4 ,it delivereth the plate that it hath wrought unto another1 that printeth the figure of the coin upon it2 and from thence it is turned over to another1 that cutteth it according to the print in due shape and weight4 ,and lastly1 the several pieces fall into a coffer in another room1 where the officer1 whose charge it is1 finds treasure ready coined4 ,,remarkable ,,mills4--,at ,dantzic1 a city of ,prussia1 ,mr4 ,morrison1 an ingenious traveller of this nation1 saw a mill1 which1 without help of hands1 did saw boards1 having an iron wheel1 which did not only drive the saw1 but also did hook in1 and turn the boards unto the saw4 ,dr4 ,john ,dee mentions the like seen by him at ,prague2 but whether the mill moved by wind or water1 is set down by neither of them4 ,,silk ,,mill ,,at ,,derby4--,this mill1 situated on the river ,derwent1 was erected by ,sir ,t4 ,loombe1 who1 at a vast expense and great hazard1 brought the model from ,italy4 ,it is fixed in a large house1 six stories high1 and consists of #bf1ehf wheels1 with #ig1gdf movements1 all driven by one large water-wheel1 fixed on the outside of the house6 ,it goes round three times in one minute1 and each time works #gh1gbf yards of silk thread1 so that in twenty-four hours it works #cah1dif1cbj yards of silk thread1 under the management of only one regulator6 ,it has been of such service to the silk trade1 that ,sir ,thomas had the benefit of it during his life2 but the parliament having allowed him #ad1jjj1 as a further reward for his services1 he suffered a model of it to be taken4 ,this model now lies in the ,record-office at the ,tower1 for the benefit of the public1 any person being allowed to inspect it1 so that there are at present several mills of the kind erected in different parts of the kingdom4 ,,portland ,,vase4--,this is a celebrated funeral vase1 which was long in the possession of the ,baberini family2 but which was some years since purchased for #ajjj guineas by the duke of ,portland1 from whom it has derived its present name4 ,its height is about ten inches2 and its diameter1 where broadest1 six4 ,there are a variety of figures upon it1 of most exquisite workmanship1 in bas relief1 in white opaque1 raised on a ground of deep blue glass1 which appears black1 except when held against the light4 ,it appears to have been the work of many years2 and there are antiquarians who date its production several centuries before the ,christian era1 since1 as has been said1 sculpture was declining in excellence in the time of ,alexander the ,great4 ,respecting the purpose of this vase1 and what the figures on it were meant to represent1 there have been various conjectures4 ,we shall1 therefore1 give a short account of the several figures1 without noticing any of the theories or conjectures that have been made about them4 ,in one compartment1 three exquisite figures are placed on a ruined column1 the capital of which is fallen1 and lies at their feet among other disjointed stones3 they sit under a tree1 on loose piles of stone4 ,the middle figure is a female in a reclining and dying attitude1 with an inverted torch in her left hand1 the elbow of which supports her as she sinks1 while the right hand is raised1 and thrown over her drooping head4 ,the figure on her right hand is a man1 and that on the left a woman1 both supporting themselves on their arms1 and apparently thinking intensely4 ,their backs are to the dying figure1 and their faces are turned towards her1 but without an attempt to assist her4 ,on another compartment of the vase is a figure coming through a portal1 and going down with great timidity into a darker region1 where he is received by beautiful female1 who stretches forth her hand to help him3 between her knees is a large and playful serpent4 ,she sits with her feet towards an aged figure1 having one foot sunk into the earth1 and the other raised on a column1 with his chin resting on his hand4 ,above the female figure is a ,cupid preceding the first figure1 and beckoning him to advance4 ,this first figure holds a cloak or garment1 which he seems anxious to bring with him1 but which adheres to the side of the portal through which he has passed4 ,in this compartment there are two trees1 one of which bends over the female figure1 and the other over the aged one4 ,on the bottom of the vase1 there is another figure on a larger scale than the one we have already mentioned1 but not so well finished nor so elevated4 ,this figure points with its finger to its mouth4 ,the dress appears to be curious and cumbersome1 and above there is a foliage of a tree4 ,on the head of the figure there is a ,phrygian cap3 it is not easy to say whether this figure be male or female4 ,on the handles of the vase are represented two aged heads with the ears of a quadruped1 and from the middle of the forehead rises a kind of tree without leaves3 these figures are1 in all probability1 mere ornaments1 and have no connection with the story represented on the vase4 ,,murdering ,,statue4--,kenith1 king of ,scotland1 had slain ,cruthlintus the son1 and ,malcolmus ,duffus the king1 and kinsman of ,fenella3 she1 to be revenged of the murderer1 caused a statue to be framed with admirable art4 ,in one of the hands of it was an apple of gold set full of precious stones1 which1 whosoever touched1 was immediately slain with many darts1 which the statue threw or shot at him4 ,kenith1 suspecting nothing1 was invited to this place1 and being slain in this manner1 ,fenella escaped over into ,ireland4 ,a ,,curious ,,pulpit4--,the pulpit of the grand parochial church at ,brussels1 a curious production of ,henry ,verbruggen1 of ,antwerp1 is placed in the middle of the nave4 ,at the base are ,adam and ,eve1 large as life1 the expelling ,angel and ,death in the rear6 ,our first parents1 though closely pursued1 bear upon their shoulders the terrestrial globe1 the cavity of which is filled by the preacher6 ,from the globe rises a tree1 whose top extends into a canopy sustaining an ,angel1 and ,truth exhibited as a female genius4 ,above are the ,virgin and the infant ,jesus1 crushing the serpent's head with a cross4 ,the steps on either side appear as if cut from trunks of trees1 and are accompanied by carvings of the ostrich1 eagle1 peacock1 parrot1 c4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxxvi4 ,,miscellaneous ,,curiosities4--7,continued47 ,extraordinary ,echoes1 and ,whispering ,places--,natural ,productions resembling ,artificial ,compositions--,remarkable ,lamps--,perpetual ,fire--,magical ,drum--,an ,extraordinary ,cannon--,curious ,account of ,old ,bread--,substitute for ,spectacles--,winter ,sleep of ,animals and ,plants4 ,,extraordinary ,,echoes1 ,,and ,,whispering ,,places4--,these are places where a whisper1 or other low sound1 may be heard from one part to another1 to a great distance4 ,they depend on a principle1 that the voice1 c4 being applied to one end of an arch1 easily passes by repeated reflections to the other4 ,hence sound is conveyed from one side of a whispering gallery to the opposite one1 without being perceived by those who stand in the middle4 ,the form of a whispering-gallery is that of a segment of a sphere1 or the like arched figure4 ,all the contrivance in whispering-places is1 that near the person who whispers there may be a smooth wall1 arched either cylindrically or elliptically4 ,a circular arch will do1 but not so well4 ,the most considerable whispering-places in ,england are1 the whispering-gallery in the dome of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,london1 where the ticking of a watch may be heard from side to side1 and a very easy whisper be sent all round the dome4 ,the famous whispering-place in ,gloucester ,cathedral1 is no other than a gallery above the east end of the choir1 leading from one side thereof to the other4 ,it consists of five angles and six sides2 the middlemost of which is a naked window1 yet two whisperers hear each other at the distance of twenty-five yards4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #agdf1 there is a letter inserted from ,robert ,southwell1 ,esq4 in which he gives the following account of some extraordinary whispering-places and echoes4--,the best whispering-place in ,england1 he observes1 ,i ever saw1 was that at ,gloucester3 but in ,italy1 in the way to ,naples1 two days from ,rome1 ,i saw1 in a inn1 a room with a square vault1 where a whisper could be easily heard at the opposite corner1 but not at all in the side corner that was near to you4 ,i saw another1 in the way from ,paris to ,lyons1 in the porch of a common inn1 which had a round vault3 but neither of these was comparable to that of ,gloucester2 only the difference between these last two was1 that to the latter1 by holding your mouth to the side of the wall1 several could hear you on the other side2 the voice being more diffused3 but to the former1 it being a square room1 and you whispering in the corner1 it was only audible in the opposite corner1 and not to any distance from thence1 as to distinction of words4 ,and this property was common to each corner of the room4 ,as to ,echoes1 there is one at ,brussels that answers fifteen times3 but when at ,milan1 ,i went two miles from thence to a nobleman's palace1 to notice one still more extraordinary4 ,the building is of some length in the front1 and has two wings projecting forward2 so that it wants only one side of an oblong figure4 ,about one hundred paces before the house1 there runs a small brook1 and that very slowly2 over which you pass from the house into the garden4 ,we carried some pistols with us1 and1 firing one of them1 ,i heard fifty-six reiterations of the noise4 ,the first twenty were with some distinction2 but then1 as the noise seemed to fly away1 and the answers were at a great distance1 the repetition was so doubled1 that you could hardly count them all1 seeming as if the principal sound was saluted in its passage by reports on this and that side at the same time4 ,some of our company reckoned above sixty reiterations1 when a louder pistol was discharged4 ,some persons tell us1 that the sound of one musical instrument in this place will seem like a great number of instruments playing together in concert4 ,this echo is of the multiple or tautological kind1 returning one sound several times successively1 so as to make one clap of the hands seem like many1--one ha1 like a laughter1--or one instrument like several of the same kind1 imitating each other2 and by placing certain echoing bodies in such a manner1 that any note played should be returned in thirds1 fifths1 and eighths1 a musical room may be so contrived1 that not only one violin played therein shall seem many of the same sort and size1 but even a concert of different instruments4 ,those echoes which return the voice but once are called single2 whereof some are tonical1 only repeating when modulated into some particular musical tone4 ,others1 that repeat many syllables or words1 are termed polysyllabical2 of which kind is the fine echo in ,woodstock ,park1 which ,dr4 ,plott assures us will return seventeen syllables distinctly in the day-time1 and in the night twenty4 ,barthius likewise1 in his notes on ,statius's ,thebais1 mentions an echo near ,bingeni in ,germany1 which would repeat words seventeen times1 as he himself had proved2 and what is very strange in this echo1 the person who speaks is scarcely heard at all1 but the repetition most clearly1 and always in surprising varieties1 the echo seeming sometimes to approach nearer1 and sometimes to retire to a greater distance4 ,vitruvius tells us1 that in several parts of ,greece and ,italy there were brazen vessels artfully ranged under the seats of the theatres1 to render the sound of the actors' voices more clear1 and make a kind of echo2 by which means1 of the prodigious number of persons present1 every one might hear with ease and pleasure4 ,,knout4--,this is a punishment inflicted in ,russia1 with a kind of whip called knout1 and made of a long strap of leather prepared for this purpose4 ,with this whip the executioners dexterously carry a slip of skin from the neck to the bottom of the back1 laid bare to the waist2 and repeating their blows1 in a little while rend away all the skin off the back in parallel strips4 ,in the common knout1 the criminal receives the lashes suspended on the back of one of the executioners2 but in the great knout1 which is generally used on the same occasions as racking on the wheel was in ,france1 the criminal is raised into the air by means of a pulley fixed to the gallows1 and a cord fastened to the two wrists1 which are tied together2 a piece of wood is placed between his two legs1 which are also tied together2 and another of a crucial form under his breast4 ,sometimes his hands are tied behind over his back1 and when he is pulled up in this position1 his shoulders are dislocated4 ,the executioners can make this punishment more or less cruel2 and it is said1 they are so dexterous1 that when a criminal is condemned to die1 they can make him expire either by one or several lashes4 ,,natural ,,productions ,,resembling ,,artificial ,,compositions4--,some stones are preserved by the curious1 for representing distinctly figures traced by ,nature alone1 and without the aid of ,art4 ,pliny mentions an agate1 in which appeared1 formed by the hand of ,nature1 ,apollo amidst the ,nine ,muses1 holding a harp4 ,majolus assures us1 that at ,venice another is seen1 in which is naturally formed the perfect figure of a man4 ,at ,pisa1 in the church of ,st4 ,john1 there is a similar natural production1 which represents an old hermit in a desert1 seated by the side of a stream1 and who holds in his hands a small bell1 as ,st4 ,anthony is commonly painted4 ,in the temple of ,st4 ,sophia1 at ,constantinople1 there was formerly1 on a white marble1 the image of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 covered with the skin of a camel1 with this only imperfection1 that nature had given but one leg4--,at ,ravenna1 in the church of ,st4 ,vital1 a ,cordelier is seen on a dusky stone4 ,in ,italy1 a marble was found1 in which a crucifix was so elaborately finished1 that there appeared the nails1 the drops of blood1 and the wounds1 as perfectly as the most excellent painter could have performed4--,at ,sneilberg1 in ,germany1 they found in a mine a certain rough metal1 on which was seen the figure of a man1 who carried a child on his back4--,in ,provence1 was found1 in a mine1 a quantity of natural figures of birds1 trees1 rats1 and serpents2 and in some places of the western parts of ,tartary1 are seen on divers rocks1 the figures of camels1 horses1 and sheep4 ,pancirollus1 in his ,lost ,antiquities1 attests1 that in a church at ,rome1 a marble perfectly represented a priest celebrating mass1 and raising the host4 ,paul ,,iii4 conceiving that art had been used1 scraped the marble to discover whether any painting had been employed2 but nothing of the kind was discovered4 ,there is a species of the orchis found in the mountainous parts of ,lincolnshire1 ,kent1 c4 ,nature has formed a bee1 apparently feeding in the breast of the flower1 with so much exactness1 that it is impossible at a very small distance to distinguish the imposition4 ,hence the plant derives its name1 and is called the ,bee ,flower4 ,this is elegantly expressed by ,langhorne1 who thus notices its appearance3 ,see on that flow'ret's velvet breast1 ,how close the busy vagrant lies6 ,his thin-wrought plume1 his downy breast1 ,th' ambrosial gold that swells his thighs4 ,perhaps his fragrant load may bind ,his limbs2 we'll set the captive free3-- ,i sought the living ,bee to find1 ,and found the picture of a ,bee4 ,,remarkable ,,lamps4--,cedrenus makes mention of a lamp1 which1 together with an image of ,christ1 was found at ,edessa1 in the reign of the ,emperor ,justinian4 ,it was set over a certain gate there1 and privily enclosed1 as appeared by the date of it1 soon after ,christ was crucified3 it was found burning1 as it had done for five hundred years before1 by the soldiers of ,cosroes1 king of ,persia1 by whom also the oil was taken out1 and cast into the fire2 which occasioned such a plague1 as brought death upon almost all his forces4--,at the demolition of our monasteries here in ,england1 there was found1 in the supposed monument of ,constantius ,chlorus1 7father to the ,great ,constantine17 a lamp1 which was thought to have continued burning there ever since his burial1 which was about three hundred years after ,christ4 ,the ancient ,romans used in that manner to preserve lights in their sepulchres a long time1 by the oil of gold1 resolved by art into a liquid substance4 ,,perpetual ,,fire4--,in the peninsula of ,abeheron1 in the province of ,schirwan1 formerly belonging to ,persia1 but now in ,russia1 there is found a perpetual1 or as it is there called1 an eternal fire4 ,it rises1 and has risen from time immemorial1 from an irregular orifice in the earth1 of about twelve feet in depth1 with a constant flame4 ,the flame rises to the height of six or eight feet1 unattended with smoke1 and it yields no smell4 ,the aperture1 which is about one hundred and twenty feet in width1 consists of a mass of rock1 ever retaining the same solidity and the same depth4 ,the finest turf grows about the borders1 and at the distance of two toises1 are two springs of water4 ,the neighbouring inhabitants have a sort of veneration for this fire1 which they accompany with religious ceremonies4 ,,magical ,,drum4--,this is an instrument of superstition1 used in ,lapland1 which is thus described by ,schoeffer1 in his ,history of that country3 ,it is made of beech1 pine1 or fir1 split in the middle1 and hollowed on the flat side where the drum is to be made4 ,the hollow is of an oval figure1 and is covered with a skin clean dressed1 and painted with figures of various kinds1 such as stars1 suns and moons1 animals and plants1 and even countries1 lakes1 and rivers2 and of later days1 since the preaching of ,christianity among them1 the acts and sufferings of our ,saviour and his apostles are often added among the rest4 ,all these figures are separated by lines into three regions or clusters4 ,there is1 besides these parts of the drum1 an index and a hammer4 ,the index is a bundle of grass or iron rings1 the largest of which has a hole in its middle1 and the smaller ones are hung to it4 ,the hammer1 or drumstick1 is made of the horn of a reindeer2 and with this they beat the drum so as to make these rings move1 they being laid on the top for that purpose4 ,in the motion of these rings about the pictures figured on the drum1 they fancy to themselves some prediction in regard to the things they inquire about4 ,what they principally search into by this instrument1 are three things3 #a4 ,what sacrifices will prove most acceptable to their gods3 #b4 ,what success they shall have in their occupations1 as hunting1 fishing1 curing diseases1 and the like3 and #c4 ,what is done in places remote from them4 ,on these occasions they use several peculiar ceremonies1 and place themselves in various odd postures as they beat the drum1 which influences the rings to the one or the other side1 and to come nearer to the one or the other set of figures4 ,and when they have done this1 they have a method of calculating a discovery1 which they keep as a great secret1 but which seems merely the business of the imagination in the diviner or magician4 ,,an ,,extraordinary ,,cannon4--,at ,kubberpore-na-,jeal1 in ,india1 there is a cannon two hundred and thirteen inches long1 sixty-six inches round the muzzle1 and eighteen inches round the calibre4 ,it has five1 and had originally six1 equidistant rings1 by which it was lifted up4 ,this gun is called by the natives1 ,jaun ,kushall1 or the destroyer of life1 and its casting and position are attributed to the doctas or divinities1 though its almost obliterated ,persian inscriptions declare its formation by human means4 ,but what is most extraordinary about it is1 that two peepul trees have grown both cannon and carriage into themselves4 ,fragments of the iron1 a spring1 one of the linches1 and part of the wood-work1 protrude from between the roots and bodies of these trees2 but the trees alone entirely support the gun1 one of the rings of which1 and half of its whole length1 are completely hidden between1 and inside their bark and trunks4 ,a more curious sight1 or a cannon more firmly fixed1 though by the mere gradual growth of two trees1 cannot well be imagined4 ,the ,indians assert that it was only once fired1 and then sent the ball twenty-four miles6--,asiatic ,journal4 ,,old ,,bread4--,bartholinus assures us1 that in ,norway the inhabitants make bread which keeps thirty or forty years2 and that they are there fonder of their old hard bread1 than others are of new or soft2 since the older it is1 the more agreeable it grows4 ,for their great feasts1 particular care is taken to have the oldest bread2 so that at the christening of a child1 they have usually bread which had been baked perhaps at the christening of his grandfather6 ,it is made by a mixture of barley and oatmeal1 baked between two hollow stones4 ,the following is said to be ,a ,,substitute ,,for ,,spectacles4--,a man1 especially if accustomed to spend his time among books1 would be much to be pitied1 when his sight begins to fail1 could he not in a great measure restore it by the aid of spectacles2 but there are some men whose sight cannot be aided by the use either of convex or concave glasses4 ,the following method1 adopted by one of these to aid his sight1 is certainly worthy of notice4 ,when about sixty years of age1 this man had almost entirely lost his sight1 seeing nothing but a kind of thick mist1 with little black specks which appeared to float in the air4 ,he knew not any of his friends2 he could not even distinguish a man from a woman2 nor could he walk in the streets without being led4 ,glasses were of no use to him2 the best print1 seen through the bell spectacles1 seemed to him like a daubed paper4 ,wearied with this melancholy state1 he thought of the following expedient4 ,he procured some spectacles with very large rings2 and taking out the glasses1 substituted in each circle a conic tube of black ,spanish copper4 ,looking through the large end of the cone1 he could read the smallest print placed at its other extremity4 ,these tubes were of different lengths1 and the openings at the end were also of different sizes2 the smaller the aperture1 the better could he distinguish the smallest letters2 the larger the aperture1 the more words or lines it commanded2 and consequently1 the less occasion was there for moving the head and the hand in reading4 ,sometimes he used one eye1 sometimes the other1 alternately relieving each2 for the rays of the two eyes could not unite upon the same object when thus separated by two opaque tubes4 ,the thinner these tubes1 the less troublesome are they4 ,they must be totally blackened within1 so as to prevent all shining1 and they should be made to lengthen or contract1 and enlarge or reduce the aperture1 at pleasure4 ,when he placed convex glasses in these tubes1 the letters indeed appeared larger1 but not so clear and distinct as through the empty tube2 he also found the tubes more convenient when not fixed in the spectacle rings2 for when they hung loosely1 they could be raised or lowered with the hand1 and one or both might be used1 as occasion required4 ,it is almost needless to add1 that the material of the tubes is of no importance1 and that they may be made of iron or tin as well as of copper1 provided the insides of them be sufficiently blackened4--,see ,la ,nouvell1 ,bigarur for ,february1 #aged1 or ,monthly ,magazine for ,april1 #agii4 ,,winter ,,sleep ,,of ,,animals ,,and ,,plants4--,the winter sleep is a very singular property of animals and plants2 and1 though it occurs daily before our eyes1 we are not able to explain the phenomena with which it is attended4 ,in cold countries1 many animals1 on the approach of winter1 retire to their subterraneous abodes1 in which they bury themselves under the snow1 where they remain five or six months without nourishment or motion2 nay1 almost without circulation of their blood1 which flows only sluggishly1 and in the widest vessels4 ,their perspiration is almost imperceptible2 but still they lose something by it1 as they enter their winter quarters in very good condition1 and are exceedingly thin when they return from them4 ,some animals enjoy their winter sleep under the earth1 and others are concealed beneath the snow2 some for the same purpose creep into the holes of rocks1 and others under stones1 or the bark of trees4 ,plants have their winter sleep also2 for1 during the period of winter1 their sap flows towards the roots1 and the circulation of it1 which is very slow1 takes place only in the widest vessels4 ,were the expansion of the sap in winter as considerable as in summer1 it would burst all the vessels1 on being frozen4 ,some observers have endeavoured to prove that this singular circumstance is merely accidental1 and1 indeed1 no difference is found in the internal organization of those animals which have winter sleep1 and those which have not4 ,it is very remarkable1 that this property belongs in general to animals of prey4 ,as these have far stronger powers of digestion1 and stronger digestive juices1 it would appear that abstinence from food for several months would to them be hardly possible4 ,the common bear1 the bat1 and the hedgehog1 have winter sleep1 but the white bear has not4 ,as the latter is secured from the cold by his long hair1 he finds nourishment in the dead whales and seals which are cast on shore by the waves4 ,the earthworms have winter sleep2 but aquatic worms very seldom4 ,insects1 as well as their larv1 have winter sleep4 ,butterflies may be often seen fluttering about in the warm days of spring1 after having spent the whole winter in that condition4 ,amphibious animals have winter sleep1 those which live merely in the ocean excepted4 ,few birds1 on the other hand1 are exposed to this state4 ,the greater part of these1 on the approach of winter1 retire to a milder climate1 where they can find more abundant nourishment4 ,in ,iceland1 the sheep have winter sleep4 ,in that country they are suffered to range in perfect freedom4 ,in the winter season1 therefore1 they may be found buried under the snow1 where it would be impossible for them to remain1 were they not in that condition4 ,,chap4 ,,lxxxvii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,curiosities4--7,concluded47 ,lama--,nun--,mahometan ,paradise--,opinions respecting ,hell--,london--,coins of the ,kings of ,england--,singular ,calculations respecting the ,national ,debt--,moral and ,physical ,thermometer4--,conclusion4 ,,lama4--,this is the sovereign pontiff1 or rather god1 of the ,asiatic ,tartars1 inhabiting the country of ,barantola4 ,the lama is not only adored by the inhabitants of the country1 but also by the kings of ,tartary1 who send him rich presents1 and go in pilgrimage to pay him adoration1 calling him lama congiu1 i4 e4 god1 the everlasting father of heaven4 ,he is never to be seen but in a secret place of his palace1 amidst a great number of lamps1 sitting crosslegged upon a cushion1 and adorned all over with gold and precious stones2 where at a distance they prostrate themselves before him1 it not being lawful for any to kiss his feet4 ,he is called the great lama1 or lama of lamas2 that is1 priest of priests4 ,the orthodox opinion is1 that when the grand lama seems to die either of old age or infirmity1 his soul in fact only quits a crazy habitation to look for another younger or better2 and it is discovered again in the body of some child1 by certain tokens known only to the lamas1 or priests1 in which order he always appears4 ,a particular account of the pompous ceremonies attending the inauguration of the infant lama in ,thibet1 is given in the first volume of the ,asiatic ,researches4 ,the emperor of ,china appears1 on such occasions1 to act a very conspicuous part1 in giving testimony of his respect and zeal for the great religious father of his faith4 ,the twenty-eighth day of the seventh moon1 corresponding nearly 7as their year commences with the vernal equinox7 with the middle of ,october1 is reckoned the most auspicious for the ceremony of inauguration4 ,the procession1 on these occasions1 from ,terpaling to the ,teeshoo ,loombo1 is conducted with such slow and majestic solemnity1 that though the distance is only twenty miles1 it takes up three days4 ,the crowd of spectators is immense4 ,the three next days are spent in the inauguration1 in delivering the presents sent by the emperor to the lama1 and in the public festivals on the occasion2 during which1 all who are at the capital are entertained at the public expense1 and alms are distributed liberally to the poor4 ,universal rejoicings prevail throughout ,thibet2 banners are unfurled on all their fortresses1 the peasantry fill up the day with music and festivity1 and the night is cheered by general illuminations4 ,a long period is afterwards employed in making presents and public entertainments to the newly-inducted lama1 who1 at the time of his accession to the musnud1 or pontificate of ,teeshoo ,loombo1 is often not three years of age4 ,the whole ceremony1 from its commencement to its consummation1 lasts forty days4 ,some particulars respecting ,,nuns4--,a nun is a woman dedicated to the severer duties of religion1 secluded in a cloister from the world1 and debarred by a vow from the converse of men4 ,when a woman is to be made a nun1 the habit1 veil1 and ring of the candidate1 are carried to the altar2 and she herself1 accompanied by her nearest relations1 is conducted to the bishop1 who1 after mass and an anthem 7the subject of which is1 that she ought to have her lamp lighted1 because the bridegroom is coming to meet her17 pronounces the benediction3 then she rises up1 and the bishop consecrates the new habit1 sprinkling it with holy water4 ,when the candidate has put on her religious habit1 she presents herself before the bishop1 and sings on her knees1 ,ancilla ,christi sum1 c42 then she receives the veil1 and afterwards the ring1 by which she is married to ,christ2 and lastly1 the crown of virginity4 ,when she is crowned1 an anathema is denounced against all who shall attempt to make her break her vows4 ,in some few instances1 perhaps1 nunneries and monasteries may have been useful to morality and religion1 as well as to literature1 but1 in the gross1 they have been highly prejudicial2 and however pious they may appear in theory1 in fact they are unnatural and impious4 ,,mahometan ,,paradise4--,the paradise of the ,mahometans is said by them to be situated above the seven heavens1 or in the seventh1 and next under the throne of ,god2 and1 to express the amenity of the place1 they tell us that the earth of it is of the finest wheat flour1 or of the purest musk1 or of saffron2 and that its stones are pearls and jacinths1 the walls of its buildings enriched with gold and silver1 and the trunks of all its trees of gold1 amongst which the most remarkable is the tree luba1 or tree of happiness4 ,they pretend that this tree stands in the palace of ,mahomet1 though a branch of it will reach to the house of every true believer1 loaded with pomegranates1 grapes1 dates1 and other fruits1 of surprising size1 and delicious tastes1 unknown to mortals4 ,if a man desires to eat of any particular kind of fruit1 it will immediately be presented to him2 or if he chooses flesh1 birds ready dressed will be set before him1 and such as he may wish for4 ,they add that this tree will supply the blessed1 not only with fruit1 but with silk garments also1 and beasts to ride on1 adorned with rich trappings1 all which will burst forth from the fruit2 and that the tree is so large1 that a person mounted on the fleetest horse would not be able to gallop from one end of its shade to the other in one hundred years4 ,plenty of water being one of the greatest additions to the pleasantness of any place1 the ,koran often speaks of the rivers of paradise as the principal ornament4 ,some of these rivers are said to flow with water1 some with milk1 some with wine1 and others with honey3 all of them have their sources in the root of this tree of happiness2 and1 as if these rivers were not sufficient1 we are told that the garden of this paradise is also watered by a great number of lesser springs and fountains1 whose pebbles are rubies and emeralds1 their earth of camphor1 their beds of musk1 and their sides of saffron4 ,but all these glories will be eclipsed by the resplendent and exquisite beauty of the girls of paradise1 the enjoyment of whose company will constitute the principal felicity of the faithful4 ,these 7they say7 are not formed of clay1 as mortal women1 but of pure musk1 and are1 as their prophet often affirms in his ,koran1 free from all the natural defects and inconveniences incident to the sex4 ,being also of the strictest modesty1 they keep themselves secluded from public view1 in pavilions of hollow pearls1 so large1 that1 as some traditions have it1 one of them will be no less than sixteen1 or1 as others say1 sixty miles long1 and as many broad4 ,with these the inhabitants of paradise may taste pleasures in their height2 and for this purpose will be endowed with extraordinary abilities1 and enjoy a perpetual youth4 ,,opinions ,,respecting ,,hell4--,the hell of the ancient heathens was divided into two mansions3 the one called ,elysium1 on the right hand1 pleasant and delightful1 appointed for the souls of good men2 the other called ,tartarus1 on the left1 a region of misery and torment1 appointed for the wicked4 ,the latter only was hell1 in the present restrained sense of the word4 ,the philosophers were of opinion1 that the infernal regions were at an equal distance from all the parts of the earth2 nevertheless1 it was the opinion of some1 that there were certain passages which led thither1 as the river ,lethe near the ,syrtes1 and the ,acherusian cave in ,epirus4 ,at ,hermione1 it was thought1 that there was a very short way to hell2 for which reason the people of that country never put the fare into the mouths of the dead to pay their passage4 ,the ,jews placed hell in the centre of the earth1 and believed it to be situated under waters and mountains4 ,according to them1 there are three passages leading to it3 the first is in the wilderness1 and by that ,korah1 ,dathan1 and ,abiram descended into hell2 the second is in the sea1 because ,jonah1 who was thrown into the sea1 cried to ,god out of the belly of hell2 the third is in ,jerusalem1 because it is said the fire of the ,lord is in ,zion1 and his furnace is in ,jerusalem4 ,they likewise acknowledged seven degrees of pain in hell1 because they find this place called by seven different names in ,scripture4 ,in the ,koran of ,mahomet1 it is said that hell has seven gates2 the first for the ,mussulmans1 the second for the ,christians1 the third for the ,jews1 the fourth for the ,sabeans1 the fifth for the ,magians1 the sixth for the ,pagans1 and the seventh for hypocrites of all religions4 ,among ,christians1 there are two controverted questions in regard to hell2 the one concerning the locality1 the other the duration of its torments3--,the locality of hell1 and the reality of its fire1 began first to be controverted by ,origen4 ,that father1 interpreting the scripture account metaphorically1 makes hell to consist1 not in external punishments1 but in a consciousness or sense of guilt1 and a remembrance of past pleasures4 ,among the moderns1 ,mr4 ,whiston advanced a new hypothesis4 ,the comets1 he thinks1 are so many hells1 appointed in their orbits alternately to carry the damned into the confines of the sun1 there to be scorched by its violent heat1 and then to return with them beyond the orb of ,saturn1 there to starve them in those cold and dismal regions4 ,another modern author1 ,mr4 ,swinden1 supposes the sun to be the local hell4 ,however difficult it may be to ascertain the local place of hell1 we may rest assured ,god will find both place and means to punish the obstinately wicked4 ,,london4--,this metropolis is unparalleled1 in extent and opulence1 in the whole habitable globe1 except1 perhaps1 ,pekin in ,china1 ,jeddo in ,japan1 and ,houssa in ,africa2 which are all said to be larger4 ,it comprehends1 besides ,london1 ,westminster1 and ,southwark1 no less than forty-five villages1 of considerable extent1 independent of a vast accession of buildings upon the open fields in the vicinity4 ,its length is nearly eight miles1 its breadth three1 and its circumference twenty-six4 ,it contains above #hjjj streets1 lanes1 alleys1 and courts1 and more than #fe different squares4 ,its houses1 warehouses1 and other buildings1 make #afb1jjj1 besides #bdf churches and chapels1 #bjg meeting houses for dissenters1 #dc chapels for foreigners1 and #f synagogues for the ,jews1 which in all make #ejd places of public worship4 ,the number of inhabitants1 during the sitting of parliament1 is estimated at #a1bej1jjj4 ,among these are found about #ej1jjj common prostitutes1 and no less than #fj1jjj thieves1 coiners1 and other bad persons of all descriptions4 ,the annual depredations on the public1 by this numerous body of pilferers1 are estimated at the sum of #b1ajj1jjj sterling4 ,in this vast city1 there are1 moreover1 upwards of #djjj seminaries for education1 #h institutions for promoting morality1 #aj institutions for promoting the arts1 #abb asylums for the indigent1 #ag for the sick and lame1 #ac dispensaries1 #gjd charitable institutions1 #eh courts of justice1 and #gjdj professional men connected with the various departments of the law4--,there are #ac1ejj vessels trading in the river ,thames in the course of a year2 and #dj1jjj waggons going and returning to the metropolis in the same period1 including their repeated voyages and journeys4--,the amount of exports and imports to and from the ,thames is estimated at #ff1haa1icb sterling annually1 and the property floating in this vast city every year1 is #agj1jjj1jjj4 ,these circumstances may be sufficient to convince us of the amazing extent and importance of the capital of the ,british empire4 ,the numbers of bullocks1 sheep1 lambs1 calves1 hogs1 and sucking pigs1 purchased at the ,smithfield markets1 and annually consumed in the metropolis1 are in the following proportion3 bullocks #aaj1jjj2 sheep and lambs #ggf1jjj2 calves #baj1jjj2 hogs #baj1jjj2 sucking pigs #fj1jjj4 ,markets for hay1 ,tuesday1 ,thursday1 and ,saturday4 ,the markets for the sale of provisions are numerous1 and amply supplied with every sort1 generally of the most excellent kind3 the bread generally fine and sound4 ,besides animal food and bread1 there are no less than #f1ihj1jjj gallons of milk and water annually consumed here3 of vegetables and fruit1 there are #aj1jjj acres of ground near the metropolis1 cultivated wholly for vegetables2 and about #djjj acres of fruit4 ,of wheat1 coals1 ale1 and porter1 c4 the annual consumption is as follows3 of wheat1 #gjj1jjj quarters2 of coals #fjj1jjj chaldrons2 of ale and porter #a1aac1ejj barrels2 of spirits and compounds #aa1adf1ghb gallons2 of wine #cb1ejj tons2 of butter #af1fjj1jjj pounds2 and of cheese #ba1ajj1jjj pounds4 ,fish and poultry are sometimes excessively dear1 and the quantities consumed are comparatively small4 ,,coins ,,of ,,the ,,kings ,,of ,,england4--,the silver ,penny1 which was first circulated during the ,heptarchy1 continued to be the general coin after the kingdom had been united under one head1 and extends1 in a continued series1 from ,egbert almost to the present reign4 ,the only kings wanting are ,edmund ,ironside1 ,richard ,i41 and ,john4 ,at first the penny weighed twenty-two and a half grains1 but towards the close of the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 it fell to eighteen grains2 in that of ,edward ,,iv4 to twelve4 ,in the time of ,edward ,,vi4 it was reduced to eight grains2 and in queen ,elizabeth's reign to #g-bc_/ca grains1 at which it still continues4 ,halfpence and farthings were first struck in silver by ,edward ,i4 in #abhj3 the former continued to the time of the ,commonwealth1 but the latter ceased with ,edward ,,vi4 ,the groat and half groat were introduced in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 in #aced1 and continue to this day1 though not in common circulation4 ,shillings were first coined by ,henry ,,vii4 in #aejc2 at first they were called testoon1 from the teste1 tte1 or head of the king1 upon them2 the name shilling being derived from the ,german schelling1 under which name coins had been struck at ,hamburgh in #adjg4 ,the crown was first coined in its present form by ,henry ,,viii4 ,the half-crown1 six-pence1 and three-pence1 were coined by ,edward ,,vi4 ,in #aeeh1 queen ,elizabeth coined three-halfpenny1 and in #aefa1 three-farthing pieces2 but they were discontinued in #aehb4 ,gold was coined in ,england by ,henry ,,iii4 in #abeg2 the piece was called a gold penny1 and was larger than the silver one1 and the execution by no means bad for the time4 ,the series of gold coinage1 however1 commences properly from ,edward ,,iii4 ,in #acdd1 this monarch first struck florins1 in imitation of those in ,italy2 and it is remarkable1 that though these coins1 at the time they were first issued1 bore only six shillings value1 they were 7even before the late increased value of gold7 intrinsically worth nineteen shillings2 so much has the value of gold increased since that time4 ,the half and quarter florin were struck at the same time1 but only the last has been found4 ,the florin being found inconvenient1 gave place to the noble1 of six shillings and eight-pence value1 and exactly half a mark4 ,the latter had its name from being a limited sum in accounts2 and was eight ounces in weight1 two-thirds of the money pound4 ,the noble had its name from the nobility of the metal2 the gold of which it is coined being of the finest sort4 ,sometimes it was called rose-noble1 from both sides being impaled in an undulating circle4 ,it continued1 with the half and quarter noble1 to be the only gold coin till the angels of ,edward ,,iv4 appeared in #adfe4 ,these had their name from the image of ,michael and the ,dragon which they bore4 ,the angelites1 of three shillings and four-pence value1 were substituted in their place4 ,in #aebg1 ,henry ,,viii4 added to the gold coins the crown and half-crown at their present value2 the same year he gave sovereigns of twenty-two shillings1 and six-pence1 and ryals of eleven shillings and three-pence1 angels at seven shillings and six-pence1 and nobles at their old value of six shillings and eight-pence4 ,in #aedf he caused sovereigns to be coined of the value of twenty shillings1 and half sovereigns in proportion4 ,on the union of the two crowns1 ,james gave the sovereign the name of unite2 the value continuing twenty shillings1 as before4 ,he coined also rose ryals of thirty shillings1 spur ryals of fifteen shillings1 angels of ten shillings1 and angelites of five shillings value4 ,under the ,commonwealth1 the sovereign received the name of the twenty shilling piece1 and continued current till the coinage of guineas4 ,these were so called1 from their being coined of gold brought from the coast of ,guinea1 and were at first to pass but for twenty shillings1 though by a universal but tacit consent1 they always passed for twenty-one shillings4 ,half-guineas1 double-guineas1 and five guinea pieces1 were also coined during the same reign2 which still continue1 though the two latter are not in common circulation4 ,quarter-guineas were coined by ,george ,i4 and likewise by his late ,majesty2 but they were found so troublesome on account of their small size1 that they were stopped at the ,bank of ,england2 and therefore are not to be met with in circulation at present4 ,a few pieces of seven shillings value were likewise coined1 and are known by the lion above the helmet2 but none were issued4 ,in #affh1 the guinea rose to twenty-one shillings and sixpence1 and continued to increase in value till #afif1 when it was as high as thirty shillings2 but after the recoinage in #afig and #afih1 it fell by degrees1 and in #agag was at its old standard of twenty-one shillings4 ,during the reign of ,george ,,iii4 vast numbers of seven shilling pieces were issued1 which continued some years in general circulation4 ,sovereigns have also been coined since his present ,majesty's accession1 and they constitute at present the prevailing gold currency of the realm4 ,,singular ,,calculation ,,respecting ,,the ,,national ,,debt4--,the national debt1 funded and unfunded1 on the #eth of ,january1 #ahaa1 was #haa1hih1haa1 which are equal to #ggc1bcf1bfg guineas1 which1 at #e dwts4 #h grains each guinea1 weigh #fcab tons1 #aa cwt4 #c qrs4 #e lbs4 #a oz4 #f drs4 nearly1 avoirdupois4 ,now supposing a waggon and five horses to extend in length twenty yards1 and to carry two and a half tons of the said guineas1 the number of teams necessary to carry the whole would extend in length twenty-eight miles twenty-three yards4 ,to count the debt in shillings1 at the rate of thirty shillings in a minute1 for ten hours a day1 and six days in a week1 would take #b1dfi years1 #cjf days1 #ag hours1 and #cj minutes1 nearly4 ,its height in guineas1 supposing twenty guineas in thickness to be an inch1 would be #faj miles1 #cci yards1 #i inches2 and supposing each guinea an inch in diameter1 they would extend in a right line1 #ab1bjc miles1 #aej yards1 #g inches4 ,moreover1 the said guineas would cover1 in space1 #cdh acres1 #b roods1 #bjb yards1 nearly4 ,and1 lastly1 in shillings1 each being an inch in diameter1 would cover #gcai acres1 #a rood1 and #cdi yards6 ,illustration3 ,a ,,moral ,,and ,,physical ,,thermometer2 ,,or1 ,a ,,scale ,,of ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,temperance ,,and ,,intemperance4 ,,liquors1 with their ,,effects in their usual ,order4 ,,temperance4 --- #gj----- ,water ,health1 ,wealth4 --- #fj----- ,milk and ,water ,serenity and ,composure of ,mind4 --- #ej----- ,small ,beer ,reputation1 ,long ,life1 and ,happiness4 --- #dj----- ,cider and ,perry ,cheerfulness and ,contentment4 --- #cj----- ,wine ,strength1 ,vigour1 and ,nourishment1--when --- #bj----- ,porter taken only at ,meals1 and in --- #aj----- ,strong ,beer moderate quantities4 --- --- #j----- ,,intemperance4 --- --- ,vices4 ,diseases4 ,punishments4 --- #aj----- ,punch ,idleness2 ,sickness2 ,debt2 --- ,puking2 and --- ,tremors of the ,black ,eyes2 #bj----- ,toddy ,crank1 ,peevishness2 ,hands in the --- ,morning2 ,rags2 #cj-----;,grog1 ,brandy ,quarrelling2 ,bloatedness2 and ,water1 ,inflamed ,eyes2 --- ,fighting2 ,red ,nose and ,hunger2 ,face2 #dj----- ,flip and ,shrub1 ,lying2 ,sore swelled ,legs2 ,hospital2 ---,bitters infused ,swearing2 ,jaundice2 in ,spirits1 ,pains in the ,poor-house2 #ej-----,usquebaugh1 ,obscenity2 ,limbs and ,hysteric ,burning in the ,jail2 ,water4 ,swindling2 ,palms of the --- ,hands ,soles ,whipping2 ,gin1 ,aniseed1 ,perjury2 of the ,feet2 #fj-----;,brandy1 ,rum1 ,dropsy2 and ,whiskey1 ,burglary2 ,epilepsy2 ,the ,hulks2 in the ,morning4 ,melancholy2 --- ,madness2 ,ditto during ,murder2 ,palsy2 ,botany ,bay12 #gj-----the ,day and ,apoplexy2 ,night4 747 ,suicide4 ,death4 ,gallows4 ---_/ ,,conclusion4 ,thus we have conducted our reader through some of the principal curiosities of ,nature and ,art1 ,science and ,literature4 ,we trust he has found both amusement and instruction4 ,our object has been1 throughout the work1 to assist the reader in looking through ,nature up to ,nature's ,god4 ,all second causes derive their origin1 permanency1 and efficacy from ,him alone4 ,since1 then1 the ,,lord ,,god is himself the source and perfection of all beauty and excellency1 the author of our existence1 and the bountiful giver of all good gifts2 we undoubtedly ought to love him with our whole hearts1 and to serve him with all our powers2 we ought to reverence his majesty and authority1 and endeavour above all things to obtain his favour2 we ought to devote ourselves entirely to his service1 and make all our actions tend to the advancement of his glory4 ,and as his mercy and goodness are unbounded1 so should be our gratitude and praise4 ,jehovah reigns3 let ev'ry nation hear1 ,and at his footstool bow with holy fear2 ,let heav'n's high arches echo with his name4 ,and the wide-peopled earth his praise proclaim2 ,then send it down to hell's deep gloom resounding1 ,thro' all her caves in dreadful murmurs sounding4 ,he rules with wide and absolute command ,o'er the broad ocean and the stedfast land3 ,jehovah reigns1 unbounded and alone1 ,and all