,note3 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see http3_/_/archive4org_/details_/curiositi esofsup#jj;adam ,,curiosities ,,of ,,superstition1 ,and ,sketches of some ,unrevealed ,religions4 by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams1 ,author of 8,heroes of the ,cross10 etc4 8,to my mind there is no study more absorbing than that of the ,religions of the ,world1--the study1 if ,i may so call it1 of the various languages in which man has spoken to his ,maker1 and of that language in which his ,maker #8at sundry times and in divers manners' spake to man40--,,max ,m,,ller4 8,primus in orbe ,deos fecit timor40--,,statius1 ,thebaid1 #ffa4 ,,london3 ,j4 ,,masters ,,and ,,co41 #gh1 ,,new ,,bond ,,street4 ,,mdccclxxxii4 ,london3 ,j4 ,masters and ,co41 #gh1 ,new ,bond ,street4 ,,mdccclxxxii4 ,london3 ,printed by ,j4 ,masters and ,co41 ,albion ,buildings1 ,bartholomew ,close4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,buddhism1 ,,its ,,origin ,,and ,,ceremonies #a ,,ii4 ,,magianism3 ,,the ,,parsees #dc ,,iii4 ,,jewish ,,superstitions #fh ,,iv4 ,,brahmanism #hd ,v4 ,,hindu ,,mythology1 ,,and ,,the ,,vishnu ,,purana #ii ,,vi4 ,,in ,,china3 ,,confucianism1 ,,taouism1 ,,and ,,buddhism #aai ,,vii4 ,,among ,,the ,,malays1 ,,the ,,slamatan ,,bromok1 ,,the ,,dyaks1 ,,the ,,papuan ,,tribes1 ,,the ,,ahetas #adb ,,viii4 ,,the ,,savage ,,races ,,of ,,asia3 ,,the ,,samojedes2 ,,the ,,mongols2 ,,the ,,ostiaks2 ,,in ,,tibet #aee ,,ix4 ,,some ,,african ,,superstitions #aga ,x4 ,,the ,,zulu ,,witch-,,finders #ahj ,,xi4 ,,zabianism ,,and ,,serpent-,,worship #ahf ,,xii4 ,,polynesian ,,superstitions #bad ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,fiji ,,islanders #bcj ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,maories #bda ,,xv4 ,,the ,,north ,,american ,,indians #bed ,,xvi4 ,,among ,,the ,,eskimos #bgd ,,xvii4 ,a ,,medi,,val ,,superstition3 ,,the ,,flagellants #bgi ,,xviii4 ,,scottish ,,superstitions3 ,,halloween #bhh ,,xix4 ,,second ,,sight3 ,,divination3 ,,universality ,,of ,,certain ,,superstitions3 ,,fairies ,,in ,,scotland #cjj ,,curiosities ,,of ,,superstition4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,buddhism3 ,,its ,,origin ,,and ,,ceremonies4 ,,prayer-,,wheels ,,of ,,the ,,buddhists4 ,travelling on the borders of ,chinese ,tartary1 in the country of the ,lamas or ,buddhists1 ,miss ,gordon ,cumming remarks that it was strange1 every now and again1 to meet some respectable-looking workman1 twirling little brass cylinders1 only about six inches in length1 which were incessantly spinning round and round as they walked along the road4 ,what could they be8 ,not pedometers1 not any of the trigonometrical instruments with which the officers of the ,ordnance ,survey go about armed8 ,no2 she was informed that they were prayer-wheels1 and that turning them was just about equivalent to the telling of beads1 which in ,continental lands workmen may often be seen counting as homeward along the road they plod their weary way4 ,the telling of beads seems to the ,protestant a superfluous piece of formalism3 what then are we to think of prayer by machinery8 ,the prayers1 or rather invocations1 to ,buddha--the ,buddhists never pray1 in the ,christian sense--are all closely written upon strips of cloth or paper2 the same sentence being repeated some thousands of times4 ,these strips are placed inside a cylinder1 revolving on a long spindle1 the end of which is the handle4 ,from the wind-cylinder depends a small lump of metal1 which1 whirling round1 communicates the necessary impetus to the little machine1 so that it rotates with the slightest possible effort1 and continues to grind any required number of acts of worship1 while the owner1 with the plaything in his hand1 carries on his daily work4 ,his religion requires that he should be all his time immersed in holy contemplation of the perfections of ,buddha1 but to a busy man no such self-absorption is possible4 ,he is content1 therefore1 to say the sentences aloud at the beginning and end of his devotions1 and in the interval twirls slowly1 while a tiny bell marks each rotation1 and reminds him if he should unconsciously quicken his pace4 ,tennyson finely speaks of ,prayer as that by which 8,the whole round world is every way ,bound by gold chains around the feet of ,,god20 but no such efficacy can be ascribed to the cylinders of brass1 copper1 or gold1 which are fashionable among the ,buddhists4 ,yet we must not condemn too unreservedly3 ,prayer1 even among ,christians1 is apt to degenerate into a dull1 mechanical uniformity1 and to become scarcely less perfunctory than that which the ,tibetans grind out of their prayer-machine4 ,in a ,lama temple1 ,miss ,gordon ,cumming once saw a colossal prayer-wheel1 which might almost have sufficed for the necessities of a nation4 ,it was turned by a great iron crank1 which acted as a handle4 ,the cylinder measured about twelve feet in height1 and six to eight feet in diameter4 ,circular bands of gold and vermilion adorned it1 each band bearing the well-known ,buddhist ascription1 or invocation1 8,to the jewel on the ,lotus40 ,of this inscription1 multiplied on strips of paper and cloth1 the cylinder was full1 and each time that it revolved on its axis1 the devotee was accredited with having uttered the pious invocation just as often as it was repeated within the cylinder4 ,the whole history of ,superstition offers scarcely any fact more curious or suggestive than this method of prayer by machinery2 and that such a grotesque extravagance should have emanated from so subtle and metaphysical a faith as ,buddhism is an anomaly not easily to be explained4 ,each votary who is too poor to possess a prayer-wheel of his own1 attends the temple1 does homage to the head ,lama1 receives his benediction1 and then1 squatting in front of the great wheel1 he turns the crank on behalf of himself and his family4 ,but if there be a considerable number of worshippers1 the priest himself works the handle1 that all may participate simultaneously in the act of prayer4 ,the use of these machines is traced back for fully fourteen centuries1 and is supposed to have originated in the belief that it was a meritorious act1 and a patent cure for sin1 to be continually reading or reciting portions of the sacred books of ,buddha4 ,but as many of the people could not read1 a substitute had to be found1 and it came to be considered sufficient if they turned over the rolled manuscripts which embodied the invaluable precepts4 ,and as a vast amount of time and trouble was saved by this process1 a further simplification became possible and popular1--the invention of wheels termed ,tehu-,chor1--great cylindrical bands full of prayers2 a cord being attached to the base of the band1 which1 when the cord was pulled1 twirled like a children's toy4 ,prayer-wheels of this kind are set up in all public places in ,tibet1 so that the poor who do not possess little pocket ,wheels of ,devotion may not lose their chance of accumulating merit4 ,in some of the monasteries the rows of small cylinders are so arranged1 that the priest1 or any passer-by can set them all in simultaneous motion1 by just drawing his hand along them4 ,according to ,miss ,cumming1 who is confirmed by other travellers1 the cylinders vary in size1 from tiny hand-mills1 about as big as a policeman's rattle1 to huge machines1 eight or ten feet in diameter1 worked by a heavy iron crank1 or sometimes by wind or water power4 ,the wind prayer-mills are turned by wings1 which1 like the cylinder1 are plentifully covered with prayers4 ,the water-mills are placed over streams1 so as to dispense with human aid1 and allow the running water to turn them for the general welfare of the village4 ,through the cylinder passes a wooden axle1 which is fastened to a horizontal wheel1 whose cogs are turned diagonally to the water4 8,one such group of little mills we noticed10 says ,miss ,cumming1#a 8set in a clear stream half-way between ,rarung and ,pangi1 a lively1 rapid river1 rushing headlong down the mountain side to join the ,sutlej4 ,having never then heard of prayer-mills1 we assumed them to be for corn1 as perhaps they were4 ,at all events1 we passed them without inspection1 to our subsequent infinite regret4 ,these wheels rotate with the action of the water1 and so turn the cylinder1 which must invariably stand upright4 ,sometimes several of these are placed almost across the stream1 and the rudest form of temple is built over them4 8,they are so placed that the wheel must invariably turn from right to left1 following the course of the sun2 to invert that course would not only involve ill-luck1 but would amount to being a sin4 ,hence the exceeding unwillingness of the people we met to let us tend their little wheels1 knowing from sad experience that the ,english sahibs rather enjoy the fun of turning them the wrong way1 and so undoing the efficacy of all their morning's work4 8,some of the little pocket cylinders are very beautifully wrought2 some are even inlaid with precious stones4 ,i saw one great beauty which ,i coveted exceedingly4 ,the owner would on no account sell it4 ,i returned to the temple next morning1 wishing at least to make a drawing of it1 but ,i think he mistrusted me1 for he and his plaything had both vanished1 and ,i had to be content with a much simpler one of bronze1 inlaid with copper4 ,the people have the greatest reluctance to sell even the ugliest old mills4 ,they cling to them as lovingly as you might do to your dear old ,bible2 but1 as ,i said before1 not merely from the charm of association1 but from a dread lest a careless hand should turn them against the sun1 and so change their past acts of merit into positive sin4 ,so there was a great deal of talk1 and many irons in the fire1 before ,i was allowed to purchase two of these1 at a price which would have supplied half the village with new ones40 ,the prayer-mill sometimes contains the ,tibetan prayer1 or litany1 for the six classes of living creatures1 namely1 the souls in heaven1 the evil spirits in the air1 men1 animals1 souls in purgatory1 and souls in hell2 but1 as a rule1 the ,lama worship begins and ends in the famous inscription to which we have already alluded--,aum ,mani ,padmi ,hoong 7to the jewel in the lotus47 ,these mystic words are raised in embossed letters on the exterior of the cylinder1 and are closely written on strips of paper inside4 ,all the sacred places are covered with them2 the face of the rock1 the walls of the temple2 just as the ,alhambra glitters with its azulejos1 its blazoned inscriptions from the ,kran4 ,this mystic sentence is composed as follows3 ,aum or ,om1 equivalent to the ,hebrew ,,jah or ,,jehovah1 the most glorious title of the ,almighty2 ,mani1 the jewel1 one of ,buddha's appellations2 ,padmi1 the lotus1 in allusion to his lotus-throne2 and ,hoong1 synonymous with ,amen4 ,the ,buddhists regard this 8six-syllabled0 charm as a talisman of never-failing efficacy2 but by some of the sects it is more or less varied4 ,for instance3 the ,chinese ,fo-ists read it as ,aum-mi-to-fuh1 which is also one of ,buddha's titles2 and every devout ,fo-ist aims at repeating it at least three hundred thousand times in the course of his life4 ,some of their priests will shut themselves up in the temples for months at a time1 and devote themselves to the dreary task of repetition1 hour after hour1 day and night4 ,sometimes1 ten or twelve devotees will voluntarily sequester themselves1 and continue all day to cry aloud in chorus2 and at night they undertake the task successively1 one person droning through the monotonous chant while the others sleep4 ,thus do they think to be heard for their much speaking6 ,similar excesses of formalism1 however1 are recorded in the history of medival ,christianity1--in the biographies of saints and ascetics who have substituted for a practical ,christianity and the active performance of social duties the dreary vanity of an unprofitable solitude1 spent in the discharge of useless penances4 ,the ,buddhist prayer which is consecrated to ,buddha as the ,chakravarta ,rajah1 or ,king of the ,wheel1 proves1 on examination1 to be closely related to that ,sun-worship which prevailed in the early ages of the world4 ,the wheel is1 in many creeds1 the symbol of the sun's chariot1 that is1 of the revolution of the heavenly bodies4 ,in a sculpture1 nearly two thousand years old1 on the ,bilsah ,tepe1 ,buddha is represented simply by a wheel1 overshadowed by the mystic chattah1 or golden umbrella1 which is a common emblem of his power4 ,his worshippers are represented as making their offerings to the ,king of the ,wheel4 8,this sacred ,wheel of the ,law1 or ,wheel of ,faith1 is found again and again among the fain and ,buddhist sculptures in the caves of ,ellora and ,ajunta1 in most cases projecting in front of ,buddha's ,lotus-,throne4 ,in one instance an astronomical table is carved above the wheel4 ,in another it is supported on either side by a stag1 supposed to represent the fleetness wherewith the sun runs his daily circuit1 #8going forth from the uttermost part of the heaven1 and running about unto the end of it again4'0 ,,the ,,hindu ,,temples4 ,visiting the ,temples at ,hardwar1 one of the sacred cities of ,india1 ,miss ,gordon ,cumming remarks upon the number of their hideous idols1 painted and carved1 their multitudinous brass bells1 their brazen horns1 their sacred courts all covered with elaborate carving1 and their mythological sculptures4 ,she says3--8,i frankly confess that there is something startling in the rapidity with which one gets quite at home amongst all this paraphernalia of heathenism1 and how very soon idolatry ceases to shock the mind1 and becomes merely a curious study with picturesque adjuncts4 ,six months previously the sight of a veritable temple with its hideous idols and devout worshippers was a thing from which one shrank in shuddering pity40 ,but she soon became a connoisseur1 and 8lounged from one temple to another1 inspecting jewels and exquisite stone carving1 and anything wonderful the priests had to show1 and quite forgot to be shocked1 it was all so perfectly natural1 and seemed so entirely in keeping with the tastes of the people40 ,in this remark there is a wonderful navet2 for it may reasonably be supposed that the tastes of the people would be in accord with a religion which1 during its career of two thousand years1 must have exercised so great an influence in forming them6 ,in some of the temples1 according to the same writer1 there are sacred bulls1 carved in white marble and adorned with costly necklaces4 ,in others the attendant priests spend the whole day in pouring single drops of precious oil on holy pebbles brought from the ,nerbudda and other sacred streams1 and here arranged in little trays4 ,amongst the privileged inhabitants are the monkeys1 who frolic about incessantly with their babies in their arms1 or sitting on their backs1 and twining their little arms round the parental necks4 ,the ceremonies in the different temples are1 on the whole1 very similar2 and the following description1 taken from the ,ro ,ml1 applies1 except in minor details1 to all4 ,the day is marked by five services3 the first at sunrise1 when bells are rung in the temple1 and drums or conch-shells sounded1 to rouse the ,du1 or god1 from his slumbers4 ,after performing copious ablutions1 the officiating priest enters the holy place1 and swings before the idol a lamp with five or seven branches4 ,an hour or two later1 the ,du is attired in raiment appropriate to the season4 ,he wears a quilted coat in cold weather1 and has a lighted brazier placed beside him2 whereas1 in hot weather1 he is anointed with sandal-wood dust and water1 clothed in fine linen1 and decked out with gems and flowers4 ,placed close to a cool fountain1 he is assiduously fanned by his attendants4 ,in rainy weather1 he is wrapped about in scarlet cloth and shawls4 ,when he is dressed1 a light breakfast of rice and milk is served up1 and his votaries perform 8the sixteen acts of worship40 ,at noon a third service takes place4 ,the ,du is again rubbed with oil of sandal-wood1 or sandal-dust and water1 and adorned with fresh flowers4 ,the lamps are trimmed2 incense is burned2 and his dinner is set before him3 after which he is supposed to indulge in his noonday sleep1 and profound silence is maintained throughout the temple4 ,at three in the afternoon a drum beats1 and the god awakes6 ,his attendants hasten to serve fruits and sweetmeats1 and perform various games for his amusement4 ,at sunset he is enshrined3 his feet are basted1 he is sprinkled with water1 his mouth is washed1 and another offering is made of sandal-wood dust1 and flowers1 and incense4 ,he is once more clothed2 an elaborate dinner is spread before him2 betel leaves are presented2 and again the many-branched candlestick is waved1 while all the votaries present for the second time perform 8the sixteen acts of worship40 ,the last service takes place at night1 when the image is supposed to sup on bread and water4 ,after receiving the usual oblations of incense and flowers1 he is undressed1 and if he be movable1 put to bed1 or if not1 is warmly covered with shawls and quilts4 ,not the least remarkable objects in the ,hindu temples are their great statues of bulls in marble or in metal4 ,it is worthy of note that 8in the great ,brazen ,laver1 which ,solomon was commanded to make for the use of the ,temple at ,jerusalem1 the symbols selected for the adornment of that consecrated ,molten ,sea should have been those which in later ages were to hold so prominent a place in the symbolism of faiths so widely spread as those of ,brahma and ,buddha4 ,that huge laver was supported by twelve oxen of cast metal1 three looking to each point of the compass1 while the brim of the great sea itself was all wrought with flowers of lilies1 much the same as the pattern of lotus or water-lily with which the shrine of ,buddha is invariably edged40 ,the bull is another symbol which seems to connect the creed of the ,hindu with the old nature-worship2 for the vernal equinox takes place when the sun enters the sign of ,taurus1 and this event was always and everywhere a signal for feasting and rejoicing4 ,but1 as ,max ,mller observes1 the ancient religion of the ,aryan inhabitants of ,india started1 like the religion of ,greece and ,rome1 of the ,germans1 ,slavs1 and ,celts1 with a simple and intelligible mythological phraseology4#b ,in the ,veda1 the names of all the so-called gods or ,devas undisguisedly betray their original physical character and meaning4 ,under the name of ,agni 7ignis7 was praised and invoked the fire2 the earth by that of ,prithv 7the brave72 the sky by the name of ,dyu 7,zeus1 ,jupiter71 and afterwards of ,indra2 the firmament and the waters by the name of 4 ,under many appellations was the sun invoked1 such as ,srya1 ,savitri1 ,vishnu1 or ,mitra2 and the dawn by the titles of ,ushas1 ,urvas1 ,ahan1 and ,srya4 ,nor was the moon forgotten3 for though not often mentioned under its usual name of ,kandra1 reference is made to it under its more sacred appellation of ,soma2 and a particular denomination was reserved for each of its phases4 ,there is hardly any fact of nature1 if it could impress the human mind in any way with the ideas of a higher power1 of order1 eternity1 or beneficence1--whether the woods1 or the rivers1 or the trees1 or the mountains1--without a name and representative in the early ,hindu ,pantheon4 ,no doubt there existed in the human mind1 from the very beginning1 something1 whether we call it a suspicion1 an innate idea1 an intuition1 or a sense of the ,divine4 ,what distinguishes man from the rest of the animal creation is chiefly his ineradicable feeling of dependence and reliance upon some higher power2 that consciousness of bondage1 from which the very name of 8religion0 was derived4 8,it is ,he that hath made us1 and not we ourselves40 ,the presence of that power was felt everywhere1 and nowhere more clearly and strongly than in the rising and setting of the sun1 in the change of day and night1 of spring and winter1 of birth and death4 ,but although the ,divine ,presence was felt everywhere1 it was impossible1 in that early period of thought1 and with a language incapable as yet of defining anything but material objects1 to conceive the idea of ,god in its purity and fulness1 or to assign to it an adequate and worthy expression4 ,it must also be remembered that the influence of the genius and forces of ,nature would necessarily be greater in an age when the human mind was occupied by few objects of thought1 than now when it ranges over the whole world of art and science4 ,moreover1 to the eye of ignorance everything seems large and portentous1 or dim and inscrutable4 ,the fire from heaven1 the reverberating thunder1 the gale that crashed down the mountain ravines and felled great trees before it1 the planetary bodies steadily revolving in their courses1 the stream with its glow and its ripple1 the dense shadows of the haunted forest1 the recurring rush and roll of the sea1--all these were things which for early man had a constant novelty and strangeness1 and seemed incessantly to claim his reverent consideration4 ,he could not account for them3 whether a bane or a delight they were equally unintelligible4 ,they represented1 therefore1 some ,power which he could regard only with awe and reverence4 ,and of that ,power the sun would necessarily be the chief type and symbol4 ,all life and love seemed dependent upon it4 ,the trees throve1 and the flowers bloomed1 and the banks rippled1 and the birds sang1 and the harvests ripened1 through the sun4 ,it was the source of light and heat1 of the vigour and activity of nature4 ,while it shone men's hearts leaped with joy1 and the wheels of labour revolved with pleasant toil2 but when it disappeared1 and the darkness usurped the heavens1 the spirits sank1 and humanity felt in the change of scene a presentiment and presage of the darkness of death4 ,all vitality1 all motion centred in the sun4 8,it was like a deep furrow10 says ,max ,mller1 8which that heavenly luminary drew1 in its silent procession from east to west1 over the fallow mind of the gazing multitude2 and in the impression left there by the first rising and setting of the sun1 there lay the dark seed of a faith in a more than human being1 the first intimation of a life without beginning1 of a world without end40 ,who can wonder that the ,chaldean1 and the ,celt1 alike ascended to the high places1 and paid their worship of symbolic fires to the great fountain of life and light1 the central force of the universe8 ,who can wonder that all the ,aryan tribes made it1 so to speak1 the nucleus of their religious systems8 ,the ,hindu peasant1 centuries ago1 addressed it in his heart in much the same language which ,gawain ,douglas afterwards employed4 ,as its glorious orb rose above the gleaming horizon1 he sent forth to it a message of welcome3 8,welcome1 the lord of light and lamp of day2 ,welcome1 fosterer of tender herbis green2 ,welcome1 quickener of flourished flowers' sheen2 ,welcome1 support of every root and vein2 ,welcome1 comfort of all kind fruits and grain2 ,welcome1 the bird's green beild upon the brier2 ,welcome1 master and ruler of the year2 ,welcome1 welfare of husbands at the ploughs2 ,welcome1 repairer of woods1 trees1 and boughs2 ,welcome1 depainter of the bloomit meads2 ,welcome1 the life of everything that spreads40 ,and because it was all this1 and more1 the ,hindu saw in it something greater than a mere luminary1--a planetary body2 he endowed it with ,divine attributes1 he made it a god1 he gave it his worship1 and by an elaborate symbolism kept it ever before him4 ,a necessary consequence of this deification of the sun was the deification of the other bodies that shared with him the firmament2 but as they were inferior in splendour and utility1 they naturally became recognized as inferior gods4 ,and when once the religious feeling of humanity had gone thus far1 its further development became only a question of time4 ,the homage given to the stars was soon extended to the winds and streams and groves4 ,a legion of gods sprang into existence1 and for a while they seemed to satisfy the needs and aspirations of humanity4 ,but as the thoughts of men expanded1 as their intellect ripened with the ages1 and grew strong enough to doubt1 and bold enough to question the conclusions of the common faith1 a revolt took place against 8the contradictions of a mythological phraseology1 though it had been hallowed by sacred customs and traditions40 ,men grew tired of so complex and cumbrous a religious system1 and having observed a definite fundamental unity of nature in spite of the diversity of its operations1 they came to believe in a similar unity of the ,divine ,power4 ,the idea of a supreme authority once entertained1 men soon understood that supremacy meant oneness2 that if there were a ,god over all1 ,he must be one and indivisible4 ,one of the earliest proclamations of this sublime truth is found in the ,rig-,veda1 which says3#c-- 8,that which is one the sages speak of in many ways--they call it ,agni1 ,yama1 ,malarisvan40 ,and again3#d-- 8,in the beginning there came the ,source of golden light--,he was the only true ,lord of all that is--,he stablished the earth and this sky3--,who is ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,he who gives life1 ,he who gives strength2 whose blessing all the bright gods desire2 whose shadow is immortality2 whose shadow is death3--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,he who through ,his power is the only ,king of the breathing and awakening world2 ,he who governs all1 man and beast3--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,he whose power these snowy mountains1 whose power the sea proclaims1 with the distant river--,he whose these regions are1 as it were1 ,his two arms3--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,he through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm--,he through whom heaven was stablished--nay1 the highest heaven--,he who measured out the light in the air3--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,he to whom heaven and earth1 standing firm by ,his will1 look up1 trembling inwardly--,he over whom the rising sun shines forth3--,who is the ,,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,wherever the mighty water-clouds went1 where they placed the reed and lit the fire1 thence even ,he1 who is the only life of the bright gods3--,who is the ,,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,he1 who of ,his might looked even over the water-clouds1 the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice1 ,he who is ,god above all gods3--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 8,may ,he not destroy us--,he the creator of the earth2 or ,he1 the righteous1 who created ,heaven2 ,he who also created the bright and mighty waters3--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice80 99 99 99 99 99 ,the creed of a plurality of gods was one that carried in itself the seeds of its destruction4 ,but there was another cause of weakness in their mortal attributes4 ,deriving their existence from the life of nature1 they were subject to the accidents which that life involved4 ,thus1 the sun at noonday might glow with splendour1 but at night it was conquered by the shadows1 and in winter it seemed to yield to some stronger ,power4 ,the moon waxed and waned1 and was frequently eclipsed4 ,as nature is subject to change1 so also must be the gods that represent its forces and aspects4 ,such instability1 such inherent weakness could not long satisfy the human mind2 having risen to the height of the idea of one ,god1 it next demanded that that ,god should be immutable4 ,what rest1 what contentment would it find in the supposition of deities as changeful as the winds8 ,tossed about by the currents of passion and feeling1 buffeted by adverse circumstances1 the soul yearns intensely for something fixed1 something absolute1 something unaffected by vicissitude1 and finds it in the ,divine ,being1 the same to-day as yesterday1 and the same to-morrow as to-day4 ,these two opposite principles did not come into immediate collision2 the priests of heathendom laboured long and earnestly to avert such a catastrophe4 ,in ,greece they succeeded by transferring the mortal or changeable element from 8the gods0 to 8the heroes40#e ,the human details in the characters and lives of ,zeus and ,apollon were transferred to the demi-gods or heroes represented as the sons or favourites of the gods4 ,the two-fold character of ,herakles as a god and a hero is recognized even by ,herodotus2 and indeed1 some of the epithets applied to him sufficiently indicate his solar and originally divine personality4 ,but to make some of the solar myths of which ,herakles was the centre intelligible and conceivable1 it became needful to depict ,herakles as a mere human being1 and to raise him to the seat of the ,immortals only after he had endured toils and sufferings incompatible with the dignity of an ,olympian divinity4 ,in ,peru the same treatment was adopted1 but with different results4 ,a thinking1 or1 as he was called1 a free-thinking ,inca1 remarked that the sun's perpetual travelling--he knew nothing1 of course1 of the ,copernican theory--was a sign of servitude1 and he threw doubts on the divine nature of aught so restless as the great luminary appeared to him to be4 ,these doubts led to a tradition1 which1 even if unhistorical was not wholly untrue1 that in ,peru had existed an earlier worship--that of an ,invisible ,deity1 the ,creator of the ,world--,pachacamac4 8,in ,greece1 also1 there are signs of a similar craving after the #8,unknown ,god4' ,a supreme ,god was wanted1 and ,zeus1 the stripling of ,creta1 was raised to that rank4 ,he became ,god above all gods-- 1 as ,pindar calls him4 ,yet more was wanted than a mere ,zeus2 and then a supreme ,fate or ,spell was imagined before which all the gods1 and even ,zeus1 had to bow4 ,and even this ,fate was not allowed to remain supreme1 and there was something in the destinies of man which was called or #8beyond ,fate4' ,the most awful solution1 however1 of the problem belongs to ,teutonic mythology4 ,here1 also1 some heroes were introduced2 but their death was only the beginning of the final catastrophe4 #8,all gods must die4' ,such is the last word of that religion which had grown up in the forests of ,germany1 and found a last refuge among the glaciers and volcanoes of ,iceland4 ,the death of ,sigurd1 the descendant of ,odin1 could not avert the death of ,balder1 the son of ,odin1 and the death of ,balder was soon to be followed by the death of ,odin himself1 and of all the immortal gods40 ,such a catastrophe was inevitable1 so that ,prometheus1 the man of forethought1 could safely predict the fall of ,zeus4#f ,a similar issue was worked out in ,india1 but with this difference2 that the seeming triumph of reason threatened to end in the destruction of all religious belief4 ,at the outset no vehement contention took place4 ,on the basis of the old mythology arose two new formations1--the ,brahmanical philosophy and the ,brahmanical ceremonial2 the former opening up all avenues of philosophical inquiry1 the latter immuring religious sentiment and sympathy within the narrowest possible barriers4 ,both1 however1 claimed to find their origin and antiquity in the sacred book of the ,veda4 ,it was in the sixteenth or fifteenth century before ,,christ that the ,brahmans1 a branch of the white ,aryans1 passed into ,hindustan from the north-west1 and mixed with a more numerous race of coloured and barbarous aborigines4 ,among their immigrants the sacerdotal and the royal or noble classes already occupied an authoritative and a distinct position2 and soon after their settlement in ,india1 the lower classes1 by a natural process1 sank into the markedly inferior condition of the aborigines4 ,thus was established a singularly rigorous system of caste1--the priesthood and the aristocracy combining to oppress and keep down the two inferior orders of the ,brahmans and the aborigines4 ,intermarriage was strictly forbidden1 and every device adopted which could be made useful in strengthening and perpetuating the class-distinction4 ,this revolution in the social world assisted the revolution in the religious2 and the educated classes rapidly abandoned their nature worship in favour of the idea of an infinite and everlasting ,godhead1 which soared far above the feeblenesses and sins of humanity4 ,to become one with this ,godhead by throwing off the personality linked with a mind that was mean and miserable1 thenceforth constituted the religious aspiration of the ,brahman4 ,and in attaining this object he was instructed to seek the help of the ,brahmanical priesthood2 nay1 he was taught that without that help he would never succeed1 and for this purpose a complex and comprehensive ceremonial was enjoined upon him4 ,from his cradle to his grave it dogged his footsteps4 ,put forward as a stay and support1 it was really a clog1 an encumbrance4 ,not an event in his life could take place for which a formula of praise or prayer was not invented4 ,thanksgiving and sacrifice were alike minutely regulated4 ,for the benefit of the inferior castes the old ,pantheon of gods and demons had been retained1 and the priesthood allotted to each his share of the worshipper's offerings and oblations4 ,each was represented as insisting so strongly on certain observances1 and punishing so heavily any neglect or violation of them1 that the votary feared to approach their shrine unless under the protection and guidance of their priests4 ,otherwise he might unwittingly rush into all kinds of sins4 ,they alone knew what food might be eaten1 what dress might be worn1 what god might be addressed1 what sacrifice paid4 ,an error in pronunciation1 a mistake about clarified butter1 an unauthorised arrangement of raiment or hair1 might involve the unassisted worshipper in pains and penalties of the most awful character4 ,never was so complete and absolute a ceremonial system known as that by which the ,hindu priesthood obtained an entire mastery over the ,hindu people4 ,never was any law more minute in its provisions1 or more ,draconic in the severity with which it punished their violation4 ,yet1 strange to say1 this ceremonial did not interfere with liberty of thought4 ,any amount of heresy was compatible with its observance4 ,a man might think as he liked so long as he complied with its various conditions4 ,in some of the ,brahmanical schools of thought the names of the devs or gods were never heard2 in others their existence was ignored1 was virtually contradicted4 ,thus1 one philosophical system maintained the existence of a single ,supreme ,being1 and asserted that everything else which seemed to exist was but a dream and an illusion which might and would be dispelled by a true knowledge of the ,one ,god4 ,another contended for two principles1--first1 a ,mind1 subjective and self-existent2 second1 ,matter endowed with qualities2 and explained that the world with its cloud and sunshine1 its sorrows and joys1 was the result of the subjective self1 reflected in the mirror of ,matter1 and that the freedom of the soul could be secured only by diverting the gaze from the shows and phantasms of ,nature1 and becoming absorbed in the knowledge of the true and absolute self4 ,a third system allowed the existence of atoms1 and referred every effect1 including the elements and the mind1 gods1 men1 and animals to their fortuitous concourse4 ,this was identical with the ,lucretian system1 which in its turn was related to the ,epicurean4 ,hence it has been said that the history of the philosophy of ,india is an abridgment of the history of philosophy4 ,each of these systems was traced back to the sacred books of the ,vedas1 ,brhmanas and ,upanishads2 and those who believed in any one of them was considered as orthodox as the most devout worshipper of ,agni1--if the latter were saved by works and faith1 the former was saved by faith and knowledge1--a distinction not unknown in the ,christian philosophy4#g ,out of this condition of the ,hindu mind arose ,buddhism1 springing from it as naturally as the flower from the seed4 ,the remarkable man#h who founded this wide-spread religion is reputed to have been a prince of the name of ,siddhartha1 son of ,suddhodana1 king of ,kapilavastu1 a territory supposed to have been situated on the borders of ,oudh and ,nipal4 ,he is often called ,sakya1 after his family1 and also ,gautama1 from the great 8,solar0 race of which the family was a branch4#i ,having at an early age exhibited an ascetic and contemplative tendency1 his father fearing he might be induced to abandon his high station as ,kshatriga1 found him a wife in a princess of great personal charms1 and involved him in all the pomp and luxury of a magnificent court4 ,but ,siddhartha drank of the cup only to taste the bitter in the draught2 and each year's experience of the world convinced him of its inability to satisfy the aspirations of the soul2 so that1 like ,solomon1 he would exclaim1 8,vanity1 vanity1 all is vanity40 ,the joys of life could not render him forgetful of its sorrows4 ,the thought would force itself upon him that at any moment he might be afflicted with some loathsome or torturing disease2 that his friends might be suddenly snatched away2 that however sunny and bright the present1 it could not prevent the inevitable approach of old age1 with its grey hairs1 its wrinkled brow1 and its tottering limbs2 and that the moral of the whole show was to be sought in the darkness of the grave4 ,unable to endure any longer the mental conflict begotten of his keen sense of the realities as compared with the illusions of the world1 he stole from the guarded palace1 and at the age of #bi or #cj1 went forth as a beggar1 or religious mendicant1 to study in the schools of the ,brahman priests4 ,he underwent their penances2 he mastered their philosophy2 but dissatisfied with their cumbrous code of superstitious ceremonial1 he withdrew into the forest1 and adopted a course of religious asceticism4 ,this lasted for six or seven years1 but brought him no repose4 ,then he resolved on returning once more to human companionship4 ,beset by the ,spirit of ,evil he fought long and bravely against temptation1 and having triumphed1 prepared to attain the secret of happiness by giving himself up to abstruse meditation4 ,week after week he was absorbed in thought1 continually investigating the origin of things1 and the mystery of existence4 ,all the evils under which he1 in common with his fellow-men1 groaned1 he traced back to birth4 ,were we not born1 we could not suffer4 ,but whence comes birth or continued existence8444 ,we have no room1 however1 to dwell on his processes of thought2 enough to say that he came to the conclusion that the ultimate cause of existence is ignorance1 and that the removal of ignorance means1 therefore1 the termination of existence1 and of all the pain and sorrow which existence implies and induces4 ,realising this absolute unconsciousness of the outer world in his own self1 he claimed and assumed the name of the ,buddha1 or 8,enlightened40 ,the scene of his victory over life and the world received the name of ,bodhimanda1 7the seat of intelligence17 and the tree under which the religious reformer sat in his hour of moral and intellectual triumph was called ,bodhidruma1 7the tree of intelligence17 whence ,bo-tree4 ,the ,buddhists believe that it marks the centre of the earth4 ,hiouen-thsang1 the ,chinese pilgrim1 professes to have found the ,bodhidruma1 or some tree that passed for it1 twelve hundred years after ,buddha's death1 at a spot near ,gaya ,proper1 in ,bahar1 where still may be seen an old dagoba1 or temple1 and some considerable ruins4 ,having at last attained to a knowledge of the causes of human suffering1 and of the method of removing and counteracting them1 the ,buddha felt that the task was imposed upon him of communicating that knowledge to others4 ,he began 8to turn the wheel of the law10--that is to preach1--at ,benares2 and among his earliest disciples was ,bimbisara1 the ruler of ,magadha4 ,his career as a teacher extended over forty years1 during which period he travelled over almost every part of ,northern ,india1 making a large number of converts1 and firmly establishing his religious system4 ,he died at ,kusinagara in ,oudh1 in #edc ,b4,c41 at the age of eighty1 and his body being burned1 the relics were distributed among numerous claimants1 who raised monumental tumuli1 or topes1 for their preservation4 ,all the expositions and teachings of the ,buddha were oral1 and the task of committing them to writing was undertaken by the chief of his disciples shortly after his death4 ,these canonical books are divided into three classes1 forming the 8,tripitaka10 or 8three-fold basket40 ,in the first class we find the ,soutras1 or ,sermons of the ,buddha2 in the second1 the ,vinaya1 or book of discipline2 in the third1 the ,abhidharma1 or philosophy4 ,after a period of a century or so1 the ,buddhist leaders met and revised the ,tripitaka1 and a third revision took place in #bej or #bdj ,b4,c41 since which date the text has remained without alteration4 ,the doctrine of ,buddha has been defined as a development of four main principles1 7or 8,sublime ,verities407 #ast4 ,that every kind of existence is painful and transitory2 #bnd4 ,that all existence is the result of passion2 #crd4 ,that1 therefore1 the extinction of passion is the one means of escape from existence and from the misery necessarily attendant upon it2 #dth4 ,that all obstacles to this existence must be swept away4 ,but what is meant by existence8 ,that separation from the general ,being of the world which is involved in individual life1 and in the opposition of the subject which thinks1 and the object which is thought about4 ,and what is meant by its extinction8 ,not so much annihilation1 as the becoming one with nature1 wherein that form of consciousness which separates subject and object is set aside4 ,this extinction ,buddha called ,nirvna1 or 8the blowing out of the lamp20 it does not necessarily mean the annihilation of consciousness altogether1 but only of a finite form of it1 which may be as the light of a lamp compared with the light of day4 ,buddha's doctrine has been stigmatised as ,atheism and ,nihilism1 and was unquestionably liable on its metaphysical side to both charges4 ,it was ,atheistic1 not because it denied1 for it simply ignored1 the existence of such gods as ,indra and ,brahma1 but because1 like the ,sankhya philosophy1 it admitted but one subjective ,self1 and considered creation as an illusion of that ,self1 imaging itself for a while in the mirror of ,nature4 ,if there were no reality in nature1 there would be no real ,creator4 ,says ,max ,mller1#aj stating with his usual clearness a problem which has perplexed most students of the history of religion3 8,how a religion which taught the annihilation of all existence1 of all thought1 of all individuality and personality1 as the highest object of all endeavours1 could have laid hold of the minds of millions of human beings1 and how at the same time1 by enforcing the duties of morality1 justice1 kindness1 and self-sacrifice1 it could have exercised a decided beneficial influence1 not only on the natives of ,india1 but on the lowest barbarians of ,central ,asia1 is one of the riddles which no philosophy yet has been able to solve4 ,the morality which it teaches is not a morality of expediency and rewards4 ,virtue is not enjoined because it necessarily leads to happiness4 ,no2 virtue is to be practised1 but happiness is to be shunned1 and the only reward for virtue is1 that it subdues the passions1 and thus prepares the human mind for that knowledge which is to end in complete annihilation40 ,probably no religious system has ever attained a wide-spread influence over the minds of men which has held out so few of those inducements most alluring to human nature4 ,the idea of complete annihilation might recommend itself to a philosopher1 but would hardly have been regarded as likely to attract the masses4 ,we suppose the explanation is to be found in the particularity of ritual enjoined by the ,buddhist priests1 this particularity of ritual having always had a fascination for the multitude4 8,there are ten commandments which ,buddha imposes on his disciples4 ,they are--not to kill1 not to steal1 not to commit adultery1 not to lie1 not to get intoxicated1 to abstain from unseasonable meals1 to abstain from public spectacles1 to abstain from expensive dresses1 not to have a large bed1 not to receive silver or gold4 ,the duties of those who embraced a religious life were most severe4 ,they were not allowed to wear any dress except rags collected in cemeteries1 and these rags they had to sew together with their own hands2 a yellow cloak was to be thrown over these rags4 ,their food was to be extremely simple1 and they were not to possess anything except what they could get by collecting alms from door to door in their wooden bowl4 ,they had but one meal in the morning1 and were not allowed to touch any food after midday4 ,they were to live in forests1 not in cities1 and their only shelter was to be the shadow of a tree4 ,there they were to sit1 to spread their carpet1 but not to lie down1 even during sleep4 ,they were allowed to enter the nearest city or village in order to beg1 but they had to return to their forest before night1 and the only change which was allowed1 or rather prescribed1 was1 when they had to spend some nights in the cemeteries1 there to meditate on the vanity of all things4 ,and what was the object of all this asceticism8 ,simply to guide each individual towards that path which would finally bring him to ,nirvna1 to utter extinction or annihilation4 ,the very definition of virtue was that it helped man to cross over to the other shore1 and that other shore was not death1 but the cessation of all being4 ,thus charity was considered a virtue2 modesty1 patience1 courage1 contemplation1 and science1 all were virtues1 but they were practised only as a means of arriving at deliverance40 ,buddha himself was an incarnation of the virtues4 ,his charity1 for example1 was melting as day4 ,when he saw a tigress standing1 and unable to feed her cubs1 he offered up his body to be devoured by them4 ,the ,chinese pilgrim1 visiting the spot on the banks of the ,indus where this miracle was supposed to have occurred1 remarks that the soil was still red with the blood of ,buddha1 as were also the trees and flowers4 ,then as to his modesty1 it was as supreme as that of a virgin who has never seen men4 ,one day ,prasenagit1 his royal disciple and protector1 besought him to work some miracles in order to silence his adversaries1 the ,brahmans4 ,buddha complied1 and performed the required miracles2 but at the same time he exclaimed1 8,great ,king1 ,i do not teach the law to my pupils1 telling them1 ,go1 ye saints1 and before the eyes of the ,brahmans and householders perform1 by means of your supernatural powers1 miracles greater than any man can perform4 ,i tell them1 when ,i teach the law1 ,live1 ye saints1 hiding your good works and showing your sins40 ,and yet1 all this self-sacrificing charity1 all this self-sacrificing humility by which the life of ,buddha was distinguished throughout1 and which he preached to the multitudes that came to listen to him1 had but one object1 and that object was final annihilation4#aa ,annihilation6 what drearier prospect can be opened to the heart1 or soul1 or mind of man8 ,the utter cessation of that individuality of which the meanest and wretchedest among us feels proudly conscious2 of the thoughts which animate1 the desires which warm1 the dreams that delight1 the hopes that stimulate1 the affections that inspire6 ,do we indeed suffer all the sorrows and uncertainties of life1--do we indeed strive1 and endure1 and struggle1--do we1 indeed1 learn to labour and to wait1 to bear the burden of the day and the torture of the night1 for no other purpose1 with no other prospect1 than when the brief fever is over1 to pass away into nothingness8 ,with so much difficulty can the mind reconcile itself to such a dreary hypothesis that the creed of almost every race and people has contemplated a future stage of existence1 even when it has failed to attain to anything like a clear and full conviction of the immortality of the soul4 ,the law of compensation seems to demand that a future life shall redress the inequalities of the present4 ,yet this doctrine of ,annihilation was preached by ,buddha1 and apparently accepted by the millions who became his disciples4 ,but did they really accept it as he preached it8 ,no2 the truth is1 they read into it1 as it were1 their own innate1 unconquerable belief in a hereafter1 and converted his ,nirvna into a ,paradise1 which they embellished with the bright colours of imagination4 ,it can hardly be doubted that this was not the meaning or intention of ,buddha himself4 ,look1 for a moment1 at his 8,four ,verities40 ,the first of these1 as we have already stated1 asserts the existence of pain2 the second1 that the cause of pain is sin2 the third1 that the cessation of pain may be secured by ,nirvna2 the fourth1 that the way to this ,nirvna consists of eight things3 right faith or orthodoxy1 right judgment or logic1 right language or veracity1 right purpose or honesty1 right practice or religious life1 right obedience or lawful life1 right memory1 and right meditation4 ,these precepts may be understood as the usual laws of an elevated morality1 pointing to and terminating in a state of meditation on the highest object of thought1 such as has been enjoined by several philosophical or religious systems2--such as was revived in ,france and ,germany in the seventeenth century under the name of ,pietism4 ,there is nothing in this teaching incompatible with a belief in the immortality of the soul and the existence of a ,,god4 ,but with the ,buddhist ,nirvna it is otherwise4 ,its motive principle1 by the way1 is a mean and cowardly one1 for it makes happiness depend upon the cessation of pain2 represents as the highest purpose of human effort the escape from pain4 ,the ,buddhist insists that life is a prolonged misery2 that birth is the cause of all evil2 and he adds that even death cannot deliver him from this evil1 because he believes in transmigration1 or an eternal cycle of existence4 ,to escape from it we must free ourselves from the bondage1 not of life only1 but of existence2 and this must be done 8by extirpating the cause of existence40 ,but what is that cause8 ,the ,buddhist teacher1 involving himself in a cloud of metaphysics1 answers1 that it is attachment2 an inclination towards something1 having its root in thirst or desire4 8,desire presupposes perception of the object desired2 perception presupposes contact2 contact1 at least a sentient contact1 presupposes the senses2 and as the senses can only perform what has form and name1 or what is distinct1 distinction is the real cause of all the effects which end in existence1 birth1 and pain4 ,now this conception is itself the result of conceptions or ideas2 but these ideas1 so far from being1 as in ,greek philosophy1 the true and everlasting forms of the ,absolute1 are in themselves mere illusions1 the effects of ignorance4 ,ignorance1 therefore1 is really the primary cause of all that seems to exist4 ,to know that ignorance1 as the root of all evil1 is the same as to destroy it1 and with it all effects that flowed from it40 ,in ,buddha's own case we may see how such teaching operated upon the individual4 ,he entered into the first stage of meditation when he became conscious of freedom from sin1 acquired a knowledge of the nature of all things1 and yearned after nothing but ,nirvna4 ,but he was still open to the sensation of pleasure1 and could employ his powers of discrimination and reasoning4 ,in the second stage he ceased to use those powers1 and nothing remained but the desire of ,nirvna1 and the satisfaction inherent to his intellectual perfection4 ,in the third stage indifference succeeded to satisfaction2 but self-consciousness remained1 and a certain amount of physical gratification4 ,these1 too1 faded away in the fourth stage1 along with memory1 and all sense of pain2 and before the neophyte opened the doors of ,nirvna4 ,after having gone through the four stages once1 ,buddha began them a second time1 but died before he attained the fourth stage4 ,after passing through the four stages of meditation1 every ,buddhist enters into the infinity of space2 thence rises into the infinity of intelligence2 to soar1 afterwards1 into the region of ,nothing4 ,but even there he finds no repose2 something still remains--the idea of the ,nothing in which he rejoices4 ,this is annihilated in the fourth and last region1 and then he enjoys absolute1 perfect rest1 8undisturbed by nothing1 or what is not nothing40 ,buddha taught that this ,nirvna--which to most persons will seem a metaphysical incomprehensibility--could be attained by all men4 ,as there is no difference between the body of a prince and the body of a beggar1 so is there none between their spirits4 ,every man is equally capable of coming to a knowledge of the truth1 and if he but will to do so1 of working out his own emancipation4 ,it is important to observe the absence of any theological element in ,buddhism4 ,its founder seems never to have spoken of ,god1 and his ,nirvna is wholly different from the ,brahmanic idea of absorption into the ,divine ,essence4 ,of the gods of the people he taught that they were1 like men1 subject to the law of ,metempsychosis1 or ,transmigration1 and therefore that as they were unable to deliver1 they were unworthy to be worshipped4 ,a recent writer thinks it would be incorrect to speak of ,buddha either as a theist or an atheist1 and asserts that he simply describes a condition of absolute rest as an escape from the popular metempsychosis1 which may be interpreted either in a theistic or an atheistic sense4 ,but a careful examination of his system shows1 we think1 that it was wholly alien to a belief in a ,supreme ,spirit4 8,buddhism10 says ,barthlmy ,saint-,hilaire1 8has no ,god2 it has not even the confused and vague notion of a ,universal ,spirit1 in which the human soul1 according to the orthodox doctrine of ,brahmanism1 and the ,snkhya philosophy1 may be absorbed4 ,nor does it admit ,nature1 in the proper sense of the word1 and it ignores that profound division between spirit and matter which forms the system and the glory of ,kapila4 ,it confounds man with all that surrounds him1 all the while preaching to him the laws of virtue4 ,buddhism1 therefore1 cannot unite the human soul1 which it does not even mention1 with a ,god1 whom it ignores2 nor with nature1 which it does not know better4 ,nothing remained but to annihilate the soul2 and in order to be quite sure that the soul may not re-appear under some new guise in this world1 which has been cursed as the abode of illusion and misery1 ,buddhism destroys its very elements1 and never wearies of glorying in this achievement4 ,what more is wanted8 if this be not the ,absolute ,nothing1 what is ,nirvna80 99 99 99 99 99 ,repellent as seems to us the central doctrine of ,buddhism1 it extended rapidly4 ,this extension was due1 however1 to the simplicity of the ritual which ,buddha enjoined2 the pure morality which he advocated2 the equality of all men on which he insisted2 and the spirit of love1 tenderness1 gentleness1 compassion1 and toleration which he inspired4 ,hence it came to pass that his disciples multiplied in the north-western territories of ,hindustan1 and his creed found acceptance1 at a later period1 probably about three centuries before ,,christ1 all over ,india4 ,in ,ceylon it was adopted at a very early period2 but it was not until the second century before ,,christ that it made its way into ,china and ,tibet4 ,from ,ceylon it spread into ,birmah and ,siam1 and the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 and from ,china it penetrated into ,japan4 ,it is now the religion of more than one fifth of the whole human race4 ,its influence has been very considerable1 and may distinctly be traced in some of the ,gnostic teaching and in the ,alexandrine or ,neo-,platonic philosophy4 ,it modified the old ,brahmanic religion1 which1 acting under its impulse1 threw off its human sacrifices and more barbarous rites4 ,the festival of ,juggernaut1 which for the time places in abeyance all caste distinctions1 and adopts many ,buddhist symbols1 shows that the ,brahmans1 even when they drove it out of ,india1 were compelled to retain some of its relics1 just as they were under the necessity of recognising ,buddha as one of the ,avatars of their god ,vishnu4 ,buddhism may be described as 8the parent of ,indian architecture10 which1 fashioned at first on the ,greek patterns1 speedily assumed a character of its own1 as may be seen in its colossal temples4 ,but1 as is the case with all religious systems of purely human origin1 ,buddhism gradually fell away from the standard of its founder4 ,the heart craves an object of worship1 a something or some one on which or on whom to rest its hopes and fears1 and the ,buddhists1 untaught to reverence a ,supreme ,being1 transferred their adoration to ,buddha himself1 whose life and work they involved in a cloud of myth and legend4 ,his relics came to be worshipped1 and reliquary towers for their preservation were everywhere erected4 ,the enthusiasm which fired the ,buddhists1 and largely contributed to the rapid extension of their creed1 for ,buddhism1 unlike ,brahmanism1 is a proselytising religion1 finds a striking illustration in the career of ,hiouen-thsang1 the ,chinese pilgrim1 who1 in the middle of the seventh century1 crossed the deserts and mountains which separate ,china from ,india1 and visited the principal cities of the ,indian ,peninsula4 ,,hiouen-,,thsang1 ,a ,,buddhist ,,pilgrim4#ab ,hiouen-thsang was born in a provincial town of ,china1 in one of the revolutionary and anarchical periods of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,his father1 having quitted the public service1 was able to devote his leisure to the education of his four children1 one of whom1 ,hiouen-thsang1 was distinguished at an early age by his genius and his thirst for knowledge4 ,after receiving instruction at a ,buddhist monastery1 he was admitted as a monk1 when only thirteen years old4 ,during the next seven years1 he travelled about with his brethren from place to place1 in order to profit by the lectures of the most eminent professors2 but his peaceful studies were frequently interrupted by the horrors of war1 and he was forced to seek refuge in the more remote provinces of the empire4 ,at the age of twenty he took priest's orders1 having already become famous for his multifarious learning4 ,he had studied the chief canonical book of the ,buddhist faith1 the records of ,buddha's life and teaching1 the system of ethics and metaphysics1 and had completely mastered the works of ,k'ung-fu-tze and ,lao-tse4 ,but1 like many inquiring minds1 he was tortured by doubt4 ,for six years more he prosecuted his studies in the principal places of learning in ,china1 and was frequently solicited to teach when he had come to learn4 ,baffled in all his efforts to satisfy his anxious and restless intellect1 he resolved at last on paying a visit to ,india1 the parent-land of ,buddhism1 where he knew he should find the original of the works1 which1 in their ,chinese translation1 had proved so dubious and excited so much mistrust4 ,from the records of his pilgrim predecessors he was aware of the dangers of his journey2 yet the glory1 as he says1 of recovering the ,law1 which was to be a guide to all men1 and the means of their salvation1 seemed to him worthy of attainment4 ,in common with several other priests1 he applied for the ,imperial permission to travel out of ,china4 ,it was refused1 and his companions lost heart4 ,but ,hiouen-thsang was made of sterner stuff4 ,his mother had often told him how1 before his birth1 she had had visions of her future offspring travelling to the ,far ,west in search of the law2 and he himself had been similarly encouraged4 ,having no worldly pleasures to enfeeble him1 and believing only in one object as worth living for1 he resolved to face danger and difficulty2 made his way to the ,hoang-,ho1 and the place of departure of the caravans for the ,west1 and1 eluding the vigilance of the ,governor1 succeeded in crossing the frontier4 ,he was without friends or helpers2 but after spending the night in fervent prayer1 found a guide in a person who1 next morning1 unexpectedly presented himself4 ,for some distance this guide conducted him faithfully1 but abandoned him when they reached the ,desert4 ,there were still five watch-towers to be passed1 and the uncertain track through the ,desert was indicated only by skeletons and the hoof-marks of horses4 ,bravely went the pilgrim on his way1 and though misled by the 8mirage0 of the ,desert1 he safely reached the first tower4 ,there he narrowly escaped death from the arrows of the watchman1 but the officer in command was himself a devout ,buddhist1 and he not only allowed ,hiouen-thsang to proceed1 but gave him letters of recommendation to the governors of the other towers4 ,at the last tower1 however1 he was refused leave to pass1 and neither bribes nor entreaties proved of any avail4 ,he was compelled to retrace his steps1 and make a long dtour1 in the course of which he lost his way4 ,his water-bag burst1 and for the first time his courage wavered4 ,should he not return8 ,but no2 he had taken an oath never to make a step backward until he had reached ,india4 ,it were better to die with his face to the ,west1 than return to the ,east and live4 ,for four nights and five days he traversed the ,desert1 without a drop of water to quench his thirst1 with no other refreshment than that which he derived from his prayers2 and that these should afford any hope or consolation seems strange enough1 when we remember that ,buddhism held out to him no hope of a ,god or a ,saviour4 8,it is incredible in how exhausted an atmosphere the ,divine spark within us will glimmer on1 and even warm the dark chambers of the human heart40 ,comforted by his prayers1 he resumed his onward march1 and in due time arrived at a large lake in the country of the ,oigom ,tatars1 by whom he was received with an abundant hospitality4 ,one of the ,tatar ,khans insisted that he should reside with him and teach his people2 and as he would listen to no remonstrances or explanations1 ,hiouen-thsang was driven to a desperate expedient4 ,the king1 he said1 might fetter his body1 but had no power over his mind and will2 and he refused all food1 with a view to put an end to a life which he no longer regarded as of value4 ,in this resolution he persisted for three days1 and the ,khan1 afraid that he would perish1 was compelled at last to yield4 ,but he extracted from him a promise that on his return to ,china he would visit him1 and abide with him for three years4 ,at last1 after a month's detention1 during which the ,khan and his court daily attended the lectures of the pious monk1 he resumed his journey1 attended by a strong escort1 and furnished with letters of introduction to the twenty-four princes whose dominions he must cross4 ,his route lay through what is now called ,dsungary1 across the ,musur-dabaghan mountains1 the northern chain of the ,belur-tag1 the valley of the ,yaxartes1 ,bactria1 and ,kabulistan4 ,the pilgrim's description of the scenes through which he passed is interesting and vivid2 he was a keen observer1 and gifted with considerable powers of expression4 ,of the ,musur-dabaghan mountains he says3-- 8,the crest of these heights rises to the sky4 ,since the beginning of the world the snow has been accumulating1 and it is now transformed into masses of ice1 which never melt1 either in spring or summer4 ,hard shining sheets of snow are spread out until they vanish into the infinite1 and mingle with the clouds4 ,if one looks at them1 one's eyes are dazzled by the splendour4 ,frozen peaks impend over both sides of the wood1 some hundred feet in height1 and some twenty or thirty feet in thickness4 ,it is not without difficulty and danger that the traveller can clear them or climb over them4 ,sudden gusts of hurricane and tornadoes of snow attack the pilgrims4 ,even with double shoes1 and in thick furs1 one cannot help trembling and shivering40 ,but as ,max ,mller justly observes1 what is more important in the early portion of our traveller's narrative than any descriptions of scenery1 is his account of the high degree of civilisation that then obtained among the tribes of ,central ,asia4 ,historians have learned to believe in the early civilisation of ,egypt1 ,babylon1 ,china1 ,india2 but they will have to abandon all their old ideas of barbarism and barbarians now that they find the ,tatar hordes possessing1 in the seventh century1 8the chief arts and institutions of an advanced society40 ,the theory of ,m4 ,oppert1 who gives to a ,turanian or ,scythian race the original invention of the cuneiform letters and a civilisation anterior to that of ,babylon and ,nineveh1 ceases to be improbable2 since no new wave of civilisation could have touched these countries between the cuneiform period of their literature and history and the epoch of ,hiouen-thsang's visit4#ac 8,in the kingdom of ,okini1 on the western portion of ,china1 ,hiouen-thsang found an active commerce1 gold1 silver1 and copper coinage2 monasteries1 where the chief works of ,buddhism were studied1 and an alphabet derived from ,sanskrit4 ,as he travelled on he met with mines1 with agriculture1 including pears1 plums1 peaches1 almonds1 grapes1 pomegranates1 rice1 and wheat4 ,the inhabitants were dressed in silk and woollen materials4 ,there were musicians in the chief cities who played on the flute and the guitar4 ,buddhism was the prevailing religion1 but there were traces of an earlier worship1 the ,bactrian fire-worship4 ,the country was everywhere studded with halls1 monasteries1 monuments and statues4 ,samarkand formed at that early time a kind of ,athens1 and its manners were copied by all the tribes in the neighbourhood4 ,balkh1 the old capital of ,bactria1 was still an important place on the ,oxus1 well-fortified1 and full of sacred buildings4 ,and the details which our traveller gives of the exact circumference of the cities1 the number of their inhabitants1 the products of the soil1 the articles of trade1 can leave no doubt in our minds that he relates what he had seen and heard himself4 ,a new page in the history of the world is here opened1 and new ruins pointed out1 which would reward the pickaxe of a ,layard40 ,hiouen-thsang passed into ,india by way of ,kabul4 ,shortly before he reached ,pou-lou-cha-pou-lo1 the ,sanskrit ,purushapura1 the modern ,peshawer1 he was informed of a remarkable cave1 where ,buddha had converted a dragon1 and had promised to leave it his shadow1 in order that1 whenever the fierce passions of its dragon-nature should awake1 it might be reminded of its vows by the presence of its master's shadowy features4 ,the promise was fulfilled1 and the dragon-cave became a favourite resort for pilgrims4 ,our traveller was warned that the roads to the cave were haunted by robbers1 so that for three years no pilgrim had been known to return from it4 ,but he replied that it would be difficult during a hundred thousand ,kalpas to meet once with the true shadow of ,buddha1 and that having come so near it in his pilgrimage1 he could not pass on without paying the tribute of his adoration4 ,he left his companions in their security1 and having1 with some difficulty1 obtained a guide1 proceeded on his way4 ,they had accomplished but a few miles when they were attacked by five robbers4 ,hiouen-thsang showed them his shaven head and priestly robes4 8,master10 said one of the fraternity1 8where are you going80 8,i desire10 replied ,hiouen-thsang1 8to adore the shadow of ,buddha40 8,master10 said the robber1 8do you not know that these roads are full of bandits80 8,robbers are men10 was the answer1 8and as for me1 when ,i am going to adore the shadow of ,buddha1 though the roads might be full of wild beasts1 ,i shall walk on fearless4 ,and inasmuch as ,i will not fear you1 because you are men1 you will not be insensible to pity40 ,these words1 in their simple faith1 produced a strange effect upon the robbers1 who opened their minds to the enlightenment of the wise man's teaching4 ,hiouen-thsang resumed his journey1 with his guide1 and passed a stream which rushed tumultuously between the walls of a precipitous ravine4 ,in the rock was a door opening into a depth of darkness4 ,with a fervent prayer the pilgrim entered boldly1 advanced towards the east1 then moved fifty steps backwards1 and began his devotions4 ,he made one hundred salutations1 but saw nothing4 ,this he conceived to be a punishment for his sins2 he reproached himself despairingly and wept bitter tears1 because he was denied the happiness of seeing ,buddha's shadow4 ,at last1 after many prayers and invocations1 he saw on the eastern wall a dim patch of light4 ,but it passed away4 ,with mingled joy and pain he continued to pray1 and again he saw a light1 and again it vanished swiftly4 ,then1 in his ecstasy of loving devotion1 he vowed that he would never leave the place until he had seen the 8,venerable of the age40 ,after two hundred prayers1 he saw the cave suddenly fill with radiance1 and the shadow of ,buddha1 of a brilliant white colour1 rose majestically on the wall1 as when the clouds are riven1 and all at once flashes on the wondering eye the marvellous image of the 8,mountain of ,light40 ,the features of the divine countenance were illuminated with a dazzling glow4 ,hiouen-thsang was absorbed in wondering contemplation1 and from an object so sublime and incomparable he could not turn his eyes away4 ,after he awoke from his trance1 he called in six men1 and bade them kindle a fire in the cave1 that he might burn incense2 but as the glitter of the flame made the shadow of ,buddha disappear1 he ordered it to be extinguished4 ,five of the attendants saw the shadow1 but the sixth saw nothing2 and the guide1 when ,hiouen-thsang told him of the vision1 could only express his astonishment4 8,master10 he said1 8without the sincerity of your faith and the energy of your vows1 you could not have seen such a miracle40 ,such is the account which ,hiouen-thsang's biographers give of his visit to ,buddha's cave2 but ,max ,mller remarks1 to the credit of ,hiouen-thsang himself1 that in the ,si-yu-hi1 which contains his own diary1 the story is told much more simply4 ,after describing the cave1 he merely adds3--8,formerly1 the shadow of ,buddha was seen in the cave1 bright1 like his natural appearance1 and with all the marks of his divine beauty4 ,one might have said1 it was ,buddha himself4 ,for some centuries1 however1 it has not been possible to see it completely4 ,though one does perceive something1 it is only a feeble and doubtful resemblance4 ,if a man prays with sincere faith1 and if he have received from above a secret impression1 he sees the shadow clearly1 but cannot enjoy the sight for any length of time40 99 99 99 99 99 ,from ,peshawer the undaunted pilgrim proceeded to ,kashmir1 visited the principal towns of ,central ,india1 and arrived at last in ,magadha1 the ,holy land of the ,buddhists4 ,there1 for a space of five years1 he devoted himself to the study of ,sanskrit and ,buddhist literature2 he explored every place which was consecrated by memories of the past4 ,passing through ,bengal1 he travelled southward1 with the view of visiting ,ceylon1 the chief seat of ,buddhism4 ,but1 unable to carry out his design1 he crossed the peninsula from east to west1 ascended the ,malabar coast1 reached the ,indus1 and after numerous excursions to scenes of interest in ,north-,western ,india1 returned to ,magadha to enjoy1 with his old friends1 the delights of learned leisure and intellectual companionship4 ,eventually1 his return to ,china became necessary1 and traversing the ,punjab1 ,kabulistan1 and ,bactria1 he struck the river ,oxus1 following its course nearly up to its springhead on the remote ,pamir tableland2 and after a residence of some duration in the three chief towns of ,turkistan1 ,khasgar1 ,yarkand1 and ,khoten1 he found himself again1 after sixteen years of varied experience1 in his native land4 ,by this time he had attained a world-wide reputation1 and he was received by the ,emperor with the honours usually accorded to a military hero4 ,his entry into the capital was marked by public rejoicings2 the streets were decked with gay carpets1 festoons of flowers1 and waving banners4 ,the splendour of martial pomp was not wanting2 the civic magistrates lent the dignity of their presence to the scene2 and all the monks of the district issued forth in solemn procession4 ,if this were a triumph of unusual character1 not less unaccustomed were the trophies which figured in it4 ,first1 #aej grains of ,buddha's dust2 ,second1 a golden statue of ,buddha2 ,third1 another statue of sandal-wood2 ,fourth1 a statue of sandal-wood1 representing ,buddha as descending from heaven2 ,fifth1 a statue of silver2 ,sixth1 a golden statue1 representing ,buddha victorious over the dragon2 ,seventh1 a statue of sandal-wood1 representing ,buddha as a preacher2 and ,eighth1 a collection of #feg ,buddhist works in #ebj volumes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,admitted to an audience of the ,emperor in the ,phnix ,palace1 he was offered1 but declined1 a high position in the ,government4 8,the doctrine of ,confucius10 he said1 8is still the soul of the administration20 and he preferred to devote his remaining years to the study of the ,law of ,buddha4 ,the ,emperor invited him to write a narrative of his travels1 and placed at his disposal a monastery where he might employ himself in peaceful and happy seclusion in translating the works he had brought back from ,india4 ,he quickly wrote and published his travels1 but the translation of the ,sanskrit ,,mss4 occupied the rest of his life4 ,it is said that the number of the works he translated1 with the assistance of a large staff of monks1 amounted to #gdj1 in #acce volumes4 ,often he might be seen pondering a passage of difficulty1 when suddenly a flash of inspiration would seem to enlighten his mind4 ,his soul was cheered1 as when a man walking in darkness sees all at once the sun piercing the clouds and shining in its full brightness2 and1 unwilling to trust to his own understanding1 he used to attribute his knowledge to a secret inspiration of ,buddha and the ,bdhisattvas4 ,when his last hour approached1 he divided all his property among the poor1 invited his friends to come and see him1 and take a cheerful farewell of the impure body of ,hiouen-thsang4 8,i desire10 he said1 8that whatever merits ,i may have gained by good works may fall upon other people4 ,may ,i be born again with them in the heaven of the blessed1 be admitted to the family of ,mi-le1 and serve the ,buddha of the future1 who is full of kindness and affection4 ,when ,i descend again upon earth to pass through other forms of existence1 ,i desire at every new birth to fulfil my duties towards ,buddha1 and arrive at the last at the highest and most perfect intelligence40 ,he died in the year #ffd4 ,the life of ,hiouen-thsang1 and his narrative of travel1 have been translated into ,french by ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien4#ad ,the foregoing particulars have been borrowed from a review of ,m4 ,julien's work1 by ,max ,mller1 which originally appeared in the 8,times0 of ,april #ag and #bj1 #aheg4 ,we translate from ,stanislas ,julien's 8,vie et ,voyages de ,hiouen-thsang0 the ,chinese narrative of the pilgrim's last days3-- 8,after completing his translation of the ,pradj1 the ,master of the ,law became conscious that his strength was failing1 and that his end was near at hand4 ,accordingly he spoke to his disciples3 #8,if ,i came into the palace of ,yu-hoa-kong1 it was1 as you know1 on account of the sacred book of the ,pradj4 ,now that the work is finished1 ,i feel that my thread of life is run out4 ,when after death you remove me to my last resting-place1 see that everything be done in a modest and simple manner4 ,you will wrap my body in a mat1 and deposit it in some calm and solitary spot in the bosom of a valley4 ,carefully avoid the neighbourhood of palace or convent2 a body so impure as mine should be separated from it by a great distance4' 8,on hearing these words1 his disciples broke out into sobs and cries4 ,drying their tears1 they said to him3 #8,master1 you have still a reserve of strength and vigour2 your countenance is in no wise altered2 why do you give sudden utterance to such miserable words8' 8#8,i know it through and in myself1' replied the ,master of the ,law2 #8how would it be possible for you to understand my presentiments8' 8,on the first day of the first moon in the spring of the first year ,lin-te 7#ffd71 the neighbouring interpreters and all the religious of the convent1 came to solicit him1 with the most pressing earnestness1 to translate the collection of the ,ratnakota sotra4 8,the ,master of the ,law1 yielding to their fervid persistency1 made an effort to overcome his weakness1 and translated a few lines4 ,then1 closing the ,hindu text1 he said3 #8,this collection is as great as that of the ,pradj1 but ,i feel ,i have not sufficient strength to complete such an enterprise4 ,my last moments have arrived1 and my life can be only of short duration4 ,to-day ,i would fain visit the valley of ,lantchi1 to offer my last homages to the statues of the innumerable ,buddhas4' 8,accordingly1 he set forth with his disciples4 ,the monks1 at his departure1 did not cease to shed tears4 8,after this pious excursion he returned to the convent4 ,thenceforward he ceased to translate1 and occupied himself solely in his religious duties4 8,on the eighth day1 one of his disciples1 the monk ,hiouen-,khio1 originally of ,kao-tch'ang1 related to the ,master of the ,law a dream which he had had4 ,he had seen a ,fesu-thou 7or ,stopa17 of imposing aspect and prodigious height1 crumble suddenly to the ground4 ,awakened by the fall1 he ran to inform the ,master of the ,law4 #8,the event does not concern you1' said ,hiouen-thsang2 #8it is the presage of my approaching end4' 8,on the evening of the ninth day1 as he crossed the bridge of a canal in the rear of his residence1 he fell1 and injured his leg4 ,from that moment his strength declined perceptibly4 8,on the sixteenth day he cried out1 as if awaking from a dream3 #8,before my eyes ,i see an immense lotus-flower1 charming in its freshness and purity4' 8,he had another dream on the seventeenth day1 in which he saw hundreds and thousands of men of tall stature1 who1 decorated with garments of embroidered silk1 with flowers of marvellous beauty1 and jewels of great price1 issued from the sleeping-chamber of the ,master of the ,law1 and proceeded to set out1 both internally and externally1 the hall consecrated to the translation of the holy books4 ,afterwards1 in the rear of that hall1 on a wooded mountain1 they everywhere planted rich banners of the most vivid colours1 and created an harmonious music4 ,he saw moreover1 without the gate1 an innumerable multitude of splendid chariots loaded with perfumed viands and fruits of more than a thousand kinds1 as beautiful in form as in colour2 no fruits were there of terrestrial growth6 ,the people brought them to him1 one after the other1 and offered him a profusion2 but he refused them1 saying3 #8,such viands as these belong only to those who have obtained the superior intelligence4 ,hiouen-thsang has not yet arrived at that sublime rank3 how could he dare to receive them8' ,in spite of his energetic refusal they continued to serve him without intermission4 8,the disciples who watched by him happening to make some slight sound1 he opened his eyes suddenly1 and related his dream to the sub-director 7,karmmadana71 a certain ,hoe-te40 8#8,and from these omens1' added the ,master1 #8it seems to me that such merits as ,i have been able to acquire during my life have not fallen into oblivion1 and ,i believe1 with an entire faith1 that it is not in vain one practises the doctrine of the ,buddha4' 8,immediately1 he ordered the master ,kia-chang to make a written list of the titles of the sacred books and the treatises which he had translated1 forming altogether seven hundred and forty works and thirteen hundred and thirty-five volumes 7livres74 ,he wrote down also the ,kti 7ten millions7 of paintings of the ,buddha1 as well as the thousand images of ,mi-le 7,mitrya bdhisattva71 painted on silk1 which he had caused to be executed4 ,there were1 moreover1 the ,ktis 7one hundred millions7 of statuettes of uniform colour4 ,he had also caused to be written a thousand copies of the following sacred books3 ,nong-touan-pan-jo-king 7,vadjra tchhdika pradj parmit sotra74 ,yo-sse-jou-la-pou-youen-kong-te-king 7,arya bhagavati bhichadja gourou porwa pranidhna nma mah yna sotra74 ,lou-men-t'o-lo-ni-king 7,chat moukhi dhrani740 ,he had ministered to the wants of upwards of twenty thousand persons among the faithful and heretical2 he had kindled a hundred thousand lamps1 and purchased thousands upon thousands 7ocean7 of creatures4 ,when ,kia-chang had finished this long catalogue of good works1 he was ordered to read it aloud4 ,after hearing it1 the religious crossed their hands and loaded the ,master with congratulations4 ,then he said to them3--8,the moment of my death approaches2 already my mind grows feeble and seems to be on the point of quitting me4 ,distribute at once in alms my clothes and goods2 let statues be fabricated2 and order the religious to recite some prayers40 ,on the twenty-third day1 a meal was given to the poor1 at which alms were distributed4 ,on the same day1 he ordered a moulder named ,song-kia-tchi1 to raise1 in the ,kia-cheou-tien palace1 a statue of the ,intelligence 7,buddha72 after which he invited the population of the convent1 the translators1 and his disciples1 to bid 8a joyous farewell to that impure and contemptible body of ,hiouen-thsang1 who1 having finished his work1 merited no longer existence4 ,i desire10 he added1 8to see poured back upon other men the merits which ,i have acquired by any good works2 to be born with them in the heaven of the ,touchitas2 to be admitted into the family of ,mi-le 7,mitrya72 and to serve the ,buddha1 full of tenderness and affection4 ,when ,i shall return to earth to pass through other existences1 ,i desire1 at each new birth1 to discharge with boundless zeal my duties towards the ,buddha1 and finally to arrive at the ,transcendent ,intelligence 7,anouttara samyak sambdhi740 ,after having made these adieux1 he was silent1 and engaged in meditation2 then with his dying tongue he faltered forth his bitter regret that he did not enjoy more of the 8world of the eyes0 7the faculty of seeing71 of the 8world of the thought0 7the faculty of thinking71 of 8the world of the knowledge which springs from observation0 7the knowledge of sensible objects72 of the 8world of the knowledge which springs from the mind0--l'esprit 7the perception of spiritual things72 and that he did not possess the fulness of the ,intelligence4 ,finally1 he pronounced two gubhas1 which he caused to be repeated to the persons near him3-- 8,adoration to ,maitrya ,tathagata1 gifted with a sublime intelligence6 ,i desire1 with all men1 to see your affectionate visage4 8,adoration to ,maitrya ,tathagata6 ,i desire1 when ,i quit this life1 to be born again in the midst of the multitude who surround you40 ,the ,master of the ,law1 after having long fixed his gaze upon ,te-hoe1 the sub-director of the convent 7,karmmadana71 raised his right hand to his chin and his left upon his breast2 then he stretched out his legs1 crossed them1 and lay down on the right side4 ,he remained thus1 immovable1 without taking anything1 until the fifth day of the second moon4 ,in the middle of the night his disciples asked him3 8,master1 have you at length obtained to be born in the midst of the assembly of ,maitrya80 8,yes10 he replied1 with a failing voice4 ,and having spoken1 his breathing grew rapidly weaker1 and in a few moments1 his soul passed away4 ,his servants1 feeling quietly1 found that his feet were already cold1 but that the back part of the head retained its warmth4 ,on the seventh day 7of the second moon7 his countenance had not undergone any alteration1 and his body exhaled no odour4 ,the religious of the convent having passed several days in prayers1 it was not until the morning of the ninth day that the sad news reached the capital4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,master of the ,law was seven tchi high2 his face was of a fresh complexion4 ,his eyebrows were wide apart1 his eyes brilliant4 ,his air was grave and majestic1 and his features were full of grace and vivacity4 ,the quality or tone 7timbre7 of his voice was pure and penetrating1 and his language at times soared to a lofty eloquence1 so noble and so harmonious that one could not refuse to listen4 ,when he was surrounded by his disciples1 or animated by the presence of an illustrious guest1 he would often speak for half-a-day1 while his hearers sat riveted in an immovable attitude4 ,his favourite attire was a robe of fine cotton stuff1 proportioned to his height and figure2 his gait was light and easy2 he looked straight before him1 throwing his glances neither to the right nor to the left4 ,he was majestic as those great rivers which embrace the earth2 calm and shining as the lotus which springs in the midst of the waters4 ,a severe observer of discipline1 he was unchanged and unchangeable4 ,nothing could equal his affectionate benevolence and tender pity1 the fervour of his zeal or his inviolable attachment to the practices of the ,law4 ,he was reserved in his friendship1 made no hasty bonds1 and when once he had entered his convent1 nothing but an imperial decree could have drawn him from his pious retreat4 ,on the third day of the second moon 7of the period ,lin-te1--#ffd71 the ,master of the ,law had sent ,hiu-hiouen-pi to inform the ,emperor of the wound he had received1 and of the malady it had induced4 ,on the seventh day of the same month the ,emperor1 by a decree1 ordered one of the imperial physicians to take with him medicaments and attend upon the ,master of the ,law1 but by the time he arrived1 the ,master was already dead4 ,teou-sse-lun1 governor of ,fang-tcheou1 announced by a report this melancholy event4 ,at the news1 the ,emperor shed tears copiously1 and cried aloud in his sorrow1 declaring that he had just lost the treasure of the empire4 ,for several days he suspended the usual audiences4 ,all the civil and military functionaries abandoned themselves to groans and tears3 the ,emperor himself was unable to repress his sobs or moderate his grief4 ,on the next day but one1 he spoke to his great officers as follows3 8,what a misfortune for my empire is the loss of ,thsang1 the ,master of the ,law6 ,it may well be said that the great family of ,cakya has seen its sole support shattered beneath it1 and that all men remain without master and without guide4 ,do they not resemble the mariner who sees himself sinking into the abyss1 when the storm has destroyed his oars and his shallop8 the traveller astray in the midst of the darkness1 whose lamp dies out at the entrance to a bottomless gulf80 ,when he had uttered these words1 the ,emperor groaned again1 and sighed many times4 ,on the twenty-sixth day of the same month1 the ,emperor issued the following decree3 8,in accordance with a report addressed to me by ,teou-sse-lun on the death of the ,master of the ,law1 ,hiouen-thsang1 of the convent ,yu-hoa-sse1 ,i order that his funeral take place at the expense of the ,state40 ,on the sixth day of the third moon1 he issued a new decree as follows3 8,by the death of ,thsang1 the ,master of the ,law1 the translation of the sacred books is stopped4 ,in conformity to the ancient ordinances1 the magistrates will cause the translations already completed to be copied carefully3 as for the 7,indian7 manuscripts which have not yet been translated1 they will be handed over in their entirety to the director of the convent ,ts'e'-en-sse 7of the ,great ,beneficence17 who will watch over their safety4 ,the disciples of ,hiouen-thsang and the translators' company1 who previously did not belong to the convent ,yu-hoa-sse1 will all return to their respective convents40 ,on the fifth day of the third moon appeared the following decree3 8,on the day of the funeral of the ,master of the ,law1 ,hiouen-thsang1 ,i permit the male and female religious of the capital to accompany him with banners and parasols to his last resting-place4 ,the ,master of the ,law shone by his noble conduct and his eminent virtues1 and was the idol of his age4 ,wherefore1 now he is no more1 it is just that ,i should diffuse again abundant benefits to honour the memory of a man who has had no equal in past times40 ,his disciples1 faithful to his last wishes1 formed a litter of coarse mats1 removed his body to the capital1 and deposited it in the convent of the ,great ,beneficence1 in the middle of the hall devoted to the labours of translation4 ,united by the sentiment of a common sorrow1 they uttered such cries as might have shaken the earth4 ,the religious and the laics of the capital hastened to the spot1 and poured out tears mingled with sobs and cries4 ,every day the crowd was swollen by fresh arrivals4 ,on the fourteenth day of the fourth month1 preparations were made for his interment in the capital of the ,west4 ,the male and female religious1 and a multitude of the men of the people1 prepared upwards of five hundred objects necessary for the celebration of his obsequies2 parasols of smooth 7unia7 silk1 banners and standards1 the tent and the litter of the ,ni-ouan 7,nirvna27 the inner coffin of gold1 the outer one of silver1 the so-lo trees 7salas17 and disposed them in the middle of the streets to be traversed by the procession4 ,the plaintive cadences of the funereal music1 and the mournful dirges of the bearers resounded even to ,heaven4 ,the inhabitants of the capital and of the districts situated within a radius of five hundred li 7fifty leagues17 who formed the procession1 exceeded one million in number4 ,though the obsequies were celebrated with pomp1 the coffin of the ,master nevertheless was borne upon a litter composed of rude coarse mats4 ,the silk manufacturers of the ,east had employed three thousand pieces of different colours in making the chariot of the ,nirvna1 which they had ornamented with flowers and garlands1 loaded with precious stones4 ,they had asked permission to place the body of the ,master of the ,law upon this resplendent catafalque2 but afraid of infringing his dying command1 his disciples had refused4 ,so it went first1 bearing the ,master's three robes and his religious mantle1 of the value of one hundred ounces of silver2 next came the litter constructed of coarse mats4 ,not one of the assistants but shed copious tears or was almost choked with grief6 ,upwards of thirty thousand religious and laics spent the night near his tomb4 ,on the morning of the fifteenth day the grave was closed2 then1 at the place of sepulture1 an immense distribution of alms was made1 and the crowd afterwards dispersed in silence4 ,on the eighth day of the fourth moon of the second year of the ,tsong-tchang period 7#ffi17 the ,emperor decreed that the tomb of the ,master of the ,law should be transported into a plain1 situated to the west of the ,fan-tch'ouen valley1 and that a tower should be erected in his honour4#ae ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,magianism3 ,,the ,,parsees4 ,,the ,,zendavesta4#af ,when the pure morality of ,christianity is adduced as a proof of its high origin1 one of the favourite devices of ,modern ,unbelief is to claim an equally high standard for the morality inculcated by the primitive creeds1 and to rain praises upon the ethical systems embodied in the ,sotras of the ,buddhists1 the ,rig-,veda of the ,brahmans1 or the ,zendavesta of the ,parsees4 ,in making this claim our philosophers probably calculate on the little knowledge which the multitude possess of any creeds but their own4 ,they are well aware that1 to the popular mind1 the teaching of ,buddha or ,zoroaster is necessarily a sealed book1 and that the whole extent of its purport is known only to a few scholars4 ,hence1 when they come to support their thesis by quotations1 they are able to select those isolated passages which shine with the lustre of genuine diamonds1 and produce an absolutely false impression of the general character of the writings in which they occur2 thin veins of precious metal shining here and there through masses of worthless ore4 ,no doubt the ,veda contains numerous utterances of the highest beauty1 in which the soul's devotion to a ,supreme ,power is expressed with a lyrical fervour inferior only to that of the ,sweet ,singer of ,israel4 ,no doubt the ,zendavesta1 or the books of ,k'ung-fu-tze1 like the works of later and maturer intellects--a ,xenophon and a ,plato1 a ,seneca and a ,marcus ,aurelius--are enriched with thoughts of the loftiest description1 and frequently breathe the most exalted aspirations4 ,but what we have to remember is1 that these are wholly exceptional2 that they are the most arduous efforts of each self-absorbed thinker1 and the indications of his boldest flights4 ,at other times the wing grows feeble2 at other times the music is faint and even discordant2 the bird can do no more than creep along the ground4 ,in the sayings of our ,lord1 however1 or in the writings of ,his ,apostles1 the tone is always sustained1 clear1 definite4 ,there is no uncertainty or hesitation4 ,nothing mean or unworthy is woven in their texture4 ,no concessions are made to man's coarser desires or grosser passions4 ,the system set before us is rounded in perfection1 and shows not a flaw from beginning to end4 ,we feel that ,he who speaks1 whether in ,his own ,person or through ,his disciples1 speaks as never man spoke before2 and that the ,voice which fills our ears and stirs our hearts is1 in deed and in truth1 a ,voice from ,heaven4 ,we propose to furnish in this chapter a general view of the construction and teaching of the ,parsee ,scriptures1 with the view of showing the signal inferiority of the creed it embodies to ,christianity in all that can elevate the mind and satisfy the soul4 ,at the same time we admit that the ,parsee creed1 and all similar creeds1 possess an intrinsic value1 apart from their ethical deficiencies1 as illustrating the recognition of an ,almighty ,will1 an ,eternal and ,supreme ,force1 by all the higher races of mankind4 ,they show us the hopes1 fears1 and desires of great tribes and peoples which existed in the days before men wrote history2 and they show us how their wisest teachers groped in the dark1 and stumbled in the thorny path1--favoured occasionally1 it is true1 with a wonderful glimpse of light1 and striking now and again into the pleasant places1 but never rejoicing in the glory which rose upon earth with the ,sun of ,righteousness1 never treading in that narrow but secure way which leads to ,eternal ,life4 ,we see in them the great minds of the early world1 like children on the seashore1 perplexed by a music which they could not comprehend1 and astonished by a power which they were unable to define4 ,yet happier and wiser they than the cold materialist of a later age1 who resolves all mysteries1 all phenomena1 into the working of a blind inflexible ,law1 and takes out of creation its light1 beauty1 and joy by denying the existence of an all-powerful and all-loving ,creator4 ,the religion professed by the ancient ,persians1 and still accepted by the ,parsees of ,western ,india1 and by a scattered population in ,yezd and ,kerman1 is taught in the books known as the ,zend-,avesta4 ,this title comes from the ,sassanian term ,avesta or ,apusta1 that is1 the text2#ag and ,zend1 or ,zand1 that is1 the commentary upon it4 ,the meaning of the latter word1 however1 seems to have varied at different periods4 ,originally it signified the interpretation of the sacred texts handed down from ,zoroaster 7or ,zarathustra7 and his disciples4 ,in course of time the interpretation came to be esteemed not less authoritative and sacred than the original text1 and both were called ,avesta4 ,but the language in which they were written having died out1 they became unintelligible to the majority of the people1 and a new ,zend or commentary was required before they could be understood4 ,the new 8,zend0 was the work of the most learned priests of the ,sassanian period1 and consisted of a translation of the double 8,avesta0 into the vernacular language then in vogue4#ah ,and as this translation is the only key which the priests of modern ,persia possess to the old creed as taught by ,zarathustra1 it has usurped the place of the original ,zend1 and is now the recognised official commentary4 ,but1 anciently1 the word 8,zend0 implied something more than a simple interpretation of the 8,avesta10 or sacred texts4 ,that interpretation was the source of certain new doctrines1 the whole of which were considered orthodox1 and designated ,zandi-agahi1 or ,zend doctrines2 doctrines which1 it can hardly be doubted1 supplied ,plutarch and some other of the ,greeks with ethical suggestions4 ,the name ,pazend1 which frequently occurs in connection with ,avesta and ,zend1 denotes a further exposition of ,zarathustrian teaching1 as contained in the ,vendidad1 to which we shall shortly refer4 ,thus far we have been indebted to ,dr4 ,haug's account of the origin of the ,zendavesta4 ,his views are confirmed by ,westergaard1 who asserts that the sacred books belong to two epochs2 that is1 that they are written in one age1 and collected and systematised in another1 in much the same way as1 according to ,wolf1 the ,homeric poems were produced and assumed their present form4 ,all the earlier traditions ascribe their origin to ,zarathustra2 but modern philologists affirm that they could not have sprung from any single mind1 because they present no defined or self-consistent system of religious belief or moral economy4 ,like the hymns of the ,vedas1 and the strains of the ,norse ,edda1 the several portions of the ,zendavesta1 so they say1 must have been composed by different bards1 each of whom coloured his particular theme according to the hues of his lively imagination4 ,this theory1 however1 though it may have an element of truth in it1 is hardly the whole truth4 ,the ,zendavesta is unquestionably wanting in unity and completeness4 ,but it seems to us that traces of a dominant mind are everywhere visible2 that the various parts are held together as on a thread by the teaching of ,zarathustra himself2 and that the additions made by later and inferior writers are not such as wholly to obscure the original work4 ,it is to the celebrated ,frenchman1 ,anquetil ,duperron1 that the scholars of the ,west owe their knowledge of these remarkable books4 ,happening to see a facsimile of a few pages written in ,zend characters1 he resolved on setting out for ,india in order to purchase manuscripts of all the sacred books of the ,zarathustrian religion1 to acquire a thorough insight into their signification1 and to obtain a knowledge of the rites and religious observances of the ,parsees4 ,his means being limited1 he entered himself as a sailor on board a ship of the ,dutch ,indian ,company1 and worked his way out to ,bombay in #aged4 ,with money supplied by the ,french ,government to assist him in his ingenious researches1 he bribed one of the most learned dustoors or priests1 ,dustoor ,darat1 or ,surat1 to procure the treasures he desired1 and to instruct him in the ,zend and ,pehlvi languages4 ,as soon as he had acquired the requisite proficiency1 he addressed himself to the task of translating the whole of the ,zendavesta into ,french4 ,this was in #agei4 ,returning to ,europe1 he convinced himself of the genuineness of his purchases by comparing them with ,,mss4 in the ,bodleian ,library2 and1 after several years of arduous labour1 produced the first ,european version in #agga4 ,at the outset1 the authenticity of his work was challenged both in ,england and ,germany2 but all doubts have been set at rest by the inquiries of ,rask and others2 and thus1 through the fanciful enterprise of a young ,frenchman1 the veil has been lifted which for so long a period shrouded the mysterious religion of the ,magi4 ,we do not1 however1 possess the whole of the ,avesta4 ,it is asserted by an ,arabian writer that ,zarathustra himself covered with his verses no fewer than twelve thousand parchments1 and who shall compute the extent of the literature accumulated by his disciples8 ,whether this literature perished at the epoch of the ,macedonian conquest of ,persia1 or whether it was destroyed by ,alexander the ,great1 or whether it gradually perished as the influence of the ,greek philosophy prevailed over the ,zarathustrian theology1 it is impossible to determine4 ,the remains of the sacred books1 however1 with short summaries of their contents1 have been handed down to us4 ,originally they were twenty-one in number1 called ,nosks1 and each ,nosk consisting of 8,avesta0 and 8,zend0--text and commentary4 ,the number twenty-one corresponded to the number of words composing the 8,honovar10 or most sacred prayer1 of the ,zarathustrians4 ,it is1 we may add1 a magical number1 being the result of the multiplication of the sacred numbers1 three and seven4 ,of these divisions the prcis now extant1 and collected for the first time by the ,danish scholar ,westergaard1 comprise the following books3 ,first1 the ,yasna1 which sets before us the devotions proper to be offered in connection with the sacrificial ceremonies4 ,this ,yasna is divided into seventy-two chapters1 representing the six ,yahnhrs1 or 8seasons0 during which ,ahura-,mazda1 the ,good ,principle1 created the world4 ,the reader will here note the coincidence between the six creative seasons of the ,magian seer1 and the six creative days of the ,hebrew lawgiver4 ,the ,yasna consists of two parts1 the older of which is written in what is called the ,gtha dialect1 and had acquired a peculiar sanctity prior to the date of composition of the other books4 ,it may be described as a treasury of songs1 hymns1 and metrical prayers1 which embody a variety of abstruse reflections upon subjects of metaphysical inquiry1 and are much better adapted to stimulate the intellect of the student than to foster the devotion of the worshipper4 ,they are rhymeless1 like the poetical effusions of ,cdmon1 and in their metrical structure bear a curious resemblance to the ,vedic hymns4 ,of these collections1 or ,gthas1 there are five1 and their leading title seems to be3 8,the ,revealed ,thought1 the ,revealed ,word1 and the ,revealed ,deed of ,zarathustra the ,holy40 ,it is added that the ,archangels first sang the ,gthas4 ,their general purport is an exposition of the work and teaching of the great founder of ,magianism1 who is represented as inveighing against a belief in the devas1 or gods1 and exhorting his disciples to lift up their hearts only to ,ahura-,mazda1 the ,supreme ,goodness4 ,now it seems necessary to correct a popular error1 that the ,zendavesta is largely liturgical3 an error confirmed by the assertion of ,gibbon1 who says3 8,every mode of religion1 to make a deep and lasting impression on the human mind1 must exercise our obedience1 by enjoining practices of devotion for which we can assign no reason2 and must acquire our esteem by inculcating moral duties analogous to the dictates of our own hearts4 ,the religion of ,zoroaster was abundantly provided with the former1 and possessed a sufficient portion of the latter40 ,but ,zarathustra himself1 in one of his best-known precepts1 warns his followers that 8he who sows the ground with care and diligence1 acquires a greater stock of religious merit than he would gain by the repetition of ten thousand prayers40 ,it is the tendency of all ethico-religious systems1 at least in their earliest stage of development1 to discourage purely liturgical observances1 and to enjoin on the disciple a state of self-concentration and self-absorption varied only by physical activity4 ,unaided by a divine ,revelation1 their founders never rise higher than the passive virtues of endurance and patience4 ,as time passes away1 and the new creed falls into the hands of a special school of expounders1 minute rites and rigid practices are accumulated in order to impose upon the neophyte1 and deepen the influence of those who alone possess a clue to their meaning4 ,the formalities which encumber the ,zarathustrian worship were invented long after the death of the master1 and no indication of them appears in the oldest section of the ,zendavesta4 ,they are to be found chiefly in the much later pages of the ,sadder1 where fifteen different genuflexions and prayers are required of the devout ,persian every time he cuts his finger-nails6 ,to return to the ,yasna4 ,the ,gthas1 of which we have been speaking1 were not improbably composed by ,zarathustra himself1 and may be held to express his belief and his thoughts in his own words4 ,the second part1 or 8,younger ,yasna10 is of a much later date and less lofty tone4 ,the invention of some of the ,master's disciples or priests1 it re-establishes the ,polytheism which ,zarathustra so strenuously condemned2 and furnishes the believer with a manual of prayers and incantations 7in prose7 to the genii of the woods and streams and hills1 the powers of fire and earth and water1 and all the invisible spirits which haunt the luminous air4 ,we come next to the ,visparad1 a collection of prayers in three-and-twenty chapters1 written in ,zend1 and of a similar tenour to those in the younger ,yasna4 ,these prayers refer to the preparation of the sacred water1 and the consecration of certain offerings--such as the sacred bread--which are carried round about the sacred fire1 and after having been exhibited to it1 are eaten by the priest and by the votary on whose behalf the ceremony is performed4 ,the ,yashts 7,ysti7--that is1 worship by prayers and sacrifices--fall to be considered in the third place4 ,of these devotions1 which are consecrated to the praise and worship of one ,divine ,being1 and of a certain limited group of inferior deities1 twenty-four are extant4 ,in using them the votary endeavours1 by a wearisome enumeration of the glorious achievements of the deity he is addressing1 and of the miracles he has wrought1 to induce him to come and enjoy the meal prepared for him1 and then to bestow on his fervid worshipper a blessing not inferior to the boons bestowed on his children in bygone times4 ,so far as concerns the legendary history of the ancient ,iranians1 and in connection with their belief in the pantheon of ,magianism1 the ,yashts are of great value1 and indeed1 from this point of view1 are the most precious portion of the ,zendavesta4 ,while the three parts already described exhibit more or less of a liturgical character1 the fourth division1 known as the ,vendidad1 forms a collection of customs1 observances1 laws1 pains1 and penalties1 the growth of a period much later than that of ,zarathustra1 when ,ritual began its encroachments on ,religion4 ,it is the essence of all genuine ,ritual that it should illustrate and explain ,doctrine1 but this is never found to be the case in the primitive creeds4 ,in all such it becomes merely the ingenious invention of a subtle priesthood1 by which its members established their influence over an ignorant community4 ,in the eyes of the unlearned its complex character invested it with an air of mystery2 they were led to look upon the 8form0 as of greater importance than the 8spirit10 and to attribute a strange1 a wonderful potency to rites and ceremonies which they could not understand4 ,while it is the special feature of the faith of ,,christ that it appeals in its sweet simplicity to every heart1 and that it requires of the believer to present himself before the altar with the innocence and trustfulness of a little child2 that it seeks not to confuse by a multiplicity of minute observances1 and even sums up its leading tenets in two brief and easily intelligible commandments2 ,magianism1 conscious of its inherent defects1 unable to fall back on the redeeming sacrifice of a ,,saviour1 deficient in any enduring principle of vitality1 sought to build up its structure on a foundation of ceremonies and formalities4 ,and when it could not feed the soul with the bread of truth1 it dazzled the senses by imposing spectacles1 and confused the imagination with a cumbrous code of the most complicated ritualistic frivolities2 so that the ,persian worship1 with its incantations and devices1 laid the foundation of the later ,magic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,turning our attention now to that portion of the ,zendavesta which is called the ,vendidad1 we find that it is divided into twenty-two ,fargards1 or chapters4 ,in the first of these we find an account of the creation by ,ahura-,mazda1 of sixteen holy regions1 sinless spotless ,edens1 localities of perfect bliss2 each of which is destroyed in succession by ,ahriman1 the ,spirit of ,evil1--a fable evidently suggested by the ,mosaic history of ,paradise4 ,the second treats of a certain king1 ,yimo ,vivaugham1 who introduced agriculture into the land of ,iran4 ,the third sets forth the various means by which ,zoma1 or the ,earth1 may be rendered happy4 ,you must beware of excavating deep holes in it1 for through these the devs1 or demons1 pass to and fro between hell and earth2 nor must you bury within it the dead bodies of men or dogs1 or other animals4 ,the fourth chapter enumerates six categories of crime1 and the several punishments connected with them4 ,the fifth and sixth are occupied with a description of various kinds of impurity4 ,the seventh and eighth contain liturgical directions in reference to the disposal of the carcases of men and dogs2#ai and it is stated that whoever eats of flesh so unclean can never be purified1 but that hell will undoubtedly be his portion4 ,even the house in which a man or a dog dies must immediately be purified by the use of incense or sweet-smelling odours2 a sanitary precaution of some importance in hot climates4 ,in the ninth occurs an elaborate detail of the rite of purification denominated the ,barathium1 to be performed by1 and on behalf of a person who shall have been unwittingly defiled by touching the dead4 ,the tenth and eleventh are not less minute in their directions what word must be repeated twice1 and thrice1 and four times at the different ,gthas1 in order that ,ahriman and his lieutenants may be expelled from men and women who have been in contact with the dead1 and from houses1 cities1 and provinces into which they have obtained an entrance4 ,the twelfth ,fargard treats of various funeral ceremonies1 and repeats a number of injunctions relative to the cleansing of places1 of clothes and other articles1 polluted by lifeless bodies4 ,it concludes with elaborate warnings against a two-footed dev1 called ,ashmog4 ,the thirteenth and fourteenth run riot in praise of the noble qualities of dogs1 and severe in their rebuke of the 8superior animals0 who ill-use them4 ,the fifteenth reads like a ,commination ,service1 in its denunciation of certain crimes which can never be undone even by the profoundest penitential offices1 and are punished by ,ahura-,mazda with eternal condemnation4 ,the seventeenth1 like the sixteenth1 is tediously liturgical1 and discusses such minuti as the arrangement of the hair of the head1 the extraction of bad or gray hairs1 and the cutting of nails4 ,if these operations are performed without certain prescribed ceremonies1 the devs come upon earth1 and parasitical organisms are produced to the great discomfort and injury of man4 ,the eighteenth lays down the distinctions which should characterise an ,athrava1 or priest4 ,he must wear the padan1 a mouth-cover1 of two fingers' breadth2 must carry an instrument for disposing of parasitical insects2 devote his nights to study1 keep alive the sacred fire1 and succour the distressed4 ,the nineteenth chapter recounts the perils to which ,zarathustra was exposed1 when he had left the south on his mission1 from the murderous assaults of ,ahriman and his host1 who hastened up from the north2 the north1 to an inhabitant of the warm sunny south1 naturally appearing the fit home and haunt of the ,spirit of ,evil4 ,the twentieth is devoted to the praise of ,taneslied1 who is represented as having swept away disease1 death1 bloodshed1 war1 evil-doers1 falsehood1 and all kinds of wickedness4 ,the twenty-first enjoins the salutations to be paid to the sacred ,bull1 and extols some of its illustrious qualities4 ,finally1 the twenty-second narrates the mission of ,zarathustra1 and describes the evil he will dispel through the influence of the ,word2 ,ahura-,mazda having ordered him to establish his worship in the region called ,airya-,mava1 or ,irman1 so that it may become bright1 pure1 and happy as the abode of ,ahura-,mazda himself1 free from sin1 and1 consequently1 free from sorrow and suffering4 ,from this brief summary it will be seen that the religion of the ,parsees in its present form is a definite ,dualism1 recognizing the existence of two distinct principles1 ,good and ,evil1 impersonated by spirits of equal power1 named ,ahura-,mazda1 7or ,spento-,manyus17 and ,ahriman1 7or ,angro-,manyus47 ,but no such doctrine was taught by ,zarathustra himself4 ,his creed1 like all the earliest creeds1 was purely ,monotheistic4 ,he set before men1 as the sole object of their love and adoration1 one ,supreme ,being1 ,ahura-,mazda1 the great 8,life-,giver0 or the 8,living ,wisdom10 as the name is variously explained4 ,nor was his conception of this one ,god altogether unworthy of the ,founder of a ,religion4 ,he does not represent ,him1 indeed1 as the 8,father10 loving1 sympathetic1 compassionate1 and so full of condescension1 that ,he is willing to give ,his ,son to die for the salvation of erring ,humanity2 for he did not enjoy that fuller revelation of the ,divine ,nature which was vouchsafed to the ,hebrew race4 ,but he shows ,him as the 8,lord over all lords1 the ,forgiving1 the ,omniscient40 ,he is ineffably pure1 the source of all ,truth1 the ,holy ,god4 ,in the ,khordah ,avesta1 ,zarathustra is introduced as inquiring3 8,tell me the name1 ,o pure ,ahura-,mazda1 which is ,thy greatest1 best1 and fairest name80 ,ahura-,mazda replies3 8,my name is ,he who may be questioned3 the ,gatherer of the people3 the ,most ,pure3 ,he who takes account of the actions of men4 ,my name is ,god 7,ahura72 ,my name is the ,great ,wise ,one 7,mazdas47 ,i am the ,all-,seeing1 the ,desirer of ,good for ,my creatures1 ,he who cannot be deceived3 the ,protector3 the ,tormentor of tormentors3 ,he who smiteth once and only once3 the ,creator of ,all40 ,his happiness1 like ,his holiness1 is without spot or blemish2 every blessing is ,his that man can imagine--health and wealth1 virtue1 wisdom1 prosperity1 immortality2 and these blessings ,he is willing to bestow on ,his creatures if in thought and word and deed they eschew impurity4 ,but we nowhere read that ,he will assist them in the struggle against sin by creating in them a new heart1 or by vouchsafing the grace of ,his ,holy ,spirit4 ,the mystery of the ,atonement was beyond the reach of the soul and intellect even of ,zarathustra2 and the highest conception of ,god to which he could attain was that of a ,being of perfect ,goodness1 sitting enthroned in a strange awful loneliness1 with no other feeling than that of approval of ,good and disapproval of ,evil4 ,he is1 of course1 the supreme type of ,power3 all that is flows from ,him1 as light from the ,sun3 ,he creates both the shadow and the brightness of the human existence1 good and ill1 fortune and misfortune4 ,so far above all human intelligence is ,he placed1 that images of ,him are forbidden1 though ,he is understood to be symbolised by the sun and by fire4 ,he can be served only by prayers and offerings1 by a life of purity and truth1 by abstinence from sinful passions1 by the banishment of sinful thoughts4 ,thus ,herodotus says of the ,zarathustrians1 that they reject the use of temples1 of altars1 and of statues4 8,they smile10 he says1 8at the folly of those nations who imagine that the ,gods are descended from1 or have any affinity with1 human nature4 ,the loftiest mountain-tops are the places chosen for their sacrifices4 ,hymns and prayers are their principal forms of worship4 ,and the ,supreme ,god1 who fills the vast sphere of ,heaven1 is the object to whom they are addressed40 ,the service of ,ahura-,mazda consisted1 then1 as we see1 in the performance of good works1 in the cultivation of virtue1 and in the due offering up of prayer and praise4 ,it was an intellectual worship that ,zarathustra prescribed2 a worship that might assist in the development of a high morality1 but could not inculcate a deep and true religious feeling4 ,of contrition for sin1 of humbling oneself before ,god1 of self-sacrifice and self-abnegation1 of love1 and faith1 and hope1 the creed of ,zarathustra took no account4 ,and here1 as well as elsewhere1 we observe its vast inferiority to the religion of ,,christ4 ,it made no provision for the awakening and fostering of those tender emotions of profound humility1 thankful adoration1 and unutterable gratitude which are awakened in the ,christian's heart by the name of ,,jesus4 ,it could never have called forth such an utterance of the son's glad submission to the will of the ,,father as we find1 for example1 in the ejaculatory verse of ,ben ,jonson3 8,hear me1 ,o ,,god6 ,a broken heart ,is my best part3 ,use still ,thy rod1 ,that ,i may prove ,therein ,thy love4 8,if ,thou hadst not ,been stern to me1 ,but left me free1 ,i had forgot ,myself and ,thee4 8,for sin's so sweet1 ,as minds ill-bent ,rarely repent1 ,until they meet ,their punishment40 ,such lines as these indicate a relation between man and his ,,god which could never obtain between the ,zarathustrian and his ,ahura-,mazda4 ,his was a cold1 unimpassioned1 logical creed1 warmed by no single heart-throb of ,divine love and mercy2 a creed which demanded human worship for a sinless ,god1 but did not invite human faith in a loving ,redeemer2 and1 consequently1 a creed which left untouched the deepest springs and most responsive chords of our humanity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,both the excellencies and the short-comings of ,magianism are shown in the confessions and prayers included in the ,zendavesta4 ,for example1 there is much that is elevated and noble in the following1 yet its tone is curiously ,pharisaical1 and may be contrasted with that of ,ben ,jonson's verses4 ,instead of being the aspiration of a sinful soul after forgiveness1 and a reaching forth towards love and light1 it is the self-eulogium of a mind confident in its own sustaining power1 and to appreciate its weakness we need only to contrast it with the fervour of a ,david or a ,s4 ,paul4 ,we remember that the ,hebrew king exclaimed3 8,my heart panteth1 my strength faileth me3 as for the light of mine eyes1 it also is gone from me10 and how the ,apostle confessed himself 8the chief of sinners40 ,with no such aching consciousness of weakness does the ,zarathustrian bow himself before ,god4 ,there is all the pride of self-righteousness in his prayer4 ,thus3 8,i remain standing fast in the statutes of the law which ,ahura-,mazda gave to ,zarathustra4 ,as long as life endures ,i will stand fast in good thoughts in my soul1 in good words in my speech1 in good deeds in my actions4 ,with all good am ,i in harmony1 with all evil am ,i at variance4 ,with the punishments of the future life ,i am content4 ,i have taken hold of good thoughts1 words1 and works4 ,i have forsaken evil thoughts1 words1 and works4 ,may the power of ,ahriman be broken6 may the reign of ,ahura-,mazda increase60 ,and again3 8,i am steadfast in this faith1 and turn myself not away from it1 for the sake of a happy life1 or for the sake of a longer life1 nor for power1 nor for a kingdom4 ,if ,i must give up my body for the sake of my soul1 ,i give it willingly4 ,i believe firmly in the good ,mazda-yusaian faith2 in the ,resurrection2 in the bridge of souls1#bj in the invariable reward of good deeds and punishment of bad deeds1 in the everlasting continuance of paradise and the annihilation of hell2 and ,i believe that1 at the last1 ,ahura-,mazda will be victorious1 and ,ahrimanes will perish with the ,devs1 and all the children of darkness4444 ,i am full of hope that ,i shall attain to ,paradise and the shining ,garathnan1 where all majesty dwelleth4 ,i make this confession in the hope that ,i may hereafter become more zealous to accomplish good works and keep myself more from sin2 and that my good deeds may serve for the diminution of evil and the increase of good till the rising again40 ,we know the form of prayer taught us by ,,jesus ,,christ2 how simple it is1 how complete1 how absolute in its renunciation of self1 how comprehensive in its charity4 8,thy will be done04444 8,forgive us our trespasses as we forgive them who trespass against us04444 8,lead us not into temptation40 ,such are its leading thoughts3 submission before ,,god1 charity before ,man2 both implying and demanding the conquest and humiliation of self4 ,let us contrast it with a ,zarathustrian prayer3 8,in the name of ,god the ,giver and ,forgiver1 ,rich in ,love1 praise be to ,ahura-,mazda1 the ,god with the name 444 #8,who always was1 always is1 and always will be4'444 ,ahura-,mazda the ,wise1 the ,creator1 the ,over-seeing ,god1 pure1 good1 and just6 ,with all strength bring ,i thank-offerings and praise to the ,lord1 the completer of good works1 who made men greater than all earthly beings1 and through the gift of speech created them to rule over the creatures and to war against the evil spirits4 ,praise to the omniscience of ,god who has sent through the holy ,zarathustra power and knowledge of the law4 ,all good do ,i accept at ,thy command1 ,o ,god1 and think1 speak1 and do it4 ,i believe in the pure law1 and by every good work ,i seek forgiveness for sins4 ,i keep pure the six powers--thought1 speech1 act1 memory1 reason1 understanding4 ,according to ,thy will am ,i able to fulfil 7these resolutions47 ,o ,accomplisher of ,good1 to ,thy honour are good thoughts1 good words1 and good works4 ,i enter on the shining way to ,paradise4 ,may the terror of hell not overcome me6 ,may ,i pass the bridge ,chinavat and attain to ,paradise1 the bright and odoriferous1 where are all joys4 ,praise to the ,lord who awards those who accomplish good deeds according to ,his will1 who purifies the obedient1 and at last purifies the wicked in hell4 ,all praise be to the ,creator1 ,ahura-,mazda1 the ,all-,wise1 the ,mighty1 the ,rich in ,love40 99 99 99 99 99 ,prayer1 according to ,zarathustra1 is not the humbling of the soul before its ,creator1 not the aspirations of the spirit towards the ,source of all ,love and ,mercy1 not the desire of the creature to be at peace with ,,god1 but the renunciation of will1--a noble and worthy aim in itself1 but not fulfilling the ,christian idea of prayer4 ,to do good and to shun evil is1 no doubt1 the motive of the ,christian life2 but prayer is something more and something higher1 the sacrifice of an humble and a contrite heart4 8,heaven is the magazine wherein ,,god puts ,both good and evil2 prayer's the key that shuts ,and opens this great treasure2 'tis a key ,whose wards are ,faith1 and ,hope1 and ,charity4 ,wouldst thou prevent a judgment due to sin8 ,turn but the key and thou mayst lock it in4 ,or wouldst thou have a blessing fall upon thee6 ,open the door and it will shower on thee40#ba ,but no such conception as this is discernible throughout the length and breadth of the ,parsee ,scriptures1 which here1 as elsewhere1 and in relation to other matters1 attain a lofty1 but not the loftiest1 level2 rise above earth1 but do not soar to ,heaven4 ,they seem instinct with echoes of the original revelation vouchsafed to man1 but those echoes are faint and imperfect2 whereas1 in the ,hebrew creed1 the voices of ,,god are repeated with a fulness and a power which leaves the heart nothing to desire4 ,in this vast superiority we cannot fail to see a strong and striking proof of its authenticity4 ,if it be found difficult to account for the moral excellence and sthetic beauty of ,zarathustrianism without tracing it back in some indirect way to a ,divine origin2 how shall we explain the sublimity and grandeur of the ,hebrew ,theism1 unless we admit that it is all it professes to be1--is1 in very truth1 the expression of the will of the everliving ,,god8 ,we have spoken of ,zarathustra's religion as originally monotheistic2 its purity1 however1 was not long preserved1 and the cause of its corruption lay in itself4 ,zarathustra could not deny the existence of ,evil1 and to explain it was driven to concoct an extraordinary hypothesis4 ,as in every electrified object there are two poles1 a positive and a negative1 so1 according to the ,prophet1 in ,ahura-,mazda1 and in all rational beings1 man included1 are present a good and holy ,will1 and its shadow or negative1--a higher and a lower nature1--the ,positive and the ,negative ,mind4 ,how ,zarathustra reconciled this idea with his conception of ,ahura-,mazda1 as ,perfect ,goodness1 we are unable to comprehend4 ,at all events1 it contained the germs of the future ,dualism of the ,persian religion4 ,the ,negative ,mind soon came to be separated from the good and holy ,will1 and was quickly personified as an independent evil being1 a ,power of ,night and ,darkness1 ,ahriman 7,angro-,manyus17 equal in might to ,ahura-,mazda1 and disputing with him the possession of the world4 ,thus arose the myth of the constant struggle between the two powers1 as between ,day and ,night2 the servants of ,ahura-,mazda being sent forth to encounter1 resist1 and overcome the slaves and works of ,ahriman1 thereby bringing about the end of all things1 when ,ahriman himself should be vanquished and reconciled4 ,in course of time the difficulties of this dual theory were detected by acute intellects1 and at the ,sassanian ,revival an attempt was made to dispose of them by introducing the doctrine of ,monotheism under a new form1 that of a ,great ,primal ,cause 7,zervana ,akarana71 the ,boundless ,time or ,uncreated ,whole1 such as we trace in the later ,greek poetry1 and apparently rather a 8metaphysical abstraction10 like the ,greek 1 or the ,roman ,nemesis1 than 8an active and presiding deity40 ,thence proceeded both the ,good and the ,evil ,principles2 the two antagonist creators who balanced against each other in perpetual conflict a race of spiritual and material beings1 light and darkness1 good and evil4 ,the wise benevolence of ,ahura-,mazda formed men capable of virtuous impulses1 and endowed each with everything that could contribute to his happiness4 ,he preserved by his watchful providence the harmonious movements of the planets1 and the temperate combination of the elements4 ,but the malice of ,ahriman has long since pierced ,ahura-,mazda's 8egg20 in other words1 violated the sweet accord and bounteous beauty of ,his works4 ,since that fatal irruption1 the most minute articles of good and evil are alternately commingled and agitated together2 the most poisonous herbs spring up among the most wholesome plants2 the warfare of deluges1 earthquakes1 and conflagrations disturbs the serenity of nature2 and humanity is subjected to all the blighting influences of sin1 suffering1 and sorrow4 ,while the rest of mankind were led away captive in the chains of their terrible enemy1 the faithful ,persian alone remained constant in his faith in ,ahura-,mazda1 and fought under his banner of light1 looking forward to a triumphant day when ,good should prevail over all the world4 ,it seems to us impossible to doubt that1 in this later development of the ,zoroastrian faith1 its priests and teachers were largely indebted to the ,sacred ,writings1 though into what they borrowed they introduced much original and fanciful speculation4 ,a ,parsee1 with a firm faith in ,ahura-,mazda1 and conscious of having obeyed the law1 offered up prayer and praise1 and renounced1 in intention at least1 evil thoughts and deeds and words1 lay down on his death bed in a certain hope and expectation of the ,eternal life4 ,we have seen that the ,zendavesta appointed a variety of penances1 by the performance of which the believer obtained immediate pardon for ordinary transgressions2 and therefore1 full of the self-righteousness which his creed was so well adapted to inculcate1 he faced the passage of the ,dark ,river without fear4 ,he knew not of any need to implore the mercy of a ,redeemer1 to humble himself in sackcloth and ashes1 to base his hope on the infinite love of ,,god made man1 on the glorious sacrifice of the ,cross2 his soul passed straight to ,paradise1 as an arrow flies towards its mark4 ,in the ,khordah ,avesta we can follow the stages of its journey3--,on the first night after death the soul dwelt near the head of the inanimate body it had just deserted1 and sat there praying1 rejoicing in as much joy as is vouchsafed to the whole living world4 ,and so did it dwell on the second night1 praying4 ,and so did it dwell on the third night1 praying4 ,but when the third night verged upon dawn1 the soul of the pure man went forward4 ,a wind1 sweeter than all other winds1 blew to meet it from the south4 ,and in that wind came to embrace the pilgrim his own law1 under the figure of a maiden beautiful and shining1 fair as the fairest of created beings4 ,the pilgrim then took the first step in his celestial progress1 and arrived in the paradise ,hamata2 he took the second1 and reached the paradise ,hkhta2 he took the third1 and arrived at the paradise ,hvarsta4 ,the beatified wanderer made yet another step1 and gained the presence of the ,eternal ,light4 ,there was he addressed by an already beatified soul3 8,how art thou1 ,o pure deceased1 who hast come from the perishable world hither to the imperishable80 ,ahura-,mazda here interrupted3 8,ask him not1 for he has come on the fearful trembling way1 the separation of soul and body4 ,bring him hither of the food of the full fatness1 that is1 of the filling food for those who think1 speak1 and do good1 for the pure after death40 ,a recent writer says of this notion of a progressive advance to the 8,eternal ,light10 of the welcome received from the blessed1 and from the gentle words of ,ahura-,mazda himself2 and of the conducting angel who represents the man's own earthly faith and life1 7like ,bunyan's ,mr4 ,good-,conscience meeting old ,honest beside the ,river of ,death17 8all these10 he says1 8are beautiful thoughts40 ,surely fanciful1 rather than beautiful2 and better adapted to amuse religious sentimentalists than to satisfy healthy and earnest believers4 ,the obvious reference to the three days and nights spent by our ,,lord 8in prison0 appears to indicate that this is a comparatively modern portion of the ,zendavesta1 founded upon some vague knowledge of the mystery of the ,resurrection4 ,while the pure soul proceeded1 as we have seen1 by three stages or gradations to the ,paradise of ,light and ,sweetness1 the evil and unclean soul1 on the other hand1 descended1 also by three stages1 to the terrors of ,douzakh1 the dark abode of ,ahriman and the ,devs4 ,there it suffered according to its sinfulness until the general day of ,resurrection4 ,at that great epoch these nights of indescribable woe will be undergone by all who have not expiated their earthly offences2 woe so terrible1 that the ,blessed1 looking down upon it from their celestial battlements1 will be moved to tears of pity4 ,and then the massive mountains and the solid rocks shall be melted by the heat1 and streams of liquid gold shall flow1 in which both the pure and evil shall receive a regenerating bath4 ,ahriman and his devs shall share in the universal happiness1 and all created life shall swell the song of praise sent up in honour of ,ahura-,mazda4 ,while we are unable to doubt that in the ,zendavesta1 as it has come down to us1 may be traced the direct influence of the ,hebrew creed1 and that ideas and principles of a still later date were borrowed more or less closely from ,christianity1 we can as little doubt that ,zarathustrianism had no inconsiderable effect on the ,jewish popular belief4 ,the ,jewish prophets1 after the ,captivity1 would seem to have adopted much of what may be called their poetic language and machinery from the writings of the ,magian teachers4 ,the ,talmud contains unmistakable evidence of its indebtedness to the same source4 ,the ,angelology of the ,jewish doctors originated1 probably during the captivity of the ,tribes in ,babylonia1 in the ,magian superstitions2 and it was then that the complete angelic hierarchy was evolved1 with its seven great archangels corresponding to the seven ,amchaspands of the ,zendavesta4 ,it was then that for the first time the ,jewish popular creed recognised the existence of two antagonistic hosts of spiritual beings1 arrayed against each other in everlasting battle4 ,then was developed the fancy of a guardian angel attending every individual to shelter him from the malignant hostility of his ,dev or demon4 ,so that much of the mythology which ,milton employs so effectively in 8,paradise ,lost10 having borrowed it from the traditions and legends of the ,hebrew race1 came originally from the far ,east1 and was invented by the followers of ,zarathustra4 ,the ,miltonic and popular conception of ,satan1 so unlike the ,biblical representation of the great ,destroyer1 was largely coloured from the ,magian sketch of ,ahriman1 the ,power of ,darkness4 ,it is certain that the grand and lofty ,hebrew revelation of the ,one ,,god was modified and debased by its contact with the ,magian teaching4 ,it has been well remarked that wherever any approximation had been made to this sublime truth of the existence of the one great ,first ,cause1 either 8awful religious reverence0 or 8philosophic abstraction0 had removed the ,creative ,power absolutely out of the range of human sense1 and supposed that the intercourse of the ,divinity with man1 the moral government1 and even the actual creative work1 had been carried on by the intermediate agency of1 in ,oriental phrase1 an ,emanation1 or1 in ,platonic language1 of the 8,wisdom10 8,reason10 or 8,intelligence0 of the ,supreme4 ,the ,jews1 under the influence of their intercourse with the ,persians1 adopted that conception1 and1 departing from the path laid down for them by ,revelation1 interposed one or more intermediate beings as the channels of communication between ,,god and man4 ,the ,apostle seizes on the popular fancy1 and endeavours to restore from it the original truth1 when he tells his readers that the 8,word0 of which they spoke so vaguely and presumptuously was none other than ,,god ,himself1--the ,,son of ,,god1 but equal with the ,,father1--the brightness of ,his glory and the express image of ,his person4 ,he showed them that the mediation between the lofty spiritual nature of ,,god and the intellectual and moral being of ,man was not to be accomplished through any independent agency1 but by the revelation of ,,god ,himself in the person and presence of ,his beloved ,,son4 ,that this1 the essential and central truth of ,christianity1 was one which the unassisted human intellect could never have developed we know1 from the fact that it is found in no creed of admittedly human origin1 and that it is never clearly set forth even in any religious system which has borrowed from ,christianity4 ,we can imagine the ability of man to shape out for himself an idea of some awful ,power1 some mighty ,first ,cause1 which created and ordered the universe1 and controlled and shaped its destinies4 ,looking around upon creation1 he might1 perhaps1 without any severe intellectual effort1 attain to the thought of a ,creator4 ,this conception once realised1 he might in due time come to believe that the ,creator could be pleased or angered by the doings of ,his creatures2 and that the anger of ,one so powerful would be something to dread and avoid4 ,but the idea of this grand and terrible ,creator sending from ,heaven ,his own ,son to take upon ,himself humanity1 and thereby save the creature from the just wrath it had provoked1 and the dread retribution it had deserved1--an idea1 so glorious and consoling1 could never1 we believe1 have been grasped by the loftiest human intellect1 unless aided by a revelation from above4 ,the exact relation of ,zarathustrianism to ,christianity it is somewhat difficult to define1 because a cloud of doubt and uncertainty hangs over the compilation of the later portions of the ,zendavesta4 ,while the great antiquity of the ,gthas cannot be disputed1 while there is clear evidence that they contain much of the original teaching of ,zarathustra1--teaching nobler and more exalted than that of his followers1--it seems not less certain that the doctrines of the ,resurrection and the ,future ,life were borrowed from the ,hebrews4 ,what then is left to justify a comparison with ,christianity8 ,the keynote of its scheme is intellectual pride2 that of the ,christian religion1 spiritual abasement4 ,the former urges on its disciples the necessity of good thoughts1 words1 and deeds in order to please ,ahura-,mazda2 the latter1 as a proof of faith in the mission of its ,founder4 ,the former teaches an excellent code of morals1 so far as relates to the individual2 the latter lays down one golden rule1 8,do unto others as thou wouldest they should do unto thee40 ,the former enforces the law of self-control2 the latter of self-renunciation4 ,it is impossible to pretend that ,magianism shows the same insight into man's wants1 failings1 passions1 temptations1 as ,christianity shows2 or provides a system so capable of adaptation to every age1 and rank1 and character4 ,we see no reason to doubt the authenticity and antiquity of the ,zendavesta2 but it is somewhat surprising that scholars who make haste to accept it as genuine1 should show so much scepticism in reference to the ,christian ,scriptures4 ,surely1 as regards the latter1 the evidence of genuineness is infinitely stronger than as regards the former4 ,we know that they were implicitly accepted by men who lived almost in the very time of those who recorded them2 on the other hand1 of ,zarathustra and his contemporaries or successors we know absolutely nothing4 ,some authorities represent him to have flourished as early as #bbjj ,b4,c42 others as late as #ejj ,b4,c4 ,some consider him to have been the founder of a dynasty2 others invest him with a supernatural personality4 ,but at the best he remains nominis umbra2 as indistinct and shadowy1 as in his teaching he is cold and clear4 ,of the authenticity of his writings the principal proofs are those derivable from the writings themselves4 ,but if we allow that such proofs are admissible1 what shall we say of those to be found in the ,gospels and ,epistles8 ,as their morality is so much more elevated than that of the ,zendavesta1 so is the certainty of their ,divine origin infinitely more assured4 ,the class of testimony which asserts the authenticity of the one not less convincingly affirms the genuineness of the other4 ,and if the ,gospels are all that they purport to be1 how can we avoid the conclusion that they are truthful also in the witness they bear to the life and character of ,,christ8 ,we may point to a remarkable contrast between ,magianism and ,christianity1--that the former has undergone an almost complete revolution of meaning and doctrine1 while1 in spite of sectarian glosses1 the latter remains virtually unaltered4 ,the faith once for all delivered to the saints is held by believers to-day in all its original purity4 ,we repeat the ,creed just as it fell from the rapt lips of martyrs1 saints and confessors4 ,but the monotheism of ,zarathustra has been broken up into a curious ,dualism2 and upon the religious system of the ,gthas has been accumulated such a burden of ritual1 of novel teaching1 of borrowed dogmas1 and alien mysteries1 that the acutest students are almost baffled in their endeavours to distinguish the false from the true1 and the new from the old4 ,it is almost impossible to determine what belongs to the ,zarathustrian original1 and what to perversions or adaptations from the ,jewish ,scriptures4 ,it is an indisputable testimony to the living force and divine genius of ,christianity1 that it occupies a void which no one of the primitive religions has ever been able to fill4 ,we find it difficult to conceive that any man who has once been a ,christian could voluntarily embrace ,zarathustrianism or ,buddhism1 and attempt to satisfy his soul with it1 any more than with the philosophy of the ,stoics4 ,we are tempted to ask1 indeed1 whether either could at any time have satisfied the cravings of humanity4 ,we know that all their ethical schemes could not lift the sages of ,greece and ,rome out of the deep1 the intense sadness which possessed them1 nor respond to their yearnings after a something they could neither describe nor define4 ,their state of thought and feeling has been expressed by a modern poet1 ,matthew ,arnold1 with what seems to us a wonderful fidelity3-- 8,nor only in the intent ,to attach blame elsewhere1 ,do we at will invent ,stern powers who make their care ,to embitter human life1 malignant deities4 8,but next1 we would reverse ,the scheme ourselves have spun1 ,and what we made to curse ,we now would lean upon1 ,and feign kind gods who perfect what man vainly tries4444 8,we pause1 we hush our heart1 ,and then address the gods3 #8,the world hath failed to impart ,the joy our youth forebodes1 ,failed to fill up the void which in our breasts we bear6'0 ,their principles of thought were pure1 but they felt that there existed a purity which was beyond their reach2 their standard of conduct was high1 but they were inwardly conscious that it ought to be higher4 ,on that golden 8ladder of sunbeams0 which rises from earth to the angel-guarded battlements of heaven1 they had ascended a few timid steps1 but above and beyond they could see a glory to which it was not given them to rise4 ,hence it has often been said1 and justly1 that the men were greater than their system2 and such1 so far as ,magianism was concerned1 may well have been the case with the loftier minds of ,bactria and ,persia4 ,but it can never be pretended that the ,christian is greater than ,christianity4 ,let him be ever so holy in his living1 ever so exalted in his aspirations1 he will not seek for something beyond and out of ,christianity1 because he feels and knows that he cannot exhaust all its capabilities2 that it soars far higher than he can ever soar4 ,it has truths which the profoundest psychologist cannot fathom2 it opens up visions which the boldest imagination cannot comprehend2 it contains a wealth of emotion and sympathy which the most passionate soul can never exhaust4 ,after we have said and done all we can1 after we have mastered all that has been said and done by other men1 we still find in the life and character of ,,christ that which may well engage1 and yet never weary our attention4 ,and here we touch upon a feature which no human system of religion or morality has ever matched4 ,strip the ,zendavesta1 if you will1 of all its later and less worthy adjuncts1 and yet it cannot1 any more than the ,rig-,veda1 present us with the divine beauty of the ,man of ,sorrows4 ,but this it is which fills1 soothes1 blesses1 inspires the aching1 restless1 craving human heart4 ,when it can no longer satisfy itself with the cold moralities of philosophy1 when it pines for a deeper and a warmer life1 when it is weary with problems which it cannot solve1 and disappointed in hopes which it has seen fade away like dreams of the night1 it turns to the ,cross and is comforted4 ,the mysteries which perplexed it vanish in the light that emanates from the ,divine history of the ,,son of ,,god4 ,the awe with which it regards the passionless abstraction of a great ,first ,cause1 a supreme entity of ,power and ,wisdom without ,love1 passes into reverent admiration and joyous thanksgiving when it looks up into the face of the ,good ,shepherd1 and reposes in the shadow of the ,vine1 and learns how that ,he ,who was with the ,,father before the beginning1 has suffered even as we suffer1 has borne the heavy burden of the flesh even as we have borne it1 and now sits on the right hand of ,,god1--not an idea1 not a principle1 not a ,spirit1 but a ,,person1 bidding all who believe to come unto ,him and be at rest4 ,this1 indeed1 is the cardinal merit of ,christianity1--it has given us ,,christ4 ,,god forbid that we should deny a certain value even to the 8unconscious prophecies of heathendom10 or refuse to see something of the spirit of ,,christ in the teaching of the ancient sages and philosophers2 but when an attempt is made to raise ,magianism to an equal rank with ,christianity1 and the cold intellectual utterances of the ,zendavesta to rank with the living voices of ,holy ,writ1 it is essential to point out how vast1 how impassable is the gulf between them2 how little ,magianism did or could do to elevate man's spiritual nature2 and how largely ,christianity surpasses it1 in and through the manifestation of the ,divine love in the mystery of ,,god made ,man4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,jewish ,,superstitions4 ,,the ,,talmud4 ,the ,talmud1 7from the ,hebrew lamad1 to learn17 is the name given to the great code of the ,jewish civil and canonical law4 ,it is divided1 like the ,zendavesta1 into two parts1 the ,mishna and the ,gemara2 the former being1 as it were1 the text1 and the latter the commentary and supplement4 ,of late years public attention has been exceptionally drawn to it by the writings of the late ,emanuel ,deutsch1 and it has obtained1 as we think1 a wholly undeserved amount of panegyric4 ,deutsch1 an enthusiast in his attachment to the land and religion of his forefathers1 put it forward as a wondrous treasure1 the real value of which had been wholly overlooked4 ,it contained1 he seemed to say1 a complete corpus juris2 and1 as an encyclopdia of law1 should be compared with the corresponding collections of ,roman or of ,english law1 with the ,pandects of ,justinian and the ,commentaries of ,blackstone4 ,herein lies the excuse for rules that have been considered unduly subtle1 or in other ways offensive to modern taste4 ,but it contains something more than a body of law2 it is also a collection of ,jewish poetry and legend1 of ,jewish science1 and ,jewish metaphysical speculation4 ,the ,mishna is a development of the laws contained in the ,pentateuch4 ,the members of the ,sanhedrim1 who were chiefly concerned in the formation of this law1 were obliged 7so argues ,deutsch7 to be accomplished men4 ,it was necessary that they should possess some knowledge of physical science1 or at least of zoology1 botany1 and geography in their then condition4 ,it was necessary also that they should be good linguists1 having some acquaintance with ,latin and ,greek1 as well as with ,aramaic1 ,syriac1 and ,hebrew4 ,disreputable men were kept out1 and all were compelled to be married men and fathers of families4 8,the origin of the ,talmud10 he says1 8is coeval with the return from the ,babylonish captivity40 ,and though it is the glory of ,christianity to have carried into the heart of humanity at large the golden germs of thought previously hidden in the schools of the learned1 yet numerous precepts1 supposed to be purely ,christian1 lie enshrined in the pages of the ,talmud4 ,it would be difficult to find a penal legislation more distinctly humane4 ,as for its myths1 its allegories1 its apparent absurdities1 they should be read in the spirit in which ,christians read ,bunyan's 8,pilgrim's ,progress40 ,the ,talmud insists upon the pre-existence of the soul1 on the dogmas of ,immortality and the ,resurrection1 it denies the doctrine of everlasting damnation2 it excludes no human being from the world to come4 ,and as the ,talmud1 continues ,deutsch1 although redacted at a later period1 is1 in point of time1 prior to the ,new ,testament1 the beautiful maxims of the former cannot have been borrowed from the latter4 ,in a word1 it is a collection which took nearly a thousand years to form1 and has been commented upon for a thousand years since4 ,it breathes charity to all men4 ,if we except a few items of coarseness1 such as must occur in every legal code1 it is all good2 at least1 it is never bad2 it deserves all possible respect and even reverence4 ,such1 in a condensed form1 is the account of the ,talmud which ,deutsch asks us to accept4 ,but it cannot be admitted that the defects of the ,talmud are trivial1 any more than that the spirit of the ,rabbins towards ,christianity was tolerant4 ,nor can it be admitted that the ,talmud owes nothing to the ,christian ,scriptures4 ,on the first point hear what ,professor ,hurwitz says3--8,the ,talmud contains many things which every enlightened1 nay1 every pious ,jew1 must sincerely wish had never appeared there1 or should at least long ago have been expunged from its pages4 ,some of these ,agadatha are objectionable per se2 others1 indeed1 are susceptible of explanations1 but without them are calculated to produce false and erroneous impressions40 ,so much may be said1 we think1 of the legends in the ,talmud2 such as the size of ,leviathan and the way in which he is to be killed and cooked for the chosen people1 and the marriage of ,adam with ,lilith before the creation of ,eve1 with the diabolic progeny which sprang from them4 ,another point to be considered is the influence of the ,alexandrian books1 commonly known by us as the ,apocrypha4 ,of these the ,books of ,wisdom and ,ecclesiasticus at any rate exhibit the reflections of singularly devout and thoughtful minds1 which had exercised themselves in the contemplation of the writings of ,moses and the prophets in combination with no inconsiderable tincture of ,greek philosophy4 ,it would be a question of great interest to see how far ideas suggested in those very remarkable compositions have found their way into the ,talmud4 ,as regards the sentiments of the ,rabbins towards ,christianity3 in the reign of ,domitian1 7that is1 about ,a4,d4 #ij17 the ,sanhedrim took measures against the ,minim1 that is to say1 the degenerated2 for so they called the ,jews who had been converted to ,christianity4 ,the ,rabbi ,tarphon said3--8,the ,gospels and all the books of the ,minim deserve to be burnt1 for ,paganism is less dangerous3 the ,pagans misunderstand the truths of ,judaism from ignorance1 the ,minim deny them with full knowledge of the case4 ,better to seek an asylum in a ,pagan temple than in the synagogues of the ,minim40 ,the ,sanhedrim of ,jamnia and other similar bodies adopted the like tone4 ,and it was men like these who helped to form the ,talmud4 ,not the less it remains true1 that every powerful movement which has occurred in the world's history has shown a part of its power in the way it has influenced opponents4 ,the ,reformation1 as the ,ultramontane ,de ,maistre is compelled to admit1 wrought a very perceptible change even among ,roman ,catholics4 ,the ,french ,revolution of #agic did not leave ,legitimists in the position they had occupied before its outbreak4 ,now ,christianity is the greatest movement the world has ever seen4 ,dean ,merivale in his excellent 8,history of the ,romans under the ,empire10 states with no less eloquence than truth the immense indirect influence which it had begun to exercise on heathen thought by the end even of the first century4 ,we can trace it in ,pagan literature4 ,but ,deutsch and similar ,talmudophilists would have us believe that it had no influence whatever upon the ,talmud1 and that whenever we find kindred thoughts in the teaching of ,christianity1 and in the teaching of their favourite work1 it is the ,gospel which is indebted to the ,talmud and not the ,talmud to the ,gospel4 ,but for our part we wholly dissent from this extraordinary theory1 which1 indeed1 cannot be supported by any chronological evidence4 ,there are occasions1 of course1 in which dates become of comparatively trifling importance4 ,a man feels troubled1 for example1 with the enigmas of life1 and finds light and consolation in reading the book of ,job2 that most beautiful book--quel bellissimo libro1 as the ,italian poet ,giusti called it4 ,some friend1 finding him thus engaged1 begins to argue in favour of ,bishop ,warburton's view1 that it is a composition of comparatively late date1 perhaps of the age of ,jeremiah1 and not 7as used to be generally supposed7 as early as the time of ,moses4 ,in such a case a man may well reply1 that without any wish to discourage critical inquiry in its proper place1 he is content for the present to go on reading for his soul's health1 to accept the words before him as a message from above1 and to feel sure that whenever ,,god gave it1 it was given at the time when it was most needed4 ,but in the case of the ,talmud dates are of real and living importance1 though we own that it is difficult to fix them with accuracy4 ,we believe1 however1 with one of ,deutsch's critics1 that ,christian elements have found their way into the ,talmud1 though doubtless1 pre-,christian ideas1 similar to those which are met with in the ,books of ,wisdom and ,ecclesiasticus1 are also to be found there4 ,is it not true that the ,mishna was brought into its present form by ,rabbi ,jehudah1 surnamed the ,holy1 about ,a4,d4 #bjj1 and that the ,gemara was not completed until ,a4,d4 #ejj8 ,deutsch1 indeed1 appeals to the article in the 8,novell ,constitutiones0 7or ,novels1 as they are commonly called7 of ,justinian against the ,talmud4 ,the reference is correct enough1 but the ,novels belong to the later parts of ,justinian's reign1 and were not promulgated before the year #ecd4 ,it is well known that at the present time there are three parties among the ,jews who differ widely as to the amount of respect which ought to be paid to the legislation contained within the pages of the ,talmud4 ,two out of these parties would greatly modify it1 or actually sweep it away4 ,we believe that its influence upon practice is not destined to endure2 and that though there is a book which will continue so to influence life1 that book is not the ,talmud1 but the ,bible4 ,the ,talmud has its curiosities and even beauties1 as well as its gross absurdities and defects2 but1 after all1 it will be found1 we believe1 that it often reflects but too truly the mind of those of whom it was said1 8,ye have made the commandment of ,,god of none effect by your traditions40 99 99 99 99 99 ,with these preliminary observations1 we pass on to a more particular description of the ,talmud4 ,there are two ,talmuds1 the one called the ,talmud of the ,occidentals1 or the 8,jerusalem0 ,talmud1 and the other the 8,babylonian0 ,talmud4 ,the former of these originally included the whole of the first five ,sedarim 7or portions17 but now consists of only thirty-nine treatises4 ,its final redaction is supposed to have taken place towards the close of the fourth ,christian century1 but the authorities engaged in the work cannot now be determined4 ,but it is certainly distinguished by more accuracy of expression and precision of statement than the second or ,babylonian1 or 8our0 ,talmud1 which makes use of its predecessor1 and was not completed for a century later4 ,its editor is generally considered to be ,rabbi ,ashi1 president of the ,academy of ,syro in ,babylon 7,a4,d4 #cfe-dbg47 ,both the ,mishna1 though revised in ,a4,d4 #bai1 and the 8,palestine0 ,gemara1 had become greatly corrupted through the interpolation of gross traditions and the critical judgments of different schools1 when ,rabbi ,ashi1 with the assistance of his friend and disciple1 ,abina1 undertook the labour of sifting the old from the new1 and introducing order into chaos4 ,ashi was appointed to the headship of the school of ,sora at the age of twenty-three1 and under his rule ,sora became the head-quarters of ,rabbinism in the ,east4 ,when he entered on the redaction of the ,mishna and ,gemara1 he began by assembling yearly at the great feasts the most learned ,hebrews1 and examining them with respect to their traditional practices and expositions4 ,he then called together his disciples every spring1 and gave out to them a particular treatise of the ,mishna2 in the autumn they again came before him with all the information relative to it they had collected in the interval4 ,this he personally investigated1 and reduced into shape4 ,the ,mishna being composed of sixty-three treatises1 he was thus engaged for upwards of thirty years4 ,the final revision occupied him twenty-two years4 ,at the time of his death 7in his seventy-fifth year7 the work was all but completed2 the last touches were given by his friend1 ,rabbi ,abina4 ,the ,mosaic is the written law of the ,jews2 the ,mishna1 the oral4 ,the latter is the very basis of ,judaism1 is its civil1 religious1 and juridico-political code1--an explanation and amplification of the ,mosaic4 ,it was developed out of the authoritative decisions of the schools and of certain distinct and well-authenticated traditions which were traced back to ,sinai itself4 ,thus there were two chief sections1 or parts3 ,halacoth1 the rabbinical decisions1 and ,haggadah1 the traditional narratives and popular illustrations4 ,of the great bulk of the former the reputed author is ,hillel1 the head of the ,sanhedrim in the early part of ,herod the ,great's reign1 but1 probably1 he only collected them4 ,maimonides arranges them under five heads3-- a4 ,mosaic and ,scriptural2 b4 ,mosaic and traditional2 c4 ,dicta and decisions generally received1 but doubtful2 d4 ,decisions of the wise1 given by them as 8hedges of the law20 and e4 ,counsels of prudence1 which it was well to follow1 though they had no legal authority4 ,the ,haggadic narratives are generally of a light and amusing character1 though occasionally a deep significance underlies them1 converting them into allegories and fables and parables well worthy the attention of the student1 though he may not think so highly of them as ,frankel1 who exclaims3 8,they are as vivid flashes3 or as those spirits of light in ,jewish myth1 that flow forth in daily myriads from ,,god',s throne1 and then vanish to make way for others40 ,the ,halacoth and ,haggadoth accumulated rapidly after the ,captivity1 representing in due time 8a body of traditional exposition of high authority1 which increased rapidly1 and required the life-long study of a numerous body of ,sopherim1 or ,scribes1 to digest and hand on without loss to succeeding generations40 ,soon it outgrew the grasp of even the strongest memory and the profoundest application1 and it became evident that1 unless put upon record1 all that was valuable would perish1 and only that be preserved which chanced to be in accordance with popular sentiment4 ,to the digest made by ,hillel1 ,simon ben ,gamaliel added the worthiest of the later material2 and his son1 ,jehudah the ,holy1 entered on a complete redaction and revision1 which he published in ,a4,d4 #bai4 ,hillel1 grandfather of the ,gamaliel at whose feet ,s4 ,paul sat1 had arranged the traditional ,halacoth under eighteen heads2 ,jehudah re-arranged them into six ,sedarim1 or sections3-- #a4 ,zeram 7,seeds17 on ,agriculture2 #b4 ,moed 7,feast17 on the ,sabbath1 ,festivals1 and ,fasts2 #c4 ,nashim 7,women17 on ,marriage1 ,divorce1 c41 including the laws on ,vows and the ,nazirship2 #d4 ,nizikin 7,damages17 chiefly civil and penal law1 including the ethical treatise ,aboth2 #e4 ,kadashim 7,sacred things17 ,sacrifices1 c41 a description of the ,temple at ,jerusalem1 c42 #f4 ,tehoroth 7,purifications17 on pure and impure persons and things4 ,we now see that1 about ,a4,d4 #bba ,jehudah the ,holy created the ,mishna1 we have already seen that three centuries later1 the same exhaustive work of redaction and revision was done for the ,gemara1--the two forming what is now known as the ,talmud4 ,the two 8editors0 received each his peculiar title of honour2 ,jehudah was styled ,rabbina1 ,ashi ,rabban4 ,of the language of the ,babylon ,talmud it is said that it is debased with foreign and barbarous terms and grammatical solecisms to a much greater extent than the 8,jerusalem ,talmud40 ,mr4 ,blunt asserts that 8the ,haggadic narratives resemble more closely the vernacular ,aramaic1 showing their origin in ordinary folk lore4 ,the ,halacoth are in ,mishnic ,hebrew1 carrying evidence of higher date4 ,the style is so exceedingly concise as to make the sense that it contains a microscopic study4 ,the difficulties indeed of the ,gemara are so great1 that no one need think to master them thoroughly who has not drawn in ,gemara with his mother's milk4 ,the study of the ,talmud presumes a thorough knowledge also of the ,hebrew ,bible1 a single word often indicating an entire passage4 ,the wonderful moral confusion of the ,talmud1 the mixed character of which may be detected in every page1 is nowhere more strikingly exemplified than in the prayer put by the ,gemarist into the mouth of ,rabbi ,nechoniah ben ,hakakana1 on entering the school1 or ,beth ,midrash1 and quitting it again in the evening40 ,the morning prayer was as follows3-- 8,i beseech ,thee that no scandal may occur through fault of mine1 and that ,i err not in matters of ,halacah1 so as to cause my colleagues to exult4 ,may ,i not call impurity pure1 or purity impure2 and may my colleagues not blunder in matters of ,halacah1 that ,i may have no cause to triumph over them40 ,the spirit of this prayer1 in its meekness and modesty1 is truly commendable1 and presents a striking contrast to that of the evening prayer3-- 8,i thank ,thee that ,thou hast given me my portion among those who have a seat in the ,beth ,midrash1 and that ,thou hast not cast my lot among those who sit in the corner4 ,i early rise1 and they early rise2 but ,i rise to the service of the law1 they to vanity4 ,i labour1 and they also labour1 but ,i labour and receive a recompense2 they labour1 but receive nothing4 ,i hasten1 and they also hasten2 but ,i hasten in the direction of the world to come1 they hasten towards the pit of destruction40 ,it is impossible to believe that both these prayers come from the same source2 8sweet waters and bitter0 do not alike flow from the fountain of ,marah4 ,with respect to the general character of the ,talmud1 with all its weakness and strength1 its beauty and deformity1 its poetry and commonplace1 its tender wisdom and glaring absurdity1 we cannot do better than quote the moderate opinion of the writer already cited1 as infinitely more trustworthy than the dithyrambic utterances of ,deutsch and his imitators4 ,he says3-- 8,in its origin it was the result of an almost necessary development4 ,starting with the axiom that the law of ,moses is binding on the children of ,abraham in every generation1 its precepts have been applied to the changing habits and customs of the ,jews in different ages and under various climates1 by a literal interpretation when possible1 otherwise on the ci-prs principle1 rarely by giving a new direction to its enactments1 as instanced under the ,hillel rgime4 ,it is this application of the ,law to the needs of ,jewish ,society1 by a process slow and gradual1 that has made each successive stage of development1 in ,jewish opinion1 more valuable than its predecessors4 ,thus if the ,law has been likened to water1 the ,mishna1 which gives a later direction to its precepts1 is as wine2 and the ,gemara1 declaring as it does the sense in which the ,mishnic ,hilkoth are to be taken1 is as hippocras4 ,it is not that the ,law is less1 or that the traditional decisions and expository matter are more sacred1 but the latest phase of judicial interpretation is the most binding2 and where the rule of action is clear and decisive1 no antecedent utterance need trouble the inquirer4 ,yet the ,talmud has always been antiquated4 ,it has never known the sunshine of youth4 ,it has still been the mouldering1 moss-grown ruin4 ,in its origin it presupposed vital action where there was nothing but death2 ,temple service with the ,temple hopelessly in ruins1 #8not one stone upon another2' sacrificial rites that were impossible without an altar1 and for which certain prayers were substituted1 carefully numbered out1 and made binding on the individual in lieu of public offering4444 ,nothing can be more completely out of place than strict ,talmudism amid the complications of modern society2 it is impossible to make its precepts consist with the social and political duties of the highly educated ,jew4 ,our ,,lord1 ,who came not to destroy the ,law1 but to fulfil it1 has pointed out those modes of dealing with the ,law in its higher and more spiritual bearings1 that in the end must be accepted by ,israel as his truest wisdom40 ,mr4 ,deutsch gives the following account of the six sections of the ,mishna3-- 8,section ,i4 ,seeds3 of ,agrarian laws1 commencing with a chapter on ,prayers4 ,in this section the various tithes and donations due to the ,priests1 the ,levites1 and the poor1 from the products of the lands1 and further the ,sabbatical year1 and the prohibited mixtures in plants1 animals1 and garments1 are treated of4 8,section ,,ii4 ,feasts3 of ,sabbaths1 ,feast and ,fast days1 the work prohibited1 the ceremonies ordained1 the sacrifices to be offered1 on them4 ,special chapters are devoted to the ,feast of the ,exodus from ,egypt1 to the ,new ,year's ,day1 to the ,day of ,atonement 7one of the most impressive portions of the whole book17 to the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 and to that of ,haman4 8,section ,,iii4 ,women3 of betrothal1 marriage1 divorce1 c42 also of vows4 8,section ,,iv4 ,damages3 including a great part of the civil and criminal law4 ,it treats of a law of trades1 of buying and selling1 and the ordinary monetary transactions4 ,further1 of the greatest crime known to the law1 viz41 idolatry4 ,next of witnesses1 of oaths1 of legal punishments1 and of the ,sanhedrim itself4 ,this section concludes with the so-called #8,sentences of the ,fathers1' containing some of the sublimest ethical dicta known in the history of religious philosophy4 8,section ,v4 ,sacred ,things3 of sacrifices1 the first-born1 c42 also of the measurements of the ,temple 7,middoth74 8,section ,,vi4 ,purifications3 of the various ,levitical and other ,hygienic laws1 of impure things and persons1 their purification1 c40#bb ,in defence of the ,haggadah1 with all its incongruities1 puerilities1 and absurdities1 it is only just to hear what ,deutsch1 its enthusiastic apostle1 has to say4 ,and first he applies to it the rhyming apology which ,bunyan put forward on behalf of his great allegory1--which1 by the way1 ,mr4 ,deutsch surely misrepresents and misunderstands when he speaks of it as ,haggadistic3-- 8444 ,wouldst thou divert thyself from melancholy8 ,wouldst thou be pleasant1 yet be far from folly8 ,wouldst thou read riddles and their explanation8 ,or else be drownd in thy contemplation8 ,dost thou love picking meat8 ,or wouldst thou see ,a man in the clouds1 and hear him speak to thee8 ,wouldst thou be in a dream1 and yet not sleep8 ,or wouldst thou in a moment laugh and weep8 ,wouldst lose thyself1 and catch no harm8 ,and find thyself again without a charm8 ,wouldst read thyself1 and read thou know'st not what ,and yet know whether thou art blest or not ,by reading the same lines8 ,o then come hither1 ,and lay this book1 thy head and heart together40 ,mr4 ,deutsch thus seeks to disarm antagonists by a skilful concession4 ,he does not wonder--not he--that the so-called 8,rabbinical stories10 submitted at intervals to the ,english public1 should have met with an unflattering reception4 ,the ,talmud1 which has always at hand a drastic word1 says of their collectors3--8,they dived into an ocean1 and brought up a potsherd40 ,but then1 he says1 these follies form only a small item in the vast mass of allegories1 parables1 and the like1 that compose the ,haggadah4 ,and1 besides1 they are partly ill-chosen1 partly ill-translated1 and partly did not even belong to the ,talmud1 but to some recent ,jewish story books4 ,herder--to name the most famous critic of the 8,poetry of ,peoples0--has spoken most eulogistically of what he saw of the genuine specimens4 ,and1 indeed1 8not only is the entire world of pious biblical legend which ,islam has said and sung in its many tongues to the delight of the wise and simple for twelve centuries1 now to be found either in embryo or fully developed in the ,haggadah1 but much that is familiar among ourselves in the circles of medival sagas1 in ,dante1 in ,boccaccio1 in ,cervantes1 in ,milton1 in ,bunyan1 has consciously or unconsciously flowed out of this wondrous realm1 the ,haggadah4 ,that much of it is overstrained1 even according to ,eastern notions1 we do not deny4 ,but10 argues ,mr4 ,deutsch1 8there are feeble passages even in ,homer and ,shakespeare40 ,to this it may be replied1 that in ,homer and ,shakespeare such passages are rare1 and do not form the bulk of their writings2 and1 moreover1 that for the ,iliad or for ,hamlet we do not claim the position of authority which is claimed for the ,talmud4 ,let us glance briefly at the cosmogony of the ,talmud4 ,it assumes that the universe has been developed by means of a series of cataclysms2 that world was destroyed after world1 until ,,god made 8this world1 and saw that it was very good40 ,it assumes also that the kosmos was wrought out of some original substance1 itself created by ,,god4 8,one or three things were before this world1--,water1 ,fire1 and ,wind2 ,water begat the darkness1 ,fire begat light1 and ,wind begat the spirit of ,wisdom40 8,the how of the creation was not mere matter of speculation4 ,the co-operation of angels1 whose existence was warranted by ,scripture1 and a whole hierarchy of whom had been built up under ,persian influences1 was distinctly denied4 ,in a discussion about the day of their creation1 it is agreed on all hands that there were no angels at first1 lest men might say1 #8,michael spanned out the firmament on the south1 and ,gabriel to the north4'0 ,there is a distinct foreshadowing of the ,gnostic ,demiurgos--that antique link between the ,divine ,spirit and the world of matter--to be found in the ,talmud4 ,what with ,plato were the ,ideas1 with ,philo the ,logos1 with the ,kabbalists the 8,world of ,aziluth10 what the ,gnostics called more emphatically the wisdom 771 or power 771 and ,plotinus the 1 that the ,talmudical authors call ,metation4 ,there is a good deal1 in the post-captivity ,talmud1 about the ,angels1 borrowed from the ,persian4 ,the ,archangels or ,angelic princes are seven in number1 and their ,hebrew names and functions correspond almost exactly to those of their ,persian prototypes4 ,there are also hosts of ministering angels1 the ,persian ,yazatas1 whose functions1 besides that of being messengers1 were twofold1--to praise ,,god1 and to be guardians of man4 ,in their first capacity they are daily created by ,,god',s breath out of a stream of fire that rolls its waves under the supernal throne4 ,in their second1 two of them accompany every man1 and for every new good deed man acquires a new guardian angel1 who always watches over his steps4 ,when a righteous man dies1 three hosts of angels descend from the celestial battlements to meet him4 ,one says1 7in the words of ,scripture17 8,he shall go in peace20 the second takes up the strain and says1 8,who has walked in righteousness20 and the third concludes1 8,let him come in peace and rest upon his bed40 ,in like manner1 when the wicked man passes away1 three hosts of wicked angels are ready to escort him1 but their address is not couched in any spirit of consolation or encouragement4 ,there are various indications in the ,talmud of a belief in the resurrection and immortality of the soul4 ,the resurrection1 it teaches1 is to be brought about by the mystic influence of the 8,dew of life0 in ,jerusalem4 ,it does not uphold the dogma of everlasting damnation1 though it allows that the punishment of apostates1 idolaters1 and traitors will endure for 8generations upon generations40 ,in conclusion1 it is but fair that we should present the brighter and better aspect of this extraordinary book1 its ethical side1 and afford some illustrations of the moral and religious philosophy which pervades it1--which is its salt1 and preserves its savour4 ,the following sayings have been translated by ,deutsch4#bc ,many of them bear a striking resemblance to the great and glorious sayings of the ,gospels2 and to us it seems impossible to doubt that they evidence the influence of the former4 ,it is true that the ,talmud as a whole preceded the ,new ,testament1 but as its redaction took place at a much later period1 we see nothing absurd in the hypothesis that its redactors had felt the spell of the ,christian teaching1 and occasionally introduced some of its rare and precious threads of purest silk into the coarse woof woven by traditionalists1 scholiasts1 and commentators3-- ,the house that does not open to the poor shall open to the physician2 even the birds in the air despise the miser4 ,he who gives charity in secret is greater than ,moses himself4 ,honour the sons of the poor1 it is they who bring science into splendour4 ,let the honour of thy neighbour be to thee like thine own4 ,rather be thrown into a fiery furnace than bring any one to public shame4 ,hospitality is the most important part of divine worship4 ,there are three crowns3 of the law1 the priesthood1 the kingship2 but the crown of a good name is greater than they all4 ,iron breaks the stone1 fire melts iron1 water extinguishes fire1 the clouds drink up the water1 a storm drives away the clouds1 man withstands the storm1 fear unmans man1 wine dispels fear1 sleep drives away wine1 and death sweeps all away--even sleep4 ,but ,solomon the ,wise says1 ,charity saves from death4 ,the dog sticks to you on account of the crumbs in your pocket4 ,the camel wanted to have horns1 and they took away his ears4 ,the soldiers fight1 and the kings are the heroes4 ,he in whose family there has been one hanged should not say to his neighbour1 ,pray hang this little fish up for me4 ,the cock and the owl both await the daylight4 ,the light1 says the cock1 brings delight to me2 but what are you waiting for8 ,when the thief has no opportunity for stealing1 he considers himself an honest man4 ,if thy friends agree in calling thee an ass1 go and get a halter round thee4 ,fools are no proof4 ,one eats1 another says grace4 ,he who is ashamed will not easily commit sin4 ,there is a great difference between him who is ashamed before his own self1 and him who is only ashamed before others4 ,it is a good sign in man to be capable of being ashamed4 ,one contrition in man's heart is better than many flagellations4 ,how can you escape sin8 ,think of three things1--whence thou camest1 whither thou goest1 and to whom thou wilt have to account for all thy deeds1--even to the ,king of kings1 the ,all-holy1 praised be ,he4 ,love your wife like yourself1 honour her more than yourself4 ,whosoever lives unmarried lives without joy1 without comfort1 without blessing4 ,descend a step in choosing a wife4 ,if thy wife is small1 bend down to her and whisper into her ear4 ,he who forsakes the love of his youth1 ,,god',s altar weeps for him4 ,he who sees his wife die before him1 has1 as it were1 been present at the destruction of the sanctuary itself1 around him the world grows dark4 ,it is woman alone through whom ,,god',s blessings are vouchsafed to a house4 ,she teaches the children1 speeds the husband to the place of worship and instruction1 welcomes him when