,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,geology2 ,,adapt$ ,,to ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,s*ools ,,& ,,colleges4 ,,by ,,ju/9 ,r4 ,,loomis1 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,& ,,geology ,,9 ,,wat]ville ,,college4 ,,) ,,num]\s ,,illu/rations4 ,,bo/on3 ,,g\ld ,,& ,,l9coln1 #ei ,,wa%+ton ,,/reet4 #aheb ,ent]$ accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #aheb1 ,by ,,g\ld ,,l9coln1 ,9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt ( ! ,di/rict ( ,massa*usetts4 ,/]eotyp$ by ,,hob>t ,,robb9s1 ,,bo/on4 ,,press ,,( ,g4 ,c4 ,,r&1 ,,cornhill1 ,,bo/on4 ,,preface ,9 prep>+ ! foll[+ "w1 x 0 int5d$ to pres5t a sy/ematic & some:at complete /atem5t ( ! pr9ciples ( ,geology1 )9 su* limits t !y may be ?or\ghly /udi$ 9 ! "t usually allott$ to ?is sci5ce4 ,a suffici5t numb] ( lead+ facts has be5 introduc$ to enable ! le>n] to feel t e important pr9ciple is a conclusion to :i* he has himself arriv$2 & yet1 = ! purpose ( compression1 t fullness ( detail has be5 avoid$ ) :i* m ext5d$ works ab\nd4 ,9 fur!rance ( ! same object1 au?orities are seldom cit$4 ,! consid]ation ( geological *anges is made a di/9ct *apt]1 subsequ5t to ! "o on ! arrangem5t ( mat]ials4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t ^! processes ( arrang+ & di/urb+ are n ?us sep>at$ 9 "t4 ,9 nature ! two processes are always go+ on toge!r4 ,x seem$ important to exhibit ! sci5ce ) z mu* unity & complet5ess z possible2 & h5ce1 discussions ^u debatable po9ts 9 ,!oretical ,geology1 s int]e/+ to mature geologi/s1 w\ld h be5 out ( place "h2 & yet ^? m intricate subjects h n be5 omitt$4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! "w is devot$ to ! explanation ( geological ph5om5a1 9 ord] to convey an idea ( ! modes ( inve/igation adopt$1 & ! k9d ( evid5ce reli$ on4 ,:]e div]sities ( op9ion exi/1 t view has be5 select$ :i* seem$ mo/ 9 h>mony ) ! facts2 & ! connection has n (t5 be5 int]rupt$ to combat1 or ev5 to /ate1 ! antagoni/ view4 ,te*nical t]ms h1 9 a few in/ances1 be5 introduc$1 & pr9ciples ref]r$ to1 :i* are subsequ5tly expla9$4 ,! index w1 h[ev]1 enable ! /ud5t to und]/& !m1 )\t a sep>ate gloss>y4 ,"s may pref] to comm5ce ) ! second *apt]1 def]r+ ! /udy ( ! elem5t>y sub/ances1 m9]als & rocks1 to ! la/4 ,su* a c\rse may be pursu$ )\t special inconv5i5ce4 ,que/ions h be5 add$1 = ! conv5i5ce ( ^? tea*]s :o may pref] to conduct _! recitations by ?is means4 ,b1 :5 ! circum/ances ( ! case admit ( x1 a mu* m complete k ( ! subject w be acquir$ by pupils :o are requir$ to analyze ! sections1 & proce$ ) ! recitation !mselves2 :ile ! tea*] has only to correct misappreh5sion1 expla9 :at may seem obscure1 & introduce additional illu/rations4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations4 #a4 ,column> ,trap1 ,new ,holl&4 7,dana47 #b4 ,! f\r divisions ( rocks1 & _! relative positions4 ,a1 ,volcanic ,rocks4 ,b1 ,granite4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,granite ( diff]5t ages4 ,c1 ,metamorphic ,rocks4 ,d1 ,fossilif]\s ,rocks4 7,lyell47 #c4 ,granite ve9s 9 slate1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 7,hall47 #d4 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ granite4 7,hit*cock47 #e4 ,ext9ct volcanoes ( ,auv]gne4 7,scrope47 #f4 ,lava ( diff]5t ages1 ,auv]gne4 7,lyell47 #g4 ,/rata fold$ & compress$ by upheaval ( granite4 #h4 ,favosites ,go?l&ica4 #i4 ,cat5ipora es*>oides4 7,*a9 coral47 #aj4 ,c>yocr9us ornatus4 7,hall47 ,leptna alt]nate4 ,or?is te/ud9>ia4 #aa4 7,hall47 ,del?yris ,niag>5sis4 #ab4 ,section ( a *amb]$ %ell1 %[+ ! *amb]s & ! siphuncle4 #ac4 ,or?oc]as4 #ad4 ,curv$ ,cephalopoda1 a1 ,ammonite2 b1 ,crioc]as2 c1 ,scaphite2 d1 ,ancyloc]as2 e1 ,hamite2 f1 ,baculite2 g1 ,turrilite4 7,agassiz & ,g\ld47 #ae4 ,trilobite4 #af4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii4 7,agassiz47 #ag4 ,pt]i*?ys oblongus4 7,agassiz47 #ah4 ,fault 9 ! coal =mation1 a a1 lay]s ( coal1 b b1 surface & soil4 #ai4 ,/igm>ia ficoides2 ,newca/le4 7,l9dley & ,hutton47 #bj4 ,trunk ( sigill>ia4 7,trimm]47 #ba4 ,b>k ( sigill>ia4 7,natural size47 #bb4 ,sph5opt]is cr5ata4 7,l9dley47 #bc4 ,pa*ypt]is lanceolata4 7,brongn47 #bd4 ,sigill>ia levigata4 7,brongn47 #be4 ,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii1 ,bohemia4 7,/]nb]g47 #bf4 ,calamite4 #bg4 ,het]oc]cal fi%4 ,homoc]cal fi%4 #bh4 ,impressions ( ,ra9drops1 ,we!rsfield1 ,conn4 7,hit*cock47 #bi4 b1 ,bird tracks 9 ! ,conn4 ,riv] ,s&/one1 a1 ,consecutive tracks2 c1 ,track ( ,*eiro!rium 7probably a reptile71 ,p5n4 & ,g]many4 #cj4 ,section 9 ! ,isle ( ,portl&4 7,buckl&47 #ca4 ,apiocr9ites rotundus1 ,brad=d1 ,eng4 7,mill]47 #cb4 ,gryphea incurva4 #cc4 a1 ,outl9e ( ,i*?yosaurus2 b1 ,plesiosaurus4 #cd4 ,pt]odactyle4 #ce4 a1 ,diploct5ium cordatum2 b1 ,m>supites2 c1 ,sal5ia2 d1 ,gal]ites2 e1 ,micra/] cor-angu9um4 7,agassiz ,g\ld47 #cf4 b1 ,belemnite4 a1 ,re/or$ outl9e ( ! animal to :i* x belong$4 #cg4 ,c]i?ium int]m$ium4 #ch4 ,murex alveolatus4 #ci4 ,conus conc9nus4 #dj4 ,nummulite4 #da4 ,outl9e ( paleo!rium4 #db4 ,outl9e ( anoplo!rium4 #dc4 ,skeleton ( ! ma/odon4 #dd4 ,univalve ) entire m\?4 #de4 ,univalve ) not*$ m\?4 #df4 ,unimuscul> bivalve4 #dg4 ,bimuscul> bivalve4 #dh4 ,p>allel planes ( cleavage int]sect+ curv$ /rata4 7,s$gwick47 #di4 a b1 ,a ve9 ( segregation2 c d1 ,a dike4 #ej4 ,faults & d5ud$ /rata4 #ea4 ,v]tical conglom]ate4 7,lyell47 #eb4 ,incl9$ /rata 9 ,dorset%ire1 ,engl&4 7,buckl&47 #ec4 ,dip ( /rata4 #ed4 ,axes & valleys 9 di/urb$ /rata4 #ee4 ,curv$ /rata ( slate1 ,b]wick%ire1 ,eng4 7,lyell47 #ef4 ,fold$ /rata4 #eg4 ,slope ( m\nta9s4 #eh4 ,europe at ! ,silurian epo*4 7,guyot47 #ei4 ,europe at ! t]ti>y epo*4 #fj4 ,area ( elevation & depression 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 7,d>w947 #fa4 c c1 ,coral wall4 7,trimm]47 #fb4 c c1 ,coral wall above ! sea-level2 c' c'1 ,second coral wall4 #fc4 ,coral wall aft] p>tial subsid5ce4 #fd4 ,atoll4 ,! coral wall only appe>+4 ,! orig9al isl& entirely subm]g$4 #fe4 ,rema9s ( ! temple ( ,jupit] ,s]apis1 ne> ,naples4 #ff4 ,deta*$ hills ( old r$ s&/one1 ,ros%ire1 ,scotl&4 7,lyell47 #fg4 ,section ( d5ud$ /rata1 ,mass4 7,hit*cock47 #fh4 ,groov$ & /riat$ surface ( rocks4 #fi4 ,artesian wells4 #gj4 ,segregat$ masses 9 rocks4 #ga4 ,column> =m tak5 by basalt on solidification4 #gb4 ,lay]s ( lime/one n[ =m+1 ,san ,vignone1 ,italy4 7,lyell47 #gc4 ,erosion ( rock by ! action ( ! waves4 #gd4 ,m>9e curr5ts4 #ge4 ,s$im5t deposit$ 9 horizontal lay]s4 #gf4 ,section ( gre5s&1 ,b$=d%ire1 ,eng4 7,lyell47 #gg4 ,glaci]1 ) lat]al & m$ial mora9es1 a a1 ,t]m9al mora9es4 #gh4 ,iceb]g4 #gi4 ,volcanic ,eruption4 7,trimm]47 #hj4 ,fractures produc$ by upheaval4 #ha4 ,fossilif]\s rock alt]$ by contact ) granite4 #hb4 ,consecutive *anges by :i* horizontal /rata become v]tical4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,page ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,mat]ial ,,:i* ,,compose ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,,section ,i4--,,elem5t>y ,,sub/ances1 #aa ,,section ,,ii4--,,simple ,,m9]als1 #ac ,,section ,,iii4--,,! ,,m9]al ,,masses ,,:i* ,,=m ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?1 #af ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,! ,,mat]ials ,,:i* ,,compose ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,,section ,i4--,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,rocks1 #ba ,,section ,,ii4--,,! ,,plutonic ,,rocks1 #bc ,,section ,,iii4--,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks1 #be ,,section ,,iv4--,,! ,,non-,,fossilif]\s ,,/ratifi$ 7,,or ,,metamorphic7 ,,rocks1 #cj ,,section ,v4--,,! ,,fossilif]\s ,,rocks1 #cb ,,section ,,vi4--,,fossils1 #eg ,,section ,,vii4--,,! ,,"t ,,necess>y ,,= ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,/ratifi$ ,,rocks1 #fc ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,*anges ,,to ,,:i* ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,has ,,be5 ,,subject$4 ,,section ,i4--,,*anges ,,:i* ,,h ,,tak5 ,,place ,,at ,,great ,,dep?s ,,bel[ ,,! ,,surface1 #fg ,,section ,,ii4--,,*anges ,,9 ,,! ,,mass ,,( ,,! ,,/ratifi$ ,,rocks1 #fh ,,section ,,iii4--,,*anges ,,( ,,elevation ,,& ,,subsid5ce1 #gc ,,section ,,iv4--,,*anges ,,on ,,! ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,e>?1 #he ,,section ,v4--,,*anges ,,( ,,climate1 #hh ,,section ,,vi4--,,advantages ,,result+ ,,f ,,geological ,,*anges1 #ia ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,geological ,,ph5om5a4 ,,section ,i4--,,atmosph]ic ,,causes1 #ie ,,section ,,ii4--,,*emical ,,action1 #ig ,,section ,,iii4--,,organic ,,causes1 #aja ,,section ,,iv4--,,aque\s ,,causes1 #ajc ,,section ,v4--,,aqueo-,,glacial ,,action1 #abj ,,section ,,vi4--,,igne\s ,,causes1 #abg ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,mat]ials ,,:i* ,,compose ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,,section ,i4--,,elem5t>y ,,sub/ances4 ,!re are ab\t sixty sub/ances kn[n to ! *emi/ :i* are consid]$ z elem5t>y2 b mo/ ( !m are r>ely met )1 & only 9 m9ute quantities4 ,a few ( !m are1 h[ev]1 s abundant1 9 ! composition ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 z to r5d] "s att5tion to !m necess>y4 ,oxyg5 is m widely diffus$ ?an any o!r sub/ance4 ,x is an +r$i5t ( wat] & ( ! atmosph]e1 ! =m] conta9+ eighty-eight p] c5t41 & ! latt] tw5ty-"o4 ,ne>ly all rocks conta9 oxyg5 9 comb9ation ) ! metallic & metalloid bases1 & ! av]age proportion ( oxyg5 :i* !y conta9 is ab\t =ty-five p] c5t42 s t x w n diff] mu* f ! tru? to consid] ! oxyg5 9 ! e>?'s cru/ z equal 9 weight to all ! o!r sub/ances :i* ent] into its composition4 ,hydrog5 occurs 9 nature pr9cipally 9 comb9ation ) oxyg51 =m+ wat]4 ,x is also an +r$i5t 9 bitum5 & bitum9\s coal4 ,nitrog5 is conf9$ almo/ entirely to ! atmosph]e1 ( :i* x =ms f\r-fif?s4 ,x ent]s into ! composition ( "s v>ieties ( coal1 & is sp>+ly diffus$ 9 mo/ fossilif]\s rocks4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important sub/ances 9 nature is c>bon4 ,x con/itutes ! pr9cipal "p ( all ! v>ieties ( coal1 z well z ( graphite1 peat & bitum9\s matt]4 ,a mu* l>g] am\nt ( c>bon exi/s 9 ! c>bonic acid :i* is comb9$ ) ! oxides ( ! metalloids & metals4 ,! mo/ abundant ( ^! comp\nds is lime/one1 :i* conta9s ab\t twelve p] c5t1 ( c>bon4 ,9 ! neighborhood ( volcanoes sulphur is f\nd pure & 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,x is a con/ant +r$i5t 9 volcanic rocks1 & 9 sev]al ( ! mo/ important ores1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( lead1 copp] & iron4 ,! mo/ abundant sulphate is gypsum1 :i* conta9s tw5ty-six p] c5t1 ( sulphur4 ,9 small quantities x is widely diffus$ 9 rocks1 & 9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,*lor9e is f\nd pr9cipally z an +r$i5t ( rock-salt1 :i* conta9s sixty p] c5t1 ( x1 & ( sea-wat]1 :i* conta9s "o & a half p] c5t4 ,fluor9e is f\nd1 ?\gh v sp>+ly1 9 ne>ly all ! un/ratifi$ rocks4 ,x =ms ne>ly half ( ! m9]al kn[n z ,d]by%ire sp>4 ,( ! metals1 ,iron is ! only "o t is f\nd abundantly4 ,x ent]s into ! composition ( ne>ly all m9]al sub/ances4 ,x is g5]ally comb9$ ) oxyg51 & occurs less frequ5tly z a c>bonate or sulphuret4 ,( volcanic rocks x =ms ab\t tw5ty p] c5t4 ,its ores are sometimes f\nd 9 ! =m ( dikes or seams1 hav+ be5 inject$ f bel[2 at o!r times1 9 ! =m ( nodules or /ratifi$ masses1 l o!r rocks ( me*anical orig94 ,manganese is likewise ext5sively diffus$1 b 9 v small quantity4 ,! o!r metals are (t5 met )1 b _! localities are ( v limit$ ext5t4 ,( ! metallic bases ( ! e>?s & alkalies1 ,silicium is ! mo/ abundant4 ,x g5]ally occurs 9 ! =m ( silex1 :i* is an oxide ( ! metal4 ,!re are b few rocks 9 :i* x is n f\nd 9 consid]able am\nt4 ,alum9ium g5]ally occurs z an oxide1 9 :i* =m x is alum9a4 ,x is ! base ( ! diff]5t v>ieties ( clay & clay-slate4 ,x is also a con/itu5t ( felsp> & mica4 ,potassium is an +r$i5t ( felsp> & mica1 & h5ce is f\nd 9 all ! prim>y & 9 mo/ ( ! volcanic rocks1 z well z 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks d]iv$ f !m4 ,sodium is a con/itu5t ( a v>iety ( felsp> :i* is some:at abundant 9 volcanic rocks4 ,its pr9cipal s\rce is ! ext5sive b$s ( rock-salt1 & ! same sub/ance 9 a /ate ( solution 9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,calcium con/itutes ab\t =ty p] c5t1 ( lime/one1 & is an +r$i5t 9 ne>ly all igne\s rocks4 ,?is metal1 9 ! /ate ( an oxide1 is lime4 ,magnesium is some:at abundant1 b less s ?an calcium4 ,x is "o ( ! bases ( dolomite & magnesian lime/one1 & is an +r$i5t ( talc & all talcose rocks4 ,! sub/ances n[ enum]at$ con/itute ne>ly ! entire m9]al mass ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,!y may be arrang$ 9 ! foll[+ ord]3-- ,i4 ,,non-,,metallic ,,sub/ances4 ,oxyg54 ,hydrog54 ,nitrog54 ,c>bon4 ,sulphur4 ,*lor9e4 ,fluor9e4 ,,ii4 ,,metals4 ,iron4 ,manganese4 ,,iii4 ,,metallic ,,bases ,,( ,,! ,,e>?s ,,& ,,alkalies4 ,silicium4 ,alum9ium4 ,potassium4 ,sodium4 ,calcium4 ,magnesium4 ,^! sub/ances1 *emically comb9$1 =m ,simple ,m9]als4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,simple ,,m9]als4 ,all sub/ances f\nd 9 ! e>? or ^u its surface1 :i* are n ! products ( art or ( organic life1 are reg>d$ by ! m9]alogi/ z simple m9]als4 ,ab\t f\r hundr$ m9]al species are kn[n1 & ! v>ieties are mu* m num]\s2 b only a small numb] ( !m are s abundant z to claim ! att5tion ( ! geologi/4 ,an acqua9tance ) ! foll[+ species is1 h[ev]1 necess>y4 ,qu>tz is probably ! mo/ abundant m9]al 9 nature4 ,x is compos$ :olly ( silex4 ,its specific gravity is #b4fe4 ,x is ! h>de/ ( ! common m9]als1 gives sp>ks ) /eel1 scrat*es glass1 & breaks into irregul> angul> fragm5ts "u ! hamm]4 ,:5 cry/alliz$1 its mo/ common =m is t ( a six-sid$ prism1 t]m9at$ by six-sid$ pyramids4 ,:5 pure1 x is transp>5t or transluc5t1 & its lu/re is highly vitre\s4 ,! transp>5t v>iety is call$ rock cry/al4 ,:5 purple1 x is ame?y/4 ,:5 fa9t r$1 x is rose qu>tz4 ,:5 its color is d>k br[n1 or gray1 & x has a con*oidal fracture1 x is fl9t4 ,:5 qu>tz occurs 9 :ite1 tub]\s masses1 ( a res9\s lu/re & con*oidal fracture1 x is opal4 ,! preci\s opal is di/+ui%$ by its lively play ( colors4 ,jasp] is opaque1 & conta9s a small p] c5t1 ( oxide ( iron1 by :i* x is color$ dull r$1 yell[i% r$ or br[n4 ,! light-color$1 massive1 transluc5t v>iety is *alc$ony4 ,! fle%-color$ specim5s are c>nelian4 ,:5 compos$ ( lay]s ( *alc$ony ( diff]5t colors1 x becomes agate4 ,sev]al ( ! v>ieties ( qu>tz1 su* z ame?y/1 opal1 c>nelian & agate1 are us$ to consid]able ext5t 9 jewelry4 ,felsp> is compos$ ( silex1 alum9a & potassa4 ,x resembles qu>tz1 b x is n z h>d1 cleaves m readily1 & is n g5]ally transp>5t4 ,its specific gravity is #b4dg4 ,its lu/re is feebly vitre\s1 b pe>ly on its cleavage faces4 ,its color is sometimes gre51 b g5]ally dull :ite1 & (t5 incl9$ to r$ or fle%-color4 ,mica is compos$ ( ! same +r$i5ts z felsp>1 toge!r ) oxide ( iron4 ,its specific gravity is ne>ly ?ree4 ,x is (t5 colorless1 b frequ5tly gre51 smoky1 or black4 ,x may be kn[n by its capability ( division into exce$+ly ?91 transp>5t1 ela/ic plates4 ,hornbl5de is compos$ ( silex1 alum9a & magnesia4 ,its specific gravity is a little above ?ree4 ,its color is g5]ally "s %ade ( gre54 ,:5 d>k gre5 or black1 :e!r 9 a massive or cry/all9e /ate1 x is common hornbl5de4 ,:5 light gre51 x is act9olite4 ,! :ite v>iety is tremolite4 ,:5 x is compos$ ( flexible fibres1 x is asbe/us2 & :5 ! fibres h also a silky lu/re1 x is amian?us4 ,augite or ,pyrox5e has1 till rec5tly1 be5 consid]$ z a v>iety ( hornbl5de4 ,its specific gravity is slightly diff]5t2 its composition is ! same1 & 9 g5]al appe>ance x is n easily di/+ui%$ f hornbl5de4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 made a di/9ct species1 because its cry/all9e =m is diff]5t4 ,hyp]/h5e is compos$ ( silex1 magnesia & oxide ( iron4 ,its specific gravity is #c4ch4 ,x closely resembles hornbl5de4 ,! lu/re ( its cleavage faces is metallic pe>ly4 ,its color is grayi% or gre5i% black4 ,talc is compos$ ( silex & magnesia4 ,its specific gravity is #b4g4 ,x resembles mica 9 its g5]al appe>ance & 9 its lamell> /ructure1 b x is easily di/+ui%$ f x by its plates be+ n ela/ic1 & by its soapy feel4 ,its color is g5]ally "s %ade ( gre54 ,soap/one is an impure v>iety ( talc1 ( a light gray color1 e>?y texture1 & is unctu\s to ! t\*4 ,*lorite1 ano!r impure v>iety1 is a d>k gre5 rock1 massive1 easily cut ) a knife1 & unctu\s to ! t\*4 ,s]p5t9e is compos$ ( silex & magnesia4 ,its specific gravity is #b4ee4 ,x is g5]ally massive1 unctu\s to ! t\*1 & ( a gre5 color4 ,x is (t5 v>iegat$ ) spots ( gre5 ( diff]5t %ades4 ,) a mixture ( c>bonate ( lime x =ms ! v]d antique m>ble4 ,c>bonate ( ,lime1 or common lime/one1 is compos$ ( c>bonic acid & lime4 ,its specific gravity is #b4fe4 ,x pres5ts a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,9 a cry/all9e /ate x is g5]ally transp>5t1 & :5 s1 possesses ! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction4 ,x may be di/+ui%$ f e o!r common species by its rapid eff]vesc5ce ) acids4 ,x readily cleaves p>allel to all ! faces ( ! prim>y =m1 :i* is a rhomboh$ron4 ,sulphate ( ,lime1 or ,gypsum1 is compos$ ( sulphuric acid & lime4 ,its specific gravity is #b4cb4 ,:5 cry/all9e1 x has a pe>ly lu/re1 is transp>5t1 & goes "u ! "n ( ,sel5ite4 ,common ,gypsum resembles ! o!r e>?y lime/ones1 b x is s(t]1 & may be readily di/+ui%$ by its n eff]vesc+ ) acids4 ,to ! m9]als n[ enum]at$ may be add$ ! foll[+1 :i* are ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 b n 9 great quantities2 namely1 c>bonate ( magnesia1 oxide ( iron1 iron pyrites1 rock-salt1 coal1 bitum51 s*orl & g>net4 ,^! simple m9]als1 ei!r 9 sep>ate masses or m+l$ m or less intimately toge!r1 compose almo/ :olly ! e>?'s cru/4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,! ,,m9]al ,,masses ,,:i* ,,=m ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,t portion ( ! /ructure ( ! e>? :i* is accessible to man is call$ ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,! m9]al masses :i* compose x1 :e!r 9 a solid /ate1 l granite & lime/one1 or 9 a yield+ /ate1 l b$s ( s& & clay1 are call$ rocks4 ,! un/ratifi$ rocks are ,granite1 ,hyp]/h5e rock1 ,lime/one & ,s]p5t9e1 & ! ,trappean & ,volcanic rocks4 ,granite is a rock ( a light gray color1 & is compos$ ( qu>tz1 felsp> & mica1 9 v>iable proportions1 confus$ly cry/alliz$ toge!r4 ,! felsp> is g5]ally ! pr$om9ant m9]al4 ,x is sometimes ( a v co>se texture1 ! sep>ate m9]als occurr+ 9 masses ( a foot or m 9 diamet]4 ,at o!r times x is s f9e-gra9$ t ! con/itu5t m9]als c sc>cely be recogniz$ by ! nak$ eye2 & betwe5 ^! extremes !re is e v>iety4 ,! t]m granite is n1 h[ev]1 conf9$ to an aggregate ( ^! ?ree m9]als4 ,9 "s in/ances ! felsp> s pr$om9ates z almo/ to exclude ! o!r m9]als1 :5 x is call$ felspa?ic granite4 ,:5 ! qu>tz appe>s 9 ! =m ( irregul> & brok5 l9es1 some:at resembl+ writt5 *>act]s1 9 a base ( felsp>1 x is call$ graphic granite4 ,:5 talc takes ! place ( mica1 x is talcose granite4 ,:5 hornbl5de takes ! place ( mica1 x is sy5ite4 ,granite or any rock becomes porphyritic :5 x conta9s imb$d$ cry/als ( felsp>4 ,!re is a rock ( cry/all9e /ructure1 l granite1 b ( a d>k] color1 :i* is call$ hyp]/h5e rock4 ,x is compos$ ( ,labrador felsp> & hyp]/h5e4 ,! m9]al species s]p5t9e & lime/one (t5 occur un/ratifi$ 9 consid]able quantities4 ,volcanic rocks consi/ ( ! mat]ials eject$ f ! crat]s ( volcanoes4 ,!y are compos$ ( ess5tially ! same m9]als z trap rocks4 ,:5 ! mat]ial has be5 ?r[n out 9 a melt$ /ate1 x is call$ lava4 ,lava1 at ! "t ( its ejection1 conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( wat]y vapor at a high temp]ature4 ,"u ! imm5se pressure to :i* x is subject$ 9 ! volcanic foci1 x may exi/ 9 ! =m ( wat]2 b :5 ! lava is ?r[n out at ! crat]1 ! pressure _c mu* exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! p>ticles ( wat] at once assume ! gase\s =m4 ,z lava possesses consid]able viscidity1 ! /eam does n escape1 b r5d]s ! upp] portion ( ! mass vesicul>4 ,?is vesicul> lava is call$ scori4 ,by ! movem5t ( ! /ream ( lava1 ^! vesicles become drawn out into f9e capill>y tubes1 conv]t+ ! scori into pumice-/one4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! mat]ials eject$ f volcanoes is 9 ! =m ( du/1 c9d]s & angul> fragm5ts ( rock4 ,^! soon become solidifi$1 =m+ volcanic tuff1 or volcanic breccia4 ,9 subm>9e eruptions ^! fragm5ts are spread out by ! wat] into /rata1 ^u :i* o!r mat]ials1 n volcanic1 are aft]w>ds deposit$4 ,^! int]pos$ /rata are call$ volcanic grits4 ,! trappean rocks are compos$ ( felsp>1 m+l$ intimately & 9 small p>ticles ) augite or hornbl5de4 ,!y also conta9 iron & potassa4 ,!y are (t5 porphyritic4 ,:5 !y conta9 sph]ical cavities1 fill$ ) "s o!r m9]al1 su* z *lorite1 c>bonate ( lime or agate1 !y are call$ amygdaloidal trap4 ,! pr9cipal v>ieties ( trappean rock are basalt1 gre5 /one1 & tra*yte4 ,9 basalt1 augite1 or1 9 "s cases1 hornbl5de1 is ! pr$om9ant m9]al4 ,x is a heavy1 close-gra9$ rock1 ( a black or d>k br[n color4 ,gre5/one diff]s f basalt 9 conta9+ a mu* l>g] proportion ( felsp>4 ,its /ructure is m granul>1 & frequ5tly x assumes s mu* ( ! cry/all9e =m z to pass ins5sibly into sy5ite or granite4 ,x is a d>k color$ rock1 ) a slight t+e ( gre54 ,bo? gre5 /one & basalt are dispos$ to assume ! column> =m1 ! columns be+ arrang$ at "r angles to ! faces ( ! fissure into :i* ! trap is inject$4 ,:5 x is spread out into broad horizontal masses1 ! columns are v]tical4 7,fig4 #a47 ,tra*yte is compos$ pr9cipally ( felsp>1 is ( a grayi% color1 & r\gh to ! t\*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,( ! /ratifi$ rocks ! foll[+ are ! mo/ important3 ,gneiss is a rock closely resembl+ granite4 ,x is an aggregate ( ! same m9]als1 b ! proportion ( mica is some:at great]4 ,! only di/9ction betwe5 !m is t ! gneiss is /ratifi$1 b ! /ratification is (t5 s indi/9ct t x passes ins5sibly into granite4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! /ratification is s di/9ct z to pres5t a m>k$ diff]5ce4 ,mica slate is su* a modification ( gneiss t ! mica becomes ! pr$om9ant m9]al1 ) a small int]mixture ( qu>tz & felsp>4 ,consequ5tly ! /ratification becomes v di/9ct1 s z sometimes to r5d] ! mass divisible into ?9 %eets4 ,! /ratification is (t5 wavy1 & sometimes mu* contort$4 ,s&/one consi/s ( gra9s or fragm5ts ( any o!r rock1 b m frequ5tly ( silice\s rocks4 ,! fragm5ts are consolidat$1 sometimes )\t any visible cem5t1 b (t5 by a pa/e ( argillace\s or calc>e\s sub/ance4 ,! color v>ies ) t ( ! rock f :i* x 0 d]iv$4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 x is ei!r drab or is color$ r$ by oxide ( iron4 ,! fragm5ts are sometimes s m9ute z sc>cely to give ! rock ! appe>ance ( s&/one4 ,:5 !y are ( consid]able size & r\nd$1 ! rock is call$ conglom]ate4 ,:5 !y are angul>1 x is call$ breccia4 ,gre5s& is a friable mixture ( silice\s & calc>e\s p>ticles1 color$ by a slight int]mixture ( gre5 e>? or *lorite4 ,lime/one is a v abundant rock1 & occurs 9 _m diff]5t =ms4 ,9 transp>5t cry/als x is ,icel& sp>4 ,:5 :ite & cry/all9e1 x is prim>y lime/one1 sac*>9e lime/one1 or /atu>y m>ble4 ,:5 sub-cry/all9e x is g5]ally m or less color$4 ,x is (t5 cl\d$ ) b&s or pat*es ( :ite 9 a gr\nd ( "s d>k color4 ,:5 its texture is close1 & ! cry/allization sc>cely app>5t1 x is compact lime/one4 ,! :ite1 e>?y v>iety is *alk4 ,a v>iety ( lime/one compos$ ( small sph]es is call$ olite4 ,lias is ! "n giv5 to an impure argillace\s v>iety ( a br[n or blue color4 ,any rock :i* conta9s a consid]able proportion ( c>bonate ( lime1 & :i* rapidly dis9tegrates on exposure to ! atmosph]e1 is call$ m>l4 ,lime/one sometimes conta9s c>bonate ( magnesia4 ,x is !n magnesian lime/one1 or dolomite4 ,clay consi/s ( a mixture ( silice\s & alum9\s e>?4 ,x is t\gh1 highly pla/ic1 & g5]ally ( a lead blue color4 ,x is always /ratifi$1 & (t5 divid$ into v ?9 lam91 :i* are sep>at$ by spr9kl+s ( s& only suffici5t to keep !m di/9ct4 ,clay slate1 or argillace\s s*i/1 is compos$ ( ! same mat]ials z clay1 & diff]s f x only 9 hav+ become solidifi$4 ,its color is gray1 d>k br[n or black4 ,9 "s b$s x is purple4 ,%ale is ! same mat]ial 9 a /ate ( p>tial solidification4 ,on exposure to ! wea!r1 x soon dis9tegrates1 & is f9ally reconv]t$ into clay4 ,all ! v>ieties ( argillace\s rock are easily di/+ui%$ by a peculi> odor :i* !y emit :5 brea!d ^u4 ,argillace\s slate sometimes takes into its composition portions ( "s o!r m9]al1 su* z talc1 mica1 or hornbl5de4 ,:5 any ( ^! m9]als becomes s abundant z to con/itute a consid]able "p ( ! mass1 ! rock becomes talcose1 micace\s1 or hornbl5de slate4 ,sometimes ?is la/ v>iety loses all appe>ance ( a fissile /ructure1 & is compos$ almo/ :olly ( hornbl5de4 ,x is !n call$ hornbl5de rock4 ,diluvium is ! "n appli$ to masses ( s&1 gravel1 & l>ge rocks1 call$ b\ld]s1 heap$ confus$ly toge!r on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,x is also call$ drift4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,! ,,mat]ials ,,:i* ,,compose ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,,section ,i4--,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,rocks4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we divide rocks into /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$4 ,?is division is "o :i* w 9 g5]al be easily recogniz$1 ev5 by ! mo/ inexp]i5c$ obs]v]2 & ! di/9ction is important1 because x sep>ates ! rocks ( igne\s orig9 f ^? :i* h be5 produc$ by deposition ( s$im5t f wat]4 ,x w be %[n h]eaft] t a "p ( ! un/ratifi$ rocks h be5 =m$ at or ne> ! surface ( ! e>?2 t is1 !y h tak5 _! pres5t =m by pass+ f a /ate ( fusion to a solid /ate above or betwe5 ! /ratifi$ rocks1 z 9 ! case ( lava 7,fig4 #b1 ,a74 ,! o!r un/ratifi$ rocks h cool$ s z to take ! solid =m bel[ ! /ratifi$ rocks1 z at ,b4 ,! fir/ are call$ epig5e1 or volcanic rocks2 ! la/1 hypog5e1 or plutonic rocks4 ,! l[e/ portion ( ! second division1 ! /ratifi$ rocks1 are t]m$ non-fossilif]\s1 f ! fact t !y conta9 no evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( organic be+s at ! "t :5 !y 7 deposit$4 ,_! relation to ! o!r rocks is %[n at ,c4 ,x is suppos$ t ^! rocks h be5 subject$ to great *anges by heat f ! igne\s rocks bel[ !m4 ,on ?is acc\nt ,mr4 ,lyell proposes to call !m metamorphic rocks4 ,! o!r portions ( ! /ratifi$ rocks are fossilif]\s1 conta9+ ! rema9s ( organic be+s :i* liv$ at ! p]iod :5 ! rocks 7 deposit$4 ,!y are repres5t$ at ,d4 ,! division ( ! la/-nam$ rocks info gr\ps w be giv5 h]eaft]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,we h !n f\r pr9cipal classes ( rocks3 ,plutonic ,rocks1 ,volcanic ,rocks1 ,non-fossilif]\s ,/ratifi$ ,rocks & ,fossilif]\s ,rocks4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,! ,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,granite is by f> ! mo/ important ( ?is class ( rocks4 ,( its ?ickness no e/imate c be made1 z no m9+ op]ations h ev] p5etrat$ ?r\gh x1 & none ( ! mo/ ext5sive displacem5ts ( rocks by natural causes has br\ght to ! surface any o!r rock on :i* x re/s4 ,x may1 !re=e1 be consid]$ ! f\ndation rock1 ! skeleton ( ! e>?1 ^u :i* all ! o!r =mations are support$4 ,! :ole am\nt ( granite 9 ! e>?'s cru/ may be great] ?an t ( all o!r rocks1 b x comes up ?r\gh ! o!r =mations s z to be expos$ ov] only a comp>atively small portion ( ! surface1 & ?is is g5]ally ! c5tral portion ( m\nta9 ranges1 or ! highe/ p>ts ( brok51 hill c\ntry4 ,/ill1 x is n unfrequ5tly f\nd 9 ! m level regions1 9 ! =m ( slightly elevat$ ridges1 ) ! /ratifi$ rocks recl9+ aga9/ x4 ,! /ructure ( granite seems frequ5tly to be a confus$ mixture ( ! m9]als :i* compose x1 )\t any approa* to ord] 9 _! arrangem5t2 b 9 _m cases x is f\nd to split freely 9 c]ta9 directions1 & to "w ) difficulty 9 any o!r4 ,?is may result f an arrangem5t ( ! integrant cry/als1 s t _! cleavage planes approa* m or less ne>ly to p>allelism4 ,:5 ?is is ! case ) ! mica or felsp>1 x mu/ dim9i% ! cohesion 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ^! planes1 & ?us facilitate ! cleavage ( ! mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,granite is f\nd to p5etrate ! /ratifi$ rocks 9 ! =m ( ve9s4 ,! foll[+ section 7,fig4 #c7 w %[ ! relation ( granite ve9s to ! granitic mass bel[4 ,! granite :i* is qu>ri$ = ar*itectural purposes is (t5 9 comp>atively small quantities1 disappe>+ at ! di/ance ( a few hundr$ y>ds b5ea? ! /ratifi$ rock2 or else x exi/s 9 ! =m ( isolat$ dome-%ap$ masses4 ,x is probable t1 if !y c\ld be foll[$ suffici5tly f>1 !y w\ld be f\nd to be portions ( dikes com+ f ! g5]al mass ( granite bel[4 ,ev5 ! granite nuclei ( ! great m\nta9 ranges may be consid]$ z inject$ dikes ( enorm\s magnitude4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,granite is itself int]sect$ ) granite ve9s m frequ5tly1 p]haps1 ?an any o!r rocks2 b ! ve9 is a co>s] granite ?an ! rock :i* x divides4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d "o set ( dikes int]cept$ & cut (f by a second set1 & ! second by a ?ird4 ,! sub/ance ( ! dikes 01 ( c\rse1 9 a liquid /ate :5 x 0 inject$1 & ! fir/ mu/ h become solid be=e ! second 0 ?r[n 92 h5ce ! dikes are ( diff]5t ages4 ,! dikes a b c1 repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #d1 mu/ h be5 inject$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are lett]$4 ,x is probable t1 by ! process ( cool+1 ! liquid mass f :i* ^! dikes h proce$$ has be5 gradually solidify+ f ! surface d[nw>ds4 ,if s1 x w\ld foll[ t ! granite ne>e/ ! surface 7#a1 ,fig4 #b7 is ! olde/1 & ! newe/ is t :i* is at ! greate/ di/ance bel[ 7#d74 ,x is possible t at great dep?s granite may be /ill =m+1 t is1 tak+ ! solid =m1 ?\gh ( ?is !re c be no direct pro(4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 pro( t x has be5 liquid at p]iods ( "t v di/ant f ea* o!r2 = ! dikes sometimes rea* to ! top ( ! coal =mation 7= example71 & !n spread !mselves out horizontally1 z at a1 %[+ t ! rock above ! coal _h n !n be5 deposit$4 ,ano!r dike w ext5d ?r\gh ! new r$ s&/one1 z at b1 & spread itself out horizontally z be=e4 ,^! horizontal lay]s ( granite1 by _! position 9 /rata ^: ages are kn[n1 indicate ! p]iods :5 granite has exi/$ 9 a liquid /ate4 ,granite ve9s h be5 discov]$ 9 ! ,pyr5ees z rec5t z ! close ( ! cretace\s p]iod1 & 9 ! ,&es !y h be5 f\nd among ! t]ti>y rocks4 ,!re are sev]al o!r rocks1 ( m9or importance1 (t5 f\nd 9 connection ) granite4 ,hyp]/h5e rock1 9 a few cases1 =ms ! pr9cipal "p ( m\nta9 masses4 ,gre5/one is m frequ5tly associat$ ) ! trappean rocks1 b x sometimes passes imp]ceptibly into sy5ite & common granite4 ,lime/one is f\nd 9 consid]able abundance1 & s]p5t9e 9 small quantities1 z prim>y rocks1 & h evid5tly be5 =m$ l granite1 by solidify+ f a /ate ( fusion4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,! volcanic rocks consi/ ( mat]ials eject$ f volcanoes4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 eject$ 9 v diff]5t /ates2 sometimes z du/1 s&1 angul> fragm5ts ( rock1 c9d]s1 c41 & sometimes z lava /reams4 ,9 "s in/ances1 ! lava has s little fluidity t x accumulates 9 a dome-%ap$ mass ov] ! orifice ( eruption1 & p]haps 9 a few in/ances x has be5 ?ru/ upw>d 9 a solid /ate4 ,!re are two pr9cipal v>ieties ( lava1 ! tra*ytic1 consi/+ mo/ly ( felsp>1 & ! basaltic1 consi/+ ( hornbl5de4 ,:5 bo? k9ds are products ( ! same eruption1 ! tra*ytic lava is ?r[n out fir/1 & ! basaltic la/4 ,! reason ( ?is is1 t felsp> is light] ?an hornbl5de1 & probably rises to ! surface ( ! lava mass at ! volcanic focus1 & ! basaltic lava is !re=e res]v$ till ! tra*ytic has be5 ?r[n (f4 ,^!1 l o!r rocks1 h be5 produc$ at diff]5t epo*s4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 great difficulty 9 det]m9+ _! age2 ,!re are "s diff]5ces ( /ructure & composition obs]v$1 9 comp>+ ! old] & new] lavas2 b ! only me?od t c be reli$ on to det]m9e _! age is _! relation to o!r rocks4 ,:5 !y occur betwe5 /rata ^: age is det]m9$ by imb$d$ fossils1 !y mu/ be ( int]m$iate age betwe5 ! inf]ior & sup]ior /rata4 #a4 ,mod]n ,volcanic ,rocks4--,"s ( ! volcanic rocks are ( mod]n orig91 & are produc$ by volcanoes n[ active4 ,! total am\nt ( ^!1 & ( all ! o!r volcanic rocks1 is probably less ?an t ( ei!r ( ! o!r pr9cipal divisions ( rocks2 yet !y =m no inconsid]able "p ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! numb] ( active volcanoes is n f> f ?ree hundr$1 & ! numb] ( eruptions annually is e/imat$ at ab\t tw5ty4 ,9 "s cases1 ! lava consi/s ( only a s+le /ream1 ( b a few hundr$ y>ds 9 ext5t4 ,x ext5ds1 h[ev]1 n unfrequ5tly tw5ty miles 9 l5g?1 & two or ?ree hundr$ y>ds 9 bread?4 ,! eruption ( ,m\nt ,loa1 on ! isl& ( ,hawaii1 9 #ahdj1 f ! crat] ( ,kilauea1 cov]$ an area ( fifte5 squ>e miles to ! dep? ( twelve feet2 & ano!r eruption ( ! same m\nta91 9 #ahdc1 cov]$ an area ( at lea/ fifty squ>e miles4 ,! eruption 9 ,icel&1 9 #aghc1 cont9u$ 9 almo/ incessant activity = a ye>1 & s5t (f two /reams 9 opposite directions1 :i* rea*$ a di/ance ( fifty miles 9 "o case1 & ( =ty 9 ! o!r1 ) a wid? v>y+ f ?ree to fifte5 miles1 & ) an av]age dep? ( m ?an a hundr$ feet4 ,! size ( "s ( ! volcanic m\nta9s w also assi/ 9 =m+ an idea ( ! am\nt ( volcanic rocks4 ,monte ,nuovo1 ne> ,naples1 :i* is a mile & a half 9 circumf]5ce & f\r hundr$ & =ty feet high1 0 ?r[n up 9 a s+le day4 tna1 :i* is elev5 ?