creation hangs beneath his throne3 ,he reigns alone2 let no inferior nature ,usurp or share the throne of the ,creator4 ,he saw the struggling beams of infant light ,shoot thro' the massy gloom of ancient night2 ,his spirit hush'd the elemental strife1 ,and brooded o'er the kindling seeds of life3 ,seasons and months began the long procession1 ,and measur'd o'er the year in bright succession4 ,the joyful sun sprung up th' ethereal way1 ,strong as a giant1 as a bridegroom gay2 ,and the pale moon diffus'd her shadowy light1 ,superior o'er the dusky brow of night2 ,ten thousand glittering lamps the skies adorning1 ,num'rous as dew-drops from the womb of morning4 ,earth's blooming face with rising flow'rs he dress'd1 ,and spread a verdant mantle o'er her breast2 ,then from the hollow of his hand he pours ,the circling waters round her winding shores1 ,the new-born world in their cool arms embracing1 ,and with soft murmurs still her banks caressing4 ,at length she rose complete in finish'd pride1 ,all fair and spotless like a virgin bride3 ,fresh with untarnish'd lustre as she stood1 ,her ,maker bless'd his work1 and call'd it good2 ,the morning stars with joyful acclamation1 ,exulting sung1 and hail'd the new creation4 ,yet this fair world1 the creature of a day1 ,tho' built by ,god's right hand1 must pass away2 ,and long oblivion creep o'er mortal things1 ,the fate of empires1 and the pride of kings3 ,eternal night shall veil their proudest story1 ,and drop the curtain o'er all human glory4 ,the sun himself1 with weary clouds opprest1 ,shall in his silent dark pavilion rest2 ,his golden urn shall broke and useless lie1 ,amidst the common ruins of the sky6 ,the stars rush headlong in the wild commotion1 ,and bathe their glittering foreheads in the ocean4 ,but fix'd1 ,o ,god6 for ever stands thy throne1 ,jehovah reigns1 a universe alone2 ,th' eternal fire that feeds each vital flame1 ,collected or diffus'd1 is still the same4 ,he dwells within his own unfathom'd essence1 ,and fills all space with his unbounded presence4 ,but oh6 our highest notes the theme debase1 ,and silence is our least injurious praise3 ,cease1 cease your songs1 the daring flight control1 ,revere him in the stillness of the soul2 ,with silent duty meekly bend before him1 ,and deep within your inmost hearts--adore him4 ,mrs4 ,barbauld4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,curiosities2 ,,containing ,,curious ,,experiments1 ,,and ,,amusing ,,recreations1 ,,which ,,may ,,be ,,performed ,,with ,,ease1 ,,and ,,at ,a ,,small ,,expense4 ,a ,person having an even ,number of ,counters in one ,hand1 and an odd ,number in the other1 to tell in which ,hand each of them is4 ,desire the person to multiply the number in his right hand by three1 and the number in his left by two4 ,bid him add the two products together1 and tell you whether the sum be odd or even4 ,if it be even1 the even number is in the right hand2 but if it be odd1 the even number is in the left hand4 ,,example ,i4 ,no4 in right hand4 ,no4 in left hand4 #ah #g #c #b -- -- #ed #ed #ad #ad -- #fh sum of the products4 ,,example ,,ii4 ,no4 in right hand4 ,no4 in left hand4 #g #ah #c #b -- -- #ba #cf #cf #ba -- #eg sum of the products4 ,a ,person having fixed on a ,number in his ,mind1 to tell him what ,number it is4 ,bid him quadruple the number thought on1 or multiply it by #d2 and having done this1 desire him to add #f1 #h1 #aj1 or any even number you please1 to the product2 then let him take the half of this sum1 and tell you how much it is2 from which1 if you take away half the number you desired him at first to add to it1 there will remain the double of the number thought on4 ,,example4 ,suppose the number thought on is #e ,the quadruple of it is #bj #h added to the product is #bh ,and the half of this sum #ad #d taken from this leaves #aj4-- ,therefore #e was the number thought on4 ,another ,method of discovering a ,number thought on4 ,after the person has fixed on a number1 bid him double it1 and add #d to that sum2 then let him multiply the whole by #e1 and to that product add #ab2 desire him also to multiply this sum by #aj1 and after having deducted #cjb from the product1 to tell you the remainder1 from which1 if you cut off the last two figures1 the number that remains will be the one thought on4 ,,example4 ,let the number thought on be #g ,then the double of this is #ad ,and #d added to it makes #ah ,this multiplied by #e is #ij ,and #ab added to it is #ajb ,and this multiplied by #aj is #ajbj ,from which deducting #cjb ,there remains #gah1-- which1 by striking off the last two figures1 gives #g1--the number thought on4 ,to tell the ,number a ,person has fixed upon1 without asking him any ,questions4 ,the person having chosen any number in his mind1 from #a to #ae1 bid him add one to it1 and triple the amount4 ,then1 ,if it be an even number1 let him take the half of it1 and triple that half2 but if it be an odd number1 he must add #a to it1 and then halve it1 and triple that half4 ,in like manner let him take the half of this number1 if it be even1 or the half of the next greater1 if it be odd2 and triple that half4 ,again1 bid him take the half of this last number1 if even1 or of the next greater1 if odd2 and the half of that half in the same way2 and by observing at what steps he is obliged to add #a in the halving1 the following table will shew the number thought on3 #a--j--j -- #d-- #h #b--j--j --#ac-- #e #c--j--j -- #c--aa #a--b--j -- #b--aj #a--c--j -- #h-- #j #a--b--c -- #f--ad #b--c--j -- #a-- #i #j--j--j --#ae-- #g ,thus1 if he be obliged to add #a only at the first step1 or halving1 either #d or #h was the number thought on2 if there were a necessity to add #a both at the first and second steps1 either #b or #aj was the number thought on1 c4 ,and which of the two numbers is the true one may always be known from the last step of the operation2 for if #a must be added before the last half can be taken1 the number is in the second column1 or otherwise in the first1 as will appear from the following examples3 ,suppose the number chosen to be #i ,to which1 if we add #a ,the sum is #aj ,then the triple of that number is #cj #a4 ,the half of which is #ae ,the triple of #ae is #de #b4 ,and the half of that is #bc ,the triple of #bc is #fi #c4 ,the half of that is #ce ,and the half of that is #ah ,from which it appears1 that it was necessary to add #a both at the second and third steps1 or halvings2 and therefore1 by the table1 the number thought on is either #a or #i4 ,and as the last number was obliged to be augmented by #a before the half could be taken1 it follows also1 by the above rule1 that the number must be in the second column2 and consequently it is #i4 ,again1 suppose the number thought on to be #f ,to which1 if we add #a ,the sum is #g ,then the triple of that number is #ba #a4 ,the half of which is #aa ,the triple of #aa is #cc #b4 ,and the half of that is #ag ,the triple of #ag is #ea #c4 ,the half of that is #bf ,and the half of that half is #ac ,from which it appears1 that it was necessary to add #a at all the steps1 or halvings1 #a1 #b1 #c1 therefore1 by the table1 the number thought on is either #f or #ad4 ,and as the last number required no augmentation before its half could be taken1 it follows also1 by the above rule1 that the number must be in the first column2 and consequently it is #f4 ,a curious ,recreation1 usually called--,the ,blind ,abbess and her ,nuns4 ,a blind abbess visiting her nuns1 who were twenty-four in number1 and equally distributed in eight cells1 built at the four corners of a square1 and in the middle of each side1 finds an equal number in every row1 containing three cells4 ,at a second visit1 she finds the same number of persons in each row as before1 though the company was increased by the accession of four men4 ,and coming a third time1 she still finds the same number of persons in each row1 though the four men were then gone1 and had each of them carried away a nun4 ,fig4 #a4 ----- #c #c #c #c #c #c #c #c ----- ,fig4 #b4 ----- #b #e #b #e #e #b #e #b ----- ,fig4 #c4 ----- #d #a #d #a #a #d #a #d ----- ,let the nuns be first placed as in fig4 #a1 three in each cell2 then when the four men have got into the cells1 there must be a man placed in each corner1 and two nuns removed thence to each of the middle cells1 as in fig4 #b1 in which case there will evidently be still nine in each row2 and when the four men are gone1 with the four nuns with them1 each corner cell must contain four nuns1 and every other cell one1 as in fig4 #c2 it being evident1 that in this case also1 there will still be nine in a row1 as before4 ,any ,number being named1 to add a ,figure to it1 which shall make it divisible by #i4 ,add the figures together in your mind which compose the number named2 and the figure which must be added to this sum1 in order to make it divisible by #i1 is the one required4 ,suppose1 for example1 the number named was #hfed2 you find that the sum of its figures is #bc2 and that #d being added to this sum will make it #bg2 which is a number exactly divisible by #i4 ,you therefore desire the person who named the number #hfed1 to add #d to it2 and the result1 which is #hfeh1 will be divisible by #i1 as was required4 ,this recreation may be diversified1 by your specifying1 before the sum is named1 the particular place where the figure shall be inserted1 to make the number divisible by #i2 for it is exactly the same thing1 whether the figure be put at the end of the number1 or between any two of its digits4 ,a ,person having made choice of several ,numbers1 to tell him what ,number will exactly divide the ,sum of those which he has chosen4 ,provide a small bag1 divided into two parts2 into one of which put several tickets1 numbered #f1 #i1 #ae1 #cf1 #fc1 #abj1 #bac1 #cji1 or any others you please1 that are divisible by #c1 and in the other part put as many different tickets marked with the number #c only4 ,draw a handful of tickets from the first part1 and1 after shewing them to the company1 put them into the bag again2 and having opened it a second time1 desire any one to take out as many tickets as he thinks proper4 ,when he has done this1 open privately the other part of the bag1 and tell him to take out of it one ticket only4 ,you may then pronounce1 that this ticket shall contain the number by which the amount of the other numbers is divisible2 for1 as each of these numbers is some multiple of #c1 their sum must evidently be divisible by that number4 ,this recreation may also be diversified1 by marking the tickets in one part of the bag with any numbers which are divisible by #i1 and those in the other part of the bag with the number #i only2 the properties of both #i and #c being the same2 or if the numbers in one part of the bag be divisible by #i1 the other part of the bag may contain tickets marked both with #i and #c1 as every number divisible by #i is also divisible by #c4 ,to find the ,difference between any two ,numbers1 the greater of which is unknown4 ,take as many #i's as there are figures in the less number1 and subtract the one from the other4 ,let another person add that difference to the larger number2 and then1 if he take away the first figure of the amount1 and add it to the remaining figures1 the sum will be the difference of the two numbers1 as was required4 ,suppose1 for example1 that ,matthew1 who is #bb years of age1 tells ,henry1 who is older1 that he can discover the difference of their ages4 ,he privately deducts #bb1 his own age1 from #ii1 and the difference1 which is #gg1 he tells ,henry to add to his age1 and to take away the first figure from the amount4 ,then if this figure1 so taken away1 be added to the remaining ones1 the sum will be the difference of their ages2 as1 for instance3 ,the difference between ,matthew's age and #ii1 is #gg ,to which ,henry adding his age #ce ---- ,the sum will be #aab ,and #a1 taken from #aab1 gives #ab ,which being increased by #a -- ,gives the difference of the two ages #ac ,and1 this added to ,matthew's age #bb -- ,gives the age of ,henry1 which is #ce ,a ,person striking a ,figure out of the ,sum of two given ,numbers1 to tell him what that ,figure was4 ,such numbers must be offered as are divisible by #i2 such1 for instance1 as #cf1 #fc1 #ha1 #aag1 #abf1 #afb1 #bjg1 #baf1 #beb1 #bfa1 #cjf1 #cae1 #cfj1 and #dcb4 ,then let a person choose any two of these numbers1 and after adding them together in his mind1 strike out any one of the figures he pleases1 from the sum4 ,after he has done this1 desire him to tell you the sum of the remaining figures2 and that number which you are obliged to add to this amount1 in order to make it #i1 or #ah1 is the one he struck out4 ,for example1 suppose he chose the numbers #abf and #beb1 the sum of which is #cgh4 ,then1 if he strike out #g from this amount1 the remaining figures1 #c and #h1 will make #aa2 to which #g must be added to make #ah4 ,if he strike out the #c1 the sum of the remaining figures1 #g and #h1 will be #ae2 to which #c must be added1 to make #ah2 and so in like manner1 for the #h4 ,by knowing the last ,figure of the ,product of two ,numbers1 to tell the other ,figures4 ,if the number #gc be multiplied by each of the numbers in the following arithmetical progression1 #c1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 #ah1 #ba4 #bd1 #bg1 the products will terminate with the nine digits1 in this order1 #i1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #e1 #d1 #c1 #b1 #a2 the numbers themselves being as follows1 #bai1 #dch1 #feg1 #hgf1 #ajie1 #acad1 #aecc1 #ageb1 and #aiga4 ,let therefore a little bag be provided1 consisting of two partitions1 into one of which put several tickets1 marked with the number #gc2 and into the other part1 as many tickets numbered #c1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 #ah1 #ba1 #bd1 and #bg4 ,then open that part of the bag which contains the number #gc1 and desire a person to take out one ticket only2 after which1 dexterously change the opening1 and desire another person to take a ticket from the other part4 ,let them now multiply their two numbers together1 and tell you the last figure of the product1 and you will readily determine1 from the foregoing series1 what the remaining figures must be4 ,suppose1 for example1 the numbers taken out of the bag were #gc1 and #ab2 then1 as the product of these two numbers1 which is #hgf1 has #f for its last figure1 you will readily know that it is the fourth in the series1 and that the remaining figures are #hg4 ,a curious ,recreation with a ,hundred ,numbers1 usually called the ,magical ,century4 ,if the number #aa be multiplied by any one of the nine digits1 the two figures of the product will always be alike1 as appears from the following example3-- #aa #aa #aa #aa #aa #aa #aa #aa #aa #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #aa #bb #cc #dd #ee #ff #gg #hh #ii ,now1 if another person and yourself have fifty counters apiece1 and agree never to stake more than ten at a time1 you may tell him1 that if he will permit you to stake first1 you will always undertake to make the even century before him4 ,in order to this you must first stake one1 and remembering the order of the above series1 constantly add to what he stakes as many as will make one more than the numbers #aa1 #bb1 #cc1 c4 of which it is composed1 till you come to #hi2 after which1 the other party cannot possibly make the even century himself1 or prevent you from making it4 ,if the person who is your opponent have no knowledge of numbers1 you may stake any other number first1 under #aj1 provided you afterwards take care to secure one of the last terms1 #ef1 #fg1 #gh1 c43 or you may even let him stake first1 provided you take care afterwards to secure one of these numbers4 ,this recreation may be performed with other numbers2 but1 in order to succeed1 you must divide the number to be attained1 by a number which is an unit greater than what you can stake each time2 and the remainder will then be the number you first stake4 ,suppose1 for example1 the number to be attained is #eb1 and that you are never to add more than six2 then dividing #eb by #g1 the remainder1 which is #c1 will be the number you must stake first2 and whatever the other stakes1 you must add as much to it as will make it equal to #g1 the number by which you divided2 and so on4 ,a ,person in ,company having privately put a ,ring on one of his fingers1 to ,name the ,person1 the ,hand1 the ,finger1 and even the ,joint on which it is placed4 ,desire a third person to double the number of the order in which the wearer of the ring stands1 and add #e to that number1 then multiply that sum by #e1 and to the product add #aj4 ,let him then add #a to the last number1 if the ring be on the right hand1 and #b if on the left1 and multiply the whole by #aj3 to this product he must add the number of the finger1 beginning with the thumb1 and multiply the whole again by #aj4 ,desire him then to add the number of the joint2 and lastly1 to increase the whole by #ce4 ,this being done1 he is to declare the amount of the whole1 from which you are to subtract #cece2 and the remainder will consist of four figures1 the first of which will give the place in which the person stands1 the second the hand1 #a denoting the right1 and #b the left hand1 the third number the finger1 and the fourth the joint4 ,,example4 ,suppose the person stands the second in order1 and has put the ring on the second joint of the little finger of the left hand3 ,double the order is #d ,add #e -- #i ,multiply by #e -- #de ,add #aj -- #ee ,number for left hand #b -- #eg ,multiply by #aj ---- #egj ,number of finger #e ---- #ege ,multiply by #aj ---- #egej ,number of joint #b ---- #egeb ,add #ce ---- #eghg ,subtract #cece ---- #bbeb ,hence it will appear that the first #b denotes the second person in order1 the second #b the left hand1 #e the little finger1 and #b the second joint4 ,to make a ,deaf ,man hear the ,sound of a ,musical ,instrument4 ,it must be a stringed instrument1 with a neck of some length1 as a lute1 a guitar1 or the like2 and before you begin to play1 you must by signs direct the deaf man to take hold with his teeth of the end of the neck of the instrument2 for then1 if one strikes the strings with the bow one after another1 the sound will enter the deaf man's mouth1 and be conveyed to the organ of hearing through a hole in the palate1 and thus the deaf man will hear with a great deal of pleasure the sound of the instrument1 as has been several times experienced2 nay1 those who are not deaf may make the experiment upon themselves1 by stopping their ears so as not to hear the instrument1 and then holding the end of the instrument in their teeth1 while another touches the strings4 ,when two ,vessels or ,chests are like one another1 and of equal ,weight1 being filled with different ,metals1 to distinguish the one from the other4 ,this is easily resolved1 if we consider that two pieces of different metals1 of equal weight in air1 do not weigh equally in water1 because that of the greatest specific gravity takes up a lesser space in water2 it being a certain truth1 that any metal weighs less in water than in air1 by reason of the water1 the room of which it fills2 for example1 if the water weighs a pound1 the metal will weigh in that water a pound less than in the air3 this gravitation diminishes more or less1 according as the specific gravity of the metal is greater than that of the water4 ,we will suppose1 then1 two chests perfectly like one another1 of equal weight in the air1 one of which is full of gold1 and the other of silver2 we weigh them in water1 and that which then weighs down the other must needs be the gold chest1 the specific gravity of gold being greater than that of silver1 which makes the gold lose less of its gravitation in water than silver4 ,we know by experience1 that gold loses in water about an eighteenth part only1 whereas silver loses near a tenth part2 so that if each of the two chests weighs in the air1 for example1 #ahj pounds1 the chest that is full of gold will lose in the water ten pounds of its weight2 and the chest that is full of silver will lose eighteen3 that is1 the chest full of gold will weigh #agj pounds1 and that of silver only #afb4 ,or1 if you will1 considering that gold is of a greater specific gravity than silver1 the chest full of gold1 though similar and of equal weight with the other1 must needs contain a less bulk1 and consequently it contains the gold4 ,to find the ,burden of a ,ship at ,sea1 or in a ,river4 ,it is a certain truth1 that a ship will carry a weight equal to that of a quantity of water of the same bulk with itself2 subtracting from it the weight of the iron about the ship1 for the wood is of much the same weight with water2 and so1 if it were not for the iron1 a ship might sail full of water4 ,the consequence of this is1 that1 however a ship be loaded1 it will not totally sink1 as long as the weight of its cargo is less than that of an equal bulk of water3 now1 to know this bulk or extent1 you must measure the capacity or solidity of the ship1 which we here suppose to be #ajjj cubical feet1 and multiply that by #gc pounds1 the weight of a cubical foot of sea-water2 then you have in the product #gc1jjj pounds for the weight of a bulk of water equal to that of the ship2 so that in this example1 we may call the burden of the ship #gc1jjj pounds1 or #cf-a_/b tons1 reckoning a ton #b1jjj pounds1 that being the weight of a ton of sea-water2 if the cargo of this ship exceeds #cf-a_/b tons1 she will sink2 and if her loading is just #gc1jjj pounds1 she will swim very deep in the water upon the very point of sinking2 so that she cannot sail safe and easy1 unless her loading be considerably short of #gc1jjj pounds weight2 if the loading come near to #gc1jjj pounds1 as being1 for example1 just #cf tons1 she will swim at sea1 but will sink when she comes into the mouth of a fresh water river2 for this water being lighter than sea-water will be surmounted by the weight of the vessel1 especially if that weight is greater than the weight of an equal bulk of the same water4 ,to ,measure the ,depth of the ,sea4 ,tie a great weight to a very long cord1 or rope1 and let it fall into the sea till you find it can descend no further1 which will happen when the weight touches the bottom of the sea3 if the quantity or bulk of water1 the room of which is taken up by the weight1 and the rope1 weighs less than the weight and rope themselves2 for if they weigh more1 the weight would cease to descend1 though it did not touch the bottom of the sea4 ,thus one may be deceived in measuring the length of a rope let down into the water1 in order to determine the depth of the sea2 and therefore1 to prevent mistakes1 you had best tie to the end of the same rope another weight heavier than the former1 and if this weight does not sink the rope deeper than the other did1 you may rest assured that the length of the rope is the true depth of the sea2 if it does sink the rope deeper1 you must tie a third weight1 yet heavier1 and so on1 till you find two weights of unequal gravitation1 that run just the same length of the rope1 upon which you may conclude1 that the length of the wet rope is certainly the same with the depth of the sea4 ,method of ,melting ,steel1 and causing it to ,liquefy4 ,heat a piece of steel in the fire1 almost to a state of fusion1 then holding it with a pair of pincers or tongs1 take in the other hand a stick of brimstone1 and touch the piece of steel with it3 immediately after the contact1 you will see the steel melt and drop like a liquid4 ,how to dispose two little ,figures1 so that one shall light a ,candle1 and the other put it out4 ,take two little figures of wood or clay1 or any other materials you please1 only taking care that there is a little hole at the mouth of each3 put in the mouth of one a few grains of bruised gunpowder1 and a little bit of phosphorus in the mouth of the other1 taking care that these preparations are made beforehand4 ,then take a lighted wax candle1 and present it to the mouth of the figure with the gunpowder1 which1 taking fire1 will put the candle out2 then present your candle1 having the snuff still hot1 to the other figure2 it will immediately light again by means of the phosphorus4 ,you may propose the same effects to be produced by two figures drawn on a wall with a pencil or coal1 by applying with a little starch1 or water1 a few grains of bruised gunpowder to the mouth of one1 and a bit of phosphorus to the mouth of the other4 ,the ,camera ,obscura1 or ,dark ,chamber4 ,we shall here give a short description of this optical invention2 for though it is very common1 it is also very pleasing3 but every one knows not how to construct it4 ,make a circular hole in the shutter of a window1 from whence there is a prospect of the fields1 or any other object not too near3 and in this hole place a convex glass1 either double or single1 whose focus is at the distance of five or six feet3 the distance should not be less than three feet2 if it be1 the images will be too small1 and there will not be sufficient room for the spectators to stand conveniently2 on the other hand1 the focus should never be more than fifteen or twenty feet1 for then the images would be obscure1 and the colouring faint2 the best distance is from six to twelve feet3--take care that no light enters the room but by this glass3 at a distance from it1 equal to that of its focus1 place a pasteboard1 covered with the whitest paper2 this paper should have a black border1 to prevent any of the side rays from disturbing the picture2 let it be two feet and a half long1 and eighteen or twenty inches high2 bend the length of it inwards to the form of part of a circle1 whose diameter is equal to double the focal distance of the glass3 then fix it on a frame of the same figure1 and put it on a moveable foot1 that it may be easily fixed at that exact distance from the glass where the objects paint themselves to the greatest perfection3 when it is thus placed1 all the objects that are in the front of the window will be painted on the paper in an inverted position2 this inverted position of the images may be deemed an imperfection1 but it is easily remedied2 for if you stand above the board on which they are received1 and look down on it1 they will appear in their natural position2 or if you stand before it1 and1 placing a common mirror against your breast in an oblique direction1 look down in it1 you will there see the images erect1 and they will receive an additional lustre from the reflection of the glass3 or place two lenses in a tube that draws out3 or1 lastly1 if you place a large concave mirror at a proper distance before the picture1 it will appear before the mirror in the air1 and in an erect position1 with the greatest regularity1 and in the most natural colours4 ,if you place a moveable mirror without the window1 by turning it more or less1 you will have on the paper all the objects that are on each side of the window4 ,there is another method of making the dark chamber1 which is by a scioptric ball1 that is1 a ball of wood1 through which a hole is made1 in which hole a lens is fixed2 this ball is placed in a wooden frame1 in which it turns freely round3 the frame is fixed to the hole in the shutter1 and the ball by turning about answers1 in great part1 the use of the mirror on the outside of the window3 if the hole in the window be no bigger than a pea1 the objects will be represented without any lens4 ,if instead of placing the mirror without the window1 you place it in the room1 and above the hole1 7which must then be made near the top of the shutter17 you may receive the representation on a paper placed horizontally on a table2 and draw at your leisure all the objects that are there painted4 ,nothing can be more pleasing than this recreation1 especially when the objects are strongly enlightened by the sun2 and not only land prospects1 but a sea-port1 when the water is somewhat agitated1 or at the setting of the sun1 presents a very delightful appearance4 ,this representation affords the most perfect model for painters1 as well for the tone of colours1 as that gradation of shades occasioned by the interposition of the air1 which has been so justly expressed by some modern painters4 ,it is necessary that the paper have a circular form1 for otherwise1 when the centre of it was in the focus of the glass1 the two sides would be beyond it1 and consequently the images would be confused3 if the frame were contrived of a spherical figure1 and the glass were in its centre1 the representation would be still more accurate4 ,if the object without be at the distance of twice the focal length of the glass1 the image in the room will be of the same magnitude with the object4 ,the lights1 shades1 and colours in the camera obscura1 appear not only just1 but1 by the images being reduced to a smaller compass1 much stronger than in nature2 add to this1 that these pictures exceed all others1 by representing the motion of the several objects3 thus we see the animals walk1 run1 or fly1 the clouds float in the air1 the leaves quiver1 the waves roll1 c4 and all in strict conformity to the laws of nature4 ,the best situation for a dark chamber is directly north1 and the best time of the day is noon4 ,to shew the ,spots in the ,sun's ,disk1 by its image in the ,camera ,obscura4 ,put the object-glass of a ten or twelve feet telescope into the scioptric ball1 and turn it about till it be directly opposite the sun3 when the sun is directly opposite the hole1 the lens will itself be sufficient2 or by means of the mirror on the outside of the window1 as in the last recreation1 in the focus of the lens1 and you will see a clear bright image of the sun1 of about an inch diameter1 in which the spots on the sun's surface will be exactly described4 ,as this image is too bright to be seen with pleasure by the naked eye1 you may view it through a lens1 whose focus is six or eight inches diameter1 which1 at the same time that it prevents the light from being offensive1 will1 by magnifying both the image and the spots1 make them appear to greater advantage4 ,to magnify small ,objects by means of the ,sun's ,rays let into a dark ,chamber4 ,let the rays of light that pass through the lens in the shutter be thrown on a large concave mirror1 properly fixed in a frame2 then take a slip1 or thin plate of glass1 and sticking any small object on it1 hold it in the incident rays1 at a little more than the focal distance from the mirror1 and you will see1 on the opposite wall1 amidst the reflected rays1 the image of that object1 very large1 and extremely clear and bright4 ,this experiment never fails to give the spectator the highest satisfaction4 ,to cut a ,looking-glass1 or piece of ,crystal1 let it be ever so thick1 without the help of a ,diamond1 in the same shape as the ,mark of the ,drawing made on it with ,ink4 ,this remarkable operation unites utility with amusement2 for being in the country1 or in a place where there is no glazier to be had1 the following means will answer the purpose without their help4 ,take a bit of walnut-tree1 about the thickness of a candle1 and cut one of its ends to a point2 put that end in the fire1 and let it burn till it is quite red3 while the stick is burning1 draw on the glass or crystal1 with ink1 the design or outline of the form in which you mean to cut it out3 then take a file1 or bit of glass1 and scratch a little the place where you mean to begin your section2 then take the wood red-hot from the fire1 and lay the point of it about the twentieth part of an inch1 or thickness of a guinea1 from the marked place1 taking care to blow always on that point1 in order to keep it red2 following the drawing traced on the glass1 leaving1 as before1 about the twentieth part of an inch interval every time that you present your piece of wood1 which you must take care to blow often4 ,after having followed exactly the outlines of your drawing1 to separate the two pieces thus cut1 you need only pull them up and down1 and they will divide4 ,by the means of two plain ,looking-glasses1 to make a ,face appear under different forms4 ,having placed one of the two glasses horizontally1 raise the other to about right angles over the first2 and while the two glasses continue in this posture1 if you come up to the perpendicular glass1 you will set your face quite deformed and imperfect2 for it will appear without forehead1 eyes1 nose1 or ears1 and nothing will be seen but a mouth and a chin boldly raised3 do but incline the glass ever so little from the perpendicular1 and your face will appear with all its parts1 excepting the eyes and the forehead2 stoop a little more1 and you will see two noses and four eyes2 and then a little further1 and you will see three noses and six eyes2--continue to incline it still a little more1 and you will see nothing but two noses1 two mouths1 and two chins2 and then a little further again1 and you will see one nose and one mouth2 at last incline a little further1 that is1 till the angle of inclination comes to be #dd degrees1 and your face will quite disappear4 ,if you incline the two glasses1 the one towards the other1 you will see your face perfect and entire2 and by the different inclinations1 you will see the representation of your face1 upright and inverted1 alternately4 ,to know which of two different ,waters is the lightest1 without any ,scales4 ,take a solid body1 the specific gravity of which is less than that of water1 deal1 or fir-wood1 for instance1 and put it into each of the two waters1 and rest assured that it will sink deeper in the lighter than in the heavier water2 and so1 by observing the difference of the sinking1 you will know which is the lightest water1 and consequently the wholesomest for drinking4 ,to know if a suspicious ,piece of ,money is good or bad4 ,if it be a piece of silver that is not very thick1 as a crown1 or half a crown1 the goodness of which you want to try2 take another piece of good silver1 of equal balance with it1 and tie both pieces with thread or horse hair to the scales of an exact balance1 7to avoid the wetting of the scales themselves17 and dip the two pieces thus tied1 in water2 for then1 if they are of equal goodness1 that is1 of equal purity1 they will hang in equilibrio in the water as well as in the air3 but if the piece in question is lighter in the water than the other1 it is certainly false1 that is1 there is some other metal mixed with it1 that has less specific gravity than silver1 such as copper2 if it is heavier than the other1 it is likewise bad1 as being mixed with a metal of greater specific gravity than silver1 such as lead4 ,if the piece proposed is very thick1 such as that crown of gold which ,hiero1 king of ,syracuse1 sent to ,archimedes1 to know if the goldsmith had put into it all the eighteen pounds of gold that he had given him for that end2 take a piece of pure gold of equal weight with the crown proposed1 viz4 eighteen pounds2 and without taking the trouble of weighing them in water1 put them into a vessel full of water1 one after another1 and that which drives out most water1 must necessarily be mixed with another metal of less specific gravity than gold1 as taking up more space1 though of equal weight4 ,to hold a ,glass full of ,water with the ,mouth downwards1 so that the ,water shall not run out4 ,take a glass full of water1 cover it with a cup that is a little hollow1 inverting the cup upon the glass2 hold the cup firm in this position with one hand1 and the glass with the other2 then with a jerk turn the glass and the cup upside down1 and so the cup will stand upright1 and the glass will be inverted1 resting its mouth upon the interior bottom of the cup3 this done1 you will find that part of the water contained in the glass will run out by the void space between the bottom of the cup1 and the brim of the glass2 and when that space is filled1 so that the water in it reaches the brim of the glass1 all passage being then denied to the air1 so that it cannot enter the glass1 nor succeed in the room of the water1 the water remaining in the glass will not fall lower1 but continue suspended in the glass4 ,if you would have a little more water descend into the cup1 you must1 with a pipe or otherwise1 draw the water out of the cup1 to give passage to the air in the glass2 upon which1 part of the water will fall into the glass till it has stopped up the passage of the air afresh1 in which case no more will come down2 or1 without sucking out the water in the cup1 you may incline the cup and glass so that the water in the cup shall quit one side of the brim of the glass1 and so give passage to the air1 which will then suffer the water in the glass to descend till the passage is stopped again4 ,this may likewise be resolved by covering the brim of the glass that is full of water1 with a leaf of strong paper1 and then turn the glass as above2 and without holding your hand any longer upon the paper1 you will find it as it were glued for some time to the brim of the glass1 and during that time the water will be kept in the glass4 ,the ,mysterious ,watch4 ,desire any person to lend you his watch1 and ask if he thinks it will or will not go when it is laid on the table3 if he says it will1 place it over the end of a magnet1 and it will presently stop2 then mark with chalk1 or a pencil1 the precise point where you placed the watch1 and1 moving the position of the magnet1 give the watch to another person1 and desire him to make the experiment2 in which he not succeeding1 give it to a third person1 at the same time replacing the magnet1 and he will immediately perform the experiment4 ,to make a ,glass of ,water appear to boil and sparkle4 ,take a glass nearly full of water1 or other liquor1 and setting one hand upon the foot of it to hold it fast1 turn slightly one of the fingers of your other hand upon the brim or edge of the glass1 7having before privately wet your finger17 and so passing softly on1 with your finger pressing a little1 then the glass will begin to make a noise1 the parts of the glass will sensibly appear to tremble with notable rarefaction and condensation1 the water will shake1 seem to boil1 cast itself out of the glass1 and leap out by small drops1 to the great astonishment of the observers1 if they are ignorant of the cause1 which is only the rarefaction of the parts of the glass1 occasioned by the motion and pressure of the finger4 ,how to make a ,cork fly out of a ,bottle4 ,put a little chalk or pounded marble into a phial1 and pour on some water1 with about a third part of sulphuric acid1 and put in a cork3 in a few seconds1 the cork will be sent off with great violence4 ,to produce ,gas ,light1 on a small ,scale4 ,take an ordinary tobacco pipe1 and nearly fill the bowl with small coals1 and stop the mouth of the bowl with any suitable luting1 as pipe-clay1 or the mixture of sand and common clay1 or1 as clay is apt to shrink1 of sand and beer1 and place the bowl in a fire between the bars of a grate1 so that the pipe may stand nearly perpendicular4 ,in a few minutes1 if the luting be good1 the gas will begin to escape from the stem of the pipe1 when1 if a piece of lighted paper or candle be applied1 it will take fire and burn for several minutes with an intense light4 ,when the light goes out1 a residuum of useful products will be found in the bowl4 ,thunder ,powder4 ,take separately1 three parts of good dry saltpetre1 two parts of dry salt of tartar1 and pound them well together in a mortar2 then add thereto one part1 or rather more1 of flour of brimstone1 and take care to pound and mix the whole perfectly together3 put this composition into a bottle with a glass stopper1 for use4 ,put about two drams of this mixture in an iron spoon1 over a moderate fire1 but not in the flame2 in a short time it will melt1 and go off with an explosion like thunder or a loaded cannon4 ,to tell1 by the ,dial of a ,watch1 at what hour any ,person intends to rise4 ,let the person set the hand of the dial to any hour he pleases1 and tell you what hour that is1 and to the number of that hour you add1 in your mind1 #ab4 ,after this1 tell him to call the hour the index stands at that which he has fixed upon2 and by reckoning backwards from this number to the former1 it will bring him to the hour required4 ,,example4 ,suppose the hour at which he intends to rise be #h1 and that he has placed the hand at #e4 ,then1 adding #ab to #e1 you bid him call the hour at which the index stands1 the number on which he thought2 and by reckoning back from this number to #ag1 it will bring him to #h1 the hour required4 ,the following ,experiment shews the ,power of ,attraction4 ,if we take two pieces of lead1 as two musket or pistol balls1 and with a knife smooth two plane surfaces1 and press them together1 they will firmly adhere4 ,two plates of metal made very smooth1 when rubbed with oil and put together1 will so firmly adhere1 that it will require a great force to separate them4 ,if two pieces of wood1 or of glass1 be wetted with water1 and placed together1 the one may be lifted up by means of the other4 ,boys often have a piece of leather on the end of a string1 which they wet and put on a stone1 and thereby lift it up4 ,if we take a small tube of glass with a narrow bore1 and put it in water1 the fluid will rise higher within the tube than in the vessel4 ,the narrower the tube is1 the higher the water rises4 ,this is called ,capillary ,attraction4 ,if we put two pieces of glass together1 and place the lower edge in water1 it will rise between them1 as it does in the capillary tubes4 ,this experiment may be made more pleasing1 by putting a shilling or a piece of paper between the two pieces of glass at one end4 ,the water will then rise in a curve line1 called an hyperbola1 higher and higher as it recedes from the shilling or piece of paper1 and the pieces of glass get nearer to each other4 ,place a balance equally poised1 so that one scale may be made to touch water in a vessel2 considerable weight must be put in the other scale1 to make it rise up4 ,put three or four bits of cork to float in a basin of water2 they will gradually draw nearer to each other1 and the more rapidly as the distance diminishes4 ,experiments to shew the ,power of ,repulsion4 ,dip a ball in oil and put it in water2 a ditch will be formed all round it4 ,pour water on oiled paper1 and it will run off4 ,sprinkle water on a dusty floor1 it rolls over it in globules4 ,sprinkle it upon a floor that has been swept1 and this will not be the case1 as it then comes in contact with the wood1 and is diffused over it4 ,we may observe that rain water stands in globules on the leaves of cabbages4 ,if we blow up soap-bubbles1 and let them fall on the carpet1 they will not for some time burst4 ,let them fall on the table1 or any smooth surface1 and they will burst instantly4 ,if we pour as much water into a cup as it will possibly hold1 we shall see the water above the level of the sides1 if the edge be dry1 but otherwise we shall not4 ,lay a very fine needle1 or a piece of tinfoil1 on the surface of water1 and it will float1 until it become wet1 when it sinks4 ,lay a piece of gold on mercury1 and it will float on the surface2 but if depressed below the surface1 it will sink to the bottom1 like the needle on water4 ,experiments respecting the ,centre of ,gravity4 ,the centre of gravity is that part of a body1 round which all its parts are so equally balanced1 that1 if it be supported1 the whole body will be so too4 ,take a book1 and find1 by trial1 under what part the finger must be placed to keep the book from falling2 that point is the centre of gravity4 ,take a rod1 or stick1 and find that place about the middle of it1 under which the finger being placed1 it will be balanced2 that is the centre of gravity4 ,the moment the centre of gravity ceases to be supported1 the whole body falls4 ,move a piece of board to the edge of a table1 and gradually farther and farther off it2 the instant the centre of gravity gets beyond the edge of the table1 the board falls4 ,run the point of a knife much slanting into the same board1 it may then be brought much farther over the edge of the table than it could before1 as the knife1 leaning the way of the table1 brings the centre of gravity that way4 ,take a bottle1 with a cork in it2 stick in the middle of the cork a needle1 with the point1 upwards2 then take another cork1 and with a knife make a slit in one of its ends1 in which place a shilling so far as to make it fast2 then take two forks1 or penknives1 and stick one on each side the cork1 slanting a little downwards2 then place the edge of the shilling on the point of the needle1 and it will rest secure4 ,it may be made to revolve1 with great rapidity1 on the point of the needle1 without falling off4 ,the following ,experiment shews the ,power of ,steam4 ,put a little water in a bottle1 and cork it securely1 covering it with sealing wax2 then put the bottle into a kettle of water1 and let it boil a short time1 and the steam will force out the cork4 ,diminution of ,heat by ,evaporation4 ,pour water on a piece of writing-paper1 and hold it over a candle2 it will boil without burning the paper4 ,water may be boiled in an egg-shell on the fire4 ,experiment to ascertain the ,strength of ,spirits of ,wine4 ,it is a common practice for apothecaries1 in order to ascertain if spirit of wine be sufficiently strong1 to pour some into a cup upon some gunpowder1 and then to set fire to it4 ,if the spirit be sufficiently strong1 after burning down to the gunpowder1 it will make it go off2 but if too much water has been poured in1 that will not take place1 as1 after the spirit is consumed1 there will still be water enough to keep the powder wet4 ,to ascertain the ,strength of ,brine4 ,to ascertain the strength of brine for salting meat1 it is usual to put an egg in the boiling water1 and gradually put in salt until the egg be made to swim4 ,the following ,experiments shew the ,pressure and ,elasticity of ,air4 ,put an empty bottle with a cork in it near the fire2 the cork will be driven out4 ,get a vessel of hot water1 and put a phial into it1 with the mouth downwards2 the expanded air will bubble out4 ,let the water cool1 or pour cold water on the phial1 of which the mouth has not been drawn above the surface of the water1 and as the air is now cooled1 and occupies less space1 a considerable part of the bottle will be filled with water4 ,boil a little water in a glass phial over a candle for a few minutes2 then invert the mouth of the phial in water1 and1 as it cools1 the air will contract1 and water will be forced up the bottle1 by the external air1 to occupy the vacant space4 ,lay a weighty book on a bladder1 and blow into it with a pipe1 and the book will be raised4 ,increase the weight on the bladder very much indeed1 and you may still raise it as before4 ,a bladder filled with air may be compressed1 and the moment the force is removed1 it will recover its size4 ,if thrown on the ground it will rise like a ball4 ,take a cup1 and burn a few pieces of paper in it1 the heat will expand the air in it4 ,invert the cup now in a saucer of water1 and1 as the enclosed air cools1 it will return to its former density1 and leave a vacuum1 and the pressure of the external air will force a great deal of water up into the cup4 ,if this experiment be performed with a large drinking-glass1 the water may be seen to rise in the glass4 ,the pressure of the air may be very sensibly felt1 by putting the hole of a common bellows over the knee1 and then attempting to raise the upper part of it4 ,boil water in a glass phial over a candle for a few minutes1 then suddenly removing it1 tie a piece of wetted bladder over the mouth1 making it fast with a string2 the pressure of the air will stretch the bladder1 if it do not burst it4 ,get a glass vessel1 as a common tumbler1 if no better be at hand1 and put a piece of wetted bladder over the mouth1 pressing it down in the middle1 and then tie it firm with a string2 then lay hold of the bladder in the middle1 and try to pull it straight1 or level with the rest1 and the pressure of the external air will not permit it4 ,do exactly the same as before1 except that the vessel must be nearly full of water4 ,turn the vessel upside-down1 and the bladder will still continue as it was placed1 the pressure of the air overcoming the weight of the water4 ,though air be capable of compression1 it makes a resistance1 and that very considerable4 ,the ball of an air-gun has been burst asunder by overcharging it4 ,if bottles are filled too much1 they may be burst in attempting to cork them1 from the air between the cork and the liquor being too much condensed4 ,put a common