he returns1 keeps the house godly and pure1 and ,,god',s blessings rest upon all these things4 ,he who marries for money1 his children shall be a curse to him4 ,after the thief runs the theft2 after the beggar1 poverty4 ,while thy foot is shod1 smash the thorn4 ,when the ox is down1 many are the butchers4 ,luck makes rich1 luck makes wise4 ,if you wish to hang yourself1 choose a big tree4 ,when the pitcher falls upon the stone1 woe unto the pitcher2 when the stone falls upon the pitcher1 woe unto the pitcher2 whatever befalls1 woe unto the pitcher4 ,youth is a garland of roses1 age a crown of thorns4 ,be thou the cursed1 not he who curses4 ,be of them that are persecuted1 not of them that persecute4 ,look at ,scripture1 there is not a single bird more persecuted than the dove1 yet ,,god has chosen her to be offered up on ,his altar4 ,the bull is hunted by the lion1 the sheep by the wolf1 the goat by the tiger4 ,and ,,god said1 8,bring ,me a sacrifice not from them that persecute1 but from them that are persecuted40 8,hath ,,god pleasure in the meat and blood of sacrifices80 asks the prophet4 ,no2 ,he has not so much ordained as permitted them4 ,it is for yourselves1 ,he says1 not for ,me that you offer1 ,like a king1 who sees his son carousing daily with all manner of evil companions3 ,you shall henceforth eat and drink entirely at your will at my own table1 he says4 ,they offered sacrifices to demons and devils1 for they loved sacrificing1 and would not do without it4 ,and the ,,lord said1 8,bring your offerings to ,me1 you shall then at least offer to the true ,,god40 ,even when the gates of heaven are shut to prayer1 they are open to tears4 ,the reward of good works is like dates1 sweet and late to ripen4 ,life is a passing shadow1 says the ,scripture4 ,is it the shadow of a tower1 of a tree8 ,a shadow that prevails for a while8 ,no1 it is the shadow of a bird in his flight1--away speeds the bird1 and there is neither bird nor shadow4 ,repent one day before thy death4 ,there was a king who bade all his servants to a great repast1 but did not indicate the hour2 some went home and put on their best garments1 and stood at the door of the palace2 others said1 ,there is ample time1 the king will let us know beforehand4 ,but the king summoned them of a sudden2 and those that came in their best garments were well received1 but the foolish ones1 who came in their slovenliness1 were turned away in disgrace4 ,repent to-day1 lest to-morrow you might be called4 ,he who has more learning than good works is like a tree with many branches but few roots1 which the first wind throws on its face2 whilst he whose works are greater than his knowledge1 is like a tree with many roots but fewer branches1 but which all the winds of heaven cannot uproot4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,brahmanism4 ,,the ,,brahmans4 ,in the 8,book of ,sir ,marco ,polo0 occurs a quaint description of the ,abraiaman or ,brahmans1 which1 though inaccurate in some of its details1 seems worth quotation here3-- ,you must know1 he says1 that these ,abraiaman are the best merchants in the world an obvious misconception6 and the most truthful1 for they would not tell a lie for anything on earth4 ,if a foreign merchant who does not know the ways of the country apply to them1 and place his goods in their hands1 they will take charge of them most loyally1 selling them to the best advantage1 seeking jealously the profit of the foreigner1 and asking no commission except what he pleases to bestow4 ,they eat no flesh1 drink no wine1 and live a life of great chastity2 nor would they on any account take what belongs to another1 for so their law commands4 ,and they are all distinguished by wearing a thread of cotton over one shoulder and tied under the other arm1 so that it crosses the breast and the back4 ,they have a rich and powerful king1 who is eager to purchase precious stones and large pearls2 and he sends these ,abraiaman merchants into the kingdom of ,maabar called ,soli1 which is the best and noblest ,province of ,india1 and where the best pearls are found1 to fetch him as many of these as they can get1 and he pays them double the cost price for all4 ,so in this way he has a vast treasure of such valuables4 ,these ,abraiaman are idolaters2 and they give greater heed to signs and omens than any people that exist4 ,i will mention one of their customs as an example4 ,to every day of the week they assign a special augury4 ,suppose some purchase is on foot2 he who proposes to become the buyer takes note1 when he rises in the morning1 of his shadow in the sun1 which ought1 he says1 on that day to be of such and such a length2 and should his shadow be of the proper length for that day he completes his purchase2 if it be not1 he will on no account do so1 but waits till his shadow reaches the prescribed measurement4 ,for there is a certain length fixed for every day in the week2 and the merchant will not complete any business unless he finds his shadow of the length set down for that particular day4 ,also to each day in the week they assign one hour as unlucky1 which they term ,choiach4 ,for example1 on ,monday the hour of ,half-tierce 7#g to #h a4m471 on ,tuesday that of ,tierce1 7#i to #aj a4m471 on ,wednesday ,nones 7#ab to #a p4m471 and so on4 ,again1 if one of them be in the house1 and1 while meditating a purchase1 should see a tarantula 7such as is very common in that country7 on the wall1 provided that it advance from a quarter which he deems lucky1 he will complete his purchase at once2 but if it come from a quarter which he considers unlucky1 he will not do so on any inducement4 ,moreover1 if1 on going forth1 he hear any one sneeze1 he will proceed if he consider it a good omen2 but1 if the reverse1 he will straightway sit down in his place for as long as he thinks it well to tarry4 ,or if1 in travelling along the road1 he see a swallow fly past1 should its direction be lucky he will proceed1 but1 if not1 he will turn back again3 in fact1 they are worse1 in these vagaries1 than so many ,patarins6 7i4e4 heretics47 ,these ,abraiaman are very long-lived1 owing to their extreme abstinence in eating4 ,and they never allow themselves to let blood in any part of the body4 ,they have capital teeth1 which is due to a certain herb they chew2 it greatly improves their appearance1 and is also very good for the health4 ,there is another class of people called ,chugi ,jogi1 who are indeed properly ,abraiaman1 but they form a religious order devoted to the ,idols4 ,they are extremely long-lived1 every man of them living to #aej or #bjj years4 ,they eat very little1 but what they do eat is good2 rice and milk chiefly4 ,and these people make use of a very strange beverage2 for they brew a potion of mixed sulphur and quicksilver1 and drink it twice every month4 ,this1 they say1 gives them long life2 and they are used to take it from their childhood4 ,certain members of this ,order lead the most ascetic life imaginable1 going completely naked2 they worship the ,ox4 ,most of them wear a small image of an ox1 in brass1 pewter1 or gold1 tied over the forehead4 ,moreover1 they take cow-dung1 and burn it1 and make a powder of it2 and then they make it into an ointment1 with which they daub themselves as devoutly as ,christians use holy water4 ,further1 if they meet any person who treats them well1 they daub a little of this powder on the middle of his forehead4 ,they do not eat from bowls or trenchers1 but place their food on leaves of the ,apple of ,paradise and other large leaves2 these1 however1 they use dry1 never green4 ,for they say the green leaves have a soul in them1 and so it would be a sin4 ,and they would rather die than do what their ,law pronounces to be sin4 ,if any one ask how it comes that they are not ashamed to go about in their nudity1 they say3--8,we go naked because naked we came into the world1 and we desire to have nothing about us that is of this world4 ,moreover1 we have no sin of the flesh to be conscious of1 and therefore we are not ashamed of our nakedness1 any more than you are to show your hand or your face4 ,you who are conscious of the sins of the flesh do well to be ashamed1 and to cover your nakedness40 ,on no account would they kill an animal1 not even a fly1 or a flea1 or a louse1 or anything in fact that has life2 for they say all these have souls1 and it would be sinful to do so4 ,they eat no vegetables in a green state1 only when they are dry4 ,and they sleep on the ground1 naked1 without a rag of clothing over them or under them2 so that it is a marvel they do not all die1 instead of living so long as ,i have told you4 ,they fast every day in the year1 and drink nothing but water4 ,and when a novice has to be received among them they keep him awhile in their convent1 and make him follow their rule of life4 ,they are such cruel and perfidious idolaters that it is very devilry6 ,they say that they burn the bodies of the dead1 because if they were not burnt1 worms would generate and consume them2 and when no more food remained for them1 they would die1 and the souls belonging to those bodies would bear the sin and the punishment of their death4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in another part of his immortal work1 ,marco ,polo speaks of the fish-charmers of ,ceylon as ,brahmans 7or ,abraiaman47 ,the pearl-fishers1 he says1 pay one twentieth part of all that they take to these men1 who charm the great fishes1 and prevent them from injuring the divers whilst engaged in seeking pearls under water4 ,their charm holds good only for the day2 at night they dissolve it1 so that the fishes can work mischief at their will4 ,these ,abraiaman1 he adds1 know also how to charm beasts and birds and every living thing4 ,commenting on this statement1 ,colonel ,yule observes that the modern snake-charmers do not seem entitled to the distinctive appellation of ,abraiaman1 or ,brahmans1 though they may have been so in former days4 ,at the diamond-mines of the ,northern ,circars ,brahmans are employed in the similar task of propitiating the tutelary genii4 ,the snake-charmers are called in ,tamul ,kadal-kalti1 8,sea-binders10 and in ,hindustani1 ,haibanda1 or 8,shark-binders40 ,at ,aripo they belong to one family1 supposed to enjoy monopoly of the charm4 ,the chief operator is 7or was1 not many years ago7 paid by ,government1 and he also received two oysters from each boat daily during the fishery4 ,turnoub1 on his visit1 found the incumbent of the office to be a ,roman ,catholic ,christian1 but that did not seem to affect the exercise or the validity of his practices4 ,it is remarkable that when ,turnoub wrote1 not more than one authenticated accident from sharks had taken place1 during the whole period of the ,british occupation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the shepherds1 or hillmen1 in the neighbourhood of ,rampore 7or 8,city of ,rama107--the ,paharis1 as they are called1--a curious custom lingers1 which resembles the strange old ,highland ceremony of the sunwise turn1 or ,deisul1 round any particular object1 partly for luck1 partly as a survival of the sun-worship of the men of old4 ,sometimes the villagers gather their flocks into one great herd1 and1 walking at the head1 lead them slowly round the village1 following the solar course4 ,gradually they quicken their pace to a run1 and in this fashion perambulate the village thrice or even oftener4 ,this sunwise turn is practised in other cases1 as in sickness or accident4 ,sheep and goats are solemnly paraded round the sufferer2 after which they lose their heads4 ,if the sufferer be wealthy1 the number so sacrificed to the demons is often considerable4 ,but the ,paharis very firmly hold that though the lesser spirits may be thus propitiated1 no sacrifice is acceptable to the ,supreme ,deity2 that all ,he claims is devout worship4 ,they believe in the existence of three and thirty millions of good and evil spirits1 but their special adoration seems to be reserved for the spirit which watches over their particular village1 and in their temples they reserve for him a kind of ark or shrine1 wherein his veiled image is carefully preserved4 ,every day this ark is slung upon long poles1 and taken out for an airing2 and once a year it is borne through the country side in solemn procession1 and the people assemble and dance before it1 as the ,israelites of old danced before the tabernacle4 ,the said ark is gaily decorated with bright-coloured hangings1 and upon it is set a brazen head1 with four or more faces1 overshadowed by yaks' tails1 like huge plumes of dark or scarlet wool4 ,sometimes the whole structure is adorned with faces of polished metal1 which gleam and reflect like mirrors in the sun4 ,moreover1 it is usually draped all around with a deep fringe of silky white yaks' tails1 depending almost to the ground1 and concealing the bodies of the bearers1 so that the tabernacle seems to crawl along upon its own feet4 ,to the service of the temple certain people are set apart in every village4 ,in the morning they sound an alarm in honour of the god with bell1 and conch1 and cymbal1 and again in the evening with a similar din they announce the close of day4 ,ablutions are ignored by the villagers in their own case1 but they will have their goddess washed and dressed daily4 ,they burn incense before her1 and serve her with offerings of leaves of wild mint4 ,occasionally1 all the tribes assemble at a religious festival1 and each village sends forth its ark1 with the men and women attired in their brightest colours1 and glittering with all their jewels4 ,the various processions1 with dance and song and gambol1 proceed towards the appointed rendezvous2 one of their little temples1 of rudely carved cedar-wood1 situated in the calm shade of a group of forest-trees4 ,near this temple is usually prepared a neatly-levelled space1 covered with green turf1 or1 perhaps1 paved2 and here the ,khudas1 or arks1 are solemnly deposited4 ,for three days the festivities are kept up1 and the sound of singing and dancing seems continuous4 ,every now and then each village-company raises its ,khuda from the ground1 and carries it in a little circle1 sunwise1 while the nodding plumes seem to keep time to the rude chant of the simple worshippers1 and an outer ring of men1 joining hands1 follow the rhythm in fantastic dance4 ,then the idol is set down2 the people prepare their homage2 the dance goes on2 and the women1 in a long undulating chain1 sunwise revolve around the mystic ,khuda4 ,each woman1 throwing one arm around her neighbour's waist1 keeps the other free1 and waves a plume-like chowni or yak's tail1 as she bows to the ,khuda4 ,they do not all wave simultaneously1 but in swift succession1 so as to produce the effect of a continuous graceful motion4 ,if one of the women retire1 from fatigue1 another slips into her place3 sometimes the men form the circle1 then both men and women join1 always carrying on the same evolutions1 the same circular motion4 ,at nightfall the huge fires are kindled1 and the lurid gleams of pine-wood torches flicker athwart the darkness1 while the echoes ring incessantly with the monotonous clang of great trumpet-shells and tomtoms4 ,when they have expended all their energies the revellers bring the festival to a close1 and each village-company bears back its patron-goddess to her own little sanctuary4 ,whether1 as some surmise1 this ceremony is associated with any tradition of ,noah's ,ark1 we cannot pretend to determine4 ,but it is certain that some legends of the ,flood still linger among the hillmen4 ,there is a popular myth which tells of a mighty ship built by ,manu and the ,seven ,sages1 in which they stored the seed of all kinds of life1 and of its being rescued by ,brahma when the ,deluge overwhelmed the primitive earth4 ,brahma1 it says1 drew the great vessel for many days until he reached a high peak of the ,himalayas1 where he moored it securely4 ,in memory whereof1 the peak has ever since borne the name of ,naubandhana4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,simpson1 who has seen much of ,india and the ,indians1 describes an ,ark-festival which he witnessed in a ,himalayan valley4 ,after indulging in the usual ceremonial ablutions1 the people of the district assembled at the village of ,coatee to do honour to its patron-goddess4 ,the ,khuda was brought out1 and with dance and music1 conducted in noisy procession through the deep shades of the forest and its lonesome glens1 until they reached a certain grove1 in which a small temple was situated4 ,the ,khuda was then deposited on the paved space in front2 and an aged priest washed all the brazen faces with mint leaves and water previous to offering up incense1 flowers1 fruit1 and bread4 ,a number of playful young kids were next brought forward4 ,the priest sprinkled them with water4 ,on the ground lay a large flat brazen dish1 and one of the villagers stood beside it with a sacred hatchet1 rudely ornamented4 ,at a single blow he struck off the head of a kid4 ,the priest's assistant raised the head1 and muttering certain words1 presented it to the ,khuda4 ,dipping his finger into the blood1 he flicked some drops upon the carven image1 and placed the head with the other offerings4 ,meanwhile1 the kid's body had been so disposed that all its blood dripped into the brazen vessel2 and when two or three animals had been sacrificed and the dish was full1 one of the men lifted it up1 and1 first presenting it to the ,khuda1 turned round1 and swang the body against the whitewashed wall of the temple1 so as to empty it of blood4 ,this ceremony was thrice repeated4 ,the festival is known as the ,akrot-ka-pooja1 or ,walnut ,festival1 from the pastime that follows the sacrificial scene4 ,the priest1 with a few companions1 takes his place in the balcony of the temple1 and all the young men present pelt them liberally with walnuts and green pine-cones1 which the group in the balcony rapidly collect and return in plentiful volleys4 ,for about half-an-hour this severe encounter lasts1 when the assailed descend1 and once more mingle with the crowd4 ,by this time the sacrificial kids have been cooked1 and the people seating themselves on the paved space in front of the ,khuda1 cakes and flesh are served out among them4 ,in opposition to the usual ,eastern custom1 the women are helped before the men4 ,it is now time for the homeward journey1 but the mysterious oscillation of the ,khuda is understood to signify its desire to visit the neighbouring village of ,cheenee2 and thither the multitude at once proceed1 dancing1 singing1 shouting1 while the forest glades resound with the trumpets and the tomtoms1 and a few of the nimbler-footed speed ahead to give notice to the authorities at ,cheenee of the honour in store for them4 ,when near the latter village1 the procession is met by the goddess of ,cheenee1 with her retinue1 and an exchange of courtesies takes place4 ,next morning1 the goddess of ,kothi1 or ,coatee1 returns to her own charge4 ,,shamanism3 ,,devil-,,dancing4 ,in many parts of ,central and ,southern ,india the rite of ,devil-,dancing is practised1 and ,bishop ,caldwell gives a striking description of it as it exists among the ,shawars of ,tinnevelly3#bd 8,when the preparations are completed and the devil-dance is about to commence1 the music is at first comparatively slow2 the dancer seems impassive and sullen1 and he either stands still or moves about in gloomy silence4 ,gradually1 as the music becomes quicker and louder1 his excitement begins to rise4 ,sometimes1 to help him to work himself up into a frenzy1 he uses medicated draughts1 cuts and lacerates himself till the blood flows1 lashes himself with a huge whip1 presses a burning torch to his breast1 drinks the blood which flows from his own wounds1 or drains the blood of the sacrifice1 putting the throat of the decapitated goat to his mouth4 ,then1 as if he had acquired new life1 he begins to brandish his staff of bells1 and to dance with a quick but wild unsteady step4 ,suddenly the afflatus descends2 there is no mistaking that glare1 or those frantic leaps4 ,he snorts1 he swears1 he gyrates4 ,the demon has now taken bodily possession of him1 and though he retains the power of utterance and motion1 both are under the demon's control1 and his separate consciousness is in abeyance4 ,the bystanders signalize the event by raising a long shout1 attended with a peculiar vibratory noise1 caused by the motion of the hand and tongue1 or the tongue alone4 ,the devil-dancer is now worshipped as a present deity1 and every bystander consults him respecting his diseases1 his wants1 the welfare of his absent relatives1 the offerings to be made for the accomplishment of his wishes1 and1 in short1 everything for which superhuman knowledge is supposed to be available40 99 99 99 99 99 ,before we quit this subject1 it may be for the interest and convenience of the reader1 if we offer a brief account of the doctrines and rites of ,brahmism4 ,this movement against the old ,hindu faith1 initiated by ,rammohun ,roy1 and developed by ,babu ,keshub ,chunda ,sen1 owes its origin1 however unconsciously1 to the influence of ,christianity1 which the ,hindu mind1 on awaking from its long sleep of centuries1 found1 as it were1 by its side1 and the pure and elevated character of which it could not but recognise4 ,rammohun ,roy was born in the district of ,moorshadabad in #aggb1 and was upwards of forty years of age when he undertook the part of a religious reformer4 ,a man of considerable natural powers1 he had cultivated them carefully1 acquired a thorough knowledge of ,sanskrit and ,arabic1 and accompanied his meditations on the ,sastras1 or ,hindu religious books1 with a close study of the ,english ,scriptures4 ,removing to ,calcutta in #ahad1 he endeavoured to engage his friends in the same pursuits1 and as this effort led him naturally to new inquiries1 he soon came to abandon his belief in traditional ,hinduism4 ,a cry of #8infidel6' was immediately raised against him2 he became the subject of an incessant hostility2 was on one occasion mobbed in the streets of ,calcutta2 and owed his life to the protection of the ,british ,government4 ,persecution1 however1 could not quench his thirst after knowledge4 ,he applied himself to the study of ,greek and ,hebrew1 that by reading the ,bible in its original languages1 he might penetrate more thoroughly into the spirit of ,hebrew and ,christian devotion4 ,having dismissed the authority of the ,puranas1 he rested his faith on the ,vedas1 the oldest of the ,hindu sacred books1 in the conviction 7an erroneous one7 that the old creed of ,hinduism was monotheistic1 and the belief 7a justifiable one7 that the ,puranas represented the degeneracy of a later age4 ,strange to say1 he did not detect the ,pantheism that overflows the ,vedas3 in the ,upanishads or treatises attached to them1 he fancied that he saw a pure ,deism1 and to diffuse this among his countrymen1 he published numerous translations and organised a society of believers1 who recited texts from the ,vedas1 and chanted ,christian hymns4 ,in #ahcj he went further2 founding a prayer-meeting1 which proved the seed of what is now known as the ,brahma ,samj4 ,the building erected for the purpose of holding the meetings was1 according to the trust deed1 to be open to people of all sorts and conditions1 8who shall behave and conduct themselves in an orderly1 sober1 religious1 and devout manner1 for the worship and adoration of the ,eternal1 ,unsearchable1 and ,immutable ,being1 who is the ,author and ,preserver of the ,universe1 but not under and by any other name1 designation1 or title1 peculiarly used for and applied to any particular ,being or ,beings by any man or set of men whatsoever40 ,it provided also1 in direct opposition to the practices of ,hinduism1 that no graven image1 sculpture1 carving1 picture1 painting1 portrait1 or likeness of anything1 should 8be admitted within the walls of this building20 that no animal sacrifices should take place there2 that no eating or drinking1 feasting or rioting1 should be permitted2 that evil speaking against the beliefs of men should be prohibited2 and that no prayer1 or sermon1 or teaching should be allowed1 unless it had 8a tendency to the contemplation of the ,author and ,preserver of the ,universe1 or to the promotion of charity1 morality1 piety1 benevolence1 virtue1 and the strengthening of the bonds of union between men of all religious persuasions and creeds40 ,here we have a distinct advance on ,brahmanism and even on ,buddhism1 but the religious system indicated in the closing sentence is nevertheless as vague as it is cold2 and lacks that vital element which ,christianity derives from its recognition of ,,god the ,,father and ,,christ the ,,saviour4 ,however1 ,rammohun ,roy1 in his fashion1 was a sincere 8seeker after ,,god20 and in his vague endeavour to grasp the truth he persevered in the face of an intolerant opposition4 ,he still continued to give a foremost place to the ,vedas as channels of religious instruction1 but he introduced the ,psalms of ,david2 and as time wore on1 he separated himself more and more completely from the traditions of orthodox ,hinduism4 ,even his faith in the ,vedas came to be much shaken2 and finding himself at last in that state of isolation which is the suffering and martyrdom of the man in advance of his age1 he quitted ,india and went to live in ,england4 ,at ,bristol he resided1 much esteemed1 until his death in #ahcc4 ,for awhile the torch which he had lighted flickered ominously near to extinction1 until1 in #ahda1 it passed into the hands of ,babu ,debendronath ,tagore4 ,by him it was again lighted up2 and as much had happened since ,rammohun ,roy's departure1 as education had gradually weakened the old traditional prejudices1 it became the rallying-point of a crowd of earnest inquirers4 ,debendronath ,tagore devoted himself with eager unselfishness1 giving unsparingly of his time1 his money1 and his talents4 ,his work derived no inconsiderable moral support from his unblemished personal character4 ,he provided the ,samj with a printing-press1 expended much money in fitting up their place of worship1 and collected a valuable library of the ,hindu sacred books1 besides providing for the support of poor but promising students1 sent to ,benares to prosecute their studies4 ,a remarkable change1 however1 soon came over the faith and teaching of the ,samj4 ,hitherto1 as we have seen1 they had been based upon the ,vedas1 as the authorized rule of ,hindu theology2 but inquiry and criticism had gradually disclosed their ,pantheistic character1 and their consequent incompatibility with the creed of the ,samj4 ,thus it came to pass that about #ahej the ,vedas had to go2 and the members of the ,samj no longer called themselves ,vedantists but ,brahmoists1 or ,brahmists 7from ,brahm1 or ,brahma1 the ,supreme ,being47 ,in other words1 they openly became ,theists4 ,a religious sect1 brought together by a common monotheism and accepting a common covenant1 was naturally impelled towards an expansion of their creed4 ,but this expansion in the case of the ,brahma ,samj1 was probably hastened by the number of branch ,samjes that sprang up in the neighbourhood of the metropolis and in some of the larger towns of the ,bengal presidency4 ,these branches1 constantly increasing in number through the accessions of educated young men from the colleges and zillah schools1 naturally looked to the parent ,samj to define and establish their creed2 and what must be regarded as an authoritative exposition of it was published in #ahfh4 ,the following is a summary of it3-- 8#a4 ,the book of ,nature and ,intuition form the basis of the ,brahmaic faith4 8#b4 ,although the ,brahmas do not consider any book written by man the basis of their religion1 yet do they accept with pleasure and respect any truth contained in any book4 8#c4 ,the ,brahmas believe that the religious condition of man is progressive1 like the other facts of his condition in this world4 8#d4 ,they believe that the fundamental doctrines of their religion are at the basis of every religion followed by man4 8#e4 ,they believe in the existence of ,one ,supreme ,,god--a ,,god endowed with a distinct personality1 and attributes equal to ,his nature1 and intelligence befitting the ,governor of the ,universe2 and worship ,him--,him alone4 ,they do not believe in ,his incarnation4 8#f4 ,they believe in the immortality and progressive state of the soul1 and declare that there is a state of conscious existence succeeding life in this world1 and supplementary to it as respects the action of the universal moral government4 8#g4 ,they believe that atonement is the only way to salvation4 ,they do not recognise any other mode of reconcilement to the offended but loving ,father4 8#h4 ,they pray for spiritual welfare1 and believe in the efficacy of real prayers4 8#i4 ,they believe in the ,providential care of the ,divine ,father4 8#aj4 ,they avow that love towards ,him1 and performing the works ,he loveth1 constitute ,his worship4 8#aa4 ,they recognise the necessity of public worship1 but do not believe that they cannot hold communion with the ,great ,father without resorting to any fixed place at any fixed time4 ,they maintain that we can adore ,him at any time and at any place1 provided that time and that place are calculated to compose and direct the mind towards ,him4 8#ab4 ,they do not believe in pilgrimages1 but declare that holiness can be attained only by elevating and purifying the mind4 8#ac4 ,they do not perform any rites and ceremonies1 or believe in penances1 as instrumental in obtaining the grace of ,,god4 ,they declare that moral righteousness1 the gaining of wisdom1 ,divine contemplation1 charity1 and the cultivation of devotional feelings1 are their rites and ceremonies4 ,they further say1 ,govern and regulate your feelings1 discharge your duties to ,,god and to man1 and you will gain everlasting blessedness2 purify your hearts1 cultivate devotional feelings1 and you will see ,him who is ,unseen4 8#ad4 ,theoretically1 there is no distinction of caste among the ,brahmas4 ,they declare that we are all the children of ,,god1 and1 therefore1 must consider ourselves as brothers and sisters40 ,briefly speaking1 the religious system herein set forth may be described as ,christianity without ,,christ2 and yet it was unwilling to acknowledge its obligations to ,christianity4 ,its apostles sought to persuade themselves and others that they derived everything from the ,vedas and nothing from the ,bible2 and when they were compelled to abandon the ,vedas1 they fell back upon ,nature as a ,divine ,revelation4 ,but1 as an ,anglo-,indian authority contends1 it is certain that but for the new life which at this time flowed in with the tide of ,western thought1 and the study of a literature 8saturated at every pore0 with ,christian sentiment and the high ,gospel morality2 and but for the strong and ceaseless opposition maintained by ,christianity in the person of its missionaries against the ,atheism1 which was the first1 though a short-lived result of the sudden intellectual quickening the young men of ,calcutta experienced when ,western science was substituted for ,oriental myths1 neither would the study of the ,vedas have been revived1 nor would the great lessons of nature have appeared so intelligible as they then became4#be ,we have seen that ,brahmanism made one advance under ,rammohun ,roy2 it was led still further forward by ,debendronath ,tagore2 and then he too suddenly halted1 as his predecessor had done4 ,the leadership next devolved upon a man of higher courage1 not less fitted to lead a great movement by his enthusiasm than by his ability1 ,babu ,keshub ,chunda ,sen4 ,keshub was determined that the challenge should be thrown down to orthodox ,hinduism3 and persuaded ,debendronath ,tagore1 when his daughter was married1 to celebrate the occasion without the usual idolatrous ceremony4 ,after this1 he purified of their idolatrous element the rites observed at birth and death4 ,still1 ,debendronath ,tagore supported him2 but1 at last1 when an attempt was made to eliminate not only what was purely idolatrous1 but also everything offensive to enlightened feeling and a purer taste1 ,debendronath and the conservative party opposed1 and a schism was the result4 8,the time had arrived10 says the writer already quoted1 8when ,brahmism1 if it was a power and not mere talk1 must do battle with the system of caste distinctions4 ,the first step in this direction taken by ,keshub ,chunda ,sen1 was the celebration of a marriage between persons belonging to different castes4 ,that was an innovation such as might well startle the venerable pundits of ,nuddea and ,benares4 ,there could henceforward be no doubt as to the more than heretical tendency of the theistic doctrine4 ,an electric shock ran through society3 all ,hindudom was roused from its slumber1 and began suspiciously to ponder what ,brahmism meant by such daring4 ,but the real test of principle was yet to come4 ,it was comparatively safe to make a few modifications in domestic religious rites3 the marriage of people of different castes compromised the principals chiefly3 it was necessary that the entire ,brahma community should by some act be universally committed to war against the evils and iniquities of caste4 ,keshub and his party accepted this necessity1 threw off the sacred thread that distinguished them as ,brahmans1 and insisted that all who desired membership with their ,samj should consent to renounce caste4 ,there could be no greater triumph than this1 of principle over traditionalism3 it stamped ,brahmism as a power in the land1 and not an idle theological speculation40 ,thenceforward1 ,keshub ,chunda ,sen became the recognised leader of 8the ,brahma ,samj of ,india10 and the new sect adopted an active proselytism4 ,branch ,samjes have been established all over the country2 missionaries have been sent as far as ,madras and ,bombay and the ,punjab4 ,tracts and lectures have been freely circulated4 ,in ,calcutta a so-called 8church0 has been built1 and is well attended every ,sunday evening1 not only by men1 but by women1 for whom special accommodation is provided4 ,the services are conducted in the vernacular1 so as to be intelligible to all worshippers4 ,brahmist hymns are sung to the accompaniment of the harmonium1 and the solemn mridong 7a kind of drum73 passages are read from a book of selections in which the extracts from the ,bible greatly outnumber those from any other source2 extemporaneous prayers are offered with an intensity of spiritual feeling that could do no disgrace to a ,christian congregation2 and discourses are delivered which breathe a pure and noble tone of sentiment and feeling4 ,two weekly periodicals1 one ,bengali and the other ,english1 the 8,dharma ,tattwa0 and the 8,indian ,mirror10 are the recognised exponents of the views and teaching of the ,samj4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,hindu ,,mythology3 ,,and ,,the ,,vishnu ,,purana4 ,the word ,purana means 8old10 and the original object of the ,puranas would seem to have been the preservation of ancient mythological fictions and historical traditions4 ,but in the form in which they have come down to us they do something more than this4 ,they comprehend1 more or less thoroughly1 the five following subjects3--#a1 ,primary creation1 or cosmogony2 #b1 ,secondary creation1 or the destruction and renovation of worlds1 including chronology2 #c1 ,genealogy of gods and patriarchs2 #d1 ,reigns of the ,manus1 or periods called ,manwantaras2 and #e1 ,history1 or such particulars as are extant of the princes of the solar and lunar races1 and of their descendants to modern times4 ,according to ,professor ,wilson1 they are evidently derived from the same religious system as the ,rmyana and ,mahbhrata1 or from what he calls the mytho-heroic stage of ,hindu belief4 8,they present1 however1 peculiarities which designate their belonging to a later period1 and to an important modification in the progress of opinion4 ,they repeat the theoretical cosmogony of the two great poems2 they expound and systematise the chronological computations2 and they give a more definite and connected representation of the mythological fictions and the historical traditions4 ,but besides these and other particulars1 which may be derivable from an old1 if not from a primitive era1 they offer characteristic peculiarities of a more modern description1 in the paramount importance which they assign to individual divinities1 in the variety and purport of the rites and observances addressed to them1 and in the invention of new legends illustrative of the power and graciousness of those deities1 and of the efficacy of implicit devotion to them40 ,the form of composition adopted in the ,puranas is that of a dialogue1 in which its contents are related by one imaginary individual in reply to another4 ,several dialogues are eventually woven together2 and they purport to have been held on different occasions between different individuals1 in consequence of similar questions having been asked4 ,usually the immediate narrator is ,lomaharshan or ,romaharshna1 the disciple of ,vyasa1 who1 as ,plato did for ,socrates1 communicates to the reader his great master's utterances4 ,the ,vyasa or compiler here meant was ,krishna ,dwaipyana1 the son of ,parsara2 it is said of him that he taught the ,vedas and ,puranas to various pupils1 but it seems more probable that he was at the head of a school or college1 the members of which moulded the sacred literature of the ,hindus into its present form4 ,there appear to have been eighteen ,puranas3 namely1 #a1 ,brahma2 #b1 ,padma2 #c1 ,vaishnava2 #d1 ,saiva2 #e1 ,bhagavata2 #f1 ,nradya2 #g1 ,mrkndeya2 #h1 ,agneya2 #i1 ,bhavishya2 #aj1 ,brahma ,vaivarta2 #aa1 ,lainga2 #ab1 ,vrha2 #ac1 ,sknda2 #ad1 ,vmana2 #ae1 ,kaurma2 #af1 ,mtsya2 #ag1 ,gruda2 #ah1 ,brhmanda4 ,the ,vishnu ,purana is described as that in which ,parsara1 beginning with the events of the ,varha ,kalpa1 expounds man's moral and religious obligations in about seven thousand stanzas4 ,it is divided into six books3-- ,the first deals chiefly with the details of creation1 primary 7,sarga7 and secondary 7,pratisarga72 the first explaining how the universe proceeds from ,prakriti or eternal crude matter2 the second1 in what way 8the forms of things are developed from the elementary substances previously evolved1 or how they reappear after their temporary destruction40 ,both these creations are periodical2 the first does not end until the life of ,brahma ends1 when not only the gods and all other forms are annihilated1 but the elements are resolved into the primary substance1 besides which one only spiritual being exists4 ,the latter occurs at the end of every ,kalpa1 on1 or day of ,brahma1 and is wholly limited to the forms of inferior creatures and the lower worlds2 leaving untouched sages and gods and the substance of the heavens4 ,a description of the ages or periods of time on which these events depend is involved in the explanation2 and it is given accordingly in wearisome detail4 ,their character has been a source of very unnecessary perplexity to ,european writers2 for they belong to a wholly mythological scheme of chronology1 which has no reference to any real or supposed history of the ,hindus1 but prefigures1 according to their system1 the infinite and eternal revolutions of the universe4 ,by a singular incongruity the existence of ,pradhna1 or crude matter1 is identified with ,vishnu1 who is declared to be both spirit and crude matter1 and not only crude matter1 but all visible substance1 and ,time4 ,he is ,purusha1 8spirit20 ,pradhna1 8crude matter20 ,vyakta1 8visible form20 and ,kla1 8time40 8,this10 says ,professor ,wilson1 8cannot but be regarded as a departure from the primitive dogmas of the ,hindus1 in which the distinctness of the ,deity and ,his works was enunciated2 in which1 upon ,his willing the world to be1 it was2 and in which ,his interposition in creation1 held to be inconsistent with the quiescence of perfection1 was explained away by the personification of attributes in action1 which afterwards came to be considered as real divinities1 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva1 charged severally1 for a given season1 with the creation1 preservation1 and temporary annihilation of material forms40 ,in the ,vishnu ,purana1 these divinities are declared to be no other than ,vishnu4 ,the earth having been duly prepared for the reception of living creatures1 it was peopled by the will-begotten sons of ,brahma1 the ,prajapatis or patriarchs4 ,but it was necessary to provide these 8grey forefathers0 of the early world with wives4 ,for this purpose1 the ,manu ,swayambhuva and his wife ,satarupa1 were invented2 and their daughters supplied the patriarchs with female partners4 ,numerous legends were built up on this basis1 and the whole story assumed an allegorical form4 ,swayhambhuva1 the son of the self-born or uncreated1 and his wife ,satarupa1 the hundred-formed or multiform1 are themselves allegories2 and their female descendants1 who became the wives of the ,rishis1 are ,faith1 ,devotion1 ,content1 ,intelligence1 ,tradition1 and the like2 whilst among their posterity are found the different phases of the moon and the sacrificial fires4 ,there are other legends in explanation of the peopling of the earth4 ,all seem to indicate that the ,prajapatis and ,rishis were 8real personages1 the authors of the ,hindu system of social1 moral1 and religious obligations1 and the first observers of the heavens1 and teachers of astronomical science40 ,the genealogy is traced of the royal personages of this first race or dynasty1 and is continued into the second book2 after which comes a detail of the geographical system of the ,puranas1 with ,mount ,meru1 the seven circular continents1 and their surrounding oceans1 to the limits of the world4 ,this 7except so far as ,india or ,bharata is concerned7 is purely mythological4 ,in the early portion of the third book1 the arrangement of the ,vedas and other sacred writings of the ,hindus is described4 ,then follows an account of the principal ,hindu institutions1 the duties of castes1 the obligations of different stages of life1 and the celebration of funeral rites1 in a brief but primitive strain1 and in harmony with the laws of ,manu4 8,it is a distinguishing feature of the ,vishnu ,purana1 and it is characteristic of its being the work of an earlier period than most of the ,puranas1 that it enjoins no sectarial or other acts of supererogation2 no ,vratas1 occasional self-imposed observances2 no holy days1 no birthdays of ,krishna1 no nights dedicated to ,lakshmi2 no sacrifices or modes of worship other than those conformable to the ritual of the ,vedas4 ,it contains no ,mhlinyas or golden legends1 even of the temples in which ,vishnu is adored40 ,the fourth book contains a tolerably full list of royal dynasties and individuals1 with a dull chronicle of events1 the authenticity of which cannot always be accepted4 ,in the fifth book we have the life of ,krishna1 one of the avatars or manifestations of ,vishnu2 and in the last an account of the dissolution of the world1 8in both its major and minor cataclysms10 which1 8in the particulars of the end of all things by fire and water1 as well as in the principle of their perpetual renovation1 presents a faithful exhibition of opinions that were general in the ancient world40 ,we now proceed to give a few specimens of the contents of this remarkable work4 ,origin of ,rudra 7,bk4 i4 c4 #h47 ,in the beginning of the ,kalpa1 as ,brahma proposed to create a son1 who should be like himself1 a youth of a purple complexion appeared2 crying with a low cry1 and running about4 ,brahma1 when he beheld him thus afflicted1 said to him3 8,why dost thou weep80 8,give me a name10 replied the boy4 8,rudra be thy name10 rejoined the great father of all creatures3 8be composed2 desist from tears40 ,but1 though thus addressed1 the boy still wept seven times2 and ,brahma therefore gave to him seven other denominations3 and to these eight persons regions and wives and posterity belong4 ,the eight manifestations1 then1 are named ,rudra1 ,bhava1 ,sarva1 ,isana1 ,pasaputi1 ,bhima1 ,ugra1 and ,mahdeva1 which were given to them by their great progenitor4 ,he also assigned to them their respective stations1 the sun1 water1 earth1 air1 fire1 ether1 the ministrant ,brahman1 and the moon2 for these are their several forms4 ,the wives of the sun and the other manifestations1 termed ,rudra and the east1 were1 respectively3 ,suvarchal1 ,ush1 ,viks1 ,sv1 ,swh1 ,disas1 ,diksh1 and ,rohini4 ,now hear an account of their progeny1 by whose successive generations this world has been peopled4 ,their sons were severally3 ,sawaischara 7,saturn17 ,sukra 7,venus17 the fiery-bodied 7,mars17 ,mamjava1 ,skanda1 ,swarga1 ,santna1 and ,budha 7,mercury47 ,sacrifice of ,daksha4 7,this remarkable legend1 according to ,professor ,wilson1 is intended to allegorise a struggle between the worshippers of ,siva and of ,vishnu1 in which the former1 after a temporary defeat1 obtained the victory47 ,there was formerly a peak of ,meru1 named ,svitra1 abounding with gems1 radiant as the sun1 and celebrated throughout the three worlds2 of immense extent1 difficult of access1 and an object of universal adoration4 ,upon that glorious eminence1 rich with mineral treasures1 as upon a splendid couch1 the deity ,siva reclined1 accompanied by the daughter of the sovereign of mountains1 and attended by the mighty ,adityas1 the powerful ,vasus1 and by the heavenly physicians1 the sons of ,aswini2 by ,kubera1 surrounded by his train of ,guhyakas1 the lord of the ,yakshas1 who dwells on ,kailsa4 ,there also was the great ,muni ,usanas3 there were ,rishis of the first order1 with ,sanatkumar at their head1 divine ,rishis1 preceded by ,angiras2 ,viswavasu1 with his bands of heavenly choristers2 the sages ,nrada and ,parvata2 and innumerable troops of celestial nymphs4 ,the breeze blew upon the mountain1 bland1 pure1 and fragrant2 and the trees were decorated with flowers that blossomed in every season4 ,the ,vidyadharas and ,siddhas1 affluent in devotion1 waited upon ,mahdeva1 the lord of living creatures2 and many other beings1 of various forms1 did him homage4 ,prkshasas of terrific semblance1 and ,pischas of great strength1 of different shapes and features1 armed with various weapons1 and blazing like fire1 were delighted to be present1 as the followers of the god4 ,there stood the royal ,naudin1 high in the favour of his lord1 armed with a fiery trident1 shining with inherent lustre2 and there the best of rivers1 ,ganga1 the assemblage of all holy waters1 stood adoring the mighty deity4 ,thus worshipped by all the most excellent of sages and of gods1 abode the omnipotent and all-glorious ,mahdeva4 ,in former times ,daksha commenced a holy sacrifice on the side of ,himavat1 at the sacred spot ,gangdwara1 frequented by the ,rishis4 ,the gods1 desirous of assisting at this solemn rite1 came1 with ,indra at their head1 to ,mahdeva1 and intimated their purpose1 and having received his permission1 departed1 in their splendid chariots1 to ,gangdwara1 as tradition reports4 ,they found ,daksha1 the best of the devout1 surrounded by the singers and nymphs of heaven1 and by numerous sages1 beneath the shade of clustering trees and climbing plants2 and all of them1 whether dwellers on earth1 in air1 or in the regions above the skies1 approached the patriarch with outward gestures of respect4 ,the ,adityas1 ,vasus1 ,rudras1 ,maruts1 all entitled to partake of the oblations1 together with ,jishnu1 were present4 ,the 7four classes of ,pitris7 ,ushmapas1 ,somapas1 ,ajyapas1 and ,dhmapas1 7or those who feed upon the flame1 the acid juice1 the butter1 or the smoke of offerings17 the ,aswins1 and the progenitors1 came along with ,brahm4 ,creatures of every class1 born from the womb1 the egg1 from vapour1 or vegetation1 came upon their invocation2 as did all the gods1 with their brides1 who1 in their resplendent vehicles1 blazed like so many fires4 ,beholding them thus assembled1 the sage ,dadhicha was filled with indignation1 and observed3 8,the man who worships what ought not to be worshipped1 or pays not reverence where veneration is due1 is guilty1 most assuredly1 of heinous sin40 ,then1 addressing ,daksha1 he said to him3 8,why do you not offer homage to the god who is the lord of life 7,pasubhartri870 ,daksha spake3 8,i have already many ,rudras present1 armed with tridents1 wearing braided hair1 and existing in eleven forms4 ,i recognise no other ,mahdeva40 ,dadhicha spake3 8,the invocation that is not addressed to ,isa is1 for all1 but a solitary 7and imperfect7 summons4 ,inasmuch as ,i behold no other divinity who is superior to ,sankhara1 this sacrifice of ,daksha will not be completed40 ,daksha spake3 8,i offer in a golden cup1 this entire oblation1 which has been consecrated by many prayers1 as an offering ever due to the unequalled ,vishnu1 the sovereign lord of all44440 7,after a conversation between the mighty ,maheswara and his spouse1 whom he addresses in epithets which have quite an ,homeric sound37 ,the mighty ,maheswara created1 from his mouth1 a being like the fire of fate2 a divine being1 with a thousand heads1 a thousand eyes1 a thousand feet2 wielding a thousand clubs1 a thousand shafts2 holding the shell1 the discus1 the mace1 and bearing a blazing bow and battle-axe2 fierce and terrific1 shining with dreadful splendour1 and decorated with the crescent moon2 clothed in a tiger's skin dripping with blood1 having a capacious stomach1 and a vast mouth armed with formidable tusks4 ,his ears were erect1 his lips were pendulous2 his tongue was lightning2 his hand brandished the thunderbolt2 flames streamed from his hair2 a necklace of pearls wound round his neck2 a garland of flame descended on his breast4 ,radiant with lustre1 he looked like the final fire that consumes the world4 ,four tremendous tusks projected from a mouth which extended from ear to ear4 ,he was of vast bulk1 vast strength1 a mighty male and lord1 the destroyer of the universe1 and like a large fig tree in circumference2 shining like a hundred moons at once2 fierce as the fire of love2 having four heads1 sharp white teeth1 and of mighty fierceness1 vigour1 activity1 and courage2 glowing with the blaze of a thousand fiery suns at the end of the world2 like a thousand undimmed moons2 in bulk like ,himdri1 ,kailsa1 or ,sumnu1 or ,mundara1 with all its gleaming herbs2 bright as the sun of destruction at end of ages2 of irresistible prowess and beautiful aspect2 irascible1 with lowering eyes1 and a countenance burning like fire2 clothed in the hide of the elephant and lion1 and girt round with snakes2 wearing a turban on his head1 a moon on his brow3 sometimes savage1 sometimes mild2 having a chaplet of many flowers on his head1 anointed with various unguents1 adorned with different ornaments and many sorts of jewels1 wearing a garland of heavenly ,karnikara flowers1 and rolling his eyes with rage4 ,sometimes he danced2 sometimes he laughed aloud2 sometimes he stood wrapt in meditation2 sometimes he trampled upon the earth2 sometimes he sang2 sometimes he wept repeatedly4 ,and he was endowed with the faculties of wisdom1 dispassion1 power1 penance1 truth1 endurance1 fortitude1 dominion1 and self-knowledge4 ,this being then knelt down upon the ground1 and raising his hands respectfully to his head1 said to ,mahdeva3 8,sovereign of the gods1 command what it is that ,i must do for thee20 to which ,maheswara replied3 8,spoil the sacrifice of ,daksha40 ,then the mighty ,virabhadra1 having heard the pleasure of his lord1 bowed down his head to the feet of ,prajpati1 and starting like a lion loosed from bonds1 despoiled the sacrifice of ,daksha2 knowing that he had been created by the displeasure of ,devi4 ,she1 too1 in her wrath1 as the fearful goddess ,rudrakli1 accompanied him1 with all her train1 to witness his deeds4 ,virabhadra1 the fierce1 abiding in the region of ghosts1 is the minister of the anger of ,devi4 ,and he then created1 from the pores of his skin1 powerful demigods1 the mighty attendants upon ,rudra1 of equal valour and strength1 who started by hundreds and by thousands into existence4 ,a loud and confused clamour straightway filled all the expanse of ether1 and inspired the denizens of heaven with dread4 ,the mountains tottered1 and earth shook2 the winds roared1 and the depths of the sea were disturbed2 the fires lost their radiance1 and the sun grew pale2 the planets of the firmament shone not1 neither did the stars give light2 the ,rishis ceased their hymns1 and gods and demons were mute2 and thick darkness eclipsed the chariot of the skies4 ,then from the gloom emerged fearful and numerous forms1 shouting the cry of battle2 who instantly broke or overturned the sacrificial columns1 trampled upon the altars1 and danced amidst the oblations4 ,running wildly hither and thither1 with the speed of wind1 they tossed about the implements and vessels of sacrifice1 which looked like stars precipitated from the heavens4 ,the piles of food and beverage for the gods1 which had been heaped up like mountains2#bf the rivers of milk2 the tanks of curds and butter2 the masses of honey1 and butter-milk1 and sugar2 the mounds of condiments and spices of every flavour2 the undulating knolls of flesh and other viands2 the celestial liquors2 pastes and confections which had been prepared2 these the spirits of wrath devoured1 or defiled1 or scattered abroad4 ,and1 falling upon the host of the gods1 these vast and resistless ,rudras beat or terrified them1 mocked and insulted the nymphs and goddesses1 and quickly put an end to the rite1 although defended by all the gods2 being the ministers of ,rudra's wrath1 and similar to himself4 ,some then made a hideous clamour1 whilst others fearfully shouted1 when ,yajna was decapitated4 ,for the divine ,yajna1 the lord of sacrifice1 began to fly up to heaven1 in the shape of a deer2 and ,virabhadra1 of immeasurable spirit1 apprehending his power1 cut off his vast head1 after he had mounted into the sky4 ,daksha1 the patriarch1 his sacrifice being destroyed1 overcome with terror1 and utterly broken in spirit1 fell prone upon the ground1 where his head was spurned by the feet of the cruel ,virabhadra4 ,the thirty scores of sacred divinities were all presently bound1 with a band of fire1 by their lion-like foe2 and they all addressed him1 crying3 8,o ,rudra1 have mercy upon thy servants6 ,o lord1 dismiss thine anger60 ,this spake ,brahma1 and the other gods1 and the patriarch ,daksha2 and1 raising their hands1 they said3 8,declare1 mighty being1 who thou art40 ,virabhadra said3 8,i am not a god1 nor an ,aditya1 nor am ,i come hither for enjoyment1 nor curious to behold the chiefs of the divinities4 ,know that ,i am come to destroy the sacrifice of ,daksha1 and that ,i am called ,virabhadra1 the issue of the wrath of ,rudra4 ,bhadrakali1 also1 who has sprung from the anger of ,devi1 is sent here1 by the god of gods1 to destroy this rite4 ,take refuge1 king of kings1 with him who is the lord of ,uma4 ,for better is the anger of ,rudra than the blessings of other gods40 ,having heard the words of ,virabhadra1 the righteous ,daksha propitiated the mighty god1 the holder of the trident1 ,maheswara4 ,the hearth of sacrifice1 deserted by the ,brahmans1 had been consumed2 ,yajna had been metamorphosed to an antelope2 the fires of ,rudra's wrath had been kindled2 the attendants1 wounded by the tridents of the servants of the god1 were groaning with pain2 the pieces of the uprooted sacrificial posts were scattered here and there2 and the fragments of the meat-offerings were carried off by flights of hungry vultures and herds of howling jackals4 ,suppressing his vital airs1 and taking up a posture of meditation1 the many-sighted victor of his foes1 ,daksha1 fixed his eyes everywhere upon his thoughts4 ,and the god of gods appeared from the altar resplendent as a thousand suns1 and smiling upon him1 said1 8,daksha1 thy sacrifice has been destroyed through sacred knowledge1 ,i am well pleased with thee40 ,and he smiled again1 and exclaimed1 8,what shall ,i do for thee8 ,declare1 together with the preceptor of the gods40 ,and ,daksha1 frightened1 alarmed1 and agitated1 his eyes suffused with tears1 raised his hands reverently to his brow1 and said1 8,if1 lord1 thou art pleased2 if ,i have found favour in thy sight2 if ,i am to be the object of thy benevolence2 if thou wilt confer upon me a boon1 this is the blessing ,i solicit1 that all these provisions for the solemn sacrifice which have been collected with much trouble and during a long time1 and have now been eaten1 drunk1 devoured1 burnt1 broken1 scattered abroad1 may not have been prepared in vain40 8,so let it be10 replied ,hara1 the subduer of ,indra4 ,and thereupon ,daksha knelt down upon the earth1 and praised gratefully the author of righteousness1 the three-eyed god ,mahdeva1 repeating the eight thousand names of the deity whose emblem is a bull4 ,public ,games4 7,bk4 v41 c4 #aj47 ,as ,krishna and ,rama proceeded along the high road1 they saw coming towards them a young girl1 who was crooked1 carrying a pot of unguent4 ,addressing her sportively1 ,krishna said1 8,for whom are you carrying that unguent8 ,tell me1 lovely maiden1 tell me truly40 ,spoken to as it were through affection1 ,kubja#bg1 well disposed towards ,hari1 replied to him also mirthfully1 being smitten by his appearance1 8,know you not1 beloved1 that ,i am the servant of ,kamsa1 and appointed1 crooked as ,i am1 to prepare his perfumes8 ,of unguent ground by any other he does not approve1 and hence ,i am enriched through his liberal rewards40 ,then said ,krishna1 8,fair-faced damsel1 give us of this unguent1--fragrant and fit for kings1--as much as we may rub upon our bodies40 8,take it10 answered ,kubja4 ,and she gave them as much of the unguent as was sufficient for their persons4 ,and they rubbed it on various parts of their faces and bodies1 till they looked like two clouds1 one white and one black1 decorated by the many-tinted bow of ,indra4 ,and ,krishna1 skilled in the curative art1 took hold of her under the chin with the thumb and two fingers1 and lifted up her head1 whilst with his feet he pressed down her feet1 and in this way he made her straight4 ,when she was thus relieved from her deformity1 she was a most beautiful woman2 and filled with gratitude and affection1 she took ,govinda by the garment1 and invited him to her house4 ,promising to come at some other time1 ,krishna smilingly dismissed her1 and then laughed aloud on beholding the countenance of ,baladeva4 ,dressed in blue and yellow garments1 and anointed with fragrant unguents1 ,krishna and ,rama proceeded to the hall of arms1 which was hung round with garlands4 ,inquiring of the warders which bow he was to try1 and being directed to it1 ,krishna took it1 and bent it4 ,but drawing it with violence1 he snapped it in two1 and all ,mathura resounded with the noise which its fracture occasioned4 ,abused by the warders for breaking the bow1 ,krishna and ,rama retorted1 and defied them1 and left the hall4 ,when ,kamsa knew that ,akrura had returned1 and heard that the bow had been broken1 he then said to ,chanura and ,mushtika1 his boxers1 8,two youths1 cowherd boys1 have arrived4 ,you must kill them both1 in a trial of strength1 in my presence2 for they practise against my life4 ,i shall be well pleased if you kill them in the match1 and will give you whatever you wish1 but not otherwise4 ,these two foes of mine must be killed by you1 fairly or unfairly4 ,the kingdom shall be ours in common when they have perished40 ,having given them their orders1 he sent next for his elephant driver1 and desired him to station his great elephant1 ,kuvalayapida1--who was as vast as a cloud charged with rain1--near the gate of the arena1 and drive him upon the two boys when they should attempt to enter4 ,when ,kamsa had issued these commands1 and ascertained that the platforms were all ready 7for the spectators71 he awaited the rising of the sun1 unconscious of impending death4 ,in the morning the citizens assembled on the platforms set apart for them2 and the princes1 with the ministers and courtiers1 occupied the royal seats4 ,near the centre of the circle1 judges of the games were stationed by ,kamsa1 whilst he himself sat apart close by1 upon a lofty throne4 ,separate platforms were erected for the ladies of the palace1 for the courtesans1 and for the wives of the citizens4 ,nanda and the cowherds had places appropriated to them1 at the end of which sat ,akrura and ,vasudeva4 ,amongst the wives of the citizens appeared ,devaki1 mourning for her son1 whose lovely face she longed to behold1 even in the hour of his destruction4 ,when the musical instruments sounded1 ,chanura sprang forth1 and the people cried1 8,alas60 and ,mushtika slapped his arms in defiance4 ,covered with blood and mud from the elephant1 which1 when goaded upon them by its driver1 they had slain1 and armed with its tusks1 ,balabhadra and ,janardana confidently entered the arena1 like two lions amidst a herd of deer4 ,exclamations of pity arose from all the spectators1 along with expressions of astonishment4 8,this1 then10 said the people1 8is ,krishna4 ,this is ,balabhadra4 ,this is he by whom the fierce night-walker ,putana was slain2 by whom the waggon was overturned1 and the two ,arjuna trees felled4 ,this is the boy who trampled and danced on the serpent ,kaliya2 who upheld the mountain ,govardhana for seven nights2 who killed1 as if in play1 the iniquitous ,arishta1 ,dhenuka1 and ,kisra4 ,this1 whom we see1 is ,achyuta4 ,this is he who has been foretold by the wise1 skilled in the sense of the ,puranas1 as ,gopala1 who shall exalt the depressed ,yadava race4 ,this is a portion of the all-existing1 all-generating ,vishnu1 descended upon earth1 who will1 assuredly1 lighten her load40 ,thus did the citizens describe ,rama and ,krishna1 as soon as they appeared3 whilst the breast of ,devaki glowed with maternal affection2 and ,vasudeva1 forgetting his infirmities1 felt himself young again1 on beholding the countenances of his sons as a season of rejoicing4 ,the women of the palace1 and the wives of the citizens1 wide opened their eyes1 and gazed intently upon ,krishna4 8,look1 friends10 said they to their companions2 8look at the face of ,krishna4 ,his eyes are reddened by his conflict with the elephant2 and the drops of perspiration stand upon his cheeks1 outvying a full-blown lotus in autumn1 studded with glittering dew4 ,avail yourself1 now1 of the faculty of vision4 ,observe his breast1--the seat of splendour1 marked with the mystic sign1--and his arms1 menacing destruction to his foes4 ,do you not notice ,balabhadra1 dressed in a blue garment1--his countenance as fair as the jasmine1 as the moon1 as the fibres of the lotus-stem8 ,see how he gently smiles at the gestures of ,mushtika and ,chanura1 as they spring up4 8,and now behold ,hari advance to encounter ,chanura4 ,what6 ,are there no elders1 judges of the field8 ,how can the delicate form of ,hari1--only yet in the dawn of adolescence1--be regarded as a match for the vast and adamantine bulk of the great demon8 ,two youths1 of light and elegant persons1 are in the arena1 to oppose athletic fiends1 headed by the cruel ,chanura4 ,this is a great sin in the judges of the games1 for the umpires to suffer a contest between boys and strong men40 ,as thus the women of the city conversed with one another1 ,hari1 having tightened his girdle1 danced in the ring1 shaking the ground on which he trod4 ,balabhadra also danced1 slapping his arms in defiance4 ,where the ground was firm1 the invincible ,krishna contended1 foot to foot1 with ,chanura4 ,the practised demon ,mushtika was opposed by ,balabhadra4 ,mutually entwining1 and pushing1 and pulling1 and beating each other with fists1 arms1 and elbows1 pressing each other with their knees1 interlacing their arms1 kicking with their feet1 pressing with their whole weight upon one another1 fought ,hari and ,chanura4 ,desperate was the struggle1 though without weapons1 and one for life and death1 to the great gratification of the spectators4 ,in proportion as the contest continued1 so ,chanura was gradually losing something of his original vigour1 and the wreath upon his head trembled from his fury and distress2 whilst the world-comprehending ,krishna wrestled with him as if but in sport4 ,beholding ,chanura losing1 and ,krishna gaining strength1 ,kamsa1 furious with rage1 commanded the music to cease4 ,as soon as the drums and trumpets were silenced1 a numerous band of heavenly instruments was heard in the sky2 and the unseen gods exclaimed3 8,victory to ,govinda6 ,kesava1 kill the demon ,chanura60 ,madhusudana1 having1 for a long time1 dallied with his adversary1 at last lifted him up1 and whirled him round1 with the intention of putting an end to him4 ,having whirled ,chanura round a hundred times1 until his breath was expended in the air1 ,krishna dashed him on the ground1 with such violence as to smash his body into a hundred fragments1 and strew the earth with a hundred pools of gory mire4 ,whilst this took place1 the mighty ,baladeva was engaged1 in the same manner1 with the demon bruiser1 ,mushtika4 ,striking him on the head with his fists1 and on the breast with his knees1 he stretched him on the ground1 and pummelled him there till he was dead4 ,again1 ,krishna encountered the royal bruiser ,tosaluka1 and felled him to the earth with a blow of his left hand4 ,when the other athletes saw ,chanura1 ,mushtika1 and ,tosaluka killed1 they fled from the field2 and ,krishna and ,sankarshana danced1 victorious1 on the arena1 dragging along with them1 by force1 the cowherds of their own age4 ,kamsa1 his eyes reddening with wrath1 called aloud to the surrounding people3--8,drive those two cowboys out of the assembly3 seize the villain ,nanda1 and secure him with chains of iron2 put ,vasudeva to death with tortures intolerable to his years3 and lay hands upon the cattle1 and whatever else belongs to those cowherds who are the associates of ,krishna40 ,upon hearing these orders1 the destroyer of ,madhu laughed at ,kamsa1 and1 springing up to the place where he was seated1 laid hold of him by the hair of his head1 and struck his tiara to the ground4 ,then1 casting him down upon the earth1 ,govinda threw himself upon him4 ,crushed by the weight of the upholder of the universe1 the son of ,ugrasena 7,kamsa71 the king1 gave up the ghost4 ,krishna then dragged the dead body1 by the hair of the head1 into the centre of the arena2 and a deep furrow was made by the vast and heavy carcase of ,kamsa1 when it was dragged along the ground by ,krishna1 as if a torrent of water had rushed through it4 ,seeing ,kamsa thus treated1 his brother ,sunaman came to his succour3 but he was encountered1 and easily killed1 by ,balabhadra4 ,then arose a general cry of grief from the surrounding circle1 as they beheld the ,king of ,mathura thus slain1 and treated with such contumely1 by ,krishna4 ,krishna1 accompanied by ,balabhadra1 embraced the feet of ,vasudeva and of ,devaki3 but ,vasudeva raised him up2 and he and ,devaki recalling to recollection what he had said to them at his birth1 they bowed to ,janardana2 and the former thus addressed him3 8,have compassion upon mortals1 ,o god1 benefactor1 and lord of deities4 ,it is by thy favour to us two that thou hast become the present upholder of the world4 ,that1 for the punishment of the rebellious1 thou hast descended upon earth in my house1 having been propitiated by my prayers1 sanctifies our race4 ,thou art the heart of all creatures2 thou abidest in all creatures2 and all that has been1 or will be1 emanates from thee1 ,o universal spirit4 ,thou1 ,achyuta1 who comprehendest all the gods1 art eternally worshipped with sacrifices3 thou art sacrifice itself1 and the offerer of sacrifices4 ,the affection that inspires my heart1 and the heart of ,devaki1 towards thee1 as if thou wert our child1 is1 indeed1 but an error and a great delusion4 8,how shall the tongue of a mortal such as ,i am call the creator of all things1 who is without beginning or end1 son8 ,is it consistent that the lord of the world1 from whom the world proceeds1 should be born of me1 except through illusion8 ,how should he1 in whom all fixed and moveable things are contained1 be conceived in the womb and born of a mortal being8 ,have compassion1 therefore1 indeed1 ,o supreme lord1 and1 in thy descended portions1 protect the universe4 ,thou art no son of mine4 ,this whole world1 from ,brahma to a tree1 thou art4 ,wherefore dost thou1 who art one with the ,supreme1 beguile us8 ,blinded by delusion1 ,i thought thee my son1 and for thee1 who art beyond all fear1 ,i dreaded the anger of ,kamsa2 and1 therefore1 did ,i take thee1 in my turn1 to ,gokula1 where thou hast grown up4 ,but ,i no longer claim thee as mine own4 ,thou1 ,vishnu1--the sovereign lord of all1 whose actions ,rudra1 ,maruts1 the ,aswins1 ,indra1 and the gods cannot equal1 although they behold them2 thou1 who hast come amongst us1 for the benefit of the world1--art recognised2 and delusion is no more40 ,we shall furnish but one other specimen3-- ,anecdotes of ,khandikya and ,kesidhwaja4 ,maitreya1 addressing ,parasara1 says3 8,reverend teacher1 ,i am desirous of being informed what is meant by the term meditation 7yoga71 by understanding which ,i may behold the ,supreme ,being1 the upholder of the universe40 ,parasara1 in reply1 says that he will repeat the explanation formerly given by ,kesidhwaja to the magnanimous ,khandikya1 also called ,janaka4 ,whereupon ,maitreya replies3 8,tell me1 first1 ,brahman1 who ,kandikya was and who ,kesidhwaja2 and how it happened that a conversation relating to the practice of ,yoga occurred between them40 ,thereupon follows ,parasara's narrative3 ,there was ,janaka1 named ,dharmadhwaja1 who had two sons1 ,mitadhwaja and ,kritadhwaja2 and the latter was a king ever intent upon existent supreme spirit3 his son was the celebrated ,kesidhwaja4 ,the son of ,mitadhwaja was ,janaka1 called ,khandikya4 ,khandikya was diligent in the way of works1 and was renowned1 on earth1 for religious rites4 ,kesidhwaja1 on the other hand1 was endowed with spiritual knowledge4 ,these two were engaged in hostilities2 and ,khandikya was driven from his principality by ,kesidhwaja4 ,expelled from his dominions1 he wandered1 with a few followers1 his priest1 and his counsellors1 amidst woods and mountains1 where1 destitute of true wisdom1 he performed many sacrifices1 expecting1 thereby1 to obtain divine truth1 and to escape from death by ignorance4 ,once1 while the best of those who are skilled in devotion 7,kesidhwaja7 was engaged in devout exercises1 a fierce tiger slew his milch-cow1 in the lonely forest4 ,when the ,raja heard that the cow had been killed1 he asked the ministering priests what form of penance would expiate the crime4 ,they replied1 that they did not know1 and referred him to ,kaseru4 ,kaseru1 when the ,raja consulted him1 told him that he1 too1 knew not1 but that ,sunaka would be able to tell him4 ,accordingly1 the ,raja went to ,sunaka2 but he replied3 8,i am as unable1 great king1 to answer your question as ,kaseru has been2 and there is no one now1 upon earth1 who can give you the information1 except your enemy ,khandikya1 whom you have conquered40 ,upon receiving this answer1 ,kesidhwaja said3 8,i will go1 then1 and pay a visit to my foe4 ,if he kill me1 no matter2 for1 then1 ,i shall obtain the reward that attends being killed in a holy cause4 ,if 7on the contrary7 he tell me what penance to perform1 then my sacrifice will be unimpaired in efficacy40 ,accordingly1 he ascended his car1 having clothed himself in the deer skin of the religious student1 and went to the forest where the wise ,khandikya resided4 ,when ,khandikya beheld him approach1 his eyes reddened with rage1 and he took up his bow and said to him3 8,you have armed yourself with the deer skin to accomplish my destruction2 imagining that1 in such an attire1 you will be safe from me4 ,but1 fool1 the deer upon whose backs this skin is seen are slain1 by you and me1 with sharp arrows4 ,so will ,i slay you3 you shall not go free1 whilst ,i am living4 ,you are an unprincipled felon1 who have robbed me of my kingdom1 and are deserving of death40 ,to this ,kesidhwaja answered3 8,i have come hither1 ,khandikya1 to ask you to solve my doubts1 and not with any hostile intention4 ,lay aside1 therefore1 both your arrow and your anger40 ,thus spoken to1 ,khandikya retired awhile1 with his counsellors and his priest1 and consulted them what course he should pursue4 ,they strongly urged him to slay ,kesidhwaja while he was in his power1 since by his death he would again become the monarch of the whole world4 ,khandikya replied to them3--8,it is1 no doubt1 true that1 by such an act1 ,i should become the monarch of the whole earth4 ,he1 however1 would thereby conquer the world to come2 whilst the earth would be mine4 ,now1 if ,i do not kill him1 ,i shall subdue the next world1 and leave him this earth4 ,it seems to me that this world is not of more value than the next3 for the subjugation of the next world endures for ever2 the conquest over this is but for a brief season4 ,i will1 therefore1 not kill him1 but tell him what he wishes to know40 99 99 99 99 99 ,accordingly1 ,kesidhwaja proceeds to describe the benefits which result from the ,yoga or contemplative devotion4 ,the sage1 or ,yogin1 when first applying himself to contemplative devotion1 is called the novice or practitioner 7,yoga-yuj72 when he has attained spiritual union1 he is termed the adept1 or he whose meditations are accomplished4 ,should the thoughts of the former be unvitiated by any obstructing imperfection1 he will obtain freedom1 after practising devotion through several lives4 ,the latter speedily obtains liberation in that existence in which he reaches perfection1 all his acts being consumed by the fire of contemplative devotion4 ,the sage who would bring his mind into a fit state for the performance of devout contemplation must be devoid of desire1 and observe invariably continence1 compassion1 truth1 honesty1 and disinterestedness3 he must fix his mind intently on the supreme ,brahma1 practising holy study1 purification1 contentment1 penance1 and self-control4 ,these virtues1 respectively termed the five acts of restraint 7,yama7 and five of obligation 7,niyama71 bestow excellent rewards1 when practised for the sake of reward1 and eternal liberation1 when they are not prompted by desire of transient benefits4 ,endowed with these merits1 the sage1 self-restrained1 should sit in one of the modes termed ,bhadrasana1#bh and engage in contemplation4 ,bringing his vital airs1 called ,prana1 under subjection1 by frequent repetition1 is thence called a ,pranayama1 which is1 as it were1 a seed with a seed4 ,in this1 the breath of expiration and that of inspiration are alternately obstructed1 constituting the act twofold2 and the suppression of both modes of breathing produces a third4 ,the exercise of the ,yogin1 whilst endeavouring to bring before his thoughts the gross form of the ,eternal1 is denominated ,alambana4#bi ,he is then to perform the ,pratyahara1 which consists in restraining his organs of sense from susceptibility to outward impressions1 and directing them entirely to mental perceptions4 ,by these means the entire subjugation of the unsteady senses is effected2 and1 if they are not controlled1 the sage will not accomplish his devotions4 ,when1 by the ,pranayama1 the vital airs are restrained1 and the senses are subjugated by the ,pratyahara1 then indeed the sage will be able to keep his mind steady in its perfect asylum4 ,the sage now plunges into transcendentalism which would be barely intelligible1 and certainly uninteresting to the reader1 and we shall therefore decline to follow him1 concluding our extract with the description of ,vishnu which ,kesidhwaja furnishes to his inquiring guest4 ,think of him as having a pleased and lovely countenance1 with eyes like the leaf of the lotus1 marble cheeks1 and a broad and brilliant forehead2 ears of equal size1 the lobes of which are decorated with splendid pendants2 a painted neck2 and a broad breast1 on which shines the ,srivatsa mark2 a belly falling in graceful folds1 with a deep-seated navel2 eight long arms1 or else four2 and firm and well-knit thighs and legs1 with well-formed feet and toes4 ,let him1 with well-governed thoughts1 contemplate1 as long as he can persevere in unremitting attention1 ,hari1 as clad in a yellow robe1 wearing a rich diadem on his head1 and brilliant armlets and bracelets on his arms1 and bearing in his hands the bow1 the shell1 the mace1 the sword1 the discus1 the rosary1 the lotus1 and the arrow4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,in ,,china3--,,confucianism1 ,,taouism1 ,,and ,,buddhism4 ,the creeds in vogue amongst the ,chinese may be regarded as three3--,confucianism1 the religion of the state2 ,taouism1 the religion of the philosophers2 and ,buddhism1 the religion of the people4 ,it has been justly said that a religion which1 like ,confucianism1 has exercised for twenty-four centuries a potent influence over the ,chinese mind1 though owing its name and origin to a simple citizen1 must possess in it something well worthy of consideration4 ,there must be in it a spell which strongly attracts the popular sympathies4 ,this spell is said to be1 though possibly we ought to search deeper and farther for it1 the purely practical character of its tenets1 and the harmony which exists between those tenets and the patriarchal character of the government and the institutions of the country4 ,and in fact it is not so much a religion as an ethical system1--something such as ,christianity would be1 if we took out of it ,,jesus ,,christ4 ,or we may distinguish it as 8a system of ceremonies on a moral basis10 and1 as such1 admirably adapted to the tastes and needs of so ceremonial-loving a people as the ,chinese4 ,to this day the ,ly-pou watch with jealous vigilance the maintenance of all the old traditional rites1 and rigidly enforce the observance of the traditional details in the construction of the temples4 ,moreover such particulars as the six kinds of sceptres1 the five kinds of mats1 and the five kinds of stools are strictly insisted upon2 and it is known that the innumerable prescribed sacrifices offered to the various gods of the heaven and the earth1 to a man's forefathers1 to the hills and the rivers1 the sea and the central mount1 the god of the south pole and the god of thunder1 are the same now as they have been for upwards of #b1jjj years4 ,the founder of ,confucianism1 ,kong-foo-tse1 or ,confucius1 7as the ,jesuits latinised the name17 was born about #eej ,b4,c4 in the state ,loo1 within the district now called ,keo-fou ,hien1 lying to the eastward of the great ,imperial canal1 in the province of ,shang-tung4 ,tradition asserts that his father was a descendant of the imperial family of ,hoang-ty1 of the dynasty of ,chang 7#b1jjj ,b4,c471 and the chief minister of his native kingdom4 ,at an early age1 as is common with most who are destined to rise to greatness1 ,confucius gave indisputable proof of no ordinary mental capacity1 and these budding powers were carefully developed by the training and tuition of the ablest masters4 ,he was still young when he made himself acquainted with the literature of the period1 and especially with the canonical and classical books attributed to the ancient legislators ,yam ,chun1 and others4 ,his amiability of temper is warmly commended1 and no shadow of reproach rests upon his moral character2 except in so far as he exposed himself to censure by divorcing his wife1 after she had borne him a son1 in order1 it is said1 8that he might devote himself the more absolutely to his studies40 ,it is some excuse for him that1 at this time1 he was only twenty4 ,in the same year he was appointed 8superintendent of cattle10--not exactly the ideal office for a philosophical student4 ,however his assiduity and fidelity soon secured the approbation of his superiors2 he was promoted to a more influential position2 and there seemed every probability of his attaining to the highest rank1 when a sudden revolution in the state for a time obscured his prospects4 ,the next eight years of his life he spent in travel1 assuming the role of a religious reformer1 and everywhere gathering round him a crowd of ardent disciples1 whom he instructed in the rules and principles of his ethical system4 ,it is said that they numbered as many as #c1jjj1 of whom seventy-two were specially distinguished by their devotion to their master and their rigid observance of his tenets4 ,returning to ,loo1 when he was about forty-three years old1 he was again called to the service of the state1 and from grade to grade rose to the post of ,prime ,minister1 or 8governor of the people40 ,invested with plenary power1 he proceeded1 with the ardour of an enthusiast1 to realise his ideas1 and rapidly brought about a vast improvement in both the moral and physical condition of the country4 ,the poor were the particular objects of his care3 he provided them with plentiful supplies of cheap and good food1 and released them from the thraldom in which the nobles had held them4 ,his energy and wisdom extended to every department of the state2 and with extraordinary fertility of resource1 he initiated measures for the extension of commerce1 the improvement of the bridges and highways1 the impartial administration of justice1 and the extirpation of the robber bands which infested the mountains4 ,but the neighbouring sovereigns regarded with alarm the progress of his bold reforms4 ,no doubt they talked about communistic and socialistic doctrines1 and the advancing flood of democracy1 as timid people do in our own day4 ,at all events they contrived to put such a pressure upon the ,king of ,loo that he was compelled to part with his great minister1 who fled from his enemies northward1 and found refuge in the kingdom of ,tsi1 on the ,gulf of ,petchali4 ,for twelve1 or1 as some say1 fourteen years he wandered from place to place1 adding to the number of his proselytes2 until spent with fatigue1 and bowed down with years1 he retired with a few favourite disciples to a quiet valley in his native land1 and devoted the remainder of his life to the task of revising and improving the famous writings which for so many centuries have been consecrated by the devout acceptance of the ,chinese4 ,he died at the age of seventy-three1 in #dgg ,b4,c41#cj 8on the eighteenth day of the second moon10 after a seven days' illness4 ,like many other great reformers1 though but indifferently treated in his lifetime1 he became after death the object of universal admiration1 and to this day the ,chinese pay homage to the memory of the 8,great ,master10 the 8,chief ,doctor10 the 8,wise ,king of ,literature10 the 8,saint10 the 8,instructor of ,emperors and ,kings40 ,his descendants have been loaded with honours and privileges1 and now constitute the only hereditary nobility in the ,chinese empire4 ,like the princes of the blood1 they are exempt from taxation4 ,and in every city of the first1 second1 and third rank1 stands at least one temple dedicated to ,confucius1 where the emperor himself and the mandarins are bound to worship1 with offerings of wine1 fruit1 and flowers1--with burning of fragrant gums1 frankincense1 and tapers of sandal wood1--and with singing of appropriate hymns4 ,the eighteenth day of the second moon is kept sacred by the ,chinese as the anniversary of his death4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have already said that the system of ,confucius was ethical rather than religious4 ,it is absolutely free from any theological strain1 and1 indeed1 makes no mention of a ,creator4 8,how should ,i know ,god10 he would say1 8when as yet ,i know not man80 8,his system was essentially conservative2 he aimed at the correction of new vices which had crept into the body politic by endeavouring to restore the old customs of the country2 and hence the high favour in which his system has ever been held by the rulers and magnates of the empire4 ,it inculcated the most perfect subordination1 the most servile obedience1 and the most scrupulous adherence to ancient usage2 every social1 civil1 and political duty is set forth in it with the greatest precision2 but inasmuch as all the parts of the great machine of empire are not absolutely deprived of volition1 a rebellious cog-wheel or insignificant pinion will sometimes disarrange and impede the entire machinery40 ,confucius held that the universe had been generated by the union of two material principles1--a heavenly and an earthly1 ,yang and ,ya4 ,he represents man as having fallen by his own act from his original purity and happiness1 and asserts that by his own act he can recover that condition4 ,for this purpose he must lead a life of obedience to the law1 and he must not do unto others that which he would not have others do unto him4 ,he made the supremacy of parental authority the basis of his political teaching1 and strongly advocated that the son's submission to the father must be as complete as that of the servant to the master1 of the master to the magistrate1 of the magistrate to the crown1 and of the crown to the law4 ,of course this implied that the reciprocal obligations must be observed4 ,this rigid application of the family ideal to the administration of the government1 and the consequent creation of a pure despotism1 has been the cause of all that is most perplexing to ,europeans in the ,chinese civilisation1 and explains why it has never advanced beyond the standard or mark to which it had attained in the era of ,confucius4 ,the ,confucian doctrines are set forth in ,gze-,chou1 8,the ,four ,books10 and ,king1 8,the ,five ,canonical ,works10 of which the following particulars may interest the reader4 ,the ,ta-heo1 or 8,great ,study40 ,the ,ta-heo1 or 8,school of ,adults10 has been translated by ,dr4 ,marshman1 in the 8,clavis ,sinica40 ,it is a treatise1 in two chapters1 on politics and morals1 rising gradually from the government of oneself to the government of a family1 thence to the government of a province1 and finally to the control of the affairs of an empire4 ,its leading principle is self-improvement1 self-culture4 ,in one of the sections an eulogium is bestowed upon the beauty of virtue as a means of self-enjoyment4 ,and the book closes with a fine exhortation to be just1 and truthful1 and honest1 to those whom fortune places at the head of the state4 ,the ,chung-,yung1 or 8,the ,invariable in the ,mean10 ,also translated as 8the ,safe ,middle ,course10 and 8the ,infallible ,medium10 describes the golden mean1 the due medium by which a man should regulate his conduct4 ,he is not to be lifted up by prosperity1 nor cast down by adversity4 ,through thirty-three sections1 in language sometimes clear and strenuous1 sometimes obscure1 the subject is pursued1 and the whole duty of man inculcated4 ,here is a passage describing a kingly man which may be compared with one in ,seneca3-- 8,it is only the man supremely holy1 who1 by the faculty of knowing thoroughly1 and comprehending perfectly the primitive laws of living beings1 is worthy of possessing supreme authority1 and governing men2 who by possessing a soul1 grand1 firm1 constant1 and imperturbable1 is capable of making justice and equity reign2 who by his faculty of being always honest1 simple1 upright1 grave1 and just1 is able to attract respect and veneration2 who by his faculty of being clothed with the ornaments of the mind1 and the talents procured by assiduous study1 and by the enlightenment that springs from an exact investigation of the most hidden things1 and the most subtle principles1 can with accuracy discern the true from the false1 and the good from the evil40 ,the ,lun-,yu1 or 8,philosophical ,conversation40 ,this is the ,chinese ,phdo1 and contains a record of the conversations held between ,confucius and his disciples1 but the author lacked the eloquence and imagination of ,plato4 ,it is interesting however from