,,! ,,boy',s ,,playbook ,,( ,,sci5ce3 ,,includ+ ,,! ,v>i\s ,manipulations & ,arrangem5ts ,,( ,,*emical ,,& ,,philosophical ,,app>atus ,,requir$ ,,= ,,! ,,successful ,,p]=mance ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,exp]im5ts4 ,,9 ,,illu/ration ,,( ,,! ,,elem5t>y ,,bran*es ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,& ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,,by ,,john ,,h5ry ,,pepp]1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,a4 ,,in/4 ,c4,e42 ,,late ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,at ,,! ,,royal ,,polyte*nic1 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,au?or ,,( ,,! ,,playbook ,,( ,,metals4 ,,new ,,edition4 ,illu/rat$ ) #dgj ,engrav+s1 ,,*iefly ,,execut$ ,,f ,,! ,,au?or',s ,,sket*es1 ,,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,h9e4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,r\tl$ge ,,& ,,sons1 ,,! ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate4 ,,new ,,york3 #daf1 ,,broome ,,/reet4 #ahfi4 ,,london4 ,,savill1 ,,edw>ds ,,& ,,co41 ,,pr9t]s1 ,,*&os ,,/reet4 ,,cov5t ,,g>d54 ,illu/ration3 ,:eat/one's telephonic conc]t at ! ,polyte*nic1 9 :i* ! s\nds & vibrations pass inaudible ?r\gh an int]m$iate hall1 & are reproduc$ 9 ! lecture-room un*ang$ 9 _! qualities & int5sities4 ,frontispiece4 ,,to ,,pr(essor ,,lyon ,,playfair1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,ed9burgh4 ,,de> ,,sir1 ,i d$icate ^! pages to y\r ,*ildr51 :om ,i (t5 _h ! pleasure ( see+ at ! ,polyte*nic dur+ my direction ( t ,in/itution4 ,i d s z a m>k ( respect & appreciation ( y\r tal5t & zeal1 & ( y\r public-spirit$ advocacy ( ! ,claims ( ,sci5ce 9 ?is great & comm]cial c\ntry4 ,)\t mak+ y responsible 9 any way = ! %ortcom+s ( ?is humble "w on ,elem5t>y ,sci5ce1 all[ me to subscribe myself1 ,de> ,sir1 ,y\rs mo/ respectfully1 ,,john ,,h5ry ,,pepp]4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,matt]--,,imp5etrability #c ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,c5trifugal ,,=ce #ag ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,a/ronomy #ai ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,c5tre ,,( ,,gravity #cb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,specific ,,gravity #dh ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,attraction ,,( ,,cohesion #ei ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,adhesive ,,attraction #fg ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,capill>y ,,attraction #fi ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,cry/allization #gc ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,*emi/ry #ha ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,*lor9e1 ,,iod9e1 ,,brom9e1 ,,fluor9e #abi ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,c>bon1 ,,boron1 ,,silicon1 ,,sel5ium1 ,,sulphur1 ,,phosphorus #aea ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,frictional ,,electricity #agc ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,voltaic ,,electricity #aic ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electro-,,magnetism #bjf ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,ma*9es #baa ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,electric ,,telegraph #bah ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,ruhmkorff',s1 ,,he>d]',s1 ,,& ,,b5tley',s ,,coil ,,app>>atus #bcj ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,magneto-,,electricity #bda ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,dia-,,magnetism #bdg ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,light1 ,,optics1 ,,& ,,optical ,,in/rum5ts #bee ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,refraction ,,( ,,light #bih ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,refract+ ,,optical ,,in/rum5ts #cjc ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,absorption ,,( ,,light #cbg ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,inflection ,,or ,,diffraction ,,( ,,light #cbh ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,! ,,pol>ization ,,( ,,light #cce ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,heat #ceb ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,! ,,/eam-,,eng9e #djf ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,! ,,/eam-,,eng9e--cont9u$ #dah ,page #a ,,introduction4 ,al?\gh ,! ,s\? ,k5s+ton ,museum n[ takes ! lead1 & surpasses all =m] sci5tific in/itutions by its va/ly sup]ior collection ( models & works ( art1 !re w be d\btless _m ?\s& "y p :o may rememb] 7x is hop$7 ) "s pleasure ! num]\s popul> lectures1 illu/rat$ ) an abundance ( int]e/+ & brilliant exp]im5ts1 :i* h be5 deliv]$ )9 ! walls ( ! ,royal ,polyte*nic ,in/itution dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s4 ,on _m occasions ! au?or has receiv$ f 8 "y fri5ds lett]s1 conta9+ all sorts ( inquiries respect+ ! mode ( p]=m+ exp]im5ts1 & x has frequ5tly occurr$ t ev5 "s ye>s aft] a lecture _h be5 discont9u$1 ! y\?1 n[ become ! "y man1 & anxi\s to imp>t k to "s home circle or c\ntry sci5tific in/itution1 w\ld write a special lett] ref]r+ to a p>ticul> exp]im5t1 & wi% to "k h[ x 0 p]=m$4 ,! foll[+ illu/rat$ pages mu/ be reg>d$ z a s]ies ( philosophical exp]im5ts detail$ 9 su* a mann] t any "y p]son may p]=m !m ) ! greate/ facility4 ,! au?or has endeav\r$ to arrange ! manipulations 9 a me?odical1 simple1 & popul> =m1 & w inde$ be rew>d$ if ^! exp]im5ts %\ld ar\se dormant tal5t 9 any ( ! ris+ g5]ation1 & lead !m on gradually f ! easy read+ ( ! pres5t ,boy's ,book1 to ! /udy ( ! complete & p]fect philosophical works ( ,leopold ,gmel91 ,f>aday1 ,br&e1 ,graham1 ,turn]1 & ,f[nes4 ,e boy %\ld ride a hobby-horse ( "s k9d2 & :il/ play1 & pl5ty ( x1 mu/ be 8 daily "r 9 holiday "t1 he ought n to =get t ! cultivation ( "s bran* ( ! useful ,arts & ,sci5ces w af=d him a delightful & pr(itable recreation :5 ,page #bsatiat$ ) m]e play1 or imprison$ by bad wea!r1 or gloomy ) ! unamus$ t$i\sness ( a long w9t]'s ev5+4 ,! au?or recollects ) pleasure ! half-holidays he us$ to devote to ,*emi/ry1 ) "s o!r ,k+'s ,college lads1 & 9 spite ( t]rible pecuni>y losses 9 retorts1 bottles1 & j>s1 ! mo/ delightful amusem5t 0 enjoy$ by all :o att5d$ & assi/$ at ^! juv5ile philosophical meet+s4 ,x has be5 well rem>k$ by a clev] au?or1 t bees are geometricians4 ,! cells are s con/ruct$ z1 ) ! lea/ quantity ( mat]ial1 to h ! l>ge/ siz$ spaces & ! lea/ possible int]/ices4 ,! mole is a meteorologi/4 ,! bird call$ ! n9e-kill] is an ari?metician1 also ! cr[1 ! wild turkey1 & "s o!r birds4 ,! torp$o1 ! ray1 & ! electric eel are electricians4 ,! nautilus is a navigator4 ,he raises & l[]s 8 sails1 ca/s & weighs an*or1 & p]=ms nautical feats4 ,:ole tribes ( birds are musicians4 ,! beav] is an ar*itect1 build]1 & wood-cutt]4 ,he cuts d[n trees & erects h\ses & dams4 ,! m>mot is a civil eng9e]4 ,he does n only build h\ses1 b con/ructs aqu$ucts1 & dra9s to keep !m dry4 ,! ant ma9ta9s a regul> /&+ army4 ,wasps are pap] manufactur]s4 ,cat]pill>s are silk-sp9n]s4 ,! squirrel is a f]ryman4 ,) a *ip or a piece ( b>k = a boat1 & 8 tail = a sail1 he crosses a /ream4 ,dogs1 wolves1 jackals1 & _m o!rs1 are hunt]s4 ,! black be> & h]on are fi%]m54 ,! ants are day-lab\r]s4 ,! monkey is a rope danc]4 ,%all x1 !n1 be said t any boy possess+ ! ,godlike attributes ( ,m9d & ,?\ght ) ,freewill c only eat1 dr9k1 sleep1 & play1 & is !re=e l[] 9 ! scale ( usefulness ?an ^! poor birds1 bea/s1 fi%es1 & insects8 ,no6 no6 ,let ,"y ,engl& enjoy 8 manly sports & pa/imes1 b let him n =get ! m5tal race he has to run ) ! educat$ ( 8 own & ( o!r nations2 let him n\ri% ! desire = ! acquisition ( sci5tific k1 n z a m]e s*ool lesson1 b z a treasure1 a useful ally :i* may "s day help him 9 a great] or less] degree to fight ,! ,battle ( ,life4 ,page #c ,,! ,,boy',s ,,playbook ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,matt]--,,imp5etrability4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k x seems to be univ]sally agre$1 t we _c prop]ly comm5ce ev5 popul> discussions on a/ronomy1 me*anics1 & *emi/ry1 or on ! impond]ables1 heat1 light1 electricity1 & magnetism1 )\t a def9ition ( ! g5]al t]m matt]2 :i* is an expression appli$ by philosoph]s to e species ( sub/ance capable ( occupy+ space1 &1 !re=e1 to ev]y?+ :i* c be se5 & felt4 ,! sun1 ! moon1 ! e>?1 & o!r planets1 rocks1 e>?s1 metals1 glass1 wool1 oils1 wat]1 alcohol1 air1 /eam1 & ho/s ( ?+s1 bo? great & small1 all solids1 liquids & gases1 are includ$ "u ! compreh5sive t]m matt]4 ,su* a num]\s & v>i$ collection ( bodies mu/ necess>ily h c]ta9 qualities1 peculi>ities1 or prop]ties2 & h5ce we come 9 ! fir/ place to consid] ,! g5]al p[]s or prop]ties ( matt]4 ,?us1 if we place a block ( wood or /one 9 any position1 we _c take ano!r sub/ance & put x 9 ! space fill$ by ! wood or /one1 until ! latt] be remov$4 ,n[ ?is is "o ( ! fir/ & mo/ simple ( ! prop]ties ( matt]1 & is call$ imp5etrability1 be+ ! prop]ty possess$ by all solid1 liquid1 & gase\s bodies1 ( fill+ a space to ! exclusion ( o!rs until !y be remov$1 & x admits ( _m amus+ illu/rations1 bo? z reg>ds ! pro( & modification ( ! prop]ty4 ,?us1 a block ( wood fills a c]ta9 space3 h[ is x 7if imp5etrable7 t we c drive a nail into x8 ,a few exp]im5ts w enable u to answ] ?is "q4 ,into a glass 7z depict$ at fig4 #a7 fill$ ) spirits ( w9e1 a quantity ( cotton wool _m times ! bulk ( ! alcohol may 7if ! exp]im5t is c>efully p]=m$7 be pu%$ )\t caus+ a drop to ov]fl[ ! sides ( ! vessel4 ,"h we seem to h a direct contradiction ( ! simple & ,page #d indisputable tru?1 t two ?+s _c occupy ! same space at once4 ,b let u proce$ ) our exp]im5ts3-- ,we h n[ a flask full ( wat]1 & tak+ "s v f9ely-p[d]$ sug>1 x is easy to introduce a notable quantity ( t sub/ance )\t increas+ ! bulk ( ! wat]2 ! only precaution necess>y1 is n to all[ ! sug> to fall into ! flask 9 a mass1 b to drop x 9 gra9 by gra91 & v sl[ly1 all[+ "t = ! air-bubbles 7:i* w cl+ to ! p>ticles ( sug>7 to pass (f1 & = ! sug> to dissolve4 ,matt]1 9 ! exp]im5ts adduc$1 appe>s to be p5etrable1 & ! prop]ty ( imp5etrability seems only to be a creation ( fancy3 reason1 h[ev]1 enables u to say t ! latt] is n ! case4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a nail may c]ta9ly be hamm]$ into wood1 b ! p>ticles are ?ru/ aside to all[ x to ent]4 ,cotton wool may be plac$ 9 spirits ( w9e because x is simply greatly ext5d$ & bulky matt]1 :i*1 if compress$1 might only occupy ! space ( ! k]nel ( a nut1 & if ?is 7 dropp$ into a half-p9t measure full ( alcohol1 ! increase ( bulk w\ld n cause ! _s to ,page #e ov]fl[4 ,! cotton-wool exp]im5t is !re=e no contradiction ( imp5etrability4 ,! exp]im5t ) ! sug> is ! mo/ tr\blesome oppon5t to our t]m1 & obliges u to am5d & qualify ! orig9al def9ition1 & say1 t ! ultimate or smalle/ p>ticles or atoms ( bodies only are imp5etrable2 & we may believe !y are n 9 close contact ) ea* o!r1 because c]ta9 bulks ( sug> & wat] occupy m space sep>ately ?an :5 mix$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,if we comp>e ! flask ( wat] to a flask full ( m>bles1 & ! sug> to "s rape-se$1 x w be evid5t t we may almo/ p\r ano!r flask full ( ! latt] among/ ! m>bles1 because !y are n 9 close contact ) ea* o!r1 b h spaces betwe5 !m2 & aft] p\r+ 9 ! rape-se$1 we might /ill f9d room = "s f9e s&4 ,! p>ticles ( "o body may ?us ent] into ! spaces left betwe5 ^? ( ano!r )\t increas+ its volume2 & h5ce1 z has be5 be=e /at$1 ,! atoms only ( bodies are truly imp5etrable4 ,?is spread+1 z x 71 ( matt] ?r\gh matt] assumes a v important function :5 we come to exam9e ! con/itution ( ! air we brea!1 :i* is *iefly a me*anical mixture ( gases3 sev5ty-n9e p>ts by volume or measure ( nitrog5 gas1 tw5ty-"o p>ts ( oxyg5 gas1 & f\r p>ts ( c>bonic acid vap\r 9 e t5 ?\s& p>ts ( air hav+ ! foll[+ relations z to weight3-- ,specific gravity4 ,nitrog5 #igb ,oxyg5 #aaje ,c>bonic acid #aebd ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,a4 ,! por\s cell4 ,b4 ,! j> ( hydrog54 ,c4 ,! brass cap & glass tube ,d1 ! end ( :i* dips into ! tumbl] conta9+ ! solution ( indigo ,e4 ,f ,f4 ,! wire & /& support+ ! por\s cell & tube 9 tumbl]4 ,x might be expect$ t ^! gases w\ld arrange !mselves 9 our atmosph]e 9 ! above ord]1 & if t 7 ! case1 we %\ld h ! c>bonic-acid gas 7a mo/ poison\s "o7 at ! bottom1 & t\*+ ! e>?1 !n ! oxyg51 &1 la/ ( all1 ! nitrog52 ,page #f a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* organiz$ life c\ld n exi/4 ,! gases d n1 h[ev]1 sep>ate3 inde$1 !y seem to act z x 7 l vacuums to "o ano!r1 & ! diffusion ( gases has become a recognis$ fact1 gov]n$ by fix$ laws4 ,?is fact is curi\sly illu/rat$1 z %[n 9 our cut1 by fill+ a bottle ) c>bonic acid1 & ano!r ) hydrog52 & hav+ previ\sly fitt$ corks to ! bottles1 p]=at$ s z to admit a tube1 place ! bottle conta9+ ! c>bonic acid on ! table1 !n take ! o!r full ( hydrog51 keep+ ! m\? d[nw>ds1 & fit 9 ! cork & tube3 place ?is f9ally into ! cork ( ! c>bonic-acid bottle1 :i* may be a little l>g] ?an ! o!r1 9 ord] to make ! arrangem5t /& firm]2 & aft] leav+ !m = an h\r or s1 ! c>bonic acid1 :i* is tw5ty-two times heavi] ?an ! hydrog51 w asc5d to ! latt]1 :il/ ! hydrog5 w desc5d to ! c>bonic acid4 ,! pres5ce ( ! c>bonic acid 9 ! hydrog5 bottle is easily prov$ by p\r+ 9 a w9e-glassful ( cle> lime-wat]1 :i* spe$ily becomes milky1 ow+ to ! production ( c>bonate ( lime2 :il/ ! pro( ( ! hydrog5 be+ pres5t 9 ! c>bonic acid is e/abli%$ by absorb+ ! latt] ) a little cream ( lime--i4e41 slack$ lime mix$ to ! consi/5ce ( cream ) "s wat]--& sett+ fire to ! hydrog5 t rema9s1 :i* burns quietly ) a yell[i% flame if unmix$ ) air2 b if air be admitt$ to ! bottle1 ! mixture ( air & hydrog5 inflames rapidly1 & ) "s noise4 ,"o ( ! mo/ elegant modes ( %[+ ! diffusion ( gases is by tak+ a l>ge r\nd dry por\s cell1 su* z w\ld be employ$ 9 a voltaic batt]y1 & hav+ cem5t$ a brass cap ) a glass tube atta*$ to its op5 extremity1 x may !n be support$ by a small tripod ( iron ,page #g wire1 & ! end ( ! glass tube plac$ 9 a tumbl] conta9+ a small quantity ( wat] col\r$ blue ) sulphate ( indigo4 ,if a tol]ably l>ge j> conta9+ hydrog5 is n[ plac$ ov] ! por\s cell1 bubbles ( gas make _! escape at ! end ( ! tube1 because ! hydrog5 diffuses itself m rapidly into ! por\s cell ?an ! air :i* x already conta9s passes out4 ,:5 ! j> is remov$1 ! rev]se occurs1 hydrog5 diffuses out ( ! por\s cell1 & ! blue liquid rises 9 ! tube4 ,?is diffusive =ce prev5ts ! accumulation ( ! v>i\s noxi\s gases on ! e>?1 & spreads !m rapidly ?r\gh ! great bulk ( ! atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! globe4 ,al?\gh air & o!r gases are invisible1 !y possess ! prop]ty ( imp5etrability1 z may be easily prov$ by v>i\s exp]im5ts4 ,hav+ op5$ a pair ( common bell[s1 /op up ! nozzle securely1 & x is !n impossible to %ut !m2 or1 fill a bladd] ) air by bl[+ into x1 & tie a /r+ fa/ r\nd ! neck2 y !n f9d t y _c1 )\t break+ ! bladd]1 press ! sides toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 repres5ts ! wat] ov]fl[+1 z ! glass1 ) ! orifice clos$1 is press$ d[n1 prov+ ! imp5etrability ( air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,! orange has ent]$ ! glass vessel1 & ! air hav+ pass$ f ! orifice1 no wat] ov]fl[s4 ,x is cu/om>y to say t a vessel is empty :5 we h p\r$ out ! wat] :i* x conta9$4 ,hav+ provid$ two glass vessels full ( wat]1 place ea* ( !m 9 an empty :ite pan1 to receive ! ov]fl[1 !n lay an orange ^u ! surface ( ! wat] ( "o ( !m1 & be+ provid$ ) a cyl9drical glass1 op5 at "o end1 ) a hole 9 ! c5tre ( ! clos$ end1 place y\r f+] firmly ov] ! orifice1 & endeav\r1 by inv]t+ ! glass ov] ! orange1 & press+ ^u ! surface ( ! wat]1 to make x ent] ! int]ior ( ! glass cyl9d]2 ! resi/ance ( ! air w n[ cause ! wat] to ov]fl[ into ! :ite pan1 :il/ ! orange w n ent]4 ,! ,page #h orange may n[ be transf]r$ to ! o!r vessel ( wat]1 & on remov+ ! f+] f ! orifice ( ! cyl9drical glass1 & inv]t+ x z be=e ov] ! orange1 ! air w ru% out & ! orange & wat] w ent]1 :il/ !re w be no ov]fl[ z 9 ! prec$+ exp]im5t4 ,! comp>ison ( ! two is v /rik+1 & at once tea*es ! fact desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,gas-j> ) /op-cock clos$1 & potassium 9 ladle2 air prev5ts ! entrance ( ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,gas-j>2 /op-cock op52 ! air passes1 ! wat] ent]s1 & ! potassium is inflam$4 ,:il/ ! vessels ( wat] are /ill 9 use1 ano!r pretty exp]im5t may be made ) ! metal potassium4 ,fir/ ?r[ a small piece ( ! metal on ! surface ( ! wat]1 to %[ t x takes fire on contact ) t fluid2 !n1 hav+ provid$ a gas-j>1 fitt$ ) a cap & /op-cock1 & a little spoon screw$ into ! bottom ( ! /op-cock inside ! gas-j>1 place ano!r piece ( potassium 9 ! little spoon1 &1 aft] clos+ ! /op-cock1 pu% ! j> into "o ( ! vessels ( wat]3 z be=e1 ! imp5etrability ( ! air prev5ts ! wat] fl[+ up to ! potassium2 b1 on op5+ ! /op-cock1 ! air escapes1 ! wat] ru%es up1 & directly x t\*es ! potassium1 combu/ion ensues4 ,hav+ suffici5tly indicat$ ! nature & mean+ ( imp5etrability1 we may proce$ to discuss exp]im5tally ?ree o!r m>k$ & special qualities ( matt]--viz41 in]tia1 gravity1 & weight4 ,page #i ,,in]tia1 ,,or ,,passiv5ess4 ,in]tia is a p[] :i* 7accord+ to ,sir ,isaac ,newton7 is implant$ 9 all matt] ( resi/+ any *ange f a /ate ( re/4 ,x is sometimes call$ vis in]ti1 & is t prop]ty possess$ by all matt]1 ( rema9+ at re/ till set 9 motion1 & vice v]s2 & x expresses1 9 brief t]ms1 resi/ance to motion or re/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,t9 tray1 ) glass bottom1 full ( wat]2 c&le plac$ und]nea?4 ,a p5dulum clock w\nd up & ready to g1 does n comm5ce its movem5ts1 until ! in]tia ( ! p5dulum is ov]come1 & motion imp>t$ to x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 seat$ 9 a c>riage1 %\ld any ob/ruction cause ! horse to /op sudd5ly1 x is only p]haps by a viol5t ef=t1 if at all1 t we c resi/ ! onw>d movem5t ( our bodies4 ,to illu/rate in]tia1 con/ruct a metal tray1 ab\t ?ree feet long1 two feet wide1 & two in*es deep1 ) a glass bottom1 & arrange x on a framework support$ by legs1 l a table1 & hav+ fill$ x ) wat]1 let ! room be d>k5$1 & !n place "u ! tank a light$ c&le1 at a suffici5t di/ance f ! glass to prev5t ! heat crack+ x4 ,if a piece ( calico or pap]1 /ret*$ on a framework1 be n[ held ov] ! wat] at an angle ( ab\t ?irty degrees1 all t occurs on ! surface ( ! wat] w be r5d]$ visible on su* scre54 ,att5tion may n[ be direct$ to ! quiesc5ce1 or ! in]tia ( ! wat]1 :ile ! opposite condition ( movem5t & =mation ( ! waves may be beautifully %[n by t\*+ ! surface ( ! wat] ) ! f+]2 ! m9iature waves be+ depict$ on ! scre51 & cont9u+ _! motion till set at re/ by /rik+ aga9/ ! sides ( ! t9 tray4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,same tray1 ) calico scre52 %[+ ! waves z !y are produc$ by t\*+ ! surface ( ! wat] ) ! f+]4 ,page #aj ,%\ld ! above exp]im5t be ?\ght too tr\blesome or exp5sive to prep>e1 in]tia may be demon/rat$ by fill+ a tea-cup or o!r conv5i5t vessel ) wat]1 & aft] mov+ rapidly ) x 9 any direction1 if we /op sudd5ly1 ! rigidity ( all p>ts ( ! cup we hold br+s !m simultane\sly to a /ate ( re/2 b ! mobility ( ! liquid p>ticles all[s ( _! cont9u+ 9 motion 9 _! orig9al direction1 & ! liquid is spill$4 ,?us1 c>elessness 9 h&+ & spill+ a cup ( tea 7?\gh n to be recomm5d$7 s]ves to illu/rate an important pr9ciple4 ,! in]tia ( bodies 9 motion is fur!r & lam5tably illu/rat$ by ! accid5ts caus$ f ! sudd5 /oppage ( a railway tra9 :il/ 9 rapid motion1 :5 heads & knees come 9 contact ) frightful results4--,x is m especially demon/rat$ by ! e>?1 ! moon1 & ! o!r planets cont9u+ _! motion = ev] 9 ! abs5ce ( any friction or resi/ance to oppose _! onw>d progress4 ,x is ! friction aris+ f ! r\ghness ( ! gr\nd1 ! resi/ance ( ! air1 & ! =ce ( ! e>?'s attraction1 :i* puts a /op to bodies set 9 motion ab\t ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,page #aa ,,gravitation4 ,in]tia repres5ts a passive =ce1 gravitation1 an active condition ( matt]2 & ?is latt] may truly be t]m$ a =ce ( attraction1 because x acts betwe5 masses at s5sible or ins5sible di/ances3 x is illu/rat$ by a /one1 unsupport$1 fall+ to ! gr\nd2 by ! /one press+ ) =ce on ! e>?1 & requir+ p[] to raise x f ! gr\nd3 inde$1 x is commonly report$ t x 0 by an accid5t--an apple fall+ f a tree--t ! great ,newton 0 l$ to reflect on ! univ]sal law ( gravitation1 & to pron\nce ^u x 9 ! foll[+ memorable words3-- ,e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se attracts e o!r p>ticle ( matt] ) a =ce or p[] directly proportional to ! quantity ( matt] 9 ea*1 & decreas+ z ! squ>es ( ! di/ances :i* sep>ate ! p>ticles increase4 ,^! words may appe> v obscure to our juv5ile read]s2 b :5 dissect$ & exam9$ prop]ly1 !y cle>ly def9e ! prop]ty ( gravitation4 ,= in/ance1 e p>ticle attracts e o!r ) a =ce proportional to ! quantity ( matt] 9 ea*4 ,?is /atem5t 0 v]ifi$ "s ye>s back by ,maskelyne1 :o1 hav+ s\ght out & discov]$ a /eep1 precipit\s rock 9 ! ,s*i*allion m\nta9s1 9 ,scotl&1 susp5d$ f x a metal weight by a cord1 & go+ to a conv5i5t di/ance ) a telescope1 & obs]v+ ! weight1 he f\nd t x did n hang p]p5dicul>ly1 l an ord9>y plumb l9e1 b 0 attract$1 or impell$1 to ! sides ( ! rock by "s k9d ( attraction1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 c\ld be no o!r ?an t indicat$ by ,newton z ! attraction ( gravitation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,! ,s*i*allion ,rocks4 ,! dott$ l9e & weight ,a repres5t ! ord9>y position ( a plumb l9e1 :il/ ! l9e ( ! weight ,b indicates 7( c\rse1 ) "s exagg]ation7 ! attractive p[] ( ! mass ( ! rock draw+ x f ! p]p5dicul>4 ,?is truly wond]ful p[] ( attraction p]vades all masses2 & be+1 z be=e /at$1 proportional to ! quantity ( matt]1 if a man c\ld be transport$ to ! surface ( ! sun1 he w\ld become ab\t ?irty times heavi]3 he w\ld be attract$1 or impell$1 to ! sun ) ?irty times m gravitat+ =ce ?an on ! surface ( ! e>?1 & w\ld weigh ab\t two tons4 ,( c\rse1 nurs+ a baby on ! sun's surface w\ld be a v s]i\s affair ) our ord9>y /r5g?2 :il/ on "s ( ! small] planets1 su* z ,c]es & ,pallas1 we %\ld probably gravitate ) a =ce ( a few p\nds only1 & ) ! same muscul> p[] n[ possess$1 we %\ld q emulate ! exploits ( ^? dome/ic little creatures sometimes call$ ! indu/ri\s fleas1 & our jump+ w\ld be some?+ m>vell\s4 ,page #ab ,!re is no v good lecture-table exp]im5t t w illu/rate gravitation1 al?\gh att5tion may be direct$ to ! fact ( a piece ( potassium ?r[n on ! surface ( wat] 9 a plate g5]ally ru%+ to ! sides1 &1 z if attract$1 atta*+ itself ) great =ce to ! sub/ance ( ! pott]y or porcela92 or1 if a model %ip1 or lump ( wood1 be all[$ to float at re/ 9 a l>ge tank ( wat]1 & a numb] ( light *ips ( wood or bits ( /raw be ?r[n 91 !y g5]ally collect & rema9 ar\nd ! l>g] float+ mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a4 ,! c5tre ball1 repres5t+ ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity4 ,w ,w ,w ,w4 ,f\r wires fix$ into c5tre ball1 & pass+ ?r\gh & secur$ 9 ! hoop1 project+ ab\t "o foot f ! circumf]5ce4 ,b ,b ,b ,b4 ,two balls--a model %ip & toy--work+ on ! wires l beads1 ) vulcaniz$ ,india-rubb] /raps atta*$ to !m & ! circumf]5ce ( ! hoop4 ,a v good idea1 h[ev]1 may be af=d$ ( ! univ]sal action ( gravity ma9ta9+ all ?+s 9 _! natural position on ! e>? by ,page #ac tak+ a hoop & arrang+ 9 & ^u x balls1 or a model %ip1 or o!r toy1 & wires1 z depict$ 9 our diagram4 ,) ?is simple app>atus we may illu/rate ! upw>d1 d[nw>d1 & sideway movem5t ( bodies f ! e>?1 & ! c\nt]action by ! =ce ( gravitation ( any t5d5cy ( matt] to fall away f ! globe1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 ! model by ! india-rubb] spr+s pull+ ! balls & toys back aga9 to ! circumf]5ce ( ! hoop4 ,! attraction ( gravitation decreases 7quot+ ! rema9d] ( ,newton's def9ition7 z ! squ>es ( ! di/ances :i* sep>ate ! p>ticles increase--i4e41 x obeys ! pr9ciple call$ inv]se proportion--viz41 ! great] ! di/ance1 ! less gravitat+ p[]2 ! less ! di/ance1 ! great] ! p[] ( gravitation4 ,gravitation is l ! di/ribution ( light & o!r radiant =ces1 & may be ?us illu/rat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,place a light$ c&le1 m>k$ ,a1 at a c]ta9 di/ance f ,no4 #a1 a bo>d "o foot squ>e2 at d\ble ! di/ance ! latt] w %ad[ ano!r bo>d1 ,no4 #b1 f\r feet squ>e2 at ?ree times1 ,no4 #c1 n9e feet squ>e2 at f\r1 ,no4 #d1 sixte5 feet2 & s on4 ,to make ! comp>ison betwe5 ! propagation ( light & ! attraction ( gravitation1 we h only to imag9e ! c&le1 a1 to repres5t ! po9t :]e ! =ce ( gravity exi/s 9 ! highe/ degree ( int5sity2 suppose x to be ! sun--! great c5tre ( ?is p[] 9 our planet>y sy/em4 ,a body1 z at ,no4 #a1 at any giv5 di/ance w be attract$ 7l iron-fil+s to a magnet7 ) a c]ta9 =ce2 at twice ! di/ance1 ! squ>e ( two be+ f\r1 & by inv]se proportion1 ! attraction w be f\r times less2 at ?rice ! di/ance1 n9e times less2 at ! f\r? di/ance1 sixte5 times less2 & s on4 ,) ! assi/ance ( ?is law1 we may calculate1 r\ghly1 ! dep? ( a well1 or a precipice1 or a column1 by asc]ta9+ ! "t occupi$ 9 ! fall ( a /one or o!r heavy sub/ance4 ,a fall+ body desc5ds ab\t #af feet 9 "o second1 #fd feet 9 two seconds1 #add feet 9 ?ree seconds1 #bef feet 9 f\r seconds1 #djj feet 9 five seconds1 #egf feet 9 six seconds2 ! spaces pass$ ov] be+ z ! squ>es ( ! times4 ,suppose a /one takes ?ree seconds 9 fall+ to ! surface ( ! wat] 9 a well1 !n #c #c #i #af #add feet w\ld be a r\gh e/imate ( ! dep?4 ,! calculation w exce$ ! tru? 9 consequ5ce ( ! /one be+ ret>d$ 9 its passage by ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,page #ad ,all bodies gravitate equally to ! e>?3 = in/ance1 if an op5 box1 say "o foot 9 l5g?1 two in*es broad1 & two in*es deep1 be provid$ ) a nicely-fitt$ bottom1 atta*$ by a h+e1 a numb] ( sub/ances1 su* z wood1 cork1 m>ble1 iron1 lead1 copp]1 may be arrang$ 9 a r[2 & directly ! h& is )drawn1 ! moveable flap flies op51 & if ! manipulation ) ! dis5gagem5t ( ! trap-door is good1 ! :ole ( ! sub/ances are se5 to proce$ to ! e>? 9 a /raight l9e1 z %[n 9 our draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,if a heavy sub/ance1 l gold1 be greatly ext5d$ by hamm]+ & beat+ into ?9 leaves1 & !n dropp$ f ! h&1 ! resi/ance ( ! air becomes v app>5t2 & a gold co9 & a piece ( gold-leaf w\ld n rea* ! e>? at ! same "t if all[$ to fall f any giv5 height4 ,?is fact is easily display$ by ! assi/ance ( a long glass cyl9drical vessel plac$ on ! air-pump1 ) suitable app>atus arrang$ ) little /ages to c>ry ! diff]5t sub/ances2 ^u two ( !m may be plac$ a fea!r & a gold co91 & on ! ?ird1 ano!r gold co9 & a piece ( gold-leaf4 ,9 arrang+ ! exp]im5t1 great c>e ought to be tak5 t ! little /ages are all nicely clean$1 & free f any oil1 grease1 or o!r matt] :i* might cause ! fea!rs or ! gold-leaf to cl+ to ! /ages :5 !y are dis5gag$1 by mov+ ! brass /op r\nd t works 9 ! coll> ( lea!rs4 ,sometimes ^! lea!rs are oil$1 ,page #ae & 9 t case1 :5 ! vacuum is made1 ! oil1 by ! pressure1 is squeez$ out1 &1 pass+ d[n1 may rea* ! /ages & spoil ! exp]im5t1 by caus+ ! fea!rs & gold-leaf to /ick to ! brass1 produc+ great disappo9tm5t1 z ! illu/ration1 usually call$ ! gu9ea & fea!r glass exp]im5t takes "s "t to prep>e4 ,! air-pump be+ 9 good ord]1 ! long glass is fir/ greas$ on ! l[] welt or edge1 & !n plac$ firmly on ! air-pump plate4 ,! top edge1 or welt1 may n[ be greas$1 & ! gold co9s1 fea!rs1 & gold-leaf arrang$ 9 ! drop-app>atus2 ?is is c>efully plac$ on ! top ( ! glass1 & firmly squeez$ d[n4 ,! au?or has always f\nd a tall[ c&le1 roll$ 9 a %eet ( pap] 7s z to leave ab\t half ! c&le expos$71 ! be/ grease to sme> ! glass ) = air-pump exp]im5ts2 if ! wea!r is cold1 ! c&le may be plac$ = a few m9utes be=e an ord9>y fire to s(t5 ! tall[4 ,pomatum answ]s p]fectly well :5 ! surfaces ( glass & brass are all nicely gr\nd2 b z air-pumps & glasses by use get scrat*$ & rubb$1 ! tall[ seems to fill up bett] all ord9>y *annels by :i* air may ent] to spoil a vacuum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,! app>atus be+ n[ arrang$1 ! air is pump$ out2 & "h1 aga91 c>e mu/ be tak5 n to %ake ! gold (f ! /ages4 ,:5 a prop] vacuum has be5 obta9$1 :i* w be %[n by ! pump-gauge1 ! /op is )drawn f "o ( ! /ages1 & ! gold & fea!r are se5 to fall simultane\sly to ! air-pump plate4 ,ano!r /age1 ) ! gold-leaf & co91 may n[ be deta*$2 bo? %[+ di/9ctly1 t :5 ! resi/ance ( ! air is )drawn1 all bodies1 :e!r call$ light or heavy1 gravitate equally to ! e>?4 ,!n1 ! screw at ! bottom ( ! pump b>rels ,page #af be+ op5$1 att5tion may be direct$ to ! :izz+ noise ! air makes on ent]+ ! vacuum1 & :5 ! air is once m re/or$ to ! long glass vessel1 ! la/ /age may be all[$ to fall2 & n[1 ! gold co9 rea*es ! pump-plate fir/1 & ! fea!r1 l+]+ beh9d1 loses 7z x 77 ! race1 & t\*es ! plate aft] ! gold co92 ?us demon/rat+ cle>ly ! resi/ance ( ! air to fall+ bodies4 ,ano!r1 & p]haps less tr\blesome1 mode ( %[+ ! same fact1 is to use a long glass tube clos$ at ea* end ) brass caps cem5t$ on4 ,"o cap %\ld h ! l>ge/ possible ap]ture clos$ by a brass screw1 & ! o!r may fit a small h&-pump4 ,if a piece ( gold & a small fea!r are plac$ 9 ! tube1 x may be %[n t ! =m] rea*es ! bottom ( ! tube fir/1 :il/ x is full ( air1 & :5 ! air is )drawn by means ( ! pump1 & ! tube aga9 inv]t$1 bo? ! gold & ! fea!r fall 9 ! same "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,a ,b4 ,glass tube conta9+ a piece ( gold & a fea!r1 :i* are plac$ 9 at ! l>ge ap]ture ,a4 ,c4 ,small h&-pump4 ,= ?is reason1 all attempts to measure heights or dep?s by obs]v+ ! "t occupi$ by a fall+ body 9 rea*+ ! e>? mu/ be incorrect1 & c only be r\gh approximations4 ,an exp]im5t tri$ at ,/4 ,paul's ,ca!dral1 ) a /one1 :i* 0 all[$ to fall f ! cupola1 indicat$ ! "t occupi$ 9 ! desc5t to be f\r & a half seconds3 n[1 if we squ>e ?is "t1 & multiply by #af1 a height ( #cbd feet is d5ot$2 :]eas ! actual height is only #bgb feet1 & ! diff]5ce ( #eb feet %[s h[ ! /one 0 ret>d$ 9 its passage ?r\gh ! air2 =1 _h !re be5 no ob/acle1 x w\ld h rea*$ ! gr\nd 9 #d-c_/bj?s seconds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,! =ce ( gravitation is fur!r demon/rat$ by ! action ( ! sun & moon rais+ ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 & produc+ ! tides2 & also by ! e>? & moon1 & o!r planets & satellites1 be+ prev5t$ f fly+ f _! natural pa?s or orbits ar\nd ! sun4 ,x is also v cle>ly prov$ t !re mu/ be "s k9d ( attractive =ce resid5t 9 ! e>?1 or else all moveable ?+s1 ! wat]1 ! air1 ! liv+ & dead matt]s1 w\ld fly away f ! surface ( ! e>? 9 ob$i5ce to :at is call$ c5trifugal =ce4 ,our e>? is tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 p]=m+ "o rotation on its axis1 :i* is an imag9>y l9e drawn f pole to pole1 & repres5t$ by ! wire r\nd :i* we cause a sph]e to rotate4 ,all objects1 !re=e1 on ! e>? are mov+ ) ! planet at an enorm\s velocity2 & ?is movem5t is call$ ! e>?'s diurnal1 or daily rotation4 ,n[1 ,page #ag x w be rememb]$1 t mud or o!r fluid matt] flies (f1 & is n reta9$ by ! circumf]5ce ( a :eel 9 motion3 :5 a mop is trundl$1 or a dog or %eep1 aft] exposure to ra91 %ake !mselves1 ! wat] is ?r[n (f by :at is call$ c5trifugal =ce 7c5trum1 a c5tre1 fugio1 to fly f74 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,c5trifugal ,,=ce4 ,t p[] :i* drives a revolv+ body f a c5tre1 & x may be illu/rat$ by turn+ a clos$ p>asol1 or umbrella1 rapidly r\nd on its c5tre1 ! /ick be+ ! axis--! ribs fly out1 & if !re is mu* friction 9 ! p>ts1 ! illu/ration is m c]ta9 by atta*+ a bullet to ! end ( ea* rib1 z %[n 9 our draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,! same fact may be illu/rat$ by a squ>e mahogany rod1 say "o in* squ>e & ?ree feet long1 ) two flaps eighte5 in*es 9 l5g?1 hang+ by h+es1 & p>allel to ! sides ( ! c5tre rod1 :i* imm$iately fly out on ! rotation ( ! long c5tre piece4 ,! toy call$ ! c5trifugal railway is also a v pretty illu/ration ( ! same fact4 ,a glass ( wat]1 or a co91 may be plac$ 9 ! little c>riage1 & al?\gh x mu/ be twice hang+ p]p5dicul> 9 a l9e ) ! e>?1 ! c>riage does n tumble away f its appo9t$ track1 & ! c5trifugal =ce b9ds x firmly to ! int]ior ( ! circle r\nd :i* x revolves4 ,page #ah ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,ano!r /rik+ & v simple illu/ration is to susp5d a hemisph]ical cup by ?ree cords1 & hav+ twi/$ !m1 by turn+ r\nd ! cup1 x may be fill$ ) wat]1 & directly ! h& is )drawn1 ! torsion ( ! cord causes ! cup to rotate1 & ! wat] describes a circle on ! floor1 fly+ (f at a tang5t f ! cup1 z may be notic$ 9 ! accompany+ cut4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,a hoop :5 trundl$ w\ld tumble on its side if ! =ce ( gravitation 0 n ov]come by ! c5trifugal =ce :i* imp>ts to x a motion 9 ! direction ( a tang5t 7tango1 to t\*7 to a circle4 ,! same pr9ciple applies to ! sp9n+-top--?is toy _c be made to /& ^u its po9t until set 9 rapid motion4 ,return+ aga9 to ! subject ( gravitation1 we may n[ consid] x 9 relation to o!r & m magnific5t examples :i* we discov] by /udy+ ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy4 ,page #ai ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,9 a "w ( ?is k9d1 pr(ess$ly devot$ to a v brief & popul> view ( ! diff]5t sci5tific subjects1 mu* _c be said on any special bran* ( sci5ce2 x w be bett]1 !re=e1 to take up "o subject 9 a/ronomy1 & by discuss+ x 9 a simple mann]1 our "y fri5ds may be /imulat$ to le>n m ( ^? glori\s tru?s :i* are to be f\nd 9 ! publi%$ works ( _m em95t a/ronom]s1 & especially 9 t ( ,mr4 ,h9d1 call$ ,! ,illu/rat$ ,london ,a/ronomy4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ subjects is ! ph5om5on ( ! eclipse ( ! sun2 & z #aheh is likely to be long rememb]$ = its annul> eclipse1 we %all devote "s pages & illu/rations to ?is subject4 ,eclipses ( ! sun are ( ?ree k9ds--p>tial1 annul>1 & total4 ,_m p]sons h probably se5 l>ge p>tial eclipses ( ! sun1 & may possibly suppose t a total eclipse is m]ely an int5sifi$ =m ( a p>tial "o2 b a/ronom]s ass]t t no degree ( p>tial eclipse1 ev5 :5 ! v smalle/ portion ( ! sun rema9s visible1 gives ! slighte/ idea ( a total "o1 ei!r 9 ! solemnity & ov]p[]+ influ5ce ( ! spectacle1 or ! curi\s appe>ances :i* accompany x4 ,! late ,mr4 ,baily said ( an eclipse 7usually call$ t ( ,?ales71 :i* caus$ ! susp5sion ( a battle betwe5 ! ,lydians & ,m$es1 t only a total eclipse c\ld h produc$ ! effect ascrib$ to x4 ,ev5 educat$ a/ronom]s1 :5 view+ ) ! nak$ eye ! sun ne>ly obscur$ by ! moon 9 an annul> eclipse1 c\ld n tell t any "p ( ! sun 0 hidd51 & ?is 0 rem>kably v]ifi$ 9 ! annul> eclipse ( ! #ae? ,m>* ( ?is ye>4 ,dur+ ! cont9uance ( a total eclipse ( ! sun1 we are p]mitt$ a ha/y glance at "s ( ^? secrets ( ,nature :i* are n reveal$ at any o!r "t--glories t hold 9 tremul\s amazem5t ev5 vet]an explor]s ( ! heav5s & its />ry worlds4 ,! g5]al mean+ ( an eclipse may be %[n v nicely by light+ a common oil1 or oxy-hydrog5 lant]n 9 a d>k5$ room1 & ?r[+ ! rays :i* proce$ f x on a ?ree-feet globe4 ,! lant]n may be call$ ! sun1 &1 ( c\rse1 x is und]/ood t correct comp>ative sizes are n attempt$ 9 ?is arrangem5t2 if x 7 s1 ! globe repres5t+ ! e>? w\ld h to be a m]e speck1 = if we make ! model ( ! sun 9 proportion to a ?ree-feet globe1 no ord9>y lecture hall w\ld conta9 x4 ,?is be+ premis$1 att5tion is direct$ to ! lant]n1 :i*1 l ! sun1 is self-lum9\s1 & is giv+ out its own rays2 ^! fall ^u ! globe we h designat$ ! e>?1 & illum9ate "o-half1 :il/ ! o!r is %r\d$ 9 d>kness1 rem9d+ u ( ! opacity ( ! e>?1 & tea*+1 9 a famili> ,page #bj mann]1 ! causes ( day & night4 ,ano!r globe1 say six in*es 9 diamet]1 & support$ by a /r+1 may be comp>$ to ! moon1 &1 l ! e>?1 is n[ lum9\s1 & %9es only by borr[$ light3 ! moon is simply a reflector ( light2 l a %eet ( :ite c>dbo>d1 or a metallic mirror4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! small globe is pass$ betwe5 ! lant]n & ! l>ge globe1 a %ad[ is ca/ on ! l>ge globe3 x is also se5 t only ! half ( ! small globe turn$ t[>ds ! lant]n is illum9at$1 :ile ! o!r half1 opposite ! l>ge globe1 is 9 %ad[ or d>kness4 ,& "h we und]/& :y ! moon appe>s to be black :ile pass+ be=e ! sun2 s also by mov+ ! small globe ab\t 9 v>i\s curves1 x is %[n :y eclipses are only visible at c]ta9 p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface2 & z x w\ld take 7r\ghly speak+7 fifty globes z l>ge z ! moon to make "o equal 9 size to our e>?1 ! %ad[ x ca/s mu/ necess>ily be small1 & _c obscure ! :ole hemisph]e ( ! e>? turn$ t[>ds x4 ,an eclipse ( ! sun is1 !re=e1 caus$ by ! opaque mass ( moon pass+ betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?4 ,:il/ an eclipse ( ! moon is caus$ by ! e>? mov+ directly betwe5 ! sun & ! moon3 ! l>ge %ad[ ca/ by ! e>? r5d]s a total eclipse ( ! moon visible to a great] numb] ( spectators on t half ( ! e>? turn$ t[>ds ! moon4 ,all ^! facts c be cle>ly demon/rat$ ) ! arrangem5t already describ$1 ( :i* we give ! foll[+ pictorial illu/ration3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,9 us+ ?is app>atus1 x %\ld be expla9$ t if ! moon 7 z l>ge z ! sun1 ! %ad[ w\ld be cyl9drical l ! figure #a1 & ( an unlimit$ l5g?4 ,if %e 7 ( great] magnitude1 x w\ld precisely resemble ! %ad[ ca/ 9 ! exp]im5t already adduc$ ) ! lant]n & %[n at ,no4 #b4 ,b be+ s v mu* small] ?an ! sun1 ! moon projects a %ad[ :i* conv]ges to a po9t z %[n 9 ! ?ird diagram4 ,page #ba ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,9 ord] to compreh5d ! diff]5ce betwe5 an annul> & a total eclipse ( ! sun1 x is necess>y to m5tion ! app>5t sizes ( ! sun & moon3 ?us1 ! =m] is a v l>ge body--viz41 eight hundr$ & eighty-sev5 ?\s& miles 9 diamet]2 b !n1 ! sun is a v long way (f f ! e>?1 & is n9ety millions ( miles di/ant f u2 !re=e1 he does n appe> to be v l>ge3 inde$1 ! sun seems to be ab\t ! same size z ! moon2 =1 al?\gh ! sun's diamet] is 7r\ghly speak+7 f\r hundr$ times great] ?an t ( ! moon1 he is f\r hundr$ times fur!r away f u1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! sun & moon appe> to be ! same size1 & :5 !y come 9 a /raight l9e ) ! eye1 ! ne>] & small] body1 ! moon1 cov]s ! l>g] & m di/ant mass1 ! sun2 & h5ce1 we h ei!r an annul>1 or a total eclipse1 %[+ h[ a small body may come betwe5 ! eye & a l>g] body1 & ei!r p>tially or completely obscure x4 ,page #bb ,) respect to an annul> eclipse1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 t ! pa?s ( all bodies revolv+ r\nd o!rs are elliptical2 i4e41 !y take place 9 ! =m ( an ellipse1 :i* is a figure easily demon/rat$2 & is1 9 fact1 "o ( ! conic sections4 ,if a slice be tak5 (f a cone1 p>allel ) ! base1 we h a circle ?us-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,if x be cut obliquely1 or slant+1 we see at once ! figure spok5 (1 & h ! ellipse z %[n 9 ?is picture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,n[1 ! ellipse has two po9ts )9 x1 call$ ! foci1 & ^! are easily indicat$ by draw+ an ellipse on a diagram-bo>d1 9 :i* two nails h be5 plac$ 9 a /raight l9e1 & ab\t twelve in*es ap>t4 ,hav+ ti$ a /r+ s z to make a loop1 or endless cord1 a circle may fir/ be drawn by putt+ ! cord r\nd "o ( ! nails1 & hold+ a piece ( *alk 9 ! loop ( ! /r+1 x may be ext5d$ to its full di/ance1 & a circle describ$2 "h a figure is produc$ r\nd "o po9t1 & to %[ ! diff]5ce betwe5 a circle & an ellipse1 ! endless cord is n[ plac$ on ! two nails1 & ! *alk be+ c>ri$ r\nd inside ! /r+1 no long] produces ! circle1 b t famili> =m call$ ! oval4 ,z a g>d5] w\ld say1 an oval has be5 /ruck2 & ! two po9ts r\nd :i* x has be5 describ$1 ,page #bc are call$ ! foci4 ,?is explanation enables u to und]/& ! next diagram1 %[+ ! motion ( ! e>? r\nd ! sun2 ! latt] be+ plac$ 9 "o ( ! foci ( a v mod]ate ellipse1 & ! v>i\s po9ts ( ! e>?'s orbit designat$ by ! little r\nd globes m>k$ ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 :]e x is evid5t t ! e>? is ne>] to ! sun at ,b ?an at ,d4 ,9 ?is diagram ! ellipse is exagg]at$1 z x ought1 9 fact1 to be v ne>ly a circle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,we are ab\t ?ree millions ( miles ne>] to ! sun 9 ! w9t] ?an we are 9 ! summ]2 b f ! m oblique or slant+ direction ( ! rays ( ! sun dur+ ! w9t] season1 we d n d]ive any increas$ heat f ! great] proximity4 ,! sun1 !re=e1 app>5tly v>ies 9 size2 b ?is seem+ diff]5ce is s trifl+ t x is ( no importance 9 ! discussion3 & "h we may ask1 :y does ,page #bd ! e>? move r\nd ! sun8 ,because x is impell$ by two =ces1 "o ( :i* has already be5 fully expla9$1 & is call$ ! c5trifugal p[]1 & ! o!r1 al?\gh t]m$ ! c5tripetal =ce1 is only ano!r "n = ! attraction ( gravitation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,to %[ _! mutual relations1 let u suppose t1 at ! creation ( ! univ]se1 ! e>?1 m>k$ ,a1 0 hurl$ f ! h& ( its ,mak]2 accord+ to ! law ( in]tia1 x w\ld cont9ue 9 a /raight l9e1 ,a ,c1 = ev] ?r\gh space1 provid$ x met ) no resi/ance or ob/ruction4 ,let u n[ suppose ! e>? to h arriv$ at ! po9t ,b1 & to come )9 ! sph]e ( ! attraction ( ! sun ,s2 ,page #be "h we h at once cont5d+ =ces act+ at "r angles to ea* o!r2 ei!r ! e>? mu/ cont9ue 9 its orig9al direction1 ,a ,c1 or fall gradually to ! sun4 ,b1 m>k ! beauty & h>mony ( ! arrangem5t3 l a billi>d-ball1 /ruck ) equal =ce at two po9ts at "r angles to ea* o!r1 x takes ! mean betwe5 ! two1 or :at is t]m$ ! diagonal ( ! p>allelogram 7z %[n 9 our draw+ ( a billi>d-table71 & passes 9 ! direction ( ! curv$ l9e1 ,b ,d2 hav+ rea*$ ,d1 x is aga9 ready to fly (f at a tang5t2 ! c5trifugal =ce w\ld c>ry x to ,e1 b aga9 ! gravitat+ =ce controls ! c5tripetal1 & ! e>? pursues its elliptical pa?1 or orbit1 till ! ,almighty ,au?or :o bade x move %all please to rev]se ! comm&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,! mutual relations ( ! c5tripetal & c5trifugal =ces may be illu/rat$ by susp5d+ a t9 cyl9drical vessel by two /r+s1 & hav+ fill$ x ) wat]1 ! vessel may be swung r\nd )\t spill+ a s+le drop2 ( c\rse1 ! movem5t mu/ be comm5c$ c>efully1 by mak+ x oscillate l a p5dulum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,! cord :i* b9ds x to ! f+] may be comp>$ to ! c5tripetal =ce1 :il/ ! c5trifugal p[] is illu/rat$ by ! wat] press+ aga9/ ! sides & rema9+ 9 ! vessel4 ,^u ! l pr9ciples ! moon revolves ab\t ! e>?1 b h] orbit is m elliptical ?an t ( ! e>? ar\nd ! sun2 & x is evid5t f our diagram t ! moon is mu* fur!r f ! e>? at ,a ?an at ,b4 ,z a natural consequ5ce1 ! moon appe>s sometimes a little l>g] & sometimes small] ?an ! sun2 ! app>5t mean diamet] ( ! latt] be+ ?irty-two m9utes1 :il/ ! moon's app>5t diamet] v>ies f tw5ty-n9e & a half to ?irty-?ree & a half m9utes4 ,n[1 if ! moon passes exactly betwe5 u & ! sun :5 %e is app>5tly l>ge/1 !n a total eclipse takes place2 :]eas1 if %e glides betwe5 ! sun & ourselves :5 smalle/--i4e41 :5 fur!/ (f f ! e>?--!n %e is n suffici5tly ,page #bf l>ge to cov] ! sun entirely1 b a r+ ( sunlight rema9s visible ar\nd h]1 & :at is call$ an annul> eclipse ( ! sun occurs4 ,?is fact may be %[n 9 an effective mann] by plac+ ! oxy-hydrog5 lant]n be=e a %eet1 or o!r :ite surface1 & ?r[+ a bright circle ( light ^u x1 :i* may be call$ ! sun2 !n1 if a r\nd disc ( wood be pass$ betwe5 ! lant]n & ! %eet1 at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! nozzle ( ! lant]n1 all ! light is cut (f1 ! circle ( light is no long] app>5t1 & we h a resemblance to a total eclipse4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,by tak+ ! r\nd disc ( wood fur!r f ! lant]n1 & repeat+ ! exp]im5t1 x w be f\nd t ! :ole circle ( light is n obscur$1 b a r+ ( light appe>s ar\nd ! d>k c5tre1 correspond+ ) ! ph5om5on call$ ! annul> 7r+-%ap$7 eclipse4 ,if a bullet be plac$ v ne> to "o eye :il/ ! o!r rema9s clos$1 a l>ge t>get may be :olly %ut out f vision2 b if ! bullet be adju/$ at a great] di/ance f ! eye1 !n ! c5tre only w be obscur$1 & ! out] edge or r+ ( ! t>get rema9s visible4 ,:5 ! advanc+ edge1 or fir/ limb1 z x is t]m$1 ( ! moon approa*es v ne> to ! second limb ( ! sun1 ! two are jo9$ toge!r = a "t by alt]nations ( black & :ite po9ts1 call$ ,baily's beads4 ,?is ph5om5on is suppos$ to be caus$ p>tly by ! unev5 & m\nta9\s edge ( ! moon1 & p>tly by t inevitable fault ( telescopes1 & ( ! n]v\s sy/em ( ! eye1 :i* t5ds to enl>ge ! images ( lum9\s objects1 produc+ :at is call$ irradiation4 ,x is exce$+ly int]e/+ to "k t1 al?\gh ! cl\ds obscur$ ! annul> eclipse ( #aheh1 9 _m p>ts ( ,engl&1 we are yet ,page #bg left ! record$ obs]vations ( "o =tunate a/ronom]1 ,mr4 ,john ,yeats1 :o /ates t-- ,all ! ph5om5a ( an annul> eclipse 7 cle>ly & beautifully visible on ! ,fo!r+ay-,ca/le-m\nd1 :i* is a locality easily id5tifi$4 ,baily's beads 7 p]fectly pla9 on ! completion ( ! annulus1 :i* occurr5ce took place1 accord+ to my obs]vation1 at ab\t sev5ty seconds aft] #a o'clock2 x la/$ ab\t eighty seconds4 ,! 'beads1' l drops ( wat]1 appe>$ on ! upp] & "u sides ( ! moon1 occupy+ fully ?ree-f\r?s ( h] circumf]5ce4 ,prior to ?is1 ! upp] edge ( ! moon seem$ d>k & r\gh1 & !re 7 no o!r *anges ( col\r4 ,at #ab4dc1 ! cusps1 = a few mom5ts1 bore a v black aspect4 ,!re 0 no?+ l int5se d>kness dur+ ! eclipse1 & less gloom ?an dur+ a ?und]/orm4 ,by/&]s progno/icat$ ra92 b x 0 ! %ad[ ( a rapidly-decl9+ day4 ,at #ab o'clock1 a lady liv+ on ! f>m sudd5ly exclaim$1 ',! c[s are com+ home to be milk$6' & !y came1 all b "o2 t foll[$1 h[ev]1 )9 ! h\r4 ,cocks cr[$1 birds flew l[ or flutt]$ ab\t uneasily1 b e object f> & ne> 0 well def9$ to ! eye4 ,a s+ul> broadway ( light /ret*$ nor? & s\? = upw>ds ( a qu>t] ( an h\r2 f ab\t #ab4ed to #a4aj ,p4,m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,if ! annul> eclipse ( ! sun be a matt] = wond]m5t1 ! total eclipse ( ! same is mu* m surpris+2 no o!r expression ?an t ( awfully gr&1 c give an idea ( ! effects ( totality1 & ( ! sudd5ness ) :i* x obscures ! light ( heav54 ,! d>kness1 x is said1 comes dropp+ d[n l a mantle1 & z ! mom5t ( full obscuration approa*es1 p's c\nt5ances become livid1 ! horizon is indi/9ct & sometimes invisible1 & !re is a g5]al appe>ance ( horror on all sides4 ,^! are n simply ! inv5tions ,page #bh ( active human imag9ations1 = !y produce equal1 if n great] effects1 ^u ! brute creation4 ,m4 ,arago quotes an in/ance ( a half-/>v$ dog1 :o 0 voraci\sly dev\r+ "s food1 b dropp$ x ! in/ant ! d>kness came on4 ,a sw>m ( ants1 busily engag$1 /opp$ :5 ! d>kness comm5c$1 & rema9$ motionless till ! light reappe>$4 ,a h]d ( ox5 collect$ !mselves into a circle & /ood /ill1 ) _! horns outw>d1 z if to resi/ a common enemy2 c]ta9 plants1 su* z ! convolvulus & silk-tree acacia1 clos$ _! leaves4 ,! latt] /atem5t 0 corroborat$ dur+ ! annul> eclipse ( ! #ae? ( ,m>*1 #aheh1 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,lane1 :o /ates1 t crocuses at ! ,obs]vatory1 ,bee/on1 _h _! blossoms exp&$ be=e ! eclipse2 !y comm5c$ clos+1 & 7 q %ut at ab\t "o m9ute previ\s to ! greate/ d>kness2 & ! fl[]s op5$ p>tially ab\t tw5ty m9utes aft]w>ds4 ,a total eclipse ( ! sun has always impress$ ! human m9d ) t]ror & wond] 9 e age3 x 0 always suppos$ to be ! =]unn] ( evil2 & n only is ! m9d p[]fully impress$1 z d>kness gradually %uts out ! face ( ! sun1 b at ! mom5t ( totality1 a magnific5t corona1 or glory ( light1 is visible1 & prom95ces1 or flames1 z !y are (t5 t]m$1 make _! appe>ance at diff]5t po9ts r\nd ! circle ( ! d>k mass4 ,?is glory does n fla% sudd5ly on ! eye2 b comm5c+ at ! fir/ limb ( ! sun1 passes quickly f "o limb to ! o!r4 ,our illu/ration %[s ! corona & ! rose-col\r$ prom95ces1 ^: nature we %all next endeav\r to expla94 ,pr(essor ,airy describes ! *ange f ! la/ n>r[ cresc5t ( light to ! entire d>k moon1 surr\nd$ by a r+ ( fa9t light1 z mo/ curi\s1 /rik+1 & magical 9 effect4 ,! progress ( ! =mation ( ! corona 0 se5 di/9ctly4 ,page #bi ,x comm5c$ on ! side ( ! moon opposite to t at :i* ! sun disappe>$1 & 9 ! g5]al decay & disease :i* seem$ to oppress all nature1 ! moon & ! corona appe>$ almo/ l a local sore 9 t "p ( ! sky1 & 9 "s places 7 se5 d\ble4 ,its texture appe>$ z if fibr\s1 or compos$ ( entangl$ ?reads2 9 o!r places bru%es1 or fea!rs ( light proce$$ f x1 & "o e/imate calculat$ ! light at ab\t "o-sev5? "p ( a full moon light4 ,! "q1 :e!r ! corona is conc5tric ) ! sun & moon1 0 specially moot$ by ,m4 ,arago1 & ,pr(essor ,bad5 ,p[ell has produc$ su* excell5t imitations ( ! corona by mak+ opaque bodies occult1 or conceal1 v bright po9ts1 t x _c be consid]$ z mat]ial or real1 al?\gh x ought to be rememb]$ t ! be/ !ory ( ! zodiacal light repres5ts x to be a nebul\s mass1 increas+ 9 d5sity t[>ds ! sun1 & yet no portion ( ?is nebul\s mass 0 se5 dur+ ! totality4 ,b by f> ! mo/ rem>kable ( all ! appe>ances connect$ ) a total eclipse are ! rose-col\r$ prom95ces1 m\nta9s1 or flames1 project+ f ! circumf]5ce ( ! moon to ! inn] r+ ( ! corona2 &1 al?\gh !y _h be5 obs]v$ by ,vas]ius 7a ,sw$i% a/ronom]7 9 #agcc1 !y took ! mod]n a/ronom]s entirely by surprise 9 #ahdb1 & !y 7 n prep>$ ) in/rum5ts to asc]ta9 ! nature ( ^! /range & almo/ port5t\s =ms4 ,9 #ahea1 h[ev]1 great prep>ations 7 made to ?r[ fur!r light on ! subject4 ,pr(essor ,airy w5t to make 8 obs]vations1 & he says1 ,t ! sudd5ness ( ! d>kness 9 #ahea appe>$ mu* m /rik+ ?an 9 #ahdb1 & ! =ms ( ! rose-col\r$ m\nta9s 7 mo/ curi\s4 ,"o rem9d$ him ( a boom]ang 7t curi\s weapon ?r[n s skilfully by ! aborig9es ( ,au/ralia72 ?is same figure has be5 spok5 ( by o!rs z resembl+ a ,turki% scimit>1 /rongly col\r$ ) rose-r$ at ! bord]s1 b pal] 9 ! c5tre4 ,ano!r =m 0 a pale-:ite semicircle bas$ on ! moon's limbs2 a ?ird figure 0 a r$ deta*$ cl\d1 or balloon1 ( ne>ly circul> =m1 sep>at$ f ! moon by ne>ly its own bread?2 a f\r? appe>$ l a small triangle1 or conical r$ m\nta91 p]haps a little :ite 9 ! int]ior2 & ! ,pr(essor proce$s to say1 ,i employ$ myself 9 an attempt to draw r\ghly ! figures1 & x 0 impossible1 aft] witness+ ! increase 9 height ( "s1 & ! disappe>ance ( ano!r1 & ! arrival ( new =ms1 n to feel conv9c$ t ! ph5om5a belong$ to ! sun1 & n to ! moon4 ,/ill ! "q rema9s unansw]$1 :at are ^! rose-col\r$ prom95ces8 ,if !y belong to ! sun1 & are m\nta9s 9 t lum9>y1 !y mu/ be "s ?irty or =ty ?\s& miles 9 height4 ,m4 ,faye has =mally prop\nd$ ! !ory1 t !y are caus$ by refraction1 or a k9d ( mirage1 or ! di/ortion ( objects caus$ by heat$ air4 ,?is ph5om5on is n peculi> to any c\ntry1 ?\gh mo/ frequ5tly obs]v$ ne> ! m>g9 ( lakes & riv]s1 & on hot s&y pla9s4 ,m4 ,monge1 :o accompani$ ,buonap>te 9 8 ,page #cj exp$ition to ,egypt1 witness$ a rem>kable example betwe5 ,alex&ria & ,cairo1 :]e1 9 all directions1 gre5 isl&s appe>$ surr\nd$ by ext5sive lakes ( pure1 transp>5t wat]4 ,m4 ,monge /ates t ,no?+ c\ld be conceiv$ m lovely or picturesque ?an ! l&scape4 ,9 ! tranquil surface ( ! lake1 ! trees & h\ses ) :i* ! isl&s are cov]$ 7 /rongly reflect$ ) vivid & v>i$ hues1 & ! p>ty ha/5$ =w>d to enjoy ! refre%m5t app>5tly pr(f]$ !m2 b :5 !y arriv$1 ! lake1 on ^: bosom ! images _h float$--! trees1 among/ ^: foliage !y arose1 & ! p :o /ood on ! %ore1 z if invit+ _! approa*1 _h all vani%$1 & no?+ rema9$ b ! uni=m & irksome des]t ( s& & sky1 ) a few nak$ & ragg$ ,arabs4 ,if ,m4 ,monge & 8 p>ty _h n be5 undeceiv$1 by actually go+ to ! spot1 !y w\ld1 "o & all1 h be5 firmly conv9c$ t ^! vision>y trees1 lakes1 & build+s _h a real exi/5ce4 ,?is k9d ( mirage is kn[n 9 ,p]sia & ,arabia by ! "n ( s]ab or miracul\s wat]1 & 9 ! we/]n di/ricts ( ,india by t ( s*]am4 ,?is illusion is ! effect ( unusual refraction1 & ,m4 ,faye attempts to acc\nt = ! rose-col\r$ m\nta9s by some?+ ( a simil> nature4 ,x is "r1 h[ev]1 to m5tion1 t le>n$ a/ronom]s d n consid] ?is !ory ( any value4 ,lieut5ant ,patt]son1 "o ( ! obs]v]s ( ! eclipse ( #ahea1 says1 t ,x is v rem>kable t ! flames or prom95ces correspond exactly 7at lea/ z f> z he c\ld judge7 ) ! spots on ! sun's surface4 ,tak+ ?is /atem5t ) t ( ,m4 ,faye1 x may be assum$1 z a new idea1 & no?+ m1 t ^! prom95ces are1 aft] all1 m]e a]ial pictures ( ^! op5+s 9 ! sun's atmosph]e1 or :at are call$ sun spots4 ,9 ! ,ed9burgh ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 x is said1 t al?\gh x has lately be5 %[n 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,obs]vatory t x is possible to produce1 by c]ta9 optical exp]im5ts1 r$ flames on ! sun's limb ( precisely ! rose-col\r$ t9t describ$1 yet1 on weigh+ ! :ole ( ! evid5ce1 !re does seem a great prepond]ance 9 fav\r ( ! eclipse flames be+ real app5dages ( ! sun1 & 9 t case !y mu/ be masses ( su* va/ size z to play no unimportant "p 9 ! economy ( t /up5d\s orb4 ,dur+ ! la/ eclipse great disappo9tm5t 0 felt t ! d>kness 0 s insignificant1 al?\gh1 :5 we consid] ! enorm\s light-giv+ p[] ( ! sun1 & "k t x 0 n :olly obscur$1 we c\ld h>dly h expect$ any o!r result4 ,!re c be no d\bt t a decid$ *ange 9 ! am\nt ( light is only to be obs]v$ dur+ a total eclipse ( ! sun1 "o ( :i* occurr$ on ! #g? ( ,septemb]1 #aheh2 b1 un=tunately1 x 0 only visible 9 ,s\? ,am]ica2 we mu/ !re=e cont5t ourselves ) ! descriptions ( ^? a/ronom]s :o c be fully reli$ on4 ,f ! graphic acc\nt giv5 by ,pr(essor ,piazzi ,smy?1 ! a/ronom]-royal = ,scotl&1 ,page #ca ( a total eclipse z se5 by him on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,norway1 we may =m "s notion ( ! impos+ appe>ance ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry :5 obscur$ dur+ ! occurr5ce ( ?is r>e a/ronomical ph5om5on4 ,! ,pr(essor rem>ks1 ,to und]/& ! sc5e m fully1 ! read] mu/ fancy himself on a small1 rocky isl& on a m\nta9\s coa/1 ! wea!r calm1 & ! sky at ! beg9n+ ( ! eclipse sev5-t5?s cov]$ ) ?9 & bright cirro-/rati cl\ds4 ,z ! eclipse approa*es1 ! cl\ds gradually d>k51 ! rays ( ! sun are no long] able to p5etrate !m ?r\gh & ?r\gh1 & dr5* !m ) liv+ light z be=e1 b !y become d>k] ?an ! sky aga9/ :i* !y are se54 ,! air becomes s5sibly cold]1 ! cl\ds /ill d>k]1 & ! :ole atmosph]e murki]4 ,f mom5t to mom5t z ! totality approa*es1 ! cold & d>kness advance apace2 & !re is some?+ peculi>ly & t]ribly conv9c+ 9 ! two diff]5t s5ses1 s entirely co9cid+ 9 _! indications ( an unprec$5t$ fact be+ 9 c\rse ( accompli%m5t4 ,sudd5ly1 & app>5tly )\t any w>n+ 7s imm5sely great] 7 its effects ?an ^? ( any?+ else :i* _h occurr$71 ! totality sup]v5es1 & d>kness comes d[n4 ,!n came into view lurid lights & =ms1 z on ! ext9ction ( c&les4 ,?is 0 ! mo/ /rik+ po9t ( ! :ole ph5om5on1 & made ! ,norse peasants ab\t u flee ) precipitation1 & hide !mselves = _! lives4 ,d>kness reign$ ev]y:]e 9 heav5 & e>?1 except :]e1 along ! nor?-ea/]n horizon1 a n>r[ /rip ( uncl\d$ sky pres5t$ a l[ burn+ tone ( col\r1 & :]e "s di/ant sn[-cov]$ m\nta9s1 beyond ! range ( ! moon's %ad[1 reflect$ ! fa9t mono-*romatic light ( ! p>tially eclips$ sun1 & exhibit$ all ! detail ( _! /ructure1 all ! light1 & %ade1 & m>k+s ( _! precipit\s sides ) an app>5tly sup]natural di/9ctness4 ,aft] a little "t1 ! eyes seem$ to get accu/om$ to ! d>kness1 & ! loom+ =ms ( objects close by c\ld be disc]n$1 all ( !m exhibit+ a dull-gre5 hue2 seem+ to h exhal$ _! natural col\r1 & to h tak5 ?is p>ticul> "o1 m]ely by =ce ( ! r$ col\r 9 ! nor?4 ,life & animation seem$1 inde$1 to h n[ dep>t$ f ev]y?+ ar\nd1 & we c\ld h>dly b fe>1 aga9/ our reason1 t if su* a /ate ( ?+s 0 to la/ mu* long]1 "s dreadful calamity mu/ happ5 to u all2 :ile ! lurid horizon1 nor?w>d1 appe>$ s l ! gleams ( dep>t+ light 9 "s ( ! gr&e/ pa9t+s by ,danby & ,m>t91 t we c\ld n b believe1 9 spite ( ! alleg$ extravagances ( ^! arti/s1 t ,nature _h op5$ up to ! con/ant contemplation ( _! m9d's-eye "s ( ^? magnific5t revelations ( p[] & glory :i* o!rs c only get a glimpse ( on occasions su* z ^!4 ,x c be easily imag9$1 t "u su* peculi> & awful circum/ances1 ! c>eful obs]vation ( ^! effects mu/ be some:at difficult1 ,page #cb & ! only wond] is t ! a/ronomical obs]vations are conduct$ ) any c]ta9ty at all4 ,9 ! eclipse ( #ahdb1 x 0 n only ! vivaci\s ,fr5*man :o 0 c>ri$ away 9 ! impulse ( ! mom5t1 & _h aft]w>ds to plead t he 0 no m ?an a man z an excuse = 8 unfulfill$ "p 9 ! obs]vations1 b ! same 0 ! case ) ! grave ,engli%man & ! m /olid ,g]man4 ,9 #ahea1 mu* ! same failure 9 ! obs]vations occurr$2 & on "s p]son ask+ a wor?y ,am]ican1 :o _h come ) 8 in/rum5ts f ! o!r side ( ! _w expressly to obs]ve ! eclipse1 :at he _h succe$$ 9 do+8 he m]ely answ]$1 ) mu* quiet impressiv5ess1 ,t if x 0 to be obs]v$ ov] aga91 he hop$ he w\ld be able to d some?+1 b t1 z x 01 he _h done no?+3 x _h be5 too mu* = him4 ,?is is n q s bad z ! fa%ionable lady :o _h be5 invit$ to look at an eclipse ( ! sun ?r\gh a gr& telescope1 b arriv+ too late1 inquir$ :e!r x c\ld n be %[n ov] aga94 ,) ?is brief glance at ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy1 we once m return to ! t]m gravity1 :i* w introduce to u "s new & int]e/+ facts1 "u ! head ( :at is call$ c5tre ( gravity4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,c5tre ,,( ,,gravity4 ,t po9t ab\t :i* all ! p>ts ( a body d1 9 any situation1 exactly balance ea* o!r4 ,! discov]y ( ?is fact is due to ,ar*im$es1 & x is a po9t 9 e solid body 7:atev] ! =m may be7 9 :i* ! =ces ( gravity may be consid]$ z unit$4 ,9 our globe1 :i* is a sph]e1 or r an oblate sph]oid1 ! c5tre ( gravity w be ! c5tre4 ,?us1 if a plummet be susp5d$ on ! surface ( ! e>?1 x po9ts directly to ! c5tre ( gravity1 &1 consequ5tly1 two plummet-l9es susp5d$ side by side _c1 /rictly speak+1 be p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,if x 7 possible to bore or dig a gall]y ?r\gh ! :ole sub/ance ( ! e>? f pole to pole1 & !n to all[ a /one or ! fabl$ ,mahomet's c(f9 to fall ?r\gh x1 ! mom5tum--i4e41 ! =ce ( ! mov+ body1 w\ld c>ry x beyond ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,?is =ce1 h[ev]1 be+ exhau/$1 !re w\ld be a retrograde movem5t1 & aft] _m oscillations x w\ld gradually come to re/1 & !n1 unsupport$ by any?+ mat]ial1 x w\ld be susp5d$ by ! =ce ( gravitation1 & n[ ent] into & take "p 9 ! g5]al attract+ =ce2 & be+ equally attract$ on e side1 ! /one or c(f9 mu/ be totally )\t weight4 ,mom5tum is prettily illu/rat$ by a s]ies ( incl9$ planes ,page #cc cut 9 mahogany1 ) a groov$ *annel at ! top1 9 imitation ( ! fam\s ,russian ice m\nta9s3 & if a m>ble is all[$ to run d[n ! ,page #cd fir/ incl9e1 ! mom5tum w c>ry x up ! second1 f :i* x w aga9 desc5d & pass up & d[n ! ?ird & la/ m9iature m\nta94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,f4 ,! c5tre4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e4 ,plummet-l9es1 all po9t+ to ! c5tre1 & !re=e div]g+ f ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,p ,p ,p4 ,incl9$ planes1 gradually decreas+ 9 height1 cut out ( in* mahogany1 ) a groove at ! top to c>ry an ord9>y m>ble4 ,b ,b ,b4 ,diff]5t positions ( ! m>ble1 :i* />ts f ,b ,a4 ,9 a sph]e ( uni=m d5sity1 ! c5tre ( gravity is easily discov]$1 b n s 9 an irregul> mass2 & "h1 p]haps1 an explanation ( t]ms may n be altoge!r unacceptable4 ,mass1 is a t]m appli$ to solids1 su* z a mass ( lead or /one4 ,bulk1 to liquids1 su* z a bulk ( wat] or oil4 ,volume1 to gases1 su* z a volume ( air or oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,a ,b ,d1 ,! ?ree po9ts ( susp5sion4 ,c1 ,! po9t ( int]section1 &1 !re=e1 ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,p1 ,! l9e ( plummet4 ,to f9d ! c5tre ( gravity ( any mass1 z1 = example1 an ord9>y s*ool-slate1 we mu/ fir/ ( all susp5d x f any "p ( ! frame2 !n all[ a plumb-l9e to drop f ! po9t ( susp5sion1 & m>k its direction on ! slate4 ,aga91 susp5d ! slate at v>i\s o!r po9ts1 always m>k+ ! l9e ( direction ( ! plummet1 & at ! po9t :]e ! l9es int]sect ea* o!r1 !re w be ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,if ! slate be n[ plac$ 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dc7 on a blunt wood5 po9t at ! spot :]e ! l9es cross ea* o!r1 x w be f\nd to balance exactly1 & ?is place is call$ ! c5tre ( gravity1 be+ ! po9t ) :i* all o!r p>ticles ( ! body w\ld move ) p>allel & equable motion dur+ its fall4 ,! equilibrium ( bodies is !re=e mu* affect$ by ! position ( ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,?us1 if we cut out an elliptical figure f a bo>d "o in* 9 ?ickness1 & re/ x on a flat surface by "o ( its edges 7z at ,no4 #a1 fig4 #dd71 ?is po9t ( contact is call$ ! po9t ( support1 & ! c5tre ( gravity is imm$iately above x4 ,9 ?is case1 ! body is 9 a /ate ( secure equilibrium1 = any motion on ei!r side w cause ! c5tre ( gravity to asc5d 9 ^! directions1 & an oscillation w ensue4 ,b if we place x ^u ! small] end1 z %[n at ,no4 #b 7fig4 #dd71 ! position w be "o ( ,page #ce equilibrium1 b n /able or secure2 al?\gh ! c5tre ( gravity is directly above ! po9t ( support1 ! slighte/ t\* w displace ! oval & cause its ov]?r[4 ,! fam\s /ory ( ,columbus & ! egg sugge/s a capital illu/ration ( ?is fact2 & !re are two modes 9 :i* ! egg may be pois$ on ei!r ( ! ends4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,! po9t ( support4 ,c1 ,! c5tre ( gravity4 ,! "o usually attribut$ to ! great discov]]1 is t ( scrap+ or slightly break+ away a little ( ! %ell1 s z to flatt5 "o ( ! ends1 ?us-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,a ,repres5ts ! egg 9 its natural /ate1 &1 !re=e1 9 un/able equilibrium2 ,b1 ano!r egg1 ) ! surface1 ,s1 flatt5$1 by :i* ! c5tre ( gravity is l[]$1 & if n di/urb$ beyond ! ext5t ( ! po9t ( support ! equilibrium is /able4 ,! mo/ philosophical mode ( mak+ ! egg /& on its end & )\t di/urb+ ! ext]ior %ell is to alt] ! position ( ! yolk1 :i* has a great] d5sity ?an ! :ite1 & is situat$ ab\t ! c5tre4 ,if ! egg is n[ %ak5 s z to break ! membrane enclos+ ! yolk1 & ?us all[ x to s9k to ! bottom ( ! small] end1 ! c5tre ( gravity is l[]$2 !re is a great] proportion ( weight ,page #cf conc5trat$ 9 ! small end1 & ! egg /&s erect1 z depict$ at fig4 #df4 ,x is ?is v>iable position ( ! c5tre ( gravity 9 ivory balls 7"o "p ( :i* may be m d5se ?an ano!r7 t s frequ5tly annoys ev5 ! be/ billi>d-play]s2 & on ?is acc\nt a ball w deviate f ! l9e 9 :i* x is impell$1 n f any fault ( ! play]1 b 9 consequ5ce ( ! ivory ball be+ ( unequal d5sity1 &1 !re=e1 n hav+ ! c5tre correspond+ ) ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,a good billi>d-play] %\ld1 !re=e1 always try ! ball be=e he engages to play = any l>ge sum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--,no4 #a4 ,section ( egg4 ,c4 ,c5tre ( gravity4 ,y4 ,! yolk4 ,w4 ,! :ite4 ,no4 #b4 ,c4 ,c5tre ( gravity1 mu* l[]$4 ,y4 ,! yolk at ! bottom ( ! egg4 ,! toy call$ ! tombola rem9ds u ( ! egg-exp]im5t1 z !re is usually a lump ( lead ins]t$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! hemisph]e1 & :5 ! toy is pu%$ d[n x rapidly assumes ! upright position because ! c5tre ( gravity is n 9 ! l[e/ place to :i* x c desc5d2 ! latt] position be+ only atta9$ :5 ! figure is upright4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,no4 #a4 ,c4 ,c5tre ( gravity 9 ! l[e/ place1 figure upright4 ,no4 #b4 ,c4 ,c5tre ( gravity rais$ z ! figure is incl9$ on ei!r side1 b fall+ aga9 into ! l[e/ place z ! figure gradually comes to re/4 ,!re is a popul> p>adox 9 me*anics--viz41 a body hav+ a t5d5cy to fall by its own weight1 may be prev5t$ f fall+ by add+ to x a weight on ! same side on :i* x t5ds to fall1 & ! p>adox is demon/rat$ by ano!r well-kn[n *ild's toy z depict$ 9 ! next cut4 ,page #cg ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,! l9e ( direction fall+ beyond ! base2 ! b5t wire & lead weight ?r[+ ! c5tre ( gravity "u ! table & ne> ! lead5 weight2 ! h9d legs become ! po9t ( support1 & ! toy is p]fectly balanc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4--,no4 #a4 ,sword balanc$ on h&le3 ! arc f ,c to ,d is v small1 & if ! c5tre1 ,c1 falls out ( ! l9e ( direction x is n easily re/or$ to ! upright position4 ,no #b4 ,sword balanc$ on ! po9t3 ! arc f ,c to ,d mu* l>g]1 & !re=e ! sword is m easily balanc$4 ,aft] :at has be5 expla9$ reg>d+ ! improvem5t ( ! /ability ( ! egg by l[]+ ! situation ( ! c5tre ( gravity1 x may at fir/ appe> s+ul> t a /ick load$ ) a weight at its upp] extremity c be balanc$ p]p5dicul>ly ) great] ease & precision ?an :5 ! weight is l[] d[n & ne>] ! h&2 & t a sword c be balanc$ be/ :5 ! hilt is upp]mo/2 ,page #ch b ?is is easily expla9$ :5 x is und]/ood t ) ! h&le d[nw>ds a mu* small] arc is describ$ z x falls ?an :5 rev]s$1 s t 9 ! =m] case ! balanc] has n "t to re-adju/ ! c5tre1 :il/ 9 ! latt] position ! arc describ$ is s l>ge t be=e ! sword falls ! c5tre ( gravity may be re/or$ )9 ! l9e ( direction ( ! base4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,no4 #a4 ,! two pieces ( mahogany1 c>v$ to repres5t a man & a boy1 "o be+ #aj & ! o!r #e in*es long1 atta*$ to bo>d by h+es at ,h ,h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,no4 #b4 ,! bo>d pu%$ =w>d1 /rik+ aga9/ a nail1 :5 ! %ort piece falls fir/1 & ! long "o second4 ,= ! same reason1 a *ild tripp+ aga9/ a /one w fall quickly2 :]eas1 a man c recov] himself2 ?is fact c be v nicely %[n by fix+ two squ>e pieces ( mahogany ( diff]5t l5g?s1 by h+es on a flat base or bo>d1 !n if ! bo>d be pu%$ rapidly =w>d & /ruck aga9/ a lead weight or a nail put 9 ! ,page #ci table1 ! %ort piece is se5 to fall fir/ & ! long "o aft]w>ds2 ! diff]5ce ( "t occupi$ 9 ! fall ( ea* piece ( wood 7:i* may be c>v$ to repres5t ! human figure7 be+ cle>ly d5ot$ by ! s\nds produc$ z !y /rike ! bo>d4 ,boat-accid5ts frequ5tly arise 9 consequ5ce ( ignorance on ! subject ( ! c5tre ( gravity1 & :5 p]sons are al>m$ :il/ sitt+ 9 a boat1 !y g5]ally rise sudd5ly1 raise ! c5tre ( gravity1 :i* fall+1 by ! oscillation ( ! frail b>k1 outside ! l9e ( direction ( ! base1 _c be re/or$1 & ! boat is upset2 if ! boat 7 fix$ by ! keel1 rais+ ! c5tre ( gravity w\ld be ( little consequ5ce1 b z ! boat is p]fectly free to move & roll to "o side or ! o!r1 ! elevation ( ! c5tre ( gravity is fatal1 & x op]ates j z ! removal ( ! lead w\ld d1 if *ang$ f ! base to ! head ( ! tombola toy4 ,a v /rik+ exp]im5t1 exhibit+ ! dang] ( ris+ 9 a boat1 may be %[n by ! foll[+ model1 z depict$ at ,nos4 #a & #b1 figs4 #eb & #ec4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,no4 #a4 ,sections ( a toy-boat float+ 9 wat]4 ,b ,b ,b4 ,?ree brass wires plac$ at regul> di/ances & screw$ into ! bottom ( ! boat1 ) cuts or slits at ! top s t :5 ! lead5 bullets1 ,l ,l ,l1 :i* are p]=at$ & slide ^u !m l beads1 are rais$ to ! top1 !y are reta9$ by ! brass cuts spr++ out2 :5 ! bullets are at ! bottom ( ! l9es !y repres5t p]sons sitt+ 9 a boat1 z %[n 9 ! l[] cuts1 & ! c5tre ( gravity w be )9 ! vessel4 ,we ?us p]ceive t ! /ability ( a body plac$ on a base dep5ds ^u ! position ( ! l9e ( direction & ! height ( ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,security results :5 ! l9e ( direction falls )9 ! base4 ,in/ability :5 j at ! edge4 ,incapability ( /&+ :5 fall+ )\t ! base4 ,page #dj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,no4 #b4 ,! lead5 bullets rais$ to ! top n[ %[ ! result ( p]sons sudd5ly ris+1 :5 ! boat imm$iately turns ov]1 & ei!r s9ks or floats on ! surface ) ! keel upw>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,f4 ,bo>d cut & pa9t$ to repres5t ! lean+-t[] ( ,pisa4 ,g4 ,! c5tre ( gravity & plummet l9e susp5d$ f x4 ,h4 ,! h+e :i* atta*es x to ! base bo>d4 ,i4 ,! /r+1 suffici5tly long to unw9d & all[ ! plummet to hang outside ! base1 s t1 :5 cut1 ! model falls 9 ! direction ( ! arr[4 ,! lean+-t[] ( ,pisa is "o hundr$ & eighty-two feet 9 height1 & is sway$ ?irte5 & a half feet f ! p]p5dicul>1 b yet rema9s p]fectly firm & secure1 z ! l9e ( direction falls consid]ably )9 ! base4 ,if x 0 ( a great] altitude x c\ld no long] /&1 because ! c5tre ( gravity w\ld be s elevat$ t ! l9e ( direction w\ld fall outside ! base4 ,?is fact may be illu/rat$ by tak+ a bo>d sev]al feet 9 l5g?1 & hav+ cut ,page #da x out to repres5t ! ar*itecture ( ! lean+-t[] ( ,pisa1 x may !n be pa9t$ 9 di/emp]1 & fix$ at ! "r angle ) a h+e to ano!r bo>d repres5t+ ! gr\nd1 :il/ a plumb-l9e may be dropp$ f ! c5tre ( gravity2 & x may be %[n t z long z ! plummet falls )9 ! base1 ! t[] is safe2 b directly ! model t[] is br\ght a little fur!r =w>d by a w$ge s t ! plummet hangs outside1 !n1 on remov+ ! support1 :i* may be a piece ( /r+ to be cut at ! "r mom5t1 ! model falls1 & ! fact is at once compreh5d$4 ,! lean+-t[]s ( ,bologna are likewise celebrat$ = _! great incl9ation2 s also 79 ,engl&7 is ! hang+-t[]1 or1 m correctly1 ! massive wall :i* has =m$ "p ( a t[] at ,bridg5or?1 ,salop2 x deviates f ! p]p5dicul>1 b ! c5tre ( gravity & ! l9e ( direction fall )9 ! base1 & x rema9s secure2 inde$1 s little fe>s are ent]ta9$ ( its tumbl+ d[n1 t a /able has be5 erect$ b5ea? x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,no4 #a4 ,two billi>d-cues arrang$ = ! exp]im5t & fix$ to a bo>d3 ! ball is roll+ up4 ,no4 #b4 ,sections %[+ t ! c5tre ( gravity1 ,c1 is high] at ,a ?an at ,b1 :i* repres5ts ! ?ick end ( ! cues2 x !re=e1 9 effect1 rolls d[n hill4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s p>adoxes is display$ 9 ! asc5t ( a billi>d-ball f ! ?9 to ! ?ick ends ( two billi>d-cues plac$ at an angle1 z 9 our draw+ above2 "h ! c5tre ( gravity is rais$ at />t+1 & ! ball moves 9 consequ5ce ( its actually fall+ f ! high to ! l[ level4 ,mu* ( ! /ability ( a body dep5ds on ! height ?r\gh :i* ! c5tre ( gravity mu/ be elevat$ be=e ! body c be ov]?r[n4 ,! great] ?is height1 ! great] w be ! immovability ( ! mass4 ,"o ( ! gr&e/ examples ( ?is fact is %[n 9 ! anci5t ,pyramids2 & :il/ gigantic palaces1 ) va/ columns1 ,page #db & all ! solid gr&eur belong+ to ,egyptian ar*itecture1 h succumb$ to "t & lie m or less pro/rate ^u ! e>?1 ! ,pyramids1 9 _! simple =m & solidity1 rema9 almo/ z !y 7 built1 & x w be notic$1 9 ! accompany+ sket*1 h[ difficult1 if n impossible1 x w\ld be to attempt to ov]?r[ bodily "o ( ^! great monum5ts ( anci5t times4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,c4 ,c5tre ( gravity1 :i* mu/ be rais$ to ,d be=e x c be ov]?r[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,no4 #a4 ,! c5tre ( gravity is ne> ! gr\nd1 & falls )9 ! :eels4 ,no4 #b4 ,! c5tre ( gravity is mu* elevat$1 & ! l9e ( direction is outside ! :eels4 ,! pr9ciples already expla9$ are directly applicable to ! con/ruction or secure load+ ( vehicles2 & 9 proportion z ! c5tre ( gravity is elevat$ above ! po9t ( support 7t is1 ! :eels71 s is ! insecurity ( ! c>riage increas$1 & ! contr>y takes place if ! c5tre ( gravity is l[]$4 ,aga91 if a waggon be load$ ,page #dc ) a v heavy sub/ance :i* does n occupy mu* space1 su* z iron1 lead1 or copp]1 or bricks1 x w be 9 mu* less dang] ( an ov]?r[ ?an if x c>ries an equal weight ( a light] body1 su* z pockets ( hops1 or bags ( wool or bales ( rags4 ,9 ! "o in/ance1 ! c5tre ( gravity is ne> ! gr\nd1 & falls well )9 ! base1 z at ,no4 #a1 fig4 #eg4 ,9 ! o!r1 ! c5tre ( gravity is consid]ably elevat$ above ! gr\nd1 & hav+ met ) an ob/ruction :i* has rais$ "o side high] ?an ! o!r1 ! l9e ( direction has fall5 outside ! :eels1 & ! waggon is ov]turn+ z at ,no4 #b4 ,! v>i\s po/ures ( ! human body may be reg>d$ z s _m exp]im5ts ^u ! position ( ! c5tre ( gravity :i* we are e mom5t unconsci\sly p]=m+4 ,to ma9ta9 an erect position1 a man mu/ s place 8 body z to cause ! l9e ( direction ( 8 weight to fall )9 ! base =m$ by 8 feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,! m ! toes are turn$ outw>ds1 ! m contract$ w be ! base1 & ! body w be m liable to fall backw>ds or =w>ds2 & ! clos] ! feet are drawn toge!r1 ! m likely is ! body to fall on ei!r side4 ,! acrobats1 & s-call$ ,india-,rubb] ,bro!rs1 danc+ dogs1 c41 unconsci\sly acquire ! habit ( accurately balanc+ !mselves 9 all k9ds ( /range positions2 b z ^! accompli%m5ts are n to be recomm5d$ to "y p1 "s o!r m>vels 7su* z balanc+ a pail ( wat] on a /ick laid ^u a table7 may be adduc$1 z illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ei4 ,let ,a ,b repres5t an ord9>y table1 ^u :i* place a broom/ick1 ,c ,d1 s t "o-half %all lay ^u ! table & ! o!r ext5d f ,page #dd x2 place ov] ! /ick ! h&le ( an empty pail 7:i* may possibly require to be elongat$ = ! exp]im5t7 s t ! h&le t\*es or falls into a not* at ,h2 & 9 ord] to br+ ! pail well "u ! table1 ano!r /ick is plac$ 9 ! not* ,e1 & is arrang$ 9 ! l9e ,g ,f ,e1 "o end re/+ at ,g & ! o!r at ,e4 ,hav+ made ^! prep>ations1 ! pail may n[ be fill$ ) wat]2 & al?\gh x appe>s to be a mo/ m>vell\s result1 to see ! pail app>5tly balanc$ on ! end ( a /ick :i* may easily tilt up1 ! pr9ciples already expla9$ w enable ! obs]v] to und]/& t ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! pail falls )9 ! l9e ( direction %[n by ! dott$ l9e2 & x am\nts 9 effect to no?+ m ?an c>ry+ a pail on ! c5tre ( a /ick1 "o end ( :i* is support$ at ,e1 & ! o!r ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! table1 ,a ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,?is illu/ration may be modifi$ by us+ a heavy weight1 rope1 & /ick1 z %[n 9 our sket* bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,be=e we dismiss ?is subject x is advisable to expla9 a t]m ref]r+ to a v useful tru?1 call$ ! c5tre ( p]cussion2 a k ( :i*1 ga9$ in/9ctively or o!rwise1 enables ! workman to wield 8 tools ) increas$ p[]1 & gives great] =ce to ! cut ( ! swordsman1 s t1 ) "s physical /r5g?1 he may p]=m ! feat ( cutt+ a %eep 9 half1 cleav+ a b> ( lead1 or ,page #de neatly divid+1 la ,salad91 9 anci5t ,s>ac5 fa%ion1 a silk h&k]*ief float+ 9 ! air4 ,!re is a feat1 h[ev]1 :i* does n require any v great /r5g?1 b is suffici5tly />tl+ to excite mu* surprise & "s inquiry--viz41 ! "o ( cutt+ 9 half a broom/ick support$ at ! ends on tumbl]s ( wat] )\t spill+ ! wat] or crack+ or o!rwise damag+ ! glass supports4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,^! & o!r feats are p>tly expla9$ by ref]5ce to "t3 ! =ce is s quickly appli$ & exp5d$ on ! c5tre ( ! /ick t x is n communicat$ to ! supports2 j z a bullet f a pi/ol may be s5t ?r\gh a pane ( glass )\t %att]+ ! :ole squ>e1 b mak+ a clean hole ?r\gh x1 or a c&le may be s5t ?r\gh a plank1 or a cannon-ball pass ?r\gh a half op5$ door )\t caus+ x to move on its h+es4 ,b ! success ( ! sev]al feats dep5ds 9 a great measure on ! att5tion t is paid to ! deliv]y ( ! bl[s at ! c5tre ( p]cussion ( ! weapon2 ?is is a po9t 9 a mov+ body :]e ! p]cussion is ! greate/1 & ab\t :i* ! impetus or =ce ( all p>ts is balanc$ on e side4 ,x may be bett] und]/ood by ref]5ce to our draw+ bel[4 ,apply+ ?is pr9ciple to a model sword made ( wood1 cut 9 half 9 ! c5tre ( ! blade1 & !n unit$ ) an elb[-jo9t1 ! h&le be+ fix$ to a bo>d by a wire pass$ ?r\gh x & ! two upright pieces ( wood1 ! fact is at once app>5t1 & is well %[n 9 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 fig4 #fb4 ,page #df ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,no4 #a1 is ! wood5 sword1 ) an elb[-jo9t at ,c4 ,no4 #b4 ,sword atta*$ to bo>d at ,k1 & be+ all[$ to fall f any angle %[n by dott$-l9e1 x /rikes ! block1 ,w1 outside ! c5tre ( p]cussion1 ,p1 & z !re is unequal motion 9 ! p>ts ( ! sword x b5ds d[n 7or1 z x 71 breaks7 at ! elb[-jo9t1 ,c4 ,no4 #c displays ! same model2 b "h ! bl[ has fall5 on ! block1 ,w1 precisely at ! c5tre ( p]cussion ( ! sword1 ,p1 & ! elb[-jo9t rema9s p]fectly firm4 ,:5 a bl[ is n deliv]$ ) a /ick or sword at ! c5tre ( p]cussion1 a peculi> j>1 or :at is famili>ly spok5 ( z a /++ s5sation1 is app>5t 9 ! h&2 & ! cause ( ?is disagreeable result is fur!r elucidat$ by fig4 #fc1 9 :i* ! po/1 ,a1 corresponds ) ! h&le ( ! sword4 ,page #dg ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,a4 ,! po/ to :i* a rope is atta*$4 ,b & ,c are two horses runn+ r\nd 9 a circle1 & x is pla9 t ,b w n move s quick z ,c1 & t ! latt] w h ! greate/ mov+ =ce2 consequ5tly1 if ! rope 0 sudd5ly *eck$ by /rik+ aga9/ an object at ! c5tre ( gravity1 ! horse ,c w\ld proce$ fa/] ?an ,b1 & w\ld imp>t to ,b a backw>d motion1 & ?us make a great /ra9 on ! rope at ,a4 ,b if ! ob/acle 7 plac$ s z to be /ruck at a c]ta9 po9t ne>] ,c1 viz41 at or ab\t ! little />1 ! t5d5cy ( ea* horse to move on w\ld balance & neutralize ! o!r1 s t !re w\ld be no /ra9 at ,a4 ,! little /> indicates ! c5tre ( p]cussion4 ,all milit>y m51 & especially ^? "y g5tlem5 :o are int5d$ = ! army1 %\ld be> 9 m9d ?is important tru? dur+ _! sword-practice2 & ) "o ( ,mr4 ,wilk9son's swords1 made only ( ! v be/ /eel1 !y may conqu] 9 a *ance combat :i* might o!rwise h prov$ fatal to !m4 ,to ,mr4 ,wilk9son1 ( ,pall ,mall1 ! em95t sword-cutl]1 is due ! great m]it ( improv+ ! quality ( ! /eel employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( (fic]s' swords2 & ) "o ( 8 weapons1 ! au?or has repeat$ly ?ru/ ?r\gh an iron plate ab\t "o-eigh? ( an in* 9 ?ickness )\t injur+ ! po9t1 & has also b5t "o ne>ly d\ble )\t fractur+ x1 ! p]fect ela/icity ( ! /eel br++ ! sword /raight aga94 ,^!1 & o!r sev]e te/s appli$ to ,wilk9son's swords1 %[ t !re is no reason :y an (fic] %\ld n possess a weapon t w be> comp>ison )1 nay1 surpass1 ! f>-fam$ ,tol$o weapon1 in/ead ( submitt+ to m]e army-tailor swords1 :i* are (t5 little bett] ?an hoops ( be] b>rels2 &1 9 dire combat ) ,h9doo or ,mussulman fanatics' ,tulwah1 may %[ too late ! folly ( ! own]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,page #dh ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,specific ,,gravity4 ,x is record$ ( ! great ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 t :5 ,sir ,humphry ,davy plac$ 9 8 h&1 :at 0 !n consid]$ to be ! sci5tific wond] ( ! day--viz41 a small bit ( ! metal potassium1 he exclaim$ at once1 ,h[ heavy x is1 & 0 greatly surpris$1 :5 ,sir ,humphry ?rew ! metal on wat]1 to see x n only take fire1 b actually float ^u ! surface2 "h1 !n1 0 a philosoph] possess+ ! deepe/ le>n+1 unable1 by ! s5se ( t\* & by ord9>y h&l+1 to /ate correctly :e!r ! new sub/ance 7& t a metal71 0 heavy or light2 h5ce x is app>5t t ! prop]ty ( specific gravity is "o ( importance1 & be+ d]iv$ f ! ,lat91 means species1 a p>ticul> sort or k9d2 & gravis1 heavy or weight--i4e41 ! p>ticul> weight ( e sub/ance comp>$ ) a fix$ /&>d ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,a4 ,a l>ge cyl9drical vessel conta9+ wat]1 9 :i* ! egg s9ks till x rea*es ! bottom ( ! glass4 ,b4 ,a simil> glass vessel conta9+ half br9e & half wat]1 9 :i* ! egg floats 9 ! c5tre--viz41 j at ! po9t :]e ! br9e & wat] t\*4 ,we are s con/antly 9 ! habit ( ref]r+ to a /&>d ( p]fection 9 music & ! arts ( pa9t+ & sculpture1 t ! y\nge/ w compreh5d ! (fice ( wat] :5 told t x is ! philosoph]'s unit or />t+-po9t = ! e/imation ( ! relative weights ( solids & liquids4 ,a good idea ( ! scope & mean+ ( ! t]m specific gravity1 is acquir$ by a few simple exp]im5ts1 ?us3 if a cyl9drical ,page #di glass1 say eighte5 in*es long1 & two & a half wide1 is fill$ ) wat]1 & ano!r ( ! same size is also fill$1 "o half ) wat] & ! o!r half ) a saturat$ solution ( common salt1 or :at is commonly t]m$ br9e1 a mo/ amus+ comp>ison ( ! relative weights ( equal bulks ( wat] & br9e1 c be made ) ! help ( two eggs2 :5 "o ( ! eggs is plac$ 9 ! glass conta9+ wat]1 x imm$iately s9ks to ! bottom1 %[+ t x has a great] specific gravity ?an wat]2 b :5 ! o!r egg is plac$ 9 ! second glass conta9+ ! br9e1 x s9ks ?r\gh ! wat] till x rea*es ! /rong solution ( salt1 :]e x is susp5d$1 & pres5ts a mo/ curi\s & pretty appe>ance2 seem+ to float l a balloon 9 air1 & app>5tly susp5d$ ^u no?+1 x provokes ! inquiry1 :e!r magnetism has any?+ to d ) x8 ,! answ]1 ( c\rse1 is 9 ! negative1 x m]ely floats 9 ! c5tre1 9 ob$i5ce to ! common pr9ciple1 t all bodies float 9 o!rs :i* are heavi] ?an !mselves2 ! br9e has1 !re=e1 a great] weight ?an an equal bulk ( wat]1 & is also heavi] ?an ! egg4 ,a pleas+ sequel to ?is exp]im5t may be %[n by demon/rat+ h[ ! br9e is plac$ 9 ! vessel )\t mix+ ) ! wat] above x2 ?is is done by us+ a glass tube & funnel1 & aft] p\r+ away half ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! vessel 7,fig4 #fe471 ! egg c be float$ f ! bottom to ! c5tre ( ! glass1 by p\r+ ! br9e d[n ! funnel & tube4 ,! saturat$ solution ( salt rema9s 9 ! l[] "p ( ! vessel & displaces ! wat]1 :i* floats ^u its surface l oil on wat]1 c>ry+ ! egg ) x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,a vessel half full ( wat]1 & z ! br9e is p\r$ d[n ! tube ! egg gradually rises4 ,! wat] ( ! ,dead ,sea is said to conta9 ab\t tw5ty-six p] c5t4 ( sal9e matt]1 :i* *iefly consi/s ( common salt4 ,x is p]fectly cle> & bright1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ! great d5sity1 a p]son may easily float on its surface1 l ! egg on ! br9e1 s t if a %ip c\ld be heavily lad5 :il/ float+ on ! wat] ( ! ,dead ,sea1 x w\ld mo/ likely s9k if transport$ to ! ,?ames4 ,?is illu/ration ( specific gravity is also %[n by a model %ip1 :i* be+ fir/ float$ on ! br9e1 w aft]w>ds s9k if convey$ to ano!r vessel conta9+ wat]4 ,"o ( ! t9 model %ips sold z a magnetic ,page #ej toy answ]s nicely = ?is exp]im5t1 b x mu/ be weight$ or adju/$ s t x j floats 9 ! br9e1 ,a2 !n x w s9k1 :5 plac$1 9 ano!r vessel conta9+ only wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,a4 ,vessel conta9+ br9e1 ^u :i* ! little model floats4 ,b4 ,vessel conta9+ wat]1 9 :i* ! %ip s9ks4 ,ano!r amus+ illu/ration ( ! same k9d is display$ ) goldfi%1 :i* swim easily 9 wat]1 float+ on br9e1 b _c dive to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 ow+ to ! d5sity ( ! saturat$ solution ( salt4 ,if ! fi% are tak5 out imm$iately aft] ! exp]im5t1 & plac$ 9 fre% wat]1 !y w n be hurt by contact ) ! /rong salt wat]4 ,^! examples ( ! relative weights ( equal bulks1 enable ! y\?ful m9d to grasp ! m difficult problem ( asc]ta9+ ! specific gravity ( any solid or liquid sub/ance2 & "h ! /rict mean+ ( t]ms %\ld n be pass$ by4 ,specific weight mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ,absolute weight2 ! latt] means ! entire am\nt ( pond]able matt] 9 any body3 ?us1 tw5ty-f\r cubic feet ( s& weigh ab\t "o ton1 :il/ specific weight means ! relation t subsi/s betwe5 ! absolute weight & ! volume or space :i* t weight occupies4 ,?us a cubic foot ( wat] weighs sixty-two & a half p\nds1 or #ajjj ounces avoirdupois1 b *ang$ to gold1 ! cubic foot weighs m ?an half a ton1 & w\ld be equal to ab\t #ai1cjj ounces--h5ce ! relation betwe5 ! cubic foot ( wat] & t ( ,page #ea gold is ne>ly z #a to #ai4c2 ! latt] is !re=e call$ ! specific gravity ( gold4 ,su* a mode ( tak+ ! specific gravity ( diff]5t sub/ances--viz41 by ! weight ( equal bulks1 :e!r cubic feet or in*es1 c\ld n be employ$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! difficulty ( procur+ exact cubic in*es or feet ( ! v>i\s sub/ances :i* by _! peculi> prop]ties ( brittl5ess or h>dness w\ld pres5t insup]able ob/acles to any attempt to fa%ion or %ape !m into exact volumes4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to adopt ! me?od fir/ devis$ by ,ar*im$es1 #fjj ,b4,c41 :5 he discov]$ ! admixture ( ano!r metal ) ! gold ( ,k+ ,hi]o's cr[n4 ,?is amus+ /ory1 end+ 9 ! discov]y ( a philosophical tru?1 may be ?us describ$3--,k+ ,hi]o gave out f ! royal treasury a c]ta9 quantity ( gold1 :i* he requir$ to be fa%ion$ into a cr[n2 :51 h[ev]1 ! emblem ( p[] 0 produc$ by ! goldsmi?1 x 0 n f\nd defici5t 9 weight1 b _h t appe>ance :i* indicat$ to ! mon>* t a surreptiti\s addition ( "s o!r metal mu/ h be5 made4 ,x may be assum$ t ,k+ ,hi]o consult$ 8 fri5d & philosoph] ,ar*im$es1 & he might h said1 ,tell me1 ,ar*im$es1 )\t pull+ my cr[n to pieces1 if x has be5 adult]at$ ) any o!r metal8 ,! philosoph] ask$ = "t to solve ! problem1 & go+ to take 8 accu/om$ ba?1 discov]$ !n specially :at he _h nev] p>ticul>ly rem>k$ be=e--t1 z he ent]$ ! vessel ( wat]1 ! liquid rose on ea* side ( him--t he1 9 fact1 displac$ a c]ta9 quantity ( liquid4 ,?us1 suppos+ ! ba? to h be5 full ( wat]1 directly ,ar*im$es /epp$ 91 x w\ld ov]fl[4 ,let x be assum$ t ! wat] displac$ 0 collect$1 & weigh$ #ij p\nds1 :il/ ! philosoph] _h weigh$1 say #bjj p\nds4 ,n[1 ! tra9 ( reason+ 9 8 m9d might be ( ?is k9d3--,my body displaces #ij p\nds ( wat]2 if ,i _h an exact ca/ ( x 9 lead1 ! same bulk & weight ( liquid w\ld ov]fl[2 b ! weight ( my body 01 say #bjj p\nds1 ! ca/ 9 lead #ajjj p\nds2 ^! two sums divid$ by #ij w\ld give v diff]5t results1 & !y w\ld be ! specific gravities1 because ! rule is ?us /at$3--',divide ! gross weight by ! loss ( weight 9 wat]1 ! wat] displac$1 & ! quoti5t gives ! specific gravity4' ,! rule is soon te/$ ) ! help ( an ord9>y pair ( scales1 & ! exp]im5t made m int]e/+ by tak+ a model cr[n ( "s metal1 :i* may be nicely gilt & burni%$ by ,messrs4 ,elk+ton1 ! celebrat$ electro-plat]s ( ,birm+ham4 ,= conv5i5ce1 ! pan ( "o scale is susp5d$ by %ort] *a9s ?an ! o!r1 & %\ld h a hook ins]t$ 9 ! middle2 ^u ?is is plac$ ! cr[n1 support$ by v ?9 copp] wire4 ,= ! sake ( argum5t1 let x be suppos$ t ! cr[n weighs #ag ounces avoirdupois1 :i* are duly plac$ 9 ! o!r scale-pan1 & )\t t\*+ ^! weights1 ! cr[n is n[ plac$ 9 a vessel ( wat]4 ,x might be suppos$ t directly ! cr[n ent]s ! wat]1 x w\ld ga9 weight1 9 consequ5ce ( be+ wett$1 ,page #eb b ! contr>y is ! case1 & by ?ru/+ ! cr[n into ! wat]1 x may be se5 to rise ) great buoyancy s long z ! #ag ounces are reta9$ 9 ! o!r scale-pan2 & x w be f\nd necess>y to place at lea/ two ounces 9 ! scale-pan to :i* ! cr[n is atta*$ be=e ! latt] s9ks 9 ! wat]2 & ?us x is di/9ctly %[n t ! cr[n weighs only ab\t #ae ounces 9 ! wat]1 & has !re=e lo/ in/ead ( ga9+ weight :il/ imm]s$ 9 ! liquid4 ,! rule may n[ be work$ out3 ,ounces4 ,weight ( cr[n 9 air #ag ,ditto 9 wat] #ae --- ,less 9 wat] #b #ag _/ #b #h ,! quoti5t #h demon/rates t ! cr[n is manufactur$ ( copp]1 because x w\ld h be5 ab\t #ai if made ( pure gold4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,a4 ,ord9>y pair ( scales4 ,b4 ,scale-pan1 conta9+ #ag ounces1 be+ ! weight ( ! cr[n 9 air4 ,c4 ,pan1 ) hook & cr[n atta*$1 :i* is sunk 9 ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! vessel ,d2 ?is pan conta9s ! two ounces1 :i* mu/ be plac$ !re to make ! cr[n s9k & exactly balance ,b4 ,page #ec ,table ( ! ,specific ,gravities ( ! ,metals 9 common use4 ,plat9um #bj4ih ,gold #ai4bf to #ai4c & #ai4fd ,m]cury #ac4eg ,lead #aa4ce ,silv] #aj4dg to #aj4e ,bismu? #i4hb ,copp] #h4hi ,iron #g4gi ,t9 #g4bi ,z9c #f4e to #g4d ,! simple rule already expla9$ may be appli$ to all metals ( any size or weight1 & :5 ! mass is ( an irregul> %ape1 hav+ v>i\s cavities on ! surface1 !re may be "s difficulty 9 tak+ ! specific gravity1 9 consequ5ce ( ! adhesion ( air-bubbles2 b ?is may be obviat$ ei!r by bru%+ !m away ) a fea!r1 or1 :at is frequ5tly mu* bett]1 by dipp+ ! metal or m9]al fir/ into alcohol1 & !n into wat]1 be=e plac+ x 9 ! vessel ( wat]1 by :i* ! actual specific gravity is to be tak54 ,! mode ( tak+ ! specific gravity ( liquids is v simple1 & is usually p]=m$ 9 ! laboratory by means ( a ?9 globul> bottle :i* holds exactly #ajjj gra9s ( pure di/ill$ wat] at #fj ,fahr5heit4 ,a little c\nt]poise ( lead is made ( ! exact weight ( ! dry globul> bottle1 & ! liquid "u exam9ation is p\r$ into ! bottle & up to ! graduat$ m>k 9 ! neck2 ! bottle is !n plac$ 9 "o scale-pan1 ! c\nt]poise & ! #ajjj-;gra9 weight 9 ! o!r2 if ! liquid 7su* z oil ( vitriol7 is heavi] ?an wat]1 !n m weight w be requir$--viz41 #hde gra9s--& ^! figures add$ to ! #ajjj w\ld indicate at once t ! specific gravity ( oil ( vitriol 0 #a4hde z comp>$ ) wat]1 :i* is #a4jjj4 ,:5 ! liquid1 su* z alcohol1 is light] ?an wat]1 ! #ajjj-;gra9 weight w be f\nd too mu*1 & gra9 weights mu/ be add$ to ! same scale-pan 9 :i* ! bottle is /&+1 until ! two are exactly balanc$4 ,if ord9>y alcohol is be+ exam9$1 x w be f\nd necess>y to place #ahj gra9s ) ! bottle1 & ^! figures d$uct$ f ! #ajjj gra9s 9 ! o!r scale-pan1 leave #hbj1 :i*1 m>k$ ) a dot be=e ! fir/ figure 7sic 4#hbj71 indicates ! specific gravity ( alcohol to be less ?an t ( wat]4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! gravities ( v>i\s liquids is display$ 9 a v pleas+ mann] by an exp]im5t devis$ by ,pr(essor ,griffi?s1 to :om *emical lectur]s are especially indebt$ = "s ( ! mo/ +5i\s & beautiful illu/rations :i* h ev] be5 devis$4 ,! exp]im5t consi/s 9 ! arrangem5t ( five di/9ct liquids ( v>i\s d5sities & col\rs1 ! "o re/+ on ! o!r1 & di/+ui%$ n only by ! optical l9e ( dem>cation1 b by little balls ( wax1 :i* are adju/$ by lead5 %ot inside1 s z to s9k ?r\gh ,page #ed ! upp] /rata ( liquids1 & re/ only ^u ! "o t x is int5d$ to indicate4 ,! manipulation = ?is exp]im5t is some:at tr\blesome1 & is comm5c$ by procur+ "s pure bright quicksilv]1 ^u :i* an iron bullet 7black-lead$1 or pa9t$ ( any col\r7 is plac$1 or "o ( ^? pretty glass balls :i* are sold 9 su* quantities at ! ,cry/al ,palace4 ,secondly4 ,put z mu* :ite vitriol 7sulphate ( z9c7 into a half p9t ( boil+ wat] z x w dissolve1 &1 :5 cold1 p\r (f ! cle> liquid1 make up a ball ( col\r$ wax 7say r$71 & adju/ x by plac+ little %ot inside1 until x s9ks 9 a solution ( sulphate ( copp] & floats on t ( ! :ite vitriol4 ,?irdly4 ,make a solution ( sulphate ( copp] 9 precisely ! same mann]1 & adju/ ano!r wax ball to s9k 9 wat]1 & float on ?is solution4 ,f\r?ly4 ,"s cle> di/ill$ wat] mu/ be provid$4 ,fif?ly4 ,a little co*9eal is to be dissolv$ 9 "s common spirits ( w9e 7alcohol71 & a ball ( cork pa9t$ :ite provid$4 ,f9ally4 ,a long cyl9drical glass1 at lea/ eighte5 in*es high1 & two & a half or ?ree in*es diamet]1 mu/ be made to receive ^! five liquids1 :i* are arrang$ 9 _! prop] ord] ( specific gravity by means ( a long tube & funnel4 ,! f\r balls--viz41 ! iron1 ! two wax1 & ! cork balls1 are all[$ to slide d[n ! long glass1 :i* is incl9$ at an angle2 & !n1 by means ( ! tube & funnel1 p\r 9 ! t9cture ( co*9eal1 & all ! balls w rema9 at ! bottom ( ! glass4 ,! wat] is p\r$ d[n next1 & n[ ! cork ball floats up on ! wat]1 & m>ks ! b\nd>y l9e ( ! alcohol & wat]4 ,!n ! solution ( blue vitriol1 :5 a wax ball floats ^u x4 ,?irdly1 ! solution ( :ite vitriol1 ^u :i* ! second wax ball takes its place2 & la/ly1 ! quicksilv] is p\r$ d[n ! tube1 & ^u ?is heavy metallic fluid ! iron or glass ball floats l a cork on wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,long cyl9drical glass1 #ah #c in*es1 conta9+ ! five liquids4 ,! tube may n[ be c>efully remov$1 paus+ at ea* liquid1 s t no mixture take place betwe5 !m2 & ! result is ! arrangem5t ( five liquids1 giv+ ! appe>ance ( a cyl9drical glass pa9t$ ) ,page #ee b&s ( crimson1 blue1 & silv]2 & ! liquids w n m+le ) ea* o!r = _m days4 ,a m p]man5t arrangem5t c be devis$ by us+ liquids :i* h no aff9ity1 or w n mix ) ea* o!r--su* z m]cury1 wat]1 & turp5t9e4 ,! specific weight or weights ( an equal measure ( air & o!r gases is det]m9$ on ! same pr9ciple z liquids1 al?\gh a diff]5t app>atus is requir$4 ,a light capp$ glass globe1 ) /op-cock1 f #ej to #ajj cubic in*es capacity1 is weigh$ full ( air1 !n exhau/$ by an air-pump1 & weigh$ empty1 ! loss be+ tak5 z ! weight ( its volume ( air2 ^! figures are c>efully not$1 because air in/ead ( wat] is ! /&>d ( comp>ison = all gases4 ,:5 ! specific gravity ( any o!r gas is to be tak51 ! glass globe is aga9 exhau/$1 & screw$ on to a gas j> provid$ ) a prop] /op-cock1 9 :i* ! gas is conta9$2 & :5 p]fect accuracy is requir$1 ! gas mu/ be dri$ by pass+ x ov] "s asbe/os moi/5$ ) oil ( vitriol1 & conta9$ 9 a glass tube1 & ! gas j> %\ld /& 9 a m]curial tr\gh4 7,fig4 #gj47 ,! /op-cocks are gradually turn$1 & ! gas admitt$ to ! exhau/$ globe f ! gas j>2 :5 full1 ! cocks are turn$ (f1 ! globe unscrew$1 & aga9 weigh$1 & by ! common rule ( proportion1 z ! weight ( ! air fir/ f\nd is to ! weight ( ! gas1 s is unity 7#a4jjj1 ! d5sity ( air7 to a numb] :i* expresses ! d5sity ( ! gas requir$4 ,if oxyg5 _h be5 ! gas tri$1 ! numb] w\ld be #a4aaa1 be+ ! specific gravity ( t gase\s elem5t4 ,if *lor9e1 #b4dgj4 ,c>bonic acid1 #a4ejj4 ,hydrog5 be+ mu* less ?an air1 ! numb] w\ld only be #fi1 or decimally #j4jfi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,a4 ,glass globe to conta9 ! gas4 ,b4 ,gas j> /&+ 9 ! m]curial tr\gh1 ,d4 ,c4 ,tube conta9+ asbe/os moi/5$ ) oil ( vitriol4 ,a v good approximation to ! correct specific gravity 7p>ticul>ly :]e a numb] ( trials h to be made ) ! same gas1 su* z ,page #ef ord9>y coal gas7 is obta9$ by susp5d+ a light pap] box1 ) holes at "o end1 on "o arm ( a balance1 & a c\nt]poise on ! o!r4 ,! box c be made c>efully1 & %\ld h a capacity equal to a half or qu>t] cubic foot2 x is susp5d$ ) ! holes d[nw>d1 & is fill$ by bl[+ 9 ! coal gas until x issues f ! ap]tures1 & c be recognis$ by ! smell4 ,! rule 9 ?is case w\ld be equally simple3 z ! kn[n weight ( ! half or qu>t] cubic foot ( common air is to ! weight ( ! coal gas1 s is #a4jjj to ! numb] requir$4 7,fig4 #ga47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,a4 ,! balance4 ,b4 ,! pap] box1 ( a kn[n capacity4 ,c4 ,gas-pipe bl[+ 9 coal-gas1 ! arr[s %[+ entrance ( gas & exit ( ! air4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! diff]5t specific weights ( ! gases1 a small balloon1 conta9+ a mixture ( hydrog5 & air1 may be s adju/$ t x w j s9k 9 a tall glass %ade inv]t$ & support$ on a pad made ( a piece ( oilclo? %ap$ r\nd & b\nd ) li/4 ,on pass+ 9 quickly a l>ge quantity ( c>bonic acid1 ! little balloon w float on its surface2 & if ano!r balloon1 conta9+ only hydrog51 is held 9 ! top "p ( ! op5 %ade1 & a %eet ( glass c>efully slid ov] ! op5 end1 ! d5sity ( ! gases 7al?\gh !y are p]fectly invisible7 is p]fectly indicat$2 &1 z a climax to ! exp]im5t1 a ?ird balloon c be fill$ ) laugh+ gas1 & may be plac$ 9 ! glass %ade1 tak+ c>e t ! "o full ( pure hydrog5 does n escape2 ! la/ balloon w s9k to ! bottom ( ! ,page #eg j>1 because laugh+ gas is almo/ z heavy z c>bonic acid1 & ! weight ( ! balloon w det]m9e its desc5t4 7,fig4 #gb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,inv]t$ l>ge glass %ade1 conta9+ half c>bonic acid & half common air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,a4 ,inv]t$ glass %ade1 conta9+ ! mat]ial1 ,b1 = g5]at+ c>bonic acid gas4 ,c4 ,! soap-bubble4 ,d ,d4 ,! glass tube = bl[+ ! bubbles4 ,e4 ,small lant]n1 to ?r[ a bright beam ( light f ! oxy-hydrog5 jet ^u ! ?9 soap-bubble1 :i* !n displays ! mo/ beautiful iridesc5t col\rs4 ,a soap-bubble w re/ mo/ p]fectly on a surface ( c>bonic acid gas1 & ! a]ial & ela/ic cu%ion supports ! bubble till x bur/s4 ,! exp]im5t is be/ p]=m$ by tak+ a glass %ade twelve in*es broad & deep 9 proportion1 & re/+ x on a pad2 half a p\nd ( sesquic>bonate ( soda is !n plac$ 9 ! vessel1 & ^u ?is is p\r$ a mixture ( half a p9t ( oil ( vitriol & half a p9t ( wat]1 ! latt] be+ previ\sly mix$ & all[$ to cool be=e use4 ,an enorm\s quantity ( c>bonic acid gas is sudd5ly g5]at$1 & ris+ to ! edge1 ov]fl[s at ! top ( ! glass %ade4 ,a well-=m$ soap-bubble1 deta*$ neatly f ! end ( a glass-tube1 oscillates g5tly on ! surface ( ! heavy gas1 & pres5ts a mo/ curi\s & pleas+ appe>ance4 ,! soapy wat] is prep>$ by cutt+ a few pieces ( yell[ soap1 & plac+ !m 9 a two-ounce bottle conta9+ di/ill$ wat]4 7,fig4 #gc47 ,! specific gravity ( ! gases1 may !re=e be ei!r great]1 or less ?an atmosph]ic air1 ,page #eh :i* has be5 already m5tion$ z ! /&>d ( comp>ison1 & exam9$ by ?is te/ ! vap\rs ( "s ( ! comp\nds ( c>bon & hydrog5 are f\nd to possess a rem>kably high gravity2 9 pro( ( :i*1 ! vap\r ( e!r may be adduc$ z an example1 al?\gh x does n consi/ only ( ! two elem5ts m5tion$1 b conta9s a c]ta9 quantity ( oxyg54 ,9 a cyl9drical t9 vessel1 two feet high & "o foot 9 diamet]1 place an ord9>y hot-wat] plate1 ( c\rse full ( boil+ wat]2 ^u ?is w>m surface p\r ab\t half an ounce ( ! be/ e!r2 &1 aft] wait+ a few m9utes until ! :ole is conv]t$ into vap\r1 take a syphon made ( half-in* pewt] tube1 & w>m x by p\r+ ?r\gh x a little hot wat]1 tak+ c>e to all[ ! wat] to dra9 away f x be=e use4 ,aft] plac+ ! syphon 9 ! t9 vessel1 a light may be appli$ to ! extremity ( ! long leg outside ! t9 vessel1 to %[ t no e!r is pass+ ov] until ! air is suck$ out z ) ! wat]-syphon2 & aft] ?is has be5 done1 sev]al w>m glass vessels may be fill$ ) ?is heavy vap\r ( e!r1 :i* burns on ! application ( flame4 ,f9ally1 ! rema9d] ( ! vap\r may be burnt at ! end ( ! syphon tube1 demon/rat+ 9 ! mo/ satisfactory mann] t ! vap\r is fl[+ ?r\gh ! syphon j z _s is remov$ by ! di/ill]s f ! casks into cell>s ( ! public-h\ses4 7,fig4 #gd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,a4 ,t9 vessel conta9+ ! hot-wat] plate1 ,b1 ^u :i* ! e!r is p\r$4 ,c4 ,! syphon4 ,d4 ,glass to receive ! vap\r4 ,e4 ,combu/ion ( ! e!r vap\r 9 ano!r vessel4 ,page #ei ,be=e dismiss+ ! important subject ( specific gravity 7or1 z x is t]m$ by ! ,fr5* savants1 d5sity71 x may be z well to /ate t a/ronom]s h be5 enabl$1 by tak+ ! d5sity ( ! e>? & by a/ronomical obs]vations1 to calculate ! gravity ( ! planets belong+ to our sol> sy/em2 & x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t ! d5sity ( ! planet ,v5us is ! only "o approa*+ ! gravity ( ! e>?3-- ,! ,e>? #a4jjj ,! ,sun 4#bed ,! ,moon 4#gdb ,m]cury #b4ehc ,v5us #a4jcg ,m>s 4#fej ,jupit] 4#beh ,saturn 4#ajd ,h]s*el 4#bbj ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,attraction ,,( ,,cohesion4 ,9 previ\s *apt]s "o k9d ( attraction--viz41 t ( gravitation1 has be5 discuss$ & illu/rat$ 9 a popul> mann]1 & pursu+ ! exam9ation ( ! invisible1 active1 & real =ces ( nature1 ! attraction ( cohesion w next engage our att5tion4 ,!re is a peculi> satisfaction 9 pursu+ su* inve/igations1 because e /ep is att5d$ by a reasonable pro(2 !re is no gho/ly my/]y 9 philosophic /udies2 ! m9d is n sudd5ly />tl$ at "o mom5t ) t :i* seems m ?an natural2 x is n c>ri$ away 9 an ec/asy ( wond] & awe1 z 9 ! s-call$ _s-rapp+ exp]im5ts1 to be aga9 rudely br\ght back to ! mat]ial by ! disclosure ( trick]ies ( ! mo/ ludicr\s k9d1 su* z ^? lately expos$ by ,m4 ,job]t de ,lamballe1 at ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,p>is4 ,?is g5tleman has unmask$ ! effront]y ( ! _s-rapp]s by m]ely /ripp+ ! /ock+ f ! heel ( a "y girl ( f\rte54 ,m4 ,velpeau decl>es t ! rapp+ is produc$ by ! muscles ( ! heel & knee act+ 9 conc]t1 & quotes ! case ( a lady once celebrat$ z a m$ium1 :o has ! p[] ( produc+ ! mo/ curi\s & int]e/+ music ) ! t5dons ( ! ?igh4 ,?is music is said to be l\d en\gh to be he>d f "o end ( a long room to ! o!r1 & has (t5 play$ a conspicu\s "p 9 ! revelations made by ! m$ium4 ,m4 ,jules ,clocquet also expla9$ ! me?od by :i* ! fam\s girl p5dulum _h s long abus$ ! cr$ulity ( ! ,p>is public4 ,?is girl1 ^: self-/yl$ faculty is t ( /rik+ ! h\r at any "t ( ! day or night1 0 att5d$ at ! ,hospital ,/4 ,l\is by ,m4 ,clocquet1 :o /ates t ! vibrations 9 ,page #fj ?is case 7 produc$ by a rotatory motion 9 ! lumb> regions ( ! v]tebral column4 ,! s\nd ( ^! 7 la rattlesnake7 0 s p[]ful1 t !y might be di/9ctly he>d at a di/ance ( tw5ty-five feet4 ,9 /udy+ ! p[]s ( nature1 :i* ! mo/ sceptical m9d all[s mu/ exi/1 !re is an abundant field = exp]im5t )\t attempt+ ! exploits ( ,macbe?'s wit*es1 or ! fanciful p[]s ( ,manfr$2 &1 return+ to ! !me ( our pres5t *apt]1 x may be ask$1 h[ is cohesion def9$8 & ! answ] may be giv51 by direct+ att5tion to ! ?ree physical conditions ( wat]1 :i* assumes ! =m ( ice1 wat]1 or /eam4 ,9 ! ,pol> regions1 & also 9 ! ,alp9e & o!r m\nta9s :]e glaci]s exi/1 !re ! travell] speaks ( ice tw5ty1 ?irty1 =ty1 nay1 ?ree hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,"h ! )drawal ( a c]ta9 quantity ( heat f ! wat] evid5tly all[s a new =ce to come into full play4 ,we may call x :at we l2 b cohesion1 f ! ,lat9 cum1 toge!r1 & hreo1 ,i /ick or cleave1 appe>s to be ! be/ & mo/ rational t]m = ?is p[] :i* t5ds to make ! atoms or p>ticles ( ! same k9d ( matt] move t[>ds ea* o!r1 & to prev5t !m be+ sep>at$ or mov$ asund]4 ,t x is n m]ely hypo!tical is %[n by ! foll[+ exp]im5ts4 ,if two pieces ( lead are ca/1 & ! ends nicely scrap$1 tak+ c>e n to t\* ! surfaces ) ! f+]s1 !y may by simple pressure be made to coh]e1 & 9 t /ate ( attraction may be lift$ f ! table by ! r+ :i* is usually ins]t$ = conv5i5ce 9 ! upp] piece ( lead2 !y may be hung = "s "t f a prop] support1 & ! l[] bit ( lead w n break away f ! upp] "o2 !y may ev5 be susp5d$1 z demon/rat$ by ,morveau1 9 ! vacuum ( an air-pump1 to %[ t ! cohesion is n mi/ak5 = ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & no sep>ation occurs4 ,& :5 ! union is brok5 by physical =ce1 x is surpris+ to notice ! limit$ numb] ( po9ts1 l p9 po9ts1 :]e ! cohesion has occurr$2 :il/ ! weight ( ! lump ( lead upheld aga9/ ! =ce ( gravitation rem9ds "o =cibly ( ! attraction ( a mass ( s(t iron by a p[]ful magnet1 & leads ! philosophic inquir] to speculate on ! pr9ciple ( cohesion be+ only "s mask$ =m ( magnetic or electrical attraction4 7,fig4 #ge47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,a ,a4 ,two pieces ( lead1 scrap$ clean at ! surfaces ,b ,b4 ,c4 ,/&1 support+ ! two pieces ( lead atta*$ to ea* o!r by cohesion4 ,page #fa ,a f9e example ( ! same =ce is %[n 9 ! use ( a pair ( flat iron surfaces1 plan$ by ! celebrat$ ,:itwor?1 ( ,man*e/]4 ,^! surfaces are s true1 t :5 plac$ ^u ea* o!r1 ! upp] "o w freely rotate :5 pu%$ r\nd1 9 consequ5ce ( ! ?9 film ( air rema9+ betwe5 ! surfaces1 :i* acts l a cu%ion1 & prev5ts ! metallic cohesion4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! upp] plate is slid ov] ! l[] "o gradually1 s z to exclude ! air1 !n ! two may be lift$ toge!r1 because cohesion has tak5 place4 7,fig4 #gf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,a4 ,:itwor?'s planes1 ) film ( air betwe5 !m4 ,b4 ,film ( air exclud$ :5 cohesion occurs4 ,a glass vessel is a good example ( cohesion4 ,! mat]ials ( :i* x is compos$ h be5 s(t & liquid :5 melt$ 9 ! fire1 & on ! removal ( ! excess ( heat x has become h>d & solid1 9 consequ5ce ( ! attractive =ce ( cohesion b9d+ ! p>ticles toge!r2 9 ! abs5ce ( su* a p[]1 ( c\rse1 ! mat]ial w\ld fall into ! condition ( du/1 & a m]e %apeless heap ( silicates ( pota% & lead w\ld indicate ! place :]e ! m\ld$ & coh]5t glass w\ld o!rwise /&4 ,a lump ( lead1 six in*es long by f\r broad1 & half an in* ?ick1 may be support$ by dext]\sly tak+ (f a ?ick %av+ ) a prop] plane1 & aft] press+ an in* or m ( ! /rip on ! plan$ surface ( ! l>ge lump ( lead1 ! cohesion is s p[]ful t ! latt] may be lift$ f ! table by ! /rip ( metal4 ,! bullets project$ f ,p]k9s' /eam-gun1 at ! rate ( ?ree hundr$ p] m9ute1 are ?r[n ) su* viol5ce1 t1 :5 receiv$ on a ?ick plate ( lead back$ up ) %eet iron1 a cold weld+ takes place betwe5 ! two surfaces ( metal 9 ! mo/ p]fect mann]1 j z two s(t pieces ( ! metal potassium may be squeez$ & weld$ toge!r4 ,! surfaces ( an apple torn asund] w n readily coh]e1 b if cut ) a %>p knife1 cohesion easily occurs2 s ) a w\nd produc$ by a jagg$ surface1 x is difficult to make ! p>ts ,page #fb heal1 :]eas "s ( ! mo/ desp]ate sabre-cuts h be5 heal$1 ! cohesion ( ! surfaces ( cut fle% be+ v rapid2 h5ce1 if ! top ( a f+] is cut (f1 x may be replac$1 & w gr[1 9 consequ5ce ( ! natural cohesion ( ! p>ts4 ,! art ( plat+ copp] ) silv]1 :i* is aft]w>ds gilt1 & !n drawn out into flatt5$ wire = ! manufacture ( gold lace & epaulets1 usually t]m$ bullion1 is ano!r example ( ! wond]ful cohesion ( ! p>ticles ( gold1 ( :i* a s+le gra9 may be ext5d$ ov] ! f9e/ plate wire measur+ #cde feet 9 l5g?4 ,! process ( mak+ wax c&les is a good illu/ration ( ! attraction ( cohesion2 !y are n g5]ally ca/ 9 m\lds1 z mo/ p]sons suppose1 b are made by ! successive applications ( melt$ wax ar\nd ! c5tral plait$ wick4 ,o!r examples ( cohesion are %[n by icicles1 & also /alagmites2 :i* latt] are produc$ by ! gradual dropp+ ( wat] conta9+ *alk 7c>bonate ( lime7 held 9 solution by ! excess ( c>bonic acid gas2 ! solv5t gradually evaporates1 & leaves a s]ies ( calc>e\s films1 & ^! coh]e 9 succession1 produc+ ! mo/ fanta/ic =ms1 z %[n 9 v>i\s rem>kable cav]ns1 & especially 9 ! cave ( ,arta1 9 ! isl& ( ,majorca4 ,9 metallic sub/ances ! cohesion ( ! p>ticles assumes an important be>+ 9 ! "q ( relative t\ghness & p[] ( resi/+ a /ra92 h5ce ! t]m cohesion is modifi$ into t ( ! prop]ty ( t5acity4 ,! t5acity ( ! diff]5t metals is det]m9$ by asc]ta9+ ! weight requir$ to break wires ( ! same l5g? & gauge4 ,iron appe>s to possess ! prop]ty ( t5acity 9 ! greate/1 & lead 9 ! lea/ degree4 7,fig4 #gg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,b4 ,pan support$ by lead5 wire brok5 by a weight :i* ! iron wire at ,a easily supports4 ,page #fc ,! t5acity ( iron is tak5 advantage ( 9 ! mo/ sci5tific mann] by ! great eng9e]s :o h con/ruct$ ! ,britannia ,tube1 & t eigh? wond] ( ! _w1 ! ,levia?an1 or ,great ,ea/]n /eam-%ip4 ,9 bo? ( ^! sublime embodim5ts ( ! g5ius & indu/rial skill ( ,great ,brita9 ! advantage ( ! cellul> pr9ciple is fully recognis$4 ,! magnitude ( ?is colossal %ip is bett] realiz$ :5 x is rememb]$ t ! ,great ,ea/]n is six times ! size ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton l9e-(-battle %ip1 t h] l5g? is m ?an ?ree times t ( ! height ( ! ,monum5t1 :ile 9 bread? x is equal to ! wid? ( ,pall ,mall1 & t a prom5ade r\nd ! deck w af=d a walk ( m ?an a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,up to ! wat]-m>k ! hull is con/ruct$ ) an inn] & out] %ell1 two feet t5 in*es ap>t1 ea* ( ?ree-qu>t]-in* plate2 & betwe5 !m1 at int]vals ( six feet1 run horizontal webs ( iron plates1 :i* conv]t ! :ole into a s]ies ( cont9u\s cells or iron boxes4 7,fig4 #gh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,transv]se section ( ,great ,ea/]n1 %[+ ! cellul> con/ruction f keel to wat]-l9e1 ,a ,a4 ,?is d\ble %ip is useful 9 v>i\s ways2 9 ! fir/ place1 ! dang] aris+ f collision is dim9i%$1 z x is suppos$ t ! out] web only w\ld be brok5 ?r\gh or damag$2 s t ! wat] w\ld n !n ru% into ! /eam-%ip1 b m]ely fill ! space betwe5 ! %ells4 ,9 ! second place1 if !re %\ld be any difficulty 9 procur+ balla/1 ! space c be fill$ ) #bejj tons ( wat]1 or aga9 pump$ out1 accord+ to ! requirem5ts ( ! vessel4 ,! /r5g? ( a cont9u$ cellul> con/ruction c be easily imag9$1 & may be well illu/rat$ by a ?9 %eet ( common t9 plate4 ,if ! ends be re/$ on blocks ( wood1 s z to lap ov] ! wood ab\t "o in*1 !y are easily displac$1 & ! mimic bridge brok5 d[n f its ,page #fd supports by ! addition to ! c5tre ( a few ounce weights2 :il/ ! same t9 plate roll$ up 9 ! figure ( a tube1 & aga9 re/$ on ! same blocks1 w n[ support _m p\nds weight )\t b5d+ or break+ d[n4 7,fig4 #gi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,a4 ,flat t9 plate1 break+ d[n ) a few ounce weights4 ,b4 ,same t9 plate roll$ up supports a v heavy weight4 ,! deck ( ! %ip is d\ble or cellul>1 aft] ! plan ( ,/eph5son 9 ! ,britannia ,tubul> ,bridge1 & is #fib feet 9 l5g?4 ,! tonnage regi/] is #ah1bjj tons1 & #bb1ejj tons build]'s measure2 ! hull ( ! ,great ,ea/]n is consid]$ to be ( su* enorm\s t5acity1 t1 if x 7 support$ by massive blocks ( /one six feet squ>e1 plac$ at ea* end1 at /em & /]n1 x w\ld n deflect1 curve1 or b5d d[n 9 ! middle m ?an six in*es ev5 ) all h] ma*9]y1 coals1 c>go1 & liv+ freight4 ,9 adduc+ rem>kable in/ances ( ! adhesive p[] & t5acity ( inorganic matt]1 x may n be altoge!r out ( place to allude to ! /r5g? & =ce ( liv+ matt]1 or muscul> p[]4 ,x is /at$ t ,dr4 ,george ,b4 ,w9%ip1 ( ,roxbury 9 ,am]ica1 a "y physician1 tw5ty-five ye>s old1 & weigh+ #adc p\nds1 is ! /ronge/ man alive2 9 fact1 q ! ,samson ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,he c raise a b>rel ( fl\r f ! floor to 8 %\ld]s2 c raise himself ) ei!r little f+] till 8 *9 is half a foot above x2 c raise #bjj p\nds ) ei!r little f+]2 c put up a *ur* bell ( #ada p\nds2 c lift ) 8 h&s #ibf p\nds dead weight )\t ! aid ( /raps or belts ( any k9d4 ,z comp>$ ) ,topham1 ! ,corni% /rong man1 :o c\ld raise #hjj p\nds1 or ! ,belgic "o1 8 p[] is great]2 & z ! use ( /raps & belts increases ! p[] ( lift+ by ab\t f\r times1 x is /at$ t ,w9%ip c\ld lift at lea/ #bejj p\nds weight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,a4 ,ord9>y glass wat] hamm]4 ,b4 ,copp] tube ditto1 %[+ exhau/+ syr+e at ,d1 ! height ( ! wat] at ,b1 & ! end to be plac$ 9 ! fire at ,c4 ,) ^! illu/rations ( cohesion we may return aga9 to ! ab/ract consid]ation ( ?is p[] ) ref]5ce to wat]1 9 :i* we h notic$ t ! antagoni/ to ?is k9d ( attraction is ! =ce or p[] t]m$ caloric or heat4 ,! latt] influ5ce removes ! froz5 b&s ( w9t] & conv]ts ! ice to ! next condition1 wat]4 ,9 ?is /ate cohesion is almo/ conceal$1 al?