,transcriber's notes3 ,text pinted in italics in the original work has been transcribed as text1 bold text as text4 ,text printed in small capitals in the original work has been transcribed in ,,all-,,capitals4 ,superscript texts are transcribed as text4 ,more ,transcriber's notes have been added at the end of the text4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,and ,,electricity4 ,the #gj1jjj ,horse-,power ,station of the ,metropolitan ,street ,railway1 ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,invention ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,by ,,edward ,w4 ,,byrn1 ,a4,m4 8 1 40 7,give me where to stand1 and ,i'll move the earth47 --,archimedes4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers ,,scientific ,,american ,,office #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york #aijj ,,copyrighted1 #aijj1 ,,by ,,munn ,,co4 ,,entered ,,at ,,stationer',s ,,hall ,,london1 ,,england ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america by ,the ,manufacturers' and ,publishers' ,printing ,company1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,preface4 ,for a work of such scope as this1 the first word of the author should be an apology for what is doubtless the too ambitious effort of a single writer4 ,a quarter of a century in the high tide of the arts and sciences1 an ardent interest in all things that make for scientific progress1 and the aid and encouragement of many friends in and about the ,patent ,office1 furnish the explanation4 ,the work cannot claim the authority of a text-book1 the fullness of a history1 nor the exactness of a technical treatise4 ,it is simply a cursory view of the century in the field of invention1 intended to present the broader bird's-eye view of progress achieved4 ,in substantiation of the main facts reliance has been placed chiefly upon patents1 which for historic development are believed to be the best of all authorities1 because they carry the responsibility of the ,national ,government as to dates1 and the attested signature and oath of the inventor as to subject matter4 ,many difficulties and embarrassments have been encountered in the work4 ,the fear of extending it into a too bulky volume has excluded treatment of many subjects which the author recognizes as important1 and issues in dispute as to the claims of inventors have also presented themselves in perplexing conflict4 ,a discussion of the latter has been avoided as far as possible1 the paramount object being to do justice to all the worthy workers in this field1 with favor to none1 and only expressing such conclusions as seem to be justified by authenticated facts and the impartial verdict of reason in the clearing atmosphere of time4 ,for sins of omission a lack of space affords a reasonable excuse1 and for those of commission the great scope of the work is pleaded in extenuation4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that the volume may find an accepted place in the literature of the day1 as presenting in compact form some comprehensive and coherent idea of the great things in invention which the ,nineteenth ,century has added to the world's wealth of ideas and material resources4 ,in acknowledging the many obligations to friends who have aided me in the work1 my thanks are due first to the ,editors of the ,scientific ,american for aid rendered in the preparation of the work2 also to courteous officials in the ,government ,departments1 and to many progressive manufacturers throughout the country4 ,e4 ,w4 ,b4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october1 #aijj4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,perspective ,,view4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,chronology ,,of ,,leading ,,inventions ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph4 ,the ,voltaic ,pile4 ,daniell's ,battery4 ,use of ,conducting ,wire by ,weber4 ,steinheil ,employs ,earth as ,return ,circuit4 ,prof4 ,henry's ,electro- ,magnet1 and ,first ,telegraphic ,experiment4 ,prof4 ,morse's ,telegraphic ,code and ,register4 ,first ,line ,between ,washington and ,baltimore4 ,bain's ,chemical ,telegraph4 ,gintl's ,duplex ,telegraph4 ,edison's ,quadruplex4 ,house's ,printing ,telegraph4 ,fac ,simile ,telegraphs4 ,channing and ,farmer ,fire ,alarm4 ,telegraphing by ,induction4 ,wireless ,telegraphy by ,marconi4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable4 ,difficulties of ,laying4 ,congratulatory ,messages ,between ,queen ,victoria and ,president ,buchanan4 ,the ,siphon ,recorder4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,dynamo ,,and ,,its ,,applications4 ,observations of ,faraday and ,henry4 ,magneto-,electric ,machines of ,pixii1 and of ,saxton4 ,hjorth's ,dynamo of #ahee4 ,wilde's ,machine of #ahff4 ,siemens' of #ahfg4 ,gramme's of #ahgj4 ,tesla's ,polyphase ,currents4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,electric ,,motor4 ,barlow's ,spur ,wheel4 ,dal ,negro's ,electric ,pendulum4 ,prof4 ,henry's ,electric ,motor4 ,jacobi's ,electric ,boat4 ,davenport's ,motor4 ,the ,neff ,motor4 ,dr4 ,page's ,electric ,locomotive4 ,dr4 ,siemens' ,first ,electric ,railway at ,berlin1 #ahgi4 ,first ,electric ,railway in ,united ,states1 between ,baltimore and ,hampden1 #ahhe4 ,third ,rail ,system4 ,statistics4 ,electric ,railways1 and ,general ,electric ,company4 ,distribution ,electric ,current in ,principal ,cities4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,electric ,,light4 ,voltaic ,arc by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 ,the ,jablochkoff ,candle4 ,patents of ,brush1 ,weston1 and ,others4 ,search ,lights4 ,grove's ,first ,incandescent ,lamp4 ,starr-,king ,lamp4 ,moses ,farmer ,lights ,first ,dwelling with ,electric ,lamps4 ,sawyer-,man ,lamp4 ,edison's ,incandescent ,lamp4 ,edison's ,three-,wire ,system of ,circuits4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,telephone4 ,preliminary ,suggestions and ,experiments of ,bourseul1 ,reis1 and ,drawbaugh4 ,first ,speaking ,telephone by ,prof4 ,bell4 ,differences between ,reis' and ,bell's ,telephones4 ,the ,blake ,transmitter4 ,berliner's ,variation of ,resistance and ,electric ,undulations1 by ,variation of ,pressure4 ,edison's ,carbon ,microphone4 ,the ,telephone ,exchange4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,electricity1 ,,miscellaneous4 ,storage ,battery4 ,batteries of ,plant1 ,faure and ,brush4 ,electric ,welding4 ,direct ,generation of ,electricity by ,combustion4 ,electric ,boats4 ,electro-,plating4 ,edison's ,electric ,pen4 ,electricity in ,medicine4 ,electric ,cautery4 ,electric ,musical ,instruments4 ,electric ,blasting4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,steam ,,engine4 ,hero's ,engine1 and ,other ,early ,steam ,engines4 ,watt's ,steam ,engine4 ,the ,cut-,off4 ,giffard ,injector4 ,bourdon's ,steam ,gauge4 ,feed ,water ,heaters1 ,smoke ,consumers1 etc4 ,rotary ,engines4 ,steam ,hammer4 ,steam ,fire ,engine4 ,compound ,engines4 ,schlick and ,taylor ,systems of ,balancing ,momentum of ,moving ,parts4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,steam ,,railway4 ,trevithick's ,steam ,carriage4 ,blenkinsop's ,locomotive4 ,hedley's 8,puffing ,billy40 ,stephenson's ,locomotive4 ,the ,link ,motion4 ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #ahbe4 ,hackworth's 8,royal ,george40 ,the 8,stourbridge ,lion0 and 8,john ,bull40 ,baldwin's ,locomotives4 ,westinghouse ,air ,brakes4 ,janney ,car ,coupling4 ,the ,woodruff ,sleeping ,car4 ,railway ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,early ,experiments4 ,symington's ,boat4 ,col4 ,john ,stevens' ,screw ,propeller4 ,robt4 ,fulton and the 8,clermont40 ,first ,trip to ,sea by ,stevens' 8,phnix40 8,savannah10 the ,first ,steam ,vessel to ,cross the ,ocean4 ,ericsson's ,screw ,propeller4 ,the 8,great ,eastern40 ,the ,whale ,back ,steamers4 ,ocean ,greyhounds4 ,the 8,oceanic10 largest ,steamship in the ,world4 ,the 8,turbinia40 ,fulton's 8,demologos10 ,first ,war ,vessel4 ,the ,turret ,monitor4 ,modern ,battleships and ,torpedo ,boats4 ,holland ,submarine ,boat4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,printing4 ,early ,printing ,press4 ,nicholson's ,rotary ,press4 ,the ,columbian and ,washington ,presses4 ,knig's ,rotary ,steam ,press4 ,the ,hoe ,type ,revolving ,machine4 ,color ,printing4 ,stereotyping4 ,paper ,making4 ,wood ,pulp4 ,the ,linotype4 ,plate ,printing4 ,lithography4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,typewriter4 ,old ,english ,typewriter of #agad4 ,the ,burt ,typewriter of #ahbi4 ,progin's ,french ,machine of #ahcc4 ,thurber's ,printing ,machine of #ahdc4 ,the ,beach ,typewriter4 ,the ,sholes ,typewriter1 the ,first of the ,modern ,form1 ,commercially ,developed into the ,remington4 ,the ,caligraph1 ,smith- ,premier1 and ,others4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,sewing ,,machine4 ,embroidery ,machine the ,forerunner of the ,sewing ,machine4 ,sewing ,machine of ,thomas ,saint4 ,the ,thimonnier ,wooden ,machine4 ,greenough's ,double-,pointed ,needle4 ,bean's ,stationary ,needle4 ,the ,howe ,sewing ,machine4 ,bachelder's ,continuous ,feed4 ,improvements of ,singer4 ,wilson's ,rotary ,hook1 and ,four-,motion ,feed4 ,the ,mc,kay ,shoe ,sewing ,machine4 ,button ,hole ,machines4 ,carpet ,sewing ,machine4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,reaper4 ,early ,english ,machines4 ,machine of ,patrick ,bell4 ,the ,hussey ,reaper4 ,mc,cormick's ,reaper and ,its ,great ,success4 ,rivalry ,between the ,two ,american ,reapers4 ,self ,rakers4 ,automatic ,binders4 ,combined ,steam ,reaper and ,threshing ,machine4 ,great ,wheat ,fields of the ,west4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,vulcanized ,,rubber4 ,early ,use of ,caoutchouc by the ,indians4 ,collection of the ,gum4 ,early ,experiments ,failures4 ,goodyear's ,persistent ,experiments4 ,nathaniel ,hayward's ,application of ,sulphur to the ,gum4 ,goodyear's ,process of ,vulcanization4 ,introduction of his ,process into ,europe4 ,trials and ,imprisonment for ,debt4 ,rubber ,shoe ,industry4 ,great ,extent and ,variety of ,applications4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,chemistry4 ,its ,evolution as a ,science4 ,the ,coal ,tar ,products4 ,fermenting and ,brewing4 ,glucose1 ,gun ,cotton1 and ,nitro-,glycerine4 ,electro-,chemistry4 ,fertilizers and ,commercial ,products4 ,new ,elements of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,food ,,and ,,drink4 ,the ,nature of ,food4 ,the ,roller ,mill4 ,the ,middlings ,purifier4 ,culinary ,utensils4 ,bread ,machinery4 ,dairy ,appliances4 ,centrifugal ,milk ,skimmer4 ,the ,canning ,industry4 ,sterilization4 ,butchering and ,dressing ,meats4 ,oleomargarine4 ,manufacture of ,sugar4 ,the ,vacuum ,pan4 ,centrifugal ,filter4 ,modern ,dietetics and ,patented ,foods4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,medicine1 ,,surgery ,,and ,,sanitation4 ,discovery of ,circulation of the ,blood by ,harvey4 ,vaccination by ,jenner4 ,use of ,ansthetics the ,great ,step of ,medical ,progress of the ,century4 ,materia ,medica4 ,instruments4 ,schools of ,medicine4 ,dentistry4 ,artificial ,limbs4 ,digestion4 ,bacteriology1 and ,disease ,germs4 ,antiseptic ,surgery4 ,house ,sanitation4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,bicycle ,,and ,,automobile4 ,the ,draisine1 #ahaf4 ,michaux's ,bicycle1 #ahee4 ,united ,states ,patent to ,lallement and ,carrol1 #ahff4 ,transition from 8,vertical ,fork0 and 8,star0 to ,modern 8,safety40 ,pneumatic ,tire4 ,automobile the ,prototype of the ,locomotive4 ,trevithick's ,steam ,road ,carriage1 #ahja4 ,the ,locomobile of ,to-day4 ,gas ,engine ,automobiles of ,pinkus1 #ahci2 ,selden1 #ahgi2 ,duryea1 ,winton1 and ,others4 ,electric ,automobiles a ,development of ,electric ,locomotives as ,early as #ahcf4 ,grounelle's ,electric ,automobile of #aheb4 ,the ,columbia1 ,woods1 and ,riker ,electric ,carriages4 ,statistics4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,phonograph4 ,invention of ,phonograph by ,edison4 ,scott's ,phonautograph4 ,improvements of ,bell and ,tainter4 ,the ,graphophone4 ,library of ,wax ,cylinders4 ,berliner's ,gramophone4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,optics4 ,early ,telescopes4 ,the ,lick ,telescope4 ,the ,grande ,lunette4 ,the ,stereo- ,binocular ,field ,glass4 ,the ,microscope4 ,the ,spectroscope4 ,polarization of ,light4 ,kaleidoscope4 ,stereoscope4 ,range ,finder4 ,kinetoscope1 and ,moving ,pictures4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,photography4 ,experiments of ,wedgewood and ,davy4 ,nipce's ,heliography4 ,daguerre and the ,daguerreotype4 ,fox ,talbot ,makes ,first ,proofs from ,negatives4 ,sir ,john ,herschel ,introduces ,glass ,plates4 ,the ,collodion ,process4 ,silver and ,carbon ,prints4 ,ambrotypes4 ,emulsions4 ,dry ,plates4 ,the ,kodak ,camera4 ,the ,platinotype4 ,photography in ,colors4 ,panorama ,cameras4 ,photo-engraving and ,photo-lithography4 ,half ,tone ,printing4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,roentgen ,,or ,x-,,rays4 ,geissler ,tubes4 ,vacuum ,tubes of ,crookes1 ,hittorf1 and ,lenard4 ,the ,cathode ,ray4 ,roentgen's ,great ,discovery in #ahie4 ,x-,ray ,apparatus4 ,salvioni's ,cryptoscope4 ,edison's ,fluoroscope4 ,the ,fluorometer4 ,sun- burn from ,x-,rays4 ,uses of ,x-,rays4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,gas ,,lighting4 ,early ,use of ,natural ,gas4 ,coal ,gas ,introduced by ,murdoch4 ,winsor ,organizes ,first ,gas ,company in #ahjd4 ,melville in ,united ,states ,lights ,beaver-,tail ,lighthouse with ,gas in #ahag4 ,lowe's ,process of ,making ,water ,gas4 ,acetylene ,gas4 ,carburetted ,air4 ,pintsch ,gas4 ,gas ,meter4 ,otto ,gas ,engine4 ,the ,welsbach ,burner4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,civil ,,engineering4 ,great ,bridges1 ,pneumatic ,caissons1 ,tunnels4 ,the ,beach ,tunnel ,shield4 ,suez ,canal4 ,dredges4 ,the ,lidgerwood ,cable ,ways4 ,canal ,locks4 ,artesian ,wells4 ,compressed-,air ,rock ,drills4 ,blasting4 ,mississippi ,jetties4 ,iron and ,steel ,buildings4 ,eiffel ,tower4 ,washington's ,monument4 ,the ,united ,states ,capitol4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,woodworking4 ,early ,machines of ,sir ,samuel ,bentham4 ,evolution of the ,saw4 ,circular ,saw4 ,hammering to ,tension4 ,steam ,feed for ,saw ,mill ,carriage4 ,quarter ,sawing4 ,the ,band ,saw4 ,planing ,machines4 ,the ,woodworth ,planer4 ,the ,woodbury ,yielding ,pressure ,bar4 ,the ,universal ,woodworker4 ,the ,blanchard ,lathe4 ,mortising ,machines4 ,special ,woodworking ,machines4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,metal ,,working4 ,early ,iron ,furnace4 ,operations of ,lord ,dudley1 ,abraham ,darby1 and ,henry ,cort4 ,neilson's ,hot ,blast4 ,great ,blast ,furnaces of ,modern ,times4 ,the ,puddling ,furnace4 ,bessemer ,steel and the ,converter4 ,open ,hearth ,steel4 ,regenerative ,furnace4 ,siemens-,martin ,process4 ,forging ,armor ,plate4 ,making ,horse ,shoes4 ,screws and ,special ,machines4 ,electric ,welding1 ,annealing and ,tempering4 ,coating with ,metal4 ,metal ,founding4 ,barbed ,wire ,machines4 ,making ,nails1 ,pins1 etc4 ,making ,shot4 ,alloys4 ,making ,aluminum1 and ,metallurgy of ,rarer ,metals4 ,the ,cyanide ,process4 ,electric ,concentrator4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,fire ,,arms ,,and ,,explosives4 ,the ,cannon1 the ,most ,ancient of ,fire ,arms4 ,muzzle and ,breech ,loaders of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the ,armstrong ,gun4 ,the ,rodman1 ,dahlgren1 and ,parrott ,guns4 ,breech-,loading ,ordnance4 ,rapid ,fire ,breech-,loading ,rifles4 ,disappearing ,gun4 ,gatling ,gun4 ,dynamite ,gun4 ,the ,colt1 and ,smith ,wesson ,revolvers4 ,german ,automatic ,pistol4 ,breech-,loading ,small ,arms4 ,magazine ,guns4 ,the ,lee1 ,krag-,jorgensen1 and ,mauser ,rifles4 ,hammerless ,guns4 ,rebounding ,locks4 ,gun ,cotton4 ,nitro ,glycerine1 and ,smokeless ,powder4 ,mines and ,torpedoes4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,textiles4 ,spinning and ,weaving an ,ancient ,art4 ,hargreaves' ,spinning ,jenny4 ,arkwright's ,roll-,drawing ,spinning ,machine4 ,crompton's ,mule ,spinner4 ,the ,cotton ,gin4 ,ring ,spinning4 ,the ,rabbeth ,spindle4 ,john ,kay's ,flying ,shuttle and ,robt4 ,kay's ,drop ,box4 ,cartwright's ,power ,loom4 ,the ,jacquard ,loom4 ,crompton's ,fancy ,loom4 ,bigelow's ,carpet ,looms4 ,lyall ,positive ,motion ,loom4 ,knitting ,machines4 ,cloth ,pressing ,machinery4 ,artificial ,silk4 ,mercerized ,cloth4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,ice ,,machines4 ,general ,principles4 ,freezing ,mixtures4 ,perkins' ,ice ,machine1 #ahcd4 ,pictet's ,apparatus4 ,carr's ,ammonia ,absorption ,process4 ,direct ,compression1 and ,can ,system4 ,the ,holden ,ice ,machine4 ,skating ,rinks4 ,windhausen's ,apparatus for ,cooling and ,ventilating ,ships4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,liquid ,,air4 ,liquefaction of ,gases by ,northmore--#ahje1 ,faraday--#ahbc1 ,bussy--#ahbd1 ,thilorier--#ahcd1 and others4 ,liquefaction of ,oxygen1 ,nitrogen and ,air1 by ,pictet and ,cailletet in #ahgg4 ,self-,intensification of ,cold by ,siemens in #aheg1 and ,windhausen in #ahgj4 ,operations of ,dewar1 ,wroblewski1 and ,olszewski4 ,self-,intensifying ,processes of ,solvay1 ,tripler1 ,lind1 ,hampson1 and ,ostergren and ,berger4 ,liquid ,air ,experiments and ,uses4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,minor ,,inventions1 ,,and ,patents of ,principal ,countries of the ,world4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,epilogue4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,perspective ,,view4 ,standing on the threshold of the ,twentieth ,century1 and looking back a hundred years1 the ,nineteenth ,century presents in the field of invention a magnificent museum of thoughts crystallized and made immortal1 not as passive gems of nature1 but as potent1 active1 useful agencies of man4 ,the philosophical mind is ever accustomed to regard all stages of growth as proceeding by slow and uniform processes of evolution1 but in the field of invention the ,nineteenth ,century has been unique4 ,it has been something more than a merely normal growth or natural development4 ,it has been a gigantic tidal wave of human ingenuity and resource1 so stupendous in its magnitude1 so complex in its diversity1 so profound in its thought1 so fruitful in its wealth1 so beneficent in its results1 that the mind is strained and embarrassed in its effort to expand to a full appreciation of it4 ,indeed1 the period seems a grand climax of discovery1 rather than an increment of growth4 ,it has been a splendid1 brilliant campaign of brains and energy1 rising to the highest achievement amid the most fertile resources1 and conducted by the strongest and best equipment of modern thought and modern strength4 ,the great works of the ancients are in the main mere monuments of the patient manual labor of myriads of workers1 and can only rank with the buildings of the diatom and coral insect4 ,not so with modern achievement4 ,the last century has been peculiarly an age of ideas and conservation of energy1 materialized in practical embodiment as labor-saving inventions1 often the product of a single mind1 and partaking of the sacred quality of creation4 ,the old word of creation is1 that ,god breathed into the clay the breath of life4 ,in the new world of invention mind has breathed into matter1 and a new and expanding creation unfolds itself4 ,the speculative philosophy of the past is but a too empty consolation for short-lived1 busy man1 and1 seeing with the eye of science the possibilities of matter1 he has touched it with the divine breath of thought and made a new world4 ,when the ,nineteenth ,century registered its advent in history1 the world of invention was a babe still in its swaddling clothes1 but1 with a consciousness of coming power1 was beginning to stretch its strong young arms into the tremendous energy of its life4 ,james ,watt had invented the steam engine4 ,eli ,whitney had given us the cotton gin4 ,john ,gutenberg had made his printing type4 ,franklin had set up his press4 ,the telescope had suggested the possibilities of ethereal space1 the compass was already the mariner's best friend1 and gunpowder had given proof of its deadly agency1 but inventive genius was still groping by the light of a tallow candle4 ,even up to the beginning of this century so strong a hold had superstition on the human mind1 that inventions were almost synonymous with the black arts1 and the struggling genius had not only to contend with the natural laws and the thousand and one expected difficulties that hedge the path of the inventor1 but had also to overcome the far greater obstacles of ignorant fear and bigoted prejudice4 ,a labor-saving machine was looked upon askance as the enemy of the working man1 and many an earnest inventor1 after years of arduous thought and painstaking labor1 saw his cherished model broken up and his hopes forever blasted by the animosity of his fellow men4 ,but with the ,nineteenth ,century a new era has dawned4 ,the legitimate results of inventions have been realized in larger incomes1 shorter hours of labor1 and lives so much richer in health1 comfort1 happiness1 and usefulness1 that to-day the inventor is a benefactor whom the world delights to honor4 ,so crowded is the busy life of modern civilization with the evidences of his work1 that it is impossible to open one's eyes without seeing it on every hand1 woven into the very fabric of daily existence4 ,it is easy to lose sight of the wonderful when once familiar with it1 and we usually fail to give the full measure of positive appreciation to the great things of this great age4 ,they burst upon our vision at first like flashing meteors2 we marvel at them for a little while1 and then we accept them as facts1 which soon become so commonplace and so fused into the common life as to be only noticed by their omission4 ,to appreciate them let us briefly contrast the conditions of to-day with those of a hundred years ago4 ,this is no easy task1 for the comparison not only involves the experiences of two generations1 but it is like the juxtaposition of a star with the noonday sun1 whose superior brilliancy obliterates the lesser light4 ,but reverse the wheels of progress1 and let us make a quick run of one hundred years into the past1 and what are our experiences8 ,before we get to our destination we find the wheels themselves beginning to thump and jolt1 and the passage becomes more difficult1 more uncomfortable1 and so much slower4 ,we are no longer gliding along in a luxurious palace car behind a magnificent locomotive1 traveling on steel rails1 at sixty miles an hour1 but we find ourselves nearing the beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century in a rickety1 rumbling1 dusty stage-coach4 ,pause6 and consider the change for a moment in some of its broader aspects4 ,first1 let us examine the present more closely1 for the average busy man1 never looking behind him for comparisons1 does not fully appreciate or estimate at its real value the age in which he lives4 ,there are to-day 7statistics of #ahih71 #dde1jfd miles of railway tracks in the world4 ,this would build seventeen different railway tracks1 of two rails each1 around the entire world1 or would girdle mother earth with thirty-four belts of steel4 ,if extended in straight lines1 it would build a track of two rails to the moon1 and more than a hundred thousand miles beyond it4 ,the ,united ,states has nearly half of the entire mileage of the world1 and gets along with #cf1gdf locomotives1 nearly as many passenger coaches1 and more than a million and a quarter of freight cars1 which latter1 if coupled together1 would make nearly three continuous trains reaching across the ,american continent from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the movement of passenger trains is equivalent to dispatching thirty-seven trains per day around the world1 and the freight train movement is in like manner equal to dispatching fifty-three trains a day around the world4 ,add to this the railway business controlled by other countries1 and one gets some idea of how far the stage-coach has been left behind4 ,to-day we eat supper in one city1 and breakfast in another so many hundreds of miles east or west as to be compelled to set our watches to the new meridian of longitude in order to keep our engagement4 ,but railroads and steam-cars constitute only one of the stirring elements of modern civilization4 ,as we make the backward run of one hundred years we have passed by many milestones of progress4 ,let us see if we can count some of them as they disappear behind us4 ,we quickly lose the telephone1 phonograph and graphophone4 ,we no longer see the cable-cars or electric railways4 ,the electric lights have gone out4 ,the telegraph disappears4 ,the sewing machine1 reaper1 and thresher have passed away1 and so also have all india-rubber goods4 ,we no longer see any photographs1 photo-engravings1 photolithographs1 or snap-shot cameras4 ,the wonderful octuple web perfecting printing press2 printing1 pasting1 cutting1 folding1 and counting newspapers at the rate of #if1jjj per hour1 or #a1fjj per