its anecdotes of the ,great ,teacher4 ,in introducing his guests1 it seems that he kept his arms extended1 like the wings of a bird2 that he never ate meat which had not been cut in a straight line2 that he never used his fingers to point to anything2 and that he would not occupy the mat spread for him as a seat unless it was regularly placed4 ,the ,meng-tze1 or 8,mencius10 ,is a ,commentary upon ,confucius1 written about a century after his death by his disciple ,meng-tze4 ,the subjects treated in it are of various nature4 ,in one part the virtues of individual life and of domestic relations are discussed2 in another1 the order of affairs4 ,here are investigated the duties of superiors1 from the sovereign to the lowest magistrate1 for the attainment of good government4 ,there are expounded the labours of students1 peasants1 traders1 artisans1 while1 in the course of the work1 the laws of the physical world1 of the heavens and the earth1 the mountains and rivers1 of birds1 fishes1 quadrupeds1 insects1 plants1 and trees1 are occasionally described4 ,the great number of affairs which ,mencius managed1 in the course of his life1 in his intercourse with men1 his occasional conversations with people of rank1 his instructions to his pupils1 his expositions of books1 ancient and modern1--all these details are incorporated in this publication4 ,it is a collection of historical facts1 and of the words of ancient ages1 put together for the instruction of mankind4 ,mencius died when he was eighty-four years of age2 his memory is revered by the ,chinese next to that of ,confucius1 and his descendants are treated with a distinction inferior only to that which is accorded to those of ,confucius4 ,king2 or1 ,the ,five ,canonical ,works4 ,these1 which were either written or compiled by ,confucius1 are the most venerable existing monuments of ,chinese literature1 and embody the fundamental principles of the earliest creeds and customs of ,china4 ,the first is the ,y-,king1 or 8,sacred ,book of ,changes10 which may be termed a ,chinese ,cyclopdia1 and contains a great variety of subjects1 morals1 physics1 and metaphysics4 ,it is founded on the combinations of sixty-four lines1--some entire1 and some broken1--and called ,koua2 the discovery of which has been attributed to ,fo-hi1 the traditional founder of ,chinese civilisation4 ,he found them1 it is said1 on the shell of a tortoise1 and asserted that they were capable of explaining all things4 ,it does not seem easy1 however1 to explain them1 and the commentaries upon them are more numerous than even the commentaries upon ,shakespeare4 ,the ,imperial ,library at ,peking contains no fewer than #adej4 ,second in order comes the ,shu-,king1 or 8,book of ,history10 which1 despite its imperfect and fragmentary condition1 is full of interest4 ,it contains a concise narrative of ,early ,chinese history1 down to the eighth century before our era2 including the speeches addressed by several emperors to their high officers1 and numerous valuable documents of great antiquity4 ,reference is made in its pages to a great deluge1 which some suppose to be the ,flood recorded in the book of ,genesis1 but others1 with more probability1 identify with one of the early and extensive inundations of the ,hoang-,ho4 ,the third is the ,shi-,king1 or 8,book of ,sacred ,songs10 a collection of #caa poems1 ancient1 national1 and official1 the best of which every well-educated ,chinaman commits to memory4 ,they range from the eighteenth to the third century before our era1 and are divided into four parts3 first1 the ,ku-fung1 or songs of 8the manners of different states20 second and third1 songs for state occasions2 and fourth1 ,soong1 a collection of eulogies on the various emperors of the ,chow dynasty4 ,this book is described as replete with very interesting and probably authentic information on the ancient manners of ,china1 and is frequently quoted by both ,confucius and ,mencius1 and by them recommended to the study of their disciples4 ,fourth comes the ,li-,king1 or 8,book of ,rites and ,ceremonies10 in which we find a mass of fragments dating from the time of ,confucius downwards1 and throwing a vivid light on the permanent characteristics of the ,chinese civilisation1 and on the causes which made it what it is in all its iron immutability4 ,the ceremonial usages of ,china1 as prescribed in this ritual1 number about #cjjj2 and one of the six tribunals1 the ,ly-pou1 is specially charged with their custody and interpretation4 ,fifth and last is the ,chun-tsien1 or ,tchuntsiou1 or 8,book of ,spring and ,autumn10 so called from the seasons in which it was respectively begun and ended by ,confucius4 ,here the ,great ,teacher has simply written down the earlier history of his native land of ,loo2 with the view of recalling the princes of his age to a conservative spirit of reverence for the customs of the past by indicating the misfortunes that took place after they fell into neglect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,strictly speaking1 ,confucianism has no priests1 no distinct sacerdotal order2 the emperor himself is the patriarch or head1 and every magistrate1 within the sphere of his jurisdiction is a religious official or hierophant4 8,generally1 all literary persons1 and those who propose to become such1 in attaching themselves to it do not necessarily renounce practices borrowed from other religions4 ,but1 in fact1 faith does not seem to have anything to do with the matter2 and habit alone induces them to conform to ceremonies which they themselves turn into ridicule--such as divinations1 horoscopes1 and calculating lucky and unlucky days1 all of which superstitions are in great vogue throughout the empire40 ,china possesses an enormous number of pagodas1 or idol-temples2 ,peking boasts of #aj1jjj2 every village has several1 and they are distributed all along the roads and all over the fields4 ,some are remarkable for their splendour2 but the majority do not differ in appearance1 or very slightly1 from other buildings4 ,often they are nothing more than small chapels1 in which are niches containing idols and vases filled with burning perfumes1 or the ashes of gilt paper on which prayers have been printed1 these papers having been burnt1 as a religious rite1 by devotees4 ,the worshippers1 if such they may be called1 display the utmost indifference of behaviour in these temples3 they enter them to enjoy a rest or a sleep2 or they walk about with their hats on1 whistling1 smoking1 laughing1 chattering4 ,round the sides are seated the vendors of the aforesaid gilt paper prayers and pastiles2 ever and anon they demand attention to their wares by striking a gong2 while the people incessantly burn paper models of clothing1 shoes1 money1 junks1 and the like1 to assist their deceased friends on their long journey4 ,for though the ,chinese have no distinct recognition of a future state1 the worship of the dead is a prominent element of their religion4 ,noble and peasant alike bring offerings1 or send them by proxy1 and kneel before the shades of their ancestors3 this duty at least is always remembered1 whatever other may be forgotten4 ,the following may be given as an example of the prayers used upon such occasions3-- 8,i1 ,lea ,kwang1 second son of the third generation1 presume to come before the grave of my ancestors4 ,revolving years have brought again the season of ,spring2 ,i sweep your tomb with reverence1 and1 prostrate1 beg you to be spiritually present1 and grant that your posterity may be illustrious4 ,at this season ,i desire to recompense the root of my existence1 and reverently1 therefore1 before your holy spirit present the five-fold offering of pork1 fowl1 duck1 goose1 and fish2 with five fruits and the drink samshu2#ca entreating that you will condescend to inspect them4 ,this announcement is presented on high40 ,such offerings as are not accepted by the priests are generally taken home again to furnish full the worshipper's own table4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,ritual ,state ,worship1 which concerns the ,emperor and his court1 but affects not the great body of the people1 we must glance at very briefly4 ,it may be defined as the ceremonial of a philosophical pantheism1 unconnected with any theological doctrine4 ,three classes of natural objects are distinguished1 to which the 8,great10 the 8,medium10 and the 8,lesser0 ,sacrifices are offered4 ,the first class1 the ,ta-sze1 includes the ,heaven and the ,earth1 and along with and equal to these1 the great ,temple of ,imperial ,ancestors4 ,among the ,chung-sze1 or 8,medium ,sacrifices10 are the ,genii1 the ,great ,light and the ,evening ,light 7that is1 the ,sun and the ,moon71 the ,gods of ,land and ,grain1 the ,god of ,letters1 and the ,inventors of ,agriculture1 ,manufactures1 and the ,useful ,arts4 ,to the 8,lesser ,sacrifices10 or ,scaou-sze1 belong the ,founder of the ,art of ,healing1 as well as the spirits of statesmen1 scholars1 and persons of eminent virtue4 ,they are offered also to various natural phenomena1 such as the clouds1 the rain1 the wind1 the thunder4 ,the ,god of ,war1 and ,lung ,wang1 the dragon-king1 who represents the rivers and streams1 have their worshippers2 nor is ,tien-,how1 the ,queen of ,heaven1 forgotten4 ,there are1 besides1 a host of household deities1 like the ,lares and ,penates of the ancients1 who are propitiated by domestic sacrifices at the new year1 when they are supposed to pay a brief visit to the ,other ,world1 and report1 as it were1 the doings and misdoings of the families over which they preside4 ,the chief sacrificial seasons are these3 the winter solstice for all offered to heaven1 the summer season for all offered to earth4 ,the others have their appointed dates4 ,then1 in the course of the year1 numerous festivals of a more or less religious character are held4 ,first among them is the ,imperial ,ploughing of the ,sacred ,field1 which takes place towards the end of ,march4 ,the ,emperor1 attended by some of the princes of the blood and his chief ministers1 then proceeds to a field on one side of the central street in ,peking1 where fitting preparations have1 of course1 been made4 ,after certain sacrifices1 consisting chiefly of grain preserved from the produce of the same field1 the ,emperor takes the plough1 and drives a few furrows4 ,his example is followed by the princes and ministers in succession3 a red tablet indicating the space allotted to each distinguished amateur4 ,the 8five sorts of grain0 are then sown2 and when the ,emperor has seen the work completed by the attendant husbandmen1 the field is committed to the charge of an officer whose business it is to collect and store the produce with a view to future sacrifices to the ,gods of the ,harvest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the ,shae-tung1 or ,feast of ,lanterns1 every traveller has spoken4 ,there are also the ,too-te-tan1 or birthdays of the familiar gods of the city2 the ,tsing-ming-tsee1 or ,feast of ,tombs2 the festivals of all and sundry deities2 and the birthdays of the living ,emperor and ,empress1 as well as the anniversaries of the deaths of their predecessors1 which1 however1 are observed only by the mandarins4 ,so numerous are the festivals that were they celebrated everywhere by everybody there would be neither 8time0 nor 8hands0 for the works of agriculture or commerce1 trade1 science1 or the arts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we pass on to a brief account of ,,taouism4 ,the founder of ,taouism1 the doctrine of ,tao1 or ,reason1 was a celebrated philosopher named ,lao-tsze1 who was born in the third year of the ,emperor ,ting-wang1 of the ,chow dynasty 7,b4,c4 #fjd7 in the state of ,tseu1 now known as ,hoo-pih and ,hoo-nan4 ,he preceded ,confucius by half a century4 ,his family name was ,le1 or ,plum1 and his youthful name1 ,urh1 or ,ear1 in allusion to the exceptional size of his 8auricular appendages40 ,the events of his career are so obscured in an atmosphere of legend and fable1 created by admiring disciples1 that it is difficult to get at any authentic particulars2 but he seems to have been an assiduous student1 and the historian or chronologist of a king of the ,chow dynasty4 ,visiting1 about ,b4,c4 #fjj1 the western parts of ,china1 he gained there a knowledge of the system of ,fo1 or ,buddha1 and soon afterwards began to develope his own religious teaching4 ,so great was his fame that ,confucius went to see him2 but the interview was hardly of the character that might have been expected when two religious philosophers met4 ,lao-tsze reproached the younger sage with pride and ostentation and vanity1 affirming that philosophers loved retirement and seclusion1 and made no boast of virtue and knowledge4 ,it speaks well for the good nature of ,confucius that he replied to this tirade by highly commending ,lao-tsze to his followers1 and describing him as a dragon soaring to the clouds of ,heaven1 unsurpassed and unsurpassable4 ,lao-tsze inquired of ,confucius if he had discovered the ,taou1 the 8path0 or 8reason0 by which ,heaven acts1 and was informed that the philosopher had searched for it unsuccessfully4 ,lao-tsze replied that the wealthy dismissed their friends with presents1 and sages theirs with good counsel2 and that for himself1 he humbly claimed to be thought a sage--an indirect way of advising ,confucius to continue his quest of the ,taou4 ,retiring to ,han-kwan1 he wrote there his ,taou-tih-king1 or ,book of ,reason and ,virtue4 ,he died1 or as his followers say1 ascended to ,heaven on a black buffalo1 in the twenty-first year of the reign of ,king-wang of the ,chow or ,cheu dynasty1 or ,b4,c4 #ebc1 having attained the age of #aai years4#cb ,the contrast between the system of ,lao-tsze and that of ,confucius may be indicated in a word3 the former was speculative1 the latter practical1 and it is no wonder1 therefore that the latter1 addressing itself to man's actual necessities and daily duties1 prevailed over the former4 ,but1 in an abstract sense1 ,lao's1 as originally defined by himself1 was the purer and more elevated2 for it aimed at securing the immortality of man through the contemplation of ,,god1 the subjugation of the passions1 and the absolute tranquillity of the soul4 ,he taught that ,silence and the ,void generated the ,taou1 the 8,logos0 or reason by which movement was produced2 and that all beings containing in themselves the duality of male and female sprang from them4 ,man1 he said1 was composed of two principles1 the material and the spiritual3 from the latter he emanated1 and to it he ought to return1 by throwing off the fetters and snares of the world1 crushing out the material passions1 the desires of the soul1 and the pleasures of the body1 and abandoning riches1 honours1 and the ties of life4 ,before ,lao-tsze's time1 the ,chinese seem to have worshipped the ,shang-te1 or ,supreme ,ruler1 and the ,tien1 or ,heaven3 but ,lao-tsze preached in their place the ,taou1 or 8reason0 of the ,kosmos4 ,of a ,supreme ,creative and ,eternal ,power he had no conception4 ,there was as little theology in his system as in that of ,confucius2 but its morality was not less admirable2 it insisted on the practice of those virtues which form the moral code of all the higher religions1--charity1 benevolence1 chastity1 and the free-will1 moral agency1 and responsibility of man4 ,but there was an obscurity about ,lao-tsze's teaching1 which enabled his followers successfully to pervert it1 and it gradually assumed a form which the ,teacher himself would undoubtedly have been the first to repudiate4 ,the ,taossi1 as they were called1 professed to have discovered the drink of immortality1 and practised divination1 alchemy1 the invocation of spirits1 and other superstitious rites4 ,these follies were gravely ridiculed by the ,joo-,keaou1 or sect of ,confucius1 and gradually were abandoned by all but the most illiterate4 ,among the host of deities worshipped by this sect we may instance the ,san-tsing1 or 8,three ,pure ,ones10 the three-fold ruler of the assembled gods in heaven1 the sun1 the moon1 and the stars1 who delivers his name and benevolent commands to be promulgated amongst mankind1 that all who see and recite that name may be delivered from all evil1 and obtain infinite happiness4 8,it is impossible to doubt10 says a writer1 8that we see here traces of a ,divine revelation1 corrupted though it has now become4 ,china has her ,trinity in ,taouism as well as in ,buddhism2 as other ,pagan nations have had theirs in the ,orphic mythology1 where there were #8counsel1 and light1 and life2' in the ,platonic theology1 which had its #8good1 and mind1 and the soul of the world1' as in the ,egyptian mysteries there were #8,on1 and ,isis1 and ,neith2' and in that of ,fo1 #8,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,seeva4'0 ,the ,taossi1 ,tien-sze1 or 8,celestial ,doctors10--the priests of ,taouism1--are outwardly distinguished amongst the ,chinese by the manner in which they dress their hair4 ,they shave the sides of the head1 and coil the remaining hair in a tuft on the crown4 ,moreover1 they wear slate-coloured robes4 ,there are two orders2 one1 the keepers of the temples1 vowed to celibacy2 the others1 who are free to marry1 live in their own houses1 or wander about the country selling charms and medical nostrums4 ,in the feast of one of their deities1 the 8,high ,emperor of all the ,sombre ,heavens10 they assemble before his temple1 and having kindled a huge fire1 about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter1 go over it barefoot1 carrying the gods in their arms4 8,they firmly assert10 says ,williams1 8that if they possess a sincere mind they will not be injured by the fire2 but both priests and people get miserably burnt on these occasions40 ,escayrac de ,lauture says that they leap1 dance1 and whirl round the fire1 striking at the devils with a straight ,roman-like sword1 and sometimes wounding themselves as the priests of ,baal and ,moloch were wont to do4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some interesting particulars of the ,buddhist temples of ,china are supplied by ,mr4 ,fortune4 ,he speaks of the temple of ,tien-tung as a congeries of temples1 a collection of spacious structures1 which occupy the site of former buildings4 ,all of these are crowded with idols1 or images of the favourite gods1 such as the 8,three precious ,buddhas10 8the ,queen of ,heaven10 represented as sitting on the celebrated lotus or nelumbium--8the ,god of ,war10 and many other deified kings and great men of former days4 ,many of these images are from thirty to forty feet in height1 and have a striking appearance as they stand arranged in the spacious lofty halls4 ,the priests themselves reside in a range of low buildings1 erected at right angles with the different temples and courts that divide them4 ,each has a little temple under his own roof2 a family altar crowded with petty images1 where he is often engaged in private devotion4 ,mr4 ,fortune1 after inspecting the various temples and the belfry1 which contains a noble bronze bell of large dimensions1 was conducted to the house of the principal priest1 where dinner was already spread upon the table4 ,the ,buddhist priests are not permitted to eat animal food at any of their meals4 ,the dinner1 therefore1 consisted entirely of vegetables1 served la ,chinoise1 in numerous small round basins1 the contents of each--soups excepted--being cut up into small square bits1 to be eaten with chopsticks4 ,the ,buddhist priests contrive to procure a quantity of vegetables of different kinds1 which1 by a peculiar mode of preparation1 are rendered very savoury4 8,in fact10 says ,mr4 ,fortune1#cc 8so nearly do they resemble animal food in taste and in appearance1 that at first we were deceived1 imagining that the little bits we were able to get hold of with our chopsticks were really pieces of fowl or beef4 ,such1 however1 was not the case1 as our good host was consistent on this day at least1 and had nothing but vegetable productions at his table4 ,several other priests sat with us at table1 and a large number of others of inferior rank with servants1 crowded around the doors and windows outside40 ,during dinner1 ,mr4 ,fortune learned that about a hundred priests were connected with the monastery1 but that many were always about on missions to various parts of the country4 ,a considerable portion of land in the vicinity belonged to the temple1 and supplied its revenue3 large sums were raised every year from the sale of bamboos1 which are here very excellent1 and of the branches of trees and brushwood1 which are made up in bundles for firewood4 ,many rice and tea farms also belong to the priests and are cultivated by them4 ,in addition to the sums thus raised1 a considerable revenue must accrue from the contributions of the devotees who frequent the temple1 as well as from the alms and donations collected by the mendicant priests of the order1 who are sent out on begging excursions at stated periods of the year4 ,there are1 of course1 all grades of priests2 some being merely the servants of the others1 both domestic and agricultural4 ,the temple forms the centre of a fine landscape4 ,it stands at the head of a fertile valley1 with green hills all around it2 this valley echoes with the music of several bright mountain streams1 and yields abundant crops of rice4 ,on the lower slopes of the more fertile hills grow masses of tea shrubs1 with dark green leaves1 lending a fine background to the picture4 ,a long avenue of ,chinese pine trees leads up to the temple4 ,at first it is straight1 but near the temple it winds picturesquely round the edges of the artificial lakes1 to end at a flight of stone steps4 ,behind1 and on each side1 the mountains rise in irregular ridges1 from #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet above the sea level2 not bare and desolate like the mountains of the south1 but clothed to their tops with a dense tropical-looking growth of brushwood1 shrubs1 and trees4 ,some of the finest bamboos of ,china flourish in the ravines1 and the sombre-coloured pine attains to a large size on the acclivities4 ,a quaint account of the origin of the monastery was given by one of the head priests3-- 8,many hundred years ago a pious old man retired from the world1 and came to dwell in these mountains1 giving himself up entirely to the performance of religious duties4 ,so earnest was he in his devotions that he neglected everything relating to his temporal wants1 even to his daily food4 ,providence1 however1 would not suffer so good a man to starve4 ,some boys were sent in a miraculous manner1 who daily supplied him with food4 ,in the course of time the fame of the sage extended all over the adjacent country1 and disciples flocked to him from all quarters4 ,a small range of temples was built1 and thus commenced the extensive buildings which now bear the name of #8,tien-tung1' or the #8,temple of the ,heavenly ,boys2' ,tien signifying heaven1 and tung1 a boy4 ,at last the old man died1 but his disciples supplied his place4 ,the fame of the temple spread far and wide1 and votaries came from the most distant parts of the empire--one of the ,chinese kings being amongst the number--to worship and leave their offerings at its altars4 ,larger temples were built in front of the original ones1 and these again in their turn gave way to those spacious buildings which form the principal part of the structure of the present day40 ,mr4 ,fortune remarks that a large number of ,buddhist temples are scattered over all this part of the country4 ,their architects have shown as keen a sympathy with nature as the ,cistercian founders in ,europe1 always building them in the most lovely and picturesque situations1 amongst the green hills1 and in the shelter of spreading woods--the leafy enclosures that in ,england indicate the presence of an old manor house1 or 8ancestral hall40 ,poo-to1 or the ,worshipping ,island1 as foreigners call it1 is one of the eastern islands in the ,chusan ,archipelago1 and seems to be one of the great ,buddhist centres4 ,the principal group of temples is situated in a fine romantic glen1 and from the high ground above it1 seems like a town of considerable size4 ,as the traveller approaches nearer1 he finds the view of great interest4 ,in front extends a large artificial pond1 filled with the broad green leaves and noble red and white flowers of the nelumbium speciosum1--a plant in high favour with the ,chinese4 ,access to the monastery is obtained by a very ornamental bridge thrown across this piece of water4 ,the temples or halls containing the idols are extremely spacious2 many of the idols are thirty or forty feet high1 generally made of wood or clay1 and then richly gilt4 ,in a temple of far less pretentious character than any of the others ,mr4 ,fortune met with some exquisite bronze statues1 of undoubted value4 ,having examined these temples1 our traveller made his way towards another group of them1 about two miles to the eastward1 and close on the sea shore4 ,entering the courts through a kind of triumphal arch1 which looked out upon the sapphire sea1 he found that these temples were constructed on the same plan4 ,on the following day he inspected various parts of the island4 ,in addition to the larger temples just noticed1 about sixty or seventy smaller ones are built on all the hill sides1 each containing three or four priests1 who are all under the abbot1 or superior1 residing near one of the large temples4 8,even on the top of the highest hill10 he says1 8probably #a1ejj or #a1hjj feet above the level of the sea1 we found a temple of considerable size and in excellent repair4 ,there are winding stone steps from the sea-beach all the way up to this temple1 and a small resting-place about half-way up the hill1 where the weary devotee may rest and drink of the refreshing stream which flows down the sides of the mountain1 and in the little temple close at hand1 which is also crowded with idols1 he can supplicate ,buddha for strength to enable him to reach the end of his journey4 ,we were surprised to find a ,buddhist temple in such excellent order as the one on the summit of the hill proved to be in4 ,it is a striking fact1 that almost all these places are crumbling fast into ruins4 ,there are a few exceptions1 in cases where they happen to get a good name amongst the people from the supposed kindness of the gods2 but the great mass are in a state of decay40 ,the island of ,poo-to is nothing but a residence for ,buddhist priests1 and no other persons are allowed to live there but their servants and attendants4 ,no women are admitted1 as the principles of ,buddhism insist upon sacerdotal celibacy4 ,there are about #b1jjj priests1 many of whom are constantly absent on begging expeditions for the maintenance of their religion4 ,on certain high days1 at different periods of the year1 many thousands of both sexes1 but more particularly females1 visit these temples1 clothed in their gayest attire1 to pay their vows and engage in the other practices of heathen worship4 ,in the temples or at the doorways stand little stalls1 for the sale of incense1 candles1 paper made up to resemble ingots of ,sycee-silver1 and other holy things1 which are regarded as acceptable offerings to the gods1 and are either consumed in the temples or carried home to bring1 it is supposed1 a blessing upon the homes and families of their purchasers4 ,the profits of these sales go1 of course1 to the maintenance of the establishment4 ,whatever we may think of the superstitious character of ,buddhism1 it is impossible to doubt the sincerity of its disciples1 when we find them sometimes travelling a distance of several hundred miles to worship in their temples4 8,i was once staying10 says ,fortune1#cd 8in the temple of ,tien-tung when it was visited for three days by devotees from all parts of the country4 ,as they lined the roads on their way to the temple1 clad in the graceful and flowing costumes of the ,east1 the mind was naturally led back to those days of ,scripture ,history when ,jerusalem was in its glory1 and the ,jews1 the chosen people of ,god1 came from afar to worship in its temple40 ,mr4 ,gutzlaff1 the missionary1 is of opinion that the priests and devotees of ,buddhism entertain no sincere conviction of the truth of their creed4 ,describing a visit to ,poo-to1 he says3 8,we were present at the vespers of the priests1 which they chanted in the ,pali language1 not unlike the ,latin service of the ,romish ,church4 ,they held rosaries in their hands1 which rested folded upon their breasts4 ,one of them had a small bell1 by the tinkling of which their service was regulated2 and they occasionally beat the drum and large bell to rouse ,buddha's attention to their prayers4 ,the same words were a hundred times repeated4 ,none of the officiating persons showed any interest in the ceremony1 for some were looking round laughing and joking1 while others muttered their prayers4 ,the few people who were present1 not to attend the worship1 but to gaze at us1 did not seem1 in the least degree1 to feel the solemnity of the service40 ,but to condemn the whole ,buddhist sect from this solitary instance would be as reasonable as to pronounce all ,protestants insincere because a ,west-end congregation in ,london may have shown signs of frivolity and indifference6 ,mr4 ,fortune1 on the contrary1 declares that he was much impressed by the solemnity with which the devotional exercises of the ,buddhists were generally conducted4 8,i have often walked10 he says1 8into ,chinese temples when the priests were engaged in prayer1 and although there would have been some apology for them had their attention been diverted1 they went on in the most solemn manner until the conclusion of the service1 as if no foreigner were present4 ,they then came politely up to me1 examining my dress and everything about me with the most earnest curiosity4 ,nor does this apply to priests only2 the laity1 and particularly the female sex1 seem equally sincere when they engage in their public devotions4 ,whether they are what they appear to be1 or how often they are in this pious frame of mind1 are questions which ,i cannot answer4 ,before judging harshly of the ,chinese1 let the reader consider what effect would be produced upon the members of a ,christian church by the unexpected entrance of a small-footed ,chinese lady1 or a ,mandarin1 with the gold button and peacock feather mounted on his hat1 and his long tail dangling over his shoulders4 ,i am far from being an admirer of the ,buddhist priesthood2 they are generally an imbecile race1 and shamefully ignorant of everything but the simple forms of their religion1 but nevertheless there are many traits in their character not unworthy of imitation40 ,the superstitious credulity of the ,chinese is demonstrated by the nature of their various religious ceremonies4 ,in all the southern towns every house has its temple or altar1 both within and without4 ,in the interior the altar generally occupies the end of the principal hall or shop1 as the case may be2 is raised a few feet from the ground1 and adorned with an effigy of the household god1 enveloped in gaudy tinsel paper4 ,by the way1 of what we call 8taste10 the ,chinese do not seem to know even the rudiments2 nor do they appear to have any feeling for harmony of colour or proportion4 ,on the first day of the ,chinese month1 and other festivals1 candles and incense flare and smoke on the table in front of it4 ,the altar outside the door is like to a small furnace1 and here the same ceremonies are regularly performed4 ,the traveller1 as he passes in the neighbourhood of small villages1 or in even more sequestered localities1 comes upon little joss-houses or temples1 all glaringly decorated in the same style with paintings and tinsel paper1 and stuck round about with bits of candles and sticks of incense4 ,shops for the sale of idols of all kinds and sizes1 but of unvarying ugliness1 at prices varying from a few pence to many pounds1 are found in all the large towns4 ,some are evidently very ancient1 and have passed through the hands of a long succession of proprietors4 ,it is a capital custom--is it not8--when you are tired of your god1 because he does not fulfil your wishes1 to purchase another and a more powerful at a slight increase of price6 ,a deity who would really gratify all our petitions would be worth--so far as this world is concerned--a heavy sum6 99 99 99 99 99 ,nothing in ,china is more remarkable than the periodical offerings of a ,chinese family to its gods4 ,the traveller already cited witnessed such a ceremony in a house at ,shanghai4 ,the principal hall was duly set out at an early hour in the morning2 a large table was placed in the centre2 and shortly afterwards covered with small dishes filled with the various articles commonly used as food by the ,chinese4 ,all these were of the very best description which could be procured4 ,after a certain time had elapsed numerous candles were lighted1 and from the burning incense rose columns of fragrant smoke4 ,the inmates of the house and their friends were all clothed in their best attire1 and came in turn to ko-too1 or bow lowly and repeatedly in front of the table and the altar4 8,the scene10 says our authority1 8although it was an idolatrous one1 seemed to me to have something very impressive about it1 and whilst ,i pitied the delusion of our host and his friends1 ,i could not but admire their devotion4 ,in a short time after this ceremony was completed a large quantity of tinsel paper1 made up in the form and shape of the ingots of ,sycee silver common in ,china1 was heaped on the floor in front of the tables1 the burning incense was then taken from the table and placed in the midst of it1 and the whole consumed together4 ,by-and-by1 when the gods were supposed to have finished their repast1 all the articles of food were removed from the tables1 cut up1 and consumed by people connected with the family40 ,on another occasion1 ,mr4 ,fortune1 when at ,ning-po1 having been abroad all day1 did not return to the city until nightfall4 ,the city gates were closed1 but1 on knocking1 he was admitted by the warder4 ,passing into the widest and finest street in the city1 he observed a blaze of light and a general liveliness very unusual in any ,chinese town after dark4 ,the sounds of music fell upon his ear1 the monotonous beat of the drum and gong1 and the more pleasing and varied tones of several wind instruments4 ,on approaching nearer he discovered that a public offering was being made to the gods1 and it proved to be a more striking scene than he could have anticipated4 ,the table was spread in the open street1 and all the preparations were on a large and expensive scale4 ,instead of small dishes1 whole animals were sacrificed4 ,on one side of the table was placed a pig1 on the other a sheep2 the former1 scraped clean in the usual fashion1 the latter skinned2 of both the entrails had been removed1 and on both were placed flowers1 an onion1 and a knife4 ,the other parts of the table 8groaned0 with the delicacies in vogue among the more respectable ,chinese1 such as fowls1 ducks1 numerous compound dishes1 fruits1 vegetables1 and rice4 ,at one end of the table1 when the gods were supposed to sit during the meal1 chairs were set2 and chopsticks were laid in order by the side of every dish4 ,the whole place glared with light1 and wreaths of incense filled the air with sweet odours4 ,at intervals1 bands of musicians struck up the favourite national airs1 which are all of a plaintive cast1 and altogether the scene was a strange and curious revelation of human superstition4#ce 99 99 99 99 99 ,processions in honour of the gods are of frequent occurrence4 ,mr4 ,fortune speaks of one which he saw at ,shanghai as at least a mile in length4 ,the gods1 or josses1 arrayed in the finest silks1 were carried about in splendid sedan-chairs1 in the centre of a long train of devotees1 all superbly dressed for the occasion1 and all bearing their different insignia of office4 ,the dresses of the officials exactly resembled those of some of the attendants who figure in the suite of the higher mandarins4 ,some wore on the sides of their hats a broad fan1 composed of peacock-feathers2 others strutted in gaudy theatrical costumes1 with two long black feathers stuck1 like horns1 in their low caps4 ,the scowling executioners carried long conical black hats on their heads1 and whips in their hands1 for the prompt chastisement of the refractory4 ,bands of music1 in different parts of the procession1 played at intervals as it marched along4 ,on arriving at a temple in the suburbs1 it came to a halt4 ,the gods were taken out of the sedan-chairs1 and with a great exhibition of reverence1 replaced in the temple1 from which they had been removed in the morning4 ,then their worshippers bent low before their altars1 burning incense1 and depositing their gifts4 ,numerous groups of well-dressed ladies and their children were scattered over the ground in the neighbourhood of the temple2 all were kneeling1 and apparently they conducted their devotions with great earnestness4 ,a large quantity of paper1 in the shape of the ,sycee silver ingots1 was piled up on the grass by the different devotees1 and when the ceremonies of the day were being brought to a conclusion1 the whole was burned in honour of1 or as an offering to1 the gods4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,among ,,the ,,malays3 ,,the ,,slamatan ,,bromok2 ,,the ,,dyaks2 ,,the ,,papuan ,,tribes2 ,,the ,,ahetas4 ,,the ,,slamatan ,,bromok4 ,a religious ceremony exists in ,java which has an obvious affinity to the old ,nature-,worship1 and finds its excuse in the dread with which the uncivilised races regarded the mysterious forces of ,nature1 unseen in themselves1 but palpable in their results4 ,about three miles from the town of ,tosari1 rises the barren cone of the ,bromok1 a still active volcano1 which is strangely situated in the bosom of green wooded hills and mountains1--a significant blur upon the landscape4 ,the traveller who desires to accomplish its ascent climbs up the rough and almost precipitous slope by a path winding through immense breadths of a tall yellow grass called the alang-alang4 ,when he has attained to the brink of the ,monegal1 an enormous extinct crater1 reputed to be the largest in the world1 he will do well to pause1 and survey the landscape before him4 ,of the knot of mountains on which his eye rests1 the foremost is called the ,batok1 or ,butak1 that is1 the ,bald2 in allusion1 probably1 to its barren summit1 for its sides are well clothed with herbage4 ,it is shaped like a cone1 with deep grooves down its declivities1 indicating the course taken by the lava-streams formerly ejected from its interior4 ,to its right1 a little in the rear1 stretches the sharp pointed chain of the ,dedari and ,widadarea1 or 8abode of fairies20 while1 on the left1 shrouded in smoke clouds1 which partially conceal its bulk1 is situated the mass of the dreary ,bromok4 ,descending into the crater1 we cross its sandy floor1 the ,dasar1--or1 as it is appropriately called1 the ,sandy ,sea1--where grows not tree nor shrub1 and the only signs of vegetation are a few scattered patches of dried and scrubby grass4 ,the surface is strangely corrugated or ridged1 like the sea-sand at ebb of tide2 and the whole landscape is as full of gloom as the waste of the ,african ,sahara4 ,like many other volcanoes1 the ,bromok is a truncated cone4 ,from one of its sides project numerous irregular masses1 or mounds of mud and sand1 incrusted in a baked clay like red lava4 ,some of these have been largely reduced in size by the heavy tropical rains1 which have ploughed deep broad fissures in the ,sandy ,sea2 while others1 still supplied with liquid matter from the volcano1 are encroaching on the ,dasar1 and covering so much of it as lies within the more immediate neighbourhood of the crater4 ,large blocks of lime and limestone lie embedded in these mounds2 also huge black stones veined like marble and glittering like granite4 ,these1 as well as the scori which abound in every direction1 were products1 it is supposed1 of the last eruption of the ,bromok4 ,climbing to the summit of the ridge1 and looking down into the abyss of the crater1 the traveller at first is tempted to suppose that before him lies one of the 8circles0 of ,dante's medival ,inferno4 ,a yawning pit in the centre belches dense volumes of sulphureous smoke1 accompanied by terrific sounds1 like groans and shrieks and yells4 ,the inner crater forms a large basin1 about #cej feet in diameter1 with irregular broken sides1 descending to a depth of fully #bej feet4 ,the sides1 as well as the bottom1 are encrusted with deposits of yellow sulphureous matter4 ,the ceremony of the benediction of this dread volcano takes place two or three times a year2 it is not without its picturesque details4 ,groups of pilgrims are scattered about the ,sandy ,sea2 some eating1 others praying2 some singing1 others laughing1 talking1 chaffering4 ,men are selling1 and finding a ready market for1 amulets1 charms1 and volcanic stones1 which1 in language as extravagant as that of the ,european proprietor of a patent pill1 they declare to be sovereign remedies for every human malady4 ,provisions of all kinds are on sale1 and lie exposed upon roughly constructed stands1 resembling those which are seen at ,english fairs2 a plank or two1 supported on a couple of stone trestles4 8,wodonos and ,mantries0--the ,javanese nobles--parade up and down in gay attire1 their burnished krisses glittering amidst the folds of their sarong4 ,old men and old women1 who have come to pay their last homage to the shrine1 totter along feebly2 watching with delight1 however1 the frolics of their grandchildren as they scamper about in unchecked glee4 ,at one part of the ,sandy ,sea twenty mats are ranged in a row1 and upon each a young priest kneels1 having before him a box of myrrh1 frankincense1 aloes1 and other spices1 which are sold for offerings4 ,at right angles runs another row1 with the same number of priests1 all kneeling in the ,arab fashion1 their bodies partly resting on the calves of their legs4 ,these are older than the former group1 and may be regarded as the patriarchs of their respective villages4 ,behind each stands a payong-bearer1 shading his master from the sun with a large umbrella4 ,their dress consists of a white gown worn over the sarong1 which is tied to the waist by a broad red belt4 ,over the shoulders hang two bands of yellow silk1 bound with scarlet1 and their ends ornamented with tassels and gold coins4 ,the head-dress consists of a large turban1 adorned with gay silken scarfs4 ,in front of each priest are spread small packets made of plantain leaves1 containing incense1 sandal-wood chips1 and other preparations2 wooden censers1 throwing forth jets of fragrant smoke2 and a vessel1 made of plaited ratan1 for holding water4 ,at a short distance from the priests a motley crowd is assembled1 waiting for the various offerings they have deposited upon specially prepared bamboo stands1 to be consecrated4 ,these offerings consist of cocoa-nuts1 plantains1 pine-apples1 mangoes1 and other fruits2 of baskets of young chickens2 of trays loaded with all kinds of cakes2 of strips of silk and calico2 of gold1 silver1 and copper coins4 ,after spending a few minutes in prayer1 the priest dips his goupillon or cup into the vessel of water before him1 mutters a few unintelligible words1 and sprinkles the oblations as they are successively presented4 ,then all the holy men bow their heads1 and repeat loudly and distinctly a ritual prayer4 ,the oldest rises up1 followed in succession by his sacerdotal companions1 uttering a phrase which sounds like 8,ayo1 ayo1 ,bromok60 and probably means1 8,forward1 forward to the ,bromok60 ,at this signal all the crowd rush to the ,bromok1 impressed with a belief that he who first gains the ridge will be the favourite of fortune1 and presently meet with some exceptional stroke of good luck4 ,at intervals some of the older priests come to a halt1 spread their mats1 and prostrate themselves in prayer for five or ten minutes1 thus securing an interval of rest at the same time that they win a reputation for special devoutness4 ,on reaching the summit of the volcano1 the various families and individuals again present their offerings to the priests1 who mumble over them a few additional words3 they are then thrown into the crater1 each person eagerly repeating some prayer or wish4 ,and thus concludes the strange ceremony by which the spirits of the ,bromok are supposed to be propitiated4 ,the crowd descend from the volcano to join in various games and pastimes2 towards evening they begin to disperse1 and as the night spreads its cloud of darkness over the scene1 the ,sea of ,sand resumes its ordinary aspect of loneliness and desolation4 ,,the ,,dyaks ,,of ,,borneo4 ,it is not certain that the ,dyaks possess any religion4 ,temminck asserts that they have1 and that it bears a close resemblance to 8fetichism40 ,the god ,djath1 he says1 rules the sublunar world1 and the god ,sangjang presides over hell4 ,these gods wear the human form1 but are invisible2 the ,dyaks invoke them by sprinkling rice on the ground1 and offering various sacrifices4 ,in the houses of the ,dyaks1 adds ,temminck1 wooden idols are frequently met with4 ,other travellers are of opinion that they profess a kind of ,pantheism1 and represent them as believing1 like the ancient ,greeks1 in a multitude of gods1 gods above and gods below the world1 as well as innumerable good and evil spirits1 of whom ,budjang-,brani is undoubtedly the most wicked4 ,all diseases are caused by the agency of evil demons1 and all misfortunes2 and therefore the ,dyaks make vigorous efforts to drive them away by shouts1 and shrieks1 and the discordant gong4 ,so in some of the ,west ,indian islands the natives1 during an eclipse1 would seek1 by a horrible clamour1 to frighten away the monster they supposed to be devouring the moon4 ,some authorities go so far as to represent the ,dyaks as cherishing vague ideas of the ,unity of the ,godhead and the immortality of the soul4 ,madame ,ida ,pfeiffer was by no means a philosophical traveller1 but she was an honest observer2 and as the result of her explorations in ,borneo1 she positively affirms that among the tribes she visited are neither temples nor idols1 priests nor sacrifices4 ,on the occasions of their births1 marriages and funerals they perform certain ceremonies1 but these appear to be devoid of all religious character4 ,usually on such occasions they kill fowls as well as hogs4 ,when concluding treaties of peace they always slaughter swine1 but they do not eat them1 and in this custom we may trace perhaps the propitiatory idea4 ,a few tribes burn their dead1 and preserve the ashes in hollow trees2 others inter them in the least accessible localities1 such as the summits of lofty mountains2 others bind the corpse to the trunk of a tree in the position in which ,s4 ,peter was crucified1 that is1 with the feet upwards and the head downwards4 ,,in ,,bouru4 ,the inhabitants of ,bouru1 one of the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago1 profess a creed which was taught them by one called ,nabiata4 ,from some of its articles he would seem to have been a ,mohammedan1 or acquainted with ,mohammedanism2 but whence he came1 or how1 or when he made his way to ,bouru1 it is impossible to ascertain4 ,the natives say that there is one ,supreme ,being1 ,who created all things1 and is the source of both good and evil4 ,he permits the existence of evil spirits4 ,those who pray to ,him ,he rewards with prosperity2 those who neglect this duty ,he never fails to punish4 ,it was owing to ,his infinite love for man that ,he sent him this inspired teacher ,nabiata1 who resided among the mountains1 and delivered his ,master's will in seven commandments3-- #a4 ,thou shalt not kill nor wound4 #b4 ,thou shalt not steal4 #c4 ,thou shalt not commit adultery4 #d4 ,thou shalt not set thyself up against thy fenna 7priest47 #e4 ,a man shall not set himself up against the chief of his tribe4 #f4 ,a chief shall not set himself up against him who is over his or other tribes4 #g4 ,the chief over more than one tribe shall not set himself up against him who is placed over all the tribes4 ,nabiata also taught that though the body perishes1 the soul will live for ever2 that those who keep the foregoing commandments1 7and all the acts of men are duly recorded by the ,supreme ,being17 shall dwell in ,his presence far above the firmament2 while those who have lived wickedly shall never rise to the abode of the happy1 nor shall they remain upon earth1 but for ever and ever1 lonely and in sorrow1 wander among the clouds1 yearning with a desire that can never be fulfilled1 to join their brethren in the heaven above or on the earth beneath4 ,nabiata also introduced the rite of circumcision1 and ordained that it should be performed on children of both sexes when they attained the age of eight or ten years4 ,,the ,,papuan ,,tribes4 ,among the ,dorians1 or the inhabitants of the north coast of ,new ,guinea1 near ,port ,dory1 an almost childish superstition prevails4 ,always and everywhere they carry about with them a variety of charms and talismans1 such as bits of bone1 or quartz1 or carved wood1 to which1 for some reason or other1 an artificial value has come to be attached4 ,those among them who have acquired a slight knowledge of ,mohammedanism use verses of the ,koran written upon narrow strips of paper by the ,mohammedan priests of ,ceram and ,tidore4 ,but most of the ,dorians are pagans1 and worship an idol called 8,karwar10 a clumsy figure of which1 carved in wood1 holding a shield1 and distinguished by an exceptionally large head1 with a sharp nose and a wide mouth1 is kept in every house1 and plays the part of a dumb oracle4 ,its owner1 when involved in any difficulty or danger1 hastens to crouch before it1 bowing or salaaming repeatedly1 with his hands clasped upon his forehead4 ,if while thus engaged he experiences an emotion of doubt or despondency1 it is considered an evil sign1 and he proceeds to abandon whatever may have been his wish or object4 ,it will thus be seen that everything depends upon the votary's temperament or natural disposition1--if he be a sanguine and resolute man1 it is not likely that he will be conscious of any untoward sensation2 and1 in such a case1 he of course concludes that he has the sanction of his 8,karwar40 ,in other words1 his will fortifies him to carry out his wishes4 ,but even among civilised nations a similar method of 8consulting the oracle10--of soliciting the advice of another with the intention of following it only if it coincides with one's own desires1--is sometimes heard of6 ,the ,dorians appear to maintain a priestly caste2 but its functions are confined to the interpretation of dreams and omens2 besides which its members act as 8medicine men40 ,there are no religious rites1 no sacrifices4 ,the two notable events of marriage and death pass with little show4 ,in the former1 the intending bride and bridegroom sit down before the ,karwar1 the woman offers the man homage in the shape of tobacco and betel-leaf2 then they join hands1 rise up1 and are recognised as man and wife4 ,when a death occurs1 the corpse is wrapped in a white calico shroud1 and interred in a pit about five feet deep4 ,there it lies upon its side in the midst of its weapons and ornaments1 and a porcelain dish under its ear4 ,the grave is afterwards filled up with earth1 roofed over with dried grass1 and crowned with the ,karwar of the departed4 ,the ,aruans1 like the ,papuans1 belong to the ,australo-,malay division of the ,archipelago1 and their religious system is but a little more developed4 ,and here we may note that as we recede from ,asia and advance through the great chain of the ,eastern islands to ,australia1 we observe a gradual religious decadence1 until the depth of barbarism is reached in the wretched aboriginal tribes of the great 8island continent40 ,the ,aruans have no idea of a heaven or a hell2 no sense of any 8world beyond the grave10 but their funeral rites are conducted on an extensive scale4 ,when an ,aruan dies1 his kinsmen at once assemble and destroy all the goods and chattels he has accumulated during his lifetime2 breaking even the gongs in pieces1 which are carefully thrown away4 ,the body is next laid out on a small mat1 and propped up against a ladder for three or four days2 after which the relatives again assemble1 and apparently to prevent further decay1 cover the exposed parts with lime4 ,meanwhile the hut is filled with the fumes of burning dammar or resin1 and the guests sit in the perfumed atmosphere drinking large draughts of arrack1 and of a spirit which they contrive to distil from the juice of some indigenous fruit4 ,the stimulant soon does its work2 they give vent to their feelings in violent shouts1 which mingle with the howls and wails of the women and the hoarse discord of the gongs4 ,food is offered to the deceased1 and the mouth crammed with various kinds of edibles1 rice1 and arrack4 ,by this time all the friends and relatives of the departed have assembled--as at a ,scotch funeral2 the body is placed on a kind of bier1 which is strewn with numerous pieces of cloth according to the wealth of the deceased2 while large dishes of ,china porcelain are set beneath to catch any moisture that may fall from it4 ,a high value is afterwards set upon these dishes4 ,being taken out of the house1 the body is supported against a post1 and another effort made to induce it to eat4 ,the hollow jaws are again stuffed with lighted cigars1 rice1 fruit1 and arrack2 and the mourners join in a loud chant1 inquiring whether the sleeper will not awake at the sight of so many friends and fellow-villagers4 ,alas1 the long slumber continues6 ,the body is again placed upon its bier1 which is carried into the forest1 and it is hoisted upon the summit of four posts4 ,a tree1 usually the ,pavetta ,indica1 is then planted near it2 and at this final ceremony none1 it is said1 but naked women are allowed to be present4 ,this is called the sudah buang1 and signifies that the body is thenceforth abandoned to the silence of the wilderness as unable any longer to see1 hear1 think1 or feel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the religion of savage or uncivilised men is1 necessarily1 coloured and determined by the natural influences that surround them1 and according as they live in the ,african desert or the ,american forest1 among the snows of ,siberia or on the table-land of ,tibet1 will bear its distinctive and appropriate character4 ,we do not doubt1 therefore1 but that ,sherard ,osborn is right in the explanation he offers of the superstitious credulity of the ,malays1 that the wonderful phenomena peculiar to the seas and islands of the great ,eastern ,archipelago could never be intelligible to an uneducated and highly imaginative race except on the supposition of supernatural agency4 ,of course1 this superstitious temperament is not confined to the ,malayan race4 ,it is found1 as we have said1 in all savage peoples1 and springs from that profound though often vague and undefinable sense of an overruling and mysterious ,power which the influence of ,nature impresses on the heart of man4 ,there were proofs by the thousand among the ,malays with whom ,admiral ,sherard ,osborn came in contact1 of that connection with the ,unseen ,world which men in every stage of civilisation seem to accept and to be desirous of developing4 ,and he relates a striking instance of their great credulity1 which we may quote here as not wholly without illustrative value4 ,sherard ,osborn's gunboat was lying one night close to the southern point of the ,quedah river1 where it flows into the ,strait of ,malacca4 ,the air was chill and damp1 and the sky obscured with clouds1 through which a young moon sped occasional shafts of silver light4 ,about eleven o'clock his attention was directed to his look-out man1 a ,malay1 who1 seated upon the fore-deck gun1 was spitting violently1 and giving rapid utterance to expressions apparently of reproof or defiance4 ,another ,malay quickly joined him2 pointed towards the jungle-loaded shore2 and then he too began the spitting and ejaculatory process4 ,after awhile1 with an evident air of relief1 the second ,malay went down below4 ,unable any longer to restrain his curiosity1 ,sherard ,osborn walked forward4 ,the look-out man had turned his back to the jungle1 but ever and anon threw a furtive glance over his shoulder1 and uttered sentences in which the name of 8,allah0 frequently occurred4 ,he seemed delighted at the coming of his captain1 and1 springing to his feet1 saluted him4 8,anything new80 said ,osborn2 8any prahus in sight80 8,teda1 ,touhan--no1 sir10 was the reply2 and then observing that his officer was looking in the direction of the jungle1 he made signs that it was better to look anywhere but there4 ,calling ,jamboo1 his interpreter1 ,osborn desired him to ask the ,malay what he saw in the jungle4 ,judge his astonishment at the reply3 8,he says he saw a spirit1 sir40 8,nonsense4 ,ask him how or where8 ,it may be some ,malay scouts40 ,again came the answer3 that the man had distinctly seen an untoo1 or spirit1 moving about among the trees close to the margin of the water2 and that he had been assiduously praying and expectorating1 in order to prevent it from approaching the gunboat1 as it was evidently a very bad spirit1 very dangerous1 and clothed in a long dress4 ,sherard ,osborn reprimanded his interpreter for repeating so ridiculous a fancy1 and ordered him to explain to the man that there were no such things as 8spirits10 and that if he had seen anything1 it must have been an animal or a man4 ,but he was earnestly assured by ,jamboo1 the interpreter1 that ,malays frequently saw untoos2 that some were dangerous1 and some harmless2 and that as for the untoo he had just seen1 the captain would see it too1 if he looked carefully4 ,accordingly1 the ,english captain sat down by the side of the ,malay sailor1 and looked in the same direction4 ,the gunboat lay at anchor about one hundred and fifty yards from the jungle2 the water flowed up to its very margin2 among the spreading roots of the mangrove trees lay small ridges of white shingle and broken shells1 which receded into darkness or shone out into distinct relief as the moonlight fell upon them4 ,when these white gleams became visible1 ,osborn immediately pointed to them1 and hinted that these were the ,malay's 8spirit40 8,no1 no60 he answered vehemently1 and ,jamboo added1 8,he says he will warn you immediately he sees it40 ,suddenly he touched his officer1 and pointing earnestly1 exclaimed1 8,look1 look60 ,sherard ,osborn did look1 and for a moment yielded to the delusion as he caught sight of what appeared to be1 and probably was1 the figure of a female with drapery thrown around her4 ,gliding out of the dark forest shadows1 it halted at a hillock of white sand not more than three hundred yards distant4 ,osborn rubbed his eyes2 the interpreter called vigorously on a ,romish saint1 and the ,malay spat energetically1 as if some unclean animal had crossed his path4 ,again the captain looked1 and again he saw the form1 which had passed a dense clump of trees1 and was slowly crossing another avenue in the forest4 8,feeling the folly10 says ,sherard ,osborn1 8of yielding to the impression of reality which the illusion was certainly creating in my mind1 ,i walked away1 and kept the ,malay employed in different ways until midnight2 he1 however1 every now and then spat vehemently1 and cursed all evil spirits with true ,mohammedan fervour40 ,,the ,,orang-,,lauts4 ,of this singular race of ,malays1 the ,orang-,lauts1 8,men of the ,seas10 or 8,sea-,gipsies10 it is said that they do not seem to know anything of a ,creator4 8,a fact so difficult to believe10 says ,mr4 ,thomson1 8when we find that the most degraded of the human race1 in other quarters of the globe1 have an intuitive idea of this unerring and primary truth imprinted on their minds1 that ,i took the greatest care to find a slight image of the ,deity within the chaos of their thoughts1 however degraded such might be1 but was disappointed4 ,they knew neither the ,god nor the ,devil of the ,christians or ,mohammedans1 although they confessed they had been told of such2 nor any of the demi-gods of ,hindu mythology1 many of whom were recounted to them40 ,the three great epochs of individual life1 birth1 marriage1 death1 pass unnoticed by them4 ,at birth1 the mother's joy is the only welcome to a world it is not likely to find very bright or happy4 ,at marriage1 the sole solemnity is the exchange between the male and the female of a mouthful of tobacco and a cheepah1 or gallon1 of water4 ,at death1 the body of the deceased is wrapped in his rags and tatters1 and with1 perhaps1 a few tears from the attendant women1 committed to the earth4 ,they have none of that exquisite enjoyment of life which is felt by a cultured race2 and neither the entrance upon it nor the passage from it seems to them an event calculated to awaken any emotion of interest4 ,and as they are absolutely without religion1 so are they wholly free from superstition2 the solemn influences of ,nature seem to produce no effect upon their stolid dispositions4 ,of the prus1 and dewas1 and nambangs1 and other phantom forms which1 in the quick imagination of the ,malay1 haunt each mountain1 rock1 and tree1 they nothing know2 and knowing nothing1 they do not fear4 ,terror is as often the result of knowledge as of ignorance4 ,the mind that has no conception of an unseen world or a supernatural force1 must necessarily be free from all apprehension of it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,passing on to the ,philippine ,islands1 we meet there with the ,ahetas1 who1 like the ,orang-,lauts1 have no religious system1 but1 unlike the ,orang-,lauts1 cherish at least a religious sentiment4 ,it appears that they have learned from--or have taught--the ,tanguianes1 a brave race dwelling in the vicinity1 the practice of worshipping--for a day--the trunk of a distorted tree1 or a fragment of rock1 in which they trace some fancied resemblance to an animal4 ,then they turn away from it1 and think no more about gods until they encounter another strange and fantastical form1 for the existence of which they are unable to account3 this1 in turn1 they make the object of a fugitive devotion4 ,for the dead their reverence is pathetic4 ,year after year they visit their graves1 with as much fidelity as a ,christian mourner1 though without the ,christian's faith in a future reunion1 and place there a modest offering of tobacco and betel4 ,the bows and arrows of the departed are suspended above his grave on the day of interment1 and the ,ahetas fondly believe that every night he rises from his resting-place to pursue the shadowy hunt in the haunted glades of the forest4 ,in the case of an aged person afflicted with a mortal illness1 they adopt too often a summary procedure1 not waiting for him to die before they bury him4 ,but no sooner has the body been deposited in the grave1 than it becomes imperative1 according to their traditions1 that his death should be avenged2 and1 accordingly1 the warriors of the tribe sally forth1 with lance and arrow1 to slay the first living creature they encounter1--whether man1 or stag1 or wild hog1 or buffalo4 ,when thus in quest of an expiatory victim1 they take the precaution of breaking off the young shoots of the shrubs as they pass by1 and leave the broken ends hanging in the direction of their roots1 as a warning to travellers or neighbours to shun the path they are taking2 for were one of their own people to be the first to come across the avengers1 they dare not suffer him to escape any more than ,agamemnon could spare his daughter ,iphigenia4 ,as she suffered for her father's vow1 so must the ill-fated ,aheta suffer for the custom of his tribe4 ,their superiority to many savage races is attested by their faithfulness in marriage2 they practise monogamy4 ,when a young man has chosen his future partner1 his friends or relatives ask the consent of their parents1 which is never refused4 ,the marriage day is fixed1 and in the morning1 before sunrise1 the maiden is despatched into the forest1 where she conceals herself or not1 according to her inclinations towards her suitor4 ,an hour's grace is allowed1 and the young man then goes in search of her3 if he succeed in finding her1 and bringing her back to her friends before sunset1 she becomes his wife2 but if he fail1 he is required to abandon all further claim to the damsel4 ,a strange custom6 ,but there is this much at least to be said for it1 that it allows the maiden more liberty of choice than she always enjoys in civilised society6 ,whether the ,ahetas 7or ,negritos7 sprang from a mixture of ,malay and ,papuan blood1 or are of purely ,papuan origin1 our ethnologists do not seem to have determined4 ,but in their present development they are certainly superior to the ,papuan races4#cf ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,savage ,,races ,,of ,,asia3 ,,the ,,samojedes2 ,,the ,,mongols2 ,,the ,,ostiaks2 ,,in ,,tibet4 ,,the ,,samojedes4 ,the ,samojedes are a people of ,arctic ,asia1 where they inhabit the forests and stony tundras of ,northern ,russia and ,western ,siberia2 driving their herds of reindeer from the banks of the ,chatanga to the ice-bound shores of the ,white ,sea1 or hunting the wild beasts in the thick forests which extend between the ,obi and the ,yenisei4 ,their superstition is of a very coarse and degrading character4 ,it is true that they recognise the existence of a ,supreme ,deity1 named ,jilibeambaertje1 or ,num1 who resides in the air1 and1 like the ,greek ,zeus1 sends down rain and snow1 thunder and lightning2 and they afford a proof of that latent capacity for poetical feeling1 which some of even the most barbarous tribes possess1 in their description of the rainbow as 8the hem of his garment40 ,to them1 however1 he seems so elevated above the things of earth1 so indifferent to the woes or joys of humanity1 that they regard it as useless to seek to propitiate him either by prayer or sacrifice2 and accordingly they appeal to the inferior gods who have1 as they believe1 the control of human affairs1 and can be affected by incantations1 vows1 or special homage4 ,the bleak and lonely island of ,waigatz is still1 as in the days of the ,dutch adventurer1 ,barentz1 supposed to be the residence of the chief of these minor divinities4 ,there a block of stone1 pointed at the summit1 bears a certain resemblance to a human head1 having been wrought into this likeness by a freak of ,nature4 ,the ,samojede image-makers have taken it for their model1 and multiplied it in wood and stone2 and the idols thus easily manufactured they call sjadi1 because they wear a human 7or semi-human7 countenance 7sja47 ,they attire them in reindeer skins1 and embellish them with innumerable coloured rags4 ,in addition to the sjadi1 they adopt as idols any curiously contorted tree or irregularly shapen stone2 and the household idol 7,hahe7 they carry about with them1 carefully wrapped up1 in a sledge reserved for the purpose1 the hahengan4 ,one of the said ,penates is supposed to be the guardian of wedded happiness1 another of the fishery1 a third of the health of his worshippers1 a fourth of their herds of reindeer4 ,when his services are needed1 the ,hahe is removed from its resting-place1 and erected in the tent or on the pasture-ground1 in the wood1 or on the river's bank4 ,then his mouth is smeared with oil or blood1 and before him is set a dish of fish or flesh1 in return for which repast it is expected that he will use his power on behalf of his entertainers4 ,when his aid is no longer needed1 he is returned to the hahengan4 ,besides these obliging deities1 the ,samojede believes in the existence of an order of invisible spirits which he calls ,tadebtsois4 ,these are ever and everywhere around him1 and bent rather upon his injury than his welfare4 ,it becomes important1 therefore1 to propitiate them2 but this can be done only through the intervention of a ,tadibe1 or sorcerer2 who1 on occasion1 stimulates himself into a wildly excited condition1 like the frenzy of the ,pythean or ,delphic priestess4 ,when the credulous ,samojede invokes his assistance1 he attires himself in full necromantic costume3 a kind of shirt1 made of reindeer leather2 and trimmed with red cloth4 ,its seams are similarly trimmed2 and the shoulders are decorated with red cloth tags1 or epaulettes4 ,a visor of red cloth conceals his face1 and upon his breast gleams a plate of polished metal4 ,thus imposingly arrayed1 the ,tadibe takes his drum of reindeer skin1 ornamented with brass rings1 and1 attended by a neophyte1 walks round and round with singular stateliness1 while invoking the presence of the spirits by a discordant rattle4 ,this gradually increases in violence1 and is accompanied by the droning incantation of the words of enchantment4 ,in due time the spirits are supposed to appear1 and the ,tadibe proceeds to consult them3 beating his drum more gently1 and occasionally pausing in his lugubrious chant1--which1 however1 the novice is careful not to interrupt1--to listen1 as he pretends1 to the answers of the deities4 ,at length the interrogations cease2 the chant breaks into a fierce howl2 more and more loudly rattles the drum3 the ,tadibe appears possessed by a supernatural influence2 his body writhes2 the foam-drops gather on his lips4 ,all at once the wild intoxication ceases2 and the ,tadibe delivers the supposed will of the ,tadebtsois3 advises how a stray reindeer may be recovered1 or the disease of the ,samojede worshipper relieved1 or the fisherman's labour may secure a plenteous 8harvest of the sea40 ,the ,tadibe's office is usually hereditary2 but occasionally some outsider1 predisposed by nature to hysteric manifestations1 and gifted with a warm1 irregular imagination1 is initiated into its mysteries4 ,his morbid fancy is intensified by long solitary self-communings and protracted fasts and vigils2 and his frame debilitated by the use of pernicious narcotics and stimulants1 until he comes to believe that he has been visited by the spirits4 ,he is then received as a ,tadibe1 with numerous ceremonies1 which take place at midnight1 and is invested with the magic drum4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the ,tadibe1 if he deceive others1 is the victim to some extent of self-deception4 ,but1 in order to impose upon his ignorant countrymen1 he does not disdain to resort to the commonest cheats of the conjuror4 ,among these is the notorious rope-trick1 introduced into ,england by the performers known as the 8,davenport ,brothers10 and since repeated by so many 8professional artists40 ,with hands and feet to all appearance securely fastened1 he sits down on a carpet of reindeer skin1 and1 the lights being put out1 summons the spirits to his assistance4 ,their presence is speedily made known by singular noises2 squirrels seem to rustle1 snakes to hiss1 bears to growl4 ,at length the disturbance ceases2 the lights are rekindled2 and the ,tadibe steps forward unbound2 the spectators of course believing that he has been assisted by the ,tadebtsois4 ,not less barbarous than the poor creatures who submit to his guidance1 the ,tadibe is incapable1 and probably not desirous1 of improving their moral condition4 ,similar impostors1 claiming and exercising a similar spiritual dictatorship1--,schamans1 as the ,tungusi call them1 ,angekoks among the ,eskimos1 ,medicine-men among the ,crees and ,chepewyans1--we find among all the ,arctic tribes of the ,old and ,new ,world1 where their authority has not been overthrown by ,christianity or ,buddhism2 and this dreary superstition still prevails over at least half a million of souls1 from the ,white ,sea to the extremity of ,asia1 and from the ,pacific to ,hudson's ,bay4 ,like the peoples of ,siberia1 the ,samojedes offer up sacrifices to the dead1 and perform various ceremonies in their honour4 ,like the ,north ,american ,indians1 they believe that the desires and pursuits of the departed continue exactly the same as if they were still living2 and hence1 that they may not be in want of weapons or implements1 they deposit in or about the graves a sledge1 a spear1 a knife1 an axe1 a cooking-pot4 ,at the funeral1 and for several years afterwards1 the kinsmen sacrifice reindeer over the grave4 ,when a chief or ,starochina dies1--the owner1 it may be1 of several herds of reindeer1--his nearest relatives fashion an image1 which is kept in the tent of the deceased1 and receives the same measure of respect that was paid to the man himself in his lifetime4 ,at every meal it occupies his accustomed seat2 every evening it is solemnly undressed1 and duly laid down in his bed4 ,for three years these honours are regularly paid2 after which the image is buried1 in a belief that the body must by that time have decayed1 and lost all recollection of the past4 ,only the souls of the ,tadibes1 and of those who have died a violent death1 are in the enjoyment of immortality1 and hover about the air as disembodied spirits4 ,,the ,,ostiaks4 ,further to the east1 and occupying the northernmost part of ,siberia from the ,oural ,mountains to ,kamtschatka1 are the ,ostiaks4 ,the ,russians have imposed upon this people the ,christian religion1 as taught by the ,greek ,church2 but it seems probable that the majority adhere in secret to their heathen creed4 ,madame ,felinska1 a ,polish lady1 who for some years lived in exile in ,siberia1 relates that1 one day1 when she was seeking a pathway through a wood1 she came upon a couple of ,ostiaks1 on the point of performing their devotions4 ,these are certainly of a much simpler kind than the rites enjoined by the ,greek ,church3 the worshipper simply places himself before a tree--he appears to prefer the larch--in some sequestered forest-nook1 and performs in rapid succession the most extravagant contortions and gestures4 ,as the practice is prohibited by the ,russian ,government1 it is necessarily made a matter of secresy4 ,an ,ostiak generally carries about him a rude image of one of the deities or demons which he adores under the name of ,schatan2 but he conforms to ,russian customs by wearing a small crucifix of copper on his breast4 ,the ,schatan is a rude imitation of the human figure1 carved in wood4 ,it is of different sizes1 according to the uses for which it is intended2 if for wearing on the person1 it is a miniature doll2 but as part of the furniture of an ,ostiak's hut it is made on a large scale4 ,it is always attired in seven pearl-broidered chemises1 and suspended to the neck by a string of silver coins4 ,in every hut it fills the place of honour1--sometimes in company with an image of the ,virgin ,mary or some ,russian saint2 and when they sit down to their meals1 the ,ostiaks are careful to offer it the daintiest morsels1 smearing its lips with fish or raw game2 this sacred duty fulfilled1 they attack with eagerness the viands set before them4 ,the ,ostiak priests are called ,schamans4 ,their influence is very great1 but is wholly employed in the promotion of their own selfish interests1 through the encouragement of the basest superstitions4 ,,weather-,,conjuring ,,among ,,the ,,mongols4 ,there are many allusions in ,mongol history to the practice of weather-conjuring4 ,the operation was performed by means of a stone supposed to be endowed with magical virtues1 called ,yadah or ,jadah ,tsh2 this was suspended over or hung in a basin of water with sundry ceremonies4 ,ibn ,mohalhal1 an early ,arab traveller1 asserts that the ,kmk1 a great tribe of the ,turks1 possessed such a stone4 ,in the war waged against ,chinghiz and ,aung ,khan by a powerful tribal confederation in #abjb1 it is recorded that ,sengun1 the son of ,aung ,khan1 who had been despatched to arrest the enemy's advance1 caused them to be enchanted1 so that all the movements they attempted against him were defeated by dense mists and blinding snow-storms4 ,so thick was the mist1 so intense was the darkness1 that men and horses stumbled over precipices1 and many also perished with cold4 ,the celebrated conqueror1 ,timur1 in his ,memoirs1 records that the ,jets resorted to incantations to produce heavy rains which hindered his cavalry from acting against them4 ,a ,yadachi1 or weather-conjuror1 was taken prisoner1 and after he had been beheaded the storm ceased4 ,babu refers to one of his early friends1 ,khwaja ka ,mulai1 as conspicuous for his skill in falconry and his knowledge of ,yadageri1 or the science of inducing rain and snow by means of enchantment4 ,the ,russians were much distressed by heavy rains in #aeeb1 when besieging ,kazan1 and universally ascribed the unfavourable weather to the arts of the ,tartar queen1 who was an enchantress4 ,early in the #ahth century1 the ,emperor ,shi-tsung issued a proclamation against rain-conjuring1 addressed to the ,eight ,banners of ,mongolia4 8,if10 indignantly observes the ,emperor1 8if ,i1 offering prayers in sincerity1 have yet cause to fear that it may please heaven to leave ,,my prayer unanswered1 it is truly intolerable that mere common people wishing for rain should of their own fancy set up altars of earth2 and bring together a rabble of ,hoshang 7,buddhist ,bonzes7 and ,taossi to conjure the spirits to gratify their wishes40 ,the belief in the efficacy of weather-conjuring prevailed all over ,europe4 ,in the ,cento ,novelle ,antiche1 certain necromancers gave specimens of their skill before the ,emperor ,frederic ,barbarossa2 and the weather began to be overcast2 and lo1 of a sudden rain fell with continued thunders and lightnings1 as if the world were come to an end1 and hailstones of the size and appearance of steel caps4 ,,in ,,tibet4 ,marco ,polo1 describing his visit to the ,kaan's ,palace at ,chandu1 once known as ,kaipingfu1 speaks of the immense stud of pure white mares which the ,kaan kept there1 and adds3--8,when the ,kaan sets out from the ,park on the #bhth of ,august1 the milk of all those mares is taken and sprinkled on the ground4 ,and this is done on the injunction of the ,idolaters and ,idol-priests1 who affirm that it is an excellent thing to sprinkle that milk on the ground every #bhth of ,august1 so that the ,earth and the ,air and the ,false ,gods shall have their share of it1 and likewise the spirits that inhabit the ,air and the ,earth4 ,and then those beings will protect and bless the ,kaan and his children and his wives and his folk and his gear1 and his cattle and his horses1 his corn and all that is his40 ,marco ,polo proceeds3--8,but ,i must now tell you a strange thing which hitherto ,i have forgotten to mention4 ,during the three months of every year that the ,emperor resides at that place1 if it should happen to be bad weather1 there are enchanters and astrologers in his train1 who are such adepts in necromancy and diabolic arts1 that they are able to prevent any cloud or storm from passing over the spot on which the ,emperor's ,palace stands4 ,the sorcerers who do this are called ,tebet and ,kesimar1 which are the names of two nations of idolaters4 ,whatever they do in this way is by the help of the ,devil1 but they make those people believe that it is compassed by dint of their own sanctity and the help of ,,god4444 8,there is another marvel performed by those ,bacsi of whom ,i have been speaking as knowing so many enchantments4 ,for when the great ,kaan is at his capital and in his great palace1 seated at his table1 which stands on a platform some eight cubits above the ground1 his cups are set before him on a great buffet in the middle of the hall pavement1 at a distance of some ten paces from the table1 and filled with wine1 or other good spiced liquor such as they use4 ,now when the ,kaan desires to drink1 these enchanters by the power of their enchantments cause the cups to move from their place without being touched by anybody1 and to present themselves to the ,emperor6 ,this every one present may witness1 and there are oftentimes more than ten thousand persons thus present4 ',tis a truth and no lie6 and so will tell you the sages of our own country who understand necromancy1 for they also can perform it40 ,on the occasion of one of these ,idol ,festivals1 the ,bacsi would go to the ,prince and say3--8,sire1 the feast of such a god is come40 ,and he would continue3--8,my ,lord1 you know that this god1 when he gets no offering1 always sends bad weather and spoils our seasons4 ,so we pray you to give us such and such a number of black-faced sheep10 7naming any number they please74 8,and we beg also1 good my ,lord1 that we may have such a quantity of incense1 and such a quantity of lign-aloes1 and0--so much of this or so much of that1 according to the measure of their cupidity or the probability of their expectations being gratified--8that we may perform a solemn service and a great sacrifice to our ,idols1 and that so they may be induced to protect us and all our property40 ,when the ,bacsi have obtained from the ,kaan the fulfilment of their desires1 they make a great feast in honour of their god1 and hold great ceremonies of worship with grand illuminations and quantities of incense of a variety of odours1 which they make up from different aromatic spices4 ,and when the viands are cooked1 they set them before the idols1 and sprinkle the bush about1 affirming that in this way the idols obtain a sufficiency4 ,thus it is that they keep their festivals4 ,each idol1 we must add1 has a name of his own1 and a feast-day1 just as the ,saints of the ,christian ,church have their anniversaries4 ,large minsters and abbeys are theirs1 some of them of the size of a small town1 with upwards of #b1jjj monks in a single abbey4 ,these monks dress more decorously than the rest of the people1 and have the head and the beard shaven4 ,among them a limited number are1 by their rule1 allowed to marry4 ,another kind of devotees were called the ,seusin1 men of extraordinary abstemiousness1 who led a life of extreme endurance4 ,their sole food was bran mixed with hot water1 so that one might call their lives a prolonged fast4 ,they had numerous idols1 and idols of a monstrous size1 but they also worshipped fire4 ,idolaters not belonging to this sect naturally called them 8heretics10 on the old principle that 8my doxy0 is 8orthodoxy10 and 8your doxy0 8heterodoxy40 ,their dresses were made of hempen stuff1 black and blue1 and they slept upon mats4 ,in fact1 says ,marco ,polo1 8their asceticism is something remarkable40 99 99 99 99 99 ,chandu1 or ,xanadu1 and its palace1 suggested to ,coleridge one of his most exquisite passages of description3-- 8,in ,xanadu did ,kubla ,kaan ,a stately pleasure dome decree3 ,where ,alph1 the sacred river1 ran1 ,by caverns measureless to man1 ,down to a sunless sea4 ,so twice five miles of fertile ground1 ,with walls and towers were girdled round3 ,and there were gardens bright with sinuous rills1 ,where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree2 ,and here were forests1 ancient as the hills1 ,enfolding sunny spots of greenery40 ,xanadu has disappeared1 and so has its palace1 but the superstitions practised in it are still in vogue among the ,mongolian peoples4 ,the word 8,bakhshi10 however1 has come to have a different meaning in different districts2 among the ,kirghiz ,kazzaks it is applied1 as ,marco ,polo applied it1 to a conjuror or medicine-man2 among the modern ,mongols it signifies 8a teacher10 and is bestowed on the oldest and most learned priest of a community2 in ,western ,turkestan it means 8a bard20 in our ,indian army it is 8a paymaster40 ,the jugglery of the goblets1 to which ,marco ,polo refers1 was not uncommon in ,medival ,europe4 ,colonel ,yule cites#cg the ,jesuit ,delrio as lamenting the credulity of certain princes1 otherwise of pious repute1 who allowed diabolic tricks to be played in their presence2 as for instance that things of iron1 and silver goblets1 or other heavy articles1 should be moved by bounds from one end of a table to the other1 without the use of a magnet or of any attachment4 ,the pious prince appears to have been ,charles ,,ix41 and the conjuror a certain ,cesare ,maltesio4 ,in old legends this trick is one of the sorceries ascribed to ,simon ,magus4 8,he made statues to walk2 leapt into the fire without being burnt2 flew in the air2 made bread of stones2 changed his shape2 assumed two faces at once10--an accomplishment not confined to conjurors1--8converted himself into a pillar2 caused closed doors to fly open of their own will2 and made the vessels in a house seem to move of themselves40 ,colonel ,yule asserts that the profession and practice of exorcism and magic in general is much more prominent in ,lamaism1 or ,tibetan ,buddhism1 than in any other known form of that religion4 8,indeed10 he says1 8the old form of ,lamaism1 as it existed in ,marco ,polo's day1 and till the reforms of ,tsongkhapa 7#aceg-adai71 and as it is still professed by the ,red sect in ,tibet1 seems to be a kind of compromise between ,indian ,buddhism and the old indigenous ,shamanism4 ,even the reformed doctrine of the ,yellow sect recognises an orthodox kind of magic1 which is due in great measure to the combination of ,sivaism with the ,buddhist doctrines1 and of which the institutes are contained in the vast collection of the ,jud or ,tantras1 recognised among the holy books4 ,the magic arts of this code open even a short road to the ,buddhahood itself4 ,to attain that perfection of power and wisdom culminating in the cessation of sensible existence1 requires1 according to the ordinary paths1 a period of three asankhyas 7or say ,unaccountable ,time #c71 whereas by means of the magic arts of the ,tantras1 it may be reached in the course of three rebirths only1 nay1 of one6 ,but from the ,tantras also can be learned how to acquire miraculous powers for objects entirely selfish and secular1 and how to exercise these by means of ,dhrani1 or mystic ,indian charms40 ,the commonplace and vulgar exhibition of such exploits as blowing fire1 cutting off heads1 and swallowing knives1 is formally repudiated by the orthodox ,yellow ,lamas2 but as the crowd cannot be satisfied without them1 each of the great ,yellow ,lama monasteries in ,tibet maintains a conjuror1 as of old each ,european sovereign kept his jester4 ,this conjuror is not a member of the monastic fraternity1 and lives in a particular part of the convent1 out of the atmosphere of their sanctity4 ,he is called ,choicong1 or protector of religion1 and is free to marry4 ,the ,choicong hand down their magic lore from generation to generation orally1 and by their cries and howls1 and their frenzied gestures1 and their fantastic dress1 are connected with the ,shamanist devil dancers4 ,magic seems to have always borne the same character in every country4 ,the marvels accomplished by the ,indian mystic charms1 or ,dhrani1 are exactly those which the ,medival magicians of ,europe professed to achieve4 ,to make water flow backwards1 to resuscitate the dead1 to fly through the air1 to read a man's inmost thoughts1 these were the wonders done by ,simon ,magus in his day1 and by ,albertus ,magnus and his followers in their day2 and form what may be called the ordinary stock-in-trade of the old necromancers4 ,the ,bakhshis included them in their series of performances4 8,there are certain men10 says ,ricold1 8whom the ,tartars honour above all in the world1 viz41 the ,baxit1 7or ,bakhshis71 who are a kind of idol priests4 ,these are men from ,india1 persons of deep wisdom1 well conducted1 and of the gravest morals4 ,they are usually acquainted with magic arts1 and depend on the counsel and aid of demons2 they exhibit many illusions1 and predict some future events4 ,for instance1 one of eminence among them was said to fly2 the truth however was 7as it proved7 that he did not fly1 but did walk close to the surface of the ground without touching it2 and would seem to sit down without having any substance to support him40 ,ibn ,batuta describes a performance