\gh !re is j a slight ,page #fe excess to hold ev5 ! p>ticles ( wat] 9 a /ate ( unity1 & ?is fact is beautifully illu/rat$ by ! =mation ( ! brilliant diamond drops ( dew on ! surfaces ( v>i\s leaves1 z also 9 ! =ce & p[] ex]cis$ by great volumes ( wat]1 :i* ex]t _! mighty /r5g? 9 ! %ape ( break]-waves1 da%+ aga9/ rocks & ligh?\ses1 & mak+ !m tremble to _! v base by ! viol5ce ( ! %ock2 "h !re mu/ be "s unity ( p>ticles1 or ! collective /r5g? c\ld n be ex]t$1 x w\ld be l ?r[+ a h&ful ( s& aga9/ a w9d[--a c]ta9 am\nt ( noise is produc$1 b ! glass is n fractur$2 :il/ ! same s& unit$ by any glut9\s mat]ial1 w\ld break its way ?r\gh1 & soon fracture ! brittle glass4 ,x is s usual to see ! p>ticles ( wat] easily sep>at$1 t x becomes difficult to recognise ! pres5ce ( cohesion2 b ?is bond ( union is well illu/rat$ 9 ! exp]im5t ( ! wat] hamm]4 ,! little in/rum5t is g5]ally made ( a glass tube ) a bulb at "o end2 9 ?is bulb ! wat] :i* x conta9s is boil$1 & z ! /eam issues f ! o!r extremity1 drawn out to a capill>y tube1 ! op5+ is clos$ by fusion ) ! heat ( a bl[pipe flame4 ,z ! wat] cools ! /eam cond5ses1 & a vacuum1 s f> z air is conc]n$1 is produc$2 if n[ ! tube is sudd5ly inv]t$1 ! :ole ( ! wat] falls en masse1 collectively1 & /rik+ aga9/ ! bottom ( ! tube1 produces a metallic r+1 j z if a piece ( wood or metal 7 conta9$ )9 ! tube4 ,if ! end to :i* ! wat] falls is n well cu%ion$ by ! palm ( ! h&1 ! wat] hamm]s itself ?r\gh & breaks away t "p ( ! glass tube4 ,h5ce x is bett] to con/ruct ! wat] hamm] ( copp] tube1 ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9 diamet] & ?ree feet long2 at "o end a female screw-piece is ins]t$1 into :i* a /op-cock is fitt$2 :5 ! tube is fill$ to ! height ( ab\t six in*es ) wat]1 & %ak51 ! air divides ! desc5d+ volume ( wat]1 & ! ord9>y spla%+ s\nd is he>d2 !re is no unity or cohesion ( ! p>ts2 if1 h[ev]1 ! end ( ! copp] tube is ?ru/ into a fire & ! wat] boil$ s t /eam issues f ! cock1 :i* is !n clos$1 & ! tube remov$ & cool$1 a sm>t bl[ is giv51 & di/9ctly he>d :5 ! copp] tube is rapidly inv]t$ or %ak5 s z to cause ! wat] to rise ,page #ff & fall4 ,! exp]im5t may be r5d]$ /ill m in/ructive by turn+ ! cock & admitt+ ! air1 :i* ru%es 9 ) a :izz+ s\nd1 & on %ak+ ! tube ! metallic r+ is no long] he>d1 b x may be aga9 re/or$ by atta*+ a small air syr+e or h& pump1 & remov+ ! air by exhau/ion4 7,fig4 #hj47 ,9 ! fluid condition wat] /ill possesses a surplus ( cohesion ov] ! antagoni/ic =ce ( heat2 :51 h[ev]1 ! latt] is appli$ 9 excess1 !n ! quasi-/ruggle t]m9ates2 ! heat ov]p[]s ! cohesive attraction1 & conv]ts ! wat] into ! mo/ will+ slave :i* has ev] l5t itself to ! caprices ( man--viz41 into /eam--glori\s1 useful /eam3 & n[ ! o!r end ( ! *a9 is rea*$1 :]e heat triumphs2 :il/ 9 solids1 su* z ice1 cohesion is ! conqu]or1 & ! int]m$iate l9k is display$ 9 ! fluid /ate ( wat]4 ,if any fact c\ld give an idea ( ! gigantic size ( ! ,great ,ea/]n1 x is ! =ce ( ! /eam :i* w be employ$ to move x at ! rate ( ab\t eighte5 miles p] h\r ) a p[] e/imat$ at ! nom9al rate ( #bfjj horses1 b absolutely ( at lea/ #ab1jjj horses4 ,?is /eam p[]1 c\pl$ ) ! fact t %e has be5 enorm\sly /r5g!n$ 9 h] %>p1 p[]ful b[s1 by lay+ d[n ?ree complete iron decks =w>d1 ext5d+ f ! b[s backw>d = #abj feet1 w demon/rate t 9 case ( w> ! ,great ,ea/]n may prove to be a p[]ful auxili>y to ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,^! decks w be occupi$ by ! crew ( #cjj or #djj m51 & ) ?is l>ge increase ( /r5g? =w>d1 ! ,great ,ea/]n1 /eam+ full p[]1 c\ld ov]take & cut 9 two ! l>ge/ wood5 l9e-(-battle %ip t ev] float$4 ,%\ld w> unhappily spread to peaceful ,engl&1 & ! enorm\s p[] ( ?is vessel be realiz$1 h] "n w\ld n inappropriately be *ang$ f ! ,great ,ea/]n to ! ,great ,t]ror ( ! ocean4 ,! ,times v prop]ly inquires1 ,:at fleet c\ld /& 9 ! way ( su* a mass1 weigh+ "s #cj1jjj tons1 & driv5 ?r\gh ! wat] by #ab1jjj horse-p[]1 at ! rate ( tw5ty-two or tw5ty-?ree miles p] h\r4 ,to produce ! /eam1 #bej tons ( coal p] diem w be requir$1 & great w be ! hon\rable pride ( ! projectors :5 !y see h] fairly afloat1 & glid+ ?r\gh ! ocean to ! ,f> ,we/4 ,a good & /rik+ exp]im5t1 display+ ! *ange f ! liquid to ! vap\r /ate1 is %[n by ty+ a piece ( %eet ca\t*\c ov] a t9 vessel conta9+ an ounce or two ( wat]4 ,:5 ?is boils1 ! india-rubb] is di/5d$1 & breaks ) a l\d noise2 or 9 ano!r illu/ration1 by p\r+ "s e!r ?r\gh a funnel c>efully into a flask plac$ 9 a r+ /&4 ,if flame is appli$ to ! orifice1 no vap\r issues t w ignite1 provid$ ! neck ( ! flask has n be5 wett$ ) ! e!r4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! heat ( a _s-lamp is appli$1 ! e!r soon boils1 & n[ on ! application ( a light$ tap]1 a flame "s feet 9 l5g? is produc$1 :i* is regulat$ by ! _s-lamp bel[1 & :5 ?is is remov$1 ! l5g? ( ! flame dim9i%es imm$iately1 & is totally ext+ui%$ if ! bottom ( ! flask is plung$ into cold wat]2 ! )drawal ( ! heat re/ores ! p[] ( cohesion4 ,ano!r illu/ration ( ! va/ p[] ( /eam ,page #fg w be %ortly display$ 9 ! ,/eam ,ram2 &1 ,suppos+1 says ! ,times1 ! new /eam ram to prove a successful design1 ! f9e/ specim5s ( mod]n m5-(-w> w be r$uc$ by comp>ison to ! helplessness ( cock boats4 ,conceive a mon/r\s fabric float+ 9 mid-*annel1 fire pro( & ball pro(1 capable ( hurl+ broadsides ( #ajj %ot to a di/ance ( six miles2 or ( clapp+ on /eam at pleasure & runn+ d[n ev]y?+ on ! surface ( ! sea ) a mom5tum utt]ly irresi/ible4 ,?is t]rible eng9e ( de/ruction is expect$ to be itself inde/ructible4 ,we are told t %e may be riddl$ ) %ot 7suppos+ any %ot c\ld pi]ce h] sides71 t %e may h h] /em & h] /]n cut to pieces1 & be r$uc$ app>5tly to a %apeless wreck1 )\t los+ h] buoyancy or p[]4 ,suppos+ t %e relies ^u ! %ock ( h] impact in/ead ( fight+ h] guns1 x is calculat$ t %e w\ld s9k a l9e-(-battle %ip 9 ?ree m9utes1 s t a squadron z l>ge z our :ole fleet n[ 9 commission w\ld be de/roy$ 9 ab\t "o h\r & a qu>t]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,adhesive ,,attraction4 ,! t]m cohesion mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) t ( adhesion1 :i* ref]s to ! cl++ to or attraction ( bodies ( a dissimil> k9d4 ,! late ,pr(essor ,daniell def9es cohesion to be an attraction ( homog5e\s 7,greek3 homos1 l1 & ,greek3 g5os1 k9d7 or simil> p>ticles2 adhesion to be an attraction subsi/+ betwe5 p>ticles ( a het]og5e\s1 ,greek3 et]os1 diff]5t1 & ,greek3 g5os1 k9d4 ,!re are num]\s illu/rations ( adhesion1 su* z m5d+ *9a1 & ! use ( glue1 or pa/e1 9 unit+ diff]5t surfaces1 or mort>1 9 build+ ) bricks2 x is also well %[n at ! lecture table by means ( a pair ( scales1 "o scale-pan ( :i* be+ well clean$ ) alkali at ! bottom1 may !n be re/$ on ! surface ( wat] conta9$ 9 a plate2 ! adhesion betwe5 ! wat] & ! metal is s p]fect1 t _m gra9 weights may be plac$ 9 ! o!r pan be=e ! adhesion is brok52 & aft] breakage1 if ! pan be aga9 plac$ on ! wat]1 & a few gra9s remov$ f ! o!r1 s z to adju/ ! two pans1 & make !m ne>ly equal1 a drop ( oil ( turp5t9e be+ add$1 in/antly spreads itself ov] ! wat]1 & break+ ! adhesion betwe5 ! latt] & ! metal1 ! scale-pan is imm$iately & aga9 brok5 away1 z ! adhesion betwe5 ! turp5t9e & ! metal is n s great z t ( wat] & metal4 ,! adhesion ( air & wat] is well display$ 9 an app>atus recomm5d$ = v5tilat+ m9es1 9 :i* a con/ant desc5d+ /ream ( wat] c>ries ) x a quantity ( air1 :i* be+ dis5gag$1 is !n =c$ out ( a prop] orifice4 ,! same k9d ( adhesion betwe5 air & wat] is display$ 9 ! anci5t ,page #fh ,spani% ,catalan =ge1 :]e ! bla/ is suppli$ to ! iron furnace on a simil> pr9ciple1 only1 a natural cascade is tak5 advantage ( in/ead ( an artificial fall ( wat] ?r\gh a pipe4 ,! adhesion ( air & wat] becomes ( "s value :5 a riv] fl[s ?r\gh a l>ge & cr[d$ city1 because ! wat] 9 its passage to & fro1 mu/ necess>ily drag ) x1 a cont9u\s column ( air1 & assi/ 9 ma9ta9+ t con/ant agitation ( ! air :i* is desirable z a prev5tive to any accumulation ( noxi\s air *>g$ ) foetid od\rs1 aris+ f mud banks or f o!r causes4 ,! fact ( adhesion1 exi/+ betwe5 wat] & air1 is readily %[n1 by re/+ "o end ( a long glass tube1 ( at lea/ "o in* diamet]1 on a block ( wood "o foot high4 ,if wat] is all[$ to fl[ d[n ! tube1 s z to leave a suffici5t space ( air above x1 ! adhesion betwe5 ! two anci5t elem5ts becomes app>5t1 directly a little smoke is produc$1 ne> ! top end ( ! glass tube re/+ on ! block ( wood4 ,! smoke1 :i* has a great] t5d5cy to rise ?an to fall1 is dragg$ d[n ! glass tube1 & accompanies ! wat] z x fl[s f ! high] to ! l[] level4 ,! same tru? is also illu/rat$ 9 horizontal tr\ghs or tubes ?r\gh :i* wat] is caus$ to fl[4 ,! adhesion betwe5 air & glass is s great1 t x is absolutely necess>y to boil ! m]cury 9 ! tubes ( ! be/ b>omet]s2 & if ?is is n c>efully att5d$ to1 ! adh]+ air betwe5 ! glass & m]cury gradually asc5ds to1 & de/roys1 ! ,torricellian vacuum at ! top ( ! b>omet] tube4 ,ev5 aft] ! m]cury is boil$1 ! air w creep up 9 c\rse ( ye>s2 & 9 ord] to prev5t its passage betwe5 ! glass & quicksilv]1 x has be5 recomm5d$1 t a plat9um r+ %\ld be weld$ on to ! end ( ! glass tube1 because m]cury has ! p[] ( wett+ or enfilm+ ! metal plat9um1 & ! two be+ 9 close contact1 w\ld1 z x 71 %ut ! only door by :i* ! air c\ld ent] ! b>omet] tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,model ( ! app>atus = draw+ d[n air4 ,a1 ci/]n ( wat]1 suppli$ by ball-cock1 & kept at "o level1 s t ! wat] j runs d[n ! sides ( ! tube1 & draws d[n ! air 9 ! c5tre1 ,b ,c4 ,! vessel to :i* ! air & wat] are convey$ by a gutta-p]*a tube1 ,t4 ,!re is ano!r ball-cock to p]mit ! wa/e wat] to run away :5 x rea*es a c]ta9 level2 ! end ( ! pipe always dips "s in*es into ?is wat]1 :il/ ! air escapes f ! jet1 ,d4 ,page #fi ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,capill>y ,,attraction4 ,?is k9d ( attraction is t]m$ capill>y1 9 consequ5ce ( tubes1 ( a calibre1 or bore1 z f9e z hair1 attract+ & reta9+ fluids4 ,if wat] is p\r$ into a glass1 ! surface is n level1 b cupp$ at ! edges1 :]e ! solid glass ex]ts its adhesive attraction = ! liquid1 & draws x f ! level4 ,if ! glass be r$uc$ to a v n>r[ tube1 hav+ a hair-l bore1 ! attraction is s great t ! wat] is reta9$ 9 ! tube1 contr>y to ! =ce ( gravitation4 ,two pieces ( flat glass plac$ close toge!r1 & !n op5$ l a book1 draw up wat] betwe5 !m1 on ! same pr9ciple4 ,a mass ( salt put on a plate conta9+ a little wat] col\r$ ) indigo displays ?is k9d ( attraction mo/ p]fectly1 & ! wat] is quickly drawn up1 z %[n by ! blue col\r on ! salt4 ,a little solution ( ! ammonio-sulphate ( copp] imp>ts a f9] & m di/9ct blue col\r to ! salt4 ,a piece ( dry ,honduras mahogany "o in* squ>e1 plac$ 9 a sauc] conta9+ a little turp5t9e1 is soon f\nd to be wet ) ! oil at ! top1 :i* may !n be set on fire4 ,almo/ e k9d ( wood possesses capill>y tubes1 & w float1 on acc\nt ( ^! m9ute vessels be+ fill$ ) air2 if1 h[ev]1 ! air is )drawn1 !n ! wood s9ks1 & by boil+ a ball made ( bee* wood 9 wat]1 & !n plac+ x "u ! vacuum ( an air pump 9 o!r cold wat]1 x becomes s saturat$ ) wat] t x w no long] float4 ,a rem>kable in/ance ( ! same k9d is m5tion$ by ,scoresby1 9 :i* a boat 0 pull$ d[n by a :ale to a great dep? 9 ! ocean1 & aft] com+ to ! surface x 0 f\nd t ! wood w\ld nei!r swim nor burn1 ! capill>y pores be+ entirely fill$ ) salt wat]4 ,a piece ( ebony s9ks 9 wat] on acc\nt ( its d5sity1 clos5ess1 & fre$om f air4 ,a gauge made ( a piece ( oak1 ) a hole bor$ 9 x ( "o in* diamet]1 accurately receives a dry plug ( will[ wood :i* w n ent] ! orifice aft] x is wett$4 ,mill/ones are split by ins]t+ w$ges ( dry h>d wood1 :i* are aft]w>ds wett$ & swell$1 & bur/ ! /one asund]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s in/ances ( capill>y attraction is %[n 9 ! curry+ ( lea!r1 a process :i* is int5d$ to imp>t a s(tness & suppl5ess to ! sk91 9 ord] t x may be r5d]$ fit = ! manufacture ( boots1 h>ness1 ma*9e b&s1 c4 ,! object ( ! curri] is to fill ! pores ( ! lea!r ) oil1 & z ?is _c be done by m]ely sme>+ ! surface1 he prep>es ! way = ! oil by wett+ ! lea!r ?or\ghly ) wat]1 & :il/ ! sk9 is damp1 oil is rubb$ on1 & x is !n expos$ to ! air2 ! wat] evaporates at ord9>y temp]atures1 b oil does n2 ! consequ5ce is t ! ,page #gj pores ( ! lea!r give up ! wat]1 :i* disappe>s 9 evaporation1 & ! oil by capill>y attraction is !n drawn into ! body ( ! lea!r1 ! oil 9 fact takes ! place vacat$ by ! wat]1 & r5d]s ! mat]ial v supple1 & to a consid]able ext5t wat]pro(4 ,9 pap] mak+1 ! pores ( ?is mat]ial1 unless fill$ up or siz$1 cause ! ink to blot or spread by capill>y attraction4 ,! porosity ( soils is "o ( ! great desid]atums ( ! skilful agriculturi/1 & dra9age is int5d$ to remove ! excess ( wat] :i* w\ld fill ! pores ( ! e>?1 to ! exclusion ( ! m valuable dews & ra9s convey+ nutriti\s matt] d]iv$ f manures & ! atmosph]e4 ,a cane is an assemblage ( small tubes1 & if a piece ( ab\t six in*es 9 l5g? 7cut (f1 ( c\rse1 f ! jo9ts7 be plac$ 9 a bottle ( turp5t9e1 ! oil is drawn up & may be burnt at ! top2 x is on ?is pr9ciple t inde/ructible wicks ( asbe/os1 & wire gauze roll$ r\nd a c5tre core1 are us$ 9 _s lamps4 ,oil1 wax1 & tall[1 all rise by capill>y attraction 9 ! wicks to ! flame1 :]e !y are boil$1 conv]t$ into gas1 & burnt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,geb]'s filt]4 ,a4 ,! solution ( acetate ( lead4 ,b4 ,! dilute sulphuric acid4 ,c4 ,! cle> liquid1 sep>at$ f ! sulphate ( lead 9 ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,prawn syphon4 ,! capill>y attraction ( ske9s ( cotton = wat] 0 kn[n & appreciat$ by ! old al*emi/s2 & ,geb]1 "o ( ! mo/ anci5t ( ^! pione]s ( sci5ce1 & :o liv$ ab\t ! sev5? c5tury1 describes a filt] by :i* ! liquid is sep>at$ f ! solid4 ,?is exp]im5t is well display$ by putt+ a solution ( acetate ( lead into a glass1 :i* is plac$ on ! highe/ block ( a s]ies ( ?ree1 arrang$ z /eps4 ,into ?is glass is plac$ ! %ort end ( a ske9 ,page #ga ( lamp cotton1 previ\sly wett$ ) di/ill$ wat]2 ! long end dips into ano!r glass bel[1 conta9+ dilute sulphuric acid1 & z ! solution ( lead passes into x1 a solid :ite precipitate ( sulphate ( lead is =m$2 !n ano!r ske9 ( wett$ cotton is plac$ 9 ?is glass1 ! long end ( :i* passes into ! la/ glass1 s t ! cle> liquid is sep>at$ & ! solid left beh9d4 7,fig4 #hb47 ,9 ?is filt] ! lamp cotton acts z a syphon ?r\gh ! capill>y pores :i* x =ms4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 a prawn may be wa%$ 9 ! mo/ elegant mann] 7z fir/ %[n by ! late ,duke ( ,sussex71 by plac+ ! tail1 aft] pull+ (f ! fan "p1 9 a tumbl] ( wat]1 & all[+ ! head to hang ov]1 :5 ! wat] is drawn up by capill>y attraction1 & cont9ues to run ?r\gh ! head4 7,fig4 #hc47 ,! ?reads ( :i* l951 cotton1 & wooll5 clo?s are made are small cords1 & ! %r9kage ( su* textile fabrics1 is well kn[n & usually inquir$ ab\t1 :5 a pur*ase is made2 "h aga9 capill>y attraction is ex]t$1 & ! fabric contracts 9 ! two directions ( ! w>p & wo( ?reads2 ?us1 tw5ty-sev5 y>ds ( common ,iri% l95 w p]man5tly %r9k to ab\t tw5ty-six y>ds 9 cold wat]4 ,9 ^! cases ! wat] is attract$ into ! fibres ( ! textile mat]ial1 & caus+ !m to swell1 mu/ necess>ily %ort5 _! l5g?1 j z a dry rope /ra9$ betwe5 two walls = ! purpose ( support+ clo!s1 has be5 kn[n to draw ! hooks aft] be+ sudd5ly wett$ & %ort5$ by a %[] ( ra94 ,9 ord] to tight5 a b&age1 x is only necess>y to w9d ! dry l95 r\nd ! limbs z close z possible1 & !n wet x ) wat]1 :5 ! necess>y %r9kage takes place4 ,if a piece ( dry cotton clo? is ti$ ov] "o end ( a lamp glass1 ! o!r may be ?ru/ into1 or remov$ f ! bas9 ( wat] v easily1 b :5 ! cotton is wett$1 ! fibres contract & prev5t air f ent]+1 s t ! glass reta9s wat] j z if x 7 an ord9>y gas j> clos$ ) a glass /opp]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,a4 ,bas9 ( wat]4 ,b4 ,cyl9d] ( wire gauze clos$ at bo? ends ) gauze4 ,:5 full ( wat] x may be lift$ f ! bas9 by ! h&le1 ,c4 ,a ,spani% prov]b1 express+ contempt1 says1 g to ! well ) a sieve1 b ev5 ?is seem+ impossibility is surm\nt$ by us+ a cyl9d] ( wire gauze1 :i* may be fill$ ) wat]1 & by means ( ! capill>y attraction betwe5 ! me%es ( ! copp]-wire gauze & ! wat]1 ! :ole is reta9$1 & may be c>efully lift$ f a bas9 ( wat]2 ! exp]im5t only succe$s :5 ! air is completely driv5 out ( ! int]/ices ( ! gauze1 & ! little cyl9d] completely fill$ ) wat]2 ?is may be done ,page #gb by repeat$ly s9k+ & draw+ out ! cyl9d]1 or /ill m effectually1 by fir/ wett+ x ) alcohol & !n dipp+ ! cyl9d] 9 wat]4 ,a balloon1 made ( cotton clo?1 _c be inflat$ by means ( a pair ( bell[s1 b if ! balloon is wett$ ) wat]1 !n x may be swell$ out ) air j z if x _h be5 made ( "s air-tight mat]ial2 h5ce ! pr9ciple ( v>ni%+ silk or fill+ ! pores ) boil$ oil1 :5 x is requir$ 9 ! manufacture ( balloons4 ,biscuit w>e1 por\s tubes = voltaic batt]ies1 alc>razas1 or wat] cool]s1 are all examples ( ! same pr9ciple4 ,:il/ speak+ mo/ fav\rably ( ! b5evol5t lab\rs ( _m g5tlem5 7beg9n+ ) ,mr4 ,gurney7 :o h erect$ ,dr9k+ ,f\nta9s 9 ,london's du/y atmosph]e & cr[d$ /reets1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t pi\s ,mohamm$ans h1 9 bygone times1 already set u ! example 9 ?is respect2 & 9 ! palmy days ( _m ( ! ,moori% cities1 ! ?ir/y citiz5 c\ld always be refre%$ by a draught ( cool wat] f ! por\s bottles provid$ & end[$ by *>itable ,mussulmans1 & plac$ 9 ! public /reets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,moori% ni*e & por\s e>!nw>e bottle1 conta9+ wat]4 ,page #gc ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,cry/allization4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,cry/als ( sn[4 ,x has be5 already /at$ t ! =ce ( cohesion b9ds ! simil> p>ticles ( sub/ances toge!r1 :e!r !y be amorph\s or %apeless1 cry/all9e or ( a regul> symmetrical & ma!matical figure4 ,! t]m cry/al 0 orig9ally appli$ by ! anci5ts to silica 9 ! =m ( :at is usually t]m$ rock cry/al1 or ,brazilian pebble2 & !y suppos$ x to be wat] :i* _h be5 solidifi$ by a rem>kable int5sity ( cold1 & c\ld n be ?aw$ by any ord9>y or summ] heat4 ,inde$1 ?is idea ( ! anci5ts has be5 embodi$ 7to a c]ta9 ext5t7 9 ! %ape ( artificial ice made by cry/alliz+ l>ge quantities ( sulphate ( soda1 :i* 0 made z flat z possible1 & ^u ,page #gd :i* skat]s 7 invit$ to describe ! figure ( eight1 at ! usual admittance fee1 repres5t+ twelve p5ce4 ,a cry/al is n[ def9$ to be an inorganic body1 :i*1 by ! op]ation ( aff9ity1 has assum$ ! =m ( a regul> solid t]m9at$ by a c]ta9 numb] ( planes or smoo? surfaces4 ,?\s&s ( m9]als are discov]$ 9 ! cry/alliz$ /ate--su* z cubes ( iron pyrites 7sulphuret ( iron7 & ( fluor sp> 7fluoride ( calcium71 :il/ num]\s sal9e bodies call$ salts are sold only 9 ! =m ( cry/als4 ,( ^! salts we h excell5t examples 9 ,epsom salts 7sulphate ( magnesia71 nitre 7nitrate ( pota%71 alum 7sulphate ( alum9a71 & pota%2 ! t]m salt be+ appli$ specially to all sub/ances compos$ ( an acid & a base1 z also to o!r comb9ations ( elem5ts :i* may or may n take a cry/all9e =m4 ,?us1 nitre is compos$ ( nitric acid & pota%2 ! fir/1 ev5 :5 mu* dilut$1 rapidly *anges pap]1 dipp$ 9 t9cture ( litmus & /a9$ blue1 to a r$ col\r1 :il/ pota% %[s its alkal9e nature1 by *ang+ pap]1 /a9$ yell[ ) t9cture ( turm]ic1 to a r$di%-br[n4 ,! latt] pap] is re/or$ to its orig9al yell[ by dipp+ x into ! dilute nitric acid1 :il/ ! litmus pap] rega9s its delicate blue col\r by be+ pass$ into ! alkal9e solution4 ,an acid & an alkali comb9e & =m a neutral salt1 su* z nitre1 :i* has no action :atev] on litmus or turm]ic2 :il/ ! elem5t iod9e1 :i* is n an acid1 unites ) ! metallic elem5t potassium1 & !re=e n an alkali1 & =ms a salt t cry/allizes 9 cubes call$ iodide ( potassium4 ,aga91 cane sug>1 :i* is compos$ ( *>coal1 oxyg51 & hydrog51 cry/allizes 9 h>d transp>5t f\r-sid$ & irregul> six-sid$ prisms1 b is n call$ a salt4 ,silica or s& is f\nd cry/alliz$ mo/ p]fectly 9 nature 9 six-sid$ pyramids1 b is n a salt2 x is an acid t]m$ silicic-acid4 ,s& has no acid ta/e1 because x is insoluble 9 wat]1 b :5 melt$ 9 a crucible ) an alkali1 su* z pota%1 x =ms a salt call$ silicate ( pota%4 ,magnesia1 f be+ insoluble1 or ne>ly s1 9 wat]1 is all b ta/eless1 & has b>ely any alkal9e reaction1 yet x is a v /rong alkal9e base2 #bj4g p>ts ( x neutralize z mu* sulphuric acid z #dg ( pota%4 ,a salt is n always a cry/allizable sub/ance1 & vice v]s4 ,! progress ( our *emical k has !re=e dem&$ a wid] ext5sion & application ( ! t]m salt1 & x is n n[ conf9$ m]ely to a comb9ation ( an acid & an alkali1 b is conf]r$ ev5 on comp\nds consi/+ only ( sulphur & a metal1 :i* are t]m$ sulphur salts4 ,s also 9 comb9ations ( *lor9e1 iod9e1 brom9e1 & fluor9e1 ) metallic bodies1 nei!r ( :i* are acid or alkal9e1 ! t]m haloid salts has be5 appli$ by ,b]zelius1 f ! ,greek 7,greek3 als1 sea salt1 & ,greek3 eidos =m71 because !y are analog\s 9 con/itution to sea salt2 & ! m5tion ( sea salt aga9 rem9ds u ( ! wide signification ( ! t]m salt1 orig9ally conf9$ to ?is sub/ance1 b n[ ext5d$ into f\r great ord]s1 z def9$ by ,turn]3-- ,,ord] ,i4 ,! oxy-salts4--,?is ord] includes no salt ! acid or base ( :i* is n an oxidis$ body 7ex41 nitrate ( pota%74 ,page #ge ,,ord] ,,ii4 ,! hydro-salts4--,?is ord] includes no salt ! acid or base ( :i* does n conta9 hydrog5 7ex41 *loride ( ammonium74 ,,ord] ,,iii4 ,! sulphur salts4--,?is ord] includes no salt ! electro-positive or negative +r$i5t ( :i* is n a sulphuret 7ex41 hydrosulphuret ( potassium74 ,,ord] ,,iv4 ,! haloid salts4--,?is ord] includes no salt ! electro-positive or negative +r$i5t ( :i* is n haloidal4 7,exs41 iodide ( potassium & sea salt74 ,to fix ! idea ( salt /ill bett] 9 ! y\?ful m9d1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t alaba/]1 ( :i* works ( art are con/ruct$1 or m>ble1 or lime-/one1 or *alk1 are all salts1 because !y consi/ ( an acid & a base4 ,9 ord] to cause a sub/ance to cry/allize x is fir/ necess>y to end[ ! p>ticles ) fre$om ( motion4 ,!re are _m me?ods ( do+ ?is *emically or by ! application ( heat1 b we _c by any me*anical process ( conc5tration1 compression1 or division1 p]suade a sub/ance to cry/allize1 unless p]haps we except t rem>kable *ange 9 wr\ght or fibr\s iron into cry/all9e or brittle iron1 by con/ant vibration1 z 9 ! axles ( a c>riage1 or by atta*+ a piece ( fibr\s iron to a tilt hamm]4 ,if we p[d] "s alum cry/als !y w n aga9 assume _! cry/all9e =m2 if br\ght 9 contact !re is no fre$om ( motion4 ,x is l plac+ "s globules ( m]cury on a plate4 ,!y h no p[] to create motion2 _! in]tia keeps !m sep>at$ by c]ta9 di/ances1 & !y d n coalesce2 b incl9e ! plate1 give !m motion1 & br+ !m 9 contact1 !y soon unite & =m "o globule4 ,! p>ticles ( alum are n 9 close contact1 & !y h no fre$om ( motion unless !y are dissolv$ 9 wat]1 :5 !y become invisible2 ! wat] by its *emical p[] de/roys ! me*anical aggregation ( ! solid alum f> beyond any op]ation ( levigation4 ,! solid alum has become liquid1 l wat]2 ! p>ticles are n[ free to move )\t let or h9drance f friction4 ,a solution1 7f ! ,lat9 solvo1 to loos57 is obta9$4 ,! alum mu/ inde$ be r$uc$ to m9ute p>ticles1 z !y are alike invisible to ! eye :e!r assi/$ by ! microscope or n4 ,no repose w cause ! alum to sep>ate2 ! solv5t p[] ( ! wat] opposes gravitation2 e "p ( ! solution is equally impregnat$ ) alum1 & ! p>ticles are diffus$ at equal di/ances ?r\gh ! wat]2 ! heavy alum is actually drawn up aga9/ gravity by ! wat]4 ,h[1 !n1 is ! alum to be br\ght back aga9 to ! solid /ate8 ,! answ] is simple en\gh4 ,by evaporat+ away ! excess ( wat]1 ei!r by ! application ( heat or by long exposure to ! atmosph]e 9 a v %all[ vessel1 ! m9ute atoms ( ! alum are br\ght clos] toge!r1 & cry/allization takes place4 ,! assumption ( ! solid /ate is indicat$ by ! =mation ( a ?9 film 7call$ a pellicle7 ( cry/als1 & is fur!r & /ill m satisfactorily prov$ by tak+ out a drop ( ! solution & plac+ x on a bit ( glass1 :i* rapidly becomes fill$ ) cry/als if ! evaporation has be5 c>ri$ suffici5tly f> 7,fig4 #hg74 ,page #gf ,aft] evaporat+ away suffici5t wat]1 ! di% is plac$ on "o side & all[$ to cool1 :5 cry/als ( ! utmo/ regul>ity ( =m are produc$1 &1 d5ot$ by a geometrical t]m1 are call$ octoh$ral or eight-sid$ cry/als1 :5 9 ! utmo/ /ate ( p]fection 7,fig4 #hh74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,r ,r4 ,r+-/&4 ,s ,s4 ,_s-lamps4 ,a4 ,flask conta9+ boil+ solution ( alum4--,solution4 ,b4 ,funnel1 ) a bit ( lamp-cotton /uff$ 9 ! bottom4--,filtration4 ,c4 ,evaporat+ di%4--,evaporation4 ,d4 ,drop on glass4--,cry/allization4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,! sci5ce ( cry/allography is too elaborate to be discuss$ at l5g? 9 a "w ( ?is k9d2 ! v>i\s t]ms connect$ ) cry/als w !re=e only be expla9$1 & exp]im5ts giv5 9 illu/ration ( ! =mation ( v>i\s cry/als4 ,:5 ! apices--i4e41 ! tips or po9ts ( cry/als--are cut (f1 !y are said to be truncat$2 & ! same *ange occurs on ! edges ( num]\s cry/als4 ,if "s ( ! salt call$ *loride ( calcium 9 ! dry & amorph\s /ate is expos$ to ! air1 x soon absorbs wat]1 or :at is t]m$ deliquesces3 ! same ?+ occurs ) ! cry/als ( c>bonate ( pota%1 & if f\r ounces are weigh$ out 9 an evaporat+ di%1 & !n expos$ = ab\t half an h\r to ! air1 a v p]ceptible increase 9 weight is obs]v$ by ! assi/ance ( ! scales & gra9 weights4 ,deliquesc5ce is a t]m f ! ,lat9 deliqueo1 to melt1 & is 9 fact a gradual melt+1 caus$ by ! absorption ( wat] f ! atmosph]e4 ,! rev]se ( ?is is illu/rat$ ) v>i\s cry/als1 su* z ,glaub]'s salt 7sulphate ( soda71 or common wa%+ soda 7c>bonate ( soda72 if a f9e cle> cry/al is tak5 out ( ! solution1 call$ ! "m liquor1 9 :i* x has be5 cry/alliz$1 wip$ dry1 & plac$ "u a glass %ade1 ?is salt may rema9 = a long p]iod ,page #gg )\t *ange1 b if x receive "o scrat* f a p91 ! door is op5$ app>5tly = ! escape ( ! wat] :i* x conta9s1 *emically unit$ ) ! salt1 & call$ wat] ( cry/allization2 ! :ite cry/al gradually swells out1 ! little quasi sore f ! p9-scrat* spreads ov] ! :ole1 :i* becomes opaque1 & crumbl+ d[n falls into a %apeless mass ( :ite du/2 ?is *ange is call$ effloresc5ce1 f effloresco1 to bl[ z a fl[]--caus$ by ! ab/raction f !m ( *emically-comb9$ wat] by ! atmosph]e4 ,) ref]5ce to ! pres]vation ( cry/als1 ,pr(essor ,griffi?s recomm5ds !m to be oil$ & wip$1 & plac$ "u a glass %ade1 if ( a deliquesc5t nature2 or if effloresc5t1 !y are p]fectly pres]v$ by plac+ !m "u a glass %ade ) a little wat] 9 a cup to keep ! air *>g$ ) moi/ure & prev5t any dry+ up ( ! cry/al4 ,deliquesc5t cry/als may be pres]v$ by plac+ !m1 :5 dry1 9 naph?a1 or any liquor 9 :i* !y are p]fectly insoluble4 ,"s salts1 l ,glaub]'s salts1 conta9 s mu* wat] ( cry/allization t :5 subject$ to heat !y melt & dissolve 9 x1 & ?is liquefaction ( ! solid cry/al is call$ wat]y fusion4 ,o!r salts1 su* z bay salt1 *lorate ( pota%1 c41 :5 heat$1 fly to pieces1 ) a %>p crackl+ noise1 :i* is due sometimes1 to ! unequal expansion ( ! cry/all9e surface1 or ! sudd5 conv]sion ( ! wat] 7reta9$ 9 ! cry/al by capill>y attraction7 into /eam2 ?us nitre behaves 9 ?is mann]1 & frequ5tly reta9s wat] 9 capill>y fissures1 al?\gh x is an anhydr\s salt1 or salt p]fectly free f comb9$ wat]4 ,! crackl+ s\nd is call$ decrepitation1 & is well illu/rat$ by ?r[+ a h&ful ( bay salt on a cle> fire2 b ?is prop]ty is de/roy$ by p[d]+ ! cry/als4 ,_m sub/ances :5 melt$ & sl[ly cool$ concrete into ! mo/ p]fect cry/als2 9 ^! cases heat alone1 ! antagoni/ to cohesion1 is ! solv5t p[]4 ,?us1 if bismu? be melt$ 9 a crucible1 & :5 cool+1 & j z ! pellicle 7f pellis1 a sk9 or cru/7 is =m+ on ! surface1 if two small holes are in/antly made by a rod ( iron & ! liquid metal p\r$ out f ! inside 7"o ( ! holes be+ ! entrance = ! air1 ! o!r ! exit = ! metal72 on c>efully break+ ! crucible1 ! bismu? is f\nd to be cry/alliz$ 9 ! mo/ lovely cubes4 ,sulphur1 aga91 may be cry/alliz$ 9 prismatic cry/als by pursu+ a simil> plan2 & ! great blocks ( sp]maceti exhibit$ by wax *&l]s 9 _! w9d[s1 are cry/alliz$ 9 ! int]ior & prep>$ on ! same pr9ciple4 ,!re are o!r modes ( conf]r+ ! cry/all9e /ate ^u sub/ances--viz41 by elevat+ !m into a /ate ( vap\r by ! process call$ sublimation 7f sublimis1 high or exalt$71 ! lift+ up & cond5sation ( ! vap\r 9 ! upp] "p ( a vessel2 a process p]fectly di/9ct f t ( di/illation1 :i* means to sep>ate drop by drop4 ,bo? ( ^! processes are v anci5t1 & 7 inv5t$ by ! ,arabian al*emi/s long antec$5t to ! sev5? c5tury4 ,examples ( sublimation are %[n by heat+ iod9e1 & especially ,page #gh b5zoic acid2 ) ! latt]1 a v elegant imitation ( sn[ is produc$1 by receiv+ ! vap\r1 on "s sprigs ( holly or o!r ev]gre51 or imitation pap] sn[drops & crocuses1 plac$ 9 a ta/eful mann] "u a glass vessel4 ,! b5zoic acid %\ld fir/ be sublim$ ov] ! sprigs or artificial fl[]s 9 a gas j>1 :i* may be remov$ :5 ! :ole is cold1 & a cle> glass %ade sub/itut$ = x4 7,fig4 #hi47 ,all electro deposits on metals are m or less cry/all9e2 & copp] or silv] may be deposit$ 9 a cry/all9e =m by plac+ a scrap$ /ick ( phosphorus 9 a solution ( sulphate ( copp] or ( nitrate ( silv]4 ,! phosphorus takes away ! oxyg5 f ! metal1 or deoxidizes ! solution1 & ! copp] or silv] reappe>s 9 ! metallic =m4 ,! surface ( ! phosphorus mu/ n be scrap$ 9 ! air1 b "u wat]1 :5 ! op]ation is p]fectly safe4 ,a s+ul> & almo/ in/antane\s cry/allization c be produc$ by saturat+ boil+ wat] ) ,glaub]'s salt1 ( :i* "o ounce & a half ( wat] w usually dissolve ab\t two ounces2 hav+ done ?is1 p\r ! solution1 :il/ boil+ hot1 into clean oil flasks1 or vials ( any k9d1 previ\sly w>m$ 9 ! ov51 & imm$iately cork !m1 or tie /rips ( wett$ bladd]1 ov] ! orifices ( ! flasks or vials1 or p\r into ! neck a small quantity ( olive oil1 or close ! neck ) a cork ?r\gh :i* a !rmomet] tube has be5 pass$4 ,:5 cold1 no cry/allization occurs until atmosph]ic air is admitt$2 & x 0 =m]ly believ$ t ! pressure ( ! air effect$ ?is object1 until "s "o ?\ght ( ! oil1 & n[ ! !ory is modifi$1 & cry/allization is suppos$ to occur 9 consequ5ce ( ! wat] dissolv+ "s air :i* causes ! deposit ( a m9ute cry/al1 & ?is be+ ! turn+ po9t1 ! :ole becomes solid4 ,h[ev] ! fact may be expla9$1 x is c]ta9 t :5 ! liquid refuses to cry/allize on ! admission ( air1 ! solidification occurs directly a m9ute cry/al ( sulphate ( soda1 or ,glaub]'s salt1 is dropp$ into ! vessel4 ,:5 ! cry/allization is accompli%$1 ! :ole mass is usually s completely solidifi$1 t on inv]t+ ! vessel1 n a drop ( liquid falls out4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,a4 ,gas-j>1 ) /opp] op5 at fir/1 to be %ut :5 ! lamp is )drawn4 ,b4 ,wood5 /&1 ) hole to c>ry ! cup ,c1 conta9+ ! b5zoic acid1 heat$ bel[ by ! _s-lamp1 ,s4 ,f4 ,fl[]s or sprigs arrang$ on pieces ( rock or m9]al4 ,page #gi ,x may be obs]v$ t ! same mass ( salt w answ] any numb] ( times ! same purpose4 ,all t is necess>y to be done1 is to place ! vial or flask1 9 a saucepan ( w>m wat]1 & gradually raise x to ! boil+ po9t till ! salt is completely liquefi$1 :5 ! vessel mu/ be cork$ & secur$ f ! air z be=e4 ,:5 ! solidification is produc$ mu* heat is g5]at$1 :i* is r5d]$ app>5t by means ( a !rmomet]1 or by ! ins]tion ( a copp] wire into ! pa/y mass ( cry/al 9 ! flask1 & !n t\*+ an extremely ?9 %av+ or cutt+ ( phosphorus1 dri$ & plac$ on cotton wool4 ,solidification 9 all cases produces heat4 ,liquefaction produces cold4 ,9 ,ma/]s's freez+ app>atus c]ta9 measur$ quantities ( cry/alliz$ sal-ammoniac1 nitre1 & nitrate ( ammonia1 are plac$ 9 a metallic cyl9d]1 surr\nd$ ) a small quantity ( spr+ wat] conta9$ 9 an out] vessel4 ,directly ! cry/als are liquefi$ by ! addition ( wat]1 int5se cold is produc$1 :i* freezes ! wat] & =ms an exact ca/ ( ! inn] cyl9d] 9 ice1 & ?is may aft]w>ds be remov$1 by p\r+ away ! liquefi$ salts1 & fill+ ! inn] cyl9d]1 ) wat] ( ! same temp]ature z ! air1 :i* rapidly ?aws ! surr\nd+ ice1 & all[s x to slip (f into any conv5i5t vessel ready to receive x4 7,fig4 #ij47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,a4 ,! inn] cyl9d] :i* conta9s ! freez+ mixture4 ,b ,b4 ,! out] "o conta9+ spr+ wat]4 ,c ,c4 ,! ice slipp+ away f ! inn] cyl9d]4 ,= an +5i\s me?od ( obta9+ l>ge & p]fect cry/als ( almo/ any size1 exp]im5tali/s are indebt$ to ,le ,blanc4 ,8 me?od consi/s 9 fir/ procur+ small & p]fect cry/als--say1 octoh$ra ( alum--& !n plac+ !m 9 a broad flat-bottom$ pan1 he p\rs ov] ! cry/als a quantity ( saturat$ solution ( alum1 obta9$ by evaporat+ a solution ( alum until a drop tak5 out cry/allizes on cool+4 ,! positions ( ! cry/als are alt]$ at lea/ once a day ) a glass rod1 s t all ! faces may be alt]nately expos$ to ! action ( ! solution1 = ! side on :i* ! cry/al re/s1 or is 9 contact ) ! vessel1 nev] receives any increm5t4 ,! cry/als w ?us gradually gr[ or increase 9 size1 & :5 !y h done s = "s "t1 ! be/ & mo/ symmetrical1 may be remov$ & plac$ sep>ately1 9 vessels conta9+ "s ( ! same saturat$ ,page #hj solution ( alum1 & be+ con/antly turn$ !y may be obta9$ ( almo/ any size desir$4 ,unless ! cry/als are remov$ to fre% solutions1 a reaction takes place1 9 consequ5ce ( ! exhau/ion ( ! alum f ! wat]1 & ! cry/al is attack$ & dissolv$4 ,?is action is fir/ p]ceptible on ! edges & angles ( ! cry/al2 !y become blunt$ & gradually lose _! %ape altoge!r4 ,by ?is me?od cry/als may be made to gr[ 9 l5g? or bread?--! =m] :5 !y are plac$ ^u _! sides1 ! latt] if !y be made to /& ^u _! bases4 ,on ,le ,blanc's pr9ciple1 beautiful cry/al baskets are made ) alum1 sulphate ( copp]1 & bi*romate ( pota%4 ,! baskets are usually made ( cov]$ copp] wire1 & :5 ! salts cry/allize on !m z a nucleus or c5tre1 !y are con/antly remov$ to fre% solutions1 s t ! :ole is completely cov]$1 & r$1 :ite1 & blue sp>kl+ cry/al baskets =m$4 ,!y w reta9 _! brilliancy = any "t1 by plac+ !m "u a glass %ade1 ) a cup conta9+ a little wat]4 ,! sket* bel[ af=ds an excell5t illu/ration ( "s ( ,nature's rem>kable concretions 9 ! peculi> column> /ructure ( basalt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,! ,giant's ,causeway4 ,page #ha ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,*emi/ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,al*emi/s at "w4 ,!re is h>dly any k9d ( k :i* has be5 s sl[ly acquir$ z t ( *emi/ry1 & p]haps no o!r sci5ce has (f]$ su* fasc9at+ rew>ds to ! lab\r ( its vot>ies z ! philosoph]'s /one1 :i* 0 to produce an unfail+ supply ( gold2 or ! elixir ( life1 t 0 to give ! discov]] ( ! gold-mak+ art ! "t1 ! prolong$ life1 9 :i* he might sp5d & enjoy x4 ,hundr$s ( ye>s ago ,egypt 0 ! great depository ( all le>n+1 art1 & sci5ce1 & x 0 to ?is anci5t c\ntry t ! mo/ celebrat$ sages ( antiquity travell$4 ,h]mes1 or ,m]curius ,trismegi/us1 ! fav\rite m9i/] ( ! ,egyptian k+ ,osiris1 has be5 celebrat$ z ! inv5tor ( ! art ( al*emy1 & ! fir/ treatise ^u x has be5 attribut$ to ,zosymus1 ( ,*emnis or ,panopolis4 ,! ,moors :o conqu]$ ,spa9 7 rem>kable ,page #hb = _! le>n+1 & ! ta/e & elegance ) :i* !y design$ & c>ri$ out a new /yle ( ar*itecture1 ) its lovely ,arabesque ornam5tation4 ,!y 7 likewise great foll[]s ( ! art ( al*emy1 :5 !y ceas$ to be conqu]ors1 & became m reconcil$ to ! arts ( peace4 ,/range t su* a p1 ?ir/+ z !y did 9 aft] ye>s = all k9ds ( k1 %\ld h de/roy$1 9 ! p]sons ( _! ance/ors1 ! mo/ num]\s collection ( books t ! _w _h ev] se53 ! magnific5t libr>y ( ,alex&ria1 collect$ by ! ,ptolemies ) great dilig5ce & at an enorm\s exp5se1 0 burn$ by ! ord]s ( ,caliph ,om>2 :il/ x is /at$ t ! al*emical works _h be5 previ\sly de/roy$ by ,diocletian 9 ! f\r? c5tury1 le/ ! ,egyptians %\ld acquire by su* means suffici5t weal? to )/& ! ,roman p[]1 = gold 0 !n1 z x is n[1 ! s9ews ( w>4 ,ea/]n hi/orians relate ! tr\ble & exp5se incurr$ by ! succe$+ ,caliphs1 :o1 resign+ ! ,s>ac5ic b>b>ism ( _! ance/ors1 7 glad to collect f all p>ts ! books :i* 7 to furni% =? a pr9cely libr>y at ,bagdad4 ,h[ ! le>n$ s*ol> sighs :5 he reads ( sev5 hundr$ ?\s& books be+ consign$ to ! ignom9i\s (fice ( heat+ =ty ?\s& ba?s 9 ! capital ( ,egypt1 & ( ! magnific5t ,alex&rian ,libr>y1 a m5tal fuel = ! lamp ( le>n+ 9 all ages1 consum$ 9 ba? furnaces1 & af=d+ six mon?s' fuel = t purpose4 ,! ,arabians1 h[ev]1 made am5ds = ^! b>b>\s de$s 9 succe$+ c5turies1 & :5 all ,europe 0 laid wa/e "u ! iron rule ( ! ,go?s1 !y became ! protectors ( philosophy & ! promot]s ( its pursuits2 & ?us we come to ! sev5? c5tury1 9 :i* ,geb]1 an ,arabian pr9ce liv$1 & is /at$ to be ! e>lie/ ( ! true al*emi/s ^: "n has rea*$ po/]ity4 ,)\t attempt+ to fill up ! al*emical hi/ory ( ! int]v5+ c5turies1 we leap =w>d six hundr$ ye>s1 & n[ f9d ourselves 9 imag9ation 9 ,engl&1 ) ! le>n$ fri>1 ,rog] ,bacon1 a native ( ,som]set%ire1 :o liv$ ab\t ! middle ( ! ?irte5? c5tury2 & al?\gh ! cont9ual /udy ( al*emy _h n yet produc$ ! /one1 x bore fruit 9 o!r discov]ies1 & ,rog] ,bacon is said1 ) great appe>ance ( tru?1 to h discov]$ gunp[d]1 = he says 9 "o ( 8 works3--,f saltpetre & o!r +r$i5ts we are able to =m a fire :i* w burn to any di/ance2 & aga9 allud+ to its effects1 a small portion ( matt]1 ab\t ! size ( ! ?umb1 prop]ly dispos$1 w make a trem5d\s s\nd & coruscation1 by :i* cities & armies might be de/roy$4 ,! exagg]at$ /yle seems to h be5 a fav\rite "o ) all philosoph]s1 f ! "t ( ,rog] ,bacon to t ( ,mus*5broek ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd51 :o accid5tally discov]$ ! ,leyd5 j> 9 ! ye> #agdf1 & receiv+ ! fir/ %ock1 f a vial conta9+ a little wat]1 into :i* a cork & nail _h be5 fitt$1 /ates t he felt himself /ruck 9 8 arms1 %\ld]s1 & brea/1 s t he lo/ 8 brea?1 & 0 two days be=e he recov]$ f ! effects ( ! bl[ & ! t]ror2 ,page #hc add+1 t he w\ld n take a second %ock = ! k+dom ( ,france4 ,disreg>d+ ! num]\s al*emical ev5ts occurr+ f ! "t ( ,rog] ,bacon1 we aga9 advance f\r hundr$ ye>s--viz41 to ! ye> #affb1 :51 on ! #ae? ( ,july1 ,k+ ,*>les ,,ii4 grant$ a royal *>t] to ! ,philosophical ,society ( ,ox=d1 :o _h remov$ to ,london1 "u ! "n ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london = ,promot+ ,natural ,k1 & 9 ! ye> #affe 0 publi%$ ! fir/ numb] ( ! ,philosophical ,transactions2 ?is "w conta9s ! successive discov]ies ( ,may[1 ,hales1 ,black1 ,leslie1 ,cav5di%1 ,lavoisi]1 ,prie/ley1 ,davy1 ,f>aday2 & s9ce ! ye> #agfb has be5 regul>ly publi%$ at ! rate ( "o volume p] annum4 ,) ?is preface proce$ we n[ to discuss "s ( ! v>i$ ph5om5a ( *emical attraction1 or :at is m correctly t]m$ ,,*emical ,,aff9ity4 ,! above title ref]s to an endless s]ies ( *anges br\ght ab\t by *emical comb9ations1 all ( :i* c be r$uc$ to c]ta9 fix$ laws1 & admit ( a simple classification & arrangem5t4 ,a me*anical aggregation1 h[ev] well arrang$1 c be always di/+ui%$ f a *emical "o4 ,?us1 a gra9 ( gunp[d] consi/s ( nitre1 :i* c be wa%$ away ) boil+ wat]1 ( sulphur1 :i* c be sublim$ & made to pass away z vap\r1 ( *>coal1 :i* rema9s beh9d aft] ! previ\s processes are complete2 ?is mixture has be5 p]fect$ by a c>eful proportion ( ! respective +r$i5ts1 x has be5 wett$1 & gr\nd1 & press$1 granulat$1 & f9ally dri$2 all ^! me*anical processes h be5 s well c>ri$ out t ea* gra91 if analys$1 w\ld be simil> to ! o!r2 & yet x is1 aft] all1 only a me*anical aggregation1 because ! sulphur1 ! *>coal1 & ! nitre are un*ang$4 ,a gra9 ( gunp[d] moi/5$1 cru%$1 & exam9$ by a high microscopic p[]1 w\ld indicate ! yell[ p>ticles ( sulphur1 ! black p>ts ( *>coal1 :il/ ! wat] filt]$ f ! gra9 ( p[d] & dri$1 w\ld %[ ! nitre by ! =m ( ! cry/al4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if "s nitre is fus$ at a dull r$ heat 9 a little crucible1 & two or ?ree gra9s ( sulphur are add$1 !y are rapidly oxidiz$1 & comb9e ) ! pota%1 =m+ sulphate ( pota%2 & aft] ?is *ange a few gra9s ( *>coal may be add$ 9 a simil> mann]1 :5 !y burn brightly1 & are oxidiz$ & conv]t$ into c>bonic acid1 :i* also unites 9 l mann] ) ! pota%1 =m+ c>bonate ( pota%2 s t :5 ! fus$ nitre is cool$ & a few p>ticles exam9$ by ! microscope1 ! *>coal & sulphur are no long] di/+ui%able1 !y h und]gone a *emical comb9ation ) portions ( ! nitre1 & h produc$ two new salts1 p]fectly diff]5t 9 ta/e1 gravity1 & appe>ance f ! orig9al sub/ances employ$ to produce !m4 ,h5ce *emical comb9ation is def9$ to be t prop]ty :i* is possess$ by "o or m sub/ances1 ( unit+ toge!r & produc+ a ?ird or o!r body p]fectly diff]5t ,page #hd 9 its nature f ei!r ( ! two or m g5]at+ ! new comp\nd4 ,to return to our fir/ exp]im5t ) ! gunp[d]3 take sulphur1 place "s 9 an iron ladle1 heat x ov] a gas flame till x cat*es fire1 !n asc5d a ladd]1 & p\r x g5tly1 f ! greate/ height y c rea*1 into a pail ( w>m wat]3 if ?is exp]im5t is p]=m$ 9 a d>k5$ room a magnific5t & cont9u\s /ream ( fire is obta9$1 ( a blue col\r1 )\t a s+le break 9 its :ole l5g?1 provid$ ! ladle is gradually incl9$ & empti$4 ,! sub/ance t drops into ! w>m wat] is no long] yell[ & h>d1 b is r$1 s(t1 & pla/ic2 x is /ill sulphur1 ?\gh x has tak5 a new =m1 because t elem5t is dimorph\s 7,greek3 dis twice1 & ,greek3 morph a =m71 &1 ,proteus-l1 c assume two =ms4 ,take ano!r ladle1 & melt "s nitre 9 x at a dull r$ heat1 !n add a small quantity ( sulphur1 :i* w burn z be=e2 & n[1 aft] wait+ a few m9utes1 repeat ! same exp]im5t by p\r+ ! liquid f ! /eps ?r\gh ! air into wat]2 obs]ve x no long] flames1 & ! sub/ance receiv$ into ! wat] is n r$ & s(t & pla/ic1 b is :ite1 or ne>ly s1 & rapidly dissolves away 9 ! wat]4 ,! sulphur has unit$ ) ! oxyg5 ( ! nitre & =m$ sulphuric acid1 :i* comb9es ) ! pota% & =ms sulphate ( pota%2 "h1 !n1 oxyg51 sulphur1 & potassium1 h unit$ & =m$ a salt 9 :i* ! sep>ate prop]ties ( ! ?ree bodies h completely disappe>$2 to prove ?is1 x is only necess>y to dissolve ! sulphate ( pota% 9 wat]1 & aft] filt]+ ! solution1 or all[+ x to settle1 till x becomes q cle> & bright1 "s solution ( b>yta may n[ be add$1 :5 a :ite precipitate is ?r[n d[n1 consi/+ ( sulphate ( b>yta1 :i* is insoluble 9 nitric or o!r /rong acids4 ,! behavi\r ( a solution ( sulphate ( pota% ) a nitrate ( b>yta may n[ be contra/$ ) t ( ! elem5ts x conta9s2 on ! addition ( sulphur to a solution ( nitrate ( b>yta no *ange :atev] takes place1 because ! sulphur is p]fectly insoluble4 ,if a /ream ( oxyg5 gas is pass$ f a bladd] & jet ?r\gh ! same te/1 no effect is produc$2 ! nitrate ( b>yta has already acquir$ its full proportion ( oxyg51 & no fur!r addition has any p[] to *ange its nature2 f9ally1 if a bit ( ! metal potassium is plac$ 9 ! solution ( nitrate ( b>yta x does n s9k1 be+ light] ?an wat]1 & x takes fire2 b ?is is n 9 any way connect$ ) ! pres5ce ( ! te/1 z ! same ?+ w happ5 if ano!r bit ( ! metal is plac$ 9 wat]--x is ! oxyg5 ( ! latt] :i* unites rapidly ) ! potassium1 & causes x to become s hot t ! hydrog51 escap+ ar\nd ! little r$-hot globules1 takes fire2 moreov]1 ! fact ( ! combu/ion ( ! potassium "u su* circum/ances is ano!r /rik+ pro( ( ! opposite qualities ( ! ?ree elem5ts--sulphur1 oxyg51 & potassium--z comp>$ ) ! ?ree *emically comb9$ & =m+ sulphate ( pota%4 ,! same k9d ( exp]im5t may be repeat$ ) *>coal2 if "s p[d]$ *>coal is made r$-hot1 & !n puff$ into ! air ) a bl[+ ma*9e1 numb]s ( sp>ks are produc$1 & ! ,page #he *>coal burns away & =ms c>bonic acid gas1 a little a% be+ left beh9d2 b if "s m nitre be heat$ 9 a ladle1 & *>coal add$1 a brilliant deflagration 7deflagro1 to burn7 occurs1 & ! *>coal1 in/ead ( pass+ away 9 ! air z c>bonic acid1 is n[ reta9$ 9 ! same %ape1 b firmly & *emically unit$ ) ! pota% ( ! nitre1 =m+ c>bonate ( pota%1 or pe>l-a%1 :i* is n black & insoluble 9 wat] & acids l *>coal1 b is :ite1 & n only soluble 9 wat]1 b is mo/ rapidly attack$ by acids ) eff]vesc5ce1 & ! c>bon escapes 9 ! =m ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,?us we h trac$ out ! di/9ction betwe5 me*anical aggregation & *emical aff9ity1 tak+ = an example ! diff]5ce betwe5 gunp[d] z a :ole 79 :i* ! +r$i5ts are s nicely balanc$ t x is almo/ a *emical comb9ation71 & its con/itu5ts1 sulphur1 *>coal1 & nitre1 :5 !y are *emically comb9$2 or1 9 brief] language1 we h notic$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! me*anical mixture1 & "s ( ! *emical comb9ations1 ( ?ree important elem5ts4 ,our v slight & p>tial exam9ation ( ?ree simple bodies does n1 h[ev]1 af=d u any deep insight into ! pr9ciples ( *emi/ry2 we h1 z x 71 only ma/]$ ! signification ( a few words 9 a language2 we might "k t *i5 0 ! ,fr5* = dog1 or *eval horse1 or homme man2 b t k w\ld n be ! acquisition ( ! ,fr5* language1 because we mu/ fir/ "k ! alphabet1 & !n ! comb9ation ( ^! lett]s into words2 we mu/ also acquire a k ( ! prop] arrangem5t ( ^! words into s5t5ces1 or gramm>1 bo? syntax & prosody1 be=e we c claim to be a ,fr5* s*ol>3 s x is ) *emi/ry--any numb] ( isolat$ exp]im5ts ) v>i\s *emical sub/ances w\ld be comp>atively useless1 & !re=e ! alphabet ( *emi/ry1 or table ( simple elem5ts1 mu/ fir/ be acquir$4 ,^! bodies are und]/ood to be solids1 fluids1 & gases1 :i* h hi!rto defi$ ! mo/ elaborate means employ$ to r$uce !m into m ?an "o k9d ( matt]4 ,ev5 pure light is sep>able into sev5 p>ts--viz41 r$1 orange1 yell[1 gre51 blue1 indigo1 & violet2 b ! elem5ts we %all n[ enum]ate are n ( a comp\nd1 b1 s f> z we "k1 ( an absolutely simple or s+le nature2 !y repres5t ! b\nd>ies1 n ! f9ality1 ( ! k t may be acquir$ respect+ !m4 ,! elem5ts are sixty-f\r 9 numb]1 ( :i* ab\t =ty are tol]ably pl5tiful1 & !re=e common2 :il/ ! rema9d]1 tw5ty-f\r1 are r>e1 & = t reason ( a less] utility3 :5ev] ,nature employs an elem5t on a gr& scale x may c]ta9ly be call$ common1 b x g5]ally works = ! common good ( all1 & fulfils ! mo/ important (fices4 ,page #hf ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,alphabet ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 #ac ,non-,metallic ,bodies4 ,"n4 ,symbol4 ,comb9+ proportion or atomic weight4 #a4 ,oxyg5 ,o #h #b4 ,hydrog5 ,h #a #c4 ,nitrog5 ,n #ad #d4 ,*lor9e ,cl #ce4e #e4 ,iod9e ,i #abg4a #f4 ,brom9e ,br #hj4 #g4 ,fluor9e ,f #ah4i #h4 ,c>bon ,c #f #i4 ,boron ,b #aj4i #aj4 ,sulphur ,s #af #aa4 ,phosphorus ,p #cb #ab4 ,silicon ,si #ba4c #ac4 ,sel5ium ,se #ci4e #ea ,metals4 #a4 ,alum9um ,al #ac4g #b4 ,antimony ,sb #abi #c4 ,ars5ic ,z #ge #d4 ,b>ium ,ba #fh4e #e4 ,bismu? ,bi #bac #f4 ,cadmium ,cd #ef #g4 ,calcium ,ca #bj #h4 ,c]ium ,ce #dg #i4 ,*romium ,cr #bf4g #aj4 ,cobalt ,co #bi4e #aa4 ,copp] ,cu #ca4g #ab4 ,don>ium #ac4 ,didymium ,d #ad4 ,erbium ,e #ae4 ,gold ,au #aig #af4 ,gluc9um ,gl #ag4 ,iron ,fe #bh #ah4 ,ilm5ium ,il #ai4 ,iridium ,ir #ii #bj4 ,lead ,pb #ajc4g #ba4 ,lan?anium ,la #bb4 ,li?ium ,li #f4e #bc4 ,magnesium ,mg #ab4b #bd4 ,manganese ,mn #bg4f #be4 ,m]cury ,hg #ajj #bf4 ,molybd5um ,mo #df #bg4 ,nickel ,ni #bi4f #bh4 ,norium #bi4 ,niobium ,nb #cj4 ,osmium ,os #ii4f #ca4 ,plat9um ,pt #ih4g #cb4 ,potassium ,k #ci4b #cc4 ,palladium ,pd #ec4c #cd4 ,pelopium ,pe #ce4 ,rhodium ,r #eb4b #cf4 ,rhu!nium ,ru #eb4b #cg4 ,silv] ,ag #ajh4a #ch4 ,sodium ,na #bc #ci4 ,/rontium ,sr #dc4h #dj4 ,t9 ,sn #ei #da4 ,tantalum ,ta #ahd #db4 ,tellurium ,te #fd4b #dc4 ,t]bium ,tb #dd4 ,?orium ,? #ei4f #de4 ,titanium ,ti #be #df4 ,tung/5 ,w,a #ie #dg4 ,uranium ,u #fj #dh4 ,vanadium ,v #fh4f #di4 ,yttrium ,y #ej4 ,z9c ,zn #cb4f #ea4 ,zirconium ,zr #bb4d 7,n4,b4 ,! elem5ts pr9t$ 9 italics are at pres5t unimportant47 ,footnote ,a3 ,f ! m9]al ,wolfram1 & n[ exce$+ly valuable1 z :5 alloy$ ) iron x is h>d] ?an1 & w bore ?r\gh /eel4 ,a few words w suffice to expla9 ! mean+ ( ! t]ms :i* head ! names1 lett]s1 & numb]s ( ! ,table ( ,elem5ts4 ,page #hg ,! names ( ! elem5ts h v int]e/+ d]ivations1 :i* x is n ! object ( ?is "w to g into2 ! symbols are abbreviations1 ciph]s ( ! simple/ k9d1 to save "t & tr\ble 9 ! frequ5t repetition ( long words1 j z ! signs plus1 & - m9us1 are us$ 9 algebraic =mul4 ,= in/ance--! con/ant recurr5ce ( wat] 9 *emical comb9ations mu/ be nam$1 & w\ld involve ! mo/ t$i\s repetition2 wat] consi/s ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 & by tak+ ! fir/ lett] ( ea* ^w we h an in/ructive symbol1 :i* n only gives u an abbreviat$ t]m = wat]1 b also imp>ts at once a k ( its composition by ! use ( ! lett]s1 ,,ho4 ,aga91 to take a m complex example1 su* z w\ld occur 9 ! /udy ( organic *emi/ry--a s5t5ce su* z ! hydrat$ oxide ( acetule1 is writt5 at once by ,c#d;,h#d,o#b1 ! figures ref]r+ to ! numb] ( equival5ts ( ea* elem5t--viz41 #d equival5ts ( ,c1 ! symbol = c>bon1 #d ( ,h 7hydrog571 & #b ( ,o 7oxyg574 ,! long ^w p>anaph?al9e1 a sub/ance conta9$ 9 coal t>1 is dispos$ ( at once ) ! symbols & figures ,c#cj;,h#ab4 ,! figures 9 ! ?ird column are1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ int]e/+ to ! precise & ma!matically exact *emi/4 ,!y repres5t ! unit$ lab\rs ( ! mo/ pa9/ak+ & le>n$ *emi/s1 & are ! exact quantities 9 :i* ! v>i\s elem5ts unite4 ,to quote "o example3 if #h p>ts by weight ( oxyg5--viz41 ! comb9+ proportions ( t elem5t--are unit$ ) #a "p by weight ( hydrog51 also its comb9+ numb]1 ! result w be #i p>ts by weight ( wat]2 b if #h p>ts ( oxyg5 & #b p>ts ( hydrog5 7 us$1 "o only ( ! latt] c\ld unite ) ! =m]1 & ! result w\ld be ! =mation aga9 ( #i p>ts ( wat]1 ) an ov]plus ( #a equival5t ( hydrog54 ,x is useless to multiply examples1 & x is suffici5t to "k t ) ?is table ( numb]s ! figures ( analysis are obta9$4 ,suppos+ a sub/ance conta9$ #bg p>ts ( wat]1 & ! oxyg5 9 ?is _h to be det]m9$1 ! rule ( proportion w\ld give x at once1 #i3 #bg33 #h3 #bd4 #i p>ts ( wat] are to #bg p>ts z #h ( oxyg5 7! quantity conta9$ 9 #i p>ts ( wat]7 are to ! answ] requir$--viz41 #bd ( oxyg54 ,! names1 symbols1 & comb9+ proportions be+ und]/ood1 we may n[ proce$ ) ! p]=mance ( _m int]e/+ ,,*emical ,,exp]im5ts4 ,z ! p]man5t gases head ! li/1 !y w fir/ engage our att5tion1 beg9n+ ) ! elem5t oxyg5--,symbol ,o1 comb9+ proportion #h4 ,!re is no?+ c give a bett] idea ( ! enorm\s quantity ( oxyg5 pres5t 9 ! animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al k+doms1 ?an ! /atem5t t x repres5ts "o-?ird ( ! weight ( ! :ole cru/ ( ! globe4 ,silica1 or fl9t1 conta9s ab\t half its weight ( oxyg52 lime conta9s =ty p] c5t42 alum9a ab\t ?irty-?ree p] c5t4 ,9 ^! sub/ances ! elem5t oxyg5 rema9s inactive & p[]less1 *a9$ by ! /rong fett]s ( *emical aff9ity to ,page #hh ! silicium ( ! fl9t1 ! calcium ( ! lime1 & ! alum9um ( ! alum9a4 ,if ^! sub/ances are heat$ by !mselves !y w n yield up ! l>ge quantity ( oxyg5 !y conta94 ,nature1 h[ev]1 is prodigal 9 h] creation1 & h5ce we h b to pursue our se>* dilig5tly to f9d a sub/ance or m9]al conta9+ an abundance ( oxyg51 & "p ( :i* x w rel9qui% by :at us$ to be call$ by ! old al*emi/s ! torture ( heat4 ,su* a m9]al is ! black oxide ( manganese1 or m correctly ! b9oxide ( manganese1 :i* consi/s ( "o comb9+ proportion ( ! metal manganese--viz41 #bg4f1 & two ( oxyg5--viz41 #h #b #af4 ,if ?ree proportions ( ! b9oxide ( manganese are heat$ to r$ness 9 an iron retort1 !y yield "o proportion 7equal to #h7 ( oxyg51 & all t has j be5 expla9$ by s _m words is compreh5d$ 9 ! symbols & figures bel[3-- #c ,mn,o#b ,mn#c,o#d ,o4 ,?us ! #c ,mn,o#b repres5t ! ?ree proportions ( ! b9oxide ( manganese be=e heat is appli$1 :il/ ! sign 1 ! sign ( equation 7equal to71 is int5d$ to %[ t ! elem5ts or comp\nds plac$ be=e x produce ^? :i* foll[ x2 h5ce ! sequel ,mn#c,o#d ,o %[s t ano!r comp\nd ( ! metal & oxyg5 is produc$1 :il/ ! ,o indicates ! lib]at$ oxyg5 gas4 ,! iron retort employ$ to hold ! m9]al %\ld be made ( ca/ iron 9 pref]5ce to wr\ght iron1 z ! latt] is v soon worn out by contact ) oxyg5 at a r$ heat4 ,a gun-b>rel w answ] ! purpose = an exp]im5t on ! small scale1 to :i* mu/ be adapt$ a cock & piece ( pewt] tub+4 ,su* a make-%ift arrangem5t may d v well :5 no?+ bett] (f]s2 b z a "q ( exp5se1 x is probably *eap] 9 ! end to ord] ( ,messrs4 ,simpson & ,maule1 or ( ,messrs4 ,griff91 or ( ,messrs4 ,bolton1 a ca/-iron bottle1 or ca/-iron retort1 z x is t]m$1 ( a size suffici5t to prep>e two gallons ( oxyg5 f ! b9oxide ( manganese1 :i*1 ) f\r feet ( iron conduct+-pipe1 & connect$ to ! bottle ) a screw1 does n ,page #hi co/ m ?an six %ill+s--an enorm\s dip1 p]haps1 9 ! juv5ile pocket1 & !re=e we %all indicate pres5tly a /ill *eap] app>atus = ! same purpose4 7,fig4 #ic47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,a4 ,! iron bottle1 conta9+ ! black oxide ( manganese1 ) pipe pass+ to ! pneumatic tr\gh1 ,b ,b1 9 :i* is fix$ a %elf1 ,c1 p]=at$ ) a hole1 "u :i* ! end ( ! pipe is adju/$1 & ! gas passes into ! gas-j>1 ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,a ,a4 ,pneumatic tr\gh1 ) gas j> rais$ to %elf2 bubbles ( air are ru%+ 9 at ,b1 z ! level ( ! wat] is bel[ ! %elf--viz41 at ,c ,c4 ,d ,d4 ,same tr\gh & gas j> ) wat] kept ov] ! %elf by ! introduction ( ! /one pit*] ,e1 full ( wat]4 ,! oxyg5 is convey$ to a squ>e t9 box provid$ ) a %elf at "o end1 p]=at$ ) sev]al holes at lea/ "o in* 9 diamet]1 call$ ! pneumatic tr\gh2 any wood5 tr\gh1 butt] or wa%-tub1 foot-pan or ba?1 provid$ ) a %elf1 may be rais$ by ! same title to ! dignity ( a piece ( *emical app>atus4 ,! gas j> mu/ be fill$ ) wat] by )draw+ ! /opp] & press+ x d[n into ! tr\gh1 & :5 ! neck is bel[ ! level ( ! wat]1 ! /opp] is aga9 ins]t$1 & ! j> ) ! wat] !re9 conta9$ lift$ /eadily on to ! %elf1 ! entry ( atmosph]ic air be+ prev5t$ by keep+ ! l[] "p ( ! gas j>1 call$ ! welt1 "u ! wat]4 ,sometimes ! pneumatic tr\gh conta9s s small a quantity ( wat] t on rais+ ! gas j> to ! %elf ! liquid does n cov] ! bottom1 & ! air ru%es up 9 l>ge bubbles4 ,"u ^! circum/ances x is bett] to provide a gallon /one jug full ( wat]1 s t :5 ! j> is be+ rais$ to ! %elf x may be ?ru/ into ! tr\gh 7on ! same pr9ciple z ! cr[ & ! pit*] 9 ! fable71 & ?us by its bulk 7z ! /ones 9 ! pit*]7 raise ! wat] to ! prop] level4 ,:5 ! gas j> is ab\t half fill$ ) gas ! jug may be )drawn4 ,?is arrangem5t saves ! tr\ble ( con/antly add+ & bal+ out wat] f ! pneumatic tr\gh4 7,fig4 #id47 ,!re are o!r solid oxyg5iz$ bodies 9 :i* ! aff9ities are less p[]ful1 & h5ce a l[] degree ( heat suffices to lib]ate ! oxyg5 gas1 & "o ( ! mo/ useful 9 ?is respect is ! salt t]m$ *lorate ( pota%4 ,if ! sub/ance is heat$ by itself1 ! temp]ature requir$ to expel ! oxyg5 is almo/ z high z t dem&$ = ! black oxide ( manganese2 b1 /range to say1 if ! two sub/ances are r$uc$ to p[d]1 & mix$ 9 equal quantities by weight1 !n a v mod]ate increase ( heat is suffici5t to cause ! *lorate ( ,page #ij pota% to give up its oxyg51 :il/ ! oxide ( manganese und]goes no *ange :atev]4 ,x seems to fulfil only a me*anical (fice--possibly t ( sep>at+ ea* p>ticle ( *lorate ( pota% f ! o!r1 s t ! heat attacks ! sub/ance 9 detail1 j z a solid squ>e ( infantry might repel almo/ any attack1 :il/ ! same body disp]s$ ov] a l>ge space might be ( little use2 s ) ! *lorate ( pota%1 :i* und]goes rapid decomposition :5 mix$ ) & divid$ among/ ! p>ticles ( ! oxide ( manganese2 less s ) ! r$ oxide ( iron1 & /ill less ) s& or brick-du/4 7,fig4 #ie47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,prep>ation ( oxyg5 f *lorate ( pota% & oxide ( manganese4 ,,ko4,cl,o#e ,o#f ,k,cl4 ,?is curi\s fact is expla9$ usually by ref]5ce to :at is call$ catalytic action1 or decomposition by contact 7,greek3 kata1 d[nw>ds1 & ,greek3 lu1 ,i unloos571 be+ a p[] possess$ by a body ( resolv+ ano!r into a new comp\nd )\t und]go+ any *ange itself4 ,to make ?is t]m /ill cle>]1 we may notice ano!r example 9 l95 rags1 :i* may be expos$ = any l5g? ( "t to ! action ( wat] )\t fe> ( conv]sion into sug>2 if1 h[ev]1 oil ( vitriol is fir/ add$ to ! l95 rags1 & !y are subsequ5tly dige/$ at a prop] temp]ature ) wat]1 !n ! rags are conv]t$ into sug> 7! au?or has se5 a specim5 made ( an old %irt72 b1 curi\s to relate1 ! oil ( vitriol is un*ang$ 9 ! process1 & if ! process be comm5c$ ) a p\nd ( acid1 ! same quantity is discov]able at ! end ( ! *emical decomposition ( ! l95 rags1 & _! conv]sion into sug>4 ,if a mixture ( equal p>ts ( oxide ( manganese & *lorate ( pota% is plac$ 9 a clean ,flor5ce flask1 ) a cork1 & pewt]1 or glass tube atta*$1 great quantities ( oxyg5 are quickly lib]at$1 on ! application ( ! heat ( a _s lamp4 ,su* a retort w\ld co/ ab\t f\rp5ce1 & if ! flask is brok5 9 ! op]ation x c be easily replac$ by ano!r1 value "o p5ny1 z ! same cork & tube w g5]ally suit a numb] ( ^! *eap glass vessels4 ,corks may always ,page #ia be s(t5$ by us+ ei!r a prop] cork squeez]1 or by plac+ !m "u a piece ( bo>d or a flat surface1 & roll+ & press+ ! cork till q ela/ic4 ,:il/ fitt+ ! latt] into ! neck ( a flask1 x is p]haps saf] to hold ! ?9 & fragile vessel 9 a clo?1 s t if ! flask breaks ! *emical exp]im5t may n be arre/$ = _m days by ! sev]e cutt+ & w\nd+ ( ! f+]s4 ,aft] ! cork is fitt$1 x is to be remov$ f ! flask & bor$ ) a cork bor]4 ,?is useful tool is sold 9 complete sets to suit all sizes ( glass tubes1 & ! pewt] or glass be+ ins]t$1 ! flask & tube w be ready = use1 provid$ ! tube is b5t to ! prop] curve4 ,?is is easy en\gh to p]=m ) ! pewt]1 b n q s easy ) ! glass tube1 :i* mu/ be held ov] ! flame ( a _s lamp till s(t1 & !n b5t v gradually to ! prop] curve4 ,if a %ort l5g? ( ! glass tube is heat$1 x b5ds too %>ply1 & ! convexity ( ! glass is flatt5$1 :il/ ! int]nal diamet] ( ! tube is less5$1 s t at lea/ ?ree in*es 9 l5g? %\ld be w>m$1 & ! heat mu/ n be cont9u$ 9 "o place only1 b %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 ! direction ( ! b5d1 ! :ole manipulation be+ conduct$ )\t any hurry4 7,fig4 #if47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,a4 ,! cork squeez]4 ,b4 ,! cork bor]s4 ,c4 ,! op]ation ( b5d+ ! glass tube ov] ! flame ( ! _s-lamp4 ,d4 ,! neck ( ! flask1 ) cork & tube b5t & fitt$ complete = use4 ,hav+ fill$ a gas j> ) oxyg51 x may be remov$ f ! pneumatic tr\gh by slid+ x into a plate "u ! surface ( ! wat]1 & to prev5t ! /opp] be+ ?ru/ out accid5tally f ! j> by ! upw>d pressure ( ! gas1 :il/ a little compress$1 dur+ ! act ( pass+ x into ! plate1 x is advisable to hold ! /opp] ( ! j> firmly b g5tly1 s t x _c slip out ( its place4 ,a numb] ( j>s ( oxyg5 may be prep>$ & arrang$ 9 plates1 all ( :i* ( c\rse mu/ conta9 a little wat]1 & en\gh to cov] ! welt ( ! j>4 ,page #ib ,,exp]im5ts ,,) ,,oxyg5 ,,gas4 ,?is gas 0 orig9ally discov]$ by ,prie/ley1 9 ,augu/1 #aggd1 & 0 fir/ obta9$ by heat+ r$ precipitate--i4e41 ! r$ oxide ( m]cury4 ,hg,o ,hg ,o4 ,we leave ^! symbols & figures to be deciph]$ by ! y\?ful philosoph] ) ! aid ( ! table ( elem5ts1 c41 & return to ! exp]im5ts4 ,!re are c]ta9 ?9 wax tap]s l wax$ cord1 call$ b\gies1 :i* c be b5t to any %ape1 & are v conv5i5t = exp]im5ts ) ! gases4 ,if "o ( ^! tap]s is b5t z 9 ,fig4 #ig1 !n light$ & all[$ to burn = "s m9utes1 a long snuff is gradually =m$1 :i* rema9s 9 a /ate ( ignition :5 ! flame ( ! tap] is bl[n out4 ,on plung+ ?is into a j> ( oxyg51 x in/antly re-lights ) a sort ( report1 & burns ) greatly-increas$ brilliancy1 z describ$ by ,dr4 ,prie/ley 9 8 fir/ exp]im5t ) ?is gas1 & s elegantly repeat$ by ,pr(essor ,br&e 9 8 ref9$ diss]tation on ! progress ( *emical sci5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,! #a/ ( ,augu/1 #aggd1 is a r$-lett] day 9 ! annals ( *emical philosophy1 = x 0 !n t ,dr4 ,prie/ley discov]$ dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,"s1 sport+ 9 ! sun%9e ( rhetoric1 h call$ ?is ! bir?day ( pneumatic *emi/ry2 b x 0 ev5 a m m>k$ & memorable p]iod2 x 0 !n 7to pursue ! metaphor7 t ?is bran* ( sci5ce1 hav+ ek$ out a sickly & infirm infancy 9 ! ill-manag$ nurs]y ( ! e>ly *emi/s1 began to display symptoms ( an improv+ con/itution1 & to exhibit ! mo/ hopeful & unexpect$ m>ks ( future importance4 ,! fir/ exp]im5t1 :i* l$ to a v satisfactory result1 0 conclud$ z foll[s3--,a glass j> 0 fill$ ) quicksilv]1 & ins]t$ 9 a bas9 ( ! same2 "s r$ precipitate ( quicksilv] 0 !n introduc$1 & float$ ^u ! quicksilv] 9 ! j>2 heat 0 appli$ to x 9 ?is situation ) a burn+-l5s1 & to use ,prie/ley's own words1 ,i pres5tly f\nd t air 0 expell$ f x v readily4 ,hav+ got ab\t ?ree or f\r times z mu* z ! bulk ( my mat]ials1 ,i admitt$ wat] into x1 & f\nd t x 0 n imbib$ by x4 ,b :at surpris$ me m ?an ,i c well express 01 t a c&le burn$ 9 ?is air ) a rem>kably vigor\s flame1 v mu* l t enl>g$ flame ) :i* a c&le burns 9 nitr\s air expos$ to iron or lime ( sulphur 7i4e41 laugh+ gas72 b z ,i _h got no?+ l ?is rem>kable appe>ance f any k9d ( air besides ?is peculi> ,page #ic modification ( nitr\s air1 & ,i knew no nitr\s acid 0 us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( m]curius calc9atus1 ,i 0 utt]ly at a loss h[ to acc\nt = x4 7,fig4 #ih47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,a4 ,glass vessel full ( m]cury1 conta9+ ! r$ precipitate at ! top1 & /&+ 9 ! di% ,b1 also conta9+ m]cury4 ,c4 ,! burn+-glass conc5trat+ ! sun's rays on ! r$ precipitate1 be+ ,prie/ley's orig9al exp]im5t4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,! t]m oxyg5 is d]iv$ f ! ,greek 7,greek3 ozus1 acid1 & ,greek3 g5na1 ,i give rise to71 & 0 orig9ally giv5 to ?is elem5t by ,lavoisi]1 :o also claim$ its discov]y2 & if ?is hon\r is d5i$ him1 surely he has des]v$ equal sci5tific glory 9 8 ma/]ly exp]im5ts1 ?r\gh :i* he discov]$ t ! mixture ( =ty-two p>ts by measure ( azote1 ) eight p>ts by measure ( oxyg51 produc$ a comp\nd precisely resembl+ our atmosph]e4 ,! "n giv5 to oxyg5 0 f\nd$ on a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 "o ( :i* w n[ be m5tion$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,a4 ,! deflagrat+ spoon1 ,b4 ,! cork4 ,c4 ,! z9c1 or brass1 or t9 plate4 ,d ,d4 ,! gas j>4 ,place "s sulphur 9 a little copp] ladle atta*$ to a wire1 & call$ a deflagrat+ spoon1 pass$ ?r\gh a r\nd piece ( z9c or brass plate & cork1 s t ! latt] acts z an adju/+ arrangem5t to fix ! wire at any po9t requir$4 ,! combu/ion ( ! sulphur1 previ\sly feeble1 n[ assumes a rem>kable int5sity1 & a peculi> col\r$ light is g5]at$1 :il/ ! sulphur unites ) ! oxyg51 & =ms sulphur\s acid gas4 ,x produces1 9 fact1 ! same gas :i* is =m$ by burn+ an ord9>y sulphur mat*4 ,?is comp\nd is valuable z a dis9fectant1 & is a v important blea*+ ag5t1 be+ mo/ ext5sively employ$ 9 ! :it5+ ( /raw employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( /raw bonnets4 ,x is an acid gas1 z ,lavoisi] f\nd1 & ?is prop]ty may be detect$ by p\r+ a little t9cture ( litmus into ! bottom ( ! plate 9 :i* ! gas j> /&s4 ,! blue col\r ( ! litmus is rapidly *ang$ to r$1 & x might be ?\ght t no fur!r argum5t c\ld possibly be requir$ to prove t oxyg5 0 ! acidify+ ag5t1 ! m p>ticul>ly z ! result is ! same 9 ! next illu/ration4 ,page #id ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,cut a small piece f an ord9>y /ick ( phosphorus "u wat]1 take c>e to dry x prop]ly ) a clo?1 & aft] plac+ x 9 a deflagrat+ spoon1 remove ! /opp] f ! gas-j>1 z !re is no fe> ( ! oxyg5 ru%+ away1 because x is some:at heavi] ?an atmosph]ic air2 & !n1 aft] plac+ ! spoon ) ! phosphorus 9 ! neck ( ! j>1 apply a heat$ wire & pass ! spoon at once into ! middle ( ! oxyg52 9 a few seconds a mo/ brilliant light is obta9$1 & ! j> is fill$ ) a :ite smoke2 z ?is subsides1 be+ phosphoric acid1 & p]fectly soluble 9 wat]1 ! same litmus te/ may be appli$1 :5 x is 9 l mann] *ang$ to r$4 ,! acid obta9$ is "o ( ! mo/ important con/itu5ts ( bone4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,a bit ( b>k-*>coal b\nd r\nd ) wire is set on fire ei!r by hold+ x 9 ! flame ( a _s-lamp1 or by atta*+ a small piece ( wax$ cotton to ! l[] "p1 & ignit+ ?is2 ! *>coal may !n be ins]t$ into a bottle ( oxyg51 :5 ! mo/ brilliant sc9tillations occur4 ,aft] ! combu/ion has ceas$ & ! :ole is cool1 a little t9cture ( litmus may also be p\r$ 9 & %ak5 ab\t1 :5 x likewise turns r$1 prov+ = ! ?ird "t ! g5]ation ( an acid body1 call$ c>bonic acid--an acid1 l ! o!rs already m5tion$1 ( great value1 & "o :i* ,nature employs on a /up5d\s scale z a means ( provid+ plants1 c41 ) solid *>coal4 ,c>bonic acid1 a virul5t poison to animal life1 is1 :5 prop]ly dilut$1 & z conta9$ 9 atmosph]ic air1 "o ( ! *ief alim5t>y bodies requir$ by gr[+ & heal?y plants4 ,9 ?ree exp]im5ts acid bodies h be5 obta9$2 c we speculate on ! result ( ! next8 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,into a deflagrat+ spoon place a bit ( potassium1 set ?is on fire by hold+ x 9 ! spoon 9 ! flame ( a _s-lamp1 & !n rapidly plunge ! burn+ metal into a bottle ( oxyg54 ,a brilliant ignition occurs 9 ! deflagrat+ spoon = a few seconds1 & !re is little or no smoke 9 ! j>4 ,! product ?is "t is a solid1 call$ pota%1 & if ?is be dissolv$ 9 wat] & filt]$1 x is f\nd to be cle> & bright1 & n[ on ! addition ( a little t9cture ( litmus to "o half ( ! solution1 x is :olly unaffect$1 & rema9s blue2 b if ) ! o!r half a small quantity ( t9cture ( turm]ic is mix$1 x imm$iately *anges f a bright yell[ solution to a r$di%-br[n1 because turm]ic is "o ( ! te/s = an alkali2 & ?us is asc]ta9$ by ! help ( ?is & o!r te/s t ! result ( ! combu/ion is n an acid1 b an alkali4 ,! exp]im5t is made /ill m satisfactory by burn+ ano!r bit ( potassium 9 oxyg5 & dissolv+ ! product 9 wat]1 & if any portion ( ,page #ie ! r$d5$ liquid d]iv$ f ! sulphur\s1 phosphoric1 & c>bonic acids tak5 f ! previ\s exp]im5ts1 be add$ to sep>ate portions ( ! alkal9e solution1 !y are all re/or$ to _! orig9al blue col\r1 because an acid is neutraliz$ by an alkali2 & ! exp]im5t is made q conclusive by ! re/oration ( ! r$d5$ turm]ic to a bright yell[ on ! addition ( a solution ( ei!r ( ! ?ree acids already nam$4 ,moreov]1 an acid ne$ n conta9 a fraction ( oxyg51 z !re is a num]\s class ( hydracids1 9 :i* ! acidify+ pr9ciple is hydrog5 in/ead ( oxyg51 su* z ! hydro*loric1 hydriodic1 hydro-bromic1 & hydr(luoric acids4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,a piece ( wat*-spr+ is s(t5$ at "o end1 by hold+ x 9 ! flame ( a _s-lamp1 & all[+ x to cool4 ,a bit ( wax$ cotton is !n b\nd r\nd ! s(t5$ end1 & aft] be+ set on fire1 is plung$ into a gas j> conta9+ oxyg52 ! cotton fir/ burns away1 & !n ! heat communicates to ! /eel1 :i* gradually takes fire1 & be+ once well ignit$1 cont9ues to burn ) amaz+ rapidity1 =m+ drops ( liquid dross1 :i* fall to ! bottom ( ! plate--& also a r$di% smoke1 :i* cond5ses on ! sides ( ! j>2 nei!r ! dross :i* has dropp$ into ! plate1 nor ! r$di% matt] cond5s$ on ! j>1 w affect ei!r t9cture ( litmus or turm]ic2 !y are nei!r acid nor alkal9e1 b neutral comp\nds ( iron1 call$ ! sesquioxide ( iron 7,fe#b,o#c71 & ! magnetic oxide 7,fe#c,o#d;,fe,o4,fe#b,o#c74 ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,a4 ,bladd] conta9+ oxyg51 provid$ ) a /op-cock & jet lead+ to1 ,b1 ,b4 ,f+] glass conta9+ boil+ wat]4 ,c4 ,! cup ( melt$ phosphorus "u ! wat]4 ,! gas escapes f ! bladd] :5 press$4 ,"s oxyg5 gas conta9$ 9 a bladd] provid$ ) a prop] jet may be squeez$ out1 & ^u1 "s liquid phosphorus conta9$ 9 a cup at ! bottom ( a f+] glass full ( boil+ wat]1 :5 a mo/ brilliant combu/ion occurs1 prov+ t s long z ! pr9ciple is compli$ )--viz41 t ( furni%+ oxyg5 to a combu/ible sub/ance--x w burn "u wat]1 provid$ x is insoluble1 & possesses ! rem>kable aff9ity = oxyg5 :i* belongs to phosphorus4 ,! exp]im5t %\ld be p]=m$ ) boil+ wat]1 to keep ! phosphorus 9 ! liquid /ate2 & x is q z well to hold a ,page #if squ>e foot ( wire gauze ov] ! f+] glass :il/ ! exp]im5t is be+ p]=m$4 7,fig4 #ajj47 ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,oxyg5 is available f _m sub/ances :5 !y are mix$ ) combu/ible sub/ances1 & h5ce ! brilliant effects produc$ by burn+ a mixture ( nitre1 meal p[d]1 sulphur1 & iron or /eel fil+s2 ! metal burns ) great brilliancy1 & is project$ f ! case 9 mo/ beautiful sp>ks1 :i* are long & ne$le-%ap$ ) /eel1 & 9 ! =m ( m9iature rosettes ) iron fil+s2 x is ! oxyg5 f ! nitre t causes ! combu/ion ( ! metal1 ! o!r +r$i5ts only accel]ate ! heat & rate ( ignition ( ! brilliant iron1 :i* is usually t]m$ a g]b4 ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,a mixture ( nitrate ( pota%1 p[d]$ *>coal1 sulphur1 & nitrate ( /rontium1 driv5 into a /rong pap] case ab\t two in*es long1 & well clos$ at ! end ) v>ni%1 be+ q wat]pro(1 may be set on fire1 & w cont9ue to burn "u wat] until ! :ole is consum$2 ! only precaution necess>y be+ to burn ! composition f ! case ) ! m\? d[nw>d1 & if ! exp]im5t is tri$ 9 a deep glass j> x has a v pleas+ effect4 7,fig4 #aja47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,a4 ,case ( r$ fire burn+ d[nw>ds1 & atta*$ by a copp] wire to a bit ( lead5 pipe ,b1 to s9k x4 ,c ,c4 ,j> conta9+ wat]4 ,! r$-fire composition is made by mix+ nitrate ( /rontia #dj p>ts by weight1 fl[]s ( sulphur #ac p>ts1 *lorate ( pota% #e p>ts1 sulphuret ( antimony #d p>ts4 ,^! +r$i5ts mu/ fir/ be well p[d]$ sep>ately1 & !n mix$ c>efully on a %eet ( pap] ) a pap]-knife4 ,!y are liable to explode if rubb$ toge!r 9 a mort>1 on acc\nt ( ! pres5ce ( sulphur & *lorate ( pota%1 & ! composition1 if kept = any "t1 is liable to take fire spontane\sly4 ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,"s z9c is melt$ 9 an iron ladle1 & made q r$ hot2 if a little dry nitre is ?r[n ^u ! surface1 & g5tly /irr$ into ! metal1 x takes fire ) ! production ( an int5se :ite light1 :il/ l>ge quantities ( :ite flakes asc5d1 & aga9 desc5d :5 cold1 be+ ! oxide ( z9c1 & call$ by ! al*emi/s ! ,philosoph]'s ,wool 7,zn,o74 ,9 ?is exp]im5t ! oxyg5 f ! nitre effects ! oxidation ( ! metal z9c4 ,page #ig ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a mixture ( f\r p\nds ( nitre ) two ( sulphur & "o & a half ( lamp black produces a mo/ beautiful & curi\s fire1 cont9ually project$ into ! air z sp>ks hav+ ! %ape ( ! r[el ( a spur1 & "o t may be burnt ) p]fect safety 9 a room1 z ! sp>ks consume away s rapidly1 9 consequ5ce ( ! f9ely divid$ condition ( ! *>coal1 t !y may be receiv$ on a h&k]*ief or ! h& )\t burn+ !m4 ,! difficulty consi/s 9 effect+ ! complete mixture ( ! *>coal4 ,! o!r two +r$i5ts mu/ fir/ be ?or\ghly p[d]$ sep>ately1 & aga9 triturat$ :5 mix$1 & f9ally ! *>coal mu/ be rubb$ 9 c>efully1 till ! :ole is ( a uni=m t9t ( grey & v ne>ly black1 & z ! mixture proce$s portions mu/ be ramm$ into a pap] case1 & set on fire2 if ! />s or p9ks come out 9 clu/]s1 & spread well )\t o!r & dull] sp>ks1 x is a sign t ! :ole is well mix$2 b if ! sp>ks are accompani$ ) dross1 & are project$ out sluggi%ly1 & take "s "t to burn1 ! mixture & rubb+ 9 ! mort> mu/ be cont9u$2 & ev5 t mu/ n be c>ri$ too f>1 or ! sp>ks w be too small4 ,n4,b4--,if ! lamp-black 0 heat$ r$ hot 9 a close vessel1 x w\ld probably answ] bett] :5 cold & p[d]$4 ,twelf? ,exp]im5t4 ,into a tall gas j> ) a wide neck project "s r$-hot lamp-black ?r\gh a t9 funnel1 :5 a mo/ brilliant flame-l fire is obta9$1 %[+ t f9ely divid$ *>coal ) pure oxyg5 w\ld be suffici5t to af=d light2 b z ! atmosph]e consi/s ( oxyg5 dilut$ ) nitrog51 comp\nds ( *>coal ) hydrog51 are ! prop] bodies to burn1 to produce artificial light4 ,?irte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,! ,bude ,light4 ,?is pretty light is obta9$ by pass+ a /eady curr5t ( oxyg5 gas 7escap+ at a v l[ pressure7 ?r\gh & up ! c5tre pipe ( an arg& oil lamp1 :i* mu/ be suppli$ ) a highly c>boniz$ oil & a v ?ick wick1 z ! oxyg5 has a t5d5cy to burn away ! cotton unless ! oil is well suppli$1 & all[$ to ov]fl[ ! wick1 z x does 9 ! lamps ( ! ligh?\ses4 ,! be/ :ale oil is usually employ$1 ?\gh x w\ld be wor? :ile to te/ ! value ( ,price's ,belmont9e ,oil = ! same purpose4 7,fig4 #ajb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,a4 ,res]voir ( oil4 ,b4 ,! flexible pipe convey+ oxyg5 to c5tre ( ! arg& lamp4 ,page #ih ,f\rte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a ,r$ ,light4 ,cle> out ! oil ?or\ghly f ! ,bude light app>atus2 or1 :at is bett]1 h two lamps1 "o = oil1 & ! o!r = _s2 fill ! app>atus ) a solution ( nitrate ( /rontia & *loride ( calcium 9 spirits ( w9e1 & let x burn f ! cotton 9 ! same way z ! oil1 & supply x ) oxyg5 gas4 ,fifte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a ,gre5 ,light4 ,dissolve boracic acid & nitrate ( b>yta 9 spirits ( w9e1 & supply ! ,bude lamp ) ?is solution4 ,sixte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a ,yell[ ,light4 ,dissolve common salt 9 spirits ( w9e1 & burn x z already describ$ 9 ! ,bude light app>atus4 ,sev5te5? ,exp]im5t4 ,! ,oxy-calcium ,light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--,no4 #a4 ,a4 ,oxyg5 jet4 ,b4 ,! ball ( lime1 susp5d$ by a wire4 ,c4 ,_s lamp4 ,no4 #b4 ,d4 ,oxyg5 jet4 ,e4 ,gas 7jet connect$ ) ! gas-pipe 9 ! re> by flexible pipe7 project$ on to ball ( lime1 ,f4 ,?is v conv5i5t light is obta9$ 9 a simple mann]1 ei!r by us+ a jet ( oxyg5 z a bl[pipe to project ! flame ( a _s lamp on to a ball ( lime2 or common coal-gas is employ$ in/ead ( ! _s lamp1 be+ likewise urg$ aga9/ a ball ( lime4 ,by ?is plan "o bag conta9+ oxyg5 suffices = ! production ( a brilliant light1 n equal1 h[ev]1 to ! oxy-hydrog5 light1 :i* w be expla9$ 9 ! article on hydrog54 7,fig4 #ajc47 ,eighte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,to %[ ! weight ( oxyg5 gas1 & t x is heavi] ?an air1 ! /opp]s f two bottles conta9+ x may be remov$1 "o bottle may be left op5 = "s "t & !n te/$ by a light$ tap]1 :5 x ,page #ii w /ill indicate ! pres5ce ( ! gas1 :il/ ! o!r may be sudd5ly inv]t$ ov] a little cup 9 :i* "s e!r1 mix$ ) a few drops ( turp5t9e1 may be burn+--! flame burns ) mu* great] brilliancy at ! mom5t :5 ! oxyg5 comes 9 contact ) x4 ,n9ete5? ,exp]im5t4 ,! !ory ( ! effect ( oxyg5 ^u ! sy/em :5 inhal$ w\ld be an increase 9 ! "w ( ! respiratory organs2 & x is /at$ t aft] inhal+ a gallon or s ( ?is gas1 ! pulse is rais$ =ty or fifty beats p] m9ute3 ! gas is easily inhal$ f a l>ge india-rubb] bag ?r\gh an amb] m\?piece2 x mu/ ( c\rse be q pure1 & if made f ! mixture ( *lorate ( pota% & oxide ( manganese1 %\ld be purifi$ by be+ pass$ ?r\gh lime & wat]1 or cream ( lime4 ,tw5tie? ,exp]im5t4 ,!re are c]ta9 col\r+ matt]s t are weak5$ or de/roy$ by ! action ( light & o!r causes1 :i* deprive !m ( oxyg5 gas or deoxidize !m4 ,a weak t9cture ( litmus1 if long kept1 (t5 becomes col\rless1 b if ?is col\rless fluid is %ak5 9 a bottle ) oxyg5 gas x is gradually re/or$2 & if ei!r litmus1 turm]ic1 indigo1 or*il1 or madd]1 pap]1 or c]ta9 ribbons dy$ ) ! same col\r+ matt]s1 h become fad$1 !y may be p>tially re/or$ by damp+ & plac+ !m 9 a bottle ( oxyg5 gas4 ,! effect ( ! oxyg5 is to rev]se ! deoxidiz+ process1 & to imp>t oxyg5 to ! col\r+ matt]s4 ,by a peculi> process indigo may be obta9$ q :ite1 & aga9 re/or$ to its usual blue col\r1 ei!r by exposure to ! air or by pass+ a /ream ( oxyg5 ?r\gh x4 ,tw5ty-fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,messrs4 ,ma!son1 ( ,torr+ton-/reet1 ,russell-squ>e1 prep>e 9 ! =m ( wire "s ( ! r>e/ metals1 su* z magnesium1 li?ium1 c4 ,a wire ( ! metal magnesium burns magnific5tly 9 oxyg5 gas1 & =ms ! alkal9e e>? magnesia4 ,! metal li?ium1 to :i* su* a v l[ comb9+ proportion belongs--viz41 #f4e1 c also be procur$ 9 ! /ate ( wire1 & burns 9 oxyg5 gas ) an int5se :ite light into ! alkal9e li?ia1 :i* dissolv$ 9 alcohol ) a little acetic acid1 & burnt1 af=ds a r$ flame1 mak+ a curi\s contra/ betwe5 ! effects ( col\r produc$ by ! metallic & oxidiz$ /ate ( li?ium4 ,,! ,,allotropic ,,condition ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,gas4 ,! t]m allotropy 7f ,greek3 allotropos1 ( a diff]5t nature7 0 fir/ us$ by ! r5[n$ *emi/ ,b]zelius4 ,dimorphism1 or div]sity 9 cry/all9e =m1 is !re=e a special case ( allotropy1 & is mo/ amus+ly illu/rat$ ) ! iodide ( m]cury 7,hg,i71 :i* is made ei!r by rubb+ toge!r equal comb9+ proportions ,page #ajj( m]cury & iod9e 7bo? ( :i* are to be f\nd 9 ! ,table ( ,elem5ts1 page #hf71 or by c>efully precipitat+ a solution ( corrosive sublimate 7*loride ( m]cury 7,hg,cl77 ) "o ( iodide ( potassium1 j en\gh & no m ( ! latt] be+ add$ to precipitate ! metal1 or else ! iodide ( m]cury is r$issolv$ by ! excess ( ! precipitant4 ,x is fir/ ( a dirty yell[1 & !n gradually *anges :5 /irr$ to a sc>let2 if ?is be collect$ on a filt]1 & wa%$ & dra9$1 x is a beautiful sc>let1 & :5 "s ( ?is sub/ance is rubb$ across a %eet ( pap]1 a bright sc>let is app>5t1 :i* may be rapidly *ang$ to a lemon-yell[ by heat+ ! pap] ov] ! flame ( a _s lamp2 & ! iodide ( m]cury is aga9 br\ght back to a sc>let col\r by rubb+ d[n ! yell[ cry/als ) ! f+]s4 ,?is exp]im5t may be repeat$ ov] & ov] aga9 ) ! l results4 ,if "s ( ! sc>let iodide ( m]cury is sublim$ f "o bit ( glass to ano!r1 x =ms cry/als1 d]iv$ f ! "r rhombic prism2 :5 ^! are scrat*$ ) a p9 !y *ange aga9 to ! sc>let /ate1 ! latt] :5 cry/alliz$ be+ 9 ! =m ( ! squ>e-bas$ octoh$ron4 ,o!r cases ( dimorphism may be m5tion$--viz41 ) sulphur1 c>bonate ( lime1 & lead1 & _m o!rs1 :il/ allotropy is curi\sly illu/rat$ 9 ! v>i\s conditions ( *>coal1 :i*1 9 ! m num]\s examples1 is black & opaque1 & 9 ano!r in/ance transp>5t l wat]4 ,lamp-black is s(t1 b ! diamond is ! h>de/ natural sub/ance4 ,! allotropic /ate ( sulphur has be5 already allud$ to2 phosphorus1 aga91 exi/s 9 ?ree modifications3 #a/1 ,common phosphorus1 :i* %9es 9 ! d>k & emits a :ite smoke4 #bnd1 ,:ite phosphorus4 #crd1 ,r$ or amorph\s phosphorus1 :i* does n %9e or emit :ite smoke :5 expos$ to ! air1 & is s alt]$ 9 its prop]ties t x may be safely c>ri$ 9 ! pocket4 ,en\gh evid5ce has !re=e be5 (f]$ to %[ t ! allotropic prop]ty is n conf9$ to "o elem5t or comp\nd1 b is discov]able 9 _m bodies1 & 9 no "o m s ?an 9 ! allotropic /ate ( ! elem5t oxyg5 call$ ,,ozone4 ,! ,greek language has aga9 be5 select$ by ! discov]]1 ,s*nbe91 ( ,basle1 = ! title or "n ( ?is curi\s modification ( oxyg51 & x is s t]m$ f ,greek3 oxe91 to smell4 ,! "n at once sugge/s a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ozone & oxyg51 because ! latt] is p]fectly free f od\r1 :il/ ! =m] has t peculi> smell :i* is call$ electric1 & is di/+ui%able :5ev] an electrical ma*9e is at "w1 or if a ,leyd5 j> is *>g$ by ! p[]ful ,rhumk(f1 or ,he>d] coil2 x is also app>5t :5 wat] is decompos$ by a curr5t ( electricity & resolv$ into its elem5ts1 oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,:5 highly conc5trat$ x smells l *lor9e2 & ! au?or recollects see+ ! fir/ exp]im5ts by ,s*nbe91 9 ,engl&1 at ,mr4 ,coop]'s laboratory 9 ! ,blackfri>s-road4 ,ozone is prep>$ by tak+ a clean empty bottle1 & p\r+ !re9 a v ,page #aja little di/ill$ wat]1 into :i* a piece ( clean scrap$ phosphorus is introduc$1 s z to expose ab\t "o-half ( its diamet] to ! air 9 ! bottle1 :il/ ! o!r is 9 contact ) ! wat]4 7,fig4 #ajd47 ,= ! sake ( precaution1 ! bottle may /& 9 a bas9 or s\p plate1 s t if ! phosphorus %\ld take fire1 x may be in/antly ext+ui%$ by p\r+ cold wat] into ! bottle1 & %\ld ?is crack & break1 ! phosphorus is receiv$ into ! plate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,a4 ,a qu>t bottle1 ) ! /opp] loosely plac$ !re94 ,b4 ,! /ick ( clean phosphorus4 ,c4 ,! wat] level j to half ! ?ickness ( ! phosphorus4 ,d ,d4 ,a s\p-plate4 ,:5 ! ozone is =m$ ! phosphorus c be )drawn1 & ! phosphor\s-acid smoke wa%$ out by %ak+ ! bottle2 x is di/+ui%able by its smell1 & also by its action on te/ pap]1 prep>$ by pa9t+ ) />* conta9+ iodide ( potassium on "s ,ba? po/ pap]2 :5 ?is is plac$ 9 ! bottle conta9+ ozone1 x *anges ! te/ blue1 or r a purpli% blue4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,v4 ,a small voltaic batt]y /&+ on ! /ool ) glass legs1 ,s ,s1 & capable ( heat+ a ?9 l5g? ( plat9um wire ab\t two in*es long1 & b5t to =m a po9t betwe5 ! conduct+ wires1 ,w ,w4--,n4,b4 ,! voltaic curr5t c be cut (f at pleasure1 s z to cool ! wire :5 necess>y4 ,a is ! prime conductor ( an ord9>y cyl9d] electrical ma*9e4 ,b is ! wire convey+ ! frictional electricity to ! conduct+ wires ( ! voltaic batt]y1 :]e ! po9t ,p be+ ! %>pe/ po9t 9 ! arrangem5t1 deliv]s ! electrifi$ & ozoniz$ air4 ,ozone is a mo/ en]getic body1 & a p[]ful blea*+ ag5t2 if a po9t is atta*$ to ! prime conductor ( an electrical ma*9e1 & ! electrifi$ air is receiv$ into a bottle1 x w be f\nd to smell1 & has ! p[] ( blea*+ a v dilute solution ( indigo4 ,ozone ,page #ajb is n a m]e creation ( fancy1 z x c n only be produc$ by c]ta9 me?ods1 b may be de/roy$ by a r$ heat4 ,if a po9t is prep>$ ) a loop ( plat9um wire1 & ?is latt]1 aft] be+ connect$ ) a voltaic batt]y1 made r$ hot1 & ! :ole plac$ on an insulat+ /ool1 & connect$ ) ! prime conductor ( an electrical ma*9e1 x is f\nd t ! electrifi$ air no long] smells1 ! ozone is de/roy$2 on ! o!r h&1 if ! voltaic batt]y is disconnect$1 & ! electrifi$ air aga9 all[$ to pass f ! cold plat9um wire1 ! smell is aga9 app>5t1 ! air w blea*1 & if caus$ to imp+e at once ^u ! iodide ( />* te/1 *anges x 9 ! mann] already describ$4 7,fig4 #aje47 ,ozone is insoluble 9 wat]1 & oxidizes silv] & lead leaf1 f9ely p[d]$ ars5ic & antimony2 x is a poison :5 inhal$ 9 a conc5trat$ /ate1 :il/ dilut$1 & g5]at$ by natural processes1 x is a b5efic5t & beautiful provision aga9/ ^? num]\s smells orig9at+ f ! decay ( animal & vegetable matt]1 :i* might produce disease or dea?3 ozone is !re=e a p[]ful dis9fectant4 ,! te/ = ozone is made by boil+ toge!r t5 p>ts by weight ( />*1 "o ( iodide ( potassium1 & two hundr$ ( wat]2 x may ei!r be pa9t$ on ,ba? po/ pap]1 & us$ at once1 or blott+ pap] may be saturat$ ) ! te/ & dri$1 & :5 requir$ = use x mu/ be damp$1 ei!r be=e or aft] te/+ = ozone1 z x rema9s col\rless :5 dry1 b becomes blue aft] be+ moi/5$ ) wat]4 ,pap] prep>$ ) sulphate ( manganese is an excell5t te/ = ozone1 & *anges br[n rapidly by ! oxidation ( ! proto-salt ( manganese1 & its conv]sion into ! b9oxide ( ! metal4 ,ozone is also prep>$ by p\r+ a little sulphuric e!r into a qu>t bottle1 & !n1 aft] heat+ a glass rod 9 ! flame ( ! _s lamp1 x may be plung$ into ! bottle1 & aft] rema9+ !re a few m9utes ozone may be detect$ by ! ord9>y te/s4 ,,nitrog51 ,,or ,,azote4 ,greek3 ,nitron1 nitre2 ,greek3 g5na1 ,i =m2 ,greek3 a1 privative2 ,greek3 z1 life4 ,symbol1 ,n2 comb9+ proportion1 #ad4 ,also t]m$ by ,prie/ley1 phlogi/icat$ air4 ,9 ! ye> #aggb1 ,dr4 ,ru!r=d1 ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 publi%$ a !sis 9 ,lat9 on fix$ air1 9 :i* he says3--,by ! respiration ( animals heal?y air is n m]ely r5d]$ mephitic 7i4e41 *>g$ ) c>bonic acid gas71 b also suff]s ano!r *ange4 ,= aft] ! mephitic portion is absorb$ by a cau/ic alkal9e lixivium1 ! rema9+ portion is n r5d]$ salubri\s2 & al?\gh x occasions no precipitate 9 lime-wat]1 x nev]!less ext+ui%es flame & de/roys life4 ,su* is ! doctor's acc\nt ( ! discov]y ( nitrog51 :i* may be sep>at$ f ! oxyg5 9 ! air 9 a v simple mann]4 ,! atmosph]e is ! great /oreh\se ( nitrog51 & f\r-fif?s ( its prodigi\s volume consi/ ( ?is elem5t4 ,page #ajc ,composition ( ,atmosph]ic ,air4 ,bulk4 ,weight4 ,oxyg5 #bj #bb4c ,nitrog5 #hj #gg4g --- ---- #ajj #ajj4 ,! usual mode ( procur+ nitrog5 gas is to ab/ract or remove ! oxyg5 f a giv5 portion ( atmosph]ic air1 & ! only po9t to be att5d$ to1 is to select "s sub/ance :i* w cont9ue to burn z long z !re is any oxyg5 left4 ,?us1 if a light$ tap] is plac$ 9 a bottle ( air1 x w only burn = a c]ta9 p]iod1 & is gradually & at la/ ext+ui%$2 n t ! :ole ( ! oxyg5 is remov$ or *ang$1 because aft] ! tap] has gone out1 "s burn+ sulphur may be plac$ 9 ! vessel1 & w cont9ue to burn = a limit$ p]iod2 & ev5 aft] ^! two combu/ibles h1 z x 71 tak5 _! fill ( ! oxyg51 !re is yet a little left1 :i* is snapp$ up by burn+ phosphorus1 ^: voraci\s appetite = oxyg5 is only appeas$ by tak+ ! :ole4 ,x is = ?is reason t phosphorus is employ$ = ! purpose ( remov+ ! oxyg51 & also because ! product 7phosphoric acid7 is p]fectly soluble 9 wat]1 & ?us ! oxyg5 is fir/ comb9$1 & !n wa%$ out ( a giv5 volume ( air1 leav+ ! nitrog5 beh9d4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,to prep>e nitrog5 gas1 x is only necess>y to place a little dry phosphorus 9 a ,b]l9 porcela9 cup on a w9e glass1 & to /& !m 9 a s\p plate conta9+ wat]4 ,! phosphorus is set on fire ) a hot wire1 & a gas j> or cyl9drical j> is !n c>efully plac$ ov] x1 s t ! welt ( ! j> /&s 9 ! wat] 9 ! s\p plate4 ,at fir/1 expansion takes place 9 consequ5ce ( ! heat1 b ?is effect is soon rev]s$1 z ! oxyg5 is conv]t$ into a solid by union ) ! phosphorus1 =m+ a :ite smoke1 :i* gradually disappe>s4 7,fig4 #ajf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,a4 ,cyl9drical glass vessel1 op5 at "o end1 & inv]t$ ov] ,b1 ! w9e-glass1 support+ ,c1 ! cup conta9+ ! burn+ phosphorus1 & ! :ole /&+ 9 a s\p-plate1 ,d ,d1 conta9+ wat]4 ,suppos+ two gra9s ( phosphorus _h be5 plac$ 9 a plat9um tube1 & j en\gh atmosph]ic air pass$ ov] x to conv]t ! :ole into phosphoric acid1 ! weight ( ! phosphorus w\ld be increas$ to #d gra9s by ! addition ( #b gra9s ( oxyg52 ,page #ajd n[ "o cubic in* ( oxyg5 weighs #j4cdai1 or ab\t #a_/crd ( a gra91 h5ce #g4c cubic in*es ( oxyg5 disappe>1 :i* weigh z ne>ly z possible #b gra9s1 s t z #cf4e cubic in*es ( air conta9 #g4c cubic in*es ( oxyg51 t quantity ( air mu/ h pass$ ov] ! #b gra9s ( phosphorus to conv]t x into #d gra9s ( phosphoric acid4 ,= v delicate purposes1 nitrog5 is be/ prep>$ by pass+ air ov] f9ely-divid$ metallic copp] heat$ to r$ness2 ?is metal absorbs ! :ole ( ! oxyg5 & leaves ! nitrog54 ,! f9ely-divid$ copp] is procur$ by pass+ hydrog5 gas ov] pure black oxide ( copp]4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,a4 ,glass j>1 ) coll> ( lea!r1 ?r\gh :i* ! /amp]1 ,c1 works4 ,b ,b4 ,! tube conta9+ ! f9ely-divid$ lead1 "p ( :i* falls out1 & is ignit$1 & reta9$ by ! little tray j bel[1 be+ "p ( ! iron /&1 ,d ,d1 ) crut*es support+ ! ends ( ! glass tube1 & ! :ole /&s 9 ! di% ( wat]1 ,e ,e4 ,a v in/ructive exp]im5t is p]=m$ by heat+ a good mass ( t>trate ( lead 9 a glass tube :i* is h]metically seal$1 & be+ plac$ on an iron support1 is !n cov]$ by a capp$ air j> ) a slid+ rod & /amp]1 ! :ole be+ arrang$ 9 a plate conta9+ wat]4 ,:5 ! /amp] is pu%$ d[n ^u ! glass ! latt] is brok5 7,fig4 #ajg71 & ! air gradually p5etrates to ! f9ely divid$ lead1 :5 ignition occurs1 & ! oxyg5 is absorb$1 z demon/rat$ by ! rise ( ! wat] 9 ! j>4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 if a bottle is fill$ ab\t "o-?ird full ) a liquid amalgam ( lead & m]cury1 & !n /opp$ & %ak5 = two h\rs or m1 ! f9ely divid$ lead absorbs ! oxyg5 & leaves pure nitrog54 ,or if a mixture ( equal weights ( sulphur & iron fil+s1 is made into a pa/e ) wat] 9 a ?9 iron cup1 & !n w>m$ & plac$ "u a gas j> full ( air /&+ on ! ,page #aje %elf ( ! pneumatic tr\gh1 or 9 a di% full ( wat]1 ! wat] gradually rises 9 ! j> 9 ab\t =ty-eight h\rs1 9 consequ5ce ( ! absorption ( ! oxyg5 gas4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,nitrog5 is devoid ( col\r1 ta/e1 smell1 ( alkal9e or acid qualities2 &1 z we %all h occasion to notice pres5tly1 x =ms an acid :5 *emically unit$ ) oxyg51 & an alkali 9 union ) hydrog54 ,a light$ tap] plung$ into ?is gas is imm$iately ext+ui%$1 :ile its specific gravity1 :i* is light] ?an t ( oxyg5 or air1 is demon/rat$ by ! rule ( proportion4 ,weight ( #ajj cubic ,weight ( #ajj cubic ,specific in*es ( air at #fj ,unity4 in*es ( nitrog5 at gravity ( ,fahr41 b>4 #bi4ib 94 #fj ,fahr41 b>4 #bi4ib 94 nitrog54 #cj4hbi 3 #a 33 #bi4ieb 3 #iga ,& its levity may be %[n v prettily by a simple exp]im5t4 ,select two gas j>s ( ! same size1 & aft] fill+ "o ) oxyg5 gas & ! o!r ) nitrog5 gas1 slide glass plates ov] ! bottoms ( ! j>s1 & proce$ to inv]t ! "o conta9+ oxyg51 plac+ ! neck 9 a /& =m$ ( a box op5 at ! top2 !n place ! j> conta9+ nitrog5 ov] ! m\? ( ! fir/1 )draw+ ! glass plates c>efully2 & if ! table is /eady ! top gas j> w /& nicely on ! l[] "o4 ,!n 7hav+ previ\sly light$ a tap] s z to h a long snuff7 remove ! /opp] f ! nitrog5 j> & ins]t ! light$ tap]1 :i* is imm$iately ext+ui%$1 & z quickly relight$ by pu%+ x d[n to ! l[] j> conta9+ ! oxyg54 ,?is exp]im5t may be repeat$ sev]al times1 & is a good illu/ration ( ! relative specific gravities ( ! two gases1 & ( ! importance ( ! law ( univ]sal diffusion already expla9$ at p4 #f1 by :i* ^! gases mix1 n comb9e toge!r1 & ! atmosph]e rema9s 9 "o uni=m /ate ( composition 9 spite ( ! *anges go+ on at ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,omitt+ ! aque\s vap\r1 or /eam1 ev] pres5t 9 v>iable quantities 9 ! atmosph]e1 t5 ?\s& volumes ( dry air conta91 accord+ to ,graham3-- ,i,ilustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,a4 ,gas j> conta9+ nitrog51 ,n1 /&+ on ,b1 ano!r j> full ( oxyg51 ,o4 ,! tap]1 ,c1 is ext+ui%$ at ,n1 & relight$ at ,o4 ,d ,d4 ,/& support+ ! j>s4 ,page #ajf ,nitrog5 #giab ,oxyg5 #bjhj ,c>bonic acid #d ,c>burett$ hydrog5 7,,*#b7 #d ,ammonia a trace ------- #aj1jjj ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,x 0 ! elegant1 ! accompli%$1 b ill-fat$ ,lavoisi] :o discov]$1 by exp]im5t+ ) quicksilv] & air1 ! comp\nd nature ( ! atmosph]e2 & x 0 ! same *emi/ :o gave ! "n ( azote to nitrog52 x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be borne 9 m9d t x does n necess>ily foll[ because a gas ext+ui%es flame t x is a poison4 ,nitrog5 ext+ui%es flame1 b we inhale enorm\s quantities ( air )\t any ill effects f ! nitrog5 or azote t x conta9s2 on ! o!r h&1 _m gases t ext+ui% flame are specific poisons1 su* z c>bonic acid1 c>bonic oxide1 cyanog51 c4 ,lavoisi]'s exp]im5t may be repeat$ by pass+ into a measur$ j>1 graduat$ into five equal volumes1 f\r measures ( nitrog5 & "o measure ( oxyg52 a glass plate %\ld !n be slid ov] ! m\? ( ! vessel1 & x may be turn$ up & d[n g5tly = "s little "t to mix ! two gases1 & :5 ! mixture is te/$ ) a light$ tap]1 x is f\nd nei!r to increase nor dim9i% ! illum9at+ p[] & ! tap] burns z x w\ld d 9 atmosph]ic air4 7,fig4 #aji47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,a4 ,gas j> divid$ into five equal p>ts4 ,b ,b4 ,section ( pneumatic tr\gh1 to %[ ! decantation ( gas f "o vessel to ano!r4 ,! gas is be+ pass$ f ,c to ,a1 ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,page #ajg ,,hydrog54 ,hydrog5 7,greek3 udr1 wat]2 ,greek3 g5na1 ,i give rise to71 s t]m$ by ,lavoisi]--call$ by o!r *emi/s inflammable air1 & phlogi/on4 ,symbol1 ,h2 comb9+ prop]ties1 #a4 ,! lighte/ kn[n =m ( matt]4 ,e #ajj p>ts by weight ( wat] conta9 #aa p>ts ( hydrog5 gas2 & z ! quantity ( wat] on ! surface ( ! e>? repres5ts at lea/ two-?irds ( ! :ole area1 ! s\rce ( ?is gas1 l t ( oxyg5 or nitrog51 is inexhau/ible4 ,van ,helmont1 ,may[1 & ,hales _h %[n t c]ta9 inflammable & peculi> gases c\ld be obta9$1 b x 0 res]v$ = ! rigidly philosophic m9d ( ,cav5di% to det]m9e ! nature ( ! elem5ts conta9$ 91 & giv+ a speciality to1 ! inflammable gases ( ! old] *emi/s4 ,by act+ ) dilute acids ^u iron1 z9c1 & t91 ,cav5di% lib]at$ an inflammable ela/ic gas2 & he discov]$ ne>ly all ! prop]ties we %all notice 9 ! succe$+ exp]im5ts1 & especially demon/rat$ ! composition ( wat] 9 8 pap] read be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 ! ye> #aghd4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,hydrog5 is prep>$ 9 a v simple mann]1 by plac+ "s z9c cutt+s 9 a bottle1 to :i* is atta*$ a cork & pewt] or b5t glass tube1 & p\r+ ^u ! metal "s dilute sulphuric or hydro*loric acid4 ,eff]vesc5ce & ebullition take place1 & ! gas escapes 9 l>ge quantities1 wat] be+ decompos$2 ! oxyg5 passes to ! z9c1 & =ms oxide ( z9c1 & ?is unit+ ) ! sulphuric acid =ms sulphate ( z9c1 :i* may be obta9$ aft] ! escape ( ! hydrog5 by evaporation & cry/allization4 7,fig4 #aaj47 ,zn ,,ho4,,s#c ,zn,o4,,s#c ,h2 or1 ,zn ,h,cl ,zn,cl ,h4 ,9 ne>ly all ! processes employ$ = ! g5]ation ( hydrog5 gas1 a metal is usually employ$1 & ?is fact has sugge/$ ! notion t hydrog5 may possibly be a metal1 al?\gh x is ! lighte/ kn[n =m ( matt]2 & x w be obs]v$ 9 all ! succe$+ exp]im5ts t a metallic sub/ance w be employ$ to take away ! oxyg5 & displace ! hydrog54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,a4 ,bottle conta9+ z9c cutt+s & wat] & fitt$ ) a cap & two tubes1 ! "o m>k$ ,b1 conta9+ a funnel1 conveys ! sulphuric acid to ! z9c & wat]1 :il/ ! gas escapes ?r\gh ! pipe ,c4 ,page #ajh ,:5ev] hydrog5 is prep>$ x %\ld be all[$ to escape f ! g5]at+ vessel = a few m9utes be=e any flame is appli$1 9 ord] t ! atmosph]ic air may be expell$4 ,! mo/ s]i\s accid5ts h occurr$ f c>elessness 9 ?is respect1 z a mixture ( hydrog5 & air is explosive1 & ! m dang]\s :5 x takes fire 9 any clos$ glass bottle4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,if a piece ( potassium is conf9$ 9 a little co>se wire gauze cage1 atta*$ to a rod1 & ?ru/ "u a small j> full ( wat]1 plac$ on ! %elf ( ! pneumatic tr\gh1 hydrog5 gas is produc$ ) great rapidity1 & is receiv$ into ! gas j>4 ,! bit ( potassium be+ surr\nd$ ) wat]1 is kept cool1 :il/ ! hydrog5 escap+ "u ! wat] is n ( c\rse burnt away1 z x is :5ev] ! metal is ?r[n on ! surface ( wat]4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,a4 ,flask conta9+ wat]1 & produc+ /eam1 :i* passes to ! iron tube1 ,b ,b1 conta9+ ! iron bor+s heat$ r$ hot 9 ! *>coal /ove ,c4 ,! hydrog5 passes to ! j> ,d1 /&+ on ! %elf ( ! pneumatic tr\gh4 ,across a small iron table-furnace is plac$ ab\t eighte5 in*es ( #a-;in* gas-pipe conta9+ iron bor+s1 ! :ole be+ r$-hot2 & atta*$ to "o end is a pipe convey+ /eam f a boil]1 or flask1 or retort1 :il/ ano!r pipe is fitt$ to ! opposite end1 & passes to ! pneumatic tr\gh4 ,directly ! /eam passes ov] ! r$ hot iron bor+s x is depriv$ ( oxyg51 :i* rema9s ) ! iron1 =m+ ! ru/ or oxide ( iron1 :il/ ! hydrog51 call$ 9 ?is case wat] gas1 escapes ) great rapidity4 ,:5 /eam is pass$ ov] r$-hot *>coal1 hydrog5 is also produc$ ) c>bonic oxide gas1 & ?is 9 fact is ! ord9>y process ( mak+ wat] gas1 :i* be+ purifi$ is aft]w>ds saturat$ ) "s volatile hydroc>bon & burnt4 ,at fir/ sight1 su* a mode ( mak+ gas w\ld be ?\ght extremely pr(itable1 & 9 spite ( ! num]\s failures ! discov]y 7s call$7 ( wat] gas is reproduc$ z a sort ( *ronic wond]2 b exp]i5ce & practice h cle>ly demon/rat$ t wat] gas is a fallacy1 & z long z we c get coal x is n wor? :ile go+ ?r\gh ! r\nd-ab\t processes ( fir/ burn+ coal to produce /eam2 secondly1 ,page #aji ( burn+ coal to heat *>coal1 ov] :i* ! /eam is pass$ to be conv]t$ into gas1 :i* has !n to be purifi$ & saturat$ ) a *eap hydroc>bon obta9$ f coal or m9]al naph?a2 :il/ ord9>y coal gas is obta9$ at once by heat+ coal 9 iron retorts4 7,fig4 #aaa47 ,?us1 by ! metals z9c1 t91 potassium1 r$-hot iron 7& we might add sev]al o!rs71 ! oxyg5 ( wat] is remov$ & hydrog5 gas lib]at$4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,if bottles ( hydrog5 gas are prep>$ by all ! processes describ$1 !y w pres5t ! same prop]ties :5 te/$ "u simil> circum/ances4 ,a light$ tap] appli$ to ! m\?s ( ! bottles ( hydrog51 :i* %\ld be inv]t$1 causes ! gas to take fire ) a slight noise1 9 consequ5ce ( ! mixture ( air & hydrog5 t inv>iably takes place :5 ! /opp] is remov$2 on ?ru/+ ! light$ tap] into ! bulk ( ! gas x is ext+ui%$1 %[+ t hydrog5 possesses ! opposite quality to oxyg5--viz41 t x takes fire1 b does n support combu/ion4 ,by keep+ ! bottles conta9+ ! hydrog5 upright1 :5 ! /opp] is remov$ ! gas escapes ) great rapidity1 & atmosph]ic air takes its place1 s mu* s t by ! "t a light$ tap] is appli$1 in/ead ( ! gas burn+ quietly1 x frequ5tly a/oni%es ! op]ator ) a l\d pop4 ,?is sudd5 attack on ! n]ves may be prev5t$ by always exp]im5t+ ) inv]t$ bottles4 7,fig4 #aab47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,a4 ,bottle op5$ upright1 & hydrog5 explod+4 ,b4 ,bottle op5$ inv]t$1 & hydrog5 burn+ quietly at ! m\?4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,hydrog5 is #ad4d light] ?an air1 & = t reason may be pass$ into bottles & j>s )\t ! assi/ance ( ! pneumatic tr\gh4 ,"o ( ! mo/ amus+ pro(s ( its levity is t ( fill+ pap] bags or balloons ) ?is gas2 & we read1 9 ! acc\nts ( ! ftes at ,page #aaj ,p>is1 ( ! use ( balloons +5i\sly con/ruct$ to repres5t animals1 s t a regul> a]ial hunt 0 exhibit$1 ) ?is drawback only1 t ne>ly all ! animals pref]r$ asc5d+ ) _! legs upw>ds1 a circum/ance :i* provok$ int5se mir? among/ ! volatile ,fr5*m54 ,! lightness ( hydrog5 may be %[n 9 two ways--fir/1 by fill+ a little gold-beat]'s sk9 balloon ) pure hydrog5 7prep>$ by pass+ ! gas made f z9c & dilute pure sulphuric acid ?r\gh a /rong solution ( pota%1 & aft]w>ds ?r\gh "o ( nitrate ( silv]71 & all[+ ! balloon to asc5d2 & !n aft]w>ds1 hav+ ( c\rse secur$ ! balloon by a ?9 tw9e or /rong ?read1 x may be pull$ d[n & ! gas inhal$1 :5 a mo/ curi\s effect is produc$ on ! voice1 :i* is sudd5ly *ang$ f a manly bass to a ludicr\s nasal squeak+ s\nd4 ,! only precautions necess>y are to make ! gas q pure1 & to avoid flame :il/ inhal+ ! gas4 ,x is relat$ by ,*aptal t ! intrepid 7qure1 fooli%7 b un=tunate a]onaut1 ,mons4 ,pilate de ,rosio1 hav+ on "o occasion inhal$ hydrog5 gas1 0 ra% en\gh to approa* a light$ c&le1 :5 an explosion took place 9 8 m\?1 :i* he says 0 s viol5t t he fanci$ all 8 tee? 7 driv5 out4 ,( c\rse1 if x 7 possible to *ange by "s extraord9>y p[] ! condition ( ! atmosph]e 9 a conc]t-room or !atre1 all ! bass voices w\ld become extremely nasal & highly comic1 :il/ ! sopranos w\ld emulate railway :i/les & scree* fe>fully2 & suppos+ ! specific gravity ( ! air 0 cont9ually & mat]ially *ang+1 our voices w\ld nev] be ! same1 b alt] day by day1 accord+ to ! /ate ( ! air1 s t ! famili> voice w\ld be an impossibility4 ,a bell rung 9 a gas j> conta9+ air emits a v diff]5t s\nd f t :i* is produc$ 9 "o full ( hydrog5--a simple exp]im5t is easily p]=m$ by pass+ a j> conta9+ hydrog5 ov] a self-act+ bell1 su* z is us$ = telegraphic purposes4 7,fig4 #aac47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,a4 ,/& & bell4 ,b ,b4 ,t9 cyl9d] full ( hydrog51 :i* may be rais$ or depress$ at pleasure1 by lift+ x ) ! knob at ! top1 :5 ! curi\s *anges 9 ! s\nd ( ! bell are audible4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,"s ( ! small pipes f an organ may be made to emit ! mo/ curi\s s\nds by pass+ heavy & light gases ?r\gh !m2 9 ^! exp]im5ts bags conta9+ ! gases %\ld be employ$1 :i* may drive air1 oxyg51 c>bonic acid1 or hydrog51 ?r\gh ! organ pipes at precisely ! same pressure4 ,page #aaa ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,"o ( ^? toys call$ ,! ,squeak+ ,toy af=ds ano!r & ridicul\s example ( ! effect ( hydrog5 on s\nd1 :5 x is us$ 9 a j> conta9+ ?is gas4 7,fig4 #aad47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,! squeak+ toy1 us$ 9 a j> ( hydrog54 ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,an accordion play$ 9 a l>ge receptacle conta9+ hydrog5 gas demon/rates /ill m cle>ly :at w\ld be ! effect ( an or*e/ra %ut up 9 a room conta9+ a mixture ( a consid]able portion ( hydrog5 ) air1 z ! =m]1 l nitrog51 is n a poison1 & only kills 9 ! abs5ce ( oxyg5 gas4 ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,"s v amus+ exp]im5ts ) balloons h be5 devis$ by ,mr4 ,d>by1 ! em95t firework manufactur]1 by :i* !y are made to c>ry signals ( ?ree k9ds1 & ?us ! motive or asc5d+ p[] may be utiliz$ to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,mr4 ,d>by's att5tion 0 fir/ direct$ to ! manufacture ( a good1 s]viceable1 & *eap balloon1 :i* he made ( pap]1 cut ) ma!matical precision2 ! gores or divisions be+ made equal1 & :5 pa/$ toge!r1 /r5g!n$ by ! ins]tion ( a /r+ at ! juncture2 s t ! skeleton ( ! balloon 0 made ( /r+1 ! :ole t]m9at+ 9 ! neck1 :i* 0 fur!r /iff5$ ) calico1 & complet$ :5 requir$ by a good coat+ ( boil$ oil4 ,^! balloons are ab\t n9e feet high & five feet 9 diamet] 9 ! wide/ "p1 exactly l a pe>1 & tap]+ to ! neck 9 ! mo/ graceful & elegant mann]4 ,!y reta9 ! hydrog5 gas rem>kably well = _m h\rs1 & d n leak1 9 consequ5ce ( ! pap] ( :i* !y are made be+ well select$ & all holes /opp$1 & also f ! circum/ance ( ! pressure be+ s well di/ribut$ ov] ! int]ior by ! almo/ ma!matical precision ) :i* !y are cut1 & ! c>eful prep>ation ( ! pap] ) prop] v>ni%4 ,"o ( _! greate/ recomm5dations is *eapness2 = :il/ a gold-beat]'s sk9 balloon ( ! same size w\ld co/ ab\t #el41 ^! c be furni%$ at #es4 ea* 9 l>ge quantities4 ,a balloon requir$ to c>ry "o or m p]sons mu/ be con/ruct$ ( ! be/ mat]ials1 & _c be too c>efully made2 x is !re=e a some:at co/ly affair1 & z mu* z #bjjl41 #ejjl41 & ev5 #ajjjl4 h be5 exp5d$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ^! a]ial *>iots4 ,! *ief po9ts requir+ att5tion are3--fir/1 ! quality ( ! silk2 secondly1 ! precision & scrupul\s nicety requir$ 9 cutt+ ,page #aab out & jo9+ ! gores2 ?irdly1 ! application ( a good v>ni% to fill up ! pores ( ! silk1 :i* mu/ be insoluble 9 wat]1 & suffici5tly ela/ic n to crack4 ,! usual mat]ial is ,indian silk 7t]m$ ,corah silk71 at f #bs4 to #bs4 #f;d4 p] y>d4 ,! gores or p>ts ) :i* ! balloon is con/ruct$ require1 z be=e /at$1 great att5tion2 x be+ a common say+ among/ a]onauts1 t a cobweb w hold ! gas if prop]ly %ap$ ! object be+ to diffuse ! pressure equally ov] ! :ole bag or balloon4 ,! v>ni% ) :i* ! silk is r5d]$ air-tight c be made accord+ to ! private recipe ( ,mr4 ,graham1 an a]onaut1 :o /ates t he uses = ?is purpose two gallons ( l9se$ oil 7boil$71 two ditto 7raw71 & f\r ounces ( beeswax2 ! :ole be+ simm]$ toge!r = "o h\r1 answ]s rem>kably well1 & ! v>ni% is t\gh & n liable to crack4 ,= repair+ holes 9 a balloon1 ,mr4 ,graham recomm5ds a cem5t compos$ ( two p\nds ( black res9 & "o p\nd ( tall[1 melt$ toge!r1 & appli$ on pieces ( v>ni%$ silk to ! ap]tures4 ,! actual co/ ( a balloon w be und]/ood f in=mation also d]iv$ f ,mr4 ,graham4 ,8 celebrat$ ,victoria ,balloon1 :i* has pass$ ?r\gh s _m hairbread? escapes1 0 sixty-five feet high1 & ?irty-eight feet 9 diamet] 9 ! broade/ "p2 & ! foll[+ articles 7 us$ 9 its con/ruction3-- s4 d4 #adjj y>ds ( ,corah silk1 at #bs4 #f;d4 p] y>d #age #j #j ,! nett+ weigh$ #gj lbs4 #bj #j #j ,extra ropes weigh$ #bj lbs4 at #bs4 p] lb4 #b #j #j ,! c> weigh$ #be lbs4 #g #j #j ,v>ni%1 wages1 c4 #af #j #j ------------- #bbj #j #j ,?irty-eight ?\s& cubic feet ( coal gas 7 requir$ to fill ?is balloon1 *>g$ by "o company #bjl41 by o!rs f #il4 to #ajl42 & eight m5 7 requir$ to hold ! inflat$ baggy mon/]4 ,su* a balloon z describ$ above is a m]e soap bubble :5 comp>$ ) ! ,new ,a]ial ,%ip n[ build+ 9 ! vic9ity ( ,new ,york2 ! details are s practical & int]e/+1 t we quote ne>ly ! :ole acc\nt ( ?is mammo? or ,great ,ea/]n among/ balloons1 z giv5 9 ! ,new ,york ,times4 ,an exp]im5t 9 sci5tific balloon+1 great] ?an has yet be5 und]tak51 is ab\t to be tri$ 9 ?is city4 ,! project ( cross+ ! ,atlantic ,ocean ) an air-%ip1 long talk$ (1 b nev] accompli%$1 has tak5 a %ape s def9ite t ! app>atus is already prep>$ & ! a]onaut ready to und]take 8 task4 ,! "w has be5 conduct$ quietly1 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ,new ,york1 s9ce ! op5+ ( spr+4 ,! new air-%ip1 :i* has ,page #aac be5 *ri/5$ ! ,city ( ,new ,york1 is s ne>ly complet$1 t b few ess5tials ( detail are want+ to enable ! projectors to br+ x visibly be=e ! public4 ,! a]onaut 9 *>ge is ,mr4 ,t4 ,s4 ,c4 ,l[e1 a ,new ,hamp%ire man1 :o has made ?irty-six balloon asc5sions4 ,! dim5sions ( ! ,city ( ,new ,york s f> exce$ ^? ( any balloon previ\sly con/ruct$1 t ! b>e fact ( its exi/5ce is notable4 ,briefly1 = s l>ge a subject1 ! foll[+ are ! dim5sions3--,greate/ diamet]1 #acj feet2 transv]se diamet]1 #ajd feet2 height1 f valve to boat1 #cej feet2 weight1 ) outfit1 #c tons2 lift+ p[] 7aggregate71 #bb tons2 capacity ( gas envelope1 #gbe1jjj cubic feet4 ,! ,city ( ,new ,york1 !re=e1 is ne>ly five times l>g] ?an ! l>ge/ balloon ev] be=e built4 ,its =m is t ( ! usual p]p5dicul> gas-receiv]1 ) basket & lifeboat atta*$4 ,six ?