minute1 shrinks at the beginning of the century into an insignificant prototype4 ,we lose all planing and wood-working machinery1 and with it the endless variety of sashes1 doors1 blinds1 and furniture in unlimited variety4 ,there are no gas-engines1 no passenger elevators1 no asphalt pavement1 no steam fire engine1 no triple-expansion steam engine1 no ,giffard injector1 no celluloid articles1 no barbed wire fences1 no time-locks for safes1 no self-binding harvesters1 no oil nor gas wells1 no ice machines nor cold storage4 ,we lose air engines1 stem-winding watches1 cash-registers and cash-carriers1 the great suspension bridges1 and tunnels1 the ,suez ,canal1 iron frame buildings1 monitors and heavy ironclads1 revolvers1 torpedoes1 magazine guns and ,gatling guns1 linotype machines1 all practical typewriters1 all pasteurizing1 knowledge of microbes or disease germs1 and sanitary plumbing1 water-gas1 soda water fountains1 air brakes1 coal-tar dyes and medicines1 nitro-glycerine1 dynamite and guncotton1 dynamo electric machines1 aluminum ware1 electric locomotives1 ,bessemer steel with its wonderful developments1 ocean cables1 enameled iron ware1 ,welsbach gas burners1 electric storage batteries1 the cigarette machine1 hydraulic dredges1 the roller mills1 middlings purifiers and patent-process flour1 tin can machines1 car couplings1 compressed air drills1 sleeping cars1 the dynamite gun1 the ,mc,kay shoe machine1 the circular knitting machine1 the ,jacquard loom1 wood pulp for paper1 fire alarms1 the use of ansthetics in surgery1 oleomargarine1 street sweepers1 ,artesian wells1 friction matches1 steam hammers1 electro-plating1 nail machines1 false teeth1 artificial limbs and eyes1 the spectroscope1 the ,kinetoscope or moving pictures1 acetylene gas1 ,x-ray apparatus1 horseless carriages1 and--but1 enough6 the reader exclaims1 and indeed it is not pleasant to contemplate the loss4 ,the negative conditions of that period extend into such an appalling void that we stop short1 shrinking from the thought of what it would mean to modern civilization to eliminate from its life these potent factors of its existence4 ,returning to the richness and fullness of the present life1 we shall first note chronologically the milestones and finger boards which mark this great tramway of progress1 and afterward consider separately the more important factors of progress4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,chronology ,,of ,,leading ,,inventions ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 #ahjj--,volta's ,chemical ,battery for producing ,electricity4 ,louis ,robert's ,machine for ,making ,continuous ,webs of ,paper4 #ahja--,trevithick's ,steam ,coach 7first automobile74 ,brunel's ,mortising ,machine4 ,jacquard's ,pattern ,loom4 ,first ,fire ,proof ,safe by ,richard ,scott4 ,columbium discovered by ,hatchett4 #ahjb--,trevithick and ,vivian's ,british patent for ,running ,coaches by ,steam4 ,charlotte ,dundas 7,steamboat7 towed canal ,boats on the ,clyde4 ,tantalum discovered by ,ekeberg4 ,first ,photographic ,experiments by ,wedgewood and ,davy4 ,bramah's ,planing ,machine4 #ahjc--;,carpue's ,experiments on ,therapeutic ,application of ,electricity4 ,iridium and ,osmium discovered by ,tenant1 and ,cerium by ,berzelius4 ,wm4 ,horrocks applies ,steam to the ,loom4 #ahjd--,rhodium and ,palladium discovered by ,wollaston4 ,first ,steam ,railway and ,locomotive by ,richard ,trevithick4 ,capt4 ,john ,stevens applies twin ,screw ,propellers in ,steam ,navigation4 ,winsor takes ,british patent for ,illuminating ,gas1 lights ,lyceum ,theatre1 and organizes ,first ,gas ,company4 ,lucas' process making ,malleable ,iron ,castings4 #ahje--,life ,preserver invented by ,john ,edwards of ,london4 ,electro-plating invented by ,brugnatelli4 #ahjf--;,jeandeau's ,knitting ,machine4 #ahjg--;,first practical ,steamboat between ,new ,york and ,albany 7,fulton's ,clermont74 ,discovery of ,potassium1 ,sodium and ,boron by ,davy4 ,forsyth's ,percussion ,lock for ,guns4 #ahjh--;,barium1 ,strontium1 and ,calcium discovered by ,davy4 ,polarization of ,light from ,reflection by ,malus4 ,voltaic arc discovered by ,davy4 #ahji--,sommering's ,multi-wire ,telegraphy4 #ahaj--,system of ,homopathy organized by ,hahnemann4 #ahaa--;,discovery of ,metal ,iodine by ,m4 ,courtois4 ,blenkinsop's ,locomotive4 ,colored ,polarization of ,light by ,arago4 ,thornton and ,hall's ,breech ,loading ,musket4 #ahab--,london the ,first ,city lighted by ,gas4 ,ritter's ,storage ,battery4 ,schilling proposes use of ,electricity to blow up mines4 ,zamboni's ,dry ,pile 7prototype of dry battery74 #ahac--;,howard's ,british patent for ,vacuum ,pan for refining sugar4 ,hedley's ,locomotive 8,puffing ,billy40 ,introduction of ,stereotyping in the ,united ,states by ,david ,bruce4 #ahad--,london ,times printed by ,knig's rotary steam press4 ,stephenson's ,first ,locomotive4 ,demologos built by ,fulton 7the first steam war vessel74 ,heliography by ,nipce4 ,discovery of ,cyanogen by ,gay ,lussac4 ,the ,kaleidoscope invented by ,sir ,david ,brewster4 #ahae--,safety ,lamp by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 ,seidlitz ,powders invented4 ,gas ,meter by ,clegg4 #ahaf--,the 8,draisine0 ,bicycle4 ,circular ,knitting ,machine by ,brunel4 #ahag--;,discovery of ,selenium by ,berzelius1 ,cadmium by ,stromeyer1 and ,lithium by ,arfvedson4 ,hunt's ,pin ,machine4 #ahah--;,brunel's patent ,subterranean and ,submarine tunnels4 ,electro-,magnetism discovered by ,oersted of ,copenhagen4 #ahai--;,american ,steamer ,savannah from ,new ,york first to cross ,atlantic4 ,laennec discovers ,auscultation and invents ,stethoscope4 ,blanchard's ,lathe for turning ,irregular ,forms4 #ahbj--;,electro-,magnetic ,multiplier by ,schweigger4 ,discoveries in ,electro-magnetism by ,ampere and ,arago4 ,bohnenberg's ,electroscope4 ,discovery of ,quinine by ,pelletier and ,caventou4 ,malam's ,gas ,meter4 #ahba--;,faraday converts ,electric ,current into ,mechanical ,motion4 #ahbb--;,babbage ,calculation ,engine4 #ahbc--,liquefaction and ,solidification of ,gases by ,faraday1 and foundation of ammonia absorption ice machine laid by him4 ,seebeck discovers ,thermo-electricity4 ,silicon discovered by ,berzelius4 #ahbd--;,discovery of metal ,zirconium by ,berzelius4 ,wright's ,pin ,machine4 #ahbe--;,first ,passenger ,railway in the world opened between ,stockton and ,darlington4 ,sturgeon invents prototype of ,electro ,magnet4 ,beaumont's discoveries in ,digestion 7,alexis ,san ,martin #ahbe-cb74 #ahbf--;,discovery of ,bromine by ,m4 ,balard4 ,barlow's ,electrical ,spur ,wheel4 ,first ,railroad in ,united ,states built near ,quincy1 ,mass4 #ahbg--;,aluminum reduced by ,wohler4 ,ohm's ,law of ,electrical ,resistance4 ,hackworth's ,improvements in ,locomotive4 ,friction ,matches by ,john ,walker4 #ahbh--,neilson's ,hot ,blast for ,smelting ,iron4 ,professor ,henry invents the ,spool ,electro ,magnet4 ,tubular ,locomotive ,boiler by ,seguin4 ,first ,artificial production of organic compounds 7urea7 by ,wohler4 ,thorium discovered by ,berzelius4 ,yttrium and ,glucinum discovered by ,wohler4 ,nicol's prism for ,polarized ,light4 ,woodworth's wood planer4 ,spinning ,ring invented by ,john ,thorp4 #ahbi--;,becquerel's ,double ,fluid ,galvanic ,battery4 ,george ,stephenson's ,locomotive1 8,rocket10 takes prizes of ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,importation of 8,stourbridge ,lion10 the first locomotive to run in the ,united ,states4 ,daguerreotype invented4 ,discovery of ,magnesium by ,bussey4 #ahcj--,vanadium discovered by ,sefstroem4 ,abbe ,dal ,negro's ,electrically operated pendulum4 ,ericsson's ,steam ,fire ,engine4 #ahca--;,faraday discovers ,magnetic ,induction4 ,professor ,henry telegraphs signals4 ,professor ,henry invents his ,electric ,motor4 ,locomotive 8,john ,bull0 put in service on ,camden and ,amboy ,r4 ,r4 ,chloroform discovered by ,guthrie4 ,mc,cormick first experiments with ,reaper4 #ahcb--,professor ,morse conceives the idea of ,electric ,telegraph4 ,first ,magneto-,electric ,machines by ,saxton in ,united ,states and ,pixii in ,france4 ,sturgeon's ,rotary ,electric ,motor4 ,baldwin's first locomotive1 8,old ,ironsides10 built4 ,link ,motion for ,locomotive ,engine invented by ,james4 ,chloral-hydrate discovered by ,liebig4 #ahcc--,steam ,whistle adopted by ,stephenson4 ,hussey's ,reaper patented4 #ahcd--;,jacobi's ,rotary ,electric ,motor4 ,henry ,bessemer electro-plates lead castings with copper4 ,faraday demonstrates relation of chemical and electrical force4 ,mc,cormick ,reaper patented4 ,carbolic ,acid discovered by ,runge4 ,perkins' ,ice ,machine4 #ahce--;,forbes proves the absence of heat in ,moonlight4 ,burden's horse shoe ,machine4 #ahcf--,the ,daniell ,constant ,battery invented4 ,acetylene ,gas produced by ,edmond ,davy4 ,colt's ,revolver4 #ahcg--;,cooke and ,wheatstone's ,british patent for ,electric telegraph4 ,steinheil discovered feasibility of using the earth for return section of electric circuit4 ,davenport's ,electric ,motor4 ,spencer's experiments in electrotyping4 ,galvanized ,iron invented by ,craufurd4 #ahch--,professor ,morse's ,french patent for ,telegraph4 ,jacobi's ,galvano-plastic process for making ,electrotype ,printing ,plates4 ,reflecting ,stereoscope by ,wheatstone4 ,dry ,gas ,meter by ,defries4 #ahci--,wreck of ,royal ,george blown up by ,electro ,blasting4 ,jacobi builds first ,electrically propelled ,boat4 ,fox ,talbot makes ,photo ,prints from ,negatives4 ,professors ,draper and ,morse make first ,photographic ,portraits4 ,mungo ,ponton applies ,bichromate of ,potash in ,photography4 ,goodyear discovers process of ,vulcanizing ,rubber4 ,lanthanum and ,didymium discovered by ,mosander4 ,babbit ,metal invented4 #ahdj--,professor ,morse's ,united ,states patent for ,electric ,telegraph4 ,professor ,grove makes first ,incandescent ,electric ,lamp4 ,celestial ,photography by ,professor ,draper4 #ahda--;,artesian well bored at ,grenelle1 ,paris4 ,sickel's ,steam ,cut-off4 ,talbotype ,photos4 ,m4 ,triger invents ,pneumatic ,caissons4 #ahdb--;,first production of ,illuminating ,gas from water 7water gas7 by ,m4 ,selligue4 ,robt4 ,davidson builds ,electric ,locomotive4 ,nasmyth patents ,steam ,hammer4 #ahdc--;,joule's demonstration as to the ,nature of ,force4 ,erbium and ,terbium discovered by ,mosander4 ,the ,thames ,tunnel ,opened4 #ahdd--;,first ,telegraphic ,message sent by ,morse from ,washington to ,baltimore4 ,application ,nitrous ,oxide ,gas as an ,ansthetic by ,dr4 ,wells4 #ahde--,ruthenium discovered by ,klaws4 ,the ,starr-,king ,incandescent ,electric ,lamp4 ,the ,hoe ,type ,revolving ,machine4 #ahdf--;,house's ,printing ,telegraph4 ,howe's ,sewing ,machine4 ,suez ,canal ,started 7fourteen years building74 ,crusell of ,st4 ,petersburgh invents ,electric ,cautery4 ,use of ,ether as ,ansthetic by ,dr4 ,morton4 ,artificial ,legs4 ,discovery of ,planet ,neptune4 ,sloan patents ,gimlet ,pointed ,screw4 ,gun ,cotton discovered by ,schnbein4 #ahdg--;,chloroform introduced by ,dr4 ,simpson4 ,nitro-,glycerine discovered by ,sobrero4 ,time-,locks invented by ,savage4 #ahdh--;,discovery of ,satellites of ,saturn by ,lassell4 ,bain's ,chemical ,telegraph4 ,bakewell's ,fac-,simile ,telegraph4 #ahdi--;,bourdon's ,pressure ,gauge4 ,lenticular ,stereoscope by ,brewster4 ,hibbert's ,latch ,needle for ,knitting ,machine4 ,corliss ,engine4 #ahej--;,first ,submarine ,cable--,dover to ,calais4 ,collodion ,process in ,photography4 ,mercerizing ,cloth4 ,american ,machine-made ,watches4 #ahea--;,dr4 ,page's ,electric ,locomotive4 ,the ,ruhmkorff ,coil4 ,scott ,archer's ,collodion ,process in ,photography4 ,seymour's ,self-,raker for ,harvesters4 ,helmholtz invents ,opthalmoscope4 ,maynard ,breech ,loading ,rifle4 #aheb--;,channing and ,farmer ,fire ,alarm ,telegraph4 ,fox ,talbot first uses reticulated screen for ,half ,tone ,printing4 #ahec--;,gintl's ,duplex ,telegraph invented4 ,electric ,lamps devised by ,foucault and ,duboscq4 ,watt and ,burgess ,soda ,process for ,making ,wood ,pulp4 #ahed--,wilson's ,four ,motion ,feed for ,sewing ,machines4 ,melhuish invents the ,photographic ,roll ,films4 ,hermann's ,diamond ,drill4 ,smith and ,wesson ,magazine ,firearm 7,foundation of the ,winchester74 #ahee--;,bessemer ,process of ,making ,steel4 ,hjorth invents ,dynamo ,electric ,machine4 ,ericsson's ,air ,engine4 ,niagara ,suspension ,bridge4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,taupenot invents ,dry ,plate ,photography4 ,the ,michaux ,bicycle4 #ahef--;,hughes ,printing ,telegraph4 ,alliance ,magneto ,electric ,machine4 ,woodruff ,sleeping ,car4 ,first commercial ,aniline ,dyes by ,perkins4 ,siemens ,regenerative ,furnace4 #aheg--,rogues' ,gallery established in ,new ,york4 ,introduction of ,iron ,floor ,beams in building ,cooper ,institute4 ,siemens describes principle of ,self ,intensification of ,cold 7now used in ice and liquid air machines74 #aheh--,phelps ,printing ,telegraph invented4 ,first ,atlantic ,cable ,laid4 ,paper pulp from ,wood by ,voelter4 ,first use of ,electric ,light in ,light ,house at ,south ,foreland4 ,giffard ,steam ,injector4 ,gardner patents first ,underground ,cable ,car ,system4 #ahei--;,discovery ,coal ,oil in ,united ,states4 ,moses ,g4 ,farmer subdivides ,electric ,current through a number of ,electric ,lamps1 and lights first dwelling by ,electricity4 ,great ,eastern launched4 ,osborne perfects modern process of ,photolithography4 ,professors ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen map ,solar ,spectrum1 and establish ,spectrum ,analysis4 #ahfj--,rubidium and ,caesium discovered by ,bunsen4 ,gaston ,plant's ,storage ,battery4 ,reis' ,crude ,telephone4 ,thallium discovered by ,crookes1 and ,indium by ,reich and ,richter4 ,spencer and ,henry ,magazine ,rifles4 ,carr's ,ammonia ,absorption ,ice ,machine4 #ahfa--,mc,kay ,shoe ,sewing ,machine4 ,calcium ,carbide produced by ,wohler4 ,col4 ,green invents ,drive ,well4 ,otis ,passenger ,elevator4 ,first ,barbed ,wire ,fence4 #ahfb--;,ericsson's ,iron ,clad ,turret ,monitor4 ,emulsions and improvements in ,dry ,plate ,photography by ,russell and ,sayce4 ,the ,gatling ,gun4 ,timby's ,revolving ,turret4 #ahfc--,schultz white gunpowder4 #ahfd--,nobel's ,explosive ,gelatine4 ,rubber ,dental ,plates4 ,cabin ,john 7,washington ,aqueduct7 ,bridge finished 7longest masonry span in the world74 #ahfe--,louis ,pasteur's work in ,bacteriology begun4 ,martin's ,process of making ,steel4 #ahff--,wilde's ,dynamo ,electric ,machine4 ,burleigh's ,compressed ,air ,rock ,drill4 ,whitehead ,torpedo4 #ahfg--,siemens' ,dynamo ,electric ,machine4 ,dynamite ,invented4 ,tilghman's ,sulphite ,process for making ,wood ,pulp4 #ahfh--;,brickill's ,water ,heater for ,steam ,fire ,engines4 ,moncrieff's ,disappearing ,gun ,carriage4 ,oleomargarine invented by ,mege4 ,sholes ,typewriter4 #ahfi--,suez ,canal ,opened4 ,pacific ,railway ,completed4 ,first ,westinghouse ,air-,brakes4 #ahgj--,the ,gramme ,dynamo ,electric ,machine4 ,windhausen ,refrigerating ,machines4 ,beleaguered ,paris communicates with outer world through ,micro-,photographs4 ,hailer's ,rebounding ,gun ,lock4 ,dittmar's ,gunpowder4 #ahga--;,hoe's ,web ,perfecting ,press set up in ,office ,new ,york ,tribune4 ,the ,locke ,grain ,binder4 ,bridge ,work in ,dentistry4 ,mount ,cenis ,tunnel opened for traffic4 ,phosphorus ,bronze4 ,ingersoll ,compressed ,air ,rock ,drill4 #ahgb--,stearns perfects ,duplex ,telegraph4 ,westinghouse ,improved automatic ,air ,brake4 ,lyall ,positive ,motion ,loom4 #ahgc--;,janney ,automatic ,car ,coupler4 ,oleomargarine patented in ,united ,states by ,mege4 #ahgd--;,edison's ,quadruplex ,telegraph4 ,gorham's ,twine ,binder for ,harvesters4 ,barbed ,wire ,machines4 ,st4 ,louis ,bridge finished4 #ahge--,lowe's patent for ,water ,gas 7illuminating gas made from water74 ,roller ,mills and ,middlings ,purifier for making flour4 ,gallium discovered by ,boisbaudran4 ,pictet ,ice ,machine4 ,gamgee's ,skating ,rinks4 ,first ,cash ,carrier for ,stores4 #ahgf--;,alexander ,graham ,bell's ,speaking ,telephone4 ,hydraulic ,dredges4 ,cigarette ,machinery4 ,photographing by ,electric ,light by ,vander ,weyde4 ,edison's ,electric ,pen4 ,steam ,feed for ,saw ,mill ,carriages4 ,introduction of ,cable ,cars by ,hallidie4 #ahgg--,phonograph invented by ,edison4 ,otto ,gas ,engine4 ,jablochkoff ,electric ,candle4 ,sawyer-,man ,electric ,lamp4 ,berliner's ,telephone ,transmitter of variable resistance 7pat4 ,nov4 #ag1 '#ia74 ,edison's ,carbon ,microphone 7pat4 ,may #c1 '#ib74 ,discovery of ,satellites of ,mars by ,professor ,asaph ,hall1 and its so-called ,canals by ,schiaparelli4 ,liquefaction of ,oxygen1 ,nitrogen and ,air by ,pictet and ,cailletet4 #ahgh--;,development of ,remington ,typewriter4 ,edison invents ,carbon ,filament for ,incandescent ,electric ,lamp4 ,gelatino-,bromide ,emulsions in ,photography4 ,ytterbium discovered by ,marignac4 ,birkenhead ,yielding ,spinning ,spindle ,bearing4 ,gessner ,cloth ,press4 #ahgi--;,dr4 ,siemens' ,electric ,railway at ,berlin4 ,mississippi ,jetties completed by ,capt4 ,eads4 ,samarium discovered by ,boisbaudran1 ,scandium by ,nilson1 and ,thulium by ,cleve4 ,the ,lee ,magazine ,rifle4 #ahhj--;,faure's ,storage ,battery4 ,eberth and ,koch discover ,bacillus of ,typhoid ,fever1 and ,sternberg the ,bacillus of ,pneumonia4 ,edison's ,magnetic ,ore ,concentrator4 ,greener's ,hammerless ,gun4 ,rabbeth ,spinning ,spindle patented4 #ahha--,telegraphing by ,induction by ,wm4 ,w4 ,smith4 ,blake ,telephone ,transmitter4 ,reece ,button ,hole ,machine4 ,rack-a-rock 7explosive7 patented4 #ahhb--;,bacillus of ,tuberculosis identified by ,koch1 and ,bacillus of ,hydrophobia by ,pasteur4 ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel opened for traffic4 #ahhc--;,brooklyn ,suspension ,bridge ,completed4 #ahhd--;,antipyrene4 ,mergenthaler's first ,linotype ,printing ,machine invented4 ,bacillus of ,cholera identified by ,koch1 ,bacillus of ,diphtheria by ,loeffler1 and ,bacillus of ,lockjaw by ,nicolaier4 #ahhe--;,cowles' ,process of ,manufacturing ,aluminum4 ,first ,electric ,railway in ,america installed between ,baltimore and ,hampden4 ,neodymium and ,praseodymium discovered by ,welsbach4 ,welsbach ,gas ,burner invented4 ,blowing up of ,flood ,rock1 ,new ,york ,harbor4 8,bellite0 produced by ,lamm1 and 8,melinite0 by ,turpin4 #ahhf--;,graphophone invented4 ,electric ,welding by ,elihu ,thomson4 ,gadolinum discovered by ,marignac1 and ,germanium by ,winkler4 #ahhg--,mc,arthur and ,forrest's ,cyanide ,process of ,obtaining ,gold4 ,tesla's ,system of ,polyphase ,currents4 #ahhh--;,electrocution of ,criminals adopted in ,new ,york ,state4 ,harvey's ,process of ,annealing ,armor ,plate4 ,de ,laval's ,rotary ,steam ,turbine4 8,kodak0 ,snap-,shot ,camera4 ,lick ,telescope4 ,de ,chardonnet's ,process of ,making ,artificial ,silk4 #ahhi--,nickel ,steel4 ,hall's ,process of ,making ,aluminum4 ,dudley ,dynamite ,gun4 8,cordite0 7,smokeless ,powder7 produced by ,abel and ,dewar4 #ahij--,mergenthaler's ,improved ,linotype ,machine4 ,photography in ,colors4 ,the ,great ,forth ,bridge finished4 ,krag-,jorgensen ,magazine ,rifle4 #ahia--,parsons' ,rotary ,steam ,turbine4 ,the ,northrup ,loom4 #ahib--,the explosive 8,indurite0 invented by ,professor ,munroe4 #ahic--;,acheson's process for making ,carborundum4 ,the ,yerkes ,telescope4 ,edison's ,kinetoscope4 ,production of ,calcium ,carbide in ,electric ,furnace by ,willson4 #ahid--;,discovery of element ,argon by ,lord ,rayleigh and ,professor ,ramsey4 ,thorite produced by ,bawden4 #ahie--,x-,rays discovered and applied by ,roentgen4 ,acetylene ,gas from ,calcium ,carbide by ,willson4 ,krupp ,armor ,plate4 ,lind's ,liquid air apparatus4 #ahif--,marconi's ,system of ,wireless ,telegraphy4 ,buffington-,crozier ,disappearing ,gun4 #ahig--,schlick's ,system of ,balancing ,marine ,engines4 ,discovery of ,krypton by ,ramsey and ,travers4 #ahih--;,horry and ,bradley's process of making ,calcium ,carbide4 ,discovery of ,neon and ,metargon by ,ramsey and ,travers2 ,coronium by ,nasini2 ,xenon by ,ramsey2 ,monium by ,crookes1 and ,etherion by ,brush4 ,mercerizing ,cloth under tension to render it ,silky4 #ahii--,marconi ,telegraphs without wire across the ,english ,channel4 ,oceanic launched1 the largest steamer ever built4 #aijj--,the ,grande ,lunette ,telescope of ,paris ,exposition4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph4 ,,the ,,voltaic ,,pile--,,daniell',s ,,battery--,,use ,,of ,,conducting ,,wire ,,by ,,weber--,,steinheil ,,employs ,,earth ,,as ,,return ,,circuit--,,prof4 ,,henry',s ,,electro ,,magnet1 ,,and ,,first ,,telegraphic ,,experiment--,,prof4 ,,morse',s ,,telegraphic ,,code ,,and ,,register--,,first ,,line ,,between ,,washington ,,and ,,baltimore--,,bain',s ,,chemical ,,telegraph--,,gintl',s ,,duplex ,,telegraph--,,edison',s ,,quadruplex--,,house',s ,,printing ,,telegraph--,,fac ,,simile ,,telegraphs--,,channing ,,and ,,farmer ,,fire ,,alarm--,,telegraphing ,,by ,,induction--,,wireless ,,telegraphy ,,by ,,marconi--,,statistics4 ,in the effort to lengthen out the limited span of life into a greater record of results1 time becomes an object of economy4 ,to save time is to live long1 and this in a pre-eminent degree is accomplished by the telegraph4 ,of all the inventions which man has called into existence to aid him in the fulfillment of his destiny1 none so closely resembles man himself in his dual quality of body and soul as the telegraph4 ,it too has a body and soul4 ,we see the wire and the electro-magnet1 but not the vital principle which animates it4 ,without its subtile1 pulsating1 intangible spirit1 it is but dead matter4 ,but vitalized with its immortal soul it assumes the quality of animated existence1 and through its agency thought is extended beyond the limitations of time and space1 and flashes through air and sea around the world4 ,its moving principle flows more silently than a summer's zephyr1 and yet it rises at times to an angry and deadly crash in the lightning stroke4 ,at once powerful and elusive1 it remained for ,professor ,morse to capture this wild steed1 and1 taming it1 place it in the permanent service of man4 ,on ,may #bd1 #ahdd1 there went over the wires between ,washington and ,baltimore the first message--8,what hath ,god wrought80 ,this was both prayer and praise1 and no more lofty recognition of the divine power and beneficence could have been made4 ,it was indeed the work of ,god made manifest in the hands of ,his children4 ,popular estimation has always credited ,prof4 ,morse with the invention of the telegraph1 but to ascribe to him all the praise would do great injustice to many other worthy workers in this field1 some of whom are regarded by the best judges to be entitled to equal praise4 ,the practical telegraph as originally used is resolvable into four essential elements1 viz41 the battery1 the conducting wire1 the electro-magnet1 and the receiving and transmitting instruments4 ,the development of the battery began with ,galvani in #agij1 and ,volta in #ahjj4 ,galvani discovered that a frog's legs would exhibit violent muscular contraction when its exposed nerves were touched with one metal and its muscles were touched with another metal1 the two metals being connected4 ,the effect was due to an electric current generated and acting with contractile effect on the muscles of the frog's legs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,from this phenomenon1 the chemical action of acids upon metals and the production of an electric current were observed1 and the voltaic pile was invented4 ,this consisted of alternate discs of copper and zinc1 separated by layers of cloth steeped in an acidulated solution4 ,this was the invention of ,volta4 ,from this grew the ,daniell battery1 invented in #ahcf by ,prof4 ,daniell of ,london1 quickly followed by those of ,grove1 ,smee1 and others4 ,these batteries were more constant or uniform in the production of electricity1 were free from odors1 and did not require frequent cleaning1 as did the plates of the voltaic pile1 which were important results for telegraphic purposes4 ,the ,daniell battery in its original form employed an acidulated solution of sulphate of copper in a copper cell containing a porous cup1 and a cylinder of amalgamated zinc in the porous cup and surrounded by a weak acid solution4 ,in the illustration1 which shows a slightly modified form1 a cruciform rod of zinc within a porous cup is surrounded by a copper cell1 the whole being enclosed within a glass jar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,daniell',s ,,battery4 ,the second element of the telegraph--the conducting wire--was scarcely an invention in itself1 and the fact that electricity would act at a distance through a metal conductor had been observed many years before the ,morse telegraph was invented4 ,in #ahbc1 however1 ,weber discovered that a copper wire which he had carried over the houses and church steeples of ,gttingen from the observatory to the cabinet of ,natural ,philosophy1 required no special insulation4 ,this was an important observation in the practical construction of telegraph lines4 ,one of even greater importance1 however1 was that of ,prof4 ,steinheil1 of ,munich1 who1 in #ahcg1 