of this kind as witnessed by him at ,delhi1 in the presence of ,sultan ,mahomed ,tughlak4 ,francis ,valentyn1 at a later date1 speaks of it as common in ,india4 ,he was told1 he says1 that a man would first go and sit upon three sticks which had been so put together as to form a tripod1 after which1 first one stick1 then a second1 then a third would be removed from under him1 and yet the man would not fall1 but would remain suspended in the air4 ,he could not bring himself to believe it1 so manifestly contrary was it to reason1 yet he had spoken with two friends who had both seen it done on the same occasion1 and one of them mistrusting his own eyes1 had felt about with a long stick to ascertain if there were not something on which the body rested1 but could discover nought4 ,superstition1 like history1 repeats itself1--some of the marvels with which the ,lama conjurors and the ,tartar ,bakhshis deluded their people are repeated by the spiritualistic 8mediums10 of the present day and put forward by them as the credentials of their pretended mission4 ,they fall short1 however1 of the extraordinary feats performed by the professional jugglers who laid no claim to a religious character1 if we may credit the accounts of the early travellers4 ,ibn ,batuta1 for instance1 gravely describes what he saw1 or thought he saw1 at a great entertainment given by the ,viceroy of ,khansa3-- ,a juggler1 he says1 one of the ,kaan's slaves1 made his appearance1 and at the ,amir's bidding1 began to display his surprising accomplishments4 ,taking a wooden ball1 with several holes in it1 through which long thongs were passed1 he laid hold of one of these1 and slung the ball into the air4 ,it went so high1 that the spectators wholly lost sight of it4 ,observe1 that the scene was the palace-court1 sub ,jove4 ,there remained only a little of the end of the thong in the juggler's hand1 and of this he desired a juvenile assistant to lay hold1 and mount4 ,he did so1 climbing by the thong1 and was speedily lost to sight also4 ,the conjuror called him thrice1 but receiving no answer1 snatched up a knife1 as if in a great rage1 laid hold of the thong1 and in his turn disappeared4 ,by-and-by he threw down one of the boy's hands1 then a foot1 then the other hand1 the other foot1 the trunk1 and lastly1 the head6 ,finally1 he himself came down1 all puffing and panting1 and with blood-besmeared clothes kissed the ground before the ,amir1 addressing him in ,chinese4 ,the ,amir made some reply2 and straightway the juggler took the boy's disjecta membra1 laid them in their places1 gave a kick1 and lo and behold1 the boy arose and stood erect1 8clothed and in his right mind40 8,all this10 says ,ibn ,batuta1 8astonished me beyond measure10--and no wonder6--8and ,i had an attack of palpitation like that which overcame me once before in the presence of the ,sultan of ,india1 when he showed me something of the same kind4 ,they gave me a cordial1 however1 which cured the attack4 ,the ,kazi ,afkharuddin was next to me1 and quoth he1 #8,wallah6 'tis my opinion there has been neither going up nor coming down1 neither maiming nor mending2 'tis all hocus pocus6'0 ,impartial scientific observers have passed a similar verdict on the proceedings of the 8mediums10 who1 however1 have never achieved anything so surprising as the feat here recorded4 ,before we incredulously reject the ,arab traveller's narrative1 let us compare it with an account furnished by ,edward ,melton1 an ,anglo-,dutch traveller1 of the performances of some ,chinese conjurors1 which he saw at ,batavia4 ,passing over the basket-murder trick1 which ,houdin and others have made familiar to the ,english public1 we come to 8a thing which surpasses all belief20 which1 indeed1 ,mr4 ,melton would scarcely have ventured to relate had not thousands witnessed it at the same time as himself4 ,one of the gang took a ball of cord1 and grasping one end in his hand hurled the other up into the air with such force that it was entirely lost to sight4 ,he then climbed up the cord as rapidly as a sailor up his ship's rigging1 and to such a height that he became invisible4 ,melton stood full of astonishment1 and at a loss to know what next would happen2 when1 behold1 a leg tumbled out of the air6 ,a conjuror who was on the watch for it immediately snatched it up1 and threw it into a basket4 ,down came a hand1 and then another leg1 and1 in short1 all the members of the body successively fell from the air1 to find shelter in the basket4 ,the last of the ghastly shower was the head2 and no sooner had it touched the ground than the man who had gathered the limbs and stowed them in the basket1 turned them all out again topsy-turvy4 ,straightway they began to creep together1 until they composed a whole man1 who stood up and walked about just as before1 having sustained apparently no damage6 8,never in my life10 says ,melton1 8was ,i so astonished as when ,i beheld this wonderful performance1 and ,i doubted now no longer that those misguided men did it by the help of the ,devil4 ,for it seems to me totally impossible that such things should be accomplished by natural means40#ch ,the ,emperor ,jahngir in his 8,memoirs0 7cited by ,yule7 describes the exploits of some ,bengali jugglers1 who exhibited before him4 ,two of them bear a close resemblance to the foregoing4 ,thus3 they produced a man whom they divided limb from limb1 actually severing his head from the body4 ,these mutilated members they scattered along the ground1 where they remained for some time4 ,a sheet or curtain was extended over the spot1 and one of the men placing himself under it1 in a few minutes reappeared1 in company with the individual supposed to have been so roughly dissected1 in such perfect health and condition1 that one might have safely sworn he had never received the slightest wound or injury4 ,again3 they produced a chain1 fifty cubits long1 and one end of it threw towards the sky1 when it remained as if fastened to something in the air4 ,a dog was then brought forward1 and being placed at the lower end of the chain1 ran up it to the other end1 and immediately vanished4 ,in the same manner a boy1 a panther1 a lion1 and a tiger were successively sent up the chain to disappear1 in their turn1 at the other end of it4 ,and1 lastly1 the chain was taken down and put away in a bag1 without any of the spectators discovering in what manner the different animals had been spirited into space6 ,the surprising dexterity of these jugglers is emulated by their descendants1 and many of the ,indian conjurors produce illusions scarcely less wonderful than any we have described4 ,take the pretty mango-trick4 ,the juggler who exhibits has no other drapery than half a yard of cotton1 and no other apparatus than a handful of common toys4 ,he has none of those elaborate mechanical contrivances1 on which the ,european professors of legerdemain mostly rely for their effects4 ,he takes a mango-stone1 buries it in a little mud1 and covers it with a jar4 ,a few minutes later1 the jar is lifted up2 and lo1 a tender green seed-leaf has delicately sprouted4 ,another peep into the magic hotbed1 and we see that the tiny leaf has withered1 and that a flourishing young tree has sprung into sudden existence4 ,or we have the egg-trick1 which an eye-witness thus describes3--#ci 8,one of the party1 a very handsome woman1 fixed on her head a fillet of strong texture1 to which were fastened1 at equal distances1 twenty pieces of string of equal length1 with a common noose at the end of each4 ,under her arm she carried a basket1 in which were carefully deposited twenty eggs4 ,her basket1 the fillet1 and the nooses were carefully examined by us4 ,there was evidently no deception4 8,the woman advanced alone1 and stood before us4 ,she then began to move rapidly round on one spot1 whence she never for one instant moved1 spinning round and round like a top4 8,when her pace was at its height1 she drew down one of the strings1 which now flew horizontally round her head1 and1 securing an egg in the noose1 she jerked it back to its original position1 still twirling round with undiminished velocity1 and repeating the process until she had secured the whole twenty eggs in the nooses previously prepared for them4 ,she projected them rapidly from her hand the moment she had secured them1 until at length the whole twenty were flying round her in an unbroken circle4 ,thus she continued spinning at undiminished speed for fully five minutes2 after which1 taking the eggs one by one from their nooses1 she replaced them in her basket2 and then in one instant stopped1 without the movement of a limb1 or even the vibration of a muscle1 as if she had been suddenly transformed into marble4 ,the countenance was perfectly calm1 nor did she exhibit the slightest distress from her extraordinary exertions40 ,the basket-murder trick1 to which we have already referred1 is as follows3-- ,the juggler stepping forward1 invites your examination of a light wicker basket1 and when you profess yourself satisfied1 he places it over a child1 about eight years old1 who is perfectly naked4 ,he then asks the child some indifferent question1 and you hear her reply to it from the basket4 ,question and answer are repeated frequently1 each time in a louder and more impassioned manner1 until the juggler1 in a seeming fit of rage1 threatens to kill the girl1 who vainly supplicates for mercy4 ,the dramatic character of the scene is as perfect in its realism as it is horrible4 ,the man plants his foot furiously on the frail basket1 and plunges his sword into it again and again1 while the ears of the spectators are rent and their hearts touched by the child's cries of agony4 ,for a moment it is impossible to believe that you are witnessing a deception1 as you listen to the passionate shrieks and watch the man's furious face4 ,blood flows in a stream from the basket1 and by degrees the groans of the victim grow fainter and fainter1 until all is hushed in a silence so intense that you hear your heart beat4 ,you are about to rush on the murderer1 and inflict summary punishment1 when he mutters a few cabalistic words1 takes up the basket1 and shows you--only a little blood-stained earth2 while the child1 you know not how or whence1 has come to mingle with the crowd1 and ask for baksheesh4 ,two simpler exploits may be recorded3-- ,taking a large1 wide-mouthed1 earthen vessel1 filled with water1 the conjuror turns it upside down1 and1 of course1 the contents run out4 ,he then reverses the jar1 which to your amazement is seen to be perfectly full1 while all the earth round about is--dry6 ,the jar is again emptied1 and submitted to the inspection of the spectators4 ,he asks you to fill it to the brim2 after which he reverses it3 not a drop of water flows1 and yet when you look into it1 it is perfectly empty4 ,at last the conjuror breaks the jar by way of a practical demonstration of the fact that it is made of common earthenware4 ,a large basket is produced3 the conjuror raises it1 and a ,pariah dog appears crouching on the ground4 ,the basket-cover is replaced2 and a second examination shows you a bitch with a litter of seven puppies4 ,a goat1 a pig1 and various other animals1 come forth in due time from this inexhaustible cornucopia4 ,all these exploits are performed by a single exhibitor1 who stands quite alone1 and at a distance of several feet from the crowd1 so that collusion with confederates would seem to be impossible4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,some ,,african ,,superstitions4 ,africa is the land of superstition1--dark1 cruel1 ghastly superstition4 ,it accompanies its victim from the cradle to the grave2 throws its fell shadow over every scene and incident of life4 ,we cannot attempt1 nor do we desire1 to paint it in all its horrors4 ,for our purpose it will be sufficient to glance at some of the ceremonies1 hideous or grotesque1 which are practised by the ,equatorial ,savage4 ,in his childhood he has to be initiated into certain mysteries4 ,what those are ,mr4 ,winwood ,reade learned from a negro steward1 who informed him that he was taken into a fetich1 or idol house1 severely flogged1 and plastered with goat-dung3 this ceremony1 like the rites of masonry1 being conducted to the sound of music4 ,afterwards from behind a kind of screen or shrine issued uncouth and terrible sounds such as he had never before heard4 ,these1 he was told1 emanated from the spirit called ,ukuk4 ,he afterwards brought to ,mr4 ,winwood ,reade the instrument with which the fetich-man produces the noise4 ,it may be described as a whistle made of hollowed mangrove wood1 about two inches long1 and covered at one end with a scrap of bat's wing4 ,for a period of five days after initiation the novice wears an apron of dry palm leaves4 ,he is next instructed in the science of fetich2 and afterwards he learns what kinds of food are forbidden to his tribe1 for one tribe may not eat crocodile1 another hippopotamus1 nor a third buffalo4 ,he learns to reverence and dread the spirit ,ukuk1 which dwells1 it is said1 in the bowels of the earth1 and visits the upper world only when he has some business to perform4 ,on the occasion of his visits1 he abides in the fetich-house1 which is built in a peculiar form1 roofed with dry plantain leaves1 and always kept in darkness4 ,thence strange dread sounds1 like the growling of a tiger1 are heard to proceed1 so that the women and children shudder as they listen4 ,when the mangrove-tube is thus at work1 the initiated hasten to the house1 and a 8lodge0 or 8council0 is held4 8,the natives of ,equatorial ,africa worship also the spirits of their ancestors2 a worship for which their minds are prepared by the veneration which they pay to old age4 ,young men never enter the presence of an aged person without curtseying 7a genuine curtsey like that of a charity-school girl71 and passing in a stooping attitude1 as if they were going under a low door4 ,when seated in his presence1 it is always at a humble distance4 ,if they hand him a lighted pipe1 or a mug of water1 they fall on one knee4 ,if an old man1 they address him as rora--father2 if an old woman as ngwe--mother4 ,it is customary for only the old people to communicate bad news to one another2 and it is not to be wondered at that we find the negroes such perfect courtiers1 since it is the etiquette of the country that the aged should only be addressed in terms of flattery and adulation4 8,when they die their relics are honoured4 ,in the ,congo country their bodies are dried into mummies4 ,here1 their bones are sometimes stored up and visited at set periods4 ,or1 when a person noted for his wisdom has died1 his head1 when partially decomposed1 is often cut off and suspended1 so as to drip upon a mass of chalk placed underneath4 ,this matter is supposed to be the wisdom which formerly animated the brain1 and which1 rubbed upon the foreheads of others1 will communicate its virtue40 ,it can easily be understood how this reverence paid to the relics of one's ancestors would develope into the worship of their spirits4 ,the ,equatorial ,savage believes that the manes of his forefathers influence his life and fortunes entirely to his advantage1 and by a dying friend or relative will often send messages to them4 ,mr4 ,reade adds that a son has been known to kill his aged mother from a conviction that her spirit would be of more service to him than her substance2 a reason for matricide which would hardly be accepted as conclusive in civilised countries6 ,the savage lives1 however1 in constant communion and sympathy with the spirit-world4 ,the visions which come to him in his dreams1 and the sounds which he fancies himself to hear1 are those of the ,unseen4 ,and as he is always brooding upon his dreams and relating them to his friends1 he necessarily dreams the more1 until it becomes difficult for him to draw a line between the dream and the reality4 ,when any calamity befalls the tribe1 or at the approach of any imminent danger1 they gather together on the brink of some lofty bluff1 or on the forest's haunted threshold1 and stretching their arms towards the sky1 while the women wail and the children weep1 they call upon the spirits of the departed to come and help them4 ,they have a remarkable ceremony which illustrates the force and vividness of their belief in spirits3 ,when the dead are weary of staying in the bush1 they come for one of their people whom they most affect4 ,and the spirit will say to the man3 8,i am tired of dwelling in the bush2 please to build for me in the town a little house as close as possible to your own40 ,and he tells him to dance and sing too2 and accordingly the man assembles the women at night to join in dance and song4 ,then1 next day1 the people repair to the grave of the ,obambo1 or ghost1 and make a rude idol2 after which the bamboo bier on which the body is conveyed to the grave1 and some of the dust of the ground1 are carried into a little hut erected near the house of the visited1 and a white cloth is draped over the door4 ,it is a curious fact1 which seems to show that they have a legend something like the old ,greek myth of ,charon and the ,styx1 that in one of the songs chanted during this ceremony occurs the following line3 8,you are well dressed1 but you have no canoe to carry you across to the other side40 ,according to ,mr4 ,reade1 these savages have their ,naiads and ,dryads2 their spirits of the mountains and the forests1 the lakes and the streams1 and the high places4 ,they have also their ,typhon and their ,osiris1 their ,good and ,evil ,genius2 thus recognising1 in common with almost every other race1 the enduring antagonism between the ,principles and ,powers of ,good and ,evil4 ,the ,evil ,spirit1 ,mbwiri1 they worship with a special homage2 his might is to be dreaded1 and his anger1 if possible1 averted4 ,he is the lord of earth2 and before him1 as before a tyrant whose hand can grasp their lives and fortunes1 they bend in humble adoration4 ,but as the ,good ,spirit will do them no injury1 they conceive it unnecessary to address to it any regular or formal prayer4 8,the word by which they express this ,supreme ,being answers exactly to our word of ,god4 ,like the ,jehovah of the ,hebrews1 like that word in masonry which is only known to masters1 and never pronounced but in a whisper and in full lodge1 this word they seldom dare to speak2 and they display uneasiness if it is uttered before them4 ,twice only10 says ,mr4 ,reade1 8,i remember having heard it4 ,once when we were in a dangerous storm1 the men threw their clenched hands upwards and cried it twice4 ,and again1 when ,i was at ,ngambi1 taking down words from an ,ashira slave1 ,i asked him what was the word for ,god in the language of his country4 ,he raised his eyes1 and pointing to heaven1 said in a soft voice1 ,njambi40 ,epileptic diseases1 in almost all uncivilised countries1 are assumed to be the result of demoniac possession4 ,in ,africa the sufferer is supposed to be possessed by ,mbwiri1 and he can be relieved only by the intervention of the medicine-man or fetich4 ,in the middle of the street a hut is built for his accommodation1 and there he resides until cured1 or maddened1 along with the priest and his disciples4 ,there for ten days or a fortnight a continuous revel is held2 much eating and drinking at the expense of the patient's relatives1 and unending dances to the sound of flute and drum4 ,for obvious reasons the fetich gives out that ,mbwiri regards good living with aversion4 ,the patient dances1 usually shamming madness1 until the epileptic attack comes on1 with all its dreadful concomitants--the frenzied stare1 the convulsed limbs1 the gnashing teeth1 and the foam-flecked lips4 ,the man's actions at this period are not ascribed to himself1 but to the demon which has control of him4 ,when a cure has been effected1 real or pretended1 the patient builds a little fetich-house1 avoids certain kinds of food1 and performs certain duties4 ,sometimes the process terminates in the patient's insanity2 he has been known to run away to the bush1 hide from all human beings1 and live on the roots and berries of the forest4 8,these fetich-men are priest doctors1 like those of the ancient ,germans4 ,they have a profound knowledge of herbs1 and also of human nature1 for they always monopolize the real power in the state4 ,but it is very doubtful whether they possess any secrets save that of extracting virtue and poison from plants4 ,during the first trip which ,i made into the bush ,i sent for one of these doctors4 ,at that time ,i was staying among the ,shekani1 who are celebrated for their fetich4 ,he came attended by half-a-dozen disciples4 ,he was a tall man1 dressed in white1 with a girdle of leopard's skin1 from which hung an iron bell1 of the same shape as our sheep bells4 ,he had two chalk marks over his eyes4 ,i took some of my own hair1 frizzled it with a burning glass1 and gave it to him4 ,he popped it with alacrity into his little grass bag2 for white man's hair is fetich of the first order4 ,then ,i poured out some raspberry vinegar into a glass1 drank a little of it first1 country fashion1 and offered it to him1 telling him that it was blood from the brains of great doctors4 ,upon this he received it with great reverence1 and dipping his fingers into it as if it was snap-dragon1 sprinkled with it his forehead1 both feet between the two first toes1 and the ground behind his back4 ,he then handed his glass to a disciple1 who emptied it1 and smacked his lips afterwards in a very secular manner4 ,i then desired to see a little of his fetich4 ,he drew on the ground with red chalk some hieroglyphics1 among which ,i distinguished the circle1 the cross1 and the crescent4 ,he said that if ,i would give him a fine #8dush1' he would tell me all about it4 ,but as he would not take anything in reason1 and as ,i knew that he would tell me nothing of very great importance in public1 negotiations were suspended40 ,the fetich-man seldom finds a native disposed to question his claim to supernatural powers4 ,he is not only a doctor and a priest1--two capacities in which his influence is necessarily very powerful2 he is also a witch-finder1 and this is an office which invests him with a truly formidable authority4 ,when a man of worth dies1 his death is invariably ascribed to witchcraft1 and the aid of the fetich-man is invoked to discover the witch4 8,when a man is sick a long time10 said ,mongilombas1 8they call ,ngembi1 and if she cannot make him well1 the fetich-man4 ,he comes at night1 in a white dress1 with cock's feathers on his head1 and having his bell and little glass4 ,he calls two or three relations together into a room4 ,he does not speak1 but always looks in his glass4 ,then he tells them that the sickness is not of ,mbwiri1 nor of ,obambo1 nor of ,god1 but that it comes from a witch4 ,they say to him1 #8,what shall we do8' ,he goes out and says1 #8,i have told you3 ,i have no more to say4' ,they give him a dollar's worth of cloth2 and every night they gather together in the street1 and they cry1 #8,i know that man who witch my brother4 ,it is good for you to make him well4' ,then the witch makes him well4 ,but if the man do not recover1 they call the bush doctor from the ,shekani country4 ,he sings in the language of the bush4 ,at night he goes into the street2 all the people flock about him4 ,with a tiger-cat skin in his hand1 he walks to and fro1 until1 singing all the while1 he lays the tiger skin at the feet of the witch4 ,at the conclusion of his song the people seize the witch1 and put him1 or her1 in chains1 saying1 #8,if you don't restore our brother to health1 we will kill you4'0 ,one evening1 as ,mr4 ,reade was sitting in a mission house at ,corisco1 with the windows open1 he heard a wild and piteous cry rising from a village at a short distance4 ,a sudden silence fell upon his friends4 ,the school was in the next room1 and two girls who belonged to that village lifted up their voices and wept4 ,it was the death-knell1 and the knell of more lives than one4 ,a chieftain for some time had been lying in a hopeless condition1 and a woman had been denounced for having bewitched him4 ,she had a son of about seven years of age1 and fearing lest when he reached manhood1 he should become her avenger1 the accusers included him also in their denunciation4 ,both had been made prisoners1 and on the death of the chief would be killed4 ,the following day was ,sunday1 and ,mr4 ,reade accompanied ,mr4 ,mackay1 the missionary1 to the village4 ,the man was not dead2 but he had suddenly become speechless1 and his attendants had concluded that the spirit had departed4 ,entering the house1 ,mr4 ,reade found him lying on the bamboo bedstead in a state of stupor4 ,the house was thronged with women1 who had stripped off their garments and shaved the heads in token of mourning1 and were 8raining tears0 in their purchased and admirably acted grief4 ,sometimes one of them would sit by his side1 and flinging her arms around him1 would shriek--almost in the very words of the ,irish death-wail1--8,why did ye die1 darling8 why did ye die80 ,for they regarded him as really dead1 when he could neither look at them nor speak to them4 ,in contrast to their loud sorrow was the silent mourning of the men who1 hushed and fasting1 sat in the chief house of the town4 ,in their midst crouched the seven years old boy1 the marks of a severe wound visible on his arm1 and his wrists securely bound together4 ,the dogged expression of the child's face was something wonderful4 ,it wore that look of stolid endurance which seems natural to the negro4 ,one of the men with horrible pleasantry held an axe below his eyes2 but the boy contemplated it without emotion--he displayed all the cold indifference of the ancient ,stoicism4 ,when his name was first mentioned1 his eyes flashed2 but this indication of passion was only momentary4 ,he showed the same indifference when a plea was put in for his life1 as when1 just before1 he had been threatened and taunted with death4 ,mr4 ,reade did not see the unfortunate mother1 but was afterwards told that she had been flogged into confessing that she and she only had bewitched the man4 ,her son had acknowledged the crime as soon as he was charged with it4 ,it is well known that such confessions amount to nothing4 ,during the witch epidemic in ,medival ,europe1 scores of unhappy creatures confessed to the practice of witchcraft1 though by so doing they doomed themselves to death4 ,the imagination in some way or other is powerfully excited1 and completely overcomes the judgment2 or it may be from a fear of torture or a thirst for notoriety that such confessions are made4 ,mr4 ,mackey1 the missionary1 said that he had come to speak to ,okota1 the nearest kinsman of the dying chief1 upon whom1 in all such cases1 the responsibility rests4 ,okota came out from the throng1 placed his stool near the feet of the missionary1 and listened to him attentively4 8,death10 said the missionary1 8must come to all4 ,it is foolish to think that because a man dies he has been bewitched40 8,yes10 replied ,okota1 8death must come to all1 but not always from ,,god4 ,sometimes it comes from the hand of man40 8,but how do you know that in this instance it comes from the hand of man80 8,the woman has been given quai 7the drink of ordeal7 to drink1 and the quai says that she bewitched him40 8,but the quai is not always right4 ,when ,cabinda went to the ,muni1 he was a long time lost4 ,all people said that he was dead4 ,a man you declared was the witch1 you gave him quai2 quai said that the man had killed ,cabinda1 but ,cabinda came back alive1 and quai was wrong40 ,a roar of laughter acknowledged the force of this pertinent reply4 8,it is not only quai10 said ,okota1 8the woman confesses that she has used the arts of witchcraft4 ,will any man come to you and say1 #8,i have stolen your fowl1' if he has not stolen it8 ,this woman is killing my brother1 when my brother is dead ,i will kill her40 ,after so decisive a declaration1 further argument was useless1 and ,mr4 ,mackey was compelled to retire1 unsuccessful4 ,the ordeal drink of ,equatorial ,africa is not identical with the 8red-water0 of ,northern ,guinea4 ,it is prepared from the root of a small shrub called ,nkazya1 or ,quai4 ,half a pint of the decoction is given to the accused1 and small sticks being laid down on the ground at a distance of two feet apart1 he is compelled to step over them five times4 ,if the potion act upon him as a diuretic1 he is pronounced innocent2 but in some persons it produces vertigo4 ,the sticks before his dizzy eyes rise like great logs1 and in his awkward efforts to stride across them1 he reels1 falls to the ground1 and is immediately assumed to be guilty4 ,ultimately the chief died1 and the woman and boy both suffered death4 ,the woman was taken out to sea in a boat1 killed with an axe1 and thrown overboard4 ,the boy was burnt alive1 bags of gunpowder being tied to his legs to shorten his sufferings4 ,apart from these superstitions1 ,mr4 ,reade asserts that the negroes possess the remnants of a noble and sublime religion1 though they have forgotten its precepts1 and debased its ceremonies4 ,they still retain their belief in ,,god1 the ,one1 the ,supreme1 the ,creator4 ,he has made mankind and the world2 ,he thunders in the air1 ,he destroys the wicked with ,his bolts4 ,he rewards the good with long life2 ,he gives them the rain1 the fruits of the earth1 and all things that are good4 ,he is far above all the other gods4 ,in some parts of ,guinea the daily prayer is1 8,o ,,god1 ,i know ,thee not1 but ,thou knowest me1 ,thy aid is necessary to me40 ,at meals they say1 8,o ,,god1 ,thou hast given me this1 ,thou hast made it grow40 ,and when they work1 8,o ,,god1 ,thou hast caused that ,i should have strength to do this40 ,and another of their prayers runs1 8,o ,,god1 help us1 we do not know whether we shall live to-morrow2 we are in ,thy hand40#dj ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,zulu ,,witch-,,finders4 ,english ,law now reigns in ,zululand1 and the occupation of the ,witch-finders is almost gone2 but in times past they were potent personages1 whom an enslaving superstition had armed with despotic influence4 ,the ,zulu witch-finders are regular ,amazons--perfectly fearless1 with a martial gait1 and grave composure of mien4 ,it is their pride1 according to ,lady ,barker1 to be looked upon as men when once they embrace their dread profession1 which the men sometimes share with them4 ,they are permitted to bear shield and spear as warriors1 and they hunt and kill with their own hands the wild beasts and reptiles whose skins they wear4 8,it is not difficult to understand10 says ,lady ,barker1#da 8bearing in mind the superstition and cruelty which existed in remote parts of ,england not so very long ago--how powerful such women become among a savage people1 or how tempting an opportunity they could furnish of getting rid of an enemy4 ,of course they are exceptional individuals2 more observant1 more shrewd1 and more dauntless1 than the average fat1 hard-working ,kafir women2 besides possessing the contradictory mixture of great physical powers and strong hysterical tendencies4 ,they work themselves up to a pitch of frenzy1 and get to believe as firmly in their own supernatural discernment as any individual among the trembling circle of ,zulus to whom a touch from the whisk they carry is a sentence of instant death40 ,the magician1 like the melodramatist1 must have his accompaniment of music1 and the ,zulu witch-finders are attended by a circle of black girls and women1 who1 like a ,greek chorus1 clap their hands together1 and drone through a low monotonous chant1 the measure and rhythm of which change at times with a stamp and a swing4 ,not less necessary is a ceremonial dress2 for such things appeal directly to the imagination of the crowd1 and prepare them to be readily influenced by the necromancer's devices4 ,the 8,isinyanga10 8,abangoma10 or 8witch-finders10 whom ,lady ,barker describes for us1 were attired with an eye for effect which would have done credit to a ,london theatre4 ,it will suffice to depict one of them1 by name ,nozinyanga4 ,her fierce face1 spotted with gouts of red paint on cheek and brow1 was partly overshadowed by a helmet-like plume of the tall feathers of the sakabula bird4 ,in her right hand she carried a light sheaf of assegais or lances1 and on her left arm was slung a small and pretty shield of dappled ox-hide4 ,her petticoat1 made of a couple of large gay handkerchiefs1 was worn kilt-wise4 ,but if there were little decoration in her skirts1 the deficiency was more than compensated by the bravery of the bead-necklaces1 the goat's-hair fringes1 and the scarlet tassels which covered her from throat to waist4 ,her ample chest rose and fell beneath a baldric of leopard skin1 fastened across it with huge brazen knobs2 while down her back hung a beautifully dried and flattened skin of an enormous boa-constrictor4 ,the interest attaching to these women is derived from the fact that it was of old the custom1 among the ,zulu and other ,south ,african tribes1 to attribute all mishaps or catastrophes1 political or social1 to the agency of witches4 ,it is not for ,englishmen to look down with contempt upon this manifestation of barbarism and ignorance1 considering that a similar belief prevailed very generally among us up to the reign of ,charles ,i41 and1 in truth1 is not wholly extinct even now3 while the extent to which the science of witch-finding was developed in ,new ,england will be known to every reader of ,cotton ,mather4 ,when the community had resolved that a certain misfortune was due to the witches1 the next step obviously would be to detect and punish them4 ,for this purpose the king would summon a great meeting1 and cause his subjects to sit on the ground in a ring or circle1 for four or five days4 ,the witch-finders took their places in the centre1 and as they gradually worked themselves up to a frantic state of frenzy1 resembling demoniacal possession1 they lightly switched with their quagga-tail one or other of the trembling spectators1 who was immediately dragged away and butchered on the spot4 ,and not only he1 but all the living things in his hut--wives and children1 dogs and cats--not one was left alive1 nor was a stick left standing4 ,sometimes a whole kraal would be exterminated in this way2 and the reader will perceive how terribly the cruel custom could be made to gratify private revenge or to work out the king's tyrannical inclinations4 ,a terrible little sorceress is described under the name of ,nozilwane1#db whose weird wistful glance had in it something uncanny and uncomfortable4 ,she was really dressed beautifully for her part1 in lynx skins folded over and over from waist to knee1 the upper part of her body being covered by strings of wild beasts' teeth and fangs1 beads1 skeins of gaily-coloured yarn1 strips of snake's skin1 and fringes of ,angora-goat fleece4 ,this1 as a decoration1 was both graceful and effective2 it was worn round the body and above each elbow1 and fell in soft white flakes among the brilliant colouring and against the dusky skin4 ,lynx-tails depended like lappets on each side of her face1 which was overshadowed and almost hidden by a profusion of sakabula feathers4 8,this bird10 says ,lady ,barker1 8has a very beautiful plumage1 and is sufficiently rare for the natives to attach a peculiar value and charm to the tail-feathers2 they are like those of a young cock1 curved and slender1 and of a dark chestnut colour1 with a white eye at the extreme tip of each feather40 ,among all this thick1 floating plumage were interspersed small bladders1 and skewers or pins wrought out of tusks4 ,each witch-finder wore her own hair1 or rather wool2 highly greased1 and twisted up with twine until it ceases to wear the appearance of hair1 and hangs around the face like a thick fringe1 dyed deep red4 ,bent double1 and with a creeping1 cat-like gait1 as if seeking a trail1 out stepped ,nozilwane4 ,every movement of her undulating body kept time to the beat of the girls' hands and their low crooning chant4 ,presently she pretended to find the thing she sought1 and with a series of wild pirouettes leaped into the air1 shaking her spears and brandishing her little shield like a ,bacchante4 ,nowamso1 another of the party1 was determined that her companion should not carry off all the applause1 and she too1 with a yell and a leap1 sprang into the dance to the sound of louder grunts and harder hand-claps4 ,nowamso showed much anxiety to display her back1 where a magnificent snake skin1 studded in a regular pattern with brass-headed nails1 floated like a stream4 ,she was attired also in a splendid kilt of leopard skins1 decorated with red rosettes1 and her toilette was considered more careful and artistic than any of the others4 ,brighter her bangles1 whiter her goat-fringes1 and more elaborately painted her face4 ,nozilwane1 however1 had youth and a wonderful self-reliance on her side4 ,the others1 though they all joined in and hunted out an imaginary enemy1 and in turn exulted over his discovery1 soon became breathless and spent1 and were glad when their attendants led them away to be anointed and to drink water4 8,as for another of the #8witch-finders1' the great1 big ,nozinyanga1 she danced like ,queen ,elizabeth1 #8high and disposedly1' and no wonder1 for ,i should think she weighed at least fifteen stone4 ,ungiteni1 in a petticoat of white ,angora-goat skin1 and a corsage of bladders and teeth1 beads and viper skins1 was nothing remarkable2 neither was ,um--noujozzla1 a melancholy-looking personage1 with an enormous wig-like coiffure of red woollen ringlets and white skewers4 ,the physiognomy1 too1 was a trifle more stolid and commonplace than that of her comrades1 and altogether she gave me the impression of being a sensible1 respectable woman1 who was very much ashamed of herself for playing such antics4 ,however1 she brandished her divining brush with the rest1 and cut in now and then to #8keep the fleer' with the untiring ,nozilwane40 ,lady ,barker and her friends grew tired of this imaginary 8witch-finding10 and to end the affair it was proposed to test the professed power of the 8weird women0 to discover lost property4 ,a silver pipe stem had recently 8gone a-missing10 and they were requested to find what had been lost1 and where4 ,they set to work in a curious and interesting way4 ,in front1 squatted on heels and haunches1 a semicircle of about a dozen men1 who were supposed to have invited the assistance of the sisterhood4 ,they had no idea of what was asked for1 and were told to go on with their part until a signal was given that the article had been named4 8,what is it the ,inkos has lost80 they cried2 8discover1 reveal1 make plain to us40 ,the witch-finders1 by their singing and dancing1 had wrought themselves up to a highly-excited and enthusiastic condition1 so that they unhesitatingly accepted the challenge1 ,nowamso crying1 8,sing for me3 make a cadence for me40 ,then1 after a moment's pause1 she went on rapidly1 in her own language4 8,is this real8 is it a test8 is it but a show8 ,do the white chiefs want to laugh at our pretensions8 ,has the white lady called us only to show other white people that we can do nothing8 ,is anything really lost8 is it not hidden8 ,no1 it is lost4 ,is it lost by a black person8 ,no1 a white person has lost it4 ,is it lost by the great white chief8 ,no1 it is lost by an ordinary white man4 ,let me see what it is that is lost4 ,is it money8 ,no4 ,is it a weighty thing8 ,no1 it can be always carried about--it is not heavy4 ,all people like to carry it1 especially the white ,inkosi3 it is made of the same metal as money4 ,i could tell you more1 but there is no earnestness in all this1--it is only a spectacle40 ,between each of these ejaculations she made a pause1 looking eagerly into the faces of the men before her1 who1 for sole answer1 gave a loud1 simultaneous snap of finger and thumb1 pointing towards the ground as they did so1 and shouting the one word1 8,yiz-ora10 7the first syllable strongly accented and much prolonged27 8discover1 reveal60 ,they can say nothing more to urge her on1 because they themselves are ignorant3 but the weird women watch their countenances eagerly1 to detect1 if they can1 some unconscious sign or token that their guesses are near the truth4 ,suspecting a trick1 ,nowamso lapses into silence2 but ,nozilwane rushes about like one possessed1 sobbing and quivering with excitement1 8,it is this--it is that60 ,the tall ,nozinyanga strikes her lance firmly into the ground1 and cries haughtily1 in her own tongue1 8,it is his watch60 throwing around a haughty glance1 as if daring any one to contradict her4 ,the others then join hands1 and gallop round and round1 making a suggestion here and a suggestion there1 all alike improbable2 the 8inquirers10 as the kneeling men are called1 affording them no assistance4 ,at last ,nozilwane strikes home3 8,his pipe60 she exclaims2 8,yoziva1 yoziva1 a thing which has come off his pipe40 ,and so it is4 ,nozilwane's pluck1 and perseverance1 and cunning scrutiny of our faces at each hit she made1 have brought her off victoriously4 ,a murmur1 or rather grunt1 of admiration goes around4 ,the 8inquirers0 jump up1 and 8subside into ebony images of impassive respectability40 ,the weary chorus disperses in small groups1 and the exhausted sisterhood drop1 as if by one consent1 on their knees1 sitting back on their heels1 and raise their right hands in salutation4#dc ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,zabianism ,,and ,,serpent-,,worship4 ,there can be no question as to the antiquity or universality of ,serpent-,worship1 whatever may be the difference of opinion as to its origin4 ,according to ,bryant it began in ,chaldea1 and was 8the first variation from the purer ,zabaism40 ,but this statement requires from us a brief preliminary explanation of that ancient form of worship4 ,zabaism1 or ,zabism1 has had its two sects1--first the ,chaldean ,zabians of the ,kuran1--the 8,parsified0 ,chaldee heathen1 or non-,christian ,gnostics1--the ancestors of the present ,mendaites1 or so-called ,joannes ,christians1 who reside in the neighbourhood of the ,persian ,gulf1 and speak a corrupt form of ,chaldee-,aramaic4 ,and second1 the ,pseudo-,zabians1 or ,syrian ,zabians1 in ,harran1 ,edessa1 ,rakkah1 and ,bagdad4 ,it is the latter who now chiefly represent ,zabism4 ,the first named1 or ,chaldean ,zabians1 who transferred the name to the ,harranic1 and greatly influenced the development of the peculiar system of the latter1 are the people so designated in the ,kuran1 and by the ,mohammedans of to-day4 ,the ,harranians1 who rose about ,a4,d4 #hcj1 profess to derive their denomination from one ,zbi1 who is variously called a son of ,seth1 son of ,adam1 or a son of ,enoch or ,idris1 or a son of ,methuselah1 or of some fictitious ,badi or ,mari1 a supposed companion of ,abraham2 while ,mohammedan writers trace it to the word ssaba1 8to turn1 to move10 because its professors turned from the path of true religion1 that is1 ,islam1 or1 as the ,zabians say1 because they have turned to the proper faith4 ,the ,zabian creed1 as professed by the ,harranic ,zabians1 would appear to resolve itself into the following elements3-- ,it teaches that the ,creator is1 in ,his essence1 primitivity1 originality1 and eternity1 ,one2 but in ,his numerous manifestations in bodily figures1 manifold4 ,chiefly ,he is personified by the seven principal planets1 and by the good1 knowing1 excellent earthly bodies4 ,this1 however1 is without any disturbance of ,his unity4 ,it is1 say the ,zabians1 as if the seven planets were ,his seven limbs1 and as if our seven limbs were ,his seven spheres in which ,he manifests ,himself1--so that ,he speaks with our tongues1 sees with our eyes1 hears with our ears1 touches with our hands1 comes and goes with our feet1 and acts through our members4 ,it teaches further1 that ,,god is too great and too sublime to occupy ,himself directly with the affairs of this world2 that its government ,he has therefore entrusted to other gods1 and that it is only to the highest things of destiny ,he ,himself devotes ,his attention1--an attribution of cold superiority and intellectual indifference in striking contrast to the idea of ,,god the ,father developed by ,christianity1 that all-loving1 as well as all-powerful ,,god1 ,who watches over the fall of a sparrow1 and listens with tender ear to the prayer of even the meanest of ,his creatures4 ,moreover1 ,zabism inculcates the chilling doctrine that man is too feeble to offer his homage directly to the ,supreme1 and must therefore address the inferior deities to whom the regimen of the world has been handed4 ,in this way we see that the veneration shown to the planets and the worship of idols are only a symbolism resulting from the humiliating doctrines just defined4 ,zabism is a polytheistic system1--it absolutely revels in gods and goddesses4 ,there are the spirits that direct and guide the planets1 the spirits that originate or represent every action in this world1--not a natural effect1 great or little1 which does not emanate from a deity4 ,whatever appears in the air1 whatever is formed near the sky or springs from the earth1 must be traced to certain gods that govern these manifestations1 so that every flake of snow1 every drop of rain has its presiding spirit4 ,these spirits also 8mould and shape everything bodily from one form into the other1 and gradually bring all created things to the state of their highest possible perfection1 and communicate their powers to all substances1 beings1 and things4 ,by the movement and guidance of these spiritual beings1 the different elements and natural compositions are influenced in such a way that the tenderest plant may pierce the hardest cliff4 ,he who guides this world is called the first spirit4 ,these gods know our most secret thoughts1 and all our future is open to them4 ,the female deities seem to have been conceived as the feeling or passive principle4 ,these gods or intelligences emanate directly from ,,god without ,his will1 as rays do from the sun4 ,they are1 further1 of abstract forms1 free of all matter1 and neither made of any substance or material4 ,they consist chiefly of a light in which there is no darkness1 which the senses cannot conceive by reason of its immense clearness1 which the understanding cannot comprehend by reason of its extreme delicacy1 and which fancy and imagination cannot fathom40 ,free from all animal desires1 these spirits are created wholly for love and harmony1 for friendship and unity4 ,they are unaffected by local and temporal changes1 and control the planetary spheres1 without finding the motion of the heaviest too heavy1 or of the lightest too light4 ,their never-ending existence is a prolonged happiness1 owing to their nearness to the ,supreme ,,god2 whom they praise day and night1 like the ,angels1 with no sense of fatigue or satiety1 and whose will they ever obey with the keenest joy4 ,free agents1 they are never inclined towards the evil4 ,they turn towards the good as readily as the flower towards the light4 ,passing on to the cosmogonical part of the ,zabian system1 we find that it is based on the existence of five primval principles1--the ,creator1 ,reason1 the ,soul1 ,space1 and the ,void4 ,these are the constituents of all creation4 ,but apart from these1 or comprehending these1 the ,zabians seem to have regarded two principles1 ,,god and the ,soul1 as specially active and ever-living4 ,some writers represent them as believing also in a passive principle1 ,matter2 and in two principles which are neither living nor passive1 ,time and ,space4 ,they appear to have regarded ,matter as primeval and everlasting1 and to have ascribed to it the origin and duration of ,evil4 ,,god ,himself created only the spheres1 and the heavenly bodies which they contain4 ,these spheres 7fathers7 convey the types or ideas to the elementary substances 7mothers71 and out of the combination1 conjunction1 and motion of these spheres and elements are produced the various earthly things 7children74 ,according to the ,zabians1 the world is renewed with every 8world-year10 or cycle1 that is once every #cf1dbe ordinary years4 ,and at the close of each cycle1 the life1 vegetable1 animal1 and human that had flourished within it cease to multiply1 and new forms or types spring into existence4 ,the vacillating and contending nature of man is due to the contradictory elements of which he is composed4 ,the desires and passions which sway him to and fro1 depress him to the low standard of the brute creation1 and his fall would be complete but for such religious rites as purifications1 sacrifices1 and other means of grace4 ,through these he is able again to draw near to the great gods1 and to attain a resemblance unto them4 ,the human soul is dual1 that is1 it consists partly of the nature of the animal soul and partly of that of the angelic soul4 ,it is immortal1 and subject to future recompense and punishment1 but not for ever1 nor in any world but this1 though at different epochs of existence4 ,hence1 our present happiness is a reward for the good deeds done by us in an earlier stage of existence2 and our present suffering the just chastisement for evil actions committed in the past4 ,in its nature they hold that the soul is primitive1 because otherwise it must be material1 and a material soul is an impossibility4 8,the soul10 says ,kathibi1 one of the ,zabian teachers1 8is thus immaterial1 and exists from eternity2 is the involuntary reason of the first types1 as ,,god is the ,first ,cause of the ,intelligences4 ,once on a time the soul beheld matter and loved it4 ,glowing with the desire of assuming a bodily shape1 it would not again separate itself from that matter of which the world was created4 ,since that time1 the soul forgot itself1 its everlasting existence1 its original abode1 and knew nothing more of what it had formerly known4 ,but ,,god1 who converts all things to the best1 united it to matter1 which it loved1 and out of this union the heavens1 the elements1 and other composite things arose4 ,in order that the soul might not wholly perish within matter1 ,he endowed it with intelligence1 whereby it conceived its high origin1 the spiritual world1 and itself4 ,it further conceived through it that it was but a stranger in this world1 in which it was subject to many sufferings1 and that even the joys of this world are but the sources of new sufferings4 ,as soon as the soul had perceived all this1 it began to yearn again for its spiritual home1 as a man who is away from his birthplace pines for his homestead4 ,it then also learned1 that1 in order to return to its primitive state1 it had to shake off the fetters of sensuous desires1 and liberate itself from all materialistic tendencies4 ,far from them all1 it would once more regain its heavenly sphere1 and enjoy the bliss of the spiritual world40#dd ,such is an outline of the religious system which flourished from the middle of the ninth to the middle of the eleventh century1 under the name of ,zabism4 ,evidently1 out of this ,zabaism ,serpent-worship could not spring1 because it is of much greater antiquity4 ,what then is the ,zabism to which ,bryant alludes8 ,a purely imaginary creed1 which the medival1 ,jewish1 ,arabic1 and ,persian writers identified with star-worship4 ,the ,mohammedan and other writers of the twelfth century bestowed the name of ,zabians indifferently upon the ancient ,chaldeans1 the ,buddhists1 even the ante-,zoroastrian ,persians2 and ,bryant has followed their mistaken example4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,serpent-worship is a relic of nature-worship1--more particularly of the old solar worship1--and the ,serpent at first was unquestionably an emblem of the ,sun4 ,in ,babylon large serpents of silver supported the image of the goddess ,rhea1 in the temple of ,bel1 or ,belus2 and the name ,bel itself is thought by some writers to be an abbreviation of ,ob-el1 8the ,serpent-,god40 ,in the ,apocryphal book of ,bel and the ,dragon1 we read3 8,in that same place there was a great ,dragon1 which they of ,babylon worshipped4 ,and the king said unto ,daniel3 ,wilt thou say that this is of brass8 lo1 he eateth and drinketh3 thou canst not say he is no living god3 therefore worship him40 ,speaking of the earlier stage of the ,persian religion1 ,eusebius remarks that all the ,persians worshipped the ,first ,principles under the form of ,serpents1 having dedicated to them temples in which they performed sacrifices1 and held festivals and orgies1 esteeming them the greatest of ,gods1 and governors of the ,universe4 ,these first principles were the principles of ,good and ,evil1 or ,ormuzd and ,ahriman1 whose terrible struggle for the supremacy of the universe was symbolised in ,persian mythology by two serpents contending for the mundane egg4 ,they are represented as standing upon their tails1 and each of them has fastened its teeth upon the disputed prize4 ,but1 more generally1 the ,evil ,principle alone was represented by the serpent1 and a fable in the ,zendavesta recalls to our recollection the opening of the ,book of ,genesis2 for it says that ,ahriman assumed a serpent's form in order to destroy the first of the human race1 whom he accordingly poisoned4 ,in the ,saddu1 or ,suddu1 it is said3 8,when you kill serpents1 you shall repeat the ,zendavesta1 whereby you will obtain great merit2 for it is the same as if you had killed so many devils40 ,mithras1 the ,persian sun-god1 was represented encircled by a serpent2 and in his rites a custom was observed similar to that practised in the mysteries of ,sebazius3 a serpent was cast into the bosom of the neophyte1 and taken out at the lower part of his garments4#de ,the hierogram of the winged circle and serpent is a remarkable and significant emblem of ,ophiolatreia1 and is found in almost every country where ,serpent-worship prevailed4 ,it is to be traced in the ,egyptian1 the ,persian1 and even the ,aztec hieroglyphics2 and on the monuments of ,china1 ,greece1 ,italy1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,india4 ,enthusiasts allege that it has been discovered in ,britain4 ,it seems to have been a general symbol of consecration1 and as such mention is made of it by the poet ,persius3 8,pinge duos angues2 pueri sacer est locus40 ,satir4 i4 #aac4 ,reference is here made to two snakes1 which1 as we have seen1 is the hierogram of the worshippers of the ,two ,principles1 each being represented by a serpent4 ,generally1 however1 it is one serpent only that issues from the winged circle1 and sometimes the circle is without wings4 ,as a consecrating symbol1 the ophite hierogram was inscribed upon the massive portals of the ,egyptian temples4 ,mr4 ,deane contends that the ,druids 8with the consistent magnificence which characterised their religion10 transferred the symbol from the portal to the temple2 and instead of placing the circle and serpent over the entrance into their sanctuaries1 erected the whole building in the form of the ophite hierogram1 as at ,abury in ,wiltshire1 and ,stanton ,drew in ,somersetshire4 ,the former represents the ophite hierogram with one serpent1 the latter is double2 in both cases the circle has no wings4 ,in ,argyllshire1 near ,oban1 exists a huge serpent-shaped mound1 discovered by ,mr4 ,phen in #ahga1 which must be mentioned in this connection4 ,looking down upon it from the high ground to the westward1 you see it rising conspicuously from the flat grassy plain1 which extends for some distance on either side1 with scarcely an undulation1 save two artificial circular mounds1 in one of which lie several large stones forming a cromlech4 ,a recent visitor writes3 8,finding ourselves in the very presence of the ,great ,dragon1 we hastened to improve our acquaintance1 and in a couple of minutes had scrambled on to the ridge which forms his backbone1 and thence perceived that we were standing on an artificial mound three hundred feet in length1 forming a double curve like a huge letter ,s1 and wonderfully perfect in anatomical outline4 ,this we perceived the more perfectly on reaching the head1 which lies at the western end1 whence diverge small ridges1 which may have represented the paws of the reptile4 ,on the head rests a circle of stones1 supposed to be emblematic of the solar disc1 and exactly corresponding with the solar circle as represented on the head of the mystic serpents of ,egypt and ,phnicia1 and in the great ,american ,serpent ,mound4 ,at the time of ,mr4 ,phen's first visit to this spot there still remained in the centre of this circle some traces of an altar1 which1 thanks to the depredations of cattle and herd-boys1 have since wholly disappeared4444 8,the circle was excavated on the #abth of ,october1 #ahga1 and within it were found three large stones1 forming a chamber1 which contained burnt human bones1 charcoal1 and charred hazel-nuts4 ,surely the spirits of our ,pagan ancestors must rejoice to see how faithfully we1 their descendants1 continue to burn our hazel-nuts on ,hallow-e'en1 their old autumnal ,fire ,festival1 though our modern divination is practised only with reference to such a trivial matter as the faith of sweethearts6 ,a flint was also found1 beautifully and minutely serrated at the edge2 nevertheless1 it was at once evident1 on opening the cairn1 that the place had already been ransacked1 probably in secret1 by treasure-seekers1 as there is no tradition of any excavation for scientific purposes having ever been made here4 8,on the removal of the peat-moss and heather from the ridge of the serpent's back1 it was found that the whole length of the spine was carefully constructed with regularly and symmetrically placed stones1 at such an angle as to throw off rain2 an adjustment to which we doubtless owe the preservation1 or at least the perfection1 of this most remarkable relic4 ,to those who know how slow is the growth of peat-moss1 even in damp and undrained places1 the depth to which it has here attained1 though in a dry and thoroughly exposed situation and raised from seventeen to twenty feet above the level of the surrounding moss1 tells of many a long century of silent undisturbed growth1 since the days when the serpent's spine was the well-worn path daily trodden by reverent feet4 ,the spine is1 in fact1 a long narrow causeway1 made of large stones1 set like the vertebr of some huge animal4 ,they form a ridge sloping off in an angle at each side1 which is continued downwards with an arrangement of smaller stones1 suggestive of ribs40 ,this strange memorial of a departed age and a vanished faith1 lying in the silence and solitude of the lonely shore of ,loch ,nell1 recalls to mind the eloquent lines of an ,american poet3#df 8,all desolate their ruins rest1 ,like bark that in mid-ocean rolls1 ,her name effaced1 her masts o'erthrown1 ,and none remaining of the souls ,that once sailed in her1 to relate ,from what far distant port she came2 ,whither she sailed and what her fate1 ,and what her nation and her name4 ,but only may conjecture guess ,the fancied story of this place1 ,and from these crumbling ruins gain ,some knowledge of the vanished race40 ,it must be noticed that the serpent-mound has been so disposed that the worshipper standing at the altar would naturally look eastward1 directly along the whole length of the great reptile1 and across the dark lake1 to the threefold peaks of ,ben ,cruachan4 ,that this position was intentionally selected is evident from the fact that the three peaks are visible from no other point4 ,and hence arises the not wholly fanciful conjecture that the people who erected the great mound had some dim idea of the ,triune character of ,,god4 ,the serpent was the emblem of ,his wisdom1 as the solar circle was of ,his ,eternal ,unity2 and this marked reverence for the triple-peaked mountain seems to indicate that with a knowledge of ,his unity was combined a recognition of ,his threefold manifestation4 ,the writer whom we have already quoted remarks that1 whatever doubts may arise on speculative points1 the clearly defined outlines of the great ,serpent-mound of ,oban are beyond dispute2 though it may long prove a fertile subject for discussion1 whether its serpentine1 or rather1 ,saurian form is to be accepted as direct evidence of ophiolatry in this land1 or whether we should regard it as simply the representative of some tribe1--as1 in short1 a ,totem of some extinct ,british race answering to the ,nagas1 or snake-tribes of the ,east4 ,the former supposition seems the more reasonable1 when we remember that the serpent and the serpent's egg were held sacred by the ,druids4 ,serpent-worship prevailed in every nation of antiquity4 ,it flourished in ,greece and ,rome1 in ,egypt and ,chaldea1 in ,arabia and ,central ,asia2 it extended throughout the ,indian peninsula from ,cape ,comorin to ,kashmir2 it was practised in ,ceylon and the islands of the eastern seas2 in ,mexico and ,peru2 throughout the whole of ,africa4 ,passing northward1 we find that it existed in ,scythia and ,scandinavia1 as also among vast tribes near the ,oural mountains and throughout ,northern ,europe1 and particularly among the tribes on the ,ob or ,obi river1 which owes its name1 it is said1 to the veneration paid to the reptile4 ,until the end of the fourteenth century1 when ,christianity was introduced1 the people of ,poland worshipped domestic serpents1 which were allowed to run free in every house1 and carefully tended1 every mishap that occurred being attributed to some negligence in their service4 ,the ,lapps1 the ,finns1 the ,norwegians1 the ,swedes1 the ,danes1 all fostered these strange household gods1 and shared with them the children's milk4 ,the ,vandals also kept them2 some lived in hollow trees1 and thither repaired the women1 with their offerings of milk1 as is common at the present day in ,ceylon and many parts of ,india4 ,long after they had accepted the faith of ,,christ1 the ,lombards continued a form of serpent-worship1 adoring1 or paying homage to1 a golden viper and a tree4 ,in #ffc1 ,barbatus1 ,bishop of ,benevento1 finding the custom still observed1 made a successful appeal to the worshippers to cut down the tree1 and allow him to melt the golden viper into a sacramental chalice4 ,one of the most interesting of the supposed ,serpent-temples1 or dracontia1 is that of ,karnak4 ,it is situated half a mile from the village of that name1 in the department of the ,morbihan in ,brittany1 and about nine miles from the picturesque town of ,auray4 ,it is also within a mile of the ,bay of ,quiberon4 ,the whole length of 8the ,stones of ,karnak10 as the temple is called1 measures1 if we include its sinuosities1 eight miles4 ,the width varies from #bej to #cej feet4 ,the highest stones are as much as seventeen feet high1 and from thirty to forty feet in circumference4 ,vacant spaces have unfortunately been cleared by ruthless spoliators for the erection of the adjacent villages of ,ploermel and ,karnak1 and the boundary walls of the neighbouring fields4 ,but what toil and time must have been originally expended on its construction1 we may infer from the fact that it consisted of eleven rows of stones1 about ten thousand in number1 of which upwards of three hundred averaged from fifteen to seventeen feet in height1 and from sixteen to twenty or thirty feet in girth2 one stone even measuring the huge circumference of forty-two feet4 ,a glance at any engraving of this famous antiquity will show that the course of the avenues is distinctly sinuous1 and that it defines the figure of an enormous serpent undulating over the ground4 ,necessarily1 however1 the resemblance is more striking to one who views the original in situ4 ,to such1 the alternations of the high and low stones1 regularly disposed1 may seem to mark with sufficient accuracy 8the swelling of the serpent's muscles as he moves along10 though this seems rather a flight of imagination4 ,but at all events the spectator will acknowledge the evidence of design which clearly appears in the construction of the avenues4 ,the ,dracontium contains ten regularly defined areas2 one near the village of ,karnak1 which is shaped like a bell or horse-shoe2 the other1 towards the eastern extremity1 which approaches the figure of a rude circle1 and is in reality a parallelogram with rounded corners4 ,the circle and the horse-shoe were both sacred figures in the ,druidical religion1 as may be seen in ,stonehenge1 where they are united1 the outer circles enclosing inner horse-shoes4 ,the connection between the latter symbol and the ,celtic faith is not very clear1 unless it be intended as a representation of the moon4 ,it has been conjectured that from this symbol1 whatever may have been its signification1 arose the superstition--even not now wholly defunct--of nailing a horse-shoe over a door as a protection against evil spirits4 ,it is curious that at ,erdeven1 where the temple begins1 an annual dance1 descriptive of the ,ophite hierogram of the circle and serpent1 is still celebrated by the peasants at the ,carnival4 ,but the only tradition which survives respecting the stones is one which lingers in various parts of ,england where similar memorials are found1 that they were originally endowed with life1 and were petrified as they stand4 ,some of the ,bretons believe they were the ,roman army who pursued the centurion ,cornelius on account of his conversion to ,christianity1 and were stricken into stone through his prayers4 ,others imagine that certain supernatural dwarfs erected them in a single night1 and that each still inhabits the stone he reared4 ,mr4 ,deane tells us that near the ,karnak side of the dracontium rises a singular mound of great elevation1 which has once been conical1 and the upper portion of which is evidently artificial4#dg ,he regards it as analogous to the remarkable hill of ,silbury1 which occupies much the same position towards the ,albury dracontium4 ,probably these mounds served as altars1 on which1 in conformity with the practices of the ,solar worship1 was kept burning the perpetual fire kindled by the sun4 ,they are of common occurrence in ,persia1 and seem to be identical with 8the high places0 of ,scripture where the priests of ,baal celebrated their sacrifices4 ,the conical mound near ,karnak--which may be seen for miles around--has been consecrated by the ,christians to the ,archangel ,michael1 who is the patron saint of every height1 hill1 or cone1 natural or artificial1 in ,brittany4 ,the reason of this dedication has been conjectured to be that ,s4 ,michael is the assailant and conqueror of the spiritual ,dragon of the ,apocalypse4 ,the mutilated image of that great serpent lies prostrate below the mound2 and when its worshippers were converted to the religion of ,,christ1 they naturally erected on the ,solar mount a chapel consecrated to its archangelic slayer4 ,this consecration indicates1 therefore1 the triumph of ,christianity over ,ophiolatry2 and it is but consistent1 says ,deane1 that the people who allegorised the conversion of the ,ophites by the metaphor of a victory over serpents1 should1 in token of the victory1 erect upon the high places of idolatry chapels to the great ,archangel4 ,it is possible that the mound gave name to the adjacent village3 that is1 ,karn-ak1 or ,carnac1 from 8cairn0 a hill1 and 8hac10 a snake4 ,the 8serpent's hill0 would be no unsuitable title for ,mont ,s4 ,michel4 ,in the same manner the group of pillars called ,lemaenac1 may have been named from maen1 stones1 and hac4 ,it is curious to find proofs of the existence of ,serpent-worship in the ,new ,world as in the ,old2 to meet with its traces in ,mexico as well as in ,egypt or ,chaldea4 ,but certain it is that the religion of ,mexico had many features which were common to the ,egyptian and ,chaldean creeds2 the same ,solar ,worship1 the same pyramidal monuments1 and the same ,ophiolatrous symbols4 ,for instance1 we learn that the temple of ,huitziliputli1 in ,mexico1 was built of great stones1 in the fashion of snakes tied one to another1 and that the circuit was called 8the circuit of snakes10 because the walls of the enclosure were covered with the figures of snakes4 ,this truculent-looking deity held in his right hand a staff cut in the fashion of a serpent2 and the four corners of the ark or tabernacle1 in which he was seated1 terminated each with a carved effigy of a serpent's head4 ,the ,mexican astronomers represented a century by a circle1 with a sun in the centre1 surrounded by the symbols of the years4 ,the circumference was a serpent twisted into four knots at the cardinal points4 ,the ,mexican month was divided into twenty days1 two of which were symbolised by the serpent and dragon4 ,further1 the doorway of the temple1 dedicated to 8the god of the air10 was so wrought as to resemble a serpent's mouth4 ,the ,mexicans1 however1 went beyond the symbolical worship of the sacred serpent1 and like many other branches of the ,ophite family1 they fostered living serpents in their dwellings as household gods4 ,mr4 ,bullock asserts that they make the rattlesnake an object of their worship and veneration2 and that representations of this reptile1 and of others of its species1 are very commonly met with among the remains of their ancient idolatry4 ,he says that the finest known to be in existence may be seen in a deserted part of the cloister of the ,dominican convent1 opposite to the ,palace of the ,inquisition4 ,it is curled up in an irritated1 erect position1 with the jaws extended1 and is represented in the act of gorging a woman1 richly dressed1 who lies between its fangs1 crushed and lacerated4 ,the ,conquistadors1 or ,spanish followers of ,cortez1 all assert that the ,aztecs1 or inhabitants of ,mexico1 worshipped an idol wrought into the shape of a serpent4 ,bonal ,dias del ,castello1 one of the ,spanish invader's veteran captains1 and the chronicler of the expedition1 describes the interior of the principal temple1 to which he and his leader were conducted by the ,emperor ,montezuma3 8,when we had ascended to the summit of the temple1 we observed on the platform as we passed1 the large stones on which were placed the victims intended for sacrifice4 ,here was a great figure representing a ,dragon1 and much blood lay spilled4 ,cortez1 addressing ,montezuma1 requested him to do him the favour to show his gods4 ,after consulting the priests1 ,montezuma led them into a tower where was a kind of hall4 ,here were two altars1 highly adorned with richly-wrought timbers on the roof2 above the roof1 spread gigantic figures like unto men4 ,the one on the right hand was ,huitzilopochtli1 their war god1 with a great face and terrible eyes4 ,this figure was entirely covered with gold and jewels1 and his body wreathed about with golden serpents4 ,before the idol smoked a pan of incense1 in which the hearts of three human victims were burning1 mixed with copal4 ,the other great figure1 on the left1 with a face like a bear's1 was the god of the infernal regions4 ,his body was everywhere covered with figures of devils1 having serpents' tails4 ,in this place was kept a drum of most enormous dimensions1 the head of which was made of the skins of large serpents4 ,at a short distance from the temple stood a tower1 and at the door grinned frightful idols1 like serpents and devils3 in front of these were tables and knives for sacrifice40 ,mr4 ,bullock1 who made a valuable collection of ,mexican antiquities1 describes an idol1 8the goddess of war10 on which ,cortez and his followers may possibly have looked3 8,this monstrous idol10 he says1 8is1 with its pedestal1 twelve feet high1 and four feet wide4 ,its form is partly human and partly composed of rattlesnakes and the tiger4 ,the head1 enormously wide1 seems that of two rattlesnakes united2 the fangs hanging out of the mouth1 on which the still-palpitating hearts of the unfortunate victims were rubbed as an act of the most acceptable oblation4 ,the body is that of a deformed man1 the place of arms being supplied by the heads of rattlesnakes1 placed on square plinths1 and united by fringed ornaments4 ,round the waist is a girdle1 which was originally encrusted with gold2 and beneath this1 reaching nearly to the ground1 and partly covering its deformed cloven feet1 a drapery entirely composed of wreathed rattlesnakes1 which the natives call 8a garment of serpents4444 ,between the feet1 descending from the body1 another wreathed serpent rests his head upon the ground40 8,the only worship10 says ,mr4 ,deane1#dh 8which can vie with that of the ,serpent in antiquity or universality1 is the adoration of the ,,sun4 ,but uniformly with the progress of the ,solar superstitions has advanced the sacred serpent from ,babylon to ,peru4 ,if the worship of the ,sun1 therefore1 was the first deviation from the truth1 the worship of the ,serpent was one of the first innovations of idolatry4 ,whatever doubt may exist as to which was the first error1 little doubt can arise as to the primitive and antediluvian character of both4 ,for in the earliest heathen records we find them inexplicably interwoven as the first of superstitions4 ,thus ,egyptian mythology informs us1 that ,helios 7the ,sun7 was the first of the ,egyptian gods2 for in early history1 kings and gods are generally confounded4 ,but ,helios married ,ops1 the serpent deity1 and became father of ,osiris1 ,isis1 ,typhus1 ,apollo1 and ,venus3 a tradition which would make the superstitions coeval4 ,this fable being reduced to more simple laws1 informs us1 that the ,sun1 having married the ,serpent1 became1 by this union1 the father of ,adam and ,eve1 the ,evil ,spirit1 the ,serpent-solar deity1 and ,lust2 which appears to be a confusion of ,scriptural truths1 in which chronological order is sacrificed from the simplification of a fable4 ,but--ex pede ,herculem--from the small fragments of the truth which are here combined1 we may judge of the original dimensions of the knowledge whose ruins are thus heaped together4 ,we may conclude that1 since idolatry1 lust1 the serpent1 and the evil spirit1 are here said to have been synchronous with the ,first ,man and ,woman1 the whole fable is little more than a mythological version of the events in ,paradise40 ,mr4 ,deane1 who lived before the days of ,comparative ,mythology1 read into the old fables a meaning which they are hardly capable of bearing4 ,it is clear enough that ,serpent-worship had an astronomical origin2 but we may agree with him that it was as ancient and universal as the worship of the ,sun1 with which1 indeed1 it was closely connected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall now borrow a few illustrations of the character1 extent1 and significance of ,serpent-worship from ,mr4 ,fergusson's elaborate work1#di in which he deals particularly with the ,topes at ,sanchi and ,amravati4 ,but1 first1 a word or two in explanation of the origin and purpose of the ,topes will be desirable4 ,the era of stone architecture in ,india seems to have begun with the reign of ,asoka about #bej ,b4,c4 ,it is contemporaneous with the rise of ,buddhism1 whose followers gradually usurped the place formerly occupied by the ,aryans4 ,the ,buddhist buildings then erected may be divided into three principal classes3 #ast4 ,topes or ,stupas1 with their surrounding rails and lats3 #bnd4 ,chaityas1 which1 in form and purpose1 closely resemble the early ,churches of the ,christians1 though several of those cut in the rock were1 in all probability1 excavated before the ,christian era3 and1 #crd4 ,viharas1 or ,monasteries1 forming in the earliest times the dwellings of the monks or priests who ministered in the ,topes or ,chaityas1 but afterwards becoming the independent abode of monastic communities1 who had chapels or oratories appropriated to their use within the walls of their monasteries4 ,we are here concerned only with the ,tope or ,stupa4 ,in its origin we suspect that it simply took the place of the mound or tumulus which the ,turanian and other races had from earliest ages been accustomed to raise over the last resting-place of their dead4 ,no such tumuli now exist in ,india1 having probably been washed away by the tropical rains or river-floods2 but some are still found in ,afghanistan4 ,the ,indian type is distinguished from the tumulus of other countries by its material and its shape4 ,it is built of brick or stone1 in a rounded or conical form4 ,it is distinguished also by the circumstance that instead of being the place of interment of a corpse1 it is the depository of relics4 ,besides being used as a relic-shrine1 the ,tope was frequently employed as a memorial tower to indicate a sacred spot4 ,of the #hd1jjj ,stupas which1 according to tradition1 ,asoka erected1 fully one half would seem to have been raised to mark the scenes where ,buddha or some ,bdhisatwa had performed a miracle or done something worthy of being remembered by the faithful4 ,the 8rails10 or stone-circles1 surrounding the ,indian ,topes are often of as much importance as the ,topes themselves2 and in the case of ,sanchi and ,amravati1 are even more important4 ,as with the ,topes1 they are sepulchral in origin4 8,the circles of rude stones found all over ,europe certainly are so in most cases4 ,they may sometimes enclose holy spots1 and may possibly have in some instances places of assembly1 though this is improbable4 ,their application to the purposes of ancestral worship is1 however1 not only probable1 but appropriate4 ,sometimes a circle of stones encloses a sepulchral mound1 as at ,new ,grange in ,ireland1 and very frequently in ,scandinavia and ,algeria4 ,in ,india rude stone circles are of frequent occurrence40 ,some hundreds are found in the neighbourhood of ,amravati alone1 and all are sepulchral2 but like the ,topes when adopted by the ,buddhists1 they were 8sublimated into a symbol instead of a reality40 ,reference must briefly be made to another group of early ,buddhist monuments1 the lats or stembhas1 of which very few are now extant in ,india1 the ,british engineer having used them for his roads1 and the native zemindar for his rice or sugar mills4 ,those erected by ,asoka are uniform in character3 circular stone shafts1 monoliths1 thirty or forty feet high1 and surmounted by a capital of a bell-shaped or falling leaf form1 imitated from the later ,grecian architecture4 ,they were erected in order that certain edicts might be engraved upon them1 which ,asoka desired to keep constantly in the remembrance and before the eyes of his subjects4 ,but in the fifth century1 those raised by the ,guptas had no other object than to perpetuate the name and fame of their royal founders4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,topes at ,sanchi form part of a large group of ,topes situated between the towns of ,bhilsa and ,bhopul in ,central ,india4 ,they range over an area about seventeen miles from east to west1 and about ten miles from north to south1 in five or six different clusters1 and number in all between forty and fifty of various dimensions4 ,it is believed that the smallest are merely the places of interment of local chiefs2 others are strictly ,dagobas1 or relic-shrines2 while the largest is a chaitya or stupa1 designed apparently to consecrate some sacred spot1 or perpetuate the memory of some remarkable event in ,buddhist history4 ,architecturally speaking1 it consists1 first1 of a basement #aba feet in diameter and #ad feet in height4 ,this is surmounted by a platform or procession path1 within which the dome or tumulus itself rises in the shape of a truncated hemisphere to a height of #ci feet4 ,the summit is a level area1 measuring #cd feet across1 and surrounded by a circular railing or barrier of stones1 which enclosed a square ,tu or reliquary1 #aa feet square1 and this in its turn enclosed a circular support for the sacred and symbolic umbrella that always crowned these edifices4 ,at a distance of #i feet from the base1 the tope is encircled by a rail1 eleven feet high1 and consisting apparently of one hundred pillars1 exclusive of the gateways4 ,each pillar seems to have been the gift of an individual1 and even the rails between them have apparently been contributed by different persons4 ,the rail or circle is devoid of sculpture2 but four gateways which were added to it about the ,christian era are covered with sculptured work of the most elaborate kind4 ,the human figures represented in these sculptures belong in the main to two great races4 ,one of them is easily recognised as 8,hindus10--8meaning by that term the civilized race who formerly occupied the valley of the ,ganges1 and who1 from their capitals of ,ayodhy and ,indraprastha or ,ptaliputra 7,palibothra71 had been the dominant class in ,india for at least two thousand years before the time to which we are now referring40 ,it may be taken as proved that these people were originally pure immigrant ,aryans1 but by intermixture with other races their blood took1 as it were1 a new colouring1 though they did not lose the civilisation and pre-eminence which they owed to their intellectual superiority4 ,we know them in the sculptures by their costume2 by the dhoti1 wrapped round the loins exactly as it is worn now-a-days2 the chadder over their shoulders2 and the turban on their heads4 ,so much for the dress of the men2 of the undress of the women it is more difficult to speak4 ,they are always decorated with enormous bangles about the wrists and ankles1 and strings of beads round the neck2 but with the exception of a bead belt round the body below the waist they wear little body clothing4 ,from this belt slips of cloth are sometimes suspended1 more generally at the sides or behind than in front1--and sometimes also a cloth not unlike a dhoti1 invariably of transparent texture4 ,this scantiness of attire can hardly be regarded as finding compensation in the dimensions and amplitude of the head-dress1 which1 consisting of two long plaits of hair mixed with beads1 and a thick roll of cloth1 forms almost a kind of tippet1 covering the whole of the woman's back4 ,mr4 ,fergusson remarks3#ej 8,it is1 however1 not only in the ,topes that this absence of dress is so conspicuous4 ,in all the sculptures at ,karli1 or ,ellora1 or ,mahavellipore1 or in the paintings in ,ajanta1 the same peculiarity is observable4 ,everywhere1 indeed1 before the ,mahometan conquest1 nudity in ,india conveyed no sense of indecency4 ,the wife and mother of ,buddha are at times represented in this manner4 ,the queen on her throne1 the female disciples of ,buddha1 listening to his exhortations1 and on every public occasion on which women take part in what is going on1 the costume is the same4 ,it is equally remarkable that in those days those unveiled females seem to have taken part in every public transaction and show1 and to have mixed with the men as freely as women do in ,europe at the present day4 8,all this is the more remarkable1 as in ,buddhist books modesty of dress in women is frequently insisted upon4 ,in the ,dulva1 for instance1 a story is told of the ,king of ,kalinga presenting to the ,king of ,kosla 7probably ,padh71 a piece of muslin1 which afterwards fell into the hands of a lewd priestess4 ,she1 it is said1 wore it in public1 while it was so thin that she1 notwithstanding this1 appeared naked to the great scandal of all who witnessed the exhibition4#ea ,the probability is1 that the story and the book that contains it are of very much more modern date than our sculptures4 ,it certainly is in direct conflict with their evidence40 ,the want of shame in women1 to which this exposure of the person bears witness1 is always the mark and sign of inferior civilisation4 ,the other race depicted in the sculptures has its distinctive characteristics4 ,the male costume consists of a kilt1--not a cloth wrapped round the loins1 but a kilt1 shaped1 sewn1 and fastened by buckle or string2--and also of a cloak or tippet1 which seems to be similarly shaped and sewn4 ,as for the hair1 it is twisted into a long rope or plait like a ,chinaman's1 and then folded round the head in a conical form1 or a piece of cloth or rope was treated in this way4 ,the beard is worn1 whereas no single individual of the ,hindu race1 either at ,sanchi or ,amravati1 has any trace of beard or moustache2 a circumstance the more remarkable1 because1 according to ,nearchus1 the ,hindus dyed their beards with various colours1 so that some were red1 some white1 some black1 others purple1 some green4 ,the female dress differs from that of the ,hindus even more than the male4 ,a striped petticoat is gathered in at the knees so as to form a neat and modest garb1 and a cloak or tippet like that of the men is thrown generally over one shoulder so as to leave one breast bare1 but sometimes both are covered4 ,the head-dress is a neat and elegant turban4 ,who then are these people8 ,from the peculiarities of their costume1 and their living in the woods1 some authorities are inclined to regard them as priests or ascetics1 though1 it is to be noted1 they are nowhere represented as worshipping ,topes1 hero-wheels1 or the disc and crescent symbols 7the sun and moon47 ,in one compartment1 however1 they are evidently worshipping the serpent in a fire-temple4 ,fergusson concludes that they were the aboriginal inhabitants of ,malwa1 to whom came the ,hindus as conquerors or missionaries 7or both87 ,the ,topes were erected and the sculpture wrought by the conquering race1 and the others are always represented as inferior and engaged in servile employments1 but not as converts to ,buddhism4 ,the only act of adoration in which we see them concerned is the adoration of the five-headed ,naga4 ,mr4 ,fergusson proposes to call them ,dasyus1 not because such a name has any local or traditional authority1 but because in the ,vedas and the heroic poems it seems to be applied to the aboriginal people of ,india as opposed to the ,aryans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,proceeding now to a consideration of the sculptures1 we find that one half of those at ,sanchi represent religious acts1 such as the worship of the ,dagoba or of ,trees4 ,once or twice the ,wheel is the object of adoration1 and once the ,serpent4 ,other bas-reliefs represent events in history1 and some again are devoted to the ordinary incidents of every man's life4 ,their general execution is vigorous though rude4 ,those at ,amravati 8are perhaps as near in scale of excellence to the contemporary art of the ,roman empire under ,constantine1 as to any other that could be named2 or1 rather1 they should be compared with the sculptures of the early ,italian ,renaissance1 as it culminated in the hands of ,ghiberti1 and before the true limits between the provinces of painting and sculpture were understood40 ,let us describe an upper bas-relief which has been found on the eastern gateway4 ,here the people whom ,mr4 ,fergusson calls ,dasyus are represented worshipping the five-headed ,naga1 or ,serpent1 which appears in a small hexagonal temple1 raising its head over something very like an altar4 ,in front stands a pot of fire1--probably a fire-altar1--and in spite of ,mr4 ,fergusson's doubts1 we think both the ,serpent and the ,fire are connected with the old ,sun-worship4#eb ,in the foreground an old man is seated in a circular leaf-thatched hut1 with1 according to a frequent ,indian custom1 a scarf bound round his knees and loins4 ,behind him in the hut is suspended his upper garment1 and in front a bearded senior1 of his own tribe1 is1 to all appearance1 addressing him4 ,near this individual stands another pot of fire1 with three pairs of tongs or ladles1 and a bundle of sticks to feed the flame4 ,close beside him we see one elephant1 two buffaloes1 sheep1 and deer4 ,the scene takes place in a forest4 ,above are trees and cocks1 with monkeys and peacocks2 below1 a reedy marsh opens into a lake blooming with lotus-flowers and occupied by geese4 ,a lower bas-relief in the same gateway puts before us a very different scene3 ,in the centre of the upper part blooms the sacred ,buddhist ,tree1 behind its altar1 with its ,chattee and garlands1 occupying a position similar to that of the serpent in the other