\s& y>ds ( twill$ clo? h be5 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! envelope4 ,r$uc$ to feet1 ! actual measurem5t ( ?is mat]ial is #ed1jjj feet--or ne>ly #aa miles4 ,sev5te5 ( ,:eel] & ,wilson's sew+ ma*9es h be5 employ$ to connect ! pieces1 & ! upp] extremity ( ! envelope1 int5d$ to receive ! gas-valve1 is ( triple ?ickness1 /r5g!n$ ) heavy br[n l951 & sew$ 9 triple seams4 ,! pressure be+ greate/ at ?is po9t1 extraord9>y p[] ( resi/ance is requisite4 ,x is ass]t$ t #ajj wom51 sew+ con/antly = two ye>s1 c\ld n h accompli%$ ?is "w1 :i* measures by miles4 ,! mat]ial is /\t & ! /it*+ /\t]4 ,! v>ni% appli$ to ?is envelope is a composition ! secret ( :i* re/s ) ,mr4 ,l[e4 ,?ree or f\r coat+s are appli$1 9 ord] to prev5t leakage ( ! gas4 ,! nett+ :i* surr\nds ! envelope is a /\t cord1 manufactur$ f flax expressly = ! purpose4 ,its aggregate /r5g? is equal to a resi/ance ( #afj tons1 ea* cord be+ capable ( su/a9+ a weight ( #djj lbs4 or #ejj lbs4 ,! basket :i* is to be susp5d$ imm$iately bel[ ! balloon is made ( rattan1 is #bj feet 9 circumf]5ce & #d feet deep4 ,its =m is circul>1 & x is surr\nd$ by canvas4 ,?is c> w c>ry ! a]onauts4 ,x is w>m$ by a lime-/ove1 an inv5tion ( ,mr4 ,o4 ,a4 ,gag]1 by :om x 0 pres5t$ to ,mr4 ,l[e4 ,a lime-/ove is a new feature 9 air voyages4 ,x is claim$ t x w furni% heat )\t fire1 & is int5d$ = a w>m+ app>atus only4 ,! /ove is #a feet high1 & #b feet squ>e4 ,mr4 ,l[e /ates t he is s well conv9c$ ( ! utility ( ?is contrivance1 t he conceives x to be possible to asc5d to a region :]e wat] w freeze1 & yet keep himself f freez+4 ,?is is to be te/$4 ,dropp+ bel[ ! basket is a metallic lifeboat1 9 :i* is plac$ an ,ericsson eng9e4 ,capta9 ,ericsson's inv5tion is !re=e to be tri$ 9 mid-air4 ,its p>ticul> purpose is ! control ( a propell]1 rigg$ ^u ! pr9ciple ( ! screw1 by :i* x is propos$ to obta9 ,page#aad a regulat+ p[]4 ,! application ( ! me*anical p[] is +5i\sly devis$4 ,! propell] is fix$ 9 ! b[ ( ! lifeboat1 project+ at an angle ( ab\t =ty-five degrees4 ,f a :eel at ! extremity tw5ty fans radiate4 ,ea* ( ^! fans is #e feet 9 l5g?1 wid5+ gradually f ! po9t ( contact ) ! screw to ! extremity1 :]e ! wid? ( ea* is #a feet4 ,mr4 ,l[e claims t by ! application ( ^! me*anical contrivances 8 air-%ip c be readily rais$ or l[]$1 to seek diff]5t curr5ts ( air2 t !y w give him ample /e]age way1 & t !y w prev5t ! rotatory motion ( ! ma*9e4 ,9 apply+ ! pr9ciple ( ! fan1 he does n claim any new discov]y1 b simply a practical developm5t ( ! !ory advanc$ by o!r a]onauts1 & p>tially r$uc$ to practice by ,*>les ,gre51 ! celebrat$ ,engli% a]onaut4 ,mr4 ,l[e cont5ds t ! application ( ma*9]y to a]ial navigation has be5 long en\gh a m]e !ory4 ,he proposes to r$uce ! !ory to practice1 & see :at w come ( x4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! rais+ & l[]+ p[] ( ! ma*9]y w be equal to a weight ( #cjj lbs41 ! fans be+ s adju/$ z to admit ( v rapid motion upw>d or d[nw>d4 ,z ! loss ( ?ree or f\r p\nds only is suffici5t to enable a balloon to rise rapidly1 & z ! escape ( a v small portion ( ! gas suffices to r$uce its altitude1 ,mr4 ,l[e reg>ds ?is sy/ematic regulator z q suffici5t to enable him to control 8 movem5ts & to keep at any altitude he desires4 ,x is 8 int5tion to asc5d to a height ( ?ree or f\r miles at ! />t1 b ?is altitude w n be p]man5tly su/a9$4 ,he pref]s1 he says1 to keep )9 a respectable di/ance ( mundane ?+s1 :]e 'he c see folks4' ,x is to be hop$ 8 ma*9]y w p]=m all t he anticipates f x4 ,x is a novel affair ?r\gh\t1 & a v>iety ( new applications rema9 to be te/$4 ,mr4 ,l[e1 express+ ! utmo/ confid5ce 9 all ! appo9tm5ts ( 8 app>atus1 assur$ u t he w\ld c]ta9ly g1 &1 z c]ta9ly1 w\ld g into ! ocean1 or deliv] a copy ( ,monday's ,times 9 ,london on ! foll[+ ,w$nesday4 ,he proposes to effect a l&+ 9 ,engl& or ,france1 & w take a c\rse nor? ( ea/4 ,a due ea/]ly c\rse w\ld l& him 9 ,spa91 b to t c\rse he objects4 ,he hopes to make ! trip f ?is city to ,london 9 =ty-eight h\rs1 c]ta9ly 9 sixty-f\r h\rs4 ,he sc\ts ! idea ( dang]1 goes ab\t 8 prep>ations delib]ately1 & promises himself a good "t4 ,z ! upp] curr5ts1 sett+ due ea/1 w n p]mit 8 return by ! same r\te1 he proposes to pack up ! ,city ( ,new ,york1 & take ! fir/ /eam] = home4 ,! air-%ip w c>ry weight4 ,its cubical cont5ts ( #gbe1jjj feet ( gas suffice to lift a weight ( #bb tons4 ,) outfit complete its own weight w be #c tons4 ,) ?is weight #ai tons ( lift+ p[] rema91 & !re is accord+ly room = z _m pass5g]s z w c>e to take ! v5ture4 ,we und]/&1 h[ev]1 t ! company is limit$ to eight or t54 ,mr4 ,l[e provides s& = balla/1 reg>ds 8 *ances ( salvation z exce$+ly fav\rable1 ,page #aae places implicit fai? 9 ! /r5g? ( 8 nett+1 ! p[] ( 8 ma*9]y1 & ! buoyancy ( 8 lifeboat1 & altoge!r consid]s himself secure f ! haz>d ( disa/]4 ,if he accompli% 8 voyage 9 safety1 he w h done m ?an any air navigator has yet v5tur$ to und]take4 ,if he fail1 ! ent]prise s9ks ! snug sum ( #bj1jjj doll>s4 ,weal?y m5 :o are 8 back]s1 %>+ 8 own en?usiasm1 decl>e failure impossible1 & invite a pati5t public to wait & see4 ,a night asc5t witness$ at any ( ! public g>d5s is c]ta9ly a /irr+ sc5e1 p>ticul>ly if ! w9d is r high4 ,on approa*+ ! balloon1 sway$ to & fro by ! breeze1 x seems almo/ capable ( cru%+ ! bold individual :o w\ld v5ture b5ea? x2 se5 z a l>ge d>k mass 9 ! yet dimly-light$ squ>e1 x appe>s to be incapable ( control2 :5 ! inflation is complet$1 ! a]onaut1 all importance1 seats himself 9 ! c>1 & blue lights1 ) o!r fireworks1 display ! victim :o is to make a la/ asc5t1 or p]haps desc5t4 ,f9ally ! ^w is giv51 ! ropes are ca/ (f1 & ! bulky *>iot rises maje/ically to ! s\nd ( ! ,national ,an!m4 ,! cr[d see no m1 b ! next day's ,times reports ! end ( ! a]ial j\rney4 ,balloons c nev] be ( any p]man5t value z means ( locomotion until !y c be /e]$2 & ?is is a problem1 ! solution ( :i* is some?+ l p]petual motion4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a balloon ( any size exposes an enorm\s surface to ! pressure & =ce ( ! w9ds2 & :5 we consid] t !y move at ! rate ( f ?ree to eighty miles p] h\r1 x w be und]/ood t ! fabric ( ! balloon itself mu/ give way 9 any attempt to te>1 "w1 or pull x aga9/ su* a =ce4 ,secondly & la/ly1 ! p[] has n yet be5 creat$ :i* w d all ?is )\t ! inconv5i5ce ( be+ s heavy t ! /e]+ eng9e fixes ! balloon /eadily to ! e>? by its ob/9ate gravity4 ,:5 eng9es ( p[] are con/ruct$ )\t ! a]onaut's ob/acle ( weight--:5 balloons are made ( ?9 copp] or %eet-iron1 !n we may possibly he> ( ! voyage ( ! good %ip ,a]ial1 b\nd = any place1 & q indep5d5t ( dock1 port1 & ! ho/ ( dues 7qu]e71 :i* ! sea-go+ %ips h to disburse4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 gratify+ to ! zeal & p]sev]ance ( ^? :o dream ( a]ial navigation1 to "k t a balloon is n q useless2 & "h we may return to ! consid]ation ( ,mr4 ,d>by's signals1 :i* are ( v>i\s k9ds1 & int5d$ to appeal to ! s5ses by night z well z by day2 & fir/1 by audible s\nds4 ,su* means h long be5 recognis$1 f ! anci5t float & bell ( ! ,in*cape ,rock1 to ! pa9ful m9ute-gun at sea1 or ! %rill railway :i/le & detonat+ signals employ$ to prev5t ! horrors ( a collision betwe5 two tra9s4 ,! signal s\nds are produc$ by ! explosion ( %ells capable ( yield+ a report equal to t ( a six-p\nd] cannon1 & !y are con/ruct$ 9 a v simple mann]4 ,a ball1 compos$ ( wood or copp]1 & made up by screw+ toge!r ! two hemisph]es1 is atta*$ to a %aft or tail ( cane or lance-wood1 prop]ly fea!r$ l an arr[2 at ! side opposite to t ( ! arr[--viz41 at its antipodes1 is plac$ a slight protub]ance ,page #aaf;conta9+ a m9ute bulb ( glass fill$ ) oil ( vitriol1 & surr\nd$ ) a mixture ( *lorate ( pota% & sug>1 ! :ole be+ protect$ ) gutta-p]*a1 & communicat+ by a t\*-hole ) ! int]ior1 :i* is ( c\rse fill$ ) gunp[d]4 ,^! %ells are atta*$ to a circul> framework by a /rong :ipcord1 :i* passes to a c5tral fuse1 & are deta*$ "o aft] ! o!r z ! sl[ fuse 7made holl[ on ! pr9ciple ( ! arg& lamp7 burns /eadily away4 ,directly a %ell falls to ! gr\nd1 ! little bulb conta9+ ! oil ( vitriol breaks1 & ! acid com+ 9 contact ) ! *lorate ( pota% & sug>1 causes ! mixture to take fire1 :5 ! gunp[d] explodes4 ,dur+ ! siege ( ,seba/opol _m simil> m9es 7 prep>$ by ! ,russians 9 ! e>?1 s t :5 an un=tunate soldi] trod ^u ! spot1 ! conceal$ m9e blew up & s]i\sly injur$ him2 su* petty w>f>e is z bad z %oot+ s5tries1 & a cruel application ( sci5ce1 t unnecess>ily increases ! mis]ies ( w> )\t produc+ ^? gr& results = :i* ! truly great capta9s1 ,well+ton & ,napoleon1 only w>r$4 7,fig4 #aae47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,a4 ,r+ atta*$ to balloon1 c>ry+ an hexagonal framework ) six %ells4 ,b4 ,holl[ fuse1 :i* burns sl[ly up to ! /r+s1 & deta*es ea* %ell 9 succession4 ,c4 ,section ( %ell4 ,! %ad$ portion repres5ts ! gunp[d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,! bill di/ributor1 consi/+ ( ?ree holl[ fuses1 ) bills atta*$ 9 packets4 ,! bill di/ributor consi/s ( a long piece ( wood1 to :i* are ,page #aag atta*$ a numb] ( holl[ fuses1 ) packets ( bills1 protect$ f be+ burn$ or s+$ by a ?9 t9 plate2 #aj1jjj or #bj1jjj bills c ?us be deliv]$1 & ! w9d assi/s 9 scatt]+ !m1 :il/ ! balloon travels ov] a di/ance ( _m miles4 ,x mu/ be recollect$ t 9 ea* case ! %ells & ! bills are deta*$ by ! /r+ burn+ away z ! fire creeps up f ! fuse4 7,fig4 #aaf47 ,ano!r mo/ +5i\s arrangem5t1 also prep>$ by ,mr4 ,d>by1 is t]m$ by ! inv5tor1 ! ,l& & ,wat] ,signal1 & may be ?us describ$3--,a %ort holl[ ball ( gutta-p]*a1 or o!r conv5i5t mat]ial1 five or six in*es 9 diamet]1 & fill$ ) pr9t$ bills1 or ! in=mation1 :atev] x may be1 t is requir$ to be s5t1 is atta*$ to a cap to :i* a r$ flag1 hav+ ! words ,op5 ! %ell & f\r cross /icks1 canes1 or :alebones ) bits ( cork at equal di/ances1 are fitt$4 ,! :ole is connect$ by a /r+ to ! fuse z be=e describ$4 ,^! signals are adapt$ = l& & wat]3 9 ei!r case !y fall upright1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ! /icks project+ out !y float well 9 ! wat]1 & c be se5 by a telescope at a di/ance ( ?ree miles4 7,fig4 #aag47 ,_m ( ^! signals 7 s5t away by ,mr4 ,d>by f ,vauxhall2 "o 0 pick$ up at ,h>wi*1 ano!r at ,brighton1 a ?ird at ,croydon2 9 ! latt] case x 0 f\nd by a cottag]1 :o1 fe>+ gunp[d] & combu/ibles1 did n exam9e ! %ell1 b hav+ m5tion$ ! circum/ance to a g5tleman liv+ ne> him1 !y agre$ to cut x op52 & intellig5ce ( _! arrival1 9 ?is & ! o!r cases1 0 politely =w>d$ to ,mr4 ,d>by at ,vauxhall ,g>d5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,! l& & wat] signal1 :i* rema9s upright on l&1 or floats on ! surface ( wat]4 ,a4 ,! wat]-tight gutta-p]*a %ell1 conta9+ ! message or in=mation4 ,b ,b ,b4 ,/icks ( cane to keep ! flag 9 an upright position2 at ! ends are atta*$ cork bungs4 ,balloons1 l a great _m o!r clev] inv5tions1 h be5 despis$ by milit>y m5 z new-fangl$ exp$i5ts1 toys1 :i* may d v well to please ! gap+ public1 b are & mu/ be useless 9 ! field4 ,ov] & ov] aga9 x has be5 sugge/$ t a balloon corps = obs]vation %\ld be atta*$ to ! ,briti% army1 b ! s*eme has ,page #aah be5 reject$1 al?\gh ! exp5se ( a few y>ds ( silk & ! g5]ation ( hydrog5 gas w\ld be a m]e bagatelle z comp>$ ) ! transport & use ( a s+le #cb-p\nd] cannon4 ,! antiquat$ notions ( octog5>ian g5]als h1 h[ev]1 receiv$ a great %ock 9 ! fact t ! ,emp]or ,napoleon ,,iii4 0 enabl$1 by ! assi/ance ( a captive balloon1 to wat* ! movem5ts & dispositions ( ! ,au/rian troops2 & ) ! aid ( ! in=mation s obta9$1 he made 8 prep>ations1 & 0 rew>d$ by ! victory ( ,solf]9o2 & z soon z ! battle 0 ov] ,napoleon ,,iii4 occupi$ at ,cavriana ! v room & ate ! d9n] prep>$ = 8 adv]s>y1 ! ,emp]or ,francis ,joseph4 ,ov] & ov] aga9 ! mo/ excell5t hi/ories h be5 writt5 ( a]o/ation1 b !y all t5d to "o tru?1 & t is1 ! great dang] & risk ( su* excursions2 & to enable our read]s to =m _! own judgm5t1 a *ronological li/ ( "s ( ! mo/ celebrat$ a]onauts1 c41 is app5d$4 #afge4 ,b]nair attempt$ to fly--kill$4 #afgh4 ,besni] attempt$ to fly4 #aggb4 ,l',abb ,des=ges ann\nc$ an a]ial *>iot4 #aghc4 ,montgolfi] con/ruct$ ! fir/ air balloon4 ,rob]ts frres1 fir/ gas balloon1 de/roy$ by ! peasantry ( ,g5eva1 :o imag9$ x to be an evil _s or ! moon4 #aghd4 ,madame ,?ibl1 ! fir/ lady :o 0 ev] up 9 ! cl\ds2 %e asc5d$ #ac1ejj feet4 ,duke de ,*>tres1 aft]w>ds ,egalit ,orleans1 travell$ #ace miles 9 five h\rs 9 a balloon4 ,te/u de ,brissy1 eque/rian asc5t4 ,d',a*ille1 ,desgranges1 & ,*alf\r--,montgolfi] balloon4 ,bacqueville attempt$ a flight ) w+s4 ,lun>di--gas balloon4 ,rambaud--,montgolfi] balloon1 :i* 0 burnt4 ,&reani--,montgolfi] balloon4 #aghe4 ,g5]al ,money--gas balloon1 fell into ! wat]1 & n rescu$ = six h\rs4 ,?ompson1 9 cross+ ! ,iri% ,*annel1 0 run into ) ! b[sprit ( a %ip :il/ go+ at ! rate ( tw5ty miles p] h\r4 ,brios*i--gas balloon asc5d$ too high & bur/ ! balloon2 ! hurt he receiv$ ultimately caus$ 8 dea?4 ,a ,v5etian nobleman & 8 wife--gas balloon--kill$4 ,pilatre de ,rozi] & ,m4 ,roma9--gas balloon took fire--bo? kill$4 #ahjf4 ,mosm5t--gas balloon--kill$4 ,oliv>i--,montgolfi] balloon--kill$4 #ahjh4 ,degh] attempt$ a flight ) w+s4 #ahab4 ,bittorf--,montgolfi] balloon--kill$4 #ahai4 ,blan*>d1 ,madame--gas balloon--kill$4 ,page #aai #ahai4 ,gay ,lussac--gas balloon1 asc5d$ #bc1jdj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,b>omet] #ab4ie in*es2 !rmomet] #ad4i ,fah4 ,gay ,lussac & ,biot--gas balloon = ! b5efit ( sci5ce4 ,bo? philosoph]s return$ safely to ! e>?4 #ahbd4 ,sadl]--gas balloon--kill$4 ,%eldon--gas balloon4 ,h>ris--gas balloon--kill$4 #ahcf4 ,cock+--p>a*ute f gas balloon--kill$4 #ahdg4 ,god>d--,montgolfi] balloon fell into & extricat$ f ! ,se9e4 #ahej4 ,poitev91 a successful ,fr5* a]onaut4 ,gale1 ,lieut4--gas balloon--kill$4 ,bixio & ,b>ral--gas balloon4 ,graham1 ,mr4 & ,mrs4--gas balloon4--,s]i\s accid5t asc5d+ ne> ! ,great ,exhibition 9 ,hyde ,p>k4 ,gre51 ! mo/ successful liv+ a]onaut ( ! pres5t "t4 ,( ! #da p]sons enum]at$1 #ad 7 kill$1 & ne>ly all ! a]onauts met ) accid5ts :i* might h prov$ fatal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,fly+ ma*9e 7!oretical74 ,page #abj ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,soap bubbles bl[n ) hydrog5 gas asc5d ) great rapidity1 & break aga9/ ! ceil+2 if int]rupt$ 9 _! c\rse ) a light$ tap] !y burn ) a slight yell[ col\r & dull report4 ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,by con/ruct+ a pewt] m\ld 9 two halves1 ( ! %ape ( a tol]ably l>ge flask1 a balloon ( collodion may be made by p\r+ ! collodion inside ! pewt] vessel1 & tak+ c>e t e "p is prop]ly cov]$2 ! pewt] m\ld may be w>m$ by ! ext]nal application ( hot wat]1 s z to drive (f ! e!r ( ! collodion1 & :5 q dry ! m\ld is op5$ & ! balloon tak5 out4 ,su* balloons may be made & inflat$ ) hydrog5 by atta*+ to !m a /rip ( pap]1 dipp$ 9 a solution ( wax & phosphorus1 & sulphuret ( c>bon2 z ! latt] evaporates1 ! phosphorus takes fire & spreads to ! balloon2 :i* burns ) a slight report4 ,! pewt] m\ld mu/ be v p]fectly made1 & %\ld be bright inside2 & if ! balloons are fill$ ) oxyg5 & hydrog51 all[+ a suffici5t excess ( ! latt] to give an asc5d+ p[]1 !y explode ) a l\d noise directly ! fire rea*es ! mix$ gases4 ,twelf? ,exp]im5t4 ,9 a s\p-plate place "s /rong soap & wat]2 !n bl[ out a numb] ( bubbles ) a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog52 a l\d report occurs on ! application ( flame1 & if ! room is small ! w9d[ %\ld be plac$ op51 z ! concussion ( ! air is likely to break ! glass4 ,?irte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,any noise repeat$ at lea/ ?irty-two times 9 a second produces a musical s\nd1 & by produc+ a numb] ( small explosions ( hydrog5 gas inside glass tubes ( v>i\s sizes1 ! mo/ peculi> s\nds are obta9$4 ,! hydrog5 flame %\ld be extremely small1 & ! glass tubes held ov] x may be ( all l5g?s & diamet]s2 a trial only w det]m9e :e!r !y are fit = ! purpose or n4 ,f\rte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,fl[]s1 figures1 or o!r designs1 may be drawn ^u silk ) a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 & ! :ole be+ moi/5$ ) wat]1 is expos$ to ! action ( hydrog5 gas1 :i* removes ! oxyg5 f ! silv]1 & r$uces x to ! metallic /ate4 ,9 l mann] designs drawn ) a solution ( *loride ( gold are produc$ 9 ! metallic /ate by exposure to ! action ( hydrog5 gas4 ,*loride ( t91 usually t]m$ muriate ( t91 may also be r$uc$ 9 a simil> mann]1 c>e be+ tak5 9 ^! exp]im5ts t ,page #aba ! fabric ^u :i* ! lett]s1 figures1 or designs are pa9t$ ) ! metallic solution be kept q damp :il/ expos$ to ! hydrog5 gas4 ,fifte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a mixture ( two volumes ( hydrog5 ) "o volume ( oxyg5 explodes ) great viol5ce1 & produces two volumes ( /eam1 :i* cond5se aga9/ ! sides ( ! /rong glass vessel1 9 :i* ! exp]im5t may be made1 9 ! =m ( wat]4 ,z ! app>atus call$ ! ,cav5di% bottle1 by :i* ?is exp]im5t only may be safely p]=m$1 is some:at exp5sive1 & requires ! use ( an air-pump1 gas j>s ) /op-cocks1 & an electrical ma*9e & ,leyd5 j>1 o!r & m simple means may be adopt$ to %[ ! comb9ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 & =mation ( wat]4 ,if a little alcohol is plac$ 9 a cup & set on fire1 :il/ an empty cold gas j> is held ov] ! flame1 an abundant deposition ( moi/ure takes place f ! combu/ion ( ! hydrog5 ( ! spirits ( w9e4 ,alcohol conta9s six comb9+ prop]ties ( hydrog51 ) f\r ( *>coal & two ( oxyg54 ,if a light$ c&le1 or an oil1 camph9e1 ,belmont9e1 or gas flame1 is plac$ "u a prop] cond5s]1 l>ge quantities ( wat] are obta9$ by ! combu/ion ( ^! sub/ances4 7,fig4 #aai47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,a4 ,a burn+ c&le1 or oil or gas lamp4 ,copp] head & long pipe fitt+ into ,b ,c1 ! receiv] f :i* ! cond5s$ wat] drops into ,d4 ,e ,e4 ,two corks fitt$1 betwe5 :i* is fold$ "s wet rag4 ,page #abb ,sixte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,dur+ ! combu/ion ( a mixture ( two volumes ( hydrog5 ) "o ( oxyg51 an enorm\s am\nt ( heat is produc$1 :i* is usefully appli$ 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe4 ,! flame ( ! mix$ gases produces little or no light1 b :5 direct$ on v>i\s metals conta9$ 9 a small hole made 9 a fire brick1 a mo/ int5se light is obta9$ f ! combu/ion ( ! metals1 :i* is v>i\sly col\r$1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! sub/ances employ$4 ,) ca/-iron ! mo/ vivid sc9tillations are obta9$1 p>ticul>ly if aft] hav+ fus$ & boil$ ! ca/-iron ) ! jet ( ! two gases1 "o ( !m1 viz41 ! hydrog51 is turn$ (f1 & ! oxyg5 only direct$ ^u ! fus$ ball ( iron1 !n ! c>bon ( ! iron burns ) great rapidity1 ! little globule is envelop$ 9 a %[] ( sp>ks1 & ! :ole af=ds an excell5t notion ( ! pr9ciple ( ,bessem]'s pat5t me?od ( conv]t+ ca/-iron at once into pure malleable iron1 or by /opp+ %ort ( ! full combu/ion ( c>bon1 into ca/-/eel4 ,! app>atus = conduct+ ^! exp]im5ts is ( v>i\s k9ds1 & diff]5t jets h be5 f "t to "t recomm5d$ on acc\nt ( _! alleg$ safety4 ,x may be ass]t$ t all arrangem5ts propos$ = burn+ any quantity ( ! mix$ gases are extremely dang]\s3 if an explosion takes place x is almo/ z de/ructive z gunp[d]1 & %\ld no p>ticul> damage be done to ! room1 !re is /ill ! risk ( ! sudd5 vibration ( ! air produc+ p]man5t deafness4 ,if x is desir$ to burn ! mix$ gases1 p]haps ! safe/ app>atus is t ( ,gurney2 9 ?is arrangem5t ! mix$ gases bubble up ?r\gh a little res]voir ( wat]1 & ?us ! gas-hold]--viz41 a bladd]1 is cut (f f ! jet :5 ! combu/ion takes place4 7,fig4 #abj47 ,?is jet is mu* recomm5d$ by ,mr4 ,woodw>d1 ! highly respect$ ,presid5t ( ! ,isl+ton ,lit]>y & ,sci5tific ,in/itution1 & may be fitt$ up to %[ ! ph5om5a ( pol>iz$ light1 ! microscope1 & o!r int]e/+ optical ph5om5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,gurney's jet4 ,a4 ,pipe ) /op-cock lead+ f ! gas-hold]4 ,b4 ,! little res]voir ( wat] ?r\gh :i* ! mix$ gases bubble4 ,c4 ,! jet :]e ! gases burn4 ,d4 ,cork1 :i* is bl[n out if ! flame rec$es 9 ! pipe1 ,c4 ,mr4 ,woodw>d /ates1 t a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 cont9u$ dur+ _m ye>s1 has prov$1 t :ile ! bladd] conta9+ ! mix$ gases is "u pressure1 ! flame _c be made to pass ! safety *amb]s1 & consequ5tly an explosion is impossible2 & ev5 if ?r\gh extreme c>elessness or design1 z by ! removal ( pressure or ! contact ( a sp>k ) ! bladd]1 an explosion occurs1 x c produce no o!r ?an ! mom5t>y effect ( ! al>m occasion$ by ! report2 ,page #abc :]eas1 :5 ! gases are us$ 9 sep>ate bags "u a pressure ( two or ?ree half hundr$weights1 if ! pressure on "o ( ! bags be accid5tally remov$ or susp5d$1 ! gas f ! o!r w be =c$ into x1 & if n discov]$ 9 "t1 w occasion an explosion ( a v dang]\s "*2 or if ?r\gh c>elessness "o ( ! p>tially empti$ bags %\ld be fill$ up ) ! wrong gas1 effects ( an equally p]il\s nature w\ld ensue4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,a4 ,! bladd] ( mix$ gases1 press$ by ! bo>d1 ,b ,b1 atta*$ by wire supports to ano!r bo>d1 ,c ,c1 :i* c>ries ! weights1 ,d ,d4 ,e ,e4 ,pipe to :i* ! bladd]1 ,a1 is screw$1 & :5 ,a is empti$1 x is re-fill$ f ! o!r bladd]1 ,r4 ,f ,f ,f4 ,pipe convey+ mix$ gases to ! lant]n1 ,g ,g1 :]e !y are burnt f a ,gurney's jet1 ,h4 ,9 ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe usually employ$1 ! gases are kept q sep>ate1 ei!r 9 gasomet]s or gas bags1 & are convey$ by di/9ct pipes to a jet ( v simple con/ruction1 devis$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,daniell1 :]e !y mix 9 v small volumes1 & are burnt at once at ! m\? ( ! jet4 7,fig4 #abb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,daniell's jet4 ,o ,o4 ,! /op-cock & pipe convey+ oxyg51 & fitt+ inside ! l>g] tube ,h ,h1 to :i* is atta*$ a /op-cock1 ,h1 connect$ ) ! hydrog5 receiv]4 ,a4 ,! orifice ne> :i* ! gases mix1 & :]e !y are burnt4 ,! gases are /or$ ei!r 9 copp] gasomet]s or 9 air-tight bags ( ,mac9to% clo?1 capable ( conta9+ f f\r to six cubic feet ( gas1 & provid$ ) pressure bo>ds4 ,! bo>ds are load$ ) two or ?ree fifty-six p\nd weights to =ce out ! gas ) suffici5t ,page #d pressure1 & ( c\rse mu/ be equally weight$2 if any *ange ( weight is made1 ! /op-cocks %\ld be turn$ (f & ! light put out1 z ! mo/ disa/r\s results h occurr$ f c>elessness 9 ?is respect4 7,fig4 #abc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,gas bag & pressure bo>ds4 ,! oxy-hydrog5 jet is fur!r v>i$ 9 con/ruction by receiv+ ! gases f sep>ate res]voirs1 & all[+ !m to mix 9 ! upp] "p ( ! jet1 :i* is provid$ ) a safety tube fill$ ) circul> pieces ( wire gauze4 7,fig4 #abd47 ,) ?is arrangem5t a mo/ int5se light is produc$1 call$ ! ,drummond or lime light1 & coal gas is n[ usually sub/itut$ = hydrog54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,a ,a4 ,bo>d to :i* ,b ,b is fix$4 ,o4 ,oxyg5 pipe4 ,h4 ,hydrog5 pipe4 ,c ,c4 ,space fill$ ) wire gauze4 ,d4 ,lime cyl9d]4 ,page #abe ,sev5te5? ,exp]im5t4 ,!re are _m circum/ances t w cause ! union ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 :i*1 if conf9$ by !mselves 9 a glass vessel1 may be pres]v$ = any l5g? ( "t )\t *ange2 b if "s p[d]$ glass1 or any o!r f9ely-divid$ sub/ance ) %>p po9ts1 is introduc$ into ! mix$ gases at a temp]ature n exce$+ #ffj ,fahr5heit1 !n ! gases sil5tly unite & =m wat]4 ,?is curi\s mode ( effect+ _! comb9ation is %[n 9 a /ill m int]e/+ mann] by p]fectly cle> plat9um foil1 :i* if introduc$ into ! mix$ gases gradually beg9s to gl[1 & becom+ r$-hot causes ! gases to explode4 ,or /ill bett]1 by ! me?od fir/ devis$ by ,dob]e9]1 9 #ahbd1 by :i* f9ely prep>$ spongy plat9um--i4e41 plat9um 9 a por\s /ate1 & expos+ a l>ge metallic surface--is almo/ in/antane\sly heat$ r$-hot by contact ) ! mix$ gases4 ,:5 ?is fact became kn[n1 x 0 fur!r appli$ to ! con/ruction ( an in/antane\s light1 9 :i* hydrog5 0 made to play ^u a little ball ( spongy plat9um1 & imm$iately k9dl$4 ,^! ,dob]e9] lamps 7 possess$ by a few ( ! curi\s1 & w\ld no d\bt be ext5sively us$ if ! discov]y ( phosphorus _h n suppli$ a *eap] & m conv5i5t fire-giv+ ag5t4 ,:5 ! spongy plat9um is mix$ ) "s f9e pipeclay1 & made into little pills1 !y may 7aft] be+ slightly w>m$7 be introduc$ into a mixture ( ! two gases1 & w sil5tly effect _! union4 ,! !ory ( ! comb9ation is some:at obscure1 & p]haps ! simple/ "o is t :i* supposes ! plat9um sponge to act z a conductor ( electric influ5ces betwe5 ! two sets ( gase\s p>ticles2 al?\gh1 aga91 x is difficult to reconcile ?is !ory ) ! fact t p[d]$ glass at #ffj1 a bad conductor ( electricity1 %\ld effect ! same object4 ,! result appe>s to be due to "s effects ( surface by :i* ! gases seem to be cond5s$ & br\ght into a condition t enables !m to ab&on _! gase\s /ate & assume t ( wat]4 ,:5 ,sir ,h4 ,davy inv5t$ ! safety-lamp1 he 0 aw>e t1 9 c]ta9 explosive conditions ( ! air 9 coal m9es1 ! flame ( ! lamp 0 ext+ui%$1 & 9 ord] t ! m9] %\ld n be left 9 ! dre>y d>kness & intricacies ( ! gall]ies )\t "s means ( see+ ! way out1 he devis$ an +5i\s arrangem5t ) ?9 plat9um wire1 :i* 0 coil$ r\nd ! flame ( ! lamp1 & fix$ prop]ly1 s t x c\ld n be mov$ f its prop] place by any accid5tal %ak+4 ,:5 ! flame ( ! safety-lamp1 hav+ ! plat9um wire atta*$1 0 accid5tally ext+ui%$ by ! explosive atmosph]e 9 :i* x 0 burn+1 ! plat9um comm5c$ gl[+ ) an int5se heat1 & cont9u$ to emit light z long z x rema9$ 9 ! dang]\s "p ( ! m9e4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy w>n$ ^? :o might use ! plat9um to take c>e t no portion ( ! ?9 wire pass$ outside ! wire gauze1 = ! obvi\s reason t1 if ignit$ outside ! wire gauze protector1 x w\ld inflame ! fire-damp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,p ,p4 ,two plat9um plates connect$ ) wires to ! cups4 ,! wires are pass$ ?r\gh holes 9 ! f+]-glass1 ,b ,b1 & are fix$ p]fectly /eady by p\r+ 9 cem5t compos$ ( res9 & tall[ to ! l9e ,l ,l4 ,two glass tubes fill$ ) wat] acidulat$ ) sulphuric acid1 & plac$ ov] ! plat9um plates 9 f+]-glass1 :i* also conta9s dilute sulphuric acid to improve ! conduct+ p[] ( ! wat]4 ,! wires ( ! batt]y are plac$ 9 ! cups1 & ! arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! curr5t ( electricity4 ,page #abf ,eighte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,wat] is decompos$ by pass+ a curr5t ( voltaic electricity ?r\gh x by means ( two plat9um plates1 :i* may be connect$ ) a t5-cell ,grove's batt]y4 ,! gases are collect$ 9 sep>ate tubes1 & ! exp]im5t (f]s "o ( ! mo/ in/ructive illu/rations ( ! composition ( wat]4 7,fig4 #abe47 ,!re is a curr5t ( electricity pass+ f & betwe5 two plat9um plates decompos+ wat]1 (f]+ ! conv]se ( ! ,dob]e9] exp]im5t1 & highly sugge/ive ( ! probability ( ! !ory already advanc$ 9 explanation ( ! s+ul> comb9ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 9 ! pres5ce ( clean plat9um foil1 & m especially :5 we consid] ! op]ation ( ,grove's gas batt]y1 9 :i* a curr5t ( electricity is produc$ by pieces ( plat9um foil cov]$ ) f9ely-divid$ plat9um1 call$ plat9um black2 ea* piece is conta9$ 9 a sep>ate glass tube fill$ alt]nately ) oxyg5 & hydrog51 & by connect+ a great numb] ( ^! tubes a curr5t ( electricity is obta9$1 :il/ ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 are sl[ly absorb$ & disappe>1 hav+ comb9$ & =m$ wat]1 al?\gh plac$ 9 sep>ate glass tubes4 7,fig4 #abf47 ,! analysis ( wat] is %[n v p]fectly on ! scre5 by fitt+ up "s v small tubes & plat9um wires 9 ! same mann] z %[n 9 fig4 #abe4 ,! vessel 9 :i* ! tubes & wires are conta9$ ) ! dilute sulphuric acid mu/ be small1 & arrang$ s z to pass nicely into ! space usually fill$ by ! picture 9 an ord9>y magic lant]n1 or1 /ill bett]1 9 "o light$ by ! oxy-hydrog5 or lime light4 ,if ! dilute acid is col\r$ ) a little solution ( indigo1 ! gradual displacem5t ( ! fluid by ! production ( ! two gases is v p]fectly develop$ on ! scre5 :5 ! small voltaic batt]y is atta*$ to ! app>atus2 & ( c\rse a l>ge numb] ( p]sons may wat* ! exp]im5t at ! same "t4 ,) respect to ! application ( ! light produc$ f a jet ( ! ,page #abg mix$ gases ?r[n ^u a ball ( lime1 x may be /at$ t = _m ye>s ! dissolv+ view lant]ns & o!r optical effects h be5 produc$ ) ! assi/ance ( ?is light2 & m lately ,major ,fitzmaurice has cond5s$ ! mix$ gases 9 ! old-fa%ion$ oil gas receiv]s1 & project$ !m on a ball ( lime2 & x 0 ?is light ?r[n f _m simil> arrangem5ts t illum9at$ ! ,briti% m5-(-w> :5 ,napoleon ,,iii4 left h] ,maje/y's ya*t at night 9 ! docks at ,*]b\rg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,grove's gas batt]y consi/s ( tubes conta9+ oxyg5 & hydrog5 alt]nately1 & hav+ a ?9 piece ( plat9um foil1 ,p1 ins]t$ by ! bl[pipe 9 ea* glass tube4 ,! foil hangs d[n ! full l5g? ( ! int]ior ( ! glass4 ,ea* pair ( tubes is conta9$ 9 a little glass tumbl] conta9+ "s dilute sulphuric acid1 & ! hydrog5 tube1 ,h1 ( "o pair1 is connect$ ) ! oxyg5 tube1 ,o1 ( ! next4 ,w ,w4 ,! t]m9al wires ( ! s]ies4 ,mr4 ,sykes ,w>d1 ( ,le$s1 has also propos$ a mo/ simple & excell5t application ( ! oxy-hydrog5 light = illum9ation "u ! ,page #abh surface ( wat]1 & = ! conv5i5ce ( div]s1 :o are frequ5tly oblig$ to cease _! op]ations 9 consequ5ce ( ! want ( light4 ,mr4 ,w>d's subm>9e lamp consi/s ( a s]ies ( v /rong copp] tubes1 :i* are fill$ ) ! mix$ gases by means ( a =ce-pump2 & 9 ord] to prev5t ! lamp be+ ext+ui%$1 x burns "u d\ble glass %ades1 :i* are desirable 9 ord] to prev5t ! glass imm$iately next to ! light crack+ by contact ) ! cold wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,*]b\rg4 ,! au?or tri$ ?is lamp at ,ryde1 & al?\gh ! coa/-gu>ds object$ to ! production ( a brilliant light at night1 :i* !y /at$ might be mi/ak5 = a signal & w\ld cause "s confusion among/ ! w> vessels 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood1 en\gh exp]im5ts 7 made1 to %[ t ! ,w>d lamp w\ld burn = a consid]able "t "u wat]1 & c\ld be kept *>g$ ) ! gas by means ( a process t 0 easily workable 9 ! boat4 ,! gases 7 tak5 out mix$ 9 gas bags1 & pump$ into ! res]voir :5 requir$4 ,) a mu* l>g] res]voir great] results c\ld be obta9$2 & if nautilus div+ bells are to be us$ 9 mod]n w>f>e1 !y w require a p[]ful light to %[ !m _! prey1 s t !y may atta* ! explosives :i* are to bl[ great holes 9 ! m5-(-w>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,a ,a4 ,tube res]voir to hold ! mix$ gases4 ,b4 ,! jet & lime ball4 ,d4 ,! fir/ glass %ade1 held d[n by a cap & screw4 ,c4 ,! second glass %ade4 ,e ,e4 ,! h&le by :i* x is l[]$ into ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,subm>9e lamp4 ,page #abi ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,*lor9e1 ,,iod9e1 ,,brom9e1 ,,fluor9e4 ,! f\r ,halog5s1 or ,produc]s ( ,sub/ances l ,sea ,salt4 ,*lor9e 7,greek3 *lros1 gre574 ,symbol1 ,cl4 ,comb9+ proportion1 #ce4e4 ,specific gravity1 #b4dd4 ,s*eele t]m$ x dephlogi/icat$ muriatic acid2 ,lavoisi]1 oxymuriatic acid2 ,davy1 *lor9e4 ,! consid]ation ( ! nature ( ?is important elem5t introduces to our notice "o ( ! mo/ orig9al *emi/s ( ! eighte5? c5tury--viz41 ! illu/ri\s ,s*eele1 :o 0 born at ,/ralsund1 9 #agdb1 & 9 spite ( e ob/acle1 fight+ 8 battle ( life ) sickness & sorr[1 he succe$$ 9 mak+ "s ( ! mo/ valuable discov]ies 9 sci5ce1 & among/ !m t ( *lor9e gas4 ,x 0 9 ! exam9ation ( a m9]al solid--viz41 ( manganese--t ,s*eele made ! acqua9tance ( a new gase\s elem5t2 & 9 a highly orig9al diss]tation on manganese1 9 #aggd1 he describes ! mode ( procur+ :at he t]m$ dephlogi/icat$ muriatic acid--a "n :i* is c]ta9ly to be regrett$1 f its absurd l5g?1 b a title :i* 0 /rictly 9 accordance ) ! !n e/abli%$ !ory ( phlogi/on2 & if ! latt] is consid]$ synonym\s ) hydrog51 q 9 accordance ) our pres5t views ( ! nature ( ?is elem5t4 ,s*eele discov]$ ! lead+ *>act]i/ics ( *lor9e1 & especially its p[] ( blea*+1 :i* is alone suffici5t to place ?is gas 9 a high comm]cial position1 :5 x is consid]$ t all our l95 us$ =m]ly to be s5t to ,holl&1 :]e !y _h acquir$ great dext]ity 9 ! anci5t mode ( blea*+--viz41 by exposure ( ! fabric to atmosph]ic air or ! action ( ! damps or dews1 assi/$ greatly by ! ag5cy ( light4 ,"s idea may be =m$ ( ! pres5t value ( *lor9e1 :5 x is /at$ t ! l95 goods 7 reta9$ by ! ,dut* blea*]s = n9e mon?s2 & if ! spr+ & summ] happ5$ to be fav\rable1 ! op]ation 0 well conduct$2 on ! o!r h&1 if cold & wet1 ! goods might be m or less injur$ by cont9ual exposure to unfav\rable atmosph]ic *anges4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 z mu* blea*+ c be done 9 n9e weeks z might =m]ly h be5 conduct$ 9 ! same numb] ( mon?s2 & ! :ole ( ! process ( *lor9e blea*+ is c>ri$ on indep5d5t ( ext]nal atmosph]ic caprices1 :il/ ! money paid = ! process no long] passes to ,holl&1 b rema9s 9 ! h&s ( our own dilig5t blea*]s & manufactur]s4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,a4 ,flask conta9+ ! fum+ hydro*loric acid1 :i* is g5tly boil$ by ! heat ( ! _s lamp4 ,b4 ,tube pass+ to ! ,wolfe's bottle1 conta9+ pumice-/one or asbe/os moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid4 ,c4 ,second tube pass+ into a dry empty bottle1 :i* receives ! hydro*loric acid gas4 ,z ,s*eele fir/ indicat$1 *lor9e is obta9$ by ! action ( ! black oxide ( manganese1 on ! ,_s ( ,salt1 or hydro*loric acid2 & ! mo/ elem5t>y & in/ructive exp]im5t %[+ its prep>ation c be made 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- ,page #acj ,place 9 a cle> ,flor5ce oil-flask1 to :i* a cork & b5t tube h be5 fir/ fitt$1 "s /rong fum+ hydro*loric acid4 ,arrange ! flask on a r+-/&1 & !n pass ! b5t tube ei!r to a ,wolfe's bottle conta9+ "s pumice-/one moi/5$ ) oil ( vitriol1 or to a glass tube conta9+ ei!r pumice or asbe/os wett$ ) ! same acid4 ,ano!r glass tube1 b5t at "r angles1 passes away f ! ,wolfe's bottle into a receiv+ bottle4 7,fig4 #acj74 ,on ! application ( heat1 ! hydro*loric gas is driv5 (f f its solution 9 wat]1 & any aque\s vap\r c>ri$ up is reta9$ by ! asbe/os or pumice /one wett$ ) oil ( vitriol2 ! application ( ! latt] is call$ dry+ ! gas--i4e41 depriv+ x ( all moi/ure2 sometimes ! salt call$ *loride ( calcium is us$ = ! same purpose1 & x mu/ be und]/ood by ! juv5ile *emi/ t gases are n dri$ l t[els1 by exposure to heat1 or by putt+ !m 9 bladd]s be=e ! fire1 z we once he>d 0 actually recomm5d$1 b by caus+ ! gas *>g$ ) invisible /eam to pass ov] "s sub/ance hav+ a great aff9ity = wat]4 ,! dry hydro*loric gas falls into ! bottle1 & displaces ! air1 be+ ab\t "o-f\r? heavi] ?an ! latt]1 & gradually ov]fl[+ f ! m\? ( ! vessel1 produces a :ite smoke1 :i* is f\nd to be acid by litmus pap]1 b has no p[] to blea*1 & is n gre52 x is1 9 fact1 a comb9ation ( "o comb9+ proportion ( *lor9e ) "o ( hydrog51 & to deta* ! latt]1 & set ! *lor9e free1 x is necess>y to convey ! hydro*loric gas to "s body :i* has an aff9ity = hydrog54 ,su* a sub/ance is provid$ 9 ! use ( ! black oxide ( manganese1 :i* is plac$ ei!r 9 a small flask or 9 a tube provid$ ) two bulbs1 & :5 heat$ ) ! lamp x sep>ates ! hydrog5 f ! hydro*loric gas1 & =ms wat]1 :i* p>tly cond5ses 9 ! second bulb4 ,& n[ ! gas t escapes is no long] acid & fum+ ) a :ite smoke on contact ) ! air2 b is gre51 has a /rong od\r1 blea*es1 & is s p[]ful 9 its action on all liv+ tissues1 t x mu/ be c>efully avoid$ & n inhal$2 if a small quantity is accid5tally inhal$1 x produces a viol5t fit ( c\gh+1 :i* la/s a ,page #aca consid]able "t1 & is only abat$ by inhal+ ! dilut$ vap\r ( ammonia1 or e!r1 or alcohol1 & swall[+ milk & o!r s(t5+ dr9ks4 7,fig4 #aca47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,a4 ,! flask conta9+ ! fum+ hydro*loric acid1 heat$ by _s lamp4 ,b4 ,tube pass+ to ,wolfe's bottle1 conta9+ ! pumice-/one or asbe/os wett$ ) oil ( vitriol4 ,c4 ,second tube1 :i* passes into a wide-m\!d small flask conta9+ black oxide ( manganese1 p>tly 9 p[d] & p>tly 9 lump2 & ! ?ird tube conveys ! *lor9e to any conv5i5t vessel4 ,! d\ble bulb tube1 ,e ,e1 may be sub/itut$ = ! flask1 ! oxide ( manganese be+ conta9$ 9 ! bulb ,m4--,n4,b4 ,any tube may be jo9$ on to ano!r by a bit ( india-rubb] tub+1 :i* is ti$ by /r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,tube ,a is jo9$ to tube ,b by ! ca\t*\c pipe ,c1 ti$ ) pack?read4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,! mode ( prep>+ *lor9e1 z already giv51 ?\gh v in/ructive1 is tr\blesome to p]=m2 a m simple process may !re=e be describ$3-- ,p\r "s /rong hydro*loric acid ^u p[d]$ black oxide ( manganese conta9$ 9 a ,flor5ce oil-flask1 tak+ c>e t ! :ole ( ! black p[d] is wett$ ) ! acid s t none ( x cl+s to ! bottom ( ! flask 9 ! dry /ate to cause ! glass to crack on ! application ( heat4 ,a cork & b5t glass tube is n[ atta*$1 & convey$ to ! pneumatic tr\gh2 on ! application ( heat to ! mixture 9 ! flask ! *lor9e is evolv$1 & may be collect$ 9 /opp]$ bottles1 ! fir/ portion t escapes1 al?\gh x conta9s atmosph]ic air1 %\ld be c>efully collect$ 9 ord] to prev5t any ,page #acb accid5t f inhal+ ! gas1 & x w d v well to illu/rate ! blea*+ p[] ( ! gas1 & !re=e ne$ n be wa/$4 ,! above process may be describ$ 9 symbols1 all ( :i* are easily deciph]$ by ref]5ce to ! table ( elem5ts1 page #hf4 ,mn,o#b #b ,h,cl ,mn,cl #b;,,ho ,cl4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,ano!r & /ill m exp$iti\s mode ( prep>+ a little *lor9e1 is by plac+ a small beak] glass1 conta9+ half an ounce ( *lor9at$ lime1 usually t]m$ *loride ( lime or blea*+ p[d]1 c>efully at ! bottom ( a deep & l>ge beak] glass1 & !n1 by means ( a tube & funnel1 convey+ to ! *loride ( lime "s dilute oil ( vitriol1 compos$ ( half acid & half wat]2 eff]vesc5ce imm$iately occurs f ! escape ( *lor9e gas1 & z x is produc$ x falls ov] ! sides ( ! small beak] glass into ! l>ge "o1 :5 x may be di/+ui%$ by its gre5 col\r4 ,if a little gas be dipp$ out ) a v small beak] glass arrang$ z a bucket1 & p\r$ into a cyl9drical glass conta9+ "s dilute solution ( indigo1 & %ak5 !re)1 ! col\r disappe>s almo/ in/antane\sly2 & if a piece ( ,dut* metal is ?r[n into ! beak] glass x w take fire if en\gh *lor9e has be5 g5]at$1 or "s v f9ely-p[d]$ antimony w demon/rate ! same result4 ,?us1 ) a few beak] glasses1 "s *loride ( lime1 sulphuric acid1 a solution ( indigo1 & a little ,dut* metal1 ! *ief prop]ties ( *lor9e may be display$4 7,fig4 #acb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,a ,a4 ,! l>ge beak] glass4 ,b4 ,! small "o1 conta9+ ! *loride ( lime4 ,c4 ,! tube & funnel d[n :i* ! dilute sulphuric acid is p\r$4 ,d ,d4 ,%eet ( pap] ov] top ( l>ge glass1 ) hole 9 c5tre to admit ! tube4 ,e4 ,! little beak] us$ z a bucket4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,into a little plat9um spoon place a small pellet ( ! metal sodium1 & aft] heat+ x 9 ! flame ( a _s lamp1 introduce ! metal ,page #acc into a bottle ( *lor9e1 :5 a mo/ int5se & brilliant combu/ion occurs1 ?r[+ out a vivid yell[ light1 & ! heat is frequ5tly s great t ! bottle is crack$4 ,aft] ! combu/ion1 & :5 ! bottle is cool1 x is usually l9$ ) a :ite p[d]1 :i* w be f\nd to ta/e exactly ! same z salt1 &1 9 fact1 is t sub/ance1 produc$ by ! comb9ation ( *lor9e1 a virul5t poison1 ) ! metal sodium1 :i* takes fire on contact ) a small quantity ( wat]2 & h5ce ! use ( salt = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e gas :5 x is requir$ on ! l>ge scale4 ,p>ts4 ,common salt #d ,black oxide ( manganese #a ,sulphuric acid #b ,wat] #b ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,"s ,dut* metal1 or p[d]$ antimony1 or a bit ( phosphorus1 imm$iately takes fire :5 introduc$ into a bottle conta9+ *lor9e gas1 =m+ a s]ies ( comp\nds t]m$ *lorides1 & demon/rat+ by ! evolution ( heat & light1 ! en]getic "* ( *lor9e1 & t oxyg5 is n ! only support] ( combu/ion2 *lor9e gas has ev51 9 "s cases1 great] *emical p[]1 because "s "t elapses be=e phosphorus w ignite 9 oxyg5 gas1 :il/ x takes fire directly :5 plac$ 9 a bottle ( *lor9e4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,! weight & blea*+ p[] ( *lor9e are well %[n by plac+ a solution ( indigo 9 a tall cyl9drical glass1 leav+ a space at ! top ( ab\t five in*es 9 dep?4 ,by inv]t+ a bottle ( *lor9e ov] ! m\? ( ! cyl9drical glass1 x p\rs out l wat]1 be+ ab\t two & a half times heavi] ?an atmosph]ic air1 & !n1 aft] plac+ a gr\nd glass plate ov] ! top ( ! glass1 ! *lor9e is recognis$ by its col\r1 :il/ ! blea*+ p[] is demon/rat$ imm$iately ! gas is %ak5 ) ! indigo solution4 ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,z a good contra/ to ! la/ exp]im5t1 ano!r cyl9drical j> ( ! same size may be provid$1 conta9+ a solution ( iodide ( potassium ) "s />*1 obta9$ by boil+ a teaspoonful ( arr[root ) "s wat]2 any *lor9e left 9 ! bottle 7six? exp]im5t7 may be inv]t$ into ! top ( ?is glass & %ak51 :5 x turns a beautiful purple blue 9 consequ5ce ( ! lib]ation ( iod9e by ! *lor9e1 ^: great] aff9ity = ! base produces ?is result4 ,! col\r is caus$ by ! union ( ! iod9e & ! />*1 :i* =m toge!r a beautiful purple comp\nd1 & ?us ! app>5t anomaly ( de/roy+ & produc+ col\r ) ! same ag5t is expla9$4 ,page #acd ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,dry *lor9e does n blea*1 & ?is fact is easily prov$ by tak+ a p]fectly dry bottle1 & putt+ into x two or ?ree ounces ( fus$ *loride ( calcium brok5 9 small lumps1 !n if a bottle full ( *lor9e is inv]t$ ov] ! "o conta9+ ! *loride ( calcium1 tak+ ! precaution to arrange a few folds ( blott+ pap] ) a hole 9 ! c5tre on ! top ( ! latt] to cat* any wat] t may run out ( ! *lor9e bottle at ! mom5t x is inv]t$1 ! gas w be dri$ by contact ) ! *loride ( calcium1 & if a piece ( pap]1 ) ! ^w *lor9e writt5 on x ) indigo1 & previ\sly made hot & dry1 is plac$ 9 ! *lor9e1 no *ange occurs1 b directly ! pap] is remov$1 dipp$ 9 wat]1 & plac$ 9 a bottle ( damp *lor9e1 ! col\r imm$iately disappe>s4 7,fig4 #acc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,a ,a4 ,dry bottle1 conta9+ *loride ( calcium4 ,b4 ,bottle ( *lor9e4 ,! arr[ indicates ! gas4 ,c ,c4 ,! blott+-pap]1 to cat* any wat] f ! bottle1 ,b4 ,d4 ,! bottle clos$1 & conta9+ ! pap]4 ,?is exp]im5t %[s t *lor9e is only ! means to ! end1 & t x decomposes wat]1 sett+ free oxyg51 :i* is suppos$ to ex]t a high blea*+ p[] 9 its nasc5t /ate1 a condition :i* _m gases are imag9$ to assume j be=e !y take ! gase\s /ate1 a sort ( int]m$iate l9k betwe5 ! solid or fluid & ! gase\s condition ( matt]4 ,! nasc5t /ate may possibly be t ( ozone1 to :i* we h already allud$ z a p[]ful blea*+ ag5t4 ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,a piece ( pap] dipp$ 9 oil ( turp5t9e emits a d5se black smoke1 & frequ5tly a fla% ( fire is p]ceptible1 directly x is plung$ into a bottle conta9+ *lor9e gas2 "h ! gas comb9es only ) ! hydrog5 ( ! turp5t9e1 & ! c>bon is deposit$ z soot4 ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,if a light$ tap] is plung$ into a bottle ( *lor9e x cont9ues to burn1 emitt+ an enorm\s quantity ( smoke1 = ! reason already expla9$1 & demon/rat+ ! p]fection ( ! atmosph]e 9 :i* ,page #ace we live & brea!1 & %[+ t _h oxyg5 gas possess$ ! same prop]ties z *lor9e1 ! combu/ion ( comp\nds ( hydrog5 & c>bon w\ld h be5 impossible1 9 consequ5ce ( ! enorm\s quantity ( soot :i* w\ld h be5 produc$1 s t "s o!r elem5t t w\ld freely ent] into comb9ation ) x mu/ h be5 provid$ to produce bo? artificial light & heat4 ,*lor9e is a gas :i* _c be inhal$1 & ozone pres5ts ! same features1 z a m\se conf9$ = a %ort "t ) an excess ( ozone soon di$2 b ozone is ! extraord9>y condition ( oxyg52 ! elem5t 9 ! ord9>y /ate is h>mless1 & is ! "o :i* ent]s s l>gely into ! composition ( ! air we brea!4 ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 "o volume ( olefiant gas 7prep>$ by boil+ "o measure ( alcohol & ?ree ( sulphuric acid7 is mix$ ) two volumes ( *lor9e1 & ! two gases agitat$ toge!r 9 a long glass vessel = a few seconds1 ) a glass plate ov] ! top1 :i* %\ld h a welt gr\nd p]fectly flat1 !y unite on ! application ( flame1 ) ! production ( a great cl\d ( black smoke1 aris+ f ! deposit$ c>bon1 :il/ a sort ( ro>+ noise is he>d dur+ ! "t t ! flame passes f ! top to ! foot ( ! glass4 7,fig4 #acd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,rem>kable deposition ( c>bon dur+ ! combu/ion ( "o volume ( olefiant gas ) two ( *lor9e4 ,twelf? ,exp]im5t4 ,=m]ly ,b&annah h&k]*iefs 7 9 ! highe/ e/imation1 & no g5tleman's toilet 0 ?\ght complete )\t "o4 ,! patt]n 0 ( ! simple/ k9d1 consi/+ only ( :ite spots on a r$ or o!r col\r$ gr\nd4 ,^! spots 7 produc$ 9 a v +5i\s mann] by ,messrs4 ,montei?1 ( ,glasg[1 by press+ toge!r _m lay]s ( silk ) lead5 plates p]=at$ ) holes2 a solution ( *lor9e 0 !n p\r$ ^u ! upp] plate1 & pressure be+ appli$ x p5etrat$ ! :ole mass 9 ! direction ( ! holes1 blea*+ out ! col\r 9 its passage4 ,?is important comm]cial result may be imitat$ on ! small scale by plac+ a piece ( calico dy$ ) ,turkey r$ betwe5 two ?ick pieces ( bo>d1 ea* ( :i* is ,page #acf p]=at$ ) a hole two in*es 9 diamet]1 & correspond+ accurately :5 "o is plac$ ^u ! o!r4 ,! pieces ( bo>d may be squeez$ toge!r 9 any conv5i5t way1 ei!r by weights1 /rong vulcaniz$ india-rubb] b&s or screws1 & :5 a /rong solution ( *lor9e gas or ( *loride ( lime is p\r$ into ! hole & p]colates ?r\gh ! clo?1 ! col\r is remov$1 & ! "p is blea*$ almo/ in/antane\sly by fir/ wett+ ! calico ) a little weak acid1 & !n p\r+ on ! solution ( *loride ( lime4 ,on remov+ & wa%+ ! fold$ r$ calico x is f\nd to be blea*$ 9 all ! places expos$ to ! solution1 & is n[ cov]$ ) :ite spots4 7,fig4 #ace47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,a4 ,circul> hole 9 ! upp] piece ( wood1 a simil> "o be+ p]=at$ 9 ! l[] "o4 ,b ,b4 ,! /rong india-rubb] b&s4 ,! blea*+ solution is p\r$ into ,a4 ,,iod9e4 ,iod9e 7,greek3 ,ids1 violet col\r$74 ,symbol1 ,i2 comb9+ proportion1 #abg4a2 specific gravity1 #d4idh4 ,specific gravity ( iod9e vap\r1 #h4gaf4 ,9 ! previ\s *apt]1 devot$ to ! elem5t *lor9e1 little or no?+ has be5 said ( t inexhau/ible /oreh\se ( *lor9e1 iod9e1 & brom9e--viz41 ! b\ndless ocean4 ,"s "o has rem>k$ t1 z x is possible ! air may conta9 a little ( ev]y?+ capable ( assum+ ! gase\s =m1 s ! ocean may hold 9 a /ate ( solution a modicum ( e soluble sub/ance1 9 pro( ( :i* we h lately read ( "s v important exp]im5ts result+ 9 ! sep>ation ( ! metal silv] f sea wat]1 n c]ta9ly 9 any pr(itable quantity1 b q en\gh to prove its pres5ce 9 ! ocean4 ,no elaborate rese>* is necess>y to asc]ta9 ! pres5ce ( *lor9e1 :5 x is rememb]$ t ,s*afhutl has calculat$1 t all ! oceans on ! globe conta9 ?ree millions fifty-"o ?\s& ?ree hundr$ & =ty-two cubic geographical miles ( salt1 or ab\t five times m ?an ! mass ( ! ,alps4 ,n[1 salt conta9s ab\t #fj p] c5t4 ( *lor9e gas1 & !re=e ! blea*]s c nev] /& /ill = want ( x2 b iod9e is n s pl5tiful1 & 0 discov]$ by ,m4 ,c\rtois1 ( ,p>is1 9 kelp1 a sub/ance f :i* he prep>$ c>bonate ( soda1 or wa%+ soda2 b z ?is is n[ m *eaply prep>$ f common salt1 ! kelp is at pres5t requir$ only = ! iod9e salts x conta9s1 z also = ! *loride ( potassium4 ,kelp is obta9$ by burn+ dri$ sea-we$s 9 a ,page #acg %all[ pit2 ! a%es accumulate & melt toge!r1 & ?is fus$ mass brok5 into lumps =ms kelp4 ,! ocean b$ no d\bt has its f]tile & b>r5 pla9s & m\nta9s1 & among/ ! s-call$ oceanic mead[s are to be m5tion$ ! two imm5se gr\ps & b&s ( sea-we$ call$ ! ,s>gasso ,sea1 :i* occupy altoge!r a space exce$+ six or sev5 times ! area ( ,g]many4 ,! iod9e is conta9$ 9 ! l>ge/ proportion 9 ! deep sea plants1 su* z ! long ela/ic /ems ( ! fucus palmatus1 c4 ,! kelp is lixiviat$ ) wat]1 & aft] sep>at+ all ! cry/allizable salts1 !re rema9s beh9d a d5se oily-look+ fluid1 call$ iod9e ley1 to :i* sulphuric acid is add$1 & aft] /&+ a day or two ! acid ley is plac$ 9 a l>ge lead5 retort1 & heat$ g5tly ) black oxide ( manganese4 ,! *lor9e be+ produc$ v sl[ly1 lib]ates ! iod9e1 z already demon/rat$ 9 exp]im5t sev51 p4 #acc1 & x is collect$ 9 glass receiv]s4 ,iod9e1 :5 q pure & well cry/alliz$1 has a mo/ beautiful metallic lu/re1 & pres5ts a blui%-black col\r1 af=d+ an od\r :i* rem9ds "o at once ( ! sea smell4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,a few gra9s ( iod9e plac$ 9 a flask may be sublim$ at a v g5tle heat1 & af=d a magnific5t violet vap\r1 :i* c be p\r$ out ( ! flask into a w>m bottle4 ,if ! bottle is cold ! iod9e cond5ses 9 m9ute & brilliant cry/als4 7,fig4 #acf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,a4 ,flask conta9+ iod9e heat$ by _s lamp4 ,b4 ,cold flask above to receive ! vap\r4 ,c ,c4 ,%eet ( c>dbo>d to cut (f ! heat f ! _s lamp4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,^u a ?9 slice ( phosphorus place a few small p>ticles ( iod9e2 ! heat produc$ by ! comb9ation ( ! two elem5ts soon causes ! phosphorus to take fire4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,heat a brick1 & !n ?r[ ^u x a few gra9s ( iod9e2 by hold+ a %eet ( :ite pap] beh9d1 ! spl5did violet col\r ( ! vap\r is se5 to great advantage4 ,x 0 by ! discov]y ( iod9e 9 ! a%es ( sponge--:i* _h long be5 us$ z a rem$y = goitre1 a rem>kable gl&ul> swell+--t ?is elem5t began to be us$ = m$ical purposes1 & ! important salt call$ iodide ( potassium is n[ us$ 9 l>ge quantities1 n only 9 m$ic9e1 b likewise = t mo/ fasc9at+ art1 :i* has made its way /eadily1 & is n[ practis$ s ext5sively1 "u ! "n ( photography4 ,page #ach ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,photography4 ,x 0 ! great ,george ,/eph5son :o ask$ ! late ,dean ,buckl& ! pos+ "q1 ,c y tell me :at is ! p[] t is driv+ t tra98 allud+ to a tra9 :i* happ5$ to be pass+ at ! mom5t4 ,! le>n$ dean answ]$1 ,i suppose x is "o ( y\r big eng9es4 ,b :at drives ! eng9e8 ,oh1 v likely a canny ,newca/le driv]4 ,:at d y say to ! light ( ! sun8 ,h[ c t be8 ask$ ,buckl&4 ,x is no?+ else1 said ,/eph5son4 ,x is light bottl$ up 9 ! e>? = t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s2 light1 absorb$ by plants & vegetables1 be+ necess>y = ! cond5sation ( c>bon dur+ ! process ( _! gr[?1 if x be n c>bon 9 ano!r =m2 & n[1 aft] be+ buri$ 9 ! e>? = long ages 9 fields ( coal1 t lat5t light is aga9 br\ght =? & lib]at$1 made to "w--z 9 t locomotive--= great human purposes4 ,su* 0 ! op9ion ( ! mo/ orig9al & practical man t ev] reason$ on philosophy2 & c\ld he h liv$ to realize ! ?or\gh adaptation & bus9ess use ( light 9 ! art ( photography1 he w\ld h said1 man is only imitat+ nature1 & 9 produc+ photographs he mu/ employ ! same ag5t :i* 9 ages pa/ assi/$ to produce ! coal4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ?is elem5t>y "w we %all h to consid] ! nature ( light2 "h1 h[ev]1 ! *emical "p only ( ! process ( photography w be discuss$4 ,_m ye>s ago 79 ! ye> #aggg7 ,j5ny ,l9d's mo/ le>n$ c\ntryman1 ,s*eele1 discov]$ t a sub/ance t]m$ *loride ( silv]1 obta9$ by precipitat+ a solution ( *loride ( silv] ) "o ( salt1 black5$ mu* soon] 9 ! violet rays ?an 9 any o!r "p ( ! spectrum4 ,he says1 ,fix a glass prism at ! w9d[1 & let ! refract$ sunbeams fall on ! floor2 9 ?is col\r$ light put a pap] /rew$ ) luna cornua 7horn silv] or *loride ( silv]71 & y w obs]ve t ?is horn silv] gr[s soon] black 9 ! violet ray ?an 9 any ( ! o!r rays4 ,9 #aggi1 ,prie/ley direct$ especial att5tion to ! action ( light on plants2 & ! fam\s ,saussure1 foll[+ up ^! & o!r exp]im5ts1 det]m9$ t ! c>bonic acid ( plants 0 m g5]ally decompos$ into c>bon & oxyg5 9 ! blue rays ( ! spectrum2 ^! facts probably sugge/$ ! bold !ory ( ,/eph5son already allud$ to4 ,pass+ by ! int]m$iate /eps ( photography1 we come to ! second ye> ( ! pres5t c5tury1 & f9d 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,in/itution a pap] by ,w$gwood1 entitl$ ,an ,acc\nt ( a ,me?od ( ,copy+ ,pa9t+s ^u ,glass1 & ( mak+ ,pr(iles1 by ! ,ag5cy ( ,light ^u ,nitrate ( ,silv]2 ) obs]vations1 by ,h4 ,davy4 ,su* a pap] w\ld lead ! read] to suppose t v little rema9$ to be effect$1 & t m]e details w\ld quickly e/abli% ! art2 b 9 ?is case ! exp]im5tali/s 7 doom$ to ,page #aci disappo9tm5t1 z1 aft] produc+ _! photographs1 !y c\ld n make !m p]man5t2 !y _h n yet discov]$ ! means ( fix+ ! pictures4 ,ne>ly f\rte5 ye>s elaps$1 :5 ! subject 0 aga9 tak5 up by ,nipc1 ( ,*alons1 ) little success1 s f> z ! fix+ 0 conc]n$2 & tw5ty-sev5 ye>s _h pass$ away s9ce ! exp]im5ts ( ,w$gwood & ,davy1 :51 9 #ahbi1 ,nipc & ,dagu]re execut$ a de$ ( co-p>tn]%ip = mutually inve/igat+ ! matt]4 ,^! names w\ld sugge/ a rapid progress2 b1 /range to relate1 t5 ye>s aga9 roll$ away1 ! fa!r ,nipc _h 9 ! meantime di$1 & a new contract 0 made betwe5 ! son & ,m4 ,dagu]re1 :51 9 ,janu>y1 #ahci1 ! fam\s discov]y 0 made kn[n to ! _w1 & 9 ,july ( ! same ye> ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t grant$ a p5sion = life ( six ?\s& francs to ,dagu]re1 & f\r ?\s& to ! son ( ,nipc1 :o _h s wor?ily cont9u$ ! exp]im5ts comm5c$ by 8 fa!r4 ,! triumph ( ! indu/ri\s ,fr5* exp]im5tali/s 0 n1 h[ev]1 to be unique2 across ! ,*annel ano!r pati5t & labori\s philosoph] _h complet$ on pap] precisely ! same k9d ( results z ^? obta9$ by ,dagu]re on silv] plates4 ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot1 9 ,engl&1 _h immortaliz$ himself by a discov]y :i* 0 at once call$ ! ,talbotype1 & = :i* a pat5t 0 secur$ 9 #ahda4 ,hav+ ?us ha/ily sket*$ a brief hi/ory ( ! art1 we may n[ proce$ to ! details ( ! process4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,a photog5ic draw+1 s call$1 b n[ t]m$ a positive copy1 is prep>$ by plac+ "s c>efully select$ pap]1 :i* is free f spots or inequalities 7good pap] is n[ made by sev]al ,engli% manufactur]s1 al?\gh "s k9ds ( ,fr5* pap]1 su* z ,cansan's1 are 9 high repute71 9 a squ>e :ite h>d porcela9 di% conta9+ a solution ( common salt 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #aji gra9s ( salt to ! p9t4 ,! pap] is /eep$ 9 ?is solution = t5 m9utes1 & !n tak5 out & press$ 9 a clean wood5 press1 or x %\ld be dabb$ dry on a clean flat surface ) a clean piece ( :ite calico1 :i* may be kept specially = ?is duty & n us$ = any?+ else1 & x is well t all w\ld-be photograph]s %\ld und]/& t neatness & cleanl9ess are p]fectly indisp5sable 9 conduct+ ^! processes4 ,if a design 7 requir$ = ! armorial be>+s ( ! art ( photography1 x might c]ta9ly be mo/ fanciful1 b ! motto mu/ be cleanl9ess & neatness1 & 9 prep>+ pap] x %\ld n be unnecess>ily h&l$1 b lift$ by ! corn]s only4 ,! object ( dabb+ ! pap] is to prev5t ! salt accumulat+ 9 l>ge quantities 9 "o "p ( ! pap] & ! rev]se 9 ano!r1 & to di/ribute ! salt equally ?r\gh ! :ole4 ,! pap] be+ n[ dri$1 is call$ salt$ pap]1 & is r5d]$ s5sitive :5 requir$ by lay+ x d[n on a solution ( ammonio-nitrate ( silv]1 prep>$ by add+ ammonia to a solution conta9+ sixty gra9s ( nitrate ( silv] to ! ounce ( di/ill$ wat]1 until ! :ole ( ! oxide ( silv] is re-dissolv$1 except ,page #adj a v small portion4 ,a few drops ( nitric acid are also recomm5d$ to be add$1 & aft] all[+ ! solution to /&1 x may be p\r$ (f q cle>1 & is ready = use ei!r 9 ! ba?1 or if economy mu/ be rigidly adh]$ to1 ! salt$ pap] may be laid flat on a bo>d1 & held 9 its place ) f\r p9s at ! corn]s1 & !n j en\gh to wet ! surface ( ! pap] may be run along ! side ( a glass spread]1 & ! liquid g5tly drawn ov] ! surface ( ! salt$ pap]1 :i* is all[$ to dry on a flat surface = a few m9utes1 & aft]w>ds hung up by "o corn] to a piece ( tape /ret*$ across ! room1 until q dry1 & !n plac$ 9 a blott+-book fitt+ into a case :i* completely excludes ! light4 ,copy+-pap] %\ld be made at night1 z ! day is !n free = all photographic op]ations requir+ an abundance ( light4 ,x w n keep long1 & %\ld be us$ ! next day4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,a4 ,! glass spread] ) cork h&le4 ,b4 ,! silv] solution cl++ to rod & pap] by capill>y attraction4 ,c ,c ,c ,c4 ,f\r p9s hold+ d[n ! pap] on a bo>d4--,n4,b4 ,! spread] is made ( glass rod ?ree-eigh?s ?ick4 ,a piece ( lace1 a skeleton leaf1 a %>p engrav+ on ?9 pap]1 & above all ?+s1 a negative photograph on glass or pap]1 is easily copi$ by plac+ ! prep>$ pap] ) ! prep>$ side 7c>efully protect$ f ! light7 upw>ds on any flat surface1 su* z plate glass2 ^u ?is is arrang$ ! bit ( lace or ! negative photograph ) ! face or picture d[nw>ds1 ano!r bit ( plate glass is !n plac$ ov] x1 & weights arrang$ at ! corn]s2 aft] exposure to ! sun's rays = ?irty m9utes1 m or less 7accord+ to ! dullness or bright aspect ( ! day71 ! picture is br\ght into a d>k room & exam9$ by ! light ( a c&le or by ! light f a w9d[ cov]$ ) yell[ calico1 & aft] plac+ a pap] weight on "o corn] ( ! lace1 or ,page #ada negative picture1 or copy+ pap]1 x may be c>efully lift$ 9 "o "p1 & if ! copy is suffici5tly d>k1 is ready = fix+1 b if x is fa9t ! lift$ corn] is c>efully replac$1 ! upp] glass is laid on1 & ! picture aga9 expos$ to ! light4 ,%\ld ! position ( ! lace or negative be *ang$ dur+ ! exam9ation1 re-exposure is useless1 & w\ld only produce a d\ble & confus$ picture1 z x w\ld be impossible to lay ! lace or ! negative exactly 9 ! same place aga9 on ! copy+ pap]4 ,! manipulations j describ$ are mu* facilitat$ by us+ a copy+-frame or press1 :i* consi/s ( a squ>e wood5 frame ) a ?ick plate-glass w9d[2 ^u ?is are plac$ ! negative picture & ! copy+ pap]1 & ! two are br\ght 9 close contact by means ( a bo>d at ! back press$ by a h&-screw4 7,fig4 #ach47 ,aft] ! photog5ic draw+ or positive copy is tak51 x is fix$ by be+ plac$ 9 a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 consi/+ ( "o fluid ounce ( saturat$ solution to eight ( wat]4 ,! saturat$ solution ( hyposulphite ( soda is conv5i5tly kept 9 a l>ge bottle = use1 & 9 ord] to improve ! col\r a v little *loride ( gold is add$ to ! fix+ solution1 ! picture mu/ n[ be ?or\ghly wa%$1 dri$1 & press$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,! back ( ! copy+-frame1 %[+ ! h&-screw & pressure-bo>d4 ,! plate glass inside is set 9 ! base ( ! frame1 & is ( c\rse ! "p expos$ to ! light4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,ano!r mode ( prep>+ ! copy+ pap]1 call$ album5 pap]1 is to take ! :ites ( f\r eggs1 & f\r ounces ( di/ill$ wat] conta9+ "o hundr$ & sixty gra9s ( *loride ( ammonium2 ^! are beat5 up ) a =k or a bundle ( fea!rs1 & z ! fro? is produc$ x is skimm$ (f by a silv] spoon into ano!r bas91 or a beak] glass1 & be+ all[$ to settle = twelve h\rs x is /ra9$ ?r\gh f9e musl91 & is ready = use4 ,! be/ pap] is float$ on ! surface ( ?is liquid = ?ree m9utes1 tak5 out1 & dri$ at once on a hot plate4 ,9 float+ pap] "o corn] is fir/ laid d[n1 & c>e tak5 n to enclose any air bubbles1 :i* w\ld prev5t ! fluid wett+ ! pap]1 :il/ ! rema9d] ( ! pap] is sl[ly laid ^u ! surface ( ! fluid4 ,! album5 pap] is excit$ by lay+ x = five m9utes on a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 sev5ty-two gra9s to ! ounce ( wat]1 ,page #adb & :5 dry x w keep = ?ree days4 ,?is copy+ pap] is us$ 9 ! same mann] z ! la/1 & fre% eggs only mu/ be us$ 9 its prep>ation1 because /ale ones soon cause ! copy to *ange & black5 all ov] f ! lib]ation ( sulphur1 :i* unites ) ! silv]4 ,! col\r ( ! copy is sometimes improv$ by a solution ( hot pota%1 & by dipp+ ! well-wa%$ picture1 aft] ! use ( ! hyposulphite ( soda1 9 a v dilute solution ( hydrosulphuret ( ammonia4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,9 ! ,dagu]reotype process1 a silv] plate1 aft] be+ ?or\ghly clean$ & poli%$1 is expos$ to ! vap\r ( iod9e1 & is ?us r5d]$ s s5sitive t x may be at once expos$ 9 ! cam]a4 ,9 ! ,talbotype process1 ! same pr9ciple is app>5t1 & pap] is prep>$ by fir/ cov]+ its surface ) iodide ( silv]1 :i* is aft]w>ds r5d]$ s5sitive to ! action ( light by means ( an excess ( nitrate ( silv]1 z foll[s3-- ,"o side ( a %eet ( select$ ,cansan's pap] is fir/ cov]$ 7by means ( a spread]7 ) a solution ( nitrate ( silv] 7?irty gra9s to ! ounce ( wat]71 hung up 9 a d>k room & dri$2 x is !n imm]s$ 9 a solution ( iodide ( potassium ( five hundr$ gra9s to a p9t ( di/ill$ wat]1 = five or t5 m9utes1 & imm$iately *anges to a yell[ col\r 9 consequ5ce ( ! precipitation ( ! yell[ iodide ( silv]2 x is !n well wa%$ ) pl5ty ( wat]1 & be+ dri$1 may be kept = any l5g? ( "t1 & is call$ iodiz$ pap]4 ,light has no action :atev] ^u x4 ,to r5d] ! pap] s5sitive1 ?ree solutions are prep>$ 9 sep>ate bottles1 & m>k$ #a1 #b1 #c4 ,no4 #a1 conta9s a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 fifty gra9s to ! ounce ( wat]4 ,no4 #b1 glacial acetic acid4 ,no4 #c1 a saturat$ solution ( gallic acid4 ,) respect to ,no4 #c1 ,mr4 ,william ,crookes has %[n1 t :5 a saturat$ solution ( gallic acid is requir$ 9 l>ge quantities1 t x is bett] to dissolve at once two ounces ( gallic acid 9 six ounces ( alcohol 7#fj ov] pro(72 to ha/5 solution1 ! flask may be conv5i5tly heat$ by imm]sion 9 hot wat]2 :5 cold x %\ld be filt]$1 mix$ ) half a dra*m ( glacial acetic acid1 & pres]v$ 9 a /opp]$ bottle = use2 s prep>$ x w keep unalt]$ = a consid]able l5g? ( "t4 ,! gallic acid is n precipitat$ f ?is solution by ! addition ( wat]2 consequ5tly1 if 9 any case desirable1 ! developm5t ( a picture may be effect$ ) a mu* /rong] ba? ?an ! "o usually employ$4 ,to obta9 a solution ( ab\t ! same /r5g? z a saturat$ aque\s solution1 su* z ,no4 #c1 half a dra*m ( ! alcoholic solution is mix$ ) two ounces ( wat]2 b = my p>ticul> purpose1 says ,mr4 ,crookes1 ref]r+ to ! wax-pap] process1 ,i pref] a weak] ba?1 :i* is prep>$ by mix+ half a dra*m ) t5 ounces ( wat]4 ,9 ei!r case x ,page #adc w be f\nd necess>y to add solution ( nitrate ( silv] 9 small quantities1 z ! develop+ picture seems to require x4 ,return+ aga9 to ! solutions m>k$ #a1 #b1 #c1 ! numb]s w assi/ ! memory 9 mix+ ! proportions ( ea*4 ,if ! pap] is requir$ to be us$ at once1 a dra*m ( ea* may be mix$ toge!r & spread ov] ! iodiz$ pap] 7( c\rse1 9 a d>k room71 :i* is !n transf]r$ to a clean blott+-book ( :ite bibul\s pap]1 & be+ plac$ 9 ! pap]-hold] may be tak5 to ! cam]a & expos$ at once4 ,if ! pap] is n requir$ to be us$ imm$iately1 ! solutions are mix$ 9 ! proportions ( ! numb]s--viz41 "o ( ,no4 #a1 two ( ,no4 #b1 ?ree ( ,no4 #c2 & 9 mak+ ! mixture1 x is advisable to keep a measure specially = ,no4 #c1 ! gallic acid1 or else ! measure1 if us$ = ! ?ree solutions1 w h to be wa%$ out e "t1 :i* is v tr\blesome1 p>ticul>ly :]e wat] is n pl5tiful4 ,if ! excit$ pap] is requir$ to be kept "s h\rs be=e use1 ,no4 #c mu/ be add$ 9 /ill l>g] proportion1 z mu* z t5 or ev5 tw5ty measures ( ,no4 #c to two ( ,no4 #b1 & "o ( ,no4 #a1 be+ us$1 & ev5 ?is l>ge dilution is frequ5tly insuffici5t to prev5t ! pap] spoil+ 9 hot wea!r2 !re=e if ! temp]ature is high1 too mu* reliance mu/ n be plac$ on ?is pap]1 z x is peculi>ly disappo9t+1 aft] walk+ "s miles to romantic & beautiful sc5]y1 to f9d1 :5 develop+ ! pictures 9 ! ev5+1 t ! pap] us$ 0 all spoilt be=e exposure2 & x w be se5 pres5tly t :5 ! excit$ pap] is to be c>ri$ ab\t = use1 x is bett] to adopt ! wax-pap] process4 ,aft] ! excit$ iodiz$ pap] is expos$ 9 ! cam]a--& ! "t ( exposure _c be taught1 z t speciality is only acquir$ by exp]i5ce1 & may v>y f five to ?irty m9utes1 or ev5 m--! invisible picture is develop$ & r5d]$ visible1 n by exposure to ! vap\r ( m]cury1 z 9 ,dagu]re's process ) silv] plates1 b by a mixture ( "o ( ,no4 #a ) f\r ( ,no4 #c4 ,! developm5t is c>efully wat*$ by look+ ?r\gh ! negative plac$ be=e a light$ c&le1 & ! "t ( developm5t may v>y f t5 to ?irty m9utes1 & all ! "t ! picture mu/ be kept wet ) ! solution1 s t x is bett] p]haps to make a ba? ( ! solution & lay ! picture on its surface ?an to p\r ! liquid ov] ! picture4 ,aft] ! developm5t is matur$1 ! picture is n[ wa%$ 9 clean wat]1 & fix$ tempor>ily1 if requir$1 by imm]sion 9 a ba? conta9+ #bjj gra9s ( bromide ( potassium 9 "o p9t ( wat]1 or p]man5tly by ! hyposulphite ( soda1 made by mix+ "o "p ( a saturat$ solution ) five or t5 ( wat]1 or "o ounce ( ! salt to six or twelve ( wat]2 b1 z be=e m5tion$1 x is bett] to keep a ,w9*e/] qu>t full ( a saturat$ solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 & !n x is always ready = use in/ead ( employ+ ! weights & scales1 & cont9ually weigh+ out portions ( ! salt4 ,! picture aft] fix+ is ?or\ghly wa%$ ) wat]1 & be+ ,page #add dri$ is n[ plac$ betwe5 ! folds ( a wax book--i4e41 "s leaves ( blott+-pap] are kept saturat$ ) :ite wax1 & :5 a picture is plac$ betwe5 !m1 & a hot iron pass$ ov] ! outside %eet1 ! wax ent]s ! pores ( ! pap]1 & aft] remov+ any excess ( wax by pass+ ! picture ?r\gh a book ( bibul\s pap]1 ov] :i* ! hot flat iron is pass$1 ! negative picture at la/ is ready = use1 & any numb] ( positive copies may be tak5 f x1 z already describ$ 9 ! fir/ exp]im5t1 page #aci4 ,?is mode ( manipulation is call$ ! ,talbotype1 & be=e dismiss+ ! subject ano!r process ( iodiz+ ! pap] may be expla9$4 ,to a solution ( nitrate ( silv] ( tw5ty1 ?irty1 or fifty gra9s to ! ounce ( wat]1 a suffici5t numb] ( ! cry/als ( iodide ( potassium is add$1 fir/ to produce ! yell[ iodide ( silv]1 & !n to dissolve x1 s t ! yell[ precipitate appe>s ) a small quantity1 & disappe>s ) an excess ( ! iodide4 ,if ?is solution is spread ov] %eets ( pap]1 & ^! latt] !n plac$ 9 a ba? ( wat]1 ! iodide ( silv] is precipitat$ on ! surface1 & aft] pl5ty ( wa%+ to remove ! excess ( iodide ( potassium1 ! pap] may be dri$1 & w keep = any l5g? ( "t )\t *ange4 ,?is pap] may be excit$1 expos$1 develop$1 fix$1 & wax$1 z already expla9$4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,! ,wax-pap] ,process4 ,?is mode ( tak+ negative photographs beg9s :]e ! talbotype ends--viz41 by fir/ wax+ ! pap] p]fectly & ev5ly1 z already expla9$1 ,cansan's negative pap] be+ pref]r$4 ,! wax pap] is n[ well soak$ 9 a ba?1 made by dissolv+ "o hundr$ gra9s ( iodide ( potassium1 six gra9s ( cyanide ( potassium1 f\r gra9s ( fluoride ( potassium1 t5 gra9s ( bromide ( potassium1 t5 gra9s ( *loride ( sodium1 9 "o p9t ( fre% :ey1 ) ! addition ( a little alcohol & a few gra9s ( iod9e4 ,:5 soak$ 9 ?is solution = ab\t "o h\r1 ! pap] is tak5 out & hung up to dry4 ,n4,b4 ,) respect to iodiz+ ! wax pap]1 x is almo/ bett] to obta9 x ready prep>$1 & !n e %eet may be reli$ on4 ,mr4 ,melhui%1 ( ,blackhea? & ,holborn1 supplies x 9 any quantity1 & 8 pap] nev] fails2 ! op]ator has !n only to p]=m ! s5sitiz+ & develop+ processes4 ,to r5d] ! iodiz$ pap] s5sitive x is imm]s$ = ab\t six m9utes 9 a ba? conta9+ a solution ( nitrate ( silv] 7?irty-five gra9s to ! ounce ( wat]1 ) =ty drops ( glacial acetic acid72 ! pap] is n[ remov$1 & wa%$ 9 two trays ( common cle> ra9-wat] or di/ill$ wat]1 & is !n dri$ (f betwe5 folds ( blott+-pap]4 ,?is process may be p]=m$ on ! previ\s ev5+ by ! light ( a c&le1 or by day 9 a room lit by "o w9d[ cov]$ ) f\r ?icknesses ( yell[ calico1 & aft] ! pap] is dry x w keep = ?ree ,page #ade weeks or a mon?1 & may be expos$ 9 a cam]a ) a ?ree-in* l5s ( eighte5-in* focus1 ) ! in* diaphragm1 on a bright day f five to fifte5 m9utes2 9 bad wea!r ! exposure mu/ be long]4 ,! picture may be c>ri$ home & r5d]$ visible or develop$ by imm]sion 9 a ba? conta9+ a saturat$ solution ( gallic acid1 & z ! develop+ cont9ues1 a few drops ( ! s5sitiz+ solution ( nitrate ( silv] & glacial acetic acid may be add$4 ,f9ally1 ! picture is fix$ by imm]sion = a qu>t] ( an h\r 9 a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda 7f\r ounces ( ! cry/al to "o p9t ( wat]1 or "o "p ( ! saturat$ solution to eight ( wat]71 & be+ well wa%$1 is !n dri$1 hung be=e ! fire to melt ! wax1 & is n[ ready to pr9t f4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,album5 on ,glass ,process4 ,album5 is ! sci5tific "n = ! :ite ( egg1 ( :i* f\r ounces by measure are mix$ ) "o ounce & a half ( di/ill$ wat]1 & aft] be+ :isk$ to a fro?1 are remov$ by a spoon into ano!r bas9 or a beak] glass1 & all[$ to /& = sev]al h\rs & !n filt]$4 ,mr4 ,crookes has recomm5d$ a v +5i\s1 simple1 & useful filt]4 7,fig4 #aci47 ,he says3 ,?is simple & inexp5sive piece ( app>atus1 :i* any in/rum5t mak] or glass-bl[] c supply at a few h\rs' notice1 w be f\nd invaluable 9 almo/ e photographic process on glass4 ,! sponge has ?is great advantage ov] all o!r k9ds ( filt]s1 t ?ick gelat9\s liquids--e4g41 honey1 album51 gelat9e1 meta-gelat9e1 or ! v>i\s pres]vative syrups--fl[ ?r\gh x ) ! utmo/ read9ess2 :il/ at ! same "t du/1 air bubbles1 or fro?1 & dri$ p>ticles float+ 9 ! liquid1 are effectually kept back1 & if fitt$ ) /opp]s1 collodion might be filt]$ 9 x2 or if ! ends 7 fitt$ toge!r ) a bit ( flexible pipe1 ! /opp]s might be disp5s$ ) altoge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,a ,b4 ,glass tube1 b5t z 9 picture4 ,c4 ,piece ( damp sponge squeez$ into ! head ( ! tube4 ,any liquid p\r$ 9 at ,b w fl[ ?r\gh ! sponge until x has atta9$ ! same level 9 ,a4 ,hav+ p\r$ ! album5 on a p]fectly clean glass plate1 tak+ c>e to h suffici5t to run freely ov] ! surface ( ! glass1 ! excess is !n g5tly dra9$ (f & ! plate turn$ s z to h ! coat$ side d[nw>ds2 x is !n fix$ 9 a sl+ made by tak+ a /\t bit ( /r+ ab\t ?ree feet long1 :i* is d\bl$ & knott$ at ! fold1 leav+ ! two ends free2 two small triangles or /irrups ( silv] wire loop$ at "o corn] are n[ ti$ on to ! ends ( ! /r+1 & ^! =m a support = ! opposite edges ( ! glass plate to re/ on2 ! two /r+s are knott$ toge!r at a ,page #adf conv5i5t di/ance f ! /irrups to prev5t ! glass slipp+ out1 & ! plate is n[ rotat$ rapidly ov] a heat$ metallic surface1 su* z an iron box conta9+ "s burn+ *>coal or ! w>m+ pan1 c>e be+ tak5 to avoid du/ z mu* z possible1 & to use only ! :ites ( new-laid eggs4 7,fig4 #adj47 ,! glass plate1 cov]$ ) dry album51 is n[ iodiz$ to a /raw col\r by exposure ov] a box conta9+ iod9e1 z 9 ! ,dagu]reotype process1 & is s5sitiz$ by imm]sion = ?ree or f\r m9utes 9 a ba? conta9+ a solution ( nitrate ( silv] 7tw5ty-five gra9s to an ounce ( wat]72 ! plate is aft]w>ds wa%$ 9 di/ill$ wat] & left to dry spontane\sly1 ( c\rse 9 a d>k5$ room4 ,! plates may !n be plac$ ready = use 9 a v +5i\s t9 box devis$ by ,mr4 ,crookes1 :i* keeps !m p]fectly light-tight ev5 9 ! sun1 & at ! same "t is less bulky ?an ! ord9>y wood5 ones4 ,x is made ( t9 plate1 ! cov] slid+ tight ov] ! top1 & m ?an half way d[n ! sides2 light is fur!r exclud$ by means ( an out] jacket ( t91 :i* is sold]$ to ! box a little bel[ ! c5tre4 ,! cov] ?us slides betwe5 ! case & ! jacket1 & r5d]s injury to ! plates by ! entrance ( light an impossibility4 7,fig4 #ada47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,a4 ,loop = f+]4 ,b4 ,! knot :i* prev5ts ! /irrups ( silv] wire1 ,c ,c1 slipp+ (f ! corn]s ( ! glass plate4 ,d ,d4 ,! opposite corn]s ( ! glass plate on :i* ! /irrups are plac$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,a ,a4 ,t9 box1 ) p>titions to hold glass plates1 ,b ,b4 ,! out] jacket1 betwe5 :i* & ! box1 ,a1 ! lid or cov]1 ,c1 slides4 ,! s5sitive album5iz$ glass plate is expos$ 9 ! cam]a f fifte5 to ?irty m9utes1 & develop$ 7mu* 9 ! same way z ! pap] pictures7 ) "o ounce ( a saturat$ ,page #adg solution ( gallic acid conta9+ t5 or fifte5 drops ( ! s5sitiz+ solution4 ,! plate is usually plac$ on a levell+ /&1 & ! solution p\r$ on ! glass plate2 ! developm5t is sl[1 & may be quick5$ sometimes by ! application ( heat4 ,! picture is fix$ by imm]sion = a %ort "t 9 a ba? conta9+ "o "p ( a saturat$ solution ( hyposulphite ( soda 9 eight ( wat]4 ,! pictures produc$ by ?is process are exquisitely def9$1 provid$ always ! cam]a is well focuss$1 & to assi/ ?is op]ation a magnify+ glass may be employ$4 ,aft] removal f ! hyposulphite ( soda ! plate is well wa%$ ) wat]1 & be+ all[$ to dry spontane\sly1 is n[ ready to pr9t f4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,! ,collodion on ,glass ,process4 ,! glass plates = ?is1 z well z ! album5 on glass process1 %\ld be clean$ by rubb+ !m ov] fir/ ) a mixture ( ,tripoli p[d] & ammonia1 :i* is wa%$ (f "u a tap1 & ! glass be+ dra9$ is rubb$ dry & poli%$ ) a clean calico du/] kept exclusively = ?is purpose4 ,! iodiz$ collodion is n[ p\r$ on1 & ! excess return$ to ! bottle4 ,collodion c be made v easily1 b if prep>$ )\t due precautions1 x _c be us$ aft]w>ds1 & rem9ds "o ( ! old /ory ( ! en?usia/ic son1 :o1 :5 ask+ 8 fa!r's p]mission to esp\se ! belov$1 enum]at$ among/ h] o!r accompli%m5ts1 ! fact t %e c\ld make a pudd+1 & 0 answ]$ by ! bluff "q1 ,b c y eat x aft]w>ds8 ,s x is ) collodion3 a great deal ( mess+ & loss ( "t is sav$ by pur*as+ x ( ! v>i\s mak]s1 among/ :om may be specially notic$ ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,?omas1 ( #aj1 ,pall ,mall1 :o has devot$ ! :ole ( 8 att5tion to ! prep>ation ( ?is important photographic *emical1 & ) a success :i* 8 num]\s patrons c well te/ify4 ,! collodion is sold ei!r mix$ ) ! iodiz+ solution1 or ! two c be obta9$ sep>ately1 ) directions on ! bottles z to ! quantities to be mix$ toge!r4 ,! plate cov]$ ) ! iodiz$ collodion is quickly transf]r$ to a ba? conta9+ a solution prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,dissolve f\r ounces ( nitrate ( silv] 9 eight ounces ( wat]1 & to ?is add tw5ty gra9s ( iodide ( potassium 9 "o ounce ( wat]2 %ake !m toge!r1 & !n p\r ! :ole into fifty-six ounces ( di/ill$ wat]1 & 9 half an h\r add "o ounce ( alcohol & half an ounce ( e!r2 agitate ! :ole & filt] ! next morn+4 ,! collodion plate is kept 9 ?is solution = a c]ta9 p]iod1 only le>nt by exp]i5ce1 & %\ld be occasionally lift$ out to see if a uni=m transp>5cy is obta9$2 say t ! imm]sion may be cont9u$ = five m9utes1 x is n[ ready = ! cam]a1 & may be expos$ f ab\t "o to two m9utes1 or m if ! light is defici5t2 ! "t ( exposure is also a matt] ( practice1 m]e directions c be ( no use 9 ?is /age ( ! process4 ,! picture is develop$ on a levell$ /&1 ) a solution ( ?ree ,page #adh gra9s ( pyrogallic acid 9 ?ree ounces ( wat]1 to :i* sixty drops ( glacial acetic acid h be5 add$4 ,:5 fully develop$ ! plate is wa%$ ) wat] & fix$ ) a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 consi/+ ( "o "p ( ! saturat$ solution to eight ( wat]1 aga9 ?or\ghly b g5tly wa%$1 s z n to endang] ! sep>ation ( ! film f ! glass2 x is all[$ to dry spontane\sly1 & be+ coat$ ) amb] v>ni% 7a solution ( amb] 9 *lor(orm7 is n[ ready to pr9t f4 7,fig4 #abc47 ,x is1 p]haps1 h>dly necess>y to add1 t ! s5sitiz+ & develop+ processes mu/ be p]=m$ 9 a d>k room4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,a4 ,glass or gutta-p]*a ba? to hold ! s5sitiz+ solution4 ,b4 ,glass1 ) piece cem5t$ on ! end to hold ! prep>$ glass plate1 ,c1 :il/ dipp$ 9 ! ba?1 ,a4 ,! plate ,c has a cross 9 "o corn] to %[ prep>$ side4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,fir/ effect ( p]ipatetic photography on ! rural population4 ,page #adi ,,brom9e4 ,brom9e 7,greek3 brmos1 a bad od\r74 ,symbol1 ,br4 ,comb9+ proportion1 #hj4 ,specific gravity1 #b4iff4 ,9 a previ\s portion ( ?is "w1 ! connexion betwe5 *lor9e1 iod9e1 & brom9e has be5 po9t$ out2 & z we h to notice ! col\r ( ! elem5t brom9e1 ! *romatic union ( ! triad may be allud$ to4 ,^! elem5ts pres5t v ne>ly all ! col\rs ( ! spectrum3 ,brom9e r$ to orange4 ,*lor9e yell[ to gre54 ,iod9e blue1 indigo1 violet4 ,^! ?ree elem5ts also furni% examples ( ! ?ree conditions ( matt]2 iod9e be+ a solid1 brom9e a fluid1 *lor9e a gas2 ! relation ( _! comb9+ proportions is also curi\s3 z might be expect$1 ! fluid brom9e takes an int]m$iate position1 & 7accord+ to ! axiom t half ! sum ( ! extremes is equal to ! mean7 by divid+ ! comb9+ proportions ( iod9e & *lor9e1 & add+ !m toge!r1 we h1 z ne>ly z possible1 ! comb9+ proportion ( brom9e3 ,*lor9e #ce #b #ag4ge ,iod9e #abf #b #fc ----- #hj4ge ,! comb9+ proportion ( brom9e is #hj1 b #hj4ge is s ne>1 t x may reasonably be conjectur$ future exp]im5ts w r$uce ! numb] ( ! ?ree elem5ts1 & may prove t !y are only modifications ( a s+le "o4 ,?is is ! only k9d ( al*emy :i* is tol]at$ 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & any philosoph] :o w r$uce ! numb] ( elem5ts1 & prove t "s ( !m are only modifications ( o!rs1 w a*ieve a r5[n t mu/ transc5d ! clat ( all previ\s discov]]s4 ,brom9e 0 discov]$ by ,bal>d1 9 #ahbf1 &1 l *lor9e & iod9e1 is a con/itu5t ( sea wat]4 ,! *ief s\rce ( brom9e is a m9]al spr+ at ,kreutzna*1 9 ,g]many4 ,! process by :i* x is obta9$ (f]s a good example ( *emical aff9ity2 ! wat] ( ! m9]al spr+ is evaporat$1 all cry/allizable salts remov$1 & a curr5t ( *lor9e gas pass$ ?r\gh ! rema9+ solution1 :i* *anges to a yell[ col\r1 9 consequ5ce ( ! lib]ation ( ! brom9e by ! comb9ations ( *lor9e ) ! bases previ\sly unit$ ) ! =m]2 ! liquid is !n %ak5 ) e!r1 :i* dissolves out ! brom9e4 ,9 ! next place1 ! e!rial solution is agitat$ ) /rong solution ( potassa1 & is ?us oblig$ to "p ) ! brom9e :i* is conv]t$ into bromate ( potassa2 ?is is ultimately *ang$ by fusion to bromide ( potassium2 & by di/illation ) black oxide ( manganese & sulphuric acid1 ! brom9e is f9ally obta9$4 ,six ,page #aej processes are !re=e necess>y be=e ! small quantity ( brom9e conta9$ 9 ! m9]al spr+-wat]1 is sep>at$4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,brom9e is a v heavy fluid1 :i* %\ld be pres]v$ by keep+ x 9 a bottle cov]$ ) wat]2 :5 requir$1 a few drops may be remov$ by means ( a small tube1 & dropp$ into a w>m bottle1 :i* is quickly fill$ ) ! orange-r$ vap\r4 ,if "s phosphorus is plac$ 9 a deflagrat+ spoon1 & expos$ to ! action ( brom9e vap\r1 x takes fire spontane\sly4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,p[d]$ antimony spr9kl$ into ! vap\r ( brom9e imm$iately takes fire4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,a burn+ tap] imm]s$ 9 a bottle conta9+ ! vap\r ( brom9e is gradually ext+ui%$4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,liquid brom9e expos$ to a freez+ mixture ( ice & salt1 or r$uc$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t eight degrees bel[ z]o1 solidifies into a yell[i%-br[n1 brittle1 cry/all9e mass4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,a solution ( indigo %ak5 ) a small quantity ( ! vap\r ( brom9e is quickly blea*$4 ,_m sub/ances1 :5 br\ght 9 contact ) liquid brom9e1 comb9e ) explosive viol5ce1 & !re=e exp]im5ts ) liquid brom9e are n recomm5d$1 z all ! mo/ in/ructive & conclusive results c be obta9$ by ! use ( ! vap\r ( brom9e1 :i* is easily procur$ by all[+ a few drops to fall into a w>m1 dry bottle4 ,brom9e1 z already m5tion$1 is us$ 9 ! art ( photography4 ,,fluor9e4 ,symbol1 ,f4 ,comb9+ proportion1 #ai4 ,?is s+ul> elem5t seems almo/ to embody ! anci5t idea ( ! al*emi/s1 be+ a sort ( alkahe/1 or univ]sal solv5t2 or 9 pla9] language1 its aff9ities = o!r bodies are s p[]ful1 t x attacks e sub/ance 7n ev5 except+ gold71 at ! mom5t ( its lib]ation1 & comb9es !re)1 s t its isolation has n yet be5 effect$4 ,*emi/s :o ass]t t !y h be5 able to obta9 fluor9e 9 ! elem5t>y condition1 pron\nce x to be a gas :i* possesses ! col\r ( *lor9e2 b ! exp]im5ts1 z hi!rto conduct$1 r5d] t /atem5t extremely d\btful4 ,page #aea ,! only int]e/+ fact connect$ ) fluor9e1 is ! rem>kable prop]ty ( attack+ glass & o!r silici\s bodies1 belong+ to its comb9ation ) hydrog5 gas1 call$ hydr(luoric acid4 ,?is acid is easily obta9$ & us$ by plac+ "s p[d]$ fluorsp> 9 a lead5 tray six in*es squ>e & two in*es deep4 ,if sulphuric acid is n[ mix$ ) ! p[d]$ sp>1 s z to =m a ?9 pa/e1 & heat appli$1 ! vap\r ( ! hydr(luoric acid quickly rises1 & c be employ$ to et* a glass plate ^u :i* a draw+ may h be5 previ\sly trac$ by scrat*+ away ! wax1 ) :i* x is fir/ coat$4 ,by heat+ ! glass plate be=e a fire1 a suffici5t quantity ( wax is soon melt$ on to x by m]ely rubb+ ! wax aga9/ ! glass plate2 any excess %\ld be avoid$1 if a well-execut$ draw+ is requir$ to be et*$ on its surface4 7,fig4 #add47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,a ,a ,a4 ,! glass plate1 ) ! wax$ side d[nw>ds1 plac$ on ! lead5 tray conta9+ ! fluorsp> & sulphuric acid4 ,b4 ,_s lamp4 ,! wax plate mu/ n rema9 too long ov] ! lead5 tray1 z ! heat is apt to melt ! wax1 :5 ! acid n only attacks ^? p>ts f :i* ! wax has be5 remov$ by ! et*+ ne$le1 b also ! surface ( ! glass g5]ally1 & ?us ! cle>ness ( ! design is spoilt4 ,aft] exposure--& x is z well to prep>e two or ?ree glass plates = ! exp]im5t--! wax is quickly remov$ by rubb+ & wa%+ ) oil ( turp5t9e1 & ! design 7beautifully et*$ into ! glass7 is !n app>5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,c>bon1 ,,boron1 ,,silicon1 ,,sel5ium1 ,,sulphur1 ,,phosphorus4 ,?is gr\p ( non-metallic elem5ts has be5 frequ5tly /yl$ ,metalloids1 mean+ sub/ances alli$ to1 b n possess+1 all ! prop]ties belong+ to a metallic sub/ance2 & !re=e p]haps ! expression1 non-metallic solids1 is ! be/ t c be adopt$4 ,!y may be subdivid$ into two classes ( ?ree ea*1 :i* h prop]ties m or less alli$ to ea* o!r--viz41 ,c>bon1 ,boron1 ,silicon2 & ,sel5ium1 ,sulphur1 ,phosphorus4 ,page #aeb ,,c>bon4 ,symbol1 ,c2 ,comb9+ ,proportion1 #f4 ,?is elem5t has almo/ ! prop]ty ( ubiquity1 & is to be f\nd n only 9 all animal & vegetable sub/ances1 9 common air1 sea1 & fre% wat]1 b also 9 v>i\s /ones & m9]als1 & especially 9 *alk & lime/one4 ,!re is1 p]haps1 no elem5t :i* (f]s a great] v>iety ( amus+ exp]im5ts & elem5t>y facts ?an c>bon1 :e!r x be consid]$ ei!r 9 its simple or comb9$ /ate4 ,a piece ( c>bon1 9 ! %ape ( ! ,koh-i-,noor1 0 "o ( ! *ief attractions at ! fir/ ,exhibition 9 ,hyde ,p>k4 ,! diamond is ! h>de/ & mo/ beautiful =m ( *>coal2 h[ x 0 made 9 ! great laboratory ( nature1 or h[ its p>ticles came toge!r1 seems to be a my/]y :i* up to ! pres5t "t has n yet be5 solv$1 at all ev5ts no artificial process has yet produc$ ! diamond4 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]1 speak+ ( ! ,koh-i-,noor1 rem>ks t on plac+ x "u a microscope1 he obs]v$ sev]al m9ute cavities surr\nd$ ) sectors ( pol>iz$ light1 :i* c\ld only h be5 produc$ by ! expansive action ( a compress$ gas or fluid1 t _h exi/$ 9 ! cavities :5 ! diamond 0 9 ! s(t /ate4 ,n[ x is kn[n t bamboo1 :i* is ( a highly silici\s nature1 has ! prop]ty ( deposit+ 9 its jo9ts a peculi> =m ( silica1 call$ taba%e]4 ,silicon is "o ( ! triad ) c>bon--i4e41 x is alli$ to c>bon on acc\nt ( c]ta9 analogies2 may x n !n be suppos$ t1 9 times gone by1 ages pa/1 :5 ! atmosph]e 0 kn[n to be highly *>g$ ) c>bonic acid gas1 !re might possibly h exi/$ "s peculi> tree :i* _h n only ! p[] ( decompos+ c>bonic acid 7possess$ by all plants at ! pres5t p]iod71 b 0 enabl$1 l ! bamboo1 to deposit1 n silica1 :i* is ! oxide ( silicium1 b c>bon1 ! pure/ =m ( *>coal--viz41 ! diamond8 ,speculation 9 ^! matt]s is ev] m rife ?an /]n pro(1 & x may be /at$1 t all attempts to manufacture ?is preci\s gem 7l ^? ( ! al*emi/s ) gold & silv]7 h mo/ signally fail$4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,box & v>i\s woods1 dri$ bones1 & diff]5t organic matt]s1 plac$ 9 a ne>ly close iron or o!r vessel1 & heat$ r$ hot1 s t all volatile matt] may escape1 leave beh9d a solid black sub/ance call$ *>coal4 ,if t k9d obta9$ f bones1 & t]m$ bone black or ivory black1 is r\ghly p[d]$1 & plac$ 9 a flask ) "s solution ( indigo or "s v9eg>1 or syrup obta9$ by dissolv+ common moi/ sug> 9 wat]1 & boil$ = a %ort p]iod1 ! col\r is remov$1 & on filt]+ ! liquid x is f\nd to be z cle> & col\rless z wat]1 provid$ suffici5t ivory black has be5 employ$4 ,page #aec ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,*>coal is a dis9fectant1 & is us$ = respirators2 x has ev5 be5 recomm5d$ m$ically1 & *>coal loz5ges c be b\ght at v>i\s *emi/s' %ops4 ,if a few drops ( a /rong solution ( hydrosulphuret ( ammonia 7:i* has ! agreeable od\r belong+ to putrid eggs7 is mix$ ) half a p9t ( wat]1 x w ( c\rse smell /rongly1 & likewise precipitate ,g\l>d wat]1 or a solution ( acetate ( lead black2 b on %ak+ ! wat] ) a few ounces ( *>coal1 x no long] smells ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 & if filt]$ & p\r$ into a solution ( lead does n turn x black4 ,?is *emical action ( *>coal1 indep5d5t ( its seem+ me*anical attraction = col\r+ matt]1 w\ld appe> to %[ t ! pores ( *>coal conta9 oxyg51 :i* 9 t peculi> cond5s$ /ate de/roys col\r+ matt]1 & oxidizes o!r bodies4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,a v satisfactory exp]im5t1 prov+ t ! diamond & plumbago or black lead are id5tical ) *>coal1 al?\gh diff]+ 9 outw>d =m & purity1 c be made at a little co/1 by pur*as+ a fragm5t ( refuse diamond1 call$ bo>t1 ( ,mr4 ,t5nant ( ! ,/r&4 ,a small piece co/s ab\t five %ill+s4 ,! fragm5t %\ld be c>efully support$ by w9d+ "s ?9 plat9um wire r\nd x1 z1 if ! wire is too ?ick1 x cools d[n ! heat ( ! bit ( diamond & prev5ts x k9dl+ 9 ! oxyg5 gas4 ,a difficulty may arise 9 prep>+ ! fragm5t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! wire cont9ually slipp+ (f4 ,! bo>t %\ld !re=e be grasp$ by ! ?umb & fir/ f+]1 & ! wire w\nd r\nd2 !n x mu/ be c>efully turn$ & aga9 w\nd across ) ! plat9um wire1 z 9 ! sket* bel[4 7,fig4 #ade47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,a4 ,! plat9um wire4 ,b4 ,! fragm5t ( bo>t or refuse diamond4 ,a piece ( black lead 7s call$7 may n[ be tak5 f a lead p5cil & also support$ by plat9um wire2 likewise a bit ( common b>k *>coal or h>d coke4 ,?ree bottles ( oxyg5 %\ld n[ be prep>$ f *lorate ( pota% & oxide ( manganese1 an extra bottle be+ provid$ = ! diamond 9 case !re %\ld be any failure 9 its ignition4 ,! b>k *>coal c be fir/ ignit$ by hold+ a corn] 9 ! _s lamp = a few seconds2 :5 plung$ into oxyg5 x imm$iately k9dles & burns ) rapidity1 & if ! cork is well fitt$1 ! product ( combu/ion--viz41 c>bonic acid gas--is reta9$ = future exam9ation4 ,! small piece ( black lead is next heat$ r$ hot 9 ! flame ( ! _s lamp1 & be+ atta*$ by its plat9um support to a /iff copp] wire ?ru/ ?r\gh a cork1 :i* fits ! bottle ( oxyg51 is plac$ :il/ r$ hot 9 ! gas1 & cont9ues to gl[ until consum$4 ,! fragm5t ( diamond is by no means1 h[ev]1 s ,page #aed easily ignit$1 ! flame ( ! _s lamp mu/ be urg$ ^u x ) ! bl[pipe2 :5 q r$ hot1 an assi/ant may remove ! /opp] f ! bottle ( oxyg51 & ! p]son heat+ ! diamond %\ld plunge x in/antly into ! gas2 if ?is is dext]\sly manag$1 ! fragm5t ( bo>t gl[s l a little />1 & ! combu/ion frequ5tly cont9ues till ! piece dim9i%es s mu* t x falls out ( its plat9um support4 ,sometimes ! diamond cools d[n )\t ignit+1 ! same process mu/ !re=e be repeat$1 & a few extra bottles ( oxyg5 w prev5t disappo9tm5t1 z e failure de/roys ! purity ( ! gas by admixture ) atmosph]ic air :5 ! /opp] is remov$4 7,fig4 #adf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,a4 ,bottle conta9+ b>k *>coal4 ,b4 ,ditto ! plumbago or black lead4 ,c4 ,ditto ! diamond4 ,! combu/ion hav+ ceas$ 9 ! ?ree bottles1 ! corks are remov$1 & ! glass /opp]s aga9 fitt$ = ! purpose ( te/+ ! products1 :i* (f] no app>5t indication ( any *ange1 z oxyg5 & c>bonic acid gas are bo? invisible4 ,9 ea* bottle a new comb9ation has be5 produc$2 ! *>coal1 ! black lead1 ! diamond h unit$ ) ! oxyg51 9 ! proportion ( six p>ts ( c>bon to sixte5 p>ts ( oxyg51 to =m tw5ty-two p>ts ( c>bonic acid gas1 :i* may be easily detect$ by p\r+ into ea* bottle a small quantity ( a solution ( slack$ lime 9 wat]1 call$ lime wat]4 ,?is te/ is easily made by %ak+ up common slack$ lime ) ra9 or di/ill$ wat] = ab\t an h\r1 & !n pass+ x ?r\gh a calico or pap] filt]4 ,! te/1 ?\gh p]fectly cle> :5 p\r$ 91 becomes imm$iately cl\d$ ) a :ite precipitate1 usually t]m$ a milk9ess1 no d\bt 9 allusion to ! ,london milk1 :i* is suppos$ to conta9 a notable proportion ( *alk & wat]1 = 9 ?is case ! precipitate is *alk1 ! c>bonic acid f ! diamond & ! *>coal hav+ unit$ ) ! lime held 9 solution by ! wat] & =m$ c>bonate ( lime1 or *alk1 a sub/ance simil> 9 composition to m>ble1 lime/one1 ,icel& or d\ble refract+ sp>1 ^! ?ree be+ ne>ly simil> 9 composition1 & diff]+ only1 l c>bon & ! diamond1 9 ext]nal appe>ance4 ,page #aee ,! milk9ess1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be held z conclusive ( ! pres5ce ( c>bonic acid gas until a little v9eg> or o!r acid1 su* z hydro*loric or nitric1 has be5 f9ally add$2 if x n[ disappe>s ) eff]vesc5ce 7l ! admixture ( t>t>ic acid1 wat]1 & c>bonate ( soda71 ! little bubbles ( c>bonic acid gas aga9 escap+ sl[ly upw>ds1 leav+ ! liquid 9 ! ?ree bottles q cle>1 !n ! exp]im5tali/ may sum up 8 lab\rs ) ^! effects1 :i* prove 9 ! mo/ decisive mann] t common *>coal1 black lead1 & ! diamond1 are =m$ ( "o & ! same elem5t--viz41 c>bon4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,hav+ effect$ ! syn!sis 7or comb9+ toge!r7 ( ! diamond & oxyg51 x is no long] possible to recov] x 9 its brilliant & beautiful =m4 ,if ! product ( combu/ion is reta9$ 9 a flask made ( ?91 h>d glass1 & two or ?ree pellets ( ! metal potassium are plac$ 9 directly aft] ! diamond has ceas$ to burn1 & ! flame ( a _s lamp appli$ till ! potassium ignites1 !n ! metal1 by its great aff9ity = oxyg51 takes away & sep>ates x aga9 f t :i* 0 =m]ly ! diamond2 b in/ead ( ! jewel be+ deposit$1 !re is no?+ b black1 %apeless1 & m9ute p>ticles ( c>bon obta9$1 if ! pota% produc$ is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & ! *>coal sep>at$ by a filt]4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,*alk is made by unit+ c>bonic acid gas ) lime2 x may !re=e be employ$ z a s\rce ( ! gas1 by plac+ a few lumps ( *alk1 or m>ble1 or lime/one1 9 a bottle su* z 0 us$ 9 ! g5]ation ( hydrog5 gas2 on ! addition ( "s wat] & hydro*loric acid1 eff]vesc5ce takes place f ! escape ( c>bonic acid gas1 & ! cork & pewt] pipe be+ adapt$1 x may be convey$ by its own gravity into glasses1 jugs1 or any o!r vessels1 & a pneumatic tr\gh w n be requir$4 ,c>bonic acid gas has a specific gravity ( #a4ebi1 & is !re=e r m ?an half z heavy aga9 z atmosph]ic air4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,9 ord] to satisfy ! m9d ( ! op]ator t ! gas obta9$ f *alk is simil> to ! product ( combu/ion f ! diamond1 "s lime-wat] may be plac$ 9 a glass1 & ! gas f ! bottle all[$ to bubble ?r\gh x2 in/antly ! same milk9ess is app>5t1 :i* aga9 vani%es on ! addition ( acid4 ,& ?is exp]im5t is r5d]$ /ill m /rik+ if a light$ tap] be plac$ 9 ! glass j aft] ! addition ( ! acid1 :5 x w be imm$iately ext+ui%$4 ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,if a lady's muff-box1 support$ by ?reads or *a9s1 is hung on "o end ( a scale-beam1 & c\nt]balanc$ by a scale pan & a few %ot1 x is ,page #aef imm$iately depress$ on p\r+ into ! muff-box a quantity ( c>bonic acid gas1 :i* may h be5 previ\sly collect$ 9 a l>ge t9 vessel4 ,aft] %[+ ! weight ( ! gas1 ! box is deta*$ f ! scale-beam1 & ! cont5ts p\r$ ^u a s]ies ( light$ c&les1 :i* are all ext+ui%$ 9 succession4 7,fig4 #adg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,a4 ,c>bonic acid gas p\r$ out ( ! t9 box into ,b1 ! muff-box4 ,b ,b4 ,deta*$ muff-box1 & c&les ext+ui%$ by ! c>bonic acid gas p\r$ f x4 ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,! prop]ty ( c>bonic acid gas ( ext+ui%+ flame1 z comp>$ ) ! contr>y prop]ty ( oxyg51 is nicely %[n by fir/ pass+ into a l>ge & tall gas j> "o half ( its volume ( oxyg5 gas2 a l>ge cork p]=at$ ) holes may be introduc$1 s z to float ^u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! gas j>1 & is usefully employ$ to break ! viol5ce ) :i* ! c>bonic acid ent]s ! gas j>1 z x is pass$ 9 to fill up ! rema9+ half volume ( ! gas j>1 :i* n[ conta9s oxyg5 at ! top1 & c>bonic acid gas at ! bottom4 ,on te/+ ! cont5ts ( ! j> ) a light$ tap]1 x burns fi]cely 9 ! oxyg51 b is imm$iately ext+ui%$ 9 ! ,page #aeg c>bonic acid gas1 be+ alt]nately light$ & put out z x is rais$ or depress$ 9 ! gas j>4 ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,a little treacle1 wat]1 & a m9ute portion ( size1 may be plac$ ) "s yea/ 9 a qu>t bottle1 to :i* a cork & pewt] or glass pipe is atta*$2 directly ! f]m5tation beg9s1 quantities ( c>bonic acid gas may be collect$1 & te/$ ei!r ) lime-wat] or ! light$ tap]4 ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,"s cle> lime-wat] plac$ 9 a conv5i5t glass is quickly r5d]$ milky on pass+ ?r\gh x ! air f ! lungs by means ( a glass tube2 ?us prov+ t respiration & 7z %[n by ! n9? exp]im5t7 f]m5tation1 z well z ! combu/ion ( *>coal1 produce c>bonic acid gas4 ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,a ,a4 ,! box model ( ! ,grotto del ,cane4 ,b ,b4 ,c>dbo>d fix$ 9 front ( box1 & pa9t$ to imitate rocks4 ,c4 ,c>bonic acid gas bottle1 ) b5t tube pass+ ?r\gh hole 9 ! side ( ! box4 ,a tap] introduc$ at ,d burns 9 ! upp]1 & is ext+ui%$ 9 ! l[]1 "p ( ! model4 ,c>bonic acid gas is n only g5]at$ by ! above processes1 b is lib]at$ naturally 9 enorm\s quantities f volcanoes1 & f c]ta9 soils3 h5ce ! peculi> nature ( ! air 9 ! ,grotto del ,cane4 ,dogs ?ru/ into ?is cave drop d[n imm$iately1 & are imm$iately reviv$ by ! t5d] m]cies ( ! guides1 :o ?r[ !m into ! adjo9+ lake4 ,?is natural ph5om5on is well imitat$ by tak+ a box1 op5 at ! top1 & nail+ on to x a frame ( c>dbo>d1 ,page #aeh :i* may be pa9t$ to repres5t rocks1 tak+ c>e t a portion 7ab\t ?ree in*es deep7 at ! l[] "p is well pa/$ to ! box at ! edges1 s t ! gas may be reta9$2 a hole is p]=at$ at ! top side to admit a light$ tap]1 & ano!r at ! side = ! pipe f ! c>bonic acid bottle2 :5 ! bottom is fill$ ) gas1 a tap] is appli$1 :i* is f\nd to burn 9 ! upp] "p1 b is imm$iately ext+ui%$ :5 x rea*es ! l[] division1 :]e ! ?ree in*es ( pa/ebo>d prev5t x fall+ out3 ?us %[+ 9 a simple mann] :y a guide may ent] ! cave ) impunity1 :il/ ! dog is r5d]$ ins5sible because imm]s$ 9 ! gas4 7,fig4 #adh47 ,twelf? ,exp]im5t4 ,_m fatal accid5ts h occurr$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! air 9 deep pits1 graves1 c41 becom+ unfit = respiration by ! accumulation ( c>bonic acid gas1 :i* may arise ei!r f cavities 9 ! soil1 :]e animal matt] has und]gone decomposition1 or x may happ5 f ! dep? & n>r[ness ( ! hole or well prev5t+ a prop] draught or curr5t ( air1 s t x becomes f\l by ! brea?+ ( ! man :o is digg+ ! pit4 ,air :i* conta9s "o or two p] c5t4 ( c>bonic acid w support ! respiration ( man1 or ma9ta9 ! flame ( a c&le2 b x produces ! mo/ s]i\s results if inhal$ = any l5g? ( "t2 a light$ c&le let d[n into a well 7suspect$ to conta9 f\l air7 be=e ! desc5t ( ! p]son :o is to "w 9 x1 may burn1 b does n indicate ! pres5ce ( ! small p]c5tage ( ! poison1 c>bonic acid4 ,frequ5tly no tr\ble is tak5 to te/ ! air ) a light$ c&le2 a man is l[]$ by 8 companions1 :o see him sudd5ly become ins5sible1 ano!r is !n l[]$ quickly to rescue him1 & he %>es ! same fate2 & inde$ cases h occurr$ :]e ev5 a ?ird & a f\r? h bl9dly & ignorantly ru%$ to _! dea? 9 ! humane attempt to rescue _! fell[ creatures4 ,:at is to be done 9 ^! cases8 ,are ! liv+ to rema9 idle :il/ ! un=tunate man is suffocat+ rapidly at ! bottom ( ! pit8 ,no2 provid$ !y d n v5ture !mselves into ! pit1 !y may try e kn[n exp$i5t to alt] ! condition ( ! f\l air1 s z to enable !m to desc5d to ! rescue4 ,"o %\ld be despat*$ to any neighb\r+ h\se or cottage = a pan ( burn+ coals2 if any slack$ lime is to be _h1 x may be rapidly mix$ ) wat]1 & p\r$ d[n ! side ( ! pit2 a bundle ( %av+s set on fire & let d[n1 keep+ x to "o side1 s z to e/abli% a curr5t2 or ev5 ! empty buckets con/antly let d[n empty & pull$ up full ( ! noxi\s air1 may appe> a some:at absurd /ep to take1 b "u ! circum/ances any plan t w *ange ! air suffici5tly to enable ano!r p]son to desc5d mu/ be adopt$2 9 pro( ( :i* ! foll[+ exp]im5ts may be adduc$3 ,fill a deep glass j> ) c>bonic acid1 & asc]ta9 its pres5ce ) a light$ tap]2 if a beak] glass to :i* a /r+ is atta*$ is let d[n into ! vessel & drawn up1 & !n inv]t$ ov] a light$ ,page #aei tap]1 ! utility ( ?is simple plan is at once r5d]$ app>5t2 ! beak] glass repres5ts ! empty bucket1 & c be let d[n & pull$ up full ( c>bonic acid until a s5sible *ange 9 ! condition ( ! atmosph]e is produc$4 ,! be/ plan1 h[ev]1 is to set ! air 9 motion by heat obta9$ f burn+ matt]1 or ev5 a kettle ( boil+ wat]1 l[]$ by a cord1 & ?is fact is well %[n by putt+ a small flask full ( boil+ wat]1 & cork$1 at ! bottom ( ! deep glass j> conta9+ ! c>bonic acid gas1 :i* rises l o!r gases :5 suffici5tly heat$1 & pass+ away1 mixes ) ! surr\nd+ air4 7,fig4 #adi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,a4 ,deep j> conta9+ c>bonic acid gas1 :i* is be+ remov$ by ! little glass bucket4 ,b4 ,j> conta9+ cork$ flask ( boil+ wat] on a pad2 ! heat$ gas rises & ! cold air desc5ds to take its place4 ,?irte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,c>bonic acid gas dissolv$ 9 wat] "u consid]able pressure1 =ms t mo/ agreeable dr9k call$ soda-wat]2 ! gas is n only useful 9 ?is respect1 b has be5 appli$ mo/ successfully by ,mr4 ,gurney to ext+ui% a fire on a gigantic scale1 :i* _h be5 burn+ = ye>s 9 ! wa/e ( a coal m9e 9 ,scotl&4 ,! same gas1 g5]at$ sudd5ly by ! combu/ion ( a mixture ( nitre1 coke du/1 & clay1 or pla/] ( ,p>is1 9 vessels ( a peculi> con/ruction1 has =m$ ! subject ( a pat5t by ,phillips1 s9ce m]g$ into ! ,fire ,annihilator ,company4 ,! in/rum5t is peculi>ly adapt$ = %ipp+1 & might1 if prop]ly us$1 be ! means ( sav+ _m %ips & valuable lives4 7,fig4 #aej47 ,its practical value is e/abli%$ by ! te/ ( actual use3 9 ! /reets1 by ! ,le$s ,fire ,brigade1 & by firem5 ( ! ,fire ,annihilator ,company1 tempor>ily /ation$ at ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]4 ,! ,fire ,annihilator has be5 =mally recognis$ by ! ,gov]nm5t ,emigration ,commission]s1 :o introduc$ into ! ,pass5g]s' ,act1 #aheb1 9 #bd1 ! alt]native1 ,or o!r app>atus = ext+ui%+ fire1 ) di/9ct ref]5ce to ?is inv5tion1 & subsequ5tly by =mal ord] au?oriz$ _! (fic]s to pass %ips c>ry+ ,fire ,annihilators4 ,page #afj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,a4 ,a c>riage ) six fire annihilators1 ,no4 #e size1 fitt$ ) moveable pipes4 ,! body ( ! c>riage =ms a tank = =ty gallons ( wat]2 ! tank is fill$ at a bunghole 9 ! plat=m2 a pat5t tap is fitt$ to ! re> ( ! c>riage2 a spigot is plac$ ne> ! end upright ( ! rail2 a h&-pump is plac$ 9 ! box at re> ( c>riage2 a lea!r bucket ) foot-holds & ?ree canvas buckets are hung on ! c>riage2 a hamm] = remov+ & driv+ on ! cov] ( ! fire annihilator1 & a nut wr5* = ! ,no4 #aj truck1 are plac$ 9 ! box4 ,b4 ,a fire annihilator1 ,no4 #aj size1 ) moveable pipe1 on a spr+ truck1 is atta*$ to ! c>riage4 ,! batt]y is fitt$ ) %afts = "o horse4 ,a pole is also provid$ to fix across ! %afts1 s t ! batt]y may be drawn by h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,a4 ,tank conta9+ acid1 communicat+ by a pipe ) ,b1 half fill$ ) *alk & wat]4 ,c ,c ,c ,c4 ,pipes convey+ c>bonic acid f ! g5]ator ,b1 to ! ceil+1 :]e x is dis*>g$ f num]\s holes on ! fire b5ea?4 ,monsieur ,adolphe ,gir>d has propos$ t all h\ses %\ld be provid$ ) an app>atus = ! g5]ation ( c>bonic acid gas1 plac$ ,page #afa outside ! build+1 :i* is to be convey$ along ! ceil+ by means ( pipes p]=at$ ) num]\s holes1 & to be put 9 op]ation directly a fire breaks out4 ,?is plan1 h[ev] +5i\s1 c\ld h>dly supply ! c>bonic acid gas ) suffici5t rapidity1 & x is to be fe>$ w\ld utt]ly fail 9 practice4 7,fig4 #aea47 ,,boron4 ,symbol1 ,b2 comb9+ proportion1 #aj4i4 ,discov]$ by ,homb]g1 9 #agjb1 9 borax1 :i* is a biborate ( soda 7,na,o1#b;,,bo#c71 & is us$ v ext5sively 9 ! manufacture ( glass2 also = glaz+ /onew>e & sold]+ metals2 x is also a valuable flux 9 v>i\s crucible op]ations1 :il/ 9 te/+ m9]als ) ! bl[pipe x is invaluable4 ,borax is made ei!r f t9cal1 a sub/ance t occurs naturally 9 "s p>ts ( ,india1 ,*9a1 & ,p]sia1 or by ! addition ( c>bonate ( soda to boracic acid1 a sub/ance obta9$ f ! volcanic di/ricts ( ,tuscany1 :5ce x is import$ to ?is c\ntry1 & us$ 9 ! manufacture ( borax4 ,! elem5t boron may be obta9$ by plac+ "s pure boracic acid & "s small bits ( potassium 9 a tube toge!r1 & apply+ ! flame ( a _s-lamp1 a gl[ ( heat takes place1 & :5 ! tube is cold ! pota% may be wa%$ away1 & ! boron rema9s z a d>k br[ni% p[d] some:at resembl+ c>bon4 ,m4 ,/4 ,claire ,deville & ,whl] h lately made "s important discov]ies ) respect to ?is elem5t1 & disprov$ ! /atem5t t x is uncry/allizable4 ,_! rese>*es prove x to be producible "u ?ree =ms & ( v>i\s col\rs1 su* z honey-yell[ & g>net-r$1 ! cry/als 9 "s cases be+ l diamonds ( ! pure/ wat]--i4e41 limpid & transp>5t4 ,a new comb9ation ( alum9ium & boron is /at$ to possess ! mo/ rem>kable prop]ties4 ,x is h>d] ?an ! diamond1 & 9 ! /ate ( p[d] w cut & drill rubies1 & ev5 ! diamond itself1 ) m facility ?an diamond p[d]4 ,deville & ,whl] incl9e to ! belief t ! diamond is dimorph\s1 & capable 79 conditions yet to be describ$7 ( assum+ ! same =ms z boron4 ,at a high temp]ature1 boron1 l titanium1 absorbs nitrog5 only f ! atmosph]e1 & rejects ! oxyg54 7,qu]y1 may n "s ( ^? rem>kably h>d black diamonds prove to be boron87 ,,silicon4 ,symbol1 ,si2 comb9+ proportion1 #ba4c4 ,! great ,b]zelius 0 ! fir/ to obta9 ?is elem5t 9 #ahbc4 ,silicon 9 ! pure /ate is a d>k br[n p[d]2 if ignit$ at a v high temp]ature x assumes a *ocolate col\r1 :i* is suppos$ to be ! allotropic condition1 because x no long] burns :5 heat$ mod]ately 9 oxyg5 or air1 & is n attack$ by hydr(luoric acid4 ,page #afb ,! mo/ int]e/+ comb9ation ( silicon is ! t]oxide call$ silicic acid1 silica 7,si,o#c74 ,silicon is next to oxyg5 s f> z reg>ds its pl5tifulness1 & is f\nd 9 ! /ate ( silica 9 ne>ly e m9]al1 b especially 9 rock cry/al1 qu>tz1 fl9t1 s&1 jasp]1 agate1 & tripoli4 ,x is l>gely us$ 9 ! manufacture ( glass1 & a mo/ useful soluble glass is obta9$ by melt+ toge!r 9 a crucible fifte5 p>ts ( s&1 t5 p>ts ( c>bonate ( pota%1 & "o "p ( *>coal4 ,cold wat] m]ely wa%es away ! excess ( alkali1 & aft] ?is is done ! p[d]$ soluble glass may be boil$ ) wat] 9 ! proportion ( "o ( ! =m] ) five ( ! latt]1 :5 x gradually dissolves2 ! solution may be evaporat$ to a ?ick pa/y fluid1 :i* looks l jelly :5 cool1 & on exposure to ! air 9 ?9 films *anges to a transp>5t1 col\rless1 brittle1 b n h>d glass4 ,wood1 cotton1 & l95 fabrics are r5d]$ less combu/ible :5 coat$ ) ?is glass1 :i* excludes ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & x has lately be5 employ$ to fill up ! por\s & capill>y op5+s 9 /one expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 & is /at$ to be v efficaci\s z a pres]vative ( ! /one 9 "s cases4 ,,sulphur4 ,symbol1 ,s2 comb9+ proportion1 #af4 ,sulphur1 l *>coal1 is ( common occurr5ce 9 nature1 & is *iefly suppli$ f ! volcanic di/ricts ( ,tuscany & ,sicily3 !re is an abundance ( ?is elem5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 b !n x is lock$ up 9 comb9ation ) iron1 copp]1 & lead1 "u ! "n ( iron pyrites1 copp] pyrites1 gal5a2 & :il/ ,sicily & ,tuscany supply ?