wine-glass1 with the mouth downwards1 into water2 and to whatever depth it may be plunged1 the air will not allow much water to rise into it1 as may be seen by the inside of the glass not being wet4 ,if a bit of cork float inside of the glass1 it will point out to the eye still more clearly how high the water rises4 ,this experiment1 though so very simple will illustrate the nature of the diving-bell4 ,experiments respecting ,sound4 ,hold a tumbler sideways1 and sprinkle a little dust1 or powder of any sort1 on it2 then strike the glass1 and make it sound3--the dust keeps dancing about whilst the sound continues2 stop the sound1 and the dust is at rest4 ,the sound of a watch laid upon a long table1 or upon a plank of wood1 will be heard much farther than it otherwise would4 ,when a vessel on the fire begins to boil1 let a communication be made between it and the ear1 by means of the poker1 and the sound is more distinctly heard4 ,tie a string round the end of a poker1 and then1 winding one end of the string round the fore-finger of the one hand1 and the other end of the string round the fore-finger of the other2 put the fingers into the ears1 and make the poker strike against a table1 or any other object1 and it will sound like the bell of a church4 ,tie a string round the end of a poker1 as before1 and hold the string with your teeth2 when the poker is made to strike against any object1 as in the last experiment1 the same kind of sound will be transmitted through the teeth4 ,make a watch touch your teeth1 and you will hear its beating more distinctly4 ,when a pitchfork is struck1 in order to pitch a tune1 its end is put on the table1 and a greater sound is produced4 ,if the pitchfork1 after being struck1 be held to the teeth1 its sound is still more distinct4 ,having shut up both ears with cotton very closely1 put your fingers on the teeth of a person who speaks to you1 and you will hear his voice4 ,electrical ,experiments4 ,if a piece of sealing-wax be rubbed briskly against the sleeve of your coat1 or any other woollen substance1 for some time1 and then held within an inch or less of hair1 feathers1 bits of paper1 or other light bodies2 they will be attracted1 that is1 they will jump up1 and adhere to the wax4 ,if a tube of glass1 or small phial1 be rubbed in a similar manner1 it will answer much better4 ,the bottle thus rubbed becomes electric2 and when the operation is performed in a dark room1 small flashes of divergent flame1 ramified somewhat like trees bare of leaves1 will dart into the air1 from many parts of the surface of the tube1 to the distance of six or eight inches1 attended with a crackling noise2 and sometimes sparks will fly along the tube to the rubber at more than a foot distant4 ,cut two bits of cork into the shape and size of a common pea4 ,with a needle1 draw a thread through each of the corks1 so that they may be made to hang at the ends of the threads with a knot below them4 ,let the other ends of the threads be inserted in the notch of a small piece of wood1 about a foot long1 and an inch broad1 and the thickness of a common match4 ,lay the piece of wood over two wine-glasses1 a few inches asunder1 so that the end of it1 in which the threads are1 may project over the edge of the glass nearest it1 and the corks may be in contact one with another4 ,take another wine-glass1 and1 having rubbed it briskly with a piece of flannel1 or upon the skirt or sleeve of a woollen coat1 hold its mouth to within about an inch of the corks1 and they will suddenly start asunder1 and continue so for some time4 ,lay a pocket-watch upon a table1 and take a common tobacco-pipe1 and place it on the face of the watch so that it may balance thereon2 then1 after rubbing a wine-glass1 as described in the former experiment1 bring it to within an inch of the smaller end of the tobacco-pipe1 and by moving the glass gently round in an horizontal circular track1 you will cause the pipe to turn round on the watch-glass1 as the needle turns on its centre in a mariner's compass4 ,a curious ,experiment made by ,mr4 ,symmer1 on the ,electricity of ,silk ,stockings4 ,this gentleman having frequently observed1 that on putting off his stockings in the evening1 they made a crackling or snapping noise1 and that in the dark they emitted sparks of fire1 was induced to examine on what circumstances these electrical appearances depended4 ,after a considerable number of observations1 directed to this point1 he found that it was the combination of white and black which produced the electricity1 and that the appearances were the strongest when he wore a white and a black stocking upon the same leg4 ,these1 however1 discovered no signs of electricity while they were upon the leg1 though they were drawn backwards and forwards upon it several times2 but the moment they were separated1 they were both of them found to be highly electrified1 the white positively1 and the black negatively2 and when they were held at a distance from each other1 they appeared inflated to such a degree1 that they exhibited the entire shape of the leg4 ,when two black or two white stockings were held together1 they would repel one another to a considerable distance2 and when a white and black stocking were presented to each other1 they would be mutually attracted1 and rush together with great violence1 joining as close as if they had been so many folds of silk2 and in this case their electricity did not seem to have been in the least impaired by the shock of meeting1 for they would be again inflated1 attract1 repel1 and rush together1 as before4 ,when this experiment was performed with two black stockings in one hand1 and two white ones in the other1 it exhibited a still more curious spectacle4 ,the repulsion of those of the same colour1 and the attraction of those of different colours1 threw them into an agitation1 and made each of them catch at the opposite colour in a way that was very amusing4 ,what was also very remarkable in these experiments with a white and black stocking1 was1 the power of electrical cohesion which they exhibited2 ,mr4 ,symmer having found1 that when they were electrified1 and allowed to come together1 they frequently stuck so close to each other1 that it required a weight of sixteen or seventeen ounces to separate them1 and this in a direction parallel to their surfaces4 ,when one of the stockings was turned inside-out1 it required twenty ounces to separate them2 and by having the black stockings new dyed1 and the white ones washed1 and whitened in the fumes of sulphur1 and then putting them one within the other1 it required three pounds three ounces to separate them4 ,trying this experiment with stockings of a more substantial make1 he found that1 when the white stocking was put within the black one1 so that its outside was contiguous to the inside of the other1 they raised near nine pounds2 and when the white stocking was turned inside-out1 and put within the black one1 so that their rough surfaces were contiguous1 they raised fifteen pounds1 which was ninety-two times the weight of the stockings4 ,and1 in all these cases1 he found that pressing them together with his hands contributed much to strengthen the cohesion4 ,when the white and black stockings were in cohesion1 and another pair1 more highly electrified1 were separated from each other1 and presented to the former1 their cohesion would be dissolved1 and each stocking of the second pair would catch hold of1 and carry away with it1 that of its opposite co-lour2 but if the degree of electricity of both pairs were equal1 the cohesion of the former would be weakened1 but not dissolved1 and all the four would cohere together in one mass4 ,mr4 ,symmer also observed1 that white and black silk1 when electrified1 not only cohered with each other1 but they would also adhere to bodies with broad1 and even polished1 surfaces1 though those bodies were not electrified4 ,this he discovered1 by throwing accidentally a stocking out of his hand1 which stuck to the paper-hangings of the room1 and which1 in another experiment of this kind1 continued hanging there nearly an hour4 ,having stuck up the black and white stockings in this manner1 he came with another pair of stockings1 highly electrified1 and applying the white to the black1 and the black to the white1 he carried them off from the wall1 each of them hanging to that which had been brought to it4 ,the same experiment also held with the painted boards of the room1 and likewise with the looking-glass1 to the smooth surface of which1 the white and black stockings appeared to adhere more tenaciously than to either of the former4 ,to suspend a ,ring by a ,thread that has been burnt4 ,the thread having been previously soaked in chamber lye1 or common salt and water1 tie it to a ring1 not larger than wedding-ring4 ,when you apply the flame of a candle to it1 though the thread burn to ashes1 it will yet sustain the ring4 ,chemical ,illuminations4 ,put into a middling-sized bottle1 with a short wide neck1 three ounces of oil or spirit of vitriol1 with twelve ounces of common water1 and throw into it1 at different times1 an ounce or two of iron filings4 ,a violent commotion will then take place1 and white vapours will arise from the mixture4 ,if a taper be held to the mouth of the bottle1 these vapours will inflame1 and produce a violent explosion2 which may be repeated as long as the vapours continue4 ,to make the ,appearance of a ,flash of ,lightning when any one enters a ,room with a lighted ,candle4 ,dissolve camphor in spirit of wine1 and deposit the vessel containing the solution in a very close room1 where the spirit of wine must be made to evaporate by strong and speedy boiling4 ,if any one then enters the room with a lighted candle1 the air will inflame2 but the combustion will be so sudden1 and of so short duration1 as to occasion no danger4 ,the ,fiery ,fountain4 ,if twenty grains of phosphorus1 cut very small1 and mixed with forty grains of powdered zinc1 be put into four drachms of water1 and two drachms of concentrated sulphuric acid be added thereto1 bubbles of inflamed phosphuretted hydrogen gas will quickly cover the whole surface of the fluid in succession1 forming a real fountain of fire4 ,a ,lamp that will burn ,twelve ,months without replenishing4 ,take a stick of phosphorus1 and put it into a large dry phial1 not corked1 and it will afford a light sufficient to discern any object in a room1 when held near it4 ,the phial should be kept in a cool place1 where there is no great current of air1 and it will continue its luminous appearance for more than twelve months4 ,the ,magic ,oracle4 ,get six blank cards1 and write on them figures1 or numbers1 exactly according to the following patterns4 ,no4 ,i #ag #ai #c #ac #a #bg #ba #e #bi #dg #bc #g #ca #de #ei #ae #aa #cc #dc #j #eg #i #ce #da #ee #j #be #ci #ec #j #cg #j #j #di #j #ea ,no4 ,,ii4 #ad #ah #c #ae #b #ce #bb #f #cd #dg #ai #aj #ca #df #ei #bc #aa #cj #dc #j #eh #g #bg #db #ee #j #bf #ci #ed #j #ch #j #j #ej #j #ea ,no4 ,,iii4 #ad #ac #g #ba #d #cg #bc #e #cf #dg #bj #f #ca #df #fj #bb #ab #cj #de #j #ee #ae #bi #dd #j #j #bh #ci #ed #j #ch #j #j #eb #j #ec ,no4 ,,iv4 #ad #ae #aj #ac #h #da #bf #i #dj #dg #bg #aa #ca #df #fj #be #ac #cj #de #j #ei #ab #bi #dd #j #j #bh #dc #eg #j #db #j #bd #ef #j #eh ,no4 ,v4 #bb #bd #ag #bf #af #di #bc #ah #dh #ee #be #bj #ca #ed #fj #bg #ba #cj #ec #j #e #ai #bi #eb #eh #j #bh #ea #eg #j #ej #j #j #j #j #ef ,no4 ,,vi4 #ch #dj #cd #ci #cb #di #da #ce #dh #ee #dc #cg #dg #ed #fj #db #cc #df #ec #j #ei #cf #de #eb #j #j #dd #ea #eg #j #ej #j #j #ef #j #eh ,you deliver the cards to a person1 and desire him to think of any number from one to sixty2 he is then to look at the cards1 and say in which cards the number he thought of is to be found2 and you immediately tell him the number thought of4 ,,explanation4 ,this surprising and ingenious recreation is done by means of a key number4 ,there is a key number in every card1 viz4 the last but one in the second row from the top4 ,from this explanation the reader will perceive that the key numbers are #a1 #b1 #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb4 ,now whatever number is fixed on1 from #a to #fj1 will be readily found by privately adding together the key numbers of the cards that contain the number thought on4 ,for instance1 suppose a person thinks of number #dc2 he looks at the cards1 and gives you ,no4 #a1 #b1 #d1 #e1 #f1 as cards which contain the number thought on3 you expertly perceive that the key numbers are #a1 #b1 #h1 #cb2 which numbers added together make #dc1 the number thought on4 ,suppose he thinks of ,no4 #ae1 he gives you ,no4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d3 the key numbers are #a1 #b1 #d1 #h2 which added1 make just #ae2 and so of all numbers from #a to #fj4 ,this recreation may be varied many ways2 as1 telling the age of a person1 c42 but this is left to the ingenious reader's taste and application4 ,cheap and ,easy ,method of constructing a ,voltaic ,pile4 ,mr4 ,mitchell1 in his useful little work on natural philosophy1 proposes the following cheap and easy method of constructing a ,voltaic ,pile4 ,zinc is one of the cheapest of metals1 and may be easily melted1 like lead4 ,let the student cast twenty or thirty pieces1 of the size of a penny-piece1 which may easily be done in moulds made in clay4 ,let him then get as many penny-pieces1 and as many pieces of paper1 or cloth cut in the same shape1 and these he must dip in a solution of salt and water4 ,in building the pile1 let him place a piece of zinc1 wet paper1 7the superabundant water being squeezed out17 after which the copper2 then zinc1 paper1 copper1 c4 until the whole be finished4 ,the sides of the pile may be supported with rods of glass1 or varnished wood1 fixed in the board on which it is built4 ,the following experiment may then be performed3-- ,having wetted both hands1 touch the lower part of the pile with one hand1 and the upper part with the other1 constant1 little shocks of electricity will be felt until one hand be removed4 ,if the hand be brought back1 a similar repetition of shocks will be felt4 ,put a basin of water near the pile1 and put the left hand into it1 holding a wire1 one end of which touches the top of the battery or pile2 then put the end of a silver spoon between the lip and the gum1 and with the other end of the spoon touch the lower part of the pile2 a strong shock is felt in the gum and in the hand4 ,take the left hand from the water1 but still keep hold of the wire1 and then perform the last experiment in the same manner1 and a shock will be felt in the gum only4 ,hold a silver spoon in one hand1 and touch with it the battery at the lower part1 then touch the upper part with the tongue2 the bitter taste will be extreme4 ,in performing the above experiments1 if1 instead of the two ends of the pile1 the one end and the middle of it be touched1 the sensations will not be nearly so strong4 ,if the student be desirous of having still more sensible proofs of the effect of galvanism1 let him hold a wire to the top of the battery1 and let him place one end of a silver spoon to the lower part1 and the other end within his mouth1 so as to touch the gums2 a severe set of shocks will be felt4 ,in performing this experiment1 move the spoon to the roof of the mouth1 and a strong sensation will be felt4 ,let the end of the spoon be run up the nose so as to touch the cartilaginous bone2 shocks like the stabs of a needle will be felt4 ,let the end of the spoon be put under the eye-brow1 close to the ball of the eye2 a sensation will be felt like the burning of red-hot iron1 but which ceases the instant the spoon is removed4 ,magnetical ,experiments4 ,the magnetic attraction will not be destroyed by interposing obstacles between the magnet and the iron4 ,lay a small needle on a piece of paper1 and put a magnet under the paper2 the needle may be moved backwards and forwards4 ,lay the needle on a piece of glass1 and put the magnet under the glass2 it will still attract the needle4 ,the same effects will take place if a board be interposed between the magnet and the iron4 ,this property of the magnet has afforded the means of some very amusing deceptions4 ,a little figure of a man has been made to spell a person's name4 ,the hand1 in which was a piece of iron1 rested on a board1 under which a person1 concealed from view1 with a powerful magnet1 contrived to carry it from letter to letter1 until the word was made up4 ,the figure of a goose or swan1 with a piece of iron concealed about the head1 is set to float in water4 ,a rod1 with a concealed magnet at the end1 is presented to the bird1 and it swims after it4 ,the effect is still more amusing1 when some food is put on the end of the rod4 ,the figure of a fish is thrown into the water1 with a small magnet concealed in its mouth4 ,of course1 if a baited hook be suspended near it1 the magnet and iron1 by mutual attraction1 will bring the fish to the bait4 ,put a piece of iron in one scale of a balance1 and an equal weight in the other scale2 bring a magnet under the scale which contains the iron1 and it will draw it down4 ,reverse this experiment1 and put the magnet in the scale1 and balance it2 bring the iron under it1 and it will draw down the magnet4 ,suspend a magnet by a string1 and bring a piece of iron near it1 and it will attract4 ,if a magnet suspended by one string1 and a piece of iron suspended by another1 be brought near one another1 they will mutually attract each other1 and be drawn to a point between4 ,suspend a magnet nicely poised by a thread1 and it will point north and south1 the same end pointing invariably the same way4 ,rub a fine needle with a magnet1 and lay it gently on the surface of the water2 it will point north and south4 ,rub various needles with the magnet1 and run them through small pieces of cork1 and put them to swim in water2 they will all point north and south1 and the same end will invariably point the same way4 ,this mode of finding the north is sometimes of the utmost service at sea1 when the compass is destroyed4 ,opposite poles attract2 poles of the same name repel4 ,take two magnets1 or two needles rubbed with the magnet1 and bring the north and south poles together1 and they attract4 ,bring the north poles near each other1 and they repel4 ,bring the south poles near each other1 and they repel4 ,rub a needle with a magnet1 and run it through a piece of cork1 and put it to float in water4 ,hold a north pole of a magnet near its north pole1 and it will keep flying away to avoid it4 ,it may be chased from side to side of a basin4 ,on the other hand1 an opposite pole will immediately attract4 ,rub four or five needles1 and you may lift them up as in a string1 the north pole of one needle adhering to the south pole of another4 ,put a magnet under a piece of glass1 and sprinkle iron-filings on it2 they will arrange themselves in a manner that will be very surprising4 ,at each pole will be a vast abundance standing erect1 and there will be fewer and fewer as they recede1 until there are scarcely any in the middle4 ,if the iron-filings are sprinkled on the magnet itself1 they will arrange themselves in a manner very striking4 ,lay a needle exactly between the north and south pole1 it will move towards neither4 ,artificial ,coruscations4 ,there is a method of producing artificial coruscations1 or sparkling fiery meteors1 which will be visible not only in the dark but at noon-day1 and that from two liquors actually cold4 ,fifteen grains of solid phosphorus are to be melted in about a drachm of water3 when this is cold1 pour upon it about two ounces of oil of vitriol2 let these be shaken together1 and they will at first heat1 and afterwards they will throw up fiery balls in great numbers1 which will adhere like so many stars to the sides of the glass1 and continue burning for a considerable time2 after this1 if a small quantity of oil of turpentine is poured in1 without shaking the phial1 the mixture will of itself take fire1 and burn very furiously4 ,the vessel should be large1 and open at the top4 ,artificial coruscations may also be produced by means of oil of vitriol and iron1 in the following manner3--,take a glass body capable of holding three quarts2 put into it three ounces of oil of vitriol and twelve ounces of water2 then warming the mixture a little1 throw in1 at several times1 two ounces or more of clean iron-filings2 upon this1 an ebullition and white vapours will arise2 then present a lighted candle to the mouth of the vessel1 and the vapour will take fire1 and will afford a bright illumination1 or flash like lightning4 ,applying the candle in this manner several times1 the effect will always be the same2 and sometimes the fire will fill the whole body of the glass1 and even circulate to the bottom of the liquor2 at others1 it will only reach a little way down its neck4 ,the great caution to be used in this experiment is1 in making the vapour of a proper heat2 for1 if too cold1 few vapours will arise2 and1 if made too hot1 they will come too fast1 and only take fire in the neck of the glass1 without any remarkable coruscation4 ,to make an ,egg enter a ,phial without breaking4 ,let the neck of a phial be ever so strait1 an egg will go into it without breaking1 if it be first steeped in very strong vinegar1 for in process of time the vinegar does so soften it1 that the shell will bend and extend lengthways without breaking3 and when it is in1 cold water thrown upon it will recover its primitive hardness1 and1 as ,cardan says1 its primitive figure4 ,light produced by ,friction1 even under ,water4 ,rub two pieces of fine lump sugar together in the dark2 the effect is produced1 but in a much greater degree1 by two pieces of silex1 or quartz3 but that which affords the strongest light of any thing1 is a white quartz#be from the ,land's ,end1 considerable quantities of which are brought to ,bristol1 and enter into the composition of china ware4 ,by means of two pieces of such quartz1 pretty forcibly rubbed together1 you may distinguish the time of the night by a watch3 but1 what is more surprising1 the same effect is produced equally strong by rubbing the pieces of quartz together under water4 ,rosin ,bubbles4 ,the following account of a simple and curious experiment is extracted from a letter written by ,mr4 ,morey1 of ,oxford1 ,new ,hampshire1 to ,dr4 ,silliman1 the editor of the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts4 ,if the end of a copper tube1 or of a tobacco-pipe stem1 be dipped in melted rosin1 at a temperature a little above that of boiling water1 taken out and held nearly in a vertical position1 and blown through1 bubbles will be formed of all possible sizes1 from that of a hen's egg down to sizes which can hardly be discerned by the naked eye2 and from their silvery lustre1 and reflection of the different rays of light1 they have a pleasing appearance4 ,some that have been formed these eight months1 are as perfect as when first made4 ,they generally assume the form of a string of beads1 many of them perfectly regular1 and connected by a very fine fibre2 but the production is never twice alike4 ,if expanded by hydrogen gas1 they would probably occupy the upper part of the room4 ,the formation of these bubbles is ascribed to a common cause1 viz4 the distention of a viscous fluid by one that is ariform2 and their permanency1 to the sudden congelation of the rosin thus imprisoning the air by a thin film of solid matter1 and preventing its escape4 ,a curious ,hydraulic ,experiment1 called the ,magical ,bottle4 ,take a small bottle1 7see ,plate7 ,,ab1 ,fig4 #i1 the neck of which must be very narrow1 and provide a glass vessel1 ,,cd1 the height of which exceeds that of the bottle about two inches2 fill the bottle1 by means of a small funnel1 with red wine1 and place it in the vessel ,,cd1 which is to be previously filled with water4 ,then1 if the bottle be uncorked1 the wine will presently come out of it1 and rise in form of a small column1 to the surface of the water2 and at the same time the water entering the bottle1 will supply the place of wine2 for water being specifically heavier than wine1 it will consequently subside to the lowest place1 while the other naturally rises to the top4 ,a similar effect will be produced1 if the bottle be filled with water1 and the vessel with wine1 for the bottle being placed in the vessel1 in an inverted position1 the water will descend to the bottom of the vessel1 and the wine will rise in the bottle4 ,the same effect may also be produced by any other liquors1 the specific gravities of which are considerably different4 ,another ,hydraulic ,experiment1 called the ,miraculous ,vessel4 ,take a tin vessel of about six inches in height1 and three in diameter1 having a mouth of only a quarter of an inch wide1 and in the bottom of the vessel make a number of small holes1 of a size sufficient to admit a common sewing needle4 ,plunge the vessel into water1 with its mouth open1 and when it is full1 cork it1 and take it out again2 then1 as long as the vessel remains corked1 no water will come out of it2 but as soon as it is uncorked1 the water will immediately issue from the small holes at the bottom4 ,it must be observed1 however1 that if the holes at the bottom of the vessel be more than one-sixth of an inch in diameter1 or if they be too numerous1 the experiment will not succeed2 for1 in this case1 the pressure of the air against the bottom of the vessel will not be sufficient to confine the water4 ,a curious ,hydraulic ,experiment1 called ,tantalus's ,cup4 ,take a glass1 or any other vessel1 7see ,plate7 ,,abcd1 fig4 #aj4 which has a small bent pipe1 ,,efg1 open at each end1 running through the middle of it2 then1 if water or wine be poured into the glass1 it will continue in it till the tube is full up to the bend ,f1 which should be a little lower than the upper edge of the glass2 but if1 after this1 you continue to pour more liquor into it1 it will endeavour1 as usual1 to rise higher in the glass1 but not finding room for a farther ascent in the tube1 it will descend through the part ,,eg1 and run out at the end ,g1 as long as you continue to put it in4 ,to those who are unacquainted with the nature of the syphon1 the effect may perhaps appear something more extraordinary1 if the longest branch of the tube be concealed in the handle of the cup4 ,this is called the cup of ,tantalus1 from its resemblance to an experiment of the same kind1 by placing an upright image in the cup1 and disposing the syphon in such a manner1 that1 as soon as the water rises to the chin of the image1 it will begin to run out through the longest leg1 in the same manner as from the cup above-mentioned4 ,a curious ,chemical ,experiment1 called the ,tree of ,diana4 ,make an amalgam1 without heat1 of two drachms of leaf silver with one drachm of quicksilver4 ,dissolve this amalgam two ounces1 or a sufficient quantity1 of pure nitrous acid of a moderate strength3 dilute the solution in about a pound and a half of distilled water1 agitate the mixture1 and preserve it for use in a glass bottle with a ground stopper4 ,when you would make your tree1 put into a phial the quantity of an ounce of the above preparation1 and add to it about the size of a pea of amalgam of gold or silver1 as soft as butter3 the vessel must then be left at rest1 and soon afterwards small filaments will appear to issue out of the ball of amalgam1 which quickly increase1 and shoot out branches in the form of shrubs4 ,a metallic arborisation1 somewhat similar1 may be produced in the following manner3--,dissolve a little sugar of lead in water1 and fill a phial with the solution4 ,pass a wire through the cork1 and affix to the upper part of the wire a small bit of silver1 or zinc1 in such a manner that it may be immersed in the solution not far from its surface4 ,set the phial in some place where it may remain undisturbed1 and in about twenty-four hours you will perceive the lead beginning to shoot round the wire3 this process will continue going on slowly1 till you have a beautiful metallic tree4 ,if you have a wide-mouthed phial1 or glass jar1 the experiment may be pleasingly diversified1 by arranging the wire in various forms4 ,a remarkable ,experiment1 called ,prince ,rupert's ,drops4 ,take up a small quantity of the melted matter of glass with a tube1 and let a drop of it fall into a vessel of water4 ,this drop will have a small tail1 which1 being broken1 the whole substance of the drop will burst1 with great violence1 into a fine powder1 and give a little pain to the hand1 but do no hurt to it4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance in this experiment1 that the bulb1 or body1 will bear the stroke of a hammer1 without breaking2 but when the tail is broken1 the above-mentioned effect is produced4 ,if the drop be cooled in the air1 the same effect will not take place2 and if it be ground away on a stone1 nothing extraordinary appears2 but if it be put into the receiver of an air-pump1 and then broken1 the effect will be so violent as to produce light4 ,how to make ,sympathetic ,inks of various ,kinds4 ,by sympathetic inks1 are meant those kinds of liquors1 with which if any characters be written1 they will remain invisible1 till some method is used to give them a colour4 ,the first class of these inks consists of such as become visible by passing another liquor over them1 or by exposing them to the vapour of that liquor4 ,the second1 of those which do not appear so long as they are kept close1 but soon become visible on being exposed to the air4 ,the third1 of such as become apparent by strewing or sifting some very fine powder over them4 ,the fourth1 of those which do not become visible till they are exposed to the fire1 or heated4 ,the fifth1 like the fourth1 of such as appear by heat1 but disappear again when the paper becomes cold1 or has had a sufficient time to imbibe the moisture of the air4 ,sympathetic ,inks of the ,first ,class4--,put some litharge into strong distilled vinegar1 and let it stand for twenty-four hours2 then strain it off1 and1 after it is quite settled1 put it into a bottle closely corked1 and preserve it for use4 ,having done this1 put into a pint bottle two ounces of quicklime1 one ounce of orpiment in powder1 and as much water as will rise two or three fingers' breadth above them2 and when the solution is made1 pour the liquid gently off1 and let it stand in the sun for two or three days1 observing to turn it five or six times each day4 ,when these liquors are ready for use1 any letters written by the first1 being exposed to the vapours of the second1 will quickly become visible2 and if you would have them disappear again1 you must draw a sponge1 or pencil1 dipt in aqua-fortis1 or spirit of nitre1 over them3 and if1 after this1 you would have them appear again1 stay till the paper is quite dry1 and then pass the vivifying liquor1 made of the solution of orpiment1 over them1 as before4 ,another ,ink of this ,class4--,dissolve bismuth in the nitrous acid1 and any letters written with this ink will become quite black1 by being exposed to the vapour of liver of sulphur1 which is of so penetrating a nature1 that it will act upon the ink through a quire of paper1 or even the slight partition of a room4 ,a ,sympathetic ,gold ,ink of the ,second ,class4--,put as much gold into a small quantity of aqua-regia as will dissolve it1 and then dilute it with two or three times as much distilled water4 ,also dissolve1 in a separate vessel1 fine pewter in aqua-regia2 and when it is well saturated1 add to it an equal quantity of distilled water4 ,then1 if any characters be written with the solution of gold1 put them in the shade till they become quite dry1 and they will not appear for the first seven or eight hours1 but if you dip a pencil1 or small fine sponge1 in the solution of pewter1 and draw it lightly over the invisible characters1 they will presently appear of a purple colour4 ,the purple colour of these letters may be effaced again1 by wetting them with aqua-regia1 and may be produced a second time1 by passing the solution of pewter over them as before4 ,a ,sympathetic ,ink of the ,second ,class4--,dissolve fine silver in aqua-fortis1 and add some distilled water to the solution1 in the same manner as in the gold ink2 then1 whatever is written with this ink1 will remain invisible for three or four months1 if it be kept close from the air2 but if it be exposed to the sun1 it will appear in about an hour1 of a gray colour1 like that of a slate4 ,sympathetic ,inks of the ,third ,class1--or such as become visible by having any fine powder strewed over them1--may be composed of the glutinous and colourless juice of any vegetable1 the milk of animals1 and several other substances4 ,sympathetic ,inks of the ,fourth ,class1--are made by diluting acid of vitriol with about three times its weight of common water1 or as much as will prevent it from corroding the paper4 ,the juice of lemons1 or onions1 will answer the same purpose2 but either of them requires more heat than the first1 and will not keep so long4 ,a ,green ,ink of the ,fifth ,class4--,take zaffre in powder1 and let it remain dissolved in aqua-regia for twenty-four hours2 after which pour the liquor off clear1 and1 adding to it as much common water1 keep it in a bottle well corked4 ,then1 if any characters be written with this ink1 and exposed to the fire1 or strong rays of the sun1 they will appear of a lively green4 ,it is the peculiar property of this ink1 that as soon as the paper becomes cold again1 the letters will disappear2 and this alternate appearance and disappearance may be repeated a great number of times1 provided the heat be not too great4 ,other ,sympathetic ,inks4 ,a ,yellow ,ink of this kind may be made1 by steeping the flowers of marigolds seven or eight days in clear distilled vinegar1 and then pressing them out1 and keeping the liquor well corked in a bottle for use4 ,for a ,red invisible ,ink1--take the pure spirit of vitriol1 or that of nitre1 and add to it eight or ten times as much water1 according as you would have it more or less red4 ,for a ,green ,ink of this sort1--dissolve salt of tartar1 the clearest and driest you can procure1 in a sufficient quantity of river water2 and for a ,violet sympathetic ,ink1 express the juice of lemons1 and keep it in a bottle well corked4 ,then1 if any characters be written with one of these inks1 they will appear in their proper colours1 the paper having been dipped in the following liquor4 ,take a sufficient quantity of the flowers of pansies1 or common violets1 and after adding some water to them1 strain the liquor through a cloth1 and keep it in a bottle for use4 ,a ,sympathetic ,ink which appears by being wetted with ,water4 ,mix alum with a sufficient quantity of lemon juice2 then1 if any letters or characters be written with this mixture1 they will be invisible till they are wetted with water1 which will make them appear of a grayish colour1 and quite transparent4 ,or1 you may write with a strong solution of roch-alum only1 and when the writing is dry1 pour a small quantity of water over it1 and it will appear of a white colour1 like that of the paper before it was wetted4 ,also all saline liquors1 such as vitriolic1 nitrous1 and marine acids1 diluted with water1 the liquor of fixed vegetable alkalis1 and even vinegar1 will produce the same effect4 ,if a little aqua-fortis be mixed with the water1 the writing will dry well1 and not run out of its form when the paper is wetted4 ,a curious ,recreation with ,sympathetic ,ink1 called the ,book of ,fate4 ,make a book1 consisting of seventy or eighty leaves1 and in the cover at the end of it1 let there be a case which opens next to the back1 that it may not be perceived4 ,at the top of each right-hand page1 write any question you please2 and at the beginning of the book1 let there be a table of those questions1 with the number of the pages in which each is to be found4 ,then write with common ink on separate papers1 each about half the size of the pages1 the same questions that are in the book2 and under each of them1 write the answer with the ink made with the litharge of lead1 or the solution of bismuth4 ,soak a double paper in the vivifying ink1 made of quicklime and orpiment1 or the liver of sulphur2 and just before you make the experiment1 place it in the case that is in the cover of the book4 ,having done this1 deliver some of the papers on which the questions are written1 to the company2 and after they have chosen such as they wish to have answered1 let them put them into those leaves where the same questions are contained2 then shutting the book for a few minutes1 the sulphureous spirit1 with which the paper in the cover of the book is impregnated1 will penetrate the leaves1 and make the answer visible1 which will be of a brown colour1 and more or less deep1 in proportion to the time the book has been closed4 ,a curious ,recreation1 called the ,transcolorated ,writing4 ,write on a paper1 with a violet-coloured liquor1 as many letters or words as you please1 and ask any person which he will choose to have the writing1--yellow1 green1 or red4 ,when he has made his choice1 have a sponge ready with three sides1 which you can easily distinguish1 and dip each of its sides in one of the three sympathetic inks2 then draw the side of the sponge which corresponds to the colour the person has chosen1 over the writing1 once only1 and it will directly change to the colour required4 ,an ,experiment with ,sympathetic ,ink1 called the ,oracular ,letters4 ,write on several slips of paper different questions1 and such as may be answered by the name of some person3 for example1 ,who is the merriest man in company8--,answer1 ,mr4 99 99 994 ,to whom will ,miss 99 99 99 be married8--,answer1 ,to ,mr4 99 99 994 ,these questions are to be written in the sympathetic ink of the fourth class1 and exposed to the fire1 and the answers written in the same ink1 and left invisible4 ,the papers are then to be folded in the form of letters1 and in such a manner1 that the part where the name is written shall be directly under the seal2 in which case1 the heat of the wax will make it visible4 ,then1 if the letter be given to the person who requires the answer1 he will find it plainly written4 ,an ,experiment with ,sympathetic ,ink1 called ,winter changed to ,spring4 ,take a print which represents winter1 and trace over the trees1 plants1 and ground1 with the green sympathetic ink2 observing to make some parts deeper than others1 according to their distance4 ,when those parts are dry1 paint the other objects in their natural colours2 then put the print into a glazed frame1 and cover the back of it with a paper1 pasted over its border only4 ,when this print is exposed to the heat of a moderate fire1 or to the warm rays of the sun1 all the grass and foliage will turn to a pleasing green2 and if a yellow tint be given to some parts of the print1 before the sympathetic ink be drawn over it1 the green will be of different shades1 and the scene1 that a minute before represented ,winter1 will now be changed into ,spring4 ,when this print is placed in the cold1 ,winter will appear again1 and be again driven away by the warm rays of the sun2 and this alternate change of seasons may be repeated as often as you please1 provided the print be not made too hot4 ,a remarkable ,experiment1 called the ,revivified ,rose4 ,take a rose that is quite faded1 and throw in some common sulphur in a chafing-dish of hot coal4 ,hold the rose over the fumes1 and it will become quite white2 then dip it into a basin of water1 and giving it to any one1 tell him to put it into his box or drawer1 and after locking it1 to give you the key4 ,about five or six hours afterwards1 return him the key1 and when he unlocks his drawer1 instead of the white rose he put into it1 he will find one perfectly red4 ,how to ,write on ,glass by means of the ,rays of the ,sun4 ,dissolve chalk in aqua-fortis1 to the consistence of milk1 and add to it a strong solution of silver2 keep this liquor in a glass decanter1 well stopped1 and cutting out from a paper the letters you wish to appear1 paste it on the decanter1 and place it in the sun1 in such a manner1 that its rays may pass through the spaces cut out of the paper1 and fall on the surface of the liquor2 then will that part of the glass through which the rays pass be turned black1 while that under the paper will remain white2 but particular care must be taken that the bottle be not moved during the time of the operation4 ,to produce different ,colours1 by pouring a colourless ,liquor into a clean ,glass4 ,take a strong solution of quicksilver1 made with spirit of nitre2 dilute it with water1 and pour it into a hot glass1 rinsed in strong spirit of sea-salt1 and it will instantly become coloured4 ,or1 if a solution of silver1 made with spirit of nitre1 considerably diluted1 be poured into a glass1 prepared in the manner above-mentioned1 it will produce the same effect4 ,and if you pour hot water upon new-made crocus metallorum1 and put it into a clean glass1 rinsed with any acid1 it will produce an orange colour4 ,to produce a ,colour which appears and disappears by the ,influence of the ,air4 ,put into a decanter some volatile spirit1 in which you have dissolved copper filings1 and you will have a fine blue tincture2 and if the bottle be stopped1 the colour will soon return again2 and this experiment may be repeated a considerable number of times4 ,to turn a colourless ,liquor ,black1 by adding a ,white ,powder to it4 ,put a hot weak pellucid infusion of galls into a glass1 and throw into it a grain of the vitriol of iron1 calcined to whiteness1 and considerably heated2 then1 as it falls to the bottom1 it will make a black cloud1 which will uniformly diffuse itself through the transparent liquor1 and gradually turn it black4 ,the same effect may also be produced by the addition of a little vitriol of iron calcined to a yellow colour1 or by the colcothar of vitriol calcined to redness4 ,the black liquor1 produced as above1 may be rendered pellucid again1 by pouring the liquor hot into a glass rinsed with the pure acid of vitriol4 ,and to make this transparent liquor black again1 pour to it as much hot oil of tartar per deliquium as will saturate the acid1 which has attracted the metallic matter4 ,freezing ,mixture4 ,in the time of snow1 a freezing mixture may easily be made1 by mixing a little snow and common salt in a basin near the fire4 ,if water in an iron cup or phial be put into this mixture1 it will immediately be frozen2 and if pounded ice and common salt be added1 it will have a still more powerful effect4 ,experiments with the ,microscope4 ,they who possess this amusing instrument1 may easily perform with it a variety of pleasing experiments2 among others1 the following3--,leave some vinegar exposed in a saucer1 for a few days1 to the open air2 then place a drop of it1 by means of a clean pen1 or a camel's hair brush1 on the transparent object-plate of the microscope2 and if the object-plate be properly illuminated from below1 you will observe in this drop of liquor animals resembling some small eels1 which are in continual motion4 ,if you slightly bruise some pepper-corns1 and infuse them in water for a few days1 and then expose a drop of it to the microscope1 a number of animals of a different kind will be visible4 ,these are of an oblong shape1 and1 like the others1 in continual motion1 going backwards and forwards in all directions1 turning aside when they meet each other1 or when their passage is stopped by some obstacle4 ,in other infusions1 as in that of new hay1 differently shaped animalcules will be found4 ,when the drop in which they swim1 and which to them is like a pond1 becomes diminished by evaporation1 they gradually retire towards the middle1 where they accumulate1 and at length perish when entirely deprived of moisture4 ,previously to this1 they appear in great distress1 writhe their bodies1 and endeavour to escape from that state of uneasiness which they evidently feel4 ,it the smallest quantity or drop of sulphuric acid be put into a drop of the infusion which swarms with these insects1 they immediately throw themselves on their backs1 and expire2 sometimes losing their skin1 which bursts1 and suffers small particles of air to escape4 ,those who wish to be furnished with microscopic eels1 at all seasons1 may have them in common paste1 such as the bookbinders commonly use4 ,it should neither be too stiff1 nor too watery4 ,expose it to the air1 and prevent its hardening or becoming mouldy on the surface1 by beating it well together1 when it has that tendency4 ,after some days it will become sour2 and then1 if examined attentively by a microscope1 multitudes of exceedingly small1 long1 and slender animalcules will be visible2 these will grow larger1 till they are of sufficient size to be seen by the naked eye4 ,a drop or two of vinegar should now and then be poured on the paste2 and sometimes1 to prevent its being dry1 a little vinegar and water4 ,by this means microscopic eels may be had all the year4 ,they must be applied to the microscope upon any flat surface1 after having first put on it a very small drop of water for them to swim in4 ,these are very entertaining objects when examined by any kind of microscope1 but particularly the solar one1 by which the motions of their intestines may very plainly be distinguished2 and when the water is nearly dried away1 and they are on the point of expiring1 their mouths may be seen opening to a considerable width4 ,if some of the dust of the puff-ball be examined with the microscope1 it appears to consist of perfectly round globules1 of an orange colour1 the diameter of which is only about the one-fiftieth part of the thickness of a hair1 so that each of this grain is but the #a_/abejjjth part of a globule1 equal in diameter to the breadth of a hair4 ,the farina of flowers is found to be regularly or uniformly organized in each kind of plant4 ,in the mallow1 for example1 each grain is an opaque ball1 covered over with small points4 ,the farina of the tulip1 and of most of the liliaceous kind of flowers1 bears a striking resemblance to the seeds of the cucumber3 that of the poppy is like grains of barley4 ,there are certain plants1 the leaves of which seem to be pierced with a multitude of small holes4 ,of this kind is the ,st4 ,john's ,wort4 ,if a fragment of this be viewed with a good microscope1 the supposed holes are found to be vesicles1 contained in the thickness of the leaf1 and covered with an exceedingly thin membrane2 and these are thought to be the receptacles which contain the essential and aromatic oil peculiar to the plant4 ,the view exhibited by those plants which have down1 such as borage1 nettles1 c4 is exceedingly curious4 ,when examined by a microscope1 they appear to be covered with spikes4 ,those of borage are1 for the most part1 bent so as to form an elbow2 and though really so close1 they appear1 by the microscope1 to be at a considerable distance from each other4 ,the entire appearance is very similar to that of the skin of a porcupine4 ,there are two kinds of sand1 viz4 the calcareous and the vitreous3 the former1 examined with a microscope1 resembles large irregular fragments of rock2 but the latter appears like so many rough diamonds4 ,in some instances1 the particles of sand seem to be highly polished and brilliant1 like an assemblage of diamonds1 rubies1 and emeralds4 ,charcoal is a fine object for the microscope3 it is found to be full of pores1 regularly arranged1 and passing through its whole length4 ,those who wish to observe the circulation of the blood1 by means of the microscope1 may readily obtain the desired satisfaction4 ,an object employed chiefly for this purpose is the delicate transparent membrane which unites the toes of the frog2 another object is the tail of the tadpole4 ,if this membrane be extended1 and fixed on a piece of glass illuminated below1 the motion of the blood in the vessels will be distinctly visible2 the appearance resembles a number of small islands1 with a rapid current flowing between them4 ,take a small tadpole1 and1 having wrapped its body in a piece of moist cloth1 place its tail on the object-plate of the microscope1 and enlighten it below1 and you will see very distinctly the circulation of the blood2 which in some of the vessels proceeds by a kind of undulation1 and in others with a uniform motion4 ,the former are thought to be the arteries in which the blood moves1 in consequence of the alternate pulsation of the heart2 the latter are said to be the veins4 ,the circulation of the blood may be seen also in the legs and tails of shrimps4 ,the transparent legs of small