bas-relief4 ,two ,garudas or ,devas1 or flying figures1 present garlands1 and two females1 instead of griffins1 approach it on either side4 ,in the lower part of the picture1 the ,inja1 or chief male personage1 sits enthroned upon the ,naga1 and is sheltered by its five-headed hood4 ,on his right crouch three women on stools1 eating and drinking1 and each with her tutelary or snake behind her2 and above them are a female ,chaori bearer and a woman with a bottle--there are snakes behind both4 ,on the other side are two women playing on drums1 two on harps1 one on a flute1 and a fifth dancing1 but all likewise with snakes1 and all in the costume which ,mr4 ,fergusson defines as that of the ,hindus4 ,the worship of the ,naga by the bearded ,dasyus as represented in the upper bas-relief1 does not occur again at ,sanchi1 and occurs only once at ,amravati4 ,there1 however1 the five-headed snake is seen very frequently in front of the dagoba1 and in a position which is designed to command the worship1 not only of the ,dasyus1 but of the whole world4 ,the ,hindu male or chief canopied by the ,naga1 as shown in the lower bas-relief1 occurs at least ten times at ,sanchi1 and must have occurred several hundred times at ,amravati4 ,mr4 ,fergusson asks1 what are we to infer from these facts8 ,is it that the ,naga1 or serpent1 was the god of the aborigines1 whom the conquering ,hindus adopted as their own deity1 and pretended that it was for them he reserved his patronage and support8 ,we must recollect that the ,topes were built and the sculptures carved by ,hindus1 and that there is no representation of a ,hindu doing honour to a snake2 on the contrary1 the snake always does homage to the ,hindu4 ,shall we conclude1 then1 that the ,hindus were the real ,naga-worshipping people1 and that it was they who enforced serpent-worship on the ,dasyus8 ,a conquered people have not infrequently imposed their language1 laws1 and religion on their conquerors4 ,it is1 perhaps1 impossible to answer these questions3 a cloud of obscurity hangs over the whole subject of ,snake-worship2 but we take it to have been the old and prevalent faith of the aborigines of ,india prior to the ,aryan immigration1 and we believe that the ,aryans adopted it more and more generally as they mixed more and more widely with the ,hindus1 and their blood became less and less pure4 ,it is not mentioned in the ,vedas2 there is scarcely an allusion in the ,rmyana2 in the ,mahbhrata it occupies a considerable space2 it appears timidly at ,sanchi in the first century of the ,christian era2 is triumphant at ,amravati in the fourth2 and might have become the dominant faith of ,india had it not been elbowed from its pride of place by ,vishnuism and ,sivaism1 which took its position when it fell together with the ,buddhism to which it had allied itself so closely4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we turn to the celebrated ,tope at ,amravati1 a town situated on the river ,kishna4 ,the dimensions of the ,tope are #aie feet for inside diameter of the outer circle1 and #afe feet for that of the inner4 ,the procession path is paved with slabs #ac feet long1 and the inner rail is #b feet wide4 ,it has four gateways1 and projecting about #cj feet beyond the outer rail2 but these are in so dilapidated a condition that their size cannot be accurately ascertained4 ,these circles1 or circular bas-reliefs1 from the intermediate rails of the outer enclosure are thus described3 ,in the upper circle on the right hand side a group of ,buddhist priests1 in their yellow robes1 may be seen worshipping4 ,in front two supple women1 such as so frequently occur in these sculptures1 bend in attitudes of adoration1 and on the left a chief in the ordinary ,hindu costume--surrounded by the women of his family--presents his little son to the ,buddha-emblem4 ,in the lower circle the same structural arrangements occur up to the ,trisul 7or emblem71 but the whole is surmounted by the ,chakra1 or ,wheel1 which we know to be the symbol of ,dharma or the ,law4 ,here all the worshippers are men2 it is1 we are told1 one of the very few scenes in these sculptures from which women are entirely excluded4 ,whether it was considered that the study of the ,law was unsuited for women1 or whether some other motive governed the designers1 certain it is that1 contrary to the usual rule1 the whole of the worshippers are of one sex and one race4 ,the only other noticeable peculiarity is the introduction of two antelopes1 one on each side of the throne4 ,the second circle represents the ,trisul ornament1 or emblem1 not on a throne1 but behind an altar4 ,the sacred feet of ,buddha are depicted1 but there are no relics4 ,in the upper compartment the principal worshippers are two men with seven-headed snake-hoods1 and two women with single snakes4 ,in the centre of the bas-relief sits the principal personage1 with a nine-headed snake-hood1 between two of his wives1 and beyond1 on both rims of the circle1 stands a female figure1 supporting herself by the branches of a tree4 ,on each a young girl waits2 one of these girls has a snake at the back of her head4 ,in front are three musicians1 also with snakes2 and on their right a lady without a snake receives the assistance of a girl with a snake4 8,this distinction10 says ,mr4 ,fergusson1 8between people with snakes and those without is most curious and perplexing4 ,after the most attentive study ,i have been unable to detect any characteristic either of feature or costume by which the races can be distinguished1 beyond the possession or absence of this strange adjunct4 ,that those with snakes are the ,naga people we read of1 can hardly be doubted2 yet they never are seen actually worshipping the snake like the ,dasyus1 but rather as protected by it4 ,the snake seems their tutelary genius1 watching over1 perhaps inspiring them2 but whether they borrowed this strange emblem from the natives of the country1 or brought it with them from the north-west1 are questions we are hardly yet in a position to answer satisfactorily40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have thus abundant evidence of the prevalence of ,serpent-worship in ,india in 8olden times20 the reader will1 perhaps1 be surprised to hear that it lingers still throughout the peninsula4 ,dr4 ,balfour1 who had an intimate acquaintance with the habits and customs of the natives1 asserts that the worship both of the sculptured form and the living creature1 is general4 ,the sculpture invariably represents the ,nag or ,cobra1 and almost every hamlet owns its ,serpent deity4 ,sometimes it is a single snake1 with the hood spread open4 ,occasionally the sculptured figures are nine in number1 forming the ,nao ,nag1 which is designed to represent a parent snake and eight of its young1 but the prevalent form is that of two snakes twining in the manner of the ,esculapian rod of classical antiquity4 ,it is the opinion of some ,hindus that the living snake is not worshipped as a devata1 or deity1 but simply reverenced in commemoration of some ancient event--possibly of some astronomical occurrences4 ,others1 however1 distinctly assert that it is worshipped as a devata4 ,however this may be1 there can be no doubt that the living snake is worshipped throughout all ,southern ,india4 ,on their feast days the worshippers resort to the snake's lair1 which they bedaub with vermilion streaks and patches of turmeric and of wheat flour1 and close at hand they suspend garlands of flowers1 strung upon white cotton thread1 and laid over wooden frames4 ,during the rainy seasons occurs the great ,nagpanchanic festival1 when the ,hindus go in search of snakes1 or have them brought to their houses by the ,sanpeli1 the snake-charmers who ensnare them4 ,the snakes are then worshipped1 and offerings of milk are made to them1 and in almost every house figures of snakes1 drawn on paper1 are affixed to the walls1 and worshipped4 ,those who visit the snakes' abodes1 or tents1 plant sticks around the hole1 and about and over these sticks wind white cotton thread4 ,a bevy of ,mahrathi women repair to the ht1 and joining hands1 wind round it in a circle five times1 singing songs2 after which they prostrate themselves4 ,they pour milk into the hole2 hang festoons of ,chembela flowers and cucumber fruit1 and sprinkle a mixture of sugar and flour4 ,in reference to this festival1 ,colonel ,meadows ,taylor writes3-- ,on this occasion1 ,nags or ,cobras are worshipped by most of the lower classes of the people in the ,dekhan1 and more particularly in the ,shorapore country4 ,the ceremonies are very simple3 the worshippers bathe1 smear their foreheads with red colour1 and in small parties1--generally families acquainted with one another1--resort to the places known to be frequented by snakes4 ,in such places there are generally sacred stones1 to which various offerings are made1 and they are anointed with red colour and ground turmeric1 and invocations are addressed to the local genius and to the serpents4 ,near the stones are placed small new earthen saucers1 filled with milk2 for cobras are fond of milk1 and are believed to watch the ceremony1 coming out of their holes and drinking the milk1 even while the worshippers are near1 or are lingering in the distance to see if their offerings be received4 ,it is considered a fortunate augury for the worshippers if the snake should appear and drink4 ,should the snake not appear1 the worshippers1 after waiting awhile1 return to the place next morning1 to ascertain the result3 if the milk have disappeared1 the rite has been accepted1 but not under such favourable auspices as if the reptile had come out at once4 ,these ceremonies end with a feast4 ,colonel ,meadows ,taylor 7whose language we are partly adopting7 continues3-- ,it is on behalf of children that ,snake-worship is particularly practised2 and the women and children of a family invariably accompany the male head1 not only at the annual festival1 but whenever a vow has been made to a ,serpent ,deity4 ,the first hair shaved from a child which has passed teething1 and gone through the other infantile ailments1 is frequently dedicated to a ,serpent4 ,on such occasions the child is taken to the locality of the vow1 the usual ceremonies are performed1 and with the other offerings is included the child's hair4 ,in every case a feast follows1 served near the spot1 and the attendant ,brahmins receive alms and largess4 8,in the ,shakti ceremonies1 ,pooma-elhishk1 which belong1 ,i think1 to aboriginal customs1 the worship of the ,snake forms a portion1 as emblematical of energy and wisdom4 ,most of these ceremonies are1 however1 of an inconceivably obscene and licentious character4 ,they are not confined to the lowest classes1 though rarely perhaps resorted to by ,brahmins2 but many of the middle class sects1 of obscure origin and denomination1 practise them in secret1 under the strange delusion that the divine energy of nature is to be obtained thereby1 with exemption from earthly troubles4 8,although ,snake-worship ordinarily belongs professedly to the descendants of aboriginal tribes1 yet ,brahmins never or rarely pass them over1 and the ,nagpanchani is observed as a festival of kindly greeting and visiting between families and friends--as a day of gifts of new clothes or ornaments to wives or children1 c4 8,the worship of ,gram ,deotas1 or village divinities1 is universal all over the ,dekhan1 and indeed ,i believe throughout ,india4 ,these divinities have no temples nor priests4 ,sacrifice and oblation is made to them at sowing time and harvest1 for rain or fine weather1 in time of cholera1 malignant fever1 or other disease or pestilence4 ,the ,nag is always one of the ,gram ,deota1 the rest being known by local names4 ,the ,gram ,deota are known as heaps of stones1 generally in a grove or quiet spot near every village1 and are smeared some with black and others with red colour4 8,ng is a common name both for males and females among all classes of ,hindus1 from ,brahmins downwards to the lowest classes of ,sudras and ,mlchhas4 ,ngo ,rao1 ,ngoju1 c41 are common ,mahratta names1 as ,nagappa1 ,nagowa1 and the like are among the ,canarese and ,telugu population4 8,no ,hindu will kill a ,nag or ,cobra willingly4 ,should any one be killed within the precincts of a village1 by ,mahomedans or others1 a piece of copper money is put into its mouth1 and the body is burned with offerings to avert the evil4 8,it is1 perhaps1 remarkable1 that the ,snake festival is held after the season or at the season of casting the skin1 and when the ,snake1 addressed or worshipped1 is supposed to have been purified4 ,some ,brahmins always keep the skin of a ,nag in one of their sacred books4 8,in reference to the lower castes alluded to1 ,i may mention those who practise ,snake-worship with the greatest reverence3--#a1 ,beydars4 #b1 ,dhungars or shepherds1 ,ahens or milkmen1 ,waddiwars or stone-masons1 ,khungins or rope-makers1 ,brinjaras and other wandering tribes1 ,mangs1 ,dhrs1 and ,chennars1 ,ramorsers1 ,bhils1 ,ghonds1 and ,kohs1 all which ,i believe1 with many others1 to be descendants of aboriginal tribes1 partly received within the pale of ,hinduism4 8,lingayots1 who are schismatics from ,hinduism1 and who deny in toto the religious supremacy of the ,brahmins1 are nevertheless ,snake-worshippers1 many of them bearing the name ,nag1 both male and female4 8,i cannot speak of the ,north of ,india1 but in the whole of the ,south of ,india1 from the ,nerbudda to ,cape ,comorin1 ,snake-worship is now existent40#ec ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,polynesian ,,superstitions4 ,when ,captain ,cook first visited those beautiful islands of the ,south ,pacific which are now included under the general name of ,polynesia1 he found their inhabitants given over to the lowest and coarsest idolatry4 ,many of their rites and ceremonies were as lewd as any practised in ancient times under the auspices of the ,paphian ,venus4 ,gradually they were brought within the influence of the missionary work of the ,christian ,church2 and though1 if we may credit the testimony of recent observers1 much heathenism still prevails1 and gross superstitions are still secretly nourished1 there cannot be a doubt1 that1 on the whole1 their moral condition has been materially elevated4 ,among the pioneers of the ,cross in these 8,summer-isles of ,eden0 one of the most eminent and successful was the ,rev4 ,john ,williams2 a missionary of the true type1 of an enlightened mind and broad sympathies1 who1 after a long career of noble labour1 sealed his witness to the truth with his blood1 and lives in the ,gospel record as the ,martyr of ,erromanga4 ,from the plain1 unvarnished1 and effective chronicle of his 8,missionary ,enterprises0 we glean much interesting information respecting the idolatrous ways of the islanders1 revealing their identity with the superstitions that from all times have dominated over uncivilised man4 ,in ,rarotonga as in ,mexico1 for instance1 the gods were supposed to be propitiated by human sacrifices2 and in many of the islands cannibalism existed in its most disgusting form and under the sanction of a religious ordinance4 ,from the chief of ,aitutaki ,mr4 ,williams obtained some curious relics of idolatry4 ,as for example3--an idol named ,te-rongo1 one of the great deities1 called a ,kaitangata1 or man-eater4 ,the priests of this idol were supposed to be inspired by the shark4 ,tangarou1 the great national god of ,aitutaki1 and of almost all the adjacent islands4 ,he holds the net with which he catches the spirits of men as they fly from their bodies1 and a spear with which he kills them4 ,a rod1 with snares at the end1 made of the fibres of the cocoa-nut husk1 with which the priest caught the spirit of the god4 ,it was used in cases of pregnancy1 when the female was ambitious that her child should be a son1 and become a famous warrior4 ,it was also employed in wartime to catch the god by his leg1 to secure his influence on the side of the party performing the ceremony4 ,ruanu2 a chief from ,raiatea1 who1 ages ago1 sailed in a canoe from that island1 and settled at ,aitutaki4 ,from him a genealogy is traced4 ,he died at ,aitutaki1 and was deified as ,te atua taitai tere1 or the conductor of fleets4 ,tanu2 with his fan and other appendages2 the god of thunder4 ,the natives1 when they heard a peal of thunder1 were accustomed to say that this god was flying3 and produced this sound by the flapping of his wings4 ,the ,rarotongan idols were of a singular character4 ,from their size they might have suited ,swift's nation of ,brobdingnagians1 for the smallest seems to have been about fifteen feet high4 ,each was wrought out of a piece of aito1 or iron wood1 about four inches in diameter1 carved with a rude imitation of the human hand at one end1 and with an obscene figure at the other2 round it were wrapped numerous folds of native cloth1 until it measured two or three yards in circumference4 ,near the wooden image some red feathers were strewn1 and a string of small pieces of polished pearl shells was regarded as the manava1 or soul of the god4 ,an idol1 somewhat resembling a ,chinese joss1 was placed in the fore-part of every fishing-canoe2 and prior to their departure on a fishing excursion1 the boatmen aways presented it with offerings1 and invoked it to grant them a successful issue4 ,a striking scene was that when ,papeiha1 a converted islander1 lifted up his voice against idolatry1 for the first time1 among the banana-groves of ,rarotonga4 ,the ,rarotongans had assembled in great numbers at a marae1 or sacred enclosure1 for the purpose of making offerings of food to the gods4 ,many priests1 pretending to be inspired1 were filling the air with shouts and yells2 whilst around them gathered the deluded worshippers1 some with one side of their face and body blackened with charcoal2 others were painted with stripes of various colours2 others figured as warriors1 wearing large caps adorned with white cowrie shells and birds' feathers4 ,breaking into their midst1 ,papeiha boldly addressed them on their folly in devoting such large quantities of food to a log of wood which they had carved and decorated and called a god4 ,this challenge was immediately accepted by one of the priests1 who springing to his feet1 protested that their god was a real god1 and a very powerful god1 and that they were that day celebrating a very sacred feast4 ,papeiha replied that the day was at hand when their folly would be revealed to them by the true ,,god ,,jehovah1 who would make their so-called gods 8fuel for the fire40 ,this strong declaration greatly perplexed the crowd1 but they continued to listen attentively while ,papeiha commented on the love of ,,god in giving ,,his ,,son to die for sinners4 ,after he had ceased1 the people asked him many questions2 among others1--8,where does your ,,god live80 ,he answered1 that ,heaven was ,his dwelling-place1 but that both ,heaven and ,earth were filled with the majesty of ,his presence4 ,they rejoined1 in their inability to conceive of an ,invisible but ,omnipresent ,deity2--8,we cannot see ,him1 but ours are here before our eyes1 and1 if the earth was full of your ,,god1 ,he would surely be big enough to be seen40 8,and10 said another1 8why do we not run against ,him80 ,to which ,papeiha ingeniously responded3--8,that the earth was full of air1 but we did not run against it3 that we were surrounded by light1 but it did not impede our progress40 ,five months later1 a priest came to ,papeiha and his associate missionary ,tiberio1 announcing his resolve to burn his idols2 and he brought with him his eldest son1 a boy of ten years old1 to place under their care1 lest the gods in their wrath should destroy him4 ,evidently1 in spite of his iconoclastic purpose1 the priest still cherished a belief in the power of his wooden deities4 ,leaving the child with the two teachers1 he returned home1 and next day at early dawn returned1 staggering under the weight of his cumbrous idol4 ,a crowd followed him1 shouting at him as a madman1 and looking upon him as one pre-doomed to destruction by his own folly2 but he held fast to his resolve to embrace the word of ,,jehovah1 and declared that he had no fear of the issue4 ,he threw his idol at the feet of the teachers1 one of whom fetched his saw to cut it up2 but the crowd1 as soon as they saw the instrument applied to the head of the god1 were stricken with panic fear1 and fled away4 ,as no catastrophe occurred1 they gradually returned impelled by curiosity1 which is sometimes stronger than fear2 and in their presence1 amidst profound excitement1 the first rejected idol of ,rarotonga was committed to the flames4 ,to convince the people of the absurdity of their apprehensions1 the teachers1 as soon as the idol was converted into ashes1 roasted some bananas upon them1 of which they ate1 and invited the spectators to partake4 ,none however were brave enough to admit so dangerous a morsel into their mouths1 and they waited1 open-eyed1 for the expected result of the profane audacity of the two teachers4 ,but1 like the inhabitants of ,melita1 8after they had looked a great while and saw no harm come to them1 they changed their minds10 and in less than ten days after this event no fewer than fourteen idols were destroyed4 ,soon afterwards1 the chief ,tinomana sent for the missionaries1 and on their arrival at his mountain-home1 informed them that after much deliberation1 he had resolved to become a ,christian1 and to place himself under their direction4 ,he therefore wished to know what was the first step he ought to take4 ,they informed him that he must destroy his maraes and burn his idols2 to which he immediately replied1 8,come with me and see them destroyed40 ,on reaching the place he desired some person to take a firebrand and set fire to the temple1 the ataraw1 or altar1 and the unus1 or sacred pieces of carved wood by which the marae was decorated4 ,four huge idols were then deposited at the feet of the teachers1 who1 having read a portion of the tenth chapter of ,s4 ,luke's ,gospel1 which was peculiarly appropriate1 especially from verse #ag to #bj1 stripped them of their linen wrappings1 which they distributed among the people1 and threw them into the flames4 ,some of the spectators waxed wroth with the chief1 and expressed themselves with great violence1 denouncing him as a fool and a madman for burning his gods1 and listening to worthless fellows who 8were drift-wood from the sea1 washed on shore by the waves of the ocean40 ,the women were specially vehement in their grief1 and broke out into the loudest and dolefulest lamentations imaginable4 ,many of them inflicted deep gashes on their heads with sharp shells and shark's teeth1 and ran wildly to and fro1 smeared with the blood which streamed from their wounds1 and crying in tones of the deepest melancholy1 8,alas1 alas1 the gods of the madman ,tinomana1 the gods of the insane chief are given to the flames60 ,others1 blackened with charcoal1 were not less demonstrative4 ,in the course of a few days a clean sweep was made of the idols of the district2 never were ,iconoclasts1 not even our ,puritan forefathers1 more thorough or more resolute4 ,the teachers then advised ,tinomana and their other converts to prepare their food for the ,sunday1 and attend worship at the mission station4 ,this they did1--but they came armed as for battle1 with war-caps1 slings1 and spears1 fearing lest the irate ,satanus 7as they called the idolaters7 should attack them4 ,neither in coming nor going1 however1 were they molested4 8,at this time10 says ,mr4 ,williams1#ed 8a ludicrous circumstance occurred1 which will illustrate the ignorance and superstition of this people4 ,a favourite cat had been taken on shore by one of the teachers' wives on our first visit1 and not liking his new companions1 ,tom fled to the mountains4 ,the house of the priest ,tiaki1 who had just destroyed his idol1 was situated at a distance from the settlement1 and at midnight while he was lying asleep on his mat1 his wife1 who was sitting awake by his side musing upon the strange events of the day1 beheld with consternation two fires glistening in the doorway1 and heard with surprise a mysterious voice4 ,almost petrified with fear1 she awoke her husband1 and began to upbraid him for his folly in burning his god1 who1 she declared1 was now come to be avenged of them4 #8,get up and pray1 get up and pray1' she said4 ,the husband arose1 and on opening his eyes beheld the same glaring lights1 and heard the same ominous sound4 ,impelled by the extreme urgency of the case1 he commenced1 with all possible vehemence1 vociferating the alphabet as a prayer to ,,god to deliver them from the vengeance of ,satan4 ,on hearing this1 the cat1 as much alarmed as the priest and his wife1 of whose nocturnal peace he had been the unconscious disturber1 ran away1 leaving the poor people congratulating themselves on the efficacy of their prayer40 ,afterwards1 in the course of his wanderings1 ,puss reached the district of the ,satanus2 and1 as the marae was situated in a sequestered corner1 and overshadowed by the luxuriant foliage of patriarchal trees1 the graybeards of the wood1 he was well pleased with the place4 ,in order to keep the best of company1 he took up his abode with the gods2 and as he met with no opposition from within1 he little expected any from without4 ,but some few days after came the priest1 accompanied by a number of worshippers1 to present some offerings to the god2 on his opening the door1 ,tom respectfully welcomed him with a miaou4 ,at this unwonted salutation he rushed back in terror1 shouting to his followers3 8,here's a monster from the deep6 here's a monster from the deep60 ,whereupon the whole party hastened home1 assembled several hundreds of their companions1 assumed their war-caps1 equipped themselves with spear1 club1 and sling1 blackened their bodies with charcoal1 and in all this pomp and circumstance of ,polynesian war1 rushed1 with yells1 cries1 and shouts1 to attack poor ,puss4 ,he1 however1 daunted by their grim and strange array1 did not await their approach4 ,the moment the door was open1 a leap and a bound--he was gone6 ,abiit1 evasit1 erupit4 ,as he darted through the assembled warriors1 they fled precipitately in all directions4 ,the religious system of the ,samoans1 according to ,mr4 ,williams1 differed in essential respects from that which prevailed at the ,tahitian1 ,society1 and other ,polynesian groups4 ,they had neither maraes nor temples1 nor altars nor offerings2 and consequently none of the barbarous and sanguinary rites to which we have alluded4 ,they shed no human blood2 they strewed no maraes with the skulls and bones of their victims2 they dedicated no sacred groves to brutal and sensual observances4 ,hence the ,rarotongans denounced them for their impiety1 and 8a godless ,samoan0 was a proverbial phrase4 ,yet they were not without their superstitions2 they had lords many and gods many2 and their credulity was as marked as that of any other savage race on whom the light of ,christianity and civilisation had never shone4 ,in considering the religion of the ,polynesians1 there are four points to be glanced at2 #a1 their gods2 #b1 their cultus2 #c1 their ideas of immortality2 and #d1 the means by which they hoped to secure future happiness4 #a4 ,their gods consisted of three kinds3 their deified ancestors1 their idols1 and their etus4 ,some of their ancestors were deified1 after the ,greek fashion1 for the supposed boons they had conferred upon mankind4 ,for example1 it was believed that the world was formerly in darkness2 but that the sun1 moon1 and stars were created by one of their progenitors in a manner too absurd to be described4 ,also1 that the heavens were of old so close to the earth that men could not walk erect1 and were compelled to crawl2 until a great man conceived the idea of elevating them to their present height2 which he effected by the employment of almost ,herculean energy4 ,by his first effort he raised them to the top of a tender plant1 called teve1 about four feet high4 ,there they remained until he had refreshed and rested himself4 ,a second effort1 and he upheaved them to the height of a tree called kanariki1 which is as tall as the sycamore4 ,his third attempt carried them to the summits of the mountains2 and after a long period of repose1 and another tremendous struggle1 he raised them to their present altitude1 at which they have ever since remained4 ,this wonderful personage was appropriately apotheosized2 and down to the date of the introduction of ,christianity1 was everywhere worshipped as 8the ,elevator of the ,heavens40 ,the fisherman had his god2 so had the husbandman1 the voyager1 the warrior1 the thief2 mothers dedicated their offspring to one or other of these numerous ,powers1 and chiefly to ,hero1 the god of thieves1 and to ,oro1 the god of war4 8,if to the former1 the mother1 while pregnant1 went to the marae with the requisite offerings1 when the priest performed the ceremony of catching the spirit of the god with the snare previously described1 and infusing it into the child even prior to its birth1 that it might become a clever and desperate thief4 ,most parents1 however1 were anxious that their children should become brave and renowned warriors4 ,this appears to have been the very summit of a heathen mother's ambition1 and to secure it1 numerous ceremonies were performed before the child was born2 and after its birth it was taken to the marae1 and formally dedicated to ,oro4 ,the spirit of the god was then caught1 and imparted to the infant1 and the ceremony was completed by numerous offerings and prayers4 ,at ,new ,zealand1 stones were thrust down the throat of the babe1 to give it a stony heart1 and make it a dauntless and desperate warrior40 ,this dedication of the child to the sanguinary war-god points to a condition of society in which life was verily and indeed a battle1 and every one had to hold his own by right of a strong arm and a reckless spirit4 ,there was no room for the feeble in such a system2 they crawled aside to die2 or were trampled to death in the rush and press of the crowd4 ,civilisation has its victims2 but assuredly they are few in comparison to the thousands and tens of thousands destroyed by the merciless tyranny of ,heathenism4 ,civilisation does at least teach us our duties towards our neighbours2 while ,savage ,man had little sentiment of compassion or affection for father or brother1 daughter or wife4 ,the second class of objects regarded with religious veneration was ,idols4 ,in every island and district these were different2 but in every island and district they abounded4 ,some were large1 some small2 some hideous in the extreme1 others were almost comely4 ,no fixed pattern appears to have been before the idol-makers2 each man followed his own fancy4 ,the third object of worship was the ,etu1--that is1 some bird1 fish1 or reptile1 in which the natives believed that a spirit resided4 ,this form of idolatry was more in vogue in the ,samoas than in any other island-group4 ,among the ,samoans1 the objects regarded as etus were1 indeed1 almost innumerable1 and frequently they were of extraordinary triviality4 ,it was not unusual to see a chief1 in other matters really intelligent1 muttering his prayers to a fly1 an ant1 or a lizard1 if such chanced to crawl or alight in his presence4 8,on one occasion10 says ,mr4 ,williams1 8a vessel from ,new ,south ,wales touched at the ,samoas1 the captain of which had on board a cockatoo that talked4 ,a chief was invited to the ship1 and shortly after he entered the cabin the captain began a colloquy with the bird4 ,at this he was struck with amazement1 trembled exceedingly1 and immediately sprang upon deck1 leaped into the sea1 and called aloud to the people to follow him1 affirming the captain had his devolo on board1 which he had both seen and heard4 ,every native dashed at once into the sea1 and swam to shore with haste and consternation2 and it was with much difficulty that they could be induced to revisit the ship1 as they believed that the bird was the captain's etu1 and that the spirit of the devil was in it40 ,another illustration is given by ,mr4 ,williams3-- 8,while walking10 he says1 8on one occasion1 across a small uninhabited island1 in the vicinity of ,tongatabu1 ,i happened to tread upon a nest of sea snakes4 ,at first ,i was startled at the circumstance1 but being assured that they were perfectly harmless1 ,i desired a native to kill the largest of them as a specimen4 ,we then sailed to another island1 where a number of heathen fishermen were preparing their nets4 ,taking my seat upon a stone under a tou tree1 ,i desired my people to bring the reptile1 and dry it on the rocks2 but as soon as the fishermen saw it1 they raised a most terrific yell1 and1 seizing their clubs1 rushed upon the ,christian natives1 shouting3 #8,you have killed our god1 you have killed our god6' ,i stepped in between them1 and with some difficulty stayed their violence1 on the condition that the reptile should be immediately carried back to the boat40 ,the ,polynesian islanders1 or most of them1 seem to have cherished a general idea of a ,supreme ,being1 whom they regarded as the ,creator of all things and the ,author of their mercies4 ,they called him ,tangatoa2 and at their great feasts1 before the food was distributed1 an orator would rise1 and after enumerating each viand on the board1 would say3 8,thank you for this1 great ,tangatoa60 ,the worship or cultus observed by the islanders included prayers1 offerings of pigs1 fish1 vegetables1 canoes1 native cloth1 and the like1 and incantations4 ,to these must be added the dread rite of human sacrifice4 ,of the style of their addresses to the gods one may form an idea from the formula with which they were accustomed to conclude it4 ,having presented the gift1 the priest would say3 8,now1 if you are a god of mercy1 come this way1 and be propitious to our offering2 but if you are a god of anger1 go outside the world1--you shall have neither temples1 offerings1 nor worshippers here40 ,as in other savage countries1 they sought to propitiate the gods by inflicting physical injuries upon themselves4 ,the ,sandwich ,islanders1 in performing some of their rites1 would knock out their front teeth2 the ,friendly ,islanders would cut off one or two of the bones of their little fingers4 ,so common was the latter practice1 that few were to be found who had not in this way mutilated their hands4 ,one missionary relates that1 on one occasion1 a chief's daughter1--a fine young woman about eighteen years of age1--was standing by his side1 when he observed by the condition of the wound that she had recently performed the ceremony4 ,taking her hand1 he asked why she had cut off her finger8 ,there was a touch of pathos in her reply4 ,her mother was ill1 and fearing lest she should die1 she had mutilated herself in the hope the gods would preserve her life4 8,well1 and how did you do it80 8,i took a sharp shell1 and worked it about until the joint was separated1 and then ,i allowed the blood to stream from it4 ,this was my offering to persuade the gods to restore my mother40 ,one cannot doubt the genuineness of the filial affection which could make such a sacrifice1 though we may wish that it had been more wisely exercised4 ,when a second offering was required1 the votary severed the second joint of the same finger4 ,if a third or fourth were demanded1 he amputated the same bones of the other little finger2 and when he had no more joints that he could conveniently spare1 he would rub the stumps of his mutilated fingers with rough stones1 until the blood again streamed from the wounds4 ,human sacrifices1 as we have said1 were very numerous1 especially in the ,henry1 the ,tahitian1 and the ,society island groups4 ,at the so-called ,feast of ,restoration 7,raumatavchi raa17 no fewer than seven victims were required4 ,it was always celebrated after an invading army had forced the inhabitants to retreat to the mountains1 and had desecrated the maraes by cutting down the branches of the sacred trees1 and cooking their food with them1 and with the wooden altars and decorations of the sacred place4 ,at the inauguration of their greatest kings1 the islanders used what was called ,maro ura1 or the red sash4 ,this was a piece of network1 about six feet long and seven inches wide1 upon which the red feathers of the parroquet were neatly fastened4 ,a chief could receive no more honourable appellation than that of ,arii maro ura1 8,king of the ,red ,sash40 ,a new piece1 about eighteen inches long1 was attached at every sovereign's inauguration2 and on all such occasions several human victims were required4 ,a sacrifice was made1 first for the mau raa tite1 or the extension of the network upon pegs1 in order to attach to it the new piece4 ,a second was necessary for the fatu raa1 or actual attachment2 and a third for the piu raa1 or twitching the sacred relic off the pegs4 ,these ceremonies not only invested the sash itself with peculiar solemnity1 but also rendered the chiefs who wore it more important in the eyes of the people4 ,well might it be so1 when the thing was dyed1 as it were1 in innocent human blood4 ,human sacrifices were also offered on the breaking out of war4 ,mr4 ,williams remarks that a correct idea of the extent to which this system is carried may be obtained from a relation of the circumstances under which the last ,tahitian victim fell1 immediately prior to the introduction of ,christianity4 ,pomare1 king of ,tahiti1 was on the point of fighting a battle which would assure his supremacy or deprive him of his dominions4 ,it became to him1 therefore1 a matter of the highest concern to propitiate the gods by the most valuable offerings he could command4 ,for this purpose1 rolls of native cloth1 pigs1 fish1 and immense quantities of other food were presented at the maraes2 but the gods 7or their priests7 would not be satisfied2 a human victim was demanded4 ,pomare1 therefore1 sent two of his messengers to the house of the victim1 whom he had marked for the occasion4 ,on reaching the place they inquired of the wife where her husband was1 and she1 in her innocence1 gave the required explanation4 8,well10 they continued1 8we are thirsty2 give us some cocoa-nut water40 ,she had no nuts in the house1 she replied1 but they were at liberty to climb the trees1 and take as many as they desired4 ,they then requested her to lend them the ,o1--a piece of ironwood1 about four feet long and an inch and a half in diameter1 with which the natives open the cocoa-nut4 ,she cheerfully consented1 little suspecting that she was placing in their murderous hands the instrument which1 in a few moments1 was to inflict a fatal blow on her husband's head4 ,upon receiving the ,o1 the men left the house1 and went in search of their victim2 and the woman1 her suspicions being excited1 followed them shortly afterwards1 reaching the scene just in time to see the blow inflicted1 and her husband fall4 ,she rushed forward to take a last embrace1 but was immediately seized and bound hand and foot1 while her husband's body was placed in a long basket made of cocoa-nut leaves1 and carried from her sight4 ,the sacrificers were always exceedingly careful to prevent the wife1 or daughter1 or any female relative from touching the corpse2 for so polluting were females considered1 that a victim would have been desecrated by a woman's touch or breath1 to such a degree as to have rendered it unfit for an offering to the gods4 ,while the men were bearing their victim to the marae1 he recovered from the stunning effect of the blow1 and1 bound as he was in the cocoa-nut leaf basket1 said to his murderers3 8,friends1 ,i know what you are about to do with me2 you are about to kill me1 and offer me as a tabu to your savage gods2 and ,i also know that it is useless for me to beg for mercy1 for you will not spare my life4 ,you may kill my body1 but you cannot hurt my soul2 for ,i have begun to pray to ,jesus1 the knowledge of ,whom the missionaries have brought to our island3 you may kill my body1 but you cannot hurt my soul40 ,this address did not move the compassion of his murderers4 ,laying their victim on the ground with a stone under his head1 they crushed it to pieces with another4 ,it appears that he had been selected as a victim because he had 8begun to pray for ,,jesus20 and it is not unjust1 therefore1 to claim for this poor ,tahitian savage a place in the noble army of martyrs4 8,the manner in which human victims were sought10 says ,williams1 8is strikingly illustrative of many passages of ,scripture which portray the character of heathenism4 ,as soon as the priest announced that such a sacrifice was required1 the king despatched messengers to the chiefs of the various districts1 and upon entering the dwelling they would inquire whether the chief had a broken calabash at hand1 or a rotten cocoa-nut4 ,these and sinister terms were invariably used1 and well understood1 when such applications were made4 ,it generally happened that the chief had some individual on his premises whom he intended to devote to this horrid purpose4 ,when1 therefore1 such a request was made1 he would notify1 by a motion of the hand or head1 the individual to be taken4 ,the only weapon with which these procurers of sacrifices were armed1 was a small round stone concealed in the hollow of their hand4 ,with this they would strike their victim a stunning blow upon the back of the head1 when others who were in readiness would rush in and complete the horrid work4 ,the body was then carried1 amid songs and shouts of savage triumph1 to the marae1 there to be offered to the gods4 ,at other times1 the king's gang of desperadoes would arm themselves with spears1 surround the house of their victim1 and enjoy the sport of spearing him through the apertures between the poles which encircled the house4 ,in these circumstances1 the object of their savage amusement1 frenzied with pain and dread1 would rush from one part of the house to the other2 but wherever he ran he found the spear entering his body2 and at length1 perceiving no possibility of escape1 he would cover himself in his cloth1 throw himself upon the floor1 and wait until a spear should pierce his heart40 ,the ,polynesian ideas of a future state were sufficiently curious4 ,while believing in its existence1 the natives had no conception of the value and immortality of the soul1 no conception of the ,everlasting4 ,according to the ,tahitians1 there were two places of existence for separated spirits3 one called ,roohutu noanoa1 or sweet-scented ,roohutu1 which in many points resembled the paradise of the ,rarotongans2 and the other was ,roohutu namu-namua1 or foul-scented ,roohutu1 of which it is impossible to furnish a description4 ,according to the ,rarotongans1 paradise was a very long house1 surrounded with beautiful shrubs and flowers1 unfading1 and of perpetual sweetness2 its inmates enjoyed a beauty which never waned1 and a youth which never waxed old1 while passing their days1 without weariness1 in dancing1 merriment1 and festivity4 ,this was the highest idea of ,heaven and future blessedness to which they could attain1 and was as materialistic as that of the ,mohammedans4 ,it was not necessary that a man should live a pure1 true1 and noble life to gain admission to the ,polynesian paradise1 nor was he excluded from it on account of his sins4 ,in order to pass the departed spirit into elysium1 the corpse was dressed in the best attire the relatives could provide1 the head was wreathed with flowers1 and other decorations were added4 ,a pig was then baked whole1 and placed on the deceased's body1 surrounded by a pile of vegetable food4 ,after this1 supposing the departed to have been a son1 the father would deliver some such speech as the following3--8,my son1 when you were alive ,i treated you with kindness1 and when you were taken ill ,i did my best to restore you to health2 and now you are dead1 there's your momoe o1 or property of admission4 ,go1 my son1 and with that gain an entrance into the palace of ,tiki1 and do not come to this world again to disturb or alarm us40 ,body1 pig1 and food would then be buried2 and1 if the kinsman received no contrary intimation within a few days of the interment1 they believed that the offerings had obtained for the departed the desired admission4 ,but if a cricket were heard on the premises1 it was considered an ill omen1 and they would utter the dismalest howls1 and such expressions as the following3 8,oh1 our brother6 his spirit has not entered the ,paradise2 he is suffering from hunger1 he is shivering with cold60 ,the grave would immediately be opened1 and the offering repeated1--generally with success4 ,the sacrifices of the ,fijians are of a costlier character4 ,the ,fijian chiefs had from twenty to a hundred wives1 according to their rank2 and at the interment of a principal chief1 the body was laid in state 8upon a spacious lawn10 in the presence of a great crowd of interested spectators4 ,after the natives had exercised all the taste and skill at their command in adorning her person1 the principal wife would walk out and take her seat near her husband's body4 ,a rope was passed round her neck2 eight or ten powerful men pulled at it with all their strength until she died of suffocation2 and the body was then laid by that of the chief4 ,this done1 a second wife seated herself in the same place2 the process of strangulation was repeated1 and she1 too1 died4 ,a third and a fourth became voluntary sacrifices in the same manner2 and all were interred in a common grave1 one above1 one below1 and one on either side of the husband4 ,the motive of this barbarous practice was said to be1 that the spirit of the chief might not be lonely in its passage to the invisible world1 and that by such an offering its happiness might be at once secured4#ee 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,earl of ,pembroke1 in his light1 gossipy book entitled1 8,south ,sea ,bubbles10 describes a visit which he paid to one of the old sacrificial maraes1 or inclosures1 in the island of ,raiatea4 8,strange places they were10 he says2 8built of enormous slabs of rock or coral1 arranged in an oblong shape1 and the space inside them filled with shingle and coral1 so as to form a platform about eight feet high4 ,i think the largest was about fifty yards long2 we scrambled up on to it by help of a tree1 and stood on the spot stained with so much blood shed in the name of religion4 ,what horrible stories those stones could tell if they could speak6444 8,what made the human sacrifices of the ,society ,islands so strangely ghastly and horrible1 was the fact that the wretched victim was always chosen from one of certain families1 set apart for that special purpose for generation after generation for ever4 ,how this caste originated ,i do not know4 ,many of these families used to put to sea secretly in canoes1 preferring an almost certain death by drowning or starvation to the terribly uncertain fate that was always hanging over their heads4 8,when a man came to the priests to beg some heavenly1 or rather infernal1 favour1 they would tell him1 either from whim1 malice1 or some reason best known to themselves1 that the god required a human sacrifice1 and naming the victim1 present the supplicant with the death-warrant in the shape of a sacred stone4 ,he hides this carefully somewhere about him1 and collecting a few friends1 seeks out the doomed man4 ,at last they find him sitting lazily under a tree or mending his canoe1 and squatting down round him begin talking about the weather1 fishing1 or what not4 ,suddenly a hand is opened--the death stone discovered to his horrified view4 ,he starts up terror-stricken1 and tries to escape--one short1 furious struggle and he is knocked down1 secured1 and carried off to the merciless priests4 ,ugh6 it is an ugly picture40#ef ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,fiji ,,islanders4 ,the annexation of the ,fiji ,islands to the ,british empire lends to the practices and beliefs of their inhabitants a peculiar interest1 though to a great extent these have been abandoned since the establishment of ,christianity4 ,their creed is undiluted polytheism2 their pantheon is full of all kinds of gods1 differing in rank and power1 and very widely represented on earth by some animate or inanimate object4 ,each ,fijian has a god of his own1 under whose care he supposes himself to be placed4 ,they do not seem to have any religious teaching2 but they have a priesthood1 and that priesthood has1 of course1 its traditional formulas of worship4 ,but nothing like regular worship1 as ,christians understand the phrase1 is accepted or observed1 and the ,fijian religion is really a superstition1 because its sole inspiring motive is fear4 ,this motive the priests carefully develope1 making it the basis of their claims and the source of their influence4 ,no man can gain access to the gods except through the priests2 and the priests insist upon liberal offerings4 ,when the worshipper comes upon questions of importance1 the ,soro or sacrifice consists of whales' teeth and large quantities of food4 ,for matters of inferior moment1 the god is content with a mat1 a club1 a spear1 or a tooth1 or even young nuts coated with turmeric powder4 ,on one occasion1 when the chief ,tuikilakila solicited the help of the ,somo-somo gods in war1 he built a large new temple to the war-god1 and presented a quantity of cooked food1 numerous turtles1 and whales' teeth4 ,part of the offering1 or sogaria1 is set apart for the god1 and the rest forms a feast to which everybody is invited4 ,the god's portion1 as the reader will immediately conclude1 is eaten by the priest and old men1 but to the younger members of the community is strictly tapu4 ,strangers who desire to consult a god begin by cutting a pile of firewood for the table4 ,sometimes only a whale's tooth and a dish of yams are presented4 ,it is not necessary that the offering should be made in the temple4 ,mr4 ,williams speaks of priests to whom the inspiration came in a private house or in the open air4 ,he who designs to consult the oracle dresses and anoints himself1 and1 attended by his friends1 goes to the priest1 who1 we will suppose1 has been previously informed of the intended visit1 and is lying near the sacred corner1 preparing his response4 ,when the votary arrives1 the priest rises and sits so that his back is near the white cloth by which the god visits him1 while the others occupy the opposite side4 ,the votary presents a whale's tooth1 states the object of his visit1 and expresses a hope that the god will regard him with favour4 ,sometimes in front of the tooth is placed a dish of scented oil1 with which the priest anoints himself1 and then receives the tooth1 eyeing it with deep and serious attention4 ,unbroken silence follows4 ,the priest1 says ,mr4 ,williams1 grows absorbed in thought1 and all gaze upon him with unwavering steadfastness4 ,in a few minutes he trembles2 his face appears slightly distorted1 and twitching movements are seen in his limbs4 ,these increase to a violent muscular action1 which spreads until the whole frame is strongly convulsed1 and the man shivers as with an ague fit4 ,in some islands1 adds ,mr4 ,williams1 this is accompanied with sobs and murmurs1 the veins expand1 and the circulation of the blood is quickened4 ,the priest is now possessed by his god1 and all his words and actions are henceforth considered as the god's and not his own4 ,shrill cries of 8,koi au6 ,koi au60 7,it is ,i6 ,it is ,i67 fill the air1 and are supposed to indicate the deity's approach4 ,while delivering the oracle1 the priest's eyes stand out and roll1 as if a frenzy had seized him2 his voice is unnatural and his face pallid2 his lips turn white2 his breathing is laboured2 and his whole appearance resembles that of 8a furious madman40 ,the perspiration streams from every pore2 the tears start from his strained eyes4 ,but by degrees the symptoms disappear1 and the priest stares around with purposeless gaze4 ,then as the god says 8,i depart10 he throws himself down violently on the mat1 or suddenly beats the ground with a club2 whereupon those at a distance are informed by blasts on the conch1 or the discharge of a musket1 that the deity has returned into the world of spirits4 ,it would be a mistake to conclude that in these scenes the priest-actor is always a conscious impostor2 he is frequently the victim of his own imagination1 which he stimulates into an excess of frenzy4 ,the ,fijians conceive that the way to ,buruto1 or ,heaven1 is impeded by many difficulties1 except for the great chiefs1 and that1 therefore1 the only certain plan for a man of inferior rank is to impose upon the god with a lie1--declaring himself to be a chief with so much earnestness that the god believes him1 and allows him to pass6 ,probably in no other creed is admission to heaven made to depend upon a lie6 ,with his war club and a whale's tooth on his shoulder1 the spirit journeys to the world's end4 ,there grows the sacred pine1 at which the spirit hurls his whale's tooth4 ,if he miss the mark1 his journey comes to an abrupt termination2 if he hit it1 he travels onward until he reaches the spot where the spirits of the women murdered at his death await his arrival4 ,with these faithful attendants he goes forward1 but is opposed by a god called ,ravuyalo1 against whom he employs his club4 ,if he be defeated1 the god kills and eats him2 if he conquer1 he again goes forward until he falls in with a canoe4 ,embarking1 he is conveyed to the celestial heights where dwells the supreme god1 ,ndengei4 ,over the brink of the cliff stretches the long-steering oar of the god's canoe4 ,he is asked his name and rank1 and to this inquiry he replies with a detailed and very imaginative recital of his greatness and opulence1 the heroic deeds he has achieved1 the devastation he has effected1 and the realms over which he has ruled4 ,he is then commanded to seat himself on the blade of the oar1 and1 if his story have met with credence1 he is borne aloft into ,buruto2 if ,ndengei disbelieves it1 the oar is tilted up1 and he is hurled down for ever into the watery depths of blackness4 ,bachelors are not admitted into ,buruto1 because as we have stated1 the spirit waits for his wives1 to prove that he is married4 ,and if an unmarried man venture on the journey1 a goddess called the ,great ,woman1 throws herself in his way4 ,she bears towards bachelors an implacable hatred1 and no sooner sees one than she springs upon him and tears him to pieces4 ,in her haste she sometimes misses him2 but even then he has to contend against another god1 who conceals himself by the side of the path1 and as the bachelor spirit passes by1 leaps upon him1 and dashes him against a stone4 ,there is a ghastliness about the funeral ceremonies of the ,fijians which far surpasses even the dreary desolation of those in vogue among ourselves4 ,in common with several other savage tribes they hold that men and women who have grown decrepit and infirm have lived their lives1 and should withdraw from this world of activity4 ,accordingly though they may be neither dead nor dying1 preparations are made for their interment4 ,and it seems that the moribund themselves do not object to this summary anticipation of the moment of dissolution2 on the contrary1 when they become sensible of infirmity1 they invite their sons to strangle them4 ,while the sons1 far from objecting to an act of parricide1 will intimate to their aged parents1 if they delay the request1 that they have lived long enough1 and that it will be well for them to enjoy the rest of the grave4 ,on both sides this singular conduct is due apparently to the ,fijian belief that the condition of the spirit in the next world will exactly resemble that of the individual in this2 and consequently everybody is desirous to cross the threshold while he retains some degree of activity of body4 ,alone we must die1 but we need not pass alone into the spirit-world6 ,such is the conviction of the ,fijians1 and accordingly they provide a dead chief with attendants1 by strangling at his grave his favourite wives4 ,and they slay a valiant warrior that he may precede him on his journey1 and do battle for him with all evil spirits or demons4 ,these victims are called 8grass10 and lie at the bottom of the chieftain's grave2 the wives decked out in fleecy folds of the softest masi1 the servants with their various implements in their hands1 and the warrior equipped for the strife1 with his favourite club by his side4 ,no resistance is offered by any one of the sufferers2 no attempt is made to escape2 all seem to contend for the honour of escorting their chief into the other world4 ,mr4 ,williams was present at the funeral of the ,king of ,somo-somo in ,august1 #ahde4 ,age was beginning to tell upon him1 but there was no immediately dangerous symptom1 and on the #bast1 when ,mr4 ,williams visited him1 he was better than he had been for two or three days before4 ,judge1 then1 of the missionary's surprise1 when1 on the #bdth1 he was informed that the king was dead1 and that preparations were being made for his interment1 he could scarcely believe the report4 ,the ominous word 8preparations0 induced him to hasten at once to the scene of action1 but his utmost speed failed to bring him to ,nasima1 the king's house1 in time4 ,the moment he entered it was evident that1 as far as concerned two of the women1 he was too late to save their lives4 ,the effect of that ghastly scene was overwhelming4 ,scores of deliberate murderers in the very act surrounded him2 yet was there no confusion1 and the unearthly horrid stillness was broken only by an occasional word from him who presided4 ,nature seemed to lend her aid to enhance the impression of horror2 there was not a breath in the air1 and the half subdued light in that hall of death revealed every object with unusual distinctness4 8,all was motionless as sculpture1 and0--writes ,mr4 ,williams--8a strange feeling came upon me1 as though ,i was myself becoming a statue4 ,to speak was impossible2 ,i was unconscious that ,i breathed2 and involuntarily1 or rather against my will1 ,i sank to the floor1 assuming the cowering posture of those who were actually engaged in murder4 ,my arrival was during a hush1 just at the crisis of death1 and to that strange silence must be attributed my emotions2 and ,i was but too familiar with murders of this kind1 neither was there anything novel in the apparatus employed4 ,occupying the centre of that large room were two groups1 the business of whom could not be mistaken4 8,all sat on the floor2 the middle figure of each group being held in a sitting posture by several females1 and hidden by a large veil4 ,on either side of each veiled figure was a company of eight or ten strong men1 one company hauling against the other a white cord which was passed twice round the neck of the doomed one1 who thus in a few minutes ceased to live4 ,as my self-command was returning to me the group furthest from me began to move2 the men slackened their hold1 and the attendant women removed the large covering1 making it into a couch for the victim40 ,mr4 ,williams now repaired to the hut of the deceased king1 to intercede with his successor on behalf of the other intended victims4 ,judge of his surprise and horror to find the king still alive4 ,he was very feeble1 it was true1 but he retained complete consciousness1 and occasionally put his hand to his side as his cough shook and tortured him4 ,the young king seemed overcome with grief1 and embracing ,mr4 ,williams1 said3 8,see1 the father of us two is dead40 ,he regarded his father's movements1 even his speaking and taking food1 as mechanical2 in his view1 the spirit had departed1 and nothing remained but an infirm1 and1 therefore1 valueless body4 ,the preparations for the funeral were not interrupted1 and ,mr4 ,williams could obtain no hearing for his expostulations4 ,the young chief's principal wife and an attendant busily dusted his body with black powder1 as if dressing him for the war-dance2 and bound his arms and legs with long rolls of white masi1 tied in rosettes1 with the ends streaming on the ground4 ,he was attired in a new masi robe1 which fell about him in ample folds2 his head was decorated with a scarlet handkerchief1 arranged turban-wise1 and ornamented with white cowrie-shells1 strings of which flashed on his dusky arms2 while round his neck depended an ivory necklace1 composed of long curved claw-like pieces of whale's teeth4 ,at the sound of a couple of conch-shells the chiefs present did homage1 so to speak1 to their new king1 who was still deeply affected1 and gazing on the body of one of the murdered women1 his father's eldest and most loving wife1 exclaimed3 8,alas1 ,moalivu6 ,there lies a woman truly unwearied1 not only in the day but the night also2 the fire consumed the fuel gathered by her hands4 ,if we awoke in the still night1 the sound of her feet reached our ears1 and if harshly spoken to1 she continued to labour only4 ,moalivu6 alas1 ,moalivu60 ,the bodies of the victims were then wrapped up in mats1 placed on a bier1 and carried out of the door2 but the old king was borne through a gap purposely made in the wall of the house4 ,on arriving at the seaside1 they were deposited in a canoe1 the old king reclining on the deck1 attended by his wife and the chief priest1 who fanned away the insects4 ,the place of sepulture was at ,weilangi4 ,there1 in a grave lined with mats1 were laid as 8grass0 the murdered women4 ,upon them was stretched the dying king1 who was stripped of his regal ornaments1 and completely enveloped in mats4 ,lastly1 the earth was heaped over him1 though he was still alive4 ,at the end of the ceremony the new king returned to his 8palace10 not unmindful of the fact that in the course of time a similar fate awaited himself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since the annexation of the ,fiji ,islands1 such a scene as this has1 of course1 become impossible4 ,cannibalism1 to which the ,fijians were largely addicted1 has also1 been prohibited4 ,lord ,george ,campbell1 in his 8,log of the ,challenger10 written in #ahgf1 says that those who lived in the interior still cherished cannibalistic tendencies1 and he seems to have been of opinion that cannibalism prevailed in those parts to which missionaries or civilisation had not yet penetrated4 ,but under the firm rule of ,sir ,arthur ,gordon it was doubtless extirpated4 ,even in ,lord ,george ,campbell's time the change effected by the sacred influence of ,christianity had been 8great indeed40 ,a party of ,english officers made a boat-excursion to the large island of ,bau1 where the king lived4 ,they found him dressed in a waist-cloth1 lying on his face in a hut1 reading the ,bible4 ,not far distant were the great stones against which they used to kill the sacrificial victims1 battering their heads against them till dead4 ,there too they saw a great religious 8maki-maki10 hundreds of men and women dancing1 and singing ,new ,testament verses before ,wesleyan missionaries1 who1 sitting at a table1 received the money-offerings of their converts as they defiled before them dancing and singing4 ,we have sketched a hideous scene belonging to the past1 and associated with the darkest superstitions of the ,fijians4 ,we shall adapt from ,lord ,george ,campbell a more pleasing picture1 in which the past mingles with the present1 and the old and the new are not unhappily blended4 ,the chronicler of the cruise of the 8,challenger0 was witness of a native dance or 8maki-maki10 given at ,kandavu in honour of the ,english officers4 ,when he landed the first 8set0 had already begun1 and torches1 consisting of bundles of palm branches tied together1 threw a lurid light over the savage scene4 ,on a strip of grass in front of the huts were gathered the dancers1 and close around grouped picturesquely on the top of great piles of cocoa-nuts1 or squatting on the ground1 were the natives of ,kandavu and the neighbouring villages1 officiating as critics1 but prepared in their turn to take part in the wild revelry4 8,glorious ,rembrandt effects1 as the torches' flames leapt and fell in the still night air1 bathing with ruddy glow that strange scene around1--the semi-nude dusky natives chattering1 laughing1 glistening eyes and white gleaming teeth1 on the reed-built huts1 on the foliage above1 and flushing redly up the white trunks of the cocoa-palms4 ,round a standing group of tawny-hued boys and girls who formed the band1 some two dozen men1 dressed in fantastic manner1 their faces blackened1 and skins shiny with cocoa-nut oil1 were dancing4 ,wound round their waists they wore great rolls of tappa1 or white cloth1 falling nearly to the knees1 and over these1 belts fringed with long narrow streamers of brightly coloured stuff--red1 yellow1 and white1 surging and rustling with every movement2 on their heads turbans of finely-beaten tappa1 transparent and gauzy1 piled high in a peak2 gaiters of long black seaweed or grass1 strung with white beads2 anklets and armlets of large bone rings1 or of beads worked in patterns2 tortoiseshell bracelets and bead necklaces1 from which hung in front one great curled boar's tusk4 ,some are dressed better than others1 but all in the same wild style4 ,moving slowly in a circle round and round the band1 whose clapping and rollicking strain they accompanied by a loud droning kind of chant1 at the end of each stave chiming in with the band with a simultaneous shout1 a sudden swaying of the body1 a loud hollow clap of the hands1 once or twice repeated1 and a heavy stamp1 stamp of the feet2 a moment's halt and silence1 broken plaintively by one of the singers1 quickly taken up by the remainder to a clapping1 rattling1 and vowely measure1 and again the dancers circle slowly round1 swinging their arms and bodies1 clapping1 shouting1 and droning in faultless time together40 ,the first dances were dances of peace2 pantomimic representations of the chief pursuits of a ,fijian's life1 as1 for instance1 fishermen hauling in their lines1 or the tillers of the field planting tare and gathering in their crops4 ,next came the war dances1 which reproduced the incidents of the past1 incidents never likely to be repeated under ,british rule4 ,a solitary singer began the strain1 and the others gradually joined in1--clappingly1 jinglingly1 bubblingly1 slightly nasally1 a strange ring audible throughout1 and not less audible the stirring boom of a bamboo drum4 ,suddenly1 from out the surrounding gloom1 against which in strong contrast stood the white stems of the cocoa-trees1 and into the red light of the torches1 merged slowly one after another1 in ,indian file1 a string of 8mad1 savage-looking devils40 ,crouching and bounding1 now backwards1 now forwards1 from side to side1 they gradually approached4 ,their hands carried great clubs1 the tips of which were decked with white plumes of silvery 8reva-reva10 flashing whitely as they were whirled around2 their fantastic finery rustling loudly with every wild movement1 eyeballs glaring out from blackened faces1 their motions sudden and simultaneous1 their splendid stalwart forms swelling with muscles and shining with oil1--they looked 8awfully savage and fine20 and to a captive bound and about to be eaten1 one would imagine well that the whole performance would be thoroughly enjoyable4 8,now stealthily working their arms and clubs1 as if feeling their victim1 then with a shout bounding forward1 brandishing aloft their clubs1 suddenly1 as if struck by some unseen hand1 falling to the ground on bended knee1 swaying first to the right1 then to the left1 and bringing their clubs down with an ominous thud2 again leaping up1 bounding back1 from side to side1 then to the right-about1 and all over the place2 it is impossible for me to attempt describing them1 so ,i won't4 ,they were1 ,i suppose1 braining enemies by the dozen1 and as they worked themselves into mad excitement1 so the more they bounded1 smashed their enemies' heads1 and were happy4 ,their drilling was admirable2 standing in line with the string1 every club whirled as one1 every bound and frantic motion went together1 and we are told they make fine soldiers1 as far as drill is concerned1 from this idea of time that they have4 ,in their dances they were led by a small boy--a chief's son1 this function being their prerogative1--a lithe tawny little savage1 with a great mop of frizzled yellow hair1 and his face dabbed with charcoal4 ,in his hands he carried an enormous palm-leaf fan1 with which he directed the dancers4 ,going through all the movements of the dance1 he at the same time careered over the ground1 now shouting loud words of command to the singers1 and now to the dancers1 yards away on their flanks4 ,he was simply splendid1 flying about like a demented demon1 here1 there1 and everywhere1 the dancers1 whether their backs were turned or not1 all keeping exact time with him4 ,as these men appeared1 so1 slowly1 still bounding voicelessly1 terrifically about1 and whirling their clubs1 they vanished into the darkness40 ,out of darkness cometh light1 and a future1 irradiated by the light of ,christianity1 succeeds to the ghastly past of ,fiji1 with all its cruel and odious superstitions4 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,polynesian ,,islands4 ,exorcism4 ,when ,captain ,moresby1 of ,h4,m4,s4 ,basilisk1 visited ,shepherd ,isle1 near the ,torres group1 he found himself compelled to submit to a curious process of exorcism before he was permitted to land4 ,a 8devil-man10 fantastically painted1 and adorned with leaves and flowers1 waded out to meet his boat1 waving a bunch of palm leaves round his head1 and as the captain jumped on shore1 the devil-man rushed at him1 and grasping his right hand1 waved the palms round his head in the same manner4 ,it was evident that he meant no harm1 and the captain therefore offered no resistance4 ,he placed the leaves in the captain's right hand and a small twig in his own mouth1 and then1 as if with a great effort1 drew out the twig1--which was supposed to extract the evil spirit1--and blew violently1 as if to hurry it away4 ,afterwards the captain held a twig between his teeth1 and the devil-man repeated the process1 all the while showing signs of strong excitement4 8,he led me then10 says ,captain ,moresby1 8to the edge of the bush1 and ,i began to feel rather reluctant1 and doubtful as to how all was going to end1 but thought ,i had better see it out4 ,here two sticks1 ornamented with leaves1 were fixed in the ground1 and bent to an angle at the top1 with leaves tied to the point1 and round these sticks the devil-man and ,i raced in breathless circles till ,i was perfectly dizzy4 ,he1 however1 did not seem to mind it at all1 and presently flew off with me up a steep path into the bush1 where at a short distance we came to two smaller sticks crossed2 here he dropped my hand1 and taking the bunch of palm leaves from me1 waved them1 and sprang over the sticks and back again4 ,then placing both his hands on my shoulders1 he leaped with extraordinary agility1 bringing his knees to the level of my face at each bound1 as if to show that he had conquered the devil1 and was now trampling him into the earth4 ,when he had leaped for awhile1 he made signs that all was over1 and we walked back together to the officers1 who had been rather anxiously watching these singular proceedings4 ,the natives1 who had kept quietly aloof1 now came freely about us1 and showed by their manner that they considered us free of the island40 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,maories4 ,we meet in ,new ,zealand with that curious system of 8taboo0 or 8tapu0 which prevails throughout the greater part of the ,polynesian ,archipelago2 a system evidently conceived in the interest of the priesthood1 and forming1 to a great extent1 the basis of its power4 ,we meet also with a recognition of the two ,principles of ,good and ,evil1 whose antagonism colours the creed of almost every race4 ,the ,good ,spirit of the ,maories is called ,atua2 the ,evil ,spirit1 ,wairua4 ,all evil spirits1 or all the objects representing them1 are known as ,wairuas1 and all the emblems or types of the ,good ,spirit as ,atuas2 but there is one supreme ,goodness1 one great and overruling ,god1 to which the name of ,atua is also applied4 ,according to ,mr4 ,angas1 the ,kakariki1 or green lizard1 is specially venerated as an ,atua4 ,on one occasion1 during the early days of ,christian mission work in ,new ,zealand1 a missionary was examining a phial of green lizards1 and a ,maori entering the room1 the missionary showed it to him4 ,whereupon the ,maori immediately exhibited all the signs of extreme terror1 and exclaiming1 8,i shall die6 ,i shall die60 proceeded to crawl away on his hands and knees4 ,any novel object1 any object beyond the intelligence of the ,maories1 they convert into an ,atua4 ,thus1 a barometer is an ,atua1 because it indicates changes of weather2 a compass1 because it points to the north2 a watch1 because it mysteriously records the progress of time4 ,not to these typical atuas1 however1 does the ,maori render the homage of prayer and praise2 this he reserves for the supreme and unseen ,atua1 and offers through the agency of his priests or tohungas4 ,it is to be feared that these prayers are often unintelligible to those on whose behalf they are offered1 but the ,maories do not the less heartily believe in them2 and1 indeed1 the history of religion all over the world presents innumerable illustrations of the fact that faith is not incompatible with ignorance4 ,it is the very essence and secret of ,superstition4 ,whether they understand the prayers of the tohungas or not1 they delight in their frequent repetition1 and insist upon their use in almost every circumstance of life4 ,they are generally accompanied by offerings of animal and vegetable food1 which1 of course1 become the perquisites of the tohungas4 ,the ,maori priesthood is hereditary1 father transmits his office to son1 after carefully educating him in its duties4 ,dr4 ,dieffenbach was present when an aged tohunga was giving a lesson to a neophyte4 ,the old priest1 he says1 was sitting under a tree1 with part of a man's skull1 filled with water1 by his side4 ,at intervals he dipped a green branch into the water1 and sprinkled the hand of a boy1 who reclined at his feet1 and listened attentively to his recital of a long string of words4 ,dr4 ,dieffenbach doubts the common statement that the prayers are often without meaning1 while agreeing that they are unintelligible to the majority of the worshippers4 ,he thinks they are couched in a language now forgotten2 or1 what is more probable1 that among the ,maories as among many of the nations of antiquity1 the religious mysteries are carefully confined to a certain class of men1 who conceal them from the profanum vulgus1 or reveal only such portions as they think proper4 ,the claims of the exponents of an artificial creed must necessarily depend in a great degree upon the amount of mystery in which they involve it4 ,with the common people familiarity breeds contempt2 they venerate that only which they do not understand2 it is darkness and not light which moves their wonder1 and excites their awe4 ,devoid as it is of elevated attributes1 the religion of the ,maori rises above some of the ,polynesian creeds in its acknowledgment of the immortality of man1 though on this point its teaching is very vague4 ,the ,maori believes that1 after death1 his soul enters the ,reinga1 or abode of departed spirits2 and1 with an unwonted touch of poetry1 he looks upon shooting and falling stars as souls passing swiftly to this undiscovered bourne2 the entrance to which he supposes to lie beneath a precipice at ,cape ,maria ,van ,diemen4 ,the spirits in falling are supposed to rest momentarily1 in order to break the descent1 against an ancient tree1 which grows about half way down4 ,the natives were wont to indicate a particular branch as being the halting-place of the spirits2 but a missionary having cut it off1 the tree has of late diminished in sanctity4 ,the entrance to the ,reinga is not accomplished by all spirits in the same manner4 ,those of the chiefs ascend in the first place to the upper heavens1 where each chief leaves his left eye1 this left eye becoming a new star4 ,hence the custom in ,maori warfare for the victor to eat the left eye of a chief slain in battle1 in the conviction that by this process he absorbed into his own system the skill1 sagacity1 and courage of the departed4 ,it is humiliating1 perhaps1 to record these illustrations of human folly2 but they are valuable as proofs of the depths to which ,humanity descends when unaided by the elevating influence of revealed religion4 ,according to the ,maories1 the soul is not confined absolutely within the limits of the ,reinga1 but may at its will revisit 8the glimpses of the moon10 and converse with its former friends and kinsmen1--of course1 only through the medium of the tohungas4 ,the latter are sometimes favoured with a view of the spiritual visitor1 who takes the form of a sunbeam or a shadow1 and speaks with a low whistling voice1 like the sound of a light air passing through trees4 ,this voice is occasionally heard by the uninitiated1 but the language it speaks can be comprehended by none but the tohungas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,respecting the wairuas1 it is difficult to gather any satisfactory information4 ,the word 8wairua0 means either 8a dream10 or 8the soul10 and ,dr4 ,dieffenbach says it is chiefly used to signify the spirit of some dead man or woman who is supposed to cherish a malignant feeling towards the living4 ,the wairuas frequent certain localities1 such as mountain-tops1 which the ,maori consequently takes good care not to visit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is a necessary result of the ,maori belief in atuas and wairuas that these should foster a belief in witchcraft4 ,individuals of bolder and stronger minds than the majority will always claim a special relationship to the unseen ,powers1 and avail themselves of this pretended relationship to work upon the popular imagination4 ,convince the ignorant of the existence of evil deities1 and he will listen readily to any who tell him that they can shield him from their malignant influence4 ,and then it naturally follows1 8as the night the day10 that all misfortunes arising from unseen or unintelligible causes1 will be attributed to witchcraft4 ,a vast--an almost boundless field is thus opened up to the practice of human unscrupulousness and the weakness of human incredulity4 ,let a ,maori chief lose some valued article1 or suffer from an attack of illness1 and he immediately concludes that he has been bewitched4 ,who has bewitched him8 ,he fixes1 as a matter of course1 on the individual whom he conceives to be his enemy1 and orders him to be put to death4 ,or he resorts to some potent witch1 and bribes her to exercise her influence to remove the maleficent spell under which he is labouring4 ,according to ,dr4 ,dieffenbach1 the particular haunt of the witches is--or rather was1 for ,christianity has rapidly extended its blessed power over the population of ,new ,zealand--a place called ,urewera1 in the ,north ,island1 between ,hawkes ,bay and ,taupo4 ,the natives of this wild and deserted district are reported to be the greatest witches in the country2 are much feared and studiously avoided by the neighbouring tribes4 ,when they come down to the coast1 the natives there are almost afraid to oppose their most extravagant demands1 lest they should incur their displeasure4 ,it is said that they use the saliva of the people they design to bewitch1 and1 therefore1 visitors carefully conceal it1 so as to deprive them of the opportunity of working mischief4 ,yet1 like the witches and sorcerers of medival ,england1 they appear to be more sinned against than sinning1 and by no means to deserve the ill reputation which attaches to them4 ,it is a curious fact1 says ,dr4 ,dieffenbach1 which has been noticed in ,tahiti1 ,hawaii1 and the ,polynesian islands generally1 that the first intercourse of their inhabitants with ,europeans produces civil war and social degradation1 but that a change of ideas is rapidly effected1 and the most ancient and apparently inveterate prejudices soon become a subject of ridicule1 and are swept away4 ,the grey priest1 or tohunga1 skilled in all the mysteries of witchcraft and native medical treatment1 readily yields in his attendance on the sick to every ,european who possesses1 or affects to possess1 a knowledge of the science of surgery or medicine1 and laughs at the former credulity of his patient4 ,it is evident that1 while deceiving others1 he never deceived himself1 and was well aware of the futility of his pretended remedies4 ,when a ,new ,zealand chief or his wife fell sick1 the most influential tohunga1 or some woman enjoying a special odour of sanctity1 was instantly called in1 and waited night and day upon the patient1 sometimes repeating incantations over him1 and sometimes sitting in front of the house1 and praying4 ,the following is the incantation which the priests profess to be a cure for headache4 ,the officiant pulls out two stalks of the ,pteris esculenta1 from which the fibres of the root must be removed1 and beating them together over the patient's head1 says this chant4 ,it is entitled1 8,a prayer for the sick man1 when his head aches3 to ,atua this prayer is offered1 that the sick man may become well40 ,on the occasion of a chiefs illness1 all his kith and kin gather around his house1 and give way to the loudest lamentations1 in which the invalid is careful to join4 ,when the weeping and wailing capacities of one village have been exhausted he is carried to another1 and the process is repeated4 ,but in ,new ,zealand1 as elsewhere1 the common lot cannot be averted by sorrowing humanity2 the sick man dies2 and then all that remains to the survivors is to show their respect and regret by such funeral pomp as they are able to devise4 ,they assemble round the dead body1 after it has been equipped in its bravest attire1 and indulge in the most violent demonstrations of grief1--partly feigned1 no doubt1 but partly sincere4 ,this luxury of woe1 however1 is chiefly accorded to the women1 who display that extravagance of passion we are accustomed to regard as characteristic of the ,southern nations4 ,they throw themselves upon the ground1 wrap their faces and bodies in their mantles1 shriek and sob aloud1 wave their arms frantically in the air1 and finally gash and scar their skin with long1 deep cuts1 which they fill in with charcoal until they become indelible records of the loss they have sustained4 ,funeral orations1 full of the most vehement eulogies1 and interrupted by complaints and reproaches against the dead man for his unkindness in going away from them1 are incessantly delivered4 ,these ceremonies completed1 they place the corpse in a kind of coffin1 along with various emblems of the rank of the departed1 and leave it to decay4 ,the process of decomposition is completed in about seven or eight months2 the ceremony of the hahunga then takes place4 ,the friends and relatives assemble2 the bones are removed from the coffin1 and cleaned2 a supply of provisions is passed around2 a new series of funeral panegyric is spoken2 and the tiki1 merai1 and other symbols of the departed chieftain's headship are handed over to his eldest son1 who is thus invested with his father's power and privileges4 ,the place where the dead body lies while undergoing decomposition1 the waki-tapu1 as it is called1 is frequently distinguished by peculiar signs1 and the neighbourhood left uninhabited4 ,mr4 ,angas describes a visit which he paid to the village of ,huriwonua4 ,its chief had died about six weeks before the visit1 and ,mr4 ,angas1 on arriving there1 found it entirely deserted4 8,from the moment the chief was laid beneath the upright canoe1 on which were inscribed his name and rank1 the whole village1 he says1 became strictly tapu1 or sacred1 and not a native1 on pain of death1 was permitted to trespass near the spot4 ,the houses were all fastened up1 and on most of the doors were inscriptions denoting that the property of such an one remained there4 ,an utter silence pervaded the place4 ,after ascertaining10 says ,mr4 ,angas1 8that no natives were in the vicinity of the forbidden spot1 ,i landed1 and trod the sacred ground2 and my footsteps were probably the first1 since the desertion of the village1 that had echoed along its palisaded passages4 8,on arriving at the tomb1 ,i was struck with the contrast between the monument of the savage and that of the civilised ,european4 ,in the erection of the latter1 marble and stone and the most durable of metals are employed1 while rapidly-decaying wood1 red ochre1 and feathers form the decorations of the ,maori tomb4 ,huriwonua having been buried only six weeks1 the ornaments of the waki-tapu1 or sacred place1 as those erections are called1 were fresh and uninjured4 ,the central upright canoe was thickly painted with black and red1 and at the top was written the name of the chief2 above which there hung in clusters bunches of kaka feathers1 forming a large mass at the summit of the canoe4 ,a double fence of high palings1 also painted red1 and ornamented with devices in arabesque work1 extended round the grave1 and at every fastening of flax1 when the horizontal rails were attached to the upright fencing1 were stuck two feathers of the albatross1 the snowy whiteness of which contrasted beautifully with the sombre black and red of the remainder of the monument40 ,we have entered at some length into an explanation of the system of ,tapu1 or ,taboo1 in our remarks on the religion of the ,polynesians4 ,it prevails1 as we have already stated1 in ,new ,zealand2 and though its disadvantages are many1 and it is capable of great abuse1 it serves nevertheless as a substitute for law1 and to a large extent protects both life and property4 ,for1 supported and enforced as it is by the superstitious feelings of the people1 it erects an insuperable barrier between possession and acquisition2 it plays the part of a social police2 it maintains the moral standard2 it shields the feeble from the oppression of the strong4 ,a man quits his dwelling for his day's work3 he places the tapu mark on his door1 and thenceforward his dwelling is inviolate4 ,or he selects a tree which will fashion into a good canoe2 he distinguishes it with the tapu mark1 and it becomes his own4 ,civilisation has designed no more effectual protection4 ,but like all restrictive and prohibitive systems1 it is easily pushed to an inconvenient excess1 and made an instrument of extortion or oppression in the hands of the chief or priest4 ,it is much in favour1 says ,mr4 ,williams1 among the chiefs1 who adjust it so that it sits easily on themselves1 while they use it to gain influence over those who are nearly their equals2 by means of it they supply their most important wants1 and command at will all who are beneath them4 ,if any object touch a chief's garment it becomes tapu2 so1 too1 if a drop of his blood fall upon it2 and1 more particularly1 it consecrates his head4 ,to mention or refer to a chief's head is an insult4 ,mr4 ,angas says that a friend of his1 in conversing with a ,maori chief about his crops1 inadvertently said3 8,oh1 ,i have some apples in my garden as large as that little boy's head60 pointing at the same time to the chief's son4 ,this reference was felt and resented as a deadly insult1 and it was only with the greatest difficulty that the incautious speaker obtained forgiveness4 ,so very much tapu is a chiefs head that1 should he touch it with his own fingers1 he must touch nothing else until he has applied the hand to his nostrils and smelt it1 and thus restored to the head the virtue that departed from it when first touched4 ,the hair is likewise sacred2 it is cut by one of his wives1 who receives every particle in a cloth1 and buries it in the ground4 ,the operation renders her tapu1 for a week1 during