\s&s ( tons weight 9 ! uncomb9$ /ate1 x is n1 ( c\rse1 wor? :ile to g ?r\gh exp5sive op]ations at home = ! sep>ation ( sulphur f ! ores4 ,dur+ ! dispute betwe5 ,sicily & ,engl&1 sev]al pat5ts 7 secur$ = new & economical processes by :i* sulphur 0 obta9$ f v>i\s m9]als2 & _h ?is c\ntry be5 exclud$ f a supply ( native sulphur1 no d\bt "s ( ^! pat5ts w\ld n[ be 9 active op]ation4 ,x is almo/ possible to e/imate ! comm]cial prosp]ity ( a c\ntry by ! sulphur x consumes1 n1 happily1 by _! w>like op]ations1 b 9 ! manufacture ( oil ( vitriol or sulphuric acid1 :i* is ! />t+ po9t ( a great numb] ( useful arts & manufactures4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,"s v curi\s results may be obta9$ by heat+ sulphur at c]ta9 temp]atures2 9 ! ord9>y /ate x is a pale yell[ solid1 & :5 subject$ to a temp]ature ( #bbf ,fahr4 x melts to a br[ni%-yell[1 transp>5t1 ?9 fluid2 accord+ to all preconceiv$ notions ( ! prop]ties ( sub/ances :i* liquify by an increase ( heat1 x might be imag9$ t e additional degree ( heat w\ld only ,page #afc r5d] ! melt$ sulphur /ill m liquid1 b /range to say1 :5 x rea*es a temp]ature ( ab\t #cbj ,fahr4 x *anges r$1 & ?ick l treacle2 & z ! heat rises x becomes s t5aci\s1 t ! ladle 9 :i* x is conta9$ may be inv]t$1 & ! sulphur w h>dly fl[ out3 at ab\t #dhb ,fahr4 x aga9 becomes liquid1 b n s fluid z at ! l[] temp]ature4 ,if all[$ to cool f #dhb ,fahr41 ! above results are simply inv]t$2 ! sulphur becomes ?ick1 aga9 liquid1 & f9ally cry/allizes 9 long1 ?91 rhombic prisms1 :i* are se5 mo/ p]fectly by fir/ all[+ a cru/ ( sulphur to =m on ! liquid portion1 & !n hav+ made two holes 9 ?is cru/1 ! sulphur is p\r$ out1 :5 ! rema9d] is f\nd 9 ! int]ior ( ! crucible cry/alliz$ 9 ! =m already m5tion$4 ,sulphur takes fire 9 ! air :5 expos$ to a heat ( ab\t #efj ,fahr41 & burns ) a pale blue flame2 &1 z already /at$1 x may be p\r$ f a consid]able height on a /ill d>k night1 & produces a cont9u\s column ( blue fire1 j l an unbrok5 curr5t ( electricity4 ,if ! melt$ & burn+ sulphur is receiv$ into a vessel conta9+ boil+ wat]1 x is no long] yell[1 b assumes a curi\s allotropic /ate1 9 :i* x is a r$di%-br[n1 transp>5t1 %apeless mass1 t may be easily knead$ & us$ = ! purpose ( tak+ ca/s ( seals1 :i* become yell[ 9 a few days1 & are f\nd !n to be h>d & cry/alliz$4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,sulphur vap\r1 9 "o s5se1 may be reg>d$ z a support] ( combu/ion3 if a clean ,flor5ce oil-flask is fill$ ) copp] turn+s1 & a little r\ghly-p[d]$ sulphur spr9kl$ 91 & heat appli$1 ! copp] gl[s ) an int5se heat1 & burn+ 9 ! vap\r ( ! sulphur1 produces a sulphuret ( copp]2 f ?is comp\nd ! sulphur may be aga9 obta9$ by boil+ ! p[d]$ sulphuret ) weak nitric acid1 :i* oxidizes & dissolves ! copp]1 leav+ ! great] "p ( ! sulphur beh9d1 :i* may be collect$1 melt$1 & burnt1 & w be f\nd to display all ! prop]ties belong+ to t elem5t4 ,?is exp]im5t is a v good example ( simple analysis2 & if ! copp] is weigh$ & likewise ! comb9$ sulphur1 a good notion may be =m$ ( ! pr9ciples ( comb9+ proportions4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,a little sulphur burnt "u a gas j>1 or 9 any conv5i5t box 7a hat-box1 = in/ance71 produces sulphur\s acid 7,,s#b71 :i* w blea* a wett$ r$ rose or dahlia1 & _m o!r fl[]s4 ,?is gas is employ$ mo/ ext5sively 9 blea*+ /raw1 & sundry wooll5 goods1 su* z blankets & flannel1 & likewise silk1 & is p]haps "o ( ! be/ dis9fectants t c be employ$2 :5 fev] has be5 rag+ 9 ! dwell+s ( ! poor1 z 9 cottages1 c41 all metallic sub/ances %\ld be remov$1 ! doors & w9d[s clos$1 ! b$d+1 c41 well expos$1 & !n a quantity ( sulphur %\ld be burnt 9 an old ,page #afd fry+-pan plac$ on a brick1 tak+ c>e to avoid ! *ance ( sett+ ! place on fire2 aft] a few h\rs ! doors & w9d[s may be op5$1 & ! dis9fectant w be f\nd to h done its "w *eaply & surely4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,! pres5ce ( sulphur 9 v>i\s organic sub/ances1 su* z hair1 ! :ite ( egg1 & fibr9e1 is easily detect$ by heat+ !m 9 a solution ( pota%1 & add+ acetate ( lead z long z ! precipitate =m$ is r$issolv$2 f9ally ! solution mu/ be heat$ to ! boil+ po9t1 :5 x in/antly becomes black by ! sep>ation ( sulphuret ( lead4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,sulphuric acid1 ,,ho1,,s#c1 or oil ( vitriol1 is made 9 su* enorm\s quantities t x is nev] wor? :ile to attempt its prep>ation on a small scale4 ,9 consequ5ce ( its great aff9ity = wat]1 _m en]getic *anges are produc$ by its action4 ,oil ( vitriol p\r$ on "s loaf sug> plac$ 9 a breakfa/-cup ) ! addition ( a dess]t-spoonful ( boil+ wat]1 rapidly boils & deposits an enorm\s quantity ( black *>coal4 ,if a ^w be writt5 on a piece ( :ite calico ) dilute sulphuric acid1 & !n rapidly & ?or\ghly wa%$ out1 no visible *ange occurs2 b if ! calico is expos$ to heat1 s t ! excess ( wat] is driv5 (f1 ! rema9+ & n[ conc5trat$ oil ( vitriol attacks ! calico1 & ! ^w is indelibly pr9t$ 9 black by ! decomposition ( ! fabric ( cotton4 ,a v rem>kable process has lately be5 introduc$ by ,mr4 ,w>r5 de la ,rue1 by :i* pap] is conv]t$ into a sort ( t\gh p>*m5t-l mat]ial1 call$ ameta/9e1 by ! action ( oil ( vitriol & wat] ( a c]ta9 fix$ /r5g?2 & any dep>ture f ! exact proportions de/roys ! t\ghness ( ! pap]4 ,aft] ! pap] has be5 act$ ^u by ! acid1 x becomes extremely t5aci\s1 & w support a consid]able weight )\t break+4 ,mr4 ,smee has us$ ?is ameta/9e 9 ! con/ruction ( an hygromet]1 & /ates t x may save _m a travell] f cat*+ a sev]e rheumatism 9 a damp b$4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 ! vap\r ( sulphur is pass$ ov] r$-hot *>coal & ! product c>efully cond5s$1 a peculi> liquid is obta9$1 call$ bisulphide ( c>bon 7,,cs#b71 :i* possesses a peculi> od\r1 is extremely transp>5t & brilliant-look+1 & enjoys a high refractive p[]4 ,?is liquid is us$ z a solv5t = phosphorus & o!r sub/ances1 & is extremely volatile & combu/ible1 & burns sil5tly ) a pale blue flame4 ,! combu/ion ( its vap\r1 mix$ ) c]ta9 gases1 (f]s a good example ( ! fact t sl[ burn+ may be a peaceful exp]im5t1 :il/ v rapid combu/ion (t5 resolves itself into an explosion4 ,?us1 if a few drops ( bisulphide ( c>bon are dropp$ into a n>r[-m\!d dry qu>t bottle conta9+ common air1 & flame appli$1 ! combu/ion takes place ) rapidity1 a ru%+ or ,page #afe ro>+ s\nd be+ audible1 9 consequ5ce ( ! diffus$ vap\r be+ suppli$ ) m oxyg51 & burn+ m rapidly ?an x w\ld d if simply consum$ f a /ick or glass rod wett$ ) ! fluid4 ,a /ill great] rapidity ( combu/ion is ensur$ by dropp+ "s bisulphide ( c>bon into a long /\t cyl9drical j>1 fifte5 in*es long & ?ree in*es 9 diamet]1 conta9+ nitric oxide gas 7,,no#b72 :5 flame is appli$ ! mixture burns ) a bright fla% & "s noise1 & if burnt 9 a n>r[ m\!d bottle w\ld mo/ likely bl[ x to atoms4 ,! greate/ rapidity ( combu/ion1 & ( c\rse ! l\de/ noise1 is obta9$ by %ak+ "s bisulphide ( c>bon 9 a simil> /\t & /rong cyl9drical j> fill$ ) oxyg5 gas1 b 9 ?is case ! j> mu/ be protect$ ) a d\ble cyl9d] ( /\t wire gauze2 x does n always break1 b if x is bl[n to fragm5ts ea* p>ticle becomes a lancet-%ap$ piece ( glass1 :i* is capable ( produc+ ! mo/ dang]\s w\nds4 7,fig4 #aeb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,a4 ,air & bisulphide ( c>bon4 ,b4 ,nitric oxide & ditto4 ,c4 ,oxyg5 & ditto4 ,d ,d4 ,/\t cyl9d] ( d\ble wire gauze1 op5 top & bottom4 ,,sel5ium4 ,sel5ium 7,greek3 seln1 ! ,moon,b72 symbol1 ,se2 comb9+ proportion1 #ci4e4 ,?is new metallic elem5t is alli$ to sulphur1 & is a species ( *emical curiosity1 be+ f\nd 9 m9ute quantities 9 v>i\s m9]als2 x may be melt$ & ca/ into any =m4 ,m$allions ( ! discov]] 7,b]zelius7 ( sel5ium1 9 little cases1 are import$ f ,g]many1 = ! cab9ets ( ! curi\s4 ,footnote ,b3 ,call$ sel5ium on acc\nt ( its /rong analogy to ! metal tellurium 7tellus1 ! e>?74 ,page #aff ,,phosphorus4 ,phosphorus 7,greek3 phs1 light2 ,greek3 ph]e91 to be>2 symbol1 ,p2 comb9+ proportion1 #cb47 ,monsieur ,salv]te1 9 8 "w on ! ,occult ,sci5ces ( ! ,anci5ts1 quotes a rem>kable /ory respect+ ! probable discov]y ( ! nature ( phosphorus 9 #agfa3--;,a ,pr9ce ,san ,sev]o1 at ,naples1 cultivat$ *emi/ry ) "s success2 he _h1 = example1 ! secret ( p5etrat+ m>ble ) col\r1 s t ea* slab saw$ f ! block pres5t$ a repetition ( ! figure impr9t$ on its ext]nal surface4 ,9 #agfa1 he expos$ "s human skulls to ! action ( diff]5t reag5ts1 & !n to ! heat ( a glass furnace1 b pay+ s little att5tion to 8 mann] ( proce$+1 t he ackn[l$g$ he did n expect to arrive a second "t at ! same result4 ,f ! product he obta9$ a vap\r1 or r a gas 0 evolv$1 :i* k9dl+ at ! approa* ( a light1 burn$ = sev]al mon?s )\t ! matt] appe>+ to die or dim9i% 9 weight4 ,san ,sev]o ?\ght he _h f\nd1 ! impossible secret ( ! inext+ui%able lamp1 b he w\ld n divulge 8 process1 = fe> t ! vault 9 :i* 7 int]r$ ! pr9ces ( 8 family %\ld lose ! unique privilege ) :i* he expect$ to enri* x1 ( be+ illum9at$ ) a p]petual lamp4 ,_h he act$ l a philosoph] ( ! pres5t day1 ,san ,sev]o w\ld h atta*$ 8 "n to ! important discov]y ( ! exi/5ce ( phosphorus 9 ! bones1 & made public ! process by :i* x might be obta9$4 ,?is elem5t1 =m]ly sold at f\r or five %ill+s ! ounce1 has n[ fall5 s mu* 9 price1 f ! great] dem& & l>g] production1 t x may be b\ght = a few %ill+s ! p\nd1 & is import$ 9 t9 cases 9 l>ge quantities f ,g]many4 ,x 0 discov]$ ab\t two hundr$ ye>s ago by ,br&t1 a m]*ant ( ,hamburg1 & may be prep>$ on a small scale by di/ill+ at a r$ heat phosphoric acid previ\sly fus$ ) "o-f\r? ( its weight ( p[d]$ *>coal4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,phosphorus1 :5 pure1 is )\t ta/e or col\r1 b g5]ally ( a v pale buff-col\r1 & semi-transp>5t2 x is extremely combu/ible1 & is usually pres]v$ "u ! surface ( wat]2 :5 p]fectly dry1 a ?9 slice w take fire at #fj ,fah41 & burns ) great brilliancy4 ,consid]+ ! heat produc$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( phosphorus1 x might be ?\ght t x w\ld infallibly set fire to any ord9>y combu/ible1 su* z pap] or wood1 b ?is is n ! case :5 phosphorus is employ$ by itself1 z may be prov$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,cut five v small pieces ( phosphorus1 & place !m l ! five ( diamonds on a %eet ( c>tridge-pap] laid ^u ! table1 set ! bits ( phosphorus on fire1 :5 !y w be rapidly burnt away ,page #afg leav+ only five black spots1 b n fir+ ! pap]1 z w\ld be ! case if "s r$-hot coals or *>coal 7 plac$ 9 ! same position4 ,! cause is v simple4 ,phosphorus 9 burn+ produces phosphoric acid1 :i* is an anti-combu/ible1 & coats ! surface ( ! pap] r\nd ! spot :]e ! combu/ion occurs1 & act+ z a k9d ( glaze or glass1 excludes ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & prev5ts ! fire spread+4 ,if "s p[d]$ sulphur is spr9kl$ r\nd ! spot :]e ! bit ( phosphorus is to be burnt1 ! case is v diff]5t2 ! heat melts & sets fire to ! sulphur1 :i* be+ uncoat$ ) ! phosphoric acid1 communicates to ! pap]2 & x is on ?is pr9ciple t lucif]-mat*es c be us$ z in/antane\s lights4 ,! tip ( ! wood ( :i* !y are compos$ is fir/ dipp$ 9 sulphur1 & !n ! phosphorus composition made ( gum1 *lorate ( pota%1 v]milion1 & phosphorus1 is plac$ ov] x2 & if ! latt] 7 us$ alone )\t ! sulphur1 n "o mat* 9 a hundr$ w\ld take fire prop]ly4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,common phosphorus is p]fectly & rapidly dissolv$ by bisulphide ( c>bon4 ,! solution mu/ be c>efully pres]v$1 z x is a liquid combu/ible1 :i* takes fire spontane\sly aft] ! bisulphide ( c>bon evaporates2 s t :]ev] x is dropp$1 a flame1 aris+ f ! spontane\s combu/ion ( ! f9ely-divid$ phosphorus1 is sure to be produc$4 ,?is liquid 0 recomm5d$ _m ye>s ago to ! ,gov]nm5t = ! purpose ( sett+ sails ( %ips or o!r combu/ible matt] on fire4 ,! solution ( phosphorus alone did n answ] ! purpose1 z already expla9$ 9 ! fir/ exp]im5t2 b :5 wax 0 dissolv$ ) ! phosphorus1 x !n became a mo/ dang]\s fluid1 :i* x 0 recomm5d$ %\ld be us$ 9 %ells1 & dis*>g$ f a mort> or h[itz] 9 ! ord9>y mann]4 ,dr4 ,lyon ,playfair 0 ! fir/ to make ?is propos$ application ( ! solution1 & x has s9ce1 we believe1 be5 recomm5d$ by ,capta9 ,norton 9 8 liquid-fire %ells4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s facts 9 connexion ) phosphorus1 is its assumption ( ! allotropic /ate 9 :at is t]m$ amorph\s 7%apeless7 or r$ phosphorus4 ,?is sub/ance1 :5 h&l$ = ! fir/ "t1 might be mi/ak5 = a lump ( badly-made ,v5etian r$4 ,!re is no risk ( its tak+ fire l ! common phosphorus1 & x does n 7accord+ to ,s*rtt]1 ( ,b]l91 :o discov]$ ?is peculi> condition7 exhale ^? fumes :i* are s prejudicial to ! lucif]-mat* mak]s4 ,:5 ! vap\r ( common phosphorus is cont9ually inhal$1 x is said to cause a peculi> & disgu/+ disease1 :i* t]m9ates 9 ! de/ruction ( ! jaw-bone2 :il/ ! bones 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body become brittle1 & arm-bones ?us affect$ are fractur$ ) ! slighte/ bl[4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 common & r$ phosphorus is well %[n fir/1 ,page #afh by plac+ a few small pieces ( bo? k9ds 9 sep>ate bottles or vials conta9+ bisulphide ( c>bon2 ! common phosphorus1 z already expla9$1 quickly dissolves 9 ! liquid1 & if p\r$ on a %eet ( pap]1 & hung up1 is soon on fire2 :il/ ! r$ v>iety is :olly unaffect$1 & if ! bisulphide ( c>bon is p\r$ (f on to pap]1 x m]ely evaporates1 & no combu/ion occurs4 ,! simil>ity 9 composition1 ?\gh n 9 outw>d =m1 is fur!r %[n by fill+ two j>s ) oxyg5 gas1 & hav+ provid$ two deflagrat+ spoons1 "s common phosphorus is plac$ 9 "o1 & r$ phosphorus 9 ! o!r2 a wire1 g5tly heat$ by dipp+ x into "s boil+ wat]1 is n[ appli$ to ! =m]1 :i* imm$iately takes fire1 & may be plung$ into ! j> ( oxyg5 gas1 :5 x burns ) ! usual brilliancy4 ,! r$ phosphorus1 h[ev]1 mu/ be br\ght to a mu* high] temp]ature 7#ejj ,fah47 be=e x w ev5 %9e 9 ! d>k1 & !n ) a /ill fur!r increase ( heat x takes fire1 & on be+ plac$ 9 ! o!r j> ( oxyg5 burns up mu* m sl[ly ?an ! yell[ phosphorus1 b at la/ exhibits t brilliant fla% ( light :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( ! combu/ion ( phosphorus 9 oxyg54 ,! amorph\s or r$ phosphorus is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( safety *emical mat*es1 & ,m4 ,a4 ,meunons has secur$ a pat5t 9 ,engl& = an improvem5t 9 lucif] mat*es1 ) a view to obviate ! risks ( accid5tal ignition4 ,to atta9 ?is end ! mat*es are fir/ cut by a ma*9e f cubes ( wood1 ! cut be+ /opp$ at a %ort di/ance f ! end ( ea* cube1 s z to leave ! l[] extremities adh]5t4 ,! upp] or free extremity ( ea* packet ( spl9ts ?us =m$ be+ coat$ ) wax or sulphur1 is dipp$ 9 "o ( ! foll[+ prep>ations3--,*lorate ( pota%1 two p>ts2 pulv]iz$ *>coal1 "o "p2 umb]1 "o "p2 or1 *lorate ( pota%1 sulphur1 & umb]1 9 equal p>ts1 ?or\ghly mix$ ) glue4 ,! opposite extremity or cut ( ea* packet is !n pa9t$ ov] ) amorph\s phosphorus bl5d$ ) size1 s t on sep>at+ ! mat*es ! phosphorus is only f\nd on ! top ( ea*4 ,! mat*es ?us prep>$ are ignit$ by break+ (f a small piece ( ! phosphoris$ end & rubb+ x on ! opposite extremity cov]$ ) ! inflammable prep>ation4 ,l\d explod+ & dang]\s lucif]s 7 =m]ly made by dipp+ bundles ( mat*es1 previ\sly coat$ ) sulphur at ! tips1 into a ?ick solution ( gum1 at a temp]ature ( #ajd ,fahr41 col\r$ ) smalt or r$ lead1 9 :i* 0 dissolv$ a c]ta9 proportion ( *lorate ( pota%1 & also conta9+ f9ely divid$ p>ticles ( phosphorus obta9$ by ! con/ant /irr+ & rubb+ ( ! mat]ials 9 a mort>4 ,:5 dry ! mat*es explod$ if rubb$ aga9/ a gritty surface1 & !re 0 always a risk ( a fragm5t fly+ (f & ent]+ ! eye4 ,to obviate ?is dang]1 sil5t or noiseless lucif] mat*es 7 inv5t$1 & ! composition us$ 7accord+ to ,bttg]7 is z foll[s3--,gum arabic1 #af p>ts by weight2 phosphorus1 #i p>ts2 nitre1 #ad p>ts2 p[d]$ black oxide ( manganese1 #af p>ts4 ,! above +r$i5ts are work$ up 9 a mort> ) wat]1 at #ajd ,fahr41 & ! mat*es previ\sly tipp$ ) sulphur are dipp$ !re9 & aft]w>ds dri$4 ,page #afi ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,! combu/ion ( phosphorus "u wat] is easily demon/rat$ by plac+ "s ord9>y /ick phosphorus 9 a metallic cup1 & !n plung+ x rapidly "u ! surface ( boil+ wat]4 ,if a jet ( oxyg5 gas is n[ direct$ ^u ! liquid phosphorus1 x burns ) great brilliancy4 ,:5 ! oxyg5 escapes too rapidly f ! jet1 x causes "s small p>ticles to be ?r[n out ( ! wat]1 s t x is advisable to def5d ! face ) a %eet ( wire gauze held a few in*es above ! glass :il/ ! exp]im5t is be+ conduct$4 7,fig4 #aec47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,a ,a4 ,f+]-glass ( boil+ wat] conta9+ a metallic cup ) melt$ phosphorus4 ,c4 ,jet ( oxyg5 gas4 ,d ,d4 ,%eet ( wire gauze4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,phosphorus burns & emits beautiful fla%es ( light 9 ! pres5ce ( ! gas call$ p]oxide ( *lor9e 7,cl,o#d71 :i* mu/ be v c>efully g5]at$ "u ! surface ( wat] by fir/ plac+ "s cut phosphorus & *lorate ( pota% at ! bottom ( a long & /\t cyl9drical glass ne>ly full ( wat]2 sulphuric acid is !n convey$ to ! *lorate ( pota% by means ( a syphon1 ! end ( :i* mu/ be drawn out to a small op5+1 or else ! oil ( vitriol w desc5d too rapidly1 & ! glass w be crack$ by ! heat4 ,imm$iately ! p]oxide ( *lor9e comes 9 contact ) ! phosphorus x explodes1 & passes aga9 to its orig9al elem5ts1 oxyg5 & *lor9e4 ,^! bubbles envelope m9ute p>ticles ( phosphorus1 :i* rapidly asc5d1 l wat]-spid]s1 to ! surface1 & burn z !y pass upw>ds1 produc+ a cont9ual s]ies ( sp>ks ( fire1 :i* h an extremely pretty effect4 7,fig4 #aed47 ,! syphon is ( c\rse fir/ fill$ ) wat]1 & z t is displac$1 ! oil ( vitriol takes its place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,a ,a4 ,tall glass ne>ly full ( wat]2 at ! bottom are ! *lorate ( pota% & phosphorus4 ,b4 ,wolfe's bottle & syphon1 convey+ ! oil ( vitriol to bottom ( ,a ,a4 ,page #agj ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,if a little phosphorus is plac$ 9 a small copp] boil]1 & ! /eam all[$ to escape f a jet1 x is obs]v$ to be lum9\s1 9 consequ5ce ( a m9ute portion ( phosphorus be+ c>ri$ up me*anically ) ! /eam4 ,! same fact is %[n v prettily by boil+ wat] 9 a flask conta9+ "s phosphorus4 ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,phosphorus explodes viol5tly :5 rubb$ ) a little *lorate ( pota%1 & 9 ord] to p]=m ?is exp]im5t safely1 x %\ld be made 9 a /rong iron mort>1 ! pe/le ( :i* mu/ be surr\nd$ ) a l>ge circle ( c>dbo>d & wire gauze2 s t :5 x is br\ght d[n ^u ! phosphorus & *lorate ( pota%1 any p>ticles t may fly out are deta9$ by ! %ield4 ,)\t ?is precaution ! exp]im5t is "o ( ! mo/ dang]\s t c be made4 7,fig4 #aee47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,a4 ,! iron mort> conta9+ ! phosphorus & *lorate ( pota%4 ,b4 ,! pe/le1 ) ! %ield1 ,c ,c1 compos$ ( a circle ( wire gauze1 cov]$ ) "o ( c>dbo>d4 ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,phosphurett$ hydrog5 owes its prop]ty ( spontane\s combu/ion to ! pres5ce ( ! vap\r ( a liquid1 phosphide ( hydrog5 7,,ph#b71 :i* may be prep>$ by plac+ "s phosphide ( calcium into a flask ) wat] heat$ to a temp]ature ( #adj ,fah41 & convey+ ! gas into a ,u-%ap$ tube surr\nd$ ) a mixture ( ice & salt4 ,! liquid obta9$ is col\rless1 & mu/ be pres]v$ f contact ) air1 z x takes fire spontane\sly directly x is expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 7,fig4 #aef47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,a4 ,! flask conta9+ ! phosphide ( calcium & wat]1 & plac$ 9 a wat]-ba? heat$ to #adj ,fah4 ,b4 ,b5t tube convey+ ! gas to ,c ,c1 ! ,u-%ap$ tube1 to :i* x is atta*$ by india-rubb] tub+1 ,c ,c4 ,! ,u-%ap$ tube1 surr\nd$ ) a freez+ mixture4 ,d ,d4 ,b5t tube1 pass+ into a cup ( wat] to prev5t contact ) air4 ,page #aga ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,phosphide ( calcium is quickly prep>$ by plac+ "s small pieces ( lime 9 a crucible & mak+ !m r$-hot2 if lumps ( dry phosphorus are ?r[n into ! crucible1 & ! cov] plac$ on quickly1 & imm$iately aft] ! phosphorus1 ! latt] unites ) ! calcium1 & =ms a br[n sub/ance :i* produces gase\s phosphide ( hydrog5 7,,ph#c7 :5 plac$ 9 wat]1 & ! gas takes fire spontane\sly :5 x comes 9 contact ) ! air4 ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,phosphorus plac$ 9 a retort ) a tol]ably /rong solution ( pota%1 & a small quantity ( e!r1 af=ds a l>ge quantity ( phosphide ( hydrog5 7commonly call$ phosphurett$ hydrog57 :5 boil$4 ,! neck ( ! retort mu/ dip into a bas9 ( wat]1 & ! object ( ! e!r is to prev5t ! combu/ion ( ! fir/ bubbles ( gas inside ! retort1 :i* by _! explosion w\ld probably break ! glass4 ,if ! neck ( ! retort is kept "u wat] 9 :i* pota% is dissolv$1 ! gas may be g5]at$ = _m days at pleasure1 al?\gh x is n a desirable exp]im5t to r5ew too (t51 on acc\nt ( ! disagreeable od\r produc$4 7,fig4 #aeg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,a retort conta9+ ! phosphorus1 wat]1 pota%1 & e!r4 ,b4 ,neck dipp+ into a bas9 ( wat]4 ,c4 ,! gas burn+1 & produc+ beautiful r+s ( smoke4 ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 a j> ( oxyg5 is held ov] ! neck ( ! retort g5]at+ ! phosphurett$ hydrog51 a bright fla% ( light & explosion are obs]v$2 & if ! exp]im5t is p]=m$ 9 a d>k5$ room1 x is j l a sudd5 fla% ( lightn+4 ,a bottle ( *lor9e held ov] ! neck ,page #agb ( ! retort1 & dipp+ ( c\rse 9 ! wat] ( ! bas91 produces a gre5 flame e "t ! bubble ( gas passes into x4 ,t curi\s appe>ance ( light1 sometimes se5 9 m>%y di/ricts1 call$ w-o'-!-wisp1 is suppos$ to be due to ! escape1 f decompos+ matt]1 ( bubbles ( hydrog51 nitrog51 c41 ?r\gh :i* ! spontane\sly inflammable phosphide ( hydrog5 is diffus$4 ,at a place call$ ,dead ,man's ,isl&1 ne> ,%e]ness1 magnific5t effects ( ?is k9d are sometimes app>5t :5 ! mud banks are accid5tally /irr$ at night by a boat-hook4 ,a cr$ible obs]v] says1 he once saw !re a fla% ( yell[i%-gre5 light1 accompani$ ) noise1 ab\t ?irty feet 9 height4 ,! app>5t height might be due to ! duration ( ! impression ( ! fla% on ! eye1 z ! light f ! burn+ phosphurett$ hydrog5 asc5d$ rapidly upw>ds4 ,! s\rce ( ?is gas appe>s to be due to ! fact1 t dur+ ! "t "s ,russian %ips 7 wat*$ by ! ,bre/ fleet1 a numb] ( ! sailors di$ ( *ol]a1 & 7 buri$ 9 ! banks2 ! decomposition ( ! bone conta9+ phosphorus w\ld acc\nt = ! appe>ance ( light already describ$4 ,) ! discussion ( "s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ prop]ties ( ! ?irte5 non-metallic elem5ts we take leave ( ! subject ( *emi/ry1 res]v+ ! consid]ation ( ! metals = ano!r popul> juv5ile "w1 ( :i* !y w =m ! subject4 ,9 answ] to ! (t-repeat$ "q1 ,:]e c ,i get ! ?+s = ! exp]im5ts8 x may be /at$ t e k9d ( glass vessel & ! *emicals m5tion$ 9 ?is *apt]1 c be procur$ ei!r ( ,messrs4 ,simpson1 ,maule1 & ,co41 ,k5n+ton1 or ( ,griff9 & ,co41 ,bunhill-r[1 or ,bolton & ,co41 ,high ,holborn4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,w-o'-!-wisp4 ,page #agc ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,frictional ,,electricity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,frankl9 & 8 kite4 ,( all ! ag5ts ) :i* man is acqua9t$1 n "o c af=d a great] s\rce ( wond]m5t to ! ignorant1 ( m$itation to ! le>n$1 ?an ! effects ( t m>vell\s =ce p]vad+ all matt] call$ electricity4 ,we look at matt] end[$ ) life1 & matt] want+ ?is div9e gift1 ) "s degree ( int]e/1 dep5d+ on our v>i\s ta/es & occupations2 we "k at a glance a bird1 a bea/1 or a fi%2 we obs]ve ) pleasure & admiration ! wond]ful *anges ( nature1 & "k t a few se$s ?r[n into ! brok5 clods & well-till$ e>? may become ei!r ! wav+1 gold5 corn-field or 9 "t may gr[ f ! t5d] little %rub to ! /ately =e/-tree2 we "k all ^! ?+s because !y belong to ! visible _w1 & are cont9ually pass+ be=e our eyes3 b 9 look+ at ! visible1 we mu/ n =get & ignore ! invisible4 ,x may ) tru? be ,page #agd /at$ t ! greate/ p[]s ( nature are all conceal$1 & if any tru? w\ld lead u f ,nature to ,nature's ,god1 x is ! fact t no visible1 solid1 tangible ag5t c "w ) s mu* =ce & p[] z invisible electricity4 ,_m c5turies pass$ away s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 be=e ! human m9d 0 prep>$ to appreciate ?is great p[] ( nature2 o!r =ces _h claim$ att5tion1 & ! diff]5ce 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( two ( ! impond]able ag5ts1 heat & light1 z d]iv$ f ! sun1 9 ! effects ( ! *ange ( ! seasons1 & o!r common facts1 _h l$ philosoph]s to speculate e>ly ^u _! nature2 b electricity1 f its peculi> prop]ties1 long escap$ obs]vation1 & x 0 n until ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury 7ab\t #agcj7 t any mat]ial facts _h be5 discov]$ 9 ?is sci5ce1 :5 ,mr4 ,/eph5 ,grey1 a p5sion] ( ! ,*>t]h\se1 discov]$ :at he t]m$ electrics & non-electrics1 & also ! use ( insulat+ mat]ials1 su* z silk1 res91 glass1 hair1 c42 & x is obvi\s t1 until ! latt] fact 0 discov]$1 ! sci5ce w\ld rema9 9 abeyance1 because !re w\ld be no mode ( pres]v+ ! electrical excitem5t 9 ! abs5ce ( non-conductors ( ?is =ce4 ,! ye> #agej 0 rem>kable = ,volta's discov]ies & ,dr4 ,frankl9's id5tification ( ! electricity ( ! ma*9e ) ! /up5d\s effects ( ! ?und]/orm4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 9 #ahjj1 ) 8 comm&+ g5ius1 ?rew fre% light ^u ! already num]\s electrical effects discov]$4 ,9 #ahba1 ,f>aday comm5c$ 8 /udies 9 ?is bran* ( philosophy2 :i* he has s9ce s dilig5tly foll[$ up1 t he has be5 = "s ye>s1 & is /ill ! fir/ electrician ( ! age4 ,f ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 discov]ies h succe$$ ea* o!r 9 regul> ord] & ) ! mo/ amaz+ results2 & n[ electricity is regul>ly employ$ z a money-gett+ ag5t 9 ! process ( ! electrotype & electro-silv]+ & gild+2 also 9 ! electric telegraph2 & 9 a few ye>s we may possibly see x commonly employ$ z a s\rce ( artificial light4 ,! nature ( electricity1 says ,turn]1 l t ( heat1 is at pres5t involv$ 9 obscurity4 ,bo? ^! pr9ciples1 if really mat]ial1 are s light1 subtle1 & diffuse1 t x has hi!rto be5 f\nd impossible to recognise 9 !m ! ord9>y *>act]i/ics ( matt]2 & !re=e electric ph5om5a may be ref]r$1 n to ! ag5cy ( a specific sub/ance1 b to "s prop]ty or /ate ( common matt]1 j z s\nd & light are produc$ by a vibrat+ m$ium4 ,b ! effects ( electricity are s simil> to ^? ( a me*anical ag5t1 x appe>s s di/9ctly to emanate f sub/ances :i* conta9 x 9 excess1 & r5ds asund] all ob/acles 9 its c\rse s exactly l a body 9 rapid motion1 t ! impression ( its exi/5ce z a di/9ct mat]ial sub/ance sui g5]is =ces itself irresi/ibly on ! m9d4 ,all nations1 accord+ly1 h spontane\sly concurr$ 9 reg>d+ electricity z a mat]ial pr9ciple2 & sci5tific m5 give a pref]5ce to ! same view1 because x (f]s an easy explanation ( ph5om5a1 & sugge/s a natural language intelligible to all4 ,page #age ,!re are five well-asc]ta9$ s\rces ( electricity1 & ?ree :i* are consid]$ to be unc]ta94 ,! five s\rces are friction1 *emical action1 heat1 magnetism1 peculi> animal organisms4 ,! ?ree unc]ta9 s\rces are contact1 evaporation1 & ! sol> rays4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,a /ick ( seal+-wax or a bit ( glass tube1 p]fectly dry1 rubb$ aga9/ a w>m piece ( flannel1 has elicit$ ^u its surface a new p[]1 :i* w attract bits ( pap]1 /raw1 or o!r light mat]ials2 & aft] ^! sub/ances are end[$ ) ! same =ce1 a repell5t action takes place1 & !y fly (f4 ,"o ( ! mo/ conv5i5t arrangem5ts = mak+ exp]im5ts ) ! attractive & repell5t p[]s ( electricity is to fix ) %ell-lac v>ni% r\nd discs ( gilt pap]1 ( ! size ( a half-cr[n1 at ea* end ( a long /raw t is support$ ab\t ! c5tre ) a silk ?read1 :i* may hang f ! ceil+ or any o!r conv5i5t support4 7,fig4 #afj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,a4 ,! glass pill> support4 ,b4 ,/raw ) discs1 hang+ by a silk ?read4 ,! v>ni% is easily prep>$ by plac+ f\r or eight ounces ( %ell-lac 9 a bottle1 & p\r+ en\gh pyroxylic _s 7commonly t]m$ wood naph?a7 ^u ! lac to cov] x4 ,aft] a %ort "t1 & by agitation1 solution takes place4 ,9 a v>iety ( ways friction is prov$ to be a s\rce ( electricity1 & =ms a di/9ct bran* ( ! sci5ce1 "u ! "n ( frictional electricity4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,! nature ( *emical action has be5 already expla9$1 & is allud$ to "h z a s\rce ( electricity ( :i* ! pro( is v simple4 ,a piece ( copp] & a simil>-siz$ plate ( z9c h atta*$ to !m copp] wires2 ^! plates are plac$ opposite to1 b d n t\* ea* o!r1 9 a vessel conta9+ wat] acidulat$ ) a small quantity ( sulphuric acid4 ,:5 ! wires are br\ght 9 contact1 a curr5t ( electricity circulates ?r\gh ! arrangem5t1 b has no p[] to attract bits ( pap]1 /raw1 c4 ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 :e!r ! curr5t ( electricity passes or n1 a piece ( cov]$ copp] wire is b5t sev]al times r\nd a magnetic ne$le1 s t x has fre$om ( motion inside ! core or holl[ =m$ by twi/+ ! copp] wire4 ,?is arrangem5t1 prop]ly con/ruct$1 is call$ ! galvanomet] ,page #agf ne$le1 & is invaluable z a means ( asc]ta9+ ! passage ( electricity d]iv$ f *emical action4 7,fig4 #afa47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,a4 ,! galvanomet] ne$le4 ,b4 ,vessel conta9+ weak acid & ! z9c & copp] plates4 ,! arr[s %[ ! pa? ( ! electric curr5t4 ,:5 ! wires lead+ f ! metal plates are connect$ ) ! extremities ( ! coil 9 ! galvanomet]1 ! ne$le is deflect$ or pu%$ aside to ! "r h& or to ! left1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! curr5t4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,! ?ird s\rce ( electricity is heat1 & ! effect ( ?is ag5t is well %[n by twi/+ toge!r a piece ( plat9um & silv] wire1 s z to =m "o l5g?4 ,if ! silv] end is atta*$ to any screw ( ! galvanomet]1 & ! plat9um end to ! second screw1 no movem5t ( ! magnetic ne$le takes place until ! heat ( a _s-lamp is appli$ = a mom5t to ! po9t ( juncture betwe5 ! silv] & plat9um wires1 :5 ! magnetic ne$le is imm$iately deflect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,a4 ,! galvanomet] ne$le1 ) wires atta*$4 ,s1 ,s4 ,silv] wire jo9$ to ,p1 ,p1 ! plat9um wire4 ,! heat ( ! _s-lamp is appli$ at ! po9t ( juncture1 4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,! f\r? s\rce ( electricity--viz41 magnetism--requires a some:at m complicat$ arrangem5t2 & a mo/ delicate galvanomet] ne$le mu/ be provid$1 to :i* is atta*$ ! extremities ( a long spiral coil ( copp] wire cov]$ ) cotton or silk4 ,e "t a b> magnet is introduc$ inside ! coil1 s t ! conduct+ wire cuts ! magnetic curves1 a deflection ( ! galvanomet] ne$le takes place1 ,page #agg & ! same effect is produc$ on ! )drawal ( ! magnet1 ! ne$le be+ deflect$ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! magnetic sp>k c be obta9$ by employ+ a magnet ( suffici5t p[]2 & ! arrangem5t = ?is purpose is v simple4 ,a cyl9d] ( s(t iron is provid$1 & r\nd its c5tre are w\nd a few feet ( cov]$ ?9 copp] wire1 "o end ( :i* is t]m9at$ ) a copp] disc well amalgamat$1 & ! o!r end1 aft] be+ prop]ly clean$ & coat$ ) m]cury1 is br\ght into contact ) ! disc4 ,directly ?is cyl9d] is laid across ! poles ( ! magnet1 & z quickly remov$1 ! po9t & disc1 f ! ela/icity ( ! =m]1 sep>ate = ! mom5t1 ! contact is brok5 betwe5 ! po9t & disc1 & a brilliant b t9y sp>k is app>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,a ,b4 ,horse-%oe magnet4 ,c4 ,cyl9d] ( s(t iron4 ,d4 ,coil ( copp] wire & contact break]4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,! fif? mode ( procur+ electricity w\ld require ! assi/ance ( an electrical eel1 a f9e specim5 ( :i* 7=ty in*es 9 l5g?7 0 exhibit$ at ! ,adelaide ,gall]y "s ye>s ago4 ,v>i\s exp]im5ts 7 made ) ?is animal1 & ! au?or _h ! pleasure ( witness+ all ! ord9>y ph5om5a ( frictional electricity1 illu/rat$ by ,dr4 ,f>aday1 ) ! assi/ance ( ! animal electricity d]iv$ f ?is curi\s creature4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts h1 h[ev]1 prov$ t ! electric curr5t is induc$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! n]v\s ,page #agh sy/em4 ,?is important fact has be5 communicat$ by ,m4 ,dubois-,raymond1 ^: exp]im5t is ?us record$3--,a cyl9d] ( wood is firmly fix$ aga9/ ! edge ( a table2 two vessels fill$ ) salt & wat] are plac$ on ! table1 9 su* a position t a p]son grasp+ ! cyl9d] may1 at ! same "t1 ins]t ! =e-f+] ( ea* h& 9 ! wat]4 ,ea* vessel conta9s a metallic plate1 & communicates1 by two wires1 ) an extremely s5sitive galvanomet]4 ,9 ! in/rum5t employ$ by ,m4 ,dubois-,raymond1 ! wire is ab\t #c miles 9 l5g?4 ,! app>atus be+ ?us arrang$1 ! exp]im5t] grasps ! cyl9d] ( wood firmly ) bo? h&s1 at ! same "t dipp+ ! =e-f+] ( ea* h& 9 ! sal9e wat]4 ,! ne$le ( ! galvanomet] rema9s undi/urb$2 ! electric curr5ts pass+ by ! n]ves ( ea* arm1 & be+ ( ! same =ce1 neutralize ea* o!r4 ,n[1 if ! exp]im5t] grasp ) en]gy ! cyl9d] ( wood ) ! "r h&1 ! left h& rema9+ relax$ & free1 imm$iately ! ne$le w move f we/ to s\?1 & describe an angle ( #cj1 #dj1 & ev5 #ej2 on relax+ ! grasp1 ! ne$le w return to its orig9al position4 ,! exp]im5t may be rev]s$ by employ+ ! left arm1 & leav+ ! "r arm free3 ! ne$le w1 9 ?is case1 be deflect$ f we/ to nor?4 ,! rev]s+ ( ! action ( ! ne$le proves ! influ5ce ( ! n]v\s =ce4 ,! conditions1 x may be add$1 ess5tial to ! success ( ! exp]im5t are3 #a/1 ,great muscul> & n]v\s en]gy2 #bnd1 ,! contraction ( only "o arm at a "t2 #crd1 ,dryness & cleanl9ess ( sk92 & #d?1 ,fre$om f any k9d ( w\nd on ! imm]s$ "p4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,9 mak+ electrical exp]im5ts ( ! simple/ k9d1 x soon becomes app>5t t c]ta9 sub/ances1 su* z glass1 seal+-wax1 c41 reta9 ! condition ( electrical excitem5t2 :il/ o!r bodies1 & especially ! metals1 seem :olly incapable ( electrical excitation3 h5ce ! classification ( bodies into conductors & non-conductors ( electricity4 ,?is arrangem5t is n /rictly correct1 because no sub/ance c be reg>d$ z absolutely a conductor1 or vice v]s4 ,x is bett] to consid] ^! t]ms z mean+ ! two extremes ( a long *a9 ( int]m$iate l9ks1 :i* pass by ins5sible gradations ! "o into ! o!r4 ,9 ! manufacture ( electrical app>atus1 glass is ( c\rse l>gely employ$1 & ?is sub/ance1 ) brass & wood1 con/itute ! usual mat]ials4 ,"o ( ! mo/ in/ructive pieces ( app>atus is ! electroscope1 :i* c be made ) a gas j>1 a cork1 a piece ( glass tube1 brass wire & ball1 or a flat disc ( brass1 ) "s ,dut* metal1 or /ill bett]1 gold leaf4 ,! latt] is fir/ cut into /rips by reta9+ ! leaf betwe5 a %eet ( well-glaz$ pap] & cutt+ ?r\gh ! pap] & ! copp] or gold leaf1 o!rwise x w\ld be impossible to cut ! metal1 on acc\nt ( its excessive ?9ness1 except ) a gild]'s knife & cu%ion4 ,! cork is next fitt$ to ! gas j>1 & p]=at$ ) a hole to admit ! glass tube1 :i* mu/ be ?or\ghly dry1 & ,page #agi is be/ coat$ bo? inside & out ) ! %ell-lac v>ni% describ$ at page #age4 ,"s dry silk is w\nd r\nd ! brass wire1 s t x rema9s fix$ & upright 9 ! glass tube1 ! end outside ! j> hav+ a ball1 or /ill bett]1 a flat disc ( brass atta*$1 & ! o!r extremity be+ split s z to act l a pair ( =ceps1 to reta9 a piece ( c>d to :i* ! gold leaves are atta*$4 ,by remov+ ! cork1 tube1 & brass wire bodily f ! neck ( ! gas j>1 & !n 9 a p]fectly /ill atmosph]e c>efully br++ ! c>d1 slightly wett$ ) gum at ! extremity1 on two ( ! cut gold leaves1 !y may be /uck on1 & ! :ole is aga9 arrang$ inside ! dry gas j>1 & =ms ! important in/rum5t call$ ! electroscope4 7,fig4 #afd47 ,) ! help ( ?is arrangem5t1 a numb] ( highly in/ructive exp]im5ts are p]=m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,a4 ,! brass wire1 ) flat disc outside1 & =ceps hold+ gold leaf ,b inside ! j>4 ,c ,c4 ,! glass tube4 ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,fir/1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 conductors & non-conductors is admirably %[n by rubb+ a bit ( seal+-wax aga9/ a piece ( wooll5 clo? or flannel2 on br++ ! wax to ! brass disc ( ! electroscope ! gold leaves no long] hang quietly side by side1 b /& out & repel ea* o!r1 9 ob$i5ce to ! law t bodies simil>ly electrifi$ repel ea* o!r4 ,if ! brass cap is t\*$ :il/ ! leaves are 9 ?is electrical /ate1 !y fall aga9 to _! orig9al position1 %[+ t seal+-wax1 aft] be+ excit$1 reta9s its electrical condition1 z also ! gold leaves1 because !y are support$ on glass1 or :at is t]m$ insulat$--i4e41 cut (f f conduct+ communication ) surr\nd+ objects4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! seal+-wax is pass$ ?r\gh a damp h&1 or ! brass disc ( ! electroscope t\*$1 ! electricity is convey$ away to ! e>?1 because ! human body is a conductor ( electricity4 ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 a brass wire is rubb$ & br\ght to ! electroscope1 ! leaves d n move1 9 consequ5ce ( ! electricity pass+ away to ! e>? ?r\gh ! body z fa/ z x is g5]at$3 x is j l p\r+ wat] into a leaky ci/]n2 b if ! brass wire is ti$ to a long /ick ( seal+-wax1 & ?is latt] held 9 ! h& :il/ ! wire is rubb$ ) a bit ( flannel1 !n ! gold leaves ( ! electroscope are affect$1 on acc\nt ( ! insulation ( ! metal1 z e sub/ance :i* c be rubb$ 7ev5 fluids1 z wat]7 produces electricity4 ,page #ahj ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,an insulat+ /ool is m]ely a piece ( /rong squ>e bo>d1 support$ on glass legs1 :i* %\ld be well v>ni%$4 ,if ! assi/ant /&s on ?is /ool & t\*es ! disc ( ! electroscope1 no movem5t ( ! leaves takes place until 8 coat is briskly /ruck ) a piece ( dry silk or sk91 :5 ! usual repulsion occurs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,assi/ant /&+ on ! insulat+ /ool & t\*+ ! disc ( ! electroscope :il/ be+ /ruck ) a dry h&k]*ief4 ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,if a little p[d]$ *alk is plac$ inside a pair ( bell[s1 & !n =cibly eject$ on to ! disc ( ! electroscope1 ! friction ( ! p>ticles ( *alk aga9/ ! inside ( ! nozzle ( ! bell[s & aga9/ ! disc ( ! in/rum5t soon lib]ates suffici5t electricity to cause ! gold leaves to /& out & repel ea* o!r4 ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,:il/ ! leaves ( ! electroscope are repell$ f ea* o!r by ! application ( a bit ( rubb$ seal+-wax1 !y may be aga9 caus$ to approa* ea* o!r on br++ a dry glass tube previ\sly rubb$ ) a silk-h&k]*ief2 because ! electricity obta9$ f seal+-wax is diff]5t f t procur$ f glass3 ! =m] is call$ res9\s or negative electricity1 ! latt] positive or vitre\s electricity4 ,ei!r1 sep>ately1 is repulsive ( its own p>ticles1 b attractive ( ! o!r4 ,page #aha ,no electrical excitation c occur )\t ! sep>ation ( ^! two curi\s /ates ( electricity1 & electrical quiesc5ce takes place :5 ! two electricities are br\ght toge!r2 h5ce ! fall ( ! gold leaves repell$ by rubb$ wax :5 ! excit$ glass is br\ght t[>ds ! disc ( ! electroscope4 ,?is exp]im5t may be rev]s$ by repell+ ! leaves fir/ ) ! excit$ glass1 & !n br++ ! rubb$ wax1 :5 ! same effect takes place4 ,twelf? ,exp]im5t4 ,to %[ ! important elem5t>y tru?1 t 9 all cases ( electrical excitation ! two k9ds ( electricity are g5]at$1 take a dry roll ( flannel1 & hold+ x z lightly z possible1 rub x aga9/ a bit ( wax4 ,if ! flannel is br\ght to ! electroscope1 ! leaves repel ea* o!r1 & !y imm$iately fall :5 ! wax is n[ approa*$1 because ! flannel is 9 ! positive or vitre\s /ate ( electricity1 :il/ ! seal+-wax is 9 ! negative or res9\s condition4 ,?irte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,any k9d ( friction g5]ates electricity4 ,a little roll ( brim/one plac$ 9 a dry mort> & p[d]$1 & !n ?r[n on to ! electroscope1 quickly causes ! repulsion ( ! leaves4 ,f\rte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a %eet ( dry br[n pap] laid on a flat surface1 & vigor\sly rubb$ ) a piece ( india-rubb]1 produces s mu* electricity t sp>ks & fla%es ( light are app>5t 9 a d>k room :5 x is lift$ f ! table2 & x affects ! leaves ( ! electroscope v p[]fully1 s mu* s t c>e mu/ be tak5 to apply x v c>efully to ! disc1 or ! viol5ce ( ! repulsion may cause ! fracture ( ! gold leaves1 & !n a great deal ( "t is wa/$ be=e !y c be put on aga94 ,fifte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a dry wig or bun* ( horse-hair :5 comb$ becomes electrical1 & likewise affects ! leaves ( ! electroscope4 ,sixte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,two dry silk ribbons1 ! "o :ite & ! o!r black1 pass$ rapidly toge!r ?r\gh ! f+]s1 exhibit sp>ks & fla%es ( light :5 drawn asund]1 & also cause ! gold leaves to repel ea* o!r4 ,sev5te5? ,exp]im5t4 ,mu* in/ructive amusem5t is af=d$ by te/+ ! gold leaves :5 sep>at$ f ea* o!r dur+ ei!r ( ! =m] exp]im5ts1 ,page #ahb ) an excit$ piece ( seal+-wax4 ,if ! electricity produc$ is negative1 !y repel ea* o!r fur!r :5 ! excit$ wax is approa*$2 if positive1 !y fall :5 ! excit$ wax is br\ght ne> !m4 ,eighte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 fre%1 dry1 gr\nd c(fee is receiv$ on to ! disc ( ! electroscope1 z x falls f ! mill1 p[]ful electrical excitation is display$1 & ?is is sometimes s app>5t1 t ! p>ticles cl+ ar\nd ! l[] "p ( ! mill or to ! sides ( ! cup or bas9 held to cat* x4 ,n9ete5? ,exp]im5t4 ,aft] play+ a tune on a viol91 hold ! b[ 7well ros9$7 to ! electroscope1 :5 ! usual div]g5ce ( ! leaves w be app>5t4 ,tw5tie? ,exp]im5t4 ,cut "s *ips f a piece ( wood ) a knife atta*$ to a glass h&le1 & z !y fall on to ! electroscope ! leaves are repell$4 ,tw5ty-fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,w>m a piece ( bombaz9e by ! fire & !n draw out "s ( ! ?reads 7:i* are ( two k9ds--viz41 silk & wool71 & place !m on ! electroscope1 :5 div]g5ce ( ! leaves imm$iately takes place4 ,tw5ty-second ,exp]im5t4 ,put ^u ! same leg a wor/$ /ock+ & ov] t a silk "o1 if ! latt] is n[ quickly rubb$ all ov] ) a dry h& & ne> ! fire1 & !n sudd5ly slipp$ (f1 ! sides repel ea* o!r1 & ! silk /ock+ reta9s v mu* ! same %ape z if ! leg /ill rema9$ 9 x1 & ( c\rse collapses z ! electricity passes away4 ,tw5ty-?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,electrical ma*9es consi/ only 9 ! bett] arrangem5t ( l>g] pieces ( glass & a m conv5i5t me*anical contrivance = rubb+ !m1 & are ( two k9ds--viz41 ! cyl9d] & plate ma*9es2 x is usual to give directions = ! manufacture ( an electrical ma*9e f a common bottle1 & d\btless su* rude in/rum5ts h be5 made1 b z ,messrs4 ,elliott ,bro!rs1 ( #cj1 ,/r&1 n[ supply excell5t small ma*9es at a v l[ co/1 x is h>dly wor? :ile to incur ev5 a small exp5se = an in/rum5t t mu/ at ! be/ be a v imp]fect "o & frequ5tly out ( ord]4 7,fig4 #aff47 ,page #ahc ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,a cyl9d] electrical ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,! ord9>y plate electrical ma*9e4 ,plate ma*9es are some:at m exp5sive ?an cyl9d] ones1 b at ! same "t are m quickly prep>$ = exp]im5ts1 & ,mr4 ,he>d]1 ( ,plym\?1 /ates1 t ! secret 9 obta9+ ! greate/ am\nt ( electricity f a cyl9d] ma*9e1 is to keep ! inside ( ! glass absolutely clean1 dry1 & free f du/4 ,sometimes ! glass ( :i* electrical ma*9es are made is :olly unfit = electrical ,page #ahd purposes1 9 consequ5ce ( ! decomposition ( ! surface f imp]fect manufacture & ! lib]ation ( ! alkali4 7,figs4 #afg1 #afh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,woodw>d's d\ble plate electrical ma*9e1 giv+ a mu* l>g] quantity ( electricity ?an ,fig4 #afg4 ,tw5ty-f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,cyl9d] & plate ma*9es are furni%$ ) prop] rubb]s1 & be=e us+ ! in/rum5t x is usual to remove !m1 & aft] c>efully clean+ ! glass ) a dry silk h&k]*ief be=e a fire1 ! rubb]s are scrap$ ) a pap]-knife to remove ! old amalgam1 & fre% appli$ by fir/ melt+ ! end ( a tall[ c&le slightly1 & aft] pass+ ?is ov] ! rubb]1 ! f9ely p[d]$ amalgam is n[ du/$ on to x4 ,electrical amalgam is prep>$ by fus+ "o "p ( z9c ) "o ( t91 & !n agitat+ ! liquid mass ) two p>ts ( hot m]cury plac$ 9 a wood5 box2 :5 cold x %\ld be c>efully p[d]$ & kept 9 a well-/opp]$ bottle = use4 ,:5 ! amalgam has be5 appli$1 ! rubb]s are aga9 screw$ 9 _! places1 & ! ma*9e :5 turn$ 7if ! atmosph]e is tol]ably dry7 w emit an abundance ( bright sp>ks4 ,tw5ty-fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,attraction & repulsion are %[n on a l>g] scale1 ) ! assi/ance ( electrical ma*9es1 by plac+ a fi%+ rod 7! la/ jo9t ( ,page #ahe :i* is made ( glass7 9 an erect position1 & atta*+ to ! extremity a long tassel ( pap] f :i* a ?9 wire passes to ! prime conductor ( ! electrical ma*9e2 on turn+ ! in/rum5t1 ! /rips ( pap] all /& out & repel ea* o!r4 7,fig4 #afi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,a ,a4 ,! glass jo9t ( ! fi%+-rod1 f :i* ! la/ jo9t1 c>ry+ ! pap] tassel1 ,b1 projects4 ,c4 ,! electrical ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,a4 ,prime conductor4 ,b4 ,upp] brass-plate4 ,c4 ,l[] ditto4 ,! figures are se5 betwe5 ,b & ,c4 ,tw5ty-six? ,exp]im5t4 ,susp5d f ! prime conductor by a *a9 a circul> brass plate & "u ?is place ano!r support$ by a brass adju/+ /&4 ,if pi? figures ( m5 & wom5 are plac$ on ! l[] plate1 !y rise directly ! ma*9e is turn$1 al?\gh sometimes1 9 consequ5ce ( irregul>ity 9 ! adju/m5t ( ! c5tre ( gravity1 !y p]v]sely dance on _! heads in/ead ( ! usual position2 out ( half a doz5 figures1 "o only p]haps w be f\nd to dance well1 by alt]nately jump+ to ! upp] plate & fall+ to ! l[] "o to dis*>ge ! excess ( electricity2 & inde$ ! exp]im5t w be f\nd to succe$ bett] ) "o or two only on ! plate in/ead ( a numb]1 z !y cl+ toge!r & imp$e ea* o!r's movem5ts4 7,fig4 #agj47 ,page #ahf ,tw5ty-sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,an assi/ant provid$ ) a wig ( well-comb$ hair pres5ts a mo/ ridicul\s appe>ance :5 /&+ on ! insulat+ /ool & connect$ by a wire ) ! prime conductor ( ! electrical ma*9e1 e hair1 :5 n matt$ toge!r1 /&+ out 9 ! mo/ absurd mann]1 :5 ! ma*9e is put 9 motion4 ,tw5ty-eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,:il/ /&+ on ! /ool1 sp>ks may be obta9$ f 8 body1 & if "s t[ is ti$ ov] a brass ball1 & moi/5$ ) a little e!r1 & pres5t$ to ! tip ( 8 f+]1 a sp>k flies (f :i* quickly sets fire to ! inflammable liquid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,a ,a ,a4 ,a r+ ( brass wire support$ on a glass pill> inside :i* ! spiral tube1 ,b1 revolves1 & produces beautiful & ev]-*ang+ circles ( light1 :5 connect$ ) ! conductor1 ,c1 ( ! electrical ma*9e4 ,tw5ty-n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,if small discs ( t9foil1 cut out ) a prop] /amp1 are pa/$ 9 cont9u\s l9es ov] plate glass1 or spirally r\nd glass tubes1 a v ,page #ahg pretty effect is produc$ :5 !y receive ! sp>ks f ! electrical ma*9e1 & ! passage ( ! electricity f "o disc to ! o!r produces a vivid spiral or o!r l9e ( light4 ,:5 ! tube is m\nt$ 9 a prop] app>atus1 s z to revolve :il/ ! sp>ks pass d[n ! spiral tube1 ! effect ( ! cont9u\s electric sp>ks is mu* height5$4 7,fig4 #aga47 ,?irtie? ,exp]im5t4 ,a great v>iety ( exp]im5ts1 dep5d+ on ! prop] arrangem5t ( discs ( t9foil on v>i\s tubes ( col\r$ glass are manufactur$1 & "s 9 ! =m ( w9dmills1 ! sails be+ made lum9\s by ! passage ( ! electricity4 ,! names ( illu/ri\s electricians1 beautiful cresc5ts1 />s1 & ev5 pr(ile portraits1 h be5 produc$ 9 cont9u\s /reams ( electric sp>ks4 ,?irty-fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 an electrifi$ body is br\ght t[>ds ano!r :i* is n electrical1 ! latt] is ?r[n into ! opposite /ate ( electricity z long z ! excit$ body rema9s 9 its neighb\rhood2 & ?is condition ( electrical di/urbance1 set up )\t any contact or supply ( electricity1 is call$ induction1 & involves a va/ numb] ( int]e/+ facts1 :i* are ?or\ghly discuss$ 9 ,dr4 ,noad's excell5t "w on electricity1 b c only be briefly allud$ to "h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,! l5g?s ( brass wire support$ on glass rod pill>s ind5t$ by bl[pipe1 s z to reta9 ! brass wires ) ! pi? balls hang+ f ea* s]ies1 ! lett]s ,p & ,n mean ,positive & ,negative1 & ! signs = ^! t]ms are plac$ above4 ,! lett]s ,p & ,n are pa9t$ on ! blocks :i* support ! glass rods4 ,if a numb] ( l5g?s ( brass wire1 suppli$ ) balls at ! extremities1 are support$ on glass legs & arrang$ 9 a l9e1 ) a little pi? ball atta*$ to a ?read hang+ f ea* end ( ! l5g? ( brass wire1 ! effect ( induction is %[n v nicely2 & :5 an excit$ glass rod is br\ght t[>ds "o end ( ! s]ies1 ! ris+ ( ! pi? balls to ea* o!r betrays ! *ange :i* has occurr$ 9 ! electrical /ate ( ! brass wires by ! m]e neighb\rhood ( ! excit$ glass tube4 ,! glass tube is electrifi$ positively1 & attracts ! negative electricity f ! brass wire t[>ds ! end ne>e/ to x2 ,page #ahh ! o!r extremity ( ! brass wire is f\nd to be 9 ! positive /ate1 & ?is re-act+ on ! next1 & s on ?r\gh\t ! l5g?s1 completes ! electrical di/urbance 9 ! :ole s]ies4 7,fig4 #agb47 ,?irty-second ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,a ,a4 ,l>ge circul> t9 or brass disc ) turn$-up edge half an in* deep1 & conta9+ ! res9\s mixture ,b1 :i* is rubb$ ) ! w>m flannel4 ,c ,c4 ,! upp] plate support$ by ! glass h&le ,d1 a pi? ball atta*$ to a wire %[s ! electrical excitation1 & ! sp>k is suppos$ to be pass+ to ! h& ,e4 ,if an insulat$ brass rod 7su* z has be5 describ$ 9 ! la/ exp]im5t7 is t\*$ by ! f+] :il/ "u induction1 x rema9s p]man5tly electrifi$ on ! removal ( ! di/urb+ electrifi$ body2 & x is on ?is pr9ciple t ! useful electrical ma*9e call$ ! ,electrophorus is con/ruct$4 ,?is con/ant electrical ma*9e--= x w rema9 9 action dur+ weeks & mon?s if kept suffici5tly dry--0 inv5t$ by ,volta 9 ! ye> #aggd1 & has be5 br\ght to great p]fection by ,mr4 ,lewis ,m4 ,/u>t1 ( ! ,city ( ,london ,s*ool2 s t ) a little additional app>atus ! :ole ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( electricity c be demon/rat$4 ,x consi/s ( a flat brass or t9 circul> di% ab\t two feet 9 diamet] & half an in* deep1 :i* is fill$ ) a composition ( equal p>ts ( black ros91 %ell-lac1 & ,v5ice turp5t9e2 ! ros9 & ! ,v5ice turp5t9e be+ fir/ melt$ toge!r1 & ! %ell-lac add$ aft]w>ds1 c>e ( c\rse be+ tak5 t ! mat]ials d n boil ov] & cat* fire1 9 :i* case ! pot mu/ be remov$ f ! heat1 & a piece ( wet baize or o!r wooll5 mat]ial ?r[n ov] x4 ,ano!r t9 or brass circul> plate ( twelve in*es diamet]1 & support$ 9 ! c5tre ) a v>ni%$ glass h&le n9e in*es long1 is also provid$1 & ! res9\s plate be+ fir/ excit$ by sev]al sm>t bl[s ) a w>m roll ( flannel1 ! plate held by ! glass h&le is n[ laid ^u ! c5tre ( ! res9\s "o1 & if remov$ directly aft]w>ds1 does n af=d ! electric sp>k2 b if1 :il/ /&+ ^u ! excit$ res9\s plate1 x is t\*$1 & !n remov$ by ! glass h&le1 a p[]ful electric sp>k is obta9$2 & ?is may be repeat$ ov] & ov] aga9 ) ! l results1 provid$ ! plate ) ! glass h&le is t\*$ ) ! f+] j be=e lift+ x f ! res9\s plate4 7,fig4 #agc47 ,page #ahi ,! electricity excit$ on ! res9\s plate is n lo/1 & by induction sets up ! opposite condition 9 ! plate ) ! glass h&le4 ,! res9\s plate1 be+ excit$ ) negative electricity1 di/urbs ! electrical quiesc5ce ( ! upp] plate1 & positive electricity is f\nd on ! surface t\*+ ! res9\s plate1 & negative electricity on ! upp] "o1 s t :5 x is remov$ )\t be+ t\*$1 ! two electricities come toge!r aga91 & no sp>k is obta9$2 b if1 z already describ$1 ! upp] plate is t\*$ :il/ "u induction1 !n positive electricity appe>s to pass f ! f+] to ! negative electricity on ! upp] side ( ! plate1 :5 ! two tempor>ily neutralize ea* o!r1 & !n1 :5 ! plate is remov$1 ! excess ( electricity d]iv$ f ! e>? ?r\gh ! f+] becomes app>5t4 ,induction requires no s5sible ?ickness 9 ! conductors1 & c be j z well produc$ on a leaf ( gold z on ! ?icke/ plate ( metal2 & x %\ld be rememb]$ t non-conductors d n reta9 _! /ate ( electrical excitation :5 ! di/urb+ cause is remov$1 :]eas conductors possess ?is p[]1 & ?is fact br+s u to ! consid]ation ( ! ,leyd5 j>4 ,?irty-?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,if "o side ( a dry glass plate is held be=e & t\*es a brass ball proce$+ f ! prime conductor ( an electrical ma*9e :il/ 9 action1 ! o!r side is soon f\nd to be electrical2 ?is does n arise f ! conduction ( ! electricity ?r\gh ! p>ticles ( ! glass1 b is produc$ by induction1 ! side ne>e/ ! ball be+ 9 ! positive /ate1 & ! o!r side negative3 z glass is a non-conductor ( electricity1 ! effect is mu* increas$ by coat+ ea* side ) t9foil1 leav+ a m>g9 ( ab\t two in*es ( uncov]$ glass r\nd ! cov]$ portion1 !n1 if "o side ( su* a plate is held to ! prime conductor ( ! electrical ma*9e1 & ! o!r connect$ ) ! gr\nd1 a p[]ful *>ge is accumulat$2 & if ! opposite sides are br\ght 9 contact ) a b5t brass wire1 a l\d snapp+ noise is he>d1 & ! two electricities resid5t on ei!r side ( ! glass come toge!r ) ! production ( a brilliant sp>k1 or if ! h&s are sub/itut$ = ! b5t brass wire1 t mo/ disagreeable result is obta9$--viz41 an electric %ock2 h5ce ^! glass plates are sometimes fitt$ up z pictures1 & :5 *>g$ & h&$ to ! unsuspect+ recipi5t1 he or %e receives ! electric dis*>ge to ! great discom=t ( _! n]v\s sy/em4 ,mica is sometimes sub/itut$ = glass1 & ! late ,mr4 ,crosse1 ! celebrat$ electrician1 con/ruct$ a p[]ful comb9ation ( coat$ plates ( ?is m9]al4 ,x consi/$ ( sev5te5 plates ( ?9 mica1 ea* five in*es by f\r1 coat$ on bo? sides ) t9foil )9 half an in* ( ! edge4 ,!y 7 arrang$ 9 a box ) a glass plate betwe5 ea* mica plate1 all ! upp] sides 7 connect$ by /rips ( t9foil to "o side ( ! box1 & all ! "u surfaces 9 ! same mann] ) ! opposite extremity ( ! box4 ,!y 7 *>g$ l an ord9>y ,leyd5 batt]y4 ,page #aij ,?irty-f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,if ! glass plate coat$ ) t9foil is *>g$1 & !n plac$ upright on a /&1 x may be sl[ly dis*>g$ by plac+ a b5t wire on ! edge ) ! extremities cov]$ ) pi? balls4 ,! wire balances itself1 & cont9ues to oscillate ) noise until ! electricities ( ! two surfaces neutralize ea* o!r4 7,fig4 #agd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,a ,a4 ,glass plate or /& coat$ ) t9foil on ea* side1 ,b4 ,c4 ,wire ) pi? balls oscillat+ dur+ ! dis*>ge ( ! glass plate4 ,?irty-fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,x is easy to imag9e ! glass plate ( ! la/ exp]im5t roll$ up into ! m conv5i5t =m ( ! ,leyd5 j>1 :i* consi/s ( a glass vessel l9$ bo? inside & out ) t9foil1 leav+ "s two or ?ree in*es ( ! glass r\nd ! m\? uncov]$ & v>ni%$ ) %ell-lac2 a piece ( dry wood is fitt$ into ! m\? ( ! j>1 ?r\gh :i* a brass wire & *a9 are pass$1 & ! end outside is fitt$ ) a ball4 ,! ,leyd5 j> is *>g$ by hold+ ! ball to ! prime conductor ( ! electrical ma*9e until a sort ( :izz+ noise is he>d1 caus$ by ! excess ( electricity pass+ r\nd ! uncov]$ "p ( ! j> & n ?r\gh x1 z ! smalle/ crack 9 ! glass ( ! ,leyd5 j> w\ld r5d] x useless4 ,electricity is sometimes call$ a fluid1 & ! fact ( collect+ x l wat] 9 a j>1 helps u to und]/& ?is analogy4 ,! noise1 ! bright sp>k1 or ! %ock are obta9$ by grasp+ ! outside ) "o h& & t\*+ ! ball ) a brass wire held 9 ! o!r4 7,fig4 #age47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,! ,leyd5 j> & brass wire dis*>g]4 ,?irty-six? ,exp]im5t4 ,! j> is sil5tly dis*>g$ if ! balls are remov$ f ! dis*>g] & po9ts us$ in/ead2 s1 also1 ! :ole ( ! electricity produc$ by an electrical ma*9e 9 full action may be readily drawn (f by a po9t$ conductor1 su* z a ne$le1 plac$ at ! end ( a brass wire4 ,electricity passes mu* m rapidly ?r\gh po9ts ?an r\nd$ surfaces1 h5ce ! reason :y all p>ts ( electrical app>atus are free f %>p po9ts & r\gh asp]ities4 ,page #aia ,?irty-sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,extremely ?9 wires may be burnt by pass+ ! *>ge ( a l>ge ,leyd5 j> ?r\gh !m4 ,! %[ j>s1 call$ specie j>s1 usually decorat$ & plac$ 9 ! w9d[s ( *emi/s' %ops1 make excell5t ,leyd5 j>s1 :5 n too ?ick2 & ) two ( ! l>ge/1 all ! int]e/+ effects produc$ by accumulat$ electricity may be display$4 ,to pass ! dis*>ge ?r\gh wires1 no?+ m is requir$ ?an to /ra9 !m across a dry mahogany bo>d1 betwe5 two brass wires & balls1 & if a %eet ( :ite pap] is plac$ "u !m1 mo/ curi\s m>k+s are produc$ by ! f9e p>ticles ( ! deflagrat$ metal bl[n into ! surface ( ! pap]4 ,an arrangem5t ( two or m ,leyd5 j>s is usually call$ a ,leyd5 ,batt]y1 j z a s+le cannon is spok5 ( z a gun1 :il/ two or m con/itute a batt]y4 7,fig4 #agf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,a4 ,mahogany bo>d ) a %eet ( :ite pap] & ?ree pairs ( brass wires & balls fix$ 9 ! wire1 ?ree on ea* side4 ,! ?9 wires are /ret*$ betwe5 ! balls1 & ! l[] "o is 9 c\rse ( deflagration4 ,b ,b4 ,*>g$ l>ge ,leyd5 batt]y ( two j>s2 ! arr[s indicate ! pa? ( ! electricity4 ,?irty-eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,little models ( h\ses1 ma/s ( %ips1 trees1 & t[]s are sold by ! in/rum5t mak]s1 & by plac+ a long balanc$ wire on ! top ( ! po9t$ wire ( a l>ge ,leyd5 j>1 hav+ "o end furni%$ ) wool to repres5t a cl\d1 a mo/ excell5t imitation ( ! effects ( a *>g$ ?und]-cl\d is produc$4 ,! me*anical effect ( a fla% ( lightn+ has be5 analys$1 & x has be5 /at$1 9 "o in/ance1 t ! p[] develop$ ?r\gh fifty feet 0 equal to a #ab1bbj horse-p[] eng9e1 or ab\t ! p[] ( ! eng9es ( ! ,great ,ea/]n1 & t ! explosive p[] 0 equal to a pressure ( ?ree hundr$ millions ( tons4 7,fig4 #agg47 ,page #aib ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,a4 ,*>g$ ,leyd5 j> ) balanc$ wire & wool at ,b1 repres5t+ a ?und]-cl\d4 ,c4 ,! obelisk ov]turn$ ) ! dis*>ge4 ,d4 ,ano!r model ( ! gable end ( a h\se2 ! squ>e pieces ( wood fly out :5 ! cont9uity ( ! conductor is brok54 ,x 0 ! le>n$ b humble m9d$ ,dr4 ,frankl9 :o e/abli%$ ! id5tity betwe5 ! mimic effects ( ! electrical ma*9es 7su* z h be5 describ$71 & ! awe-inspir+ ?und] & lightn+ ( nature4 ,a copp] rod1 half an in* ?ick1 po9t$ & gilt at ! extremity1 & c>ri$ to ! highe/ po9t ( a build+1 w protect a circle ) a radius ( twice its l5g?4 ,! bottom ( ! rod mu/ be pass$ into ! e>? till x t\*es a damp /ratum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,a /orm4 ,page #aic ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 ,9 describ+ ! v>i\s means by :i* electricity may be obta9$1 x 0 /at$ t ,*emical ,action 0 a mo/ important s\rce ( ?is rem>kable ag5t2 at ! same "t x mu/ be und]/ood t x is n e k9d ( *emical action :i* is adapt$ = ! purpose2 !re are c]ta9 pr9ciples to be rigidly adh]$ to--fir/1 9 ! g5]ation ( ! =ce2 & secondly1 9 c>ry+ x by wires s z to be applicable ei!r = telegraphic purposes1 or = ! highly valuable processes ( electrotyp+ & electro-silv]+1 plat+1 & gild+4 ,a light$ c&le1 or an int5se combu/ion ( coal1 coke1 or *>coal1 no d\bt involves ! production ( electricity1 b !re are no means at pres5t kn[n by :i* x may be collect$ & conduct$2 :5 t problem is solv$1 ! *eape/ voltaic batt]y w h be5 con/ruct$1 9 :i* ! elem5t decompos$ is *>coal1 & n a metal1 su* z iron or z9c4 ,! fir/ & mo/ simple exp]im5t t c be adduc$ 9 pro( ( electrical excitation by *emical means1 is to take a bit ( clean z9c & a clean half-cr[n1 & plac+ "o on ! tongue & ! o!r bel[ x1 z long z !y rema9 sep>ate no effect is obs]v$1 b directly !y are made to t\* ea* o!r1 :il/ 9 t position1 a peculi> ?rill is r5d]$ evid5t by ! n]ves ( ! tongue1 :i* 9 ?is case answ]s ! same purpose z ! electroscope already describ$1 & 9 a %ort "t a peculi> metallic ta/e is p]ceptible4 ,x has be5 /at$ ov] & ov] aga9 t x 0 to a some:at simil> circum/ance we owe ! discov]y ( voltaic electricity1 & ! /ory ( ! sk9n$ frogs agitat$ & convuls$ by an accid5tal communication ) two diff]5t metals1 or1 z "s say1 ) ! electricity f an ord9>y ma*9e1 has be5 repeat$ 9 ne>ly e "w on ! sci5ce4 ,pr(essor ,silliman1 h[ev]1 ass]ts t ! galvanic /ory is d\btful1 & is a fabrication ( ,alib]t1 an ,italian writ] ( no repute1 & t great] m]it is due to ,galvani ?an t ( be+ m]ely ! accid5tal discov]] ( ?is k9d ( electricity1 because he _h be5 engag$ = elev5 ye>s 9 electro-physiological exp]im5ts1 us+ frogs' legs z electroscopes4 ,x 0 :il/ exp]im5t+ on animal irritability1 ,galvani notic$ ! important fact t :5 ! n]ve ( a dead frog1 rec5tly kill$1 0 t\*$ ) a /eel ne$le1 & ! muscle ) a silv] "o1 no convulsions ( ! limb 7 produc$ until ! two diff]5t metals 7 br\ght 9 contact1 & he expla9$ ! cause ( ^! s+ul> aft]-dea? contortions by suppos+ t ! n]ves & muscles ( all animals 7 9 opposite /ates ( electricity1 & t ^! n]v\s contractions 7 caus$ by ! annihilation1 = ! "t1 ( ?is condition1 by ! int]position ( a good conductor betwe5 !m4 ,?is !ory ( ,galvani _h sev]al oppon5ts1 "o ( :om1 ! ,page #aid celebrat$ ,volta1 succe$$ 9 po9t+ out its fallacy2 he ma9ta9$ t ! electrical excitem5t 0 due entirely to ! metals1 & t ! muscul> contractions 7 caus$ by ! electricity ?us develop$ pass+ along ! n]ves & muscles ( ! dead animal4 ,to ,volta we are indebt$ = ! fir/ voltaic batt]y1 & ! di/+ui%$ philosoph] may truly be said to h laid ! f\ndation ( ?is n[ comm]cially valuable bran* ( sci5ce4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,if a plate ( clean bright z9c is plac$ 9 a vessel conta9+ "s dilute sulphuric acid1 en]getic action occurs f ! oxidation ( ! metal1 & its union z an oxide ) ! acid1 & ! escape ( a multitude ( bubbles ( hydrog5 gas4 ,aft] ! action has proce$$ "s "t1 ! z9c may be remov$1 & if a little quicksilv] is n[ rubb$ ov] ! surface ) a wooll5 rag ti$ on ! end ( a /ick1 x unites ) ! metal1 & ! surface ( ! z9c assumes a brilliant silv]y appe>ance1 & is said to be amalgamat$4 ,9 t condition x is no long] act$ ^u by dilute sulphuric acid1 & = ! sake ( economy ?is is ! only =m 9 :i* z9c %\ld be employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( voltaic batt]ies or s+le circles4 ,if a clean plate ( copp]1 ) a wire atta*$1 is n[ plac$ 9 ! dilute acid opposite to & n t\*+ ! amalgamat$ z9c plate1 :i* may also be furni%$ ) a conduct+ wire1 no bubbles ( hydrog5 escape until ! wires f ! two metals are br\ght 9 contact1 & !n1 s+ul> to relate1 ! hydrog5 escapes f ! copp] plate1 :il/ ! oxyg5 is rapidly absorb$ by ! z9c1 & a curr5t ( electricity w n[ be f\nd to pass f ! z9c ?r\gh ! fluid to ! copp]1 & back aga9 ?r\gh ! wire to ! />t+ po9t1 & if ! wires are disconnect$1 ! *emical action ceases1 & no m electricity is produc$4 7,fig4 #agi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,a s+le voltaic circle1 consi/+ ( a z9c & copp] plate 7m>k$ ,z & ,c7 9 dilute acid4 ,! arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! curr5t4 ,! passage ( ! curr5t ( electricity is n discov]able by ! electroscope1 because x is adapt$ only to indicate electricity ( high t5sion or int5sity1 su* z t produc$ f ! electrical ma*9e1 :i* w pass rapidly ?r\gh a c]ta9 ?ickness ( air1 & cause pi? balls to /& out & repel ea* o!r2 su* effects are n producible by a s+le voltaic circle1 or ev5 an ord9>y voltaic batt]y1 al?\gh "o compris+ "s hundr$s ( alt]nations w\ld produce ,page #aie an effect on a delicate electromet]2 h5ce voltaic electricity is said to be ( l[ int5sity1 & ?is prop]ty makes x mu* m useful to mank9d1 because x has no desire to leave a metallic pa? prep>$ = x1 & does n seize ! fir/ opportunity1 l ! electricity f ! electrical ma*9e1 to run away to ! e>? ?r\gh ! be/ & %orte/ conductor (f]$ = x4 ,if electricity _h only be5 producible by friction1 we %\ld nev] h he>d ( electrotyp+1 & ! o!r useful applications ( electrical =ce ( l[ int5sity4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,to asc]ta9 ! passage ( a curr5t ( voltaic electricity1 ! in/rum5t call$ ! galvanomet] ne$le is provid$1 :i* consi/s ( a coil ( copp] wire surr\nd+ a magnetic ne$le1 s z to leave ! latt] fre$om ( motion f "r to left1 or vice v]s4 ,:5 ?is coil is made "p ( ! voltaic circle x becomes magnetic1 & react+ on ! magnetiz$ ne$le1 deflects x to "o side or ! o!r1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! curr5t4 7,fig4 #ahj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,a galvanomet] ne$le1 consi/+ ( a coil ( cov]$ copp] wire1 ! ends ( :i* t]m9ate at ! b9d+ screws4 ,! magnetic ne$le is susp5d$ on a po9t 9 ! c5tre1 & ! coil is surr\nd$ ) a graduat$ circle4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,if a numb] ( simple voltaic circles1 su* z ! "o describ$ 9 ! fir/ exp]im5t1 are connect$ toge!r1 !y =m a voltaic batt]y1 9 :i* ( c\rse ! quantity ( electricity is greatly increas$4 ,batt]ies ( all k9ds1 f ! orig9al ,volta's pile1 consi/+ ( r\nd z9c & copp] plates sold]$ toge!r ) int]pos$ clo? moi/5$ ) dilute sulphuric acid1 or 8 c\ronne des tasses1 consi/+ ( z9c & silv] wires sold]$ toge!r 9 pairs1 & plac$ 9 glass cups conta9+ dilute acid1 to ! improv$ batt]ies ( ,cruik%ank1 ,wilk9son1 ,bab+ton1 ,wolla/on1 & ! /ill m p]fect arrangem5ts ( ,daniell1 ,mull9s1 ,%illibe]1 & ,grove1 h be5 f "t to "t recomm5d$ = _! own peculi> features4 ,among/ ^! sev]al inv5tions1 none w be f\nd m useful ?an ! con/ant batt]y ( ,daniell = electrotyp+1 silv]+1 gild+1 & o!r purposes1 & ,grove's batt]y = all ! m brilliant results1 su* z ! deflagration ( ! metals or ! production ( ! electric light4 ,! con/ruction ( ! ,daniell & ,grove batt]ies w !re=e be describ$4 ,! =m] consi/s ( a cyl9drical vessel made ( copp]1 9 :i* is susp5d$ or plac$ 7z x is op5 at ! top7 a membran\s1 br[n-pap]1 canvas1 or por\s e>!nw>e tube1 conta9+ an amalgamat$ rod ( z9c4 ,to *>ge ?is arrangem5t1 a /rong solution ( sulphate ( copp]1 ) "s sulphuric acid1 is p\r$ into ! copp] vessel1 :i* is provid$ usually ) a sort ( ,page #aif col&] at ! top to hold cry/als ( sulphate ( copp]1 & 9 ! por\s tube conta9+ ! z9c rod is p\r$ dilute sulphuric acid4 ,a numb] ( ^! cyl9d]s ( copp]1 tw5ty in*es high & ?ree in*es & a half 9 diamet]1 arrang$ 9 wood5 frames to ! numb] ( tw5ty1 af=d a quantity ( electricity suffici5t to demon/rate all ! usual ph5om5a4 7,fig4 #aha47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,a ,a4 ,copp] cyl9drical vessel ) col&] to hold ! cry/als ( sulphate ( copp]4 ,b4 ,! amalgamat$ z9c rod inside ! por\s cell ,c ,c4 ,d4 ,a s]ies ( s+le cells =m+ a ,daniell's batt]y4 ,pr(essor ,grove's batt]y consi/s ( a flat glaz$ e>!nw>e vessel conta9+ a flat por\s cell4 ,an amalgamat$ z9c plate is plac$ outside ! por\s cell1 & a plat9um plate inside ! latt]4 ,! arrangem5t is put 9 action by p\r+ dilute sulphuric acid r\nd ! z9c & /rong nitric acid inside ! por\s cell4 ,a set ( ,grove's nitric acid batt]y1 z manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,elliott1 ,bro!rs1 ( #cj1 ,/r&1 ) fifty pairs ( %eet plat9um1 five in*es by two in*es & a qu>t]1 & d\ble amalgamat$ z9c plates1 flat por\s cells1 & sep>ate e>!nw>e tr\ghs = ea* pair1 & /\t mahogany /&1 arrang$ 9 t5 s]ies ( five pairs1 w evolve ) a prop] voltamet] "o hundr$ cubic in*es ( ! mix$ gases p] m9ute f ! decomposition ( wat]1 & w exhibit a mo/ brilliant electric light1 :5 arrang$ z a s+le s]ies ( fifty pairs ( plates4 ,ev5 ?irty pairs exhibit ! mo/ spl5did effects1 :il/ =ty may be reg>d$ z ! happy m$ium1 giv+ all ! results t c be desir$4 7,fig4 #ahb47 ,! advantage ( employ+ amalgamat$ z9c is v prom95tly illu/rat$ :il/ us+ any p[]ful arrangem5ts ( ei!r ,daniell's or ,grove's batt]ies1 z !y w rema9 = h\rs quiesc5t1 l a giant asleep1 until ! t]m9al wires ( ! s]ies are br\ght 9 contact ,page #aig ei!r ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( "s fluid "u decomposition or by means ( *>coal po9ts4 ,! au?or _h ! pleasure ( witness+ at ,k+'s ,college "s ( ! effects ( an enorm\s batt]y1 prep>$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,daniell1 & consi/+ ( sev5ty ( 8 cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,a ,a4 ,amalgamat$ z9c plate 9 flat e>!nw>e tr\gh4 ,atta*$ to a b9d+ screw is ! plat9um plate 9 por\s cell1 ,c ,c4 ,d4 ,a s]ies ( s+le cells =m+ a ,grove's batt]y4 ,a cont9u\s ar* ( flame 0 produc$ betwe5 two *>coal po9ts1 :5 di/ant f ea* o!r ?ree qu>t]s ( an in*1 & ! light & heat 7 s int5se t ! pr(essor's face became scor*$ & inflam$1 z if x _h be5 expos$ to a summ] heat4 ,! rays collect$ by a l5s quickly fir$ pap] held 9 ! focus4,c ,footnote ,c3 ,by ! light f ! same batt]y photog5ic draw+s 7 tak51 & ! heat+ p[] 0 s great z to fuse ) ! utmo/ read9ess a b> ( plat9um "o-eigh? ( an in* squ>e2 & all ! m infusible metals1 su* z rhodium1 iridium1 titanium1 c41 7 melt$ l wax :5 plac$ 9 small cavities 9 h>d graphite & expos$ to ! curr5t ( electricity4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,x is by *emical action ! electricity is produc$1 & z action & reaction are always equal1 b contr>y1 we are n surpris$ to f9d t ! electricity f ! voltaic batt]y w 9 its turn decompose *emically _m comp\nd bodies1 ( :i* wat] is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ examples4 ,x 0 9 ! ye> #ahjj1 & imm$iately aft] ,volta's ann\ncem5t to ,sir ,joseph ,banks ( 8 discov]y ( ! pile1 t ,messrs4 ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle con/ruct$ ! fir/ pile 9 ,engl&1 consi/+ ( ?irty-six half-cr[ns1 ) z _m discs ( z9c & pa/ebo>d soak$ 9 salt wat]4 ,^! g5tlem51 :il/ exp]im5t+ ) ! pile1 obs]v$ t bubbles ( gas escap$ f ! plat9um wires imm]s$ 9 wat] & connect$ ) ! extremities ( ! ,volta's pile1 & cov]+ ! wires ) a glass tube full ( wat]1 on ! #bnd ( ,may1 #ahjj1 !y complet$ ! spl5did discov]y ( ! fact t ! ,volta's curr5t _h ! p[] to decompose wat] & o!r *emical comp\nds4 ,page #aih ,9 #ahja1 ,davy _h succe$$ to a vacant po/ 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution1 & on ,oct4 #f?1 #ahjg1 made 8 transc5d5t discov]y ( potassium ) ! aid ( ! voltaic batt]y1 & f t & o!r exp]im5ts inf]r$ t ! :ole cru/ ( ! globe 0 compos$ ( ! oxides ( metals4 ,to exhibit ! decomposition ( wat]1 two plat9um plates ) prop] connect+ wires1 pass+ to small metallic cups full ( m]cury1 are cem5t$ inside a glass vessel1 :i* is !n fill$ ) dilute sulphuric acid4 ,j above ! plat9um plates & ov] !m1 /& two glass tubes also conta9+ ! same fluid 9 contact ) ! batt]y4 ,two measures ( hydrog5 are f\nd 9 "o tube1 & "o ( oxyg5 9 ! o!r4 7,fig4 #ahc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,a ,a4 ,a f+] glass ) two holes drill$ to pass ! wires ?r\gh1 :i* are imb$d$ 9 cem5t up to ! plat9um plates4 ,b ,b4 ,glass tubes1 clos$ at "o end & op5 at ! o!r1 :i* are plac$ ov] ! plat9um plates to receive ! lib]at$ oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,! scale at ! side %[s ! respective volumes ( two ( ,h to "o ( ,o4 ,to measure ! quantity p[] ( ! voltaic batt]y1 an important in/rum5t inv5t$ by ,f>aday is us$4 ,x consi/s ( sep>ate plat9um plates cem5t$ 9 a wood5 /&1 & ov] :i* a capp$ air-j> ) a b5t pipe is also cem5t$4 ,?is app>atus conta9s dilute sulphuric acid ( ! same /r5g? z t us$ 9 ! batt]y "u exam9ation1 & by tak+ ! "t1 ! quantity ( ! mix$ oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases producible by a batt]y p] m9ute is accurately det]m9$1 ! gases ( c\rse be+ collect$ 9 a graduat$ j>4 7,fig4 #ahd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,a4 ,gas j> ) cap & b5t tube pass+ to ! graduat$ tube ,c2 ! j> is cem5t$ 9 ! same /& :i* c>ries ! connect+ cups1 wires1 & plat9um plates1 :i* are b5t r\nd ea* o!r to improve ! action ( ! voltamet]4 ,page #aii ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,by gr\p+ ! simple circles =m+ a voltaic batt]y 9 v>i\s num]ical relations1 ! quantity & int5sity effects are modifi$4 ,?us1 if a s]ies ( ?irty pairs ( ,grove's batt]y are all connect$ toge!r 9 consecutive ord]1 ! smalle/ quantity & ! l>ge/ int5sity effect is produc$4 ,if *ang$ to two gr\ps ( fifte5 ea*1 ! quantity is d\bl$--t is to say1 x w produce d\ble ! quantity ( ! mix$ gases f ! voltamet] ) half ! int5sity4 ,if arrang$ 9 ?ree gr\ps ( t5 ea*1 x is trebl$ ) a proportional loss ( int5sity1 until ! gr\p+ rea*es six s]ies ( five ea*1 :5 a maximum supply ( ! mix$ gases is obta9$ f ! voltamet]4 ,9 arrang+ ! gr\ps1 all ! z9c ends ( ea* s]ies are connect$1 & all ! plat9um ends are likewise jo9$ by prop] wires4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,a plate-glass tr\gh1 conta9+ a few gra9s ( iodide ( potassium dissolv$ 9 wat] ) "s />*1 is quickly decompos$ into its elem5ts by plac+ 9 two plat9um plates & connect+ !m ) ! wires ( ! voltaic batt]y4 ,if ! glass tr\gh is divid$ 9 ! c5tre ) a bit ( c>dbo>d1 ! purple col\r ( ! iod9e & />* is %[n v beautifully on "o side1 b n on ! o!r1 z iod9e is lib]at$ at "o pole & ! alkali at ! o!r4 7,fig4 #ahe47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,a ,a4 ,a glass tr\gh conta9+ ! salt dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & divid$ tempor>ily ) a bit ( c>dbo>d1 ,b4 ,c ,c are ! two plat9um plates connect$ ) ! batt]y1 & ! %ad$ side is suppos$ to repres5t ! lib]ation ( ! iod9e4 ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,"s solution ( common salt col\r$ ) sulphate ( indigo & plac$ 9 ! tr\gh is decompos$ into *lor9e1 :i* blea*es "o side ( ! indigo solution1 & ! alkali lib]at$ on ! o!r does n affect x4 ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,"s nitrate ( pota% dissolv$ 9 wat] & col\r$ ) litmus plac$ 9 ! glass tr\gh1 *anges r$ on "o side ( ! c>dbo>d by ! lib]ation ( acid1 & is n affect$ on ! o!r4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts ! oxyg51 iod9e1 *lor9e1 & nitric acid are lib]at$ at ! electro-positive pole1 & are h5ce t]m$ electro-negative bodies1 :il/ hydrog5 & ! alkalies are set free at ! electro-negative pole1 & are !re=e call$ electro-positive bodies4 ,page #bjj ,f>aday has modifi$ ^! t]ms1 & calls ! two classes anions & ca?ions1 & ! two poles anodes & ca?odes4 ,anode1 f ,greek3 ana1 up1 & ,greek3 hodos1 a way3 ! way :i* ! sun rises4 ,anions1 f ,greek3 ana1 up1 & ,greek3 eimi1 to g3 t :i* goes up2 a sub/ance :i* passes to ! anode dur+ ! passage ( a curr5t ( electricity4 ,ca?ode1 f ,greek3 kata1 d[n1 & ,greek3 hodos1 a way3 ! way :i* ! sun sets4 ,ca?ion1 f ,greek3 kata1 d[n1 & ,greek3 eimi1 to g3 t :i* goes d[n2 a sub/ance :i* passes to ! ca?ode dur+ ! passage ( electricity f ! anode to ! ca?ode4 ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,9 ! process ( ! electrotype is pres5t$ a valuable application ( ! *emical p[] ( ! voltaic circle or batt]y1 & x may be conduct$ ei!r z a s+le cell op]ation or by di/9ct batt]ies4 ,9 ! =m] case ! mo/ simple arrangem5t w suffice2 ! only articles necess>y are--a l>ge mug or tumbl]2 "s br[n pap] & a rul]2 a bit ( amalgamat$ z9c1 f\r in*es long & half an in* wide2 a %ort l5g? ( copp] wire2 "s black lead1 blue vitriol1 & oil ( vitriol4 ,! m\ld f :i* ! electrotype is to be tak5 c be made ( common seal+ wax1 pla/] ( ,p>is1 :ite wax1 gutta p]*a1 or fusible alloy4 ,suppos+ ! fir/ to be select$--viz41 a common seal1 x is fir/ ?or\ghly black-lead$1,d !n "o end ( ! copp] wire is b5t r\nd ! top ( ! amalgamat$ z9c1 & ! o!r is g5tly w>m$ & melt$ into ! side ( ! seal1 leav+ a small portion uncov]$ by ! wax1 :i* is !n well black-lead$4 ,a few ounces ( blue vitriol are dissolv$ 9 boil+ wat]1 & :5 cold ! solution is p\r$ into ! tumbl]1 & ! por\s cell to conta9 ! mixture ( eight p>ts wat] to "o ( sulphuric acid is made by roll+ ! br[n pap] ?ree or f\r times r\nd ! rul] & clos+ ! end1 & fix+ ! side ) a little seal+ wax4 ,! por\s cell ( br[n pap] is n[ fill$ ) ! dilute acid1 & plac$ 9 ! tumbl] conta9+ ! solution ( blue vitriol1 ! amalgamat$ z9c be+ arrang$ 9 ! pap] cell1 & ! atta*$ seal 9 ! copp] solution2 9 ab\t twelve h\rs a good deposit ( copp] is produc$1 & a p]fect ca/ 9 metal ( ! seal obta9$4 7,fig4 #ahf47 ,footnote ,d3 ,! application ( plumbago1 or black lead1 = electrotype purposes1 0 fir/ made by ! late lam5t$ ,mr4 ,rob]t ,murray4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,a ,a4 ,! tumbl] conta9+ ! solution ( sulphate ( copp]4 ,b ,b4 ,! br[n pap] cell conta9+ ! dilute sulphuric acid1 inside :i* is ! amalgamat$ z9c ) wire atta*$ to ! seal ,d4 ,page #bja ,messrs4 ,elliott provide e k9d ( conv5i5t vessel = ! purpose1 & 9 ! picture bel[ x w be notic$ t ! s+le cell app>atus1 ?\gh n s economical z ! simple tumbl] arrangem5t already describ$1 is p]haps m conv5i5t = electrotyp+4 7,fig4 #ahg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,a4 ,s+le cell app>atus ) prop] vessel1 por\s tube1 & b9d+ screws4 ,b4 ,a l>ge tr\gh divid$ by a diaphragm ( biscuit-w>e or v ?9 por\s wood4 ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,a4 ,a s+le cell1 ,daniell's1 atta*$ to ,b1 ! tr\gh conta9+ ! m\ld & ! plate ( copp]4 ,bel[ is a ,smee's batt]y ready to be atta*$ to a l>g] tr\gh = ! purpose ( electrotyp+ a great numb] ( m\lds at ! same "t4 ,a s+le cell app>atus is only adapt$ to produce small electrotypes1 b :5 l>g] ones are requir$1 a sep>ate batt]y ( ?ree or f\r ,page #bjb ,daniell's or ,smee's cells is requir$2 & x is usual to place ! m\ld to be copi$ 9 a sep>ate wood5 tr\gh1 atta*+ x to ! ca?ode wire1 :il/ a copp] plate is connect$ ) ! anode1 s t z ! solution ( sulphate ( copp] und]goes decomposition by ! passage ( ! electricity1 x is kept almo/ 9 a normal /ate1 9 consequ5ce ( ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] & ! acid pass+ to ! copp] plate1 :i* !y attack & dissolve z fa/ z ! oxide ( copp] & hydrog5 are lib]at$ at ! ca?ode1 :]e ! latt] deoxidizes ! oxide ( copp]1 & by a second>y action deposits metallic copp]2 ! object be+ to dissolve fre% metal z ! copp] is deposit$ on ! m\ld4 7,fig4 #ahh47 ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,to silv] electrotypes or o!r brass & copp] articles1 ! fir/ att5tion mu/ be paid to ! cleanness ( !m2 & :5 an electrotype is j remov$ f ! copp] solution1 & wa%$ 9 clean wat]1 x is at once ready to receive ! coat+ ( silv]2 o!rwise1 if x has be5 h&l$1 or is slightly greasy1 x %\ld be fir/ boil$ 9 a solution ( common wa%+ soda1 & !n ! oxide remov$ by pass+ x rapidly 9 & out ( "s ,dipp+ ,acid1 :i* is prep>$ by mix+ toge!r equal p>ts ( oil ( vitriol & nitric acid2 :5 remov$ f ! ,dipp+ ,acid1 x mu/ be well wa%$ 9 wat]1 & may rema9 "u ! surface ( ! wat] until ! silv]+ solution is ready4 ,a silv] solution may be prep>$ by dissolv+ a sixp5ce 9 "s nitric acid conta9$ 9 a flask2 x is !n p\r$ into a solution ( common salt1 :i* precipitates ! *loride ( silv]1 & leaves ! copp] 9 solution--! latt] is p\r$ (f :5 ! *loride has subsid$1 & aft] be+ well wa%$ 9 "s boil+ wat]1 is dissolv$ 9 a solution ( cyanide ( potassium4 ,if a clean electrotype is plung$ into ?is solution1 x is imm$iately cov]$ ) a v ?9 coat+ ( silv]1 :i* ( c\rse w\ld soon we> (f1 & 9 ord] to increase ! ?ickness ( ! silv] deposit1 a s+le cell arrangem5t may be con/ruct$ ( a l>ge gallipot conta9+ a wide por\s cell & a circle ( amalgamat$ z9c ar\nd x2 ! arrangem5t is set 9 action by p\r+ a solution ( salt 7or1 /ill bett]1 sal ammoniac7 into & ar\nd ! por\s vessel1 & ! silv]+ solution into ! latt]2 a connect+ wire passes f ! z9c1 & ! article be+ atta*$ to x1 is n[ plung$ into ! por\s cell1 :5 a curr5t ( electricity sl[ly passes & deposits ! silv] on ! copp] article4 7,fig4 #ahi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,! gallipot conta9+ ! solution ( sal ammoniac1 ) ! circul> amalgamat$ z9c ) wire & b9d+ screw to :i* ! m$al is atta*$1 & conta9$ 9 ! por\s vessel hold+ ! silv]+ solution & m$al4 ,page #bjc ,twelf? ,exp]im5t4 ,sep>ate batt]ies & l>ge tr\ghs conta9+ a solution ( cyanide ( silv] 9 cyanide ( potassium are us$ on a gr& scale 9 ! electro-plat+ e/abli%m5t ( ,messrs4 ,elk+ton ( ,birm+ham1 :]e ! f9e/ specim5s ( ! art are to be obta9$2 a plate ( silv] be+ atta*$ to ! anode to supply ! loss ( silv] 9 ^! tr\ghs4 ,?irte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,! art ( gild+ by ! ag5cy ( electricity is q z simple z ! processes already describ$1 al?\gh great] c>e is necess>y to avoid any loss ( ! preci\s metal4 ,a small bit ( gold is dissolv$ 9 a mixture ( ?ree p>ts muriatic acid & "o ( nitric acid1 :i* =ms ! *loride ( gold4 ,?is is !n dige/$ ) an excess ( calc9$ magnesia1 & ! gold is precipitat$ z an oxide ( ! metal2 ! latt] is collect$ & wa%$1 & !n boil$ 9 /rong nitric acid to remove ! magnesia cl++ to x1 & be+ aga9 ?or\ghly wa%$ ) wat]1 is dissolv$ 9 a solution ( cyanide ( potassium1 =m+ a solution ( cyanide ( gold & potassium1 :i* may be plac$ 9 ! por\s cell ( ! s+le cell arrangem5t already describ$ 9 ! ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,f\rte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,! safe/ & sure/ mode ( mak+ a gild+ solution is to dissolve "s cyanide ( potassium 9 wat] 9 a gallipot1 & hav+ plac$ a por\s vessel !re9 conta9+ ! same solution1 put a plate ( copp] into ! por\s cell1 & "s ?9 foil ( pure gold into ! gallipot2 connect ! gold ) ! anode ( a s+le cell ( ,daniell1 & ! copp] 9 ! por\s cell ) ! ca?ode1 & 9 a few h\rs suffici5t gold w be dissolv$ = ! purpose ( gild+4 ,x is usually recomm5d$ to w>m ! gild+ solution till x rea*es a temp]ature ( ab\t #aej ,fahr41 & a v mod]ate batt]y p[] is employ$ 9 ,electro ,gild+4 ,inde$ ! same arrangem5t1 %[n 9 ! ,elev5? ,exp]im5t1 ,fig4 #ahi1 w also answ] = ! gild+ solution4 ,aft] be+ gilt1 ! articles may be rubb$ ) a little tripoli1 or burni%$ 7) ta/e7 by ! h&le ( a key4 ,fifte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,pass+ on to ! m brilliant results obta9able f a p[]ful voltaic batt]y 7( at lea/ ?irty pairs ( ,grove71 ! beautiful inc&esc5ce ( plat9um wire may fir/ be notic$4 ,if a wire ( ?is metal is /ret*$ betwe5 ! brass /&>ds ( two r+ /&s1 ! l5g? mu/ be proportion$ to ! p[] ( ! batt]y2 ! adju/m5t c be made v conv5i5tly by twi/+ ! plat9um wire on "o r+ /&1 & !n leav+ ! o!r end loose1 ! second r+ /& may be br\ght ne>] & ne>] to ! fir/1 until ! desir$ int5sity ( ,page #bjd light f ! inc&esc5t wire is obta9$4 7,fig4 #aij47 ,if ! wire is conta9$ 9 a glass tube ! cool+ effect ( curr5ts ( air is prev5t$1 & a mu* great] l5g? ( wire c be made hot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,a ,a4 ,two r+ /&s ) ! batt]y wires ,b ,b 7:i* %\ld be a conv5i5t l5g?7 atta*$4 ,c4 ,plat9um wire1 fix$ end4 ,d4 ,! o!r end held 9 "o h& & %ort5$ z ! /& is mov$ by ! o!r h&4 ,sixte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,) ! same arrangem5t1 a *a9 compos$ ( alt]nate l9ks ( silv] & plat9um wire pres5ts a v pretty effect1 e alt]nate l9k ( plat9um be+ inc&esc5t1 :il/ ! silv]1 f its excell5t conduct+ p[]1 rema9s comp>atively cool4 ,sev5te5? ,exp]im5t4 ,fireworks or gunp[d]1 arrang$ 9 prop] cases1 are fir$ at a great di/ance f ! voltaic batt]y by heat+ a ?9 iron or plat9um wire conta9$ )9 !m by ! passage ( ! electricity2 & subm>9e & o!r explosions ( gunp[d] by ! same ag5cy h become a common eng9e]+ op]ation4 7,fig4 #aia47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,a4 ,a ,g]b firework ) two holes punctur$1 ?r\gh :i* ! bit ( iron wire passes1 & is w\nd r\nd ! batt]y wires ti$ to ! outside ( ! case4 ,c4 ,a gut bladd] conta9+ ! ?9 wire & p[d] = a m9iature subm>9e explosion4 ,dur+ ! op]ation ( bla/+ ! h>d m>l rocks 9 ! ,riv] ,sev]n by ,mr4 ,edw>ds1 ,c4,e41 a numb] ( holes 7 made side by side 9 ! b$ ( ! riv]1 & c>tridges =m$ ( /rong duck or canvas1 tap]$ at ! bottom1 7 fill$ ) *>ges ( p[d] f two to f\r p\nds1 accord+ to ! dep? ( ! m>l2 ?us1 two p\nds = f\r feet1 ?ree p\nds = f\r feet six in*es1 & f\r p\nds = five feet4 ,into ! bag 7 convey$ ! wires ( ! voltaic batt]y1 or ,bick=d's fuse1 & be+ !n coat$ ) pit* & tall[1 & f9ally greas$ all ov] & du/$ ) :it5+1 !y r>ely fail$1 & 7 all fir$ simultane\sly "u wat]4 ,! pit* & tall[ fir/1 & aft]w>ds ! simple tall[1 effectually exclud$ ! wat] f ! gunp[d] conta9$ 9 ! canvas bag4 ,page #bje ,eighte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,! burn+ ( v>i\s metals by ! batt]y is display$ ) great effect by ,de la ,rue's dis*>g]1 z also ! inc&esc5ce ( ! *>coal po9ts produc+ ! electric light4 ,! illum9at+ p[] d]iv$ f a =ty-cell ,grove's batt]y ( ! ord9>y size is ab\t equal to ! light ( #ejj c&les4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,de la ,rue dis*>g]1 conta9+ a s]ies ( six pairs ( diff]5t sub/ances1 su* z *>coal1 iron1 lead1 z9c1 copp]1 antimony1 9 six pair ( crayon hold]s1 & turn+ on a c5tre1 s z to be *ang$ at pleasure4 ,fizeau & ,f\cault h made a c>eful comp>ison ( ! light obta9$ f #ib c>bon c\ples z arrang$ 9 a ,buns5's batt]y1 & ( ! oxy-hydrog51 or ,drummond ,light1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! sun1 & !y /ate t ,on a cle> ,augu/ day1 ) ! sun two h\rs high1 ! electric light 7assum+ ! sun z unity7 bore to x ! ratio ( "o to two & a half--i4e41 ! sun 0 two & a half times m p[]ful1 :ile ! ,drummond ,light 0 only #a_/adf? t ( ! sun4 ,buns5 f\nd ! light f #dh c>bons equal to #egb c&les4 ,9 ,buns5's batt]y c>bon is sub/itut$ = ! plat9um 9 ,grove's arrangem5t2 & simultane\sly ) ,buns51 ,coop] 79 ,engl&7 _h appli$ *>coal = ! same purpose4 ,at night ! giant %ip 7,polyphemus l7 is to h an electric light at ! ma/-head :il/ /eam+ across ! ,atlantic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,great ,ea/]n1 ) electric light4 ,page #bjf ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electro-,,magnetism4 ,if a small helix1 or coil ( cov]$ wire1 is arrang$ ) an unmagnetiz$ /eel ne$le )9 x1 s t ! dis*>ge ( a l>ge ,leyd5 j> may take place ?r\gh ! coil1 ! ne$le w be f\nd /rongly magnetic aft] ! dis*>ge ( ! electricity4 7,fig4 #aid47 ,_m ye>s be=e ?is 0 kn[n1 x _h be5 notic$ t :5 a %ip 0 /ruck by lightn+1 ! compasses 7 g5]ally rev]s$2 & 9 a special case1 :]e a h\se 0 /ruck1 ! electricity ent]$ a box ( knives1 fus+ "s1 te>+ ! h&les (f o!rs1 b leav+ !m /rongly magnetic4 ,electricians tri$ to repeat ! effect by s5d+ ! dis*>ge ( p[]ful ,leyd5 batt]ies ?r\gh b>s ( /eel )\t any important result2 & x 0 n until ,o]/$1 9 ! ye> #ahai1 made 8 important discov]y t ! copp] wire convey+ ! electricity possess$ peculi> magnetic p[]1 t ! pr9ciple began to be und]/ood1 & !n ! electricians succe$$ 9 imitat+ ! effects ( lightn+ on /eel1 z already describ$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]4 7,fig4 #aid47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,a ,a4 ,a glass tube support$ on two uprights ( wood1 ) coil ( copp] wire pass+ r\nd x1 t]m9at+ 9 ! balls ,b ,b4 ,c4 ,ne$le to place inside glass tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,:5 ! electricity has pass$ away f ! ,leyd5 j> ?r\gh ! coil ( ,page #bjg copp] wire1 x no long] possesses any p[] to affect a piece ( /eel or iron1 b if ! wires ( ! voltaic batt]y are n[ connect$ ) ! coil ( copp] wire1 :i* %\ld be cov]$ ) cotton or silk1 & _m y>ds 9 l5g?1 !n a b> ( /eel or s(t iron is n only r5d]$ magnetic1 b rema9s p]man5tly s1 z long z ! curr5t ( electricity cont9ues to pass along ! coil ( wire1 s t if "s nails or iron fil+s are br\ght to ! b> ( iron1 "o end ( :i* projects f ! coil1 !y cl+ to x ) great =ce1 & a great numb] ( nails may be hung on 9 ?is mann]1 b !y imm$iately fall (f :5 ! contact is brok5 ) ! batt]y4 7,fig4 #aie47 ,electricity ?us becomes a s\rce ( magnetism1 & ! discov]]1 ,o]/$1 f\nd t only ne$les or b>s ( /eel or iron 7 ?us affect$1 & n ^? ( brass1 %ell-lac1 sulphur1 & o!r sub/ances2 he t]m$ ! conduct+ wire a conjunctive wire1 & describ$ ! effect ( ! electric curr5t or electric conflict1 z he call$ x1 z resembl+ a ,helix 7f ,greek3 heliss1 to turn r\nd2 a screw or spiral71 & t x is n conf9$ to ! conduct+ wire1 b radiates an influ5ce at "s di/ance4 ,?is latt] /atem5t is exactly 9 accordance ) our pres5t notions1 & h5ce ! coil convey+ ! curr5t is said to induce magnetism 9 ! iron or /eel1 j z ! ph5om5a ( induction are produc$ ) frictional electricity4 ,! effect ( ,o]/$'s discov]y1 says ,silliman1 0 truly electric2 ! sci5tific _w 0 ripe = x1 & ! tru? he ?us /ruck out 0 in/antly seiz$ ^u by ,arago1 ,ampre1 ,davy1 ,f>aday1 & a cr[d ( philosoph]s 9 all c\ntries4 ,! activity ) :i* ?is new field ( rese>* has be5 cultivat$1 has nev] relax$ ev5 to ?is h\r1 :ile x has borne fruit 9 a multitude ( !oretical & practical tru?s1 & above all1 9 ! electro-magnetic telegraph1 truly call$1 & especially 9 connexion ) ! ,atlantic telegraph wire1 ! great int]national n]ve ( s5sation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,a load/one m\nt$ 9 brass or silv]1 ) ! iron *eeks ,b ,b atta*$4 ,c4 ,! bit ( s(t iron call$ ! armature4 ,magnetism is n only ! result ( a curr5t ( electricity ?r\gh any good conductor1 b !re are c]ta9 oxides ( iron1 call$ magnetic iron ores1 :i* h ! prop]ty ( attract+ iron fil+s1 & are mo/ly f\nd 9 primitive rocks1 be+ abundant at ,roslag51 9 ,sw$51 & call$ ! load/one1 f its always po9t+1 :5 freely susp5d$1 to ! ,pol>1 ,nor?1 or ,load ,/>4 ,if a tol]ably l>ge specim5 ( ?is m9]al is exam9$1 !re w be f\nd usually two po9ts :]e ! iron fil+s are attract$ 9 l>g] quantities ?an 9 o!r p>ts ( ! same specim54 ,^! attractive po9ts are call$ poles1 & ! load/one be+ prop]ly m\nt$ ) s(t iron b>s1 t]m$ *eeks1 b\nd r\nd x 79 old-fa%ion$ load/ones7 ) silv] plate & duly ornam5t$ ) ,page #bjh engrav+1 has its magnetic p[] greatly increas$1 & is !n said to be end[$ ) magnetic pol>ity2 & to prev5t ! loss ( p[]1 a s(t piece ( iron1 call$ ! armature1 is plac$ across & attract$ to ! poles ( ! load/one4 7,fig4 #aif47 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,if a ne$le ( temp]$ /eel 7fitt$ ) a little brass cup 9 ! c5tre to "w ^u a po9t7 is rubb$ ) ! load/one 9 "o direction only1 x is r5d]$ p]man5tly magnetic1 & w n[ be f\nd to take a c]ta9 fix$ position1 po9t+ always 9 a direction due nor? & s\?4 ,! end :i* po9ts t[>ds ! nor? is call$ ! nor? pole1 & ! o!r extremity ! s\? pole1 & x is usual to m>k ! nor? pole ) an ind5t or scrat* to di/+ui% x at all times4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,if ano!r b> ( /eel is magnetiz$1 & ! nor? pole duly m>k$1 & !n br\ght t[>ds ! same pole ( ! susp5d$ magnet1 in/ant repulsion takes place2 ! magnet1 ( c\rse1 grasp$ 9 ! h& is n free to move1 b ! small magnet imm$iately %[s ! same fact notic$ ) electricity1 viz41 t simil> magnetisms repel4 ,two nor? poles repel ea* o!r1 b :5 ! b> ( /eel is rev]s$1 ! opposite effect occurs1 & ! susp5d$ magnet is attract$1 %[+ t dissimil> magnetisms attract1 & a nor? w attract a s\? pole4 7,fig4 #aig47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,a magnetic ne$le1 ! nor? pole ,n be+ attract$ to ! s\? pole ( ! b> magnet ,s1 & repell$ f ! nor? end4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,! horse-%oe magnet1 & ano!r "o unmagnetiz$1 plac$ end to end2 ! "o %ad$ & lett]$ ,n & ,s is ! magnet4 ,a ,a4 ,! piece ( s(t iron mov$ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[4 ,by contact1 ! magnetic p[] is transf]r$ f ! magnet to a piece ( unmagnetiz$ /eel1 & x is /at$ t ! highe/ magnetiz+ effect is t produc$ by ! simple me?od ( ,jacobi4 ,a horse-%oe magnet has its poles br\ght 9 contact ) ! int5d$ poles ( ano!r b> ( /eel1 likewise b5t 9 ! =m ( a horse-%oe1 & by ,page #bji draw+ ! fe$] ov] ! unmagnetiz$ horse-%oe 9 ! direction ( ! arr[ 9 ! cut1 & :5 x rea*es ! curve1 br++ x back aga9 to ! same place1 say at lea/ twelve times1 & aft] turn+ ! :ole ov] )\t sep>at+ ! poles1 & repeat+ ! same op]ation on ! o!r side likewise twelve times1 ! /eel is !n p[]fully magnetiz$2 & x is said t a horse-%oe ( "o p\nd weight may be ?us *>g$ s z to su/a9 tw5ty-six & a half p\nds1 & t by ! old me?od ( magnetiz+ x w\ld only h su/a9$ ab\t tw5ty-two p\nds4 7,fig4 #aih47 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,if ! horse-%oe magnet is plac$ on a %eet ( pap]1 & "s iron fil+s are du/$ betwe5 ! poles1 a v beautiful s]ies ( curves are =m$1 call$ ! magnetic curves1 :i* indicate ! con/ant passage ( ! magnetic p[] f pole to pole4 ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,! magnetic =ce ex]t$ by a horse-%oe-%ap$ piece ( s(t iron1 surr\nd$ ) _m /r&s ( cov]$ copp] wire 9 %ort l5g?s1 is extremely p[]ful 7,fig4 #aii71 & enorm\s weights h be5 support$ by an electro-magnet :5 connect$ ) a voltaic batt]y4 ,suppos+ a man 7 dress$ 9 complete arm\r1 he might be held by an electro-magnet1 )\t ! p[] ( dis5gag+ himself1 ?us realiz+ ! fairy /ory ( ! bold knight :o 0 caught by a rock ( load/one1 &1 9 full arm\r1 deta9$ by ! unfri5dly magician4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,a4 ,p[]ful electro-magnet support+ a great weight4 ,b4 ,! batt]y4 ,page #baj ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 a piece ( s(t iron is held suffici5tly ne> "o ( ! poles ( a p[]ful magnet1 x becomes by induction end[$ ) magnetic poles1 & w support ano!r bit ( s(t iron1 su* z a nail1 br\ght 9 contact ) x4 ,:5 ! magnet is remov$1 ! inductive action ceases1 & ! s(t iron loses its magnetic p[]4 ,?is exp]im5t af=ds ano!r example ( ! connexion betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( electricity & magnetism4 ,x is 9 consequ5ce ( ! inductive action ( ! magnetism ( ! e>? t all masses ( iron1 especially :5 !y are p]p5dicul>1 are f\nd to be end[$ ) magnetic pol>ity2 h5ce ! reaction ( ! iron 9 %ips ^u ! compasses1 :i* h to be correct$ & adju/$ be=e a voyage1 or else s]i\s errors 9 /e]+ ! vessel w\ld occur1 & !re is no d\bt t _m %ipwrecks are due to ?is cause4 ,no o!r metals beside iron1 /eel1 nickel1 cobalt1 & possibly manganese1 c receive or reta9 magnetism aft] contact ) a magnet4 ,! rem>kable effect ( magnetism ^u all matt]1 s ably inve/igat$ by ,f>aday & o!rs1 w be expla9$ 9 ano!r "p ( ?is book--viz41 9 ! article on ,dia-,magnetism4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,magician & 8 load/one-rock4--,vide ,fairy ,tale4 ,page #baa ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,ma*9es4 ,! exp]im5ts already describ$ 9 illu/ration ( "s ( ! ph5om5a ( electro-magnetism are ( su* a simple nature t !y may be compreh5d$ )\t difficulty2 b x is n su* an easy task to appreciate ! curi\s fact ( an invisible p[] produc+ motion4 ,x has already be5 expla9$ t a copp] or o!r metallic wire convey+ a curr5t ( electricity becomes = ! "t end[$ ) a magnetic p[]1 & if held above1 or bel[1 or close to1 a susp5d$ magnetiz$ /eel ne$le1 affects x 9 a v m>k$ degree1 caus+ x to move to ! "r or left1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! electric curr5t2 & 9 ord] to =m "s notion ( ! condition ( a metallic wire :il/ ! electricity is pass+ ?r\gh x1 ! annex$ diagrams may be ref]r$ to4 7,figs4 #bja1 #bjb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,portion ( a squ>e copp] conductor1 9 :i* ,a ,b repres5ts ! direction ( ! electricity1 & ! small arr[s1 ,c ,c ,c ,c1 ! magnetic curr5t or :irl at "r angles to ! electrical curr5t1 & ex]cis+ a tang5tial action4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,a r\nd conduct+ wire1 9 :i* ! electrical curr5t is fl[+ 9 ! direction ( ! l>ge d>t ,a ,b1 & ! small arr[s indicate ! direction ( ! magnetic =ce4 ,dr4 ,roget says3 ,! magnetic =ce :i* emanates f ! electrical conduct+ wire is entirely diff]5t 9 its mode ( op]ation f all o!r =ces 9 nature ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,x does n act 9 a direction p>allel to t ( ! curr5t :i* is pass+ along ! wire1 nor 9 any plane pass+ ?r\gh t direction4 ,x is evid5tly ex]t$ 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to ! wire1 b /ill x has no t5d5cy to move ! poles ( ! magnet 9 a "r or radial l9e1 ei!r directly t[>ds1 or directly f1 ! wire1 z 9 e o!r case ( attractive or repulsive ag5cy4 ,! peculi>ity ( its action is t x produces motion 9 a circul> direction all r\nd ! wire--t is1 9 a direction at "r angles to ! radius1 or 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t to a circle describ$ r\nd ! wire 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to x2 h5ce ! electro-magnetic =ce ex]ts a tang5tial action1 or t :i* ,dr4 ,wolla/on call$ a v]tig9\s or :irl+ motion4 ,page #bab ,dr4 ,f>aday conclud$ t !re is no real attraction or repulsion betwe5 ! wire & ei!r pole ( a magnet1 ! action :i* imitates ^! effects be+ ( a comp\nd nature2 & he also inf]r$ t ! wire ought to revolve r\nd a magnetic pole ( a b> magnet1 & a magnetic pole r\nd a wire1 if prop] means c\ld be devis$ = giv+ effect to ^! t5d5cies1 & = isolat+ ! op]ations ( a s+le pole4 ,= ! fir/ idea ( electro-magnetic rotation ! _w is indebt$ to ,dr4 ,wolla/on2 b ,dr4 ,f>aday1 ) 8 usual +5uity1 0 ! fir/ :o c>ri$ out ! !ory practically4 ,! rotation ( a wire 7convey+ a curr5t ( voltaic electricity7 r\nd "o ( ! poles ( a magnet is well display$ ) ! simple contrivance devis$ by him4 7,fig4 #bjc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,n4 ,a small b> magnet cem5t$ into a w9e-glass1 ! nor? pole be+ at ,n4 ,a is a moveable wire loop$ ov] ! hook1 :i* is ! positive 77 pole ( ! batt]y2 ! free extremity rotates r\nd ! pole ( ! magnet :5 ! curr5t ( electricity passes4 ,! dott$ l9e repres5ts ! level ( ! m]cury :i* ! glass conta9s4 ,! electricity passes 9 at ,a1 & out at ! wire ,b1 z %[n by ! arr[s4 ,c is connect$ ) ! negative1 & ,d ) ! positive1 pole ( ! batt]y4 ,by a c>eful obs]vation ( ! complex action ( an electrifi$ wire ^u a magnetic ne$le1 ,dr4 ,f>aday 0 enabl$ to analyse ! ph5om5a ) 8 usual p5etration & exhau/ive ability1 & he f\nd1 z ,daniell relates1-- ,t if ! electrifi$ wire is plac$ 9 a p]p5dicul> position1 & made to approa* t[>ds "o pole ( ! ne$le1 ! pole w n be simply attract$ or repell$1 b w make an ef=t to pass (f on "o side 9 a direction dep5d5t ^u ! attractive or repulsive p[] ( ! pole2 b if ! wire be cont9ually made to approa* ! c5tre ( motion by ei!r ! "o or ! o!r side ( ! ne$le1 ! t5d5cy to move 9 ! =m] direction w fir/ dim9i%1 !n become null1 & ultimately ! motion w be rev]s$1 & ! ne$le w pr9cipally endeav\r to pass 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! opposite extremity ( ! ne$le w pres5t simil> ph5om5a 9 ! opposite direction2 h5ce ,dr4 ,f>aday drew ! conclusion t ! direction ( ! =ces 0 tang5tial to ! circumf]5ce ( ! wire1 t ! pole ( ! ne$le is drawn by "o =ce1 n 9 ! direction ( a radius to its c5tre1 b 9 t ( a l9e t\*+ its circumf]5ce1 & t x is repell$ by ! o!r =ce 9 ! opposite direction4 ,9 ?is mann] ! nor!rn =ce act$ all r\nd ! wire 9 "o direction1 & ! s\!rn 9 ! opposite "o4 ,ea* pole ( ! ne$le1 9 %ort1 appe>$ to h a t5d5cy to revolve r\nd ! wire 9 a direction opposite to ! o!r1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! wire r\nd ! poles4 ,ea* pole has ! p[] ( act+ ^u ! wire by itself1 & n z connect$ ) ! opposite pole1 & ! app>5t attractions & repulsions are m]ely exhibitions ( ! revolv+ motions 9 diff]5t p>ts ( _! circles4 ,page #bac ,! same fact illu/rat$ at ,fig4 #bjc1 is also demon/rat$ 9 a /ill m /rik+ mann] by means ( wire b5t into a rectangul> =m1 & s arrang$ t :il/ ! curr5t ( electricity passes1 x is free to move 9 a circle2 & :5 ! poles ( a magnet are br\ght t[>ds ! electrifi$ wire1 x may be attract$ or repell$ at pleasure1 & 9 fact becomes a magnetic indicator1 & places itself 7if c>efully susp5d$7 at "r angles to ! magnetic m]idian4 7,fig4 #bjd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,a ,a ,a ,a4 ,! rectangul> wire cov]$ ) silk & v>ni%$1 "o end ( :i* be+ po9t$1 re/s on ! little cup ,b1 connect$ ) a cov]$ wire pass+ d[n ! c5tre ( ! brass support to ! b9d+ screw ,c let into ivory4 ,d4 ,! o!r extremity ( ! rectangul> wire2 ?is be+ cov]$ & v>ni%$1 is n 9 metallic contact ) ! end ,b1 b is likewise po9t$1 & dips into ! m]cury conta9$ 9 ! l>ge cup ,e ,e4 ,! upp] & l[] cups d n t\*1 & are sep>at$ by ivory1 m>k$ by ! %ad$ portion1 & ! cup ,e ,e is 9 metallic communication ) ! brass pill>1 & is connect$ ) ! negative pole ( ! batt]y at ,f1 :il/ ,c is connect$ ) ! positive pole ( ! batt]y1 & ! electricity circulates r\nd ! wire 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,:5 a b> magnet1 ,n1 is br\ght t[>ds ! wire1 ! latt] is imm$iately set 9 motion1 & by alt]nately pres5t+ ! opposite poles ( ! magnet1 ! rectangul> wire rotates freely r\nd ! cup ,b4 ,^! curi\s movem5ts ( a magnetiz$ ne$le1 & rotations ( wires & magnets1 br\ght ab\t by ! ag5cy ( an active curr5t ( electricity1 h induc$ ,sir ,david ,brew/] to advance 8 admirable !ory1 :i* supposes ! affection ( ! m>9]'s compass ne$le1 & all o!r susp5d$ pieces ( /eel1 to be due to ! ag5cy ( electrical curr5ts cont9ually circulat+ ar\nd ! globe2 & ,mr4 ,b>l[ contriv$ ! foll[+ exp]im5t 9 illu/ration ( ,brew/]'s !ory4 ,a wood5 globe1 sixte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 0 made holl[1 = ! purpose ( r$uc+ its weight1 & :ile /ill 9 ! la!1 grooves "o-eigh? ( an in* deep & broad 7 cut to repres5t an equator1 & p>allels ( latitude at e f\r & a half degrees ea* way f ! equator to ! poles4 ,a groove ( d\ble dep? 0 also cut l a m]idian f pole to pole1 b only half r\nd4 ,! grooves 7 cut to receive ! copp] wire cov]$ ) silk1 & ! lay+ on 0 comm5c$ by tak+ ! middle ( a l5g? ( n9ety feet ( wire "o-sixte5? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 :i* 0 appli$ to ! equatorial groove s z to meet 9 ! transv]se m]idian2 x 0 !n made to pass r\nd ?is p>allel1 return$ aga9 along ! m]idian to ! next p>allel1 & !n pass$ r\nd ?is aga91 & s on1 till ! wire 0 ?us l$ 9 cont9uation f pole ,page #bad to pole4 ,! l5g? ( wire /ill rema9+ at ea* pole 0 return$ f ea* pole along ! m]idian groove to ! equator1 & at ?is po9t1 ea* wire be+ fa/5$ d[n ) small /aples1 ! wires f ! rema9+ five feet 7 b\nd toge!r ne> _! common extremity1 :5 !y op5$ to =m sep>ate connexions = ! poles ( a voltaic batt]y4 ,:5 ! batt]y 0 connect$1 & magnetic ne$les plac$ 9 diff]5t positions1 !y behav$ precisely z !y w\ld d on ! surface ( ! e>?1 ! induction set up by ! electrifi$ wire be+ a p]fect imitation ( t :i* exi/s on ! globe4 ,! opposite effect to t already describ$--viz41 ! rotation ( "o pole ( a magnet r\nd ! electrifi$ wire1 0 also arrang$ by ,f>aday 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 7,fig4 #bje47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,n ,s4 ,a little magnet float+ 9 m]cury conta9$ 9 ! glass ,a ,a2 ! nor? pole is all[$ to float above ! surface ( ! quicksilv]1 & ! s\? pole is atta*$ to ! wire pass+ ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! glass vessel4 ,! electricity passes 9 at ,b1 & tak+ ! c\rse indicat$ by ! arr[s travels ?r\gh ! glass ( quicksilv] to ! o!r pole ( ! batt]y at ,c4 ,directly contact is made ) ! batt]y1 ! little magnet rotates r\nd ! electrifi$ wire1 ,w4 ,! dott$ l9e %[s ! level ( ! m]cury 9 glass4 ,9 ! exam9ation ( ! magnetic ph5om5a obta9$ f wires transmitt+ a curr5t ( electricity1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t any conduct+ m$ium :i* =ms "p ( a clos$ circuit--i4e41 any conductor1 su* z *>coal1 sal9e fluids1 acidulat$ wat]1 :i* =m a l9k 9 ! endless *a9 requir$ = ! pa? ( ! electricity1--w cause a magnetic ne$le plac$ ne> x to deviate f its natural position4 ,^! positions ( ! electrifi$ wire & ! magnetic ne$le are ( c\rse almo/ unlimit$1 & 9 ord] to assi/ ! memory ) respect to ! fix$ laws t gov]n ^! relative movem5ts1 ,monsieur ,ampre has sugge/$ a mo/ useful me*anical aid1 & he says3--,let ! obs]v] reg>d himself z ! conductor1 & suppose a positive electric curr5t to pass f 8 head t[>ds 8 feet1 9 a direction p>allel to a magnet2 !n its nor? pole 9 front ( him w move to 8 "r side1 & its s\? pole to 8 left4 ,! plane 9 :i* ! magnet moves is always p>allel to ! plane 9 :i* ! obs]v] supposes himself to be plac$4 ,if ! plane ( 8 ,page #bae *e/ is horizontal1 ! plane ( ! magnet's motion w be horizontal1 b if he lie on ei!r side ( ! horizontally-susp5d$ magnet1 8 face be+ t[>ds x1 ! plane ( 8 *e/ w be v]tical1 & ! magnet w t5d to move 9 a v]tical plane4 ,?is v lucid comp>ison w be se5 to apply p]fectly to ! direction ( ! rotations 9 ,figs4 #bjc & #bje4 ,! :ole ( ?is app>atus is made 9 ! mo/ elegant & f9i%$ mann] by ,messrs4 ,elliott1 ( #cj1 ,/r&2 & by a modification ( ! latt] arrangem5t 7,fig4 #bjf71 ! opposite rotations ( ! opposite poles ( ! magnets r\nd ! electrifi$ wire1 are %[n 9 ! mo/ in/ructive mann]4 ,! app>atus 7,fig4 #bjf7 0 devis$ by ! late ,mr4 ,francis ,watk9s1 & consi/s ( two flat b> magnets d\bly b5t 9 ! middle1 & hav+ agate cups fix$ at ! "u "p ( ! b5d 7by :i* !y are support$7 ^u upright po9t$ wires1 ! latt] be+ fix$ upright on ! wood5 base ( ! app>atus1 & ! magnets turn r\nd !m z ^u an axis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,a4 ,wire convey+ ! curr5t ( electricity4 ,b ,b4 ,! magnets balanc$ on po9ts rotat+ r\nd ! wires4 ,two circul> boxwood ci/]ns1 to conta9 quicksilv]1 are support$ ^u ! /age or %elf above ! base4 ,a b5t po9t$ wire is direct$ into ! cup ( ea* magnet1 ! ends ( :i* dip into ! m]cury conta9$ 9 ! boxwood circul> tr\ghs on ! /age4 ,by us+ a batt]y to ea* magnet1 & tak+ c>e t ! curr5ts ( electricity fl[ precisely alike1 !y w !n rotate 9 opposite directions4 ,directly aft] ! +5i\s exp]im5ts ( ,f>aday became kn[n1 a great numb] ( electro-magnetic eng9e models 7 con/ruct$1 & _m ?\ght t ! "t 0 fa/ approa*+ :5 /eam w\ld be sup]s$$ by electricity2 & really1 to see ! pretty electro-magnetic models "w ) su* amaz+ rapidity1 x might be suppos$ t if !y 7 con/ruct$ on a l>g] scale1 a great am\nt ( h>d "w c\ld be obta9$ f !m4 ,?is idea1 h[ev]1 has be5 prov$ to be a fallacy1 = reasons t w be pres5tly expla9$4 ,! figure on p4 #baf displays two ( ^! eng9es1 "o ( :i* repres5ts ! rotation ( electro-magnets )9 f\r fix$ /eel magnets1 & ! o!r ! rotation ( /eel magnets by ! fix$ electro-magnets4 ,! latt] 7,no4 #b7 moves ) su* great velocity1 t unless ! /r5g? ( ! batt]y is c>efully adju/$1 ! connexions are soon de/roy$4 7,fig4 #bjg47 ,page #baf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--,no4 #a consi/s ( v]tical p]man5t /eel magnets & horizontal s(t-iron electro-magnets :i* rotate4 ,no4 #b consi/s ( two fix$ s(t-iron electro-magnets1 & f\r b5t p]man5t /eel magnets1 :i* rotate1 9 bo? cases ( c\rse1 only :5 connect$ ) ! batt]y4 ,consid]+ ! prodigi\s p[] or pull ( a s(t-iron electro-magnet1 & its capability ( support+ consid]able weight1 ! mo/ reasonable expectations ( success might be ent]ta9$ ) ma*9es act+ by ! direct pull4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 discov]$ t !y soon became ineffici5t1 f ! circum/ance t ! repeat$ bl[s receiv$ by ! iron s alt]$ its "*1 t x ev5tually assum$ ! quality ( /eel1 & _h a t5d5cy to reta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( p]man5t magnetism1 & ?us to int]f]e ) ! pr9ciple ( mak+ & unmak+ a magnet4 ,x 0 ?is fact t induc$ ,pr(essor ,jacobi1 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 aft] a l>ge exp5diture ( money1 to ab&on arrangem5ts ( ?is k9d1 & to employ su* z w\ld at once produce a rotatory motion4 ,! eng9e ?us arrang$ 0 tri$ ^u a tol]ably l>ge scale on ! ,neva1 & by x a boat conta9+ t5 or twelve p 0 propell$ at ! rate ( ?ree miles an h\r4 ,v>i\s eng9es h be5 con/ruct$ by ,watk9s1 ,botta1 ,jacobi1 ,arm/rong1 ,page1 ,hjor?2 ! eng9e made by ! latt] 7,hjor?7 excit$ mu* att5tion 9 #ahea-eb1 & consi/$ ( an electro-magnetic pi/on drawn )9 or repell$ f an electro-magnetic cyl9d]2 & by ?is motion x 0 ?\ght t a mu* great] l5g? ( /roke c\ld be secur$ ?an by ! revolv+ :eels or discs1 b ! loss ( p[] 7n only 9 ?is eng9e1 b 9 o!rs7 ?r\gh space is v great1 & ! lift+ p[] ( any magnet is greatly r$uc$ & ,page #bag alt]$ at ! smalle/ possible di/ance f its poles4 ,?is loss ( p[] is !re=e a great ob/acle 9 ! way ( ! useful application ( electro-magnetic =ce1 & c be appreciat$ ev5 ) ! little models1 all ( :i* may be /opp$ ) ! slighte/ friction1 al?\gh !y may be mov+ at ! "t ) great velocity4 ,9 ! second place1 suppos+ ! r$uc$ =ce ex]t$ by ! two magnets1 a few l9es ap>t1 0 consid]$ available = driv+ ma*9]y1 ! mom5t ! magnets beg9 to move 9 front ( "o ano!r !re is aga9 a great loss ( p[]1 & z ! spe$ increases1 !re is curi\sly a correspond+ dim9ution ( available me*anical p[]1 a fall+-(f 9 ! duty ( ! eng9e z ! rotations become m rapid4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ! co/ ( ! voltaic batt]y1 z comp>$ ) ! consumption ( coal 9 ! /eam-eng9e1 is v />tl+1 & extremely unfav\rable to electro-magnetic eng9es4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,j\le f\nd t ! economical duty ( an electro-magnetic eng9e at a giv5 velocity & = a giv5 resi/ance ( ! batt]y is proportion$ to ! mean int5sity ( ! sev]al pairs ( ! batt]y4 ,) 8 app>atus1 e p\nd ( z9c consum$ 9 a ,grove's batt]y produc$ a me*anical =ce 7friction includ$7 equal to raise a weight ( #cca1djj p\nds to ! height ( "o foot1 :5 ! revolv+ magnets 7 mov+ at ! velocity ( eight feet p] second4 ,n[1 ! duty ( ! be/ ,corni% /eam-eng9e is ab\t "o million five hundr$ ?\s& p\nds rais$ to ! height ( "o foot by ! combu/ion ( ea* p\nd ( coal1 or ne>ly five times ! extreme duty t c\ld be obta9$ f an electro-magnetic eng9e by ! consumption ( "o p\nd ( z9c4 ,?is comp>ison is !re=e s v unfav\rable1 t ! idea ( a successful application ( electricity z an economic s\rce ( p[]1 is almo/1 if n entirely ab&on$4 ,by in/itut+ a comp>ison betwe5 ! diff]5t means ( produc+ p[]1 x has be5 %[n t = e %ill+ exp5d$ !re might be rais$ by ,p\nds4 ,manual p[] #fjj1jjj "o foot high 9 a day4 ,horse #c1fjj1jjj ,/eam #ef1jjj1jjj ,electro-magnetism #ijj1jjj ,a p[]ful magnet has be5 comp>$ to a /eam-eng9e ) an enorm\s pi/on b ) an exce$+ly %ort /roke4 ,al?\gh motive p[] _c be produc$ f electricity & appli$ successfully to comm]cial purposes1 l ! /eam-eng9e1 yet ! a*ievem5ts ( ! electric telegraph z an application ( a small motive p[] mu/ n be lo/ sight (1 :il/ ! fall ( ! ball at ,deal & o!r places1 by :i* ! *ronomet]s ( ! m]cantile navy are regulat$1 z also ! means ( regulat+ ! "t at ! ,g5]al ,po/ ,(fice & v>i\s railway /ations1 are all useful applications ( ! p[] :i* fails to compete 9 o!r ways ) /eam4 ,page #bah ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,electric ,,telegraph4 ,! eng9e]+ & philosophical details ( ?is important in/rum5t h gr[n to su* =midable dim5sions1 t any attempt 7%ort ( devot+ ! :ole ( ^! pages to ! subject7 to give a full acc\nt ( ! hi/ory & application ( ! in/rum5t1 ! failures & successes ( novel inv5tions1 & ! cont9u$ onw>d progress ( ?is mode ( communication1 mu/ be reg>d$ z simply impossible1 & !re=e a v brief acc\nt ( ! pr9ciple only w be attempt$ 9 ^! pages4 ,= ! complete hi/ory ( ! discov]y & introduction ( ! pr9ciple ( ! ,electric ,telegraph ! read] is ref]r$ to ! ,society ( ,arts ,j\rnal 7,nos4 #cdh-i1 vol4 viii471 :]e x is /at$ t x is half a c5tury1 dat+ f ,augu/1 #ahei1 s9ce ! fir/ galvanic telegraph 0 made4 ,x 0 ! ,russian ,b>on ,s*ill+'s electro-magnetic telegraph :i*1 )\t its be+ kn[n to be 81 0 br\ght to ,london1 & caus$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ! fir/ practically useful telegraph l9es1 n only 9 ,great ,brita91 b 9 ! _w4 ,dr4 ,hamel says3 ,! small spr\t nurs$ on ! ,neva1 :i* _h be5 exhibit$ on ! ,rh9e1 & !nce br\ght to ! ,?ames1 grew up "h to a mighty tree1 ! fruit-lad5 bran*es ( :i*1 along ) ^? f trees gr[n up s9ce1 ext5d m & m ov] ! l&s & seas ( ! ,ea/]n hemisph]e1 :il/ k9dr$ trees plant$ 9 ! ,we/]n hemisph]e h cov]$ t "p ( ! _w ) _! bran*es1 "s ( :i* w1 ere long1 be int]wov5 ) ^? 