,the ,golden ,bough                     
,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion       
,by                   ,james ,george    
,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 
,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge
         ,professor of ,social          
,anthropology in the ,university of     
,liverpool                              
,third ,edition4                        
,vol4 ,,iv4                             
,part ,,iii                             
,the ,dying ,god                        
,new ,york and ,london                  
,mac,millan and ,co4                    
#aiaa            ,,contents             
,preface4  ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,mortality 
,of ,the ,gods4  ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the    
,killing ,of ,the ,divine ,king4        
#a4 ,preference for a ,violent ,death4  
#b4 ,kings killed when their ,strength  
fails4      #c4 ,kings killed at the    
,end of a ,fixed ,term4      #d4        
,octennial ,tenure of the ,kingship4    
#e4 ,funeral ,games4      #f4 ,the      
,slaughter of the ,dragon4      #g4     

,triennial ,tenure of the ,kingship4    
#h4 ,annual ,tenure of the ,kingship4   
#i4 ,diurnal ,tenure of the ,kingship4  
,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,slaying ,of ,the  
,king ,in ,legend4  ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the 
,supply ,of ,kings4  ,chapter ,v4       
,temporary ,kings4  ,chapter ,,vi4      
,sacrifice ,of ,the ,king's ,son4       
,chapter ,,vii4 ,succession ,to ,the    
,soul4  ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,killing  
,of ,the ,tree-,spirit4      #a4 ,the   
,whitsuntide ,mummers4      #b4 ,mock   
,human ,sacrifices4      #c4 ,burying   
the ,carnival4      #d4 ,carrying out   
,death4      #e4 ,sawing the ,old       
,woman4      #f4 ,bringing in ,summer4  
#g4 ,battle of ,summer and ,winter4     
#h4 ,death and ,resurrection of         
,kostrubonko4      #i4 ,death and       
,revival of ,vegetation4      #aj4      
,analogous ,rites in ,india4      #aa4  
,the ,magic ,spring4  ,note ,a4 ,chinese
 ,indifference ,to ,death4  ,note ,b4   
,swinging ,as ,a ,magical ,rite4        
,addenda4  ,index4  ,footnotes          

,cover ,art    ,transcriber's ,note3    
,the above cover image was produced by  
the submitter  at ,distributed          
,proofreaders1 and is being placed into 
the public domain4            ,,preface4
      ,with this third part of ,the     
,golden ,bough we take up the question1 
,why  had the ,king of the ,wood at     
,nemi regularly to perish by the hand of
 his  successor8 ,in the first part of  
the work ,i gave some reasons for       
thinking  that the priest of ,diana1 who
 bore the title of ,king of the ,wood   
beside  the still lake among the ,alban 
,hills1 personated the great god        
,jupiter or  his duplicate ,dianus1 the 
deity of the oak1 the thunder1 and the  
sky4 ,on  this theory1 accordingly1 we  
are at once confronted with the wider   
and  deeper question1 ,why put a man-god
 or human representative of deity to a  
violent death8 ,why extinguish the      
divine light in its earthly vessel      
instead of husbanding it to its natural 
close8 ,my general answer to that       

question is contained in the present    
volume4 ,if ,i am right1 the motive for 
slaying a man-god is a fear lest with   
the enfeeblement of his body in         
sickness or old age his sacred spirit   
should suffer a corresponding decay1    
which might imperil the general course  
of nature and with it the existence  of 
his worshippers1 who believe the cosmic 
energies to be mysteriously  knit up    
with those of their human divinity4     
,hence1 if there is any measure  of     
truth in this theory1 the practice of   
putting divine men and  particularly    
divine kings to death1 which seems to   
have been common at a  particular stage 
in the evolution of society and         
religion1 was a crude but  pathetic     
attempt to disengage an immortal spirit 
from its mortal envelope1  to arrest the
 forces of decomposition in nature by   
retrenching with  ruthless hand the     
first ominous symptoms of decay4 ,we may
 smile if we  please at the vanity of   
these and the like efforts to stay the  

inevitable  decline1 to bring the       
relentless revolution of the great wheel
 to a stand1  to keep youth's fleeting  
roses for ever fresh and fair2 but      
perhaps in  spite of every              
disillusionment1 when we contemplate the
 seemingly endless  vistas of knowledge 
which have been opened up even within   
our own  generation1 many of us may     
cherish in our heart of hearts a fancy1 
if not  a hope1 that some loophole of   
escape may after all be discovered from 
the  iron walls of the prison-house     
which threaten to close on and crush us2
  that1 groping about in the darkness1  
mankind may yet chance to lay hands  on 
8that golden key that opes the palace of
 eternity10 and so to pass from  this   
world of shadows and sorrow to a world  
of untroubled light and joy4  ,if this  
is a dream1 it is surely a happy and    
innocent one1 and to those  who would   
wake us from it we may murmur with      
,michael ,angelo1          8,per non mi 
destar1 deh6 parla basso40      ,j4 ,g4 

,,frazer4    ,,cambridge1  #aath ,june  
#aiaa4            ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the   
,,mortality ,,of ,,the ,,gods4          
7,m#a7 ,at an early stage of his        
intellectual development man deems      
himself  naturally immortal1 and        
imagines that were it not for the       
baleful arts of  sorcerers1 who cut the 
vital thread prematurely short1 he would
 live for  ever4 ,the illusion1 so      
flattering to human wishes and hopes1 is
 still  current among many savage tribes
 at the present day17#a7 and it may be  
supposed to have prevailed universally  
in that ,age of ,magic which appears  to
 have everywhere preceded the ,age of   
,religion4 ,but in time the sad truth   
of human mortality was borne in upon our
 primitive philosopher with a  force of 
demonstration which no prejudice could  
resist and no sophistry  dissemble4     
,among the manifold influences which    
combined to wring from him  a reluctant 
assent to the necessity of death must be
 numbered the growing  influence of     

religion1 which by exposing the vanity  
of magic and of all  the extravagant    
pretensions built on it gradually       
lowered man's proud and  defiant        
attitude towards nature1 and taught him 
to believe that there are  mysteries in 
the universe which his feeble intellect 
can never fathom1 and  forces which his 
puny hands can never control4 ,thus more
 and more he  learned to bow to the     
inevitable and to console himself for   
the brevity  and the sorrows of life on 
earth by the hope of a blissful eternity
  hereafter4 ,but if he reluctantly     
acknowledged the existence of beings at 
once superhuman and supernatural1 he was
 as yet far from suspecting the  width  
and the depth of the gulf which divided 
him from them4 ,the gods with  whom his 
imagination now peopled the darkness of 
the unknown were indeed  admitted by him
 to be his superiors in knowledge and in
 power1 in the  joyous splendour of     
their life and in the length of its     
duration4 ,but1  though he knew it not1 

these glorious and awful beings were    
merely1 like  the spectre of the        
,brocken1 the reflections of his own    
diminutive  personality exaggerated into
 gigantic proportions by distance and by
 the  mists and clouds upon which they  
were cast4 ,man in fact created gods in 
his own likeness and being himself      
mortal he naturally supposed his        
creatures to be in the same sad         
predicament4 ,thus the ,greenlanders    
believed that a wind could kill their   
most powerful god1 and that he would    
certainly die if he touched a dog4 ,when
 they heard of the ,christian ,god1     
they kept asking if he never died1 and  
being informed that he did not1  they   
were much surprised1 and said that he   
must be a very great god  indeed47#b7   
,in answer to the enquiries of ,colonel 
,dodge1 a ,north ,american  ,indian     
stated that the world was made by the   
,great ,spirit4 ,being asked  which     
,great ,spirit he meant1 the good one or
 the bad one1 8,oh1 neither of  them0   

replied he1 8the ,great ,spirit that    
made the world is dead long  ago4 ,he   
could not possibly have lived as long as
 this407#c7 ,a tribe in the  ,philippine
 ,islands told the ,spanish conquerors  
that the grave of the  ,creator was upon
 the top of ,mount ,cabunian47#d7       
,heitsi-eibib1 a god or  divine hero of 
the ,hottentots1 died several times and 
came to life again4  ,his graves are    
generally to be met with in narrow      
defiles between  mountains4 ,when the   
,hottentots pass one of them1 they throw
 a stone on it  for good luck1 sometimes
 muttering 8,give us plenty of          
cattle407#e7 ,the  grave of ,zeus1 the  
great god of ,greece1 was shewn to      
visitors in ,crete as  late as about the
 beginning of our era47#f7 ,the body of 
,dionysus was buried  at ,delphi beside 
the golden statue of ,apollo1 and his   
tomb bore the  inscription1 8,here lies 
,dionysus dead1 the son of ,semele407#g7
 ,according to  one account1 ,apollo    
himself was buried at ,delphi2 for      

,pythagoras is said  to have carved an  
inscription on his tomb1 setting forth  
how the god had  been killed by the     
python and buried under the tripod47#h7 
,the ancient god  ,cronus was buried in 
,sicily17#i7 and the graves of ,hermes1 
,aphrodite1 and  ,ares were shewn in    
,hermopolis1 ,cyprus1 and ,thrace47#aj7 
7,m#b7 ,the great gods of ,egypt        
themselves were not exempt from the     
common  lot4 ,they too grew old and     
died4 ,for like men they were composed  
of body  and soul1 and like men were    
subject to all the passions and         
infirmities of  the flesh4 ,their       
bodies1 it is true1 were fashioned of   
more ethereal  mould1 and lasted longer 
than ours1 but they could not hold out  
for ever  against the siege of time4    
,age converted their bones into silver1 
their  flesh into gold1 and their azure 
locks into lapis-lazuli4 ,when their    
time  came1 they passed away from the   
cheerful world of the living to reign as
  dead gods over dead men in the        

melancholy world beyond the grave4 ,even
  their souls1 like those of mankind1   
could only endure after death so long   
as their bodies held together2 and hence
 it was as needful to preserve the      
corpses of the gods as the corpses of   
common folk1 lest with the divine  body 
the divine spirit should also come to an
 untimely end4 ,at first their  remains 
were laid to rest under the desert sands
 of the mountains1 that  the dryness of 
the soil and the purity of the air might
 protect them from  putrefaction and    
decay4 ,hence one of the oldest titles  
of the ,egyptian  gods is 8they who are 
under the sands40 ,but when at a later  
time the  discovery of the art of       
embalming gave a new lease of life to   
the souls of  the dead by preserving    
their bodies for an indefinite time from
  corruption1 the deities were permitted
 to share the benefit of an  invention  
which held out to gods as well as to men
 a reasonable hope of  immortality4     
,every province then had the tomb and   

mummy of its dead god4  ,the mummy of   
,osiris was to be seen at ,mendes2      
,thinis boasted of the mummy  of        
,anhouri2 and ,heliopolis rejoiced in   
the possession of that of  ,toumou47#aa7
 ,but while their bodies lay swathed and
 bandaged here on earth  in the tomb1   
their souls1 if we may trust the        
,egyptian priests1 shone as  bright     
stars in the firmament4 ,the soul of    
,isis sparkled in ,sirius1 the  soul of 
,horus in ,orion1 and the soul of       
,typhon in the ,great ,bear47#ab7 ,but  
the death of the god did not involve the
 extinction of his sacred stock2  for he
 commonly had by his wife a son and     
heir1 who on the demise of his  divine  
parent succeeded to the full rank1      
power1 and honours of the  godhead47#ac7
 ,the high gods of ,babylon also1 though
 they appeared to their  worshippers    
only in dreams and visions1 were        
conceived to be human in  their bodily  
shape1 human in their passions1 and     
human in their fate2 for  like men they 

were born into the world1 and like men  
they loved and fought  and died47#ad7   
7,m#c7 ,one of the most famous stories  
of the death of a god is told by        
,plutarch4 ,it runs thus4 ,in the reign 
of the emperor ,tiberius a certain      
schoolmaster named ,epitherses was      
sailing from ,greece to ,italy4 ,the    
ship  in which he had taken his passage 
was a merchantman and there were many   
other passengers on board4 ,at evening1 
when they were off the ,echinadian      
,islands1 the wind died away1 and the   
vessel drifted close in to the island   
of ,paxos4 ,most of the passengers were 
awake and many were still drinking  wine
 after dinner1 when suddenly a voice    
hailed the ship from the island1        
calling upon ,thamus4 ,the crew and     
passengers were taken by surprise1 for  
though there was an ,egyptian pilot     
named ,thamus on board1 few knew him    
even by name4 ,twice the cry was        
repeated1 but ,thamus kept silence4     
,however1 at the third call he answered1

 and the voice from the shore1 now      
louder than ever1 said1 8,when you are  
come to ,palodes1 announce that the     
,great ,pan is dead40 ,astonishment fell
 upon all1 and they consulted whether   
it would be better to do the bidding of 
the voice or not4 ,at last ,thamus      
resolved that1 if the wind held1 he     
would pass the place in silence1 but  if
 it dropped when they were off ,palodes 
he would give the message4 ,well1  when 
they were come to ,palodes1 there was a 
great calm2 so ,thamus standing  in the 
stern and looking towards the land cried
 out1 as he had been  bidden1 8,the     
,great ,pan is dead40 ,the words had    
hardly passed his lips when  a loud     
sound of lamentation broke on their     
ears1 as if a multitude were  mourning4 
,this strange story1 vouched for by many
 on board1 soon got wind  at ,rome1 and 
,thamus was sent for and questioned by  
the emperor ,tiberius  himself1 who     
caused enquiries to be made about the   
dead god47#ae7 ,in modern  times1 also1 

the annunciation of the death of the    
,great ,pan has been much  discussed and
 various explanations of it have been   
suggested4 ,on the whole  the simplest  
and most natural would seem to be that  
the deity whose sad  end was thus       
mysteriously proclaimed and lamented was
 the ,syrian god  ,tammuz or ,adonis1   
whose death is known to have been       
annually bewailed by  his followers both
 in ,greece and in his native ,syria4   
,at ,athens the  solemnity fell at      
midsummer1 and there is no improbability
 in the view  that in a ,greek island a 
band of worshippers of ,tammuz should   
have been  celebrating the death of     
their god with the customary passionate 
demonstrations of sorrow at the very    
time when a ship lay becalmed off the   
shore1 and that in the stillness of the 
summer night the voices of  lamentation 
should have been wafted with startling  
distinctness across the  water and      
should have made on the minds of the    
listening passengers a deep  and lasting

 impression47#af7 ,however that may be1 
stories of the same kind  found currency
 in western ,asia down to the ,middle   
,ages4 ,an ,arab writer  relates that in
 the year #ajfc or #ajfd ,a4,d41 in the 
reign of the caliph  ,caiem1 a rumour   
went abroad through ,bagdad1 which soon 
spread all over the  province of ,irac1 
that some ,turks out hunting in the     
desert had seen a  black tent1 where    
many men and women were beating their   
faces and uttering  loud cries1 as it is
 the custom to do in the ,east when some
 one is dead4  ,and among the cries they
 distinguished these words1 8,the great 
,king of the  ,jinn is dead1 woe to this
 country60 ,in consequence of this a    
mysterious  threat was circulated from  
,armenia to ,chuzistan that every town  
which did  not lament the dead ,king of 
the ,jinn should utterly perish4 ,again1
 in the  year #abjc or #abjd ,a4,d4 a   
fatal disease1 which attacked the       
throat1 raged  in parts of ,mosul and   
,irac1 and it was divulged that a woman 

of the ,jinn  called ,umm ',uncd or     
8,mother of the ,grape-cluster0 had lost
 her son1 and  that all who did not     
lament for him would fall victims to the
 epidemic4 ,so  men and women sought to 
save themselves from death by assembling
 and  beating their faces1 while they   
cried out in a lamentable voice1 8,o    
mother  of the ,grape-cluster1 excuse   
us2 the ,grape-cluster is dead2 we knew 
it  not407#ag7            ,,chapter     
,,ii4 ,,the ,,killing ,,of ,,the        
,,divine ,,king4           #a4          
,preference for a ,violent ,death4      
7,m#d7 ,if the high gods1 who dwell     
remote from the fret and fever of this  
earthly life1 are yet believed to die at
 last1 it is not to be expected  that a 
god who lodges in a frail tabernacle of 
flesh should escape the  same fate1     
though we hear of ,african kings who    
have imagined themselves  immortal by   
virtue of their sorceries47#ah7 ,now    
primitive peoples1 as we  have          
seen17#ai7 sometimes believe that their 

safety and even that of the  world is   
bound up with the life of one of these  
god-men or human  incarnations of the   
divinity4 ,naturally1 therefore1 they   
take the utmost  care of his life1 out  
of a regard for their own4 ,but no      
amount of care and  precaution will     
prevent the man-god from growing old and
 feeble and at  last dying4 ,his        
worshippers have to lay their account   
with this sad  necessity and to meet it 
as best they can4 ,the danger is a      
formidable one2  for if the course of   
nature is dependent on the man-god's    
life1 what  catastrophes may not be     
expected from the gradual enfeeblement  
of his  powers and their final          
extinction in death8 ,there is only one 
way of  averting these dangers4 ,the    
man-god must be killed as soon as he    
shews  symptoms that his powers are     
beginning to fail1 and his soul must be 
transferred to a vigorous successor     
before it has been seriously impaired   
by the threatened decay4 ,the advantages

 of thus putting the man-god to  death  
instead of allowing him to die of old   
age and disease are1 to the  savage1    
obvious enough4 ,for if the man-god dies
 what we call a natural  death1 it      
means1 according to the savage1 that his
 soul has either  voluntarily departed  
from his body and refuses to return1 or 
more commonly  that it has been         
extracted1 or at least detained in its  
wanderings1 by a  demon or              
sorcerer47#bj7 ,in any of these cases   
the soul of the man-god is  lost to his 
worshippers2 and with it their          
prosperity is gone and their  very      
existence endangered4 ,even if they     
could arrange to catch the soul of  the 
dying god as it left his lips or his    
nostrils and so transfer it to a        
successor1 this would not effect their  
purpose2 for1 dying of disease1 his     
soul would necessarily leave his body in
 the last stage of weakness and         
exhaustion1 and so enfeebled it would   
continue to drag out a languid1  inert  

existence in any body to which it might 
be transferred4 ,whereas by  slaying him
 his worshippers could1 in the first    
place1 make sure of  catching his soul  
as it escaped and transferring it to a  
suitable  successor2 and1 in the second 
place1 by putting him to death before   
his  natural force was abated1 they     
would secure that the world should not  
fall  into decay with the decay of the  
man-god4 ,every purpose1 therefore1 was 
answered1 and all dangers averted by    
thus killing the man-god and            
transferring his soul1 while yet at its 
prime1 to a vigorous successor4         
7,m#e7 ,some of the reasons for         
preferring a violent death to the slow  
death  of old age or disease are        
obviously as applicable to common men as
 to the  man-god4 ,thus the ,mangaians  
think that 8the spirits of those who die
 a  natural death are excessively feeble
 and weak1 as their bodies were at      
dissolution2 whereas the spirits of     
those who are slain in battle are       

strong and vigorous1 their bodies not   
having been reduced by disease407#ba7   
,the ,barongo believe that in the world 
beyond the grave the spirits of  their  
dead ancestors appear with the exact    
form and lineaments which their  bodies 
exhibited at the moment of death2 the   
spirits are young or old  according as  
their bodies were young or old when they
 died2 there are baby  spirits who crawl
 about on all fours47#bb7 ,the ,lengua  
,indians of the ,gran  ,chaco are       
persuaded that the souls of the departed
 correspond exactly in  form and        
characteristics to the bodies which they
 quitted at death2 thus a  tall man is  
tall1 a short man is short1 and a       
deformed man is deformed in  the        
spirit-land1 and the disembodied soul of
 a child remains a child1 it  never     
develops into an adult4 ,hence they burn
 the body of a murderer and  scatter the
 ashes to the winds1 thinking that this 
treatment will prevent  his spirit from 
assuming human shape in the other       

world47#bc7 ,so1 too1 the  ,naga tribes 
of ,manipur hold that the ghost of a    
dead man is an exact image  of the      
deceased as he was at the moment of     
death1 with his scars1 tattoo  marks1   
mutilations1 and all the rest47#bd7 ,the
 ,baganda think that the  ghosts of men 
who were mutilated in life are mutilated
 in like manner  after death2 so to     
avoid that shame they will rather die   
with all their  limbs than lose one by  
amputation and live47#be7 ,hence1 men   
sometimes  prefer to kill themselves or 
to be killed before they grow feeble1 in
  order that in the future life their   
souls may start fresh and vigorous as   
they left their bodies1 instead of      
decrepit and worn out with age and      
disease4 ,thus in ,fiji1                
8self-immolation is by no means rare1   
and they  believe that as they leave    
this life1 so they will remain ever     
after4 ,this  forms a powerful motive to
 escape from decrepitude1 or from a     
crippled  condition1 by a voluntary     

death407#bf7 ,or1 as another observer of
 the  ,fijians puts it more fully1 8the 
custom of voluntary suicide on the part 
of the old men1 which is among their    
most extraordinary usages1 is also      
connected with their superstitions      
respecting a future life4 ,they believe 
that persons enter upon the delights of 
their elysium with the same  faculties1 
mental and physical1 that they possess  
at the hour of death1 in  short1 that   
the spiritual life commences where the  
corporeal existence  terminates4 ,with  
these views1 it is natural that they    
should desire to  pass through this     
change before their mental and bodily   
powers are so  enfeebled by age as to   
deprive them of their capacity for      
enjoyment4 ,to  this motive must be     
added the contempt which attaches to    
physical weakness  among a nation of    
warriors1 and the wrongs and insults    
which await those  who are no longer    
able to protect themselves4 ,when       
therefore a man finds  his strength     

declining with the advance of age1 and  
feels that he will  soon be unequal to  
discharge the duties of this life1 and  
to partake in  the pleasures of that    
which is to come1 he calls together his 
relations1  and tells them that he is   
now worn out and useless1 that he sees  
they are  all ashamed of him1 and that  
he has determined to be buried40 ,so on 
a day  appointed they used to meet and  
bury him alive47#bg7 ,in ,vat1 one of   
the  ,new ,hebrides1 the aged were      
buried alive at their own request4 ,it  
was  considered a disgrace to the family
 of an old chief if he was not buried   
alive47#bh7 ,of the ,kamants1 a ,jewish 
tribe in ,abyssinia1 it is reported     
that 8they never let a person die a     
natural death1 but that if any of  their
 relatives is nearly expiring1 the      
priest of the village is called to  cut 
his throat2 if this be omitted1 they    
believe that the departed soul  has not 
entered the mansions of the             
blessed407#bi7 ,the old ,greek          

philosopher ,heraclitus thought that the
 souls of those who die in battle  are  
purer than the souls of those who die of
 disease47#cj7    7,m#f7 ,among the     
,chiriguanos1 a tribe of ,south         
,american ,indians on the river         
,pilcomayo1 when a man was at the point 
of death his nearest relative used  to  
break his spine by a blow of an axe1 for
 they thought that to die a  natural    
death was the greatest misfortune that  
could befall a man47#ca7  ,whenever a   
,payagua ,indian of ,paraguay1 or a     
,guayana of south-eastern  ,brazil1 grew
 weary of life1 a feast was made1 and   
amid the revelry and  dancing the man   
was gummed and feathered with the       
plumage of many-coloured  birds4 ,a huge
 jar had been previously fixed in the   
ground to be ready for  him2 in this he 
was placed1 the mouth of the jar was    
covered with a heavy  lid of baked clay1
 the earth was heaped over it1 and thus 
8he went to his  doom more joyful and   
gladsome than to his first              

nuptials407#cb7 ,among the  ,koryaks of 
north-eastern ,asia1 when a man felt    
that his last hour was  come1           
superstition formerly required that he  
should either kill himself or  be killed
 by a friend1 in order that he might    
escape the ,evil ,one and  deliver      
himself up to the ,good ,god47#cc7      
,similarly among the ,chukchees of  the 
same region1 when a man's strength fails
 and he is tired of life1 he  requests  
his son or other near relation to       
despatch him1 indicating the  manner of 
death he prefers to die4 ,so1 on a day  
appointed1 his friends and  neighbours  
assemble1 and in their presence he is   
stabbed1 strangled1 or  otherwise       
disposed of according to his            
directions47#cd7 ,the turbulent         
,angamis are the most warlike and       
bloodthirsty of the wild head-hunting   
tribes in the valley of the             
,brahmapootra4 ,among them1 when a      
warrior dies  a natural death1 his      
nearest male relative takes a spear and 

wounds the  corpse by a blow on the     
head1 in order that the man may be      
received with  honour in the other world
 as one who has died in battle47#ce7    
,the heathen  ,norsemen believed that   
only those who fell fighting were       
received by ,odin  in ,valhalla2 hence  
it appears to have been customary to    
wound the dying  with a spear1 in order 
to secure their admission to the happy  
land4 ,the  custom may have been a      
mitigation of a still older practice of 
slaughtering the sick47#cf7 ,we know    
from ,procopius that among the ,heruli1 
a  ,teutonic tribe1 the sick and old    
were regularly slain at their own       
request  and then burned on a pyre47#cg7
 ,the ,wends used to kill their aged    
parents  and other kinsfolk1 and having 
killed them they boiled and ate their   
bodies2 and the old folks preferred to  
die thus rather than to drag out a      
weary life of weakness and              
decrepitude47#ch7           #b4 ,kings  
killed when their ,strength fails4      

7,m#g7 ,but it is with the death of the 
god-man--the divine king or             
priest--that we are here especially     
concerned4 ,the mystic kings of ,fire   
and  ,water in ,cambodia are not allowed
 to die a natural death4 ,hence when one
  of them is seriously ill and the      
elders think that he cannot recover1    
they  stab him to death47#ci7 ,the      
people of ,congo believed1 as we have   
seen17#dj7  that if their pontiff the   
,chitom were to die a natural death1 the
 world  would perish1 and the earth1    
which he alone sustained by his power   
and  merit1 would immediately be        
annihilated4 ,accordingly when he fell  
ill and  seemed likely to die1 the man  
who was destined to be his successor    
entered  the pontiff's house with a rope
 or a club and strangled or clubbed him 
to  death47#da7 ,a fuller account of    
this custom is given by an old ,italian 
writer as follows3 8,let us pass to the 
death of the magicians1 who often  die a
 violent death1 and that for the most   

part voluntarily4 ,i shall speak  only  
of the head of this crew1 from whom his 
followers take example4 ,he is  called  
,ganga ,chitome1 being reputed god of   
the earth4 ,the first-fruits of  all the
 crops are offered to him as his due1   
because they are thought to  be produced
 by his power1 and not by nature at the 
bidding of the ,most  ,high ,god4 ,this 
power he boasts he can impart to others1
 when and to whom  he pleases4 ,he      
asserts that his body cannot die a      
natural death1 and  therefore when he   
knows he is near the end of his days1   
whether it is  brought about by sickness
 or age1 or whether he is deluded by the
 demon1  he calls one of his disciples  
to whom he wishes to communicate his    
power1  in order that he may succeed    
him4 ,and having made him tie a noose to
 his  neck he commands him to strangle  
him1 or to knock him on the head with a 
great cudgel and kill him4 ,his disciple
 obeys and sends him a martyr to  the   
devil1 to suffer torments with ,lucifer 

in the flames for ever4 ,this  tragedy  
is enacted in public1 in order that his 
successor may be  manifested1 who hath  
the power of fertilising the earth1 the 
power having  been imparted to him by   
the deceased2 otherwise1 so they say1   
the earth  would remain barren1 and the 
world would perish4 ,oh too great       
foolishness  and palpable blindness of  
the gentiles1 to enlighten the eye of   
whose mind  there would be needed the   
very hand of ,christ whereby he opened  
the bodily  eyes of him that had been   
born blind6 ,i know that in my time one 
of these  magicians was cast into the   
sea1 another into a river1 a mother put 
to  death with her son1 and many more   
seized by our orders and banished407#db7
  ,the ,ethiopian kings of ,meroe were  
worshipped as gods2 but whenever the    
priests chose1 they sent a messenger to 
the king1 ordering him to die1 and      
alleging an oracle of the gods as their 
authority for the command4 ,this        
command the kings always obeyed down to 

the reign of ,ergamenes1 a  contemporary
 of ,ptolemy ,,ii41 ,king of ,egypt4    
,having received a ,greek  education    
which emancipated him from the          
superstitions of his countrymen1        
,ergamenes ventured to disregard the    
command of the priests1 and1 entering   
the ,golden ,temple with a body of      
soldiers1 put the priests to the        
sword47#dc7    7,m#h7 ,customs of the   
same sort appear to have prevailed in   
this region down  to modern times4 ,thus
 we are told that in ,fazoql1 a district
 in the valley  of the ,blue ,nile1 to  
the west of ,abyssinia1 it was          
customary1 as late as  the middle of the
 nineteenth century1 to hang a king who 
was no longer  beloved4 ,his relatives  
and ministers assembled round him1 and  
announced  that as he no longer pleased 
the men1 the women1 the asses1 the oxen1
 and  the fowls of the country1 it was  
better he should die4 ,once on a time1  
when a king was unwilling to take the   
hint1 his own wife and mother urged  him

 so strongly not to disgrace himself by 
disregarding the custom1 that  he       
submitted to his fate and was strung up 
in the usual way4 ,in some  tribes of   
,fazoql the king had to administer      
justice daily under a certain  tree4 ,if
 from sickness or any other cause he was
 unable to discharge this  duty for     
three whole days1 he was hanged on the  
tree in a noose1 which  contained two   
razors so arranged that when the noose  
was drawn tight by  the weight of the   
king's body they cut his throat47#dd7   
,at ,fazolglou an  annual festival1     
which partook of the nature of a        
,saturnalia1 was preceded  by a formal  
trial of the king in front of his house4
 ,the judges were the  chief men of the 
country4 ,the king sat on his royal     
stool during the  trial1 surrounded by  
armed men1 who were ready to carry out a
 sentence of  death4 ,a little way off a
 jackal and a dog were tied to a post4  
,the  conduct of the king during his    
year of office was discussed1 complaints

  were heard1 and if the verdict was    
unfavourable1 the king was executed and 
his successor chosen from among the     
members of his family4 ,but if the      
monarch was acquitted1 the people at    
once paid their homage to him afresh1   
and the dog or the jackal was killed in 
his stead4 ,this custom lasted down  to 
the year #ahcg or #ahch1 when king      
,yassin was thus condemned and          
executed47#de7 ,his nephew ,assusa was  
compelled under threats of death to     
succeed him in the office47#df7         
,afterwards it would seem that the death
 of  the dog was regularly accepted as a
 substitute for the death of the king4  
,at least this may be inferred from a   
later account of the ,fazoql practice1  
which runs thus3 8,the meaning of       
another of their customs is quite       
obscure4 ,at a certain time of the year 
they have a kind of carnival1 where     
every one does what he likes best4 ,four
 ministers of the king then bear  him on
 an anqareb out of his house to an open 

space of ground2 a dog is  fastened by a
 long cord to one of the feet of the    
anqareb4 ,the whole  population collects
 round the place1 streaming in on every 
side4 ,they then  throw darts and stones
 at the dog1 till he is killed1 after   
which the king  is again borne into his 
house407#dg7    7,m#i7 ,a custom of     
putting their divine kings to death at  
the first symptoms  of infirmity or old 
age prevailed until lately1 if indeed it
 is even now  extinct and not merely    
dormant1 among the ,shilluk of the      
,white ,nile1 and  in recent years it   
has been carefully investigated by ,dr4 
,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1  to whose researches
 ,i am indebted for the following       
detailed information  on the            
subject47#dh7 ,the ,shilluk are a tribe 
or nation who inhabit a long  narrow    
fringe of territory on the western bank 
of the ,white ,nile from ,kaka  in the  
north to ,lake ,no in the south1 as well
 as a strip on the eastern  bank of the 
river1 which stretches from ,fashoda to 

,taufikia and for some  thirty-five     
miles up the ,sobat ,river4 ,the country
 of the ,shilluk is almost  entirely in 
grass1 hence the principal wealth of the
 people consists in  their flocks and   
herds1 but they also grow a considerable
 quantity of the  species of millet     
which is known as durra4 ,but though the
 ,shilluk are  mainly a pastoral people1
 they are not nomadic1 but live in many 
settled  villages4 ,the tribe at present
 numbers about forty thousand souls1 and
 is  governed by a single king 7ret71   
whose residence is at ,fashoda4 ,his    
subjects take great care of him1 and    
hold him in much honour4 ,in the old    
days his word was law and he was not    
suffered to go forth to battle4 ,at  the
 present day he still keeps up          
considerable state and exercises much   
authority2 his decisions on all matters 
brought before him are readily  obeyed2 
and he never moves without a bodyguard  
of from twelve to twenty  men4 ,the     
reverence which the ,shilluk pay to     

their king appears to arise  chiefly    
from the conviction that he is a        
reincarnation of the spirit of          
,nyakang1 the semi-divine hero who      
founded the dynasty and settled the     
tribe in their present territory1 to    
which he is variously said to have      
conducted them either from the west or  
from the south4 ,tradition has          
preserved the pedigree of the kings from
 ,nyakang to the present day4 ,the      
number of kings recorded between        
,nyakang and the father of the reigning 
monarch is twenty1 distributed over     
twelve generations2 but ,dr4 ,seligmann 
is of opinion that many more must have  
reigned1 and that the genealogy of  the 
first six or seven kings1 as given to   
him1 has been much abbreviated4  ,there 
seems to be no reason to doubt the      
historical character of all of  them1   
though myths have gathered like clouds  
round the persons of ,nyakang  and his  
immediate successors4 ,the ,shilluk     
about ,kodok 7,fashoda7 think of        

,nyakang as having been a man in        
appearance and physical qualities1      
though  unlike his royal descendants of 
more recent times he did not die but    
simply disappeared4 ,his holiness is    
manifested especially by his relation   
to ,jok1 the great god of the ,shilluk1 
who created man and is responsible  for 
the order of nature4 ,jok is formless   
and invisible and like the air  he is   
everywhere at once4 ,he is far above    
,nyakang and men alike1 but he is  not  
worshipped directly1 and it is only     
through the intercession of  ,nyakang1  
whose favour the ,shilluk secure by     
means of sacrifices1 that ,jok  can be  
induced to send the needed rain for the 
cattle and the crops47#di7  ,in his     
character of rain-giver ,nyakang is the 
great benefactor of the  ,shilluk4      
,their country1 baked by the burning    
heat of the tropical sun1  depends      
entirely for its fertility on the waters
 of heaven1 for the people  do not      
resort to artificial irrigation4 ,when  

the rain falls1 then the  grass sprouts1
 the millet grows1 the cattle thrive1   
and the people have  food to eat4       
,drought brings famine and death in its 
train47#ej7 ,nyakang is  said not only  
to have brought the ,shilluk into their 
present land1 but to  have made them    
into a nation of warriors1 divided the  
country among them1  regulated marriage1
 and made the laws47#ea7 ,the religion  
of the ,shilluk at  the present time    
consists mainly of the worship paid to  
this semi-divine  hero1 the traditionary
 ancestor of their kings4 ,there seems  
to be no  reason to doubt that the      
traditions concerning him are           
substantially  correct2 in all          
probability he was simply a man whom the
 superstition of  his fellows in his own
 and subsequent ages has raised to the  
rank of a  deity47#eb7 ,no less than ten
 shrines are dedicated to his worship2  
the  three most famous are at ,fashoda1 
,akurwa1 and ,fenikang4 ,they consist of
  one or more huts enclosed by a fence2 

generally there are several huts  within
 the enclosure1 one or more of them     
being occupied by the guardians  of the 
shrine4 ,these guardians are old men1   
who not only keep the hallowed  spot    
scrupulously clean1 but also act as     
priests1 killing the sacrificial        
victims which are brought to the shrine1
 sharing their flesh1 and taking  the   
skins for themselves4 ,all the shrines  
of ,nyakang are called graves of        
,nyakang 7kengo ,nyakang71 though it is 
well known that nobody is buried        
there47#ec7 ,sacred spears are kept in  
all of them and are used to slaughter   
the victims offered in sacrifice at the 
shrines4 ,the originals of these  spears
 are said to have belonged to ,nyakang  
and his companions1 but they  have      
disappeared and been replaced by others4
    7,m#aj7 ,two great ceremonies are   
annually performed at the shrines of    
,nyakang3 one of them is intended to    
ensure the fall of rain1 the other is   
celebrated at harvest4 ,at the          

rain-making ceremony1 which is held     
before  the rains at the beginning of   
the month alabor1 a bullock is slain    
with  a sacred spear before the door of 
the shrine1 while the king stands by    
praying in a loud voice to ,nyakang to  
send down the refreshing showers on  the
 thirsty land4 ,as much of the blood of 
the victim as possible is  collected in 
a gourd and thrown into the river1      
perhaps as a rain-charm4  ,this         
intention of the sacrifice comes out    
more plainly in a form of the  ritual   
which is said to be observed at ,ashop4 
,there the sacrificial  bullock is      
speared high up in the flank1 so that   
the wound is not  immediately fatal4    
,then the wounded animal is allowed and 
indeed  encouraged to walk to and from  
the river before it sinks down and dies4
 ,in  the blood that streams from its   
side on the ground the people may see a 
symbol of the looked-for rain47#ed7     
,care is taken not to break the bones of
  the animal1 and they1 like the blood1 

are thrown into the river4 ,at the      
annual rain-making ceremony a cow is    
also dedicated to ,nyakang3 it is not   
killed but added to the sacred herd of  
the shrine4 ,the other great annual     
ceremony observed at the shrines of     
,nyakang falls at harvest4 ,when the    
millet has been reaped1 every one brings
 a portion of the grain to a  shrine of 
,nyakang1 where it is ground into flour1
 which is made into  porridge with water
 fetched from the river4 ,then some of  
the porridge is  poured out on the      
threshold of the hut which the spirit of
 ,nyakang is  supposed to inhabit2 some 
of it is smeared on the outer walls of  
the  building2 and some of it is emptied
 out on the ground outside4 ,even before
  harvest it is customary to bring some 
of the ripening grain from the  fields  
and to thrust it into the thatch of the 
huts in the shrines1 no  doubt in order 
to secure the blessing of ,nyakang on   
the crops4 ,sacrifices  are also offered
 at these shrines for the benefit of    

sick people4 ,a  sufferer will bring or 
send a sheep to the nearest sanctuary1  
where the  guardians will slaughter the 
animal with a sacred spear and pray for 
the  patient's recovery4    7,m#aa7 ,it 
is a fundamental article of the ,shilluk
 creed that the spirit of  the divine or
 semi-divine ,nyakang is incarnate in   
the reigning king1 who  is accordingly  
himself invested to some extent with the
 character of a  divinity4 ,but while   
the ,shilluk hold their kings in high1  
indeed religious  reverence and take    
every precaution against their          
accidental death1  nevertheless they    
cherish 8the conviction that the king   
must not be  allowed to become ill or   
senile1 lest with his diminishing vigour
 the  cattle should sicken and fail to  
bear their increase1 the crops should   
rot  in the fields1 and man1 stricken   
with disease1 should die in ever        
increasing numbers407#ee7 ,to prevent   
these calamities it used to be the      
regular custom with the ,shilluk to put 

the king to death whenever he  shewed   
signs of ill-health or failing strength4
 ,one of the fatal symptoms  of decay   
was taken to be an incapacity to satisfy
 the sexual passions of  his wives1 of  
whom he has very many1 distributed in a 
large number of  houses at ,fashoda4    
,when this ominous weakness manifested  
itself1 the wives  reported it to the   
chiefs1 who are popularly said to have  
intimated to the  king his doom by      
spreading a white cloth over his face   
and knees as he lay  slumbering in the  
heat of the sultry afternoon4 ,execution
 soon followed  the sentence of death4  
,a hut was specially built for the      
occasion3 the  king was led into it and 
lay down with his head resting on the   
lap of a  nubile virgin3 the door of the
 hut was then walled up2 and the couple 
were  left without food1 water1 or fire 
to die of hunger and suffocation4 ,this 
was the old custom1 but it was abolished
 some five generations ago on  account  
of the excessive sufferings of one of   

the kings who perished in  this way4 ,he
 survived his companion for some days1  
and in the interval was  so distressed  
by the stench of her putrefying body    
that he shouted to the  people1 whom he 
could hear moving outside1 never again  
to let a king die  in this prolonged and
 exquisite agony4 ,after a time his     
cries died away  into silence2 death had
 released him from his sufferings2 but  
since then  the ,shilluk have adopted a 
quicker and more merciful mode of       
executing  their kings4 ,what the exact 
form of execution has been in later     
times ,dr4  ,seligmann found it very    
difficult to ascertain1 though with     
regard to the  fact of the execution he 
tells us that there is not the least    
doubt4 ,it is  said that the chiefs     
announce his fate to the king1 and that 
afterwards he  is strangled in a hut    
which has been specially built for the  
occasion4    7,m#ab7 ,from ,dr4         
,seligmann's enquiries it appears that  
not only was the  ,shilluk king liable  

to be killed with due ceremony at the   
first symptoms  of incipient decay1 but 
even while he was yet in the prime of   
health and  strength he might be        
attacked at any time by a rival and have
 to defend  his crown in a combat to the
 death4 ,according to the common        
,shilluk  tradition any son of a king   
had the right thus to fight the king in 
possession and1 if he succeeded in      
killing him1 to reign in his stead4 ,as 
every king had a large harem and many   
sons1 the number of possible  candidates
 for the throne at any time may well    
have been not  inconsiderable1 and the  
reigning monarch must have carried his  
life in his  hand4 ,but the attack on   
him could only take place with any      
prospect of  success at night2 for      
during the day the king surrounded      
himself with his  friends and           
bodyguards1 and an aspirant to the      
throne could hardly hope to  cut his way
 through them and strike home4 ,it was  
otherwise at night4 ,for  then the      

guards were dismissed and the king was  
alone in his enclosure  with his        
favourite wives1 and there was no man   
near to defend him except a  few        
herdsmen1 whose huts stood a little way 
off4 ,the hours of darkness  were       
therefore the season of peril for the   
king4 ,it is said that he used  to pass 
them in constant watchfulness1 prowling 
round his huts fully  armed1 peering    
into the blackest shadows1 or himself   
standing silent and  alert1 like a      
sentinel on duty1 in some dark corner4  
,when at last his  rival appeared1 the  
fight would take place in grim silence1 
broken only by  the clash of spears and 
shields1 for it was a point of honour   
with the  king not to call the herdsmen 
to his assistance47#ef7    ,when the    
king did not perish in single combat1   
but was put to death on the  approach of
 sickness or old age1 it became         
necessary to find a successor  for him4 
,apparently the successor was chosen by 
the most powerful chiefs  from among the

 princes 7niret71 the sons either of the
 late king or of  one of his            
predecessors4 ,details as to the mode of
 election are lacking4  ,so far as ,dr4 
,seligmann could ascertain1 the kings   
elect shewed no  reluctance to accept   
the fatal sovereignty2 indeed he was    
told a story of  a man who clamoured to 
be made king for only one day1 saying   
that he was  perfectly ready to be      
killed after that4 ,the age at which the
 king was  killed would seem to have    
commonly been between forty and         
fifty47#eg7 ,to  the improvident and    
unimaginative savage the prospect of    
being put to  death at the end of a set 
time1 whether long or short1 has        
probably few  terrors2 and if it has    
any1 we may suspect that they are       
altogether  outweighed in his mind by   
the opportunities for immediate         
enjoyment of all  kinds which a kingdom 
affords to his unbridled appetites and  
passions4    7,m#ac7 ,an important part 
of the solemnities attending the        

accession of a  ,shilluk king appears to
 be intended to convey to the new       
monarch the  divine spirit of ,nyakang1 
which has been transmitted from the     
founder of  the dynasty to all his      
successors on the throne4 ,for this     
purpose a sacred  four-legged stool and 
a mysterious object which bears the name
 of ,nyakang  himself are brought with  
much solemnity from the shrine of       
,nyakang at  ,akurwa to the small       
village of ,kwom near ,fashoda1 where   
the king elect and  the chiefs await    
their arrival4 ,the thing called        
,nyakang is said to be of  cylindrical  
shape1 some two or three feet long by   
six inches broad4 ,the  chief of ,akurwa
 informed ,dr4 ,seligmann that the      
object in question is a  rude wooden    
figure of a man1 which was fashioned    
long ago at the command  of ,nyakang in 
person4 ,we may suppose that it         
represents the divine king  himself and 
that it is1 or was formerly1 supposed to
 house his spirit1  though the chief of 

,akurwa denied to ,dr4 ,seligmann that  
it does so now4 ,be  that as it may1 the
 object plays a prominent part at the   
installation of a  new king4 ,when the  
men of ,akurwa arrive at ,kwom with the 
sacred stool and  the image of ,nyakang1
 as we may call it1 they engage in a    
sham fight with  the men who are waiting
 for them with the king elect4 ,the     
weapons used on  both sides are simply  
stalks of millet4 ,being victorious in  
the mock  combat1 the men of ,akurwa    
escort the king to ,fashoda1 and some of
 them  enter the shrine of ,nyakang with
 the stool4 ,after a short time they    
bring  the stool forth again and set it 
on the ground outside of the sacred     
enclosure4 ,then the image of ,nyakang  
is placed on the stool2 the king  elect 
holds one leg of the stool and an       
important chief holds another4 ,the     
king is surrounded by a crowd of princes
 and nobles1 and near him stand  two of 
his paternal aunts and two of his       
sisters4 ,after that a bullock is       

killed and its flesh eaten by the men of
 certain families called ororo1  who are
 said to be descended from the third of 
the ,shilluk kings4 ,then the  ,akurwa  
men carry the image of ,nyakang into the
 shrine1 and the ororo men  place the   
king elect on the sacred stool1 where he
 remains seated for some  time1         
apparently till sunset4 ,when he rises1 
the ,akurwa men carry the  stool back   
into the shrine1 and the king is        
escorted to three new huts1  where he   
stays in seclusion for three days4 ,on  
the fourth night he is  conducted       
quietly1 almost stealthily1 to his royal
 residence at ,fashoda1  and next day he
 shews himself publicly to his subjects4
 ,the three new huts  in which he spent 
the days of his seclusion are then      
broken up and their  fragments cast into
 the river4 ,the installation of a new  
king generally  takes place about the   
middle of the dry season2 and it is said
 that the  men of ,akurwa tarry at      
,fashoda with the image of ,nyakang till

 about the  beginning of the rains4     
,before they leave ,fashoda they        
sacrifice a  bullock1 and at every waddy
 or bed of a stream that they cross they
 kill a  sheep4    7,m#ad7 ,like        
,nyakang himself1 their founder1 each of
 the ,shilluk kings after  death is     
worshipped at a shrine1 which is erected
 over his grave1 and the  grave of a    
king is always in the village where he  
was born47#eh7 ,the  tomb-shrine of a   
king resembles the shrine of ,nyakang1  
consisting of a few  huts enclosed by a 
fence2 one of the huts is built over the
 king's grave1  the others are occupied 
by the guardians of the shrine4 ,indeed 
the shrines  of ,nyakang and the shrines
 of the kings are scarcely to be        
distinguished  from each other1 and the 
religious rituals observed at all of    
them are  identical in form and vary    
only in matters of detail1 the          
variations being  due apparently to the 
far greater sanctity attributed to the  
shrines of  ,nyakang4 ,the grave-shrines

 of the kings are tended by certain old 
men or  women1 who correspond to the    
guardians of the shrines of ,nyakang4   
,they are  usually widows or old        
men-servants of the deceased king1 and  
when they die  they are succeeded in    
their office by their descendants4      
,moreover1 cattle  are dedicated to the 
grave-shrines of the kings and          
sacrifices are offered  at them just as 
at the shrines of ,nyakang4 ,thus when  
the millet crop  threatens to fail or a 
murrain to break out among the cattle1  
either  ,nyakang himself or one of his  
successors on the throne will appear to 
somebody in a dream and demand a        
sacrifice4 ,the dream is reported to the
  king1 who thereupon at once sends a   
cow and a bullock to one or more of  the
 shrines of ,nyakang1 if it was he who  
appeared in the vision1 or to the       
grave-shrine of the particular king whom
 the dreamer saw in his dream4 ,the     
bullock is then sacrificed and the cow  
added to the sacred herd belonging  to  

the shrine4 ,further1 the harvest       
ceremony which is performed at the      
shrines of ,nyakang is usually1 though  
not necessarily1 performed also at  the 
grave-shrines of the kings2 and1 lastly1
 sick folk send animals to be           
sacrificed as offerings on their behalf 
at the shrines of the kings just  as    
they send them to the shrines of        
,nyakang4    7,m#ae7 ,sick people have1 
indeed1 a special reason for sacrificing
 to the  spirits of the dead kings in   
the hope of recovery1 inasmuch as one of
 the  commonest causes of sickness1     
according to the ,shilluk1 is the       
entrance of  one of these royal spirits 
into the body of the sufferer1 whose    
first  care1 therefore1 is to rid       
himself as quickly as possible of his   
august  but unwelcome guest4            
,apparently1 however1 it is only the    
souls of the  early kings who manifest  
themselves in this disagreeable fashion4
 ,dr4  ,seligmann met with a woman1 for 
example1 who had been ill and who       

attributed her illness to the spirit of 
,dag1 the second of the ,shilluk  kings1
 which had taken possession of her body4
 ,but a sacrifice of two  sheep had     
induced the spirit to quit her1 and she 
wore anklets of beads1  with pieces of  
the ears of the sheep strung on them1   
which she thought  would effectually    
guard her against the danger of being   
again possessed by  the soul of the dead
 king4 ,nor is it only in sickness that 
the souls of  dead kings are thought to 
take possession of the bodies of the    
living4  ,certain men and women1 who    
bear the name of ajuago1 are believed to
 be  permanently possessed by the spirit
 of one or other of the early kings1    
and in virtue of this inspiration they  
profess to heal the sick and do a  brisk
 trade in amulets4 ,the first symptom of
 possession may take the form  of       
illness or of a dream from which the    
sleeper awakes trembling and  agitated4 
,a long and complicated ceremony follows
 to abate the extreme  force of the     

spiritual manifestations in the new     
medium1 for were these to  continue in  
their first intensity he would not dare 
to approach his women4  ,but whichever  
of the dead kings may manifest himself  
to the living1  whether in dreams or in 
the form of bodily possession1 his      
spirit is  deemed1 at least by many of  
the ,shilluk1 to be identical with that 
of  ,nyakang2 they do not clearly       
distinguish1 if indeed they distinguish 
at  all1 between the divine spirit of   
the founder of the dynasty and its later
  manifestations in all his royal       
successors4    7,m#af7 ,in general the  
principal element in the religion of the
 ,shilluk  would seem to be the worship 
which they pay to their sacred or divine
  kings1 whether dead or alive4 ,these  
are believed to be animated by a  single
 divine spirit1 which has been          
transmitted from the semi-mythical1  but
 probably in substance historical1      
founder of the dynasty through all  his 
successors to the present day4 ,yet the 

divine spirit1 as ,dr4 ,seligmann       
justly observes1 is clearly not thought 
of as congenital in the members of  the 
royal house2 it is only conveyed to each
 king on his accession by  means of the 
mysterious object called ,nyakang1 in   
which1 as ,dr4 ,seligmann  with great   
probability conjectures1 the holy spirit
 of ,nyakang may be  supposed to reside4
 ,hence1 regarding their kings as       
incarnate divinities  on whom the       
welfare of men1 of cattle1 and of the   
corn implicitly depends1  the ,shilluk  
naturally pay them the greatest respect 
and take every care of  them2 and       
however strange it may seem to us1 their
 custom of putting the  divine king to  
death as soon as he shews signs of      
ill-health or failing  strength springs 
directly from their profound veneration 
for him and from  their anxiety to      
preserve him1 or rather the divine      
spirit by which he is  animated1 in the 
most perfect state of efficiency3 nay1  
we may go further  and say that their   

practice of regicide is the best proof  
they can give of  the high regard in    
which they hold their kings4 ,for they  
believe1 as we  have seen1 that the     
king's life or spirit is so             
sympathetically bound up  with the      
prosperity of the whole country1 that if
 he fell ill or grew  senile the cattle 
would sicken and cease to multiply1 the 
crops would rot  in the fields1 and men 
would perish of widespread disease4     
,hence1 in their  opinion1 the only way 
of averting these calamities is to put  
the king to  death while he is still    
hale and hearty1 in order that the      
divine spirit  which he has inherited   
from his predecessors may be transmitted
 in turn by  him to his successor while 
it is still in full vigour and has not  
yet been  impaired by the weakness of   
disease and old age4 ,in this connexion 
the  particular symptom which is        
commonly said to seal the king's        
death-warrant  is highly significant2   
when he can no longer satisfy the       

passions of his  numerous wives1 in     
other words1 when he has ceased1 whether
 partially or  wholly1 to be able to    
reproduce his kind1 it is time for him  
to die and to  make room for a more     
vigorous successor4 ,taken along with   
the other  reasons which are alleged for
 putting the king to death1 this one    
suggests  that the fertility of men1 of 
cattle1 and of the crops is believed to 
depend sympathetically on the generative
 power of the king1 so that the         
complete failure of that power in him   
would involve a corresponding  failure  
in men1 animals1 and plants1 and would  
thereby entail at no  distant date the  
entire extinction of all life1 whether  
human1 animal1 or  vegetable4 ,no       
wonder1 that with such a danger before  
their eyes the  ,shilluk should be most 
careful not to let the king die what we 
should call  a natural death of sickness
 or old age4 ,it is characteristic of   
their  attitude towards the death of the
 kings that they refrain from speaking  

of  it as death3 they do not say that a 
king has died but simply that he has    
8gone away0 like his divine ancestors   
,nyakang and ,dag1 the two first kings  
of the dynasty1 both of whom are        
reported not to have died but to have   
disappeared4 ,the similar legends of the
 mysterious disappearance of early      
kings in other lands1 for example at    
,rome and in ,uganda17#ei7 may well     
point to a similar custom of putting    
them to death for the purpose of        
preserving their life4    7,m#ag7 ,on   
the whole the theory and practice of the
 divine kings of the  ,shilluk          
correspond very nearly to the theory and
 practice of the priests  of ,nemi1 the 
,kings of the ,wood1 if my view of the  
latter is correct47#fj7  ,in both we see
 a series of divine kings on whose life 
the fertility of  men1 of cattle1 and of
 vegetation is believed to depend1 and  
who are put  to death1 whether in single
 combat or otherwise1 in order that     
their  divine spirit may be transmitted 

to their successors in full vigour1     
uncontaminated by the weakness and decay
 of sickness or old age1 because  any   
such degeneration on the part of the    
king would1 in the opinion of his       
worshippers1 entail a corresponding     
degeneration on mankind1 on cattle1  and
 on the crops4 ,some points in this     
explanation of the custom of putting    
divine kings to death1 particularly the 
method of transmitting their  divine    
souls to their successors1 will be dealt
 with more fully in the  sequel4        
,meantime we pass to other examples of  
the general practice4    7,m#ah7 ,the   
,dinka are a congeries of independent   
tribes in the valley of the  ,white     
,nile1 whose territory1 lying mostly on 
the eastern bank of the river  and      
stretching from the sixth to the twelfth
 degree of ,north ,latitude1 has  been  
estimated to comprise between sixty and 
seventy thousand square  miles4 ,they   
are a tall long-legged people rather    
slender than fat1 with  curly hair and a

 complexion of the deepest black4       
,though ill-fed1 they are  strong and   
healthy and in general reach a great    
age4 ,the nation embraces a  number of  
independent tribes1 and each tribe is   
mainly composed of the  owners of       
cattle2 for the ,dinka are essentially a
 pastoral people1  passionately devoted 
to the care of their numerous herds of  
oxen1 though  they also keep sheep and  
goats1 and the women cultivate small    
quantities  of millet 7durra7 and       
sesame4 ,the tribes have no political   
union4 ,each  village forms a separate  
community1 pasturing its herds together 
in the  same grass-land4 ,with the      
change of the seasons the people migrate
 with  their flocks and herds to and    
from the banks of the ,nile4 ,in summer1
 when  the plains near the great river  
are converted into swamps and covered   
with  clouds of mosquitoes1 the herdsmen
 and their families drive their beasts  
to the higher land of the interior1     
where the animals find firm ground1     

abundant fodder1 and pools of water at  
which to slake their thirst in the      
fervour of the noonday heat4 ,here in   
the clearings of the forest the         
community takes up its abode1 each      
family dwelling by itself in one or     
more conical huts enclosed by a strong  
fence of stakes and thorn-bushes4  ,it  
is in the patches of open ground about  
these dwellings that the women  grow    
their scanty crops of millet and sesame4
 ,the mode of tillage is rude4  ,the    
stumps of the trees which have been     
felled are left standing to a  height of
 several feet2 the ground is hacked by  
the help of a tool between  a hoe and a 
spade1 and the weeds are uprooted with  
the hand4 ,such as it  is1 the crop is  
exposed to the ravages of apes and      
elephants by night and  of birds by day4
 ,the hungry blacks do not always wait  
till the corn is  ripe1 but eat much of 
it while the ears are still green4 ,the 
cattle are  kept in separate parks      
7murahs7 away from the villages4 ,it is 

in the  season of the summer rains that 
the ,dinka are most happy and           
prosperous4  ,then the cattle find sweet
 grass1 plentiful water1 coolness and   
shade in  the forest2 then the people   
subsist in comfort on the milk of their 
flocks  and herds1 supplementing it with
 the millet which they reap and the wild
  fruits which they gather in the       
forest2 then they brew the native beer1 
then they marry and dance by night under
 the bright moon of the serene  tropical
 sky4 ,but in autumn a great change     
passes over the life of the  community4 
,when ,october has come1 the rains are  
over1 the grass of the  pastures is     
eaten down or withered1 the pools are   
dry2 thirst compels the  whole village1 
with its lowing herds and bleating      
flocks1 to migrate to  the neighbourhood
 of the river4 ,now begins a time of    
privation and  suffering4 ,there is no  
grass for the cattle save in some marshy
 spots1  where the herdsman must fight  
his rivals in order to win a meagre     

supply  of fodder for his starveling    
beasts4 ,there is no milk for the       
people1 no  fruits on the trees1 except 
a bitter sort of acorns1 from which a   
miserable flour is ground to stay the   
pangs of hunger4 ,the lean and  famished
 natives are driven to fish in the river
 for the tubers of  water-lilies1 to    
grub in the earth for roots1 to boil the
 leaves of trees1  and as a last        
resource to drink the blood drawn from  
the necks of their  wretched cattle4    
,the gaunt appearance of the people at  
this season fills  the beholder with    
horror4 ,the herds are decimated by     
famine1 but even more  beasts perish by 
dysentery and other diseases when the   
first rains cause  the fresh grass to   
sprout47#fa7    7,m#ai7 ,it is no wonder
 that the rain1 on which the ,dinka are 
so manifestly  dependent for their      
subsistence1 should play a great part in
 their  religion and superstition4 ,they
 worship a supreme being whose name of  
,dengdit means literally ,great         

,rain47#fb7 ,it was he who created the  
world  and established the present order
 of things1 and it is he who sends down 
the rain from the 8rain-place10 his home
 in the upper regions of the air4  ,but 
according to the ,niel ,dinka this great
 being was once incarnate in  human     
form4 ,born of a woman1 who descended   
from the sky1 he became the  ancestor of
 a clan which has the rain for its      
totem2 for the recent  researches of    
,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann have proved that
 every ,dinka tribe is  divided into a  
number of clans1 each of which reveres  
as its totem a  species of animals or   
plants or other natural objects1 such as
 rain or  fire4 ,animal totems seem to  
be the commonest2 amongst them are the  
lion1  the elephant1 the crocodile1 the 
hippopotamus1 the fox1 the hyaena1 and a
  species of small birds called amur1   
clouds of which infest the  cornfields  
and do great damage to the crops4 ,each 
clan speaks of its  totemic animal or   
plant as its ancestor and refrains from 

injuring and  eating it4 ,men of the    
,crocodile clan1 for example1 call      
themselves  8,brothers of the           
,crocodile10 and will neither kill nor  
eat the animal2  indeed they will not   
even eat out of any vessel which has    
held crocodile  flesh4 ,and as they do  
not injure crocodiles1 so they imagine  
that their  crocodile kinsfolk will not 
injure them2 hence men of this clan swim
  freely in the river1 even by night1   
without fear of being attacked by the   
dangerous reptiles4 ,and when the totem 
is a carnivorous animal1 members of  the
 clan may propitiate it by killing sheep
 and throwing out the flesh to  be      
devoured by their animal brethren either
 on the outskirts of the  village or in 
the river4 ,members of the ,small ,bird 
7amur7 clan perform  ceremonies to      
prevent the birds from injuring the     
crops4 ,the relationship  between a clan
 and its animal ancestor or totem is    
commonly explained by a  legend that in 
the beginning an ancestress gave birth  

to twins1 one of  whom was the totemic  
animal and the other the human ancestor4
 ,like most  totemic clans1 the clans of
 the ,dinka are exogamous1 that is1 no  
man may  marry a woman of his own clan4 
,the descent of the clans is in the     
paternal  line2 in other words1 every   
man and woman belongs to his or her     
father's  clan1 not to that of his or   
her mother4 ,but the ,rain clan of the  
,niel  ,dinka has for its ancestor1 as  
we have seen1 the supreme god himself1  
who  deigned to be born of a woman and  
to live for a long time among men1      
ruling over them1 till at last he grew  
very old and disappeared  appropriately1
 like ,romulus1 in a great storm of     
rain4 ,shrines erected in  his honour   
appear to be scattered all over the     
,dinka country and offerings  are made  
at them4    7,m#bj7 ,perhaps without    
being unduly rash we may conjecture that
 the great  god of the ,dinka1 who gives
 them the rain1 was indeed1 what        
tradition  represents him as having     

been1 a man among men1 in fact a human  
rain-maker1 whom at his death the       
superstition of his fellows promoted to 
the rank of a deity above the clouds4   
,be that as it may1 the human           
rain-maker 7bain7 is a very important   
personage among the ,dinka to this  day2
 indeed the men in authority whom       
travellers dub chiefs or sheikhs are  in
 fact the actual or potential           
rain-makers of the tribe or             
community47#fc7  ,each of them is       
believed to be animated by the spirit of
 a great  rain-maker1 which has come    
down to him through a succession of     
rain-makers2 and in virtue of this      
inspiration a successful rain-maker     
enjoys very great power and is consulted
 on all important matters4 ,for         
example1 in the ,bor tribe of ,dinka at 
the present time there is an old but    
active rain-maker named ,biyordit1 who  
is reputed to have immanent in him a    
great and powerful spirit called        
,lerpiu1 and by reason of this          

reputation  he exercises immense        
influence over all the ,dinka of the    
,bor and ,tain  tribes4 ,while the      
mighty spirit ,lerpiu is supposed to be 
embodied in the  rain-maker1 it is also 
thought to inhabit a certain hut which  
serves as a  shrine4 ,in front of the   
hut stands a post to which are fastened 
the horns  of many bullocks that have   
been sacrificed to ,lerpiu2 and in the  
hut is  kept a very sacred spear which  
bears the name of ,lerpiu and is said to
  have fallen from heaven six           
generations ago4 ,as fallen stars are   
also  called ,lerpiu1 we may suspect    
that an intimate connexion is supposed  
to  exist between meteorites and the    
spirit which animates the rain-maker2   
nor  would such a connexion seem        
unnatural to the savage1 who observes   
that  meteorites and rain alike descend 
from the sky4 ,in spring1 about the     
month  of ,april1 when the new moon is a
 few days old1 a sacrifice of bullocks  
is  offered to ,lerpiu for the purpose  

of inducing him to move ,dengdit1 the   
great heavenly rain-maker1 to send down 
rain on the parched and thirsty  earth4 
,two bullocks are led twice round the   
shrine and afterwards tied by  the      
rain-maker to the post in front of it4  
,then the drums beat and the  people1   
old and young1 men and women1 dance     
round the shrine and sing1  while the   
beasts are being sacrificed1 8,lerpiu1  
our ancestor1 we have  brought you a    
sacrifice4 ,be pleased to cause rain to 
fall40 ,the blood of  the bullocks is   
collected in a gourd1 boiled in a pot on
 the fire1 and  eaten by the old and    
important people of the clan4 ,the horns
 of the  animals are attached to the    
post in front of the shrine4    7,m#ba7 
,in spite1 or rather in virtue1 of the  
high honour in which he is  held1 no    
,dinka rain-maker is allowed to die a   
natural death of sickness or  old age2  
for the ,dinka believe that if such an  
untoward event were to  happen1 the     
tribe would suffer from disease and     

famine1 and the herds  would not yield  
their increase4 ,so when a rain-maker   
feels that he is  growing old and       
infirm1 he tells his children that he   
wishes to die4 ,among  the ,agar ,dinka 
a large grave is dug and the rain-maker 
lies down in it on  his right side with 
his head resting on a skin4 ,he is      
surrounded by his  friends and          
relatives1 including his younger        
children2 but his elder  children are   
not allowed to approach the grave lest  
in their grief and  despair they should 
do themselves a bodily injury4 ,for many
 hours1  generally for more than a day1 
the rain-maker lies without eating or   
drinking4 ,from time to time he speaks  
to the people1 recalling the past       
history of the tribe1 reminding them how
 he has ruled and advised them1  and    
instructing them how they are to act in 
the future4 ,then1 when he has          
concluded his admonition1 he tells them 
that it is finished and bids them  cover
 him up4 ,so the earth is thrown down on

 him as he lies in the grave1  and he   
soon dies of suffocation4 ,such1 with   
minor variations1 appears to  be the    
regular end of the honourable career of 
a rain-maker in all the  ,dinka tribes4 
,the ,khor-,adar ,dinka told ,dr4       
,seligmann that when they have  dug the 
grave for their rain-maker they strangle
 him in his house4 ,the  father and     
paternal uncle of one of ,dr4           
,seligmann's informants had both  been  
rain-makers and both had been killed in 
the most regular and orthodox  fashion4 
,even if a rain-maker is quite young he 
will be put to death  should he seem    
likely to perish of disease4 ,further1  
every precaution is  taken to prevent a 
rain-maker from dying an accidental     
death1 for such an  end1 though not     
nearly so serious a matter as death from
 illness or old  age1 would be sure to  
entail sickness on the tribe4 ,as soon  
as a  rain-maker is killed1 his valuable
 spirit is supposed to pass to a        
suitable successor1 whether a son or    

other near blood relation4    7,m#bb7   
,in the ,central ,african kingdom of    
,unyoro down to recent years custom     
required that as soon as the king fell  
seriously ill or began to break up  from
 age1 he should die by his own hand2    
for1 according to an old  prophecy1 the 
throne would pass away from the dynasty 
if ever the king  were to die a natural 
death4 ,he killed himself by draining a 
poisoned cup4  ,if he faltered or were  
too ill to ask for the cup1 it was his  
wife's duty  to administer the          
poison47#fd7 ,when the king of ,kibanga1
 on the ,upper  ,congo1 seems near his  
end1 the sorcerers put a rope round his 
neck1 which  they draw gradually tighter
 till he dies47#fe7 ,if the king of     
,gingero  happens to be wounded in war1 
he is put to death by his comrades1 or1 
if  they fail to kill him1 by his       
kinsfolk1 however hard he may beg for   
mercy4  ,they say they do it that he may
 not die by the hands of his            
enemies47#ff7  ,the ,jukos are a heathen

 tribe of the ,benue river1 a great     
tributary of the  ,niger4 ,in their     
country 8the town of ,gatri is ruled by 
a king who is  elected by the big men of
 the town as follows4 ,when in the      
opinion of the  big men the king has    
reigned long enough1 they give out that 
#8the king is  sick'--a formula         
understood by all to mean that they are 
going to kill him1  though the intention
 is never put more plainly4 ,they then  
decide who is to  be the next king4 ,how
 long he is to reign is settled by the  
influential  men at a meeting2 the      
question is put and answered by each man
 throwing on  the ground a little piece 
of stick for each year he thinks the new
 king  should rule4 ,the king is then   
told1 and a great feast prepared1 at    
which  the king gets drunk on           
guinea-corn beer4 ,after that he is     
speared1 and the  man who was chosen    
becomes king4 ,thus each ,juko king     
knows that he cannot  have very many    
more years to live1 and that he is      

certain of his  predecessor's fate4     
,this1 however1 does not seem to        
frighten candidates4  ,the same custom  
of king-killing is said to prevail at   
,quonde and ,wukari as  well as at      
,gatri407#fg7 ,in the three ,hausa      
kingdoms of ,gobir1 ,katsina1 and       
,daura1 in ,northern ,nigeria1 as soon  
as a king shewed signs of failing       
health or growing infirmity1 an official
 who bore the title of ,killer of  the  
,elephant 7kariagiwa7 appeared and      
throttled him by holding his  windpipe4 
,the king elect was afterwards conducted
 to the centre of the  town1 called     
,head of the ,elephant 7kan giwa71 where
 he was made to lie  down on a bed4     
,then a black ox was slaughtered and its
 blood allowed to  pour all over his    
body4 ,next the ox was flayed1 and the  
remains of the  dead king1 which had    
been disembowelled and smoked for seven 
days over a  slow fire1 were wrapt up in
 the hide and dragged along the ground  
to the  place of burial1 where they were

 interred in a circular pit4 ,after his 
bath of ox blood the new king had to    
remain for seven days in his mother's   
house1 undergoing ablutions daily4 ,on  
the eighth day he was conducted in      
state to his palace4 ,in the kingdom of 
,daura the new monarch had moreover  to 
step over the corpse of his             
predecessor47#fh7    7,m#bc7 ,the       
,matiamvo is a great king or emperor in 
the interior of ,angola4  ,one of the   
inferior kings of the country1 by name  
,challa1 gave to a  ,portuguese         
expedition the following account of the 
manner in which the  ,matiamvo comes by 
his end4 8,it has been customary10 he   
said1 8for our  ,matiamvos to die either
 in war or by a violent death1 and the  
present  ,matiamvo must meet this last  
fate1 as1 in consequence of his great   
exactions1 he has lived long enough4    
,when we come to this understanding1    
and decide that he should be killed1 we 
invite him to make war with our         
enemies1 on which occasion we all       

accompany him and his family to the war1
  when we lose some of our people4 ,if  
he escapes unhurt1 we return to the  war
 again and fight for three or four days4
 ,we then suddenly abandon him  and his 
family to their fate1 leaving him in the
 enemy's hands4 ,seeing  himself thus   
deserted1 he causes his throne to be    
erected1 and1 sitting  down1 calls his  
family around him4 ,he then orders his  
mother to approach2  she kneels at his  
feet2 he first cuts off her head1 then  
decapitates his  sons in succession1    
next his wives and relatives1 and1 last 
of all1 his  most beloved wife1 called  
,anacullo4 ,this slaughter being        
accomplished1 the  ,matiamvo1 dressed in
 all his pomp1 awaits his own death1    
which immediately  follows1 by an       
officer sent by the powerful            
neighbouring chiefs1  ,caniquinha and   
,canica4 ,this officer first cuts off   
his legs and arms at  the joints1 and   
lastly he cuts off his head2 after which
 the head of the  officer is struck off4

 ,all the potentates retire from the    
encampment1 in  order not to witness his
 death4 ,it is my duty to remain and    
witness his  death1 and to mark the     
place where the head and arms have been 
deposited  by the two great chiefs1 the 
enemies of the ,matiamvo4 ,they also    
take  possession of all the property    
belonging to the deceased monarch and   
his  family1 which they convey to their 
own residence4 ,i then provide for the  
funeral of the mutilated remains of the 
late ,matiamvo1 after which ,i  retire  
to his capital and proclaim the new     
government4 ,i then return to  where the
 head1 legs1 and arms have been         
deposited1 and1 for forty slaves1  ,i   
ransom them1 together with the          
merchandise and other property belonging
  to the deceased1 which ,i give up to  
the new ,matiamvo1 who has been         
proclaimed4 ,this is what has happened  
to many ,matiamvos1 and what must       
happen to the present one407#fi7        
7,m#bd7 ,it appears to have been a ,zulu

 custom to put the king to death as     
soon as he began to have wrinkles or    
grey hairs4 ,at least this seems        
implied in the following passage written
 by one who resided for some time  at   
the court of the notorious ,zulu tyrant 
,chaka1 in the early part of the        
nineteenth century3 8,the extraordinary 
violence of the king's rage with me  was
 mainly occasioned by that absurd       
nostrum1 the hair oil1 with the  notion 
of which ,mr4 ,farewell had impressed   
him as being a specific for  removing   
all indications of age4 ,from the first 
moment of his having heard  that such a 
preparation was attainable1 he evinced a
 solicitude to procure  it1 and on every
 occasion never forgot to remind us of  
his anxiety  respecting it2 more        
especially on our departure on the      
mission his  injunctions were           
particularly directed to this object4   
,it will be seen  that it is one of the 
barbarous customs of the ,zoolas in     
their choice or  election of their kings

 that he must neither have wrinkles nor 
grey hairs1  as they are both           
distinguishing marks of disqualification
 for becoming a  monarch of a warlike   
people4 ,it is also equally             
indispensable that their  king should   
never exhibit those proofs of having    
become unfit and  incompetent to reign2 
it is therefore important that they     
should conceal  these indications so    
long as they possibly can4 ,chaka had   
become greatly  apprehensive of the     
approach of grey hairs2 which would at  
once be the  signal for him to prepare  
to make his exit from this sublunary    
world1 it  being always followed by the 
death of the monarch407#gj7 ,the writer 
to whom  we are indebted for this       
instructive anecdote of the hair-oil    
omits to  specify the mode in which a   
grey-haired and wrinkled ,zulu chief    
used 8to  make his exit from this       
sublunary world02 but on analogy we may 
conjecture  that he did so by the simple
 and perfectly sufficient process of    

being  knocked on the head4    7,m#be7  
,the custom of putting kings to death as
 soon as they suffered from  any        
personal defect prevailed two centuries 
ago in the ,caffre kingdom of  ,sofala1 
to the north of the present ,zululand4  
,we have seen that these  kings of      
,sofala1 each of whom bore the official 
name of ,quiteve1 were  regarded as gods
 by their people1 being entreated to    
give rain or  sunshine1 according as    
each might be wanted47#ga7 ,nevertheless
 a slight  bodily blemish1 such as the  
loss of a tooth1 was considered a       
sufficient  cause for putting one of    
these god-men to death1 as we learn from
 the  following passage of an old       
,portuguese historian3 8,it was formerly
 the  custom of the kings of this land  
to commit suicide by taking poison when 
any disaster or natural physical defect 
fell upon them1 such as impotence1      
infectious disease1 the loss of their   
front teeth1 by which they were         
disfigured1 or any other deformity or   

affliction4 ,to put an end to such      
defects they killed themselves1 saying  
that the king should be free from  any  
blemish1 and if not1 it was better for  
his honour that he should die  and seek 
another life where he would be made     
whole1 for there everything  was        
perfect4 ,but the ,quiteve who reigned  
when ,i was in those parts would  not   
imitate his predecessors in this1 being 
discreet and dreaded as he  was2 for    
having lost a front tooth he caused it  
to be proclaimed  throughout the kingdom
 that all should be aware that he had   
lost a tooth  and should recognise him  
when they saw him without it1 and if his
  predecessors killed themselves for    
such things they were very foolish1 and 
he would not do so2 on the contrary1 he 
would be very sorry when the time  came 
for him to die a natural death1 for his 
life was very necessary to  preserve his
 kingdom and defend it from his enemies2
 and he recommended  his successors to  
follow his example407#gb7 ,the same     

historian tells us  that 8near the      
kingdom of ,quiteve is another of which 
,sedanda is king1 the  laws and customs 
of which are very similar to those of   
,quiteve1 all these  ,kaffirs being of  
the same nation1 and these two kingdoms 
having formerly  been one1 as ,i shall  
relate hereafter4 ,when ,i was in       
,sofala it happened  that ,king ,sedanda
 was seized with a severe and contagious
 leprosy1 and  seeing that his complaint
 was incurable1 having named the prince 
who was  to succeed him1 he took poison 
and died1 according to the custom of    
those  kings when they are afflicted    
with any physical deformity407#gc7      
7,m#bf7 ,the king of ,sofala who dared  
to survive the loss of his front tooth  
was thus a bold reformer like           
,ergamenes1 king of ,ethiopia4 ,we may  
conjecture that the ground for putting  
the ,ethiopian kings to death was1  as  
in the case of the ,zulu and ,sofala    
kings1 the appearance on their  person  
of any bodily defect or sign of decay2  

and that the oracle which  the priests  
alleged as the authority for the royal  
execution was to the  effect that great 
calamities would result from the reign  
of a king who had  any blemish on his   
body2 just as an oracle warned ,sparta  
against a 8lame  reign10 that is1 the   
reign of a lame king47#gd7 ,it is some  
confirmation of  this conjecture that   
the kings of ,ethiopia were chosen for  
their size1  strength1 and beauty long  
before the custom of killing them was   
abolished47#ge7 ,to this day the ,sultan
 of ,wadai must have no obvious bodily  
defect1 and the king of ,angoy cannot be
 crowned if he has a single  blemish1   
such as a broken or a filed tooth or the
 scar of an old  wound47#gf7 ,according 
to the ,book of ,acaill and many other  
authorities no  king who was afflicted  
with a personal blemish might reign over
 ,ireland at  ,tara4 ,hence1 when the   
great ,king ,cormac ,mac ,art lost one  
eye by an  accident1 he at once         
abdicated47#gg7 ,it is only natural1    

therefore1 to  suppose1 especially with 
the other ,african examples before us1  
that any  bodily defect or symptom of   
old age appearing on the person of the  
,ethiopian monarch was the signal for   
his execution4 ,at a later time it is   
recorded that if the king of ,ethiopia  
became maimed in any part of his  body  
all his courtiers had to suffer the same
 mutilation47#gh7 ,but this  rule may   
perhaps have been instituted at the time
 when the custom of  killing the king   
for any personal defect was abolished2  
instead of  compelling the king to die  
because1 for example1 he had lost a     
tooth1 all  his subjects would be       
obliged to lose a tooth1 and thus the   
invidious  superiority of the subjects  
over the king would be cancelled4 ,a    
rule of  this sort is still observed in 
the same region at the court of the     
,sultans  of ,darfur4 ,when the ,sultan 
coughs1 every one makes the sound ts ts 
by  striking the tongue against the root
 of the upper teeth2 when he sneezes1   

the whole assembly utters a sound like  
the cry of the jeko2 when he falls  off 
his horse1 all his followers must fall  
off likewise2 if any one of  them       
remains in the saddle1 no matter how    
high his rank1 he is laid on the  ground
 and beaten47#gi7 ,at the court of the  
king of ,uganda in central  ,africa1    
when the king laughs1 every one laughs2 
when he sneezes1 every one  sneezes2    
when he has a cold1 every one pretends  
to have a cold2 when he  has his hair   
cut1 so has everybody47#hj7 ,at the     
court of ,boni in ,celebes it  is a rule
 that whatever the king does all the    
courtiers must do4 ,if he  stands1 they 
stand2 if he sits1 they sit2 if he falls
 off his horse1 they  fall off their    
horses2 if he bathes1 they bathe1 and   
passers-by must go  into the water in   
the dress1 good or bad1 which they      
happen to have  on47#ha7 ,when the      
emperor of ,china laughs1 the mandarins 
in attendance  laugh also2 when he stops
 laughing1 they stop2 when he is sad1   

their  countenances are chopfallen2 8you
 would say that their faces are on      
springs1 and that the emperor can touch 
the springs and set them in motion  at  
pleasure407#hb7 ,but to return to the   
death of the divine king4    7,m#bg7    
,many days' journey to the north-east of
 ,abomey1 the old capital of  ,dahomey1 
lies the kingdom of ,eyeo4 8,the ,eyeos 
are governed by a king1 no  less        
absolute than the king of ,dahomy1 yet  
subject to a regulation of  state1 at   
once humiliating and extraordinary4     
,when the people have  conceived an     
opinion of his ill-government1 which is 
sometimes insidiously  infused into them
 by the artifice of his discontented    
ministers1 they send  a deputation to   
him with a present of parrots' eggs1 as 
a mark of its  authenticity1 to         
represent to him that the burden of     
government must have  so far fatigued   
him that they consider it full time for 
him to repose from  his cares and       
indulge himself with a little sleep4 ,he

 thanks his subjects  for their         
attention to his ease1 retires to his   
own apartment as if to  sleep1 and there
 gives directions to his women to       
strangle him4 ,this is  immediately     
executed1 and his son quietly ascends   
the throne upon the  usual terms of     
holding the reins of government no      
longer than whilst he  merits the       
approbation of the people40 ,about the  
year #aggd1 a king of  ,eyeo1 whom his  
ministers attempted to remove in the    
customary manner1  positively refused to
 accept the proffered parrots' eggs at  
their hands1  telling them that he had  
no mind to take a nap1 but on the       
contrary was  resolved to watch for the 
benefit of his subjects4 ,the ministers1
  surprised and indignant at his        
recalcitrancy1 raised a rebellion1 but  
were  defeated with great slaughter1 and
 thus by his spirited conduct the king  
freed himself from the tyranny of his   
councillors and established a new       
precedent for the guidance of his       

successors47#hc7 ,however1 the old      
custom  seems to have revived and       
persisted until late in the nineteenth  
century1  for a ,catholic missionary1   
writing in #ahhd1 speaks of the practice
 as if  it were still in vogue47#hd7    
,another missionary1 writing in #ahha1  
thus  describes the usage of the ,egbas 
and the ,yorubas of west ,africa3       
8,among  the customs of the country one 
of the most curious is unquestionably   
that  of judging and punishing the king4
 ,should he have earned the hatred of   
his  people by exceeding his rights1 one
 of his councillors1 on whom the heavy  
duty is laid1 requires of the prince    
that he shall #8go to sleep1' which     
means simply #8take poison and die4' ,if
 his courage fails him at the  supreme  
moment1 a friend renders him this last  
service1 and quietly1  without betraying
 the secret1 they prepare the people for
 the news of the  king's death4 ,in     
,yoruba the thing is managed a little   
differently4 ,when a  son is born to the

 king of ,oyo1 they make a model of the 
infant's right  foot in clay and keep it
 in the house of the elders 7ogboni74   
,if the  king fails to observe the      
customs of the country1 a messenger1    
without  speaking a word1 shews him his 
child's foot4 ,the king knows what that 
means4 ,he takes poison and goes to     
sleep407#he7 ,the old ,prussians        
acknowledged as their supreme lord a    
ruler who governed them in the name  of 
the gods1 and was known as ,god's ,mouth
 7,kirwaido74 ,when he felt  himself    
weak and ill1 if he wished to leave a   
good name behind him1 he had  a great   
heap made of thorn-bushes and straw1 on 
which he mounted and  delivered a long  
sermon to the people1 exhorting them to 
serve the gods  and promising to go to  
the gods and speak for the people4 ,then
 he took  some of the perpetual fire    
which burned in front of the holy       
oak-tree1 and  lighting the pile with it
 burned himself to death47#hf7          
7,m#bh7 ,we need not doubt the truth of 

this last tradition4 ,fanaticism or  the
 mere love of notoriety has led men in  
other ages and other lands to  court    
death in the flames4 ,in antiquity the  
mountebank ,peregrinus1 after  bidding  
for fame in the various characters of a 
,christian martyr1 a  shameless cynic1  
and a rebel against ,rome1 ended his    
disreputable and  vainglorious career by
 publicly burning himself at the        
,olympic festival in  the presence of a 
crowd of admirers and scoffers1 among   
whom was the  satirist ,lucian47#hg7    
,buddhist monks in ,china sometimes seek
 to attain  ,nirvana by the same method1
 the flame of their religious zeal being
 fanned  by a belief that the merit of  
their death redounds to the good of the 
whole community1 while the praises which
 are showered upon them in their  lives1
 and the prospect of the honours and    
worship which await them after  death1  
serve as additional incentives to       
suicide4 ,the beautiful mountains  of   
,tien-tai1 in the district of ,tai-chow1

 are1 or were till lately1 the  scene of
 many such voluntary martyrdoms4 ,the   
victims are monks who1 weary  of the    
vanities of earth1 have withdrawn even  
from their monasteries and  spent years 
alone in one or other of the hermitages 
which are scattered  among the ravines  
and precipices of this wild and secluded
 region4 ,their  fancy having been      
wrought and their resolution strung to  
the necessary  pitch by a life of       
solitude and brooding contemplation1    
they announce  their intention and fix  
the day of their departure from this    
world of  shadows1 always choosing for  
that purpose a festival which draws a   
crowd  of worshippers and pilgrims to   
one of the many monasteries of the      
district4 ,advertisements of the        
approaching solemnity are posted        
throughout the country1 and believers   
are invited to attend and assist the    
martyrs with their prayers4 ,from three 
to five monks are said thus to  commit  
themselves to the flames every year at  

,tien-tai4 ,they prepare by  fasting and
 ablution for the last fiery trial of   
their faith4 ,an upright  chest         
containing a seat is placed in a brick  
furnace1 and the space  between the     
chest and the walls of the furnace is   
filled with fuel4 ,the  doomed man takes
 his seat in the chest2 the door is shut
 on him and  barred2 fire is applied to 
the combustibles1 and consumes the      
candidate  for heaven4 ,when all is     
over1 the charred remains are raked     
together1  worshipped1 and reverently   
buried in a dagoba or shrine destined   
for the  preservation and worship of the
 relics of saints4 ,the victims1 it is  
said1  are not always voluntary4 ,in    
remote districts unscrupulous priests   
have  been known to stupefy a clerical  
brother with drugs and then burn him    
publicly1 an unwilling martyr1 as a     
means of spreading the renown of the    
monastery and thereby attracting the    
alms of the faithful4 ,on the           
twenty-eighth of ,january #ahhh the     

,spiritual-hill monastery1 distant about
  a day's journey from the city of      
,wen-chow1 witnessed the voluntary death
  by fire of two monks who bore the     
euphonious names of                     
,perceptive-intelligence and            
,effulgent-glamour4 ,before they entered
 the  furnaces1 the spectators prayed   
them to become after death the spiritual
  guardians of the neighbourhood1 to    
protect it from all evil influences1    
and to grant luck in trade1 fine        
seasons1 plentiful harvests1 and every  
other blessing4 ,the martyrs            
complaisantly promised to comply with   
these  requests1 and were thereupon     
worshipped as living ,buddhas1 while a  
stream  of gifts poured into the coffers
 of the monastery47#hh7 ,among the      
,esquimaux  of ,bering ,strait a shaman 
has been known to burn himself alive in 
the  expectation of returning to life   
with much stronger powers than he had   
possessed before47#hi7    7,m#bi7 ,but  
the suicides by fire of ,chinese        

,buddhists and ,esquimaux  sorcerers    
have been far surpassed by the frenzies 
of ,christian fanaticism4  ,in the      
seventeenth century the internal        
troubles of their unhappy country1      
viewed in the dim light of prophecy1    
created a widespread belief among the   
,russian people that the end of the     
world was at hand1 and that the reign   
of ,antichrist was about to begin4 ,we  
know from ,scripture that the old       
serpent1 which is the devil1 has been or
 will be shut up under lock and  key for
 a thousand years17#ij7 and that the    
number of the ,beast is six  hundred and
 sixty-six47#ia7 ,a simple mathematical 
calculation1 based on  these            
irrefragable data1 pointed to the year  
one thousand six hundred and  sixty-six 
as the date when the final consummation 
of all things and the  arrival of the   
,beast in question might be confidently 
anticipated4 ,when  the year came and   
went and still1 to the general surprise1
 the animal  failed to put in an        

appearance1 the calculations were       
revised1 it was  discovered that an     
error had crept into them1 and the world
 was respited  for another thirty-three 
years4 ,but though opinions differed as 
to the  precise date of the catastrophe1
 the pious were unanimous in their      
conviction of its proximity4            
,accordingly some of them ceased to till
 their  fields1 abandoned their houses1 
and on certain nights of the year       
expected  the sound of the last trump in
 coffins which they took the precaution 
of  closing1 lest their senses1 or what 
remained of them1 should be  overpowered
 by the awful vision of the ,judgment   
,day4    7,m#cj7 ,it would have been    
well if the delusion of their disordered
  intellects had stopped there4         
,unhappily in many cases it went much   
further1 and suicide1 universal suicide1
 was preached by fervent  missionaries  
as the only means to escape the snares  
of ,antichrist and to  pass from the    
sins and sorrows of this fleeting world 

to the eternal joys  of heaven4 ,whole  
communities hailed with enthusiasm the  
gospel of death1  and hastened to put   
its precepts in practice4 ,an epidemic  
of suicide raged  throughout northern   
and north-eastern ,russia4 ,at first the
 favourite mode  of death was by        
starvation4 ,in the forest of ,vetlouga1
 for example1 an old  man founded an    
establishment for the use of religious  
suicides4 ,it was a  building without   
doors and windows4 ,the aspirants to    
heaven were lowered  into it through a  
hole in the roof1 the hatch was battened
 down on them1  and men armed with clubs
 patrolled the outer walls to prevent   
the  prisoners from escaping4 ,hundreds 
of persons thus died a lingering death4 
,at first the sounds of devotion issued 
from the walls2 but as time went on     
these were replaced by entreaties for   
food1 prayers for mercy1 and finally    
imprecations on the miscreant who had   
lured these misguided beings to         
destruction and on the parents who had  

brought them into the world to  suffer  
such exquisite torments4 ,thus death by 
famine was attended by some  obvious    
disadvantages4 ,it was slow3 it opened  
the door to repentance3 it  occasionally
 admitted of rescue4 ,accordingly death 
by fire was preferred  as surer and more
 expeditious4 ,priests1 monks1 and      
laymen scoured the  villages and hamlets
 preaching salvation by the flames1 some
 of them  decked in the spoils of their 
victims2 for the motives of the         
preachers  were often of the basest     
sort4 ,they did not spare even the      
children1 but  seduced them by promises 
of the gay clothes1 the apples1 the     
nuts1 the  honey they would enjoy in    
heaven4 ,sometimes when the people      
hesitated1  these infamous wretches     
decided the wavering minds of their     
dupes by a  false report that the troops
 were coming to deliver them up to      
,antichrist1  and so to rob them of a   
blissful eternity4 ,then men1 women1 and
 children  rushed into the flames4      

,sometimes hundreds1 and even thousands1
 thus  perished together4 ,an area was  
enclosed by barricades1 fuel was heaped 
up  in it1 the victims huddled together1
 fire set to the whole1 and the         
sacrifice consummated4 ,any who in their
 agony sought to escape were driven  or 
thrown back into the flames1 sometimes  
by their own relations4 ,these  sinister
 fires generally blazed at night1       
reddening the sky till daybreak4  ,in   
the morning nothing remained but charred
 bodies gnawed by prowling  dogs2 but   
the stench of burnt human flesh poisoned
 the air for days  afterwards47#ib7     
7,m#ca7 ,as the ,christians expected the
 arrival of ,antichrist in the year     
#afff1 so the ,jews cheerfully          
anticipated the long-delayed advent of  
their  ,messiah in the same fateful     
year4 ,a ,jew of ,smyrna1 by name       
,sabatei-,sevi1  availed himself of this
 general expectation to pose as the     
,messiah in  person4 ,he was greeted    
with enthusiasm4 ,jews from many parts  

of ,europe  hastened to pay their homage
 and1 what was still better1 their money
 to  the future deliverer of his        
country1 who in return parcelled out    
among  them1 with the greatest          
liberality1 estates in the ,holy ,land  
which did not  belong to him4 ,but the  
alternative of death by impalement or   
conversion to  ,mohammedanism1 which the
 ,sultan submitted to his consideration1
 induced  him to revise his theological 
opinions1 and on looking into the matter
  more closely he discovered that his   
true mission in life was to preach the  
total abolition of the ,jewish religion 
and the substitution for it of          
,islam47#ic7           #c4 ,kings killed
 at the ,end of a ,fixed ,term4         
7,m#cb7 ,in the cases hitherto          
described1 the divine king or priest is 
suffered by his people to retain office 
until some outward defect1 some  visible
 symptom of failing health or advancing 
age1 warns them that he is  no longer   
equal to the discharge of his divine    

duties2 but not until such  symptoms    
have made their appearance is he put to 
death4 ,some peoples1  however1 appear  
to have thought it unsafe to wait for   
even the slightest  symptom of decay and
 have preferred to kill the king while  
he was still in  the full vigour of     
life4 ,accordingly1 they have fixed a   
term beyond which  he might not reign1  
and at the close of which he must die1  
the term fixed  upon being short enough 
to exclude the probability of his       
degenerating  physically in the         
interval4 ,in some parts of southern    
,india the period  fixed was twelve     
years4 ,thus1 according to an old       
traveller1 in the  province of          
,quilacare1 about twenty leagues to the 
north-east of ,cape  ,comorin1 8there is
 a ,gentile house of prayer1 in which   
there is an idol  which they hold in    
great account1 and every twelve years   
they celebrate a  great feast to it1    
whither all the ,gentiles go as to a    
jubilee4 ,this  temple possesses many   

lands and much revenue3 it is a very    
great affair4  ,this province has a king
 over it1 who has not more than twelve  
years to  reign from jubilee to jubilee4
 ,his manner of living is in this wise1 
that  is to say3 when the twelve years  
are completed1 on the day of this feast 
there assemble together innumerable     
people1 and much money is spent in      
giving food to ,bramans4 ,the king has a
 wooden scaffolding made1 spread  over  
with silken hangings3 and on that day he
 goes to bathe at a tank with  great    
ceremonies and sound of music1 after    
that he comes to the idol and  prays to 
it1 and mounts on to the scaffolding1   
and there before all the  people he     
takes some very sharp knives1 and begins
 to cut off his nose1  and then his     
ears1 and his lips1 and all his members1
 and as much flesh  off himself as he   
can2 and he throws it away very         
hurriedly until so much  of his blood is
 spilled that he begins to faint1 and   
then he cuts his  throat himself4 ,and  

he performs this sacrifice to the idol1 
and whoever  desires to reign other     
twelve years and undertake this         
martyrdom for love  of the idol1 has to 
be present looking on at this3 and from 
that place  they raise him up as        
king407#id7    7,m#cc7 ,the king of     
,calicut1 on the ,malabar coast1 bears  
the title of  ,samorin or ,samory1 which
 in the native language is said to mean 
8,god on  earth407#ie7 ,he 8pretends to 
be of a higher rank than the ,brahmans1 
and to  be inferior only to the         
invisible gods2 a pretention that was   
acknowledged  by his subjects1 but which
 is held as absurd and abominable by the
  ,brahmans1 by whom he is only treated 
as a ,sudra407#if7 ,formerly the        
,samorin  had to cut his throat in      
public at the end of a twelve years'    
reign4 ,but  towards the end of the     
seventeenth century the rule had been   
modified as  follows3 8,many strange    
customs were observed in this country in
 former  times1 and some very odd ones  

are still continued4 ,it was an ancient 
custom for the ,samorin to reign but    
twelve years1 and no longer4 ,if he     
died before his term was expired1 it    
saved him a troublesome ceremony of     
cutting his own throat1 on a publick    
scaffold erected for the purpose4 ,he   
first made a feast for all his nobility 
and gentry1 who are very numerous4      
,after the feast he saluted his guests1 
and went on the scaffold1 and very      
decently cut his own throat in the view 
of the assembly1 and his body was1  a   
little while after1 burned with great   
pomp and ceremony1 and the  grandees    
elected a new ,samorin4 ,whether that   
custom was a religious or a  civil      
ceremony1 ,i know not1 but it is now    
laid aside4 ,and a new custom is        
followed by the modern ,samorins1 that  
jubilee is proclaimed throughout his    
dominions1 at the end of twelve years1  
and a tent is pitched for him in a      
spacious plain1 and a great feast is    
celebrated for ten or twelve days1  with

 mirth and jollity1 guns firing night   
and day1 so at the end of the  feast any
 four of the guests that have a mind to 
gain a crown by a  desperate action1 in 
fighting their way through #cj or       
#dj1jjj of his  guards1 and kill the    
,samorin in his tent1 he that kills him 
succeeds him  in his empire4 ,in anno   
#afie1 one of those jubilees happened1  
and the tent  pitched near ,pennany1 a  
seaport of his1 about fifteen leagues to
 the  southward of ,calicut4 ,there were
 but three men that would venture on    
that  desperate action1 who fell in1    
with sword and target1 among the guard1 
and1 after they had killed and wounded  
many1 were themselves killed4 ,one  of  
the desperados had a nephew of fifteen  
or sixteen years of age1 that  kept     
close by his uncle in the attack on the 
guards1 and1 when he saw him  fall1 the 
youth got through the guards into the   
tent1 and made a stroke at  his         
,majesty's head1 and had certainly      
despatched him if a large brass lamp    

which was burning over his head had not 
marred the blow2 but1 before he  could  
make another1 he was killed by the      
guards2 and1 ,i believe1 the same       
,samorin reigns yet4 ,i chanced to come 
that time along the coast and heard  the
 guns for two or three days and nights  
successively407#ig7    7,m#cd7 ,the     
,english traveller1 whose account ,i    
have quoted1 did not himself  witness   
the festival he describes1 though he    
heard the sound of the firing  in the   
distance4 ,fortunately1 exact records of
 these festivals and of the  number of  
men who perished at them have been      
preserved in the archives of  the royal 
family at ,calicut4 ,in the latter part 
of the nineteenth century  they were    
examined by ,mr4 ,w4 ,logan1 with the   
personal assistance of the  reigning    
king1 and from his work it is possible  
to gain an accurate  conception both of 
the tragedy and of the scene where it   
was periodically  enacted down to #agdc1
 when the ceremony took place for the   

last time4    7,m#ce7 ,the festival at  
which the king of ,calicut staked his   
crown and his  life on the issue of     
battle was known as the ,maha ,makham or
 ,great  ,sacrifice4 ,it fell every     
twelfth year1 when the planet ,jupiter  
was in  retrograde motion in the sign of
 the ,crab1 and it lasted twenty-eight  
days1 culminating at the time of the    
eighth lunar asterism in the month of   
,makaram4 ,as the date of the festival  
was determined by the position of       
,jupiter in the sky1 and the interval   
between two festivals was twelve  years1
 which is roughly ,jupiter's period of  
revolution round the sun17#ih7  we may  
conjecture that the splendid planet was 
supposed to be in a special  sense the  
king's star and to rule his destiny1 the
 period of its  revolution in heaven    
corresponding to the period of his reign
 on earth4  ,however that may be1 the   
ceremony was observed with great pomp at
 the  ,tirunavayi temple1 on the north  
bank of the ,ponnani ,river4 ,the spot  

is  close to the present railway line4  
,as the train rushes by1 you can just   
catch a glimpse of the temple1 almost   
hidden behind a clump of trees on  the  
river bank4 ,from the western gateway of
 the temple a perfectly  straight road1 
hardly raised above the level of the    
surrounding  rice-fields and shaded by a
 fine avenue1 runs for half a mile to a 
high  ridge with a precipitous bank1 on 
which the outlines of three or four     
terraces can still be traced4 ,on the   
topmost of these terraces the king  took
 his stand on the eventful day4 ,the    
view which it commands is a fine  one4  
,across the flat expanse of the         
rice-fields1 with the broad placid      
river winding through them1 the eye     
ranges eastward to high tablelands1     
their lower slopes embowered in woods1  
while afar off looms the great  chain of
 the western ,ghauts1 and in the        
furthest distance the ,neilgherries  or 
,blue ,mountains1 hardly distinguishable
 from the azure of the sky above4       

7,m#cf7 ,but it was not to the distant  
prospect that the king's eyes  naturally
 turned at this crisis of his fate4 ,his
 attention was arrested by  a spectacle 
nearer at hand4 ,for all the plain below
 was alive with troops1  their banners  
waving gaily in the sun1 the white tents
 of their many camps  standing sharply  
out against the green and gold of the   
rice-fields4 ,forty  thousand fighting  
men or more were gathered there to      
defend the king4 ,but  if the plain     
swarmed with soldiers1 the road that    
cuts across it from the  temple to the  
king's stand was clear of them4 ,not a  
soul was stirring on  it4 ,each side of 
the way was barred by palisades1 and    
from the palisades  on either hand a    
long hedge of spears1 held by strong    
arms1 projected into  the empty road1   
their blades meeting in the middle and  
forming a  glittering arch of steel4    
,all was now ready4 ,the king waved his 
sword4 ,at  the same moment a great     
chain of massy gold1 enriched with      

bosses1 was  placed on an elephant at   
his side4 ,that was the signal4 ,on the 
instant a  stir might be seen half a    
mile away at the gate of the temple4 ,a 
group of  swordsmen1 decked with flowers
 and smeared with ashes1 has stepped out
  from the crowd4 ,they have just       
partaken of their last meal on earth1   
and  they now receive the last blessings
 and farewells of their friends4 ,a     
moment more and they are coming down the
 lane of spears1 hewing and  stabbing   
right and left at the spearmen1 winding 
and turning and writhing  among the     
blades as if they had no bones in their 
bodies4 ,it is all in  vain4 ,one after 
the other they fall1 some nearer the    
king1 some further  off1 content to die1
 not for the shadow of a crown1 but for 
the mere sake  of approving their       
dauntless valour and swordsmanship to   
the world4 ,on the  last days of the    
festival the same magnificent display of
 gallantry1 the  same useless sacrifice 
of life was repeated again and again4   

,yet perhaps  no sacrifice is wholly    
useless which proves that there are men 
who prefer  honour to life47#ii7        
7,m#cg7 8,it is a singular custom in    
,bengal10 says an old native historian  
of  ,india1 8that there is little of    
hereditary descent in succession to the 
sovereignty4 ,there is a throne allotted
 for the king2 there is1 in like        
manner1 a seat or station assigned for  
each of the amirs1 wazirs1 and          
mansabdars4 ,it is that throne and these
 stations alone which engage the        
reverence of the people of ,bengal4 ,a  
set of dependents1 servants1 and        
attendants are annexed to each of these 
situations4 ,when the king wishes  to   
dismiss or appoint any person1 whosoever
 is placed in the seat of the  one      
dismissed is immediately attended and   
obeyed by the whole  establishment of   
dependents1 servants1 and retainers     
annexed to the seat  which he occupies4 
,nay1 this rule obtains even as to the  
royal throne  itself4 ,whoever kills the

 king1 and succeeds in placing himself  
on that  throne1 is immediately         
acknowledged as king2 all the amirs1    
wazirs1  soldiers1 and peasants         
instantly obey and submit to him1 and   
consider him  as being as much their    
sovereign as they did their former      
prince1 and obey  his orders implicitly4
 ,the people of ,bengal say1 #8,we are  
faithful to the  throne2 whoever fills  
the throne we are obedient and true to  
it4' 07#ajj7 ,a  custom of the same sort
 formerly prevailed in the little       
kingdom of  ,passier1 on the northern   
coast of ,sumatra4 ,the old ,portuguese 
historian ,de  ,barros1 who informs us  
of it1 remarks with surprise that no    
wise man would  wish to be king of      
,passier1 since the monarch was not     
allowed by his  subjects to live long4  
,from time to time a sort of fury seized
 the people1  and they marched through  
the streets of the city chanting with   
loud voices  the fatal words1 8,the king
 must die60 ,when the king heard that   

song of  death he knew that his hour had
 come4 ,the man who struck the fatal    
blow  was of the royal lineage1 and as  
soon as he had done the deed of blood   
and  seated himself on the throne he was
 regarded as the legitimate king1       
provided that he contrived to maintain  
his seat peaceably for a single  day4   
,this1 however1 the regicide did not    
always succeed in doing4 ,when  ,ferno  
,peres d',andrade1 on a voyage to       
,china1 put in at ,passier for a  cargo 
of spices1 two kings were massacred1 and
 that in the most peaceable  and orderly
 manner1 without the smallest sign of   
tumult or sedition in the  city1 where  
everything went on in its usual course1 
as if the murder or  execution of a king
 were a matter of everyday occurrence4  
,indeed1 on one  occasion three kings   
were raised to the dangerous elevation  
and followed  each other on the dusty   
road of death in a single day4 ,the     
people defended  the custom1 which they 
esteemed very laudable and even of      

divine  institution1 by saying that ,god
 would never allow so high and mighty a 
being as a king1 who reigned as his     
vicegerent on earth1 to perish by       
violence unless for his sins he         
thoroughly deserved it47#aja7 ,far away 
from  the tropical island of ,sumatra a 
rule of the same sort appears to have   
obtained among the old ,slavs4 ,when the
 captives ,gunn and ,jarmerik  contrived
 to slay the king and queen of the      
,slavs and made their escape1  they were
 pursued by the barbarians1 who shouted 
after them that if they  would only come
 back they would reign instead of the   
murdered monarch1  since by a public    
statute of the ancients the succession  
to the throne  fell to the king's       
assassin4 ,but the flying regicides     
turned a deaf ear to  promises which    
they regarded as mere baits to lure them
 back to  destruction2 they continued   
their flight1 and the shouts and clamour
 of  the barbarians gradually died away 
in the distance47#ajb7    7,m#ch7 ,when 

kings were bound to suffer death1       
whether at their own hands or  at the   
hands of others1 on the expiration of a 
fixed term of years1 it was  natural    
that they should seek to delegate the   
painful duty1 along with  some of the   
privileges of sovereignty1 to a         
substitute who should suffer            
vicariously in their stead4 ,this       
expedient appears to have been resorted 
to by some of the princes of ,malabar4  
,thus we are informed by a native       
authority on that country that 8in some 
places all powers both executive  and   
judicial were delegated for a fixed     
period to natives by the  sovereign4    
,this institution was styled            
,thalavettiparothiam or authority       
obtained by decapitation4 ,parothiam is 
the name of a supreme authority  of     
those days4 ,the name of the office is  
still preserved in the ,cochin  state1  
where the village headman is called a   
,parathiakaran4 ,this                   
,thalavettiparothiam was a terrible but 

interesting institution4 ,it was  an    
office tenable for five years during    
which its bearer was invested with      
supreme despotic powers within his      
jurisdiction4 ,on the expiry of the five
  years the man's head was cut off and  
thrown up in the air amongst a large    
concourse of villagers1 each of whom    
vied with the other in trying to  catch 
it in its course down4 ,he who succeeded
 was nominated to the post  for the next
 five years407#ajc7 ,a similar          
delegation of the duty of dying  for his
 country was perhaps practised by the   
,sultans of ,java4 ,at least  such a    
custom would explain a strange scene    
which was witnessed at the  court of one
 of these sultans by the famous         
traveller ,ibn ,batuta1 a native  of    
,tangier1 who visited the ,east ,indies 
in the first half of the  fourteenth    
century4 ,he says3 8,during my audience 
with the ,sultan ,i saw a  man who held 
in his hand a knife like that used by a 
grape-gleaner4 ,he  placed it on his own

 neck and spoke for a long time in a    
language which ,i  did not understand4  
,after that he seized the knife with    
both hands at once  and cut his throat4 
,his head fell to the ground1 so sharp  
was the blade  and so great the force   
with which he used it4 ,i remained      
dumbfoundered at  his behaviour1 but the
 ,sultan said to me1 #8,does any one do 
like that in  your country8' ,i         
answered1 #8,never did ,i see such a    
thing4' ,he smiled and  replied1        
#8,these people are our slaves1 and they
 kill themselves for love  of us4' ,then
 he commanded that they should take away
 him who had slain  himself and should  
burn him4 ,the ,sultan's officers1 the  
grandees1 the  troops1 and the common   
people attended the cremation4 ,the     
sovereign  assigned a liberal pension to
 the children of the deceased1 to his   
wife1  and to his brothers2 and they    
were highly honoured because of his     
conduct4  ,a person1 who was present at 
the audience when the event ,i have     

described  took place1 informed me that 
the speech made by the man who          
sacrificed  himself set forth his       
devotion to the monarch4 ,he said that  
he wished to  immolate himself out of   
affection for the sovereign1 as his     
father had  done for love of the        
prince's father1 and as his grandfather 
had done out  of regard for the prince's
 grandfather407#ajd7 ,we may conjecture 
that  formerly the sultans of ,java1    
like the kings of ,quilacare and        
,calicut1  were bound to cut their own  
throats at the end of a fixed term of   
years1  but that at a later time they   
deputed the painful1 though glorious1   
duty  of dying for their country to the 
members of a certain family1 who        
received by way of recompense ample     
provision during their life and a       
handsome funeral at death4    7,m#ci7 ,a
 similar mode of religious suicide seems
 to have been often adopted  in ,india1 
especially in ,malabar1 during the      
,middle ,ages4 ,thus we are told  by    

,friar ,jordanus that in the ,greater   
,india1 by which he seems to mean       
,malabar and the neighbouring regions1  
many sacrifice themselves to the  idols4
 ,when they are sick or involved in     
misfortune1 they vow themselves  to the 
idol in case they are delivered4 ,then1 
when they have recovered1  they fatten  
themselves for one or two years2 and    
when another festival  comes round1 they
 cover themselves with flowers1 crown   
themselves with  white garlands1 and go 
singing and playing before the idol1    
when it is  carried through the land4   
,there1 after they have shown off a     
great deal1  they take a sword with two 
handles1 like those used in currying    
leather1  put it to the back of their   
neck1 and cutting strongly with both    
hands  sever their heads from their     
bodies before the idol47#aje7 ,again1   
,nicolo  ,conti1 who travelled in the   
,east in the early part of the fifteenth
  century1 informs us that in the city  
of ,cambaita 8many present themselves   

who have determined upon self           
immolation1 having on their neck a broad
  circular piece of iron1 the fore part 
of which is round and the hinder  part  
extremely sharp4 ,a chain attached to   
the fore part hangs suspended  upon the 
breast1 into which the victims1 sitting 
down with their legs  drawn up and their
 neck bent1 insert their feet4 ,then1 on
 the speaker  pronouncing certain words1
 they suddenly stretch out their legs1  
and at  the same time drawing up their  
neck1 cut off their own head1 yielding  
up  their lives as a sacrifice to their 
idols4 ,these men are regarded as       
saints407#ajf7 ,among the ,jaintias or  
,syntengs1 a ,khasi tribe of ,assam1    
human sacrifices used to be annually    
offered on the ,sandhi day in the  month
 of ,ashwin4 ,persons often came forward
 voluntarily and presented  themselves  
as victims4 ,this they generally did by 
appearing before the  ,rajah on the last
 day of ,shravan and declaring that the 
goddess had called  them to herself4    

,after due enquiry1 if the would-be     
victim were found  suitable1 it was     
customary for the ,rajah to present him 
with a golden  anklet and to give him   
permission to live as he chose and to do
 what he  liked1 the royal treasury     
undertaking to pay compensation for any 
damage  he might do in the exercise of  
his remarkable privileges4 ,but the     
enjoyment of these privileges was very  
short4 ,on the day appointed the        
voluntary victim1 after bathing and     
purifying himself1 was dressed in new   
attire1 daubed with red sandal-wood and 
vermilion1 and bedecked with  garlands4 
,thus arrayed1 he sat for a time in     
meditation and prayer on a  dais in     
front of the goddess2 then he made a    
sign with his finger1 and the           
executioner1 after uttering the usual   
formulas1 cut off his head1 which  was  
thereafter laid before the goddess on a 
golden plate4 ,the lungs were  cooked   
and eaten by such ,kandra ,yogis as were
 present1 and it is said  that the royal

 family partook of a small quantity of  
rice cooked in the  blood of the victim4
 ,the ceremony was usually witnessed by 
crowds of  spectators who assembled from
 all parts of the neighbouring hills4   
,when  the supply of voluntary victims  
fell short1 emissaries were sent out to 
kidnap strangers from other territories1
 and it was the practice of such        
man-hunts that led to the annexation of 
the ,jaintia country by the             
,british47#ajg7    7,m#dj7 ,when once   
kings1 who had hitherto been bound to   
die a violent death  at the end of a    
term of years1 conceived the happy      
thought of dying by  deputy in the      
persons of others1 they would very      
naturally put it in  practice2 and      
accordingly we need not wonder at       
finding so popular an  expedient1 or    
traces of it1 in many lands4 ,thus1 for 
example1 the ,bhuiyas  are an aboriginal
 race of north-eastern ,india1 and one  
of their chief  seats is ,keonjhur4 ,at 
the installation of a ,rajah of         