which time she is not allowed to make use of her hands4 ,the carved image of a chief's head is not less sacred than the head itself4 ,dr4 ,dieffenbach says3 8,in one of the houses of ,te ,puai1 the head chief of all the ,waikato1 ,i saw a bust1 made by himself1 with all the serpentine lines of the aroko1 or tattooing4 ,i asked him to give it to me1 but it was only after much pressing that he parted with it4 ,i had to go to his house to fetch it myself1 as none of his tribe could legally touch it1 and he licked it all over before he gave it to me2 whether to take the tapu off1 or whether to make it more strictly sacred1 ,i do not know4 ,he particularly engaged me not to put it into the provision-bag1 nor to let the natives see it at ,rotu-rua1 whither ,i was going1 or he would certainly die in consequence40 99 99 99 99 99 ,cannibalism is now extinct in ,new ,zealand1 having been crushed out by the strong arm of ,british authority1 and the ever-increasing influence of ,british civilisation4 ,but it was hard to die1 and lingered down to a very recent date4 ,as practised by the ,maories1 it lost few of its repulsive features4 ,we must admit1 however1 that they did not indulge in it from a craving after human flesh1 nor in time of peace1 but after battles1 from a belief that he who ate the flesh or blood1 or even the left eye1 of a slain warrior assimilated in his system all his martial and manly qualities4 ,when the fight was at an end1 the dead bodies were collected1 and with much rejoicing carried into the villages1 where they were roasted in the cook-houses1 and duly eaten4 ,but1 first1 the tohunga cut off a portion of the flesh1 and with certain incantations and mystic gestures1 suspended it upon a tree or pole1 as an offering to the gods4 ,mr4 ,angas describes one of the cooking-houses set apart for this horrid orgy4 ,it was erected by a ,maori chief in the ,waitahanui ,pah2 and when visited by ,mr4 ,angas1 had happily ceased for some time to be used4 ,the ,pah stands on a low swampy peninsula1 which is washed on one side by the river ,waikato and on the other by the ,taupo ,lake4 8,the long faade of the ,pah presents an imposing appearance when viewed from the lake2 a line of fortifications1 composed of upright poles and stakes1 extending for at least half a mile in a direction parallel to the water4 ,on the top of many of the posts are carved figures1 much larger than life1 of men in the act of defiance1 and in the most savage postures1 having enormous protruding tongues2 and1 like all the ,maori carvings1 these images1 or waikapokos1 are coloured with kokowai1 or red ochre4 8,the entire pah is now 7#ahfc7 in ruins1 and has been made tapu by ,te ,heuhen since its destruction4 ,here1 then1 all was forbidden ground2 but ,i eluded the suspicions of our natives1 and rambled about all day amongst the decaying memorials of the past1 making drawings of the most striking and peculiar objects within the pah4 ,the cook-houses1 where the father of ,te ,heuhen had his original establishment1 remained in a perfect state2 the only entrances to these buildings were a series of circular apertures1 in and out of which the slaves engaged in preparing the food were obliged to crawl4 8,near to the cook-houses stood a carved patuka1 which was the receptacle of the sacred food of the chief2 and nothing could exceed the richness of the elaborate carving that adorned this storehouse4444 ,ruined houses--many of them once beautifully ornamented and richly carved--numerous waki-tapu1 and other heathen remains with images and carved posts1 occur in various portions of this extensive pah2 but in other places the hand of ,time has so effectually destroyed the buildings as to leave them but an unintelligible mass of ruins4 ,the situation of this pah is admirably adapted for the security of the inmates3 it commands the lake on the one side1 and the other fronts the extensive marshes of ,tukanu1 where a strong palisade and a deep moat afford protection against any sudden attack4 ,water is conveyed into the pah through a sluice or canal for the supply of the besieged in times of war4 8,there was an air of solitude and gloomy desolation about the whole pah1 that was heightened by the screams of the plover and the tern1 as they uttered their mournful cry through the deserted coasts4 ,i rambled over the scenes of many savage deeds40 99 99 99 99 99 ,cannibalism1 or to use the scientific term1 anthropophagy1 has its origin in different causes1 and assumes different forms4 ,among some of the savage peoples it is1 as among the ,maories1 simply the expression of a sanguinary instinct1 of an atrocious sentiment of revenge4 ,among others it originates in a chronic condition of misery and famine4 ,yet1 again1 it is sometimes connected with the custom of human sacrifices1 as among the ,aztecs1 and those who practise it come to esteem it a sacred duty1 pleasing to their deities1 or even to the manes of their hapless victims4 ,unknown among the simple ,eskimos1 and1 indeed1 among all the hyperborean races1 anthropophagy prevails with more or less intensity among peoples which have attained a rudimentary civilization4 ,let us take1 for example1 the ,khonds of ,orissa1 who keep up a system of human sacrifice1 absolutely elaborate in its details4 ,its primary condition is that the victim1 or ,meriah1 should be bought4 ,even if taken in war1 he must be sold and purchased before the priest will accept him4 ,no distinction is made as to age or sex2 but the efficiency of the victim seems to depend on the sum he costs1 and therefore the healthy are preferred to the feeble1 and adults to children4 ,the number consumed in a twelvemonth must be very considerable2 as the ,khonds do not believe in the success of any undertaking1 or in the promise of their fields1 unless a ,meriah is first offered4 ,the victims are kindly treated during the period of their captivity1 which is sometimes of considerable duration4 ,in truth1 a ,meriah or dedicated maiden is sometimes allowed to marry a ,khond1 and to live until she has become twice or thrice a mother4 ,her children as well as herself are destined to the sacrificial altar2 but must never be slain in the village in which they are born4 ,to overcome this difficulty1 one village exchanges its ,meriah children with another4 ,there are various modes of accomplishing the sacrifice4 ,in ,goomten the offering is made to the ,earth-god1 ,tado ,pumor1 who is represented by the emblem of a peacock4 ,for a month previous to the day of doom1 the people maintain an almost continuous revel1 feasting and dancing round the ,meriah1 who seems to enter into the festivity with as much zest as they do4 ,on the last day but one he is bound to a stout pole1 the top of which carries the peacock emblem of the ,tado ,pumor2 and around him wheel and wheel the revellers1 protesting in their wild rude songs that they do not murder a victim1 but sacrifice one who has been fairly purchased1 and that1 therefore1 his blood will not be upon their heads4 ,the ,meriah1 being stupefied with drink1 makes no answer2 and his silence is interpreted as a willing assent to his immolation4 ,next day he is anointed with oil1 and carried round the village2 after which he is brought back to the post1 at the bottom of which a small pit has been dug4 ,a hog is killed1 and the blood poured into the pit1 and mixed with the soil until a thick mud is formed4 ,into this mud the face of the ,meriah is pressed until he dies from suffocation4 ,it should be added that he is always unconscious from intoxication when brought to the post4 ,the zani1 or officiating priest1 cuts off a fragment of the victim's flesh1 and buries it near the pit2 as an offering to the earth2 after which the spectators precipitate themselves upon the body1 hack it to pieces1 and carry away the fragments to bury in their fields as a propitiation to the rural deities4 ,in ,sumatra exists a tribe1 that of the ,battas1 which has not only a religion and a ceremonial worship1 but a literature1 a kind of constitution1 and a penal code4 ,this code condemns certain classes of criminals to be eaten alive4 ,after the sentence has been pronounced by the proper tribunal1 two or three days are suffered to elapse1 to give the people time to assemble4 ,on the day appointed1 the criminal is led to the place of execution1 and bound to a stake4 ,the prosecutor advances1 and selects the choicest morsel2 after which the bystanders in due order choose such pieces as strike their fancy1 and1 terrible to relate6 hack and hew them from the living body4 ,at length the chief releases the poor wretch from his long agony by striking off his head4 ,the flesh is eaten on the spot1 raw or cooked1 according to each man's taste4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have seen that in some of the 8sunny ,eden-isles0 of the ,pacific1 the natives consider that they render a service to their aged and infirm parents by putting them to death1 and that1 by eating them1 they provide the most honourable mode of sepulture4 ,in others1 as in ,new ,zealand1 the belief prevails that a man1 by devouring his enemy1 gains possession of all the virtues with which the latter may have been gifted4 ,this conviction is cherished by certain tribes on the river ,amazon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but it seems clear that in the majority of cases1 anthropophagy originates in a constant scarcity of food1 and in the lack of cattle and game2 though in some it may be true that the cannibals are attracted by the delicious savour of human flesh1 which they prefer to every other4 ,maury asserts that among the ,cobens of the ,uaupis1 man is regarded as a species of game1 and that they declare war against the neighbouring tribes solely for the purpose of procuring a supply of human flesh4 ,when they obtain more than they require for their present need1 they dry it and smoke it1 and store it away for future use4 ,in ,africa1 ,captain ,richard ,burton discovered1 on the shores of ,lake ,tangauyika1 a cannibal people1 named the ,worabunbosi1 who fed upon carrion1 vermin1 larv1 and insects1 and even carried their brutality to such an extent as to eat raw and putrid human flesh4 ,although you may see on every countenance1 says this enterprising traveller1#eg the expression of chronic hunger1 the poor wretched1 timid1 stunted1 degraded1 foul1 seem far more dangerous enemies to the dead than to the living4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are speaking however of a barbarous custom which1 from whatever cause it may have arisen1 is rapidly dying out4 ,owing to the constant advance of the wave of civilisation1 and to the vigorous efforts of our missionaries1 the practice of cannibalism1 against which our better nature instinctively rebels1 is decaying even in the darkest and remotest regions of the globe4 ,in ,polynesia1 for instance1 as in ,new ,zealand1 it is almost extinct4 ,and if we owed no other service to the heroic ,soldiers of the ,cross1 this result would of itself entitle them to our gratitude1 the extermination of ,anthropophagy being the first step towards teaching man to reverence humanity4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,north ,,american ,,indians4 ,the general characteristics of the ,north ,american ,indians1 or the ,red ,men1 have been made familiar to us through the writings of travellers1 and the picturesque romances of ,fenimore ,cooper1 the ,american novelist2 though of the latter it may be said1 perhaps1 that he has used bright colours too uniformly1 and introduced into his sketches too little shadow4 ,the name by which they are popularly known is1 of course1 ethnologically incorrect4 ,just as1 in speaking of the great ,western ,continent1 our forefathers employed the expression 8the ,west ,indies10 or the 8,great ,indies10 from a mistaken conception of its geographical position1 so they christened by the term 8,indians0 all its aboriginal races2 and the term has survived in our common speech owing to its convenience4 ,says ,de ,maury3 ,from the ,north ,pole to ,tierra del ,fuego almost every shade of human colouring1 from black to yellow1 finds its representatives4 ,according to their tribe1 the ,aborigines are of a brown-olive1 a dark brown1 bronze1 pale yellow1 copper yellow1 red1 brown1 and so on4 ,nor do they differ less in stature4 ,between the dwarf-like proportions of the ,changos1 and the tall stature of the ,patagonians1 we meet with a great number of intermediary 8sizes40 ,the contours of the body present the same diversity4 ,some peoples1 like those of the ,pampas1 are very long in the bust2 others1 like the inhabitants of the ,peruvian ,andes1 are short and broad4 ,so1 too1 with the shape and size of the head4 ,yet we recognize between the various ,american populations an air of kinship1 or certain predominant and general features which distinguish them from the races of the old world4 ,as1 for example1 the pyramidal form of the head and the narrowness of the forehead1 characteristics of great antiquity among the ,american populations1 having been found in skulls discovered by ,mr4 ,lund in the caves of ,brazil1 in association with the bones of animals now extinct4 ,in spite of this variety of type1 we may divide the ,aborigines of ,america into two great races1 of which one1 at least1 the ,red ,skins1 is remarkable for its complete homogeneity4 ,the ,red ,skins1--with whom alone we shall concern ourselves1--were formerly distributed over all the upper portion of the ,american ,continent2 that is1 over the territory of ,canada and the ,united ,states and the northern districts of ,mexico4 ,in the sixteenth century they numbered1 it is said1 a million and a half of souls4 ,the 8advance of civilisation10--in other words1 the greed and cruelty of the white man1--have reduced them now to a few thousand families4 ,a few years more1 and ,american rifles1 brandy1 poverty1 and disease will have virtually effected the extermination of a race1 which has assuredly merited the respect and recognition we are generally prone to render to courage and endurance4 ,true it is that our estimate of the ,red ,skins must not be taken entirely from the imaginative pages of ,chateaubriand and ,fenimore ,cooper4 ,the ,deerskins1 the ,hawkeyes1 and the ,leatherstockings of the novelist are ideal creations1 the like of which have never been found in the wildernesses of the ,west4 ,yet we cannot deny to the ,indians a character of true nobility and exceptional manliness4 ,their scorn of death and pain1 their stoical composure under tortures1 the mere description of which makes the blood of ordinary men run cold1 their disdain of the allurements of civilisation1 their stern refusal of foreign supremacy1 their haughty pride1 even their cold and calculated ferocity1 are so many traits which raise them to a higher platform than that occupied by most savage races4 ,a hundred times in song1 and romance1 and drama have been portrayed the manners of this remarkable people1 their subtle stratagems in war and the chase1 the perseverance with which they hunt down their prey or enemy1 their astuteness1 their impassiveness1 their brooding revenge4 ,who has not eagerly followed them in their unwearied wanderings across the rolling prairies1 and through the interminable forests8 ,who has not listened eagerly1 when seated round the watch-fire1 with the calumet to their lips1 they have meditated on the chances of peace and war1--chief after chief rising1 with regal attitude and deliberate eloquence to take his part in the stern debate8 ,who has not watched them in their furious battle-charges1 brandishing the dreadful tomahawk1 and carrying off the scalps of their defeated enemies to hang up in their wigwams as the trophies of their prowess8 ,who has not breathlessly tracked them in their pursuit of a flying foe1 or in their skilful escape through the thick brushwood from the pressure of some persistent antagonist8 ,assuredly this was a race well worthy of attentive study2 and their history1 or the narrative of their adventures1 none can peruse without interest4 ,there was a strain of poetry in their faith1 in their customs1 in their language at once laconic and picturesque1 even in the names full of meaning which they bestowed on each tribe1 and chief1 and warrior4 ,we can hardly suppress a feeling of regret that so much wild romance should have been swept off the earth1 unless we bring our minds to dwell upon the deep dark shades of the picture1 on their cruelty1 perfidiousness1 and lust4 ,even then our humanity revolts from the treatment they have received at the hands of the white man4 ,hunted from place to place like wild beasts1 driven back from one hunting-ground to another1 brutalised by misery or drunkenness1 decimated by the diseases of civilisation1 incapable of labour1 the ,red ,skins have struggled in vain against the irresistible onward movement of a civilisation without bowels2 a civilisation ill-adapted to attract and persuade them1 and more anxious to destroy than to assimilate4 ,the treatment of the ,indians is a dark chapter in the history of the ,united ,states4 ,the great nations which were formerly the valued allies or dreaded enemies of the ,european settlers1 the ,hurons1 the ,algonquins1 the ,iroquois1 the ,natchez1 the ,leni-,lenapes1 have entirely disappeared4 ,the wrecks of other but less important tribes still linger on the shores of the great ,northern lakes1 in the woods and wildernesses of the ,far ,west1 at the base of the ,rocky ,mountains1 in ,texas1 in ,arkansas1 in ,california1 and in the northern provinces and deserts of ,mexico4 ,such are the ,sioux1 the ,dacotahs1 the ,flatheads1 the ,big-,bellies1 the ,blackfoot1 the ,apaches1 the ,comanches4 ,the two latter people have been the most successful in preserving their vitality4 ,their characteristics however are very diverse4 ,the ,comanches are of a mild gentle nature1 and eager to live on peaceable terms with the whites4 ,the ,apaches1 on the other hand1 have vowed a relentless hatred against the ,pale ,faces2 they are the terror of the hacienderos 7or farm proprietors7 and gold seekers of ,upper ,mexico1 and the ,american journals to this day are full of their incursions1 and their acts of cruelty and brigandage4 ,physiologically1 the distinctive features of the ,red ,men are1 in addition to the colour of their skin and the pyramidal form of the head1 the prominency and arched outline of the nose1 the width of the nasal apertures1 corresponding to a remarkable development of the olfactory nerve1 and the absence of beard4 ,the superstitions1 or religious customs1 of the ,red ,men are in themselves a sufficiently interesting subject of study4 ,we begin with an account of the ceremony through which every one of their youths has to pass before he is acknowledged to have entered upon manhood4 ,our knowledge of it is due to ,mr4 ,catlin1 who1 as a reputed 8medicine-man10 lived for some time with the ,mandan tribe1 and became acquainted with their most secret customs4 ,the object of this rite1 which for savage cruelty seems unparalleled1 is1 first1 to propitiate the ,great ,spirit on behalf of the neophyte who undergoes it1 so that he may become a successful hunter and a valiant warrior2 and1 second1 to enable the leader and chief of the tribe1 to watch his behaviour1 and determine whether he will be likely to maintain its character and renown4 ,the ,mandans1 we must premise1 cherish a legend of a flood which in times long past inundated the earth1 and of which only one man1 who escaped in a large canoe1 was the survivor4 ,in a large open space in the centre of the village a representation of this canoe1 a kind of tub1 bound with wooden hoops1 and set up on one end1 is carefully preserved4 ,the ceremony of initiation occurs once a year1 at the season when the willow-leaves under the river-bank burst from their shade1 and bloom in all their greenness4 ,early in the morning of the great day1 a figure is seen on the distant ridge of hills1 slowly approaching the village4 ,immediately the whole village is alive6 ,the dogs are caught and muzzled2 the horses are brought in from the meadows2 the bravos paint their faces as if for battle1 string their bows1 feather their arrows1 and grasp their pointed spears4 ,then into the central area strides the visitor1 his body painted white1 a plume of raven's feathers waving on his head1 a white wolf's skin flung across his stalwart shoulders1 and in his hand a mystery-pipe4 ,the chief and his leading warriors immediately greet the new comer1 ,nu-mohk-muck-a-nah1 or the ,first ,man1 as he is called1--and conduct him to the great medicine-lodge1 which is open only on this occasion1 and now reeks with the fragrant odours of various aromatic herbs4 ,the skulls of men and bisons are solemnly laid on the floor2 over the beams of the timber roof are hung several new ropes1 with a heap of strong wooden skewers underneath them2 and in the centre is raised a small das or altar1 on which the ,first ,man deposits the medicine or mystery of the tribe1--a profound1 a sacred secret1 known to none but himself4 ,to every hut in the village next stalks the ,first ,man1 pausing at the door of each to weep aloud1 and when the owner comes out1 relating to him the old1 old story of the ,flood1 and of his own escape from it1 and requiring axe or knife as an offering to the ,great ,spirit4 ,the demand is never refused2 and loaded with edged tools of various kinds1 he returns to the medicine-lodge4 ,there they remain until the conclusion of the ceremonies1 when they are thrown into the river's deepest pool4 ,thus passes the first day1 during which1 as during the whole period of the ceremony1 an absolute silence prevails in the village4 ,none know the place where he sleeps1 but on the second morning he re-enters the village1 and marches to the medicine-lodge1 followed by a long train of neophytes1 and carrying his bow and arrows1 shield1 and medicine-bag1 and each painted in the most fantastic fashion4 ,hanging his weapons over his head1 each man silently seats himself in front of the lodge1 and for four days maintains his position1 speaking to none1 and neither eating1 drinking1 nor sleeping4 ,at the outset1 the ,first ,man kindles his pipe at the fire that burns in the centre of the lodge1 and harangues the neophytes1 exhorting them to be brave and patient1 and praying the ,great ,spirit to grant them strength to endure their trial4 ,summoning an old medicine-man1 he then appoints him to the charge of the ceremonies1 and as a symbol of office hands him the mystery-pipe4 ,after which he takes leave of the chiefs and their people1 promising that he will return next year to re-open the lodge1 and with slow and stately step passes out of the village1 and disappears beyond the hills4 ,the master of the ceremonies hastens to put himself in the centre of the lodge1 where he re-lights the pipe1 and with every whiff of smoke utters a petition to the ,great ,spirit in behalf of the candidates4 ,during the three days' silence of the neophytes1 the tribe indulge in a variety of pastimes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,first and foremost is the buffalo dance1 in which eight persons are engaged1 each wearing the skin of a bison1 and carrying on his back a large bundle of faggots4 ,in one hand they hold a mystery-rattle1 in the other a small staff4 ,in four couples they place themselves round the ,big ,canoe1 each couple facing one of the cardinal points of the compass1 and between them dances a young man1--two being got up in black1 dotted with white stars1 to represent day1 and two in red1 to represent night4 ,a couple of medicine-men1 dressed in the hides of grizzly bears1 sit beside the ,big ,canoe1 and profess their intention of devouring the whole village4 ,to satiate their voracity1 the women convey to them abundant supplies of meat1 which men1 painted black all over1 except their heads1 which are white1 in imitation of the bald-headed eagle1 carry off immediately to the prairie1 pursued by a number of little boys1 painted yellow1 with white heads1 who are called antelopes4 ,after a swift chase they overtake the eagle-men1 seize the food1 and devour it4 ,this rude frolic is repeated several times a day1 the performers being summoned by the master of the ceremonies1 who1 followed by his assistants1 issues from the medicine-lodge1 and takes up his post against the ,big ,canoe1 pouring forth many tears4 ,on the first day the dance is four times repeated1 on the second eight times1 on the third twelve times1 and on the fourth sixteen2 the dancers issuing from the hut in which they attire themselves immediately that the old man lifts up his head1 and weeps4 ,during each performance1 the old medicine-men keep up a rattle of drums1 except when they pause to announce to the crowd that the ,great ,spirit is pleased with their offerings1 and has given them peace2 that even their women and children can hold the mouths of grizzly bears1 and the ,evil ,one does not appear to disturb them4 ,this bold declaration is repeated thirty-two times during the four days1 and repeated without challenge2 but at the thirty-third1 the ,evil ,spirit makes his appearance1 threads his way through the village1 and breaks into the circle1--an uncanny creature1 entirely naked1 his body painted black1 but with white rings1 and his mouth blotched with white indentations like so many tusks4 ,carrying in his hand a long magic staff tipped with a red ball1 which he slides before him on the ground1 this ,evil ,spirit makes a rush at each group of females in the excited crowd4 ,they shriek for assistance4 ,the master of the ceremonies straightway abandons his station by the ,big ,canoe1 and presents his magic pipe to the intruder1 who stands immediately as if petrified into stone1 each limb quiescent1 each muscle rigid1--a statue1 rather than a man4 ,the women take advantage of this sudden pause to escape from the ,evil ,spirit's clutch2 and as soon as they are out of danger1 though their hearts still beat with excitement1 they resume their ordinary quietude1 only laughing loudly and gleefully at the sudden discomfiture of their antagonist1 and at the awkward and ridiculous attitude in which he was surprised4 ,the old man stands upright by his side1 with his eyeballs glaring him in the face1 while the medicine-pipe holds under its mystic spell his ,satanic ,majesty1 neutralises all the powers of his magic wand1 and deprives him of the power of locomotion4 ,no two human beings1 says ,mr4 ,catlin1 can ever present a more striking group than is presented by those two individuals1 with their fierce eyes fixed in well-simulated hatred on each other2 both contending for the supremacy1 both relying on the potency of their mystery or medicine2 the one1 with dismal black body1 pretending to be ,o-ku-hu-de1 the ,evil ,spirit1 and pouring everlasting vengeance on the other1 who sternly gazes back with a look of contemptuous exultation1 as he holds him bound by the influence of his sacred mystery-pipe4 ,truly1 these ,red-skinned ,mandans are accomplished actors and pantomimists4 ,a repetition of this performance takes place until the power of the mystery-pipe has been sufficiently proved2 and the women1 gaining confidence in it1 proceed to turn the tables on their persecutor1 jeering him1 and overwhelming him with shrieks of laughter4 ,at last1 one of the boldest dashes a handful of sand in his face2 an insult which completely overwhelms him1 so that he begins to weep abundantly4 ,another woman takes courage to seize his magic staff1 and snaps it across her knee4 ,other women pick up the broken halves and break them into fragments1 which they fling at ,o-ku-hu-de's head4 ,bereft of all his power1 he incontinently turns tail1 and dashes across the prairie1 followed for half a mile or so by volleys of mud and stones and slates4 ,thus ends the battle of ,armageddon4 ,the ,evil ,spirit has come1 and fought1 and been conquered4 ,the next step is to remove the little altar and its mysterious deposit from the centre of the great medicine-lodge1 and pass the hide ropes through openings in the roof to men stationed without4 ,then the master of the ceremonies and his assistants1 together with the chiefs and bravos of the tribe1 re-enter the lodge1 and take up their positions4 ,worn and wasted by four days of abstinence from food1 drink1 and sleep1 the first neophyte enters the lodge1 when called1 and takes his stand in front of two of the executioners4 ,one of them1 with a blunt and jagged double-edged knife1 pinches up an inch or so of the flesh of the breast or shoulder1 inserts the knife1 and through the incision thus accomplished1 forces a wooden skewer2 repeating the process on the other shoulder or breast1 on each arm just below the shoulder and below the elbow1 upon each thigh1 and upon each leg just below the knee4 ,painful as the operation must be1 the neophyte bears it unflinchingly2 not a sigh escapes him2 his countenance remains as calm and unruffled as if he were wrapped in a pleasant dream4 ,two of the hide ropes are now let down from the roof1 and twisted round the skewers on the breast or shoulders4 ,to the others are hung the neophyte's weapons1 while the skulls of bisons depend from those of the lower arm or leg4 ,at a given signal the neophyte is hauled aloft1 and allowed to swing1 at a height of six or eight feet from the ground1 suspended only by the two skewers1 while he sustains1 not only his own weight1 but that of the heavy skulls4 ,with almost incredible fortitude1 he endures this protracted agony1 until exhausted nature gives way1 and he falls into a swoon4 ,the bystanders seem no longer men1 but demons intent on increasing his tortures4 ,they surround him1 a dozen or more at a time1 and consider what new inventions can be adopted4 ,at length1 one advances towards the poor wretch1 and begins to turn him round with a pole1 which he has brought for the purpose4 ,this is done very gently at first1 but by degrees with more rapidity and increasing violence1 until the neophyte breaks down in his self-control1 and bursts forth into 8the most lamentable and heart-rending cries that the human voice is capable of producing10 imploring the ,great ,spirit to support and protect him in his agony1 and repeatedly expressing his belief in that protection4 ,in this condition he revolves faster and faster1 without the least hope of escape or relief1 until he again falls into a swoon2 his voice falters1 his strugglings cease2 he hangs a still and apparently lifeless thing4 8,when he is by turning gradually brought to this condition1 which is generally done within ten or fifteen minutes1 there is a close scrutiny passed upon him among his tormentors1 who are checking and holding each other back as long as the least struggling or tremor can be discovered2 lest he should be removed1 before he is1 as they term it1 dead40 ,having satisfied themselves that their victim is not feigning1 they give a signal2 he is lowered to the ground2 the skewers which passed through his breast are removed1 and the ropes attached to another candidate4 ,he is allowed to lie where he fell2 none dare to touch him2 to do so would be a sacrilege1 because he has placed himself under the protection of the ,great ,spirit4 ,after awhile he partially recovers1 and crawls to another part of the lodge1 where1 with gleaming axe in hand and a bison's skull before him1 sits a medicine-man4 ,holding up the little finger of his left hand as a sacrifice to the ,great ,spirit1 the neophyte lays it upon the skull1 and1 in a moment1 the medicine-man's axe severs it4 ,sometimes the fore-finger of the same hand is also offered1 and only the thumb and two middle fingers1 which are necessary in holding the bow1 are left4 ,then comes the last scene of this strange1 eventful history1 bringing the neophyte's sufferings to a climax4 ,the skewers by which he is suspended to the roof are removed when he is lowered1 but eight still remain2 two in each arm1 and two in each leg4 ,to each is attached a heavy weight1 such as a bison's skull1 and they must not be drawn out1 but must be torn out by sheer force4 ,with this view he is required to run the last race1--which takes place in the open air1 and in the presence of a concourse of excited spectators4 ,leaving the medicine-lodge1 the master of the ceremonies leans his head against the ,big ,canoe1 and fills the air with a loud long wail4 ,immediately a score or so of young men1 all matched in height1 wearing beautiful dresses of eagle-quills1 and carrying in one hand a wreath of willow-boughs1 issue from the dressing-hut4 ,on arriving at the ,big ,canoe they assemble round it in a circle1 holding on to each other's willow-wreath1 and then race around it at their utmost speed1 screaming and shouting until the air is filled with their uproar4 ,the candidates then come out of the medicine-lodge1 dragging the heavy weights attached to their limbs1 and are stationed at equal intervals outside the ring of runners4 ,as each takes his place1 two powerful young men take charge of him1 who pass round each of his wrists a broad leathern strap1 which they grasp very firmly1 but without tying it4 ,when all the preliminaries are completed1 a signal is given1 and the neophytes begin to race round the ,big ,canoe1 outside the inner circle1 each man being dragged along by his custodians1 until the skulls and other weights drag out the skewers to which they are fastened4 ,the bystanders scream and yell and shout in a frenzy of excitement2 eager1 moreover1 to drown the groans of the sufferers1 should the instincts of nature prevail over their self-control1 and desirous of encouraging them in their final trial4 ,sometimes the neophyte's flesh proves to be so tough that the skewers cannot be dragged out1 and in such cases their friends jump on the skulls as they rattle along the ground1 so as to increase their weight4 ,humanity cannot long endure a torture so horrible3 the sufferers quickly faint1 though they are still hauled round in the barbarous race1 nor set free until the last weight is dragged from the quivering1 bleeding body4 ,then the unconscious wretch is released1 and left1 for the second time1 in the care and protection of the ,great ,spirit4 ,in due time he recovers his senses1 struggles to his feet1 totters through the crowd1 is received by his friends1 and conducted to his own hut4 ,mr4 ,catlin supplies two illustrations of the rigorous tenacity with which the ,indians adhere to the rule that the skewers must be dragged1 not removed1 from the sufferer's flesh4 ,in one case the skewer had chanced to pass under a sinew1 and the neophyte was dragged round and round the ring in vain4 ,in vain his friends added their weight to that of the bison's skulls4 ,the scene became so horrible that even the spectators could no longer endure it1 and in sympathy with their cries the master of the ceremonies stopped the race1 leaving the youth1 unconscious1 on the ground4 ,as soon as he regained his senses1 he crawled away to the prairie on his hands and knees1 and there remained1 without food or drink1 for three hours longer1 until suppuration took place1 and he was enabled to get rid of the skewer4 ,then he crawled home1 and strange to say1 notwithstanding the agony he had undergone1 and his loss of strength1 recovered in a few days4 ,in the second case1 two of the weights attached to the arms refused to yield1 and the hapless neophyte crept as best he could to the steep bluff overhanging the river1 where he drove a stake into the ground4 ,fastening the weights to this stake by a couple of ropes1 he lowered himself about midway down the cliff1 and so hung suspended for more than two days1 until the obstinate flesh gave way1 and allowed him to drop into the water4 ,he swam to the side1 crawled up the acclivity1 and returned to his village4 ,it gives one a vivid idea of the remarkable vitality and physical force of the ,indian race1 when one reads that this man1 too1 recovered6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,indian has a vague idea of ,god and immortality4 ,he believes in a ,great ,spirit1 who1 after death1 admits the brave to his happy hunting-grounds1 where game is inexhaustible1 and the pleasure of the chase is ever open to the hunter4 ,beyond this dim and dubious conception1 his imagination never carries him4 ,he is prone1 as might be supposed1 for such proneness is the cause of ignorance1 and ignorance is the ,red ,man's bane1 to the wildest and coarsest superstitions1 and he is always at the mercy of the medicine-man of his tribe4 ,one of his most potent superstitions is that connected with the 8medicine-bag10 which he firmly believes to be his sole 8secret of success10 his all-powerful charm and talisman1 without which he would fail in every undertaking and be defeated and disgraced in battle4 ,at the age of fourteen or fifteen1 the young ,indian goes forth into the woods in search of his medicine4 ,on a litter of leaves and twigs he lies for some days--as long1 in fact1 as his physical powers hold out--neither eating nor drinking2 for in proportion to the duration of his fast will be the potency of his 8medicine40 ,his endurance at length gives way1 and he goes to sleep4 ,the bird1 beast1 or reptile of which he dreams becomes his 8medicine40 ,he returns home1 and as soon as he has recovered his strength1 he sallies forth in quest of the charm2 having found and killed the animal1 he preserves the skin in such shape as his fancy suggests1--usually in the form of pouch or bag4 ,if small1 he slings it round his neck1 and wears it concealed4 ,in other cases1 it hangs from his waist or shoulder4 ,however he may wear it1 the ,indian never parts from it4 ,he would be disgraced and defeated in battle--he would fail in his undertakings--if it were absent from his person4 ,should he be deprived of it in battle1 he is overwhelmed with shame1 until he can kill an enemy1 and take his medicine-bag to replace his own4 ,if1 without losing his own1 he captures that of an enemy1 he is entitled to assume a 8double medicine10 and with two medicine-bags about him he stalks to and fro1 the observed of all observers4 ,to take a medicine-bag is not less honourable than to take a scalp1 and the successful bearer has all the advantage of the double protection afforded by the double charm4 ,it is seldom that an ,indian will voluntarily part with his medicine-bag1 and if he does1 he forfeits his reputation almost irretrievably4 ,now and then he is persuaded by the white man to bury it1 but its place of interment immediately assumes an air of sanctity in his eyes4 ,he frequents the spot as if drawn thither by an irresistible influence1 will throw himself on the sod1 and talk to the buried treasure as if it were alive4 ,sometimes he will offer sacrifices to it1 and if he be a rich man1 will even offer a horse4 ,on the latter occasion1 the whole tribe take part in the ceremony1 and march forth to the prairie in picturesque procession1 led by the owner of the medicine-bag1 who drives before him his most valued and valuable steed1 decked with coloured devices4 ,at the appointed spot1 he delivers a long prayer or oration to the ,great ,spirit1 and sets free the horse1 which thenceforth enjoys the free life of the wild horses of the prairie1 and if at any time recaptured is immediately released4 ,the position which in most savage tribes is held by the priest1 among the ,american ,indians is held by the 8medicine-man40 ,his influence is considerable1 and his powers are supposed to be vast4 ,he is called upon to heal the sick and save the dying1 and1 above all1 to bring down the genial rain from heaven when it is needed for the growth of the crops4 ,we owe to ,mr4 ,catlin an interesting description of the rain-making ceremony4 ,a drought had withered the maize-fields for some weeks1 and application for help having been made to the medicine-men they duly set to work4 ,on the first day one ,wah-ku1 or the ,shield1 came to the front2 but failed--that day an equally unsuccessful experiment was made by ,om-pah1 or the ,elk4 ,the third day was devoted to ,wa-rah-pa1 or the ,beaver1 and on the fourth recourse was had to ,wak-a-dah-ha-ku1 the ,white ,buffalo ,hair1 who was strong in the possession of a shield coloured with red lightnings1 and in the arrow which he carried in his hand4 ,taking his station by the medicine-lodge1 he harangued the people1 protesting that for the good of his tribe he was willing to sacrifice himself1 and that if he did not bring the much-desired rain1 he was content to live for the rest of his life with the old women and the dogs4 ,he asserted that the first medicine-man had failed1 because his shield warded off the rain-clouds2 the second1 who wore a head-dress made of a raven's skin1 because the raven was a bird that soared above the storm1 and cared not whether the rain came or stayed2 and the third1 because the beaver was always wet1 and required no rain4 ,but as for him1 ,wak-a-dah-ha-ku1 the red lightnings on his shield would attract the rain-clouds1 and his arrow would pierce them1 and pour the water over the thirsty fields4 ,it chanced that1 as he ended his oration1 a steamer1 the first that had ever ploughed the ,missouri river1 fired a salute from a twelve-pounder gun1 as she passed the ,mandan village4 ,to the ,indians the roar of the cannon was like the voice of thunder1 and their joy knew no bounds4 ,the successful medicine-man was loaded with valuable gifts2 mothers hastened to offer their daughters to him in marriage2 and the elder medicine-men issued from the lodge1 eager to enrol him in their order4 ,but1 from the roof of the lodge1 where he had taken his stand1 ,wak-a-dah-ha-ku discovered the steamer1 as she dashed up the river1 and discharged her gun again and yet again4 ,he hastened to address the chiefs and people1 explaining that the sounds they heard were not those of thunder1 but that his potent medicine had brought a thunder-boat to the village4 ,to the river-bank rushed the wondering population1 and the rest of the day was spent in a fever of excitement1 in which the rain-maker was forgotten4 ,just before sunset his quick eyes discovered a black cloud1 which1 unobserved by the noisy multitude1 swiftly came up from the horizon4 ,at once he assumed his station on the roof of the lodge2 strung his bow and made ready his arrow2 arrested the attention of his fellows by his loud and exultant speech2 and as the cloud impended over the village1 shot his arrow into the sky4 ,lo1 the rain immediately descended in torrents1 wetting the rain-maker to the skin1 but establishing in everybody's mind a firm and deep conviction of his power4 ,all night raged the storm2 but unhappily a flash of lightning penetrated one of the wigwams1 and killed a young girl4 ,the newly-made medicine-man was sorely terrified by this catastrophe1 which he feared the chiefs would impute to him1 making him responsible for the girl's death1 and punishing him accordingly4 ,but he was a man of much astuteness1 and early in the morning1 collecting three of his best horses1 he mounted the lodge-roof again1 and for a third time addressed the people of his tribe4 8,friends10 he said1 8my medicine was too strong1 ,i am young1 and ,i did not know where to stop4 ,i did not regulate its power4 ,and now the wigwam of ,mah-sish is laid low1 and many are the eyes that weep for ,ko-ka1 the antelope4 ,wak-a-dah-ha-ku gives three horses to rejoice the hearts of those who sorrow for ,ko-ka4 ,his medicine is great4 ,his arrow pierced the black cloud1 and the lightning came1 and with it the thunder-boat4 ,who says that the medicine of ,wak-a-dah-ha-ku is not strong80 ,this artful address was received with much favour1 and thenceforward ,wak-a-dah-ha-ku was known as the 8,big ,double ,medicine40 ,of the medical practices of these medicine-men ,mr4 ,kane1 in his 8,wanderings of an ,artist10 furnishes a striking illustration4 8,about ten o'clock at night10 he says1 8,i strolled into the village1 and on hearing a great noise in one of the lodges1 ,i entered it1 and found an old woman supporting one of the handsomest ,indian girls ,i had ever seen4 ,she was in a state of nudity4 ,cross-legged and naked1 in the middle of the room1 sat the medicine-man1 with a wooden dish of water before him2 twelve or fifteen other men were sitting round the lodge4 ,the object in view was to cure the girl of a disease affecting her side4 ,as soon as my presence was noticed1 a space was cleared for me to sit down4 8,the officiating medicine-man appeared in a state of profuse perspiration1 from the exertions he had used1 and soon took his seat among the rest1 as if quite exhausted2 a younger medicine-man then took his place in front of the bowl1 and close beside the patient4 8,throwing off his blanket1 he commenced singing and gesticulating in the most violent manner1 whilst the others kept time by beating with little sticks in hollow wooden bowls and drums1 singing continually4 ,after exercising himself in this manner for about half an hour1 until the perspiration ran down his body1 he darted suddenly upon the young woman1 catching hold of her side with his teeth1 and shaking her for a few minutes1 while the patient seemed to suffer great agony4 ,he then relinquished his hold1 and cried out he had got it1 at the same time holding his hands to his mouth2 after which he plunged them in the water and pretended to hold down with great difficulty the disease which he had extracted1 lest it might spring out and return to its victim4 8,at length1 having obtained the mastery over it1 he turned round to me in an exulting manner1 and held up something between the finger and thumb of each hand1 which had the appearance of a piece of cartilage2 whereupon one of the ,indians sharpened his knife1 and divided it in two1 having one in each hand4 ,one of the pieces he threw into the water and the other into the fire1 accompanying the action with a diabolical noise which none but a medicine-man can make4 ,after which he got up perfectly satisfied with himself1 although the poor patient seemed to me anything but relieved by the violent treatment she had undergone40 99 99 99 99 99 ,a considerable amount of superstition attaches to the calumet1 or medicine-pipe1 by which all the great questions of peace and war are settled4 ,this pipe is borne by an individual specially selected for the honour1 who1 during his term of office1 is not less sacred than the pipe he carries4 ,his seat is always on the right side of the lodge1 and no one is suffered to interpose between him and the fire4 ,he is not even allowed to cut his own food1 but his wives cut it for him1 and place it in an official food-bowl1 specially reserved for his use4 ,as for the calumet1 it is hung outside the lodge in a large bag1 which is picturesquely and gaily embroidered4 ,much ceremony attends its uncovering4 ,whatever the weather1 or the time of year1 the bearer begins by stripping off all his garments except his cloth1 and he then pours upon a red-hot coal some fragrant gum1 which fills the air with perfumed smoke4 ,removing the different wrappers1 he fills the bowl with tobacco1 and blows the smoke to the four points of the compass1 to the earth1 and to the sky1 with each breath uttering a prayer to the ,great ,spirit for assistance in war against all enemies1 and for bison and corn from all parts4 ,with equal ceremony the pipe1 which no woman is allowed to see1 is restored to its bag4 ,the whole proceeding takes place in the deepest silence4 ,the bowl of the calumet is made of a peculiar stone1 found in the ,red ,pipe-stone ,quarry1 on the ,citeau des ,prairies1 a place to which the following tradition attaches4 ,we give it as related by ,mr4 ,catlin3 ,here1 he says1 according to the ,indian traditions1 happened the mysterious birth of the red pipe1 which has blown its fumes of peace and war to the remotest corners of the continent1 which has visited every warrior1 and passed through its reddened stem the irrevocable oath of war and desolation4 ,and here1 also1 the peace-breathing calumet was born1 and fringed with the eagle's quills1 which has shed its thrilling fumes over the land1 and soothed the fury of the relentless savage4 ,at a remote period the ,great ,spirit here called the ,indian nations together1 and1 standing on the precipice of the red pipe-stone rock1 broke from its wall a piece1 and made a huge pipe by turning it in his hand1 which he smoked over them1 to the north1 the south1 the east1 and the west1 and told that this stone was red1--that it was their flesh1--that they must use it for their pipes of peace1--that it belonged to them all1--and that the war-club and scalping-knife must not be raised on its ground4 ,at the last whiff of his pipe his head went into a great cloud1 and the whole surface of the rock for several miles was melted and glazed4 ,two great ovens were opened beneath1 and two women 7guardian spirits of the place7 entered them in a blaze of fire2 and they are heard there yet1 7,tso-mec-cos-tu and ,tso-me-cos-te-won-du17 answering to invocations of the high priests or medicine-men1 who consult them when they are visitors to this sacred place4 ,the reader will remember1 perhaps1 the allusion to the ,peace-pipe in ,longfellow's 8,hiawatha10-- 8,on the mountains of the ,prairie1 ,on the great ,red ,pipe-stone quarry1 ,gitche ,manito1 the ,mighty1 ,he the ,master of ,life1 descending1 ,on the red crags of the quarry ,stood erect1 and called the nations1 ,called the tribes of men together4 ,from his footprints flowed a river1 ,leaped into the light of morning1 ,o'er the precipice plunging downward1 ,gleamed like ,ishkoodah1 the comet4 ,and the ,spirit1 stooping earthward1 ,with his finger on the meadows1 ,traced a winding pathway for it1 ,saying to it1 #8,run in this way6' ,from the red stone of the quarry ,with his hand he broke a fragment1 ,moulded it into a pipe-head1 ,shaped and fashioned it with figures2 ,from the margin of the river ,took a long reed for a pipe-stem1 ,with its dark green leaves upon it2 ,filled the pipe with bark of willow2 ,with the bark of the red willow2 ,breathed upon the neighbouring forest1 ,made its great boughs chafe together1 ,till in flame they burst and kindled2 ,and erect upon the mountains1 ,gitche ,manito1 the mighty1 ,smoked the calumet1 the ,peace-pipe1 ,as a signal to the nations40 ,some of the legends of the ,indian tribes are of a very picturesque1 and even poetical character1 as may be seen in ,mr4 ,schoolcraft's 8,algic ,researches40 ,take1 as an example1 the graceful tradition of the ,red ,swan4 ,three brothers went out to the chase1 excited by a wager to see who would carry home the first game4 ,but the binding and limiting condition was1 that each was to shoot no other animal than those he was in the habit of killing4 ,they set out in different directions4 ,odjebwa1 the youngest1 had not gone far before he saw a bear1 an animal which by the agreement he had no right to kill4 ,he followed him close1 however1 and drove an arrow through him1 which brought him to the ground4 ,although contrary to the bet1 he immediately began to skin him1 when suddenly something red tinged all the air around him4 ,he rubbed his eyes1 thinking he was perhaps deceived1 but without effect1 for the red hue continued4 ,at length he heard a strange noise in the distance4 ,it first resembled a human voice2 but after following it up for some time1 he reached the shores of a lake1 and then discovered the object he was in search of4 ,far out on the shining waters sat a most beautiful ,red ,swan1 whose plumage glittered in the sunshine2 and ever and anon he made the noise which had before attracted ,odjebwa's attention4 ,he was within longbow range1 and pulling the arrow from the bow-string up to his ear1 he took deliberate aim1 and shot4 ,the arrow took no effect1 and he shot again and again until his quiver was empty4 ,still the swan remained statelily circling round and round1 stretching its long neck1 and dipping its bill into the water1 indifferent to the missiles aimed at it4 ,odjebwa ran home1 secured all his own and his brother's arrows1 and these too1 ineffectually shot away3 then stood and gazed at the beautiful bird4 ,while thus standing1 he remembered a saying of his brother's1 that in their deceased father's medicine-bag were three magic arrows4 ,off he started1 his anxiety to kill the swan overcoming every scruple4 ,at any other time he would have deemed it a sacrilege to open his father's medicine-bag1 but now he hastily violated it1 seized the three magic arrows and ran back4 ,the swan was still floating on the lake4 ,he shot the first arrow with great precision1 and came very near his mark4 ,the second flew still nearer2 and as he took the third and last arrow1 he felt his arm strengthen1 and drawing it up with vigour1 sent the shaft right through the neck of the swan1 a little above the breast4 ,still even this death-stroke did not prevent the bird from flying off1--which it did very slowly1 flapping its wings1 and rising gradually into the air1 until it passed far away into the sunset4 ,quoting again from ,longfellow1 we place before the reader his allusion to this pretty legend3-- 8,can it be the sun descending ,o'er the level plain of water8 ,or the ,red ,swan1 floating1 flying1 ,wounded by the magic arrow1 ,staining all the waves with crimson1 ,with the crimson of its life-blood1 ,filling all the air with splendour1 ,with the splendour of its plumage8 ,yes2 it is the sun descending1 ,sinking down into the water2 ,no2 it is the ,red ,swan floating1 ,diving down beneath the water2 ,to the sky its wings are lifted1 ,with its blood the waves are reddened60 ,the ,indians regard the maize1 or ,indian corn1 with almost superstitious veneration1--which is not wonderful1 perhaps1 when its immense importance to them is taken into consideration4 ,they esteem it1 says ,schoolcraft1 so important and divine a grain1 that their story-tellers invented various tales1 in which this idea is symbolised under the form of a special gift from the ,great ,spirit4 ,the ,odjebwa-,algonquins1 who call it ,mon-da-min1 or the ,spirit's grain or berry1 cherish a legend1 in which the stalk in full tassel is represented as descending from the sky1 under the guise of a handsome youth2 in response to the prayers of a young man offered at his fast of virility1 or coming to manhood4 8,all around the happy village ,stood the maize-fields1 green and shining1 ,waved the green plumes of ,mondamin1 ,waved his soft and sunny tresses1 ,filling all the land with plenty40 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,among ,,the ,,eskimos4 ,the success which has attended the labours of the ,lutheran and ,moravian ,missionaries among the ,eskimos has been well deserved by their self-denying devotedness4 ,few of the ,arctic tribes are now outside the pale of ,christianity2 and all have been more or less directly influenced by its elements of purification and elevation4 ,but prior to the coming of the pioneers of the ,cross1 the moral code of the ,eskimo was curiously imperfect1 and did not recognise murder1 infanticide1 incest1 and the burial of the living among its crimes4 ,woe to the unfortunate vessel which touched upon the coast6 ,the ,eskimos were not less treacherous than the ,polynesians of the ,eastern ,seas4 ,and ,krantz relates the story of a ,dutch brig that was seized by the natives at the port of ,disco in #agdj4 ,the whole crew were murdered4 ,two years later a similar fate befell the crew of another vessel that had accidentally stranded4 ,the religion or creed of the aborigines seems to have been very vague and imperfect4 ,it is certain1 however1 that they believed in the immortality of the spirit1 and in a heaven and a hell4 ,it was natural enough that their conception of the latter should be affected by the conditions under which they lived2 that their experience of the miseries of an ,arctic climate should lead them to think of hell as a region of darkness and of ice1 traversed by endless snow-storms1 and without any seals4 ,they placed implicit confidence in their angekoks1 or angekos1 or 8medicine-men10 ascribing to them almost unlimited powers over the things of earth and sea1 this world and the next4 ,when setting out for the chase1 or prostrated by illness1 they always sought the assistance of the angekoks1 who1 on such occasions1 indulged in a variety of strange ceremonies4 ,the nature of these may be inferred from what was witnessed by ,captain ,lyon1 who1 during his famous ,arctic voyage1 bribed an angekok1 named ,toolemak1 to summon a ,tomga1 or familiar demon1 in the cabin of his ship4 ,all light having been carefully excluded from the scene of operations1 the sorcerer began by vehemently chanting to his wife1 who1 in her turn1 responded with the ,amna-aya1 the favourite song of the ,eskimo4 ,this lasted throughout the ceremony4 ,afterwards1 ,toolemak began to turn himself round very rapidly1 vociferating for ,tomga1 in a loud powerful voice and with great impatience1 at the same time blowing and snorting like a walrus4 ,his noise1 agitation1 and impatience increased every moment1 and at length he seated himself on the deck1 varying his tones1 and making a rustling with his clothes4 ,suddenly the voice seemed smothered1 and was so managed as to give the idea that it was retreating beneath the deck1 each moment becoming more distant1 and ultimately sounding as if it were many feet below the cabin1 when it ceased entirely4 ,in answer to ,captain ,lyon's queries1 the sorcerer's wife seriously declared that he had dived and would send up ,tomga4 ,and1 in about half a minute1 a distant blowing was heard approaching very slowly1 and a voice differing from that which had first been audible was mixed with the blowing1 until eventually both sounds became distinct1 and the old beldame said that ,tomga had come to answer the stranger's questions4 ,captain ,lyon thereupon put several queries to the sagacious spirit1 receiving what was understood to be an affirmative or a favourable answer by two loud slaps on the deck4 ,a very hollow yet powerful voice1 certainly differing greatly from that of ,toolemak1 then chanted for some time2 and a singular medley of hisses1 groans1 shouts1 and gobblings like a turkey's1 followed in swift succession4 ,the old woman sang with increased energy1 and as ,captain ,lyon conjectured that the exhibition was intended to astonish 8the ,kabloona10 he said repeatedly that he was greatly terrified4 ,as he expected1 this admission added fuel to the flame1 until the form immortal1 exhausted by its own might1 asked leave to retire4 ,the voice gradually died away out of hearing1 as at first1 and a very indistinct hissing succeeded4 ,in its advance it sounded like the tone produced by the wind upon the bass cord of an olian harp2 this was soon changed to a rapid hiss1 like that of a rocket1 and ,toolemak1 with a yell1 announced the spirit's return4 ,at the first distant sibilation ,captain ,lyon held his breath1 and twice exhausted himself2 but the ,eskimo conjuror did not once respire1 and even his returning and powerful yell was uttered without previous pause or inspiration of air4 ,when light was admitted1 the wizard1 as might be expected1 was in a state of profuse perspiration1 and greatly exhausted by his exertions1 which had continued for at least half an hour4 ,captain ,lyon then observed a couple of bunches1 each consisting of two strips of white deerskin and a long piece of sinew1 attached to the back of his coat4 ,these he had not seen before1 and he was gravely told that they had been sewn on by ,tomga while he was below4 ,during his absence1 the angekok professes to visit the dwelling-place of the particular spirit he has invoked1 and he will sometimes astonish his audience with a description of the nether-world and its inhabitants4 ,for instance1 there is a female spirit called ,aywilliayoo1 who commands1 by means of her right hand1 all the bears1 whales1 seals1 and walruses4 ,therefore1 when a lack of provisions is experienced1 the angekok pays a visit to ,aywilliayoo1 and attacks her hand4 ,if he can cut off her nails1 the bears are immediately released2 the loss of one finger-joint liberates the small seals2 the second joint dismisses the larger seals2 the knuckles place at liberty the whole herds of walruses1 while the entire hand liberates the whale4 ,aywilliayoo is tall1 with only one eye and one pigtail1 but as this pigtail is as large as a man's leg1 and descends to her knee1 she may well be contented with it4 ,she owns a splendid house1 which1 however1 ,toolemak refrained from entering1 because it was guarded by a huge dog1 with black hindquarters and no tail4 ,her father1 in size1 might be mistaken for a boy of ten years old2 he has but one arm1 which is always encased in a large bear-skin mitten4 ,dr4 ,kane considers it a fact of psychological interest1 as it shows that civilised or savage wonder-workers form a single family1 that the angekoks have a firm belief in their own powers4 8,i have known10 he says1 8several of them personally1 and can speak with confidence on this point4 ,i could not detect them in any resort to jugglery or natural magic3 their deceptions are simply vocal1 a change of voice1 and perhaps a limited profession of ventriloquism1 made more imposing by the darkness40 ,they have1 however1 like the members of the learned professions everywhere else1 a certain language or jargon of their own1 in which they communicate with each other4 ,while the angekoks are the dispensers of good1 the issintok1 or evil men1 are the workers of injurious spells1 enchantments1 and metamorphoses4 ,like the witches of both ,englands1 the ,old and the ,new1 these malignant creatures are rarely submitted to trial until they have suffered punishment--the old 8,jeddart justice0--castigat auditque4 ,two of them1 in #ahah1 suffered the penalty of their crime on the same day1 one at ,kannonak1 the other at ,upernavik4 ,the latter was laudably killed in accordance with the 8old custom0 444 custom being everywhere the apology for any act revolting to moral sense4 ,he was first harpooned1 then disembowelled2 a flap letdown from his forehead 8to cover his eyes and prevent his seeing again0--he had1 it appears1 the repute of an evil eye2 and then small portions of his heart were eaten1 to ensure that he should not come back to earth unchanged4 ,when an ,eskimo has injured any one of his countrymen1--has cut his seal-lines1 or lamed his dogs1 or burned his bladder-float--or perpetrated some equally grievous offence--the angekok summons him to meet the countryside before the tribunal of the hunapok4 ,the friends of the parties1 and the idlers for miles around1 assemble about the justice-seat2 it may be at some little cluster of huts1 or1 if the weather permit1 in the open air4 ,the accuser rises1 and strikes a few discords with a seal-rib on a tom-tom or drum4 8,he then passes to the charge1 and pours out in long paragraphic words all the abuse and ridicule to which his outrageous vernacular can give expression4 ,the accused meanwhile is silent2 but1 as the orator pauses after a signal hit1 or to flourish a cadence on his musical instrument1 the whole audience1 friends1 neutrals1 and opponents signalise their approval by outcries as harmonious as those we sometimes hear in our town meetings at home4 ,stimulated by the applause1 and warming with his own fires1 the accuser renews the attack1 his eloquence becoming more and more licentious and vituperative1 until it has exhausted either his strength or his vocabulary of invective4 ,now comes the accused1 with defence1 and counter-charge1 and retorted abuse2 the assembly still listening and applauding through a lengthened session4 ,the ,homeric debate at a close1 the angekoks hold a powwow1 and a penalty is denounced against the accused for his guilt1 or the accuser for his unsustained prosecution40 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,a ,,medi,,val ,,superstition3 ,,the ,,flagellants4 ,among the extraordinary delusions of the human mind1 none is more hateful than the conviction cherished among so many sects1 that the ,supreme ,being can be propitiated by the self-imposed torture of ,his worshippers4 ,and nothing more vividly illustrates the difference between the ,,god of the ,christian religion and the stern deity of so many human creeds1 than the aspect of the former as man's ,heavenly ,,father1 ,who requires from him no other offering than that of a contrite and humble heart1--,who asks not that the ,indian ,fakir should cramp his limbs and lacerate his body1 or that ,s4 ,simeon ,stylites should stand night and day1 in the scorching sun of summer1 and the freezing cold of winter1 on his lonely pillar4 ,it is a proof of our wider and deeper knowledge of ,,god that we are beginning to emancipate ourselves from the thraldom of this evil idea1 and to recognise in ,him a tender1 compassionate ,guide and ,friend1 ,who1 unto them that love ,him1 causeth all things to work for the best4 ,in modern ,calvinism the superstition still lingers1 and it is supposed that a gloomy life1 unrelieved even by the most innocent pleasures1 must needs be acceptable to the ,almighty ,love2 but this shadow in the ,christian's faith is rapidly receding before the growing and broadening light4 ,we are sons of ,,god1 and heirs2 and what ,he asks from us1 what alone ,he will receive1 is the offering of affection and the sacrifice of fear4 ,and the greatest claim which ,christianity puts forward to the hearts and minds of men is that it has delivered1 or will deliver them1 when rightly understood1 from the degrading superstition of the ascetic solitary and the self-torturer4 8,its true dignity is1 that unseen it has ever gone about doing good4 ,link after link has it struck from the chain of every human thraldom2 error after error has it banished2 pain after pain has it driven from body or from mind2 and so silently has the blessing come1 that 7like the sick man whom the ,,saviour made to walk7 #8he that was healed wist not who it was4'0 ,but error is slow to die2 and long after the introduction of ,christianity men continued to think that ,,god would not hear them1 unless1 like the priests of ,baal1 they approached ,him in blood and tears4 ,at the bottom of it lay1 no doubt1 a truth1 that the spirit could be exalted and purified only by contempt of the flesh3--and not perceiving that what was demanded of them was a moral and spiritual victory1 they sought1 by sore treatment of the body1 to conquer its sinful appetites4 ,they forgot that ,,christ had spoken of the body as 8a temple10--the temple of the ,,holy ,,ghost2 that it was as much the creation of ,,god as the immortal soul1 and as ,his wondrous handiwork should be treated with the reverence due to all that ,he has made4 ,and they came to look upon the body as a deadly enemy1 the slave and accomplice of the devil1 which could be subdued only by a regimen of pain and terror4 ,and so1 when an evil suggestion tempted them1 they scourged themselves until the blood ran from their mangled flesh1 or they plunged naked into the deep winter snow1 or barefooted they trod the flinty soil1 or they fasted until the exhausted brain sank into the stupor of delirium4 ,thus we read of ,s4 ,hilarion3-- ,covering his limbs only with a sackcloth1 and having a cloak of skin1 he wandered forth into the desert that lies beyond ,gaza1 and enjoyed the 8vast and terrible solitude10 feeding on only fifteen figs after the setting of the sun2 and because the region was of ill repute from robberies1 no man had ever before stayed in that place4 ,the devil1 seeing what he was doing1 and whither he had gone1 was tormented4 ,and he who of old boasted1 saying3 8,i shall ascend into heaven1 ,i shall sit above the stars of heaven1 and shall be like unto the ,most ,high10 now saw that he had been conquered by a boy1 and trampled under foot by him1 who1 on account of his youth1 could commit no sin4 ,he therefore began to tempt his senses2 but he1 enraged with himself1 and beating his breast with his fist1 as if he would drive out thoughts by blows1 8,i will force thee1 mine ass10 said he1 8not to kick2 and feed thee with straw1 not barley4 ,i will wear thee out with hunger and thirst2 ,i will burden thee with heavy loads2 ,i will hunt thee through heat and cold1 till thou thinkest more of food than of play40 ,he therefore sustained his sinking spirit with the juice of herbs and a few figs1 after each three or four days1 praying frequently1 and singing psalms1 and digging the ground with a mattock1 to increase the labour of fasting by that of work4 ,at the same time1 by weaving baskets of rushes1 he imitated the discipline of the ,egyptian monks1 and the ,apostle's saying1 8,he that will not work1 neither let him eat10 till he was so attenuated1 and his body so exhausted1 that his flesh scarce clung to his bones4 8,from his sixteenth to his twentieth year10 says ,kingsley1 8he was sheltered from the heat and rain in a tiny cabin1 which he had woven of rush and sedge4 ,afterwards he built a little cell1 four feet wide and five feet high1--that is lower than his own stature1 and somewhat longer than his small body needed1--so that you would believe it a tomb rather than a dwelling4 ,he cut his hair only once a year1 on ,easter ,day1 and lay till his death on the bare ground and a layer of rushes1 never washing the sack in which he was clothed1 and saying that it was superfluous to seek for cleanliness in hair-cloth4 ,nor did he change his linen until the first was utterly in rags4 ,he knew the ,scriptures by heart1 and recited them after his prayers and psalms as if ,,god were present40 ,of ,s4 ,simeon ,stylites we read that1 having gone to the well one day to draw water1 he took the rope from the bucket1 and wound it round his body from his loins to his neck1 and going in1 he adventured an audacious falsehood1 for he said to his brethren1 8,i went out to draw water1 and found no rope on the bucket40 ,and they said1 8,hold thy peace1 brother1 lest the ,abbot know it1 till the thing has passed over40 ,but the tightness and roughness of the rope wore grievous wounds in his body1 as the brethren at last discovered4 ,then with great trouble they took off the rope1 and his flesh with it1 and attending to his wounds1 healed them4 ,for twenty-eight years of his life he was continually experimenting in long fasts--forty days at a time4 ,custom gradually made it comparatively easy to him4 ,for on the first days he used to stand and praise ,,god2 after that1 when through emptiness he could stand no longer1 he would sit and perform the divine office1 and on the last day even lie down4 ,for when his strength failed slowly1 he was forced to lie half dead4 ,but after he stood on the column he could not bear to lie down1 but invented another way by which he could stand4 ,he fastened a beam to the column1 and tied himself to it by ropes1 and so passed the forty days4 ,but afterwards1 when endued with greater grace from on high1 he did not need even that assistance1 but stood for the whole forty days1 dispensing with food1 but strengthened by eagerness of soul and the divine help4 ,at length he caused a pillar to be built1 first of six cubits1 then of twelve1 next of twenty-two1 and finally of thirty-six1 and upon the top of this he took his station4 ,the sun beat upon his bare head in the summer1 and the winter snows fell upon him1 and the pitiless rains soaked him to the skin1--but still he endured his self-imposed penance4 ,he bowed himself frequently1 offering adoration to ,,god2 so frequently that a spectator counted #abdd adorations1 and then missing gave up counting2 and each time he bowed himself1 he touched his feet with his forehead4 ,and ever in spirit he deprecated the wrath of an offended ,,god1 to ,whom1 as a meet sacrifice1 he offered up his poor1 wounded1 tortured1 emaciated body4 8,i will not cease to grasp the hope ,i hold ,of saintdom1 and to clamour1 mourn and sob1 ,battering the gates of heaven with storms of prayer4 ,have mercy on me1 ,,lord1 and take away my sins1 ,let this avail1 just1 dreadful1 mighty ,,god1 ,this not be all in vain1 that thrice ten years ,thrice multiplied by superhuman pangs4444 ,a sign between the meadow and the cloud1 ,patient on this tall pillar ,i have borne ,rain1 wind1 frost1 heat1 hail1 damp1 and sleet1 and snow2 ,and ,i had hoped that ere this period closed1 ,thou wouldst have caught me up into ,thy rest1 ,denying not these weather-beaten limbs ,the meed of saints1 the white robe1 and the palm4 ,o take the meaning1 ,,lord3 ,i do not breathe ,nor whisper any murmur of complaint40#eh ,we turn from these pictures of human error1--error based1 it must be owned1 on a substratum of truth1--to put together a few particulars of the ,sect of the ,flagellants1 which practised on a curiously elaborate scale the science of self-punishment4 ,this sect first made its appearance in ,italy in #abaj4 ,the following account of its origin is taken by ,mr4 ,cooper from the 8,chronicon ,ursitius ,basiliensis0 of the monk of ,padua1 ,s4 ,justin3#ei 8,when all ,italy was sullied with crimes of every kind1 a certain sudden superstition1 hitherto unknown to the world1 first seized the inhabitants of ,perusa1 afterwards the ,romans1 and then almost all the nations of ,italy4 ,to such a degree were they affected with the fear of ,,god1 that noble as well as ignoble persons1 young and old1 even children five years of age1 would go naked about the streets without any sense of shame1 walking in public1 two and two1 in the manner of a solemn procession4 ,every one of them held in his hand a scourge1 made of leather thongs1 and with tears and groans they lashed themselves on their backs till the blood ran3 all the while weeping and giving tokens of the same bitter affliction1 as if they had really been spectators of the passion of our ,,saviour1 imploring the forgiveness of ,,god and ,his ,mother1 and praying that ,he1 ,who had been appeased by the repentance of so many sinners1 would not disdain theirs4 ,and not only in the daytime1 but likewise during the nights1 hundreds1 thousands1 and ten thousands of these penitents ran1 notwithstanding the rigour of winter1 about the streets1 and in churches1 with lighted wax candles in their hands1 and preceded by priests who carried crosses and banners along with them1 and with humility prostrated themselves before the altars3 the same scenes were to be seen in small towns and villages2 so that the mountains and fields seemed to resound alike the voice of men who were crying to ,,god4 8,all musical instruments and love-songs ceased to be heard4 ,the only music that prevailed both in town and country was that of the lugubrious voice of the penitent1 whose mournful accents might have moved hearts of flint3 and even the eyes of the obdurate sinner could not refrain from tears4 ,nor were women exempt from the general spirit of devotion we mention2 for not only those among the common people1 but also matrons and young ladies of noble families1 would perform the same mortifications with modesty in their own rooms4 8,then those who were at enmity with one another became again friends4 ,usurers and robbers hastened to restore their ill-gotten riches to their right owners4 ,others1 who were contaminated with different crimes1 confessed them with humility1 and renounced their vanities4 ,gaols were opened2 prisoners were delivered2 and banished persons permitted to return to their native habitations4 ,so many and so great works of sanctity and ,christian charity1 in short1 were then performed by both men and women1 that it seemed as if an universal apprehension had seized mankind1 that the divine power was preparing either to consume them by fire1 or destroy them by shaking the earth1 or some other of those means which ,divine justice knows how to employ for avenging crimes4 ,such a sudden repentance1 which had thus diffused itself all over ,italy1 and had even reached other countries1 not only the unlearned1 but wise persons also admired4 ,they wondered whence such a vehement fervour of piety could have proceeded3 especially since such public penances and ceremonies had been unheard of in former times1 had not been approved by the sovereign pontiff1 nor recommended by any preacher or person of eminence2 but had taken their origin among simple persons1 whose example both learned and unlearned alike had followed40 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #abfj1 the sect was reconstituted by ,rainer1 a hermit of ,perugia1 and it sprang up with such vigour and alacrity1 that its members soon numbered #aj1jjj1 who marched in procession1 carrying banners and crosses4 ,the folly soon crossed the ,alps into ,germany1 and found its disciples in ,bohemia and ,poland1 ,alsatia and ,bavaria4 ,it was sternly repressed by the different governments1 but in #acdi1 when the plague broke out in ,germany1 it again lifted up its head4 ,albert of ,strasburg relates#fj that two hundred came from ,schwaben to ,speier1 under one chief and two lieutenants1 whom they almost slavishly obeyed4 ,their form of proceedings was always the same3 placing themselves within a circle drawn on the ground1 they removed their clothing1 until nothing was left but a covering for the loins4 ,then they walked1 with arms outstretched like a cross1 round and round the circle for a time1 finally prostrating themselves on the ground4 ,springing to their feet1 each struck his neighbour with a scourge1 armed with knots and four iron points1 regulating his blows by his singing of psalms4 ,at a given signal the discipline ceased1 and the fanatics threw themselves first on their knees1 then flat upon the ground1 groaning and sobbing4 ,the leader1 on rising1 gave a brief address1 exhorting them to ask the mercy of ,god upon their benefactors and enemies1 and also on the souls in purgatory4 ,this was followed by another prostration1 and then another discipline4 ,those who had taken charge of the clothes now came forward1 and performed the same ceremonies4 8,penance took place twice a day3 in the morning and evening the flagellants went abroad in pairs1 singing psalms amid the ringing of bells1 and when they arrived at the place of flagellation they stripped the upper part of their bodies1 and took off their shoes1 wearing only a linen dress from the waist to the ankles4 ,then they lay down in a large circle in different positions1 according to the nature of their crime3 the adulterer with his face to the ground2 the perjurer on one side1 holding up three of his fingers1 c41 and were then castigated1 more or less severely by the master1 who gave the order to rise in the words of a prescribed formula3 #8,stant uf durch der reinen ,martel ere2 ,und hte dich vor der ,snden mere4'0 ,after which they scourged themselves1 chanting psalms and uttering prayers for deliverance from the plague4 ,hecker1 quoted by ,mr4 ,cooper1 thus describes the resuscitation of the sect3 8,while all countries were filled with lamentations and woe1 there first arose in ,hungary1 and afterwards in ,germany1 the ,brotherhood of the ,flagellants1 called also the ,brotherhood of the ,cross1 or ,cross-,bearers1 who took upon themselves the repentance of the people for the sins they had committed1 and offered prayers and supplications for the averting of this plague4 ,the order consisted chiefly of the lowest class1 who were either actuated by sincere contrition1 or joyfully availed themselves of this pretext for idleness1 and were hurried along with the tide of distracting frenzy4 ,but as these brotherhoods gained in repute1 and were welcomed by the people with veneration and enthusiasm1 many nobles and ecclesiastics ranged themselves under their standard1 and their bands were not unfrequently augmented by children1 honourable women1 and nuns1 so powerfully were minds of the most opposite temperaments enslaved by this infatuation4 ,they marched through the cities in well-organised processions1 with leaders and singers2 their heads covered as far as their eyes1 their looks fixed on the ground1 accompanied by every token of the deepest contrition and mourning4 ,they were robed in sombre garments with red crosses on the breast1 back1 and cap1 and bore triple scourges tied in three or four knots1 in which points of iron were fixed4 ,tapers and magnificent banners of velvet and cloth of gold were carried before them2 wherever they made their appearance they were welcomed by the ringing of bells1 and crowds of people came from great distances to listen to their hymns and to witness their penance with devotion and tears4 ,in the year #acdi1 two hundred flagellants first entered ,strasburg1 where they were received with great joy and hospitality1 and lodged by the citizens4 ,above a thousand joined the brotherhood1 which now assumed the appearance of a wandering tribe1 and separated into two bodies for the purpose of journeying to the north and to the south40 ,the ,flagellants1 however1 did not secure the favour of the ecclesiastical authorities2 who discerned only too clearly the demoralising effect of their practices and pretensions4 ,pope ,clement ,,vi4 issued a bull against them1 and their influence gradually waned and seemed on the point of dying out1 when1 in #adad1 it was revived by one ,conrad1 who1 of course1 professed to have received a ,divine commission4 ,the terrors of the ,inquisition were now hurled against the sect1 and ninety-one deluded wretches were burned alive at ,sangerhausen1 besides numbers at other places4 ,it continued1 however1 to exhibit occasional signs of vitality2 and in the sixteenth century broke1 in ,france1 into three great branches1 the ,white1 ,black1 and ,grey ,penitents1 companions of whom were scattered over the whole kingdom1 but chiefly in the southern provinces4 ,catherine de ,medicis1 at ,avignon1 in #aegd1 assumed the lead of the ,black ,penitents1 and took part in their disgusting ceremonies4 ,henry ,,iii41 in #aehe1 established a ,white ,penance brotherhood1 which paraded in public procession through the streets of ,paris4 ,the better members of the clergy preached against the fanaticism2 the wits of ,paris levelled their ridicule at it2 and finally1 in #afja1 the ,parliament of ,paris passed an act to abolish a fraternity of ,flagellants1 called the ,blue ,penitents1 in the town of ,bourges1 and afterwards against all whipping brotherhoods without distinction1 declaring the members to be not only heretics1 traitors1 and regicides1 but unchaste4 ,the fraternity thereafter declined1 and finally disappeared from ,france4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,scottish ,,superstitions3 ,,halloween4 ,the imaginative element in the character of the ,celtic race naturally predisposes them to the reception and retention of fanciful ideas in connection with our relations to the unseen4 ,keenly sensible of the existence of supernatural influences1 they are morbidly curious as to the mode in which they act upon humanity1 and ever desirous to propitiate or guard against them4 ,there is something in the presence of the sea and the mountains which fosters a habit of reverie2 and the mind1 awed and perplexed by the vastness of the forces of ,nature1 is led to give them an actual and definite embodiment1 and to associate them directly with the incidents of our mortal life4 ,granted the existence of invisible creatures1 there is no reason why man1 who looks upon the universe as a circle of which he is the centre1 should not suppose them to be interested in all that interests himself2 and when this is once admitted1 it follows as an inevitable result1 that he will endeavour to make them the agents of his inclination or his will1 unless he fears them as powers whose anger must be reverently deprecated4 ,it will be found that most of the popular superstitions to which we refer are based upon these motives2 that most of them originate in the desire to bribe and cajole ,fortune1 or to command and defeat it4 ,others will be found to have had their rise1 as we have hinted1 in the feelings of awe and wonder awakened by the mystery or the grandeur of ,nature4 ,the wail of waters against a rocky coast has suggested the cries of the ocean maiden who seeks to lure the mariner to his destruction2 the wreathing mists floating in fantastic shapes across the mountain valleys1 has peopled their depths with a world of spirits or friendly or inimical to mortals4 ,the imagination1 which has been quickened by ,nature1 proceeds in turn to breathe into ,nature a new life4 ,to some of the superstitions which haunt the glens1 and peaks1 and torrents of the ,scottish ,highlands1 the poet ,collins has alluded in one of his most beautiful odes4 ,he speaks of the ,north as fancy's land1 where still1 it is said1 the fairy people meet1 beneath the shade of the graceful birches1 upon mead or hill4 ,to the belief in a tribe of hobgoblins1 tiny creatures1 visiting the peasant's hut in the silence of the night1 he also refers3-- 8,there1 each trim lass1 that skims the milky store1 ,to the swart tribes their creamy bowls allots2 ,by night they sip it round the cottage door1 ,while airy minstrels warble jocund notes40 ,the malicious disposition of the elves is thus insisted upon3-- 8,there every herd1 by sad experience1 knows ,how1 wing'd with fate1 their elf-shot arrows fly1 ,when the sick ewe her summer food foregoes1 ,or1 stretch'd on earth1 the heart-smit heifers lie40 ,to superstitions of higher import the poet alludes in the following noble lines3-- 8',tis thine to sing1 how1 framing hideous spells1 ,in ,skye's lone isle1 the gifted wizard seer1 ,lodged in the wintry cave with fate's fell spear1 ,or in the depth of ,uist's dark forest dwells3 ,how they1 whose sight such dreary dreams engross1 ,with their own vision oft astonished droop1 ,when1 o'er the watery strath1 or quaggy moss4 ,they see the gliding ghosts' unbodied troop4 ,or1 if in sports1 or on the festive green1 ,their destined glance some fated youth descry1 ,who now1 perhaps1 in lusty vigour seen1 ,and rosy health1 shall soon lamented die4 ,for them the viewless forms of air obey2 ,their bidding heed1 and at their beck repair3 ,they know what spirit brews the stormful day1 ,and heartless1 oft like moody madness1 stare ,to see the phantom train their secret work prepare40 ,we may allow ourselves one more quotation1 in which the poet accumulates instances of the 8second sight10 or power of divination1 to which the ,highland seers laid claim3-- 8,to monarchs dear1 some hundred miles astray1 ,oft have they seen fate give the fatal blow6 ,the sea1 in ,skye1 shrieked as the blood did flow1 ,when headless ,charles warm on the scaffold lay6 ,as ,boreas threw his young ,aurora forth1 ,in the first year of the first ,george's reign1 ,and battles raged in welkin of the ,north1 ,they mourned in air1 fell1 fell rebellion slain6 ,and as1 of late1 they joyed in ,preston's fight1 ,saw1 at sad ,falkirk1 all their hopes near crowned6 ,they raved1 divining through their second sight1 ,pale-red ,culloden where these hopes were drowned40 ,this same power of second sight forms the groundwork of ,campbell's poem of 8,lochiel's ,warning10 in which the poet represents the aged seer or soothsayer in the act of warning the ferocious ,highland chieftain against the consequences of joining ,prince ,charles ,edward's expedition of the '#de3-- 8,lochiel1 ,lochiel1 beware of the day ,when the ,lowlands shall meet thee in battle array4 ,the sunset of life gives me mystical lore1 ,and coming events cast their shadows before60 ,a curious superstition respecting 8the non-giving of fire0 lingers still in some parts of ,scotland1 more particularly in the ,north1 and seems to be connected with the old sun-worship3 a survival of the ,pagan past which is strange enough in this matter-of-fact and prosaic ,present of ours4 8,at ,craigmillar1 near ,edinburgh1 a woman1 not long ago1 refused to give a neighbour #8a bit peat' to light her fire1 because she was supposed to be uncanny4 ,the old woman muttered1 as she turned away1 that her churlish neighbour might yet repent of her unkindness4 ,this speech the other repeated to her husband on his return from work1 whereupon he went straight to the old woman's house1 and gave her a sharp cut on the forehead1 for which he was duly called to account1 and pleaded his