9 our hemisph]e4 ,! fir/ telegraph l9e 9 ,engl& 0 con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,cooke f ,padd+ton along ! ,great ,we/]n ,railroad to ,we/ ,drayton 9 #ahch-ci2 & x mu/ be rememb]$ t x 0 9 ,febru>y1 #ahcg1 t ,mr4 ,cooke fir/ consult$ ,pr(essor ,*>les ,:eat/one1 hav+ previ\sly visit$ ,dr4 ,f>aday & ,dr4 ,roget1 & on ! #ai? ,novemb]1 #ahcg1 a p>tn]%ip contract 0 conclud$ betwe5 ,messrs4 ,cooke & ,:eat/one4 ,to ! di/+ui%$ philosoph]1 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one1 ! m]it ( ! +5i\s con/ruction ( ! v]tical-ne$le telegraph is due2 :il/ ,mr4 ,cooke's "n w always be associat$ ) ! practical e/abli%m5t ( ! fir/ telegraph l9es 9 ,engl&4 ,! fir/ l9e 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 f ,wa%+ton to ,baltimore1 0 complet$ 9 #ahdd1 be+ arrang$ & work$ by ,pr(essor ,morse4 ,9 ,briti% ,india1 9 ,april & ,may1 #ahci1 ! fir/ long l9e ( telegraph1 tw5ty-"o miles 9 l5g?1 & embrac+ #gjjj feet ( riv] surface1 0 con/ruct$ by ,dr4 7n[ ,sir ,william7 ,o',%aughnessy4 ,page #bai ,! con/ruction ( ! electric telegraph may be consid]$ "u ?ree heads3 #a/4 ,! ,batt]y1 ! motive p[]4 #bnd4 ,! ,wires1 ! c>ri]s ( ! =ce4 #crd4 ,! ,in/rum5ts to be work$--! bell & ! ne$le telegraph4 ,,! ,,batt]y4 ,! con/ruction & rationale ( ! batt]ies g5]ally 9 use h be5 expla9$ 9 ano!r "p ( ?is "w2 ^? us$ = telegraphic purposes consi/ ( "o or m c\ples1 ( :i* z9c is "o1 ! second be+ copp]1 silv]1 plat9um1 or c>bon4 ,ea* c\ple is t]m$ an elem5t1 & a s]ies ( su* c\ples a batt]y4 ,! batt]ies employ$ *iefly on ! ,engli% l9es consi/ ( a plate ( ca/-z9c f\r in*es squ>e & #c_/af?s ( an in* ?ick1 atta*$ by a copp] /rap "o in* broad to a ?9 copp] plate f\r in*es squ>e4 ,! z9c is well amalgamat$ ) m]cury4 ,twelve ( ^! c\ples are arrang$ 9 a tr\gh ( wood1 porcela91 or gutta-p]*a1 divid$ by p>titions into twelve wat]-tight cells1 #a in* wide4 ,! z9c & copp] pres]ve ! same ord] & direction ?r\gh\t1 & :5 arrang$1 ! tr\gh is fill$ ) ! f9e/ :ite s&1 & !n moi/5$ ) wat] previ\sly mix$ ) five p] c5t4 by measure ( pure sulphuric acid4 ,?is mode ( apply+ ! acid is ! clev] practical improvem5t ( ,mr4 ,cooke1 & prev5ts any inconv5i5ce f ! spill+ ( ! acid1 & at ! same "t r5d]s ! batt]y q portable4 ,! voltaic arrangem5t ?us prep>$ is f\nd to rema9 9 action = sev]al weeks1 or ev5 mon?s1 ) ! occasional addition ( small quantities ( acid1 & answ]s well = work+ ne$le telegraphs 9 f9e & dry wea!r4 ,9 fogs & ra9s1 at di/ances exce$+ #bjj miles at mo/1 _! action is n s p]fect1 & a va/ numb] ( c\ples mu/ be employ$1 #add to #bhh be+ frequ5tly 9 use4 ,9 ,france1 ,prussia1 & ,am]ica1 s& batt]ies d n appe> to answ]1 & ,daniell's arrangem5t is pref]r$4 ,sixty c\ples suffice 9 ,france = "s ( ! long l9es--viz41 f ,p>is to ,bordeaux1 #bhd miles2 ,p>is to ,brussels1 #bca miles2 & 9 fact1 ! advantages ( ! ,daniell's batt]y h become s app>5t1 t !y are n[ be+ us$ on ,engli% l9es4 ,9 ,prussia1 ,buns5's c>bon batt]y is mu* us$2 9 ,india1 a modification ( ,grove's batt]y is pref]r$1 ! z9c be+ act$ ^u by a solution ( common salt 9 wat]4 ,two ( ^! elem5ts 7 f\nd suffici5t to "w a l9e ( =ty miles totally un9sulat$1 & includ+ ! sub-aque\s cross+ ( ! ,hooghly ,riv]1 #fbjj feet wide4 ,! cont9ual en]gy ( ! batt]y1 :atev] may be its con/ruction1 dep5ds on ! circulation ( ! electricity1 ! object be+ to pass ! =ce f ! positive end ( ! s]ies ?r\gh ! wires1 back aga9 to ! negative extremity ( ! voltaic s]ies4 ,! wire 7! c>ri] ( ! =ce7 mu/ be cont9u\s ?r\gh\t1 unless1 ( c\rse1 wat] or e>? =ms a "p ( ! endless conduct+ *a94 ,page #bbj ,,! ,,conduct+ ,,wires4 ,^! roads = ! electricity may be ( any conv5i5t metal1 & ! "o pref]r$ & us$ is iron1 :i* is well calculat$ f its great t5acity 7be+ ! mo/ t5aci\s metal kn[n7 & *eapness to convey ! electricity1 al?\gh x is n su* a good conductor z copp]1 & (f]s ab\t six times m resi/ance to ! fl[ ( ! curr5t ?an ! latt] metal4 ,! wire does n appe> to be made ( iron1 because x is galvaniz$ or pass$ ?r\gh melt$ z9c1 :i* coats ! surface & def5ds x f de/ructive ru/1 at ! same "t does n de/roy its valuable prop]ty ( t5acity or p[] ( resi/+ a /ra94 ,ab\t "o ton ( wire is requir$ = e five miles1 & to support ?is weight1 /\t po/s ( fir or l>* are erect$ ab\t fifty y>ds ap>t1 & f t5 to tw5ty-five feet high4 ,at e qu>t] mile1 on _m l9es1 are /ra9+-po/s ) rat*et :eel w9d]s1 = tight5+ ! wires4 ,on "s ( ! l9es ! wires are atta*$ to ! po/s by side brackets c>ry+ ! insulators inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,c4 ,v4 ,walk]1 :i* are compos$ ( br[n salt-glaz$ /onew>e ( ! h\r-glass %ape1 z %[n 9 ! draw+4 7,fig4 #bjh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,walk]'s insulator4 ,!re are "s objections to ! h\r-glass insulators1 & !y h be5 modifi$ by ,mr4 ,edw9 ,cl>k1 ,page #bba :o employs a v /rong /one-w>e hook op5 at ! side1 s t ! wire c be plac$ on ! hook )\t ?read+1 & ! hooks c be replac$ 9 case ( break+1 )\t cutt+ ! telegraph wire1 :i* is securely fa/5$ to ea* insulator by turns ( ?9n] wire4 ,an inv]t$ cap ( z9c is us$ to keep ! insulator dry4 7,fig4 #bji47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,cl>k's insulator4 ,9 ,india ! conductor is r a rod ?an a wire1 & weighs ab\t half a ton p] mile2 x is erect$ 9 ! mo/ sub/antial mann]1 & _m miles ( ! rod are support$ on granite columns1 o!r portions on po/s ( ! iron-wood ( ,arracan1 or ( teak4 ,! numb] ( wires requir$ by ! electric telegraph (t5 puzzles ! railway travell]1 & p ask :y s _m wires are us$ on "s l9es & s few on o!rs8 ,! answ] is v simple3 !y are = conv5i5ce4 ,two wires only are requir$ = ! d\ble ne$le telegraph1 & "o = ! s+le ne$le in/rum5t4 ,b z s _m in/rum5ts are requir$ at ! t]m9al /ations1 an increas$ numb] ( wires1 l rails = locomotives1 mu/ be provid$2 ?us1 on ! ,ea/]n ,c\nties1 sev5 wires are visible1 & are ?us employ$4 ,! two upp] wires pass direct f ,london to ,norwi*2 ! next pair connect ,london1 ,broxb\rne1 ,cambridge1 ,br&on1 ,*e/]field1 ,ely2 ! ?ird pair all ! small /ations betwe5 ,london & ,br&on2 & ! sev5? wire is entirely devot$ to ! bell4 ,if ! e>? 0 n a conductor ( electricity1 & employ$ 9 ! telegraphic circuit1 f\r wires w\ld be requir$ = ! d\ble ne$le telegraph1 & two = ! s+le in/rum5t4 ,to und]/& ?is1 let u suppose a batt]y circuit ext5d+ f ,padd+ton to ! in/rum5t at ,sl\gh1 & ! wire return+ f ,sl\gh to ,padd+ton1 x is evid5t t "o wire w\ld take ! electricity to ,sl\gh1 & ! o!r return x to ,london1 z 9 ! diagram bel[4 7,fig4 #baj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,a4 ,! batt]y4 ,b4 ,! in/rum5t4 ,! arr[s %[ ! passage ( ! electricity to ! s+le ne$le telegraph in/rum5t by "o wire1 & ! return curr5t by ! o!r4 ,if ! :ole ( ! return wire is cut away except a few feet at ea* end1 :i* are connect$ by plates ( copp] ) ! damp e>?1 ! curr5t n only passes z be=e1 b actually has increas$ 9 int5sity1 & w cause a mu* m en]getic movem5t ( ! ne$le 9 ! telegraph in/rum5t4 7,fig4 #baa47 ,^! plates are call$ ,e>? ,plates2 & ,/e9heil1 9 #ahcg1 0 ! fir/ :o prov$ t ! e>? might p]=m ! function ( a wire4 ,page #bbb ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baa4 ,a4 ,! batt]y4 ,b4 ,! in/rum5t4 ,c4 ,e>? plate at ,sl\gh4 ,d4 ,e>? plate at ,london4 ,! arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! electric curr5t4 ,x mu/ be obvi\s t a message may be receiv$ at any /ation )\t a batt]y1 b 9 ord] to be able to return an answ]1 e /ation mu/ h its own batt]y4 ,+5i\sly-con/ruct$ lightn+-conductors are atta*$ to ! po/s :i* c>ry ! wires1 s t 9 case ( a /orm1 ! natural electricity is convey$ to ! e>?1 :il/ ! voltaic electricity artificially produc$ pursues its own c\rse )\t deviation4 ,protectors are also requir$ = ! in/rum5ts at ! /ations1 & ! plan devis$ by ,mr4 ,highton is ?us describ$ by ! inv5tor3-- ,a portion ( ! wire circuit--say = six or eight in*es--is envelop$ 9 blott+-pap] or silk1 & a mass ( metallic fil+s1 9 connexion ) ! e>?1 is made to surr\nd x4 ,?is arrangem5t is plac$ on ea* side ( ! telegraph in/rum5t at a /ation4 ,:5 a fla% ( lightn+ happ5s to be int]cept$ by ! wires ( ! telegraph1 ! myriads ( inf9itesimally f9e po9ts ( metal 9 ! fil+s surr\nd+ ! wire at ! /ation1 on hav+ connexion ) ! e>?1 at once draw (f ne>ly ! :ole *>ge ( lightn+1 & c>ry x safely to ! e>?4 ,,! ,,in/rum5ts ,,to ,,be ,,work$--,,! ,,bell ,,& ,,! ,,telegraph4 ,! bell or al>um resembles 9 con/ruction t ( an ord9>y clock1 & is 9 fact a piece ( clockwork w\nd up & ready to r+ a bell1 :5 ! det5t or prev5tive is remov$4 ,! det5t is connect$ ) a piece ( s(t iron plac$ be=e an electro-magnet1 & directly ! curr5t passes1 ! electro-magnet attracts ! s(t piece ( iron atta*$ to a p]p5dicul> lev] :i* ! bell-crank lev] re/s ^u2 ! det5t is remov$1 & ! bell r+s1 & aga9 /ops :5 ! curr5t ( electricity ceases to pass4 ,"o ( ! mo/ simple al>um clocks is a common ,am]ican clock1 w\nd up daily4 ,a small electro-magnet surr\nd$ ) ?ick wire is plac$ bel[ a moveable piece ( t9n$ iron1 s t :5 ?is is attract$1 ! fly ( ! clock is releas$1 & its bell tolls unceas+ly :ile ,page #bbc ! magnet is excit$4 ,?is arrangem5t is employ$ by ,sir ,w4 ,o',%aughnessy 9 ! ,indian telegraph sy/em4 7,fig4 #bab47 ,x w readily be compreh5d$ f ?is description t ! al>um is s\nd$ by ord9>y me*anism1 & t ! duty ( ! curr5t ( ! electricity is simply compris$ 9 ! act ( remov+ ! lev] & lib]at+ ma*9]y1 :i* may be l>ge or small2 & if x 7 ?\ght necess>y1 ! bells ( ! great clock-t[] ( ! ,h\ses ( ,p>liam5t1 :i* *ime ! qu>t]s1 or ev5 ,big ,b5 himself 7:5 8 con/itution is re/or$71 c\ld be rung by a p]son at ,york or ,ed9burgh1 suppos+ wires1 batt]ies1 & a p[]ful electro-magnet ) a det5t me*anism = ! bells1 7 prop]ly arrang$ & connect$ ) ! clockwork4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bab4 ,a4 ,! s(t iron t9n$1 :i* is attract$ to ! electro-magnet ,b1 & lib]ates ! det5t4 ,9 c]ta9 cases1 ,mr4 ,*>les ,v4 ,walk] /ates t a s+le & di/9ct wire is us$ = ! bell only1 ) 8 special me*anism1 call$ ! r++ key4 ,if ! bell 0 always on ! same wire z ! ne$le-coil1 ! bell w\ld n only call ! att5tion (1 b s]i\sly annoy ! cl]k 7unless1 ( c\rse1 he happ5$ to be a v deaf p]son7 by its r++ :il/ he 0 read+ ! signals ( ! ne$le4 ,! nuisance is prev5t$ by :at is t]m$ jo9+ ov] or mak+ ! %ort circuit--9 fact1 by provid+ = ! curr5t a %ort] & mu* m capaci\s road to ! ne$le coil ?an by go+ ?r\gh t ( ! bell-magnet1 :i* is made ) v f9e wire2 & ! control ( ! %ort circuit is put 9 ! h&s ( ! cl]k4 ,,cooke ,,& ,,:eat/one',s ,,d\ble ,,ne$le ,,telegraph4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is in/rum5t1 z already expla9$1 is involv$ 9 ! elem5t>y exp]im5t ( ,o]/$--viz41 ! deflection ( a magnetic ne$le f ! inside ( a coil ( wire convey+ a curr5t ( electricity1 & z x is difficult to give a good description & draw+ ( ! int]ior ( ! in/rum5t t c really be und]/ood1 x may be suffici5t to /ate t ! h&les give ! op]ator ! p[] ( rev]s+ ! curr5t ( electricity1 s t ! ne$les are deflect$ ) ! utmo/ c]ta9ty to ,page #bbd "o side or ! o!r1 ei!r sep>ately or simultane\sly4 7,fig4 #bac47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 figures1 & a v>iety ( conv5tional signals1 are indicat$ by ! s+le & comb9$ movem5ts ( ! ne$les on ! dial4 ,! left-h& ne$le mov+ once to ! left indicates ! 1 :i* is giv5 at ! end ( a ^w4 ,twice 9 ! same way1 ,a2 ?rice1 ,b2 fir/ "r1 !n left1 ,c2 ! rev]se1 ,d4 ,once direct to ! "r1 ,e2 twice1 ,f2 ?rice1 ,g4 ,9 ! same ord] ) ! o!r ne$le = ,h1 ,i1 ,k1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p4 ,! signals bel[ ! c5tre ( ! dial are indicat$ by ! p>allel movem5ts ( bo? ne$les simultane\sly4 ,bo? ne$les mov+ once to ! left indicate ,r2 twice1 ,s2 ?rice1 ,t4 ,fir/ "r1 !n left ) bo?1 ,u2 ! rev]se1 ,v4 ,bo? mov+ once to ! "r1 ,w2 twice1 ,x2 ?rice1 ,y4 ,! figures are indicat$ 9 ! same way z ! lett]s ne>e/ to :i* !y are respectively plac$4 ,to *ange f lett]s to figures ! op]ator gives ,h1 foll[$ by ! 1 :i* ! recipi5t returns to signify t he und]/&s4 ,if1 aft] ! above signs 7,h & 7 7 giv51 ,c ,r ,h ,l 7 receiv$1 #ahde w\ld be und]/ood4 ,a *ange f figures to lett]s is notifi$ by giv+ ,i1 foll[$ by ! 1 :i* ! recipi5t also returns4 ,ea* ^w is ackn[l$g$4 ,if ! recipi5t und]/&1 he gives ,e2 if n1 ! 1 9 :i* case ! ^w is repeat$4 ,att5tion to a communication by ?is in/rum5t is call$ by ! r++ ( a bell 7( any size71 :i* is effect$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( an electric curr5t4 ,! upp] case conta9s ! bell4 ,sir ,w4 ,o',%aughnessy1 9 8 excell5t "w on ! electric telegraph 9 ,briti% ,india1 gives a description ( a telegraphic in/rum5t ( rem>kable simplicity1 :i* is successfully employ$ 9 ,india1 & is ,page #bbe highly spok5 ( by ,mr4 ,e4 ,v4 ,walk] & o!r g5tlem5 practically acqua9t$ ) ! work+ ( telegraphs4 ,x consi/s ( a coil ( f9e wire on a c>d or ivory frame1 a magnetic ne$le ) a light index ( pap] pa/$ across x2 two /ops ( ?9 %eet lead to limit ! vibrations ( ! index2 a support+ bo>d eight in*es squ>e1 & a squ>e ( glass 9 a frame ( wood1 or a common glass tumbl] plac$ ov] x z a %ade1 to prev5t ! index be+ mov$ by curr5ts ( air4 ,x is /at$ t ! (fice boys1 ) ! assi/ance ( a native ,indian c>p5t]1 make up ^! telegraphs at a price n exce$+ two %ill+s ea*4 ,9 ,engl& ( c\rse !y w\ld be m exp5sive2 b ! simplicity & p]fection ( ! arrangem5t are s mu* to be comm5d$ t we give ! details = ! b5efit ( ^? boys :o might wi% to e/abli% a telegraph on a small scale = amusem5t4 ,,! ,,frame4 ,?is is a piece ( mahogany eight in*es squ>e & "o in* ?ick1 ) a holl[ groove cut 9 its c5tre two in*es & a half long1 half an in* wide1 & a qu>t] ( an in* deep2 a l$ge ( ! same wood "o in* wide & half an in* deep surr\nds ! frame1 leav+ ! inn] surface sev5 in*es squ>e2 ?is is /a9$ black ) ink to make ! motions ( ! index m conspicu\s4 ,,! ,,coil4 ,?is consi/s ( fifty feet ( ! f9e/ silk-cov]$ copp] wire w\nd on a frame ( c>d two in*es long1 half an in* broad1 ?ree-eigh?s deep 9 ! op5 "p4 ,an edge or flange ( c>d1 ?ree-eigh?s ( an in* wide1 is atta*$ to x at ea* side to keep ! wire 9 its place4 ,! frame may be ( ?9 wood or ivory1 & ! w9d+ ( ! wire comm5ces at ! l[] left corn]1 & x is coil$ f left to "r1 z ! h&s ( a wat* w\ld move 9 ! same plane4 7,fig4 #bad47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,! coil4 ,two in*es ( ea* end ( ! coil wire are n[ /ripp$ ( _! silk cov]+ by be+ rubb$ ) s&-pap]4 ,! coil is m\nt$ 9 ! frame by ins]t+ its l[] edge or flange 9 ! groove1 s t ! l[] "p or floor ( ! inside ( ! coil is level ) t ( ! ,page #bbf frame1 z %[n bel[1 & x is n[ ready to receive ! magnetiz$ ne$le4 7,fig4 #bae47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,! coil fitt$ into frame4 ,,! ,,ne$le4 ,?is is "o in* long1 "o-twelf? ( an in* wide1 ( ! ?9ne/ /eel1 & fitt$ ) a little brass cap turn$ to a true cone to receive ! po9t on :i* x is balanc$4 ,^! ne$les are ( h>d temp]$ /eel1 & are magnetiz$ by a s+le contact ) ! poles ( an electro-magnet or o!r ord9>y p[]ful magnet4 ,! magnet is n[ to be balanc$ on a /eel po9t "o-eigh? ( an in* high2 ^! are nipp$ (f ) cutt+ pli]s f common sew+ ne$les1 & sold]$ into a slip ( ?9 copp] ?ree in*es long1 half an in* wide4 7,fig4 #baf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,a4 ,! ne$le4 ,b4 ,! po9t on ! slip ( copp]4 ,z ! nor? end ( ! ne$le w be f\nd to dip1 x is advisable to c\nt]act ?is by t\*+ ! s\? end ) a little %ell-lac v>ni%1 :i* dries rapidly1 & soon re/ores ! ne$le to a p]fect equilibrium4 ,! ne$le is complet$ = use by fix+ to x an index ( pap] 7cut f glaz$ lett] pap]7 two in*es long1 tap]+ f "o-eigh? ( an in* to a po9t1 & fa/5$ at "r angles on to ! ne$le ) lac v>ni%1 s z to be truly balanc$1 & po9t+ ! %>p end to ! ea/1 :5 ! ne$le plac$ on ! po9t settles due nor? & s\?1 its nor? pole be+ opposite ! obs]v]'s "r h&1 ! obs]v] fac+ we/4 7,fig4 #bag47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,! ne$le ) ! pap] index4 ,page #bbg ,! coil frame is plac$ nor? & s\?1 & ! ne$le is n[ introduc$ by slid+ ! end ( ! slip ( copp] into ! op5+ 9 ! frame4 ,to limit ! vibrations ( ! pap] index a /op is plac$ at ea* side4 ,! /ops are made ( a /rip ( ?9 %eet-lead or copp]1 a qu>t] ( an in* broad1 "o in* & a half long1 & turn$ up at a "r angle1 s t "o in* re/s on ! bo>d & half an in* is v]tical4 ,= ord9>y practice ^! /ops are plac$ ea* at half an in* f ! index4 ,! telegraph is plac$ 9 a box1 :i* may h a piece ( look+-glass 9 ! lid1 s t ! read+s c be tak5 ) ! ne$le 9 ! v]tical in/ead ( ! horizontal position1 if requir$4 7,fig4 #bah47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bah4 ,box conta9+ ! telegraph1 ) ! look+-glass 9 ! lid4 ,a small /eel magnet is plac$ on or ne> ! frame1 if requir$1 ! s\? pole ( ?is magnet be+ opposite to ! nor? pole ( ! ne$le 9 ! telegraph coil4 ,! b> is f\r in*es long1 half an in* broad1 ?ree-sixte5?s ( an in* ?ick1 & x is only us$ to c\nt]act any local deviation :i* may arise 9 us+ ! in/rum5t ) miles ( wire4 ,x w\ld n be requir$ "u ord9>y circum/ances4 ,! alphabet us$ is %[n to ! left4 ,! ends ( ! f9e wire ( ! telegraph coil are jo9$ on to ! wires f ! rev]s+ in/rum5t1 & ?is is connect$ ) a voltaic s]ies ( "o or m elem5ts1 s t by ! employm5t ( ! rev]s] ! ne$le is caus$ to move "r or left at pleasure4 ,! ,page #bbh :ite pap] index on ! black gr\nd c be foll[$ ) ! greate/ c]ta9ty1 & ,sir ,w4 ,o',%aughnessy /ates t ) ?is in/rum5t a telegraph cl]k may read at ! rate ( tw5ty words p] m9ute ) a d\ble ne$le wire1 be+ equal to =ty words p] m9ute4 ,,! ,,rev]s] consi/s ( a block ( wood1 two in*es & a half squ>e1 9 :i* f\r holl[s1 half an in* deep1 are cut1 & ^! holl[s are jo9$ diagonally by copp] wires let into ! sub/ance ( ! wood1 & mo/ c>efully insulat$ f ea* o!r by melt$ cem5t1 b expos+ a clean metallic surface 9 ea* cell1 :i* is fill$ ) m]cury4 7,fig4 #bai47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,block ( wood ) f\r holes2 ! positive t]m9al is connect$ ) ! holes ,a & ,b1 ! negative ) ,c & ,d2 ! holl[s are fill$ ) m]cury4 ,t ,t are ! wires f ! telegraph box1 & x is obvi\s t by dipp+ !m alt]nately into ,c ,b & ,a ,d ! curr5t is rev]s$1 & ! ne$le deflect$ "r or left at pleasure4 ,9 practice a m elaborate rev]s] is employ$1 b to demon/rate ! pr9ciple ! simple block above describ$ is q suffici5t4 ,) ! telegraph plac$ at ! top ( a h\se1 or 9 a di/ant cottage1 & a s+le cell ( ,grove's batt]y1 or at mo/ two1 = any %ort di/ances1 ) ! rev]s]1 messages may be pass$ ) great rapidity f ! bottom ( ! h\se to ! top1 or f a mansion to ! lodge1 x be+ und]/ood t a batt]y1 rev]s]1 & telegraph1 are requir$ at bo? places :]e messages are receiv$ & answ]$2 b if no answ]s are requir$1 ! batt]y & rev]s] are plac$ at "o end ( ! wire 9 ! h\se1 & ! telegraph at ! o!r extremity 9 ! cottage1 & e>? plates may be arrang$ to return ! curr5t1 or ano!r wire us$ = t purpose4 ,:il/ laud+ to ! utmo/ ! inv5tion ( ! electric telegraph1 we mu/ rememb] !re is no?+ new "u ! sun1 & t aft] all ,nature claims ! pr9ciple ( telegraph+1 & ) ! sil5t ge/ure1 ! speak+ eye1 int]pret$ & answ]$ by o!rs1 %e proclaims h]self to be ! orig9ator ( communication by signs4 ,:il/ ,page #bbi ! language ( fl[]s1 & ! m\rnful requirem5ts ( ! deaf & dumb 9 ! use ( ! f+] alphabet1 %[ h[ readily man has adopt$ ! important pr9ciple1 till he has br\ght x to ! highe/ /ate ( p]fection 9 ! electric telegraph4 ,:5 ! telegraph 0 fir/ adopt$ on ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway1 ! mo/ ridicul\s ideas 7 =m$ ( its capabilities1 & _m p]sons firmly believ$ t ! wires 7 us$ = ! purpose ( dragg+ lett]s & diff]5t articles f /ation to /ation4 ,wife1 said a man1 look+ at ! telegraph wires1 ,i don't see1 = my "p1 h[ !y s5d lett]s on !m wires1 )\t te>9' 'em all to bits4 ,oh1 y /upid6 exclaim$ 8 intellectual sp\se2 :y1 !y don't s5d ! pap]3 !y j s5d ! writ9' 9 a fluid /ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,"o ( ! ideas ( telegraphic communication4 ,page #bcj ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,ruhmkorff',s1 ,,he>d]',s1 ,,& ,,b5tley',s ,,coil ,,app>atus4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! popul> articles on frictional & voltaic electricity1 x has already be5 m5tion$ t :il/ ! int5sity effects--su* z ! capability ( ! sp>k to pass ?r\gh a c]ta9 ?ickness ( air1 or ! production ( ! peculi> physiological effect ( ! %ock--belong especially to ! ph5om5a ( frictional electricity1 !y are n app>5t ) ! quantity effects1 su* z may be produc$ by an ord9>y voltaic batt]y1 unless ! latt] consi/s ( an imm5se numb] ( elem5ts1 su* z ! fam\s wat] batt]y ( ! late respect$ ,mr4 ,crosse1 :i* consi/$ ( two ?\s& five hundr$ pairs ( copp] & z9c cyl9d]s1 well insulat$ on glass /&s1 & protect$ f du/ & light4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! feeble int5sity curr5t ( voltaic electricity1 f f\r or five elem5ts1 is p]mitt$ to pass into a coil ( a peculi> con/ruction1 fitt$ ) a cond5s]1 & manufactur$ ei!r by ,ruhmkorff ( ,p>is1 or ,mr4 ,he>d] ( ,plym\?1 !n ! mo/ rem>kable effects are producible1 :i* h creat$ q a new & di/9ct s]ies ( ph5om5a1 & fur!r e/abli%$ 9 ! mo/ satisfactory mann] ! connexion betwe5 ! electricities d]iv$ f friction & *emical action4 ,! con/ruction ( ^! coils does n diff] v mat]ially1 & great m]it is due to ,messrs4 ,ruhmkorff1 ,he>d]1 & ,b5tley1 :o h sep>ately & indep5d5tly work$ out ! con/ruction ( ! mo/ =midable ma*9es ( ?is class4 ,9 a lett] to ! au?or ,mr4 ,b5tley says3-- ,i comm5ce ! =mation ( my coil by us+ z an axis an iron tube t5 in*es long & half an in* diamet]2 ar\nd ?is is plac$ a consid]able numb] ( insulat$ iron wires ! same l5g? z ! tube1 & suffici5tly num]\s to =m a bundle "o in* & ?ree qu>t]s diamet]4 ,?is core is wrapp$ c>efully 9 eight or n9e lay]s ( wax$ silk1 ! necessity ( :i* w be obvi\s pres5tly4 ,my prim>y helix1 :i* is =m$ ( ?irty y>ds ( ,no4 #ad cotton-cov]$ copp] wire1 is w\nd c>efully on ?is core1 & consi/s ( two lay]s1 ea* lay] be+ c>efully insulat$ "o f ! o!r by wax$ silk1 = ,i f9d t if a wet /r+ or f9e plat9um wire be connect$ ) ! two ends ( ! prim>y wires ( an induction coil 9 action1 !re is sc>cely an indication ( an induc$ curr5t to be obta9$ f ! second>y wire4 ,t ?is is n ow+ to any decrease ( magnetic p[] is prov$ by te/+ ! iron core be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t1 b is simply ow+ to ! c5tral magnet or coil ex]t+ ! :ole ( its inductive p[]s ^u ! ne>e/ clos$ circuit2 x !re=e foll[s t if ! two lay]s ( prim>y wire are connect$ by ! cotton cov]+ becom+ moi/1 ! :ole ( ! ,page #bca induc$ curr5t w take ?is pa? in/ead ( trav]s+ ! second>y wire4 ,be=e describ+ my second>y wire ,i mu/ aga9 call att5tion to ! important fact t ! magnetism ( ! iron ex]ts its inductive p[] ^u ! ne>e/ conduct+ m$ium2 & ,i h con/ruct$ an in/rum5t to demon/rate ?is fact4 ,x consi/s simply ( an ord9>y coil1 giv+ ! ?ird ( an in* sp>k1 b hav+ ! f\r inn] lay]s ( second>y wire br\ght out sep>ately4 ,n[1 ,i f9d t :5 ,i keep ! ends ( ?is wire sep>ate ,i obta9 ne>ly ! ?ird ( an in* sp>k1 b :5 ,i connect !m metallically ,i c obta9 no int5sity sp>k :atev] f ! sev5te5 coils :i* surr\nd !m4 ,x foll[s f ?is t be=e w9d+ ! second>y wire ! /rik+ di/ance ( a s+le lay] mu/ be asc]ta9$1 & ,i f9d t ) my coil ,i c get a sp>k "o-t5? ( an in* long f "o coil ( wire1 & suffici5tly int5se to p5etrate ) facility six lay]s ( wax$ silk4 ,wax$ silk is !re=e unsuit$ = ! insulation ( l>ge coils1 & ,i f9d1 aft] num]\s exp]im5ts1 t !re is no sub/ance s fitt$ = ! purpose z gutta-p]*a tissue1 & ,i use five lay]s ( ?is sub/ance to ea* lay] ( wire4 ,! second>y helix !n consi/s ( ?ree ?\s& y>ds ( ,no4 #ce silk-cov]$ copp] wire1 & is insulat$ 9 ! mann] describ$ above2 b z ,i d n use *eeks to my coil x assumes ! =m ( a cyl9d] hav+ r\nd$ ends4 ,= ! protection ( ?is in/rum5t ,i place x 9 a mahogany box ( ! prop] size1 & x is support$ & reta9$ 9 its position by an iron rod1 :i* is ?ru/ ?r\gh ! holl[ axis ( ! core & ! two ends ( ! box1 leav+ half an in* ( ! iron project+ to "w ! contact break]1 :i* is fix$ to "o end ( ! box1 :ile ! two ends ( ! second>y wire are br\ght out ( ! o!r ?r\gh gutta p]*a tubes4 ,! cond5s] is conta9$ 9 a sep>ate box1 & is =m$ ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty %eets ( t9foil betwe5 d\ble t numb] ( %eets ( v>ni%$ pap]1 ! alt]nate sides ( ! foil be+ br\ght out & connect$ to appropriate b9d+ screws4 ,?is cond5s] =ms a conv5i5t /& = ! coil1 & c be us$ = _m int]e/+ exp]im5ts4 ,! %ock :i* ! cond5s] gives to ! sy/em dep5ds 9 a great measure on ! size ( ! coat+s4 ,! prim>y wire alone does n produce any physiological results1 or at lea/ v feeble ones4 ,mr4 ,he>d]'s coil is w\nd on a bobb9 six in*es 9 l5g?1 & f\r in*es & a half ?ick1 & includes ?ree ?\s& y>ds ( cov]$ wire 7,no4 #ce74 ,! iron core consi/s ( a bundle ( small wires capp$ ) solid ends1 & ! sp>ks obta9$ f x 7 five-eigh?s ( an in* 9 air :5 ! prim>y coil 0 excit$ by f\r pairs ( ,grove's s]ies2 & :5 connect$ ) ! ,leyd5 j>1 ! mo/ vigor\s & brilliant results 7 produc$4 ,! cond5s] is made ( c>tridge pap]1 coat$ 9 ! prop] mann] ) t9foil4 ,! second>y ,page #bcb coil is q indep5d5t ( ! prim>y "o1 :i* is laid on 9 diff]5t l5g?s1 s t ! coil c be adju/$ to any batt]y p[]1 :e!r = quantity or int5sity4 ,= ! successful exhibition ( ! capabilities ( ! ma*9e1 x is requir$ to p]=m ! exp]im5ts 9 a d>k5$ room4 7,fig4 #bba47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,ruhmkorff's app>atus4 ,a ,b4 ,! coil1 conta9+ m ?an a mile ( insulat$ wire4 ,! /& x re/s ^u1 & ) :i* x is 9 communication1 conta9s ! cond5s]4 ,9 us+ ?is app>atus1 eight pairs ( ,grove's batt]y w be q suffici5t to produce ! effects1 & ! greate/ c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid ! %ock1 :i* is mo/ sev]e & pa9ful1 & might d a great deal ( h>m to a weakly1 s5sitive1 & n]v\s p]son4 ,to avoid any accid5ts ( ?is k9d1 ! conv5i5t arrangem5t at "o end %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbb mu/ be c>efully att5d$ to1 & :5 manipulat+ ) any "p ( ! app>atus1 if ! batt]y is atta*$1 ! contact %\ld fir/ be brok5 by br++ ! ivory 7! non-conduct+7 "p ( ! cyl9d] ,a 7,fig4 #bbb7 9 communication ) ! conductors1 ,b ,b1 :]e ! wires f ! batt]y are atta*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,"o end ( ,ruhmkorff's coil4 ,b ,b4 ,connexion to receive ! batt]y wires4 ,a is ! cyl9d]1 "o half ( :i* is ivory & ! o!r metal4 ,9 ?is position no %ock c be receiv$1 because ! electricity is cut (f by ! ivory f ! coil4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,x is at ! o!r extremity ( ! coil t ! exp]im5ts are p]=m$2 = in/ance1 if an exhau/$ globe is connect$ ) ! pill>s ,b ,b 7,fig4 #bbc71 & ! connexion made ) ! batt]y1 a beautiful fa9t blue light is app>5t on "o ( ! knobs & wires1 & by rev]s+ ! curr5t ! light appe>s on ! o!r knob & wire4 ,page #bcc ,?is effect is suppos$ to resemble "s ( ^? magnific5t /reaks & undulations ( col\r$ light call$ ! ,aurora ,borealis2 &1 if ! globe is remov$ f ! foot1 & screw$ on to ! air-pump plate1 & a little alcohol1 e!r1 naph?a1 or turp5t9e plac$ on wool or t[ is held to ! air-pump screw1 :]e ! air usually ru%es 91 & ! cock turn$1 s t ! vacuum is de/roy$1 a quantity ( ! vap\r w necess>ily fill ! globe2 & if ?is is once m exhau/$1 x pres5ts a diff]5t appe>ance1 be+ full ( col\r$ light 7v>y+ accord+ to ! _s employ$7 b /ratifi$ & ( a circul> =m4 7,fig4 #bbc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,end ( coil :]e ! exp]im5ts are p]=m$4 ,b ,b4 ,connect+ screws & wires pass+ to ! exhau/$ globe1 ,c4 ,! screws are support$ on insulat+ glass pill>s1 ,p ,p4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,! appe>ance ( ^! b&s ( light is modifi$ by ! nature ( ! glass tubes employ$1 & ! subject has be5 c>efully inve/igat$ by ,mr4 ,gassiott4 ,at ! la/ meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,ab]de51 ,dr4 ,rob9son made v>i\s exp]im5ts1 arrang$ by ,mr4 ,ladd1 = ! purpose ( %[+ ! connexion betwe5 ^! m9iature effects ( b&s ( light 9 tubes conta9+ v>i\s gases1 & ! ph5om5a ( ! ,aurora ,borealis4 ,! title ( ! disc\rse1 :i* 0 specially deliv]$ 9 ! ,music ,hall by ! le>n$ ,doctor1 0 ,on ,electrical ,dis*>ges 9 ,highly-r>efi$ ,m$ia1 & x 0 illu/rat$ by exp]im5ts prep>$ by ,mr4 ,gassiott & ,mr4 ,ladd4 ,! k9d ( tubes employ$ may be und]/ood f ! next figure4 ,!y are made 9 ,g]many1 & by approa*+ a p[]ful magnet to ,page #bcd ! outside ( any ( ! glass tubes :il/ ! b&s ( light are be+ produc$1 ! mo/ rem>kable modifications ( !m are obta9$4 ,mr4 ,ladd has m\nt$ "o ( ^! tubes 9 a rotatory arrangem5t simil> to t describ$ at page #ahf4 ,:5 connect$ ) ! coil & batt]y1 x furni%es "o ( ! mo/ lovely electric fire-:eels t c possibly be describ$4 7,fig4 #bbd47 ,mr4 ,grove plac$ a piece ( c>efully-dri$ phosphorus 9 a little metallic cup1 & cov]$ x ) a j> hav+ a cap & wire4 ,on remov+ ! air f ! receiv]1 & pass+ ! curr5t ( electricity ?r\gh x f ! ,ruhmkorff coil1 he obta9$ a light completely /ratifi$1 & bl5d$ transv]sely ) /raight b vibrat+ d>k b&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f4 ,v>i\s tubes ( diff]5t k9ds ( glass1 & conta9+ gases & vap\rs4 ,ea* tube has a plat9um wire ins]t$ at bo? ends1 ) :i* ! contact is made ) ! coil4 ,! tube ,a conta9s m]cury1 :i* has be5 boil$ 9 x1 & ! air expell$4 ,by mov+ ! conduct+ wire to ,g or ,h1 ! light :i* o!rwise passes ?r\gh ! :ole ( ! tubes /ops at ^! po9ts4 ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 two v ?9 iron wires are arrang$ 9 ! upright pill>s 7,fig4 #bbc71 & held suffici5tly close to ea* o!r1 z 9 ,fig4 #bbe1 light passes f "o to ! o!r4 ,! wire f :i* ! light passes rema9s cold1 ! o!r becomes s hot t x melts into a little globule ( liquid iron1 & if pap] is held betwe5 ! wires x rapidly takes fire4 7,fig4 #bbe47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,melt+ ( ! iron wire4 ,page #bce ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,remove ! break4 ,atta* two wires to ,x ,x 7,fig4 #bbf74 ,hold !m s z at pleasure to complete & int]rupt ! galvanic circle4 ,two o!r wires are atta*$ at ,p ,p1 _! ends be+ ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* asund]4 ,:5 ! curr5t is clos$ or brok5 at ,a ,a1 a sp>k passes betwe5 ,b ,b4 7,fig4 #bbf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,! mak+ & break+ ( ! circuit4 ,fif? ,exp]im5t4 ,a ,leyd5 j> may be *>g$ & dis*>g$ ) s+ul> rapidity :5 connect$ ) ! coil1 & ! snapp+ noise is s rapid1 t x produces a cont9u\s %>p s\nd4 7,fig4 #bbg47 ,if a piece ( pap] is held betwe5 ! ball ( ! ,leyd5 j> & ! wire1 x is in/antly p]=at$1 b n set on fire4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,a ,b4 ,leyd5 j> coat$ ) t9foil1 & /&+ on any non-conductor1 su* z gutta p]*a or ! res9\s or glass plate1 ,c4 ,page #bcf ,six? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 ! ,leyd5 j> is coat$ ) spangles ( t9foil1 a sp>k appe>s at ea* break1 & ! :ole j> is lit up ) hundr$s ( brilliant sp>ks ea* "t x is *>g$ & dis*>g$1 & z ?is occurs ) amaz+ rapidity1 ! light is almo/ cont9u\s4 7,no4 #a4 ,fig4 #bbh47 ,! l>g] ! ,leyd5 j>1 ! %ort] ! sp>k1 & vice v]s4 ,by ! employm5t ( a nicely-made screw & in*-scale1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! dis*>g+ po9ts connect$ ) a ,leyd5 j> c be accurately det]m9$2 & ,mr4 ,he>d] /ates t suppos+ a ,leyd5 j> has "o squ>e foot ( *>g+ surface1 x w give a sp>k ( "o in* 9 l5g?1 b if a small] j> is us$1 ) only half a squ>e foot ( *>g+ surface1 ! sp>k w\ld be ab\t "o in* & a qu>t] 9 l5g?4 7,fig4 #bbh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--,no4 #a4 ,spangl$ ,leyd5 j>4 ,no4 #b4 ,ho>d]'s app>atus = measur+ ! l5g? ( sp>k = ,leyd5 j> & coil4 ,p ,p4 ,glass pill>s4 ,no4 #c4 ,two be/ =ms ( spangles to pa/e on a ,leyd5 j>4 ,sev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,! direction & rapidity ( ! curr5t appe> to influ5ce greatly ! heat+ & fire-giv+ p[] ( ! coil1 & ! foll[+ exp]im5t1 devis$ by ,mr4 ,he>d]1 furni%es a curi\s illu/ration ( ?is fact4 ,:5 ! curr5t passes 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s 7,fig4 #bbi71 ! ,page #bcg plat9um wire rema9s p]fectly cool :il/ ! gunp[d] is fir$2 & ! contr>y takes place if ! curr5t is rev]s$--viz41 ! gunp[d] does n bl[ up1 b ! plat9um wire is heat$4 ,9 ! second exp]im5t1 a ,leyd5 j> is includ$ 9 ! circuit4 7,fig4 #bbi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,a4 ,! coil4 ,b4 ,he>d]'s dis*>g]1 ) ?9 plat9um wire1 ,p1 hang+ betwe5 ! po9ts4 ,c4 ,ano!r dis*>g]1 & p[d] go+ (f betwe5 ! po9ts f ! little table4 ,! pill>s ( ! dis*>g]s are glass4 ,! arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! curr5t ( electricity4 ,eigh? ,exp]im5t4 ,among/ s _m beautiful exp]im5ts1 x is some:at difficult to say :i* is ! mo/ pleas+1 b = s(tness & exquisite col\r+1 ) ! cont9u\s vibrat+ motion ( ! fl[+ curr5t ( electricity1 no?+ c surpass ! cascade exp]im5t4 ,?is beautiful exp]im5t is usually t]m$ ,gassiott's ,cascade1 & is ?us describ$ by t g5tleman4 ,two-?irds ( a beak] glass1 f\r in*es deep by two in*es1 are coat$ ) t9foil1 leav+ "o in* & a half ( ! upp] "p uncoat$4 ,on ! plate ( an air-pump is plac$ a glass plate1 & ov] x ! beak]1 cov]+ ! :ole ) an op5-m\!d glass receiv]1 on :i* is plac$ a brass plate hav+ a ?ick wire pass+ ?r\gh a coll> ( lea!r2 ! portion ( ! wire )9 ! receiv] is cov]$ ) a glass tube2 "o end ( ! second>y coil is atta*$ to ?is wire1 & ! o!r to ! plate ( ! pump4 ,z ! vacuum improves ! effect is v surpris+2 at fir/ a fa9t cle> blue light appe>s to proce$ f ! l[] "p ( ! beak] to ! plate2 ?is gradually becomes bright]1 until by sl[ degrees x rises1 increas+ 9 brilliancy until x arrives at t "p :i* is opposite1 or on a l9e ) ! inn] coat+1 ! :ole be+ int5sely illum9at$2 a dis*>ge !n comm5ces1 z if ! electric fluid 7 itself a mat]ial body runn+ ov]4 ,?is result is obta9$ by coat+ ! inside ( a h&some glass goblet ) t9foil1 & plac+ x "u a j> fitt$ ) a coll> ( lea!r & ball1 & arrang$ 9 ! usual mann] on ! air-pump4 ,directly a vacuum is obta9$1 ! ball is mov$ d[n to ! inside ( ! goblet1 & ! wires f ! coil be+ atta*$1 a cont9u\s s]ies ( /reams ( ,page #bch electric light seem to ov]fl[ ! goblet all r\nd ! edge1 & x /&s !n ! v embodim5t ( ! brimm+ cup ( fire1 & emblematical ( ! dang]s ( ! w9e-cup4 7,fig4 #bcj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,gassiott's ,cascade4 ,n9? ,exp]im5t4 ,if a piece ( wood five in*es long & half an in* squ>e is plac$ on ! table ( ! dis*>g]1 & "o wire br\ght on to ! top edge & ! o!r approa*$ to )9 ?ree in*es ( x1 & t\*+ ! wood1 & ! space betwe5 !m moi/5$ ) ! /ronge/ nitric acid1 a curi\s effect is visible f ! creep+ along ( ! fire1 :i* gradually c>bonizes & burns ! wood4 7,fig4 #bca47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,burn+ ! piece ( wood moi/5$ ) ! /ronge/ nitric acid4 ,page #bci ,t5? ,exp]im5t4 ,a glass plate wett$ ) gum1 & !n spr9kl$ ) v>i\s fil+s ( iron1 z9c1 lead1 copp]1 c41 produces a v pretty effect ( deflagration z "o ( ! conduct+ wires is mov$ ov] its surface1 ! o!r ( c\rse be+ 9 contact ) ! plate4 ,! gum quickly dries by putt+ ! plate 9 a mod]ately-heat$ ov54 ,elev5? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 ! cont9u\s dis*>ges f ! ,leyd5 j> are made to pass ?r\gh ! c5tre ( a l>ge lump ( cry/al ( alum1 blue vitriol1 or f]roprussiate ( pota%1 c41 ! :ole ( ! cry/al is beautifully light$ up dur+ ! passage ( ! electricity f "o wire ( ! dis*>g] to ! o!r4 7,fig4 #bcb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,a4 ,! ,leyd5 j>4 ,b4 ,l>ge lump ( alum1 ) a hole bor$ ?r\gh x 9 a l9e ) ,c ,d4 ,! dis*>g+ wires are br\ght )9 ?ree-eigh?s ( an in* ( ea* o!r1 & ! :ole cry/al is light$ up ) ! brilliant electric sp>ks4 ,twelf? ,exp]im5t4 ,:5 a piece ( pap] slightly damp$ is plac$ betwe5 ! wires ( ! dis*>g]1 ! sp>k is increas$ to a mu* great] l5g?1 on acc\nt ( ! conduct+ p[] ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! pores ( ! pap]2 & tak+ all ?+s into consid]ation1 ! au?or consid]s he has witness$ ! gr&e/ effects f ! coil inv5t$ & con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,he>d]1 ! tal5t$ lectur] & electrician ( ! ,we/ ( ,engl&4 ,?irte5? ,exp]im5t4 ,electro-magnetic coil ma*9es h be5 employ$ = a v consid]able "t 9 alleviat+ c]ta9 ( ! ills :i* fle% is heir to1 ,page #bdj by ! adm9i/ration ( %ocks4 ,^! may be s regulat$ z to be h>dly p]ceptible1 or may be s p[]ful t ! pa9 becomes absolutely intol]able4 ,^! coils are n[ made self-act+1 & consi/ ( two coils ( cov]$ & insulat$ wire w\nd r\nd a bundle ( s(t-iron wires1 ) ! necess>y connect+ screws = ! voltaic batt]y4 ,! contact ) ! batt]y is made & brok5 ) great rapidity by a simple =m ( break1 consi/+ ( a t9n$ disc ( iron held by a spr+ ov] ! axis ( ! bundle ( iron wires2 & ! cont9ual noise ( ! break1 :i* is alt]nately attract$ d[n to ! bundle & br\ght back by ! spr+1 :5 ! coil is 9 contact ) ! batt]y1 demon/rates 7)\t ! pa9 ( tak+ ! %ock7 :5 ! in/rum5t is 9 full work+ ord]4 ,! coil ma*9e is n only useful 9 a m$ical po9t ( view1 b :5 prop]ly arrang$ (f]s a good reception to a run-away bellr+]1 & is an excell5t prev5tive aga9/ illicit attempts at *eap rides by small boys4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,boy1 evid5tly %ock$1 beh9d doctor's c>riage provid$ ) a small coil ma*9e4 ,page #bda ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,magneto-,,electricity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,cl>ke's magneto-electrical ma*9e4 ,! correlation ( ! physical =ces1 heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 & motion1 is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ subjects = /udy t c be sugge/$ to ! lov] ( sci5ce4 ,! exam9ation ( ! precise mean+ ( ! t]m correlation1 s ably consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,grove1 indicates a necess>y mutual or reciprocal dep5d5ce ( "o =ce on ! o!r4 ,?us1 electricity w produce heat1 & vice v]s2 motion1 su* z friction1 produces electricity1 & ! latt]1 by its attraction & repulsion1 e/abli%es itself z a s\rce ( motion4 ,electricity produces light1 also magnetism1 & contr>iwise light is said to possess ,page #bdb ! p[] ( magnetiz+ /eel1 :il/ magnetism aga9 produces light & electricity4 ,su* are ! intimate connexions t exi/ betwe5 ^! impond]able ag5ts1 & we may trace cause & effect & its rev]sal among/ ^! =ces1 until ! m9d is lo/ 9 ! exam9ation ( ! bewild]+ mazes1 & is cont5t to return to ! beat5 track & "w out exp]im5tally ! practical tru?s4 ,we h _h occasion to notice 9 ano!r "p ( ?is playbook ! fact t a curr5t ( electricity causes ! evolution ( magnetism 9 its passage ?r\gh v>i\s conduct+ m$ia1 & ! tru? has be5 specially illu/rat$ by ! v>i\s exp]im5ts 9 ! *apt] devot$ to electro-magnetism4 ,9 comm5c+ ?is portion ( electrical sci5ce1 we h no new t]ms to co9 = ! title ( ! disc\rse1 z we m]ely rev]se ! o!r :5 we exam9e ! nature & peculi>ities ( ,,magneto-,,electricity4 ,! s\rce ( ! p[] mu/ necess>ily be a b> or horse-%oe %ap$ piece ( /eel p]man5tly end[$ ) magnetism4 ,if ! =m] is ?ru/ into a cyl9d] ( wood or pa/ebo>d1 ar\nd :i* coils ( cov]$ copp] wire h be5 c>efully w\nd1 s t ! extremities communicate ) a galvanomet]1 an imm$iate deflection ( ! ne$le occurs1 :i*1 h[ev]1 quickly returns to its fir/ position1 b is aga9 deflect$ 9 ! opposite direction on ! )drawal ( ! /eel magnet f ! coil ( copp] wire4 7,fig4 #bce47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,a ,b4 ,coil ( copp] wire4 ,c4 ,p]man5t b> magnet plac$ inside ! coil1 :5 ! galvanomet] ne$le1 ,d1 is deflect$4 ,! rapid entrance & exit ( ! /eel magnet 9 ! helix ( copp] wire w\ld be insuffici5t to produce any quantity ( electricity1 & ! +5uity ( man has be5 tax$ to arrange a me?od by :i* a magnet may be sudd5ly =m$ & de/roy$ inside a coil ( insulat$ copp] wire4 ,! difficulty1 h[ev]1 has be5 surm\nt$ by sev]al +5i\s contrivances1 bas$ on ! pr9ciples fir/ discov]$ by ,f>aday2 & ! "o especially to be notic$ is ! revolution ( a coil ( copp] wire enclos+ a piece ( s(t iron1 call$ ! armature1 be=e ! poles ( a p[]ful magnet4 ,! fir/ ma*9e 0 inv5t$ ,page #bdc by ,m4 ,hypolyte ,pixii1 ( ,p>is1 & 9 #ahcc1 ,mr4 ,saxton improv$ ^u ?is ma*9e1 & ?ree ye>s aft]w>ds1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,m4 ,cl>ke describ$ a v +5i\s modification ( ! electro-magnetic ma*9e1 :i* is depict$ at page #bda ( ?is *apt]4 ,9 ?is picture1 ! lett] ,a is ! p]man5t fix$ horse-%oe magnets1 :i* are v appropriately t]m$ ! batt]y magnets1 because !y take ! position t w\ld o!rwise be occupi$ by a voltaic batt]y1 & !y are inde$ ! prime s\rce ( ! electrical p[] t is evok$4 ,d is ! int5sity armature :i* screws into a brass m&ril seat$ betwe5 ! poles ( ! magnets ,a1 motion be+ communicat$ to x by ! multiply+ :eel1 ,e4 ,?is armature or inductor has two coils ( f9e insulat$ copp] wire ( #aejj y>ds 9 l5g?1 coil$ on its cyl9d]s1 ! comm5cem5t ( ea* coil be+ sold]$ to ! b> ,d1 f :i* projects a brass /em1 also sold]$ into ,d1 c>ry+ ! break-piece ,h1 :i* is made fa/ 9 any position by a small b9d+-screw 9 a holl[ brass cyl9d] to :i* ! o!r t]m9ations ( ! coils1 ,f ,f1 are sold]$1 ^! be+ insulat$ by a piece ( h>d wood atta*$ to ! brass /em4 ,o is an iron wire spr+ press+ aga9/ "o end ( ! holl[ brass cyl9d]2 ,p is a squ>e brass pill>2 ,q is a metal spr+ t rubs g5tly on ! break-piece ,h2 ,t is a copp] wire = connect+ ! brass pieces ) ! wood ,l betwe5 !m1 & out ( :i* ,p & ,o pass2 ,r ,r are two h&les ( brass ) metallic wires1 ! end ( "o be+ ins]t$ into ei!r ( ! brass pieces connect$ ) ,p & ,o1 & ! o!r into ! brass /em t c>ries ! break-piece ,h1 deliv]s a mo/ sev]e %ock directly ! :eel is set 9 motion4 ,9 ,saxton's electro-magnetic ma*9e1 ! p]man5t /eel magnets are plac$ horizontally in/ead ( p]p5dicul>ly1 & are compos$ ( six or m horse-%oe-%ap$ pieces ( /eel4 ,! armatures1 or inductors1 or electro-magnets 7= !y consi/ ( pieces ( s(t r\nd iron ) wire w\nd r\nd !m71 are two 9 numb]1 & are adapt$ to exhibit ei!r quantity or int5sity effects4 ,! quantity armature is con/ruct$ ( /\t iron1 & cov]$ ) ?ick insulat+ wire4 ,! int5sity armature is made ( slight] iron1 & cov]$ ) f "o ?\s& to two ?\s& y>ds ( f9e copp] wire coat$ ) silk4 ,! quantity armature is int5d$ = ! exhibition ( results simil> to ^? :i* are procurable f a voltaic batt]y1 su* z ! magnetic sp>k1 induc+ magnetism 9 s(t iron1 heat+ plat9um wire4 ,! int5sity armature is employ$ = ! *emical decomposition ( wat] & o!r bodies1 & likewise = ! adm9i/ration ( ^? t]rible bl[s to ! n]v\s sy/em :i* cause /rong m5 ( ! milde/ deportm5t to become pa9fully excit$1 & to make ^? ejaculations :i* are s peculi> to ! g5us ,john ,bull4 ,,exp]im5ts ,,) ,,! ,,magneto-,,electric ,,ma*9e4 ,fir/ ,exp]im5t4 ,! decomposition ( wat] by ! passage ( electricity f "o plat9um plate to ano!r1 has already be5 illu/rat$ at page #aih4 ,! ,page #bdd same fact may likewise be display$ by ! foll[+ arrangem5t ( ! ma*9e4 7,fig4 #bcf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,a4 ,app>atus = decompos+ wat] & collect+ ! gases sep>ately4 ,b ,b4 ,wires proce$+ f ! ma*9e at ,m1 ,n4 ,q1 works on ! s+le break1 ,h4 ,second ,exp]im5t4 ,! electric light obta9$ by ! passage ( ! electricity f ! batt]y ?r\gh ! *>coal po9ts1 is also an effect t c be produc$ by magneto-electric ma*9es1 ! wires lead+ f ! po9ts ,a ,b be+ insulat$ by glass h&les1 & plac$ 9 ! holes ,m ,n4 7,fig4 #bcg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,! electric light obta9$ f ! magneto ma*9e4 ,page #bde ,?ird ,exp]im5t4 ,! sc9tillation ( iron wire is "o ( ! mo/ pleas+ exp]im5ts ) ?is app>atus1 & is p]=m$ by press+ g5tly "o end ( a piece ( ?9 iron wire 7atta*$ by means ( a b9d+-screw to ! upright b> ,a7 aga9/ ! armature1 ,d4 7,fig4 #bch47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,deflagration ( iron wire4 ,f\r? ,exp]im5t4 ,! combu/ion ( e!r or o!r inflammable _s may also be demon/rat$ ) ! aid ( ?is p[]ful app>atus1 & ! arrangem5t1 9 common ) ! o!rs employ$ by ,mr4 ,cl>ke1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bci4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,! break is remov$1 & ! d\ble blades1 ,b1 fix$ 9 its place4 ,! brass cup1 ,a1 conta9+ m]cury is s adju/$ t ! po9ts w leave ! surface ( ! m]cury :5 ! armature is v]tical4 ,e!r or alcohol p\r$ on ! surface is quickly inflam$ by ! electric sp>k4 ,) ! assi/ance ( ! magneto-electric ma*9e1 telegraphic communication may be conduct$ )\t ! assi/ance ( a batt]y4 ,x has also be5 appli$ to ! art ( electro-plat+ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,woolri*1 ( ,birm+ham2 & :il/ visit+ t place1 ! au?or _h ! opportunity ( witness+ ! arrangem5t employ$4 ,x consi/s ( a v p[]ful magneto-electric ma*9e turn$ by a /eam-eng9e1 & connect$ ) ! l>ge tr\ghs conta9+ ! silv]+ solution4 ,if x is requir$ to deposit a ?9 coat+ ( silv] on ! article1 a %ort p]iod suffices = ! action ( ! ma*9e1 :il/ a ?ick deposit ( ! preci\s metal is only obta9$ by ! con/ant op]ation ( ! magnets = sev]al h\rs4 ,at ,mr4 ,woolri*'s factory1 ! goods :i* 7 be+ coat$ ) silv] 7 all kept 9 motion1 mov+ sl[ly backw>ds & =w>ds 9 ! tr\gh by means ( an ecc5tric connect$ ,page #bdf ) ! same /eam-eng9e t work$ ! electro-magnetic ma*9e4 7,fig4 #bdj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,silv]+ & plat+ by ! magneto ma*9e1 turn$ by a /eam-eng9e4 ,! magneto-electric telegraph pat5t$ by ,mr4 ,h5ley 9 #ahdh1 (f]s ano!r example ( ! application ( ! electric curr5t induc$ 9 electro-magnetic coils1 :5 !y rotate 9 close proximity to ! poles ( a p[]ful /eel magnet4 ,?is telegraph is n[ 9 con/ant use by ! ,engli% & ,iri% ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company1 ?r\gh a di/ance ( m ?an #bajj miles4 ,! :ole l5g? ( wires 9 use am\nts to ! a/oni%+ quantity ( #ac1ijj miles1 ( :i* #fcej miles are hidd5 und]gr\nd1 & #gejj conduct$ above4 ,?is telegraph is consid]$ to be "o ( ! simple/ & mo/ economical yet br\ght into practical work+4 ,page #bdg ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,dia-,,magnetism4 ,at ! end ( ! *apt] devot$ to ! subject ( light1 w be f\nd an exp]im5t devis$ & c>ri$ out by ,dr4 ,f>aday1 9 :i* x is %[n t if a b> ( a peculi> glass 7call$ aft] ! inv5tor1 ,f>aday's heavy glass1 or silicat$ borate ( lead7 is subject$ to ! inductive action ( a v p[]ful electro-magnet1 t x has ! p[] ( *ang+ ! direction ( a ray ( pol>iz$ light transmitt$ ?r\gh x4 ,?is effect is n conf9$ to ! poles ( an electro-magnet1 b is also p]ceptible 7?\gh 9 a dim9i%$ degree7 ) ord9>y magnets4 ,! result ( ?is important exp]im5t 0 communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society by ,dr4 ,f>aday on ! #bg? ,novemb]1 #ahde1 ! enunciation ( ! fact by ?is le>n$ philosoph] be+1 t :5 '! l9e ( magnetic =ce' is made to pass ?r\gh c]ta9 transp>5t bodies p>allel to a ray ( pol>iz$ light trav]s+ ! same body1 ! ray ( pol>iz$ light exp]i5ces a rotation4 ,n[1 ! l9e ( magnetic =ce means t cont9ual fl[ ( ! magnetic curr5t :i* passes f pole to pole1 & is indicat$ by iron fil+s spr9kl$ on pap] plac$ above ! poles ( a magnet1 & usually t]m$ magnetic curves1 or ! curv$ l9es ( magnetic =ce4 7,fig4 #bda47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bda4 ,! curv$ l9es ( magnetic =ce4 ,! heavy glass already allud$ to1 ^u :i* ! magnet ex]ts a c]ta9 influ5ce1 is call$ ,,! ,,dia-,,magnetic2 & by ?is t]m is meant a body ?r\gh :i* ! l9es ( magnetic =ce are pass+ )\t affect+ x l iron or /eel4 ,at page #bab is a picture repres5t+ 7at ,figs4 #bja & #bjb7 ! direction ( ! electricity & t ( ! magnetic curr5t or :irl at "r angles to x4 ,if1 !n1 ,fig4 #bjb be consid]$ z a piece ( glass1 ! arr[ ,a ,b ,page #bdh w %[ ! l9e ( magnetic =ce1 ! po9t ,b be+ ! nor? pole1 & ! %aft ,a ! s\? pole ( ! magnet1 & ! arr[s trac$ r\nd w repres5t direction4 ,?is simple draw+ expresses ! :ole ( ! law ( ! action ( ! magnet on ! glass1 & if kept 9 view1 w give e position & consequ5ce ( direction result+ f x4 ,! ph5om5on ( ! affection ( ! beam ( pol>iz$ light is imm$iately connect$ ) ! magnetic =ce1 & ?is is suppos$ to be prov$ by ! brightness ( ! pol>iz$ ray be+ develop$ gradually1 z ! iron coil$ ) wire requires ab\t two seconds to acquire its greate/ p[] aft] be+ connect$ ) ! batt]y4 ,9 ano!r exp]im5t ( ,f>aday's1 :]e a beam ( pol>iz$ light 0 s5t ?r\gh a long glass tube conta9+ wat]1 & introduc$ z a core inside a p[]ful electro-magnetic coil1 ! image ( a c&le view$ ) a prop] eye-piece1 appe>$ or disappe>$ z ! batt]y connexion 0 made or brok5 ) ! coil2 b ?is result is n consid]$ by _m philosoph]s to be conclusive ( ! action ( magnetism on light1 b r z an alt]ation ( ! refract+ p[] ( ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! light passes4 ,^! exp]im5ts 7 ! precursors ( ! o!r effects ( magnetism ^u diff]5t k9ds ( matt] :i* ,f>aday discov]$1 & he comm5c$ 8 exam9ation ) a small b> ( heavy glass susp5d$ by a filam5t ( silk betwe5 ! poles ( an electro-magnet1 & :5 ! twi/+ or effects ( torsion _h ceas$1 ! batt]y 0 connect$4 ,directly ! curr5t pass$1 ,f>aday's ke5 eye detect$ a movem5t ( ! glass1 & on repeat+ ! exp]im5t1 he discov]$ t ! movem5t 0 n accid5tal1 b always took place 9 a c]ta9 fix$ direction--viz41 a direction at "r angles to a l9e drawn across & t\*+ ! two poles ( a horse-%oe-%ap$ magnet--i4e41 suppos+ ! fe$] or bit ( s(t iron usually plac$ 9 contact ) ! poles ( ! horse-%oe-magnet to repres5t ! axial l9e1 any l9e drawn across x at "r angles w\ld be call$ ! equatorial l9e1 :il/ ! g5]al space includ$ betwe5 ! poles ( ! magnet is call$ ! magnetic field4 ,! movem5t ( ! heavy glass 0 !re=e equatorial1 & x po9t$ ea/ & we/ in/ead ( nor? & s\?1 l iron & /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,a cube ( copp] susp5d$ betwe5 ! poles ( a p[]ful electro-magnet4 ,by ! use ( ! app>atus 7,fig4 #bdb7 ,f>aday prov$ t e ,page #bdi sub/ance1 :e!r solid1 fluid1 or gase\s1 0 subject to magnetic influ5ces1 assum+ ei!r ! axial or equatorial position4 ,! app>atus consi/s ( a prolongation ( ! poles ( a p[]ful electro-magnet1 betwe5 :i* ! cube ( copp]1 weigh+ f a qu>t] to half a p\nd1 susp5d$ by a ?read1 may be set sp9n+ or rotat+4 ,if ! electro-magnet is connect$ ) ! batt]y1 ! cube /ops imm$iately1 & :il/ /ill 9 ! same position or 9 ! magnetic field1 ) ! magnet 9 full action1 x is impossible to set x sp9n+ or twi/+ r\nd aga94 7,fig4 #bdb47 ,a l>ge numb] ( o!r sub/ances1 solid1 liquid1 & gase\s1 7 submitt$ to ! action ( ! magnet1 ! liquids & gases be+ h]metically seal$ 9 glass tubes1 & "s ( ! results are detail$ 9 ! foll[+ li/3 ,bodies t po9t axially1 or are p>amagnetic1 l a susp5d$ ne$le4 ,iron4 ,nickel4 ,cobalt4 ,manganese4 ,*romium4 ,c]ium4 ,titanium4 ,palladium4 ,plat9um4 ,osmium4 ,pap]4 ,seal+-wax4 ,fluor sp>4 ,p]oxide ( lead4 ,plumbago4 ,*9a ink4 ,b]l9 ,porcela94 ,r$-lead4 ,sulphate ( z9c4 ,%ell-lac4 ,silkworm-gut4 ,asbe/os4 ,v]milion4 ,t\rmal9e4 ,*>coal4 ,all salts ( iron1 :5 ! latt] is basic4 ,oxide ( titanium4 ,oxide ( *romium4 ,*romic acid4 ,salts ( manganese4 ,salts ( *romium4 ,oxyg51 :i* /&s alone z a p>amagnetic gas4 ,bodies t po9t equatorially1 or are diamagnetic1 l ,f>aday's heavy glass4 ,bismu?4 ,antimony4 ,z9c4 ,t94 ,cadmium4 ,sodium4 ,m]cury4 ,lead4 ,silv]4 ,copp]4 ,gold4 ,ars5ic4 ,uranium4 ,rhodium4 ,iridium4 ,tung/54 ,rock cry/al4 ,! m9]al acids4 ,alum4 ,glass4 ,li?>ge4 ,common salt4 ,nitre4 ,phosphorus4 ,sulphur4 ,page #bej ,res94 ,sp]maceti4 ,icel& sp>4 ,t>t>ic acid4 ,citric acid4 ,wat]4 ,alcohol4 ,e!r4 ,sug>4 ,/>*4 ,gum-arabic4 ,wood4 ,ivory4 ,dri$ mutton4 ,fre% beef4 ,dri$ beef4 ,apple4 ,bread4 ,lea!r4 ,fre% blood4 ,dri$ blood4 ,ca\t*\c4 ,jet4 ,turp5t9e4 ,olive oil4 ,hydrog54 ,c>bonic acid4 ,c>bonic oxide4 ,nitr\s oxide 7mod]ately74 ,nitric oxide 7v slightly74 ,olefiant gas4 ,coal gas4 ,nitrog5 is nei!r p>amagnetic nor diamagnetic1 & is equival5t to a vacuum4 ,magnetically consid]$1 x is l space itself1 :i* may be consid]$ z z]o4 ,! t]m magnetic ,f>aday proposes %\ld be a g5]al "o1 l t ( electricity1 & include all ! ph5om5a & effects produc$ by ! p[]1 & he proposes t bodies magnetic 9 ! s5se ( iron %\ld be call$ p>amagnetic1 s t ! division w\ld /& ?us3 ,magnetic 444 ,p>amagnetic1 ,diamagnetic2 & x is ?is division :i* has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! prec$+ tables4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all space above & )9 ! limits ( our atmosph]e may be reg>d$ z trav]s$ by l9es ( =ce1 & among/ o!rs are ! l9es ( magnetic =ce :i* affect bodies1 z %[n 9 ! table ( p>amagnetic & diamagnetic bodies1 :i* h ! same relation to ea* o!r z positive & negative1 or nor? & s\?1 9 electricity & magnetism4 ,! l9es ( magnetic =ce are assum$ to trav]se void space )\t *ange2 b :5 !y come 9 contact ) matt] ( any k9d !y are ei!r conc5trat$ ^u x or scatt]$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! matt]4 ,! p[] :i* urges bodies to ! axial or equatorial l9es is n a c5tral =ce1 b a =ce diff]+ 9 "* 9 ! axial or radial directions4 ,if a liquid p>amagnetic body 7 introduc$ into ! field ( =ce1 x w\ld dilate axially1 & =m a prolate sph]oid l a lemon1 :ile a liquid diamagnetic body w\ld dilate equatorially1 & =m an oblate sph]oid l an orange4 ,plck] has demon/rat$ t if magnetic solutions are plac$ 9 wat* glasses across ! poles ( ! ,page #bea electro-magnet1 !y are heap$ up 9 a v curi\s mann]4 ,! poles ( ! electro-magnet are pieces ( s(t iron1 :i* may be drawn away or approa*$ at pleasure1 & accord+ z ! poles are ne>] or fur!r asund]1 ! magnetic liquids1 su* z solution ( iron1 are heap$ up 9 "o or two directions1 z %[n at ,b & ,c 9 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,glass di% hold+ magnetic solution ( iron1 & plac$ 9 ! magnetic field4 ,! diamagnetic p[]1 d\btless1 says ,f>aday1 has its appo9t$ (fice1 & "o :i* relates to ! :ole mass ( ! globe4 ,= ?\gh ! am\nt ( ! p[] appe>s to be feeble1 yet1 :5 x is consid]$ t ! cru/ ( ! e>? is compos$ ( sub/ances ( :i* by f> ! great] portion belongs to ! diamagnetic class1 x mu/ n be too ha/ily assum$ t _! effect is entirely ov]rul$ by ! action ( ! magnetic matt]s1 :il/ ! great mass ( wat]s & ! atmosph]e mu/ ex]t _! diamagnetic action uncontroll$4 ,plck] has also ann\nc$--:at at ! "t he believ$ to be true--! highly int]e/+ & important fact t ! optic axis ( ,icel& or calc>e\s sp> is repell$ by ! magnet & plac$ equatorially--a fact :i* ,plck] ?\ght true ( _m o!r cry/als :5 ! magnetic axis is p>allel to ! long] cry/allographic axis4 ,a piece ( kyanite1 :i* is a m9]al compos$ ( s&1 clay1 (t5 lime1 iron1 wat]1 & is us$ 9 ,india1 be+ cut & poli%$ z a gem1 & sold frequ5tly z an inf]ior k9d ( sapphire1 w1 x is said1 ev5 "u ! influ5ce ( ! e>?'s magnetism1 arrange itself l a magnetic ne$le4 ,plck] believ$ t he _h discov]$ an exi/+ relation betwe5 ! =ms ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( matt] & ! magnetic =ces1 & he imag9$ t ! results he obta9$ w\ld lead gradually to ! det]m9ation ( cry/all9e =m by ! magnet4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,tyndal & ,knoblau* lead1 h[ev]1 to a v opposite s]ies ( conclusions1 & by +5i\sly p[d]+ ! cry/als ) wat]1 & mak+ !m into a pa/e1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds dri$ & susp5d$ ,page #beb z a model 9 ! magnetic field2 also by tak+ a slice ( apple ab\t z ?ick z a p5ny-piece1 ) "s bits ( iron wire ?r\gh x1 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to its flat surface1 !y 7 f\nd to set equatorially n by repulsion b by ! attraction ( ! iron wires2 or in/ead ( ! iron by plac+ bismu? wires1 ! apple n[ settl$ axially1 n by attraction b by ! repulsion ( ! bismu?4 ,ipecacuanha loz5ges1 ,c>lisle biscuits also1 susp5d$ 9 ! magnetic field1 exhibit$ a mo/ /rik+ directive action4 ,! mat]ials 9 ^! two cases 7 diamagnetic2 b ow+ to ! pressure ex]t$ 9 _! =mation _! l>ge/ horizontal dim5sions set f pole to pole1 ! l9e ( compression be+ equatorial2 & x is a univ]sal law t 9 diamagnetic bodies ! l9e along :i* ! d5sity ( ! mass has be5 induc$ by compression sets equatorial1 & 9 magnetic bodies axial4 ,h5ce !y assume1 f ^! & _m o!r conclusive exp]im5ts1 t cry/alliz$ bodies1 su* z ,icel& sp>1 take _! position 9 ! magnetic field )\t ref]5ce to ! exi/5ce ( an optic axis4 ,at ! conclusion ( a brilliant lecture at ! ,royal ,in/itution by ,dr4 ,tyndal ,on ! influ5ce ( mat]ial aggregation ^u ! manife/ations ( =ce1 9 :i* ,plck]'s exp]im5ts respect+ ! repulsion ( ! optic axis 7 gracefully discuss$ & 8 !ory refut$1 ! le>n$ doctor said3 ,?is ev5+'s disc\rse is 9 "s measure connect$ ) ?is locality2 & ?9k+ ?us1 ,i am l$ to inquire :]e9 ! true value ( a sci5tific discov]y consi/s8 ,n 9 its imm$iate results alone1 b 9 ! prospect :i* x op5s to intellectual activity--9 ! hopes :i* x excites--9 ! vig\r :i* x awak5s4 ,! discov]y :i* l$ to ! results br\ght be=e u to-night 0 ( ?is "*4 ,t magnet,e 0 ! physical bir?place ( ^! results2 & if !y possess any value !y are to be reg>d$ z ! return+ crumbs ( t bread :i* 9 #ahdf 0 ca/ s lib]ally ^u ! wat]s4 ,i rejoice1 ladies & g5tlem51 9 ! opportunity "h af=d$ me ( (f]+ my tribute to ! greate/ workman ( ! age1 & ( lay+ "s ( ! blossoms ( t prolific tree :i* he plant$ at ! feet ( ! great discov]] ( diamagnetism4,f ,footnote ,e3 ,allud+ to a spl5did magnet made by ,logeman1 :i* 0 s5t to ! ,exhibition 9 ,hyde-p>k 9 #ahea4 ,x c\ld su/a9 a weight ( #dcj p\nds1 & 0 pur*as$ by ! ,royal ,in/itution = ,dr4 ,f>aday4 ,footnote ,f3 ,dr4 ,f>aday4 ,x 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,fa!r ,bancal>i1 ( ,g5oa1 t :5 ! flame ( a c&le is plac$ betwe5 ! poles ( a magnet x is /rongly repell$4 ,! flames ( combu/ible gases f v>i\s s\rces are diff]5tly affect$1 bo? by ! nature ( ! combu/ible & by ! ne>ness ( ! poles4 ,f>aday repeat$ ,bancal>i's exp]im5ts1 & by a c]ta9 arrangem5t ( ! poles ( ?is magnet he obta9$ a p[]ful effect 9 ! magnetic field1 & hav+ ! axial l9e ( ! magnetic =ce horizontal1 he f\nd t :5 ! flame ( a wax tap] 0 held ne> ! axial l9e 7b on "o side or ! o!r71 & ab\t "o-?ird ( ! flame ris+ above ! level ( ! upp] surface ( ! ,page #bec poles1 z soon z ! magnetic =ce 0 ex]t$ ! flame rec$$ f ! axial l9e1 mov+ equatorially until x took an incl9$ position1 z if a g5tle w9d 0 caus+ its deflection f ! upright position4 ,:5 ! flame 0 plac$ s z to rise truly across ! magnetic axis1 ! effect ( ! magnetism 0 v curi\s1 & is %[n at ,a1 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,on rais+ ! flame a little m ! effect ( ! magnetic =ce 0 to int5sify ! results already m5tion$1 & ! flame actually became ( a fi%-tail$ %ape1 z at ,c1 ,fig4 #bdd2 & :5 ! flame 0 rais$ until ab\t two-?irds ( x 7 above ! level ( ! axial l9e1 & ! poles approa*$ v close1 ! flame no long] rose betwe5 ! poles1 b spread out "r & left on ea* side ( ! axial l9e1 produc+ a d\ble flame ) two long tongues1 z at ,b1 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,effect ( magnetism on c&le-flame betwe5 ! poles ( ! magnet4 ,x 0 ^! exp]im5ts t l$ to ! important discov]y ( ! p>amagnetic prop]ty ( oxyg51 & prov$ 9 a decid$ mann] t gase\s bodies :5 heat$ became m highly diamagnetic4 ,oxyg51 :i* 7tri$ 9 ! air7 is p[]fully magnetic1 becomes diamagnetic :5 heat$4 ,a coil ( plat9um wire heat$ by a voltaic curr5t1 & plac$ b5ea? ! poles ( ,f>aday's app>atus1 occasion$ a /rong upw>d curr5t ( air2 b directly ! magnetic action comm5ces ! asc5d+ curr5t divides1 & a desc5d+ curr5t fl[s d[n betwe5 ! upw>d curr5ts4 ,! discov]y1 says ,silliman1 ( ! highly p>amagnetic "* ( oxyg5 gas1 & ( ! neutral "* ( nitrog51 ! two con/itu5ts ( air1 is ju/ly e/eem$ a fact ( great importance 9 /udy+ ! ph5om5a ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,we ?us see t "o-fif? ( ! air by volume consi/s ( an elem5t ( em95t magnetic capacity1 aft] ! mann] ( iron1 & liable to great physical *anges ( d5sity1 temp]ature1 c41 & entirely indep5d5t ( ! solid e>?4 ,9 ?is m$ium hang ! magnetic ne$les us$ z te/s1 & z ?is magnetic m$ium is daily heat$ & cool$ by ! sun's rays1 its p[] ( ,page #bed transmitt+ ! l9es ( magnetic =ce is !n affect$1 influ5c+ und\bt$ly ! diurnal *anges ( ! magnetic ne$le4 ,= a complete dige/ ( ,f>aday's discov]ies 9 diamagnetism ! read] is ref]r$ to ! second edition ( ,dr4 ,noad's compreh5sive & le>n$ "w entitl$ ,a ,manual ( ,electricity4 ,com+ always f ! highe/ walks ( philosophy to l[] & common ?+s "o _c help be+ rem9d$ ( ! old-fa%ion$ me?od ( draw+ up a sluggi% fire1 & ! natural qu]y is sugge/$ :e!r ! pok] is to be consid]$ z a weak magnet1 & does influ5ce & draw t[>ds ! fire a great] supply ( magnetic oxyg5 gas8 7,fig4 #bde47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,illu/ration3 ,! int]ior ( ! optical box at ! ,polyte*nic--look+ t[>ds ! scre54 ,! assi/ants are suppos$ to be %[+ ! dissolv+ views4 ,page #bee ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,light1 ,,optics1 ,,& ,,optical ,,in/rum5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,! moon %9es bright3--,9 su* a night z ?is4--,! ,m]*ant ( ,v5ice4 ,to gild ref9$ gold1 to pa9t ! lily1 ,to ?r[ a p]fume on ! violet1 ,to smoo? ! ice1 or add ano!r hue ,unto ! ra9b[1 or ) tap] light ,to seek ! beaute\s eye ( heav5 to g>ni%1 ,is wa/eful & ridicul\s excess4 ,p]fection admits ( no addition1 & x is j ?is feel+ t might *eck ! mo/ eloqu5t speak] or brilliant writ] :o attempt$ to (f] 9 appropriate language1 ! praises due to t fir/ great creation ( ! ,almighty1 :5 ! ,_s ( ,god mov$ ^u ! face ( ! wat]s & said1 ,let !re be light4 ,if any poet might be p]mitt$ to laud & glorify ?is transc5dant gift1 x %\ld be ! inspir$ ,milton2 :o hav+ enjoy$ ! bless+ ( light1 & witness$ ! v>i$ & beautiful ph5om5a t accompany x1 c\ld1 :5 afflict$ by bl9dness1 speak raptur\sly ( its creation1 9 ^? sublime /ra9s beg9n+ )-- ,page #bef ',let !re be light1' said ,god1 & =?) light ,e!real1 fir/ ( ?+s1 qu9tess5ce pure1 ,sprung f ! deep3 & f h] native ea/ ,to j\rney ?r\gh ! airy gloom began1 ,sph]$ 9 a radiant cl\d1 = yet ! sun ,0 n2 %e 9 a cl\dy tab]nacle ,soj\rn'd ! :ile4 ,god saw ! light 0 good1 ,& light f d>kness by ! hemisph]e ,divid$3 light ! day1 & d>kness night1 ,he nam$4 ,!re _c be a m glori\s !me = ! poet1 ?an ! va/ utility ( light1 or a m sublime spectacle1 ?an ! v>i$ & beautiful ph5om5a t accompany x4 ,ev] s9ce ! div9e comm& w5t =?1 has ! sun cont9u$ to %9e1 & to rema91 till "t %all be no m1 ! great s\rce ( light to ! _w1 to be ! means ( disclos+ to ! eye ( man all ! beautiful & v>i$ hues ( ! organic & inorganic _w4 ,by ! help ( light we enjoy ! prismatic col\rs ( ! ra9b[1 ! lovely & ev] *ang+ & ev] v>i$ t9ts ( ! =e/ trees1 ! fl[]s1 ! birds1 & ! insects2 ! diff]5t =ms ( ! cl\ds1 ! lovely blue sky1 ! refre%+ gre5 fields2 or ev5 ! graceful adornm5t ( ! fair1 _! beautiful dresses ( exquisite patt]ns & col\rs4 ,light works ins5sibly1 & at all seasons1 9 promot+ m>vell\s *emical *anges1 & is n[ fairly engag$ & us$ = man's indu/rial purposes1 9 ! pleas+ art ( photography2 j z heat1 electricity1 & magnetism1 7all impond]able & invisible ag5ts17 are employ$ usefully 9 o!r ways4 ,! s\rces f :5ce light is d]iv$ are six 9 numb]4 ,! fir/ is ! sun1 ov]:elm+ u ) its size1 & de/roy+ life1 sometimes1 ) 8 int5se heat & light1 :5 ! pi]c+ rays are n ob/ruct$ by ! fri5dly cl\ds & vap\rs1 :i* temp] & mitigate _! int5sity1 & prev5t ! too frequ5t recurr5ce ( t quick & dire enemy to man1 ! c\p de soleil4 ,! body ( ! sun is suppos$ to be a habitable globe l our own1 & ! heat & light are possibly ?r[n out f "o ( ! atmosph]ic /rata surr\nd+ x4 ,!re are probably ?ree ( ^! /rata1 ! "o believ$ to envelope ! body ( ! sun1 & to be directly 9 contact ) x1 is call$ ! cl\dy /ratum2 next to1 & above ?is1 is ! lum9\s /ratum1 & ?is is suppos$ to be ! s\rce ( heat & light2 ! ?ird & la/ envelope is ( a transp>5t gase\s nature4 ,^! ideas h orig9at$ f a/ronom]s :o h c>efully wat*$ ! sun & discov]$ ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 black spots call$ ,macul1 :i* v>y 9 diamet] f a few hundr$s ( miles to #dj or #ej1jjj miles & upw>ds4 ,!re is also a greyi% %ade surr\nd+ ! black spots call$ ! ,p5umbra1 & likewise o!r spots ( a m lum9\s "* t]m$ ,facul2 inde$ ! :ole disc ( ! sun has a mottl$ appe>ance1 & is /ippl$ ov] ) m9ute %ady dots4 ,! cause ( ?is is expla9$ by suppos+ t ^! v>i\s spots repres5t op5+s or breaks 9 ! atmosph]ic /rata1 ?r\gh :i* ! black body ( ! sun is app>5t or o!r portions ( ! ?ree /rata1 j z if a black ball 0 cov]$ ) r$1 !n ) yell[1 & f9ally ) blue silk3 on cutt+ ?r\gh ! blue ! yell[ is app>5t2 by snipp+ out pieces ( ! blue & yell[1 ! r$ becomes visible2 & by slic+ away a portion ( ! ?ree silk cov]+s ! black ball at la/ comes into view4 ,on a simil> pr9ciple x is ,page #begsuppos$ t ! v>iety ( spots & eruptions on ! sun's face or disc may be expla9$4 ,! evolution ( light is n1 h[ev]1 conf9$ to ! sun1 & x emanates freely f t]re/rial matt] by me*anical action1 ei!r by friction1 or 9 "s cases by m]e p]cussion4 ,?us ! axles ( railway c>riages soon become r$ hot by friction if ! oil holes are /opp$ up2 inde$ hot axles are v frequ5t 9 railway travell+1 & :5 ?is happ5s1 a /rong smell ( burn+ oil is app>5t1 & flames come out ( ! axle box4 ,! knife-gr9d] (f]s a famili> example ( ! production ( light by ! attrition ( iron or /eel aga9/ 8 dry gr9d/one4 ,! same result on a mu* gr&] scale is produc$ by ! app>atus inv5t$ by ! late ,jacob ,p]k9s2 ! combu/ion ( /eel ensues "u ! action1 viz41 ! friction ( a s(t iron disc revolv+ ) great velocity aga9/ a file or o!r conv5i5t piece ( h>d5$ /eel4 7,fig4 #bdg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,in/rum5t = ! combu/ion ( /eel4 ,! /& has a disc ( s(t iron fix$ ^u an axis1 :i* revolves on two anti-friction :eels ( brass4 ,! disc1 by means ( a belt work$ ov] a :eel imm$iately bel[ x1 is made to p]=m #ejjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,if ! h>de/ file is press$ aga9/ ! edge ( ! revolv+ disc1 ! velocity ( ! latt] produces suffici5t heat by ! great friction to melt t portion ( ! file :i* is br\ght 9 contact ) x1 :il/ "s p>ticles ( ! file are torn away ) viol5ce1 & be+ ,page #beh project$ into ! air1 burn ) t beautiful effect s peculi> to /eel4 ,if ! exp]im5t is p]=m$ 9 a d>k5$ room1 ! p]iph]y ( ! revolv+ disc w be obs]v$ to h atta9$ a lum9\s r$ heat4 ,?irty ye>s ago e h\se 0 provid$ ) a t9d]-box & mat*es to /rike a light4 ,s9ce ! adv5t ( prome!ans & lucif]s1 ! fl9t & /eel1 ! t9d]1 & ! mat*es dipp$ 9 sulphur1 h all disappe>$1 & n[ ! box might be deposit$ 9 any antiqu>ian museum "u ! portrait ( ,guy ,fawkes1 & labell$1 an in/rum5t = procur+ a light1 ext5sively us$ 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 7,fig4 #bdh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,c4 ,! /eel4 ,b4 ,! fl9t4 ,e4 ,! t9d]4 ,d4 ,! mat*es ( ! old-fa%ion$ t9d]-box1 ,a4 ,! rubb+ ( a piece ( wood 7h>d5$ by fire1 & cut to a po9t7 aga9/ ano!r & s(t] k9d1 has be5 us$ f "t immemorial by savage nations to evoke heat & light2 ! wood is revolv$ 9 ! fa%ion ( a drill ) un]r+ dext]ity by ! h&s ( ! savage1 & be+ surr\nd$ ) light *ips1 & g5tly aid$ by ! brea?1 ! lat5t fire is by great & incessant lab\r at la/ procur$4 ,h[ fav\rably ! mod]n lucif]s comp>e ) ^! labori\s ef=ts ( b>b>\s tribes6 a *ild may n[ procure a light ) a *emically prep>$ metal1 & great m]it is due to t p]son :o fir/ devis$ a me?od ( mix+ toge!r phosphorus & *lorate ( pota% & s ,page #bei adju/$ ^! dang]\s mat]ials t !y are z safe z ! old t9d]-box1 & h n[ become "o ( our dome/ic necess>ies4 ,ignition1 or ! increase ( heat 9 a solid body1 is ano!r s\rce ( light1 & is well illu/rat$ 9 ! production ( illum9at+ p[] f ! combu/ion ( tall[1 oil1 wax1 camph9e or coal gas4 ,! t]m ignition is d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 7ignis1 fire71 & is q di/9ct1 & has a totally diff]5t mean+ f t ( combu/ion4 ,if a glass j> is fill$ ) c>bonic acid gas1 & a little tray plac$ 9 x conta9+ "s gun cotton1 x w be f\nd impossible to fire ! latt] ) a light$ tap]1 i4e4 by combu/ion 7comburo1 to burn71 because ! gas ext+ui%es flame :i* is dep5d5t on a supply ( oxyg52 :]eas if a copp] or o!r metallic wire is made r$ hot or ignit$1 ! c>bonic acid has no effect ^u ! heat1 & ! r$ hot wire be+ pass$ ?r\gh ! gas1 ! gun cotton is imm$iately fir$4 ,flame consi/s ( ?ree p>ts--viz41 ( an out] film1 :i* comes directly 9 contact ) ! air1 & has little or no lum9osity2 also ( a second film1 :]e c>bon is deposit$1 &1 fir/ by ignition1 & f9ally by combu/ion1 produces ! light2 & ?irdly1 ( an int]ior space conta9+ unburnt gas1 :i* is1 z x 71 wait+ its turn to rea* ! ext]nal air1 & to be consum$ 9 ! ord9>y mann]4 7,fig4 #bdi47 ,*emical action & electricity h be5 s frequ5tly m5tion$ 9 ?is "w z a s\rce ( heat & light1 t x w be unnecess>y to d m ?an to m5tion !m "h1 :il/ phosphoresc5ce 7! six? s\rce ( light7 9 dead & liv+ matt]1 a spontane\s production ( light1 is well kn[n & exemplifi$ 9 ! gl[-worm1 ! fire-fly1 ! lum9osity ( ! wat] ( ! ocean1 or ! decompos+ rema9s ( c]ta9 fi%1 & ev5 ( human bodies4 ,phosphoresc5ce is /ill m curi\sly exemplifi$ by hold+ a %eet ( :ite pap]1 a calc9$ oy/]-%ell1 or ev5 ! h&1 9 ! sun's rays1 & !n retir+ quickly to a d>k5$ room1 :5 !y appe> to be lum9\s1 & visible ev5 aft] ! light has ceas$ to fall ^u !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,a c&le flame4 #a4 ,out] flame4 #b4 ,inn] flame1 :i* is badly suppli$ ) oxyg51 & :]e ! c>bon is deposit$ & ignit$4 #c4 ,! int]ior1 conta9+ unburnt gas4 ,= ! purpose ( exam9+ ! tempor>y phosphoresc5ce ( v>i\s bodies1 ,m4 ,becqu]el has inv5t$ a mo/ +5i\s in/rum5t1 call$ ! phosphorescope4 ,x ,page #bfj consi/s ( a cyl9d] ( wood "o in* 9 diamet] & sev5 in*es long1 plac$ 9 ! angle ( a black box ) ! electric lamp inside1 s t ?ree-f\r?s ( ! cyl9d] are visible outside1 & ! rema9+ f\r? expos$ to ! int]ior electric light4 ,by means ( prop] :eels ! cyl9d]1 cov]$ ) any sub/ance 7su* z ,becqu]el's phosphori71 is made to revolve #cjj times 9 a second1 & by us+ ?is or a less] velocity1 ! v>i\s phosphori are fir/ expos$ to a p[]ful light & !n br\ght 9 view ( ! spectator outside ! box4 ,x is und]/ood t light is produc$ by an emanation ( rays f a lum9\s body4 ,if a /one is ?r[n f ! h&1 an arr[ %ot f a b[1 or a ball f a cannon1 we p]fectly und]/& h[ ei!r ( !m may be propell$ a c]ta9 di/ance1 & :y !y may travel ?r\gh space2 b :5 we he> t light travels f ! sun1 :i* is n9ety-five millions ( miles away f ! e>?1 9 ab\t sev5 m9utes & a half1 x is int]e/+ to "k :at is ! k9d ( =ce t propels ! light ?r\gh t va/ di/ance1 & also :at is suppos$ to be ! nature ( ! light itself4 ,!re are two !ories by :i* ! nature ( light1 & its propagation ?r\gh space1 are expla9$2 !y are nam$ aft] ! celebrat$ m5 :o propos$ !m1 z also f ! !oretical me*anism ( _! respective modes ( propulsion3 ?us we h ! ,newtonian or corpuscul> !ory ( light1 & ! ,huygh5ian or undulatory !ory2 ! fir/ nam$ aft] ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 & ! second aft] ,huygh5s1 ano!r mo/ le>n$ ma!matician4 ,_m ye>s be=e ,newton made 8 gr& discov]y ( ! composition ( light 9 ! ye> #afgb1 ma!maticians 7 9 fav\r ( ! undulatory !ory1 & x numb]$ among/ its support]s n only ,huygh5s1 b ,desc>tes1 ,hook1 ,malebran*e1 & o!r le>n$ m54 ,mank9d has always be5 glad to foll[ r5[n$ lead]s1 x is s mu* easi]1 & is 9 mo/ cases p]haps ! bett] c\rse1 to resign individual op9ion :5 m le>n$ m5 ?an ourselves n only adopt b insi/ ^u ! tru? ( _! !ories2 & ?is 0 ! case ) ! corpuscul> !ory1 :i* _h be5 writt5 ^u sy/ematically & support$ by ,emp$ocles1 a philosoph] ( ,agrig5tum 9 ,sicily1 :o liv$ "s #ddd ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 & is said to h be5 mo/ le>n$ & eloqu5t2 he ma9ta9$ t light consi/$ ( p>ticles project$ f lum9\s bodies1 & t vision 0 p]=m$ bo? by ! effect ( ^! p>ticles on ! eye1 & by means ( a visual influ5ce emitt$ by ! eye itself4 ,9 c\rse ( "t1 & at lea/ #bjjj ye>s aft] ?is !ory 0 advanc$1 philosoph]s _h gradually reject$ ! corpuscul> !ory1 until ! great ,newton1 ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 advanc$ z a *ampion to ! rescue1 & /amp+ ! hypo!sis ) 8 approval1 at once l$ away ! :ole army ( philosoph]s 9 its fav\r1 s t till ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! :ole ( ! ph5om5a ( light 7 expla9$ ^u ?is hypo!sis4 ,! corpuscul> !ory1 r$uc$ to ! briefe/ def9ition1 supposes light to be really a mat]ial ag5t1 & requires ! /ud5t to believe ,page #bfa t ?is ag5t consi/s ( p>ticles s inconceivably m9ute t !y c\ld n be weigh$1 & ( c\rse d n gravitate2 ! corpuscles are suppos$ to be giv5 out bodily 7l sp>ks ( burn+ /eel f a g]b firework7 f ! sun1 ! fix$ />s1 & all lum9\s bodies2 to travel ) enorm\s velocity1 & !re=e to possess ! prop]ty ( in]tia2 & to excite ! s5sation ( vision by /rik+ bodily ^u ! exp&$ n]ve1 ! ret9a1 ! quasi-m9d ( ! eye4 ,dr4 ,"y rem>ks1 t accord+ to ?is projectile !ory ! =ce employ$ 9 ! free emission ( light mu/ be ab\t a million million times z great z ! =ce ( gravity at ! e>?'s surface1 & x mu/ ei!r act ) equal int5sity on all ! p>ticles ( light1 or mu/ impel "s ( !m ?r\gh a great] space ?an o!rs1 if its action be m p[]ful1 s9ce ! velocity is ! same 9 all cases--= example1 if ! projectile =ce is weak] ) respect to r$ light ?an ) respect to violet light1 x mu/ cont9ue its action on ! r$ rays to a great] di/ance ?an on ! violet rays4 ,!re is no in/ance 9 nature besides ( a simple projectile mov+ ) a velocity uni=m 9 all cases1 :atev] may be its cause2 & x is extremely difficult to imag9e t su* an imm5se =ce ( repulsion c reside 9 all sub/ances capable ( becom+ lum9\s1 s t ! light ( decay+ wood1 or two pebbles rubb$ toge!r1 may be project$ precisely ) ! same velocity z ! light emitt$ by iron burn+ 9 oxyg5 gas1 or by ! res]voir ( liquid fire on ! surface ( ! sun4 ,n[ "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ circum/ances respect+ ! propagation ( light1 is ! uni=mity ( its velocity 9 ! same m$ium4 ,^! & o!r difficulties 9 ! application ( ! corpuscul> !ory ar\s$ ! att5tion ( ! late ,dr4 ,"y1 & 9 ! ye> #ahja he aga9 reviv$ & support$ ! neglect$ undulatory !ory ) su* great ability t ! att5tion ( _m le>n$ ma!maticians 0 direct$ to ! subject1 & n[ x may be said t ! corpuscul> !ory is almo/1 if n entirely1 reject$1 :il/ ! undulatory !ory is once m1 & des]v$ly1 us$ to expla9 ! !ory ( light1 & its propagation ?r\gh space4 ,by ?is hypo!sis x is assum$ t ! :ole univ]se1 includ+ ! mo/ m9ute pores ( all matt]1 :e!r solid1 fluid1 or gase\s1 are fill$ ) a highly ela/ic r>e m$ium ( a mo/ att5uat$ nature1 call$ e!r1 possess+ ! prop]ty ( in]tia b n ( gravitation4 ,?is e!r is n light1 b light is produc$ 9 x by ! excitation on ! "p ( lum9\s bodies ( a vibratory motion1 simil> to ! undulation ( wat] t produces waves1 or ! vibration ( air af=d+ s\nd4 ,wat] set 9 motion produces waves4 ,air set 9 motion produces waves ( s\nd4 ,e!r1 i4e4 ! !oretical e!r p]vad+ all matt]1 likewise set 9 motion1 produces light4 ,! nature ( a vibratory m$ium is inde$ bett] und]/ood by ref]5ce to t :i* we "k possesses ! ord9>y prop]ties ( matt]--viz41 ! air2 & by trac+ out ! analogy betwe5 ! propagation ( s\nd & light1 ! difficulties ( ! undulatory !ory v quickly vani%4 ,to illu/rate vibration x is only necess>y to procure a f+] glass1 & hav+ support$ a little ebony ball atta*$ to a silk ?read by a b5t brass ,page #bfb wire directly ov] x1 s t ! ball may t\* ei!r ! outside or ! inside ( ! glass1 att5tion mu/ be direct$ to ! quiesc5ce ( ! ball :5 a viol9 b[ is lightly mov$ ov] ! edge ( ! glass )\t produc+ s\nd1 & to ! contr>y effect obta9$ by s mov+ & press+ ! b[ t a %>p s\nd is emitt$1 :5 imm$iately ! little ball is ?r[n (f f ! edge1 ! repulsive action be+ cont9u$ z long z ! s\nd is produc$ by ! vibration ( ! glass4 7,fig4 #bej47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,a4 ,! f+] glass4 ,b4 ,! viol9 b[4 ,c4 ,! ebony ball4 ,! dott$ ball %[s h[ x is repell$ dur+ ! vibration ( ! glass4 ,"h ! vibrations are fir/ set up 9 ! glass1 & be+ communicat$ to ! surr\nd+ air1 a s\nd is produc$2 if ! same exp]im5t c\ld be p]=m$ 9 a vacuum1 ! glass might be vibrat$1 b n be+ surr\nd$ ) air1 no s\nd w\ld be produc$4 ,?is fact is prov$ by fir/ r++ a bell ) prop] me*anism fix$ "u ! receiv] plac$ on ! air-pump plate2 ! s\nd ( ! bell is audible until ! pump is put 9 motion & ! receiv] gradually exhau/$1 :5 ! r++ noise becomes fa9t] & fa9t]1 until x is p]fectly inaudible4 ,?is exp]im5t is made m in/ructive by gradually admitt+ ! air aga9 into ! exhau/$ vessel1 & at ! same "t r++ ! bell1 :5 ! s\nd becomes gradually l\d]1 until x atta9s its full p[]4 ,! sun & o!r lum9\s bodies may be comp>$ to ! f+] glass1 & are suppos$ to be end[$ naturally ) a vibratory motion 7a sort ( p]petual ague71 only in/ead ( ! air be+ set 9 motion1 ! e!r is suppos$ to be ?r[n into waves1 :i* travel ?r\gh space1 & convey ! impression ( light f ! lum9\s object4 ,ano!r famili> example ( an undulatory m$ium is %[n by ?r[+ a /one into a pool ( wat]2 ! =m] imm$iately =ces d[n & displaces a c]ta9 numb] ( ! p>ticles ( ! latt]1 consequ5tly ! surr\nd+ molecules ( wat] are heap$ up above _! level2 by ! =ce ( gravitation !y aga9 desc5d & ?r[ up ano!r wave1 ?is 9 subsid+ raises ano!r1 until ! =ce ( ! orig9al & l(ti] ,page #bfc wave dies away at ! edge ( ! pool into ! fa9te/ ripples4 ,x mu/ h[ev] be und]/ood t x is n ! p>ticles ( wat] fir/ set 9 motion t travel & spread out 9 conc5tric circles2 b ! =ce is propagat$ by ! ris+ & fall+ ( ea* sep>ate p>ticle ( wat] z x is di/urb$ by ! mom5tum ( ! desc5d+ wave be=e x4 ,:5 /&+ at a pi]-head1 or on a rock aga9/ :i* ! sea da%es1 x is usual to he> ! obs]v] cry out1 if ! wea!r is /ormy & ! waves v high1 ,oh6 "h comes a great wave6 z if ! wat] travell$ bodily f ! spot :]e x 0 fir/ notic$1 :]eas x is simply ! =ce t travels1 & is ex]t$ f9ally on ! wat] ne>e/ ! rock4 ,x is 9 fact a progressive action1 j z ! w9d sweeps ov] a wide field ( corn1 & b5ds d[n ! e>s "o aft] ! o!r1 giv+ !m = ! "t ! appe>ance ( waves4 ,! pr9ciple ( successive action is well %[n by plac+ a numb] ( billi>d balls 9 a r[1 & t\*+ ea* o!r2 if ! fir/ is /ruck ! motion is communicat$ ?r\gh ! re/1 :i* rema9 immovable1 :il/ ! la/ only flies out ( its place4 ,! =ce travels ?r\gh all ! balls1 :i* simply act z c>ri]s1 _! motion is limit$1 & ! la/ only *anges its position4 ,progressive movem5t is also well display$ by arrang+ six or eight magnetiz$ ne$les on po9ts 9 a r[1 ) all _! nor? poles 9 "o direction4 7,fig4 #beb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bea4 ,boy ?r[+ /ones into wat] & produc+ circul> waves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beb4 ,a ,b4 ,s]ies ( ne$les arrang$ z describ$4 ,c4 ,! b> magnet1 ) ! nor? pole ,n t[>ds ! ne$les4 ,! dott$ l9es %[ ! direction gradually assum$ by all ! ne$les1 comm5c+ at ,d4 ,on approa*+ ! nor? pole ( a b> magnet to ! same pole ( "o ,page #bfd end ( ! s]ies ( ne$les1 x is v curi\s to see !m turn 9 ! opposite direction progressively1 "o aft] ! o!r1 z ! repulsive p[] ( ! b> magnet gradually op]ates ^u ! simil> poles 9 ! magnetic ne$les4 ,! undulations ( ! waves ( wat] are also p]fectly %[n by us+ ! app>atus consi/+ ( ! tr\gh ) ! glass bottom & scre5 above x1 z describ$ at page #aj4 ,! transmission ( vibrations f "o place to ano!r is also admirably display$ 9 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one's ,telephonic ,conc]t 7see page picture71 :]e ! musical in/rum5ts1 z at ! ,polyte*nic1 7 plac$ by ! au?or 9 ! basem5t1 & ! vibration only conduct$ by wood5 rods to ! s\nd+-bo>ds above1 s t ! music 0 laid on l gas or wat]4 ,^! vibrations or undulations 9 air1 wat]1 & ! !oretical e!r1 h !re=e be5 call$ waves ( wat]1 waves ( s\nd1 & waves ( light1 j z if ?ree clocks 7 made ( ?ree diff]5t metals1 ! me*anism w\ld rema9 ! same1 ?\gh ! mat]ial1 or 9 ?is case ! m$ium1 be diff]5t 9 ea*4 ,any increase 9 ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! air produces acute1 :il/ a decrease att5ds ! grave s\nds1 & :5 ! waves succe$ ea* o!r n less ?an sixte5 times 9 a second1 ! l[e/ s\nd is produc$4 ,light & col\rs are suppos$ to be due to a simil> cause1 & 9 ord] to produce ! r$ ray1 no less ?an #dgg millions ( millions ( vibrations mu/ occur 9 a second ( "t2 ! orange1 #ejf2 yell[1 #ece2 gre51 #egg2 blue1 #fbb2 indigo1 #feh2 violet1 #fii2 & :ite light1 :i* is made up ( ^! col\rs1 numb]s #eda millions ( millions ( undulations 9 a second4 ,al?\gh light travels ) su* amaz+ rapidity1 !re is ( c\rse a c]ta9 "t occupi$ 9 its passage ?r\gh space--!re is no su* ?+ z in/antaneity 9 nature4 ,a c]ta9 p]iod ( "t1 h[ev] small1 mu/ elapse 9 ! p]=mance ( any act :atev]1 & x has be5 prov$ by a c>eful obs]vation ( ! "t at :i* ! eclipses ( ! satellites ( ,jupit] are p]ceiv$1 t light travels at ! rate ( #aib1ejj miles p] second1 & by ! ab]ration ( ! fix$ />s1 #aia1eae1 ! mean ( ^! two sets ( obs]vations w\ld probably af=d ! correct rate4 ,su* a velocity is1 h[ev]1 some:at difficult to appreciate1 & !re=e1 to assi/ our compreh5sion ( _! great magnitude1 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el has giv5 "s v int]e/+ comp>ative calculations1 & com+ f su* an au?ority we c readily believe !m to be correct4 ,a cannon-ball mov+ uni=mly at its greate/ velocity w\ld require sev5te5 ye>s to rea* ! sun4 ,light p]=ms ! same di/ance 9 ab\t sev5 m9utes & a half4 ,! swifte/ bird1 at its utmo/ spe$1 w\ld require ne>ly ?ree weeks to make ! t\r ( ! e>?1 suppos+ x c\ld proce$ )\t /opp+ to take food or re/4 ,light p]=ms ! same di/ance 9 less "t ?an is requir$ = a s+le /roke ( its w+4 ,dismiss+ = ! pres5t ! !ory ( undulations1 x w be necess>y to exam9e ! ph5om5a ( light1 reg>d+ x z radiant matt]1 )\t ref]5ce to ei!r ( ! cont5d+ !ories4 ,page #bfe ,light issues f ! sun1 passes ?r\gh millions ( miles to ! e>?1 & z x falls ^u diff]5t sub/ances1 a v>iety ( effects are app>5t4 ,!re is a c]ta9 class ( bodies :i* ob/ruct ! passage ( ! rays ( light1 & :]e light is n1 a %ad[ is ca/1 & ! sub/ance produc+ ! %ad[ is said to be opaque4 ,wood1 /one1 ! metals1 *>coal1 are all examples ( opacity2 :il/ glass1 talc1 & horn all[ a c]ta9 numb] ( ! rays to travel ?r\gh _! p>ticles1 & are !re=e call$ transp>5t4 ,nature1 h[ev]1 nev] indulges 9 sudd5 extremes1 & z no sub/ance is s opaque z n 7:5 r$uc$ 9 ?ickness7 to all[ a c]ta9 am\nt ( light to pass ?r\gh its sub/ance1 s1 on ! o!r h&1 h[ev] transp>5t a body may be1 a great] or less] numb] ( ! rays are always /opp$1 & h5ce opacity & transp>5cy are reg>d$ z two extremes ( a long *a92 be+ connect$ toge!r by num]\s int]m$iate l9ks1 !y pass by ins5sible gradations ! "o into ! o!r4 ,if a gold leaf1 :i* is ab\t ! "o two-hundr$? "p ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 is fix$ on a glass plate & held be=e a light1 a gre5 col\r is app>5t1 ! gold appe>+ l a gre51 semi-transp>5t sub/ance4 ,:5 plates ( glass are laid "o above ! o!r1 & ! flame ( a c&le obs]v$ ?r\gh !m1 ! light decreases enorm\sly z ! numb] ( glass-plates are increas$4 ,ev5 9 ! air a consid]able portion ( light is int]cept$4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ( ! horizontal sunbeams pass+ ?r\gh ab\t two hundr$ miles ( air1 "o two-?\s&? "p only rea*es u1 & t no s5sible light c p5etrate m ?an sev5 hundr$ feet deep into ! sea2 consequ5tly1 ! va/ dep?s discov]$ 9 lay+ ! ,atlantic telegraph mu/ be 9 absolute d>kness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bec4 ,light is ?r[n out on all sides f a lum9\s body l ! spokes ( a c>t-:eel1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( any ob/ruction1 ! rays are di/ribut$ equally on all sides1 div]g+ l ! radii drawn f ! c5tre ( a circle4 ,z a natural consequ5ce aris+ f ! div]g5ce ( ea* ray f ! o!r1 ! int5sity ( light decreases z ! di/ance f ! lum9\s s\rce increases1 & vice v]s4 ,p]haps ! be/ me*anical notion ( ?is law is af=d$ by an ord9>y fan2 ! po9t f :i* ! /icks radiate1 & :]e !y all meet1 may be ,page #bff t]m$ ! light2 ! /icks are ! rays proce$+ f x4 7,fig4 #bec47 ,! fan is held 9 "o h&1 & ! fir/ f+] ( ! o!r c be made to t\* all ! /icks if plac$ suffici5tly ne> to ,a2 & suppos+ ! /icks are call$ rays ( light1 ! int5sity mu/ be great at t po9t1 because all ! rays fall ^u x2 b if ! f+] is remov$ t[>ds ! out] edge--viz41 to ,b1 x n[ only t\*es "s ?ree or f\r /icks2 & pursu+ ! analogy1 a v few rays fall ^u t po9t--h5ce ! light has decreas$ 9 int5sity1 or to speak correctly1 ,light decreases inv]sely z ! squ>es ( ! di/ance4 ,?is law has already be5 illu/rat$ at page #ac2 & z an exp]im5t1 ! rays f ! oxy-hydrog5 lant]n may be p]mitt$ to pass out ( a squ>e hole 7say two in*es squ>e71 & %\ld be ?r[n on to a transp>5t scre5 divid$ into squ>es by d>k l9es1 s t ! light at a c]ta9 di/ance illum9ates "o ( !m2 !n x w be f\nd t at twice ! di/ance1 f\r may be illum9at$1 at ?ree times n9e1 & s on4 7,fig4 #bed47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bed4 ,lant]n at ! ?ree di/ances f ! transp>5t scre51 :i* is divid$ into n9e equal squ>es4 ,^u ?is law is bas$ ! use ( photomet]s1 or in/rum5ts = measur+ light1 & suppos+ x 0 requir$ to e/imate r\ghly ! illum9at+ p[] ( any lamp1 z comp>$ ) ! light ( a wax c&le six to ! p\nd1 ! exp]im5t %\ld be conduct$ 9 a d>k room1 f :i* e o!r light b t f ! lamp & c&le "u exam9ation mu/ be exclud$4 ,! lamp1 ) ! *imney only1 is n[ plac$ say twelve feet f ! wall1 & a /ick or rod is plac$ upright & ab\t two in*es f ! latt]1 s t a %ad[ is ca/ on ! wall2 if ! c&le is n[ light$ & all[$ to burn up prop]ly1 two %ad[s ( ! /ick w be app>5t1 ! "o f ! lamp be+ black & di/9ct1 & ! o!r f ! c&le extremely fa9t1 until x is approa*$ ne>] ! ,page #bfg wall--say to )9 ?ree feet--:5 ! two %ad[s may be n[ equal 9 blackness4 7,fig4 #bee47 ,aft] ?is is app>5t to "o or m p]sons1 ! di/ances ( ! lamp & c&le f ! wall are c>efully measur$1 & be+ squ>$1 & ! great] divid$ by ! less] numb]1 ! quoti5t gives ! illum9at+ p[]4 ,= example3 ,! lamp 0 #ab feet f ! wall #ab #ab #add4 ,! c&le 0 #c feet #c #c #i4 #i7 #add ---- #af ,!re=e ! illum9at+ p[] ( ! lamp is equal to #af wax c&les six to ! p\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bee4 ,a4 ,! lamp4 ,b4 ,! c&le4 ,c4 ,! rod ?r[+ ! two %ad[s1 m>k$ ,d & ,e1 on a :ite wall or a %eet ( pap]4 ,!re are o!r & m ref9$ means ( work+ out ! same fact1 b = a r\gh approximation to ! tru?1 ! plan already describ$ w answ] v fairly4 ,a mo/ amus+ effect c be produc$ on ! pr9ciple t e light ca/s its own %ad[1 call$ ! dance ( dea?1 or ! dance ( ! wit*es2 ei!r ( ^! agreeable subjects are drawn1 & ! outl9es cut out ( a %eet ( c>dbo>d4 ,if a wet %eet is /ret*$ or hung on "o side ( a pair ( fold+ doors p>tly op51 & betwe5 :i* ! c>dbo>d is tack$ up1 & ! space left at ! top & bottom clos$ ) a d>k clo?1 directly ! room be=e ! %eet is d>k5$ & a light$ c&le held beh9d ! figure cut out 9 ! c>dbo>d1 "o %ad[ or image is ?r[n ^u ! %eet1 & ^! %ad[s may be increas$ accord+ to ! numb] ( c&les us$1 & if !y are held by two or ?ree p]sons1 & mov$ up & d[n1 or sideways1 ! %ad[s foll[ ! direction ( ! c&les1 & pres5t ! appe>ance ( a dance4 7,fig4 #bef47 ,page #bfh ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bef4 ,be=e ! curta94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beg4 ,beh9d ! curta94 ,page #bfi ,ano!r v comic effect ( %ad[ is t call$ jump+ up to ! ceil+1 & :5 c>ri$ out on a l>ge scale by ! au?or on an enorm\s %eet susp5d$ 9 ! c5tre transept ( ! ,cry/al ,palace1 ,syd5ham1 x _h a mo/ laughable effect1 & caus$ ! greate/ amusem5t to ! *ildr5 ( all ages4 7,fig4 #beh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beh4 ,! laughable effect ( ! %ad[s at ! ,cry/al ,palace4 ,?is v tell+ result is produc$ by plac+ an oxy-hydrog5 light "s feet beh9d a l>ge %eet1 & ( c\rse if any "o passes betwe5 ! two a %ad[ ( ! individual is ca/ ^u ! %eet1 !n by walk+ t[>ds ! light ! figure dim9i%es 9 size1 & by jump+ ov] x ! %ad[ appe>s to g up to ! ceil+1 & to come d[n :5 ! jump is made 9 ! opposite direction ov] ! light & t[>ds ! %eet4 ,! rationale ( ?is exp]im5t is v simple1 & is ,page #bgj ano!r pro( ( ! di/ribution ( light f a lum9\s s\rce be+ 9 e direction4 ,by jump+ ov] ! light ! radii project$ f ! c&le ov] ! %eet are cross$1 & ! %ad[ rises or falls z ! figure passes upw>ds or d[nw>d4 7,fig4 #bei47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bei4 ,! rays ( light m>k$ ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e proce$+ f a light$ c&le or oxy-hydrog5 light4 ,! arr[ po9t+ to ! "r %[s h[ ^! rays are cross$ 9 jump+ up to ! ceil+2 & ! second arr[1 po9t+ to ! left1 %[s ! rev]se4 ,a beam ( light is def9$ to be a collection ( rays1 & x is a conv5i5t def9ition1 because x prev5ts confusion to speak only ( "o ray 9 attempt+ to expla9 h[ light is dispos$ ( "u peculi> circum/ances4 ,! smalle/ portion ( light :i* x is suppos$ c be sep>at$ is !re=e call$ a ray1 & x w pass ?r\gh any m$ium ( ! same d5sity 9 a p]fectly /raight l9e2 b if x passes out ( t m$ium into ano!r ( a diff]5t d5sity1 or into any o!r solid1 fluid1 or gase\s matt]1 x may be dispos$ ( 9 f\r diff]5t ways1 be+ ei!r reflect$1 refract$1 pol>iz$1 or absorb$4 ,! reflection ( light is ! fir/ prop]ty t w be consid]$1 & x w be f\nd t e sub/ance 9 nature possesses 9 a great] or less] degree ! p[] ( ?r[+ (f ! rays ( light :i* fall ^u !m4 ,?us if we g into a room p]fectly d>k5$1 conta9+ e k9d ( "w produc$ by nature or art1 su* z fl[]s1 birds1 boxes ( insects1 ri* c>pets1 hang+s1 pictures1 /atu>y1 jewell]y1 c41 !y _c excite any pleasure because !y are invisible1 b directly a light$ lamp is br\ght into ! *amb]1 !n ! rays fall ^u all ! surr\nd+ objects1 & be+ reflect$ f _! surfaces ent] ! eye1 & !re produce ! ph5om5a ( vision4 ,?is connexion betwe5 lum9\s & non-lum9\s bodies becomes v app>5t :5 we consid] t ! sun w\ld appe> only z an int5se light 9 a d>k backgr\nd1 if ! e>? 0 n surr\nd$ ) ! v>i\s /rata ( air1 9 :i* are plac$ cl\ds & vap\rs t collectively reflect & scatt] ! light1 s z to cause x to be endurable to vision4 ,x is :5 ! sky is v cle> dur+ ,july or ,augu/ t ! heat becomes s int5se1 directly cl\ds beg9 to =m & float ab\t1 ! heat is !n mod]at$4 ,_m ye>s ago1 ,b>on ,alex&] ,funk1 visit+ "s silv] m9es 9 ,sw$51 obs]v$1 t 9 a cle> day x 0 z d>k z pit* und]gr\nd 9 ! eye ( ! pit at sixty or sev5ty fa?oms deep2 :]eas1 on a cl\dy or ra9y day he c\ld ev5 see to read at #ajf fa?oms deep4 ,inquir+ ( ! m9]s1 he 0 in=m$ t ?is is always ! case1 & ,page #bga reflect+ ^u x he imag9$ v prop]ly t x arose f ?is circum/ance--t :5 ! atmosph]e is full ( cl\ds1 light is reflect$ f !m into ! pit 9 all directions1 s t !reby a consid]able proportion ( ! rays are reflect$ p]p5dicul>ly ^u ! e>?2 :]eas :5 ! atmosph]e is cle> !re are no opaque bodies to reflect ! light 9 ?is mann]1 at lea/1 9 a suffici5t quantity1 & rays f ! sun itself c nev] fall p]p5dicul>ly 9 ,sw$54 ,! use ( reflect+ surfaces has n[ become q common 9 all cr[d$ cities1 & especially 9 ,london1 :]e ev5 ! rays ( light are too few to be lo/1 & flat or corrugat$ mirrors are plac$ at v>i\s angles1 ei!r to ?r[ ! light f ! outside on ! :ite-wa%$ ceil+ )91 & ?us obta9 a bett] diffus$ light ?r\gh ! ap>tm5t1 or x is reflect$ bodily to "s back room1 or r d>k brick box1 :]e p]haps = half a c5tury c&les h be5 requir$ at an e>ly h\r 9 ! aft]noon4 ,! brilliant cut 9 diamonds is su* an arrangem5t ( ! po/]ior facets1 or cut faces ( ! jewel1 t all light rea*+ !m %all be ?r[n back & reflect$1 & ?us imp>t an extraord9>y brilliancy to ! gem4 ,! int5se gl>e ( sn[ 9 ! ,alp9e regions has long be5 notic$1 & ! reflect$ light is s p[]ful1 t philosoph]s 7 ev5 dispos$ to believe t sn[ possess$ a natural or inh]5t lum9osity1 & gave out its own light4 ,mr4 ,boyle1 h[ev]1 disprov$ ?is notion by plac+ a quantity ( sn[ 9 a room f :i* all =eign light 0 exclud$1 & nei!r he nor 8 companion c\ld obs]ve t any light 0 emitt$1 al?\gh1 on ! pr9ciple ( mom5t>y phosphoresc5ce1 x is q possible to conceive t if ! sn[ 0 sudd5ly br\ght into a d>k5$ room aft] exposure to ! rays ( ! sun1 t x w\ld give out = a few seconds a p]ceptible light4 ,9 try+ su* an exp]im5t1 "o p]son %\ld expose ! sn[ to ! sun1 & br+ x into a p]fectly d>k5$ room to a second p]son1 ^: eyes w\ld be ready to receive ! fa9te/ impression ( light1 & if any phosphoresc5ce exi/$1 x mu/ be app>5t4 ,! prop]ty ( reflection is also illu/rat$ on a gr& scale 9 ! illum9ation ( our satellite1 ! moon1 & ! v>i\s planet>y bodies :i* %9e by light reflect$ f ! sun1 & h no inh]5t self-lum9osity4 ,ari/otle 0 well aw>e t x is ! reflection ( light f ! atmosph]e :i* prev5ts total d>kness aft] ! sun sets1 & 9 places :]e ! sun's rays d n actually fall dur+ ! daytime4 ,he 0 also ( op9ion t ra9b[s1 halos1 & mock suns1 7 all occasion$ by ! reflection ( ! sunbeams 9 diff]5t circum/ances1 by :i* an imp]fect image ( ! sun 0 produc$1 ! col\r only be+ exhibit$1 b n ! prop] figure4 ,! image1 ,ari/otle says1 is n s+le1 z 9 a mirror1 = ea* drop ( ra9 is too small to reflect a visible image1 b ! conjunction ( all ! images is visible4 ,ari/otle ascrib$ all ^! effects to ! reflection ( light1 & x w be notic$ :5 we come to ! consid]ation ( ! refraction ( light1 t ( c\rse 8 views mu/ be s]i\sly modifi$4 ,page #bgb ,! reflection ( light is affect$ r by ! condition ( ! surface ?an ! :ole body ( a sub/ance1 z a piece ( coal may be cov]$ ) gold or silv] leaf & caus$ to %9e1 :il/ ! brighte/ mirror is dimm$ by ! ?9ne/ film ( moi/ure4 ,f :atev] surface light is reflect$1 x always takes place 9 ob$i5ce to two fix$ laws4 ,fir/4 ,! incid5t & reflect$ rays always lie 9 ! same plane4 ,second4 ,! angle ( incid5ce is equal to ! angle ( reflection4 ,) a s+le jo9t$ two-foot rule1 bo? ( ^! laws are easily illu/rat$4 ,! rule may be held 9 ! h&1 & "o end be+ m>k$ ) a piece ( :ite pap] may be call$ ! incid5t ray1 i4e41 ! ray t falls ^u ! surface2 & ! o!r is ! reflect$ ray1 ! "o ca/ (f or ?r[n back4 ,a p]p5dicul> is rais$ by hold+ a /ick upright at ! jo9t4 7,fig4 #bfj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,a ,d4 ,a two foot rule2 ! end ,a may be t]m$ ! incid5t ray1 & ! end ,d ! reflect$ ray4 ,s4 ,! /ick held p]p5dicul>ly4 ,! angle ,a ,b ,c is equal to ! angle ,d ,e ,f1 & ! :ole may be mov$ 9 any direction or plane1 ei!r horizontal or p]p5dicul>1 ,g ,g4 ,! reflect+ surface4 ,"o ( ! mo/ simple & pleas+ delusions produc$ by ! reflection ( light1 is t af=d$ by cutt+ ?r\gh ! outl9e ( a vase1 or /atuette1 or fl[]1 drawn on c>dbo>d1 & if c]ta9 po9ts are left atta*$1 s t ! design may n fall out1 all ! effect ( solidity is giv5 by b5d+ back ! edges ( ! c>dbo>d1 s t ! light ,page #bgc f a c&le plac$ beh9d x1 may be reflect$ f ! back edge ( "o c>dbo>d on to ! design1 :i* is b5t back4 ,! light reflect$ f "o surface on to ! o!r1 imp>ts a peculi>ly s(t & m>ble-l appe>ance1 & :5 ! design is well drawn & cut1 & plac$ 9 a good position1 ! illusion is v p]fect1 & x appe>s l a solid =m in/ead ( a m]e design cut out ( c>dbo>d4 7,fig4 #bfa47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,c>dbo>d design 9 frame1 cut & b5t back4 ,! light$ c&le is beh9d4 ,! leaf at ! side ( ! above picture is int5d$ to give an idea ( ! mode ( cutt+ out ! designs1 & 9 ?is case ! leaf w\ld be cut & b5t back1 & a small atta*m5t slip ( c>dbo>d left to prev5t x fall+ out4 ,! c>dbo>d design is always b5t t[>d ! light1 :i* is plac$ beh9d x4 ,z a good illu/ration ( ! importance ( reflect$ light & its connexion ) lum9\s bodies1 a beam ( light f ! oxy-hydrog5 lant]n may be all[$ to pass above ! surface ( a table1 :5 x w be notic$ t ! latt] is light$ up only :5 ! beam is reflect$ d[nw>d by a %eet ( :ite pap]4 ,by ref]5ce to ! two laws ( reflection already expla9$1 x is easy to trace out on pap]1 ) ! help ( compasses & rule1 ! effect ( plane1 concave1 & convex surfaces on p>allel1 div]g+1 or conv]g+ rays ( light1 & x may p]haps assi/ ! memory if x is rememb]$ t a plane surface means "o t is flat on bo? sides1 su* z a look+-glass3 a convex surface is repres5t$ by ! outside ( a wat*-glass2 a concave surface1 by ! inside ( a wat*-glass2 p>allel ,page #bgd rays are l ! /raight l9es 9 a copy-book2 div]g+ & conv]g+ rays1 are l ! /icks ( a fan spread out z ! /icks sep>ate or div]ge2 ! /icks ( ! fan come toge!r1 or conv]ge at ! h&le4 ,! reflection ( rays f a plane surface may be bett] und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! annex$ diagram4 7,fig4 #bfb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,a ,i1 ,a ,k4 ,two div]g+ rays incid5t on ! plane surface1 ,d4 ,a ,d is p]p5dicul>1 & is reflect$ back 9 ! same direction4 ,a ,i is div]g5t1 & is ?r[n (f at ,i ,l4 ,! incid5t & reflect$ rays =m+ equal angles1 z prov$ by ! p]p5dicul>1 ,h4 ,any image reflect$ 9 a plane mirror appe>s z f> beh9d x z ! object is be=e x1 & ! dott$ l9es meet+ at ,g %[ ! app>5t position ( ! reflect$ image beh9d ! glass1 z se5 at ,g4 ,! same fact is also %[n 9 ! second diagram1 :]e ! reflect$ picture1 ,i ,m1 appe>s at ! same di/ance beh9d ! surface ( ! mirror z ! object1 ,a ,b1 is be=e x4 ,by ! prop] arrangem5t ( plane mirrors1 a numb] ( amus+ delusions may be produc$1 "o ( :i* is sometimes to be met ) 9 ! /reets1 & is call$ ! art ( look+ ?r\gh a f\r-in* deal bo>d4 ,! spectator is fir/ reque/$ to look into a tube1 ?r\gh :i* he sees :atev] may be pass+ ! in/rum5t at ! "t2 ! op]ator !n places a deal bo>d across ! middle ( ! tube1 :i* is cut away = t purpose1 & to ! a/oni%m5t ( ! juv5iles ! view is n impair$1 & ! spectator /ill fancies he is look+ ?r\gh a /raight tube2 ?is h[ev] is n ! case1 z ! deception is entirely c>ri$ out by reflection1 & is expla9$ 9 ! next cut4 7,fig4 #bfc47 ,page #bge ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,a ,a ,a ,a4 ,! ap]tures ?r\gh :i* ! spectator fir/ looks4 ,b4 ,! piece ( wood1 f\r in*es ?ick4 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 are f\r pieces ( look+-glass1 s plac$ t rays ( light ent]+ at "o end ( ! tube are reflect$ r\nd to ! o!r :]e ! eye ( ! obs]v] is plac$4 ,dur+ ! siege ( ,seba/opol numb]s ( our be/ artill]ym5 7 cont9ually pick$ (f by ! enemy's rifles1 z well z by cannon %ot1 & 9 ord] to put a /op to ! foolh>d9ess & incauti\sness ( ! m51 a v +5i\s contrivance 0 inv5t$ by ! ,rev4 ,wm4 ,taylor1 ! coadjutor ( ,mr4 ,d5ison 9 con/ruct+ ! fir/ ,big ,b5 bell4 ,x 0 call$ ! reflect+ spy-glass1 & by its simple con/ruction r5d]$ ! exposure ( ! sailors & soldi]s1 :o w\ld look ov] ! p>apet or o!r p>ts ( ! works to obs]ve ! effect ( _! %ot1 p]fectly unnecess>y2 :il/ ano!r =m 0 con/ruct$ = ! purpose ( all[+ ! gunn] to lay or aim 8 gun 9 safety4 ,! in/rum5ts 7 %[n to ,"l ,panmure1 :o 0 s conv9c$ ( ! importance ( ! inv5tion1 t he imm$iately commission$ ! ,rev4 ,wm4 ,taylor to h a numb] ( ^! telescopes con/ruct$2 & if ! siege _h n t]m9at$ j at ! "t ! inv5tion 0 to h be5 us$1 no d\bt a great sav+ ( ! valuable lives ( ! skill$ artill]ym5 w\ld h be5 effect$ 9 ! alli$ armies4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! reflect+ spy-glass may be compreh5d$ by ref]5ce to ! next cut4 7,fig4 #bfd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,a picture ( enemy's batt]y is suppos$ to be on ! mirror1 ,a1 :5ce x is reflect$ to ,b1 & f t to ! artill]yman at ,c4 ,by plac+ two mirrors at an angle ( #de1 ! reflect$ image ( a p]son gaz+ into "o is ?r[n into ! o!r1 & ( c\rse ! effect is some:at />tl+ :5 a dea?'s head & cross bones1 or o!r ,page #bgf *e]ful subject1 is introduc$ opposite "o mirror1 :il/ "s p]son :o is unacqua9t$ ) ! delusion is look+ into ! o!r4 ,two adjo9+ rooms might h _! look+-glasses arrang$ 9 t mann]1 provid$ !re is a passage runn+ beh9d !m4 7,fig4 #bfe47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,a4 ,a mirror at an angle ( #de degrees4 ,! arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! reflect$ image4 ,b4 ,! second mirror1 also at an angle ( #de degrees2 ! face ( ! p]son look+ 9 at ,a is reflect$ at ,b4 ,c is ! p>tition betwe5 ! rooms4 ,"o ( ! mo/ />tl+ effects t c be display$ to p]sons ignorant ( ! common laws ( ! reflection ( light1 is call$ ! magic mirror1 & is describ$ by ,sir ,walt] ,scott 9 8 graphic /ory ( t "n4 ,! app>atus = ! purpose mu/ be well plann$ & fix$ 9 a prop] room = t purpose1 & if c>efully conduct$1 may surprise ev5 ! le>n$4 ,a long & some:at n>r[ room %\ld be hung ) black clo?1 & at "o end may be plac$ a l>ge mirror1 s arrang$ t x w turn on h+es l a door4 ,! magician's circle may be plac$ at ! o!r end ( ! *amb] 9 :i* ! spectators mu/ be rigidly conf9$1 & !re is v little d\bt t ! arrangem5t ab\t to be describ$ 0 =m]ly us$ by clev] a/rolog]s :o pret5d$ to look into ! future1 & to hold communication ) ! sup]natural p[]s4 ,! cr$ulity ( ! p]sons :o consult$ ^! wise m51 is n surpris+ :5 we consid] ! ignorance ( ! public g5]ally ( common physical laws1 & ( ! wond]s t may be work$ )\t ! assi/ance ( ! evil "o2 moreov]1 ! initiat$ took great c>e to conceal ! ma*9]y ( _! my/]ies1 nev] imp>t+ ! illusive tricks ev5 to _! mo/ fai?ful dep5d5ts except "u solemn oa?s ( secrecy1 because !y d]iv$ 9 _m cases consid]able pr(it by _! pret5d$ conjurations & juggl+ tricks1 & !re=e 7 int]e/$ 9 keep+ ! out] _w 9 ignorance4 ,! wiz>ds 7 always c>eful to impress ^? :o came to consult !m ) ! awful nature ( ! incantations !y 7 ab\t to p]=m1 & ) su* a p[]ful auxili>y z ,page #bgg fe>1 & a well-d>k5$ room1 !y div]t$ ! ?\ghts ( ! m curi\s1 & prev5t$ !m wat*+ ! proce$+s too closely4 ,!atrical effects 7 n disda9$1 su* z suppress$ & dismal groans1 %am ?und]1 & ! wiz>d usually height5$ 8 own inspir+ p]sonal appe>ance by we>+ ( c\rse a long be>d & fl[+ robe trimm$ ) hi]oglyphics1 & ) ! assi/ance ( a pond]\s volume full ( cabali/ic signs1 a few skulls & cross bones1 an h\r-glass1 a pair ( drawn swords1 a black cat1 a *>coal fire1 & sundry drugs to ?r[ into x1 a v tol]able collection ( imps1 famili>s1 & demons1 might be expect$ to att5d )\t ! mod]n practice ( _s-rapp+4 ,z be=e /at$1 ! delusion mu/ be c>efully conduct$1 & a conf$]ate is necess>y 9 ord] to use ! phantasmagoria1 or magic lant]n4 ,! slides ( c\rse 7 pa9t$ to suit ! =tune to be unfold$--an easy road to ri*es = ! g5tlem51 a tale ( love1 end+ 9 matrimony1 = ! ladies4 ,! spectators be+ plac$ 9 ! magic circle1 are direct$ to look into ! mirror2 !y may ev5 be ord]$ s+ly to fet* a skull (f ! mantel-%elf beside ! mirror1 & :il/ do+ s to look full into ! mirror1 & !n return to ! circle4 ,absolute sil5ce is enjo9$1 & s(t music is n[ he>d2 ! d>k5$ room is lit up = ! mom5t by a little yell[ or gre5 fire ?r[n on to ! *>coal fire1 & n[ look+ into ! mirror1 x no long] reflects surr\nd+ objects1 b a picture1 at fir/ small & fa9t1 & !n gradually becom+ l>ge & cle>]1 is app>5t4 ,! picture is made visible by ! conf$]ate g5tly draw+ ! mirror f its position p>allel ) ! frame to an angle ( #de degrees1 & !n ?r[+ on f ! side a picture f a magic-lant]n4 ,! picture is small & indi/9ct :il/ ! conf$]ate holds x ne> ! mirror & out ( focus1 b z he moves backw>ds & focuses ! l5ses1 ! picture gradually increases 9 size1 & ! reflect+ angles hav+ be5 well plann$ be=eh&1 only ^? 9 ! circle w be able to see ! picture1 & great fun may be elicit$ f ! magic mirror by pret5d+ to tell ! future fate ( a v slim p]son1 & introduc+ him by a succession ( pictures :i* gradually assume a ,john ,bull rotundity ( figure1 surr\nd$ by doz5s ( *ildr52 :il/ to "y ladies :o are engag$1 a provok+ picture ( an old maid may be introduc$2 inde$1 !re is no end to ! innoc5t fun t may be extract$ f ! magic mirror1 & ! :ole plan ( ! delusion may be bett] und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! next picture4 7,fig4 #bff47 ,monsieur ,salv]te v prop]ly rem>ks t man is cr$ul\s f 8 cradle to 8 tomb2 b ! disposition spr+s f an hon\rable pr9ciple1 ! consequ5ces ( :i* precipitate him into _m errors & mis=tunes4444 ,! novelty ( objects1 & ! difficulty ( ref]r+ !m to kn[n objects1 w n %ock ! cr$ulity ( unsophi/icat$ m54 ,!re are "s additional s5sations :i* he receives )\t discussion1 & _! s+ul>ity is p]haps a *>m :i* causes him to receive !m ) great] pleasure4 ,man almo/ always loves & seeks ! m>vell\s4 ,is ?is ta/e natural8 ,page #bgh ,illu/ration3 ,! magic mirror4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bff4 ,plan ( room4 ,a ,a4 ,! frame ( ! look+-glass4 ,a ,b4 ,mirror put back to an angle ( #de degrees4 ,c4 ,! conf$]ate :o manages ! lant]n & %uts ! glass to ! frame aft] ea* =tune is told4 ,d4 ,! magic circle1 to :i* ! rays are reflect$4 ,page #bgi ,does x spr+ f ! education :i* dur+ _m ages ! human race has receiv$ f its fir/ in/ructors8 ,a va/ & novel "q1 b ) :i* ,i h no?+ to d4 ,x is suffici5t to obs]ve t z ! lov] ( ! wond]ful always pref]s ! mo/ surpris+ to ! mo/ natural acc\nt1 ?is la/ has be5 too frequ5tly neglect$1 & is irrevocably lo/4 ,occasionally1 h[ev] 7& we %all cite m ?an "o in/ance71 simple tru? has escap$ f ! p[] ( oblivion4 ,cr$ul\s man may be deceiv$ once1 or m frequ5tly2 b 8 cr$ulity is n a suffici5t in/rum5t to gov]n 8 :ole exi/5ce4 ,! wond]ful excites only a transi5t admiration4 ,9 #agih1 ! ,fr5* savans rem>k$ ) surprise h[ little ! spectacle ( balloons affect$ ! indol5t ,egyptian4444 ,b man is l$ by 8 passions1 & p>ticul>ly by hope & fe>4 ,:5 p>allel rays fall ^u a convex mirror1 !y are scatt]$ & disp]s$ 9 all directions1 & ! image ( an object reflect$ 9 a convex mirror appe>s to be v small1 be+ r$uc$ 9 size because ! reflect$ picture ,i ,m is ne>] ! surface ( ! mirror ?an ! object ,a ,b4 ,no4 #a4 7,fig4 #bfg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,a ,b1 ,d ,h4 7,no4 #b7 repres5t two p>allel rays incid5t on ! convex surface ,b ,h1 ! "o 7,a ,b7 p]p5dicul>ly1 ! o!r 7,d ,h7 obliquely4 ,c is ! c5tre ( convexity4 ,h ,e is ! reflect$ ray ( ! oblique incid5t "o1 ,d ,h2 :il/ ,c ,h ,i is ! p]p5dicul>4 ,convex mirrors are n employ$ 9 any optical deception on a l>ge scale1 al?