\s& feet high1 & eighty-sev5 miles 9 circumf]5ce at its base1 has probably be5 produc$ :olly by its own eruptions4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! *a9 ( ! ,&es consi/s ( volcanic rock1 b ! proportion we h n ! means ( e/imat+4 #b4 ,t]ti>y ,lavas4--,!re is ano!r class ( volcanic products1 :i* are s situat$ ) ref]5ce to ! t]ti>y /rata t !y mu/ be ref]r$ to t p]iod4 ,! pr9cipal localities ( ^! lavas1 s f> z yet kn[n1 are ,italy1 ,spa91 ,c5tral ,france1 ,hung>y1 & ,g]many4 ,!y are also f\nd 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,^? ( ,c5tral ,france h be5 /udi$ ) ! mo/ c>e4 ,!y occur 9 sev]al gr\ps1 b !y 7 ! seats ( volcanic activity dur+ ! same epo*1 & =m$ p>ts ( "o ext5sive volcanic region4 ,ea* ( ^! m9or areas1 embrac+ a circle ( tw5ty or ?irty miles 9 diamet]1 is cov]$ ) hills two or ?ree ?\s& feet 9 height1 :i* are compos$ entirely ( volcanic products1 l ! cone ( tna4 ,on _m ( !m !re are p]fectly-=m$ crat]s /ill rema9+4 ,num]\s /reams ( lava h fl[$ f ^! crat]s1 "s ( :i* c n[ be trac$1 ?r\gh\t _! :ole ext5t1 ) z mu* c]ta9ty z if !y 7 eruptions ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,"s ( ! lavas h accumulat$ ar\nd ! orifices ( eruption1 =m+ r\nd$1 dome-%ap$ em95ces4 ,^! lavas g5]ally consi/ ( tra*yte1 & h !re=e a l[ specific gravity1 & imp]fect fluidity4 ,! basaltic lavas h (t5 spread out ov] broad areas1 &1 :5 !y h be5 conf9$ 9 valleys1 h rea*$ a di/ance ( fifte5 miles or m f _! s\rce4 ,!re /ill rema9 indications ( a curr5t ( lava :i* 0 ?irty miles long1 six broad1 & 9 a "p ( its c\rse f f\r to six hundr$ feet deep4 ,! above sket* 7,fig4 #e7 w give "s idea ( ! highly volcanic aspect :i* ! di/rict ( ,auv]gne1 9 ,france1 pres5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,! unimpair$ /ate ( "s ( ! cones & crat]s1 & ( ! lava curr5ts1 w\ld lead to ! impression t ^! regions h be5 ! !atre ( int5se volcanic action )9 a v rec5t p]iod4 ,b !re is good reason to believe t ?is has n be5 ! case4 ,! high antiquity ( ! mo/ mod]n ( ^! volcanoes is inde$ suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,_h any ( !m be5 9 a /ate ( activity 9 ! age ( ,julius ,cs>1 t g5]al1 :o encamp$ ^u ! pla9s ( ,auv]gne & laid siege to its pr9cipal city1 c\ld h>dly h fail$ to notice !m4 ,x is equally c]ta9 t ! comm5cem5t ( _! activity 0 at a late p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,lava curr5ts are frequ5tly f\nd 9 ,france re/+ ^u ! e>ly t]ti>y /rata1 b no lava curr5t is f\nd bel[ !m4 ,! lat] t]ti>y /rata conta9 pebbles ( volcanic rocks1 %[+ t lavas _h be5 previ\sly eject$1 b none are f\nd 9 ! old] /rata ( ?is =mation4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 conclude t ^! volcanic tracts assum$ _! volcanic "* at "s int]m$iate po9t 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod4 ,:5 we f9d t _! activity comm5c$ at s late a p]iod & clos$ s long ago1 we might be l$ to suppose t x 0 ( v %ort duration4 ,b a great numb] ( facts1 9 ! pres5t condition ( ! c\ntry1 require t we %\ld assign to !m a v prolong$ activity4 ,a s+le in/ance w be suffici5t to %[ ! nature ( ! evid5ce ^u :i* ?is conclusion re/s4 ,! heavy l9e 7,fig4 #f7 repres5ts ! pres5t =m ( "o ( ! valleys4 ,a b$ ( lava =ms ! highe/ po9t ( l& repres5t$1 & a second b$ is f\nd 9 an int]m$iate "p ( ! slope4 ,! position ( ! upp] b$ mu/ h be5 a valley1 :5 ! lava fl[$ !re4 ,we may repres5t ?is valley by ! l9e a b c4 ,! sl[ op]ation ( natural d5ud+ causes at l5g? excavat$ ! valley d e h1 :5 ano!r lava curr5t fl[$ ?r\gh x1 cov]+ its b$ ( pebbles1 z be=e4 ,! same d5ud+ causes h at l5g? produc$ ! pres5t valley1 f g h4 ,^! remnants ( lava-curr5ts1 z !y h =m$ a v imp]i%able rock1 h protect$ ! subjac5t /rata f erosion1 & furni% evid5ce ( ! position ( ! valley at diff]5t p]iods4 ,:5 we consid] ) :at extreme sl[ness d5ud+ causes produce *anges on ! surface1 & :at ext5sive *anges !y h "h nev]!less effect$ 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! production ( ! diff]5t lava curr5ts1 we are compell$ to feel t t int]val 0 a v prolong$ "o4 ,yet ?is p]iod1 h[ev] long x may h be51 0 evid5tly less ?an ! p]iod ( activity ( ^! volcanoes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 #c4 ,volcanic rocks ( an e>li] date are also f\nd1 sometimes z di/9ct lavas1 ?\gh g5]ally z volcanic grits4 ,!y occur int]/ratifi$ ) ! cretace\s rocks1 & ) e o!r =mation ( ! fossilif]\s s]ies1 %[+ t1 f ! e>lie/ times1 ^! rocks h be5 accumulat+ z !y n[ are4 ,! trappean rocks may1 9 a g5]al classification1 be consid]$ z volcanic4 ,x w be %[n1 h]eaft]1 t !y are ! lavas ( subm>9e volcanoes4 ,!y d n1 h[ev]1 occur 9 ! =m ( lava curr5ts1 b 9 great tabul> masses1 g5]ally betwe5 /ratifi$ rocks1 or 9 ! =m ( dikes4 ,!y are also entirely unconnect$ ) cones or crat]s4 ,! trappean rocks occur m or less abundantly 9 all c\ntries4 ,"o ( ! mo/ not$ localities ( ?is rock is a region embrac+ ! nor? ( ,irel&1 & sev]al ( ! isl&s on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,scotl&4 ,x conta9s ! celebrat$ ,giant's ,causeway1 :i* consi/s ( a mass ( column> trap2 also ,f+al's ,cave1 :i* is produc$ by a portion ( ! trap be+ column>1 & ?us dis9tegrat+ m rapidly ?an ! re/1 by ! action ( ! waves4 ,an imm5se mass ( gre5/one trap1 :i* has g5]ally be5 consid]$ z a va/ dike1 ?\gh (t5 a mile 9 ?ickness1 is f\nd ext5d+ f ,new ,hav5 to ,nor?ampton1 on ! we/ side ( ! ,connecticut riv]4 ,x !n crosses to ! ea/ side1 & cont9ues 9 a nor!rly direction to ! ,massa*usetts l9e4 ,"u diff]5t names1 x con/itutes a ne>ly cont9u\s & precipit\s m\nta9 range = ab\t "o hundr$ miles4 ,dr4 ,hit*cock supposes ?is gre5/one range to be1 n an inject$ dike1 b a tabul> mass ( anci5t lava1 :i* 0 spread out on ! b$ ( ! ocean dur+ ! p]iod ( ! deposition ( ! ,connecticut riv] s&/one4 ,x 0 subsequ5tly cov]$ ) a deposit ( /rata ( great ?ickness1 & !n by subt]ranean =ces ?r[n into its pres5t incl9$ position4 ,!re is a mass ( basaltic rock 9 ! valley ( ! ,columbia riv]1 9 ! ,oregon ,t]ritory1 :i* ext5ds )\t int]ruption = a di/ance ( f\r hundr$ miles4 ,its bread? & ?ickness is n kn[n1 b 9 "s places ! riv] has cut a *annel 9 ?is rock to a dep? ( f\r hundr$ feet4 ,its age has n be5 det]m9$1 & x w1 p]haps1 be f\nd to be a t]ti>y or mod]n production4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,! ,,non-,,fossilif]\s ,,/ratifi$ 7,,or ,,metamorphic7 ,,rocks4 #a4 ,gneiss is ! mo/ abundant rock 9 ?is class1 & is g5]ally f\nd repos+ on granite4 ,its /ratification is sometimes v di/9ct1 b x is (t5 s imp]fect t x c sc>cely be recogniz$4 ,?is is m frequ5tly ! case 9 ! vic9ity ( granite on :i* x re/s1 & into :i* x ins5sibly passes4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! mat]ial us$ = build+ purposes1 "u ! "n ( granite1 is obscurely m>k$ gneiss4 ,9 all prim>y c\ntries x is an abundant rock1 occupy+ ext5sive di/ricts1 & sometimes =m+ m\nta9 masses4 #b4 ,mica slate lies next above gneiss1 & is a v abundant rock4 ,z x diff]s f gneiss only 9 ! proportion ( mica :i* x conta9s1 & z ! quantity ( mica 9 x is v diff]5t 9 diff]5t places1 x is (t5 difficult to make ! di/9ction betwe5 !m4 ,x also passes by ins5sible degrees into ! argillace\s rocks4 ,_m ( ! argillace\s rocks are f\nd1 ^u close exam9ation1 to conta9 mica 9 m9ute scales 9 su* abundance z to make x d\btful :e!r !y ought n to be reg>d$ z mica slates2 t is1 ! metamorphic action by :i* argillace\s slate is conv]t$ into mica slate _h proce$$ s f>1 be=e x 0 arre/$1 t x becomes impossible to say :e!r ! argillace\s or micace\s *>act]s pr$om9ate4 #c4 ,argillace\s slate4--,! la/ rock ( ?is s]ies is a slaty rock1 m or less highly argillace\s4 ,x does n diff] 9 li?ological *>act]s f ! same rock 9 ! high] /rata4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! ro(+-slates %\ld be consid]$ z belong+ to ! metamorphic s]ies or n4 ,!y h be5 subject$ to a v high degree ( metamorphic action1 & yet /rata intimately associat$ ) !m h1 9 occasional in/ances1 conta9$ fossils4 ,x is n easy to fix ! exact upp] limit ( ?is s]ies4 ,! fossils are few1 obscure1 & seldom met ) 9 ! l[e/ fossilif]\s s]ies2 & ! transition is v gradual f ! di/9ctly metamorphic to ! fossilif]\s rocks4 ,?is r5d]s x impossible always to det]m9e accurately ! l9e ( sep>ation4 ,! gneiss1 mica slate & argillace\s slate1 h ! ord] ( sup]position 9 :i* !y are "h nam$4 ,!y diff] only 9 ! am\nt ( metamorphic action to :i* !y h be5 subject$2 & ! gneiss :i* is mo/ highly metamorphic has1 by be+ ! l[e/1 be5 mo/ act$ ^u1--! mica slate less1 & ! argillace\s slate lea/4 ,9 a p>ticul> locality1 h[ev]1 ! l[e/ rock :i* 0 subject$ to ^! causes ( *ange1 in/ead ( hav+ be5 ( su* a "* z to produce gneiss1 may h be5 a lime/one1 & 9 t case ! l[e/ metamorphic rock w\ld be a sac*>9e m>ble4 ,9 ano!r locality ! l[e/ rock may h be5 a s&/one1 :i* w\ld be conv]t$ into qu>tz rock4 ,h5ce !re may occur1 9 any "p ( ! metamorphic s]ies1 cry/all9e lime/one1 qu>tz rock1 hornbl5de slate1 *lorite slate1 & talcose slate2 & any "o ( ^! rocks may be z abundant 9 any p>ticul> region1 z gneiss1 mica slate or argillace\s slate1 is 9 ano!r4 ,! metamorphic rocks occur 9 all c\ntries :]e !re has be5 any consid]able am\nt ( volcanic action1 & _! total am\nt is v great2 b _! /ratification is s confus$ & contort$1 _! sup]position s irregul>1 & d5udations h be5 s ext5sive1 t no e/imate c be made ( _! ?ickness4 ,!y are1 p]haps1 equal to all ! o!r /ratifi$ rocks4 ,,section ,v4--,,! ,,fossilif]\s ,,rocks4 ,! fossilif]\s rocks are divid$ into sev5 sy/ems1 :i* are readily di/+ui%$ by ! ord] ( sup]position1 li?ological *>act]s & organic rema9s4 ,^! sy/ems are ! ,silurian1 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 ! ,olitic1 ! ,cretace\s1 & ! ,t]ti>y sy/ems4 ,!re is also an eigh? sy/em n[ 9 process ( =mation4 ,x is ! op9ion ( "s geologi/s t !re is ano!r sy/em situat$ betwe5 ! metamorphic rocks & ! silurian sy/em4 ,x has be5 call$ by ,dr4 ,emmons1 :o has /udi$ x ) mu* c>e1 ! ,taconic ,sy/em1 ! ,taconic ,m\nta9s1 9 ! we/]n "p ( ,massa*usetts1 be+ compos$ ( ^! rocks4 ,x is ! l[] "p ( :at has be5 call$1 9 ,engl& & ,wales1 ! ,cambrian sy/em4 ,! /rata ( ?is sy/em h a ne>ly v]tical position1 & consi/ pr9cipally ( black1 gre5i% & purple slates1 ( great ?ickness4 ,granul> qu>tz rock1 h[ev]1 occurs 9 consid]able quantity1 & 9 ?is c\ntry two ?ick & important b$s ( lime/one are f\nd4 ,^! lime/ones are occasionally :ite & cry/all9e4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 z a mass1 !y are a d>k1 ne>ly black rock1 ) a network ( l9es ( a light] color4 ,all ! cl\d$ m>bles = ar*itectural & ornam5tal purposes are f ^! b$s1 & our ro(+ & writ+ slates are all obta9$ f ! argillace\s portion ( ?is sy/em4 ,! numb] ( species ( organic rema9s conta9$ 9 ?is sy/em is v small1 & ^!1 s f> z discov]$1 belong to ! annelida1 ) a few d\btful cases ( mollusca4 ,?is sy/em ( rocks is f\nd com+ to ! surface 9 a l>ge "p ( ,new ,engl&1 & ! ea/]n "p ( ,new ,york1 also 9 ! we/]n "p ( ,engl& & ,wales4 ,^? geologi/s :o d5y ! exi/5ce ( ?is sy/em consid] ^! rocks z p>ts ( ! silurian sy/em :i* h be5 mo/ di/urb$ by subt]ranean =ces1 & mo/ alt]$ by proximity to igne\s rocks4 ,! annex$ sket* 7,fig4 #g7 w exhibit ! relations "h ref]r$ to4 ,c]ta9 portions ( ! silurian rocks are suppos$ to h be5 ?r[n into folds by ! upheaval ( ! prim>y rocks4 ,! plications ne>e/ to ! intrusive granite w\ld be mo/ alt]$4 ,t "p ( ! figure bel[ ! l9e a a repres5ts ! outcropp+ edges z !y n[ appe>1 ! upp] portion ( ! folds hav+ be5 remov$ by "s abrad+ cause4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,z x is yet unc]ta9 :i* ( ^! views is correct1 conv5i5ce w ju/ify u 9 reta9+ ! "n ( ,cambrian sy/em till fur!r inve/igations %all settle ! "q4 #a4 ,! ,silurian ,sy/em4--,! foll[+ tabul> arrangem5t exhibits ! divisions ( ! sy/em z recogniz$ 9 ,engl&1 9 ,new ,york1 9 ,p5nsylvania & ,virg9ia1 & 9 ,ohio4 ,key to ,divisions ---------------- ,c - ,cambrian ,rocks4 ,s - ,silurian ,sy/em4 ,d - ,devonian4 ,* - ,*ampla9 ,division4 ,on - ,ont>io ,division4 ,he - ,held]b]g ,division4 ,er - ,erie ,division4 ,divisions z recogniz$ ,divisions z recogniz$ ,p5nsylvania ,ohio4 by ,engli% ,au?ors4 by ! ,new ,york & ,virg9ia4 ,geologi/s4 _/------------------- _/----------------------- _/---------- _/-------- ,upp] ,cambrian ,potsdam ,s&/one4 ,no4 #a4 ,c ,rocks1 ( ,s$gwick ,calcif]\s ,s&rock4 ,birdseye ,lime/one4 ,no4 #b4 7probably74 ,* ,tr5ton ,lime/one4 ,blue ,lime/one ,ll&eilo ,flags4 ,utica ,slate4 & ,m>l4 ,no4 #c4 ,hudson ,riv] ,gr\p4 ,gray ,s&/one4 ,no4 #d4 ,oneida ,conglom]ate4 ,on ,c>adoc ,s&/one4 ,m$9a ,s&/one4 ,no4 #e4 ,cl9ton ,gr\p4 ,niag>a ,gr\p4 ,oneida ,salt ,gr\p4 3 ,wat]-lime ,gr\p4 3 ,p5tam]us ,lime/one4 ,no4 #f4 3 ,del?yris ,%aly 3 ,lime/one4 3 ,s ,encr9al ,lime/one4 3 ,cliff ,w5lock ,rocks4 ,he ,upp] ,p5tam]us 3 ,lime/one4 3 ,lime/one4 ,oriskany ,s&/one4 3 ,no4 #g4 3 ,cauda-,galli ,grit4 3 ,s*oh>ie ,grit4 3 ,onondaga ,lime/one4 ,want+4 3 ,cornif]\s ,lime/one4 ,want+4 ,m>cellus ,%ales4 ,black ,hamilton ,gr\p4 ,slate4 ,upp] & ,l[] ,no4 #h4 ,tully ,lime/one4 ,ludl[ ,rocks & ,er 3 ,g5esee ,slate4 ,d 3 ! ,devonian 3 ,portage ,gr\p4 ,no4 #i4 ,wav] 3 ,sy/em4 ,*emung ,gr\p4 ,s&/one4 ,?is "n1 ,silurian1 0 fir/ us$ to designate ! l[e/ well-*>act]iz$ fossilif]\s rocks 9 ,engl&4 ,b x is n[ us$ to embrace ! :ole sy/em z x occurs else:]e4 ,x is well exhibit$ 9 ,new ,york1 bo? 9 consequ5ce ( its great developm5t !re1 & because ! :ole sy/em is only slightly act$ ^u by di/urb+ =ces1 s t ! outcropp+ edge ( ea* division ext5ds ov] a l>ge surface4 ,?is sy/em is ( great ?ickness1 am\nt+1 9 places :]e x is well develop$1 to tw5ty ?\s& feet4 ,! ,*ampla9 division comm5ces ) a qu>tzose s&/one1 pass+ gradually into lime/one1 :i* is succe$$ by a v ?ick argillace\s deposit1 ! ,utica slate & ,hudson ,riv] gr\p4 ,! ,ont>io division 9 ! l[] "p is a mass ( s&/one4 ,above ?is is ! ,cl9ton gr\p1 consi/+ ( %ales & s&/ones4 ,! mo/ important "p ( ?is gr\p1 9 an economical po9t ( view1 is a fossilif]\s1 argillace\s iron ore1 coext5sive ) ! gr\p 9 ?is c\ntry1 & is work$ to supply a l>ge numb] ( furnaces4 ,! la/ ( ! division is ! ,niag>a gr\p1 :i* comm5ces ) a mass ( %ale1 & becom+ at l5g? calc>e\s1 x t]m9ates 9 a firm compact lime/one4 ,?is lime/one has )/ood ! action ( d5ud+ causes bett] ?an ! %ales ei!r above or bel[ x4 ,x !re=e pres5ts a bold esc>pm5t at its outcrop1 & occasions wat]falls :]ev] /reams ( wat] cross x4 ,! falls ( ,niag>a are =m$ by ?is rock4 ,! ,niag>a lime/one1 9 its ext5sion we/w>d1 becomes ! lead-be>+ rock ( ,miss\ri1 ,i[a & ,wiscons94 ,! ,held]b]g division is a succession ( highly fossilif]\s lime/ones1 ) ! int]v5tion ( only occasional b$s ( grits & %ales4 ,"o memb] ( ! s]ies is ! ,onondaga ,salt gr\p4 ,! wat] obta9$ f ?is gr\p 9 ,new ,york annually furni%es imm5se quantities ( salt4 ,! ,erie division consi/s ( a ?ick mass ( %ales & s&/ones4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,! fossils ( ?is sy/em are v num]\s1 b consi/ mo/ly ( ! l[] =ms ( animal life4 ,corals 7,figs4 #h & #i7 are abundant1 & con/itute 9 "s places a l>ge proportion ( ! lime/ones4 ,! ,cr9oidea1 or lily-%ap$ animals1 consi/ ( a jo9t$ /em p]man5tly atta*$1 & be>+ at ! free extremity ( ! /em an exp&$ portion1 :i* is ! pelvis1 or dige/ive cavity4 ,! m\? is surr\nd$ ) a s]ies ( leaf-l t5tacula1 :i* s]ve ! purpose ( seiz+ & hold+ food4 ,fig4 #aj repres5ts ! pelvis ( "o ( ! silurian fossils4 ,! g5]al "* ( ! animal is bett] repres5t$ by ,fig4 #cj4 ,! mo/ abundant fossils ( ?is p]iod are ! l[e/ ord]s ( bivalve mollusca 7,fig4 #aa74 ,! ,cephalopoda are *>act]iz$ by hav+ ! organs ( locomotion atta*$ to ! head4 ,! %ell ( sev]al species is peculi> 9 be+ divid$ into di/9ct cells1 or *amb]s 7,fig4 #ab1 b d71 p]=at$ by a tube 7siphuncle a74 ,^! fossil %ells are sometimes /raight1 z ! ,or?oc]as 7,fig4 #ac71 or curv$1 z %[n 9 ! sev]al =ms ( ,fig4 #ad4 ,! ,trilobite 0 an articulat$1 cru/ace\s animal1 hav+ two l9es along ! back divid+ x into ?ree lobes1 f :i* circum/ance its "n is d]iv$4 ,x is f\nd 9 great numb]s 9 ! ,silurian rocks 7,fig4 #ae74 ,9 a few in/ances rema9s ( fi%es h be5 f\nd1 b !y by no means *>act]ize ! sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,! geographical range ( ?is sy/em is probably great] ?an t ( any sy/em ( rocks above x4 ,x is f\nd occupy+ a l>ge "p ( ! t]ritory we/ ( ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 f ,canada1 ?r\gh ,new ,york1 & ! o!r /ates1 to ,alabama2 & ext5d+ we/w>d to & beyond ! ,mississippi riv]4 ,x occupies a l>ge di/rict 9 ! we/ ( ,engl&1 & is f\nd 9 great =ce 9 ! nor? & ea/ ( ,europe4 #b4 ,! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4--,?is =mation consi/s almo/ entirely ( a s&/one ( a r$ color4 ,x admits ( division into ?ree p>ts1 ?\gh ! *>act]s v>y 9 diff]5t places4 ,! l[e/ is a ?9-b$d$ argillace\s s&/one1 consi/+ ( f9ely levigat$ mat]ial1 & easily splitt+ into ?9 %eets4 ,f ?is circum/ance x has receiv$ ! "n ( tile/one4 ,! middle portion is compos$ ( nodules or concretions ( lime/one imb$d$ 9 a pa/e ( r$ s& & %ale4 ,?is has be5 call$ by ,engli% geologi/s1 corn/one1 & ?\gh v p>tially develop$ 9 "s regions :]e ! sy/em is f\nd1 x is yet a v p]si/5t memb]4 ,! highe/ memb] ( ?is =mation is a mass ( r$ s&/one1 (t5 pass+ into a co>se conglom]ate4 ,9 ,engl& ! ?ickness ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one is n less ?an t5 ?\s& feet4 ,9 ?is c\ntry x is sc>cely ?ree ?\s& feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,! fossils ( ?is sy/em are a few %ells1 a small numb] ( vegetable species1 & 9 p>ticul> localities ! rema9s ( fi%es 9 great abundance4 ,! sy/em is *>act]iz$ pr9cipally by fossils ( ?is la/ k9d4 ,! fi%es ( ?is sy/em h a c>tilag9\s skeleton1 b are cov]$ ) plates ( bone1 :i* 7 fac$ ext]nally ) enamel4 ,! jaws1 :i* consi/$ ( solid bone1 7 n cov]$ ) integum5t4 ,! ext]ior bony cov]+ seems to h be5 ! true skeleton1 z is1 9 "p1 ! case ) ! tortoise4 ,9 "s ( ! fi%es ( ?is p]iod !re is a w+-l expansion on ea* side ( ! neck1 :i* has giv5 !m ! "n ( ,pt]y*?is 7,fig4 #ag74 ,9 o!rs1 z ! ,cephalaspis1 ! plate ( bone on ! back is s l>ge z to cov] ne>ly ! :ole body1 & make x resemble a trilobite 7,fig4 #ah74 ,?is sy/em has an ext5sive geographical range4 ,9 ,engl&1 x occupies a b& ( sev]al miles 9 wid?1 ext5d+ f ! ,wel% bord] nor?w>d ?r\gh ,scotl& to ! ,orkney ,isl&s4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 x =ms ! ,catskill ,m\nta9s1 9 ,new ,york1 & ext5ds s\? & we/ s z to und]lie ! coal-fields ( ,p5nsylvania & ,virg9ia4 #c4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s ,sy/em4--,?is sy/em consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 di/+ui%$ by li?ological & fossil *>act]s4 ,! c>bonif]\s lime/one is a d>k-color$1 compact lime/one1 =m+ ! base ( ! sy/em1 & repos+ on ! old r$ s&/one4 ,its ?ickness is f six hundr$ to "o ?\s& feet1 (t5 ) sc>cely any int]mixture ( o!r rock2 b x sometimes loses its "* ( a lime/one1 & becomes a s&/one1 or conglom]ate4 ,x g5]ally conta9s ! ores ( lead 9 consid]able quantity1 & f ?is circum/ance has be5 call$ metallif]\s lime/one4 ,9 ,engl& x is ! pr9cipal repository ( ^! ores4 ,9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates x is ! upp] portion ( ! lead-be>+ /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,! fossils are m>9e1 & v num]\s4 ,corals & cr9oidea are v abundant4 ,! cr9oidea1 9 "s localities1 =m s l>ge a "p ( ! rock z to h giv5 to x ! "n ( encr9al lime/one4 ,! or?oc]as & trilobite are f\nd1 b become ext9ct ) ?is =mation4 ,sev]al species ( bivalves1 su* z ,del?yris & ,leptna1 are also common4 ,next above ! lime/one lies ! s&/one1 sometimes call$ mill/one grit4 ,x is g5]ally drab-color$1 b occasionally r$4 ,its ?ickness is (t5 equal to t ( ! lime/one4 ,sometimes x is f9e-gra9$ & compact2 b g5]ally x is co>se-gra9$1 & (t5 passes into a conglom]ate4 ,x conta9s b few fossils1 & ^? ( vegetable orig94 ,! highe/ "p ( ! sy/em is ! coal measures4 ,!y consi/ ( b$s ( s&/one1 lime/one1 %ale1 clay1 iron/one & coal1 occurr+ )\t mu* uni=mity 9 _! ord] ( sup]position4 ,! coal measures h a ?ickness ( ab\t ?ree ?\s& feet4 ,! s&/ones & lime/ones are n di/+ui%able f ! s&/ones & lime/ones 9 ! l[] "p ( ! sy/em4 ,! iron/one ei!r occurs 9 concretion>y nodules1 (t5 =m$ ar\nd "s organic nucleus1 or x is an argillace\s ore1 hav+ a slaty /ructure4 ,9 ei!r case1 x consi/s ( subord9ate b$s 9 ! %ale4 ,! coal consi/s ( sev]al b$s di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! measures4 ,! b$s v>y 9 ?ickness f a few l9es or in*es to sev]al feet4 ,9 a few cases b$s h be5 f\nd measur+ fifty or sixty feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! workable b$s are ord9>ily f ?ree to six feet ?ick4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,! c>bonif]\s =mation is v mu* di/urb$ by dikes1 faults 7,fig4 #ah2 see also ,fig4 #ej71 & o!r dislocations4 ,! am\nt ( *ange ( position 9 ! /rata1 by faults1 is v v>i\s2 frequ5tly b a few feet4 ,9 "o case 9 ,engl& !re is a fault ( ne>ly a ?\s& feet4 ,!re is a case ( dislocation 9 ,belgium :]e ! /rata are b5t into ! =m ( ! lett] ,z1 s t a p]p5dicul> %aft w\ld cut ?r\gh ! same b$ ( coal sev]al times4 ,! *>act]s & ord] ( sup]position :i* h n[ be5 giv5 may be reg>d$ z ! g5]al type ( ! c>bonif]\s =mation4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al important modifications4 #a4 ,b$s ( coal sometimes alt]nate ) b$s ( mill/one grit4 ,?us1 9 ,scotl& & 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 ?is int]m$iate memb] ( ! sy/em disappe>s1 or1 r1 is incorporat$ ) ! coal measures4 ,! same is true1 to consid]able ext5t1 9 ?is c\ntry4 #b4 ,sometimes ! c>bonif]\s lime/one also disappe>s z a di/9ct memb] ( ! sy/em1 p>tly by becom+ ar5ace\s1 & p>tly by ! int]calation ( b$s ( coal4 ,9 ?is la/ case1 ! :ole =mation f ! old to ! new r$ s&/one becomes a s]ies ( coal measures4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! c>bonif]\s lime/one is f\nd v g5]ally to und]lie ! coal /rata4 #c4 ,! fractures & faults1 :i* 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be *>act]i/ic ( ! coal =mation1 are seldom f\nd 9 ! great coal-fields ( ?is c\ntry1 except 9 ^? ( ! an?racite coal ( ,p5nsylvania2 & ev5 !re !y are mu* less common ?an 9 ! coal-fields ( ,europe4 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal v>ieties ( coal1 di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5t proportions ( bitum5 :i* !y conta94 ,! common bitum9\s coal k9dles readily1 emits mu* smoke1 & ?r[s out s mu* liquid bitum5 t ! :ole soon cakes into a solid mass4 ,x conta9s ab\t =ty p] c5t1 ( bitum54 ,! second k9d1 or cannel coal1 conta9s tw5ty p] c5t41 & inflames easily1 b does n agglut9ate4 ,! /one-coal1 or an?racite1 conta9s sc>cely any bitum51 ignites ) difficulty1 emits b little smoke1 & produces a v int5se heat4 ,! bitum9\s v>ieties are always f\nd 9 ! lea/ di/urb$ portions ( ! coal di/ricts2 & ! an?racite is f\nd 9 ! m brok5 & convuls$ portions1 :]e we may suppose t ! subt]ranean heat has be5 suffici5t to drive (f ! volatile bitum9\s "p1 & r$uce x to ! an?racite =m4 ,h5ce ! ea/]n ,p5nsylvania coal-fields1 :i* lie ne> ! pr9cipal axes ( elevation ( ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s1 furni% only an?racite2 :ile ! same coal-seams1 9 _! ext5sion to ! we/]n "p ( ! /ate1 are bitum9\s4 ,:]e coal is qu>ri$ 9 l>ge quantity1 a %aft is sunk ?r\gh ! ov]ly+ /rata to ! coal-b$s1 & ! coal is rais$ to '! surface by /eam p[]4 ,aft] ! coal has be5 qu>ri$ to "s di/ance f ! %aft1 pill>s ( unqu>ri$ coal are left to support ! ov]ly+ /rata4 ,fatal accid5ts h sometimes occurr$ by ! giv+ away ( ^! supports4 ,ov] a l>ge "p ( ! coal-fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates x has n yet become necess>y to s9k %afts4 ,! qu>ry+ is comm5c$ at ! outcrop ( ! coal-b$2 &1 till ! cov] becomes ( consid]able ?ickness1 x has be5 f\nd economical to /rip (f ! ov]ly+ rock1 r ?an to "w a subt]ranean gall]y4 ,br9e-spr+s are (t5 f\nd 9 ! coal measures ( suffici5t /r5g? to be us$ 9 ! manufacture ( salt4 ,?is is n[ done to consid]able ext5t 9 ,ohio4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,k5hawa riv]1 ,k5tucky1 ! rocks ( :i* belong to ! c>bonif]\s sy/em1 ! br9e is ne>ly saturat$ ) salt2 & 9 "s ( ! bor+s !y h ev5 discov]$ b$s ( rock-salt ( great ?ickness & purity4 ,!re is no o!r "p ( ! geological s]ies s obvi\sly connect$ ) national prosp]ity z ! coal =mation4 ,:ile a c\ntry is new1 ! =e/s furni% an abundant supply ( fuel2 b 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s ^! are consum$4 ,?is c\ntry w soon be pr9cipally dep5d5t ^u its coal-m9es = fuel1 ev5 = dome/ic purposes2 &1 9 c>ry+ on ! great bran*es ( national indu/ry1 su* z ! smelt+ & work+ ( iron1 & 9 ! =mation ( /eam = ! purposes ( manufacture & transportation1 we are already ma9ly dep5d5t ^u m9]al coal4 ,a nation :i* does n possess an abundant supply ( ?is m9]al1 or :i* does n use x1 _c long ma9ta9 a high degree ( national prosp]ity4 ,9 ^! inexhau/ible masses ( coal1 accumulat$ ages be=e ! exi/5ce ( ! human race1 is a mo/ obvi\s prospective arrangem5t = secur+ our happ9ess & improvem5t4 ,& ?is arrangem5t embraces n only ! accumulation ( a combu/ible mat]ial 9 su* abundance1 b also its juxtaposition ) an equally inexhau/ible accumulation ( iron ore1 & ! lime/one :i* is necess>y z a flux 9 ! r$uction ( ! ore4 ,s bulky & heavy mat]ials z coal & iron ore c\ld nei!r ( !m h be5 transport$ to any consid]able di/ance = ! manufacture ( iron2 & )\t ! manufacture ( iron on a l>ge scale1 ! pres5t op]ations 9 manufactures & transportation c\ld nev] h be5 ent]$ ^u4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! iron furnaces 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ne>ly all ( !m 9 ,great ,brita91 employ m9]al coal = fuel1 & obta9 _! ore f ! b$s conta9$ 9 ! coal measures4 ,! fossils ( ! coal measures are almo/ entirely ( vegetable orig91 & are v abundant4 ,!y are seldom f\nd 9 ! coal-b$s1 b 9 ! /rata ( %ale imm$iately above or bel[ ! solid coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,! ,/igm>ia 7,fig4 #ai7 is f\nd mo/ abundantly1 & 9 a l>ge proportion ( cases to ! exclusion ( e o!r =m1 9 ! l[] %ales4 ,x consi/$ ( a l>ge dome-%ap$ mass1 (t5 ?ree or f\r feet 9 diamet]1 ) trail+ bran*es1 or roots1 spread+ (f horizontally to a di/ance ( tw5ty feet4 ,9 a few in/ances tree f]ns h be5 f\nd1 petrifi$ 9 a horizontal position1 & be+ app>5tly a m]e cont9uation ( ! /igm>ia4 ,h5ce ! /igm>ia has be5 suppos$ to be ! base ( ! tall tree f]ns1 ! leaves ( :i* s ab\nd 9 ! upp] %ales4 ,if ?is is n ! case1 !re are no =ms ( ! exi/+ flora ( ! e>? analog\s to ! /igm>ia4 ,x is always f\nd 9 connection ) ! coal-b$s ( ! c>bonif]\s =mation1 & nev] ) ! coal-b$s :i* sometimes occur 9 ! lat] =mations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,! tree f]ns 7,fig4 #bj7 atta9$ a height ( fifty or sixty feet1 & a diamet] ( f\r feet4 ,!y h receiv$ ! "n ( ,sigill>ia 9 consequ5ce ( ! seal-l impressions 7,fig4 #ba7 ) :i* ! surface is cov]$1 & :i* are ! sc>s left :]e ! fronds h fall5 (f4 ,^! fronds 7f]n leaves7 are ! mo/ abundant fossil ( ! s]ies4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ by "s peculi>ity 9 =m1 z ! ,sph5opt]is 7w$ge-%ap$ f]n leaf71 ,pa*ypt]is 7?ick f]n leaf71 c4 7,figs4 #bb & #bc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,!re 0 ano!r k9d ( ,sigill>ia 7,fig4 #bd71 9 :i* ! surface 0 flut$1 & ! m>k+s are sup]ficial1 & occur on ! ridges4 ,x rea*$ z great a size z ! tree f]ns1 b to :at g5]al class ( plants x belong$ is /ill d\btful4 ,! ,lepidod5dron 7scale-cov]$ tree7 7,fig4 #be7 is ! fossil :i* mo/ ne>ly resembl$ 9 g5]al appe>ance our pres5t =e/ trees4 ,specim5s are f\nd f\r feet 9 diamet] & sev5ty feet 9 height4 ,9 botanical *>act]s x resembl$1 9 "s respects1 ! trail+ club-mosses1 :ile 9 o!rs x 0 v simil> to ! ,norfolk ,isl& p9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,! ,calamite 7,fig4 #bf7 0 a plant resembl+1 9 its jo9t$ & /riat$ surface1 ! equisetum 7ru%71 b 0 sometimes twelve in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! c>bonif]\s =mation exi/s m or less abundantly 9 all ! great divisions ( ! e>?4 ,x occurs 9 ne>ly all ( ! c\ntries ( ,europe4 ,! l>ge/ deposits kn[n are1 h[ev]1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 especially 9 ! ,/ates ( ,p5nsylvania & ,virg9ia1 & 9 ,ohio4 #d4 ,! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4--,! l[] division ( ?is =mation1 call$ ! ,p]mian sy/em1 consi/s ( a ?ick mass ( s&/ones1 g5]ally ( a r$ color1 ) occasional alt]nations ( argillace\s rock1 succe$$ by a s]ies ( magnesian lime/ones4 ,! upp] division1 or ,triassic sy/em1 is compos$ ( a r$ conglom]ate1 a lime/one :i* has receiv$ ! "n ( ,mus*elkalk 7%elly lime/one71 & a s]ies ( v>iegat$ m>ls & s&/ones4 ,! ores ( copp] are f\nd1 to consid]able ext5t1 9 ?is =mation4 ,! ri* copp] m9es ( ,g]many are 9 ! magnesian lime/one1 or1 z x is !re call$1 ,ze*/e9 7m9e/one74 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior copp] m9es occur 9 a r$ s&/one =mation1 :i* w probably be f\nd to belong to ?is sy/em4 ,! salt-b$s1 salt spr+s1 & b$s ( gypsum1 are s1 g5]ally f\nd 9 ?is rock 9 ,engl&1 t x has be5 call$ by ! ,engli% geologi/s ! salif]\s sy/em4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 f\nd t 9 o!r c\ntries ^! m9]als occur 9 equal abundance 9 =mations ( an e>li] & lat] date4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,! fossils ( ?is sy/em are n abundant4 ,9 ! ,p]mian portion1 impressions ( fi%es are f\nd1 always ) ! peculi>ity t ! tail is het]oc]cal 7,fig4 #bg72 t is1 ) ! sp9e cont9u$ into ! upp] lobe4 ,! same peculi>ity prevails 9 ! c>bonif]\s & all ! e>li] =mations4 ,fi%es ) ! tail homoc]cal beg9 to appe> 9 ! ,triassic portion ( ?is sy/em1 & are f\nd 9 all ! subsequ5t =mations4 ,! rema9s ( saurians also occur 9 ?is =mation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,! r$ s&/ones seem to h be5 bett] adapt$ to reta9 ! =ms :i* 7 impress$ ^u !m ?an to pres]ve ! organic rema9s :i* 7 deposit$ 9 !m4 ,h5ce1 :ile !y conta9 b few fossils1 ! /rata are (t5 cov]$ ) ripple m>ks1 ) sun cracks1 occasion$ by contraction :ile dry+1 or ) depressions produc$ by ra9-drops1 & ! pits are sometimes s p]fect z to %[ ! direction ( ! w9d :5 ! drops fell4 7,fig4 #bh47 ,! tracks ( animals are also well pres]v$4 ,"s ( !m 7 produc$ by reptiles 7,fig4 #bi1 c71 & "s probably by m>supial animals1 b mo/ ( !m by birds 7a1 b74 ,presid5t ,hit*cock has di/+ui%$ ! tracks ( m ?an ?irty species 9 ! s&/ones ( ! ,connecticut valley4 ,birds1 reptiles & m>supial animals1 seem to h be5 fir/ introduc$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,! new r$ s&/one is well develop$ 9 all its memb]s on ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,9 ,engl&1 all ! memb]s are pres5t1 except ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,! ,triassic portion ( x occurs 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,x is f\nd 9 deta*$ portions1 probably z p>ts ( a cont9u\s =mation1 9 ,nova ,scotia1 ! ea/]n "p ( ,ma9e1 ! ,connecticut valley1 & f ,new ,j]sey s\?w>d ?r\gh ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 c41 to ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 #e4 ,! ,olitic ,sy/em4--,! l[] portion ( ?is sy/em is ! ,lias1 & consi/s ( a s]ies ( fissile1 argillace\s lime/one1 m>l1 & clays4 ,! ,olite =ms ! int]m$iate memb] ( ! sy/em1 & consi/s ( alt]nations ( clay1 ar5ace\s rock & lime/one4 ,"s ( ! lime/ones h an olitic /ructure1 & ! :ole sy/em takes its "n f ?is circum/ance1 ?