belief that scoring the witch above the breath would destroy her glamour40 ,on certain days1 such as ,beltane 7or ,s4 ,john's ,eve17 ,midsummer1 ,halloween1 and ,new ,year's ,day1 it is regarded as most unlucky to allow a neighbour to take a brand from your hearth1 or even to light his pipe4 ,evil-disposed persons1 desirous of doing their neighbours an ill turn1 will apply to them for 8a kindling40 ,thus1 in ,ross-shire1 an old beldame repaired to a neighbour's house with this intent4 ,there was only a child of eight years old at home1 but she was thoroughly acquainted with the popular superstition1 and stoutly refused the applicant tinder1 match1 or lighted stick4 ,when the old woman had departed1 the girl fetched two friends1 who straightway followed her home1 to find there a blazing fire and a boiling pot4 8,see you10 exclaimed the lassie1 8gin the cailliach had gotten the kindling1 my father would not get a herring this year40 ,a poor tinker's wife walked one morning into a house in ,applecross--this was as late as ,july1 #ahfh--;and snatched a live peat from the hearth to kindle her own fire4 ,before she had gone any distance1 she was observed1 and the gudewife sped after her1 overtook her1 and snatched away her prize4 ,to a stranger who remonstrated with her for the unkindness1 the gudewife exclaimed1 8,do you think ,i am to allow my cow to be dried up8 ,if ,i allowed her to carry away the fire1 ,i would not have a drop of milk to-night to wet the bairns' mouths40 ,and she flung the peat into a pail of water in order to undo the evil charm so far as possible4 ,allusions to this 8non-giving of fire0 abound in the old legends1 but a single illustration will suffice4 ,of old two brother giants1 ,akin and ,rhea1 who dwelt on the ,scottish mainland1 were wont to pay frequent visits to the ,isle of ,skye by leaping across the ,straits4 ,they reared for themselves two strong towers in the ,glenelg country1 and there they lived in peace and good fellowship1 until one day1 the younger brother1 returning from one of his excursions1 found his hearth dark and cheerless1 and passed on therefore1 to his brother's castle4 ,stirring the smouldering fire into a hearty blaze1 he warmed himself luxuriously1 and then returned to his own tower1 carrying with him a burning peat4 ,unhappily1 at this moment1 his elder brother came in from the chase1 and discovering the theft1 broke out into a violent passion4 ,off sped the culprit1 and after him went his brother1 hurling rock after rock in his rage1 until he perceived that further pursuit was useless4 ,the truth of this story is attested by the boulders which to this day lie strewn all over the valley-side4 ,a survival of the old ,paganism is1 undoubtedly1 this apprehension of ill-luck connected with the giving or stealing of fire2 and it recalls to us the days when every mountain-peak was as an altar raised to ,baal1 and ,sun and ,moon were worshipped with solemn mysterious rites4 ,on the great ,fire-festival the priests kindled fire by friction1 and the people carried it to their cottages1 where it was kept alive all round the year and extinguished only when a new supply was ready4 8,as the purchase of the fire was a source of profit to the priests1 it would naturally be considered criminal for one neighbour to give it to another at the seasons when every man was bound to purchase it for himself4 ,of course1 though the old customs are still retained1 their original meaning is utterly forgotten2 and the man who throws a live peat after a woman who is about to increase the population1 or he who on ,halloween throws a lighted brand over his own shoulder without looking at whom he aims1 little dreams whence sprang these time-honoured games40 ,it is said that in many parts of the remote glens of ,perthshire there are women still living who on ,beltane morn always throw ashes and a live peat over their heads1 repeating a certain formula of words to bring them back4 ,but the strictest secrecy is observed1 lest such practices should reach the ear of 8the minister30 so the stronger their belief1 the less willing are they to confess to any knowledge of such matters4 ,we cannot pass from this subject without an allusion to the ,fire-,churn or ,need-,fire1 which is held a sovereign charm against cattle-plague4 ,when in a ,highland district an invasion of murrain was apprehended1 a small shanty or hut was erected near loch or river1 and in it were placed various wooden posts1 vertical and horizontal3 the horizontal were provided with several spokes1 and being rapidly turned round against the upright1 quickly generated a flame by the friction4 ,then all other fires upon the farm were extinguished1 to be re-lighted from the ,need-fire1 which all the cattle were afterwards made to smell1 until the charm was complete4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was on ,halloween1 or ,all ,hallows' ,eve--the evening of the #cast of ,october--that ,superstition ran riot1 because on that particular evening the supernatural influences of the other world were supposed to be specially prevalent1 and the power of divination was likewise believed to be at its height4 ,spirits then walked about with unusual freedom1 and readily responded to the call of those armed with due authority4 ,in the prehistoric past1 the ,druids at this time celebrated their great autumn ,fire-,festival1 insisting that all fires1 except their own1 should be extinguished1 so as to compel men to purchase the sacred fire at a certain price4 ,this sacred fire was fed with the peeled wood of a certain tree1 and that it might not be polluted1 was never blown with human breath4 ,needless to say that the sacred fire has vanished with the ,druids1 but the ,halloween customs which still survive may be traced back to a hoar antiquity4 ,for instance1 various kinds of divination are practised1 and chiefly with apples and nuts4 ,apples are a relic of the old ,celtic fairy lore4 ,they are thrown into a tub of water1 and you endeavour to catch one in your mouth as they bob round and round in provoking fashion4 ,when you have caught one1 you peel it carefully1 and pass the long strip of peel thrice1 sunwise1 round your head2 after which you throw it over your shoulder1 and it falls to the ground in the shape of the initial letter of your true love's name4 ,as for the nuts1 they would naturally suggest themselves to the dwellers in mighty woods1 such as covered the land of old4 ,brand says it is a custom in ,iceland1 when the maiden would know if her lover be faithful1 to put three nuts upon the bar of the grate1 naming them after her lover and herself4 ,if a nut crack or jump1 the lover will prove faithless2 if it begin to blaze or burn1 it's a sign of the fervour of his affection4 ,if the nuts named after the girl and her swain burn together1 they will be married4 ,this lover's divination is practised in ,scotland1 as everybody knows who has read ,burns's poem of 8,halloween30-- 8,the auld guidwife's weel hoordet nits ,are round and round divided1 ,an' monie lads and lasses' fates ,are there that night decided3 ,some kindle1 couthie1 side by side1 ,an' burn thegither trimly2 ,some start awa wi' saucy pride1 ,and jump out-owre the chimlie ,fu' high that night4 8,jean slips in twa wi' tentie e'e2 ,wha 'twas1 she wadna tell2 ,but this is ,jock1 an' this is me1 ,she says in to hersel'3 ,he bleez'd owre her an' she owre him1 ,as they wad never mair part2 ,till1 fuff6 he started up the lum1 ,an' ,jean had e'en a sair heart ,to see't that night40 ,in some places1 on this mystic night1 a stick is suspended horizontally from the ceiling1 with a candle at one end1 and an apple at the other4 ,while it is made to revolve rapidly1 the revellers successively leap up and endeavour to grasp the apple with their teeth--the hands must not be used--if they fail1 the candle generally swings round in time to salute them disagreeably4 ,the reader will note the resemblance between this pastime and the game of quintain1 to which our forefathers were partial4 ,another amusement is to dive for apples in a tub of water4 ,in ,strathspey1 a lass will steal away from the kitchen fire1 make her way to the kiln where the corn is dried1 throw a ball of thread into it1 and wind it up slowly1 while uttering certain words4 ,the form of her future lover will take hold of the end of the thread1 and reveal itself to her4 ,the most arduous part of this charm is1 that no speaking is allowed either on the outward journey or the return4 ,another mode of lover's divination is for the young people1 after being duly blindfolded1 to go forth into the kailyard1 or garden1 and pull the first stalks they meet with4 ,returning to the fireside1 they determine1 according as the stalk is big or little1 straight or crooked1 what the future wife or husband will be4 ,the quantity of earth adhering to the root is emblematic of the dowry to be expected2 and the temper is indicated by the sweet or bitter taste of the motoc or pith4 ,lastly1 the stalks are placed in order1 over the door1 and the ,christian names of persons afterwards entering the house signify in the same order those of the wives and husbands in futuris4 ,burns describes another custom3 8,in order on the clean hearth-stane1 ,the luggies#fa three are ranged1 ,and every time great care is ta'en ,to see them duly changed3 ,and uncle ,john wha wedlock's joys ,sin' ,mar's-year did desire1 ,because he gat the toom-dish#fb thrice1 ,he heav'd them on the fire ,in wrath that night40 ,for this amusement three dishes are taken3 one filled with clean and one with dirty water1 and the other empty4 ,they are set upon the hearth1 and the parties1 blindfolded1 advance in succession to dip their fingers4 ,if they chance upon the clean water1 it is understood that they will marry a maiden2 if upon the foul1 they will marry a widow2 if upon the empty dish1 they will not marry at all4 ,again3 if a damsel eat an apple in front of a looking-glass1 she will shortly see her future husband peeping over her shoulder4 ,so ,burns3 8,wee ,jenny to her ,grannie says1 #8,will ye go wi' me1 ,grannie8 ,i'll eat the apple at the glass ,i gat frae uncle ,johnie4' ,she fuff't#fc her pipe wi' sic a lunt1 ,in wrath she was sae vap'rin'1 ,she notic't na an aizle#fd brunt1 ,her braw new worset apron1 ,out thro' that night4 8#8,ye little skelpie limmer's#fe face6 ,how daur you try sic sportin'1 ,as seek the foul thief ony place1 ,for him to spae your fortune3 ,nae doubt but ye may get a sight6 ,great cause ye hae to fear it2 ,for mony a ane has gotten a fright1 ,an' liv'd an' di'd deleeret1 ,on sic a night4'0 ,a shirt-sleeve may be wetted1 and hung before the fire to dry3 then if he or she lie in bed and watch it until midnight1 he or she will behold his or her future partner's phantasm come in and turn it6 ,children born on ,halloween were formerly supposed to be gifted with certain mysterious endowments1 such as the power of perceiving and conversing with the 8dwellers on the threshold10 the inhabitants of the ,world ,invisible4 ,once upon a time1 all over ,scotland a bonfire was lighted on every farm2 and often the bonfire was surrounded by a circular trench1 symbolical of the sun4 ,every year these bonfires decrease in number2 but within the recollection of living men no fewer than thirty could be seen on the high hilltops between ,dunkeld and ,abergeldy4 ,and a strange weird sight it was1 worthy of the pencil of a ,rembrandt1--the dusky figures of the lads and lasses dancing wildly around them1 to the hoarse music of their own voices6 ,miss ,cumming writes that in the neighbourhood of ,crieff1 the bale-fires1 as the people call them1 still blaze as brightly as ever2 and from personal observation we can assert that they are still lighted in many parts of ,argyllshire4 ,a remarkable ,halloween story is recorded in ,dr4 ,robert ,chambers's valuable miscellany1 8,the ,book of ,days40 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,m41 we are told1 were a happy young couple1 who1 in the middle of the last century1 resided on their own estate1 in a pleasant part of the province of ,leinster4 ,possessed of a handsome fortune1 they spent their time in various rural avocations1 until the birth of a child1 a little girl1 seemed to crown their felicity4 ,on the ,halloween following this notable event1 the parents retired to rest at their usual hour1 ,mrs4 ,m4 cradling her infant on her bosom that she might be roused if it showed the least sign of uneasiness4 ,from teething or some other ailment1 the child1 about midnight1 became very restless1 and not receiving the usual attention from its mother1 woke up ,mr4 ,m4 by its cries4 ,he at once called his wife1 and told her the baby was unwell2 she made no answer4 ,she seemed in an uneasy slumber1 and in spite of all her husband's efforts continued to sleep on1 until he was compelled to take the child himself and endeavour to soothe it to rest4 ,from sheer exhaustion it at last sank into silence1 while the mother slumbered until a much later hour than usual4 ,when she at last awoke1 her husband told her of what had happened1 and of the extent to which his night's rest had been disturbed4 8,i1 too10 she replied1 8have passed the most miserable night ,i ever experienced3 ,i now see that sleep and rest are two different things1 for ,i never felt so unrefreshed in my life4 ,how ,i wish you had been able to awake me--it would have spared me some of my fatigue and anxiety6 ,i thought ,i was dragged against my will into a strange part of the country1 where ,i had never been before1 and1 after what appeared to me a long and weary journey on foot1 ,i arrived at a comfortable looking house4 ,i went in longing to rest1 but had no power to sit down1 although there was a nice supper laid out before a good fire1 and every appearance of preparations for an expected visitor4 ,exhausted as ,i felt1 ,i was only allowed to stand for a minute or two1 and then hurried away by the same road back again2 but now it is over1 and after all it was only a dream40 ,her husband listened with deep interest to this strange narrative1 and then1 sighing deeply1 said1 8,my dear ,sarah1 you will not long have me beside you2 whoever is to be your second husband played last night some evil trick1 of which you have been the victim40 ,shocked as she naturally was by this assertion1 she sought to subdue her own emotion1 and to rally her husband's spirits1 hoping that the impression would pass from his mind as soon as he entered into the every-day work of life4 ,months passed away1 and both husband and wife had almost forgotten the ,halloween dream1 when ,mr4 ,m4's health began to fail1 and to fail so rapidly1 that in spite of loving care and the best medical skill1 he sank into a premature grave4 ,his wife mourned him sincerely1 but her natural energy and activity prevented her from yielding to a hopeless sorrow4 ,she continued to farm her husband's estate1 and in this employment1 and in the education of her little girl was able to divert her thoughts4 ,not less admired for her conspicuous ability1 than beloved for her benevolence and amiability1 she was more than once solicited to lay aside her widow's weeds2 but she persisted in a calm refusal4 ,her uncle1 a man of much kindness of heart and clearness of judgment1 frequently visited her1 inspected her farm1 and gave her advice and assistance4 ,he had a nephew1 whom we will call ,c41 a prudent and energetic young man1 in whom he had every confidence1 and whenever they met1 he would strongly recommend him to take to himself a wife1 and 8settle40 ,on one occasion ,c4 replied that it was not his fault he still remained a bachelor1 but he had never yet met with any woman whom he would care to call his wife4 8,well1 ,c410 said his uncle1 8you seem difficult to please1 but ,i think ,i know a lady who would approve herself even to your fastidious taste40 ,after a good-humoured exchange of quip and repartee1 the uncle invited the nephew to ride over with him next day1 and be introduced to his niece1 whom ,c4 had never yet seen4 ,the invitation was accepted2 the two friends set out early on the following morning1 and after a pleasant ride drew near their destination4 ,at a short distance they caught sight of ,mrs4 ,m4 retiring towards her house after her usual daily inspection of her farm4 ,mr4 ,c4 started violently1 and displayed a considerable agitation4 ,pointing towards the lady1 he exclaimed1 8,uncle1 we need go no further1 for if ever ,i am to be married1 yonder goes my wife60 8,well1 ,c410 replied his uncle1 8that is fortunate1 for yonder lady is my niece1 to whom ,i am about to introduce you4 ,but tell me10 he continued1 8is this what you call love at first sight8 ,or what do you mean by such a sudden decision in favour of a lady with whom you have never exchanged a word80 8,well1 sir10 was the reply1 8as ,i have betrayed myself1 it is well that ,i should make full confession4 ,a year or two ago1 ,i was foolish enough to try a ,halloween spell1--and sat up all night to watch the result4 ,i declare to you most solemnly that the figure of that lady1 as ,i now see her1 entered my room1 and looked at me4 ,she stood a minute or two by the fire1 and then disappeared as suddenly and as silently as she had entered4 ,i was wide awake1 and felt considerable remorse at having thus ventured to tamper with the powers of the ,unseen ,world2 but ,i assure you that every particular of her features1 dress1 and figure have been so present to my mind ever since1 that ,i could not possibly make a mistake1 and the moment ,i saw your niece ,i was convinced that she was indeed the woman whose image ,i saw on that never-forgotten ,halloween40 ,it is unnecessary to say that the uncle was considerably astonished at this extraordinary narrative1 but he forbore to comment upon it1 as by this time they had arrived at ,mrs4 ,m4's house4 ,the lady was delighted to see her uncle1 and made his friend heartily welcome1 discharging the duties of hostess with a simplicity and grace that fascinated her guest4 ,after her visitors had rested and refreshed themselves1 her uncle walked out with her to inspect the farm1 and seized the opportunity1 in the absence of ,mr4 ,c41 to bespeak for him his niece's favourable consideration4 ,many words were unnecessary1 for the impression produced had been mutually agreeable4 ,before leaving the house ,mr4 ,c4 obtained ,mrs4 ,m4's permission to visit her in the character of a suitor for her hand1--and after a brief courtship they were married4 ,the story ends1 as all such stories should end1 with the affirmation that they lived long and happily together1 and it was from their daughter that ,dr4 ,chambers's informant derived his knowledge of the preceding remarkable episode in their career4 ,dr4 ,chambers assures us that the leading incidents of the narrative may be relied on as correct2 but we think the reader will exercise a wise incredulity3 that at all events his belief will not go beyond the admission of some possible resemblance1 entirely accidental1 between ,mrs4 ,m4 and the lady whom the imaginative ,mr4 ,c4 had seen in his ,halloween dream1 and whose image he had so carefully treasured in his memory4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,second ,,sight3 ,,divination3 ,,universality ,,of ,,certain ,,superstitions3 ,,fairies ,,in ,,scotland4 ,there are many aspects of the ,past which have an interest for the psychological student as well as for the antiquary1 and there are not a few to which everybody may occasionally direct their attention with advantage4 ,we are too much inclined to put it aside as a 8sealed book10 which none but the scholar can open1--which1 when opened1 is hardly worth the reading4 ,or we are attracted only by its picturesque and romantic side1 and take no heed of the valuable lessons which may be deduced upon a careful examination4 ,yet1 as all history is more or less the history of human error and human folly1 those chapters which treat of the credulities and superstitions of the ,past1 must surely embody many warnings and much counsel for the present4 ,our glance at ,halloween superstitions in ,scotland reminds us of other old ,scottish practices1 which serve to point a moral1 if not to adorn a tale4 ,we have met with a volume by a ,mr4 ,walter ,gregor1 which furnishes some curious illustrative instances4 ,on his vivid picture of the gloom and desolation of a ,scottish ,sabbath1 we will not dwell1 for our readers will probably have gathered from other sources1 or even from personal experience1 an idea of the dreariness of that sombre institution in the days when bigotry was mistaken for zeal1 and the spirit was killed outright by the letter4 ,it is pleasanter to read of the strong yearning for knowledge that then possessed the hearts of our ,scottish youth2 and how1 in the age before ,school ,boards were conceived of1 the parish school supplied for twenty shillings per annum an education which fitted the scholar for entering the ,university4 ,no ,royal ,road to ,learning had as yet been discovered2 and with much sweat of brain did the aspiring student brood over his ,homer or ,virgil by the flickering light of the peat-fire4 ,when the time came for his removal to ,glasgow or ,aberdeen1 thither he trudged afoot with his little 8all0 in a knapsack slung from his sturdy shoulders2 and during the 8sessions0 it was a hard hand-to-hand fight with poverty which he stoutly fought1 while delving deep into classical and mathematical lore2 not forgetting occasional excursions into that vague metaphysical region which has always had so keen an attraction for the strong ,scotch intellect4 ,our 8present-day0 students would too often shrink1 we suspect1 from the sacrifices demanded of their forefathers1 and give way under the hardships which they endured1 when a few potatoes and a salt herring served for dinner1 and all the expenses of the academical year were covered by some twelve to sixteen pounds6 ,we are by no means sure that knowledge was not more valued when it was attainable only at such a cost of self-denial and rigid effort2 and we certainly believe that it was more thorough1 more entirely a man's own1 because it was wrung1 so to speak1 from the reluctant goddess by strenuous1 steadfast work and sheer mental travail4 ,to the ,age of ,gold and the ,age of ,iron has succeeded the ,age of ,veneer2 and we trouble ourselves too little now-a-days1 in spite of the teaching of ,ruskin and ,carlyle1 about the solidness and durability of the material1 so long as it will take a ready polish4 ,but what a strange world was that of the ,scotch peasant in those far off days--far off at least they seem1 on account of the immense social revolution that has taken place1 and set between the now and the then a profound chasm4 ,men often speak of the hard-headedness and matter-of-fact stolidity of the ,scotch nature2 but is it not true that below the surface lies an abundant fountain of wild1 quaint1 original fancy8 ,and how1 in the olden time1 it surrounded itself with signs and omens and wonders6 ,how it loved to put itself in communion1 as it were1 with that other world which lies beyond and yet around us1 which perplexes us with its subtle intelligence1 which we cannot discern1 though of its presence we are always sensible6 ,from the cradle to the grave the ,scotch peasant went his way attended by the phantoms of this mysterious world2 always recognising its warnings1 always seeing the shadows which it cast of coming events1 and so burdening himself with a weight of grim and ery superstition1 that we marvel he did not stumble and grow faint1 seeing that his dreary ,calvinistic creed could have brought him little hope or comfort4 ,nay1 it is a question whether his superstition did not partly grow out of1 or was fostered by1 his hard1 cold religion4 ,superstition is the shadow of ,religion1 and from the shadow we may infer the nature of the substance or object that casts it4 ,but of these darker things we shall not speak4 ,let us trace a few of the common traditions and customs of the people1 though in doing so we digress1 perhaps1 from the main lines of the present volume4 ,while less impressive than the mere mystical practices1 they proceeded from the same source1--an imagination haunted by the formidable presence of ,nature1 by the forms of lofty mountains1 by the mysteries of pine-clad ravines1 and the murmurs of storm-swept lochs and falling waters4 ,for it has been truly said that the ,scotch people have been made what they are by ,scotland2 that the ,land has moulded and fashioned the ,people2 and that in their literature1 their religion1 their manners1 their history1 the influence is seen of the physical characteristics of the country4 ,on the birth of a child--to begin at the beginning--we read that both mother and offspring were 8sained10 a lighted fir-candle being carried three times round the bed1 and a ,bible1 with a bannock or bread and cheese being placed under the pillow1 while a kind of blessing was indistinctly uttered4 ,sometimes a fir-candle was set on the bed to keep off fairies4 ,if the new-born showed any symptoms of fractiousness1 it was supposed to be a changeling2 and to test the truth of the supposition1 the child was placed suddenly before a peat-fire1 when1 if really a changeling1 it made its escape by the 8lum10 throwing back words of scorn as it disappeared4 ,great was the eagerness to get the babe baptised1 lest it should be stolen by the fairies4 ,if it died unchristened1 it wandered in woods and solitary places1 bewailing its miserable fate4 ,in ,ramsay's 8,gentle ,shepherd10 ,bauldy1 describing ,manse the witch1 says of her3-- 8,at midnight hours o'er the kirkyard she raves1 ,and howks unchristened weans out of their graves40 ,it was considered 8unlucky0 to mention the name of an 8unchristened wean20 and even at baptism the name was commonly written on a slip of paper1 which was handed to the officiating minister4 ,what care was taken that the consecrated water should not enter the child's eyes6 ,for if such a mishap occurred1 his future life1 wherever he went and whatever he did1 would be constantly marred by the presence of wraiths and phantoms4 ,if the babe remained quiet at the font1 it was supposed to be destined to a brief career2 and hence1 to extort a cry1 the woman who received it from the father would handle it roughly or even pinch it4 ,if a boy and girl were baptised together1 much anxiety was evinced lest the girl should first receive the rite4 ,and why8 ,in the 8,statistical ,account of ,scotland10 the minister of an ,orcadian parish says3 8,within these last seven years the minister has been twice interrupted in administering baptism to a female child before the male child1 who was baptised immediately after4 ,when the service was over1 he was gravely told he had done very wrong1 for1 if the female child was first baptised1 she would1 on her coming to the years of discretion1 most certainly have a strong beard1 and the boy would have none40 ,following up the course of human life through the honeyed days of 8wooing and wedding10 we find it darkened still by the clouds of ,superstition4 ,if a maiden desired to call up the image of her future husband1 she read the third verse1 seventeenth chapter of the ,book of ,job after supper1 washed the supper dishes1 and retired to bed without uttering a single word1 placing before her pillow the ,bible1 with a pin thrust through the verse she had read4 ,it is curious to observe the use of the ,bible in these wild and foolish customs3 was it not an indirect testimony to the reverence1 not always intelligent1 perhaps1 but certainly sincere1 in which the holy book was held8 ,nor are we certain that it is not sometimes turned to worse purposes in these 8enlightened days10 when a pseudo-science seeks to convert it into the battle-field of audacious theories1 and an ignorant intolerance too often professes to discover in its bright and blessed pages an excuse for its uncharitable follies4 ,but we must continue our resum4 ,it is curious to read that the wedding-dress might not be 8tried on0 before the wedding-day1 and if it did not fit1 it might not be cut or altered1 but was adjusted in the best manner possible4 ,the bride1 on the way to church1 was forbidden to look back1 for to do so was to ensure a succession of disasters and quarrels in the married state4 ,it was considered inauspicious1 moreover1 if she did not 8greet0 or weep on the marriage-day2 a superstition obviously connected with the wide-spread idea of the necessity of propitiating the ,fates which inspired the advice of ,amasis to the too fortunate ,polycrates1#ff that he should fine himself for his success by throwing some costly thing into the sea4 ,it was thought well to marry at the time of the growing moon1 and among fisher-folk a flowing tide was regarded as 8lucky40 ,these customs were puerile enough1 undoubtedly1 but before we censure them too severely we may ask whether our modern bridals are wholly free from superstitious observances2 whether we do not still pretend to 8bribe0 the fickle ,fortune by showers of rice and old slippers rained on the departing couple6 ,it is needless to say that the 8last scene of all0 was invested with all the attributes of grotesque terror the wayward popular imagination could invent4 ,before it took place the light of the 8death-candle0--the ,welsh call it the 8corpse-candle0--might be seen hovering from chamber to chamber2 or the cock crowed before midnight2 or the 8dead-drap10 a sound as of water falling monotonously and lingeringly1 broke the silence of the night2 or three dismal and fatal knocks were heard1 at regular intervals of one or two minutes' duration2 or over the doomed person fluttered the image of a white dove4 ,and when the spirit had departed1 the doors and windows were immediately opened wide2 the clocks were stopped2 the mirrors were covered2 and it was held to disturb the rest of the dead1 and to be fatal to the living1 if a tear fell upon the winding sheet4 ,and thus1 from the cradle to the grave1 ,superstition dogged the steps of life2 nor even at the grave did it cease to vex and worry the minds of men with the fancies and visions born of excited imaginations4 ,that such fancies1 that customs so wild and grotesque1 should have existed in ,scotland1 and among a well-educated people1 down to a comparatively recent date1 might be matter of wonder1 if we were not aware of the tenacity with which the heart clings to the 8use and wont0 of the ,past4 ,nor trivial as some1 and inexcusable as all of them seem to the philosophic eye1 is it wise to regard them too contemptuously4 ,they seem to us to show how difficult man found it to realise to himself the idea of a living1 personal ,,god1--of a ,,god1 a ,,father1 ever watching over the welfare of ,his children1 chastening them in ,his mercy1 but never refusing them the light of ,his countenance when they have sought ,him with faith in the hour of sorrow and darkness4 ,for want of this strengthening1 consoling1 elevating idea1 he has endeavoured to support himself by the feeble prop of superstitious credulity1 and instead of yielding wholly and trustfully to the love of ,,god the ,,father1 has vainly striven to secure some glimpse or foreshadowing of the ,future1 and to avert evil by peurile practices and idle traditions4 ,we may next be allowed to point out the kinship in superstition which prevails all over the world2 so that the observance or custom which seems peculiar to ,england or ,scotland1 is found in ,india or ,tartary4 ,this remarkable similarity indicates a certain general tendency to attach an 8ominous significance0 to particular things and events4 ,take as an illustration1 the act of sneezing4 ,in ,asia as well as ,europe1 among ,semitic peoples as well as among ,aryan1 it is usual to connect with the act some form of blessing4 ,sometimes the sneezer is blessed by the bystander2 sometimes he blesses himself2 if a ,mohammedan1 he blesses ,,god4 ,in ,italy1 for example1 the salutation addressed to him runs3 8,may ,,god preserve you60 or 8,may you have children60 ,in ,hindi it takes the form of 8,sadji's0 7,may you live for ever67 and a similar salutation is used by the ,jews of ,austria4 ,but in different places and at different times sneezing has been made to carry a very different meaning4 ,among the ,arabs1 if1 while a person is making an assertion which some may think hazardous or dubious1 another sneezes1 the speaker appeals to the omen as a confirmation of what he is saying4 ,a writer in the 8,calcutta ,review0 thinks this notion as old as the ,greeks of the time of ,xenophon1 as appears from a well known passage in ,chap4 ii4 ,book iii4 of the ,anabasis3 4 ,sneezing among the ,hindus1 if it occur behind your back1 is regarded as so unfavourable an omen1 that they at once abandon the work on which at the time they may have been engaged4 ,various but not satisfactory attempts have been made to explain these customs4 ,thus1 the ,mohammedan accounts for his 8,al hamdu-l ,allah0 by the tradition that1 when the breath of life was breathed into the nostrils of ,adam1 he sneezed1 and immediately uttered those words4 ,while in ,europe the custom of blessing the sneezer has been traced to the occurrence in ,italy in the middle ages of some fatal epidemic1 of which one of the symptoms was sneezing4 ,the superstition which regards as a favourable omen the throbbing of the eye1 was well known to the ancient ,greeks1 is common in ,england1 and flourishes all over ,india4 ,in ,england1 it is the man's right eye and the woman's left that is auspicious2 and so it was in the ,greece of ,theocritus1 and so it is in ,india and ,persia4 ,the curious superstition that ghosts are visible to dogs1 to which we find an allusion in ,homer's ,odyssey1 still flourishes in ,india4 ,it may have originated in the place given to the dog in the mythology of both ,greek and ,hindu1 or in the position enjoyed by the watch-dog among all the shepherd peoples of the world4 ,the belief belongs to the ,semitic as well as the ,aryan races2 and its true origin after all may be the apparently causeless howling of the dog at night1--the time when 8spirits walk abroad40 ,whatever the ground of the belief1 it is probably in itself the cause of the superstition that the howling of dogs presages death or misfortune4 ,another singular coincidence of this kind is furnished 8by the custom of spitting on the breast as a charm against fascination40 ,in his 8,greek ,antiquities10 ,potter notes that it was an ancient ,greek custom to spit three times on the breast at the sight of a madman2 and ,theocritus has1-- 4 8,precisely the same effect is attributed to the act among the ,aryan inhabitants of ,india1 where its threefold repetition is also insisted on4 ,no sort of reason that we can imagine1 can be found for this belief2 and in this case the idea is a complex one4 8,the notion of a hiccough being an indication that some one is thinking of the person affected1 is equally common in ,europe and in ,india4 8,the same may be said of the superstition regarding an itching of the palm of the hand2 and further the idea that the palm should be rubbed against something to make the event the more sure1 prevails both in ,india and in ,england4 ,in ,england it should be #8rubbed against wood1' in ,india on the forehead40#fg ,we supply but one more illustration1 and that shall be in folk lore2 a nursery story which presents virtually the same features in the ,east as in the ,west4 ,the following is the ,hindu parallel to the old ,saxon nursery tale of 8,the ,woman that found a ,silver ,penny40 ,the coincidence will be seen to be complete4 8,once upon a time1 a little bird1 on its way through the woods1 picked up a pea1 and took it to the barbhunja to be split2 but1 as ill luck would have it1 one half of it stuck fast in the mill-handle1 and the barbhunja being unable to get it out1 the little bird went off to the carpenter1 and said1 #8,carpenter1 carpenter1 come and cut the mill-handle2 my pea is in the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' #8,be off1' said the carpenter1 #8is it likely ,i shall come and cut the mill-handle for the sake of a single pea8' 8,then the little bird went to the king1 and said1 #8,king1 king1 chide the carpenter2 the carpenter won't cut the mill-handle2 my pea has stuck in the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' #8,be off with you1' said the king1 #8do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to chide the carpenter8' 8,then the little bird went to the queen1 and said1 #8,queen1 queen1 speak to the king2 the king won't chide the carpenter2 the carpenter won't cut the mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the queen said1 #8,be off with you1 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to talk to the king8' 8,then the little bird went to the snake1 and said1 #8,snake1 snake1 bite the queen2 the queen won't talk to the king2 the king won't chide the carpenter2 the carpenter won't cut the mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the snake said1 #8,be off with you1 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to bite the queen8' 8,then the little bird went to the stick1 and said1 #8,stick1 stick1 beat the snake2 snake won't bite queen2 queen won't talk to king2 king won't chide carpenter2 carpenter won't cut mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the stick said1 #8,be off with you1 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to beat the snake8' 8,then the little bird went to the fire1 and said1 #8,fire1 fire1 burn stick2 stick won't beat snake2 snake won't bite queen2 queen won't talk to king2 king won't chide carpenter2 carpenter won't cut mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the fire said1 #8,be off with you1 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to burn the stick8' 8,then the little bird went to the sea1 and said1 #8,sea1 sea1 quench fire2 fire won't burn stick2 stick won't beat snake2 snake won't bite queen2 queen won't talk to king2 king won't chide carpenter2 carpenter won't cut mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the sea said1 #8,be off with you1 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to quench the fire8' 8,then the little bird went to the elephant1 and said1 #8,elephant1 elephant1 dry up the sea2 sea won't quench fire2 fire won't burn stick2 stick won't beat snake2 snake won't bite queen2 queen won't talk to king2 king won't chide carpenter2 carpenter won't cut mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the elephant said1 #8,be off with you1 to dry up the sea would take the whole host of elephants2 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to assemble all of my kith and kin8' 8,then the bird went to the bhaunr1 7a tangled creeping plant17 and said1 #8,bhaunr1 bhaunr1 snare the elephant2 elephant won't drink up sea2 sea won't quench fire2 fire won't burn stick2 stick won't beat snake2 snake won't bite queen2 queen won't talk to king2 king won't chide carpenter2 carpenter won't cut mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the bhaunr said1 #8,be off with you1 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to snare the elephant8' 8,then the bird went to the mouse1 and said1 #8,mouse1 mouse1 cut bhaunr2 bhaunr won't snare elephant2 elephant won't drink up sea2 sea won't quench fire2 fire won't burn stick2 stick won't beat snake2 snake won't bite queen2 queen won't talk to king2 king won't chide carpenter2 carpenter won't cut mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,but the mouse said1 #8,be off with you1 do you think that for the sake of a single pea ,i am going to cut the bhaunr8' 8,then the bird went to the cat1 and said1 #8,cat1 cat1 eat mouse2 mouse won't cut bhaunr2 bhaunr won't snare elephant2 elephant won't drink up sea2 sea won't quench fire2 fire won't burn stick2 stick won't beat snake2 snake won't bite queen2 queen won't talk to king2 king won't chide carpenter2 carpenter won't cut mill-handle2 my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle2 what shall ,i eat1 what shall ,i drink1 and what shall ,i take to foreign countries8' ,and the cat said1 #8,by all means2 the mouse is my natural prey1 why should ,i not eat it8' 8,so the cat went to eat the mouse2 and the mouse went to cut the bhaunr1 saying1-- #8,hamko khao1 a o1 mat koi1 ,ham bhaunr ko katat loi4' #8,oh1 oh1 eat1 oh6 eat me no one1 ,i will take and cut the bhaunr4' ,and the bhaunr went to snare the elephant1 saying1 #8,oh1 cut1 oh6 cut me no one1 ,i'll take and snare the elephant4' ,and so on with each one1 till it came to the carpenter1 who extracted the pea1 and the bird took it1 and went away rejoicing40 ,the close resemblance between this fable and the ,english one of 8,the ,silver ,penny10 attests a common origin4 ,for it cannot be supposed that either was conveyed by means of oral communication from one country to the other2 and the only feasible conclusion seems to be that they are different versions of a nursery tale which belonged to our common ,aryan forefathers4 ,there can be no doubt as to its antiquity4#fh 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the earlier superstitions of ,scotland was a belief in the efficacy of charms1 or metrical incantations2 a belief prevailing in almost every country and period1 and indirectly attesting man's strong inward conviction of the existence of another world4 ,that communications could be maintained with the unseen creatures that live in the air1 and 8the ooze20 above1 beneath1 and around us2 that they could be made to assume a bodily form and presence2 that storms could be raised or dispelled1 evil prevented1 secrets discovered1 diseases cured1 love engendered1--and that all this was possible by the utterance of certain words arranged in metrical form1 though generally perfectly meaningless1 was never doubted4 ,many of those used in ,scotland evidently had their origin in the reputed efficacy of verses among the ancients2 and being of an early date1 they are often 8intermixed with the formula of the ,roman ,catholic ritual40 ,thus we read that one ,elspeth ,reoch 7in #afaf7 had been supernaturally instructed to cure distempers by resting on her right knee while pulling a certain herb 8betwixt her midfinger and thumb1 and saying of1 ,in nomine ,patris1 ,filii1 et ,spiritus ,sancti40 ,an old and popular charm for curing cattle 7#afjg71 is given by ,dalyell as follows3--#fi 8,i charge thee for arrow shot1 ,for deer shot1 for womb shot1 ,for eye shot1 for tongue shot1 ,for liver shot1 for lung shot1 ,for heart shot1--all the most3 ,in the ,name of the ,,father1 the ,,son1 and ,,holy ,,ghost4 ,to wind out of flesh and bone1 ,into oak and stone3 ,in the ,name of the ,,father1 the ,,son1 and ,,holy ,,ghost4 ,amen40 ,sometimes these invocations were accompanied by the administration of medicinal herbs which had been gathered before sunrise4 ,a woman accused of witchcraft1 in #aehh1 declared that she saw 8the guid nychtbours makand thair sawis with pains and fyres1 and gadderit thair herbis before the sone rysing as sche did40 ,among the various remedies prescribed for 8the trembling fever10 or ague1 by ,katharine ,oswald1 one related to plucking up a nettle by the root1 three successive mornings1 before sunrise4 ,a favourite time for this herb-gathering rite was ,midsummer2 a relic of the old ,pagan superstition connected with the sun's position in the ,zodiac4 ,the metrical charm then made use of was popular also in ,england1-- 8,haile be thou1 holie hearte1 ,growing on the ground2 ,all in the ,mount ,calvarie ,first wast thou found4 ,thou art good for manie a sore1 ,and healest manie a wound2 ,in the ,name of ,sweet ,,jesus1 ,i take thee from the ground40 8,bleeding at the touch10 has been accepted in several countries as a revelation of guilt4 ,a man suspected of murder was brought to the side of the murdered man's body1 and forced to touch it2 if the suspicions were just1 blood immediately oozed from the wound1 or at the mouth1 or nose4 ,even at the man's approach this sign of crime would appear4 ,it is easy to see how precarious and dangerous a test was this2 how readily it might release the guilty1 and betray the innocent4 ,naturally therefore it was not accepted without reluctance4 ,a man and his sister had quarrelled2 he died suddenly1 and his body was found in his own house1 naked1 and with a wound on the face1 but bloodless4 8,although many of the neighbours in the town came into the house to see the dead corpse1 yet she1 the sister1 never offered to come1 howbeit her dwelling was next door1 nor had she so much as any seeming grief for his death4 ,but the minister and bailiffs of the town taking great suspicion of her in respect of her carriage1 commanded that she should be brought in4 ,but when she came1 she came trembling all the way to the house2 she refused to come nigh to the corpse1 or to touch1 saying1 that she never touched a dead corpse in her life4 ,but being earnestly entreated by the minister and bailiffs1 and her brother's friends1 who was killed1 that she would but touch the corpse softly1 she granted to do it4 ,but before she did it1 the sun shining in at the house1 she expressed herself thus3 #8,humbly desiring1 as the ,,lord made the sun to shine and give light into that house1 that also ,he would give light in discovering that murder4' ,and with these words1 she touching the wound of the dead man very softly1 it being white and clean1 without any spot of blood or the like1 yet immediately1 while her finger was upon it1 the blood rushed out of it1 to the great admiration of all the beholders1 who took it as one discovery of the murder1 according to her own prayer40 ,it will seem astonishing to readers of the present day that a poor creature's life could be taken away on such fanciful and uncertain evidence4 ,we read that a ,sir ,james ,standsfield was found lying dead in a stream4 ,his body was interred precipitately4 ,two days afterwards it was exhumed and partially dissected1 the neck in particular being laid open1 in order to ascertain the cause of death4 ,after being well cleansed1 blood burst from that side supported by his son ,philip1 on returning the body to the coffin for re-interment--not an unlikely result from the straining of the incisions--and it deeply stained his hand4 ,he was arraigned1 on this slight ground1 for parricide2 and in the course of the trial it was gravely argued that it was the will of ,providence to disclose by this peculiar incident a secret crime4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the preservation of health and the prolongation of life are necessarily objects of interest to all mankind1 and it was natural enough that around them should flourish a rank growth of superstitions4 ,to ailing or diseased persons all kinds of potions1 pills1 and powders were administered in the past as they are in the present2 but whereas we are now content with the mystic characters endorsed on his formula by the physician1 our ancestors were not satisfied unless certain mystical words1 numbers1 or ceremonies accompanied them4 ,the sign of the cross was in constant requisition2 or the medicine was to be taken according to mystical numbers--thrice or nine times1 as the case might be4 ,for hooping-cough was prescribed a draught from the horn of a living ox1 nine times repeated4 ,the patient was also put 8nine several times0 in the miller's hopper4 ,the importance ascribed to the figure of a circle is probably a relic of the influence of the old sun-worship4 ,consumptive invalids1 or children suffering from hectic fever1 were thrice passed through a circular wreath of woodbine1 cut during the increase of the ,march moon1 and let down over the body from head to foot4 ,we read of a sorceress who healed sundry women by 8taking a garland of green woodbine1 and causing the patient to pass thrice through it40 ,afterwards1 the garland was cut in nine pieces1 which were cast into the fire--generally an indispensable particular in ceremonies of this kind4 ,another passed her patient through a heap of green yarn1 which the nurse shook1 and then divided it into nine pieces1 which were buried in the lands of three owners4 ,a certain ,thomas ,grieve directed a patient to pass thrice through a heap of yarn1 which he duly burned4 ,he also cured the wife of a ,michael ,glanis by having a hole broken on the north side of the chimney1 and putting a hoop of yarn thrice through it1 and taking it back at the door2 and thereafter compelling the patient to go nine times through the said hoop of yarn4 ,white of ,selborne tells us of a custom1 prevalent in his time in the south of ,england1 of stripping feeble and diseased children1 and transmitting them head foremost through an artificial cleft in a young tree1 the several parts of which were held forcibly asunder4 ,the wound was then bound up carefully1 and it was expected that the child would recover as the tree healed4 ,if the cleft did not unite1 the remedy proved abortive2 and if the tree were cut down1 the patient relapsed or died4 ,borlase speaks of a similar custom in ,cornwall1 except that a perforated stone was used instead of a cleft tree4 ,in ,persia1 according to ,alexander1 passage through a long fissure or crevice in a rock1 by crawling on hands and knees1 is employed as a test of legitimate birth4 ,and in the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem1 to pass between the pillars supporting an altar and the neighbouring wall1 was practised as a like test4 ,it has been suggested1 as the meaning of these various transmissions through cleft1 aperture1 skein of yarn1 and garland1 that they are symbolical of regeneration2 a second birth1 whereby a living soul is cleansed from its former impurities and imperfections4 ,wilford speaks of a sanctified fissure in a rock in the ,east1 to which pilgrims resort 8for the purpose of regeneration1 by the efficacy of a passage through this sacred type40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the faculty of divining events1 passing at a distance from the seer1 or of passively receiving a knowledge that such events are taking place1 is the well-known 8second sight10 which plays so important a part in many ,scottish stories4 8,in the stricter acceptation of this faculty10 we are told1 8contemporary objects and incidents are beheld at the time1 however remote their locality1 but neither those which have passed1 nor those which have yet to come4 ,if extending to futurity1 the subject of the vision is about to be realised4 ,therefore the second sight borders only on prognostication4 ,it is affirmed to be more peculiar to ,scotland1 for very faint analogy to such a property has been claimed for other countries3 and that the highlanders chiefly1 together with the inhabitants of the insular districts1 or that portion of the kingdom less advanced1 have enjoyed it in the highest perfection4 ,marvellous to be told1 they have said that their cattle are gifted with it as well as themselves40 ,the faculty was one which knew no distinction of age or sex1 or class2 it was enjoyed by man and woman1 young and old1 rich and poor1 high-born and plebeians1 and in many cases was inherited4 ,it might occasionally be imparted by a gifted person1 or acquired by study and preparation4 ,it is a proof1 were proof needed1 of the living influence of the imagination1 that the vision beheld by one individual only1 might be revealed to a companion visionary1 thus confirmed in his belief in the value of his new prerogative2 simply by the pressure of the seer's right foot on the novice's left1 holding one hand on his head1 while he was admonished to look over the master's right shoulder4 ,thus1 ,lilly1 the astrologer--,butler's 8hight ,sidrophel0--relates how one ,john ,scott desired ,william ,hodges1 an astrologer in ,staffordshire1 to show him the person and features of the person he should marry4 ,hodges carried him into a field not far from his home2 pulled out his magic crystal2 bade ,scott set his foot against his1 and after awhile desired him to inspect the crystal1 and observe what he saw there4 ,of course he saw exactly what his fevered wishes were resolved to see4 ,ceremonies of a more fantastic character were sometimes involved1 and round the novice's body was coiled a hair rope with which a corpse had been bound to its bier4 ,he was then required to look through a hole left by the removal of a fir knot2 and1 on stooping1 he was instructed to look back between his legs1 until an advancing funeral procession should cross the boundary of the estates of two different owners4 ,the inconvenience of this complicated performance is obvious2 it might also be dangerous2 for if the wind changed while the novice was girded with the mystical cord1 he was liable to the penalty of death4 ,a seer gifted with this wonderful faculty could not divest himself of it1 though often he would fain have done so4 ,however acquired1 it was a perilous endowment1 fraught with physical and mental suffering1 and reputed to be no gift from on high1 but to have come from the ,father of ,evil4 ,the objects seen were generally sad and sorrowful2 calamities to persons or nations4 ,woodrow says that before the ,marquis of ,argyll went to ,london in #affj1 he was playing 8at the bullets10 or bowls1 with some ,scottish gentlemen2 when one of them1 as the ,marquis stooped down to lift the bullet1 8fell pale10 and said to those about him3 8,bless me1 what is this ,i see8 my lord with his head off1 and all his shoulder full of blood80 ,on one occasion1 a gentleman joined a company1 all of whom were very frank and cheerful4 ,he had no sooner entered than one of the guests1 who had not previously known him1 showed much depression of spirit4 ,without taking any notice of it the new-comer quickly rose1 and went his way4 ,the other thereupon showed great concern1 and wished he would remain2 for he saw him1 he said1 with a shroud up to his neck1 and he knew that this sign foreboded his death4 ,in vain some of the company would have persuaded the doomed man to take warning1 but he departed1 and having ridden a short distance1 he and his horse fell1 and he broke his neck4 ,on the morning of the battle of ,bothwell ,bridge1 that sore defeat to the ,covenanters--so vigorously described by ,scott in his 8,old ,mortality0--,mr4 ,john ,cameron1 minister at ,lochhead in ,kintyre1 fell into a fit of melancholy1 so that ,mr4 ,morison1 of his elders1 observing him through his chamber door1 sore weeping and wringing his hands1 knocked until he opened to him4 ,then he asked what was the matter8 ,were his wife and children well8 8,little matter for them10 he answered2 8our friends at ,bothwell are gone40 ,mr4 ,morison told him it might be a mistake1 and the offcome of his gloomy thoughts3 8,no1 no10 said he1 8,i see them flying as clearly as ,i see the wall40 ,as near as they could calculate by the accounts they afterwards obtained1 this incident at the ,lochhead of ,kintyre was contemporaneous with the flight of the ,covenanters at ,bothwell4 ,munro1 the ,scotch soldier of fortune1 who bore himself so gallantly in the wars of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 tells a story of a vision that was seen by a soldier of his company on the morning of the storm of ,stralsund in #afbh4 ,one ,murdo ,macleod1 born in ,assen1 a soldier of tall stature and valiant courage1 being sleeping on his watch1 awoke at break of day1 and 8jogged0 two of his comrades lying by him1 much to their indignation at his 8stirring them40 ,he replied3 8,before long1 you shall be otherwise stirred40 ,a soldier called ,allan ,tough1 a ,lochaber man1 recommending his soul to ,,god1 asked him what he had seen3 8,that you shall never behold your country again40 ,the other replied1 the loss was but small1 if the rest of the company were well4 ,he answered3 8,no1 for there was great hurt and dearth of many very near40 ,the other again asked1 what others he had seen who would perish4 ,he then told by name sundry of his comrades who would be killed4 ,the other asked1 what would become of himself4 ,eventually1 he described by their clothes all the officers who would be hurt4 8,a pretty quick boy near by10 asked him1 what would become of the ,major 7that is1 ,munro himself87 8,he would be shot1 but not deadly10 was the answer1--and so it proved4 ,a good deal is said of this ,taisch1 or 8,second ,sight10 in ,dr4 ,johnson's 8,journey to the ,hebrides10 and some striking anecdotes are told4 ,it was just the thing to interest his moody temperament1 with its terrible dread of death and its longing to lift the curtain that hides from us the ,unseen4 ,he seems1 however1 to have been unable to convince himself of the actual existence of such a power2 all the evidence he could collect failed to advance his curiosity to conviction1 so that he could not believe1 while remaining willing to believe4 ,to use the noble words of ,goethe1 nobly rendered by ,coleridge3 8,as the sun1 ,ere it is risen1 sometimes paints its image ,in the atmosphere1 so often do the spirits ,of great events stride on before the events1 ,and in ,to-day already walks ,to-morrow40 ,this it is not difficult to accept4 ,it seems fitting that presages should herald the death of kings and the revolutions of nations2 but the mind cannot convince itself that the spirits of the dead will cross the shadowy borders to foretell the trivial accidents that chequer ordinary lives4 ,yet1 as ,johnson says3 8,a man on a journey far from home falls from a horse2 another who is perhaps at work about the house1 sees him bleeding on the ground1 commonly with a landscape of the place where the accident befalls him4 ,another seer1 driving home his cattle1 or wandering in idleness1 or musing in the sunshine1 is suddenly surprised by the appearance of a bridal ceremony or funeral procession1 and counts the mourners or attendants1 of whom1 if he knows them1 he relates the names1 if he knows them not he can describe the dresses40 ,woodrow tells of 8a popish lady10 living near ,boroughbridge1 who dreamed that she saw a coach1 and a lady in it1 almost lost in the river4 ,she directed her servants to watch during two nights1 to guard against an accident1 but nothing happened4 8,on the third night1 pretty late1 the ,lady ,shawfield came1 and of a sudden the coach was overturned1 and filled with water4 ,the coachman got upon one of the horses1 to save his life4 ,the good and religious ,lady ,shawfield was for some time under water3 and upon the cry rising1 the popish lady's servants came to their assistance4 ,with much difficulty1 the coach and lady in it were got out of the water40 ,and the ,lady ,shawfield1 being laid upon the bank1 gradually recovered her senses4 ,in the early months of the ,commonwealth1 while ,mackenzie of ,tarbat1 afterwards ,earl of ,cromarty1 was riding in a field among his tenants1 who were manuring barley1 a stranger 8called that way on his foot1 and stopped likewise1 and said to the countrymen1 #8,you need not be so busy about that barley1 for ,i see the ,englishmen's horses tethered among it2 and other parts mowed down for them4' ,tarbet asked him how he knew them to be ,englishmen1 and if he had ever seen any of them8 ,he said1 #8,no2 but he saw them strangers1 and heard the ,english were in ,scotland1 and guessed it could be no other than they4' ,in the month of ,july1 the thing happened directly as the man said he saw it40 ,the influence exercised on the imagination by events in which we are deeply interested1 and the manner in which our hopes or fears are mistaken for predictions1 may be illustrated by two examples from antiquity4 ,on the day that ,csar and ,pompey contended at ,pharsalia for the mastery of the world1 ,cornelius1 a priest and patrician of ,padua1 declared1 under a sudden impulse of passion1 that he beheld the eddies and currents of a desperate battle1 and the fall and flight of many of the combatants1 eventually exclaiming3 8,csar has conquered60 ,his hearers laughed at him1 but his words were afterwards verified1 and it appeared that he had foretold not only the day1 but the incidents1 and the result of the famous battle in ,thessaly4 ,the anecdote is related on the authority of the 8,noctes ,attic0 of ,aulus ,gellius4 ,dio ,cassius tells a similar story about the assassination of the ,emperor ,domitian at ,rome1 by his freedman ,stephanus4 8,it is to be admired10 he says1 8that1 as accurately proved by persons in either place1 ,apollonius ,thyanus1 ascending an eminence at ,ephesus or elsewhere1 cried out before the multitude3 #8,well done1 ,stephanus1 well done6 ,strike the murderer6 thou hast struck him1 thou hast wounded him1 he is slain6'0 ,but it may well be supposed that a secret understanding existed between ,apollonius and the murderer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from 8second sight0 we pass on to 8prediction0 or 8divination10 another of the superstitious modes by which humanity has endeavoured to read the book of the ,future4 ,in the north this power of prophecy was largely assumed by women1 a circumstance of which ,scott has made ample and picturesque use in more than one of his admirable fictions4 ,a woman foretold the tragical end of ,james ,i4 of ,scotland1 in #adcf4 ,in the early stage of a journey from ,edinburgh to ,leith1 and in the midst of the way1 arose a woman of ,ireland1 who claimed to be a soothsayer1 and as soon as she saw the king1 she cried with a loud voice1 saying1 8,my lord king1 an ye pass this water1 ye shall never turn again to live40 ,the king was astonished at her words1 for but shortly before he had fallen in with a prophecy1 that in the self-same year the ,king of ,scots should be slain4 ,and as he rode onward1 he called to him one of his knights1 and commanded him to return and speak with this woman1 and ask of her what she would1 and what she meant by her loud crying3 and she began and told him what would befall the king if he passed that water4 ,the king asked her how she knew so much1 and she said that ,huthart told her so4 8,sire10 quoth the knight1 8men may gallantly talk1 nor take heed of yonder woman's words1 for she is but a drunken fool1 and wots not what she saith40 ,and so with his folk he passed the water called the ,scottish ,sea1 towards ,s4 ,john's town ,perth1 about four miles from the country of the wild ,scots1 and there1 in a convent of ,black ,friars1 outside the town1 he held a great feast4 ,in the course of the revel came 8the said woman of ,ireland1 who called herself a divineress10 and made several vain attempts to gain access to the king4 ,meanwhile the conspirators matured their plot1 removed the king's guards1 attacked him1 and slew him4#gj ,all the predictions which come true are preserved2 we hear nothing of those which fail1 for no one has an interest in recording or repeating them2 hence an undue importance is gradually attached to what are nothing more than remarkable coincidences4 ,many others are prophecies 8after the event40 ,others are based on a careful calculation of probabilities4 ,as in the following example3 ,an ,orkney warlock1 full of displeasure with ,james ,paplay1 a proud and haughty chief1 with whose character1 doubtless1 she was well acquainted1 broke forth into a torrent of predictive utterances3 8,thou art now the highest man that ever thou shalt be6 ,thou art gone to shear thy corn1 but it shall never do you good6 ,thou art going to set house with thy wife1--ye shall have no joy of one another4 ,oil shall not keep you and her2 ye shall have such a meit-will craving1 and shall have nothing to eat1 but be fain to eat grass under the stones and wair 7sea-weed7 under the rocks40 ,it was seriously asserted that not only were these predictions--or menaces--uttered1 but that they were all fulfilled2 and it is possible that the prophet may have had something to do with their fulfilment4 ,a curious anecdote is related of a ,scottish minister1 who1 on the day of the battle of ,killiecrankie1 was preaching at ,anworth1 and in his preface before his prayer1 according to his usual mode of homely expression1 began to this purpose3 8,some of you will say1 ,what news1 minister8 ,what news about ,clavers1 who has done so much mischief in this country8 ,that man sets up to be a young ,montrose1 but as the ,,lord liveth1 he shall be cut short this day4 ,be not afraid10 added he1 8,i see them scattered and flying3 and as the ,,lord liveth1 and sends this message by me1 ,claverhouse shall no longer be a terror to ,,god',s people4 ,this day ,i see him killed--lying a corpse40 ,and on that day1 and at that hour1 ,claverhouse fell#ga 7,july #bgth1 #afhi47 ,in their anxiety to obtain a glimpse of the dread writing in the ,book of ,fate1 men have resorted to divers strange expedients1 applying to warlocks and witches1 or seeking to wring a response to their questionings from the creatures of the ,invisible ,world4 ,the ceremony known as ,taghairm1 or 8,echo10 seems to have been peculiar to ,scotland4 ,the inquirer was wrapped in a cow's hide1 his head being left free1 and was carried by assistants to a solitary spot1 or left under the liquid arch formed by the 8sheeted column's silvery perpendicular0 in waterfall or cataract3 there he remained during the watches of the night1 with phantoms fluttering round about him1 from whence he was supposed to derive the burden of the oracular response he delivered to his comrades on the following day4 ,it is probable that this ceremony is the relic of some ancient form of ritual4 ,at all events1 the skins of animals played an important part in the old worship4 ,when the ,thebans slew a cow on the festival of ,jupiter ,ammon1 his image was clothed with the skin3 all present in the temple then struck the carcase1 which was buried in a consecrated place4 ,pausanias records that a temple in honour of the soothsayer ,amphiaraus1 the reputed son of ,apollo1 stood in the territory of ,oropus in ,attica4 ,votaries who resorted thither for the purpose of divination1 underwent certain lustrations1 or purifying rites1 sacrificed a ram1 and1 in expectation of seeing visions1 slept upon its skin4 ,virgil1 in one of the most elaborate scenes of the neid1 represents to us a similar oblation as being offered at a consecrated fountain1 where the priest1 to prepare himself for the delivery of responses1 slept on the skin3-- 8,et csarum ovium sub nocte silenti ,pellibus incubuit stratis1 somnosque petivit2 ,multa modis simulacra videt volitantia miris ,et varias audit voces40#gb ,it seems to have been an important part of the heathen ritual to make use of the skin of the sacrificed animal for the purposes of clothing4 ,lucian1 describing the ceremonies practised in the temple of ,hierapolis1 says that1 on his arrival1 the head and eyebrows of the novice were shaved2 a sheep was then sacrificed2 he knelt on the skin1 and covering his own head with the head and feet of the animal1 prayed that his offering might be accepted while promising a worthier one4 ,the ,spanish invaders of the ,new ,world discovered that the religion of its most civilised race1 the ,aztecs1 was founded upon human sacrifices4 ,the number of victims offered up to the ,aztec gods is stated in figures which seem almost incredible4 ,peculiar to the ,aztec kingdom was the horrid ceremony entitled 8the flaying of men40 ,the ,aztecs having demanded the daughter of some neighbouring potentate as their queen1 she was flayed on the very night of her arrival by command of their deity1 and a young man clothed in her skin4 ,in this originated the custom that a captive slave1 distinguished by the name1 the honours1 and the ornaments of the divinity1 should be sacrificed after a certain time2 and another1 clothed with his skin1 then exacted contributions for the service of the gods1 which no one1 says ,acosta1 dared to refuse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have no space to dwell on the various forms of divination that were wont to prevail4 ,almost everything in nature1 from the stars of heaven to the clods of earth1 was made to give indications of coming events4 ,the historian of the darker ,superstitions of ,scotland brings together a few striking illustrations4 ,if a certain worm in a medicinal spring on the top of a hill in ,strathdon1 were found alive1 it was a sign that the patient would live2 and in a well of ,ardwacloich1 in ,appin1 if the patient were to die1 a dead worm was found in it1 and a live one1 if he were to recover4 ,in the district of ,lorn1 the figures assumed by an egg dropped into water were supposed to indicate the appearance of a future spouse4 8,also1 one of four vessels being filled with pure1 and another with muddy water1 the third with milk1 and the fourth with meal and water2 if the diviner blindfold dips his hand in the first1 it augurs that his spouse shall be led to the nuptial couch in all her pristine purity2 but otherwise if dipping in the second3 if finding his way to the milk1 a widow shall fall to his lot2 and an old woman awaits him from the meal and water4 ,three vessels are used in the south of ,scotland2 one of them empty2 and should fate direct the diviner hither1 it augurs perpetual celibacy40 99 99 99 99 99 ,a belief in ,fairies was widespread1 and has survived1 in remote districts1 down even to our own time3 8,oft fairy elves ,whose midnight revels by a forest side ,or fountain1 some belated peasant sees1 ,or dreams he sees1 while overhead the moon ,sits arbitress1 and nearer to the earth ,wheels her pale course1 they on their mirth and dance ,intent1 with jocund music charm his ear3 ,at once with joy and fear his heart rebounds40#gc ,it is not easy to reconcile the conflicting details of the disposition1 manners1 habits1 and influence of these liliputian spirits which we meet with in the early writers4 ,but on a general survey it appears that they were very diminutive2 in their intercourse with mortals sometimes good-tempered1 sometimes malignant2 that they loved and married1 and had offspring2 that they were very merry1 and loved to dance upon the green1 and fill the air with choral music2 that they possessed stores of gold and silver1 which they distributed freely2 that they were invisible1 but could at will present themselves to mortals2 that they were very timid1 and would inflict a summary punishment upon intruders4 ,their influence was at its highest on ,friday1 at noon1 and at midnight4 ,kirk1 the ,scotch minister of ,aberfoyle1 who died in #afhh1 relates some other particulars of the 8good people40 ,their substance1 he says1 is denser than air2 too subtle to be pierced1 and1 like that of ,milton's angels1 reuniting when divided1 or when any attempt is made to cleave it asunder4 ,their voice is like unto whistling4 ,they change their places of abode every quarter of the year1 floating near the surface of the earth2 and persons gifted with the second sight have often had fierce encounters with them4 ,the ,highlanders1 to preserve themselves and their cattle against them1 went regularly to church on the first ,sunday of every quarter1 though they might not return during the interval4 ,at the name of ,,god or ,,jesus they vanished into thin air4 ,they were of both sexes1 and like mankind1 they were mortal4 8,some meagre allusions appear to the ,queen of the ,fairies1 and especially by ,king ,james1 whose immediate knowledge may have been derived from the vignettes in ,olaus ,magnus1 and the words of his own unhappy subjects1 who perished on account of their credulity4 ,alexoun ,perisoma was convicted1 on her confession1 of repairing to the #8queen of ,elfame1' with whom she was familiar4 ,jean ,wire 7#afgj7 declared that1 while she taught a school at ,dalkeith1 a woman desired to be employed #8to speik to the ,queen of ,fairie1 and strike ane battell in hir behalf with the said ,queen4'0 ,the name of ,titania is familiar enough to all lovers of ,english literature4 ,there was a necromancer or wizard1 in the reign of ,charles ,i41 who affirmed he had an incantation--8,o ,micol1 ,micol1 regina ,pigmiorum1 veni10--that ,titania could not resist4 ,lilly tells us that when it was tested at ,hurst wood1 first a gentle murmurous sound was heard2 then rose a violent whirlwind1 which swelled into a hurricane2 and lastly the ,fairy ,queen appeared in all her radiance4 ,fairies generally dwelt in subterraneous abodes2 in the interiors of grassy hillocks1 whence issued dulcet sounds and flashes of weird light2 sometimes the side of a hill opened1 and exposed them to the gaze of the belated wayfarer4 ,no doubt they were seen everywhere by the potent gaze of imagination2 on the meads and in the groves1 or curled up among the bending flowers2 for 8,visions as poetic eyes avow1 ,hang from each leaf1 and cling to every bough40 ,they were reputed to be well skilled in the medical art1 and to favoured mortals they sometimes imparted their knowledge4 ,it is difficult to understand why they were credited with the abstraction of children1 and with the substitution of other beings in their place4 ,for this curious kind of theft was commonly attributed to them4 ,a 8wise woman0--a dealer in simples and herbal potions--having failed to cure a child1 declared that 8the bairn had been taken away1 and an elf substituted40 ,besides the fairies1 ,scotland could boast of its spirits of the waters1 just as ,germany had its ,loreleys and ,ondines4 ,we can gather1 however1 no definite information respecting the water-kelpie1 the water-horses1 or the water-bull1 or of another anomalous animal called shelly-coat4 ,describing ,lochlomond1 ,graham says3--8,it is reported by the countrymen living thereabouts1 that they sometimes see the hippopotam or water-horse1 where the river ,cudrie falls into it1 a mile west of the church of ,buchanan40 ,a river known as the ,ugly ,burn1 in the county of ,ross1 springing from ,loch ,glaish1 was regarded with awe by all the countryside1 as the retreat of the water-horse and other spiritual beings4 ,shetland is represented as having possessed a handsome water-horse which1 when mounted1 carried the rider into the sea4 ,mr4 ,dalyell1 writing in #ahce1 says1 that the water-bull is still believed to reside in ,loch ,awe and ,loch ,rannoch1 nor1 he adds1 are witnesses wanting to bear testimony to the fact4 ,it was reputed to be invulnerable against all except silver shot2 though no one had put it to the proof4 ,in the ,isle of ,man certain persons who saw the water-bull in a field were unable to distinguish him from one of the ordinary terrestrial species1 nor did the cows show any disposition to avoid him4 ,but his progeny always turned out to be a rude lump of flesh and skin1 without bones4 ,the spirit of the sea was believed to be malicious1 and capable of inflicting injury4 ,allusions are frequent to 8sea-trowis1 meermen1 meermaids1 and a number of little creatures coming from the sea0 in response to spell and charm4 ,nor must we forget the practice of pouring out libations to the aquatic divinities4 ,a century ago1 in ,crawford ,muir1 when a tenant was evicted and another took his place1 he cut the throat of a black lamb and threw it into a stream1 with a malediction both upon stream and lamb4 ,to this futile department of human error we can1 however1 devote no more space4 ,to treat it adequately we should need at least a couple of volumes as closely printed as the present4 ,,index4 ,aborigines1 the1 of ,north ,america1 #bed4 ,african ,superstitions1 #aga4 ,ahetas1 the1 #aec4 ,ancestors1 ,worship of1 #bbj4 ,anecdotes of ,khandikya and ,kesidhwaja1 #aad4 ,apples1 ,halloween1 #bic4 ,ark-festival1 an ,indian1 #ij4 ,ashi1 the ,rabbi1 #gb4 ,asia1 savage races of1 #aee4 ,babylonian ,talmud1 the1 #gb4 ,bouru1 #adf4 ,brahman ,religion1 the1 #ad1 #hd4 ,buddhism1 #af4 ,buddhists1 ,prayer-wheels of the1 #a4 ,buffalo-dance1 the1 #bei4 ,cannibalism1 #bej4 ,caste1 ,brahman1 #ad4 ,cat1 adventures of a1 #bah4 ,ceremonies1 ,hindu1 #f2 ,eskimo1 #bge4 ,chandu1 ,palace of1 #afc4 ,charms1 ,scottish1 #caj4 ,china1 in1 #aai4 ,chinese offerings to gods1 #aci4 ,chinese temples1 #acb4 ,chunda ,sen1 ,babu ,keshub1 #ig4 ,chung-,yung1 #abc4 ,confucianism1 #aai4 ,confucius1 ,life of1 #abj4 ,court of ,justice1 an ,eskimo1 #bgg4 ,cumming1 ,miss ,gordon1 ,experiences of1 #a2 quoted1 #c4 ,daksha1 sacrifice of1 #ajc4 ,debendunath ,tagore1 #ig4 ,devil-dancing1 #ia4 ,divination1 #cai4 ,dorians1 the1 #adg4 ,dyaks1 the1 #ade4 ,egg-trick1 the1 #afi4 ,equatorial ,savage1 the1 #agb4 ,eskimos1 the1 #bgd4 ,etu1 the1 #bba4 ,fairies1 belief in1 #cbc4 ,feast of ,lanterns1 the1 #abi4 ,fetich-man1 the1 #agd4 ,fiji-islanders1 the1 #bcj4 ,fire-superstitions1 #bij4 ,fish-charmers1 ,brahman1 #hg4 ,flagellants1 the1 #bgi4 ,gemara1 the1 #fi4 ,gods1 belief in1 #ab4 ,halloween1 #bhh4 ,health-superstitions1 #cac4 ,hilarion1 ,s41 #bhj4 ,hindu ,mythology1 the1 #ii4 ,hindus1 the1 #bjc4 ,hindu ,temples1 ,ceremonies of the1 #f4 ,hiouen-thsang1 ,career of1 #bf4 ,idol ,worship1 #bba4 ,indians1 ,north ,american1 #bed4 ,jerusalem ,talmud1 the1 #gb4 ,jewish ,superstitions1 #fh4 ,jugglery1 #afc4 ,khudas1 the1 #hi4 ,king1 or1 the ,five ,canonical ,works1 #abe4 ,lao-tsze1 the ,chinese ,philosopher1 #abi4 ,lun-,yu1 the1 #abd4 ,magianism1 #dc4 ,maize1 ,indian reverence for the1 #bgc4 ,malays1 among the1 #adb4 ,maories1 the1 #bda4 ,medicine-bag1 the ,indian1 #bfe4 ,medicine-man1 the ,indian1 #agd2 the ,eskimo1 #bgd4 ,meng-tze1 the1 #abd4 ,mishna1 the1 #fh4 ,mongols1 the1 #aeg4 ,mller1 ,max1 quoted1 #aj4 ,ngpanchanic ,festival1 the1 #baj4 ,new ,zealand1 #bda4 ,north ,american ,indians1 the1 #bed4 ,nursery tale1 a ,hindu1 #cjg4 ,old age1 ,african veneration of1 #agb4 ,orang-lauts1 the1 #aeb4 ,ormuzd and ,ahriman1 #aia4 ,ostiaks1 the1 #aeh4 ,paharis1 the ,customs of1 #hg4 ,papeiha's witness to ,christianity1 #bae4 ,papuan ,tribes1 the1 #adg4 ,parsees1 the1 #dc4 ,peace-pipe1 the ,indian1 #bgj4 ,polo1 ,marco1 #afa4 ,polynesian ,sacrifices1 #bbh4 ,polynesian ,superstitions1 #bad4 ,prayer-,wheels of the ,buddhists1 #a4 ,public ,games1 #aji4 ,puranas1 the1 #ii4 ,rammohun ,roy1 ,life of1 #ib4 ,red ,men1 the1 #beg4 ,religion1 ,brahman1 #ad1 #hd2 ,buddhism1 #af2 ,parsee1 #dc2 ,chinese1 #aai2 among the ,malays1 #adb2 the ,dyaks1 #ade2 in ,bouru1 #adf2 among the ,papuan tribes1 #adg2 the ,orang-lauts1 #aeb2 ,savage nations of ,asia1 #aee2 in ,tibet1 #afa2 ,zabianism1 #ahf2 in ,polynesia1 #bad2 among the ,fiji-islanders1 #bcj2 the ,maories1 #bda2 ,north ,american ,indians1 #bed4 ,rudra1 ,origin of1 #ajc4 ,samoans1 the1 #bai4 ,samojedes1 #aee4 ,san-tsing1 the ,chinese deity1 #aca4 ,scottish ,superstitions1 #bhh4 ,second ,sight1 #bij1 #cjj1 #cad4 ,serpent-worship1 #ahf4 ,shae-tung1 the1 #abi4 ,shamanism1 #ia4 ,shang-te1 the1 of the ,chinese1 #aca4 ,slamatan ,bromok1 the1 #adb4 ,snake-charmers1 #hg4 ,stylites1 ,s4 ,simeon1 #bha4 ,sun-worship1 #h1 #bjj4 ,superstitions1 ,african1 #aga4 ,supreme ,being1 belief in a1 #aa4 ,taboo1 or ,tapu1 #bda4 ,tadibe1 the1 #aef4 ,ta-heo1 the1 #abc4 ,talmud1 the1 #fh4 ,taossi1 the1 #acb4 ,taouism1 #abi4 ,tehu-,chor1 the1 #c4 ,thibetan ,prayer or ,litany1 the1 #d4 ,tibet1 in1 #afa4 ,topes1 the1 #bjc4 ,typhon and ,osiris1 #agc4 ,vishnu ,purana1 the1 #ajj4 ,weather-conjuring among the ,mongols1 #aei4 ,williams1 ,rev4 ,john1 #bad4 ,yadageri1 #afj4 ,zabianism1 #ahf4 ,zendavesta1 the1 #dc4 ,zoroaster1 #de4 ,zulu ,witch-finders1 #ahj4 ,j4 ,,masters ,,and ,,co41 ,,printers1 ,,albion ,,buildings1 ,,bartholomew ,,close4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,miss ,gordon ,cumming1 8,from the ,hebrides to the ,himalayas10 ii4 #bbf1 #bbg4 #b ,max ,mller1 ,buddhism and ,buddhist ,pilgrims1 pp4 #e1 #f4 #c ,rig-,veda1 i4 #afd1 #df4 #d ,rig-,veda1 x4 #aba1 by ,max ,mller4 #e ,the thought in this paragraph1 and several of the expressions1 are from ,max ,mller4 #f ,so in ,shelley's lyrical drama of 8,prometheus ,unbound30-- 8,mercury 7addressing ,prometheus47 ,once more answer me3 ,thou knowest not the period of ,jove's power8 ,prometheus4 ,i know but this1 that it must come4 ,mercury4 ,alas6 ,thou canst not count thy years to come of pain4 ,prometheus4 ,they last while ,jove must reign2 nor more nor less ,or ,i desire or fear40 #g ,max ,mller1 pp4 #ac1 #ad4 #h ,professor ,wilson propounded a theory to the effect that there never was any such man as ,buddha1 but the theory has found few supporters4 #i ,the name 8,sakya0 is made into 8,sakya-muni10--muni in ,sanskrit meaning 8solitary10 7,greek1 17 alluding to his solitary habits2 and to ,gautama is often prefixed 8,sramana10 or 8ascetic40 #aj ,max ,mller1 pp4 #ad1 #ae4 #aa ,max ,mller1 pp4 #ae1 #af1 #ag4 #ab ,the following sketch is founded on ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien's 8,voyages des ,plerins ,buddhistes10 and on ,max ,mller's review of that valuable work4 #ac ,max ,mller1 p4 #cf4 #ad ,voyages des ,plerins ,bouddhistes4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,histoire de la ,vie de ,hiouen-thsang1 et ses ,voyages dans l',inde1 depuis l'an #fbi jusqu'en #fde1 par ,hoe-li et ,yen-thsong2 traduite du ,chinois par ,stanislas ,julien4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,mmoires sur les ,contres ,occidentales1 traduits du ,sanscrit en ,chinois1 en l'an #fdh1 par ,hiouen-thsang1 et du ,chinois en ,franais1 par ,stanislas ,julien4 ,paris1 #ahec-aheg4 ,b4 ,duprat4 #ae ,hoe-li terminates the last book of his biography of the ,master with a long and pompous panegyric of ,hiouen-thsang4 ,this morceau1 which forms 7says ,stanislas ,julien17 twenty-five pages in the ,imperial edition and ten in the ,nan-king1 offers an analysis of the life and voyages of the ,master of the ,law2 but it contains no new fact or one of any interest in relation to the history and geography of ,india or the ,buddhist literature4 ,no ,english version has appeared of ,m4 ,julien's elaborate translation of the ,chinese ,history of ,hiouen-thsang4 #af ,more correctly1 ,avesta-,zend4 #ag ,sanscrit1 ,avasth4 ,this is ,haug's conjecture4 #ah ,the ,pazend language was identical with the ,parsi1 i4e41 the ancient ,persian4 #ai ,dogs are here associated with man on account of their high value in an early stage of civilisation4 ,zarathustra protected them by special ordinances and penalties4 #bj ,the bridge ,chinavat by which the souls of the good crossed into ,paradise2 a fancy afterwards adopted by ,muhmad4 #ba ,quarles4 #bb ,emanuel ,deutsch1 8,literary ,remains10 7edit4 #ahgd1 pp4 #cb1 #cc47 #bc ,e4 ,deutsch1 ,literary ,remains1 p4 #ee1 sqq4 #bd ,the ,tinnevelly ,shawars1 by ,r4 ,caldwell1 ,madras1 #ahdi4 #be ,calcutta ,review1 lii4 #aab1 #aac4 #bf ,we are reminded by this extravagance of great ,king ,arthur's sumptuous feast at ,carlisle1 as described by ,mr4 ,frere 78,whistlecraft073-- 8,they served up salmon1 venison1 and wild boars ,by hundreds1 and by dozens1 and by scores4 8,hogsheads of honey1 kilderkins of mustard1 ,muttons1 and fatted beeves1 and bacon swine2 ,herons and bitterns1 peacock1 swan and bustard1 ,teal1 mallard1 pigeons1 widgeons1 and in fine ,plum-puddings1 pancakes1 apple-pies and custard2 ,and therewithal they drank good ,gascon wine1 ,with mead1 and ale1 and cyder of our own2 ,for porter1 punch and negus were not known40 #bg ,that is1 the crooked4 ,one of the other ,puranas calls her ,trivakra 7or thrice-deformed47 #bh ,the ,yoga philosophy prescribes about eighty-four postures4 ,the one to which allusion is made in the text consisted of sitting with your legs crossed underneath you1 and laying hold of your feet1 on each side1 with your hands4 #bi ,that is1 the silent repetition of prayer4 #cj ,others say in #dgi ,b4,c41 at the age of seventy4 #ca ,a strong spirituous liquor1 distilled from wine4 #cb ,in ,rashiduddin's 8,history of ,cathay0 we read3 8,in the reign of ,din-,wang1 the twentieth ,king of the eleventh dynasty1 ,tai ,shang ,lao ,kun was born4 ,this person is stated to have been accounted a prophet by the people of ,khita2 his father's name was ,han2 like ,shak-muni 7,buddha7 he is said to have been conceived by light1 and it is related that his mother bore him in her womb no less a period than eighty years4 ,the people who embraced his doctrine were called ,shan-shan or ,shin-shin40 ,the title used by ,rashiduddin signifies 8the ,great ,supreme ,venerable ,ruler40 #cc ,robert ,fortune1 8,three ,years' ,wanderings in the ,northern ,provinces of ,china10 p4 #agj1 et sqq4 #cd 8,three ,years' ,wanderings10 p4 #ahe4 #ce ,fortune1 pp4 #aij1 #aia4 #cf ,m4 de la ,gironiere1 cit4 in 8,the ,eastern ,archipelago10 pp4 #ebb1 #ebf1 #ebg4 #cg ,col4 ,yule1 8,book of ,sir ,marco ,polo10 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #cjf1 #cjg4 #ch ,edward ,melton1 8,engelsch ,edelmans ,zeldzaame en ,gedenkwaardige ,zee en ,land ,reizen10 c41 #affj1 #afgg1 p4 #dfh4 #ci ,miss ,gordon ,cumming4 8,from the ,hebrides to the ,himalayas10 ii4 #fh1 #fi4 #dj ,this chapter is adapted from ,mr4 ,winwood ,reade's 8,savage ,africa10 7,edit4 #ahfc47 #da 8,a ,year's ,housekeeping in ,south ,africa10 p4 #agc4 #db ,lady ,barker1 8,a ,year's ,housekeeping in ,south ,africa10 p4 #agi4 #dc ,abridged from ,lady ,barker1 8,a ,year's ,housekeeping in ,south ,africa10 pp4 #aha-ahd4 #dd ,quoted from ,chwolson 78,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus10 #ahef17 by ,chambers4 #de ,deane1 p4 #di4 #df ,isaac ,mc,lellan4 #dg ,deane1 pp4 #cgj-cgc4 #dh ,deane1 pp4 #ddf1 #ddg4 #di 8,tree and ,serpent-worship10 by ,james ,fergusson1 7edit4 #ahfh47 #ej 8,asiatic ,researches10 ,vol4 ,,xx4 p4 #he4 #ea ,fergusson1 8,tree and ,serpent-worship10 p4 #ic4 #eb 8,we know10 says ,mr4 ,fergusson1 8that two of the principal ,vedic gods--,indra 7the firmament7 and ,agni 7fire7--were adopted into their pantheon by the early ,buddhists1 and it seems more reasonable to connect this appearance of fire with the pre-existing worship of ,agni than with any far-fetched allusion to solar worship40 ,but what was ,agni but a type of the sun8 #ec ,col4 ,meadows ,taylor1 ,appendix to ,fergusson's 8,tree and ,serpent-worship10 pp4 #bcf1 #bcg4 #ed ,john ,williams1 8,missionary ,enterprises10 p4 #dh4 #ee ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 8,missionary ,enterprises10 pp4 #adc-adf 7edit4 #ahda47 #ef 8,south ,sea ,bubbles10 by the ,earl and the ,doctor1 pp4 #aad-aag4 #eg ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 8,lake ,regions of ,equatorial ,africa40 #eh ,tennyson4 #ei ,cooper1 pp4 #ajb1 #ajd4 #fj ,cooper1 p4 #aje4 #fa ,dishes4 #fb ,empty4 #fc ,puffed4 #fd ,ash1 or cinder4 #fe ,saucy child4 #ff ,the unbounded good fortune of ,polycrates1 ,king of ,samos1 awakened the fear of his friend1 ,amasis1 ,king of ,egypt1 who wrote to warn him of the jealousy of the gods3-- 8,this counsel of thy friend disdain not-- ,invoke ,adversity6 ,and what of all thy worldly gear1 ,thy deepest heart esteems most dear1 ,cast into yonder sea60 #fg ,calcutta ,review1 ,,li4 iii4 #fh ,calcutta ,review1 ,,li41 #aah4 ,in the ,gaelic we find a similar story1 called 8,moorochug and ,meenachug40 #fi ,we have ,anglicised ,mr4 ,dalyell's version4 ,see his 8,darker ,superstitions of ,scotland10 p4 #bb4 7,edit4 #ahce47 #gj ,this is the subject of ,d4 ,g4 ,rossetti's fine poem1 8,the ,king's ,tragedy40 #ga ,at the beginning of the action he had taken his place in front of his little band of cavalry4 ,he bade them follow him1 and rode forward4 ,but it seemed to be decreed that1 on that day1 the lowland ,scotch should in both armies appear to disadvantage4 ,the horse hesitated4 ,dundee turned round1 stood up in his stirrups1 and1 waving his hat1 invited them to come on4 ,as he lifted his arm1 his cuirass rose1 and exposed the lower part of his left side4 ,a musket ball struck him3 his horse sprang forward1 and plunged into a cloud of smoke and dust1 which hid from both armies the fall of the victorious general4 ,a person named ,johnstone was near him1 and caught him as he sank down from the saddle4 8,how goes the day80 said ,dundee4 8,well for ,king ,james10 answered ,johnstone2 8but ,i am sorry for your lordship40 8,if it is well for him10 answered the dying man1 8it matters the less for me40 ,he never spoke again3 but when1 half an hour later1 ,lord ,dunfermline and some other friends came to the spot1 they thought that they could still discover some faint remains of life4 ,the body1 wrapped up in two plaids1 was carried to the ,castle of ,blair4--,macaulay1 chap4 xiii4 #gb neid4 lib4 vii4 l4 #hg4 #gc ,milton4