\gh "s +5i\s delusions are producible f cyl9drical & conical mirrors1 & are ?us describ$ by ,sir ,david ,brew/]3 ,among ! +5i\s & beautiful deceptions ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 we mu/ enum]ate t ( ! re-=mation ( di/ort$ pictures by reflection f cyl9drical & conical mirrors4 ,9 ^! repres5tations1 ! orig9al image f :i* a p]fect picture is produc$1 ,page #bhj is (t5 s completely di/ort$1 t ! eye _c trace 9 x ! resemblance to any regul> figure1 & ! greate/ degree ( wond] is ( c\rse excit$1 :e!r ! orig9al image is conceal$ or expos$ to view4 ,^! di/ort$ pictures may be drawn by /rict geometrical rules1 & ,i h %[n a simple me?od ( execut+ !m4 ,let ,m be an accurate cyl9d] made ( t9-plate or ( ?ick pa/ebo>d4 ,out ( ! fur!r side ( x cut a small ap]ture1 a b c d1 & out ( ! ne>] side cut a l>g] "o1 ,a ,b ,c ,d 7:ite lett]s71 ! size ( ! picture to be di/ort$2 hav+ p]=at$ ! outl9e ( ! picture ) small holes1 place x 9 ! op5+ ,a ,b ,c ,d 7:ite lett]s71 s t its surface may be cyl9drical2 let a c&le or a bright lum9\s object--! small] ! bett]--be plac$ at ,s1 z f> beh9d ! picture ,a ,b ,c ,d 7:ite lett]s7 z ! eye is aft]w>ds to be plac$ be=e x1 & ! light pass+ ?r\gh ! small holes w repres5t on a horizontal plane a di/ort$ image ( ! picture at ,a ,b ,c ,d1 :i*1 :5 sket*$ 9 outl9e ) a p5cil1 %ad$1 & col\r$1 w be ready = use4 ,if we n[ sub/itute a poli%$ cyl9drical mirror ( ! same size 9 place ( ,m1 !n ! di/ort$ picture1 :5 laid horizontally at ,a ,b ,c ,d1 w be re/or$ to its orig9al /ate :5 se5 by reflection at ,a ,b ,c ,d 7:ite lett]s7 9 ! poli%$ mirror4 ,! effect ( a cyl9drical mirror on a di/ort$ picture is %[n at ,no4 #b1 be+ copi$ f an old "o se5 by ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,by look+ at a reflection ( ! face 9 a di%-cov] or ! common surface ( a bright silv] spoon or ( a silv] mug1 ! latt] truly becomes ugly z ! image is se5 reflect$ f its surface1 & ,page #bha assumes ! mo/ absurd =m z ! m\? is op5$ or %ut1 & ! face advanc$ or remov$ f ! silv] vessel4 7,fig4 #bfi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,di/ort$ image produc$ by an irregul> convex surface4 ,9 ! writ+s ( ! anci5ts !re are to be f\nd c]ta9 indications ( ! results ( illusions produc$ by simple optical arrangem5ts1 & ! sudd5 & mom5t>y app>ition 7f ! gloom ( p]fect d>kness7 ( spl5did palaces1 delightful g>d5s1 c41 ) :i*-! concurr5t voice ( antiquity assures u-! eyes ( ! behold]s 7 frequ5tly dazzl$ 9 ! my/]ies1 su* z ! evocation & actual appe>ance ( dep>t$ spirits1 ! occasional images ( _! umbr1 & ( ! gods !mselves4 ,f a passage 9 ,pausanias1 7,boeotic ,,xxx471 :51 speak+ ( ,orpheus1 he says !re 0 anci5tly at ,aornos1 a place :]e ! dead 7 evok$1 ,greek3 nekuomanteion1 we le>n t 9 ^? remote ages !re 7 places set ap>t = ! evocation ( ! dead4 ,hom] relates1 9 ! elev5? book ( ! ,odyssey1 ! admission ( ,ulysses alone into a place ( ?is k9d1 :5 8 int]view ) 8 dep>t$ fri5d 0 int]rupt$ by "s fe>ful voice1 & ! h]o1 appreh5d+ ! wra? ( ,pros]p9e1 )drew2 ! prie/s :o manag$ ^! deceptive exhibitions no d\bt adopt$ ?is me?od ( gett+ rid ( _! visitor1 :o might become too inquisitive1 & discov] ! secret ( ! my/]ies4 ,( all ! reflect+ surfaces m5tion$1 none produce m int]e/+ deceptions ?an ! concave mirror1 & !re is v little d\bt t silv] mirrors ( ?is =m 7 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 & employ$ 9 ,page #bhb "s ( _! sacr$ my/]ies4 ,mons4 ,salv]te has indu/ri\sly collect$ 9 8 valuable "w ! mo/ int]e/+ pro(s ( _! use1 & quotes ! foll[+ passage ( ,damascius1 9 :i* ! results obta9able f a concave mirror are cle>ly app>5t4 7,fig4 #bgj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,! picture ( a human face1 possibly reflect$ f a concave mirror conceal$ bel[ ! floor ( ! temple2 ! op5+ be+ hidd5 by a rais$ mass ( /one1 & ! wor%ipp]s conf9$ to a c]ta9 "p ( ! temple1 & n all[$ to approa* x4 ,he says3--,9 a manife/ation :i* ought n to be reveal$ 444 !re appe>$ on ! wall ( ! temple a mass ( light :i* at fir/ seem$ v remote2 x trans=m$ itself 9 com+ ne>] into a face evid5tly div9e & sup]natural1 ( a sev]e aspect1 b mix$ ) g5tl5ess1 & extremely beautiful4 ,accord+ to ! in/itution ( a my/]i\s religion1 ! ,alex&rians hon\r$ x z ,osiris & ,adonis4 ,p>allel rays ?r[n ^u a concave surface are br\ght to a focus or conv]ge1 & :5 an object is se5 by reflection f a concave surface1 ! repres5tation ( x is v>i\s1 bo? ) reg>d to its ,page #bhc magnitude & situation1 accord+ z ! di/ance ( ! object f ! reflect+ surface is great] or less4 7,fig4 #bga47 ,:5 ! object is plac$ betwe5 ! focus ( p>allel rays & ! c5tre1 ! image falls on ! opposite side ( ! c5tre1 & is l>g] ?an ! object1 & 9 an inv]t$ position4 ,! rays :i* proce$ f any remote t]re/rial object are ne>ly p>allel at ! concave mirror--n /rictly s1 b come div]g+ to x 9 sep>ate p5cils1 or1 z x 71 bundles ( rays1 f ea* po9t ( ! side ( ! object next ! mirror2 !re=e !y w n be conv]g$ to a po9t at ! di/ance ( half ! radius ( ! mirror's concavity f its reflect+ surface1 b 9 sep>ate po9ts at a little great] di/ance f ! concave mirror4 ,! ne>] ! object is to ! mirror1 ! fur!r ^! po9ts w be f x1 & an inv]t$ image ( ! object w be =m$ 9 !m1 :i* w seem to hang p5dant 9 ! air1 & w be se5 by an eye plac$ beyond x 7) reg>d to ! mirror71 9 all respects l ! object1 & z di/9ct z ! object itself4 ,no4 #b4 7,fig4 #bga47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,no4 #a4 ,a ,b1 ,d ,h repres5t two p>allel rays incid5t on ! concave surface ,b ,h1 ^: c5tre ( concavity is ,c4 ,b ,f & ,h ,f are ! reflect$ rays meet+ ea* o!r 9 ,f1 & ,a ,b be+ p]p5dicul> to ! concave surface1 is reflect$ 9 a /raight l9e4 ,no4 #b4 ,a ,b4 ,! object4 ,i ,m4 ,! image4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,a ,b repres5ts ! object1 ,s ,v ! reflect+ surface1 ,f its focus ( p>allel rays1 & ,c its c5tre4 ,?r\gh ,a & ,b1 ! extremities ( ! object1 draw ! l9es ,c ,e & ,c ,n1 :i* are p]p5dicul> to ! surface1 & let ,a ,r1 ,a ,g1 be a p5cil ( rays fl[+ f ,a4 ,^! rays proce$+ f a po9t beyond ! focus ( p>allel rays1 w1 aft] reflection1 conv]ge t[>ds "s po9t on ! opposite side ( ! c5tre1 :i* w fall ^u ! p]p5dicul>1 ,b ,c1 produc$1 b at a great] di/ance f ,c ?an ! radiant ,a f :i* !y div]g$4 ,= ! same reason1 rays fl[+ f ,b w conv]ge to a po9t 9 ! p]p5dicul> ,n ,c produc$1 :i* %all be fur!r f ,c ?an ! radiant ,b1 f :5ce x is evid5t t ! image ,i ,m is l>g] ?an ! object ,a ,b1 t x falls on ! contr>y side ( ! c5tre1 & t _! positions are inv]t$ ) respect to ea* o!r4 ,page #bhd ,x appe>s1 f a circum/ance 9 ! life ( ,socrates1 t ! effects ( burn+-glasses 7 kn[n to ! anci5ts2 & x is probable t ! ,romans employ$ ! concave speculum = ! purpose ( light+ ! sacr$ fire4 ,?is is v likely to be true1 consid]+ t ! prie/s :o conduct$ ! hea!n wor%ip ( ,osiris & ,adonis 7 acqua9t$ ) ! use ( concave metallic specula1 z already describ$ at page #bhb4 ,! effects t c be produc$ ) ! aid ( concave mirrors are v impressive1 because !y are n m]ely conf9$ to ! reflection ( inanimate objects1 b life & motion c be well display$ by !m2 ?us1 if a man place himself directly be=e a concave mirror1 b fur!r f x ?an its c5tre ( concavity1 he w see an inv]t$ image ( himself 9 ! air betwe5 him & ! mirror ( a less size ?an himself2 & if he hold out 8 h& t[>ds ! mirror ! h& ( ! image w come out t[>ds 8 h& & co9cide ) x1 be+ ( an equal bulk :5 8 h& is 9 ! c5tre ( concavity1 & he w imag9e he may %ake h&s ) 8 image4 7,fig4 #bgc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,a concave mirror1 %[+ ! appe>ance ( ! inv]t$ & reflect$ image 9 ! air4 ,by us+ a l>ge concave mirror ( ab\t ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 ! au?or 0 enabl$ to %[ all ! results to a l>ge audi5ce t 7 usually visible to "o p]son only4 ,:il/ exp]im5t+ ) a concave mirror1 by hold+ out ! h& 9 ! mann] describ$1 a by/&] w see no?+ ( ! image1 because none ( ! reflect$ rays t =m x ent] 8 eyes4 ,?is circum/ance is well illu/rat$ by plac+ a concave mirror opposite ! fire1 & all[+ ! image ( ! flames project$ f x to fall ^u a well-poli%$ mahogany table4 ,if ! door ( ! room op5s t[>ds ! mirror1 & a spectator unacqua9t$ ) ! prop]ties ( concave mirrors %\ld ent] ! ap>tm5t1 ! p]son w\ld be greatly />tl$ to see flames app>5tly play+ ov] ! surface ( ! table1 :il/ ano!r spectator might ent] f ano!r door & see no?+ b a long beam ( light1 r5d]$ visible by ! float+ p>ticles ( du/4 ,to give prop] effect to ?is exp]im5t ! concave mirror %\ld be l>ge1 & no o!r light mu/ illum9ate ! room except t f ! fire4 ,on ! same poli%$ table ! appe>ance ( a planet ) a revolv+ ,page #bhe satellite may be prettily %[n by d>k5+ ! fire ) a scre51 & plac+ a light$ c&le be=e x1 :i* w be reflect$ by ! concave mirror1 & appe> on ! table z a brilliant /> ( light1 & ! satellite may be repres5t$ by ! flame ( a small wax tap] mov$ ar\nd ! l>ge burn+ c&le4 ,! foll[+ is ! arrangem5t us$ by ! au?or at ! ,polyte*nic ,in/itution = ! purpose ( exhibit+ ! prop]ties ( ! concave mirror4 ,a lant]n enclos+ a v brilliant light1 su* z ! electric or lime light1 is requir$ = ! illum9ation ( ! objects :i* are to be project$ on to ! scre54 ,! lant]n & electric lamp ( ,duboscq 0 pref]r$1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 any bright light enclos$ 9 a box1 ) a pla9 convex l5s to project ! beam ( light :5 requir$1 w answ] ! purpose4 7,fig4 #bgd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,a ,b4 ,portable scre5 ( light framework1 cov]$ ) black calico4 ,c ,c ,c ,c4 ,squ>e ap]ture j above ! %elf1 ,d ,d1 ^u :i* ! object--viz41 a bottle half full ( wat]--is plac$4 ,e4 ,duboscq lant]n to illum9ate ! object at ,d ,d4 ,by remov+ ! diaphragm requir$ to project ! picture ( ! *>coal po9ts on to ! scre51 a v int5se beam ( light is obta9$1 :i* may be focuss$ or conc5trat$ on any opaque object by ano!r d\ble convex l5s1 conv5i5tly m\nt$ ) a telescope /&1 s t x may be rais$ or l[]$ at pleasure4 ,?is l5s is indep5d5t ( ! lant]n1 & may be us$ or n at ! pleasure ( ! op]ator4 ,! object is n[ plac$ on a %elf fix$ to ! scre51 ) a squ>e ap]ture j above x4 ,! object ( ! scre5 is to cut (f all extrane\s rays ( light reflect$ f ! mirror1 or to increase ! %>pness ( ! outl9e ( ! picture ( ! object4 ,! scre5 & object be+ arrang$1 & ! light ?r[n on f ! lant]n1 ! next /ep is to adju/ ! concave mirror1 & by mov+ x t[>ds ! ,page #bhf object1 or backw>ds1 z ! case requires1 a good image1 solid & quasi-/]eoscopic1 is project$ on to ! scre54 7,fig4 #bge47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bge4 ,a4 ,! concave mirror4 ,b4 ,! lant]n4 ,c4 ,! portable scre51 %elf1 & object4 ,d4 ,! inv]t$ image ( ! bottle fill+ ) wat]1 ) ! neck d[nw>ds1 & :5 ?r[n on ! disc at ,d produc+ a mo/ curi\s illusion4 ,! act ( fill+ ! bottle ) wat]1 or bett] /ill ) m]cury1 is "o ( ! mo/ s+ul> effects t c be %[n2 & if all ! app>atus is enclos$ 9 a box1 s t ! picture on ! scre5 only is app>5t1 ! illusion ( a bottle be+ fill$ 9 an inv]t$ position is q magical1 & inv>iably provokes ! inquiry1 h[ c x be done8 ,! /udy ( numismatics1 ! sci5ce ( co9s & m$als1 is g5]ally consid]$ to be limit$ to ! ta/e ( a v few p]sons1 & any description ( a collection ( co9s at a lecture w\ld be vot$ a great bore1 unless1 ( c\rse1 ! memb]s ( ! audi5ce happ5$ to be antiqu>ies2 great light1 h[ev]1 may be ?r[n on hi/ory by a /udy ( ^! int]e/+ rema9s ( bygone times1 & a lecture on ?is subject1 illu/rat$ ) pictures ( co9s ?r[n on to ! disc by a concave mirror 9 ! mann] describ$1 might be made v pleas+ & in/ructive4 ,co9s1 or pla/] ca/s ( co9s gilt1 fl[]s1 birds1 :ite mice1 ! human face & h&s1 may all1 :5 fully illum9at$1 be reflect$ by ! concave mirror on to ! disc4 ,a ,dagu]reotype picture at a c]ta9 angle appe>s1 :5 reflect$ by ! concave mirror1 to be l any ord9>y collodion negative1 & all ! lights & %ad[s are rev]s$1 s t ! face ( ! portrait appe>s black1 :il/ ! black coat is :ite4 ,on plac+ ! ,dagu]reotype 9 ano!r position1 easily f\nd by exp]im5t1 x is n[ reflect$ 9 ! ord9>y mann]1 %[+ an enl>g$ & p]fect portrait on ! disc4 ,9 us+ ! ,dagu]reotype ! glass 9 front ( x mu/ be remov$4 ,! pictures f ! concave mirror may be also project$ on ?ick smoke procur$ f ,page #bhg sm\ld]+ damp$ br[n pap]1 or f a mixture ( pit* & a little *lorate ( pota% laid on pap]1 & all[$ to burn sl[ly by wett+ x ) wat]4 ,an image reflect$ f smoke w\ld be visible to a numb] ( spectators1 j z ! light f ! furnace fires ( ! locomotive is frequ5tly visible at night1 be+ reflect$ on ! escap+ column ( /eam4 ,x 0 probably ) ! help ( "s k9d ( smoke & ! concave speculum t ! deception practis$ on ! wor%ipp]s at ! temple ( ,h]cules at ,tyre 0 c>ri$ out1 z x is m5tion$ by ,pl9y t a consecrat$ /one exi/$ !re f :i* ! gods easily rose4 ,at ! temple ( ,esculapius at ,t>sus1 & t ( ,engu9um 9 ,sicily1 ! same k9d ( optical delusions 7 exhibit$ z a portion ( ! religi\s c]emonies1 f :i* no d\bt ! prie/s obta9$ a v h&some rev5ue1 mu* m ?an c\ld be obta9$ 9 mod]n times by ! m]e exhibition ( su* wond]s at ,adelaide ,gall]ies1 ,polyte*nics1 or ,panopticons4 ,! smoke f br[n pap] is v useful 9 %[+ ! v>i\s directions ( ! rays ( light :5 reflect$ f plane1 convex1 & concave surfaces4 ,! equal angles ( ! incid5t & reflect$ rays may be p]fectly %[n by us+ ! next arrangem5t ( app>atus4 7,fig4 #bgf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,a4 ,rays ( light slightly div]g5t issu+ f ! lant]n1 & receiv$ on a little concave mirror1 :i* br+s ! rays almo/ p>allel1 & reflects !m to ,e1 a piece ( look+-glass1 f :i* !y are aga9 reflect$4 ,c is ! incid5t1 & ,d ! reflect$ rays4 ,f4 ,smoke f br[n pap]4 ,a v d5se :ite smoke is obta9$ by boil+ 9 sep>ate flasks 7! necks ( :i* are br\ght close toge!r7 solutions ( ammonia & hydro*loric acid4 ,! opposite prop]ties ( convex & concave mirrors--! =m] scatt]+ & ! latt] collect+ ! rays ( light :i* fall ^u !m--are also effectively demon/rat$ by ! help ( ! same illum9at+ ,page #bhh s\rce & prop] mirrors1 ! smoke trac+ out p]fectly ! direction ( ! rays ( light4 7,fig4 #bgg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,! smoke %[s ! rays ( light fall+ on a convex mirror1 & r5d]$ /ill m div]g5t4 ,! smoke developes ! cone ( rays reflect$ f a concave mirror 9 ! mo/ beautiful mann]1 & by produc+ pl5ty ( ,page #bhi smoke1 & turn+ ! mirror ab\t--! position ( ! focus 7focus1 a fire-place71 is indicat$ by a brilliant spot ( light1 & ! reason ! images ( objects reflect$ by ! concave mirror are rev]s$1 may be bett] und]/ood by obs]v+ h[ ! rays cross ea* o!r at t po9t4 7,fig4 #bgh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,! smoke %[s rays ( light fall+ on ! concave mirror4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t att5tion %\ld be direct$ to ! bright po9t1 ,e1 ! focus :]e ! conv]g5t rays meet4 ,"o ( ! mo/ p]fect applications ( ! reflection ( light is %[n 9 ! ,gregorian reflect+ telescope1 or 9 t magnific5t in/rum5t con/ruct$ by ,"l ,rosse1 at ,p>son/[n1 9 ,irel&4 7,fig4 #bgi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,"l ,rosse's gigantic telescope4 ,! description ( ne>ly all elaborate optical in/rum5ts is some:at t$i\s1 b we v5ture to give "o diagram1 ) ! explanation ( ! ,gregorian reflect+ telescope4 7,fig4 #bhj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,! ,gregorian reflect+ telescope4 ,at ! bottom ( ! great tube ,t ,t ,t ,t1 7,fig4 #bhj71 is plac$ ! l>ge concave mirror ,d ,u ,v ,f1 ^: pr9cipal focus is at ,m2 & 9 its middle is a r\nd hole ,p1 opposite to :i* is plac$ ! small mirror ,l1 concave t[>ds ! great] "o1 & s fix$ to a /rong wire ,m1 t x may be mov$ f>!r f ! great mirror or ne>] to x1 by means ( a long screw on ! outside ( ! tube1 keep+ its axis /ill 9 ! same l9e ,p ,m ,n ) t ( ! great "o4 ,n[ s9ce 9 view+ a v remote object we c sc>cely see a po9t ( x b :at is at lea/ z broad z ! great mirror1 we may consid] ! rays ( ea* p5cil1 :i* fl[ f e po9t ( ! object1 to be p>allel to ea* o!r1 ,page #bij & to cov] ! :ole reflect+ surface ,d ,u ,v ,f4 ,b to avoid confusion 9 ! figure1 we %all only draw two rays ( a p5cil fl[+ f ea* extremity ( ! object into ! great tube1 & trace _! progress ?r\gh all _! reflections & refractions to ! eye f1 at ! end ( ! small tube t t1 :i* is jo9$ to ! great "o4 ,let u !n suppose ! object ,a ,b to be at su* a di/ance1 t ! rays ,e fl[ f its l[] extremity ,b1 & ! rays ,c f its upp] extremity ,a4 ,!n ! rays ,c fall+ p>allel ^u ! great mirror at ,d1 w be !nce reflect$ by conv]g+ 9 ! direction ,d ,g2 & by cross+ at i 9 ! pr9cipal focus ( ! mirror1 !y w =m ! upp] extremity i ( ! inv]t$ image i ,k1 simil> to ! l[] extremity ,b ( ! object ,a ,b2 & pass+ on ! concave mirror ,l 7^: focus is at ,n7 !y w fall ^u x at g & be !nce reflect$1 conv]g+ 9 ! direction ,n1 because g m is long] ?an g n2 & pass+ ?r\gh ! hole ,p 9 ! l>ge mirror1 !y w\ld meet some:]e ab\t r1 & =m ! l[] extremity d ( ! erect image a d1 simil> to ! l[] extremity ,b ( ! object ,a ,b4 ,b by pass+ ?r\gh ! plano-convex glass ,r 9 _! way !y =m t extremity ( ! image at b4 ,9 l mann] ! rays ,e :i* come f ! top ( ! object ,a ,b & fall p>allel ^u ! great mirror at ,f1 are !nce reflect$ conv]g+ to its focus1 :]e !y =m ! l[] extremity ,k ( ! inv]t$ image i ,k1 simil> to ! upp] extremity ,a1 ( ! object ,a ,b2 & pass+ on to ! small] mirror ,l & fall+ ^u x at h1 !y are !nce reflect$ 9 ! conv]g+ /ate h o2 & go+ on ?r\gh ! hole ,p ( ! great mirror1 !y w\ld meet some:]e ab\t q1 & =m !re ! upp] extremity a ( ! erect image a d1 simil> to ! upp] extremity ,a ( ! object ,a ,b2 b by pass+ ?r\gh ! convex glass ,r1 9 _! way1 !y meet & cross soon]1 z at a1 :]e t po9t ( ! erect image is =m$4 ,! l be+ und]/ood ( all ^? rays :i* fl[ f ! int]m$iate po9ts ( ! object1 betwe5 ,a & ,b1 & ent] ! tube ,t ,t1 all ! int]m$iate po9ts ( ! image betwe5 a & b w be =m$2 & ! rays pass+ on f ! image ?r\gh ! eye-glass ,s1 & ?r\gh a small hole e 9 ! end ( ! less] tube t t1 !y ent] ! eye f :i* sees ! ,page #bia image a d 7by means ( ! eye-glass71 "u ! l>ge angle c e d1 & magnifi$ 9 l5g?1 "u t angle1 f c to d4 ,to f9d ! magnify+ p[] ( ?is telescope1 multiply ! focal di/ance ( ! great mirror by ! di/ance ( ! small mirror1 f ! image next ! eye1 & multiply ! focal di/ance ( ! small mirror by ! focal di/ance ( ! eye-glass2 !n divide ! product ( ! latt]1 & ! quoti5t w express ! magnify+ p[]4 7,fig4 #bhj47 ,we n[ come to t mu* disput$ & (t5 quot$ exp]im5t ( ,ar*im$es1 :o is /at$ to h employ$ metallic concave specula or "s o!r reflect+ surface by :i* he 0 enabl$ to set fire to ! ,roman fleet an*or$ 9 ! h>b\r ( ,syracuse1 & at t "t besieg+ _! city1 9 :i* ! great & le>n$ philosoph] 0 %ut up ) ! o!r inhabitants4 ,! /ory h&$ d[n to po/]ity 0 n disput$ till ab\t ! sev5te5? c5tury1 :5 ,desc>tes boldly attack$ ! tru? ( x on philosophical gr\nds1 & = ! "t sil5c$ ^? :o support$ ! v]acity ( ?is anci5t ,joe ,mill]4 ,ne>ly a hundr$ ye>s aft] ?is "t1 ! neglect$ ,ar*im$es fiction 0 aga9 exam9$ by ! celebrat$ naturali/ ,buffon1 & ! acc\nt ( 8 exp]im5ts detail$ by ! au?or ( ,adv]s>ia1 9 ,*amb]s' ,j\rnal1 is s logical & conclusive1 t we give a portion ( x v]batim4 ,= "s ye>s prior to #agdg1 ! ,fr5* naturali/ ,buffon _h be5 engag$ 9 ! prosecution ( ^? rese>*es ^u heat :i* he aft]w>ds publi%$ 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,supplem5t to 8 ',natural ,hi/ory4' ,)\t any previ\s k1 z x w\ld seem1 ( ! ma!matical treatise ( ,an!mius 7,greek3 p]i p>adoxn m*anmatn71 9 :i* a simil> inv5tion ( ! six? c5tury is describ$1,g ,buffon 0 l$1 9 spite ( ! reason+s ( ,desc>tes1 to conclude t a speculum or s]ies ( specula might be con/ruct$ suffici5t to obta9 results little1 if at all1 inf]ior to ^? attribut$ to ! inv5tion ( ,ar*im$es4 ,footnote ,g3 ,see ,gibbon's ,decl9e & ,fall1 *ap4 xl41 section v41 note g4 ,?is1 aft] enc\nt]+ _m difficulties1 :i* he _h =ese5 ) great acut5ess1 & obviat$ ) equal +5uity1 he at l5g? succe$$ 9 effect+4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #agdg1 he laid be=e ! ,fr5* ,academy a memoir :i*1 9 8 collect$ works1 ext5ds ov] upw>ds ( eighty pages4 ,9 ?is pap]1 he describes himself z 9 possession ( an app>atus by means ( :i* he c\ld set fire to planks at ! di/ance ( #bjj1 & ev5 #baj feet1 & melt metals & metallic m9]als at di/ances v>y+ f tw5ty-five to =ty feet4 ,?is app>atus he describes z compos$ ( #afh pla9 glasses1 silv]$ on ! back1 ea* six in*es broad by eight in*es long4 ,^!1 he says1 7 rang$ 9 a l>ge wood5 frame1 at int]vals n exce$+ ! ?ird ( an in*2 s t1 by means ( an adju/m5t beh9d1 ea* %\ld be moveable 9 all directions indep5d5tly ( ! re/--! spaces betwe5 ! glasses be+ fur!r ( use 9 all[+ ! op]ator to see f beh9d ! po9t on :i* x behov$ ! v>i\s disks to be conv]g$4 ,page #bib ,^! results asc]ta9$1 ,buffon's next inquiry 0 h[ f> !y correspond$ ) ^? ascrib$ to ! mirrors ( ,ar*im$es--! mo/ p>ticul> acc\nt ( :i* is giv5 by ! hi/orians ,zon>as & ,tzetzes1 bo? ( ! twelf? c5tury4,h ',ar*im$es1' says ! fir/ ( ^! writ]s1 'hav+ receiv$ ! rays ( ! sun on a mirror1 by ! ?ickness & poli% ( :i* !y 7 reflect$ & unit$1 k9dl$ a flame 9 ! air1 & d>t$ x ) full viol5ce on ! %ips :i* 7 an*or$ )9 a c]ta9 di/ance1 & :i* 7 accord+ly r$uc$ to a%es4' ,! same ,zon>as relates t ,proclus1 a celebrat$ ma!matician ( ! six? c5tury1 at ! siege ( ,con/ant9ople1 set on fire ! ,?racian fleet by means ( brass mirrors4 ,tzetzes is yet m p>ticul>4 ,he tells u1 t :5 ! ,roman galleys 7 )9 a b[-%ot ( ! city-walls1 ,ar*im$es caus$ a k9d ( hexagonal speculum1 ) o!r small] ones ( tw5ty-f\r facets ea*1 to be plac$ at a prop] di/ance2 t he mov$ ^! by means ( h+es & plates ( metal2 t ! hexagon 0 bisect$ by '! m]idian ( summ] & w9t]2' t x 0 plac$ opposite ! sun2 & t a great fire 0 ?us k9dl$1 :i* consum$ ! ,roman fleet4 ,footnote ,h3 ,quot$ by ,fabricius 9 8 ,biblio?4 ,grc41 vol4 ii41 pp4 #eea1 #eeb4 ,f ^! acc\nts1 we may conclude t ! mirrors ( ,ar*im$es & ,buffon 7 n v diff]5t ei!r 9 _! con/ruction or effects4 ,no "q1 !re=e1 c\ld rema9 ( ! latt] hav+ reviv$ "o ( ! mo/ beautiful inv5tions ( =m] times1 7 !re n "o circum/ance :i* /ill r5d]s ! antiquity ( x d\btful3 ! writ]s contempor>y ) ,ar*im$es1 or ne>e/ 8 "t1 make no m5tion ( ^! mirrors4 ,livy1 :o is s fond ( ! m>vell\s1 & ,polybius1 ^: accuracy s great an inv5tion c\ld sc>cely h escap$1 are altoge!r sil5t on ! subject4 ,plut>*1 :o has collect$ s _m p>ticul>s relative to ,ar*im$es1 speaks no m ( x ?an ! =m] two2 & ,gal51 :o liv$ 9 ! second c5tury1 is ! fir/ writ] by :om we f9d x m5tion$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 difficult to conceive h[ ! notion ( su* mirrors hav+ ev] exi/$ c\ld h occurr$1 if !y nev] _h be5 actually employ$4 ,! idea is greatly above ! rea* ( ^? m9ds :i* are usually occupi$ 9 inv5t+ falsehoods2 & if ! mirrors ( ,ar*im$es are a fiction1 x mu/ be grant$ t !y are ! fiction ( a philosoph]4 ,suppos+ t ,ar*im$es really did project ! conc5trat$ rays ( ! sun on ! ,roman vessels1 "o _c help pity+ ! ignorance ( ! ,admiral ,m>cellus4 ,_h ?is (fic] be5 acqua9t$ ) ! laws ( ! reflection ( light1 he might h laugh$ to scorn ! p[] ( ,ar*im$es1 & by receiv+ ! unfri5dly rays on "o ( ! bright braz5 convex %ields ( 8 soldi]s1 ,m>cellus c\ld h scatt]$ ! conc5trat$ rays1 & prev5t$ ! burn+ ( 8 vessels4 ,9 ^! days ( le>n+ x !re=e appe>s /range to f9d any "o advocat+ ! possible use ( specula or reflect+ mirrors = ! purposes ( (f5ce or def5ce1 b ,m4 ,peyr>d a few ye>s ago propos$ ,page #bic to produce great effects by m\nt+ ea* mirror 9 a di/9ct frame1 c>ry+ a telescope s t "o p]son c\ld direct ! rays to ! object int5d$ to be set on fire1 & he gravely calculat$1 presum+ on ! ignorance ( ! attack$1 t ) #eij glasses ( ab\t tw5ty in*es 9 diamet]1 he c\ld r$uce a fleet to a%es at ! di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a league6 & ) glasses ( d\ble t size at ! di/ance ( half a mile6 ,:at effect a %ell or %ot w\ld produce ^u ?is anci5t weapon is n /at$2 ?is we may safely leave our read]s to det]m9e = !mselves4 ,! exp]im5t ( ,ar*im$es has long be5 a fav\rite "o ) ! boys4 7,fig4 #bha47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bha4 ,"o ( ! mis]ies ( reflection4 ,! total int]nal reflection ( light by a column ( wat] is an exp]im5t t admits ( great v>iety s f> z col\r is conc]n$1 & is "o ( ! mo/ novel & beautiful exp]im5ts ) light pres5t$ to ! public )9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,! au?or _h ! pleasure ( introduc+ x 9 ! fir/ place at ! ,polyte*nic ,in/itution1 :]e ! optical novelty excit$ ! greate/ att5tion1 & receiv$ ! approbation ( h] ,mo/ ,graci\s ,maje/y1 & 8 ,royal ,highness ! ,pr9ce ,consort1 ) ! ,royal ,family1 :o 7 pleas$ to pay a private ev5+ visit to ! ,polyte*nic1 & among/ o!r ?+s m9utely exam9$ ! ,illum9at$ ,cascade1 :i* _h be5 erect$ by ,mons4 ,duboscq ( ,p>is4 ,! illum9ation ( ! desc5d+ columns ( wat] 0 obta9$ by conv]g+ ! rays f a p[]ful electric light ^u ! orifice f ,page #bid :i* ! wat] escap$1 ! ,duboscq lant]n already expla9$ be+ employ$1 & 9 front ( x 7 plac$ ?ree cyl9d]s1 ea* hav+ a circul> w9d[ beh9d & opposite ! l5s1 & an ap]ture ( ab\t "o in* 9 diamet] on ! opposite side = ! escape ( wat]4 ,! lant]n us$ 0 ( a peculi> %ape1 & _h ?ree sides1 ! electric light be+ 9 ! c5tre ( !m1 & pass+ ?r\gh ?ree sep>ate plano-convex l5ses to ! ?ree cyl9d]s f :i* ! wat] escap$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--;,fig4 #a4 ,a4 ,! electric light4 ,b ,c ,d4 ,! ?ree sides & l5ses ( ! lant]n4 ,e ,f ,g4 ,! ?ree cyl9d]s ( wat]1 ea* ) a circul> glass w9d[ & orifices at ,z ,z ,z1 f :i* ! wat] & rays ( light pass out4--,fig4 #b4 ,h4 ,section ( "o side ( ! ,duboscq lant]n4 ,i ,i4 ,cyl9d] ( wat]1 :i* ent]s f bel[4 ,k ,k4 ,! /ream ( illum9at$ wat]4 ,l ,l4 ,bit ( col\r$ glass held betwe5 ! lant]n & ! ci/]n ( wat]4 ,att5tion may be direct$ to ! fact t ! light m]ely passes out ( ! orifices z a div]g+ beam ( light until ! fl[ ( wat] comm5ces1 :5 ! rays are imm$iately tak5 up & reflect$ f ,page #bie po9t to po9t inside ! ar*$ column ( wat]1 & illum9at+ ! latt] 9 ! mo/ lovely mann]1 x appe>s sometimes l a /ream ( liquid metal f ! iron furnace1 or l liquid ruby glass1 or ( an ame?y/ or topaz col\r1 accord+ to ! col\rs ( ! plates ( glass held betwe5 ! m\?s ( ! lant]n & ! circul> w9d[s 9 ! cyl9d]s ( wat]4 ,! same exp]im5t creat$ q a furore at ! ,cry/al ,palace :5 x 0 introduc$ 9 "o ( ! au?or's lectures deliv]$ 9 t noble place ( amusem5t4 ,9 ord] t our read]s may und]/& ! arrangem5t ( ! app>atus1 we h giv5 at page #bid a gr\nd plan view ( x1 z also ! appe>ance ( ! cascade :5 exhibit$ at ! ,polyte*nic to ! ,royal p>ty4 7,fig4 #bhd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,a ,b4 ,! sides ( ! cascade4 ,! dott$ l9es %[ ! reflection ( only two rays ( ! beam ( light pass+ d[n inside ! wat]4 ,ano!r curi\s effect obs]v$ ) ! illum9at$ cascade1 is ! desc5t ( balls ( light z ! reflection is cut (f = a mom5t by pass+ ! f+] ?r\gh ! /ream ( wat]1 %[+ t a c]ta9 "t is occupi$ 9 ! reflection ( light f "o end ( ! cyl9d] ( wat] to ! o!r2 inde$ ! be/ idea ( ! rationale ( ! exp]im5t is =m$ by sub/itut+ 9 imag9ation a silv] tube highly poli%$ 9 ! int]ior1 = ! desc5d+ jet ( wat]4 ,! reflection ( s\nd takes place precisely 9 ! same mann]1 & ! vibrations ( ! air are reflect$ f plane1 concave1 & convex surfaces4 ,x is on ?is pr9ciple t waves ( s\nd ?r[n (f f diff]5t surfaces 7z ( h>d rocks71 produce ! effect ( ! e*o4 ,! s\nds arrive at ! e> 9 succession1 ^? reflect$ ne>e/ ! e> be+ fir/1 & ! reflect+ surfaces at ! greate/ di/ance s5d+ ! waves ( s\nd to ! e> aft] ! =m]4 ,at ,lurley ,falls on ! ,rh9e1 !re is an e*o :i* repeats sev5te5 times4 ,:isp]+ gall]ies1 aga91 illu/rate ! reflection ( s\nd f cont9u\s curv$ surfaces1 j z ! ar*$ column ( wat] reflects f its int]ior curv$ surfaces ! rays ( light4 ,speak+-tubes are well kn[n 9 :i* ! waves ( s\nd are successively reflect$ f ! sides1 exactly l ! ,illum9at$ ,cascade 7,fig4 #bhc74 ,! speak+-trumpet is also ano!r & famili> example ( ! same pr9ciple4 ,probably :5 ,alb]tus ,magnus con/ruct$ ! braz5 head1 :i* _h ! p[] ( talk+1 x 0 no?+ m ?an a metallic head ) a few :eels & visible me*anism inside1 b connect$ ) a l[] ap>tm5t by a holl[ metal tube1 :]e ,alb]tus ,magnus desc5d$1 & a/oni%$ ! ignorant ) ,page #bif ! !n unkn[n pr9ciple ( ! speak+ tube4 ,light ent]+ at "o end ( a bright metallic tube is reflect$ f ! sides ( ! tube till x rea*es ! o!r1 & precisely ! same effect occurs 9 ! int]ior ( ! cascade ( wat]4 7,fig4 #bhd74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,end ( ,polyte*nic ,hall1 :]e ! illum9at$ cascade 0 display$ to h] ,maje/y1 ,h4,r4,h4 ! ,pr9ce ,consort1 & ,royal p>ty4 ,! cascades issu$ f beh9d "s artificial rock-"w4 ,,! ,,kaleidoscope4 ,if ?is article on light & optics _h gone m9utely into ! ma!matical & purely sci5tific portion ( ! subject1 we %\ld h _h frequ5t occasion to m5tion ! "n ( ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 a di/+ui%$ philosoph]1 ^: "n is peculi>ly id5tifi$ ) ?is int]e/+ bran* ( physics4 ,x is always pleas+ to f9d m5 ( su* /&+ n only devot+ !mselves to argum5ts :i* college wrangl]s w\ld /udy ) pleasure1 b also desc5d+ to a l[] level1 & inv5t+ optical in/rum5ts t delight & amuse ! non-sci5tific & juv5ile "p ( ! community4 ,! names ( ,sir ,david ,brew/] & ,pr(essor ,:eat/one h be5 connect$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s ) ! inv5tion ( ! /]eoscope1 an in/rum5t ,page #bih t w be notic$ 9 ano!r "p ( ?is book1 b "h we %all describe "o ( ! mo/ orig9al optical in/rum5ts ev] devis$1 & al?\gh x is n[ reg>d$ z a m]e toy1 its m]its are v great4 ,! title ( ! in/rum5t is borr[$ f ! ,greek ,greek3 kalos1 beautiful1 ,greek3 eidos1 a =m or appe>ance1 ,greek3 skope1 to see2 & ! public c]ta9ly endors$ ! "n :5 !y pur*as$ #bjj1jjj ( ^! in/rum5ts 9 ,london & ,p>is dur+ ! space ( ?ree mon?s4 ,x is said t ! s5sation x excit$ 9 ,london1 ?r\gh\t all ranks ( ! community1 0 a/oni%+1 & p 7 ev]y:]e se51 ev5 at ! corn]s ( ! /reets1 look+ ?r\gh ! kaleidoscope4 ,! ess5tial p>ts ( ?is in/rum5t are two mirrors ( unsilv]$ black p>allel glass1 or plate glass pa9t$ black on "o side1 :i* %\ld be f six to t5 in*es 9 l5g?1 & f "o in* to an in* & a half 9 bread? at ! object end1 :ile !y are made n>r[] at ! o!r end1 to :i* ! eye is appli$4 ,! mirrors are unit$ at _! l[] edges by a /rip ( black calico fix$ ) common glue1 & are left op5 at ! upp] edges1 & reta9$ at ! prop] angle by a bit ( cork prop]ly black5$4 ,! angles are #cf1 #cj1 #be-e_/g1 #bb1 #bj1 #ah1 :i* divide ! circumf]5ce into #aj1 #ab1 #ad1 #af1 #ah1 #bj p>ts1 ?us #cf #aj #cfj1 or #ah #bj #cfj1 & ! /ricte/ att5tion mu/ be paid to ?is "p ( ! adju/m5t1 or ! figures produc$ w n be symmetrical4 ,aft] ! mirrors are adju/$ to ,page #bih ! prop] angle1 ! space betwe5 ! two upp] edges %\ld be cov]$ across ) black velvet & ! mirrors plac$ 9 a t9 or brass tube1 s t ! broad ends %all b>ely project beyond ! end1 :ile ! n>r[ end is plac$ s t ! angle =m$ by ! junction ( ! mirrors %all be a little bel[ ! middle ( t end ( ! tube4 ,a cov] ) a circul> ap]ture 9 ! c5tre is !n to be fitt$ to ! n>r[ end ( ! mirrors1 :i* %\ld 9 g5]al be furni%$ ) a convex l5s ^: focal l5g? is an in* or two great] ?an ! l5g? ( ! mirrors4 ,a case = hold+ ! objects1 & = communicat+ to !m a revolv+ motion1 is fitt$ to ! object end ( ! tube4 ,! objects be/ suit$ = produc+ pleas+ effects are small fragm5ts ( col\r$ glass1 wires ( glass1 bo? spun & twi/$1 & ( diff]5t col\rs & %ades ( col\rs1 & ( v>i\s %apes1 9 curves1 angles1 circles2 also1 beads1 bugles1 f9e ne$les1 small pieces ( lace1 & fragm5ts ( f9e sea-we$ are v beautiful4 ,m4 ,/urm1 ( ,prague1 has lately fix$ ! images ( ! kaleidoscope1 s t !y are available = ! production ( patt]ns 9 e bran* ( silk1 cotton1 & mix$ fabrics4 ,photographs c\ld be tak5 ( ! mo/ beautiful ( ^! accid5tal designs1 :i* only occur once1 & if n copi$ are lo/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,a ,b4 ,! tube conta9+ ! two mirrors1 %[n by dott$ l9es4 ,a4 is ! small end :]e ! eye is plac$4 ,b4 ,! object end4 ,c ,d4 ,ano!r view ( ! mirrors arrang$ to place 9 ! tube2 ! %ad$ portion repres5ts ! black velvet4 ,e4 ,d\ble convex l5s4 ,f4 ,box to conta9 objects1 & usually fitt$ ) gr\nd glass outside4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,refraction ,,( ,,light4 ,?is t]m appe>s to be (t5 conf\nd$ ) t ( reflection1 & signifies ! b5d+ or break+ back ( a ray ( light 7re1 back1 & frango1 to break72 & x w be rememb]$ t :5 light falls on ! surface ( a solid 7ei!r liquid or gase\s7 body1 x may be reflect$ 7re1 back1 & flecto1 to b5d71 refract$1 pol>iz$1 or absorb$4 ,9 ! previ\s *apt] ! prop]ty ( ! reflection ( light has be5 fully inve/igat$1 & 9 ?is "o refraction only w be consid]$4 ,x is a prop]ty :i* has be51 & w cont9ue to be1 ( ! greate/ practical utility 9 its application to ! con/ruction ( all magnify+ glasses1 :e!r belong+ to ! telescope1 microscope1 magic lant]n1 or ! dissolv+ views2 or ! m9or refract+ in/rum5ts--su* z spectacles1 op]a-glasses1 c42 & x %\ld be rememb]$ t _! magnify+ p[] dep5ds solely on ! prop]ty ( refraction4 ,if sub/ances su* z glass _h n be5 end[$ ) ?is prop]ty1 x w\ld be difficult to und]/& h[ ! great discov]ies 9 ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy c\ld h be5 made1 or :at in=mation we c\ld h ga9$ respect+ ^? int]e/+ tru?s s con/antly reveal$ by ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,num]\s in/ances might be quot$ ( ! value ( ?is latt] in/rum5t 9 ! detection ( adult]ation1 & ! exam9ation ( organic /ructures4 ,:5 s _m tal5t$ & indu/ri\s sci5tific m5 are at "w ) ?is ,page #bii in/rum5t1 x is p]haps invidi\s to po9t to "o s+ly1 ?\gh we mu/ make an exception 9 fav\r ( ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g1 ( ,b]l91 ^: microscope did su* good s]vice 9 procur+ und5iable pro( ( ! ,simonides' fraud2 he has made use ( x aga9 to detect ! ?ief t /ole a b>rel ( specie1 :i* _h be5 purlo9$ on "o ( ! railways4 ,"o ( a numb] ( b>rels1 t %\ld h conta9$ co91 0 f\nd on arrival at its de/9ation to h be5 empti$ ( its preci\s cont5ts1 & re-fill$ ) s&4 ,on ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g be+ consult$1 he s5t = samples ( s& f all ! /ations along ! diff]5t l9es ( railway t ! specie _h pass$1 & by means ( 8 microscope id5tifi$ ! /ation f :i* ! s& mu/ h be5 tak54 ,! /ation once discov]$1 x 0 n difficult to hit ^u ! culprit 9 ! small numb] ( employs on duty !re4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,! simple/ case ( refraction occurs 9 trac+ ! c\rse ( a ray ( light ?r\gh ! air1 & into ! m$ium wat]2 9 ?is case x passes f a r>e to a d5se m$ium1 & ! fact itself is well illu/rat$ by ! next diagram1 9 :i* ! %ad$ portion repres5ts wat]1 & ! pap] t x is drawn ^u ! air4 ,! l9e ,a ,b is a p]p5dicul> ray ( light1 :i* passes /raight f ! air into & ?r\gh ! wat]1 )\t be+ *ang$ 9 its direction4 ,! l9e ,c ,d is ano!r ray1 incl9$ f ! p]p5dicul>1 & ent]+ ! wat] at an angle1 does n pass 9 ! /raight l9e indicat$ by ! dott$ l9e1 b is refract$ or b5t t[>ds ! p]p5dicul> at ,d ,e4 ,?is fact r$uc$ to ! brevity ( sci5tific laws is ?us express$3--,:5 a ray ( light falls p]p5dicul>ly on a refract+ surface1 x does n exp]i5ce any refraction or *ange ( direction4 ,:5 light passes out ( a r>e into a d5se m$ium1 z f air into wat]1 ! angle ( incid5ce is great] ?an ! angle ( refraction4 ,& :5 light passes f a d5se into a r>e m$ium1 z out ( wat] into air1 ! rev]se takes place1 & ! angle ( incid5ce is small] ?an ! angle ( refraction4 ,9 ord] to illu/rate ^! laws1 a z9c-work] or t9man may con/ruct a little tank1 ) glass w9d[s 9 ! front & sides1 ! latt] be+ z deep z ! half-circle describ$ on ! back metal plate ( ! tank1 :i* ( c\rse rises high]1 9 ord] to %[ ! full circle2 ?is %\ld be japann$ :ite1 & a p]p5dicul> & horizontal black l9e describ$ ^u x--! :ole1 ) ! exception ( ! circle1 be+ japann$ black4 ,if ! ,duboscq lant]n is arrang$ ) ! little mirror1 z describ$ 9 fig4 #bgf1 page #bhg1 ! ray ( light may be ?r[n p]p5dicul>ly1 or at an angle1 ?r\gh ! wat]1 ,page #cjj & ! actual break+ back ( ! ray ( light is r5d]$ di/9ctly app>5t4 7,fig4 #bhg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,a4 ,duboscq lant]n4 ,b4 ,! mirror4 ,b ,c4 ,! incid5t ray4 ,c ,d4 ,! refract$ ray4 ,e ,f4 ,tank1 conta9+ wat] up to ! horizontal l9e ( ! circle4 ,! refraction ( light is also well display$ by ,duboscq's app>atus1 ) ! plano-convex l5s1 & a brass arr[ z an object1 ) ano!r d\ble convex l5s to focus x4 ,:5 a good %>p outl9e ( ! arr[ is obta9$ on ! disc1 a portion ( ! rays ( light produc+ x may !n be truly brok5 out or refract$ by lay+ across ! brass arr[ a squ>e b> ( plate glass4 7,fig4 #bhh74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,a4 ,rays ( light f ! electric light4 ,b4 ,! cap1 ) figure ( arr[ cut out4 ,c4 ,! b> ( plate glass4 ,d4 ,! d\ble convex glass to focus ,e1 ! image on ! disc1 & portion refract$ at ,b4 ,!re are _m simple ways 9 :i* ! refraction ( light is display$1 su* z ! app>5t break+ ( an o> :]e x ent]s ! wat]1 or ! rem>kable mann] 9 :i* ! bottom is lift$ up :5 we look1 at any angle1 ?r\gh ! cle> wat] ( a deep riv] or lake2 ! latt] circum/ance has unhappily l$ to mo/ s]i\s accid5ts1 9 consequ5ce ( *ildr5 be+ induc$ by ! app>5t %all[ness ( ,page #cja ! wat] to get 9 & ba!4 ,fi%1 aga91 unless se5 p]p5dicul>ly f a boat1 always appe> ne>] ?an _! true position1 & ! ,indians1 :5 !y spe> fi%1 always take c>e to /rike z ne> ! p]p5dicul> z possible2 exp]i5c$ %ots "k !y mu/ aim a little l[] & ne>] ?an ! app>5t position ( a fi% 9 ord] to hit x4 ,hav+ le>nt t light is b5t f its c\rse1 x might be suppos$ t all objects look$ at ?r\gh plate glass %\ld appe> di/ort$2 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! sides ( ! glass be+ ne>ly p>allel1 an equal am\nt ( refraction occurs 9 e direction--s t1 unless ! w9d[ is glaz$ ) unev5 wavy glass1 ! object1 = all practical purposes1 does n app>5tly *ange its position1 be+ nei!r mov$ to ! "r or ! left1 or upw>d or d[nw>d4 ,9 ord] to b5d ! rays ( light 9 ! requir$ direction1 ! glass mu/ be cut into c]ta9 figures call$ prisms1 plane glasses1 sph]es1 & l5ses1 "s ( :i* are %[n 9 ! annex$ cut4 7,fig4 #bhi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bij4 ,a ,b4 ,a d\ble convex l5s4 ,c is a ray ( light1 :i* falls p]p5dicul>ly on ,a ,b1 & !re=e passes on /raight to ,f1 ! focus4 ,d ,d4 ,rays fall+ at an angle on ,a ,b1 refract$ to focus1 ,f4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s to trace out1 by a regul> s]ies ( diagrams1 ! passage ( light ?r\gh ! v>iety ( comb9ations ( l5ses2 & z ! plane1 convex1 & concave surfaces h be5 exam9$ ) respect to _! effect on ! reflection ( light1 !y may be ref]r$ to aga9 ) reg>d to _! influ5ce 9 refract+ light4 ,9 ! latt] x w be f\nd t convex & concave l5ses h j ! opposite prop]ties ( mirrors2 ?us1 a convex l5s receiv+ p>allel rays w cause !m to conv]ge to a focus4 7,fig4 #bij47 ,! case ( %ort-sight$ p]sons arises f too great a convexity ( ! eye1 :i* makes a v ne> focus2 & t ( old p is a flatt5+ ( ! eye1 by :i* ! focus is ?r[n to a great] di/ance4 ,! rem$y = ! latt] is a convex spectacle-glass1 :il/ a concave l5s is requir$ = ! =m]1 to scatt] ! rays & prev5t _! com+ to a po9t too soon4 ,page #cjb ,! action ( a concave refract+ surface is aga9 ! opposite to a concave reflect+ surface--! =m] disp]ses ! rays ( light1 :il/1 ! latt] collects !m4 ,a concave l5s1 z might be expect$1 produces exactly ! contr>y effect on light to t ( a concave mirror4 7,fig4 #bia47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bia4 ,a ,b4 ,a d\ble concave l5s4 ,c41 is a ray ( light :i* falls p]p5dicul>ly on ,a ,b1 & passes ?r\gh )\t any alt]ation ( its c\rse4 ,d ,d4 ,rays fall+ at an angle on ,a ,b1 are refract$ & div]g$4 ,^! facts are well %[n ) ! aid ( ! lant]n & electric light4 ,! rays ( light are refract$ 9 a visible mann] :5 receiv$ on a concave or convex l5s1 provid$ a little smoke f pap] is employ$1 z 9 ! mirror exp]im5ts4 7,fig4 #bib47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bib4 ,a4 ,! electric light4 ,b4 ,! l5s4 ,be>+ ^! elem5t>y tru?s 9 m9d1 x w n be difficult to foll[ out a complete set ( illu/rations explanatory ( ! con/ruction & use ( v>i\s popul> optical contrivances4 ,page #cjc ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,refract+ ,,optical ,,in/rum5ts4 ,i4 ,! ,magic ,lant]n4 ,no o!r optical in/rum5t has ev] caus$ s mu* wond]m5t & delight1 f its orig9 to ! pres5t "t1 z ?is simple contrivance4 ,= a long "t its true value 0 ov]look$1 & only ridicul\s or comic slides pa9t$1 b its educational importance is n[ be+ ?or\ghly appreciat$1 n only on acc\nt ( ! size ( ! diagrams t may be repres5t$ on ! disc1 b also f ! fact t ! att5tion ( an audi5ce is bett] secur$ 9 a room :5 ! only object visible is ! diagram "u explanation4 ,! l5ses x conta9s are a bull's eye or plano-convex1 ne>e/ ! light1 & a d\ble convex glass1 = ! purpose ( focuss+ ! picture :i* is inv]t$ & plac$ betwe5 ! two l5ses4 7,fig4 #bic47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bic4 ,! magic lant]n4 ,9 _m books full directions are giv5 = pa9t+ ! glass slides1 b ?is is an art t requires v great practice & exp]i5ce4 ,a p]son may "k h[ to draw & pa9t on pap] or canvas1 b x is q a diff]5t ?+ :]e glass is conc]n$1 & unless ! juv5ile arti/ has tak5 lessons f a regul> pa9t] on glass1 8 or h] ef=ts are likely to be v unsatisfactory4 ,9 _m popul> works embrac+ ! subject ( optics1 full directions are giv5 on ! mode ( pa9t+ ! slides = ! magic lant]n1 or dissolv+ views2 a new era1 h[ev]1 has dawn$ ^u ?is mode ( illu/ration1 9 ! prep>ation ( photographs on glass ( ! mo/ lovely description1 & n[ in/ead ( exhibit+ m]e daubs ( weak col\r+1 photographic pictures ( s+ul> p]fection c be procur$ ( ,messrs4 ,negretti & ,zambra1 ,holborn1 :o h turn$ _! att5tion especially to ?is bran*1 & supply slides ( all sizes4 ,,ii4 ,! ,dissolv+ ,views4 ,?is v pleas+ modification ( ! ord9>y magic lant]n is display$ ) ! assi/ance ( two lant]ns ( ! same size1 provid$ ) lamps & l5ses :i* are exactly alike4 ,!y are be/ arrang$ ,page #cjd on "o bo>d1 side by side1 & if kept p>allel ) ea* o!r1 ! circles ( light ?r[n f ! two lant]ns w\ld n co9cide on ! scre52 x is !re=e necess>y to place "o ( !m at an angle :i* w v>y accord+ to ! di/ance f ! scre54 ,! task ( mak+ ! two circles ( light ov]lap ea* o!r precisely on ! disc1 is call$ c5t]+ ! lant]ns1 & is ! fir/ ?+ t mu/ be att5d$ to be=e exhibit+ ! slides4 ,! slides = ! dissolv+ views are all pa9t$ ( ! same size1 & suppos+ a sc5e su* z a *ur* ) a bridal procession & ! trees 9 full foliage1 to repres5t summ]1 is fir/ ?r[n on to ! disc1 x may be *ang$ to w9t] by putt+ ano!r picture ( ! same subject1 b pa9t$ to repres5t b>e trees1 & ! *ur* & gr\nd cov]$ ) sn[1 & a grave op51 ) a fun]al procession4 ,! two pictures mu/ n be project$ on ! scre5 at ! same "t1 & "h ! dissolv+ me*anism is requir$2 x consi/s ( two fans s arrang$ t !y may be rais$ or l[]$ by a rack-"w & h&le2 "o fan 9 desc5d+ cov]s "o ( ! nozzles ( ! lant]ns1 & ! o!r leaves ! second lant]n op51 & free to project ! picture2 ! dissolv+ is manag$ by sl[ly mov+ ! h&le ( ! rack-"w1 s t "o qu>t] ( ! picture already on ! disc is cut (f1 & "o qu>t] ( ! new "o ?r[n on4 ,z ! movem5t proce$s1 "o half ( ! old picture is %ut out1 & "o half ( ! new slide takes its place1 & s on1 till ! :ole ( ! orig9al picture is cut (f by ! fan & ! new "o comes into view1 & x is 9 ?is way ! effect ( ! *ange f summ] to w9t] is produc$4 7,fig4 #bid47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,nozzle ( "o lant]n1 ) ! fan1 ,a1 rais$1 & 9 ! position to ?r[ a picture on ! disc4 ,b4 ,! o!r fan %utt+ (f ! second lant]n4 ,:5 two pictures su* z ^? already describ$1 dissolve "o into ! o!r1 ( c\rse ! same build+ or o!r m>k$ portion ( ! subject1 mu/ /rictly co9cide 9 ea* picture on ! disc1 or else ! two pictures are app>5t1 & ! illusion is de/roy$4 ,! pictures mu/ all be c5t]$ be=e ! exhibition comm5ces4 ,by ! arrangem5t ( ,mons4 ,duboscq1 "o electric light s]ves to illum9ate bo? lant]ns by mak+ use ( mirrors4 ,! dissolv+ app>atus is likewise v ,page #cje simple1 & consi/s ( two diamond-%ap$ op5+s 9 a brass frame1 :i* op5 & %ut alt]nately by a slide work$ ) a h&le4 ,! s+le light is n to be recomm5d$1 z x is some:at tr\blesome to manage prop]ly4 7,fig4 #bie47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,a4 ,! electric light4 ,b ,b4 ,! two sets ( l5ses = ! two pictures4 ,c4 ,! dissolv+ me*anism4 ,d4 ,! picture on scre54 ,:5 dissolv+ views are requir$ on a gr& scale1 ! l5ses mu/ be exce$+ly l>ge1 & ! cond5s] 7correspond+ ) ! bull's-eye ( ! simple magic lant]n7 %\ld be at lea/ n9e or elev5 in*es 9 diamet]1 & ! front glasses mu/ be ( a sup]ior make4 ,! l5ses = a l>ge lant]n lit by ! oxy-hydrog5 light1 are arrang$ z 9 ! next cut4 7,fig4 #bif47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bif4 ,a4 ,! lime light4 ,b4 ,! cond5s]s4 ,c4 ,! picture4 ,d ,d4 ,! front l5ses = focuss+1 ) rack-"w4 ,at ! ,polyte*nic ! au?or _h no less ?an six lant]ns work+ at or ab\t ! same "t1 to produce effects1 9 ! views illu/rat+ ! voyages ( ,s9bad ! ,sailor2 & 9 ord] to obta9 ! increas$ ,page #cjf results requir$ = dioramic effects1 su* = in/ance z ! ,siege ( ,delhi1 %[+ ! bur/+ ( ! %ells1 c41 ! f\r fix$ lant]ns 7! fronts ( :i* are %[n 9 ! next cut7 7 always employ$4 ,! two upp] lant]ns are dissolv$ by discs ( brass work$ by ! h&1 & ! l[] ones ) ! fans4 7,fig4 #big47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #big4 ,fronts ( ! f\r lant]ns1 %[+ h[ ! dissolv+ me*anism is arrang$4 ,beh9d ! sc5es always has a great attraction = "y p2 we h1 !re=e1 9 ! frontispiece1 ) ! help ( ,mr4 ,h9e 7:o pa9t$ a great numb] ( ! photographs %[n at ! ,polyte*nic dur+ ! au?or's managem5t71 giv5 a section ( ! l>ge !atre tak5 :il/ ! effective sc5e ( ! ,siege ( ,delhi 0 9 progress4 ,! optical effects 7 assi/$ by v>i\s s\nds 9 imitation ( w>'s al>ms1 = ! production ( :i*1 m volunte]s ?an 7 requir$ w\ld occasionally trespass beh9d ! scre51 & produce ^? t]rific s\nds t "s p]sons ( a n]v\s temp]am5t said 7 really /unn+4 ,9 a page picture1 we h also giv5 a correct draw+ ( ! int]ior ( ! optical box at ! ,polyte*nic1 ) ! f\r fix$ lant]ns1 & side cupbo>ds to hold ! glass pictures4 ,! f\r lant]ns work$ on a railway1 ) :eels & a circul> turn-table2 !y c\ld be remov$1 & ! microscope arrang$ 9 _! places4 ,illu/ration3 ,be=e & beh9d ! scre5 at ! ,polyte*nic dur+ ! exhibition ( ! dioramic effects ( ! siege ( ,delhi4 p4 #cjf ,page #cjg ,,iii4 ,! ,oxy-,hydrog5 ,microscope4 ,_m p]sons w recollect ! fir/ exhibition ( ?is in/rum5t 9 ,bond-/reet1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,coop]1 & ,mr4 ,c>y1 succe$$ by ! ,adelaide ,gall]y exhibition ( sci5tific wond]s & an oxy-hydrog5 microscope4 ,! app>atus = ?is purpose consi/s ( ?ree cond5s+ l5ses & an object glass4 ,! objects1 su* z live aquatic insects1 are plac$ 9 glass tr\ghs conta9+ wat]2 ! o!r objects1 f]ns1 fea!rs1 butt]flies1 alg1 c4 c41 be+ m\nt$ on slides 9 ! ord9>y way ) ,canada balsam4 7,fig4 #bih47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bih4 ,a4 ,! lime light4 ,c ,c ,c4 ,cond5s]s4 ,d4 ,! object1 su* z a tank ( wat] conta9+ live insects4 ,e4 ,! object glasses4 ,,iv4 ,! ,physioscope4 ,?is in/rum5t1 br\ght out at ! ,polyte*nic dur+ ! "t t ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,godd>d manag$ ! optical dep>tm5t ( ! in/itution1 always excit$ ! greate/ mir? & a/oni%m5t among/ ! num]\s visitors2 & habitus ( ! old place may rememb] ! good-natur$ inimitable maudl9 simp] ) :i* poor ,mr4 ,tait 7:o 0 "o ( ! liv+ objects %[n on ! disc7 us$ to dr9k (f ! glass ( w9e & !n w9k at ! audi5ce4 ,:5 we say ,mr4 ,tait us$ to w9k1 ( c\rse x is und]/ood t he 0 p]sonally invisible1 & 8 app>ition or image only appe>$ on ! disc4 ,! c\nt5ance is brilliantly illum9at$ by ! oxy-hydrog5 light1 & be+ plac$ ne> ! l5ses1 ! rays are reflect$ f ! face into ! physioscope1 & be+ prop]ly focus$1 & ! inv]sion ( ! image correct$1 ! p]fect repres5tation ( ! human c\nt5ance is app>5t on ! disc4 ,! l5ses & concave reflectors requir$ are %[n 9 ! section ( ! physioscope4 ,messrs4 ,c>p5t] & ,we/ley1 ( ,reg5t-/reet1 h br\ght ! manufacture ( magic lant]ns to great p]fection2 & ,mr4 ,coll9s1 ( ! ,polyte*nic1 con/ructs e k9d ( dissolv+ view app>atus1 oxy-hydrog5 microscopes1 physioscopes1 c4 7,fig4 #bii47 ,) ?is in/rum5t any opaque objects 7provid$ !y reflect light prop]ly7 may be display$ to a l>ge audi5ce4 ,pla/] ca/s appe> ) s+ul> beauty & s(tness1 :il/ fl[]s1 /uff$ birds1 & especially humm+ birds1 are excell5t objects = ! physioscope4 ,page #cjh ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bii4 ,a4 ,"o or m lime lights1 ?r[+ rays reflect$ by concave mirrors on to ! face ,b1 f :5ce !y are reflect$ to ,c ,c1 ! fir/ cond5s]s4 ,d ,d4 ,object glasses4 ,?is in/rum5t is made by ,mr4 ,coll9s1 :o has ! tools = mak+ ! reflectors ) correct curves4 ,! picture ( ! face on ! disc is cov]$ ) black spots if ! reflectors are n p]fect4 ,v4 ,! ,cam]a ,obscura4 ,a d>k *amb] is ! "n ( a mo/ amus+1 & n[1 9 ! improv$ =m1 extremely valuable in/rum5t = photographic purposes4 ,x is occasionally to be met ) 9 public g>d5s1 & !re is a v good "o on ! ,hoe at ,plym\?4 ,! con/ruction ( ! cam]a = obs]v+ ! surr\nd+ c\ntry is v simple1 & m]ely consi/s ( a flat mirror plac$ at an angle1 by :i* ! picture is reflect$ ?r\gh a d\ble-convex l5s on to a :ite table b5ea?4 7,fig4 #cjj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,a4 ,! mirror4 ,b4 ,! convex l5s4 ,c4 ,! :ite table4 ,page #cji ,! t]m focus+1 or ! art ( mov+ ! l5ses s t a %>p image may be obta9$1 has be5 frequ5tly m5tion$ 9 ?is article1 & p]haps x may be z well to describe ! mode ( asc]ta9+ ! focal di/ance ( a l5s by exp]im5t4 ,hold ! l5s opposite ! w9d[ s t a bright picture ( ! w9d[-sa% may be obta9$ on a %eet ( pap] p9n$ aga9/ ! wall1 & ! di/ance ( ! l5s f ! pap] w be ! focal l5g?4 ,if ! l5s has a v long focal l5g?1 x may be det]m9$ z foll[s3--,measure ! di/ance betwe5 ! l5s & ! object1 & also f ! image2 multiply ^! di/ances toge!r1 & divide ! product by _! sums2 ! quoti5t w give ! focal di/ance4 ,,vi4 ,! ,decomposition ( ,light--its ,analysis & ,syn!sis4 ,x is 9 ! ,italian language t ! bride1 ! emblem ( purity1 is call$ ,lucia 7,lux1 light72 & surely if an illu/ration 7 requir$ ( beauty & s+l5ess1 light w\ld be nam$ poetically z appropriate2 b physically x is n ( a s+le nature1 x is composite1 & made up ( sev5 col\rs4 ,! in/rum5t requir$ to refract a ray ( light suffici5tly to break x into its elem5t>y col\rs is call$ ! prism1 & is a solid hav+ two plane surfaces1 call$ its refract+ surfaces1 ) a base equally incl9$ to !m4 7,fig4 #cja47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cja4 ,! prism4 ,! base1 ,a ,b1 is equally incl9$ to ! refract+ surfaces1 ,c ,a1 ,c ,b4 ,x 0 9 #afgb t ,sir ,isaac ,newton made 8 celebrat$ analysis ( light1 by receiv+ a sunbeam 7z x pass$ ?r\gh a hole 9 a %utt]7 on to ! refract+ surface ( a prism1 & ?r[+ ! image or spectrum on to a scre51 :]e he obs]v$ ! sev5 col\rs1 r$1 orange1 yell[1 gre51 blue1 indigo1 & violet1 & ?us prov$ t !re are diff]5t species ( light1 & t ea* species is dispos$ bo? to suff] a diff]5t degree ( refrangibility 9 pass+ out ( "o m$ium into ano!r1 & to excite 9 u ! idea ( a diff]5t col\r f ! re/2 & t bodies appe> ( t col\r :i* arises f ! composition ( ^? col\rs ! sev]al species !y reflect are dispos$ to excite4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton's "n w\ld h be5 immortaliz$ by ?is discov]y alone1 ev5 if he _h n possess$ t transc5d5t ability :i* rais$ him above all o!r ma!maticians & physici/s4 ,x is at ! same "t int]e/+ to "k t ! anci5t au?or ,claudian 7,a4,d4 #dbj7 inquires :e!r col\r really belongs to ! sub/ances !mselves1 or :e!r by ! reflection ( light !y *eat ! eye--enquires sitve color proprius r]um1 lucisne repulsa eludant aciem4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton det]m9$ t ! spectrum c\ld be divid$ into #cfj equal p>ts1 ( :i* r$ occupi$ #de1 orange #bg1 yell[ #dh1 gre5 #fj1 blue #fj1 indigo #dj1 violet #hj4 ,he also discov]$ t if ! highly refract$ rays1 ! sev5 col\rs1 or spectrum 7 receiv$ into ,page #caj a concave mirror or a d\ble-convex l5s1 t !y aga9 unit$ & =m$ :ite light4 ,9 ord] to demon/rate ! prop]ties ( ! prism 9 v>i\s positions1 ! next diagram may be adduc$4 7,fig4 #cjb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,a4 ,! ray ( light pass+ ?r\gh two prisms ,b plac$ base to base4 ,9 ?is position ! light passes ?r\gh to ! second prism1 ,c1 )\t alt]ation4 ,at ,c ! decomposition ( light occurs1 & ! spectrum is %[n at ,d ,d4 ,! top prism at ,b us$ s+ly w\ld reflect ! ray to ,e )\t decompos+ x into ! col\r$ rays4 ,! ra9b[ is ! mo/ beautiful natural optical ph5om5on ) :i* we are acqua9t$2 x is only se5 9 ra9y wea!r :5 ! sun illum9ates ! fall+ ra91 & ! spectator has ! sun at 8 back4 ,!re are frequ5tly two b[s se51 ! int]ior & ext]ior b[1 or ! prim>y & second>y1 & ev5 )9 ! prim>y ra9b[1 & 9 contact ) x1 & outside ! second>y "o1 !re h be5 se5 o!r b[s beyond ! numb] /at$4 ,! prim>y or inn] ra9b[ consi/s ( sev5 diff]5t col\r$ b[s1 & is usually ! brighte/1 be+ =m$ by ! rays ( light fall+ on ! upp] p>ts ( ! drops ( ra94 ,! ext]ior b[ is =m$ by ! rays ( light fall+ on ! l[] p>ts ( ! drops ( ra92 & 9 bo? cases ! rays ( light und]go refraction & reflection1 h5ce ! op9ion ( ,ari/otle1 t ! ra9b[ is caus$ only by ! reflection ( light1 is n correct4 ,! fir/ refraction occurs :5 ! rays ( light ent]1 & ! second :5 !y em]ge f ! sph]oids ( wat] 9 ! fir/ b[2 ! refract$ rays und]go only "o reflection1 :]eas 9 ! second ! brilliancy ( ! col\rs is impair$ by two reflections4 ,! spectrum f ! electric light is "o ( ! mo/ gorge\s exhibitions ( col\r t c be conceiv$2 & ! in/rum5ts requir$ = ! purpose are illu/rat$ 9 ,no4 #a 7,fig4 #cjc71 :il/ ! ,page #caa syn!sis ( ! col\r$ rays & production ( :ite light is %[n at ,no4 #b ( ! same figure4 7,fig4 #cjc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,no4 #a4 ,a4 ,! electric light4 ,b4 ,! n>r[ slit ?r\gh :i* ! light passes to ! convex l5s1 ,c4 ,d4 ,! prism4 ,e4 ,! spectrum4 ,no4 #b is ! same = ,a ,b ,c ,d2 b ,f is ! convex l5s collect+ ! scatt]$ rays1 & =m+ :ite light at ,g4 ,,vii4 ,duration ( ! ,impression ( ,light4 ,if a circul> disc is pa9t$ ) ! prismatic col\rs tak5 9 ! same proportion ) respect to ea* o!r 9 :i* !y are exhibit$ 9 ! spectrum made by ! prism1 & ! :eel is turn$ swiftly1 !n ! individual col\rs disappe>1 & ne>ly :ite light is app>5t4 ,! cause is due to ! same pr9ciple t creates ! appe>ance ( a complete circle ( fire :5 a burn+ squib is mov$ quickly r\nd be=e x is ?r[n away to bur/1 & z x is evid5t t ! burn+ squib _c be 9 e "p ( ! circle at ! same mom5t1 !re mu/ be "s inh]5t faculty belong+ to ! human eye :i* enables x to reta9 = a def9ite p]iod ! impression ( images t may fall ^u x2 & ?is pr9ciple has be5 s f> press$1 z x 71 beyond its limits1 t x is gravely ass]t$ ! image ( a man's murd]] might be discov]$ on ! ret9a ( ! eye-ball if t c\ld be exam9$ suffici5tly quick aft] dea?4 ,! fixture ( ! picture is said to be due to a sort ( natural photographic process2 b su* fanciful /atem5ts (t5 lead ! m9d into dream-l& only1 & s we w return to ! fact ( ! duration ( ! impression ( light on ! eye z evid5c$ by sev]al +5i\s optical in/rum5ts1 & especially by ! sci5tific inv5tions ( ,dr4 ,f>aday1 ,dr4 ,p>is1 & ( ,mr4 ,?omas ,rose ( ,glasg[4 ,by c>eful exp]im5t ,m4 ,d',arcy f\nd t ! light ( a live coal mov+ at ! di/ance ( #afe feet1 ma9ta9$ its impression on ! ,page #cab ret9a dur+ ! sev5? "p ( a second4 ,h5ce ! cause ( ! recomposition ( :ite light :5 ! col\rs on ! disc are quickly rotat$4 ,ea* col\r at any po9t succe$s ! o!r be=e ! impression ( ! la/ is gone f ! eye1 & provid$ ! col\rs move r\nd )9 ! sev5? "p ( a second1 !y are all impress$ toge!r on ! eye1 & meet+ on ! ret9a1 produce ! effect ( :ite light4 ,,viii4 ,! ,ph5aki/iscope4 ,?is amus+ in/rum5t consi/s ( a turn+ :eel ^u :i* figures appe> to jump1 walk1 or dance4 ,! disc or :eel is ( c>dbo>d1 ^u :i* are pa9t$ 7t[>ds ! p]iph]y7 figures 9 eight1 t51 or twelve po/ures4 ,?us1 if x is desir$ to repres5t cl[ns turn+ r\nd 9 a circle1 twelve diff]5t positions ( ! figure 9 ! act ( turn+ are pa9t$ on ! disc1 & above ea* ( ! figures on ! :eel a slit is cut ab\t "o in* long1 & a qu>t] ( an in* wide 9 a direction correspond+ ) ! radii ( ! circle4 ,?is simple =m ( ! in/rum5t is us$ by plac+ ! figur$ side t[>ds a look+-glass & !n caus+ x to revolve at a c]ta9 spe$1 :i* is asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t2 & z ! spectator looks ?r\gh ! slits into ! look+-glass1 ! cl[ns appe> to turn r\nd4 ,at ! ,polyte*nic ,in/itution !re are two ( ^! :eels ) look+-glasses1 & al?\gh ! same designs h done duty = _m ye>s1 !y /ill attract ! public att5tion4 7,fig4 #cjd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,design = ! ph5aki/iscope4 ,! spectator is suppos$ to be look+ t[>ds a mirror ?r\gh ! slits4 ,x is support$ by a h&le ?r\gh ! c5tre1 r\nd :i* x is twirl$ by ! o!r h&4 ,9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,in/itution ,mr4 ,f>aday has describ$ "s v int]e/+ exp]im5ts & optical illusions produc$ by ! revolution ( :eels 9 diff]5t directions & velocities4 ,! :eels are made ( c>dbo>d1 & by cutt+ out two cog :eels ( an equal size1 & plac+ "o above ! o!r on a p91 ! usual hazy t9t :5 ! cogs are act+ is app>5t :5 !y are :irl$ r\nd2 b if ! two cog :eels are made to move 9 opposite directions1 !re w be ! extraord9>y appe>ance ( a fix$ spectral :eel4 ,if ! cogs are cut 9 a slant+ direction on bo? :eels1 ! spectral :eel w exhibit slant+ cogs2 b if "o :eel is turn$ s t ! cogs %all po9t 9 opposite directions1 !n ! spectral :eel w h /raight cogs4 ,a numb] ( su* :eels set 9 motion 9 a d>k5$ room1 & illum9at$ sudd5ly ) ! light f ! electric sp>k1 appe> to /& p]fectly /ill1 al?\gh mov+ ) a great velocity4 ,an exp5sive in/rum5t has be5 con/ruct$ by ,duboscq1 = ! ,page #cac purpose ( %[+ ! usual ph5aki/iscope effects on ! scre5 ) ! magic lant]n2 a v limit$ picture1 h[ev]1 is %[n1 & !re is /ill great room = ! improvem5t ( ! app>atus4 7,fig4 #cje47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cje4 ,ph5aki/iscope made by ,duboscq1 ( ,p>is4 ,no4 #a4 ,app>atus 9 elevation ) ! cond5s]s4 ,no4 #b4 ,section ( ! app>atus4 ,a4 ,! light4 ,b4 ,cond5s]1 or plano-convex l5s4 ,c4 ,r\nd glass disc ) design pa9t$ on x4 ,d4 ,wood5 disc ) f\r d\ble-convex l5ses plac$ at equal di/ances f ea* o!r1 s z to co9cide ) ,c1 :il/ rotat+4 ,bo? ! latt] & ,c rotate1 & ! picture is focuss$ on ! disc by ! l5ses ,f4 ,no4 #c4 ,glass plate1 ) device pa9t$ !reon4 ,page #cad ,,ix4 ,! ,?aumatrope4 ,?is v simple toy 0 inv5t$ by ! late ,dr4 ,p>is1 :o gave x an appropriate "n1 comp\nd$ ( ! ,greek words1 ,greek3 ?auma1 wond]1 ,greek3 trep1 to turn4 ,! duration ( ! impressions ( light on ! eye is v app>5t :il/ us+ ?is toy1 :i* is usually made ( a circul> piece ( c>dbo>d1 hav+ on "o side a pa9t+ ( a man's head1 & on ! o!r a hat2 or a picture ( a light$ c&le on "o face ( ! c>dbo>d1 & an ext+ui%] on ! o!r2 or a gate1 & a horseman leap+ x4 ,ea* pair ( designs pa9t$ on opposite sides ( ! c>dbo>d appe> to be "o :5 twi/$ r\nd by /r+s ti$ to ! opposite edges ( ! c>dbo>d circle4 ,! rationale ( ?is exp]im5t be+1 t ! picture ( "o design--su* z ! head & face--is reta9$ by ! eye until ! hat appe>s1 & be+ mutually impress$ ^u ! n]ve ( vision at v ne>ly ! same in/ant ( "t1 !y appe> z "o picture4 ,x4 ,! ,kalotrope4 ,?is is an optical arrangem5t by ,mr4 ,?omas ,rose1 ( ,glasg[1 prim>ily design$ = %[+ ! illusions ( ! ph5aki/iscope & k9dr$ devices to a num]\s audi5ce2 b m rem>kable = its pres5tations ( v beautiful spectra1 compos$ ( ! multiplication1 comb9ation1 & involution ( simple figures dispos$ ar\nd a disc4 ,! arrangem5t consi/s ( a movem5t = giv+ consid]able velocity to two conc5tric :eels1 work+ ne>ly 9 contact1 & mov+ 9 contr>y directions4 ,b ! only "p ( ! app>atus t requires special explanation & illu/ration is ! device disc & ! disc ( ap]tures2 ! fir/ ( :i* is plac$ on ! h9d] :eel1 & ! second on ! front :eel4 ,we give figures ( ! two discs1 premis+1 h[ev]1 t ea* is capable ( an almo/ inf9ite v>iety ( *>act]s4 ,no4 #a 7,fig4 #cjf7 pres5ts 9 its f\r quadrants ! p]=ations = f\r di/9ct discs ( ap]tures2 & ,no4 #b is a device disc1 consi/+ ( twelve equidi/ant black balls4 ,"u a ! balls w be pres5t$ z tw5ty-f\r ovals2 "u b1 z =ty-eight involv$ figures1 beautifully v>iegat$2 "u c1 z an elaborate lacework2 & "u d1 z a ri* v>iegation ( =m & col\r4 ,e fre% disc ( devices & disc ( ap]tures ( c\rse op5s up a new field ( effect4 ,?us1 if we take a disc be>+ twelve repeats ( a ball 9 ! int]ior ( a r+1 ea* repeat be+ s pa9t$ t its position is advanc$ 9 ! r+ until x rea*es 9 ! twelf? r+ ! po9t :5ce x />t$1 & place ?is on ! back disc ( ! kalotrope1 hav+ previ\sly remov$ ! fir/ "o1 no effect is obs]v$ :5 ! :eel is rotat$ beyond ! spread+ out ( ! design & g5]al appe>ance ( hazy black circles4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! disc1 ) twelve slits or ap]tures1 is n[ plac$ on ! front :eel1 & ! two rotat$ 9 opposite directions1 !n ! :ole figure />ts z x 7 into exi/5ce1 & ea* ball app>5tly moves r\nd ! int]ior ( its circle4 ,page #cae ,! app>atus 0 produc$ at ! ,royal ,polyte*nic ,in/itution by ! au?or1 & excit$ mu* int]e/4 7,fig4 #cjf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjf4 ,nos4 #a & #b are ! discs4 ,no #c4 ,kalotrope 9 elevation4 ,no4 #d4 ,side view ( kalotrope1 %[+ ! multiply+ :eels & ! p]=at$ & pa9t$ discs mov+ 9 opposite directions4 ,,xi4 ,! ,photodrome4 ,?is is a second optical arrangem5t by ,mr4 ,rose = %[+ spectral illusions2 & x is sup]ior to ! la/1 inasmu* z x (f]s to ! public lectur] a mo/ effective means ( pres5t+ ^! deceptions to a l>ge audi5ce4 ,x diff]s f ! kalotrope 9 sev]al important po9ts4 ,x disp5ses ) ! discs ( ap]tures1 & leaves ! device disc ) its face fully expos$ to ! spectators4 ,! effects are produc$ by a p[]ful light1 ?r[n ?r\gh ! tube ( a lant]n1 & brok5 by a :eel work+ across x4 ,! app>atus1 z x at pres5t /&s 9 ! inv5tor's possession1 consi/s ( two di/9ct p>ts2 ! "o a movem5t = ! device discs1 & ! o!r = ! light4 ,a :eel f\r feet 9 diamet] is connect$ ) a tra9 ( movem5t capable ( giv+ x five hundr$ or six hundr$ revolutions p] m9ute4 ,on ?is :eel ! device disc is plac$1 9 full view ( ! spectators1 & set 9 motion4 ,f an opposite gall]y ! light is ?r[n1 & ,page #caf brok5 by a :eel ( su* diamet] & numb] ( ap]tures z w admit ! velocity ( ! photodrome 7or light-runn]7 to be at lea/ six times ! velocity ( ! device disc2 :il/ ! ap]tures are ( su* wid? z to re/rict ! duration ( ! light-fla% to ab\t "o-two-?\s&? ( a second4 ,! :eel work+ across ! light has a tra9 ( movem5t = rais+ ! velocity to two ?\s& revolutions p] second4 ,! managem5t ( ! app>atus is v simple4 ,! device-:eel is br\ght to a /eady1 rapid rotation1 & ! op]ator on ! light !n works 8 :eel ) gradually increas+ velocity1 until he ov]takes ! figures ( ! device1 :]e1 by m]e delicacy ( t\*1 he is able to hold !m /ation>y or give !m motion1 at pleasure4 ,!ories ( light & col\r /ill agitate ! sci5tific _w1 al?\gh t man mu/ be bold :o w ass]t t 8 hypo!sis is fitt$ to expla9 e difficult po9t t arises z our exp]im5tal k increases4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,j4 ,smi?1 ( ! ,p]? ,academy1 has prop\nd$ a v +5i\s !ory ( light & col\r1 support$ by "s clev] exp]im5ts4 ,b1 z ,solomon says1 !re is no?+ new "u ! sun1 & 9 an able pap] ,mr4 ,rose1 ( ,glasg[1 lays claim to ! anticipations ( ,mr4 ,smi?'s !ory z foll[s3-- ,my att5tion has be5 direct$ to a pap] entitl$ ',! ,!ory ( ,light1' by ,g4 ,john ,smi?1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ( ,p]? ,academy4 ,i ?9k x is n[ ne>ly two ye>s s9ce ,i communicat$ an int]e/+ fact to ,pr(essor ,f>aday1 & to a memb] ( our local ,philosophical ,in/itution1 :i* may fairly claim to h anticipat$ ,mr4 ,smi?'s !ory4 ,! fact 0 ?is3 t if a piece ( int5sely :ite c>d be held 9 "o h&1 ) ! light ( a p[]ful gas-jet fall+ ^u x1 & if ! o!r h& has comm& ( ! gas-tap1 z ! light is gradually r$uc$1 ! c>d w assume ! prismatic col\rs d[n to int5se blue1 & z ! light is re/or$ ! col\rs w pres5t !mselves 9 inv]se ord]4 ,! exp]im5t %[$1 v conclusively to my m9d1 t light is homog5e\s1 & t :at we "n col\r is only ! v>i\s affection ( ! optic n]ve by a great] or less] radiation ( light f a focal po9t 9 an imp]fect reflector--say1 9 ! in/ance1 a :ite c>d4 ,i appreh5d t ,mr4 ,smi? confuses 8 !ory :5 he speaks ( alt]nations ( light & %ad[ produc+ col\r4 ,%ad[1 or d>kness1 is m]e negation ( light4 ,we d n see mixtures ( light & d>kness1 or blackness & :it5ess1 b light 9 its sev]al degrees ( int5sity4 ,mr4 ,smi?'s exp]im5ts pres5t only :at my kalotrope has done1 & :at my lat] device1 ! photodrome 7n[ ne>ly ?ree ye>s old7 is do+ 9 a mu* m p]fect mann]4 ,x is "o ( ! my/]ies intelligible only to ! initiat$1 t :il/ ,mr4 ,smi?'s pap] seems to h be5 receiv$ ) great fav\r by ! ,briti% ,association1 my communication relative to ! photodrome 0 vot$ 'n suffici5tly practical4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,s9ce ,i h come be=e ! public ) an exp]im5t1 :i* 9 any view is an int]e/+ "o1 p]mit me to reproduce x "u sev]al di/9ct conditions1 & to add a brief n>rative ( rem>kable pres5tations ( col\r t h come be=e me1 & :i*1 s f> z ,i am ,page #cag aw>e1 are p]fectly novel1 or kn[n only ?r\gh ! m rec5t exp]im5ts ( ,mr4 ,smi?4 ,pr(essor ,f>aday v c\rte\sly ackn[l$g$ my communication ( ! exp]im5t ) ! c>d1 b said t x only p>tially succe$$ ) him1 & add$ t probably ?is 0 ow+ to "s decay ( s5sitiv5ess 9 8 eyes4 ,m likely ,i fail$ to /ate ) suffici5t cle>ness ! conditions ( ! exp]im5t1 s9ce ,i h always f\nd n9e p]sons out ( t5 p]fectly agre$ z to ! effects produc$ :5 !y h be5 at my side4 ,! transitions f :ite to yell[1 orange1 r$1 & !nce to int5se blue1 are1 ,i may say1 inv>iably admitt$4 ,success dep5ds on a v sl[ & regul> r$uction & re/oration ( ! light4 ,i h giv5 "o me?od ( p]=m+ ! exp]im5t1 & w add o!r two4 ,all[ ! light to rema9 undi/urb$1 & beg9 by hold+ ! c>d ne> to x2 !n keep ! h& /eady & ! eye int5tly fix$ ^u ! c>d1 & retire gradually ) y\r back to ! light1 & ! col\rs w *ange 9 ! ord] ( ! prismatic spectrum f yell[ to int5se blue4 ,on return+ backw>ds t[>ds ! light ! col\rs w aga9 pres5t !mselves1 b 9 inv]se ord]4 ,9 ?is =m ( ! exp]im5t we are c]ta9 t ! light rema9s precisely ! same ?r\gh\t4 ,! ?ird me?od is ?is3 ,place a circle ( :ite c>d1 ab\t ?ree in*es 9 diamet]1 9 ! c5tre ( a black bo>d1 & let a spectator /& )9 twelve in*es ( ! bo>d1 ) 8 eyes fix$ ^u ! c>d4 ,let an op]ator be provid$ ) a light s cov]$ t x %all n fall on ! eye ( ! spectator2 !n1 z he retires ) ! light or returns ) x1 ! spectator w see ! col\rs z be=e4 ,?is arrangem5t evid5tly subjects ! exp]im5t to a sev]e te/1 s9ce ! black bo>d enhances ! :it5ess ( ! c>d1 & t5ds to pres]ve x4444 ,:il/ pursu+ my pr9cipal object1 ,i frequ5tly notic$ mo/ rem>kable pres5tations ( col\r2 b1 z ! conditions 7 = ! mo/ "p unsuitable to ! lecture-room1 ,i gave !m only a pass+ reg>d4 ,all[ me to in/ance a few ( ! exp]im5ts4 ,! fir/ ref]s to ! kalotrope1 :i* may be briefly describ$ z an arrangem5t ( two conc5tric :eels1 work+ ne>ly 9 contact & 9 contr>y directions4 ,discs ( v>i\s devices are provid$ = ! h9d] :eel1 & a numb] ( p]=at$ black discs = ! "o 9 front4 ,:5 a disc *>g$ ) twelve black radii is plac$ on ! h9d] :eel1 ! six spokes ( ! front :eel1 9 pass+ rapidly across x1 conv]t ! twelve black radii into tw5ty-f\r app>5tly /ation>y :ite radii ^u a t9t$ gr\nd4 ,"h is a rem>kable pres5tation ( ! complem5t>y1 inasmu* z x is plac$ p]man5tly be=e ! eye by p]si/5ce4 ,! second exp]im5t is p]=m$ ) ! photodrome1 :i* consi/s ( an indep5d5t :eel to receive ! device discs1 & an app>atus 7altoge!r ap>t1 &1 if desir$1 out ( sight7 by :i* fla%es ( light are ?r[n ^u ! disc 9 rapid & regul> succession4 ,n[1 if a disc *>g$ ) twelve d>k blue balls1 ne>ly 9 contact1 be plac$ ^u ! :eel1 & a little natural light be all[$ to fall ,page #cah ^u x1 s soon z x is ?r[n into rapid revolution1 & fla%es ( artificial light 7insulat$ 9 a lant]n7 are duly measur$ out ^u x1 we see twelve app>5tly /ation>y light-blue balls ^u a zone ( bright orange4 ,"h1 aga91 !re is no?+ = :i* we are n prep>$2 ! complem5t>y is sudd5ly pres5t$1 & x is ma9ta9$ p]man5tly be=e ! eye by p]si/5ce4 ,a ?ird exp]im5t may prove int]e/+ 9 its relation to ,mr4 ,smi?'s +5i\s !ory4 ,place ! kalotrope opposite a bright nor!rn noonday sky1 remove ! front :eel1 & affix to ! h9d] :eel "o ( ! p]=at$ black discs us$ = ! kalotropic effects4 ,! exp]im5tali/ /&s at ! back ( ! in/rum5t1 & c see ! sky only ?r\gh ! ap]tures 9 ! black disc4 ,cause ^! ap]tures to pass ! eye at int]vals v>y+ f "o-half to "o-six? ( a second1 & v rem>kable pres5tations ( col\r are se54 ,"u ! l[] velocities ! sky fla%es1 & assumes an unnatural brilliancy1 & ! int]vals ( ! f\r? & fif? ( a second give x sometimes a crimson1 at o!rs a deep purple col\r4 ,n[1 :at are we to inf] f ?is exp]im5t8 ,c]ta9ly n t ! pulsations h absolutely produc$ v>iety ( col\r4 ,at e pulsation ! full natural light falls ^u ! eye1 & ! int]vals betwe5 ! pulsations give "t = ! reaction necess>y to ! sugge/ion ( complem5t>y col\r1 & t "u manifold modifications aris+ out ( ! ev]-*ang+ condition ( ! eye dur+ ! exp]im5t4 ,if ! ap]tures pass ! eye ) a velocity exce$+ "o-six? ( a second1 ! effect ceases4 ,!re is !n p]fect p]si/5ce1 & ! eye appreh5ds no?+ b ! ord9>y light ( ! sky1 r$uc$ 9 int5sity1 ) no?+ to break its uni=mity or give x a *romatic "*4 ,a f\r? exp]im5t is k9dr$ to ! la/4 ,place ! kalotrope "u ! same adju/m5t & managem5t z be=e1 9 front ( a brilliant sunset1 & ! spectator w see1 ) m ?an a poet's vision1 ',! ri* hues ( all glori\s ?+s4' ,,xii4 ,! ,kaleidoscopic ,col\r-top4 ,?is inv5tion by ,john ,graham1 ( ,tunbridge1 is design$ to %[ t :5 :ite or col\r$ light is transmitt$ to ! eye ?r\gh small op5+s cut into patt]ns or devices1 & :5 su* op5+s are made to pass be=e ! eye 9 rapid successive j]ks1 bo? =m & col\r are reta9$ ^u ! n]ve ( ! visual organ suffici5tly long to produce a comp\nd patt]n1 all ! p>ts ( :i* appe> simultane\sly1 al?\gh pres5t$ 9 succession4 ,! in/rum5t =ms1 !re=e1 a pleas+ illu/ration ( ! law t ! eye requires an almo/ inappreciably %ort space ( "t to receive an impression1 & t su* impression is n directly effac$1 b rema9s = an assignable ?\gh v limit$ p]iod4 ,! results are obta9$ by rotat+ two discs on a :eel1 ! l[] disc conta9+ col\rs1 & ! upp] "o ! ,page #cai op5+s2 ?is latt] disc is made to vibrate z well z to rotate1 ?us all[+ ! eye to receive ! col\r$ light reflect$ f bel[1 :i* light assumes1 at ! same "t1 ! =ms ( ! patt]ns ?r\gh :i* x has be5 transmitt$4 ,! in/rum5t s]ves also to illu/rate mo/ ( ! important ph5om5a ( col\r4 ,,xiii4 ,simple ,microscopes & ,telescopes4 ,! ,/anhope l5ses are n[ sold at su* a *eap rate1 & are s useful z simple portable microscopes1 t x is h>dly wor? :ile to detail any plan by :i* a *eap s+le-l5s magnifi] may be obta9$4 ,eloqu5t v5dors ( *eap microscopes are to be f\nd 9 ! /reets1 :o make _! in/rum5t ( a pill-box p]=at$ ) a p9-hole1 9 :i* a globule ( glass fix$ ) ,canada balsam is plac$2 & ! sph]ical =m ( ! drop af=ds ! magnify+ p[]3 or a ?9 plat9um wire may be b5t into a small circul> loop1 & into ?is may be plac$ a spl9t] ( fl9t-glass2 if ! flame ( a _s-lamp is urg$ ^u ! loop ( plat9um wire & glass by ! bl[pipe until x melts1 a small d\ble-convex l5s may be obta9$1 :i* w answ] v well z a magnify+-glass4 ,practice makes p]fect1 & aft] two or ?ree trials1 a good s+le l5s may be obta9$1 :i* c be m\nt$ betwe5 two small pieces ( lead1 brass1 or c>dbo>d1 prop]ly fix$ toge!r1 ) holes ?r\gh !m j l>ge en\gh to reta9 ! edge ( ! t9y l5s4 ,a prism c be made ( two small pieces ( w9d[-glass /uck toge!r ) a lump ( s(t beeswax1 & if a few drops ( wat] are plac$ 9 ! angle1 !y are reta9$ by capill>y attraction4 ,! prism is us$ by hold+ x aga9/ a l>ge p9-hole or small slit 9 a bit ( c>d1 & direct+ !m t[>ds ! sky1 :5 ! beautiful col\rs ( ! spectrum w be app>5t if ! c>d & prism are br\ght close to ! eye4 ,! mo/ simple =m ( ! refract+ telescope is made ) a l5s ( any focal l5g? exce$+ six in*es1 plac$ at "o end ( a t9 or c>dbo>d tube1 :i* mu/ be six in*es long] ?an ! focal l5g? ( ! l5s2 ! tube may be 9 two p>ts1 slid+ "o )9 ! o!r1 & :5 ! eye is plac$ at ! o!r end1 an inv]t$ image ( ! object look$ at1 is app>5t4 ,by us+ two d\ble-convex l5ses1 a m p]fect simple a/ronomical telescope is obta9$4 ,! object-glass1 i4e41 ! l5s next ! object look$ at1 mu/ be plac$ at ! end ( a t9 or pa/ebo>d tube l>g] ?an its focus1 & ! second l5s1 call$ ! eye-glass1 because next ! eye1 is a small] tube1 t]m$ ! eye-tube2 & if ! focal l5g? ( ! object-glass is ?ree feet1 ! eye-glass mu/ h a "o-in* focus1 & ( c\rse ! eye-tube & glass mu/ slide freely 9 ! tube conta9+ ! object-glass4 ,an object-glass ( =ty feet focus w admit ( an eye-glass ( only a f\r-in* focus1 & w1 !re=e1 magnify "o hundr$ & tw5ty times4 ,a tube ( =ty feet 9 l5g? w\ld ( c\rse be v tr\blesome to manage1 & !re=e x is usual to adopt ! plan orig9ally devis$ by ,huyg5s1 viz41 t ( plac+ ! object-glass 9 a %ort tube on ! ,page #cbj top ( a high pole ) a ball-&-socket jo9t1 :il/ ! eye-glass is br\ght into ! same l9e z ! object-glass1 & focus$ ) a tube & rack-"w prop]ly support$4 ,9 an ord9>y t]re/rial telescope !re are f\r l5ses1 9 ord] t ! objects se5 by its assi/ance %all n be inv]t$2 & :5ev] objects are exam9$ by a common telescope1 !y are f\nd to be fr+$1 or surr\nd$ ) prismatic col\rs4 ,?is disagreeable effect is correct$ by ! use ( a*romatic l5ses1 9 :i* two k9ds ( glass are unit$2 & ! light decompos$ by "o glass1 unit+ ) ! col\rs produc$ by ! o!r =m :ite light1 ?us a d\ble convex l5s ( cr[n glass1 ,c ,c1 may be unit$ ) a plano-convex l5s ( fl9t glass1 ,f ,f1 :i* mu/ h a focus ab\t d\ble ! l5g? ( t ( ! cr[n-glass l5s4 ,! concave l5s corrects ! col\r or *romatic ab]ration ( ! o!r1 & leaves ab\t "o-half ( ! refract+ p[] ( ! convex l5s z ! effective magnify+ p[] ( ! comp\nd l5s4 ,! ,fr5* opticians cem5t ! l5ses v neatly toge!r1 & use !m 9 ord9>y spy & op]a glasses4 7,fig4 #cjg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjg4 ,a comp\nd a*romatic l5s1 compos$ ( ,c ,c1 ! d\ble-convex l5s ( cr[n-glass1 & ,f ,f1 ! plano-concave l5s ( fl9t-glass4 ,,xiv4 ,! ,/]eoscope4 ,?is in/rum5t has n[ atta9$ a popul>ity q equal to1 if x does n surpass1 t =m]ly enjoy$ by ! kaleidoscope1 & )\t ent]+ ^u ! mu*-vex$ "q ( priority ( discov]y1 x is suffici5t aga9 to m5tion ) ! highe/ respect ! names ( ,sir ,david ,brew/] & ,pr(essor ,:eat/one z id5tifi$ ) ! discov]y & use ( ?is mo/ pleas+ optical in/rum5t4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! /]eoscope 7mean+1 solid ,i see7 is copi$ f nature3 i4e41 :5 bo? eyes are employ$ 9 ! exam9ation ( an object1 two sep>ate pictures1 embrac+ dissimil> =ms1 are impress$ ^u ! ret91 & produce ! effect ( solidity2 if ! pictures =m$ at ! back ( ! eyes c\ld be exam9$ by ano!r p]son ) a /]eoscope1 !y w\ld come toge!r1 & also produce ! effect ( solidity4 ,/]eoscopic pictures are obta9$ by expos+ s5sitiz$ pap] 9 ! cam]a to ! picture ( an object tak5 9 two positions1 or two cam]as are employ$ to obta9 ! same result4 ,if ! latt] mode is adopt$1 ! /]eoscopic pictures mu/ n be tak5 f positions too widely sep>at$ f ea* o!r2 or else1 :5 ! two pictures are plac$ 9 ! /]eoscope1 !y w /& out ) a relief t is q unnatural1 & ! object w appe> l a v r$uc$ solid model1 in/ead ( hav+ ! natural appe>ance pres5t$ by pictures :i* h be5 tak5 at positions too di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] says1 ,9 ord] to obta9 photographic pictures ma!matically exact1 we mu/ con/ruct a b9ocul> cam]a :i* w ,page #cba take ! pictures simultane\sly1 & ( ! same size2 t is1 by a cam]a ) two l5ses ( ! same ap]ture & focal l5g?1 plac$ at ! same di/ance z ! two eyes4 ,z x is impossible to gr9d & poli% two l5ses1 :e!r s+le or a*romatic1 ( exactly ! same focal l5g?s1 ev5 if we _h ! v same glass = ea*1 ,i propose to bisect ! l5ses1 & con/ruct ! in/rum5t ) semi-l5ses1 :i* w give u pictures ( precisely ! same size & def9ition4 ,^! l5ses %\ld be plac$ ) _! diamet]s ( bisection p>allel to "o ano!r1 & at a di/ance ( #b in*es1 :i* is ! av]age di/ance ( ! eyes 9 man2 & :5 fix$ 9 a box ( suffici5t size1 w =m a b9ocul> cam]a1 :i* w give u at ! same in/ant1 ) ! same lights & %ad[s1 & ( ! same size1 su* dissimil> pictures ( /atues1 build+s1 l&scapes1 & liv+ objects1 z w reproduce !m 9 relief 9 ! /]eoscope4 ,?us ) a s+le cam]a provid$ ) semi-l5ses1 or two l5ses ( ! same focal l5g?1 /]eoscopic pictures c be obta9$4 ,to br+ ! images ( ! two pictures toge!r1 & produce ! effect ( solidity2 ei!r ( two in/rum5ts may be employ$4 ,! reflect+ /]eoscope is ! inv5tion ( ,pr(essor ,:eat/one4 ,! refract+ or l5ticul> /]eoscope t ( ,sir ,david ,brew/]4 ,! =m] is con/ruct$ by plac+ two upright bo>ds on a wood5 /& at a mod]ate di/ance f ea* o!r2 ! /]eoscopic pictures are atta*$ to ^! bo>ds1 :i* may be made to move up or d[n1 & if ! pictures are held 9 grooves1 !y may be pull$ "r or left at pleasure1 & ?us f\r movem5ts are secur$--viz41 upw>d1 d[nw>d1 "r1 or left4 ,betwe5 ! two /]eoscopic pictures are plac$ two look+-glasses1 s adju/$ t _! backs =m an angle ( n9ety degrees ) ea* o!r4 7,fig4 #cjh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjh4 ,:eat/one's reflect+ /]eoscope4 ,! pictures are illum9at$ at night by a lamp or gas flame plac$ at ! back ( ! mirrors1 :i*1 :5 fix$ toge!r1 h ! same %ape z a prism2 inde$1 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one sub/itut$ a prism = ! mirrors1 & ?us pav$ ! way = ! inv5tion ( ! l5ticul> /]eoscope4 ,page #cbb ,! /]eoscopic effect is obta9$ by br++ ! eyes close to ! incl9$ mirrors1 s t ! two reflect$ images co9cide at ! int]section ( ! optic axis2 ! co9cid5ce ( ! images is fur!r secur$ by mov+ ei!r picture a little to ! "r or left1 & if ! upright bo>ds move bodily 9 grooves to or f ! c5tre mirror1 ! greate/ nicety ( adju/m5t is procur$4 ,dur+ ! la/ ?ree ye>s ( ! au?or's director%ip ( ! ,polyte*nic--viz41 9 #ahef1 #aheg1 #aheh--ne>ly ! :ole ( ! pictures %[n by ! dissolv+-view app>atus 7 col\r$ photographs f ,mr4 ,h9e's orig9al pictures1 pa9t$ two feet squ>e 9 blue & :ite1 & r$uc$ on ! glass to ab\t six in*es squ>e4 ,! collodion film be+ frequ5tly ?ick & difficult to p5etrate ) light1 0 et*$ & scrat*$ away :]e requir$1 & fill$ 9 ) col\r1 & :5 ^! pictures 7 look$ at ) "o eye only1 !y appe>$ to be almo/ solid or /]eoscopic on ! disc4 ,! l5ticul> /]eoscope consi/s ( a box ( a pyramidal %ape1 op5 at ! base1 & provid$ ) grooves 9 :i* are plac$ ! /]eoscopic pictures2 if ! latt] are tak5 on glass ! base ( ! box is held directly aga9/ ! light1 b if !y are dagu]reotypes or pap] pictures1 !n a side light is reflect$ ^u !m by means ( a lid cov]$ 9 ! inside ) t9foil1 :i* is rais$ or l[]$ at pleasure f ! top "p ( ! box4 ,two semi-l5ses are n[ fitt$ into ! n>r[ "p ( ! box1 & are plac$ at su* a di/ance f ea* o!r t ! c5tres ( ! semi-l5ses correspond ) ! pupil ( ! eyes1 & ?is di/ance has already be5 /at$ to am\nt to #b in*es4 7,fig4 #cji47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cji4 ,brew/]'s l5ticul> /]eoscope4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! l5ticul> /]eoscope is p]haps bett] se5 by ref]5ce to ! next diagram1 9 :i* ! c5tres ( ! semi-l5ses 7i4e41 a l5s cut 9 half7 are plac$ at #b in*es ap>t1 ) _! ?9 edges t[>ds ea* o!r1 & m>k$1 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #caj4 ,! c5tres ( ! two /]eoscopic pictures ,c ,d correspond ) ! c5tres ( ! l5ses1 & ! rays ( light div]g+ f ,c ,d fall ^u ! semi-l5ses1 & be+ refract$ ne>ly p>allel are1 by ! prismatic =m ( ! semi-l5ses1 deflect$ f _! c\rse1 & leave ! surfaces ( ! l5ses 9 ! same direction z if !y actually emanat$ f ,e2 & z all images ( bodies appe> to come 9 a /raight l9e f ! po9t :5ce !y are se51 ! two pictures are sup]impos$ on ea* o!r1 & toge!r produce ! appe>ance ( solidity1 s t a /]eoscopic result is obta9$ :5 ! spectral images ( ! two /]eoscopic pictures are made to ov]lap ea* o!r4 ,by tak+ "o ( ! semi-l5ses 9 ea* h&1 & look+ at ! two pictures1 ! ov]-lapp+ ,page #cbc ( ! spectral images becomes v app>5t1 s t ! comb9$ spectral images1 & n ! pictures !mselves1 are se5 :5 we look into a /]eoscope4 7,fig4 #caj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caj4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] says1 ,9 ord] t ! two images may coalesce )\t any ef=t or /ra9 on ! "p ( ! eye1 x is necess>y t ! di/ance ( ! simil> p>ts ( ! two draw+s be equal to twice ! sep>ation produc$ by ! prism4 ,= ?is purpose measure ! di/ance at :i* ! semi-l5ses give ! mo/ di/9ct view ( ! /]eoscopic pictures1 & hav+ asc]ta9$ by us+ "o eye ! am\nt ( ! refraction produc$ at t di/ance1 or ! quantity by :i* ! image ( "o ( ! pictures is displac$1 place ! /]eoscopic pictures at a di/ance equal to twice t quantity--t is1 place ! pictures s t ! av]age di/ance ( simil> p>ts 9 ea* is equal to twice t quantity4 ,if ?is is n correctly done1 ! eye ( ! obs]v] w correct ! error by mak+ ! images coalesce1 )\t be+ s5sible t x is mak+ any su* ef=t4 ,:5 ! dissimil> /]eoscopic pictures are ?us unit$1 ! solid w appe> /&+ z x 7 9 relief betwe5 ! two plane repres5tations4 ,,xv4 ,! ,/]eomonoscope4 ,m4 ,claudet1 ^: "n has long be5 celebrat$ 9 connexion ) ! art ( photography1 has describ$ an in/rum5t by :i* a s+le picture is made to simulate ! appe>ance ( solidity1 & he /ates t by means ( ?is arrangem5t a numb] ( p]sons may obs]ve ! effect at ! same "t4 ,! app>atus requir$ is v simple1 consi/+ ( a l>ge d\ble convex l5s1 & a scre5 ( gr\nd glass4 ,! ,page #cbd object ,a1 ,fig4 #caa1 is highly illum9at$1 & plac$ 9 ! focus ( a d\ble convex l5s ,b1 :5 an image ( ! object is project$1 & w be f\nd susp5d$ 9 ! air 9 ! conjugate focus ( ! l5s at ,c1 & f ?is po9t ! rays ( light w div]ge z f a real object1 :i* w be se5 by sep>ate spectators at ,d ,d & ,e ,e2 & if ! scre5 ( gr\nd glass is plac$ at ,g ,g1 ! image w appe> ) all ! effect ( l5g?1 bread?1 & dep?1 :i* belong to solid bodies4 7,fig4 #caa47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caa4 ,! /]eomonoscope4 ,an image =m$ on gr\nd glass 9 ?is mann] c be se5 only 9 ! direction ( ! incid5t rays1 & ! /]eoscopic effect is n app>5t :5 ! image is receiv$ on a calico or transp>5t scre51 on acc\nt ( ! rays be+ scatt]$ 9 all directions4 ,,xvi4 ,! ,/]eomoscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cab4 ,! /]eomoscope4 ,?is arrangem5t is an important modification ( ! o!r1 & consi/s ( a scre5 ( gr\nd glass 7,a ,b1 ,fig4 #cab71 & two convex ,page #cbe l5ses 7,c ,d1 & ,e ,f7 arrang$ 9 su* a mann] t !y w project images ( ! /]eoscopic pictures1 ,g ,h1 at ! same po9t on ! scre51 ,a ,b4 ,x might be ?\ght t a confusion ( images w\ld result f project+ two pictures on "o po9t1 ,p--viz41 ! focus ( ! two l5ses2 b z ea* photograph c be se5 only 9 ! direction ( its own rays1 x foll[s t if ! eyes are s plac$ t ea* receives ! impression ( "o /]eoscopic picture1 ! two images mu/ coalesce1 & a /]eoscopic effect w be ! result1 z is app>5t at ,k ,k & ,l ,l2 s t sev]al p]sons may look at ! /]eoscope at "o "t4 7,fig4 #cab47 ,,xvii4 ,! ,pseudoscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cac4 ,horizontal section ( ! pseudoscope1 %[+ at ,a ,b two prisms plac$ aga9/ a block ( wood ab\t two in*es long & "o in* & a half wide1 & cut out 9 ! c5tre to admit ! nose at ,d4 ,! eyes are suppos$ to be look+ at ! globe1 ,c1 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,e ,e4 ,brass plates black5$1 :i* %ut out ! side light1 & assi/ 9 keep+ ! prisms 9 position4 ,?is curi\s optical in/rum5t1 z its "n implies1 produces a false image by ! refract+ p[] ( prisms1 & is ! inv5tion ( ,pr(essor ,:eat/one4 ,:5 us$ ) bo? eyes1 ! same z ! /]eoscope1 x inv]ts ! relief ( a solid body1 & makes x appe> exactly z if x 7 an intaglio1 or sunk b5ea? ! l9e surr\nd+ x4 ,= in/ance1 a t]re/rial globe :5 look$ at ?r\gh ! pseudoscope appe>s to be concave1 l ,wyld's ,globe 9 ,leice/]-squ>e1 in/ead ( convex4 ,a vase ) rais$ ornam5ts ^u x looks z if x _h be5 turn$ 7to rev]se ! usual expression7 outside 91 & ,page #cbf ! :ole ( its convexity is turn$ to concavity2 & ( c\rse a face se5 "u ^! circum/ances looks v curi\s4 7,fig4 #cac47 ,! cause is p]haps some:at difficult to und]/&2 b by tak+ o!r & m simple examples ( ! same effect1 ! pr9ciple may be gradually compreh5d$4 ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 9 8 ,lett]s on ,natural ,magic1 rem>ks t "o ( ! mo/ curi\s ph5om5a is t false p]ception 9 vision by :i* we conceive depressions to be elevations1 & elevations depressions--or by :i* intaglios are conv]t$ into cameos1 & cameos into intaglios4 ,?is curi\s fact seems to h be5 obs]v$ at "o ( ! e>ly meet+s ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 :5 "o ( ! memb]s1 9 look+ at a gu9ea ?r\gh a comp\nd microscope ( new con/ruction1 0 surpris$ to see ! head ^u ! co9 depress$1 :ile o!r memb]s c\ld only see x emboss$1 z x really 04444 ,! be/ me?od ( obs]v+ ?is deception is to view ! engrav$ seal ( a wat* ) ! eye-piece ( an a*romatic telescope1 or ) a comp\nd microscope1 or any comb9ation ( l5ses :i* inv]ts ! objects t are view$ ?r\gh x2 a s+le convex l5s w answ] ! purpose1 provid$ we hold ! eye six or eight in*es beh9d ! image ( ! seal =m$ 9 its conjugate focus4 ,aft] br++ =w>d v>i\s int]e/+ exp]im5ts 9 fur!r explanation ( ! cause1 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] /ates x to be 8 belief t ! illusion is ! result ( an op]ation ( our own m9ds1 :]eby we judge ( ! =ms ( bodies by ! k we h acquir$ ( light & %ad[4 ,h5ce1 ! illusion dep5ds on ! accuracy & ext5t ( our k on ?is subject2 & :ile "s p]sons are "u its influ5ce1 o!rs are entirely ins5sible to x4 ,?is /atem5t is borne out by exp]i5ce1 z ! au?or1 :il/ ,resid5t ,director ( ! ,polyte*nic1 _h f\r ( ,:eat/one's pseudoscopes plac$ 9 ! gall]y1 ) prop] objects beh9d !m2 & he frequ5tly notic$ t "s visitors w\ld look ?r\gh ! in/rum5t & see no alt]ation ( ! convex objects1 :il/ o!rs w\ld %\t ) delight1 & call _! fri5ds to witness ! /range metamorphosis1 :o 9 _! turn might disappo9t ! call] by be+ p]fectly ins5sible to its /range effects4 ,! pseudo-effects ( vision are n conf9$ to ! results already expla9$1 b are to be obs]v$ especially :il/ travell+ 9 a coa*1 :5 ! eyes may be s fix$ z to give ! impression ( movem5t to ! trees & h\ses1 :il/ ! coa* appe>s to /& /ill4 ,9 railway c>riages1 aft] rid+ = "s "t & !n com+ to a /& /ill1 if ano!r tra9 is set sl[ly 9 motion by ! "o at re/1 x frequ5tly happ5s t ! latt] appe>s to be mov+ in/ead ( ! =m]4 ,page #cbg ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,absorption ,,( ,,light4 ,! analysis ( light has be5 expla9$ 9 a previ\s *apt]1 & x has be5 %[n h[ ! spectrum is produc$4 ,col\r1 h[ev]1 may be obta9$ by o!r means1 & ! prop]ty enjoy$ by c]ta9 bodies1 ( absorb+ c]ta9 col\r$ rays 9 pref]5ce to o!rs1 (f]s ano!r mode ( decompos+ light4 ,! prop]ty ( absorption is %[n to u 9 e k9d ( degree by innum]able natural & artificial sub/ances2 & by exam9+ ! spectrum ?r\gh a w$ge ( blue glass1 ,sir ,david ,brew/] 0 enabl$ to sep>ate ! sev5 col\rs ( ! spectrum into ! ?ree prim>y col\rs1 r$1 yell[1 & blue1 :i* he prov$ exi/$ at e po9t ( ! spectrum1 & by ov]-lapp+ ea* o!r 9 v>i\s proportions1 produce ! comp\nd col\rs ( orange1 gre51 indigo1 & violet4 ,connect$ ) ?is prop]ty is ! rem>kable effect produc$ by col\r$ light on ord9>y col\rs1 & ! sickly hue ca/ ^u ! gho/ 9 a melodrama1 or ! fi]y complexion imp>t$ to ! hair ( ,d] ,freis*utz1 or ! jaundic$ appe>ance pres5t$ by e memb] ( a juv5ile assembly :5 illum9at$ ) a yell[ light f ! salt & burn+ _s ( snapdragon1 are too well kn[n to require a l5g!n$ description "h4 ,if a numb] ( col\rs are pa9t$ on c>dbo>d1 or gr\ps ( plants1 fl[]s1 flags1 & %awls1 are illum9at$ by a mono-*romatic light1 & especially ! light procur$ f a l>ge t[ tor* well suppli$ ) salt & _s1 ! effect is c]ta9ly v rem>kable2 at ! same "t x %[s h[ completely sub/ances owe _! col\r to ! light by :i* !y are illum9at$1 & x also indicates :y ladies _c *oose col\rs by c&le light1 unless ( c\rse !y propose to we> ! dress only at night1 :5 x is q prud5t to see ! col\rs 9 a room lit ) gas2 & ?is fact is s well kn[n t ) ! *ief drap]s1 su* z at ,messrs4 ,hall+1 ,pe>ce1 & ,/one's1 ,wat]loo ,h\se1 a d>k5$ room lit ) gas is provid$ dur+ ! daytime to enable pur*as]s ( col\r$ dresses to judge ( ! effect ( artificial light ^u !m4 ,:il/ ! fl[]s1 c41 are light$ up ) ! yell[ light1 a magical *ange is br\ght ab\t by ?r[+ on sudd5ly ! rays f ! oxy-hydrog5 light1 :5 ! col\rs are aga9 re/or$2 or if ! latt] app>atus is n ready1 ! combu/ion ( phosphorus 9 a j> ( oxyg5 w answ] ! same purpose4 ,! light obta9$ f ! combu/ion ( gas af=ds an excess ( ! yell[ or r$ rays ( light1 :i* causes ! diff]5ce betwe5 c&lelight & daylight col\rs already allud$ to4 ,page #cbh ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,inflection ,,or ,,diffraction ,,( ,,light4 ,9 ?is "p ( ! subject x is absolutely necess>y to return to ! !ory ( undulations ) :i* ! pres5t subject 0 comm5c$4 ,! inflection ( light (f]s a ?ird me?od by :i* rays ( light may be decompos$ & col\r produc$4 ,! ph5om5a are extremely beautiful1 al?\gh ! explanation ( !m is almo/ too intricate = a popul> "w ( ?is k9d4 ,! cases :]e col\r is produc$ by inflection are m num]\s ?an might at fir/ be suppos$2 ?us1 if we look at a gaslight or ! sett+ sun ?r\gh a wire gauze bl9d1 protect+ ! eye ) a little tank ( dilute ink1 a mo/ beautiful col\r$ cross is app>5t4 ,an extremely ?9 film ( a transp>5t matt]1 su* z a little naph?a or v>ni% dropp$ on ! surface ( w>m wat] or soap bubbles1 or a v ?9 film ( glass obta9$ by bl[+ out a bulb ( r$-hot glass till x bur/s1 or an exquisitely ?9 plate ( talc or mica1 all pres5t ! ph5om5a ( col\r1 al?\gh !y are individually transp>5t1 & 9 ord9>y ?icknesses q col\rless4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cad4 ,! two l5ses1 ) ! plate or film ( air betwe5 !m1 & produc+ sev5 col\r$ r+s :5 ! l5ses are br\ght suffici5tly close to ea* o!r by ! screws4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton br\ght 8 p[]ful intellect to be> on ^! facts1 & z a prelim9>y /ep inv5t$ an in/rum5t = measur+ ! exact ?ickness ( ^? transp>5t sub/ances t af=d$ col\r1 & ! app>atus display+ ,newton's r+s is /ill a fav\rite optical exp]im5t4 ,x consi/s ( a plano-convex l5s1 ,a4 7,fig4 #cad71 a slice1 z x 71 f a globe ( glass tw5ty-eight feet 9 diamet]1 or ! radius ( ^: convex surface is f\rte5 feet4 ,?is plano-convex l5s is plac$ on ano!r d\ble convex l5s1 ,b41 ^: convex surfaces h a radius ( fifty feet ea*1 consequ5tly ! l5ses are v %all[1 & ! space 7,c ,c7 includ$ betwe5 !m be+ fill$ ) air1 c ( c\rse be accurately measur$4 7,fig4 #cad47 ,x is usual to m\nt ! l5ses 9 brass r+s :i* are br\ght toge!r ) screws1 :5 ! mo/ beautiful col\r$ r+s are app>5t1 & are produc$ by ! extreme ?9ness ( ! film or plate ( air enclos$ betwe5 ! two l5ses2 & ,page #cbi ! relative ?icknesses ( ! plates ( air at :i* ea* col\r$ light is reflect$ are z foll[s3-- ,r$ #acc #aj million?s ( an in*4 ,orange #abj ,yell[ #aac ,gre5 #aje ,blue #ih ,indigo #ib ,violet #hc ,by divid+ an in* into t5 millions ( p>ts1 & by tak+ #acc ( su* p>ts1 ! ?ickness ( ! film ( air requir$ to reflect ! r$ ray is obta9$1 & 9 l mann] ! o!r col\rs require ! m9ute ?icknesses ( air record$ 9 ! table above4 ,:5 ! ?ickness ( ! film ( air is ab\t #ab_/agh1jjj;d?s ( an in*1 ! col\rs cease to become visible1 ow+ to ! union ( all ! sep>ate col\rs =m+ :ite light1 b if ! ,newton r+s are produc$ 9 mono-*romatic light1 !n a great] numb] ( r+s are app>5t1 b ( "o col\r only1 & alt]nat+ ) black r+s1 i4e41 a d>k & a yell[ succe$+ ea* o!r2 ?is fact is ( great importance z an illu/ration ( ! undulatory !ory1 & demon/rates ! important tru?1 t two rays ( light may int]f]e ) ea* o!r 9 su* a mann] z to produce d>kness4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] rem>ks t1 ,f 8 exp]im5ts on ! col\rs ( ?9 & ( ?ick plates1 ,newton inf]r$ t !y 7 produc$ by a s+ul> prop]ty ( ! p>ticles ( light1 9 virtue ( :i* !y possess1 at diff]5t jo9ts ( _! pa?s1 fits or dispositions to be reflect$ f or transmitt$ by transp>5t bodies4 ,sir ,isaac does n pret5d to expla9 ! orig9 ( ^! fits1 or ! cause :i* produces !m1 b t]ms !m fits ( transmission & fits ( reflexion4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton object$ to ! !ory ( undulations because exp]im5ts seem$ to %[ t light c\ld n travel ?r\gh b5t tubes1 :i* x ought to d if propagat$ by undulations l s\nd2 & x 0 res]v$ = ! late ,dr4 ,"y to prove t light c\ld & w\ld turn a corn]1 9 8 highly philosophical exp]im5ts illu/rat+ ! inflection or b5d+ 9 ( ! rays ( light4 ,dr4 ,"y plac$ be=e a hole 9 a %utt] a piece ( ?ick pap] p]=at$ ) a f9e ne$le1 & receiv+ ?r\gh x ! div]g+ beams on a pap] scre51 f\nd t :5 a slip ( c>dbo>d "o-?irtie? ( an in* 9 bread? 0 held 9 su* a beam ( light1 t ! %ad[ ( ! c>d 0 n m]ely a d>k b&1 b divid$ into light & d>k p>allel b&s1 & in/ead ( ! c5tre ( ! %ad[ be+ ! d>ke/ "p1 x 0 actually :ite4 ,dr4 ,"y asc]ta9$ t if he int]cept$ ! light pass+ on "o side ( ! slip ( c>d ) any opaque body1 & all[$ ! light to pass freely on ! o!r side ( ! slip ( c>dbo>d1 t all ! b&s & ! :ite b& 9 ! c5tre disappe>$1 & h5ce he conclud$ t ! b&s or fr+es )9 ! %ad[ 7 produc$ by ! int]f]5ce ,page #ccj ( ! rays b5t into ! %ad[ by "o side ( ! c>d1 ) ! rays b5t into ! %ad[ by ! o!r side4 7,fig4 #cae74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cae4 ,9 ord] to %[ h[ two waves may int]f]e s z to exalt or de/roy ea* o!r1 two sets ( waves may be propagat$ on ! surface ( a /ill tank or ba? ( wat]1 f ! two po9ts ,a ,a 7,fig4 #cae71 ! black l9es or circles repres5t+ ! tops ( ! waves4 ,x w be se5 t along ! l9es ,b ,b ! waves int]f]e j half way betwe5 ea* o!r1 s t 9 all ^! directions !re w be a smoo? surface1 provid$ ea* set ( waves is produc$ by precisely ! same degree ( di/urb+ =ce1 s z to be p]fectly equal & alike 9 e respect1 & ! fir/ wave ( "o set exactly half a wave 9 advance ( ! fir/ wave ( ! o!r1 :ile at ! curve 9 ! direction ( all ! l9e ,c ,c1 ! waves co9cide1 & produce elevations or undulations ( d\ble ext5t2 9 ! int]m$iate spaces1 int]m$iate effects w1 ( c\rse1 be produc$4 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one has inv5t$ "s v simple & beautiful ac\/ic app>atus = ! purpose ( prov+ t ! same laws ( int]f]5ce exi/ also 9 s\nd1 :i*1 z already /at$1 consi/s 9 ! vibrations or undulation ( ! p>ticles ( air4 ,page #cca ,! nature & effects ( int]f]5ce are also admirably illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ models ( ,mr4 ,*>les ,woodw>d1 ,presid5t ( ! ,isl+ton ,sci5tific ,in/itution1 & to :om we h already allud$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caf4--,no4 #a4 ,a model ( waves ) moveable rods4--,no4 #b4 ,a model ( fix$ waves4--,no4 #c4 ,int5sity ( waves d\bl$ by ! sup]position & co9cid5ce ( two equal sy/ems4--,no4 #d4 ,waves neutraliz$ by ! sup]position & int]f]5ce ( two equal sy/ems1 ! rais$ "p ( "o wave accurately fitt+ into & mak+ smoo? ! holl[ ( ! o!r1 illu/rat+ ! fact t two waves ( light or s\nd may de/roy ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cag4 ,appe>ance ( ,newton's r+s :5 produc$ 9 yell[ light1 #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 be+ ! yell[ r+s1 & #b1 #d1 #f1 #h1 ! d>k r+s4 ,light by ! odd numb]s2 d>kness by ! ev5 numb]s4 ,! c5tral spot1 :]e ! two surfaces are 9 contact1 is d>k4 ,return+ aga9 to ! col\r$ r+s1 we f9d t ,newton discov]$ t at :atev] ?ickness ( ! film ( air ! col\r$ r+ fir/ appe>$1 !re w\ld be f\nd at twice t ?ickness ! d>k r+1 at ?ree times ! col\r$1 at f\r times ! d>k1 & s on1 ! col\r$ r+s regul>ly occurr+ at ! odd numb]s1 & ! d>k ones at ! ev5 numb]s4 ,?is discov]y is well illu/rat$ by ! models 7,fig4 #caf72 & x maybe notic$ at ,no4 #c t ! highe/ & ! l[e/ p>ts ( ! waves ,page #ccb int]f]e1 b co9cide & produce a wave ( d\ble int5sity2 ! little crosses ( ! upp] model are 9 a /raight l9e ) ! numb]s #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 & are suppos$ to repres5t ! col\r$ r+s1 :il/ 9 ,no4 #d ! upp] s]ies ( waves is half an undulation 9 advance ( ! l[]2 & if ! eye is aga9 direct$ f ! little crosses d[nw>d1 ! figures #b1 #d1 #f1 #h1 ev5 numb]s1 are app>5t1 & repres5t ! d>k r+s1 :5 ! waves ( light de/roy ea* o!r4 ,! ph5om5a ( ?9 plates1 su* z col\rs f soap bubbles1 & ! films ( v>ni%1 are well expla9$ by ! law ( int]f]5ce4 ,! light reflect$ f ! second surface ( ! film ( air 7:i* mu/ ( c\rse1 h[ev] ?91 h two surfaces1 viz41 a upp] & a l[] "o7 int]f]es ) ! light reflect$ f ! fir/1 & z !y come f diff]5t po9ts ( space1 "o set ( waves is 9 advance ( ! o!r1 ,no4 #d1 ,fig4 #caf2 !y rea* ! eye ) diff]5t l5g?s ( pa?s1 & by _! int]f]5ce =m alt]nately ! lum9\s & d>k fr+es1 b&s1 or circles4 ,bridge's diffraction app>atus1 manufactur$ only by ,elliott ,bro!rs1 (f]s itself specially z a mo/ beautiful draw+-room optical in/rum5t4 ,! purpose ( ?is app>atus is to illu/rate 9 great v>iety1 & 9 ! mo/ conv5i5t & compact =m1 ! ph5om5a ( ! diffraction or int]f]5ce ( light4 ,?is is atta9$ by ! assi/ance ( photography4 ,transp>5t ap]tures 9 an opaque collodion film are produc$ on glass1 & a po9t ( light is view$ ?r\gh ! ap]tures4 ,page #ccc ,! =ms ( ! ap]tures are exce$+ly v>i\s1--triangles1 squ>es1 circles1 ellipses1 p>abolas1 hyp]bolas1 & comb9ations ( !m1 besides _m figures ( fanciful =ms1 are includ$ 9 ! set4 ,:5 an image ( ! sun is view$ ?r\gh ^! ap]tures1 figures ( extraord9>y beauty1 bo? ( =m & col\r1 are produc$2 & ( ea* ( ^! _m v>iations may be obta9$ by plac+ ! eye-glass ( ! telescope at diff]5t di/ances f ! object glass4 ,_m ( ! figures produc$1 especially :5 ! telescope is out ( focus1 might sugge/ v useful h9ts to ^? conc]n$ 9 design+ patt]ns4 ,al?\gh ! ph5om5a are *iefly ( int]e/ to ! /ud5t ( sci5ce1 9 consequ5ce ( _! be>+ on !ories ( light1 yet _! beauty & v>iety r5d] !m amus+ to all4 ,a few words on ! mode ( us+ ! app>atus may be ( s]vice4 7,fig4 #cah47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cah4 ,elliott ,bro!rs' diffraction app>atus4 ,*oose a v bright day1 = !n only c ! app>atus be us$4 ,place ! mirror 9 ! sun1 & let ! light be reflect$ on ! back ( ! black5$ scre54 ,! l5s :i* is ins]t$ into ?is scre5 w !n =m an exce$+ly bright image ( ! sun4 ,!n at ! di/ance ( n less ?an twelve feet1 clamp ! telescope to a table 9 su* a position z to view ! image ?us =m$4 ,put ! ecc5tric cap on ! end ( ! telescope1 clean ! glass objects c>efully1 & atta* !m to ! cap s t !y may be turn$ ea* 9 ord] be=e ! telescope4 ,9 ?is mann]1 all ^? :i* consi/ ( a s]ies ( figures may be view$4 ,!n deta* ! ecc5tric cap1 & replace x by ! o!r4 ,into x place any ( ! s+le objects4 ,9 view+ "s ( ! figures1 brightness is advantage\s--9 o!rs1 delicacy2 9 ! =m] case1 let ! l5s ( long focus be ins]t$ 9 ! scre5--9 ! latt] case1 t ( %ort] focus4 ,9 e case1 let ! ph5om5a be obs]v$ n only :5 ! telescope is 9 focus1 b also :5 ! eye-glass is pu%$ 9 to v>i\s di/ances4 ,mr4 ,w>r5 de la ,rue has +5i\sly tak5 advantage ( ! col\rs produc$ by ?9 films ( v>ni%1 & actually fix$ ! lovely iridesc5t col\r produc$ 9 t mann] on highly poli%$ pap]1 :i* is t]m$ iridesc5t pap]4 ,a tank ( w>m wat] at #hj ,fahr41 ab\t ,page #ccd six in*es deep1 & two feet six in*es squ>e1 is provid$1 & a highly glaz$ %eet ( :ite or black pap] be+ fir/ wett$ on a p]=at$ metallic plate1 is !n sunk ) ! plate bel[ its surface1 c>e be+ tak5 to avoid air bubbles4 ,a peculi> v>ni% is !n all[$ to trickle sl[ly d[n a sort ( tongue ( metal plac$ 9 ! middle ( "o ( ! sides ( ! tank1 & directly ! v>ni% t\*es ! surface ( ! wat] x beg9s to spread out 9 exquisitely ?9 films1 & by wat*+ ! op]ation close to a w9d[ & skimm+ away all ! imp]fect films1 a p]fect "o is at la/ obta9$1 & at t mom5t ! pap] ly+ on ! metal plate is rais$ f ! bottom ( ! tank1 & ! delicate film ( v>ni% secur$4 ,:5 dry1 ! iridesc5t col\rs are app>5t1 & ! pap] is employ$ = _m ornam5tal purposes4 ,an extremely simple & pretty me?od ( produc+ ,newton's r+s has be5 inv5t$ by ,reade1 & is call$ ,reade's iriscope4 ,a plate ( glass ( any %ape 7p]haps circul> is ! be/7 is pa9t$ on "o side ) "s quickly dry+ black pa9t or v>ni%1 & aft] ! o!r side has be5 clean$1 x is !n rubb$ ov] ) a piece ( wet soap1 & ?is is rubb$ (f ) a clean s(t du/]4 ,a tube ( ab\t half an in* 9 diamet]1 & twelve in*es long1 is provid$1 & is held ab\t "o in* above ! c5tre ( ! soap$ side ( ! glass plate1 & directly ! brea? is direct$ d[n ! tube on ! glass1 an imm5se numb] ( m9ute p>ticles ( moi/ure are deposit$ on ! glass1 & ^! by inflection decompose ! light1 & all ! col\rs ( ! ra9b[ are produc$4 7,fig4 #cai47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cai4 ,reade's iriscope4 ,! iridesc5t col\rs se5 ^u ! surface ( "m-(-pe>l1 :i* ,mr4 ,simonds' excell5t comm]cial diction>y tells u is ! "n = ! iridesc5t %ell ( ! pe>l oy/]1 & o!r molluscs1 are ref]rible to f9e p>allel l9es =m$ by its texture1 & are reproducible1 accord+ to ,brew/]'s exp]im5ts1 by tak+ impressions ( !m 9 s(t wax4 ,! gorge\s col\rs ( c]ta9 %ells & fi%1 ! fea!rs ( birds1 ,b>ton's /eel buttons1 are n due to any inh]5t pigm5t or col\r+ matt] t c\ld be extract$ f !m1 b are ow+ ei!r to ! peculi> fibr\s1 or p>allel-l9$1 or lam9at$ 7plate-l7 surfaces ^u :i* ! light falls1 & be+ reflect$ 9 pa?s ( diff]5t l5g?s1 int]f]5ce occurs1 & col\r$ light is produc$4 ,page #cce ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,! ,,pol>ization ,,( ,,light4 ,?is bran* ( ! ph5om5a ( light includes "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable & gorge\s *romatic effects2 at ! same "t1 reg>d$ philosophically1 x is c]ta9ly a mo/ difficult subject to place 9 a purely elem5t>y mann] be=e ! y\?ful m9ds ( juv5ile philosoph]s1 & unless ! previ\s *apt] on ! diffraction ( light is c>efully exam9$1 ! rationale ( ! illu/rations ( pol>iz$ light w h>dly be appreciat$4 ,we h fir/ to ask1 ,:at is pol>iz$ light8 ,! answ] requires u aga9 to c>ry our ?