\gh ?is /ructure is n f\nd 9 all p>ts ( x1 & is (t5 f\nd 9 o!r =mations4 ,! c5tral "p ( ! olite1 ! coral rag1 is pr9cipally a mass ( corals & comm9ut$ %ells4 ,! ,weald51 ! highe/ memb] ( ! olitic sy/em1 is an e/u>y deposit1 consi/+ ( calc>e\s b$s1 foll[$ by s&/one1 & t]m9at$ by ! ,weald5 clay4 ,?is sy/em is ?r\gh\t highly calc>e\s1 & furni%es1 :]ev] x is develop$1 valuable mat]ials = ar*itectural & ornam5tal purposes4 ,?is sy/em is di/+ui%$ = ! great am\nt & v>iety ( its organic rema9s4 ,! vegetable productions 7 int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ! coal p]iod & ^? ( ! pres5t "t4 ,! upp] olite1 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 conta9s ! /umps ( trees & o!r plants1 root$ 9 a black c>bonace\s lay]1 evid5tly ! soil f :i* !y grew4 ,^! /umps & pro/rate trunks are ! rema9s ( conif]\s trees ( l>ge gr[?4 7,fig4 #cj47 ,corals occur 9 great abundance2 also encr9ites 7,fig4 #ca71 mollusks 7,fig4 #cb71 & cephalopoda4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,b ?is sy/em is specially *>act]iz$ by ! rema9s ( saurian reptiles4 ,! ,i*?yosaurus 7,fig4 #cc1 a7 0 a m>9e animal1 hav+ ! g5]al =m ( a fi%1 :ile its head1 & especially its tee?1 resemble ^? ( ! crocodile4 ,x 0 an air-brea?+ animal l ! cetacea1 & 0 furni%$ ) simil> paddles4 ,x 0 c>nivor\s1 & 0 und\bt$ly ! l>ge/ & mo/ =midable animal exi/+ 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! olitic p]iod4 ,its l5g? c\ld n h be5 less ?an ?irty or =ty feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,! ,plesiosaurus 7,fig4 #cc1 b7 0 also a m>9e animal1 & 9 n9ny respects simil> to ! ,i*?yosaurus2 b its g5]al =m 0 m sl5d]1 its head 0 small1 & its neck 0 ( great l5g?1 ! c]vical v]tebr exce$+ 9 numb] ^? ( ! swan4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,! ,pt]odactyle 7,fig4 #cd7 0 a small saurian1 ( ! size1 probably1 ( our l>ge/ eagle4 ,! f+]-bones1 :i* 9 ! o!r saurians =m ! paddles1 are 9 ! ,pt]odactyle v mu* l5g!n$1 s z to support a membran\s expansion1 l t ( ! bat4 ,^! w+s 7 ( suffici5t size to enable x to su/a9 itself 9 ! air1 & to make a rapid & easy flight4 ,! ,iguanodon is a ,weald5 fossil1 rem>kable = its great magnitude4 ,x is e/imat$ t its l5g? 0 sev5ty feet4 ,x 0 a liz>d1 adapt$ = motion on l&1 & 0 h]bivor\s4 ,?is =mation is well develop$ 9 ,engl&1 &1 ) ! exception ( ! ,weald51 on ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,x has be5 suppos$ t no "p ( ! olitic s]ies 0 to be f\nd 9 ?is c\ntry2 b !re is a highly ar5ace\s rock occupy+ ! valley ( ! ,james riv]1 9 ! vic9ity ( ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia1 ( consid]able ext5t1 & a ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9+ a b$ ( coal ( =ty feet 9 ?ickness1 :i*1 f its fossils1 mu/ be ref]r$ to ! olitic s]ies4 #f4 ,! ,cretace\s ,=mation4--,! l[] "p ( ?is =mation consi/s ( gre5s&1 int]/ratifi$ ) b$s ( clay4 ,! int]m$iate portion is a mixture ( argillace\s gre5s& & impure *alk4 ,! upp] "p is compos$ ( *alk1 :i* is a friable1 ne>ly pure c>bonate ( lime4 ,! /rata ( *alk are sep>at$1 at int]vals ( f ?ree to six feet1 by lay]s ( fl9t1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( nodules or ( cont9u\s /rata4 ,^! *>act]s1 by :i* ! cretace\s sy/em is kn[n 9 ,engl&1 are b p>tially recogniz$ else:]e4 ,?us1 9 ! ,alps1 ! ,neocomian ,sy/em1 consi/+ ( cry/all9e lime/ones1 is ! equival5t ( ! ,engli% gre5s&2 :ile ! gre5s& ( ?is c\ntry is ! equival5t ( ! :ite *alk ( ,engl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,! fossils ( ! cretace\s =mation are v diff]5t f ^? ( ! olite1 & are su* z to %[ t x 0 deposit$ 9 deep seas4 ,microscopic %ells are (t5 s abundant z to con/itute a l>ge proportion ( ! mass4 ,zophytes are v num]\s1 su* z sponges1 corals1 />-fi%es 7,fig4 #ce1 d e71 & a few cr9oidea 7b74 ,mollusks 7 also abundant1 & cephalopoda1 consi/+ ( *amb]-%ells & belemnites 7,fig4 #cf74 ,! belemnite probably resembl$ ! exi/+ cuttle-fi%2 b ! rema9s consi/1 9 mo/ cases1 ( a p>tially holl[ calc>e\s sub/ance 7b71 :i* 0 conta9$ )9 ! animal1 & =m$ its skeleton4 ,! *alk & gre5s& are l>gely develop$ 9 ,engl&2 & ! same =mation1 ) diff]5t li?ological *>act]s1 is f\nd 9 great =ce flank+ ! pr9cipal m\nta9 ranges ( s\!rn ,europe1 & ext5d+ into ,asia4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! sy/em comm5ces ) ! gre5s& & friable lime/ones ( ,new ,j]sey1 & foll[+ ! ,alleghany range to its s\!rn t]m9ation1 x b5ds ar\nd into a nor?-we/]n direction1 & is cont9u$ into ,miss\ri4 #g4 ,! ,t]ti>y ,sy/em4--,! t]ti>y /rata embrace ! =mations f ! cretace\s to ! human era4 ,!y consi/ ( clay1 s&1 s&/one1 m>l & lime/one1 & are di/+ui%$ f ! l[] rocks by be+ less consolidat$2 ?\gh ! lime/ones are 9 "s in/ances solidifi$1 & resemble ! /rata ( e>li] orig94 ,! t]ti>y /rata are g5]ally ( less ?ickness ?an ! old] =mations1 & less cont9u\s1 be+ local deposits =m$ 9 lakes & e/u>ies4 ,9 a few in/ances !y h be5 ?r[n into incl9$ positions1 ?\gh 9 mo/ cases !y h be5 b slightly di/urb$1 & rais$ b a few hundr$ feet above ! pres5t level ( ! sea4 ,! late t]ti>y /rata seldom ov]lap ! old]1 s z to indicate _! relative ages by sup]position4 ,!y h !re=e be5 sep>at$ into gr\ps accord+ to ! proportions ( liv+ & ext9ct species ( %ells :i* !y are f\nd to conta94 ,! olde/ t]ti>y or ,eoc5e =mation,a conta9s only f\r p] c5t1 ( liv+ species1 ! ,mioc5e conta9s sev5te5 p] c5t41 ! ,pleioc5e =ty p] c5t41 & ! ,plei/oc5e n9ety p] c5t4 ,a ,es1 dawn1 & ka9os1 rec5t4 ,! =mation :i* comm5c$ at ! dawn ( ! rec5t p]iod1 conta9+ b a small numb] ( liv+ species4 ,mioc5e 7meion1 less71 less rec5t ?an ! ,pleioc5e 7pleion1 m74 ,plei/oc5e 7plei/os1 mo/71 mo/ rec5t4 ,dur+ ! plei/oc5e p]iod1 peculi> conditions exi/$1 by :i* a great am\nt ( loose mat]ial1 kn[n by ! "n ( drift1 0 spread ov] ! nor!rn portions ( bo? hemisph]es4 ,9 ,am]ica x is f\nd f ,nova ,scotia ne>ly to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 & ext5d+ z f> s\? z ,p5nsylvania & ! ,ohio riv]4 ,9 ,europe1 x is f\nd f ! ,atlantic to ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 & rea*+ s\? into ,g]many & ,pol&4 ,x is also f\nd 9 ! cold] portions ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 & 9 ! vic9ity ( sev]al m\nta9s1 z ! ,alps4 ,x consi/s ( irregul> accumulations ( e>?y sub/ances ( diff]5t degrees ( f95ess1 b *>act]iz$ by conta9+ masses ( rock ( consid]able size1 (t5 ( _m tons weight1 call$ b\ld]s4 ,rocks hav+ ! same li?ological *>act]s exi/ 9 situ nor? ( :]e ! b\ld]s & o!r drift are n[ f\nd1 ?\gh at a di/ance (t5 ( "o or two hundr$ miles4 ,!re c be no d\bt b t ! drift has be5 transport$ f ^! nor!rn localities2 & ! poli%$1 /riat$ & groov$ condition ( ! rocky surface1 :]ev] ! drift is di/ribut$1 has obvi\sly be5 produc$ by ! passage ( ! drift mat]ials ov] x4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ?is p]iod1 :ile ! l& 0 a few hundr$ feet bel[ its pres5t level1 !re 7 deposit$ 9 ! valleys ( ! drift region b$s ( blue & gray clay1 mat]ials :i* are us$ 9 mak+ bricks & co>se pott]y2 also b$s ( s&1 sometimes ev5ly spread out1 b (t5 ?r[n into irregul> m\nds & ridges4 ,9 regions :i* are n cov]$ ) drift1--z ! s\? ( ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1--! plei/oc5e deposits are succe$$1 )\t app>5t *ange ( conditions1 by ^? :i* are n[ tak+ place4 ,! =mations ( ! t]ti>y p]iod are di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ! cretace\s p]iod by ! abs5ce ( deep-sea fossils1 & f ! olite by ! abs5ce ( its *>act]i/ic saurians4 ,! mollusks are also v diff]5t1 su* g5]a z ! c]e?ium 7,fig4 #cg71 murex 7,fig4 #ch71 & conus 7,fig4 #ci71 :i* ab\nd 9 ! pres5t seas1 fir/ appe>+ 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! nummulite 7,fig4 #dj71 a peculi> =m ( *amb]$ %ell1 is s abundant z to con/itute 9 "s places almo/ ! entire rock4 ,! p]iod is h[ev] *>act]iz$ by ! exi/5ce ( a l>ge numb] ( pa*yd]mat\s animals1 ( :i* ! tapir1 hog1 horse & elephant1 are examples ( liv+ species4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,! ,paleo!rium 7,fig4 #da7 resembl$1 9 mo/ respects1 ! tapir4 ,x 0 furni%$ ) a %ort proboscis1 & ! foot 0 divid$ into ?ree toes4 ,! l5g? ( ! l>ge/ species 0 ab\t t ( ! horse2 b its body 0 l>g]1 & x 0 ( less height4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,! ,anoplo!rium 7,fig4 #db7 0 a m sl5d] animal1 & resembl$ 9 size & g5]al =m ! gazelle4 ,! ,mega!rium1 an animal ( ! late t]ti>y epo*1 0 l>g] ?an ! exi/+ species ( elephant1 & 9 its g5]al /ructure & habits resembl$ ! slo?4 ,! ,ma/odon 7,fig4 #dc7 liv$ dur+ ! late/ portion ( ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,its rema9s are f\nd mo/ abundantly :]e ! animal seems to h p]i%$ by s9k+ into ! s(t m>%y gr\nd ne> ! bracki% spr+s ( ,new ,york & ,k5tucky4 ,b !y are f\nd also 9 ,europe & ,asia4 ,x 0 l>g] ?an any exi/+ l& animal1 & 0 ne>ly alli$ 9 /ructure & habits to ! elephant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,! ,mammo? 0 a species ( elephant1 n[ ext9ct1 ( :i* rema9s are f\nd ) ^? ( ! ma/odon1 b 9 ! greate/ abundance 9 ,europe & ,asia4 ,a l>ge numb] ( skeletons1 _m ( !m imp]fect1 h be5 discov]$ 9 ! l[ gr\nds 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&4 ,x 0 ?is animal :i* 0 f\nd encas$ 9 ice & s& 9 ,sib]ia1 9 #ahjd4 ,contemporane\sly ) ! exi/5ce ( ^! huge animals1 a ne> approa* 0 made to ! pres5t fauna ( ! e>?1 by ! introduction ( rum9ant animals resembl+ ! ox & de]1 & especially by ! exi/5ce ( ! class ( animals :i* 9 anatomical *>act]s /&s next to man1 ! apes & monkeys4 ,! t]ti>y sy/em1 ?\gh n g5]ally s cont9u\s ov] ext5d$ areas z ! old] =mations1 yet con/itutes ! surface ( a v l>ge "p ( ,europe4 7,see ,fig4 #ei47 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! e>li] portion is f\nd along ! seabo>d1 f ,new ,j]sey to ,l\isiana1 & ext5d+ back t[>ds ! m\nta9s to a di/ance v>y+ f t5 to "o hundr$ miles4 ,! lat] deposits are f\nd 9 deta*$ portions ?r\gh\t ! ,ea/]n & ,middle ,/ates4 ,x cov]s a l>ge surface 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & is f\nd 9 ,india4 #h4 ,! ,rec5t ,=mation4--,x is int5d$ to embrace 9 ?is t]m /rata :i* h be5 =m$ s9ce ! creation ( man4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 impossible to sep>ate !m by any well-def9$ *>act]s f ^? ( ! t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! rec5t =mation consi/s ( l& :i* is =m+ by ! fill+ up ( lakes1 & by ! increase ( deltas f ! accumulat$ s$im5t :i* riv]s h furni%$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no d\bt b t =mations on a l>ge scale h cont9u$ 9 progress ov] ext5sive areas ( ! b$ ( ! sea2 & !y h be5 no less rapid1 we may presume1 ?an !y 7 9 e>li] p]iods4 ,b1 ?\gh !y are pres]v+ ! records ( ! pres5t era1 !y w probably rema9 9 a great measure inaccessible = _m ages4 ,^! deposits1 s f> z !y are accessible1 are f\nd to conta9 ! rema9s ( plants & animals 7includ+ man7 n[ liv+ 9 ! vic9ity :]e ! deposits are =m+4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,fossils4 ,any organic sub/ance imb$d$ 9 a geological =mation1 or any product ( organic life1 z a coprolite or a co91 or any m>k+ :i* an organic sub/ance has giv5 to a rock1 is reg>d$ z a fossil4 ,! /udy ( fossils1 z a bran* ( practical geology1 requires an acqua9tance ) ! pr9ciples & ! m9ute details ( botany & zoology4 ,)\t ?is k1 h[ev]1 _m ( ! g5]al conclusions to :i* ! /udy ( fossils has l$ may be und]/ood4 #a4 ,fossils are pres]v$ 9 diff]5t ways4--,:5 any organic sub/ance is imb$d$ 9 a =m+ rock1 x may itself rema92 or x may be remov$ by ! infiltration ( wat]1 or o!r causes1 s gradually z to leave its =m1 & ev5 its mo/ delicate m>k+s1 9 ! rock2 or "s m9]al sub/ance may h be5 sub/itut$1 & fill ! space :i* ! organic sub/ance once occupi$2 t is1 x may be an organic sub/ance pres]v$1 x may be an impression ( x1 or x may be a ca/ ( x4 #b4 ,! process by :i* ! sub/itution 9 ?is la/ case is effect$ is call$ m9]alization4 ,! m9]aliz+ +r$i5t is g5]ally d]iv$ f ! contigu\s rock4 ,9 silice\s rocks x is silex4 ,9 calc>e\s rocks x is c>bonate ( lime4 ,:5 iron is diffus$ ?r\gh a rock1 x (t5 becomes ! m9]aliz]4 ,! sub/itut$ m9]al is g5]ally a v p]fect repres5tation ( ! orig9al fossil4 ,we _c !re=e suppose t ! orig9al sub/ance 0 entirely remov$ be=e any ( ! m9]al matt] 0 deposit$4 ,! sub/itution mu/ h tak5 place p>ticle by p>ticle1 z ! organic matt] 0 remov$4 ,fossils are1 9 fact1 (t5 f\nd1 9 :i* ! m9]alization has be5 arre/$ aft] x _h comm5c$1 s t ! fossil is 9 "p an organic & 9 "p a m9]al sub/ance4 ,x has be5 prov$1 by direct exp]im5t1 t ^! *anges ( removal & sub/itution are simultane\s4 ,pieces ( wood 7 plac$ 9 a solution ( sulphate ( iron4 ,aft] a few days1 ! wood 0 f\nd to be p>tially m9]aliz$1 & aft] ! rema9+ ligne\s matt] _h be5 remov$ by expos+ x to a r$ heat1 oxide ( iron 0 f\nd to h tak5 ! =m ( ! wood s exactly1 t ev5 ! dott$ vessels1 peculi> to ! species employ$1 7 di/9ctly visible "u ! microscope4 #c4 ,z ! fossilif]\s /rata are g5]ally ( m>9e orig91 x is to be presum$ t only a small proportion ( t]re/rial animals are pres]v$2 & our k ( ! organic rema9s :i* are pres]v$ is yet s imp]fect1 t discov]ies are con/antly mak+1 z exam9ations are ext5d$4 ,/ill1 en\gh is kn[n to enable u to draw "s satisfactory conclusions z to ! ord] 9 :i* liv+ be+s 7 creat$ ^u ! e>?4 ,?\gh mo/ ( ! e>li] organic =ms :i* h be5 pres]v$ are ( animal orig91 yet vegetable rema9s occasionally occur 9 connection ) !m1 & we mu/ suppose vegetables to h be5 produc$ abundantly4 ,= all animal food consi/s ( vegetable sub/ances1 or ( animal sub/ances :i* h once exi/$ 9 ! vegetable =m4 ,no animal is capable ( effect+ ^? comb9ations ( inorganic matt] ^u :i* its gr[? & su/5ance dep5d4 ,we may !re=e conclude t ! introduction ( animals & vegetables 0 contemporane\s4 ,! greate/ developm5t ( vegetable life 01 h[ev]1 dur+ ! c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,! design ( ?is abundant gr[? 0 prospective4 ,x 0 n produc$ = ! support ( animal life1 b = fuel1 & /or$ till man %\ld be introduc$1 & s f> advanc$ 9 civilization z to make ?is supply ( c>bonace\s matt] subs]vi5t to 8 wants & happ9ess4 ,9 ! e>li] p]iods1 ! l[] =ms ( animal life 71 beyond all comp>ison1 ! mo/ abundant2 yet ! f\r great divisions ( ! animal k+dom1 ,radiat$1 ,articulat$1 ,mollusc\s1 & ,v]tebrat$ animals1 7 all repres5t$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no evid5ce t any v]tebrat$ animals1 except fi%es1 7 creat$ till aft] ! c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,9 ! next =mation1 ! new r$ s&/one1 we f9d ! tracks ( reptiles & birds1 & probably ( m>supial animals4 ,! fir/ evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( mammalia 9 great numb]s is 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod1 :5 ! pa*yd]mata & ed5tata 7 s mu* m abundant ?an !y h ev] be5 s9ce1 & :5 ! bimana fir/ appe>4 ,b !re is no evid5ce f geology t man exi/$ till aft] ! close ( ! t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! gr\nds ^u :i* contr>y /atem5ts h sometimes be5 made are unt5able4 ,9 ,ohio a v p]fect impression ( a human foot 0 f\nd on a slab ( lime/one ( ! silurian age4 ,b x 0 subsequ5tly asc]ta9$ to h be5 common = ! aborig9es1 9 ! vic9ity ( _! encampm5ts1 to cut 9 ! rocks1 ) surpris+ accuracy1 ! =ms ( ! tracks ( man & o!r animals4 ,!re is a human skeleton 9 ! ,briti% ,museum imb$d$ 9 solid lime/one1 & ano!r 9 ,p>is1 bo? tak5 f ,guadal\pe4 ,x 0 at "o "t suppos$1 f ! degree ( solidification ( ! lime/one1 t x mu/ h be5 =m$ at an e>ly geological p]iod2 b x is f\nd t ! bea*-s& ( t isl& n[ solidifies rapidly1 f ! c>bonate ( lime :i* ! wat]s !re hold 9 solution4 ,x is r5d]$ probable t ! skeletons f\nd !re h n be5 buri$ m ?an a c5tury & a half4 #d4 ,z _m p>ts ( ! b$ ( ! pres5t seas1 :i* are probably receiv+ detrital matt] con/antly1 are unfavorable = ! developm5t ( animal life1 :ile o!r p>ts are highly favorable1 x might be presum$ t animal life w\ld be equally scanty 9 p>ticul> localities :ile ! e>li] rocks 7 =m+1 & 9 o!r localities v abundant4 ,h5ce "s /rata1 = hundr$s ( feet 9 ?ickness1 are compos$ almo/ entirely ( fossils1 :ile o!r /rata are ne>ly or q de/itute ( !m4 ,! same memb] ( a =mation may 9 "o place be full ( fossils1 & 9 ano!r )\t !m4 ,! di/ribution ( fossils is !re=e subject to no g5]al law2 at lea/1 none ( :i* we c avail ourselves1 9 ! se>* = !m4 #e4 ,! value ( fossils 9 geology consi/s 9 ! use :i* is made ( !m 9 det]m9+ ! orig9 & age ( /rata4 ,z ! animal species :i* inhabit bodies ( fre% wat] are always diff]5t f ^? f\nd 9 ! sea1 _! rema9s con/itute ! be/ means ( det]m9+ :e!r a =mation is ( fre% wat] or m>9e orig94 ,9 ord] to decide ?is po9t1 x may1 9 "s cases1 be necess>y to be acqua9t$ ) ! habits ( p>ticul> species4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 x w be suffici5t to rememb] t 9 fre%-wat] =mations1 fir/1 !re are no sponges1 corals1 or *amb]$ %ells2 second1 ! univalves all h entire m\?s 7,fig4 #dd74 ,?ird1 ! bivalves are all bimuscul> 7,fig4 #dg74 ,if1 !re=e1 a =mation is f\nd to conta9 sponge1 coral1 a *amb]$ %ell1 a univalve ) a deeply not*$ m\? 7,fig4 #de71 or a unimuscul> bivalve 7,fig4 #df71 x mu/ be consid]$ a m>9e =mation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,we h se5 t ! same =mation1 z exhibit$ 9 diff]5t places1 diff]s 9 its ?ickness1 composition & degree ( solidification4 ,if we c\ld trace ! /rata ?r\gh all ! int]m$iate space1 we might be c]ta9 ( _! be+ ! same =mation1 not)/&+ ! *ange 9 li?ological *>act]s4 ,b ?is c seldom be done1 ev5 = a few miles 9 ext5t4 ,sections ( ! /rata are obta9$ only occasionally1 :]e riv]s h cut ?r\gh !m1 or :]e1 ov] limit$ areas1 ! soil has be5 remov$ f ! outcropp+ edges4 ,x is also frequ5tly ! case t ! /rata are s mu* di/urb$ t _! position w furni% no aid 9 det]m9+ _! age4 ,:5 fold$ axes occur 7z "h repres5t$71 ! old] /rata are (t5 ! upp]mo/4 ,!re is an in/ance 9 ! ,alps 9 :i* /rata ( va/ ?ickness h be5 inv]t$ dur+ ! process ( upheaval1 & n[ re/ on a b$ ( rock =m$ f ! debris :i* !y _h suppli$4 ,illu/ration ,& yet x is important to det]m9e :at =mations are ( ! same age1 not)/&+ _! displacem5ts1 diff]5ce 9 li?ological *>act]s1 & sep>ation by great di/ances & by m\nta9s or oceans4 ,?is det]m9ation c be made only by a comp>ison ( ! imb$d$ fossils4 ,x is f\nd t e =mation1 & e important memb] ( a =mation1 conta9s an assemblage ( fossils peculi> to itself4 ,:5 v widely sep>at$1 ! species ( fossils may n be id5tical1 b s v simil> t !y are reg>d$ z equival5t species4 ,! id5tification ( =mations consi/s 9 ! id5tification ( fossils4 ,x is = ?is purpose ma9ly t fossils are reg>d$ z ( s great importance4 #f4 ,if ea* =mation is *>act]iz$ by ! pres5ce ( new species1 x foll[s t ! "w ( creation 0 a progressive "o1 cont9u$ ?r\gh long p]iods ( "t4 ,! late/ creation ( :i* we h any geological evid5ce is t ( man4 ,& if ! lead+ design ( ! exi/5ce ( ?is e>? 0 z a !atre = ! developm5t ( moral "*1 x is to be presum$ t ! "w ( creation ceas$ :5 a species possess+ moral capacities _h be5 introduc$4 ,x foll[s also1 f :at has be5 said1 t !re has be5 a con/ant disappe>ance1 a dea?1 ( species4 ,x w\ld seem t ea* species has a life assign$ to x1 :i* is to be complet$ & surr5d]$4 ,?\gh its cont9uance is _m times long] ?an ! life ( any individual ( ! species1 yet x is ! c\rse ( nature t species %\ld disappe>4 ,!re may be some?+ 9 ! con/itution ( ea* species by :i* its cont9uance is limit$1 mak+ an old age & dea? necess>y1 z x is 9 individuals4 ,b !re are o!r causes by :i* ! duration ( species may (t5 be t]m9at$4 ,! subsid5ce ( ,new ,holl& w\ld cause ! de/ruction ( a l>ge numb] ( species4 ,! pres]vation ( ! human species 0 at "o "t effect$ only by a special & miracul\s int]f]5ce4 ,sl[ly op]at+ causes are n[ at "w1 by :i* _m species1 su* z ! elephant1 wolf & tig]1 w at l5g? become ext9ct4 ,_! exi/5ce 9 a natural /ate _c long be cont9u$ 9 a civiliz$ c\ntry4 ,! =e/1 _! natural abode1 disappe>s1 & "s are int5tionally de/roy$1 because !y r5d] life & prop]ty unsafe4 ,"u ! op]ation ( ^! causes1 ! ,iri% elk 7c]vus giganteus7 has become ext9ct1 probably )9 ! human era4 ,! ,dodo1 a gall9ace\s bird1 f\nd liv+ :5 m>itime communication betwe5 ,europe & ! ,ea/ ,indies 0 fir/ e/abli%$1 is n[ ext9ct4 ,! ,apt]yx1 a bird belong+ to ,new ,zeal&1 has probably become ext9ct s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,,section ,,vii4--,,! ,,"t ,,necess>y ,,= ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,/ratifi$ ,,rocks4 ,!re are no means ( :i* ! geologi/ c avail himself to det]m9e ! antiquity ( ! e>?1 or ! am\nt ( "t s9ce ! s$im5t>y deposits comm5c$4 ,b a nigh degree ( antiquity may yet be %[n4 ,! mat]ials = all ! /ratifi$ rocks h be5 obta9$ by ! de/ruction ( previ\sly solidifi$ igne\s rocks4 ,?is de/ruction may h be5 accompli%$ 9 "p by ! op]ation ( volcanic =ces1 b mu* ( x is ! result ( sl[ dis9tegration1 & ( ! erod+ p[] ( runn+ wat]2 & we c sc>cely conceive ( a p]iod suffici5tly protract$ = su* results4 ,?is conclusion ( ! high antiquity ( ! e>? is confirm$ by obs]v+ t ! /ratifi$ rocks consi/ ( lay]s (t5 n ?ick] ?an %eets ( pap]1 & probably n av]ag+ ! t5? ( an in*2 & yet ea* lay] is sep>ate f ! re/1 9 consequ5ce ( "s *ange 9 ! conditions "u :i* x 0 deposit$4 ,ea* lay] 0 probably produc$ by ! deposition ( all ! s$im5t furni%$ at "o "t1 & h5ce only z _m lay]s w\ld be =m$ 9 a ye> z ! numb] ( fre%ets 9 ! riv]s :i* furni%$ ! mat]ials4 ,if we consid] ! fossilif]\s & metamorphic rocks to be ea* =ty ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1--:i* is n too l>ge an e/imate1--we mu/ reckon ! ye>s by hundr$s ( ?\s&s to make ! "t suffici5tly ext5d$ = ! result4 ,all ! =mations ( any consid]able ext5t n[ above ! surface ( ! sea exi/$ be=e ! creation ( man1 = none ( !m conta9 any evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( human be+s2 & if !y _h exi/$ :ile ^! /rata 7 =m+1 suffici5t evid5ce w\ld h be5 left ( ! fact1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( fossiliz$ human bones1 or ( works ( human art4 ,h5ce1 :atev] be ! e/imate :i* we =m ( ! antiquity ( ! e>?1 f ! sl[ness ( d5udation1 or f ! ?ickness ( ! /rata1 we mu/ n[ add to t e/imate ! p]iod elaps$ s9ce ! creation ( ! human species4 ,we h se5 t at diff]5t p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory diff]5t species ( animals inhabit$ x4 ,we are unable to fix ) accuracy ! ord9>y duration ( species4 ,b ! species :i* are n[ ext9ct probably _h an exi/5ce z long-cont9u$ z w be enjoy$ by species n[ liv+4 ,_m rec5t species are kn[n to h exi/$ at lea/ ne>ly six ?\s& ye>s1 )\t1 9 mo/ cases1 any indications ( _! soon becom+ ext9ct4 ,:atev] p]iod be assign$ z ! ord9>y duration ( species1 t p]iod has be5 sev]al times repeat$2 = ! e>? has be5 sev]al times re-peopl$1 & e "t by species :i* _h n be=e exi/$4 ,moreov]1 ! am\nt ( organic matt] 9 ! /rata mu/ h requir$ long p]iods ( "t = its accumulation4 ,! vegetable deposits1 n[ conv]t$ into coal1 are g5]ally sev]al feet ?ick1 & (t5 ov] a hundr$ feet1 & are kn[n to ext5d ov] sev]al ?\s& squ>e miles1 bo? 9 ?is c\ntry & 9 ,europe4 ,_m ( ! s$im5t>y rocks consi/ almo/ entirely ( animal rema9s4 ,! m\nta9 lime/one1 = in/ance1 is eight hundr$ feet or m 9 ?ickness1 & 9 "s places consi/s ( ! exuvi ( encr9ites & te/acea4 ,9 o!r cases ! l5g? ( "t requir$ is %[n1 n f ! am\nt ( organic rema9s1 b f ! evid5ce t !y 7 deposit$ v sl[ly4 ,! poli%+ /one call$ tripoli is f\nd 9 b$s ( t5 or twelve feet 9 ?ickness1 & is compos$ entirely ( ! silice\s %ells ( animalcules1 s m9ute t1 accord+ to ! e/imate ( ,ehr5b]g1 ! numb] 9 a cubic in* is =ty-"o billions4 ,sev]al o!r rocks1 su* z semi-opal & fl9t1 are sometimes f\nd to h a simil> con/itution4 ,! "t necess>y = ! accumulation ( b$s sev]al feet ?ick by ! %ells ( animalcules s m9ute mu/ h be5 v great4 ,ea* ( ^! facts c>ries u back to a p]iod immeasurably ant]ior to ! creation ( man1 z ! epo* :5 ! s$im5t>y deposits comm5c$4 ,!re are no facts 9 geology :i* po9t to a diff]5t conclusion4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance to ! geological /ud5t to famili>ize himself ) ?is pr9ciple4 ,x w assi/ him 9 compreh5d+ ! greatness ( geological *anges1 & 9 apply+ o!r pr9ciples 9 explanation ( geological ph5om5a4 ,?is pr9ciple1 s obvi\s to any "o :o all[s himself to reason f ! facts :i* geology pres5ts1 has sometimes be5 reg>d$ z at v>iance ) ! ,mosaic acc\nt ( ! creation4 ,& if ?is acc\nt really assigns an antiquity to ! e>? ( n m ?an six ?\s& ye>s1 ! difficulty exi/s4 ,! /atem5ts made by ,moses are f\nd1 ^u exam9ation1 to be ( ! mo/ g5]al "*4 ,!y ass]t1 9 ! fir/ place1 simply t ,9 ! beg9n+ ,god creat$ ! heav5 & ! e>?4 ,! "t :i* elaps$ aft] ?is fir/ act1 & previ\sly to ! acts ( creation subsequ5tly record$1 is n limit$ by ! sacr$ n>rative4 ,x may h be5 dur+ ?is indef9ite lapse ( "t t ,god gave exi/5ce & enjoym5t to a l>ge numb] ( animal species on ! surface ( ! e>?1 & at ! same "t effect$ mo/ ( ^? physical *anges 9 ! cru/ ( x :i* h r5d]$ x a fit abode = intellectual & moral be+s4 ,b if ! ^w day1 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ,g5esis1 be consid]$ to mean a prolong$ p]iod 7& philologi/s reg>d su* an int]pretation z admissible71 !n t *apt] is a record ( ! mo/ important ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? up to & includ+ ! introduction ( man4 ,& ! acc\nt1 ?us und]/ood1 co9cides ) ! results ( geological exam9ations4 ,in/ead1 !n1 ( discrepancy betwe5 ! works & ! ^w ( ,god1 we h ?is rem>kable fact1 t a hi/ory ( ! e>?1 writt5 long be=e ! sci5ce ( geology 0 kn[n1 is n contradict$1 b confirm$1 by ! progress ( sci5ce ?us f>4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,*anges ,,to ,,:i* ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,has ,,be5 ,,subject$4 ,,section ,i4--,,*anges ,,:i* ,,h ,,tak5 ,,place ,,at ,,great ,,dep?s ,,bel[ ,,! ,,surface4 ,! l[e/ *ange ( w9* we c ga9 any in=mation is ! =mation ( granite4 ,x w be %[n h]eaft] t x has be5 9 a melt$ /ate1 & t x has tak5 its pres5t =m on cool+4 ,b :e!r any consid]able portions ( ! granitic masses1 or ( ! melt$ masses n[ bel[ ! surface1 h result$ f ! fusion ( /ratifi$ rocks1 we h n ! means ( det]m9+4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n improbable1 t 9 ! *anges ( level to :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 subject$1 ! /ratifi$ rocks may h gone d[n s f> z to become melt$4 ,at ! same "t1 ! melt$ rock :i* is ?r[n to ! surface by volcanoes is subject$ to ! v>i\s de/roy+ ag5cies by :i* x becomes s$im5t>y matt]1 to be deposit$ z me*anical /rata4 ,?us1 z ! igne\s rocks f bel[ are br\ght up to furni% mat]ials = me*anical /rata1 !re mu/ be an equal am\nt ( depression ( ! me*anical /rata t[>ds ! seats ( igne\s action4 ,& if ?is *ange takes place m rapidly ?an ! ?ickness ( cru/ increases1 !n portions ( ! s$im5t>y rocks mu/ be und]go+ fusion4 ,next above ! granite an imm5se ?ickness ( rock occurs1 :i* exhibits1 f its /ratification & f ! wat]-worn fragm5ts :i* x conta9s1 di/9ct evid5ce ( its me*anical orig94 ,& yet x is v diff]5t f ! lat] me*anical =mations4 ,x is m highly cry/all9e2 x has1 to a great ext5t1 assum$ a cleavage di/9ct f ! planes ( /ratification1 & *emical aff9ity has be5 s f> active z to produce new comb9ations1 & give to !m _! peculi> cry/all9e =m1 z 9 ! case ( g>nets1 iron pyrites1 c4 ,^! /rata also diff] f ^? above !m 9 conta9+ no organic rema9s4 ,x is n c]ta9 t organic life exi/$ on ! e>? at ! "t :5 ^! rocks 7 deposit$4 ,ei!r x did n1 or ! evid5ce ( x 9 ! /rata ( t p]iod has be5 oblit]at$4 ,! *anges h at lea/ be5 suffici5t to ju/ify _! be+ *>act]iz$ z metamorphic rocks4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,*anges ,,9 ,,! ,,mass ,,( ,,! ,,/ratifi$ ,,rocks4 #a4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks 7 deposit$ z mud or s&1 & 7 at fir/ 9 a yield+ /ate4 ,mo/ ( ^! deposits h become solidifi$ rock1 su* z lime/one1 clay slate & s&/one4 ,! *alk ( ,engl& is1 h[ev]1 b imp]fectly consolidat$1 ! great s&/one =mation ( ,new ,holl& is a friable mass easily dis9tegrat$1 & occasionally b$s ( clay 9 a pla/ic /ate are f\nd z f> d[n z ! coal4 ,among ! lat] rocks ! solidification is less g5]al1 ?\gh !re is "s degree ( h>d5+ 9 all except ! mo/ sup]ficial lay]s4 ,! fissile /ructure results f ! solidification ( ! p>ticles compos+ ea* lay] sep>ately4 #b4 ,s9ce ! solidification ( ! /rata1 or p]haps 9 connection ) x1 !re has be5 some?+ ( movem5t among ! p>ticles1 result+ 9 m9]al ve9s1 con*oidal /ructure1 c4 ,"o ( ! mo/ g5]al *anges ( ?is k9d is t by :i* a mass becomes sep>able into ?9 %eets1 indep5d5t ( ! /ratification1 & n p>allel ) x4 ,?is /ructure is repres5t$ by ,fig4 #dh1 9 :i* ! heavi] l9es are ^? ( /ratification1 & ! light] ( cleavage4 #c4 ,! /rata h be5 ev]y:]e m or less brok51 & ! fractures1 ne>ly v]tical1 ext5d to groat dep?s4 ,:5 a fracture rea*es ! surface1 x (t5 becomes a *annel = wat]4 ,x is ?us wid5$ by ! erosion1 ! deepe/ p>ts become fill$ ) debris1 & x becomes a gorge1 rav9e or valley4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,if ! fracture does n come to ! surface1 x becomes a cav]n4 ,9 lime/one1 cav]ns :i* are =m$ 9 ?is way are v frequ5t1 & ext5d = _m miles4 ,!re is g5]ally a /ream ( wat] runn+ ?r\gh !m1 b n ( suffici5t volume to h produc$ ! erosion :i* has be5 effect$4 ,:5 ! sides ( ! fracture are b little sep>at$1 "s m9]al (t5 sep>ates itself f ! adjac5t rock1 & fill+ up ! space1 reunites ! brok5 p>ts4 ,x is !n call$ a ve9 ( segregation 7,fig4 #di1 a b74 ,b ! fracture is m frequ5tly fill$ ) "s volcanic rock inject$ f bel[4 ,x is !n a dike 7c d71 & may h a wid? ( _m rods1 ?\gh x (t5 dim9i%es 9 wid? till x is a m]e ?read4 ,a dike ( :i* ! inject$ mat]ial is a metallic ore is a m9]al ve94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 #d4 ,! uplift+ =ce by :i* ! fracture is produc$ has frequ5tly rais$ ! rock on "o side high] ?an x has on ! o!r4 ,?is is call$ a fault4 7,fig4 #ej47 ,! unequal movem5ts by :i* ! fault is produc$ seem 9 "s in/ances to h be5 repeat$ sev]al times1 & ! gr9d+ ( ! brok5 edges ^u ea* o!r has poli%$ & /riat$ ! sides ( ! fracture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 #e4 ,s$im5t>y rocks are (t5 f\nd ) ! planes ( _! /rata m or less incl9$4 ,x is evid5t t !y 7 n ?us =m$4 ,! depositions ( s$im5t f wat] w always be horizontal1 or1 at mo/1 only slightly incl9$4 ,b !re is (t5 evid5ce 9 ! rock itself t its /rata 7 once horizontal4 ,x is frequ5tly obs]v$ t v]tical /rata conta9 pebbles ) _! long] axes 9 ! plane ( ! /rata4 7,fig4 #ea47 ,:5 ^! pebbles 7 deposit$1 ! long] axes w\ld take1 on an obvi\s me*anical pr9ciple1 a horizontal position4 ,_! pres5t v]tical position mu/ h result$ f a *ange 9 ! position ( ! /rata 9 :i* !y are enclos$4 ,! same ?