,keonjhur a ceremony  is observed which 
has been described as follows by an     
,english officer who  witnessed it3     
8,then the sword1 a very rusty old      
weapon1 is placed in the  ,raja's hands1
 and one of the ,bhuiyas1 named ,anand  
,kopat1 comes before him1  and kneeling 
sideways1 the ,raja touches him on the  
neck as if about to  strike off his     
head1 and it is said that in former days
 there was no  fiction in this part of  
the ceremony4 ,the family of the ,kopat 
hold their  lands on the condition that 
the victim when required shall be       
produced4  ,anand1 however1 hurriedly   
arose after the accolade and            
disappeared4 ,he  must not be seen for  
three days2 then he presents himself    
again to the  ,raja as miraculously     
restored to life407#ajh7 ,here the      
custom of putting  the king's proxy to  
death has dwindled1 probably under      
,english influence1  to a mere pretence2
 but elsewhere it survives1 or survived 
till recent  times1 in full force4      

,cassange1 a native state in the        
interior of ,angola1  is ruled by a     
king1 who bears the title of ,jaga4     
,when a king is about to  be installed  
in office1 some of the chiefs are       
despatched to find a human  victim1 who 
may not be related by blood or marriage 
to the new monarch4  ,when he comes to  
the king's camp1 the victim is provided 
with everything  he requires1 and all   
his orders are obeyed as promptly as    
those of the  sovereign4 ,on the day of 
the ceremony the king takes his seat on 
a  perforated iron stool1 his chiefs1   
councillors1 and the rest of the people 
forming a great circle round about him4 
,behind the king sits his principal     
wife1 together with all his concubines4 
,an iron gong1 with two small bells     
attached to it1 is then struck by an    
official1 who continues to ring the     
bells during the ceremony4 ,the victim  
is then introduced and placed in  front 
of the king1 but with his back towards  
him4 ,armed with a scimitar  the king   

then cuts open the man's back1 extracts 
his heart1 and having  taken a bite out 
of it1 spits it out and gives it to be  
burned4 ,the  councillors meantime hold 
the victim's body so that the blood from
 the  wound spouts against the king's   
breast and belly1 and1 pouring through  
the  hole in the iron stool1 is         
collected by the chiefs in their hands1 
who rub  their breasts and beards with  
it1 while they shout1 8,great is the    
king and  the rites of the state60      
,after that the corpse is skinned1 cut  
up1 and  cooked with the flesh of an ox1
 a dog1 a hen1 and some other animals4  
,the  meal thus prepared is served first
 to the king1 then to the chiefs and    
councillors1 and lastly to all the      
people assembled4 ,any man who refused  
to partake of it would be sold into     
slavery together with his family47#aji7 
,the distinction with which the human   
victim is here treated before his       
execution suggests that he is a         
substitute for the king4    7,m#da7     

,scandinavian traditions contain some   
hints that of old the ,swedish  kings   
reigned only for periods of nine years1 
after which they were put to  death or  
had to find a substitute to die in their
 stead4 ,thus ,aun or ,on1  king of     
,sweden1 is said to have sacrificed to  
,odin for length of days and  to have   
been answered by the god that he should 
live so long as he  sacrificed one of   
his sons every ninth year4 ,he          
sacrificed nine of them in  this manner1
 and would have sacrificed the tenth and
 last1 but the ,swedes  would not allow 
him4 ,so he died and was buried in a    
mound at ,upsala47#aaj7  ,another       
indication of a similar tenure of the   
crown occurs in a curious  legend of the
 disposition and banishment of ,odin4   
,offended at his  misdeeds1 the other   
gods outlawed and exiled him1 but set up
 in his place  a substitute1 ,oller by  
name1 a cunning wizard1 to whom they    
accorded the  symbols both of royalty   
and of godhead4 ,the deputy bore the    

name of ,odin1  and reigned for nearly  
ten years1 when he was driven from the  
throne1  while the real ,odin came to   
his own again4 ,his discomfited rival   
retired  to ,sweden and was afterwards  
slain in an attempt to repair his       
shattered  fortunes47#aaa7 ,as gods are 
often merely men who loom large through 
the  mists of tradition1 we may         
conjecture that this ,norse legend      
preserves a  confused reminiscence of   
ancient ,swedish kings who reigned for  
nine or ten  years together1 then       
abdicated1 delegating to others the     
privilege of  dying for their country4  
,the great festival which was held at   
,upsala every  nine years may have been 
the occasion on which the king or his   
deputy was  put to death4 ,we know that 
human sacrifices formed part of the     
rites47#aab7           #d4 ,octennial   
,tenure of the ,kingship4      7,m#db7  
,there are some grounds for believing   
that the reign of many ancient  ,greek  
kings was limited to eight years1 or at 

least that at the end of  every period  
of eight years a new consecration1 a    
fresh outpouring of the  divine grace1  
was regarded as necessary in order to   
enable them to  discharge their civil   
and religious duties4 ,thus it was a    
rule of the  ,spartan constitution that 
every eighth year the ephors should     
choose a  clear and moonless night and  
sitting down observe the sky in silence4
 ,if  during their vigil they saw a     
meteor or shooting star1 they inferred  
that  the king had sinned against the   
deity1 and they suspended him from his  
functions until the ,delphic or ,olympic
 oracle should reinstate him in  them4  
,this custom1 which has all the air of  
great antiquity1 was not  suffered to   
remain a dead letter even in the last   
period of the ,spartan  monarchy2 for in
 the third century before our era a     
king1 who had rendered  himself         
obnoxious to the reforming party1 was   
actually deposed on various  trumped-up 
charges1 among which the allegation that

 the ominous sign had  been seen in the 
sky took a prominent place47#aac7 ,when 
we compare this  custom with the        
evidence to be presently adduced of an  
eight years' tenure  of the kingship in 
,greece1 we shall probably agree with   
,k4 ,o4 ,mller7#aad7  that the quaint   
,spartan practice was much more than a  
mere antiquarian  curiosity2 it was the 
attenuated survival of an institution   
which may once  have had great          
significance1 and it throws an important
 light on the  restrictions and         
limitations anciently imposed by        
religion on the ,dorian  kingship4 ,what
 exactly was the import of a meteor in  
the opinion of the  old ,dorians we can 
hardly hope to determine2 one thing only
 is clear1 they  regarded it as a       
portent of so ominous and threatening a 
kind that its  appearance under certain 
circumstances justified and even        
required the  deposition of their king4 
,this exaggerated dread of so simple a  
natural  phenomenon is shared by many   

savages at the present day2 and we shall
  hardly err in supposing that the      
,spartans inherited it from their       
barbarous ancestors1 who may have       
watched with consternation1 on many a   
starry night among the woods of         
,germany1 the flashing of a meteor      
through  the sky4 ,it may be well1 even 
at the cost of a digression1 to         
illustrate  this primitive superstition 
by examples4    7,m#dc7 ,thus1 shooting 
stars and meteors are viewed with       
apprehension by the  natives of the     
,andaman ,islands1 who suppose them to  
be lighted faggots  hurled into the air 
by the malignant spirit of the woods in 
order to  ascertain the whereabouts of  
any unhappy wight in his vicinity4      
,hence if  they happen to be away from  
their camp when the meteor is seen1 they
 hide  themselves and remain silent for 
a little before they venture to resume  
the work they were at2 for example1 if  
they are out fishing they will  crouch  
at the bottom of the boat47#aae7 ,the   

natives of the ,tully ,river in         
,queensland believe falling stars to be 
the fire-sticks carried about by  the   
spirits of dead enemies4 ,when they see 
one shooting through the air  they take 
it as a sign that an enemy is near1 and 
accordingly they shout  and make as much
 noise as they can2 next morning they   
all go out in the  direction in which   
the star fell and look for the tracks of
 their  foe47#aaf7 ,the ,turrbal tribe  
of ,queensland thought that a falling   
star was  a medicine-man flying through 
the air and dropping his fire-stick to  
kill  somebody2 if there was a sick man 
in the camp1 they regarded him as       
doomed47#aag7 ,the ,ngarigo of ,new     
,south ,wales believed the fall of a    
meteor  to betoken the place where their
 foes were mustering for war47#aah7 ,the
  ,kaitish tribe of central ,australia  
imagine that the fall of a star marks   
the whereabouts of a man who has killed 
another by means of a magical           
pointing-stick or bone4 ,if a member of 

any group has been killed in this  way1 
his friends watch for the descent of a  
meteor1 march in that  direction1 slay  
an enemy there1 and leave his body lying
 on the ground4  ,the friends of the    
murdered man understand what has        
happened1 and bury his  body where the  
star fell2 for they recognise the spot  
by the softness of  the earth47#aai7    
,the ,mara tribe of northern ,australia 
suppose a falling  star to be one of two
 hostile spirits1 father and son1 who   
live up in the  sky and come down       
occasionally to do harm to men4 ,in this
 tribe the  profession of medicine-man  
is strictly hereditary in the stock     
which has  the falling star for its     
totem27#abj7 if these wizards had ever  
developed  into kings1 the descent of a 
meteor at certain times might have had  
the  same fatal significance for them as
 for the kings of ,sparta4 ,the ,taui   
,islanders1 to the west of the ,bismarck
 ,archipelago1 make war in the          
direction in which they have observed a 

star to fall17#aba7 probably for a      
reason like that which induces the      
,kaitish to do the same4    7,m#dd7     
,when the ,baronga of south ,africa see 
a shooting star they spit on  the ground
 to avert the evil omen1 and cry1 8,go  
away6 go away all alone60  ,by this they
 mean that the light1 which is so soon  
to disappear1 is not to  take them with 
it1 but to go and die by itself47#abb7  
,so when a ,masai  perceives the flash  
of a meteor he spits several times and  
says1 8,be lost6  go in the direction of
 the enemy60 after which he adds1 8,stay
 away from  me407#abc7 ,the ,namaquas   
8are greatly afraid of the meteor which 
is vulgarly  called a falling star1 for 
they consider it a sign that sickness is
 coming  upon the cattle1 and to escape 
it they will immediately drive them to  
some  other parts of the country4 ,they 
call out to the star how many cattle    
they  have1 and beg of it not to send   
sickness407#abd7 ,the ,bechuanas are    
also  much alarmed at the appearance of 

a meteor4 ,if they happen to be dancing 
in the open air at the time1 they will  
instantly desist and retire hastily  to 
their huts47#abe7 ,the ,ewe negroes of  
,guinea regard a falling star as a      
powerful divinity1 and worship it as one
 of their national gods1 by the  name of
 ,nyikpla or ,nyigbla4 ,in their opinion
 the falling star is  especially a      
war-god who marches at the head of the  
host and leads it to  victory1 riding   
like ,castor and ,pollux on horseback4  
,but he is also a  rain-god1 and the    
showers are sent by him from the sky4   
,special priests  are devoted to his    
worship1 with a chief priest at their   
head1 who resides  in the capital4 ,they
 are known by the red staves which they 
carry and by  the high-pointed caps1    
woven of threads and palm-leaves1 which 
they wear  on their heads4 ,in times of 
drought they call upon their god by     
night with  wild howls4 ,once a year an 
ox is sacrificed to him at the capital1 
and the  priests consume the flesh4 ,on 

this occasion the people smear          
themselves  with the pollen of a certain
 plant and go in procession through the 
towns  and villages1 singing1 dancing1  
and beating drums47#abf7    7,m#de7 ,by 
some ,indians of ,california meteors    
were called 8children of the  moon10 and
 whenever young women saw one of them   
they fell to the ground  and covered    
their heads1 fearing that1 if the meteor
 saw them1 their faces  would become    
ugly and diseased47#abg7 ,the           
,tarahumares of ,mexico fancy that  a   
shooting star is a dead sorcerer coming 
to harm a man who harmed him in  life4  
,hence when they see one they huddle    
together and scream for  terror47#abh7  
,when a ,german traveller was living    
with the ,bororos of  central ,brazil1 a
 splendid meteor fell1 spreading dismay 
through the  ,indian village4 ,it was   
believed to be the soul of a dead       
medicine-man1 who  suddenly appeared in 
this form to announce that he wanted    
meat1 and that1  as a preliminary       

measure1 he proposed to visit somebody  
with an attack of  dysentery4 ,its      
appearance was greeted with yells from a
 hundred throats3  men1 women1 and      
children swarmed out of their huts like 
ants whose nest  has been disturbed2 and
 soon watch-fires blazed1 round which at
 a little  distance groups of dusky     
figures gathered1 while in the middle1  
thrown  into strong relief by the       
flickering light of the fire1 two       
red-painted  sorcerers reeled and       
staggered in a state of frantic         
excitement1 snorting  and spitting      
towards the quarter of the sky where the
 meteor had run its  brief but brilliant
 course4 ,pressing his right hand to his
 yelling mouth1  each of them held aloft
 in his extended left1 by way of        
propitiating the  angry star1 a bundle  
of cigarettes4 8,there60 they seemed to 
say1 8all that  tobacco will we give to 
ward off the impending visitation4 ,woe 
to you1 if  you do not leave us in      
peace407#abi7 ,the ,lengua ,indians of  

the ,gran ,chaco  also stand in great   
fear of meteors1 imagining them to be   
stones hurled  from heaven at the wicked
 sorcerers who have done people to death
 by their  charms47#acj7 ,when the      
,abipones beheld a meteor flashing or   
heard thunder  rolling in the sky1 they 
imagined that one of their medicine-men 
had died1  and that the flash of light  
and the peal of thunder were part of his
  funeral honours47#aca7    7,m#df7     
,when the ,laughlan ,islanders see a    
shooting star they make a great  noise1 
for they think it is the old woman who  
lives in the moon coming  down to earth 
to catch somebody1 who may relieve her  
of her duties in the  moon while she    
goes away to the happy                  
spirit-land47#acb7 ,in ,vedic ,india a  
meteor was believed to be the embodiment
 of a demon1 and on its appearance      
certain hymns or incantations1 supposed 
to possess the power of killing  demons1
 were recited for the purpose of        
expiating the prodigy47#acc7 ,to  this  

day in ,india1 when women see a falling 
star1 they spit thrice to  scare the    
demon47#acd7 ,some of the ,esthonians at
 the present time regard  shooting stars
 as evil spirits47#ace7 ,it is a        
,mohammedan belief that  falling stars  
are demons or jinn who have attempted to
 scale the sky1 and1  being repulsed by 
the angels with stones1 are hurled      
headlong1 flaming1  from the celestial  
vault4 ,hence every true believer at    
sight of a meteor  should say1 8,i take 
refuge with ,god from the stoned        
devil407#acf7    7,m#dg7 ,a widespread  
superstition1 of which some examples    
have already been  given1 associates    
meteors or falling stars with the souls 
of the dead4  ,often they are believed  
to be the spirits of the departed on    
their way to  the other world4 ,the     
,maoris imagine that at death the soul  
leaves the body  and goes to the nether 
world in the form of a falling          
star47#acg7 ,the  ,kingsmill ,islanders 
deemed a shooting star an omen of death 

to some member  of the family which     
occupied the part of the council-house  
nearest to the  point of the sky whence 
the meteor took its flight4 ,if the star
 was  followed by a train of light1 it  
foretold the death of a woman2 if not1  
the death of a man47#ach7 ,when the     
,wotjobaluk tribe of ,victoria see a    
shooting star1 they think it is falling 
with the heart of a man who has  been   
caught by a sorcerer and deprived of his
 fat47#aci7 ,one evening when  ,mr4     
,howitt was talking with an ,australian 
black1 a bright meteor was seen         
shooting through the sky4 ,the native   
watched it and remarked1 8,an old       
blackfellow has fallen down             
there407#adj7 ,among the ,yerrunthally  
tribe of  ,queensland the ideas on this 
subject were even more definite4 ,they  
thought  that after death they went to a
 place away among the stars1 and that to
  reach it they had to climb up a rope2 
when they had clambered up they let  go 
the rope1 which1 as it fell from heaven1

 appeared to people on earth as  a      
falling star47#ada7 ,the natives of the 
,prince of ,wales ,islands1 off         
,queensland1 are much afraid of shooting
 stars1 for they believe them to be     
ghosts which1 in breaking up1 produce   
young ones of their own kind47#adb7     
,the natives of the ,gazelle ,peninsula 
in ,new ,britain think that meteors are 
the souls of people who have been       
murdered or eaten2 so at the sight of a 
meteor flashing they cry out1 8,the     
ghost of a murdered man607#adc7         
,according to the ,sulka of ,new        
,britain meteors are souls which have   
been  flung into the air in order to    
plunge into the sea2 and the train of   
light  which they leave behind them is a
 burning tail of dry coco-nut leaves    
which has been tied to them by other    
souls1 in order to help them to wing    
their way through the air47#add7 ,the   
,caffres of ,south ,africa often say    
that  a shooting star is the sign of the
 death of some chief1 and at sight of it

  they will spit on the ground as a mark
 of friendly feeling towards the  dead  
man47#ade7 ,similarly the ,ababua of the
 ,congo valley think that a chief  will 
die in the village into which a star    
appears to fall1 unless the  danger of  
death be averted by a particular        
dance47#adf7 ,in the opinion of  the    
,masai1 the fall of a meteor signifies  
the death of some one2 at sight  of it  
they pray that the victim may be one of 
their enemies47#adg7 ,the  ,wambugwe of 
eastern ,africa fancy that the stars are
 men1 of whom one dies  whenever a star 
is seen to fall47#adh7 ,the ,tinneh     
,indians and the ,tchiglit  ,esquimaux  
of north-western ,america believe that  
human life on earth is  influenced by   
the stars1 and they take a shooting star
 to be a sign that  some one has        
died47#adi7 ,the ,lolos1 an aboriginal  
tribe of western ,china1  hold that for 
each person on earth there is a         
corresponding star in the  sky4 ,hence  
when a man is ill1 they sacrifice wine  

to his star and light  four and twenty  
lamps outside of his room4 ,on the day  
after the funeral  they dig a hole in   
the chamber of death and pray the dead  
man's star to  descend and be buried in 
it4 ,if this precaution were not taken1 
the star  might fall and hit somebody   
and hurt him very much47#aej7 ,in       
classical  antiquity there was a popular
 notion that every human being had his  
own  star in the sky1 which shone bright
 or dim according to his good or evil   
fortune1 and fell in the form of a      
meteor when he died47#aea7    7,m#dh7   
,superstitions of the same sort are     
still commonly to be met with in        
,europe4 ,thus in some parts of ,germany
 they say that at the birth of a man  a 
new star is set in the sky1 and that as 
it burns brilliantly or faintly  he     
grows rich or poor2 finally when he dies
 it drops from the sky in the  likeness 
of a shooting star47#aeb7 ,similarly in 
,brittany1 ,transylvania1  ,bohemia1 the
 ,abruzzi1 the ,romagna1 and the        

,esthonian island of ,oesel it is       
thought by some that every man has his  
own particular star in the sky1 and     
that when it falls in the shape of a    
meteor he expires47#aec7 ,a like belief 
is entertained by ,polish ,jews47#aed7  
,in ,styria they say that when a        
shooting star is seen a man has just    
died1 or a poor soul been released  from
 purgatory47#aee7 ,the ,esthonians      
believe that if any one sees a falling  
star on ,new ,year's night he will die  
or be visited by a serious illness  that
 year47#aef7 ,in ,belgium and many parts
 of ,france the people suppose  that a  
meteor is a soul which has just quitted 
the body1 sometimes that it  is         
specially the soul of an unbaptized     
infant or of some one who has died      
without absolution4 ,at sight of it they
 say that you should cross yourself  and
 pray1 or that if you wish for something
 while the star is falling you  will be 
sure to get it47#aeg7 ,among the ,vosges
 ,mountains in the warm nights  of ,july

 it is not uncommon to see whole showers
 of shooting stars4 ,it is  generally   
agreed that these stars are souls1 but  
some difference of  opinion exists as to
 whether they are souls just taking     
leave of earth1 or  tortured by the     
fires of purgatory1 or on their passage 
from purgatory to  heaven47#aeh7 ,the   
last and most cheering of these views is
 held by the  ,french peasantry of      
,beauce and ,perche and by the ,italian 
peasantry of the  ,abruzzi1 and         
charitable people pray for the          
deliverance of a soul at the  sight of a
 falling star47#aei7 ,the downward      
direction of its flight might  naturally
 suggest a different goal2 and          
accordingly other people have seen  in  
the transient flame of a meteor the     
descent of a soul from heaven to be     
born on earth4 ,in the ,punjaub1 for    
example1 ,hindoos believe that the      
length of a soul's residence in the     
realms of bliss is exactly  proportioned
 to the sums which the man distributed  

in charity during his  life2 and that   
when these are exhausted his time in    
heaven is up1 and down  he comes47#afj7 
,in ,polynesia a shooting star was held 
to be the flight of a  spirit1 and to   
presage the birth of a great            
prince47#afa7 ,the ,mandans of  north   
,america fancied that the stars were    
dead people1 and that when a  woman was 
brought to bed a star fell from heaven1 
and entering into her  was born as a    
child47#afb7 ,on the ,biloch frontier of
 the ,punjaub each man  is held to have 
his star1 and he may not journey in     
particular directions  when his star is 
in certain positions4 ,if duty compels  
him to travel in  the forbidden         
direction1 he takes care before setting 
out to bury his  star1 or rather a      
figure of it cut out of cloth1 so that  
it may not see  what he is doing47#afc7 
7,m#di7 ,which1 if any1 of these        
superstitions moved the barbarous       
,dorians of  old to depose their kings  
whenever at a certain season a meteor   

flamed in  the sky1 we cannot say4      
,perhaps they had a vague general notion
 that its  appearance signified the     
dissatisfaction of the higher powers    
with the  state of the commonwealth2 and
 since in primitive society the king is 
commonly held responsible for all       
untoward events1 whatever their origin1 
the natural course was to relieve him of
 duties which he had proved  himself    
incapable of discharging4 ,but it may be
 that the idea in the minds  of these   
rude barbarians was more definite4      
,possibly1 like some people in  ,europe 
at the present day1 they thought that   
every man had his star in the  sky1 and 
that he must die when it fell4 ,the king
 would be no exception to  the rule1 and
 on a certain night of a certain year1  
at the end of a cycle1  it might be     
customary to watch the sky in order to  
mark whether the king's  star was still 
in the ascendant or near its setting4   
,the appearance of a  meteor on such a  
night--of a star precipitated from the  

celestial  vault--might prove for the   
king not merely a symbol but a sentence 
of  death4 ,it might be the warrant for 
his execution4    7,m#ej7 ,if the tenure
 of the regal office was formerly       
limited among the  ,spartans to eight   
years1 we may naturally ask1 why was    
that precise period  selected as the    
measure of a king's reign8 ,the reason  
is probably to be  found in those       
astronomical considerations which       
determined the early  ,greek calendar4  
,the difficulty of reconciling lunar    
with solar time is one  of the standing 
puzzles which has taxed the ingenuity of
 men who are  emerging from barbarism4  
,now an octennial cycle is the shortest 
period at  the end of which sun and moon
 really mark time together after        
overlapping1  so to say1 throughout the 
whole of the interval4 ,thus1 for       
example1 it is  only once in every eight
 years that the full moon coincides with
 the  longest or shortest day2 and as   
this coincidence can be observed with   

the  aid of a simple dial1 the          
observation is naturally one of the     
first to  furnish a base for a calendar 
which shall bring lunar and solar times 
into  tolerable1 though not exact1      
harmony47#afd7 ,but in early days the   
proper  adjustment of the calendar is a 
matter of religious concern1 since on it
  depends a knowledge of the right      
seasons for propitiating the deities    
whose favour is indispensable to the    
welfare of the community47#afe7 ,no     
wonder1 therefore1 that the king1 as the
 chief priest of the state1 or as       
himself a god1 should be liable to      
deposition or death at the end of an    
astronomical period4 ,when the great    
luminaries had run their course on      
high1 and were about to renew the       
heavenly race1 it might well be thought 
that the king should renew his divine   
energies1 or prove them unabated1  under
 pain of making room for a more vigorous
 successor4 ,in southern  ,india1 as we 
have seen1 the king's reign and life    

terminated with the  revolution of the  
planet ,jupiter round the sun4 ,in      
,greece1 on the other  hand1 the king's 
fate seems to have hung in the balance  
at the end of  every eight years1 ready 
to fly up and kick the beam as soon as  
the  opposite scale was loaded with a   
falling star4    7,m#ea7 ,the same train
 of thought may explain an ancient      
,greek custom which  appears to have    
required that a homicide should be      
banished his country1  and do penance   
for a period of eight or nine           
years47#aff7 ,with the  beginning of a  
new cycle or great year1 as it was      
called1 it might be  thought that all   
nature was regenerate1 all old scores   
wiped out4  ,according to ,pindar1 the  
dead whose guilt had been purged away by
 an abode  of eight years in the nether 
world were born again on earth in the   
ninth  year as glorious kings1 athletes1
 and sages47#afg7 ,the doctrine may well
 be  an old popular belief rather than a
 mere poetical fancy4 ,if so1 it would  

supply a fresh reason for the banishment
 of a homicide during the years  that   
the angry ghost of his victim might at  
any moment issue from its  prison-house 
and pounce on him4 ,once the perturbed  
spirit had been happily  reborn1 he     
might be supposed to forgive1 if not to 
forget1 the man who had  done him an    
injury in a former life4    7,m#eb7     
,whatever its origin may have been1 the 
cycle of eight years appears  to have   
coincided with the normal length of the 
king's reign in other  parts of ,greece 
besides ,sparta4 ,thus ,minos1 king of  
,cnossus in ,crete1  whose great palace 
has been unearthed in recent years1 is  
said to have  held office for periods of
 eight years together4 ,at the end of   
each period  he retired for a season to 
the oracular cave on ,mount ,ida1 and   
there  communed with his divine father  
,zeus1 giving him an account of his     
kingship in the years that were past1   
and receiving from him instructions  for
 his guidance in those which were to    

come47#afh7 ,the tradition plainly      
implies that at the end of every eight  
years the king's sacred powers  needed  
to be renewed by intercourse with the   
godhead1 and that without  such a       
renewal he would have forfeited his     
right to the throne4 ,we may  surmise   
that among the solemn ceremonies which  
marked the beginning or the  end of the 
eight years' cycle the sacred marriage  
of the king with the  queen played an   
important part1 and that in this        
marriage we have the true  explanation  
of the strange legend of ,pasiphae and  
the bull4 ,it was said  that ,pasiphae1 
the wife of ,king ,minos1 fell in love  
with a wondrous white  bull which rose  
from the sea1 and that in order to      
gratify her unnatural  passion the      
artist ,daedalus constructed a hollow   
wooden cow1 covered with  a cow's hide1 
in which the love-sick queen was hidden 
while the bull  mounted it4 ,the result 
of their union was the ,minotaur1 a     
monster with the  body of a man and the 

head of a bull1 whom the king shut up in
 the  labyrinth1 a building full of such
 winding and intricate passages that the
  prisoner might roam in it for ever    
without finding the way out47#afi7 ,the 
legend appears to reflect a mythical    
marriage of the sun and moon1 which  was
 acted as a solemn rite by the king and 
queen of ,cnossus1 wearing the  masks of
 a bull and cow respectively47#agj7 ,to 
a pastoral people a bull is  the most   
natural type of vigorous reproductive   
energy17#aga7 and as such is  a fitting 
emblem of the sun4 ,islanders who1 like 
many of the ,cretans1 see  the sun daily
 rising from the sea1 might readily     
compare him to a white  bull issuing    
from the waves4 ,indeed1 we are         
expressly told that the  ,cretans called
 the sun a bull47#agb7 ,similarly in    
ancient ,egypt the sacred  bull ,mnevis 
of ,heliopolis 7the ,city of the ,sun7  
was deemed an incarnation  of the       
,sun-god17#agc7 and for thousands of    
years the kings of ,egypt  delighted to 

be styled 8mighty bull02 many of them   
inscribed the title on  their serekh or 
cognisance1 which set forth their names 
in their  character of descendants of   
,horus47#agd7 ,the identification of    
,pasiphae1  8she who shines on all10    
with the moon was made long ago by      
,pausanias1 who  saw her image along    
with that of the sun in a sanctuary on  
that wild rocky  coast of ,messenia     
where the great range of ,taygetus      
descends seaward in a  long line of     
naked crags47#age7 ,the horns of the    
waxing or waning moon  naturally suggest
 the resemblance of the luminary to a   
white cow2 hence  the ancients          
represented the goddess of the moon     
drawn by a team of white  cattle47#agf7 
,when we remember that at the court of  
,egypt the king and  queen figured as   
god and goddess in solemn masquerades1  
where the parts of  animal-headed       
deities were played by masked men and   
women17#agg7 we need  have no difficulty
 in imagining that similar dramas may   

have been  performed at the court of a  
,cretan king1 whether we suppose them to
 have  been imported from ,egypt or to  
have had an independent origin4         
7,m#ec7 ,the stories of ,zeus and       
,europa1 and of ,minos and ,britomartis 
or  ,dictynna appear to be only         
different expressions of the same myth1 
different echoes of the same custom4    
,the moon rising from the sea was the   
fair maiden ,europa coming across the   
heaving billows from the far eastern    
land of ,phoenicia1 borne or pursued by 
her suitor the solar bull4 ,the moon    
setting in the western waves was the coy
 ,britomartis or ,dictynna1 who  plunged
 into the sea to escape the warm embrace
 of her lover ,minos1  himself the sun4 
,the story how the drowning maiden was  
drawn up in a  fisherman's net may well 
be1 as some have thought1 the           
explanation given  by a simple seafaring
 folk of the moon's reappearance from   
the sea in the  east after she had sunk 
into it in the west47#agh7 ,to the      

mythical fancy of  the ancients the moon
 was a coy or a wanton maiden1 who      
either fled from  or pursued the sun    
every month till the fugitive was       
overtaken and the  lovers enjoyed each  
other's company at the time when the    
luminaries are in  conjunction1 namely1 
in the interval between the old and the 
new moon4  ,hence on the principles of  
sympathetic magic that interval was     
considered  the time most favourable for
 human marriages4 ,when the sun and moon
 are  wedded in the sky1 men and women  
should be wedded on earth4 ,and for the 
same reason the ancients chose the      
interlunar day for the celebration of   
the ,sacred ,marriages of gods and      
goddesses4 ,similar beliefs and customs 
based on them have been noted among     
other peoples47#agi7 ,it is likely1     
therefore1 that a king and queen who    
represented the sun and moon may have   
been expected to exercise their conjugal
 rights above all at the time when  the 
moon was thought to rest in the arms of 

the sun4 ,however that may have  been1  
it would be natural that their union    
should be consummated with  unusual     
solemnity every eight years1 when the   
two great luminaries1 so to  say1 meet  
and mark time together once more after  
diverging from each other  more or less 
throughout the interval4 ,it is true    
that sun and moon are in  conjunction   
once every month1 but every month their 
conjunction takes  place at a different 
point in the sky1 until eight revolving 
years have  brought them together again 
in the same heavenly bridal chamber     
where  first they met4    7,m#ed7       
,without being unduly rash we may       
surmise that the tribute of seven       
youths and seven maidens whom the       
,athenians were bound to send to ,minos 
every eight years had some connexion    
with the renewal of the king's power    
for another octennial cycle4 ,traditions
 varied as to the fate which  awaited   
the lads and damsels on their arrival in
 ,crete2 but the common  view appears to

 have been that they were shut up in the
 labyrinth1 there  to be devoured by the
 ,minotaur1 or at least to be imprisoned
 for  life47#ahj7 ,perhaps they were    
sacrificed by being roasted alive in a  
bronze  image of a bull1 or of a        
bull-headed man1 in order to renew the  
strength  of the king and of the sun1   
whom he personated4 ,this at all events 
is  suggested by the legend of ,talos1 a
 bronze man who clutched people to his  
breast and leaped with them into the    
fire1 so that they were roasted  alive4 
,he is said to have been given by ,zeus 
to ,europa1 or by ,hephaestus  to       
,minos1 to guard the island of ,crete1  
which he patrolled thrice  daily47#aha7 
,according to one account he was a      
bull17#ahb7 according to  another he was
 the sun47#ahc7 ,probably he was        
identical with the ,minotaur1  and      
stripped of his mythical features was   
nothing but a bronze image of  the sun  
represented as a man with a bull's head4
 ,in order to renew the  solar fires1   

human victims may have been sacrificed  
to the idol by being  roasted in its    
hollow body or placed on its sloping    
hands and allowed to  roll into a pit of
 fire4 ,it was in the latter fashion    
that the  ,carthaginians sacrificed     
their offspring to ,moloch4 ,the        
children were laid  on the hands of a   
calf-headed image of bronze1 from which 
they slid into a  fiery oven1 while the 
people danced to the music of flutes and
 timbrels to  drown the shrieks of the  
burning victims47#ahd7 ,the resemblance 
which the  ,cretan traditions bear to   
the ,carthaginian practice suggests that
 the  worship associated with the names 
of ,minos and the ,minotaur may have    
been  powerfully influenced by that of a
 ,semitic ,baal47#ahe7 ,in the tradition
 of  ,phalaris1 tyrant of ,agrigentum1  
and his brazen bull7#ahf7 we may have an
  echo of similar rites in ,sicily1     
where the ,carthaginian power struck    
deep  roots4    7,m#ee7 ,but perhaps the
 youths and maidens who were sent across

 the sea to  ,cnossus had to perform    
certain religious duties before they    
were cast into  the fiery furnace4 ,the 
same cunning artist ,daedalus who       
planned the  labyrinth and contrived the
 wooden cow for ,pasiphae was said to   
have made  a dance for ,ariadne1        
daughter of ,minos4 ,it represented     
youths and maidens  dancing in ranks1   
the youths armed with golden swords1 the
 maidens crowned  with garlands47#ahg7  
,moreover1 when ,theseus landed with    
,ariadne in ,delos on  his return from  
,crete1 he and the young companions whom
 he had rescued  from the ,minotaur are 
said to have danced a mazy dance in     
imitation of the  intricate windings of 
the labyrinth2 on account of its sinuous
 turns the  dance was called 8the       
,crane407#ahh7 ,taken together1 these   
two traditions  suggest that the youths 
and maidens who were sent to ,cnossus   
had to dance  in the labyrinth before   
they were sacrificed to the bull-headed 
image4 ,at  all events there are good   

grounds for thinking that there was a   
famous  dance which the ancients        
regularly associated with the ,cretan   
labyrinth4    7,m#ef7 ,among the ,romans
 that dance appears to have been known  
from the  earliest times by the name of 
,troy or the ,game of ,troy4 ,tradition 
ran that  it was imported into ,italy by
 ,aeneas1 who transmitted it through his
 son  ,ascanius to the ,alban kings1 who
 in their turn handed it down to the    
,romans4 ,it was performed by bands of  
armed youths on horseback4 ,virgil      
compares their complicated evolutions to
 the windings of the ,cretan            
labyrinth27#ahi7 and that the comparison
 is more than a mere poetical  flourish 
appears from a drawing on a very ancient
 ,etruscan vase found at  ,tragliatella4
 ,the drawing represents a procession of
 seven beardless  warriors dancing1     
accompanied by two armed riders on      
horseback1 who are  also beardless4 ,an 
inscription proves that the scene       
depicted is the ,game  of ,troy2 and    

attached to the procession is a figure  
of the ,cretan  labyrinth17#aij7 the    
pattern of which is well known from     
coins of ,cnossus  on which it is often 
represented47#aia7 ,the same pattern1   
identified by an  inscription1          
8,labyrinthus1 hic habitat ,minotaurus10
 is scratched on a  wall at ,pompeii2   
and it is also worked in mosaic on the  
floor of ,roman  apartments1 with the   
figures of ,theseus and the ,minotaur in
 the  middle47#aib7 ,roman boys appear  
to have drawn the very same pattern on  
the  ground and to have played a game on
 it1 probably a miniature ,game of      
,troy47#aic7 ,labyrinths of similar type
 occur as decorations on the floors  of 
old churches1 where they are known as   
8the ,road of ,jerusalem02 they  were   
used for processions4 ,the garden mazes 
of the ,renaissance were  modelled on   
them4 ,moreover1 they are found very    
commonly in the north of  ,europe1      
marked out either by raised bands of    
turf or by rows of stones4  ,such       

labyrinths may be seen in ,norway1      
,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,finnland1 the  south
 coast of ,russian ,lappland1 and even  
in ,iceland4 ,they go by various  names1
 such as ,babylon1 ,wieland's ,house1   
,trojeborg1 ,trburg1 and so forth1  some
 of which clearly indicate their        
connexion with the ancient ,game of     
,troy4 ,they are used for children's    
games47#aid7    7,m#eg7 ,a dance or game
 which has thus spread over ,europe and 
survived in a  fashion to modern times  
must have been very popular1 and bearing
 in mind  how often with the decay of   
old faiths the serious rites and        
pageants of  grown people have          
degenerated into the sports of children1
 we may  reasonably ask whether         
,ariadne's ,dance or the ,game of ,troy 
may not have  had its origin in         
religious ritual4 ,the ancients         
connected it with ,cnossus  and the     
,minotaur4 ,now we have seen reason to  
hold1 with many other  scholars1 that   
,cnossus was the seat of a great worship

 of the sun1 and  that the ,minotaur was
 a representative or embodiment of the  
sun-god4 ,may  not1 then1 ,ariadne's    
dance have been an imitation of the     
sun's course in  the sky8 and may not   
its intention have been1 by means of    
sympathetic  magic1 to aid the great    
luminary to run his race on high8 ,we   
have seen  that during an eclipse of the
 sun the ,chilcotin ,indians walk in a  
circle1  leaning on staves1 apparently  
to assist the labouring orb4 ,in ,egypt 
also  the king1 who embodied the        
sun-god1 seems to have solemnly walked  
round  the walls of a temple for the    
sake of helping the sun on his          
way47#aie7 ,if  there is any truth in   
this conjecture1 it would seem to follow
 that the  sinuous lines of the         
labyrinth which the dancers followed in 
their  evolutions may have represented  
the ecliptic1 the sun's apparent annual 
path in the sky4 ,it is some            
confirmation of this view that on coins 
of  ,cnossus the sun or a star appears  

in the middle of the labyrinth1 the     
place which on other coins is occupied  
by the ,minotaur47#aif7    7,m#eh7 ,on  
the whole the foregoing evidence1 slight
 and fragmentary as it  is1 points to   
the conclusion that at ,cnossus the king
 represented the  sun-god1 and that     
every eight years his divine powers were
 renewed at a  great festival1 which    
comprised1 first1 the sacrifice of human
 victims by  fire to a bull-headed image
 of the sun1 and1 second1 the marriage  
of the  king disguised as a bull to the 
queen disguised as a cow1 the two       
personating respectively the sun and the
 moon4    7,m#ei7 ,whatever may be      
thought of these speculations1 we know  
that many  solemn rites were celebrated 
by the ancient ,greeks at intervals of  
eight  years47#aig7 ,amongst them1 two  
deserve to be noticed here1 because it  
has  been recently suggested1 with some 
appearance of probability1 that they    
were based on an octennial tenure of the
 kingship47#aih7 ,one was the  ,festival

 of the ,crowning at ,delphi2 the other 
was the ,festival of the                
,laurel-bearing at ,thebes4 ,in their   
general features the two festivals seem 
to have resembled each other very       
closely4 ,both represented dramatically 
the slaying of a great water-dragon by a
 god or hero2 in both1 the lad who      
played the part of the victorious god or
 hero crowned his brows with a  wreath  
of sacred laurel and had to submit to a 
penance and purification  for the       
slaughter of the beast4 ,at ,delphi the 
legendary slayer of the  dragon was     
,apollo2 at ,thebes he was              
,cadmus47#aii7 ,at both places the      
legendary penance for the slaughter     
seems to have been servitude for eight  
years47#bjj7 ,the evidence for the rites
 of the ,delphic festival is fairly     
complete1 but for the ,theban festival  
it has to be eked out by                
vase-paintings1 which represent ,cadmus 
crowned with laurel preparing to  attack
 the dragon or actually in combat with  

the monster1 while goddesses  bend over 
the champion1 holding out wreaths of    
laurel to him as the mede  of           
victory47#bja7 ,it is true that in      
historical times ,apollo appears to     
have ousted ,cadmus from the festival1  
though not from the myth4 ,but at       
,thebes the god was plainly a late      
intruder1 for his temple lay outside the
  walls1 whereas the most ancient       
sanctuaries stood in the oldest part of 
the city1 the low hill which took its   
name of ,cadmea from the genuine        
,theban hero ,cadmus47#bjb7 ,it is not  
impossible that at ,delphi also1 and    
perhaps at other places where the same  
drama was acted17#bjc7 ,apollo may  have
 displaced an old local hero in the     
honourable office of  dragon-slayer4    
7,m#fj7 ,both at ,thebes and at ,delphi 
the dragon guarded a spring17#bjd7 the  
water of which was probably deemed      
oracular4 ,at ,delphi the sacred spring 
may have been either ,cassotis or the   
more famed ,castaly1 which issues from  

a narrow gorge1 shut in by rocky walls  
of tremendous height1 a little to  the  
east of ,apollo's temple4 ,the waters of
 both were thought to be endowed  with  
prophetic power47#bje7 ,probably1 too1  
the monster was supposed to keep  watch 
and ward over the sacred laurel1 from   
which the victor in the combat  wreathed
 his brows2 for in vase-paintings the   
,theban dragon appears coiled  beside   
the holy tree17#bjf7 and ,euripides     
describes the ,delphic dragon as        
covered by a leafy laurel47#bjg7 ,at all
 oracular seats of ,apollo his          
priestess drank of the sacred spring and
 chewed the sacred laurel before  she   
prophesied47#bjh7 ,thus it would seem   
that the dragon1 which at ,delphi  is   
expressly said to have been the guardian
 of the oracle17#bji7 had in its        
custody both the instruments of         
divination1 the holy tree and the holy  
water4 ,we are reminded of the dragon or
 serpent1 slain by ,hercules1 which     
guarded the golden apples of the        

,hesperides in the happy garden47#baj7  
,but  at ,delphi the oldest sacred tree 
appears1 as ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook has      
pointed  out17#baa7 to have been not a  
laurel but an oak4 ,for we are told that
  originally the victors in the ,pythian
 games at ,delphi wore crowns of oak    
leaves1 since the laurel had not yet    
been created47#bab7 ,now1 like the      
,festival of ,crowning1 the ,pythian    
games were instituted to commemorate the
  slaughter of the dragon27#bac7 like it
 they were originally held every  eighth
 year27#bad7 the two festivals were     
celebrated nearly at the same  time of  
the year27#bae7 and the representative  
of ,apollo in the one and the  victors  
in the other were adorned with crowns   
made from the same sacred  laurel47#baf7
 ,in short1 the two festivals appear to 
have been in origin  substantially      
identical2 the distinction between them 
may have arisen when  the ,delphians    
decided to hold the ,pythian games every
 fourth1 instead of  every eighth       

year47#bag7 ,we may fairly suppose1     
therefore1 that the  leaf-crowned       
victors in the ,pythian games1 like the 
laurel-wreathed boy in  the ,festival of
 ,crowning1 formerly acted the part of  
the god himself4 ,but  if in the        
beginning these actors in the sacred    
drama wore wreaths of oak  instead of   
laurel1 it seems to follow that the     
deity whom they personated  was the     
oak-god ,zeus rather than the laurel-god
 ,apollo2 from which again  we may infer
 that ,delphi was a sanctuary of ,zeus  
and the oak before it  became the shrine
 of ,apollo and the laurel47#bah7       
7,m#fa7 ,but why should the crown of oak
 have ceased to be the badge of         
victory8 and why should a wreath of     
laurel have taken its place8 ,the       
abandonment of the oak crown may have   
been a consequence of the  disappearance
 of the oak itself from the             
neighbourhood of ,delphi2 in  ,greece1  
as in ,italy1 the deciduous trees have  
for centuries been  retreating up the   

mountain sides before the advance of the
  evergreens47#bai7 ,when the last      
venerable oak1 the rustling of whose    
leaves  in the breeze had long been     
listened to as oracular1 finally        
succumbed  through age1 or was laid low 
by a storm1 the priests may have cast   
about  for a tree of another sort to    
take its place4 ,yet they sought it     
neither  in the lower woods of the      
valley nor in the dark forests which    
clothe the  upper slopes of ,parnassus  
above the frowning cliffs of ,delphi4   
,legend ran  that after the slaughter of
 the dragon1 ,apollo had purged himself 
from the  stain of blood in the romantic
 ,vale of ,tempe1 where the ,peneus     
flows  smoothly in a narrow defile      
between the lofty wooded steeps of      
,olympus and  ,ossa4 ,here the god      
crowned himself with a laurel wreath1   
and thither  accordingly at the         
,festival of ,crowning his human        
representative went to  pluck the laurel
 for his brows47#bbj7 ,the custom1      

though doubtless ancient1  can hardly   
have been original4 ,we must suppose    
that in the beginning the               
dragon-guarded tree1 whether an oak or a
 laurel1 grew at ,delphi itself4  ,but  
why should the laurel be chosen as a    
substitute for the oak8 ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4    
,cook has suggested a plausible answer4 
,the laurel leaf resembles so  closely  
the leaf of the ilex or holm-oak in both
 shape and colour that an  untrained    
observer may easily confuse the two4    
,the upper surface of both  is a dark   
glossy green1 the lower surface shews a 
lighter tint4 ,nothing1  therefore1     
could be more natural than to make the  
new wreath out of leaves  which looked  
so like the old oak leaves that the     
substitution might almost  pass         
undetected47#bba7    ,whether at        
,thebes1 as at ,delphi1 the laurel had  
ousted the oak from the  place of honour
 at the festival of the ,slaying of the 
,dragon1 we cannot  say4 ,the oak has   
long disappeared from the low hills and 

flat ground in  the neighbourhood of    
,thebes1 but as late as the second      
century of our era  there was a forest  
of ancient oaks not many miles off at   
the foot of ,mount  ,cithaeron47#bbb7   
7,m#fb7 ,it has been conjectured that in
 ancient days the persons who wore  the 
wreath of laurel or oak at the octennial
 festivals of ,delphi and  ,thebes were 
no other than the priestly kings1 who   
personated the god1 slew  their         
predecessors in the guise of dragons1   
and reigned for a time in  their        
stead47#bbc7 ,the theory certainly      
cannot be demonstrated1 but there  is a 
good deal of analogy in its favour4 ,an 
eight years' tenure of the  kingship at 
,delphi and ,thebes would accord with   
the similar tenure of the  office at    
,sparta and ,cnossus4 ,and if the kings 
of ,cnossus disguised  themselves as    
bulls1 there seems no reason why the    
kings of ,delphi and  ,thebes should not
 have personated dragons or serpents4   
,in all these cases  the animal whose   

guise the king assumed would be sacred  
to the royal  family4 ,at first the     
relation of the beast to the man would  
be direct and  simple2 the creature     
would be revered for some such reason as
 that for  which a savage respects a    
certain species of animals1 for example1
 because  he believes that his ancestors
 were beasts of the same sort1 or that  
the  souls of his dead are lodged in    
them4 ,in later times the sanctity of   
the  species would be explained by      
saying that a god had at some time1 and 
for  some reason or other1 assumed the  
form of the animal4 ,it is probably not 
without significance that in ,greek     
mythology the gods in general1 and ,zeus
  in particular1 are commonly said to   
have submitted to this change of shape  
for the purpose of prosecuting a love   
adventure4 ,such stories may well       
reflect a custom of a ,sacred ,marriage 
at which the actors played the parts  of
 the worshipful animals4 ,with the      
growth of culture these local  worships1

 the relics of a barbarous age1 would be
 explained away by tales  of the loves  
of the gods1 and1 gradually falling out 
of practice1 would  survive only as     
myths4    7,m#fc7 ,it is said that at   
the festival of the ,wolf-god ,zeus1    
held every  nine years on the           
,wolf-mountain in ,arcadia1 a man tasted
 of the bowel of a  human victim mixed  
with the bowels of animals1 and having  
tasted it he was  turned into a wolf1   
and remained a wolf for nine years1 when
 he changed  back again into a man if in
 the interval he had abstained from     
eating  human flesh47#bbd7 ,the         
tradition points to the existence of a  
society of  cannibal wolf-worshippers1  
one or more of whom personated1 and were
  supposed to embody1 the sacred animal 
for periods of nine years together4     
,their theory and practice would seem to
 have agreed with those of the  ,human  
,leopard ,societies of western ,africa1 
whose members disguise  themselves in   
the skins of leopards with sharp claws  

of steel4 ,in that  guise they attack   
and kill men in order to eat their flesh
 or to extract  powerful charms from    
their bodies47#bbe7 ,their mode of      
gaining recruits is  like that of the   
,greek ,wolf ,society4 ,when a visitor  
came to a village  inhabited by a       
,leopard ,society1 8he was invited to   
partake of food1 in  which was mixed a  
small quantity of human flesh4 ,the     
guest all  unsuspectingly partook of the
 repast1 and was afterwards told that   
human  flesh formed one of the          
ingredients of the meal1 and that it was
 then  necessary that he should join the
 society1 which was invariably          
done407#bbf7 ,as the ancient ,greeks    
thought that a man might be turned into 
a wolf1 so these negroes believe that he
 can be changed into a leopard2  and1   
like the ,greeks1 some of them fancy    
that if the transformed man  abstains   
during his transformation from preying  
on his fellows he can  regain his human 
shape1 but that if he once laps human   

blood he must  remain a leopard for     
ever47#bbg7    7,m#fd7 ,the hypothesis  
that the ancient kings of ,thebes and   
,delphi had for  their sacred animal the
 serpent or dragon1 and claimed kinship 
with the  creature1 derives some        
countenance from the tradition that at  
the end of  their lives ,cadmus and his 
wife ,harmonia quitted ,thebes and went 
to reign  over a tribe of ,encheleans or
 ,eel-men in ,illyria1 where they were  
both  finally transformed into dragons  
or serpents47#bbh7 ,to the primitive    
mind  an eel is a water-serpent27#bbi7  
it can hardly1 therefore1 be an accident
  that the serpent-killer afterwards    
reigned over a tribe of eel-men and     
himself became a serpent at last4       
,moreover1 according to one account1 his
  wife ,harmonia was a daughter of the  
very dragon which he slew47#bcj7 ,the   
tradition would fit in well with the    
hypothesis that the dragon or serpent   
was the sacred animal of the old royal  
house of ,thebes1 and that the  kingdom 

fell to him who slew his predecessor and
 married his daughter4 ,we  have seen   
reason to think that such a mode of     
succession to the throne was  common in 
antiquity47#bca7 ,the story of the final
 transformation of ,cadmus  and         
,harmonia into snakes may be a relic of 
a belief that the souls of the  dead    
kings and queens of ,thebes             
transmigrated into the bodies of        
serpents1  just as ,caffre kings turn at
 death into boa-constrictors or deadly  
black  snakes47#bcb7 ,indeed the notion 
that the souls of the dead lodge in     
serpents is widely spread in ,africa and
 ,madagascar47#bcc7 ,other ,african     
tribes believe that their dead kings and
 chiefs turn into lions1 leopards1      
hyaenas1 pythons1 hippopotamuses1 or    
other creatures1 and the animals are    
respected and spared accordingly47#bcd7 
,in like manner the ,semang and other   
wild tribes of the ,malay ,peninsula    
imagine that the souls of their chiefs1 
priests1 and magicians transmigrate at  

death into the bodies of certain  wild  
beasts1 such as elephants1 tigers1 and  
rhinoceroses1 and that in  their bestial
 form the dead men extend a benign      
protection to their living  human       
kinsfolk47#bce7 ,even during their      
lifetime kings in rude society          
sometimes claim kinship with the most   
formidable beasts of the country4  ,thus
 the royal family of ,dahomey specially 
worships the leopard2 some of  the      
king's wives are distinguished by the   
title of ,leopard ,wives1 and on  state 
occasions they wear striped cloths to   
resemble the animal47#bcf7 ,one  king of
 ,dahomey1 on whom the ,french made war1
 bore the name of ,shark2  hence in art 
he was represented sometimes with a     
shark's body and a human  head1         
sometimes with a human body and the head
 of a shark47#bcg7 ,the  ,trocadero     
,museum at ,paris contains the wooden   
images of three kings of  ,dahomey who  
reigned during the nineteenth century1  
and who are all  represented partly in  

human and partly in animal form4 ,one of
 them1 ,guezo1  bore the surname of the 
,cock1 and his image represents him as a
 man  covered with feathers4 ,his son   
,guelel1 who succeeded him on the       
throne1  was surnamed the ,lion1 and his
 effigy is that of a lion rampant with  
tail  raised and hair on his body1 but  
with human feet and hands4 ,guelel was  
succeeded on the throne by his son      
,behanzin1 who was surnamed the ,shark1 
and his effigy portrays him standing    
upright with the head and body of a     
fish1 the fins and scales being         
carefully represented1 while his arms   
and  legs are those of a man47#bch7     
,again1 a king of ,benin was called     
,panther1  and a bronze statue of him1  
now in the ,anthropological ,museum at  
,berlin1  represents him with a         
panther's whiskers47#bci7 ,such         
portraits furnish an  exact parallel to 
what ,i conceive to be the true story of
 the ,minotaur4 ,on  the ,gold ,coast of
 ,africa a powerful ruler is commonly   

addressed as 8,o  ,elephant60 or 8,o    
,lion60 and one of the titles of the    
king of ,ashantee1  mentioned at great  
ceremonies1 is borri1 the name of a     
venomous  snake47#bdj7 ,it has been     
argued that ,king ,david belonged to a  
serpent  family1 and that the brazen    
serpent1 which down to the time of      
,hezekiah  was worshipped with fumes of 
burning incense17#bda7 represented the  
old  sacred animal of his house47#bdb7  
,in ,europe the bull1 the serpent1 and  
the  wolf would naturally be on the list
 of royal beasts4    7,m#fe7 ,if the    
king's soul was believed to pass at     
death into the sacred  animal1 a custom 
might arise of keeping live creatures of
 the species in  captivity and revering 
them as the souls of dead rulers4 ,this 
would  explain the ,athenian practice of
 keeping a sacred serpent on the        
,acropolis  and feeding it with honey   
cakes2 for the serpent was identified   
with  ,erichthonius or ,erechtheus1 one 
of the ancient kings of ,athens1 of     

whose  palace some vestiges have been   
discovered in recent times4 ,the        
creature  was supposed to guard the     
citadel4 ,during the ,persian invasion a
 report  that the serpent had left its  
honey-cake untasted was one of the      
strongest  reasons which induced the    
people to abandon ,athens to the enemy2 
they  thought that the holy reptile had 
forsaken the city47#bdc7 ,again1        
,cecrops1  the first king of ,athens1 is
 said to have been half-serpent and     
half-man27#bdd7 in art he is represented
 as a man from the waist upwards1  while
 the lower part of his body consists of 
the coils of a serpent47#bde7  ,it has  
been suggested that like ,erechtheus he 
was identical with the  serpent on the  
,acropolis47#bdf7 ,once more1 we are    
told that ,cychreus gained  the kingdom 
of ,salamis by slaying a snake which    
ravaged the island17#bdg7  but that     
after his death he1 like ,cadmus1       
appeared in the form of the             
reptile47#bdh7 ,some said that he was a 

man who received the name of ,snake  on 
account of his cruelty47#bdi7 ,such     
tales may preserve reminiscences of     
kings who assumed the style of serpents 
in their lifetime and were  believed to 
transmigrate into serpents after death4 
,like the dragons of  ,thebes and       
,delphi1 the ,athenian serpent appears  
to have been conceived as  a creature of
 the waters2 for the serpent-man        
,erechtheus was identified  with the    
water-god ,poseidon17#bej7 and in his   
temple1 the ,erechtheum1 where  the     
serpent lived1 there was a tank which   
went by the name of 8the sea of         
,erechtheus407#bea7    7,m#ff7 ,if the  
explanation of the eight years' cycle   
which ,i have adopted  holds good for   
,thebes and ,delphi1 the octennial      
festivals held at these  places probably
 had some reference to the sun and moon1
 and may have  comprised a sacred       
marriage of these luminaries4 ,the solar
 character of  ,apollo1 whether original
 or adventitious1 lends some countenance

 to this  view1 but at both ,delphi and 
,thebes the god was apparently an       
intruder who  usurped the place of an   
older god or hero at the festival4 ,at  
,thebes that  older hero was ,cadmus4   
,now ,cadmus was a brother of ,europa1  
who appears to  have been a             
personification of the moon conceived in
 the form of a  cow47#beb7 ,he travelled
 westward seeking his lost sister till  
he came to  ,delphi1 where the oracle   
bade him give up the search and follow a
 cow  which had the white mark of the   
full moon on its flank2 wherever the cow
  fell down exhausted1 there he was to  
take up his abode and found a city4     
,following the cow and the directions of
 the oracle he built ,thebes47#bec7     
,have we not here in another form the   
myth of the moon pursued and at last    
overtaken by the sun8 and the famous    
wedding of ,cadmus and ,harmonia1 to    
attend which all the gods came down from
 heaven17#bed7 may it not have been  at 
once the mythical marriage of the great 

luminaries and the ritual  marriage of  
the king and queen of ,thebes           
masquerading1 like the king and  queen  
of ,cnossus1 in the character of the    
lights of heaven at the  octennial      
festival which celebrated and symbolised
 the conjunction of the  sun and moon   
after their long separation1 their      
harmony after eight years  of discord8  
,a better name for the bride at such a  
wedding could hardly  have been chosen  
than ,harmonia4    7,m#fg7 ,this theory 
is supported by a remarkable feature of 
the festival4 ,at  the head of the      
procession1 immediately in front of the 
,laurel-bearer1  walked a youth who     
carried in his hands a staff of         
olive-wood draped with  laurels and     
flowers4 ,to the top of the staff was   
fastened a bronze globe1  with smaller  
globes hung from it2 to the middle of   
the staff were attached  a globe of     
medium size and three hundred and       
sixty-five purple ribbands1  while the  
lower part of the staff was swathed in a

 saffron pall4 ,the  largest globe1 we  
are told1 signified the sun1 the smaller
 the moon1 and  the smallest the stars1 
and the purple ribbands stood for the   
course of  the year1 being equal in     
number to the days comprised in         
it47#bee7 ,the  choir of virgins who    
followed the ,laurel-bearer singing     
hymns7#bef7 may  have represented the   
,muses1 who are said to have sung and   
played at the  marriage of ,cadmus and  
,harmonia2 down to late times the very  
spot in the  market-place was shewn     
where they had discoursed their heavenly
  music47#beg7 ,we may conjecture that  
the procession of the ,laurel-bearing   
was preceded by a dramatic performance  
of the ,slaying of the ,dragon1 and     
that it was followed by a pageant       
representative of the nuptials of       
,cadmus  and ,harmonia in the presence  
of the gods4 ,on this hypothesis        
,harmonia1 the  wife of ,cadmus1 is only
 another form of his sister ,europa1    
both of them  being personifications of 

the moon4 ,accordingly in the           
,samothracian  mysteries1 in which the  
marriage of ,cadmus and ,harmonia       
appears to have  been celebrated1 it was
 ,harmonia and not ,europa whose        
wanderings were  dramatically           
represented47#beh7 ,the gods who quitted
 ,olympus to grace the  wedding by their
 presence were probably represented in  
the rites1 whether  celebrated at       
,thebes or in ,samothrace1 by men and   
women attired as  deities4 ,in like     
manner at the marriage of a ,pharaoh the
 courtiers  masqueraded in the likeness 
of the animal-headed ,egyptian          
gods47#bei7    ,within historical times 
the great ,olympic festival was always  
held at  intervals of four1 not of      
eight1 years4 ,yet it too would seem to 
have been  based on the octennial cycle4
 ,for it always fell on a full moon1 at 
intervals of fifty and of forty-nine    
lunar months alternately47#bfj7 ,thus   
the total number of lunar months        
comprised in two successive ,olympiads  

was  ninety-nine1 which is precisely the
 number of lunar months in the          
octennial cycle47#bfa7 ,it is possible  
that1 as ,k4 ,o4 ,mller                 
conjectured17#bfb7 the ,olympic games   
may1 like the ,pythian1 have originally 
been celebrated at intervals of eight   
instead of four years4 ,if that was  so1
 analogy would lead us to infer that the
 festival was associated with a         
mythical marriage of the sun and moon4  
,a reminiscence of such a marriage      
appears to survive in the legend that   
,endymion1 the son of the first king  of
 ,elis1 had fifty daughters by the      
,moon1 and that he set his sons to run  
a race for the kingdom at               
,olympia47#bfc7 ,for1 as scholars have  
already  perceived1 ,endymion is the    
sunken sun overtaken by the moon below  
the  horizon1 and his fifty daughters by
 her are the fifty lunar months of an   
,olympiad or1 more strictly speaking1 of
 every alternate ,olympiad47#bfd7 ,if   
the ,olympic festival always fell1 as   

many authorities have maintained1 at    
the first full moon after the summer    
solstice17#bfe7 the time would be       
eminently appropriate for a marriage of 
the luminaries1 since both of them      
might then be conceived to be at the    
prime of their vigour4    7,m#fh7 ,it   
has been ingeniously argued by ,mr4 ,a4 
,b4 ,cook7#bff7 that the  ,olympic      
victors in the chariot-race were the    
lineal successors of the old  rulers1   
the living embodiments of ,zeus1 whose  
claims to the kingdom were  decided by a
 race1 as in the legend of ,endymion and
 his sons1 and who  reigned for a period
 of four1 perhaps originally of eight   
years1 after  which they had again1 like
 ,oenomaus1 to stake their right to the 
throne on  the issue of a chariot-race4 
,certainly the four-horse car in which  
they  raced assimilated them to the     
sun-god1 who was commonly supposed to   
drive  through the sky in a similar     
fashion27#bfg7 while the crown of sacred
 olive  which decked their brows7#bfh7  

likened them to the great god ,zeus     
himself1  whose glorious image at       
,olympia wore a similar wreath47#bfi7   
,but if the  olive-crowned victor in the
 men's race at ,olympia represented     
,zeus1 it  becomes probable that the    
olive-crowned victor in the girls' race1
 which  was held every fourth year at   
,olympia in honour of ,hera17#bgj7      
represented  in like manner the god's   
wife2 and that in former days the two   
together  acted the part of the god and 
goddess in that sacred marriage of ,zeus
 and  ,hera which is known to have been 
celebrated in many parts of             
,greece47#bga7  ,this conclusion is     
confirmed by the legend that the girls' 
race was  instituted by ,hippodamia in  
gratitude for her marriage with         
,pelops27#bgb7  for if ,pelops as victor
 in the chariot-race represented ,zeus1 
his bride  would naturally play the part
 of ,hera4 ,but under the names of ,zeus
 and  ,hera the pair of ,olympic victors
 would seem to have really personated   

the  ,sun and ,moon1 who were the true  
heavenly bridegroom and bride of the    
ancient octennial festival47#bgc7 ,in   
the decline of ancient civilisation  the
 old myth of the marriage of the great  
luminaries was revived by the  crazy    
fanatic and libertine1 the emperor      
,heliogabalus1 who fetched the  image of
 ,astarte1 regarded as the moon-goddess1
 from ,carthage to ,rome and  wedded it 
to the image of the ,syrian sun-god1    
commanding all men at ,rome  and        
throughout ,italy to celebrate with joy 
and festivity the solemn  nuptials of   
the ,god of the ,sun with the ,goddess  
of the ,moon47#bgd7           #e4       
,funeral ,games4      7,m#fi7 ,but a    
different and at first sight            
inconsistent explanation of the         
,olympic festival deserves to be        
considered4 ,some of the ancients held  
that  all the great games of            
,greece--the ,olympic1 the ,nemean1 the 
,isthmian1 and  the ,pythian--were      
funeral games celebrated in honour of   

the dead47#bge7 ,thus  the ,olympic     
games were supposed to have been founded
 in honour of  ,pelops17#bgf7 the great 
legendary hero1 who had a sacred        
precinct at  ,olympia1 where he was     
honoured above all the other heroes and 
received  annually the sacrifice of a   
black ram47#bgg7 ,once a year1 too1 all 
the lads  of ,peloponnese are said to   
have lashed themselves on his grave at  
,olympia1  till the blood streamed down 
their backs as a libation to the        
departed  hero47#bgh7 ,similarly at     
,roman funerals the women scratched     
their faces  till they bled for the     
purpose1 as ,varro tells us1 of pleasing
 the ghosts  with the sight of the      
flowing blood47#bgi7 ,so1 too1 among the
 aborigines of  ,australia mourners     
sometimes cut and hack themselves and   
allow the  streaming blood to drip on   
the dead body of their kinsman or into  
the  grave47#bhj7 ,among the eastern    
islanders of ,torres ,straits in like   
manner  youths who had lately been      

initiated and girls who had attained to 
puberty  used to have the lobes of their
 ears cut as a mourning ceremony1 and   
the  flowing blood was allowed to drip  
on the feet of the corpse as a mark of  
pity or sorrow2 moreover1 young adults  
of both sexes had patterns cut in  their
 flesh with a sharp shell so that the   
blood fell on the dead  body47#bha7 ,the
 similarity of these savage rites to the
 ,greek custom  observed at the grave of
 ,pelops suggests that the tomb was not 
a mere  cenotaph1 but that it contained 
the actual remains of the dead hero1    
though these have not been discovered by
 the ,german excavators of ,olympia4    
,in like manner the ,nemean games are   
said to have been celebrated in honour  
of the dead ,opheltes1 whose grave was  
shewn at ,nemea47#bhb7 ,according to    
tradition1 the ,isthmian games were     
instituted in honour of the dead        
,melicertes1 whose body had been washed 
ashore at the ,isthmus of ,corinth4  ,it
 is said that when this happened a      

famine fell upon the ,corinthians1 and  
an oracle declared that the evil would  
not cease until the people paid due     
obsequies to the remains of the drowned 
,melicertes and honoured him with       
funeral games4 ,the ,corinthians        
complied with the injunction for a short
  time2 but as soon as they omitted to  
celebrate the games1 the famine broke   
out afresh1 and the oracle informed them
 that the honours paid to  ,melicertes  
must be eternal47#bhc7 ,lastly1 the     
,pythian games are said to  have been   
celebrated in honour of the dead dragon 
or serpent ,python47#bhd7    7,m#gj7    
,these ,greek traditions as to the      
funeral origin of the great games  are  
strongly confirmed by ,greek practice in
 historical times4 ,thus in the         
,homeric age funeral games1 including   
chariot-races1 foot-races1 wrestling1   
boxing1 spear-throwing1 quoit-throwing1 
and archery1 were celebrated in  honour 
of dead kings and heroes at their       
barrows47#bhe7 ,in the fifth  century   

before ,christ1 when ,miltiades1 the    
victor of ,marathon1 died in the        
,thracian ,chersonese1 the people       
offered sacrifices to him as their      
founder  and instituted equestrian and  
athletic games in his honour1 in which  
no  citizen of ,lampsacus was allowed to
 contend47#bhf7 ,near the theatre at    
,sparta there were two graves2 one      
contained the bones of the gallant      
,leonidas which had been brought back   
from the pass of ,thermopylae to rest   
in ,spartan earth2 the other held the   
dust of ,king ,pausanias1 who commanded 
the ,greek armies on the great day when 
they routed the ,persian host at        
,plataea1 but who lived to tarnish his  
laurels and to die a traitor's  death4  
,every year speeches were spoken over   
these graves and games were  held in    
which none but ,spartans might          
compete47#bhg7 ,perhaps in the case of  
,pausanias the games were intended      
rather to avert his anger than to do him
  honour2 for we are told that wizards  

were fetched even from ,italy to lay    
the traitor's unquiet ghost47#bhh7      
,again1 when the ,spartan general       
,brasidas1 defending ,amphipolis in     
,thrace against the ,athenians1 fell    
mortally wounded before the city and    
just lived1 like ,wolfe on the ,heights 
of ,abraham1 to learn that his men were 
victorious1 all the allies in arms      
followed the dead soldier to the grave2 
and the grateful citizens fenced  his   
tomb about1 sacrificed to him as a hero1
 and decreed that his memory  should be 
honoured henceforth with games and      
annual sacrifices47#bhi7 ,so1  too1 when
 ,timoleon1 the saviour of ,syracuse1   
died in the city which he had  delivered
 from tyrants within and defended       
against enemies without1 vast           
multitudes of men and women1 crowned    
with garlands and clad in clean         
raiment1 attended all that was mortal of
 their benefactor to the funeral  pyre1 
the voices of praise and benediction    
mingling with the sound of  lamentations

 and sobs2 and when at last the bier was
 laid on the pyre a  herald chosen for  
his sonorous voice proclaimed that the  
people of  ,syracuse were burying       
,timoleon1 and that they would honour   
him for all  time to come with musical1 
equestrian1 and athletic games1 because 
he had  put down the tyrants1 conquered 
the foreign foe1 rebuilt the cities that
  had been laid waste1 and restored     
their free constitutions to the         
,sicilians47#bij7 ,in dedicating the    
great ,mausoleum at ,halicarnassus to   
the  soul of her dead husband ,mausolus1
 his widow ,artemisia instituted a      
contest of eloquence in his memory1     
prizes of money and other valuables     
being offered to such as should         
pronounce the most splendid panegyrics  
on  the departed4 ,isocrates himself is 
said to have entered for the prize but  
to have been vanquished by his pupil    
,theopompus47#bia7 ,alexander the ,great
  prepared to pay honour to his dead    
friend ,hephaestion by celebrating      

athletic and musical contests on a      
greater scale than had ever been        
witnessed before1 and for this purpose  
he actually assembled three  thousand   
competitors1 who shortly afterwards     
contended at the funeral  games of the  
great conqueror himself47#bib7          
7,m#ga7 ,nor were the ,greeks in the    
habit of instituting games in honour    
only  of a few distinguished            
individuals2 they sometimes established 
them to  perpetuate the memory or to    
appease the ghosts of large numbers of  
men who  had perished on the field of   
battle or been massacred in cold blood4 
,when  the ,carthaginians and           
,tyrrhenians together had beaten the    
,phocaeans in a  sea-fight1 they landed 
their prisoners near ,agylla in ,etruria
 and stoned  them all to death4 ,after  
that1 whenever the people of ,agylla or 
their oxen  or their sheep passed the   
scene of the massacre1 they were        
attacked by a  strange malady1 which    
distorted their bodies and deprived them

 of the use  of their limbs4 ,so they   
consulted the ,delphic oracle1 and the  
priestess  told them that they must     
offer great sacrifices to the dead      
,phocaeans and  institute equestrian and
 athletic games in their honour17#bic7  
no doubt to  appease the angry ghosts of
 the murdered men1 who were supposed to 
be  doing the mischief4 ,at ,plataea    
down to the second century of our era   
might  be seen the graves of the men who
 fell in the great battle with the      
,persians4 ,sacrifices were offered to  
them every year with great solemnity4   
,the chief magistrate of ,plataea1 clad 
in a purple robe1 washed with his  own  
hands the tombstones and anointed them  
with scented oil4 ,he  slaughtered a    
black bull over a burning pyre and      
called upon the dead  warriors to come  
and partake of the banquet and the      
blood4 ,then filling a  bowl of wine and
 pouring a libation he said1 8,i drink  
to the men who died  for the freedom of 
,greece40 ,moreover1 games were         

celebrated every fourth  year in honour 
of these heroic dead1 the principal     
prizes being offered  for a race in     
armour47#bid7 ,at ,athens funeral games 
were held in the  ,academy to           
commemorate the men slain in war who    
were buried in the  neighbouring        
,ceramicus1 and sacrifices were offered 
to them at a pit3 the  games were       
superintended and the sacrifices offered
 by the ,polemarch or  minister of      
war47#bie7    7,m#gb7 ,similar honours  
have been paid to the spirits of the    
departed by  many other peoples both    
ancient and modern4 ,thus in antiquity  
the  ,thracians burned or buried their  
dead1 and having raised mounds over     
their  remains they held games of all   
kinds on the spot1 assigning the        
principal  prizes to victory in single  
combat47#bif7 ,at ,rome funeral games   
were  celebrated and gladiators fought  
in honour of distinguished men who had  
just died4 ,the games were sometimes    
held in the forum4 ,thus in the year    

#baf ,b4,c41 when ,marcus ,aemilius     
,lepidus died1 who had been twice       
consul1  his three sons celebrated      
funeral games in the forum for three    
days1 and  two-and-twenty pairs of      
gladiators fought on the occasion47#big7
 ,again1 in  the year #bjj ,b4,c4       
funeral games were held for four days in
 the forum1 and  five-and-twenty pairs  
of gladiators fought in honour of the   
deceased ,m4  ,valerius ,laevinus1 the  
expense of the ceremonies being defrayed
 by the two  sons of the dead man47#bih7
 ,once more1 when the ,pontifex         
,maximus1 ,publicius  ,licinius         
,crassus1 died at the beginning of the  
year #ahc ,b4,c41 funeral  games were   
celebrated in his honour for three days1
 a hundred and twenty  gladiators       
fought1 and the ceremonies concluded    
with a banquet1 for which  the tables   
were spread in the forum47#bii7 ,these  
games and combats were  doubtless       
intended to please and soothe the ghost 
of the recently  departed1 just as we   

saw that ,roman women lacerated their   
faces for a  similar purpose4           
,similarly1 when the ,southern          
,nicobarese dig up the bones  of their  
dead1 clean them1 and bury them again1  
they hold a feast at which  sham-fights 
with quarter-staves take place 8to      
gratify the departed  spirit407#cjj7 ,in
 ,futuna1 an island of the ,south       
,pacific1 when a death has  taken place 
friends express their grief by cutting  
their faces1 breast1  and arms with     
shells1 and at the funeral festival     
which follows pairs of  boxers commonly 
engage in combats by way of honouring   
the deceased47#cja7  ,in ,laos1 a       
province of ,siam1 boxers are similarly 
engaged to bruise each  other at the    
festival which takes place when the     
remains of a chief or  other important  
person are cremated4 ,the festival lasts
 three days1 but it  is while the pyre  
is actually blazing that the combatants 
are expected to  batter each other's    
heads with the utmost vigour47#cjb7     

,among the ,kirghiz  the anniversary of 
the death of a rich man is celebrated   
with a great  feast and with            
horse-races1 shooting-matches1 and      
wrestling-matches4 ,it is  said that    
thousands of sheep and hundreds of      
horses1 besides slaves1 coats  of mail1 
and a great many other objects1 are     
sometimes distributed as  prizes among  
the winners47#cjc7 ,the ,bashkirs1 a    
,tartar people of mixed  extraction1    
bury their dead1 and always end the     
obsequies with  horse-races47#cjd7      
,among some of the ,north ,american     
,indians contests in  running1 shooting1
 and so forth formed part of the funeral
  celebration47#cje7    7,m#gc7 ,the    
,bedouins of the ,sinaitic peninsula    
observe a great annual  festival at the 
grave of the prophet ,salih1 and        
camel-races are included  in the        
ceremonies4 ,at the end of the races a  
procession takes place round  the       
prophet's grave1 after which the        
sacrificial victims are led to the  door

 of the mortuary chapel1 their ears are 
cut off1 and the doorposts are  smeared 
with their streaming blood47#cjf7 ,the  
custom of holding funeral  games in     
honour of the dead appears to be common 
among the people of the  ,caucasus4     
,thus in ,circassia the anniversary of  
the death of a  distinguished warrior or
 chief is celebrated for years with     
horse-races1  foot-races1 and various   
kinds of martial and athletic exercises1
 for which  prizes are awarded to the   
successful competitors47#cjg7 ,among the
 ,chewsurs1  another people of the      
,caucasus1 horse-races are held at the  
funeral of a  rich man1 and prizes of   
cattle and sheep are given to the       
winners2 poorer  folk content themselves
 with a competition in shooting and with
 more  modest prizes4 ,similar          
celebrations take place on the          
anniversary of the  death47#cjh7 ,in    
like manner shooting-matches form a     
feature of an annual  ,festival of ,all 
,souls1 when the spirits of departed    

,chewsurs are believed  to revisit their
 old village4 ,adults and children alike
 take part in the  matches1 the adults  
shooting with guns and the children with
 bows and  arrows4 ,the prizes consist  
of loaves1 stockings1 gloves1 and so    
forth47#cji7 ,among the ,abchases1      
another people of the ,caucasus1 two    
years  after a death a memorial feast is
 held in honour of the deceased1 at     
which  animals are killed and measures  
taken to appease the soul of the        
departed4  ,for they believe that if the
 ghost is discontented he can injure    
them and  their property4 ,the horse of 
the deceased figures prominently at the 
festival4 ,after the guests have feasted
 at a long table spread in the open     
air1 the young men perform evolutions on
 horseback which are said to  recall the
 tournaments of the ,middle ,ages1 and  
children of eight or nine  years of age 
ride races on horseback47#caj7          
7,m#gd7 ,thus it appears that many      
different peoples have been in the habit

  of holding games1 including           
horse-races1 in honour of the dead2 and 
as the  ancient ,greeks unquestionably  
did so within historical times for men  
whose  existence is as little open to   
question as that of ,wellington and     
,napoleon1 we cannot dismiss as         
improbable the tradition that the       
,olympic  and perhaps other great ,greek
 games were instituted to commemorate   
real  men who once lived1 died1 and were
 buried on the spot where the festivals 
were afterwards held4 ,when the person  
so commemorated had been great and      
powerful in his lifetime1 his ghost     
would be deemed great and powerful      
after death1 and the games celebrated in
 his honour might naturally  attract    
crowds of spectators4 ,the need of      
providing food and accommodation  for   
the multitude which assembled on these  
occasions would in turn draw  numbers of
 hucksters and merchants to the spot1   
and thus what in its  origin had been a 
solemn religious ceremony might         

gradually assume more  and more the     
character of a fair1 that is1 of a      
concourse of people  brought together   
mainly for purposes of trade and        
amusement4 ,this theory  might account  
for the origin not only of the ,olympic 
and other ,greek  games1 but also for   
that of the great fairs or public       
assemblies of  ancient ,ireland which   
have been compared1 not without reason1 
to the ,greek  games4 ,indeed the two   
most famous of these ,irish festivals1  
in which  horse-races played a prominent
 part1 are actually said to have been   
instituted in honour of the dead4 ,most 
celebrated of all was the fair of       
,tailltiu or ,tailltin1 held at a place 
in the county of ,meath which is now    
called ,teltown on the ,blackwater1     
midway between ,navan and ,kells4 ,the  
festival lasted for a fortnight before  
,lammas 7the first of ,august7 and a    
fortnight after it4 ,among the manly    
sports and contests which formed a      
leading feature of the fair horse-races 

held the principal place4 ,but  trade   
was not neglected1 and among the wares  
brought to market were  marriageable    
women1 who1 according to a tradition    
which survived into the  nineteenth     
century1 were bought and sold as wives  
for one year4 ,the very  spot where the 
marriages took place is still pointed   
out by the peasantry2  they call it     
8,marriage ,hollow40 ,multitudes flocked
 to the fair not only  from all parts of
 ,ireland1 but even from ,scotland2 it  
is officially  recorded that in the year
 #aafi ,a4,d4 the horses and chariots   
alone1  exclusive of the people on foot1
 extended in a continuous line for more 
than six ,english miles1 from ,tailltin 
to ,mullach-,aiti1 now the ,hill of     
,lloyd near ,kells4 ,the ,irish         
historians relate that the fair of      
,tailltin  was instituted by ,lug in    
honour of his foster-mother ,tailltiu1  
whom he  buried under a great sepulchral
 mound on the spot1 ordering that a     
commemorative festival with games and   

sports should be celebrated there       
annually for ever47#caa7 ,the other     
great fair of ancient ,ireland was held 
only once in three years at ,carman1 now
 called ,wexford1 in ,leinster4 ,it     
began on ,lammas ,day 7the first of     
,august7 and lasted six days4 ,a        
horse-race took place on each day of the
 festival4 ,in different parts of  the  
green there were separate markets for   
victuals1 for cattle and horses1  and   
for gold and precious stuffs of the     
merchants4 ,harpers harped and  pipers  
piped for the entertainment of the      
crowds1 and in other parts of  the fair 
bards recited in the ears of rapt       
listeners old romantic tales of  forays 
and cattle-raids1 of battles and        
murders1 of love and courtship and      
marriage4 ,prizes were awarded to the   
best performers in every art4 ,in the   
,book of ,ballymote the fair of ,carman 
or ,garman is said to have been  founded
 in accordance with the dying wish of a 
chief named ,garman1 who was  buried on 

the spot1 after begging that a fair of  
mourning 7aenach  n-guba7 should be     
instituted for him and should bear his  
name for ever4  8,it was considered an  
institution of great importance1 and    
among the  blessings promised to the men
 of ,leinster from holding it and duly  
celebrating the established games1 were 
plenty of corn1 fruit and milk1         
abundance of fish in their lakes and    
rivers1 domestic prosperity1 and        
immunity from the yoke of any other     
province4 ,on the other hand1 the evils 
to follow from the neglect of this      
institution were to be failure and      
early greyness on them and their        
kings407#cab7    7,m#ge7 ,nor were these
 two great fairs the only ancient ,irish
 festivals of  the sort which are       
reported to have been founded in honour 
of the dead4  ,the annual fair at ,emain
 is said to have been established to    
lament the  death of ,queen ,macha of   
the ,golden ,hair1 who had her palace on
 the  spot47#cac7 ,in short 8most of the

 great meetings1 by whatever name known1
  had their origin in funeral games4    
,tara1 ,tailltenn1 ,tlachtga1 ,ushnagh1 
,cruachan1 ,emain ,macha and other less 
prominent meeting-places1 are well      
known as ancient pagan cemeteries1 in   
all of which many illustrious           
semi-historical personages were         
interred3 and many sepulchral monuments 
remain in them to this day407#cad7      
8,there was a notion that ,carman was a 
cemetery1 that there kings and queens   
had been buried1 and that the games  and
 horse-races1 which formed the principal
 attraction of the fair1 had  been      
instituted in honour of the dead folk on
 whose graves the feet of the  assembled
 multitude were treading4 ,the same view
 is taken of the fairs of  ,tailltiu and
 ,cruachan3 ,tailltiu and ,cruachan were
 cemeteries before they  served         
periodically as places of assembly for  
business and pleasure407#cae7  ,the     
tombs of the first kings of ,ulster were
 at ,tailltin47#caf7    7,m#gf7 ,if we  

ask whether the tradition as to the     
funeral origin of these  great ,irish   
fairs is true or false1 it is important 
to observe the date at  which they were 
commonly celebrated4 ,the date was the  
first of ,august1 or  ,lugnasad1 that   
is1 the nasad or games of ,lug1 as the  
day is still called  in every part of   
,ireland47#cag7 ,this was the date of   
the great fair of  ,cruachan7#cah7 as   
well as of ,tailltin and ,carman4 ,now  
the first of ,august  is our ,lammas    
,day1 a name derived from the           
,anglo-,saxon hlafmaesse1 that  is1     
8,loaf-mass0 or 8,bread-mass10 and the  
name marks the day as a mass or  feast  
of thanksgiving for the first-fruits of 
the corn-harvest1 which in  ,england and
 ,ireland usually ripen about that time4
 ,the feast 8seems to  have been        
observed with bread of new wheat1 and   
therefore in some parts of  ,england1   
and even in some near ,oxford1 the      
tenants are bound to bring in  wheat of 
that year to their lord1 on or before   

the first of ,august407#cai7  ,but if   
the festival of the first of ,august was
 in its origin an offering  of the      
first-fruits of the corn-harvest1 we can
 easily understand the  great importance
 which the ancient ,irish attached to   
it1 and why they  should have thought   
that its observance ensured a plentiful 
crop of corn  as well as abundance of   
fruit and milk and fish1 whereas the    
neglect of  the festival would entail   
the failure of these things and cause   
the hair  of their kings to turn        
prematurely grey47#cbj7 ,for it is a    
widespread  custom among primitive      
agricultural peoples to offer the       
first-fruits of  the harvest to divine  
beings1 whether gods or spirits1 before 
any person  may eat of the new          
crops17#cba7 and wherever such customs  
are observed we  may assume that an     
omission to offer the first-fruits must 
be supposed to  endanger the crops and  
the general prosperity of the community1
 by  exciting the wrath of the gods or  

spirits1 who conceive themselves to be  
robbed of their dues4 ,now among the    
divine beings who are thus propitiated  
the souls of dead ancestors take in many
 tribes a prominent or even  exclusive  
place1 and that these ancestors are not 
creations of the  mythical fancy but    
were once men of flesh and blood is     
sometimes  demonstrated by the          
substantial evidence of their skulls1 to
 which the  offerings are made and in   
which the spirits are supposed to take  
up their  abode for the purpose of      
partaking of the food presented to them4
  ,sometimes the ceremony is designated 
by the expressive name of 8feeding  the 
dead407#cbb7    7,m#gg7 ,all this tends 
to support the traditional explanation  
of the great  ,irish fairs held at the  
beginning of ,august1 when the first    
corn is ripe2  for if these festivals   
were indeed celebrated1 as they are said
 to have  been1 at cemeteries where     
kings and other famous men were buried1 
and if  the horse-races and other games1

 which formed the most prominent feature
  of the celebrations1 were indeed      
instituted1 as they are said to have    
been1 in honour of dead men and women1  
we can perfectly understand why the     
observance of the festivals and the     
games was supposed to ensure a          
plentiful harvest and abundance of fruit
 and fish1 whereas the neglect to       
celebrate them was believed to entail   
the failure of these things4 ,so long   
as the spirits of the dead men and      
women1 who were buried on the spot1     
received the homage of their descendants
 in the shape of funeral games and      
perhaps of first-fruits1 so long would  
they bless their people with plenty  by 
causing the earth to bring forth its    
fruits1 the cows to yield milk1  and the
 waters to swarm with fish2 whereas if  
they deemed themselves  slighted and    
neglected1 they would avenge their      
wrongs by cutting off the  food supply  
and afflicting the people with dearth   
and other calamities4  ,among these     

threatened calamities the premature     
greyness of the kings is  specially     
mentioned1 and was probably deemed not  
the least serious2 for we  have seen    
that the welfare of the whole people is 
often deemed to be bound  up with the   
physical vigour of the king1 and that   
the appearance of grey  hairs on his    
head and wrinkles on his face is        
sometimes viewed with  apprehension and 
proves the signal for putting him to    
death47#cbc7  ,similarly the ,abchases  
of the ,caucasus imagine that if they do
 not honour  a dead man by horse-races  
and other festivities1 his ghost will be
 angry  with them and visit his         
displeasure on their persons and their  
property47#cbd7 ,in this connexion it is
 significant that the celebration of    
the ,isthmian games at ,corinth in      
honour of the dead ,melicertes is said  
to  have been instituted for the purpose
 of staying a famine1 and that the      
intermission of the games was           
immediately followed by a fresh         

visitation  of the calamity47#cbe7      
,analogy suggests that the famine may   
have been  ascribed to the anger of the 
ghost of ,melicertes at the neglect of  
his  funeral honours4    7,m#gh7 ,thus  
on the whole the theory of the funeral  
origin of the great  ,greek games is    
supported not only by ,greek tradition  
and ,greek custom but  by the evidence  
of parallel customs observed in many    
lands4 ,yet the theory  seems hardly    
adequate to explain all the features in 
the legends of the  foundation and early
 history of the ,olympic games4 ,for if 
these contests  were instituted merely  
to please and propitiate the soul of a  
prince named  ,pelops who was buried on 
the spot1 what are we to make of the    
tradition  that the foot-race was       
founded in order to determine the       
successor to the  kingdom87#cbf7 or of  
the similar1 though not identical1      
tradition that the  kingdom and the hand
 of the king's daughter were awarded as 
the prize to  him who could vanquish the

 king in a chariot race1 while death was
 the  penalty inflicted on the beaten   
charioteer87#cbg7 ,such legends can     
hardly  have been pure fictions2 they   
probably reflect some real custom       
observed  at ,olympia4 ,we may perhaps  
combine them with the tradition of the  
funeral  origin of the games by         
supposing that victory in the race      
entitled the  winner to reign as a      
divine king1 the embodiment of a god1   
for a term of  years1 whether four or   
eight years according to the interval   
between  successive celebrations of the 
festival2 that when the term had expired
  the human god must again submit his   
title to the crown to the hazard of a   
race for the purpose of proving that his
 bodily vigour was unimpaired2  that if 
he failed to do so he lost both his     
kingdom and his life2 and  lastly that  
the spirits of these divine kings1 like 
those of the divine  kings of the       
,shilluk1 were worshipped with          
sacrifices at their graves and  were    

thought to delight in the spectacle of  
the games which reminded them  of the   
laurels they had themselves won long    
ago1 amid the plaudits of a  vast       
multitude1 in the sunshine and dust of  
the race-course1 before they  joined the
 shadowy company of ghosts in the       
darkness and silence of the  tomb4 ,the 
theory would explain the existence of   
the sacred precinct of  ,pelops at      
,olympia1 where the black rams1 the     
characteristic offerings to  the        
dead17#cbh7 were sacrificed to the hero1
 and where the young men lashed         
themselves till the blood dripped from  
their backs on the ground--a sight      
well-pleasing to the grim bloodthirsty  
ghost lurking unseen below4  ,perhaps1  
too1 the theory may explain the high    
mound1 at some distance from  ,olympia1 
which passed for the grave of the       
suitors of ,hippodamia1 to whose  shades
 ,pelops is said to have sacrificed as  
to heroes every year47#cbi7 ,it  is     
possible that the men buried in this    

great barrow were not1 as  tradition had
 it1 the suitors who contended in the   
chariot-race for the  hand of           
,hippodamia and being defeated were     
slain by her relentless father2  they   
may have been men who1 like ,pelops     
himself1 had won the kingdom and a      
bride in the chariot-race1 and1 after   
enjoying the regal dignity and  posing  
as incarnate deities for a term of      
years1 had been finally defeated  in the
 race and put to death4    7,m#gi7      
,whatever may be thought of these       
speculations1 the great ,olympic        
festival cannot have been1 like our     
,lammas1 a harvest festival3 the        
quadrennial period of the celebration   
and the season of the year at which  it 
fell1 about halfway between the         
corn-reaping of early summer and the    
vintage of mid-autumn1 alike exclude the
 supposition and alike point to an      
astronomical1 not an agricultural1 basis
 of the solemnity4 ,accordingly we  seem
 driven to conclude that if the winners1

 male and female1 in the  ,olympic games
 indeed represented divinities1 these   
divinities must have  been              
personifications of astronomical1 not   
agricultural1 powers2 in short  that the
 victors posed as embodiments of the    
,sun and ,moon1 then at the  prime of   
their radiant power and glory1 whose    
meeting in the heavenly  bridechamber of
 the sky after years of separation was  
mimicked and  magically promoted by the 
nuptials of their human representatives 
on  earth4           #f4 ,the ,slaughter
 of the ,dragon4      7,m#hj7 ,in the   
foregoing discussion it has been        
suggested that ,delphi1  ,thebes1       
,salamis1 and ,athens were once ruled by
 kings who had1 in modern  language1 a  
serpent or dragon for their crest1 and  
were believed to  migrate at death into 
the bodies of the beasts4 ,but these    
legends of the  dragon admit of another 
and1 at first sight at least1 discrepant
  explanation4 ,it is difficult to      
separate them from those similar tales  

of  the slaughter of a great dragon     
which are current in many lands1 and    
have  commonly been interpreted as      
nature-myths1 in other words1 as        
personifications of physical phenomena4 
,of such tales the oldest known         
versions are the ancient ,babylonian and
 the ancient ,indian4 ,the ,babylonian  
myth relates how in the beginning the   
mighty god ,marduk fought and killed    
the great dragon ,tiamat1 an embodiment 
of the primaeval watery chaos1 and  how 
after his victory he created the present
 heaven and earth by splitting  the huge
 carcase of the monster into halves and 
setting one of them up to  form the sky1
 while the other half apparently he used
 to fashion the  earth4 ,thus the story 
is a myth of creation4 ,in language     
which its authors  doubtless understood 
literally1 but which more advanced      
thinkers  afterwards interpreted        
figuratively1 it describes how confusion
 was  reduced to order1 how a cosmos    
emerged from chaos47#ccj7 ,the account  

of  creation given in the first chapter 
of ,genesis1 which has been so much     
praised for its simple grandeur and     
sublimity1 is merely a rationalised     
version of the old myth of the fight    
with the dragon17#cca7 a myth which  for
 crudity of thought deserves to rank    
with the quaint fancies of the  lowest  
savages4    7,m#ha7 ,again1 the ,indian 
myth embodied in the hymns of the       
,rigveda tells  how the strong and      
valiant god ,indra conquered a great    
dragon or serpent  named ,vtra1 which   
had obstructed the waters so that they  
could not flow4  ,he slew the monster   
with his bolt1 and then the pent-up     
springs gushed in  rivers to the sea4   
,and what he did once1 he continues to  
do4 ,again and  again he renews the     
conflict2 again and again he slays the  
dragon and  releases the imprisoned     
waters4 ,prayers are addressed to him   
that he would  be pleased to do so in   
the future4 ,even priests on earth      
sometimes  associate themselves with    

,indra in his battles with the dragon4  
,the  worshipper is said to have placed 
the bolt in the god's hands1 and the    
sacrifice is spoken of as having helped 
the weapon to slay the  monster47#ccb7  
,thus the feat attributed to ,indra     
would seem to be a  mythical account not
 so much of creation as of some         
regularly recurring  phenomenon4 ,it has
 been plausibly interpreted as a        
description of the  bursting of the     
first storms of rain and thunder after  
the torrid heat of  an ,indian          
summer47#ccc7 ,at such times all nature1
 exhausted by the drought1  longs for   
coolness and moisture4 ,day after day   
men and cattle may be  tormented by the 
sight of clouds that gather and then    
pass away without  disburdening         
themselves of their contents4 ,at last  
the long-drawn struggle  between the    
rival forces comes to a crisis4 ,the sky
 darkens1 thunder  peals1 lightning     
flashes1 and the welcome rain descends  
in sheets1  drenching the parched earth 

and flooding the rivers4 ,such a battle 
of the  elements might well present     
itself to the primitive mind in the     
guise of a  conflict between a          
maleficent dragon of drought and a      
beneficent god of  thunder and rain4    
,the cloud-dragon has swallowed the     
waters and keeps them  shut up in the   
black coils of his sinuous body2 the god
 cleaves the  monster's belly with his  
thunder-bolt1 and the imprisoned waters 
escape1  in the form of dripping rain   
and rushing stream4    7,m#hb7 ,in other
 countries a similar myth might1 with   
appropriate variations  of detail1      
express in like manner the passage of   
one season into another4  ,for example1 
in more rigorous climates the dragon    
might stand for the  dreary winter and  
the dragon-slayer for the genial summer4
 ,the myths of  ,apollo and the ,python1
 of ,st4 ,george and the ,dragon have   
thus been  interpreted as symbolising   
the victory of summer over winter47#ccd7
  ,similarly it has been held with much 

probability that the ,babylonian  legend
 of ,marduk and ,tiamat reflects the    
annual change which transforms  the     
valley of the ,euphrates in spring4     
,during the winter the wide  ,babylonian
 plain1 flooded by the heavy rains1     
looks like a sea1 for which  the        
,babylonian word is tiamtu1 tiamat4     
,then comes the spring1 when  with the  
growing power of the sun the clouds     
vanish1 the waters subside1  and dry    
land and vegetation appear once more4   
,on this hypothesis the  dragon ,tiamat 
represents the clouds1 the rain1 the    
floods of winter1 while  ,marduk stands 
for the vernal or summer sun which      
dispels the powers of  darkness and     
moisture47#cce7    7,m#hc7 ,but if the  
combat of ,marduk and ,tiamat was       
primarily a mythical  description of the
 ,babylonian spring1 it would seem that 
its cosmogonical  significance as an    
account of creation must have been an   
after-thought4  ,the early philosophers 
who meditated on the origin of things   

may have  pictured to themselves the    
creation or evolution of the world on   
the  analogy of the great changes which 
outside the tropics pass over the face  
of nature every year4 ,in these changes 
it is not hard to discern or to  imagine
 a conflict between two hostile forces  
or principles1 the principle  of        
construction or of life and the         
principle of destruction or of death1   
victory inclining now to the one and now
 to the other1 according as winter      
yields to spring or summer fades into   
autumn4 ,it would be natural enough  to 
suppose that the same mighty rivals     
which still wage war on each other  had 
done so from the beginning1 and that the
 formation of the universe as  it now   
exists had resulted from the shock of   
their battle4 ,on this theory  the      
creation of the world is repeated every 
spring1 and its dissolution is          
threatened every autumn3 the one is     
proclaimed by summer's gay heralds1  the
 opening flowers2 the other is whispered

 by winter's sad harbingers1  the yellow
 leaves4 ,here as elsewhere the old     
creed is echoed by the poet's  fancy3-- 
8,non alios prima crescentis origine    
mundi      ,inluxisse dies aliumve      
habuisse tenorem      ,crediderim3 ver  
illud erat1 ver magnus agebat           
,orbis1 et hibernis parcebant flatibus  
,euri3      ,cum primae lucem pecudes   
hausere1 virumque      ,ferrea progenies
 duris caput extulit arvis1             
,inmissaeque ferae silvis et sidera     
caelo407#ccf7      7,m#hd7 ,thus the    
ceremonies which in many lands have been
 performed to  hasten the departure of  
winter or stay the flight of summer are 
in a sense  attempts to create the world
 afresh1 to 8re-mould it nearer to the  
,heart's  desire40 ,but if we would set 
ourselves at the point of view of the   
old  sages who devised means so feeble  
to accomplish a purpose so immeasurably 
vast1 we must divest ourselves of our   
modern conceptions of the immensity  of 
the universe and of the pettiness and   

insignificance of man's place in  it4   
,we must imagine the infinitude of space
 shrunk to a few miles1 the  infinitude 
of time contracted to a few generations4
 ,to the savage the  mountains that     
bound the visible horizon1 or the sea   
that stretches away  to meet it1 is the 
world's end4 ,beyond these narrow limits
 his feet have  never strayed1 and even 
his imagination fails to conceive what  
lies across  the waste of waters or the 
far blue hills4 ,of the future he hardly
 thinks1  and of the past he knows only 
what has been handed down to him by word
 of  mouth from his savage forefathers4 
,to suppose that a world thus           
circumscribed in space and time was     
created by the efforts or the fiat of  a
 being like himself imposes no great    
strain on his credulity2 and he may     
without much difficulty imagine that he 
himself can annually repeat the  work of
 creation by his charms and             
incantations4 ,and once a horde of      
savages had instituted magical          

ceremonies for the renewal or           
preservation  of all things1 the force  
of custom and tradition would tend to   
maintain  them in practice long after   
the old narrow ideas of the universe had
 been  superseded by more adequate      
conceptions1 and the tribe had expanded 
into a  nation4    7,m#he7 ,neither in  
,babylonia nor in ,india1 indeed1 so far
 as ,i am aware1 is  there any direct   
evidence that the story of the          
,slaughter of the ,dragon  was ever     
acted as a miracle-play or magical rite 
for the sake of bringing  about those   
natural events which it describes in    
figurative language4 ,but  analogy leads
 us to conjecture that in both countries
 the myth may have  been recited1 if not
 acted1 as an incantation1 for the      
purpose ,i have  indicated4 ,at ,babylon
 the recitation may have formed part of 
the great ,new  ,year festival of       
,marduk1 which under the name of ,zagmuk
 was celebrated  with great pomp about  
the vernal equinox47#ccg7 ,in this      

connexion it may  not be without        
significance that one version of the    
,babylonian legend of  creation has been
 found inscribed on a tablet1 of which  
the reverse  exhibits an incantation    
intended to be recited for the          
purification of the  temple of ,e-zida  
in ,borsippa47#cch7 ,now ,e-zida was the
 temple of ,nabu or  ,nebo1 a god       
closely associated1 if not originally   
identical1 with ,marduk2  indeed        
,hammurabi1 the great king of ,babylon1 
dedicated the temple in  question to    
,marduk and not to ,nabu47#cci7 ,it     
seems not improbable1  therefore1 that  
the creation legend1 in which ,marduk   
played so important a  part1 was recited
 as an incantation at the purification  
of the temple  ,e-zida4 ,the ceremony   
perhaps took place at the ,zagmuk       
festival1 when the  image of ,nabu was  
solemnly brought in procession from his 
temple in  ,borsippa to the great temple
 of ,marduk in ,babylon47#cdj7          
,moreover1 it was  believed that at this

 great festival the fates were          
determined by ,marduk  or ,nabu for the 
ensuing year47#cda7 ,now1 the creation  
myth relates how1  after he had slain   
the dragon1 ,marduk wrested the tablets 
of destiny from  ,ningu1 the paramour of
 ,tiamat1 sealed them with a seal1 and  
laid them on  his breast47#cdb7 ,we may 
conjecture that the dramatic            
representation of  this incident formed 
part of the annual determination of the 
fates at  ,zagmuk4 ,in short1 it seems  
probable that the whole myth of creation
 was  annually recited and acted at this
 great spring festival as a charm to    
dispel the storms and floods of winter1 
and to hasten the coming of             
summer47#cdc7    7,m#hf7 ,wherever      
sacred dramas of this sort were acted as
 magical rites for  the regulation of   
the seasons1 it would be natural that   
the chief part  should be played by the 
king1 at first in his character of head 
magician1  and afterwards as            
representative and embodiment of the    

beneficent god who  vanquishes the      
powers of evil4 ,if1 therefore1 the myth
 of the ,slaughter of  the ,dragon was  
ever acted with this intention1 the king
 would  appropriately figure in the play
 as the victorious champion1 while the  
defeated monster would be represented by
 an actor of inferior rank4 ,but it  is 
possible that under certain             
circumstances the distribution of parts 
in  the drama might be somewhat         
different4 ,where the tenure of the     
regal  office was limited to a fixed    
time1 at the end of which the king was  
inexorably put to death1 the fatal part 
of the dragon might be assigned to  the 
monarch as the representative of the old
 order1 the old year1 or the  old cycle 
which was passing away1 while the part  
of the victorious god or  hero might be 
supported by his successor and          
executioner4    7,m#hg7 ,an hypothesis  
of this latter sort would to a certain  
extent  reconcile the two apparently    
discrepant interpretations of the myth  

which  have been discussed in the       
preceding pages1 and which for the sake 
of  distinction may be called the       
totemic and the cosmological            
interpretations  respectively4 ,the     
serpent or dragon might be the sacred   
animal or totem of  the royal house at  
the same time that it stood mythically  
for certain  cosmological phenomena1    
whether moisture or drought1 cold or    
heat1 winter  or summer4 ,in like manner
 any other species of animal which      
served as the  totem of the royal family
 might simultaneously possess a         
cosmological  significance as the symbol
 of an elemental power4 ,thus at        
,cnossus1 as we  have seen reason to    
think1 the bull was at once the king's  
crest and an  emblem of the sun4        
,similarly in ,egypt the hawk was the   
symbol both of the  sun and of the king4
 ,the oldest royal capital known to us  
was  ,hieraconpolis or ,hawk-town1 and  
the first ,egyptian king of whom we hear
  had for his only royal title the name 

of hawk47#cdd7 ,at the same time the    
hawk was with the ,egyptians an emblem  
of the sun47#cde7 ,hawks were kept in   
the sun-god's temple1 and the deity     
himself was commonly represented in  art
 as a man with a hawk's head and the    
disc of the sun above it47#cdf7         
,however1 ,i am fully sensible of the   
slipperiness and uncertainty of the     
ground ,i am treading1 and it is with   
great diffidence that ,i submit these   
speculations to the judgment of my      
readers4 ,the subject of ancient        
mythology is involved in dense mists    
which it is not always possible to      
penetrate and illumine even with the    
lamp of the ,comparative ,method4       
,demonstration in such matters is       
rarely1 if ever1 attainable2 the utmost 
that a candid enquirer can claim for his
 conclusions is a reasonable  degree of 
probability4 ,future researches may     
clear up the obscurity which  still     
rests on the myth of the ,slaughter of  
the ,dragon1 and may thereby  ascertain 

what measure of truth1 if any1 there is 
in the suggested  interpretations4      
#g4 ,triennial ,tenure of the ,kingship4
      ,in the province of ,lagos1 which 
forms part of ,southern ,nigeria1 the   
,ijebu  tribe of the ,yoruba race is    
divided into two branches1 which are    
known  respectively as the ,ijebu ,ode  
and the ,ijebu ,remon4 ,the ,ode branch 
of the  tribe is ruled by a chief who   
bears the title of ,awujale and is      
surrounded  by a great deal of mystery4 
,down to recent times his face might not
 be  seen even by his own subjects1 and 
if circumstances obliged him to         
communicate with them he did so through 
a screen which hid him from view4  ,the 
other or ,remon branch of the ,ijebu    
tribe is governed by a chief1 who  ranks
 below the ,awujale4 ,mr4 ,john         
,parkinson was informed that in former  
times this subordinate chief used to be 
killed with ceremony after a rule  of   
three years4 ,as the country is now     
under ,british protection the custom  of

 putting the chief to death at the end  
of a three years' reign has long  been  
abolished1 and ,mr4 ,parkinson was      
unable to ascertain any particulars  on 
the subject47#cdg7           #h4 ,annual
 ,tenure of the ,kingship4      7,m#hh7 
,at ,babylon1 within historical times1  
the tenure of the kingly office  was in 
practice lifelong1 yet in theory it     
would seem to have been merely  annual4 
,for every year at the festival of      
,zagmuk the king had to renew his  power
 by seizing the hands of the image of   
,marduk in his great temple of  ,esagil 
at ,babylon4 ,even when ,babylon passed 
under the power of ,assyria1  the       
monarchs of that country were expected  
to legalise their claim to the  throne  
every year by coming to ,babylon and    
performing the ancient ceremony  at the 
,new-year festival1 and some of them    
found the obligation so  burdensome that
 rather than discharge it they renounced
 the title of king  altogether and      
contented themselves with the humbler   

one of ,governor47#cdh7  ,further1 it   
would appear that in remote times1      
though not within the  historical       
period1 the kings of ,babylon or their  
barbarous predecessors  forfeited not   
merely their crown but their life at the
 end of a year's  tenure of office4 ,at 
least this is the conclusion to which   
the following  evidence seems to point4 
,according to the historian ,berosus1   
who as a  ,babylonian priest spoke with 
ample knowledge1 there was annually     
celebrated in ,babylon a festival called
 the ,sacaea4 ,it began on the          
sixteenth day of the month ,lous1 and   
lasted for five days4 ,during these     
five days masters and servants changed  
places1 the servants giving orders  and 
the masters obeying them4 ,a prisoner   
condemned to death was dressed in  the  
king's robes1 seated on the king's      
throne1 allowed to issue whatever       
commands he pleased1 to eat1 drink1 and 
enjoy himself1 and to lie with the      
king's concubines4 ,but at the end of   

the five days he was stripped of his    
royal robes1 scourged1 and hanged or    
impaled4 ,during his brief term of      
office he bore the title of             
,zoganes47#cdi7 ,this custom might      
perhaps have  been explained as merely a
 grim jest perpetrated in a season of   
jollity at  the expense of an unhappy   
criminal4 ,but one circumstance--the    
leave given  to the mock king to enjoy  
the king's concubines--is decisive      
against this  interpretation4           
,considering the jealous seclusion of an
 oriental despot's  harem we may be     
quite certain that permission to invade 
it would never  have been granted by the
 despot1 least of all to a condemned    
criminal1  except for the very gravest  
cause4 ,this cause could hardly be other
 than  that the condemned man was about 
to die in the king's stead1 and that to 
make the substitution perfect it was    
necessary he should enjoy the full      
rights of royalty during his brief      
reign4 ,there is nothing surprising in  

this substitution4 ,the rule that the   
king must be put to death either on  the
 appearance of any symptom of bodily    
decay or at the end of a fixed  period  
is certainly one which1 sooner or later1
 the kings would seek to  abolish or    
modify4 ,we have seen that in ,ethiopia1
 ,sofala1 and ,eyeo the  rule was boldly
 set aside by enlightened monarchs2 and 
that in ,calicut the  old custom of     
killing the king at the end of twelve   
years was changed into  a permission    
granted to any one at the end of the    
twelve years' period to  attack the     
king1 and1 in the event of killing him1 
to reign in his stead2  though1 as the  
king took care at these times to be     
surrounded by his  guards1 the          
permission was little more than a form4 
,another way of  modifying the stern old
 rule is seen in the ,babylonian custom 
just  described4 ,when the time drew    
near for the king to be put to death 7in
  ,babylon this appears to have been at 
the end of a single year's reign7 he    

abdicated for a few days1 during which a
 temporary king reigned and  suffered in
 his stead4 ,at first the temporary king
 may have been an  innocent person1     
possibly a member of the king's own     
family2 but with the  growth of         
civilisation the sacrifice of an        
innocent person would be  revolting to  
the public sentiment1 and accordingly a 
condemned criminal  would be invested   
with the brief and fatal sovereignty4   
,in the sequel we  shall find other     
examples of a dying criminal            
representing a dying god4  ,for we must 
not forget that1 as the case of the     
,shilluk kings clearly  shews17#cej7 the
 king is slain in his character of a god
 or a demigod1 his  death and           
resurrection1 as the only means of      
perpetuating the divine life            
unimpaired1 being deemed necessary for  
the salvation of his people and the     
world4    7,m#hi7 ,if at ,babylon before
 the dawn of history the king himself   
used to be  slain at the festival of the