spiders1 and those of bugs1 will also afford the means of observing the circulation of the blood to very great advantage4 ,the latter are said1 by ,mr4 ,baker1 to exhibit an extraordinary vibration of the vessels1 which he never saw any where else4 ,very small fish are good objects for this purpose2 but the most curious of all spectacles of this kind1 is that exhibited by the mosentery of a living frog1 applied in particular to the solar microscope4 ,if you take off a small piece of the epidermis1 or scarf skin1 of the hand1 by means of a sharp razor1 and place it on the object-plate of the microscope1 you will see it covered with a multitude of small scales1 so exceedingly minute1 that1 according to ,leuwenhoek1 a grain of sand would cover two hundred of them4 ,these scales are arranged like those on the back of fishes1 like the tiles of a house1 each in part covering the other4 ,to ascertain the form of these little scales1 scrape the skin with a penknife1 and put this dust into a drop of water1 and it will be seen that these scales1 small as they are1 have1 in general1 five planes1 and that each consists of several strata4 ,underneath these scales are the pores of the epidermis1 which1 when the former are removed1 may be distinctly seen1 apparently like small holes1 pierced with an exceedingly fine needle4 ,in the length of an inch1 twelve hundred have been counted1 so that1 in a surface equal to a square inch1 there are fourteen thousand2 and as there are one hundred and forty-four inches in a square foot1 the number of pores in a square foot of surface would be more than two millions2 and as the surface of the human body is reckoned at fourteen feet1 the number of pores in its surface1 through which there is a perpetual perspiration going on1 must be more than twenty-eight millions4 ,the hairs of animals1 seen through a microscope1 appear to be organized bodies3 they are composed of long1 slender1 hollow tubes2 some seem to be composed of several small hairs1 covered with a common bark2 others are hollow throughout4 ,the bristles of a cat's whisker1 when cut transversely1 exhibit the appearance of a medullary part1 which occupies the middle1 like the pith in the twig of the elder-tree4 ,a human hair1 cut in the same manner1 shews a variety of vessels in very regular figures4 ,hair taken from the head1 the eyebrows1 the nostrils1 the beard1 the hand1 c4 appear unlike1 as well in the roots as in the hairs themselves1 and vary as plants do of the same genus1 but of different species4 ,those of the hedgehog contain a kind of real marrow1 which is whitish1 and formed of radii meeting in a centre4 ,a split hair appears like a stick shivered with beating4 ,nothing can be more curious than the appearance exhibited by mouldiness1 when viewed through a microscope4 ,if looked at by the naked eye1 it seems nothing but an irregular tissue of filaments2 but the magnifying-glass shews it to be a forest of small plants1 which derive their nourishment from the moist substance which serves them as a base4 ,the stems of these plants may be plainly distinguished1 and sometimes their buds1 some shut1 and some open4 ,they have much similarity to mushrooms1 the tops of which1 when they come to maturity1 emit an exceedingly fine dust1 which is their seed4 ,upon examining the edge of a very keen razor with a microscope1 it will appear as broad as the back of a thick knife1 rough1 uneven1 full of notches and furrows4 ,an exceedingly small needle resembles a rough iron bar4 ,but the sting of a bee1 seen through the same instrument1 exhibits every where a polish exceedingly beautiful1 without the least flaw1 blemish1 or inequality1 and ends in a point too fine to be discerned4 ,a small piece of exceedingly fine lawn1 appears1 through a microscope1 like a hurdle or lattice1 and the threads themselves seem coarser than the yarn with which ropes are made for anchors4 ,but a silkworm's web appears perfectly smooth and shining1 and every where equal4 ,the smallest dot that can be made with a pen1 appears1 when viewed by the microscope1 an irregular spot1 rough1 jagged1 and uneven4 ,but the little specks on the wings or bodies of insects1 are found to be most accurately circular4 ,a microscope will prove the most boasted performances of art to be ill-shaped1 rugged1 and uneven4 ,the finest miniature paintings appear before this instrument as mere daubings1 plastered on with a trowel1 entirely void of beauty1 either in the drawing or the colouring4 ,the most even and beautiful varnishes and polishings will be found to be mere roughness1 full of gaps and flaws4 ,thus sink the works of art1 before the microscopic eye4 ,but the nearer we examine the works of ,god1 even in the least of his productions1 the more sensible shall we be of his wisdom and power4 ,apply the microscope to any1 the most minute of his works1 nothing is to be found but beauty and perfection4 ,if we examine the numberless species of insects that swim1 creep1 or fly around us1 what proportion1 exactness1 uniformity1 and symmetry1 shall we perceive in all their organs6 what a profusion of colouring6 azure1 green1 and vermilion1 gold1 silver1 pearls1 rubies1 and diamonds2 fringe and embroidery on their bodies1 wings1 heads1 and every other part6 how high the finishing1 how inimitable the polish1 we every where behold6 ,their wings1 all glorious to behold6 ,bedeck'd with azure1 jet1 and gold1 ,wide they display3 the spangled dew ,reflects their eyes and various hue4 ,gay4 ,the most perfect works of art betray a meanness1 a poverty1 an inability in the workman2 but the works of nature plainly prove1 that the hand which formed them was divine4 ,amusing ,experiments with the ,thermometer4 ,a thermometer is amusing in a room1 to enable us to know with accuracy the real degree of heat1 as our own feelings are so very deceptive4 ,according to their state of health at the time1 different persons will give a different judgment on the subject4 ,after hot weather1 a day which is not very cold1 will yet feel so to us1 and after cold weather we shall be ready to think a day warm1 which is not so severe as the preceding4 ,in winter1 a thermometer in a sitting-room enables us to regulate its heat4 ,too great warmth produced by a fire is injurious to health1 as it relaxes the strength1 and consumes the pure oxygenous air1 so necessary for respiration4 ,experiments will shew how differently the feelings of different individuals may be affected by the same degree of heat4 ,let one person go out into the cold air in winter for a few minutes1 and let another sit by a warm fire2 then introduce both into a room without a fire3 the person from the cold will feel it warm1 and the other will feel it cold4 ,a much more entertaining experiment will shew1 that what will be cold to the one hand1 will be warm to the other4 ,pour warm water into one basin1 cold water into a second1 and a mixture of hot and cold water into a third2 then put the one hand into the cold water1 and the other into the warm1 for two minutes1 and after that put both hands into the lukewarm water1 and to the one hand it will feel cold1 and to the other hot4 ,,the ,,barometer4 ,rules for judging of and predicting the ,state of the ,weather by the ,barometer4 ,the rising of the mercury presages1 in general1 fair weather1 and its falling1 foul weather1 as rain1 snow1 high winds1 and storms4 ,when the surface of the mercury is convex1 or stands higher in the middle than at the sides1 it is a sign the mercury is then in a rising state2 but if the surface be concave1 or hollow in the middle1 it is then sinking4 ,in very hot weather1 the falling of the mercury indicates thunder4 ,in winter1 the rising presages frost2 and in frosty weather1 if the mercury falls three or four divisions1 there will be a thaw4 ,but in a continued frost1 if the mercury rises1 it will certainly snow4 ,when wet weather happens soon after the depression of the mercury1 expect but little of it2 on the contrary1 expect but little fair weather1 when it proves fair shortly after the mercury has risen4 ,in wet weather1 when the mercury rises much and high1 and so continues for two or three days before the bad weather is entirely over1 then a continuance of fair weather may be expected4 ,in fair weather1 when the mercury falls much and low1 and thus continues for two or three days before the rain comes1 then a deal of wet may be expected1 and probably high winds4 ,the unsettled motion of the mercury denotes unsettled weather4 ,the words engraved on the scale are not so much to be attended to1 as the rising and falling of the mercury2 for if it stands at much rain1 and then rises to changeable1 it denotes fair weather1 though not to continue so long as if the mercury had risen higher4 ,if the mercury stands at fair1 and falls to changeable1 bad weather may be expected4 ,in winter1 spring1 and autumn1 the sudden falling of the mercury1 and that for a large space1 denotes high winds and storms2 but in summer it presages heavy showers1 and often thunder4 ,it always sinks very low for great winds1 though not accompanied with rain2 but it falls more for wind and rain together1 than for either of them alone4 ,if1 after rain1 the wind change into any part of the north1 with a clear and dry sky1 and the mercury rise1 it is a certain sign of fair weather4 ,after very great storms of wind1 when the mercury has been low1 it commonly rises again very fast4 ,in settled fair weather1 except the mercury sink much1 expect but little rain4 ,in a wet season1 the smallest depression must be attended to2 for when the air is much inclined to showers1 a little sinking in the barometer denotes more rain4 ,and in such a season1 if it rise suddenly fast and high1 fair weather cannot be expected to last more than a day or two4 ,the greatest heights of the mercury are found upon easterly and north-easterly winds2 and it may often rain or snow1 the wind being in these points1 while the barometer is in a rising state1 the effects of the wind counteracting its influence4 ,but the mercury sinks for wind as well as rain in all other points of the compass4 ,new ,method of ,preserving ,birds4--7,from the ,annual ,register47 ,when ,i receive a bird fresh taken1 7says the author17 ,i open the venter1 from the lower part of the breast-bone down to the anus1 with a pair of scissars1 and extract all the contents4 ,this cavity ,i immediately fill up with the following mixture1 and then bring the wound together by a suture1 so as to prevent the stuffing from coming out4 ,the gullet or passage ,i fill1 from the beak down to where the stomach lies1 with the mixture finer ground1 which must be forced down a little at a time1 by the help of a quill or wire3 the head ,i open near the root of the tongue1 with the scissars1 and1 after having turned out the brains1 ,i fill the cavity with the same mixture4 ,the bird being thus filled1 must now be hung up by the legs to dry for two days1 to let the spice settle2 after which it may be placed in a frame to dry1 in the same attitude as we usually see it when alive4 ,in this frame it must be held up by two threads1 the one passing from the anus to the lower part of the back1 and the other through the eyes3 the ends of these threads are to brace the bird up to its proper attitude1 fasten them to the side of the frame1 and place it on a chip pill-box4 ,it will now require no other support than a pin through each foot1 fastened into the box3 it must remain a month or two to dry4 ,the eyes must be supplied by proportional glass beads1 fixed in with strong gum-water4 ,the mixture is3 common salt1 one pound2 alum1 powdered1 four ounces2 ground pepper1 two ounces2 all blended together4 ,to take the ,impression of the ,wings of a ,butterfly in all their ,colours4 ,kill it without spoiling2 cut off the body close to the wings1 which contrive to spread in a flying position2 then take a piece of white paper1 wash part of it with thick gum-water2 when dry1 lay it on a smooth board1 with the wings on the gum-water2 lay another paper over this1 press both very hard1 let them remain under pressure for an hour2 afterwards take off the wings of the butterfly1 and you will find a perfect impression of them1 with all their various colours1 remaining on the paper4 ,draw1 between the wings of the impression1 the body of the butterfly1 and colour it after life4 ,to take the ,impression of a ,leaf of any ,tree1 ,plant1 or ,shrub1 with all its ,veins4 ,having put the intended leaf into a book for a few minutes1 which will cause it to lie very flat1 you must have a pair of balls1 somewhat of the shape of those used by printers2 have them covered with kid-skin1 that being the best leather for the purpose4 ,these balls may be made to any size4 ,you must then procure some lamp-black1 ground or mixed with drying oil1 and having put a small quantity on one of the balls1 spread it all over with the other till they are both black2 then laying the leaf on one of them1 place the other over it1 and press both very hard together4 ,when the leaf is sufficiently black1 take it off the ball1 and place it between a sheet of white paper4 ,press it gently with your hand1 the heat and pressure of which will cause it to receive an accurate delineation of all its veins4 ,instead of black1 any other colour may be used4 ,verdigris makes a pleasant green2 and by adding yellow ochre1 or ,prussian blue1 you may approach the original tint of the leaf1 and your impression will almost equal that of nature4 ,curious ,experiments respecting ,colours4 ,the following curious and useful remarks on the different degrees of heat imbibed from the sun's rays1 c4 by cloths of different colours1 were extracted from ,experiments and ,observations1 by that famous ,american philosopher and politician1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,franklin4 ,first1 let me mention an experiment you may easily make yourself4 ,walk but a quarter of an hour in your garden when the sun shines1 with a part of your dress white1 and a part black2 then apply your hand to them alternately1 and you will find a very great difference in their warmth4 ,the black will be quite hot to the touch1 the white still cool4 ,another4 ,try to fire paper with a burning-glass4 ,if it be white1 you will not easily burn it2 but if you bring the focus to a black spot1 or upon letters written or printed1 the paper will immediately be on fire under the letters4 ,thus fullers and dyers find that black cloths1 of equal thickness with white ones1 and hung out equally wet1 dry in the sun much sooner than the white1 being more readily heated by the sun's rays4 ,it is the same before a fire2 the heat of which sooner penetrates black stockings than white ones1 and is apt sooner to burn a man's shins4 ,also beer much sooner warms in a black mug set before the fire1 than in a white one1 or in a bright silver tankard4 ,my experiment was this3 ,i took a number of little square pieces of broad cloth from a tailor's pattern-card1 of various colours4 ,there were black1 deep blue1 lighter blue1 green1 purple1 red1 yellow1 white1 and other colours1 or shades of colours4 ,i laid them all out upon the snow in a bright sunshiny morning4 ,in a few hours1 7,i cannot now be exact as to the time17 the black being warmed most by the sun1 was sunk so low as to be below the stroke of the sun's rays2 the dark blue almost as low1 the lighter blue not quite so low as the dark1 the other colours less as they were lighter2 and the quite white remained on the surface of the snow1 not having entered it at all4 ,what signifies philosophy that does not apply to some use8 ,may we not learn from hence1 that black cloths are not so fit to wear in a hot sunny climate1 or season1 as white ones2 because1 in such clothes the body is more heated by the sun when we walk abroad1 and are at the same time heated by the exercise1 which double heat is apt to bring on putrid dangerous fevers8--that soldiers and seamen1 who must march and labour in the sun1 should1 in the ,east or ,west ,indies1 have a uniform of white8--that summer hats for men or women1 should be white1 as repelling that heat which gives head-achs to many1 and to some the fatal stroke that the ,french call the coup de soliel8--that the ladies' summer hats1 however1 should be lined with black1 as not reverberating on their faces those rays which are reflected upwards from the earth or water8--that the putting a white cap of paper or linen1 within the crown of a black hat1 as some do1 will not keep out the heat1 though it would if placed without8--that fruit-walls being blackened1 may receive so much heat from the sun in the day-time1 as to continue warm1 in some degree1 through the night1 and thereby preserve the fruit from frosts1 or forward its growth8--with sundry other particulars1 of less or greater importance1 that will occur from time to time to attentive minds8 ,thirty ,soldiers having deserted1 so to place them in a ,ring1 that you may save any ,fifteen you please1 and it shall seem the ,effect of ,chance4 ,this recreation is usually proposed thus3 ,fifteen ,christians and fifteen ,turks being in a ship at sea1 in a violent tempest1 it was deemed necessary to throw half the number of persons overboard1 in order to disburden the ship1 and save the rest2 to effect this1 it was agreed to be done by lot1 in such a manner1 that the persons being placed in a ring1 every ninth man should be cast into the sea1 till one half of them were thrown overboard4 ,now1 the pilot1 being a ,christian1 was desirous of saving those of his own persuasion3 how ought he therefore to dispose the crew1 so that the lot might always fall upon the ,turks8 ,this question may be resolved by placing the men according to the numbers annexed to the vowels in the words of the following verse3-- ,po-pu-le-am ,jir-gam ,ma-ter ,re-gi-na fe-re-bat4 #d #e #b #a #c #a #a #b #b #c #a #b #b #a from which it appears1 that you must place four of those you would save first2 then five of those you would punish4 ,after this1 two of those to be saved1 and one to be punished2 and so on4 ,when this is done1 you must enter the ring1 and beginning with the first of the four men you intend to save1 count on to nine2 and turn this man out to be punished2 then count on1 in like manner1 to the next ninth man1 and turn him out to be punished2 and so on for the rest4 ,it is reported that ,josephus1 the author of the ,jewish ,history1 escaped the danger of death by means of this problem2 for being governor of ,joppa1 at the time that it was taken by ,vespasian1 he was obliged to secrete himself with thirty or forty of his soldiers in a cave1 where they made a firm resolution to perish by famine rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror2 but being at length driven to great distress1 they would have destroyed each other for sustenance1 had not ,josephus persuaded them to die by lot1 which he so ordered1 that all of them were killed except himself and another1 whom he might easily destroy1 or persuade to yield to the ,romans4 ,three ,persons having each chosen1 privately1 one out of three ,things1--to tell them which they have chosen4 ,let the three things1 for instance1 be a ring1 a guinea1 and a shilling1 and let them be known privately to yourself by the vowels a1 e1 i1 of which the first1 a1 signifies one1 the second1 e1 two1 and the third1 i1 three4 ,then take #bd counters1 and give the first person #a1 which signifies a1 the second #b1 which represents e1 and the third #c1 which stands for i2 then1 leaving the other counters upon the table1 retire into another room1 and bid him who has the ring take as many counters from the table as you gave him2 he that has the guinea1 twice as many1 and he that has the shilling four times as many4 ,this being done1 consider to whom you gave one counter1 to whom two1 and to whom three2 and as there were only twenty-four counters at first1 there must necessarily remain either #a1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #f1 or #g1 on the table1 or otherwise they must have failed in observing the directions you gave them4 ,but if either of these numbers remain1 as they ought1 the question may be resolved by retaining in your memory the six following words3-- ,salve certa anima semita vita quies4 #a #b #c #e #f #g ,as1 for instance1 suppose the number that remained was #e2 then the word belonging to it is semita2 and as the vowels in the first two syllables of this word are e and i1 it shews1 according to the former directions1 that he to whom you gave two counters has the ring2 he to whom you gave three counters1 the gold2 and the other person1 of course1 the silver1 it being the second vowel which represents #b1 and the third which represents #c4 ,how to part an ,eight ,gallon ,bottle of ,wine equally between two ,persons1 using only two other ,bottles1 one of ,five ,gallons1 and the other of ,three4 ,this question is usually proposed in the following manner3 ,a certain person having an eight-gallon bottle filled with excellent wine1 is desirous of making a present of half of it to one of his friends2 but as he has nothing to measure it out with1 but two other bottles1 one of which contains five gallons1 and the other three1 it is required to find how this may be accomplished8 ,in order to answer the question1 let the eight-gallon bottle be called ,a1 the five-gallon bottle ,b1 and the three-gallon bottle ,c2 then1 if the liquor be poured out of one bottle into another1 according to the manner denoted in either of the two following examples1 the proposed conditions will be answered4 #h #e #c #h #e #c ,a ,b ,c ,a ,b ,c #h #j #j #h #j #j #c #e #j #e #j #c #c #b #c #e #c #j #f #b #j #b #c #c #f #j #b #b #e #a #a #e #b #g #j #a #a #d #c #g #a #j #d #d #j #d #a #c ,a ,quantity of ,eggs being broken1 to find how many there were without remembering the ,number4 ,an old woman1 carrying eggs to market in a basket1 met an unruly fellow1 who broke them4 ,being taken before a magistrate1 he was ordered to pay for them1 provided the woman could tell how many she had2 but she could only remember1 that in counting them into the basket by twos1 by threes1 by fours1 by fives1 and by sixes1 there always remained one2 but in counting them in by sevens1 there were none remaining4 ,now1 in this case1 how was the number to be ascertained8 ,this is the same thing as to find a number1 which being divided by #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 and #f1 there shall remain #a1 but being divided by #g1 there shall remain nothing2 and the least number1 which will answer the conditions of the question1 is found to be #cja1 which was therefore the number of eggs the old woman had in her basket4 ,to find the least ,number of ,weights1 that will weigh1 from ,one ,pound to ,forty4 ,this problem may be resolved by the means of the geometrical progression1 #a1 #c1 #i1 #bg1 #ha1 c4 the property of which is such1 that the last sum is twice the number of all the rest1 and one more2 so that the number of pounds being forty1 which is also the sum of #a1 #c1 #i1 #bg1 these four weights will answer the purpose required4 ,suppose it was required1 for example1 to weigh eleven pounds by them3 you must put into one scale the one-pound weight1 and into the other the three and nine-pound weights1 which1 in this case1 will weigh only eleven pounds1 in consequence of the one-pound weight being in the other scale2 and therefore1 if you put any substance into the first scale1 along with the one-pound weight1 and it stands in equilibrio with the three and nine in the other scale1 you may conclude it weighs eleven pounds4 ,in like manner1 to find a fourteen-pound weight1 put into one of the scales the one1 three1 and nine-pound weights1 and into the other that of twenty-seven pounds1 and it will evidently outweigh the other three by fourteen pounds2 and so on for any other weight4 ,to break a ,stick which rests upon two ,wine ,glasses1 without injuring the ,glasses4 ,take a stick1 7see ,plate17 ,,ab4 fig4 #a1 of about the size of a common broomstick1 and lay its two ends1 ,,ab1 which ought to be pointed1 upon the edges of two glasses placed upon two tables of equal height1 so that it may rest lightly on the edge of each glass4 ,then take a kitchen poker1 or a large stick1 and give the other a smart blow1 near the middle point c1 and the stick ,,ab will be broken1 without in the least injuring the glasses3 and even if the glasses be filled with wine1 not a drop of it will be spilt1 if the operation be properly performed4 ,but on the contrary1 if the stick were struck on the underside1 so as to drive it up into the air1 the glasses would be infallibly broken4 ,a ,number of ,metals being mixed together in one ,mass1 to find the ,quantity of each of them4 ,vitruvius1 in his ,architecture1 reports1 that ,hiero1 king of ,sicily1 having employed an artist to make a crown of pure gold1 which was designed to be dedicated to the gods1 suspected that the goldsmith had stolen part of the gold1 and substituted silver in its place3 being desirous of discovering the cheat1 he proposed the question to ,archimedes1 desiring to know if he could1 by his art1 discover whether any other metal were mixed with the gold4 ,this celebrated mathematician being soon afterwards bathing himself1 observed1 that as he entered the bath1 the water ascended1 and flowed out of it2 and as he came out of it1 the water descended in like manner3 from which he inferred1 that if a mass of pure gold1 silver1 or any other metal1 were thrown into a vessel of water1 the water would ascend in proportion to the bulk of the metal4 ,being intensely occupied with the invention1 he leaped out of the bath1 and ran naked through the streets1 crying1 ,i have found it1 ,i have found it6 ,the way in which he applied this circumstance to the solution of the question proposed was this3 he procured two masses1 the one of pure gold1 and the other of pure silver1 each equal in weight to the crown1 and consequently of unequal magnitudes2 then immersing the three bodies separately in a vessel of water1 and collecting the quantity of water expelled by each1 he was presently enabled to detect the fraud1 it being obvious1 that if the crown expelled more water than the mass of gold1 it must be mixed with silver or some baser metal4 ,suppose1 for instance1 in order to apply it to the question1 that each of the three masses weighed eighteen pounds2 and that the mass of gold displaced one pound of water1 that of silver a pound and a half1 and the crown one pound and a quarter only3 then1 since the mass of silver displaced half a pound of water more than the same weight of gold1 and the crown a quarter of a pound more than the gold1 it appears1 from the rule of proportion1 that half a pound is to eighteen pounds1 as a quarter is to nine pounds2 which was1 therefore1 the quantity of silver mixed in the crown4 ,since the time of ,archimedes1 several other methods have been devised for solving this problem2 but the most natural and easy is1 that of weighing the crown both in air and water1 and observing the difference4 ,to make a mutual ,exchange of the ,liquor in two ,bottles1 without using any other ,vessel4 ,take two bottles1 which are as nearly equal as possible1 both in neck and belly1 and let one be filled with oil1 and the other with water2 then clap the one that is full of water dexterously upon the other1 so that the two necks shall exactly fit each other2 and as the water is heavier than the oil1 it will naturally descend into the lower bottle1 and make the oil ascend into its place4 ,in order to invert the bottle of water without spilling the contents1 place a bit of thin writing paper over the mouth of the bottle2 and when you have placed the bottle in the proper position1 draw out the paper quickly and steadily4 ,how to make a ,peg that will exactly fit ,three different ,holes4 ,let one of the holes be circular1 the other square1 and the third an oval2 then it is evident1 that any cylindrical body1 of a proper size1 may be made to pass through the first hole perpendicularly2 and if its length be just equal to its diameter1 it may be passed horizontally through the second1 or square hole2 also1 if the breadth of the oval be made equal to the diameter of the base of the cylinder1 and its longest diameter equal to the diagonal of it1 the cylinder1 being put in obliquely1 will fill it as exactly as any of the former4 ,to place ,three ,sticks1 or ,tobacco ,pipes1 upon a ,table1 in such a manner that they may appear to be unsupported by any thing but themselves4 ,take one of the sticks1 or pipes1 7see ,plate17 ,,ab1 fig4 #b1 and place it in an oblique position1 with one of its ends1 ,b1 resting on the table2 then put one of the other sticks1 as ,,cd1 across this in such a manner that one end of it1 ,d1 may be raised1 and the other touch the table at ,c4 ,having done this1 take the third stick ,e1 and complete the triangle with it1 making one of its ends ,e rest on the table1 and running it under the second1 ,,cd1 in such a manner that it may rest upon the first1 ,,ab2 then will the three sticks1 thus placed1 mutually support each other2 and even if a small weight be laid upon them1 it will not make them fall1 but strengthen1 and keep them firmer in their position4 ,how to prevent a heavy ,body from falling1 by adding another heavier ,body to it on that side towards which it inclines4 ,on the edge of a shelf1 or table1 or any other horizontal surface1 lay a key1 7see ,plate17 ,,cd1 fig4 #c1 in such a manner1 that1 being left to itself1 it would fall to the ground2 then1 in order to prevent this1 take a crooked stick ,,dfg1 with a weight1 ,h1 at the end of it2 and having inserted one end of the stick in the open part of the key1 at ,d1 let it be so placed1 that the weight ,h may fall perpendicularly under the edge of the table1 and the body by these means will be effectually prevented from falling4 ,the same thing may be done by hanging a weight at the end of a tobacco-pipe1 a stick1 or any other body2 the best means of accomplishing which will be easily known by a few trials4 ,to make a false ,balance1 that shall appear perfectly just when empty1 or when loaded with unequal ,weights4 ,take a balance1 7see ,plate17 ,,dce1 fig4 #d1 the scales and arms of which are of such unequal weights and lengths1 that the scale ,a may be in proportion to the scale ,b1 as the length of the arm ,,ce is to the length of the arm ,,cd2 then will the two scales be exactly in equilibrio about the point ,c2 and the same will be the case1 if the two arms ,,cd1 ,,ce1 are of equal length1 but of unequal thickness1 provided the thickness of ,,cd is to that of ,,ce1 as the weight of the scale ,b is to that of ,a4 ,for example2 suppose the arm ,,cd is equal to three ounces1 and the arm ,,ce to two1 and that the scale ,b weighs three ounces1 and the scale ,a two2 then the balance1 in this case1 will be exactly true when empty2 and if a weight of two pounds be put into the scale ,a1 and one of three pounds into ,b1 they will still continue in equilibrio4 ,but the fallacy in this1 and all other cases of the same kind1 may be easily detected1 in shifting the weights from one scale to the other4 ,how to lift up a ,bottle with a ,straw1 or any other slight ,substance4 ,take a straw1 7see ,plate17 ,,ab1 fig4 #e1 which is not broken or bruised1 and bend one end of it into a sharp angle ,,abc2 then if this end of the straw be put into the bottle1 so that the bent part of it may rest against either of its sides1 you may take the other end in your hand1 and lift up the bottle by it without breaking the straw2 and this will be the more easily done1 according as the angular part of the straw approaches nearer to that which comes out of the bottle4 ,how to make a ,cone1 or ,pyramid1 move upon a ,table without ,springs1 or any other artificial ,means4 ,take a cone1 or pyramid1 of paper1 or any other light substance1 and put a beetle1 or some such small insect1 privately under it2 then1 as the animal will naturally endeavour to free itself from its captivity1 it will move the cone towards the edge of the table1 and as soon as it comes there1 will immediately return for fear of falling2 and by moving backwards and forwards in this manner1 will occasion much diversion to those who are ignorant of the cause4 ,to make a ,pen1 which holds ,one ,hundred ,sheep1 hold double the ,number1 by only adding two ,hurdles more4 ,in the first pen1 or that which holds one hundred sheep1 the hurdles must be so disposed1 that there shall be only one at the top and bottom1 and the rest in equal numbers on each side2 then it is obvious1 that if one hurdle more be placed at each end1 the space enclosed must necessarily be double the former1 and consequently will hold twice the number of sheep4 ,an ingenious ,recreation1 called the ,two ,communicative ,busts4 ,take two heads of plaster of ,paris1 and place them on pedestals on the opposite sides of a room4 ,then take a tin tube1 of an inch in diameter1 and let it pass from the ear of one head through the pedestal1 and under the floor1 to the mouth of the other1 observing1 that the end of the tube which is next the ear of one head1 should be considerably larger than that which comes to the mouth of the other4 ,the whole being so disposed that there may be no suspicion of a communication1 let any person speak with a low voice into the ear of one bust1 and the sound will be distinctly heard by anyone who shall place his ear to the mouth of the other2 and if there be two tubes1 one going to the ear1 and the other to the mouth of each head1 two persons may converse together1 by applying their mouth and ear reciprocally to the mouth and ear of the busts1 without being heard by any other persons in the room4 ,another ,recreation of the same kind1 called the ,oracular ,head4 ,place a bust on a pedestal in the corner of a room1 and let there be two tubes1 one of which goes from the mouth1 and the other from the ear of the bust1 through the pedestal and floor1 to an under apartment4 ,then if a person be placed in the under room1 by applying his ear to one of the tubes as soon as a proper signal is given1 he will hear any question that is asked1 and can immediately return an answer2 and if wires be contrived to go from the under jaw and eyes of the bust1 they may be made to move at the same time1 and by these means appear to deliver the answer4 ,it was by a contrivance of this kind1 that ,don ,antonio de ,moreno so much astonished the celebrated ,knight of the ,woeful ,countenance1 and his facetious squire ,sancho ,panza1 by resolving certain doubts proposed by the former concerning his adventures in the cave of ,montesinos1 and the disenchantment of my lady ,dulcinea4 ,how to make a ,piece of ,metal1 or any other heavy ,body1 swim upon the ,surface of ,water1 like a ,cork4 ,the specific gravity of water is inferior to that of metals1 and consequently water1 absolutely speaking1 cannot support a ball of iron or lead2 but if this ball be flattened1 and beat out to a very thin plate1 it will1 if put softly upon still water1 be prevented from sinking1 and will swim upon its surface like any light substance4 ,in like manner1 if a fine steel needle1 which is perfectly dry1 be placed gently upon some still water in a vessel1 it will float upon the surface without sinking4 ,but if you would have a metallic body of large dimensions to swim upon water1 you must reduce it into a thin concave plate1 like a kettle2 in which case1 as the air it contains1 together with the body itself1 weighs less than the same bulk of water1 it cannot possibly sink2 as is evident from large copper boats1 or pontoons1 by which whole armies have frequently passed over rivers without danger4 ,if this concave metallic vessel be placed upon the water with its mouth downwards1 it will swim as before1 and the contained air will keep the bottom of it from being wet2 for that the water will not rise into any hollow vessel which is immersed into it1 may be made evident thus3--,take a glass tumbler1 and plunge it into water with its mouth downwards1 and you will find1 when you take it out1 that the inside of the vessel is perfectly dry1 so that if a live coal were put there1 it would not be extinguished4 ,a curious ,experiment1 to prove that ,two and ,two do not make ,four4 ,take a glass vessel with a long narrow neck1 which1 being filled with water1 will hold exactly a quart2 then put into this vessel a pint of water1 and a pint of acid of vitriol1 and you will presently perceive1 that the mixture will not fill the vessel1 as it did when a quart of water only was put into it4 ,the acid of vitriol must be put in gradually1 by little and little at a time1 mixing each portion with the water before you add more1 by shaking the bottle1 and leaving its mouth open1 otherwise the bottle will burst4 ,the mixture in this case also possesses a considerable degree of heat1 though the two ingredients of themselves are perfectly cold2 and this phenomenon is not to be accounted for1 by supposing that the acid of vitriol is received into the pores of the water1 for then a small portion of it might be absorbed by the water1 without augmenting its bulk1 which is known not to be the case2 but the very form of the bodies in this experiment is changed1 there being1 as ,dr4 ,hooke1 who first noticed the fact1 observes1 an actual penetration of dimensions4 ,chemistry also furnishes a number of other instances1 which shew that two bodies1 when mixed together1 possess less space than when they are separate4 ,an ingenious ,method of ,secret ,writing1 by means of corresponding ,spaces4 ,take two pieces of pasteboard1 or stiff paper1 out of which cut a number of oblong figures1 at different distances from each other1 as in the following example4 ,keep one of these pieces for yourself1 and give one to your correspondent2 and when you are desirous of sending him any secret intelligence1 lay the pasteboard upon a sheet of paper of the same size1 and in the spaces which are cut out1 write what you would have him only to understand1 and fill up the intermediate parts of the paper with something which makes with these words a different sense4 ,then1 when your correspondent receives this letter1 by applying it to his pasteboard1 he will be able to comprehend your meaning4 ,,example4 ------------ ------- ,i shall be much obliged to you1 as reading alone ------------ ------- ---- engages my attention at present1 if you will send me any ---- ------- of the eight volumes of the ,spectator2 ,i hope you will ------- ------ --------- excuse this freedom1 but for a winter's evening ,i ------ --------- ------- ------ don't know a better entertainment4 ,if ,i fail to return ------- ------ ---------- it soon1 never trust me for the time to come4 ---------- ,a curious ,experiment1 which depends on an ,optical ,illusion4 ,on the bottom of the vessel1 7see ,plate17 ,,aibd1 fig4 #f1 place three pieces of money1 as a half-crown1 a shilling1 and a sixpence2 the first at ,e1 the second at ,f1 and the third at ,g4 ,then let a person be placed with his eye at ,h1 so that he can see no farther into the vessel than ,i2 and tell him1 that by pouring water into the vessel1 you will make him see three different pieces of money1 which he may observe are not poured in with the water4 ,for this purpose1 desire him to keep himself steady in the same position1 and1 pouring the water in gently1 that the pieces of money may not be moved out of their places1 when it comes up to ,k1 the piece ,g will become visible to him2 when it comes up to ,l1 he will see the two pieces ,g and ,f2 and when it rises to ,m1 all the three pieces will become visible3 the cause of which is owing to the refraction of the rays of light1 in their passage through the water2 for while the vessel is empty1 the ray ,,hi will proceed in a straight line2 but in proportion as it is filled with water1 the ray will be bent into the several directions ,,ng1 ,,of1 ,,pe1 and by these means the pieces are rendered visible4 ,a curious ,experiment1 of nearly the same kind as the last1 called ,optical ,augmentation4 ,take a large drinking-glass1 of a conical figure1 and having put a shilling into it1 fill the glass about half full with water2 then place a plate on the top of it1 and turn it quickly over1 so that the water may not get out4 ,this being done1 look through the glass1 and you will now perceive a piece of money of the size of half-a-crown2 and somewhat higher up1 another piece of the size of a shilling4 ,but if the glass be entirely filled with water1 the large piece at the bottom only will be visible4 ,this phenomenon is occasioned by your seeing the piece through the conical surface of the water1 at the side of the glass1 and through the flat surface at the top of the water1 at the same time2 for the conical surface dilates the rays1 and makes the piece appear larger1 while the flat surface only refracts them1 and occasions the piece to be seen higher up in the glass1 but still of its natural size4 ,another curious ,experiment1 called ,optical ,subtraction4 ,against the wainscot of a room fix three small pieces of paper1 as ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 fig4 #g1 7see ,plate17 about a foot and a half or two feet asunder1 at the height of your eye2 and placing yourself directly before them1 about five times the distance from them that the papers are from each other1 shut one of your eyes and look at them with the other1 and you will then see only two of those papers1 suppose ,a and ,b2 but altering the position of your eye1 you will now see the third1 and one of the first1 suppose ,a2 and by altering its position a second time1 you will see ,b and ,c1 but in neither case all three of them together4 ,the cause of this phenomenon is1 that one of the three pencils of rays1 which come from these objects1 falls on the optic nerve at ,d1 whereas1 to produce distinct vision1 it is necessary that the rays of light fall on some part of the retina ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h4 ,from this experiment1 the use of having two eyes may be easily perceived2 for he that has only one can never see three objects placed in this position2 or all the parts of one object1 of the same extent1 without altering the situation of his eye4 ,an ,optical ,experiment1 shewing how to produce an ,artificial ,rainbow4 ,in any room which has a window facing the sun1 suspend a glass globe1 filled with water1 by a string which runs over a pulley1 so that the sun's rays may fall directly upon it2 then drawing the globe gradually up1 when it comes to the height of about forty degrees above the horizon1 you will see1 by placing yourself in a proper situation1 the glass tinged with a purple colour2 and by drawing it gradually higher up1 the other prismatic colours1 blue1 green1 yellow1 and red1 will successively appear2 but after this they will all vanish1 till the globe is raised to about fifty degrees1 when they will again be seen1 but in an inverted order1 the red appearing first1 and the blue1 or violet1 last2 and when the globe comes up to little more than fifty-four degrees1 they will entirely vanish4 ,these appearances serve to illustrate the phenomena of natural rainbows1 of which there are generally two1 the one being about eight degrees above the other1 and the order of their colours inverted1 as in this experiment2 the red being the uppermost colour in the lower bow1 and the violet in the other4 ,an artificial ,rainbow may also be produced as follows4 ,take some water in your mouth1 and turn your back to the sun2 then if it be blown forcibly out against some dark or shady place1 you will see the drops formed by the beams of the sun into an apparent rainbow1 which1 however1 soon vanishes4 ,a curious ,optical ,illusion1 produced by means of a ,concave ,mirror4 ,take a glass bottle1 7see ,plate17 ,,abc1 fig4 #h1 and fill it with water to the point ,b2 leave the upper part1 ,,bc1 empty1 and cork it in the common manner2 place this bottle opposite a concave mirror1 and beyond its focus1 so that it may appear reversed2 then if you place yourself still farther from the mirror1 the bottle will appear to you in the situation a b c4 ,and in this apparent bottle it is remarkable1 that the water1 which1 according to the laws of catoptrics1 and all other experiments of this kind1 should appear at a b1 appears1 on the contrary1 at b c1 the part a b seeming to be entirely empty4 ,and if the bottle be inverted1 and placed before the mirror1 as in the under part of the figure1 its image will appear in its natural erect position1 but the water1 which is in reality at b c1 will appear at a b4 ,and if1 while the bottle is inverted1 it be uncorked1 and the water suffered to run gently out1 it will appear1 that while the part ,,bc is emptying1 the part a b in the image is filling2 and if1 when the bottle is partly empty1 some drops of water fall from the bottom ,a1 towards ,,bc1 it seems in the image as if there were formed at the bottom of the part a b bubbles of air arising from a to b1 which is the part that seems full4 ,the circumstances most remarkable in this experiment1 are1 first1 not only to see an object where it is not1 but also where its image is not2 and1 secondly1 that of two objects1 which are really in the same place1 as the surface of the bottle and the water it contains1 the one should be seen at one place1 and the other at another2 and also that the bottle should be seen in the place of its image1 and the water where neither it nor its images are4 ,it is1 however1 to be noted1 that if any coloured liquor be put into the bottle instead of water1 no such illusion will take place4 ,there is one phenomenon more of this kind1 which ought not to be omitted2 for though it be common enough1 it is also extremely pleasing1 and easy to be performed4 ,if you place yourself before a concave mirror1 at a proper distance1 your figure will appear inverted2 and if you stretch out your hand towards the mirror1 you will perceive another hand1 which seems to meet and join it1 though imperceptible to the touch4 ,and if1 instead of your hand1 you make use of a drawn sword1 and present it in such a manner that its point may be directed towards the focus of the rays reflected by the mirror1 another sword will appear1 and seem to encounter that in your hand4 ,but it is to be observed1 that to make this experiment succeed well1 you must have a mirror of at least a foot in diameter1 that you may see yourself in part2 and if you have a mirror large enough to see your whole person1 the illusion will be still more striking4 ,how to make a violent ,tempest1 by means of artificial ,rain and ,hail4 ,make a hollow cylinder of wood1 very thin at the sides1 about eight or ten inches long1 and two or three feet in diameter4 ,divide its inside into five equal partitions1 by means of boards of about six inches wide2 and let there be a space between them and the wooden circle1 of about one-sixth of an inch2 observing1 that the boards are to be placed obliquely to each other4 ,this being done1 put into the cylinder four or five pounds of leaden shot1 of a size that will easily pass through the opening left for this purpose2 then turn the cylinder on its axis1 and the sound of the machine1 when in motion1 will represent that of rain1 which will increase with the velocity of the motion2 and if a larger sort of shot be used1 it will produce the sound of hail4 ,magic ,square4 ,this1 in arithmetic1 is a square figure made up of numbers in arithmetical proportion1 so disposed in parallel and equal ranks1 that the sums of each row1 taken either perpendicularly1 horizontally1 or diagonally1 are equal3 thus-- ,natural ,square4 ----------- #a #b #c --------- #d #e #f --------- #g #h #i ----------- ,magic ,square4 ----------- #b #g #f --------- #i #e #a --------- #d #c #h ----------- ,magic squares seem to have been so called1 from their being used in the construction of talismans4 ,take another instance3-- ,natural ,square4 ------------------- #a #b #c #d #e --------------- #f #g #h #i #aj --------------- #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae --------------- #af #ag #ah #ai #bj --------------- #ba #bb #bc #bd #be ------------------- ,magic ,square4 ------------------- #af #ad #h #b #be --------------- #c #bb #bj #aa #i --------------- #ae #f #d #bc #ag --------------- #bd #ah #ab #aj #a --------------- #g #e #ba #ai #ac ------------------- where every row and diagonal in the magic square1 makes just the sum #fe1 being the same as the two diagonals of the natural square4 ,it is probable that these magic squares were so called1 both because of this property in them1 viz4 that the ranks in every direction make the same sum1 which appeared extremely surprising1 especially in the more ignorant ages1 