+ is %[n by ! position ( a petrifi$ =e/ 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 kn[n z ! ,portl& dirt-b$4 ,"s p>ts ( x are incl9$ at an angle ( =ty-five degrees4 ,! position ( ! vegetable rema9s 7,fig4 #eb7 %[s t :5 !y 7 gr[+ ! surface 0 horizontal4 ,! l9e b d 7,fig4 #ec71 on incl9$ /rata :i* makes ) ! horizon ! greate/ angle1 is call$ ! direction ( ! dip4 ,! angle ?us =m$ 7a b d7 is ! angle ( incl9ation4 ,:5 incl9$ /rata come to ! surface1 ! expos$ edge1 b c1 is ! outcrop1 & ! l9e ( outcrop on a horizontal surface is call$ ! /rike ( ! /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,:5 ! incl9$ position is produc$ by an uplift ( ! /rata1 along a giv5 l9e1 s t !y dip 9 opposite directions1 ?is l9e is call$ an anticl9al axis1 z at ,fig4 #ed4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! /rata are fractur$ along ?is l9e1 z at b1 ! fracture becomes a valley ( elevation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,if depression take place along a giv5 l9e1 z at c1 ! /rata w dip t[>ds ?is l9e1 & x w be a syncl9al axis4 ,! depression w be a valley ( subsid5ce4 ,a syncl9al axis w\ld also be produc$ by an elevation ( ! /rata1 z at d & e1 on ea* side ( x1 & ! valley ?us produc$ is "o ( elevation4 ,:5 successive sets ( /rata1 z f & d1 ,fig4 #ec1 are n p>allel1 !y are said to be uncon=mable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 #f4 ,:5 ! /rata are subject$ to displacem5t1 !y d n always take a m]ely incl9$ position1 b are (t5 contort$ 7,fig4 #ee71 or fold$ toge!r 7,fig4 #ef74 ,^! fold$ axes frequ5tly succe$ ea* o!r = _m miles4 7,see ,figs4 #g & #hb47 ,9 ! case repres5t$ by ,fig4 #ef1 if ! highe/ portion has be5 remov$1 s t ! l9e a b repres5ts ! actual surface1 we %all h app>5tly a succession ( deposits1 ( :i* ^? at b w\ld be ! newe/1 & ! olde/ w\ld be f\nd at a1 :5 9 fact ! /rata at ! extremities are p>ts ( ! same lay]4 ,x is probable t di/urbances l ^? n[ m5tion$ h be5 tak+ place cont9ually1 9 diff]5t places1 f ! e>lie/ times4 ,!re h be5 no p]iods ( univ]sal di/urbance1 & none ( univ]sal repose4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! p]iods ( di/urbance 9 "o "p ( ! _w h be5 p]iods ( repose 9 ano!r4 ,= example1 ! coal measures ( ,europe 7 mu* brok5 & di/urb$ be=e ! deposition ( ! new r$ s&/one1 & ! close ( ! coal p]iod 0 at "o "t suppos$ to h be5 a p]iod ( g5]al convulsion4 ,x is n[ asc]ta9$ t ! pr9cipal coal-fields 9 ?is c\ntry 7 n mu* di/urb$ at t p]iod1 & h n be5 s9ce4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,*anges ,,( ,,elevation ,,& ,,subsid5ce4 ,! cont95ts1 if we except ! m rugg$ & brok5 portions1 rise f ! sea ) an almo/ imp]ceptible asc5t2 & ev5 ! m\nta9s h a mu* g5tl] slope ?an we are apt to suppose1 s t a section ( ! e>? p>allel to ! equator w\ld be almo/ a p]fect circle4 ,! slope ( a m\nta91 f its base to its highe/ po9t1 r>ely =ms ) ! horizon an angle ( z mu* z twelve degrees4 ,9 ! foll[+ figure 7#eg71 ,a repres5ts ! peak ( ,*imborazo1 ,b ( ,t5]iffe1 ,c ( tna1 & ,d ( ,m\nt ,loa1 ! pr9cipal volcano ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s4 ,! highe/ m\nta9s w\ld be repres5t$ on a twelve-in* globe by an altitude ( less ?an ! "o-hundr$? ( an in* above ! level ( ! sea4 ,b ! ris+ & s9k+ ( ^! masses1 ?\gh s small comp>$ ) ! dim5sions ( ! e>?1 are yet geological *anges on ! l>ge/ scale4 #a4 ,! ,elevation ( ,m\nta9s4--,m\nta9s h =m]ly be5 cov]$ ) ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,?is is evid5t1 9 ! case ( "s m\nta9s1 f ! exi/5ce ( /ratifi$ rocks rea*+ to ! summits4 ,! /ratification c\ld h be5 produc$ only by deposition f wat]4 ,x is1 moreov]1 evid5t f ! exi/5ce ( m>9e fossils1 di/ribut$ ?r\gh ^! /rata1 s abundantly1 t !y _c be acc\nt$ = on any o!r hypo!sis ?an t ! animals liv$ & di$ :]e ! rema9s ( !m are n[ f\nd4 ,^! /rata mu/ !re=e h =m$ ! b$ ( ! sea :ile ! fossils 7 accumulat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,!re is no direct evid5ce t ! granitic m\nta9 peaks 7 ev] subm]g$4 ,b !re is reason = believ+ t ! s$im5t>y /rata :i* n[ occupy ! l[] slopes 71 at ! "t ( _! deposition1 cont9u\s1--! igne\s rock hav+ subsequ5tly brok5 ?r\gh !m1--s t ! wat]s ( ! ocean once re/$ on ! :ole area :i* ! m\nta9 n[ occupies6 ,if ! ocean c\ld ev] h be5 above its pres5t level suffici5tly to h cov]$ all ! s$im5t>y rocks1 we might assume t ! height ( m\nta9s has n be5 *ang$4 ,b ! level ( ! ocean _c be subject to mu* v>iation4 ,! total am\nt ( wat] on ! globe is always ! same4 ,if ! cont95ts & m\nta9s 7 all subm]g$ at once1 & ! wat]s 7 exp&$ by ! highe/ temp]ature consi/5t ) ! liquid =m1 !re w\ld n be a *ange ( level ( m ?an two hundr$ & fifty feet4 ,we may assume1 !n1 t ! ocean level has always be5 ess5tially ! same t x n[ is4 ,we mu/ !re=e conclude t ! s$im5t>y rocks1 & ! m\nta9s ( :i* !y =m a "p1 h be5 elevat$ to _! pres5t position f ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,diff]5t m\nta9 ranges h be5 elevat$ at diff]5t p]iods4 ,! silurian & c>bonif]\s =mations 7 deposit$ be=e ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 :i* !y contribut$ to =m1 7 elevat$2 :ile ! new r$ s&/one & ! cretace\s & t]ti>y =mations 7 deposit$ subsequ5tly to ! upheaval4 ,!y are accord+ly f\nd at ! base ( ! range1 ne>ly horizontal1 & h ris5 above ! level ( ! ocean only z ! cont95t g5]ally has ris54 ,! ,pyr5ees 7 elevat$ aft] ! deposition ( ! cretace\s rocks1 & h c>ri$ !m up s t !y appe> at a high angle1 :ile ! t]ti>y rocks at ! base are horizontal1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,&es h c>ri$ up ! t]ti>y rocks ) !m1 & _! elevation mu/ !re=e belong to a rec5t p]iod4 ,x appe>s t !y are ev5 yet ris+4 ,x has rec5tly be5 %[n t ! ,alps h be5 subject$ to upheaval at sev]al di/9ct p]iods4 ,at ! close ( ! silurian p]iod !y =m$ a clu/] ( isl&s4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! t]ti>y p]iod !y became a m\nta9 range1 & at ! close ( t p]iod !y 7 ?r[n up "s two ?\s& feet high]1 to _! pres5t position4 ,ne>ly ! same ?+s w probably be f\nd true ( o!r m\nta9 ranges1 :5 _! /ructure has be5 m9utely /udi$4 ,! elevation ( contigu\s p>allel ridges w necess>ily leave int]v5+ valleys ( elevation4 ,z m\nta9 ranges g5]ally consi/ ( sev]al su* ridges1 valleys ( ?is description are num]\s1 & !y are (t5 ( great ext5t4 ,x is obvi\s t !re are m\nta9s 9 ! sea ( z great height above ! l[e/ valleys z ! m\nta9s ( cont95ts are above ! level ( ! sea4 ,if a new cont95t %\ld h]eaft] be =m$ by ! elevation ( a l>ge area ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 ! exi/+ m\nta9s1 n[ appe>+ 9 ! =m ( isl&s1 w\ld p>take ( ! g5]al movem5t1 & ! new cont95t w\ld h ! same g5]al div]sities ( surface z exi/+ cont95ts4 ,! m\nta9s w\ld h exi/$ long be=e ! cont95t4 ,x is !re=e to be suppos$ t ! m\nta9s ( ! pres5t cont95ts 7 elevat$ be=e ! cont95ts1 & t !y /ood = long p]iods z isl&s1 expos$ to ! action ( waves1 tides1 & m>9e curr5ts4 #b4 ,! ,elevation ( ,cont95ts4--,cont95ts h be5 elevat$ by s sl[ a movem5t t x has n g5]ally be5 p]ceiv$1 ev5 :5 !y h be5 peopl$ by nations advanc$ 9 civilization4 ,& yet satisfactory evid5ce is always left ( =m] sea-levels4 ,almo/ e seabo>d furni%es examples ( bea*es1 evid5tly once wa%$ by ! sea1 b n[ elevat$ m or less above high wat]4 ,at ,lubec1 ne> ! nor!rn extremity ( ! coa/ ( ,ma9e1 b>nacles,b are f\nd atta*$ to ! rocks eighte5 feet above high wat]4 ,! pilots at t place1 & = a hundr$ miles nor? & s\? ( x1 speak ( ! %ip-*annels z dim9i%+ 9 dep?1 ?\gh x is c]ta9 t !y are n fill+ up4 ,su* facts are to be expla9$ only by suppos+ t ! coa/ is ris+4 ,b ,! b>nacle is a m>9e animal1 p]man5tly fix$ to ! rocks1 & live b a %ort "t )\t be+ surr\nd$ by sea-wat]4 ,lakes are num]\s ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn portions ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* are receiv+ annually l>ge quantities ( s$im5t1 & mu/ ultimately become alluvial pla9s4 ,^? ( mod]ate dep?1 z ,lake ,erie1 _c require p]iods v protract$ to fill !m4 ,_! cont9uance 9 su* abundance indicates t ! elevation ( ! cont95t to its pres5t height is comp>atively rec5t4 ,?is conclusion is confirm$ by evid5ce ( ano!r k9d4 ,?r\gh\t ?is region ( lakes1 b$s ( clay conta9+ ! rema9s ( exi/+ species ( m>9e animals1 are f\nd at all elevations f ! sea-coa/1 to ! height ( ab\t f\r hundr$ feet1 b n high]4 ,^! clay b$s are v rec5t1 & 7 deposit$ :5 ! surface 0 f\r hundr$ or five hundr$ feet l[] ?an x n[ is2 & ?is am\nt ( elevation has left ! exi/+ lakes scatt]$ ov] ! surface4,c ,c ,x is rem>kable t on ! %ores ( ! great lakes !re are c]ta9 plants ! prop] /ation ( :i* is ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! ocean1 z if !y _h con/itut$ "p ( ! e>ly flora ( ^? regions :5 ! lakes 7 fill$ ) salt wat]1 & h surviv$ ! *ange t has tak5 place 9 ! physical conditions ( _! soil4--,torrey's ,flora ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,! foll[+ 7,fig4 #eh7 exhibits ,europe z x 0 dur+ ! ,silurian epo*1 & ,fig4 #ei z x 0 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,! l&1 z x !n exi/$1 is repres5t$ by ! :ite surface1 ! pres5t wat]s by ! d>k %ad+1 & ! l& :i* has be5 reclaim$ f ! ocean by elevation s9ce ^? p]iods by ! light] %ad+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,! :ole s\!rn "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 embrac+ an area equal to t ( ,europe1 has be5 elevat$ )9 a v rec5t p]iod2 & "s p>ts ( x1 if n all ( x1 are /ill ris+4 ,! %ells f\nd on ! pla9s f ,brazil to ,t]ra del ,fuego1 & on ! ,pacific coa/1 at a height ( f "o hundr$ to ?irte5 hundr$ feet1 are id5tical ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! adjac5t seas4 ,& besides ! organic rema9s1 !re are1 9 v _m p>ts1 m>ks ( erosion1 caves1 anci5t bea*es1 s&-dunes1 & successive t]races ( gravel1 all :i* mu/ h result$ f ! action ( ! waves at a p]iod n remote4 ,at ,lima1 articles ( human skill peculi> to ! orig9al inhabitants ( ,p]u 7 f\nd imb$d$ 9 a mass ( sea-%ells eighty-?ree feet above ! pres5t sea level4 ,! elevation on ! ,pacific coa/ has be5 9 "p by sudd5 uplifts ( a few feet at a "t2 b x is f\nd1 f "t to "t1 t !re has be5 a *ange ( level1 am\nt+ to a foot or m 9 a ye>1 :5 !re h be5 none ( ^! sudd5 movem5ts4 ,a consid]able portion ( ,europe1 rea*+ f ,nor? ,cape 9 ,norway to ne> ! s\!rn "p ( ,sw$51 m ?an a ?\s& miles1 & f ! ,atlantic to ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 m ?an six hundr$ miles1 has be5 ris+ at ! rate ( ab\t ?ree feet 9 a c5tury1 = at lea/ two c5turies1 & probably mu* long]4 ,?is *ange is prov$ by ! occurr5ce1 at consid]able elevations above ! sea1 ( %ells n[ f\nd 9 ! ,baltic2 by rocks once sunk51 n[ rais$ above ! surface ( ! sea1 & by anci5t seaports hav+ become inl& t[ns4 ,to det]m9e ! tru? by actual measurem5t1 ! ,royal ,academy ( ,/ockholm1 ab\t ?irty-five ye>s s9ce1 caus$ m>ks to be cut 9 ! rocks along ! coa/1 to indicate ! ord9>y level ( ! wat]4 ,?is is easily asc]ta9$1 z ! ,baltic is ne>ly a tideless sea4 ,! pres5t level ( ! sea1 comp>$ ) t indicat$ by ! m>ks be=e m5tion$1 leaves no d\bt t ! c\ntry is ris+4 #c4 ,! ,subsid5ce ( ,l&4--,elevations c be %[n to h tak5 place by fossils1 & by o!r evid5ces ( =m] sea levels :i* are left on ! surface2 b depressions leave b few indications ( *ange ( level4 ,x is yet d\btful :e!r ! depression is equal to ! elevation2 t is1 :e!r ! am\nt ( l& rema9s ne>ly con/ant1 or :e!r !re has be5 an augm5tation ( ! dry l& )9 ! t]ti>y & rec5t p]iods4 ,we are c]ta9 t ! augm5tation1 if any1 has n be5 equal to ! elevation1 = subsid5ces to a great am\nt are kn[n to h tak5 place4 ,!re are occasional in/ances ( subm]g$ =e/s se5 at l[ tide1 at "s di/ance f ! %ore4 ,!re are sev]al ne> ! coa/ ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 & ne> ! coa/ ( ,massa*usetts4 ,!y are b a few feet bel[ l[ wat]1 & d n indicate a subsid5ce ( m ?an ab\t tw5ty feet4 ,num]\s in/ances are on record ( ! s9k+ d[n ( :>fs & build+s ne> ! sea dur+ e>?quakes4 ,almo/ e viol5t e>?quake is accompani$ by a *ange ( level4 ,! *anges ( ?is k9d :i* h be5 notic$ are 9 seaport t[ns1 because great] facilities are !re af=d$ = detect+ !m1 & because loss ( prop]ty awak5s att5tion to !m2 b !re is e reason to suppose t ^! *anges ( level ext5d to great di/ances bo? into ! c\ntry & into ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,an imm5se area 9 ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 probably t5 millions ( squ>e miles1 is und]go+ *ange ( level4 ,! l9es ,a ,b & ,d ,g 7,fig4 #fj7 repres5t ne>ly ! axes ( depression2 :ile an int]m$iate & two ext]ior p>allel l9es w\ld repres5t axes ( elevation4 ,! evid5ce ( ^! *anges is f\nd pr9cipally 9 ! peculi>ities ( ! wall ( coral rock encircl+ ! isl&s4 ,! foll[+ figures repres5t1 9 sections1 modifications ( =m ( ! same isl&4 ,! coral wall built up ar\nd ! isl& by ! polyps1 f ! dep? ( fifty1 or at mo/ ( a hundr$ feet1 is %[n at c c 7,fig4 #fa74 ,if ! isl& is elevat$1 ?is wall becomes a fr++ reef 7,fig4 #fb71 b' becom+ ! level ( ! sea1 & ! animal beg9s a new wall at ! same dep? z be=e4 ,b if ! isl& is gradually s9k+1 ! wall is kept built up to ! surface1 & becomes a b>ri] reef 7,fig4 #fc74 ,a *annel is ?us left betwe5 ! isl& & ! reef1 :i*1 ?\gh gradually fill+ up ) brok5 coral or o!r s$im5t1 is g5]ally deep en\gh = a %ip-*annel4 ,if ! isl& cont9ue to subside till x disappe>s1 & ! coral wall is /ill kept at ! surface1 x !n becomes an atoll1 a circul> coral isl& 7,fig4 #fd71 (t5 ( _m leagues 9 diamet]1 beat5 by ! surf on ! out] edge1 b enclos+ a quiet lake1 :i* communicates only by occasional *annels ) ! ocean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,! isl&s contigu\s to ! l9es ,a ,b & ,c ,d 7,fig4 #fj7 are uni=mly atolls1 or are surr\nd$ by b>ri] reefs1 & are !re=e subsid+2 :ile ! isl&s at a di/ance f ^! l9es are surr\nd$ by fr++ reefs1 :i* indicate t !y are ris+4 ,a well-au!nticat$ in/ance ( gradual subsid5ce is t ( ,gre5l&4 ,! entire we/]n coa/1 f its s\!rn extremity to ,disco ,isl&1 a di/ance ( six hundr$ miles1 has = ! la/ two c5turies be5 sl[ly subsid+4 ,! dwell+-h\ses & places ( wor%ip built by ! e>ly ,european settl]s are n[ 9 "p or entirely subm]g$4 ,! natives are said to be aw>e ( ! subsid5ce1 & nev] build _! huts ne> ! sea4 #d4 ,we h ?us se5 t bo? elevation & depression may take place4 ,!re is reason to believe t ^! *anges ( level h1 9 "s cases1 be5 sev]al times repeat$4 ,9 "o ( ! ea/]n ranges ( ! ,&es1 opposite to ,*ili1 !re is a mass ( m>9e /rata ( five ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! s]ies !re occurs a silicifi$ =e/4 ,9 "o place a clump ( conif]\s trees 0 f\nd ( m ?an fifty 9 numb]1 & a foot or m 9 diamet]4 ,! base ( ! /rata mu/ h be5 tw5ty-five hundr$ feet bel[ ! surface ( ! sea1 9 ord] to admit ( ! deposition ( ! fir/ half ( x4 ,x 0 !n elevat$1 s t a =e/ grew ^u its surface4 ,x 0 !n depress$ at lea/ tw5ty-five hundr$ feet1 m1 to admit ( ! deposition ( ! subsequ5t /rata1 & ! :ole is n[ uplift$ to =m a m\nta9 range ( eight ?\s& feet 9 height4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,! temple ( ,jupit] ,s]apis1 ne> ,naples1 9 ,italy1 0 built ne> ! sea1 ab\t eighte5 hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,x 0 gradually subm]g$1 & f9ally lo/ by ! deposition ( s$im5t ne>ly to ! top ( ! columns4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds elevat$1 s z to be entirely above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! rema9s ( ! temple 7,fig4 #fe7 7 aft]w>ds discov]$ by ! columns project+ a little above ! gr\nd4 ,! s$im5t 0 remov$ to ! dep? ( =ty-six feet1 :5 ! workm5 came to ! base ( ! columns1 & to a pavem5t sev5ty feet 9 diamet]4 ,9 #ahjg an arti/ 0 employ$ to take draw+s ( ! ru94 ,! pavem5t 0 !n above ! level ( ! sea4 ,sixte5 ye>s aft]w>ds ! same arti/ f\nd ! pavem5t cov]$ ) wat]1 & ! dep? has cont9u$ to increase s9ce t "t4 ,x is consid]$ t = ! la/ =ty ye>s ! depression has be5 ?ree-f\r?s ( an in* a ye>4 ,in/ances en\gh h n[ be5 giv5 to %[ h[ ext5sively ! sy/em admits ( *ange4 ,!y are suffici5t to ju/ify u 9 se>*+ = indications ( great revolutions 9 pa/ times1 ev5 :]e no su* indications h z yet be5 discov]$4 ,!y w s]ve z a key to _m o!rwise inexplicable ph5om5a1 ,9 ord] to ! int]pretation ( su* ph5om5a readily1 we mu/ cease to look ^u ^! z exceptional cases1 & reg>d !m n only z facts1 b z facts ( frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,f ! examples :i* h n[ be5 giv51 z well z f speculations ^u ! cause ( ^! *anges1 x seems highly probable t all ! surface ( ! solid portion ( ! e>?1 :e!r l& or ! b$ ( ! sea1 is und]go+ *anges ( level4 ,x may be s gradual t 9 ! life ( an individual x w\ld be imp]ceptible1 ev5 :]e ! be/ means ( detect+ x exi/4 ,^! means are g5]ally ! works ( man1 & !y are !mselves s liable to *ange1 t x w\ld be sc>cely possible to detect v>iations ( level1 :i* am\nt to b a few in*es 9 a c5tury4 ,if we admit t ! relations ( l& & wat] h always be5 v>iable1 x is impossible to arrive at any c]ta9 conclusion z to ! am\nt1 position or =m1 ( ! dry l& at any =m] p]iod4 ,we may det]m9e1 ) "s degree ( c]ta9ty1 :at portions ( ! pres5t cont95ts 7 subm]g$ at p>ticul> epo*s4 ,?us1 we may inf] t mo/ ( ?is c\ntry 0 subm]g$ dur+ ! silurian p]iod1 f ! great ext5t ( ! ,silurian rocks2 &1 f ! limit$ ext5t ( ! *alk =mation 9 ?is c\ntry1 we "k t dur+ ! cretace\s p]iod mo/ ( ! cont95t 0 above ! surface ( ! sea4 ,b we h absolutely no data = det]m9+ :at portions ( ! b$ ( ! sea 7 at any "t dry l&4 ,x is supposable t ! l& has be5 pr9cipally conf9$ to ! equatorial regions at "o p]iod1 & to ! pol> at ano!r4 ,at /ill a diff]5t p]iod ! l& may h exi/$ z isl&s scatt]$ ?r\gh a g5]al ocean4 ,^! relations may1 !re=e1 be assum$ to h exi/$1 if !re are geological ph5om5a :i* be/ accord ) su* relations4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,*anges ,,on ,,! ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 #a4 ,! pr9cipal *anges ( ?is class consi/ 9 ! we>+ d[n & remov+ imm5se quantities ( ! surface rock4 ,! =m 9 :i* ! igne\s rocks1 ( :i* ! entire cru/ ( ! e>? 0 orig9ally compos$1 n[ appe>1 furni%es no assi/ance 9 judg+ ( ! am\nt ( d5udation :i* !y h suff]$4 ,we c judge only f ! am\nt ( rock = :i* !y h furni%$ ! mat]ials1 & ^! are ! :ole s$im5t>y s]ies :i* exi/ bo? z dry l& & z ! b$ ( ! sea4 #b4 ,! s$im5t>y rocks h also be5 subject to great d5udation2 & we (t5 h1 9 :at is left1 "s indications ( h[ mu* has be5 remov$4 ,"o ( ^! indications consi/s 9 ! n[ level surface ( ^? portions ( c\ntry 9 :i* l>ge faults exi/4 ,by ! excavations = coal1 9 ,engl&1 faults h be5 discov]$ ( five or six hundr$ feet4 ,at ! "t t !y 7 =m$1 ! surface mu/ h pres5t$ precipit\s esc>pm5ts 7z repres5t$ by ! dott$ l9es 9 ,fig4 #ej7 ( a height equal to ! dislocation2 b ! :ole is n[ r$uc$ to a g5]al level 7z z71 d5ud+ causes hav+ remov$ ! elevat$ portions4 ,! ext5t ( valleys w (t5 give "s idea ( ! am\nt ( d5udation to :i* a region has be5 subject$4 ,9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,scotl& !re is a succession ( hills ( ab\t ?ree ?\s& feet 9 elevation1 consi/+1 = ! upp] two ?\s& feet1 ( horizontal /rata ( old r$ s&/one4 7,fig4 #ff47 ,we _c conceive t ^! m\nta9 masses 7 deposit$ 9 _! pres5t isolat$ =m4 ,! :ole int]v5+ spaces mu/ h be5 fill$ ) /rata cont9u\s ) ^? by :i* ! elevations are =m$4,d ,d ,i ent]ta9 little d\bt t :5 ?is l(ti] portion ( ,scotl&1 includ+ ! entire ,highl&s1 fir/ pres5t$ its broad back ov] ! waves1 ! upp] surface consi/$ exclusively1 f "o extremity to ! o!r1 ( a cont9u\s tract ( old r$ s&/one2 ?\gh1 ere ! l& f9ally em]g$1 ! ocean curr5ts ( ages _h swept x away1 all except 9 ! l[] & la/ rais$ bord]s1 & 9 deta*$ localities :]e x /ill rema9s1 z 9 ! pyramidal hills ( ,we/]n ,ros%ire1 to %[ ! amaz+ dep? to :i* x _h once ov]laid ! inf]ior rocks4--,mill]1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 p4 #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,a some:at simil> in/ance occurs 9 ! ,connecticut riv] s&/one1 9 ! c5tral "p ( ,massa*usetts4 ,! foll[+ figure 7,fig4 #fg7 repres5ts two m\nta9s ( #a ! s&/one1 betwe5 :i* ! ,connecticut riv] fl[s4 ,! dott$ l9es indicate a dep? ( "o ?\s& feet ( ! rock :i* has be5 swept away4 ,x is also ?\ght t a b$ ( equal dep? has be5 remov$ f ?is section s\?w>d1 ?r\gh ! ,/ate ( ,connecticut1 to ! sea-coa/4 #c4 ,valleys1 & ev5 _m ( ! l>g] valleys1 are produc$ by ! we>+ d[n ( ! surface4 ,! l[] portion ( ! ,connecticut valley is "o ( d5udation1 ?\gh 9 its upp] "p x is a valley ( elevation1 result+ f ! upheaval ( ! ,gre5 & ,:ite ,m\nta9s4 ,! wat]-c\rses f ! m\nta9s are transv]se to ! direction ( ! ranges1 & g5]ally consi/ ( valleys ( d5udation4 ,^! valleys 7 no d\bt orig9ally fractures1 produc$ :ile ! m\nta9s 7 ris+4 ,! fractures h be5 subsequ5tly wid5$ by d5udation into valleys4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 #d4 ,! rocky surface1 beyond ! =tie? p>allels ( latitude1 & 9 ! vic9ity ( glaci]-produc+ m\nta9s1 is g5]ally cov]$ ) grooves & /ri 7,fig4 #fh71 v>y+ f sev]al in*es 9 dep? to ! f9e/ p]ceptible l9es4 ,rocks t are ( a s(t consi/5ce1 or :i* h be5 long expos$ to atmosph]ic ag5ts1 seldom exhibit ^! m>ks1 ?\gh !re are probably few places1 outside ( ! p>allels be=e m5tion$1 :]e ! rocky surface1 if x has be5 protect$ f atmosph]ic decay1 does n conta9 su* groov+4 #e4 ,ano!r *ange at ! surface consi/s 9 ! =mation ( a soil2 t is1 ( a sup]ficial lay]1 ( no great ?ickness1 ( e>?y matt]1 a l>ge proportion ( :i* is always 9 a m9utely divid$ /ate4 ,9 "s in/ances x is common s$im5t1 unsolidifi$2 9 o!rs1 x consi/s ( ! surface rock 9 a /ate ( dis9tegration2 b a l>ge "p ( ! soil )9 ! region :]e ! groov$ surfaces are f\nd consi/s ( mat]ials transport$ f a di/ance4 ,soils are di/+ui%$ accord+ to _! pr$om9ant m9]als1 z silice\s1 alum9\s & calc>e\s4 ,if silice\s matt] is 9 excess1 x w be a light1 w>m soil1 & all[ ! wat] to pass ?r\gh x too freely4 ,if ! clay pr$om9ates1 ! soil is cold1 /iff1 & too ret5tive ( moi/ure4 ,a prop] admixture ( ^! ?ree +r$i5ts con/itutes ! be/ soils4 ,!re are "s o!r m9]al +r$i5ts ess5tial to ! productiv5ess ( soils1 b !y are always 9 small proportion4 ,9 addition to ! inorganic "p :i* is common to ! upp] soil1 & ! subsoil1 !re is requir$1 9 ord] to r5d] ! upp] lay] productive1 a l>ge admixture ( decay+ animal & vegetable matt]4 ,,section ,v4--,,*anges ,,( ,,climate4 ,our means ( det]m9+ ! climate ( any =m] p]iod consi/s 9 a comp>ison ( ! fossils ( su* p]iod ) ! exi/+ =ms ( life 9 w>m & cold climates4 ,! e>lie/ abundant vegetation consi/$ pr9cipally ( f]ns1 ru%es & mosses1 & a l>g] gr[? 0 atta9$ ?an is atta9$ by any ( ! alli$ =ms ( ! pres5t "t4 ,we may inf] t ! circum/ances "u :i* ^! l[] =ms ( vegetable life are n[ produc$ 9 ! l>ge/ proportion1 comp>$ ) o!r =ms1 & "u :i* !y gr[ to ! l>ge/ size1 are ! circum/ances approa*+ mo/ ne>ly ^? "u :i* ! e>ly vegetation 0 produc$4 ,^! circum/ances are f\nd to be a position elevat$ b little above ! level ( ! sea1 a humid atmosph]e1 & ! highe/ t]re/rial temp]ature4 ,su* facts favor ! conclusion t dur+ ! coal p]iod an ultra-tropical climate prevail$1 & t ! l& exi/$ 9 ! =m ( l[ isl&s1 ?ickly set 9 a g5]al ocean4 ,! peculi> *>act]s ( "s ( ! animal fossils1 f ! e>lie/ fossilif]\s to ! t]ti>y s]ies1 indicate t a w>m] climate prevail$ dur+ _! =mation ?an n[ exi/s4 ,! rema9s ( m>9e animals1 su* z ! cephalopoda1 are f\nd 9 great numb]s & 9 high latitudes1 9 a fossil /ate2 b simil> species1 z ! nautilus1 n[ ab\nd only betwe5 ! tropics4 ,! same is true ( ! cr9oidea4 ,corall9e lime/one is also f\nd 9 great abundance & 9 high nor!rn latitudes2 b ! /one-produc+ coral n[ exi/s only 9 v w>m seas4 ,! rema9s ( saurian reptiles are num]\s 9 ! olite & ,weald52 b all ! l>g] rec5t species ( ! liz>d tribe1 su* z ! crocodile1 are conf9$ to ! w>m] regions ( ! e>?4 ,a =m] w>m climate 9 ,sib]ia is indicat$ by ! occurr5ce !re ( ! rema9s ( elephants4 ,^! animals 7 s abundant t _! tusks are n[ collect$ z an article ( comm]ce4 ,! abundance & high /ate ( pres]vation ( ^! rema9s seem to preclude ! explanation t !y 7 convey$ !re1 f ! pres5t tropical regions1 by any great geological convulsion4 ,! species mu/ !re=e h inhabit$ ! c\ntry1 ?\gh ! elephant is n[ f\nd only betwe5 ! tropics4 ,! ,sib]ian elephant 0 a diff]5t species f any n[ exi/+1 &1 unlike ! rec5t species1 _h a cov]+ ( co>se hair4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no reason to conclude t x c\ld endure a cont9u$ l[ temp]ature2 & its su/5ance w\ld h be5 impossible1 f ! v /9t$ vegetation :i* t region n[ af=ds4 ,we mu/ !re=e suppose t ,sib]ia enjoy$1 at ! p]iod :5 x support$ ^! animals 9 su* abundance1 a tropical climate4 ,mo/ ( ! facts :i* g to prove a *ange ( climate h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 b ! explorations 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,new ,holl& furni% gr\nd = believ+ t ! geological ph5om5a ( ! two hemisph]es are ess5tially alike1 & t ! indications ( climate are ! same = ! same p]iods4 ,su* is1 9 g5]al1 ! evid5ce 9 ref]5ce to climate2 & x leads to ! conclusion t a highly tropical climate prevail$ 9 ! temp]ate1 & = "s di/ance1 at lea/1 into ! pol> zones1 9 ! e>ly geological p]iods2 :ile !re is no reason = suppos+ t ! tropical regions exp]i5c$ a temp]ature too high = physical life to endure x4 ,! climate ( ! e>? 0 *>act]iz$ !n by a high] temp]ature ?an n[1 & by great] uni=mity4 ,?is 0 ! climate1 ) p]haps a gradual r$uction ( temp]ature1 till ! lat] portions ( ! t]ti>y p]iod4 ,be=e ! close ( ! t]ti>y p]iod1 a *ange occurr$1 & probably a rapid "o1 to a m rigor\s climate ?an n[ exi/s4 ,! de/ruction ( ! elephant 9 ,sib]ia 0 evid5tly sudd51 & 0 foll[$ by extreme cold2 = ! animals are 9 "s cases entirely pres]v$ 9 ice1 & 9 s p]fect a /ate t1 :5 ! ice :i* surr\nds !m becomes melt$1 ! fle% is dev\r$ by c>nivor\s animals4 ,!re are occasionally f\nd1 9 ! drift ( ! b\ld] p]iod1 %ells simil> to ^? ( ! ,arctic regions1 & 9 a condition to %[ t !y h n be5 transport$4 ,! clay b$s ( ! nor!rn portion ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ,canada 7 deposit$ dur+ ! la/ depression ( t portion ( ! cont95t1 & !y conta9 ! rema9s ( m>9e animals id5tical 9 sev]al in/ances ) species n[ liv+1 b conf9$ to m nor!rn regions4 ,x mu/ !re=e be admitt$ t ! int]val betwe5 ! middle t]ti>y & ! mod]n era 0 "o ( great cold4 ,x is g5]ally ref]r$ to z ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,v consid]able local *anges ( climate h also occurr$ )9 ! hi/orical p]iod4 ,?us ! mean temp]ature ( ! ,alps has be5 s r$uc$ t ! anci5t passes h 9 mod]n times become *ok$ up ) sn[1 & o!r passes h be5 s\ght1--a result1 p]haps1 ( additional upheaval4 ,x w\ld seem t ,sib]ia is n[ receiv+ a mild] climate4 ,! ice 9 :i* elephants h = c5turies be5 imb$d$ has be5 sl[ly melt+ = at lea/ ?irty ye>s4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,advantages ,,result+ ,,f ,,geological ,,*anges4 #a4 ,! division ( ! g5]al surface into l& & wat]1 z well z ! div]sifi$ =m ( ! l&1 ! exi/5ce ( m\nta9s & l[ l&s1 & ! consequ5t modifications ( climate1 ! wat]falls1 & ! riv]-sy/ems1 con/itut+ ! dra9age ( cont95ts1 are all results ( ! process ( upheaval4 #b4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! m9]al sub/ances employ$ = ar*itectural & economical purposes are oceanic deposits1 su* z ! m>bles1 slates1 s&/ones & m9]al salt1 & w\ld h be5 inaccessible if !y _h n be5 elevat$ f ! position 9 :i* !y 7 =m$4 ,& ! elevation ( !m above ! b$ ( ! sea w\ld h expos$ only ! sup]ficial lay]1 if !y _h n be5 ei!r irregul>ly uplift$1 z at e c 7,fig4 #fi71 or unequally worn d[n1 z at b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,! granitic rocks1 z !y 7 =m$ bel[ ! aque\s rocks1 mu/ h rema9$ unkn[n & useless1 if !y _h n be5 br\ght to ! surface1 z at c1 by ! mo/ convulsive ef=ts ( nature ( :i* we h any k4 ,?us1 natural me*anical =ces h effect$ = man :at ! me*anical =ces "u 8 control w\ld be entirely insuffici5t to accompli%4 #c4 ,x is by *anges ( ?is k9d t we become acqua9t$ ) ! geological /ructure ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,m9+ op]ations h nev] ext5d$ to a great] dep? ?an ?ree ?\s& feet1 :ile ! incl9$ position ( ! /rata exposes = exam9ation1 along _! outcropp+ edges1 e a c1 ! :ole s]ies1 ev5 to ! prim>y rocks4 ,! upheaval ( ! granitic rocks1 & ! removal by d5udation ( ! ov]ly+ deposits1 %[s u ! cry/all9e "* :i* ! e>?y mat]ials take1 :5 subject$ to pressure & cool$ f fusion ) extreme sl[ness4 ,?us we h1 expos$ to obs]vation1 ! process ( nature 9 ! =mation & modification ( rocks = sev]al miles 9 dep?4 ,( ! c5tral portions1 h[ev]1 includ+ by f> ! l>ge/ "p ( ! mass ( ! e>?1 we h no k :atev]4 #d4 ,spr+s1 & ! o!r means ( obta9+ wat] = dome/ic purposes1 dep5d 9 "p ^u ! incl9$ position ( /rata1 & ! brok5 & unev5 condition ( ! surface1 & 9 "p ^u ! alt]nation ( p]meable & imp]meable /rata4 ,if all ! /rata 7 por\s1 l ! s&/ones1 ! wat] :i* falls ^u ! surface w\ld gradually settle ?r\gh !m to ! level ( ! sea2 or1 if !y 7 all imp]meable1 l ! clays1 ! wat] w\ld pass ov] ! surface1 & be collect$ 9 lakes or ! ocean4 ,z x is1 ! por\s /ructure ( ! soil & ( "s rocks acts z a res]voir1 f :i* ! wat] is gradually dis*>g$1 & ! int]v5tion ( imp]meable /rata prev5ts its tak+ a p]p5dicul> direction d[nw>ds4 ,?us1 if ! /ratum e b 7,fig4 #fi7 consi/s ( por\s rock1 & ! "o bel[ is imp]meable1 ! wat] :i* is absorb$ at e w appe> at b z a spr+4 ,or1 if ! l9e a d is a fracture1 ! wat] receiv$ at c may reappe> z a spr+ at a4 ,if ! /rata 7 p]=at$ by bor+ at e till ! por\s /ratum a is rea*$1 ! wat] w rise to ! surface1 con/itut+ an ,artesian well4 ,an ord9>y well consi/s ( an excavation cont9u$ till a /ratum is rea*$ :i* is p]man5tly saturat$ ) wat]4 #e4 ,mo/ ( ! metallic ores :i* occur 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks1 ) ! exception ( iron1 are f\nd 9 fractures or z dikes4 ,)\t ^! di/urbances ( ! /rata1 ! ores w\ld h rema9$ ei!r sp>+ly diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! adjac5t /rata1 or z a "p ( ! melt$ mass at ! volcanic c5tres4 ,! ores & metals :i* are f\nd 9 ! prim>y rocks are accessible only by ! br++ up ( ^! rocks to ! surface4 ,! fractur+1 displacem5t1 & elevation ( ! /rata1 att5d$1 z is (t5 ! case1 ) ! de/ruction ( prop]ty & ( ! life bo? ( man & ! inf]ior animals1 might1 at fir/ view1 be ?\ght an unnecess>y1 if n a wanton infr+em5t ^u arrangem5ts already e/abli%$4 ,b ! results :i* we h notic$1 ?