made the discovery of the practicability of using the earth as one-half1 or the return section1 of the electric conductor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,prof4 ,,henry',s ,,intensity ,,magnet4 ,the third element of the telegraph is the electro-magnet4 ,this1 and its arrangement as a relay in a local circuit1 was a most important invention1 and contributed quite as much to the success of the telegraph as did the inventions of ,prof4 ,morse4 ,it may be well to say that an electro-magnet is a magnet which attracts an iron armature when an electric current is sent through its coil of wire1 and loses its attractive force when the circuit is cut off1 thereby rendering it possible to produce mechanical effects at a distance through the agency of electrical impulses only4 ,for the electro-magnet the world is chiefly indebted to ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry1 formerly of ,princeton1 ,n4 ,j41 but later of the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,in #ahbh he invented the energetic modern form of electro-magnet with silk covered wire wound in a series of crossed layers to form a helix of multiple layers around a central soft iron core1 and in #ahca succeeded in making practical the production of mechanical effects at a distance1 by the tapping of a bell by a rod deflected by one of his electro-magnets4 ,this experiment may be considered the pioneer step of the telegraph4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,henry4 ,,sturgeon4 ,great as was the work of ,prof4 ,henry1 he must share the honors with a number of prior inventors who made the electro-magnet possible4 ,electro-magnetism1 the underlying principle of the electro-magnet1 was first discovered in #ahai by ,prof4 ,oersted1 of ,copenhagen4 ,in #ahbj ,schweigger added the multiplier4 ,arago in the same year discovered that a steel rod was magnetized when placed across a wire carrying an electric current1 and that iron filings adhered to a wire carrying a voltaic current and dropped off when the current was broken4 ,m4 ,ampere substituted a helix for the straight wire1 and ,sturgeon1 of ,england1 in #ahbe made the real prototype of the electro-magnet by winding a piece of bare copper wire in a single coil around a varnished and insulated iron core of a horse shoe form1 but the powerful and effective electro-magnet of ,prof4 ,henry is to-day an essential part of the telegraph1 is in universal use1 and is the foundation of the entire electrical art4 ,it is unfortunate that ,prof4 ,henry did not perpetuate the records of his inventions in patents1 to which he was opposed1 for there is good reason to believe that he was also the original inventor of the important arrangement of the electro-magnet as a relay in local circuit1 and other features1 which have been claimed by other parties upon more enduring evidence1 but perhaps with less right of priority4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,morse',s ,,first ,,model ,,pendulum ,,instrument4 ,the fourth and great final addition to the telegraph which crowned it with success was the ,morse register and alphabetical code1 the invention of ,prof4 ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 of ,massachusetts4 ,prof4 ,morse's invention was made in #ahcb1 while on board ship returning from ,europe4 ,he set up an experimental line in #ahce1 and got his ,french patent ,october #cj1 #ahch1 and his first ,united ,states patent ,june #bj1 #ahdj1 ,no4 #afdg4 ,in #ahdd the ,united ,states ,congress appropriated #cj1jjj to build a line from ,baltimore to ,washington1 and on ,may #bd1 #ahdd1 the notable message1 8,what ,hath ,god wrought80 went over the wires4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,the ,,morse ,,code4 ,morse's first model1 his pendulum instrument of #ahcg1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #e4 ,a pendulum carrying a pencil was in constant contact with a strip of paper drawn beneath the pencil4 ,as long as inactive the pencil made a straight line4 ,the pendulum carried also an armature1 and an electro-magnet was placed near the armature4 ,a current passed through the magnet would draw the pendulum to one side4 ,on being released the pendulum would return1 and in this way zigzag markings1 as shown at #d and #e1 would be produced on the strip of paper1 which formed the alphabet4 ,a different alphabet1 known as the ,morse ,code1 was subsequently adopted by ,morse1 and in #ahdd the receiving register shown at ,fig4 #g was adopted1 which finally assumed the form shown at ,fig4 #h4 ,the alphabet consisted simply of an arrangement of dots and dashes in varying sequence4 ,the register is an apparatus operated by the combined effects of a clock mechanism and electro-magnet4 ,under a roll1 see ,fig4 #h1 a ribbon of paper is drawn by the clockwork4 ,a lever having an armature on one end arranged over the poles of an electro-magnet1 carries on the other end a point or stylus4 ,when an electric impulse is sent over the line the electro-magnet attracts the armature1 and the stylus on the other end of the lever is brought into contact with the paper strip1 and makes an indented impression4 ,a short impulse gives a dot1 and a long impulse holds the stylus against the paper long enough to allow the clock mechanism to pull the paper under the stylus and make a dash4 ,by the manipulation of a key for closing the electric circuit the short or long impulse may be sent1 at the pleasure of the operator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,morse ,,receiver4 ,this constituted the completed invention of the telegraph1 and on comparing the work of ,profs4 ,henry and ,morse1 it is only fair to say that ,prof4 ,henry's contribution to the telegraph is still in active use1 while the ,morse register has been practically abandoned1 as no expert telegrapher requires the visible evidence of the code1 but all rely now entirely upon the sound click of the electro-magnet placed in the local circuit and known as a sounder1 the varying time lengths of gaps between the clicks serving every purpose of rapid and intelligent communication4 ,the invention of the telegraph has been claimed for ,steinheil1 of ,munich1 and also for ,cooke and ,wheatstone1 in ,england1 but few will deny that it is to ,prof4 ,morse's indefatigable energy and inventive skill1 with the preliminary work of ,prof4 ,henry1 that the world to-day owes its great gift of the electric telegraph1 and with this gift the world's great nervous forces have been brought into an intimate and sensitive sympathy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,perfected ,,morse ,,register4 ,whenever an invention receives the advertisement of public approval and commercial exploitation1 the development of that invention along various lines follows rapidly1 and so when practical telegraphic communication was solved by ,henry1 ,morse1 and others1 further advances in various directions were made4 ,efforts to increase the rapidity in sending messages soon grew into practical success1 and in #ahdh ,bain's ,chemical ,telegraph was brought out4 7,u4 ,s4 ,pats4 ,no4 #e1ieg1 ,dec4 #e1 #ahdh1 and ,no4 #f1cbh1 ,april #ag1 #ahdi47 ,this employed perforated strips of paper to effect automatic transmission by contact made through the perforations in place of the key1 while a chemically prepared paper at the opposite end of the line was discolored by the electric impulses to form the record4 ,this was the pioneer of the automatic system which by later improvements is able to send over a thousand words a minute4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,house ,,printing ,,telegraph4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,stock ,,broker',s 8,,ticker10 ,,with ,,glass ,,cover ,,removed4 ,in line with other efforts to increase the capacity of the wires1 the duplex telegraph was invented by ,dr4 ,william ,gintl1 of ,austria1 in #ahec1 and was afterwards improved by ,carl ,frischen1 of ,hanover1 and by ,joseph ,b4 ,stearns1 of ,boston1 ,mass1 who in #ahgb perfected the duplex 7,u4 ,s4 ,pats4 ,no4 #abf1hdg1 ,may #ad1 #ahgb1 and ,no4 #acb1icc1 ,nov4 #ab1 #ahgb74 ,this system doubles the capacity of the telegraphic wire1 and its principle of action permits messages sent from the home station to the distant station to have no effect on the home station1 but full effect on the distant station1 so that the operators at the opposite ends of the line may both telegraph over the same wire1 at the same time1 in opposite directions4 ,this system has been further enlarged by the quadruplex system of ,edison1 which was brought out in #ahgd 7and subsequently developed in ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #bji1bda1 ,oct4 #bb1 #ahgh74 ,this enabled four messages to be sent over the same wire at the same time1 and is said to have increased the value of the ,western ,union wires #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahdf ,royal ,c4 ,house invented the printing telegraph1 which printed the message automatically on a strip of paper1 something after the manner of the typewriter 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #d1dfd1 ,april #ah1 #ahdf74 ,the ingenious mechanism involved in this was somewhat complicated1 but its results in printing the message plainly were very satisfactory4 ,this was the prototype of the familiar 8ticker0 of the stock broker's office1 seen in ,figs4 #aj and #aa4 ,in #ahef the ,hughes printing telegraph was brought out 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ad1iag1 ,may #bj1 #ahef71 and in #aheh ,g4 ,m4 ,phelps combined the valuable features of the ,hughes and ,house systems 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #bf1jjc1 ,nov4 #a1 #ahei74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,receiving ,,message ,,on ,,stock ,,broker',s 8,,ticker40 ,fac ,simile telegraphs constitute another1 although less important branch of the art4 ,these accomplished the striking result of reproducing the message at the end of the line in the exact handwriting of the sender1 and not only writing1 but exact reproductions of all outlines1 such as maps1 pictures1 and so forth1 may be sent4 ,the fac simile telegraph originated with ,f4 ,c4 ,bakewell1 of ,england1 in #ahdh 7,br4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ab1ceb1 of #ahdh74 ,the ,dial ,telegraph is still another modification of the telegraph4 ,in this the letters are arranged in a circular series1 and a light needle or pointer1 concentrically pivoted1 is carried back and forth over the letters1 and is made to successively point to the desired letters4 ,among other useful applications of the telegraph is the fire alarm system4 ,in #aheb ,channing and ,farmer1 of ,boston1 ,mass41 devised a system of telegraphic fire alarms1 which was adopted in the city of ,boston 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ag1cee1 ,may #ai1 #aheg71 and which in varying modifications has spread through all the cities of the world1 introducing that most important element of time economy in the extinguishment of fires4 ,hundreds of cities and millions of dollars have been thus saved from destruction4 ,similar applications of local alarms in great numbers have been extended into various departments of life1 such as ,district ,messenger ,service1 ,burglar ,alarms1 ,railroad-,signal ,systems1 ,hotel-,annunciators1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,telegraphing ,,by ,,induction4 ,for furnishing current for telegraphic purposes the dynamo1 and especially the storage battery1 have in late years found useful application4 ,in fact1 in the leading telegraph offices the storage battery has practically superseded the old voltaic cells4 ,telegraphing by induction1 i4 e41 without the mechanical connection of a conducting wire1 is another of the developments of telegraphy in recent years1 and finds application to telegraphing to moving railway trains4 ,when an electric current flows over a telegraph line1 objects along its length are charged at the beginning and end of the current impulse with a secondary charge1 which flows to the earth if connection is afforded4 ,it is the discharge of this secondary current from the metal car roof to the ground which1 on the moving train1 is made the means of telegraphing without any mechanical connection with the telegraph lines along the track4 ,as1 however1 this secondary circuit occurs only at the making and breaking of the telegraphic impulse1 the length of the impulse affords no means of differentiation into an alphabet1 and so a rapid series of impulses1 caused by the vibrator of an induction coil1 is made to produce