 ,sacaea1 it is natural to suppose that 
the  ,sacaea was no other than ,zagmuk  
or ,zakmuk1 the great ,new-year festival
 at  which down to historical times the 
king's power had to be formally renewed 
by a religious ceremony in the temple of
 ,marduk4 ,the theory of the  identity  
of the festivals is indeed strongly     
supported by many  considerations and   
has been accepted by some eminent       
scholars17#cea7 but it  has to encounter
 a serious chronological difficulty1    
since ,zagmuk fell  about the equinox in
 spring1 whereas the ,sacaea according  
to ,berosus was  held on the sixteenth  
of the month ,lous1 which was the tenth 
month of the  ,syro-,macedonian calendar
 and appears to have nearly coincided   
with ,july4  ,the question of the       
sameness or difference of these         
festivals will be  discussed later      
on47#ceb7 ,here it is to be observed    
that ,zagmuk was  apparently celebrated 
in ,assyria as well as in ,babylonia4   
,for at the end  of his great           

inscription ,esarhaddon1 king of        
,assyria1 expresses a wish  that it may 
be granted to him to muster all his     
riding-horses and so forth  every year  
at ,zagmuk in his palace47#cec7 ,but    
whether the power of the  ,assyrian     
kings had1 like that of the ,babylonian 
monarchs1 to be annually  renewed at    
this festival1 we do not know4 ,however1
 a trace of an annual  tenure of the    
kingly office in ,assyria may perhaps1  
as ,dr4 ,c4 ,brockelmann  thinks17#ced7 
be detected in the rule that an         
,assyrian king regularly gave  his name 
only to a single year of his reign1     
while all the other years  were named   
after certain officers and provincial   
governors1 about thirty  in number1 who 
were appointed for this purpose and     
succeeded each other  according to a    
fixed rotation47#cee7 ,but we know too  
little about the  institution of the    
limu or eponymate to allow us to press  
this argument  for an annual tenure of  
the kingship in ,assyria47#cef7 ,a      

reminiscence of  ,zagmuk seems to linger
 in the belief of the ,yezidis that on  
,new-year's day  ,god sits on his throne
 arranging the decrees for the coming   
year1  assigning to dignitaries their   
various offices1 and delivering to them 
their credentials under his signature   
and seal47#ceg7    7,m#ij7 ,the view    
that at ,babylon the condemned prisoner 
who wore the royal  robes was slain as a
 substitute for the king may be         
supported by the  practice of ,west     
,africa1 where at the funeral of a king 
slaves used  sometimes to be dressed up 
as ministers of state and then          
sacrificed in  that character instead of
 the real ministers1 their masters1 who 
purchased  for a sum of money the       
privilege of thus dying by proxy4 ,such 
vicarious  sacrifices were witnessed by 
,catholic missionaries at ,porto ,novo  
on the  ,slave ,coast47#ceh7    7,m#ia7 
,a vestige of a practice of putting the 
king to death at the end of a  year's   
reign appears to have survived in the   

festival called ,macahity1  which used  
to be celebrated in ,hawaii during the  
last month of the year4  ,about a       
hundred years ago a ,russian voyager    
described the custom as  follows3 8,the 
taboo ,macahity is not unlike to our    
festival of ,christmas4  ,it continues a
 whole month1 during which the people   
amuse themselves with  dances1 plays1   
and sham-fights of every kind4 ,the king
 must open this  festival wherever he   
is4 ,on this occasion his majesty       
dresses himself in  his richest cloak   
and helmet1 and is paddled in a canoe   
along the shore1  followed sometimes by 
many of his subjects4 ,he embarks early1
 and must  finish his excursion at      
sun-rise4 ,the strongest and most expert
 of the  warriors is chosen to receive  
him on his landing4 ,this warrior       
watches the  canoe along the beach2 and 
as soon as the king lands1 and has      
thrown off  his cloak1 he darts his     
spear at him1 from a distance of about  
thirty  paces1 and the king must either 

catch the spear in his hand1 or suffer  
from it3 there is no jesting in the     
business4 ,having caught it1 he carries 
it under his arm1 with the sharp end    
downwards1 into the temple or heavoo4   
,on his entrance1 the assembled         
multitude begin their sham-fights1 and  
immediately the air is obscured by      
clouds of spears1 made for the occasion 
with blunted ends4 ,hamamea the king has
 been frequently advised to  abolish    
this ridiculous ceremony1 in which he   
risks his life every year2  but to no   
effect4 ,his answer always is1 that he  
is as able to catch a  spear as any one 
on the island is to throw it at him4    
,during the ,macahity1  all punishments 
are remitted throughout the country2 and
 no person can  leave the place in which
 he commences these holidays1 let the   
affair be  ever so important407#cei7    
#i4 ,diurnal ,tenure of the ,kingship4  
7,m#ib7 ,that a king should regularly   
have been put to death at the close of  
a year's reign will hardly appear       

improbable when we learn that to this   
day there is still a kingdom in which   
the reign and the life of the  sovereign
 are limited to a single day4 ,in       
,ngoio1 a province of the ancient       
kingdom of ,congo in ,west ,africa1 the 
rule obtains that the chief who  assumes
 the cap of sovereignty is always killed
 on the night after his  coronation4    
,the right of succession lies with the  
chief of the ,musurongo2  but we need   
not wonder that he does not exercise it1
 and that the throne  stands vacant4    
8,no one likes to lose his life for a   
few hours' glory on  the ,ngoio         
throne407#cfj7            ,,chapter     
,,iii4 ,,the ,,slaying ,,of ,,the ,,king
 ,,in ,,legend4      7,m#ic7 ,if a      
custom of putting kings to death at the 
end of a set term has  prevailed in many
 lands1 it is natural enough that       
reminiscences of it  should survive in  
tradition long after the custom itself  
has been  abolished4 ,in the ,high      
,history of the ,holy ,graal we read how

 ,lancelot  roamed through strange lands
 and forests seeking adventures till he 
came  to a fair and wide plain lying    
without a city that seemed of right     
great  lordship4 ,as he rode across the 
plain the people came forth from the    
city  to welcome him with the sound of  
flutes and viols and many instruments of
  music4 ,when he asked them what meant 
all this joy1 8 #8,sir1' said they1     
#8all this joy is made along of you1 and
 all these instruments of music are     
moved to joy and sound of gladness for  
your coming4' #8,but wherefore for  me8'
 saith ,lancelot4 #8,that shall you know
 well betimes1' say they4 #8,this  city 
began to burn and to melt in one of the 
houses from the very same  hour that our
 king was dead1 nor might the fire be   
quenched1 nor ever will  be quenched    
until such time as we have a king that  
shall be lord of the  city and of the   
honour thereunto belonging1 and on ,new 
,year's ,day behoveth  him to be crowned
 in the midst of the fire1 and then     

shall the fire be  quenched1 for        
otherwise may it never be put out nor   
extinguished4  ,wherefore have we come  
to meet you to give you the royalty1 for
 we have  been told that you are a good 
knight4' #8,lords1' saith ,lancelot1    
#8of such a  kingdom have ,i no need1   
and ,god defend me from it4' #8,sir1'   
say they1 #8you  may not be defended    
thereof1 for you come into this land at 
hazard1 and  great grief would it be    
that so good a land as you see this is  
were burnt  and melted away by the      
default of one single man1 and the      
lordship is  right great1 and this will 
be right great worship to yourself1 that
 on ,new  ,year's ,day you should be    
crowned in the fire and thus save this  
city and  this great people1 and thereof
 shall you have great praise4' ,much    
marvelleth ,lancelot of this that they  
say4 ,they come round about him on  all 
sides and lead him into the city4 ,the  
ladies and damsels are mounted  to the  
windows of the great houses and make    

great joy1 and say the one to  another1 
#8,look at the new king here that they  
are leading in4 ,now will he  quench the
 fire on ,new ,year's ,day4' #8,lord6'  
say the most part1 #8what great  pity is
 it of so comely a knight that he shall 
end on such-wise6' #8,be  still6' say   
the others4 #8,rather should there be   
great joy that so fair  city as is this 
should be saved by his death1 for prayer
 will be made  throughout all the       
kingdom for his soul for ever6'         
,therewith they lead him  to the palace 
with right great joy and say that they  
will crown him4  ,lancelot found the    
palace all strown with rushes and hung  
about with  curtains of rich cloths of  
silk1 and the lords of the city all     
apparelled  to do him homage4 ,but he   
refuseth right stoutly1 and saith that  
their king  nor their lord will he never
 be in no such sort4 ,thereupon behold  
you a  dwarf that entereth into the     
city1 leading one of the fairest dames  
that  be in any kingdom1 and asketh     

whereof this joy and this murmuring may 
be4  ,they tell him they are fain to    
make the knight king1 but that he is not
  minded to allow them1 and they tell   
him the whole manner of the fire4 ,the  
dwarf and the damsel are alighted1 then 
they mount up to the palace4 ,the  dwarf
 calleth the provosts of the city and   
the greater lords4 #8,lords1'  saith he1
 #8sith that this knight is not willing 
to be king1 ,i will be so  willingly1   
and ,i will govern the city at your     
pleasure and do whatsoever  you have    
devised to do4' #8,in faith1 sith that  
the knight refuseth this  honour and you
 desire to have it1 willingly will we   
grant it you1 and he  may go his way and
 his road1 for herein do we declare him 
wholly quit4'  ,therewithal they set the
 crown on the dwarf's head1 and         
,lancelot maketh  great joy thereof4 ,he
 taketh his leave1 and they commend him 
to ,god1 and  so remounteth he on his   
horse and goeth his way through the     
midst of the  city all armed4 ,the dames

 and damsels say that he would not be   
king for  that he had no mind to die so 
soon407#cfa7    7,m#id7 ,a story of the 
same sort is told of ,ujjain1 the       
ancient capital of  ,malwa in western   
,india1 where the renowned ,king        
,vikramaditya is said to  have held his 
court1 gathering about him a circle of  
poets and  scholars47#cfb7 ,tradition   
has it that once on a time an           
arch-fiend1 with a  legion of devils at 
his command1 took up his abode in       
,ujjain1 the  inhabitants of which he   
vexed and devoured4 ,many had fallen a  
prey to him1  and others had abandoned  
the country to save their lives4 ,the   
once  populous city was fast being      
converted into a desert4 ,at last the   
principal citizens1 meeting in council1 
besought the fiend to reduce his        
rations to one man a day1 who would be  
duly delivered up to him in order  that 
the rest might enjoy a day's repose4    
,the demon closed with the offer1  but  
required that the man whose turn it was 

to be sacrificed should mount  the      
throne and exercise the royal power for 
a single day1 all the grandees  of the  
kingdom submitting to his commands1 and 
everybody yielding him the  most        
absolute obedience4 ,necessity obliged  
the citizens to accept these  hard      
terms2 their names were entered on a    
list2 every day one of them in  his turn
 ruled from morning to night1 and was   
then devoured by the demon4    7,m#ie7  
,now it happened by great good luck that
 a caravan of merchants from  ,gujerat  
halted on the banks of a river not far  
from the city4 ,they were  attended by a
 servant who was no other than          
,vikramaditya4 ,at nightfall the        
jackals began to howl as usual1 and one 
of them said in his own tongue1  8,in   
two hours a human corpse will shortly   
float down this river1 with four  rubies
 of great price at his belt1 and a      
turquois ring on his finger4 ,he  who   
will give me that corpse to devour will 
bear sway over the seven  lands40       

,vikramaditya1 knowing the language of  
birds and beasts1 understood  what the  
jackal said1 gave the corpse to the     
beast to devour1 and took  possession of
 the ring and the rubies4 ,next day he  
entered the town1 and1  traversing the  
streets1 observed a troop of horse under
 arms1 forming a  royal escort1 at the  
door of a potter's house4 ,the grandees 
of the city  were there1 and with them  
was the garrison4 ,they were in the act 
of  inducing the son of the potter to   
mount an elephant and proceed in state  
to the palace4 ,but strange to say1     
instead of being pleased at the honour  
conferred on their son1 the potter and  
his wife stood on the threshold  weeping
 and sobbing most bitterly4 ,learning   
how things stood1 the  chivalrous       
,vikramaditya was touched with pity1 and
 offered to accept the  fatal           
sovereignty instead of the potter's son1
 saying that he would either  deliver   
the people from the tyranny of the demon
 or perish in the attempt4  ,accordingly

 he donned the kingly robes1 assumed all
 the badges of  sovereignty1 and1       
mounting the elephant1 rode in great    
pomp to the palace1  where he seated    
himself on the throne1 while the        
dignitaries of the  kingdom discharged  
their duties in his presence4 ,at night 
the fiend  arrived as usual to eat him  
up4 ,but ,vikramaditya was more than a  
match for  him1 and after a terrific    
combat the fiend capitulated and agreed 
to quit  the city4 ,next morning the    
people on coming to the palace were     
astonished  to find ,vikramaditya still 
alive4 ,they thought he must be no      
common  mortal1 but some superhuman     
being1 or the descendant of a great     
king4  ,grateful to him for their       
deliverance they bestowed the kingdom on
 him1  and he reigned happily over      
them47#cfc7    7,m#if7 ,according to one
 account1 the dreadful being who ravaged
 ,ujjain and  devoured a king every day 
was the bloodthirsty goddess ,kali4     
,when she  quitted the city she left    

behind her two sisters1 whose quaint    
images  still frown on the spectator    
from the pillared portal known as       
,vikramaditya's ,gate at ,ujjain4 ,to   
these her sisters she granted the       
privilege of devouring as many human    
beings as they pleased once every       
twelve years4 ,that tribute they still  
exact1 though the ,european in his      
blindness attributes the deaths to      
cholera4 ,but in addition seven girls   
and five buffaloes were to be sacrificed
 to them every year1 and these          
sacrifices used to be offered regularly 
until the practice was put down by  the 
,english ,government4 ,it is said that  
the men who gave their  five-year-old   
daughters to be slain received grants of
 land as a reward of  their piety4      
,nowadays only buffaloes are killed at  
the ,daaratha festival1  which is held  
in ,october on the ninth day of the     
month ,avina4 ,the heads  of the animals
 are buried at ,vikramaditya's gateway1 
and those of the last  year's victims   

are taken up4 ,the girls who would      
formerly have been  sacrificed are now  
released1 but they are not allowed to   
marry1 and their  fathers still receive 
grants of lands just as if the cruel    
sacrifice had  been consummated47#cfd7  
,the persistence of these bloody rites  
at ,ujjain  down to recent times raises 
a presumption that the tradition of the 
daily  sacrifice of a king in the same  
city was not purely mythical4    7,m#ig7
 ,it is worth while to consider another 
of the stories which are told  of ,king 
,vikramaditya4 ,his birth is said to    
have been miraculous1 for his  father   
was ,gandharva-,sena1 who was the son of
 the great god ,indra4 ,one day         
,gandharva-,sena had the misfortune to  
offend his divine father1 who was so    
angry that he cursed his son and        
banished him from heaven to earth1 there
  to remain under the form of an ass by 
day and of a man by night until a       
powerful king should burn his ass's     
body1 after which ,gandharva-,sena would

  regain his proper shape and return to 
the upper world4 ,all this happened     
according to the divine word4 ,in the   
shape of an ass the son of the god      
rendered an important service to the    
,king of ,dhara1 and received the hand  
of the king's daughter as his reward4   
,by day he was an ass and ate hay in    
the stables2 by night he was a man and  
enjoyed the company of the princess  his
 wife4 ,but the king grew tired of the  
taunts of his enemies1 as well as  of   
the gibes which were levelled by        
unfeeling wits at his asinine           
son-in-law4 ,so one night1 while        
,gandharva-,sena in human shape was with
 his  wife1 the king got hold of the    
ass's body which his son-in-law had     
temporarily quitted1 and throwing it on 
a fire burned it to ashes4 ,on the      
instant ,gandharva-,sena appeared to    
him1 and thanking him for undoing the   
spell announced that he was about to    
return to heaven1 but that his wife  was
 with child by him1 and that she would  

bring forth a son who would bear  the   
name of ,vikramaditya and be endowed    
with the strength of a thousand         
elephants4 ,the deserted wife was filled
 with sorrow at his departure1 and  died
 in giving birth to ,vikramaditya47#cfe7
    7,m#ih7 ,this story belongs to a    
widely diffused type of tale which in   
,england is known by the name of ,beauty
 and the ,beast4 ,it relates how a      
beast1 doffing its animal shape1 lives  
as a human husband or wife with a  human
 spouse4 ,often1 though not always1     
their marriage has a tragic  ending4    
,the couple live lovingly together for  
years and children are born  to them4   
,but it is a condition of their union   
that the transformed husband  or wife   
should never be reminded of his or her  
old life in furry1  feathered1 or finny 
form4 ,at last one unhappy day the fairy
 spouse finds  his or her beast skin1   
which had been carefully hidden away by 
her or his  loving partner2 or husband  
and wife quarrel and the real man or    

woman  taunts the other with her or his 
kinship with the beasts4 ,the sight of  
the  once familiar skin awakens old     
memories and stirs yearnings that had   
been  long suppressed3 the cruel words  
undo the kindness of years4 ,the        
sometime  animal resumes its native     
shape and disappears1 and the human     
husband or  wife is left lamenting4     
,sometimes1 as in the story of          
,gandharva-,sena1 the  destruction of   
the beast's skin causes the fairy mate  
to vanish for ever2  sometimes it       
enables him or her to remain thenceforth
 in human form with  the human wife or  
husband4 ,tales of this sort are told by
 savages in many  parts of the world1   
and many of them have survived in the   
folk-lore of  civilised peoples4 ,with  
their implied belief that beasts can    
turn into men  or men into beasts1 they 
must clearly have originated among      
savages who  see nothing incredible in  
such transformations4    7,m#ii7 ,now it
 is to be observed that stories of this 

sort are told by  savage tribes to      
explain why they abstain from eating    
certain creatures4  ,the reason they    
assign for the abstinence is that they  
themselves are  descended from a        
creature of that sort1 who was changed  
for a time into  human shape and married
 a human husband or wife4 ,thus in the  
rivers of  ,sarawak there is a certain  
fish called a puttin1 which some of the 
,dyaks  will on no account eat1 saying  
that if they did so they would be eating
  their relations4 ,tradition runs that 
a solitary old man went out fishing  and
 caught a puttin1 which he dragged out  
of the water and laid down in  his boat4
 ,on turning round he perceived that it 
had changed into a very  pretty girl4   
,he thought she would make a charming   
wife for his son1 so he  took her home  
and brought her up till she was of an   
age to marry4 ,she  consented to be his 
son's wife1 but cautioned her husband to
 use her well4  ,some time after        
marriage1 however1 he was angry and     

struck her4 ,she  screamed and rushed   
away into the water1 leaving behind her 
a beautiful  daughter who became the    
mother of the race4 ,other ,dyak tribes 
tell similar  stories of their          
ancestors47#cff7 ,thus the ,sea ,dyaks  
relate how the  white-headed hawk       
married a ,sea ,dyak woman1 and how he  
gave all his  daughters in marriage to  
the various omen-birds4 ,hence if a ,sea
 ,dyak kills  an omen-bird by mistake1  
he wraps it in a cloth and buries it    
carefully in  the earth along with rice1
 flesh1 and money1 entreating the bird  
not to be  vexed1 and to forgive him1   
because it was all an accident47#cfg7   
,again1 a  ,kalamantan chief and all his
 people refrain from killing and eating 
deer  of a certain species 7cervulus    
muntjac71 because one of their ancestors
  became a deer of that kind1 and as    
they cannot distinguish his incarnation 
from common deer they spare them        
all47#cfh7 ,in these latter cases the   
legends explaining the kinship of the   

men with the animals are not given  in  
full2 we can only conjecture1 therefore1
 that they conform to the type  here    
discussed4    7,m#ajj7 ,the ,sea ,dyaks 
also tell a story of the same sort to   
explain how  they first came to plant   
rice and to revere the omen-birds which 
play so  important a part in ,dyak life4
 ,long1 long ago1 so runs the tale1 when
 rice  was yet unknown1 and the ,dyaks  
lived on tapioca1 yams1 potatoes1 and   
such  fruits as they could procure1 a   
handsome young chief named ,siu went out
  into the forest with his blow-pipe to 
shoot birds4 ,he wandered without       
seeing a bird or meeting an animal till 
the sun was sinking in the west4  ,then 
he came to a wild fig-tree covered with 
ripe fruit1 which a swarm of  birds of  
all kinds were busy pecking at4 ,never  
in his life had he seen so  many birds  
together6 ,it seemed as if all the fowls
 of the forest were  gathered in the    
boughs of that tree4 ,he killed a great 
many with the  poisoned darts of his    

blow-pipe1 and putting them in his      
basket started  for home4 ,but he lost  
his way in the wood1 and the night had  
fallen before  he saw the lights and    
heard the usual sounds of a ,dyak house4
 ,hiding his  blow-pipe and the dead    
birds in the jungle1 he went up the     
ladder into the  house1 but what was his
 surprise to find it apparently         
deserted4 ,there was  no one in the long
 verandah1 and of the people whose      
voices he had heard a  minute before not
 one was to be seen4 ,only in one of the
 many rooms1 dimly  lighted1 he found a 
beautiful girl1 who prepared for him his
 evening meal4  ,now though ,siu did not
 know it1 the house was the house of the
 great  ,singalang ,burong1 the ,ruler  
of the ,spirit ,world4 ,he could turn   
himself and  his followers into any     
shape4 ,when they went forth against an 
enemy they  took the form of birds for  
the sake of speed1 and flew over the    
tall  trees1 the broad rivers1 and even 
the sea4 ,but in his own house and among

  his own people ,singalang ,burong     
appeared as a man4 ,he had eight        
daughters1  and the girl who cooked     
,siu's food for him was the youngest4   
,the reason  why the house was so still 
and deserted was that the people were in
  mourning for some of their relatives  
who had just been killed1 and the men   
had gone out to take human heads in     
revenge4 ,siu stayed in the house for a 
week1 and then the girl1 whose pet name 
was ,bunsu ,burong or 8the youngest  of 
the bird family10 agreed to marry him2  
but she said he must promise  never to  
kill or hurt a bird or even to hold one 
in his hands2 for if he  did1 she would 
be his wife no more4 ,siu promised1 and 
together they  returned to his people4  
7,m#aja7 ,there they lived happily1 and 
in time ,siu's wife bore him a son  whom
 they named ,seragunting4 ,one day when 
the boy had grown wonderfully  tall and 
strong for his years and was playing    
with his fellows1 a man  brought some   
birds which he had caught in a trap4    

,forgetting the promise  he had made to 
his wife1 ,siu asked the man to shew him
 the birds1 and  taking one of them in  
his hand he stroked it4 ,his wife saw it
 and was sad  at heart4 ,she took the   
pitchers and went as though she would   
fetch water  from the well4 ,but she    
never came back4 ,siu and his son sought
 her1  sorrowing1 for days4 ,at last    
after many adventures they came to the  
house  of the boy's grandfather1        
,singalang ,burong1 the ,ruler of the   
,spirit ,world4  ,there they found the  
lost wife and mother1 and there they    
stayed for a  time4 ,but the heart of   
,siu yearned to his old home4 ,he would 
fain have  persuaded his wife to return 
with him1 but she would not4 ,so at last
 he  and his son went back alone4 ,but  
before he went he learned from his      
father-in-law how to plant rice1 and how
 to revere the sacred birds and to  draw
 omens from them4 ,these birds were     
named after the sons-in-law of the      
,ruler of the ,spirit ,world and were   

the appointed means whereby he made     
known his wishes to mankind4 ,that is   
how the ,sea ,dyaks learned to plant    
rice and to honour the omen-birds47#cfi7
    7,m#ajb7 ,stories of the same kind  
meet us on the west coast of ,africa4   
,thus  the ,tshi-speaking negroes of the
 ,gold ,coast are divided into a number 
of  great families or clans1 mostly     
named after animals or plants1 and the  
members of a clan refrain from eating   
animals of the species whose name  they 
bear4 ,in short1 the various animals or 
plants are the totems of their          
respective clans4 ,now some of the more 
recent of these clans possess           
traditions of their origin1 and in such 
cases the founder of the family1  from  
whom the name is derived1 is always     
represented as having been a  beast1    
bird1 or fish1 which possessed the power
 of assuming human shape at  will4      
,thus1 for instance1 at the town of     
,chama there resides a family or  clan  
who take their name from the sarfu or   

horse-mackerel1 which they  may not eat 
because they are descended from a       
horse-mackerel4 ,one day1 so  runs the  
story1 a native of ,chama who had lost  
his wife was walking sadly  on the      
beach1 when he met a beautiful young    
woman whom he persuaded to be  his wife4
 ,she consented1 but told him that her  
home lay in the sea1 that  her people   
were fishes1 and that she herself was a 
fish1 and she made him  swear that he   
would never allude to her old home and  
kinsfolk4 ,all went  well for a time    
till her husband took a second wife1 who
 quarrelled with  the first wife and    
taunted her with being a fish4 ,that    
grieved her so that  she bade her       
husband good-bye and plunged into the   
sea with her youngest  child in her     
arms4 ,but she left her two elder       
children behind1 and from  them are     
descended the ,horse-mackerel people of 
,chama4 ,a similar story is  told of    
another family in the town of ,appam4   
,their ancestor caught a fine  fish of  

the sort called appei1 which turned into
 a beautiful woman and  became his wife4
 ,but she told him that in future       
neither they nor their  descendants     
might eat the appei fish or else they   
would at once return  to the sea4 ,the  
family1 duly observing the prohibition1 
increased and  multiplied till they     
occupied the whole country1 which was   
named after  them ,appeim or            
,appam47#cgj7    7,m#ajc7 ,we may       
surmise that stories of this sort1      
wherever found1 had a  similar origin2  
in other words1 that they reflect and   
are intended to  explain a real belief  
in the kinship of certain families with 
certain  species of animals4 ,hence if  
the name totemism may be used to include
 all  such beliefs and the practices    
based on them1 the origin of this type  
of  story may be said to be             
totemic47#cga7 ,now1 wherever the       
totemic clans have  become exogamous1   
that is1 wherever a man is always       
obliged to marry a  woman of a totem    

different from his own1 it is obvious   
that husband and  wife will always have 
to observe different totemic taboos1 and
 that a want  of respect shewn by one of
 them for the sacred animal or plant of 
the  other would tend to domestic jars1 
which might often lead to the permanent 
separation of the spouses1 the offended 
wife or husband returning to her  or his
 native clan of the fish-people1 the    
bird-people1 or what not4 ,that1  ,i    
take it1 was the origin of the sad story
 of the man or woman happily  mated with
 a transformed animal and then parted   
for ever4 ,such tales1 if ,i  am right1 
were not wholly fictitious4 ,totemism   
may have broken many loving  hearts4    
,but when that ancient system of society
 had fallen into disuse1  and the ideas 
on which it was based had ceased to be  
understood1 the  quaint stories of mixed
 marriages to which it had given birth  
would not be  at once forgotten4 ,they  
would continue to be told1 no longer    
indeed as  myths explanatory of custom1 

but merely as fairy tales for the       
amusement  of the listeners4 ,the       
barbarous features of the old legends1  
which now  appeared too monstrously     
incredible even for story-tellers1 would
 be  gradually discarded and replaced by
 others which fitted in better with the 
changed beliefs of the time4 ,thus in   
particular the animal husband or  animal
 wife of the story might drop the       
character of a beast to assume  that of 
a fairy4 ,this is the stage of decay    
exhibited by the two most  famous tales 
of the class in question1 the ,greek    
fable of ,cupid and ,psyche  and the    
,indian story of ,king ,pururavas and   
the nymph ,urvasi1 though in the  latter
 we can still detect hints that the     
fairy wife was once a  bird-woman47#cgb7
    7,m#ajd7 ,it would1 no doubt1 be a  
mistake to suppose that totemism1 or a  
system of taboos resembling it1 must    
have existed wherever such stories  are 
told2 for it is certain that popular    
tales spread by diffusion from  tribe to

 tribe and nation to nation1 till they  
may be handed down by oral  tradition   
among people who neither practise nor   
even understand the  customs in which   
the stories originated4 ,yet the legend 
of the miraculous  parentage of         
,vikramaditya may very well have been   
based on the existence  at ,ujjain of a 
line of rajahs who had the ass for their
 crest or  totem47#cgc7 ,such a custom  
is not without analogy in ,india4 ,the  
crest of  the ,maharajah of ,nagpur is a
 cobra with a human face under its      
expanded  hood1 surrounded by all the   
insignia of royalty4 ,moreover1 the     
,rajah and  the chief members of his    
family always wear turbans so arranged  
that they  resemble a coiled serpent    
with its head projecting over the       
wearer's brow4  ,to explain this serpent
 badge a tale is told which conforms to 
the type of  ,beauty and the ,beast4    
,once upon a time a ,nag or serpent     
named ,pundarika  took upon himself the 
likeness of a ,brahman1 and repaired in 

that guise to  the house of a real      
,brahman at ,benares1 in order to       
perfect himself in a  knowledge of the  
sacred books4 ,the teacher was so       
pleased with the  progress made by his  
pupil that he gave him his only child1  
the beautiful  ,parvati1 to wife4 ,but  
the subtle serpent1 though he could     
assume any form  at pleasure1 was unable
 to rid himself of his forked tongue and
 foul  breath4 ,to conceal these        
personal blemishes from his wife he     
always slept  with his back to her4 ,one
 night1 however1 she got round him and  
discovered  his unpleasant              
peculiarities4 ,she questioned him      
sharply1 and to divert  her attention he
 proposed that they should make a       
pilgrimage to  ,juggernaut4 ,the idea of
 visiting that fashionable              
watering-place so raised  the lady's    
spirits that she quite forgot to pursue 
the enquiry4 ,however1  on their way    
home her curiosity revived1 and she     
repeated her questions  under           

circumstances which rendered it         
impossible for the serpent1 as a  tender
 husband1 to evade them1 though well he 
knew that the disclosure he  was about  
to make would sever him1 the immortal1  
at once and for ever from  his mortal   
wife4 ,he related the wondrous tale1    
and1 plunging into a pool1  disappeared 
from sight4 ,his poor wife was          
inconsolable at his hurried  departure1 
and in the midst of her grief and       
remorse her child was born4  ,but       
instead of rejoicing at the birth1 she  
made for herself a funeral pyre  and    
perished in the flames4 ,at that moment 
a ,brahman appeared on the  scene1 and  
perceived the forsaken babe lying       
sheltered and guarded by a  great hooded
 snake4 ,it was the serpent father      
protecting his child4  ,addressing the  
,brahman1 he narrated his history1 and  
foretold that the  child should be      
called ,phani-,makuta ,raya1 that is1   
8the snake crowned10  and that he should
 reign as rajah over the country to be  

called ,nagpur4  ,that is why the rajahs
 of ,nagpur have the serpent for their  
crest47#cgd7  ,again1 the rajahs of     
,manipur trace their descent from a     
divine snake4 ,at  his installation a   
rajah of ,manipur used to have to pass  
with great  solemnity between two       
massive dragons of stone which stood in 
front of the  coronation house4         
,somewhere inside the building was a    
mysterious chamber1  and in the chamber 
was a pipe1 which1 according to the     
popular belief1 led  down to the depths 
of a cavern where dwells the snake god1 
the ancestor of  the royal family4 ,the 
length and prosperity of the rajah's    
reign were  believed to depend on the   
length of time he could sit on the pipe 
enduring  the fiery breath of his       
serpentine forefather in the place      
below4 ,women  are specially devoted to 
the worship of the ancestral snake1 and 
great  reverence is paid them in virtue 
of their sacred office47#cge7    ,the   
parallelism between the legends of      

,nagpur and ,ujjain may be allowed to   
strengthen my conjecture that1 if we    
have a race of royal serpents in the    
one place1 there may well have been a   
race of royal asses in the other2       
indeed such dynasties have perhaps not  
been so rare as might be supposed4      
,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,supply ,,of     
,,kings4      7,m#aje7 ,tales of the    
foregoing sort might be dismissed as    
fictions designed  to amuse a leisure   
hour1 were it not for their remarkable  
agreement with  beliefs and customs     
which1 as we have seen1 still exist1 or 
are known to  have existed in former    
times4 ,that agreement can hardly be    
accidental4 ,we  seem to be justified1  
therefore1 in assuming that stories of  
the kind  really rest on a basis of     
facts1 however much these facts may have
 been  distorted or magnified in passing
 through the mind of the story-teller1  
who is naturally more concerned to amuse
 than instruct his hearers4 ,even  the  
legend of a line of kings of whom each  

reigned for a single day1 and  was      
sacrificed at night for the good of the 
people1 will hardly seem  incredible    
when we remember that to this day a     
kingdom is held on a  similar tenure in 
west ,africa1 though under modern       
conditions the throne  stands           
vacant47#cgf7 ,and while it would be    
vain to rely on such stories for  exact 
historical details1 yet they may help us
 in a general way to  understand the    
practical working of an institution     
which to civilised men  seems at first  
sight to belong to the cloudland of     
fancy rather than to  the sober reality 
of the workaday world4 ,remark1 for     
example1 how in these  stories the      
supply of kings is maintained4 ,in the  
,indian tradition all the  men of the   
city are put on a list1 and each of     
them1 when his turn comes1  is forced to
 reign for a day and to die the death4  
,it is not left to his  choice to decide
 whether he will accept the fatal       
sovereignty or not4 ,in  the ,high      

,history of the ,holy ,grail the mode of
 filling the vacant throne  is          
different4 ,a stranger1 not a citizen1  
is seized and compelled to accept       
office4 ,in the end1 no doubt1 the dwarf
 volunteers to be king1 thus saving     
,lancelot's life2 but the narrative     
plainly implies that if a substitute    
had not thus been found1 ,lancelot would
 have been obliged1 whether he  would or
 not1 to wear the crown and to perish in
 the fire4    7,m#ajf7 ,in thus         
representing the succession to a throne 
as compulsory1 the  stories may well    
preserve a reminiscence of a real       
custom4 ,to us1 indeed1  who draw our   
ideas of kingship from the hereditary   
and highly privileged  monarchies of    
civilised ,europe1 the notion of        
thrusting the crown upon  reluctant     
strangers or common citizens of the     
lowest rank is apt to appear  fantastic 
and absurd4 ,but that is merely because 
we fail to realise how  widely the      
modern type of kingship has diverged    

from the ancient pattern4  ,in early    
times the duties of sovereignty are more
 conspicuous than its  privileges4 ,at a
 certain stage of development the chief 
or king is rather  the minister or      
servant than the ruler of his people4   
,the sacred functions  which he is      
expected to discharge are deemed        
essential to the welfare1 and  even the 
existence1 of the community1 and at any 
cost some one must be  found to perform 
them4 ,yet the burdens and restrictions 
of all sorts  incidental to the early   
kingship are such that not merely in    
popular  tales1 but in actual practice1 
compulsion has sometimes been found     
necessary to fill vacancies1 while      
elsewhere the lack of candidates has    
caused the office to fall into abeyance1
 or even to be abolished                
altogether47#cgg7 ,and where death      
stared the luckless monarch in the face 
at the end of a brief reign of a few    
months or days1 we need not wonder  that
 gaols had to be swept and the dregs of 

society raked to find a king4           
7,m#ajg7 ,yet we should doubtless err if
 we supposed that under such hard       
conditions men could never be found     
ready and even eager to accept the      
sovereignty4 ,a variety of causes has   
led the modern nations of western       
,europe to set on human life--their own 
life and that of others--a higher  value
 than is put upon it by many other      
races4 ,the result is a fear of  death  
which is certainly not shared in the    
same degree of intensity by  some       
peoples whom we in our self-complacency 
are accustomed to regard as  our        
inferiors4 ,among the causes which thus 
tend to make us cowards may be  numbered
 the spread of luxury and the doctrines 
of a gloomy theology1  which by         
proclaiming the eternal damnation and   
excruciating torments of  the vast      
majority of mankind has added           
incalculably to the dread and  horror of
 death4 ,the growth of humaner          
sentiments1 which seldom fails to       

effect a corresponding amelioration in  
the character even of the gods1 has     
indeed led many ,protestant divines of  
late years to temper the rigour of  the 
divine justice with a large infusion of 
mercy by relegating the fires  of hell  
to a decent obscurity or even           
extinguishing them altogether4 ,but     
these lurid flames appear to blaze as   
fiercely as ever in the more            
conservative theology of the ,catholic  
,church47#cgh7    7,m#ajh7 ,it would be 
easy to accumulate evidence of the      
indifference or  apathy exhibited in    
presence of death by races whom we      
commonly brand as  lower4 ,a few        
examples must here suffice4 ,speaking of
 the natives of ,india  an ,english     
writer observes3 8,we place the highest 
value on life1 while  they1 being       
blessed with a comfortable fatalism1    
which assumes that each  man's destiny  
is written on his forehead in invisible 
characters1 and  being besides          
untroubled with any doubts or thoughts  

as to the nature of  their reception in 
the next world1 take matters of life and
 death a great  deal more unconcernedly1
 and1 compared with our ideas1 they may 
be said to  present an almost apathetic 
indifference on these subjects407#cgi7  
,to the  same effect another ,english   
writer remarks that 8the absence of that
 fear  of death1 which is so powerful in
 the hearts of civilised men1 is the    
most  remarkable trait in the ,hindu    
character407#chj7 ,among the natives of 
,annam1  according to a ,catholic       
missionary1 8the subject of death has   
nothing  alarming for anybody4 ,in      
presence of a sick man people will speak
 of his  approaching end and of his     
funeral as readily as of anything else4 
,hence  we never need to take the least 
verbal precaution in warning the sick to
  prepare themselves to receive the last
 sacraments4 ,some time ago ,i was      
summoned to a neophyte whose death1     
though certain1 was still distant4 ,on  
entering the house ,i found a woman     

seated at his bedside sewing the        
mourning dresses of the family4         
,moreover1 the carpenter was fitting    
together the boards of the coffin quite 
close to the door of the house1 so  that
 the dying man could observe the whole  
proceeding from his bed4 ,the  worthy   
man superintended personally all these  
details and gave directions  for each of
 the operations4 ,he even had for his   
pillow part of the  mourning costume    
which was already finished4 ,i could    
tell you a host of  anecdotes of the    
same sort40 ,among these people it is a 
mark of filial  piety to present a      
father or mother with a coffin2 the     
presentation is the  occasion of a      
family festival to which all friends are
 invited4 ,pupils  display their respect
 for their masters in the same fashion4 
,bishop  ,masson1 whose letter ,i have  
just quoted1 was himself presented with 
a fine  coffin by some of his converts  
as a ,new ,year gift and a token of     
their  respect and affection2 they      

invited his attention particularly to   
the  quality of the wood and the beauty 
of the workmanship47#cha7    7,m#aji7   
,with regard to the ,north ,american    
,indians a writer who knew them  well   
has said that among them 8the idea of   
immortality is strongly dwelt  upon4 ,it
 is not spoken of as a supposition or a 
mere belief1 not fixed4 ,it  is regarded
 as an actuality1--as something known   
and approved by the  judgment of the    
nation4 ,during the whole period of my  
residence and  travels in the ,indian   
country1 ,i never knew and never heard  
of an ,indian  who did not believe in   
it1 and in the reappearance of the body 
in a future  state4 ,however mistaken   
they are on the subject of              
accountabilities for  acts done in the  
present life1 no small part of their    
entire mythology1  and the belief that  
sustains the man in his vicissitudes and
 wanderings  here1 arises from the      
anticipation of ease and enjoyment in a 
future  condition1 after the soul has   

left the body4 ,the resignation1 nay1   
the  alacrity with which an ,indian     
frequently lies down and surrenders     
life1 is  to be ascribed to this        
prevalent belief4 ,he does not fear to  
go to a land  which1 all his life long1 
he has heard abounds in rewards without 
punishments407#chb7 ,another traveller1 
who saw much of the ,south ,american    
,indians1 asserts that they surpass the 
beasts in their insensibility to        
hardship and pain1 never complaining in 
sickness nor even when they are  being  
killed1 and exhibiting in their last    
moments an apathetic  indifference      
untroubled by any misgiving as to the   
future47#chc7    7,m#aaj7 ,wholesale    
butcheries of human beings were         
perpetrated till lately  in the name of 
religion in the west ,african kingdom of
 ,dahomey4 ,as to the  behaviour of the 
victims we are told that 8almost        
invariably1 those doomed  to die exhibit
 the greatest coolness and unconcern4   
,the natural dread of  death which the  

instinct of self-preservation has       
implanted in every  breast1 often leads 
persons who are liable to be seized for 
immolation to  endeavour to escape2 but 
once they are seized and bound1 they    
resign  themselves to their fate with   
the greatest apathy4 ,this is partly due
 to  the less delicate nervous system of
 the negro2 but one reason1 and that    
not the least1 is that they have nothing
 to fear4 ,as has been said1 they  have 
but to undergo a surgical operation and 
a change of place of  residence2 there  
is no uncertain future to be faced1 and1
 above all1 there  is an entire absence 
of that notion of a place of terrible   
punishment  which makes so many         
,europeans cowards when face to face    
with death407#chd7  ,one of the earliest
 ,european settlers on the coast of     
,brazil has remarked  on the            
indifference exhibited by the ,indian   
prisoners who were about to be          
massacred by their enemies4 ,he         
conversed with the captives1 men young1 

strong1 and handsome4 ,to his question  
whether they did not fear the death     
that was so near and so appalling1 they 
replied with laughter and mockery4      
,when he spoke of ransoming them from   
their foes1 they jeered at the          
cowardice of ,europeans47#che7 ,the     
,khonds of ,india practised an extensive
  system of human sacrifice1 of which we
 shall hear more in the sequel4 ,the    
victims1 known as ,meriahs1 were kept   
for years to be sacrificed1 and their   
manner of death was peculiarly horrible1
 since they were hacked to pieces  or   
slowly roasted alive4 ,yet when these   
destined victims were rescued by  the   
,english officers who were engaged in   
putting down the custom1 they  generally
 availed themselves of any opportunity  
to escape from their  deliverers and    
returned to their fate47#chf7 ,in       
,uganda there were formerly  many       
sacrificial places where human victims  
used to be slaughtered or  burned to    
death1 sometimes in hundreds1 from      

motives of superstition4  8,those who   
have taken part in these executions bear
 witness how seldom a  victim1 whether  
man or woman1 raised his voice to       
protest or appeal  against the treatment
 meted out to him4 ,the victims went to 
death 7so they  thought7 to save their  
country and race from some calamity1 and
 they laid  down their lives without a  
murmur or a struggle407#chg7    7,m#aaa7
 ,but it is not merely that men of other
 races and other religions  submit to   
inevitable death with an equanimity     
which modern ,europeans in  general     
cannot match2 they often actually seek  
and find it for reasons  which seem to  
us wholly inadequate4 ,the motives which
 lead them to  sacrifice their lives are
 very various4 ,among them religious    
fanaticism  has probably been one of the
 commonest1 and in the preceding pages  
we have  met with many instances of     
voluntary deaths incurred under its     
powerful  impulse47#chh7 ,but more      
secular motives1 such as loyalty1       

revenge1 and an  excessive sensibility  
on the point of honour1 have also driven
 multitudes  to throw away their lives  
with a levity which may strike the      
average  modern ,englishman as bordering
 on insanity4 ,it may be well to        
illustrate  this comparative            
indifference to death by a few          
miscellaneous examples  drawn from      
different races4 ,thus1 when the king of
 ,benin died and was  about to be       
lowered into the earth1 his favourites  
and servants used to  compete with each 
other for the privilege of being buried 
alive with his  body in order that they 
might attend and minister to him in the 
other  world4 ,after the dispute was    
settled and the tomb had closed over the
 dead  and the living1 sentinels were   
set to watch it day and night4 ,next day
 the  sepulchre would be opened and some
 one would call down to the entombed men
  to know what they were doing and      
whether any of them had gone to serve   
the  king4 ,the answer was commonly1    

8,no1 not yet40 ,the third day the same 
question would be put1 and a voice would
 reply that so-and-so had gone to  join 
his ,majesty4 ,the first to die was     
deemed the happiest4 ,in four or  five  
days when no answer came up to the      
question1 and all was silent in  the    
grave1 the heir to the throne was       
informed1 and he signalised his         
accession by kindling a fire on the     
tomb1 roasting flesh at it1 and         
distributing the meat to the            
people47#chi7 ,the daughter of a ,mbaya 
chief in  ,south ,america1 having been  
happily baptized at the very point of   
death1  was accorded ,christian burial  
in the church by the ,jesuit missionary 
who  had rescued her like a brand from  
the burning4 ,but an old heathen woman  
of  the tribe took it sadly to heart    
that her chief's daughter should not be 
honoured with the usual human           
sacrifices4 ,so1 drawing an ,indian     
aside1 she  implored him to be so kind  
as to knock her on the head1 that she   

might go  and serve her young mistress  
in the ,land of ,souls4 ,the savage     
obligingly  complied with her request1  
and the whole horde begged the          
missionary that  her body might be      
buried with that of the chief's         
daughter4 ,the ,jesuit  sternly refused4
 ,he informed them that the girl was now
 with the angels1  and stood in need of 
no such attendant4 ,as for the old      
woman1 he observed  grimly that she had 
gone to a very different place and would
 move in a  very different circle of    
society47#cij7 ,when ,otho committed    
suicide after  the battle of ,bedriacum1
 some of his soldiers slew themselves at
 his pyre1  and their example was       
afterwards followed by many of their    
comrades in the  armies which had       
marched with ,otho to meet ,vitellius2  
their motive was not  fear of the       
conqueror1 but purely loyalty and       
devotion to their  emperor47#cia7       
7,m#aab7 ,in the ,east that indifference
 to human life which seems so strange   

to the ,western mind often takes a      
peculiar form4 ,a man will sometimes    
kill  himself merely in order to be     
revenged on his foe1 believing that his 
ghost will haunt and torment the        
survivor1 or expecting that punishment  
of  some sort will overtake the wretch  
who drove him to this extreme           
step47#cib7 ,among some peoples         
etiquette requires that if a man commits
  suicide for this purpose1 his enemy   
should at once follow his example4 ,to  
take a single example4 ,there is a caste
 of robbers in southern ,india among    
whom 8the law of retaliation prevails in
 all its rigour4 ,if a quarrel  takes   
place1 and somebody tears out his own   
eye or kills himself1 his  adversary    
must do the same either to himself or to
 one of his relations4  ,the women carry
 this barbarity still further4 ,for a   
slight affront put on  them1 a sharp    
word said to them1 they will go and     
smash their head against  the door of   
her who offended them1 and the latter is

 obliged immediately  to do the same4   
,if a woman poisons herself by drinking 
the juice of a  poisonous herb1 the     
other woman who drove her to this       
violent death must  poison herself      
likewise2 else her house will be burned1
 her cattle carried  off1 and injuries  
of all kinds done her until satisfaction
 is given4 ,they  extend this cruelty   
even to their own children4 ,not long   
ago1 a few steps  from the church in    
which ,i have the honour to write to    
you1 two of these  barbarians having    
quarrelled1 one of them ran to his      
house1 took from it a  child of about   
four years1 and crushed its head between
 two stones in the  presence of his     
enemy4 ,the latter1 without exhibiting  
any emotion1 took  his nine-years' old  
daughter1 and1 plunging a dagger into   
her breast1  said1 #8,your child was    
only four years old1 mine was nine years
 old4 ,give  me a victim to equal her4' 
#8,certainly1' replied the other1 and   
seeing at  his side his eldest son1 who 

was ready to be married1 he stabbed him 
four  or five times with his dagger2    
and1 not content with shedding the blood
 of  his two sons1 he killed his wife   
too1 in order to oblige his enemy to    
murder his wife in like manner4 ,lastly1
 a little girl and a baby at the  breast
 had also their throats cut1 so that in 
a single day seven persons  were        
sacrificed to the vengeance of two      
bloodthirsty men1 more cruel than  the  
most ferocious brutes4 ,i have actually 
in my church a young man who  sought    
refuge among us1 wounded by a           
spear-thrust which his father  inflicted
 on him in order to kill him and thus   
oblige his foe to slay his  own son in  
like manner4 ,the barbarian had already 
stabbed two of his  children on other   
occasions for the same purpose4 ,such   
atrocious examples  will seem to you to 
partake more of fable than of truth2 but
 believe me  that far from exaggerating1
 ,i could produce many others not less  
tragical407#cic7    7,m#aac7 ,the same  

contempt of death which many races have 
exhibited in  modern times was displayed
 in antiquity by the hardy natives of   
,europe  before ,christianity had       
painted the world beyond the grave in   
colours at  which even their bold       
spirits quailed4 ,thus1 for example1 at 
their  banquets the rude ,thracians used
 to suspend a halter over a movable     
stone  and cast lots among themselves4  
,the man on whom the lot fell mounted   
the  stone with a scimitar in his hand  
and thrust his head into the noose4 ,a  
comrade then rolled the stone from under
 him1 and while he did so the  other    
attempted to sever the rope with his    
scimitar4 ,if he succeeded he  dropped  
to the ground and was saved2 if he      
failed1 he was hanged1 and his  dying   
struggles were greeted with peals of    
laughter by his fellows1 who  regarded  
the whole thing as a capital joke47#cid7
 ,the ,greek traveller  ,posidonius1 who
 visited ,gaul early in the first       
century before our era1  records that   

among the ,celts men were to be found   
who for a sum of money  or a number of  
jars of wine1 which they distributed    
among their kinsmen or  friends1 would  
allow themselves to be publicly         
slaughtered in a theatre4  ,they lay    
down on their backs upon a shield and a 
man came and cut their  throats with a  
sword47#cie7    7,m#aad7 ,a ,greek      
author1 ,euphorion of ,chalcis1 who     
lived in the age when the  eyes of all  
the world were turned on the great      
conflict between ,rome and  ,carthage   
for the mastery of the ,mediterranean1  
tells us that at ,rome it  was customary
 to advertise for men who would consent 
to be beheaded with  an axe in          
consideration of receiving a sum of five
 minae1 or about  twenty pounds of our  
money1 to be paid after their death to  
their heirs4  ,apparently there was no  
lack of applicants for this hard-earned 
bounty2  for we are informed that       
several candidates would often compete  
for the  privilege1 each of them arguing

 that he had the best right to be       
cudgelled  to death47#cif7 ,why were    
these men invited to be beheaded for    
twenty pounds  a piece8 and why in      
response to the invitation did they     
gratuitously1 as  it would seem1 express
 their readiness to suffer a much more  
painful death  than simple decapitation8
 ,the reasons are not stated by         
,euphorion in the  brief extract quoted 
from his work by ,athenaeus1 the ,greek 
writer who has  also preserved for us   
the testimony of ,posidonius to the     
,gallic  recklessness of life4 ,but the 
connexion in which ,athenaeus cites both
  these passages suggests that the      
intention of the ,roman as of the       
,gallic  practice was merely to minister
 to the brutal pleasure of the          
spectators2  for he inserts his account 
of the customs in a dissertation on     
banquets1  and he had just before       
described how hired ruffians fought and 
butchered  each other at ,roman         
dinner-parties for the amusement of the 

tipsy  guests47#cig7 ,or perhaps the men
 were wanted to be slaughtered at       
funerals1  for we know that at ,rome a  
custom formerly prevailed of sacrificing
 human  beings at the tomb3 the victims 
were commonly captives or slaves17#cih7 
but  they may sometimes have been       
obtained by advertisement from among the
  class of needy freemen4 ,such wretches
 in bidding against each other may  have
 pleaded as a reason for giving them the
 preference that they really  deserved  
for their crimes to die a slow and      
painful death under the cudgel  of the  
executioner4 ,this explanation of the   
custom1 which ,i owe to my  friend ,mr4 
,w4 ,wyse1 is perhaps the most probable4
 ,but it is also possible1  though the  
language of ,euphorion does not lend    
itself so well to this  interpretation1 
that a cudgelling preceded decapitation 
as part of the  bargain4 ,if that was   
so1 it would seem that the men were     
wanted to die as  substitutes for       
condemned criminals2 for in old ,rome   

capital punishment  was regularly       
inflicted in this fashion1 the          
malefactors being tied up to  a post and
 scourged with rods before they were    
beheaded with an axe47#cii7  ,there is  
nothing improbable in the view that     
persons could be hired to  suffer the   
extreme penalty of the law instead of   
the real culprits4 ,we  shall see that a
 voluntary substitution of the same sort
 is reported on  apparently good        
authority to be still occasionally      
practised in ,china4  ,however1 it is   
immaterial to our purpose whether these 
men perished to  save others1 to adorn a
 funeral1 or merely to gratify the      
,roman lust for  blood4 ,the one thing  
that concerns us is that in the great   
age of ,rome  there were to be found    
,romans willing1 nay1 eager to barter   
their lives  for a paltry sum of money  
of which they were not even to have the 
enjoyment4 ,no wonder that men made of  
that stuff founded a great empire1  and 
spread the terror of the ,roman arms    

from the ,grampians to the              
tropics47#djj7    7,m#aae7 ,the         
comparative indifference with which the 
,chinese regard their  lives is attested
 by the readiness with which they commit
 suicide on  grounds which often seem to
 the ,european extremely trifling47#dja7
 ,a still  more striking proof of their 
apathy in this respect is furnished by  
the  readiness with which in ,china a   
man can be induced to suffer death for a
  sum of money to be paid to his        
relatives4 ,thus1 for example1 8one of  
the  most wealthy of the aboriginal     
tribes1 called ,shurii-,kia-,miau1 is   
remarkable for the practice of a        
singular and revolting religious        
ceremony4 ,the people possess a large   
temple1 in which is an idol in the  form
 of a dog4 ,they resort to this shrine  
on a certain day every year to  worship4
 ,at this annual religious festival it  
is1 ,i believe1 customary for  the      
wealthy members of the tribe to         
entertain their poorer brethren at a    

banquet given in honour of one who has  
agreed1 for a sum of money paid to  his 
family1 to allow himself to be offered  
as a sacrifice on the altar of  the dog 
idol4 ,at the end of the banquet the    
victim1 having drunk wine  freely1 is   
put to death before the idol4 ,this     
people believe that1 were  they to      
neglect this rite1 they would be visited
 with pestilence1 famine1  or the       
sword407#djb7 ,further1 it is said that 
in ,china a man condemned to  death can 
procure a substitute1 who1 for a small  
sum1 will voluntarily  consent to be    
executed in his stead4 ,the money goes  
to the substitute's  kinsfolk1 and since
 to increase the family prosperity at   
the expense of  personal suffering is   
regarded by the ,chinese as an act of   
the highest  virtue1 there is reported  
to be1 just as there used to be in      
ancient ,rome1  quite a competition     
among the candidates for death4 ,such a 
substitution is  even recognised by the 
,chinese authorities1 except in the case

 of certain  grave crimes1 as for       
instance parricide4 ,the local mandarin 
is probably  not averse to the          
arrangement1 for he is said to make a   
pecuniary profit  by the transaction1   
engaging a substitute for a less sum    
than he received  from the condemned    
man1 and pocketing the difference47#djc7
    7,m#aaf7 ,the foregoing evidence may
 suffice to convince us that we should  
commit a grievous error were we to judge
 all men's love of life by our  own1 and
 to assume that others cannot hold cheap
 what we count so dear4 ,we  shall never
 understand the long course of human    
history if we persist in  measuring     
mankind in all ages and in all countries
 by the standard1  perhaps excellent but
 certainly narrow1 of the modern        
,english middle class  with their love  
of material comfort and 8their          
passionate1 absorbing1  almost          
bloodthirsty clinging to life40 ,that   
class1 of which ,i may say1 in  the     
words of ,matthew ,arnold1 that ,i am   

myself a feeble unit1 doubtless         
possesses many estimable qualities1 but 
among them can hardly be reckoned  the  
rare and delicate gift of historical    
imagination1 the power of  entering into
 the thoughts and feelings of men of    
other ages and other  countries1 of     
conceiving that they may regulate their 
life by principles  which do not square 
with ours1 and may throw it away for    
objects which to  us might seem         
ridiculously inadequate47#djd7          
7,m#aag7 ,to return1 therefore1 to the  
point from which we started1 we may     
safely assume that in some races1 and at
 some periods of history1 though        
certainly not in the well-to-do classes 
of ,england to-day1 it might be  easy to
 find men who would willingly accept a  
kingdom with the certainty  of being put
 to death after a reign of a year or    
less4 ,where men are  ready1 as they    
have been in ,gaul1 in ,rome1 and in    
,china1 to yield up their  lives at once
 for a paltry sum of which they are     

themselves to reap no  benefit1 would   
they not be willing to purchase at the  
same price a year's  tenure of a throne8
 ,among people of that sort the         
difficulty would  probably be not so    
much to find a candidate for the crown  
as to decide  between the conflicting   
claims of a multitude of competitors4   
,in point of  fact we have heard of a   
,shilluk clamouring to be made king on  
condition of  being killed at the end of
 a brief reign of a single day1 and we  
have read  how in ,malabar a crowd      
scrambled for the bloody head which     
entitled the  lucky man who caught it to
 be decapitated after five years of     
unlimited  enjoyment1 and how at        
,calicut many men used to rush          
cheerfully on death1  not for a kingship
 of a year1 or even of an hour1 but     
merely for the  honour of displaying    
their valour in a fruitless attack on   
the king47#dje7            ,,chapter ,v4
 ,,temporary ,,kings4      7,m#aah7 ,in 
some places the modified form of the old

 custom of regicide  which appears to   
have prevailed at ,babylon7#djf7 has    
been further softened  down4 ,the king  
still abdicates annually for a short    
time and his place is  filled by a more 
or less nominal sovereign2 but at the   
close of his short  reign the latter is 
no longer killed1 though sometimes a    
mock execution  still survives as a     
memorial of the time when he was        
actually put to  death4 ,to take        
examples4 ,in the month of ,mac         
7,february7 the king of  ,cambodia      
annually abdicated for three days4      
,during this time he performed  no act  
of authority1 he did not touch the      
seals1 he did not even receive  the     
revenues which fell due4 ,in his stead  
there reigned a temporary king  called  
,sdach ,mac1 that is1 ,king ,february4  
,the office of temporary king  was      
hereditary in a family distantly        
connected with the royal house1 the     
sons succeeding the fathers and the     
younger brothers the elder brothers1    

just as in the succession to the real   
sovereignty4 ,on a favourable day  fixed
 by the astrologers the temporary king  
was conducted by the mandarins  in      
triumphal procession4 ,he rode one of   
the royal elephants1 seated in the      
royal palanquin1 and escorted by        
soldiers who1 dressed in appropriate    
costumes1 represented the neighbouring  
peoples of ,siam1 ,annam1 ,laos1 and  so
 on4 ,in place of the golden crown he   
wore a peaked white cap1 and his        
regalia1 instead of being of gold       
encrusted with diamonds1 were of rough  
wood4 ,after paying homage to the real  
king1 from whom he received the         
sovereignty for three days1 together    
with all the revenues accruing during   
that time 7though this last custom has  
been omitted for some time71 he  moved  
in procession round the palace and      
through the streets of the  capital4 ,on
 the third day1 after the usual         
procession1 the temporary king  gave    
orders that the elephants should trample

 under foot the 8mountain of  rice10    
which was a scaffold of bamboo          
surrounded by sheaves of rice4 ,the     
people gathered up the rice1 each man   
taking home a little with him to  secure
 a good harvest4 ,some of it was also   
taken to the king1 who had it  cooked   
and presented to the monks47#djg7       
7,m#aai7 ,in ,siam on the sixth day of  
the moon in the sixth month 7the end of 
,april7 a temporary king is appointed1  
who for three days enjoys the royal     
prerogatives1 the real king remaining   
shut up in his palace4 ,this  temporary 
king sends his numerous satellites in   
all directions to seize  and confiscate 
whatever they can find in the bazaar and
 open shops2 even  the ships and junks  
which arrive in harbour during the three
 days are  forfeited to him and must be 
redeemed4 ,he goes to a field in the    
middle of  the city1 whither they bring 
a gilded plough drawn by gaily-decked   
oxen4  ,after the plough has been       
anointed and the oxen rubbed with       

incense1 the  mock king traces nine     
furrows with the plough1 followed by    
aged dames of  the palace scattering the
 first seed of the season4 ,as soon as  
the nine  furrows are drawn1 the crowd  
of spectators rushes in and scrambles   
for the  seed which has just been sown1 
believing that1 mixed with the          
seed-rice1  it will ensure a plentiful  
crop4 ,then the oxen are unyoked1 and   
rice1  maize1 sesame1 sago1 bananas1    
sugar-cane1 melons1 and so on1 are set  
before them2 whatever they eat first    
will1 it is thought1 be dear in the     
year following1 though some people      
interpret the omen in the opposite      
sense4 ,during this time the temporary  
king stands leaning against a tree  with
 his right foot resting on his left     
knee4 ,from standing thus on one  foot  
he is popularly known as ,king ,hop2 but
 his official title is ,phaya           
,phollathep1 8,lord of the ,heavenly    
,hosts407#djh7 ,he is a sort of         
,minister of  ,agriculture2 all disputes

 about fields1 rice1 and so forth1 are  
referred  to him4 ,there is moreover    
another ceremony in which he personates 
the  king4 ,it takes place in the second
 month 7which falls in the cold season7 
and lasts three days4 ,he is conducted  
in procession to an open place  opposite
 the ,temple of the ,brahmans1 where    
there are a number of poles  dressed    
like ,may-poles1 upon which the         
,brahmans swing4 ,all the while that    
they swing and dance1 the ,lord of the  
,heavenly ,hosts has to stand on one    
foot upon a seat which is made of bricks
 plastered over1 covered with a  white  
cloth1 and hung with tapestry4 ,he is   
supported by a wooden frame  with a gilt
 canopy1 and two ,brahmans stand one on 
each side of him4 ,the  dancing         
,brahmans carry buffalo horns with which
 they draw water from a  large copper   
caldron and sprinkle it on the          
spectators2 this is supposed  to bring  
good luck1 causing the people to dwell  
in peace and quiet1 health  and         

prosperity4 ,the time during which the  
,lord of the ,heavenly ,hosts has  to   
stand on one foot is about three hours4 
,this is thought 8to prove the          
dispositions of the ,devattas and       
spirits40 ,if he lets his foot down 8he 
is  liable to forfeit his property and  
have his family enslaved by the king2   
as it is believed to be a bad omen1     
portending destruction to the state1    
and instability to the throne4 ,but if  
he stand firm he is believed to have    
gained a victory over evil spirits1 and 
he has moreover the privilege1          
ostensibly at least1 of seizing any ship
 which may enter the harbour  during    
these three days1 and taking its        
contents1 and also of entering any  open
 shop in the town and carrying away what
 he chooses407#dji7    7,m#abj7 ,such   
were the duties and privileges of the   
,siamese ,king ,hop down to  about the  
middle of the nineteenth century or     
later4 ,under the reign of  the late    
enlightened monarch this quaint         

personage was to some extent both  shorn
 of the glories and relieved of the     
burden of his office4 ,he still         
watches1 as of old1 the ,brahmans       
rushing through the air in a swing      
suspended between two tall masts1 each  
some ninety feet high2 but he is        
allowed to sit instead of stand1 and1   
although public opinion still  expects  
him to keep his right foot on his left  
knee during the whole of  the ceremony1 
he would incur no legal penalty were he1
 to the great  chagrin of the people1 to
 put his weary foot to the ground4      
,other signs1  too1 tell of the invasion
 of the ,east by the ideas and          
civilisation of the  ,west4 ,the        
thoroughfares that lead to the scene of 
the performance are  blocked with       
carriages3 lamp-posts and telegraph     
posts1 to which eager  spectators cling 
like monkeys1 rise above the dense      
crowd2 and1 while a  tatterdemalion band
 of the old style1 in gaudy garb of     
vermilion and  yellow1 bangs and tootles

 away on drums and trumpets of an       
antique  pattern1 the procession of     
barefooted soldiers in brilliant        
uniforms steps  briskly along to the    
lively strains of a modern military band
 playing  8,marching through            
,georgia407#daj7    7,m#aba7 ,on the    
first day of the sixth month1 which was 
regarded as the  beginning of the year1 
the king and people of ,samaracand used 
to put on  new clothes and cut their    
hair and beards4 ,then they repaired to 
a forest  near the capital where they   
shot arrows on horseback for seven days4
 ,on  the last day the target was a gold
 coin1 and he who hit it had the right  
to be king for one day47#daa7 ,in ,upper
 ,egypt on the first day of the solar   
year by ,coptic reckoning1 that is1 on  
the tenth of ,september1 when the  ,nile
 has generally reached its highest      
point1 the regular government is        
suspended for three days and every town 
chooses its own ruler4 ,this  temporary 
lord wears a sort of tall fool's cap and

 a long flaxen beard1  and is enveloped 
in a strange mantle4 ,with a wand of    
office in his hand  and attended by men 
disguised as scribes1 executioners1 and 
so forth1 he  proceeds to the           
,governor's house4 ,the latter allows   
himself to be deposed2  and the mock    
king1 mounting the throne1 holds a      
tribunal1 to the decisions  of which    
even the governor and his officials must
 bow4 ,after three days  the mock king  
is condemned to death2 the envelope or  
shell in which he was  encased is       
committed to the flames1 and from its   
ashes the ,fellah creeps  forth47#dab7  
,the custom perhaps points to an old    
practice of burning a real  king in grim
 earnest4 ,in ,uganda the brothers of   
the king used to be  burned1 because it 
was not lawful to shed the royal        
blood47#dac7    7,m#abb7 ,the           
,mohammedan students of ,fez1 in        
,morocco1 are allowed to appoint  a     
sultan of their own1 who reigns for a   
few weeks1 and is known as ,sultan      

t-tulba1 8the ,sultan of the ,scribes40 
,this brief authority is put up for     
auction and knocked down to the highest 
bidder4 ,it brings some substantial     
privileges with it1 for the holder is   
freed from taxes thenceforward1 and  he 
has the right of asking a favour from   
the real sultan4 ,that favour is  seldom
 refused2 it usually consists in the    
release of a prisoner4  ,moreover1 the  
agents of the student-sultan levy fines 
on the shopkeepers  and householders1   
against whom they trump up various      
humorous charges4 ,the  temporary sultan
 is surrounded with the pomp of a real  
court1 and parades  the streets in state
 with music and shouting1 while a royal 
umbrella is  held over his head4 ,with  
the so-called fines and free-will       
offerings1 to  which the real sultan    
adds a liberal supply of provisions1 the
 students  have enough to furnish forth 
a magnificent banquet2 and altogether   
they  enjoy themselves thoroughly1      
indulging in all kinds of games and     

amusements4 ,for the first seven days   
the mock sultan remains in the  college2
 then he goes about a mile out of the   
town and encamps on the bank  of the    
river1 attended by the students and not 
a few of the citizens4 ,on  the seventh 
day of his stay outside the town he is  
visited by the real  sultan1 who grants 
him his request and gives him seven more
 days to reign1  so that the reign of   
8the ,sultan of the ,scribes0 nominally 
lasts three  weeks4 ,but when six days  
of the last week have passed the mock   
sultan runs  back to the town by night4 
,this temporary sultanship always falls 
in  spring1 about the beginning of      
,april4 ,its origin is said to have been
 as  follows4 ,when ,mulai ,rasheed     
,,ii4 was fighting for the throne in    
#affd or  #affe1 a certain ,jew usurped 
the royal authority at ,taza4 ,but the  
rebellion  was soon suppressed through  
the loyalty and devotion of the         
students4 ,to  effect their purpose they
 resorted to an ingenious stratagem4    

,forty of  them caused themselves to be 
packed in chests which were sent as a   
present  to the usurper4 ,in the dead of
 night1 while the unsuspecting ,jew was 
slumbering peacefully among the         
packing-cases1 the lids were stealthily 
raised1 the brave forty crept forth1    
slew the usurper1 and took possession   
of the city in the name of the real     
sultan1 who1 to mark his gratitude for  
the help thus rendered him in time of   
need1 conferred on the students the     
right of annually appointing a sultan of
 their own47#dad7 ,the narrative has    
all the air of a fiction devised to     
explain an old custom1 of which the     
real meaning and origin had been        
forgotten4    7,m#abc7 ,a custom of     
annually appointing a mock king for a   
single day was  observed at ,lostwithiel
 in ,cornwall down to the sixteenth     
century4 ,on  8little ,easter ,sunday0  
the freeholders of the town and manor   
assembled  together1 either in person or
 by their deputies1 and one among them1 

as it  fell to his lot by turn1 gaily   
attired and gallantly mounted1 with a   
crown  on his head1 a sceptre in his    
hand1 and a sword borne before him1 rode
  through the principal street to the   
church1 dutifully attended by all the   
rest on horseback4 ,the clergyman in his
 best robes received him at the         
churchyard stile and conducted him to   
hear divine service4 ,on leaving the    
church he repaired1 with the same pomp1 
to a house provided for his  reception4 
,here a feast awaited him and his suite1
 and being set at the  head of the table
 he was served on bended knees1 with all
 the rites due to  the estate of a      
prince4 ,the ceremony ended with the    
dinner1 and every man  returned         
home47#dae7    7,m#abd7 ,sometimes the  
temporary king occupies the throne1 not 
annually1 but  once for all at the      
beginning of each reign4 ,thus in the   
kingdom of ,jambi1  in ,sumatra1 it is  
the custom that at the beginning of a   
new reign a man of  the people should   

occupy the throne and exercise the royal
 prerogatives  for a single day4 ,the   
origin of the custom is explained by a  
tradition  that there were once five    
royal brothers1 the four elder of whom  
all  declined the throne on the ground  
of various bodily defects1 leaving it to
  their youngest brother4 ,but the      
eldest occupied the throne for one day1 
and reserved for his descendants a      
similar privilege at the beginning of   
every reign4 ,thus the office of        
temporary king is hereditary in a family
  akin to the royal house47#daf7 ,in    
,bilaspur it seems to be the custom1    
after  the death of a ,rajah1 for a     
,brahman to eat rice out of the dead    
,rajah's  hand1 and then to occupy the  
throne for a year4 ,at the end of the   
year the  ,brahman receives presents and
 is dismissed from the territory1 being 
forbidden apparently to return4 8,the   
idea seems to be that the spirit of  the
 ,rj enters into the ,brhman who eats   
the khr 7rice and milk7 out  of his hand

 when he is dead1 as the ,brahman is    
apparently carefully  watched during the
 whole year1 and not allowed to go      
away40 ,the same or a  similar custom is
 believed to obtain among the hill      
states about  ,kangra47#dag7 ,the custom
 of banishing the ,brahman who          
represents the king  may be a substitute
 for putting him to death4 ,at the      
installation of a  prince of ,carinthia 
a peasant1 in whose family the office   
was hereditary1  ascended a marble stone
 which stood surrounded by meadows in a 
spacious  valley2 on his right stood a  
black mother-cow1 on his left a lean    
ugly  mare4 ,a rustic crowd gathered    
about him4 ,then the future prince1     
dressed  as a peasant and carrying a    
shepherd's staff1 drew near1 attended by
  courtiers and magistrates4 ,on        
perceiving him the peasant called out1  
8,who  is this whom ,i see coming so    
proudly along80 ,the people answered1   
8,the  prince of the land40 ,the peasant
 was then prevailed on to surrender the 

marble seat to the prince on condition  
of receiving sixty pence1 the cow  and  
mare1 and exemption from taxes4 ,but    
before yielding his place he gave  the  
prince a light blow on the cheek47#dah7 
7,m#abe7 ,some points about these       
temporary kings deserve to be specially 
noticed before we pass to the next      
branch of the evidence4 ,in the first   
place1 the ,cambodian and ,siamese      
examples shew clearly that it is        
especially the divine or magical        
functions of the king which are         
transferred to his temporary substitute4
 ,this appears from the belief that  by 
keeping up his foot the temporary king  
of ,siam gained a victory over  the evil
 spirits1 whereas by letting it down he 
imperilled the existence  of the state4 
,again1 the ,cambodian ceremony of      
trampling down the  8mountain of rice10 
and the ,siamese ceremony of opening the
 ploughing and  sowing1 are charms to   
produce a plentiful harvest1 as appears 
from the  belief that those who carry   

home some of the trampled rice1 or of   
the seed  sown1 will thereby secure a   
good crop4 ,moreover1 when the ,siamese 
representative of the king is guiding   
the plough1 the people watch him        
anxiously1 not to see whether he drives 
a straight furrow1 but to mark the      
exact point on his leg to which the     
skirt of his silken robe reaches2 for   
on that is supposed to hang the state of
 the weather and the crops during  the  
ensuing season4 ,if the ,lord of the    
,heavenly ,hosts hitches up his  garment
 above his knee1 the weather will be wet
 and heavy rains will spoil  the        
harvest4 ,if he lets it trail to his    
ankle1 a drought will be the            
consequence4 ,but fine weather and heavy
 crops will follow if the hem of  his   
robe hangs exactly half-way down the    
calf of his leg47#dai7 ,so closely  is  
the course of nature1 and with it the   
weal or woe of the people1  dependent on
 the minutest act or gesture of the     
king's representative4 ,but  the task of

 making the crops grow1 thus deputed to 
the temporary kings1 is  one of the     
magical functions regularly supposed to 
be discharged by kings  in primitive    
society4 ,the rule that the mock king   
must stand on one foot  upon a raised   
seat in the rice-field was perhaps      
originally meant as a  charm to make the
 crop grow high2 at least this was the  
object of a  similar ceremony observed  
by the old ,prussians4 ,the tallest     
girl1 standing  on one foot upon a seat1
 with her lap full of cakes1 a cup of   
brandy in  her right hand and a piece of
 elm-bark or linden-bark in her left1   
prayed  to the god ,waizganthos that the
 flax might grow as high as she was     
standing4 ,then1 after draining the cup1
 she had it refilled1 and poured  the   
brandy on the ground as an offering to  
,waizganthos1 and threw down the  cakes 
for his attendant sprites4 ,if she      
remained steady on one foot  throughout 
the ceremony1 it was an omen that the   
flax crop would be good2  but if she let

 her foot down1 it was feared that the  
crop might fail47#dbj7  ,the same       
significance perhaps attaches to the    
swinging of the ,brahmans1  which the   
,lord of the ,heavenly ,hosts had       
formerly to witness standing on  one    
foot4 ,on the principles of homoeopathic
 or imitative magic it might be  thought
 that the higher the priests swing the  
higher will grow the rice4  ,for the    
ceremony is described as a harvest      
festival17#dba7 and swinging is         
practised by the ,letts of ,russia with 
the avowed intention of influencing  the
 growth of the crops4 ,in the spring and
 early summer1 between ,easter  and ,st4
 ,john's ,day 7the summer solstice71    
every ,lettish peasant is said to       
devote his leisure hours to swinging    
diligently2 for the higher he rises  in 
the air the higher will his flax grow   
that season47#dbb7 ,the gilded  plough  
with which the ,siamese mock king opens 
the ploughing may be  compared with the 
bronze ploughs which the ,etruscans     

employed at the  ceremony of founding   
cities27#dbc7 in both cases the use of  
bare iron was  probably forbidden on    
superstitious grounds47#dbd7    7,m#abf7
 ,in the foregoing cases the temporary  
king is appointed annually in           
accordance with a regular custom4 ,but  
in other cases the appointment is  made 
only to meet a special emergency1 such  
as to relieve the real king  from some  
actual or threatened evil by diverting  
it to a substitute1 who  takes his place
 on the throne for a short time4 ,the   
history of ,persia  furnishes instances 
of such occasional substitutes for the  
,shah4 ,thus ,shah  ,abbas the ,great1  
the most eminent of all the kings of    
,persia1 who reigned  from #aehf to     
#afbh ,a4,d41 being warned by his       
astrologers in the year #aeia  that a   
serious danger impended over him1       
attempted to avert the omen by          
abdicating the throne and appointing a  
certain unbeliever named ,yusoofee1     
probably a ,christian1 to reign in his  

stead4 ,the substitute was  accordingly 
crowned1 and for three days1 if we may  
trust the ,persian  historians1 he      
enjoyed not only the name and the state 
but the power of  the king4 ,at the end 
of his brief reign he was put to death3 
the decree of  the stars was fulfilled  
by this sacrifice2 and ,abbas1 who      
reascended his  throne in a most        
propitious hour1 was promised by his    
astrologers a long  and glorious        
reign47#dbe7 ,again1 ,shah ,sufi ,,ii41 
who reigned from #affh to  #afid ,a4,d41
 was crowned a second time and changed  
his name to ,sulaiman or  ,soliman under
 the following circumstances3 8,the     
,king1 a few days after1  was out of    
danger1 but the matter was to restore   
him to perfect health4  ,having been    
always in a languishing condition1 and  
his physicians never  able to discover  
the cause of his distemper1 he suspected
 that their  ignorance retarded his     
recovery1 and two or three of them were 
therefore  ill treated4 ,at length the  

other physicians1 fearing it might be   
their own  turn next1 bethought         
themselves1 that ,persia being at the   
same time  afflicted with a scarcity of 
provisions and the ,king's sickness1 the
 fault  must be in the astrologers1 who 
had not chosen a favourable hour when   
the  ,king was set upon the throne1 and 
therefore persuaded him that the        
ceremony must be perform'd again1 and he
 change his name in a more lucky        
minute4 ,the ,king and his council      
approving of their notion1 the          
physicians  and astrologers together    
expected the first unfortunate day1     
which1  according to their superstition1
 was to be followed in the evening by a 
propitious hour4 ,among the ,gavres1 or 
original ,persians1 ,worshippers of     
,fire1 there are some who boast their   
descent from the ,rustans1 who  formerly
 reigned over ,persia and ,parthia4 ,on 
the morning of the aforesaid  unlucky   
day1 they took one of these ,gavres of  
that ,blood-royal1 and having  plac'd   

him on the throne1 with his back against
 a figure that represented  him to the  
life1 all the great men of the court    
came to attend him1 as if  he had been  
their king1 performing all that he      
commanded4 ,this scene  lasted till the 
favourable hour1 which was a little     
before sun-setting1  and then an officer
 of the court came behind and cut off   
the head of the  wooden statue with his 
cymiter1 the ,gaure then starting up and
 running  away4 ,that very moment the   
,king came into the hall1 and the       
,sofy's cap  being set on his head1 and 
his sword girt to his side1 he sat down 
on the  throne1 changing his name for   
that of ,soliman1 which was perform'd   
with  the usual ceremonies1 the drums   
beating and trumpets sounding as before4
  ,it was requisite to act this farce1  
in order to satisfy the law1 which      
requires that in order to change his    
name and take possession of the  throne 
again he must expel a prince that had   
usurped it upon some  pretensions2 and  

therefore they made choice of a ,gaure1 
who pretended to  be descended from the 
ancient kings of ,persia1 and was       
besides of a  different religion from   
that of the government407#dbf7          
,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,sacrifice ,,of ,,the  
,,king',s ,,son4      7,m#abg7 ,a point 
to notice about the temporary kings     
described in the  foregoing chapter is  
that in two places 7,cambodia and       
,jambi7 they come of  a stock which is  
believed to be akin to the royal family4
 ,if the view here  taken of the origin 
of these temporary kingships is correct1
 we can easily  understand why the      
king's substitute should sometimes be of
 the same race  as the king4 ,when the  
king first succeeded in getting the life
 of another  accepted as a sacrifice    
instead of his own1 he would have to    
shew that the  death of that other would
 serve the purpose quite as well as his 
own would  have done4 ,now it was as a  
god or demigod that the king had to die2
  therefore the substitute who died for 

him had to be invested1 at least for    
the occasion1 with the divine attributes
 of the king4 ,this1 as we have  just   
seen1 was certainly the case with the   
temporary kings of ,siam and  ,cambodia2
 they were invested with the            
supernatural functions1 which in an     
earlier stage of society were the       
special attributes of the king4 ,but no 
one could so well represent the king in 
his divine character as his son1  who   
might be supposed to share the divine   
afflatus of his father4 ,no one1        
therefore1 could so appropriately die   
for the king and1 through him1 for  the 
whole people1 as the king's son4        
7,m#abh7 ,according to tradition1 ,aun  
or ,on1 ,king of ,sweden1 sacrificed    
nine  of his sons to ,odin at ,upsala in
 order that his own life might be       
spared4  ,after he had sacrificed his   
second son he received from the god an  
answer  that he should live so long as  
he gave him one of his sons every ninth 
year4 ,when he had sacrificed his       

seventh son1 he still lived1 but was so 
feeble that he could not walk but had to
 be carried in a chair4 ,then he        
offered up his eighth son1 and lived    
nine years more1 lying in his bed4      
,after that he sacrificed his ninth son1
 and lived another nine years1 but  so  
that he drank out of a horn like a      
weaned child4 ,he now wished to         
sacrifice his only remaining son to     
,odin1 but the ,swedes would not allow  
him4 ,so he died and was buried in a    
mound at ,upsala4 ,the poet ,thiodolf   
told the king's history in verse3--     
8,in ,upsal's town the cruel king       
,slaughtered his sons at ,odin's        
shrine--      ,slaughtered his sons with
 cruel knife1      ,to get from ,odin   
length of life4      ,he lived until he 
had to turn      ,his toothless mouth to
 the deer's horn2      ,and he who shed 
his children's blood      ,sucked       
through the ox's horn his food4      ,at
 length fell ,death has tracked him     
down1      ,slowly but sure1 in ,upsal's

 town407#dbg7      7,m#abi7 ,in ancient 
,greece there seems to have been at     
least one kingly  house of great        
antiquity of which the eldest sons were 
always liable to be  sacrificed in room 
of their royal sires4 ,when ,xerxes was 
marching through  ,thessaly at the head 
of his mighty host to attack the        
,spartans at  ,thermopylae1 he came to  
the town of ,alus4 ,here he was shewn   
the sanctuary  of ,laphystian ,zeus1    
about which his guides told him a       
strange tale4 ,it ran  somewhat as      
follows4 ,once upon a time the king of  
the country1 by name  ,athamas1 married 
a wife ,nephele1 and had by her a son   
called ,phrixus and a  daughter named   
,helle4 ,afterwards he took to himself a
 second wife called  ,ino1 by whom he   
had two sons1 ,learchus and ,melicertes4
 ,but his second wife  was jealous of   
her step-children1 ,phrixus and ,helle1 
and plotted their  death4 ,she went     
about very cunningly to compass her bad 
end4 ,first of all  she persuaded the   

women of the country to roast the seed  
corn secretly  before it was committed  
to the ground4 ,so next year no crops   
came up and  the people died of famine4 
,then the king sent messengers to the   
oracle at  ,delphi to enquire the cause 
of the dearth4 ,but the wicked          
step-mother  bribed the messenger to    
give out as the answer of the god that  
the dearth  would never cease till the  
children of ,athamas by his first wife  
had been  sacrificed to ,zeus4 ,when    
,athamas heard that1 he sent for the    
children1 who  were with the sheep4 ,but
 a ram with a fleece of gold opened his 
lips1 and  speaking with the voice of a 
man warned the children of their danger4
 ,so  they mounted the ram and fled with
 him over land and sea4 ,as they flew   
over the sea1 the girl slipped from the 
animal's back1 and falling into  water  
was drowned4 ,but her brother ,phrixus  
was brought safe to the land of         
,colchis1 where reigned a child of the  
,sun4 ,phrixus married the king's       

daughter1 and she bore him a son        
,cytisorus4 ,and there he sacrificed the
  ram with the golden fleece to ,zeus   
the ,god of ,flight2 but some will have 
it that he sacrificed the animal to     
,laphystian ,zeus4 ,the golden fleece   
itself he gave to his wife's father1 who
 nailed it to an oak tree1 guarded  by a
 sleepless dragon in a sacred grove of  
,ares4 ,meanwhile at home an  oracle had
 commanded that ,king ,athamas himself  
should be sacrificed as an  expiatory   
offering for the whole country4 ,so the 
people decked him with  garlands like a 
victim and led him to the altar1 where  
they were just  about to sacrifice him  
when he was rescued either by his       
grandson  ,cytisorus1 who arrived in the
 nick of time from ,colchis1 or by      
,hercules1  who brought tidings that the
 king's son ,phrixus was yet alive4     
,thus  ,athamas was saved1 but          
afterwards he went mad1 and mistaking   
his son  ,learchus for a wild beast shot
 him dead4 ,next he attempted the life  

of his  remaining son ,melicertes1 but  
the child was rescued by his mother     
,ino1 who  ran and threw herself and him
 from a high rock into the sea4 ,mother 
and  son were changed into marine       
divinities1 and the son received special
  homage in the isle of ,tenedos1 where 
babes were sacrificed to him4 ,thus     
bereft of wife and children the unhappy 
,athamas quitted his country1 and  on   
enquiring of the oracle where he should 
dwell was told to take up his  abode    
wherever he should be entertained by    
wild beasts4 ,he fell in with a  pack of
 wolves devouring sheep1 and when they  
saw him they fled and left  him the     
bleeding remnants of their prey4 ,in    
this way the oracle was  fulfilled4 ,but
 because ,king ,athamas had not been    
sacrificed as a  sin-offering for the   
whole country1 it was divinely decreed  
that the  eldest male scion of his      
family in each generation should be     
sacrificed  without fail1 if ever he set
 foot in the town-hall1 where the       

offerings  were made to ,laphystian     
,zeus by one of the house of ,athamas4  
,many of the  family1 ,xerxes was       
informed1 had fled to foreign lands to  
escape this  doom2 but some of them had 
returned long afterwards1 and being     
caught by  the sentinels in the act of  
entering the town-hall were wreathed as 
victims1 led forth in procession1 and   
sacrificed47#dbh7 ,these instances      
appear to have been notorious1 if not   
frequent2 for the writer of a  dialogue 
attributed to ,plato1 after speaking of 
the immolation of human  victims by the 
,carthaginians1 adds that such practices
 were not unknown  among the ,greeks1   
and he refers with horror to the        
sacrifices offered on  ,mount ,lycaeus  
and by the descendants of               
,athamas47#dbi7    7,m#acj7 ,the        
suspicion that this barbarous custom by 
no means fell into  disuse even in later
 days is strengthened by a case of human
 sacrifice  which occurred in           
,plutarch's time at ,orchomenus1 a very 

ancient city of  ,boeotia1 distant only 
a few miles across the plain from the   
historian's  birthplace4 ,here dwelt a  
family of which the men went by the name
 of  ,psoloeis or 8,sooty10 and the     
women by the name of ,oleae or          
8,destructive40  ,every year at the     
festival of the ,agrionia the priest of 
,dionysus pursued  these women with a   
drawn sword1 and if he overtook one of  
them he had the  right to slay her4 ,in 
,plutarch's lifetime the right was      
actually exercised  by a priest ,zoilus4
 ,now the family thus liable to furnish 
at least one  human victim every year   
was of royal descent1 for they traced   
their  lineage to ,minyas1 the famous   
old king of ,orchomenus1 the monarch of 
fabulous wealth1 whose stately treasury1
 as it is called1 still stands in  ruins
 at the point where the long rocky hill 
of ,orchomenus melts into the  vast     
level expanse of the ,copaic plain4     
,tradition ran that the king's  three   
daughters long despised the other women 

of the country for yielding  to the     
,bacchic frenzy1 and sat at home in the 
king's house scornfully  plying the     
distaff and the loom1 while the rest1   
wreathed with flowers1  their           
dishevelled locks streaming to the wind1
 roamed in ecstasy the  barren mountains
 that rise above ,orchomenus1 making the
 solitude of the  hills to echo to the  
wild music of cymbals and tambourines4  
,but in time  the divine fury infected  
even the royal damsels in their quiet   
chamber2  they were seized with a fierce
 longing to partake of human flesh1 and 
cast  lots among themselves which should
 give up her child to furnish a cannibal
  feast4 ,the lot fell on ,leucippe1 and
 she surrendered her son ,hippasus1 who 
was torn limb from limb by the three4   
,from these misguided women sprang  the 
,oleae and the ,psoloeis1 of whom the   
men were said to be so called  because  
they wore sad-coloured raiment in token 
of their mourning and  grief47#dcj7     
7,m#aca7 ,now this practice of taking   

human victims from a family of royal    
descent at ,orchomenus is all the more  
significant because ,athamas himself  is
 said to have reigned in the land of    
,orchomenus even before the time of     
,minyas1 and because over against the   
city there rises ,mount ,laphystius1 on 
which1 as at ,alus in ,thessaly1 there  
was a sanctuary of ,laphystian ,zeus1   
where1 according to tradition1 ,athamas 
purposed to sacrifice his two  children 
,phrixus and ,helle47#dca7 ,on the      
whole1 comparing the traditions  about  
,athamas with the custom that obtained  
with regard to his descendants  in      
historical times1 we may fairly infer   
that in ,thessaly and probably in       
,boeotia there reigned of old a dynasty 
of which the kings were liable to  be   
sacrificed for the good of the country  
to the god called ,laphystian  ,zeus1   
but that they contrived to shift the    
fatal responsibility to their           
offspring1 of whom the eldest son was   
regularly destined to the altar4 ,as    

time went on1 the cruel custom was so   
far mitigated that a ram was  accepted  
as a vicarious sacrifice in room of the 
royal victim1 provided  always that the 
prince abstained from setting foot in   
the town-hall where  the sacrifices were
 offered to ,laphystian ,zeus by one of 
his kinsmen47#dcb7  ,but if he were rash
 enough to enter the place of doom1 to  
thrust himself  wilfully1 as it were1 on
 the notice of the god who had          
good-naturedly  winked at the           
substitution of a ram1 the ancient      
obligation which had been  suffered to  
lie in abeyance recovered all its force1
 and there was no help  for it but he   
must die4 ,the tradition which          
associated the sacrifice of  the king or
 his children with a great dearth points
 clearly to the belief1  so common among
 primitive folk1 that the king is       
responsible for the  weather and the    
crops1 and that he may justly pay with  
his life for the  inclemency of the one 
or the failure of the other4 ,athamas   

and his line1  in short1 appear to have 
united divine or magical with royal     
functions2  and this view is strongly   
supported by the claims to divinity     
which  ,salmoneus1 the brother of       
,athamas1 is said to have set up4 ,we   
have seen  that this presumptuous mortal
 professed to be no other than ,zeus    
himself1  and to wield the thunder and  
lightning1 of which he made a trumpery  
imitation by the help of tinkling       
kettles and blazing torches47#dcc7 ,if  
we  may judge from analogy1 his mock    
thunder and lightning were no mere      
scenic  exhibition designed to deceive  
and impress the beholders2 they were    
enchantments practised by the royal     
magician for the purpose of bringing    
about the celestial phenomena which they
 feebly mimicked47#dcd7    7,m#acb7     
,among the ,semites of ,western ,asia   
the king1 in a time of national  danger1
 sometimes gave his own son to die as a 
sacrifice for the people4  ,thus ,philo 
of ,byblus1 in his work on the ,jews1   

says3 8,it was an ancient  custom in a  
crisis of great danger that the ruler of
 a city or nation  should give his      
beloved son to die for the whole people1
 as a ransom  offered to the avenging   
demons2 and the children thus offered   
were slain  with mystic rites4 ,so      
,cronus1 whom the ,phoenicians call     
,israel1 being king  of the land and    
having an only-begotten son called      
,jeoud 7for in the  ,phoenician tongue  
,jeoud signifies #8only-begotten'71     
dressed him in royal  robes and         
sacrificed him upon an altar in a time  
of war1 when the country  was in great  
danger from the enemy407#dce7 ,when the 
king of ,moab was  besieged by the      
,israelites and hard beset1 he took his 
eldest son1 who  should have reigned in 
his stead1 and offered him for a burnt  
offering on  the wall47#dcf7    ,but    
amongst the ,semites the practice of    
sacrificing their children was not      
confined to kings47#dcg7 ,in times of   
great calamity1 such as pestilence1     

drought1 or defeat in war1 the          
,phoenicians used to sacrifice one of   
their  dearest to ,baal4 8,phoenician   
history10 says an ancient writer1 8is   
full of  such sacrifices407#dch7 ,the   
writer of a dialogue ascribed to ,plato 
observes  that the ,carthaginians       
immolated human beings as if it were    
right and  lawful to do so1 and some of 
them1 he adds1 even sacrificed their own
 sons  to ,baal47#dci7 ,when ,gelo1     
tyrant of ,syracuse1 defeated the       
,carthaginians in  the great battle of  
,himera he required as a condition of   
peace that they  should sacrifice their 
children to ,baal no longer47#ddj7 ,but 
the barbarous  custom was too inveterate
 and too agreeable to ,semitic modes of 
thought to  be so easily eradicated1 and
 the humane stipulation of the ,greek   
despot  probably remained a dead letter4
 ,at all events the history of this     
remarkable people1 who combined in so   
high a degree the spirit of  commercial 
enterprise with a blind attachment to a 

stern and gloomy  religion1 is stained  
in later times with instances of the    
same cruel  superstition4 ,when the     
,carthaginians were defeated and        
besieged by  ,agathocles1 they ascribed 
their disasters to the wrath of ,baal2  
for  whereas in former times they had   
been wont to sacrifice to him their own 
offspring1 they had latterly fallen into
 the habit of buying children and       
rearing them to be victims4 ,so1 to     
appease the angry god1 two hundred      
children of the noblest families were   
picked out for sacrifice1 and the  tale 
of victims was swelled by not less than 
three hundred more who  volunteered to  
die for the fatherland4 ,they were      
sacrificed by being  placed1 one by one1
 on the sloping hands of the brazen     
image1 from which  they rolled into a   
pit of fire47#dda7 ,childless people    
among the  ,carthaginians bought        
children from poor parents and          
slaughtered them1 says  ,plutarch1 as if
 they were lambs or chickens2 and the   

mother had to stand  by and see it done 
without a tear or a groan1 for if she   
wept or moaned  she lost all the credit 
and the child was sacrificed none the   
less4 ,but  all the place in front of   
the image was filled with a tumultuous  
music of  fifes and drums to drown the  
shrieks of the victims47#ddb7 ,infants  
were  publicly sacrificed by the        
,carthaginians down to the proconsulate 
of  ,tiberius1 who crucified the priests
 on the trees beside their temples4 ,yet
  the practice still went on secretly in
 the lifetime of ,tertullian47#ddc7     
7,m#acc7 ,among the ,canaanites or      
aboriginal inhabitants of ,palestine1   
whom  the invading ,israelites conquered
 but did not exterminate1 the grisly    
custom of burning their children in     
honour of ,baal or ,moloch seems to have
  been regularly practised47#ddd7 ,to   
the best representatives of the ,hebrew 
people1 the authors of their noble      
literature1 such rites were abhorrent1  
and they warned their fellow-countrymen 

against participating in them4  8,when  
thou art come into the land which the   
,lord thy ,god giveth thee1 thou  shalt 
not learn to do after the abominations  
of those nations4 ,there shall  not be  
found with thee any one that maketh his 
son or his daughter to pass  through the
 fire1 one that useth divination1 one   
that practiseth augury1  or an          
enchanter1 or a sorcerer1 or a charmer1 
or a consulter with a  familiar spirit1 
or a wizard1 or a necromancer4 ,for     
whosoever doeth these  things is an     
abomination unto the ,lord3 and because 
of these abominations  the ,lord thy    
,god doth drive them out from before    
thee407#dde7 ,again we  read3 8,and thou
 shalt not give any of thy seed to pass 
through the fire to  ,molech407#ddf7    
,whatever effect these warnings may have
 had in the earlier  days of            
,israelitish history1 there is abundant 
evidence that in later  times the       
,hebrews lapsed1 or rather perhaps      
relapsed1 into that congenial  mire of  

superstition from which the higher      
spirits of the nation  struggled--too   
often in vain--to rescue them4 ,the     
,psalmist laments that his  erring      
countrymen 8mingled themselves with the 
nations1 and learned their  works3 and  
they served their idols2 which became a 
snare unto them3 yea1  they sacrificed  
their sons and their daughters unto     
demons1 and shed  innocent blood1 even  
the blood of their sons and of their    
daughters1 whom  they sacrificed unto   
the idols of ,canaan2 and the land was  
polluted with  blood407#ddg7 ,when the  
,hebrew annalist has recorded how       
,shalmaneser1 king  of ,assyria1        
besieged ,samaria for three years and   
took it and carried  ,israel away into  
captivity1 he explains that this was a  
divine punishment  inflicted on his     
people for having fallen in with the    
evil ways of the  ,canaanites4 ,they had
 built high places in all their cities1 
and set up  pillars and sacred poles    
7asherim7 upon every high hill and under

 every  green tree2 and there they burnt
 incense after the manner of the        
heathen4  8,and they forsook all the    
commandments of the ,lord their ,god1   
and made  them molten images1 even two  
calves1 and made an ,asherah1 and       
worshipped  all the host of heaven1 and 
served ,baal4 ,and they caused their    
sons and  their daughters to pass       
through the fire1 and used divination   
and  enchantments407#ddh7 ,at ,jerusalem
 in these days there was a regularly    
appointed place where parents burned    
their children1 both boys and girls1  in
 honour of ,baal or ,moloch4 ,it was in 
the valley of ,hinnom1 just outside  the
 walls of the city1 and bore the name1  
infamous ever since1 of ,tophet4  ,the  
practice is referred to again and again 
with sorrowful indignation by  the      
prophets47#ddi7 ,the kings of ,judah set
 an example to their people by  burning 
their own children at the usual place4  
,thus of ,ahaz1 who reigned  sixteen    
years at ,jerusalem1 we are told that   

8he burnt incense in the  valley of     
,hinnom1 and burnt his children in the  
fire407#dej7 ,again1 ,king  ,manasseh1  
whose long reign covered fifty-five     
years1 8made his children to  pass      
through the fire in the valley of       
,hinnom407#dea7 ,afterwards in the      
reign of the good king ,josiah the      
idolatrous excesses of the people were  
repressed1 at least for a time1 and     
among other measures of reform ,tophet  
was defiled by the ,king's orders1 8that
 no man might make his son or his       
daughter to pass through the fire to    
,molech407#deb7 ,whether the place was  
ever used again for the same dark       
purpose as before does not appear4 ,long
  afterwards1 under the sway of a milder
 faith1 there was little in the  valley 
to recall the tragic scenes which it had
 so often witnessed4 ,jerome  describes 
it as a pleasant and shady spot1 watered
 by the rills of ,siloam  and laid out  
in delightful gardens47#dec7    7,m#acd7
 ,it would be interesting1 though it    

might be fruitless1 to enquire  how far 
the ,hebrew prophets and psalmists were 
right in their opinion that  the        
,israelites learned these and other     
gloomy superstitions only through       
contact with the old inhabitants of the 
land1 that the primitive purity of      
faith and morals which they brought with
 them from the free air of the  desert  
was tainted and polluted by the         
grossness and corruption of the  heathen
 in the fat land of ,canaan4 ,when we   
remember1 however1 that the  ,israelites
 were of the same ,semitic stock as the 
population they conquered  and professed
 to despise17#ded7 and that the practice
 of human sacrifice is  attested for    
many branches of the ,semitic race1 we  
shall1 perhaps1 incline  to surmise that
 the chosen people may have brought with
 them into  ,palestine the seeds which  
afterwards sprang up and bore such      
ghastly fruit  in the valley of ,hinnom4
 ,it is at least significant of the     
prevalence of  such customs among the   

,semites that no sooner were the native 
child-burning ,israelites carried off by
 ,king ,shalmaneser to ,assyria than    
their place was taken by colonists who  
practised precisely the same rites  in  
honour of deities who probably differed 
in little but name from those  revered  
by the idolatrous ,hebrews4 8,the       
,sepharvites10 we are told1 8burnt      
their children in the fire to           
,adrammelech and ,anammelech1 the gods  
of  ,sepharvaim407#dee7 ,the pious      
,jewish historian1 who saw in ,israel's 
exile  ,god's punishment for sin1 has   
suggested no explanation of that mystery
 in  the divine economy which suffered  
the ,sepharvites to continue on the same
  spot the very same abominations for   
which the erring ,hebrews had just been 
so signally chastised4    7,m#ace7 ,we  
have still to ask which of their        
children the ,semites picked out  for   
sacrifice2 for that a choice was made   
and some principle of selection         
followed1 may be taken for granted4 ,a  

people who burned all their children    
indiscriminately would soon extinguish  
themselves1 and such an excess of  piety
 is probably rare1 if not unknown4 ,in  
point of fact it seems1 at  least among 
the ,hebrews1 to have been only the     
firstborn child that was  doomed to the 
flames4 ,the prophet ,micah asks1 in a  
familiar passage1  8,wherewith shall ,i 
come before the ,lord1 and bow myself   
before the high  ,god8 shall ,i come    
before him with burnt offerings1 with   
calves of a year  old8 ,will the ,lord  
be pleased with thousands of rams1 or   
with ten  thousands of rivers of oil8   
shall ,i give my firstborn for my       
transgression1 the fruit of my body for 
the sin of my soul80 ,these were  the   
questions which pious and doubting      
hearts were putting to themselves  in   
the days of the prophet4 ,the prophet's 
own answer is not doubtful4 8,he  hath  
shewed thee1 ,o man1 what is good2 and  
what doth the ,lord require of  thee1   
but to do justly and to love mercy1 and 

to walk humbly with thy  ,god807#def7   
,it is a noble answer and one which only
 elect spirits in that  or1 perhaps1 in 
any age have given4 ,in ,israel the     
vulgar answer was given  on bloody      
altars and in the smoke and flames of   
,tophet1 and the form in  which the     
prophet's question is cast--8,shall ,i  
give my firstborn for my                
transgression80--shews plainly on which 
of the children the duty of atoning  for
 the sins of their father was supposed  
to fall4 ,a passage in ,ezekiel  points 
no less clearly to the same conclusion4 
,the prophet represents ,god  as saying1
 8,i gave them statutes that were not   
good1 and judgments wherein  they should
 not live2 and ,i polluted them in their
 own gifts1 in that they  caused to pass
 through the fire all that openeth the  
womb1 that ,i might  make them          
desolate40 ,that the writer was here    
thinking specially of the  sacrifice of 
children is proved by his own words a   
little later on4 8,when  ye offer your  

gifts1 when ye make your sons to pass   
through the fire1 do  ye pollute        
yourselves with all your idols1 unto    
this day807#deg7 ,further1  that by the 
words 8to pass through the fire all that
 openeth the womb0 he  referred only to 
the firstborn can easily be shewn by the
 language of  ,scripture in reference to
 that law of the consecration of        
firstlings which  ,ezekiel undoubtedly  
had in his mind when he wrote this      
passage4 ,thus we  find that law        
enunciated in the following terms3 8,and
 the ,lord spake unto  ,moses1 saying1  
,sanctify unto me all the firstborn1    
whatsoever openeth the  womb among the  
children of ,israel1 both of man and of 
beast3 it is  mine407#deh7 ,again1 it is
 written3 8,thou shalt set apart unto   
the ,lord all  that openeth the womb1   
and every firstling which thou hast that
 cometh of  a beast2 the males shall be 
the ,lord's407#dei7 ,once more3 8,all   
that openeth  the womb is mine2 and all 
thy cattle that is male1 the firstlings 

of ox  and sheep407#dfj7 ,this ancient  
,hebrew custom of the consecration to   
,god of  all male firstlings1 whether of
 man or beast1 was merely the           
application  to the animal kingdom of   
the law that all first fruits whatsoever
 belong  to the deity and must be made  
over to him or his representatives4     
,that  general law is thus stated by the
 ,hebrew legislator3 8,thou shalt not   
delay  to offer of the abundance of thy 
fruits1 and of thy liquors4 ,the        
firstborn  of thy sons shalt thou give  
unto me4 ,likewise shalt thou do with   
thine  oxen1 and with thy sheep3 seven  
days it shall be with its dam2 and on   
the  eighth day thou shalt give it      
me407#dfa7    7,m#acf7 ,thus the god of 
the ,hebrews plainly regarded the       
first-born of men  and the firstlings of
 animals as his own1 and required that  
they should be  made over to him4 ,but  
how8 ,here a distinction was drawn      
between sheep1  oxen1 and goats on the  
one hand and men and asses on the other2

 the  firstlings of the former were     
always sacrificed1 the firstlings of the
  latter were generally redeemed4 8,the 
firstling of an ox1 or the firstling  of
 a sheep1 or the firstling of a goat1   
thou shalt not redeem2 they are  holy3  
thou shalt sprinkle their blood upon the
 altar1 and shalt burn their  fat for an
 offering made by fire for a sweet      
savour unto the ,lord40 ,the  flesh went
 to the ,levites17#dfb7 who consumed it1
 no doubt1 instead of the  deity whom   
they represented4 ,on the other hand1   
the ass was not sacrificed  by the      
,israelites1 probably because they did  
not eat the animal  themselves1 and     
hence concluded that ,god did not do so 
either4 ,in the  matter of diet the     
taste of gods generally presents a      
striking resemblance  to that of their  
worshippers4 ,still the firstling ass1  
like all other  firstlings1 was sacred  
to the deity1 and since it was not      
sacrificed to  him1 he had to receive an
 equivalent for it4 ,in other words1 the

 ass had  to be redeemed1 and the price 
of the redemption was a lamb which was  
burnt  as a vicarious sacrifice instead 
of the ass1 on the hypothesis1          
apparently1 that roast lamb is likely to
 be more palatable to the ,supreme      
,being than roast donkey4 ,if the ass   
was not redeemed1 it had to be killed   
by having its neck broken47#dfc7 ,the   
firstlings of other unclean animals  and
 of men were redeemed for five shekels a
 head1 which were paid to the           
,levites47#dfd7    7,m#acg7 ,we can now 
readily understand why so many of the   
,hebrews1 at least  in the later days of
 their history1 sacrificed their        
firstborn children1  and why            
tender-hearted parents1 whose affection 
for their offspring  exceeded their     
devotion to the deity1 may often have   
been visited with  compunction1 and even
 tormented with feelings of bitter      
self-reproach and  shame at their carnal
 weakness in suffering the beloved son  
to live1 when  they saw others1 with an 

heroic piety which they could not       
emulate1 calmly  resigning their dear   
ones to the fire1 through which1 as they
 firmly  believed1 they passed to ,god1 
to reap1 perhaps1 in endless bliss in   
heaven  the reward of their sharp but   
transient sufferings on earth4 ,from    
infancy  they had been bred up in the   
belief that the firstborn was sacred to 
,god1  and though they knew that he had 
waived his right to them in             
consideration  of the receipt of five   
shekels a head1 they could1 hardly view 
this as  anything but an act of gracious
 condescension1 of generous liberality  
on  the part of the divinity who had    
stooped to accept so trifling a sum     
instead of the life which really        
belonged to him4 8,surely10 they might  
argue1 8,god would be better pleased if 
we were to give him not the money  but  
the life1 not the poor paltry shekels1  
but what we value most1 our  first and  
best-loved child4 ,if we hold that life 
so dear1 will not he  also8 ,it is his4 