when mathematics passed for magic2 and because also of the superstitious operations they were employed in1 as1 the construction of talismans1 c42 for1 according to the childish philosophy of those days1 which ascribed virtues to numbers1 what might not be expected from numbers so seemingly wonderful8 ,the magic square was held in great veneration among the ,egyptians1 and the ,pythagoreans their disciples1 who1 to add more efficacy and virtue to this square1 dedicated it to the then known seven planets1 divers ways1 and engraved it upon a plate of the metal that was esteemed in sympathy with the planet4 ,the square1 thus dedicated1 was enclosed by a regular polygon1 inscribed into a circle1 which was divided into as many equal parts as there were units in the side of the square2 with the names of the angels of the planet1 and the signs of the zodiac written upon the void spaces between the polygon and the circumference of the circumscribed circle4 ,such a talisman1 or metal1 they vainly imagined would1 upon occasion1 befriend the person who carried it about him4 ,to ,saturn1 they attributed the square of #i places1 or cells1 the side being #c1 and the sum of the number in every row #ae3 to ,jupiter1 the square of #af places1 the side being #d1 and the amount of each row #cd3 to ,mars1 the square of #be places1 the side being #e1 and the amount of each row #fe3 to the ,sun1 the square with #cf places1 the side being #f1 and the sum of each row #aaa3 to ,venus1 the square of #di places1 the side being #g1 and the amount of each row #age3 to ,mercury1 the square with #fd places1 the side being #h1 and the sum of each row #bfj3 and to the ,moon1 the square of #ha places1 the side being #i1 and the amount of each row #cfi4 ,finally1 they attributed to imperfect matter1 the square with #d divisions1 having #b for its side3 and to ,god1 the square of only one cell1 the side of which is also an unit1 which1 multiplied by itself1 undergoes no change4 ,,addenda ,,to ,,the ,,curiosities ,,respecting ,,man4 ,it never was the intention of the compiler of this work to give an account of all the curious and remarkable persons that have figured on this mortal stage1 but only such as have not been usually incorporated in works of this kind2 it has been thought advisable1 however1 to make the following additions to this department1 with which1 it is hoped1 the reader will be amused and instructed4 ,an account of ,,that ,,celebrated ,,extraordinary ,,genius1 ,,john ,,henderson1 ,b4 ,a4--,of this much celebrated young man1 whose extraordinary acquirements attracted the notice1 and even commanded the respect1 of ,dr4 ,johnson1 several accounts have been published1 and much eulogium has been pronounced4 ,by many he has been supposed to emulate the variety and extent of knowledge possessed by the admirable ,crichton2 and1 like that eccentric character1 he has left little for posterity to form a judgment of the truth of those praises which have been bestowed upon him4 ,he was born at ,bellegarance1 near ,limerick1 in the kingdom of ,ireland1 on the #bgth of ,march1 #ageg1 of very pious and respectable parents4 ,he received his education among the ,methodists2 and at eight years of age he understood ,latin so well1 as to be able to teach it at ,kingswood school4 ,at twelve1 he taught the ,greek language1 in the school of ,trevecka1 in ,wales1 to men1 several of whom were double his age4 ,the governor of the college1 at that time1 was the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,fletcher1 late ,vicar of ,madeley1 a clergyman highly distinguished for the fervour of his piety and the liveliness of his imagination4 ,some disagreement taking place with this gentleman and those who had the superintendence of the college1 he was dismissed1 together with young ,henderson1 who soon after1 at the age of twenty-four years1 went to ,oxford1 was entered of ,pembroke college1 and1 in due time1 took the degree of ,bachelor of ,arts4 ,from the time of his entrance into the college1 his life passed with little variety1 and no adventure4 ,his thirst after knowledge appears to have been unabated and unobtruded2 he was admired1 and generally respected2 and he acquired habits1 some of which brought him into the notice of the world1 almost as much as his talents4 ,some of these traits of character having been depicted by one who appears to have known him well1 we shall give nearly in the words of their author1 who was also of ,pembroke college1 and thus describes ,mr4 ,henderson's appearance when he was first introduced to him4 ,his clothes were made in a fashion peculiar to himself2 he wore no stock nor neckcloth2 his buckles were so small as not to exceed the dimensions of an ordinary knee-buckle1 at a time when very large buckles were in vogue4 ,though he was then twenty-four years of age1 he wore his hair like a schoolboy of six4 ,mr4 ,h4's temper was mild1 placable1 and humane4 ,he professed that he was ready to serve any individual as far as lay in his power4 ,his benevolence knew no bounds2 and his liberality was so diffusive1 that it submitted with difficulty to the circumscription of a narrow income4 ,he was fond of society1 and well qualified to shine in it4 ,he was frank1 open1 and communicative1 averse to suspicion1 and untinctured with pride and moroseness4 ,his mode of life was singular4 ,he generally retired to rest about daybreak1 and rose in the afternoon2 a practice1 however1 that was frequently interrupted by the occasional attendance he was obliged to give to the morning service of the college chapel4 ,he spent a great part of the day in smoking2 and1 except when in company1 he usually read while he smoked4 ,with regard to his moral and religious character1 he was a pattern highly worthy of imitation4 ,he shewed a constant regard to the obligations of honour and justice2 and commended1 both by precept and example1 an attention to moral rectitude in all its ramifications4 ,he had the courage to reprove vice and immorality wherever they appeared2 and though he was sometimes treated on these occasions with contumely and insult1 he bore with a moderation truly christian1 so ill a return for his well-meant endeavours4 ,he was perfectly acquainted with the religious dogmas of every different sect1 and could readily detect the respective fallacies of each4 ,his abilities and understanding were eminently conspicuous4 ,his penetration was so great1 as to have the appearance of intuition4 ,so retentive was his memory1 that he remembered whatever he heard2 and this faculty of recollection1 combined with a pregnancy of imagination and solidity of judgment1 enabled him to acquire an amazing fund of erudition and argument1 a fund ready at every call1 and adequate to every emergency4 ,his learning was deep and multifarious4 ,he was admirably skilled in logic1 ethics1 metaphysics1 and scholastical theology4 ,he had studied the healing art with particular attention1 and added to a sound theoretic knowledge of it1 some degree of practice4 ,his skill in this art he rendered subservient to his philanthropy2 for he gratuitously attended the valetudinarian poor wherever he resided1 and favoured them with medical advice1 as well as pecuniary assistance4 ,he had a competent knowledge of geometry1 astronomy1 and every branch of natural and experimental philosophy4 ,he was well acquainted with the civil and canon laws1 and the law of nature and nations4 ,in classical learning and the belles lettres1 he was by no means deficient4 ,he was master of the ,greek and ,latin1 as well as of several modern languages4 ,he spoke of physiognomy as a science with all the confidence of a ,lavater4 ,he pretended to a knowledge of the occult sciences of magic and astrology4 ,whether this was or was not a mere pretence1 we leave to the judgment of the enlightened reader4 ,suffice it to remark1 that his library was well stored with the magical and astrological books of the last century4 ,his talents of conversation were so attractive1 so various and multiform1 that he was a companion equally acceptable to the philosopher and the man of the world1 to the grave and the gay1 the learned and the illiterate1 the young and the old of both sexes4 ,henderson1 like many other great characters1 had his little peculiarities4 ,the following remarkable custom was frequently observed by him before he retired to repose3--,he used to strip himself naked as low as the waist1 and taking his station at a pump near his rooms1 would completely sluice his head and the upper part of his body2 after which he would pump over his shirt so as to make it perfectly wet1 and putting it on in that condition1 would immediately go to bed4 ,this he jocularly termed an excellent cold bath4 ,the latter part of this ceremony1 however1 he did not practise with such frequency as the former4 ,there is great reason to think that he materially injured a good natural constitution by the capriciousness of his conduct1 and particularly by the bold and strange experiments which he was accustomed to be always making upon himself4 ,he used to swallow large quantities of noxious drugs1 and quicksilver2 and what seemed very rash1 such doses of opium1 like the famous ,psalmanazar1 as were apparently sufficient to send a dozen men to the grave4 ,his external appearance was as singular as his habits of life4 ,he would never suffer his hair to be strewed with white dust1 7to use his own expression17 daubed with pomatum1 or distorted by the curling-irons of the friseur4 ,though under two-and-thirty years of age at his death1 he walked1 when he appeared in public1 with as much apparent caution and solemnity as if he had been enfeebled by the co-operation of age and disease4 ,his learning was truly astonishing3 scarcely a book1 however obscure1 could be mentioned1 but he could give some account of it2 nor any subject started1 but he could engage in the discussion of it4 ,he had a very deep and extensive knowledge of the learned languages2 the ,arabic and ,persian were familiar to him4 ,he delighted much in parodoxes1 and his intimate acquaintance with the schoolmen brought him much into the habit of disputation4 ,at one time he was profoundly plunged in the study of the writings of the illumined ,jacob ,behmen2 and he then1 and afterwards1 warmly vindicated the system1 if system it may be called1 of that wonderful man4 ,many surprising cures1 accomplished by means of his prescriptions1 might be produced3 one upon a very ingenious and valuable youth in the neighbourhood of ,taunton1 deserves notice1 as the patient had been in an alarming decline for the long space of four years1 and seemed just verging to the house appointed for all living4 ,mr4 ,henderson attended him with the utmost assiduity and tenderness1 and saw1 at last1 his patient in a state of perfect health4 ,the benevolent man had then a presentiment of his own approaching change1 and addressed himself to his young friend to this effect3 ,my young and beloved friend1 your cure1 in all human probability1 is now certain1 and you will live1 but ,i shall die4 ,remember1 to be pious1 is to be happy2 to be sober1 is to live long2 and to practise the moral virtues1 is to become great4--,mr4 ,henderson died a few months after1 ,november #b1 #aghh4 ,his connections with the ,methodists continued till the last4 ,the late venerable and truly great ,john ,wesley had a very great regard for him4 ,the father of ,mr4 ,henderson was for some time one of ,mr4 ,wesley's itinerant preachers in ,ireland1 from whence he came over to ,bristol1 and soon after settled at ,hanham1 a village about four miles from that city1 where he set up a very respectable boarding-school1 for the instruction of youth in classical learning4 ,a few years previous to his death1 he left off keeping school1 and opened his house for the reception of insane persons4 ,the death of his favourite and only child1 made a deep and lasting impression on him2 and so strongly was he affected by his loss1 that he caused the corpse to be taken up again some days after the interment1 to be satisfied whether he was really dead4 ,the following is taken from the sermon that was preached by his friend1 ,mr4 ,agutter3--,when we consider the strength of his mind1 the variety of his knowledge1 and the excellencies of his soul1 we may justly declare1 that he was a truly great character1 and an original genius4 ,the partiality of friendship must give place to the sacredness of truth2 and ,i do not mean to describe him as a perfect man3 his friends lamented his failings1 and he himself sincerely repented of them4 ,the ,god of heaven does not require more of his fallen creatures2 and let us remember not to be extreme to mark all that is done amiss1 seeing we have much cause for shame and repentance4 ,he was a meek sufferer through this world of misery2 a sincere and contrite penitent for time mispent and talents misapplied2 an humble believer in ,christ his ,saviour4 ,i saw him in his last sufferings2 ,i heard his last words2 he languished under extreme weakness2 he laboured under most grievous pains4 ,he was wonderfully patient and resigned2 for he knew in whom he believed1 and his hope was full of immortality4 ,he prayed with uncommon fervour to his good ,god1 even to ,jesus ,christ1 in whom all his hopes were placed2 and without whom1 says he1 heaven would be no heaven to me4 ,death was the wished-for messenger1 whom he earnestly expected4 ,three days before that awful event1 his pulse ceased to beat1 and the sight of his eyes went from him--the last struggle is over2 the bitterness of death is past4 ,there was an humble dignity and composure in that hour of trial1 worthy the man and ,christian4 ,let me die the death of the righteous1 and let my last end1 or more properly1 my hereafter1 be like his4 ,the next character we shall introduce is a contrast to the former2 he being famous for comprehension of mind1 this for bulk of body4 ,,daniel ,,lambert1 the ,fat ,man4--,this prodigy of corpulence1 or obesity1 was born at ,leicester1 ,march #ac1 #aggj4 ,he became keeper of the prison in his native town4 ,he first went to ,london for exhibition1 in #ahjf1 and was visited by persons of all ranks1 and was considered the then wonder of the world4 ,after this he travelled over ,england1 and astonished every beholder by his immense bulk4 ,he was very polite1 shrewd1 and well informed4 ,this extraordinary man died at ,stamford1 on the #bast of ,june1 #ahji4 ,he had travelled from ,huntingdon to that town2 and on the ,tuesday before his death1 he sent a message to the office of the ,stamford newspaper1 requesting1 that as the mountain could not wait upon ,mahomet1 ,mahomet would go to the mountain2 or1 in other words1 that the printer would call upon him1 and receive an order for executing some handbills1 announcing ,mr4 ,lambert's arrival1 and his desire to see company in that town4 ,the orders he gave upon that occasion were delivered without any presentiment that they were to be his last1 and with his usual cheerfulness2 he was then in bed1 only fatigued from his journey1 and anxious to be able to see company early in the morning4 ,however1 before nine o'clock1 the day following1 he was a corpse4 ,his corpulency had been gradually increasing1 until nature could no longer support it4 ,he was in his #djth year2 and upon being weighed within a few days1 by the famous ,caledonian balance1 in the possession of ,mr4 ,king1 of ,ipswich1 was found to be #eb stone1 #aa lbs4 in weight1 7#ad lb4 to the stone17 which is #aj stone #aa lb4 more than the great ,mr4 ,bright1 of ,essex1 weighed1--or1 #f cwt4 #b qrs4 #aa lb4 ,he had apartments at ,mr4 ,berridge's1 the ,waggon-and-,horses1 in ,st4 ,martin's1 on the ground floor1 for he had long been incapable of walking up stairs4 ,his coffin1 in which there was great difficulty of placing him1 was six feet four inches long1 four feet four inches wide1 and two feet four inches deep4 ,the immense substance of his legs made it necessarily almost a square case4 ,the celebrated ,sarcophagus of ,alexander1 viewed with so much admiration at the ,british ,museum1 would not contain this immense sheer hulk4 ,the coffin1 which consisted of #aab superficial feet of elm1 was built upon two axle-trees and four wheels1 and upon them the remains of poor ,lambert were rolled into his grave1 which was in the new burial ground at the back of ,st4 ,martin's church4 ,a regular descent was made by cutting away the earth slopingly1 for some distance4 ,the window and wall of the room in which he lay was taken down1 to allow of his exit4 ,,edward ,,nokes4--,this was an extraordinary character1 at ,hornchurch1 in ,essex4 ,he was by trade a tinker1 which he followed zealously till about six weeks before his death4 ,his apartments pourtrayed symptoms of the most abject poverty1 though at his death he was found to be possessed of between five and six thousand pounds4 ,he had a wife and several children1 which he brought up in the most parsimonious manner1 often feeding them on grains and offals of meat1 which he purchased at reduced prices4 ,he was no less remarkable in his person and dress2 for1 in order to save the expense of shaving1 he would encourage the dirt to gather on his face1 to hide in some measure this defect4 ,he never suffered his shirt to be washed in water1 but after wearing it till it became intolerably black1 he used to wash it in urine1 to save the expense of soap4 ,his coat1 which time had transformed into a jacket1 would have puzzled the wisest philosopher to make out its original colour1 so covered was it with shreds and patches of different colours1 and those so diversified1 as to resemble the trophies of the different nations of ,europe1 and it seemed to vie with ,joseph's coat of many colours4 ,the interest of his money1 together with all he could heap up from his penurious mode of living1 he used to deposit in a bag1 which bag was covered up in a tin pot1 and then conveyed to a brick kitchen1 where one of the bricks was taken up1 and a hole made just large enough to hold the pot2 the brick was then carefully marked1 and a tally kept behind the door1 of the sum deposited4 ,one day his wife discovered this hoard1 and1 resolving to profit by the opportunity1 took from the pot one1 of sixteen guineas that were then placed therein4 ,her husband soon discovered the trick1 for when he came to count his money1 on finding it not to agree with the tally behind the door1 which his wife did not know of1 he taxed her with the theft2 and to the day of his death1 even on his death-bed1 he never spoke to her without adding the epithet 'thief' to every expression4 ,in his younger days1 he used1 at the death of any of his children1 to have a deal box made to put them in2 and with out undergoing the solemn requisites of a regular funeral1 he would take them upon his shoulder to the place appropriated for their reception2 where1 once interred1 he seemingly coincided with the old adage1 ,out of sight1 out of mind1 and appeared as unconcerned as if nothing had happened4 ,a short time before his death1 which he evidently hastened by the daily use of nearly a quart of spirits1 he gave strict charge that his coffin should not have a nail in it2 which was actually the case1 the lid being fastened with hinges made of cords2 there was no plate on the coffin1 but barely the initials ,e4 ,n4 cut out of the lid4 ,his shroud was made of a pound of wool2 the coffin was covered with a sheet instead of a pall1 and was carried by six men1 to each of whom he left half-a-crown3 and1 at his particular desire1 not one who followed him to the grave wore mourning2 but1 on the contrary1 each of the mourners seemed to try whose dress should be the most striking1 even the undertaker being habited in a blue coat and scarlet waistcoat4 ,he died without a will1 and his fortune was equally divided between his wife and family4 ,his death took place in #ahjb4 ,a ,sketch of ,,the ,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,celebrated ,,swindler1 ,,charles ,,price4 ,even-handed justice returns the ingredients ,of our poison'd chalice to our own lips4 ,shakspeare4 ,in the following sketch we shall detail a series of singular facts1 scarcely ever before equalled in the annals of depravity4 ,by bringing forward such particulars1 we may learn the progress of iniquity1 teach the rising generation to guard against its first approaches1 and warn our readers against those depredations which are daily infesting society4 ,such examples of wickedness are indeed humiliating to our nature1 but they hold forth instructive lessons2 in this point of view1 they are well deserving of our contemplation4 ,charles ,price was born about the year #agcj1 in ,london3 his father lived in ,monmouth-street1 and carried on the trade of a salesman in old clothes2 here he died in the year #agej1 of a broken heart1 occasioned1 it is said1 by the bad conduct of his children4 ,in early life1 ,charles manifested those traits of duplicity for which he was afterwards so greatly distinguished4 ,one instance shall be mentioned3 he ripped off some gold lace from a suit of old clothes in his father's shop1 and putting on his elder brother's coat1 went to sell it to a ,jew4 ,the ,jew1 most unfortunately1 came and offered it to the father for sale2--he instantly knew it1 and insisted on the ,jew declaring whence he received it4 ,the boys passing by1 he pointed to the elder one1 on account of his coat1 as the person of whom he bought it2 and he was directly seized1 and severely flogged3 his protestations of innocence were in vain--the father was inflexible2 whilst ,charles1 with an abominable relish for hypocrisy1 secretly rejoiced in the castigation4 ,his father1 tired of the tricks and knaveries of his son ,charles1 put him an apprentice to a hosier in ,st4 ,james's-street4 ,here he continued but for a short time4 ,he robbed his father of an elegant suit of clothes1 in which he dressed himself1 went to his master in this disguise1 purchased about ten pounds' worth of silk stockings1 left his address1 ,benjamin ,bolingbroke1 ,esq4 ,hanover-square1 and ordered them to be sent to him in an hour's time1 when he would pay the person who brought them4 ,his master did not know him2 and1 to complete the cheat1 our hero1 coming back in half an hour in his usual dress1 was ordered to take the goods home1 which he actually pretended to do2 and thus were both master and father robbed4 ,he was1 however1 afterwards found out1 and discarded3 henceforward1 therefore1 we are to regard him in society1 where he1 for a series of years1 practised the most outrageous arts of duplicity4 ,soon after this period he set off for ,holland1 under the assumed name of ,johnson4 ,forging a recommendation to a ,dutch merchant1 he became his clerk1--debauched his master's daughter1--was offered her in marriage1 robbed his employer1 and returned to ,england4 ,he conducted this business with the most consummate villany4 ,he now contrived to become clerk in his ,majesty's small-beer brewhouse1 near ,gosport4 ,at this place he behaved himself with so much propriety1 that he was on the point of forming a matrimonial connection with his master's daughter every thing1 however1 was soon laid aside by an accidental discovery3 the ,jew to whom he had formerly sold the gold lace happened to live at ,portsmouth1 by whom his character was soon disclosed1 and spread abroad4 ,thus were his hopes put to flight1 and he was again thrown upon the wide world4 ,as his wits were never long unemployed for some deceptive ends1 he thought of advertising for a partner in the brewery line2 and actually issued the following curious advertisement1 in the year #agee3-- ,wanted1--,a partner of character1 probity1 and extensive acquaintance1 upon a plan permanent and productive1--fifty per cent1 without risk1 may be obtained4 ,it is not necessary he should have any knowledge of the business1 which the advertiser possesses in its fullest extent2 but he must possess a capital of between #ejj and #ajjj pounds1 to purchase materials1 with which1 to the knowledge of the advertiser1 a large fortune must be made in a very short time4 ,address to ,p4 ,c4 ,cardigan ,head1 ,charing ,cross4 ,p4 ,s4 ,none but principals1 and those of liberal ideas1 will be treated with4 ,to this advertisement1 the famous comedian1 ,samuel ,foote1 ,esq4 paid attention4 ,eager to seize what he thought a golden opportunity1 he advanced the sum of #ejj for a brewery3 we need not add1 that the sum soon disappeared1 and ,foote was wrung with the anguish of disappointment4 ,price1 however1 had the impudence to apply to him again1 wishing him to unite in the baking trade3 the comedian archly replied1 ,as you have brewed1 so you may bake2 but ,i'll be hang'd if ever you bake as you have brewed6 ,after this unfortunate business1 ,mr4 ,price turned ,methodist preacher1 and in this character defrauded several persons of large sums of money4 ,advertising1 in order to get gentlemen wives1 he swindled a person of the name of ,wigmore1 of fifty guineas1 for which he was indicted2 but having refunded a part1 effected his escape4 ,these and other fraudulent practices were long the objects of his ambition1 though they are all sure and certain roads to infamy3 such was his strange propensity4 ,with astonishing impudence1 he again set up a brewery in ,gray's-inn-lane2 and1 after various frauds1 he became a bankrupt in #aggf4 ,ever fruitful in resources1 he set out for ,germany2 but in ,holland he got into prison for being concerned in a smuggling scheme1 by which three hundred pounds were obtained4 ,by his artful defence he escaped1 and returned to his native country4 ,here he once more engaged his attention by a sham brewery1 at ,lambeth1 where he was married4 ,continuing1 however1 to practise his deceptions1 he was obliged to decamp1 went actually to ,copenhagen1 and1 after some time1 came back to ,england1 where he was doomed to close his days4 ,his breweries having failed1 he now proceeded to study how in other ways he might most effectually ravage society4 ,under the pretence of charity1 he obtained money1 for which he was imprisoned2 and having been liberated1 he succeeded in various impositions as a clergyman4 ,this eventually brought him to the ,king's ,bench prison1 from whose walls he dexterously extricated himself4 ,a lottery-office-keeper was the next subject of his attention2 but decamping with a ticket of very large value1 this scheme speedily came to a termination4 ,to recount all his tricks1 would form the contents of a well-sized volume4 ,alas for human depravity6 ,but we now arrive at that period of our hero's life1 when he commenced his ravages upon the ,bank of ,england1 which ended in his destruction4 ,such a series of iniquitous devices were never before practised on mankind4 ,in the year #aghj1 under the assumed name of ,brank1 ,mr4 ,price engaged a servant1 a plain1 simple1 honest fellow1 by whom he passed his notes without detection4 ,he advertised for him1 and their meeting was truly curious4 ,having received a reply to the advertisement1 one evening1 just as it was dark1 he1 driving to the person's residence1 sent the coachman to inquire for the man who had answered the advertisement1 saying1 ,there was a gentleman over the way1 in a coach1 who wanted to speak with him4 ,on this1 the young fellow was called1 and went to the coach1 where he was desired to step in4 ,there he saw an apparently old man1 affecting the foreigner1 seemingly very gouty1 wrapped up with five or six yards of flannel about his legs1 a camblet surtout buttoned over his chin1 close to his mouth1 a large patch over his left eye1 and every part of his face so hid1 that the young fellow could not see any part of it1 except his nose1 his right eye1 and a small part of that cheek4 ,to carry on the deception still better1 ,mr4 ,price thought proper to place the man on his left side1 on which the patch was1 so that the old gentleman could take an askance look at the young man with his right eye1 and by that means discover only a small portion of his own face4 ,he appeared1 by this disguise1 to be between sixty and seventy years of age2 and afterwards1 when the man saw him standing1 not much under six feet high1 owing to boots or shoes with heels very little less than three inches high4 ,added to this deception1 he was so buttoned up and straightened1 as to appear perfectly lank4 ,the writer of his life1 to whom we are indebted for these particulars1 then subjoins3--,it may not be ill-timed1 to those who did not know him1 to give the true description of his person4 ,he was about five feet six inches high2 a compact neat-made man1 square shouldered1 inclined to corpulency2 his legs were firm and well set2 but by nature his features made him look much older than he really was1 which1 at that time1 was nearly fifty2 his nose was aquiline1 and his eyes small and gray2 his mouth stood very much inwards1 with very thin lips2 his chin pointed and prominent2 with a pale complexion3 but what contributed as much as any thing to favour his disguise of speech was1 his loss of teeth4 ,he walked exceedingly upright1 was very active and quick in his walk1 and was something above what we describe a man to be1 when we call him a dapper-made man4 ,this simple and honest fellow 7,samuel7 ,mr4 ,price employed to negociate his forged bills1 principally in the purchase of lottery tickets1 at the same time never fully disclosing to him his name1 person1 or history4 ,indeed1 the plan was devised and executed with uncommon ability4 ,however1 at last ,samuel was detected1 having passed bills to the amount of fourteen hundred pounds66 but his agent eluded discovery1 and retired with his booty into the shades of the deepest obscurity4 ,the poor servant was imprisoned for nearly a twelvemonth1 terrified out of his wits1 being the innocent instrument of such complicated villany4 ,mr4 ,price1 having most probably exhausted his former acquisitions1 sallied forth1 in the year #aghb1 after new game1 with the most unparalleled audacity4 ,for this purpose1 he obtained his second servant1 from a register-office1 a smart active boy1 of the name of ,power3 his father was a ,scotch presbyterian2 and1 to ingratiate himself with him1 ,mr4 ,price made great pretensions to religion1 expressing a hope that his son was well acquainted with the ,lord's ,prayer1 and the ,ten ,commandments4 ,our hero began his ravages upon ,mr4 ,spilsbury1 of ,soho-square1 ordering large quantities of his drops4 ,wilmot was his present assumed name1 and he introduced himself to him as possessing all the symptoms of age and infirmity4 ,he was wrapped up in a large camblet great coat2 he had a slouched hat on1 the brim of which was large1 and bent downward on each side of his head2 a piece of red flannel covered his chin1 and came up on each side of his face almost as high as his cheek-bones2 he had a large bush wig on1 and legs wrapped over with flannel2 he had also a pair of green spectacles on his nose1 with a green silk shade hanging down from his hat1 but no patch on his eye4 ,it is remarkable that ,mr4 ,spilsbury knew ,mr4 ,price1 but not ,mr4 ,wilmot2 nay1 so complete was the deception1 that as they sat together in a coffee-house1 ,mr4 ,s4 complained to his coffee-house acquaintance1 of the notes which ,wilmot had imposed upon him1 ,price crying out now and then1 ,lack-a-day6 ,good ,god6 who could conceive such knavery to exist8 ,what1 and did the ,bank refuse payment1 ,sir8 staring through his spectacles with as much seeming surprise as an honest man would have done4 ,o yes1 7said ,mr4 ,s47 with some degree of acrimony1 for it was on the faith of the ,bank of ,england1 that ,i and a great many others have taken them2 and they were so inimitably well done1 that the nicest judges could not distinguish them4--,good ,god6 ,lack-a-day6 7said ,price17 he must have been an ingenious villain6 ,what a complete old scoundrel6 ,upon ,mr4 ,watt a hosier1 ,mr4 ,reeves a colourman1 and a great many other individuals1 he practised frauds equally ingenious and successful1 for in one day he negociated sixty ten-pound-notes1 and changed fourteen fifty-pound notes for seven one-hundred-pound notes2 indeed1 so multiplied were his tricks at this period1 that the mind sickens at the recital of them4 ,in his last attempt on the ,bank1 which ended in his detection1 he assumed the name of ,palton1 pretended he was an ,irish linen factor1 and employed two young men to circulate his notes1 whilst he still1 greatly disguised1 kept back in obscurity4 ,by means of a pawnbroker1 he was found out with great difficulty4 ,on his seizure1 he solemnly declared his innocence1 and before the magistrate behaved with insolence4 ,this detection took place on the #adth of ,january1 #aghf3 he was soon sworn to by more persons than one2 and seeing no way of escape1 he pretended1 to his wife in particular1 great penitence2 but there appeared no ground for its reality4 ,the ,bank was fully intent on the prosecution of him1 and there was no doubt of his dying by the hands of the executioner4 ,he1 however1 was found one evening hanging against the post of his door1 in his apartments1 ,tothill-fields bridewell4 ,thus was the earth freed from as great a monster as ever disgraced society4 ,it may appear strange to the reader that this depraved impostor could have so long escaped discovery4 ,but it must be added1 that besides the multifarious disguises of his person1 he had taken care to prevent almost the possibility of detection4 ,to use the words of the writer of his life--,had ,mr4 ,price permitted a partner in his proceedings1 had he employed an engraver1 had he procured paper to be made for him with water-marks put into it1 he must have been soon discovered2 but ,price was without a confidant3 he engraved his own plates1 made his own paper1 with the water-marks1 and his negociator never knew him1 thereby confining a secret to his own breast1 which he wisely deemed not safe in the breast of another2 even ,mrs4 ,price had not the least knowledge or suspicion of his proceedings4 ,having practised engraving till he had made himself sufficiently master of it1 he then made his own ink1 to prove his own works2 having purchased implements1 and manufactured the water-marks1 he next set himself to counterfeit hand-writings1 and succeeded so far1 as even to puzzle a part of the first body of men in the world4 ,the abilities of the unhappy ,ryland were exerted in his profession1 and therefore the imposition was to be less wondered at2 but here was a novice in the art1 capable of equal ingenuity in every department of the dangerous undertaking1 from the engraving down to the publication4 ,whoever reads this narrative with attention1 must feel rising within his breast a series of useful reflections4 ,that such talents should be appropriated to such a use1 must be deeply regretted2 but that any individual should1 throughout life1 thus prey on his fellow-creatures1 excites the strongest detestation4 ,society also may learn lessons of caution and vigilance from the contemplation of the extraordinary character we have delineated4 ,vice here appears in its most odious features1 that of meditated imposition upon the honest and industrious part of the community4 ,mark1 however1 its serpentine progress and its wretched termination4 ,,the ,,eccentric ,,stephenson4--,a person of the name of ,stephenson1 who died at ,kilmarnock1 in ,scotland1 in #ahag1 came originally from ,dunlop1 and was brought up as a mason1 but during many of the latter years of his life he had wandered about as a beggar4 ,his wife and himself had been separated thirty years1 upon these strange conditions1--that the first who proposed an agreement should forfeit #ajj4 ,this singular pair never met again4 ,stephenson was much afflicted1 during the last two years of his life1 with the stone4 ,as his disease increased1 he was fully aware of his approaching dissolution2 and for this event he made the following extraordinary preparation3--,he sent for a baker1 and ordered twelve dozen of burial cakes1 and a great profusion of sugar biscuit1 together with a corresponding quantity of wine and spirituous liquors4 ,he next sent for a joiner1 and ordered a coffin decently mounted1 with instructions that the wood should be quite dry1 and the joints firm1 and impervious to the water4 ,the grave-digger was next sent for1 and asked if he thought he could find a place to put him in after he was dead4 ,the spot fixed upon was in the church-yard of ,riccarton1 a village about half a mile distant4 ,he enjoined the sexton to be sure and make his grave roomy1 and in a dry comfortable corner2 and he would be well rewarded for his care and trouble4 ,having made these arrangements1 he ordered the old woman that attended him1 to go to a certain nook1 and bring out #i1 to be appropriated to defray the funeral charges4 ,he told her1 at the same time1 not to be grieved1--that he had not forgotten her in his will4 ,in a few hours afterwards1 in the full exercise of his mental powers1 but in the most excruciating agonies1 he expired4 ,a neighbour and a professional man were immediately sent for1 to examine and seal up his effects4 ,the first thing they found was a bag1 containing large silver pieces1 such as crowns1 half-crowns1 and dollars1 to a large amount3 in a corner was secreted1 amongst a vast quantity of musty rags1 a great number of guineas and seven-shilling pieces4 ,in his trunk was a bond for #cjj1 and other bonds and securities to the amount of #ijj4 ,by his will1 #bj were left to his housekeeper1 and the rest of his property to be divided among his distant relations4 ,as it required some time to give his relatives intimation of his death1 and to make preparations for his funeral1 he lay in state four days1 during which the place resembled more an ,irish wake than a deserted room where the ,scots lock up their dead4 ,the invitations to his funeral were most singular4 ,persons were not asked individually1 but whole families2 so that1 except a few relatives dressed in black1 his obsequies were attended by tradesmen in their working clothes1 barefooted boys and girls1 and an immense crowd of tattered beggars2 to the aged among whom he left six-pence1 and to the younger three-pence4 ,after the interment1 this motley group retired to a large barn1 fitted up for the purpose1 where a scene of profusion and inebriety was exhibited almost without a parallel4 ,,whimsical ,,character4--,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,,hagamore1 of ,catshoge1 ,leicestershire1 was a very singular character4 ,he died the #ast of ,january1 #aggf1 possessed of the following effects1 viz4--#gjj per annum1 and #ajjj in money1 which1 as he died intestate1 fell to a ticket-porter in ,london4 ,he kept one servant of each sex1 whom he locked up every night4 ,his last employment of an evening was to go round his premises1 let loose his dogs1 and fire his gun4 ,he lost his life as follows3 ,going one morning to let out his servants1 the dogs fawned upon him suddenly1 and threw him into a pond1 where he was found dead4 ,his servants heard his call for assistance1 but being locked up1 they could not lend him any4 ,he had #cj gowns and cassocks1 #ajj pair of breeches1 #ajj pair of boots1 #djj pair of shoes1 #hj wigs1 yet always wore his own hair1 #eh dogs1 #hj waggons and carts1 #hj ploughs1 and used none1 #ej saddles1 and furniture for the menage1 #cj wheelbarrows1 so many walking-sticks1 that a toyman in ,leicester-fields offered #h for them1 #fj horses and mares1 #bjj pickaxes1 #bjj spades and shovels1 #gd ladders1 and #bdi razors4 ,,extraordinary ,,character4--,in ,july1 #ahah1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,cromwell1 of ,hammersmith1 died suddenly in ,tottenham-court-road3 he was returning from the corn-market1 when he was taken ill1 and carried1 in a dying state1 into the house of a corn-chandler1 in ,tottenham-court-road4 ,the master of the shop1 who knew him1 was from home1 and in the country4 ,the mistress did not know him1 and he was therefore treated with no more attention from her than humanity dictated4 ,he remained in the shop1 and a crowd was collected in consequence4 ,his dress not bespeaking him a man of wealth or respectability1 he was about to be removed to the parish workhouse4 ,however1 some gentlemen passing by chance1 recognized him2 and1 knowing him to be a wealthy man1 thought it right to search his person in the presence of several witnesses1 when they found bank-notes to the amount of #aejj4 ,a surgeon was sent for1 who attended1 and examined him2 and declared1 that1 in his opinion1 he had been dying during the last two hours1 in consequence of the breaking of a blood-vessel1 supposed to be near his heart4 ,it is said he was worth two millions and a half4 ,he was #ge years old1 and had been accumulating property for a great number of years1 living at the most trifling expense4 ,he frequently bought his clothes in ,monmouth-street1 and wore them as long as they would hang together3 his breeches were very greasy and ragged2 his stockings usually contained many holes2 in fact1 he could not be distinguished by his dress from his men4 ,in the summer season he was frequently up at three o'clock1 attending to and assisting in loading the brick carts1 c4 c4 ,his wealth did not improve or alter his conduct1 manners1 or mode of living4 ,he provided plenty of food for the house1 but it was in a very rough style2--fat pork1 fat bacon1 c4 and sometimes poultry4 ,his hog-feeders and other men sat at table with him in their working-dress2 and1 if a friend happened to dine with him1 his men were made company for them1 and he did not deviate from his daily plan of helping them first4 ,,indian ,,jugglers2 7see pages #fb and #fc47--,the ,indian jugglers1 who exhibited in ,london from #ahaj to #ahae1 performed such astonishing feats1 that it would appear to require a long life1 spent in incessant practice1 to acquire facility in any one of them2 such proficiency is so common1 however1 in ,india1 that it probably excites no extraordinary interest there4 ,the following is a description of their performances1 which were witnessed by the editor of this work4 ,the exhibition takes place upon a raised platform1 on which1 having performed his salaam1 or eastern obeisance1 the chief performer takes his seat2 and behind him sits the second juggler1 and an attendant boy1 whose occupation is to beat together two metallic plates1 somewhat resembling cymbals1 which emit an unremitting sound1 like the clucking of a hen4 ,the first tricks are performed with cups and balls4 ,these are similar in their mode to the deceptions of our own conjurers1 and only remarkable for the superiority of their evolutions in the hands of this celebrated ,asiatic4 ,the cups seem enchanted2 the balls fly2 they increase in number2 they diminish2 now one1 now two1 now none under the cup2 and now the serpent1 the cobra de capella1 usurps the place of a small globule of cork1 and winds its snaky folds as if from under the puny vessel4 ,the facility with which this dexterous feat is accomplished1 gives life and animation to the sable countenance of the artist1 whose arm is bared to the elbow1 to shew that the whole is done by sleight of hand4 ,during his performances1 the juggler keeps up an unremitting noise1 striking his tongue against his teeth1 like the clack of machinery1 and uttering sounds1 as if he were repeating1 with inconceivable rapidity1 the words ,crickery-tick1 crickery-tick1 crickery-tick1 a-tow1 geret-tow1 crickery-tick1 a-tow1 geret-tow1 c4 ,the next feat is that of breaking a cotton thread into the consistency of scraped lint1 as used by surgeons1 and reproducing it continued and entire2 after which he lays upon the palm of his hand a small quantity of common sand2 this he rubs with the fingers of his other hand1 and it changes its hue--the colourless grains become yellow2 he rubs them again1 they are white2 again1 and they are black4 ,a series of evolutions then succeeds1 with four hollow brass balls1 about the size of oranges4 ,his power over these is almost miraculous4 ,he causes them to describe every possible circle--horizontally1 perpendicularly1 obliquely1 transversely1 round his legs1 under his arms1 about his head1 in small and in large circumferences--with wondrous rapidity1 and keeping the whole number in motion at the same time4 ,this being the sole fruit of effort1 activity1 quickness of eye1 and rapidity of action1 no one who has not witnessed it can form an idea of its excellence4 ,he then exhibits his astonishing power of balancing4 ,he places on his two great toes 7over which he seems to have the same command that less favoured whites enjoy over their fingers only7 a couple of thin rings1 of about four inches in diameter2 a pair of similar rings he places on his fore fingers1 and then he sets the whole into rotation1 and round they all whirl1 and continue describing their orbits without cessation1 as if set to work by machinery1 endowed with the principle of perpetual motion4 ,throwing himself back1 the performer then balances a sword upon his forehead1 and with his mouth strings a number of very small beads upon a hog's bristle1 which he holds between his lips4 ,all the wheels are kept in regular movement2 the sword is nicely poised2 and arts and manufactures1 under the emblem of bead-stringing1 carried on in peacefulness3 during this part of the show1 the performer is compelled1 from the nature of his employment1 to be still and quiet4 ,having concluded this1 the juggler executes the following exploit4--,upon the tip of his nose he balances a small wooden parasol1 from the circumference of which about a dozen of cork tassels are pendent4 ,with his mouth he inserts into each of these tassels a quill of about the length of twelve inches1 and the thickness of that of the porcupine4 ,the bases of these he places with his tongue between his upper lip and nose1 the rings on his toes all the while performing their circuits4 ,having succeeded in putting a quill into every tassel1 he takes out the centre stick on which the parasol was originally supported from the top of his nose1 and it then remains balanced on the quills4 ,thus far the work is difficult enough2 but this is nothing to its conclusion4 ,he undermines his structure by a quill at a time1 till only three remain4 ,of these he takes one away2 and the top1 which resembles the roof of a pagoda1 swings down1 and hangs by two1 the ,indian preserving the astonishing balance even throughout this motion1 which might be deemed sufficient to disconcert any human ingenuity3 but even here he does not stop2 the last prop but one is removed1 and on that one the erect balance of the machine rests4 ,after a variety of other extraordinary performances1 the ,indian places a stone of fourteen pounds weight1 about the size and shape of a ,dutch cheese1 between his feet4 ,with an apparently slight exertion1 he kicks up his heels1 and the stone1 performing a parabola over his head from behind1 alights upon the bend of his arm1 where it rests4 ,he then tosses it to the same part of the other arm1 where it rests1 as if held by the hand1 or caught by magic2 thence he throws it to various parts of his frame1 to his wrist1 and the back of his neck4 ,at this latter point it might be supposed it would be stationary1 as one feels very little capacity of twisting any weighty body from the neck in a direction different from what it would take on being shaken off4 ,but even here our juggler commands its obedience4 ,he again tosses it to his arm2 back again to his neck2 and after a few gambols of this sort1 he finally1 by a masterly jerk1 throws the stone of fourteen pounds weight round his head4 ,the famous feat of swallowing the sword closes this wonderful exhibition2 for a description of which1 the reader is referred to page #fc4 ,,john ,,metcalf1 or ,blind ,jack of ,knaresborough4--,this extraordinary character was born in #agag1 and died in #agih4 ,when four years old1 his parents1 who were working people1 put him to school1 soon after which he was seized with the small-pox1 by which he became totally blind1 though all possible means were used to preserve his sight4 ,recovering from the small-pox1 he found that he was able to go from his father's house to the end of the street1 and return1 without a guide2 and1 in the space of three years1 he could find his way to any part of the town1 which gave him much satisfaction4 ,in process of time1 he began to associate with the neighbouring boys1 of his own age1 and went with them to take birds' nests4 ,for his share of the eggs and young birds1 he was to climb the trees1 whilst his companions waited at the bottom to receive what he should throw down4 ,after that1 he could ramble into the fields