\ghts back to ! consid]ation ( ! undulatory !ory ( light1 already illu/rat$ & p>tly expla9$ at pages #bfb1 #ccj4 ,aft] p]us+ ?is portion ( ! subject1 x might be consid]$ t waves ( light 7 con/itut$ ( "o motion only1 & t an undulation might be ei!r p]p5dicul> or horizontal1 accord+ to circum/ances4 7,fig4 #cbj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbj4--,no4 #a4 ,a wire b5t to repres5t a p]p5dicul> vibration1 :i* if kept 9 ! latt] position1 w only pass ?r\gh a p]p5dicul> ap]ture4--,no4 #b4 ,a wire b5t to repres5t a horizontal wave :i* w only pass ?r\gh a horizontal ap]ture4 ,?is simple condition ( ! waves ( light c\ld n1 h[ev]1 be reconcil$ !oretically ) ! actual facts1 & x is necess>y 9 reg>d+ a ray ( light1 to consid] x z a comb9ation ( two vibrat+ motions1 "o ( :i*1 = ! sake ( simplicity1 may be consid]$ z p]p5dicul>1 & ! o!r horizontal2 & ?is idea ( ! nature ( ,page #ccf an undulation ( light orig9at$ ) ! late ,dr4 ,"y1 :o :ile consid]+ ! results ( ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s rese>*es on ! laws ( d\ble refraction1 fir/ propos$ ! !ory ( transv]sal 7cross-wise7 vibration4 ,dr4 ,"y illu/rat$ 8 !ory ) a /ret*$ cord1 :i* if agitat$ or viol5tly %ak5 p]p5dicul>ly1 produces a wave t runs along ! cord to ! o!r end1 & may be (t5 se5 illu/rat$ on ! banks ( a riv] ov]hung ) high bu%es2 ! b>gem5 :o drive ! horses pull+ ! vessel by a rope1 w\ld be cont9ually /opp$ by ! /unt$ ?ick bu%es1 b directly !y approa* !m1 !y give ! horse a la%1 & !n viol5tly agitate ! rope v]tically1 :i* is ?r[n into waves t pass along ! rope1 & cle> ! bu%es 9 ! mo/ p]fect mann]4 7,fig4 #cba47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cba4 ,b>geman ?r[+ 8 t[-rope into waves to get x ov] ! ?ick bu%es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbb4 ,a section ( a wave ( common light made up ( ! transv]sal vibration1 ,a ,b & ,c ,d4 ,n[ if a simil> movem5t is made ) ! /ret*$ rope f "r to left1 ano!r wave w be produc$1 :i* w run along ! cord 9 an horizontal position1 & if ! latt] is comp>$ ) ! p]p5dicul> undulation1 x w be evid5t t ea* set ( waves w be 9 planes at "r angles to & indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,?is is suppos$ to be ! me*anism ( a wave ( common light1 s t if a section is tak5 ( su* an undulation1 x w be repres5t$ by a circle ,a ,b ,c ,d 7,fig4 #cbb71 ) two diamet]s ,a ,b1 & ,c ,d2 or a bett] me*anical notion ( a wave ( common ,page #ccg light is acquir$ f ! inspection ( ano!r ( ,mr4 ,woodw>d's c>dbo>d models4 7,fig4 #cbc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbc4 ,model ( a wave ( common light4 ,! exi/5ce ( an alt]nat+ motion ( "s k9d at m9ute int]vals along a ray is1 says ,pr(essor ,bad5 ,p[ell1 z real z ! motion ( translation by :i* light is propagat$ ?r\gh space4 ,bo? mu/ ess5tially be comb9$ 9 any correct conception we =m ( light4 ,t ?is alt]nat+ motion mu/ h ref]5ce to c]ta9 directions transv]se to t ( ! ray is equally e/abli%$ z a consequ5ce ( ! ph5om5a2 & ^! two pr9ciples mu/ =m ! basis ( any explanation :i* c be attempt$4 ,a beam ( common light is !re=e to be reg>d$ z a rapid succession ( sy/ems ( waves 9 :i* ! vibrations take place 9 diff]5t planes4 ,if ! two sy/ems ( waves are sep>at$ ! "o f ! o!r1 viz41 ! horizontal f ! p]p5dicul>1 !y ea* =m sep>ately a ray ( pol>iz$ light1 & z ,fresnel has rem>k$1 common light is m]ely pol>iz$ light1 hav+ two planes ( pol>ization at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,to foll[ up ! me*anical notion ( ! nature ( pol>iz$ light1 x is necess>y to ref] aga9 to ,woodw>d's c>d wave model 7,fig4 #cbc71 & by sep>at+ ! two c>ds "o f ! o!r x may be demon/rat$ h[ a wave ( common light r$uc$ to its skeleton or prim>y =m is r$ucible into two waves ( pol>iz$ light1 or h[ ! two c>ds plac$ toge!r aga9 9 a transv]sal position =m a ray ( common light4 7,fig4 #cbd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbd4--,no4 #a4 ,common light1 made up ( ! two waves ( pol>iz$ light1 ,nos4 #b & #c4 ,! qu]y ) respect to ! nature ( pol>iz$ light be+ answ]$1 x is necess>y1 9 ! next place1 to consid] h[ ! sep>ation ( ^! transv]sal vibrations may be effect$1 & 9 fact to ask :at optical arrangem5ts are necess>y to procure a beam ( pol>iz$ light8 ,light may be pol>iz$ 9 f\r diff]5t ways--viz41 by reflection1 s+le refraction1 d\ble refraction1 & by ! t\rmal9e--viz41 by absorption4 ,page #cch ,pol>ization by ,reflection1 & by ,s+le ,refraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbe4--,no4 #a4 ,a is ! lime light4 ,b4 ,! cond5s] l5ses4 ,c4 ,! beam ( common light4 ,"h ! glass plates are remov$4--,no4 #b4 ,a4 ,lime light4 ,b4 ,! cond5s] l5ses4 ,c ,c4 ,! bundle ( plates ( glass at an angle ( #ef #de4 ,d is ! ray ( light pol>iz$ by reflection f ! glass plates1 ,c ,c1 & ,e is ! beam ( pol>iz$ light by s+le refraction1 hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! bundle ( plates ( glass1 ,c ,c4 ,9 ! ye> #ahaj1 ! celebrat$ ,fr5* philosoph]1 ,mons4 ,malus1 :ile look+ ?r\gh a prism ( ,icel& sp>1 at ! light ( ! sett+ sun1 reflect$ f ! w9d[s ( ! ,luxemburg palace 9 ,p>is1 discov]$ t a beam ( light reflect$ f a plate ( glass at an angle ( #ef degrees1 pres5t$ precisely ! same prop]ties z "o ( ! rays =m$ by a rhomb ( ,icel& sp>1 & t x 0 9 fact pol>iz$4 ,"o ( ! transv]sal waves ( pol>iz$ light ( ! common light1 be+ reflect$ or ?r[n (f f ! surface ( ! glass1 :il/ ! o!r & second transv]sal vibration pass$ ?r\gh ! plate ( glass1 & 0 likewise pol>iz$ 9 ano!r plane1 b by s+le refraction1 s t ! exp]im5t illu/rates two ( ! modes ( pol>iz+ light-viz41 by reflection1 & by s+le refraction4 ,?is important elem5t>y tru? is beautifully illu/rat$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,godd>d's new =m ( ! oxy-hydrog5 pol>iscope1 by :i* a beam ( common light trav]ses a long squ>e t9 box )\t *ange2 b directly a bundle ( plates ( glass compos$ ( t5 plates ( ?9 flatt5$ cr[n glass1 or sixte5 plates ( ?9 p>allel glass plates us$ = microscopes1 are slid into ! box at an angle ( #ef #de1 !n ! beam ( common ,page #cci light is split into two beams ( pol>iz$ light1 :i* pursue _! respective pa?s1 "o pass+ by s+le refraction ?r\gh ! glass1 & ! o!r be+ reflect$1 & r5d]$ app>5t by op5+ an ap]ture ov] ! glass plates1 & !n aga9 by us+ a little smoke f br[n pap]1 ! c\rse ( ! rays becomes m app>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,a ,a4 ,model 9 wood ( a bundle ( plates ( glass at an angle ( #ef #de4 ,b4 ,beam ( common light1 ) transv]sal vibration4 ,c4 ,light pol>iz$ by reflection4 ,d4 ,light pol>iz$ by refraction4 ,! same tru? is well illu/rat$ by ! c>dbo>d model wave & a wood5 plane ) horizontal & p]p5dicul> slits1 plac$ at an angle ( #ef #de1 z at ,fig4 #cbf4 ,,pol>ization ,,by ,,d\ble ,,refraction4 ,! "n ( ,d\ble-refract+ or ,icel& ,sp> is giv5 to a v cle>1 limpid1 & p]fectly transp>5t m9]al1 compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime1 & f\nd on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,icel&4 ,its cry/allographic features are well describ$ by ! ,rev4 ,walt] ,mit*ell 9 8 le>n$ "w on m9]alogy & cry/allography1 & x is suffici5t = ! object ( ?is article to /ate t x cry/allizes 9 rhombs1 & modifications ( ! rhomboidal sy/em4 ,x mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) rock or m\nta9 cry/al1 :i*1 "u ! "n ( qu>tz1 cry/allizes 9 six-sid$ prisms ) six-sid$ pyramidal tops2 qu>tz be+ compos$ ( silica1 or silicic acid & calc>e\s sp> ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,v l>ge specim5s ( ! latt] m9]al are r>e & valuable1 & ! lion ( specim5s ( calc>e\s1 or d\ble-refract+ sp>1 is n[ 9 ! possession ( ,pr(essor ,t5nant1 ! em95t m9]alogi/ ( ! ,/r&4 ,x is n9e in*es high1 sev5 & ?ree-qu>t]s in*es broad1 & five & a half in*es ?ick2 its e/imat$ value be+ #ajjl4 ,?is beautiful specim5 has be5 photograph$1 & its /]eograph illu/rates 9 a v /rik+ mann] ! d\ble refract+ prop]ties ( ! sp>4 ,if a pr9t$ slip ( pap] is plac$ beh9d a rhomb ( ,icel& sp>1 two images ( ! =m] are app>5t1 & ! /]eograph already allud$ to %[s ?is fact v p]fectly1 at ! same "t illu/rates ! value ( ! /]eoscope4 ,out ( ! /]eoscope ! words ,/]eoscopic ,magaz9e appe> d\bl$1 b seem to lie 9 ! same plane2 b directly ! picture is plac$ 9 ! in/rum5t1 !n x is cle>ly se5 t "o image is evid5tly 9 a v diff]5t plane f ! o!r4 ,! d\ble-refract+ p[] ( ?is m9]al is illu/rat$ by hold+ a small rhomb ( ,icel& sp>1 plac$ 9 a prop] brass tube be=e ! orifice z at ,fig4 #cbg1 f :i* ! rays ( common light are ,page #cdj pass+2 if an opaque scre5 ( brass p]=at$ ) a small hole is introduc$ beh9d ! rhomb1 !n1 in/ead ( "o circle ( light be+ app>5t on ! scre51 two are produc$1 & bo? ! rays issu+ 9 ?is mann] are pol>iz$1 "o be+ t]m$ ! ord9>y & ! o!r ! extraord9>y ray4 7,fig4 #cbg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbg4 ,a4 ,! cond5s]s4 ,b4 ,! hole 9 ! brass scre5 or /op4 ,c4 ,! rhomb ( ,icel& sp>4 ,o4 ,! ord9>y1 & ,e ! extraord9>y1 ray1 bo? ( :i* are pol>iz$ light4 ,! pol>iz+ prop]ty ( ! rhomb is p]haps bett] %[n by ! next diagram1 :]e ,a ,b repres5ts ! obtuse angles ( ! ,icel& sp>1 & a l9e drawn f ,a to ,b1 w\ld be ! axis ( ! cry/al4 ,! incid5tal ray ( common light is %[n at ,c1 & ! oppositely pol>iz$ transmitt$ rays call$ ! ord9>y ray ,o1 & extraord9>y ray ,e1 em]ge f ! opposite face ( ! rhomboid4 ,if a black l9e is rul$ on a %eet ( pap] z at ,k ,k1 & exam9$ by ! eye at ,c1 x appe>s d\ble z at ,k ,k & ,j ,j4 7,fig4 #cbh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbh4 ,rhomb ( ,icel& sp>4 ,! c>dbo>d model is aga9 useful 9 demon/rat+ ! pol>ization ( light by d\ble refraction1 & if a model ( a rhomb ( ,icel& ,page #cda sp> is made ( glass plates1 "o face ( :i* has an ap]ture l a cross1 & ! o!r a horizontal & p]p5dicul> slit1 z at ,nos4 #a & #b 7,fig4 #cbi71 ! production ( ! ord9>y & extraord9>y rays is demon/rat$ 9 a famili> mann]1 & is easily compreh5d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbi4--,no4 #a4 ,"o face ( ! model rhomb to admit ! transv]sal vibration1 repres5t$ by ! c>dbo>d model4--,no4 #b4 ,! opposite face ( ! rhomb1 f :i* issue ! pol>iz$1 ord9>y1 & extraord9>y rays4--,no4 #c4 ,side view ( ! model4 ,9 ,newton's ,optics we f9d ! foll[+ description ( ,icel& sp>3--,?is cry/al is a pellucid fissile /one1 cle> z wat] or cry/al ( ! rock 7qu>tz71 & )\t col\r4444 ,be+ rubb$ on clo? x attracts pieces ( /raw & o!r light ?+s l amb] or glass1 & ) aqua=tis x makes an ebullition4444 ,if a piece ( ?is cry/all9e /one be laid ^u a book1 e lett] ( ! book se5 ?r\gh x w appe> d\ble by means ( a d\ble refraction4 ,,pol>ization ,,by ,,! ,,t\rmal9e4 ,?is m9]al 0 fir/ discov]$ dur+ ! sixte5? c5tury1 9 ! isl& ( ,ceylon1 aft]w>ds 9 ,brazil1 & s9ce t p]iod at v>i\s localities 9 ! f\r qu>t]s ( ! globe4 ,9 ! ,grevillian collection pur*as$ _m ye>s ago by gov]nm5t = ! ,briti% ,museum1 !re is a f9e specim5 ( r$ t\rmal9e valu$ at #ejjl4 ,! gre5 t\rmal9e is nam$ ,brazilian em]ald1 & ! ,b]l9 blue t\rmal9e is call$ ,brazilian sapphire2 ! m9]al *iefly consi/s ( s& 7silica7 & alum9a1 ) a small quantity ( lime1 or pota%1 or soda1 boracic acid1 & sometimes oxide ( iron or manganese4 ,:5 light is pass$ ?r\gh a slice ( ?is m9]al x is imm$iately pol>iz$1 "o ( ! transv]sal vibrations be+ absorb$1 /opp$1 or o!rwise dispos$ (1 ! o!r only em]g+ f ! t\rmal9e1 consequ5tly x is "o ( ! mo/ conv5i5t pol>iz]s1 al?\gh ! pol>iz$ light p>takes ( ! accid5tal col\r ( ! m9]al4 ,gre51 blue1 & yell[ t\rmal9es are bad pol>iz]s1 b ! br[n & p9k v>ieties ,page #cdb are v good1 & x is a mo/ curi\s fact t :ite t\rmal9e does n pol>ize4 7,fig4 #ccj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccj4 ,cry/al ( t\rmal9e slit 7p>allel to ! axis7 into f\r plates1 :i* :5 gr\nd & poli%$1 may be us$ = ! pol>ization ( light4 ,! m9]al cry/allizes 9 long prisms1 ^: primitive =m is ! obtuse rhomboid1 hav+ ! axis p>allel to ! axis ( ! prism4 ,! t]m axis ) ref]5ce to ! e>?1 z %[n at page #af1 is an imag9>y s+le l9e ar\nd :i* ! mass rotates1 b 9 a cry/al x means a s+le direction1 because a cry/al is made up ( a numb] ( simil> cry/als1 ea* ( :i* mu/ h its axis1 ?us ! :ite/ ,c>r>a m>ble r$uc$ to f9e p[d]1 moi/5$ ) wat] & plac$ "u a microscope1 is f\nd to consi/ *iefly ( m9ute rhomboids1 simil> to calc>e\s sp>4 ,! smalle/ cry/al ( ?is m9]al is divisible aga9 & )\t limit into o!r rhombs1 ea* ( :i* possesses an axis4 7,fig4 #cca47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cca repres5ts a cry/al1 ! axis ( :i* is ! direction ,a ,b4 ,! dott$ l9es %[ ! division ( ! l>ge cry/al into f\r o!r & small] ones1 ea* ( :i* has its axis1 ,a ,c1 ,c ,b1 ,d ,e1 ,f ,g2 & e l9e )9 ! l>ge cry/al p>allel to ,a ,b is an axis1 consequ5tly ! t]m is employ$ usually 9 ! plural numb] axes4 ,if a plate ( t\rmal9e is held be=e ! eye :il/ look+ at ! sun 7l ! gay y\? 9 ,hog>?'s picture :o is be+ arre/$ :il/ absorb$ ) ! wond]s ( a t\rmal9e1 :i* 01 9 ! great pa9t]'s "t1 a popul> curiosity17 x may be turn$ r\nd 9 all directions )\t ! slighte/ diff]5ce 9 ! appe>ance ( ! light1 :i* w be col\r$ by ! accid5tal t9t ( ! cry/al1 b if a second slice ( t\rmal9e is plac$ beh9d ! o!r1 !re w be f\nd c]ta9 directions 9 :i* ! light passes ?r\gh bo? ! slices1 :il/ 9 o!r positions ! light is completely cut (f4 ,page #cdc ,:5 ! axes ( bo? plates co9cide1 ! light pol>iz$ by "o t\rmal9e w pass ?r\gh ! o!r1 b if ! axes d n co9cide1 & are at "r angles to ea* o!r1 !n ! pol>iz$ light is entirely /opp$1 & ! rationale ( ?is w be appreciat$ at once if a t\rmal9e is reg>d$ 7me*anically7 z if x 7 l a grat+ ) p]p5dicul> b>s ?r\gh :i* ! pol>iz$ light w pass4 ,any numb] ( su* grat+s ) ! b>s p>allel w\ld n /op ! pol>iz$ light1 b if ! second grat+ is turn$ r\nd n9ety degrees1 ! b>s w be at "r angles to ^? ( ! fir/ grat+1 & ! p]p5dicul> wave ( pol>iz$ light _c pass4 7,fig4 #ccb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccb4 ,a4 ,model ( ! fir/ slice ( t\rmal9e into :i* ! transv]sal vibrations1 ,b1 are pass+2 ! horizontal wave is absorb$1 & ! p]p5dicul> pol>iz$ "o proce$s to ! second slice ( t\rmal9e1 ,c1 :]e ! b>s 7! axes7 be+ at "r angles to ^? ( ,a1 x is /opp$1 & _c pass ?r\gh until ! b>s ( ,c are p>allel ) ,a4 ,spl5did ,*romatic effects produc$ by ,pol>iz$ ,light4 ,hav+ discuss$ ! v>i\s modes ( obta9+ pol>iz$ light1 ! next /ep is to arrange an app>atus by :i* c]ta9 d\ble refract+ cry/als1 & o!r bodies1 %all divide a ray ( pol>iz$ light1 & !n by subsequ5t treatm5t ) ano!r pol>iz+ surface1 ! divid$ rays are caus$ to int]f]e ) ea* o!r1 & af=d ! ph5om5a ( col\r4 ,bodies t refract light s+ly1 su* z gases1 vap\rs or liquids1 anneal$ glass1 jelly1 gums1 res9s1 cry/alliz$ bodies ( ! tessul> sy/em1 su* z ! cube & octoh$ron1 d n af=d any ( ! results :i* w be expla9$ pres5tly1 except by ! influ5ce ( pressure1 z 9 unanneal$ glass1 or a b5t cold glass b>4 ,by compression or dilatation1 !y are *ang$ to d\ble refractors ( light4 ,! bodies t possess ! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction 7?\gh n to ! visible ext5t ( ,icel& sp>71 are all o!r bodies su* z cry/alliz$ *emicals1 salts1 cry/alliz$ m9]als1 animal & vegetable sub/ances possess+ a uni=m /ructure1 su* z horn & quill2 all ^! sub/ances divide ! ray ( pol>iz$ light into two p>ts1 & by plac+ a ?9 film ( a cry/al ( sel5ite 7:i* is "o ( ! be/ m9]als t c be us$ = ! purpose7 9 ! pa? ( ! beam ( pol>iz$ light1 com+ ei!r f ! glass plates1 z 9 ,no4 #b1 7,fig4 #cbe71 page #cch1 or f a slice ( t\rmal9e1 & !n receiv+ x ?r\gh ! ord9>y focus+ l5ses or object-glasses ( ! oxy-hydrog5 microscope1 no col\r is yet app>5t 9 ! image ( ! sel5ite on ! scre51 until ,page #cdd ano!r t\rmal9e1 or a bundle ( glass plates1 is plac$ at an angle ( #ef #de1 & at "r angles to ! plane ( reflection ( ! fir/ set ( plates2 !n ! mo/ gorge\s col\rs sudd5ly appe> ov] all p>ts ( ! film ( sel5ite z depict$ on ! scre51 l o!r objects %[n by ! oxy-hydrog5 microscope4 7,fig4 #ccc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccc4 ,duboscq's pol>iz+ app>atus1 ,a4 ,! light & ! cond5s] l5s4 ,b4 ,! plates ( glass at ! prop] angle1 ,c4 ,! sel5ite object1 ,d4 ,! focus+ l5s4 ,e4 ,! second bundle ( plates ( glass call$ ! analys]1 ,f4 ,a /op = extrane\s rays ( light1 ,g4 ,! image ( ! film ( sel5ite mo/ beautifully col\r$4 ,godd>d's oxy-hydrog5 pol>iscope is "o ( ! mo/ conv5i5t1 because ei!r ! reflect$ or refract$ pol>iz$ rays c be r5d]$ available2 x consi/s ( ! app>atus %[n at ,fig4 #cbe1 & to ?is is add$ a l[ microscope p[]1 & /age to hold ! sel5ite or o!r objects1 ) ano!r bundle ( sixte5 plates ( ! ?9 microscopic glass or mica1 call$ ! analys]4 ,a slice ( t\rmal9e1 or a ,nicol's prism may be employ$1 in/ead ( ! second bundle ( reflect+ plates4 ,:5 ! ray ( pol>iz$ light reflect$ f ! fir/ set ( glass plates ent]s ! d\bly refract+ film ( sel5ite1 :i* is ab\t ! =tie? or fiftie? "p ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 x is split into ! ord9>y & extraord9>y rays1 & is said to be dipol>iz$1 & =ms two planes ( pol>iz$ light1 vibrat+ at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,:5 ! latt] are receiv$ on ano!r bundle ( plates ( glass call$ ! analys]1 at an angle ( #ef #de1 b at "r angles to ! fir/ set ( glass plates1 !y int]f]e1 because 9 ! passage ( ! two rays f ! sel5ite !y h trav]s$ x 9 diff]5t directions1 ) diff]5t velocities2 "o ( ^! sets ( waves w !re=e1 on em]g+ f ! opposite face ( ! sel5ite be ret>d$1 & lie ,page #cde beh9d ! o!r2 b be+ pol>iz$ 9 diff]5t planes1 !y _c int]f]e until _! planes ( pol>ization are made to co9cide1 :i* is ,page #cdf effect$ by means ( ! second bundle ( glass plates call$ ! analys]2 & :5 ?is is br\ght into a position at "r angles to ! fir/ set ( reflect+ glass plates1 half ! ord9>y wave int]f]es ) half ! extraord9>y wave2 & be+ transmitt$ ?r\gh ! analys]1 produces1 say r$ & orange1 :il/ ! rema9+ halves also int]f]e1 & be+ reflect$1 af=d ! complem5t>y col\rs gre5 & blue4 7,fig4 #ccd47 ,! t]m complem5t>y is int5d$ to def9e any two col\rs conta9+ r$1 yell[1 & blue1 because ! ?ree comb9$ toge!r produce :ite light2 = example1 ! complem5t>y col\r to r$ w\ld be gre51 because ! latt] conta9s yell[ & blue2 ! complem5t>y col\r to orange w\ld be blue1 because ! =m] conta9s r$ & yell[4 ,any two col\rs1 !re=e1 :i* toge!r conta9 r$1 yell[1 & blue are said to be complem5t>y2 & if ?is pr9ciple 0 bett] und]/ood1 ladies w\ld nev] commit su* egregi\s blund]s z !y occasionally d 9 ! *oice ( col\rs = bonnets & dresses1 & select a blue bonnet to be worn ) a gre5 dress1 or vice v]s4 ,by rotat+ ! analys]1 ! reflect$ & refract$ rays *ange col\rs1 & if ! =m] is r$ & ! latt] gre51 by mov+ ! analys] r\nd #ij1 ! reflect$ rays *ange to gre5 & ! refract$ to r$2 at #ahj ! col\rs aga9 *ange places2 at #bgj ! reflect$ ray w be aga9 gre51 & ! refract$ r$2 to be once m br\ght back at #cfj to ! orig9al position1 viz41 reflect$ rays r$1 refract$ gre54 ,! ?ickness ( ! films ( sel5ite det]m9es ! p>ticul> col\r produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccd4 ,! electric lamp & lant]n ( ,duboscq1 %[+ ! projection ( ! c>bon poles on ! disc4 ,?is exp]im5t is p]=m$ ) ! help ( ! plano-convex l5s1 ,a1 & ! rays pass ?r\gh a v n>r[ ap]ture at ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cce4 ,a ,a4 ,c>d model ( a beam ( pol>iz$ light com+ f ! fir/ bundle ( plates ( glass1 %[n at ,fig4 #cbf1 p4 #cci4 ,b4 ,model ( ! film ( sel5ite1 :i* divides or dipol>izes ! ray ,a ,a into ,c & ,d1 :i*1 int]f]+ by means ( ! second bundle ( plates ( glass call$ ! analys] ,z1 produce reflect$ *romatic effects by int]f]5ce at ,e1 & refract$ effects at ,f4 ,if ! sel5ite is ( a uni=m ?ickness1 "o col\r only is obta9$1 & by +5i\sly connect+ pieces ( v>i\s ?icknesses 79 ! same =ms z /a9$ glass = ca!dral w9d[s71 ! mo/ beautiful designs 7 made by ! late ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,coop]1 jun41 :i* h s9ce be5 manufactur$ 9 great quantity & v>iety by ,mr4 ,d>k]1 ( ,p>adise-/reet1 ,lambe?4 ,! col\rs ( ^! sel5ite objects are se5 by plac+ !m 9 front ( a piece ( black glass1 fix$ at ! pol>iz+ angle1 & !n exam9+ ! design ) a slice ( t\rmal9e1 or /ill bett] ) a s+le-image ,nicol prism1 :5 ! mo/ brilliant col\rs are obta9$1 & v>i$ at e *ange ( ! angle ( ! analys]4 ,sel5ite1 or sp>ry-gypsum1 is ! native cry/alliz$ sulphate ( lime1 :i* conta9s wat] ( cry/allization 7,ca,o1 ,,s#c1 #b;,h#b,o74 ,x frequ5tly occurs imb$d$ 9 ,london clay1 & is call$ qu>ry glass by ! lab\r]s :o f9d x at ,%otov] ,hill1 ne> ,ox=d1 & also 9 ! ,isle ( ,%eppey4 ,at a v e>ly p]iod1 be=e ! discov]y ( glass1 sel5ite 0 us$ = w9d[s2 & we are told t 9 ! "t ( ,s5eca1 x 0 import$ into ,rome f ,spa91 ,cyprus1 ,cappadocia1 & ev5 f ,africa4 ,x cont9u$ to be us$ = ?is purpose until ! middle ages1 = ,alb9us in=ms u1 t 9 8 "t1 ! w9d[s ( ! dome ( ,m]seburg 7 ( ?is m9]al4 ,! fir/ gre5h\ses1 ^? inv5t$ by ,tib]ius1 7 cov]$ ) sel5ite4 ,accord+ to ,pl9y1 beehives 7 encas$ 9 sel5ite1 9 ord] t ! bees might be se5 at "w4 ,page #cdg ,! late ,dr4 ,p]eira has plac$ ! ph5om5a already describ$ 9 ! =m ( a mo/ in/ructive diagram1 :i* we borr[ f 8 elaborate "w on ,pol>iz$ ,light4 7,fig4 #ccf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccf4 ,a4 ,a ray ( common or unpol>iz$ light1 incid5t on ,b4 ,b4 ,! pol>iz] 7a plate ( t\rmal9e74 ,c4 ,a ray ( plane pol>iz$ light1 incid5t on ,d4 ,d4 ,! d\bly-refract+ film ( sel5ite4 ,e4 ,! extraord9>y ray4 ,o4 ,! ord9>y ray1 produc$ by ! d\ble refraction ( ! ray ,c4 ,g4 ,! analys] 7or d\bly-refract+ or ,nicol's prism74 ,e ,o4 ,! ord9>y ray4 ,e ,e4 ,! extraord9>y ray1 produc$ by ! d\ble refraction ( ! extraord9>y ray1 ,e4 ,o ,o4 ,! ord9>y ray4 ,o ,e4 ,! extraord9>y ray1 produc$ by ! d\ble refraction ( ! ord9>y ray1 ,o4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccg4 ,no4 #a4 ,unanneal$ glass = ! pol>iscope4 ,nos4 #b & #c4 ,appe>ance ( ! black cross & col\r$ circles 9 a squ>e & circul> piece ( unanneal$ glass 9 ! pol>iscope4 ,! *romatic effects describ$ are n conf9$ to sel5ite objects only1 b are obta9$ f glass1 provid$ ! p>ticles are 9 a /ate ( unequal t5sion1 z 9 masses ( unanneal$ glass ( v>i\s =ms4 7,fig4 #ccg47 ,consequ5tly1 pol>iz$ light becomes a mo/ valuable means = asc]ta9+ ! condition ( p>ticles o!rwise invisible & inappreciable4 ,"o ( ! mo/ beautiful exp]im5ts c be made ,page #cdh ) a b> ( plate-glass1 :i* refracts light s+ly until pressure is appli$ to ! c5tre1 9 ord] to b5d x into an ar* or curve1 :5 ! appe>ance pres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cch is app>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cch4 ,a ,b4 ,b> ( glass "u ! pressure ( ! screw ,c1 & appe>ance ( b&s or fr+es ( col\r$ light1 :i* entirely disappe> on ! removal ( ! screw4 ,an effect1 ( c\rse1 only visible by pol>iz$ light4 ,a quill plac$ 9 ! pol>iz+ app>atus is also discov]$ to be 9 a /ate ( unequal t5sion by ! appe>ance ( col\r$ fr+es )9 x1 :i* *ange col\r at e movem5t ( ! analys]4 ,ano!r s]ies ( beautiful appe>ances pres5t !mselves :5 a ray ( :ite pol>iz$ light is made to pass p]p5dicul>ly ?r\gh a slice ( any cry/alliz$ sub/ance ) a s+le axis2 if ! analys] consi/ ( a slice ( t\rmal9e1 a numb] ( conc5tric col\r$ r+s are r5d]$ visible ) a black cross 9 ! c5tre1 :i* is replac$ ) a :ite "o on mov+ ! t\rmal9e ?r\gh ea* quadrant ( ! circle4 ,cry/als ( ,icel& sp> pres5t ?is ph5om5on 9 great beauty2 & if ! cry/al 7su* z nitre7 has two axes ( d\ble-refraction1 a d\ble-sy/em ( col\r$ r+s is app>5t1 ) ! mo/ curi\s *anges & comb9ations ( ! black & :ite crosses ) !m4 7,fig4 #cci47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cci4 ,cry/al ( nitre ) two axes1 z se5 9 pol>iz$ light4 ,mr4 ,godd>d has recomm5d$ ! optical arrangem5t 7,fig4 #cdj7 = %[+ ! r+s ) great p]fection1 z also ! numb] ( r+s t increase 9 "s cry/als 7! topaz1 = example71 ) ! div]g5ce ( ! rays ( pol>iz$ light pass+ ?r\gh !m4 ,mr4 ,woodw>d's table & oxy-hydrog5 pol>iscope & microscope1 made by ,smi? & ,beck1 ( ,coleman-/reet1 is well adapt$1 f its ,page #cdi simplicity & p]fection1 to exhibit all ! v>i$ & beautiful effects ( pol>iz$ light2 & we only regret t want ( space prev5ts u describ+ x 9 detail1 al?\gh ! read] may see ! body ( ! app>atus at page #abc1 :]e ! modifications ( ! oxy-hydrog5 light are describ$ & figur$2 & ! pol>iz+ app>atus w\ld be plac$1 ( c\rse1 9 front ( ! light issu+ f ! lant]n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdj4 ,a ,a ,a4 ,pol>iz$ light4 ,b ,b4 ,a l5s ( %ort focus1 transmitt+ a cone ( light ) an angle ( div]g5ce = its rays1 ,c ,c1 ( #de4 ,d ,d4 ,! cry/al ( topaz1 ,icel& sp>1 or nitre4 ,e ,e4 ,! slice ( blue t\rmal9e = analys+4 ,f9ally1 ! "q ( utility 7! cui bono7 may be consid]$ 9 answ] to ! qu]y1 ,:at is ! use ( pol>iz$ light8 ,! value to sci5tific m5 ( a k ( ! nature ( ?is modification ( common light _c be ov]rat$4 ,x has giv5 ! philosoph] a new k9d ( te/1 by :i* he discov]s ! /ructure ( ?+s t w\ld o!rwise be p]fectly unkn[n2 x has giv5 ! a/ronom] increas$ data = ! ex]cise ( 8 reason+ p[]s2 :il/ to ! microscopi/ ! beauty ( objects display$ by pol>iz$ light has long be5 a !me ( admiration & delight1 & has s]v$ z a guide = ! id5tification ( c]ta9 v>ieties ( any giv5 sub/ance1 su* z />*4 ,a tube provid$ ) a pol>iz] ( t\rmal9e1 or a s+le-image ,nicol prism1 is invaluable to ! look-out at ! ma/-head 9 cases :]e vessels are navigat+ ei!r inl& or sea wat]1 :]e ! pres5ce ( hidd5 rocks is suspect$1 because ! pol>iz] rejects all ! gl>e ( light aris+ f unequal reflection at ! surface ( wat]1 & enables ! obs]v] to gaze into ! dep?s ( ! sea & to exam9e ! rocks1 :i* c only be p]fectly visible by ! refract$ light com+ f _! surfaces ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one has inv5t$ an +5i\s pol>iz+ clock = %[+ ! h\r ( ! day by ! pol>iz+ p[] ( ! atmosph]e4 ,birt1 ,p[ell1 & ,leeson h ea* inv5t$ in/rum5ts = exam9+ ! circul> pol>ization ( fluids1 by :i* a m intimate k ( ! relative values ( sac*>9e solutions may be obta9$1 besides unfold+ o!r tru?s important to inve/igators 9 ?is bran* ( sci5ce4 ,& la/1 b n lea/1 x 0 ) ! assi/ance ( pol>iz$ light ,page #cej t ,dr4 ,f>aday e/abli%$ ! relation t exi/s betwe5 light & magnetism1 & ?r\gh ! latt]1 ) ! =ce ( electricity2 & ! next figure indicates ! necess>y app>atus requir$ to repeat ?is highly important physical tru?--viz41 ! deviation ( ! plane ( pol>ization ( light by ! influ5ce ( ! magnetic =ce f a p[]ful electro-magnet4 7,fig4 #cda47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cda4 ,a4 ,! light & cond5s] l5s4 ,b4 ,s+le-image ,nicol prism4 ,c4 ,rock cry/al ( two rotations4 ,d4 ,a d\ble-convex l5s4 ,e ,e4 ,f>aday's heavy glass4 ,f ,f4 ,! p[]ful electro-magnet connect$ ) batt]y4 ,g4 ,d\ble-refract+ prisms4 ,h4 ,image1 or scre5 :]e ! deviation ( ! plane ( pol>ization by ! magnetic =ce is %[n4 ,by ano!r & equally beautiful exp]im5t at ! ,london ,in/itution1 ,pr(essor ,grove demon/rat$ ! production ( all ! o!r k9ds ( =ce f light1 us+ ! foll[+ arrangem5t = ! purpose3 ,a prep>$ dagu]rotype plate is enclos$ 9 a box full ( wat] hav+ a glass front ) a %utt] ov] x2 betwe5 ?is glass & ! plate is a gridiron ( silv] wire2 ! plate is connect$ ) "o extremity ( a galvanomet] coil1 & ! gridiron ( wire ) "o extremity ( a ,breguet's helix2 ! o!r extremities ( ! galvanomet] & helix are connect$ by a wire1 & ! ne$les br\ght to z]o4 ,z soon z a beam ( ei!r daylight or ! oxy-hydrog5 light is1 by rais+ ! %utt]1 p]mitt$ to imp+e ^u ! plate1 ! ne$les are deflect$4 ,?us1 light be+ ! initiatory =ce1 we get ,*emical action on ! plate1 ,electricity circulat+ ?r\gh ! wires1 ,magnetism 9 ! coil1 ,heat 9 ! helix1 ,motion 9 ! ne$le4 ,su*1 !n1 are "s ( ! glori\s ph5om5a t we h endeav\r$ to expla9 9 ?is & ! prec$+ *apt]s on light4 ,"h we h notic$ specially h[ completely we owe _! appreciation to ! s5se ( sight op]at+ ?r\gh ! eye1 ! organ ( vision4 ,well may ^? :o h lo/ ?is div9e gift speak ( _! d>kness z ( a lo/ _w ( beauty to be irradiat$ only by bett] ,page #cea & m endur+ light2 & mo/ feel+ly does ,sir ,j4 ,col]idge speak on ?is po9t :5 he says3-- ,conceive to y\rselves1 = a mom5t1 :at is ! ord9>y ent]ta9m5t & conv]sation t passes ar\nd any "o ( y\r family tables2 h[ _m ?+s we talk ( z matt]s ( c\rse1 z to ! und]/&+ & z to ! b>e conception ( :i* sight is absolutely necess>y4 ,consid]1 aga91 :at an affliction ! loss ( sight mu/ be1 & t :5 we talk ( ! gold5 sun1 ! bright />s1 ! beautiful fl[]s1 ! blu% ( spr+1 ! gl[ ( summ]1 & ! rip5+ fruit ( autumn1 we are talk+ ( ?+s ( :i* we d n convey to ! m9ds ( ^! poor creatures :o are born bl9d1 any?+ l an adequate conception4 ,!re 0 once a great man1 z we all "k1 9 ?is c\ntry1 a poet--& ne>ly ! greate/ poet t ,engl& has ev] _h to boa/ (--:o 0 bl9d2 & !re is a passage 9 8 works :i* is s true & t\*+ t x exactly describes t :i* ,i h endeav\r$1 9 feeble language1 to pa9t4 ,milton says3-- ',?us ) ! ye> ,seasons return2 b n to me returns ,day1 or ! sweet approa* ( ev51 or morn1 ,or sight ( v]nal bloom1 or summ]'s rose1 ,or flocks1 or h]ds1 or human face div9e2 ,b cl\d in/ead1 & ev]-dur+ d>k ,surr\nds me2 f ! *e]ful ways ( m5 ,cut (f1 & = ! book ( k fair ,pres5t$ ) a univ]sal blank ,( ,nature's works1 to me expung$ & ras$1 ,& wisdom at "o entrance q %ut out4 ,s mu* ! r1 ?\1 cele/ial light1 ,%9e inw>d1 & ! m9d ?r\gh all h] p[]s ,irradiate2 !re plant eyes2 all mi/ f !nce ,purge & disp]se1 t ,i may see & tell ,( ?+s invisible to mortal sight4' ,! great poet1 :5 int5t ^u 8 "w1 s\ght = cele/ial light to accompli% x4 ,& ?is br+s me to t "p ( ! lab\rs ( our ,bl9d ,in/itutions ^u :i* ,i dwell ! mo/ & :i*1 aft] all1 is ! greate/ comp5sation we c af=d to ! inmates = ! affliction !y suff]2 & t is1 ! means we provide = !m to read ! bless$ ,^w ( ,god1 :i* !y c read by day z well z by night1 = light 9 _! case is n an ess5tial4 ,illu/ration ,page #ceb ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdb4 ,james ,watt4 ,?r\gh\t ! great] numb] ( ! prec$+ *apt]s x w be evid5t t ! active prop]ties ( matt] may be summ$ up "u "o g5]al head1 & may be consid]$ z v>ieties ( attraction--su* z ! attraction ( gravitation1 cohesive attraction1 adhesive attraction1 attraction ( composition 7or *emical attraction71 electrical attraction1 magnetical attraction4 ,! absolute or autocratic sy/em does n1 h[ev]1 prevail 9 ! works ( nature2 & %e seems ev] anxi\s1 :il/ imp>t+ great & peculi> p[]s to c]ta9 ag5ts1 to create o!r =ces :i* may control & balance !m4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! great =ce ( cohesive attraction is an ev]-pres5t p[] disc]nible1 z has be5 %[n1 9 solids & liquids2 b if ?is ag5t ,page #ceb 7 all[$ to run riot 9 its full /r5g? & int5sity1 x w\ld tyrannically hold 9 subjection all liquid matt]1 & e drop ( wat] :i* is at pres5t kept 9 ! liquid /ate1 w\ld succumb to its iron rule1 & reta9 ! solid /ate ( ice4 ,h5ce1 !re=e1 ! wise creation ( an antagoni/ic =ce--viz41 heat2 :i* is n provid$ 9 any nigg>dly mann]1 b is lib]ally be/[$ ^u ! globe f t all-suffici5t & enorm\s s\rce1 ! sun4 ,& x is by ! s(t5+ & liquify+ influ5ce ( 8 rays t ! great] proportion ( ! wat] on ! surface ( ! globe is ma9ta9$ 9 ! fluid condition1 & is enabl$ to resi/ ! p[] ( cohesion1 t w\ld o!rwise turn x all1 z x 71 to /one4 ,cohesion1 electricity1 & magnetism fully embody ! notion ( p[]s ( attraction1 or a draw+ toge!r2 :il/ heat /&s almo/ alone 9 nature z ! type ( repulsion1 or a driv+ back4 ,me*anically1 repulsion is demon/rat$ by ! reb\nd ( a ball f ! gr\nd2 ! p>ts :i* t\* ! e>? are = ! mom5t compress$1 & x is ! subsequ5t repulsion betwe5 ! p>ticles 9 ^? p>ts :i* causes !m to exp& aga9 & ?r[ (f ! ball4 ,! developm5t ( heat is produc$ f v>i\s causes1 :i* may be reg>d$ z at lea/ f\r 9 numb]4 ,?us1 x 0 %[n by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 t ev5 :5 two lumps ( ice are rubb$ toge!r1 suffici5t heat is obta9$ to melt ! two surfaces :i* are 9 contact ) ea* o!r4 ,friction is !re=e an important s\rce ( heat1 & "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ma*9es at ! ,p>is ,exposition consi/$ ( an app>atus by :i* _m gallons ( wat] 7 kept 9 ! boil+ /ate by means ( ! heat obta9$ f ! friction ( two copp] discs aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,! ma*9e attract$ a good deal ( att5tion on its own m]its1 & especially because x suppli$ boil+ wat] = ! prep>ation ( *ocolate1 :i* ! public 0 duly in=m$ 0 boil$ by ! heat rubb$ out ( ! o!rwise cold discs ( copp]4 ,:5 cannon made on ! old sy/em are bor$ ) a drill1 x is necess>y t ! latt] %\ld be kept q cool ) a con/ant supply ( wat]1 or else ! h>d /eel might become r$-hot1 & w\ld !n lose its temp]1 & be no long] capable ( p]=m+ its duty4 ,c\nt ,rum=d endeav\r$ to asc]ta9 h[ mu* heat 0 actually g5]at$ by friction4 ,:5 a blunt /eel bore1 ?ree in*es & a half 9 diamet]1 0 driv5 aga9/ ! bottom ( a brass cannon sev5 in*es & a half 9 diamet]1 ) a pressure :i* 0 equal to ! weight ( t5 ?\s& p\nds1 & made to revolve ?irty-two times 9 a m9ute1 9 =ty-"o m9utes #hcg gra9s ( du/ 7 produc$1 & ! heat g5]at$ 0 suffici5t to raise #aac p\nds ( ! metal #gj ,fahr5heit--a quantity ( heat :i* is capable ( melt+ six p\nds & a half ( ice1 or ( rais+ five p\nds ( wat] f ! freez+ to ! boil+ po9t4 ,:5 ! exp]im5t 0 repeat$ "u wat]1 two gallons & a half ( wat]1 at #fj ,fah41 7 made to boil 9 two h\rs & a half4 ,*emical aff9ity has be5 s (t5 allud$ to 9 ^! pages1 t x ,page #ced may be suffici5t to m5tion only "o good in/ance ( its almo/ magical p[] 9 evok+ heat4 ,:5 a bit ( ! metal sodium is plac$ on ! tip ( a knife1 & ?ru/ into "s w>m quicksilv]1 or if a pellet ( sodium & a few globules ( m]cury are plac$ on a hot plate j tak5 f ! ov51 & !n g5tly squeez$ toge!r1 a vivid production ( heat & light is app>5t2 & :5 ! mixture ( ! two metals is cold1 x w be f\nd t ! quicksilv] has lo/ its fluidity1 & a solid amalgam ( sodium & m]cury is obta9$1 :i* gradually1 by exposure to ! air1 returns to ! liquid /ate1 ! m]cury be+ set free1 :il/ ! sodium is oxidiz$1 & =ms soda4 ,j z an ord9>y alloy ( copp] & gold us$ by jewell]s w\ld lose its col\r & brilliancy by ! oxidation ( ! copp]2 & :5 ! ru/y1 dirty film is remov$ by rubb+ & poli%+1 ! surface is aga9 brilliant1 & rema9s s until ano!r film ( ! expos$ copp] is attack$3 9 l mann] ! sodium is attack$ & *ang$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 :il/ ! m]cury be+ unaffect$ reta9s its brilliancy1 & at ! same "t rega9s its fluidity4 ,! evolution ( heat 9 ! above case indicates t a *emical union has tak5 place betwe5 ! two metals4 ,examples ( ! production ( heat by electricity & magnetism h be5 abundantly %[n 9 ! *apt]s on ^! subjects2 & "o ( ! be/ illu/rations ( ?is fact has be5 %[n on ! occasion ( ! op5+ ( ! telegraphic communication betwe5 ,france & ,engl& by means ( ! subm>9e cable1 :5 cannon 7 fir$ alt]nately at bo? ends ( ! conduct+ cable by means ( electricity1 & ! ev5t ?us inaugurat$ 9 bo? c\ntries4 ,t heat is a product ( liv+ animal organization is %[n1 z x 71 visibly by ! m>vell\s ph5om5a t proce$ 9 our own bodies4 ,p d n v (t5 tr\ble !mselves to ask :]e ! heat comes f1 or ev5 to ?9k t ?is invisible p[] mu/ be ma9ta9$ 9 ! body1 & t sl[ combu/ion1 or1 z ,liebig t]ms x1 eremacausis1 mu/ cont9ually g on inside our frail mortal t5em5ts2 & m ?an ?is1 t we _c af=d to wa/e our heat4 ,if ! body is depriv$ ( heat fa/] ?an x c be g5]at$1 dea? mu/ inevitably occur2 & a v melan*oly in/ance ( ?is rem>kable mode ( dea? has lately occurr$ 9 ,switz]l& to a ,russian g5tleman4 ,su* ano!r in/ance ( a man be+ sl[ly froz5 to dea? )9 sight & s\nd ( o!r be+s1 ?r\gh ^: ve9s ! blood 0 fl[+ at its accu/om$ temp]ature 7ab\t #ij ,fahr471 x w\ld be difficult to f9d1 & x /&s =?1 !re=e1 z a m>k$ example & illu/ration ( ! /atem5t already made1 t liv+ animal organisms are truly a s\rce ( heat1 :i* is z ess5tial to ! well-be+ ( ! body z meat1 dr9k1 & air4 ,heat is ( two k9ds1 & may be ei!r app>5t to our s5ses1 & !re=e call$ s5sible heat2 or x may be entirely conceal$1 al?\gh pres5t 9 solids1 liquids1 & gases1 & is !n t]m$ ins5sible or lat5t heat4 ,page #cee ,s5sible ,heat4 ,! fir/ effect ( ?is =ce is a demon/ration ( its repulsive ag5cy1 & ! dilatation or expansion ( ! ?ree =ms ( matt] :il/ "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 admits ( v simple illu/rations4 ,! expansion ( a solid sub/ance1 z1 = in/ance1 a metal1 on ! application ( heat1 is app>5t by fitt+ a solid brass cyl9d] into a prop] metal gauge1 :i* is accurately fil$ s z to admit ! =m] :5 p]fectly cold4 ,if ! brass rod is !n heat$1 ei!r by plung+ x into boil+ wat] or by ! application ( ! flame ( a _s lamp1 its p>ticles are sep>at$ f ea* o!r2 !y n[ occupy a l>g] space1 & expansion is ! result1 & ?is is cle>ly prov$ by ! application ( ! gauge1 :i* is no long] capable ( receiv+ x4 7,fig4 #cdc47 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! latt] is cool$1 ! opposite result occurs1 ! p>ticles ( brass return to _! old position1 & contraction takes place2 h5ce x is /at$ t ,bodies exp& by heat & contract by cold2 & x is prop] to /ate "h t ! t]m cold is ( a negative "*1 & simply means ! abs5ce ( heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdc4 ,a ,b4 ,cyl9d] ( brass4 ,c ,d4 ,iron gauge1 admitt+ ,a ,b longitud9ally1 & also 9 ! hole ,e :5 cold1 b exclud+ ,a ,b :5 ! latt] is heat$ & exp&$4 ,solid bodies d n exp& equally on ! application ( ! same am\nt ( heat2 ?us1 a b> ( glass "o in* squ>e & "o ?\s& in*es long w\ld only exp& "o in* :il/ heat$ f ! freez+ to ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,a b> ( iron "o in* squ>e & eight hundr$ in*es long w\ld exp& "o in* 9 l5g?1 ?r\gh ! same degrees ( heat2 & a b> ( lead "o in* squ>e & ?ree hundr$ & fifty in*es long w\ld also dilate "o in* 9 l5g?4 ,h5ce1 ,lead exp&s 9 volume #a_/cej?4 ,iron #a_/hjj?4 ,glass #a_/ajjj?4 ,! unequal expansion ( ! metals is well illu/rat$ by an exp]im5t devis$ by ,dr4 ,tyndal1 ! respect$ ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita91 & is arrang$ z foll[s3--,a long b> ( brass & ano!r ( iron are support$ on ! ,page #cef edges ( two pieces ( wood plac$ at an angle1 & re/+ aga9/ ! sides ( a mahogany framework4 ,! metallic b>s only t\* "o end ( ! frame1 & are 9 metallic communication ) a piece ( brass ins]t$ !re1 & =m+ "p ( a conduct+ *a9 connect$ ) a voltaic batt]y2 :5 heat is appli$ to bo? b>s !y exp& unequally2 ! brass b> dilates fir/1 & fill+ up ! m9ute space left betwe5 ! two ends ( ! frame1 t\*es ano!r brass plate & in/antly completes ! voltaic circuit1 :5 a coil ( plat9um wire becomes ignit$1 %[+ ! fact ( expansion2 & secondly1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! p[] ( dilatation possess$ by ea* is cle>ly %[n by remov+ ! two angul> supports ( wood1 :5 ! iron falls away1 :il/ ! brass rema9s & /ill completes ! voltaic circuit4 7,fig4 #cdd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdd4 ,a ,a4 ,! brass b> :i* has exp&$ by ! heat f ! gas jet ,b1 & mak+ ! contact betwe5 ! brass plates 9 connexion ) ! b9d+ screws ,c ,c1 ! voltaic circuit is complet$1 & a coil ( plat9um wire 9 ! glass tube ,d1 is imm$iately ignit$4 ,! iron b> at ,e ,e has n exp&$ suffici5tly1 :i* is %[n aft]w>ds by remov+ ! angul> wood5 supports ,k ,k1 :5 ! iron falls (f1 & ! brass rema9s on ! two l$ges ( ! mahogany framework ,l ,l ,l4 ,! =ce ex]t$ by ! expansion ( solids is enorm\s1 & rem9ds u aga9 ( ! amaz+ p[] ( all ! impond]able ag5ts2 & x is truly wond]ful to notice h[ ! entry ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat into & betwe5 ! p>ticles ( metals1 or o!r solids1 endues !m ) a me*anical =ce :i* is almo/ irresi/ible1 & is capable ( work+ mu* h>m4 ,kussn made an exp]im5t ) an iron sph]e1 :i* he heat$ f a temp]ature ( #cb ,fahr4 to #bab ,fahr41 & he f\nd t ! expansion ( ! ball ex]t$ a =ce equal to #djjj atmosph]es--i4e4 #djjj #ae--on e squ>e in* ( surface1 or a pressure equal to ?irty millions ( p\nds2 ! entry ( only #ahj ( heat into ! iron sph]e produc$ ?is rem>kable result1 j z ,f>aday has calculat$ t a s+le drop ( wat] conta9s a suffici5t quantity ( electricity to produce a result equal to ! mo/ p[]ful fla% ( lightn+1 provid$ ! electricity ( quantity 9 ! drop ( wat] is conv]t$ into electricity ( high t5sion or int5sity4 ,! practical applications ( ?is well-kn[n prop]ty ( solids ) respect to heat are v num]\s2 ?us1 ! iron bullet-m\lds are always made a little l>g] ?an ! requisite size1 9 ord] to all[ = ! expansion ( ! hot liquid lead1 & ! contraction ( ! cold metal4 ,! tires ( :eels & ! hoops ( casks are usually plac$ on :il/ hot1 9 ord] t ! subsequ5t contraction may b9d ! spokes ,pg #ceg & fellies1 or ! /aves1 closely toge!r4 ,if an all[ance 0 n made = ! expansion & contraction ( ! iron rails on ! p]man5t ways ( railroads1 ! regul>ity ( ! level w\ld be con/antly de/roy$1 & ! position ( ! rails1 *airs1 & sleep]s w\ld be mo/ s]i\sly d]ang$2 inde$ x is calculat$ t ! railway b>s betwe5 ,london & ,man*e/] are five hundr$ feet long] 9 ! summ] ?an 9 ! w9t]4 ,! walls ( ! ,ca!dral ( ,armagh1 z also ^? ( ! ,cons]vatoire des ,art et ,mti]s1 7 br\ght back to a ne>ly p]p5dicul> position1 by ! ins]tion 7?r\gh ! opposite walls7 ( great b>s ( iron1 :i* be+ alt]nately heat$1 exp&$1 & screw$ up tight1 !n cool$ & contract$1 gradually correct$ ! bulg+ out ( ! walls or ma9 supports ( ^! build+s4 ,! pr9ciple ( ^! fam\s practical exp]im5ts is neatly illu/rat$ by means ( an iron framework ) a b> ( iron plac$ ?r\gh bo? its uprights1 & screw$ tight :5 hot2 on cool+1 contraction occurs1 :i* is %[n by a simple index4 7,fig4 #cde47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cde4 ,! iron frame1 ) ,c ,c1 wr\ght-iron b> heat$ by putt+ on ! semicircul> piece ( iron ,e ,e1 :i* is fir/ made r$-hot1 & z ! heat is communicat$ to ! wr\ght iron rod ,c ,c1 x is screw$ up tight by ! nut ,k4 ,g ,g4 ,! index atta*$ to ! iron frame screw$ up :5 hot2 ! arms come toge!r at ,p1 & sep>ate fur!r to ,h ,h z ! contraction takes place by cool+ ! b> ,c ,d4 ,x has (t5 be5 rem>k$ t !re is no rule )\t an exception1 & ?is applies 9 a p>ticul> in/ance to ! law t bodies exp& by heat & contract by cold--viz41 9 ! case ( ,rose's fusible metal1 :i* consi/s ( ,two p>ts by weight ( bismu?1 ,"o "p lead1 ,"o "p t94 ,to make ! alloy prop]ly1 ! lead is fir/ melt$ 9 an iron ladle1 & to ?is are add$ fir/ ! t91 & secondly ! bismu?2 ! :ole is !n well /irr$ ) a wood5 rod1 & ca/ into ! %ape ( a b>4 ,page #ceh ,:5 plac$ 9 ! pyromet] & heat$1 ! b> exp&s progressively till x rea*es a temp]ature ( #aaa ,fahr42 x !n beg9s to contract1 & is rapidly %ort5$1 until x arrives at #aef ,fahr41 :5 x atta9s a maximum d5sity1 & occupies no m space ?an x w\ld d at ! freez+-po9t ( wat]4 ,! b>1 aft] pass+ #aef1 aga9 exp&s1 & f9ally melts at ab\t #bja1 :i* is #aa bel[ ! boil+-po9t ( wat]4 ,fusible metal is sometimes made into teaspoons1 :i* s(t5 & melt d[n :5 /irr$ 9 a cup ( hot tea or bas9 ( s\p1 to ! great surprise & bewild]m5t ( ! victim ( ! practical joke4 ,unequal expansion is famili>ly demon/rat$ ) a bit ( toa/$ bread1 :i* curls up 9 consequ5ce ( ! surface expos$ to ! fire contract+ m rapidly ?an ! o!r2 & ! same fact is illu/rat$ ) comp\nd flat & ?9 b>s ( iron & brass1 :i* are fix$ & rivett$ toge!r2 :5 heat$1 ! comp\nd b> curves1 because ! iron does n exp& s rapidly z ! brass1 & ( c\rse =ms ! int]ior ( ! curve1 :il/ ! brass is on ! ext]ior4 ,! exp]im5t ) ! comp\nd b> is made m conclusive & int]e/+ by arrang+ x ) a voltaic batt]y & plat9um lamp4 ,"o ( ! wires f ! batt]y is connect$ ) ! extremity ( ! comp\nd b>1 & z long z x rema9s cold1 no curve or ar* is produc$1 b :5 heat is appli$1 ! b> curves upw>ds1 & t\*+ ! o!r wire ( ! batt]y1 ! circuit is complet$1 & ! plat9um lamp is imm$iately ignit$4 7,fig4 #cdf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdf4 ,a ,b4 ,comp\nd b> re/+ on two blocks ( wood4 ,! end ,a is connect$ ) "o ( ! wires f ! batt]y4 ,! circuit is complet$ & ! plat9um lamp ,d ignit$ directly ! b> curves upw>ds by ! heat ( ! _s lamp1 & t\*es ! wire ,c ,c connect$ ) ! opposite pole ( ! batt]y4 ,! expansion & contraction ( liquids by heat & cold is also ano!r elem5t>y tru? :i* admits ( ample illu/ration1 & inde$ introduces u to t mo/ useful in/rum5t call$ ! !rmomet]4 ,if a flask is fitt$ ) a cork ?r\gh :i* a long glass tube1 op5 ,page #cei at bo? ends1 is pass$1 & !n c>efully fill$ ) wat] col\r$ ) a little solution ( indigo1 s t :5 ! cork & tube are plac$ 9 ! neck1 all ! air is exclud$1 a r\gh !rmomet] is ?us con/ruct$1 :i*1 if plac$ 9 boil+ wat]1 quickly indicates ! increas$ temp]ature by ! ris+ or expansion ( ! col\r$ wat] inside ! flask4 7,fig4 #cdg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdg4 ,expansion ( liquids %[n at ,a by ! col\r$ wat] ris+ 9 ! tube f ! flask1 :i* is q full ( liquid1 & heat$ by boil+ wat]4 ,b4 ,! expansion ( ! wat] heat$ by ! _s-lamp is %[n by ! ris+ ( ! pi/on & rod ,c ,c4 ,d repres5ts a retort fill$ up l ,a to %[ ! expansion ( a liquid by heat4 ,! !rmomet] embraces precisely ! same pr9ciple z t already describ$ 9 ,fig4 #cdg1 ) ?is diff]5ce only1 t ! tube is ( a mu* f9] bore1 & ! liquid employ$1 :e!r alcohol or m]cury1 is boil$ & h]metically seal$ 9 ! tube1 s t ! air is entirely exclud$4 ,to make a !rmomet]1 a tube ) a capill>y bore is select$ ( ! prop] l5g?2 x is !n dipp$ into a glass conta9+ m]cury1 s t ! tube is fill$ to ! l5g? ( half an in* ) t metal4 ,! half-in* is c>efully measur$ on a scale1 & ! place ! m]cury fills 9 ! tube m>k$ ) a scrat*+ diamond2 ! m]cury is !n %ak5 half an in* high]1 & aga9 m>k$1 & ?is proce$+ is cont9u$ until ! :ole tube is divid$ into half in*es4 ,! object ( do+ ?is is to correct any inequalities ,page #cfj;9 ! diamet] ( ! bore ( ! glass tube1 because if wid] at "o "p ?an ano!r1 ! spaces fill$ ) ! m]cury are n equal2 z ! bore is usually conical1 ! c>eful measurem5t ( ! tube ) ! half in* ( m]cury 9 ! fir/ place gives ! op]ator at once a view ( ! int]ior ( 8 tube1 & enables him to graduate x correctly aft]w>ds4 7,fig4 #cdh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdh4 ,a ,b4 ,magnifi$ view ( ! bore ( "o ( ! !rmomet] tubes :i* are made by rapidly draw+ out a holl[ mass ( hot glass :il/ s(t & ductile1 consequ5tly ! bore mu/ be conical1 & l>g] at "o end ?an ! o!r4 ,! next /ep is to heat "o extremity by ! lamp & bl[pipe1 & :il/ hot1 to bl[ out a ball ^u x2 if ?is op]ation 7 p]=m$ ) ! m\?1 moi/ure f ! brea? w\ld deposit inside ! f9e bore ( ! glass tube1 & injure ! p]fection ( ! !rmomet] aft]w>ds4 ,9 ord] to prev5t any deposit ( wat]1 ! bulb is bl[n out1 :il/ r$-hot1 ) ! air f a small ca\t*\c bag fitt$ on to ! o!r extremity ( ! tube4 ,! op]ator n[ m>ks (f ! int5d$ l5g? ( 8 !rmomet]1 & above t po9t ! tube is aga9 s(t5$ ) ! flame & bl[pipe1 & a second bulb bl[n out4 7,fig4 #cdi a47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdi a4--,no4 #a4 ,fir/ bulb4 ,! int5d$ l5g? ( ! !rmomet] is %[n at ! little cross4--,no4 #b is ! second bulb plac$ above ! cross4 ,! op5 end ( ! tube is n[ plac$ "u ! surface ( "s pure1 clean1 dry quicksilv]1 & heat be+ appli$ to ! upp] bulb1 ! air exp&s & escapes ?r\gh ! m]cury1 & z ! tube cools a vacuum is produc$1 into :i* ! m]cury passes4 ,by ?is simple me?od1 ! m]cury is easily =c$ into ! tube1 z o!rwise x w\ld be impossible to p\r ! quicksilv] into ! capill>y bore ( ! int5d$ !rmomet]4 7,fig4 #cdi b47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdi b4 ,heat+ & exp&+ ! air 9 ! top bulb1 s t :5 cool ! m]cury 9 ! glass ,a1 may rise into ! tube & fill ! bulb ,b4 ,! tube is n[ tak5 f ! glass conta9+ ! m]cury1 & simply inv]t$2 b 9 consequ5ce ( ! v n>r[ diamet] ( ! bore ! air w n pass out ( ! fir/ bulb until heat is appli$1 :5 ! air exp&s1 & ! ,page #cfa m]cury1 fir/ /ation>y 9 ! second bulb1 w n[ displace ! air1 & fall into ! fir/ bulb :5 ! tube is aga9 cool4 ,! ball1 ,no4 #a 7,fig4 #cdi a71 is n[ full ( m]cury1 & !re is also "s left 9 ,no4 #b2 9 ! next place1 ! tube is support$ by a wire1 & held ov] a *>coal fire1 :5 x is heat$ ?r\gh\t its entire l5g?1 & ! m]cury be+ boil$ expels ! :ole ( ! air1 s t !re is no?+ inside ! bulbs & capill>y bore b m]cury & its vap\r4 7,no4 #a1 ,fig4 #cej47 ,! op5 end ( ! int5d$ !rmomet] is n[ tempor>ily clos$ ) seal+-wax1 & ! :ole all[$ aga9 to cool ) ! seal$ end upp]mo/1 s t ! ball ,no4 #b1 ,fig4 #cej1 & ! tube above x1 are q fill$ ) quicksilv]4 ,aft] cool+1 ! tube is plac$ at an angle ) ! seal$ end upp]mo/1 &1 guid$ by exp]i5ce1 ! op]ator heats ! l[] bulb s z to exp& en\gh m]cury into ! upp] "o to leave space = ! future expansion & contraction ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube1 :i* has n[ to be h]metically seal$4 ,?is is done by dext]\sly heat+ ! tube at ! cross :il/ ! m]cury 9 ! fir/ bulb is /ill exp&$2 & by draw+ x out rapidly ) ! help ( ! heat obta9$ f ! lamp & bl[pipe1 ! second bulb is sep>at$ f ! fir/ at ! little cross 7,b1 ,no4 #c1 ,fig4 #cej71 & ! !rmomet] tube at la/ prop]ly fill$ ) quicksilv]1 & h]metically clos$4 7,no4 #d1 ,fig4 #cej47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cej4--,no4 #a4 ,boil+ quicksilv] 9 ! tube ) two bulbs4--,no4 #b4 ,tube cool$1 ) ! seal$ end upp]mo/4--,no4 #c4 ,m]cury 9 fir/ bulb exp&$ by lamp ,a1 & at ! prop] mom5t h]metically seal$ by ! flame urg$ by ! bl[pipe at ,b4 ,! upp] bulb & tube to ! cross be+ drawn away & sep>at$4--,no4 #d4 ,!rmomet] tube conta9+ ! requisite quantity ( m]cury1 h]metically seal$1 & n[ ready = graduation4 ,page #cfb ,9 ord] to procure a fix$ />t+-po9t1 ! !rmomet] tube is plac$ 9 ice1 ) a scale atta*$2 ! temp]ature ( ice nev] v>ies1 x is always at #cb degrees4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! m]cury has sunk to ! l[e/ po9t x c d by exposure to ?is degree ( cold1 ! place is m>k$ (f 9 ! scale1 & repres5ts t position 9 ! graduat$ scale :]e ! freez+ po9t ( wat] is indicat$4 ,! tube is plac$ 9 ! next place 9 a vessel ( boil+ wat]1 c>e be+ tak5 t ! :ole tube is subject to ! heat ( ! wat] & ! /eam issu+ f x1 & :5 ! m]cury has ris5 to ! highe/ position atta9able by ! heat ( boil+ wat]1 ano!r graduation is made :i* indicates #bab degrees--viz41 ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,?is graduation %\ld be made :5 ! b>omet] /&s at #cj in*es1 because ! boil+ po9t ( wat] v>ies accord+ to ! weight ( ! sup]9cumb5t air press+ ^u x4 ,betwe5 ! graduation ( ! freez+ & ! boil+ po9t ( wat] ! space is divid$ into #ahj p>ts1 :i* add$ to #cb make up ! boil+ po9t ( wat] to #bab degrees1 be+ ! graduation ( ,fahr5heit1 :o 0 an in/rum5t-mak] ( ,hamburg4 ,:y he divid$ ! space betwe5 ! freez+ & boil+ po9t ( wat] nobody appe>s to "k1 unless he took a half circle ( #ahj degrees z ! be/ division ( space4 ,if ! !rmomet] conta9s air ! m]cury divides itself frequ5tly into two or ?ree sl5d] ?reads1 ea* sep>at$ f ! o!r 9 ! capill>y bore1 & ?us ! in/rum5t is r5d]$ useless until ! ?reads aga9 coalesce4 ,if ! !rmomet] has be5 well made1 & is q free f air1 x may be ti$ to a /r+ & swung viol5tly r\nd1 :5 ! c5trifugal =ce drives ! sl5d] ?reads ( m]cury to _! common s\rce--viz41 ! bulb conta9+ ! quicksilv]1 & ! :ole is aga9 unit$4 ,! /r+ mu/ be atta*$1 ( c\rse1 to ! top ( ! !rmomet] scale4 ,:5 travell+ on ! ,cont95t x is sometimes desirable to be able to read ! !rmomet]s :i* are graduat$ 9 a diff]5t mann] to t ( ,fahr5heit4 ,9 ,france ! ,c5tigrade scale is pref]r$1 & 9 _m p>ts ( ,g]many ,reaumur's graduation4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! graduation is se5 at a glance4 ,9 ! ,c5tigrade ! freez+ po9t is #j1 ! boil+ po9t #ajj4 ,reaumur #j1 #hj4 ,fahr5heit #cb1 #bab4 ,! numb] ( degrees1 !re=e1 betwe5 boil+ & freez+ is #ajj 9 ! ,c5tigrade1 #hj 9 ,reaumur1 & 7#bab-cb1 t is7 #ahj 9 ,fahr5heit4 ,if1 !n1 ! lett]s ,c1 ,r1 ,f1 be tak5 to d5ote ! numb] ( degrees f ! freez+ po9t at :i* ! m]cury /&s 9 ! ,c5tigrade1 ,reaumur1 & ,fahr5heit !rmomet]s1 we h ! foll[+ proportions3-- 7#a47 #ajj3 #hj 33 ,c3 ,r1 :5ce ,c #e_/d ( ,r1 or ,r #d_/e ( ,c4 7#b47 #ahj3ajj 33 ,f3 ,c1 :5ce ,f #i_/e ( ,c1 or ,c #e_/i ( ,f4 7#c47 #ahj3 #hj 33 ,f3 ,r1 :5ce ,f #i_/d ( ,r1 or ,r #d_/i ( ,f4 ,page #cfc ,! foll[+ examples w %[ h[ to apply ^! =mul3-- 7#a74--,suppose ! ,reaumur /&s at #bh1 at :at height does ! ,c5tigrade /&8 ,we h ,c #e_/d ( ,r 79 ?is case71 #e_/d ( #bh #ce3 t is1 ! ,c5tigrade /&s at #ce4 7#b74--,suppose ,fahr5heit to /& at #da1 :at w ,reaumur /& at8 ,r #d_/i ( 7#da-cb7 7t is1 ! numb] above freez+ 9 ,fahr47 #d_/i ( #i #d4 ,reaumur /&s at #d4 7#c74--,suppose ,fahr5heit /&s at #bc1 :at w ! ,c5tigrade /& at8 ,c #e_/i ( ,f #e_/i ( 7#cb-bc7 #e_/i ( #i #e bel[ freez+ 7or-#e74 7#d74--;,if ,fahr5heit /&s at #d bel[ #j1 :at w ,reaumur indicate8 ,r #d_/i ( ,f #d_/i ( 7#cb #d7 #d_/i ( #cf #af bel[ #j 7or-#af74 ,! only liquid :i* has ! exceptional prop]ty ( exp&+ by cold is wat]1 & x w be se5 pres5tly t ?is curi\s anomaly is ( ! greate/ importance 9 ! economy ( nature4 ,if a box conta9+ a mixture ( ice & salt is plac$ r\nd ! top ( a long cyl9drical glass conta9+ wat] at a temp]ature ( #fj ,fahr41 ! int5se cold ( ! freez+ mixture1 :i* is z]o--t is to say1 #cb bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]--v soon r$uces ! temp]ature ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! glass1 & z x becomes cold] x contracts1 is r5d]$ heavi]1 & s9ks to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & its place is tak5 by o!r & w>m] wat]4 ,?is circulation comm5c+ d[nw>ds1 proce$s till ! wat] has atta9$ a temp]ature ( ab\t #dj ,fahr41 :5 ! maximum d5sity is obta9$ & ! circulation /ops1 because aft] s9k+ bel[ #dj ! cold wat] becomes light]1 & cont9ues to be s until x freezes1 & ( c\rse1 be+ ( a less specific gravity ?an ! w>m] wat]1 x floats 7l oil on wat]7 ^u its surface2 s t a small !rmomet] plac$ at ! bottom ( ! j> indicates only #dj ,fahr41 :il/ ! solid ice envelop+ ! o!r or second !rmomet] plac$ at ! top may be z l[ z #bi1 or ev5 l[]1 accord+ to ! quantity ( ice & salt us$ 9 ! box surr\nd+ ! top ( ! glass4 7,fig4 #cea47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cea4 ,a ,b4 ,long cyl9drical glass conta9+ wat] & two !rmomet]s2 ! "o at ! bottom %[s a temp]ature ( #dj2 ! o!r at ! top #cb1 or ev5 l[]1 ,c ,c ,c ,c4 ,section ( box conta9+ ! ice & salt1 & /&+ on f\r legs1 two ( :i* are %[n at ,d ,d4 ,page #cfd ,! importance ( ?is curi\s anomaly _c be ov]rat$4 ,if wat] did n possess ?is r>e prop]ty1 all ! seas1 riv]s1 canals1 lakes1 c41 w\ld gradually become impassable f ! pres5ce ( enorm\s blocks ( ice =m$ dur+ ! w9t]4 ,! :ole bulk ( wat] conta9$ 9 !m w\ld h to s9k bel[ #cb be=e x c\ld solidify provid$ wat] increas$ 9 d5sity or cont9u$ to contract by cold4 ,hav+ once solidifi$1 ! w>m? ( ! rays f a summ]'s sun w\ld c]ta9ly melt a great deal ( ! ice1 b n ! :ole1 & w9t] w\ld come aga9 be=e ! solid masses _h disappe>$4 ,! ocean c\ld n be navigat$ 9 safety ev5 ne> our own %ores1 9 consequ5ce ( ! va/ iceb]gs t w\ld be =m$1 & float ab\t & jo/le ea* o!r ev5 9 ! ,briti% ,*annel4 ,! e>? has be5 wond]fully prep>$ = ,god's highe/ "w--,man1 & 9 no?+ is ?is supreme wisdom m app>5t ?an 9 ! fact t wat] (f]s ! only kn[n exception to ! law t bodies exp& by heat & contract by cold4 ,! expansion ( gases by heat & contraction by cold take place 9 ob$i5ce to a law to :i* !re is no exception1 except 9 degree4 ,x 0 discov]$ 9 #ahja by ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1 ( ,p>is1 & also ab\t ! same p]iod by ! fam\s ,engli% philosoph] :o e/abli%$ ! atomic !ory--viz41 by ,dr4 ,dalton4 ,s9ce ^! exp]im5ts & calculations ,rudb]g1 ,magnus1 & ,regnault h made o!r rese>*es1 & _! successive exp]im5ts give ! foll[+ results3-- ,vols4 ( air4 ,volumes4 ,dalton1 ,gay ,lussac #ajjj heat$ f #cb to #bab became #acge ,rudb]g #ajjj #acfe ,magnus1 ,regnault #ajjj #acff4e ,z a natural result1 air at #cb ,fahr1 exp&s #a_/dia "p ( its volume = e degree ( heat on ! scale ( ,fahr5heit2 & a volume ( air :i* measures #dia cubic in*es at #cb w measure #dib at #cc1 #dic at #cd1 & s on4 ,! exception is only 9 degree1 & ,magnus & ,regnault discov]$ by _! se>*+ exp]im5ts t ! gases easily liquifi$ are m expansible by heat ?an air & ^? gases 7su* z oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog57 :i* h nev] be5 liquifi$4 ,! expansion ( air is easily %[n by plac+ ! op5 end ( a tube ) a l>ge bulb bl[n at ! o!r extremity1 "u ! surface ( a little col\r$ wat]2 on ! application ( heat ! air exp&s & escapes1 & its place is tak51 :5 cool1 by ! col\r$ liquid4 ,su* an arrangem5t repres5ts ! fir/ !rmomet] con/ruct$ by ,sanctorio ab\t ,a4,d4 #afjj1 :i* might c]ta9ly answ] = r\gh purposes1 b z ! asc5t & desc5t ( ! fluid dep5d on ! bulk ( air conta9$ 9 ! bulb1 & z ?is is affect$ by e *ange ( ! height ( ! b>omet]1 no satisfactory indication ( an increase or decrease ( temp]ature c\ld be obta9$ ) x1 al?\gh ! in/rum5t itself is int]e/+ 9 an hi/orical po9t ( view1 & 9 a ,page #cfe modifi$ =m z an air !rmomet] has be5 employ$ by ,sir ,john ,leslie1 "u ! "n ( ! ,diff]5tial ,!rmomet]1 9 8 ref9$ & delicate exp]im5ts ) heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceb ,a4 ,sanctorio's orig9al air !rmomet]2 ! expansion & contraction ( ! air 9 ! bulb indicate ! rise or fall ( ! temp]ature4 ,! cork is m]ely a support1 & is n fitt$ into ! bottle air-tight4 ,b ,c4 ,! diff]5tial !rmomet]4 ,:5 bo? bulbs are subject$ to a uni=m temp]ature1 no movem5t ( ! fluid %[n at ,d occurs2 b if ! bulb ,b is put into any place w>m] ?an ! position ( ! bulb ,c1 !n ! air exp&s 9 ,b1 & drives ! col\r$ liquid1 :i* consi/s ( c>m9e dissolv$ 9 oil ( vitriol1 up ! scale atta*$ to ! /em ( ! bulb ,c4 ,fire balloons are a good example ( ! expansion ( gases1 & ! levity ( ! air ?us increases 9 bulk 0 tak5 advantage ( by ,montgolfi] 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 fam\s balloon1 :i*1 ) a cage conta9+ v>i\s animals1 asc5d$1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,k+ & royal family ( ,france1 at ,v]sailles2 & 9 spite ( huge r5ts 9 two places1 x rose to a height ( #addj feet1 & aft] rema9+ 9 ! air = eight m9utes1 fell to ! gr\nd at ! di/ance ( #aj1bjj feet f ! place :5ce x />t$1 )\t injury to ! animals4 ,:5 x is consid]$ t a volume ( air heat$ f #cb to #dia is d\bl$1 & tripl$ :5 heat$ to #ihb1 x w at once be und]/ood h[ great mu/ be ! asc5d+ p[] ( su* balloons1 provid$ ! air )9 !m is kept suffici5tly hot4 ,t gallant aronaut1 ,pilate de ,rozi]1 (f]$ himself to be ! fir/ arial navigator2 & hav+ jo9$ ,montgolfi]1 !y made ?ree successful asc5ts & desc5ts ) a l>ge oval-%ap$ balloon1 =ty-eight feet 9 diamet]1 & sev5ty-f\r feet high4 ,on ! f\r? occasion he asc5d$ to a height ( #bfb feet1 b 9 ! desc5t a gu/ ( w9d hav+ bl[n ! ma*9e ov] "s l>ge trees ( an adjo9+ g>d51 ! situation ( ! brave aronaut 0 extremely dang]\s1 & if he _h n possess$ ! /ronge/ pres5ce ( m9d1 & at once ,page #cff giv5 ! balloon a great] asc5d+ p[]1 by rapidly supply+ 8 /ove ) "s /raw & *ipp$ wood1 he might on ?is occasion h met ) t untimely end :i* subsequ5tly1 9 ano!r ra% aronautic adv5ture1 befell ?is brave b foolh>dy ,fr5*man4 ,on desc5d+ aga91 he once m1 & )\t ! slighte/ fe>1 rais$ himself to a consid]able height by fe$+ 8 fire ) *opp$ /raw4 ,"s "t aft] he asc5d$1 9 company ) ,m4 ,gir\d de ,vilette1 to ! height ( #ccj feet1 hov]+ ov] ,p>is at lea/ n9e m9utes1 9 sight ( all ! inhabitants1 & ! ma*9e keep+ all ! :ile p]fectly /eady4 ,! dang] 9 us+ ?is me?od ( inflat+ ! balloon arises f ! possibility ( g5]at+ gas1 :i* escap+ unburnt into ! body ( ! balloon1 may accumulate & bl[ up1 or burn aft]w>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cec4 ,a ,b4 ,wessel's gas /ove1 ) r+ ( gas jets light$ inside2 ! air ru%es 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s1 ,c ,c1 & escap+ at ! top ( ! *imney1 ,d ,d1 soon fills ! air or fire balloon1 :i* is usually made ( pap]4 ,fire balloons1 z usually made1 are v dang]\s toys1 & may sometimes prove r co/ly to ! p]son :o may s5d !m (f1 9 consequ5ce ( _! be+ bl[n by ! w9d on a hay or corn rick1 or o!r combu/ible sub/ances4 ,! safe/ mode ( us+ fire balloons is to fill !m ) hot air f a light$ gas /ove 7,wessel's1 = in/ance72 ! balloons may !n be us$ 9 l>ge rooms1 or out 9 ! air1 )\t fe> ( do+ any h>m to neighb\r+ prop]ty1 z ( c\rse ! /ove & ! fire rema9 beh9d1 & w fill any numb] ( air balloons4 7,fig4 #cec47 ,aft] all ! fuss made ab\t ! novelty ( ! ,am]ican hot-air eng9e1 x is some:at amus+ to look back to ! records ( civil eng9e]+1 & 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 to read ,mr4 ,james ,/irl+'s acc\nt ( 8 improv$ air eng9e1 9 :i* ! great expansion ( air m5tion$ at p4 #cfe has be5 successfully appli$4 ,! eng9e 0 con/ruct$ ab\t ! ye> ,page #cfg #ahdc1 & ! pr9ciple1 discov]$ ?irty ye>s be=e by ,mr4 ,r4 ,/irl+1 w be compreh5d$ by ref]5ce to ! cut4 7,fig4 #ced47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ced4 ,/irl+'s air eng9e4 ,two /rong air-tight vessels are connect$ ) ! opposite ends ( a cyl9d]1 9 :i* a pi/on works 9 ! usual mann]4 ,ab\t f\r-fif?s ( ! int]ior space 9 ^! vessels is occupi$ by two simil> air-tight vessels or plung]s1 :i* are susp5d$ to ! opposite extremities ( a beam1 & capable ( be+ alt]nately mov$ up & d[n to ! ext5t ( ! rema9+ fif?4 ,by ! motion ( ^! int]ior vessels1 :i* are fill$ ) non-conduct+ sub/ances1 ! air to be op]at$ ^u is mov$ f "o end ( ! ext]ior vessel to ! o!r1 & z "o end is kept at a high temp]ature1 & ! o!r z cold z possible1 :5 ! air is br\ght to ! hot end x becomes heat$1 & has its pressure increas$2 & :5 x is br\ght to ! cold end1 its heat & pressure are dim9i%$4 ,n[1 z ! int]ior vessels necess>ily move 9 opposite directions1 x foll[s t ! pressure ( ! enclos$ air 9 ! "o vessel is increas$1 :ile t ( ! o!r is dim9i%$4 ,a diff]5ce ( pressure is ?us produc$ ^u ! opposite sides ( ! pi/on1 :i* is !reby made to move f ! "o end ( ! cyl9d] to ! o!r1 & by cont9ually rev]s+ ! motion ( ! susp5d$ bodies or plung]s1 ! great] pressure is successively ?r[n ^u a diff]5t side1 & a reciprocat+ motion ( ,page #cfh ! pi/on is kept up4 ,! pi/on is connect$ ) a fly-:eel 9 any ( ! usual modes2 & ! plung]s1 by ^: motion ! air is heat$ & cool$1 are mov$ 9 ! same mann]1 & ne>ly at ! same relative "t1 ) ! valves ( a /eam eng9e4 ,! pressure is greatly increas$ & made m economical by us+ some:at highly-compress$ air1 :i* is at fir/ introduc$1 & is aft]w>ds ma9ta9$1 by ! cont9u$ action ( an air-pump4 ,! pump is also employ$ 9 fill+ a sep>ate magaz9e ) compress$ air1 f :i* ! eng9e c be at once *>g$ to ! work+ pressure4 ,mr4 ,/irl+'s *ief improvem5t consi/s 9 sav+ all or ne>ly all ! heat ( ! exp&$ air aft] x has done its "w1 by pass+ x f ! hot to ! cold end ( ! air vessel ?r\gh a multitude ( n>r[ passages1 ^: temp]ature is at ! beg9n+ ( ! tubes ne>ly z great z t ( ! hot air1 b gradually decl9es till x becomes ne>ly z l[ z ! colde/ "p ( ! air vessel4 ,! heat is !re=e reta9$ by ^! passages1 s t :5 ! me*anism is rev]s$1 ! cold air returns aga9 ?r\gh ^! hot pipes1 & is ?us made ne>ly hot en\gh by ! "t x rea*es ! heat+ vessel to d its "w4 ,?us1 in/ead ( be+ oblig$ to supply at e /roke ( ! eng9e z mu* heat z w\ld be suffici5t to raise ! air f its l[e/ to its highe/ temp]ature1 x is necess>y to furni% only z mu* z w heat x ! same numb] ( degrees by :i* ! hotte/ "p ( ! air vessel exce$s ! hotte/ "p ( ! int]m$iate passages4 ,?is portion ( ! eng9e may be call$ ! economical process1 & repres5ts ! f\ndation ( all ! success to :i* x has atta9$ 9 produc+ p[] ) a small exp5diture ( fuel4 ,no boil] be+ requir$1 ( c\rse ! dang] ( explosions is mu* less5$4 ,! high] ! pressure "u :i* ! eng9e 0 work$ ! great] 0 ! effect produc$4 ,a small eng9e on ?is pr9ciple 0 work$ to a pressure ( #cfj p\nds on ! squ>e in*2 & p]haps ! be/ popul> notion ( ! novelty 9 ! arrangem5t is t sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,george ,l[e1 :o comp>$ ! economical "p ( ! ma*9e to a ,jeffrey's ,respirator us$ by consumptive pati5ts4 ,! heat f ! air expir$ be+ reta9$ by ! lam91 & aga9 us$ :5 cold air is inspir$ or drawn into ! lungs4 ,mr4 ,/irl+ /ates t ! consumption ( fuel z comp>$ to ! /eam eng9e :i* ! air eng9e _h replac$ 0 z #f to #bf2 ! same am\nt ( "w be+ n[ p]=m$ by ab\t six cwt4 ( coals :i* _h =m]ly requir$ ab\t tw5ty-six cwt41 ?\gh he ought to h /at$ t ! /eam eng9e remov$ 0 n ( ! be/ con/ruction1 nor _h ! boil] any close cov]+4 7,fig4 #ced47 ,conduction ( ,heat4 ,?is prop]ty ( heat ) ref]5ce to matt]1 & ! consid]ation ( ! curi\s mann] 9 :i* x creeps1 z x 71 ?r\gh solid sub/ances1 br+s ! ?\ghtful m9d at once to ! bold "q ( ,:at is heat8 ,is x to be reg>d$ z some?+ real or mat]ial8 or ,page #cfi mu/ x be consid]$ only z a prop]ty or /ate ( matt]8 ,^! que/ions are n to be solv$ easily1 & !y dem& a consid]able am\nt ( exp]im5t & reason+ ev5 to appreciate _! mean+4 ,if a r$-hot ball is plac$ 9 ! focus ( a concave metallic speculum1 x gives out c]ta9 emanations t are q invisible1 b :i* are reflect$ f ! surface ( ! mirror 9 ! same mann] z visible rays ( light1 & may be collect$ 9 ! focus ( ano!r & second concave speculum1 :5 !y c be conc5trat$ on to a bit ( phosphorus1 & w cause ! combu/ion ( t sub/ance4 ,if ! air f a pair ( bell[s is bl[n =cibly across ! rays ( heat z !y are be+ conc5trat$ ^u ! phosphorus1 ! rays are n mov$ f _! c\rse1 !y are no m bl[n away ?an a sunbeam d>t+ ?r\gh an ap]ture 9 a cl\d on a /ormy1 w9dy day4 ,! heat has1 !re=e no?+ to d ) ! air1 & is :olly indep5d5t ( t m$ium 9 its passage f "o mirror to ! o!r4 ,su* an exp]im5t z t describ$ w\ld at once sugge/ ! idea t heat is a matt] sui g5]is1 a compon5t "p ( all bodies1 & giv5 (f f inc&esc5t matt]1 ! sun1 c41 & t x may be propagat$ ?r\gh space mu* 9 ! same mann] z light4 7,fig4 #cee47 ,! me*anism may be v mu* l ! corpuscul> movem5t ( light z def9$ by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 & already expla9$ 9 ano!r portion ( ?is book4 ,h5ce x has be5 suppos$ t heat is propagat$ ?r\gh ! air1 wat]1 & solid sub/ances by a direct emission ( mat]ial p>ticles f ! heat-giv+ ag5t1 & t ^! molecules ( heat =ce _! way into1 or along1 or ?r\gh !m1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cee4 ,heat reflect$ by mirror1 b n bl[n away by air f bell[s4 ,c]ta9 bodies are almo/ transp>5t to heat rays1 su* z air1 :il/ o!rs take an int]m$ial position1 & only /op a c]ta9 quantity ( ! heat molecules1 su* z rock cry/als1 mirror glass1 & alum4 ,a ?ird class ( bodies absorbs ! heat pl5tifully1 su* z *>coal1 black clo?1 c42 & a f\r?1 :5 poli%$ & plac$ at ! prop] angle1 reflects or ?r[s (f ! heat1 z 9 ! case ( poli%$ mirrors4 ,! transp>5cy or opacity ( sub/ances 7s f> z light is conc]n$7 ,page #cgj does n affect ! transmission ( heat4 ,light ( e col\r & f all s\rces is equally transmitt$ by all transp>5t bodies 9 ! liquid or solid =m1 b ?is is n ! case ) heat4 ,! rays ( heat emitt$ by ! sun & o!r lum9\s bodies h prop]ties q diff]5t to ! rays ( light ) :i* !y are accompani$4 ,f ^! /atem5ts x w be evid5t t ! mat]ial !ory ( heat is surr\nd$ ) difficulties & anomalies t _c be reconcil$ ! "o ) ! o!r1 or neatly adapt$1 fitt$ 91 & dovetail$ ) all ! puzzl+ ph5om5a t arise4 ,our k ( ! !ory ( heat has be5 greatly assi/$ by ! rese>*es ( ,melloni1 :o has demon/rat$ t diff]5t species ( rays ( heat are giv5 (f by ! same body at diff]5t temp]atures1 :i* may be di/9ctly sift$ & sep>at$ f ea* o!r4 ,long be=e ! exp]im5ts ( ,melloni philosoph]s _h endeav\r$ to weigh heat2 tra9s ( ! mo/ delicate lev]s 7 expos$1 )\t effect1 to ! action ( heat rays2 & all attempts1 exp]im5tal z well z !oretical1 to def9e heat by ! mat]ial !ory1 are imp]fect1 crude1 & unsatisfactory4 ,we are p]=ce oblig$ to adopt ano!r !ory1 & ! "o t obta9s ! greate/ fav\r1 z (f]+ ! be/ def9ition ( heat1 is ! dynamical !ory1 :i* is m or less analog\s to ! undulatory !ory ( light4 ,at pages #bfb1 #cbh1 #cce1 ?is !ory has be5 p>tly expla9$1 & 9 speak+ ( x aga91 great c>e mu/ be tak5 n to confuse ! undulations ( heat ) ^? ( light4 ,! sun & ! />s swim 9 a molecul> m$ium1 & #ci1ahj vibrations or waves mu/ occur 9 "o in* to produce ! s5sation ( r$ light1 & #eg1dij undulations 9 ! space ( "o in* to produce a violet light4 ,z vibrations ( ! e!real molecules affect ! eye1 s !re may be o!r n]ves 9 our bodies :i* are peculi>ly s5sitive to ! waves ( heat4 ,x requires eight vibrations ( ! air to occur 9 a second to produce an audible s\nd2 :il/ if ! vibrations ( ! air am\nt to #be1jjj p] second !y _c be appreciat$ by ! human e>1 al?\gh x is possible to conceive t ! e>s ( c]ta9 animals may be s susceptible ( rapid vibrations t !y may be able1 = c]ta9 wise purposes ( ! ,creator1 to appreciate s\nds :i* are inaudible to human e>s4 ,melloni exhibit$ a spectrum to a numb] ( p]sons1 & f\nd t !re 0 m light app>5t to "s eyes ?an to o!rs4 ,lubeck put a sc>let clo? on a donkey1 & f\nd t ! two 7 frequ5tly conf\nd$ toge!r by ! eyes ( _m spectators4 ,^! facts indicate t !re may be vibrations ( molecules t produce ! s5sation ( heat1 b :i* d n affect ! n]ves t are s5sitive to ! action ( light waves1 & vice v]s2 & x is also probable t all ^! diff]5t undulations1 "s af=d+ heat & "s light1 may be g5]at$ & propagat$ ?r\gh space1 z f ! sun2 or ?r\gh %ort] di/ances1 z f burn+ lamps & fires1 )\t 9 any way int]f]+ ) or imp$+ ea* o!r's progress4 ,! dynamical !ory seems to (f] ! be/ idea ( ! transmission ,page #cga ( heat :i* is c>ri$1 conduct$1 or propagat$ ?r\gh solids ) v>iable rapidity1 ei!r by ! vibration ( ! con/itu5t molecules ( ! body itself1 or by ! undulation ( a r>e subtle fluid :i* p]vades !m4 ,if a copp] & iron wire ( ! same l5g? & diamet] are b\nd toge!r & heat$ at ! po9t ( union1 ! waves ( heat travel fa/] ?r\gh ! copp] ?an ! iron1 & ! =m] is said to be ! be/ conductor ( heat2 & ! fact itself is demon/rat$ by plac+ a bit ( phosphorus at ! end ( ea* metallic wire1 & x w be f\nd by exp]im5t t ! combu/ible sub/ance melts fir/ & takes fire on ! copp]1 & t a consid]able int]val ( "t elapses be=e ! phosphorus ignites on ! iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cef4 ,c4 ,copp] wire b\nd at ,a to ,i1 an iron wire4 ,aft] ! heat ( ! lamp has be5 appli$ = ab\t five m9utes ! heat travels to ,c fir/1 & ignites ! bit ( phosphorus plac$ !re4 ,aft] "s "t has elaps$ ! phosphorus at ,i also ignites4 ,! same fact is exhibit$ 9 a mo/ /rik+ mann] by ins]t+ a s]ies ( rods ( equal l5g?s & ?icknesses 9 ! side ( a rectangul> box1 all[+ !m to pass across ! int]ior to ! opposite side4 ,! rods are compos$ ( wood1 porcela91 glass1 lead1 iron1 z9c1 copp]1 & silv]1 & h atta*$ to ea* ( _! extremities1 by wax or tall[1 a clay m>ble4 ,:5 ! wat] plac$ 9 ! box is made to boil1 ! heat passes along ! diff]5t rods1 & melt+ ! wax or tall[1 all[s ! m>ble to drop (f4 ,consequ5tly ! fir/ m>ble w\ld drop f ! silv] rod1 ! next f ! copp]1 ! ?ird f ! iron1 ! f\r? f ! z9c1 ! fif? f ! lead1 :il/ ! porcela91 glass1 & wood5 rods w\ld h>dly conduct 79 sev]al h\rs7 suffici5t heat to melt ! wax or tall[1 & dis*>ge ! m>bles4 ,conduction ( ,metals4 ,gold #ajjj ,silv] #igc ,copp] #hih4b ,iron #cgd4c ,z9c #cfc ,lead #agi4f ,page #cgb ,! exp]im5t is made m /rik+ if ! m>bles are all[$ to fall on a lev] connect$ ) ! det5t ( a clock al>um1 :i* r+s e "t a m>ble falls f "o ( ! rods4 7,fig4 #ceg47 ,dur+ a cold fro/y day1 if ! h& is plac$ 9 contact ) v>i\s sub/ances1 "s appe> to be cold] ?an o!rs1 al?\gh all may be precisely ! same temp]ature2 ?is circum/ance is due to _! conduct+ p[]3 & a piece ( slate seems cold] ?an a bit ( *alk1 because ! =m] is a mu* bett] conductor ?an ! latt]1 & c>ries away ! heat f ! body ) great] rapidity1 & diffuses x ?r\gh its own sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceg4 ,a ,b4 ,tr\gh conta9+ boil+ wat]1 heat$ by gas jets bel[4 ,c4 ,! eight rods & m>bles atta*$1 "o ( :i* has fall54 ,d4 ,! tray to receive ! m>bles4 ,! gradual passage ( heat along a b> ( iron z comp>$ ) "o ( copp]1 is well illu/rat$ by support+ ! ends ( ! two b>s on ! top ( ! *imney ( an arg& lamp1 :il/ ! o!r extremities are held 9 a horizontal position by little blocks ( wood4 ,if m>bles are atta*$ by wax to ! "u side1 !y fall (f z ! heat travels along ! metallic b>s1 & m rapidly f ! copp] ?an ! iron1 because ! =m] is a bett] conductor ( heat ?an ! latt]4 7,fig4 #ceh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceh4 ,a4 ,section ( an arg& gas lamp1 ) a copp] *imney support+ ! ends ( ! b>s ( copp] & iron m>k$ ,c & ,i4 ,! balls h fall5 f ,c1 ! copp] b>4 ,f ! exp]im5ts ( ,may]1 ( ,erlang5 7,ann4 de ,*41 ,,xxx471 x w\ld appe> t ! conduct+ p[]s ( diff]5t woods are to a c]ta9 ext5t to be reg>d$ z 9 ! inv]se proportion to _! specific gravities--i4e41 ! great] ! d5sity ( ! wood ! less conduct+ p[]1 & ! contr>y4 ,if a cyl9drical b> or ?ick tube ( brass1 six in*es long1 & ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]1 is atta*$ to a wood5 cyl9d] ( ! same size1 ! conduct+ p[]s ( ! two sub/ances are well display$ by fir/ /ra9+ a %eet ( :ite pap] ov] ! brass1 & !n hold+ x 9 ! flame ( a _s lamp4 ,! heat be+ conduct$ rapidly away by ! metal w n scor* ! pap]1 until ! :ole arrives at a uni=m high temp]ature2 :]eas ! pap] is rapidly burnt :5 ,page #cgc /ra9$ ov] ! wood5 cyl9d]1 because ! heat ( ! flame ( ! lamp is conc5trat$ ^u "o po9t1 & is n diffus$ ?r\gh ! mass ( ! wood4 7,fig4 #cei47 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! highly philosophical exp]im5ts ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 :i* l$ him gradually to ! discov]y ( ! con/ruction ( ! safety lamp1 he connect$ toge!r1 by a copp] tube ( a small bore1 two vessels1 ea* conta9+ an explosive mixture compos$ ( fire damp & air4 ,:5 ! mixture 0 fir$ 9 "o vessel he f\nd t ! flame did n appe> to be able to travel1 z x 71 across ! bridge--viz41 ! copp] tube--& communicate ) ! o!r magaz9e1 because x 0 depriv$ ( its heat :il/ pass+ ?r\gh ! tube1 & 0 no long] flame1 b simply gase\s matt] at too l[ a temp]ature to effect ! inflammation ( ! mixture 9 ! second box4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cei4 ,cyl9d]1 half brass & half wood4 ,! pap] /ra9$ ov] ! wood is tak+ fire4 ,! o!r extremity1 %ad$1 is ! brass portion4 ,a mass ( cold metal may be sudd5ly appli$ to a small flame1 su* z t ( a night light1 & depriv+ x rapidly ( heat 7l ! case ( ! un=tunate ,russian describ$ at page #ced71 x is almo/ imm$iately ext+ui%$ 7fig4 #cfj71 n by ! m]e exclusion ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 b on acc\nt ( ! )drawal ( ! heat necess>y = ! ma9t5ance ( ! combu/ion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfj4 ,a4 ,small flame f night light4 ,b ,c4 ,l>ge mass ( cold copp] wire op5 at bo? ends to place ov] flame1 & by conduction ( ! heat to ext+ui% x4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy fir/ ?\ght ( mak+ 8 safety lamp ) small tubes1 :i* w\ld supply fre% air1 & c>ry (f ! burnt or f\l air1 at ! ,page #cgd same "t !y 7 to be s n>r[ t no flame c\ld pass out ( 8 lamp to communicate ) an out] explosive atmosph]e2 & 9 speak+ ( 8 lamp ) tubes he says3--,i soon discov]$ t a few ap]tures1 ev5 ( v small diamet]1 7 n safe unless _! sides 7 v deep2 t a s+le tube ( "o-tw5ty-eigh? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & two in*es long1 suff]$ ! explosion to pass ?r\gh x2 & t a great numb] ( small tubes1 or ( ap]tures1 /opp$ explosion1 ev5 :5 ! dep?s ( _! sides 0 only equal to _! diamet]s4 ,& at la/ ,i arriv$ at ! conclusion t a metallic tissue1 h[ev] ?9 & f9e1 ( :i* ! ap]tures fill$ m space ?an ! cool+ surface1 s z to be p]meable to air & light1 (f]$ a p]fect b>ri] to explosion1 f ! =ce be+ divid$ betwe51 & ! heat communicat$ to an imm5se numb] ( surfaces4 ,i made sev]al attempts to con/ruct safety lamps :i* %\ld give light 9 all explosive mixtures ( fire damp1 & aft] complicat$ comb9ations1 ,i at l5g? arriv$ at "o evid5tly ! mo/ simple1 t ( surr\nd+ ! light entirely by wire gauze1 & mak+ ! same tissue fe$ ! flame ) air & emit light4 ,if a numb] ( squ>e metallic tubes ( a f9e bore are plac$ upright side by side1 & a section cut (f horizontally1 x w\ld repres5t ! wire gauze :i* possesses su* m>vell\s p[]s ( sift+ away ! heat f a flame1 s t x is de/roy$ 9 its attempt$ passage ?r\gh ! metallic me%es2 & ( ?is fact a numb] ( pro(s may be adduc$4 ,a gas jet deliv]+ coal gas may be plac$ "u a %eet ( wire gauze1 ! gas p]meates ! gauze1 & may be set on fire at ! upp] side1 b ! flame is cut (f f ! m\? ( ! jet by ! cool+ action ( ! wire gauze4 ,! same exp]im5t rev]s$1 by hold+ ! gauze ov] ! gas burn+ f ! jet1 %[s /ill m decid$ly t flame w n pass ?r\gh ! metallic tissue4 7,fig4 #cfa47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfa4 ,a ,a4 ,a numb] ( squ>e tubes plac$ upright4 ,! arr[ %[s ! direction ( ! section to obta9 a figure l wire gauze4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy aga9 says3 ,?\gh all ! specim5s ( fire damp :i* ,i _h exam9$ consi/$ ( c>burett$ hydrog5 mix$ ) diff]5t small proportions ( c>bonic acid & common air1 yet "s ph5om5a ,i obs]v$ 9 ! combu/ion ( a bl[] induc$ me to believe t small quantities ( olefiant gas may be sometimes evolv$ 9 coal m9es ) ! c>burett$ hydrog54 ,i !re=e resolv$ to make all lamps safe to ! te/ ( ! gas produc$ by ! di/illation ( coal1 :i*1 :5 x has n be5 expos$ to wat]1 always conta9s olefiant gas4 ,i plac$ my light$ lamps 9 a l>ge glass receiv] ?r\gh :i* !re 0 a curr5t ( atmosph]ical air1 & by means ( a ,page #cge gasomet] fill$ ) coal gas1 ,i made ! curr5t ( air :i* pass$ into ! lamp m or less explosive1 & caus$ x to *ange rapidly or sl[ly at pleasure1 s z to produce all possible v>ieties ( inflammable & explosive mixtures1 & ,i f\nd t iron gauze wire compos$ ( wires f "o-=tie? to "o-sixtie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & conta9+ tw5ty-eight wires or sev5 hundr$ & eighty-f\r ap]tures to ! in*1 0 safe "u all circum/ances 9 atmosph]es ( ?is k9d2 & ,i consequ5tly adopt$ ?is mat]ial 9 gu>d+ lamps = ! coal m9es1 :5 9 ,janu>y1 #ahaf1 !y 7 imm$iately adopt$1 & h long be5 9 g5]al use4 ,! rem>kable conduct+ p[] ( wire gauze is fur!r %[n by plac+ "s lumps ( camphor on a piece ( ?is mat]ial1 & :5 ! heat ( a _s-lamp is appli$ on ! "u side ( ! gauze1 ! camphor volatilizes1 & z ! vap\r is rem>kably heavy1 x falls ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! gauze1 & takes fire2 b ! mo/ curi\s & fur!r illu/ration ( ! conduct+ p[] ( ! wire me%es is %[n 9 ! fact t ! fire does n communicate ?r\gh ! ?9 film ( gauze to ! lumps ( camphor plac$ ^u x4 ,! camphor may be ignit$ by apply+ flame to ! upp] side ( ! gauze1 %[+ t1 al?\gh ?is sub/ance is s exce$+ly combu/ible1 x w n take fire ev5 if plac$ at no great] di/ance f flame ?an ! ?ickness ( ! wire gauze1 provid$ ! latt] mat]ial is int]pos$ betwe5 x & ! flame4 ,a squ>e box made ( wire gauze1 ) a hole at ! bottom to admit a c&le or _s-lamp1 may h a consid]able jet ( coal gas =c$ ^u x f ! outside1 or a l>ge jug ( e!r vap\r p\r$ ^u x2 & al?\gh ! box may be full ( flame1 aris+ f ! combu/ion ( ! gas or e!r1 ! fire does n come out ( ! wire box or communicate ) ! jet or ! e!r vap\r z x is p\r$ f ! jug4 7,fig4 #cfb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfb4 ,a box made ( wire gauze1 ) a hole 9 ! bottom to admit a _s lamp light$4 ,a hot jug full ( ! vap\r ( e!r may be p\r$ on to ! flame1 b x only burns inside ! box1 & does n communicate ) t 9 ! jug4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy's safety lamp consi/s ( a common oil-lamp1 f1 ) a wire ?r\gh ! ci/]n = ! purpose ( rais+ or depress+ ! cotton wick )\t unscrew+ ! wire gauze2 b is ! male screw fitt+ ! screw atta*$ to ! cyl9d] ( wire gauze1 :i* is made d\ble at ! top4 ,! entire lamp is %[n at ,a1 :il/ ! plat9um coil :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy recomm5ds %\ld be w\nd r\nd ! wick is %[n at h4 ,! small ,page #cgf cage ( plat9um consi/s ( wire ( "o-sev5tie? to "o-eightie? ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 fa/5$ to ! wire = rais+ or depress+ ! cotton wick1 & %\ld ! lamp be ext+ui%$ 9 an explosive mixture1 ! little coil ( plat9um beg9s to gl[1 & w af=d suffici5t light to guide ! m9] to a safe "p ( ! m9e4 ,) respect to ?is plat9um coil1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy gives a c>eful *>ge1 & says3--,! greate/ c>e mu/ be tak5 t no filam5t or wire ( plat9um protrudes on ! ext]ior ( ! lamp1 = ?is w\ld fire ext]nally an explosive mixture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfc4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy's safety lamp4 ,s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! ,davy lamp1 a great numb] ( modifications h be5 br\ght =w>d1 "s ( :i* = a %ort "t h occupi$ ! public att5tion1 b :e!r f increas$ co/ or a sort ( in]tia t arre/s improvem5t1 x is c]ta9 t ! lamp orig9ally devis$ by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy is /ill ! fav\rite4 ,x 0 p]haps un=tunate t ! lamp 0 call$ ! safety lamp1 because x is n s "u e circum/ance t may arise1 unless x happ5s to be 9 ! h&s ( p]sons :o h tak5 ! tr\ble to /udy x & und]/& h[ to correct ! faults4 ,! lamp might h escap$ ! incessant attacks t h be5 made ^u its j m]its1 if ! "n _h simply be5 t ( its illu/ri\s inv5tor--a ,davy lamp4 ,no "o c\ld c>p at t1 :il/ safety 0 held to mean p]fect immunity f e possible & probable dang] t might arise 9 ! coal-pits4 ,! lamps are n[ usually plac$ "u ! *>ge ( "o man1 :o trims !m & asc]ta9s t ! wire gauze is 9 p]fect ord]2 ?is latt] is usually lock$ ^u ! lamp1 & z x is a p5al (f5ce1 & puni%able by a heavy f9e & imprisonm5t1 to remove ! wire gauze f safety lamps 9 dang]\s p>ts ( ! m9e1 ( c\rse ! m9]s are be+ gradually br\ght to a s5se ( ! obligations !y owe !mselves & _! bro!r-m9]s1 & ! ra%1 ignorant1 & foolh>dy (f5ces ( break+ op5 safety lamps = m illum9ation1 or to light pipes1 are becom+ mu* less frequ5t ?an =m]ly4 ,"o ( ! mo/ +5i\s detector lamps is t ( ,mr4 ,symons1 ( ,birm+ham4 7,fig4 #cfd47 ,x consi/$ ( ! old-fa%ion$ ,davy1 b ,page #cag inside ! rim ( ! wire gauze is plac$ a small ext+ui%] & spr+1 :i* does n move s long z ! gauze is screw$ on to ! lamp1 b directly ! gauze is unscrew$1 ! rev]s$ movem5t releases ! det5t1 & ! ext+ui%] falls ^u ! light4 ,9 spite ( ! manife/ +5uity ( ?is lamp1 x is n adopt$1 because x co/s a trifle m ?an ! ord9>y ,davy4 ,to %[ ! rem>kable p]fection ( ! wire gauze pr9ciple1 "s turp5t9e may be p\r$ ^u a light$ safety lamp1 :5 a great smoke is produc$ by ! evaporation ( ! _s1 b no flame passes ?r\gh to ! outside1 al?\gh ! turp5t9e burns inside ! lamp4 ,if "s co>se gunp[d] is laid ^u two ?icknesses ( f9e wire gauze1 x may be heat$ f bel[ ) ! flame ( ! _s lamp1 & ! sulphur w gradually volatilize )\t sett+ fire to ! mass ( p[d]4 ,to %[ ! security ( ! ,davy lamp1 x may be light$ & hung 9 a l>ge box ) glass sides1 op5 at ! top1 & a jet ( coal gas suppli$ at ! bottom2 z ?is rises & diffuses 9 ! air1 ! mixture becomes explosive1 & ! fact is at once evid5t by ! alt]ation 9 ! appe>ance ( ! flame ( ! lamp1 :i* enl>ges1 flick]s1 & frequ5tly goes out1 9 consequ5ce ( ! sudd5ness ) :i* ! explosion ( ! mixture takes place inside ! lamp1 produc+ a concussion t ext+ui%es ! flame4 ,9 ?is case ! utility ( ! plat9um coil is v app>5t1 & x cont9ues to gl[ ) a r$ heat until ! explosive "* ( ! air 9 ! box is *ang$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfd4 ,symons' self-ext+ui%+ ,davy lamp4 ,if a l>ge wa%h&-bas9 is fir/ w>m$ by "s boil+ wat]1 :i* is !n p\r$ away1 & a dra*m ( e!r ?r[n 91 a highly-combu/ible atmosph]e is obta9$1 & :5 a light$ ,davy lamp is plac$ into ! bas9 s prep>$1 ! flame inside ! lamp imm$iately enl>ges & flick]s1 b is n ext+ui%$1 & does n communicate to ! combu/ible vap\r outside4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! safety lamp & an unprotect$ flame is v /rik+2 if a light$ tap] is ?ru/ into ! bas91 ! e!r cat*es fire1 & burns ) a v l>ge flame4 ,! solid conductors ( heat1 :i* are said to enjoy ?is prop]ty 9 ! highe/ degree1 are ! metals1 m>ble1 /one1 slate1 & ,page #cgh o!r d5se & compact solid sub/ances2 :il/ ! opposite quality ( be+ non-conductors1 or ne>ly s1 is possess$ by fur1 wood1 silk1 cotton1 wool1 eid] & swansd[n1 pap]1 s&1 *>coal1 & e sub/ance :i* is ( a light or por\s nature4 ,! practical application ( ?is k is v app>5t 9 ! affairs ( e-day life4 ,?us we rise 9 ! morn+1 & imm$iately aft] ! necess>y ablutions1 if x is w9t] "t1 proce$ to encase ! body 9 non-conductors1 su* z flannel & wool4 ,:5 we sit d[n to ! breakfa/ table to make tea1 we may notice ! contrivances = prev5t+ ! h&le ( ! top ( ! urn1 or t ( ! teapot1 f becom+ too hot = ! f+]s1 by ! int]position ( ivory or wood4 ,if ask$ to place wat] 9 ! teapot f ! kettle1 we in/9ctively seek = ! well-worn kettle-hold] made ( ,b]l9 wool1 & !re=e a bad conductor4 ,z we cut our meat or fi% at ! same meal1 we may %iv] ) cold1 b our f+]s are n q froz5 by contact ) ! /eel knives1 z we hold !m by ivory h&les2 & we are agreeably rem9d$ t "s metals are good conductors ( heat1 by ! pleasant w>m? ( ! silv] teaspoons1 z we /ir our tea or c(fee4 ,ev5 ! poli% ( ! well-rubb$ mahogany is protect$ f ! heat ( ! di%es by non-conduct+ mats1 & plates are h&$ ab\t1 if nice & hot1 ) a c>efully-wrapp$ non-conduct+ l95 napk94 ,suppos+ we pref] a bit ( fre%-made toa/1 ! =k is provid$ ) a non-conduct+ h&le2 & %\ld we peep out ( w9d[ "s w9try morn :il/ ! bak] deliv]s 8 e>ly "w 9 ! %ape ( hot rolls1 we notice !y come out ( nicely-wrapp$ flannel or baize1 :i* be+ a bad conductor is employ$ to reta9 _! heat4 ,we read1 occasionally1 9 ! milit>y intellig5ce1 /atem5ts respect+ "s newly-con/ruct$ %ells :i* are to bur/ & scatt] melt$ iron 76672 & ( c\rse ! idea ( ! int]position ( a good non-conductor ( heat betwe5 ! bur/+ *>ge & ! molt5 metal mu/ be realiz$ 9 _! con/ruction4 ,! c5tral heat ( our globe is a reality t _c be disput$1 & aft] digg+ beyond a dep? ( tw5ty feet ! !rmomet] gradually rises at ! rate ( "o degree ( ,fahr5heit's scale = e fifte5 y>ds4 ,! bad conduct+ p[] ( ! cru/ ( ! e>? mu/1 !re=e1 be app>5t1 z x is easy1 kn[+ ! diamet] ( our globe1 to calculate t ! increase ( heat d[nw>ds am\nts to #aaf = ea* mile1 consequ5tly at a dep? ( ?irty & a half miles bel[ ! surface1 !re w be a temp]ature mo/ likely equal to #cejj1 or a heat t might easily melt ca/-iron1 & w\ld help to acc\nt = ! e>?quakes & eruptions ( volcanoes1 :i* /ill rem9d u by _! t]rible w>n+s1 t we live only on ! bad conduct+ upp] cru/ ( a globe1 ! inside ( :i* is /ill1 p]haps1 9 a liquid & molt5 /ate4 ,monsieur ,f\ri] has demon/rat$ ! non-conduct+ p[] ( ?is %ell by calculat+ t1 suppos+ ! globe 0 :olly compos$ ( ca/-iron1 ! c5tral heat w\ld require myriads ( ye>s to be transmitt$ to ! surface f a dep? ( #aej miles2 & by inv]t+ ! process ( reason+1 we may come to ! conclusion t ! ,page #cgi int]nal heat mu/ be excessive1 because x is conf9$ & %ut out f ^? influ5ces t w\ld c>ry (f & weak5 ! int5sity4 ,!re are no two words1 says ,tyndal1 ) :i* we are m famili> ?an matt] & =ce4 ,! sy/em ( ! univ]se embraces two ?+s1 an object act$ ^u1 & an ag5t by :i* x is act$ ^u2 ! object we call matt] & ! ag5t we call =ce4 ,matt]1 9 c]ta9 respects1 may be reg>d$ z ! vehicle ( =ce2 ?us1 ! lum9if]\s e!r is ! vehicle or m$ium by :i* ! pulsations ( ! sun are transmitt$ to our organs ( vision4 ,or1 to take a pla9] case1 if we set a numb] ( billi>d balls 9 a r[1 & imp>t a %ock to "o end ( ! s]ies 9 ! direction ( its l5g?1 we "k :at w take place2 ! la/ ball w fly away1 ! int]v5+ balls hav+ s]v$ = ! transmission ( ! %ock f "o end ( ! s]ies to ! o!r4 ,or we might ref] to ! conduction ( heat4 ,if1 = example1 x be requir$ to transmit heat f ! fire to a po9t at "s di/ance f ! fire1 ?is may be effect$ by means ( a conduct+ body--by a pok]1 = in/ance2 ?ru/+ "o end ( a pok] into ! fire1 x becomes heat$1 ! heat makes its way ?r\gh ! mass1 & f9ally manife/s itself at ! o!r end4 ,let u endeav\r to get a di/9ct idea ( :at we "h call heat2 let u fir/ picture x to ourselves z an ag5t ap>t f ! mass ( ! conductor1 mak+ its way among ! p>ticles ( ! latt]1 jump+ f atom to atom1 & ?us conv]t+ !m into a k9d ( /epp+ /ones to assi/ its progress4 ,x is a probable conclusion1 ev5 _h we n a s+le exp]im5t to support x1 t ! mode ( transmission mu/1 9 "s measure1 dep5d ^u ! mann] 9 :i* ^? little molecul> /epp+ /ones are arrang$4 ,b we mu/ n conf9e ourselves to ! molecul> !ory ( heat4 ,assum+ ! hypo!sis1 :i* is n[ ga9+ gr\nd1 t heat1 in/ead ( be+ an ag5t ap>t f ord9>y matt]1 consi/s 9 a motion ( ! mat]ial p>ticles2 ! conclusion is equally probable t ! transmission ( ! motion mu/ be influ5c$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ! p>ticles are arrang$4 ,does exp]im5tal sci5ce furni% u ) any corroboration ( ?is inf]5ce8 ,x does4 ,m ?an tw5ty ye>s ago ,,mm4 ,de la ,rive & ,de ,c&olle prov$ t heat is transmitt$ ?r\gh wood ) a velocity almo/ twice z great along ! fibre z across x4 ,?is result has be5 rec5tly exp&$1 & x has be5 prov$ t ?is sub/ance possesses ?ree axes ( calorific conduction2 ! fir/ & greate/ axis be+ p>allel to ! fibre2 ! second axis p]p5dicul> to ! fibre & to ! ligne\s lay]s2 :ile ! ?ird axis1 :i* m>ks ! direction 9 :i* ! greate/ resi/ance is (f]$ to ! passage ( ! heat1 is p]p5dicul> to ! fibre & p>allel to ! lay]s4 ,if _m solids are bad conductors ( heat1 !y are at all ev5ts greatly surpass$ by fluids1 & especially by wat]4 ,! conduction ( heat by t fluid is almo/ imp]ceptible1 s mu* s1 t x has ev5 be5 que/ion$ :e!r liquids d really conduct heat d[nw>ds at all4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 f\nd t liquid m]cury w conduct heat d[nw>ds1 & !re=e by analogy x may be assum$ t o!r liquids mu/ possess a conduct+ p[]1 al?\gh x may be exce$+ly limit$4 ,page #chj ,9 ord] to prove t wat] is an exce$+ bad conductor ( heat1 a tube ) a l>ge glass bulb bl[n at "o end is p>tly fill$ ) t9cture ( litmus1 until x w j s9k bel[ ! surface ( wat] plac$ 9 a tall cyl9drical or op5 j>4 ,if a copp] bas91 conta9+ burn+ e!r1 is n[ float$ on ! top ( ! wat]1 s z to leave ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* betwe5 ! top ( ! air !rmomet]--viz41 ! bulb conta9+ ! col\r$ liquid--& ! bottom ( ! copp] pan1 x w be notic$ t :il/ ! wat] surr\nd+ ! latt] almo/ boils1 n ! slighte/ effect aris+ f ! conduction ( heat c be p]ceiv$ 9 a d[nw>d direction4 ,aft] ! e!r has burnt out ( ! copp] vessel1 x may be remov$1 & ! boil+ wat] /irr$ d[n & ar\nd ! air !rmomet]1 :5 ! air )9 x exp&s1 drives out ! col\r+ liquid1 & ! bulb becom+ specifically light]1 rises to ! top ( ! conta9+ glass4 7,fig4 #cfe47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfe4 ,a ,a4 ,cyl9drical glass full ( wat]4 ,b4 ,! glass air !rmomet] conta9+ ! col\r$ liquid j /&+ upright1 ! m\? ( ! tube at ,c be+ op54 ,d ,d is ! copp] bas9 conta9+ ! burn+ e!r4 ,e %[s h[ ! glass bulb & tube rise aft] ! upp] bas9 is remov$1 & ! hot wat] comes 9 contact ) & exp&s ! air1 mak+ ! !rmomet] light1 & caus+ x to rise4 ,aga91 if ! tube ( an air !rmomet] is plac$ ?r\gh a cork 9 ! neck ( a gas j>1 inv]t$ & /&+ on a r+ /&1 & ! ,page #cha j> is !n fill$ ) wat]1 & boil$ at ! top ) a r$-hot iron heat]1 ! heat does n pass d[nw>ds & affect ! !rmomet]4 ,by introduc+ a syphon ! wat] surr\nd+ ! !rmomet] at ! bottom ( ! j> may be drawn (f1 until ! hot wat] is )9 a fraction ( an in* ( ! air !rmomet]1 & /ill no heat is conduct$1 & ! liquid 9 ! latt] rema9s /ation>y4 7,fig4 #cff47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cff4 ,a ,a ,a4 ,inv]t$ gas j> support$ by ! r+ /&4 ,b4 ,! r$-hot urn heat]4 ,c ,c4 ,! air !rmomet]1 ) ! col\r$ liquid /ation>y at ,c4 ,d4 ,! syphon = draw+ (f ! cold wat]1 & br++ ! hot d[n close to ! bulb ( ,c ,c4 ,! diffusion ( heat ?r\gh wat] does n take place l t ( solids1 b is effect$ by ! motion ( ! p>ticles ( ! wat]4 ,:5 heat is appli$ to ! bottom ( a vessel conta9+ wat]1 su* z an inv]t$ glass %ade1 ! fir/ effect is to exp& ! lay] ( wat] :i* is fir/ affect$ by ! heat2 ?is exp&$ lay] be+ specifically light] ?an ! cold wat] above1 x rises to ! upp] "p ( ! glass %ade1 & its place is imm$iately tak5 by o!r1 cold] & heavi]1 wat]1 :i* 9 l mann] moves upw>ds1 & is aga9 succe$$ by a fre% portion4 ,n[1 ! fir/ & succe$+ /rata ,page #chb ( wat] all c>ry (f s mu* heat1 & ?us by ! convective or c>ry+ p[] ( ! wat] ! heat is diffus$ f9ally 9 ! mo/ p]fect mann] ?r\gh ! :ole bulk ( fluid2 & inde$1 ! movem5t itself ( ! p>ticles ( wat] may easily be wat*$ by putt+ a little pap] pulp at ! bottom ( ! inv]t$ glass %ade conta9+ ! wat]4 7,fig4 #cfg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfg4 ,a4 ,a4 ,inv]t$ glass %ade conta9+ wat] & "s pap] pulp4 ,b4 ,burn+ _s lamp plac$ "u "o side ( ! glass2 ! pulp %[s ! ris+ ( ! heat$ wat] & ! s9k+ ( ! cold1 9 ! direction indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,?is bad conduct+ p[] is n m]ely conf9$ to wat]1 b is likewise app>5t ) oil & o!r fluids1 & if "s wat] is froz5 at ! bottom ( a long te/-tube by means ( a freez+ mixture1 oil may !n be p\r$ ^u x1 & "s alcohol above ! latt]4 ,if ! flame ( a _s-lamp is n[ appli$ to ! alcohol at ! top ( ! tube x may be entirely boil$ away1 & no heat w travel d[n ! oil & communicate ) ! ice1 & ev5 aft] ! alcohol has be5 evaporat$ away ! tube c be fill$ up ) wat]2 ?is may also be boil$1 & :il/ demon/rat+ ! bad conduct+ p[] ( ! oil1 ! curi\s anomaly is obs]v$ ( a vessel or tube conta9+ ice at ! bottom & boil+ wat] at ! top1 & fur!r %[+ ! wisdom ( ! ,supreme ,creator 9 prev5t+ ! freez+ ( ! wat] ( lakes1 riv]s1 & seas1 by ! exceptional law ( ! expansion ( wat] by cold4 ,x is evid5t f :at has be5 /at$ t liquids acquire & lose _! heat by means ( ^? curr5ts & movem5ts ( ! p>ticles ( wat] :i* h already be5 p>tly expla9$4 ,:atev] int]f]es ) ?is movem5t mu/ prev5t ! passage ( heat1 & consequ5tly ?ick visc\s liquids are always difficult to boil1 & 9 consequ5ce ( _! motion be+ imp$$ !y rise to too high a temp]ature & are burnt4 ,?is fact is rem>kably app>5t 9 ! manufacture ( nice :ite lump sug>2 z ! syrup is evaporat$ x becomes v ?ick1 & if boil$ ov] a fire might frequ5tly be burnt1 b x is boil$ by ! heat ( /eam1 & "u a vacuum produc$ by an air-pump1 & ?us ! sug>-boil] is enabl$ to av]t all dang] f burn+4 ,page #chc ,x is1 !n1 by a cont9ual & p]petual motion1 involv+ circulation ( ! p>ticles1 t heat travels ?r\gh wat]2 & ! fact already describ$ is /ill fur!r elucidat$ by "o ( ,pr(essor ,griffi?'s simple b tell+ exp]im5ts4 ,a glass tube1 ab\t ?ree feet 9 l5g? & half an in* 9 diamet]1 is b5t z at ,a 7,fig4 #cfh71 & !n be+ fill$ ) wat]1 is susp5d$ by a /r+ atta*$ to any conv5i5t support inside a copp] di% conta9+ wat]1 s t ! /raight end is at ! top ( ! wat]1 & ! curv$ end at ! bottom4 ,j be=e x is us$ "s ink or o!r col\r+ matt] is p\r$ into ! copp] pan ( wat]2 & x %\ld n be add$ till ! mom5t ! exp]im5t is to beg91 z any rise ( temp]ature 9 ! room promotes circulation1 & int]f]es ) ! col\rlessness ( ! wat] 9 ! tube1 :i* is comp>$ ) ! inky fluid 9 ! bas94 ,directly heat is appli$ ! hot wat] rises to ! top ( ! copp] vessel1 & !nce gradually up ! tube2 & ?is movem5t is r5d]$ visible by ! hot col\r$ liquid matt] creep+ sl[ly up ! tube1 & displac+ ! col\rless wat]1 :i* falls gradually into ! copp] pan4 7,fig4 #cfh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfh4 ,a4 ,! b5t glass tube full ( wat]4 ,b ,b4 ,! copp] pan conta9+ col\r$ wat]4 ,! arr[s %[ ! circulation ( ! wat]4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! circulation ( ! p>ticles ( wat] be+ once und]/ood1 x is easy to compreh5d h[ x is appli$ to ! heat+ ( build+s by :at is call$ ! ,hot ,wat] ,app>atus4 ,a coil ( pipe is enclos$ 9 a prop] furnace1 & ! bottom end communicates ) a pipe com+ f a second tube or set ( coils1 plac$ above x 9 ano!r ap>tm5t1 :il/ ! top ( ! latt] coil communicates ) ! top pipe ( ! fir/ coil4 ,:5 ! fire is light$1 ! circulation ?r\gh ! fir/ coil ( pipe comm5ces1 & is communicat$ to ! second1 & f t back aga9 to ! fir/2 s t ! hot wat] sy/em ,page #chd involves an endless *a9 ( pipes ( wat]1 provid$ ) prop] safety valves to all[ = ! escape ( any exp&$ air or /eam2 & s]i\s accid5ts h occurr$ 9 consequ5ce ( p]sons neglect+ to look aft] ! p]fection ( ?is safety valve4 ,! fe>ful accid5t :i* occurr$ to ! hot wat] cas+ ar\nd "o ( ! funnels ( ! ,great ,ea/]n (f]s a pa9ful b memorable example ( ! heat+ ( wat]1 & ( ! dang]s t mu/ arise if ! pipe1 cas+1 or o!r vessel :i* conta9s x1 is n provid$ ) an escape or safety valve1 :i* mu/ always be 9 good work+ ord]4 ,mr4 ,jacob ,p]k9s1 9 #ahbd1 made 8 "n rem>kable = exp]im5ts ) ! circulation ( wat] ?r\gh tubes1 & 8 acc\nt ( ! inv5tion & improvem5t ( ! ,/eam ,gun1 9 :i* ! improvem5t consi/s *iefly 9 ! circulation ( wat] ?r\gh coils ( pipe1 is s important t we give x v]batim1 ) a draw+ ( ! /eam gun2 & ! au?or is enabl$ to v\* = ! accuracy ( ! /atem5ts made 9 ! description ( ! app>atus1 z he pur*as$ "o ( ! improv$ /eam guns1 & exhibit$ x at ! ,polyte*nic ,in/itution1 :]e x dis*>g$ ?ree hundr$ bullets p] m9ute4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfi4 ,! *>g+ tube & gun-b>rel ( /eam gun4 ,! expansive p[] ( /eam has (t5 be5 propos$ z a sub/itute = gunp[d]1 = dis*>g+ balls & o!r projectiles2 ! great dang]1 h[ev]1 :i* 0 =m]ly ?\ght to be insep>ably connect$ ) ! g5]ation & use ( /eam1 at s extraord9>y a pressure z appe>$ necess>y to produce an effect approximat+ to t ( gunp[d]1 prev5t$ sci5tific m5 f te/+ ! p[] ( ?is new ag5t by exp]im5t4 ,x 0 also app>5t t ! app>atus :i* 0 ord9>ily us$ = g5]at+ /eam = /eam-eng9es 0 :olly inadequate to su/a9 ! necess>y pressure1 & t "o ,page #che ( a totally diff]5t "* mu/ be contriv$ be=e /eam c\ld be suffici5tly conf9$ to come into competition ) its p[]ful rival4 ,9 ! ye> #ahbd1 ,mr4 ,jacob ,p]k9s succe$$ 9 con/ruct+ a g5]ator ( su* =m & /r5g?1 z all[$ him to c>ry on 8 exp]im5ts ) highly ela/ic /eam )\t dang]1 al?\gh subject$ to a pressure ( #ajj atmosph]es4 ,! pr9ciple ( its safety consi/$ 9 subdivid+ ! vessel conta9+ ! wat] & /eam into *amb]s or comp>tm5ts1 s small1 t ! bur/+ ( "o ( !m 0 p]fectly h>mless 9 its effects1 & only s]v$ z an outlet1 or safety valve1 to relieve ! re/4 ,al?\gh ,mr4 ,p]k9s' g5]ator 0 orig9ally int5d$ = work+ /eam eng9es 7x hav+ long be5 evid5t to him t highly ela/ic /eam us$ expansively w\ld be att5d$ ) consid]able economy71 ! idea occurr$ to him1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 exp]im5ts1 t he _h already solv$ ! problem ( safely g5]at+ /eam ( suffici5t p[] = ! purposes ( /eam gunn]y2 & t ! /eam :i* daily work$ 8 eng9e possess$ an ela/ic =ce q adequate to ! projection ( musket balls4 ,he !re=e caus$ a gun to be imm$iately con/ruct$1 & connect$ by a pipe to ! g5]ator1 ! fir/ trial ( :i* fully realiz$ 8 mo/ sangu9e anticipations4 ,its p]=mance1 inde$1 0 s extraord9>y & unexpect$1 t x gave rise to a p>adox1 :i* 0 difficult ( explanation--viz41 t /eam1 at a pressure ( only =ty atmosph]es1 produc$ an effect equal to gunp[d]2 :]eas x 0 kn[n t ! combu/ion ( gunp[d] 0 att5d$ ) a pressure ( f #ejj to #ajjj atmosph]es4 ,mr4 ,p]k9s gives ! foll[+ explanation ( ?is app>5t discrepancy1 by ref]r+ to ! small effect produc$ by fulm9at+ p[d]1 comp>$ to gunp[d]1 al?\gh _m times m p[]ful2 he supposes t ! action ( fulm9at+ p[d]1 h[ev] int5se1 does n cont9ue suffici5tly long to imp>t to ! ball its full p[]4 ,! explosion ( gunp[d]1 al?\gh n s p[]ful at ! in/ant ( ignition1 is nev]!less1 9 ! aggregate1 productive ( great] effect ?an t ( fulm9at+ p[d]1 because ! subsequ5t expansion cont9ues 9 action ^u ! ball 7b ) decreas+ effect71 until x has left ! b>rel4 ,! action ( /eam diff]s f ei!r ( ^! ag5ts1 inasmu* z x cont9ues 9 full =ce until ! ball has left ! b>rel2 & to ?is is assign$ ! cause ( its sup]iority4 ,9 ! ye> #ahbf1 ,mr4 ,p]k9s _h s p]fect$ ! me*anism ( ! gun & g5]ator t1 at an exhibition & trial ( its p[]1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton & o!r di/+ui%$ (fic]s ( ! ,ordnance ,dep>tm5t1 balls ( an ounce weight 7 propell$1 at ! di/ance ( ?irty-five y>ds1 ?r\gh an iron plate "o-f\r? ( an in* 9 ?ickness2 also1 ?r\gh elev5 h>d planks1 "o in* 9 ?ickness1 plac$ at di/ances ( an in* f ea* o!r4 ,cont9u\s %[]s ( balls 7 also project$ ) su* rapidity1 t :5 ! b>rel ( ! gun 0 sl[ly swept r\nd 9 a horizontal direction1 a plank1 twelve feet 9 l5g?1 0 s completely p]=at$1 t ! l9e ( holes ne>ly resembl$ a groove cut f "o ( its ends to ! o!r4 ,page #chf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgj4 ,p]k9s's /eam gun4 ,page #chg ,a is an iron furnace1 conta9+ a cont9u\s coil ( iron tub+1 #hj feet 9 l5g?1 #a in* ( ext]nal & #e_/h? in* ( int]nal diamet]1 )9 :i* ! fire is made2 ! upp] end ( ?is tube1 ,b1 call$ ! fl[-pipe1 is ext5d$ any requir$ di/ance to ! top ( ! g5]ator4 ,! furnace is provid$ ) a v +5i\s heat gov]nor or regulator1 by :i* ! int5sity ( ! fire is always proportionate to ! temp]ature :i* x may be requisite to ma9ta9 9 ! tubes4 ,h is an iron box1 conta9+ a s]ies ( lev]s1 b b b2 c1 a nut screw$ ^u ! fl[-pipe1 & 9 contact ) ! %ort arm ( ! l[e/ ( ! lev]s4 ,e4 ,a lev]1 f "o end ( :i* is susp5d$ ! damp] f1 & f ! o!r end ! rod g1 :i* re/s ^u ! long arm ( ! highe/ ( ! lev]s1 b b b4 ,:5 ! app>atus has arriv$ at ! requir$ temp]ature1 ! nut c is screw$ d[n until x be>s ^u ! lev]4 ,any f>!r increase ( temp]ature w exp& or l5g!n ! fl[-pipe1 & depress ! %ort arm ( ! lev]1 :i* is 9 contact ) ! nut4 ,! comb9$ & multipli$ action ( ! lev]s w !n elevate ! rod g1 & ! damp] f w desc5d to *eck ! draught4 ,:5 ! fire slack5s1 & ! app>atus cools1 ! action ( ! lev]s w be rev]s$1 & ! damp] w op54 ,! space ?r\gh :i* ! damp] moves1 comp>$ ) ! nut c1 is z #bjj to #a4 ,c is ! g5]ator1 compos$ ( a /rong iron tube1 #c in*es diamet] & #f feet 9 l5g?1 )9 :i* are eight small] tubes1 hav+ _! ends weld$ to ! ends ( ! l>g] tube4 ,^! small tubes communicate at ! top ) ! fl[-pipe ,b1 & at ! bottom ) ! return-pipe ,d1 :i* is cont9u$ to ! bottom ( ! furnace-coil ( tub+4 ,! circulation 9 ! tubes is occasion$ by ! diff]5ce 9 ! specific gravities ( ! wat] compos+ ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ curr5ts2 ! portion conta9$ 9 ! fl[-pipe & fire coil becom+ exp&$ by ! heat1 asc5ds by its sup]ior levity2 :ile t conta9$ 9 ! small tubes ( ! g5]ator1 hav+ giv5 (f its heat1 acquires increas$ d5sity1 & desc5ds ?r\gh ! return-pipe ,d to ! bottom ( ! furnace-coil1 to take ! place ( ! asc5d+ curr5t4 ,:5 ! hot-wat] curr5t has arriv$ at a temp]ature ( #bab & upw>ds1 cold wat] is inject$ into ! g5]ator1 & becomes conv]t$ into /eam by its contact ) ! small tubes2 ! rapidity ( evaporation & ! pressure ( ! /eam dep5d+1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! temp]ature ( ! hot-wat] curr5t1 :i* at #ejj w cause a pressure )9 ! tubes ( #ej atmosph]es1 or #gej lbs4 ^u ! squ>e in*4 ,! :ole app>atus is prov$ to be capable ( su/a9+ a pressure ( #bjj atmosph]es1 or #cjjj lbs4 ^u ! squ>e in*4 ,g4 ,a =ce pump = inject+ wat] into ! g5]ator4 ,i4 ,! indicator = exhibit+ ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! g5]ator1 & ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]2 x may be connect$ ) ei!r by means ( ! valves atta*$ to ! lev]s4 ,j4 ,valve to regulate ! pressure ( wat]4 ,j #a4 ,valve to regulate ! pressure ( /eam4 ,k4 ,! /eam pipe4 ,l4 ,! gun4 ,m4 ,! dis*>g+ lev] act+ ^u ! valve ,n4 ,o4 ,! dis*>g+ cock1 by a simple adju/m5t 9 :i* balls are transf]r$ f ! *>g+ tube ,p to ! gun b>rel1 s+ly or 9 a cont9u\s %[]4 ,z ! p]fection & introduction ( ! /eam gun 0 n a field = private ent]prise1 & ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t hav+ decl9$ to in/itute exp]im5ts at its own exp5se1 ,mr4 ,p]k9s 0 reluctantly compell$ to leave ! project1 & to engage 9 o!rs ( a m lucrative1 al?\gh1 p]haps1 ( a less important nature4 ,he did n susp5d 8 op]ations1 h[ev]1 until he _h con/ruct$ = ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t a piece ( artill]y :i* dis*>g$ balls weigh+ five p\nds at ! rate ( sixty p] m9ute4 ,! gun & g5]ator exhibit$ at ! ,polyte*nic ,in/itution dur+ ! "t t ,mr4 ,pepp] 0 ! ,resid5t ,director 7 ! production ( ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,p]k9s1 ( ,london1 :o has inv5t$ an entirely new me?od ( g5]at+ /eam1 :i* has be5 successfully appli$ to /eam eng9es1 & is at once s simple1 safe1 & economical1 z to leave little d\bt t1 ) its aid1 ! /eam gun w ere long rank among/ ! fir/ in/rum5ts ( w>f>e4 ,page #chh ,! gun1 except 9 a few m9or me*anical details1 does n diff] f t orig9ally con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,jacob ,p]k9s4 ,! novelty :i* di/+ui%es ! g5]ator f all o!rs1 consi/s 9 ! mann] ( convey+ ! heat f ! fire to ! wat]1 )\t expos+ ! g5]ator to ! action ( ! fire4 ,?is is accompli%$ by means ( ! circulation1 9 iron tubes1 ( a curr5t ( hot wat]1 :i* is entirely sep>ate f1 & indep5d5t (1 t to be evaporat$ 9 ! g5]ator4 ,! foll[+ are ! pr9cipal advantages :i* ?is g5]ator possesses ov] all o!rs3 ,fre$om f all we> or det]ioration consequ5t ^u exposure to ! fire1 an important quality 9 a g5]ator t is to be subject$ to great pressure1 inasmu* z its orig9al /r5g? rema9s unimpair$2 no accid5t c arise f want ( wat] 9 ! g5]ator1 & ! precautions indisp5sably requisite :5 a g5]ator is 9 contact ) ! fire are q unnecess>y1 z ! wat] may be drawn (f ) impunity )\t produc+ ! lea/ injuri\s effect1 & ! grosse/ neglect is foll[$ by no worse consequ5ces ?an an ineffici5t supply ( /eam2 an explosion ( ! g5]ator is impossible1 z ! temp]ature ( ! furnace-coil always exce$s t ( any o!r "p ( ! app>atus1 & consequ5tly1 be+ ! weake/ "p1 is inv>iably ! fir/ to yield :5 ! pressure is c>ri$ beyond ! /r5g? ( ! pipes2 economy ( fuel is also obta9$1 ) a small am\nt ( fire surface4 ,! circulation ( ! wat] has likewise ! effect ( pres]v+ ! fire-coil f ! decay to :i* boil]s are liable2 _m su* coils1 :i* h be5 9 con/ant use = eight ye>s1 be+ app>5tly z good z :5 fir/ erect$4 ,! :ole app>atus is exce$+ly simple1 & w be readily und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! accompany+ diagram4 7,fig4 #cgj47 ,! /eam has (t5 be5 rais$ to a pressure ( #gjj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1 b "o-?ird ( t pressure is suffici5t to completely flatt5 ! balls :5 dis*>g$ aga9/ an iron t>get "o hundr$ feet di/ant f ! gun2 & a pressure ( #djj lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 at ! same di/ance1 %iv]s ! ball to atoms1 ) ! production 9 a d>k room ( a visible fla% ( light4 ,/eam guns are g5]ally m\nt$ ^u a ball & socket jo9t1 :i* all[s ! b>rel to move freely 9 e direction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! conduction ( heat ?r\gh gases is also v sl[ :5 heat is appli$ to ! upp] "p ( any /ratum ( air4 ,heat appe>s to be diffus$ ?r\gh air only by ! circulation & ris+ ( ! heat$ & light] /rata1 & ! s9k+ ( ! cold] curr5ts :i* take _! places2 h5ce ! dang] ( sitt+ 9 a room "u an op5 skylight4 ,a curr5t ( cold air may desc5d ^u ! head ( ! individual1 :il/ ! w>m] air takes "s o!r op5+ to escape f4 ,no d\bt ! movem5t ( heat$ volumes ( air is subject to def9ite laws1 :i* apply !mselves "u e case1 b are r difficult to grasp :5 ! subject ( v5tilation is conc]n$4 ,! philosophical v5tilator is (t5 dreadfully teas$ by ! inv]sion ( all t he _h ,page #chi plann$1 or ! total failure ( 8 app>atus4 ,no specific mode ( v5tilation c be f\nd to suit all rooms & build+s2 !y are l ! pati5ts ( a physician :o _c be cur$ by "o m$ic9e only1 b mu/ h a treatm5t adapt$ prop]ly to ea* case4 ,if ! fires1 c&les1 gas1 or oil-lamps1 doors1 w9d[s1 & *imneys1 7 always "u ! control ( ! sci5tific v5tilator1 8 task w\ld be v simple1 b x is well und]/ood t a v5tilat+ sy/em :i* answ]s well if c]ta9 doors communicat+ ) lobbies are clos$1 fails directly !y are accid5tally op5$4 ,! wat*ful c>e ( ! v5tilator mu/ beg9 ) ! l[e/ area door1 & 9 8 calculations he mu/ /udy ! effect ( e o!r door or w9d[ t may be op5$1 s t if a sci5tific man und]takes to v5tilate a h\se1 he mu/ h a well-drawn plan hung up 9 ! hall1 & x mu/ be cle>ly und]/ood by ! inmates t any int]f]5ce ) t plan w prejudice ! :ole4 ,!re are a few common pr9ciples :i* w guide 9 v5tilation1 & ^! are1 fir/1 ! rise ( hot & ! fall ( cold air2 second1 t if an ap]ture is provid$ at ! top ( a room = ! escape ( hot air1 an equally l>ge ap]ture mu/ be left = ! entry ( cold air2 ?ird1 ! ap]ture = ! escape ( hot air mu/ be adapt$ 9 size to ! numb] ( p]sons likely to ent] ! room1 & ! numb] ( gas or o!r lights burn+ 9 x4 ,dur+ ! daytime1 mod]ate ap]tures = ! exit & entrance ( air may suffice1 b ^! mu/ be l>gely increas$ at night1 :5 ! room is fill$ ) p & light$ up4 ,exp&+ & contract+ op5+s are !re=e desirable1 & !y are to be regulat$ by rules /at$ on ! plan ( ! v5tilat+ sy/em 7already allud$ to z be+ hung up 9 ! hall7 ( ! h\se :i* has submitt$ itself to a p]fect sy/em ( v5tilation1 & no hall-keep]1 footman1 or butl] %\ld be all[$ to rema9 9 8 po/ unless he und]takes to compreh5d ! sy/em & "w x prop]ly by ! writt5 rules4 ,dr4 ,angus ,smi?1 9 a v able pap] ,on ! ,air ( ,t[ns1 says--,"o ( ! conditions ( heal?1 & a mo/ important1 if n ! mo/ important ( all1 is to be f\nd 9 ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e4 ,z to ! effect on ! inhabitants1 ! "q becomes exce$+ly complicat$2 b ! ,regi/r>-,g5]al's returns are an unansw]able reply z to ! results ( ! le?al influ5ces ( ! di/rict4 ,few p seem cle>ly to picture to !mselves ! mean+ ( a decimal plan 9 ! p]c5tage ( dea?1 & few cle>ly see t !re are di/ricts ( ,engl& :]e ! dea?s at lea/ 9 "s ye>s1 & :5 no recognis$ epidemic occurs1 are ?ree times great] ?an 9 o!rs4 ,:5 we he> ( ! annual dea?s 9 "s di/ricts be+ #c4d p] c5t41 & 9 ! :ole ( ,engl& #b4b1 x is simply t #cd die in/ead ( #bb1 :il/ ev5 t is too slightly /at$1 z ! :ole ( ,engl& w\ld %[ a l[] dea?