,why should we not give him his own80   
,it was in answer to  anxious questions 
such as these1 and to quite truly       
conscientious scruples  of this sort    
that the prophet ,micah declared that   
what ,god required of his  true         
worshippers was not sacrifice but       
justice and mercy and humility4 ,it  is 
the answer of morality to religion--of  
the growing consciousness that  man's   
duty is not to propitiate with vain     
oblations those mysterious  powers of   
the universe of which he can know little
 or nothing1 but to be  just and        
merciful in his dealings with his       
fellows and to humbly trust1  though he 
cannot know1 that by acting thus he will
 best please the higher  powers1        
whatever they may be4    7,m#ach7 ,but  
while morality ranges itself on the side
 of the prophet1 it may  be questioned  
whether history and precedent were not  
on the side of his  adversaries4 ,if the
 firstborn of men and cattle were alike 
sacred to ,god1  and the firstborn of   

cattle were regularly sacrificed1 while 
the firstborn  of men were ransomed by a
 money payment1 has not this last       
provision the  appearance of being a    
later mitigation of an older and harsher
 custom  which doomed firstborn         
children1 like firstling lambs and      
calves and  goats1 to the altar or the  
fire8 ,the suspicion is greatly         
strengthened by  the remarkable         
tradition told to account for the       
sanctity of the  firstborn4 ,when       
,israel was in bondage in ,egypt1 so    
runs the tradition1 ,god  resolved to   
deliver them from captivity1 and to lead
 them to the ,promised  ,land4 ,but the 
,egyptians were loth to part with their 
bondmen and thwarted  the divine purpose
 by refusing to let the ,israelites go4 
,accordingly ,god  afflicted these cruel
 taskmasters with one plague after      
another1 but all  in vain1 until at last
 he made up his mind to resort to a     
strong measure1  which would surely have
 the desired effect4 ,at dead of night  

he would pass  through the land killing 
all the firstborn of the ,egyptians1    
both man and  beast2 not one of them    
would be left alive in the morning4 ,but
 the  ,israelites were warned of what   
was about to happen and told to keep    
indoors that night1 and to put a mark on
 their houses1 so that when he  passed  
down the street on his errand of        
slaughter1 ,god might know them at      
sight from the houses of the ,egyptians 
and not turn in and massacre the  wrong 
children and animals4 ,the mark was to  
be the blood of a lamb smeared  on the  
lintel and side posts of the door4 ,in  
every house the lamb1 whose  red blood  
was to be the badge of ,israel that     
night1 as the white scarves  were the   
badge of the ,catholics on the night of 
,st4 ,bartholomew1 was to be  killed at 
evening and eaten by the household1 with
 very peculiar rites1  during the hours 
of darkness while the butchery was      
proceeding3 none of  the flesh was to   
see the morning light3 whatever the     

family could not eat  was to be burned  
with fire4 ,all this was done4 ,the     
massacre of ,egyptian  children and     
animals was successfully perpetrated and
 had the desired  effect2 and to        
commemorate this great triumph ,god     
ordained that all the  firstborn of man 
and beast among the ,israelites should  
be sacred to him  ever afterwards in the
 manner already described1 the edible   
animals to be  sacrificed1 and the      
uneatable1 especially men and asses1 to 
be ransomed by  a substitute or by a    
pecuniary payment of so much a head4    
,and a festival  was to be celebrated   
every spring with rites exactly like    
those which were  observed on the night 
of the great slaughter4 ,the divine     
command was  obeyed1 and the festival   
thus instituted was the ,passover47#dfe7
    7,m#aci7 ,the one thing that looms  
clear through the haze of this weird    
tradition is the memory of a great      
massacre of firstborn4 ,this was the    
origin1 we are told1 both of the        

sanctity of the firstborn and of the    
feast of the ,passover4 ,but when we are
 further told that the people whose     
firstborn were slaughtered on that      
occasion were not the ,hebrews but their
  enemies1 we are at once met by serious
 difficulties4 ,why1 we may ask1  should
 the ,israelites kill the firstlings of 
their cattle for ever because  ,god once
 killed those of the ,egyptians8 and why
 should every ,hebrew father  have to   
pay ,god a ransom for his firstborn     
child because ,god once slew all  the   
firstborn children of the ,egyptians8   
,in this form the tradition offers  no  
intelligible explanation of the custom4 
,but it at once becomes clear  and      
intelligible when we assume that in the 
original version of the story  it was   
the ,hebrew firstborn that were slain2  
that in fact the slaughter of  the      
firstborn children was formerly1 what   
the slaughter of the firstborn  cattle  
always continued to be1 not an isolated 
butchery but a regular  custom1 which   

with the growth of more humane          
sentiments was afterwards  softened into
 the vicarious sacrifice of a lamb and  
the payment of a  ransom for each child4
 ,here the reader may be reminded of    
another ,hebrew  tradition in which the 
sacrifice of the firstborn child is     
indicated still  more clearly4 ,abraham1
 we are informed1 was commanded by ,god 
to offer up  his firstborn son ,isaac as
 a burnt sacrifice1 and was on the point
 of  obeying the divine command1 when   
,god1 content with this proof of his    
faith  and obedience1 substituted for   
the human victim a ram1 which ,abraham  
accordingly sacrificed instead of his   
son47#dff7 ,putting the two traditions  
together and observing how exactly they 
dovetail into each other and into  the  
later ,hebrew practice of actually      
sacrificing the firstborn children  by  
fire to ,baal or ,moloch1 we can hardly 
resist the conclusion that1  before the 
practice of redeeming them was          
introduced1 the ,hebrews1 like  the     

other branches of the ,semitic race1    
regularly sacrificed their  firstborn   
children by the fire or the knife4 ,the 
,passover1 if this view is  right1 was  
the occasion when the awful sacrifice   
was offered2 and the  tradition of its  
origin has preserved in its main        
outlines a vivid memory  of the horrors 
of these fearful nights4 ,they must have
 been like the  nights called ,evil on  
the west coast of ,africa1 when the     
people kept  indoors1 because the       
executioners were going about the       
streets and the  heads of the human     
victims were falling in the king's      
palace47#dfg7 ,but  seen in the lurid   
light of superstition or of legend they 
were no common  mortals1 no vulgar      
executioners1 who did the dreadful work 
at the first  ,passover4 ,the ,angel of 
,death was abroad that night2 into every
 house he  entered1 and a sound of      
lamentation followed him as he came     
forth with his  dripping sword4 ,the    
blood that bespattered the lintel and   

door-posts would  at first be the blood 
of the firstborn child of the house2 and
 when the  blood of a lamb was          
afterwards substituted1 we may suppose  
that it was  intended not so much to    
appease as to cheat the ghastly         
visitant4 ,seeing  the red drops in the 
doorway he would say to himself1 8,that 
is the blood  of their child4 ,i need   
not turn in there4 ,i have many yet to  
slay before  the morning breaks grey in 
the east40 ,and he would pass on in     
haste4 ,and  the trembling parents1 as  
they clasped their little one to their  
breast1  might fancy that they heard his
 footfalls growing fainter and fainter  
down  the street4 ,in plain words1 we   
may surmise that the slaughter was      
originally done by masked men1 like the 
,mumbo ,jumbos and similar figures  of  
west ,africa1 who went from house to    
house and were believed by the          
uninitiated to be the deity or his      
divine messengers come in person to     
carry off the victims4 ,when the leaders

 had decided to allow the sacrifice  of 
animals instead of children1 they would 
give the people a hint that if  they    
only killed a lamb and smeared its blood
 on the door-posts1 the  bloodthirsty   
but near-sighted deity would never know 
the difference4    7,m#adj7 ,the attempt
 to outwit a malignant and dangerous    
spirit is common1  and might be         
illustrated by many examples4 ,some     
instances will be noticed  in a later   
part of this work4 ,here a single one   
may suffice4 ,the ,malays  believe in a 
,spectral ,huntsman1 who ranges the     
forest with a pack of  ghostly dogs1 and
 whose apparition bodes sickness or     
death4 ,certain birds  which fly in     
flocks by night uttering a loud and     
peculiar note are  supposed to follow in
 his train4 ,hence when ,perak peasants 
hear the weird  sound1 they run out and 
make a clatter with a knife on a wooden 
platter1  crying1 8,great-grandfather1  
bring us their hearts60 ,the ,spectral  
,huntsman1  hearing these words1 will   

take the supplicants for followers of   
his own  asking to share his bag4 ,so he
 will spare the household and pass on1  
and  the tumult of the wild hunt will   
die away in the darkness and the        
distance47#dfh7    7,m#ada7 ,if this be 
indeed the origin of the ,passover and  
of the sanctity of  the firstborn among 
the ,hebrews1 the whole of the ,semitic 
evidence on the  subject is seen to fall
 into line at once4 ,the children whom  
the  ,carthaginians1 ,phoenicians1      
,canaanites1 ,moabites1 ,sepharvites1   
and  probably other branches of the     
,semitic race burnt in the fire would be
  their firstborn only1 although in     
general ancient writers have failed to  
indicate this limitation of the custom4 
,for the ,moabites1 indeed1 the         
limitation is clearly indicated1 if not 
expressly stated1 when we read  that the
 king of ,moab offered his eldest son1  
who should have reigned  after him1 as a
 burnt sacrifice on the wall47#dfi7 ,for
 the ,phoenicians it  comes out less    

distinctly in the statement of ,porphyry
 that the  ,phoenicians used to         
sacrifice one of their dearest to ,baal1
 and in the  legend recorded by ,philo  
of ,byblus that ,cronus sacrificed his  
only-begotten son47#dgj7 ,we may suppose
 that the custom of sacrificing the     
firstborn both of men and animals was a 
very ancient ,semitic institution1      
which many branches of the race kept up 
within historical times2 but that  the  
,hebrews1 while they maintained the     
custom in regard to domestic  cattle1   
were led by their loftier morality to   
discard it in respect of  children1 and 
to replace it by a merciful law that    
firstborn children  should be ransomed  
instead of sacrificed47#dga7    7,m#adb7
 ,the conclusion that the ,hebrew custom
 of redeeming the firstborn is  a       
modification of an older custom of      
sacrificing them has been mentioned  by 
some very distinguished scholars only to
 be rejected on the ground1  apparently1
 of its extreme improbability47#dgb7 ,to

 me the converging lines  of evidence   
which point to this conclusion seem too 
numerous and too  distinct to be thus   
lightly brushed aside4 ,and the argument
 from  improbability can easily be      
rebutted by pointing to other peoples   
who are  known to have practised or to  
be still practising a custom of the same
  sort4 ,in some tribes of ,new ,south  
,wales the firstborn child of every     
woman  was eaten by the tribe as part of
 a religious ceremony47#dgc7 ,among the 
aborigines on the lower portions of the 
,paroo and ,warrego rivers1 which  join 
the ,darling ,river in ,new ,south      
,wales1 girls used to become wives when 
they were mere children and to be       
mothers at fourteen1 and the old custom 
was to kill the firstborn child by      
strangulation47#dgd7 ,again1 among the  
tribes about ,maryborough in ,queensland
 a girl's first child was almost  always
 exposed and left to perish47#dge7 ,in  
the tribes about ,beltana1 in  ,south   
,australia1 girls were married at       

fourteen1 and it was customary to       
destroy their firstborn47#dgf7 ,the     
natives of ,rook1 an island off the east
  coast of ,new ,guinea1 used to kill   
all their firstborn children2 they      
prided themselves on their humanity in  
burying the murdered infants  instead of
 eating them as their barbarous         
neighbours did4 ,they spared the  second
 child but killed the third1 and so on  
alternately with the rest of  their     
offspring47#dgg7 ,chinese history       
reports that in a state called          
,khai-muh1 to the east of ,yueh1 it was 
customary to devour the firstborn       
sons17#dgh7 and further1 that to the    
west of ,kiao-chi or ,tonquin 8there was
  a realm of man-eaters1 where the      
firstborn son was1 as a rule1 chopped   
into pieces and eaten1 and his younger  
brothers were nevertheless regarded  to 
have fulfilled their fraternal duties   
towards him4 ,and if he proved to  be   
appetizing food1 they sent some of his  
flesh to their chieftains1 who1         

exhilarated1 gave the father a          
reward407#dgi7 ,in ,india1 down to the  
beginning of the nineteenth century1 the
 custom of sacrificing a firstborn      
child to the ,ganges was common47#dhj7  
,again1 we are told that among the      
,hindoos 8the firstborn has always held 
a peculiarly sacred position1           
especially if born in answer to a vow to
 parents who have long been  without    
offspring1 in which case sacrifice of   
the child was common in  ,india4 ,the   
,mairs used to sacrifice a firstborn son
 to ,mata1 the small-pox                
goddess407#dha7    7,m#adc7 ,the        
,borans1 on the southern borders of     
,abyssinia1 propitiate a  sky-spirit    
called ,wak by sacrificing their        
children and cattle to him4  ,among them
 when a man of any standing marries1 he 
becomes a ,raba1 as it is  called1 and  
for a certain period after marriage1    
probably four to eight  years1 he must  
leave any children that are born to him 
to die in the bush4  ,no ,boran cares to

 contemplate the fearful calamities with
 which ,wak would  visit him if he      
failed to discharge this duty4 ,after he
 ceases to be a  ,raba1 a man is        
circumcised and becomes a ,gudda4 ,the  
sky-spirit has no  claim on the children
 born after their father's circumcision1
 but they are  sent away at a very early
 age to be reared by the ,wata1 a low   
caste of  hunters4 ,they remain with    
these people till they are grown up1 and
 then  return to their families47#dhb7  
,in this remarkable custom it would     
appear  that the circumcision of the    
father is regarded as an atoning        
sacrifice  which redeems the rest of his
 children from the spirit to whom they  
would  otherwise belong4 ,the obscure   
story told by the ,israelites to explain
 the  origin of circumcision seems also 
to suggest that the custom was supposed 
to save the life of the child by giving 
the deity a substitute for  it47#dhc7   
,again1 the ,kerre1 ,banna1 and         
,bashada1 three tribes in the valley  of

 the ,omo ,river1 to the south of       
,abyssinia1 are in the habit of         
strangling their firstborn children and 
throwing the bodies away4 ,the  ,kerre  
cast the bodies into the river ,omo1    
where they are devoured by  crocodiles2 
the other two tribes leave them in the  
forest to be eaten by  the hyaenas4 ,the
 only explanation they give of the      
custom is that it was  decreed by their 
ancestors4 ,captain ,c4 ,h4 ,stigand    
enquired into the  practice very        
carefully and was told that 8for a      
certain number of years  after marriage 
children would be thrown away1 and after
 that they would be  kept4 ,the number  
of the first children who were          
strangled1 and the period  of years     
during which this was done1 appears to  
be variable1 but ,i could  not          
understand what regulated it4 ,there was
 one point1 however1 about  which they  
were certain1 and that was that the     
first-born of all1 rich1  poor1 high and
 low1 had to be strangled and thrown    

away4 ,the chief of the  ,kerre said1   
#8,if ,i had a child now1 it would have 
to be thrown away1'  laughing as if it  
were a great joke4 ,what amused him     
really was that ,i  should be so        
interested in their custom40 ,so far as 
,captain ,stigand could  ascertain1     
there is no idea of sacrificing the     
children to the crocodiles  by throwing 
them into the river4 ,if a ,kerre man   
has a first child born to  him while he 
is on a journey away from the river1 he 
will throw the infant  away in the      
forest47#dhd7 ,in ,uganda if the        
firstborn child of a chief or  any      
important person is a son1 the midwife  
strangles it and reports that  the      
infant was still-born4 8,this is done to
 ensure the life of the father2  if he  
has a son born first he will soon die1  
and the child inherit all he            
has407#dhe7 ,amongst the people of      
,senjero in eastern ,africa we are told 
that many families must offer up their  
firstborn sons as sacrifices1  because  

once upon a time1 when summer and winter
 were jumbled together in  a bad season1
 and the fruits of the earth would not  
ripen1 the soothsayers  enjoined it4 ,at
 that time a great pillar of iron is    
said to have stood at  the entrance of  
the capital1 which in accordance with   
the advice of the  soothsayers was      
broken down by order of the king1       
whereupon the seasons  became regular   
again4 ,to avert the recurrence of such 
a calamity the  wizards commanded the   
king to pour human blood once a year on 
the base of  the broken shaft of the    
pillar1 and also upon the throne4 ,since
 then  certain families have been       
obliged to deliver up their firstborn   
sons1 who  were sacrificed at an        
appointed time47#dhf7 ,among some tribes
 of  south-eastern ,africa there is a   
rule that when a woman's husband has    
been  killed in battle and she marries  
again1 the first child she gives birth  
to  after her second marriage must be   
put to death1 whether she has it by her 

first or her second husband4 ,such a    
child is called 8the child of the       
assegai10 and if it were not killed1    
death or an accident would be sure to   
befall the second spouse1 and the woman 
herself would be barren4 ,the  notion is
 that the woman must have had some share
 in the misfortune that  overtook her   
first husband1 and that the only way of 
removing the malign  influence is to    
slay 8the child of the assegai407#dhg7  
7,m#add7 ,the heathen ,russians often   
sacrificed their firstborn to the god   
,perun47#dhh7 ,it is said that on ,mag  
,slacht or 8plain of prostrations10 near
  the present village of ,ballymagauran1
 in the ,county ,cavan1 there used to   
stand a great idol called ,cromm        
,cruach1 covered with gold1 to which the
  ancient ,irish sacrificed 8the        
firstlings of every issue and the chief 
scions of every clan0 in order to obtain
 plenty of corn1 honey1 and milk4       
,round about the golden image1 which was
 spoken of as the king idol of  ,erin1  

stood twelve other idols of stone47#dhi7
 ,the ,kutonaqa ,indians of  ,british   
,columbia worship the sun and sacrifice 
their firstborn children to  him4 ,when 
a woman is with child she prays to the  
sun1 saying1 8,i am with  child4 ,when  
it is born ,i shall offer it to you4    
,have pity upon us40 ,thus  they expect 
to secure health and good fortune for   
their families47#dij7  ,among the ,coast
 ,salish ,indians of the same region the
 first child is often  sacrificed to the
 sun in order to ensure the health and  
prosperity of the  whole family47#dia7  
,the ,indians of ,florida sacrificed    
their firstborn male  children47#dib7   
,among the ,indians of north ,carolina  
down to the early part  of the          
eighteenth century a remarkable ceremony
 was performed1 which seems  to be most 
naturally interpreted as a modification 
of an older custom of  putting the      
king's son to death1 perhaps as a       
substitute for his father4  ,it is thus 
described by a writer of that period3   

8,they have a strange  custom or        
ceremony amongst them1 to call to mind  
the persecutions and  death of the kings
 their ancestors slain by their enemies 
at certain  seasons1 and particularly   
when the savages have been at war with  
any  nation1 and return from their      
country without bringing home some      
prisoners  of war1 or the heads of their
 enemies4 ,the king causes as a         
perpetual  remembrance of all his       
predecessors to beat and wound the best 
beloved of  all his children with the   
same weapons wherewith they had been    
kill'd in  former times1 to the end that
 by renewing the wound1 their death     
should be  lamented afresh4 ,the king   
and his nation being assembled on these 
occasions1 a feast is prepared1 and the 
,indian who is authorised to wound  the 
king's son1 runs about the house like a 
distracted person crying and  making a  
most hideous noise all the time with the
 weapon in his hand1  wherewith he      
wounds the king's son2 this he performs 

three several times1  during which      
interval he presents the king with      
victuals or cassena1 and  it is very    
strange to see the ,indian that is thus 
struck never offers to  stir till he is 
wounded the third time1 after which he  
falls down  backwards stretching out his
 arms and legs as if he had been ready  
to  expire2 then the rest of the king's 
sons and daughters1 together with the   
mother and vast numbers of women and    
girls1 fall at his feet and lament  and 
cry most bitterly4 ,during this time the
 king and his retinue are  feasting1 yet
 with such profound silence for some    
hours1 that not one word  or even a     
whisper is to be heard amongst them4    
,after this manner they  continue till  
night1 which ends in singing1 dancing1  
and the greatest joy  imaginable407#dic7
 ,in this account the description of the
 frantic manner  assumed by the person  
whose duty it was to wound the king's   
son reminds us  of the frenzy of ,king  
,athamas when he took or attempted the  

lives of his  children47#did7 ,the same 
feature is said to have characterised   
the  sacrifice of children in ,peru4    
8,when any person of note was sick and  
the  priest said he must die1 they      
sacrificed his son1 desiring the idol to
 be  satisfied with him and not to take 
away his father's life4 ,the ceremonies 
used at these sacrifices were strange1  
for they behaved themselves like  mad   
men4 ,they believed that all calamities 
were occasioned by sin1 and  that       
sacrifices were the remedy407#die7 ,an  
early ,spanish historian of the         
conquest of ,peru1 in describing the    
,indians of the ,peruvian valleys       
between ,san-,miguel and ,caxamalca1    
records that 8they have disgusting      
sacrifices and temples of idols which   
they hold in great veneration2 they     
offer them their most precious          
possessions4 ,every month they sacrifice
  their own children and smear with the 
blood of the victims the face of the    
idols and the doors of the              

temples407#dif7 ,in ,puruha1 a province 
of ,quito1  it used to be customary to  
sacrifice the firstborn children to the 
gods4  ,their remains were dried1       
enclosed in vessels of metal or stone1  
and kept  in the houses47#dig7 ,the     
,ximanas and ,cauxanas1 two ,indian     
tribes in the  upper valley of the      
,amazon1 kill all their firstborn       
children47#dih7 ,if the  firstborn is a 
girl1 the ,lengua ,indians invariably   
put it to death47#dii7    7,m#ade7      
,among the ancient ,italian peoples1    
especially of the ,sabine stock1  it was
 customary in seasons of great peril or 
public calamity1 as when the  crops had 
failed or a pestilence was raging1 to   
vow that they would  sacrifice to the   
gods every creature1 whether man or     
beast1 that should be  born in the      
following spring4 ,to the creatures thus
 devoted to sacrifice  the name of 8the 
sacred spring0 was applied4 8,but       
since10 says ,festus1 8it  seemed cruel 
to slay innocent boys and girls1 they   

were kept till they had  grown up1 then 
veiled and driven beyond the            
boundaries407#ejj7 ,several  ,italian   
peoples1 for example the ,piceni1       
,samnites1 and ,hirpini1 traced  their  
origin to a 8sacred spring10 that is1 to
 the consecrated youth who  had swarmed 
off from the parent stock in consequence
 of such a vow47#eja7  ,when the ,romans
 were engaged in a life-and-death       
struggle with ,hannibal  after their    
great defeat at the ,trasimene ,lake1   
they vowed to offer a  8sacred spring0  
if victory should attend their arms and 
the commonwealth  should retrieve its   
shattered fortunes4 ,but the vow        
extended only to all  the offspring of  
sheep1 goats1 oxen1 and swine that      
should be brought  forth on ,italian    
mountains1 plains1 and meadows the      
following spring47#ejb7  ,on a later    
occasion1 when the ,romans pledged      
themselves again by a similar  vow1 it  
was decided that by the 8sacred spring0 
should be meant all the  cattle born    

between the first day of ,march and the 
last day of ,april47#ejc7  ,although in 
later times the ,italian peoples appear 
to have resorted to  measures of this   
sort only in special emergencies1 there 
was a tradition  that in former times   
the consecration of the firstborn to the
 gods had  been an annual custom47#ejd7 
,accordingly1 it seems not impossible   
that  originally the ,italians may1 like
 the ,hebrews and perhaps the ,semites  
in  general1 have been in the habit of  
dedicating all the firstborn1 whether   
of man or beast1 and sacrificing them at
 a great festival in spring47#eje7  ,the
 custom of the 8sacred spring0 was not  
confined to the ,italians1 but  was     
practised by many other peoples1 both   
,greeks and barbarians1 in              
antiquity47#ejf7    7,m#adf7 ,thus it   
would seem that a custom of putting to  
death all firstborn  children has       
prevailed in many parts of the world4   
,what was the motive  which led people  
to practise a custom which to us seems  

at once so cruel  and so foolish8 ,it   
cannot have been the purely prudential  
consideration of  adjusting the numbers 
of the tribe to the amount of the       
food-supply2 for1  in the first place1  
savages do not take such thought for the
 morrow17#ejg7  and1 in the second      
place1 if they did1 they would be likely
 to kill the  later born children rather
 than the firstborn4 ,the foregoing     
evidence  suggests that the custom may  
have been practised by different peoples
 from  different motives4 ,with the     
,semites1 the ,italians1 and their near 
kinsmen  the ,irish the sacrifice or at 
least the consecration of the firstborn 
seems to have been viewed as a tribute  
paid to the gods1 who were thus  content
 to receive a part though they might    
justly have claimed the whole4  ,in some
 cases the death of the child appears to
 be definitely regarded as  a substitute
 for the death of the father1 who       
obtains a new lease of life  by the     
sacrifice of his offspring4 ,this comes 

out clearly in the tradition  of ,aun1  
,king of ,sweden1 who sacrificed one of 
his sons every nine years to  ,odin in  
order to prolong his own life47#ejh7    
,and in ,peru also the son died  that   
the father might live47#eji7 ,but in    
some cases it would seem that the  child
 has been killed1 not so much as a      
substitute for the father1 as  because  
it is supposed to endanger his life by  
absorbing his spiritual  essence or     
vital energy4 ,in fact1 a belief in the 
transmigration or  rebirth of souls has 
operated to produce a regular custom of 
infanticide1  especially infanticide of 
the firstborn4 ,at ,whydah1 on the      
,slave coast of  ,west ,africa1 where   
the doctrine of reincarnation is firmly 
held1 it has  happened that a child has 
been put to death because the fetish    
doctors  declared it to be the king's   
father come to life again4 ,the king    
naturally  could not submit to be pushed
 from the throne by his predecessor in  
this  fashion2 so he compelled his      

supposed parent to return to the world  
of the  dead from which he had very     
inopportunely effected his escape47#eaj7
 ,the  ,hindoos are of opinion that a   
man is literally reborn in the person of
 his  son4 ,thus in the ,laws of ,manu  
we read that 8the husband1 after        
conception by his wife1 becomes an      
embryo and is born again of her2 for    
that is the wifehood of a wife1 that he 
is born again by her407#eaa7 ,hence     
after the birth of a son the father is  
clearly in a very delicate  position4   
,since he is his own son1 can he        
himself1 apart from his son1 be  said to
 exist8 ,does he not rather die in his  
own person as soon as he  comes to life 
in the person of his son8 ,this appears 
to be the opinion of  the subtle        
,hindoo1 for in some sections of the    
,khatris1 a mercantile caste  of the    
,punjaub1 funeral rites are actually    
performed for the father in the  fifth  
month of his wife's pregnancy4 ,but     
apparently he is allowed1 by a  sort of 

legal fiction1 to come to life again in 
his own person2 for after  the birth of 
his first son he is formally remarried  
to his wife1 which may  be regarded as a
 tacit admission that in the eye of the 
law at least he is  alive47#eab7        
7,m#adg7 ,now to people who thus        
conceive the relation of father and son 
it  is plain that fatherhood must appear
 a very dubious privilege2 for if you   
die in begetting a son1 can you be quite
 sure of coming to life again8 ,his     
existence is at the best a menace to    
yours1 and at the worst it may  involve 
your extinction4 ,the danger seems to   
lie especially in the birth  of your    
first son2 if only you can tide that    
over1 you are1 humanly  speaking1 safe4 
,in fact1 it comes to this1 ,are you to 
live8 or is he8 ,it  is a painful       
dilemma4 ,parental affection urges you  
to die that he may  live4 ,self-love    
whispers1 8,live and let him die4 ,you  
are in the flower of  your age4 ,you    
adorn the circle in which you move4 ,you

 are useful1 nay1  indispensable1 to    
society4 ,he is a mere babe4 ,he never  
will be missed40  ,such a train of      
thought1 preposterous as it seems to us1
 might easily lead  to a custom of      
killing the firstborn47#eac7    7,m#adh7
 ,further1 the same notion of the       
rebirth of the father in his eldest  son
 would explain the remarkable rule of   
succession which prevailed in           
,polynesia and particularly in ,tahiti1 
where as soon as the king had a son     
born to him he was obliged to abdicate  
the throne in favour of the infant4     
,whatever might be the king's age1 his  
influence in the state1 or the          
political situation of affairs1 no      
sooner was the child born than the      
monarch became a subject3 the infant was
 at once proclaimed the sovereign  of   
the people3 the royal name was conferred
 upon him1 and his father was  the first
 to do him homage1 by saluting his feet 
and declaring him king4  ,all matters1  
however1 of importance which concerned  

either the internal  welfare or the     
foreign relations of the country        
continued to be transacted  by the      
father and his councillors2 but every   
edict was issued in the name  and on the
 behalf of the youthful monarch1 and    
though the whole of the  executive      
government might remain in the hands of 
the father1 he only  acted as regent for
 his son1 and was regarded as such by   
the nation4 ,the  lands and other       
sources of revenue were appropriated to 
the maintenance of  the infant ruler1   
his household1 and his attendants2 the  
insignia of royal  authority were       
transferred to him1 and his father      
rendered him all those  marks of humble 
respect which he had hitherto exacted   
from his subjects4  ,this custom of     
succession was not confined to the      
family of the sovereign1  it extended   
also to the nobles and the landed       
gentry2 they1 too1 had to  resign their 
rank1 honours1 and possessions on the   
birth of a son4 ,a man  who but         

yesterday was a baron1 not to be        
approached by his inferiors till  they  
had ceremoniously bared the whole of the
 upper part of their bodies1  was to-day
 reduced to the rank of a mere commoner 
with none to do him  reverence1 if in   
the night time his wife had given birth 
to a son1 and the  child had been       
suffered to live4 ,the father indeed    
still continued to  administer the      
estate1 but he did so for the benefit of
 the infant1 to  whom it now belonged1  
and to whom all the marks of respect    
were at once  transferred47#ead7        
7,m#adi7 ,this singular usage becomes   
intelligible if the spirit of the       
father was supposed to quit him at the  
birth of his first son and to  reappear 
in the infant4 ,such a belief and such a
 practice would1 it is  obvious1 supply 
a powerful motive to infanticide1 since 
a father could not  rear his firstborn  
son without thereby relinquishing the   
honours and  possessions to which he had
 been accustomed4 ,the sacrifice was a  

heavy  one1 and we need not wonder if   
many men refused to make it4 ,certainly 
infanticide was practised in ,polynesia 
to an extraordinary extent4 ,the  first 
missionaries estimated that not less    
than two-thirds of the children  were   
murdered by their parents1 and this     
estimate has been confirmed by a        
careful enquirer4 ,it would seem that   
before the introduction of              
,christianity there was not a single    
mother in the islands who was not also  
a murderess1 having imbrued her hands in
 the blood of her offspring4 ,three     
native women1 the eldest not more than  
forty years of age1 happened once  to be
 in a room where the conversation turned
 on infanticide1 and they  confessed to 
having destroyed not less than          
twenty-one infants between  them47#eae7 
,it would doubtless be a gross mistake  
to lay the whole blame of  these        
massacres on the doctrine of            
reincarnation1 but we can hardly doubt  
that it instigated a great many4 ,once  

more we perceive the fatal  consequences
 that may flow in practice from a       
theoretical error4    7,m#aej7 ,in some 
places the abdication of the father does
 not take place  until the son is grown 
up4 ,this was the general practice in   
,fiji47#eaf7 ,in  ,raratonga as soon as 
a son reached manhood1 he would fight   
and wrestle  with his father for the    
mastery1 and if he obtained it he would 
take  forcible possession of the farm   
and drive his parent in destitution from
  home47#eag7 ,among the ,corannas of   
,south ,africa the youthful son of a    
chief  is hardly allowed to walk1 but   
has to idle away his time in the hut and
 to  drink much milk in order that he   
may grow strong4 ,when he has attained  
to  manhood his father produces two     
short1 bullet-headed sticks and presents
  one to his son1 while he keeps the    
other for himself4 ,armed with these    
weapons the two often fight1 and when   
the son succeeds in knocking his  parent
 down he is acknowledged chief of the   

kraal47#eah7 ,but such customs  probably
 do not imply the theory of rebirth2    
they may only be applications  of the   
principle that might is right4 ,still   
they would equally supply the  father   
with a motive for killing the infant son
 who1 if suffered to live1  would one   
day strip him of his rank and           
possessions4    7,m#aea7 ,perhaps       
customs of this sort have left traces of
 themselves in  ,greek myth and legend4 
,cronus or ,saturn1 as the ,romans      
called him1 is said  to have been the   
youngest son of the sky-god ,uranus1 and
 to have mutilated  his father and      
reigned in his stead as king of gods and
 men4 ,afterwards he  was warned by an  
oracle that he himself should be deposed
 by his son4 ,to  prevent that          
catastrophe ,cronus swallowed his       
children1 one after the  other1 as soon 
as they were born4 ,only the youngest of
 them1 ,zeus1 was  saved through a trick
 of his mother's1 and in time he        
fulfilled the oracle  by banishing his  

father and sitting on his throne4 ,but  
,zeus in his turn  was told that his    
wife ,metis would give birth to a son   
who would supplant  him in the kingdom  
of heaven4 ,accordingly1 to rid himself 
of his future  rival he resorted to a   
device like that which his father       
,cronus had  employed for a similar     
purpose4 ,only instead of waiting till  
the child was  born and then devouring  
it1 he made assurance doubly sure by    
swallowing  his wife with the unborn    
babe in her womb47#eai7 ,such barbarous 
myths  become intelligible if we suppose
 that they took their rise among people 
who were accustomed to see grown-up sons
 supplanting their fathers by  force1   
and fathers murdering and perhaps eating
 their infants in order to  secure      
themselves against their future rivalry4
 ,we have met with instances  of savage 
tribes who are said to devour their     
firstborn children47#ebj7    7,m#aeb7   
,the legend that ,laius1 king of        
,thebes1 exposed his infant son         

,oedipus1 who afterwards slew his father
 and sat on the throne1 may well be  a  
reminiscence of a state of things in    
which father and son regularly  plotted 
against each other4 ,the other feature  
of the story1 to wit the  marriage of   
,oedipus with the widowed queen1 his    
mother1 fits in very well  with the rule
 which has prevailed in some countries  
that a valid title to  the throne is    
conferred by marriage with the late     
king's widow4 ,that  custom probably    
arose1 as ,i have endeavoured to        
shew17#eba7 in an age when  the         
blood-royal ran in the female line1 and 
when the king was a man of  another     
family1 often a stranger and foreigner1 
who reigned only in virtue  of being the
 consort of a native princess1 and whose
 sons never succeeded  him on the       
throne4 ,but in process of time1 when   
fathers had ceased to  regard the birth 
of a son as a menace to their life1 or  
at least to their  regal power1 kings   
would naturally scheme to secure the    

succession for  their own male          
offspring1 and this new practice could  
be reconciled with  the old one by      
marrying the king's son either to his   
own sister or1 after  his father's      
decease1 to his stepmother4 ,we have    
seen marriage with a  stepmother        
actually enjoined for this very purpose 
by some of the ,saxon  kings47#ebb7 ,and
 on this hypothesis we can understand   
why the custom of  marriage with a full 
or a half sister has prevailed in so    
many royal  families47#ebc7 ,it was     
introduced1 we may suppose1 for the     
purpose of  giving the king's son the   
right of succession hitherto enjoyed1   
under a  system of female kinship1      
either by the son of the king's sister  
or by the  husband of the king's        
daughter2 for under the new rule the    
heir to the  throne united both these   
characters1 being at once the son of the
 king's  sister and1 through marriage   
with his own sister1 the husband of the 
king's daughter4 ,thus the custom of    

brother and sister marriage in royal    
houses marks a transition from female to
 male descent of the crown47#ebd7  ,in  
this connexion it may be significant    
that ,cronus and ,zeus themselves       
married their full sisters ,rhea and    
,hera1 a tradition which naturally      
proved a stone of stumbling to          
generations who had forgotten the       
ancient  rule of policy which dictated  
such incestuous unions1 and who had so  
far  inverted the true relations of gods
 and men as to expect their deities to  
be edifying models of the new virtues   
instead of warning examples of the  old 
vices47#ebe7 ,they failed to understand 
that men create their gods in  their own
 likeness1 and that when the creator is 
a savage1 his creatures  the gods are   
savages also4    7,m#aec7 ,with the     
preceding evidence before us we may     
safely infer that a  custom of allowing 
a king to kill his son1 as a substitute 
or vicarious  sacrifice for himself1    
would be in no way exceptional or       

surprising1 at  least in ,semitic lands1
 where indeed religion seems at one time
 to have  recommended or enjoined every 
man1 as a duty that he owed to his god1 
to  take the life of his eldest son4    
,and it would be entirely in accordance 
with analogy if1 long after the         
barbarous custom had been dropped by    
others1 it continued to be observed by  
kings1 who remain in many respects  the 
representatives of a vanished world1    
solitary pinnacles that topple  over the
 rising waste of waters under which the 
past lies buried4 ,we have  seen that in
 ,greece two families of royal descent  
remained liable to  furnish human       
victims from their number down to a time
 when the rest of  their fellow         
countrymen and countrywomen ran hardly  
more risk of being  sacrificed than     
passengers in ,cheapside at present run 
of being hurried  into ,st4 ,paul's or  
,bow ,church and immolated on the altar4
 ,a final  mitigation of the custom     
would be to substitute condemned        

criminals for  innocent victims4 ,such a
 substitution is known to have taken    
place in the  human sacrifices annually 
offered in ,rhodes to ,baal17#ebf7 and  
we have seen  good grounds for believing
 that the criminal1 who perished on the 
cross or  the gallows at ,babylon1 died 
instead of the king in whose royal robes
 he  had been allowed to masquerade for 
a few days4            ,,chapter ,,vii4 
,,succession ,,to ,,the ,,soul4         
7,m#aed7 ,to the view that in early     
times1 and among barbarous races1 kings 
have frequently been put to death at the
 end of a short reign1 it may be        
objected that such a custom would tend  
to the extinction of the royal  family4 
,the objection may be met by observing1 
first1 that the kingship is  often not  
confined to one family1 but may be      
shared in turn by  several27#ebg7       
second1 that the office is frequently   
not hereditary1 but is  open to men of  
any family1 even to foreigners1 who may 
fulfil the  requisite conditions1 such  

as marrying a princess or vanquishing   
the king  in battle27#ebh7 and1 third1  
that even if the custom did tend to the 
extinction of a dynasty1 that is not a  
consideration which would prevent  its  
observance among people less provident  
of the future and less heedful  of human
 life than ourselves4 ,many races1 like 
many individuals have  indulged in      
practices which must in the end destroy 
them4 ,not to mention  such customs as  
collective suicide and the prohibition  
of marriage17#ebi7  both of which may be
 set down to religious mania1 we have   
seen that the  ,polynesians killed      
two-thirds of their children47#ecj7 ,in 
some parts of  ,east ,africa the        
proportion of infants massacred at birth
 is said to be the  same4 ,only children
 born in certain presentations are      
allowed to  live47#eca7 ,the ,jagas1 a  
conquering tribe in ,angola1 are        
reported to have  put to death all their
 children1 without exception1 in order  
that the  women might not be cumbered   

with babies on the march4 ,they         
recruited their  numbers by adopting    
boys and girls of thirteen or fourteen  
years of age1  whose parents they had   
killed and eaten47#ecb7 ,among the      
,mbaya ,indians of  ,south ,america the 
women used to murder all their children 
except the last1  or the one they       
believed to be the last4 ,if one of them
 had another child  afterwards1 she     
killed it47#ecc7 ,we need not wonder    
that this practice  entirely destroyed a
 branch of the ,mbaya nation1 who had   
been for many  years the most formidable
 enemies of the ,spaniards47#ecd7 ,among
 the ,lengua  ,indians of the ,gran     
,chaco the missionaries discovered what 
they describe  as 8a carefully planned  
system of racial suicide1 by the        
practice of  infanticide by abortion1   
and other methods407#ece7 ,nor is       
infanticide the  only mode in which a   
savage tribe commits suicide4 ,a lavish 
use of the  poison ordeal may be equally
 effective4 ,some time ago a small tribe

 named  ,uwet came down from the hill   
country1 and settled on the left branch 
of  the ,calabar river in ,west ,africa4
 ,when the missionaries first visited   
the  place1 they found the population   
considerable1 distributed into three    
villages4 ,since then the constant use  
of the poison ordeal has almost         
extinguished the tribe4 ,on one occasion
 the whole population took poison  to   
prove their innocence4 ,about half      
perished on the spot1 and the  remnant1 
we are told1 still continuing their     
superstitious practice1 must  soon      
become extinct47#ecf7 ,with such        
examples before us we need not  hesitate
 to believe that many tribes have felt  
no scruple or delicacy in  observing a  
custom which tends to wipe out a single 
family4 ,to attribute  such scruples to 
them is to commit the common1 the       
perpetually repeated  mistake of judging
 the savage by the standard of ,european
 civilisation4 ,if  any of my readers   
set out with the notion that all races  

of men think and  act much in the same  
way as educated ,englishmen1 the        
evidence of  superstitious belief and   
custom collected in the volumes of this 
work  should suffice to disabuse him of 
so erroneous a prepossession4           
7,m#aee7 ,the explanation here given of 
the custom of killing divine persons    
assumes1 or at least is readily combined
 with1 the idea that the soul of  the   
slain divinity is transmitted to his    
successor4 ,of this transmission ,i     
have no direct proof except in the case 
of the ,shilluk1 among whom the         
practice of killing the divine king     
prevails in a typical form1 and with    
whom it is a fundamental article of     
faith that the soul of the divine       
founder of the dynasty is immanent in   
every one of his slain                  
successors47#ecg7 ,but if this is the   
only actual example of such a belief    
which ,i can adduce1 analogy seems to   
render it probable that a similar       
succession to the soul of the slain god 

has been supposed to take place in      
other instances1 though direct evidence 
of it is wanting4 ,for it has been      
already shewn that the soul of the      
incarnate deity is often supposed to    
transmigrate at death into another      
incarnation27#ech7 and if this takes    
place when the death is a natural one1  
there seems no reason why it should  not
 take place when the death has been     
brought about by violence4  ,certainly  
the idea that the soul of a dying person
 may be transmitted to  his successor is
 perfectly familiar to primitive        
peoples4 ,in ,nias the  eldest son      
usually succeeds his father in the      
chieftainship4 ,but if from  any bodily 
or mental defect the eldest son is      
disqualified for ruling1 the  father    
determines in his lifetime which of his 
sons shall succeed him4 ,in  order1     
however1 to establish his right of      
succession1 it is necessary that  the   
son upon whom his father's choice falls 
shall catch in his mouth or in  a bag   

the last breath1 and with it the soul1  
of the dying chief4 ,for  whoever       
catches his last breath is chief equally
 with the appointed  successor4 ,hence  
the other brothers1 and sometimes also  
strangers1 crowd  round the dying man to
 catch his soul as it passes4 ,the      
houses in ,nias are  raised above the   
ground on posts1 and it has happened    
that when the dying  man lay with his   
face on the floor1 one of the candidates
 has bored a hole  in the floor and     
sucked in the chief's last breath       
through a bamboo tube4  ,when the chief 
has no son1 his soul is caught in a bag1
 which is fastened  to an image made to 
represent the deceased2 the soul is then
 believed to  pass into the image47#eci7
    7,m#aef7 ,amongst the ,takilis or   
,carrier ,indians of ,north-,west       
,america1 when  a corpse was burned the 
priest pretended to catch the soul of   
the deceased  in his hands1 which he    
closed with many gesticulations4 ,he    
then  communicated the captured soul to 

the dead man's successor by throwing his
  hands towards and blowing upon him4   
,the person to whom the soul was thus   
communicated took the name and rank of  
the deceased4 ,on the death of a  chief 
the priest thus filled a responsible and
 influential position1 for  he might    
transmit the soul to whom he would1     
though doubtless he generally  followed 
the regular line of succession47#edj7   
,in ,guatemala1 when a great  man lay at
 the point of death1 they put a precious
 stone between his lips  to receive the 
parting soul1 and this was afterwards   
kept as a memorial by  his nearest      
kinsman or most intimate friend47#eda7  
,algonquin women who  wished to become  
mothers flocked to the side of a dying  
person in the hope  of receiving and    
being impregnated by the passing soul4  
,amongst the  ,seminoles of ,florida    
when a woman died in childbed the infant
 was held  over her face to receive her 
parting spirit47#edb7 ,when infants died
 within  a month or two of birth1 the   

,huron ,indians did not lay them in bark
  coffins on poles1 as they did with    
other corpses1 but buried them beside   
the paths1 in order that they might     
secretly enter into the wombs of        
passing women and be born again47#edc7  
,the ,tonquinese cover the face of a    
dying person with a handkerchief1 and at
 the moment when he breathes his  last1 
they fold up the handkerchief carefully1
 thinking that they have  caught the    
soul in it47#edd7 ,the ,romans caught   
the breath of dying friends  in their   
mouths1 and so received into themselves 
the soul of the  departed47#ede7 ,the   
same custom is said to be still         
practised in  ,lancashire47#edf7        
7,m#aeg7 ,on the seventh day after the  
death of a king of ,gingiro the         
sorcerers bring to his successor1 wrapt 
in a piece of silk1 a worm which  they  
say comes from the nose of the dead     
king2 and they make the new king  kill  
the worm by squeezing its head between  
his teeth47#edg7 ,the ceremony  seems to

 be intended to convey the spirit of the
 deceased monarch to his  successor4    
,the ,danakil or ,afars of eastern      
,africa believe that the soul of  a     
magician will be born again in the first
 male descendant of the man who  was    
most active in attending on the dying   
magician in his last hours4  ,hence when
 a magician is ill he receives many     
attentions47#edh7 ,in ,uganda  the      
spirit of the king who had been the last
 to die manifested itself from  time to 
time in the person of a priest1 who was 
prepared for the discharge  of this     
exalted function by a peculiar ceremony4
 ,when the body of the king  had been   
embalmed and had lain for five months in
 the tomb1 which was a  house built     
specially for it1 the head was severed  
from the body and laid  in an ant-hill4 
,having been stript of flesh by the     
insects1 the skull was  washed in a     
particular river 7the ,ndyabuworu7 and  
filled with native beer4  ,one of the   
late king's priests then drank the beer 

out of the skull and  thus became       
himself a vessel meet to receive the    
spirit of the deceased  monarch4 ,the   
skull was afterwards replaced in the    
tomb1 but the lower jaw  was separated  
from it and deposited in a jar2 and this
 jar1 being swathed  in bark-cloth and  
decorated with beads so as to look like 
a man1  henceforth represented the late 
king4 ,a house was built for its        
reception  in the shape of a beehive and
 divided into two rooms1 an inner and an
  outer4 ,any person might enter the    
outer room1 but in the inner room the   
spirit of the dead king was supposed to 
dwell4 ,in front of the partition  was  
set a throne covered with lion and      
leopard skins1 and fenced off from  the 
rest of the chamber by a rail of spears1
 shields1 and knives1 most of  them made
 of copper and brass1 and beautifully   
worked4 ,when the priest1  who had      
fitted himself to receive the king's    
spirit1 desired to converse  with the   
people in the king's name1 he went to   

the throne and addressing  the spirit in
 the inner room informed him of the     
business in hand4 ,then he  smoked one  
or two pipes of tobacco1 and in a few   
minutes began to rave1  which was a sign
 that the spirit had entered into him4  
,in this condition  he spoke with the   
voice and made known the wishes of the  
late king4 ,when  he had done so1 the   
spirit left him and returned into the   
inner room1 and  he himself departed a  
mere man as before47#edi7 ,every year at
 the new moon  of ,september the king of
 ,sofala in eastern ,africa used to     
perform  obsequies for the kings1 his   
predecessors1 on the top of a high      
mountain1  where they were buried4 ,in  
the course of the lamentations for the  
dead1  the soul of the king who had died
 last used to enter into a man who      
imitated the deceased monarch1 both in  
voice and gesture4 ,the living king     
conversed with this man as with his dead
 father1 consulting him in regard  to   
the affairs of the kingdom and receiving

 his oracular replies47#eej7  ,these    
examples shew that provision is often   
made for the ghostly  succession of     
kings and chiefs4 ,in the ,hausa kingdom
 of ,daura1 in ,northern  ,nigeria1     
where the kings used regularly to be put
 to death on the first  symptoms of     
failing health1 the new king had to step
 over the corpse of  his predecessor and
 to be bathed in the blood of a black   
ox1 the skin of  which then served as a 
shroud for the body of the late         
king47#eea7 ,the  ceremony may well have
 been intended to convey the spirit of  
the dead king  to his successor4        
,certainly we know that many primitive  
peoples attribute  a magical virtue to  
the act of stepping over a person47#eeb7
    7,m#aeh7 ,sometimes it would appear 
that the spiritual link between a king  
and the souls of his predecessors is    
formed by the possession of some part   
of their persons4 ,in southern ,celebes1
 as we have seen1 the regalia often     
consist of corporeal portions of        

deceased rajahs1 which are treasured as 
sacred relics and confer the right to   
the throne47#eec7 ,similarly among the  
,sakalavas of southern ,madagascar a    
vertebra of the neck1 a nail1 and a     
lock of hair of a deceased king are     
placed in a crocodile's tooth and       
carefully kept along with the similar   
relics of his predecessors in a  house  
set apart for the purpose4 ,the         
possession of these relics  constitutes 
the right to the throne4 ,a legitimate  
heir who should be  deprived of them    
would lose all his authority over the   
people1 and on the  contrary a usurper  
who should make himself master of the   
relics would be  acknowledged king      
without dispute4 ,it has sometimes      
happened that a  relation of the        
reigning monarch has stolen the         
crocodile teeth with their  precious    
contents1 and then had himself          
proclaimed king4 ,accordingly1 when  the
 ,hovas invaded the country1 knowing the
 superstition of the natives1  they paid

 less attention to the living king than 
to the relics of the  dead1 which they  
publicly exhibited under a strong guard 
on pretext of  paying them the honours  
that were their due47#eed7 ,in          
antiquity1 when a  king of the ,panebian
 ,libyans died1 his people buried the   
body but cut off  the head1 and having  
covered it with gold they dedicated it  
in a  sanctuary47#eee7 ,among the ,masai
 of ,east ,africa1 when an important    
chief  has been dead and buried for a   
year1 his eldest son or other successor 
removes the skull of the deceased1 while
 he at the same time offers a  sacrifice
 and a libation with goat's blood1 milk1
 and honey4 ,he then  carefully secrets 
the skull1 the possession of which is   
understood to  confirm him in power and 
to impart to him some of the wisdom of  
his  predecessor47#eef7 ,when the ,alake
 or king of ,abeokuta in ,west ,africa  
dies1  the principal men decapitate his 
body1 and placing the head in a large   
earthen vessel deliver it to the new    

sovereign2 it becomes his fetish and  he
 is bound to pay it honours47#eeg7      
,similarly1 when the ,jaga or ,king of  
,cassange1 in ,angola1 has departed this
 life1 an official extracts a tooth     
from the deceased monarch and presents  
it to his successor1 who deposits  it   
along with the teeth of former kings in 
a box1 which is the sole  property of   
the crown and without which no ,jaga can
 legitimately exercise  the regal       
power47#eeh7 ,sometimes1 in order       
apparently that the new  sovereign may  
inherit more surely the magical and     
other virtues of the  royal line1 he is 
required to eat a piece of his dead     
predecessor4 ,thus at  ,abeokuta not    
only was the head of the late king      
presented to his  successor1 but the    
tongue was cut out and given him to eat4
 ,hence1 when  the natives wish to      
signify that the sovereign reigns1 they 
say1 8,he has  eaten the king407#eei7 ,a
 custom of the same sort is still       
practised at  ,ibadan1 a large town in  

the interior of ,lagos1 ,west ,africa4  
,when the king  dies his head is cut off
 and sent to his nominal suzerain1 the  
,alafin of  ,oyo1 the paramount king of 
,yoruba land2 but his heart is eaten by 
his  successor4 ,this ceremony was      
performed a few years ago at the        
accession of  a new king of             
,ibadan47#efj7    7,m#aei7 ,taking the  
whole of the preceding evidence into    
account1 we may  fairly suppose that    
when the divine king or priest is put to
 death his  spirit is believed to pass  
into his successor4 ,in point of fact we
 have  seen that among the ,shilluk of  
the ,white ,nile1 who regularly kill    
their  divine kings1 every king on his  
accession has to perform a ceremony     
which  appears designed to convey to him
 the same sacred and worshipful spirit  
which animated all his predecessors1 one
 after the other1 on the  throne47#efa7 
,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,killing ,,of  
,,the ,,tree-,,spirit4           #a4    
,the ,whitsuntide ,mummers4             

7,m#afj7 ,it remains to ask what light  
the custom of killing the divine king   
or priest sheds upon the special subject
 of our enquiry4 ,in the first part  of 
this work we saw reason to suppose that 
the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi  was    
regarded as an incarnation of a         
tree-spirit or of the spirit of         
vegetation1 and that as such he would be
 endowed1 in the belief of his          
worshippers1 with a magical power of    
making the trees to bear fruit1 the     
crops to grow1 and so on47#efb7 ,his    
life must therefore have been held very 
precious by his worshippers1 and was    
probably hedged in by a system of       
elaborate precautions or taboos like    
those by which1 in so many places1  the 
life of the man-god has been guarded    
against the malignant influence  of     
demons and sorcerers4 ,but we have seen 
that the very value attached to  the    
life of the man-god necessitates his    
violent death as the only means  of     
preserving it from the inevitable decay 

of age4 ,the same reasoning  would apply
 to the ,king of the ,wood2 he1 too1 had
 to be killed in order  that the divine 
spirit1 incarnate in him1 might be      
transferred in its  integrity to his    
successor4 ,the rule that he held office
 till a stronger  should slay him might 
be supposed to secure both the          
preservation of his  divine life in full
 vigour and its transference to a       
suitable successor as  soon as that     
vigour began to be impaired4 ,for so    
long as he could maintain  his position 
by the strong hand1 it might be inferred
 that his natural  force was not abated2
 whereas his defeat and death at the    
hands of another  proved that his       
strength was beginning to fail and that 
it was time his  divine life should be  
lodged in a less dilapidated tabernacle4
 ,this  explanation of the rule that the
 ,king of the ,wood had to be slain by  
his  successor at least renders that    
rule perfectly intelligible4 ,it is     
strongly supported by the theory and    

practice of the ,shilluk1 who put  their
 divine king to death at the first signs
 of failing health1 lest his            
decrepitude should entail a             
corresponding failure of vital energy on
 the  corn1 the cattle1 and men47#efc7  
,moreover1 it is countenanced by the    
analogy of the ,chitom1 upon whose life 
the existence of the world was  supposed
 to hang1 and who was therefore slain by
 his successor as soon as  he shewed    
signs of breaking up4 ,again1 the terms 
on which in later times  the ,king of   
,calicut held office are identical with 
those attached to the  office of ,king  
of the ,wood1 except that whereas the   
former might be  assailed by a candidate
 at any time1 the ,king of ,calicut     
might only be  attacked once every      
twelve years4 ,but as the leave granted 
to the ,king of  ,calicut to reign so   
long as he could defend himself against 
all comers was  a mitigation of the old 
rule which set a fixed term to his      
life17#efd7 so  we may conjecture that  

the similar permission granted to the   
,king of the  ,wood was a mitigation of 
an older custom of putting him to death 
at the  end of a definite period4 ,in   
both cases the new rule gave to the     
god-man  at least a chance for his life1
 which under the old rule was denied    
him2  and people probably reconciled    
themselves to the change by reflecting  
that  so long as the god-man could      
maintain himself by the sword against   
all  assaults1 there was no reason to   
apprehend that the fatal decay had set  
in4    7,m#afa7 ,the conjecture that the
 ,king of the ,wood was formerly put to 
death  at the expiry of a fixed term1   
without being allowed a chance for his  
life1 will be confirmed if evidence can 
be adduced of a custom of  periodically 
killing his counterparts1 the human     
representatives of the  tree-spirit1 in 
,northern ,europe4 ,now in point of fact
 such a custom has  left unmistakable   
traces of itself in the rural festivals 
of the  peasantry4 ,to take examples4   

7,m#afb7 ,at ,niederpring1 in ,lower    
,bavaria1 the ,whitsuntide              
representative  of the tree-spirit--the 
,pfingstl as he was called--was clad    
from top to  toe in leaves and flowers4 
,on his head he wore a high pointed cap1
 the  ends of which rested on his       
shoulders1 only two holes being left in 
it for  his eyes4 ,the cap was covered  
with water-flowers and surmounted with a
  nosegay of peonies4 ,the sleeves of   
his coat were also made of              
water-plants1 and the rest of his body  
was enveloped in alder and hazel        
leaves4 ,on each side of him marched a  
boy holding up one of the  ,pfingstl's  
arms4 ,these two boys carried drawn     
swords1 and so did most of  the others  
who formed the procession4 ,they stopped
 at every house where  they hoped to    
receive a present2 and the people1 in   
hiding1 soused the  leaf-clad boy with  
water4 ,all rejoiced when he was well   
drenched4 ,finally  he waded into the   
brook up to his middle2 whereupon one of

 the boys1  standing on the bridge1     
pretended to cut off his head47#efe7 ,at
 ,wurmlingen1  in ,swabia1 a score of   
young fellows dress themselves on       
,whit-,monday in  white shirts and white
 trousers1 with red scarves round their 
waists and  swords hanging from the     
scarves4 ,they ride on horseback into   
the wood1 led  by two trumpeters blowing
 their trumpets4 ,in the wood they cut  
down leafy  oak branches1 in which they 
envelop from head to foot him who was   
the last  of their number to ride out of
 the village4 ,his legs1 however1 are   
encased  separately1 so that he may be  
able to mount his horse again4 ,further1
 they  give him a long artificial neck1 
with an artificial head and a false face
  on the top of it4 ,then a ,may-tree is
 cut1 generally an aspen or beech  about
 ten feet high2 and being decked with   
coloured handkerchiefs and  ribbons it  
is entrusted to a special 8,may-bearer40
 ,the cavalcade then  returns with music
 and song to the village4 ,amongst the  

personages who  figure in the procession
 are a ,moorish king with a sooty face  
and a crown  on his head1 a ,dr4        
,iron-,beard1 a corporal1 and an        
executioner4 ,they halt  on the village 
green1 and each of the characters makes 
a speech in rhyme4  ,the executioner    
announces that the leaf-clad man has    
been condemned to  death1 and cuts off  
his false head4 ,then the riders race to
 the ,may-tree1  which has been set up a
 little way off4 ,the first man who     
succeeds in  wrenching it from the      
ground as he gallops past keeps it with 
all its  decorations4 ,the ceremony is  
observed every second or third          
year47#eff7    7,m#afc7 ,in ,saxony and 
,thringen there is a ,whitsuntide       
ceremony called  8chasing the ,wild ,man
 out of the bush10 or 8fetching the     
,wild ,man out of  the ,wood40 ,a young 
fellow is enveloped in leaves or moss   
and called the  ,wild ,man4 ,he hides in
 the wood and the other lads of the     
village go out to  seek him4 ,they find 

him1 lead him captive out of the wood1  
and fire at him  with blank muskets4 ,he
 falls like dead to the ground1 but a   
lad dressed as  a doctor bleeds him1 and
 he comes to life again4 ,at this they  
rejoice1  and1 binding him fast on a    
waggon1 take him to the village1 where  
they  tell all the people how they have 
caught the ,wild ,man4 ,at every house  
they  receive a gift47#efg7 ,in the     
,erzgebirge the following custom was    
annually  observed at ,shrovetide about 
the beginning of the seventeenth        
century4 ,two  men disguised as ,wild   
,men1 the one in brushwood and moss1 the
 other in  straw1 were led about the    
streets1 and at last taken to the       
market-place1  where they were chased up
 and down1 shot and stabbed4 ,before    
falling they  reeled about with strange 
gestures and spirted blood on the people
 from  bladders which they carried4     
,when they were down the huntsmen placed
 them  on boards and carried them to the
 ale-house1 the miners marching beside  

them and winding blasts on their mining 
tools as if they had taken a noble  head
 of game47#efh7 ,a very similar         
,shrovetide custom is still observed    
near  ,schluckenau in ,bohemia4 ,a man  
dressed up as a ,wild ,man is chased    
through  several streets till he comes  
to a narrow lane across which a cord is 
stretched4 ,he stumbles over the cord   
and1 falling to the ground1 is          
overtaken and caught by his pursuers4   
,the executioner runs up and stabs  with
 his sword a bladder filled with blood  
which the ,wild ,man wears round  his   
body2 so the ,wild ,man dies1 while a   
stream of blood reddens the  ground4    
,next day a straw-man1 made up to look  
like the ,wild ,man1 is placed  on a    
litter1 and1 accompanied by a great     
crowd1 is taken to a pool into  which it
 is thrown by the executioner4 ,the     
ceremony is called 8burying the         
,carnival407#efi7    7,m#afd7 ,in ,semic
 7,bohemia7 the custom of beheading the 
,king is observed on  ,whit-,monday4 ,a 

troop of young people disguise          
themselves2 each is girt  with a girdle 
of bark and carries a wooden sword and a
 trumpet of  willow-bark4 ,the ,king    
wears a robe of tree-bark adorned with  
flowers1 on  his head is a crown of bark
 decked with flowers and branches1 his  
feet are  wound about with ferns1 a mask
 hides his face1 and for a sceptre he   
has a  hawthorn switch in his hand4 ,a  
lad leads him through the village by a  
rope  fastened to his foot1 while the   
rest dance about1 blow their trumpets1  
and  whistle4 ,in every farmhouse the   
,king is chased round the room1 and one 
of  the troop1 amid much noise and      
outcry strikes with his sword a blow on 
the  ,king's robe of bark till it rings 
again4 ,then a gratuity is              
demanded47#egj7  ,the ceremony of       
decapitation1 which is here somewhat    
slurred over1 is  carried out with a    
greater semblance of reality in other   
parts of ,bohemia4  ,thus in some       
villages of the ,kniggrtz district on   

,whit-,monday the girls  assemble under 
one lime-tree and the young men under   
another1 all dressed  in their best and 
tricked out with ribbons4 ,the young men
 twine a garland  for the ,queen1 and   
the girls another for the ,king4 ,when  
they have chosen  the ,king and ,queen  
they all go in procession1 two and two1 
to the  ale-house1 from the balcony of  
which the crier proclaims the names of  
the  ,king and ,queen4 ,both are then   
invested with the insignia of their     
office  and are crowned with the        
garlands1 while the music plays up4     
,then some one  gets on a bench and     
accuses the ,king of various offences1  
such as  ill-treating the cattle4 ,the  
,king appeals to witnesses and a trial  
ensues1  at the close of which the      
judge1 who carries a white wand as his  
badge of  office1 pronounces a verdict  
of 8,guilty0 or 8,not guilty40 ,if the  
verdict  is 8,guilty10 the judge breaks 
his wand1 the ,king kneels on a white   
cloth1  all heads are bared1 and a      

soldier sets three or four hats1 one    
above the  other1 on his ,majesty's     
head4 ,the judge then pronounces the    
word 8,guilty0  thrice in a loud voice1 
and orders the crier to behead the      
,king4 ,the crier  obeys by striking off
 the ,king's hats with his wooden       
sword47#ega7    7,m#afe7 ,but perhaps1  
for our purpose1 the most instructive of
 these mimic  executions is the         
following ,bohemian one1 which has been 
in part described  already47#egb7 ,in   
some places of the ,pilsen district     
7,bohemia7 on  ,whit-,monday the ,king  
is dressed in bark1 ornamented with     
flowers and  ribbons2 he wears a crown  
of gilt paper and rides a horse1 which  
is also  decked with flowers4 ,attended 
by a judge1 an executioner1 and other   
characters1 and followed by a train of  
soldiers1 all mounted1 he rides to  the 
village square1 where a hut or arbour of
 green boughs has been erected  under   
the ,may-trees1 which are firs1 freshly 
cut1 peeled to the top1 and  dressed    

with flowers and ribbons4 ,after the    
dames and maidens of the  village have  
been criticised and a frog beheaded1 in 
the way already  described1 the         
cavalcade rides to a place previously   
determined upon1 in a  straight1 broad  
street4 ,here they draw up in two lines 
and the ,king takes  to flight4 ,he is  
given a short start and rides off at    
full speed1 pursued  by the whole troop4
 ,if they fail to catch him he remains  
,king for another  year1 and his        
companions must pay his score at the    
ale-house in the  evening4 ,but if they 
overtake and catch him he is scourged   
with hazel rods  or beaten with the     
wooden swords and compelled to dismount4
 ,then the  executioner asks1 8,shall ,i
 behead this ,king80 ,the answer is     
given1 8,behead  him02 the executioner  
brandishes his axe1 and with the words1 
8,one1 two1  three1 let the ,king       
headless be60 he strikes off the ,king's
 crown4 ,amid  the loud cries of the    
bystanders the ,king sinks to the       

ground2 then he is  laid on a bier and  
carried to the nearest farmhouse47#egc7 
7,m#aff7 ,in most of the personages who 
are thus slain in mimicry it is         
impossible not to recognise             
representatives of the tree-spirit or   
spirit  of vegetation1 as he is supposed
 to manifest himself in spring4 ,the    
bark1  leaves1 and flowers in which the 
actors are dressed1 and the season of   
the  year at which they appear1 shew    
that they belong to the same class as   
the  ,grass ,king1 ,king of the ,may1   
,jack-in-the-,green1 and other          
representatives  of the vernal spirit of
 vegetation which we examined in the    
first part of  this work47#egd7 ,as if  
to remove any possible doubt on this    
head1 we find  that in two cases7#ege7  
these slain men are brought into direct 
connexion  with ,may-trees1 which are   
the impersonal1 as the ,may ,king1      
,grass ,king1 and  so forth1 are the    
personal representatives of the         
tree-spirit4 ,the  drenching of the     

,pfingstl with water and his wading up  
to the middle  into the brook are1      
therefore1 no doubt rain-charms like    
those which have  been already          
described47#egf7    7,m#afg7 ,but if    
these personages represent1 as they     
certainly do1 the spirit  of vegetation 
in spring1 the question arises1 ,why    
kill them8 ,what is the  object of      
slaying the spirit of vegetation at any 
time and above all in  spring1 when his 
services are most wanted8 ,the only     
probable answer to  this question seems 
to be given in the explanation already  
proposed of the  custom of killing the  
divine king or priest4 ,the divine life1
 incarnate in  a material and mortal    
body1 is liable to be tainted and       
corrupted by the  weakness of the frail 
medium in which it is for a time        
enshrined2 and if  it is to be saved    
from the increasing enfeeblement which  
it must  necessarily share with its     
human incarnation as he advances in     
years1 it  must be detached from him    

before1 or at least as soon as1 he      
exhibits  signs of decay1 in order to be
 transferred to a vigorous successor4   
,this  is done by killing the old       
representative of the god and conveying 
the  divine spirit from him to a new    
incarnation4 ,the killing of the god1   
that  is1 of his human incarnation1 is  
therefore merely a necessary step to his
  revival or resurrection in a better   
form4 ,far from being an extinction of  
the divine spirit1 it is only the       
beginning of a purer and stronger       
manifestation of it4 ,if this           
explanation holds good of the custom of 
killing divine kings and priests in     
general1 it is still more obviously     
applicable to the custom of annually    
killing the representative of the       
tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation in  
spring4 ,for the decay of plant life  in
 winter is readily interpreted by       
primitive man as an enfeeblement of  the
 spirit of vegetation2 the spirit has1  
he thinks1 grown old and weak  and must 

therefore be renovated by being slain   
and brought to life in a  younger and   
fresher form4 ,thus the killing of the  
representative of the  tree-spirit in   
spring is regarded as a means to promote
 and quicken the  growth of vegetation4 
,for the killing of the tree-spirit is  
associated  always 7we must suppose7    
implicitly1 and sometimes explicitly    
also1 with a  revival or resurrection of
 him in a more youthful and vigorous    
form4 ,so in  the ,saxon and ,thringen  
custom1 after the ,wild ,man has been   
shot he is  brought to life again by a  
doctor27#egg7 and in the ,wurmlingen    
ceremony  there figures a ,dr4          
,iron-,beard1 who probably once played a
 similar part2  certainly in another    
spring ceremony1 which will be described
 presently1  ,dr4 ,iron-,beard pretends 
to restore a dead man to life4 ,but of  
this revival  or resurrection of the god
 we shall have more to say anon4        
7,m#afh7 ,the points of similarity      
between these ,north ,european          

personages  and the subject of our      
enquiry--the ,king of the ,wood or      
priest of ,nemi--are  sufficiently      
striking4 ,in these northern maskers we 
see kings1 whose dress  of bark and     
leaves1 along with the hut of green     
boughs and the fir-trees  under which   
they hold their court1 proclaim them    
unmistakably as1 like  their ,italian   
counterpart1 ,kings of the ,wood4 ,like 
him they die a violent  death1 but like 
him they may escape from it for a time  
by their bodily  strength and agility2  
for in several of these northern customs
 the flight  and pursuit of the king is 
a prominent part of the ceremony1 and in
 one  case at least if the king can     
outrun his pursuers he retains his life 
and  his office for another year4 ,in   
this last case the king in fact holds   
office on condition of running for his  
life once a year1 just as the ,king  of 
,calicut in later times held office on  
condition of defending his life  against
 all comers once every twelve years1 and

 just as the priest of ,nemi  held      
office on condition of defending himself
 against any assault at any  time4 ,in  
every one of these instances the life of
 the god-man is prolonged  on condition 
of his shewing1 in a severe physical    
contest of fight or  flight1 that his   
bodily strength is not decayed1 and     
that1 therefore1 the  violent death1    
which sooner or later is inevitable1 may
 for the present be  postponed4 ,with   
regard to flight it is noticeable that  
flight figured  conspicuously both in   
the legend and in the practice of the   
,king of the  ,wood4 ,he had to be a    
runaway slave in memory of the flight of
 ,orestes1 the  traditional founder of  
the worship2 hence the ,kings of the    
,wood are  described by an ancient      
writer as 8both strong of hand and fleet
 of  foot407#egh7 ,perhaps if we knew   
the ritual of the ,arician grove fully  
we  might find that the king was allowed
 a chance for his life by flight1 like  
his ,bohemian brother4 ,i have already  

conjectured that the annual flight of   
the priestly king at ,rome 7regifugium7 
was at first a flight of the same  kind2
 in other words1 that he was originally 
one of those divine kings who  are      
either put to death after a fixed period
 or allowed to prove by the  strong hand
 or the fleet foot that their divinity  
is vigorous and  unimpaired47#egi7 ,one 
more point of resemblance may be noted  
between the  ,italian ,king of the ,wood
 and his northern counterparts4 ,in     
,saxony and  ,thringen the              
representative of the tree-spirit1 after
 being killed1 is  brought to life again
 by a doctor4 ,this is exactly what     
legend affirmed to  have happened to the
 first ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1     
,hippolytus or  ,virbius1 who after he  
had been killed by his horses was       
restored to life  by the physician      
,aesculapius47#ehj7 ,such a legend      
tallies well with the  theory that the  
slaying of the ,king of the ,wood was   
only a step to his  revival or          

resurrection in his successor4          
#b4 ,mock ,human ,sacrifices4           
7,m#afi7 ,in the preceding discussion it
 has been assumed that the mock  killing
 of the ,wild ,man and of the ,king in  
,north ,european folk-custom is a       
modern substitute for an ancient custom 
of killing them in earnest4 ,those  who 
best know the tenacity of life possessed
 by folk-custom and its  tendency1 with 
the growth of civilisation1 to dwindle  
from solemn ritual  into mere pageant   
and pastime1 will be least likely to    
question the truth  of this assumption4 
,that human sacrifices were commonly    
offered by the  ancestors of the        
civilised races of ,north ,europe1      
,celts1 ,teutons1 and  ,slavs1 is       
certain47#eha7 ,it is not1 therefore1   
surprising that the modern  peasant     
should do in mimicry what his           
forefathers did in reality4 ,we know  as
 a matter of fact that in other parts of
 the world mock human sacrifices  have  
been substituted for real ones4 ,thus in

 ,minahassa1 a district of  ,celebes1   
human victims used to be regularly      
sacrificed at certain  festivals1 but   
through ,dutch influence the custom was 
abolished and a sham  sacrifice         
substituted for it4 ,the victim was     
seated in a chair and all the  usual    
preparations were made for sacrificing  
him1 but at the critical  moment1 when  
the chief priest had heaved up his      
flashing swords 7for he  wielded two of 
them7 to deal the fatal stroke1 his     
assistants sprang  forward1 their hands 
wrapt in cloths1 to grasp and arrest the
 descending  blades4 ,the precaution was
 necessary1 for the priest was wound up 
to such  a pitch of excitement that if  
left alone he might have consummated the
  sacrifice4 ,afterwards an effigy1 made
 out of the stem of a banana-tree1  was 
substituted for the human victim2 and   
the blood1 which might not be  wanting1 
was supplied by fowls47#ehb7 ,near the  
native town of ,luba1 in  western       
,busoga1 a district of central ,africa1 

there is a sacred tree of  the species  
known as ,parinarium4 ,its glossy white 
trunk shoots up to a  height of a       
hundred feet before it sends out        
branches4 ,the tree is  surrounded by   
small fetish huts and curious arcades4  
,once when the dry  season was drawing  
to an end and the new crops were not yet
 ripe1 the  ,basoga suffered from       
hunger4 ,so they came to the sacred tree
 in canoes1 of  which the prows were    
decked with wreaths of yellow acacia    
blossom and  other flowers4 ,landing on 
the shore they stripped themselves of   
their  clothing and wrapped ropes made  
of green creepers and leaves round their
  arms and necks4 ,at the foot of the   
tree they danced to an accompaniment of 
song4 ,then a little girl1 about ten    
years old1 was brought and laid at the  
base of the tree as if she were to be   
sacrificed4 ,every detail of the        
sacrifice was gone through in mimicry4  
,a slight cut was made in the  child's  
neck1 and she was then caught up and    

thrown into the lake1 where a  man stood
 ready to save her from drowning4 ,by   
native custom the girl on  whom this    
ceremony had been performed was         
dedicated to a life of perpetual        
virginity47#ehc7 ,captain ,bourke was   
informed by an old chief that the       
,indians of ,arizona used to offer human
 sacrifices at the ,feast of ,fire  when
 the days are shortest4 ,the victim had 
his throat cut1 his breast  opened1 and 
his heart taken out by one of the       
priests4 ,this custom was  abolished by 
the ,mexicans1 but for a long time      
afterwards a modified form  of it was   
secretly observed as follows4 ,the      
victim1 generally a young man1  had his 
throat cut1 and blood was allowed to    
flow freely2 but the  medicine-men      
sprinkled 8medicine0 on the gash1 which 
soon healed up1 and  the man            
recovered47#ehd7 ,so in the ritual of   
,artemis at ,halae in ,attica1 a  man's 
throat was cut and the blood allowed to 
gush out1 but he was not  killed47#ehe7 

,at the funeral of a chief in ,nias     
slaves are sacrificed2 a  little of     
their hair is cut off1 and then they are
 beheaded4 ,the victims  are generally  
purchased for the purpose1 and their    
number is proportioned  to the wealth   
and power of the deceased4 ,but if the  
number required is  excessively great or
 cannot be procured1 some of the chiefs 
own slaves  undergo a sham sacrifice4   
,they are told1 and believe1 that they  
are about  to be decapitated2 their     
heads are placed on a log and their     
necks struck  with the back of a sword4 
,the fright drives some of them         
crazy47#ehf7 ,when  a ,hindoo has killed
 or ill-treated an ape1 a bird of prey  
of a certain  kind1 or a cobra capella1 
in the presence of the worshippers of   
,vishnu1 he  must expiate his offence by
 the pretended sacrifice and            
resurrection of a  human being4 ,an     
incision is made in the victim's arm1   
the blood flows1 he  grows faint1 falls1
 and feigns to die4 ,afterwards he is   

brought to life by  being sprinkled with
 blood drawn from the thigh of a        
worshipper of ,vishnu4  ,the crowd of   
spectators is fully convinced of the    
reality of this  simulated death and    
resurrection47#ehg7 ,the ,malayans1 a   
caste of ,southern  ,india1 act as devil
 dancers for the purpose of exorcising  
demons who have  taken possession of    
people4 ,one of their ceremonies1 8known
 as  ucchav-eli1 has several forms1 all 
of which seem to be either  survivals1  
or at least imitations of human         
sacrifice4 ,one of these  consists of a 
mock living burial of the principal     
performer1 who is placed  in a pit1     
which is covered with planks1 on the top
 of which a sacrifice is  performed1    
with a fire kindled with jack wood      
7,artocarpus integrifolia7  and a plant 
called erinna4 ,in another variety1 the 
,malayan cuts his left  forearm1 and    
smears his face with the blood thus     
drawn407#ehh7 ,in ,samoa1  where every  
family had its god incarnate in one or  

more species of  animals1 any disrespect
 shewn to the worshipful animal1 either 
by members  of the kin or by a stranger 
in their presence1 had to be atoned for 
by  pretending to bake one of the family
 in a cold oven as a burnt sacrifice  to
 appease the wrath of the offended god4 
,for example1 if a stranger  staying in 
a household whose god was incarnate in  
cuttle-fish were to  catch and cook one 
of these creatures1 or if a member of   
the family had  been present where a    
cuttle-fish was eaten1 the family would 
meet in  solemn conclave and choose a   
man or woman to go and lie down in a    
cold  oven1 where he would be covered   
over with leaves1 just as if he were    
really being baked4 ,while this mock    
sacrifice was being carried out the     
family prayed3 8,o bald-headed          
,cuttle-fish6 forgive what has been     
done1 it  was all the work of a         
stranger40 ,if they had not thus abased 
themselves  before the divine           
cuttle-fish1 he would undoubtedly have  

come and been the  death of somebody by 
making a cuttle-fish to grow in his     
inside47#ehi7    7,m#agj7 ,sometimes1 as
 in ,minahassa1 the pretended sacrifice 
is carried out1  not on a living person1
 but on an effigy4 ,at the ,city of the 
,sun in  ancient ,egypt three men used  
to be sacrificed every day1 after the   
priests  had stripped and examined them1
 like calves1 to see whether they were  
without blemish and fit for the altar4  
,but ,king ,amasis ordered waxen  images
 to be substituted for the human        
victims47#eij7 ,an ,indian law-book1    
the ,calica ,puran1 prescribes that when
 the sacrifice of lions1 tigers1  or    
human beings is required1 an image of a 
lion1 tiger1 or man shall be  made with 
butter1 paste1 or barley meal1 and      
sacrificed instead47#eia7 ,some  of the 
,gonds of ,india formerly offered human 
sacrifices2 they now  sacrifice         
straw-men1 which are found to answer the
 purpose just as  well47#eib7 ,colonel  
,dalton was told that in some of their  

villages the  ,bhagats 8annually make an
 image of a man in wood1 put clothes and
  ornaments on it1 and present it before
 the altar of a ,mahdeo4 ,the person    
who officiates as priest on the occasion
 says3 #8,o ,mahdeo1 we sacrifice  this 
man to you according to ancient customs4
 ,give us rain in due season1  and a    
plentiful harvest4' ,then with one      
stroke of the axe the head of the  image
 is struck off1 and the body is removed 
and buried407#eic7 ,formerly1  when a   
,siamese army was about to take the     
field a condemned criminal  representing
 the enemy was put to death1 but a      
humane king caused a puppet  to be      
substituted for the man4 ,the effigy is 
felled by the blow of an axe1  and if it
 drops at the first stroke1 the omen is 
favourable47#eid7 ,in the  ,east ,indian
 island of ,siaoo or ,siauw1 one of the 
,sangi group1 a child  stolen from a    
neighbouring island used to be          
sacrificed every year to the  spirit of 
a volcano in order that there might be  

no eruption4 ,the victim  was slowly    
tortured to death in the temple by a    
priestess1 who cut off the  child's     
ears1 nose1 fingers1 and so on1 then    
consummated the sacrifice by  splitting 
open the breast4 ,the spectacle was     
witnessed by hundreds of  people1 and   
feasting and cock-fighting went on for  
nine days afterwards4  ,in course of    
time the annual human victim was        
replaced by a wooden puppet1  which was 
cut to pieces in the same manner47#eie7 
,the ,kayans of ,borneo used  to kill   
slaves at the death of a chief and nail 
them to the tomb1 in order  that they   
might accompany the chief on his long   
journey to the other world  and paddle  
the canoe in which he must travel4 ,this
 is no longer done1 but  instead they   
put up a wooden figure of a man at the  
head and another of a  woman at the foot
 of the chief's coffin as it lies in    
state before the  funeral4 ,and a small 
wooden image of a man is usually fixed  
on the top of  the tomb to row the canoe

 for the dead chief47#eif7 ,in ancient  
times human  sacrifices used to be      
offered at the graves of ,mikados and   
princes of  ,japan1 the personal        
attendants of the deceased being buried 
alive within  the precincts of the tomb4
 ,but a humane emperor ordered that clay
 images  should thenceforth be          
substituted for live men and women4 ,one
 of these  images is now in the ,british
 ,museum47#eig7 ,the ,toboongkoos of    
central  ,celebes1 who are reported     
still to carry home as trophies the     
heads of  their slain enemies1 resort to
 the following cure for certain kinds of
  sickness4 ,the heathen priestess cuts 
the likeness of a human head out of  the
 sheath of a sago-leaf and sets it up on
 three sticks in the courtyard  of the  
house4 ,the patient1 arrayed in his or  
her best clothes1 is then  brought down 
into the court and remains there while  
women dance and sing  round the         
artificial head1 and men perform sham   
fights with shield1 spear1  and bow1    

just as they did1 or perhaps still do1  
when they have brought  back a human    
head from a raid4 ,after that the sick  
man is taken back to  the house1 and an 
improvement in his health is confidently
 expected47#eih7  ,in this ceremony the 
sham head is doubtless a substitute for 
a real one4    7,m#aga7 ,with these mock
 sacrifices of human lives we may       
compare mimic  sacrifices of other      
kinds4 ,in southern ,india1 as in many  
parts of the  world1 it used to be      
customary to sacrifice joints of the    
fingers on  certain occasions4 ,thus    
among the ,morasas1 when a grandchild   
was born in  the family1 the wife of the
 eldest son of the grandfather must have
 the  last two joints of the third and  
fourth fingers of her right hand        
amputated at a temple of ,bhairava4 ,the
 amputation was performed by the        
village carpenter with a chisel4        
,nowadays1 the custom having been       
forbidden by the ,english ,government1  
the sacrifice is performed in  mimicry4 

,some people stick gold or silver pieces
 with flour paste to the  ends of their 
fingers and then cut or pull them off4  
,others tie flowers  round the fingers  
that used to be amputated1 and go       
through a pantomime of  cutting the     
fingers by putting a chisel on the joint
 and then taking it  away4 ,others again
 twist gold wires in the shape of rings 
round their  fingers4 ,these the        
carpenter removes and                   
appropriates47#eii7 ,in ,niu or  ,savage
 ,island1 in the ,south ,pacific1 the   
following custom continued till  lately 
to be observed4 ,when a boy was a few   
weeks old the men assembled1  and a     
feast was made4 ,on the village square  
an awning was rigged up1 and  the child 
was laid on the ground under it4 ,an old
 man then approached it1  and performed 
the operation of circumcision on the    
infant in dumb show  with his           
forefinger4 ,no child was regarded as a 
full-born member of the  tribe till he  
had been subjected to this rite4 ,the   

natives say that real  circumcision was 
never performed in their island2 but as 
it was commonly  practised in ,fiji1    
,tonga1 and ,samoa1 we may assume that  
its imitation in  ,niu was a substitute1
 introduced at some time or other1 for  
the actual  operation47#fjj7 ,similarly 
when an adult ,hindoo joins the sect of 
the ,daira  or ,mahadev ,mohammedans in 
,mysore1 a mock rite of circumcision is 
performed  on him instead of the real   
operation4 ,a betel leaf is wrapped     
round the  male member of the neophyte  
and the loose end of the leaf is snipped
 off  instead of the prepuce47#fja7     
#c4 ,burying the ,carnival4             
7,m#agb7 ,thus far ,i have offered an   
explanation of the rule which required  
that the priest of ,nemi should be slain
 by his successor4 ,the explanation     
claims to be no more than probable2 our 
scanty knowledge of the custom and  of  
its history forbids it to be more4 ,but 
its probability will be  augmented in   
proportion to the extent to which the   

motives and modes of  thought which it  
assumes can be proved to have operated  
in primitive  society4 ,hitherto the god
 with whose death and resurrection we   
have been  chiefly concerned has been   
the tree-god4 ,but if ,i can shew that  
the custom  of killing the god and the  
belief in his resurrection originated1  
or at  least existed1 in the hunting and
 pastoral stage of society1 when the    
slain god was an animal1 and that it    
survived into the agricultural stage1   
when the slain god was the corn or a    
human being representing the corn1  the 
probability of my explanation will have 
been considerably increased4  ,this ,i  
shall attempt to do in the sequel1 and  
in the course of the  discussion ,i hope
 to clear up some obscurities which     
still remain1 and to  answer some       
objections which may have suggested     
themselves to the reader4    7,m#agc7   
,we start from the point at which we    
left off--the spring customs of         
,european peasantry4 ,besides the       

ceremonies already described there are  
two  kindred sets of observances in     
which the simulated death of a divine or
  supernatural being is a conspicuous   
feature4 ,in one of them the being      
whose death is dramatically represented 
is a personification of the  ,carnival2 
in the other it is ,death himself4 ,the 
former ceremony falls  naturally at the 
end of the ,carnival1 either on the last
 day of that merry  season1 namely      
,shrove ,tuesday1 or on the first day of
 ,lent1 namely ,ash  ,wednesday4 ,the   
date of the other ceremony--the         
,carrying or ,driving out of  ,death1 as
 it is commonly called--is not so       
uniformly fixed4 ,generally it is  the  
fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 which hence    
goes by the name of ,dead ,sunday2  but 
in some places the celebration falls a  
week earlier1 in others1 as  among the  
,czechs of ,bohemia1 a week later1 while
 in certain ,german  villages of        
,moravia it is held on the first ,sunday
 after ,easter4 ,perhaps1  as has been  

suggested1 the date may originally have 
been variable1  depending on the        
appearance of the first swallow or some 
other herald of  the spring4 ,some      
writers regard the ceremony as ,slavonic
 in its origin4  ,grimm thought it was a
 festival of the ,new ,year with the old
 ,slavs1 who  began their year in       
,march47#fjb7 ,we shall first take      
examples of the mimic  death of the     
,carnival1 which always falls before the
 other in the  calendar4    7,m#agd7 ,at
 ,frosinone1 in ,latium1 about half-way 
between ,rome and ,naples1  the dull    
monotony of life in a provincial        
,italian town is agreeably broken  on   
the last day of the ,carnival by the    
ancient festival known as the  ,radica4 
,about four o'clock in the afternoon the
 town band1 playing  lively tunes and   
followed by a great crowd1 proceeds to  
the ,piazza del  ,plebiscito1 where is  
the ,sub-,prefecture as well as the rest
 of the  ,government buildings4 ,here1  
in the middle of the square1 the eyes of

 the  expectant multitude are greeted by
 the sight of an immense car decked with
  many-coloured festoons and drawn by   
four horses4 ,mounted on the car is a   
huge chair1 on which sits enthroned the 
majestic figure of the ,carnival1 a  man
 of stucco about nine feet high with a  
rubicund and smiling  countenance4      
,enormous boots1 a tin helmet like those
 which grace the heads  of officers of  
the ,italian marine1 and a coat of many 
colours embellished  with strange       
devices1 adorn the outward man of this  
stately personage4 ,his  left hand rests
 on the arm of the chair1 while with his
 right he  gracefully salutes the crowd1
 being moved to this act of civility by 
a  string which is pulled by a man who  
modestly shrinks from publicity under   
the mercy-seat4 ,and now the crowd1     
surging excitedly round the car1 gives  
vent to its feelings in wild cries of   
joy1 gentle and simple being mixed  up  
together and all dancing furiously the  
,saltarello4 ,a special feature  of the 

festival is that every one must carry in
 his hand what is called a  radica      
78root071 by which is meant a huge leaf 
of the aloe or rather the  agave4 ,any  
one who ventured into the crowd without 
such a leaf would be  unceremoniously   
hustled out of it1 unless indeed he bore
 as a substitute a  large cabbage at the
 end of a long stick or a bunch of grass
 curiously  plaited4 ,when the          
multitude1 after a short turn1 has      
escorted the  slow-moving car to the    
gate of the ,sub-,prefecture1 they halt1
 and the car1  jolting over the uneven  
ground1 rumbles into the courtyard4 ,a  
hush now  falls on the crowd1 their     
subdued voices sounding1 according to   
the  description of one who has heard   
them1 like the murmur of a troubled sea4
  ,all eyes are turned anxiously to the 
door from which the ,sub-,prefect       
himself and the other representatives of
 the majesty of the law are  expected to
 issue and pay their homage to the hero 
of the hour4 ,a few  moments of suspense

 and then a storm of cheers and         
hand-clapping salutes  the appearance of
 the dignitaries1 as they file out and1 
descending the  staircase1 take their   
place in the procession4 ,the hymn of   
the ,carnival is  now thundered out1    
after which1 amid a deafening roar1 aloe
 leaves and  cabbages are whirled aloft 
and descend impartially on the heads of 
the  just and the unjust1 who lend fresh
 zest to the proceedings by engaging in 
a free fight4 ,when these preliminaries 
have been concluded to the  satisfaction
 of all concerned1 the procession gets  
under weigh4 ,the rear  is brought up by
 a cart laden with barrels of wine and  
policemen1 the  latter engaged in the   
congenial task of serving out wine to   
all who ask  for it1 while a most       
internecine struggle1 accompanied by a  
copious  discharge of yells1 blows1 and 
blasphemy1 goes on among the surging    
crowd  at the cart's tail in their      
anxiety not to miss the glorious        
opportunity  of intoxicating themselves 

at the public expense4 ,finally1 after  
the  procession has paraded the         
principal streets in this majestic      
manner1 the  effigy of ,carnival is     
taken to the middle of a public square1 
stripped of  his finery1 laid on a pile 
of wood1 and burnt amid the cries of the
  multitude1 who thundering out once    
more the song of the ,carnival fling    
their so-called 8roots0 on the pyre and 
give themselves up without  restraint to
 the pleasures of the dance47#fjc7      
7,m#age7 ,in the ,abruzzi a pasteboard  
figure of the ,carnival is carried by   
four grave-diggers with pipes in their  
mouths and bottles of wine slung at     
their shoulder-belts4 ,in front walks   
the wife of the ,carnival1 dressed in   
mourning and dissolved in tears4 ,from  
time to time the company halts1 and     
while the wife addresses the            
sympathising public1 the grave-diggers  
refresh the inner man with a pull at the
 bottle4 ,in the open square the  mimic 
corpse is laid on a pyre1 and to the    

roll of drums1 the shrill  screams of   
the women1 and the gruffer cries of the 
men a light is set to  it4 ,while the   
figure burns1 chestnuts are thrown about
 among the crowd4  ,sometimes the       
,carnival is represented by a straw-man 
at the top of a pole  which is borne    
through the town by a troop of mummers  
in the course of the  afternoon4 ,when  
evening comes on1 four of the mummers   
hold out a quilt or  sheet by the       
corners1 and the figure of the ,carnival
 is made to tumble  into it4 ,the       
procession is then resumed1 the         
performers weeping crocodile  tears and 
emphasising the poignancy of their grief
 by the help of  saucepans and dinner   
bells4 ,sometimes1 again1 in the        
,abruzzi the dead  ,carnival is         
personified by a living man who lies in 
a coffin1 attended by  another who acts 
the priest and dispenses holy water in  
great profusion  from a bathing         
tub47#fjd7 ,in ,malta the death of the  
,carnival used to be  mourned by women  

on the last day of the merry festival4  
,clad from head to  foot in black       
mantles1 they carried through the       
streets of the city the  linen effigy of
 a corpse1 stuffed with straw or hay and
 decked with leaves  and oranges4 ,as   
they carried it1 they chanted dirges1   
stopping after every  verse to howl like
 professional mourners4 ,the custom came
 to an end about  the year #agcg47fje7  
7,m#agf7 ,at ,lerida1 in ,catalonia1 the
 funeral of the ,carnival was witnessed 
by an ,english traveller in #ahgg4 ,on  
the last ,sunday of the ,carnival a     
grand procession of infantry1 cavalry1  
and maskers of many sorts1 some on      
horseback and some in carriages1        
escorted the grand car of ,his ,grace   
,pau  ,pi1 as the effigy was called1 in 
triumph through the principal streets4  
,for three days the revelry ran high1   
and then at midnight on the last day  of
 the ,carnival the same procession again
 wound through the streets1 but  under a
 different aspect and for a different   

end4 ,the triumphal car was  exchanged  
for a hearse1 in which reposed the      
effigy of his dead ,grace3 a  troop of  
maskers1 who in the first procession had
 played the part of  ,students of ,folly
 with many a merry quip and jest1 now1  
robed as priests  and bishops1 paced    
slowly along holding aloft huge lighted 
tapers and  singing a dirge4 ,all the   
mummers wore crape1 and all the horsemen
 carried  blazing flambeaux4 ,down the  
high street1 between the lofty1         
many-storeyed  and balconied houses1    
where every window1 every balcony1 every
 housetop  was crammed with a dense mass
 of spectators1 all dressed and masked  
in  fantastic gorgeousness1 the         
procession took its melancholy way4     
,over the  scene flashed and played the 
shifting cross-lights and shadows from  
the  moving torches3 red and blue       
,bengal lights flared up and died out   
again2  and above the trampling of the  
horses and the measured tread of the    
marching multitude rose the voices of   

the priests chanting the requiem1  while
 the military bands struck in with the  
solemn roll of the muffled  drums4 ,on  
reaching the principal square the       
procession halted1 a burlesque  funeral 
oration was pronounced over the defunct 
,pau ,pi1 and the lights  were          
extinguished4 ,immediately the devil and
 his angels darted from the  crowd1     
seized the body and fled away with it1  
hotly pursued by the whole  multitude1  
yelling1 screaming1 and cheering4       
,naturally the fiends were  overtaken   
and dispersed2 and the sham corpse1     
rescued from their clutches1  was laid  
in a grave that had been made ready for 
its reception4 ,thus the  ,carnival of  
#ahgg at ,lerida died and was           
buried47#fjf7    7,m#agg7 ,a ceremony of
 the same sort is observed in ,provence 
on ,ash  ,wednesday4 ,an effigy called  
,caramantran1 whimsically attired1 is   
drawn in  a chariot or borne on a       
litter1 accompanied by the populace in  
grotesque  costumes1 who carry gourds   

full of wine and drain them with all the
 marks1  real or affected1 of           
intoxication4 ,at the head of the       
procession are some  men disguised as   
judges and barristers1 and a tall gaunt 
personage who  masquerades as ,lent2    
behind them follow young people mounted 
on miserable  hacks and attired as      
mourners who pretend to bewail the fate 
that is in  store for ,caramantran4 ,in 
the principal square the procession     
halts1 the  tribunal is constituted1 and
 ,caramantran placed at the bar4 ,after 
a formal  trial he is sentenced to death
 amid the groans of the mob2 the        
barrister  who defended him embraces his
 client for the last time3 the officers 
of  justice do their duty3 the condemned
 is set with his back to a wall and     
hurried into eternity under a shower of 
stones4 ,the sea or a river  receives   
his mangled remains47#fjg7 ,at ,lussac  
in the department of ,vienne  young     
people1 attired in long mourning robes  
and with woebegone  countenances1 carry 

an effigy down to the river on ,ash     
,wednesday and throw  it into the river1
 crying1 8,carnival is dead6 ,carnival  
is dead607#fjh7  ,throughout nearly the 
whole of the ,ardennes it was and still 
is customary  on ,ash ,wednesday to burn
 an effigy which is supposed to         
represent the  ,carnival1 while         
appropriate verses are sung round about 
the blazing  figure4 ,very often an     
attempt is made to fashion the effigy in
 the  likeness of the husband who is    
reputed to be least faithful to his wife
 of  any in the village4 ,as might      
perhaps have been anticipated1 the      
distinction of being selected for       
portraiture under these painful         
circumstances has a slight tendency to  
breed domestic jars1 especially  when   
the portrait is burnt in front of the   
house of the gay deceiver whom  it      
represents1 while a powerful chorus of  
caterwauls1 groans1 and other  melodious
 sounds bears public testimony to the   
opinion which his friends  and          

neighbours entertain of his private     
virtues4 ,in some villages of the       
,ardennes a young man of flesh and      
blood1 dressed up in hay and straw1 used
  to act the part of ,shrove ,tuesday   
7,mardi ,gras71 as the personification  
of the ,carnival is often called in     
,france after the last day of the period
  which he personates4 ,he was brought  
before a mock tribunal1 and being       
condemned to death was placed with his  
back to a wall1 like a soldier at a     
military execution1 and fired at with   
blank cartridges4 ,at ,vrigne-aux-,bois 
one of these harmless buffoons1 named   
,thierry1 was accidentally killed by  a 
wad that had been left in a musket of   
the firing-party4 ,when poor ,shrove    
,tuesday dropped under the fire1 the    
applause was loud and long1 he did it   
so naturally2 but when he did not get up
 again1 they ran to him and found  him a
 corpse4 ,since then there have been no 
more of these mock executions  in the   
,ardennes47#fji7 ,in ,franche-,comt     

people used to make an effigy of        
,shrove ,tuesday on ,ash ,wednesday1 and
 carry it about the streets to the      
accompaniment of songs4 ,then they      
brought it to the public square1 where  
the offender was tried in front of the  
town-hall4 ,judges muffled in old  red  
curtains and holding big books in their 
hands pronounced sentence of  death4    
,the mode of execution varied with the  
place4 ,sometimes it was  burning1      
sometimes drowning1 sometimes           
decapitation4 ,in the last case the     
effigy was provided with tubes of blood1
 which spouted gore at the  critical    
moment1 making a profound impression on 
the minds of children1  some of whom    
wept bitterly at the sight4 ,meantime   
the onlookers uttered  piercing cries   
and appeared to be plunged in the       
deepest grief4 ,the  proceedings        
generally wound up in the evening with a
 ball1 which the young  married people  
were obliged to provide for the public  
entertainment2  otherwise their slumbers

 were apt to be disturbed by the        
discordant notes  of a cat's concert    
chanted under their windows47#faj7      
7,m#agh7 ,in ,normandy on the evening of
 ,ash ,wednesday it used to be the      
custom to hold a celebration called the 
,burial of ,shrove ,tuesday4 ,a  squalid
 effigy scantily clothed in rags1 a     
battered old hat crushed down  on his   
dirty face1 his great round paunch      
stuffed with straw1 represented  the    
disreputable old rake who after a long  
course of dissipation was now  about to 
suffer for his sins4 ,hoisted on the    
shoulders of a sturdy fellow1  who      
pretended to stagger under the burden1  
this popular personification of  the    
,carnival promenaded the streets for the
 last time in a manner the  reverse of  
triumphal4 ,preceded by a drummer and   
accompanied by a jeering  rabble1 among 
whom the urchins and all the tag-rag and
 bobtail of the town  mustered in great 
force1 the figure was carried about by  
the flickering  light of torches to the 

discordant din of shovels and tongs1    
pots and  pans1 horns and kettles1      
mingled with hootings1 groans1 and      
hisses4 ,from  time to time the         
procession halted1 and a champion of    
morality accused the  broken-down old   
sinner of all the excesses he had       
committed and for which  he was now     
about to be burned alive4 ,the culprit1 
having nothing to urge  in his own      
defence1 was thrown on a heap of straw1 
a torch was put to it1  and a great     
blaze shot up1 to the delight of the    
children who frisked  round it screaming
 out some old popular verses about the  
death of the  ,carnival4 ,sometimes the 
effigy was rolled down the slope of a   
hill before  being burnt47#faa7 ,at     
,saint-,l the ragged effigy of ,shrove  
,tuesday was  followed by his widow1 a  
big burly lout dressed as a woman with a
 crape  veil1 who emitted sounds of     
lamentation and woe in a stentorian     
voice4  ,after being carried about the  
streets on a litter attended by a crowd 

of  maskers1 the figure was thrown into 
the ,river ,vire4 ,the final scene has  
been graphically described by ,madame   
,octave ,feuillet as she witnessed it   
in her childhood some fifty years ago4  
8,my parents invited friends to see1    
from the top of the tower of ,jeanne    
,couillard1 the funeral procession      
passing4 ,it was there that1 quaffing   
lemonade--the only refreshment allowed  
because of the fast--we witnessed at    
nightfall a spectacle of which ,i shall 
always preserve a lively recollection4  
,at our feet flowed the ,vire under  its
 old stone bridge4 ,on the middle of the
 bridge lay the figure of ,shrove       
,tuesday on a litter of leaves1         
surrounded by scores of maskers dancing1
  singing1 and carrying torches4 ,some  
of them in their motley costumes ran    
along the parapet like fiends4 ,the     
rest1 worn out with their revels1 sat   
on the posts and dozed4 ,soon the       
dancing stopped1 and some of the troop1 
seizing a torch1 set fire to the effigy1

 after which they flung it into  the    
river with redoubled shouts and clamour4
 ,the man of straw1 soaked with  resin1 
floated away burning down the stream of 
the ,vire1 lighting up with  its funeral
 fires the woods on the bank and the    
battlements of the old  castle in which 
,louis ,,xi4 and ,francis ,i4 had slept4
 ,when the last glimmer  of the blazing 
phantom had vanished1 like a falling    
star1 at the end of  the valley1 every  
one withdrew1 crowd and maskers alike1  
and we quitted  the ramparts with our   
guests4 ,as we returned home my father  
sang gaily the  old popular song3--     
8,shrove ,tuesday is dead and his wife  
has got      ,his shabby                
pocket-handkerchief and his cracked old 
pot4      ,sing high1 sing low1         
,shrove ,tuesday will come back no      
more40      #8,he will come back6 ,he   
will come back6' we cried warmly1       
clapping our  hands2 and he did come    
back next year1 and ,i think ,i should  
see him still  if1 after the lapse of   

half a century1 ,i returned to the land 
of my  birth407#fab7    7,m#agi7 ,in    
,upper ,brittany the burial of ,shrove  
,tuesday or the ,carnival is  sometimes 
performed in a ceremonious manner4 ,four
 young fellows carry a  straw-man or one
 of their companions1 and are followed  
by a funeral  procession4 ,a show is    
made of depositing the pretended corpse 
in the  grave1 after which the          
bystanders make believe to mourn1 crying
 out in  melancholy tones1 8,ah6 my poor
 little ,shrove ,tuesday60 ,the boy who 
played  the part of ,shrove ,tuesday    
bears the name for the whole year47#fac7
 ,at  ,lesneven in ,lower ,brittany it  
was formerly the custom on ,ash         
,wednesday to  burn a straw-man1 covered
 with rags1 after he had been promenaded
 about  the town4 ,he was followed by a 
representative of ,shrove ,tuesday      
clothed  with sardines and cods'        
tails47#fad7 ,at ,pontaven in ,finistre 
an effigy  representing the ,carnival   
used to be thrown from the quay into the

 sea on  the morning of ,ash            
,wednesday47#fae7 ,at ,la ,rochelle the 
porters and sailors  carried about a man
 of straw representing ,shrove ,tuesday1
 then burned it  on ,ash ,wednesday and 
flung the ashes into the sea47#faf7 ,in 
,saintonge and  ,aunis1 which correspond
 roughly to the modern departments of   
,charente1  children used to drown or   
burn a figure of the ,carnival on the   
morning of  ,ash ,wednesday47#fag7 ,the 
beginning of ,lent in ,england was      
formerly marked  by a custom which has  
now fallen into disuse4 ,a figure1 made 
up of straw  and cast-off clothes1 was  
drawn or carried through the streets    
amid much  noise and merriment2 after   
which it was either burnt1 shot at1 or  
thrown  down a chimney4 ,this image went
 by the name of ,jack o' ,lent1 and was 
by  some supposed to represent ,judas   
,iscariot47#fah7    7,m#ahj7 ,a         
,bohemian form of the custom of         
8,burying the ,carnival0 has been       
already described47#fai7 ,the following 

,swabian form is obviously similar4  ,in
 the neighbourhood of ,tbingen on       
,shrove ,tuesday a straw-man1 called the
  ,shrovetide ,bear1 is made up2 he is  
dressed in a pair of old trousers1 and  
a fresh black-pudding or two squirts    
filled with blood are inserted in his   
neck4 ,after a formal condemnation he is
 beheaded1 laid in a coffin1 and on     
,ash ,wednesday is buried in the        
churchyard4 ,this is called 8,burying   
the  ,carnival407#fbj7 ,amongst some of 
the ,saxons of ,transylvania the        
,carnival is  hanged4 ,thus at ,braller 
on ,ash ,wednesday or ,shrove ,tuesday  
two white and  two chestnut horses draw 
a sledge on which is placed a straw-man 
swathed  in a white cloth2 beside him is
 a cart-wheel which is kept turning     
round4  ,two lads disguised as old men  
follow the sledge lamenting4 ,the rest  
of the  village lads1 mounted on        
horseback and decked with ribbons1      
accompany the  procession1 which is     
headed by two girls crowned with        

evergreen and drawn  in a waggon or     
sledge4 ,a trial is held under a tree1  
at which lads  disguised as soldiers    
pronounce sentence of death4 ,the two   
old men try to  rescue the straw-man and
 to fly with him1 but to no purpose2 he 
is caught  by the two girls and handed  
over to the executioner1 who hangs him  
on a  tree4 ,in vain the old men try to 
climb up the tree and take him down2    
they  always tumble down1 and at last in
 despair they throw themselves on the   
ground and weep and howl for the hanged 
man4 ,an official then makes a  speech  
in which he declares that the ,carnival 
was condemned to death  because he had  
done them harm1 by wearing out their    
shoes and making them  tired and        
sleepy47#fba7 ,at the 8,burial of       
,carnival0 in ,lechrain1 a man  dressed 
as a woman in black clothes is carried  
on a litter or bier by four  men2 he is 
lamented over by men disguised as women 
in black clothes1 then  thrown down     
before the village dung-heap1 drenched  

with water1 buried in  the dung-heap1   
and covered with straw47#fbb7 ,similarly
 in ,schrzingen1 near  ,schmberg1 the   
8,carnival 7,shrovetide7 ,fool0 was     
carried all about the  village on a     
bier1 preceded by a man dressed in      
white1 and followed by a  devil who was 
dressed in black and carried chains1    
which he clanked4 ,one  of the train    
collected gifts4 ,after the procession  
the ,fool was buried  under straw and   
dung47#fbc7 ,in ,rottweil the 8,carnival
 ,fool0 is made drunk  on ,ash          
,wednesday and buried under straw amid  
loud lamentation47#fbd7 ,in  ,wurmlingen
 the ,fool is represented by a young    
fellow enveloped in straw1  who is led  
about the village by a rope as a 8,bear0
 on ,shrove ,tuesday and  the preceding 
day4 ,he dances to the flute4 ,then on  
,ash ,wednesday a  straw-man is made1   
placed on a trough1 carried out of the  
village to the  sound of drums and      
mournful music1 and buried in a         
field47#fbe7 ,in ,altdorf  and          

,weingarten on ,ash ,wednesday the      
,fool1 represented by a straw-man1 is   
carried about and then thrown into the  
water to the accompaniment of           
melancholy music4 ,in other villages of 
,swabia the part of fool is played  by a
 live person1 who is thrown into the    
water after being carried about  in     
procession47#fbf7 ,at ,balwe1 in        
,westphalia1 a straw-man is made on     
,shrove  ,tuesday and thrown into the   
river amid rejoicings4 ,this is called1 
as  usual1 8,burying the                
,carnival407#fbg7 ,at ,burgebrach1 in   
,bavaria1 it used to  be customary1 as a
 public pastime1 to hold a sort of court
 of justice on  ,ash ,wednesday4 ,the   
accused was a straw-man1 on whom was    
laid the burden of  all the notorious   
transgressions that had been committed  
in the course of  the year4 ,twelve     
chosen maidens sat in judgment and      
pronounced sentence1  and a single      
advocate pleaded the cause of the public
 scapegoat4 ,finally  the effigy was    

burnt1 and thus all the offences that   
had created a scandal  in the community 
during the year were symbolically atoned
 for4 ,we can  hardly doubt that this   
custom of burning a straw-man on ,ash   
,wednesday for  the sins of a whole year
 is only another form of the custom1    
observed on  the same day in so many    
other places1 of burning an effigy which
 is  supposed to embody and to be       
responsible for all the excesses        
committed  during the licence of the    
,carnival4    7,m#aha7 ,in ,greece a    
ceremony of the same sort was witnessed 
at ,pylos by ,mr4  ,e4 ,l4 ,tilton in   
#ahie4 ,on the evening of the first day 
of the ,greek ,lent1  which fell that   
year on the twenty-fifth of ,february1  
an effigy with a  grotesque mask for a  
face was borne about the streets on a   
bier1 preceded  by a mock priest with   
long white beard4 ,other functionaries  
surrounded the  bier and two            
torch-bearers walked in advance4 ,the   
procession moved slowly  to melancholy  

music played by a pipe and drum4 ,a     
final halt was made in  the public      
square1 where a circular space was kept 
clear of the surging  crowd4 ,here a    
bonfire was kindled1 and round it the   
priest led a wild  dance to the same    
droning music4 ,when the frenzy was at  
its height1 the  chief performer put tow
 on the effigy and set fire to it1 and  
while it  blazed he resumed his mad     
career1 brandishing torches and tearing 
off his  venerable beard to add fuel to 
the flames47#fbh7 ,on the evening of    
,shrove  ,tuesday the ,esthonians make a
 straw figure called metsik or          
8wood-spirit02 one year it is dressed   
with a man's coat and hat1 next year    
with a hood and a petticoat4 ,this      
figure is stuck on a long pole1 carried 
across the boundary of the village with 
loud cries of joy1 and fastened to  the 
top of a tree in the wood4 ,the ceremony
 is believed to be a protection  against
 all kinds of misfortune47#fbi7         
7,m#ahb7 ,sometimes at these ,shrovetide

 or ,lenten ceremonies the resurrection 
of the pretended dead person is enacted4
 ,thus1 in some parts of ,swabia on     
,shrove ,tuesday ,dr4 ,iron-,beard      
professes to bleed a sick man1 who      
thereupon  falls as dead to the ground2 
but the doctor at last restores him to  
life  by blowing air into him through a 
tube47#fcj7 ,in the ,harz ,mountains1   
when  ,carnival is over1 a man is laid  
on a baking-trough and carried with     
dirges  to a grave2 but in the grave a  
glass of brandy is buried instead of the
  man4 ,a speech is delivered and then  
the people return to the village-green  
or meeting-place1 where they smoke the  
long clay pipes which are  distributed  
at funerals4 ,on the morning of ,shrove 
,tuesday in the following  year the     
brandy is dug up and the festival begins
 by every one tasting the  spirit which1
 as the phrase goes1 has come to life   
again47#fca7           #d4 ,carrying out
 ,death4      7,m#ahc7 ,the ceremony of 
8,carrying out ,death0 presents much the

 same  features as 8,burying the        
,carnival02 except that the carrying out
 of ,death  is generally followed by a  
ceremony1 or at least accompanied by a  
profession1 of bringing in ,summer1     
,spring1 or ,life4 ,thus in ,middle     
,franken1 a province of ,bavaria1 on the
 fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 the village   
urchins used to make a straw effigy of  
,death1 which they carried about  with  
burlesque pomp through the streets1 and 
afterwards burned with loud  cries      
beyond the bounds47#fcb7 ,the ,frankish 
custom is thus described by a  writer of
 the sixteenth century3 8,at ,mid-,lent1
 the season when the church  bids us    
rejoice1 the young people of my native  
country make a straw image  of ,death1  
and fastening it to a pole carry it with
 shouts to the  neighbouring villages4  
,by some they are kindly received1 and  
after being  refreshed with milk1 peas1 
and dried pears1 the usual food of that 
season1  are sent home again4 ,others1  
however1 treat them with anything but   

hospitality2 for1 looking on them as    
harbingers of misfortune1 to wit of     
death1 they drive them from their       
boundaries with weapons and             
insults407#fcc7 ,in the villages near   
,erlangen1 when the fourth ,sunday in   
,lent came round1 the peasant girls used
 to dress themselves in all their       
finery with flowers in their hair4 ,thus
 attired they repaired to the           
neighbouring town1 carrying puppets     
which were adorned with leaves and      
covered with white cloths4 ,these they  
took from house to house in pairs1      
stopping at every door where they       
expected to receive something1 and      
singing a few lines in which they       
announced that it was ,mid-,lent and    
that  they were about to throw ,death   
into the water4 ,when they had collected
  some trifling gratuities they went to 
the river ,regnitz and flung the        
puppets representing ,death into the    
stream4 ,this was done to ensure a      
fruitful and prosperous year2 further1  

it was considered a safeguard  against  
pestilence and sudden death47#fcd7 ,at  
,nuremberg girls of seven to  eighteen  
years of age go through the streets     
bearing a little open coffin1  in which 
is a doll hidden under a shroud4 ,others
 carry a beech branch1  with an apple   
fastened to it for a head1 in an open   
box4 ,they sing1 8,we  carry ,death into
 the water1 it is well10 or 8,we carry  
,death into the  water1 carry him in and
 out again407#fce7 ,in other parts of   
,bavaria the  ceremony took place on the
 ,saturday before the fifth ,sunday in  
,lent1 and  the performers were boys or 
girls1 according to the sex of the last 
person  who died in the village4 ,the   
figure was thrown into water or buried  
in a  secret place1 for example under   
moss in the forest1 that no one might   
find  ,death again4 ,then early on      
,sunday morning the children went from  
house to  house singing a song in which 
they announced the glad tidings that    
,death  was gone47#fcf7 ,in some parts  

of ,bavaria down to #aghj it was        
believed that  a fatal epidemic would   
ensue if the custom of 8,carrying out   
,death0 were  not observed47#fcg7       
7,m#ahd7 ,in some villages of ,thringen1
 on the fourth ,sunday of ,lent1 the    
children used to carry a puppet of      
birchen twigs through the village1 and  
then threw it into a pool1 while they   
sang1 8,we carry the old ,death out     
behind the herdsman's old house2 we have
 got ,summer1 and ,kroden's 787  power  
is destroyed407#fch7 ,at ,debschwitz or 
,dobschwitz1 near ,gera1 the  ceremony  
of 8,driving out ,death0 is or was      
annually observed on the first  of      
,march4 ,the young people make up a     
figure of straw or the like  materials1 
dress it in old clothes1 which they have
 begged from houses in  the village1 and
 carry it out and throw it into the     
river4 ,on returning to  the village    
they break the good news to the people1 
and receive eggs and  other victuals as 
a reward4 ,the ceremony is or was       

supposed to purify the  village and to  
protect the inhabitants from sickness   
and plague4 ,in other  villages of      
,thringen1 in which the population was  
originally ,slavonic1  the carrying out 
of the puppet is accompanied with the   
singing of a song1  which begins1 8,now 
we carry ,death out of the village and  
,spring into the  village407#fci7 ,at   
the end of the seventeenth and beginning
 of the  eighteenth century the custom  
was observed in ,thringen as follows4   
,the  boys and girls made an effigy of  
straw or the like materials1 but the    
shape of the figure varied from year to 
year4 ,in one year it would  represent  
an old man1 in the next an old woman1 in
 the third a young man1  and in the     
fourth a maiden1 and the dress of the   
figure varied with the  character it    
personated4 ,there used to be a sharp   
contest as to where the  effigy was to  
be made1 for the people thought that the
 house from which it  was carried forth 
would not be visited with death that    

year4 ,having been  made1 the puppet was
 fastened to a pole and carried by a    
girl if it  represented an old man1 but 
by a boy if it represented an old woman4
 ,thus  it was borne in procession1 the 
young people holding sticks in their    
hands  and singing that they were       
driving out ,death4 ,when they came to  
water they  threw the effigy into it and
 ran hastily back1 fearing that it might
 jump  on their shoulders and wring     
their necks4 ,they also took care not to
 touch  it1 lest it should dry them up4 
,on their return they beat the cattle   
with  the sticks1 believing that this   
would make the animals fat or fruitful4 
,afterwards they visited the house or   
houses from which they had carried  the 
image of ,death1 where they received a  
dole of half-boiled peas47#fdj7  ,the   
custom of 8,carrying out ,death0 was    
practised also in ,saxony4 ,at  ,leipsic
 the bastards and public women used to  
make a straw effigy of ,death  every    
year at ,mid-,lent4 ,this they carried  

through all the streets with  songs and 
shewed it to the young married women4   
,finally they threw it into  the river  
,parthe4 ,by this ceremony they         
professed to make the young wives       
fruitful1 to purify the city1 and to    
protect the inhabitants for that year   
from plague and other epidemics47#fda7  
7,m#ahe7 ,ceremonies of the same sort   
are observed at ,mid-,lent in ,silesia4 
,thus in many places the grown girls    
with the help of the young men dress  up
 a straw figure with women's clothes and
 carry it out of the village  towards   
the setting sun4 ,at the boundary they  
strip it of its clothes1  tear it in    
pieces1 and scatter the fragments about 
the fields4 ,this is  called 8,burying  
,death40 ,as they carry the image out1  
they sing that they  are about to bury  
death under an oak1 that he may depart  
from the people4  ,sometimes the song   
runs that they are bearing death over   
hill and dale to  return no more4 ,in   
the ,polish neighbourhood of            

,gross-,strehlitz the puppet  is called 
,goik4 ,it is carried on horseback and  
thrown into the nearest  water4 ,the    
people think that the ceremony protects 
them from sickness of  every sort in the
 coming year4 ,in the districts of      
,wohlau and ,guhrau the  image of ,death
 used to be thrown over the boundary of 
the next village4  ,but as the          
neighbours feared to receive the        
ill-omened figure1 they were  on the    
look-out to repel it1 and hard knocks   
were often exchanged between  the two   
parties4 ,in some ,polish parts of      
,upper ,silesia the effigy1             
representing an old woman1 goes by the  
name of ,marzana1 the goddess of  death4
 ,it is made in the house where the last
 death occurred1 and is  carried on a   
pole to the boundary of the village1    
where it is thrown into  a pond or      
burnt4 ,at ,polkwitz the custom of      
8,carrying out ,death0 fell into        
abeyance2 but an outbreak of fatal      
sickness which followed the             

intermission of the ceremony induced the
 people to resume it47#fdb7 ,some of    
the ,moravians of ,silesia make three   
puppets on this occasion3 one           
represents a man1 another a bride1 and  
the third a bridesmaid4 ,the first  is  
carried by the boys1 the two last by the
 girls4 ,formerly these effigies  were  
torn to pieces at a brook2 now they are 
brought home again47#fdc7 ,in  this last
 custom two of the figures are clearly  
conceived as bride and  bridegroom4     
7,m#ahf7 ,in ,bohemia the children go   
out with a straw-man1 representing      
,death1 to the end of the village1 where
 they burn it1 singing--          8,now 
carry we ,death out of the village1     
,the new ,summer into the village1      
,welcome1 dear ,summer1      ,green     
little corn407#fdd7      ,at ,tabor in  
,bohemia the figure of ,death is carried
 out of the town and  flung from a high 
rock into the water1 while they sing--  
8,death swims on the water1      ,summer
 will soon be here1      ,we carried    