\gh by no means a full enum]ation ( ! advantages result+ f geological *anges1 are suffici5t to %[ t ev5 ! m viol5t di/urbances to :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 subject$ con/itute an important "p ( t s]ies ( adju/m5ts :i* has r5d]$ x a suitable abode = human be+s4 ,^! *anges are !re=e nei!r useless nor accid5tal1 b are ess5tial p>ts ( a wise & b5efic5t sy/em4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,geological ,,ph5om5a4 ,an exhibition ( ! composition & /ructure ( ! e>?1 toge!r ) an acc\nt1 z f> z !re is reliable evid5ce1 ( ! modifications :i* !y h und]gone1 has be5 ! object ( ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,!y are ma9ly a collection & classification ( obs]v$ facts4 ,no ref]5ce has be5 made to causes or modes ( op]ation1 except 9 a few cases :]e x 0 necess>y 9 ord] t a /atem5t or description1 might be intelligible4 ,if ! facts h be5 giv5 ) suffici5t cle>ness & detail to convey a correct g5]al idea ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 we are prep>$ to inquire :at are ! ag5cies employ$1 & h[ !y h op]at$ 9 produc+ x4 ,x is ! prov9ce ( ! geologi/ to "q e kn[n p[] 9 nature1 & to asc]ta9 :at geological effects ea* "o is n[ produc+2 &1 obs]v+ :at effects are produc$ by giv5 causes1 he is to judge ( ! causes :i* h produc$ l effects 9 pa/ geological p]iods4 ,"s ( ^! causes are 9 _! nature limit$1 & effects c be ref]r$ to !m only )9 ^? limits4 ,?us1 ! congelation ( wat] exp&s x by a c]ta9 proportion ( its volume1 & beyond t x c h no effect4 ,b ! expansive p[] ( /eam v>ies ) ! temp]ature2 & h5ce ! effects ref]r$ to x may be equally v>i$4 ,?us1 we are n to expect exact uni=mity ( results 9 all pa/ times1 b ! results w v>y only z ! circum/ances v>y ^u :i* ! op]ation ( ^! causes dep5ds4 ,geological causes1 9 mo/ in/ances1 op]ate ) extreme sl[ness2 & !re=e x w require a s]ies ( obs]vations1 cont9u$ = a long "t1 to asc]ta9 :at are ! capabilities ( ^! causes4 ,b a s+le in/ance ( _! effects proves _! capabilities ?us f>4 ,h5ce1 "o in/ance ( ! deposition ( a /ratum ( salt 9 a salt lake2 ( ! fill+ ( a fracture ) fluid lava2 ( a volcanic eruption1 l t ( ,icel& 9 #aghc2 ( ! subsid5ce ( a volcanic m\nta91 z t ( ,pap&ayang 9 ,java2 or ( ! ris+ ( a l>ge area ( l&1 z 9 ,sw$51 z fully proves t natural causes exi/ capable ( produc+ ^! effects1 z if ! effects 7 produc$ daily4 ,z ^! effects increase 9 numb]1 & c>eful obs]vations are made & au!ntic acc\nts pres]v$1 ! means ( correctly expla9+ geological ph5om5a w increase4 ,! causes ?us f> kn[n are ,atmosph]ic ,causes1 ,*emical ,action1 ,organic ,ag5cy1 & ,aque\s1 ,aqueo-glacial & ,igne\s ,action4 ,,section ,i4--,,atmosph]ic ,,causes4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e is capable ( unit+ ) "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( rocks1 by :i* _! cohesion is weak5$ or de/roy$4 ,?is is ! cause ( ! rapid dis9tegration ( "s v>ieties ( granite4 ,! protoxide ( iron :i* !y conta9 is conv]t$1 by contact ) ! atmosph]e1 into ! p]oxide4 ,its volume is ?us increas$1 & portions ( ! rock are sep>at$ f ! mass4 ,:5 granite or lime/one conta9s sulphuret ( iron1 ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 9 connection ) moi/ure1 comb9es ) ! sulphur1 =m+ sulphuric acid1 by :i* lime/one & ! felsp> ( granite are rapidly decompos$4 ,h5ce1 a rock :i* conta9s an oxide or sulphuret ( iron %\ld n be us$ = ar*itectural purposes4 ,c>bonic acid is ano!r con/itu5t ( ! atmosph]e :i* op]ates z a decompos+ ag5t4 ,! wat] t falls f ! atmosph]e is *>g$ ) x1 & ?us becomes capable ( dissolv+ calc>e\s rocks4 ,c>bonic acid is ?us indirectly ! means ( ! rapid de/ruction ( rocks ( ?is class4 ,x is also believ$ t c>bonic acid ent]s into direct comb9ation ) "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( rocks1 & p>ticul>ly felsp>2 = x is f\nd t 9 ^? c\ntries :]e c>bonic acid issues 9 great quantities f ! e>?1 ! rocks1 especially ^? :i* conta9 felsp>1 dis9tegrate rapidly4 ,masses ( _m tons' weight1 :i* appe> to be solid granite1 aft] be+ brok5 are f\nd to be 9 su* a /ate ( decay t fragm5ts may be r$uc$ to s& betwe5 ! f+]s4 ,! moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e has "s effect z a decompos+ ag5t4 ,rocks :i* are expos$ to frequ5t alt]nations ( moi/ure & dryness soon crumble into fragm5ts4 ,ra91 fall+ ^u ! surface ( rock1 produces1 me*anically1 a de/roy+ effect1 :i* is n to be ov]look$4 ,v>iations ( temp]ature1 especially ^? alt]nations above & bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 h great] influ5ce ?an any o!r cause 9 ! de/ruction ( rocks4 ,:5 ! wat] ) :i* a rock is saturat$ congeals1 ! result+ expansion t5ds to enl>ge ! int]/ices1 & ?us to sep>ate ! p>ticles ( ! rock4 ,:5 ! ice melts1 ! p>ticles fail to resume ! clos5ess ( arrangem5t ) :i* !y 7 be=e pack$4 ,by frequ5t repetition ( ?is action1 ! sup]ficial portion loses its cohesion1 & dis9tegrates4 ,x is also f\nd t 9 ! region ( p]petual sn[ ! surface ( ! m\nta9 masses is cov]$ ) rock 9 a dis9tegrat$ or fragm5t>y /ate1 9 great] abundance ?an bel[ ! sn[ l9e2 b no explanation ( ?is fact has yet be5 f\nd4 ,9 m\nta9\s regions1 electrical dis*>ges & viol5t /orms h "s de/roy+ effect4 ,w9ds h consid]able p[] 9 *ang+ ! place ( e>?y matt] 9 a dis9tegrat$ /ate4 ,9 des]ts1 ! s&s are c>ri$ 9 great quantities to great di/ances4 ,! causes n[ enum]at$1 :5 consid]$ sep>ately1 & z act+ = only limit$ p]iods ( "t1 seem h>dly wor?y ( notice2 b :5 consid]$ z op]at+ conjo9tly1 & = indef9ite p]iods ( "t1 !y mu/ h produc$ important *anges on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,f ^! causes1 ! surface & ornam5ts ( ca/les & o!r anci5t edifices1 & ( b\ld]s1 & all insulat$ rocks1 are f\nd to be decay$1 & (t5 to a consid]able dep?4 ,x is f ^! causes t a soil is produc$ on e surface ( rock :i* is n s expos$ to ! action ( curr5ts t ! debris is remov$ z fa/ z x is =m$4 ,h5ce x is1 also1 t a slope ( detritus is =m$ at ! base ( e declivity1 s t ! l$ge appe>s only at ! highe/ po9ts4 ,x is f a comb9ation ( ^! atmosph]ic causes t a l>ge "p ( ! s$im5t is furni%$ :i* brooks & riv]s c>ry away4 ,& :5 cohesion is n entirely ov]come1 x is s f> weak5$ t o!r causes are mu* m effectual ?an !y w\ld o!rwise be1 9 effect+ ! dis9tegration ( rocks4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,*emical ,,action4 ,all ^? *anges 9 :i* ! action is molecul>1--t is1 betwe5 ! molecules z su*1 & n betwe5 ! masses1--includ+ ! effects ( ! impond]able sub/ances1 we reg>d z result+ f *emical ag5cy4 ,"u ! control ( ^! molecul> =ces ! cry/all9e rocks h tak5 _! =m2 & if ! cru/ ( ! e>? c\ld h rema9$ 9 a fix$ condition1 9 :i* ^! =ces w\ld h be5 9 equilibrium1 no fur!r *emical action c\ld h tak5 place4 ,b1 in/ead ( be+ 9 a fix$ condition1 ! pres5t sy/em is "o ( p]petual *ange4 ,v>i\s di/urbances ( ?is equilibrium ( =ces1--su*1 = in/ance1 z ! diurnal & annual *anges ( temp]ature at ! surface1 & ! /ill great] secul> *anges ( temp]ature at great dep?s1--w br+ ! *emical =ces into op]ation4 ,! me*anical dis9tegration ( ! cry/all9e rocks1 & ! deposition ( !m 9 /rata indep5d5tly ( ! *emical aff9ity ( _! p>ticles1 w give occasion = *emical *anges1--t is1 = a re>rangem5t ( ! p>ticles 9 accordance ) _! aff9ities1--:5ev] any movem5t ( ! p>ticles among !mselves c take place4 ,^! movem5ts take place1 to a v great ext5t1 "u ! influ5ce ( electrical curr5ts1 & ( *ange ( temp]ature1 ev5 :ile ! masses reta9 _! solid =m4 ,*emical aff9ity has exhibit$ itself on ! l>ge/ scale 9 ! =mation ( ! v>i\s m9]al species ( :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? is compos$2 b we may also ref] to ! same cause ! =mation ( divisional planes 9 rocks1 ! concretion>y arrangem5t1 & m9]al ve9s4 #a4 ,divisional ,planes4--,x has be=e be5 /at$1 t ! old] rocks1 9 _m cases1 cleave freely 9 planes n p>allel ) ! /ratification4 7,see ,fig4 #dh47 ,9 "s in/ances1 9 b$s ( lava1 a simil> cleavage exi/s1 suffici5tly p]fect to all[ ( its use z a ro(+ mat]ial4 ,9 ^! cases1 !re mu/ h be5 a re>rangem5t ( ! p>ticles1 s t _! axes ( greate/ attraction w\ld lie 9 p>allel planes2 ! same arrangem5t :i* exi/s 9 mica & o!r cry/all9e sub/ances1 :i* h "o & b "o free cleavage4 ,a simil> arrangem5t has sometimes tak5 place "u su* circum/ances z to submit ! process to m c>eful scrut9y4 ,9 ! gold m9es ( ,*ili1 ! p[d] f :i* ! gold has be5 wa%$ is ?r[n into a common heap4 ,a great deal ( *emical action !n comm5ces2 salts ( v>i\s k9ds effloresce on ! surface1 & ! mass becomes h>d1 & divides into fragm5ts :i* possess an ev5 & well-def9$ slaty /ructure4 ,:5 a portion ( clay1 work$ into a pa/e ) a v weak acid1 is submitt$ to a weak voltaic action = sev]al mon?s1 & !n dri$1 x is f\nd to h acquir$ a di/9ct ?\gh imp]fect cleavage /ructure4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t bo? electrical curr5ts & ord9>y *emical action are capable ( arrang+ ! p>ticles ( an e>?y mass into sep>able lay]s4 ,we may !n reg>d ?is *ange 9 ! old] rocks z an imp]fect cry/allization1 & probably induc$ by electro-*emical ag5cy4 ,x is also f\nd t all rocks are divid$ into huge blocks by seams n p>allel ) ! cleavage1 & too regul> to be consid]$ z fractures4 ,^! seams be> an analogy to ! second>y faces ( cry/als1 :i* are nev] p>allel to ! cleavage4 #b4 ,concretion>y ,=mations4--,!re exi/ 9 _m rocks concretions :i* diff] f ! mass ( ! rocks4 ,9 mo/ ( ! t]ti>y clays !re are small concretion>y nodules1 :i* conta9 m calc>e\s matt] ?an ! mass ( clay ar\nd !m4 ,9 ! coal =mation1 ! nodul> iron ore consi/s ( concretion>y masses4 ,9 ! *alk =mation1 nodules ( fl9t ab\nd1 & g5]ally 9 lay]s4 ,9 _m ( ^! cases1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! clays & coal1 ! nodules h an organic nucleus1 &1 al?\gh concretion>y1 !y reta9 ! m>ks ( /ratification ( ! adjac5t rocks4 ,h5ce !y c\ld n h be5 deposit$ 9 ! =m ( nodules4 ,!re mu/ !re=e h be5 9 ! rock1 ?\gh 9 ! solid /ate1 su* motion among ! molecules t p>ticles ( a p>ticul> m9]al h sep>at$ f ! mass & re>rang$ !mselves 9 concretion>y lay]s1 yet s gradually z n to di/urb ! l9es ( orig9al /ratification4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,!re are o!r in/ances1 simil> to ! la/ 9 all respects1 except t ! segregat$ portion does n take ! concretion>y =m4 ,:5 gypsum is di/ribut$ 9 small proportion ?r\gh a =mation1 !re seems v little reason to d\bt b t x is1 by a molecul> action1 segregat$ f ! /rata 9 l5ticul> masses1 z at a 7,fig4 #gj74 ,_m ( ! lime/one /rata conta9 irregul> aggregations ( qu>tz4 ,x is presum$ t ! silice\s & calc>e\s matt] 0 deposit$ toge!r z s$im5t1 & t ! aggregation has result$ f a movem5t among ! p>ticles simil> to t by :i* ! concretion>y /ructure is produc$4 ,! column> /ructure ( basalt seems to h result$ f a peculi> molecul> action1 at fir/ resembl+ a concretion>y arrangem5t1 :ile ! mass 0 cool+ f a /ate ( fusion4 ,9 exp]im5t+ to asc]ta9 ! cause ( ?is /ructure1 ,mr4 ,watt fus$ 9 a furnace sev5 hundr$ p\nds ( basalt4 ,:5 cool$1 he f\nd t num]\s sph]oids _h be5 =m$1 & t :5 two ( !m came 9 contact1 !y did n p5etrate ea* o!r1 b 7 mutually compress$ & sep>at$ by a well-def9$ plane1 inve/$ ) a ru/y coat+4 ,:5 sev]al met1 !y =m$ prisms4 7,fig4 #ga47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 #c4 ,m9]al ,ve9s4--,! ph5om5a ( ve9s are su* t !y _c all be ref]r$ to ! same cause4 ,9 "s1 ! ve9-/uff has be5 protrud$ z a dike1 diff]+ f ord9>y dikes only 9 ! accid5tal circum/ance t x conta9s a metal or a metallic ore4 ,m9]al ve9s are n1 h[ev]1 g5]ally fill$ by injection f bel[4 ,x is f\nd t ^? ve9s only are productive :i* h an ea/ & we/ direction4 ,b inject$ dikes run 9 all directions4 ,! ore (t5 v>ies 9 ri*ness at diff]5t dep?s 9 ! ve91 or passes into ore ( "s o!r metal4 ,! ore also v>ies 9 k9d & quality1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! rock ?r\gh :i* ! ve9 passes4 ,^! ph5om5a are be/ expla9$ by suppos+ t ! s$im5t ( :i* ! /rata 7 =m$ conta9$ ! m9]al sub/ances ( ^! ve9s 9 small proportion4 ,aft] !y 7 solidifi$1 & fractures _h be5 =m$1 ! m9]al sub/ance 0 transf]r$ by molecul> action to ! fissures1 & deposit$4 ,x 0 %[n by ! e>ly exp]im5ts ( ,davy1 t voltaic curr5ts are capable ( tak+ up m9]al sub/ances f _! solutions1 & remov+ !m f "o cup to ano!r4 ,x has be5 asc]ta9$ t 9 mo/ m9]al ve9s a prop] app>atus w detect ! exi/5ce ( electric curr5ts4 ,x may be reg>d$ z c]ta91 t ! unequal heat+ ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! surface at ! same "t1 by ! sun1 causes a va/ curr5t ( feeble int5sity to circulate ar\nd ! e>? once 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! unequal di/ribution ( heat bel[ ! surface may also produce curr5ts subject to o!r laws4 ,we %\ld expect t ^! curr5ts w\ld take up ! m9]al sub/ances diffus$ ?r\gh rocks1 & deposit !m by !mselves4 ,x seems probable1 !re=e1 t ! molecul> action1 f :i* ! segregation ( metallic ve9s has result$1 0 t ( voltaic curr5ts4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,organic ,,causes4 ,! effects ( all organic causes 9 produc+ geological *anges are inconsid]able1 comp>$ ) ^? ( inorganic causes4 ,) ! exception ( ! coral =mation1 ! mo/ important ( ^! effects are ^? produc$ by human ag5cy4 ,we f9d examples ( ?is ag5cy 9 ! di/ribution ( animals & plants beyond ! regions :]e !y are indig5\s2 9 ! increas$ numb]s ( c]ta9 species1 & 9 ! dim9ution1 if n ext9ction1 ( o!rs2 9 ! modifications ( climate1 dep5d5t on ! de/ruction ( ! =e/s & ! cultivation ( ! soil2 9 controll+ ! c\rse ( riv]s2 9 arre/+ by embankm5ts ! encroa*m5ts ( ! sea2 9 break+ up & *ang+ ! place ( great quantities ( rock by m9+ & eng9e]+ op]ations2 & 9 ! increas$ quantity ( s$im5t furni%$ to /reams by cultivat+ ! surface1 & ?us prev5t+ ! protect+ influ5ce :i* ! matt$ roots ( trees & ! small] vegetables w\ld o!rwise h4 ,su* effects1 ?\gh attributable ma9ly to man1 are produc$ 9 "s degree by all o!r animals4 ,besides ^! g5]al effects1 x is ! exi/5ce ( organic =ms t has conf]r$ on all ! s$im5t>y rocks _! fossilif]\s "*4 ,! records ( ! climate ( ea* geological p]iod1 ( ! physical geography1 ( ! vegetable productions1 & ( ! animal =ms by :i* ! e>? 0 peopl$1 consi/ 9 ! rema9s ( ! liv+ be+s ( ^! sev]al p]iods1 imb$d$ 9 ! contemporane\s rock =mations4 ,b 9 ! s$im5t deposit$ s9ce ! human era !re mu/ h be5 furni%$ bo? ! rema9s ( human be+s & works ( art1 su* z implem5ts ( labor & w>1 pott]y1 co9s1 fragm5ts ( %ips1 c4 ,moreov]1 ! quantity ( mat]ial :i* has be5 furni%$ by organic causes is by no means small4 ,! coal-b$s are ! product ( vegetable gr[? exclusively4 ,we n unfrequ5tly f9d /rata ( great ext5t consi/+ almo/ entirely ( ! %ells ( mollusc\s animals1 ( ! /ems ( encr9ites1 or ( ! %ields ( microscopic animalcules4 ,b ! mo/ abundant rock :i* c be reg>d$ z ! product ( animal organization is ! coral =mation4 ,x consi/s ( imm5se walls ( coral lime/one1 sep>at+ ei!r an atoll or ! l& ( an isl& or cont95t f ! op5 sea4 ,! base ( ?is wall has a wid? v>y+ f a hundr$ feet to a mile or m1 & ! out] edge ( x is at su* a di/ance f ! %ore z to give a dep? n mu* exce$+ a hundr$ feet4 ,ov] ?is area ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 :i* =ms ! base ( ! wall1 ! coral polyp comm5c$ its "w4 ,atta*+ itself 9 imm5se numb]s ov] ?is area1 x deposits calc>e\s matt] f its "u surface1 & ?us1 by degrees1 elevates itself t[>ds ! surface ( ! wat]1 till x rea*es a level a little above l[-wat] m>k4 ,! height ( ! wall w\ld n1 ) ^! conditions1 exce$ "o hundr$ feet2 b "s hundr$s ( ! isl&s surr\nd$ by coral walls are gradually subsid+4 ,! depositions ( ! polyps keep pace ) ! subsid5ce1 s t ?is wall has rea*$ an elevation f its base ( a ?\s& feet1 & 9 "o in/ance ( two ?\s& feet4 7,see ,figs4 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd47 ,mo/ ( ! isl&s ( ! torrid zone are ?us surr\nd$ ) coral reefs1 except a few :]e ! cold pol> curr5ts r$uce ! temp]ature too l[ to admit ( _! gr[?4 ,9 "o in/ance1 along ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,new ,holl&1 !re is a coral reef1 "s tw5ty-five miles f ! l&1 :i* has a cont9u\s ext5sion1 except+ occasional inlets ( no great dep?1 ( a ?\s& miles4 ,! reef along ! isl& ( ,new ,cal$onia is f\r hundr$ miles long4 ,a l>ge numb] ( o!r reefs h a ne>ly equal ext5sion4 ,!re is ?us an area ( sev]al ?\s&s ( squ>e miles cov]$ to a great dep? ) ?is corall9e lime/one4 ,"s lime/one =mations ( great ext5t among ! old] rocks 7 ! "w ( simil> animals4 ,^! l[] =ms ( organization h1 !re=e1 always be5 important geological ag5ts1 bo? 9 collect+ ! c>bonate ( lime f its solution 9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 & 9 deposit+ x z solid rock4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,aque\s ,,causes4 ,wat] is1 next to heat1 ! mo/ important geological ag5t4 ,all ! /ratifi$ rocks are aque\s deposits1 & _! total am\nt is 9 "s respects a measure ( ! influ5ce :i* ?is ag5t has ex]t$4 ,! mat]ials h be5 obta9$ f ! de/ruction ( prexi/+ rocks1 transport$ by wat]1 & deposit$ 9 lay]s4 ,:5 ! fir/ /rata 7 =m$1 ! s$im5t mu/ h be5 obta9$ entirely f igne\s rocks1 because only ^? rocks exi/$2 b n[ x is obta9$ f e k9d ( rock :i* is expos$ to abrad+ or decompos+ ag5cies4 ,h5ce1 _m ( ! lat] =mations conta9 fragm5ts1 & sometimes )9 ! fragm5ts well-*>act]iz$ fossils1 ( e>li] =mations4 ,! s$im5t :i* is ultimately to become /ratifi$ rock is deposit$ on ! b$s ( ! ocean1 & o!r great res]voirs ( wat]4 ,! =mation ( mo/ ( ! aque\s rocks1 !re=e1 z well z ( ! igne\s rocks1 is deep bel[ ! surface2 & nei!r ( ^! op]ations1 on ! l>ge scale1 is directly expos$ to our obs]vation4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 le>n by obs]vation1 h[ ! s$im5t is furni%$ to ! wat]s & transport$ by !m1 & we c =m "s correct ideas ( ! mann] 9 :i* x w be laid d[n on ! b$ ( ! ocean1 & solidifi$4 ,i4 ,! ,furni%+ ( ,s$im5t4 #a4 ,almo/ all ! m9]als :i* occur 9 ! geological =mations are1 to "s slight ext5t1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,h5ce1 ra9 wat]1 by pass+ ?r\gh a /ratum ( e>? or rock & reppe>+ z a spr+1 loses ! insipidity :i* x _h z pure wat]1 & becomes palatable4 ,x is !n f\nd to hold 9 solution "s small proportion ( e>?y sub/ances1 ^u :i* ?is *ange ( ta/e dep5ds4 ,al?\gh ! proportion ( dissolv$ matt] is v small1 yet ! surface ( e>? ^u :i* ?is di/ill$ wat] is %$ is "o-f\r? ( ! surface ( ! globe1 & solution bel[ all t surface is con/antly tak+ place4 ,no inconsid]able am\nt mu/ ?us h be5 furni%$1 f ! exi/+ rocks ( ea* p]iod1 t[>ds ! =mation ( ! /rata ( a lat] p]iod4 ,!re are "s sub/ances :i* are soluble 9 wat]1 9 l>ge quantities4 ,rock-salt is an example4 ,x is n f\nd 9 any v l>ge proportion 9 rocks g5]ally1 b a v l>ge aggregate am\nt has be5 tak5 up by ! wat]s :i* h filt]$ ?r\gh ! /rata4 ,! ocean ga!rs into itself1 by degrees1 all ! soluble sub/ances :i* are ?us tak5 up4 ,x receives supplies ( wat] *>g$ ) ^! sub/ances f spr+s1 riv]s & lakes4 ,x returns z mu* wat] z x receives2 b x is always 9 ! =m ( vapor1 & is !re=e pure wat]4 ,h5ce ! sal9e prop]ties ( ! ocean1 & ( ^? inl& seas :i* h no outlets4 ,!re is ?us ga!r$ ! mat]ials = ! rock-salt deposits4 ,b _m sub/ances :i* are n consid]$ soluble 9 wat] become s by "s modification ( ! wat]4 ,wat] ( a high temp]ature is capable ( dissolv+ silex4 ,9 ,icel& & o!r volcanic regions1 ! hot spr+s are *>g$ ) silex1 :i* is deposit$ z ! wat] cools4 ,?us1 silice\s =mations accumulate ar\nd spr+s ( ?is k9d4 ,! v>i\s agates may h be5 deposit$ f su* solutions4 ,9 ! decomposition ( mica1 felsp> & volcanic rocks1 a consid]able am\nt ( potassa is set free4 ,potassa or soda r5d]s ! wat] 9 :i* x is dissolv$ capable ( dissolv+ silex 9 l>ge quantity4 ,9 ^! ways wat] removes1 ) "s degree ( rapidity1 "o ( ! mo/ insoluble m9]als :i* rocks conta94 ,9 volcanic c\ntries1 & 9 coal di/ricts1 c>bonic acid is abundant1 bo? 9 spr+-wat] & 9 ! gase\s =m4 ,wat] *>g$ ) ?is gas becomes capable ( dissolv+ lime/one4 ,:]e ! wat] is expos$ to ! air1 ! gas gradually escapes1 & ! calc>e\s matt] is deposit$4 ,_m accumulations ( ?is k9d are n[ tak+ place4 ,"s h already ext5d$ sev]al miles 9 l5g?1 & !y are (t5 ( great ?ickness1 9 "o in/ance1 9 ,italy1 two hundr$ feet 7,fig4 #gb74 ,x is also probable t _m calc>e\s spr+s issue bel[ ! surface ( lakes & seas1 & ?us1 bo? fre%-wat] & m>9e deposits w\ld n[ be =m+4 ,^! =mations are di/9ctly /ratifi$1 & are :ite & cry/all9e1 & become solid at ! "t ( deposition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,^! dissolv$ mat]ials are less obs]v$ ?an o!rs1 because !y d n r5d] ! wat] turbid2 b !re is reason to believe t sev]al ( ! aque\s =mations1 p>ticul>ly ! lime/ones1 h be5 built up *iefly f !m4 #b4 ,! abrad+ action ( riv]s furni%es consid]able detrital matt]4 ,! g5]al =m ( ! riv] c\rses is det]m9$ by o!r causes ?an ! ag5cy ( ! riv] itself1 yet a riv] :i* has a rapid curr5t is cont9ually deep5+ its *annel4 ,we h pro( ( ?is by obs]v+1 :5 ! wat] is l[1 t irregul>ity ( surface :i* runn+ wat] always produces1 by we>+ away ! s(t] p>ts ( ! rock1 & leav+ ! h>d] 9 relief4 ,h5ce1 a riv] w h its rapids ei!r :]e ! h>de/ /rata occur1 & :i* !re=e we> d[n lea/ rapidly1 or :]e ! rock has be5 h>d5$ by ! intrusion or ne> proximity ( dikes4 ,! abrad+ p[] ( riv]s occasionally becomes greatly increas$ by wat]falls4 ,! =ce :i* ! wat] acquires 9 its desc5t is su* z to excavate a deep cavity at ! foot ( ! fall1 rea*+ back "u ! l$ge f :i* ! wat] desc5ds4 ,! l$ge is !re=e con/antly be+ und]m9$4 ,! cat>act ( ,niag>a is peculi>1 9 hav+ ! rock at its base ( a s(t & friable texture1 s t x is rapidly worn away1 :ile ! upp] rock is a compact silice\s lime/one4 ,if ! ord] ( sup]position _h be5 ! rev]se1 ! falls w\ld h be5 conv]t$ into a s]ies ( rapids4 ,x is n[ pres]v$ z a s+le fall1 & z su* x has probably cut ! gorge1 ab\t two hundr$ feet deep & sev5 miles 9 l5g?1 ?r\gh :i* its wat]s n[ rea* ,lake ,ont>io4 ,a few ye>s s9ce1 a l>ge mass1 p]haps half an acre 9 area1 fell f ! c5tre ( ! horse-%oe fall4 ,ano!r mass ( equal size has rec5tly fall5 f ! we/]n extremity ( ! l$ge4 ,?us ! fall is gradually rec$+4 ,b ! =eign sub/ances1 su* z drift-wood1 ice1 s& & gravel1 ) :i* ! wat]s ( a riv] are occasionally *>g$1 contribute m ?an ev]y?+ else to its abrad+ p[]4 ,at su* times its volume is g5]ally greate/1 & its curr5t ! mo/ rapid4 ,its b$ is !n sometimes p]ceptibly deep5$ & wid5$ 9 a few h\rs4 ,mu* ! great] "p1 h[ev]1 ( ! e>?y matt] :i* riv]s convey 9 su* quantity to ! ocean1 is furni%$ by o!r means ?an ! erod+ action ( ! riv] itself4 ,x is ! loose mat]ial1 ! soil & alluvium1 to :i* ! solid rocks h be5 r$uc$ by ! imp]ceptible b incessantly op]at+ atmosph]ic ag5cies1 f :i* mo/ ( ! s$im5t ( riv]s is obta9$4 ,aft] a ra91 e tribut>y rivulet is turbid ) susp5d$ e>?y matt]1 & x is f ^! s\rces t ! l>g] /reams receive ! mo/ ( _! s$im5t4 ,"s obs]vations h be5 made = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ ! quantity ( s$im5t :i* riv]s annually c>ry into ! sea4 ,! ,k5nebec furni%es mat]ials :i*1 if spread ev5ly on an area ( "o mile squ>e1 & consolidat$ into rock ( ! specific gravity ( granite1 w\ld h a ?ickness ( six in*es4 ,! ,m]rimac furni%es ab\t two-?irds z mu*1 ! ,ganges ab\t two hundr$ & fifty times z mu*1 & ! ,mississippi two ?\s& times z mu*4 ,?us1 ! t5d5cy is1 to r$uce ! highe/ p>ts ( ! l&1 & to fill up ! depressions ( ! sea2 & ?\gh we h n data en\gh to =m any reliable e/imate ( ! total annual dis*>ge ( s$im5t into ! ocean by riv]s1 yet !y are suffici5t to %[ t ! effects ( ?is k9d are on a l>ge scale1 & to relieve u f any impression t exi/+ ag5cies are inadequate to ! production ( ! /ratifi$ rocks4 #c4 ,! action ( waves is ano!r means by :i* detrital matt] is furni%$4 ,:]ev] ! %ore consi/s ( loose mat]ials1 & is favorably situat$ to be act$ ^u by ! waves1 !re is annually a s5sible encroa*m5t ( ! sea4 ,su* encroa*m5ts are rapidly mak+ 9 _m places2 & ?us a l>ge am\nt ( s$im5t is deliv]$ to ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,! waves also encroa* ^u ! coa/ :5 x consi/s ( rocks1 ev5 ( ! mo/ inde/ructible k9ds4 ,!y cont9ually beat ^u x1 und]m9e ! cliffs1 & precipitate !m into ! sea4 ,! tides increase ! p[] ( ! waves1 by v>y+ ! place ( _! action1 s z to pres5t ! same surface ( rock alt]nately to ! action ( wat] & ( ! air1 fro/ & sun4 ,dur+ /orms1 ! waves h suffici5t =ce to break (f fragm5ts ( rock f ! esc>pm5t1 sometimes 9 masses weigh+ tw5ty tons or m1 & remove !m _m rods inl&4 ,a bold1 rocky coa/ always exhibits evid5ce ( a great am\nt ( erosion4 ,! /eep esc>pm5ts & ! high rugg$ %afts ( rock 7,fig4 #gc7 aga9/ :i* ! waves n[ beat are ! remnants ( masses ( rock :i* once ext5d$ fur!r into ! sea1 b h be5 worn away by ! waves4 ,x is by su* ag5cy t ! deep inlets & h>bors ( ! coa/ ( ,new ,engl& & ,nova ,scotia h be5 excavat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,?is m viol5t action ( ! waves is only occasional2 b :5 ( less p[]1 !y are incessantly roll+ ! loos5$ fragm5ts ( rock ^u ea* o!r1 & ?us we>+ !m d[n to p>ticles small en\gh to be c>ri$ away by ! wat]4 #d4 ,! action ( waves is conf9$ to ! coa/1 & nev] ext5ds to great dep?s4 ,b m>9e curr5ts act pr9cipally on ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,! temp]ature ( ! mass ( ! ocean is mu* high] 9 ! equatorial ?an 9 ! pol> regions4 ,at ! surface1 ! diff]5ce am\nts to sixty degrees4 ,! wat]s ( ! torrid zone are ?us exp&$1 & fl[ ov] ! cold] wat]s ( ! nor? & s\?2 :ile ^! cold] wat]s ( ! pol> seas fl[ back1 9 an "u curr5t1 t[>ds ! equator4 ,= ! same reason1--a diff]5ce ( temp]ature1--!re w be1 9 ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e1 a curr5t ( w>m & moi/ air fl[+ f ! equator nor? & s\?1 :ile ! cold & dry air conies 9 f ! pol> regions t[>ds ! equator4 ,9 ?is way ! equatorial wat]s are c>ri$1 9 a /ate ( vapor1 t[>ds ! poles1 :]e !y are cond5s$1 & g to increase ! curr5ts ( wat] mov+ t[>ds ! equator4 ,su* are ! g5]al causes ( ! oceanic movem5ts 9 a nor? & s\? direction2 b ^! curr5ts at once become deflect$ we/w>d1 by ! diurnal revolution ( ! e>?1 z ! trade w9ds d4 ,h5ce !re results a ,pacific equatorial curr5t1 :i* has a motion ( ab\t ?irty miles a day1 & an ,atlantic equatorial curr5t1 mov+ f sixty to sev5ty miles a day4 ,! pr9cipal m>9e curr5ts are %[n 9 ,fig4 #gd4 ,! curr5ts mov+ t[>ds ! poles are sup]ficial1 & !re=e d n produce any m>k$ geological effects4 ,b ! pol> curr5ts1 & ^? :i* are produc$ f !m1 are ( great dep?1 & !re is no reason to suppose t !y d n move1 f _! comm5cem5t1 along ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,!re is also reason to suppose t !y exi/ at great dep?s1 :]e ! oppos+ sup]ficial curr5ts entirely conceal !m4 ,:]ev] ^! curr5ts come to ! surface1 _! motion is und\bt$ly great] ?an x is at ! bottom1 :]e x is ret>d$ by ! friction :i* ! mov+ wat]s enc\nt]1 & by ! irregul>ities ( ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$1 t !y move ) ! weight ( ! :ole sup]ior body ( wat]2 & !re=e1 ?\gh ! motion be v sl[1 x w /ill possess great p[]4 ,any irregul>ities 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean b5ea? su* a curr5t mu/ be subject to v rapid abrasion4 ,we %all sea h]eaft]1 t e>?quake vibrations (t5 %iv] ! rocks at ! solid surface2 & if any ( ^! ridges at ! bottom ( ! ocean 7 ?us act$ ^u1 ! loos5$ portions w\ld be swept away by ! curr5t & deposit$ at l[] levels1 or :]e ! curr5t subsides4 ,if1 9 any in/ance dur+ an e>?quake convulsion1 a fault %\ld be produc$ across "o ( ^! m>9e curr5ts1 l ! great fault ( ov] five hundr$ feet 9 ,engl&1 ! abutm5t ?us ?r[n up w\ld soon be worn d[n2 & if x consi/$ ( unconsolidat$ matt]1 x w\ld be swept away almo/ bodily4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,! effect ( su* curr5ts w be greate/ :]e !y are deflect$ by a cont95t or isl&4 ,?us1 a m>9e curr5t sets f ne> ,new ,holl& 9 a direct l9e to ! nor? ( ! isl& ( ,madagasc>1 :]e x is arre/$ by ! ,african coa/1 & deflect$ into ! n>r[ ,mozambique *annel1 & !re acquires a velocity ( f\r or five miles an h\r4 ,x is impossible t any k9d ( rock %\ld receive ! con/ant =ce ( su* a body ( wat] )\t be+ rapidly worn away2 &1 if !re %\ld be any diff]5ce ( texture 9 ?is rocky b>ri]1 ! s(t] portions w\ld yield ! mo/ rapidly1 & ?us valleys might be =m$4 ,x is n improbable t ! deep ind5tation on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,africa may h be5 due1 9 a great measure1 to ! coa/ curr5t f ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope2 & t ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,mexico may h be5 excavat$ by ! =ce ( ! ,atlantic equatorial curr5t be+ ?r[n into ?is angle4 ,we may reg>d ^! curr5ts z oceanic riv]s2 & x is obvi\s t ! volume ( ! t]re/rial riv]s w\ld be> no comp>ison ) t ( ^! curr5ts1 & _! effects w\ld be equally small 9 ! comp>ison4 ,! ,gulf ,/ream1 & ! ,mozambique & o!r simil> curr5ts1 mu/ be we>+ d[n ! valleys ?r\gh :i* !y fl[1 to su* an ext5t z to furni% an imm5se am\nt ( detrital matt] = ! =mation ( new rocks4 ,x is pr9cipally to ! ag5cy ( ^! deep m>9e curr5ts t we are to ref] ^? ext5sive d5udations1 s abundant on ! pres5t cont95ts1 su* z ! we>+ out ( ! int]m$iate masses ( rock betwe5 ! hills already ref]r$ to 7,fig4 #ff71 ! d5udation ( ! ,connecticut riv] s&/one1 &1 p]haps1 ! excavations :i* h =m$ ,lake ,erie & ,lake ,ont>io4 ,,ii4 ,! ,transportation ( ,s$im5t4 ,! detrital matt] obta9$ 9 ^! sev]al ways is swept away by runn+ wat]4 ,! specific gravity ( rocks does n1 9 g5]al1 exce$ two & a half4 ,h5ce1 to keep !m susp5d$ 9 wat]1 w require a =ce ( only ?ree-fif?s ( :at w\ld be necess>y to susp5d !m 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ! case ( riv] curr5ts1 ! velocity & irregul>ity ( motion are g5]ally suffici5t to keep all ! f9] s$im5t equally di/ribut$4 ,!re w1 h[ev]1 be a division ( ! s$im5t accord+ to ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t4 ,h5ce1 ! b$ ( a m\nta9 /ream1 if !re is any loose mat]ial1 always consi/s ( pebbles4 ,z x approa*es ! alluvial region1 ! b$ is s&y2 & :5 ! curr5t becomes v sluggi%1 x consi/s ( a f9e mud4 ,riv]s nev] deposit all _! s$im5t1 "s ( !m none ( x1 along _! c\rse4 ,l>ge riv]s cont9ue p>tially di/9ct f ! ocean wat] to a consid]able di/ance beyond _! m\?s4 ,! wat]s ( ! ,amazon h be5 recogniz$ at a di/ance ( ?ree hundr$ miles4 ,?is dep5ds 9 "p ^u ! volume & velocity ( ! riv]2 m1 h[ev]1 ^u ! fact t riv] wat] is light] ?an sea wat]4 ,?is ext5sion ( a riv] w1 9 mo/ cases1 be suffici5t to deliv] a "p ( its s$im5t into a m>9e curr5t4 ,:5 su* a curr5t sweeps v ne> ! m\? ( a riv]1 z x does to t ( ! ,nig]1 ! ,amazon1 or ! ,mississippi1 x is probable t mo/ ( its s$im5t is c>ri$ away by x4 ,! transport+ p[] ( a m>9e curr5t is great] ?an t ( a riv]1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great] specific gravity ( its wat]2 b x has sc>cely any ( t irregul> motion ( rapid riv]s1 ^u :i* _! transport+ p[] 9 a great degree dep5ds4 ,! =ce ( ! curr5t alone1 :5 x rea*es ! bottom1 is1 h[ev]1 suffici5t to remove e =m ( loose e>?y matt]4 ,?us x may be presum$ t ! ,gulf ,/ream sweeps all ! s$im5t f its b$ until x rea*es ! latitude ( ,cape ,hatt]as1 :]e ! cold wat]s f ! nor? beg9 to und]lie x1 & x takes ! "* ( a surface /ream4 ,b ! transport+ p[] ( m>9e curr5ts dep5ds mo/ly ^u ! dep? ( wat]4 ,x is f\nd1 by exp]im5t1 t ord9>y riv] s$im5t w s9k 9 wat] ab\t "o foot 9 an h\r4 ,a curr5t1 !re=e1 ( a ?\s& feet 9 dep?1 :i* moves a mile 9 an h\r1 w\ld c>ry its s$im5t a ?\s& miles4 ,x is obvi\s1 !n1 t !re is no "p ( ! b$ ( ! sea :i* may n be receiv+ s$im5t4 ,,iii4 ,! ,deposition ( ,s$im5t4 ,f :at has be5 said ( ! weight ( s$im5t1 x foll[s t x w be deposit$ :5ev] ! wat] 9 :i* x is susp5d$ is at re/4 ,h5ce1 :5 a riv] increases 9 bread? s z to =m a lake1 ! wat]s at ! outlet are seldom turbid4 ,! e>?y matt]s ) :i* ! pr9cipal & tribut>y /reams 7 *>g$ all settle to ! bottom1 & g to less5 ! capacity ( ! res]voir4 ,?us lakes are cont9ually dim9i%+ 9 dep? & area4 ,9 _m in/ances1 !y are already fill$ ) s$im5t1 & are ?us conv]t$ into alluvial pla9s1 ?r\gh :i* ! riv] fl[s 9 a n>r[ *annel4 ,x is frequ5tly ! case t a riv]1 z x approa*es ! sea1 has s sl[ a motion t its s$im5t is deposit$ on ! b$ ( ! /ream4 ,?us ! b$ w be rais$1 & ! banks w also be rais$1 by ! deposition ( s$im5t ^u !m at p]iods ( ov]fl[4 ,! riv] w !n be rais$ above ! adjac5t c\ntry4 ,! riv] ,po1 = ! la/ "p ( its c\rse1 is f t5 to tw5ty feet above ! adjac5t l&s4 ,! same is true ( ! ,mississippi1 & _m o!r riv]s4 ,! /reets ( ,new ,orleans are sev]al feet bel[ ! surface ( ! riv]4 ,9 an un9habit$ c\ntry1 su* a riv] w\ld soon seek a new & l[] *annel2 b 9 a popul\s c\ntry1 x becomes a matt] ( int]e/ & safety to conf9e ! riv] 9 its old *annel1 by artificial embankm5ts4 ,b ! pr9cipal "p ( ! s$im5t ( riv]s is convey$ to ! sea4 ,x "h m+les ) ! debris :i* ! waves h furni%$1 & a "p ( x is deposit$ to =m deltas4 ,! rema9+ "p is tak5 up by m>9e curr5ts1 m+l$ ) ! debris :i* !y h furni%$1 & is spread out on ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,( ! ext5t ( ^! deposits we c =m no e/imate4 ,^? ( riv]s & lakes are comp>atively unimportant1 z !y are 9 ! old] =mations4 ,"s ( ! delta deposits are already ( great ext5t4 ,t ( ! ,ganges conta9s an area ( tw5ty-six ?\s& squ>e miles1 t ( ! ,nig] tw5ty-five ?\s&1 & t ( ! ,nile twelve ?