alone1 frequently to the distance of two or three miles2 and1 his father keeping horses1 he in time became an able horseman1 and a gallop was his favourite pace4 ,at the age of thirteen1 being taught music1 he became very expert1 though he had more taste for the cry of the hounds than for any instrument4 ,a ,mr4 ,woodburn1 of ,knaresborough1 master of a pack of hounds1 used to take young ,metcalf to hunt with him2 and he having a couple and a half of good ones of his own1 used to go out at a night when the hares were feeding2 but one of his young dogs happening to worry a couple of lambs1 ,metcalf was obliged to discontinue this practice4 ,at about fourteen years of age he learned to swim in the river ,nidd2 but few of his companions liked to come near him in the water1 it being his custom to seize them1 send them to the bottom1 and swim over them by way of diversion4 ,having practised on the violin till he could play country dances1 he attended several assemblies1 and to his fondness for hunting1 added that of cock-fighting2 and1 if at any time he heard of a better game-cock than his own1 he would be sure to get him by some means or other1 though at ever so great a distance4 ,in fact1 his fame began to spread to such a degree1 that when any arch trick was done1 inquiry was sure to be made1 where ,blind ,jack was at the time4 ,in #agcb1 ,metcalf succeeded the fiddler at ,harrowgate1 who died in the #ajb;d year of his age2 after this he bought a horse1 and often ran him for small plates2 and for some time1 hunting by day1 and fiddling by night1 were his principal occupations4 ,soon after this1 as ,metcalf had learned to walk and ride very readily through most of the streets in ,york1 he one evening offered himself as a guide to a gentleman who wanted to go to ,knaresborough that night1 and absolutely performed it1 the gentleman not even suspecting that he was blind till they came to their journey's end4 ,this the gentleman was told at the sign of the ,granby1 just as he had entered the parlour4 ,expressing some doubt of this to the landlord's question1 ,do you not know that he is blind8 he exclaimed1 ,what do you mean by that8--,i mean sir1 that he cannot see4--,blind6 gracious ,god6--,yes sir1 as blind as a stone4 ,metcalf was then called in1 and the gentleman's doubts were immediately dissipated4 ,in #agde1 during the rebellion1 as ,captain ,thornton undertook to raise a company at his own expense1 and knowing ,metcalf's turn of mind1 engaged him as a musician to his corps4 ,as ,metcalf was then nearly six feet two inches high1 and being1 like his companions1 dressed in blue and buff1 with a large gold-laced hat1 the captain was so well pleased with him1 that he said he would give one hundred guineas for only one eye to be put into the head of his dark companion4 ,during the rebellion1 after seeing much service1 and being particularly noticed by the duke of ,cumberland1 he was discharged1 and being at liberty to choose his occupation1 he attended ,harrowgate as before2 but having1 in the course of his ,scotch expedition1 become acquainted with the various articles manufactured in that country1 he provided himself with several in the cotton and worsted way1 especially ,aberdeen stockings1 for all which he found a ready sale in the extensive county of ,york4 ,among a thousand articles1 he never was at a loss to know what each had cost him1 from a particular mode of marking4 ,it was also customary with him to buy horses for sale in ,scotland1 bringing back galloways in return4 ,in this traffic he depended on feeling the animals to direct his choice4 ,in #aged1 ,metcalf set up a stage waggon between ,york and ,knaresborough1 being the first of the kind known on that road4 ,this he constantly conducted himself1 going twice a week in summer1 and once in the winter2 but at length1 turning his attention to the making of roads1 he disposed of his waggon1 c4 ,his first undertaking of this kind was three miles of the new turnpike road from ,harrowgate to ,boroughbridge2 and for this he was actually appointed foreman to the surveyor4 ,he often walked from ,knaresborough in the morning1 with four or five stone of meat on his shoulders1 and joined his men by six o'clock4 ,by the means he used1 he completed the work much sooner than was expected1 to the entire satisfaction of the surveyor and the trustees4 ,during his leisure hours he studied measurement in a way of his own2 and1 when certain of the girth and length of any piece of timber1 he was able to reduce its true contents to feet and inches1 and could bring the dimensions of any building into yards or feet4 ,in fact1 he contracted for1 and constructed several roads1 in a manner superior to the method of making them at that time4 ,he built various bridges in difficult situations1 in a manner that astonished those that employed him1 and afterwards undertook the erection of houses4 ,one of his bridges1 it was remarked1 had stood thirty years1 and the foundation never cost one penny in repairs4 ,in #agib1 having been some time absent1 he returned to ,yorkshire1 and1 having no engagement1 he bought hay to sell again3 he used to measure the stacks with his arms1 and knowing the height1 could readily tell what number of square yards were contained in hay1 from five to one hundred pounds value2 with equal facility he could calculate the solid contents of standing wood4 ,having known the streets of ,york very accurately in the earlier part of his life1 he determined to visit that ancient city1 where he had not been for the space of thirty-two years4 ,he found alterations for the better in ,spurrier-gate1 ,blake-street1 the ,pavement1 c4 and so retentive was his memory1 that1 though so many years had elapsed since he had been that way before1 he discovered an alteration in the hanging of two gates by a wall-side near the house of a ,mr4 ,barlow4 ,his wife died in #aggh1 in her #fast year1 leaving him four children1 after #ci years of conjugal affection and felicity4 ,mrs4 ,,van ,,butchell4--,in #agge1 died the wife of an eccentric empiric1 ,dr4 ,martin ,van ,butchell2 and the singular mode employed for the preservation of her body merits notice4 ,on her death taking place1 he applied to ,dr4 ,hunter1 to exert his skill in preventing1 if possible1 the changes of form usual after the cessation of life4 ,accordingly1 the doctor1 assisted by the late ,mr4 ,cruikshank1 injected the blood-vessels with a coloured fluid1 so that the minute red vessels of the cheeks and lips were filled1 and exhibited their native hue2 and the body in general1 having all the cavities filled with antiseptic substances1 remained perfectly free from corruption1 or any unpleasant smell1 and as if it was merely in a state of sleep4 ,but to resemble the appearance of life1 glass eyes were also inserted4 ,the corpse was then deposited in a bed of thin paste of plaster of ,paris1 in a box of sufficient dimensions1 which subsequently crystallized1 and produced a pleasing effect4 ,a curtain covered the glass lid of the box1 which could be withdrawn at pleasure2 and which box being kept in the common parlour1 ,mr4 ,van ,butchell had the satisfaction of retaining his departed wife for many years1 frequently displaying the beautiful corpse to his friends and visitors4 ,a second marriage1 some years afterwards1 is said to have occasioned some family difference1 and it was found expedient to remove the preserved body4 ,,harrison1 a ,penurious ,character4--,this person died in ,november1 #ahba1 in ,bennett-street1 ,rathbone-place1 ,oxford-road1 ,london1 where he had lodged #bj years4 ,the furniture of his room consisted of one old chair1 a table1 a trunk or two1 an old stump bedstead1 and a bed of straw2 in one corner was a heap of ashes2 and the cupboard1 the day after his decease1 contained a few potato-peelings and a stale roll4 ,his body presented a picture of the most extreme misery and starvation1 though he had no family1 and had property in the funds to the amount of #aejj4 ,a female friend who lived at ,putney1 and was in the habit of calling on him when she came to town1 deposed1 that he would let no person but her enter his room1 which he always kept padlocked inside1 for fear of being robbed3 he lay on his bed in the day-time1 and sat up at night without any fire1 always burning a lamp4 ,a few evenings before his death1 he told the female before-mentioned1 that many persons wanted to finger his cash1 but they should not4 ,he then desired her to lock him in1 and take the key with her1 which she did2 but1 on going again next day1 she found him lying on his bed with his clothes on1 quite dead4 ,he had made his will several months before1 and left her executrix of his property1 which was to be divided between herself1 his nephew1 and niece4 ,he had been married1 and had a daughter1 who1 with his wife1 were both dead4 ,he carried large sums of money sewed up in different parts of his clothes1 for which reason he never pulled them off4 ,upwards of #ajj was found upon him at the time of his death1 on the night previous to which he sent for one oyster1 half a pint of beer1 and a pennyworth of figs1 which he ate4 ,for nearly four years previous to his decease1 he appeared almost childish4 ,the jury that sat upon the body1 brought in their verdict1--,died by the visitation of ,god4 ,,the ,,blind ,,clergyman4--,the following very interesting account was published in the ,morning ,chronicle of ,jan4 #ba1 #agia4 ,it bears all the marks of authenticity4 ,in my rambles 7says the writer7 last summer1 on the borders of ,wales1 ,i found myself one morning on the banks of the beautiful river ,wye1 alone1 without a servant or guide4 ,i had to ford the river at a place where1 according to the instructions given me at the nearest hamlet1 if ,i diverged ever so little from the marks which the ripling of the current made as it passed over a ledge of rock1 ,i should sink twice the depth of myself and horse4 ,while ,i stood hesitating on the margin1 viewing attentively the course of the ford1 a person passed me on the canter1 and the next instant ,i saw him plunge into the river4 ,presuming on his acquaintance with the passage1 ,i immediately and closely followed his steps4 ,as soon as we had gained the opposite bank1 ,i accosted him with thanks for the benefit of his guidance2 but what was my astonishment1 when1 bursting into a hearty laugh1 he observed1 that my confidence would have been less1 had ,i known that ,i had been following a blind guide4 ,the manner of the man1 as well as the fact1 attracted my curiosity4 ,to my expressions of surprise at his venturing to cross the river alone1 he answered1 that he and the horse he rode had done the same every ,sunday morning for the last five years2 but that in reality1 this was not the most perilous part of his hebdomadal peregrination1 as ,i should be convinced1 if my way led over the mountain before us4 ,my way was ad libitum1 at pleasure2 ,i therefore resolved to attach myself to my extraordinary companion1 and soon learned in our chat1 as we wound up the steep mountain's side1 that he was a clergyman1 and of that class which is the disgrace of our ecclesiastical establishment2 ,i mean the country curates1 who exist upon the liberal stipend of thirty1 twenty1 and sometimes fifteen pounds a year6 ,this gentleman1 of the age of sixty1 had about thirty years before been engaged in the curacy to which he was now travelling2 and though at the distance of eight long ,welsh miles from the place of his residence1 such was the respect of his ,sunday flock towards him1 that at the commencement of his calamity1 rather than part with him1 they sent regularly1 every ,sunday morning1 a deputation to guide their old pastor along a road1 which1 besides the river we had just passed1 led over a craggy mountain1 on whose top innumerable and uncertain bogs were constantly forming1 and which1 nevertheless1 by the instinct of his ,welsh pony1 this blind man has actually crossed alone for the last five years1 having so long dismissed the assistance of guides4 ,while our talk beguiled our road1 we insensibly arrived within sight of his village church4 ,it was seated in a deep and narrow vale4 ,as ,i looked down upon it1 the bright verdure of the meadows1 which were here and there chequered with patches of yellow corn1 the moving herds of cattle1 the rich foliage of the groves of oak1 hanging irregularly over its sides1 the white houses of the inhabitants1 which sprinkled every corner of this peaceful retreat2 and above all1 the inhabitants themselves1 assembled in their best attire round their place of weekly worship2 all this gay scene rushing at once on the view1 struck my senses and imagination more forcibly than ,i can express4 ,as we entered the church-yard1 the respectful ,how do you do8 of the young1 the hearty shakes by the hand of the old1 and the familiar gambols of the children1 shewed how their old pastor reigned in the hearts of all4 ,after some refreshment at the nearest house1 we went to church1 in which my veteran priest read the prayers1 the psalms1 and chapters of the day1 and then preached a sermon in a manner that would have made no one advert to his defect of sight4 ,at dinner1 which it seems four of the most substantial farmers of the vale provided in turn1 he related the progress of his memory4 ,for the first year he attempted only the prayers and sermons1 the best readers of the parish making it a pride to officiate for him in the psalms and chapters4 ,he next endured the labour of getting these by heart2 and at present1 by continual repetition1 there is not a psalm or chapter of the more than two hundred appointed for the ,sunday service1 that he is not perfect in4 ,he told me also1 that having in his little school two sons of his own1 intended for the university1 he has1 by hearing them continually1 committed the greatest part of ,homer and ,virgil to his memory4 ,we shall now introduce to the notice of the reader1 a living character1--a child1 a little girl1--the most extraordinary that ever appeared in the world4 ,,miss ,,clara ,,fisher4--,this little lady1 the youngest daughter of ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,fisher1 a respectable auctioneer1 of ,london1 was born in ,covent-garden1 on the #adth of ,july1 #ahaa4 ,at a very early age1 she evinced powers of intellect and genius very unusual in infants4 ,a passionate fondness for music was a first characteristic2 and while yet in the arms of a nurse1 she was excited to pleasurable emotions1 when tunes which she liked were played1 but shewed the most determined opposition in her power1 to the continuance of those to which she had conceived an aversion4 ,this fact is recorded in the writings of ,anthony ,pasquin1 in his ,dramatic ,censor1 as an instance of wonderfully premature infantine endowment4 ,the fame which ,miss ,o',neil had acquired soon after her appearance in ,london1 induced ,mr4 ,fisher to take his family to ,covent-garden theatre1 to witness her performance of ,jane ,shore2 and to the impression made that night on the mind of little ,clara1 may be ascribed the wonderful turn for theatrical exhibition1 which has ever since characterized this juvenile candidate for histrionic fame4 ,on the same evening1 after returning from the theatre1 ,clara retired to a corner of the room1 and1 as she thought1 unseen1 went through1 in dumb show1 a great part of the performances she had witnessed at the theatre4 ,these evident symptoms of dramatic genius in a child1 then under four years of age1 excited much surprise and pleasure amongst the family circle4 ,a few evenings afterwards1 she was persuaded to repeat this primary exhibition before some private friends1 and the applause which she elicited seemed to implant in her young mind that ardent love for the stage1 which thenceforward has guided all her thoughts and actions4 ,in the autumn of #ahag1 ,dr4 ,d4 ,corrie1 the celebrated musician1 and composer of the music of the ,travellers1 solicited and received permission for little ,clara to appear in a private performance with his juvenile pupils in music4 ,a short character was assigned to little ,clara to learn2 and she performed it with an effect which excited the astonishment and admiration of a select and fashionable company1 who had met to witness the efforts of the juvenile performers4 ,from the success of this evening's amusement1 may be dated ,miss ,clara's introduction to public notice4 ,on the #ajth of ,december following1 she appeared in ,drury-lane theatre1 in ,garrick's romance of ,lilliput2 revived and altered1 with songs1 prologue1 epilogue1 and a masque1 written by ,mr4 ,fisher2 and in which was introduced the last act of ,shakspeare's ,richard ,,iii4 in order to bring forward the little ,clara in the character of the crookbacked tyrant4 ,her success in this arduous character was beyond all anticipation3 for seventeen nights the house was crowded in every part1 and the applause bestowed on the extraordinary infant1 then only six years and a half old1 was enthusiastic and incessant4 ,the public journals published in ,london during the run of the piece1 bear ample testimony of the high estimation in which the best critics of the day held the talents of the young actress4 ,immediately after the close of her engagement at ,drury-lane1 she was applied for by ,mr4 ,harris1 of ,covent-garden theatre1 where she performed with equal success and approbation4 ,on one occasion1 his present ,majesty1 then ,prince of ,wales1 honoured the theatre with his presence1 and was pleased cordially to join in the general plaudits of the audience4 ,after the part of ,richard ,,iii4 was concluded1 she appeared in her own infantine character1 and delivered the following epilogue1 written by her father1 with a pathos and feeling which powerfully affected the auditors3-- ,well1 ,sirs1 what say you to our little play-- ,must it expire1 or live another day8 ,will you permit once more our group to try ,to raise your laughter1 or to make you cry8 ,my spangled robes laid by1 and waving plume1 ,in muslin frock my sex ,i re-assume2 ,and though in simple dress ,i'm now array'd1 ,i hope you'll not reject a little maid1 ,who sues for favour1 for herself1 and those1 ,who1 like herself1 are now in common clothes4 ,and ,i assure you1 ladies1 from my heart1 ,i like my robes much better than my part2 ,the shining spangles are to me so dear1 ,i'm come to ask--may ,i again appear8 ,o6 pray indulge me in this one request1 ,and ,i will strive to please you1--and be drest6 ,on leaving ,covent-garden1 she was engaged by ,mr4 ,elliston to perform at the ,birmingham theatre1 as a star1 for some nights2 after which she appeared in ,bath1 ,edinburgh1 ,glasgow1 ,aberdeen1 ,york1 ,doncaster1 ,hull1 ,brighton1 and every theatre of consequence1 in the kingdom4 ,miss ,clara ,fisher has at this time1 #ahbb1 been on the boards more than four years1 and has already performed in about one hundred theatres4 ,she has travelled through various parts of ,great ,britain1 a distance of upwards of ten thousand miles2 and she has performed in ,shakspeare's character of ,richard ,,iii4 more than two hundred and fifty times1 besides other arduous parts in the various departments of the ,english drama4 ,her singing and dancing are equal to her other accomplishments1 and yield delight to all who witness them4 ,bring yet but eleven years of age1 she will furnish for the future historian a rare instance of precocity of intellect4 ,she is gracefully formed1 but not tall of her age2 her face is oval1 and full of expression2 her eyes blue1 large1 and animated2 her mouth particularly well moulded2 and her hand and arm are considered by artists as uncommonly beautiful for her years4 ,the general opinion of critics is1 that she resembles in voice1 and manner of acting1 the late celebrated ,mrs4 ,jordan4 ,an authentic anecdote is related of our heroine1 which places1 in a strong point of view1 her felicitous conception of character1 and her extraordinary collectedness and presence of mind1 under circumstances1 which1 in all probability1 would confuse and flutter even a long-experienced actor4 ,immediately after leaving ,drury-lane1 she performed for ,mr4 ,elliston1 at ,birmingham4 ,a new and elegant crown was there made for her1 that she might appear to advantage in the character of ,richard ,,iii4 ,the crown was accidentally made too small1 and was with difficulty kept on the head4 ,when ,richard 7personated by this little lady7 descended from the throne1 in the presence of his nobles1 and was delivering one of his most impassioned speeches1 the crown fell off upon the stage4 ,contrary to the natural expectation of all1 little ,clara took no notice of the circumstance1 but concluded her speech with the same energy and commanding deportment with which it commenced2 and then beckoning to ,catesby to approach1 ,catesby6 said she1 pointing to the fallen diadem1 and stood erect and motionless1 with the haughty dignity of monarchy1 until1 the brief mandate understood1 he lifted it1 and solemnly replaced it upon her brows4 ,thus1 when a less-gifted performer would have found it difficult to save the whole scene from derision1 did she sternly maintain the regal character she had assumed2 and commanded the respect1 surprise1 and admiration of the audience4 ,,earth ,,eaters2 from ,humboldt's ,personal ,narrative4--,the inhabitants of ,umana belong to those nations of the savannas1 ,indios andantes1 who1 more difficult to civilize than the nations of the forest1 ,indios del monte1 have a decided aversion to cultivate the land1 and live almost exclusively on hunting and fishing4 ,they are men of a very robust constitution2 but ugly1 savage1 vindictive1 and passionately fond of fermented liquors4 ,they are omnivorous animals in the highest degree2 and therefore the other ,indians1 who consider them as barbarians1 have a common saying1 ',nothing is so disgusting1 that an ,otomac will not eat it4' ,while the waters of the ,oroonoko and its tributary streams are low1 the ,otomacs subsist on fish and turtles2 the former they kill with surprising dexterity1 by shooting them with an arrow1 when they appear at the surface of the water4 ,when the rivers swell1 which in ,south ,america1 as well as in ,egypt and in ,nubia1 is erroneously attributed to the melting of the snows1 and which occurs periodically in every part of the torrid zone1 fishing almost entirely ceases4 ,it is then as difficult to procure fish in the rivers1 which are become deeper1 as when you are sailing on the open sea4 ,it often fails the poor missionaries1 on fast-days as well as flesh-days1 though all the young ,indians are under the obligation of 'fishing for the convent4' ,at the period of these inundations1 which last two or three months1 the ,otomacs swallow a prodigious quantity of earth4 ,we found heaps of balls in their huts1 piled up in pyramids1 three or four feet high4 ,these balls were five or six inches in diameter4 ,the earth which the ,otomacs eat is a very fine and unctuous clay1 of a yellowish gray colour2 and1 being slightly baked in the fire1 the hardened crust has a tint inclining to red1 owing to the oxide which is mingled with it4 ,we brought away some of this earth1 which we took from the winter provision of the ,indians2 and it is absolutely false that it is steatitic1 and contains magnesia4 ,mr4 ,vanquelin did not discover any traces of this earth in it2 but he found that it contained more silex than alumine1 and three or four per cent4 of lime4 ,the ,otomacs do not eat every kind of clay indifferently2 they choose the alluvial beds or strata that contain the most unctuous earth1 and is the smoothest to the feeling4 ,i inquired of the missionary1 whether the moistened clay were made to undergo1 as ,father ,gumilla asserts1 the peculiar decomposition which is indicated by a disengagement of carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen1 and which is designated in every language by the term putrefaction2 but he assured me1 that the natives neither cause the clay to rot1 nor do they mingle it with flour of maize1 oil of turtles' eggs or fat of the crocodile4 ,we ourselves examined1 both at the ,oroonoko1 and after our return to ,paris1 the balls of earth which we brought away with us1 and found no trace of the mixture of any organic substance1 whether oily or farinaceous4 ,the savage regards every thing as nourishing that appeases hunger2 when1 therefore1 you inquire of an ,otomac on what he subsists during the two months when the river is the highest1 he shews you his balls of clay4 ,this he calls his principal food2 for at this period he can seldom procure a lizard1 a root of fern1 or a dead fish swimming at the surface of the water4 ,if the ,indian eats earth through want during two months1 and from three-quarters to five-quarters of a pound in twenty-four hours1 he does not the less regale himself with it during the rest of the year4 ,every day1 in the season of drought1 when fishing is most abundant1 he scrapes his balls of poya1 and mingles a little clay with his other aliment4 ,what is most surprising1 is1 that the ,otomacs do not become lean by swallowing such quantities of earth2 they are1 on the contrary1 extremely robust1 and far from having the belly tense and puffed up4 ,the missionary1 ,fray ,ramon ,bueno1 asserts1 that he never remarked any alteration in the health of the natives at the period of the great risings of the ,oroonoko4 ,the following are the facts1 in all their simplicity1 which we were able to verify4 ,the ,otomacs1 during some months1 eat daily three-quarters of a pound of clay slightly hardened by fire1 without their health being sensibly affected by it4 ,they moisten the earth afresh when they are going to swallow it4 ,it has not been possible to verify hitherto with precision how much nutritious vegetable or animal matter the ,indians take in a week at the same time2 but it is certain that they attribute the sensation of satiety which they feel to the clay1 and not to the wretched aliment which they take with it occasionally4 ,i observed every where within the torrid zone1 in a great number of individuals1 children1 women1 and sometimes even full-grown men1 an inordinate and almost irresistible desire of swallowing earth2 not an alkaline or calcareous earth1 to neutralize1 as it is vulgarly said1 acid juices1 but a fat clay1 unctuous1 and exhaling a strong smell4 ,it is often found necessary to tie the children's hands1 or to confine them1 to prevent their eating earth1 when the rain ceases to fall4 ,at the village of ,banco1 on the bank of the river ,magdalena1 ,i saw the ,indian women who make pottery1 continually swallowing great pieces of clay4 ,the celebrated ,,dr4 ,,graham4--,about the year #aghb1 there appeared in ,london one of the most extraordinary empirics of modern times4 ,his name was ,graham4 ,he was a graduate of ,edinburgh1 wrote in a bombastic style1 and possessed a great fluency of elocution4 ,he opened in ,pall-,mall1 a mansion1 which he called the ,temple of ,health4 ,the front was ornamented with an enormous gilt sun1 a statue of ,hygenia1 and other attractive emblems2 the suit of rooms1 in the interior1 was superbly furnished2 and the walls were decorated with mirrors1 so as to confer on the place an effect like that from an enchanted palace4 ,here he delivered lectures on health1 c4 at the extravagant price of two guineas per lecture2 and the price1 together with the novelty of his subjects1 drew considerable audiences of the wealthy and dissipated4 ,he entertained a female1 of beautiful figure1 whom he called the ,goddess of ,health1 and it was her business to deliver a concluding discourse after the ,doctor himself had finished his lecture4 ,as a further means of attraction1 he hired two men of extraordinary stature1 provided with enormous cocked hats1 and with showy and bulky liveries1 whose business it was to distribute bills from house to house through the town4 ,graham became1 therefore1 an object of universal curiosity4 ,but1 as his two-guinea auditors were soon exhausted1 he dropped his lectures successively to one guinea1 half-a-guinea1 five shillings1 and 7as he said1 for the benefit of all17 to half-a-crown2 and1 when he could no longer draw this price1 he exhibited the temple itself for one shilling1 to daily crowds1 for several months4 ,among his furniture was a ,celestial ,bed1 as he called it1 standing on glass legs1 provided with the richest hangings1 and possessing properties peculiar to itself4 ,for sleeping in this bed1 he demanded one hundred pounds per night2 and such is the folly of wealth1 that heirless persons1 of high rank1 were named1 who acceded to his terms4 ,he also pretended to have discovered the ,elixir of ,life1 by taking which1 a person might live as long as he pleased1 and he modestly demanded one thousand pounds for a supply of it2 and more than one noble person was reported to have paid this enormous price to be cured of folly4 ,having worn out his character in these various projects1 he then recommended ,earth-bathing1 and undertook to sanction it by his own practice4 ,during one hour every day1 he1 therefore1 admitted spectators1 at first at a guinea1 and then descended1 as in a former instance1 to a shilling1 to view him and the goddess of health immersed naked in the ground to their chins2 the ,doctor having his hair full-dressed and powdered1 and the lady's head being dressed also in the best fashion of the times4 ,when no more money was to be drained from the population of ,london1 the ,doctor visited the great provincial towns1 and lectured and exhibited in the same manner whenever he could obtain permission of the magistrates4 ,in the end1 the goddess of health nearly fell a victim to the practice2 and the ,doctor retired from public notice1 and died in poor circumstances a few years afterwards1 in spite of his ,elixir of ,life1 at the early age of fifty-two4 ,his brother married the celebrated ,mrs4 ,macauley ,graham1 and his sister was married to ,dr4 ,arnold1 of ,leicester1 the respectable author of a very able treatise on insanity4 ,it is generally understood1 that the lady who performed the singular part of the goddess of health1 was ,emma1 afterwards wife of ,sir ,w4 ,h4 and a personal favourite of a late celebrated naval character4 ,,the ,,admirable ,,crichton4--,mr4 ,james ,crichton1 according to the generality of his biographers1 was born in the year #aeea2 but ,lord ,buchan fixes the time of his nativity in the month of ,august1 #aefj4 ,it is admitted by all1 that this celebrated man was a native of ,scotland2 but although ,perth has in general been considered as his birth-place1 even this circumstance has been perplexed with conflicting opinions4 ,of his ancestors1 the accounts are equally diversified4 ,some assert that his father1 ,robert ,crichton1 commanded the army of ,queen ,mary at the battle of ,langside3 others state1 with equal confidence1 that he was ,lord ,advocate of ,scotland from #aefj to #aegc4 ,his mother's name was ,elizabeth ,stewart1 the only daughter of ,sir ,james ,stewart1 of ,beath1 a descendant of ,robert1 duke of ,albany1 the third son of king ,robert the ,second4 ,relying on his pedigree1 he was accustomed to boast1 when he displayed his astonishing acquirements in foreign countries1 of his lineal descent from the ,scottish kings4 ,at what time ,mr4 ,james ,crichton began his studies1 we are not informed2 neither have we any satisfactory accounts when those diversified powers of his mind1 on which all ,europe gazed with admiration1 first appeared to excite attention4 ,the primary rudiments of his grammatical education were received at ,perth2 after which he studied philosophy in the ,university of ,st4 ,andrew4 ,in that ,university1 his tutor was the celebrated ,john ,rutherford1 a professor1 famous for his learning1 and distinguished by four books1 which he had written on ,aristotle's ,logic1 and a commentary on his ,poetics4 ,but it is not to this professor alone1 that the honour of forming this extraordinary character is to be ascribed4 ,manutius1 who calls ,crichton first cousin to the king1 says1 that he was educated with ,james ,i4 under ,buchanan1 ,hepburn1 and ,robertson1 as well as under ,rutherford4 ,we cannot doubt1 from the favourable circumstances under which ,crichton entered life1 that the best masters were assigned him that could be procured in every department of learning4 ,under their tuition1 and through the native vigour of his understanding1 he had acquired a knowledge of ten different languages1 and had run through the whole circle of the sciences1 by the time he had attained the twentieth year of his age4 ,arduous1 however1 as these varied pursuits may seem to common minds1 they occupied a part only of ,crichton's attention4 ,a portion of his time was devoted to music1 in the knowledge of which he made an astonishing proficiency4 ,he learnt to play on various instruments2 and improved himself1 to the highest degree1 in dancing1 fencing1 singing1 and horsemanship4 ,having made himself master of these various acquirements1 he left his native land1 and1 proceeding to ,paris1 introduced himself to the literati of that city in the following manner4 ,on his arrival1 he caused six placards to be fixed on the gates of the schools1 halls1 and colleges1 belonging to the ,university1 and on all the pillars and posts of the houses inhabited by men most renowned for literature and science1 inviting all who thought themselves well versed in any art1 to meet and dispute with him in the college of ,navarre1 on that day six weeks1 by nine in the morning4 ,in this challenge1 which was according to the practice of the age1 he declared himself ready to answer any question which should be proposed to him1 on any art or science1 in any of the twelve following languages1 viz4 ,hebrew1 ,syriac1 ,arabic1 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,spanish1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,english1 ,dutch1 ,flemish1 and ,sclavonian2 and this either in prose or verse1 at the choice of his antagonist4 ,bold as this challenge may appear1 instead of devoting himself to the minute examination of the various articles contained in its comprehensive embrace1 upon the issues of which he had risked his reputation1 his time was chiefly spent in hunting1 hawking1 tilting1 vaulting1 riding1 tossing the pike1 handling the musket1 and such military feats and athletic exercises2 and1 when tired with these1 the interim was filled up in domestic engagements1 such as balls1 concerts of music1 vocal and instrumental1 cards1 dice1 and tennis1 together with such diversions as frequently occupy the mind of youth4 ,a mode of conduct1 apparently so inconsistent with the character he had assumed in his placards1 the students of the ,university were at a loss how to interpret4 ,and so provoked were they at the insolence of this daring foreigner1 that1 beneath the placard which was fixed on the gate at ,navarre1 they caused the following words to be written3--,if you would meet with this monster of perfection1 to make search for him either in the tavern or the brothel is the readiest way to find him4 ,but notwithstanding this dissipation1 when the appointed day arrived1 ,crichton appeared in the college of ,navarre1 and engaged in a disputation1 which lasted from nine in the morning until six in the evening4 ,and so well did he acquit himself1 that the ,president1 after expatiating on the many rare and excellent endowments which ,god had bestowed upon him1 rose from his chair1 and1 accompanied by four of the most eminent professors of the ,university1 presented him with a diamond ring1 and a purse full of gold1 as a testimony of their high approbation4 ,on what subjects these antagonists disputed1 we have not been informed2 neither is it known with certainty in what languages they addressed each other4 ,we are only told1 that the interview ended amidst the reiterated acclamations and huzzas of the spectators2 and that this conquest obtained for him the appellation of ,,the ,,admirable ,,crichton4 ,it has been added1 to the preceding account1 that so little was he fatigued with the dispute1 that he went to the ,louvre1 on the ensuing day1 and engaging in a tilting match1 an exercise then much in use1 carried off the ring fifteen times successively1 and broke as many lances1 in the presence of some princes of the ,french court1 and of a great many ladies1 whose applauses were deemed a glorious reward1 by all the heroes of chivalry4 ,of ,crichton's exploits in ,paris1 the following account has been given by ,mackenzie1 and translated by ,pennant1 from the testimony of an author whom they consider as an eye-witness4 ,there came to the college of ,navarre1 a young man of twenty years of age1 who was perfectly well seen in all the sciences1 as the most learned masters of the ,university acknowledged4 ,in vocal and instrumental music1 none could excel him2 in painting and drawing in colours1 none could equal him4 ,in military feats he was most expert2 and could play with the sword so dexterously with both his hands1 that no man could fight him4 ,when he saw his enemy or antagonist1 he would throw himself upon him at one jump of twenty or twenty-four feet distance4 ,he was master of arts1 and disputed with us in the schools of the college1 on medicine1 the civil and canon law1 and theology4 ,and1 although we were above fifty in number1 besides about three thousand who were present1 so pointedly and learnedly he answered to all the questions which were proposed to him1 that none but they who were present can believe it4 ,he spoke ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew1 and other languages1 most politely4 ,he was likewise a most excellent horseman2 and1 truly1 if a man should live a hundred years1 without eating1 drinking1 or sleeping1 he could not attain to this man's knowledge1 which struck us with a panic fear1 for he knew more than human nature can well bear4 ,he overcame four of the doctors of the church2 for in learning none could contest with him2 and he was thought to be ,antichrist4 ,having thus obtained in ,paris the victory for which he contended1 ,crichton next repaired to ,rome1 where he affixed a placard upon all the eminent places of the city1 in the following terms3--,nos ,jacobus ,crictonus ,scotus1 cuicunque ,rei proposit ex improviso respondebimus4 ,in a city which abounded with scholastic learning and wit1 this challenge1 bearing all the marks of presumption1 soon became the subject of a pasquinade4 ,rome1 it has been said1 was at this time much infested with mountebanks1 jugglers1 and other empirics2 and those who felt indignant at the placard of ,crichton1 endeavoured to ridicule him1 by classifying him with the quacks4 ,designating him by the neuter gender1 their pasquinade was to the following effect3--,and he that will see it1 let him repair to the sign of the ,falcon1 and it shall be shewn4 ,boccalini1 who was then at ,rome1 says1 that the appearance of this paper had such an effect upon him1 that1 with indignant feelings1 he almost immediately left the city1 where he had been so grossly insulted1 in being compared to the impostors who could only amuse the vulgar4 ,mackenzie1 however1 asserts1 that instead of being discouraged1 he appeared at the time and place appointed2 and1 in the presence of the ,pope1 many ,cardinals1 ,bishops1 and ,doctors of ,divinity1 and ,professors of all the ,sciences1 displayed such wonderful proofs of his universal knowledge1 that he excited a degree of astonishment equal to that which had marked his career in ,paris4 ,from ,rome1 ,crichton proceeded to ,venice1 in which place he appears to have been reduced to much distress2 but whether this arose from any mental depression1 from bodily indisposition1 or from embarrassment of circumstances1 is not clearly expressed4 ,the reality of his distress he has stated in a poem1 the principal design of which was1 to obtain a favourable reception in the city2 and more particularly so1 with ,aldus ,manutius1 a celebrated critic4 ,on presenting his verses1 ,manutius was struck with an agreeable surprise1 at the comprehensiveness of thought1 the display of intellect1 and the brilliancy of genius1 which they exhibited4 ,and1 upon conversing with the author1 he was so filled with admiration on finding him intimately acquainted with almost every subject1 that he introduced him to the acquaintance of the principal men of learning and note in ,venice4 ,thus recommended1 he contracted an intimate friendship with ,manutius1 ,massa1 ,speronius1 ,donatus1 and various others1 to whom he presented several poems1 in commendation of the university and city4 ,three of these odes are still preserved4 ,after some time he was introduced to the ,doge and ,senate1 in whose presence he delivered a speech1 fraught with so much beauty and eloquence1 and accompanied with such gracefulness of person and manners1 that he received the thanks of that illustrious body2 and nothing was talked about for some time1 through the city1 but this rara avis in terris1--this prodigy in nature4 ,in this city1 also1 he held various disputations1 on theology1 philosophy1 and mathematics1 with the most eminent professors1 and before vast concourses of people4 ,the talents which he displayed on these occasions1 gave such publicity to his reputation1 that multitudes repaired to ,venice from distant parts1 that they might have an opportunity of seeing and hearing a man1 whose abilities were considered as almost super-human4 ,adorned with all the laurels of literature which ,venice could bestow1 ,crichton next removed to ,padua1 the university of which was1 at this time1 in high repute4 ,on the day after his arrival1 there was a general meeting of all the learned men which this place could boast2 but on what occasion they were convened1 we are not informed4 ,the fame of ,crichton1 however1 gained him an admission into this learned assembly1 whom he immediately addressed in an extemporary poem1 in praise of the city1 of the university1 and of the company that had honoured him with their presence4 ,having finished this introductory address to the admiration of all present1 he disputed during six hours with the most celebrated professors1 on various subjects of learning4 ,it was during this debate1 that he exposed the errors of ,aristotle and his commentators1 with so much solidity1 acuteness1 and modesty1 that the admirers of this philosopher were astonished at his acquirements1 and even filled with profound admiration4 ,before they separated1 he delivered1 extempore1 an oration in praise of ,ignorance1 which he conducted with so much ingenuity1 managed with such exquisite skill1 and expressed with so much elegance1 that his hearers were almost overwhelmed with amazement4 ,this display of his learning and talents took place on the #adth of ,march1 #aeha1 in the house of ,jacobus ,aloysius ,cornelius4 ,as several persons of considerable rank1 who were absent on the above memorable day1 expressed their regret on this occasion1 ,crichton appointed another1 to meet any opponents who might be disposed to encounter him2 merely to comply with their earnest solicitations1 and to afford them gratification4 ,whether this meeting ever took place1 seems rather uncertain4 ,manutius asserts1 that some circumstances occurred which prevented it2 but ,imperialis observes1 from information communicated by his father1 who was present on the occasion1 that ,crichton was formidably opposed by ,archangelus ,mercenarius1 a famous philosopher1 but that the young foreigner was finally victorious1 and obtained the plaudits of the auditors1 and the approbation even of his antagonist4 ,but this tide of popular applause was not without its corresponding eddy4 ,mortified at being foiled by this youthful stranger1 many1 even among the learned1 envied both his fame and merit1 and did not hesitate to resort to artifices1 which1 they imagined1 would lessen his reputation4 ,crichton was not ignorant of these contrivances2 and1 conscious of his own transcendent abilities and attainments1 he resolved to give all who were inclined to detract from his merit1 a convincing proof of his decided superiority4 ,he therefore caused a paper to be fixed on the gates of ,st4 ,john's and ,st4 ,paul's churches1 in which he offered to prove1 before the ,university1 that both ,aristotle and his followers had fallen into almost innumerable errors2 and that the latter had failed in explaining the philosophy of their master1 and had erred in their application of his principles to theological subjects4 ,he engaged1 likewise1 to refute the theories of several mathematical professors2 offered to dispute with any one on all the sciences2 and promised to answer whatever might be proposed to him1 or objected against what he should advance4 ,all this he engaged to do1 either in the common logical way1 or by numbers and mathematical figures2 or1 in case his antagonists should prefer it1 in no less than one hundred sorts of verses4 ,the men who had been secretly contriving how to undermine his reputation1 beheld this challenge with strange emotions4 ,from the presumption which it displayed1 they flattered themselves with an easy conquest2 but from the talents which ,crichton had on all former occasions manifested1 and his being constantly victorious1 they became intimidated1 and hesitated to accept the summons they had provoked4 ,they had1 however1 proceeded too far to retreat2 and therefore nothing remained but for them to collect their forces1 and meet him1 agreeably to his proposal4 ,manutius informs us1 that the meeting took place at the time appointed2 that the disputations continued for three days2 and that ,crichton1 during the whole contest1 supported his credit1 and maintained his propositions with so much spirit and energy1 and apparently with so little fatigue1 that he obtained1 from an unusual concourse of people1 such acclamations and praises as were scarcely ever before received by man4 ,nor were the bodily powers1 activity1 and skill1 of this astonishing man less conspicuous1 than those energies by which his mind was distinguished4 ,of these1 also1 he has given some surprising proofs in his various exploits4 ,it happened much about this time1 that a famous gladiator1 who1 in his travels1 had foiled the most able fencers in ,europe1 and lately killed three men who had entered the lists against him1 took up his residence in ,mantua4 ,the duke1 under whose promised protection he had taken shelter1 on finding that he had afforded an asylum to a troublesome inmate1 by whom the inhabitants were much annoyed1 did not hesitate to manifest his regret3 but having pledged his word1 which he could neither recall nor violate1 no way remained to release the public from this sanctioned pest1 but that of finding some person who would dare to meet him in single combat4 ,crichton having been informed of the fact1 in connection with its various circumstances1 voluntarily offered his services1 not only to drive the murderer from ,mantua1 but to prevent his remaining in any part of ,italy4 ,he therefore made a proposal to fight him for fifteen hundred pistoles4 ,the duke1 though anxious to be delivered from his troublesome intruder1 was unwilling that the valuable life of ,crichton should be placed in competition with that of such a barbarous adventurer4 ,but having been informed that he was as capable of appearing in feats of arms1 as in scientific disquisitions1 he gave his consent1 that he should undertake to meet the combatant4 ,affairs being arranged1 and the day appointed1 the whole court assembled to witness the issue of this singular conflict4 ,in the commencement of this encounter1 ,crichton stood wholly on the defensive2 while his antagonist assailed him with such eagerness and fury1 that in a short time he became exhausted4 ,this ,crichton soon perceived2 and availing himself of the opportunity1 attacked him in return1 with so much skill and resolution1 that he was unable to withstand the assault4 ,the weapons with which they fought were rapiers1 then but newly brought into use2 but so far had ,crichton made himself master of this instrument of death1 that he ran his antagonist through the body three times1 and saw him fall dead at his feet4 ,the spectators1 on perceiving this victory1 uttered thunders of applause1 making the earth resound with their united acclamations4 ,and although many present were much skilled in the use of arms1 they united in declaring1 that they had never seen art grace nature1 or nature second the precepts of art1 in so lively a manner as the events of this day had exhibited before their eyes4 ,crichton in the meanwhile1 to prove that his generosity was equal to his skill and courage1 distributed the fifteen hundred pistoles