,death away for you1      ,we brought   
the ,summer4      ,and do thou1 ,o holy 
,marketa1      ,give us a good year     
,for wheat and for rye407#fde7      ,in 
other parts of ,bohemia they carry      
,death to the end of the village1       
singing--          8,we carry ,death out
 of the village1      ,and the ,new     
,year into the village4      ,dear      
,spring1 we bid you welcome1      ,green
 grass1 we bid you welcome40            
,behind the village they erect a pyre1  
on which they burn the straw figure1    
reviling and scoffing at it the while4  
,then they return1 singing--            
8,we have carried away ,death1      ,and
 brought ,life back4      ,he has taken 
up his quarters in the village1         
,therefore sing joyous songs407#fdf7    
7,m#ahg7 ,in some ,german villages of   
,moravia1 as in ,jassnitz and           
,seitendorf1  the young folk assemble on
 the third ,sunday in ,lent and fashion 
a  straw-man1 who is generally adorned  
with a fur cap and a pair of old        

leathern hose1 if such are to be had4   
,the effigy is then hoisted on a pole   
and carried by the lads and lasses out  
into the open fields4 ,on the way  they 
sing a song1 in which it is said that   
they are carrying ,death away  and      
bringing dear ,summer into the house1   
and with ,summer the ,may and the       
flowers4 ,on reaching an appointed place
 they dance in a circle round the       
effigy with loud shouts and screams1    
then suddenly rush at it and tear it  to
 pieces with their hands4 ,lastly1 the  
pieces are thrown together in a  heap1  
the pole is broken1 and fire is set to  
the whole4 ,while it burns the  troop   
dances merrily round it1 rejoicing at   
the victory won by ,spring2 and  when   
the fire has nearly died out they go to 
the householders to beg for a  present  
of eggs wherewith to hold a feast1      
taking care to give as a reason  for the
 request that they have carried ,death  
out and away47#fdg7    7,m#ahh7 ,the    
preceding evidence shews that the effigy

 of ,death is often  regarded with fear 
and treated with marks of hatred and    
abhorrence4 ,thus  the anxiety of the   
villagers to transfer the figure from   
their own to  their neighbours' land1   
and the reluctance of the latter to     
receive the  ominous guest1 are proof   
enough of the dread which it inspires4  
,further1  in ,lusatia and ,silesia the 
puppet is sometimes made to look in at  
the  window of a house1 and it is       
believed that some one in the house will
 die  within the year unless his life is
 redeemed by the payment of money47#fdh7
  ,again1 after throwing the effigy     
away1 the bearers sometimes run home    
lest  ,death should follow them1 and if 
one of them falls in running1 it is     
believed that he will die within the    
year47#fdi7 ,at ,chrudim1 in ,bohemia1  
the figure of ,death is made out of a   
cross1 with a head and mask stuck at    
the top1 and a shirt stretched out on   
it4 ,on the fifth ,sunday in ,lent the  
boys take this effigy to the nearest    

brook or pool1 and standing in a line   
throw it into the water4 ,then they all 
plunge in after it2 but as soon as  it  
is caught no one more may enter the     
water4 ,the boy who did not enter  the  
water or entered it last will die within
 the year1 and he is obliged  to carry  
the ,death back to the village4 ,the    
effigy is then burned47#fej7 ,on  the   
other hand1 it is believed that no one  
will die within the year in the  house  
out of which the figure of ,death has   
been carried27#fea7 and the  village out
 of which ,death has been driven is     
sometimes supposed to be  protected     
against sickness and plague47#feb7 ,in  
some villages of ,austrian  ,silesia on 
the ,saturday before ,dead ,sunday an   
effigy is made of old  clothes1 hay1 and
 straw1 for the purpose of driving      
,death out of the  village4 ,on ,sunday 
the people1 armed with sticks and       
straps1 assemble  before the house where
 the figure is lodged4 ,four lads then  
draw the  effigy by cords through the   

village amid exultant shouts1 while all 
the  others beat it with their sticks   
and straps4 ,on reaching a field which  
belongs to a neighbouring village they  
lay down the figure1 cudgel it  soundly1
 and scatter the fragments over the     
field4 ,the people believe that  the    
village from which ,death has been thus 
carried out will be safe from  any      
infectious disease for the whole        
year47#fec7 ,in ,slavonia the figure of 
,death is cudgelled and then rent in    
two47#fed7 ,in ,poland the effigy1 made 
of hemp and straw1 is flung into a pool 
or swamp with the words 8,the devil     
take thee407#fee7           #e4 ,sawing 
the ,old ,woman4      7,m#ahi7 ,the     
custom of 8,sawing the ,old ,woman10    
which is or used to be  observed in     
,italy1 ,france1 and ,spain on the      
fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 is  doubtless1 
as ,grimm supposes1 merely another form 
of the custom of  8,carrying out        
,death40 ,a great hideous figure        
representing the oldest woman  of the   

village was dragged out and sawn in two1
 amid a prodigious noise  made with     
cow-bells1 pots and pans1 and so        
forth47#fef7 ,in ,palermo the           
representation used to be still more    
lifelike4 ,at ,mid-,lent an old woman   
was drawn through the streets on a cart1
 attended by two men dressed in  the    
costume of the ,compagnia de' ,bianchi1 
a society or religious order  whose     
function it was to attend and console   
prisoners condemned to death4  ,a       
scaffold was erected in a public square2
 the old woman mounted it1 and  two mock
 executioners proceeded1 amid a storm of
 huzzas and hand-clapping1  to saw      
through her neck1 or rather through a   
bladder of blood which had  been        
previously fitted to it4 ,the blood     
gushed out and the old woman  pretended 
to swoon and die4 ,the last of these    
mock executions took place  in          
#agcg47feg7 ,in ,florence1 during the   
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1  the 
,old ,woman was represented by a figure 

stuffed with walnuts and dried  figs and
 fastened to the top of a ladder4 ,at   
,mid-,lent this effigy was sawn  through
 the middle under the ,loggie of the    
,mercato ,nuovo1 and as the  dried      
fruits tumbled out they were scrambled  
for by the crowd4 ,a trace of  the      
custom is still to be seen in the       
practice1 observed by urchins1 of       
secretly pinning paper ladders to the   
shoulders of women of the lower  classes
 who happen to shew themselves in the   
streets on the morning of               
,mid-,lent47#feh7 ,a similar custom is  
observed by urchins in ,rome2 and at    
,naples on the first of ,april boys cut 
strips of cloth into the shape of  saws1
 smear them with gypsum1 and strike     
passers-by with their saws on  the back1
 thus imprinting the figure of a saw    
upon their clothes47#fei7 ,at           
,montalto1 in ,calabria1 boys go about  
at ,mid-,lent with little saws made of  
cane and jeer at old people1 who        
therefore generally stay indoors on that

  day4 ,the ,calabrian women meet       
together at this time and feast on figs1
  chestnuts1 honey1 and so forth2 this  
they call 8,sawing the ,old ,woman0--a  
reminiscence probably of a custom like  
the old ,florentine one47#ffj7 ,in      
,lombardy the ,thursday of ,mid-,lent is
 known as the ,day of the ,old ,wives   
7il giorno delle vecchie74 ,the children
 run about crying out for the  oldest   
woman1 whom they wish to burn2 and      
failing to possess themselves of  the   
original1 they make a puppet            
representing her1 which in the evening  
is  consumed on a bonfire4 ,on the ,lake
 of ,garda the blaze of light flaring at
  different points on the hills produces
 a picturesque effect47#ffa7    7,m#aij7
 ,in ,berry1 a region of central        
,france1 the custom of 8,sawing the ,old
  ,woman0 at ,mid-,lent used to be      
popular1 and has probably not wholly    
died  out even now4 ,here the name of   
8,fairs of the old ,wives0 was given to 
certain fairs held in ,lent1 at which   

children were made to believe that  they
 would see the ,old ,woman of ,mid-,lent
 split or sawn asunder4 ,at  ,argenton  
and ,cluis-,dessus1 when ,mid-,lent has 
come1 children of ten or  twelve years  
of age scour the streets with wooden    
swords1 pursue the old  crones whom they
 meet1 and even try to break into the   
houses where ancient  dames are known to
 live4 ,passers-by1 who see the children
 thus engaged1  say1 8,they are going to
 cut or sabre the ,old ,woman40         
,meantime the old  wives take care to   
keep out of sight as much as possible4  
,when the  children of ,cluis-,dessus   
have gone their rounds1 and the day     
draws towards  evening1 they repair to  
,cluis-,dessous1 where they mould a rude
 figure of  an old woman out of clay1   
hew it in pieces with their wooden      
swords1 and  throw the bits into the    
river4 ,at ,bourges on the same day1 an 
effigy  representing an old woman was   
formerly sawn in two on the crier's     
stone in  a public square4 ,about the   

middle of the nineteenth century1 in the
 same  town and on the same day1        
hundreds of children assembled at the   
,hospital  8to see the old woman split  
or divided in two40 ,a religious service
 was  held in the building on this      
occasion1 which attracted many idlers4  
,in the  streets it was not uncommon to 
hear cries of 8,let us cleave the ,old  
,wife6  let us cleave the oldest woman  
of the ward60 ,at ,tulle1 on the day of 
,mid-,lent1 the people used to enquire  
after the oldest woman in the town1  and
 to tell the children that at mid-day   
punctually she was to be sawn in  two at
 ,puy-,saint-,clair47#ffb7    7,m#aia7  
,in ,barcelona on the fourth ,sunday in 
,lent boys run about the  streets1 some 
with saws1 others with billets of wood1 
others again with  cloths in which they 
collect gratuities4 ,they sing a song in
 which it is  said that they are looking
 for the oldest woman of the city for   
the  purpose of sawing her in two in    
honour of ,mid-,lent2 at last1          

pretending to  have found her1 they saw 
something in two and burn it4 ,a like   
custom is  found amongst the ,south     
,slavs4 ,in ,lent the ,croats tell their
 children that  at noon an old woman is 
being sawn in two outside the gates2 and
 in  ,carniola also the saying is       
current that at ,mid-,lent an old woman 
is taken  out of the village and sawn in
 two4 ,the ,north ,slavonian expression 
for  keeping ,mid-,lent is bbu rezati1  
that is1 8sawing the ,old ,wife407#ffc7 
,in  the ,graubnden ,canton of          
,switzerland1 on ,invocavit ,sunday1    
grown people  used to assemble in the   
ale-house and there saw in two a straw  
puppet  which they called ,mrs4 ,winter 
or the ,ugly ,woman 7bagorda71 while the
  children in the streets teased each   
other with wooden saws47#ffd7           
7,m#aib7 ,among the gypsies of          
south-eastern ,europe the custom of     
8sawing the  ,old ,woman in two0 is     
observed in a very graphic form1 not at 
,mid-,lent1 but  on the afternoon of    

,palm ,sunday4 ,the ,old ,woman1        
represented by a puppet of  straw       
dressed in women's clothes1 is laid     
across a beam in some open place  and   
beaten with clubs by the assembled      
gypsies1 after which it is sawn in  two 
by a young man and a maiden1 both of    
whom wear a disguise4 ,while the  effigy
 is being sawn through1 the rest of the 
company dance round it  singing songs of
 various sorts4 ,the remains of the     
figure are finally  burnt1 and the ashes
 thrown into a stream4 ,the ceremony is 
supposed by the  gypsies themselves to  
be observed in honour of a certain      
,shadow ,queen2  hence ,palm ,sunday    
goes by the name ,shadow ,day among all 
the strolling  gypsies of eastern and   
southern ,europe4 ,according to the     
popular belief1  this ,shadow ,queen1 of
 whom the gypsies of to-day have only a 
very vague  and confused conception1    
vanishes underground at the appearance  
of spring1  but comes forth again at the
 beginning of winter to plague mankind  

during  that inclement season with      
sickness1 hunger1 and death4 ,among the 
vagrant  gypsies of southern ,hungary   
the effigy is regarded as an expiatory  
and  thank offering made to the ,shadow 
,queen for having spared the people     
during the winter4 ,in ,transylvania the
 gypsies who live in tents clothe  the  
puppet in the cast-off garments of the  
woman who has last become a  widow4 ,the
 widow herself gives the clothes gladly 
for this purpose1  because she thinks   
that being burnt they will pass into the
 possession of  her departed husband1   
who will thus have no excuse for        
returning from the  spirit-land to visit
 her4 ,the ashes are thrown by the      
,transylvanian  gypsies on the first    
graveyard that they pass on their       
journey47#ffe7 ,in  this gypsy custom   
the equivalence of the effigy of the    
,old ,woman to the  effigy of ,death in 
the customs we have just been           
considering comes out  very clearly1    
thus strongly confirming the opinion of 

,grimm that the  practice of 8sawing the
 ,old ,woman0 is only another form of   
the practice of  8carrying out ,death40 
7,m#aic7 ,the same perhaps may be said  
of a somewhat different form which the  
custom assumes in parts of ,spain and   
,italy4 ,in ,spain it is sometimes usual
  on ,ash ,wednesday to fashion an      
effigy of stucco or pasteboard          
representing  a hideous old woman with  
seven legs1 wearing a crown of sorrel   
and  spinach1 and holding a sceptre in  
her hand4 ,the seven skinny legs stand  
for the seven weeks of the ,lenten fast 
which begins on ,ash ,wednesday4 ,this  
monster1 proclaimed ,queen of ,lent amid
 the chanting of lugubrious songs1  is  
carried in triumph through the crowded  
streets and public places4 ,on  reaching
 the principal square the people put out
 their torches1 cease  shouting1 and    
disperse4 ,their revels are now ended1  
and they take a vow to  hold no more    
merry meetings until all the legs of the
 old woman have  fallen one by one and  

she has been beheaded4 ,the effigy is   
then deposited  in some place appointed 
for the purpose1 where the public is    
admitted to  see it during the whole of 
,lent4 ,every week1 on ,saturday        
evening1 one of  the ,queen's legs is   
pulled off2 and on ,holy ,saturday1 when
 from every  church tower the joyous    
clangour of the bells proclaims the glad
 tidings  that ,christ is risen1 the    
mutilated body of the fallen ,queen is  
carried  with great solemnity to the    
principal square and publicly           
beheaded47#fff7    7,m#aid7 ,a custom of
 the same sort prevails in various parts
 of ,italy4 ,thus  in the ,abruzzi they 
hang a puppet of tow1 representing      
,lent1 to a cord1  which stretches      
across the street from one window to    
another4 ,seven  feathers are attached  
to the figure1 and in its hand it grasps
 a distaff  and spindle4 ,every         
,saturday in ,lent one of the seven     
feathers is plucked  out1 and on ,holy  
,saturday1 while the bells are ringing1 

a string of  chestnuts is burnt for the 
purpose of sending ,lent and its meagre 
fare to  the devil4 ,in houses1 too1 it 
is usual to amuse children by cutting   
the  figure of an old woman with seven  
legs out of pasteboard and sticking it  
beside the chimney4 ,the old woman      
represents ,lent1 and her seven legs are
  the seven weeks of the fast2 every    
,saturday one of the legs is amputated4 
,at ,mid-,lent the effigy is cut through
 the middle1 and the part of which  the 
feet have been already amputated is     
removed4 ,sometimes the figure is       
stuffed with sweets1 dried fruits1 and  
halfpence1 for which the street  urchins
 scramble when the puppet is            
bisected47#ffg7 ,in the ,sorrentine     
peninsula ,lent is similarly represented
 by the effigy of a wrinkled old  hag   
with a spindle and distaff1 which is    
fastened to a balcony or a  window4     
,attached to the figure is an orange    
with as many feathers stuck  into it as 
there are weeks in ,lent1 and at the end

 of each week one of the  feathers is   
plucked out4 ,at ,mid-,lent the puppet  
is sawn in two1 an  operation which is  
sometimes attended by a gush of blood   
from a bladder  concealed in the        
interior of the figure4 ,any old women  
who shew themselves  in the streets on  
that day are exposed to jibes and jests1
 and may be  warned that they ought to  
remain at home47#ffh7 ,at               
,castellammare1 to the  south of        
,naples1 an ,english lady observed a    
rude puppet dangling from a  string     
which spanned one of the narrow streets 
of the old town1 being  fastened at     
either end1 high overhead1 to the upper 
part of the  many-storied houses4 ,the  
puppet1 about a foot long1 was dressed  
all in  black1 rather like a nun1 and   
from the skirts projected five or six   
feathers which bore a certain           
resemblance to legs4 ,a peasant being   
asked  what these things meant1 replied 
with ,italian vagueness1 8,it is only   
,lent40 ,further enquiries1 however1    

elicited the information that at the    
end of every week in ,lent one of the   
feather legs was pulled off the  puppet1
 and that the puppet was finally        
destroyed on the last day of            
,lent47#ffi7           #f4 ,bringing in 
,summer4      7,m#aie7 ,in the preceding
 ceremonies the return of ,spring1      
,summer1 or ,life1  as a sequel to the  
expulsion of ,death1 is only implied or 
at most  announced4 ,in the following   
ceremonies it is plainly enacted4 ,thus 
in some  parts of ,bohemia the effigy of
 ,death is drowned by being thrown into 
the  water at sunset2 then the girls go 
out into the wood and cut down a young  
tree with a green crown1 hang a doll    
dressed as a woman on it1 deck the      
whole with green1 red1 and white        
ribbons1 and march in procession with   
their ,lto 7,summer7 into the village1  
collecting gifts and singing--          
8,death swims in the water1      ,spring
 comes to visit us1      ,with eggs that
 are red1      ,with yellow pancakes4   

,we carried ,death out of the village1  
,we are carrying ,summer into the       
village407#fgj7      ,in many ,silesian 
villages the figure of ,death1 after    
being treated with  respect1 is stript  
of its clothes and flung with curses    
into the water1 or  torn to pieces in a 
field4 ,then the young folk repair to a 
wood1 cut down  a small fir-tree1 peel  
the trunk1 and deck it with festoons of 
evergreens1  paper roses1 painted       
egg-shells1 motley bits of cloth1 and so
 forth4 ,the  tree thus adorned is      
called ,summer or ,may4 ,boys carry it  
from house to  house singing appropriate
 songs and begging for presents4 ,among 
their  songs is the following3--        
8,we have carried ,death out1      ,we  
are bringing the dear ,summer back1     
,the ,summer and the ,may      ,and all 
the flowers gay40      ,sometimes they  
also bring back from the wood a prettily
 adorned figure1  which goes by the name
 of ,summer1 ,may1 or the ,bride2 in the
 ,polish  districts it is called        

,dziewanna1 the goddess of spring47#fga7
    ,at ,eisenach on the fourth ,sunday 
in ,lent young people used to fasten a  
straw-man1 representing ,death1 to a    
wheel1 which they trundled to the top   
of a hill4 ,then setting fire to the    
figure they allowed it and the wheel  to
 roll down the slope4 ,next they cut a  
tall fir-tree1 tricked it out with      
ribbons1 and set it up in the plain4    
,the men then climbed the tree to  fetch
 down the ribbons47#fgb7 ,in ,upper     
,lusatia the figure of ,death1 made of  
straw and rags1 is dressed in a veil    
furnished by the last bride and a  shirt
 provided by the house in which the last
 death took place4 ,thus  arrayed the   
figure is stuck on the end of a long    
pole and carried at full  speed by the  
tallest and strongest girl1 while the   
rest pelt the effigy  with sticks and   
stones4 ,whoever hits it will be sure to
 live through the  year4 ,in this way   
,death is carried out of the village and
 thrown into the  water or over the     

boundary of the next village4 ,on their 
way home each one  breaks a green branch
 and carries it gaily with him till he  
reaches the  village1 when he throws it 
away4 ,sometimes the young people of the
 next  village1 upon whose land the     
figure has been thrown1 run after them  
and  hurl it back1 not wishing to have  
,death among them4 ,hence the two       
parties  occasionally come to           
blows47#fgc7    7,m#aif7 ,in these cases
 ,death is represented by the puppet    
which is thrown  away1 ,summer or ,life 
by the branches or trees which are      
brought back4 ,but  sometimes a new     
potency of life seems to be attributed  
to the image of  ,death itself1 and by a
 kind of resurrection it becomes the    
instrument of  the general revival4     
,thus in some parts of ,lusatia women   
alone are  concerned in carrying out    
,death1 and suffer no male to meddle    
with it4  ,attired in mourning1 which   
they wear the whole day1 they make a    
puppet of  straw1 clothe it in a white  

shirt1 and give it a broom in one hand  
and a  scythe in the other4 ,singing    
songs and pursued by urchins throwing   
stones1  they carry the puppet to the   
village boundary1 where they tear it in 
pieces4 ,then they cut down a fine tree1
 hang the shirt on it1 and carry it     
home singing47#fgd7 ,on the ,feast of   
,ascension the ,saxons of ,braller1 a   
village of ,transylvania1 not far from  
,hermannstadt1 observe the ceremony  of 
8,carrying out ,death0 in the following 
manner4 ,after morning service all  the 
school-girls repair to the house of one 
of their number1 and there  dress up the
 ,death4 ,this is done by tying a       
threshed-out sheaf of corn  into a rough
 semblance of a head and body1 while the
 arms are simulated by  a broomstick    
thrust through it horizontally4 ,the    
figure is dressed in the  holiday attire
 of a young peasant woman1 with a red   
hood1 silver brooches1  and a profusion 
of ribbons at the arms and breast4 ,the 
girls bustle at  their work1 for soon   

the bells will be ringing to vespers1   
and the ,death  must be ready in time to
 be placed at the open window1 that all 
the people  may see it on their way to  
church4 ,when vespers are over1 the     
longed-for  moment has come for the     
first procession with the ,death to     
begin2 it is a  privilege that belongs  
to the school-girls alone4 ,two of the  
older girls  seize the figure by the    
arms and walk in front3 all the rest    
follow two  and two4 ,boys may take no  
part in the procession1 but they troop  
after it  gazing with open-mouthed      
admiration at the 8beautiful ,death40   
,so the  procession goes through all the
 streets of the village1 the girls      
singing  the old hymn that begins--     
8,gott mein ,vater1 deine ,liebe        
,reicht so weit der ,himmel ist10       
to a tune that differs from the ordinary
 one4 ,when the procession has  wound   
its way through every street1 the girls 
go to another house1 and  having shut   
the door against the eager prying crowd 

of boys who follow at  their heels1 they
 strip the ,death and pass the naked    
truss of straw out of  the window to the
 boys1 who pounce on it1 run out of the 
village with it  without singing1 and   
fling the dilapidated effigy into the   
neighbouring  brook4 ,this done1 the    
second scene of the little drama begins4
 ,while the  boys were carrying away the
 ,death out of the village1 the girls   
remained  in the house1 and one of them 
is now dressed in all the finery which  
had  been worn by the effigy4 ,thus     
arrayed she is led in procession through
 all  the streets to the singing of the 
same hymn as before4 ,when the          
procession  is over they all betake     
themselves to the house of the girl who 
played the  leading part4 ,here a feast 
awaits them from which also the boys are
  excluded4 ,it is a popular belief that
 the children may safely begin to eat   
gooseberries and other fruit after the  
day on which ,death has thus been       
carried out2 for ,death1 which up to    

that time lurked especially in          
gooseberries1 is now destroyed4         
,further1 they may now bathe with       
impunity  out of doors47#fge7 ,very     
similar is the ceremony which1 down to  
recent  years1 was observed in some of  
the ,german villages of ,moravia4 ,boys 
and  girls met on the afternoon of the  
first ,sunday after ,easter1 and        
together  fashioned a puppet of straw to
 represent ,death4 ,decked with         
bright-coloured ribbons and cloths1 and 
fastened to the top of a long  pole1 the
 effigy was then borne with singing and 
clamour to the nearest  height1 where it
 was stript of its gay attire and thrown
 or rolled down  the slope4 ,one of the 
girls was next dressed in the gauds     
taken from the  effigy of ,death1 and   
with her at its head the procession     
moved back to the  village4 ,in some    
villages the practice is to bury the    
effigy in the place  that has the most  
evil reputation of all the country-side3
 others throw it  into running          

water47#fgf7    7,m#aig7 ,in the        
,lusatian ceremony described            
above17#fgg7 the tree which is  brought 
home after the destruction of the figure
 of ,death is plainly  equivalent to the
 trees or branches which1 in the        
preceding customs1 were  brought back as
 representatives of ,summer or ,life1   
after ,death had been  thrown away or   
destroyed4 ,but the transference of the 
shirt worn by the  effigy of ,death to  
the tree clearly indicates that the tree
 is a kind of  revivification1 in a new 
form1 of the destroyed effigy47#fgh7    
,this comes  out also in the            
,transylvanian and ,moravian customs3   
the dressing of a girl  in the clothes  
worn by the ,death1 and the leading her 
about the village to  the same song     
which had been sung when the ,death was 
being carried about1  shew that she is  
intended to be a kind of resuscitation  
of the being whose  effigy has just been
 destroyed4 ,these examples therefore   
suggest that the  ,death whose          

demolition is represented in these      
ceremonies cannot be  regarded as the   
purely destructive agent which we       
understand by ,death4 ,if  the tree     
which is brought back as an embodiment  
of the reviving vegetation  of spring is
 clothed in the shirt worn by the ,death
 which has just been  destroyed1 the    
object certainly cannot be to check and 
counteract the  revival of vegetation3  
it can only be to foster and promote it4
 ,therefore  the being which has just   
been destroyed--the so-called           
,death--must be  supposed to be endowed 
with a vivifying and quickening         
influence1 which it  can communicate to 
the vegetable and even the animal world4
 ,this  ascription of a life-giving     
virtue to the figure of ,death is put   
beyond a  doubt by the custom1 observed 
in some places1 of taking pieces of the 
straw effigy of ,death and placing them 
in the fields to make the crops  grow1  
or in the manger to make the cattle     
thrive4 ,thus in ,spachendorf1 a        

village of ,austrian ,silesia1 the      
figure of ,death1 made of straw1        
brushwood1 and rags1 is carried with    
wild songs to an open place outside  the
 village and there burned1 and while it 
is burning a general struggle  takes    
place for the pieces1 which are pulled  
out of the flames with bare  hands4     
,each one who secures a fragment of the 
effigy ties it to a branch  of the      
largest tree in his garden1 or buries it
 in his field1 in the  belief that this 
causes the crops to grow better47#fgi7  
,in the ,troppau  district of ,austrian 
,silesia the straw figure which the boys
 make on the  fourth ,sunday in ,lent is
 dressed by the girls in woman's clothes
 and hung  with ribbons1 necklace1 and  
garlands4 ,attached to a long pole it is
  carried out of the village1 followed  
by a troop of young people of both      
sexes1 who alternately frolic1 lament1  
and sing songs4 ,arrived at its         
destination--a field outside the        
village--the figure is stripped of its  

clothes and ornaments2 then the crowd   
rushes at it and tears it to bits1      
scuffling for the fragments4 ,every one 
tries to get a wisp of the straw of     
which the effigy was made1 because such 
a wisp1 placed in the manger1 is        
believed to make the cattle             
thrive47#fhj7 ,or the straw is put in   
the hens'  nest1 it being supposed that 
this prevents the hens from carrying    
away  their eggs1 and makes them brood  
much better47#fha7 ,the same attribution
 of  a fertilising power to the figure  
of ,death appears in the belief that if 
the bearers of the figure1 after        
throwing it away1 beat cattle with their
  sticks1 this will render the beasts   
fat or prolific47#fhb7 ,perhaps the     
sticks had been previously used to beat 
the ,death17#fhc7 and so had  acquired  
the fertilising power ascribed to the   
effigy4 ,we have seen1 too1  that at    
,leipsic a straw effigy of ,death was   
shewn to young wives to make  them      
fruitful47#fhd7    7,m#aih7 ,it seems   

hardly possible to separate from the    
,may-trees the trees  or branches which 
are brought into the village after the  
destruction of  the ,death4 ,the bearers
 who bring them in profess to be        
bringing in the  ,summer17#fhe7         
therefore the trees obviously represent 
the ,summer2 indeed in  ,silesia they   
are commonly called the ,summer or the  
,may17#fhf7 and the doll  which is      
sometimes attached to the ,summer-tree  
is a duplicate  representative of the   
,summer1 just as the ,may is sometimes  
represented at  the same time by a      
,may-tree and a ,may ,lady47#fhg7       
,further1 the ,summer-trees  are adorned
 like ,may-trees with ribbons and so on2
 like ,may-trees1 when  large1 they are 
planted in the ground and climbed up2   
and like ,may-trees1  when small1 they  
are carried from door to door by boys or
 girls singing  songs and collecting    
money47#fhh7 ,and as if to demonstrate  
the identity of  the two sets of customs
 the bearers of the ,summer-tree        

sometimes announce  that they are       
bringing in the ,summer and the         
,may47#fhi7 ,the customs1  therefore1 of
 bringing in the ,may and bringing in   
the ,summer are  essentially the same2  
and the ,summer-tree is merely another  
form of the  ,may-tree1 the only        
distinction 7besides that of name7 being
 in the time at  which they are         
respectively brought in2 for while the  
,may-tree is usually  fetched in on the 
first of ,may or at ,whitsuntide1 the   
,summer-tree is  fetched in on the      
fourth ,sunday in ,lent4 ,therefore1 if 
the ,may-tree is an  embodiment of the  
tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation1 the
 ,summer-tree  must likewise be an      
embodiment of the tree-spirit or spirit 
of vegetation4  ,but we have seen that  
the ,summer-tree is in some cases a     
revivification of  the effigy of ,death4
 ,it follows1 therefore1 that in these  
cases the effigy  called ,death must be 
an embodiment of the tree-spirit or     
spirit of  vegetation4 ,this inference  

is confirmed1 first1 by the vivifying   
and  fertilising influence which the    
fragments of the effigy of ,death are   
believed to exercise both on vegetable  
and on animal life27#fij7 for this      
influence1 as we saw in the first part  
of this work17#fia7 is supposed to  be a
 special attribute of the tree-spirit4  
,it is confirmed1 secondly1 by          
observing that the effigy of ,death is  
sometimes decked with leaves or made  of
 twigs1 branches1 hemp1 or a            
threshed-out sheaf of corn27#fib7 and   
that  sometimes it is hung on a little  
tree and so carried about by girls      
collecting money17#fic7 just as is done 
with the ,may-tree and the ,may ,lady1  
and with the ,summer-tree and the doll  
attached to it4 ,in short we are  driven
 to regard the expulsion of ,death and  
the bringing in of ,summer as1  in some 
cases at least1 merely another form of  
that death and revival of  the spirit of
 vegetation in spring which we saw      
enacted in the killing and  resurrection

 of the ,wild ,man47#fid7 ,the burial   
and resurrection of the  ,carnival is   
probably another way of expressing the  
same idea4 ,the  interment of the       
representative of the ,carnival under a 
dung-heap7#fie7 is  natural1 if he is   
supposed to possess a quickening and    
fertilising  influence like that        
ascribed to the effigy of ,death4 ,the  
,esthonians1  indeed1 who carry the     
straw figure out of the village in the  
usual way on  ,shrove ,tuesday1 do not  
call it the ,carnival1 but the          
,wood-spirit  7,metsik71 and they       
clearly indicate the identity of the    
effigy with the  wood-spirit by fixing  
it to the top of a tree in the wood1    
where it  remains for a year1 and is    
besought almost daily with prayers and  
offerings to protect the herds2 for like
 a true wood-spirit the ,metsik  is a   
patron of cattle4 ,sometimes the ,metsik
 is made of sheaves of  corn47#fif7     
7,m#aii7 ,thus we may fairly conjecture 
that the names ,carnival1 ,death1 and   

,summer are comparatively late and      
inadequate expressions for the beings   
personified or embodied in the customs  
with which we have been dealing4  ,the  
very abstractness of the names bespeaks 
a modern origin2 for the                
personification of times and seasons    
like the ,carnival and ,summer1 or of   
an abstract notion like death1 is hardly
 primitive4 ,but the ceremonies         
themselves bear the stamp of a dateless 
antiquity2 therefore we can hardly  help
 supposing that in their origin the     
ideas which they embodied were of  a    
more simple and concrete order4 ,the    
notion of a tree1 perhaps of a          
particular kind of tree 7for some       
savages have no word for tree in        
general71 or even of an individual tree1
 is sufficiently concrete to  supply a  
basis from which by a gradual process of
 generalisation the wider  idea of a    
spirit of vegetation might be reached4  
,but this general idea of  vegetation   
would readily be confounded with the    

season in which it  manifests itself2   
hence the substitution of ,spring1      
,summer1 or ,may for the  tree-spirit or
 spirit of vegetation would be easy and 
natural4 ,again1 the  concrete notion of
 the dying tree or dying vegetation     
would by a similar  process of          
generalisation glide into a notion of   
death in general2 so that  the practice 
of carrying out the dying or dead       
vegetation in spring1 as a  preliminary 
to its revival1 would in time widen out 
into an attempt to  banish ,death in    
general from the village or district4   
,the view that in  these spring         
ceremonies ,death meant originally the  
dying or dead  vegetation of winter has 
the high support of ,w4 ,mannhardt2 and 
he confirms  it by the analogy of the   
name ,death as applied to the spirit of 
the ripe  corn4 ,commonly the spirit of 
the ripe corn is conceived1 not as dead1
 but  as old1 and hence it goes by the  
name of the ,old ,man or the ,old       
,woman4 ,but  in some places the last   

sheaf cut at harvest1 which is generally
 believed  to be the seat of the corn   
spirit1 is called the ,dead ,one3       
children are  warned against entering   
the corn-fields because ,death sits in  
the corn2  and1 in a game played by     
,saxon children in ,transylvania at the 
maize  harvest1 ,death is represented by
 a child completely covered with maize  
leaves47#fig7           #g4 ,battle of  
,summer and ,winter4      7,m#bjj7      
,sometimes in the popular customs of the
 peasantry the contrast  between the    
dormant powers of vegetation in winter  
and their awakening  vitality in spring 
takes the form of a dramatic contest    
between actors who  play the parts      
respectively of ,winter and ,summer4    
,thus in the towns of  ,sweden on ,may  
,day two troops of young men on         
horseback used to meet as if  for mortal
 combat4 ,one of them was led by a      
representative of ,winter clad  in furs1
 who threw snowballs and ice in order to
 prolong the cold weather4  ,the other  

troop was commanded by a representative 
of ,summer covered with  fresh leaves   
and flowers4 ,in the sham fight which   
followed the party of  ,summer came off 
victorious1 and the ceremony ended with 
a feast47#fih7  ,again1 in the region of
 the middle ,rhine1 a representative of 
,summer clad  in ivy combats a          
representative of ,winter clad in straw 
or moss and  finally gains a victory    
over him4 ,the vanquished foe is thrown 
to the  ground and stripped of his      
casing of straw1 which is torn to pieces
 and  scattered about1 while the        
youthful comrades of the two champions  
sing a  song to commemorate the defeat  
of ,winter by ,summer4 ,afterwards they 
carry  about a summer garland or branch 
and collect gifts of eggs and bacon from
  house to house4 ,sometimes the        
champion who acts the part of ,summer is
  dressed in leaves and flowers and     
wears a chaplet of flowers on his head4 
,in the ,palatinate this mimic conflict 
takes place on the fourth ,sunday in    

,lent47#fii7 ,all over ,bavaria the same
 drama used to be acted on the same     
day1 and it was still kept up in some   
places down to the middle of the        
nineteenth century or later4 ,while     
,summer appeared clad all in green1     
decked with fluttering ribbons1 and     
carrying a branch in blossom or a       
little tree hung with apples and pears1 
,winter was muffled up in cap and       
mantle of fur and bore in his hand a    
snow-shovel or a flail4 ,accompanied  by
 their respective retinues dressed in   
corresponding attire1 they went  through
 all the streets of the village1 halting
 before the houses and  singing staves  
of old songs1 for which they received   
presents of bread1  eggs1 and fruit4    
,finally1 after a short struggle1       
,winter was beaten by  ,summer and      
ducked in the village well or driven out
 of the village with  shouts and        
laughter into the forest47#gjj7 ,in some
 parts of ,bavaria the  boys who play   
the parts of ,winter and ,summer act    

their little drama in  every house that 
they visit1 and engage in a war of words
 before they come  to blows1 each of    
them vaunting the pleasures and benefits
 of the season  he represents and       
disparaging those of the other4 ,the    
dialogue is in  verse4 ,a few couplets  
may serve as specimens3--               
,,summer        8,green1 green are      
meadows wherever ,i pass      ,and the  
mowers are busy among the grass40       
,,winter        8,white1 white are the  
meadows wherever ,i go1      ,and the   
sledges glide hissing across the snow40 
,,summer        8,i'll climb up the tree
 where the red cherries glow1      ,and 
,winter can stand by himself down       
below40        ,,winter        8,with   
you ,i will climb the cherry-tree tall1 
,its branches will kindle the fire in   
the hall40        ,,summer        8,o   
,winter1 you are most uncivil      ,to  
send old women to the devil40           
,,winter        8,by that ,i make them  
warm and mellow1      ,so let them bawl 

and let them bellow40        ,,summer   
8,i am the ,summer in white array1      
,i'm chasing the ,winter far1 far away40
        ,,winter        8,i am the      
,winter in mantle of furs1      ,i'm    
chasing the ,summer o'er bushes and     
burs40        ,,summer        8,just say
 a word more1 and ,i'll have you banned 
,at once and for ever from ,summer      
land40        ,,winter        8,o       
,summer1 for all your bluster and brag1 
,you'd not dare to carry a hen in a     
bag40        ,,summer        8,o        
,winter1 your chatter no more can ,i    
stay1      ,i'll kick and ,i'll cuff you
 without delay40      ,here ensues a    
scuffle between the two little boys1 in 
which ,summer gets  the best of it1 and 
turns ,winter out of the house4 ,but    
soon the beaten  champion of ,winter    
peeps in at the door and says with a    
humbled and  crestfallen air3--         
8,o ,summer1 dear ,summer1 ,i'm under   
your ban1      ,for you are the master  
and ,i am the man40      ,to which      

,summer replies3--          8',tis a    
capital notion1 an excellent plan1      
,if ,i am the master and you are the    
man4      ,so come1 my dear ,winter1 and
 give me your hand1      ,we'll travel  
together to ,summer ,land407#gja7       
7,m#bja7 ,at ,goepfritz in ,lower       
,austria1 two men personating ,summer   
and  ,winter used to go from house to   
house on ,shrove ,tuesday1 and were     
everywhere welcomed by the children with
 great delight4 ,the representative  of 
,summer was clad in white and bore a    
sickle2 his comrade1 who played the     
part of ,winter1 had a fur-cap on his   
head1 his arms and legs were swathed  in
 straw1 and he carried a flail4 ,in     
every house they sang verses            
alternately47#gjb7 ,at ,drmling in      
,brunswick1 down to the present time1   
the  contest between ,summer and ,winter
 is acted every year at ,whitsuntide by 
a  troop of boys and a troop of girls4  
,the boys rush singing1 shouting1 and   
ringing bells from house to house to    

drive ,winter away2 after them come  the
 girls singing softly and led by a ,may 
,bride1 all in bright dresses and       
decked with flowers and garlands to     
represent the genial advent of spring4  
,formerly the part of ,winter was played
 by a straw-man which the boys  carried 
with them2 now it is acted by a real man
 in disguise47#gjc7 ,in  ,wachtl and    
,brodek1 a ,german village and a little 
,german town of ,moravia1  encompassed  
by ,slavonic people on every side1 the  
great change that comes  over the earth 
in spring is still annually mimicked4   
,the long village of  ,wachtl1 with its 
trim houses and farmyards1 nestles in a 
valley surrounded  by pretty pine-woods4
 ,here1 on a day in spring1 about the   
time of the  vernal equinox1 an elderly 
man with a long flaxen beard may be seen
 going  from door to door4 ,he is       
muffled in furs1 with warm gloves on his
 hands  and a bearskin cap on his head1 
and he carries a threshing flail4 ,this 
is  the personification of ,winter4     

,with him goes a younger beardless man  
dressed in white1 wearing a straw hat   
trimmed with gay ribbons on his  head1  
and carrying a decorated ,may-tree in   
his hands4 ,this is ,summer4 ,at  every 
house they receive a friendly greeting  
and recite a long dialogue in  verse1   
,winter punctuating his discourse with  
his flail1 which he brings  down with   
rude vigour on the backs of all within  
reach47#gjd7 ,amongst the  ,slavonic    
population near ,ungarisch ,brod1 in    
,moravia1 the ceremony took a  somewhat 
different form4 ,girls dressed in green 
marched in procession  round a          
,may-tree4 ,then two others1 one in     
white and one in green1 stepped  up to  
the tree and engaged in a dialogue4     
,finally1 the girl in white was  driven 
away1 but returned afterwards clothed in
 green1 and the festival  ended with a  
dance47#gje7    7,m#bjb7 ,on ,may ,day  
it used to be customary in almost all   
the large parishes  of the ,isle of ,man
 to choose from among the daughters of  

the wealthiest  farmers a young maiden  
to be ,queen of ,may4 ,she was dressed  
in the gayest  attire and attended by   
about twenty others1 who were called    
maids of  honour4 ,she had also a young 
man for her captain with a number of    
inferior  officers under him4 ,in       
opposition to her was the ,queen of     
,winter1 a man  attired as a woman1 with
 woollen hoods1 fur tippets1 and loaded 
with the  warmest and heaviest clothes1 
one upon another4 ,her attendants were  
habited in like manner1 and she too had 
a captain and troop for her  defence4   
,thus representing respectively the     
beauty of spring and the  deformity of  
winter they set forth from their        
different quarters1 the one  preceded by
 the dulcet music of flutes and violins1
 the other by the harsh  clatter of     
cleavers and tongs4 ,in this array they 
marched till they met on  a common1     
where the trains of the two mimic       
sovereigns engaged in a mock  battle4   
,if the ,queen of ,winter's forces got  

the better of their  adversaries and    
took her rival prisoner1 the captive    
,queen of ,summer was  ransomed for as  
much as would pay the expenses of the   
festival4 ,after this  ceremony1 ,winter
 and her company retired and diverted   
themselves in a  barn1 while the        
partisans of ,summer danced on the      
green1 concluding the  evening with a   
feast1 at which the ,queen and her maids
 sat at one table  and the captain and  
his troop at another4 ,in later times   
the person of the  ,queen of ,may was   
exempt from capture1 but one of her     
slippers was  substituted and1 if       
captured1 had to be ransomed to defray  
the expenses of  the pageant4 ,the      
procession of the ,summer1 which was    
subsequently composed  of little girls  
and called the ,maceboard1 outlived that
 of its rival the  ,winter for some     
years2 but both have now long been      
things of the  past47#gjf7    7,m#bjc7  
,among the central ,esquimaux of ,north 
,america the contest between            

representatives of summer and winter1   
which in ,europe has long degenerated   
into a mere dramatic performance1 is    
still kept up as a magical ceremony  of 
which the avowed intention is to        
influence the weather4 ,in autumn1 when 
storms announce the approach of the     
dismal ,arctic winter1 the ,esquimaux   
divide themselves into two parties      
called respectively the ptarmigans and  
the ducks1 the ptarmigans comprising all
 persons born in winter1 and the  ducks 
all persons born in summer4 ,a long rope
 of sealskin is then  stretched out1 and
 each party laying hold of one end of it
 seeks by  tugging with might and main  
to drag the other party over to its     
side4 ,if  the ptarmigans get the worst 
of it1 then summer has won the game and 
fine  weather may be expected to prevail
 through the winter47#gjg7 ,in this     
ceremony it is clearly assumed that     
persons born in summer have a natural   
affinity with warm weather1 and         
therefore possess a power of mitigating 

the rigour of winter1 whereas persons   
born in winter are1 so to say1 of a     
cold and frosty disposition and can     
thereby exert a refrigerating  influence
 on the temperature of the air4 ,in     
spite of this natural  antipathy between
 the representatives of summer and      
winter1 we may be  allowed to conjecture
 that in the grand tug of war the       
ptarmigans do not  pull at the rope with
 the same hearty goodwill as the ducks1 
and that thus  the genial influence of  
summer commonly prevails over the harsh 
austerity  of winter4 ,the ,indians of  
,canada seem also to have imagined that 
persons  are endowed with distinct      
natural capacities according as they are
 born in  summer or winter1 and they    
turned the distinction to account in    
much the  same fashion as the           
,esquimaux4 ,when they wearied of the   
long frosts and  the deep snow which    
kept them prisoners in their huts and   
prevented them  from hunting1 all of    
them who were born in summer rushed out 

of their  houses armed with burning     
brands and torches which they hurled    
against the  ,one who makes ,winter2 and
 this was supposed to produce the       
desired effect  of mitigating the cold4 
,but those ,indians who were born in    
winter  abstained from taking part in   
the ceremony1 for they believed that if 
they  meddled with it the cold would    
increase instead of diminishing47#gjh7  
,we  may surmise that in the            
corresponding ,european ceremonies1     
which have just  been described1 it was 
formerly deemed necessary that the      
actors1 who  played the parts of ,winter
 and ,summer1 should have been born in  
the  seasons which they personated4     
7,m#bjd7 ,every year on the ,monday     
after the spring equinox boys and girls 
attired in gay costume flock at a very  
early hour into ,zurich from the        
country4 ,the girls1 generally clad in  
white1 are called ,mareielis and  carry 
two and two a small ,may tree or a      
wreath decked with flowers and  ribbons4

 ,thus they go in bands from house to   
house1 jingling the bells  which are    
attached to the wreath and singing a    
song1 in which it is said  that the     
,mareielis dance because the leaves and 
the grass are green and  everything is  
bursting into blossom4 ,in this way they
 are supposed to  celebrate the triumph 
of ,summer and to proclaim his coming4  
,the boys are  called ,bggen4 ,they     
generally wear over their ordinary      
clothes a shirt  decked with            
many-coloured ribbons1 tall pointed     
paper caps on their heads1  and masks   
before their faces4 ,in this quaint     
costume they cart about  through the    
streets effigies made of straw and other
 combustible materials  which are       
supposed to represent ,winter4 ,at      
evening these effigies are  burned in   
various parts of the city47#gji7 ,the   
ceremony was witnessed at  ,zurich on   
,monday1 ,april #bjth1 #aijc1 by my     
friend ,dr4 ,j4 ,sutherland ,black1  who
 has kindly furnished me with some notes

 on the subject4 ,the effigy of  ,winter
 was a gigantic figure composed in great
 part1 as it seemed1 of  cotton-wool4   
,this was laid on a huge pyre1 about    
thirty feet high1 which  had been       
erected on the ,stadthausplatz close to 
the lake4 ,in presence of a  vast       
concourse of people fire was set to the 
pyre and all was soon in a  blaze1 while
 the town bells rang a joyous peal4 ,as 
the figure gradually  consumed in the   
flames1 the mechanism enclosed in its   
interior produced a  variety of         
grotesque effects1 such as the gushing  
forth of bowels4 ,at last  nothing      
remained of the effigy but the iron     
backbone2 the crowd slowly  dispersed1  
and the fire brigade set to work to     
quench the smouldering  embers47#gaj7   
,in this ceremony the contest between   
,summer and ,winter is  rather implied  
than expressed1 but the significance of 
the rite is  unmistakable4           #h4
 ,death and ,resurrection of            
,kostrubonko4      7,m#bje7 ,in ,russia 

funeral ceremonies like those of        
8,burying the ,carnival0  and 8,carrying
 out ,death0 are celebrated under the   
names1 not of ,death or  the ,carnival1 
but of certain mythic figures1          
,kostrubonko1 ,kostroma1  ,kupalo1      
,lada1 and ,yarilo4 ,these ,russian     
ceremonies are observed both in  spring 
and at midsummer4 ,thus 8in ,little     
,russia it used to be the custom  at    
,eastertide to celebrate the funeral of 
a being called ,kostrubonko1 the  deity 
of the spring4 ,a circle was formed of  
singers who moved slowly  around a girl 
who lay on the ground as if dead1 and as
 they went they  sang1--                
#8,dead1 dead is our ,kostrubonko6      
,dead1 dead is our dear one6'      until
 the girl suddenly sprang up1 on which  
the chorus joyfully  exclaimed1--       
#8,come to life1 come to life has our   
,kostrubonko6      ,come to life1 come  
to life has our dear one6' 07#gaa7      
,on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john 7,midsummer  
,eve7 a figure of ,kupalo is made of    

straw  and 8is dressed in woman's       
clothes1 with a necklace and a floral   
crown4  ,then a tree is felled1 and1    
after being decked with ribbons1 is set 
up on  some chosen spot4 ,near this     
tree1 to which they give the name of    
,marena  ,winter or ,death1 the straw   
figure is placed1 together with a table1
 on  which stand spirits and viands4    
,afterwards a bonfire is lit1 and the   
young  men and maidens jump over it in  
couples1 carrying the figure with them4 
,on  the next day they strip the tree   
and the figure of their ornaments1 and  
throw them both into a stream407#gab7   
,on ,st4 ,peter's ,day1 the twenty-ninth
  of ,june1 or on the following ,sunday1
 8the ,funeral of ,kostroma0 or of ,lada
  or of ,yarilo is celebrated in        
,russia4 ,in the ,governments of ,penza 
and  ,simbirsk the funeral used to be   
represented as follows4 ,a bonfire was  
kindled on the twenty-eighth of ,june1  
and on the next day the maidens  chose  
one of their number to play the part of 

,kostroma4 ,her companions  saluted her 
with deep obeisances1 placed her on a   
board1 and carried her  to the bank of a
 stream4 ,there they bathed her in the  
water1 while the  oldest girl made a    
basket of lime-tree bark and beat it    
like a drum4 ,then  they returned to the
 village and ended the day with         
processions1 games1  and dances47#gac7  
,in the ,murom district ,kostroma was   
represented by a straw  figure dressed  
in woman's clothes and flowers4 ,this   
was laid in a trough  and carried with  
songs to the bank of a lake or river4   
,here the crowd  divided into two sides1
 of which the one attacked and the other
 defended  the figure4 ,at last the     
assailants gained the day1 stripped the 
figure of  its dress and ornaments1 tore
 it in pieces1 trod the straw of which  
it was  made under foot1 and flung it   
into the stream2 while the defenders of 
the  figure hid their faces in their    
hands and pretended to bewail the death 
of  ,kostroma47#gad7 ,in the district of

 ,kostroma the burial of ,yarilo was    
celebrated on the twenty-ninth or       
thirtieth of ,june4 ,the people chose an
  old man and gave him a small coffin   
containing a ,priapus-like figure       
representing ,yarilo4 ,this he carried  
out of the town1 followed by women      
chanting dirges and expressing by their 
gestures grief and despair4 ,in the     
open fields a grave was dug1 and into it
 the figure was lowered amid  weeping   
and wailing1 after which games and      
dances were begun1 8calling to  mind the
 funeral games celebrated in old times  
by the pagan  ,slavonians407#gae7 ,in   
,little ,russia the figure of ,yarilo   
was laid in a  coffin and carried       
through the streets after sunset        
surrounded by drunken  women1 who kept  
repeating mournfully1 8,he is dead6 he  
is dead60 ,the men  lifted and shook the
 figure as if they were trying to recall
 the dead man  to life4 ,then they said 
to the women1 8,women1 weep not4 ,i know
 what is  sweeter than honey40 ,but the 

women continued to lament and chant1 as 
they  do at funerals4 8,of what was he  
guilty8 ,he was so good4 ,he will arise 
no  more4 ,o how shall we part from     
thee8 ,what is life without thee8       
,arise1 if  only for a brief hour4 ,but 
he rises not1 he rises not40 ,at last   
the ,yarilo  was buried in a            
grave47#gaf7           #i4 ,death and   
,revival of ,vegetation4      7,m#bjf7  
,these ,russian customs are plainly of  
the same nature as those which  in      
,austria and ,germany are known as      
8,carrying out ,death40 ,therefore if   
the  interpretation here adopted of the 
latter is right1 the ,russian           
,kostrubonko1 ,yarilo1 and the rest must
 also have been originally  embodiments 
of the spirit of vegetation1 and their  
death must have been  regarded as a     
necessary preliminary to their revival4 
,the revival as a  sequel to the death  
is enacted in the first of the          
ceremonies described1  the death and    
resurrection of ,kostrubonko4 ,the      

reason why in some of these  ,russian   
ceremonies the death of the spirit of   
vegetation is celebrated at  midsummer  
may be that the decline of summer is    
dated from ,midsummer ,day1  after which
 the days begin to shorten1 and the sun 
sets out on his  downward journey--     
8,to the darksome hollows      ,where   
the frosts of winter lie40      ,such a 
turning-point of the year1 when         
vegetation might be thought to  share   
the incipient though still almost       
imperceptible decay of summer1  might   
very well be chosen by primitive man as 
a fit moment for resorting  to those    
magic rites by which he hopes to stay   
the decline1 or at least to  ensure the 
revival1 of plant life4    7,m#bjg7 ,but
 while the death of vegetation appears  
to have been represented  in all1 and   
its revival in some1 of these spring and
 midsummer ceremonies1  there are       
features in some of them which can      
hardly be explained on this  hypothesis 
alone4 ,the solemn funeral1 the         

lamentations1 and the mourning  attire1 
which often characterise these rites1   
are indeed appropriate at  the death of 
the beneficent spirit of vegetation4    
,but what shall we say of  the glee with
 which the effigy is often carried out1 
of the sticks and  stones with which it 
is assailed1 and the taunts and curses  
which are  hurled at it8 ,what shall we 
say of the dread of the effigy evinced  
by the  haste with which the bearers    
scamper home as soon as they have thrown
 it  away1 and by the belief that some  
one must soon die in any house into     
which it has looked8 ,this dread might  
perhaps be explained by a belief  that  
there is a certain infectiousness in the
 dead spirit of vegetation  which       
renders its approach dangerous4 ,but    
this explanation1 besides being  rather 
strained1 does not cover the rejoicings 
which often attend the  carrying out of 
,death4 ,we must therefore recognise two
 distinct and  seemingly opposite       
features in these ceremonies3 on the one

 hand1 sorrow  for the death1 and       
affection and respect for the dead2 on  
the other hand1  fear and hatred of the 
dead1 and rejoicings at his death4 ,how 
the former  of these features is to be  
explained ,i have attempted to shew3 how
 the  latter came to be so closely      
associated with the former is a question
  which ,i shall try to answer in the   
sequel4    7,m#bjh7 ,before we quit     
these ,european customs to go farther   
afield1 it will  be well to notice that 
occasionally the expulsion of ,death or 
of a mythic  being is conducted without 
any visible representative of the       
personage  expelled4 ,thus at           
,knigshain1 near ,grlitz in ,silesia1   
all the villagers1  young and old1 used 
to go out with straw torches to the top 
of a  neighbouring hill1 called         
,todtenstein 7,death-stone71 where they 
lit  their torches1 and so returned home
 singing1 8,we have driven out ,death1  
we  are bringing back ,summer407#gag7   
,in ,albania young people light torches 

of  resinous wood on ,easter ,eve1 and  
march in procession through the village 
brandishing them4 ,at last they throw   
the torches into the river1 saying1     
8,ha1 ,kore1 we fling you into the      
river1 like these torches1 that you may 
return no more40 ,some say that the     
intention of the ceremony is to drive   
out winter2 but ,kore is conceived as a 
malignant being who devours             
children47#gah7           #aj4          
,analogous ,rites in ,india4            
7,m#bji7 ,in the ,kanagra district of   
,india there is a custom observed by    
young girls in spring which closely     
resembles some of the ,european spring  
ceremonies just described4 ,it is called
 the ,ral ,ka mel1 or fair of  ,ral1 the
 ,ral being a small painted earthen     
image of ,siva or ,prvat4  ,the custom  
is in vogue all over the ,kanagra       
district1 and its celebration1  which is
 entirely confined to young girls1 lasts
 through most of ,chet  7,march-,april7 
up to the ,sankrnt of ,baiskh 7,april74 

,on a morning in ,march  all the young  
girls of the village take small baskets 
of db grass and  flowers to an appointed
 place1 where they throw them in a heap4
 ,round this  heap they stand in a      
circle and sing4 ,this goes on every day
 for ten days1  till the heap of grass  
and flowers has reached a fair height4  
,then they  cut in the jungle two       
branches1 each with three prongs at one 
end1 and  place them1 prongs downwards1 
over the heap of flowers1 so as to make 
two  tripods or pyramids4 ,on the single
 uppermost points of these branches they
  get an image-maker to construct two   
clay images1 one to represent ,siva1    
and the other ,prvat4 ,the girls then   
divide themselves into two parties1  one
 for ,siva and one for ,prvat1 and marry
 the images in the usual way1  leaving  
out no part of the ceremony4 ,after the 
marriage they have a feast1  the cost of
 which is defrayed by contributions     
solicited from their  parents4 ,then at 
the next ,sankrnt 7,baiskh7 they all go 

together to the  river-side1 throw the  
images into a deep pool1 and weep over  
the place1 as  though they were         
performing funeral obsequies4 ,the boys 
of the  neighbourhood often tease them  
by diving after the images1 bringing    
them  up1 and waving them about while   
the girls are crying over them4 ,the    
object  of the fair is said to be to    
secure a good husband47#gai7    7,m#baj7
 ,that in this ,indian ceremony the     
deities ,siva and ,prvat are  conceived 
as spirits of vegetation seems to be    
proved by the placing of  their images  
on branches over a heap of grass and    
flowers4 ,here1 as often  in ,european  
folk-custom1 the divinities of          
vegetation are represented in           
duplicate1 by plants and by puppets4    
,the marriage of these ,indian deities  
in spring corresponds to the ,european  
ceremonies in which the marriage of  the
 vernal spirits of vegetation is        
represented by the ,king and ,queen of  
,may1 the ,may ,bride1 ,bridegroom of   

the ,may1 and so forth47#gbj7 ,the      
throwing  of the images into the water1 
and the mourning for them1 are the      
equivalents of the ,european customs of 
throwing the dead spirit of  vegetation 
under the name of ,death1 ,yarilo1      
,kostroma1 and the rest1 into  the water
 and lamenting over it4 ,again1 in      
,india1 as often in ,europe1 the  rite  
is performed exclusively by females4    
,the notion that the ceremony  helps to 
procure husbands for the girls can be   
explained by the quickening  and        
fertilising influence which the spirit  
of vegetation is believed to  exert upon
 the life of man as well as of          
plants47#gba7           #aa4 ,the ,magic
 ,spring4      7,m#baa7 ,the general    
explanation which we have been led to   
adopt of these  and many similar        
ceremonies is that they are1 or were in 
their origin1  magical rites intended to
 ensure the revival of nature in spring4
 ,the  means by which they were supposed
 to effect this end were imitation and  

sympathy4 ,led astray by his ignorance  
of the true causes of things1  primitive
 man believed that in order to produce  
the great phenomena of  nature on which 
his life depended he had only to imitate
 them1 and that  immediately by a secret
 sympathy or mystic influence the little
 drama  which he acted in forest glade  
or mountain dell1 on desert plain or    
wind-swept shore1 would be taken up and 
repeated by mightier actors on a  vaster
 stage4 ,he fancied that by masquerading
 in leaves and flowers he  helped the   
bare earth to clothe herself with       
verdure1 and that by playing  the death 
and burial of winter he drove that      
gloomy season away1 and made  smooth the
 path for the footsteps of returning    
spring4 ,if we find it hard  to throw   
ourselves even in fancy into a mental   
condition in which such  things seem    
possible1 we can more easily picture to 
ourselves the anxiety  which the savage1
 when he first began to lift his        
thoughts above the  satisfaction of his 

merely animal wants1 and to meditate on 
the causes of  things1 may have felt as 
to the continued operation of what we   
now call  the laws of nature4 ,to us1   
familiar as we are with the conception  
of the  uniformity and regularity with  
which the great cosmic phenomena succeed
  each other1 there seems little ground 
for apprehension that the causes  which 
produce these effects will cease to     
operate1 at least within the  near      
future4 ,but this confidence in the     
stability of nature is bred only  by the
 experience which comes of wide         
observation and long tradition2 and  the
 savage1 with his narrow sphere of      
observation and his short-lived         
tradition1 lacks the very elements of   
that experience which alone could  set  
his mind at rest in face of the         
ever-changing and often menacing        
aspects of nature4 ,no wonder1          
therefore1 that he is thrown into a     
panic by  an eclipse1 and thinks that   
the sun or the moon would surely perish1

 if he  did not raise a clamour and     
shoot his puny shafts into the air to   
defend  the luminaries from the monster 
who threatens to devour them4 ,no wonder
 he  is terrified when in the darkness  
of night a streak of sky is suddenly    
illumined by the flash of a meteor1 or  
the whole expanse of the celestial  arch
 glows with the fitful light of the     
,northern ,streamers47#gbb7 ,even       
phenomena which recur at fixed and      
uniform intervals may be viewed by him  
with apprehension1 before he has come to
 recognise the orderliness of  their    
recurrence4 ,the speed or slowness of   
his recognition of such  periodic or    
cyclic changes in nature will depend    
largely on the length of  the particular
 cycle4 ,the cycle1 for example1 of day 
and night is  everywhere1 except in the 
polar regions1 so short and hence so    
frequent  that men probably soon ceased 
to discompose themselves seriously as to
 the  chance of its failing to recur1   
though the ancient ,egyptians1 as we    

have  seen1 daily wrought enchantments  
to bring back to the east in the morning
  the fiery orb which had sunk at       
evening in the crimson west4 ,but it was
  far otherwise with the annual cycle of
 the seasons4 ,to any man a year is a   
considerable period1 seeing that the    
number of our years is but few at the   
best4 ,to the primitive savage1 with his
 short memory and imperfect means  of   
marking the flight of time1 a year may  
well have been so long that he  failed  
to recognise it as a cycle at all1 and  
watched the changing aspects  of earth  
and heaven with a perpetual wonder1     
alternately delighted and  alarmed1     
elated and cast down1 according as the  
vicissitudes of light and  heat1 of     
plant and animal life1 ministered to his
 comfort or threatened  his existence4  
,in autumn when the withered leaves were
 whirled about the  forest by the       
nipping blast1 and he looked up at the  
bare boughs1 could he  feel sure that   
they would ever be green again8 ,as day 

by day the sun sank  lower and lower in 
the sky1 could he be certain that the   
luminary would  ever retrace his        
heavenly road8 ,even the waning moon1   
whose pale sickle  rose thinner and     
thinner every night over the rim of the 
eastern horizon1  may have excited in   
his mind a fear lest1 when it had wholly
 vanished1  there should be moons no    
more4    7,m#bab7 ,these and a thousand 
such misgivings may have thronged the   
fancy  and troubled the peace of the man
 who first began to reflect on the      
mysteries of the world he lived in1 and 
to take thought for a more distant      
future than the morrow4 ,it was natural1
 therefore1 that with such thoughts  and
 fears he should have done all that in  
him lay to bring back the faded  blossom
 to the bough1 to swing the low sun of  
winter up to his old place  in the      
summer sky1 and to restore its orbed    
fulness to the silver lamp of  the      
waning moon4 ,we may smile at his vain  
endeavours if we please1 but it  was    

only by making a long series of         
experiments1 of which some were almost  
inevitably doomed to failure1 that man  
learned from experience the  futility of
 some of his attempted methods and the  
fruitfulness of others4  ,after all1    
magical ceremonies are nothing but      
experiments which have  failed and which
 continue to be repeated merely because1
 for reasons which  have already been   
indicated17#gbc7 the operator is unaware
 of their  failure4 ,with the advance of
 knowledge these ceremonies either cease
 to be  performed altogether or are kept
 up from force of habit long after the  
intention with which they were          
instituted has been forgotten4 ,thus    
fallen  from their high estate1 no      
longer regarded as solemn rites on the  
punctual  performance of which the      
welfare and even the life of the        
community  depend1 they sink gradually  
to the level of simple pageants1        
mummeries1  and pastimes1 till in the   
final stage of degeneration they are    

wholly  abandoned by older people1 and1 
from having once been the most serious  
occupation of the sage1 become at last  
the idle sport of children4 ,it is  in  
this final stage of decay that most of  
the old magical rites of our  ,european 
forefathers linger on at the present    
day1 and even from this  their last     
retreat they are fast being swept away  
by the rising tide of  those            
multitudinous forces1 moral1            
intellectual1 and social1 which are     
bearing mankind onward to a new and     
unknown goal4 ,we may feel some natural 
regret at the disappearance of quaint   
customs and picturesque ceremonies1     
which have preserved to an age often    
deemed dull and prosaic something of    
the flavour and freshness of the olden  
time1 some breath of the springtime  of 
the world2 yet our regret will be       
lessened when we remember that these    
pretty pageants1 these now innocent     
diversions1 had their origin in         
ignorance and superstition2 that if they

 are a record of human endeavour1  they 
are also a monument of fruitless        
ingenuity1 of wasted labour1 and of     
blighted hopes2 and that for all their  
gay trappings--their flowers1 their     
ribbons1 and their music--they partake  
far more of tragedy than of farce4      
7,m#bac7 ,the interpretation which1     
following in the footsteps of ,w4       
,mannhardt1 ,i have attempted to give of
 these ceremonies has been not a  little
 confirmed by the discovery1 made since 
this book was first written1  that the  
natives of ,central ,australia regularly
 practise magical  ceremonies for the   
purpose of awakening the dormant        
energies of nature at  the approach of  
what may be called the ,australian      
spring4 ,nowhere  apparently are the    
alternations of the seasons more sudden 
and the  contrasts between them more    
striking than in the deserts of ,central
  ,australia1 where at the end of a long
 period of drought the sandy and  stony 
wilderness1 over which the silence and  

desolation of death appear to  brood1 is
 suddenly1 after a few days of          
torrential rain1 transformed into  a    
landscape smiling with verdure and      
peopled with teeming multitudes of      
insects and lizards1 of frogs and birds4
 ,the marvellous change which  passes   
over the face of nature at such times   
has been compared even by  ,european    
observers to the effect of magic27#gbd7 
no wonder1 then1 that the  savage should
 regard it as such in very deed4 ,now it
 is just when there is  promise of the  
approach of a good season that the      
natives of ,central  ,australia are wont
 especially to perform those magical    
ceremonies of which  the avowed         
intention is to multiply the plants and 
animals they use as  food47#gbe7 ,these 
ceremonies1 therefore1 present a close  
analogy to the  spring customs of our   
,european peasantry not only in the time
 of their  celebration1 but also in     
their aim2 for we can hardly doubt that 
in  instituting rites designed to assist

 the revival of plant life in spring    
our primitive forefathers were moved1   
not by any sentimental wish to smell  at
 early violets1 or pluck the rathe      
primrose1 or watch yellow daffodils     
dancing in the breeze1 but by the very  
practical consideration1 certainly  not 
formulated in abstract terms1 that the  
life of man is inextricably  bound up   
with that of plants1 and that if they   
were to perish he could not  survive4   
,and as the faith of the ,australian    
savage in the efficacy of his  magic    
rites is confirmed by observing that    
their performance is invariably         
followed1 sooner or later1 by that      
increase of vegetable and animal life   
which it is their object to produce1 so1
 we may suppose1 it was with  ,european 
savages in the olden time4 ,the sight of
 the fresh green in brake  and thicket1 
of vernal flowers blowing on mossy      
banks1 of swallows  arriving from the   
south1 and of the sun mounting daily    
higher in the sky1  would be welcomed by

 them as so many visible signs that     
their enchantments  were indeed taking  
effect1 and would inspire them with a   
cheerful  confidence that all was well  
with a world which they could thus mould
 to  suit their wishes4 ,only in autumn 
days1 as summer slowly faded1 would     
their confidence again be dashed by     
doubts and misgivings at symptoms of    
decay1 which told how vain were all     
their efforts to stave off for ever  the
 approach of winter and of death4       
,,note ,a4 ,,chinese ,,indifference ,,to
 ,,death4      7,m#bad7 ,lord ,avebury  
kindly allows me to print the letter of 
,mr4 ,m4 ,w4  ,lampson1 referred to     
above 7p4 #adf1 note #a74 ,it runs as   
follows3--          ,,foreign ,,office1 
,august #g1 #aijc4        ,,dear ,,lord 
,,avebury--,as the result of enquiries  
,i hear from a ,mr4      ,eames1 a      
lawyer who practised for some years at  
,shanghai and has      considerable     
knowledge of ,chinese matters1 that for 
a small sum a      substitute can be    

found for execution4 ,this is recognised
 by the      ,chinese authorities1 with 
certain exceptions1 as for instance     
parricide4 ,it is even asserted that the
 local ,taotai gains      pecuniarily by
 this arrangement1 as he is as a rule   
not above      obtaining a substitute   
for the condemned man for a less sum    
than      was paid him by the latter4   
,it is1 ,i believe1 part of the doctrine
 of ,confucius that it is one      of   
the highest virtues to increase the     
family prosperity at the      expense of
 personal suffering4 ,according to      
,eames1 the ,chinamen      sic looks    
upon execution in another man's stead in
 this light1      and consequently there
 is quite a competition for such a      
8substitution40        ,should you wish 
to get more definite information1 the   
address is3      ,w4 ,eames1 ,esq41 c_/o
 ,norman ,craig1 ,inner ,temple1 ,e4,c4 
,the only man in this department who has
 actually been out to ,china      is at 
present away4 ,but on his return ,i will

 ask him about it4--        ,yours      
sincerely1      ,,miles ,w4 ,,lampson4  
7,m#bae7 ,on this subject ,lord ,avebury
 had stated3 8,it is said that in       
,china1  if a rich man is condemned to  
death1 he can sometimes purchase a      
willing  substitute at a very small     
expense407#gbf7 ,in regard to his       
authority for  this statement ,lord     
,avebury wrote to me 7,august #aj1      
#aijc73 8,i believe my  previous        
information came from ,sir ,t4 ,wade1   
but ,i have been unable to lay  my hand 
on his letter1 and do not therefore like
 to state it as a fact40  ,sir ,thomas  
,wade was ,english ,ambassador at       
,peking1 and afterwards ,professor  of  
,chinese at ,cambridge4    7,m#baf7 ,on 
the same subject ,mr4 ,valentine        
,chirol1 editor of the foreign          
department of ,the ,times1 wrote to me  
as follows3--          ,,queen ,,anne',s
 ,,mansions1 ,,westminster1 ,s4,w41     
,august #bast1 #aije4        ,,dear     
,,sir--,i shall be very glad to do what 

,i can to obtain for you      the       
information you require4 ,it was a      
surprise to me to hear that      the    
accuracy of the statement was called in 
question4 ,it is      certainly a matter
 of common report in ,china that the    
practice      exists4 ,the difficulty1  
,i conceive1 will be to obtain evidence 
enabling one to quote concrete cases4   
,my own impression is that      the     
practice is quite justifiable according 
to ,chinese ethics when      life is    
given up from motives of filial piety1  
that is to say in      order to relieve 
the wants of indigent parents1 or to    
defray the      costs of ancestral      
rights sic4 ,your general thesis that   
life      is less valued and more       
readily sacrificed by some races than by
      modern ,europeans seems to be     
beyond dispute4 ,surely the ,japanese   
practice of sepuku1 or harikari1 as it  
is vulgarly called1 is      a case in   
point4 ,life is risked1 as in duelling1 
by ,europeans1 for      the mere point  

of honour1 but it is never deliberately 
laid down      in satisfaction of the   
exigencies of the social code4 ,i will  
send      you whatever information ,i   
can obtain when it reaches me1 but that 
will not of course be for some          
months4--,yours truly1                  
,,valentine ,,chirol4        ,p4,s4--,a 
friend of mine who has just been here   
entirely confirms      my own belief as 
to the accuracy of your statement1 and  
tells me      he has himself seen       
several ,imperial ,decrees in the       
,peking      ,gazette1 calling          
provincial authorities to order for     
having      allowed specific cases of   
substitution to occur1 and ordering the 
death penalty to be carried out in a    
more severe form on the      original   
culprits as an extra punishment for     
obtaining      substitutes4 ,he has     
promised to look up some of these ,impe4
      ,decrees on his return to ,china1 
and send me translations4 ,i am         
satisfied personally that his statement 

is conclusive4        ,v4 ,c4      ,on  
the same subject ,i have received the   
following letter from ,mr4 ,j4 ,o4 ,p4  
,bland1 for fourteen years correspondent
 of ,the ,times in ,china3--            
,,the ,,clock ,,house1 ,,shepperton1    
,march #bbnd1 #aiaa4        ,,dear      
,,professor ,,frazer--,my friend ,mr4   
,valentine ,chirol1 writing the         
other day from ,crete on his way ,east1 
asked me to communicate with      you on
 the subject of your letter of the #crd 
ulto41 namely1 the      custom1 alleged 
to exist in ,china1 of procuring        
substitutes for      persons condemned  
to death1 the substitutes' families or  
relatives      receiving compensation in
 cash4        ,to speak of this as a    
custom is to exaggerate the frequency of
 a      class of incident which has     
undoubtedly been recorded in ,china and 
of which there has been mention in      
,imperial ,decrees4 ,i am sorry to      
say that ,i have not my file of the     
,peking ,gazette here1 for              

immediate reference1 but ,i am writing  
to my friend ,mr4 ,backhouse      in    
,peking1 and have no doubt but that he  
will be able to give      chapter and   
verse of instances thus recorded4 ,i had
 expected to      find cases of the kind
 recorded in ,mr4 ,werner's             
recently-published      8,descriptive   
,sociology0 of the ,chinese 7,spencerian
 publications71      but have not been  
able to do so in the absence of an index
 to that      voluminous work4 ,more    
than one of the authors whom he quotes  
have      certainly referred to cases of
 substitution for death-sentence        
prisoners4 ,parker1 for instance        
78,china ,past and ,present10 page      
#cgh71 asserts that substitutes were to 
be had in ,canton at the      reasonable
 price of fifty taels 7say #aj74 ,dr4   
,matignon 7in      8,superstition1      
,crime et ,misre en ,chine10 page #aac7 
says that      filial piety is a        
frequent motive4 ,the negative opinion  
of      ,professors ,giles and de ,groot

 is entitled to consideration1 but      
cannot be regarded as any more          
conclusive than the views expressed     
by ,professor ,giles on the question of 
infanticide which are      outweighed by
 a mass of direct proof of              
eye-witnesses4        ,in a country     
where men submit voluntarily to         
mutilation and grave      risk of death 
for a comparatively small gain to       
themselves and      their relatives1    
where women commit suicide in hundreds  
to escape      capture by invaders or   
strangers1 where men and women alike    
habitually sacrifice their life for the 
most trivial motives of      revenge or 
distress1 it need not greatly surprise  
us that some      should be found1      
especially among the wretchedly poor    
class1      willing to give up their    
life in order to relieve their families 
of want or otherwise to 8acquire merit40
        ,the most important thing1 ,i   
think1 in expressing any opinion about  
the ,chinese1 is to remember the great  

extent and heterogeneous      elements  
of the country1 and to abstain from any 
sweeping      generalisations based on  
isolated acts or events4--,yours very   
truly1        ,j4 ,o4 ,p4 ,,bland4      
,as the practice in question involves a 
grave miscarriage of justice1 the       
discovery of which might entail serious 
consequences on the magistrate who      
connived at it1 we need not wonder that 
it is generally hushed up1 and  that no 
instances of it should come to the ears 
of many ,europeans resident  in ,china4 
,my friend ,professor ,h4 ,a4 ,giles of 
,cambridge in conversation  expressed   
himself quite incredulous on the        
subject1 and ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,m4  de 
,groot of ,leyden wrote to me 7,january 
#ca1 #aijb7 to the same effect4 ,the    
,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,a4 ,barber1         
,headmaster of the ,leys ,school1       
,cambridge1 and  formerly a missionary  
in ,china1 wrote to me 7,january #cj1   
#aijb73 8,as to the  possibility that a 
man condemned to death may secure a     

substitute on  payment of a moderate sum
 of money1 we used to hear that this was
 the  case2 but ,i have no proof that   
would justify you in using the fact40   
,another experienced missionary1 the    
,rev4 ,w4 ,a4 ,cornaby1 wrote to ,dr4   
,barber3 8,i have heard of no such      
custom in capital crimes4 ,the man in   
whose house a fire starts may1 and often
 does1 pay another to receive the  blows
 and three days in a cangue4 ,but unless
 where #8foreign riots' were  the case1 
and a previously condemned criminal     
handy1 ,i should hardly think  it       
possible4 ,every precaution is taken    
that no one is beheaded but the man  who
 cannot possibly be let off4 ,the       
expense on the county mandarin is over  
#ajj in #8stationery expenses' with     
higher courts40 ,on this ,i would       
observe  that if every execution costs  
the local mandarin so dear1 he must be  
under  a strong temptation to get the   
expenses out of the prisoner whenever he
  can do so without being detected4     

7,m#bag7 ,with regard to the custom1    
mentioned by ,mr4 ,cornaby1 of procuring
  substitutes for corporal punishment1  
we are told that in ,china there are    
men who earn a livelihood by being      
thrashed instead of the real culprits4  
,but they bribe the executioner to lay  
on lightly2 otherwise their             
constitution could not long resist the  
tear and wear of so exhausting a        
profession47#gbg7 ,thus the theory and  
practice of vicarious suffering are     
well understood in ,china4              
,,note ,b4 ,,swinging ,,as ,a ,,magical 
,,rite4      7,m#bah7 ,the custom of    
swinging has been practised as a        
religious or rather  magical rite in    
various parts of the world1 but it does 
not seem possible  to explain all the   
instances of it in the same way4 ,people
 appear to have  resorted to the        
practice from different motives and with
 different ideas  of the benefit to be  
derived from it4 ,in the text we have   
seen that the  ,letts1 and perhaps the  

,siamese1 swing to make the crops grow  
tall47#gbh7  ,the same may be the       
intention of the ceremony whenever it is
 specially  observed at harvest         
festivals4 ,among the ,buginese and     
,macassars of  ,celebes1 for example1 it
 used to be the custom for young girls  
to swing  one after the other on these  
occasions47#gbi7 ,at the great ,dassera 
festival  of ,nepaul1 which immediately 
precedes the cutting of the rice1 swings
 and  kites come into fashion among the 
young people of both sexes4 ,the swings 
are sometimes hung from boughs of trees1
 but generally from a cross-beam        
supported on a framework of tall        
bamboos47#gcj7 ,among the ,dyaks of     
,sarawak  a feast is held at the end of 
harvest1 when the soul of the rice is   
secured to prevent the crops from       
rotting away4 ,on this occasion a number
  of old women rock to and fro on a rude
 swing suspended from the               
rafters47#gca7 ,a traveller in ,sarawak 
has described how he saw many tall      

swings erected and ,dyaks swinging to   
and fro on them1 sometimes ten or       
twelve men together on one swing1 while 
they chanted in monotonous1  dirge-like 
tones an invocation to the spirits that 
they would be pleased  to grant a       
plentiful harvest of sago and fruit and 
a good fishing  season47#gcb7           
7,m#bai7 ,in the ,east ,indian island of
 ,bengkali elaborate and costly         
ceremonies are performed to ensure a    
good catch of fish4 ,among the rest an  
hereditary priestess1 who bears the     
royal title of ,djindjang ,rajah1 works 
herself up by means of the fumes of     
incense and so forth into that state  of
 mental disorder which with many people 
passes for a symptom of divine          
inspiration4 ,in this pious frame of    
mind she is led by her four handmaids   
to a swing all covered with yellow and  
hung with golden bells1 on which  she   
takes her seat amid the jingle of the   
bells4 ,as she rocks gently to  and fro 
in the swing1 she speaks in an unknown  

tongue to each of the  sixteen spirits  
who have to do with the fishing47#gcc7  
,in order to procure  a plentiful supply
 of game the ,tinneh ,indians of        
,north-,west ,america  perform a magical
 ceremony which they call 8the young man
 bounding or  tied40 ,they pinion a man 
tightly1 and having hung him by the head
 and  heels from the roof of the hut1   
rock him backwards and forwards47#gcd7  
7,m#bbj7 ,thus we see that people swing 
in order to procure a plentiful  supply 
of fish and game as well as good crops4 
,in such cases the notion  seems to be  
that the ceremony promotes fertility1   
whether in the vegetable  or the animal 
kingdom2 though why it should be        
supposed to do so1 ,i  confess myself   
unable to explain4 ,there seem to be    
some reasons for  thinking that the     
,indian rite of swinging on hooks run   
through the flesh  of the performer is  
also resorted to1 at least in some      
cases1 from a  belief in its fertilising
 virtue4 ,thus ,hamilton tells us that  

at ,karwar1  on the west coast of       
,india1 a feast is held at the end of   
,may or beginning  of ,june in honour of
 the infernal gods1 8with a divination  
or conjuration  to know the fate of the 
ensuing crop of corn40 ,men were hung   
from a pole  by means of tenter-hooks   
inserted in the flesh of their backs2   
and the  pole with the men dangling from
 it was then dragged for more than a    
mile  over ploughed ground from one     
sacred grove to another1 preceded by a  
young  girl who carried a pot of fire on
 her head4 ,when the second grove was   
reached1 the men were let down and taken
 off the hooks1 and the girl fell  into 
the usual prophetic frenzy1 after which 
she unfolded to the priests  the        
revelation with which she had just been 
favoured by the terrestrial  gods4 ,in  
each of the groves a shapeless black    
stone1 daubed with red lead  to stand   
for a mouth1 eyes1 and ears1 appears to 
have represented the  indwelling        
divinity47#gce7 ,sometimes this custom  

of swinging on hooks1  which is known   
among the ,hindoos as ,churuk ,puja1    
seems to be intended to  propitiate     
demons4 ,some ,santals asked ,mr4 ,v4   
,ball to be allowed to perform  it      
because their women and children were   
dying of sickness1 and their  cattle    
were being killed by wild beasts2 they  
believed that these  misfortunes befell 
them because the evil spirits had not   
been  appeased47#gcf7 ,these same       
,santals celebrate a swinging festival  
of a less  barbarous sort about the     
month of ,february4 ,eight men sit in   
chairs and  rotate round posts in a sort
 of revolving swing1 like the           
merry-go-rounds  which are so dear to   
children at ,english fairs47#gcg7 ,at   
the ,nauroz and ,eed  festivals in      
,dardistan the women swing on ropes     
suspended from trees47#gch7  ,during the
 rainy season in ,behar young women     
swing in their houses1 while  they sing 
songs appropriate to the season4 ,the   
period during which they  indulge in    

this pastime1 if a mere pastime it be1  
is strictly limited2 it  begins with a  
festival which usually falls on the     
twenty-fifth of the  month ,jeyt and    
ends with another festival which        
commonly takes place on  the            
twenty-fifth of the month ,asin4 ,no one
 would think of swinging at any  other  
time of the year47#gci7 ,it is possible 
that this last custom may be  nothing   
more than a pastime meant to while away 
some of the tedious hours  of the       
inclement season2 but its limitation to 
a certain clearly-defined  portion of   
the year seems rather to point to a     
religious or magical  origin4 ,possibly 
the intention may once have been to     
drive away the rain4  ,we shall see     
immediately that swinging is sometimes  
resorted to for the  purpose of         
expelling the powers of evil4 ,about the
 middle of ,march the  ,hindoos observe 
a swinging festival of a different sort 
in honour of the  god ,krishna1 whose   
image is placed in the seat or cradle of

 a swing and  then1 just when the dawn  
is breaking1 rocked gently to and fro   
several  times4 ,the same ceremony is   
repeated at noon and at sunset47#gdj7   
,in the  ,rigveda the sun is called1 by 
a natural metaphor1 8the golden swing in
 the  sky10 and the expression helps us 
to understand a ceremony of ,vedic      
,india4  ,a priest sat in a swing and   
touched with the span of his right hand 
at  once the seat of the swing and the  
ground4 ,in doing so he said1 8,the     
great  lord has united himself with the 
great lady1 the god has united himself  
with the goddess40 ,perhaps he meant to 
indicate in a graphic way that the  sun 
had reached that lowest point of its    
course where it was nearest to  the     
earth47#gda7 ,in this connexion it is of
 interest to note that in the           
,esthonian celebration of ,st4 ,john's  
,day or the summer solstice swings      
play1 along with bonfires1 the most     
prominent part4 ,girls sit and swing    
the whole night through1 singing old    

songs to explain why they do so4 ,for   
legend tells of an ,esthonian prince who
 wooed and won an ,islandic  princess4  
,but a wicked enchanter spirited away   
the lover to a desert  island1 where he 
languished in captivity1 till his       
lady-love contrived to  break the magic 
spell that bound him4 ,together they    
sailed home to  ,esthonia1 which they   
reached on ,st4 ,john's ,day1 and burnt 
their ship1  resolved to stray no longer
 in far foreign lands4 ,the swings in   
which the  ,esthonian maidens still rock
 themselves on ,st4 ,john's ,day are    
said to  recall the ship in which the   
lovers tossed upon the stormy sea1 and  
the  bonfires commemorate the burning of
 it4 ,when the fires have died out1 the 
swings are laid aside and never used    
again either in the village or at the   
solitary alehouse until spring comes    
round once more47#gdb7 ,here it is      
natural to connect both swings and      
bonfires with the apparent course of    
the sun1 who reaches the highest and    

turning point of his orbit on ,st4      
,john's ,day4 ,bonfires and swings      
perhaps were originally charms intended 
to  kindle and speed afresh on its      
heavenly road 8the golden swing in the  
sky40 ,among the ,letts of ,south       
,livonia and ,curland the summer        
solstice is  the occasion of a great    
festival of flowers1 at which the people
 sing  songs with the constant refrain  
of lihgo1 lihgo4 ,it has been proposed  
to  derive the word lihgo from the      
,lettish verb ligot1 8to swing10 with   
reference to the sun swinging in the sky
 at this turning-point of his           
course47#gdc7    7,m#bba7 ,at           
,tengaroeng1 in ,eastern ,borneo1 the   
priests and priestesses  receive the    
inspiration of the spirits seated in    
swings and rocking  themselves to and   
fro4 ,thus suspended in the air they    
appear to be in a  peculiarly favourable
 position for catching the divine       
afflatus4 ,one end  of the plank which  
forms the seat of the priest's swing is 

carved in the  rude likeness of a       
crocodile's head2 the swing of the      
priestess is  similarly ornamented with 
a serpent's head47#gdd7    7,m#bbb7     
,again1 swings are used for the cure of 
sickness1 but it is the  doctor who     
rocks himself in them1 not the patient4 
,in ,north ,borneo the  ,dyak medicine  
man will sometimes erect a swing in     
front of the sick man's  house and sway 
backwards and forwards on it for the    
purpose of kicking  away the disease1   
frightening away evil spirits1 and      
catching the stray  soul of the         
sufferer47#gde7 ,clearly in his passage 
through the air the  physician is likely
 to collide with the disease and the    
evil spirits1 both  of which are sure to
 be loitering about in the neighbourhood
 of the  patient1 and the rude shock    
thus given to the malady and the demons 
may  reasonably be expected to push or  
hustle them away4 ,at ,tengaroeng1 in   
,eastern ,borneo1 a traveller witnessed 
a ceremony for the expulsion of an  evil

 spirit in which swinging played a part4
 ,after four men in blue shirts         
bespangled with stars1 and wearing      
coronets of red cloth decorated with    
beads and bells1 had sought diligently  
for the devil1 grabbling about on  the  
floor and grunting withal1 three hideous
 hags dressed in faded red  petticoats  
were brought in with great pomp1 carried
 on the shoulders of  ,malays1 and took 
their seats1 amid solemn silence1 on the
 cradle of a  swing1 the ends of which  
were carved to represent the head and   
tail of a  crocodile4 ,not a sound      
escaped from the crowd of spectators    
during this  awe-inspiring ceremony2    
they regarded the business as most      
serious4 ,the  venerable dames then     
rocked to and fro on the swing1 fanning 
themselves  languidly with ,chinese     
paper fans4 ,at a later stage of the    
performance  they and three girls       
discharged burning arrows at a sort of  
altar of  banana leaves1 maize1 and     
grass4 ,this completed the discomfiture 

of the  devil47#gdf7    7,m#bbc7 ,the   
,athenians in antiquity celebrated an   
annual festival of  swinging4 ,boards   
were hung from trees by ropes1 and      
people sitting on them  swung to and    
fro1 while they sang songs of a loose or
 voluptuous  character4 ,the swinging   
went on both in public and private4     
,various  explanations were given of the
 custom2 the most generally received was
 as  follows4 ,when ,bacchus came among 
men to make known to them the pleasures 
of wine1 he lodged with a certain       
,icarus or ,icarius1 to whom he revealed
  the precious secret and bade him go   
forth and carry the glad tidings to  all
 the world4 ,so ,icarus loaded a waggon 
with wine-skins1 and set out on  his    
travels1 the dog ,maera running beside  
him4 ,he came to ,attica1 and  there    
fell in with shepherds tending their    
sheep1 to whom he gave of the  wine4    
,they drank greedily1 but when some of  
them fell down dead drunk1  their       
companions thought the stranger had     

poisoned them with intent to  steal the 
sheep2 so they knocked him on the head4 
,the faithful dog ran  home and guided  
his master's daughter ,erigone to the   
body4 ,at sight of it  she was smitten  
with despair and hanged herself on a    
tree beside her dead  father1 but not   
until she had prayed that1 unless the   
,athenians should  avenge her sire's    
murder1 their daughters might die the   
same death as she4  ,her curse was      
fulfilled1 for soon many ,athenian      
damsels hanged themselves  for no       
obvious reason4 ,an oracle informed the 
,athenians of the true cause  of this   
epidemic of suicide2 so they sought out 
the bodies of the unhappy  pair and     
instituted the swinging festival to     
appease ,erigone2 and at the  vintage   
they offered the first of the grapes to 
her and her father47#gdg7    7,m#bbd7   
,thus the swinging festival at ,athens  
was regarded by the ancients  as an     
expiation for a suicide or suicides by  
hanging4 ,this opinion is  strongly     

confirmed by a statement of ,varro1 that
 it was unlawful to  perform funeral    
rites in honour of persons who had died 
by hanging1 but  that in their case such
 rites were replaced by a custom of     
swinging  images1 as if in imitation of 
the death they had died47#gdh7 ,servius 
says  that the ,athenians1 failing to   
find the bodies of ,icarius and ,erigone
 on  earth1 made a pretence of seeking  
them in the air by swinging on ropes    
hung from trees2 and he seems to have   
regarded the custom of swinging as a    
purification by means of air47#gdi7     
,this explanation probably comes very   
near the truth2 indeed if we substitute 
8souls0 for 8bodies0 in the  wording of 
it we may almost accept it as exact4 ,it
 might be thought that  the souls of    
persons who had died by hanging were1   
more than the souls of  the other dead1 
hovering in the air1 since their bodies 
were suspended in  air at the moment of 
death4 ,hence it would be considered    
needful to purge  the air of these      

vagrant spirits1 and this might be done 
by swinging  persons or things to and   
fro1 in order that by their impact they 
might  disperse and drive away the      
baleful ghosts4 ,thus the custom would  
be  exactly analogous1 on the one hand1 
to the practice of the ,malay           
medicine-man1 who swings to and fro in  
front of the patient's house in  order  
to chase away the disease1 or to        
frighten away evil spirits1 or to  catch
 the stray soul of the sick man1 and1 on
 the other hand1 to the  practice of the
 ,central ,australian aborigines who    
beat the air with their  weapons and    
hands in order to drive the lingering   
ghost away to the  grave47#gej7 ,at     
,rome swinging seems to have formed part
 of the great ,latin  festival 7,feriae 
,latinae71 and its origin was traced to 
a search in the  air for the body or    
even the soul of ,king ,latinus1 who had
 disappeared  from earth after the      
battle with ,mezentius1 ,king of        
,caere47#gea7    7,m#bbe7 ,yet on the   

other hand there are circumstances which
 point to an  intimate association1 both
 at ,athens and ,rome1 of these swinging
 festivals  with an intention of        
promoting the growth of cultivated      
plants4 ,such  circumstances are the    
legendary connexion of the ,athenian    
festival with  ,bacchus1 the custom of  
offering the first-fruits of the vintage
 to ,erigone  and ,icarius17#geb7 and at
 ,rome the practice of hanging masks on 
trees at  the time of sowing7#gec7 and  
in order to make the grapes grow        
better47#ged7  ,perhaps we can reconcile
 the two apparently discrepant effects  
attributed  to swinging as a means of   
expiation on the one side and of        
fertilisation  on the other1 by         
supposing that in both cases the        
intention is to clear  the air of       
dangerous influences1 whether these are 
ghosts of the unburied  dead or         
spiritual powers inimical to the growth 
of plants4 ,independent of  both appears
 to be the notion that the higher you   

swing the higher will  grow the         
crops47#gee7 ,this last is homoeopathic 
or imitative magic pure and  simple1    
without any admixture of the ideas of   
purification or expiation4    7,m#bbf7  
,in modern ,greece and ,italy the custom
 of swinging as a festal rite1  whatever
 its origin may be1 is still observed in
 some places4 ,at the small  village of 
,koukoura in ,elis an ,english traveller
 observed peasants  swinging from a tree
 in honour of ,st4 ,george1 whose       
festival it was47#gef7  ,on the ,tuesday
 after ,easter the maidens of ,seriphos 
play their favourite  game of the swing4
 ,they hang a rope from one wall to     
another of the steep1  narrow1 filthy   
street1 and putting some clothes on it  
swing one after the  other1 singing as  
they swing4 ,young men who try to pass  
are called upon to  pay toll in the     
shape of a penny1 a song1 and a swing4  
,the words which the  youth sings are   
generally these3 8,the gold is swung1   
the silver is swung1  and swung too is  

my love with the golden hair02 to which 
the girl replies1  8,who is it that     
swings me that ,i may gild him with my  
favour1 that ,i may  work him a fez all 
covered with pearls807#geg7 ,in the     
,greek island of  ,karpathos the        
villagers assemble at a given place on  
each of the four  ,sundays before       
,easter1 a swing is erected1 and the    
women swing one after  the other1       
singing death wails such as they chant  
round the mimic tombs in  church on the 
night of ,good ,friday47#geh7 ,on       
,christmas ,day peasant girls in  some  
villages of ,calabria fasten ropes to   
iron rings in the ceiling and  swing on 
them1 while they sing certain songs     
prescribed by custom for the  occasion4 
,the practice is regarded not merely as 
an amusement but also as  an act of     
devotion47#gei7 8,it is a custom in     
,cadiz1 when ,christmas comes1  to      
fasten swings in the courtyards of      
houses1 and even in the houses          
themselves when there is no room for    

them outside4 ,in the evenings lads  and
 lasses assemble round the swings and   
pass the time happily in swinging  amid 
joyous songs and cries4 ,the swings are 
taken down when ,carnival is            
come407#gfj7 ,the observance of the     
custom at ,christmas1 that is1 at the   
winter solstice1 suggests that in       
,calabria and ,spain1 as in ,esthonia1  
the  pastime may originally have been a 
magical rite designed to assist the sun 
in climbing the steep ascent to the top 
of the summer sky4 ,if this were  so1 we
 might surmise that the gold and the    
golden hair mentioned by youths  and    
maidens of ,seriphos as they swing refer
 to 8the golden swing in the  sky10 in  
other words to the sun whose golden lamp
 swings daily across the  blue vault of 
heaven4    7,m#bbg7 ,however that may   
be1 it would seem that festivals of     
swinging are  especially held in spring4
 ,this is true1 for example1 of ,north  
,africa1  where such festivals are      
common4 ,at some places in that part of 

the world  the date of the swinging is  
the time of the apricots2 at others it  
is said  to be the spring equinox4 ,in  
some places the festival lasts three    
days1  and fathers who have had children
 born to them within the year bring them
  and swing them in the swings47#gfa7   
,in ,corea 8the fifth day of the fifth  
moon is called ,tano-nal4 ,ancestors are
 then worshipped1 and swings are  put up
 in the yards of most houses for the    
amusement of the people4 ,the  women on 
this day may go about the streets2      
during the rest of the year  they may go
 out only after dark4 ,dressed in their 
prettiest clothes1 they  visit the      
various houses and amuse themselves     
swinging4 ,the swing is said  to convey 
the idea of keeping cool in the         
approaching summer4 ,it is one of  the  
most popular feasts of the year407#gfb7 
,perhaps the reason here  assigned for  
swinging may explain other instances of 
the custom2 on the  principles of       
homoeopathic magic the swinging may be  

regarded as a means  of ensuring a      
succession of cool refreshing breezes   
during the oppressive  heat of the      
ensuing summer4            ,,addenda4   
,p4 #ajd4 ,the sacred precinct of       
,pelops at ,olympia4--,it deserves to be
  noted that just as ,pelops1 whose     
legend reflects the origin of the       
chariot-race1 had his sacred precinct   
and probably his tomb at ,olympia1 in   
like manner ,endymion1 whose legend     
reflects the origin of the              
foot-race17#gfc7 had his tomb at the end
 of the ,olympic stadium1 at the  point 
where the runners started in the        
race47#gfd7 ,this presence at ,olympia  
of the graves of the two early kings1   
whose names are associated with the     
origin of the foot-race and of the      
chariot-race respectively1 can hardly   
be without significance2 it indicates   
the important part played by the  dead  
in the foundation of the ,olympic games4
    ,p4 #ahh4 ,a man is literally reborn
 in the person of his son4--,this belief

  in the possible rebirth of the parent 
in the child may sometimes explain  the 
seemingly widespread dislike of people  
to have children like  themselves4      
,examples of such a dislike have met us 
in a former part of  this work47#gfe7 ,a
 similar superstition prevails among the
 ,papuans of ,doreh  ,bay in ,dutch ,new
 ,guinea4 ,when a son resembles his     
father or a daughter  resembles her     
mother closely in features1 these       
savages fear that the  father or mother 
will soon die47#gff7 ,again1 in the     
island of ,savou1 to the  south-west of 
,timor1 if a child at birth is thought  
to be like its father  or mother1 it may
 not remain under the parental roof1    
else the person whom  it resembles would
 soon die47#gfg7 ,such superstitions1 it
 is obvious1 might  readily suggest the 
expedient of killing the child in order 
to save the  life of the parent4        
,,index4      ,ababua1 the1 #fe         
,abbas1 the ,great1 #aeg    ,abchases1  
their memorial feasts1 #ih1 #ajc        

,abdication1 annual1 of kings1 #adh2    
of father when his son is grown up1     
#aha2    of the king on the birth of a  
son1 #aij    ,abeokuta1 the ,alake of1  
#bjc    ,abipones1 the1 #fc    ,abraham1
 his attempted sacrifice of ,isaac1 #agg
    ,abruzzi1 the1 #ff1 #fg2 burning an 
effigy of the ,carnival in the1 #bbd2   
,lenten custom in the1 #bdd sq4         
,abstract notions1 the personification  
of1 not primitive1 #bec    ,academy at  
,athens1 funeral games held in the1 #if 
,acaill1 ,book of1 #ci    ,accession of 
a ,shilluk king1 ceremonies at the1 #bc 
sq4    ,acropolis at ,athens1 the sacred
 serpent on the1 #hf sq4    ,adonis or  
,tammuz1 #g    ,aesculapius restores    
,hippolytus or ,virbius to life1 #bad   
,africa1 succession to the soul in1 #bjj
 sq4    ---- ,north1 festivals of       
swinging in1 #bhd    ,agathocles1 his   
siege of ,carthage1 #afg    ,agrigentum1
 ,phalaris of1 #ge    ,agrionia1 a      
festival1 #afc    ,agylla1 funeral games
 at1 #ie    ,ahaz1 ,king1 his sacrifice 

of his children1 #afi sq4    ,akurwa1   
#ai1 #bc1 #bd    ,alake1 the1 of        
,abeokuta1 custom of cutting off the    
head of his corpse1 #bjc    ,alban      
kings1 #gf    ,albania1 expulsion of    
,kore on ,easter ,eve in1 #bfe          
,alcibiades of ,apamea1 his vision of   
the ,holy ,ghost1 #e n4#c    ,alexander 
the ,great1 funeral games in his honour1
 #ie    ,algonkin women1 their attempts 
to be impregnated by the souls of the   
dying1 #aii    ,altdorf and ,weingarten1
 ,ash ,wednesday at1 #bcb    ,alus1     
sanctuary of ,laphystian ,zeus at1 #afa1
 #afd    ,amasis1 king of ,egypt1 #bag  
,amelioration in the character of the   
gods1 #acf    ,american ,indians1 their 
,great ,spirit1 #c    ,andaman          
,islanders1 their ideas as to shooting  
stars1 #fj    ,angamis1 the1 #ac        
,angel of ,death1 #agg sq4    ,angola1  
the ,matiamvo of1 #ce    ,angoni1 the1  
of ,british ,central ,africa1 #aef n4#b 
,angoy1 king of1 #ci    ,anhouri1       
,egyptian god1 #e    ,animals sacred to 

kings1 #hb1 #hd sqq42    transformations
 into1 #hb sqq4    ,annam1 natives of1  
their indifference to death1 #acf sq4   
,annual abdication of kings1 #adh       
---- renewal of king's power at         
,babylon1 #aac    ---- tenure of the    
kingship1 #aac sqq4    ,antichrist1     
expected reign of1 #dd sq4              
,aphrodite1 the grave of1 #d    ,apollo1
 buried at ,delphi1 #d2    servitude of1
 #gj n4#a1 #gh2    and the laurel1 #gh  
sqq42    as slayer of the dragon at     
,delphi1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj sq42    at       
,thebes1 #gi2    purged of the dragon's 
blood in the ,vale of ,tempe1 #ha       
,ardennes1 effigies of ,carnival burned 
in the1 #bbf sq4    ,ares1 the grave of1
 #d    ,ariadne and ,theseus1 #ge       
,ariadne's ,dance1 #gg    ,arician      
grove1 ritual of the1 #bac    ,arizona1 
mock human sacrifices in1 #bae          
,arnold1 ,matthew1 on the ,english      
middle class1 #adf    ,artemis1         
,munychian1 sacrifice to1 #aff n4#a2    
mock human sacrifice in the             

ritual of1 #bae sq4    ,artemisia1 wife 
of ,mausolus1 #ie    ,ascanius1 #gf     
,ascension ,day1 #bbb n4#a2 the         
8,carrying out of ,death0 on1 at        
,braller1 #bdg              sqq4    ,ash
 ,wednesday1 ,burial of the ,carnival   
on1 #bba2    death of ,caramantran on1  
#bbf2    effigies of ,carnival or of    
,shrove ,tuesday burnt or buried on1    
#bbf1 #bbh                sqq4          
,asherim1 sacred poles1 #afi    ,ass1   
son of a god in the form of an1 #abd    
sq42    the crest or totem of a royal   
family1 #acb1 #acc    8,assegai1 child  
of the10 #ahc    ,asses and men1        
redemption of firstling1 #agc           
,assyrian eponymate1 #aaf sq4           
,astarte1 the moon-goddess1 #ib         
,astronomical considerations determining
 the early ,greek calendar1 #fh sq4     
,athamas and his children1 legend of1   
#afa sqq4    ,athena1 human sacrifices  
to1 #aff n4#a    ,athenaeus1 #adc       
,athenian festival of swinging1 #bha    
,athens1 funeral games at1 #if2    hand 

of suicide cut off at1 #bbj n4          
,attacks on kings permitted1 #bb1 #dh   
sqq4    ,aun or ,on1 king of ,sweden1   
#eg2 sacrifices his sons1 #afj sq41 #ahh
    ,aurora ,australis1 fear entertained
 by the ,kurnai of the1 #bfg n4#a       
,australia1 custom of destroying        
firstborn children among the aborigines 
of1 #agi sq42    magical rites for the  
revival of nature in ,central1 #bgj     
,australian aborigines1 their ideas as  
to shooting stars1 #fj sq4    ----      
funeral custom1 #ib    ,avebury1 ,lord1 
#adf n4#a1 #bgc    ,baal1 ,semitic1 #ge2
    human sacrifices to1 #afg sqq41 #aie
    ,babylon1 festival of ,zagmuk at1   
#aaj1 #aac    ,babylonian gods1         
mortality of the1 #e sq4    ---- legend 
of creation1 #aaj    ---- myth of       
,marduk and ,tiamat1 #aje sq41 #ajg sq4 
,bacchic frenzy1 #afd    ,baganda1 the1 
#aa    ,ball1 ,v41 #bgi    ,ballymote1  
the ,book of1 #ajj    ,balwe in         
,westphalia1 ,burying the ,carnival at1 
#bcb    ,banishment of homicide1 #fi sq4

    ,banna1 a tribe accustomed to       
strangle their firstborn children1 #aha 
sq4    ,barber1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,a41 
#ade n41 #bge    ,barcelona1 ceremony of
 8,sawing the ,old ,woman0 at1 #bdb     
,barongo1 the1 #aj1 #fa    ,bashada1 a  
tribe accustomed to strangle their      
firstborn children1 #aha                
sq4    ,bashkirs1 their horse-races at  
funerals1 #ig    ,bath of ox blood1 #bja
    ,battle of ,summer and ,winter1 #bed
 sqq4    ,bautz1 ,dr4 ,joseph1 on hell  
fire1 #acf n4#a    ,bavaria1            
,whitsuntide mummers in1 #bjg sq42      
,carrying out ,death in1 #bcc sqq42     
dramatic contests between ,summer and   
,winter in1 #bee sq4    ,bear1 the soul 
of ,typhon in the ,great1 #e    ,beast1 
the number of the1 #dd    ,beating      
cattle to make them fat or fruitful1    
#bcf    ,beauty and the ,beast type of  
tale1 #abe sqq4    ,bedouins1 annual    
festival of the ,sinaitic1 #ig          
,behar1 custom of swinging in1 #bgi     
,beheading the ,king1 a ,whitsuntide    

pageant in ,bohemia1 #bji sq4           
,bengal1 kings of1 their rule of        
succession1 #ea    ,bengkali1 ,east     
,indian island1 #bgg    ,benin1 king of1
 represented with panther's whiskers1   
#he sq42    human sacrifices at the     
burial of a king of1 #aci sq4           
,berosus1 ,babylonian historian1 #aac   
,berry1 ceremony of 8,sawing the ,old   
,woman0 in1 #bda sq4    ,bhagats1 mock  
human sacrifices among the1 #bag sq4    
,bhuiyas1 the1 of north-eastern ,india1 
#ef    ,bilaspur1 temporary rajah in1   
#aed    ,birds of omen1 stories of their
 origin1 #abf1 #abg sq4    ,black1 ,dr4 
,j4 ,sutherland1 #bfj sq4    ,black bull
 sacrificed to the dead1 #ie    ---- ox1
 bath of blood of1 #bja    ---- ram     
sacrificed to ,pelops1 #ib1 #ajd        
,bland1 ,j4 ,o4 ,p41 #bgd sq4           
,blemishes1 bodily1 a ground for putting
 kings to death1 #cf sqq4    ,blood of  
victims in rain-making ceremonies1 #bj2 
bath of ox1 #ce2    human1 offered to   
the dead1 #ib sq41 #ajd2    of sacrifice

 splashed on door-posts1 house-posts1   
etc41 #age1 #agf n4#a2    of human      
victims smeared on faces of idols1 #ahe 
,boemus1 ,j41 #bcd    ,bohemia1         
,whitsuntide mummers in1 #bji sqq42     
8,carrying out ,death0 in1 #bcg sq4     
,bones of sacrificial victim not broken1
 #bj    ,bonfire1 jumping over1 #bfb    
,boni1 in ,celebes1 #dj    ,book of     
,acaill1 #ci    ,borans1 their custom of
 sacrificing their children1 #aha       
,bororos1 the1 of ,brazil1 #fb          
,bourges1 ceremony of 8,sawing the ,old 
,woman0 at1 #bdb    ,bourke1 ,captain   
,j4 ,g41 #bae    ,boxers at funerals1   
#ig    ,brahmans1 the ceremonial        
swinging of1 #aej1 #aef sq4    ,braller 
in ,transylvania1 #bcj2 8,carrying out  
,death0 at1 #bdg sqq4    ,brasidas1     
funeral games in his honour1 #id        
,brazilian ,indians1 their indifference 
to death1 #ach    ,breezes1 magical     
means of securing1 #bhg    ,bridegroom  
of the ,may1 #bff    ,bringing in       
,summer1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bdf sqq4    

,britomartis and ,minos1 #gc            
,brittany1 ,burial of ,shrove ,tuesday  
or of the ,carnival in1 #bbi sq4        
,brockelmann1 ,c41 #aaf    ,bronze      
ploughs used by ,etruscans at founding  
cities1 #aeg    ,brother and sister     
marriages in royal families1 #aic sq4   
,buddhist monks1 suicide of1 #db sq4    
,budge1 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis1 #e n4#c        
,buginese of ,celebes1 their custom of  
swinging1 #bgg    ,bull1 ,pasiphae and  
the1 #ga2 as symbol of the sun1 #ga sq42
    the brazen1 of ,phalaris1 #ge2      
said to have guided the ,samnites1 #ahf 
n4#d    ---- and cow1 represented by    
masked actors1 #ga    ,bull-headed image
 of the sun1 #ge1 #gf1 #gh              
,burgebrach in ,bavaria1 straw-man burnt
 on ,ash ,wednesday at1 #bcb    ,burial 
alive of the aged1 #aa sq42    in jars1 
#ab sq42    of infants to secure        
rebirth1 #aii sq42    of ,shrove        
,tuesday1 #bbh    ,burning an effigy of 
the ,carnival1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbh sq41    
#bbi sq41 #bcb              sq4    ---- 

effigies of ,shrove ,tuesday1 #bbg sqq42
    of ,winter at ,zurich1 #bfj sq4     
8,burying the ,carnival10 #bji1 #bbj    
sqq4    ,busoga1 mock human sacrifice   
in1 #bae    ,cabunian1 ,mount1 #c       
,cadiz1 custom of swinging at1 #bhd     
,cadmea1 the1 #gi    ,cadmus1 servitude 
of1 for the slaughter of the dragon1 #gj
 n4#a1 #gh2    the slayer of the dragon 
at ,thebes1 #gh sq4    ---- and         
,harmonia1 their transformation into    
serpents1 #hd2    marriage of1 #hh1 #hi 
,caffres1 the1 #fe    ,caiem1 the       
caliph1 #h    ,calabria1 ceremony of    
8,sawing the ,old ,woman0 in1 #bda2     
custom of swinging in1 #bhd             
,calendar1 the early ,greek1 determined 
by astronomical considerations1 #fh     
sq42    closely bound up with religion1 
#fi2    the ,syro-,macedonian1 #aaf     
,calica ,puran1 an ,indian law-book1    
#bag    ,calicut1 rule of succession    
observed by the kings of1 #dg sqq41 #bjf
    ,california1 ,indians of1 #fb       
,cambodia1 ,kings of ,fire and ,water   

in1 #ad2    annual abdication of the    
king of1 #adh    ,canaanites1 their     
custom of burning their children in     
honour of ,baal1 #afh    ,canada1       
,indians of1 their ceremony for         
mitigating the cold of winter1 #bei     
sq4    ,caramantran1 death of1 on ,ash  
,wednesday in ,provence1 #bbf           
,carinthia1 ceremony at the installation
 of a prince of1 #aed sq4    ,carman1   
the fair of1 #ajj1 #aja    ,carnival1   
,burying the1 #bji1 #bbj sqq42    swings
 taken down at1 #bhg    8,carnival      
7,shrovetide7 ,fool10 #bca    ,carolina1
 king's son wounded among the ,indians  
of1 #ahd sq4    ,carrier ,indians1      
succession to the soul among the1 #aii  
8,carrying out ,death10 #bba1 #bcc sqq41
 #bdf sqq4    ,carthaginian sacrifice of
 children to ,moloch1 #ge2    to ,baal1 
#afg sq4    ,cassange1 in ,angola1 king 
of1 #bjc2    human sacrifice at         
installation of king of1 #ef sq4        
,cassotis1 oracular spring1 #gi         
,castaly1 the oracular spring of1 #gi   