\s&4 ,! delta ( ! ,rhone has increas$ its area by ?ree hundr$ squ>e miles 9 ! la/ ?\s& ye>s4 ,! ,po has encroa*$ ^u ! ,adriatic two ?\s& squ>e miles 9 ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s1 & ! ,mississippi has enl>g$ its delta by "o hundr$ squ>e miles 9 ! la/ hundr$ ye>s4 ,9 ! deep valleys ( ! ocean accumulations may be tak+ place on z l>ge a scale z !y ev] h be5 9 =m] times4 ,,iv4 ,"* ( ! ,=mations ?us produc$4 ,s$im5t>y matt] ?us deposit$ w\ld take ! =m ( /rata4 ,?us1 a delta deposit may receive at "o "t f a riv] a lay] ( co>se gravel & pebbles1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs ! curr5t may be s r$uc$ t x w convey to ! same place only f9e s& & silt4 ,or1 if a deposit+ curr5t receive its s$im5t only at int]vals1 ! heavie/ p>ticles w\ld be ?r[n d[n fir/1 & ! m f9ely levigat$ p>ticles w\ld cont9ue to fall1 till ! wat] became transp>5t4 ,ano!r supply w\ld furni% ano!r simil> /ratum1 & s on4 ,! same arrangem5t might result f ! s$im5t be+ furni%$ by diff]5t riv]s4 ,?us1 if s$im5t 7 furni%$ to ! ,gulf ,/ream by ! ,m]rimac riv]1 & ! /reams empty+ into ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 ! fre%ets w\ld occur e>li] 9 ! season 9 ! ,m]rimac1 & x w\ld furni% a supply ( s$im5t f a region ( prim>y rocks4 ,a lat] supply w\ld come f ! r$ s&/one region ( ,nova ,scotia1 & ! /ratification w\ld be indicat$ by ! diff]5t k9ds ( rock produc$4 ,?us /ratification w result f diff]5ce 9 ! color1 composition1 or size ( ! p>ticles ( :i* rocks consi/4 ,a great v>iety ( causes1 bo? g5]al & local1 may !re=e give to a deposit ?is "*4 ,h5ce1 z /ratifi$ rocks are produc$ by ! s$im5t n[ laid d[n f wat]1 we may conclude t ! old] /ratifi$ rocks are ! s$im5t deposit$ 9 l mann]1 9 =m] times4 ,! occurr5ce ( lay]s ( diff]5t composition1 z "o way 9 :i* ! /ratification is indicat$1 is produc$ by local & frequ5tly recurr+ causes4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r alt]nations ( mu* great] ext5t2 ^?1 = example1 ne>ly tw5ty 9 numb]1 di/+ui%$ by /rik+ diff]5ces 9 li?ological "*1 into :i* ! ,new ,york sy/em ( rocks is divid$4 ,^! alt]nations h result$ f m g5]al causes4 ,! physical geography ( a wide region mu/ h be5 s diff]5t1 at ! diff]5t p]iods dur+ :i* ^! sev]al =mations 7 deposit$1 z to *ange1 at ea* p]iod1 ! k9d ( s$im5t furni%$ to ! =m+ curr5ts1 & modify ! types ( animal life4 ,we h se5 t ! same causes t det]m9$ ! /ratifi$ arrangem5t w det]m9e ! alt]nations ( /rata ( co>se & f9e mat]ials4 ,x is obvi\s t ! /ratification ( ! m>9e deposits w be ne>ly horizontal4 ,if ! surface 7 v irregul> ^u :i* ! deposition comm5c$1 ! irregul>ity w\ld con/antly dim9i%2 = ! movem5t ( ! wat] ov] ?is surface1 h[ev] sl[1 w\ld t5d to remove ! accumulations f ! highe/ po9ts1 & leave !m at ! l[e/ 7,fig4 #ge74 ,delta & lake deposits w1 h[ev]1 dip some:at1 ?\gh nev] at a high angle1 t[>ds ! deep wat]4 ,9 c]ta9 situations1 :]e a riv] & a tidal wave1 com+ 9 conflict1 cause1 9 succession1 eddies & curr5ts 9 opposite directions1 we %\ld expect to f9d ! /ratification v irregul> 7,fig4 #gf72 sometimes false /ratifications 7a b71 sometimes ! /rata cut (f abruptly1 & at o!r times contort$ or dipp+ 9 opposite directions )9 %ort di/ances4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,:]ev] s$im5t is deposit$1 x w entomb :atev] ( ! rema9s ( animal or vegetable life may be m+l$ ) x4 ,!y w be at once protect$ aga9/ ! influ5ce ( all ! ord9>y decompos+ ag5cies1 & w cont9ue = ages to reta9 _! peculi> m>k+s1 & ev5 _! colors4 ,!y w ?us con/itute1 9 all future "t1 a record ( ! pres5t condition ( ! organic _w4 ,! lacu/r9e deposits c conta9 only fre%-wat] species ( animals1 m>9e deposits only m>9e animals1 :ile deltas may conta9 ! rema9s ( m>9e life m+l$ ) ^? :i* h be5 wa%$ d[n by riv]s4 ,! rema9s ( birds1 insects1 & t]re/rial animals1 may occasionally occur1 9 e k9d ( deposit4 ,s$im5t deposit$ 9 deep wat] w nev] conta9 fossils 9 abundance1 ! deep p>ts ( ! ocean be+ almo/ :olly de/itute ( animal or vegetable life4 ,x is only 9 wat] ( a few fa?oms t ! great] numb] ( species & ( individuals occur4 ,9 all ^! p>ticul>s ! deposits n[ =m+ su/a9 a close resemblance to ! old] =mations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,!re are c]ta9 =mations1 z t ( ! coal1 :i* requir$ conditions = _! =mation diff]5t f ^? ( ord9>y s$im5t>y deposits4 ,coal consi/s ( m9]aliz$ vegetable matt]4 ,its vegetable orig9 is prov$ by ! uni=m occurr5ce ( vegetable fossils almo/ exclusively 9 ! coal measures4 ,:5 r$uc$ to ?9 slices & exam9$ "u a high magnify+ p[]1 a /ructure v simil> to ! ligne\s tissue ( exi/+ conif] is sometimes f\nd to exi/4 ,!re are probably vegetable deposits n[ tak+ place n altoge!r unlike ^? :i* produc$ ! coal measures4 ,we "k t _m riv]s--! ,mississippi1 = example--n[ c>ry into ! sea great quantities ( ligne\s matt]4 ,be=e ! c\ntry 0 inhabit$ by man1 ! quantity 0 und\bt$ly mu* great] ?an x n[ is4 ,x floats = a "t2 b ! ligne\s tissue itself is heavi] ?an wat]1 & z soon z ! air is exclud$ f ! pores1 & !y are fill$ ) wat]1 x w s9k4 ,! woody & e>?y matt]s are swept into ! sea toge!r2 b1 z !y s9k "u diff]5t circum/ances1 !y w be deposit$ sep>ately4 ,?us wood may cont9ue to accumulate 9 p>ticul> places 9 ! sea = long p]iods1 ) b little int]mixture ( e>?y sub/ances4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to be expect$ t1 9 ! progress ( geological *anges1 ! places :i* at "o "t receive deposits ( wood w at ano!r receive detrital matt]1 & ?us ! wood w become deeply buri$ b5ea? s$im5t>y /rata4 ,wood ?us situat$ w become conv]t$ into coal4 ,trees :i* _h be5 cov]$ to consid]able dep? ) e>? h be5 f\nd ne> ! ,mississippi riv] *ang$ to lignite1 a sub/ance resembl+ *>coal4 ,9 ?is case1 ! wood _h be5 expos$ to no great] heat ?an is common to ! cru/ ( ! e>? at ! dep? :]e x 0 f\nd2 & yet x _h und]gone ?is *ange s9ce ! c\ntry has be5 kn[n to ,europeans1 z x reta9$ ! m>ks ( ! axe :5 x 0 discov]$4 ,x has also be5 f\nd by exp]im5t t vegetable matt]1 by long subm]sion 9 wat]1 passes into ! /ate ( lignite4 ,?is is ! fir/ /ep 9 ! conv]sion ( wood into m9]al coal4 ,:5 lignite is expos$ to mod]ate heat & great pressure1 x loses ! *>act]s ( lignite1 & becomes m9]al coal4 ,?is is %[n by facts obs]v$ 9 ,g]many1 ,irel& & ,icel&1 :]e b$s ( lignite h be5 ov]spread by basalt4 ,! upp] portions ( ! lignite are *ang$ to m9]al coal4 ,! l[] portions1 :i* ! heat did n rea*1 reta9 ! *>act]s ( lignite4 ,b$s ( vegetable matt]1 ) a great ?ickness ( rock deposit$ above !m1 w\ld !re=e be subject to all ! conditions necess>y to conv]t !m into coal1 namely1 pressure f ! sup]9cumb5t mass1 & ! heat :i* ! /rata uni=mly assume at great dep?s4 ,x is n improbable1 !re=e1 t coal-b$s are n[ =m+1 & t !y h be5 =m$ at e geological p]iod s9ce an abundant t]re/rial vegetation comm5c$4 ,accord+ly1 !re occurs 9 ,virg9ia an ext5sive coal-field 9 ! olite =mation4 ,coal-fields also occur 9 ,engl&1 ( less ext5t1 9 ! same =mation4 ,9 ,france1 & o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 !re are ext5sive b$s ( lignite 9 ! t]ti>y =mation4 ,we h !re=e no difficulty 9 acc\nt+1 9 a g5]al way1 = ! =mations ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,! vegetables 7 probably less woody ?an ^? ( ! pres5t "t ( equal size1 & 7 !re=e m easily pro/rat$ & committ$ to ! wat]s4 ,!y grew rapidly 9 moi/ gr\nd1 & p]haps 9 %oal-wat]1 & requir$ an atmosph]e *>g$ ) moi/ure & ( a high temp]ature4 ,?us mu* is inf]r$ f ! conditions mo/ favorable = ! gr[? ( rec5t species analog\s to ! coal-plants4 ,^! rec5t species are tropical plants1 & gr[ 9 moi/ insul> situations1 conditions :i* w\ld h exi/$ at ! c>bonif]\s p]iod1 if ! pres5t coal-fields 7 !n an ar*ipelago dott$ ) l[ isl&s4 ,su* be+ reg>d$ z ! orig9 ( ! coal-b$s1 ! alt]nations ( ! e>?y & c>bonace\s /rata may be ref]r$1 provisionally1 to ^? great *anges 9 physical geography ^u :i* ! o!r alt]nations ( /rata on a l>ge scale dep5d4 ,b ! regul>ity ) :i* ! coal-seams & s&/one succe$ ea* o!r pres5ts "s difficulties :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k1 we _c satisfactorily acc\nt =4 ,b$s ( salt occur1 int]/ratifi$ ) o!r rocks1 9 ne>ly all c\ntries4 ,/ill1 x is n a s$im5t>y deposit1 & its =mation mu/ dep5d ^u peculi> circum/ances4 ,9 ,new ,york1 sal9e1 toge!r ) e>?y matt]1 con/itutes ! ,onondaga lime/one1 "o ( ! =mations ( ! ,new ,york sy/em4 ,9 ,k5tucky1 ! /rata ( rock-salt are 9 ! coal =mation2 9 ,engl&1 !y are 9 ! new r$ s&/one2 9 ,spa91 !y are 9 ! gre5s&1 & 9 ,pol& !y are 9 t]ti>y /rata4 ,! conditions ( its =mation h !re=e exi/$ 9 connection ) ! deposition ( e fossilif]\s rock4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! ocean is ! pr9cipal res]voir ( ! sal9e matt]s :i* are tak5 up :5ev] wat] p]colates ?r\gh rocks4 ,x mu/ happ5 n unfrequ5tly1 9 ! c\rse ( subm>9e elevations1 t a bas9 ( sea-wat] w be cut (f f its communication ) ! sea2 & f ?is bas9 ! evaporation might be m rapid ?an ! supply ( wat]4 ,! great salt-lake ( ,utah is und\bt$ly a bas9 ( ?is k9d4 ,! ,m$it]ranean ,sea is ano!r su* bas91 n yet :olly sep>at$ f ! ocean4 ,! evaporation exce$s ! supply ( wat] f ! riv]s1 & a p[]ful /ream is !re=e cont9ually ?r[n 9 f ! ocean1 ?r\gh ! ,/rait ( ,gibralt>4 ,! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean are already m highly *>g$ ) salt ?an ord9>y sea-wat]4 ,?is sea may ultimately become a saturat$ solution1 & beg9 to deposit salt4 ,b :e!r x does1 or n1 x indicates ! way 9 :i* salt-b$s may be =m$4 ,v4 ,solidification ( ,aque\s ,deposits4 ,s$im5t is g5]ally deposit$ z a s(t mud1 b 9 ne>ly all ! old] =mations x has become solidifi$4 ,:5 rocks are deposit$ f a *emical solution1 !y take at once ! solid =m4 ,su* is ! case ) rock-salt & ) lime/one1 :5 ! mat]ial has be5 held 9 solution4 ,solidification takes place 9 ne>ly ! same way :5 wat] :i* holds c>bonate ( lime or oxide ( iron 9 solution filt]s ?r\gh b$s ( s& or gravel4 ,! sub/ance held 9 solution is deposit$ 9 ! int]/ices till !y become fill$1 & ! :ole is *ang$ to solid rock4 ,"s rocks are compos$ ( su* mat]ials t !y set1 l hydraulic cem5t1 :5 !y are deposit$4 ,o!r rocks become solid simply by dry+4 ,?us a deposit n[ =m+ 9 ,lake ,sup]ior becomes1 by dry+1 ne>ly z h>d z granite4 ,su* a deposit w !re=e become solid :5ev] x %all be elevat$ above ! wat]4 ,! pressure to :i* all b ! upp] lay]s are subject$ is probably suffici5t to r$uce mo/ rocks to ! solid /ate4 ,dry & pulv]iz$ clay is r$uc$ by artificial pressure1 = a mom5t1 almo/ to /one4 ,! pressure ^u ! deep-seat$ rocks is con/ant1 & great] ?an any artificial pressure c be4 ,9 addition to ^! causes1 all ! old] rocks h be5 subject$ to a high temp]ature1 "s ( !m ne>ly to t ( fusion4 ,by ?is means ! solidification ( e k9d ( rock w\ld be promot$1 & probably "s may h be5 r$uc$ by x to ! solid /ate1 :i* w\ld o!rwise h rema9$ z an incoh]5t mass4 ,,section ,v4--,,aqueo-,,glacial ,,action4 #a4 ,glaci]s4--,a glaci] is a mass ( ice occupy+ ! b$ ( a m\nta9 valley1 hav+ a sl[ progressive motion1 & rea*+ some:at l[] 9 ! valley ?an ! l9e ( con/ant sn[4 7,fig4 #gg47 ,! ,glaci] des ,bois1 :i* may be reg>d$ z a specim5 ( ! ,alp9e glaci]s1 cov]s an area ( ab\t sev5te5 squ>e miles4 ,9 its l[e/ portion1 :5 all its bran*es h become unit$ into "o /ream1 x has an av]age wid? ( half a mile1 & is five miles long4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps cov] an area ( f\rte5 hundr$ squ>e miles4 ,^! h be5 ! mo/ c>efully /udi$1 ?\gh glaci]s are f\nd 9 ! valleys ( v>i\s o!r ranges ( m\nta9s4 ,9 ! high] valleys1 ! sn[1 :i* falls at all seasons ( ! ye>1 accumulates 9 imm5se quantities1 & ! /eep m\nta9 sides contribute1 by frequ5t avalan*es1 to ?is accumulation4 ,! sn[1 :5 ?us increas$1 does n become a compact1 adhesive mass2 b1 *ang+ into p>ticles ( solid ice1 x resembles s& r ?an sn[4 ,x is ?is nv :i* con/itutes ! upp] "p ( e glaci]1 & :i*1 9 a modifi$ =m1 con/itutes ! l[] "p4 ,! valleys desc5d rapidly t[>ds ! base ( ! m\nta9s2 & ?is sn[-ice1 hav+ no cohesion betwe5 its p>ticles1 moves sl[ly d[n ! slope ( ! valley1 l a v imp]fect liquid4 ,aft] desc5d+ bel[ ! l9e ( p]petual sn[1 ! surface w melt dur+ ! day2 & ! wat]1 s9k+ into ! por\s mass1 becomes froz51 & conv]ts ! :ole into m or less compact ice1 yet nev] into a rigid mass4 ,influ5c$ by its own weight1 & by ! pressure ( ! sn[-ice beh9d1 x /ill cont9ues its motion1 & con=ms itself to ! %ape & curves ( ! valley ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,! av]age movem5t p] annum may be /at$ at ab\t five hundr$ feet4 ,! temp]ature ( ! rocky b$ ( ! valley w be a little1 & b a little1 high] ?an ?irty-two degrees4 ,!re w !re=e be b little melt+ at ! b$ ( ?is riv] ( ice4 ,z x receives cont9ual accessions f ! atmosph]e1 x w !re=e increase 9 volume till x desc5ds to ! level ( p]petual sn[4 ,bel[ ?is l9e ! wa/e exce$s ! addition2 & z x approa*es ! l[] & cultivat$ portions ( ! valley1 x rapidly dim9i%es1 till x f9ally loses ! solid =m1 & becomes a rivulet4 ,! t]m9us ( ! glaci] is det]m9$ pr9cipally by ! g5]al climate ( ! c\ntry4 ,any consid]able v>iation ( climate w cause x to rec$e1 or desc5d l[] d[n ! valley4 ,! t]m9us v>ies1 h[ev]1 some:at ) ! seasons1 be+ l[] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 ?\gh ! motion is mu* less 9 ! cold season ?an 9 ! w>m2 & x desc5ds _m rods fur!r "s seasons ?an x does o!rs4 ,! glaci] consi/s pr9cipally ( sn[1 m or less modifi$ 9 /ructure2 b x also conta9s :atev] else may h be5 ?r[n ^u its surface1 or into ! sn[s by :i* x is f$4 ,tribut>y glaci]s ext5d up ?r\gh all ! gorges into :i* ! irregul> surface ( ! m\nta9-top is divid$4 ,on ^! r\gh peaks !re are always fragm5ts ( rock1 v>y+ 9 size f f9e s& to masses weigh+ _m tons2 "s ( !m loos5$ :5 ! m\nta9 0 upheav$1 "s by subsequ5t e>?quake vibrations1 & o!rs /ill by tempe/s1 lightn+s1 & *anges ( temp]ature4 ,:5 ! sn[ has accumulat$ to a c]ta9 ext5t on ! /eep slopes1 x falls 9 avalan*es into ! valleys1 c>ry+ ) x loos5$ masses ( rock1 & (t5 break+ (f l>ge fragm5ts f ! rocky esc>pm5ts aga9/ :i* x /rikes4 ,^! avalan*es are almo/ con/antly desc5d+1 & h5ce a glaci] always conta9s consid]able e>?y matt] di/ribut$ ?r\gh x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,! friction ( ! glaci]1 at its edges & along its b$1 sep>ates m or less ( ! rock ov] :i* x moves2 & h5ce !re is always a lay] ( mud & pebbles "u ! glaci]1 & a l9e ( loose fragm5ts1 call$ a lat]al mora9e1 at ! sides4 ,:5 two glaci]s unite1 ! two lat]al mora9es1 ?us br\ght toge!r1 come to ! surface1 =m+ a m$ial mora9e1 & %[ ! l9e ( junction sometimes = miles4 ,! friction ( ! glaci] on ! b$ ( rock1 assi/$ by ! lay] ( pebbles1 w we> d[n ! prom95t portions1 & ev]y:]e poli% ! surface4 ,fragm5ts ( rocks may be froz5 into ! glaci] at all dep?s4 ,^? :i* lie ne> ! l[] surface ( ! glaci] w\ld1 by slight melt+ ( t surface1 project d[nw>d s z to act z a grav]'s tool on ! rock ov] :i* x passes4 ,h5ce1 :5 ! extremity ( ! glaci] has rec$$ beyond its ord9>y limit1 ! surface ( rock expos$ is f\nd1 ^u exam9ation1 to be poli%$1 /riat$1 & occasionally groov$ an in* or two deep4 ,s9ce ! wa/e is almo/ :olly sup]ficial1 e>?y matt]1 :i* 0 at fir/ conceal$ 9 ! mass ( ! glaci]1 is cont9ually com+ to view1 z ! surface melts & runs (f4 ,?us1 none ( ! freight ( ! glaci] is left along its c\rse1 b all is c>ri$ to its t]m9us & dis*>g$ !re4 ,h5ce1 at ! l[] extremity ( ! glaci] !re is always an embankm5t ( e>?1 pebbles1 & b\ld]s4 ,if ! glaci] rec$es a few y>ds at "o season ( ! ye>1 & leaves its e>?y fragm5ts scatt]$ ov] ?is surface1 !y w be pu%$ =w>d into a ridge1 z ! glaci] aga9 advances4 ,?is ridge is call$ a t]m9al mora9e1 & consi/s :olly ( sub/ances :i* h be5 sep>at$ f ! m\nta9 mass1 (t5 at ! highe/ beg9n+s ( ! glaci]4 ,at ! t]m9us ( all ! ,alp9e glaci]s1 !re is a s]ies ( ^! mora9es 7a a a1 ,fig4 #gg7 m>k+ ! successive limits ( ! glaci] 9 =m] times4 ,!re is a ridge ( b\ld]s on ! nor? side ( ! ,swiss valley1 ne> ! base ( ! ,jura ,m\nta9s1 resembl+ a t]m9al mora9e4 ,^! b\ld]s consi/ ( sev]al gr\ps1 di/+ui%$ by peculi>ities ( /ructure & composition2 & ea* gr\p lies opposite to ! p>ticul> ,alp9e valley :i* n[ furni%es ! same k9d ( fragm5ts4 ,x has be5 ?\ght t1 at a =m] p]iod ( m sev]e climate1 ! ,swiss valley 0 fill$ 9 "p ) ice1 & t ! pres5t glaci]s ext5d$ across x to ! ,jura ,m\nta9s4 ,x is f\nd t ! poli%$ & /riat$ surfaces ( ! rocks 9 ! ,alp9e valleys are precisely l ! surface ( ! rock1 :i* has n be5 expos$ to atmosph]ic influ5ces1 9 ! nor? ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,x has be5 propos$ to ext5d ! glaci] !ory1 & acc\nt = ^! ph5om5a by suppos+ t ! nor? pol> regions 71 at ! ice p]iod1 capp$ ) a glaci]-mass1 ext5d+ z f> s\? z ! drift ph5om5a appe>4 ,x is n to be d\bt$ t ! ph5om5a ( poli%$ surfaces & transport$ mat]ials 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! ,alps1 & ne> o!r high m\nta9s1 are correctly ref]r$ to glacial action4 ,?is !ory has !re=e solv$1 9 "p1 "o ( ! mo/ difficult problems 9 geology2 b !re is great difficulty 9 ext5d+ x s z to acc\nt = ! drift ph5om5a 9 g5]al4 ,if ! motion dep5ds ^u gravitation only1 ! orig9 mu/ h a mu* great] elevation ?an ! t]m9us1 :i* w\ld n be ! case 9 ! great glaci] suppos$ to ext5d s\?w>d f ! ,arctic regions4 ,elevation ( temp]ature1 x has be5 ?\ght1 might acc\nt = ! movem5t ( ! mass s\?w>d4 #b4 ,iceb]gs4--,9 v high latitudes1 ! ice1 :i* makes out f ! l& into ! sea dur+ ! cold season1 suff]s b little wa/e at any "t4 ,?is %eet ( ice cont9ues to increase 9 bread? & ?ickness1 by congelation1 f ye> to ye>4 ,! spray & ! sn[s ( ea* succe$+ ye> w also add to ! mass4 ,x ?us accumulates to ! height ( sev]al hundr$ y>ds4 ,x w also rea* d[n a good _m feet bel[ ! surface ( ! sea1 & w ext5d back on ! l&1 or lie heap$ up aga9/ a precipit\s esc>pm5t1 & firmly froz5 to x4 ,aft] a c]ta9 am\nt ( ext5sion ov] ! sea1 ! accumulat$ weight ( ! ice & sn[ w\ld t5d to depress x1 & break x loose f ! %ore4 ,! waves w\ld t5d to ! same result1 & w\ld act at great] me*anical advantage1 z its ext5sion f ! %ore becomes great]4 ,h5ce1 x w\ld ultimately become sep>at$ f ! %ore1 & float 9 ! wat]4 ,at its comm5cem5t1 ! e>?1 pebbles & rocks1 :i* may lie along ! %ore1 & z f> d[n into ! sea z ! congelation ext5ds1 are froz5 into x4 ,9 _m situations its mass w\ld be increas$ by avalan*es :ile x rema9$ atta*$ to ! l&1 & ^! w\ld supply also masses ( e>? & rocks1 z !y d to glaci]s4 ,:5 x becomes loos5$ f ! %ore1 x w break (f1 & c>ry ) x "s ( ! e>?y portions ( ! coa/1 or ! less firmly fix$ masses ( rock f ! esc>pm5t aga9/ :i* x =m$4 ,?us e iceb]g becomes freight$1 m or less1 ) e>? & rocks4 ,?is has almo/ uni=mly be5 f\nd to be ! case1 :5 !y h be5 l&$ ^u by %ips' crews & exam9$4 ,we h se5 t ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 & ( ! l[] /ratum ( ! atmosph]e1 is to a motion f ! poles t[>ds ! equator4 ,h[ev] irregul>1 !re=e1 ! c\rse ( an iceb]g may be1 its g5]al movem5t1 influ5c$ bo? by ! prevail+ w9ds & by ocean curr5ts1 w be t[>ds ! equator4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,^! float+ ice-m\nta9s 7,fig4 #gh7 are =m$ 9 great numb]s1 & ( va/ size4 ,! relative specific gravity ( ice & wat] are su* t n9e cubic feet ( ice1 bel[ ! surface ( wat]1 w support "o cubic foot above x4 ,z iceb]gs are (t5 "o or two hundr$ feet high1 _! v]tical dep? mu/ be a ?\s& feet at lea/2 & _! area is equal to a squ>e mile1 & sometimes x is mu* great]4 ,9 #ahdj1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 9 ! extreme s\!rn ocean1 coa/$ = eighty miles along a s+le iceb]g4 ,!y are nev] abs5t f ! pol> seas2 & at c]ta9 seasons !y are s abundant along ! usual c\rse ( vessels f ,new ,york to ,liv]pool1 z greatly to ob/ruct & endang] navigation4 ,an iceb]g may cont9ue = "s "t to increase 9 size1 :ile float+ 9 ! pol> seas1 b w at l5g? rea* a latitude :]e ! wa/e w exce$ ! additions1 9 consequ5ce ( ! temp]ature bo? ( ! air & ( ! wat]4 ,x w1 !re=e1 drop gradually ! e>?y matt]s :i* x conta9s1 ^u ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,x is n improbable t iceb]gs may (t5 rea* d[n s f> z to /rike ! highe/ po9ts ( ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,! ice w\ld be lift$1 & glide ov] ! elevation1 )\t suff]+ any p]ceptible deviation f its g5]al c\rse4 ,x w\ld ?us affect ! surface ( rocks exactly l a glaci]4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! iceb]g becomes p]man5tly /r&$1 & melts 9 "o place1 its e>?y matt]s w be ?r[n d[n ^u ! elevation :i* fir/ arre/$ x4 ,if ! b$ ( ! sea1 betwe5 ! =tie? & sixtie? degrees ( latitude1 c\ld be expos$ = exam9ation1 ! rocky surface w\ld be f\nd to be poli%$ & /riat$ by ! iceb]gs :i* h pass$ ov] x1 & ! :ole surface w\ld be /rew$ ) b\ld]s & drift$ mat]ials br\ght f ,arctic & ,ant>ctic l&s4 ,sometimes x w\ld be accumulat$ 9 heaps1 & sometimes spread ne>ly ov] ! surface4 ,we h se5 t v rec5tly1 probably ab\t ! close ( ! t]ti>y p]iod1 ! portion ( ,europe & ,am]ica ov] :i* ! nor!rn drift is f\nd1 has be5 depress$ sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,x may be presum$ t at t "t iceb]gs float$ ov] x1 poli%$ ! surface ( ! rocks1 & di/ribut$ ! b\ld]s & o!r drift :i* is n[ f\nd ^u x4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,igne\s ,,causes4 ,i4 ,( ! ,temp]ature ( ! ,mass ( ! ,e>?4--,heat has be5 ! mo/ effici5t ag5t 9 det]m9+ & modify+ ! /ructure ( ! e>?2 &1 9 ord] t ! explanations ( ! ph5om5a ref]able to ?is cause may be intelligible1 "s idea mu/ be =m$ ( ! actual pres5t condition ( ! mass ( ! e>? ) respect to heat4 ,at any po9t ( ! surface !re are v>iations ( temp]ature1 dep5d+ on ext]nal causes4 ,b ^! v>iations are f\nd to ext5d only a little way bel[ ! surface1--nev] m ?an a hundr$ feet4 ,at great] dep?s1 x is f\nd t ! temp]ature inv>iably increases ) ! dep?4 ,deep m9es h always a temp]ature above ! mean annual temp]ature at ! surface4 ,! wat] obta9$ by deep bor+ is always tepid :5 x comes to ! surface4 ,! !rmal spr+s1 s abundant 9 ?is c\ntry & 9 ,europe1 are s situat$ z to ju/ify ! impression t _! wat]s come f great dep?s4 ,to make ^! g5]al obs]vations ( any value1 we mu/ det]m9e ! law by :i* ! temp]ature increases4 ,! result ( all ! obs]vations yet made1 9 m9es & ^u wells & spr+s1 is t1 bel[ ! fir/ hundr$ feet1 ! temp]ature increases by "o degree ( ,fahr5heit's scale = e =ty-five feet4 ,reg>d+ ?is law ( increm5t z applicable to all dep?s1 at t5 miles bel[ ! surface we %\ld h a temp]ature above t produc$ by ! combu/ion ( wood2 & at tw5ty-five miles1 a temp]ature ( ?ree ?\s& degrees1 by :i* ne>ly all m9]al sub/ances w\ld be r$uc$ to a /ate ( fusion4 ,! g5]al conclusion ( a temp]ature suffici5t to melt ! m9]al sub/ances ( :i* rocks are compos$1 at no consid]able di/ance bel[ ! surface1 is confirm$ by ! fact t portions ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?--at lea/1 at ! volcanic c5tres--are 9 a melt$ /ate4 ,! intimate connection betwe5 "s volcanoes situat$ a hundr$ miles or m ap>t1 s t !y are alt]nately 9 a /ate ( activity & re/1 indicates t ^! c5tres are connect$1--t subt]ranean melt$ lava ext5ds f "o to ! o!r1 s t :5 "o is active1 ! ela/ic =ce is reliev$ at ! o!r4 ,^! deep-seat$ lakes ( lava mu/ !re=e und]lie l>ge areas4 ,we are ju/ifi$1 !n1 9 conclud+ t ! mass ( ! e>?1 ) ! exception ( a comp>atively ?9 sup]ficial lay]1 has a v high temp]ature4 ,by way ( acc\nt+ = ?is temp]ature1 x is n[ g5]ally assum$ t ! e>? 0 orig9ally 9 a /ate ( fusion2 t x 0 a mass ( liquid lava 7if1 inde$1 x _h n a temp]ature suffici5t to r$uce x to ! ari=m /ate74 ,/>t+ ) ?is assumption1 !re mu/ necess>ily be a gradual r$uction ( temp]ature by radiation1 & a "t mu/ arrive :5 ! surface w\ld be cru/$ ov] ) solidifi$ lava2 & ?is cru/ w\ld increase 9 ?ickness z ! cool+ advanc$1 ! int]ior /ill reta9+ its heat & liquidity4 ,! pres5t condition ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 its =m1 t ( an oblate sph]oid1 ) ! exact diff]5ce ( ! equatorial & pol> diamet]s :i* is f\nd to exi/1 z well z ! ph5om5a ( volcanic eruptions1 w all admit ( explanation on ?is hypo!sis4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 reject$ by "s2 &1 to acc\nt = ! heat ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 x is sugge/$ t1 if ! bases ( ! e>?s & alkalies1 p>ticul>ly potassium1 sodium & calcium1 exi/ 9 _! metallic /ate b5ea? ! surface1 ! rapid oxidation ( !m by ! access ( wat] w\ld g5]ate heat ( suffici5t int5sity to melt ! oxidiz$ mat]ials1 & ?us acc\nt = ! ph5om5a attributable to heat4 ,ei!r ( ^! hypo!ses may be adopt$2 b x is n necess>y to acc\nt at all = ! exi/5ce ( ?is temp]ature4 ,! fact is susceptible ( pro(2 &1 ?\gh we may n be able to frame any hypo!sis to acc\nt = its exi/5ce1 we may yet employ ! fact 9 ! explanation ( o!r ph5om5a4 ,,ii4 ,! ,action ( ,int]nal ,heat 9 produc+ ,volcanoes4 ,! ph5om5a ( volcanoes & e>?quakes are evid5tly produc$ by "s =ce op]at+ f bel[4 ,! effect ( heat alone w\ld be to r$uce ! rock to a liquid /ate4 ,!re is no reason to suppose t x is ev] suffici5t to r$uce !m to ! ari=m /ate4 ,! ela/ic =ce mu/ !re=e dep5d ^u "s o!r sub/ance associat$ ) ! lava1 & ?is sub/ance is wat]4 ,?is w be %[n by an exam9ation ( lavas4 ,at ! "t ( _! ejection1 !y are 9 a fluid or semi-fluid /ate2 b x is n a complete fusion4 ,ev5 ! mo/ fluid lavas conta9 p>ticles ( m9]als 9 a solid /ate4 ,! liquidity dep5ds ^u ! fusion ( ! m fusible portions1 & ^u ! /eam ( wat] at a high temp]ature1 :i* fills ! int]/ices betwe5 ! solid p>ticles4 ,! por\s "* ( cool$ lavas is produc$ by ! /eam :i* fill$ ! cavities previ\s to solidification4 ,/eam always escapes f ! surface ( a lava curr5t :ile x is cool+1 & x is always dis*>g$ 9 imm5se volumes f ! orifice ( eruption1 9 connection ) ! lava1 & especially at ! close ( an eruption4 ,! geographical position ( volcanoes1 also1 leads to ! conclusion t wat] is ess5tial to _! activity4 ,!re are five pr9cipal l9es ( volcanic activity4 ,"o1 comm5c+ at ! s\!rn extremity ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ext5ds nor?w>d along ! ,&es & ,cordill]as to ,cali=nia or ,oregon4 ,! second has a nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/ direction1 f ! ,aleutian ,isl&s ?r\gh ! ,kurule1 ,japanese1 & ,philipp9e isl&s1 till x meets ! ?ird l9e1 ly+ 9 a ne>ly ea/ & we/ direction1 embrac+ ,sumatra1 ,java1 & mo/ ( ! ,pacific volcanic isl&s4 ,a f\r? b& comm5ces 9 ! ,grecian isl&s1 & ext5ds we/w>d s z to include ! volcanoes ( ,italy & ! adjac5t isl&s1 & ! ,azores4 ,! fif? b& embraces ! volcanic isl&s ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 crosses ,mexico 9 ab\t ! latitude ( ! city ( ,mexico1 & ext5ds into ! ,pacific4 ,!re are also "s isolat$ c5tres ( volcanic activity1 su* z ,icel&4 ,^! volcanic b&s embrace ab\t ?ree hundr$ volcanoes4 ,x w be se5 t !y mu/ ne>ly all be 9 close proximity to ! ocean1 or to l>ge seas4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( !m are on isl&s4 ,moreov]1 ! volcanic v5ts :i* are :olly subm>9e are probably v num]\s4 ,?is circum/ance ( ! position ( volcanoes e/abli%es a presumption t !y _c exi/ at a di/ance f "s l>ge body ( wat]2 &1 tak+ x 9 connection ) ! con/ant pres5ce ( aque\s vapor 9 lava1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 ! conclusion t ! pres5ce ( wat] is an ess5tial condition ( volcanic activity4 ,kn[+ t heat & wat] exi/ at ! volcanic c5tres1 x is n difficult to =m an idea ( _! mode ( op]ation4 ,! wat]1 diffus$ ?r\gh ! int]/ices ( ! lava1 & subject$ to a temp]ature suffici5t to melt ! lava1 w\ld possess an ela/ic p[]1 :i*1 ?\gh nev] comput$1 we may well suppose capable ( ov]com+ any resi/ance :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? might pres5t4 ,! repress+ =ce w be ! t5acity & weight ( ! sup]9cumb5t /rata4 ,:5ev] ! ela/icity is sup]ior to ?is repress+ =ce1 x w manife/ itself 9 ! fracture ( ! /rata1 & (t5 9 ! ejection or lava to ! surface4 ,?is fractur+ ( ! /rata1 produc$ by an uplift+ subt]ranean =ce1 is believ$ to be ! cause ( ! noise & ! vibratory motion :i* are ! *ief ph5om5a ( e>?quakes4 ,! ela/ic =ce may raise lava to ! surface1 & ?us ! fracture w\ld become a volcano4 ,b ! =ce may exp5d itself by ! dis*>ge ( vapor into ! fissure1 or by m]ely fill+ x ) lava4 ,9 ei!r case1 ! only evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ! volcanic =ce w\ld be ! noise & ! wave-l motion exp]i5c$ at ! surface4 ,! cause ( ! volcano & e>?quake is !re=e ! same1 ?\gh ! ph5om5a :i* *>act]ize !m are diff]5t4 ,:5 ! /rata are is ?us fractur$1 lava may = a "t be dis*>g$ along ! :ole l9e4 ,by ! cool+ ( lava 9 ! fracture1 x w\ld become p>tially reunit$4 ,/ill1 ?is w\ld be ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,x w\ld !re=e be aga9 bur/ ?r\gh 9 c]ta9 places1 :i* w\ld long cont9ue to be orifices ( dis*>ge1 & ?us ! orig9al fracture w\ld det]m9e a l9e ( volcanic activity4 ,! repress+ =ce may become great] at an orifice ( eruption ?an at "s o!r po9t1 ei!r by ! great accumulation ( eject$ mat]ials ar\nd ! op5+1 or by ! dormancy ( ! volcano long en\gh = ! complete solidification ( ! lava ) :i* ! *annel 0 fill$4 ,! lea/ resi/ance may !n be f> f any previ\s v5t1 :5 a new orifice ( dis*>ge w be op5$1 & a new volcano make its appe>ance4 ,x seems probable1 also1 t volcanoes may become ext9ct by ! r$uction ( temp]ature at ! volcanic c5tre1 & t new volcanic c5tres may be =m$2 b ! cause ( ?is *ange ( temp]ature is n yet well und]/ood4 ,new volcanoes h brok5 out 9 ! sea1 ne> ,icel&1 9 sev]al in/ances2 o!rs 9 ! volcanic l9e ea/ ( ,asia4 ,graham ,isl&1 situat$ betwe5 ,sicily & ,africa1 0 =m$ by an eruption :i* broke out 9 ! b$ ( ! sea :]e ! s\nd+s 7 m ?an "o hundr$ fa?oms4 ,! isl& 0 at "o "t two hundr$ feet 'above ! sea1 & ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 gradually de/roy$ by ! action ( ! waves1 & n[ rema9s a dang]\s reef1 cov]$ by less ?an two fa?oms wat]4 ,! volcano ( ,jorullo1 9 ,mexico1 0 =m$ 9 ?is way4 ,previ\s to ! =mation ( ! m\nta91 ! region :]e x n[ is 0 a cultivat$ table-l&4 ,dur+ ! ye> #agei volcanic action comm5c$ & cont9u$1 until1 at ! expiration ( twelve mon?s1 a cone _h be5 =m$ hav+ an elevation ( sixte5 hundr$ feet above ! adjac5t pla94 ,an orifice ( eruption is at fir/ b little elevat$ above ! g5]al surface2 b1 by ! accumulation ( eject$ matt]1 a cone is at l5g? =m$ ar\nd ! v5t4 ,! upp] portion ( a cone always consi/s ( ^! mat]ials1 b !re may also be 9 progress a g5]al elevation ( t "p ( ! e>?'s cru/1 & ! cone w p>take ( t g5]al elevation4 ,! cones ( ! ,&es owe _! height1 9 a great measure1 to a g5]al movem5t ( elevation2 ^? ( tna & ,vesuvius1 9 a great] degree1 to accumulation ( eject$ matt]4 ,9 ei!r way1 ! height may become s great t ! =ce necess>y to raise a column ( lava to ! top w\ld be great] ?an ! sides ( ! cone1 weak5$ z !y always are by fractures 9 all directions1 c su/a94 ,h5ce1 ! highe/ crat]s ( tna & ,s\? ,am]ica h long be5 clos$1 & ! lava escapes ?r\gh fissures at a l[] level1 & lat]al cones are produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,! =m :i* ! mat]ials h1 :5 eject$ f volcanoes1 dep5ds ma9ly ^u ! degree ( liquidity ( ! lavas at ! volcanic foci4 ,if ! liquidity is v p]fect1 ! aque\s vapor w readily rise ?r\gh ! lava4 ,! /eam ?us sep>at$ w drive be=e x :atev] rocks1 or previ\s lavas1 may ob/ruct x4 ,9 _! progress !y w\ld be r$uc$ to s& & p[d]1 & eject$ z volcanic c9d]s4 7,fig4 #gi47 ,if ! lava possess consid]able viscidity1 ! aque\s vapor w sep>ate ) m difficulty1 & ! lava & vapor w asc5d ! *annel toge!r4 ,l>ge bubbles ( vapor w1 h[ev]1 collect ) m or less ( frequ5cy2 &1 z !y rise ?r\gh ! lava1 w drive =w>d a portion ( x1 & cause ! ov]fl[ to take place by pulsations4 ,z ! bubbles rea* ! surface1 _! bur/+ causes ! l\d reports1 :i* are comp>$ to ! dis*>ge ( heavy artill]y4 ,) ea* explosion "s ( ! lava w be project$ viol5tly into ! air1 &1 cool+1 w fall to ! surface z scori1--or1 if ! lava be highly vitre\s1 x w be drawn out into fibres1 & desc5d z volcanic glass4 ,,iii4 ,geological ,ph5om5a ref]able to ,volcanic ,action4 ,volcanic ag5cy has probably nev] be5 less ?an x is n[1 & we ought !re=e to f9d its effects v g5]al & important4 #a4 ,! mo/ obvi\s ( ^! effects are ! fractures ) :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? is ev]y:]e int]sect$4 ,! uplift+ =ce ^u :i* all volcanic ph5om5a dep5d w\ld necess>ily fracture ! cru/1 & ! wave-l motion result+ f ! fracture w\ld cause num]\s second>y fractures1 hav+ a p>allel direction4 ,!y are (t5 ( su* ext5t1 dur+ e>?quakes1 z to endang] life4 ,dur+ ! great e>?quake at ,lisbon1 9 #agee1 a fracture op5$ ( suffici5t wid? to swall[ up ! quay1 & sev]al ?