which he had won by his valour1 among the widows of the three men who had lost their lives in fighting with the gladiator whom he had slain4 ,pleased with this bloody performance1 the duke of ,mantua is said immediately to have chosen ,crichton as preceptor to his son ,vincentio di ,gonzaga1 who is represented as a youth of a turbulent disposition1 and a dissolute life4 ,this appointment was pleasing to the court1 and highly flattering to the vanity of the victor2 who1 to testify his gratitude1 and to contribute to their diversion1 is said to have framed a comedy1 in which he exposed to ridicule1 the foibles1 weaknesses1 and defects of the several employments in which men were engaged4 ,the composition was regarded as one of the most ingenious satires that was ever made upon mankind4 ,in the performance of this comedy1 ,crichton is represented as sustaining no less than fifteen characters in his own person4 ,among the rest1 he acted the divine1 the philosopher1 the lawyer1 the mathematician1 the physician1 and the soldier1 with such an inimitable grace1 that every time he appeared on the theatre1 he seemed to be a different person4 ,but it was not long after he had sustained these various characters1 in the comedy which he had composed for public entertainment1 before he became the subject of a dreadful tragedy1 which furnished a melancholy occasion for lamentation4 ,it happened one night1 during the time of carnival1 as he was walking along the streets of ,mantua1 playing upon his guitar1 that he was attacked by six persons in masks4 ,he immediately drew his weapon to defend himself2 and soon convinced his assailants1 that they had something more than an ordinary person with whom to contend4 ,in this conflict1 when they found they were unable to stand their ground1 their leader1 being disarmed1 pulled off his mask1 and begged his life1 telling him that he was prince ,gonzaga his pupil4 ,crichton1 on making this discovery1 fell upon his knees1 and expressed much concern for his mistake2 alleging that what he had done was only in his own defence1 and that if ,gonzaga had any design upon his life1 he was always master of it4 ,having said this1 he took his sword1 and holding it by the point1 presented the handle to the prince1 who instantly received it1 and1 with a degree of barbarous meanness1 that will always be associated with his name1 immediately stabbed ,crichton to the heart4 ,on the causes which led to this brutal action1 various conjectures have been started4 ,some have imagined1 that it arose from the mortification of being foiled1 disarmed1 and discovered1 and being obliged to beg for his life4 ,others have supposed1 that it was nothing more than the effect of a drunken frolic1 in which the passions assumed the dominion over reason4 ,and others have intimated1 that it was the effect of jealousy1 ,gonzaga being suspicious that ,crichton was more in favour than himself1 with a lady whom he passionately loved4 ,in one point1 however1 all who have recorded these transactions mutually agree1 namely1 that ,crichton lost his life in this rencontre2 but whether the meeting was premeditated on the part of the prince and his associates1 or purely as accidental as it was on that of ,crichton1 we have no means of ascertaining4 ,the time when this disastrous event took place1 is said1 by the generality of his biographers1 to have been early in ,july #aehc2 but ,lord ,buchan thinks it to have happened one year earlier4 ,the difference is still greater with regard to his age1 when he was thus assassinated4 ,the common accounts declare1 that he was killed in his thirty-second year2 but ,imperialis asserts1 that he was only in his twenty-second2 and in this he is confirmed by the testimony of ,lord ,buchan4 ,his death was universally lamented1 the people of ,mantua mourned for him three-quarters of a year1 and his picture appeared in the chambers and houses of every ,italian4 ,the fame of ,crichton1 like that of an actor1 was chiefly confined to those who had witnessed his achievements4 ,he wrote little1 but he performed much4 ,the latter was soon forgotten2 or so blended with fiction1 that it became doubtful4 ,he blazed like a meteor for a moment2 his coruscations dazzled the eyes of the beholder2 but when he vanished1 the impression which he had made was no where to be found4 ,yet1 we must again repeat1 he was certainly one of the most accomplished men1 who1 in that age1 had ever appeared4 ,to those who feel the aspirings of genius1 he furnishes an example of the heights to which it can ascend4 ,and to those who are less gifted by nature1 his unsettled life1 and his melancholy end1 may at least teach acquiescence in the humbler gifts which ,providence has assigned them4--,see ,british ,nepos1 p4 #aja4 ,in favour of ,crichton's moral character1 we fear that little can be said4 ,his warmest admirers have furnished us with the means of making this reflection4 ,they have occasionally palliated dissipation2 but unfortunately1 while softening his vices into youthful foibles1 they have recorded facts1 to which posterity have given names4 ,on the vanity1 which in too many instances marked his life1 and the unhappy manner in which it was terminated1 no comment can be deemed necessary4 ,in his whole history1 all those1 who in the confidence of superior capacities or attainments disregard the common maxims of life1 shall be reminded1 that nothing will supply the want of prudence2 and that negligence and irregularity1 long continued1 will make knowledge useless1 wit ridiculous1 and genius contemptible4--,johnson's ,life of ,savage4 ,,miss ,,margaret ,m',,avoy4--,some time in the year #ahae1 an extraordinary phenomenon appeared at ,liverpool1 in the person of ,miss ,m',avoy1 a young lady about fifteen years of age1 reputed to be totally blind2 but whose exquisite nervous sensibility enabled her to distinguish1 by the power of touch1 a variety of objects1 which1 to all other persons1 were perceptible only through the medium of vision4 ,the circumstances connected with this case1 taken in all their bearings1 are such1 that it may be justly doubted if any thing more extraordinary has ever occurred in the physiological history of our species4 ,the following interesting narrative is an abridged copy of what appeared in the ,liverpool ,mercury1 at the time when her astonishing powers excited a considerable degree of public attention4 ,the article is signed by ,mr4 ,egerton ,smith1 the proprietor of the above paper1 and his relation is founded on personal observations4 ,some time in ,september1 #ahaf1 ,i accompanied ,dr4 ,renwick1 on a professional visit he paid to ,miss ,m',avoy1 at her residence in ,st4 ,paul's-square1 on the east side4 ,she was then between sixteen and seventeen years of age1 of a pleasing and ingenuous countenance1 and apparently of an amiable and artless disposition4 ,her mother informed me1 that in the preceding ,june1 her daughter had been attacked with hydrocephalus1 or water in the head1 together with paralytic affection on one side1 and a complication of other disorders1 which ,i forbear to enumerate1 because ,i am wholly ignorant of that part of the subject4 ,according to her own statement1 corroborated by that of her mother1 the hydrocephalus preceded1 and in their opinion produced1 the blindness of gutta serena1 under which she is supposed to labour1 but which has been called in question1 ,i understand1 by some of the professional men who have visited her4 ,her mother1 however1 declared1 that the light of the sun produced not the slightest sensible effect upon her eyes2 and some of the professional gentlemen who happened to be present at one of my repeated visits1 declared1 that though some slight contraction of the pupil was perceptible upon the approach of a lighted candle to the eye1 it was by no means such as uniformly occurs when the visual organs perform their regular functions4 ,at my first interview1 ,i learned from herself1 what ,i had indeed previously been told by others1 that she had recently acquired the faculty of distinguishing not only the colours of cloth and stained glass1 but that she could actually decipher the forms of words in a printed book2 and1 indeed1 could read1 if the phrase may be permitted1 with tolerable facility4 ,to put these pretensions to the test1 she permitted a shawl to be passed across the eyes in double folds1 in such a way that all present were convinced they could not under similar circumstances discern day from night4 ,in this state a book was placed before her1 and opened indiscriminately2 when1 to our extreme surprise1 she began to trace the words with her finger1 and to repeat them correctly4 ,she appeared to recognize a short monosyllable by the simple contact of one finger2 but in ascertaining a long word1 she placed the fore-finger of her left hand on the beginning1 whilst with that of her right hand she proceeded from the other extremity of the word2 and when the two fingers1 by having traversed over all the letters1 came in contact with each other1 she invariably and precisely ascertained the word4 ,by my watch ,i found that she read about thirty words in half a minute2 and it very naturally occurred to us1 that if1 notwithstanding her supposed blindness1 and the double bandage over her eyes1 she could still see1 she would have read much more rapidly1 if her motive had been to excite our astonishment4 ,and here it may not be amiss to state1 that there does not appear to be any adequate motive for practising a delusion upon the public4 ,her situation in life is respectable2 and her mother disavows any intention of ever exhibiting her daughter as a means of pecuniary remuneration4 ,fifteen months have now elapsed since the period at which she laid claim to the extraordinary faculty which has given rise to so much curiosity1 astonishment1 and perplexity2 during which time the reputation of so wonderful a circumstance has subjected her to the fatigue and inconvenience of daily and almost hourly visits4 ,according to her own statement1 her powers of touch vary very materially with circumstances2 when her hands are cold1 she declares that the faculty is altogether lost2 and that it is exhausted1 also1 by long and unremitting efforts2 that she considers the hours of from ten till twelve1 of each alternate day1 the most favourable for her performance4 ,her pulse1 during the experiments1 has varied from #aaj to #acj degrees4 ,one circumstance1 which has created much doubt and suspicion1 must not be concealed2 which is1 that if any substance1 for instance1 a book or a shawl1 be interposed between her eyes and the object she is investigating1 she is much embarrassed1 and frequently entirely baffled4 ,she explains this by saying1 that it is necessary there should be an uninterrupted communication between her finger and her breath4 ,i leave it to others to draw their own conclusions upon this point2 as my object is not to establish any theory1 or give currency to any mystery1 but to relate the simple facts4 ,i am1 therefore1 compelled to express my conviction1 that she can neither ascertain colours1 nor the words of a book1 in total darkness2 and1 as many persons very naturally will ask1 why has not such a test been proposed8 the reply must be1 that as the young lady is not the subject of a public exhibition1 and as an introduction to her is merely a matter of favour1 it might not be very courteous or delicate1 under such circumstances1 to make any proposal which seemed to imply a suspicion that she was an impostor4 ,there are persons1 however1 who1 giving her implicit credit for the reality of the extraordinary powers to which she lays claim1 will contend that it is altogether unfair to propose the test of total darkness4 ,proceeding upon their belief that she actually ascertains colour1 c4 by the finger1 or that the visual organ is transferred to the touch1 still they say that light is essentially necessary to produce that effect upon the surface of the body felt1 which enables her to distinguish one shade from another2 they add1 that as there is no such thing as colour in total darkness1 it is perfectly ridiculous to expect that she should ascertain the various shades without the presence of that light which alone produces those shades4 ,it is1 according to their mode of considering the subject1 as absurd as to expect an effect without a cause4 ,it has already been stated1 that1 with the double bandage over her eyes1 she read several lines of a book indiscriminately opened2 as it was possible that the letters of a printed book might leave some slight impression sensible to an exquisite touch1 ,i took from my pocket-book an engraved ,french assignat1 which was hot-pressed1 and smooth as glass2 she read the smallest lines contained in this with the same facility as the printed book4 ,a letter received by that day's post was produced1 the direction and post-mark of which she immediately and correctly deciphered4 ,she also named the colour of the separate parts of the dresses of the persons in company1 as well as various shades of stained glass which were purposely brought4 ,what ,i had seen at my first interview was so extremely astonishing1 and so far surpassed any thing ,i had ever known or read of the powers ascribed to persons deprived of sight1 that ,i could only account for it on the supposition that she was not blind1 and that she had some secret mode of discerning an object1 notwithstanding the bandage1 through which ,i myself could not distinguish night from day1 when it was applied to my own eyes4 ,i therefore made the best apology ,i could for visiting her house again the same evening1 having previously prepared myself with several tests1 which ,i begged permission to submit to her examination1 when the candle was withdrawn4 ,not the slightest objection was offered to my proposal1 and the candle was extinguished3 her mother stationed herself before the fire1 which was extremely low1 and afforded so little light that ,i could not have read one word of moderate-sized print1 if it had been brought almost in contact with the bars of the grate4 ,i then took from my pocket a small book1 the type of which was very little larger than that of an ordinary newspaper2 observing at the time1 that ,i was afraid the print was too minute2 to which she replied1 that her fingers were in excellent order1 and that she had no doubt she could be able to make it out4 ,the candle1 as was before observed1 had been extinguished2 and her mother and myself were so stationed1 that had there been any light afforded by the fire1 we must have completely intercepted it4 ,miss ,m',avoy sat in the furthest part of the room1 with her back towards the grate1 in such a situation that ,i could barely discern even the leaves of the book which lay open before her2 the title of which she proceeded to read with complete success1 with the exception of one very minute word4 ,i then presented to her a small piece of smooth writing paper1 which was ruled with horizontal faint blue lines1 with a pen and black ink2 there were also perpendicular red lines1 between which were scored black lines3 all these1 with their direction and order1 she determined without any apparent difficulty4 ,she also told correctly the colour of a variety of species of cloth1 procured immediately before at a draper's shop4 ,all the experiments hitherto described1 as well as those which follow1 were performed by ,miss ,m4 with the bandage before her eyes2 and as the shawl1 which was usually applied to this purpose1 produced considerable warmth and inconvenience1 a pair of what1 in the optician's shops1 are called goggles1 had been provided1 which so completely excluded the light1 that no person who tried them could discern the difference between day and night1 when they were fitted to the face4 ,as these goggles have been generally used when ,miss ,m4 has exhibited her surprising talent1 it is necessary that the reader should have a correct idea of them4 ,they are intended to be worn by travellers1 to guard the eyes against the wind or the dust1 and consist of two glasses1 sometimes green1 fitted into a bandage of leather1 which is passed horizontally across the face1 and is tied with ribands round the back of the head4 ,the goggles provided for ,miss ,m4 instead of glasses1 were fitted up with opake pasteboard1 lined with paper1 and not an aperture was left through which a single ray of light could penetrate4 ,mr4 ,nichol1 a scientific gentleman1 who was delivering a course of philosophical lectures in ,liverpool1 having heard of this extraordinary property1 applied to me to obtain an introduction to ,miss ,m',avoy1 and ,i accompanied him to her house1 along with ,mr4 ,james ,smith1 printer1 of ,liverpool4 ,at this interview1 the experiments ,i have already detailed were repeated with complete success1 whilst the goggles were applied4 ,one part of the performance was so truly astonishing1 that ,i should almost hesitate to relate it1 if those two gentlemen had not been present to vouch for the truth4 ,i had furnished myself with a set of stained landscape glasses1 usually termed ,claude ,lorrain glasses4 ,they were seven in number1 contained in a frame4 ,she ascertained the precise shade of each correctly2 one glass1 however1 appeared to embarrass her1 and after considerable scrutiny1 she said it was not black1 nor dark blue1 nor dark brown1 but she thought it was a very deep crimson4 ,we did not know whether her conjecture was correct or not1 as we could not ourselves ascertain the shade4 ,by reflected light it appeared to us to be perfectly black2 nor was the flame of the fire1 which was stirred for the occasion1 visible through it in the faintest degree4 ,we had abandoned all expectation of determining this point1 when the sun suddenly emerged from behind the clouds2 and by that test1 and that alone1 were we enabled to discover that she was correct1 as we could just discern the solar image of a very deep crimson4 ,it has been said1 and with some plausibility1 that this must have been a bold guess on her part2 if not1 it will puzzle our physiologists to explain how a person reputed to be blind1 with an opake bandage also over her eyes1 could declare the colour of a glass1 which persons in full enjoyment of their eyesight1 and without any such obstacles1 could not discern by any other light than that of the meridian sun6 ,at this meeting1 we were informed that ,miss ,m',avoy had recently found out that this extraordinary faculty was not confined to her fingers2 and that she could also distinguish the colour of an object which was brought into contact with the back of her hands4 ,this was immediately made the subject of experiment by ,mr4 ,nichol1 who successively applied several objects which he had with him to that part of the hand2 in placing which he used so much precaution1 that ,i could not see them myself1 although my eyes were fixed upon his hands4 ,she was completely successful also upon this occasion4 ,the paragraph which follows is from the ,liverpool ,advertiser3-- ,as the extraordinary powers attributed to ,miss ,margaret ,m',avoy1 of this town1 have lately attracted the attention of the public in an uncommon degree1 permit me to send you a fact1 which has lately occurred1 and which must silence the scepticism of the most incredulous3--,two ladies of this town1 whose habits of rigid veracity and cautious inquiry are well known1 and whose names are left with the publishers1 in order to satisfy any doubts which may arise1 went to the house of this phenomenon1 impelled by that curiosity which has now become general4 ,fortunately1 ,miss ,m',avoy's marvellous powers1 which are known to be sometimes fluctuating and capricious1 were that day in the highest perfection1 and the following experiment was actually tried3--,one of these visitors stood behind the young lady's chair1 and pressed down her eyelids with both hands so closely1 that it was a physical impossibility for a single ray of light to enter4 ,i may here remark1 that no method of closing the eyes1 by any sort of covering that can be devised1 is half so effectual as this1 for obvious reasons4 ,the other lady then took up a printed book of sermons1 which was lying in the apartment1 and which appeared to have just come from the bookseller's1 as the leaves were not yet cut open2 she opened it in a place where the leaves were united1 and placed it before ,miss ,m',avoy1 7her eyes still closed as above described17 who read several lines in it1 without hesitation4 ,the lady then took a written note out of her pocket1 which had been received that morning1 and ,miss ,m4 also read that1 without any other difficulty than what arose from the badness of the hand-writing4 ,this experiment1 which can be ascertained on oath1 seems so decisive as to the power possessed by ,miss ,m4 of reading by the touch alone1 that ,i am not aware of any possible way in which it can be controverted4 ,at the time when the case of this young lady came before the public1 her claims to extraordinary powers were examined with the utmost scrutiny1 both by those who admitted1 and those who doubted her abilities4 ,in every experiment that was made1 the former were confirmed in their opinion2 and the latter1 while they withheld their assent1 were constrained to acknowledge themselves overwhelmed with an accumulation of facts1 for which they were unable to account4 ,,an ,,old ,,english ',,squire4--,the following character of the ,honourable ,william ,hastings1 of the ,woodlands1 in ,hampshire1 was copied in the year #agcg1 from a manuscript of ,anthony ,ashley ,cooper1 the first earl of ,shaftsbury1 by ,w4 ,cowper1 ,esq4 then clerk of parliament4 ,in the year #afch1 lived ,mr4 ,hastings1 by his quality1 son1 brother1 and uncle1 to the earls of ,huntingdon4 ,he was1 peradventure1 an original in our age1 or rather the copy of our ancient nobility in hunting1 not in warlike times4 ,he was low1 very strong1 and very active2 of a reddish flaxen hair4 ,his clothes always of green cloth1 and never all worth1 when new1 five pounds4 ,his house was perfectly of the old fashion3 in the midst of a large park well stocked with deer1 and near the house1 rabbits to serve his kitchen2 many fishponds2 great store of wood and timber2 a bowling-green in it1 long1 but narrow1 full of high ridges1 it being never levelled since it was ploughed2 they used round sand-bowls2 and it had a large banqueting-house like a stand1 built in a tree4 ,he kept all manner of sport hounds1 that ran buck1 fox1 hare1 otter1 and badger2 and hawks1 long and short winged ,he had all sorts of nets for fish4 ,he had a walk in the ,new ,forest and the manor of ,christ ,church2 this last supplied him with red deer1 sea and river fish2 and indeed all his neighbours' lands and royalties were free to him1 who bestowed all his time on these sports1 but what he borrowed to caress his neighbours' wives and daughters4 ,this made him very popular1 always speaking kindly to the husband1 brother1 or father1 who was1 besides1 always welcome to his house4 ,there he would find beef1 pudding1 and small beer in great plenty2 a house not so neatly kept as to shame him1 or his dusty shoes2 the great hall strewed with marrow-bones1 and full of hawks' perches1 hounds1 spaniels1 and terriers2 the upper side of the hall hung with the fox-skins of this and the last year's killing1 with here and there a pole-cat intermixed2 and gamekeepers' and hunters' poles in great abundance4 ,the parlour was a large long room1 curiously furnished3--on a great hearth paved with bricks lay some terriers1 and the choicest hounds and spaniels2 usually two of the great chairs had litters of young cats in them1 which were not to be disturbed1 he having always three or four attending him at dinner1 and a little round white stick of fourteen inches long lying by his trencher1 that he might defend such meat as he had no mind to part with to them4 ,the windows1 which were very large1 served for places to lay his arrows1 cross-bows1 stone-bows1 and other such like accoutrements3 the corners of the room were full of the best-chosen hunting and hawking poles4 ,an oyster table stood at the lower end1 of constant use twice a day1 all the year round1 for he never failed to eat oysters before dinner and supper through all seasons2 with these the neighbouring town of ,poole supplied him4 ,the upper part of the room had two small tables and a desk1 on the one side of which was a ,church ,bible1 and on the other the ,book of ,martyrs4 ,on the tables were hawks' hoops1 bells1 and such like1 two or three old green hats1 with their crowns thrust in so as to hold ten or a dozen eggs2 which were of a pheasant kind of poultry he took much care of and fed himself4 ,tables1 dice1 cards1 and boxes1 were not wanting4 ,in the holes of the desk were store of tobacco-pipes that had been used4 ,on one side of this end of the room was a door of the closet1 wherein stood the strong beer and the wine1 which never came thence but in single glasses1 that being the rule of the house exactly observed1 for he never exceeded in drink1 or permitted others to transgress4 ,on the other side was a door into an old chapel1 not used for devotion2 the pulpit1 as the safest place1 was never wanting of a cold chine of beef1 venison pasty1 gammon of bacon1 or great apple pie1 with thick crust extremely baked4 ,his table cost him not much1 though it was well provided4 ,his sports supplied all but beef and mutton1 except ,fridays1 when he had the best salt fish1 as well as other fish1 he could get4 ,this was the day his neighbours of first quality most visited him4 ,he never wanted a ,london pudding1 and always sung it in with ,my pert eyes therein a4 ,he drank a glass or two of wine at meals2 very often syrup of gillyflowers in his sack2 and had always a tun glass1 without feet1 standing by him1 holding a pint of small beer1 which he often stirred with rosemary4 ,he was good-natured1 but soon angry1 calling his servants bastards1 and cuckoldy knaves2 in one of which he often spoke truth to his own knowledge1 and sometimes in both1 though of the same man4 ,he lived to be an hundred1 never lost his eyesight1 but always wrote and read without spectacles1 and got on horseback without help4 ,until past fourscore1 he rode to the death of a stag as well as any one4 ,,joan ,,of ,,arc1 commonly called the ,maid of ,orleans4--,this celebrated heroine was the daughter of a peasant of ,domremi1 near ,vaucouleurs1 on the borders of ,lorrain1 and born about the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,at the age of twenty-seven years1 she was servant in a small inn1 where she was accustomed to tend horses1 and to perform other menial offices which commonly fall to the share of men-servants4 ,about this time1 king ,charles ,,vii4 was reduced to the most distressed condition by the ,english2 but the siege of ,orleans1 which was bravely defended by the garrison and inhabitants1 in some measure retarded their progress4 ,joan partook of the feelings of sympathy with the besieged1 that very generally prevailed1 and determined to make some effort for relieving her sovereign in his present distresses4 ,whilst she was indulging these feelings1 her enthusiasm led her to fancy that she saw visions and heard voices exhorting her to re-establish the throne of ,france1 and to expel the foreign invaders4 ,under the strong impulse of passion and imagined inspiration1 she obtained admission to ,baudricourt1 the governor of ,vaucouleurs1 who after being informed of her inspiration and intentions1 treated her for some time with neglect2 but1 in consequence of her renewed and importunate solicitations1 he gave orders that she should be conducted to the ,french court1 which then resided at ,chinon4 ,it is pretended that ,joan1 immediately on her admission1 knew the king1 though she had never seen his face before1 and though he purposely kept himself in the crowd of courtiers1 and laid aside every thing in his apparel that might seem to distinguish him2 and that she offered1 in the name of the supreme ,creator1 to raise the siege of ,orleans1 and to conduct him to ,rheims1 to be there crowned and anointed4 ,in order to remove his doubts of her mission1 it is said1 that she disclosed a secret1 known only to himself1 and which she must have derived from heavenly inspiration4 ,she also demanded1 as the instrument of her future victories1 a particular sword which was kept in the church of ,st4 ,catharine of ,fierbois1 and which1 though she had never seen it1 she described by all its marks1 and by the place in which it had long lain neglected4 ,her intrepid and determined mode of address excited attention1 and gained confidence2 and she was referred to matrons for proofs of her virginity1 and to doctors of the church for evidence of her inspiration3 their report being favourable1 she was sent to the parliament at ,poictiers2 but they1 considering her as insane1 demanded from her a miracle4 ,her reply was1 that she would soon exhibit one at ,orleans4 ,accordingly1 she was at length completely armed1 mounted on horseback in the presence of the multitude1 and sent1 amidst the loudest acclamations1 to join the army destined to the relief of ,orleans4 ,upon joining the army1 consisting of #aj1jjj men1 she ordered all the soldiers to confess themselves before they set out on the enterprise2 she banished from the camp all women of bad fame2 she displayed in her hands a consecrated banner1 representing the ,supreme ,being as grasping the globe of earth1 and surrounded with flower-de-luces2 and after thus communicating to the soldiers a great degree of that enthusiasm by which she herself was actuated1 she advanced towards ,orleans4 ,the ,english besiegers were overawed by her orders and menaces1 dictated in the name of the ,almighty ,creator2 and she entered ,orleans arrayed in her military garb1 and displaying her consecrated standard1 and was received by all the inhabitants as a celestial deliverer4 ,the convoy approached without finding any resistance on the part of the besiegers2 the waggons and troops passed without interruption between the redoubts of the ,english2 and a dead silence and astonishment reigned among those troops1 formerly so elated with victory1 and so fierce for the combat4 ,joan1 having thus far succeeded1 ordered the garrison1 at the same time encouraging them with the promise of heavenly assistance1 first1 to attack the ,english redoubts1 in which measure they were successful2 and then to fall upon the main body of the ,english in their entrenchments4 ,in one of these latter attacks the ,french were repulsed1 but the intrepid maid led them back to the charge1 and overpowered the ,english4 ,in one of these attacks1 she was wounded in the neck with an arrow2 but retreating behind the assailants1 she pulled it out with her own hands1 had the wound quickly dressed1 and hastened back to head the troops1 and to plant her victorious banner on the ramparts of the enemy4 ,in consequence of these successes1 attended with a loss to the ,english of more than #fjjj men1 their courage and confidence gave way to amazement and despair4 ,the ,french1 in order to magnify the wonder of all these prosperous events1 represent the maid as not only active in combat1 but as performing the office of general2 directing the troops1 conducting the military operations1 and swaying the deliberations in all the councils of war4 ,but whatever the policy of the ,french court might suggest for maintaining this opinion among the multitude1 it is much more probable1 that this inexperienced country girl was prompted in all her measures by the wiser commanders4 ,having raised the siege of ,orleans1 ,joan now insisted that she should proceed to the accomplishment of the second part of her promise1 which was that of crowning the king at ,rheims4 ,the king1 accompanied by the victorious maid1 marched at the head of #ab1jjj men towards ,rheims1 receiving the submission of the towns through which he passed2 till at length arriving near ,rheims1 a deputation met him with the keys of the city1 and he was admitted into it with transport4 ,here the ceremony of his coronation was performed with the holy oil of ,clovis2 and the maid stood by his side in complete armour1 and displayed her sacred banner4 ,when the ceremony was finished1 she threw herself at the king's feet1 embraced his knees1 and with a flood of tears she congratulated him on this singular and marvellous event4 ,charles testified his gratitude by ennobling the family of ,joan1 giving it the name of du ,lys1 probably in allusion to the lilies of her banner1 and assigning to her a suitable estate in land4 ,having accomplished both the objects which she had proposed1 the maid of ,orleans expressed her wish to return to her former condition1 and to the occupation and course of life which became her sex3 but the ,french general ,dunois1 urged her continuance with the army1 till the ,english should be completely expelled1 and her predictions fully accomplished4 ,overpowered by his advice1 she threw herself into the town of ,compeigne1 which was then besieged by the duke of ,burgundy and the ,english2 where1 on a sally1 having twice driven the enemy from their entrenchments1 and finding their number increasing1 she ordered a retreat2 but was deserted by her friends1 surrounded by the enemy1 and taken prisoner by the ,burgundians4 ,instead of treating ,joan as a prisoner of war1 with the courtesy and good usage1 to which1 as such1 she was entitled1 and which civilized nations practise towards enemies on occasions of this kind1 she was purchased from the captors by the regent duke of ,bedford1 and a criminal prosecution was instituted against her on the charges of sorcery1 impiety1 idolatry1 and magic4 ,the clergy in his interest1 and even the university of ,paris1 concurred in the accusation4 ,an ecclesiastical commission was held at ,rouen for her trial1 and the maid1 clothed in her former military apparel1 but loaded with irons1 was produced before this tribunal4 ,her trial lasted four months2 and in the course of that time1 many captious interrogatories were put to her1 which she answered with firmness and dignity4 ,upon being asked1 whether she would submit to the church the truth of her pretended visions1 revelations1 and intercourse with departed saints8 she replied1 that she would submit them to ,god1 the fountain of truth3 and when she was charged with being a heretic1 and denying the authority of the church1 she appealed to the pope2 but her appeal was rejected4 ,when she was asked1 why she put her trust in her standard1 which had been consecrated by magical incantations8 she answered1 that she put her trust in the ,supreme ,being alone1 whose image was impressed upon it4 ,when it was demanded1 why she carried in her hand that standard at the unction and coronation of ,charles at ,rheims8 she replied1 that the person who had shared the danger was entitled to share the glory4 ,when she was accused of going to war1 she scrupled not to declare1 that her sole purpose was to defeat the ,english1 and to expel them the kingdom4 ,in the issue1 however1 she was condemned for all the crimes of which she had been accused1 aggravated by heresy2 her revelations were declared to be inventions of the devil to delude the people2 and she was sentenced to be delivered over to the secular arm4 ,at length her resolution failed her2 and through dread of the punishment to which she was sentenced1 she declared that she was willing to recant2 and1 accordingly1 she acknowledged the illusion of those revelations which the church had rejected2 and she promised never more to maintain them4 ,upon this1 her sentence was mitigated2 and she was condemned to perpetual imprisonment1 and to be fed during life on bread and water4 ,but with this vengeance her enemies were not satisfied4 ,in order to justify the severest measures against her1 they insidiously placed in her apartment a suit of men's apparel2 upon the sight of this garb1 in which she had acquired so much renown1 and assumed1 as she once believed1 by the appointment of heaven1 her former ideas and passions revived1 and she ventured in her solitude to put on the forbidden dress4 ,in this apparel she was detected2 it was regarded as a relapse into heresy2 her recantation became void2 her partial pardon was revoked2 and she was to be burned in the market-place of ,rouen4 ,in ,june1 #adca1 this barbarous sentence1 much more ignominious to those who inflicted it than to her who was the object of it1 was executed4 ,this admirable heroine1 to whom the more generous superstition of the ancients would have erected altars1 was1 on pretence of heresy and magic1 delivered over alive to the flames1 and expiated1 by that dreadful punishment1 the signal services which she had rendered to her prince and to her native country4 ,she met her fate with resolution1 and the ,english themselves beheld the scene with tears4 ,the king made no effort for avenging her cause2 he merely procured a revision of the process1 and a restoration of her memory ten years afterwards by the pope1 in an act which styled her a ,martyr to her religion1 her country1 and her king4 ,her countrymen1 more prompt in the tribute of their respect1 propagated many tales relating to her execution2 and some of them would not even allow her to be dead1 but professed to expect her speedy return to conduct them again to victory4 ,of the character and conduct of this singular heroine1 the most probable opinion is1 that of her being an honest and deluded enthusiast1 of whose fancies and passions the principal persons in the interest of ,charles availed themselves for deluding and rousing into exertion the passions of the people1 at a crisis of peculiar importance2 in which the maid of ,orleans was instrumental in giving a decisive turn to the contest between the ,french and ,english4 ,the exploits of ,joan of ,arc have been celebrated both in prose and verse4 ,of the latter1 the serious poem of ,chapelain has been much less successful than the burlesque and licentious one of ,voltaire2 but the injury done by it to her memory has been in some degree repaired in ,england1 by ,southey's sublime and spirited poem of ,joan of ,arc1 which exhibits her in the brightest colours of virtue and heroism4 ,,pope ,,joan4--,among the numerous individuals who have figured on the great theatre of public life1 few characters have ever been more distinguished than this celebrated lady1 who1 by a singular compound of dexterity1 secrecy1 and address1 contrived to reach the pontificate4 ,many doubts have1 indeed1 been entertained of the authenticity of the tale2 but it is well known1 that prior to the ,reformation it was sanctioned by universal belief4 ,it is said1 that about the middle of the ninth century1 a woman named ,joan1 born at ,mentz1 and who had received an excellent education1 conceiving a violent passion for a young monk named ,fulda1 resolved to desert her family and friends1 to assume the male habit1 and gain admittance into the monastery4 ,the plan succeeded2 and having long indulged in their amours undisturbed and unsuspected1 they eloped together1 and travelled into most of the countries of ,europe1 availing themselves of every opportunity for increasing their knowledge1 by engaging the assistance of the best masters in the different cities through which they passed4 ,on the death of her lover1 ,joan repaired to ,rome1 still in the dress of a man2 where her address and engaging manners raising her into notice1 she commenced the duties of professor1 and persons of the highest rank and most considerable talents enlisted in the number of her disciples4 ,at length1 on the death of pope ,leo ,x4 in #hee1 she was unanimously elected his successor to the pontifical throne4 ,so prudently did she conduct herself1 and with so much ability did she perform the duties of her station1 that the people had reason to congratulate themselves on their choice4 ,at length she confided her secret to a domestic whom she took to her bed1 the consequence of which was her pregnancy1 and she was taken in labour at one of the most solemn processions1 delivered of a child in the street1 and died on the spot4 ,it is likewise said1 that to perpetuate the memory of such an extraordinary adventure1 a statue was erected on the place where it happened2 that in abhorrence of the crime1 the pope and clergy1 in their subsequent annual processions from the ,vatican to the ,lateran1 have turned off from that street2 and that1 to prevent a similar imposition1 a custom was introduced of examining each pope previously to his consecration1 in order to ascertain his sex4 ,such are the particulars of a story that seems not to have been called in question till the time of ,luther1 but which the best informed historians usually abandon as fictitious4 ,till the ,reformation1 7says ,gibbon17 the tale was repeated and believed without offence1 and ,joan's female statue long occupied her place among the popes in the cathedral of ,sienna4 ,she has been annihilated by two learned ,protestants1 ,blondel and ,bayle1 but their brethren were scandalized by this equitable and generous criticism4 ,spanheim and ,l',enfant attempted to save this poor engine of controversy2 and even ,mosheim condescends to cherish some doubt and suspicion4 ,history of the memorable ,,sir ,,richard ,,whittington1 three times ,lord ,mayor of ,london2 in the years #acig1 #adjf4 #adai4-- ,the obscurity of the origin of this remarkable character1 has given occasion to many fabulous accounts1 but our readers may rely upon the following being the result of careful research1 from the best authorities4 ,whittington came to ,london1 from ,shropshire1 about the year #acfh1 in the reign of king ,edward ,,iii4 and in his way he chiefly lived upon the charity of well-disposed persons4 ,on his arrival in town1 he made an application to the prior of the hospital of ,st4 ,john's1 ,clerkenwell1 where he was kindly relieved2 and being handy and willing1 was soon put into an inferior post in the house4 ,how long he remained here1 is1 ,i believe1 no where mentioned2 but to the piety of this charitable foundation he was certainly indebted for his first support in ,london4 ,his next reception was in the family of ,mr4 ,fitzwarren1 a rich merchant1 whose house was in the ,minories1 near the ,tower4 ,here he undoubtedly acted as under scullion1 for his keep only4 ,in this situation he met with many crosses and difficulties2 for the servants made sport of him2 and particularly the ill-natured cook1 who was of a morose temper1 used him very ill1 and not unfrequently1 with a sturdy arm1 laid the ladle across his shoulders3 so that1 to keep in the family1 he had many a sore bout to put up with2 but his patience carried it off1 and at last he became accustomed to her choleric disposition4 ,this was not the only misfortune he laboured under2 for lying in a place for a long time unfrequented1 such abundance of rats and mice had bred there1 that they were almost ready at times to dispute the possession of the place with him1 and full as troublesome by night as the cook was by day1 so that he knew not what to think of his condition1 or how to mend it4 ,after many disquieting thoughts1 he at last comforted himself with the hopes that the cook might soon marry1 or die1 or quit her service2 and as for the rats and mice1 a cat would be an effectual remedy against them4 ,soon after1 a merchant came to dinner1 and it raining exceedingly1 he staid all night2 whose shoes ,whittington having cleaned1 and presented at his chamber door1 he gave him a penny4 ,this stock he improved1 for going along the street of an errand1 he saw a woman with a cat under her arm1 and desired to know the price of it3 the woman praised it for a good mouser1 and told him1 sixpence2 but he declaring that a penny was all his stock1 she let him have it4 ,he took the cat home1 and kept her in a box all day1 lest the cook should kill her if she came into the kitchen1 and at night he set her to work for her living4 ,puss delivered him from one plague2 but the other remained1 though not for many years4 ,it was the custom with the worthy merchant1 ,mr4 ,hugh ,fitzwarren1 that ,god might give him a greater blessing for his endeavours1 to call all his servants together when he sent out a ship1 and cause every one to venture something in it1 to try their fortunes4 ,now all but ,whittington appeared1 and brought things according to their abilities2 but his young mistress being by1 and supposing that poverty made him decline coming1 she ordered him to be called1 on which he made several excuses3 however1 being constrained to come1 he hoped they would not jeer a poor simpleton for being in expectation of turning merchant1 since all that he could lay claim to as his own1 was but a poor cat1 which he had bought for one penny1 which he had given to him for cleaning shoes1 and had much befriended him in keeping the rats and mice from him4 ,upon this1 the young lady proffered to lay something down for him1 but her father told her the custom2 it must be his own which must be ventured2 and then ordered him to bring his cat1 which he did1 but with great reluctance1 fancying nothing would come of it2 and with tears delivered it to the master of the ship1 which was called the ,unicorn1 and had fallen down to ,blackwall1 in order to proceed on her voyage4 ,on their arrival in the ,mole of ,algiers1 they heard that the plague was raging in the country1 having been but a few years before brought from ,china1 viz4 in #acdf1 at which period it was first noticed to rage in ,africa1 from whence it soon proceeded to ,europe1 overspreading the northern countries4 ,this news did not deter the captain from sending to trade on shore1 where1 at first1 they found but little encouragement1 the people of the country appearing very shy to every offer4 ,the news of the arrival of a vessel soon reached the notice of the ,dey1 who immediately ordered the captain and officers to wait upon his highness with presents2 for then1 as well as now1 nothing could be done without first bribing him4 ,after this ceremony was over1 trade went on pretty briskly1 at the conclusion of which1 his ,moorish majesty gave a grand entertainment1 which1 according to custom1 was served upon carpets1 interwoven with gold1 silver1 and purple silk4 ,this feast was no sooner served up with the various dishes1 but the scent brought together a number of rats and mice1 who unmercifully fell on all that came in their way4 ,these audacious and destructive vermin did not shew any symptoms of fear upon the approach of the company1 but1 on the contrary1 kept to it as if they only were invited4 ,this made the captain and his people very much wonder2 who1 interrogating the ,algerines1 were informed1 a very great price would be given by his highness1 the ,dey1 for a cure1 and a riddance of these vermin1 which were grown so numerously offensive1 that not only his table1 but his private apartments1 and bed1 were so infested1 that he was forced to be constantly watched for fear of being devoured4 ,this information put the ,english company immediately in mind of poor ,dick ,whittington's cat1 which had done them such notable service on the passage2 and wishing to serve the youth1 they thought this the best time to come forward with the industrious animal4 ,accordingly1 she was brought on shore the next day1 when her presence suddenly kept off most of the vermin2 a few only of the boldest daring to venture forward1 all of whom she dispatched with wonderful celerity4 ,this pleased his ,algerine highness so much1 that he immediately made very advantageous proposals to the factor of the ship for the possession of this surprising and useful animal4 ,at first our people seemed very reluctant to part with it2 but his liberality soon overcame every objection2 and her purchase amounted1 in various commodities1 to several thousands of pounds4 ,during the time the ,english remained here1 her industry in destroying those noxious vermin so completely pleased the ,moorish chief1 that1 at our people's departure1 he again loaded them with rich presents4 ,the cook1 who little thought how advantageous ,whittington's cat would prove1 had kept up such a continual alarm of noise and reproach at the poor youth's unfortunate penury1 that he grew weary of enduring it1 and not the least expecting what followed1 he resolved rather to try his fortune again in the wide world1 than lead any longer such a disagreeable life4 ,for this step he might be blamed1 as1 had he complained to his master1 who was a kind gentleman1 the difference would have been set to rights1 and he1 not like a ,jonas1 cast out4 ,with this resolution1 however1 he set out early on ,allhallows morning1 resolving to go into the country1 and