,catalonia1 funeral of ,carnival in1    
#bbe    ,cattle sacrificed instead of   
human beings1 #aff n4 #a    ,caucasus1  
funeral games among the people of the1  
#ig sq4    ,cauxanas1 ,indian tribe of  
the ,amazon1 kill all their firstborn   
children1              #ahe sq4         
,cecrops1 half-serpent1 half-man1 #hf   
sq4    ,celebes1 sanctity of regalia in1
 #bjb2 the ,toboongkoos of1 #bai        
,celts of ,gaul1 their indifference to  
death1 #adb sq4    ,cemeteries1 fairs   
held at1 #aja1 #ajb    ,chaka1 a ,zulu  
tyrant1 #cf sq4    ,chama1 town on the  
,gold ,coast1 #abi    ,chariot-race at  
,olympia1 #ia1 #ajd sq41 #bhg    ----   
races in honour of the dead1 #ic        
,chewsurs1 their funeral games1 #ih     
,cheyne1 ,professor ,t4 ,k41 #hf n4#d   
,chilcotin ,indians1 their practice at  
an eclipse of the sun1 #gg    8,child of
 the assegai10 #ahc    ,children        
sacrificed to ,moloch1 #ge2             
sacrificed by the ,semites1 #aff sqq42  
dislike of parents to have children like

 themselves1 #bhg    ,chinese           
indifference to death1 #add sqq41 #bgc  
sqq42    reports of custom of devouring 
firstborn children1 #ahj                
,chiriguanos1 the1 of ,south ,america1  
#ab    ,chirol1 ,valentine1 #bgd        
,chitom1 a pontiff in ,congo1 the manner
 of his death1 #ad sq4    ,christmas1   
custom of swinging at1 #bhd    ,chrudim 
in ,bohemia1 effigy of ,death burnt at1 
#bci    ,chukchees1 voluntary deaths    
among the1 #ac    ,circassia1 games in  
honour of the dead in1 #ih              
,circumcision of father as a mode of    
redeeming his offspring1 #aha2    mimic 
rite of1 #bai sq4    ,cities1 ,etruscan 
ceremony at the founding of1 #aeg       
,cloud-dragon1 myth of the1 #ajg        
,cluis-,dessus and ,cluis-,dessous1     
custom of 8,sawing the ,old ,woman0 at1 
#bda              sq4    ,cnossus1      
,minos at1 #gj sqq42    the labyrinth   
at1 #ge sqq4    ,cobra1 the crest of the
 ,maharajah of ,nagpur1 #acb sq4        
,cock1 king represented with the        

feathers of a1 #he    ,colchis1 ,phrixus
 in1 #afb    ,congo1 the pontiff ,chitom
 in1 #ad    ,conjunction of sun and     
moon1 a time for marriage1 #gc          
,consecration of firstlings1 #agb       
,contempt of death1 #adb sqq4           
,contests1 dramatic1 between actors     
representing ,summer and ,winter1 #bed  
sqq4    ,conti1 ,nicolo1 #ed            
,conybeare1 ,f4 ,c41 #e n4#c    ,cook1  
,a4 ,b41 #ga n4#b1 #gh n4#b1 #gi n4#a1  
#hj1 #ha n4#a1 #hb ns4#a and #c1        
#hi n4#e1 #ij    ,corannas of ,south    
,africa1 custom as to succession among  
the1 #aia sq4    ,corea1 custom of      
swinging in1 #bhd sq4    ,cornaby1 ,rev4
 ,w4 ,a41 #bgc    ,cornford1 ,f4 ,m41   
#ia n4#g    ,corn-harvest1 the          
first-fruits of the1 offered at ,lammas1
 #aja sq4    ---- -spirit called the    
,old ,man or the ,old ,woman1 #bec sq4  
,cornwall1 temporary king in1 #aec sq4  
,corporeal relics of dead kings confer  
right to throne1 #bjb sq4    ,courtiers 
required to imitate their sovereign1 #ci

 sq4    ,cow as symbol of the moon1 #ga 
sq4    ,crane1 dance called the1 #ge    
,crassus1 ,publicius ,licinius1 #if     
,creation1 myths of1 #ajf sqq42         
,babylonian legend of1 #aaj    ,creator1
 the grave of the1 #c    ,crete1 grave  
of ,zeus in1 #c    ,criminals           
sacrificed1 #aie    ,crocodile clan1 #ca
    ,cromm ,cruach1 a legendary ,irish  
idol1 #ahc    ,cronus buried in ,sicily1
 #d2    his sacrifice of his son1 #aff1 
#agi2    his treatment of his father and
 his children1 #aib2    his marriage    
with his sister ,rhea1 #aid    ,crooke1 
,w41 #ec n4#a1 #aeg n4#e1 #aei n4#a     
,crown of laurel1 #gh1 #hj sqq42    of  
oak leaves1 #hj sqq42    of olive at    
,olympia1 #ia    ,crowning1 festival of 
the1 at ,delphi1 #gh sqq4    ,cruachan1 
the fair of1 #aja    ,crystals1         
superstitions as to1 #fd n4#f    ,cupid 
and ,psyche1 story of1 #aca    ,cutting 
or lacerating the body in honour of the 
dead1 #ib sq41 #ig    ,cuttle-fish1     
expiation for killing a1 #bag           

,cychreus1 king of ,salamis1 #hg        
,cycle1 the octennial1 based on an      
attempt to reconcile solar and lunar    
time1 #fh sq4    ,cyclopes1 slaughter of
 the1 #gh n4#d    ,cytisorus1 #afb      
,czechs of ,bohemia1 #bba    ,daedalus1 
#ge    ,dahomey1 royal family of1       
related to leopards1 #he2    religious  
massacres in1 #ach    ,daira or ,mahadev
 ,mohammedans in ,mysore1 #bbj          
,dalton1 ,colonel ,e4 ,t41 #bag         
,danakils or ,afar of ,east ,africa1    
#bjj    ,dance of youths and maidens at 
,cnossus1 #ge sqq42    ,ariadne's1 #gg  
,dardistan1 custom of swinging in1 #bgi 
,darfur1 ,sultans of1 #ci    ,dassera   
festival of ,nepaul1 #bgg    ,daura1 a  
,hausa kingdom1 #ce2    custom of       
succession to the throne in1 #bja       
,david1 ,king1 and the brazen serpent1  
#hf    ,dead1 souls of the1 associated  
with falling stars1 #fd sqq42    rebirth
 of the1 #gj2    sacrifices to the1 #ib1
 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ig2    human blood     
offered to the1 #ib sq41 #ajd    ,dead  

kings1 worship of1 #bd sq42    their    
spirits thought to possess sick people1 
#be sq42    of ,uganda consulted as     
oracles1 #bjj sq4    ---- man's hand    
used in magical ceremony1 #bfg n4#a     
---- ,one1 the1 name applied to the last
 sheaf1 #bed    ---- ,sunday1 #bci2     
the fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 #bba2      
also called ,mid-,lent1 #bbb n4#a       
,death of the ,great ,pan1 #f sq4       
---- preference for a violent1 #i sqq42 
natural1 regarded as a calamity1 #aa    
sq42    ,european fear of1 #ace sq41    
#adf2    indifference to1 displayed by  
many races1 #acf sqq42    the ,carrying 
out of1 #bba1 #bcc sqq41 #bdf sqq42     
conception of1 in relation to           
vegetation1 #bec sq42    in the corn1   
#bed2    and resurrection of            
,kostrubonko at ,eastertide1 #bfa2      
and revival of vegetation1 #bfc sq4     
,death1 effigy of1 feared and abhorred1 
#bci sq42    potency of life attributed 
to1 #bdg sqq4    ---- the ,angel of1    
#agg sq4    ,de ,barros1 ,portuguese    

historian1 #ea    ,deer1 descent of     
,kalamants from a1 #abf sq42            
sacrificed instead of human beings1 #aff
 n44#a    ,delos1 ,theseus at1 #ge      
,delphi1 tombs of ,dionysus and ,apollo 
at1 #c sq42    festival of ,crowning at1
 #gh sqq4    ,dengdit1 the ,supreme     
,being of the ,dinka1 #cj1 #cb          
,deputy1 the expedient of dying by1 #ef1
 #afj    ,dictynna and ,minos1 #gc      
,dinka1 the1 of the ,white ,nile1 #bh   
sqq42    totemism of the1 #cj sq4       
,diomede1 human sacrifices to1 #aff n4#a
    ,dionysus1 the tomb of1 at ,delphi1 
#c2    human sacrifice consummated by a 
priest of1 #afc2    boys sacrificed to1 
#aff n4#a    ,dislike of people to have 
children like themselves1 #bhg          
,diurnal tenure of the kingship1 #aah   
sq4    ,divine king1 the killing of the1
 #i sqq4    ---- kings of the ,shilluk1 
#ag sqq4    ---- spirit incarnate in    
,shilluk kings1 #ba1 #bf sq4    ,dodge1 
,colonel ,r4 ,i41 #c    ,dog killed     
instead of king1 #ag    ,doreh ,bay in  

,new ,guinea1 #bhg    ,dorians1 their   
superstition as to meteors1 #ei         
,dragon1 drama of the slaughter of the1 
#gh sqq41 #hi2    myth of the1 #aje sqq4
    ,dragon-crest of kings1 #aje        
,dramatic contests of actors            
representing ,summer and ,winter1 #bed  
sqq4    ,dreams1 revelations in1 #be    
,drenching leaf-clad mummer as a        
rain-charm1 #baa    ,driver1 ,professor 
,s4 ,r41 #agj n4#e1 #agc n4#a    ,ducks 
and ptarmigan1 dramatic contest of the1 
#bei    ,dyak medicine-men1 their       
practice of swinging1 #bhj sq4    ,dyaks
 of ,sarawak1 story of their descent    
from a fish1 #abf2    sacrifice cattle  
instead of human beings1 #aff n4#a2     
their sacrifices during an epidemic1    
#agf n4#a2    their custom of swinging1 
#bgg    ,dying1 custom of catching the  
souls of the1 #aih sqq4    ,dying by    
deputy1 #ef1 #afj    ,eames1 ,w41 #bgc  
,ears of sacrificial victims cut off1   
#ig    ,easter1 first ,sunday after1    
#bdi2    swinging on the ,tuesday after1

 #bhc2    custom of swinging on the four
 ,sundays before1 #bhd    ,easter ,eve  
in ,albania1 expulsion of ,kore on1 #bfe
    ,eastertide1 death and resurrection 
of ,kostrubonko at1 #bfa    ,eating the 
bodies of aged relations1 custom of1 #ad
    ,echinadian ,islands1 #f    ,eclipse
 of the sun and moon1 belief of the     
,tahitians as to1 #gc n4#b2    practice 
of the ,chilcotin ,indians at an1 #gg   
,ecliptic perhaps mimicked in dances1   
#gg    ,effigies of ,carnival1 #bbb     
sqq42    of ,shrove ,tuesday1 #bbg sqq42
    of ,death1 #bcc sqq41 #bdf sqq42    
seven-legged1 of ,lent in ,spain and    
,italy1 #bdd sq42    of ,winter burnt at
 ,zurich1 #bfj sq42    of ,kupalo1      
,kostroma1 and ,yarilo in ,russia1 #bfb 
sq4    ,effigy1 human sacrifices carried
 out in1 #bag sqq4    ,egbas1 the1 #da  
,egypt1 temporary kings in ,upper1 #aea 
sq42    mock human sacrifices in        
ancient1 #bag    ,egyptian gods1        
mortality of the ancient1 #d sqq42      
influence on ,christian doctrine of the 

,trinity1 #e n4#c2    kings called      
bulls1 #gb2    trinities of gods1 #e    
n4#c    ,eimine ,ban1 an ,irish abbot1  
#aei n4#a    ,eldest sons sacrificed for
 their fathers1 #afa sqq4    ,elliot1   
,r4 ,h41 #acf    ,emain1 fair at1 #ajj  
,embalming as a means of prolonging the 
life of the soul1 #d    ,encheleans1    
the1 #hd    ,endymion at ,olympia1 #ij2 
his tomb at ,olympia1 #bhg    ,english  
middle class1 their clinging to life1   
#adf     1 #gj n4#c    ,eponymate1 the  
,assyrian1 #aaf sq4    ,eponymous       
magistrates1 #aag n4#a    ,equinox1 the 
spring1 custom of swinging at1 #bhd2    
drama of ,summer and ,winter at the     
spring1 #beg    ,erechtheum1 the1 #hg   
,erechtheus or ,erichthonius in relation
 to the sacred serpent on the           
,acropolis1 #hf sq42    voluntary death 
of the daughters of1 #aib n4#c          
,ergamenes1 king of ,meroe1 #ae         
,erichthonius1 #hf4 ,see ,erechtheus    
,erigone1 her suicide by hanging1 #bha  
sq4    ,erzgebirge1 ,shrovetide custom  

in the1 #bjh sq4    ,esagil1 temple of  
,marduk at ,babylon1 #aac               
,esarhaddon1 king of ,assyria1 #aaf     
,esquimaux1 suicide among the1 #dc2     
their magical ceremony in autumn1 #bei  
,esthonian belief as to falling stars1  
#ff sq42    celebration of ,st4 ,john's 
,day1 #bhj2    custom on ,shrove        
,tuesday1 #bcc1 #beb sq4    ,esthonians1
 their ideas of shooting stars1 #fc     
,ethiopia1 kings of1 chosen for their   
beauty1 #ch sq4    ,ethiopian kings of  
,meroe put to death1 #ae    ,etruscan   
ceremony at founding cities1 #aeg       
,euphorion of ,chalcis1 ,greek author1  
#adc1 #add    ,europa1 her wanderings1  
#hi2    and ,zeus1 #gc    ,european     
beliefs as to shooting stars1 #ff sqq42 
fear of death1 #ace sq41 #adf    ,evans1
 ,sebastian1 #abb n4#a    ,eve1 ,easter1
 in ,albania1 #bfe    ,eve of ,st4 ,john
 7,midsummer ,eve71 ,russian ceremony   
on1 #bfb    ,ewe negroes1 the1 #fa      
,expiation for killing sacred animals1  
#baf sq4    ,eyeo1 kings of1 put to     

death1 #dj sq4    ,ezekiel1 on the      
sacrifice of the firstborn1 #aga sq4    
,e-zida1 the temple of ,nabu1 #aaj      
,fairs of ancient ,ireland1 #ii sqq4    
,fashoda1 the capital of the ,shilluk   
kings1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bd    ,father god
 succeeded by his divine son1 #e        
,fazoql or ,fazolglou1 kings of1 put to 
death1 #af    ,fear of death entertained
 by the ,european races1 #ace sq41 #adf 
8,feeding the dead10 #ajb    ,feriae    
,latinae1 #bhc    ,feronia1 a ,latin    
goddess1 #ahf n4#d    ,fertilising power
 ascribed to the effigy of ,death1 #bej 
sq4    ,festival of the ,crowning at    
,delphi1 #gh sq42    of the             
,laurel-bearing at ,thebes1 #gh sq41 #hh
 sq4    ,festus1 on 8the ,sacred        
,spring10 #ahf    ,feuillet1 ,madame    
,octave1 #bbh sq4    ,fez1 mock sultan  
in1 #aeb    ,fighting the king1 right   
of1 #bb    ,fiji1 voluntary deaths in1  
#aa sq42    custom of grave-diggers in1 
#aef n4#b2    rule of succession in1    
#aia    ,finger-joints1 custom of       

sacrificing1 #bai2    mock sacrifice of1
 ib4    ,fire1 voluntary death by1 #db  
sqq42    and ,water1 kings of1 in       
,cambodia1 #ad    ,firstborn1 sacrifice 
of the1 #aga sqq42    killed and eaten1 
#agi sq42    sacrificed among various   
races1 #agi sqq4    ---- -fruits offered
 to the dead1 #ajb2    of the corn      
offered at ,lammas1 #aja sq42    of the 
vintage offered to ,icarius and         
,erigone1 #bhc    ,firstlings1 ,hebrew  
sacrifice of1 #agb sq42    ,irish       
sacrifice of1 #ahc    ,fish1 descent of 
the ,dyaks from a1 #abf    ,fison1 ,rev4
 ,lorimer1 #aef n4#b    ,five years1    
despotic power for period of1 #ec       
,flight of the priestly king            
7,regifugium7 at ,rome1 #bac            
,florence1 ceremony of 8,sawing the ,old
 ,woman0 at1 #bdj sq4    ,florida1      
sacrifice of firstborn male children by 
the ,indians of1 #ahd    ,fool1 the     
,carnival1 burial of1 #bca sq4    ,foot1
 custom of standing on one1 #adi1 #aej1 
#aee1 #aef    ---- -race at ,olympia1   

#bhg    ,franche-,comt1 effigies of     
,shrove ,tuesday destroyed in1 #bbg     
,freycinet1 ,l4 de1 #aah n4#a           
,frosinone in ,latium1 burning an effigy
 of the ,carnival at1 #bb sq4           
,funeral of ,kostroma1 #bfa sqq4    ----
 -games1 #ib sqq4    ---- -rites        
performed for a father in the fifth     
month of his wife's                     
pregnancy1 #ahi    ,futuna in the ,south
 ,pacific1 #ig    ,galton1 ,sir         
,francis1 #adf n4#b    ,game of ,troy1  
#gf sq4    ,games1 funeral1 #ib sqq4    
,gandharva-,sena1 #abd1 #abe    ,ganges1
 firstborn children sacrificed to the1  
#ahj sq4    ,gazelle ,peninsula in ,new 
,britain1 #fe    ,gelo1 tyrant of       
,syracuse1 #afg    ,genesis1 account of 
the creation in1 #ajf    ,ghost1 the    
,holy1 regarded as female1 #e n4#c      
,ghosts propitiated with blood1 #ib2    
propitiated with games1 #if2    anger   
of1 #ajc    ,giles1 ,professor ,h4 ,a41 
#bge    ,girls' race at ,olympia1 #ia   
,gladiators at ,roman funerals1 #if2    

at ,roman banquets1 #adc    ,goats      
sacrificed instead of human beings1 #aff
 n4#a    ,gobir1 a ,hausa kingdom1 #ce  
,god1 the killing and resurrection of a 
god in the hunting1 pastoral1 and       
agricultural stages of society1 #bba    
,god's ,mouth1 #da    ,gods1 mortality  
of the1 #a sqq42    created by man in   
his own likeness1 #b sq42    succeeded  
by their sons1 #e2    progressive       
amelioration in the character of the1   
#acf    ,golden apples of the           
,hesperides1 #hj    ---- fleece1 ram    
with1 #afb    ---- swords1 #ge          
,goldmann1 ,dr4 ,emil1 #aee n4#a        
,goldziher1 ,i41 #ig n4#g    ,gomes1 ,e4
 ,h41 #agf n4#a    ,gonds1 mock human   
sacrifices among the1 #bag    ,good     
,friday1 #bhd    ,gore1 ,captain1 #aci  
n4#a    ,gospel to the ,hebrews1 the    
apocryphal1 #e n4#c    ,graal1 ,history 
of the ,holy1 #abj1 #acd                
,grape-cluster1 ,mother of the1 #h      
,gray1 ,archdeacon ,j4 ,h41 #ade        
,great ,pan1 death of the1 #f sq4       

---- ,spirit1 the1 of the ,american     
,indians1 #c    ---- year1 the1 #gj     
,greece1 human sacrifices in ancient1   
#afa sqq42    swinging as a festal rite 
in modern1 #bhc sq4    ,greek mode of   
reckoning intervals of time1 #ei n4#a   
,greenlanders1 their belief in the      
mortality of the gods1 #c    ,grey hair 
a signal of death1 #cf sq4    ---- hairs
 of kings1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc    ,grimm1  
,j41 #aee n4#a1 #bba1 #bdj1 #bdd        
,groot1 ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de1 #ahj 
n4#g1 #bge    ,grove1 the ,arician1 #bac
    ,guatemala1 catching the soul of the
 dying in1 #aii    ,guayana ,indians1   
#ab    ,gypsies1 ceremony of 8,sawing   
the ,old ,woman0 among the1 #bdc        
,hair1 grey1 a signal of death1 #cf sq4 
,halae in ,attica1 mock human sacrifice 
at1 #bae    ,hale1 ,horatio1 quoted1 #aa
 sq4    ,hamilton1 ,alexander1 quoted1  
#dh    ,hamilton's ,account of the ,east
 ,indies1 #bgh    ,hammurabi1 king of   
,babylon1 #aaj    ,hand of dead man in  
magical ceremony1 #bfg n4#a2    of      

suicide cut off1 #bbj n4    ,hanging of 
an effigy of the ,carnival1 #bcj sq4    
,harmonia and ,cadmus1 #hd2    marriage 
of1 #hh1 #hi    ,harvest ceremonies1    
#bj1 #be    ,harz ,mountains1 ceremony  
at ,carnival in the1 #bcc    ,hausa     
kings put to death1 #ce    ,hawaii1     
annual festival in1 #aag sq4    ,hawk in
 ,egypt1 symbol of the sun and of the   
king1 #aab    ,heads of dead kings      
removed and kept1 #bjb sq4    ,hebrew   
sacrifice of the firstborn1 #aga sqq4   
,hebrews1 apocryphal ,gospel to the1 #e 
n4#c    ,heitsi-eibib1 a ,hottentot god1
 #c    ,heliogabalus1 the emperor1 #ib  
,heliopolis1 #e2    the sacred bull of1 
#gb    ,hell fire in ,catholic and      
,protestant theology1 #acf    ,helle and
 ,phrixus1 the children of ,king        
,athamas1 #afa sqq4    ,hephaestion1 #ie
    ,hera1 race of girls in honour of1  
at ,olympia1 #ia2    the sister of her  
husband ,zeus1 #aid    ,heraclitus1 on  
the souls of the dead1 #ab    ,hercules 
in the garden of the ,hesperides1 #hj   

,hermapolis1 #d    ,hermes1 the grave   
of1 #d    ,heruli1 the1 #ad             
,hesperides1 garden of the1 #hj         
,hieraconpolis1 #aab    ,high ,history  
of the ,holy ,graal1 #abj1 #acd         
,hippodamia at ,olympia1 #ia2    grave  
of the suitors of1 #ajd    ,hippolytus  
or ,virbius killed by horses1 #bad      
,hindoo belief as to shooting stars1    
#fg2    of the rebirth of a father in   
his son1 #ahh    ,hinnom1 the ,valley   
of1 #afi1 #agj    ,hirpini1 guided by a 
wolf 7hirpus71 #ahf n4#d    ,hodson1 ,t4
 ,c41 #aag n4#a    ,hoeck1 ,k41 #gc n4#a
    ,hofmayr1 ,p4 ,w41 #ah n4#a1 #ai    
n4#b    ,holm-oak1 #ha sq4    ,holy     
,ghost1 regarded as female1 #e n4#c     
---- ,saturday1 #bdd    ,homeric age1   
funeral games in the1 #ic    ,homicide1 
banishment of1 #fi sq4    ,homoeopathic 
or imitative magic1 #bhc1 #bhe          
,hooks1 ,indian custom of swinging on1  
#bgh sq4    ,horse-mackerel1 descent of 
a totemic clan from a1 #abi    ----     
-races in honour of the dead1 #ig1 #ih1 

#ii1 #aja2    at fairs1 #ii sqq4        
,horses1 ,hippolytus killed by1 #bad    
,horus1 the soul of1 in ,orion1 #e      
,hottentots1 the mortal god of the1 #c  
,howitt1 ,a4 ,w41 #fd    ,human flesh1  
transformation into animal shape through
 eating1 #hc sq4    ,human sacrifices at
 ,upsala1 #eh2    in ancient ,greece1   
#afa sqq42    mock1 #bad sqq42          
offered by ancestors of the ,european   
races1 #bad2    to renew the sun's fire1
 #gd sq4    ,huntsman1 the ,spectral1   
#agh    ,huron ,indians1 their burial of
 infants1 #aii    ,ibadan in ,west      
,africa1 #bjc    ,ibn ,batuta1 #ec      
,icarus or ,icarius and his daughter    
,erigone1 #bha sq41 #bhc    ,ida1       
oracular cave of ,zeus on ,mount1 #gj   
,ihering1 ,r4 von1 #ahg n4#d    ,ijebu  
tribe1 #aab    ,ilex or holm-oak1 #ha   
sq4    ,immortality1 belief of savages  
in their natural1 #a2    firm belief of 
the ,north ,american ,indians in1 #acg  
,impregnation by the souls of the dying1
 #aii    ,incarnation of divine spirit  

in ,shilluk kings1 #ba1 #bf sq4         
,india1 sacrifice of firstborn children 
in1 #ahj sq42    images of ,siva and    
,prvati married in1 #bfe sq4    ,indians
 of ,arizona1 mock human sacrifice among
 the1 #bae2    of ,canada1 their        
ceremony for mitigating the cold of     
winter1 #bei sq4    ,indifference to    
death displayed by many races1 #acf sqq4
    ,indra and the dragon ,vrtra1 #ajf  
sq4    ,infanticide among the           
,australian aborigines1 #ahg n4#f2      
sometimes suggested by a doctrine of    
transmigration or reincarnation of      
human souls1 #ahh sq42    prevalent in  
,polynesia1 #aia1 #aif2    among        
savages1 #aif sq4    ,infants1 burial   
of1 #aii    ,ino and ,melicertes1 #afb  
,intervals of time1 ,greek and ,latin   
modes of reckoning1 #ei n4#a            
,invocavit ,sunday1 #bdc    ,ireland1   
the great fairs of ancient1 #ii sqq4    
,irish sacrifice of firstlings1 #ahc    
,iron-,beard1 ,dr41 a ,whitsuntide      
mummer1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bcc    ,isaac about

 to be sacrificed by his father         
,abraham1 #agg    ,isaacs1 ,nathaniel1  
#cf sq4    ,isis1 the soul of1 in       
,sirius1 #e    ,isle of ,man1 ,may ,day 
in the1 #beh    ,isocrates1 #ie         
,israelites1 their custom of burning    
their children in honour of ,baal1 #afh 
sqq4    ,isthmian games instituted in   
honour of ,melicertes1 #ic1 #ajc        
,italy1 seven-legged effigies of ,lent  
in1 #bdd sq4    ,jack o' ,lent1 #bcj    
,jagas1 a tribe of ,angola1 their custom
 of infanticide1 #aif sq4    ,jaintias  
of ,assam1 #ee    ,jambi in ,sumatra1   
temporary kings in1 #aed    ,japan1 mock
 human sacrifices in1 #bah    ,jars1    
burial in1 #ab sq4    ,java1 ,sultans   
of1 #ec    ,jawbone of king preserved1  
#bjj sq4    ,jeoud1 the only-begotten   
son of ,cronus1 sacrificed by his       
father1 #aff    ,jerome1 on ,tophet1    
#agj    8,jerusalem1 the ,road of10 #gf 
,jerusalem1 sacrifice of children at1   
#afi    ,jinn1 death of the ,king of    
the1 #h    ,jordanus1 ,friar1 #ed       

,joyce1 ,p4 ,w41 #ajj n4#a1 #aja        
,judah1 kings of1 their custom of       
burning their children1 #afi    ,jukos1 
kings of the1 put to death1 #cd         
,jumping over a bonfire1 #bfb    ,june1 
the twenty-ninth of1 ,st4 ,peter's ,day1
 #bfb    ,jok1 the great god of the     
,shilluk1 #ah    ,jupiter1 period of    
revolution of the planet1 #di           
,justin1 #ahg n4#e    ,kaitish1 the1 #fj
    ,kalamantans1 their descent from a  
deer1 #abf sq4    ,kali1 ,indian        
goddess1 #abc    ,kamants1 a ,jewish    
tribe1 #ab    ,kanagra district of      
,india1 #bfe    ,karpathos1 custom of   
swinging in the island of1 #bhd         
,katsina1 a ,hausa kingdom1 #ce         
,kayans of ,borneo1 mock human          
sacrifices among the1 #bah    ,keonjhur1
 ceremony at installation of ,rajah of1 
#ef    ,kerre1 a tribe accustomed to    
strangle their firstborn children1 #aha 
sq4    ,khlysti1 the1 a ,russian sect1  
#aif n4#c    ,khonds of ,india1 their   
human sacrifices1 #aci    ,kibanga1     

kings of1 put to death1 #cd    ,killer  
of the ,elephant1 #ce    ,killing the   
divine king1 #i sqq4    ---- of the     
tree-spirit1 #bje sqq42    a means to   
promote the growth of vegetation1 #baa  
sq4    ---- a god1 in the hunting1      
pastoral1 and agricultural stages of    
society1              #bba    ,king1 the
 killing of the divine1 #h sqq42        
slaying of the1 in legend1 #abj sqq42   
responsible for the weather and crops1  
#afe2    abdicates on the birth of a    
son1 #aij2    at ,whitsuntide1 pretence 
of beheading the1 #bji sq4    ,king of  
the ,jinn1 death of the1 #h    ---- of  
the ,wood at ,nemi1 #bh1 #bje sq41 #bab 
sqq4    ---- and ,queen of ,may1        
marriage of1 #bff    ,king ,hop1 #adi1  
#aea    ,king's daughter offered as     
prize in a race1 #ajd    ---- jawbone   
preserved1 #bjj sq4    ---- life        
sympathetically bound up with the       
prosperity of the country1 #ba1         
#bg    ---- skull used as a             
drinking-vessel1 #bjj    ---- son1      

sacrifice of the1 #afj sqq4    ----     
widow1 succession to the throne through 
marriage with1 #aic    ,kingdom1 the    
prize of a race1 #ajc sqq4 ,see also    
,succession    ,kings1 divine1 of the   
,shilluk1 #ag sqq42    regarded as      
incarnations of a divine spirit1 #ba1   
#bf sq42    attacks on1 permitted1 #bb1 
#dh sqq42    worship of dead1 #bd sq42  
killed at the end of a fixed term1 #df  
sqq42    related to sacred animals1 #hb1
 #hd sqq42    personating dragons or    
serpents1 #hb2    addressed by names of 
animals1 #hf2    with a dragon or       
serpent crest1 #aje2    the supply of1  
#acd sqq42    temporary1 #adh sqq42     
abdicate annually1 #adh    ---- killed  
when their strength fails1 #ad sqq4     
---- of ,dahomey and ,benin represented 
partly in animal shapes1 #he sq4    ----
 of ,fire and ,water1 #ad    ---- of    
,uganda1 dead1 consulted as oracles1    
#bjj sq4    ,kingship1 octennial tenure 
of the1 #eh sqq42    triennial tenure of
 the1 #aab sq42    annual tenure of the1

 #aac sqq42    diurnal tenure of the1   
#aah sq42    burdens and restrictions   
attaching to the early1 #ace2    modern 
type of1 different from the ancient1    
#ace    ,kingsley1 ,mary ,h41 #aai n4#a 
,kingsmill ,islanders1 #fd    ,kirghiz1 
games in honour of the dead among the1  
#ig    ,kirwaido1 ruler of the old      
,prussians1 #da    ,kniggrtz district of
 ,bohemia1 ,whitsuntide custom in the1  
#bji sq4    ,kore expelled on ,easter   
,eve in ,albania1 #bfe    ,koryaks1     
voluntary deaths among the1 #ac         
,kostroma1 funeral of1 #bfa sqq4        
,kostrubonko1 funeral of1 #bfa          
,krapf1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,l41 #ahc n4#a         
,krishna1 ,hindoo festival of swinging  
in honour of1 #bgi    ,kupalo1 funeral  
of1 #bfa1 #bfb    ,kurnai1 their fear of
 the ,aurora ,australis1 #bfg n4#a      
,kutonaqa ,indians of ,british          
,columbia1 their sacrifice of their     
firstborn              children to the  
sun1 #ahc sq4    ,la ,rochelle1 burning 
of ,shrove ,tuesday at1 #bcj            

,labyrinth1 the ,cretan1 #ga1 #gd1 #ge1 
#gf1 #gg    ,labyrinths in churches1    
#gf2    in the north of ,europe1 #gf sq4
    ,lada1 the funeral of1 #bfa1 #bfb   
,laevinus1 ,m4 ,valerius1 #if    ,laius 
and ,oedipus1 #aic    8,lame reign10 #ch
    ,lammas1 the first of ,august1 #ii1 
#ajj1 #aja1 #aje    ,lampson1 ,m4 ,w41  
#adf n4#a1 #bgc    ,lancelot constrained
 to be king1 #abj sq41 #ace    ,lang1   
,andrew1 #acj n4#a    ,laodicea in      
,syria1 human sacrifices at1 #aff n4#a  
,laos1 a province of ,siam1 #ig         
,laphystian ,zeus1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1    
#afd1 #afe    ,last sheaf called 8the   
,dead ,one10 #bed    ,latin festival1   
the great 7,feriae ,latinae71 #bhc      
---- mode of reckoning intervals of     
time1 #ei n4#a    ,latins1 sanctity of  
the woodpecker among the1 #ahf n4#d     
,latinus1 ,king1 his disappearance1 #bhc
    ,laughlan ,islanders1 #fc           
,laurel1 sacred1 guarded by a dragon1   
#gi sq42    chewed by priestess of      
,apollo1 #hj    ,laurel-,bearer at      

,thebes1 #hh sq4    ---- -,bearing      
,apollo1 #gi n4#c    ---- -bearing1     
festival of the1 at ,thebes1 #gh sq41   
#hh sq4    ---- wreath at ,delphi and   
,thebes1 #gh sqq4    ,laws of ,manu1    
#ahh    ,learchus1 son of ,king         
,athamas1 #afa1 #afb    ,lechrain1      
,burial of the ,carnival in1 #bca       
,leipsic1 8,carrying out ,death0 at1    
#bcf    ,lengua ,indians1 #aa2    of the
 ,gran ,chaco1 #fc2    their practice of
 killing firstborn girls1 #ahf2    their
 custom of infanticide1 #aig    ,lent1  
the fourth ,sunday in1 called ,dead     
,sunday or ,mid-,lent1 #bba1 #bbb       
n4#a1 #bcc sqq41 #bej1 #bee2            
personified by an actor or effigy1 #bbf1
 #bcj2    fifth ,sunday in1 #bcd1 #bci2 
third ,sunday in1 #bch2    ,queen of1   
#bdd2    symbolised by a seven-legged   
effigy1 #bdd sq4    ,leonidas1 funeral  
games in his honour1 #id    ,leopard    
,societies of ,western ,africa1 #hc     
,leopards related to royal family of    
,dahomey1 #he    ,lepidus1 ,marcus      

,aemilius1 #if    ,lepsius1 ,r41 #ag    
n4#b    ,lerida in ,catalonia1 funeral  
of the ,carnival at1 #bbe sq4           
,lerpiu1 a spirit1 #cb    ,letts1       
celebration of the summer solstice among
 the1 #bhj    ,leviathan1 #ajf n4#b     
,liebrecht1 ,f41 #g n4#b    ,life1      
human1 valued more highly by ,europeans 
than by many other races1 #ace          
sq4    ,limu1 the ,assyrian eponymate1  
#aag    ,lion1 king represented with the
 body of a1 #he    ,lisiansky1 ,u41 #aag
 sq4    8,little ,easter ,sunday10 #aec1
 #aed n4#a    ,logan1 ,w41 #di          
,lolos1 the1 #fe    ,lombardy1 the ,day 
of the ,old ,wives in1 #bda    8,lord of
 the ,heavenly ,hosts10 #adi1 #aej1     
#aee1 #aef    ,lostwithiel in ,cornwall1
 temporary king at1 #aec sq4    ,lous1 a
 ,babylonian month1 #aac1 #aaf          
,lucian1 #db    ,lug1 legendary ,irish  
hero1 #ii1 #aja    ,lugnasad1 the first 
of ,august1 #aja    ,lunar and solar    
time1 attempts to harmonise1 #fh sq4    
,luschan1 ,f4 von1 #he n4#e1 #hf n4#a   

,lussac1 ,ash ,wednesday at1 #bbf       
,lycaeus1 ,mount1 ,zeus on1 #gj2        
human sacrifices on1 #afc    ,macahity1 
an annual festival in ,hawaii1 #aag     
,macassars of ,celebes1 their custom of 
swinging1 #bgg    ,macdonald1 ,rev4 ,j41
 #ahc n4#b    ,maceboard1 the1 in the   
,isle of ,man1 #beh    ,macgregor1 ,sir 
,william1 #bjc n4#b    ,macha1 ,queen1  
#ajj    ,mc,lennan1 ,j4 ,f41 #aid n4#a  
,magic1 the ,age of1 #b2    homoeopathic
 or imitative1 #bhc1 #bhe    ,magical   
ceremonies for the revival of nature in 
spring1 #bff sqq42    for the revival of
 nature in ,central ,australia1 #bgj    
,maha ,makham1 the ,great ,sacrifice1   
#di    ,mairs1 their custom of          
sacrificing their firstborn sons1 #aha  
,malabar1 custom of ,thalavettiparothiam
 in1 #ec2    religious suicide in1 #ed  
sq4    ,malayans1 devil-dancers1        
practise a mock human sacrifice1 #baf   
,malays1 their belief in the ,spectral  
,huntsman1 #agh    ,malta1 death of the 
,carnival in1 #bbd sq4    ,manasseh1    

,king1 his sacrifice of his children1   
#agj    ,mandans1 their notions as to   
the stars1 #fg sq4    ,man-god1 reason  
for killing the1 #i sq4    ,mangaians1  
their preference for a violent death1   
#aj    ,manipur1 the ,naga tribes of1   
#aa2    mode of counting the years in1  
#aag n4#a2    rajahs of1 descended from 
a snake1 #acc    ,mannhardt1 ,w41 #bdi  
n4#d1 #bec1 #bgj    ,manu1 ,laws of1    
#ahh    ,maoris1 the1 #fd    ,mara tribe
 of northern ,australia1 #fj    ,mardi  
,gras1 ,shrove ,tuesday1 #bbg           
,marduk1 ,new ,year festival of1 #aaj2  
his image at ,babylon1 #aac    ---- and 
,tiamat1 #aje sq41 #ajg sq4             
,mareielis at ,zurich1 #bfj    ,marena1 
,winter or ,death1 #bfb    ,marketa1 the
 holy1 #bch    ,marriage1 mythical and  
dramatic1 of the ,sun and ,moon1 #ga1   
#gc sq41 #gh1 #hg              sq41 #ib1
 #aje2    of brothers and sisters in    
royal families1 #aic sq4    ----        
,sacred1 of king and queen1 #ga2    of  
gods and goddesses1 #gc2    of actors   

disguised as animals1 #hc2    of ,zeus  
and ,hera1 #ia    8,marriage ,hollow0 at
 ,teltown1 #ii    ,martin1 ,father1     
quoted1 #ada sq4    ,marzana1 goddess of
 ,death1 #bcg    ,masai1 the1 #fa1 #fe2 
their custom as to the skulls of dead   
chiefs1 #bjb sq4    ,masks hung on      
trees1 #bhc    ,masquerades of kings and
 queens1 #ga sq41 #hh1 #hi    ,masson1  
,bishop1 #acg    ,mata1 the small-pox   
goddess1 sacrifice of children to1 #aha 
,matiamvo1 a potentate in ,angola1 the  
manner of his death1 #ce sq4            
,mausoleum at ,halicarnassus1 #id sq4   
,mausolus1 contests of eloquence in his 
honour1 #ie    ,may1 the ,queen of1 in  
the ,isle of ,man1 #beh2    ,king and   
,queen of1 #bff    ---- ,bride1 #bff    
---- ,day in ,sweden1 #bed2    in the   
,isle of ,man1 #beh    ---- -tree1 #bdf2
    horse-race to1 #bjh    ---- -trees1 
#bea sq4    ,mbaya ,indians of ,south   
,america1 #adj2    their custom of      
infanticide1 #aig    ,medicine-men      
swinging as a mode of cure1 #bhj sq4    

,melicertes at the ,isthmus of ,corinth1
 #ic1 #ajc2    in ,tenedos1 human       
sacrifices to1 #afb    ,memphis1 statues
 of ,summer and ,winter at1 #bei n4#a   
,men and asses1 redemption of firstling1
 #agc    ,mendes1 mummy of ,osiris at1  
#d2    the ram-god of1 #g n4#b          
,menoeceus1 his voluntary death1 #aib   
n4#c    ,meriahs1 human victims among   
the ,khonds1 #aci    ,meroe1 ,ethiopian 
kings of1 put to death1 #ae    ,merolla1
 ,g41 quoted1 #ad sq4    ,messiah1 a    
pretended1 #df    ,meteors1             
superstitions as to1 #eh sqq4    ,metis1
 swallowed by her husband ,zeus1 #aib   
,metsik1 8wood-spirit10 #bcc1 #beb sq4  
,meyer1 ,professor ,kuno1 #aei n4#a     
,micah1 the prophet1 on sacrifice1 #aga1
 #agd    ,mid-,lent1 the fourth ,sunday 
in ,lent1 #bbb n4#a2    also called     
,dead ,sunday1 #bba2    celebration of1 
#bcd1 #bcf sq42    ceremony of 8,sawing 
the ,old ,woman0 at1 #bdj sqq4          
,midsummer ,eve1 ,russian ceremony on1  
#bfb    ,mikados1 human sacrifices      

formerly offered at the graves of the1  
#bah    ,miltiades1 funeral games in his
 honour1 #ic    ,minahassa1 mock human  
sacrifices in1 #bad sq4    ,minorca1    
seven-legged images of ,lent in1 #bdd   
n4#a    ,minos1 king of ,cnossus1 his   
reign of eight years1 #gj sqq42         
tribute of youths and maidens sent to1  
#gd sqq4    ---- and ,britomartis1 #gc  
,minotaur1 legend of the1 #ga1 #gd1 #ge 
,minyas1 king of ,orchomenus1 #afd      
,mnevis1 the sacred bull of ,heliopolis1
 #gb    ,moab1 king of1 sacrifices his  
son on the wall1 #aff1 #agi    ,mock    
human sacrifices1 #bad sqq42            
sacrifices of finger-joints1 #bai       
---- sultan in ,morocco1 #aeb sq4       
,mohammedan belief as to falling stars1 
#fc sq4    ,moloch1 sacrifice of        
children to1 #ge1 #afh sqq4    ,moon    
represented by a cow1 #ga sq42    myth  
of the setting and rising1 #gc2         
married to ,endymion1 #ij    ---- and   
sun1 mythical and dramatic marriage of  
the1 #ga1 #gc sq41 #gh1 #hg             

sq41 #ib1 #aje    ,morasas1 the1 #bai   
,moravia1 8,carrying out ,death0 in1    
#bch sq41 #bdi    ,morocco1 annual      
temporary king in1 #aeb sq4             
,mortality of the gods1 #a sqq4         
,moschus1 #gc n4#a    ,moss1 ,w41 #bhd  
n4#d    ,mother of the ,grape-cluster1  
#h    ,moulton1 ,professor ,j4 ,h41 #abd
 n4#a    ,mounds1 sepulchral1 #ic1 #if1 
#ajj1 #ajd    ,mulai ,rasheed ,,ii41    
#aec    ,mller1 ,k4 ,o41 #ei1 #fi n4#a1 
#ij1 #afe n4#a1 #aff n4#a    ,mumbo     
,jumbos1 #agh    ,mummers1 the          
,whitsuntide1 #bje sqq4    ,murderers1  
their bodies destroyed1 #aa    ,mutch1  
,captain ,j4 ,s41 #bei n4#a    ,mysore1 
mimic rite of circumcision in1 #bbj     
,myths of creation1 #ajf sqq4    ,nabu1 
a ,babylonian god1 #aaj    ,naga tribes 
of ,manipur1 #aa    ,nagpur1 the cobra  
the crest of the ,maharajah of1 #acb sq4
    ,namaquas1 the1 #fa    ,natural     
death regarded as a calamity1 #aa sq4   
,nauroz and ,eed festivals1 #bgi        
,nemean games celebrated in honour of   

,opheltes1 #ic    ,nemi1 priest of1 #bh1
 #bab sq41 #bbj2    ,king of the ,wood  
at1 #bje sq41 #bab sqq4    ,nephele1    
wife of ,king ,athamas1 #afa    ,new    
,britain1 #fe    ---- ,guinea1 the      
,papuans of1 #bhg    ---- ,hebrides1    
burial alive in the1 #ab    ---- ,south 
,wales1 sacrifice of firstborn children 
among the aborigines of1                
#agi sq4    ,ngarigo1 the1 of ,new      
,south ,wales1 #fj    ,ngoio1 a province
 of ,congo1 #aah sq4    ,nias1 custom of
 succession to the chieftainship in1    
#aih sq42  mock human sacrifices at     
funerals in1 #baf    ,nicobarese1 their 
sham-fights to gratify the dead1 #if    
,niederpring in ,bavaria1 ,whitsuntide  
custom at1 #bjf sq4    ,niu or ,savage  
,island1 #bai    ,nldeke1 ,professor    
,th41 #agi n4#d    ,normandy1 ,burial of
 ,shrove ,tuesday in1 #bbh    ,norsemen1
 their custom of wounding the dying1 #ac
 sq4    ,north ,africa1 festivals of    
swinging in1 #bhd    ---- ,american     
,indians1 their funeral celebrations1   

#ig2    their firm belief in            
immortality1 #acg    ,nyakang1 founder  
of the dynasty of ,shilluk kings1 #ah   
sqq4    ,nyikpla or ,nyigbla1 a negro   
divinity1 #fa    ,oak1 sacred1 at       
,delphi1 #hj sq42    effigy of ,death   
buried under an1 #bcf    ,oak branches1 
,whitsuntide mummer swathed in1 #bjg    
---- -leaves1 crown of1 #hj sqq4        
,oath by the ,styx1 #gj n4#a            
,octennial cycle based on an attempt to 
harmonise lunar and solar time1 #fh     
sq4    ---- tenure of the kingship1 #eh 
sqq4    ,odin1 #ac2    legend of the    
deposition of1 #ef2 sacrifice of king's 
sons to1 #eg2    human sacrifices to1   
#afj sq41 #ahh    ,oedipus1 legend of1  
#aic    ,oenomaus at ,olympia1 #ia      
,oesel1 island of1 #ff    ,old ,man1    
name of the corn-spirit1 #bec sq4       
---- people killed1 #aa sqq4    ----    
,wives1 the ,day of the1 #bda    ----   
,woman1 ,sawing the1 a ceremony in      
,lent1 #bdj sqq42    name applied to the
 corn-spirit1 #bec sq4    ,oldenberg1   

,professor ,h41 #abb n4#b    ,oleae1    
the1 at ,orchomenus1 #afc1 #afd         
,olive crown at ,olympia1 #ia           
,olympia1 tombs of ,pelops and ,endymion
 at1 #bhg    ,olympiads based on the    
octennial cycle1 #ij    ,olympic        
festival based on the octennial cycle1  
#hi sq42    based on astronomical1 not  
agricultural considerations1 #aje       
---- games said to have been founded in 
honour of ,pelops1 #ib    ---- stadium1 
the1 #bhg    ---- victors regarded as   
embodiments of ,zeus1 #ij sq41 or of the
 ,sun and              ,moon1 #ia1 #aje 
,omen-birds1 stories of their origin1   
#abf1 #abg sq4    ,on or ,aun1 king of  
,sweden1 #eg1 #afj sq41 #ahh            
,opheltes at ,nemea1 #ic    ,ophites1   
the1 #e n4#c    ,oracular springs1 #gi  
sq4    ,orchomenus in ,boeotia1 human   
sacrifice at1 #afc sq4    ,ordeal by    
poison1 fatal effects of1 #aig          
,orestes1 flight of1 #bac    ,origen1 on
 the ,holy ,spirit1 #e n4#c    ,orion   
the soul of ,horus1 #e    ,ororo1 #bd   

,osiris1 the mummy of1 #d    ,otho1     
suicide of the ,emperor1 #adj           
,ox-blood1 bath of1 #bja    ,oxen       
sacrificed instead of human beings1 #aff
 n4#a    ,palermo1 ceremony of 8,sawing 
the ,old ,woman0 at1 #bdj    ,palm      
,sunday1 8,sawing the ,old ,woman0 on1  
#bdc    ,palodes1 #f    ,pan1 death of  
the ,great1 #f sq4    ,panebian         
,libyans1 their custom of cutting off   
the heads of their dead                 
kings1 #bjb    ,papuans1 the1 of ,doreh 
,bay in ,new ,guinea1 #bhg    ,parker1  
,professor ,e4 ,h41 #adf n4#a           
,parkinson1 ,john1 #aab sq4    ,parrots'
 eggs1 a signal of death1 #dj sq4       
,parsons1 ,harold ,g41 #bjc n4#e        
,parthenon1 eastern frieze of the1 #hi  
n4#e    ,prvat and ,siva1 marriage of   
the images of1 #bfe sq4    ,pasiphae    
identified with the moon1 #gb    ----   
and the bull1 #ga    8,pass through the 
fire10 meaning of the phrase as applied 
to the sacrifice              of        
children1 #afe n4#c1 #agb    ,passier1  

kings of1 put to death1 #ea sq4         
,passover1 tradition of the origin of   
the1 #agd sqq4    ,pau ,pi1 an effigy of
 the ,carnival1 #bbe    ,pausanias1     
,king1 funeral games in his honour1 #id 
,payagua ,indians1 #ab    ,payne1 ,e4   
,j41 #fi n4#b    ,paxos1 #f    ,peking  
,gazette1 #bgd1 #bge    ,pelops         
worshipped at ,olympia1 #ib1 #ajd2      
sacred precinct of1 #ajd1 #bhg    ----  
and ,hippodamia at ,olympia1 #ia        
,penance for the slaughter of the       
dragon1 #gh    ,peregrinus1 his death by
 fire1 #db    ,persia1 temporary kings  
in1 #aeg sqq4    ,personification of    
abstract ideas not primitive1 #bec      
,peru1 sacrifice of children among the  
,indians of1 #ahe    ,perun1 sacrifice  
of firstborn children to1 #ahc          
,peruvian ,indians1 #fc n4#a            
,pfingstl1 a ,whitsuntide mummer1 #bjf  
sq41 #baa    ,phalaris1 the brazen bull 
of1 #ge    ,phaya ,phollathep1 8,lord of
 the ,heavenly ,hosts10 #adi            
,pherecydes1 #afc n4#a    ,philippine   

,islands1 #c    ,philo ,judaeus1 his    
doctrine of the ,trinity1 #f n4    ---- 
of ,byblus1 #aff1 #agi    ,phocaeans1   
dead1 propitiated with games1 #ie       
,phoenicians1 their custom of human     
sacrifice1 #aff sq41 #agh1 #agi         
,phrixus and ,helle1 the children of    
,king ,athamas1 #afa sqq4    ,piceni1   
guided by a woodpecker 7picus71 #ahf    
n4#d    ,pilsen district of ,bohemia1   
,whitsuntide custom in the1 #baj sq4    
,pindar on the rebirth of the dead1 #gj 
,pitr1 ,g41 #bbd n4#a    ,plataea1      
sacrifices and funeral games in honour  
of the slain at1 #ie sq4    ,plato on   
human sacrifices1 #afc    ,ploughing1   
annual ceremony of1 performed by        
temporary king1 #adi1 #aee              
sq41 #aeg    ,ploughs1 bronze1 used by  
,etruscans at founding of cities1 #aeg  
,plutarch1 #afc2    on the death of the 
,great ,pan1 #f2    on human sacrifices 
among the ,carthaginians1 #afg          
,poison ordeal1 fatal effects of the use
 of the1 #aig    ,polynesia1 remarkable 

rule of succession in1 #aij2            
prevalence of infanticide in1 #aia1 #aif
    ,poplars burnt on ,shrove ,tuesday1 
#bbd n4#a    ,poseidon1 identified with 
,erechtheus1 #hg    ,posidonius1 ancient
 ,greek traveller1 #adb    ,possession  
by spirits of dead kings1 #be sq4       
,preference for a violent death1 #i sqq4
    ,pregnancy1 funeral rites performed 
for a father in the fifth month of his  
wife's1 #ahi    ,prince of ,wales       
,islands1 #fd    ,procopius1 #ad        
,prussians1 supreme ruler of the old1   
#da sq42    custom of the old1 #aef     
,pruyssenaere1 ,e4 de1 #cj n4#a         
,psoloeis1 the1 at ,orchomenus1 #afc1   
#afd    ,ptarmigans and ducks1 dramatic 
contest of the1 #bei    ,puruha1 a      
province of ,quito1 #ahe    ,pururavas  
and ,urvasi1 ,indian story of1 #aca     
,pylos1 burning the ,carnival at1 #bcb  
sq4    ,pythagoras at ,delphi1 #d       
,pythian games1 #hj sq42    celebrated  
in honour of the ,python1 #ic    ,queen 
of ,may in the ,isle of ,man1 #bei2     

married to the ,king of ,may1 #bff      
---- of ,winter in the ,isle of ,man1   
#beh    ,queensland1 natives of1 their  
superstitions as to falling stars1 #fj  
,quilicare1 suicide of kings of1 #df sq4
    ,quiteve1 title of kings of ,sofala1
 #cg sq4    ,race for the kingdom at    
,olympia1 #ij    ,races to determine the
 successor to the kingship1 #ajc sqq4   
,radica1 a festival at the end of the   
,carnival at ,frosinone1 #bbb    ,rahab 
or ,leviathan1 #ajf n4#b                
,rain-charms1 #baa    ---- clan1 #ca    
---- -god1 #fa    ---- -makers among the
 ,dinka1 #cb sqq4    ---- -making       
ceremonies1 #bj    ,rajah1 temporary1   
#aed    ,ral1 the fair of1 #bfe    ,ram 
with golden fleece1 #afb    ---- -god of
 ,mendes1 #g n4#c    ---- sacrificed to 
,pelops1 #ib1 #ajd    ,raratonga1 custom
 of succession in1 #aia    ,rauchfiess1 
a ,whitsuntide mummer1 #bjg n4#a        
,rebirth of the dead1 #gj2    of a      
father in his son1 #ahh sqq42    of the 
parent in the child1 #bhg    ,reckoning 

intervals of time1 ,greek and ,latin    
modes of reckoning1 #ei n4#a            
,redemption of firstling men and asses1 
#agc    ,regalia in ,celebes1 sanctity  
of1 #bjb    ,regicide among the ,slavs1 
#eb2    modified custom of1 #adh        
,regifugium at ,rome1 #bac    ,reinach1 
,salomon1 #g n4#b    ,reincarnation of  
human souls1 belief in1 a motive for    
infanticide1 #ahh              sq4      
,religion1 the ,age of1 #b    ,renewal1 
annual1 of king's power at ,babylon1    
#aac    ,resurrection of the god1 #bab2 
of the tree-spirit1 #bab2    of a god in
 the hunting1 pastoral1 and agricultural
 stages of society1                #bba2
    enacted in ,shrovetide or ,lenten   
ceremonies1 #bcc2    of the effigy of   
,death1 #bdg sqq42    of the ,carnival1 
#beb2    of the ,wild ,man1 #beb2    of 
,kostrubonko at ,eastertide1 #bfa       
,retaliation in ,southern ,india1 law   
of1 #ada sq4    ,rhea and ,cronus1 #aid 
,rhegium in ,italy1 #ahg n4#e           
,rhodes1 human sacrifices to ,baal in1  

#aie    ,rhys1 ,sir ,john1 #aja         
,rigveda1 the1 #bgi    8,road of        
,jerusalem10 #gf    ,robinson1 ,captain 
,w4 ,c41 #aci n4#a    ,rockhill1 ,w4    
,w41 #bhd sq4    ,roman custom of       
catching the souls of the dying1 #bjj2  
of vowing a 8,sacred ,spring10 #ahf sq4 
---- funeral customs1 #ib1 #if    ----  
game of ,troy1 #gf sq4    ----          
indifference to death1 #adc sq4         
,rome1 funeral games at1 #if2    the    
,regifugium at1 #bac    ,rook1 custom of
 killing all firstborn children in the  
island of1 #ahj    ,roscher1 ,w4 ,h41 #g
 n4#b1 #gc n4#b    ,roscoe1 ,rev4 ,j41  
#aci1 #ahb n4#b1 #bja n4#a    ,rose1 ,h4
 ,a41 #aha    ,rose1 the ,sunday of the1
 #bbb n4#a    ,rottweil1 the ,carnival  
,fool at1 #bca    ,russia1 funeral      
ceremonies of ,kostrubonko1 etc41 in1   
#bfa sqq4    ,russians1 religious       
suicides among the1 #dd sq42    the     
heathen1 their sacrifice of the         
firstborn children1 #ahc    ,sacaea1 a  
,babylonian festival1 #aac sqq4         

,sacred ,marriage of king and queen1    
#ga2    of actors disguised as animals1 
#ga1 #hc2    of gods and goddesses1 #gc2
    of ,zeus and ,hera1 #ia    ----     
spears1 #ai1 #bj    8,sacred spring1    
the10 among the ancient ,italian        
peoples1 #ahf sq4    ,sacrifice of the  
king's son1 #afj sqq42    of the        
firstborn1 #aga sqq41 #agi sqq42    of  
finger-joints1 #bai    ,sacrifices for  
rain1 #bj2    for the sick1 #bj1 #be2   
to totems1 #ca2    to the dead1 #ib1    
#ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ig2    of children among
 the ,semites1 #aff sqq4    ---- human1 
in ancient ,greece1 #afa sqq42    mock  
human1 #bad sqq4    ---- vicarious1     
#aag2    in ancient ,greece1 #aff n4#a  
,st4 ,george and the ,dragon1 #ajg2     
swinging on the festival of1 #bhc       
,st4 ,john's ,day 7the summer solstice71
 swinging at1 #bhj    ---- ,eve1        
,russian ceremony on1 #bfb    ,saint-,l1
 the burning of ,shrove ,tuesday at1    
#bbh sq4    ,st4 ,peter's ,day1 the     
twenty-ninth of ,june1 #bfb             

,saintonge and ,aunis1 burning the      
,carnival in1 #bcj    ,sakalavas1       
sanctity of relics of dead kings among  
the1 #bjb    ,salamis in ,cyprus1 human 
sacrifices at1 #aff n4#a    ,salih1 a   
prophet1 #ig    ,salish ,indians1 their 
sacrifice of their firstborn children to
 the sun1              #ahd             
,salmoneus1 his imitation of thunder and
 lightning1 #afe    ,samaracand1 ,new   
,year ceremony at1 #aea    ,samnites1   
guided by a bull1 #ahf n4#d    ,samoa1  
expiation for disrespect to a sacred    
animal in1 #baf sq4    ,samorin1 title  
of the kings of ,calicut1 #dg sq4       
,samothracian mysteries1 #hi    ,santal 
custom of swinging on hooks1 #bgi       
,santos1 ,j4 dos1 #cg sq4    ,sarawak1  
,dyaks of1 #bgg    ,saturday1 ,holy1    
#bdd    ,savage ,island1 mimic rite of  
circumcision in1 #bai sq4    ,savages   
believe themselves naturally immortal1  
#a    ,savou1 island of1 #bhg           
8,sawing the ,old ,woman10 a ,lenten    
ceremony1 #bdj sqq4    ,saws at         

,mid-,lent1 #bda1 #bdb    ,saxon kings1 
their marriage with their stepmothers1  
#aic    ,saxons of ,transylvania1 the   
hanging of an effigy of ,carnival among 
the1              #bcj sq4    ,saxony1  
,whitsuntide mummers in1 #bjh           
,scarli1 #bbd n4#a    ,schmidt1 ,a41 #ei
 n4#a    ,schmiedel1 ,professor ,p41    
#bfa n4#a    ,schoolcraft1 ,h4 ,r41 #acg
 sq4    ,schrzingen1 the ,carnival ,fool
 at1 #bca    ,schwegler1 ,f4 ,c4 ,a41   
#ahg n4#d    ,sdach ,mac1 title of      
annual temporary king of ,cambodia1 #adh
    ,sea ,dyaks1 their stories of the   
origin of omen birds1 #abf1 #abg sq4    
,seligmann1 ,c4 ,g41 #ag1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1
 #bf1 #cj1 #cc    ,semang1 the1 #he     
,semic in ,bohemia1 beheading the king  
on ,whit-,monday at1 #bji    ,seminoles 
of ,florida1 souls of the dying caught  
among the1 #aii    ,semites1 sacrifices 
of children among the1 #aff sqq4        
,semitic ,baal1 #ge    ,senjero1        
sacrifice of firstborn sons in1 #ahb sq4
    ,sepharvites1 their sacrifices of   

children1 #aga    ,seriphos1 custom of  
swinging in the island of1 #bhc sq4     
,serpent1 the ,brazen1 #hf2    sacred1  
on the ,acropolis at ,athens1 #hf2    or
 dragons personated by kings1 #hb2      
transmigration of the souls of the dead 
into1 #hd    ,servitude for the         
slaughter of dragons1 #gj1 #gh          
,servius1 on the legend of ,erigone1    
#bhb    ,seven youths and maidens1      
tribute of1 #gd sqq4    ---- -legged    
effigy of ,lent1 #bdd sq4    ,shadow    
,day1 a gypsy name for ,palm ,sunday1   
#bdc    ---- ,queen1 the1 #bdc          
,shalmaneser1 king of ,assyria1 #afi1   
#agj    ,sham fight1 #bd    ,shark1 king
 of ,dahomey represented with body of a1
 #he    ,shilluk1 a tribe of the ,white 
,nile1 #ag sqq42    custom of putting to
 death the divine kings1 #ag sqq41 #bjd1
 #bjf2    ceremony on the accession of a
 new king of the1 #bjd    ,shirt worn by
 the effigy of ,death1 its use1 #bdg1   
#bdi    ,shooting stars1 superstitions  
as to1 #ec sqq4    ,shrines of dead     

kings1 #bd sq4    ,shrove ,tuesday1     
,burial of the ,carnival on1 #bba sqq42 
mock death of1 #bbg sqq42    drama of   
,summer and ,winter on1 #beg            
,shrovetide custom in the ,erzgebirge1  
#bjh sq42    in ,bohemia1 #bji    ----  
,bear1 the1 #bcj    ,shurii-,kia-,miau1 
aboriginal tribe in ,china1 #ade        
,siam1 annual temporary kings in1 #adi  
sq4    ,siamese1 mock human sacrifices  
among the1 #bah    ,sick1 sacrifices for
 the1 #bj1 #be2    thought to be        
possessed by the spirits of kings1 #be  
sq4    ,silesia1 8,carrying out ,death0 
in1 #bcf sq41 #bej sq4    ,singalang    
,burong1 the ,ruler of the ,spirit      
,world1 #abg1 #abh    ,sioo or ,siauw1  
mock human sacrifices in the island of1 
#bah    ,sirius1 the soul of ,isis in1  
#e    ,sister1 marriage with1 in royal  
families1 #aic sq4    ,siu1 a ,sea      
,dyak1 and his bird wife1 #abg sq4      
,siva and ,prvat1 marriage of the images
 of1 #bfe sq4    ,six hundred and       
sixty-six1 the number of the ,beast1 #dd

    ,skoptsi1 a ,russian sect1 #aif n4#c
    ,skull of dead king used as a       
drinking-vessel1 #bjj    ,skulls of dead
 kings removed and kept1 #bjb sq4       
,sky-spirit1 sacrifice of children to1  
#aha    ,slaughter of the ,dragon1 drama
 of the1 at ,delphi and ,thebes1 #gh    
sqq41              #hi2    myth of the1 
#aje sqq4    ,slavs1 custom of regicide 
among the1 #eb2    festival of the ,new 
,year among the old1 #bba2    ,sawing   
the ,old ,woman among the1 #bdb         
,slaying of the king in legend1 #abj    
sqq4    ,smith1 ,w4 ,robertson1 #h n4#a 
,snake1 rajahs of ,manipur descended    
from a1 #acc    ,sofala1 kings of1 put  
to death1 #cg sq42    dead kings of1    
consulted as oracles1 #bja    ,solar and
 lunar time1 early attempts to          
harmonise1 #fh sq4    ,son of the king  
sacrificed for his father1 #afj sqq4    
,sons of gods1 #e    8,soranian         
,wolves10 #ahf n4#d    ,soul1 succession
 to the1 #aif sqq4    ,souls of the dead
 supposed to resemble their bodies1 as  

these were at the              moment of
 death1 #aj sq42    associated with     
falling stars1 #fd sqq42    transmitted 
to successors1 #aih    ,south ,american 
,indians1 their insensibility to pain1  
#ach    ,spain1 seven-legged effigies of
 ,lent in1 #bdd    ,spartan kings liable
 to be deposed every eighth year1 #eh   
sq4    ,spears1 sacred1 #ai    ,spectral
 ,huntsman1 #agh    ,spencer and        
,gillen1 quoted1 #ahj n4#a1 #ahg n4#f   
,spirit1 the ,great1 of the ,american   
,indians1 #c    ,spitting to avert      
demons1 #fc    ,spring equinox1 custom  
of swinging at1 #bhd2    drama of       
,summer and ,winter at the1 #beg        
,spring1 magical ceremonies for the     
revival of nature in1 #bff sqq4         
8,spring1 the ,sacred10 among the       
ancient ,italian peoples1 #ahf sq4      
,springs1 oracular1 #gh sq4    ,stadium1
 the ,olympic1 #bhg    ,standing on one 
foot1 custom of1 #adi1 #aej1 #aee1 #aef 
,stars1 the souls of ,egyptian gods in1 
#e2    shooting1 superstitions as to1   

#eh sqq42    their supposed influence on
 human destiny1 #fe sq41 #fg sq4        
,stepmother1 marriage with a1 #aic      
,stevens1 ,captain ,john1 his ,history  
of ,persia quoted1 #aeh sq4    ,stigand1
 ,captain ,c4 ,h41 #ahb    ,stool at    
installation of ,shilluk kings1 #bd     
,students of ,fez1 their mock sultan1   
#aeb sq4    ,styx1 oath by the1 #gj n4#a
    ,substitutes1 voluntary1 for capital
 punishment in ,china1 #ade sq41 #bgc   
sqq4    ,succession in ,polynesia1      
customs of1 #aij sq4    ---- to the     
kingdom through marriage with a sister  
or with the king's widow1               
#aic sq42    conferred by personal      
relics of dead kings1 #bjb sq4    ----  
to the soul1 #aif sqq4    ,sufi ,,ii41  
,shah of ,persia1 #aeh    ,suicide of   
,buddhist monks1 #db sq42    epidemic   
of1 in ,russia1 #dd sq42    by hanging1 
#bhb    ----1 religious1 #db sqq41 #ed  
sqq42    in ,india1 #ed sq4    ----1    
hand of1 cut off1 #bbj n4    ,sulka1    
the1 of ,new ,britain1 #fe    8,sultan  

of the ,scribes10 #aeb sq4    ,summer1  
bringing in1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bdf sqq4
    ---- and ,winter1 dramatic battle   
of1 #bed sq4    ---- solstice in        
connexion with the ,olympic festival1   
#ij2    swinging at the1 #bhj    ----   
trees1 #bdf1 #bea sq4    ,sun           
represented by a bull1 #ga sq42         
represented as a man with a bull's head1
 #ge2    eclipses of the1 beliefs and   
practices as to1 #gc n4#b1 #gg2         
sacrifice of firstborn children to the1 
#ahc sq42    called 8the golden swing in
 the sky10 #bgi    ,sun and ,moon1      
mythical and dramatic marriage of1 #ga1 
#gc sq41 #gh1 #hg              sq41 #ib1
 #aje    ,sunday of the ,rose1 #bbb n4#a
    ,supply of kings1 #acd sqq4         
,supreme ,beings1 otiose1 in ,africa1   
#ai n4    ,swabia1 ,whitsuntide mummers 
in1 #bjg2    ,shrovetide or ,lenten     
ceremonies in1 #bcj1 #bcc    ,sweden1   
,may ,day in1 #bed    ,swedish kings1   
traces of nine years' reign of1 #eg sq4 
,swing in the ,sky1 the ,golden1        

description of the sun1 #bgi            
,swinging as a ceremony or magical rite1
 #aej1 #aef sq41 #bgg sqq42    on hooks 
run through the body1 ,indian custom1   
#bgh sq42    as a mode of inspiration1  
#bhj2    as a festal rite in modern     
,greece1 ,spain1 and ,italy1 #bhc sq4   
,swords1 golden1 #ge    ,syene1 #add    
n4#b    ,syntengs of ,assam1 #ee        
,syro-,macedonian calendar1 #aaf n4#a   
,tahiti1 remarkable rule of succession  
in1 #aij    ,tahitians1 their notions as
 to eclipses of the sun and moon1 #gc   
n4#b    ,tailltiu or ,tailltin1 the fair
 of1 #ii1 #aja    ,takilis or ,carrier  
,indians1 succession to the soul among  
the1 #aii    ,talos1 a bronze man1      
perhaps identical with the ,minotaur1   
#gd sq4    ,tammuz or ,adonis1 #g       
,tara1 pagan cemetery at1 #aja          
,tarahumares1 the1 of ,mexico1 #fb      
,taui ,islanders1 #fa    ,tchiglit      
,esquimaux1 the1 #fe    ,tel-,el-,amarna
 tablets1 #agj n4#e    ,teltown1 the    
fair at1 #ii    ,tempe1 the ,vale of1   

#ha    ,temporary kings1 #adh sqq4      
,tenedos1 sacrifice of infants to       
,melicertes in1 #afb    ,tengaroeng in  
,borneo1 swinging at1 #bhj1 #bha        
,thalavettiparothiam1 a custom observed 
in ,malabar1 #eb sq4    ,thamus1 an     
,egyptian pilot1 #f    ,thebes1 festival
 of the ,laurel-,bearing at1 #gh sq41   
#hh sq4    ,theopompus1 #ie    ,theseus 
and ,ariadne1 #ge    ,thiodolf1 the     
poet1 #afa    ,thracians1 funeral games 
held by the1 #if2    their contempt of  
death1 #adb    ,throne1 reverence for   
the1 #ea    ,thringen1 ,whitsuntide     
mummers in1 #bjh2    ,carrying out      
,death in1 #bce sq4    ,tiamat and      
,marduk1 #aje sq41 #ajg sq4             
,tiberius1 his enquiries as to the death
 of ,pan1 #g2    his attempt to put down
 ,carthaginian sacrifices of children1  
#afh    ,tilton1 ,e4 ,l41 #bcb    ,time1
 ,greek and ,latin modes of reckoning   
intervals of1 #ei    ,timoleon1 funeral 
games in his honour1 #id    ,tinneh     
,indians1 the1 #fe1 #bgh    ,tirunavayi 

temple1 #di    ,tlachtga1 pagan cemetery
 at1 #aja    ,toboongkoos1 mock human   
sacrifices among the1 #bai              
,todtenstein1 #bfd    ,tonquinese custom
 of catching the soul of the dying1 #bjj
    ,tooth of dead king kept1 #bjc      
,tophet1 #afi1 #agj1 #aga    ,torres    
,straits1 funeral custom in1 #ib sq4    
,totemism of the ,dinka1 #cj sq42       
possible trace of ,latin1 #ahf n4#d2    
the source of a particular type of      
folk-tales1 #abi sqq4    ,totems1       
sacrifices to1 #ca2    stories told to  
account for the origin of1 #abi         
,toumou1 ,egyptian god1 #e              
,transformations into animals1 #hb sqq4 
,transmigration of souls of the dead    
into serpents and other animals1 #hd    
sq42    belief in1 a motive for         
infanticide1 #ahh sq4    ,transmission  
of soul to successor1 #aih sqq4         
,trasimene ,lake1 battle of1 #ahf       
,tree-spirit1 killing of the1 #bje sqq42
    resurrection of the1 #bab2    in    
relation to vegetation-spirit1 #bec     

,trees1 masks hung on1 #bhc             
,trevelyan1 ,g4 ,m41 #aed n4#a          
,tribute of youths and maidens1 #gd sqq4
    ,triennial tenure of the kingship1  
#aab sq4    ,trinity1 ,christian        
doctrine of the1 #e n4#c    ,trocadero  
,museum1 statues of kings of ,dahomey in
 the1 #he    ,trojeburg1 #gg            
,trophonius at ,lebadea1 #aff n4#a      
,troy1 the game of1 #gf sq4             
,tshi-speaking negroes of the ,gold     
,coast1 their stories to explain their  
totemism1 #abh sq4    ,turrbal tribe of 
,queensland1 #fj    ,typhon1 the soul   
of1 in the ,great ,bear1 #e    ,uganda1 
king of1 #ci sq42    human sacrifices   
in1 #aci2    firstborn sons strangled   
in1 #ahb2    dead kings of1 give oracles
 through inspired mediums1 #bjj sq4     
,ujjain in ,western ,india1 #abb sqq41  
#acb1 #acc    ,ulster1 tombs of the     
kings of1 #aja    ,unyoro1 kings of1 put
 to death1 #cd    ,upsala1 #afa2        
sepulchral mound at1 #eg2    great      
festival at1 #eh    ,uranus mutilated by

 his son ,cronus1 #aib    ,urvasi and   
,king ,pururavas1 ,indian story of1 #aca
    ,ushnagh1 pagan cemetery at1 #aja   
,valhala1 #ac    ,varro on a ,roman     
funeral custom1 #ib2    on suicides by  
hanging1 #bhb    ,vegetation1 death and 
revival of1 #bfc sqq4    ---- -spirit   
perhaps generalised from a tree-spirit1 
#bec    ,vicarious sacrifices1 #aag2    
in ancient ,greece1 #aff n4#a           
,vikramaditya1 legendary king of        
,ujjain1 #abb sqq41 #acb    ,vintage1   
first-fruits of the1 offered to ,icarius
 and ,erigone1 #bhc    ,virbius or      
,hippolytus killed by horses1 #bad      
,virgil1 on the game of ,troy1 #gf2     
on the creation of the world1 #ajh sq4  
,vishnu1 mock human sacrifice in the    
worship of1 #baf    ,volcano1 sacrifice 
of child to1 #bah    ,vosges ,mountains1
 superstition as to shooting stars in   
the1 #fg    ,vtra1 the dragon1 #ajf sq4 
,wachtl in ,moravia1 drama of ,summer   
and ,winter at1 #beg    ,wadai1 ,sultan 
of1 #ci    ,wade1 ,sir ,thomas1 #bgc sq4

    ,waizganthos1 an old ,prussian god1 
#aef    ,wak1 a sky-spirit1 #aha        
,wambugwe1 the1 #fe    ,water1 effigies 
of ,death thrown into the1 #bcd sqq41   
#bdf sq4    ---- -bird1 a ,whitsuntide  
mummer1 #bjg n4#a    ---- -dragon1 drama
 of the slaying of1 #gh    ,weinhold1   
,k41 #eg n4#b    ,wends1 their custom of
 killing and eating the old1 #ad        
,westermarck1 ,dr4 ,e41 #af n4#a1 #aec  
n4#a1 #ahi n4#b1 #bjd n4#a    ,wheat at 
,lammas1 offerings of1 #aja    ,wheel1  
effigy of ,death attached to a1 #bdg    
,whiteway1 ,r4 ,s41 #ea n4#b            
,whitsuntide1 drama of ,summer and      
,winter at1 #beg    ---- ,king1 #bji    
sqq4    ---- ,mummers1 #bje sqq4    ----
 ,queen1 #baj    ,widow of king1        
succession to the throne through        
marriage with the1 #aic    ,wieland's   
,house1 #gg    ,wild ,man1 a            
,whitsuntide mummer1 #bjh sq41 #bab     
,winter1 ,queen of1 in the ,isle of     
,man1 #beh2    effigy of1 burned at     
,zurich1 #bfj sq4    ---- and ,summer1  

dramatic battle of1 #bed sqq4    ,wolf1 
transformation into1 #hc2    said to    
have guided the ,samnites1 #ahf n4#d    
---- -god1 ,zeus as the1 #hc    ,wolves1
 ,soranian1 #ahf n4#d    ,woman1 ,sawing
 the ,old1 a ,lenten ceremony1 #bdj sqq4
    ,wood1 ,king of the1 at ,nemi1 #bh  
,woodpecker 7picus7 said to have guided 
the ,piceni1 #ahf n4#d2    sacred among 
the ,latins1 ib4    ,worship of dead    
kings1 #bd sq4    ,wotjobaluk1 the1 #fd 
,wounding the dead or dying1 custom of1 
#ac sq4    ,wrestling-matches in honour 
of the dead1 #ig    ,wurmlingen in      
,swabia1 ,whitsuntide custom at1 #bjg   
sq42    the ,carnival ,fool at1 #bca sq4
    ,wyse1 ,w41 #add    ,xeres1 ,fr41   
early ,spanish historian1 #ahe          
,xerxes in ,thessaly1 #afa1 #afc        
,ximanas1 an ,indian tribe of the       
,amazon1 kill all their firstborn       
children1              #ahe sq4         
,yarilo1 the funeral of1 #bfa1 #bfb sq4 
,year1 the ,great1 #gj    ,years1 mode  
of counting the1 in ,manipur1 #aag n4#a 

,yerrunthally tribe of ,queensland1 #fd 
,yorubas1 the1 #da1 #aab    ,youths and 
maidens1 tribute of1 sent to ,minos1 #gd
 sqq4    ,zagmuk1 a ,babylonian         
festival1 #aaj sq41 #aac1 #aae sqq4     
,zeus1 the grave of1 #c2    oracular    
cave of1 #gj2    on ,mount ,lycaeus1 #gj
 n4#a2    his transformations into      
animals1 #hb sq42    the ,wolf-god1 #hc2
    the ,olympic victors regarded as    
embodiments of1 #ij sq42    swallows his
 wife ,metis1 #aib2    his marriage with
 his sister ,hera1 #aid2    and ,europa1
 #gc    ---- and ,hera1 sacred marriage 
of1 #ia    ---- ,laphystian1 #afa1 #afb1
 #afc1 #afd1 #afe    ,zimmern1 ,h41 #aaa
 n4#a    ,zoganes at ,babylon1 #aad     
,zulu kings put to death1 #cf sq4       
,zurich1 effigies of ,winter burnt at1  
#bfj sq4              ,,footnotes       
,m#a ,mortality of savage gods1 ,greek  
gods4        #a ,for examples see ,m4   
,dobrizhoffer1 ,historia de ,abiponibus 
7,vienna1        #aghd71 ii4 #ib sq41   
#bdj sqq42 ,c4 ,gay1 8,fragment d'un    

voyage dans        le ,chili et au      
,cusco10 ,bulletin le la ,socit de      
,gographie        7,paris71 ,deuxime    
,srie1 xix4 7#ahdc7 p4 #be2 ,h4         
,delaporte1 8,une        ,visite chez   
les ,araucaniens10 ,bulletin de la      
,socit de ,gographie        7,paris71   
,quatrime ,srie1 x4 7#ahee7 p4 #cj2 ,k4 
von den ,steinen1        ,unter den     
,naturvlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens       
7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #cdd1        #cdh2
 ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians 
of ,guiana 7,london1 #ahhc71        pp4 
#ccj sq42 ,a4 ,g4 ,morice1 8,the        
,canadian ,dns10 ,annual                
,archaeological ,report1 #aije2         
7,toronto1 #aijf71 p4 #bjg2 7,sir7      
,george        ,grey1 ,journals of ,two 
,expeditions of ,discovery into         
,north-,west and        ,western        
,australia 7,london1 #ahda71 ii4 #bch2  
,a4 ,oldfield1 8,the        ,aborigines 
of ,australia10 ,transactions of the    
,ethnological ,society        of        
,london1 ,n4,s4 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #bcf2   

,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian                
,aborigines 7,melbourne1 ,sydney1 and   
,adelaide1 #ahha71 p4 #fc2 ,rev4 ,g4    
,taplin1 8,the ,narrinyeri10 ,native    
,tribes of ,south ,australia            
7,adelaide1 #ahgi71 p4 #be2 ,c4 ,w4     
,schrmann1 8,the ,aboriginal ,tribes of 
,port ,lincoln10 ,native ,tribes of     
,south ,australia1 p4 #bcg2 ,h4 ,e4 ,a4 
,meyer1 in ,native ,tribes of ,south    
,australia1 p4 #aie2 ,r4 ,brough        
,smyth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria   
7,melbourne1 #ahgh71 i4 #aaj1 ii4       
#bhi sq42 ,w4 ,stanbridge1 in           
,transactions of the ,ethnological      
,society of ,london1 ,new ,series1 i4   
7#ahfa7 p4 #bii2 ,l4 ,fison and ,a4 ,w4 
,howitt1 ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai1 pp4    
#bej sq42 ,a4 ,l4 ,p4 ,cameron1         
8,notes on some ,tribes of ,new ,south  
,wales10 ,journal of the                
,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4       
7#ahhe7 pp4 #cfa1 #cfb sq42 ,w4 ,ridley1
        ,kamilaroi1 ,second ,edition    
7,sydney1 #ahge71 p4 #aei2 ,baldwin     

,spencer        and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1    
,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia  
7,london1        #ahii71 pp4 #df-dh2    
,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition 
to ,torres        ,straits1 v4          
7,cambridge1 #aijd7 pp4 #bdh1 #cbc2 ,e4 
,beardmore1 8,the        ,natives of    
,mowat1 ,british ,new ,guinea10 ,journal
 of the        ,anthropological         
,institute1 xix4 7#ahij7 p4 #dfa2 ,r4   
,e4 ,guise1 8,on the        ,tribes     
inhabiting the ,mouth of the ,wanigela  
,river1 ,new ,guinea10        ,journal  
of the ,anthropological ,institute1     
xxviii4 7#ahii7 p4 #baf2        ,c4 ,g4 
,seligmann1 ,the ,melanesians of        
,british ,new ,guinea 7,cambridge1      
#aiaj71 p4 #bgi2 ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm     
herber und hilf uns6 oder die           
,arbeit der ,neuen-,dettelsauer         
,mission1 iii4 7,barmen1 #ahih7 pp4 #aj 
sq42 id41 in ,nachrichten ber           
,kaiser-,wilhelmsland und den           
,bismarck-,archipel1 #ahig1 pp4 #id1    
#ih2 ,a4 ,deniau1 8,croyances           

religieuses et murs des indignes de     
l'ile ,malo10 ,missions                 
,catholiques1 xxxiii4 7#aija7 pp4 #cae  
sq42 ,c4 ,ribbe1 ,zwei ,jahre           
unter den ,kannibalen der               
,salomo-,inseln 7,dresden-,blasewitz1   
#aijc71        p4 #bfh2 ,p4 ,a4         
,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kstenbewohner der 
,gazellehalbinsel 7,hiltrup bei ,mnster1
 ,n4,d471 p4 #cdd2 ,p4 ,rascher1        
8,die ,sulka10 ,archiv fr               
,anthropologie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 pp4 #bba  
sq42        ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig   
,jahre in der ,sdsee 7,stuttgart1       
#aijg71 pp4        #aii-bja2 ,g4 ,brown1
 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians  
7,london1        #aiaj71 p4 #agf2       
,father ,abinal1 8,astrologie           
,malgache10 ,missions                   
,catholiques1 xi4 7#ahgi7 p4 #ejf2 ,a4  
,grandidier1 8,madagascar10             
,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie    
7,paris71 ,sixime ,srie1 iii4           
7#ahgb7 p4 #cii2 ,father ,campana1      
8,congo1 ,mission ,catholique de        

,landana10 ,missions ,catholiques1      
xxvii4 7#ahie7 pp4 #ajb sq42 ,th4       
,masui1 ,guide de la ,section de l'tat  
,indpendant du ,congo                   
l',exposition de ,bruxelles-,tervueren  
en #ahig 7,brussels1 #ahig71 p4         
#hb4 ,the discussion of this and similar
 evidence must be reserved for          
another work4        #b ,c4 ,meiners1   
,geschichte der ,religionen 7,hannover1 
#ahjf-ahjg71 i4        #dh4        #c   
,r4 ,i4 ,dodge1 ,our ,wild ,indians1 p4 
#aab4        #d ,f4 ,blumentritt1 8,der 
,ahnencultus und die religisen          
,anschauungen der        ,malaien des   
,philippinen-,archipels10 ,mittheilungen
 d4 ,wiener geogr4        ,gesellschaft1
 #ahhb1 p4 #aih4        #e ,sir ,james  
,e4 ,alexander1 ,expedition of          
,discovery into the ,interior        of 
,africa1 i4 #aff2 ,h4 ,lichtenstein1    
,reisen im ,sdlichen ,africa            
7,berlin1 #ahaa-ahab71 i4 #cdi sq42 ,w4 
,h4 ,i4 ,bleek1 ,reynard the ,fox       
in ,south ,africa 7,london1 #ahfd71 pp4 

#ge sq42 ,theophilus ,hahn1             
,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being of the
 ,khoi-,khoi 7,london1 #ahha71 pp4      
#ef1 #fi4        #f ,callimachus1 ,hymn 
to ,zeus1 #i sq42 ,diodorus ,siculus1   
iii4 #fa2        ,lucian1 ,philopseudes1
 #c2 id41 ,jupiter ,tragoedus1 #de2 id41
        ,philopatris1 #aj2 ,porphyry1   
,vita ,pythagorae1 #ag2 ,cicero1 ,de    
natura deorum1 iii4 #ba4 #ec2 ,pomponius
 ,mela1 ii4 #g4 #aab2 ,minucius         
,felix1 ,octavius1 #ba2 ,lactantius1    
,divin4 instit4 i4 ,,ii4        #g      
,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2       
,philochorus1 ,fragm4 #bb1 in ,c4       
,mller's ,fragmenta historicorum        
,graecorum1 i4 p4 #cgh2 ,tatian1        
,oratio ad ,graecos1 #h1 ed4 ,otto2 ,j4 
,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1        
#bjh4 ,compare ,ch4 ,petersen1 8,das    
,grab und die ,todtenfeier des          
,dionysos10 ,philologus1 xv4 7#ahfj7 pp4
 #gg-ia4 ,the grave of ,dionysus        
is also said to have been at ,thebes    
7,clemens ,romanus1                     

,recognitiones1 x4 #bd2 ,migne's        
,patrologia ,graeca1 i4 col4 #adcd74    
#h ,porphyry1 ,vit4 ,pythag4 #af4       
#i ,philochorus1 ,fr4 #ahd1 in ,c4      
,mller's ,fragmenta historicorum        
,graecorum1 ii4 p4 #dad4       #aj ,ch4 
,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus 7,knigsberg1      
#ahbi71 pp4 #egd sq4       ,m#b         
,mortality of ,egyptian gods4       #aa 
,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne des    
peuples de l',orient classique3         
les origines1 pp4 #ajh-aaa1 #aaf-aah4   
,on the mortality of the                
,egyptian gods see further ,a4 ,moret1  
,le ,rituel du culte divin              
journalier en gypte 7,paris1 #aijb71 pp4
 #bai sqq4       #ab ,plutarch1 ,isis et
 ,osiris1 #ba1 #bb1 #ch1 #fa2 ,diodorus 
,siculus1 i4 #bg4        #d2            
,dittenberger1 ,orientis ,graeci        
inscriptiones selectae1 i4 ,no4         
#ef1 p4 #ajb4       #ac ,a4 ,wiedemann1 
,die ,religion der alten ,aegypter1 pp4 
#ei sq42 ,g4        ,maspero1 ,histoire 
ancienne des peuples de l',orient       

classique3 les        origines1 pp4     
#ajd-ajh1 #aej4 ,indeed it was an       
article of the        ,egyptian creed   
that every god must die after he had    
begotten a son        in his own        
likeness 7,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,herodots     
zweites ,buch1 p4 #bjd74        ,hence  
the ,egyptian deities were commonly     
arranged in trinities of a        simple
 and natural type1 each comprising a    
father1 a mother1 and a        son4     
8,speaking generally1 two members of    
such a triad were gods1 one        old  
and one young1 and the third was a      
goddess1 who was1 naturally1        the 
wife1 or female counterpart1 of the     
older god4 ,the younger god        was  
the son of the older god and goddess1   
and he was supposed to        possess   
all the attributes and powers which     
belonged to his        father4444 ,the  
feminine counterpart or wife of the     
chief god was        usually a local    
goddess of little or no importance2 on  
the other        hand1 her son by the   

chief god was nearly as important as his
        father1 because it was assumed  
that he would succeed to his rank and   
throne when the elder god had passed    
away4 ,the conception of the            
triad or trinity is1 in ,egypt1 probably
 as old as the belief in        gods1   
and it seems to be based on the         
anthropomorphic views which        were 
current in the earliest times about     
them0 7,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1          
,the ,gods of the ,egyptians1 ,london1  
#aijd1 i4 #aac sq474 ,if the            
,christian doctrine of the ,trinity took
 shape under ,egyptian        influence1
 the function originally assigned to the
 ,holy ,spirit may        have been that
 of the divine mother4 ,in the          
apocryphal ,gospel to        the        
,hebrews1 as ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,conybeare was
 kind enough to point out to        me1 
,christ spoke of the ,holy ,ghost as his
 mother4 ,the passage is        quoted  
by ,origen 7,comment4 in ,joan4 ,,ii4   
vol4 iv4 col4 #acb1 ed4        ,migne71 

and runs as follows3 8,my mother the    
,holy ,spirit took me a        moment   
ago by one of my hairs and carried me   
away to the great ,mount        ,tabor40
 ,compare ,origen1 ,in ,jeremiam ,hom4  
,,xv4 #d1 vol4 iii4 col4        #dcc1   
ed4 ,migne4 ,in the reign of ,trajan a  
certain ,alcibiades1 from        ,apamea
 in ,syria1 appeared at ,rome with a    
volume in which the ,holy        ,ghost 
was described as a stalwart female about
 ninety-six miles high        and broad 
in proportion4 ,see ,hippolytus1 ,refut4
 omnium haeresium1        ix4 #ac1 p4   
#dfb1 ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin4    
,the ,ophites represented        the    
,holy ,spirit as 8the first woman10     
8mother of all living10 who        was  
beloved by 8the first man0 and likewise 
by 8the second man10 and        who     
conceived by one or both of them 8the   
light1 which they call        ,christ40 
,see ,h4 ,usener1 ,das ,weihnachtsfest1 
pp4 #aaf sq41 quoting        ,irenaeus1 
i4 #bh4 ,as to a female member of the   

,trinity1 see further        id41       
,dreiheit1 ein ,versuch mythologischer  
,zahlenlehre 7,bonn1        #aijc71 pp4 
#da sqq42 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of
 the ,roman        ,empire1 ch4 #a4 vol4
 ix4 p4 #bfa1 note g 7,edinburgh1       
#ahaa74 ,mr4        ,conybeare tells me 
that ,philo ,judaeus1 who lived in the  
first half        of the first century  
of our era1 constantly defines ,god as a
 ,trinity        in ,unity1 or a ,unity 
in ,trinity1 and that the speculations  
of this        ,alexandrian ,jew deeply 
influenced the course of ,christian     
thought on        the mystical nature of
 the deity4 ,thus it seems not          
impossible that        the ancient      
,egyptian doctrine of the divine        
,trinity may have been        distilled 
through ,philo into ,christianity4 ,on  
the other hand it has        been       
suggested that the ,christian ,trinity  
is of ,babylonian origin4        ,see   
,h4 ,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die   
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          

,testament1#c pp4 #dah sq41 #ddj4       
#ad ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion
 and ,mythology 7,london1 #ahii71 p4    
#h4       ,m#c ,the death of the ,great 
,pan4 ,death of the ,king of the ,jinn4 
,death of        the ,grape-cluster4    
#ae ,plutarch1 ,de defectu oraculorum1  
#ag4       #af ,this is in substance the
 explanation briefly suggested by ,f4   
,liebrecht1 and developed more fully and
 with certain variations of             
detail by ,s4 ,reinach4 ,see ,f4        
,liebrecht1 ,des ,gervasius von ,tilbury
        ,otia ,imperialia 7,hanover1    
#ahef71 p4 #ahj2 ,s4 ,reinach1 ,cultes1 
mythes et religions1 iii4 7,paris1      
#aijh71 pp4 #a sqq4 ,as to the          
worship of ,tammuz or ,adonis in ,syria 
and ,greece see my ,adonis1             
,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition       
7,london1 #aijg74 ,in ,plutarch's       
narrative confusion seems to have arisen
 through the native name                
7,tammuz7 of the deity1 which either    
accidentally coincided with that        

of the pilot 7as ,s4 ,reinach thinks7 or
 was erroneously transferred        to  
him by a narrator 7as ,f4 ,liebrecht    
supposed74 ,an entirely        different
 explanation of the story has been      
proposed by ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4                
,roscher4 ,he holds that the god whose  
death was lamented was the        great 
ram-god of ,mendes in ,egypt1 whom      
,greek writers constantly        mistook
 for a goat-god and identified with     
,pan4 ,a living ram was        always   
revered as an incarnation of the god1   
and when it died there        was a     
great mourning throughout all the land  
of ,mendes4 ,some stone        coffins  
of the sacred animal have been found in 
the ruins of the        city4 ,see      
,herodotus1 ii4 #df1 with ,a4           
,wiedemann's commentary2 ,w4 ,h4        
,roscher1 8,die ,legende vom ,tode des  
groszen ,pan10 ,fleckeisen's            
,jahrbcher fr classische ,philologie1   
xxxviii4 7#ahib7 pp4 #dfe-dgg4          
,dr4 ,roscher shews that ,thamus was an 

,egyptian name1 comparing ,plato1       
,phaedrus1 p4 #bgd ,d ,e2 ,polyaenus1   
iii4 #b4 #e2 ,philostratus1 ,vit4       
,apollon4 ,tyan4 vi4 #e4 #ajh4 ,as to   
the worshipful goat1 or rather          
ram1 of ,mendes1 see also ,diodorus     
,siculus1 i4 #hd2 ,strabo1 xvii4 #a4    
#ai1 p4 #hjb2 ,clement of ,alexandria1  
,protrept4 ii4 #ci1 p4 #cd1 ed4         
,potter2 ,suidas1 s4v4 4       #ag ,f4  
,liebrecht1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahj sq42 ,w4  
,robertson ,smith1        ,religion of  
the ,semites1#b pp4 #dab1 #dad4 ,the    
latter writer observes        with      
justice that 8the wailing for ',uncd1   
the divine ,grape-cluster1        seems 
to be the last survival of an old       
vintage piaculum40 8,the        dread of
 the worshippers10 he adds1 8that the   
neglect of the usual        ritual would
 be followed by disaster1 is            
particularly intelligible        if they
 regarded the necessary operations of   
agriculture as        involving the     
violent extinction of a particle of     

divine life40 ,on        the mortality  
of the gods in general and of the       
,teutonic gods in        particular1 see
 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4
 #bfc sqq42        compare ,e4 ,h4      
,meyer1 ,mythologie der ,germanen       
7,strasburg1 #aijc71 p4        #bhh4 ,as
 to the mortality of the ,irish gods1   
see ,douglas ,hyde1        ,literary    
,history of ,ireland 7,london1 #ahii71  
pp4 #hj sq4       ,m#d ,human gods are  
killed to prevent them from growing old 
and feeble4       #ah 8,der ,muata      
,cazembe und die ,vlkerstmme der        
,maravis1 ,chevas1        ,muembas1     
,lundas und andere von ,sd-,afrika10    
,zeitschrift fr        allgemeine       
,erdkunde1 vi4 7#ahef7 p4 #cie2 ,f4 ,t4 
,valdez1 ,six ,years of        a        
,traveller's ,life in ,western ,africa  
7,london1 #ahfa71 ii4 #bda sq4       #ai
 ,see ,taboo and the ,perils of the     
,soul1 pp4 #f1 #g sq4       #bj ,see    
,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4
 #bf sqq4       ,m#e ,preference for a  

violent death3 the sick and old killed4 
#ba ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of 
the ,south ,pacific 7,london1 #ahgf71   
p4 #afc4       #bb ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,les 
,ba-,ronga 7,neuchatel1 #ahih71 pp4 #cha
 sq4       #bc ,w4 ,barbrooke ,grubb1   
,an ,unknown ,people in an ,unknown     
,land 7,london1        #aiaa71 p4 #abj4 
#bd ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 ,the ,naga ,tribes 
of ,manipur 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #aei4  
#be ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda    
7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #bha4       #bf    
,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,u4,s4  
,exploring ,expedition 7,london1        
#ahde71 iii4 #if4       #bg ,u4,s4      
,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnology and  
,philology1 by ,h4 ,hale                
7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #fe4 ,compare
 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the          
,fijians1#b i4 #ahc2 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1  
,journal of a ,cruise among the         
,islands of the ,western ,pacific       
7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #bdh4       #bh ,g4
 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cce4       #bi    
,martin ,flad1 ,a ,short ,description of

 the ,falasha and ,kamants in           
,abyssinia1 p4 #ai4       #cj ,h4       
,diels1 ,die ,fragmente der             
,vorsokratiker1#b i4 7,berlin1 #aijf7 p4
        #ha2 id41 ,herakleitos von      
,ephesos#b 7,berlin1 #aiji71 p4 #ej1    
,frag4        #acf1      4       ,m#f   
,preference for a violent death3 the    
sick and aged killed4       #ca ,f4 de  
,castelnau1 ,expdition dans les parties 
centrales de        l',amrique du ,sud1 
iv4 7,paris1 #ahea7 p4 #chj4 ,compare   
id4 ii4 #di        sq4 as to the        
practice of the ,chavantes1 a tribe of  
,indians on the        ,tocantins river4
       #cb ,r4 ,southey1 ,history of    
,brazil1 iii4 7,london1 #ahai7 p4 #fai2 
,r4 ,f4        ,burton1 in ,the         
,captivity of ,hans ,stade of ,hesse    
7,hakluyt ,society1        ,london1     
#ahgd71 p4 #abb4       #cc ,c4 von      
,dittmar1 8ber die ,korken und die ihnen
 sehr nahe verwandten                   
,tschuktschen10 ,bulletin de la ,classe 
philologique de l',acadmie              

,impriale des ,sciences de              
,st-,ptersbourg1 xiii4 7#ahef7 coll4    
#abb1        #abd sq4 ,the custom has   
now been completely abandoned4 ,see ,w4 
,jochelson1 8,the ,koryak1 ,religion and
 ,myths0 7,leyden and ,new ,york1       
#aije71 p4 #ajc 7,memoir of the         
,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 
,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1
 vol4 vi4 part i474       #cd ,c4 von   
,dittmar1 op4 cit4 col4 #acb2 ,de       
,wrangell1 ,le ,nord de la              
,sibrie 7,paris1 #ahdc71 i4 #bfc sq42   
8,die ,ethnographie ,russlands          
nach ,a4 ,f4 ,rittich10 ,petermann's    
,mittheilungen1 ,ergnzungsheft1         
,no4 #ed 7,gotha1 #ahgh71 pp4 #ad sq42  
8,der ,anadyr-,bezirk nach ,a4 ,w4      
,olssufjew10 ,petermann's               
,mittheilungen1 xlv4 7#ahii7 p4 #bcj2   
,v4        ,priklonski1 8,todtengebruche
 der ,jakuten10 ,globus1 lix4 7#ahia7 p4
        #hb2 ,r4 von ,seidlitz1 8,der   
,selbstmord bei den ,tschuktschen10 ib4 
p4        #aaa2 ,cremat1 8,der          

,anadyrbezirk ,sibiriens und seine      
,bevlkerung10        ,globus1 lxvi4     
7#ahid7 p4 #bhg2 ,h4 de ,windt1 ,through
 the ,gold-fields        of ,alaska to  
,bering ,straits 7,london1 #ahih71 pp4  
#bbc-bbe2 ,w4        ,bogaras1 8,the    
,chukchee0 7,leyden and ,new ,york1     
#aijd-aiji71 pp4 #efj        sqq4       
7,memoir of the ,american ,museum of    
,natural ,history1 ,the ,jesup          
,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 vii474
       #ce ,l4 ,a4 ,waddell1 8,the      
,tribes of the ,brahmaputra ,valley10   
,journal of        the ,asiatic ,society
 of ,bengal1 lxix4 part iii4 7#aija7 pp4
 #bj1 #bd2        ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 ,the 
,naga ,tribes of ,manipur 7,london1     
#aiaa71 p4 #aea4       #cf ,k4 ,simrock1
 ,handbuch der deutschen ,mythologie1#e 
pp4 #agg sq41        #ejg2 ,h4 ,m4      
,chadwick1 ,the ,cult of ,othin         
7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #ac        sq41   
#cd sq4       #cg ,procopius1 ,de bello 
,gothico1 ii4 #ad4       #ch ,j4 ,grimm1
 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1#c p4 #dhh4

 ,a custom of putting        the sick   
and aged to death seems to have         
prevailed in several        branches of 
the ,aryan family2 it may at one time   
have been common to        the whole    
stock4 ,see ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4 pp4    
#dhf sqq42 ,o4        ,schrader1        
,reallexikon der indogermanischen       
,altertumskunde1 pp4        #cf-ci4     
,m#g ,divine kings put to death4 ,the   
,chitom of ,congo4 ,ethiopian kings of  
,meroe4       #ci ,see ,the ,magic ,art 
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #d sq4
       #dj ,taboo and the ,perils of the
 ,soul1 pp4 #e sq4       #da ,j4 ,b4    
,labat1 ,relation historique de         
l'thiopie occidentale 7,paris1          
#agcb71 i4 #bfj sq42 ,w4 ,winwood       
,reade1 ,savage ,africa 7,london1       
#ahfc71 p4 #cfb4       #db ,g4 ,merolla1
 ,relazione del viaggio nel regno di    
,congo 7,naples1        #agbf71 p4 #gf4 
,the ,english version of this passage   
7,pinkerton's        ,voyages and       
,travels1 xvi4 #bbh7 has already been   

quoted by ,sir ,john        ,lubbock    
7,lord ,avebury7 in his ,origin of      
,civilisation1#d pp4 #ceh        sq4 ,in
 that version the native title of the   
pontiff is misspelt4       #dc ,diodorus
 ,siculus1 iii4 #f2 ,strabo1 xvii4 #b4  
#c1 p4 #hbb4       ,m#h ,kings of       
,fazoql on the ,blue ,nile4       #dd   
,r4 ,lepsius1 ,letters from ,egypt1     
,ethiopia1 and the peninsula of         
,sinai 7,london1 #ahec71 pp4 #bjb1 #bjd4
 ,i have to thank ,dr4 ,e4              
,westermarck for pointing out these     
passages to me4 ,fazoql lies in         
the fork between the ,blue ,nile and its
 tributary the ,tumat4 ,see ,j4         
,russeger1 ,reisen in ,europa1 ,asien   
und ,afrika1 ii4 #b 7,stuttgart1        
#ahdd71 p4 #eeb note4       #de         
,brun-,rollet1 ,le ,nil ,blanc et le    
,soudan 7,paris1 #ahee71 pp4 #bdh       
sq4 ,for the orgiastic character of     
these annual festivals1 see        id4  
p4 #bde4 ,fazolglou is probably the same
 as ,fazoql4 ,the people        who     

practise the custom are called ,bertat  
by ,e4 ,marno 7,reisen im               
,gebiete des blauen und weissen ,nil    
7,vienna1 #ahgd71 p4 #fh74       #df ,j4
 ,russegger1 ,reisen in ,europa1 ,asien 
und ,afrika1 ii4 #b1 p4 #eec4           
,russegger met ,assusa in ,january      
#ahch1 and says that the king had       
then been a year in office4 ,he does not
 mention the name of the        king's  
uncle who had1 he tells us1 been        
strangled by the chiefs2 but        ,i  
assume that he was the ,yassin who is   
mentioned by ,brun-,rollet4             
,russegger adds that the strangling of  
the king was performed        publicly1 
and in the most solemn manner1 and was  
said to happen        often in ,fazoql  
and the neighbouring countries4         
#dg ,r4 ,lepsius1 ,letters from ,egypt1 
,ethiopia1 and the peninsula of         
,sinai 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #bjd4       
,lepsius's letter is dated 8,the        
,pyramids of ,mero1 #bbnd ,april #ahdd40
 ,his informant was ,osman ,bey1        

who had lived for sixteen years in these
 regions4 ,an anqareb or        angareb 
is a kind of bed made by stretching     
string or leather        thongs over an 
oblong wooden framework4       ,m#i     
,shilluk custom of putting divine kings 
to death4 ,the ,shilluk kings           
supposed to be reincarnations of        
,nyakang1 the semi-divine founder of    
the dynasty4 ,the shrines of ,nyakang4  
#dh ,i have to thank ,dr4 ,seligmann for
 his kindness and courtesy in           
transmitting to me his unpublished      
account and allowing me to draw         
on it at my discretion4       #di ,as to
 ,jok 7uok71 the supreme being of the   
,shilluk1 see ,p4 ,w4        ,hofmayr1  
8,religion der ,schilluk10 ,anthropos1  
vi4 7#aiaa7 pp4        #abj-abb1 whose  
account agrees with the briefer one     
given by ,dr4 ,c4        ,g4 ,seligmann4
 ,otiose supreme beings 7dieux fainants7
 of this        type1 who having made   
the world do not meddle with it and to  
whom        little or no worship is     

paid1 are common in ,africa4       #ej  
,p4 ,w4 ,hofmayr1 8,religion der        
,schilluk10 ,anthropos1 vi4 7#aiaa7 pp4 
#abc1 #abe4 ,this writer gives ,nykang  
as the name of the first ,shilluk       
king4       #ea ,p4 ,w4 ,hofmayr1 op4   
cit4 p4 #abc4       #eb ,this is the    
view both of ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann and
 of ,father ,p4 ,w4        ,hofmayr 7op4
 cit4 p4 #abc74       #ec ,the word     
kengo is applied only to the shrines of 
,nyakang and the        graves of the   
kings4 ,graves of commoners are called  
roro4      ,m#aj ,annual rain-making    
ceremony performed at the shrines of    
,nyakang4        ,harvest ceremony at   
the shrines of ,nyakang4       #ed ,on  
the use of flowing blood in rain-making 
ceremonies see ,the ,magic        ,art  
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bef1  
#beg sq4      ,m#aa ,shilluk kings put  
to death when they shew signs of        
ill-health or        failing strength4  
#ee ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 ,the       
,shilluk ,divine ,kings 7in manuscript74

      ,m#ab ,shilluk kings formerly     
liable to be attacked and killed at any 
time        by rival claimants to the   
throne4       #ef ,on this subject ,dr4 
,seligmann writes to me 7,march #ith1   
#aiaa7 as        follows3 8,the         
assumption of the throne as the result  
of victory in        single combat      
doubtless occurred once2 at the present 
day and        perhaps for the whole of 
the historic period it has been         
superseded        by the ceremonial     
killing of the king1 but ,i regard these
 stories as        folk-lore indicating 
what once really happened40       #eg   
,these particulars ,i take from letters 
of ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann's to me      
7dated #hth ,february and #ith ,march   
#aiaa74 ,they are not mentioned in      
the writer's paper on the subject4      
,m#ac ,ceremonies at the accession of a 
,shilluk king4    ,m#ad ,worship of the 
dead ,shilluk kings4       #eh ,when one
 of the king's wives is with child1 she 
remains at ,fashoda        till the     

fourth or fifth month of her pregnancy2 
she is then sent        away to a       
village1 not necessarily her own1 where 
she remains under        the charge of  
the village chief until she has finished
 nursing the        child4 ,afterwards  
she returns to ,fashoda1 but the child  
invariably        remains in the village
 of his or her birth and is brought up  
there4        ,all royal children of    
either sex1 in whatever part of the     
,shilluk        territory they may      
happen to die1 are buried the village   
where they        were born4      ,m#ae 
,sick people and others supposed to be  
possessed by the spirits of        dead 
,shilluk kings4    ,m#af ,the principal 
element in the religion of the ,shilluk 
is the worship        of their kings4   
,the kings put to death in order to     
preserve their        divine spirit from
 natural decay1 which would             
sympathetically affect        the crops1
 the cattle1 and mankind4       #ei ,as 
to the disappearance of the early ,roman

 kings see ,the ,magic ,art        and  
the ,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 ii4 pp4  
#cab sqq42 as to the                    
disappearance of the early kings of     
,uganda1 see the ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1     
,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #bad4
      ,m#ag ,parallel between the       
,shilluk kings and the ,king of the     
,wood at ,nemi4       #fj ,see ,the     
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #a sqq41 ii4 #cgf        sqq4
      ,m#ah ,the ,dinka of the ,upper   
,nile4       #fa 8,e4 de ,pruyssenaere's
 ,reisen und ,forschungen im ,gebiete   
des ,weissen        und ,blauen ,nil10  
,petermann's ,mittheilungen1            
,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #ej        7,gotha1
 #ahgg71 pp4 #ah-bc4 ,compare ,g4       
,schweinfurth1 ,the ,heart of           
,africa1 ,third ,edition 7,london1      
#ahgh71 i4 #dh sqq4 ,in the text ,i     
have followed de ,pruyssenaere's        
description of the privations           
endured by the ,dinka in the dry season4
 ,but that description is        perhaps

 only applicable in seasons of unusual  
drought1 for ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4               
,seligmann1 writing from personal       
observation1 informs me that he         
regards the description as much         
overdrawn2 in an average year1 he       
tells me1 the cattle do not die of      
famine and the natives are not          
starving4 ,according to his information 
the drinking of the blood of            
their cattle is a luxury in which the   
,dinka indulge themselves at        any 
time of the year4      ,m#ai ,dengdit1  
the ,supreme ,being of the ,dinka4      
,totemism of the ,dinka4       #fb ,for 
this and the following information as to
 the religion1 totemism1        and     
rain-makers of the ,dinka ,i am indebted
 to the kindness of ,dr4 ,c4        ,g4 
,seligmann1 who investigated the        
,shilluk and ,dinka in #aiji-aiaj       
and has most obligingly placed his      
manuscript materials at my              
disposal4      ,m#bj ,rain-makers among 
the ,dinka4       #fc ,on the importance

 of the rain-makers among the ,dinka and
 other        tribes of the ,upper      
,nile1 see ,the ,magic ,art and the     
,evolution of        ,kings1 i4 #cde    
sqq4      ,m#ba ,dinka rain-makers not  
allowed to die a natural death4    ,m#bb
 ,kings put to death in ,unyoro and     
other parts of ,africa4       #fd ,emin 
,pasha in ,central ,africa1 being a     
,collection of his ,letters and         
,journals 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #ia2 ,j4 
,g4 ,frazer1 ,totemism and              
,exogamy1 ii4 #ebi sq4 7from information
 given by the ,rev4 ,john               
,roscoe74       #fe ,father ,guillem1 in
 ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1
 lx4        7#ahhh7 p4 #beh2 id41       
8,credenze religiose dei ,negri di      
,kibanga nell'        ,alto ,congo10    
,archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni
 popolari1        vii4 7#ahhh7 p4 #bca4 
#ff ,the ,travels of the ,jesuits in    
,ethiopia1 collected and historically   
digested by ,f4 ,balthazar ,tellez1 of  
the ,society of ,jesus 7,london1        