buzzing tones of various duration representing the alphabet1 and these tones are received upon a telephone instead of a ,morse register4 ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #ab1a illustrates the operation4 #a ,from 8,electricity in ,daily ,life10 by courtesy of ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,to receive messages on a car1 electric impulses on the telegraph wire ,w1 sent from the vibrator of an induction coil1 cause induced currents as follows3 ,car roof ,r1 wire a1 key ,k1 telephone b c1 car wheel and earth4 ,in sending messages closure of key ,k works induction coil ,i ,c1 and vibrator ,v1 through battery ,b1 and primary circuit d1 c1 f1 g1 and the secondary circuit a1 h1 i1 charges the car roof and influences by induction the telegraph wire ,w and the telephone at the receiving station4 ,in #ahha ,william ,w4 ,smith proposed the plan of communicating between moving cars and a stationary wire by induction 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #bdg1abg1 ,sept4 #ac1 #ahha74 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 ,l4 ,j4 ,phelps1 and others have further improved the means for carrying it out4 ,in #ahhh the principle was successfully employed on #bjj miles of the ,lehigh ,valley ,railroad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,wireless ,,telegraphy1 ,,international ,,yacht ,,races1 ,,october1 #ahii4 ,wireless ,telegraphy1 or telegraphing without any wires at all1 from one point to another point through space1 is the most modern and startling development in telegraphy4 ,to the average mind this is highly suggestive of scientific imposition1 so intangible and unknown are the physical forces by which it is rendered possible1 and yet this is one of the late achievements of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,many scientists have contributed data on this subject1 but the principles and theories have only begun to crystallize into an art during the first part of the last decade of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,heinrich ,hertz1 the ,german scientist1 was perhaps the real pioneer in this line in his studies and observations of the nature of the electric undulations which have taken his name1 and are known as 8,hertzian0 waves1 rays1 or oscillations4 ,tesla in the ,united ,states1 ,branly and ,ducretet in ,france1 ,righi in ,italy1 the ,russian savant1 ,popoff1 and ,professor ,lodge1 of ,england1 have all made contributions to this art4 ,it will aid the understanding to say1 in a preliminary way1 that electric undulations are generated and emitted from a plate or conductor a hundred feet or more high in the air1 are thence transmitted through space to a remote point1 which may be many miles away1 and there influencing a similar plate high in the air give1 through a special form of receiving device known as a 8coherer10 a telegraphic record4 ,the 8coherer10 invented by ,branly in #ahia1 is a glass tube containing metal filings between two circuit terminals4 ,the electric waves cause these filings to cohere1 and so vary the resistance to the passage of the current as to give a basis for transformation into a record4 ,in ,march1 #ahii1 ,signor ,guglielmo ,marconi1 an ,italian student1 then residing in ,england1 successfully communicated between ,south ,foreland1 ,county of ,kent1 and ,boulogne-sur-mer1 in ,france1 a distance of thirty-two miles across the ,english ,channel4 ,signor ,marconi used the vertical conductors and the ,hertz-oscillation principle1 and his system is described in his ,united ,states patent4 ,no4 #ehf1aic1 ,july #ac1 #ahig4 ,his patent comprehends many claims1 a leading feature of which is the means for automatically shaking the 8coherer0 to break up the cohesion of the metal filings as embodied in his first claim1 as follows3 8,in a receiver for electrical oscillations1 the combination of an imperfect electrical contact1 a circuit through the contact1 and means actuated by the circuit for shaking the contact40 ,the ,marconi system of wireless telegraphy was practically employed with useful effect ,april #bh1 #ahii1 on the 8,goodwin ,sands0 light-ship to telegraph for assistance when in collision twelve miles from land and in danger of sinking4 ,it was also used in ,october1 #ahii1 on board the 8,grande ,duchesse0 to report the international yacht race between the 8,columbia0 and the 8,shamrock0 at ,sandy ,hook1 as seen in ,fig4 #ac4 ,lord ,roberts also made good use of it in his ,south ,african campaign against the ,boers4 ,according to ,signor ,marconi its present range is limited to eighty-six miles1 but it is expected that this will be soon extended to #aej miles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac;,a4--,,the ,,coherer4 ,marconi's receiving apparatus is shown in ,fig4 #ac;,a1 and consists of a small glass tube called the coherer1 about #a inches in length1 into the ends of which are inserted two silver pole pieces1 which fit the tube1 but whose ends are #a_/ej inch apart4 ,the space between the ends is filled with a mixture composed of fine nickel and silver filings and a mere trace of mercury1 and the other ends of the pole pieces are attached to the wires of a local circuit4 ,in the normal condition the metallic filings have an enormous resistance1 and constitute a practical insulator1 preventing the flow of the local current2 but if they are influenced by electric waves1 coherence takes place and the resistance falls1 allowing the local current to pass4 ,the coherence will continue until the filings are mechanically shaken1 when they will at once fall apart1 as it were1 insulation will be established1 and the current will be broken4 ,if1 then1 a coherer be brought within the influence of the electric waves thrown out from a transmitter1 coherence will occur whenever the key of the transmitter at the distant station is depressed4 ,mr4 ,marconi has devised an ingenious arrangement1 which is the subject of his patent referred to1 in which a small hammer is made to rap continuously upon the coherer by the action of the local circuit1 which is closed when the ,hertzian waves pass through the metal filings4 ,as soon as the waves cease1 the hammer gives its last rap1 and the tube is left in the decohered condition ready for the next transmission of waves4 ,it is evident that by making the local circuit operate a relay1 in the circuit of which is a standard recording instrument1 the messages may be recorded on a tape in the usual way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac;,b4--,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,transmitter ,,and ,,receiver4 ,in ,fig4 #ac;,b is shown the diagram of circuits4 ,the letters d d indicate the spheres of the transmitter1 which are connected1 one to the vertical wire w1 the other to earth1 and both by wires c c1 to the terminals of the secondary winding of induction coil1 c4 ,in the primary circuit is the key b4 ,the coherer j has two metal pole pieces1 j j1 separated by silver and nickel filings4 ,one end of the tube is connected to earth1 the other to the vertical wire w1 and the coherer itself forms part of a circuit containing the local cell g1 and a sensitive telegraph relay actuating another circuit1 which circuit works a trembler p1 of which o is the decohering tapper1 or hammer4 ,when the electric waves pass from w to j j the resistance falls1 and the current from g actuates the relay n1 the choking coils k k1 lying between the coherer and the relay1 compelling the electric waves to traverse the coherer instead of flowing through the relay4 ,the relay n in its turn causes the more powerful battery r to pass a current through the tapper1 and also through the electro-magnet of the recording instrument h4 ,the alternate cohering by the waves and decohering by the tapper continue uninterruptedly as long as the transmitting key at the distant station is depressed4 ,the armature of the recording instrument1 however1 because of its inertia1 cannot rise and fall in unison with the rapid coherence and decoherence of the receiver1 and hence it remains down and makes a stroke upon the tape as long as the sending key is depressed4 ,the principal applications of wireless telegraphy so far have been at sea1 where the absence of intervening obstacles gives a free path to the electrical oscillations4 ,the system is also applicable on land1 however1 and no one can doubt that if the ,ministers of the ,legations shut up in ,pekin had been supplied with a wireless telegraphy outfit1 neither the walls of ,pekin nor the strongest cordon of its ,chinese hordes could have prevented the long sought communication4 ,the full story of mystery and massacre would have been promptly made known1 and the civilized world have been spared its anxiety1 and earlier and effective measures of relief supplied4 ,as the art of telegraphy grows apace toward the end of the ,nineteenth ,century1 individuality of invention becomes lost in the great maze of modifications1 ramifications1 and combinations4 ,inventions become merged into systems1 and systems become swallowed up by companies4 ,in the promises of living inventors the wish is too often father to the thought1 and the conservative man sees the child of promise rise in great expectation1 flourish for a few years1 and then subside to quiet rest in the dusty archives of the ,patent ,office4 ,they all contribute their quota of value1 but it is so difficult to single out as pre-eminent any one of those which as yet are on probation1 that we must leave to the coming generation the task of making meritorious selection4 ,to-day the telegraph is the great nerve system of the nation's body1 and it ramifies and vitalizes every part with sensitive force4 ,in #ahii the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company alone had #bb1bhe offices1 #ijd1fcc miles of wire1 sent #fa1cih1aeg messages1 received in money #bc1ied1cab1 and enjoyed a profit of #e1hfh1gcc4 ,add to this the business of the ,postal ,telegraph ,company and other companies1 and it becomes well nigh impossible to grasp the magnitude of this tremendous factor of ,nineteenth ,century progress4 ,figures fail to become impressive after they reach the higher denominations1 and it may not add much to either the reader's conception or his knowledge to say that the statistics for the whole world for the year #ahih show3 #ajc1hcb telegraph offices1 #b1ihi1hjc miles of wire1 and #cfe1dec1ebf messages sent during that year4 ,this wire would extend around the earth about #abj times1 and the messages amounted to one million a day for every day in that year4 ,this is for land telegraphs only1 and does not include cable messages4 ,what saving has accrued to the world in the matter of time1 and what development in values in the various departments of life1 and what contributions to human comfort and happiness the telegraph has brought about1 is beyond human estimate1 and is too impressive a thought for speculation4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable4 ,,difficulties ,,of ,,laying--,,congratulatory ,,messages ,,between ,,queen ,,victoria ,,and ,,president ,,buchanan--,,the ,,siphon ,,recorder--,,statistics4 ,among the applications of the telegraph which deserve special mention for magnitude and importance is the ,atlantic ,cable4 ,for boldness of conception1 tireless persistence in execution1 and value of results1 this engineering feat1 though nearly a half century old1 still challenges the admiration of the world1 and marks the beginning of one of the great epochs of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it was not so brilliant in substantive invention1 as it added but little to the telegraph as already known1 beyond the means for insulating the wires within a gutta percha cable1 but it was one of the greatest of all engineering works4 ,it was chiefly the result of the energy and public spirit of ,mr4 ,cyrus ,w4 ,field1 an eminent ,american citizen4 ,three times was its laying attempted before success crowned the work4 ,the first expedition sailed ,august #g1 #aheg1 and consisted of a fleet of eight vessels1 four ,american and four ,english1 starting from ,valentia on the ,irish coast4 ,on ,august #aa the cable parted1 and #cdd miles of the cable were lost in water two miles deep4 ,in #aheh a renewal of the effort to lay the cable was made4 ,improvements were added in the paying out machinery1 and a different manner of coiling the enormous load of cable on the vessels was resorted to1 and provisions also were made to protect the propeller from contact with the cable4 ,on ,june #aj the telegraphic fleet steamed out of ,plymouth