get into a more agreeable service4 ,as he went over ,finsbury ,moor1 since called ,moor-fields1 his mind began to fail2 he hesitated1 and halted several times3 he grew pensive1 and his resolution left him4 ,in this solitary manner he wandered on until he reached ,holloway1 where he sat down upon a large stone1 which remains there to be seen to this day4 ,here he began to ruminate in earnest upon his ill-luck in not pleasing the cook2 and in the depth of his meditation1 he suddenly heard ,bow bells strike out for a peal4 ,this changed his attention2 for1 as he listened1 on a sudden1 he fancied they called him back again to his master4 ,the more he hearkened1 the more he became confirmed in this notion of his recall1 conceiting the bells expressed the following distich3-- ,,return ,,again1 ,,whittington1 ,,thrice ,,lord ,,mayor ,,of ,,london4 ,this proved a happy thought for him2 and it made so great an impression on his fancy1 that1 finding it early1 and thinking he might yet get back before the family were stirring1 he instantly turned upon his heel1 and reaching home in less time than he went out1 he got in unperceived to his usual daily drudgery4 ,things were in this situation when the news arrived of the success of the voyage2 and that night he was installed with the appellation of ,mr4 by his master1 who informed him1 that his ship had just arrived at ,blackwall1 being the richest vessel of her burden that had ever floated into an ,english port4 ,his master concluded his discourse with a pious admonition to all his servants1 after which they all joined in a thanksgiving to the ,almighty for such a prosperous voyage4 ,the cook was among the first to change her demeanor towards ,whittington1 calling him ,sir1 and inviting him to such and such relishes as the kitchen afforded4 ,when the bill of lading was presented to the merchant1 the principal part was found to belong to ,mr4 ,whittington1 amongst which was a cabinet of rich jewels1 the last present of the ,dey4 ,this was the first thing brought to ,mr4 ,fitzwarren's house1 it being deemed too valuable to remain on board4 ,when the servants' goods for their ventures were all brought up to be divided1 ,mr4 ,whittington's was too bulky to be unpacked before them2 but the pearls and jewels alone were estimated at several thousand pounds4 ,the humility of ,mr4 ,whittington's mind arising from a strong sense of his duty to society in general1 prevented his temper from exhilarating into arrogance1 petulance1 or superciliousness3 though suddenly grown rich1 and become equal to the first merchants in the city1 pride had no share in the change of his circumstances4 ,on the contrary1 at first1 he could hardly be prevailed upon to let the scullery alone2 but ,mr4 ,fitzwarren took much pains with him1 and introduced him to the first characters in town1 not omitting the court1 as well as the clergy and military1 who at that time were reckoned the most agreeable connections4 ,king ,edward the ,third being then at war with the ,french1 and preparing for the siege of ,rochelle1 solicited all the privileged orders in the kingdom for a subsidy to carry on his expedition4 ,the loyalty of the city of ,london induced them to offer a large gift in their corporate capacity4 ,in this scheme ,mr4 ,whittington joined1 and paid in #aj1jjj1 an astonishing sum in those days from an individual2 but the military ardour of the country has always been remarkable2 hence it is not wonderful that an enterprising and fortunate young man should come forward with so large a sum1 when it is considered that history has almost left us in the dark as to the remuneration expected4 ,be this as it may1 history places it in the #dfth year of the king's reign1 ,a4 ,d4 #acgb4 ,what contributed much at this time in favour of ,whittington1 was the absence of the ,lombard merchants1 who withdrew themselves from ,london1 on account of the oppression of the king1 which became excessive towards the latter end of his reign1 for continual draughts to support his ambition in ,france4 ,these1 and the ,jews abroad1 conducted at that time the whole financial commerce of the city of ,london2 but ,mr4 ,whittington1 upon their departure1 came in for a considerable share of it4 ,we are now regularly come to the last year of king ,edward's reign1 the fifty-second1 when the ,lords and ,commons granted the king a poll-tax1 at four-pence a head1 for every man and woman passing the age of fourteen years1 beggars excepted4 ,the clergy at the same time granted twelve-pence for every person beneficed2 and of all other religious persons1 four-pence by the poll1 the four orders of ,friars ,mendicants only excepted4 ,here it is worth observing1 that the king demanding of the city of ,london to advance him #djjj1 upon this poll1 and the ,mayor1 ,adam ,staple1 proving backward in performing the same1 he was by the king turned out of that office1 and ,sir ,richard ,whittington put into his place1 to finish the year2 and this is the first mention of his being knighted1 and of his great importance in the city at that time1 being only about ten years after his arrival there1 in circumstances so widely different4 ,according to ,stow1 ,sir ,richard ,whittington was a great dealer in wool1 leather1 cloth1 and pearls1 which were universally worn at that time by the ladies4 ,in #acgg1 the first year of king ,richard ,,ii4 he was called by summons to the parliament that met at ,london1 which commenced at ,michaelmas1 and lasted till the feast of ,st4 ,andrew1 when it was dissolved by the mutinous conduct of the ,londoners1 and adjourned to ,northampton the following year1 where was passed the noted poll-tax1 the collecting of which occasioned and created the rebellion of ,wat ,tyler and ,jack ,straw4 ,in #acie1 the eighteenth of this king's reign1 ,edmund1 duke of ,york1 the king's uncle1 held a parliament at ,london1 the king being absent in ,ireland2 and relating to the citizens the great streights the king was reduced to in ,ireland1 they granted him a tenth upon their personal estates2 first protesting that they were not in rigour of right obliged to it1 but that they did it out of affection4 ,the mission to this parliament1 we are particularly informed by ,sir ,robert ,cotton1 from ,leland's papers1 was managed by the uprightness and good judgment of ,sir ,richard ,whittington4 ,thus he grew in riches and fame the most considerable of the citizens1 greatly beloved by all1 especially the poor1 several hundreds of whom he publicly or secretly assisted or supplied4 ,about this time it was that he married his master's daughter1 ,miss ,fitzwarren2 and at their wedding were present1 among other noble characters1 the ,lord ,mayor1 ,aldermen c4 c4 ,according to the pretorian banner1 once existing in ,guildhall1 but since destroyed by the fire which consumed the city archives1 ,whittington served his first mayoralty in #acig4 ,he was now near forty years of age1 of a goodly form1 and chosen into the office by his fellow citizens1 whose approbation of his conduct1 after his having once before filled the office1 when king ,edward put him in1 is a sound and substantial proof that he was a good1 loyal1 and patriotic man4 ,sir ,richard's second mayoralty occurred in #adjf1 in the reign of ,henry ,,iv4 ,his third and last service of mayor happened in #adai1 in ,henry the ,fifth's time1 in which situation he behaved with his usual prudence4 ,though age had now taken off much of his activity1 yet he was the most vigilant magistrate of his time4 ,soon after ,henry's conquest of ,france1 ,sir ,richard entertained him and his queen at ,guildhall1 in such grand style1 that he was pleased to say1 ,never prince had such a subject2 and conferred upon some of the aldermen the honour of knighthood4 ,at this entertainment1 the king particularly praised the fire1 which was made of choice wood1 mixed with mace1 cloves1 and all other spices2 on which ,sir ,richard said1 he would endeavour to make one still more agreeable to his majesty1 and immediately tore1 and threw into the fire1 the king's bond for #aj1jjj marks1 due to the company of ,mercers2 #ab1ejj to the ,chamber of ,london2 #ba1jjj to the ,mercers1 ,staplers1 ,goldsmiths1 ,haberdashers1 ,vintners1 ,brewers1 and ,bakers2 #c1jjj marks each4 ,all these1 7said ,sir ,richard17 with divers others sent for the payment of your soldiers in ,france1 ,i have taken in and discharged1 to the amount of #fj1jjj sterling4 ,can your majesty desire to see such another sight8 ,the king and nobles were struck dumb with surprise at his wealth and liberality4 ,sir ,richard spent the remainder of his days in honourable retirement at home1 in his house in ,grub-street1 beloved by the rich and the poor4 ,by his wife he left two sons1 some of whose posterity are still worthy citizens4 ,he built many charitable houses1 founded a church in ,vintry ward1 and dedicated it to ,st4 ,michael4 ,here he built a handsome vault1 for the sepulchre of his father and mother-in-law1 and the remainder of the ,fitzwarren family1 and where himself and wife lay afterwards4 ,this ,richard ,whittington was 7in this church7 three times buried2 first by his executors1 under a fair monument2 then in the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 the parson of that church1 thinking some great riches 7as he said7 to be buried with him1 caused his monument to be broken1 his body to be spoiled of his leaden sheet1 and again the second time to be buried2 and in the reign of queen ,mary1 the parishioners were forced to take him up to wrap him in lead1 as afore1 to bury him a third time1 and to place his monument1 or the like1 over him again2 which remained1 and so he rested1 till the great fire of ,london violated his resting-place again4 ,this church of ,st4 ,michael ,pater-noster in the ,vintry1 the ,capital ,house1 and site thereof1 called ,whittington ,college1 alias ,whittington1 and one garden belonging to the same1 of the yearly value of four pounds1 six shillings1 and eight-pence1 was sold to ,armagill ,waad1 clerk of the council1 in the second of ,edward ,,vi4 for ninety-two pounds two shillings4 ,in #adac1 he founded an alms-house and college in the ,vintry1 which was afterwards suppressed by order of council in king ,edward the ,sixth's time3 but his alms-houses on ,college-hill remain2 these are under the direction of the ,mercer's company1 who allow each pensioner #cs4 #aj;d4 per week4 ,sir ,richard built the gate and prison of ,newgate as it formerly stood2 gave large sums to ,bartholomew's ,hospital2 founded a ,library in ,grey ,friars2 endowed ,christ's ,hospital with a considerable sum2 built ,guildhall chapel1 and the east end of the ,hall4 ,dame ,alice1 his wife1 died in the #fc;d year of her age2 after which he never re-married1 though he outlived her near twenty years4 ,at last he died like the patriarch1 full of age and honour1 leaving a good name to posterity2 and the following epitaph was cut on the upper stone of his vault1 and continued perfect till destroyed by the fire of ,london3-- ,m4 ,s4 ,beneath this stone lies ,whittington1 ,sir ,richard rightly nam'd2 ,who three times ,lord ,mayor serv'd in ,london1 ,in which he ne'er was blam'd4 ,he rose from ,indigence to ,wealth1 ,by ,industry and that1 ,for lo6 he scorn'd to gain by stealth1 ,what he got by a ,cat4 ,let none who reads this verse despair ,of ,providence's ways3 ,who trust in him1 he'll make his care1 ,and prosper all their days4 ,then sing a requiem to departed merit1 ,and rest in peace till death demands his spirit4 ,,the ,,travelling ,,faquirs4 ,the following curious circumstance in natural history is related by a gentleman of veracity1 learning1 and abilities1 who filled a considerable post in the ,company's ,service in ,india4-- ,the ,,travelling ,,faquirs in this country are a kind of superstitious devotees1 who pretend to great zeal in religion1 but are1 in fact1 the most vicious and profligate wretches in the world4 ,they wander about the country here1 as the gipsies do with you2 and having some little smattering of physic1 music1 or other arts1 they introduce themselves by these means wherever they go4 ,one of them called a few days ago at my house1 who had a beautiful large snake in a basket1 which he made rise up and dance about to the tune of a pipe on which he played4 ,it happened that my out-house and farm-yard had for some time been infested with snakes1 which had killed me several turkeys1 geese1 ducks1 fowls1 and even a cow and a bullock4 ,my servants asked this man whether he could pipe these snakes out of their holes1 and catch them8 ,he answered them in the affirmative1 and they carried him instantly to the place where one of the snakes had been seen4 ,he began piping1 and in a short time the snake came dancing to him3 the fellow caught him by the nape of the neck1 and brought him to me4 ,as ,i was incredulous1 ,i did not go to see this first operation2 but as he took this beast so expeditiously1 and ,i still suspected some trick1 ,i desired him to go and catch another1 and went with him myself to observe his motions4 ,he began by abusing the snake1 and ordering him to come out of his hole instantly1 and not be angry1 otherwise he would cut his throat and suck his blood4 ,i cannot swear that the snake heard and understood this elegant invocation4 ,he then began piping with all his might1 lest the snake should be deaf2 he had not piped above five minutes1 when an amazing large cobra capella 7the most venomous kind of serpent7 popped his head out of a hole in the room4 ,when the man saw his nose1 he approached nearer to him1 and piped more vehemently1 till the snake was more than half out1 and ready to make a dart at him2 he then piped only with one hand1 and advanced the other under the snake as it was raising itself to make the spring4 ,when the snake darted at his body1 he made a snatch at his tail1 which he caught very dexterously1 and held the creature very fast1 without the least apprehension of being bit1 until my servants dispatched it4 ,i had often heard this story of snakes being charmed out of their holes by music2 but never believed it1 till ,i had this ocular demonstration of the fact4 ,in the space of an hour the ,faquir caught five very venomous snakes close about my house4#bf ,,incubus1 ,,or ,,nightmare4 ,this strange affection or complaint1 which is more generally known by the term ,nightmare1 than by that of ,incubus1 has obtained a considerable degree of notice in the world1 from the singular manner in which it seizes its victims4 ,the term ,incubus is derived from the ,latin incubare1 signifying to sit or lie upon1 which very forcibly expresses the nature of the disease4 ,hence1 many have thought1 and they even continue to think1 that some incomprehensible creature1 being1 or agent1 actually sits or lies upon them while sleeping1 from which they suffer acute torment and oppression1 bordering on suffocation4 ,many also have even affirmed1 that while they have been lying perfectly awake1 they have perceived this nightly tormentor creeping slowly over their feet1 and have watched its advances until it has taken its seat on the breast1 and inflicted those severe sufferings which no language can fully describe4 ,but we shall consider the nightmare rather as a disease1 than the creature of imagination4 ,this disorder seizes persons while sleeping1 who imagine that they feel an extraordinary compression or weight about the breast and stomach1 which they cannot by any effort shake off4 ,in this agony they sigh1 groan1 and utter indistinct sounds2 sometimes they cry out1 but more frequently they attempt to speak1 or to move in vain4 ,these feelings give rise to various frightful suggestions of the imagination3 the patient fancies himself to be struggling with strong men or devils1 or to be in a house on fire1 or in danger of being drowned in the sea or some river2 and in attempting to run away from danger1 or climb up a hill1 he fancies he falls back as much after every step as he had advanced before4 ,at length the sensations of oppression become intolerable1 and the patient awakes2 but the terror excited by the frightful ideas attending the nightmare1 leaves often a palpitation of the heart1 with great anxiety and languor1 and sometimes a tingling of the ears1 and a tremor over the whole body4 ,it is altogether unnecessary to attempt an enumeration of the numerous hypothetical explanations which have been attempted to be given of the phenomenon of incubus1 and which have been detailed by ,awen1 ,bond1 and other writers4 ,the disorder has commonly been supposed to proceed from a stagnation of the blood in the sinuses of the brain1 or in the vessels of the lungs1 or from too great a quantity of blood being sent to the head4 ,the horizontal posture1 in time of sleep1 and the pressure of the stomach upon the aorta1 in a supine situation1 have been thought sufficient to occasion a more than usual distention of the sinuses and other vessels of the brain2 and the weight of the heart1 pressing on the left auricle and large trunks of the pulmonary veins1 may1 it is supposed1 prevent the easy return of the blood from the lungs1 and thus produce an oppression and sense of weight and suffocation in the breast4 ,but without entering into a particular examination of these opinions1 which are far from being satisfactory1 we may observe1 with ,dr4 ,whytt1 that1 if they were true1 some degree of the nightmare ought to happen to every body that lies upon his back1 especially after eating a full meal4 ,further1 if a horizontal situation could overcharge the brain with blood1 so as to occasion the incubus1 how comes it that people1 who remain for some time in an inverted posture1 do not feel this disease beginning to attack them8 ,and why does a slighter degree of the nightmare sometimes seize people who sleep in an erect situation in a chair8 a circumstance which sometimes occurs1 not only after eating1 but when the stomach is out of order1 and troubled with wind4 ,as the weight of the stomach1 even when filled with food1 can have scarcely any effect upon the motion of the blood in the aorta1 so the pressure of the heart is by much too small to be able sensibly to retard the motion of that fluid in the pulmonary veins2 otherwise1 people exhausted by tedious diseases1 who generally lie on their back1 would be constantly affected with the incubus4 ,we know that certain medicines or poisons1 worms1 and even corrupted bile1 or other humours1 by disagreeably affecting the nerves of the stomach1 produce an oppression about the breast1 wild imaginations1 frightful dreams1 raving1 and insensibility2 and there is no doubt that low spirits1 melancholy1 and disturbed sleep1 often proceed from a disordered state of the stomach4 ,it seems1 therefore1 more probable that the seat of nightmare is principally in that organ4 ,it is well ascertained1 that some forms of epilepsy1 and of hysterical fits1 originate from disorder in that viscus2 and ,galen considered the incubus as a nocturnal or slighter epilepsy4 ,people troubled with nervous and hypochondriac affections1 and who have delicate or flatulent stomachs1 are more peculiarly subject to this disorder2 and it is observed1 that a heavy or flatulent supper greatly aggravates the nightmare1 in those who are predisposed to it4 ,the sympathy of the stomach with the head1 heart1 lungs1 and diaphragm1 is so remarkable1 that there can be no difficulty in referring the several symptoms of the incubus to a disagreeable irritation of the nerves of the stomach4 ,the incubus is most apt to seize persons when lying on their back1 because1 in this position1 on account of the stomach and other abdominal viscera pressing more upon the diaphragm1 we cannot inspire with the same ease as when we sit up or lie on one side4 ,further1 in that situation of the body the food seems to lie heavier on the stomach1 and wind in it does not separate so readily by the sophagus and pylorus1 as in an erect posture1 when these orifices are higher than the other parts of the stomach4 ,the nightmare only occurs in the time of sleep1 because the strange ideas excited in the mind1 in consequence of the disordered feelings of the stomach1 are not then corrected by the external senses1 as they are when we are awake2 nor do we1 by an increased respiration or other motions of the body1 endeavour to shake off any beginning uneasy sensation about the stomach or breast4 ,the incubus generally occurs in the first sleep1 and seldom towards morning1 because at the earlier period the stomach is more loaded with food1 and that in a more crude and indigested state than in the morning4 ,a lesser degree1 amounting only to frightful dreams1 is almost a constant concomitant of overloaded stomach in some habits4 ,in fact1 if the nightmare were owing to a stagnation of the blood in the lungs from the weight of the heart1 or in the sinuses and other vessels of the brain1 from the horizontal posture of the body1 it would become greater the longer it continued1 and would scarcely ever go off spontaneously4 ,but we know that this disease1 after affecting people for some time1 often gradually ceases1 and is succeeded by refreshing sleep3 for as soon as the load of meat1 or wind1 or other cause disagreeably affecting the nerves of the stomach1 is removed1 the oppression and weight on the breast1 wild imaginations1 frightful dreams1 c4 vanish2 as all these proceed originally from the disorder of the stomach4 ,it may be remarked1 however1 that1 as neither flatulency1 phlegm1 nor crudities in the stomach1 ever produce the symptoms of hypochondriasis1 unless the nerves of that organ be indisposed2 so neither a horizontal posture1 sleep1 nor heavy suppers1 ever produce the nightmare1 at least in any considerable degree1 unless the person be already predisposed to the complaint1 from the particular condition of the nerves of the stomach4 ,but although the stomach is the part commonly affected primarily in the case of incubus2 yet symptoms like those of the nightmare may sometimes arise without any fault of the stomach1 when the lungs1 or even the brain1 are affected4 ,thus ,dr4 ,whytt observes1 that asthmatic patients1 whose lungs are much obstructed1 are sometimes disturbed1 in time of sleep1 with distressing dreams1 and oppressed with a sense of suffocation4 ,startings and oppressions about the prcordia1 with painful dreams1 are indeed common occurrences from hydrothorax1 chronic coughs1 and other pulmonary obstructions2 but they are not strictly analogous to the common nightmare4 ,dr4 ,lower mentions a patient1 who1 though he could sleep pretty easily with his head inclined forward2 yet1 in the opposite situation1 he was always soon awaked with horrid dreams and tremors2 the cause of which appeared1 after his death1 to have been a great quantity of water in the ventricles of the brain4 ,at all events1 a plethoric state of habit1 by rendering the circulation through the lungs less free1 may help to produce1 or at least increase1 the oppression of the breast in the nightmare4 ,the ,cure4--,as incubus1 then1 is only a symptom of disordered or loaded stomach1 and arises out of the irritation and morbid feelings which are thus produced during sleep1 the relief of the disease1 generally speaking1 lies within a narrow compass4 ,temperance in eating and drinking1 especially at late hours2 taking1 in fact1 either extremely light suppers or none at all2 and when the dinner is so late as to be only a supper with another name1 being cautious that that also should be moderate in quantity1 and easily digestible and unstimulating in its nature2 drinking thin1 sub-acid liquors1 where these are agreeable to the constitution1--these are the principal remedies required4 ,brisk active exercise1 by which the digestive powers may be aided and the stomach strengthened1 is also advisable4 ,it were useful1 too1 to sleep with high pillows1 and to lie on the side as much as possible1 in preference to the back4 ,if the functions of the stomach are much disordered with flatulency1 heartburn1 acidity1 or oppression1 with pain1 or nausea1 after taking food1 the usual remedies recommended for indigestion must be resorted to4 ,the bowels should be kept open4 ,see ,whytt on ,nervous ,disorders1 chap4 vi4 #ah4 ,,celebrated ,,speech ,,on ,,religion4 ,the ,editor of this work well recollects1 many years ago1 reading in a newspaper a most interesting speech on religion1 delivered by a ,french priest2 it made a great impression on his mind at the time1 and he frequently regretted he had not transcribed it4 ,he made all inquiry possible1 but could not meet with the interesting article till seventeen years had elapsed1 when it was published by a person who had preserved the paper in question4 ,it is now presented to the reader as a curiosity worthy of his notice4--,this speech was delivered at the ,bar of the ,french ,convention1 and is copied from the ,cambridge ,intelligencer of ,march #bdth1 #agih4 ,a few days after the archbishop of ,paris and his vicars had set the example of renouncing their clerical character1 a rector from a village on the banks of the ,rhone1 followed by some of his parishioners1 with an offering of gold and silver saints and chalices1 rich vestments1 c4 presented himself at the bar of the convention4 ,the rector1 a thin venerable-looking man1 with gray hairs1 was ordered to speak4 ,i come 7said he7 from the village of ----1 where the only good building standing is a very fine church3 my parishioners beg you will take it1 to make an hospital for the sick and wounded of both parties1 they being both equally our countrymen4 ,the gold and silver1 part of which we have brought to you1 they entreat you will devote to the service of the state1 and that you will cast the bells into cannon1 to drive away its foreign invaders4 ,for myself1 ,i came with great pleasure to resign my letters of ordination1 of induction1 and every deed and title by which ,i have been constituted a member of your ecclesiastical polity4 ,here are the papers2 you may burn them1 if you please1 in the same fire with genealogical trees and patents of nobility4 ,i desire1 likewise1 that you will discontinue my salary2 ,i am still able to support myself by the labour of my hands1 and ,i beg you to believe1 that ,i never felt sincerer joy than ,i now do in making this renunciation4 ,i have longed to see this day6 ,i see it1 and am glad4 ,when the old man had thus far spoken1 the applauses were immoderate4 ,the rector did not seem greatly elated with these tokens of approbation3 he retired back a few steps1 and thus resumed his discourse3-- ,before you applaud my sentiments1 it is fit you should understand them2 perhaps they may not entirely coincide with your own4 ,i rejoice in this day1 not because ,i wish to see religion degraded1 but because ,i wish to see it exalted and purified4 ,by dissolving its alliance with the state1 you have given it dignity and independence4 ,you have done it a piece of service2 a service which its well-wishers would perhaps never have had courage to render it1 but which is the only thing wanted to make it appear in its genuine beauty and lustre4 ,nobody will now say of me1 when ,i am performing the offices of religion1 ',it is a trade2 he is paid for telling the people such and such things2 he is hired to keep up a useless piece of mummery4' ,they cannot say this1 and therefore ,i feel myself raised in my own esteem1 and shall speak to them with a confidence and a frankness1 which before this ,i never durst venture to assume4 ,we resign without reluctance our gold and silver images1 and embroidered vestments1 because we never have found that looking upon gold and silver made the heart more pure1 or the affections more heavenly2 we can also spare our churches1 for the heart that wishes to lift itself up to ,god1 will never be at a loss for a place to do it in3 but we cannot spare religion1 because1 to tell you the truth1 we never had so much occasion for it4 ,i understand that you accuse us priests of having told the people a great many falsehoods4 ,i suspect this may have been the case1 but till this day we have never been allowed to inquire whether the things which we taught them were true or not4 ,i cannot but hope1 however1 that the errors we have fallen into have not been very material1 since the village has in general been sober and good2 the peasants honest1 docile1 and laborious2 the husbands love their wives1 and the wives their husbands2 they are fortunately not too rich to be compassionate1 and they have constantly relieved the sick and fugitives of all parties1 whenever it has lain in their way4 ,i think1 therefore1 what ,i have taught them cannot be so much amiss4 ,you want to extirpate priests3 but will you hinder the ignorant from applying for instruction1 the unhappy for comfort and hope1 the unlearned from looking up to the learned8 ,if you do not1 you will have priests1 by whatever name you may order them to be called2 but it is certainly not necessary they should wear a particular dress1 or be appointed by state letters of ordination4 ,my letters of ordination are my zeal1 charity1 and my ardent love for the children of the village3 if ,i were more learned1 ,i would add knowledge2 but1 alas6 we all know very little3 to a man every error is pardonable1 but want of humanity4 ,we have a public walk1 with a spreading elm-tree at one end of it1 and a circle of green around it1 with a convenient bench4 ,here ,i shall draw together the children that are playing round me3 ,i shall point to the vines laden with fruit1 to the orchard1 to the herds of cattle lowing round us1 to the distant hills stretching one behind another2 and they will ask me1 how came all these things8 ,i shall tell them all ,i know2 what ,i have heard from the wise men who have lived before me2 they will be penetrated with love and adoration6 ,they will kneel2 ,i shall kneel with them2 they will not be at my feet1 but all of us at the feet of that good ,being1 whom we shall worship together1 and thus they will receive within their tender minds a religion4 ,the old men will come sometimes1 from having deposited under the green sod one of their companions1 and place themselves by my side3 they will look wistfully at the turf1 and anxiously inquire1--,is he gone for ever8 ,shall we soon be like him8 ,will no morning break over the tomb8 ,when the wicked cease from troubling1 will the good cease from doing good8 ,we will talk of these things3 ,i will comfort them2 ,i will tell them of the goodness of ,god2 ,i will speak to them of a life to come2 ,i will bid them hope for a state of retribution4 ,you have changed our holidays2 you have an undoubted right1 as our civil governors1 so to do3 it is very immaterial whether they are kept once in seven days1 or once in ten2 some1 however1 you will leave us1 and when they occur1 ,i shall tell those who choose to hear me1 of the beauty and utility of virtue1 and of the dignity of right conduct4 ,there is a book out of which ,i have sometimes taught my people2 it says we are to love those who do us hurt1 and to pour oil and wine into the wounds of the stranger4 ,in this book we read of ,christ ,jesus3 some worship him as a ,god2 others1 as ,i am told1 say it is wrong to do so2 some teach that he existed before the beginning of ages2 others1 that he was born of ,joseph and ,mary4 ,i cannot tell whether these controversies will ever be decided3 but1 in the mean time1 ,i think we cannot do otherwise than well in imitating him--for ,i learn that he loved the poor1 and went about doing good4 ,addenda to ,,vesuvius4--,see page #dda4 ,a grand eruption of ,vesuvius took place on ,sunday night1 ,feb4 #bd1 #ahbb4 ,it continued for several days4 ,the following is an extract from a private letter1 dated ,naples1 ,march #h1 #ahbb4-- ,towards the evening of ,tuesday1 ,february the #bfth1 as appearances promised a good night's work1 we set off from ,naples to view the operations nearer2 the road to ,resina was covered with people going and returning1 as if a fair had been in the vicinity4 ,when we reached the spot where strangers are on common occasions surrounded by guides1 and asses1 and mules1 to conduct them up to the mountain1 we found that no animals were to be procured1 and it was with difficulty we could get a stupid old man for a cicerone1 who rendered us no other service than carrying a torch4 ,the ascent was thronged with people1 some pushing on eagerly to the object of their curiosities1 and others returning1 and discussing what they had seen4 ,far below ,san ,salvator we saw the stream of fire rolling along a wide hollow1 and approaching the path by which we were going up3 it was then1 however1 at a considerable distance1 and its course was very slow4 ,on reaching the hermitage1 we refreshed ourselves as well as the crowd there assembled would permit2 we then continued our journey1 and approached the lava1 which was chiefly formed by the eruption of ,january1 #ahba4 ,we found it about thirty feet wide2 it was not liquid lava1 but consisted of ashes1 ignited stones1 and old masses of volcanic ejections1 swept away by the present eruption1 and heated again4 ,these lumps1 rolling over each other1 produced a strange clinking noise4 ,some of them were of a very great size2 and the whole stream1 though descending a steep cone1 moved but slowly4 ,beyond this principal stream1 midway up the cone1 was an opening1 whence very large stones and other burning matters were continually thrust out4 ,this mouth fed a scattered stream1 beyond which was another narrow stream1 proceeding like the principal one from the crater4 ,they both united with the main body in the deep hollow below1 and rolled on towards the road which leads from ,resina up to the hermitage4 ,the multitude of the spectators standing by the sides of the burning river being seized with astonishment1 we1 with a great many of the more adventurous1 determined to ascend the cone2 we therefore passed a little to the left of the great stream1 and began to scramble to the deep loose cinders and ashes which cover this part of the mountain1 and render it at all times a most fatiguing climb4 ,a little path or track formerly existed1 in which the guides laid masses of lava to facilitate the mounting1 but it was just in that line that the present eruption descended1 and we were in consequence obliged to go up over the sand and cinders1 in which we frequently stuck up to our knees1 and1 at every three steps1 lost one on an average4 ,after a most fatiguing toil of an hour and a half1 we found ourselves1 with a few others1 on the edge of the grand crater3 hence the coup d'oeil was terrifically sublime2 the flames rushed out of the mouth1 and threw themselves in the air in a broad body to the elevation of at least a hundred feet1 whilst many of the fiery stones flew up twice that height4 ,sometimes the flames fell back into the mouth of the crater1 and then burst out again1 as though impelled by a fresh impulse1 like the blast of a bellows4 ,in their descent1 some of the stones and lumps of cinder returned into the mouth1 but the greater part fell outside of the flames1 like the jets of a fountain4 ,while we were standing on the exposed side of the crater1 very intent in observation1 all of a sudden the volcano gave a tremendous roar4 ,it was like the crash of a long line of artillery1 and was instantly succeeded by such a discharge of stones as we had never before seen4 ,at the same moment1 the wind1 which was very high1 gave an irregular gust1 which directed a great part of the stones towards the place where we were posted4 ,hence our situation was for a minute or two very perilous2 but there was no shelter near1 and we stood still1 looking at the descending shower which fell around us4 ,we1 however1 happily sustained no other injury than a short alarm1 and having some ashes dashed in our faces by stones which fell near us4 ,two or three gentlemen who were ascending the cone after us1 were not quite so fortunate1 for many of the stones falling outside of the ridge1 rolled down the side with great velocity1 loosening and carrying with them lumps of cold lava1 c4 some of which struck those persons on the legs with great violence1 and nearly precipitated one of them headlong to the foot of the cone4 ,after this1 we thought we had seen enough1 and turned to go down4 ,the descent is as easy as the ascent is difficult2 the cinders and ashes sliding away beneath the feet1 nothing further is necessary than to step out1 the quicker the better1 to keep one's equilibrium1 and to avoid the fixed or large stones and pieces of lava4 ,we were not more than ten minutes in reaching the point whence it had taken us an hour and a half to mount4 ,in coming down1 we were struck with the strange appearance of the torches of companies ascending and descending2 they formed a pale wavering line from ,resina to the hermitage2 and thence to the cone1 they were scattered about in thick and fantastic groups4 ,on reaching the hermitage1 we found it so crowded1 that we could not enter4 ,the large flat around was covered like a crowded fair1 by people of all nations1 and of all ranks1 from the beautiful and accomplished countess of ,fiquelmont1 wife of the ,austrian ambassador1 to the ,austrian sergeant and his wife1 who had come to see the blazing mountain4 ,numbers of people had come from towns and villages below1 with bread and wine1 and fruit and aqua-vitae1 all of which articles seemed in very great demand4 ,the motley scene was illuminated by the bright silvery moon1 and the red towering flames at the summit of the volcano4 ,we took some slight refreshments1 and repaired homewards in the midst of as merry groups as ever returned from scenes of festivity and joy4 ,when we got lower down1 we found that the lava had approached very near to the road1 and had already seized upon a fine vineyard1 which was blazing very brilliantly4 ,after our retreat1 we learned that the lava traversed the road4 ,on ,wednesday1 the #bgth1 the eruption was in a great measure tranquillized2 still1 however1 crowds of people continued going up the mountain2 and an ,austrian officer1 who had come from ,caspua to see it1 was unfortunately killed on the ridge of the cone1 by a large stone striking him on the head4 ,on ,thursday scarcely any thing but smoke issued from the crater1 and it has continued from that time in the same peaceful state4 ,,anagrams4 ,in ,the ,book of ,curiosities1 even that mechanical1 yet curiously fortuitous species of wit1 called the ,anagram1 must not escape notice4 ,it can scarcely be necessary to premise1 that anagram1 or metagram1 is the dissolution of a word into its letters1 as its elements2 and then1 by a new connection of them1 making some perfect sense1 applicable to the person or thing named4 ,as there are some modern ones of this sort1 exhibiting astonishing coincidences1 we shall here subjoin a selection of the best3-- ,,lo ,i ,,dress1 ,soldiers4--',,tis ,,ye ,,govern1 ,sovereignty4--,,spare ,,him ,,not1 ,misanthrope4--,,great ,,helps1 ,telegraphs4--,,no ,,more ,,stars1 ,astronomers4--,,no ,,charm1 ,monarch4--,,march ,,on1 ,monarch4--,,comical ,,trade1 ,democratical4--,,best ,,in ,,prayer1 ,presbyterian4--,a ,,just ,,master1 ,james ,stuart4--,,to ,,love ,,ruin1 ,revolution4--,,oh ,,poison ,,pitt1 ,th' ,opposition4--,,honor ,,est ,a ,,nilo1 ,horatio ,nelson4--,a ,,bear ,,upon ',t1 ,buonaparte4 ,the unhappy ,sir ,edmundburie ,godfry1 having dared1 as a magistrate1 to take some legal depositions against the ,papists1 was1 by three of those fellow-subjects1 ,green1 ,berry1 and ,hill1 waylaid1 and shockingly murdered1 in #afgh1 upon which was then written1 ,i ,,find ,,murder',d ,,by ,,rogues ,sir ,edmundburie ,godfry4 ,,modern ,,dictionary4 ,to illustrate life at the present day1 we insert the following whimsical ,encyclopdia of ,manners at the ,commencement of the ,nineteenth ,century6 ,age 444 ,an infirmity nobody owns4 ,at ,home 444 ,the domestic amusement of three hundred visitors in a small room1 to yawn at each other4 ,bore 444 ,every thing one dislikes2 it also means any person who talks of religion4 ,buying 444 ,ordering goods without purpose of paying4 ,chariot 444 ,a vehicle for one's servants1 the dickey being the seat for the ladies1 and the coach-box for the gentleman4 ,charity 444 ,a golden ticket to ,catalani1 or any other favourite performer4 ,coachman 444 ,a gentleman or accomplished nobleman4 ,common ,sense 444 ,a vulgar quality4 ,conscience 444 ,something to swear by4 ,day 444 ,night2 or1 strictly speaking1 from ten in the evening to six in the morning4 ,debt 444 ,a necessary evil4 ,decency 444 ,keeping up an appearance4 ,dress 444 ,half naked4 ,duty 444 ,doing as other people do4 ,economy 444 ,obsolete4 ,fashion 444 ,the ,je ne scai quoi of excellence4 ,fortune 444 ,the ,summum ,bonum4 ,friend 444 ,meaning not known4 ,highly-accomplished 444 ,reading music at sight1 painting flowers for the borders of a screen1 and a talent for guessing charades4 ,home 444 ,every one's house but your own4 ,honour 444 ,standing fire well4 ,hospitality 444 ,obsolete4 ,husband 444 ,a person to pay your debts4 ,love 444 ,the meaning not known1 now that the ossification of the heart has become a fashionable disease2 but the word is still to be found in novels and romances4 ,matrimony 444 ,a bargain4 ,modest 444 ,sheepish4 ,morning 444 ,from noon to sunset4 ,music 444 ,execution4 ,new 444 ,delightful4 ,nonsense 444 ,polite conversation4 ,not at ,home 444 ,sitting in your own drawing-room4 ,pay 444 ,only applied to visits4 ,piety 444 ,hypocrisy4 ,prodigality 444 ,generosity4 ,prudence 444 ,parsimony4 ,quiz 444 ,any inoffensive person1 out of your own circle4 ,religion 444 ,occupying a seat in some genteel chapel4 ,spirit 444 ,contempt of decorum and morality4 ,style 444 ,splendid extravagance4 ,time 444 ,only regarded in music4 ,truth 444 ,meaning uncertain4 ,vice 444 ,any fault in horses1 dogs1 and servants4 ,wicked 444 ,irresistibly agreeable4 ,world 444 ,the circle of fashionable people when in town4 ,,recipe ,,for ,,establishing ,,true ,,friendship4 ,in ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 we find a curious recipe for making the ,,roman ,,friendship1 a cordial that was universally esteemed in those days1 and very few families of any credit were without it4 ,in the same place 7he says7 they were indebted to the ,greeks for this recipe1 who had it in the greatest perfection4 ,the old ,roman ,friendship was a composition of several ingredients1 of which the principal were3 ,union of hearts1 7a fine flower1 that grew in several parts of the empire17 sincerity1 frankness1 disinterestedness1 pity1 and tenderness1 7of each an equal quantity47 ,these were all mixed with two rich oils1 which they called perpetual kind wishes1 and serenity of temper2 and the whole was strongly perfumed with the desire of pleasing1 which gave it a most grateful smell1 and was a sure restorative in all sorts of vapours4 ,this cordial was of so durable a nature1 that no length of time could waste it3 and what is very remarkable1 7says our author17 it increased in weight and value the longer you kept it4--,the moderns have most grossly adulterated this fine cordial2 some of the ingredients indeed are not to be found1 but what they impose upon you as friendship1 is as follows3 ,outward professions1 7a common weed that grows every where17 instead of the flower of union2 the desire of being pleased2 a large quantity of self-interest1 conveniency1 and reservedness 7many handfuls27 a little pity and tenderness4 ,but some pretend to make it up with these two last1 and the common oil of inconstancy 7which1 like our linseed oil1 is cold-drawn every hour7 serves to mix them together4 ,most of these ingredients being of a perishable nature1 it will not keep1 and it shews itself to be counterfeit1 by lessening continually in weight and value4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this subject will be more fully explained hereafter4 #b ,besides these1 amongst the internal parts are enumerated1--the lachrymal gland1 which secretes the tears2 the lachrymal caruncle1 a small fleshy substance at the inner angle of the eye2 the puncta lachrymalia1 two small openings on the nasal extremity of each eye-lash2 the lachrymal duct1 formed by the union of the ducts leading from the puncta lachrymalia1 and conveying the tears into the nose2 the lachrymal sac1 a dilatation of the lachrymal canal4 #c ,an instrument1 called the ,pulmometer1 has been invented1 which enables us to measure the capacity of the lungs1 and which may communicate information to the physician1 of some importance1 in diseases of this organ4 #d ,klopstock's ,death in ,l',allemagne2 vol4 i4 p4 #beb4 #e ,the places of the insertion of the muscles of the proboscis are visible on the skull2 it was probably devoured1 as well as the end of the tail4 #f #i ft4 #f in4 measuring along the curve4 ,the distance from the base of the root of the tusk to the point1 is #c ft4 #g in4 #g ,on the arrival of the skin at ,petersburg1 it was totally devoid of hair4 #h ,in speaking of the wild beasts of ,india1 ,pliny says1 with regard to the animal in question1-- ,asperrimam autem feram monocerotem1 reliquo corpore equo similem1 capite cervo1 pedibus eliphante1 cauda apro1 mugitu gravi1 uno cornu nigro media fronte1 cubitorum duum eminente4 ,hanc feram vivam negant capi4 ,plin4 ,hist4 ,mund4 ,lib4 #c1 cap4 #ba4 ,the resemblance is certainly very striking4 #i ,it was a female sheep1 but by the sailors was constantly called ,jack4 #aj ,reaumur plausibly supposes1 that it has been from observing this bee thus loaded1 that the tale mentioned by ,aristotle and ,pliny1 of the hive-bee's ballasting itself with a bit of stone1 previous to flying home in a high wind1 has arisen4 #aa ,m4 ,huber observes1 that fecundated females1 after they have lost their wings1 make themselves a subterranean cell1 some singly1 others in common4 ,from which it appears that some colonies have more than one female from their first establishment4 #ab ,see ,fourcroy1 ,annales du ,musum1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #cch1 #cdb4 ,some1 however1 still regard it as a distinct acid4 #ac ,see ,fourcroy1 ,annales du ,musum1 ,no4 #e4 p4 #cdc4 #ad ,one would think the writer of the account of ants1 in ,mouffet1 had been witness to something similar4 ,if they see any one idle1 7says he17 they not only drive him as spurious1 without food1 from the nest2 but likewise1 a circle of all ranks being assembled1 cut off his head before the gates1 that he may be a warning to their children1 not to give themselves up for the future to idleness and effeminacy4--,theatr4 ,ins4 p4 #bda4 #ae ,annal4 di ,chimica1 xiii4 #agig1 ,mag4 ii4 #hj4 #af ,and for night-tapers crop their waxen thighs1 ,and light them at the fiery glowworm's eyes4 #ag ,hist4 ,nat4 l4 xi4 c4 #bi4 ,a similar law was enacted in ,lemnos1 by which every one was compelled to bring a certain measure of locusts annually to the magistrates4 ,plin4 #ah ,of the symbolical locusts in the ,apocalypse it is said1 ,and the sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots of many horses running to battle4--,rev4 ix4 #i4 #ai ,shaw says1 that the gryllus cristatus1 which is five or six times the size of the common locust1 or gryllus migratorius1 is publicly sold1 both in a fresh and salted state1 in the markets of some parts of the ,levant4 ,gen4 ,zoology1 vol4 vi4 part4 ii4 p4 #ach4 #bj ,see ,dr4 ,plot's ,hist4 of ,oxf4 ch4 vi4 sect4 #de4 #ba ,the moving columns of sand4 #bb ,palmistry is the pretended art of telling the future events of men's lives by the lines in their hands4 #bc ,and yet ,i have seen him1 after his return1 addressing his wife in the language of a young bridegroom4 ,and ,i have been assured1 by some of his most intimate friends1 that he treated her1 during the rest of their lives1 with the greatest kindness and affection4 #bd ,a specimen of the papyrus is to be seen at the ,british ,museum2 it is the first known in ,england4 ,it was brought by ,mr4 ,bruce1 and given to ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 who presented it to the ,british ,museum4 #be ,the white pebbles found on the banks of the ,mersey1 although not a pure quartz1 answer the purpose perfectly well4 ,it is singular1 that the friction is invariably accompanied by a strong sulphureous smell4 #bf ,that this method of charming the serpentine race was practised at a very early period of antiquity1 appears from the allusion of the holy ,psalmist1 in the #dth and #eth verses of the #ehth ,psalm4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,superscripted characters are indicated by superscript4 ,the original text includes ,greek characters that have been replaced with transliterations in this text version4