#agaj71 p4 #aig4 ,we may compare the    
death of ,saul 7#a ,samuel1 xxxi4       
#c-f74       #fg ,lieut4 ,h4            
,pope-,hennessy1 8,notes on the ,jukos  
and other ,tribes of the        ,middle 
,benue10 ,journal of the                
,anthropological ,institute1 xxx4       
7#aijj7 p4 7#bi74       #fh ,j4 ,g4     
,frazer1 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4    
#fjh1 on the authority of        ,mr4   
,h4 ,r4 ,palmer1 ,resident in ,charge of
 ,katsina4      ,m#bc ,the ,matiamvo of 
,angola4       #fi ,f4 ,t4 ,valdez1 ,six
 ,years of a ,traveller's ,life in      
,western ,africa        7,london1       
#ahfa71 ii4 #aid sq4      ,m#bd ,zulu   
kings put to death on the approach of   
old age4       #gj ,nathaniel ,isaacs1  
,travels and ,adventures in ,eastern    
,africa        7,london1 #ahcf71 i4 #bie
 sq41 compare pp4 #bcb1 #bij sq4        
,m#be ,kings of ,sofala put to death on 
account of bodily blemishes4       #ga  
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 i4 #cib4       #gb ,j4 dos      

,santos1 8,eastern ,ethiopia10 in ,g4   
,mc,call ,theal's ,records of           
,southeastern ,africa1 vii4 7#aija7 pp4 
#aid sq4 ,a more        highly-flavoured
 and full-bodied1 though less slavishly 
accurate1        translation of this    
passage is given in ,pinkerton's        
,voyages and        ,travels1 xvi4 #fhd1
 where the ,english translator has      
enriched the        unadorned simplicity
 of the ,portuguese historian's style   
with 8the        scythe of time0 and    
other flowers of rhetoric4       #gc ,j4
 dos ,santos1 op4 cit4 p4 #aic4         
,m#bf ,kings required to be unblemished4
 ,courtiers required to imitate         
their sovereign4       #gd ,xenophon1   
,hellenica1 iii4 #c4 #c2 ,plutarch1     
,agesilaus1 #c2 id41        ,lysander1  
#bb2 ,pausanias1 iii4 #h4 #i4       #ge 
,herodotus1 iii4 #bj2 ,aristotle1       
,politics1 iv4 #d4 #d42 ,athenaeus1     
xiii4 #bj1 p4 #eff4 ,according to       
,nicolaus ,damascenus 7,fr4 #adb1 in    
,fragmenta historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 

,c4 ,mller1 iii4 p4 #dfc71 the          
handsomest and bravest man was only     
raised to the throne when the           
king had no heirs1 the heirs being the  
sons of his sisters4 ,but this          
limitation is not mentioned by the other
 authorities4       #gf ,g4 ,nachtigal1 
,sahar und ,sdn1 iii4 7,leipsic1 #ahhi7 
p4 #bbe2 ,a4        ,bastian1 ,die      
deutsche ,expedition an der             
,loango-,kste 7,jena1        #ahgd-ge71 
i4 #bbj4       #gg ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1      
,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland   
7,london1 #aijc71 i4        #caa4       
#gh ,strabo1 xvii4 #b4 #c1 p4 #hbc2     
,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #g4       #gi  
,mohammed ,ebn-,omar ,el-,tounsy1       
,voyage au ,darfour 7,paris1 #ahde71 pp4
        #afb sq42 ,travels of an ,arab  
,merchant in ,soudan1 abridged from     
the ,french by ,bayle ,st4 ,john        
7,london1 #ahed71 p4 #gh2 ,bulletin de  
la        ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71
 ,i,vme ,srie1 iv4 7#aheb7 pp4 #eci sq4 
#hj ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 8,notes on the     

,waganda ,tribe of ,central ,africa10 in
        ,proceedings of the ,royal      
,society of ,edinburgh1 xiii4           
7#ahhd-ahhf7        p4 #gaa2 ,j4        
,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the        
,manners and ,customs of the            
,baganda10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4     
7#aijb7        p4 #gg 7as to sneezing74 
#ha ,narrative of ,events in ,borneo and
 ,celebes1 from the ,journal of         
,james ,brooke1 ,esq41 ,rajah of        
,sarawak1 by ,captain ,r4 ,mundy1 i4    
#acd4        ,my friend the late ,mr4   
,lorimer ,fison1 in a letter of ,august 
#bfth1        #ahih1 told me that the   
custom of falling down whenever a chief 
fell        was observed also in ,fiji1 
where it had a special name1 bale muri1 
8fall-follow40       #hb ,mgr4          
,bruguire1 in ,annales de l',association
 de la ,propagation de la        ,foi1  
v4 7#ahca7 pp4 #agd sq4      ,m#bg      
,kings of ,eyeo put to death4 ,voluntary
 death by fire of the old               

,prussian ,kirwaido4       #hc ,a4      
,dalzel1 ,history of ,dahomy 7,london1  
#agic71 pp4 #ab sq41 #aef        sq4    
#hd ,father ,baudin1 8,le ,ftichisme ou 
la religion des ,ngres de la            
,guine10 ,missions ,catholiques1 xvi4   
7#ahhd7 p4 #bae4       #he ,missionary  
,holley1 8tude sur les ,egbas10         
,missions ,catholiques1        xiii4    
7#ahha7 pp4 #cea sq4 ,here ,oyo is      
probably the same as ,eyeo              
mentioned above4       #hf ,simon       
,grunau1 ,preussische ,chronik1         
herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,m4              
,perlbach 7,leipsic1 #ahgf71 i4 p4 #ig4 
,m#bh ,voluntary deaths by fire4        
,peregrinus at ,olympia4 ,buddhist monks
 in        ,china4       #hg ,lucian1   
,de morte ,peregrini4 ,that ,lucian's   
account of the        mountebank's death
 is not a fancy picture is proved by the
 evidence        of ,tertullian1 ,ad    
martyres1 #d1 8,peregrinus qui non olim 
se rogo        immisit40       #hh ,d4  
,s4 ,macgowan1 ,m4,d41 8,self-immolation

 by ,fire in ,china10 ,the              
,chinese ,recorder and ,missionary      
,journal1 xix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #dde-dea1    
#ejh-eba4       #hi ,e4 ,w4 ,nelson1    
8,the ,eskimo about ,bering ,strait10   
,eighteenth ,annual        ,report of   
the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1    
,part ,i4 7,washington1        #ahii71  
pp4 #cbj1 #dcc sq4      ,m#bi ,religious
 suicides in ,russia4 ,belief in the    
approaching end of the        world4    
#ij ,revelation xx4 #a-c4       #ia     
,revelation xiii4 #ah4      ,m#cj       
,epidemic of suicide4 ,suicide by       
starvation4 ,suicide by fire4       #ib 
,ivan ,stchoukine1 ,le ,suicide         
collectif dans le ,raskol russe 7,paris1
        #aijc71 pp4 #de-ec1 #fa-gh1     
#hd-hg1 #if-ii1 #ajb-aab4 ,the mania in 
its        most extreme form died away  
towards the end of the seventeenth      
century1 but during the eighteenth and  
nineteenth centuries cases of           
collective suicide from religious       
motives occurred from time to           

time1 people burning themselves in      
families or in batches of thirty        
or forty4 ,the last of these suicides by
 fire took place in #ahfj1        when  
fifteen persons thus perished in the    
,government of ,olonetz4                
,twenty-four others buried themselves   
alive near ,tiraspol in the             
winter of #ahif-ig4 ,see ,i4            
,stchoukine1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aad-abf4     
,m#ca ,a ,jewish ,messiah4       #ic    
,voltaire1 ,essai sur les ,murs1 iii4   
#adb-ade 7uvres compltes de             
,voltaire1 xiii4 ,paris1 #ahgh74        
,m#cb ,kings put to death after a fixed 
term4 ,suicide of the kings of          
,quilacare at the end of a reign of     
twelve years4       #id ,duarte         
,barbosa1 ,a ,description of the ,coasts
 of ,east ,africa and        ,malabar in
 the ,beginning of the ,sixteenth       
,century 7,hakluyt ,society1            
,london1 #ahff71 pp4 #agb sq4      ,m#cc
 ,custom of the kings of ,calicut4      
#ie ,l4 di ,varthema1 ,travels1         

translated by ,j4 ,w4 ,jones and edited 
by        ,g4 ,p4 ,badger 7,hakluyt     
,society1 ,london1 #ahfc71 p4 #acd4 ,in 
a note the        ,editor says that the 
name ,zamorin 7,samorin7 according to   
some 8is a        corruption of ,tamuri1
 the name of the most exalted family of 
the        ,nair caste40       #if      
,francis ,buchanan1 8,journey from      
,madras through the ,countries of       
,mysore1 ,canara1 and ,malabar10 in     
,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1     
viii4 #gce4       #ig ,alex4 ,hamilton1 
8,a ,new ,account of the ,east ,indies10
 in ,pinkerton's        ,voyages and    
,travels1 viii4 #cgd4      ,m#cd ,fuller
 account of the ,calicut custom4        
,m#ce ,the ,maha ,makham or ,great      
,sacrifice at ,calicut4       #ih ,the  
sidereal revolution of ,jupiter is      
completed in #aa years #cad4ib          
days 7,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth
 ,edition1 s4v4 8,astronomy10        ii4
 #hjh74 ,the twelve-years revolution of 
,jupiter was known to the        ,greek 

astronomers1 from whom the knowledge may
 perhaps have        penetrated into    
,india4 ,see ,geminus1 ,eisagoge1 ,i1 p4
 #aj1 ed4 ,halma4      ,m#cf ,the attack
 on the king4       #ii ,w4 ,logan1     
,malabar 7,madras1 #ahhg71 i4 #afb-afi4 
,the writer describes        in         
particular the festival of #afhc1 when  
fifty-five men perished in        the   
manner described4      ,m#cg ,custom of 
kings in ,bengal4 ,custom of the kings  
of ,passier4 ,custom of        ,slavonic
 kings4      #ajj ,sir ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot1 
,the ,history of ,india as told by its  
own        ,historians1 iv4 #bfj4 ,i    
have to thank ,mr4 ,r4 ,s4 ,whiteway1 of
        ,brownscombe1 ,shottermill1     
,surrey1 for kindly calling my attention
 to        this and the following       
instance of the custom of regicide4     
#aja ,de ,barros1 ,da ,asia1 dos feitos1
 que os ,portuguezes fizeram no         
descubrimento e conquista dos mares e   
terras do ,oriente1 ,decada             
,terceira1 ,liv4 ,v4 cap4 i4 pp4 #eab   

sq4 7,lisbon1 #aggg74      #ajb ,saxo   
,grammaticus1,historia ,danica1 viii4   
pp4 #daj sq41 ed4 ,p4 ,e4        ,mller 
7p4 #ccd of ,mr4 ,oliver ,elton's       
,english translation74      ,m#ch       
,custom of ,thalavettiparothiam in      
,malabar4 ,custom of the ,sultans of    
,java4      #ajc ,t4 ,k4 ,gopal         
,panikkar 7of the ,madras ,registration 
,department71        ,malabar and its   
,folk 7,madras1 ,n4 ,d41 preface dated  
,chowghaut1 #hth        ,october #aijj71
 pp4 #abj sq4 ,i have to thank my friend
 ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke        for calling my 
attention to this account4      #ajd    
,voyage d',ibn ,batoutah1 texte arabe1  
accompagn d'une traduction        par   
,c4 ,deffrmery et ,b4 ,r4 ,sanguinetti  
7,paris1 #ahec-eh71 iv4 #bdf        sq4 
,m#ci ,religious suicides in ,india4    
#aje ,the ,wonders of the ,east1 by     
,friar ,jordanus1 translated by ,col4   
,henry ,yule 7,london1 #ahfc1 ,hakluyt  
,society71 pp4 #cb sq4      #ajf ,india 
in the ,fifteenth ,century1 being a     

,collection of ,voyages to        ,india
 in the century preceding the           
,portuguese discovery of the ,cape      
of ,good ,hope1 edited by ,r4 ,h4 ,major
 7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1           
#aheg71 8,the ,travels of ,nicolo ,conti
 in the ,east10 pp4 #bg sq4 ,an         
instrument of the sort described in the 
text 7a crescent-shaped        knife    
with chains and stirrups attached to it 
for the convenience of        the       
suicide7 used to be preserved at        
,kshira1 a village of ,bengal           
near ,nadiya3 it was called a karavat4  
,see ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco          
,polo1 newly translated and edited by   
,colonel ,henry ,yule1 ,second          
,edition 7,london1 #ahge71 ii4 #ccd4    
#ajg ,major ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the   
,khasis 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #ajb sq41 
quoting ,mr4 ,gait in the ,journal of   
the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal        
for #ahih4      ,m#dj ,pretence of      
putting the king's proxy to death4 ,man 
killed at the        installation of a  

king of ,cassange4      #ajh ,e4 ,t4    
,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of     
,bengal 7,calcutta1 #ahgb71 p4          
#adf4      #aji ,f4 ,t4 ,valdez1 ,six   
,years of a ,traveller's ,life in       
,western ,africa        7,london1       
#ahfa71 ii4 #aeh-afj4 ,i have translated
 the title ,maquita        by 8chief02  
the writer does not explain it4         
,m#da ,sacrifice of the king's sons in  
,sweden3 evidence of a nine years'      
tenure of the throne4      #aaj         
,ynglinga ,saga1 #bi 7,the              
,heimskringla1 translated by ,s4 ,laing1
 i4        #bci sq474 ,compare ,h4 ,m4  
,chadwick1 ,the ,cult of ,othin         
7,london1        #ahii71 p4 #d4         
,according to ,messrs4 ,laing and       
,chadwick the sacrifice        took     
place every tenth year4 ,but ,i follow  
,prof4 ,k4 ,weinhold who                
translates 8hit tiunda hvert r0 by 8alle
 neun ,jahre0 78,die        mystische   
,neunzahl bei den ,deutschen10          
,abhandlungen der knig4        ,akademie

 der ,wissenschaften zu ,berlin1 #ahig1 
p4 #f74 ,so in ,latin        decimo     
quoque anno should be translated 8every 
ninth year40      #aaa ,saxo            
,grammaticus1 ,historia ,danica1 iii4   
pp4 #abi-aca1 ed4 ,p4 ,e4        ,mller 
7pp4 #ih sq4 of ,oliver ,elton's        
,english translation74      #aab ,adam  
of ,bremen1 ,descriptio insularum       
,aquilonis1 #bg 7,migne's               
,patrologia ,latina1 cxlvi4 col4 #fdd74 
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the           
,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cfd 
sq4      ,m#db ,limited tenure of the   
kingship in ancient ,greece4 ,the       
,spartan kings        appear formerly to
 have held office for periods of eight  
years only4        ,the dread of meteors
 shared by savages4      #aac ,plutarch1
 ,agis1 ,,ii4 ,plutarch says that the   
custom was observed 8at        intervals
 of nine years0 7  71 but the expression
 is        equivalent to our 8at        
intervals of eight years40 ,in reckoning
        intervals of time numerically   

the ,greeks included both the terms     
which are separated by the interval1    
whereas we include only one of          
them4 ,for example1 our phrase 8every   
second day0 would be rendered        in 
,greek   1 literally 8every third day40 
,again1 a        cycle of two years is  
in ,greek trieteris1 literally 8a period
 of        three years02 a cycle of     
eight years is ennaeteris1 literally 8a 
period of nine years02 and so forth4    
,see ,censorinus1 ,de die        natali1
 #ah4 ,the ,latin use of the ordinal    
numbers is similar1 e4g4        our     
8every second year0 would be tertio     
quoque anno in ,latin4        ,however1 
the ,greeks and ,romans were not always 
consistent in this        matter1 for   
they occasionally reckoned in our       
fashion4 ,the resulting        ambiguity
 is not only puzzling to moderns2 it    
sometimes confused the        ancients  
themselves4 ,for example1 it led to a   
derangement of the        newly         
instituted ,julian calendar1 which      

escaped detection for more        than  
thirty years4 ,see ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 
i4 #ad4 #ac sq42        ,solinus1 i4    
#de-dg4 ,on the ancient modes of        
counting in such cases        see ,a4   
,schmidt1 ,handbuch der griechischen    
,chronologie 7,jena1        #ahhh71 pp4 
#ie sqq4 ,according to ,schmidt1 the    
practice of adding        both terms to 
the sum of the intervening units was not
 extended by        the ,greeks to      
numbers above nine4      #aad ,die      
,dorier1#b ii4 #if4      ,m#dc          
,superstitions of the ,australian       
aborigines as to shooting stars4        
#aae ,e4 ,man1 ,aboriginal ,inhabitants 
of the ,andaman ,islands1 pp4 #hd       
sq4      #aaf ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,north     
,queensland ,bulletin1 ,no4 #e1         
,superstition1 ,magic1        and       
,medicine 7,brisbane1 #aijc71 p4 #h4    
#aag ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,the ,native      
,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4  
#dbi4      #aah ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4    
cit4 p4 #dcj4 ,one of the earliest      

writers on ,new        ,south ,wales    
reports that the natives attributed     
great importance to        the falling  
of a star 7,d4 ,collins1,account of the 
,english ,colony in        ,new ,south  
,wales 7,london1 #ahjd71 p4 #chc74      
#aai ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern    
,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #fbg4
      #abj ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4    
cit4 pp4 #dhh1 #fbg sq4      #aba ,g4   
,thilenius1 ,ethnographische ,ergebnisse
 aus ,melanesien1 ii4        7,halle1   
#aijc7 p4 #abi4      ,m#dd              
,superstitions of the negroes and other 
,african races as to shooting           
stars4      #abb ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,les   
,ba-ronga 7,neuchatel1 #ahih71 p4 #dgj4 
#abc ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,masai       
7,oxford1 #aije71 p4 #caf4      #abd ,j4
 ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south ,africa  
7,london1 #ahae71 pp4 #dbh sq4      #abe
 ,id41 ,travels in ,south ,africa1      
,second ,journey 7,london1 #ahbb71 ii4  
#bjd4      #abf ,g4 ,zndel1 8,land und  
,volk der ,eweer auf der ,sclavenkste in

        ,westafrika10 ,zeitschrift der  
,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1  
xii4 7#ahgg7 pp4 #dae sq42 ,c4 ,spiess1 
8,religionsbegriffe der ,evheer         
in ,westafrika10 ,mittheilungen des     
,seminars fr ,orientalische             
,sprachen zu ,berlin1 vi4 7#aijc7       
,dritte ,abtheilung1 p4 #aab4      ,m#de
 ,superstitions of the ,american        
,indians as to shooting stars4      #abg
 ,boscana1 8,chinigchinich1 a           
,historical ,account of the ,origin1    
etc41        of the ,indians of ,st4    
,juan ,capistrano10 in ,a4 ,robinson's  
,life in        ,california 7,new ,york1
 #ahdf71 p4 #bii4      #abh ,c4         
,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico 7,london1   
#aijc71 i4 #cbd sq4      #abi ,k4 von   
den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern   
,zentral-,brasiliens        7,berlin1   
#ahid71 pp4 #ead sq4 ,the ,peruvian     
,indians also made a        prodigious  
noise when they saw a shooting star4    
,see ,p4 de ,cieza de        ,leon1     
,travels 7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1   

#ahfd71 p4 #bcb4      #acj ,g4 ,kurze1  
8,sitten und ,gebruche der              
,lengua-,indianer10 ,mitteilungen       
der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu    
,jena1 xxiii4 7#aije7 p4 #ag2 ,w4       
,barbrooke ,grubb1 ,an ,unknown ,people 
in an ,unknown ,land 7,london1          
#aiaa71 p4 #afc4      #aca ,m4          
,dobrizhoffer1 ,historia de ,abiponibus 
7,vienna1 #aghd71 ii4 #hf4      ,m#df   
,shooting stars regarded as demons4     
#acb ,w4 ,tetzlaff1 8,notes on the      
,laughlan ,islands10 ,annual ,report on 
,british ,new ,guinea1 #ahij-ia         
7,brisbane1 #ahib71 p4 #aje4      #acc  
,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des      
,veda1 p4 #bfg4      #acd ,w4 ,crooke1  
,popular ,religion and ,folklore of     
,northern ,india        7,westminster1  
#aijf71 ii4 #bb4      #ace ,holzmayer1  
8,osiliana10 ,verhandlungen der         
gelehrten ,estnischen                   
,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4 7#ahgb7  
p4 #dh4      #acf ,guillain1 ,documents 
sur l'histoire1 la gographie1 et le     

commerce        de l',afrique           
,orientale1 ii4 7,paris1 ,n4,d47 p4 #ig2
 ,c4 ,velten1 ,sitten        und        
,gebruche der ,suaheli 7,gttingen1      
#aijc71 pp4 #cci sq42 ,c4 ,b4           
,klunzinger1 ,upper ,egypt 7,london1    
#ahgh71 p4 #dje2 ,budgett ,meakin1      
,the ,moors 7,london1 #aijb71 p4 #cec4  
,m#dg ,shooting stars associated with   
the souls of the dead4 ,supposed        
relation of the stars to men4      #acg 
,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new      
,zealand 7,london1 #ahdc71 ii4 #ff4     
,according to another account1 meteors  
are regarded by the ,maoris as          
betokening the presence of a god 7,r4   
,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui1 or ,new      
,zealand and its ,inhabitants1#b p4     
#adg74      #ach ,ch4 ,wilkes1          
,narrative of the ,united ,states       
,exploring ,expedition1        v4 #hh4  
#aci ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of
 ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #cfi4      
#adj ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 in ,brough        
,smyth's ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ii4  

#cji4      #ada ,e4 ,palmer1 8,notes on 
some ,australian ,tribes10 ,journal of  
the        ,anthropological ,institute1 
xiii4 7#ahhd7 p4 #bib4 ,sometimes       
apparently the ,australian natives      
regard crystals or broken glass as      
fallen stars1 and treasure them as      
powerful instruments of magic4          
,see ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian    
,race1 iii4 #bi2 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,north  
,queensland ,ethnography1 ,bulletin ,no4
 #e1 p4 #h4      #adb ,j4 ,macgillivray1
 ,narrative of the ,voyage of ,h4,m4,s4 
,rattlesnake        7,london1 #aheb71   
ii4 #cj4      #adc ,p4 ,a4              
,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kstenbewohner der 
,gazellehalbinsel        7,hiltrup bei  
,mnster1 ,n4,d471 p4 #bbg4      #add ,p4
 ,rascher1 8,die ,sulka10 ,archiv fr    
,anthropologie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 p4        
#baf4      #ade ,dudley ,kidd1 ,savage  
,childhood 7,london1 #aijf71 p4 #adi4   
#adf ,j4 ,halkin1 ,quelques ,peuplades  
du district de l',uel 7,lige1 #aijg71   
p4 #ajb4      #adg ,o4 ,baumann1 ,durch 

,massailand zur ,nilquelle 7,berlin1    
#ahid71 p4 #afc4      #adh ,o4 ,baumann1
 ,durch ,massailand zur ,nilquelle      
7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4 #ahh4      #adi ,e4
 ,petitot1 ,monographie des ,dn-,dindj  
7,paris1 #ahgf71 p4 #fj2        id41    
,monographie des ,esquimaux ,tchiglit   
7,paris1 #ahgf71 p4 #bd4      #aej ,a4  
,henry1 8,the ,lolos and other ,tribes  
of ,western ,china10 ,journal of        
the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiii4
 7#aijc7 p4 #ajc4      #aea ,pliny1     
,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bh4      ,m#dh ,modern
 ,european beliefs as to meteors4       
,various beliefs as to stars        and 
meteors4      #aeb ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag
 zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #bic2   
,a4 ,kuhn und        ,w4 ,schwartz1     
,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und       
,gebruche1 p4 #deg1         #dbb2 ,e4   
,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und   
,gebruche aus ,schwaben1        p4 #ejf1
  #cgi1 #chj4      #aec ,p4 ,sbillot1   
,traditions et superstitions de la      
,haute-,bretagne1 ii4        #cec2 ,j4  

,haltrich1 ,zur ,volkskunde der         
,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,vienna1         
#ahhe71 p4 #cjj2 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,das     
,jahr und seine ,tage in ,meinung und   
,brauch der ,romnen ,siebenbrgens1 p4   
#ch2 ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land            
beyond the ,forest1 i4 #caa2 ,j4 ,v4    
,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und             
,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1 p4 #ca1
  #afd2 ,br4 ,jelnek1                   
8,materialien zur ,vorgeschichte und    
,volkskunde ,bhmens10                   
,mittheilungen der anthropologischen    
,gesellschaft in ,wien1 xxi4            
7#ahia7 p4 #be2 ,g4 ,finamore1          
,credenze1 usi e costumi ,abruzzesi1 pp4
        #dg sq42 ,m4 ,placucci1 ,usi e  
pregiudizj dei contadini della          
,romagna 7,palermo1 #ahhe71 p4 #ada2    
,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10 ,verhandl4     
der gelehrten ,estnischen ,gesellschaft 
zu ,dorpat1 vii4 7#ahgb7 p4 #dh4        
,the same belief is said to prevail in  
,armenia4 ,see ,minas ,tchraz1          
8,notes sur la mythologie armnienne10   

,transactions of the ,ninth             
,international ,congress of             
,orientalists 7,london1 #ahic71 ii4     
#hbd4        ,bret ,harte has employed  
the idea in his little poem1 8,relieving
        ,guard40      #aed ,h4 ,lew1    
8,der ,tod und die ,beerdigungs-gebruche
 bei den polnischen        ,juden10     
,mittheilungen der anthropologischen    
,gesellschaft in ,wien1        xxxii4   
7#aijb7 p4 #djb4      #aee ,a4          
,schlossar1 8,volksmeinung und          
,volksaberglaube aus der deutschen      
,steiermark10 ,germania1 ,n4,r41 xxiv4  
7#ahia7 p4 #chi4      #aef              
,boecler-,kreutzwald1 ,der ,ehsten      
aberglubische ,gebruche1 ,weisen und    
,gewohnheiten 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahed71
 p4 #gc4      #aeg ,e4 ,monseur1 ,le    
,folklore wallon1 p4 #fa2 ,a4 de ,nore1 
,coutumes1        mythes et traditions  
des provinces de ,france1 pp4 #aja1     
#afj1 #bbc1        #bfg1 #bhd2 ,b4      
,souch1 ,croyances1 prsages et          
traditions diverses1        p4 #bc2 ,p4 

,sbillot1 ,traditions et superstitions  
de la        ,haute-,bretagne1 ii4 #ceb2
 ,j4 ,lecur1 ,esquisses du bocage       
normand1        ii4 #ac2 ,l4 ,pineau1   
,folk-lore du ,poitou 7,paris1 #ahib71  
pp4 #ebe        sq4      #aeh ,l4 ,f4   
,sauv4 ,le ,folk-lore des               
,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 #ahhi71 pp4    
#aif        sq4      #aei ,f4           
,chapiseau1 ,le ,folk-lore de la ,beauce
 et du ,perche 7,paris1        #aijb71  
i4 #bij2 ,g4 ,finamore1 ,credenze1 usi e
 costumi ,abruzzesi        7,palermo1   
#ahij71 p4 #dh4      #afj ,north ,indian
 ,notes and ,queries1 i4 p4 #ajb1  #fgc4
 ,compare id4 p4        #dg1  #cef2     
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 p4     
#ahd1  #fgd2 ,w4 ,crooke1               
,popular ,religion and ,folklore of     
,northern ,india 7,westminster1         
#ahif71 i4 #hb4      #afa ,w4 ,ellis1   
,polynesian ,researches1#b iii4 #aga4   
#afb ,maximilian ,prinz zu ,wied1 ,reise
 in das ,innere ,nord-,america          
7,coblenz1 #ahci-ahda71 ii4 #aeb4 ,it   

does not1 however1 appear from the      
writer's statement whether the descent  
of the soul was identified        with  
the flight of a meteor or not4      #afc
 ,d4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,outlines of    
,panjab ,ethnography 7,calcutta1        
#ahhc71 p4 #aah1  #bca4      ,m#di ,the 
fall of the king's star4    ,m#ej       
,reasons for limiting a king's reign to 
eight years4 ,the octennial        cycle
 based on an attempt to reconcile solar 
and lunar time4      #afd ,l4 ,ideler1  
,handbuch der mathematischen und        
technischen        ,chronologie1 ii4    
#fje sqq4 ,ninety-nine lunar months     
nearly        coincide with eight solar 
years1 as the ancients well knew        
7,sozomenus1 ,historia ecclesiastica1   
vii4 #ah74 ,on the religious and        
political import of the eight years'    
cycle in ancient ,greece see            
especially ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,orchomenus  
und die ,minyer1#b pp4 #bac-bah2        
id41 ,die ,dorier1#b i4 #bed sq41 #ccc  
sq41 #ddj1 ii4 #if1 #dhc2        id41   

,prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen
 ,mythologie        7,gttingen1 #ahbe71 
pp4 #dbb-dbd4      #afe 8,ancient       
opinion even assigned the regulation of 
the calendar by the        solstices and
 equinoxes to the will of the gods that 
sacrifices        should be rendered at 
similar times in each year1 rather than 
to the        strict requirements of    
agriculture2 and as religion undoubtedly
        makes larger demands on the     
cultivator as agriculture advances1 the 
obligations of sacrifice may probably be
 reckoned as of equal        importance 
with agricultural necessities in urging 
the formation of        reckonings in   
the nature of a calendar0 7,e4 ,j4      
,payne1 ,history of        the ,new     
,world called ,america1 ii4 #bhj74      
,m#ea ,the octennial cycle in relation  
to the ,greek doctrine of rebirth4      
#aff ,as to the eight years' servitude  
of ,apollo and ,cadmus for the          
slaughter of dragons1 see below1 p4 #gh4
 ,for the nine years' penance        of 

the man who had tasted human flesh at   
the festival of ,zeus on        ,mount  
,lycaeus1 see ,pliny1 ,nat4 hist4 viii4 
#ha sq42 ,augustine1        ,de civitate
 ,dei1 xviii4 #ag2 ,pausanias1 viii4 #b4
 #f2 compare ,plato1        ,republic1  
viii4 p4 #efe ,d ,e4 ,any god who       
forswore himself by the        water of 
,styx was exiled for nine years from the
 society of his        fellow-gods      
7,hesiod1 ,theogony1 #gic-hjd74 ,on this
 subject see        further1 ,e4 ,rohde1
 ,psyche1#c ii4 #baa sq42 ,w4 ,h4       
,roscher1 8,die        enneadischen und 
hebdomadischen ,fristen und ,wochen der 
ltesten        ,griechen10 ,abhandlungen
 der philolog4-histor4 ,klasse der      
,knigl4        ,schsischen ,gesellschaft
 der ,wissenschaften1 xxi4 ,no4 #d      
7#aijc71 pp4        #bd sqq4      #afg  
,plato1 ,meno1 p4 #ha ,a-,c2 ,pindar1   
ed4 ,boeckh1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #fbc         
sq41 ,frag4 #ih4      ,m#eb ,the        
octennial cycle at ,cnossus in ,crete4  
,king ,minos and ,zeus4 ,sacred         

marriage of the king and queen of       
,cnossus in the form of bull and        
cow as symbols of the sun and moon4     
#afh ,homer1 ,odyssey1 xix4 #agh sq41   
1  1               4          with the  
,scholia2 ,plato1 ,laws1 i4 ,i4 p4 #fbd 
,a1 ,b2id4 ,minos1        #ac sq41 pp4  
#cai sq42 ,strabo1 ix4 #d4 #h1 p4 #dgf2 
,maximus ,tyrius1        ,dissert4      
xxxviii4 #b2 ,etymologicum magnum1 s4v4 
1 p4        #cdc1 #bc sqq42 ,valerius   
,maximus1 i4 #b1 ext4 ,i2 compare       
,diodorus        ,siculus1 v4 #gh4 #c4  
,homer's expression1  1 has been        
variously explained4 ,i follow the      
interpretation which appears to         
have generally found favour both with   
the ancients1 including ,plato1         
and with modern scholars4 ,see ,k4      
,hoeck1 ,kreta1 i4 #bdd sqq42 ,k4       
,o4 ,mller1,die ,dorier1#b ii4 #if2 ,g4 
,f4 ,unger1 8,zeitrechnung der          
,griechen und ,rmer10 in ,ivan ,mller's 
,handbuch der klassischen               
,altertumswissenschaft1 i4 #efi2 ,a4    

,schmidt1 ,handbuch der                 
griechischen ,chronologie 7,jena1       
#ahhh71 p4 #fe2 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 8,die 
enneadischen und hebdomadischen ,fristen
 und ,wochen der ltesten                
,griechen10 ,abhandlungen der           
philolog4-histor4 ,klasse der ,knigl4   
,schsischen ,gesellschaft der           
,wissenschaften1 xxi4 ,no4 #d 7,leipsic1
        #aijc71 pp4 #bb sq42 ,e4 ,rohde1
 ,psyche1#c i4 #abh sq4 ,literally      
interpreted1  means 8for nine years10   
not 8for eight years40        ,but see  
above1 p4 #ei1 note #a4      #afi       
,apollodorus1 iii4 #a4 #c sq41 iii4 #ae4
 #h2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #gg2       
,schol4 on ,euripides1 ,hippolytus1     
#hhg2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1 i4      
#dgi sqq42 ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #dj2     
,virgil1 ,ecl4 vi4 #de sqq42            
,ovid1 ,ars amat4 i4 #bhi sqq4      #agj
 ,k4 ,hoeck1 ,kreta1 ii4 7,gttingen1    
#ahbh7 pp4 #fc-fi2 ,l4 ,preller1        
,griechische ,mythologie1#c ii4         
#aai-abc2 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ber ,selene 

mid ,verwandtes 7,leipsic1 #ahij71 pp4  
#ace-aci2 id41 ,nachtrge zu             
meiner ,schrift ber ,selene 7,leipsic1  
#ahie71 p4 #c2 ,trk1 in ,w4 ,h4         
,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 
,mythologie1 iii4 #afff        sq42 ,a4 
,j4 ,evans1 8,mycenaean ,tree and       
,pillar ,cult10 ,journal of             
,hellenic ,studies1 xxi4 7#aija7 p4     
#aha2 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1  
and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xvii4
 7#aijc7 pp4 #djf-dab2 compare          
id41 8,the ,european ,sky-god10         
,folklore1 xv4 7#aijd7 p4 #bgb4 ,all    
these writers1 except ,mr4 ,cook1 regard
 ,minos and ,pasiphae as                
representing the sun and moon4 ,mr4     
,cook agrees so far as relates to       
,minos1 but he supposes ,pasiphae to be 
a sky-goddess or sun-goddess            
rather than a goddess of the moon4 ,on  
the other hand1 he was the        first 
to suggest that the myth was            
periodically acted by the king          
and queen of ,cnossus disguised in      

bovine form4      #aga ,compare ,the    
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #cfh sq4      #agb ,bekker's
 ,anecdota ,graeca1 i4 #cdd1 s4v4  4    
#agc ,eusebius1 ,praeparatio ,evangelii1
 iii4 #ac4 #a sq42 ,diodorus            
,siculus1 i4 #hd4 #d1 i4 #hh4 #d2       
,strabo1 xvii4 #a4 #bb and #bg1 pp4     
#hjc1        #hje2 ,aelian1 ,de natura  
animalium1 xi4 ,,ii2 ,suidas1 s4v4 2    
,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxii4 #ad4 #g2  
,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,herodots ,zweites      
,buch1 p4 #eeb2 ,a4 ,erman1 ,die        
gyptische ,religion 7,berlin1 #aije71   
p4 #bf2 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,the    
,gods of the ,egyptians 7,london1       
#aijd71 i4 #ccj4      #agd ,e4 ,a4      
,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,gods of the       
,egyptians1 i4 #be4      #age           
,pausanias1 i4 #bf4 #a4 ,for a          
description of the scenery of this      
coast1        see ,morritt1 in          
,walpole's ,memoirs relating to         
,european ,turkey1 i4#b        p4 #ed4  
#agf ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ber ,selene und  

,verwandtes1 pp4 #cj-cc4      #agg ,see 
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 ii4 #acj sqq4 ,we        are    
told that ,egyptian sovereigns assumed  
the masks of lions1 bulls1        and   
serpents as symbols of power 7,diodorus 
,siculus1 i4 #fb4 #d74      ,m#ec ,the  
same myth and custom of the marriage of 
the sun and moon appear        in the   
stories of ,zeus and ,europa1 of ,minos 
and ,britomartis4 ,the                  
conjunction of the sun and moon regarded
 as the best time for        marriages4 
,octennial marriage of the king and     
queen as        representatives of the  
sun and moon4      #agh ,as to ,minos   
and ,britomartis or ,dictynna1 see      
,callimachus1 ,hymn to        ,diana1   
#ahi sqq42 ,pausanias1 ii4 #cj4 #c2     
,antoninus ,liberalis1                  
,transform4 #dj2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 
#gf4 ,on ,britomartis as a              
moon-goddess1 see ,k4 ,hoeck1 ,kreta1   
ii4 #agj2 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ber         
,selene und ,verwandtes1 pp4 #de sq41   

#aaf-aah4 ,hoeck acutely                
perceived that the pursuit of           
,britomartis by ,minos 8is a trait of   
old festival customs in which the       
conceptions of the sun-god were         
transferred to the king of the island40 
,as to the explanation here             
adopted of the myth of ,zeus and        
,europa1 see ,k4 ,hoeck1 ,kreta1 i4 #ij 
sqq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 op4 cit4 pp4    
#abh-ace4 ,moschus describes        7ii4
 #hd sqq47 the bull which carried off   
,europa as yellow in        colour with 
a silver circle shining on his forehead1
 and he compares        the bull's horns
 to those of the moon4      #agi ,see   
,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gf-hb4  
,amongst the passages of                
classical writers which he cites are    
,plutarch1 ,de facie in orbe            
lunae1 #cj2 id41 ,isis et ,osiris1 #eb2 
,cornutus1 ,theologiae        ,graecae  
compendium1 #cd1 p4 #gb1 ed4 ,c4 ,lang2 
,proclus1 on ,hesiod1        ,works and 
,days1 #ghj2 ,macrobius1 ,commentar4 in 

,somnium ,scipionis1        i4 #ah4 #aj 
sq42 ,pliny1 ,nat4 hist4 ii4 #de4 ,when 
the sun and moon        were eclipsed1  
the ,tahitians supposed that the        
luminaries were in        the act of    
copulation 7,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary    
,voyage to the ,southern        ,pacific
 ,ocean 7,london1 #agii71 p4 #cdf74     
,m#ed ,octennial tribute of youths and  
maidens probably required as a means    
of renewing the sun's fire by human     
sacrifices4 ,the ,minotaur a            
bull-headed image of the sun4      #ahj 
,plutarch1 ,theseus1 #ae sq42 ,diodorus 
,siculus1 iv4 #fa2 ,pausanias1        i4
 #bg4 #aj2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 viii4 #agj sq4
 ,according to another        account1  
the tribute of youths and maidens was   
paid every year4 ,see        ,virgil1   
,aen4 vi4 #ad sqq41 with the commentary 
of ,servius2        ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 
#da4      #aha ,apollodorus1 i4 #i4 #bf2
 ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argon4 iv4 #afch
 sqq41        with the scholium2        
,agatharchides1 in ,photius1            

,bibliotheca1 p4        #ddc;b1 lines   
#bb-be1 ed4 ,bekker2 ,lucian1 ,de       
saltatione1 #di2        ,zenobius1 v4   
#he2 ,suidas1 s4v4  2 ,eustathius on    
,homer1 ,odyssey1 xx4 #cjb1 p4 #ahic2   
,schol4 on ,plato1 ,republic1 i4        
p4 #ccg;,a4      #ahb ,apollodorus1 i4  
#i4 #bf4      #ahc ,hesychius1 s4v4 4   
#ahd ,diodorus ,siculus1 xx4 #ad2       
,clitarchus1 cited by ,suidas1 s4v4     
1 and by the ,scholiast on ,plato1      
,republic1 p4 #ccg;,a2        ,plutarch1
 ,de superstitione1 #ac2 ,paulus        
,fagius1 quoted by ,selden1        ,de  
dis ,syris 7,leipsic1 #affh71 pp4 #afi  
sq4 ,the calf's head of the        idol 
is mentioned only by ,p4 ,fagius1 who   
drew his account from a        book     
,jalkut by ,rabbi ,simeon4      #ahe    
,compare ,m4 ,mayer1 s4v4 8,kronos10 in 
,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon d4          
griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 iii4 #aeja  
sqq4      #ahf ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1
 i4 #fdf sqq4      ,m#ee ,dance of the  
youths and maidens at ,cnossus4         

#ahg ,homer1 ,iliad1 xviii4 #eij sqq4   
#ahh ,plutarch1 ,theseus1 #ba2 ,julius  
,pollux1 iv4 #aja4      ,m#ef ,the game 
of ,troy4      #ahi ,as to the ,game of 
,troy1 see ,virgil1 ,aen4 v4 #ede-fjc2  
,plutarch1        ,cato1 #c2 ,tacitus1  
,annals1 xi4 #aa2 ,suetonius1 ,augustus1
 #dc2        id41 ,tiberius1 #f2 id41   
,caligula1 #ah2 id41 ,nero1 #f2 ,w4     
,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and      
,roman ,antiquities1#c s4v4 8,trojae    
ludus02 ,o4 ,benndorf1 8,das ,alter des 
,trojaspieles10 appended to ,w4         
,reichel's ber homerische ,waffen       
7,vienna1 #ahid71 pp4 #acc-aci4         
#aij ,o4 ,benndorf1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acc   
sq4      #aia ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia  
numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 pp4 #chi-cia4 
#aib ,o4 ,benndorf1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acd   
sq4      #aic ,pliny1 ,nat4 hist4 xxxvi4
 #he4      #aid ,o4 ,benndorf1 op4 cit4 
p4 #ace2 ,w4 ,meyer1 8,ein ,labyrinth   
mit        ,versen10 ,sitzungsberichte  
der philosoph4 philolog4 und histor4    
,classe der k4 b4 ,akademie der         

,wissenschaften zu ,mnchen1 #ahhb1      
vol4 ii4 pp4 #bfg-cjj4      ,m#eg ,the  
dance at ,cnossus perhaps an imitation  
of the sun's course in the        sky4  
#aie ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the      
,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cab4      #aif
 ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia numorum1 p4   
#chi4      ,m#eh ,conclusions as to the 
king of ,cnossus4    ,m#ei ,octennial   
festivals of the ,crowning at ,delphi   
and the ,laurel-bearing        at       
,thebes4 ,both represented dramatically 
the slaying of a        water-dragon4   
#aig ,censorinus1 ,de die natali1 #ah4  
#f4      #aih ,the suggestion was made  
by ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook4 ,the following   
discussion        of the subject is     
founded on his ingenious exposition4    
,see his        article1 8,the ,european
 ,sky-god10 ,folklore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4  
#djb-dbd4      #aii ,as to the ,delphic 
festival see ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,graec4
 #ab2 id41        ,de defectu           
oraculorum1 #ae2 ,strabo1 ix4 #c4 #ab1  
pp4 #dbb sq42        ,aelian1 ,var4     

hist4 iii4 #a2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1   
s4v4 2        ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,die      
,dorier1#b i4 #bjc sqq41 #cba-cbd2 ,aug4
 ,mommsen1        ,delphika 7,leipsic1  
#ahgh71 pp4 #bjf sqq42 ,th4 ,schreiber1 
,apollo        ,pythoktonos1 pp4 #i     
sqq42 my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #g4 #g 
7vol4 ii4        #ec sqq474 ,as to the  
,theban festival1 see ,pausanias1 ix4   
#aj4 #d1        with my note2 ,proclus1 
quoted by ,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4    
#cba1 ed4        ,bekker2 ,aug4 ,boeckh1
 in his edition of ,pindar1             
,explicationes1 p4        #eij2 ,k4 ,o4 
,mller1 ,orchomenus und die ,minyer1#b  
pp4 #bae sq42        id41 ,dorier1#b i4 
#bcf sq41 #ccc sq42 ,c4 ,boetticher1    
,der        ,baumkultus der ,hellenen1  
pp4 #chf sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,schmann1        
,griechische ,alterthmer1#d ii4 #dgi sq4
      #bjj ,apollodorus1 iii4 #d4 #b1   
iii4 #aj4 #d2 ,servius1 on ,virgil1     
,aen4 vii4        #gfa4 ,the servitude  
of ,apollo is traditionally associated  
with his        slaughter of the        

,cyclopes1 not of the dragon4 ,but see  
my note on        ,pausanias1 ii4 #g4 #g
 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #ec sqq474      #bja ,w4 
,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon d4 griech4 und  
rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #hcj1        #hch1 
#hci4 ,on an ,etruscan mirror the scene 
of ,cadmus's combat with        the     
dragon is surrounded by a wreath of     
laurel 7,roscher1 op4 cit4        ii4   
#hfb74 ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook was the first 
to call attention to these              
vase-paintings in confirmation of my    
view that the ,festival of the          
,laurel-bearing celebrated the          
destruction of the dragon by ,cadmus    
7,folklore1 xv4 7#aijd7 p4 #daa1 note   
#bbd74      #bjb ,pausanias1 ix4 #aj4   
#b2 ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,die ,dorier1#b i4  
#bcg sq4      #bjc ,for evidence of the 
wide diffusion of the myth and the      
drama1 see        ,th4 ,schreiber1      
,apollon ,pythoktonos1 pp4 #ci-ej4 ,the 
,laurel-bearing        ,apollo was      
worshipped at ,athens1 as we know from  
an inscription        carved on one of  

the seats in the theatre4 ,see ,e4 ,s4  
,roberts and ,e4        ,a4 ,gardner1   
,introduction to ,greek ,epigraphy1 ii4 
7,cambridge1 #aije7        p4 #dfg1 ,no4
 #bdg4      ,m#fj ,both at ,delphi and  
at ,thebes the dragon seems to have     
guarded the        oracular spring and  
the oracular tree4 ,the crown of laurel 
and the        crown of oak4 ,the       
,festival of ,crowning at ,delphi       
originally        identical with the    
,pythian games4      #bjd ,apollodorus1 
iii4 #d4 #c2 ,schol4 on ,homer1 ,iliad1 
ii4 #did2        ,pausanias1 ix4 #aj4   
#e2 ,homeric ,hymn to ,apollo1 #cjj sq4 
,the writer        of the ,homeric hymn 
merely says that ,apollo slew the       
,delphic dragon        at a spring2 but 
,pausanias 7x4 #f4 #f7 tells us that the
 beast guarded        the oracle4       
#bje ,pausanias1 x4 #h4 #i1 x4 #bd4 #g1 
with my notes2 ,ovid1 ,amores1 i4 #ae4  
#ce sq42 ,lucian1 ,jupiter tragoedus1   
#cj2 ,nonnus1 ,dionys4 iv4 #cji         
sq42 ,suidas1 s4v4 4      #bjf ,w4 ,h4  

,roscher1 ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4    
,mythologie1 ii4 #hcj1        #hch4     
#bjg ,euripides1 ,iphigenia in ,tauris1 
#abde sq41 where the reading         is 
clearly corrupt4      #bjh ,lucian1 ,bis
 accusatus1 ,i4 ,so the priest of the   
,clarian ,apollo at        ,colophon    
drank of a secret spring before he      
uttered oracles in verse                
7,tacitus1 ,annals1 ii4 #ed2 ,pliny1    
,nat4 hist4 ii4 #bcb74      #bji        
,euripides1 ,iphigenia in ,tauris1 #abde
 sqq42 ,apollodorus1 i4 #d4 ,i2         
,pausanias1 x4 #f4 #f2 ,aelian1 ,var4   
hist4 iii4 i2 ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1       
#adj2 ,schol4 on ,homer1 ,iliad1 ii4    
#eai2 ,schol4 on ,pindar1 ,pyth4        
,argument1 p4 #bih1 ed4 ,boeckh4        
#baj ,euripides1 ,hercules ,furens1 #cie
 sqq42 ,apollodorus1 ii4 #e4 ,,ii2      
,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #bf2            
,eratosthenes1 ,catasterism4 #c2 ,schol4
 on        ,euripides1 ,hippolytus1     
#gdb2 ,schol4 on ,apollonius ,rhodius1  
,argon1        iv4 #acif4      #baa ,a4 

,b4 ,cook1 8,the ,european ,sky-god10   
,folklore1 xv4 7#aijd7 p4 #dac4         
#bab ,ovid1 ,metam4 i4 #ddh sqq4        
#bac ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4
 i4 ,i1 p4 #b1 and ii4 #cd1 p4 #bi1     
ed4 ,potter2 ,aristotle1 ,peplos1 ,frag4
 7,fragmenta historicorum               
,graecorum1 ii4 p4 #ahi1 ,no4 #bhb1 ed4 
,c4 ,mller72 ,john of ,antioch1         
,frag4 i4 #bj 7,frag4 histor4 ,graec4   
iv4 p4 #eci1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller72           
,jamblichus1 ,de ,pythagor4 vit4 x4 #eb2
 ,schol4 on ,pindar1 ,pyth4             
,argum4 p4 #bih1 ed4 ,boeckh2 ,ovid1    
,metam4 i4 #dde sqq42 ,hyginus1         
,fabulae1 #adj4      #bad ,schol4 on    
,pindar1 l4c42 ,censorinus1 ,de die     
natali1 #ah4 #f2        compare         
,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 iii4 #bfg1  
p4 #adff4 #bi4      #bae ,plutarch1 ,de 
defectu oraculorum1 #c1 compared with   
id4 #ae2 ,aug4        ,mommsen1         
,delphika1 pp4 #baa1 #bad2 ,th4         
,schreiber1 ,apollon        ,pythoktonos
 7,leipsic1 #ahgi71 pp4 #cb sqq4        

#baf ,aelian1 ,var4 hist4 iii4 ,i2      
,schol4 on ,pindar1 l4c4      #bag ,on  
the original identity of the festivals  
see ,th4 ,schreiber1        ,apollon    
,pythoktonus1 pp4 #cg sq42 ,a4 ,b4      
,cook1 in ,folklore1 xv4        7#aijd7 
pp4 #djd sq4      #bah ,the inference   
was drawn by ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 whom ,i
 follow4 ,see his        article1 8,the 
,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1 xv4    
7#aijd7 pp4 #dab        sqq4      ,m#fa 
,substitution of the laurel for the oak4
      #bai ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the
 ,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 i4 p4 #h4   
#bbj ,aelian1 ,var4 hist4 iii4 #a2      
,schol4 on ,pindar1 ,pyth4 ,argum4 p4   
#bih1 ed4 ,boeckh4      #bba ,a4 ,b4    
,cook1 8,the ,european ,sky-god10       
,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #dbc        
sq4      #bbb ,pausanias1 ix4 #c4 #d4   
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1        vol4 ii4 p4 #adj4    
,m#fb ,hypothesis of octennial kings at 
,delphi and ,thebes1 who personated     
dragons or serpents4 ,animals sacred to 

royal families4 ,greek stories        of
 the transformation of gods into beasts 
point to a custom of a        sacred    
marriage in which the actors masqueraded
 as animals4      #bbc ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1   
8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1  
xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #djb        sqq4        
,m#fc ,analogy of the ,wolf ,society of 
,arcadia to the ,leopard ,society of    
west ,africa4      #bbd ,plato1         
,republic1 viii4 p4 #efe ,d ,e2         
,polybius1 vii4 #ac2 ,pliny1 ,nat4      
hist4 viii4 #ha2 ,varro1 cited by       
,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1          
xviii4 #ag2 ,pausanias1 vi4 #h4 #b1     
viii4 #b4 #c-f4      #bbe ,mary ,h4     
,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west ,africa1   
pp4 #ecf-edc2 ,t4 ,j4        ,alldridge1
 ,the ,sherbro and its ,hinterland      
7,london1 #aija71 pp4        #aec-aei2  
compare ,r4 ,h4 ,nassau1 ,fetichism in  
,west ,africa 7,london1        #aijd71  
pp4 #bjj-bjc4      #bbf ,t4 ,j4         
,alldridge1 op4 cit4 p4 #aed4      #bbg 
,a4 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition 

an der ,loango-,kste1 ii4 #bdh4         
,m#fd ,legend of the transformation of  
,cadmus and ,harmonia into serpents4    
,transmigration of the souls of the dead
 into serpents4 ,kings claim            
kinship with the most powerful animals4 
#bbh ,apollodorus1 iii4 #e4 #d2 ,strabo1
 vii4 #g4 #h1 p4 #cbf2 ,ovid1 ,metam4   
iv4 #efc-fjc2 ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #f2   
,nicander1 ,theriaca1 #fjg sqq4         
#bbi ,a4 van ,gennep1 ,tabou et totmisme
  ,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 p4       
#cbf4      #bcj ,dercylus1 quoted by a  
scholiast on ,euripides1 ,phoenissae1   
#g2        ,fragmenta historicorum      
,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iv4 #chg4   
,the        writer rationalises the     
legend by representing the dragon as a  
,theban man of that name whom ,cadmus   
slew4 ,on the theory here               
suggested this ,euhemeristic version of 
the story is substantially        right4
      #bca ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the
 ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bfh sqq4    
#bcb ,david ,leslie1 ,among the ,zulus  

and ,amatongas1 ,second ,edition        
7,edinburgh1 #ahge71 p4 #bac4 ,compare  
,h4 ,callaway1 ,the ,religious          
,system of the ,amazulu1 ,part ,,ii41   
pp4 #aif1 #baa4      #bcc ,see ,adonis1 
,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4  
#gc sqq4      #bcd ,d4 ,livingstone1    
,missionary ,travels and ,researches in 
,south ,africa1        p4 #fae2 ,miss   
,a4 ,werner1 ,the ,natives of ,british  
,central ,africa        7,london1       
#aijf71 p4 #fd2 ,l4 ,decle1 ,three      
,years in ,savage ,africa               
7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #gd2 ,j4 ,roscoe1  
8,the ,bahima10 ,journal of the         
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvii4    
7#aijg7 pp4 #aja sq42 ,major ,j4 ,a4    
,meldon1 8,notes on the ,bahima10       
,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 
#bb 7,january1 #aijg71 pp4 #aea-aec2 ,j4
 ,a4 ,chisholm1 8,notes on the          
,manners and ,customs of the ,winamwanga
 and ,wiwa10 ,journal of the            
,african ,society1 ,no4 #cf 7,july1     
#aiaj71 pp4 #cgd1 #cge2 ,p4 ,alois      

,hamberger1 in ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 p4
 #hjb4      #bce ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat and ,c4 
,o4 ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the      
,malay ,peninsula        7,london1      
#aijf71 ii4 #aid1 #aig1 #bba1 #bbg1     
#cje4      #bcf ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the    
,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave    
,coast1 pp4 #gd        sq4      #bcg    
,this ,i learned from ,professor ,f4 von
 ,luschan in the ,anthropological       
,museum at ,berlin4      #bch ,m4       
,delafosse1 in ,la ,nature1 ,no4 #ajhf  
7,march #bdth1 #ahid71 pp4              
#bfb-bff2 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 8,statues of 
,three ,kings of ,dahomey10 ,man1       
viii4 7#aijh7 pp4 #acj-acb4 ,king       
,behanzin1 surnamed the ,shark1 is      
doubtless the ,king of ,dahomey referred
 to by ,professor von ,luschan          
7see the preceding note74      #bci ,the
 statue was pointed out to me and       
explained by ,professor ,f4 von         
,luschan4      #bdj ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the
 ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold   
,coast1 pp4 #bje        sq4      #bda #b

 ,kings xviii4 #d4      #bdb ,w4        
,robertson ,smith1 8,animal ,worship and
 ,animal ,tribes10 ,journal of          
,philology1 ix4 7#ahhj7 pp4 #ii sq4     
,professor ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne prefers      
to suppose that the brazen serpent and  
the brazen 8sea0 in the        temple at
 ,jerusalem were borrowed from ,babylon 
and represented the        great dragon1
 the impersonation of the primaeval     
watery chaos4 ,see        ,encyclopaedia
 ,biblica1 s4v4 8,nehushtan10 vol4 i4   
coll4 #cchg4 ,the        two views are  
perhaps not wholly irreconcilable4 ,see 
below1 pp4 #aaa        sq4      ,m#fe   
,the serpent the royal animal at ,athens
 and ,salamis4      #bdc ,herodotus1    
viii4 #da2 ,plutarch1 ,themistocles1    
#aj2 ,aristophanes1        ,lysistrata1 
#geh sq41 with the ,scholium2           
,philostratus1        ,imagines1 ii4    
#ag4 #f4 ,some said that there were two 
serpents        1,hesychius and         
,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4  4 ,for the    
identity of the serpent with            

,erichthonius1 see ,pausanias1 i4 #bd4  
#g2        ,hyginus1 ,astronomica1 ii4  
#ac2 ,tertullian1 ,de spectaculis1 #i2  
compare ,philostratus1 ,vit4 ,apoll4    
vii4 #bd2 and for the identity of       
,erichthonius and ,erechtheus1 see      
,schol4 on ,homer1 ,iliad1 ii4 #edg2    
,etymologicum magnum1 p4 #cga1 s4v4 4   
,according to some1        the upper    
part of ,erichthonius was human and the 
lower part or only        the feet      
serpentine4 ,see ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1    
#aff2 id41        ,astronomica1 ii4 #ac2
 ,schol4 on ,plato1 ,timaeus1 p4 #bc ,d2
        ,etymologicum magnum1 l4c42     
,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #ac4  
,see further my notes on ,pausanias i4  
#ah4 #b and i4 #bf4 #e1 vol4 ii4        
pp4 #afh sqq41 #ccj sqq4      #bdd      
,apollodorus1 iii4 #ad4 i2              
,aristophanes1 ,wasps1 #dch4 ,compare   
,j4        ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1 v4     
#fda4      #bde ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1       
,lexikon d4 griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1
 ii4 #ajai4        ,compare ,euripides1 

,ion1 #aafc sqq4      #bdf ,o4 ,immisch1
 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon d4      
griech4 und rm4        ,mythologie1 ii4 
#ajbc4      #bdg ,apollodorus1 iii4 #ab4
 #g2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #gb2 ,j4   
,tzetzes1        ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 
#aaj1 #age1 #dea4      #bdh ,pausanias1 
i4 #cf4 #a4 ,another version of the     
story was that ,cychreus        bred a  
snake which ravaged the island and was  
driven out by        ,eurylochus1 after 
which ,demeter received the creature at 
,eleusis as        one of her attendants
 7,hesiod1 quoted by ,strabo1 ix4 #a4   
#i1 p4 #cic74      #bdi ,stephanus      
,byzantius1 s4v4  2 ,eustathius1        
,commentary        on ,dionysius1 #ejg1 
in ,geographi ,graeci minores1 ed4 ,c4  
,mller1        ii4 #cad4      #bej      
,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,athenagoras1        
,supplicatio pro        ,christianis1   
#a2 ,plutarch1 ,vit4 ,x4 ,orat4 p4 #hdc 
,b ,c2 ,corpus        inscriptionum     
,atticarum1 i4 ,no4 #chg1 iii4 ,nos4    
#bgf1 #hje2 compare        ,pausanias1  

i4 #bf4 #e4      #bea ,apollodorus1 iii4
 #ad4 #a2 ,herodotus1 viii4 #ee2 compare
 ,pausanias1        viii4 #aj4 #d4      
,m#ff ,the wedding of ,cadmus and       
,harmonia at ,thebes may have been a    
dramatic representation of the marriage 
of the sun and moon at the        end of
 the eight years' cycle4      #beb ,see 
above1 p4 #gc4      #bec ,apollodorus1  
iii4 #d4 #a sq42 ,pausanias1 ix4 #ab4 #a
 sq42 ,schol4 on        ,homer1 ,iliad1 
ii4 #did2 ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #agh4 ,the
 mark of the        moon on the cow is  
mentioned only by ,pausanias and        
,hyginus4      #bed ,apollodorus1 iii4  
#d4 #b2 ,euripides1 ,phoenissae1 #hbb   
sq42 ,pindar1        ,pyth4 iii4 #aee   
sqq42 ,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #di4 #a2   
,pausanias1 iii4        #ah4 #ab1 ix4   
#ab4 #c2 ,schol4 on ,homer1 ,iliad1 ii4 
#did4      ,m#fg ,this theory confirmed 
by the astronomical symbols carried by  
the        ,laurel-bearer at the        
octennial festival of ,laurel-bearing4  
,the        ,olympic festival seems to  

have been based on the octennial cycle4 
,mythical marriage of the sun and moon  
at ,olympia4      #bee ,proclus1 quoted 
by ,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4 #cba1 ed4 
,bekker4      #bef ,proclus1 l4c4       
#beg ,pindar1 ,pyth4 iii4 #aee sqq42    
,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #di4 #a2         
,pausanias1 ix4 #ab4 #c2 ,schol4 on     
,homer1 ,iliad1 ii4 #did4      #beh     
,schol4 on ,euripides1 ,phoenissae1 #g  
scil4    4 ,according to the            
,samothracian account1 ,cadmus in       
seeking ,europa came to ,samothrace1    
and there1 having been initiated into   
the mysteries1 married        ,harmonia 
7,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #dh sq474 ,it is
 probable1 though it        cannot be   
proved1 that the legend was acted in the
 mystic rites4      #bei ,see ,the      
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #acc4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4          
,cook has suggested that the central    
scene on the eastern frieze of          
the ,parthenon represents the king and  
queen of ,athens about to take          

their places among the enthroned        
deities4 ,see his article 8,zeus1       
,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical     
,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 p4 #cga4 ,as    
the scenes on the frieze appear to have 
been copied from the                    
,panathenaiac festival1 it would seem1  
on ,mr4 ,cook's hypothesis1 that        
the sacred marriage of the ,king and    
,queen was celebrated on that           
occasion in presence of actors who      
played the parts of gods and            
goddesses4 ,in this connexion it may not
 be amiss to remember that in        the
 eastern gable of the ,parthenon the    
pursuit of the moon by the        sun   
was mythically represented by the horses
 of the sun emerging        from the sea
 on the one side1 and the horses of the 
moon plunging        into it on the     
other4      #bfj ,schol4 on ,pindar1    
,olymp4 iii4 #ce 7#bj74      #bfa       
,compare ,aug4 ,boeckh1 on ,pindar1     
l4c41 ,explicationes1 p4 #ach2 ,l4      
,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen   

und technischen ,chronologie1        i4 
#cff sq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,unger1 8,zeitrechnung
 der ,griechen und ,rmer10 in           
,iwan ,mller's ,handbuch der classischen
 ,altertumswissenschaft1 i4        #fje 
sq4 ,all these writers recognise the    
octennial cycle at        ,olympia4     
#bfb ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,die ,dorier1#b ii4
 #dhc2 compare id4 i4 #bed sq4      #bfc
 ,pausanias1 v4 #a4 #d4      #bfd ,aug4 
,boeckh1 l4c42 ,a4 ,schmidt1 ,handbuch  
der griechischen        ,chronologie    
7,jena1 #ahhh71 pp4 #ej sqq42 ,k4 ,o4   
,mller1 ,die        ,dorier1#b i4 #dch2 
,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,selene und           
,verwandtes1 pp4 #b        sq41 #hj sq41
 #aja4      #bfe ,see ,aug4 ,boeckh and 
,l4 ,ideler1 ll4cc4 ,more recent writers
 would        date it on the second full
 moon after the summer solstice1 hence  
in        ,august or the last days of   
,july4 ,see ,g4 ,f4 ,unger1 l4c42 ,e4   
,f4        ,bischoff1 8,de fastis       
,graecorum antiquioribus10 ,leipziger   
,studien        zur classischen         

,philologie1 vii4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #cdg sq42 
,aug4        ,mommsen1 ber die ,zeit der
 ,olympien 7,leipsic1 #ahia72 and my    
note        on ,pausanias1 v4 #i4 #c    
7vol4 iii4 pp4 #dhh sq474      ,m#fh    
,the ,olympic victors1 male and female1 
may originally have        represented  
,zeus and ,hera or the ,sun and ,moon1  
and have reigned as        divine king  
and queen for four or eight years4      
#bff ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,the ,european     
,sky-,god10 ,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 
#cih-djb4      #bfg ,rapp1 in ,w4 ,h4   
,roscher's ,lexikon d4 griech4 und rm4  
,mythologie1        i4 #bjje sqq4       
#bfh ,pausanias1 v4 #ae4 #c1 with my    
note2 ,schol4 on ,pindar1 ,olymp4 iii4  
#fj4      #bfi ,pausanias1 v4 #aa4 #a4  
#bgj ,pausanias1 v4 #af4 #b sqq4        
#bga ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the      
,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adc4 
#bgb ,pausanias1 v4 #af4 #d4      #bgc  
,many years after the theory in the text
 was printed 7for the present           
volume has been long in the press7 ,i   

accidentally learned that my            
friend ,mr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,cornford1 ,fellow  
and ,lecturer of ,trinity ,college1     
,cambridge1 had quite independently     
arrived at a similar conclusion         
with regard to the mythical and dramatic
 parts played by the ,olympic           
victors1 male and female1 as            
representatives of the ,sun and ,moon1  
and ,i had the pleasure of hearing him  
expound the theory in a        brilliant
 lecture delivered before the ,classical
 ,society of        ,cambridge1 #bhth   
,february #aiaa4 ,the coincidence of two
 independent        enquirers in        
conclusions1 which can hardly be called 
obvious1 seems        to furnish a      
certain confirmation of their truth4 ,in
 ,mr4 ,cornford's        case the theory
 in question forms part of a more       
elaborate and        comprehensive      
hypothesis as to the origin of the      
,olympic games1        concerning which 
,i must for the present suspend my      
judgment4      #bgd ,herodian1 v4 #f4   

#c-e4      ,m#fi ,tradition that the    
great games of ,greece originated in    
funeral        celebrations4      #bge  
,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 
#cd1 p4 #bi1 ed4 ,potter4 ,the          
following account of funeral games is   
based on my note on ,pausanias        i4
 #dd4 #h 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #edi sq474       
,compare ,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,the ,origin    
of ,tragedy 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #cb
 sqq4      #bgf ,clement of ,alexandria1
 l4c4      #bgg ,pausanias1 v4 #ac4 #a  
sq4      #bgh ,scholiast on ,pindar1    
,olymp4 i4 #adf4      #bgi ,varro1 cited
 by ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iii4    
#fg4      #bhj ,f4 ,bonney1 8,on some   
,customs of the ,aborigines of the      
,river ,darling10        ,journal of the
 ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4     
7#ahhd7 pp4 #acd        sq42 ,spencer   
and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central
 ,australia1 pp4        #ejg1 #eji sq42 
7,sir7 ,g4 ,grey1 ,journals of ,two     
,expeditions of        ,discovery in    
,north-,west and ,western ,australia    

7,london1 #ahda71 ii4        #ccb4      
#bha ,reports of the ,cambridge         
,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres 
,straits1 vi4 7,cambridge1 #aijh7 pp4   
#ace1 #aed4      #bhb ,hyginus1         
,fabulae1 #gd2 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #f4   
#d2 ,schol4 on ,pindar1        ,pyth41  
,introduction2 ,pausanias1 ii4 #ae4 #b  
sq42 ,clement of        ,alexandria1    
,protrept4 ii4 #cd1 p4 #bi1 ed4 ,potter4
      #bhc ,scholiast on ,pindar1       
,isthm41 ,introduction1 p4 #ead1 ed4    
,boeckh2        ,pausanias1 i4 #dd4 #h2 
,apollodorus1 iii4 #d4 #c2 ,zenobius1   
iv4 #ch2        ,clement of ,alexandria1
 l4c42 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,scholia on        
,lycophron1        #ajg1 #bbi2 ,scholia 
on ,euripides1 ,medea1 #abhd2 ,hyginus1 
,fabulae1        #b4      #bhd ,clement 
of ,alexandria1 l4c42 ,hyginus1         
,fabulae1 #adj4      ,m#gj ,the         
tradition is confirmed by ,greek        
practice1 for in historical        times
 games were instituted to do honour to  
many famous men in        ,greece4      

#bhe ,homer1 ,iliad1 xxiii4 #bee sqq41  
#fbi sqq41 #fea sqq4      #bhf          
,herodotus1 vi4 #ch4      #bhg          
,pausanias1 iii4 #ad4 #a4      #bhh     
,plutarch1 ,de sera numinis vindicta1   
#ag4      #bhi ,thucydides1 v4 #aj sq4  
#bij ,plutarch1 ,timoleon1 #ci4         
#bia ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ah4 #e sq4    
#bib ,arrian1 vii4 #ad4 #aj4      ,m#ga 
,the ,greeks also instituted games in   
honour of large numbers of men          
who had perished in battle or a         
massacre4      #bic ,herodotus1 i4 #afg4
      #bid ,plutarch1 ,aristides1 #ba2  
,strabo1 ix4 #b4 #ca1 p4 #dab2          
,pausanias1 ix4        #b4 #e sq4       
#bie ,philostratus1 ,vit4 ,sophist4 ii4 
#cj2 ,heliodorus1 ,aethiopica1 i4       
#ag2 compare ,aristotle1 ,constitution  
of ,athens1 #eh4      ,m#gb ,funeral    
games have been celebrated in honour of 
the dead by other        peoples both in
 ancient and modern times4      #bif    
,herodotus1 v4 #h4      #big ,livy1     
xxiii4 #cj4 #ae4      #bih ,livy1 xxxi4 

#ej4 #d4      #bii ,livy1 xxxix4 #df4 #b
 sq4      #cjj ,census of ,india1 #aija1
 vol4 iii41 ,the ,andaman and ,nicobar  
,islands1 by ,lieut4-,col4 ,sir ,richard
 ,c4 ,temple 7,calcutta1 #aijc71 p4     
#bji4      #cja ,letter of the          
missionary ,chevron1 in ,annales de la  
,propagation de        la ,foi1 xv4     
7#ahdc7 pp4 #dj sq4      #cjb 4         
,aymonier1 ,voyage dans le ,laos        
7,paris1 #ahie-ahig71 ii4 #cbe          
sq42 ,c4 ,bock1 ,temples and ,elephants 
7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #bfb4      #cjc ,a4
 de ,levchine1 ,description des hommes  
et des steppes des                      
,kirghiz-,kazaks ou ,kirghiz-,kaisaks   
7,paris1 #ahdj71 pp4 #cfg sq42 ,h4      
,vambery1 ,das ,trkenvolk 7,leipsic1    
#ahhe71 p4 #bee2 ,p4 von ,stenin1       
8,die ,kirgisen des ,kreises ,saissanak 
im ,gebiete von ,ssemipalatinsk10       
,globus1 lxix4 7#aijf7 p4 #bbh4         
#cjd ,t4 de ,pauly1 ,description        
ethnographique des peuples de la ,russie
        7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahfb71      

,peuples ouralo-altaques1 p4 #bi4       
#cje ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la       
,nouvelle ,france 7,paris1 #agdd71 vi4  
#aaa4      ,m#gc ,funeral games among   
the ,bedouins and among the peoples of  
the        ,caucasus4      #cjf ,i4     
,goldziher1 ,muhammedanische ,studien   
7,halle a4 ,s41 #ahhh-ahij71        ii4 
#cbh sq4 ,however1 ,prof4 ,goldziher    
believes that the festival is        an 
ancient heathen one which has been      
subsequently grafted upon the           
tradition of the orthodox prophet       
,salih4      #cjg ,j4 ,potocki1 ,voyage 
dans les steps d',astrakhan et du       
,caucase        7,paris1 #ahbi71 i4 #bge
 sq42 ,edmund ,spencer1 ,travels in     
,circassia1        ,krim ,tartary1 etc4 
7,london1 #ahcf7 ii4 #cii4      #cjh ,g4
 ,radde1 ,die ,chews'uren und ihr ,land 
7,cassel1 #ahgh71 pp4 #ie        sq42   
,prince ,eristow1 8,die ,pschawen und   
,chewsurier im ,kaukasus10              
,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde1   
,neue ,folge1 ii4 7#aheg7 p4 #gg4       

#cji ,c4 v4 ,hahn1 8,religise           
,anschauungen und ,totengedchtnisfeier  
der        ,chewsuren10 ,globus1 lxxvi4 
7#ahii7 pp4 #baa sq4      #caj ,n4 v4   
,seidlitz1 8,die ,abchasen10 ,globus1   
lxvi4 7#ahid7 pp4 #db sq4      ,m#gd    
,games periodically held in honour of   
some famous man might in time           
assume the character of a great fair4   
,the great ,irish fairs of              
,tailltin and ,carman1 in which         
horse-races played a prominent part1    
are said to have been instituted in     
honour of the dead4      #caa 7,sir7    
,john ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom        
7,london1 #ahhh71 pp4 #dji sq42         
,h4 d',arbois de ,jubainville1 ,cours de
 littrature celtique1 vii4              
7,paris1 #ahie7 pp4 #cji sqq42 ,p4 ,w4  
,joyce1 ,social ,history of             
,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4 
#dch sqq4 8,the aenach or        fair   
was an assembly of the people of every  
grade without        distinction2 it was
 the most common kind of large public   

meeting1        and its main object was 
the celebration of games1 athletic      
exercises1 sports1 and pastimes of all  
kinds0 7,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 op4        cit4 
ii4 #dch74 ,the ,irish name is          
,tailltiu1 genitive ,taillten1          
accusative and dative ,tailltin 7,sir   
,j4 ,rhys1 op4 cit4 p4 #dji        note 
#a74      #cab 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1      
,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #daa2 ,h4       
d',arbois de        ,jubainville1 ,cours
 de littrature celtique1 vii4 #cac sqq42
 ,p4 ,w4        ,joyce1 ,social ,history
 of ,ancient ,ireland1 ii4 #dcd sq41    
#dda        sqq4      ,m#ge ,indeed most
 of the great ,irish fairs are said to  
have originated in        funeral games4
      #cac ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 op4 cit4 ii4 
#dce4      #cad ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 op4 cit4
 ii4 #dcd4 ,compare 7,sir7 ,j4 ,rhys1   
,celtic        ,heathendom1 p4 #daa4    
#cae ,h4 d',arbois de ,jubainville1     
,cours de littrature celtique1 vii4     
#cac4      #caf ,h4 d',arbois de        
,jubainville1 op4 cit4 vii4 #caj4       

,m#gf ,the great ,irish fairs were held 
on the first of ,august 7,lammas71      
which seems to have been an old harvest 
festival of first-fruits4      #cag ,p4 
,w4 ,joyce1 op4 cit4 ii4 #chi1 #dci4    
#cah 7,sir7 ,j4 ,rhys1 ,celtic          
,heathendom1 p4 #daj4      #cai 7,sir7  
,j4 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 pp4 #daa
 sq41 quoting the        substance of a 
note by ,thos4 ,hearne1 in his edition  
of ,robert of        ,gloucester's      
,chronicles 7,oxford1 #agbd71 p4 #fgi4  
,as to the        derivation of the word
 see ,new ,english ,dictionary 7,oxford1
 #ahhh- 7        and ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1    
,etymological ,dictionary of the        
,english ,language        7,oxford1     
#aiaj71 s4v4 8,lammas40      #cbj ,see  
above1 p4 #ajj4      #cba ,see ,the     
,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 ii4   
#dei sqq4      #cbb ,see ,the ,golden   
,bough1 ,second ,edition1 ii4 #dfj1     
#dfc1 #dfd sq4      ,m#gg ,if the great 
,irish fairs were instituted in honour  
of the dead1 we        can understand   

why their observance was supposed to    
ensure plenty of        corn1 fruit1    
milk1 and fish4      #cbc ,see above1   
pp4 #ad sqq41 #ba1 #bg1 #cc1 #cf sq4    
#cbd ,see above1 p4 #ih4      #cbe ,see 
above1 p4 #ic4      ,m#gh ,but the      
theory of the funeral origin of the     
,olympic games does not        explain  
all the legends connected with them4    
,suggested theory of the        origin  
of the ,olympic games4      #cbf        
,pausanias1 v4 #a4 #d1 v4 #h4 #a4       
#cbg ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 pp4    
#ahc-ahe ed4 ,r4 ,wagner 7,epitoma1     
ii4 #c-i72 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #gc2 
,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #hd2 ,schol4        
on ,pindar1 ,olymp4 i4 #aad2 ,servius on
 ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #g4 ,see         
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 ii4 #bii sq4      #cbh ,strabo1 
vi4 #c4 #i1 p4 #bhd2 ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1    
,aeschylos ,eumeniden        7,gttingen1
 #ahcc71 p4 #add4      #cbi ,pausanias1 
vi4 #ba4 #i-aa4      ,m#gi ,the ,olympic
 games not a harvest festival1 but based

 on astronomical        considerations4 
,m#hj ,widespread myth of the slaughter 
of a great dragon4 ,the ,babylonian     
story of the slaying of ,tiamat by      
,marduk is a myth of the creation       
of cosmos out of chaos4      #ccj ,p4   
,jensen1 ,die ,kosmologie der           
,babylonier 7,strasburg1 #ahij71 pp4    
#bfc sqq42 id41 ,assyrisch-babylonische 
,mythen und ,epen 7,berlin1             
#aijj71 pp4 #c sqq42 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the 
,religion of ,babylonia and             
,assyria1 pp4 #djg sqq42 ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 
,babylonian ,religion and               
,mythology1 pp4 #ec sqq42 ,h4 ,zimmern1 
in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die                 
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #dhh   
sqq42 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les  
religions smitiques#b        7,paris1   
#aije72 pp4 #cff sqq4      #cca ,p4     
,jensen1 ,die ,kosmologie der           
,babylonier1 pp4 #cjd-cjf2 ,h4 ,gunkel1 
,schpfung und ,chaos in ,urzeit und     
,endzeit 7,gttingen1 #ahie71 pp4        

#aad sqq42 id41 ,genesis bersetzt und   
erklrt 7,gttingen1        #aija71 pp4   
#ajg sqq42 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4
 8,creation10        i4 coll4 #ich sqq42
 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,the ,book of         
,genesis#d 7,london1        #aije71 pp4 
#bg sqq4 ,the myth is clearly alluded to
 in several        passages of          
,scripture1 where the dragon of the sea 
is spoken of as        ,rahab or        
,leviathan4 ,see ,isaiah li4 #i1 8,art  
thou not it that cut        ,rahab in   
pieces1 that pierced the dragon803 id4  
xxvii4 #a1 8,in that        day the     
,lord with his sore and great and strong
 sword shall punish        leviathan the
 swift serpent1 and leviathan the       
crooked serpent2 and        he shall    
slay the dragon that is in the sea03    
,job xxvi4 #ab1 8,he        stirreth up 
the sea with his power1 and by his      
understanding he        smiteth through 
,rahab03 ,psalm lxxxix4 #aj1 8,thou hast
 broken ,rahab in        pieces as one  
that is slain03 ,psalm lxxiv4 #ac sq41  

8,thou didst        divide the sea by   
thy strength3 thou brakest the heads of 
the        dragons in the waters4 ,thou 
brakest the heads of leviathan in       
pieces40 ,see further ,h4 ,gunkel1      
,schpfung und ,chaos1 pp4 #bi sqq4      
,m#ha ,indian story of the slaying of   
,vtra by ,indra4 ,the story may be a    
myth descriptive of the beginning of the
 rainy season in ,india4      #ccb ,a4  
,a4 ,macdonell1 ,vedic ,mythology1 pp4  
#eh-fj1 #aeh sq4 ,compare ,h4           
,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des ,veda1   
pp4 #acd sqq4      #ccc ,see ,m4        
,winternitz1 8,der ,sarpabali1 ein      
altindischer ,schlangencult10           
,mittheilungen der ,anthropologischen   
,gesellschaft in ,wien1 xviii4          
7#ahhh7 pp4 #dd sq4      ,m#hb          
,similarly the other tales of the       
slaughter of the dragon may be          
mythical descriptions of the changes of 
the seasons4      #ccd ,a4 ,kuhn1       
8,wodan10 ,zeitschrift fr deutsches     
,alterthum1 v4 7#ahde7        pp4       

#dhd-dhh4      #cce ,p4 ,jensen1 ,die   
,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 pp4 #cae   
sq42 ,h4        ,gunkel1 ,schpfung und  
,chaos1 p4 #be2 id41 ,genesis bersetzt  
und        erklrt1 pp4 #aae sq42 ,m4    
,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia  
and        ,assyria1 pp4 #daa sq41 #dbi 
sq41 #dcb sq42 ,h4 ,zimmern1 in         
,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4           
8,creation10 i4 coll4 #idj sq42         
id41 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die            
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament1#c pp4 #cgj sq41 #ejj sq42   
,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,the ,book of          
,genesis#d 7,london1 #aije71 p4 #bh4    
,m#hc ,the cosmogonical significance of 
the ,babylonian myth may have been      
an after-thought1 the early philosophers
 picturing the creation of        the   
world on the analogy of the change from 
winter to summer4      #ccf ,virgil1    
,georgics1 ii4 #ccf-cdb4      ,m#hd     
,thus ceremonies intended to hasten the 
departure of winter are in a            
sense attempts to repeat the creation of

 the world4    ,m#he ,in ,babylon and   
,india the myth of the slaughter of the 
dragon may        have been acted as a  
magical ceremony to hasten the advent of
 summer        or of the rainy season4  
,new-year festival of ,zagmuk at        
,babylon4      #ccg ,p4 ,jensen1 ,die   
,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 pp4 #hd    
sqq42 ,m4        ,jastrow1 ,the         
,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1   
pp4 #fgg sqq42 ,h4        ,zimmern1 in  
,e4 ,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften   
und das ,alte        ,testament1#c pp4  
#cga1 #chd note #d1 #djb1 #dbg1 #eae    
sqq42 ,r4 ,f4        ,harper1           
,babylonian and ,assyrian ,literature   
7,new ,york1 #aija71 pp4        #acf1   
sq41 #acg1 #adj1 #adi2 ,m4 ,j4          
,lagrange1 tudes sur les religions      
smitiques#b 7,paris1 #aije71 pp4 #bhe   
sqq4      #cch ,l4 ,w4 ,king1           
,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology1   
pp4 #hh sqq4      #cci ,see ,c4 ,p4     
,tiele1 ,geschiedenis van den           
,godsdienst in de ,oudheid1 i4          

7,amsterdam1 #aijc7 pp4 #aei sq42 ,l4   
,w4 ,king1 op4 cit4 p4 #ba2 ,h4         
,zimmern4 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament1#c p4 #cii2 ,m4 ,jastrow1    
,die ,religion ,babyloniens und         
,assyriens1 i 7,giessen1 #aije7 pp4 #aag
 sqq4      #cdj ,p4 ,jensen1 op4 cit4   
pp4 #he sqq42 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the        
,religion of        ,babylonia and      
,assyria1 p4 #fgi2 ,h4 ,zimmern1 op4    
cit4 p4 #eae2 ,m4 ,j4        ,lagrange1 
op4 cit4 p4 #bhf4      #cda ,p4 ,jensen1
 op4 cit4 p4 #hg2 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the    
,religion of ,babylonia        and      
,assyria1 p4 #fha2 ,h4 ,zimmern1 op4    
cit4 pp4 #djb1 #dae2 ,r4 ,f4            
,harper1 op4 cit4 p4 #acf4      #cdb ,p4
 ,jensen1 ,assyrisch-babylonische       
,mythen und ,epen1 p4 #bi2 ,l4 ,w4      
,king1 ,babylonian ,religion and        
,mythology1 p4 #gd4      #cdc ,this     
appears to be substantially the view of 
,h4 ,zimmern 7op4 cit4        p4 #eja7  
and of ,karppe 7referred to in          

,encyclopaedia ,biblica1        s4v4    
8,creation10 i4 coll4 #ida note #a74    
,m#hf ,part played by the king in the   
drama of the ,slaughter of the ,dragon4 
,m#hg ,suggested reconciliation of the  
totemic with the cosmological           
interpretation of the ,slaughter of the 
,dragon4      #cdd ,a4 ,moret1 ,du      
caractre religieux de la royaut         
,pharaonique 7,paris1        #aijb71 pp4
 #ah sqq41 #cc sqq4      #cde ,clement  
of ,alexandria4 ,strom4 v4 #g4 p4 #fga1 
ed4 ,potter4      #cdf ,a4 ,erman1 ,die 
gyptische ,religion 7,berlin1 #aije71   
pp4 #aj1 #be4      #cdg ,john ,parkinson
 7late ,principal of the ,mineral       
,survey of ,southern        ,nigeria71  
8,southern ,nigeria1 the ,lagos         
,province10 ,the ,empire        ,review1
 vol4 xv4 ,may #aijh1 pp4 #bij sq4 ,the 
account in the text of        the       
mystery surrounding the ,awujale is     
taken from ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the         
,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave 
,coast of ,west ,africa 7,london1       

#ahid71 p4 #agj4      ,m#hh ,evidence of
 an annual tenure of the kingship at    
,babylon4 ,further1 it        would seem
 that in very early times the kings of  
,babylon were put to        death at the
 end of a year's reign4 ,the mock king  
put to death at        the festival of  
the ,sacaea was probably a substitute   
for the real        king4      #cdh ,m4 
,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia  
and ,assyria1 p4 #fhj2 ,h4              
,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die       
,keilinschriften und das ,alte          
,testament1#c pp4 #cgd1 #eae2 ,c4       
,brockelmann1 8,wesen und ,ursprung des 
,eponymats in ,assyrien10 ,zeitschrift  
fr ,assyriologie1 xvi4 7#aijb7          
pp4 #cia sq41 #cif sq4      #cdi        
,athenaeus1 xiv4 #dd1 p4 #fci ,c2 ,dio  
,chrysostom1 ,or4 iv4 pp4 #fi sq4       
7vol4 i4 p4 #gf1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf74 ,dio
 ,chrysostom does not mention his       
authority1 but it was probably either   
,berosus or ,ctesias4 ,the              
execution of the mock king is not       

noticed in the passage of ,berosus      
cited by ,athenaeus1 probably because   
the mention of it was not        germane
 to ,athenaeus's purpose1 which was     
simply to give a list of                
festivals at which masters waited on    
their servants4 ,a passage of           
,macrobius 7,saturn4 iii4 #g4 #f7 which 
has sometimes been interpreted        as
 referring to this ,babylonian custom   
7,f4 ,liebrecht1 in        ,philologus1 
xxii4 #gaj2 ,j4 ,j4 ,bachofen1 ,die     
,sage von ,tanaquil1 p4        #eb1 note
 #af7 has in fact nothing to do with it4
 ,see ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 in                 
,classical ,review1 xvii4 7#aijc7 p4    
#dab2 id4 in ,folk-lore1 xv4            
7#aijd7 pp4 #cjd1 #chd4 ,in the passage 
of ,dio ,chrysostom         should      
strictly mean 8hanged10 but the verb was
 applied by the        ,greeks to the   
,roman punishment of crucifixion        
7,plutarch1 ,caesar1        #b74 ,it may
 have been extended to include          
impalement1 which was often             

inflicted by the ,assyrians1 as we may  
see by the representations of        it 
on the ,assyrian monuments in the       
,british ,museum4 ,see also ,r4 ,f4     
,harper1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian      
,literature1 p4 #da1 with the plate     
facing p4 #ed4 ,the proper word for     
impalement in ,greek is                 
7,herodotus1 iv4 #bjb74 ,hanging was    
also an ,oriental as        well as     
,roman mode of punishment4 ,the ,hebrew 
word for it 77 seems        unambiguous4
 ,see ,esther1 v4 #ad1 vii4 #i sq42     
,deuteronomy1 xxi4 #bb        sq42      
,joshua1 viii4 #bi1 x4 #bf2 ,livy1 i4   
#bf4 #f4      #cej ,see above1 pp4 #ba1 
#bf sqq4      ,m#hi ,the festival of the
 ,sacaea was perhaps identical with     
,zagmuk4        ,festival of ,zagmuk in 
,assyria4 ,trace of an annual tenure of 
the        kingship in ,assyria4        
#cea ,bruno ,meissner1 8,zur            
,entstehungsgeschichte des              
,purimfestes10        ,zeitschrift der  
deutschen morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1

 ,i4 7#ahif7        pp4 #bif-cja2 ,h4   
,winckler1 ,altorientalische            
,forschungen1 ,zweite        ,reihe1    
,bd4 ii4 p4 #cde2 ,c4 ,brockelmann1     
8,wesen und ,ursprung des               
,eponymats in ,assyrien10 ,zeitschrift  
fr ,assyriologie1 xvi4 7#aijb7          
pp4 #cia sq4      #ceb ,meantime ,i may 
refer the reader to ,the ,golden ,bough1
 ,second        ,edition1 ii4 #bed1 iii4
 #aea sqq4 ,as ,i have there pointed out
 7iii4        #aeb sq47 the             
identification of the months of the     
,syro-,macedonian        calendar 7that 
is1 the ascertainment of their          
astronomical dates in        the solar  
year7 is a matter of some uncertainty1  
the dates appearing        to have      
varied considerably in different places4
 ,the month ,lous in        particular  
is variously said to have corresponded  
in different        places to ,july1    
,august1 ,september1 and ,october4      
,until we have        ascertained beyond
 the reach of doubt when ,lous fell at  

,babylon in        the time of ,berosus1
 it would be premature to allow much    
weight to        the seeming discrepancy
 in the dates of ,zagmuk and the        
,sacaea4 ,on        the whole difficult 
question of the identification or dating
 of the        months of the            
,syro-,macedonian calendar see ,l4      
,ideler1 ,handbuch der                  
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie1 i4 #cic sqq42 ,k4 ,f4     
,hermann1 8ber griechische              
,monatskunde10 ,abhandlungen der        
histor4-philolog4 ,classe d4 kn4        
,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu    
,gttingen1 ii4 7#ahdc-dd7 pp4 #fh sqq41 
#ie1 #aji1 #aaa sqq42 ,h4 ,f4           
,clinton1 ,fasti ,hellenici1 iii4#b #cea
 sqq42 article 8,calendarium10        in
 ,w4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and 
,roman ,antiquities1#c i4 #cci4         
,the distinction between the dates of   
the ,syro-,macedonian months1           
which differed in different places1 and 
their order1 which was the        same  

in all places 7,dius1 ,apellaeus1 etc471
 appears to have been        overlooked 
by some of my former readers4      #cec 
,p4 ,jensen1 ,die ,kosmologie der       
,babylonier1 p4 #hd2 ,c4 ,brockelmann1  
8,wesen und ,ursprung des ,eponymats in 
,assyrien10 ,zeitschrift fr             
,assyriologie1 xvi4 7#aijb7 p4 #cib4    
,however1 there is no mention of        
,zagmuk in ,prof4 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper's     
translation of the inscription          
7,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature1 
p4 #hg74      #ced ,c4 ,brockelmann1 op4
 cit4 pp4 #chi-dja4      #cee ,h4       
,winckler1 ,geschichte ,babyloniens und 
,assyriens 7,leipsic1 #aijb71        p4 
#bab2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and    
,babylonian ,literature1 pp4            
xxxviii4 sq41 #bjf-baf2 ,e4 ,meyer1     
,geschichte des ,altertums#b1 i4 #b     
7,stuttgart and ,berlin1 #aiji71 pp4    
#cca sq4 ,it was the second1 not        
the first1 year of a king's reign which 
in later times at all events        was 
named after him4 ,for the explanation   

see ,c4 ,brockelmann1 op4        cit4   
pp4 #cig sq4      #cef ,the eponymate in
 ,assyria and elsewhere may have been   
the subject of        superstitions     
which we do not yet understand4 ,perhaps
 the eponymous        magistrate may    
have been deemed in a sense responsible 
for        everything that happened in  
the year4 ,thus we are told that 8in    
,manipur they have a noteworthy system  
of keeping count of the years4          
,each year is named after some man1     
who--for a                              
consideration--undertakes to bear the   
fortune1 good or bad1 of the            
year4 ,if the year be good1 if there be 
no pestilence and a good        harvest1
 he gets presents from all sorts of     
people1 and ,i remember        hearing  
that in #ahih1 when the cholera was at  
its worst1 a        deputation came to  
the ,political ,agent and asked him to  
punish the        name-giver1 as it was 
obvious that he was responsible for the 
epidemic4 ,in former times he would have

 got into trouble0 7,t4 ,c4             
,hodson1 8,the ,native ,tribes of       
,manipur10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4      
#aija1 p4 #cjb74      #ceg ,c4          
,brockelmann1 8,das ,neujahrsfest der   
,jezds10 ,zeitschrift der               
deutschen morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1
 lv4 7#aija7 pp4 #chh-cij4      ,m#ij   
,slaves sacrificed instead of their     
masters in ,west ,africa4      #ceh     
,letter of the missionary ,n4 ,baudin1  
dated #afth ,april #ahge1 in            
,missions ,catholiques1 vii4 7#ahge7 pp4
 #fad-faf1 #fbg sq42 ,annales        de 
la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xlviii4     
7#ahgf7 pp4 #ff-gf4      ,m#ia ,trace of
 custom of killing the kings of ,hawaii 
at the end of a        year's reign4    
#cei ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,a ,voyage ,round  
the ,world in the ,years #ahjc1 #d1 #e1 
and        #f 7,london1 #ahad71 pp4 #aah
 sq4 ,the same ceremony seems to be more
        briefly described by the ,french
 voyager ,freycinet1 who says that      

after the principal idol had been       
carried in procession about the         
island for twenty-three days it was     
brought back to the temple1 and         
that thereupon the king was not allowed 
to enter the precinct until        he   
had parried a spear thrown at him by two
 men4 ,see ,l4 de        ,freycinet1    
,voyage autour du monde1 vol4 ii4       
,premire ,partie        7,paris1 #ahbi71
 pp4 #eif sq4      ,m#ib ,the reign and 
life of the king limited to a single day
 in ,ngoio1 a        province of ,congo4
      #cfj ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 ,notes on  
the ,folklore of the ,fjort1 with an    
introduction by ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley     
7,london1 #ahih71 p4 xxxii2 id41        
,at the ,back of the ,black ,man's ,mind
 7,london1 #aijf71 p4 #abj4 ,miss       
,kingsley in conversation called my     
attention to this particular            
custom1 and informed me that she was    
personally acquainted with the          
chief1 who possesses but declines to    
exercise the right of        succession4

      ,m#ic ,reminiscences of a custom  
of regicide in popular tales4 ,story how
        ,lancelot came to a city where  
the king had to perish in the fire on   
,new ,year's ,day4      #cfa ,the ,high 
,history of the ,holy ,graal1 translated
 from the ,french by        ,sebastian  
,evans 7,london1 #ahih71 i4 #bjj-bjc4 ,i
 have to thank the        translator1   
,mr4 ,sebastian ,evans1 for his kindness
 in indicating this        passage to   
me4      ,m#id ,story of ,king          
,vikramditya of ,ujjain in ,india4      
,kings of ,ujjain        devoured by a  
demon after a reign of a single day4    
#cfb ,for a discussion of the legends   
which gather round ,vikramaditya see    
,captain ,wilford1 8,vicramaditya and   
,salivahana10 ,asiatic                  
,researches1 ix4 7,london1 #ahji7 pp4   
#aag sqq42 ,chr4 ,lassen1               
,indische ,alterthumskunde1 ii4#b #geb  
sqq41 #gid sqq42 ,e4 ,t4                
,atkinson1 ,the ,himalayan ,districts of
 the ,north-,western ,provinces of      

,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1 #ahhd71 pp4    
#daj4 sqq4 ,vikramaditya is             
commonly supposed to have lived in the  
first century ,b4,c4 and to        have 
founded the ,samvat era1 which began    
with #eg ,b4,c41 and is now        in   
use all over ,india4 ,but according to  
,professor ,h4 ,oldenberg it is         
now certain that this ,vikramaditya was 
a purely legendary personage        7,h4
 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,literatur des alten  
,indien1 ,stuttgart and        ,berlin1 
#aijc1 pp4 #bae sq474      ,m#ie        
,vikramaditya puts an end to the custom 
by vanquishing the demon1        after  
which he reigns as king of ,ujjain4     
#cfc 8,histoire des rois de             
l',hindoustan aprs les ,pandaras1       
traduite du        texte hindoustani de 
,mr ,cher-i ,al ,afsos1 par ,m4 l'abb   
,bertrand10        ,journal ,asiatique1 
,,ivme ,srie1 iii4 7,paris1 #ahdd7 pp4  
#bdh-beg4        ,the story is told more
 briefly by ,mrs4 ,postans1 ,cutch      
7,london1        #ahci71 pp4 #ba sq4    

,compare ,chr4 ,lassen1 ,indische       
,alterthumskunde1        ii4#b #gih4    
,m#if ,yearly human sacrifices formerly 
offered at ,ujjain4      #cfd ,a4 ,v4   
,williams ,jackson1 8,notes from ,india1
 ,second ,series10 ,journal        of   
the ,american ,oriental ,society1 xxiii4
 7#aijb7 pp4 #cjh1 #caf sq4        ,i   
have to thank my friend the ,rev4       
,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton for         
referring me to ,prof4 ,williams        
,jackson's paper4      ,m#ig ,story of  
the birth of ,vikramaditya4 ,his father 
,gandharva-,sena was an        ass by   
day and a man by night1 until his ass's 
skin was burnt1 when        he left his 
wife for ever4      #cfe 8,histoire des 
rois de l',hindoustan10 ,journal        
,asiatique1 ,,ivme        ,srie1 iii4   
7#ahdd7 pp4 #bci-bdc4 ,the legend is    
told with        modifications by       
,captain ,wilford 78,vicramaditya and   
,salivahana10        ,asiatic           
,researches1 ix4 ,london1 #ahji1 pp4    
#adh sq471 ,mrs4 ,postans               

7,cutch1 ,london1 #ahci1 pp4 #ah-bj71   
and ,prof4 ,williams ,jackson 7op4      
cit4 pp4 #cad sq474      ,m#ih ,stories 
of the type of ,beauty and the ,beast1  
which tell how human        beings are  
married to beasts or to animals which   
temporarily assume        human form4   
,m#ii ,stories of this kind are told by 
savages to explain why they abstain     
from eating certain animals4 ,dyak      
stories of this type4      #cff ,the    
,bishop of ,labuan1 8,wild ,tribes of   
,borneo10 ,transactions of the          
,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,new 
,series1 ii4 7#ahfc7 pp4 #bf sq4        
#cfg ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1    
8,the ,relations between ,men and       
,animals in        ,sarawak10 ,journal  
of the ,anthropological ,institute1     
xxxi4 7#aija7        pp4 #aig sq4       
#cfh ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 op4
 cit4 p4 #aic4     ,m#ajj ,story told by
 the ,sea ,dyaks to explain how they    
came to plant rice        and to revere 
the omen-birds4 ,it describes how the   

young chief ,siu        married a woman 
of the bird-family1 and promised her    
never to hurt        or even touch a    
bird4   ,m#aja ,but one day he broke his
 word1 and his bird-wife left him and   
returned to the bird-people4      #cfi  
,rev4 ,e4 ,h4 ,gomes1 8,two ,sea ,dyak  
,legends10 ,journal of the ,straits     
,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1
 ,no4 #da 7,january #aijd1              
,singapore71 pp4 #ab-bh2 id41 ,seventeen
 ,years among the ,sea ,dyaks        of 
,borneo 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bgh sqq4 
,m#ajb ,stories of the same sort are    
told by the ,tshi-speaking negroes of   
the ,gold ,coast to explain why they do 
not eat their totemic animals4      #cgj
 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking    
,peoples of the ,gold ,coast 7,london1  
#ahhg71 pp4 #bjd-bab4     ,m#ajc        
,stories of this sort were probably at  
first always told to explain        the 
totemic belief in the kinship of certain
 families with certain        species of
 animals4 ,when husband and wife had    

different totems1 a        violation of 
the totemic taboos by husband or wife   
might lead to the        separation of  
the spouses4 ,this would explain the    
separation of        husband and wife in
 the type of tale here discussed4       
#cga ,the type of story in question has 
been discussed by ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang    
in a well-known essay 8,cupid1 ,psyche1 
and the ,sun-,frog10 ,custom and        
,myth 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #fd-hf4 ,he 
rightly explains all such tales         
as based on savage taboos1 but so far as
 ,i know he does not        definitely  
connect them with totemism4 ,for other  
examples of these        tales told by  
savages see ,w4 ,lederbogen1 8,duala    
,mrchen10        ,mittheilungen des     
,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu
 ,berlin1        v4 7#aijb7 ,dritte     
,abtheilung1 pp4 #aci-ade 7the ,duala   
tribe of        ,cameroons2 in one tale 
the wife is a palm-rat1 in the other a  
mpondo1 a hard brown fruit as large as a
 coconut72 ,r4 ,h4 ,nassau1             

,fetichism in ,west ,africa 7,london1   
#aijd71 pp4 #cea-ceh 7,west ,africa2    
wife a forest-rat72 ,g4 ,h4 ,smith1     
8,some ,betsimisaraka ,superstitions10  
,the ,antananarivo ,annual and          
,madagascar ,magazine1 ,no4 #aj         
7,christmas1 #ahhf71 pp4 #bda sq42 ,r4  
,h4 ,codrington1 ,the                   
,melanesians1 pp4 #agb1 #cig sq4        
7,melanesia2 wife a bird1 husband an    
owl72 ,a4 ,f4 van ,spreeuwenberg1 8,een 
blik op ,minahassa10 ,tijdschrift       
voor ,nerland's ,indi1 #ahdf1 ,erste    
deel1 pp4 #be-bh 7the ,bantiks of       
,celebes2 wife a white dove72 ,j4 ,h4   
,f4 ,kohlbrugge1 8,die ,tenggeresen1    
ein alter ,javanischer ,volksstaam10    
,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en      
,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1   
iiii4 7#aija7 pp4 #ig-ii 7the           
,tenggeres of ,java2 wife a bird72 ,j4  
,fanggidaej1 8,rottineesche             
,verhalen10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal-    
,land- en ,volkenkunde van              
,nederlandsch-,indi1 lviii4 7#aije71 pp4

 #dcj-dcf 7island of ,rotti2            
husband a crocodile72 ,j4 ,kubary1 8,die
 ,religion der ,pelauer10 in ,a4        
,bastian's ,allerlei aus ,volkes- und   
,menschenkunde 7,berlin1 #ahhh71        
i4 #fj sq4 7,pelew ,islands2 wife a     
fish72 ,a4 ,r4 ,mc,mahon1 ,the ,karens  
of the ,golden ,chersonese1 pp4 #bdh-bej
 7,karens of ,burma2 husband a          
tree-lizard72 ,landes1 8,contes         
,tjames10 ,cochinchine franaise1        
excursions et reconnaissances1 ,no4 #bi 
7,saigon1 #ahhg71 pp4 #ec sqq4          
7,chams of ,cochin-,china2 husband a    
coco-nut72 ,a4 ,certeux and ,e4 ,h4     
,carnoy1 ,l',algrie traditionnelle      
7,paris and ,algiers1 #ahhd71 pp4       
#hg-hi 7,arabs of ,algeria2 wife a      
dove72 ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1 ,kitschi-,gami    
7,bremen1 #aheh71 i4 #adj-ade 7,ojebway 
,indians2 wife a beaver72 ,franz        
,boas and ,george ,hunt1 ,kwakiutl      
,texts1 ii4 #cbb-ccj 7,the ,jesup       
,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of 
the ,american ,museum of ,natural       

,history7 7,kwakiutl ,indians2 wife a   
salmon72 ,j4 ,r4 ,swanton1 ,haida       
,texts and ,myths 7,bureau of ,american 
,ethnology1 ,bulletin1 ,no4 #bi1        
,washington1 #aije71 pp4 #bhf sq4       
7,haida ,indians2 wife a                
killer-whale72 ,h4 ,rink1 ,tales and    
,traditions of the ,eskimo1 pp4         
#adf sq4 7,esquimaux2 wife a sea-fowl74 
,the ,bantik story is told to           
explain the origin of the people2 the   
,tenggeres story is told to             
explain why it is forbidden to lift the 
lid of a basket in which        rice is 
being boiled4 ,the other stories        
referred to in this note are            
apparently told as fairy tales only1 but
 we may conjecture that they        too 
were related originally to explain a    
supposed relationship of        human   
beings to animals or plants4 ,i have    
already illustrated and        explained
 this type of story in ,totemism and    
,exogamy1 vol4 ii4 pp4        #ee1 #bjf1
 #cjh1 #efe-ega1 #ehi1 iii4 #fj-fd1 #ccg

 sq4      #cgb ,the fable of ,cupid and 
,psyche is only preserved in the ,latin 
of        ,apuleius 7,metamorph4 iv4    
#bh-vi4 #bd71 but we cannot doubt that  
the        original was ,greek4 ,for the
 story of ,pururavas and ,urvasi1 see   
,the        ,rigveda1 x4 #ie 7,hymns of 
the ,rigveda1 translated by ,r4 ,t4 ,h4 
,griffith1 vol4 iv4 ,benares1 #ahib1 pp4
 #cjd sqq472 ,satapatha                 
,brahmana1 translated by ,j4 ,eggeling1 
part v4 pp4 #fh-gd 7,sacred             
,books of the ,east1 vol4 xliv472 and   
the references in ,the ,magic           
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 
ii4 p4 #bej1 note #d4 ,a clear          
trace of the bird-nature of ,urvasi     
occurs in the ,satapatha                
,brahmana 7,part v4 p4 #gj of ,j4       
,eggeling's translation71 where the     
sorrowing husband finds his lost wife   
among nymphs who are swimming           
about in the shape of swans or ducks on 
a lotus-covered lake4 ,this        has  
been already pointed out by ,th4 ,benfey

 7,pantschatantra1 i4        #bfd74 ,in 
,english the type of tale is known as   
8,beauty and the        ,beast10 which  
ought to include the cases in which the 
wife1 as well        as those in which  
the husband1 appears as an animal4 ,on  
stories of        this sort1 especially 
in the folklore of civilised peoples1   
see ,th4        ,benfey1                
,pantschatantra1 i4 #bed sqq42 ,w4 ,r4  
,s4 ,ralston1        ,introduction to   
,f4 ,a4 von ,schiefner's ,tibetan       
,tales1 pp4        xxxvii4-xxxix42 ,a4  
,lang1 ,custom and ,myth 7,london1      
#ahhd71 pp4 #fd        sqq42 ,s4        
,baring-,gould1 ,curious ,myths of the  
,middle ,ages1 pp4        #efa-egh2 ,e4 
,cosquin1 ,contes populaires de         
,lorraine1 ii4 #bae-bcj2        ,w4 ,a4 
,clouston1 ,popular ,tales and          
,fictions1 i4 #ahb-aia2 ,miss ,m4       
,roalfe ,cox1 ,introduction to ,folklore
 7,london1 #ahie7 pp4 #abj-abc4         
,m#ajd ,the story of the parentage of   
,vikramaditya may point to a line of    

kings who had the ass for their crest or
 totem4 ,similarly the                  
,maharajahs of ,nagpur have the cobra   
for their crest and the origin        of
 the crest is explained by a story of   
the type of ,beauty and the             
,beast4      #cgc ,in the ruins of      
,raipoor1 supposed to be the ancient    
,mandavie1 coins        are found       
bearing the image of an ass2 and the    
legend of the        transformation of  
,gandharva-,sena into an ass is told to 
explain        their occurrence4 ,the   
coins are called ,gandharva pice4 ,see  
,mrs4        ,postans1 ,cutch 7,london1 
#ahci71 pp4 #ag sq41 #bb4      #cgd ,e4 
,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of 
,bengal1 pp4 #afe sq4      #cge ,t4 ,c4 
,hodson1 8,the ,native ,tribes of       
,manipur10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4      
7#aija7 pp4 #cjb1 #cjd4     ,m#aje      
,stories of the type of ,beauty and the 
,beast are not mere fictions1        but
 rest on a real basis of belief and     

custom4 ,similarly the legend        of 
kings who were sacrificed after a reign 
of a single day has its        analogy  
in actual custom4 ,such stories indicate
 that the supply of        kings may    
have been maintained by compelling men  
to accept the fatal        sovereignty4 
#cgf ,see above1 pp4 #aah sq4     ,m#ajf
 ,our conceptions of the primitive      
kingship are apt to be coloured and     
falsified by ideas borrowed from the    
very different monarchies of            
modern ,europe4      #cgg ,see ,the     
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 vol4 ii4 p4 #d2        ,taboo   
and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #ag   
sqq4     ,m#ajg ,in other races and     
other ages many men may have been       
willing to        accept a kingdom on   
condition of being killed at the end of 
a short        reign4 ,various causes   
have contributed to intensify the fear  
of        death in modern ,europe4      
#cgh ,see ,dr4 ,joseph ,bautz1 ,die     
,hlle1 im ,anschluss an die ,scholastik 

dargestellt#b 7,mainz1 #aije74 ,dr4     
,bautz holds that the damned burn in    
eternal darkness and eternal fire       
somewhere in the bowels of the          
earth4 ,he is1 let us hope in more      
senses than one1 an extraordinary       
professor of theology at the ,university
 of ,mnster1 and his book is            
published with the approbation of the   
,catholic ,church4     ,m#ajh ,evidence 
of the comparative indifference to death
 displayed by other        races4       
,absence of the fear of death in ,india 
and ,annam4      #cgi ,r4 ,h4 ,elliot1  
,experiences of a ,planter in the       
,jungles of ,mysore        7,london1    
#ahga71 i4 #ie4      #chj ,mrs4         
,postans1 ,cutch 7,london1 #ahci71 p4   
#afh4      #cha ,mgr4 ,masson1 in       
,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 
xxiv4 7#aheb7        pp4 #cbd sq4       
,m#aji ,absence of the fear of death    
among the ,american ,indians4      #chb 
,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes of
 the ,united ,states1 ii4               

7,philadelphia1 #ahec71 p4 #fh4         
#chc ,f4 de ,azara1 ,voyages dans       
l',amrique ,mridionale1 ii4 #aha4       
,m#aaj ,apathy of savages under sentence
 of death4      #chd ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1    
,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the      
,slave ,coast1 p4 #abg4        ,the     
testimony of a soldier on such a point  
is peculiarly valuable4      #che ,a4   
,thevet1 ,les ,singularitez de la       
,france ,antarctique 7,antwerp1         
#aeeh71 pp4 #gd sq42 id41 ,cosmographie 
universelle 7,paris1        #aege71 p4  
#ide #igi4      #chf ,my informant was  
the late ,captain ,w4 ,c4 ,robinson1    
formerly of the        #bnd ,bombay     
,europeans 7,company's ,service71       
afterwards resident at #ae              
,chesterton ,hall ,crescent1 ,cambridge4
 ,he learned the facts in the           
year #ahec from his friend ,captain     
,gore1 of the #bith ,madras ,native     
,infantry1 who rescued some of the      
victims4      #chg ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1   
,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #cch4