-rate if ! t[ns 7 n us$ to swell x4 ,?is quotation is giv5 "h to rem9d our read]s ( ! important "q ( a supply ( pure air z well z pure wat] & pure food2 & if ! agricultural lab\r]1 ) all 8 exposure to v>iable ,page #cij wea!r1 c take ! fir/ place 9 ! scale ( mortality1 & outlive ! memb]s ( all o!r trades & pr(essions1 x is evid5t t ! importance ( pure air is n ov]rat$4 ,e ef=t ought1 !re=e1 to be made 9 l>ge s*ools1 hospitals1 & b>racks1 to en=ce a rigid sy/em ( supply ( fre% air1 & a sewage or removal ( ! impure2 & 9 ! use ( a c]ta9 te/ employ$ by ,dr4 ,smi? = ! detection ( organic matt] 9 ! air a numb] ( approximations 7 obta9$1 :i* cle>ly demon/rat$ t #a gra9 ( organic matt] 0 detect$ 9 #gb1jjj cubic in*es ( air 9 a room1 & ! same quantity 9 #hjjj cubic in*es tak5 f a cr[d$ railway c>riage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cga4 ,a ,b4 ,! glass tube4 ,c4 ,! _s lamp1 ) a v l>ge wick2 if a little e!r is mix$ ) ! _s 9 ! lamp x increases ! l5g? ( ! flame4 ,d4 ,! effect ( ! asc5sion ( air1 increas$ by w>m+ ! top ( ! tube ) ! lamp ,d4 ,to %[ ! ris+ ( heat$ air1 a long glass tube1 ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9 diamet]1 may be provid$ & held ov] ! flame ( a _s lamp at an angle ( sixty degrees4 ,z ! tube w>ms1 ! heat$ air ru%es pa/ ! flame ) great rapidity1 & pulls x out or elongates x s mu*1 t ! %>p po9t ( ! _s-flame ,page #cia w frequ5tly be se5 at ! end ( a tube t5 feet six in*es 9 l5g?4 ,! flame is1 z x 71 ! sign-po/ t indicates ! pa? or direction ( ! air4 7,fig4 #cga47 ,^u ! l pr9ciple1 heat$ air may be dragg$ d[n ! %ort arm ( a syphon1 provid$ ! o!r arm is suffici5tly long to imp>t a /rong directive t5d5cy to ! upw>d curr5t1 & ?is mode ( sett+ air 9 motion has be5 frequ5tly propos$ 9 num]\s s*emes = v5tilation4 ,9 ord] to prove ! fact t an inv]t$ syphon w act 9 ?is mann]1 an iron pipe ( ?ree in*es diamet] & six feet long may be b5t r\nd dur+ ! con/ruction into ! =m ( a syphon1 s t ! %ort l5g? is ab\t "o foot long1 & ! long l5g? ! rema9+ f\r feet1 all[+ "o foot = ! b5d4 ,if ! int]ior ( ! long arm is fir/ w>m$ by burn+ 9 x a little spirits ( w9e f a piece ( cotton or t[ wett$ ) ! latt] 7:i* c be easily done by dropp+ 9 su* a wett$ piece into ! b5d ( tube1 s t x is j "u ! op5+ ( ! long "p ( ! tube71 ! air is soon set 9 motion up ! long pipe1 & z x mu/ be suppli$ ) fre% volumes ( air to take ! place ( t :i* rises1 & z ! only entrance = ! fre% air c be d[n ! %ort arm ( ! syphon1 ! circulation soon comm5ces1 & x proce$s z long z ! upp] arm is kept suffici5tly w>m4 ,if a flame is held ov] ! m\? ( ! %ort arm1 x is imm$iately dragg$ d[nw>d1 :il/1 if held at ! m\? ( ! long pipe1 ! motion ( ! air is se5 by ! assi/ance ( ! flame to be 9 ! contr>y direction4 7,fig4 #cgb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgb4 ,a ,b4 ,inv]t$ %eet iron syphon4 ,at ,c is se5 ! piece ( t[ moi/5$ ) alcohol1 :i*1 be+ set on fire1 w>ms ! tube ,b4 ,d4 ,a light$ tor* ( col\r$ _s1 ! flame ( :i* is dragg$ d[n ! tube at ,a by ! desc5d+ curr5t1 & is impell$ upw>ds by ! asc5d+ curr5t ,b4 ,?is plan ( v5tilation 0 propos$ to be us$ 9 rooms 9 connexion ) ! *imney & *imney-piece1 & 9 ord] to give x an ornam5tal appe>ance1 ! *imney-piece 0 suppli$ ) two ornam5tal holl[ columns1 ! ends ( :i* 7 op5 at ! mantel-%elf1 & ! tubes or columns 7 cont9u$ "u ! he>?/one1 proce$+ up ! back ( ! grate & ent]+ ! *imney1 9 :i* !re w\ld be a con/ant curr5t ( heat$ air1 & x 0 expect$ t ! ,page #cib syphon arrangem5t w\ld keep a curr5t ( air always 9 motion1 & ?us help to v5tilate ! room4 7,fig4 #cgc47 ,?is plan1 h[ev]1 does n appe> to h be5 adopt$1 & wisely s1 because half ! "t ! syphon arrangem5t might inv]t itself1 & vomit smoky air out ( ! *imney into ! room2 inde$ x is surpris+ :at odd & contradictory freaks are p]=m$ by curr5ts ( air4 ,! au?or rememb]s a case :]e two rooms on ! same floor1 ! "o a d9+-room & ! o!r a draw+-room1 7 always exhibit+ ! mo/ absurd ph5om5a ( smoke4 ,if ! fire 9 "o room 0 lit1 !n ! o!r1 9 a few mom5ts1 began to smell exactly l ! inside ( a gas manufactory1 & 01 ( c\rse1 m or less fill$ ) smoke1 :il/ ! room 9 :i* ! fire 0 actually burn+ rema9$ q free f ?is annoyance4 ,! smoke appe>$ to issue f ! wa9scot or m\ld+ :i* runs r\nd at ! bottom ( ! wall1 & 0 at fir/ ?\ght to be an escape f ! *imney ( ! kit*5 b5ea?1 ! inside ( :i* 0 duly exam9$ & ?or\ghly /opp$ ) cem5t 9 e place likely to af=d a *annel to ! smoke1 & ,page #cic ! crevice :5ce ! smoke issu$ 0 also fill$ 9 neatly ) cem5t4 ,b x 0 all 9 va92 ! smoke !n made its way out f ano!r "p ( ! cornice1 & at la/ ! rooms exhibit$ a beautiful reciprocat+ action4 ,if ! draw+-room fire 0 light$ ! d9+-room 0 full ( smoke1 & if ! latt] 0 light$ ! =m] _h ! agreeable visitation4 ,at la/ ! backs ( ! two grates 7 exam9$1 & 9 ea* 0 discov]$ a hole ab\t "o in* 9 diamet]2 & x 0 also f\nd t ! spaces at ! back ( ! /oves _h n be5 fill$ 9 prop]ly1 &1 inde$1 communicat$ ) ! holl[ space beh9d ! cornice4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! fire 0 light$1 & coals heap$ on j above ! hole1 ! gas & smoke di/ill$ ?r\gh ! orifice & travell$ on1 :]e x f\nd ! mo/ conv5i5t exit2 & ! fact is sadly at v>iance 7app>5tly7 ) !ory1 because x might be consid]$ t cold air w\ld ru% t[>ds a fire1 & t ! draught ought to h be5 f ! cornice to ! *imney in/ead ( vice v]s4 ,! fact seems to be t ! coal 9 all grates is1 9 ! act ( burn+1 di/ill+ & giv+ (f inflammable gas2 :5 ! coal 01 !re=e1 heap$ above ! orifice1 & 01 possibly1 cak$ h>d at ! top1 ! gas di/ill+ f x escap$ m easily f ! little orifice ?an else:]e1 & *ance det]m9$ t ! *annel or deliv]y pipe %\ld be 9 ! direction ( ! draw+-room :5 ! fire 0 burn+ 9 ! d9+-room1 & 9 ! contr>y direction :5 ! fire 0 light$ 9 ! latt] *amb]4 ,! nuisance 0 /opp$ by plugg+ ! holes at ! back ( ! grate ) clay1 & putt+ a %eet ( iron ov] ! orifice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgc4 ,a ,b4 ,*imney-piece support$ on two holl[ ornam5tal pill>s correspond+ ) ! %ort arm ( a syphon4 ,c ,c ,c4 ,! dott$ l9e %[+ ! pipes lead+ f ea* pill> "u ! he>?1 & t]m9at+ 9 a long pipe pass+ into ! *imney4 ,! arr[s %[ ! pa? ( ! air desc5d+ f ! *imney-piece & asc5d+ 9 ! *imney4 ,be=e ,dr4 ,f>aday 0 appo9t$ z a sci5tific c\nsellor to assi/ ! delib]ations ( ! ,tr9ity ,bo>d 9 connexion ) ligh?\ses1 all ! lamps 7 burnt 9 ! lant]ns ) ! smalle/ & mo/ imp]fect arrangem5t = c>ry+ (f ! heat$ air & products ( combu/ion2 z a natural consequ5ce1 & p>ticul>ly on cold nights1 ! w9d[s ( ! lant]n ( ! ligh?\se 7 cov]$ ) ice d]iv$ f ! cond5sation ( ! wat] produc$ by ! combu/ion ( ! hydrog5 ( ! oil1 :il/ ! c>bon g5]at$ su* quantities ( c>bonic acid t ! light-keep]s 7 unable to /ay 9 ! lant]n1 & if oblig$ to visit ! latt] 7:il/ look+ to improv+ ! light ( any s+le lamp t might be burn+ dimly71 !y 7 almo/ ov]p[]$ ) ! excess ( c>bonic acid1 & /at$1 9 _! evid5ce1 t x produc$ heada*e & sickness1 & a t5d5cy to ins5sibility4 ,f>aday imm$iately e/abli%$ a sy/em ( v5tilation2 & by atta*+ a copp] tube to ! top ( ea* lamp-*imney1 & c5t]+ !m all 9 "o l>ge funnel pass+ to ! top ( ! ligh?\se1 ! :ole ( ! wat] :i* previ\sly cond5s$ on ! glass w9d[s & imp$$ ! light1 besides injur+ ! brass & copp] fitt+s1 0 c>ri$ (f1 z also ! poison\s c>bonic acid gas2 & ?us1 z ,dr4 ,f>aday express$ himself1 a complete sy/em ( sewage 0 appli$ to ! lamps ( ! ligh?\ses4 ,if any "o ( ! num]\s /ories ( %ips sav$ by ! ,eddy/one ,ligh?\se c\ld demon/rate m ?an ano!r ! value ( ?is beacon ,page #cid 9 mid ocean1 x mu/ be ! graphic acc\nt 9 ! ,times ( ! gallant conduct ( ! ,briti% ,admiral ) 8 fleet :il/ brea/+ ! frightful /orm ( ,octob]1 #ahei1 & endeav\r+ to rea* ,plym\? ,s\nd3-- ,x 0 on ,saturday1 ! #bbnd ,octob]1 t ! ,h]o1 ! ,trafalg>1 ! ,algi]s1 & ! ,ab\kir1 accompani$ by ! ,m]sey1 ! ,em]ald1 & ! ,melpom5e1 put to sea f ,que5/[n4 ,up to ! aft]noon ( ,monday ! squadron met ) no rem>kable adv5ture1 b ab\t t "t1 j aft] ! crews _h be5 ex]cis$ at gunn]y practice1 heavy /orms ( hail & sleet began to set 94 ,/ill !re 0 no imm$iate indication ( ! tempe/ at h&1 & at sunset topsails 7 d\ble-reef$ & c\rses reef$ = ! night1 ) no p>ticul> "* ab\t ! w9d1 except t ( extreme v>iability4 ,z ! morn+ broke on ,tuesday--! day ( ! /orm--! ,l&'s-end 0 sight$1 & ! ra9 & ! w9d cont9u$ to increase4 ,ab\t n9e ,a4,m4 ! adv5t ( ! gale 0 no long] d\btful2 topgallanty>ds 7 s5t on deck & topgallantma/s /ruck1 & ! signal 0 giv5 f ! flag%ip1 ',=m two columns2 =m l9e ( battle2 ,admiral w endeav\r to g to ,plym\?4' ,to ,plym\?1 accord+ly1 ! c\rse ( ! fleet 0 %ap$1 b s t]rifically _h ! w9d increas$ t x became v que/ionable :e!r ! /]nmo/ %ips ( ! l9e c\ld possibly succe$ 9 ent]+ ! ,s\nd4 ,^u ?is ! ,admiral det]m9$ to we> ! fleet toge!r1 /& (f1 & face ! /orm1 a manoeuvre :i*1 "u circum/ances ( great difficulty1 0 mo/ gallantly execut$4 ,! %ips 7 close ^u ! ,eddy/one ,ligh?\se1 r\nd :i* !y 'd>t$ l dolph9s' "u ! trem5d\s pressure ( ! gale1 ! ,trafalg> /opp+ 9 ! mid/ ( ! /orm to pick up a man :o _h fall5 ov]bo>d4 ,! :ole squadron n[ /ood (f ! l&1 ! ,m]sey & ,melpom5e furl+ _! sails1 & ! =m] vessel /eam+ along 'l an ocean giant4' ,/ill ! gale increas$ till ab\t ?ree ,p4,m41 :5 !re occurr$ t rem>kable ph5om5on by :i* ^! rotatory tempe/s are *>act]iz$4 ,! fleet _h got into ! v c5tre ( ! /orm1 ! 'eye' ( ! tornado1 &1 ?\gh ! sea t[]$ up & broke 9 trem5d\s bill[s all ar\nd1 ! w9d sudd5ly ceas$ & ! sun %one4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! signal _h be5 giv5 & obey$ = sett+ sail aga91 ! %ips soon enc\nt]$ ! gale once m--n1 z be=e1 f ! ,s4,e41 b ! ,n4,w4--& 9 great] =ce ?an ev]4 ,x 0 n[ a p]fect hurricane2 & = ?ree h\rs ! :ole fury ( ! tempe/ 0 p\r$ ^u ! squadron4 ,:5 x began1 at l5g?1 to abate a little1 ! f\r l9e-(-battle %ips & "o ( ! frigates 7 /ill 9 company1 & all do+ well4 ,! ,m]sey & ! ,em]ald _h /eam$ into ,plym\?1 b ! five rema9+ vessels kept 9 op5 ord] ?r\gh\t t t]rible night1 wore 9 succession by night signal at ab\t "o ,a4,m41 made ! l& at daylight1 =m$ l9e ( battle1 came gr&ly up ,*annel "u sail at ! rate ( elev5 knots an h\r1 /eam$ into ,portl&1 & 'took up _! an*orage )\t ! loss ( a sail1 a sp>1 or a ropey>n4' ,aft] mak+ ! important improvem5t 9 ! v5tilation ( ligh?\ses1 _m lett]s 7 address$ to ! le>n$ philosoph] by ,page #cie num]\s light-keep]s1 "o ( :i* 9 pla9 b /rik+ language relat$ t ! enemy 7allud+ to ! wat] & c>bonic acid7 0 n[ driv5 out4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,briti% fleet r\nd+ ! ,eddy/one ,ligh?\se dur+ ! great /orm ( ,octob]1 #ahei4 p4 #cid ,! +5i\s inv5tion allud$ to 0 succe$$ by ano!r & equally simple b philosophical arrangem5t1 :i* ,dr4 ,f>aday pres5t$ to 8 bro!r1 & x 0 duly pat5t$4 ,x consi/$ ( an arrangem5t = v5tilat+ gas burn]s1 & x mu/ be obvi\s t a necessity exi/s = su* v5tilation1 because e cubic foot ( coal gas :5 burnt produces a little m ?an a cubic foot ( c>bonic acid4 ,a p\nd weight ( ord9>y coal gas conta9s ab\t #c_/aj?s ( its weight ( hydrog51 :i* :5 burnt produces two p\nds & #g_/aj?s ( a p\nd ( wat]4 ,a p\nd ( ord9>y coal gas also conta9s ab\t #g_/aj?s ( its weight ( *>coal1 :i* produces :5 burnt r m ?an two & a half p\nds ( c>bonic acid gas--viz41 #b4ef4 ,9 ord] to burn ?is quantity ( gas n9ete5 cubic feet & #c_/aj?s ( a foot ( atmosph]ic air1 conta9+ #d4bf cubic feet ( oxyg51 are requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgd4 ,a ,b4 ,gas pipe & arg& burn]2 ! air ent]s1 z usual1 up ! c5tre ( ! arg&4 ,c ,c4 ,! fir/ glass *imney op5 at ! top4 ,d ,d4 ,! second glass *imney clos$ at ! top1 ) a disc ( d\ble talc1 & fitt+ ov] ,c ,c1 & leav+ a space betwe5 ! two glasses1 d[n :i* ! air passes1 & into ! v5tilat+ tube1 ,e ,e4 ,h ,h4 ,! gr\nd-glass globe clos$ at ! top1 & surr\nd+ ! :ole4,i ,footnote ,i3 ,mr4 ,f>aday1 ( ,w>d\r-/reet1 supplies ?is v5tilat+ lamp4 ,x is n !re=e surpris+ t z common coal gas is sometimes purifi$ c>elessly1 & conta9s a m9ute trace ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 ) "s bisulphide ( c>bon vap\r1 t x %\ld produce ! mo/ prejudicial effects 9 badly v5tilat$ rooms1 & especially 9 "s ( ^? p]*$ up glass boxes 9 l>ge places ( bus9ess1 :]e cl]ks are oblig$ to sit = _m consecutive h\rs1 light$ by gas1 & brea?+ _! own brea? & ! products ( combu/ion f ! gas light1 !reby r5d]+ !mselves liable to diseases ( ! lungs1 & also to v tr\blesome ?roat attacks1 :5 leav+ _! close glass boxes1 & pass+ into ! cold night air4 ,! dang]\s product ( ! combu/ion ( ord9>y coal gas is sulphur\s acid--viz41 ,page #cif ! same gas z t g5]at$ :5 a sulphur mat* is burnt2 & if x w attack ! b9d+s ( books1 & damage furniture1 goods 9 %ops1 curta9s1 c41 9 consequ5ce ( ! l>ge quantity ( wat] ) :i* x is accompani$1 h[ mu* m is x n likely to injure ! delicate organism ( ! brea?+ app>atus ( ! lungs8 ,dr4 ,f>aday's lamp is !re=e a great boon1 b1 l a great _m o!r clev] ?+s1 x mu/ be adapt$ to ! curr5ts ( air & draught f ! room2 & means mu/ be tak5 to prev5t ! draught becom+ too p[]ful 9 ,f>aday's lamp1 or else ! illum9at+ p[] is de/roy$ by ! ?or\gh combu/ion ( ! c>bon ( ! coal gas1 & ! heat g5]at$ is s int5se t ! glasses soon crack1 & ( c\rse become useless4 ,! lamp w answ] v well if 7z has be5 already /at$7 ! draught 9 ! v5tilat+ pipe is n too great4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cge4 ,section %[+ ! two air-%afts4 ,a4 ,! d[nca/4 ,b4 ,! upca/4 ,c ,c4 ,"o ( ! work+ gall]ies 9 connexion ) ! upca/ & d[nca/4 ,d4 ,! furnace at ! bottom ( ! upca/4 ,9 ?is sket* "o gall]y only has be5 %[n1 to prev5t confusion & to %[ ! pr9ciple4 ,! sy/em already expla9$ & illu/rat$ is likewise c>ri$ out on a mu* l>g] scale 9 ! v5tilation ( coal pits1 :]e a %aft is usually sunk into ! gr\nd = ! admission ( air1 :i*1 aft] circulat+ ?r\gh ! intricate w9d+s & mazes ( ! coal pit work+s1 escapes at la/ f ano!r %aft1 at ! bottom ( :i* is plac$ a p[]ful furnace1 & ?is is kept burn+ night & day1 s ,page #cig t ! movem5t ( ! air is ma9ta9$ 9 "o direction--viz41 f ! out] air d[n ! %aft call$ ! d[nca/1 !nce to ! gall]ies1 :]e ! coal hew]s are work+1 to ! second %aft1 ne> :i* ! furnace is plac$1 & up ?is latt] ! air travels2 ! %aft1 pit1 or funnel be+ v appropriately t]m$ ! upca/4 ,%\ld ! furnace at ! bottom ( ! upca/ be neglect$1 ! v5tilation may be j balanc$1 or set slightly t[>ds ! d[nca/2 "u ^! circum/ances ! c>bonic acid f ! fire w beg9 to circulate 9 ! gall]ies1 & poison ^? :o are n aw>e ( its pres5ce & take ! prop] means to escape4 ,su* accid5ts1 among/ ! ho/ ( o!rs t occur 9 a coal pit1 h actually be5 record$2 & ! firem51 ^: duty x might be to att5d to ! prop] burn+ ( ! furnace1 h _h to pay ! p5alty ( dea? = _! own c>elessness 9 fall+ asleep & neglect+ to ma9ta9 ! v5tilation ( ! m9e 9 "o direction4 7,fig4 #cge47 ,^! details are amply suffici5t to demon/rate ! mann] 9 :i* heat is diffus$ ?r\gh air1 :il/ ! r>efication ( ! air by heat sugge/s ! cause ( ^? frightful /orms ( w9d t ru% f o!r & cold] p>ts ( ! surface ( ! globe1 to supply ! void produc$ by ! cool+ & contraction ( ! enorm\s volumes ( gase\s matt]4 ,! ,radiation ( ,heat4 ,:5 rays ( heat are emitt$ f inc&esc5t matt]1 !y are n necess>ily visible1 nay1 !y are g5]ally invisible1 & n accompani$ ) a manife/ation ( light1 & pass ) great velocity ?r\gh a void or vacuum1 also ?r\gh air & c]ta9 o!r bodies4 ,f :at has be5 /at$ respect+ ! mann] 9 :i* air1 by cont9ually mov+1 & by convection1 c>ries (f heat1 x might be ?\ght t no pro( exi/$ t invisible rays ( heat are really ?r[n (f f a ball fill$ ) boil+ wat]4 ,b ?is "q is set at re/ by ! fact1 t su* a ball w cool rapidly :5 susp5d$ by a /r+ inside ! receiv] ( an air pump f :i* ! atmosph]ic air has be5 remov$1 s t no conduction ( ! p>ticles ( air c\ld possibly remove ! heat4 ,9 ! ye> #aghf1 ,colonel ,sir ,b4 ,?ompson exam9$ ! relative conduct+ p[]s ( air & a ,torricellian vacuum--! latt] be+ us$ because1 z ! exp]im5t] /at$1 x 0 impossible to obta9 a p]fect vacuum1 on acc\nt ( ! moi/ vap\r :i* exhal$ f ! wet lea!r & ! oil us$ 9 ! ma*9e1 = at t "t c>efully gr\nd brass plates 7 n us$ 9 air-pumps1 b plates only1 ) a circul> piece ( wet lea!r ^u !m4 ,9 a pap] :i* ,colonel ,sir ,b4 ,?ompson read be=e ! ,royal ,society1 he /at$ t ,x appe>s t ! ,torricellian vacuum1 :i* af=ds s ready a passage to ! electric fluid1 s f> f be+ a good conductor ( heat1 is a mu* worse "o ?an common air1 :i* ( itself is reckon$ among ! wor/2 = :5 ! bulb ( ! !rmomet] 0 surr\nd$ ) air1 & ! in/rum5t 0 plung$ into boil+ wat]1 ! m]cury rose f #ah to #bg ,page #cih 9 =ty-five seconds2 b 9 ! =m] exp]im5t1 :5 x 0 surr\nd$ by a ,torricellian vacuum1 x requir$ to rema9 9 ! boil+ wat] "o m9ute ?irty seconds to acquire t degree ( heat4 ,9 ! vacuum x requir$ five m9utes to rise to #dh-b_/aj?s2 b 9 air x rose to t height 9 two m9utes =ty seconds2 & ! proportion ( ! times 9 ! o!r obs]vation 0 ne>ly ! same4 ,x appe>s1 f o!r exp]im5ts1 t ! conduct+ p[] ( air to t ( ! ,torricellian vacuum1 "u ! circum/ances describ$1 is z #ajjj to #gjb ne>ly1 = ! quantities ( heat communicat$ be+ equal1 ! int5sity ( ! communication is z ! times inv]sely4 ,by o!rs x appe>s t ! conduct+ p[] ( air is to t ( ! ,torricellian vacuum z #ajjj to #fjc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgf4 ,! air-pump & receiv]1 conta9+ at ,a ! electric light 9 ! focus ( a concave mirror1 & at ,b a delicate !rmomet]1 also 9 ! focus ( a concave mirror4 ,x is !re=e v int]e/+ to discov] t ! att5tion ( exp]im5tali/s 0 e>ly direct$ to ! fact t heat 0 indep5d5t ( ! air1 & pass$ ei!r z waves ( heat or molecules ( heat ?r\gh space4 ,! velocity ) :i* heat moves ?r\gh a vacuum is v great1 & 9 an exp]im5t p]=m$ by ,m4 ,pictet1 no p]ceptible int]val took place betwe5 ! "t at :i* caloric quitt$ a heat$ body & its reception by a !rmomet] at a di/ance ( sixty-n9e feet4 ,x appe>s also1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ! same philosoph]1 to be ?r[n (f or radiat$ 9 e direction1 & n to be div]t$ 7z %[n at p4 #cfi7 by any /rong curr5t ( air pass+ x transv]sely4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy ignit$ ! *>coal po9ts connect$ ) a batt]y 9 a vacuum1 tak+ c>e to place ! *>coal po9ts at ! top ( ! j>1 & a concave mirror1 ) a delicate !rmomet] 9 its focus1 at ! bottom ( ! vessel plac$ ^u ! air-pump plate4 ,! effect ( radiation 0 ,page #cii asc]ta9$ fir/ :5 ! receiv] 0 full ( air1 & next :5 x 0 exhau/$ to #a_/abj? 7i4e41 #aii p>ts pump$ out1 leav+ only "o "p ( air 9 ! receiv]74 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! effect ( radiation 0 f\nd to be ?ree times great] ?an 9 an atmosph]e ( ! common d5sity4 ,! great] rise ( ! !rmomet] 9 vacuo ?an 9 air is to be ascrib$ to ! conduct+ p[] ( ! latt]2 = ?is conduct+ p[]1 by r$uc+ ! temp]ature ( ! heat$ body1 has a con/ant t5d5cy to dim9i% ! activity ( radiation1 :i* is always proportional to ! excess ( ! temp]ature ( ! heat$ body above t ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 7,fig4 #cgf47 ,c\nt ,rum=d's exp]im5ts ) a ,torricellian vacuum gives ! proportion ( five 9 vacuo to ?ree 9 air = ! quantities ( heat lo/ by radiation1 & by conduction or diffusion4 ,x is n1 p]haps1 dep>t+ v f> f ! tru?1 if x be /at$ t "o half ( ! heat lo/ by a heat$ body escapes by radiation1 & t ! re/ is c>ri$ (f by ! convective p[] ( curr5ts ( air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgg4 ,negretti & ,zambra's t]re/rial radiation !rmomet]4 ,! bulb ( ?is in/rum5t is transp>5t1 & ! divisions engrav$ on its glass /em4 ,9 use x is plac$ ) its bulb fully expos$ to ! sky1 re/+ on grass1 ) its /em support$ by little =ks ( wood1 & protect$ f ! w9d4 ,if ! process ( radiation 0 n con/antly proce$+1 x c easily be imag9$ t ! temp]ature ( our globe w\ld become s elevat$ by ! regul> accession ( heat f ! sun's rays1 t ! vegetation w\ld be p>*$ up & de/roy$1 & consequ5tly all animals & ! human race mu/ become ext9ct4 ,! be/ "t to notice ! radiation ( heat f ! e>? is at night & aft] a hot summ]'s day4 ,if ! sky is cle>1 x w be notic$ 7) ! help ( a !rmomet]17 t ! gr\nd is sev]al degrees cold] ?an ! air a few feet above x4 7,fig4 #cgg47 ,x is ?is r$uc$ temp]ature t causes ! deposition ( dew1 & produces ! e>?-cl\d :i* s ne>ly resembles a %eet ( wat] z to h be5 occasionally mi/ak5 = an inundation1 ! occurr5ce ( ! previ\s night4 ,mr4 ,luke ,h[>d has call$ ?is cl\d1 :i* is ! l[e/ =m ( ^! drap]ies ( ! sky1 ,! ,/ratus1 or ev5+ mi/2 b :5 p]man5t1 & increas$ to a dep? s z to rise above our heads1 x is !n call$ ! morn+ fog1 s peculi>ly agreeable 9 ,london :5 incorporat$ ) ! black smoke1 mak+ a f9e r$di%-yell[ o*re\s mi/4 ,by plac+ a !rmomet]1 /&+ at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! air1 cas$ ,page #djj ) a good radiat+ mat]ial1 su* z filam5ts ( cotton1 9 ! focus ( a concave mirror1 & by turn+ ?is arrangem5t t[>ds a cle> sky 9 ! ev5+1 x w be notic$ t ! temp]ature falls sev]al degrees4 ,good radiators ( heat are black & scrat*$ surfaces1 filam5ts ( cotton1 grass1 twigs1 b\ghs1 & c]ta9 leaves1 especially ^? ) a r\gh surface4 ,bad radiators ( heat are bright & poli%$ metallic surfaces1 :ite wooll5 clo? or flannel1 h>d & d5se sub/ances1 su* z a gravel pa? & /one1 or ^? leaves :i* h a poli%$ surface1 su* z ! common laurel4 ,x is ! froz5 dew & mi/ :i* produce ! beautiful effect ( ho>-fro/ & icicles on ! trees & bu%es1 ! prim>y cause be+ ! radiation ( heat f ! v>i\s objects on ! surface ( ! e>?1 z well z f ! latt] itself4 ,:5 ! w9d is high1 dew does n deposit1 z x is necess>y t ! air %\ld be calm1 9 ord] to receive ! cool+ impression ( ! cold e>?1 & to deposit ! moi/ure1 :i* x holds 9 solution z invisible /eam4 ,:5 ! w9d bl[s1 x mixes all p>ts ( ! air toge!r1 & prev5ts t diff]5ce ( temp]ature :i* causes ! deposit ( dew4 ,h5ce ! ev5+ mi/ w be m g5]ally obs]v$ 9 ! bosom ( a valley surr\nd$ by hills & scre5$ f ! w9ds t may bl[ f ei!r qu>t]4 ,! cont9ual pres5ce ( moi/ure 9 ! air is well %[n by ! cond5sation ( wat] on ! outside ( a glass ( cold spr+ wat]1 or especially on ! outside ( a jug conta9+ ic$ wat]4 ,! invisible /eam is always ready to ba! ! t5d] plants ) dew1 :i* w\ld o!rwise p]i% & be burnt up dur+ a hot summ]1 if !y did n radiate heat at night1 & ?us cond5se wat] ^u !mselves4 ,! pres5ce ( wat]y vap\r 9 ! air becomes !re=e a matt] ( great importance1 & h5ce ! con/ruction ( hygromet]s or measur]s ( ! moi/ure 9 ! air4 ,regnault's cond5s] hygromet] consi/s ( a tube made ( silv]1 v ?91 & p]fectly poli%$2 ! tube is l>g] at "o end ?an ! o!r1 ! l>ge "p be+ #a4h 9 dep? by #h4aj 9 diamet]4 ,?is is fitt$ tightly to a brass /&1 ) a telescopic arrangem5t = adju/+ :5 mak+ an obs]vation4 ,! tube has a small lat]al tubulure1 to :i* is atta*$ an ,india-rubb] tube ) ivory m\?piece2 ?is tubulure ent]s at "r angles ne> ! top1 & trav]ses x to ! bottom ( l>ge/ "p4 ,a delicate !rmomet] is ins]t$ 9 ?r\gh a cork1 or ,india-rubb] wa%]1 at ! op5 end ( ! tube1 ! bulb ( :i* desc5ds to ! c5tre ( its l>ge/ "p4 ,a !rmomet] is atta*$ = tak+ ! temp]ature ( ! air2 also a bottle = conta9+ e!r4 ,to use ! cond5s] hygromet]1 a suffici5t quantity ( sulphuric e!r is p\r$ into ! silv] tube to cov] ! !rmomet] bulb4 ,on all[+ air to pass bubble by bubble ?r\gh ! e!r1 by brea?+ 9 ! tube1 an uni=m temp]ature w be obta9$2 if ! e!r cont9ues to be agitat$ by brea?+ briskly ?r\gh ! tube1 a rapid r$uction ( temp]ature w be ! result4 ,at ! mom5t ! e!r is cool$ d[n to ! dew-po9t temp]ature1 ! ext]nal surface ( t portion ,page #dja ( ! silv] tube conta9+ ! e!r w become cov]$ ) a coat+ ( moi/ure1 & ! degree %[n by ! !rmomet] at t in/ant w be ! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t4 ,! mo/ simple =m ( ! hygromet] 0 =m]ly a v fav\rite indicator ( ! /ate ( ! wea!r1 & usually consi/$ ( ! figure ( a monk ) 8 hood1 :i* is atta*$ to a bit ( catgut2 ?is cov]+ ( pap]1 pa9t$ to repres5t ! hood1 falls ov] ! head on ! approa* ( damp wea!r1 & incl9es well back dur+ ! p]iod t ! air is dry or conta9s less moi/ure2 & simple z x is1 ?is hygromet]1 9 conjunction ) ! read+ ( ! b>omet]1 may assi/ ,pat]familias 9 decid+ ! fate ( a pet bonnet or velvet mantle1 :i* is or is n to be worn on a d\btful day4 7,fig4 #cgh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgh4 ,! monk hygroscope1 9 :i* ! hood1 ,a ,b1 cov]s ! head to dott$ l9e ,c 9 wet wea!r1 & takes v>i\s int]m$iate positions1 be+ q back & on ! %\ld]s 9 dry /ates ( ! air4 ,a !rmomet]1 ,d1 is usually atta*$4 ,a decision on ! possible *anges ( ! wea!r requires consid]able exp]i5ce1 & x has be5 said t "o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ m>%als ( ,france ow$ 8 inv>iable success 9 milit>y comb9ations & attacks to 8 att5tion to ! signs ( ! wea!r1 z indicat$ by ! /ate ( ! air dur+ ! phases ( ! moon4 ,inexp]i5c$ p]sons 7& by t we mean "y p]sons7 may1 h[ev]1 take a c]ta9 position 9 ! rank ( wea!r prophets by consult+ ! wea!rcock1 ! b>omet]1 & ! hygromet]1 be=e committ+ !mselves to an op9ion1 if ask$ to say :at ! wea!r w be4 ,! dry & wet bulb hygromet] 7z repres5t$ 9 ! next engrav+7 consi/s ( two p>allel !rmomet]s1 z ne>ly id5tical z possible1 m\nt$ on a wood5 bracket1 "o m>k$ dry1 ! o!r wet4 ,! bulb ( ! wet !rmomet] is cov]$ ) ?9 musl91 r\nd ! ,page #djb neck ( :i* is twi/$ a conduct+ ?read ( lamp-wick1 or common d>n+-cotton2 ?is passes into a vessel ( wat]1 plac$ at su* a di/ance z to all[ a l5g? ( conduct+ ?read ( ab\t ?ree in*es2 ! cup or glass is plac$ on "o side1 & a little b5ea?1 s t ! wat] )9 may n affect ! read+ ( ! dry bulb !rmomet]4 ,9 obs]v+1 ! eye %\ld be plac$ on a level ) ! top ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube1 & ! obs]v] %\ld refra9 f brea?+ :il/ tak+ an obs]vation4 ,! temp]ature ( ! air & ( evaporation is giv5 by ! read+s ( ! two !rmomet]s1 f :i* c be calculat$ ! dew-po9t1 tables be+ furni%$ = t purpose ) ! in/rum5t4 7,fig4 #cgi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgi4 ,! dry & wet bulb hygromet]4 ,! col\r ( ! sky at p>ticul> times af=ds ! mo/ excell5t guidance to d\bt+ memb]s ( pic-nic or o!r out-(-door p>ties4 ,n only does a rosy sunset presage f9e wea!r1 & a ruddy sunrise bad wea!r1 b !re are o!r t9ts :i* speak ) equal cle>ness & accuracy4 ,a bright yell[ sky 9 ! ev5+ indicates w9d2 a pale yell[1 wet2 a neutral grey col\r con/itutes a fav\rable sign 9 ! ev5+1 an unfav\rable "o 9 ! morn+4 ,! cl\ds1 aga91 are full ( mean+ 9 !mselves4 ,if _! =ms are s(t1 undef9$1 & fea!ry1 ! wea!r w be f9e2 if _! edges are h>d1 %>p1 & def9$1 x w be f\l4 ,g5]ally speak+1 any deep1 unusual hues betok5 w9d or ra91 :ile ! m quiet & delicate t9ts bespeak f9e wea!r4 ,! pr9ciple ( radiation ( heat is employ$ by ! ,indian natives 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,calcutta = ! purpose ( obta9+ small ,page #djc quantities ( ice4 ,9 t climate1 ! !rmomet] dur+ ! colde/ nights does n indicate a l[] temp]ature ?an ab\t #dj ,fahr4 ,! sky1 h[ev]1 is p]fectly cl\dless1 & z heat radiates ) great rapidity f ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 ! ,indian natives +5i\sly place v %all[ e>!nw>e pans on /raw1 :i* is a bad conductor ( heat1 & h5ce insulates ! pans f communication ) ! p>*$ e>?4 ,9 a few h\rs1 ! wat] 9 ! pans is cov]$ ) a ?9 %eet ( ice1 & !re c be no d\bt ( its production by an absolute loss ( heat by radiation1 because ! plan does n succe$ on a w9dy night1 & succe$s be/ ev5 :5 ! pans are sunk 9 tr5*es dug 9 ! e>?4 ,a w9dy night prev5ts t diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 "o portion ( ! surface ( ! e>? & ano!r1 :i* is s ess5tial to a /eady & uni=m loss ( heat1 z x mu/ be evid5t t ! cont9ual mixture ( w>m] portions ( air ) t :i* is cold] w\ld t5d to prev5t ! desir$ l[ness ( temp]ature be+ atta9$4 ,! mann] 9 :i* heat is obs]v$ to be radiat$ has sugge/$ ano!r !ory to ! f]tile bra9 ( philosophical obs]v]s1 & x has be5 suppos$ t ! conduction ( heat may be no?+ m ?an a radiation f "o p>ticle ( matt] to ano!r1 z ?r\gh a b> ( copp]1 9 :i* ! p>ticles1 ?\gh pack$ closely toge!r1 are n suppos$ to be 9 actual contact1 s t x is possible to conceive ea* sep>ate atom ( copp] receiv+ & radiat+ its heat to ! neighb\r+ p>ticle1 & s on ?r\gh\t ! l5g? & bread? ( ! metal4 ,by ?is !ory ! radiation ( heat ?r\gh a vacuum is br\ght into close connexion ) t ( ! radiation ( heat ?r\gh ! air & o!r solid & liquid bodies4 ,"s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ph5om5a ( heat are ^? discov]$ by ,leslie1 :o has prov$ 9 a v satisfactory mann] t ! rapidity ) :i* a body cools1 dep5ds 7l ! reflection ( light7 m on ! condition ( ! surface ?an on ! nature ( ! mat]ial ( :i* ! surface is compos$4 ,) a globul> & bright t9 vessel x 0 obs]v$ t wat] ( a c]ta9 heat conta9$ 9 x1 requir$ #aef m9utes to cool2 b :5 ! latt] vessel 0 cov]$ ) a ?9 coat+ ( lamp-black & size1 ! wat] fell to ! same degree z t notic$ 9 ! fir/ exp]im5t 9 ! space ( eighty-"o m9utes4 ,by v c>eful obs]vations made ) a diff]5tial air !rmomet]1 ,leslie det]m9$ t ! p[] ( radiat+ heat 9 v>i\s sub/ances 0 z foll[s3-- ,lamp-black #ajj ,writ+ pap] #ih ,seal+ wax #ie ,cr[n glass #ij ,plumbago #ge ,t>ni%$ lead #de ,clean lead #ai ,iron1 poli%$ #ae ,t9 plate #ab ,gold #ab ,silv] #ab ,copp] #ab ,page #djd ,z 9 ! reflection ( light1 x 0 notic$ t a piece ( *>coal cov]$ ) gold leaf1 p>took ( ! nature ( ! preci\s metal s f> z its p[] ( ?r[+ (f or scatt]+ ! rays ( light 0 conc]n$1 s a piece ( glass cov]$ ) gold-leaf appe>s to possess ! same p[] ( radiat+ heat z t ( any brilliant metal4 ,radiant heat1 l light1 c be propagat$ ?r\gh a great v>iety ( sub/ances1 b is /opp$ by ! l>g] numb]2 & x c be reflect$1 refract$1 pol>iz$1 absorb$1 or x may und]go a second>y radiation4 ,! int5sity ( radiant heat foll[s ! same law z t ( light1 & decreases z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f its s\rce4 ,! same law t gov]ns ! reflection ( light1 also prevails ) t ( heat2 & x may be f\nd by exp]im5t t ! angle ( incid5ce is equal to ! angle ( reflection1 s t ! heat is dispos$ ( 9 ! same mann] z light :5 x falls ^u bright poli%$ planes1 convex & concave surfaces2 h5ce ! use ( bright t9 meat scre5s & ,dut* ov5s1 & ( all ^? simple pieces ( cul9>y furniture :i* are employ$ 9 ! kit*5 = ! purpose ( arre/+ ! cold curr5ts ( air t set t[>ds burn+ matt]1 z also to reflect ! heat ^u :atev] vi&s may be cook+ be=e ! fire4 ,a bright silv] teapot reta9s its heat bett] ?an a dirty "o1 & ! fact is det]m9$ v readily by p\r+ boil+ wat] into two teapots1 ! "o be+ made ( bright t9 & ! o!r ( black japann$ t94 ,a !rmomet] ins]t$ into ea* vessel w soon %[ t ! latt] radiates1 & !re=e loses its heat quick] ?an ! =m]2 ! relative radiat+ p[]s ( bright & black5$ t9 be+ z #ae to #ajj4 ,pipes = ! conveyance ( hot wat] or /eam %\ld be kept bright1 if possible1 al?\gh ?is tr\ble is avoid$ usually by pack+ !m 9 bad conductors ( heat1 :il/ ! poli% ( ! cyl9d] ( a /eam-eng9e is ( great importance z a means ( economiz+ heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chj4 ,a ,b4 ,! cone ( pap]1 gilt inside4 ,c4 ,! r$-hot ball4 ,d4 ,/& ) wood support+ a slice ( phosphorus1 :i* is br\ght into ! focus ( ! rays ( heat reflect$ ?r\gh ! cone4 ,:5 ! f+] is approa*$ )9 an in* or s ( a r$-hot ball1 ! heat radiat$ f ! latt] is s int5se t x _c be held !re ,page #dje = m ?an a few seconds4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! f+] is coat$ ) gold leaf x may be kept ne> ! iron ball = "s consid]able "t1 because ! radiant heat is reflect$ f ! surface ( ! gold4 ,if ! ^w heat is writt5 ^u a %eet ( pap] & ! lett]s aft]w>ds gilt1 ! :ole ( ! :ite surface is rapidly toa/$ & scor*$ :5 held be=e a fire1 :il/ ! surface ( ! pap] "u ! gold leaf rema9s p]fectly :ite1 :i* c be asc]ta9$ by turn+ ! pap] r\nd & obs]v+ ! o!r side4 ,a %eet ( pap] gilt inside & turn$ r\nd z a cone1 be+ left op5 at bo? ends1 may be employ$ z a reflect+ surface2 & if a bit ( phosphorus1 plac$ on pap]1 is held1 say at two feet f a r$-hot ball ( ab\t two in*es diamet]1 ! radial heat f ! latt] has n suffici5t int5sity at t di/ance to set x on fire quickly2 if1 h[ev]1 ! cone ( gilt pap] is us$ betwe5 ! two1 & ! phosphorus br\ght into ! focus ( ! rays ( radial heat1 x v quickly takes fire4 7,fig4 #chj47 ,dr4 ,ba*e has det]m9$ by exp]im5ts t ! radiation ( heat f a body is n affect$ by col\r1 s t 9 w9t] all col\r$ clo!s are alike 9 t respect1 & radiate heat )\t any appreciable diff]5ce4 ,! p[] ( absorb+ heat1 h[ev]1 is greatly dep5d5t on col\r2 & z a g5]al rule1 good radiators ( heat 7su* z a black clo?1 or inde$ any surface cov]$ ) lamp-black71 are also excell5t absorb5ts ( heat4 ,dr4 ,hooke & ,dr4 ,frankl9 plac$ pieces ( clo? ( simil> texture & size on sn[1 all[+ ! sun's rays to fall equally ^u !m4 ,! d>k specim5 always absorb$ m heat ?an ! light ones1 & ! sn[ b5ea? !m melt$ to a great] ext5t ?an "u ! o!rs2 & !y bo? rem>k$ t ! effect 0 ne>ly 9 proportion to ! dep? ( ! %ade1 z 9 ! foll[+ ord]3--,aft] black1 ! maximum absorb5t quality 0 possess$ by1 fir/1 blue2 second1 gre52 ?ird1 purple2 f\r?1 r$2 fif?1 yell[4 ,! m9imum absorb5t p[] 0 obs]v$ to belong to :ite4 ,:5 radiant heat is all[$ to pass ?r\gh glass1 ! latt] sub/ance is n f\nd to be transp>5t to heat rays z x is to ^? ( light1 b a consid]able proportion ( heat is arre/$ & /opp$2 consequ5tly glass fire-scre5s are to be f\nd 9 ! mansions ( ! weal?y1 because !y ob/ruct ! heat b d n exclude ! *e]ful light & blaze ( ! fireside4 ,melloni's rese>*es on ! nature ( ! rays ( heat1 & also on ! m$ia :i* affect !m1 w\ld dem& & m]it a *apt] to !mselves2 want ( space1 h[ev]1 obliges u to omit ! consid]ation ( !rmo-electricity1 & ! ref9$ & beautiful exp]im5ts ( ,melloni1 ^: lab\rs are a model = ! imitation ( all orig9al seek]s aft] tru?4 ,page #djf ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,! ,,/eam-,,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cha4 ,hancock's /eam omnibus1 :i* ran on ! common roads4 ,x mu/ be app>5t to ^? :o read popul> works on sci5ce1 t !y possess1 at all ev5ts1 "o po9t ( utility--viz41 t !y are indicative ( ! v>i\s subjects t may be select$ 9 sci5ce = special1 se>*+ & exhau/ive /udy4 ,! subject ( /eam & ! /eam eng9e is n "o t c\ld be ?or\ghly treat$ ( 9 ! n>r[ space all[$ 9 ?is volume1 b en\gh may be said to give "s in/ruction & to imp>t common pr9ciples1 :il/ ! m9ute details are bett] exam9$ & le>nt 9 ! works ( ,b\rne1 ,rank9e1 & o!r au?ors :o devote !mselves specially to ! important comm]cial "q ( /eam4 ,! fir/ tru? to be compreh5d$ is1 t all matt] conta9s )9 its sub/ance ! p[] ( creat+ heat--or z x may be express$ m pla9ly1 solids1 fluids1 & gases conta9 :at is t]m$ lat5t or ins5sible heat1 9 contradi/9ction to ! heat :i* is app>5t :5 we t\* a vessel conta9+ w>m wat] or approa* a *e]ful fire2 ?is latt] is t]m$ s5sible heat1 & has =m$ ! subject ( ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,if a cold horse-%oe nail is appli$ to a ?9 dry slice ( phosphorus laid on a %eet ( pap]1 no combu/ion ( ! phosphorus ensues1 because ! temp]ature ( ! iron is n suffici5tly high to affect t combu/ible sub/ance2 b if ! horse-%oe nail is vigor\sly hamm]$ on an anvil1 ! p>ticles ( ! metal are br\ght clos] toge!r1 & if x is appli$ to ! phosphorus1 s mu* heat has be5 g5]at$1 ?ru/ or squeez$ out by ! hamm]+ or cond5sation ( ! iron1 t x is n[ suffici5tly w>m to set fire to x4 ,page #djg ,! rev]se or anti!sis to ?is exp]im5t--viz41 ! production ( cold--w\ld be %[n if x 7 possible to exp& a mass ( metal sudd5ly1 & ?is c be effect$ by fir/ melt+ toge!r #bjg p>ts by weight ( lead4 #aah t94 #bhd bismu?4 ,:5 ^! metals are 9 ! liquid /ate & p]fectly mix$1 !y are p\r$ f a suffici5t height into a pail ( cold wat]1 = ! purpose ( granulat+ or divid+ !m into small fragm5ts4 ,if ! granulat$ comp\nd metal is n[ mix$ ) #afag p>ts by weight ( quicksilv]1 x becomes sudd5ly liquefi$ & exp&$3 liquefaction is ! rev]se ( solidification1 & h5ce cold is produc$ f ! natural heat ( ! comp\nd metals be+ r5d]$ lat5t by ! *ange f ! solid to ! liquid /ate2 s t a small quantity ( wat] plac$ 9 a glass tube1 & surr\nd$ ) ! metals :il/ liquefy+ 9 ! m]cury1 becomes rapidly conv]t$ into ice1 ! fall ( ! temp]ature1 z %[n by a !rmomet]1 be+ f #fj ,fahr4 to #ad1 :i* is #ah degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]4 ,9 ! =m] case1 by hamm]+ ! iron ! lat5t heat is made s5sible2 :il/ 9 ! latt] case1 by ! liquefaction ( ! comp\nd metal 9 m]cury1 ! s5sible heat is r5d]$ lat5t4 ,! heat r5d]$ lat5t by melt+ diff]5t sub/ances is n a con/ant quantity1 b v>ies ) e special body employ$1 & ! ,drs4 ,irv9e h prov$ ?is fact by ! foll[+ exp]im5ts3-- ,ditto1 r$uc$ ,heat to ! ( specific heat fluidity4 ( wat]4 ,sulphur #adc4fh ,fahr4 #bg4ad ,sp]maceti #ade -- ,lead #afc #e4f4 ,bees'-wax #age -- ,z9c #dic #dh4c4 ,t9 #ejj #cc4 ,bismu? #eej #bc4be4 ,e "o ( ^! sub/ances requires m heat to br+ !m into ! liquid condition ?an ice1 = :i* #adj ( heat are suffici5t1 or are r5d]$ lat5t dur+ its conv]sion into wat]4 ,9 co9+ at ! ,m9t1 ! cold blank pieces ( gold1 silv]1 or copp] become hot directly !y h su/a9$ ! viol5t & sudd5 pressure ( ! co9+ press1 & !y mu/ be heat$ aga91 or anneal$1 to re/ore ! equilibrium ( ! heat di/urb$ by ! viol5t bl[1 or else !y rema9 h>d & unfit to su/a9 ! f9i%+ process ( mill+4 ,! cond5sation ( wat] :5 x assumes a small] bulk by union ) sulphuric acid1 is easily prov$ by measur+ a p9t ( wat] & a p9t ( acid1 & mix+ !m toge!r1 :5 a v great increase ( temp]ature may be p]ceiv$2 & by plac+ into ! mixture a cold copp] wire t previ\sly c\ld n ignite phosphorus1 x becomes ,page #djh v hot1 & :5 remov$ & wip$ x w cause phosphorus to fire directly x t\*es t sub/ance4 ,:5 ! mixture ( sulphuric acid & wat] is measur$ aft] x has cool$1 x has no long] a bulk ( two p9ts1 b is f\nd to h lo/ bulk equal to "o or m ounces by measure4 ,! heat evolv$ by a mixture ( f\r p>ts ( /rong sulphuric acid & "o "p wat] is %[n by ! !rmomet] to be #cjj ,fahr41 & ?is mode ( obta9+ heat has be5 us$ by a]onauts = ! purpose ( obta9+ artificial w>m? )\t ! dang] ( sett+ fire to ! gas 9 ! balloon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chb4 ,a]onauts 9 ! c> w>m+ _! h&s by a bottle conta9+ sulphuric acid & wat]4 ,:5 alcohol & wat] are mix$ a *ange ( d5sity occurs1 & heat is produc$2 & if equal measures ( alcohol ( a specific gravity ( 4#hbe1 & wat]1 ea* at #ej ,fahr41 are mix$1 a temp]ature ( #gj ,fahr4 is obta9$2 if ! mixture is made 9 a glass vessel1 z %[n 9 ! annex$ cut1 ! comb9ation is v app>5t4 ,to p]=m ! exp]im5t prop]ly1 wat] is p\r$ into ! l[] tube & bulb1 & alcohol into ! top "o2 :5 ?is is done1 ! /opp] is ins]t$1 & ! :ole ?or\ghly %ak5 & mix$ toge!r2 ! w>m? :i* is ,page #dji ?us obta9$ is app>5t to ! h&1 :il/ ! contraction is %[n aft] ! mixture is cold1 z x no long] fills ! two bulbs ( ! in/rum5t4 7,fig4 #chc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chc4 ,glass bulbs & tube to %[ ! contraction 9 bulk ( a mixture ( alcohol & wat]4 ,! lat5t heat ( gases is easily %[n by sudd5ly cond5s+ air 9 a small syr+e or pump1 ( :i* ! pi/on conta9s a m9ute fragm5t ( amad\ 7a species ( fungus1 ,polyporus igni>ius2 ?is1 accord+ to ,simmonds1 aft] hav+ be5 beat5 ) a mallet1 & dipp$ 9 a solution ( saltpetre1 =ms ! spunk or ,g]man t9d] ( comm]ce2 x is also us$ z a /yptic1 & made into razor /rops71 :i* takes fire1 & be=e ! inv5tion ( ve/a & o!r mat*es1 tobacco-smok]s 7 9 ! habit ( obta9+ a light = _! pipes & cig>s 9 ?is mann]--viz41 by ! lat5t heat obta9$ f ! contraction or compression ( air4 ,!n1 aga91 an in/ructive ?\gh opposite p>allel is af=d$ by sudd5ly exp&+ or r>efy+ air 9 a glass receiv] provid$ ) a delicate !rmomet]4 ,by pump+ out "s ( ! air1 a consid]able dim9ution ( ! temp]ature occurs1 & equal to sev]al degrees ( ! !rmomet]4 ,e *ild kn[s t /eam direct f ! kettle w scald1 b if x issues f a high-pressure boil]1 say at fifte5 p\nds on ! squ>e in*1 ! h& may be held ) impunity 9 ! escap+ /eam1 z x m]ely feels g5tly w>m1 & n scald+4 ,?is is due p>tly to ! loss ( heat r5d]$ lat5t by ! expansion ( ! high-pressure /eam directly x passes into ! air1 & p>tly to ! curr5ts ( air t are dragg$ into an escap+ jet ( /eam4 ,?is t5d5cy ( ! air to ru% into a jet ( /eam 0 discov]$ by ,f>aday1 & expla9s ^? curi\s exp]im5ts ) a jet ( /eam by :i* balls1 empty flasks1 & globul> vessels are su/a9$ & support$ ei!r p]p5dicul>ly or horizontally4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chd4 ,a4 ,jet dis*>g+ high-pressure /eam ,b ,b4 ,light$ tor* held r\nd ! escap+ /eam ! flames f ! =m] all ru% into ! latt]4 ,if /eam at a pressure ( ab\t sixty p\nds p] in* is all[$ to escape f a prop] jet1 & a l>ge light$ circul> tor* compos$ ( t[ dipp$ 9 turp5t9e held ov] x1 ! c\rse ( ! ext]nal air is %[n1 by ! direction ( ,page #daj ! flames1 :i* are =cibly pull$ & bl[n into ! jet ( /eam ) a ro>+ noise1 indicat+ ! rapidity ( ! bla/ ( air mov+ to ! /eam jet4 7,fig4 #chd47 ,egg-%ells1 empty flasks1 india-rubb] or light copp] & brass balls1 are susp5d$ 9 ! mo/ s+ul> mann] inside an escap+ jet ( high-pressure /eam2 & be=e ! explanation ( ,f>aday1 reams ( pap] 7 us$ 9 ! discussion ( ! possible !ory to acc\nt = ?is effect2 & :at made ! explanation /ill m difficult1 0 ! fact t ! jet ( /eam might be incl9$ at any angle betwe5 ! horizontal & p]p5dicul>1 & /ill held ! ball1 egg-%ell1 or o!r sph]ical figure firmly 9 its vapory grasp4 7,fig4 #che47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #che4 ,a4 ,ball & socket jet at an angle1 & dis*>g+ /eam4 ,! egg-%ells are support$ by ! enorm\s curr5t ( air mov+ into ! jet 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! great ru% ( air t[>ds a jet ( escap+ high-pressure /eam1 ,mr4 ,goldsmi? ,gurney has pat5t$ ! application ( ?is pr9ciple 9 8 v5tilat+ /eam jet1 :i* he has already successfully appli$2 9 "o case especially1 :]e a coal-m9e _h be5 on fire = sev]al ye>s1 & ! :ole work+ ( ! coal-measures 9 ! pit 0 jeop>diz$ by ! spread+ ( ! combu/ion to new work+s2 ! fire 0 fir/ ext+ui%$ by c>bonic acid gas1 pull$1 z x 71 into ! coal-m9e by a jet ( /eam bl[+ into ! d[nca/1 b plac$ 9 connexion ) a furnace ( burn+ coke2 & ! circulation ( ! c>bonic acid1 call$ *oke-damp1 ?r\gh ! pit work+s 0 fur!r assi/$ by a jet ( high-pressure /eam bl[+ upw>ds1 & plac$ ov] ! m\? ( ! upca/ %aft4 ,! exp]im5t succe$$ p]fectly at ! ,s\? ,sau*ie ,colli]y1 ne> ,alloa1 ab\t sev5 miles f ,/irl+1 :]e a fire _h rag$ = ab\t ?irty ye>s ov] an area ( tw5ty-six acres 9 ! wa/e seam ( coal n9e feet ?ick4 7,fig4 #chf47 ,= ! g5]al purpose ( v5tilat+ ! coalm9e1 ,mr4 ,gurney's plan 0 tri$ at ! ,ebbw ,vale ,colli]y1 & v economically1 ! wa/e /eam alone be+ us$4 ,exp]im5ts h also be5 satisfactorily made ) x = bl[+ a cupola = smelt+ iron1 & ) dry /eam--i4e41 /eam ( a v high pressure--escap+ ?r\gh a w>m tube1 ! results 7 p]fectly successful4 ,page #daa ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chf4 ,gurney's /eam jet4 ,a4 ,furnace4 ,b4 ,wat] tank4 ,c4 ,d[nca/ /opp+4 ,d4 ,upca/ /opp+4 ,e ,e ,e4 ,/eam jets4 ,f ,f4 ,gall]ies f %aft to %aft4 ,page #dab ,) ?is digression f ! subject ( lat5t heat d]iv$ f ! compression ( air1 we return aga9 to ! subject ) ano!r case 9 po9t1 furni%$ by ! ,f\nta9 ( ,hi]o1 z x is call$1 at ,s*emnitz1 9 ,hung>y1 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,br&e2 & x may be obs]v$ t all ! ph5om5a relat$ w\ld apply to ! great pressure ( ! wat] f ! wat]-t[]s at ! ,cry/al ,palace1 if fitt$ ) a simil> air-vessel4 ,a "p ( ! ma*9]y = work+ ^! m9es is a p]p5dicul> column ( wat] #bfj feet high 7! ,cry/al ,palace wat]-t[]s are ea* #bhd feet high71 :i* presses ^u a quantity ( air enclos$ 9 a tight res]voir2 ! air is consequ5tly cond5s$ to an enorm\s degree by ?is height ( wat]1 :i* is equal to betwe5 eight & n9e atmosph]es2 & :5 a pipe communicat+ ) ?is res]voir ( cond5s$ air is sudd5ly op5$1 x ru%es out ) extreme velocity1 in/antly exp&s1 & 9 s do+ x absorbs s mu* heat z to precipitate ! moi/ure x conta9s 9 a %[] ( sn[1 :i* may readily be ga!r$ on a hat held 9 ! bla/4 ,! =ce ( ?is is s great1 t ! workman :o holds ! hat is oblig$ to lean 8 back aga9/ ! wall to reta9 x 9 its position4 ,! be/ examples ( lat5t heat are furni%$ by ice1 wat]1 & /eam1 & we are indebt$ *iefly to ,dr4 ,black = ! elegant & conclusive exp]im5ts demon/rat+ ! important tru?s connect$ ) ! lat5t heat ( ^! ?ree conditions ( matt]4 ,:5 v>i\s solids are heat$1 !y frequ5tly pass ?r\gh c]ta9 int]m$iate conditions ( s(tness1 t]m9at+ 9 p]fect liquidity2 b ice & _m o!r bodies *ange at once to ! liquid /ate on ! application ( a suffici5t quantity ( heat4 ,! process ( melt+ ice is v sl[1 because e portion mu/ absorb or r5d] lat5t a c]ta9 quantity ( heat be=e x c take ! liquid /ate--h5ce ! difficulty ( melt+ blocks ( ice :5 !y are surr\nd$ ) non-conduct+ mat]ials2 & ?is fact ! au?or has propos$ to take advantage ( 9 keep+ wat] cool :i* is to be suppli$ to ! ova ( salmon :il/ tak+ !m to /ock ! riv]s ( ,au/ralia4 ,9 ord] to prove t heat is r5d]$ lat5t by ! liquefaction ( ice1 x is only necess>y to weigh a p\nd ( f9ely-p[d]$ ice & a p\nd ( wat] at #bab ,fahr4 7boil+ wat]71 & mix !m toge!r2 :5 ! ice is all melt$1 ! result+ temp]ature is only #eb1 !re=e ! boil+ wat] has lo/ #afj ( temp]ature1 ( :i* #bj c be acc\nt$ =1 because ! result+ temp]ature ( ! melt$ ice is #eb2 b 9 ! liquefaction ( ! p\nd ( ice1 #adj h disappe>$ or become lat5t1 or1 z ,dr4 ,black t]m$ x1 h become comb9$4 #a lb4 ( ice at #cb #bj #eb1 ! result+ temp]ature4 #a lb4 ( wat] at #bab - #eb #afj - #bj #adj1 r5d]$ lat5t4 #adj repres5ts ! result obta9$ f innum]able exp]im5ts made by mix+ equal p>ts ( ice & boil+ wat]1 & x is ?is l>ge quantity ( lat5t heat requir$ by ice & sn[ t prev5ts _! sudd5 liquefaction1 & ! disa/r\s circum/ances t w\ld arise f ! floods t mu/ o!rwise always be produc$4 ,page #dac ,to put ! fact beyond all d\bt1 x is advisable to mix toge!r equal weights ( wat] at #cb & boil+ wat] at #bab1 & ! result is f\nd by ! !rmomet] to be ! mean betwe5 ! two1 because half ! extremes are always equal to ! mean2 & if ! two temp]atures are add$ toge!r & divid$ by two1 ! result is a temp]ature ( #abb1 z %[n bel[3-- #a lb4 ( ice wat] at #cb #a lb4 ( wat] at #bab #bdd #b #abb4 ,f simil> exp]im5ts ,dr4 ,black d$uc$ ! important tru?1 t 9 all cases ( liquefaction a quantity ( heat n indicat$ by1 or s5sible to1 ! !rmomet]1 is absorb$ or disappe>s1 & t ?is heat is )drawn f ! surr\nd+ bodies1 leav+ !m comp>atively cold4 ,at p4 #gi x is %[n h[ ! sudd5 solution or liquefaction ( c]ta9 salts produces cold1 & h5ce num]\s freez+ mixtures h be5 devis$4 ,9 old5 times1 :5 (ficials 9 au?ority did :at !y pleas$1 )\t be+ tr\bl$ ) disagreeable returns1 & colonels clo!d _! m51 & 7 m]*ant tailors on ! gr& scale1 gun c>tridges 7 n conf9$ to practice on ! enemy1 b !y did duty frequ5tly 9 ! abs5ce ( ice z refrig]ators ( ! (fic]s' w9e1 9 consequ5ce ( ! gunp[d] conta9+ nitre or saltpetre2 z a m]e solution ( ?is salt f9ely p[d]$ w l[] ! temp]ature ( wat] f #ej ,fah4 to #ce2 :il/ a mixture ( f\r ounces ( c>bonate ( soda & f\r ounces ( nitrate ( ammonia dissolv$ 9 f\r ounces ( wat] at #fj1 w 9 ?ree h\rs freeze t5 ounces ( wat] 9 a metallic vessel imm]s$ 9 ! mixture dur+ ! liquefaction or solution ( ! salts4 ,fahr5heit imag9$ he _h atta9$ ! l[e/ possible temp]ature by mix+ ice & salt toge!r1 & x is by ?is means t confection]s usually freeze _! ices1 or ice pudd+s2 ! mat]ials are fir/ incorporat$1 & be+ plac$ 9 metallic vessels or m\lds1 & surr\nd$ ) ice & salt plac$ 9 alt]nate lay]s1 & !n well /irr$ ) a /ick1 !y soon solidify into ! =ms :i* are s agreeable1 & s frequ5tly pres5t$ at ! tables ( ! opul5t4 ,! temp]ature obta9$ is ,fahr5heit's z]o--viz41 ?irty-two degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]4 ,accord+ to ! v wise police regulation obs]v$ 9 ,london1 all h\sehold]s are requir$ to sweep or remove ! sn[ f ! pavem5t 9 front ( _! h\ses1 & ?is is frequ5tly done ) salt2 %\ld an un=tunate %oeless begg>1 tramp pa/ :il/ ! sudd5 liquefaction is 9 progress1 ! effect on ! soles ( 8 feet is evid5tly v disagreeable1 & ! rapidity ) :i* he retires f ! z]o af=ds a !rmometric illu/ration ( ! mo/ lively description4 ,heat ! ,cause ( ,vap\r4 ,e liquid1 :5 ( ! same degree ( *emical purity1 & "u equal circum/ances ( atmosph]ic pressure1 has "o peculi> po9t ( temp]ature at :i* x inv>iably boils4 ,?us1 e!r boils at #if ,fahr41 & if "s ( ?is highly inflammable liquid is plac$ c>efully 9 a ,page #dad flask1 by p\r+ x 9 ) a funnel1 & flame appli$ )9 "o in* ( ! orifice1 no vap\r escapes t w take fire2 b if ! flame ( a _s lamp is appli$1 ! e!r soon boils1 & if ! light$ tap] is aga9 br\ght ne> ! m\? ( ! flask1 ! vap\r takes fire1 & produces a flame ( ab\t two feet 9 l5g?4 ,?is fire only cont9ues z long z ! flame ( ! _s-lamp is reta9$ at ! bottom ( ! flask1 & on remov+ x ! vessel rapidly cools4 ,! l5g? ( ! flame is r$uc$1 & is gradually ext+ui%$ = ! want ( t ess5ce ( its vitality1 z x 7--viz41 heat4 7,fig4 #chg47 ,if a !rmomet] is introduc$ into ! flask1 h[ev] rapid may be ! ebullition or boil+ ( ! e!r1 x is f\nd to be inv>iably at #if4 ,! heat c>ri$ (f by evaporation is mo/ elegantly display$ by plac+ a little wat] 9 a wat* glass1 & surr\nd$ by *>coal saturat$ ) sulphuric acid1 9 ! vacuum ( an air-pump4 ,! rapid evaporation & cond5sation ( ! wat] by its aff9ity = ! sulphuric quickly produces ice2 & ! pumps & o!r app>atus ( ,knight & ,co41 ,fo/]-lane1 ,city1 are greatly to be recomm5d$ = ?is & o!r illu/rations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chg4 ,heat ! cause ( vap\r4 ,! illu/ration ( ! det]m9ation ( ! fix$ & inv>iable boil+ po9t belong+ to e liquid is fur!r c>ri$ out by introduc+ "s wat] into a second flask /&+ above a light$ _s-lamp1 ) a small !rmomet]1 graduat$1 ( c\rse1 prop]ly to degrees above ! boil+ po9t ( wat]2 :5 ! wat] boils1 x w be f\nd to rema9 /eadily at a temp]ature ( #bab4 ,& h[ev] rapidly ! wat] may be boil$1 provid$ !re is ample room = ! /eam to escape1 ! heat indicat$ by ! !rmomet] is l ! law ( ! ,m$es & ,p]sians1 :i* alt]e? n1 & x rema9s /&+ at ! numb] #bab4 ,! only exception 7if x may be s t]m$7 to ?is law is br\ght ab\t by ! %ape & nature ( ! conta9+ vessel2 "u a mean pressure ! boil+ po9t ( wat] 9 a metallic vessel is g5]ally #bab2 9 a glass vessel x may rise z high z #bad or #baf1 b if "s metallic fil+s are dropp$ 91 ! escape ( /eam is increas$1 & ! temp]ature may !n drop imm$iately to #bab4 ,:5 a !rmomet] is ins]t$ 9 a flask conta9+ wat] 9 a /ate ,page #dae ( ebullition or boil+1 s t ! bulb does n t\* ! fluid1 b is :olly surr\nd$ ) /eam1 x w be f\nd t ! temp]ature ( ! latt] is exactly ! same z t ( ! =m]2 & if ! liquid boils at #if1 ! vap\r w be #if1 if at #bab1 ! /eam is #bab4 ,/eam has !re=e exactly ! same temp]ature z ! boil+ wat] t produces x4 7,fig4 #chh47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chh4 ,!rmomet] 9 ! /eam escap+ f boil+ wat]4 ,:il/ p]=m+ ! la/ exp]im5t1 x may be notic$ t ! /eam inside ! neck ( ! flask is invisible1 & t x only becomes app>5t 9 t k9d ( int]m$iate condition betwe5 ! vapor\s & liquid /ate call$ vesicul> vap\r--a /ate correspond+ ) ! e>? fog1 & call$ by ,h[>d ! /ratus4 ,:5 a flask conta9+ boil+ wat] is plac$ "u ! receiv] ( an air pump 7z soon aft] ! ebullition has ceas$ z may be possible71 & ! air pump$ out1 x w be notic$ t ! wat] aga9 beg9s boil+ z ! vacuum is obta9$1 %[+ t ! boil+ po9t ( ! same fluid v>ies "u diff]5t degrees ( atmosph]ic pressure1 & accord+ to ! height ( ! b>omet]4 ,height ( ,boil+ po9t b>omet]4 ( wat]4 #bf #bjd4ia #bf4e #bje4gi #bg #bjf4fg #bg4e #bjg4ee #bh #bjh4dc #bh4e #bji4ca #bi #baj4ai #bi4e #baa4jg #cj #bab #cj4e #bab4hh #ca #bac4gf ,alcohol & e!r conf9$ "u an exhau/$ receiv] boil viol5tly at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 & 9 g5]al liquids boil ) #abd less ( heat ?an are requir$ "u a mean pressure ( ! air2 wat]1 !re=e1 9 a vacuum mu/ boil at #hh & alcohol at #di4 ,on asc5d+ consid]able heights1 z to ! tops ( m\nta9s1 ! boil+ po9t ( wat] gradually falls 9 ! scale ( ! !rmomet]4 ,?us1 on ! summit ( ,mont ,blanc wat] 0 f\nd by ,saussure to boil at #ahg ,fahr4 ,9 ,mr4 ,alb]t ,smi?'s delightful n>rative ( 8 asc5t ( ,mont ,blanc1 he m5tions ! viol5t commotion & escape ( ! :ole ( ! *ampagne 9 fro? directly ! bottle 0 op5$ at ! summit ( ?is k+ ( m\nta9s4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on's in/rum5t = measur+ ! heights ( m\nta9s by ,page #daf ! v>iations ( ! boil+ po9t ( wat] has long be5 kn[n & us$ = ?is purpose4 ,if a ,flor5ce flask is fir/ fitt$ ) a nice s(t cork1 & ?is latt] remov$1 & ! =m] half fill$ ) wat]1 :i* is !n boil$ ov] a gas or _s flame1 ! same fact already m5tion$ & illu/rat$ 9 ! prec$+ table may be r5d]$ app>5t :5 ! flask is cork$ & remov$ f ! heat4 ,if x is n[ inv]t$1 & cold wat] p\r$ ov] x1 an ebullition imm$iately comm5ces1 because ! cold wat] cond5ses ! /eam 9 ! space above ! hot wat] 9 ! flask1 & produc+ a vacuum1 ! wat] boils z readily z x w\ld d "u an exhau/$ receiv] on an air-pump plate4 7,fig4 #chi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chi4 ,! p>adoxical exp]im5t ( wat] boil+ by ! application ( cold wat]4 ,wat] may be heat$ consid]ably high] ?an #bab1 if x is enclos$ 9 a /rong boil]1 & %ut (f f communication ) ! air2 by ?is means /eam ( great pressure is obta9$4 ,dr4 ,m>cet has inv5t$ a v in/ructive =m ( a m9iature boil]1 suppli$ ) a !rmomet] & b>ometric pressure gauge1 :i* c be pur*as$ at any ( ! in/rum5t mak]s1 & is figur$ & describ$ 9 ne>ly e "w on *emi/ry4 ,! reason wat] boil$ 9 an op5 vessel does n rise to a high] temp]ature ?an #bab is because all ! excess ( heat is c>ri$ (f by ! /eam1 & is said to be r5d]$ lat5t 9 ! vap\r4 ,! fixation ( caloric 9 wat] by its conv]sion into /eam may be %[n by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,let a p\nd ( wat] at #bab & eight p\nds ( iron fil+s at #cjj be sudd5ly mix$ toge!r4 ,a l>ge quantity ( /eam is in/antly g5]at$1 b ! temp]ature ( ! wat] & escap+ /eam are /ill only #bab2 h5ce ! /eam mu/ !re=e conta9 all ! degrees ( heat betwe5 #bab & #cjj1 or eight times #hh4 ,:5 ! wat] is heat$ 9 ! hydro-electric ma*9e or o!r boil]1 to #cbb4g1 x v quickly drops to #bab :5 ! /eam is all[$ to bl[ (f2 yet if ! latt] is collect$1 x repres5ts b a v small quantity ( wat] :i* con/itut$ ! /eam1 & x has c>ri$ (f & r5d]$ lat5t ! excess ( heat 9 ! boil]--viz41 ! diff]5ce betwe5 #bab & #cbb4g1 or #aaj4g ,if /eam c c>ry (f heat1 ( c\rse x may be compell$1 z x 71 ,page #dag to surr5d] x aga92 & ?is important elem5t>y tru? is %[n by adapt+ a tube1 b5t at "r angles1 & a cork1 to a flask conta9+ a few ounces ( wat]1 & :5 x boils1 ! /eam issu+ f ! end ( ! pipe may n[ be direct$ into & bel[ ! surface ( "s wat] conta9$ 9 a beak] glass2 9 a v %ort "t ! wat] 9 ! latt] w be rais$ to ! boil+ po9t by ! cond5sation ( ! /eam & ! lat5t heat aris+ f x4 7,fig4 #cij47 ,! am\nt ( lat5t heat is enorm\s1 :5 x is rememb]$ t wat] by conv]sion into /eam has its bulk prodigi\sly enl>g$--viz41 #afih times1 s t a cubic in* ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam ( a temp]ature ( #bab1 ) ! b>omet] at ?irty in*es1 occupies a space ( "o cubic foot1 & its lat5t heat am\nts1 accord+ to ,hall1 to #iej2 ,s\!ron1 #ide2 ,dr4 ,ure1 #ifg4 ,:5 we come to ! consid]ation ( ! /eam-eng9e1 x w be notic$ t ! "q ( ! lat5t heat ( /eam is "o ( ! greate/ importance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cij4 ,a4 ,flask = g5]at+ /eam4 ,b4 ,glass pipe b5t at "r angles to convey ! /eam into ! fluid conta9+ "s cold wat]4 ,temp]ature ( ,ela/icity 9 in*es ,lat5t ,heat4 ,/eam4 ( ,m]cury4 #bbi #dj #idb #bgj #hj #idb #bie #abj #iej ,! same weight ( /eam conta9s1 :atev] may be its d5sity1 ! same quantity ( caloric1 its lat5t heat be+ increas$ 9 proportion z its s5sible heat is dim9i%$2 & ! rev]se4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( lat5t heat conta9$ 9 /eam1 x is advantage\sly employ$ = ! purpose ( imp>t+ w>m? ei!r = heat+ rooms or dry+ goods 9 c]ta9 manufactur+ processes4 ,! wet rag-pulp press$ & %ak5 into =m on a wire-gauze frame or deckle1 passes gradually to cyl9d]s conta9+ /eam1 & is ?or\ghly dri$ be=e ! guillot9e knife desc5ds at ! end ( ! pap] ma*9e1 & cuts x into l5g?s4 ,9 calico /iff5+ & glaz+1 also 9 calico pr9t+1 /eam-heat$ cyl9d]s are ( great value1 because !y imp>t heat )\t ! *ance ( sett+ ! goods on fire4 ,! elem5t>y pr9ciples already describ$ ) ref]5ce to heat1 w prep>e ! y\?ful read] = ! application ( ! expansion ( wat] into /eam1 z ! mo/ valuable motive p[] ev] employ$ to assi/ ! lab\r ( man4 ,page #dah ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,! ,,/eam-,,eng9e--cont9u$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cia4 ,! fir/ /eam-boat1 ! ,comet1 built by ,h5ry ,bell1 9 #ahaa1 :o br\ght /eam navigation into practice 9 ,europe4 ,s %alt ?\ in/ant rea* ! realm assign'd ,9 wondr\s %ips1 self-mov'd1 in/9ct ) m9d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,?\gh cl\ds & d>kness veil ! encumb]$ sky4 ,fe>less1 ?r\gh d>kness & ?r\gh cl\ds !y fly1 ,?o' tempe/s rage1--?o' rolls ! swell+ ma91 ,! seas may roll1 ! tempe/s swell 9 va92 ,e'en ! /]n god t o'er ! waves presides1 ,safe z !y pass1 & safe repass ! tides1 ,) fury burns2 :ile c>eless !y convey1 ,promiscu\s1 ev'ry gue/ to ev'ry bay4 ,^! l9es1 f ,pope's translation ( ! ,odyssey1 7 v aptly quot$ tw5ty-five ye>s ago by ,mr4 ,m4 ,a4 ,ald]son1 9 8 treatise on ! /eam-eng9e1 = :i* he receiv$ f ,dr4 ,birkbeck1 ! ,page #dai orig9ator ( ,me*anics' ,in/itutions1 ! prize ( #bjl41 be+ ! gift ( ! ,london ,me*anics' ,in/itution1 & ^! l9es seem to indicate "s sort ( rude anticipation by ! anci5ts ( t free passage ( ! ocean by ! ag5cy ( /eam :i* has r5d]$ %ips almo/ indep5d5t ( w9d & wea!r4 ,hom]'s description1 z above1 ( ! ,pho5ician fleet ( ,k+ ,alc9\s1 9 ! eigh? book ( ! ,odyssey1 is c]ta9ly an anci5t record ( an idea1 b no?+ m4 ,9 a "w writt5 by ,h]o ( ,alex&ria1 ab\t a hundr$ ye>s ,b4,c41 & entitl$ ,spiritalia seu ,pneumatica1 a numb] ( contrivances are m5tion$ = rais+ liquids & produc+ motion by means ( air & /eam1 s t ! fir/ /eam-eng9e is usually ascrib$ to ,h]o2 & ! annex$ cut displays ! app>atus4 7,fig4 #cib47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cib4 ,h]o's /eam-eng9e4 ,a4 ,! boil] 9 :i* /eam is produc$1 & !n passes ?r\gh ! holl[ support ,b1 f :i* !re is no outlet b ?r\gh ! two ap]tures1 ,c ,c4 ,! reaction ( ! air on ! issu+ /eam produces a rotatory motion 9 ! jets1 ,c ,c1 atta*$ to a c5tre b holl[ axle4 ,x is a rem>kable circum/ance t ,sir ,isaac ,newton appli$ ! same pr9ciple 9 a little ball1 m\nt$ on :eels1 conta9+ boil+ wat]1 & provid$ ) a small orifice2 & 9 8 description he says3 ,& if ! ball be op5$1 ! vap\rs w ru% out viol5tly "o way1 & ! :eels & ! ball at ! same "t w be c>ri$ ! contr>y way4 ,f ! "t ( ,h]o1 !re does n appe> to be any record or m5tion made ( /eam app>atus till ! ye> #ajjb1 :51 9 a "w call$ ,malmesbury's ,hi/ory1 m5tion is made ( an organ 9 :i* ! s\nds 7 produc$ by ! escape ( air 7qu]y1 /eam7 by means ( heat$ wat]4 ,x is /range t1 9 ^! days ( /eam application1 ! ,calliope1 or /eam organ1 %\ld be an important feature at ! pres5t mom5t at ! ,cry/al ,palace2 & x only %[s h[ ! same ideas are reproduc$ z novelties 9 ! ev]-recurr+ cycles ( ye>s4 ,on ! revival ( classical le>n+ ?r\gh\t ,go?ic ,europe1 ! "w ( ,h]o began to attract att5tion1 & x 0 translat$ & pr9t$ 9 black lett]1 & mo/ likely fir/ f ! ,arabic "*1 z 9 ! ye> #aedc ! fir/ fruits appe>$ 9 ,spa91 :]e ,blasco de ,g>ay1 a sea capta91 propell$ a %ip ( #bjj tons burd51 at ! rate ( ?ree miles p] h\r1 be=e c]ta9 commission]s appo9t$ by ! ,emp]or ,*>les ! ,fif?4 ,alas = inquisitorial ,spa96 _h %e look$ deep] into ! matt]1 & p]=m$ h] auto-da-fes on ! boil]s ( ,page #dbj /eam eng9es in/ead ( ! bodies ( poor human be+s1 :at la/+ glories w\ld h be5 h] rew>d4 ,! inv5tion made its db 9 ,spa91 ! commission]s report$1 ! wor?y inv5tor 0 rew>d$1 b ! mighty giant invok$ 0 put to sleep aga9 = at lea/ #aej ye>s4 ,! /eam giant 0 di/urb$ ) dreams2 "o ,ma?ias1 9 #aefc1 gave him a nightm>e2 ,solomon de ,caus1 9 #afbd1 ne>ly woke him up2 ,giovanni ,bianca1 9 #afbi1 did m2 & ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 9 ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 z ! evil g5ius ( ,spa91 c>ri$ (f ! giant bodily & made him ! slave ( ,engl&2 at lea/1 he exp]im5t$1 & wrote su* wondr\s tales ( 8 new motive p[]1 t 9 #afec we read ( /eam be+ fairly te!r$ to its "w1 & set to draw wat] out ( ! ,?ames at ,vauxhall2 & ,cosmo de ,m$ici1 a =eign] :o inspect$ ! app>atus 9 #afec1 says1 ,x raises wat] m ?an =ty geometrical feet by ! p[] ( "o man only1 & 9 a v %ort space ( "t w draw up full vessels ( wat] ?r\gh a tube or *annel n m ?an a span 9 wid?1 on :i* acc\nt x is consid]$ to be ( great] s]vice to ! public ?an ! o!r ma*9e ne> ,som]set ,h\se1 :i* la/ "o 0 driv5 by two horses4 ,:at w\ld ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/] & ,cosmo de ,m$ici h ?\ght ( ,blasco de ,g>ay on ! ocean1 & rul+ #ab1jjj /eam horses8 ,write ! "n ( ! brave & prud5t ,capta9 ,h>rison1 9 ! good %ip ,great ,ea/]n1 date #ahei1 in/ead ( t ( ! gallant ,spani>d1 & our brief hi/ory is f9i%$4 ,! fir/ really useful /eam-eng9e 0 made1 n by a pla9 ,mr41 b aga9 by a capta9--namely1 ,capta9 ,sav]y1 :o appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ inv5tor :o ?or\ghly und]/ood & appli$ ! vacuum pr9ciple4 7,fig4 #cic47 ,page #dba ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cic4 ,sav]y's eng9e4 ,a ,a4 ,! furnaces :i* conta9 ! boil]4 ,b #a & ,b #b4 ,! two fireplaces4 ,c4 ,! funnel or *imney1 :i* is common to bo? furnaces4 ,9 ^! two furnaces are plac$ two vessels ( copp]1 :i* ,i 7,sav]y7 call boil]s--! "o l>ge z at ,l1 ! o!r small z ,d4 ,d4 ,! small boil] conta9$ 9 ! furnace1 :i* is heat$ by ! fire at ,b #b4 ,e4 ,! pipe & cock to admit cold wat] into ! small boil] to fill x4 ,f4 ,! screw t cov]s & conf9es ! cock ,e to ! top ( ! small boil]4 ,g4 ,a small gauge cock at ! top ( a pipe1 go+ )9 eight in*es ( ! bottom ( ! small boil]4 ,h4 ,a l>ge pipe :i* goes ! same dep? into ! small boil]4 ,i4 ,a clack or valve at ! top ( ! pipe ,h 7op5+ upw>ds74 ,k4 ,a pipe go+ f ! box above ! said clack or valve 9 ! great boil]1 & pass+ ab\t "o in* into x4 ,l ,l4 ,! great boil] conta9$ 9 ! o!r furnace1 :i* is heat$ by fire at ,b #a4 ,m4 ,! screw ) ! regulator1 :i* is mov$ by ! h&le ,z1 & op5s or %uts ! ap]tures at :i* ! /eam passes out ( ! great boil] at ! /eam-pipes ,o ,o4 ,n4 ,a small gauge cock at ! top ( a pipe1 :i* goes half way d[n into ! great boil]4 ,o #a1 ,o #b4 ,/eam pipes1 "o end ( ea* screw$ to ! regulator2 ! o!r ends to ! receiv]s ,p ,p1 to convey ! /eam f ! great boil] into ^? receiv]s4 ,p #a1 ,p #b4 ,copp] vessels call$ receiv]s1 :i* are to receive ! wat] :i* is to be rais$4 ,q4 ,screw jo9ts by :i* ! bran*es ( ! wat]-pipes are connect$ ) ! l[] p>ts ( ! receiv]s4 ,r #a1 #b1 #c1 & #d4 ,valves or clacks ( brass 9 ! wat]-pipes1 two above ! bran*es ,q & two bel[ !m2 !y all[ ! wat] to pass upw>ds ?r\gh ! pipes1 b prev5t its desc5t2 !re are screw-plugs to take out on occasions to get at ! valves ,r4 ,s4 ,! =c+-pump :i* conveys ! wat] upw>ds to its place ( deliv]y1 :5 x is =c$ out f ! receiv]s by ! impell$ /eam4 ,t4 ,! suck+-pipe1 :i* conveys ! wat] up f ! bottom ( ! pit to fill ! receiv]s by suction4 ,v4 ,a squ>e frame ( wood1 or a box1 ) holes r\nd its bottom 9 ! wat]1 to enclose ! l[] end ( ! suck+-pipe to keep away dirt & ob/ructions4 ,x is a ci/]n ) a bung cock com+ f ! =ce-pipe1 s z x %all always be kept fill$ ) cold wat]4 ,y ,y4 ,a cock & pipe com+ f ! bottom ( ! said ci/]n1 ) a sp\t to let ! cold run d[n on ! outside ( ei!r ( ! receiv]s1 ,p ,p4 ,z4 ,! h&le ( ! regulator to move x by1 ei!r op5 or %ut1 s z to let ! /eam out ( ! great boil] into ei!r ( ! receiv]s4 ,page #dbb ,?is is ,sav]y's own description 7tak5 f ! ,m9]'s ,fri5d1 pr9t$ 9 #agjb71 ( 8 wat]-eng9e1 :i* diff]s f t sugge/$ by ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 9 ! fact t he made ! pressure ( ! air c>ry ! wat] up ! fir/ /age4 ,sav]y's pat5t 0 = rais+ wat] & occasion+ motion to all sorts ( mill-"w by ! impellant =ce ( fire2 & ! pat5t 0 grant$ 9 ! reign ( ,k+ ,william ! ,?ird ( glori\s memory4 ,?us ,sav]y ov]came1 z he rem>ks1 ! odde/ & almo/ insup]able difficulties1 & introduc$ a /eam app>atus or eng9e1 a good _m ( :i* 7 con/ruct$1 & employ$ = rais+ wat]4 ,! me*anical skill requir$ to con/ruct ! boil]1 ! v he>t 7z x 77 ( ! iron eng9e1 _h n be5 acquir$ 9 ! "t ( ,capta9 ,sav]y1 & h5ce ! weakness ( ! boil]s1 & ! dang] ( work+ !m4 ,z ! pressure requir$ 0 v consid]able to ov]come ! resi/ance ( a l(ty column ( wat]1 ^! eng9es 7 gradually rel9qui%$ = ^? ( ano!r clev] me*anician--viz41 = ^? ( ,?omas ,newcom51 an ironmong] ( ,d>tm\?1 :o1 ab\t ! ye> #agje1 con/ruct$ & introduc$ ! cyl9d]1 f :i* ! transition 0 gradually made to ! mode ( cond5s+ by a jet ( cold wat]1 ! use ( self-act+ valves1 & ! con/ruction ( self-act+ eng9es by ,smeaton1 ,hornbl[]1 & f9ally by ! illu/ri\s ,watt1 ^: portrait heads ! fir/ *apt] on ,heat 9 ?is book4 ,newcom5 0 assi/$ 9 8 "w by "o ,cawley1 a glazi]2 & _! p]sev]+ lab\rs 7 cr[n$ ) a successful result ( ! mo/ memorable importance 9 ! hi/ory ( ! /eam-eng9e4 ,9 ! eng9e by ,sav]y1 ! op]ation ( ! /eam 0 tw(old--namely1 by ! direct pressure f its ela/icity1 & by ! indirect consequ5ce ( its cond5sation1 :i* af=ds a vacuum4 ,?is la/ may be said to be ! only pr9ciple us$ by ,newcom51 :o employ$ a boil] = ! g5]ation ( /eam1 & convey$ x by a pipe to ! bottom ( a holl[ cyl9d]1 op5 at ! top1 b provid$ ) a solid pi/on1 t mov$ up & d[n 9 x1 & 0 r5d]$ tight by a /uff+ ( hemp1 l ! pi/on ( a boy's common squirt4 ,x c readily be und]/ood1 t if ! jet ( ! latt] 0 connect$ ) a tight little boil]1 & /eam bl[n into x1 t ! pi/on ( ! squirt w\ld rise to ! top ( ! b>rel 9 :i* x works1 be+ ?ru/ up by ! pressure or =ce ( ! /eam2 b unless ! /eam 0 cut (f1 & cold wat] appli$ to ! int]ior ( ! b>rel1 ! pi/on c\ld n desc5d aga94 ,z soon1 !re=e1 z ,newcom5 _h ?ru/ up ! pi/on by ! action ( /eam1 he introduc$ a jet ( cold wat]1 suppli$ f an elevat$ ci/]n b5ea? ! pi/on1 :5 ! /eam 0 cond5s$ into wat]1 & a vacuum or void space obta9$4 ,! pi/on be+ free to move ei!r up or d[n1 0 n[ =c$ 9 ! latt] direction by ! pressure ( ! air1 :i* is a con/ant =ce equal to fifte5 p\nds on ! squ>e in*2 & ?us ! pi/on 9 ,newcom5's eng9e 0 rais$ by heat--viz41 by /eam1 & ?ru/ d[n by cold--i4e41 by ! cond5sation ( ! /eam produc+ a vacuum4 ,! void obta9$ 9 ?is mann] 0 v consid]able1 because "o cubic foot ( ,page #dbc /eam at #bab cond5ses into "o cubic in* ( wat]4 ,! production ( a vacuum ) ! aid ( /eam is quickly effect$ by boil+ "s wat] 9 a clean camph9e c1 & :5 ! /eam is issu+ freely f ! m\? ( ! latt] x is !n cork$1 & cold wat] ?r[n ov] ! ext]ior4 ,directly ! temp]ature is l[]$1 ! /eam inside ! t9 vessel is cond5s$ sudd5ly into wat]1 & a void space be+ sudd5ly obta9$1 ! :ole pressure ( a column ( air ( a bread? equal to ! area ( ! vessel1 & ( a height ( =ty miles1 is br\ght sudd5ly d[n l a sl$ge-hamm] ^u ! sides ( ! t9 vessel1 & z !y are n suffici5tly /rong to (f] a prop] resi/ance1 !y are cru%$ 9 l an egg-%ell by ! giant weight :i* falls ^u !m4 ,! b>omet]1 or measur] ( ! weight ( ! air1 consi/s ( a glass tube ab\t ?irty-?ree in*es 9 l5g?1 h]metically seal$ at "o end1 & conta9+ m]cury t has be5 c>efully boil$ )9 x1 & be+ p]fectly fill$ ! tube is ins]t$ 9 a ci/]n ( clean m]cury1 :5 x gravitates to a height equal to ! pressure ( ! air1 leav+ a space at ! top call$ ! torricellian vacuum4 ,z ! atmosph]ic air decreases 9 d5sity by admixture ) invisible /eam or vap\r1 any giv5 volume becomes specifically light]3 h5ce ! column ( m]cury falls to a height ( ab\t tw5ty-eight in*es2 :il/ if ! aque\s vap\r dim9i%es1 ! weight ( ! air becomes great]1 & ! b>omet] may rise to a height ( ab\t ?irty-"o in*es4 ,hav+ ?us secur$ a reciprocat+ motion1 ,newcom5 appli$ x to ! work+ ( a =ce-pump by ! int]v5tion ( a great beam or lev] susp5d$ on gudgeons 7an iron p9 on :i* a :eel or %aft ( a ma*9e turns7 at ! middle1 & susp5d$ l ! beam ( a pair ( scales2 &1 9 fact1 he inv5t$ t me?od ( support+ ! beam :i* is 9 use to ! pres5t day4 ,suppos+ we comp>e ,newcom5's beam to a scale beam1 he atta*$ to ! extremities 7in/ead ( scale pans7 a wat] pump & 8 /eam cyl9d]--! latt] be+ at "o end1 & ! =m] at ! o!r4 ,! beam play$ at see-saw3 by ! prim>y action ( ! /eam on ! bottom ( ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d] x 0 pu%$ up at ?is end1 & ( c\rse suff]$ an equal fall at ! o!r1 to :i* ! pump pi/on 0 atta*$2 & :5 ! motion 0 rev]s$ by ! cond5sation ( ! /eam1 d[n w5t ! pi/on aga9 by ! pressure ( ! air1 :il/ t ( ! wat] pump 0 aga9 rais$1 & be+ provid$ ) prop] valves1 ! wat] 0 pump$ sl[ly out ( ! m9e1 al?\gh ! /eam p[] us$ 0 v mod]ate1 & only j suffici5t to c\nt]poise ! weight ( ! atmosph]e4 ,newcom5 made ! end atta*$ to ! wat] pump purposely heavi] ?an ! /eam pi/on ( ! o!r end ( ! beam1 & by ?is means ! "w ( ! /eam1 by its ela/icity1 0 v mod]ate1 :il/ ! actual lift ( ! wat] f ! m9e 0 p]=m$ by ! pressure ( ! air1 equal 7z already /at$7 to fifte5 p\nds on e squ>e in* ( ! surface ( ! /eam pi/on4 ,?is eng9e is call$ ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 & 9 ! next cut we h a picture tak5 f a photograph by ! ,watt ,club ( ! actual model ( ! ,newcom5 eng9e 9 ! ,page #dbd ,hunt]ian ,museum ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[2 ! dim5sions be+--l5g?1 #bg 942 bread?1 #ab 942 height1 #ej 942 f :i*1 9 #agfe1 ,james ,watt1 9 seek+ to repair ?is model1 belong+ to ! ,natural ,philosophy ,class 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 made ! discov]y ( a sep>ate cond5s]1 :i* has id5tifi$ 8 "n ) t ( ! /eam-eng9e4 7,fig4 #cid47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cid4 ,model ( ! ,newcom5 eng9e1 9 :i* ! furnace & boil]1 ! /eam cyl9d]1 beam1 wat]-pump1 & elevat$ ci/]n ( wat]1 are app>5t4 ,9 ,newcom5's eng9e1 ! op5+ & %utt+ ( ! cocks requir$ ! vigilant c>e ( a man or boy1 & x is /at$ on good au?ority t a boy :o pref]r$ 7l ne>ly all o!r boys7 play to "w1 contriv$1 by means ( /r+s1 a brick1 & "o or two cat*es on ! work+ beam1 to make ! eng9e self-act+4 ,?is poor boy's +5i\s contrivance pav$ ! way = ! improv$ ,page #dbe me?ods ( op5+ & %utt+ ! valves1 :i* 7 br\ght to a great /ate ( p]fection by ,beighton1 ( ,newca/le1 ab\t #agah4 ,betwe5 t "t & ! ye> #agfc1 we f9d hon\rable m5tion made ( ,smeaton 9 connexion ) ! /eam-eng9e1 b ! "n ( ! great ,james ,watt at ?is "t began to be appreciat$1 & by a s]ies ( wond]fully simple me*anisms1 he at la/ p]fect$ ! ma*9e ^: orig9 c\ld be trac$ back n only to ! "t ( ,blasco de ,g>ay1 9 #aedc1 b ev5 to ! days ( ! anci5t me*anicians1 su* z ,h]o1 :o liv$ #acj ,b4,c4 ,9 #agfc1 ,james ,watt 0 a mak] ( ma!matical in/rum5ts 9 ,glasg[1 & 8 att5tion 0 drawn to ! subject ( ! /eam-eng9e by 8 und]tak+ to repair a work+ model ( ,newcom5's /eam-eng9e1 :i* 0 us$ by ,pr(essor ,&]son1 :o !n fill$ ! ,*air ( ,natural ,philosophy1 & subsequ5tly f\nd$ ! ,&]sonian ,in/itution4 ,! repairs requir$ = ?is model induc$ ,watt to make ano!r1 & by wat*+ its op]ation1 he discov]$ t a va/ quantity ( heat1 & !re=e fuel1 0 wa/$ 9 ! con/ant & successive heat+ & cool+ ( ! /eam cyl9d]4 ,ab\t two ye>s aft]1 :5 ,watt 0 tw5ty-n9e ye>s ( age1 he _h made s _m exp]im5ts1 t he 0 enabl$ to put into a me*anical %ape 8 orig9al ideas1 :i* are embodi$ 9 8 pat5t ( #agfi1 z foll[s3-- ,my me?od ( less5+ ! consumption ( /eam1 & consequ5tly fuel1 9 fire-eng9es1 consi/s ( ! foll[+ pr9ciples3 ,fir/3 ,t vessel 9 :i* ! p[]s ( /eam are to be employ$ to "w ! eng9e1 :i* is call$ ! cyl9d] 9 common fire-eng9es1 & :i* ,i call ! /eam-vessel1 mu/1 dur+ ! :ole "t ! eng9e is at "w1 be kept z hot z ! /eam t ent]s x--fir/1 by enclos+ x 9 a case ( wood or any o!r mat]ials t transmit heat sl[ly2 secondly1 by surr\nd+ x ) /eam or o!r heat$ bodies2 & ?irdly1 by suff]+ nei!r wat] nor any o!r sub/ance cold] ?an /eam to ent] or t\* x dur+ t "t4 ,secondly3 ,9 eng9es t are to be work$ :olly or p>tially by cond5sation ( /eam1 ! /eam is to be cond5s$ 9 vessels di/9ct f ! /eam-vessels or cyl9d]s1 al?\gh occasionally communicat+ ) !m2 ^! vessels ,i call cond5s]s2 & :il/ ! eng9es are work+1 ^! cond5s]s ought at lea/ to be kept z cold z ! air 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! eng9e1 by application ( wat] or o!r cold bodies4 ,?irdly3 ,:atev] air or o!r ela/ic vap\r is n cond5s$ by ! cold ( ! cond5s]1 & may imp$e ! work+ ( ! eng9e1 is to be drawn out ( ! /eam-vessels or cond5s]s by means ( pumps wr\ght by ! eng9es !mselves1 or o!rwise4 ,f\r?ly3 ,i int5d 9 _m cases to employ ! expansive =ce ( /eam to press on ! pi/ons1 or :atev] may be us$ in/ead ( !m1 9 ! same mann] z ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e is n[ employ$ 9 common fire-eng9es4 ,9 cases :]e cold wat] _c be _h 9 pl5ty1 ! eng9es may be wr\ght by ?is =ce ( /eam only1 by dis*>g+ ! /eam into ! op5 air aft] x has done its (fice4 ,la/ly3 ,in/ead ( us+ wat] to r5d] ! pi/on or o!r p>ts ( ,page #dbf ! eng9es air & /eam-tight1 ,i employ oils1 wax1 res9\s bodies1 fat ( animals1 quicksilv]1 & o!r metals 9 _! fluid /ate4 ,& ! said ,james ,watt1 by a memor&um add$ to ! said specification1 decl>$ t he did n int5d t any?+ 9 ! f\r? article %\ld be und]/ood to ext5d to any eng9e :5 ! wat] to be rais$ ent]s ! /eam-vessel itself1 or any vessel hav+ an op5 communication ) x4 ,ab\t ! "t he obta9$ 8 pat5t1 ,watt comm5c$ ! con/ruction ( 8 fir/ real eng9e1 ! cyl9d] ( :i* 0 eighte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 & aft] _m imp$im5ts 9 ! details ( ! "w he succe$$ 9 br++ x to consid]able p]fection4 ,! bad bor+ ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! difficulty ( obta9+ a sub/ance t w\ld keep ! pi/on tight )\t enorm\s friction1 & at ! same "t resi/ ! action ( /eam1 gave him ! mo/ tr\ble1 & ! employm5t ( a pi/on rod mov+ ?r\gh a /uff+-box 0 a new feature 9 /eam-eng9es at t "t1 & requir$ great nicety ( workman%ip to make x effectual4 ,:ile ,watt 0 cont5d+ ) ^! difficulties1 ,roebuck's f9ances became dis>rang$1 & 9 #aggc he dispos$ ( 8 int]e/ 9 ! pat5t to ,mr4 ,b\lton1 ( ,soho4 ,z1 h[ev]1 a consid]able "p ( ! t]m ( f\rte5 ye>s1 = :i* ! pat5t 0 grant$1 _h already pass$ away1 & z sev]al ye>s m w\ld probably elapse be=e ! improv$ eng9es c\ld be br\ght into op]ation1 x 0 judg$ exp$i5t to apply to ,p>liam5t = a prolongation ( ! t]m1 & an ,act 0 pass$ 9 #agge grant+ an ext5sion ( tw5ty-five ye>s f t date1 9 consid]ation ( ! great m]it ( ! inv5tion4 7,b\rne's ,treatise on ! ,/eam-eng9e47 ,9 ,fig4 #cie 7p4 #dbg7 we give an illu/ration ( a l[-pressure cond5s+ eng9e & boil] ( eight-horse p[]1 con/ruct$ on ! pr9ciple ( ,b\lton & ,watt1 z ! latt] _h =tunately unit$ 8 skill1 le>n+1 orig9ality1 & exp]i5ce ) ,mr4 ,b\lton1 ( ,soho1 ne> ,birm+ham1 ^: metal manufactory 0 already ! mo/ celebrat$ 9 ,engl&4 ,dur+ ! explanation ( ?is eight horse-p[] eng9e1 ! opportunity may be tak5 to discuss occasionally ! special improvem5ts effect$ by ,watt4 ,! /eam-pipe ,a conveys ! /eam g5]at$ 9 ! boil] ,b to ! slide-valve ,c1 :i* is kept close to ! surface1 aga9/ :i* x works by ! pressure ( ! /eam4 ,"h we notice "s ( ! valuable improvem5ts ( ,watt 9 ! admission ( /eam above z well z bel[ ! pi/on1 by :i* he increas$ ! p[] ( 8 eng9e1 & no long] conf9$ x to ! =ce ( ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x is also necess>y to rem>k ! beautifully simple me*anism ( ! slide-valve1 by :i* /eam is admitt$ alt]nately above & bel[ ! pi/on4 ,want ( space prev5ts u trac+ out ! gradual improvem5ts effect$ by ,watt1 & !re=e we take 8 inv5tion z x /ood 9 ! ye> #aghj1 & ref] our read]s to ,b\rne's ,treatise on ! ,/eam-eng9e = ! full & m9ute p>ticul>s ( ! improvem5ts to t date4 ,page #dbg ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cie4 ,an eight-horse p[] cond5s+ /eam-eng9e1 aft] ! pr9ciple ( ,b\lton & ,watt1 & expla9$ 9 pages #dbf to #dcb4 ,page #dbh ,at t "t x occurr$ to ,watt t ! cond5sation ( ! /eam f ! cyl9d] aft] x _h done its "w1 might be made m p]fect if a p]petual vacuum 0 ma9ta9$ b5ea? ! pi/on1 :ile an alt]nate /eam-pressure & vacuum 7 produc$ above x4 7,fig4 #cif47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cif4 ,e ,e is ! cyl9d]4 ,j4 ,! pi/on1 a4 ,! /eam-pipe4 b4 ,! regulat+ or ?rottle valve1 e4 ,! eduction & equilibrium s+le valve1 p]=m+ ! functions ( bo?4 c4 ,! upp]1 & f ! "u1 por?oles1 by :i* passages only ! /eam c ent] & pass away4 d1 j1 g4 ,! eduction-pipe by :i* ! /eam passes f above ! pi/on dur+ e return+ /roke to ! cond5s]1 a p]petual exhau/ion be+ ma9ta9$ b5ea? x4--,f ,,b\rne on ! ,/eam-eng9e4 ,in/ead ( obta9+ a specific advantage ! contr>y occurr$1 & ,watt 0 oblig$ 9 ?is case to return to ! pond]\s ,newcom5 c\nt]weight to balance ! diff]5ce 9 ! vacuum above & bel[ ! pi/on1 consequ5tly ?is =m ( ! cyl9d] & valves 0 ab&on$4 ,! juv5ile read] w p]ceive 9 ! above draw+ t ! sup]ior arrangem5t ( ,watt's cyl9d] to t ( ,newcom5 arises f ! /eam op]at+ above & bel[ ! pi/on1 & t ! pi/on rod works air-tight 9 a /uff+ box at ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,a mo/ important improvem5t 9 ! employm5t ( /eam z a motive p[] has be5 discov]$ 9 ! mode ( us+ x expansively1 by :i* ! /eam1 at a pressure say ( sixty p\nds on ! squ>e in*1 is admitt$ bel[ ! pi/on1 & !n cut (f & all[$ to exp& & drive up ! latt] )\t ! exp5diture ( any m fuel1 & leav+1 aft] lift+ ! pi/on to a height say ( ?ree feet1 an av]age or mean p[] ( ?irty p\nds on ! squ>e in*4 ,return+ to ! eight-horse cond5s+ eng9e1 ,d is ! /eam cyl9d] surr\nd$ by a case to prev5t ! /eam cool+ & to ma9ta9 9 ! ,page #dbi cyl9d] ! same1 or ne>ly ! same1 temp]ature z t ( ! /eam 9 ! boil]1 accord+ to ! condition ( ,art4 ,i4 ( ,watt's ,pat5t1 quot$ at p4 #dbe ( ?is book4 ,! same out] case is app>5t ar\nd ! cyl9d] 9 ,fig4 #cif2 ,e1 ! pi/on1 :i*1 by /uff+ ) hemp or o!r prop] mat]ial1 fits ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] 9 ! mo/ accurate mann]1 & prev5ts ! escape ( /eam by its sides3 e is ! pi/on rod atta*$ to ! p>allel motion4 ,?is clockwork-l piece ( me*anism has (t5 be5 quot$ z "o ( ! ma/]pieces ( ,watt1 & 9 its greate/ p]fection is call$ ! complete p>allel motion1 & may be f\nd 9 all ! be/ l& beam /eam-eng9es4 ,! object ( ! p>allel motion is to cause ! pi/on & pump rods to move always 9 /raight l9es1 nev] deviat+ to ei!r side4 7,fig4 #cig47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cig4 ,a ,b is half ! beam1 ,a be+ ! ma9 c5tre1 ,b ,e4 ,! ma9 l9ks connect+ ! pi/on-rod ,f ) ! end ( ! beam4 ,g ,d4 ,! air-pump l9ks1 f ! c5tre ( :i* ! air-pump rod is susp5d$4 ,c ,d & ,e ,d produce ! p>allelism1 because ,c ,d is moveable only r\nd ! fix$ c5tre ,c1 :il/ ,e ,d is n only moveable r\nd ! c5tre ,d1 b ! c5tre itself 9 ! arc describ$ by ,c ,d1 & by ?is action ,e ,d corrects ! di/ort+ influ5ce ( its own radius4 ,! dott$ l9es & lett]s above enable ! obs]v] to see ! effect ( ! movem5t ( ! beam on ! p>allel motion4 ,9 ! eight horse-p[] eng9e %[n 9 page picture1 e is also atta*$ to ! pi/on ,e1 :i* moves ! beam ,f1 & ! o!r end ( ?is beam1 by ! connect+ rod g1 gives motion to ! heavy fly :eel ,g1 by means ( ! crank h4 ,h is an ecc5tric circle on ! axle ( ! fly :eel ,g1 x gives motion to ! slide valve1 :i* admits ! /eam alt]nately above & bel[ ! pi/on4 ,! slide valve & its seat are conta9$ )9 an oblong box or case1 l>ge en\gh to p]mit ! easy motion ( ! valve )9 x1 & usually =m+ an enl>gem5t 9 ! c\rse ( a pipe4 ,! valve rod by means ( :i* ! valve is op5$ & %ut1 passes out ?r\gh a /uff+ box2 or1 in/ead ( su* a rod1 a valve ( mod]ate size (t5 has a nut fix$ to x1 )9 :i* works a screw on ! end ( an axle :i* passes out ?r\gh a bu%1 & has %\ld]s )9 & )\t to prev5t x f mov+ longitud9ally1 & a squ>e on ! out] end on :i* ! key fits t is us$ 9 turn+ x4 ,i is ! ?rottle valve inside ! /eam pipe & lev] connect$ ) a gov]nor = regulat+ ! admission ( /eam into ! cyl9d]4 ,"h1 aga91 we pause 9 ! description ( our eight horse-p[] eng9e to illu/rate m p>ticul>ly ?is admirable contrivance ( ,page #dcj ,watt1 :i* rema9s to ! pres5t day )\t any mat]ial alt]ation ev5 9 ! be/ /eam-eng9es4 7,fig4 #cih47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cih4 ,a4 ,! seat ( ! ?rottle valve1 ,z4 ,! valve itself turn+ on a sp9dle1 :i* passes ?r\gh its c5tre4 a is ! /eam pipe4 w4 ,! ?rottle valve lev] on :i* ! rod ,h1 proce$+ f ! gov]nor1 acts4 ,d ,d4 ,! sp9dle ( ! gov]nor revolv+ by a belt act+ on ! pulley d4 ,e ,e4 ,! balls hung on ! ends ( ! arms1 :i* cross ea* o!r at e l a pair ( scissors4 ,:5 ,d ,d is set 9 motion1 ! balls fly out by c5trifugal motion1 & 9 do+ s draw d[n ! coll> into :i* ! lev] ,f works by means ( ! l9ks f h4 ,:5 ,f is depress$1 ( c\rse ,h rises1 & ! valve ,z is p>tly clos$1 & ! supply ( /eam r$uc$4 ,9 ! eight-horse eng9e already p>tly expla9$1 k is ! cyl9d] ( an air-pump to remove any air1 & ! wat] :i* cond5ses ! /eam1 f ! cond5s] ,l4 ,!re is also ! eduction pipe1 :i* conducts ! /eam f ! cyl9d] to ! cond5s] ,l4 ,o is ! pump t supplies cold wat] to ! ci/]n ,s1 9 :i* ! cond5s] & air-pump /&1 ,p is a rod connect$ ) ! injection cock = admitt+ a jet ( wat] into ! cond5s] f ! ci/]n1 & :i* is cont9ually fl[+ dur+ ! work+ ( ! eng9e1 ,q ,q1 ca/-iron columns1 f\r ( :i* support ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! eng9e4 ,we n[ come to ! boil] ( ! /eam-eng9e1 :i* is ( c\rse ( almo/ equal importance ) ! eng9e itself2 & ! "o 9 our page-picture is a good type ( "o ( ! fav\rite boil]s us$ by ,messrs4 ,b\lton & ,watt1 & is call$ ! ,wagon boil]4 ,! boil] is made ( wr\ght-iron plates rivett$ toge!r1 & prop]ly /r5g!n$ :]e necess>y2 & ! /eam-pipe ,a conveys ! /eam to ! eng9e4 ,x may be rem>k$ "h t ! cyl9drical ,page #dca boil]--consi/+ ( two cyl9d]s1 "o )9 ! o!r1 ( :i* ! =m] conta9s ! fire1 :il/ ! furnace-draught circulates outside ! latt]1 & ! space betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s be+ fill$ ) wat]--is ! =m ( boil] :i* is mo/ highly approv$ (1 & is employ$ 9 ! fam\s economical /eam-eng9es ( ! ,corni% m9es4 ,z ! wat] evaporates 9 ! =m ( /eam1 ! boil] mu/ be cont9ually suppli$ ) fre% wat]1 :i* comes 7z w be notic$ by inspect+ ! page picture7 f ! hot well ,s1 by means ( ! hot-wat] pump ,r1 atta*$ to ! beam ,f4 ,! wat] is pump$ to ! top ( a column ris+ above b connect$ ) ! boil]4 ,!re is a cyl9drical float1 inside ! column ( wat]1 connect$ ) ! boil]1 susp5d$ ev] a pulley by a *a9 pass+ to ! damp] ( ! furnace4 ,! damp] & float balance ea* o!r1 & :5 ! wat] 9 ! boil] rises to too high a temp]ature1 x causes ! float to rise 9 ! column ( wat]1 :i* l[]+ ! damp] or %utt] t /ops ! draught ( ! *imney ( ! furnace ,t1 dim9i%es ! int5sity ( ! heat1 & r$uces ! =mation ( /eam4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z ! temp]ature dim9i%es1 ! float desc5ds & ! damp] rises1 & p]mitt+ m air to ru% to ! burn+ fuel 9 ! fire1 a great] quantity ( /eam is g5]at$4 ,!re is likewise a /one float inside ! boil]1 = regulat+ ! supply ( wat] by ! fe$ pipe1 or column ( wat]1 :i* latt] mu/ always be suffici5tly l(ty to press ) great] =ce ?an ! /eam produc$ 9 ! boil]1 or else ! p[] ( ! /eam might1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 eject or bl[ out ! wat] f ! top ( ! column4 ,! /one is susp5d$ by a brass wire :i* works ?r\gh a /uff+ box1 & is connect$ ) a lev]1 to :i* is atta*$ a heavy c\nt]poise1 s adju/$ t :5 ! /one is imm]s$ to a c]ta9 dep? 9 wat] 7accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( a solid body los+ weight 9 a fluid1 expla9$ 9 ! article on specific gravity1 page #dh71 x %all exactly balance ! latt]1 b :5 ! wat] s9ks 9 ! boil]1 & ! /one is no long] surr\nd$ ) wat]1 x becomes heavi]1 & s9k+ d[n op5s a conical plug1 gr\nd s z to fit wat]-tight into a hole 9 ! bottom ( ! column ( wat] or fe$ pipe1 & directly ! plug op5s1 wat] ru%es into ! boil]2 be+ cut (f aga9 z ! /one rises :5 imm]s$ or surr\nd$ ) ! prop] height ( wat]4 ,unless our juv5ile read]s ref] to ! article on specific gravity1 !y w n und]/& ! o!rwise seem+ anomaly ( a /one float4 ,a l>ge hole1 call$ ! man-hole1 cov]$ ) an iron plate & securely fa/5$ ) screws1 is provid$ = ! purpose ( all[+ ! eng9e] to ent] ! boil]1 :5 cold1 = ! purpose ( cle>+ out ! incru/ation & dirt aris+ f ! wat]4 ,to prev5t ! incru/ation ( lime & o!r e>?y matt]s1 x is sometimes usual1 on ! pr9ciple t prev5tion is bett] ?an cure to put a l>ge log ( logwood inside ! boil]1 z x is f\nd t ! col\r+ matt] curi\sly prev5ts ! e>?y matt]1 s well kn[n z ! fur 9 iron tea-kettles1 /ick+ to ! sides ( ! boil]4 ,sal ammoniac ,page #dcb & o!r salts also h ! same prop]ty1 b nei!r are mu* us$1 ! me*anical lab\r ( *ipp+ out ! boil] & /opp+ its "w = a day or s1 be+ pref]r$ to ! prev5tion plan already describ$4 ,!re is also a valve op5+ inw>ds to prev5t ! consequ5ces ( a sudd5 cond5sation 9 ! boil]1 & also a safety valve & lev] ) weights op5+ outw>ds1 & all[+ ! /eam to escape :5 x rea*es a dang]\s excess1 & 9 ord] to look z x 7 at ! /ate ( ! pressure inside ! iron boil]1 a prop] /eam gauge is provid$1 also two cocks--viz41 a wat] & /eam cock1 to enable ! eng9e] to asc]ta9 if ! wat] is up to1 & does n exce$1 ! prop] height1 because :5 turn$1 suppos+ t all is go+ on prop]ly1 ! =m]1 ,no4 #g1 %\ld eject wat]1 ! latt]1 ,no4 #h1 /eam4 ,x is truly wond]ful1 consid]+ ! numb] ( safegu>ds & w>n+s provid$1 t accid5ts ev] happ5 to boil]s1 b ! /ati/ics ( dea?s & annual de/ruction ( prop]ty %[ t sci5ce is p[]less1 nay1 absolutely dang]\s1 :5 h&l$ by ignorant & c>eless p]sons4 ,! great fly-:eel1 :i* is usually su* an awe-inspir+ & m>vell\s exhibition ( /r5g? 9 an eng9e ( any great p[]1 is employ$ = ! purpose ( /or+ up =ce1 s t if any p>ts ( ! eng9e "w indiff]5tly 7!y all "w ) resi/ance71 x %all equalize ! wants ( ! :ole1 & by its in]tia x w cont9ue to move until its motion is /opp$ by a resi/ance equal to its mom5tum4 ,9 />t+ an eng9e1 ! eng9e] may sometimes be obs]v$ lab\r+ to move ! fly-:eel1 & :5 once he succe$s 9 gett+ x to move1 ! resi/ance ( ! o!r p>ts ( ! ma*9]y is soon ov]come4 ,mr4 ,ald]son1 9 8 prize essay1 rem>ks t x is 9 ! prop]ty :i* ! /eam-eng9e possesses ( regulat+ itself1 & provid+ = all its wants1 t ! great beauty ( ! inv5tion consi/s4 ,x has be5 said t no?+ made by ! h& ( man approa*es s ne> to animal life4 ,heat is ! pr9ciple ( its movem5t2 !re is 9 its tubes circulation1 l t ( ! blood 9 ! ve9s ( animals1 hav+ valves :i* op5 & %ut 9 prop] p]iods2 x fe$s itself1 evacuates su* portions ( its food z are useless1 & draws f its own lab\rs all t is necess>y to its own subsi/ance4 ,to ?is may be add$1 t !y are n[ regulat$ s z n to exce$ ! assign$ spe$1 & ?us d animals 9 a /ate ( nature4 ,t ! safety valves1 l ! pores ( p]spiration1 op5 to p]mit ! escape ( sup]flu\s heat 9 ! =m ( /eam4 ,! /eam gauge1 z a pulse to ! boil]1 indicates ! heat & pressure ( ! /eam )92 & ! motion ( ! pi/on repres5ts ! action & ! p[] ( :i* x is capable4 ,! motion ( ! fluids 9 ! boil] repres5ts ! exp&+ & collaps+ ( ! he>t2 ! fluid t goes to x by "o *annel is drawn (f by ano!r1 9 "p to be return$ :5 cond5s$ by ! cold1 simil> to ! op]ation ( ve9s & art]ies4 ,animals require long & frequ5t p]iods ( relaxation f fatigue1 & any great accumulation ( _! p[] is n obta9$ )\t great exp5se & inconv5i5ce4 ,! ,page #dcc w9d is unc]ta92 & wat]1 ! con/ancy ( :i* is 9 few places equal to ! wants ( ! ma*9i/1 c seldom be obta9$ on ! spot :]e o!r circum/ances require ma*9es to be erect$4 ,to relieve u f all ^! difficulties1 ! la/ c5tury has giv5 u ! /eam-eng9e = a res\rce1 ! p[] ( :i* may be increas$ to inf9itude3 x requires b little room2 x may be erect$ 9 all places1 & its mighty s]vices are always at our comm&1 :e!r 9 w9t] or summ]1 by day or by night1 on l& or wat]2 x kn[s no int]mission b :at our wi%es dictate4 ,! high-pressure /eam-eng9e appe>s to h be5 fir/ br\ght into g5]al use by ,treve?ic & ,vivian1 al?\gh ! prim>y notion ( su* a modification ( ! ,newcom5 or wat]-eng9es did n orig9ate ) !m4 ,z ! "n implies1 ! /eam is br\ght to a mu* high] temp]ature & pressure ?an is requir$ 9 ! cond5s+ eng9es ( ,b\lton & ,watt4 ,x consi/$1 9 ! fir/ place1 ( a cyl9d] op5 at ! top1 & provid$ ) a pi/on4 ,to save heat ! cyl9d] 0 fix$ inside ! boil]1 & 0 provid$ ) a two-way cock work$ by a crank1 = ! purpose ( supply+ & cutt+ (f ! /eam4 ,! d[nw>d /roke 0 produc$ by ! atmosph]e1 & ! /eam hav+ done its "w1 0 simply bl[n away & wa/$ 9 ! air4 ,! eng9e 0 provid$ ) a fly-:eel1 to :i* ! pi/on-rod 0 at once atta*$1 produc+ a cont9u\s rotatory movem5t )\t ! assi/ance ( ! heavi] p>allel motion1 or hot & cold wat] pumps4 ,?is =m ( eng9e 0 soon adopt$ = pump+ "w--su* z t ( dra9+ f5s2 & 9 #ahjd ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,treve?ic us$ x = propell+ ! fir/ c>riage on ! ,m]?yr ,tydvil rail or tram way1 & x 0 !n spe$ily adopt$ 9 all ! coal di/ricts :]e ! levels 7 mod]ate4 ,/eph5son ! eld]1 succe$$ by ! late lam5t$ ,rob]t ,/eph5son1 foll[$ ) inv5tions & improvem5ts ( ! locomotive /eam-eng9e2 & we are told 9 ,once a ,week t1 ,"o ( ^? be/ qualifi$ to speak to ! latt]'s contributions to ! developm5t ( ! locomotive eng9e1 /ates t f ab\t five ye>s f 8 return f ,am]ica1 ,rob]t ,/eph5son's att5tion 0 *iefly direct$ to its improvem5t4 ',none b ^? :o accompani$ him dur+ ! p]iod 9 8 incessant exp]im5ts c =m an idea ( ! amaz+ metamorphosis :i* ! ma*9e und]w5t 9 x4 ,! mo/ elem5t>y pr9ciples ( ! application ( heat1 ( ! mode ( calculat+ ! /r5g? ( cyl9drical & o!r boil]s1 ( ! /r5g? ( rivett+ & ( /ay+ flat portions ( ! boil]s1 7 !n f> f be+ und]/ood1 & ea* /ep 9 ! improvem5t ( ! eng9e _h to be confirm$ by ! mo/ c>eful exp]im5ts be=e ! brilliant results ( ! ,rocket & ,planet eng9es 7! latt] be+ ! type ( ! exi/+ mod]n locomotive7 c\ld be arriv$ at4' ,/eph5son's "t 0 n1 h[ev]1 s fully tak5 up dur+ ! above int]val z to preclude att5tion to 8 o!r civil eng9e]+ bus9ess1 & he execut$ )9 x ! ,leice/] & ,swann+ton1 ,page #dcd ,:itby & ,pick]+1 ,cant]bury & ,:it/able1 & ,newton & ,w>r+ton ,railways2 :ile he also erect$ an ext5sive manufactory = locomotives at ,newton1 9 ,lanca%ire1 9 p>tn]%ip ) ! ,messrs4 ,tayleur4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! above p]iod1 also1 ! fir/ surveys & e/imates = ! ,london & ,birm+ham ,railway 7 fram$1 lead+ ev5tually to ! obta9+ ( ! ,act4 ,!n foll[$ ! execution ( t l9e1 & "h ,rob]t ,/eph5son _h an opportunity ( %[+ 8 great tal5t = ! managem5t ( works on a l>ge scale4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ railway ( any magnitude execut$ "u ! contract sy/em2 p]fect sets ( plans & specifications 7:i* h s9ce s]v$ z a type = ne>ly all ! subsequ5t l9es7 7 prep>$--no small matt] = a s]ies ( works ext5d+ ov] #aab miles1 involv+ tunnels & o!r works ( a !n unprec$5t$ magnitude4 ,_m o!r railways 9 ,engl& & abroad 7 execut$ by him 9 rapid succession2 ! ,midl&1 ,blackwall1 ,nor!rn & ,ea/]n1 ,norfolk1 ,*e/] & ,holyhead1 toge!r ) num]\s bran* l9es1 7 execut$ 9 ?is c\ntry by him2 & among railways abroad may be enum]at$ z works ei!r execut$ by him or recomm5d$ 9 8 capacity ( a consult+ eng9e]1 ! sy/em ( l9es 9 ,belgium1 ,italy1 ,norway1 & ,egypt1 & 9 ,france1 ,holl&1 ,d5m>k1 ,india1 ,canada1 & ,new ,zeal&4 ,rob]t ,/eph5son fir/ saw ! light 9 ! village ( ,will+ton1 at a cottage :i* 8 fa!r occupi$ aft] 8 m>riage ) ,miss ,fanny ,h5d]son--a m>riage contract$ on ! /r5g? ( 8 fir/ appo9tm5t z breaksman to ! eng9e employ$ = lift+ ! balla/ br\ght by ! return colli] %ips to ,newca/le4 ,"h ,rob]t 0 born on ! #ag? ( ,novemb]1 #ahjc4 ,z ! cottage look$ out ^u a tramway1 ! eyes ( ! *ild 7 naturally famili>iz$ f infancy ) sights & sc5es mo/ ne>ly connect$ ) 8 future pr(ession4 ,9 locomotive /eam-eng9e boil]s1 ! pr9cipal object is to g5]ate /eam ) ! greate/ rapidity2 h5ce ! boil] consi/s ( two p>ts--viz41 a squ>e box conta9+ ! fire1 & ar\nd :i* a ?9 /ratum ( wat] circulates1 :il/ ! draught = ! fire ru%es ?r\gh a numb] ( copp] tubes plac$ 9 ! second or cyl9drical "p ( ! boil]4 ,by ! use ( ^! tubes an imm5se surface ( wat] is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire1 & ! /eam is n only g5]at$ ) amaz+ rapidity1 b is also ma9ta9$ at a v high pressure4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s sup]heat$ /eam has be5 fav\rably m5tion$1 & employ$ economically = driv+ c]ta9 eng9es4 ,! pr9ciple consi/s 9 fir/ g5]at+ /eam1 & !n pass+ x ?r\gh coils ( /rong wr\ght-iron pipe1 by :i* x acquires additional heat1 & we h !re=e comb9$ 9 /eam ! ord9>y pr9ciple ( evaporation ( wat] ) ! heat$-air pr9ciple ( ,/irl+1 describ$ at p4 #cfg4 ,we give a draw+ ( ,scott's pat5t g5]ator & sup]heat$ /eam eng9e4 7,fig4 #cii47 ,! app>atus is us$ z foll[s3--,a fire is made 9 ! furnace1 & s soon z a pyromet] connect$ ) t indicates ab\t #hjj degrees1 ,page #dce a little wat] is pump$ into ! coils by h&1 :i* is imm$iately conv]t$ into /eam4 ,! donkey eng9e is !n />t$1 :i* ma9ta9s ! necess>y fe$ ( air & wat]4 ,! g5]ator produces a copi\s supply ( ela/ic mix$ gase\s vap\r1 at a pressure ( #bej p\nds on ! squ>e in*2 & x is /at$ t ?is eng9e works satisfactorily1 & is />t$ 9 ! incr$ibly %ort "t ( f ?ree to five m9utes1 s t = m>9e eng9es 9 w> vessels1 expect+ to be ord]$ out sudd5ly1 no fuel ne$ be burnt till ! mom5t requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cii4 ,scott's pat5t g5]ator1 or new v]sus old /eam4 ,exp]im5ts ) sup]heat$ /eam h already be5 tri$ mo/ successfully on bo>d ! ,p59sul> & ,ori5tal ,company's %ip ! ,valetta1 :]eby x is /at$ t a sav+ ( ?irty p] c5t4 9 fuel ,page #dcf is obta9$4 ,! eng9e to :i* ! sup]heat$ /eam 0 adapt$ 0 con/ruct$ by ,p5n & ,sons1 & ! vessel atta9$ a spe$ ( ne>ly sixte5 knots p] h\r1 & "u ! mo/ adv]se circum/ances _h an abundance ( /eam to sp>e4 ,a mo/ important exp]im5tal improvem5t 9 /eam ma*9]y 0 on ,?ursday la/ tri$ = ! fir/ "t d[n ! riv]1 on bo>d ! ,p59sul> & ,ori5tal ,company's %ip1 ! ,valetta4 ,! actual nature ( ! improvem5t may be describ$ 9 a few words z consi/+ ( a simple app>atus = work+ m>9e eng9es by means ( sup]heat$ /eam2 b x is n too mu* to say t 9 ! success or failure ( ?is exp]im5t are involv$ results s important z to affect mat]ially all ocean-go+ /eam]s1 &1 inde$1 /eam ma*9]y ( all k9ds4 ,to be able to "w ma*9]y ) sup]heat$ /eam1 means to comm& increas$ p[] ) a ?irty p] c5t4 r$uction 9 ! consumption ( fuel4 ,a pr9ciple :i* c effect su* important *anges 9 ! univ]sal application ( /eam has n rema9$ undiscov]$ to ! pres5t day4 ,! want ( sup]heat$ /eam has long be5 felt1 & ! enorm\s comp>ative advantages ( work+ eng9es on su* a plan h long be5 kn[n4 ,a simple & effective work+ ( ! pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 has be5 an eng9e]+ difficulty :i* v>i\s exp$i5ts--all1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly successful to %[ ! value ( ! improvem5t--h fail$ to obviate entirely4 ,?is ob/acle has n[1 we believe1 be5 effectually ov]come by ,mr4 ,p5n1 & ! value ( ! improvem5t s cle>ly demon/rat$1 t ! g5]al application ( ! pr9ciple to /eam ma*9]y ( e k9d may n[ be reg>d$ z c]ta94 ,! idea ( work+ eng9es by sup]heat$ /eam1 & ! imm5se sav+ ( fuel & increase ( p[] x w\ld effect1 01 we believe1 fir/ />t$ _m ye>s ago by ,mr4 ,h[>d1 & subsequ5tly by ,dr4 ,haycraft4 ,! difficulties1 h[ev]1 9 ! way ( its adoption at t "t1 & ! undue e/imate ( ! importance ( ! pr9ciple1 prev5t$ ^? g5tlem5 f realiz+ v great practical results4 ,at a lat] p]iod ! matt] 0 aga9 tak5 up by an ,am]ican eng9e]--,mr4 ,wea!rhead--:o1 h[ev]1 only sup]heat$ a portion ( ! /eam & mix$ x ) common /eam 9 its way to ! cyl9d]s4 ,! success :i* att5d$ ev5 ?is p>tial application ( ! process aga9 reviv$ ! idea1 & enc\rag$ o!r eng9e]s to turn _! att5tion to ! subject4 ,! result ( ^! r5ew$ ef=ts is t sev]al me?ods ( secur+ ! great economy to be effect$ by sup]heat+ ! /eam are n[ "u trial1 & !re is no d\bt t a mo/ important /ep 9 ! progress ( /eam1 especially z appli$ to ocean navigation1 is n[ at la/ on ! po9t ( be+ successfully accompli%$4 ,! value ( ! improvem5t on ! score ( economy 9 work+ may be be/ illu/rat$ by a s+le fact--namely1 t ! ,p59sul> & ,ori5tal ,company's bill = coal annually am\nts to ! enorm\s sum ( #gjj1jjjl41 & t by work+ _! vessels ) sup]heat$ /eam prop]ly appli$1 x is become almo/ c]ta9 t1 )\t any ,page #dcg detrim5t to ! ma*9]y1 f #bh to #cj p] c5t4 ( ?is gigantic outlay c be sav$4 ,z to ! v>i\s propos$ me?ods ( sup]heat+ /eam1 x may be briefly expla9$1 t ! conditions requir$ to be fulfill$ are p]fect simplicity ( arrangem5t ) ready control ov] ! app>atus2 t x %\ld be s plac$ z n to be liable to accid5tal injury 9 ! eng9e-room2 & t ! heat employ$ = sup]heat+ ! /eam %\ld be wa/e heat :i* has already done its duty 9 ! boil]s & is pass+ away4 ,all ^! conditions h be5 mo/ satisfactorily fulfill$ by ,mr4 ,p5n 9 ! new eng9es on bo>d ! ,valetta1 :i* 7 tri$ d[n ! ,?ames = ! fir/ "t on ,?ursday4 ,! ,valetta1 z our read]s may rememb]1 0 = _m ye>s ! mail-boat betwe5 ,m>seilles1 ,malta1 & ,con/ant9ople4 ,:ile ?us employ$1 %e _h ,p5n's eng9es ( #djj horse-p[]1 & to "w ^! up to an av]age spe$ ( #ae miles an h\r requir$ a consumption ( fuel ( f #gj to #ge tons ( coal p] day4 ,at no "t 0 x less ?an f #de to #ee tons4 ,^! eng9es h n[ be5 remov$ to a vessel ne>ly d\ble ! tonnage ( ! ,valetta1 & ! latt] fitt$ ) eng9es by ,mr4 ,p5n on ! sup]heat+ pr9ciple4 ,we may m5tion t1 besides ?is alt]ation1 ! ,valetta has be5 consid]ably improv$4 ,a poop & =eca/le h be5 add$1 increas$ accommodation giv5 to pass5g]s1 & ! :ole vessel fitt$ up 9 ! ri*e/ /yle4 ,! saloon is "o ( ! simple/ & h&some/ ?+s ( ! k9d we h se51 suffici5tly l(ty & capaci\s1 & above all1 admirably v5tilat$ on ! sy/em :i* is n[ be+ adopt$ on all sea-go+ /eam]s1 & ! m]it ( devis+ :i* belongs to ,mr4 ,rob9son1 ( ! ,p59sul> & ,ori5tal ,company4 ,to return1 h[ev]1 to ! eng9es4 ,mr4 ,p5n1 at ! repeat$ reque/ ( ,mr4 ,all51 ! ,manag+ ,director ( ! ,p59sul> & ,ori5tal ,company1 und]took to apply to !m ! pr9ciple ( sup]heat+1 to :i* 8 att5tion _h _m ye>s be=e be5 s]i\sly direct$ by ,dr4 ,haycraft4 ,8 me?od ( do+ ?is is to place 9 ! smoke-box ( ! boil]1 ?r\gh :i* ! hot air f ! furnace fir/ passes1 z l>ge a numb] ( small pipes z is consi/5t ) all[+ a free draught f ! furnaces4 ,?r\gh ^! all ! /eam f ! boil]s passes 9 its way to ! cyl9d]s4 ,by ?is plan an imm5se heat+ surface 9 ! pipes is secur$1 ! /eam is 9 a subdivid$ =m1 s z to be readily act$ on1 & ! wa/e heat f ! furnace is utiliz$ at ! po9t :]e its int5sity is greate/1 & :]e ! greate/ conv5i5ces exi/ = apply+ ! app>atus4 ,by means ( ?ree ord9>y /op-valves1 ! :ole contrivance c be %ut 9 or (f f ! eng9es at pleasure4 ,9 ord9>y eng9es /eam leaves ! boil]s at ab\t #bej1 b decl9es f ?is temp]ature 9 its way to ! eng9es to #bcj1 und]go+ f cond5sation a /ill great] & m s]i\s dim9ution ( heat 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,f ^! causes1 & also f ! imm5se quantity ( wa/e heat :i* escapes ?r\gh ! smoke-box & up ! funnels1 !re has always be5 a !oretical loss ( /eam p[] am\nt+ to =ty p] c5t41 z ,page #dch comp>$ ) ! coal consum$4 ,x is ?is loss ( p[] & wa/e ( heat :i* ! sup]heat+ process is int5d$ to prev5t1 & :i* w1 ( c\rse1 all[ a r$uction ( f tw5ty-eight to ?irty p] c5t4 on ! fuel n[ consum$4 ,by ! sup]heat+ process ! /eam is rais$ 9 pass+ along ! pipes 9 ! smoke-box 7:]e ! heat is ab\t #fej7 f a temp]ature ( #bej to #cej1 & s ent]s ! cyl9d]s at #ajj 9 excess ( ! temp]ature due to its pressure4 ,?is extra heat is1 ( c\rse1 rapidly communicat$ to ! metals1 & prev5ts ! cond5sation 9 ! cyl9d]s or o!r p>ts ( ! eng9es1 :i* w\ld o!rwise1 ( c\rse1 take place4 ,s+ul>ly en\gh1 a small] am\nt ( cold wat] is requir$ to cond5se ! /eam at ?is high temp]ature ( #cej ?an :5 at ! ord9>y heat ( common /eam4 ,! trial trip ( ! ,valetta on ,?ursday 0 mo/ satisfactory1 n only z reg>ds ! eng9es1 b /ill m s z to ! application = ! sup]heat+ process4 ,at ! measur$ mile at ! ,l[] ,hope1 ne> ! ,nore1 ! result ( repeat$ runs gave an av]age spe$ ( ne>ly #ad knots p] h\r1 ?us realiz+ ) eng9es ( #bfj horse-p[]1 & a small consumption ( fuel1 ! same rate ( spe$ z _h be5 ga9$ ) h] previ\s eng9es ( #djj horse-p[]1 & a consumption ( sev5ty-five tons ( coals p] day4 ,! sup]heat+ app>atus evid5tly effect$ a mo/ important sav+ 9 fuel1 b until an av]age ( _m days' work+ c be obta9$1 x w\ld be difficult to e/imate ! exact am\nt economiz$4 ,!re seems1 h[ev]1 e reason to believe t an av]age ( f\rte5 knots an h\r c be obta9$ ) a consumption ( only f tw5ty-f\r to tw5ty-six tons p] diem4 ,! !rmomet] dur+ ! trial indicat$ 9 ! /eam pipes an addition to ! ord9>y temp]ature ( #ajj1 :i* ,mr4 ,p5n believes to be en\gh = all practical purposes ( sup]heat+4 ,ev5 :5 mak+ f ?irty-?ree to ?irty-f\r revolutions p] m9ute1 & driv+ ! vessel aga9/ a /rong head w9d & tide1 x 0 impossible to consume all ! /eam g5]at$1 :i* 0 bl[+ (f f bo? boil]s all ! trip4 ,! eng9es are rem>kable = ! extraord9>y beauty & simplicity ( _! proportions1 qualities well kn[n 9 all eng9es f ,p5n & ,sons1 & :i*1 comb9$ ) ! /r5g? ( ! mat]ials & p]fection ( ! workman%ip1 make ?is firm ! =emo/ 9 ! _w = ma*9]y ( ?is description4 ,bo? cyl9d]s are oscillat+1 ( sixty-two in*es diamet]1 & ) a /roke ( f\r feet six in*es4 ,! paddles are on ! fea!r+ pr9ciple1 & ! boil]s ( ,lamb & ,co4's pat5t4 ,dur+ ! :ole c\rse ( ! trials1 & :5 go+ at "o "t ne>ly sixte5 knots1 !re 0 no p]ceptible vibration1 ev5 at ! end ( ! saloon ne>e/ to ! eng9es4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t ! sup]heat+ process :i* c effect su* important results is capable1 z we h said1 ( application to /eam ma*9]y ( e k9d1 includ+ ev5 locomotives1 x _c be d\bt$ t ! trial ( ,?ursday & its great success is "o ( ! mo/ important ev5ts = ! progress ( /eam :i* we h _h to *ronicle = _m ye>s4 7,! ,times1 ,april #bcrd4 #ahei47 ,page #dci ,:il/ speak+ ( ! application ( ?is some:at novel condition ( /eam1 x may be obs]v$ t _m inv5tors1 :o h paid little or no att5tion to fir/ pr9ciples1 h propos$ to apply ! vap\rs ( alcohol1 e!r1 or turp5t9e1 in/ead ( t ( wat]2 & !y h f\nd$ _! notions on ! idea t 9 consequ5ce ( ! less lat5t & s5sible heat ( alcohol1 e!r1 & turp5t9e vap\r1 & ( ! small quantity ( fuel requir$ to boil !m1 t !y w\ld compete advantage\sly ) /eam4 ,?is view ( ! case1 h[ev]1 is soon prov$ to be a v %ortsight$ "o1 because ! am\nt ( expansion has be5 q ov]look$2 & if x 0 desirable1 by way ( comp>ison1 to produce a cubic foot ( /eam1 alcohol1 e!r1 or turp5t9e1 ! /eam w\ld /& fir/ = *eapness1 & w\ld require ! lea/ quantity ( fuel to produce x1 s t if ! m exp5sive ( combu/ible liquids c\ld be obta9$ = no?+1 x w\ld /ill be *eap] to employ wat]4 ,lat5t heat1 or equival5t = fuel4 ,a cubic foot ( wat] yields #agjj cubic feet ( /eam #ajjj ,a cubic foot ( alcohol produces #dic cubic feet #deg4 ,!n1 by rule ( proportion1 #dic cubic in*es 3 #deg 33 #agjj 3 #aege ,a cubic foot ( e!r yields only #bab cubic feet ( vap\r #cab1 & #bab 3 #cab 33 #agjj 3 #bejj ,a cubic foot ( ! oil ( turp5t9e af=ds #aib cubic feet ( vap\r #ahc1 & #aib 3 #ahc 33 #agjj 3 #afbj ,x w !re=e be se5 t wat]1 :5 conv]t$ into /eam1 exp&s eight times z mu* z sulphuric e!r1 & ne>ly ?ree times & a half z mu* z alcohol4 ,! application ( /eam = ! purpose ( propell+ vessels has already be5 m5tion$ 9 connexion ) ! ,spani% inv5tor1 ,blasco de ,g>ay1 9 ! ye> #aedc4 ,! fir/ pat5t 9 ?is k+dom grant$ = t purpose 0 t ( ,mr4 ,jona?an ,hull 9 #aggc4 ,9 #aghg1 ,mr4 ,mill] tri$ a numb] ( important exp]im5ts 9 ! propulsion ( vessels by /eam-eng9es1 & x w\ld appe> t ,"l ,cull5 advocat$ 8 ideas1 & endeav\r$ to secure ! co-op]ation ( ! great firm ( ,b\lton & ,watt1 :o1 occupi$ ) _! l& eng9es1 c\ld n pay att5tion to x2 & tw5ty ye>s elaps$ aft] ! reply ( ,watt to ,"l ,cull5's application1 be=e ! real novelty appe>$ ( a fir/ successful exp]im5t ) a /eam-boat 9 ! op5 sea1 by ,h5ry ,bell1 9 #ahaa4 ,a picture ( ?is boat1 call$ ! ,comet1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds wreck$1 is %[n at p4 #dah4 ,h5ry ,bell's novelty 0 success1 & he is fairly entitl$ to ! m]it ( fir/ introduc+ /eam navigation into ,europe4 ,9 #ahaa1 ! public />$ ) m+l$ a/oni%m5t & satisfaction at ! realization ( t :i* 0 call$ a fable4 ,only =ty-sev5 ye>s aft]w>ds ano!r g5]ation spontane\sly exhibits ! livelie/ int]e/ 9 ! gigantic private speculation ( ! ,great ,ea/]n4 ,page #ddj ,h5ry ,bell's vessel ( #ahaa 0 #dj feet keel1 #aj feet #f in*es beam1 & #be tons bur!n6 ,! ,great ,ea/]n ( #ahei is #fib feet long1 #hc feet wide1 #fj feet deep1 & #bd1jjj tons bur!n66 ,! :ole nation ) "o voice wi% h] ,god spe$ 9 h] project$ voyage across ! ,atlantic1 z ! embodim5t ( t great goodwill :i* e g5]\s-he>t$ ,engli%man feels t[>ds ! enlight5$ free-born p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,%\ld ! au?or's little vessel1 ) its humble freight ( sci5ce1 meet ) ! approbation ( 8 good fri5ds1 ! boys & _! advis]s1 ano!r & ano!r1 if heal? p]mits1 %all be laun*$ = _! b5efit4 ,vale4 ,illu/ration ,,! ,,end4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes4 ,words & phrases 9 italics are indicat$ ) und]scores ?us3- italics4 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,exp]im5t "o is n indicat$ by a title head+4 ,page #ii4 ! pulse is rais$ =ty or fifty beats p] second *ang$ to ! pulse is rais$ =ty or fifty beats p] m9ute ,page #adh4 x is all[$ to dry spontane\sly1 & be+ coat$ ) amb] v>ni% 7a solution ( amb] 9 *lor(orm7 is n[ ready to pr9t f4 ,x is1 p]haps1 h>dly necess>y to add1 t ! s5sitiz+ & develop+ processes mu/ be p]=m$ 9 a d>k room4 ,fig4 #abc4 is irrelevant to ?is section4 ,! ref]5ce has be5 delet$4 ,page #cfe4 an air !rmomet] has be5 employ$ by ,sir ,john ,leslie1 "u ! "n ( ! ,diff]5tial ,!rmomet]1 9 8 ref9$ & delicate exp]im5ts ) heat4 7,fig4 #dja47 ,ref4 to 7,fig4 #dja47 remov$4 ,fig4 #dja4 n 9 orig9al h>d copy v]sion4