\s&s ( p]sons :o _h fl$ !re = safety4 ,! *asm rema9$ p]man5tly op5 to ! dep? ( six hundr$ feet4 ,! e>?quakes ) :i* ! valley ( ! ,mississippi 0 visit$ 9 #ahaa s (t5 fissur$ ! surface1 t ! inhabitants protect$ !mselves by cl++ to ! trunks ( trees1 :i* !y fell$ transv]sely to ! direction ( ! fissures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,! fir/ fracture :i* is produc$ by ! upheav+ =ce w op5 upw>ds1 & sc>cely rea* d[n to ! seat ( ! =ce4 ,b !re w be o!r p>allel fractures1 dep5d5t ^u ! fir/1 & op5+ d[nw>d4 ,?us1 ! prim>y fracture at a 7,fig4 #hj7 w be at once foll[$ by ! fracture b1 op5+ t[>d ! lava1 :i* w be inject$ into x1 & :i*1 on cool+1 w =m a dike4 ,_! =mation is mo/ly conceal$ f obs]vation1 b n always4 ,dur+ ! eruption ( tna1 9 #affi1 num]\s fissures op5$1 "o ( :i* 0 six feet wide & twelve miles 9 l5g?2 & ! light emitt$ f x indicat$ t x 0 fill$ ) lava to ne> ! surface4 ,! process 0 z p]fectly se5 z f ! nature ( ! case x c\ld be4 #b4 ,! conv]sion ( ! l[] s$im5t>y /rata into metamorphic rocks has be5 effect$ by volcanic heat4 ,! mat]ial ( :i* dikes consi/ has be5 inject$ 9 a highly-heat$ /ate2 &1 by obs]v+ ! effect :i* !y h _h ^u ! adjac5t rocks1 we may judge ( ! effect :i* subt]ranean heat mu/ h ^u ! l[] me*anical /rata4 ,:]ev] ! dikes are ( consid]able ?ickness1 !y h conv]t$ ! adjac5t %ales into prim>y slate1 ! s&/ones into qu>tz rock1 & ! d>k & friable lime/ones into granul> m>ble1 & de/roy$ ! organic impressions4 ,9 ! s\!rn extremity ( ,norway !re is a di/rict 9 :i* granite protrudes 9 a l>ge mass ?r\gh fossilif]\s /rata4 ,^! /rata are inv>iably alt]$ to a di/ance ( f fifty to f\r hundr$ y>ds f ! granite4 ,! %ales h become fl9ty1 & resemble jasp]2 & ne> ! granite !y conta9 hornbl5de4 ,! silice\s matt] ( ! %ales has become qu>tz rock1 :i* sometimes conta9s hornbl5de & mica1 & !re=e con/itutes a k9d ( granite4 ,! lime/one1 :i* at po9ts remote f ! inject$ rock is an e>?y1 blue1 corall9e lime/one1 has become a :ite1 granul> m>ble1 ne> ! granite1 & ! corals are oblit]at$4 ,! alt]$ %ales & lime/ones 9 _m places conta9 g>nets1 ores ( iron1 lead1 c4 ,! annex$ 7,fig4 #ha7 is a plan ( ?is granite & alt]$ rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,"o ( ! mo/ in/ructive examples ( metamorphic action 9 ?is c\ntry is f\nd 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s ( ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,^! m\nta9s h1 till rec5tly1 be5 ?\ght to consi/ pr9cipally ( granite2 b x is n[ asc]ta9$ t ?is suppos$ granite is an alt]$ rock ( ! silurian p]iod4 ,x is repres5t$ z int]sect$ by ve9s ( felspa?ic granite2 & ! g5]al mass is itself 9 _m p>ts conv]t$ into a ne> approximation to a b9>y granite1 compos$ ( di/9ctly develop$ qu>tz & :ite felsp>1 ) a few sp>sely scatt]$ specks ( mica4 ,9 its wea!r$ surfaces x we>s a close resemblance to "s f9e-gra9$ granites2 b1 ^u inspect+ a fre% fracture ) a magnifi]1 we in/antly p]ceive _m r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tzose s&1 & ! felsp> is imp]fectly =m$1 ?\gh ! mica has m ne>ly rea*$ ! condition :i* x has 9 granite4 ,9 "s ( ! co>se v>ieties ( ?is :ite rock1 small r\nd$ pebbles ( qu>tz are to be se51 giv+ unequivocal evid5ce1 ev5 to ! nak$ eye1 ( its be+ an alt]$ s&/one4 ,we feel no hesitation 9 decid+ x to h be5 a silico-argillace\s :ite s&/one1 n[ almo/ granitiz$ by ext5sive metamorphic action4 ,simil> illu/rations1 on a small scale1 may be se5 9 e c\ntry :]e ! /rata h be5 cut ?r\gh by intrusive dikes4 ,sir ,james ,hall has %[n ! same by actual exp]im5t4 ,he expos$ pulv]iz$ *alk to heat suffici5t to melt x1 & "u suffici5t pressure to prev5t ! escape ( ! c>bonic acid4 ,aft] cool+1 ! *alk 0 f\nd to h tak5 ! =m ( cry/alliz$ lime/one4 ,b in/ances en\gh h be5 giv5 to %[ :at *anges %\ld be look$ = :]ev] ! s$im5t>y rocks h be5 expos$ to a high temp]ature4 ,! l[] /rata mu/ h be5 expos$1 = long p]iods ( "t1 to su* a temp]ature4 ,we d n "k at :at dep? bel[ ! surface ( ! e>? ! rocks become liquid2 b above ! l9e ( actual fusion !re mu/ be a mass ( rock n melt$1 yet sc>cely reta9+ ! solid =m4 ,= a great ?ickness1 p]haps = sev]al miles1 x w\ld be 9 a m or less yield+ /ate4 ,z !re is n actual fusion1 ! /ratification is n de/roy$1 b su* a degree ( mobility among ! p>ticles exi/s1 t "s degree ( cry/allization takes place1 & ! ela/ic =ces bel[ easily b5d1 ?r[ into folds1 compress1 & 9 e way contort ^! /rata4 ,at ! same "t1 any organic matt]s :i* !y may conta9 are decompos$1 & ! impressions ( !m are oblit]at$4 ,& su* is ! condition 9 :i* ! metamorphic /rata are actually f\nd4 #c4 ,d5udation is1 9 a great measure1 dep5d5t on volcanic action4 ,x results f ! bill[y motion peculi> to ! e>?quake4 ,?is is n simply a viol5t horizontal motion1 b an equally viol5t v]tical "o4 ,x is a s]ies ( waves1--a succession ( alt]nate elevations & depressions ( ! solid cru/4 ,! height ( ^! waves c only be judg$ ( by _! effects2 b x is difficult to acc\nt = "s ( ^! effects1 )\t suppos+ ! waves to h be5 sev]al y>ds 9 height1 & _! velocity1 9 ! few in/ances 9 :i* ! "t has be5 accurately det]m9$1 0 tw5ty miles a m9ute4 ,t su* e>?quake waves actually exi/ !re c be no d\bt4 ,dur+ ! e>?quake 9 ,calabria1 9 #aghc1 ! flag/ones 9 _m ( ! t[ns 7 lift$ f _! places & ?r[n d[n inv]t$1 & trees b5t s t _! tops t\*$ ! gr\nd4 ,dur+ ! great e>?quake 9 ,*ili1 9 #ahce1 ! walls ( h\ses1 :i* 7 p>allel to ! l9e ( oscillation1 7 ?r[n d[n1 :ile ^? t 7 at "r angles to x1 ?\gh greatly fractur$1 7 (t5 left /&+4 ,:]ev] c>eful obs]vations h be5 made1 dur+ & aft] sev]e e>?quakes1 analog\s facts h be5 notic$4 ,p]sons are g5]ally affect$ ) sea-sickness4 ,! sea is viol5tly agitat$4 ,x (t5 retires to an unusual di/ance1 & !n returns ^u ! %ore ) mo/ de/ructive waves4 ,incr$ible1 !re=e1 z x may seem1 t ! solid cru/ ( ! e>? %\ld be ?r[n into su* wave-l undulations1 ! fact is well e/abli%$4 ,) a velocity ( tw5ty miles an h\r1 ! successive waves may be "s miles ap>t1 & yet be suffici5t to acc\nt = all ! ph5om5a4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! curvature ( ! wave w be v slight1 & yet en\gh to break into fragm5ts all ! rocks ?us curv$4 ,dur+ ! e>?quake 9 ,*ili1 be=e ref]r$ to1 ! gr\nd 0 fissur$1 9 _m p>ts1 9 nor? & s\? l9es4 ,"s ( ! fissures ne> ! cliffs 7 a y>d wide4 ,_m enorm\s masses _h fall5 on ! bea*4 ,! effect ( ! vibrations on ! h>d prim>y slates 0 /ill m curi\s4 ,! sup]ficial p>ts ( "s n>r[ ridges 7 z completely %iv]$ z if !y _h be5 bla/$ by gunp[d]4 ,simil> ph5om5a seem ev]y:]e to be exhibit$ by e>?quakes4 ,x may be presum$ t almo/ all p>ts ( ! e>? h1 at diff]5t p]iods1 be5 subject to ^! e>?quake waves4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d t ! cru/ ( ! e>? is n[h]e 9 an entire /ate1 b is divid$ by irregul> l9es into comp>atively small fragm5ts4 ,by ?is means1 ! deep fissures produc$ by fractures op5+ upw>ds w\ld be fill$ ) fragm5ts ( rock %att]$ f ! uplift$ edges4 ,9 ?is way ! b\ld] masses 7 orig9ally loos5$ f _! p>5t b$s1 & expos$ to ! action ( ice1 or any o!r transport+ ag5cies4 ,9 ! same way ! rocky b$ ( ! ocean is1 to a consid]able dep?1 r$uc$ to a dis9tegrat$ mass4 ,9 ?is condition x w be rapidly remov$ by m>9e curr5ts1 m or less brok51 worn & comm9ut$1 by ! movem5t1 & deposit$ else:]e4 ,! mat]ials h ?us be5 furni%$ = a v l>ge proportion ( ! s$im5t>y rocks1 & especially ( ^? :i* are compos$ ( di/9ct fragm5ts ( o!r rocks4 ,by ?is means1 also1 :]ev] ! rock =mations come to ! surface1 !y are s brok5 t lime/one1 s&/one or granite1 suitable = ar*itectural purposes1 is seldom f\nd1 except at consid]able dep?s4 ,?is fragm5t>y condition ( ! surface rock is su* z exposes x to be act$ ^u readily by any p[]fully abrad+ causes1 or to be m rapidly dis9tegrat$ by atmosph]ic & aque\s causes4 #d4 ,we h already assum$ t "o pr9cipal division ( rocks--! un/ratifi$--is ( igne\s orig94 ,we h ! pro( ( actual obs]vation1 t lavas1 & ! accompany+ tufas & grits1 are volcanic products4 ,! peculi>ities ( ^! products1 9 situation1 /ructure1 & =m1 & 9 ! imb$d$ m9]als1 are s great1 t :5ev] we f9d ^! peculi>ities 9 ! rocks ( a c\ntry n n[ volcanic1 we /ill reg>d ^! rocks z ( volcanic orig94 ,we ?us h lavas1 z well z /ratifi$ rocks1 ( diff]5t ages4 ,!re has probably be5 no "t 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory :5 !y h n be5 =m+4 ,! trappean rocks are also ( igne\s orig94 ,x is evid5t1 f _! occurr+ 9 ! =m ( dikes1 t !y h be5 9 a melt$ /ate4 ,z !y re/ ^u rocks ( a s$im5t>y orig91 !y mu/ h be5 ?r[n up by volcanic =ces4 ,yet !y diff] f ord9>y lavas4 ,!y are n vesicul> 9 _! /ructure1 are m cry/all9e1 & !re is 9 no case evid5ce t !y h fl[$ f crat]s4 ,if we reg>d !m z ! lavas ( subm>9e volcanoes1 we %all h conditions :i* w acc\nt = all _! peculi>ities4 ,at a c]ta9 dep? ! pressure ( ! wat] w\ld be suffici5t to prev5t ! =mation & escape ( vapor1 & !re=e ! lavas ?us eject$ w\ld n be vesicul>4 ,z ! rapid cool+ ( lavas dep5ds1 9 a great degree1 ^u ! escape ( wat]y vapor1 subm>9e lavas w\ld cool sl[ly1 9 consequ5ce ( ! pressure4 ,! liquidity dep5d+ 9 "p ^u ! ret5tion ( ! heat1 & 9 "p ^u ! ret5tion ( ! aque\s vapor1 !y w\ld consequ5tly rema9 9 a liquid /ate mu* long] ?an ! lavas ( sub-arial volcanoes4 ,!y w\ld !re=e take a m highly cry/all9e =m4 ,all ! loose mat]ials ?r[n out dur+ ! eruption w\ld be remov$ by oceanic curr5ts1 & h5ce no cone w\ld be built up ar\nd ! orifice ( eruption4 ,we may !re=e reg>d ! trappean rocks z ! lavas ( subm>9e volcanoes4 ,! pres5t volcanoes ( ?is k9d are necess>ily produc+ ! same k9d ( rocks1 ?\gh !re w be no o!r pro( t !y exi/1 except ! exi/5ce ( ! volcano1 till ! b$ ( ! sea becomes dry l&4 ,! granitic rocks are also ! product ( igne\s causes4 ,granite is ! mo/ abundant ( ^! cry/all9e rocks2 & ! o!rs1 su* z cry/all9e lime/one1 are s intimately associat$ ) granite t !y mu/ h _h ! same orig94 ,granite is ev]y:]e f\nd to s5d (f dikes into ! ov]ly+ rocks1 & mu/ !re=e h be5 9 a /ate ( fusion2 t is1 x mu/ h exi/$ z lava b5ea? ! surface4 ,x is obvi\s t fluid lava always exi/s 9 great quantity b5ea? areas ( en]getic volcanic activity4 ,portions ( ?is lava mu/ 9 succession take ! solid =m4 ,:]ev] ! surface is elevat$ along a l9e ( fracture1 ! lava :i* is accumulat$ b5ea? rises above ! level ( ! g5]al res]voir ( lava1 & w !re=e "p ) its heat m rapidly4 ,on cool+1 x becomes ! granitic nucleus ( ! m\nta94 ,we ought also to suppose t1 by ! extremely sl[ process ( ! transmission ( heat to ! surface1 ! cru/ ( ! e>? is ev]y:]e increas+ 9 ?ickness2 t is1 ! upp] portion ( ! great lava mass is solidify+4 ,sir ,james ,hall has %[n1 by exp]im5t1 t e>?y sub/ances1 r$uc$ to a /ate ( fusion1 become m highly cry/all9e z !y are all[$ to cool m sl[ly1 & are subject$ to great] pressure4 ,x is difficult to conceive ( ^! conditions exi/+ 9 a high] degree ?an !y d 9 ! cool+ masses ( lava bel[ ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,^! lavas mu/ !re=e take ! highly cry/all9e =m :i* ! granitic rocks are f\nd to h4 ,all ! igne\s rocks h !re=e exi/$ z subt]ranean lavas4 ,! volcanic rocks h become vitre\s1 ! granitic are cry/all9e1 & ! trappean are int]m$iate 9 /ructure1 co9cid+ ) ! circum/ances ( pressure & rate ( cool+ "u :i* !y h sev]ally be5 =m$4 #e4 ,! ,elevation ( ,m\nta9s is ano!r result ( volcanic action4 ,! height ( m\nta9s dep5ds1 9 "p1 ^u g5]al elevation4 ,yet !re is a diff]5t action1 ^u :i* ! exi/5ce ( ! m\nta91 z su*1 dep5ds4 ,:5ev] igne\s action becomes int5se "u any portion ( ! e>?'s surface1 & ! ela/ic =ce great] ?an ! repressive1 ! solid cru/ w be brok5 & rais$ up1 & along ?is l9e ( fracture ! lava w rise above its g5]al level else:]e4 ,?is lava1 ?us lift$ out ( ! g5]al mass1 9 "t solidifies1 & =ms ! nucleus ( a m\nta94 ,at successive p]iods ! elevat+ =ce is r5ew$1 & adds some:at to ! m\nta9 mass be=e suppli$4 ,9 ?is way ! m\nta9 is ultimately =m$4 ,s f> z obs]vations h be5 made1 ! elevation ( m\nta9s seems n to be gradual1 b spasmodic2 & yet ! elevat+ =ce probably accumulates con/antly & uni=mly4 ,! repress+ =ce consi/s ( ! weight ( ! /rata above1 :i* may be reg>d$ z con/ant1 & _! /r5g?1 :i* is v>iable4 ,:5 ! elevat+ =ce becomes great] ?an bo? ! repress+ =ces1 ! cru/ is fractur$4 ,! /r5g? ( ! /rata !n becomes no?+1 & ! repress+ =ce is ! weight alone4 ,! ela/ic mass bel[ at once exp&s1 & ! requisite space is furni%$ by ! uplift+ ( ! /rata along ! l9e ( fracture4 ,z ! ridge ( lava :i* fills ?is additional space cools1 x recloses1 9 "p1 ! orig9al fracture1 & ! repress+ =ce aga9 consi/s ( ! two elem5ts1--weight & /r5g?4 ,!re w !re=e be no fur!r elevation till ! elevat+ =ce is aga9 sup]ior to ^! two =ces4 ,?us ! elevat+ =ce1 ?\gh x may accumulate at a uni=m rate1 w manife/ itself only at consid]able int]vals4 ,z ! accumulation ( lava along ! l9e ( fracture is ! cause ( ! upheaval1 e m\nta9 mu/ h a c5tral granitic axis4 ,sometimes ?is granitic mass is pu%$ up ?r\gh ! fissure1 z 9 ! case ( ,mont ,blanc4 ,at o!r times1 ! /ratifi$ rock1 :i* =m$ ! orig9al surface1 is c>ri$ up s z to =m ! surface rock ne>ly to ! top4 ,9 ei!r case1 ! /rata are lift$ along ! l9e ( fracture1 & left 9 an incl9$ position4 ,9 ?is position ! old] rocks are always f\nd1 :]ev] !re has be5 any consid]able am\nt ( igne\s di/urbance4 ,9 "s in/ances1 ! additional space requir$ by ! expansion ( ! igne\s mass bel[ is furni%$1 n by ! uplift+ ( ! /rata1 b by _! compression into folds betwe5 two l9es ( upheaval4 ,! igne\s rock is elevat$ b little above ! /ratifi$ ?r\gh :i* x _h bur/2 b ! /ratifi$ rocks h tak5 ! undulatory =m1 & ! wid5+ ( ! igne\s mass along ! l9es ( fracture has compress$ ! undulations1 until ! planes ( ! /rata h become v]tical4 ,fig4 #hb w give an idea ( ! successive *anges by :i* ! v]tical position ( ! /rata has be5 produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,! =ce by :i* m\nta9s are elevat$ be+ ! ela/icity ( ! vapor diffus$ ?r\gh ! subjac5t lava1 x may happ51 if ! lava h a high degree ( fluidity1 t ?is vapor w collect 9 l>ge masses1 & rise z f> z ! lava is 9 a fluid /ate4 ,! irregul> fl[ ( lava f crat]s dur+ an eruption is und\bt$ly due to ! rapid asc5t ( su* /eam bubbles ?r\gh ! lava4 ,su* an accumulation ( vapor "u a m\nta9 mass1 if x _c escape1 w\ld support x z long z ! temp]ature rema9$ un*ang$4 ,b1 ^u a r$uction ( temp]ature1 ! mass :i* _h be5 upheav$ by x w\ld be unsupport$1 & liable at any "t to s9k4 ,in/ances ( subsid5ce on a comp>atively small scale w admit ( explanation 9 ?is way4 ,pap&ayang1 "o ( ! l(tie/ volcanic m\nta9s ( ,java1 sunk d[n f\r ?\s& feet 9 ! ye> #aggb4 ,! area engulf$ 0 sixte5 miles long & six broad4 ,! crat] ( ,kilauea1 9 "o ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 0 evid5tly =m$ 9 ?is way4 ,x is situat$ on ! side ( a m\nta91 & consi/s ( a *asm eight miles 9 circumf]5ce & a ?\s& feet 9 dep?4 ,liquid lava c always be se5 boil+ 9 ! small crat]s at ! bottom2 & at times x rises s z to ov]fl[ !m1 & fill ! *asm to )9 f\r hundr$ feet ( ! top1 :5 lat]al subt]ranean passages are op5$1 by :i* x is dis*>g$4 ,! same explanation--a depression ( ! c5tral portion--may be giv5 ( ! =mation ( ! l>ge crat]s 9 ! ,can>y & ,grecian isl&s4 ,x is also probable t ,lake ,av]nus & o!rs1 9 ,italy1 & "s 9 ,g]many1 h _h a simil> orig94 ,! subsid5ce ( ,pap&ayang is ( importance z a hi/orical fact2 & x is n at all unreasonable to suppose t l>g] *asms ( great dep? 7 also sudd5 subsid5ces ( a simil> "*4 ,lake ,sup]ior has a dep? consid]ably great] ?an ! elevation ( its surface above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! bottom ( ! ,dead ,sea is two ?\s& six hundr$ feet bel[ ! surface ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,& at "o place 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean a s\nd+ 0 attempt$ ) m ?an six miles ( l9e1 )\t rea*+ bottom4 ,^! sunk5 areas1 h[ev]1 ?\gh ( great ext5t1 occupy only an insignificant portion ( ! entire surface ( ! e>?4 #f4 ,! ,elevation ( ,cont95ts4--,! causes ( *ange ( level :i* h be5 giv5 w n expla9 ^? sl[ v]tical movem5ts :i* are n[ tak+ place 9 ,gre5l& & ! nor? ( ,europe1 or ^? by :i* ! pres5t cont95ts h be5 elevat$ & ! b$ ( ! sea depress$4 ,any cause :i* w acc\nt = ^! movem5ts mu/ be "o op]at+ = long p]iods1 "u l>ge areas1 & ) great uni=mity4 ,! cause :i* fulfils all ^! conditions mo/ satisfactorily is a v>iation ( temp]ature 9 ! mass ( rock und]ly+ ! portion ( ! surface ^: level is *ang+4 ,x has be=e be5 %[n t ! temp]ature increases z we desc5d bel[ ! surface2 b !re is also reason to suppose t x und]goes great v>iations4 ,! volcanic grits int]/ratifi$ ) ! silurian rocks ( ,engl& %[ t at ! silurian p]iod volcanic fires 7 active bel[ t portion ( ! surface4 ,:5 ! e>ly fossilif]\s rocks ( ?is c\ntry 7 deposit$1 ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s _h n be5 elevat$2 b be=e ! t]ti>y p]iod !y _h tak5 ne>ly _! pres5t =m4 ,"s portion ( ! int]m$iate p]iod 0 !re=e "o ( volcanic upheaval4 ,! trappean rocks are also evid5ce ( int5se volcanic action exi/+ "h4 ,france1 dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod1 0 a highly volcanic c\ntry2 b all volcanic activity has n[ subsid$4 ,! ,&es h be5 mo/ly elevat$ s9ce ! t]ti>y p]iod1 & are /ill ris+4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t at diff]5t p]iods volcanic heat may v>y f its highe/ to its lea/ degree ( activity1 bel[ any portion ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,?is v>iation ( temp]ature mu/ be foll[$ by v>iation ( volume ( ! e>?'s cru/2 t is1 x mu/ produce expansion or contraction4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made1 "u ! direction ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t1 to det]m9e ! expansion ( ! sev]al k9ds ( rock us$ 9 our public works4 ,x 0 f\nd t granite exp&s ne>ly "o two hundr$ ?\s&? ( its l5g? = e degree ( increas$ temp]ature1 lime/one some:at m ?an t1 & s&/one ab\t twice z mu*4 ,tak+ ! expansion ( ! granite z ! basis ( calculation1 & suppos+ ! cru/ = a hundr$ miles 9 ?ickness to be und]go+ *ange ( temp]ature1 !re w\ld be a result+ diff]5ce ( level exce$+ two & a half feet = ea* degree ( *ange 9 temp]ature1 or m ?an two ?\s& five hundr$ feet = a *ange ( "o ?\s& degrees4 ,?is calculation is made ^u ! supposition t ! law ( expansion is ! same = all temp]atures1 & t no new conditions are introduc$ at high temp]atures by ! pres5ce ( aque\s p>ticles4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 t solids exp& m rapidly at high temp]atures ?an at l[1 & ! ela/icity ( aque\s vapor at high temp]atures mu/ increase ! rate ( expansion ( ! rock ?r\gh :i* x is diffus$4 ,al?\gh we are n able to introduce1 num]ically1 ! effect ( ^! two circum/ances1 yet x is obvi\s t !y mu/ be consid]able4 ,! mean elevation ( l& above ! level ( ! sea is ab\t n9e hundr$ feet1 ! m\nta9 masses above t level n be+ includ$2 & ! e/imat$ mean dep? ( ! ocean1 n includ+ its *asms1 does n exce$ two ?\s& six hundr$ feet4 ,! total elevation ( ! cont95tal masses1 = :i* x is necess>y to acc\nt1 does n !re=e exce$ ?ree ?\s& five hundr$ feet4 ,?is am\nt ( v]tical movem5t may evid5tly be produc$ by ! expansion & contraction result+ f *anges ( temp]ature4 ,^! *anges ( level mu/1 h[ev]1 be v gradual4 ,any dim9ution ( temp]ature mu/ result f ! transf] ( heat to ! surface2 & ! conduct+ p[] ( rocks is v imp]fect4 ,! lava 9 a crat] is (t5 s cool$ on ! surface t x c be walk$ on1 :ile b a few feet bel[ x is /ill liquid4 ,lava curr5ts cont9ue 9 gradual motion long aft] ! surface is ne>ly cold4 ,?is 0 ! case ) "o ( ! curr5ts f tna = m ?an n9e mon?s aft] its eruption1 & ) ano!r = t5 ye>s4 ,humboldt visit$ ,jorullo =ty ye>s aft] x 0 ?r[n up1 :5 ! lava ar\nd ! m\nta9 0 /ill 9 a heat$ /ate1 ! temp]ature 9 ! fissures be+ on ! decrease f ye> to ye>2 b tw5ty ye>s aft] its ejection ! heat 0 /ill suffici5t to light a cig> at ! dep? ( a few in*es4 ,if s long a p]iod is insuffici5t to solidify a comp>atively small quantity ( melt$ rock :5 ! circum/ances = cool+ are mo/ favorable1 we may well suppose t c5turies w\ld be requir$ to ab/ract suffici5t heat f ! e>?'s cru/ to produce any mat]ial *ange 9 ! areas ( cont95ts4 ,if ?is acc\nt ( ! elevation & subsid5ce ( cont95ts is correct1 x w\ld seem t !y ought to be con/antly und]go+ *ange ( level4 ,& _! app>5t /ability may be reg>d$ z an objection to x4 ,if 9 any place !re is absolutely no v]tical movem5t1 !n ^? conditions mu/ exi/ 9 :i*1 = ! "t be+1 !re is no *ange ( temp]ature4 ,b x is d\btful :e!r !re ev] is absolute /ability ( any portion ( ! surface = long p]iods ( "t4 ,( ! m9or v]tical movem5ts ( ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 !re c1 f ! nature ( ! case1 be no evid5ce :atev]4 ,*anges ( level1 :]e !y are kn[n to be tak+ place1 are s sl[1 t !y are h>dly p]ceptible 9 ! p]iod ( a human life4 ,su* *anges _h be5 go+ on = c5turies 9 ,sw$5 be=e !y 7 suspect$4 ,z accurate obs]vations h increas$ 9 numb]1 & hi/orical records become available1 x is becom+ kn[n t a v l>ge am\nt ( ! seabo>d is und]go+ *ange ( level4 ,x becomes probable1 !n1 t ^! extremely sl[ *anges ( level are con/antly & ev]y:]e tak+ place4 ,t portion ( ! cru/ ( ! e>? con/itut+ ! pres5t cont95ts1 be+ fur!r remov$ f ! c5tre1 w\ld "p ) its heat m rapidly1 & receive heat f ! c5tral mass m sl[ly1 ?an t portion :i* at pres5t con/itutes ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,! cont95ts are !re=e 9 a situation to und]go contraction & depression1 & ! b$ ( ! sea is mo/ favorably situat$ = ris+4 ,if ! di/ribution ( wat] ?r\gh ! mass has any influ5ce 9 promot+ its expansion1 !n ! b$ ( ! sea w\ld receive ?is supply mo/ abundantly1 & ! cont95ts ! lea/ s4 ,we see1 !n1 9 nature1 ^? provisions = an alt]ation ( level1 :i*1 f ! "* ( ! sev]al rock =mations1 we "k to h tak5 place4 ,:5 any portion ( ! e>?'s surface is cov]$ ) ! sea1 ! conditions exi/ :i* w at l5g? elevate x4 ,:5 x becomes dry l&1 ! conditions exi/ :i* w 9 "t depress x bel[ ! level ( ! ocean4 ,h5ce1 ^? impressions 9 reg>d to ! l&1 z /able beyond ! possibility ( *ange1 we ought to ab&on2 & ^? v]tical movem5ts1 :i*1 :5 prov$1 we are accu/om$ to reg>d z extraord9>y1 we %all1 at l5g?1 consid] z only p>ticul> in/ances ( "o ( ! mo/ g5]al laws ( nature4 #g4 ,v>iations ( ,climate4--,! only s\rces ( heat by :i* climate c be affect$ are ! sun & ! heat$ int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,if ! =m] melt$ condition ( ! entire mass ( ! e>? be assum$1 ! temp]ature ( ! surface mu/ h be5 increas$1 by conduction ( heat f )91 = long p]iods aft] ! sup]ficial /ratum _h become solid4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 susceptible ( pro(1 t ! pres5t climates are n s5sibly affect$ by int]ior heat1 ?\gh at a little m ?an a mile bel[ ! surface ! temp]ature is equal to t ( boil+ wat]4 ,at any "t1 !re=e1 aft] ! wat]s _h become cond5s$1 collect$ into oceans1 & become suffici5tly cool to support ! animal life ( :i* ! rema9s are n[ f\nd1 x is n probable t ! climate 01 to any consid]able ext5t1 influ5c$ by ! heat conduct$ f ! int]ior4 ,/ill1 !re h be5 great *anges ( climate s9ce ^? e>ly organic =ms exi/$2 &1 s9ce we h no gr\nd = suppos+ t ! temp]ature ( ! sun's rays has suff]$ any r$uction1 we h to inquire :e!r ! means ( reta9+ ! heat f ! sun c\ld at any "t h be5 diff]5t4 ,! relative position ( l& & wat] dep5ds1 z we h se51 ^u igne\s causes1 & has be5 v diff]5t at diff]5t times4 ,we %all f9d t climate mu/ h be5 greatly modifi$ by ^! *anges2 = ! l& radiates & absorbs heat freely1 & wat] possesses ?is p[] 9 a v l[ degree4 ,let u suppose ! zone compris$ betwe5 ! tropics to be occupi$ by l&1 & ! portions )\t ^! limits to be cov]$ ) wat]4 ,"u ^! conditions1 ! l&1 hav+ a ne>ly v]tical sun ! :ole "t1 w\ld accumulate heat to a degree sc>cely compatible ) ! exi/5ce ( animal life4 ,?is is suffici5tly prov$ by ! oppressive tropical climates ( ! pres5t "t1 influ5c$ z !y are by pol> l&s & contigu\s seas4 ,"u ! same conditions1 ! sea w\ld be heat$ by contact ) ! l&1 & ! heat w\ld be di/ribut$ by m>9e curr5ts to ! pol> regions4 ,b ! wat] ?us di/ribut$ w\ld n "p ) its heat1 because x has b little radiat+ p[]1 & n[h]e comes 9 contact ) pol> l&4 ,x foll[s1 !n1 t bo? l& & wat] w\ld be subject$ to a v high temp]ature4 ,b1 if we suppose ! l& conf9$ to ! pol> regions1 & ! sea to ! equatorial1 ! opposite results w\ld foll[4 ,! equatorial sea w\ld absorb b a small proportion ( ! sol> heat :i* w\ld be ?r[n ^u x4 ,! l& w\ld receive ! sun's rays too obliquely to receive mu* elevation ( temp]ature1 z ! pres5t pol> climates %[4 ,h5ce1 ! temp]ature ( ! e>? w\ld diff] b little f t ( ! planet>y spaces1 :i* is fifty-eight degrees bel[ z]o1 a temp]ature too l[ to all[ ( any consid]able developm5t ( organic life4 ,^! are ! conclusions to :i* we are l$ by consid]+ ! diff]5t p[]s ( l& & wat] to absorb & radiate heat1 & we %all f9d t ! exi/+ climates are 9 accordance ) ^! conclusions4 ,am]ica has a l[] temp]ature ?an ,europe 9 ! same latitudes4 ,x has also a small] proportion ( l& 9 ! equatorial regions1 & a great] proportion 9 ! nor? pol> regions4 ,! ea/]n cont95t is cold] 9 ,asia ?an 9 ,europe 9 ! same latitudes4 ,x has also less equatorial & m pol> l&4 ,! s\!rn is cold] ?an ! nor!rn hemisph]e at equal di/ances f ! equator4 ,!re is also less l& ne> ! equator on ! s\? side1 & probably z mu* l& ar\nd ! s\? z ! nor? pole4 ,h5ce1 we see t !re may h be5 su* a relation ( l& & wat] z to acc\nt = all ! v>iations ( temp]ature :i* are kn[n to h exi/$4 ,we _c say t su* actually has be5 ! case4 ,we c tell1 ) "s degree ( accuracy1 :at portions ( ! pres5t cont95ts 7 l& at ! sev]al geological p]iods2 b ?ree-f\r?s ( ! surface ( ! e>? is cov]$ ) wat]1 & ( ! condition ( ?is portion dur+ ^? p]iods we h no means ev5 ( conjectur+4 ,we c only say1 t1 by ! op]ation ( kn[n causes1 ! relative position ( l& & wat] may h be5 su* z to produce ! climates kn[n to h exi/$ at =m] p]iods ( ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,,index4 ,page ,a4 ,abundance ( vegetable products ( ! coal p]iod1 #ei ,accumulation ( vegetable matt]1 #aag ,act9olite1 #ae ,action ( int]nal heat1 #abh ,action ( waves1 #ajg 9 =m+ h>bors1 #ajh ,advantages ( geological *anges1 #ia tna1 #bf1 #gc ,agate1 #ad ,age ( rocks1 d\btful-- f *ange ( li?ological "*1 #fa f di/ance1 #fa f di/urbance1 #fa ,alt]nation ( co>se & f9e mat]ial1 #aae ,alum9ium1 #ab ,ame?y/1 #ad ,amygdaloidal /ructure1 #ag ,anci5t volcanic rocks1 #bi ,&es1 granite ve9s 91 #be ,angle ( incl9ation1 #ga ,anoplo!rium1 #ee ,anticl9al axis1 #ga ,aque\s causes1 #ajc ,aqueo-glacial action1 #abj ,argillace\s s*i/1 #bj1 #ca ,arrangem5t ( mat]ials 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 #ba ,artesian wells1 #ib ,asbe/os1 #ae ,atmosph]ic causes1 #ie ,atolls1 #ha ,augite1 #ae ,auv]gne1 volcanic di/rict (1 #bh ,b4 ,basalt1 #ah ,b$ ( ! sea-- sunk5 areas 9 !1 #adb :y elevat$1 #ade ,belemnites1 #eb ,breccia1 #ai ,br9e spr+s-- 9 ,silurian rocks1 #ce 9 ! c>bonif]\s =mation1 #dc 9 ! new r$ s&/one1 #dg ,c4 ,calamite1 #dg ,calcium1 #ac ,cambrian sy/em1 #cb ,c>bon1 #aa ,c>bonate ( lime1 #ae ,c>bonate ( magnesia1 #ai ,c>bonic acid a cause ( dis9tegration ( rocks1 #ie ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 #ci ess5tial to national weal?1 #dc ext5t (1 #dg a prospective arrangem5t1 #dc faults 91 #da n always di/urb$ by faults1 #db ,c>bonif]\s lime/one1 #ci sometimes becomes a coal-be>+ rock1 #db fossils ( !1 #dj ,c>nelian1 #ad ,cause ( int]nal heat1 #abh ,cause ( /ratification1 #aad ,cav]ns1 #fi ,cephalaspis1 #ci ,cephalopoda1 #cf 9 olite1 #ej ,*alc$ony1 #ad ,*alk1 #eb ,*anges ( climate1 #hh h[ produc$1 #adf ,*anges 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 #fg ( temp]ature a dis9tegrat+ ag5t1 #if at ! surface1 #he ,*emical action1 #ig 9 solids1 #ii 9 cry/allization1 #ig ,*lor9e1 #ab ,*lorite1 #ae ,*lorite slate1 #cb ,classification ( rocks1 #ba ,clay1 #ai ,clay slate1 #bj ,cleavage /ructure1 #fh1 #ih ,coal1 #af v>ieties (1 #db mode ( qu>ry+1 #db orig9 (1 #aaf conv]sion ( vegetable matt] into1 #aag n[ =m+1 #aah ,coal measures1 #aca fossils ( !1 #dd ,coal plants1 tropical "* (1 #hh ,coal & iron associat$1 #dc ,cl\d$ m>ble1 #cc ,column> /ructure1 #ah1 #ii ,compact lime/one1 #ai ,concretion>y =mations1 #ii ,conglom]ate1 #ai ( old r$ s&/one1 #ch ,connecticut valley-- "o ( d5udation1 #hg trap (1 #cj ,cont95ts-- mean elevation (1 #add total elevation (1 #add elevat$ gradually1 #add :y depress$1 #ade ,contort$ /rata1 #gb ,coral =mation1 #ha1 #ajb ext5t (1 #ajb ,coral reefs-- fr++1 #ha b>ri]1 #ha ,coral rag1 #di ,corals 9 silurian rocks1 #ce ,copp] m9es ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 #dg ,creation1 a progressive "w1 #fb ,cretace\s =mation1 #eb ,cretace\s =mation1 fossils (1 #eb geographical range (1 #ec ,cr9oidea 9 ,silurian rocks1 #cf ,cru/ ( ! e>?1 #af expansion & contraction (1 #adc ,d4 ,delta deposits1 #aad ,d5udation ( igne\s rocks1 #he ,d5udation ( s$im5t>y rocks1 #he ,d5udation produc$ by e>?quake waves1 #acf ,deposition ( s$im5t1 #aac ,diluvium1 #bj ,dike1 #fi1 #acc ,divisional planes1 #fh1 #ih ,dolomite1 #ac1 #ai ,drift1 #bj ext5t (1 #ec connect$ ) /riat$ surface ( ! rocks1 #ed connect$ ) subsid5ce1 #ed1 #abf ,e4 ,e>? 