harbor4 ,it consisted of the ,u4 ,s4 frigate 8,niagara10 with the paddle-wheel steamer 8,valorous0 as a tender1 and the ,british frigate 8,agamemnon10 with the paddle-wheel steamer 8,gorgon0 as a tender4 ,after three days at sea1 terrible gales were encountered and much damage resulted4 ,the vessels were to proceed to midocean1 and the portions of the cable carried by the 8,niagara0 and 8,agamemnon0 were to be spliced1 and the two vessels were then to sail in opposite directions to their respective coasts4 ,the first splice was made on the #bfth of ,june4 ,after paying out two and a half miles each1 the cable parted4 ,again meeting and splicing1 forty miles each were paid out1 and the cable again parted4 ,on the #bhth another splicing was effected1 and #aej miles each were paid out1 and again the cable parted1 and the expedition had to be abandoned4 ,after much financial embarrassment and adverse criticism1 the courageous and public-spirited directors who had control of the enterprise dispatched another expedition1 which sailed ,july #ag1 #aheh4 ,the two vessels1 8,niagara0 and 8,agamemnon10 with their tenders1 proceeded to midocean1 and following the same method of connecting the ends of their respective cable sections1 they sailed in opposite directions4 ,on ,august #e1 #aheh1 ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field announced by telegram from ,trinity ,bay1 on the coast of ,newfoundland1 that ,trinity ,bay in ,america1 and ,valentia in ,ireland1 #b1acd miles apart1 had been connected1 and the great ,atlantic cable was an established fact4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,original ,,atlantic ,,cable1 ,,full ,,size4 ,consists of seven copper wires 7#d7 to form the conductor1 a wrapping 7#c7 of thread1 soaked in tallow and pitch1 several layers 7#b7 of gutta percha1 all surrounded by a protecting coat of mail 7#a7 of twisted wires4 ,on ,august #af1 #aheh1 the first message came over from ,queen ,victoria to ,president ,buchanan of the ,united ,states1 as follows3 8,to the ,president of the ,united ,states1 ,washington3 8,the ,queen desires to congratulate the ,president upon the successful completion of this great international work1 in which the ,queen has taken the deepest interest4 8,the ,queen is convinced that the ,president will join with her in fervently hoping that the ,electric ,cable which now connects ,great ,britain with the ,united ,states will prove an additional link between the nations whose friendship is founded upon their common interest and reciprocal esteem4 8,the ,queen has much pleasure in thus communicating with the ,president1 and renewing to him her wishes for the prosperity of the ,united ,states40 to which the ,president replied as follows3 8,,washington ,,city1 ,aug4 #af1 #aheh4 8,to ,her ,majesty ,victoria1 ,queen of ,great ,britain3 8,the ,president cordially reciprocates the congratulations of ,her ,majesty1 the ,queen1 on the success of the great international enterprise accomplished by the science1 skill1 and indomitable energy of the two countries4 ,it is a triumph more glorious1 because far more useful to mankind1 than was ever won by conqueror on the field of battle4 8,may the ,atlantic ,telegraph1 under the blessing of ,heaven1 prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations1 and an instrument destined by ,divine ,providence to diffuse religion1 civilization1 liberty and law throughout the world4 ,in this view will not all nations of ,christendom spontaneously unite in the declaration that it shall be forever neutral1 and that its communications shall be held sacred in passing to their places of destination1 even in the midst of hostilities8 7,signed7 8,,james ,,buchanan40 ,great rejoicing on both sides of the ocean followed1 and the public print was filled with accounts of the enterprise4 ,the following selection from the ,atlantic ,monthly of ,october1 #aheh1 is an apostrophe in lofty sentiments of verse1 which to-day stirs the ,twentieth ,century heart as a joyous prophecy fulfilled3 ,thou lonely ,bay of ,trinity1 ,ye bosky shores untrod1 ,lean1 breathless1 to the white-lipped sea ,and hear the voice of ,god6 ,from world to world ,his couriers fly1 ,thought-winged and shod with fire2 ,the angel of ,his stormy sky ,rides down the sunken wire4 ,what saith the herald of the ,lord8 8,the world's long strife is done6 ,close wedded by that mystic cord1 ,her continents are one4 8,and one in heart1 as one in blood1 ,shall all her peoples be2 ,the hands of human brotherhood ,shall clasp beneath the sea4 8,through ,orient seas1 o'er ,afric's plain1 ,and ,asian mountains borne1 ,the vigor of the ,northern brain ,shall nerve the world outworn4 8,from clime to clime1 from shore to shore1 ,shall thrill the magic thread2 ,the new ,prometheus steals once more ,the fire that wakes the dead4 8,earth1 gray with age1 shall hear the strain ,which o'er her childhood rolled2 ,for her the morning stars again ,shall sing their song of old4 8,for1 lo6 the fall of ,ocean's wall1 ,space mocked and ,time outrun6 ,and round the world the thought of all ,is as the thought of one60 ,o1 reverently and thankfully ,the mighty wonder own6 ,the deaf can hear1 the blind may see1 ,the work is ,god's alone4 ,throb on1 strong pulse of thunder6 beat ,from answering beach to beach6 ,fuse nations in thy kindly heat1 ,and melt the chains of each6 ,wild terror of the sky above1 ,glide tamed and dumb below6 ,bear gently1 ,ocean's carrier dove1 ,thy errands to and fro6 ,weave on1 swift shuttle of the ,lord1 ,beneath the deep so far1 ,the bridal robe of ,earth's accord1 ,the funeral shroud of war6 ,the poles unite1 the zones agree1 ,the tongues of striving cease2 ,as on the ,sea of ,galilee1 ,the ,christ is whispering1 8,peace60 ,after a few months of working1 the cable became inoperative1 but its success was a demonstrated fact1 and in #ahff a new cable was laid by the aid of that monster steamer 8,the ,great ,eastern10 since which time the cable has become one of the great factors of modern civilization4 ,probably the most important of the inventions relating to submarine telegraphs is the siphon recorder1 invented by ,sir ,william ,thompson1 now ,lord ,kelvin 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #aef1hig1 ,nov4 #ag1 #ahgd74 ,it is called a siphon recorder because the record is made by a little glass siphon down which a flow of ink is maintained like a fountain pen4 ,this siphon is vibrated by the electric impulses to produce on the paper strip a zigzag line1 whose varying contour is made to represent letters4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #ae1 m is an ink well1 o a strip of paper1 and n the ink siphon1 one end of which is bent and dips down into the ink well1 and the other end of which traces the record on the moving paper strip o4 ,the siphon is sustained on a vertical axis l1 and its lateral vibration is effected as follows3 ,a light rectangular coil b b1 of exceedingly fine insulated wire1 is suspended between the poles ,n ,s of a powerful electro-magnet energized by a local battery4 ,in the coil b b is a stationary soft iron core a1 magnetized by the poles ,n ,s4 ,the coil b b is suspended upon a vertical axis consisting of a fine wire f f1 and the delicate electrical impulses over the submarine cable enter the coil b b through the axial wire f f as a conductor1 and cause a greater or less oscillation of the coil b b between the poles ,n ,s of the electro-magnet4 ,the coil b b is connected by a thread k to the siphon1 and pulls the siphon in one direction1 while the siphon is pulled in the opposite direction by a helical spring attached to an arm on the siphon axis l4 ,the jagged lines seen in ,fig4 #af spell the words 8siphon recorder40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,siphon ,,recorder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,siphon ,,recorder ,,message4 ,to-day there lie in submerged silence1 but pulsating with the life of the world1 no less than #a1ejj submarine telegraphs4 ,their aggregate length is #agj1jjj miles2 their total estimated cost is #bej1jjj1jjj1 and the number of messages annually transmitted over them is #f1jjj1jjj4 ,thirteen cables work daily across the ,atlantic1 and an additional one is being laid from ,germany4 ,messages now go across the ,atlantic and are received on the siphon recorder at the rate of fifty words a minute1 and at a cost of twenty-five cents a word4 ,our guns may thunder in the ,philippines1 and the news by cable1 traveling faster than the earth on its axis1 may reach the ,western ,hemisphere under the paradoxical condition of several hours earlier than it occurred4 ,cablegrams to ,manila cost #b4ch a word1 and the cable tolls for our ,war ,department alone are costing at the rate of #cbe1jjj a year4 ,the logical outcome is a ,pacific cable1 a bill for which1 connecting ,san ,francisco and ,honolulu1 has already passed the ,united ,states ,senate4 ,messages from the ,executive ,mansion at ,washington to the battlefield at ,santiago were sent and responses received within twelve minutes1 while a message dispatched from the ,house of ,representatives in ,washington to the ,house of ,parliament in ,london1 in the chess match of #ahih1 was transmitted and a reply received in thirteen and one-half seconds4 ,to-day the cable with the still small voice1 more divine than human1 speaks with one accent to all the nations of the earth4 ,differing though they may in tongue and skin1 in thought and religion1 in physical development and clime1 the telegraph speaks to them all alike1 and by all is understood4 ,truly it fulfils the prophecy so gracefully expressed in the verses quoted1 and has become the common bond of union among the nations of the earth4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,dynamo ,,and ,,its ,,applications4 ,,observations ,,of ,,faraday ,,and ,,henry--,,magneto-,,electric ,,machines ,,of ,,pixii ,,and ,,of ,,saxton--,,hjorth',s ,,dynamo ,,of #ahee--,,wilde',s ,,machine ,,of #ahff--,,siemens' ,,of #ahfg--;,,gramme',s ,,of #ahgj--,,tesla',s ,,polyphase ,,currents4 ,in the last thirty-five years of the ,nineteenth ,century there has grown up into the full stature of mechanical majority this stalwart son of electrical lineage4 ,as the means for furnishing electrical power it stands to-day the great fountain head of electrical generation1 and in its peculiar field ranks as of equal importance with the steam engine4 ,until about #ahfe the voltaic battery1 which generated electricity by chemical decomposition1 was practically the only means for producing electricity for industrial and commercial purposes4 ,it was through its agency that the telegraph1 the electric light1 and many other discoveries in electricity were made and rendered possible4 ,its cost and limited amount of current1 however1 restricted the limits of its practical application1 and although its current could furnish beautiful laboratory experiments1 its mechanical work was more in the nature of illustration than utilization4 ,but with the advent of the dynamo electricity has taken a new and very much larger place in the commercial activities of the world4 ,it runs and warms our cars1 it furnishes our light1 it plates our metals1 it runs our elevators1 it electrocutes our criminals2 and a thousand other things it performs for us with secrecy and dispatch in its silent and forceful way4 ,but what is a dynamo8 ,to the average mind the most satisfactory answer would be--that it is simply a machine which converts mechanical power into electricity4 ,attach a dynamo to a steam engine1 and the power of the steam engine will1 through the dynamo1 become transformed or converted into a powerful electric current4 ,any other source of mechanical power1 such as a water wheel1 gas engine1 wind wheel1 or even a horse or man1 will serve to operate the dynamo2 its primary and sole function being to take power and convert it into electricity4 ,the stepping stone to the dynamo in its development was the magneto-electrical machine4 ,this is a machine founded upon the general principle observed by ,faraday in #ahca and #ahcb1 and also by ,prof4 ,henry about the same time1 that when a magnet is made to approach a helix of insulated wire it causes a current of electricity to flow in the helix as long as the magnet advances4 ,if the magnet is passed through the helix1 the current is reversed as soon as the magnet passes the middle point4 ,the principle is the same if the magnet be made to approach and recede from the poles of an electro-magnet having a helix wound around a soft iron core4 ,likewise the same result occurs if