     ,m#aaa ,further1 men of other races
 often sacrifice their lives voluntarily
        for reasons which seem to us    
wholly inadequate4 ,thus people have    
freely allowed themselves to be killed  
in order to accompany their        dead 
ruler to the other world4      #chh ,see
 above1 pp4 #db sqq41 #ed sqq4      #chi
 ,o4 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique
 7,amsterdam1 #afhf71 p4 #cab2 ,h4      
,ling ,roth1 ,great ,benin1 p4 #dc4     
#cij ,r4 ,southey1 ,history of ,brazil1 
iii4 #cia sq4      #cia ,tacitus1       
,histor4 ii4 #di2 ,plutarch1 ,otho1 #ag4
     ,m#aab ,in the ,east1 persons      
sometimes commit suicide in order to    
avenge        themselves on their       
enemies4 ,law of retaliation in a robber
 caste of        southern ,india4       
#cib ,r4 ,lasch1 8,rache als            
,selbstmordmotiv10 ,globus1 lxxiv4      
7#ahih7 pp4        #cg-ci4      #cic    
,father ,martin1 ,jesuit missionary1 in 
,lettres difiantes et        curieuses1 
,nouvelle dition1 xi4 7,paris1 #agha71  

pp4 #bdf-bdh4 ,the        letter was    
written at ,marava1 in the mission of   
,madura1 #hth ,november        #agji4   
,no doubt the ,english ,government has  
long since done its best        to      
suppress these practices4     ,m#aac    
,contempt of death exhibited in         
antiquity by the ,thracians and the     
,gauls4      #cid ,seleucus1 quoted by  
,athenaeus1 iv4 #db1 p4 #aee ,d ,e4     
#cie ,posidonius1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 
iv4 #dj1 p4 #aed ,b ,c4     ,m#aad ,in  
ancient ,rome there were men willing to 
be beheaded for a sum of        five    
minae4      #cif ,euphorion of ,chalcis1
 quoted by ,athenaeus1 iv4 #dj1 p4 #aed 
,c2        ,eustathius on ,homer1       
,odyssey1 xviii4 #df1 p4 #ahcg4         
#cig ,athenaeus1 iv4 #ci1 p4 #aec ,e ,f1
 quoting ,nicolaus ,damascenus4         
#cih ,tertullian1 ,de spectaculis1 #ab4 
,the custom of sacrificing human        
beings in honour of the dead1 which has 
been practised by many        savage and
 barbarous peoples1 was in later times  

so far mitigated at        ,rome that   
the destined victims were allowed to    
fight each other1        which gave some
 of them a chance of surviving4 ,this   
mitigation of        human sacrifice is 
said to have been introduced by ,d4     
,junius ,brutus        in the third     
century ,b4,c4 7,livy1 ,epit4 xvi474 ,it
 resembles the        change which ,i   
suppose to have taken place at ,nemi and
 other places1        where1 if ,i am   
right1 kings were at first put to death 
inexorably at        the end of a fixed 
period1 but were afterwards permitted to
 defend        themselves in single     
combat4      #cii ,livy1 ii4 #e4 #h1    
xxvi4 #ac4 #ae1 xxviii4 #bi4 #aa2       
,polybius1 i4 #g4 #ab1        xi4 #cj4  
#b2 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,rmisches ,strafrecht
 7,leipsic1 #ahii71 pp4        #iaf sqq4
      #djj ,hiera ,sykaminos            
7,maharraka71 the furthest point of the 
,roman        dominion in southern      
,egypt1 lies within the tropics4 ,the   
empire did        not reach this its    

extreme limit till after the age of     
,augustus4 ,see        ,th4 ,mommsen1   
,rmische ,geschichte1 v4 #eid sq4       
,strabo speaks        7xvii4 #a4 #dh1 p4
 #hag7 as if ,syene1 which was held by a
 ,roman        garrison of three        
cohorts1 were within the tropics2 but   
that is a        mistake4     ,m#aae    
,chinese indifference to death4         
#dja ,for some evidence see ,j4 ,h4     
,gray1 ,china1 i4 #cbi sqq42 ,h4        
,norman1        ,the ,peoples and       
,politics of the ,far ,east 7,london1   
#aije71 pp4 #bgg        sq4 ,on this    
subject the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,a4      
,barber1 ,headmaster of        the ,leys
 ,school1 ,cambridge1 formerly a        
missionary in ,china1 writes        to  
me as follows 7#crd ,february           
#aijb73--8,undoubtedly the ,eastern1    
through his belief in ,fate1 has        
comparatively little fear of death4     
,i have sometimes seen the ,chinese in  
great fear2 but1 on the other           
hand1 ,i have saved at least a hundred  

lives of people who had        swallowed
 opium out of spite against some one    
else1 the idea being1        first1 the 
trouble given by minions of the law to  
the survivor2        second1 that the   
dead would gain a vantage ground by     
becoming a        ghost1 and thus able  
to plague his enemy in the flesh4       
,probably        blind anger has more to
 do with it than either of these causes4
 ,but        the particular mode would  
not ordinarily occur to a ,western4 ,i  
am        bound to say that in many     
cases the patient was ready enough to   
take        my medicines1 but mostly it 
was the friends who were most eager1 and
        exceedingly rarely did ,i       
receive thanks from the rescued40       
#djb ,j4 ,h4 ,gray 7,archdeacon of      
,hong-kong71 ,china 7,london1 #ahgh71   
ii4        #cjf4      #djc ,the         
particulars in the text are taken1 with 
,lord ,avebury's kind        permission1
 from a letter addressed to him by ,mr4 
,m4 ,w4 ,lampson of        the ,foreign 

,office4 ,see ,note ,a at the end of the
 volume4 ,speaking of        capital    
punishment in ,china1 ,professor ,e4 ,h4
 ,parker says3 8,it is        popularly 
stated that substitutes can be bought   
for ,taels #ej1 and        most         
certainly this statement is more than   
true1 so far as the price        of     
human life is concerned2 but it is quite
 another question whether        the    
gaolers and judges can always be bribed0
 7,e4 ,h4 ,parker1        ,professor of 
,chinese at the ,owens ,college1        
,manchester1 ,china ,past        and    
,present1 ,london1 #aijc1 pp4 #cgh sq474
 ,however1 from his        personal     
enquiries ,professor ,parker is         
convinced that in such        matters   
the local mandarin can do what he       
pleases1 provided that he               
observes the form of law and gives no   
offence to his superiors4     ,m#aaf ,we
 must not judge of all men's love of    
life by our own4      #djd ,my friend1  
the late ,sir ,francis ,galton1         

mentioned in conversation a             
phrase which described the fear of death
 as 8the ,western 7or        ,european7 
malady10 but he did not remember where  
he had met with it4        ,he wrote to 
me 7#ahth ,october #aijb7 that 8our fear
 of death is        presumably much     
greater than that of the barbarians who 
were our        far-back ancestors40    
,m#aag ,hence it is probable that in    
some races and at some periods of       
history it would be easy to find men    
willing to accept a kingdom on          
condition of being killed at the end of 
a short reign4      #dje ,see above1 pp4
 #bc1 #di sqq41 #eb sq4     ,m#aah      
,annual abdication of kings and their   
places temporarily taken by             
nominal sovereigns4 ,temporary kings in 
,cambodia4      #djf ,see above1 pp4    
#aac sqq4      #djg ,e4 ,aymonier1      
,notice sur le ,cambodge 7,paris1       
#ahge71 p4 #fa2 ,j4        ,moura1 ,le  
,royaume du ,cambodge 7,paris1 #ahhc71  
i4 #cbg sq4 ,for the        connexion of

 the temporary king's family with the   
royal house1 see        ,e4 ,aymonier1  
op4 cit4 pp4 #cf sq4     ,m#aai         
,temporary kings in ,siam in former     
days4      #djh ,de la ,loubre1 ,du     
royaume de ,siam 7,amsterdam1 #afia71 i4
 #ef sq42        ,turpin1 8,history of  
,siam10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and    
,travels1 ix4        #eha sq42 ,mgr4    
,brugire1 in ,annales de l',association 
de la        ,propagation de la ,foi1 v4
 7#ahca7 pp4 #ahh sq42 ,pallegoix1      
,description du royaume ,thai ou ,siam  
7,paris1 #ahed71 i4 #bej2 ,a4           
,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen      
,asien1 iii4 #cje-cji1 #ebf-ebh4        
,bowring 7,siam1 i4 #aeh sq47 copies1 as
 usual1 from ,pallegoix4 ,for        a  
description of the ceremony as observed 
at the present day1 see ,e4             
,young1 ,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow    
,robe 7,westminster1 #ahih71 pp4 #baj   
sq4 ,the representative of the king no  
longer enjoys his old        privilege  
of seizing any goods that are exposed   

for sale along the        line of the   
procession4 ,according to ,mr4 ,young1  
the ceremony is        generally held   
about the middle of ,may1 and no one is 
supposed to        plough or sow till it
 is over4 ,according to ,loubre the     
title of the        temporary king was  
,oc-ya ,kaou1 or ,lord of the ,rice1 and
 the office        was regarded as      
fatal1 or at least calamitous 8funeste07
 to him4      #dji ,lieut4-,col4 ,james 
,low1 8,on the ,laws of ,muung ,thai or 
,siam10 ,journal        of the ,indian  
,archipelago1 i4 7,singapore1 #ahdg7 p4 
#cci2 ,a4 ,bastian1        ,die ,vlker  
des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #ih1 #cad1    
#ebf sq4     ,m#abj ,modern custom of   
temporary kings in ,siam4      #daj ,e4 
,young1 ,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow    
,robe1 pp4 #bab-bag4 ,the writer        
tells us that though the ,minister for  
,agriculture still officiates        at 
the ,ploughing ,festival1 he no longer  
presides at the ,swinging               
,festival2 a different nobleman is      

chosen every year to superintend        
the latter4     ,m#aba ,temporary kings 
in ,samaracand and ,upper ,egypt4       
#daa ,ed4 ,chavannes1 ,documents sur les
 ,tou-,kiue 7,turcs7 ,occidentaux 7,st4 
,petersburg1 #aijc71 p4 #acc1 note4 ,the
 documents collected in this            
volume are translated from the ,chinese4
      #dab ,c4 ,b4 ,klunzinger1 ,bilder 
aus ,obergypten der ,wste und dem       
,rothen        ,meere 7,stuttgart1      
#ahgg71 pp4 #ahj sq4      #dac ,taboo   
and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 #bdc4  
,for evidence of a        practice of   
burning divine personages1 see ,adonis1 
,attis1 ,osiris1        ,second         
,edition1 pp4 #hd sqq41 #ia sqq41 #aci  
sqq4     ,m#abb ,temporary kings in     
,morocco4      #dad ,budgett ,meakin1   
,the ,moors 7,london1 #aijb71 pp4 #cab  
sq42 ,e4 ,aubin1        ,le ,maroc      
d'aujourd'hui 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4      
#bhc-bhg4 ,according to        the      
latter of these writers the flight of   
the mock sultan takes        place the  

day after his meeting with the real     
sultan4 ,the account in        the text 
embodies some notes which were kindly   
furnished me by ,dr4        ,e4         
,westermarck4     ,m#abc ,temporary king
 in ,cornwall4      #dae ,r4 ,carew1    
,survey of ,cornwall 7,london1 #ahaa71  
p4 #cbb4 ,i do not know        what the 
writer means by 8little ,easter         
,sunday40 ,the ceremony has        often
 been described by subsequent writers1  
but they seem all to        copy1       
directly or indirectly1 from ,carew1 who
 says that the custom        had been   
yearly observed in past times and was   
only of late days        discontinued4  
,his ,survey of ,cornwall was first     
printed in #afjb4 ,i        have to     
thank ,mr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,trevelyan1 formerly 
,fellow of ,trinity        ,college1    
,cambridge1 for directing my attention  
to this interesting        survival of  
what was doubtless a very ancient       
custom4     ,m#abd ,temporary kings at  
the beginning of a reign4      #daf ,j4 

,w4 ,boers1 8,oud volksgebruik in het   
,rijk van ,jambi10 ,tijdschrift         
voor ,nerlands ,indi1 #ahdj1 dl4 i4 pp4 
#cgb sqq4      #dag ,panjab ,notes and  
,queries1 i4 p4 #hf1  #fgd 7,may #ahhd74
      #dah ,aeneas ,sylvius1 ,opera     
7,ble1 #aega71 pp4 #dji sq42 ,j4        
,boemus1        ,mores1 leges1 et ritus 
omnium gentium 7,lyons1 #aeda71 pp4 #bda
        sq42 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche      
,rechtsalterthmer1 p4 #bec4 ,according  
to        ,grimm1 the cow and mare stood
 beside the prince1 not the peasant4    
,the ,carinthian ceremony is the subject
 of an elaborate ,german                
dissertation by ,dr4 ,emil ,goldmann    
7,die ,einfhrung der deutschen          
,herzogsgeschlechter ,krntens in den    
,slovenischen ,stammesverband1 ein      
,beitrag zur ,rechts- und               
,kulturgeschichte1 ,breslau1 #aijc74    
,m#abe ,the temporary kings discharge   
divine or magical functions4      #dai  
,e4 ,young1 ,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow
 ,robe1 p4 #baa4      #dbj ,lasicius1   

8,de diis ,samagitarum caeterorumque    
,sarmatarum10 in        ,respublica sive
 status regni ,poloniae1 ,lituaniae1    
,prussiae1        ,livoniae1 etc4       
7,elzevir1 #afbg71 pp4 #cjf sq42 id41   
edited by ,w4        ,mannhardt in      
,magazin herausgegeben von der          
,lettisch-,literarischen                
,gesellschaft1 xiv4 #ia sq42 ,j4 ,g4    
,kohl1 ,die deutsch-russischen          
,ostseeprovinzen 7,dresden and ,leipsic1
 #ahda71 ii4 #bg4 ,there1 are1          
however1 other occasions when           
superstition requires a person to       
stand on one foot4 ,at ,toku-toku1 in   
,fiji1 the grave-digger who turns       
the first sod has to stand on one leg1  
leaning on his digging-stick            
7,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 in a letter to  
the author1 dated ,august #bf1          
#ahih74 ,among the ,angoni of ,british  
,central ,africa1 when the corpse       
of a chief is being burned1 his heir    
stands beside the blazing pyre        on
 one leg with his shield in his hand2   

and three days later he        again    
stands on one leg before the assembled  
people when they        proclaim him    
chief4 ,see ,r4 ,sutherland ,rattray1   
,some ,folk-lore        ,stories and    
,songs in ,chinyanja 7,london1 #aijg71  
pp4 #ajj1 #aja4      #dba ,e4 ,young1   
,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow ,robe1 p4  
#bab4      #dbb ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1 ,die     
deutsch-russischen ,ostseeprovinzen1 ii4
 #be4 ,with        regard to swinging as
 a magical or religious rite1 see ,note 
,b at the        end of the volume4 ,for
 other charms to make the crops grow    
tall by        leaping1 letting the hair
 hang loose1 and so forth1 see ,the     
,magic        ,art and the ,evolution of
 ,kings1 i4 #ace sqq4      #dbc         
,macrobius1 ,saturn4 v4 #ai4 #ac4       
#dbd ,see ,taboo and the ,perils of the 
,soul1 pp4 #bbe sqq4     ,m#abf         
,temporary kings substituted in certain 
emergencies for ,shahs of               
,persia4      #dbe ,sir ,john ,malcolm1 
,history of ,persia 7,london1 #ahae71 i4

 #ebg sq4 ,i        am indebted to my   
friend ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke for calling my  
attention to        this passage4       
#dbf ,captain ,john ,stevens1 ,the      
,history of ,persia 7,london1 #agae71   
pp4        #cef sq4 ,i have to thank    
,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke for his kindness in    
copying        out this passage and     
sending it to me4 ,i have not seen the  
original4        ,an ,irish legend      
relates how the abbot ,eimine ,ban and  
forty-nine of        his monks          
sacrificed themselves by a voluntary    
death to save ,bran a        ,faelin1   
,king of ,leinster1 and forty-nine      
,leinster chiefs1 from a                
pestilence which was then desolating    
,leinster4 ,they were sacrificed        
in batches of seven a day for a week1   
the abbot himself perishing        after
 the last batch on the last day of the  
week4 ,but it is not said        that   
the abbot enjoyed regal dignity during  
the seven days4 ,see ,c4                
,plummer1 8,cin ,eimne ,bin10 riu1 the  

,journal of the ,school of        ,irish
 ,learning1 ,dublin4 vol4 iv4 part i4   
7#aijh7 pp4 #ci-df4 ,the        legend  
was pointed out to me by ,professor     
,kuno ,meyer4     ,m#abg ,the temporary 
kings are sometimes related by blood to 
the real        kings4   ,m#abh         
,tradition of ,on1 ,king of ,sweden1 and
 the sacrifice of his nine sons4        
#dbg 8,ynglinga ,saga10 #bi1 in ,the    
,heimskringla or ,chronicle of the      
,kings        of ,norway1 translated    
from the ,icelandic of ,snorro          
,sturleson1 by        ,s4 ,laing        
7,london1 #ahdd71 i4 #bci sq42 ,h4 ,m4  
,chadwick1 ,the ,cult of        ,othin  
7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #d1 #bg4 ,i have  
already cited the tradition        as   
evidence of a nine years' tenure of the 
kingship in ,sweden4 ,see        above1 
p4 #eg1 with note #b4     ,m#abi        
,tradition of ,king ,athamas and his    
children4 ,male descendants of ,king    
,athamas liable to be sacrificed4       
#dbh ,herodotus1 vii4 #aig2             

,apollodorus1 i4 #i4 #a sq42 ,schol4 on 
,aristophanes1 ,clouds1 #beg2 ,j4       
,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #ba1   
#bbi2 ,schol4 on ,apollonius ,rhodius1  
,argonautica1 ii4 #fec2                 
,eustathius1 on ,homer1 ,iliad1 vii4    
#hf1 p4 #ffg2 id41 on ,odyssey1         
v4 #cci1 p4 #aedc2 ,pausanias1 i4 #dd4  
#g1 ix4 #cd4 #g2 ,zenobius1 iv4 #ch2    
,plutarch1 ,de superstitione1 #e2       
,hyginus1 ,fab4 #a-e2 id41              
,astronomica1 ii4 #bj2 ,servius1 on     
,virgil1 ,aen4 v4 #bda4 ,the story      
is told or alluded to by these writers  
with some variations of        detail4  
,in piecing their accounts together ,i  
have chosen the        features which   
seemed to be the most archaic4          
,according to        ,pherecydes1 one of
 the oldest writers on ,greek legendary 
history1        ,phrixus offered himself
 as a voluntary victim when the crops   
were        perishing 7,schol4 on       
,pindar1 ,pyth4 iv4 #bhh74 ,on the whole
 subject        see ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1     

,orchomenus und die ,minyer1#b pp4 #aef1
 #aga4      #dbi ,plato1 ,minos1 p4 #cae
 ,c4     ,m#acj ,family of royal descent
 liable to be sacrificed at ,orchomenus4
      #dcj ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,graec4  
#ch2 ,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 
#aj2        ,ovid1 ,metam4 iv4 #a sqq4  
,m#aca ,thessalian and ,boeotian kings  
seem to have sacrificed their sons to   
,laphystian ,zeus instead of themselves4
      #dca ,pausanias1 ix4 #cd4 #e sqq42
 ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argonautica1    
iii4        #bfe sq42 ,hellanicus1 cited
 by the ,scholiast on ,apollonius1 l4c4 
,apollodorus speaks of ,athamas as      
reigning over ,boeotia                  
7,bibliotheca1 i4 #i4 #a72 ,tzetzes     
calls him king of ,thebes 7,schol4      
on ,lycophron1 #ba74      #dcb ,the old 
,scholiast on ,apollonius ,rhodius      
7,argon4 ii4 #fec7 tells us        that 
down to his time it was customary for   
one of the descendants of               
,athamas to enter the town-hall and     
sacrifice to ,laphystian ,zeus4 ,k4     

,o4 ,mller sees in this custom a        
mitigation of the ancient               
rule--instead of being themselves       
sacrificed1 the scions of royalty       
were now permitted to offer sacrifice   
7,orchomenus und die ,minyer1#b         
p4 #aeh74 ,but this need not have been  
so4 ,the obligation to serve as         
victims in certain circumstances lay    
only on the eldest male of each         
generation in the direct line2 the      
sacrificers may have been younger       
brothers or more remote relations of the
 destined victims4 ,it may be           
observed that in a dynasty of which the 
eldest males were regularly             
sacrificed1 the kings1 if they were not 
themselves the victims1 must            
always have been younger sons4      #dcc
 ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the          
,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 i4 p4 #caj4  
#dcd ,i have followed ,k4 ,o4 ,mller    
7,orchomenus und die ,minyer1#b pp4     
#afj1        #aff sq47 in regarding the 
ram which saved ,phrixus as a mythical  

expression for the substitution of a ram
 for a human victim4 ,he        points  
out that a ram was the proper victim to 
sacrifice to        ,trophonius         
7,pausanias1 ix4 #ci4 #f71 whose very   
ancient worship was        practised at 
,lebadea not far from ,orchomenus4 ,the 
principle of        vicarious sacrifices
 was familiar enough to the ,greeks1 as 
,k4 ,o4        ,mller does not fail to  
indicate4 ,at ,potniae1 near ,thebes1   
goats        were substituted as victims
 instead of boys in the sacrifices      
offered to ,dionysus 7,pausanias1 ix4   
#h4 #b74 ,once when an oracle           
commanded that a girl should be         
sacrificed to ,munychian ,artemis in    
order to stay a plague or famine1 a goat
 dressed up as a girl was               
sacrificed instead 7,eustathius on      
,homer1 ,iliad1 ii4 #gcb1 p4 #cca2      
,apostolius1 vii4 #aj2 ,paroemiogr4     
,graeci1 ed4 ,leutsch et                
,schneidewin1 ii4 #djb2 ,suidas1 s4v4 74
 ,at ,salamis in ,cyprus        a man   

was annually sacrificed to ,aphrodite   
and afterwards to        ,diomede1 but  
in later times an ox was substituted    
7,porphyry1 ,de        abstinentia1 ii4 
#ed74 ,at ,laodicea in ,syria a deer    
took the place of        a maiden as the
 victim yearly offered to ,athena       
7,porphyry1 op4        cit4 ii4 #ef74   
,since human sacrifices have been       
forbidden by the        ,dutch          
,government in ,borneo1 the ,barito and 
other ,dyak tribes of that        island
 have kept cattle for the sole purpose  
of sacrificing them        instead of   
human beings at the close of mourning   
and at other        religious           
ceremonies4 ,see ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1  
,quer durch ,borneo1        ii4         
7,leyden1 #aijg71 p4 #abg4     ,m#acb   
,sacrifice of kings' sons among the     
,semites4 ,sacrifice of children to     
,baal among the ,semites4      #dce     
,philo of ,byblus1 quoted by ,eusebius1 
,praeparatio ,evangelii1 i4 #aj4        
#bi sq4      #dcf #b ,kings iii4 #bg4   

#dcg ,on this subject see ,dr4 ,g4 ,f4  
,moore1 s4v4 8,molech1 ,moloch10        
,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iii4 #cahc     
sqq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte       
der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 7,gotha1 
#ahif7 pp4 #bdj-bdd4      #dch          
,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 ii4 #ef4    
#dci ,plato1 ,minos1 p4 #cae ,c4        
#ddj ,plutarch1 ,regum et imperatorum   
apophthegmata1 ,gelon ,i4      #dda     
,diodorus ,siculus1 xx4 #ad4 ,compare   
,clitarchus1 cited by ,suidas1          
s4v4  1 and by the ,scholiast on ,plato1
 ,republic1        p4 #ccg ,a2 ,j4      
,selden1 ,de dis ,syris 7,leipsic1      
#affh71 pp4 #afi sq4      #ddb          
,plutarch1 ,de superstitione1 #ac4      
,egyptian mothers were glad and         
proud when their children were devoured 
by the holy crocodiles4 ,see            
,aelian1 ,de natura animalium1 x4 #ba2  
,maximus ,tyrius1 ,dissert4        viii4
 #e2 ,josephus1 ,contra ,apion4 ii4 #g4 
#ddc ,tertullian1 ,apologeticus1 #f4    
,compare ,justin1 xviii4 #f4 #ab2       

,ennius1        cited by ,festus1 s4v4  
8,puelli10 pp4 #bdh1 #bdi1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4  
,mller2        ,augustine1 ,de civitate 
,dei1 vii4 #ai and #bf4     ,m#acc      
,canaanite and ,hebrew custom of burning
 children in honour of ,baal or         
,moloch4 ,sacrifices of children in     
,tophet4      #ddd 8,every abomination  
to the ,lord1 which he hateth1 have they
 done unto        their gods2 for even  
their sons and their daughters do they  
burn in        the fire to their gods10 
,deuteronomy xii4 #ca4 ,here and in what
        follows ,i quote the ,revised   
,english ,version4      #dde            
,deuteronomy xviii4 #i-ab4      #ddf    
,leviticus xviii4 #ba4      #ddg ,psalms
 cvi4 #ce-ch4      #ddh #b ,kings xvii4 
#af1 #ag4      #ddi 8,and they have     
built the high places of ,topheth1 which
 is in the        valley of the son of  
,hinnom1 to burn their sons and their   
daughters        in the fire10 ,jeremiah
 vii4 #ca2 8,and have built the high    
places of        ,baal1 to burn their   

sons in the fire for burnt offerings    
unto ,baal10        id4 xix4 #e2 8,and  
they built the high places of ,baal1    
which are in        the valley of the   
son of ,hinnom1 to cause their sons and 
their        daughters to pass through  
the fire unto ,molech10 id4 xxxii4 #ce2 
8,moreover thou hast taken thy sons and 
thy daughters1 whom thou hast           
borne unto me1 and these hast thou      
sacrificed unto them to be              
devoured4 ,were thy whoredoms a small   
matter1 that thou hast slain my         
children1 and delivered them up1 in     
causing them to pass through the        
fire unto them80 ,ezekiel xvi4 #bj sq42 
compare xx4 #bf1 #ca4 ,a                
comparison of these passages shews that 
the expression 8to cause to        pass 
through the fire10 so often employed in 
this connexion in        ,scripture1    
meant to burn the children in the fire4 
,some have        attempted to interpret
 the words in a milder sense4 ,see ,j4  
,spencer1        ,de legibus ,hebraeorum

 7,the ,hague1 #afhf71 i4 #bhh sqq4     
#dej #b ,chronicles xxviii4 #c4 ,in the 
corresponding passage of #b ,kings      
7xvi4 #c7 it is said that ,ahaz 8made   
his son to pass through the             
fire40      #dea #b ,chronicles xxxiii4 
#f2 compare #b ,kings xxi4 #f4      #deb
 #b ,kings xxiii4 #aj4      #dec ,jerome
 on ,jeremiah vii4 #ca1 quoted in       
,winer's ,biblisches                    
,realwrterbuch1#b s4v4 8,thopeth40      
,m#acd ,did the ,hebrews borrow the     
custom from the ,canaanites8 ,custom of 
the        ,sepharvites4      #ded ,the 
,tel ,el-,amarna tablets prove that 8the
 prae-,israelitish        inhabitants of
 ,canaan were closely akin to the       
,hebrews1 and that        they spoke    
substantially the same language0 7,s4   
,r4 ,driver1 in        ,authority and   
,archaeology1 ,sacred and ,profane1     
edited by ,d4 ,g4        ,hogarth       
7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #gf74      #dee #b 
,kings xvii4 #ca4 ,the identification of
 ,sepharvaim is uncertain4 ,see         

,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iv4 #dcga sq4  
,m#ace ,only the firstborn children were
 burned4      #def ,micah vi4 #f-h4     
#deg ,ezekiel xx4 #be1 #bf1 #ca4        
#deh ,exodus xiii4 #a sq4      #dei     
,exodus xiii4 #ab4      #dfj ,exodus    
xxxiv4 #ai4 ,in the ,authorised ,version
 the passage runs thus3        8,all    
that openeth the matrix is mine2 and    
every firstling among thy        cattle1
 whether ox or sheep1 that is male40    
#dfa ,exodus xxii4 #bi sq4 ,the         
,authorised ,version has 8the first of  
thy        ripe fruits instead of the   
abundance of thy fruits40     ,m#acf    
,hebrew sacrifice of firstlings3        
redemption of the firstlings of men     
and asses4      #dfb ,numbers xviii4 #ag
 sq4 ,elsewhere1 however1 we read3 8,all
 the        firstling males that are    
born of thy herd and of thy flock thou  
shalt sanctify unto the ,lord thy ,god3 
thou shalt do no work with the          
firstling of thine ox1 nor shear the    
firstling of thy flock4 ,thou           

shalt eat it before the ,lord thy ,god  
year by year in the place which         
the ,lord shall choose1 thou and thy    
household10 ,deuteronomy xv4 #ai        
sq4 ,compare ,deuteronomy xii4 #f sq41  
#ag sq4 ,to reconcile this              
ordinance with the other we must suppose
 that the flesh was divided             
between the ,levite and the owner of the
 animal4 ,but perhaps the rule        in
 ,deuteronomy may represent the old     
custom which obtained before        the 
rise of the priestly caste4 ,prof4 ,s4  
,r4 ,driver inclines to the             
latter view 7,commentary on             
,deuteronomy1 p4 #ahg74      #dfc       
,exodus xiii4 #ac1 xxxiv4 #bj4      #dfd
 ,numbers xviii4 #ae sq4 ,compare       
,numbers iii4 #df-ea2 ,exodus xiii4 #ac1
        xxxiv4 #bj4     ,m#acg          
,sacrifice of firstborn children perhaps
 regarded as an act of heroic           
virtue4   ,m#ach ,tradition of the      
origin of the ,passover4      #dfe      
,exodus xi4-xiii4 #af2 ,numbers iii4    

#ac1 viii4 #ag4 ,while many points in   
this strange story remain obscure1 the  
reason which moved the                  
,israelites of old to splash the blood  
of lambs on the doorposts of            
their houses at the ,passover may       
perhaps have been not very              
different from that which induces the   
,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo to do much       
the same thing at the present day4      
8,when there is any great epidemic      
in the country--when cholera or smallpox
 is killing its hundreds on        all  
sides--one often notices little         
offerings of food hung on the           
walls and from the ceiling1 animals     
killed in sacrifice1 and blood          
splashed on the posts of the houses4    
,when one asks why all this is          
done1 they say they do it in the hope   
that when the evil spirit1 who        is
 thirsting for human lives1 comes along 
and sees the offerings        they have 
made and the animals killed in          
sacrifice1 he will be        satisfied  

with these things1 and not take the     
lives of any of the        people living
 in the ,dyak village house0 7,e4 ,h4   
,gomes1 ,seventeen        ,years among  
the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo1 ,london1    
#aiaa1 p4 #bja74        ,similarly in   
,western ,africa1 when a pestilence or  
an attack of        enemies is expected1
 it is customary to sacrifice sheep and 
goats        and smear their blood on   
the gateways of the village 7,miss ,mary
 ,h4        ,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west
 ,africa1 p4 #ded1 compare p4 #de74 ,in 
,peru1        when an ,indian hut is    
cleansed and whitewashed1 the blood of a
 llama        is always sprinkled on the
 doorway and internal walls in order to 
keep out the evil spirit 7,col4 ,church1
 cited by ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1               
,history of the ,new ,world called      
,america1 i4 #cid1 note #b74 ,for more  
evidence of the custom of pouring or    
smearing blood on the        threshold1 
lintel1 and side-posts of doors1 see    
,ph4 ,paulitschke1        ,ethnographie 

,nordost-,afrikas1 die geistige ,cultur 
der ,dankil1        ,galla und ,soml    
7,berlin1 #ahif71 pp4 #ch1 #dh2 ,j4     
,goldziher1        ,muhamedanische      
,studien1 ii4 #cbi2 ,s4 ,j4 ,curtiss1   
,primitive ,semitic        ,religion    
,to-day1 pp4 #aha-aic1 #bbg sq42 ,h4 ,c4
 ,trumbull1 ,the        ,threshold      
,covenant 7,new ,york1 #ahif71 pp4 #d   
sq41 #h sq41 #bf-bh1        #ff-fh4     
,perhaps the original intention of the  
custom was to avert        evil         
influence1 especially evil spirits1 from
 the door4     ,m#aci ,originally the   
firstborn children seem to have been    
regularly        sacrificed3 their      
redemption was a later mitigation of the
 rule4      #dff ,genesis xxii4 #a-ac4  
#dfg ,see for example ,father ,baudin1  
in ,missions ,catholiques1 xvi4         
7#ahid7 p4 #ccc2 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the   
,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the        
,slave ,coast1 pp4 #aje sq4     ,m#adj  
,attempts to outwit a malignant spirit4 
#dfh ,w4 ,e4 ,maxwell1 8,the ,folklore  

of the ,malays10 ,journal of the        
,straits        ,branch of the ,royal   
,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #g 7,june       
#ahha71 p4 #ad2 ,w4        ,w4 ,skeat1  
,malay ,magic1 p4 #aab4 ,the bird in    
question is thought to        be the    
goat-sucker or night-jar4     ,m#ada    
,the custom of sacrificing all the      
firstborn1 whether of animals or        
men1 was probably a very ancient        
,semitic institution4      #dfi #b      
,kings iii4 #bg4      #dgj ,see above1  
pp4 #aff1 #afg4      #dga ,as to the    
redemption of the firstborn among modern
 ,jews1 see ,l4 ,lw1        ,die        
,lebensalter in der jdischen ,literatur 
7,szegedin1 #ahge71 pp4        #aaj-aah2
 ,budgett ,meakin1 ,the ,moors 7,london1
 #aijb71 pp4 #ddj sq4     ,m#adb        
,sacrifice of firstborn children among  
various races4      #dgb ,j4            
,wellhausen1 ,prolegomena zur           
,geschichte ,israels1#c p4 #ij2 ,w4     
,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the     
,semites1#b p4 #dfd4 ,on the other      

hand1 when ,i published the foregoing   
discussion in the second        edition 
of my book1 ,i was not aware that the   
conclusion reached in        it had been
 anticipated by ,prof4 ,th4 ,nldeke1 who
 has drawn the same        inference    
from the same evidence4 ,see            
,zeitschrift der ,deutschen             
,morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 xlii4   
7#ahhh7 p4 #dhc4 ,i am happy to         
find myself in agreement with so eminent
 an authority on ,semitic               
antiquity4      #dgc ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1
 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ii4 #caa4 ,in
 the ,luritcha        tribe of central  
,australia 8young children are sometimes
 killed and        eaten1 and it is not 
an infrequent custom1 when a child is in
 weak        health1 to kill a younger  
and healthy one and then to feed the    
weakling on its flesh1 the idea being   
that this will give the weak            
child the strength of the stronger one0 
7,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native          
,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4      

#dge74 ,the practice seems to have      
been common among the ,australian       
aborigines4 ,see ,w4 ,e4 ,stanbridge1   
quoted by ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 op4 cit4  
i4 #eb2 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native        
,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 
#gdi1 #gej4      #dgd ,g4 ,scriviner1 in
 ,e4 ,curr's ,the ,australian ,race1 ii4
 #ahb4      #dge ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1       
,native ,tribes of ,south-,east         
,australia1 p4 #gej4      #dgf ,s4      
,gason1 in ,e4 ,curr's ,the ,australian 
,race1 ii4 #aai4      #dgg ,father      
,mazzuconi1 in ,annales de la           
,propagation de la ,foi1 xxvii4         
7#ahee7 pp4 #cfh sq4      #dgh ,j4 ,j4  
,m4 de ,groot1 ,religious ,system of    
,china1 ii4 #fgi1 iv4 #cfd4      #dgi   
,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 op4 cit4 iv4     
#cfe4 ,on these ,chinese reports        
,prof4 de ,groot remarks 7op4 cit4 iv4  
#cff73 8,quite at a loss1               
however1 we are to explain that eating  
of firstborn sons by their        own   
nearest kinsfolk1 absolutely            

inconsistent as it is with a            
primary law of tribal life in general1  
which imperiously demands        that   
the tribe should make itself strong in  
male cognates1 but not        indulge in
 self-destruction by killing its natural
 defenders4 ,we        feel1 therefore1 
strongly inclined to believe the        
statement        fabulous40 ,such       
scepticism implies an opinion of the    
good sense and        foresight of      
savages which is far from being         
justified by the facts4        ,many    
savage tribes have 8indulged in         
self-destruction0 by killing a          
large proportion of their children1 both
 male and female4 ,see below1        pp4
 #aif sq4      #dhj ,w4 ,crooke1        
,popular ,religion and ,folklore of     
,northern ,india1 ii4        #afi4      
#dha ,h4 ,a4 ,rose1 8,unlucky           
,children10 ,folklore1 xiii4 7#aijb7 p4 
#fc2        id41 in ,indian ,antiquary1 
xxxi4 7#aijb7 pp4 #afb sq4 ,mr4 ,rose is
        ,superintendent of ,ethnography 

in the ,punjaub4 ,the authorities cited 
by him are ,moore's ,hindu ,infanticide1
 pp4 #aih sq41 and        ,sherring's   
,hindu ,tribes and ,castes1 iii4 p4 #ff4
     ,m#adc ,sacrifice of firstborn     
children among the ,borans and other    
tribes to        the south of           
,abyssinia4 ,firstborn male children put
 to death in        ,uganda4      #dhb  
,captain ,philip ,maud1 8,exploration in
 the ,southern ,borderland of           
,abyssinia10 ,the ,geographical         
,journal1 xxiii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #efg sq4   
#dhc ,exodus iv4 #bd-bf4      #dhd      
,captain ,c4 ,h4 ,stigand1 ,to          
,abyssinia through an ,unknown ,land    
7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #bcd sq4      #dhe
 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the   
,manners and ,customs of the            
,baganda10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4     
7#aijb7        p4 #cj4 ,mr4 ,roscoe     
informs me that a similar custom        
prevails also in        ,koki and       
,bunyoro4      #dhf ,j4 ,l4 ,krapf1     

,travels1 ,researches1 and ,missionary  
,labours during an        ,eighteen     
,years' ,residence in ,eastern ,africa  
7,london1 #ahfj71 pp4 #fi        sq4    
,dr4 ,krapf1 who reports the custom at  
second hand1 thinks that        the     
existence of the pillar may be doubted1 
but that the rest of the        story   
harmonises well enough with ,african    
superstition4      #dhg ,j4 ,macdonald1 
,light in ,africa#b 7,london1 #ahij71 p4
 #aef4 ,in the text        ,i have      
embodied some fuller explanations and   
particulars which my        friend the  
,rev4 ,mr4 ,macdonald was good enough to
 send me in a letter        dated       
,september #afth1 #ahii4 ,among the     
tribes with which ,mr4        ,macdonald
 is best acquainted the custom is       
obsolete and lives only        in       
tradition2 formerly it was universally  
practised4     ,m#add ,sacrifice of     
firstborn children in ,europe and       
,america4 ,sacrifice of        firstborn
 children to the sun4 ,sacrifice of     

children in ,peru4      #dhh ,f4 ,j4    
,mone1 ,geschichte des ,heidenthums im  
nrdlichen ,europa        7,leipsic and  
,darmstadt1 #ahbb-ahbc71 i4 #aai4       
#dhi ,vallancey1 ,collectanea de rebus  
,hibernicis1 vol4 iii4 7,dublin1        
#aghf7 p4 #deg2 ,d4 ,nutt1 ,the ,voyage 
of ,bran1 ii4 #adi-aea1 #cjd sq42       
,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of     
,ancient ,ireland1 i4 #bge sq41         
#bha-bhd4 ,the authority for the        
tradition is the ,dinnschenchas or      
,dinnsenchus1 a document compiled in the
 eleventh and twelfth        centuries  
out of older materials4 ,mr4 ,joyce     
discredits the tradition        of human
 sacrifice4      #dij ,fr4 ,boas1 in    
8,fourth ,annual ,report on the         
,north-,western ,tribes of              
,canada10 ,report of the ,british       
,association for #ahhh1 p4 #bdb2        
id41 in ,fifth ,report on the           
,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4  
#eb 7separate reprint from the ,report  
of the ,british ,association for        

#ahhi74      #dia ,fr4 ,boas1 in ,fifth 
,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes  
of ,canada1        p4 #df 7separate     
reprint from the ,report of the ,british
 ,association        for #ahhi74        
#dib ,w4 ,strachey1 ,historie of        
travaile into ,virginia ,britannia      
7,hakluyt        ,society1 ,london1     
#ahdi71 p4 #hd4      #dic ,j4           
,bricknell1 ,the ,natural ,history of   
,north ,carolina 7,dublin1              
#agcg71 pp4 #cdb sq4 ,i have taken the  
liberty of altering slightly        the 
writer's somewhat eccentric punctuation4
      #did ,see above1 p4 #afb4         
#die ,a4 de ,herrera1 ,the ,general     
,history of the ,vast ,continent and    
,islands of ,america1 translated by     
,capt4 ,john ,stevens 7,london1         
#agbe-f71 iv4 #cdg sq4 ,compare ,j4 de  
,acosta1 ,natural and ,moral            
,history of the ,indies 7,hakluyt       
,society1 ,london1 #ahhj71 ii4 #cdd4    
#dif ,fr4 ,xeres1 ,relation vridique de 
la conqute du ,perou et de la           

,province de ,cuzco nomme               
,nouvelle-,castille 7in ,h4             
,ternaux-,compans's        ,voyages1    
relations et mmoires1 etc41 ,paris1     
#ahcg71 p4 #ec4      #dig ,juan de      
,velasco1 ,histoire du royaume de       
,quito1 i4 7,paris1 #ahdj7 p4           
#ajf 7forming vol4 xviii4 of ,h4        
,ternaux-,compans's ,voyages1 relations 
et mmoires1 etc474      #dih ,a4 ,r4    
,wallace1 ,narrative of ,travels on the 
,amazon and ,rio ,negro        7,london1
 #ahhi71 p4 #cee4      #dii ,w4         
,barbrooke ,grubb1 ,an ,unknown ,people 
in an ,unknown ,land 7,london1          
#aiaa71 p4 #bcc4     ,m#ade ,the 8sacred
 spring0 in ancient ,italy4      #ejj   
,festus1 ,de verborum significatione1   
s4vv4 8,mamertini10        8,sacrani10  
and 8,ver sacrum10 pp4 #aeh1 #cgj1 #cga1
 #cgi1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4        ,mller2       
,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #gif2   
,nonius ,marcellus1 s4v4        8ver    
sacrum10 p4 #ebb 7p4 #faj1 ed4          
,quicherat72 ,varro1 ,rerum             

rusticarum1 iii4 #af4 #bi2 ,dionysius   
,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4            
,rom4 i4 #af and #bc sq41 ii4 #a4 #b4   
#eja ,strabo1 v4 #d4 #b and #ab2 ,pliny1
 ,nat4 hist4 iii4 #aaj2 ,festus1 ,de    
verborum significatione1 s4v4 8,irpini10
 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 p4 #ajf4        ,it
 is worthy of note that the three swarms
 which afterwards        developed into 
the ,piceni1 the ,samnites1 and the     
,hirpini were said        to have been  
guided by a woodpecker1 a bull1 and a   
wolf        respectively1 of which the  
woodpecker 7picus7 and the wolf         
7hirpus7 gave their names to the ,piceni
 and the ,hirpini4 ,the        tradition
 may perhaps preserve a trace of        
totemism1 but in the        absence of  
clearer evidence it would be rash to    
assume that it does        so4 ,the     
woodpecker was sacred among the ,latins1
 and a woodpecker as        well as a   
wolf is said to have fed the twins      
,romulus and ,remus        7,plutarch1  
,quaest4 ,rom4 #ba2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 

#cg sq474 ,does        this legend point
 to the existence of a wolf-clan and a  
woodpecker-clan at ,rome8 ,there was    
perhaps a similar conjunction of        
wolf and woodpecker at ,soracte1 for the
 woodpecker is spoken of as        the  
bird of ,feronia 78picus ,feronius10    
,festus1 s4v4 8,oscines10        p4     
#aig1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller71 a goddess in 
whose sanctuary at ,soracte             
certain men went by the name of         
,soranian ,wolves 7,servius1 on ,virgil1
        ,aen4 xi4 #ghe2 ,pliny1 ,nat4   
hist4 vii4 #ai2 ,strabo1 v4 #b4 #i74    
,these        8,soranian ,wolves0 will  
meet us again later on4      #ejb ,livy1
 xxii4 #i sq42 ,plutarch1 ,fabius       
,maximus1 #d4      #ejc ,livy1 xxxiv4   
#dd4      #ejd ,dionysius               
,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 i4   
#bd4      #eje ,schwegler thought it    
hardly open to question that the 8sacred
        spring0 was a substitute for an 
original custom of human sacrifice      
7,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #bdj sq474    

,the inference is denied on             
insufficient grounds by ,r4 von ,ihering
 7,vorgeschichte der                    
,indoeuroper1 pp4 #cji sqq474      #ejf 
,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 
,rom4 i4 #af4 #a4 ,rhegium in           
,italy was founded by ,chalcidian       
colonists1 who in obedience to the      
,delphic ,oracle had been dedicated as a
 tithe-offering to ,apollo on           
account of a dearth 7,strabo1 vi4 #a4   
#f1 p4 #beg74 ,justin speaks of the     
,gauls sending out three hundred        
thousand men1 8as it were a sacred      
spring10 to seek a new home 7,justin1   
xxiv4 #d4 #a74     ,m#adf ,different    
motives may have led to the practice of 
killing the        firstborn4 ,a belief 
in the rebirth of souls may in some     
cases have        operated to produce   
infanticide1 especially of the          
firstborn4 ,the        ,hindoos believe 
that a man is reborn in his son1 while  
at the same        time he dies in his  
own person4      #ejg ,the ,australian  

aborigines resort to infanticide to keep
 down the        number of a family4    
,but 8the number is kept down1 not with 
any idea        at all of regulating the
 food supply1 so far as the adults are  
concerned1 but simply from the point of 
view that1 if the mother is             
suckling one child1 she cannot properly 
provide food for another1        quite  
apart from the question of the trouble  
of carrying two        children about4  
,an ,australian native never looks far  
enough ahead to        consider what    
will be the effect on the food supply in
 future years        if he allows a     
particular child to live2 what affects  
him is simply        the question of how
 it will interfere with the work of his 
wife so        far as their own camp is 
concerned0 7,spencer and ,gillen1       
,native        ,tribes of ,central      
,australia1 p4 #bfd74      #ejh ,see    
above1 pp4 #eg1 #afj sq4      #eji      
,above1 p4 #ahe4      #eaj ,father      
,baudin1 8,le ,ftichisme10 ,missions    

,catholiques1 xvi4 7#ahhd7        p4    
#bei4      #eaa ,the ,laws of ,manu1 ix4
 #h1 p4 #cbi1 ,g4 ,bhler's translation  
7,sacred        ,books of the ,east1    
vol4 xxv474 ,on this ,hindoo doctrine of
        reincarnation1 its logical      
consequences and its analogies in other 
parts of the world1 see ,j4 von         
,negelein1 8,eine ,quelle der indischen 
,seelenwanderungvorstellung10 ,archiv fr
 ,religionswissenschaft1 vi4            
7#aijc7 pp4 #cbj-ccc4 ,compare ,e4 ,s4  
,hartland1 ,the ,legend of ,perseus1    
i4 #bah sq42 id41 ,primitive ,paternity 
7,london1 #aiji-aiaj71 ii4        #aif  
sqq4      #eab ,h4 ,a4 ,j4 ,a4 ,rose1   
8,unlucky and ,lucky ,children1 and some
 ,birth        ,superstitions10 ,indian 
,antiquary1 xxxi4 7#aijb7 p4 #eaf2 id41 
in        ,folklore1 xiii4 7#aijb7 pp4  
#bgh sq4 ,as to the ,khatris1 see ,d4   
,c4        ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,outlines of  
,panjab ,ethnography1 pp4 #bie sq42 ,h4 
,h4        ,risley1 ,the ,tribes and    
,castes of ,bengal1 i4 #dgh sqq42 ,w4   

,crooke1        ,the ,tribes and ,castes
 of the ,north-western ,provinces and   
,oudh1        iii4 #bfd sqq4     ,m#adg 
,painful dilemma of a father4      #eac 
,the same suggestion has been made by   
,dr4 ,e4 ,westermarck 7,the ,origin     
and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas1  
i4 7,london1 #aijf7 pp4 #dfj            
sq474 ,some years ago1 before the       
publication of his book and while       
the present volume was still in proof1  
,dr4 ,westermarck and ,i in             
conversation discovered that we had     
independently arrived at the        same
 conjectural explanation of the custom  
of killing the firstborn4     ,m#adh    
,the same notion of the rebirth of the  
father in the son would        explain  
why in ,polynesia infants succeeded to  
the chieftainship as        soon as they
 were born1 their fathers abdicating in 
their favour4      #ead ,capt4 ,j4      
,cook1 ,voyages 7,london1 #ahji71 i4    
#bbe sq42 ,capt4 ,j4        ,wilson1    
,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern    

,pacific ,ocean 7,london1        #agii71
 pp4 #cbg1 #ccj1 #ccc2 ,w4 ,ellis1      
,polynesian ,researches1#b iii4         
#ii-aja2 ,j4 ,a4 ,mourenhout1 ,voyages  
aux les du ,grand ,ocan1 ii4 #ac        
sq42 ,mathias ,g4 ----1 ,lettres sur les
 les ,marquises 7,paris1        #ahdc71 
pp4 #ajc sq42 ,h4 ,hale1 ,united ,states
 ,exploring ,expedition1                
,ethnography and ,philology             
7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #cd4         
,m#adi ,such a rule of succession might 
easily lead to a practice of            
infanticide4 ,prevalence of infanticide 
in ,polynesia4      #eae ,w4 ,ellis1    
,polynesian ,researches1#b i4 #bea-bec4 
,m#aej ,in some places the father either
 abdicates when his son attains to      
manhood or is forcibly deposed by him4  
#eaf ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a    
,cruise among the ,islands of the       
,western        ,pacific 7,london1      
#ahec71 p4 #bcc4      #eag ,j4          
,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary    
,enterprises in the ,south ,sea         

,islands 7,london1 #ahcf71 pp4 #aag sq4 
#eah ,j4 ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south  
,africa1 ,second ,journey 7,london1     
#ahbb71 ii4 #bgf4     ,m#aea ,the custom
 of the deposition of the father by his 
son may perhaps be        traced in     
,greek myth and legend4 ,cronus and his 
children4      #eai ,hesiod1 ,theogony1 
#acg sqq41 #dec sqq41 #hhf sqq42        
,apollodorus1        ,bibliotheca1 i4   
#a-c4      #ebj ,above1 pp4 #agi sq4    
,traces of a custom of sacrificing the  
children        instead of the father   
may perhaps be found in the legends that
        ,menoeceus1 son of ,creon1 died 
to save ,thebes1 and that one or more   
of the daughters of ,erechtheus perished
 to save ,athens4 ,see                  
,euripides1 ,phoenissae1 #hhi sqq42     
,apollodorus1 iii4 #f4 #g1 iii4         
#ae4 #d2 ,schol4 on ,aristides1         
,panathen4 p4 #aac1 ed4 ,dindorf2       
,cicero1        ,tuscul41 i4 #dh4 #aaf2 
id41 ,de natura deorum1 iii4 #ai4 #ej2  
,w4 ,h4        ,roscher1 ,lexikon d4    

griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #abih   
sq41        ii4 #bgid sq4     ,m#aeb    
,legend of ,oedipus1 who slew his father
 and married his mother4                
,marriage with a widowed queen sometimes
 forms a legitimate title to        the 
kingdom4 ,marriage with a stepmother or 
a sister1 a mode of        securing the 
succession of the king's own children1  
and so of        transferring the       
inheritance from the female to the male 
line4        ,brother and sister        
marriages in royal families4      #eba  
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bfi           
sqq4      #ebb ,see ,the ,magic ,art and
 the ,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 ii4 p4  
#bhc4 ,the        ,oedipus legend would 
conform still more closely to custom if 
we        could suppose that marriage   
with a mother was formerly allowed in   
cases where the king had neither a      
sister nor a stepmother1 by             
marrying whom he could otherwise        
legalise his claim to the throne4       

#ebc ,examples of this custom are       
collected by me in a note on ,pausanias1
        i4 #g4 #a 7vol4 ii4 p4 #he74    
,for other instances see ,v4 ,noel1 8le 
de        ,madagascar1 recherches sur   
les ,sakkalava10 ,bulletin de la ,socit 
de ,gographie 7,paris71 ,deuxime ,srie1 
xx4 7,paris1 #ahdc7 pp4 #fc        sq4  
7among the ,sakkalavas of ,madagascar72 
,v4 ,l4 ,cameron1 ,across        ,africa
 7,london1 #ahgg71 ii4 #gj1 #adi2 ,j4   
,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on        the 
,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 
,journal of the        ,anthropological 
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #bg 7among
 the ,baganda        of ,central        
,africa72 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,totemism and
 ,exogamy1 ii4 #ebc1        #ech 7among 
the ,banyoro and ,bahima72 ,j4 ,dos     
,santos1 8,eastern        ,ethiopia10 in
 ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal's ,records of      
,south-,eastern ,africa1        vii4    
#aia 7as to the kings of ,sofala in     
eastern ,africa74 ,but ,dos             
,santos's statement is doubted by ,dr4  

,mc,call ,theal 7op4 cit4 p4            
#cie74      #ebd ,this explanation of   
the custom was anticipated by           
,mc,lennan3 8,another        rule of    
chiefly succession1 which has been      
mentioned1 that which        gave the   
chiefship to a sister's son1 appears to 
have been nullified        in some cases
 by an extraordinary but effective      
expedient--by the        chief1 that is1
 marrying his own sister0 7,the         
,patriarchal ,theory1        based on   
the ,papers of the late ,john ,ferguson 
,mc,lennan1 edited and        completed 
by ,donald ,mc,lennan 7,london1 #ahhe71 
p4 #ie74      #ebe ,compare ,cicero1 ,de
 natura deorum1 ii4 #bf4 #ff2 ,plutarch1
 ,de vita        et poesi ,homeri1 ii4  
#if2 ,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,inst4 i4 #aj2
 ,firmicus        ,maternus1 ,de errore 
profanarum religionum1 xii4 #d4         
,m#aec ,kings' sons sacrificed instead  
of their fathers4 ,substitution of      
condemned criminals4      #ebf          
,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 ii4 #ed4    

,m#aed ,a custom of putting kings to    
death at short intervals might          
extinguish the families from which the  
kings were drawn2 but this              
tendency would be no bar to the         
observance of the custom4 ,many races   
have indulged in practices which tend   
directly to their extinction4      #ebg 
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 ii4 #bib sqq4      #ebh ,see
 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of 
,kings1 ii4 #bfi sqq4      #ebi ,men and
 women of the ,khlysti sect in ,russia  
abhor marriage2 and in        the sect  
of the ,skoptsi or ,eunuchs the devotees
 mutilate themselves4        ,see ,sir  
,d4 ,mackenzie ,wallace1 ,russia4       
7,london #ahgg71 p4 #cjb4 ,as        to 
collective suicide1 see above1 pp4 #dc  
sqq4      #ecj ,above1 p4 #aia4         
#eca ,father ,picarda1 8,autour de      
,mandra1 notes sur l',ouzigowa1 l',oukwr
        et l',oudoe 7,zanguebar710      
,missions ,catholiques1 xviii4 7#ahhf7  
p4        #bhd4      #ecb ,the ,strange 

,adventures of ,andrew ,battell         
7,hakluyt ,society1 #aija71        pp4  
#cb1 #hd sq4      #ecc ,f4 de ,azara1   
,voyages dans l',amrique ,mridionale    
7,paris1 #ahji71        ii4 #aae-aag4   
,the writer affirms that the custom was 
universally        established among all
 the women of the ,mbaya nation1 as well
 as        among the women of other     
,indian nations4      #ecd ,r4 ,southey1
 ,history of ,brazil1 iii4 7,london1    
#ahai7 p4 #che4      #ece ,w4 ,barbrooke
 ,grubb1 ,an ,unknown ,people in an     
,unknown ,land 7,london1        #aiaa71 
p4 #bcc4      #ecf ,hugh ,goldie1       
,calabar and its ,mission1 new edition  
with additional        chapters by the  
,rev4 ,john ,taylor ,dean 7,edinburgh   
and ,london1 #aija71        pp4 #cd sq41
 #cg sq4 ,the preface to the original   
edition of this        work is dated    
#ahij4 ,by this time the tribal suicide 
is probably        complete4     ,m#aee 
,transmission of the soul of the slain  
king to his successor4                  

,transmission of the souls of chiefs to 
their sons in ,nias4      #ecg ,see     
above1 pp4 #ba1 #bc1 #bf sq4      #ech  
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 ii4 #daj sqq4      #eci ,j4 
,t4 ,nieuwenhuisen en ,h4 ,c4 ,b4 von   
,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het       
eiland ,nias10 ,verhandelingen van het  
,batav4 ,genootschap van ,kunsten       
en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 7#ahfc7 p4 #he2 
,h4 von ,rosenberg1 ,der                
,malayische ,archipel1 p4 #afj2 ,l4 ,n4 
,h4 ,a4 ,chatelin1 8,godsdienst en      
bijgeloof der ,niassers10 ,tijdschrift  
voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en         
,volkenkunde1 xxvi4 7#ahhj7 pp4 #adb    
sq42 ,h4 ,sundermann1 8,die ,insel      
,nias und die ,mission daselbst10       
,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1     
xi4 7#ahhd7 p4 #dde2 ,e4 ,modigliani1   
,un ,viaggio a ,nas1 pp4 #bgg1 #dgi     
sq42 id41 ,l',isola delle ,donne        
7,milan1 #ahid71 p4 #aie4     ,m#aef    
,succession to the soul among the       
,american ,indians and other races4     

#edj ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the    
,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition  
7,london1 #ahde71 iv4 #dec2 ,united     
,states ,exploring ,expedition1         
,ethnography and ,philology1 by ,h4     
,hale 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #bjc4  
#eda ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire 
des nations civilises du ,mexique       
et de l',amrique-,centrale1 ii4 #egd4   
#edb ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 ,myths of the    
,new ,world#b 7,new ,york1 #ahgf71 pp4  
#bgj        sq4      #edc ,relations des
 ,jsuites1 #afcf1 p4 #acj 7,canadian    
reprint1 ,quebec1        #aheh74        
#edd ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,voelker des    
oestlichen ,asien1 iv4 #chf4      #ede  
,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iv4 #fhe2    
,cicero1 ,in ,verr4 ii4 #e4 #de2 ,k4    
,f4 ,hermann1 ,lehrbuch der griechischen
 ,privatalterthmer1 ed4 ,h4             
,blmner1 p4 #cfb1 note #a4      #edf ,j4
 ,harland and ,t4 ,t4 ,wilkinson1       
,lancashire ,folk-lore 7,london1        
#ahhb71 pp4 #g sq4     ,m#aeg           
,succession to the soul in ,africa4     

,inspired representatives of dead       
kings in ,africa4      #edg ,the        
,travels of the ,jesuits in ,ethiopia1  
collected and historically              
digested by ,f4 ,balthazar ,tellez      
7,london1 #agaj71 p4 #aih4      #edh    
,ph4 ,paulitschke1 ,ethnographie        
,nordost-,afrikas1 die geistige ,cultur 
der ,dankil1 ,galla und ,soml 7,berlin1 
#ahif71 p4 #bh4      #edi ,this account 
,i received from my friend the ,rev4 ,j4
 ,roscoe in a        letter dated       
,mengo1 ,uganda1 ,april #bg1 #aijj4 ,see
 his 8,further ,notes        on the     
,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 
,journal of the        ,anthropological 
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #db1 #de 
sq41 where1        however1 the account 
is in some points not quite so explicit4
      #eej ,j4 ,dos ,santos1 8,eastern  
,ethiopia10 in ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal's    
,records of        ,south-eastern       
,africa1 vii4 #aif sq4      #eea ,see   
above1 p4 #ce4      #eeb ,see ,taboo and
 the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #dbc sqq4

     ,m#aeh ,right of succession to the 
kingdom conferred by possession of      
personal relics of dead kings4          
,sometimes a king has to eat a portion  
of his predecessor4      #eec ,see ,the 
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #cfb sqq4      #eed ,a4      
,grandidier1 8,madagascar10 ,bull4 de la
 ,socit de ,gographie        7,paris71  
,,vime ,srie1 iii4 7#ahgb7 pp4 #djb sq4 
#eee ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 quoted by   
,stobaeus1 ,florilegium1 cxxiii4 #ab    
7,fragmenta historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4
 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #dfc74 ,the           
,issedones of ,scythia used to gild the 
skulls of their dead fathers        and 
offer great sacrifices to them annually 
7,herodotus1 iv4 #bf72        they also 
used the skulls as drinking-cups 7,mela1
 ii4 #a4 #i74 ,the        ,boii of      
,cisalpine ,gaul cut off the head of a  
,roman general whom they        had     
defeated1 and having gilded the scalp   
they used it as a sacred        vessel  
for the pouring of libations1 and the   

priests drank out of it        7,livy1  
xxiii4 #bd4 #ab74      #eef ,sir ,h4    
,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate   
7,london1 #aijb71 ii4 #hbh4      #eeg   
,missionary ,holley1 8tude sur les      
,egbas10 ,missions ,catholiques1        
xiii4 7#ahha7 p4 #cec4 ,the writer      
speaks of 8le roi d',alakei10 but       
this is probably a mistake or a         
misprint4 ,as to the ,alake or king of  
,abeokuta1 see ,sir ,william ,macgregor1
 8,lagos1 ,abeokuta1 and the            
,alake10 ,journal of the ,african       
,society1 ,no4 xii4 7,july1 #aijd7 pp4  
#dga sq4 ,some years ago the ,alake     
visited ,england and ,i had the         
honour of being presented to his        
,majesty by ,sir ,william ,macgregor at 
,cambridge4      #eeh ,f4 ,t4 ,valdez1  
,six ,years of a ,traveller's ,life in  
,western ,africa1        ii4 #afa sq4   
#eei ,missionary ,holley1 in ,annales de
 la ,propagation de la ,foi1 liv4       
7#ahhb7 p4 #hg4 ,the 8,king of ,ake0    
mentioned by the writer is the ,alake   

or king of ,abeokuta2 for ,ake is the   
principal quarter of ,abeokuta1         
and ,alake means 8,lord of ,ake40 ,see  
,sir ,william ,macgregor1 l4c4      #efj
 ,extracted from a letter of ,mr4       
,harold ,g4 ,parsons1 dated ,lagos1     
,september #bhth1 #aijc1 and addressed  
to ,mr4 ,theodore ,a4 ,cooke of #ed     
,oakley ,street1 ,chelsea1 ,london1 who 
was so kind as to send me the           
letter with leave to make use of it4    
8,it is usual for great chiefs        to
 report or announce their succession to 
the ,oni of ,ife1 or to the             
,alafin of ,oyo1 the intimation being   
accompanied by a present0 7,sir         
,w4 ,macgregor1 l4c474     ,m#aei       
,succession to the soul of the slain    
king or priest4      #efa ,see above1   
pp4 #bc1 #bf sq4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,westermarck  
has suggested as an        alternative  
to the theory in the text1 8that the new
 king is        supposed to inherit1 not
 the predecessor's soul1 but his        
divinity or        holiness1 which is   

looked upon in the light of a mysterious
 entity1        temporarily seated in   
the ruling sovereign1 but separable from
 him        and transferable to another 
individual40 ,see his article1 8,the    
,killing of the ,divine ,king10 ,man1   
viii4 7#aijh7 pp4 #bb-bd4 ,there is     
a good deal to be said in favour of ,dr4
 ,westermarck's theory1 which        is 
supported in particular by the sanctity 
attributed to the        regalia4 ,but  
on the whole ,i see no sufficient reason
 to abandon the        view adopted in  
the text1 and ,i am confirmed in it by  
the ,shilluk        evidence1 which was 
unknown to ,dr4 ,westermarck when he    
propounded        his theory4     ,m#afj
 ,the single combat of the ,king of the 
,wood at ,nemi was probably a           
mitigation of an older custom of putting
 him to death at the end of        a    
fixed period4      #efb ,see ,the ,magic
 ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4  
#a sqq41 ii4 #cgh        sqq4      #efc 
,see above1 pp4 #ba sq41 #bg sq4        

#efd ,see above1 pp4 #dg sq4     ,m#afa 
,custom of killing the human            
representatives of the tree-spirit4     
,m#afb ,bavarian customs of beheading   
the representatives of the tree-spirit  
at ,whitsuntide4      #efe ,fr4 ,panzer1
 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie     
7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71        i4 #bce   
sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus        
7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #cbj        sq4   
,in some villages of ,lower ,bavaria one
 of the ,pfingstl's        comrades     
carries 8the ,may10 which is a young    
birch-tree wreathed and                 
decorated4 ,another name for this       
,whitsuntide masker1 both in ,lower     
and ,upper ,bavaria1 is the ,water-bird4
 ,sometimes he carries a straw          
effigy of a monstrous bird with a long  
neck and a wooden beak1 which        is 
thrown into the water instead of the    
bearer4 ,the wooden beak is             
afterwards nailed to the ridge of a     
barn1 which it is supposed to           
protect against lightning and fire for a

 whole year1 till the next              
,pfingstl makes his appearance4 ,see    
,bavaria1 ,landes- und                  
,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 i4 
#cge sq41 #ajjc sq4 ,in        ,silesia 
the ,whitsuntide mummer1 called the     
,rauchfiess or        ,raupfiess1       
sometimes stands in a leafy arbour1     
which is mounted on        a cart and   
drawn about the village by four or six  
lads4 ,they collect        gifts at the 
houses and finally throw the cart and   
the ,rauchfiess        into a shallow   
pool outside the village4 ,this is      
called 8driving out        the          
,rauchfiess40 ,the custom used to be    
associated with the driving        out  
of the cattle at ,whitsuntide to pasture
 on the dewy grass1 which        was    
thought to make the cows yield plenty of
 milk4 ,the herdsman who        was the 
last to drive out his beasts on the     
morning of the day        became the    
,rauchfiess in the afternoon4 ,see ,p4  
,drechsler1 ,sitte1        ,brauch und  

,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 i4          
7,leipsic1 #aijc71 pp4        #aag-abc4 
#eff ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1      
,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben     
7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 pp4 #dji-dai2 ,w4  
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cdi       
sq4     ,m#afc ,killing the ,wild ,man  
in ,saxony and ,bohemia4      #efg ,e4  
,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche  
aus ,sachsen und ,thringen              
7,halle1 #ahdf71 pp4 #aed sq42 ,w4      
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cce       
sq4      #efh ,w4 ,mannhardt1           
,baumkultus1 p4 #ccf4      #efi         
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen 7,prague1 ,n4,d41            
preface dated #ahfa71 p4 #fa2 ,w4       
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #ccf       
sq4     ,m#afd ,beheading the ,king on  
,whit-,monday in ,bohemia4      #egj    
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfc2 ,w4                
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cdc4       
#ega ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1            
,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #bfi sq4

     ,m#afe ,beheading the ,king on     
,whit-,monday in ,bohemia4      #egb    
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 ii4 #hf sq4      #egc           
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #bfd sq42 ,w4           
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cec sq4   
,m#aff ,the leaf-clad mummers in these  
customs represent the tree-spirit or    
spirit of vegetation4      #egd ,see    
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 ii4 #gc sqq4      #ege ,see pp4 
#bjh1 #baj4      #egf ,the ,magic ,art  
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bdg   
sqq41 #bgb        sqq4     ,m#afg ,the  
tree-spirit is killed in order to       
prevent its decay and ensure        its 
revival in a vigorous successor4        
#egg ,see above1 p4 #bjh4     ,m#afh    
,resemblances between these ,north      
,european customs and the rites of      
,nemi4      #egh ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4    
#bga4      #egi ,see ,the ,magic ,art   
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #cjh  
sqq4      #ehj ,see ,the ,magic ,art and

 the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bj4      
,m#afi ,the mock killing of the         
leaf-clad mummers is probably a         
substitute        for an old custom of  
killing them in earnest4 ,substitution  
of mock        human sacrifices for real
 ones4      #eha ,caesar1 ,bell4 ,gall4 
vi4 #af2 ,adam of ,bremen1 ,descriptio  
,insularum        ,aquilonis1 #bg       
7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 cxlvi4   
col4 #fdd72 ,olaus        ,magnus1 ,de  
gentium septrionalium variis            
conditionibus1 iii4 #g2 ,j4             
,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #ce 
sqq42 ,f4 ,j4 ,mone1 ,geschichte        
des nordischen ,heidenthums1 i4 #fi1    
#aai1 #abj1 #adi1 #ahg sq4      #ehb ,h4
 ,j4 ,tendeloo1 8,verklaring van het    
zoogenaamd ,oud-,alfoersch              
,teekenschrift10 ,mededeelingen van wege
 het ,nederlandsche                     
,zendelinggenootschap1 xxxvi4 7#ahib7   
pp4 #cch sq4      #ehc ,sir ,h4         
,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate   
7,london1 #aijb71 ii4 #gai        sq4   

,the writer describes the ceremony from 
the testimony of an        eye-witness4 
#ehd ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke1 ,snake ,dance of  
the ,moquis of ,arizona1 pp4 #aif sq4   
#ehe ,euripides1 ,iphigenia in ,taur4   
#adeh sqq4      #ehf ,j4 ,t4            
,nieuwenhuisen en ,h4 ,c4 ,b4 von       
,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het       
eiland ,nias10 ,verhandelingen van het  
,batav4 ,genootschap van ,kunsten       
en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 7#ahfc7 p4 #dc2 
,e4 ,modigliani1 ,un ,viaggio a         
,nias 7,milan1 #ahij71 pp4 #bhb sq4     
#ehg ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ,murs1            
institutions et crmonies des peuples de 
l',inde 7,paris1 #ahbe71 i4 #aea sq4    
#ehh ,e4 ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes 
of ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aiji71   
iv4 #dcg1 quoting ,mr4 ,a4 ,r4          
,loftus-,tottenham4      #ehi ,g4       
,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ca sq42 compare   
pp4 #ch1 #eh1 #ei1 #fi sq41        #gb4 
,m#agj ,mock human sacrifices carried   
out in effigy4      #eij ,porphyry1 ,de 
abstinentia1 ii4 #ee1 citing ,manetho as

 his authority4      #eia 8,the         
,rudhirdhyy1 or sanguinary chapter10    
translated from the        ,calica      
,puran by ,w4 ,c4 ,blaquiere1 in        
,asiatick ,researches1 v4 #cgf          
7#hvo ed41 ,london1 #ahjg74      #eib   
,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology
 of ,bengal 7,calcutta1 #ahgb71 p4      
#bha4      #eic ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 op4    
cit4 pp4 #beh sq4      #eid ,mgr4       
,bruguire1 in ,annales de l',association
 de la ,propagation de la        ,foi1  
v4 7#ahca7 p4 #bja4      #eie ,b4 ,c4   
,a4 ,j4 van ,dinter1 8,eenige           
geographische en ethnographische        
aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland   
,siaoe10 ,tijdschrift voor              
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xli4 7#ahii7 p4 #cgi4      #eif ,ch4   
,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 8,the        
,relations between ,men and ,animals in 
,sarawak10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4      
7#aija7        p4 #bjh4      #eig ,w4   
,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto 7,london1 #aije74   

pp4 #ef sq4      #eih ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1  
8,eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen  
omtrent de        ,toboengkoe en de     
,tomori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het   
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 
#bbb4     ,m#aga ,mimic sacrifices of   
various kinds4 ,mimic sacrifices of     
fingers4        ,mimic rite of          
circumcision4      #eii ,e4 ,thurston1  
8,deformity and ,mutilation10 ,madras   
,government ,museum1        ,bulletin1  
vol4 iv4 ,no4 #c 7,madras1 #aijc71 pp4  
#aic-aif4 ,as to the        custom of   
sacrificing joints of fingers1 see my   
note on ,pausanias1        viii4 #cd4   
#b1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #ced sqq4 ,to the      
evidence there adduced        add ,p4   
,j4 de ,smet1 ,western ,missions and    
,missionaries 7,new ,york1              
#ahfc71 p4 #ace2 ,g4 ,b4 ,grinnell1     
,blackfoot ,lodge ,tales1 pp4 #aid1     
#beh2 ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,l',homme         
amricain1 ii4 #bd2 ,j4 ,williams1       
,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises  

in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4        
#dgj sq42 ,j4 ,mathew1 ,eaglehawk and   
,crow 7,london and ,melbourne1          
#ahii71 p4 #abj2 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1       
,native ,tribes of ,south-,east         
,australia1 pp4 #gdf sq42 ,l4           
,degrandpr1 ,voyage  la cte             
occidentale d',afrique 7,paris1 #ahja71 
ii4 #ic sq42 ,dudley ,kidd1        ,the 
,essential ,kaffir1 pp4 #bjc1 #bfb sq42 
,g4 ,w4 ,stow1 ,native        ,races of 
,south ,africa 7,london1 #aije71 pp4    
#abi1 #aeb2 ,lettres        difiantes et
 curieuses1 ,nouvelle dition1 ix4 #cfi1 
xii4 #cga2        ,annales de la        
,propagation de la ,foi1 xiii4 7#ahda7  
p4 #bj2 id41        xiv4 7#ahdb7 pp4    
#fh1 #aib2 id41 xvii4 7#ahde7 pp4 #ab1  
#ac2 id41        xviii4 7#ahdf7 p4 #f2  
id41 xxiii4 7#ahea7 p4 #cad2 id41 xxxii4
        7#ahfj7 pp4 #ie sq42 ,indian    
,antiquary1 xxiv4 7#ahie7 p4 #cjc2      
,missions ,catholiques1 xxix4 7#ahig7 p4
 #ij2 ,zeitschrift fr                   
,ethnologie1 xxxii4 7#aijj7 p4 #ha4 ,the

 objects of this mutilation        were 
various4 ,in ancient ,athens it was     
customary to cut off the hand        of 
a suicide and bury it apart from his    
body 7,aeschines1 ,contra               
,ctesiph4  #bdd1 p4 #aic1 ed4 ,f4       
,franke71 perhaps to prevent his        
ghost from attacking the living4        
#fjj ,basil ,c4 ,thomson1 ,savage       
,island 7,london1 #aijb71 pp4 #ib sq4   
#fja ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes
 in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71  
p4 #cij4     ,m#agb ,it has been        
customary to kill animal gods and corn  
gods as well as        tree-spirits4    
,m#agc ,customs of burying the ,carnival
 and carrying out ,death4      #fjb ,j4 
,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4    
#fde2 ,k4 ,haupt1 ,sagenbuch der        
,lausitz1 ii4 #eh2                      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen1        pp4 #hf sq42 id41    
,das festliche ,jahr1 pp4 #gg sq42      
,bavaria1        ,landes- und           
,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1    

iii4 #ieh sq42        ,sepp1 ,die       
,religion der alten ,deutschen 7,munich1
 #ahij71 pp4 #fg        sq42 ,w4 ,mller1
 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen
 in ,mhren        7,vienna and ,olmutz1 
#ahic71 pp4 #beh1 #cec4 ,the fourth     
,sunday in ,lent        is also known as
 ,mid-,lent1 because it falls in the    
middle of ,lent1        or as ,laetare  
from the first word of the liturgy for  
that day4 ,in        the ,roman calendar
 it is the ,sunday of the ,rose         
7,domenica rosae71        because on    
that day the ,pope consecrates a golden 
rose1 which he        presents to some  
royal lady4 ,in one ,german village of  
,transylvania        the ,carrying out  
of ,death takes place on ,ascension     
,day4 ,see below1        pp4 #bdh sq4   
,m#agd ,effigy of the ,carnival burnt at
 ,frosinone in ,latium4      #fjc ,g4   
,targioni-,tozzetti1 ,saggio di         
novelline1 canti ed usanze popolari     
della ,ciociaria 7,palermo1 #ahia71 pp4 
#hi-ie4 ,at ,palermo an effigy of       

the ,carnival 7,nannu7 was burnt at     
midnight on ,shrove ,tuesday #ahgh4     
,see ,g4 ,pitr1 ,usi e costumi1 credenze
 e pregiudizi del popolo                
siciliano1 i4 #aag-aai2 ,g4 ,trede1 ,das
 ,heidentum in der rmischen             
,kirche1 iii4 #aa1 note4     ,m#age     
,burying the ,carnival in the ,abruzzi4 
#fjd ,a4 de ,nino1 ,usi e costumi       
abruzzesi1 ii4 #aih-bjj4 ,the writer    
omits        to mention the date of     
these celebrations4 ,no doubt it is     
either        ,shrove ,tuesday or ,ash  
,wednesday4 ,compare ,g4 ,finamore1     
,credenze1 usi        e costumi         
abruzzesi 7,palermo1 #ahij71 p4 #aaa4   
,in some parts of        ,piedmont an   
effigy of ,carnival is burnt on the     
evening of ,shrove        ,tuesday2 in  
others they set fire to tall poplar     
trees1 which1 stript        of their    
branches and surmounted by banners1 have
 been set up the        day before in   
public places4 ,these trees go by the   
name of ,scarli4        ,see ,g4 di     

,giovanni1 ,usi1 credenze e pregiudizi  
del ,canavese        7,palermo1 #ahhi71 
pp4 #afa1 #afd sq4 ,for other accounts  
of the        ceremony of the death of  
the ,carnival1 represented either by a  
puppet or a living person1 in ,italy and
 ,sicily1 see ,g4 ,pitr1 ,usi e         
costumi1 credenze e pregiudizi del      
popolo siciliano1 i4 #if-ajj2 ,g4       
,amalfi1 ,tradizioni ed usi nella       
,penisola ,sorrentina 7,palermo1        
#ahij71 pp4 #dj1 #db4 ,it has been      
rightly observed by ,pitr 7op4 cit4     
p4 #if71 that the personification of the
 ,carnival is doubtless the             
lineal descendant of some mythical      
personage of remote ,greek and          
,roman antiquity4      #fje ,r4 ,wnsch1 
,das ,frhlingsfest der ,insel ,malta    
7,leipsic1 #aijb71 pp4        #bi sq41  
quoting ,ciantar's supplements to       
,abelas's ,malta        illustrata4     
,m#agf ,burial of the ,carnival at      
,lerida in ,spain4      #fjf ,j4 ,s4    
,campion1 ,on ,foot in ,spain 7,london1 

#ahgi71 pp4 #bia-bie4     ,m#agg        
,funeral of the ,carnival in ,france4   
,execution of ,shrove ,tuesday in       
the ,ardennes and ,franche-,comt4       
#fjg ,a4 de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 mythes et 
traditions des provinces de ,france     
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #cg sq4 
,the name ,caramantran is        thought
 to be compounded of carme entrant1     
8,lent entering40 ,it is        said    
that the effigy of ,caramantran is      
sometimes burnt 7,e4 ,cortet1           
,essai sur les ftes religieuses1 ,paris1
 #ahfg1 p4 #ajg74      #fjh ,l4 ,pineau1
 ,folk-lore du ,poitou 7,paris1 #ahib71 
p4 #dic4      #fji ,a4 ,meyrac1         
,traditions1 lgendes et contes des      
,ardennes        7,charleville1 #ahij71 
p4 #fc4 ,according to the writer1 the   
custom of        burning an effigy of   
,shrove ,tuesday or the ,carnival is    
pretty        general in ,france4       
#faj ,ch4 ,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en     
,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71 p4 #cj4 
,in        ,beauce and ,perche the      

burning or burial of ,shrove ,tuesday   
used to be        represented in effigy1
 but the custom has now disappeared4    
,see ,f4        ,chapiseau1 ,le         
,folk-lore de la ,beauce et du ,perche  
7,paris1 #aijb71        i4 #cbj sq4     
,m#agh ,burial of ,shrove ,tuesday in   
,normandy4 ,burning ,shrove ,tuesday at 
,saint-,l4      #faa ,j4 ,lecur1        
,esquisses du ,bocage ,normand          
7,cond-sur-,noireau1        #ahhc-ahhg71
 ii4 #adh-aej4      #fab ,madame ,octave
 ,feuillet1 ,quelques annes de ma vie#e 
7,paris1 #ahie71        pp4 #ei-fa4     
,m#agi ,burial of ,shrove ,tuesday or   
the ,carnival in ,brittany4      #fac   
,p4 ,sbillot1 ,coutumes populaires de la
 ,haute-,bretagne 7,paris1              
#ahhf71 pp4 #bbg sq4      #fad ,a4 de   
,nore1 ,coutumes1 mythes et traditions  
des ,provinces de        ,france1 p4    
#bjf4      #fae ,p4 ,sbillot1 ,le       
,folk-lore de ,france1 ii4 7,paris1     
#aije7 p4 #agj4      #faf ,p4 ,sbillot1 
l4c4      #fag ,j4 ,l4 ,m4 ,nogues1 ,les

 ,murs d'autrefois en ,saintonge et en  
,aunis        7,saintes1 #ahia71 p4 #fj4
 ,as to the trial and condemnation of   
the        ,carnival on ,ash ,wednesday 
in ,france1 see further ,brenger-,fraud1
        ,superstitions et survivances1  
iv4 #eb sq4      #fah ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton
 ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs      
7,london1 #ahgf71 p4        #ic4        
,m#ahj ,burying the ,carnival in        
,germany and ,austria4      #fai ,see   
above1 p4 #bji4      #fbj ,e4 ,meier1   
,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche 
aus ,schwaben1 p4        #cga4      #fba
 ,j4 ,haltrich1 ,zur ,volkskunde der    
,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,vienna1         
#ahhe71 pp4 #bhd sq4      #fbb ,k4 von  
,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain1 pp4  
#afb sqq42 ,w4        ,mannhardt1       
,baumkultus1 p4 #daa4      #fbc ,e4     
,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und   
,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4        #cgd2
 compare ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches
 aus ,schwaben 7,freiburg        im     
,breisgau1 #ahfa-ahfb71 ii4 pp4 #ed sq41

  #ga4      #fbd ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4 p4
 #cgb4      #fbe ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4 p4
 #cgc4      #fbf ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4   
pp4 #cgc1 #cgd4      #fbg ,a4 ,kuhn1    
,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus       
,westfalen 7,leipsic1        #ahei71 ii4
 p4 #acj1  #cic4     ,m#aha ,burning the
 ,carnival in ,greece4 ,esthonian custom
 on ,shrove ,tuesday4      #fbh         
,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7 p4 #bjf4        
#fbi ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem       
inneren und usseren ,leben der ,ehsten  
7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahgf71 p4 #cec4     
,m#ahb ,resurrection enacted in these   
ceremonies4      #fcj ,e4 ,meier1 op4   
cit4 p4 #cgd4      #fca ,h4 ,prhle1     
,harzbilder 7,leipsic1 #ahee71 p4 #ed4  
,m#ahc ,carrying out ,death in ,bavaria4
      #fcb ,bavaria1 ,landes- und       
,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1    
iii4 #ieh4      #fcc ,j4 ,boemus1       
,omnium gentium mores1 leges1 et ritus  
7,paris1 #aech71 p4        #hc4         
#fcd ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde 
des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iii4 #ieh4     

#fce ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche              
,mythologie1#d ii4 #fci sq42 ,w4        
,mannhardt1        ,baumkultus1 p4 #dab4
      #fcf ,sepp1 ,die ,religion der    
alten ,deutschen 7,munich1 #ahgf71 p4   
#fg4      #fcg ,fr4 ,kauffmann1 ,balder 
7,strasburg1 #aijb71 p4 #bhc4     ,m#ahd
 ,carrying out ,death in ,thringen4     
#fch ,aug4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten  
und ,gebruche aus ,thringen 7,vienna1   
#ahgh71 p4 #aic4      #fci ,a4          
,witzschel1 op4 cit4 p4 #aii2 ,j4 ,a4   
,e4 ,khler1 ,volksbrauch1               
,aberglauben1 ,sagen und andre alte     
berlieferungen im ,voigtlande           
7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 pp4 #aga sq4         
#fdj ,fr4 ,kauffmann1 ,balder           
7,strasburg1 #aijb71 p4 #bhc note1      
quoting ,j4        ,k4 ,zeumer1 ,laetare
 vulgo ,todten ,sonntag 7,jena1 #agja71 
pp4 #bj        sqq42 ,j4 ,grimm1        
,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdj sq4   
,the words of        the song are given 
as 8,so treiben wir den todten auss10   
but this        must be a mistake for   

8,so treiben wir den ,tod hinaus10 as   
the line        is given by ,p4         
,drechsler 7,sitte1 ,brauch und         
,volksglaube in        ,schlesien1 i4   
#ff74 ,in the passage quoted the effigy 
is spoken of as        8mortis larva40  
#fda ,zacharias ,schneider1 ,leipziger  
,chronik1 iv4 #adc1 cited by ,k4        
,schwenk1 ,die ,mythologie der ,slaven  
7,frankfort1 #ahec71 pp4 #bag           
sq41 and ,fr4 ,kauffmann1 ,balder1 pp4  
#bhd sq4     ,m#ahe ,carrying out ,death
 in ,silesia4      #fdb ,p4 ,drechsler1 
,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in     
,schlesien1 i4        #fe-ga4 ,compare  
,a4 ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus         
sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1     
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bha sq4      #fdc ,f4 
,tetzner1 8,die ,tschechen und ,mhrer in
 ,schlesien10 ,globus1        lxxviii4  
7#aijj7 p4 #cdj4     ,m#ahf ,carrying   
out ,death in ,bohemia4      #fdd ,j4   
,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4    
#fdb4      #fde ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 
,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #ij sq4 

#fdf ,ibid4 p4 #ia4     ,m#ahg ,carrying
 out ,death in ,moravia4      #fdg ,w4  
,mller1 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der    
,deutschen in ,mhren 7,vienna        and
 ,olmtz1 #ahic71 pp4 #cec-cee4          
,m#ahh ,the effigy of ,death feared and 
abhorred4      #fdh ,j4 ,grimm1         
,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdd2 ,k4  
,haupt1 ,sagenbuch der        ,lausitz  
7,leipsic1 #ahfb-ahfc71 ii4 #ee2 ,p4    
,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,branch        und  
,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 i4 #gj sq4  
#fdi ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fdj1     
#fdc2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 op4 cit4 i4 #gj4  
,see also above1 p4 #bcf4      #fej ,th4
 ,vernaleken1 ,mythen und ,bruche des   
,volkes in sterreich        7,vienna1   
#ahei71 pp4 #bid sq42                   
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen1 p4 #ij4      #fea ,see      
above1 p4 #bcf4      #feb ,see above1   
pp4 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bcg4      #fec   
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche  
,jahr 7,leipsic1 #ahfc71 p4 #hj4        
#fed ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of the

 ,russian ,people 7,london1 #ahgb71 p4  
#baa4      #fee ,ibid4 p4 #baj4         
,m#ahi ,sawing the ,old ,woman at       
,mid-,lent in ,italy4      #fef ,j4     
,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4    
#feb2 ,h4 ,usener1 ,italische           
,mythen1 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f41  
xxx4 7#ahge7 pp4 #aia sq4      #feg ,g4 
,pitr1 ,spettacoli e feste popolari     
siciliane 7,palermo1 #ahha71        pp4 
#bjg sq41 id41 ,usi e costumi1 credenze 
e pregiudizi del        popolo          
siciliano1 i4 #ajg sq4      #feh        
,archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni
 popolari1 iv4 7#ahhe7 pp4        #bid  
sq4      #fei ,h4 ,usener1 op4 cit4 p4  
#aic4      #ffj ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la   
,tradizione greco-latina negli usi e    
nelle        credenze popolari della    
,calabria citeriore 7,cosenza1 #ahhd71  
pp4 #dc        sq4      #ffa ,e4        
,martinengo-,cesaresco1 in ,the         
,academy1 ,no4 #fga1 ,march #ad1 #ahhe1 
p4 #ahh4     ,m#aij ,sawing the ,old    
,woman at ,mid-,lent in ,france4        

#ffb ,laisnel de la ,salle1 ,croyances  
et lgendes du centre de la ,france      
7,paris1 #ahge71 i4 #dc sq4     ,m#aia  
,sawing the ,old ,woman at ,mid-,lent in
 ,spain and among the ,slavs4      #ffc 
,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4
 #feb2 ,h4 ,usener1 8,italische         
,mythen10 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f41 
xxx4 7#ahge7 pp4 #aia sq4      #ffd ,e4 
,hoffmann-,krayer1 8,fruchtbarkeitsriten
 im schweizerischen                     
,volksbrauch10 ,schweizerisches ,archiv 
fr ,volkskunde1 xi4 7#aijc7 p4          
#bci4     ,m#aib ,sawing the ,old ,woman
 on ,palm ,sunday among the gypsies4    
#ffe ,h4 von ,wlislocki1 ,volksglaube   
und religiser ,brauch der ,zigeuner     
7,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahia71 pp4 #ade sq4   
,m#aic ,seven-legged effigies of ,lent  
in ,spain4      #fff ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai
 sur les ftes religieuses 7,paris1      
#ahfg71 pp4 #ajg        sq42 ,laisnel de
 la ,salle1 ,croyances et lgendes du    
centre de la        ,france1 i4 #de sq4 
,a similar custom appears to be observed

 in        ,minorca4 ,see ,globus1 lix4 
7#ahia7 pp4 #bgi1 #bhj4     ,m#aid      
,seven-legged effigies of ,lent in      
,italy4      #ffg ,a4 de ,nino1 ,usi e  
costumi abruzzesi1 ii4 #bjc-bje         
7,florence1 #ahha72        ,g4          
,finamore1 ,credenze1 usi e costumi     
abruzzesi 7,palermo1 #ahij71        pp4 
#aab1 #aad4      #ffh ,g4 ,amalfi1      
,tradizioni ed usi nella ,penisola      
,sorrentina 7,palermo1        #ahij71 p4
 #da4      #ffi ,lucy ,e4 ,broadwood1 in
 ,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7 p4 #cij4       
,m#aie ,the custom of carrying out      
,death is often followed by the ceremony
        of bringing in ,summer1 in which
 the ,summer is represented by a tree   
or branches4      #fgj                  
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #hi sq42 ,w4            
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #aef4 ,this 
custom has been already        referred 
to4 ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the       
,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #gc        sq4
      #fga ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1      

,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 
i4 #ga        sqq42                     
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche  
,jahr1 p4 #hb2 ,philo        vom ,walde1
 ,schlesien in ,sage und ,brauch        
7,berlin1 ,n4,d41 preface        dated  
#ahhc71 p4 #abb4      #fgb ,a4          
,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und         
,gebruche aus ,thringen1 pp4 #aib       
sq42 compare pp4 #big sqq4      #fgc ,j4
 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4   
#fdc sq42 ,k4 ,haupt1        ,sagenbuch 
der ,lausitz1 ii4 #ed sq42 ,w4          
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1        pp4 #dab
 sq42 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of   
the ,russian ,people1 p4        #baa4   
,m#aif ,new potency of life ascribed to 
the image of ,death4 ,carrying out      
,death at ,braller in ,transylvania4    
#fgd ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fdd2 ,k4 
,haupt1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ee4      #fge ,j4 
,k4 ,schuller1 ,das ,todaustragen und   
der ,muorlef1 ein ,beitrag zur          
,kunde schsischer ,sitte und ,sage in   
,siebenbrgen 7,hermannstadt1            

#ahfa71 pp4 #d sq4 ,the description of  
this ceremony by ,miss ,e4              
,gerard 7,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 
ii4 #dg-di7 is plainly borrowed         
from ,mr4 ,schuller's little work4      
#fgf ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur           
,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren    
7,vienna        and ,olmtz1 #ahic71 pp4 
#beh sq4     ,m#aig ,life-giving virtue 
ascribed to the effigy of ,death4       
#fgg ,p4 #bdg4      #fgh ,this is also  
the view taken of the custom by ,w4     
,mannhardt1        ,baumkultus1 p4 #dai4
      #fgi ,th4 ,vernaleken1 ,mythen und
 ,bruche des ,volkes in sterreich1 pp4  
#bic sq4      #fhj                      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche  
,jahr1 p4 #hb4      #fha ,philo vom     
,walde1 ,schlesien in ,sage und ,brauch1
 p4 #abb2 ,p4        ,drechsler1 ,sitte1
 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1
 i4 #gd4      #fhb ,see above1 p4 #bcf4 
#fhc ,see above1 pp4 #bci sq4      #fhd 
,see above1 p4 #bcf4     ,m#aih ,the    
,summer-tree equivalent to the          

,may-tree4 ,but the ,summer-tree is a   
revival of the image of ,death2 hence   
the image of ,death must be an          
embodiment of the spirit of vegetation4 
#fhe ,above1 p4 #bdf4      #fhf ,above1 
p4 #bdf4      #fhg ,see ,the ,magic ,art
 and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #gc  
sqq4      #fhh ,above1 p4 #bdf1 and ,j4 
,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4    
#fdd2        ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1    
,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #hg sq4 
#fhi ,above1 p4 #bdf4      #fij ,see    
above1 pp4 #bej sq4      #fia ,see ,the 
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #de sqq4      #fib ,above1  
pp4 #bcd1 #bce1 #bdj1 #bdh1 #bej2 and   
,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche                   
,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdc4      #fic      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender 
aus ,bhmen1 p4 #hh4 ,sometimes          
the effigy of ,death 7without a tree7 is
 carried round by boys who              
collect gratuities 7,j4 ,grimm1         
,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdd74     
#fid ,above1 p4 #bjh4      #fie ,above1 

p4 #bca4      #fif ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1  
,aus dem inneren und usseren ,leben der 
,ehsten1 p4        #cec2 ,holzmayer1    
8,osiliana10 in ,verhandlungen der      
gelehrten        ,estnischen            
,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4 ,heft #b1
 pp4 #aj sq42 ,w4        ,mannhardt1    
,baumkultus1 pp4 #djg sq4     ,m#aii    
,the names of ,carnival1 ,death1 and    
,summer in the preceding customs        
seem to cover an ancient tree-spirit or 
spirit of vegetation4      #fig ,w4     
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #dag-dba4  
,m#bjj ,dramatic contests between       
representatives of ,summer and ,winter4 
#fih ,olaus ,magnus1 ,de gentium        
septentrionalium variis conditionibus1  
xv4 #h sq4 ,in ,le ,temps1 ,no4 #ae1ffi1
 ,may #aa1 #aijb1 p4 #b1 there is       
a description of this ceremony as it    
used to be performed in                 
,stockholm4 ,the description seems to be
 borrowed from ,olaus ,magnus4      #fii
 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d   
ii4 #fcg-fci2 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und    

,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iv4
 #b1 pp4 #ceg sq4 ,see also ,e4         
,krause1 8,das ,sommertags-,fest in     
,heidelberg10 ,verhandlungen der        
,berliner ,gesellschaft fr              
,anthropologie1 #ahie1 p4 7#ade72 ,a4   
,dieterich1 8,sommertag10 ,archiv fr    
,religionswissenschaft1 viii4           
7#aije7 ,beiheft1 pp4 #hb sqq4      #gjj
 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des 
,knigreichs ,bayern1 i4 #cfi        sq4 
#gja ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde 
des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 ii4 #bei       
sq42 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen
 ,mythologie1 i4 pp4        #bec-bef2   
,k4 von ,leoprechting1 ,aus dem         
,lechrain1 pp4 #afg sq4 ,a              
dialogue in verse between               
representatives of ,winter and ,summer  
is        spoken at ,hartlieb in        
,silesia1 near ,breslau4 ,see           
,zeitschrift des        ,vereins fr     
,volkskunde1 iii4 7#ahic7 pp4 #bbf-bbh4 
,m#bja ,dramatic contests between       
representatives of ,summer and ,winter4 

#gjb ,th4 ,vernaleken1 ,mythen und      
,bruche des ,vlkes in sterreich1 pp4    
#big sq4      #gjc ,r4 ,andree1         
,braunschweiger ,volkskunde 7,brunswick1
 #ahif71 p4 #bej4      #gjd ,w4 ,mller1 
,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen 
in ,mhren1 pp4        #dcj-dcf4         
#gje ,w4 ,mller1 op4 cit4 p4 #bei4      
,m#bjb ,queen of ,winter and ,queen of  
,may in the ,isle of ,man4      #gjf ,j4
 ,train1 ,historical and ,statistical   
,account of the ,isle of ,man           
7,douglas1 ,isle of ,man1 #ahde71 ii4   
#aah-abj4 ,it has been suggested        
that the name ,maceboard may be a       
corruption of ,may-sports4     ,m#bjc   
,contests between representatives of    
,summer and ,winter among the           
,esquimaux4 ,canadian ,indians drove    
away ,winter with burning brands4       
#gjg ,fr4 ,boas1 8,the ,central         
,eskimo10 ,sixth ,annual ,report of the 
,bureau        of ,ethnology            
7,washington1 #ahhh71 p4 #fje4 ,the     
account of this custom        given by  

,captain ,j4 ,s4 ,mutch is as follows3  
8,the people take a long        rope1   
the ends of which are tied together4    
,they arrange themselves        so that 
those born during the summer stand close
 to the water1 and        those born in 
the winter stand inland2 and then they  
pull at the        rope to see whether  
summer or winter is the stronger4 ,if   
winter        should win1 there will be 
plenty of food2 if summer should win1   
there will be a bad winter40 ,see ,fr4  
,boas1 8,the ,eskimo of ,baffin         
,land and ,hudson ,bay10 ,bulletin of   
the ,american ,museum of ,natural       
,history1 xv4 7#aija7 pp4 #adj sq4 ,at  
,memphis in ,egypt there were        two
 statues in front of the temple of      
,hephaestus 7,ptah71 of which        the
 more northern was popularly called     
,summer and the more southern           
,winter4 ,the people worshipped the     
image of ,summer and execrated the      
image of ,winter4 ,it has been suggested
 that the two statues        represented

 ,osiris and ,typhon1 the good and the  
bad god4 ,see        ,herodotus1 ii4    
#aba1 with the notes of ,bhr and        
,wiedemann4      #gjh ,relations des    
,jsuites1 #afcf1 p4 #ch 7,canadian      
reprint1 ,quebec1        #aheh74        
,m#bjd ,the burning of ,winter at       
,zurich4      #gji ,h4 ,herzog1         
,schweizerische ,volksfeste1 ,sitten und
 ,gebruche 7,aurau1        #ahhd71 pp4  
#afd-aff2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1  
pp4 #dih sq4      #gaj ,letter to me of 
,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,black1 dated ,lauriston   
,cottage1 ,wimbledon        ,common1    
#bhth ,may1 #aijc4 ,in a subsequent     
letter 7dated #ith ,june1        #aijc7 
,dr4 ,black enclosed some               
bibliographical references to the       
custom which were kindly furnished to   
him by ,professor ,p4 ,schmiedel        
of ,zurich1 who speaks of the effigy as 
a representative of ,winter4        ,it 
is not expressly so called by ,h4       
,herzog and ,w4 ,mannhardt4 ,see the    
preceding note4     ,m#bje ,funeral of  

,kostrubonko1 ,kostroma1 ,kupalo1 and   
,yarilo in ,russia4      #gaa ,w4 ,r4   
,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian    
,people1 p4 #bba4      #gab ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 
,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian        
,people1 p4 #bda4      #gac ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 
,ralston1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bdc sq42 ,w4    
,mannhardt1        ,baumkultus1 p4 #dad4
      #gad ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 
pp4 #dad sq42 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 op4 
cit4 p4 #bdd4      #gae ,w4 ,r4 ,s4     
,ralston1 op4 cit4 p4 #bde2 ,w4         
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4        #daf4
      #gaf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c42 ,w4 ,r4
 ,s4 ,ralston1 l4c4     ,m#bjf ,the     
,russian ,kostrubonko1 ,yarilo1 and so  
on1 were probably at first              
spirits of vegetation dying and coming  
to life again4   ,m#bjg ,in these       
ceremonies grief and gladness1 love and 
hatred appear to be        curiously    
combined4   ,m#bjh ,expulsion of ,death 
sometimes enacted without an effigy4    
#gag ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche              
,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdd4      #gah ,j4  

,g4 von ,hahn1 ,albanesische ,studien   
7,jena1 #ahed71 i4 #afj4     ,m#bji     
,images of ,siva and ,prvat married1    
drowned1 and mourned for in             
,india4      #gai ,r4 ,c4 ,temple1 in   
,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 7#ahhb7 pp4 #big
 sq4     ,m#baj ,in this ,indian custom 
,siva and ,prvat seem to be the         
equivalents of        the ,king and     
,queen of ,may4      #gbj ,see ,the     
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #hd sqq4      #gba ,see ,the
 ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of      
,kings1 ii4 #de sqq4     ,m#baa ,the    
foregoing customs were originally rites 
intended to ensure the        revival of
 nature in spring by means of imitative 
magic4 ,feelings        with which the  
primitive savage may have regarded the  
changes of the        seasons4      #gbb
 ,when the ,kurnai of ,victoria saw the 
,aurora ,australis1 which               
corresponds to the ,northern ,streamers 
of ,europe1 they exchanged        wives 
for the day and swung the severed hand  

of a dead man towards        it1        
shouting1 8,send it away6 do not let it 
burn us up60 ,see ,a4 ,w4               
,howitt1 8,on some ,australian          
,beliefs10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4      
7#ahhd7 p4 #ahi2 id41 ,native           
,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 
#bgf sq41 #dcj4     ,m#bab ,in modern   
,europe the old magical rites for the   
revival of nature in        spring have 
degenerated into mere pageants and      
pastimes4      #gbc ,see ,the ,magic    
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4   
#bdb sq4     ,m#bac ,parallel to the    
spring customs of ,europe in the magical
 rites of the        ,central           
,australian aborigines4      #gbd       
,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of
 ,central ,australia1 pp4 #d        sq41
 #agj4      #gbe ,spencer and ,gillen1  
op4 cit4 p4 #agj4 ,for a description of 
some of        these ceremonies see ,the
 ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of      
,kings1 i4        #he sqq4     ,m#bad   

,letter of ,mr4 ,m4 ,w4 ,lampson4       
,m#bae ,lord ,avebury's statement4      
#gbf ,lord ,avebury1 ,origin of         
,civilisation1#e pp4 #cgh sq42 compare  
id41 ,prehistoric ,times1#e p4 #efa4    
,m#baf ,opinions of various authorities4
   ,m#bag ,substitutes for corporal     
punishment in ,china4      #gbg ,de     
,guignes1 ,voyages  ,peking1 ,manille et
 l'le de ,france1 iii4        7,paris1  
#ahjh7 pp4 #aad sq4     ,m#bah ,the     
custom of swinging practised for various
 reasons4 ,swinging at        harvest4  
#gbh ,above1 pp4 #aef sq4      #gbi ,b4 
,f4 ,matthes1 ,einige                   
,eigenthumlichkeiten in den ,festen und 
,gewohnheiten der ,makassaren und       
,buginesen 7,leyden1 #ahhd71 p4 #a2     
id41 8,over de d's of gewoonten der     
,makassaren en ,boegineezen10           
,verslagen en ,mededeelingen der        
koninklijke ,akademie van               
,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1
 ,derde ,reeks1 ,tweede ,deel           
7,amsterdam1 #ahhe71 pp4 #afi sq4       

#gcj ,h4 ,a4 ,oldfield1 ,sketches from  
,nipal 7,london1 #ahhj71 ii4 #cea4      
#gca ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the  
,forests of the ,far ,east1#b i4 #aid   
sq4      #gcb ,ch4 ,brooke1 ,ten ,years 
in ,sarawak1 ii4 #bbf sq4     ,m#bai    
,swinging for fish and game4      #gcc  
,j4 ,s4 ,g4 ,gramberg1 8,de             
,troeboekvisscherij10 ,tijdschrift voor 
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xxiv4 7#ahhg7 pp4 #cad sq4      #gcd   
,e4 ,petitot1 ,monographie des          
,dn-,dindji 7,paris1 #ahgf71 p4 #ch4    
,the        same ceremony is performed1 
oddly enough1 to procure the death of an
        enemy4     ,m#bbj ,indian custom
 of swinging on hooks4 ,swinging in the 
rainy season4        ,swinging in honour
 of ,krishna4 ,esthonian custom of      
swinging at the        summer solstice4 
#gce ,hamilton's 8,account of the ,east 
,indies10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and  
,travels1 viii4 #cfj sq4 ,in general we 
are merely told that these              
,indian devotees swing on hooks in      

fulfilment of a vow or to obtain        
some favour of a deity4 ,see ,duarte    
,barbosa1 ,description of the           
,coasts of ,east ,africa and ,malabar in
 the beginning of the ,sixteenth        
,century1 translated by the ,hon4 ,h4   
,e4 ,j4 ,stanley 7,hakluyt ,society1    
,london1 #ahff71 pp4 #ie sq42 ,gaspar   
,balbi's 8,voyage to ,pegu10 in         
,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 
#cih2 ,sonnerat1 ,voyage aux            
,indes orientales et  la ,chine1 i4     
#bdd2 ,s4 ,mateer1 ,the ,land of        
,charity1 p4 #bbj2 ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter1     
,annals of ,rural ,bengal1#e p4 #dfc2   
,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4  
p4 #gf1  #eaa4      #gcf ,v4 ,ball1     
,jungle ,life in ,india 7,london1       
#ahhj71 p4 #bcb4      #gcg ,w4 ,w4      
,hunter1 ,annals of ,rural ,bengal#e    
7,london1 #ahgb71 p4 #dfc4      #gch ,g4
 ,w4 ,leitner1 ,the ,languages and      
,races of ,dardistan 7,lahore1          
#ahgh71 p4 #ab4      #gci ,sarat        
,chandra ,mitra1 8,notes on two ,behari 

,pastimes10 ,journal of the             
,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1   
iii4 #ie sq4      #gdj ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson1 
8,the ,religious ,festivals of the      
,hindus10 ,journal of        the ,royal 
,asiatic ,society1 ix4 7#ahdh7 p4 #ih4  
,compare ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1               
,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4  
#cad2 ,monier ,williams1                
,religious ,life and ,thought in ,india1
 p4 #acg2 ,w4 ,crooke1 8,the            
,legends of ,krishna10 ,folk-lore1 xi4  
7#aijj7 pp4 #ba sqq4      #gda ,the     
,hymns of the ,rigveda1 vii4 #hg4 #e    
7vol4 iii4 p4 #ajh of ,r4 ,t4 ,h4       
,griffith's translation1 ,benares1      
#ahia72 ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion  
des ,veda1 pp4 #ddd sq4      #gdb ,j4   
,g4 ,kohl1 ,die deutsch-russischen      
,ostseeprovinzen 7,dresden and          
,leipsic1 #ahda71 ii4 #bfh sqq4         
#gdc ,l4 v4 ,schroeder1 8,lihgo         
7,refrain der lettischen                
,sonnwendlieder710        ,mitteilungen 
der ,anthropologischen ,gesellschaft in 

,wien1 xxxii4        7#aijb7 pp4 #a-aa4 
,m#bba ,swinging for inspiration4       
#gdd ,s4 ,w4 ,tromp1 8,uit de ,salasila 
van ,koetei10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal-  
,land- en ,volkenkunde van              
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xxxvii4 7#ahhh7 pp4
        #hg-hi4     ,m#bbb ,swinging as 
a cure for sickness4      #gde ,j4      
,perham1 8,manangism in ,borneo10       
,journal of the ,straits ,branch of     
the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #ai  
7,singapore1 #ahhg71 pp4 #ig sq42       
,e4 ,h4 ,gomes1 ,seventeen ,years among 
the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo              
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #afi1 #agj1 #aga2 
,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of       
,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4
 #bgi4      #gdf ,c4 ,bock1 ,the        
,head-hunters of ,borneo 7,london1      
#ahha71 pp4 #aaj-aab4     ,m#bbc        
,athenian festival of swinging4         
#gdg ,hyginus1 ,astronomica1 ii4 #d1 pp4
 #cd sqq41 ed4 ,bunte2 id41             
,fabulae1 #acj2 ,servius and ,probus on 
,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #chi2              

,festus1 s4v4 8,oscillantes10 p4 #aid1  
ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,athenaeus1         
xiv4 #aj1 p4 #fah ,e ,f2 ,pollux1 iv4   
#ee2 ,hesychius1 s4vv4  and        2    
,etymologicum magnum1 s4v4 1 p4 #db4 #c2
 ,schol4 on        ,homer1 ,iliad1 xxii4
 #bi4 ,the story of the murder of       
,icarius is told        by a scholiast  
on ,lucian 7,dial4 meretr4 vii4 #d7 to  
explain the        origin of a different
 festival 7,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f41
 xxv4        7#ahgj7 pp4 #eeg sqq42     
,scholia in ,lucianum1 ed4 ,h4 ,rabe1 p4
 #bhj74        ,as to the swinging      
festival at ,athens see ,o4 ,jahn1      
,archologische        ,beitrge1 pp4 #cbd
 sq42 ,daremberg et ,saglio1            
,dictionnaire des        antiquits      
grecques et romaines1 s4v4 8,aiora02    
,miss ,j4 ,e4        ,harrison1 in      
,mythology and ,monuments of ,ancient   
,athens1 by ,mrs4        ,verrall and   
,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 pp4 xxxix4 sqq4
     ,m#bbd ,swinging as a mode of      
expiation and purification4      #gdh   

,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 xii4 #fjc3   
8,et ,varro ait3 ,suspendiosis          
quibus iusta fieri ius non sit1         
suspensis oscillis veluti per           
imitationem mortis parentari40      #gdi
 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #chi2 
id41 on ,aen4 vi4 #gda4      #gej       
,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of
 ,central ,australia1 pp4 #eje          
sq4      #gea ,festus1 s4v4             
8,oscillantes10 p4 #aid1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4    
,mller4 ,this        festival and its   
origin are also alluded to in a passage 
of one of        the manuscripts of     
,servius 7on ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #chi71
 which is        printed by ,lion in his
 edition of ,servius 7vol4 ii4 #bed1    
note71 but        not by ,thilo and     
,hagen in their large critical edition  
of the old        ,virgilian            
commentator4 8,in ,schol4 ,bob4 p4 #bef 
we are told that        there was a     
reminiscence of the fact that1 the      
bodies of ,latinus and        ,aeneas   
being undiscoverable1 their animae were 

sought in the air0        7,g4 ,e4 ,m4  
,marindin1 s4v4 8,oscilla10 ,w4 ,smith's
 ,dictionary of        ,greek and ,roman
 ,antiquities1#c ii4 #cjd74     ,m#bbe  
,swinging to promote the growth of      
plants4      #geb ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #acj4 
#gec ,probus on ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4    
#che4      #ged ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4    
#chh sqq4      #gee ,see above1 p4 #aeg4
     ,m#bbf ,swinging as a festal rite  
in modern ,greece and ,italy4      #gef 
,w4 ,g4 ,clark1 ,peloponnesus 7,london1 
#aheh71 p4 #bgd4      #geg ,j4 ,t4      
,bent1 ,the ,cyclades 7,london1 #ahhe71 
p4 #e4      #geh ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 quoted  
by ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,mythology  
and ,monuments        of ,ancient       
,athens1 p4 xliii4      #gei ,vincenzo  
,dorsa1 ,la ,tradizione greco-latina    
negli usi e nelle        credenze       
popolari della ,calabria ,citeriore     
7,cosenza1 #ahhd71 p4 #cf4        ,in   
one village the custom is observed on   
,ascension ,day instead of at           
,christmas4      #gfj ,valds1 ,los      

,majos de ,cadiz1 extract sent to me in 
the original        ,spanish by ,mr4 ,w4
 ,moss1 of #ba ,abbey ,grove1 ,bolton1  
,march #bcrd1 #aijg4     ,m#bbg         
,swinging at festivals in spring4       
#gfa ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et religion dans
 l',afrique du nord 7,algiers1          
#aijh71 pp4 #ehj sq4      #gfb ,w4 ,w4  
,rockhill1 8,notes on some of the ,laws1
 ,customs1 and        ,superstitions of 
,korea10 ,american ,anthropologist1 iv4 
7#ahia7 pp4        #ahe sq4      #gfc   
,pausanias1 v4 #a4 #d4      #gfd        
,pausanias1 vi4 #bj4 #i4      #gfe      
,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4
 #hh sq4      #gff ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1
 8,aanteekeningen aangaande de gewoonten
 der        ,papoeas in de ,dorebaai1   
ten opzichte van zwangerschap en        
geboorte10        ,tijdschrift voor     
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xliii4        7#aija7 p4 #eff4         
#gfg ,j4 ,h4 ,letteboer1 8,eenige       
aanteekeningen omtrent de gebruiken bij 
zwangerschap en geboorte onder de       

,savuneezen10 ,mededeelingen van        
wege het ,nederlandsche                 
,zendelinggenootschap1 xlvi4 7#aijb7 p4 
#de4