9 a /ate ( *ange1 #ig ,e>?quakes1 #acj wave-l motion (1 #acf ,e>?quake waves1 rocks %iv]$ by1 #acg ,effect ( atmosph]ic ag5cies1 #ie ,electrical dis*>ges1 effect (1 #if ,elem5t>y sub/ances1 #aa ,elevation & subsid5ce1 #gc ,elevation & subsid5ce sev]al times repeat$1 #hb ,elevation ( m\nta9s1 #gc cause (1 #aci spasmodic1 #adj gradual1 #ge ,elevation ( diff]5t m\nta9s at diff]5t times1 #ge ,elevation ( cont95ts1 #gf cause (1 #adb ,elevation ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #gf ,elevation ( ! coa/ ( ,ma9e1 #gf ,elevation ( ,europe1 #gg ,elevation ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 #gh ,encr9ites1 #cf1 #ej ,f4 ,fault1 #da1 #fi ,felsp>1 #ad ,fill+ up ( lakes1 #gf ,f+al's cave1 #cj ,fissile /ructure1 orig9 (1 #fh ,fl9t1 #ad 9 *alk1 #eb1 #ii ,fluor9e1 #ab ,fold$ axes1 #fa1 #gb ,=mation ( soils1 #hg ,fossils-- def9ition (1 #eg h[ pres]v$1 #eg m9]alization (1 #eh use (1 #fj ord] 9 :i* animals appe>$1 %[n by1 #eh animal & vegetable1 creat$ toge!r1 #ei z a record ( climate1 #hh1 #aja ,fossilif]\s rocks1 #cb classification (1 #cb ,fractures1 #db1 #fh1 #acj op5+ d[nw>d1 #acc ,g4 ,g>net1 #af ,geological causes1 h[ f> uni=m1 #id ,geological causes1 sl[ op]ation (1 #ie ,geological inve/igations aid$ by displacem5t ( /rata1 #ib ,geological p]iods1 prolong$1 #fc %[n by am\nt ( /rata1 #fc %[n by duration ( species1 #fd %[n by am\nt ( organic matt]1 #fd %[n by microscopic accumulations1 #fe ,geology & ,revelation1 #fe ,giant's ,causeway1 #cj ,glacial p]iod1 #ij ,glacial !ory1 #abd ,glaci]s-- h[ =m$1 #abj cause ( motion1 #aba :5 !y decrease1 #abb e>?y matt] on !m1 #abb lat]al mora9es1 #abc surfaces groov$ by1 #abc t]m9al mora9es1 #abc ,gneiss1 #ah1 #cj ,gorge1 #fi ,graham ,isl&1 #aca ,granite1 #af v>ieties (1 #af ?ickness (1 #bc /ructure (1 #bc =mation (1 #fg igne\s orig9 (1 #ach ,granite ve9s1 #bd 9 granite1 #bd ,granite ( diff]5t ages1 #be ,granitic axes ( m\nta9s1 #bd1 #adj ,gre5s&1 #ai1 #eb ,gre5/one1 #ah1 #cj ,groov$ surfaces ( rock1 #ed1 #hg1 #abf ,gypsum1 #ae 9 new r$ s&/one1 #dg b$s1 h[ produc$1 #ii ,h4 ,hall1 ,sir ,james1 exp]im5ts1 #ace1 #aci ,het]oc]cal tails ( fi%es1 #dh ,homoc]cal tails1 #dh ,hornbl5de1 #ad ,hornbl5de slate1 #bj1 #cb ,hydrog51 #aa ,hyp]/h5e1 #ae ,hyp]/h5e rock1 #ag1 #be ,i4 ,iceb]gs-- h[ =m$1 #abd e>?y mat]ials 91 #abe motion (1 #abe size & numb] (1 #abe effect 9 di/ribut+ drift1 #abf groov+ ! surface1 #abf ,icel& sp>1 #ai ,icel&1 volcanic eruption 91 #bf ,i*?yosaurus1 #ej ,igne\s causes1 #abg ,iguanodon1 #ea ,incl9$ position ( /rata produc$ by upheaval1 #gj1 #adj ,increase ( temp]ature bel[ ! surface1 #abg ,iron1 #ab ,j4 ,jasp]1 #ad ,jorullo1 #aca ,k4 ,kilauea1 #bf1 #adb ,l4 ,lakes1 fill+ up (1 #gf1 #aac ,lava1 #ag1 #be1 #acg v>ieties (1 #be t]ti>y1 #bg ela/ic vapors conta9$ 91 #acj1 #acb great quantity ( mod]n1 #bf ,lead-be>+ /rata1 #ce1 #dj ,lepidod5dron1 #df ,lias1 #ai1 #di ,lime/one1 #ae1 #ai z a prim>y rock1 #be metallif]\s1 #dj ,local *anges ( climate1 #ij ,m4 ,magnesian lime/one1 #ai1 #dg ,magnesium1 #ac ,mammo?1 #ef ,man-- rec5tly creat$1 #ei z an ag5t 9 produc+ geological *anges1 #aja impressions ( ! feet (1 #ei skeleton ( f ,guadal\pe1 #ei ,manganese1 #ab ,m>9e curr5ts1 #ajh ,m>9e curr5ts1 cause (1 #aji abrad+ p[] (1 #aaa ,m>l1 #ai ,ma/odon1 #ee ,mega!rium1 #ee ,metamorphic *anges1 #fg ,metamorphic rocks1 #cj am\nt (1 #fg orig9 (1 #acd ord] ( sup]position1 #ca upp] limit v>iable1 #ac localities (1 #cb ,metallic ores1 #ib ,mica1 #ad slate1 #ah1 #ca ,mill/one grit1 #dj fossils (1 #da becomes coal measures1 #db ,m9]al-- def9ition (1 #ac ,m9]al ve9s1 #fi =mation (1 #ajj ,mod]n =mation1 #eg :y b little kn[n1 #eg fossils1 #eg ,moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e a dis9tegrat+ ag5t1 #if ,monte ,nuovo1 #bf ,m\nt ,loa1 eruption (1 #bf ,n4 ,neocomian sy/em1 #eb ,new r$ s&/one1 #dg fossils (1 #dh ores (1 #dg geographical range (1 #di ,niag>a ,falls1 h[ pres]v$1 #ajf ,nitrog51 #aa ,nummulite rock1 #ed ,o4 ,oceanic m\nta9s1 #ge ,ocean level1 ne>ly p]man5t1 #gd ,old r$ s&/one1 #ch fossils (1 #ci ext5t (1 #ci ,olite1 #ai ,olitic /ructure1 #di ,olite sy/em1 #di calc>e\s1 #di fossils (1 #ej localities (1 #ea ,opal1 #ad ,organic causes1 #aja ,or?oc]as1 #cf1 #dj ,outcrop1 #ga ,oxide ( iron1 #af ,oxyg51 #aa ,p4 ,paleo!rium1 #ee ,pap&ayang1 #ie1 #adb ,p]mian sy/em1 #dg ,plesiosaurus1 #ea ,porphyritic /ructure1 #ag ,potassium1 #ab ,prim>y lime/one1 #ai ,pt]odactyle1 #ea ,pumice-/one1 #ag ,pyrox5e1 #ae ,q4 ,qu>tz1 #ad rock1 #cb ,r4 ,ra9drops1 impressions (1 #dh ,rais$ bea*es1 #gf ,rav9e1 #fi ,rec5t elevation 9 ,europe1 #gi ,rec5t =mation1 #eg ,ripple m>ks1 #dh ,riv]s-- b$s (1 rais$1 #aac cont9u$ into ! sea1 #aab abrad+ action (1 #aje abrad+ action ( promot$ by =eign sub/ances1 #ajf ,rock cry/al1 #ad ,rock salt1 #af1 #aah ,rocks1 d5n$1 #af ,rose qu>tz1 #ad ,s4 ,sac*>9e lime/one1 #ai1 #cb ,salif]\s sy/em1 #dg ,sal9e prop]ties ( ! ocean1 h[ obta9$1 #ajd ,salt b$s-- :]e f\nd1 #aah h[ =m$1 #aai ,s&/one1 #ai ,s*orl1 #af ,scori1 #ag1 #acc ,s$im5t-- am\nt ( 9 riv]s1 #ajg deposition (1 #aac sort$ by riv]s1 #aab ,sel5ite1 #af ,s]p5t9e1 #ae a prim>y rock1 #be ,%ale1 #bj ,sib]ia1 rema9s ( elephants 91 #hi ,sigill>ia1 #de ,silicium1 #ab ,s9k+ ( :>ves1 t[ns1 c41 #gi ,silurian sy/em1 #cd tabul> arrangem5t (1 #cd divisions (1 #ce fossils (1 #cf geographical range1 #ch ,slaty /ructure-- 9 ! gold wa%+s ( ,*ili1 #ih produc$ by electric curr5ts1 #ih ,slope ( m\nta9s1 #gc ,soap/one1 #ae ,sodium1 #ac ,solidification ( rocks1 #fh1 #aai ,soluble mat]ials ( rocks1 #ajc ,solution ( m9]al sub/ances-- promot$ by heat1 #ajd promot$ by an alkali1 #ajd promot$ by c>bonic acid1 #aje ,s\rces ( ! s$im5t>y mat]ials1 #ajc ,s\rces ( ! s$im5t ( riv]s1 #ig ,species-- disappe>ance (1 #fb causes ( ! disappe>ance (1 #fb ,spr+s1 #ib ,/ability ( cont95ts only app>5t1 #ade ,/atu>y m>ble1 #ai ,/igm>ia1 #dd ,/rata-- horizontal1 #gj1 #aae p]meable & imp]meable1 #ib irregul>1 h[ produc$1 #aae ,/riat$ surfaces1 #hg ,subm]g$ =e/s1 #gi ,subsid5ce ( l&1 #gi1 #ade ,subsid5ce ( l& 9 ,gre5l&1 #hb ,subsid5ce & elevation 9 ! ,pacific1 #hj ,sulphate ( lime1 #ae ,sulphur1 #ab ,sun-cracks1 #dh ,sunk5 areas1 #adb ,sy5ite1 #ag ,syncl9al axes1 #gb ,t4 ,taconic sy/em1 #cb ,talc1 #ae ,talcose slate1 #bj1 #cb ,temp]ature at great dep?s1 #abg ,temple ( ,jupit] ,s]apis1 #hc ,t]ti>y sy/em1 #ec age1 h[ det]m9$1 #ec fossils1 #ed divisions (1 #ec geographical range1 #ef ,tile/ones ( ! old r$ s&/one1 #ch ,tra*yte1 #ah ,tracks 9 new r$ s&/one1 #di ,transportation ( s$im5t1 #aaa ,trappean rocks1 #ag localities (1 #bi ,tremolite1 #ae ,trias1 #dg ,trilobite1 #cg1 #dj ,v4 ,valley1 #fi ( elevation1 #ga1 #ge ( subsid5ce1 #gb ,valley ( d5udation1 #hg ,ve9 ( segregation1 #fi ,v]d-antique m>ble1 #ae ,volcanic rocks1 #ag1 #be ( diff]5t ages1 #bf 9 :at /ates eject$1 #be ,volcanic m\nta9s1 dim5sions1 #bf ,volcanic activity-- regions (1 #abi wat] ess5tial to1 #acj ,volcanic cones-- =mation (1 #aca lat]al1 #acb ,volcanic c9d]s1 scori1 glass1 #acb ,volcanic action1 effects (1 #acc ,volcanic orig9-- ( trappean rocks1 #ach ( granitic rocks1 #ach ,volcanoes-- numb]1 #bf l9e> arrangem5t (1 #aca ne> ! sea1 #abi new1 #aca ( ! t]ti>y p]iod1 long active1 #bh ,w4 ,watt on fusion ( basalt1 #ajj ,waves1 action (1 #ajg ,weald51 #di ,w9d a geological ag5t1 #if ,z4 ,ze*/e91 #dg ,,que/ions ,,to ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,geology ,,que/ions4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,section ,i4 ,h[ _m elem5t>y sub/ances are kn[n8 ,9 :at comb9ations is oxyg5 f\nd8 ,:at proportion ( ! e>?'s cru/ consi/s ( x8 ,9 :at comb9ations does hydrog5 occur8 ,nitrog58 ,c>bon8 ,sulphur8 ,*lor9e8 ,fluor9e8 ,iron8 ,manganese8 ,h[ does silicium occur8 ,alum9ium8 ,potassium8 ,sodium8 ,calcium8 ,magnesium8 ,h[ are ^! elem5t>y sub/ances classifi$8 7,silicium1 or silicon1 has b a d\btful claim to be reg>d$ z metallic47 ,,section ,,ii4 ,:at is a simple m9]al8 ,h[ _m are kn[n8 ,:at are ! physical prop]ties ( qu>tz8 ,h[ are ! sev]al v>ieties di/+ui%$8 ,:at are ! physical prop]ties ( felsp>8 ,mica8 ,hornbl5de8 ,h[ are its v>ieties di/+ui%$8 ,augite8 ,hyp]/h5e8 ,talc8 ,h[ are its v>ieties di/+ui%$8 ,s]p5t9e8 ,c>bonate ( lime8 ,gypsum8 ,its v>ieties8 ,:at o!r m9]als are m5tion$8 ,,section ,,iii4 ,def9e ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,rocks4 ,:at are ! un/ratifi$ rocks8 ,:at is ! /ructure ( granite8 ,h[ are ! v>ieties di/+ui%$8 ,:at is ! porphyritic /ructure8 ,describe hyp]/h5e rock4 ,:at are volcanic rocks8 ,lava8 ,scori8 ,pumice-/one8 ,h[ is ! vesicul> /ructure produc$8 ,:at are volcanic breccias8 ,volcanic grits8 ,:at is ! composition ( ! trappean rocks8 ,:at is ! amygdaloidal /ructure8 ,:at are ! ?ree v>ieties ( trappean rocks1 & h[ are !y di/+ui%$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,"n ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,describe gneiss4 ,mica slate4 ,s&/one4 ,conglom]ate4 ,gre5s&4 ,describe ! v>ieties ( lime/one4 ,:at is dolomite8 ,( :at does clay consi/8 ,clay slate8 ,:at modifications does clay slate pres5t8 ,:at is diluvium8 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,section ,i4 ,:at is ! prim>y division ( rocks8 ,^u :at pr9ciple are ! un/ratifi$ rocks divid$8 ,^u :at pr9ciple are ! /ratifi$ rocks divid$8 ,:y are ! non-fossilif]\s call$ metamorphic rocks8 ,"n ! f\r classes ( rocks4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,:at is ! mo/ abundant plutonic rock8 ,h[ is its ?ickness asc]ta9$8 ,:at is its am\nt8 ,:]e is x f\nd8 ,:at is its ord9>y /ructure8 ,:at peculi>ity ( /ructure facilitates ! cleavage ( granite8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,! granitic masses are g5]ally deep bel[ ! surface2 9 :at o!r position does granite appe>8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,9 :at classes ( rocks are granite ve9s f\nd8 ,7 !y all produc$ at ! same "t8 ,h[ is ?is demon/rat$8 ,:at is ! relative position ( ! old] & new] granites8 ,:at o!r plutonic rocks occur 9 consid]able quantities8 ,,section ,,iii4 ,( :at d volcanic rocks consi/8 ,9 :at /ates are !y eject$8 ,:at are ! pr9cipal v>ieties ( lava1 & h[ are !y di/+ui%$8 ,:y is ! basaltic lava ! la/ to be eject$8 ,h[ is ! age ( ! volcanic rocks det]m9$8 ,:at are ! ?ree divisions ( ! volcanic rocks1 z dep5d5t ^u age8 ,:at is ! proportion ( ! volcanic to o!r rocks8 ,h[ _m active volcanoes exi/8 ,describe ! eruptions ( ,kilauea4 ,describe ! eruption 9 ,icel& 9 #aghc4 ,:at are ! dim5sions ( ,m\nt tna1 & h[ has x be5 produc$8 ,h[ are ! t]ti>y lavas kn[n to be su*8 ,:]e h !y be5 mo/ /udi$8 ,:at is ! evid5ce t ^! rocks 9 ,france are volcanic8 ,h ^! lavas be5 produc$ )9 ! hi/oric p]iod8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,7 !y produc$ at an e>ly p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory8 ,give ! evid5ce t _! activity 0 long-cont9u$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,:at is ! =m ( ! e>li] volcanic rocks8 ,:at circum/ances di/+ui% ! trappean f o!r volcanic rocks8 ,:at are "s ( ! prom95t localities ( ! trappean rocks8 ,h[ d !y occur 9 ! isl&s we/ ( ,scotl&8 ,h[ 9 ! valley ( ! ,connecticut riv]8 ,,section ,,iv4 ,:at is ! l[e/ metamorphic rock8 ,describe x4 ,h[ does mica slate diff] f gneiss8 ,is x well di/+ui%$ f argillace\s slate8 ,:at is ! ?ird rock 9 ! metamorphic s]ies8 ,:y is x difficult to det]m9e ! upp] limit ( ?is s]ies8 ,:y d ! pr9cipal rocks ( ?is s]ies occur 9 ! ord] "h giv58 ,:at o!r rocks may take ! place ( ^! pr9cipal rocks8 ,:]e d ! metamorphic rocks occur8 ,:at is _! ?ickness & am\nt8 ,,section ,v4 ,h[ _m sy/ems ( fossilif]\s rocks are !re1 & :at are !y8 ,:at o!r sy/em is provisionally introduc$8 ,:at is its position8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,describe x4 ,:at mat]ials ( value are obta9$ f ?is sy/em8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,:at fossils does x conta98 ,9 :at localities is x f\nd8 ,:at explanation1 9 ref]5ce to ^! rocks1 is giv5 by ^? :o d5y t !y con/itute a di/9ct sy/em8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,9 :at respects does ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york pres5t ! be/ facilities = /udy+ ! ,silurian sy/em8 ,describe ! ,*ampla9 division4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! ,ont>io division4 ,! ,held]b]g division4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,describe ! ,erie division4 ,:at are ! fossils ( ?is sy/em8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,describe ! ,cr9oidea4 ,! ,cephalopoda1 & ! two =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,! ,trilobite4 ,:at high] =ms ( animal life exi/$ dur+ ! silurian p]iod8 ,! geographical range ( ! sy/em8 ,( :at does ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one consi/8 ,describe its ?ree divisions4 ,:at are its fossils8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,describe ! fi%es ( t p]iod4 ,:at 0 ! peculi>ity ( ! ,pt]i*?ys8 ,( ! ,cephalaspis8 ,:]e are ! rocks ( ?is sy/em f\nd8 ,h[ is ! c>bonif]\s sy/em divid$8 ,describe ! c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,:at ores are f\nd 9 x8 ,describe1 its fossils4 ,describe ! mill/one grit4 ,( :at d ! coal measures consi/8 ,h[ does ! iron/one occur8 ,describe ! coal b$s4 ,h[ is ! cont9uity ( ! /rata int]rupt$8 ,:at v>iations f ?is g5]al type occur 9 ! =mation8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,describe ! sev]al v>ieties ( coal4 ,h[ is ! coal qu>ri$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,:at m9]al spr+s occur 9 ?is =mation8 ,to :at uses is coal appli$8 7,! coal 0 deposit$ ?\s&s ( ye>s ago1 & has s]v$ no useful purpose1 t we "k (1 till v rec5tly4 ,its =mation 0 plann$ & complet$ to meet a want :i* 0 n to be felt till ! lapse ( _m ages4 ,x is a notable in/ance ( ! wisdom & =e?\ght1 z well z ( ! b5evol5ce1 ( ,god47 ,9 :at does ?is prospective arrangem5t consi/8 ,:at are ! "* & position ( ! fossils ( ! coal measures8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,:at are ! f\r mo/ abundant =ms8 ,describe ! ,/igm>ia4 ,! ,sigill>ia4 ,! ,lepidod5dron4 ,! ,calamite4 ,:]e are ! b$s ( coal f\nd8 ,:at is ! f\r? =mation ( rocks8 ,into :at two portions is x divid$8 ,( :at does ! ,p]mian portion consi/8 ,! ,trias8 ,:at m9]als are f\nd 9 ?is =mation8 ,:at spr+s8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,:at fossils8 ,h[ are ! fi%es ( ! e>li] & lat] portions di/+ui%$8 ,:at peculi>ity ( ! r$ s&/ones is m5tion$8 ,by :at k9ds ( animals 7 ! tracks1 :i* !y conta91 made8 ,give localities ( ! new r$ s&/one4 ,:at are ! ?ree divisions ( ! ,olitic sy/em8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,describe ! ,lias4 ,! ,olite4 ,! ,weald54 ,:at are ! g5]al peculi>ities ( ! sy/em8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,:at are ! fossil animals ( ! sy/em8 ,by :i* class ( fossil animals is ! sy/em *>act]iz$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,describe ! ,i*?yosaurus4 ,! ,plesiosaurus4 ,pt]odactyle4 ,! ,iguanodon4 ,:]e is ! sy/em develop$8 ,:at are ! divisions ( ! ,cretace\s sy/em8 ,h[ are ! lay]s ( *alk sep>at$8 ,:at is ! geological position ( ! ,neocomian sy/em1 & ! gre5s& ( ?is c\ntry8 ,:at are ! fossils ( ?is sy/em8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,:at ! geographical range8 ,h[ are ! t]ti>y deposits di/+ui%$ f ! old] =mations8 ,^u :at pr9ciple is ! t]ti>y sy/em divid$8 ,:at are ^! divisions call$1 & :at does ea*1 "n signify8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,9 :at portion ( ! t]ti>y p]iod 0 ! drift deposit$ ,:at is ! geographical range ( ! drift8 ,( :at does x consi/8 ,:at is ! late/ t]ti>y deposit8 ,:at are ! fossils ( ! t]ti>y sy/em8 ,describe ! ,paleo!rium4 ,! ,anoplo!rium4 ,! ,mega!rium4 ,! ,ma/odon4 ,! ,mammo?4 ,:at o!r animals belong$ to ?is p]iod8 ,:]e are ! t]ti>y deposits f\nd8 ,:at =mations are reg>d$ z rec5t8 ,:at =mations ( ?is class are accessible8 ,:at o!rs are 9 progress8 ,:at are ! fossils ( ?is =mation8 ,,section ,,vi4 ,:at is a fossil8 ,9 :at ways are !y pres]v$8 ,:5 is a fossil said to be m9]aliz$8 ,describe ! process ( m9]alization4 ,h[ is x prov$ t ! removal ( ! organic matt] & sub/itution ( m9]al p>ticles are simultane\s8 ,7 animals creat$ be=e vegetables8 ,h[ is ?is %[n8 ,at :at p]iod 0 ! vegetable gr[? ! greate/8 ,:at =ms ( animal life 7 mo/ abundant dur+ ! e>li] p]iods8 ,:at v]tebrat$ animals belong$ to ^! p]iods8 ,:at advance is made 9 ! new r$ s&/one p]iod8 ,dur+ :at p]iod d ! mammalia fir/ appe> 9 abundance8 ,dur+ :at geological p]iod 0 man creat$8 ,h[ are ! footpr9ts & skeletons ( human be+s hi solid rocks acc\nt$ =8 ,:y are n fossils di/ribut$ uni=mly ?r\gh all ! =mations1 & ?r\gh all ! p>ts ( ea* =mation8 ,9 :at does ! importance ( fossils consi/8 ,h[ are ! fre%-wat] & m>9e =mations di/+ui%$8 ,:at circum/ances r5d] x difficult to id5tify rocks ( ! same age 9 diff]5t localities8 ,h[ are =mations id5tifi$8 ,0 ! "w ( creation "o ( %ort duration8 ,:at 0 ! la/ "w ( creation ( :i* we h any geological evid5ce8 ,:y may we presume t no m species w be creat$8 ,d all ! animal & vegetable species :i* h be5 creat$ /ill exi/8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,:at causes are op]at+ to de/roy species8 ,,section ,,vii4 ,h[ long has x be5 s9ce ! creation ( ! e>?8 ,h[ does ! am\nt ( /ratifi$ rock indicate ! great antiquity ( ! e>?8 ,h[ does ! /ratification %[ ! same ?+8 ,:at is ! pro( t ! pr9cipal /rata 7 deposit$ be=e ! creation ( man1 & h[ does ?is fact be> ^u ! "q ( ! antiquity ( ! e>?8 ,give ! argum5t drawn f ! successive creations & disappe>ance ( animal & vegetable species4 ,! argum5t drawn f ! am\nt ( organic matt] 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,! argum5t f sl[ accumulation4 ,:at is ! g5]al conclusion f ^! facts8 ,:y is ?is conclusion an important "o8 ,:at objection to x has be5 rais$8 ,h[ is ?is objection answ]$8 ,:at additional explanation is giv58 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,section ,i4 ,:at is ! deepe/ geological *ange ( :i* we h any k8 ,:at are ! reasons = suppos+ t ! l[e/ /ratifi$ rocks are und]go+ fusion8 ,:y are ! l[e/ /ratifi$ rocks reg>d$ z ( me*anical orig98 ,:at *anges h !y und]gone8 ,,section ,,ii4 ,9 :at /ate 7 ! /ratifi$ rocks deposit$8 ,:at *ange h !y und]gone 9 ?is respect8 ,h[ is ! fissile /ructure produc$8 ,h[ is ! cleavage /ructure produc$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,:at is ! ?ird class ( *anges8 ,:at d fractures at ! surface become by ! erosion ( wat]8 ,h[ are cav]ns =m$8 ,describe a ve9 ( segregation4 ,a dike4 ,a m9]al ve94 ,:at is a fault8 ,7 ! incl9$ /rata ?us deposit$8 ,h[ is x prov$ t !y h tak5 ! incl9$ position s9ce !y 7 deposit$8 ,:at is ! direction ( ! dip8 ,:at l9es =m ! angle ( incl9ation8 ,:at is ! outcrop ( incl9$ /rata8 ,! /rike8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,describe an anticl9al axis4 ,a syncl9al axis4 ,a valley ( elevation4 ,a valley ( subsid5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,:5 are /rata uncon=mable8 ,:at o!r di/urbances h tak5 place 9 ! /rata8 ,:5 did ^! v>i\s di/urbances take place8 ,h[ is x kn[n t !re has be5 no p]iod ( univ]sal di/urbance8 ,,section ,,iii4 ,h[ is x kn[n t ! m\nta9s h be5 cov]$ by ! ocean8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,7 ! granitic ridges ?us cov]$8 ,has ! level ( ! sea be51 to any consid]able ext5t1 fluctuat+8 ,h[1 !n1 h ! rocks1 ( :i* ! m\nta9 masses consi/1 be5 cov]$ by sea8 ,give ! evid5ce t diff]5t m\nta9s 7 elevat$ at diff]5t times4 ,has ! process ( upheaval be5 sudd5 or gradual8 ,h[ are ! m\nta9 valleys1 :i* h ! direction ( ! m\nta9 ranges1 be5 produc$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,h[ is ! exi/5ce ( subm>9e m\nta9s %[n8 ,:at is ! movem5t by :i* cont95ts are elevat$8 ,/ate ! evid5ce ( ! elevation ( cont95ts f ! exi/5ce ( elevat$ sea-bea*es4 ,! evid5ce ( ! elevation ( ! coa/ ( ,ma9e4 ,! evid5ce ( elevation f ! exi/5ce ( lakes4 ,f ! geographical range ( ! old] /rata4 ,! evid5ce ( ! rec5t elevation ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,( ! ris+ ( ! nor? ( ,europe4 ,/ate ! pro( ( subsid5ce f ! occurr5ce ( subm]g$ =e/s4 ,:y are ^! *anges b little obs]v$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,:at are ! gr\nds = ass]t+ t a *ange ( level is tak+ place ov] a l>ge area 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,:at is ! pres5t /ate ( ! coa/ ( ,gre5l& 9 ?is respect8 ,h ! *anges ( level ( ! same place always be5 9 ! same direction8 ,give ! evid5ce ( elevation & depression 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,italy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,:at g5]al conclusion may we draw 9 respect to ! /ability ( ! e>?'s surface8 ,to :at ext5t c we asc]ta9 ! geography ( pa/ epo*s8 ,:at =m] relations ( l& & wat] are sugge/$ z n improbable8 ,,section ,,iv4 ,h[ c we e/imate ! d5udation :i* ! igne\s rocks h suff]$8 ,h[ d faults indicate ! d5udation ( ! /ratifi$ rocks8 ,h[ d valleys indicate d5udations8 ,describe ! in/ance 9 ,scotl&4 ,:at is ! evid5ce ( d5udation 9 ! ,connecticut valley8 ,h[ are valleys produc$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,:at is ! condition ( ! surface rock 9 ! cold] portions ( ! temp]ate zones8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,) :at is ! surface rock g5]ally cov]$8 ,h[ are soils =m$8 ,h[ may soils be improv$8 ,:at is necess>y to r5d] soils f]tile8 ,,section ,v4 ,:at means h we ( judg+ ( ! climate ( =m] p]iods8 ,:at 0 ! climate ( ! coal p]iod8 ,:at animal fossils indicate a =m] w>m climate8 ,:at evid5ce t ,sib]ia once enjoy$ a mild] climate8 ,d simil> indications appe> 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e8 ,:5 has ! climate ( ! e>? be5 mo/ uni=m8 ,has ! climate be5 gr[+ gradually cold] to ! pres5t "t8 ,:at is ! evid5ce ( a some:at rec5t p]iod ( int5se cold8 ,:at rec5t local *anges ( climate are m5tion$ z hav+ occurr$8 ,,section ,,vi4 ,/ate ! g5]al advantages ( geological *anges4 ,by :at *anges h ! coal-b$s & o!r /ratifi$ rocks become accessible8 ,:at advantage f ^! elevat+ =ces 9 ref]5ce to ! granitic rocks8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,h[ d ^! *anges affect our means ( kn[+ ! /ructure ( ! e>?8 ,expla9 ! orig9 ( spr+s1 wells1 & artesian wells8 ,by :at *anges h ! metallic ores become accessible8 ,9 :at light1 !n1 are we to reg>d di/urbances ( geological /ructure8 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,:at is ! object ( ! prec$+ *apt]s8 ,h[ c we arrive at a k ( ! causes :i* h produc$ geological ph5om5a8 ,h geological causes always op]at$ ) ! same int5sity8 ,h[ are ! means ( =m+ correct geological !ories increas+8 ,,section ,i4 ,h[ does oxyg5 become an ag5t 9 ! dis9tegration ( rocks8 ,h[ does c>bonic acid op]ate 9 ! dis9tegration ( rocks8 ,:at is ! effect ( moi/ure & ra98 ,:at is ! effect ( v>iations ( temp]ature8 ,:at o!r atmosph]ic causes are m5tion$8 ,h[ d ^! causes become important8 ,:at are "s ( _! effects8 ,,section ,,ii4 ,:at are ! *anges :i* are to be ref]r$ to *emical ag5cy8 ,m5tion "s ( ! di/urbances :i* give rise to *emical *anges4 ,:at are ! pr9cipal effects ( *emical action8 ,h[ is ! cleavage /ructure acc\nt$ =8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,m5tion in/ances :i* %[ t a cleavage may be e/abli%$ 9 a body 9 a solid /ate4 ,9 x a cry/all9e arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! mass8 ,:at o!r divisional planes exi/ 9 rocks8 ,m5tion in/ances ( concretion>y =mations4 ,:y may n ^! concretions h be5 deposit$ z nodules8 ,h[ h ^! concretions be5 =m$8 ,m5tion in/ances ( segregation )\t ! concretion>y /ructure4 ,h[ 0 ! segregation 9 ^! in/ances effect$8 ,h[ is ! column> /ructure produc$8 ,:at is ! orig9 ( ! m9]al ve9s :i* are fir/ m5tion$8 ,h[ is x %[n t o!r ve9s are n inject$8 ,h[ 7 ^! ve9s =m$8 ,:at is ! =ce by :i* ^! molecul> *anges h be5 effect$8 ,,section ,,iii4 ,9 :at ways are geological *anges produc$ by human ag5cy8 ,( :at are ! organic rema9s1 9 rocks1 ! record8 ,:at rocks conta9 organic mat]ials 9 l>ge quantity8 ,:at is ! mo/ abundant organic product8 ,expla9 ! mode ( gr[? ( corals4 ,give in/ances ( ext5sive coral reefs4 ,:at is ! total am\nt ( surface cov]$ by ! coral reefs8 ,,section ,,iv4 ,:at degree ( importance is atta*$ to wat] z a geological ag5t8 ,:at are ! s\rces ( ! s$im5t :i* wat] deposits8 ,:y is n ! =mation ( ! s$im5t>y rocks capable ( be+ obs]v$8 ,:at is ! fir/ mode 9 :i* solid matt] is tak5 up by wat]8 ,:y are ! wat]s ( ! ocean sal9e8 ,:at effect has ! temp]ature ( wat] 9 ! solution ( silex8 ,:at effect has an alkal9e condition ( wat]8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,:at rock is soluble 9 wat] *>g$ ) c>bonic acid8 ,give an in/ance ( lime/one =mation f su* solutions4 ,h[ d riv]s furni% s$im5t = ! /ratifi$ rocks8 ,:at det]m9es ! position ( rapids 9 riv]s8 ,:at is ! effect ( wat]falls on ! abrad+ action ( riv]s8 ,:at is ! peculi>ity ( rock at ,niag>a :i* has prev5t$ ! fall f becom+ a succession ( rapids8 ,:at o!r circum/ance increases ! abrad+ action ( riv]s8 ,:at is ! pr9cipal s\rce ( ! s$im5t :i* is transport$ by riv]s8 ,:at is ! annual am\nt ( s$im5t furni%$ by ! ,k5nebec8 ,! ,m]rimac8 ,! ,mississippi8 ,! ,ganges8 ,:at is ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ^! abrad+ =ces8 ,:at is ! effect ( waves ^u ! coa/1 :5 x consi/s ( unsolidifi$ mat]ials8 ,describe _! effect ^u rocky coa/s4 ,h[ is ! encroa*m5t ^u su* coa/s %[n8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,:at is ! effect ( waves ( less p[]8 ,h[ are m>9e curr5ts produc$8 ,h[ are !y increas$ by ! evaporation ( ! torrid zone8 ,:at are ! mo/ important m>9e curr5ts8 ,:i* class ( curr5ts h ! great] dep?8 ,^u :at does ! p[] ( deep curr5ts dep5d8 ,h[ w\ld ! effect ( ^! curr5ts be increas$ by e>?quakes8 ,:]e w ! effects ( ^! curr5ts be greate/8 ,m5tion in/ances ( ^! effects4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,:at mu/ be ! effect ( su* curr5ts z ! ,gulf-/ream & ,mozambique *annel8 ,m5tion1 g5]ally1 ! effects ( ^! curr5ts4 ,:y does detrital matt] rema9 susp5d$ 9 ! wat] ( riv]s8 ,h[ is ! co>se & f9e s$im5t sep>at$8 ,:y d riv] curr5ts ext5d "s di/ance into ! sea8 ,:at effect does ?is h 9 di/ribut+ ! s$im5t :i* ! riv]s furni%8 ,^u :at does ! transport+ p[] ( m>9e curr5ts dep5d8 ,:5 a riv] ent]s a lake1 :y is its s$im5t deposit$8 ,describe ! effect4 ,:5 is s$im5t deposit$ 9 ! b$s ( riv]s8 ,describe ! effects ( ?is deposition4 ,:]e is mo/ ( ! s$im5t deposit$8 ,give ! area ( "s delta deposits4 ,h[ d ! deep-sea deposits n[ =m+ comp>e 9 ext5t ) ! e>li] =mations8 ,/ate ! sev]al circum/ances by :i* a succession ( deposits w\ld be arrang$ 9 /rata4 ,h[ are ^? diff]5ces produc$ ^u :i* ! sep>ation into indep5d5t =mations dep5ds8 ,:y are m>9e deposits ne>ly horizontal8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,h[ are ! irregul> /ratifications produc$8 ,:at peculi>ity 9 ! fossils w di/+ui% ! lacu/r9e & m>9e deposits8 ,:at peculi>ity 9 ref]5ce to fossils w *>act]ize ! deep-sea deposits8 ,h[ is coal %[n to be ( vegetable orig98 ,:y w ! drift wood ( ! sea accumulate 9 p>ticul> localities1 & :y w x s9k8 ,:y w x become buri$ b5ea? e>?y matt]8 ,h[ is x kn[n t wood ?us buri$ w1 at l5g?1 become lignite8 ,h[ is lignite conv]t$ into m9]al coal8 ,:at is ! pro( ( x8 ,h b$s ( coal be5 =m$ at o!r p]iods1 besides ! c>bonif]\s8 ,is x probable t coal-b$s are n[ =m+8 ,h[ did ! flora ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod diff] f ! exi/+ flora8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,are ! alt]nations ( ! e>?y & coal /rata satisfactorily expla9$8 ,9 :at portions ( ! geological s]ies are ! deposits ( salt f\nd8 ,:]e is sal9e matt] pr9cipally /or$8 ,expla9 ! conjectural =mation ( salt 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea4 ,:at =m d rocks take :5 deposit$ f a *emical solution8 ,h[ is s& or gravel solidifi$ by ! infiltration ( m9]al wat]s8 ,:at is ! effect ( dry+ ^u ! solidification ( rocks8 ,:at is ! effect ( pressure8 ,:at ( heat8 ,,section ,v4 ,:at is a glaci]8 ,:at is ! ext5t ( ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps8 ,:at *ange does ! mass ( sn[ 9 ! high] valleys ( ! glaci] m\nta9s und]go8 ,:at is ! s\rce ( supply to ! glaci]8 ,:at is ! cause ( ! motion ( ! glaci]8 ,:at is ! usual annual motion8 ,:y w ! glaci] melt b little at its "u side8 ,:]e w ! wa/e at ! surface j equal ! addition8 ,:at circum/ances v>y ! position ( ! t]m9us ( ! glaci]8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,:at1 besides sn[ & ice1 ent]s into ! composition ( a glaci]8 ,h[ are ^! mat]ials suppli$8 ,h[ is a lat]al mora9e =m$8 ,:at effect has ! motion ( ! glaci] on ! rocky surface ov] :i* x passes8 ,:at is ! mat]ial by :i* ?is effect is produc$8 ,h[ is ! t]m9al mora9e produc$8 ,h[ may ! mora9es on ! ,jura ,m\nta9s be expla9$8 ,h[ has x be5 propos$ to expla9 ! /riat$ surfaces ( rocks f\nd 9 ! nor? ( ,europe & ,am]ica8 ,:at is ! objection to ?is ext5sion ( ! glaci] !ory8 ,h[ does ! ice accumulate along ! coa/ 9 high latitudes to =m iceb]gs8 ,:y does x ultimately sep>ate f ! %ore8 ,h[ does x become freight$ ) e>?y matt]8 ,9 :at direction d ! iceb]gs float1 & :y8 ,:at are ! dim5sions ( an iceb]g1 e/imat$ f ! "p t is visible8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,:]e does ! mass ( ice increase1 & :]e dim9i%8 ,:at w be ! effect ( its melt+8 ,h[ is x suppos$ t iceb]gs may h /riat$ ! rocky surface8 ,:at is probably ! condition ( ! b$ ( ! seas ov] :i* iceb]gs n[ float8 ,has ! nor? ( ,europe & ,am]ica be5 s depress$1 dur+ a p]iod comp>atively rec5t1 z to admit ( ?is explanation ( ! drift ph5om5a8 ,,section ,,vi4 ,:at is ! condition ( ! int]ior ( ! e>? ) respect to heat8 ,h[ d ! obs]vations made 9 deep m9es & wells prove ?is8 ,h[ f> is ! temp]ature influ5c$ f ! surface8 ,:at is ! g5]al law ( increm5t ( temp]ature8 ,at :at dep? w\ld mo/ m9]al sub/ances be melt$8 ,h[ is ?is conclusion confirm$8 ,:at 0 probably ! orig9al /ate ( ! mass ( ! e>?8 ,:at o!r explanation may be giv5 ( ?is int]ior heat8 ,:at is ! ela/ic =ce ^u :i* volcanic ph5om5a dep5d8 ,^u :at does ! fluidity ( lava dep5d8 ,^u :at does its por\s /ructure1 :5 cool$1 dep5d8 ,:y are volcanoes situat$ ne> ! sea8 ,describe ! pr9cipal l9es ( volcanic activity4 ,:at are ! =ces t5d+ to repress ! ela/icity ( ! mass bel[8 ,:at w be ! effect :5 ! ela/ic is great] ?an ! repress+ =ce8 ,:at produces ! ph5om5a ( ! e>?quake8 ,:at is a volcano8 ,:y are volcanoes g5]ally arrang$ a l9e> direction8 ,"u :at circum/ances w a new volcano be =m$8 ,:at in/ances are cit$8 ,h[ is a volcanic cone =m$8 ,:y are lat]al cones produc$8 ,h[ are volcanic c9d]s =m$8 ,scori8 ,volcanic glass8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,give in/ances ( fractures z results ( volcanic action4 ,h[ are dikes =m$8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,by :at ag5cy h ! *anges 9 ! metamorphic rocks be5 effect$8 ,give ! in/ance ( metamorphic action f intrusive granite 9 ,norway4 ,:at in/ance is giv5 z occurr+ 9 ,new ,hamp%ire8 ,give ! exp]im5t by :i* x is %[n t ^! *anges w result f a high temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,:at mu/ be ! condition ( ! l[e/ /ratifi$ rocks 9 reg>d to temp]ature8 ,:y is n ! /ratification de/roy$8 ,:at *anges are produc$ by ?is high temp]ature8 ,expla9 ! connection ( d5udation & e>?quake action4 ,:at is ! evid5ce t ! surface ( ! e>? is ?r[n into undulations dur+ e>?quakes8 ,:at is ! velocity ( ^! undulations8 ,give ! in/ance :i* occurr$ 9 ,*ili4 ,to :at p>ts ( ! e>? are ^! undulations limit$8 ,:at condition ( ! surface may be reg>d$ z result+ f ?is cause8 ,:at is ! class ( rocks mo/ obvi\sly ref]able to volcanic ag5cy8 ,h[ d ! trap rocks diff] f ord9>y lavas8 ,:y are !y n vesicul>8 ,:y m cry/all9e8 ,:y 7 cones nev] =m$8 ,:at is ! pro( t ! granitic rocks h once be5 9 a melt$ /ate8 ,:y does n ! mass ( melt$ rock bel[ ! surface reta9 p]man5tly its liquid =m8 ,:y does x1 on cool+1 become m cry/all9e ?an lava8 ,/ate ! process by :i* m\nta9s are =m$4 ,by :at law does ! elevat+ =ce accumulate8 ,:y1 !n1 is ! process ( elevation spasmodic1 & n con/ant8 ,h[ is ! incl9$ position ( /rata produc$8 ,h[ are /rata br\ght into a v]tical position ov] l>ge areas8 ,:y d subsid5ces occasionally foll[ ^! movem5ts ( elevation8 ,m5tion in/ances4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,:at explanation is sugge/$ ( deep & ext5sive *asms8 ,:at conditions mu/ exi/ toge!r1 9 ! =ce by :i* cont95ts are produc$8 ,:at cause fulfils ^! conditions8 ,:at is ! pro( t ! temp]ature "u giv5 localities is v>iable8 ,:at w be ! result ( ^! v>iations8 ,:at is ! law ( expansion ( rocks1 z obta9$ by exp]im5t8 ,:at am\nt ( *ange ( level may be ?us acc\nt$ =8 ,:at circum/ances w\ld probably increase ?is am\nt8 ,:at am\nt ( v]tical movem5t mu/ be acc\nt$ =8 ,:y mu/ ^! *anges ( level be v sl[8 ,"u :at conditions w\ld !re be no *ange ( level8 ,is x probable t ^! conditions exi/ to any great ext5t8 ,:y1 !n1 are n ! *anges ( level obs]v$8 ,:y is ! b$ ( ! sea mo/ likely to exp]i5ce ! *ange ( elevation8 ,:y are ! cont95ts mo/ favorably situat$ to und]go depression8 ,:at are ! s\rces ( heat ^u :i* climate dep5ds8 ,does ! int]ior temp]ature s5sibly affect ! pres5t climates8 ,:at cause may be assign$ = ! *anges ( climate :i* are kn[n to h tak5 place8 ,:at are ! relations ( l& by :i* ! highe/ temp]ature w\ld be produc$8 ,h[ w\ld ?is di/ribution ( l& affect ! temp]ature ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean8 ,:at w\ld result if ! opposite relations ( l& & wat] exi/$8 ,:at confirmation ( ^! conclusions is drawn f ! exi/+ climates ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?8 ,is !re any reason to suppose t ! relations ( l& & wat] :i* w\ld h produc$ a w>m] climate 9 =m] times did n exi/8