the electro-magnet with its helix is made to approach and recede from a permanent magnet1 the current in the helix flowing in one direction when it approaches the permanent magnet1 and in the opposite direction when leaving the said magnet4 ,the movement of the two elements in relation to each other requires some force to overcome the repellent and attractive actions1 and this force is converted into electrical energy4 ,this is the principle of the magneto-electric machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,pixii ,,magneto-,,electric ,,machine1 #ahcb4 ,saxton in the ,united ,states and ,pixii in ,france were the first to produce organized devices of this class for generating electricity from magnetism4 ,pixii's machine 7#ahcb7 consisted of a permanent horse-shoe magnet which was caused to revolve in proximity to an armature upon which was wound a coil of insulated wire4 ,on ,march #cj1 #aheb1 ,sonnenberg and ,rechten obtained a ,united ,states patent1 ,no4 #h1hdc1 for an electrical machine for killing whales1 and on ,august #ai1 #ahef1 ,shepard obtained ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ae1eif for the machine which came to be known as the 8,alliance0 machine4 ,both of these machines had permanent field magnets1 and were early types of magneto-electric machines4 ,the efficiency of these magneto-electric machines was necessarily limited to the strength of the inducing field magnets1 which1 being permanent magnets1 were a positive and fixed factor4 ,it was an easy step to substitute electro-magnets for permanent magnets1 as the field or inducing magnets1 and also to excite the 7electro7 field magnet by voltaic batteries1 but the important step which resulted in the machine which is called the 8dynamo0 7from the ,greek 80--power7 was yet to come4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,hjorth',s ,,dynamo ,,electric ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,hjorth',s ,,dynamo ,,electric ,,machine1 ,,plan ,,view4 ,this step consisted in taking the current induced in the revolving helix or armature 7by the field magnets7 and sending it back through the coils of the field magnets which produced it1 thereby increasing the energy of the field magnet coils1 and they in turn with an increased efficiency and reciprocal action induce still stronger currents in the armature coils1 and so a building up process1 or principle of mutual and reciprocal excitation1 is carried on until the maximum efficiency is reached4 ,this principle was the discovery of ,soren ,hjorth1 of ,copenhagen1 and is fully described in his ,british patent1 ,no4 #hjf of #ahee1 for 8,an ,improved ,magneto-,electric ,battery40 ,as the prototype of the dynamo1 it is worthy of illustration4 ,in the illustration1 ,figs4 #ah and #ai1 a is a revolving wheel bearing the armature coils1 ,c permanent magnets1 d electro-magnets 7field magnets71 and g the commutator4 ,quoting from his specifications1 he says3 8,the permanent magnets acting on the armatures brought in succession between their poles1 induce a current in the coils of the armatures1 which current1 after having been caused by the commutator to flow in one direction1 passes round the electro-magnets 7field magnets71 charging the same and acting on the armatures4 ,by the mutual action between the electro-magnets and the armatures an accelerating force is obtained1 which in result produces electricity greater in quantity and intensity than has heretofore been obtained by similar means40 ,although the principle of the dynamo was clearly embodied in the ,hjorth patent1 its value was not appreciated until some time later4 ,eleven years later ,wilde 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ei1gch1 ,nov4 #ac1 #ahff71 employed a small machine with permanent magnets to excite the coil-wound field magnets of a larger machine4 ,but ,siemens 7,british ,pat4 ,no4 #bfa of #ahfg71 taking up the principle employed by ,hjorth1 dispensed with his superfluous permanent magnets1 having found that the residual magnetism1 which always remained in iron which has once been magnetized1 was sufficient as a basis to start the building up process4 ,farmer1 ,wheatstone and ,varley also recognized this fact about the same time4 ,siemens' patent also was the first embodiment of what is known as the bobbin armature4 ,gramme and ,d',ivernois 7,british ,pat4 #a1ffh of #ahgj1 and ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #abj1jeg1 of ,oct4 #ag1 #ahga71 were the first to bring out the continuously wound ring armature4 ,active development now began in various types and by various inventors1 including ,weston1 ,brush1 ,edison1 ,thomson and ,houston1 ,westinghouse1 and others1 who have brought the dynamo to its present high efficiency4 ,the revolving coils of the dynamo are called the armature1 and the fixed electro-magnets are called the field magnets1 and these latter may be two or more in number4 ,when two are used they are arranged on opposite sides of the armature1 and form what is known as the bipolar machine4 ,a larger number constitutes the multipolar machine4 ,the field magnets in the multipolar machine usually are arranged in radial position around the entire circumference of the revolving armature1 and are held in a fixed circular frame4 ,to give a clear idea of the principles of the dynamo1 the bipolar machine is best suited for illustration1 and is here given in ,figs4 #bj and #ba1 in which ,fig4 #bj represents the dynamo complete1 and ,fig4 #ba a detail of the end of the armature and commutator4 ,this armature consists of coils or bobbins of insulated wire1 each section having its terminals connected with separate insulated plates on the hub1 which plates are known as the commutator4 ,when any section of the armature approaches the pole of a field magnet1 the current induced in that section of the armature coils by the field magnet1 is taken off from a corresponding plate of the commutator by flat springs1 seen in ,fig4 #bj1 and known as brushes4 ,the field magnets ,a and ,b1 ,fig4 #bj1 are shown with only a few turns of wire about them for clearer illustrations of the connections1 which are made as follows3 ,the wire a is extended in coils around the field magnet ,b1 and thence around field magnet ,a1 and thence to the upper brush on the commutator1 thence through the wire coils or bobbins of the rotary armature ,c1 and thence by the lower brush to the wire b4 ,the terminals of the wires a and b extend to the point of utilization of the current1 whether this be electric lights1 motors1 or other applications4 ,in this illustration1 the circuit1 it will be seen1 passes through both the coils of the field magnets and the coils of the armature1 involving the principle of mutual excitation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,bipolar ,,dynamo4 ,there are two principal kinds of dynamos--those producing the alternating currents1 and those producing the continuous current4 ,in the first the current alternates in direction1 or is composed of an infinite number of impulses of opposite polarity3 one polarity when a section of the armature coil is approaching a north field magnet pole or receding from a south pole1 and the other polarity when receding from a north field magnet pole and approaching a south pole4 ,in the continuous current machine1 the commutator and brushes are so arranged as to take up all the impulses of the same polarity and conduct them away by one brush1 and gathering all the impulses of the opposite polarity and conducting them away by another brush4 ,thus the current of each brush1 in the continuous current machine1 is always of the same polarity1 and the polarity of one being always positive1 and that of the other negative1 the current flows continuously in the same direction4 ,a third species of dynamo is the pulsatory1 in which the current flow is invariable in direction1 but proceeds in waves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,armature ,,of ,,bipolar ,,dynamo4 ,a change in the character of the current generated by the dynamo is made by what is known as the 8transformer10 in which the principle of the induction coil is made available4 ,in this way1 for instance1 the high potential currents generated by the powerful water wheels at ,niagara ,falls are taken twenty miles to ,buffalo1 and are there transformed into other currents of lower potential1 suited to incandescent lighting and other various uses4 ,a similar scheme is in process of fulfillment in the establishment of a water power electric plant near ,conowingo1 ,maryland1 on the ,susquehanna ,river1 to furnish electrical power to ,baltimore1 ,wilmington and ,philadelphia4 ,an important development in electrical generation and transmission is to be found in what is known as the polyphase1 multiphase1 or rotating current1 pioneer patents for which were granted to ,tesla ,may #a1 #ahhh1 ,nos4 #cha1ifh1 #cha1ifi1 #chb1bgi1 #chb1bhj1 #chb1bha and #chb1bhb4 ,realizing the possibilities of the dynamo1 the ,legislature of ,new ,york in #ahhh passed a law1 which went into effect in #ahhi1 in that ,state1 substituting death by electricity for the hangman's noose4 ,the criminal is strapped in the chair1 seen in ,fig4 #bb1 one terminal of the wire from the dynamo is strapped upon his forehead1 and the other to anklets on his legs1 and like a flash of lightning the deadly energy of the dynamo performs its work4 ,not the least of the applications of the dynamo is its use in electro-metallurgy for plating metals1 and also for promoting chemical reactions4 ,the electric furnace1 stimulated into higher heat by the dynamo than can be otherwise obtained1 has brought about many valuable discoveries1 and made great advances in various arts4 ,the metal aluminum1 and the hard abrasive or polishing and grinding material known as 8carborundum0 are the products of the electric furnace1 and so is the product known as 8calcium carbide10 which1 when immersed in water1 gives off acetylene gas and is a product now universally used for that purpose1 and rapidly increasing in commercial importance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,electrocution ,,chair4 ,in ,fig4 #bc is seen the ,acheson electric furnace for producing carborundum4 ,the electric current traverses the furnace through a series of horizontal electrodes at each end1 and highly heats a central core of carbon1 which is disposed in a mass of silicious and carbonaceous material1 and which latter is converted by the heat into silicide of carbon1 or carborundum4 ,in ,fig4 #bd is shown a continuous electric furnace constructed as a revolving wheel1 under the ,bradley patents4 ,rim sections #e are placed on the wheel on one side and filled with a mixture of carbon and lime1 through which the electric current is passed from the dynamo g4 ,the heat of the current fuses the mass and converts it into calcium carbide1 and as the wheel slowly revolves the rim sections #e are removed from the opposite side1 and the mass of calcium carbide1 seen at x1 is broken off4 ,the electrolytic production of copper through the agency of the dynamo amounts to #aej1jjj tons annually1 and the commercial reduction of aluminum by the electric furnace has grown from eighty-three pounds in #ahhc to #e1bjj1jjj pounds in #ahih1 and its cost has been reduced to about #cc cents per pound4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,part ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,carborundum ,,furnace4 ,the storage battery1 holding in reserve its stored up electric energy1 also owes its practical value entirely to the dynamo which charges it1 and thus makes available a portable source of supply4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,bradley ,,electric ,,furnace ,,for ,,producing ,,calcium ,,carbide4 ,to contemplate the dynamo with its clumsy1 enormous spools1 it suggests to the imagination of the average observer the gigantic toy of some ,brobdingnagian boy--but the dynamo is no toy4 ,it is the most compact1 business-like1 and dangerous of all utilitarian devices4 ,to touch its brushes may be instant death1 for the dynamo is the prison house of the lightning1 and resents intrusion4 ,hidden away from public gaze in some sequestered power house1 and working night and day like some tireless1 dumb1 and mighty genii1 it sends its magnetic thrills of force silently through the many miles of wire extending like radii from some great nerve center through the conduits in our streets1 and stretching from pole to pole like giant cobwebs through the air4 ,responding to its force1 thousands of little incandescent threads leap into radiant brightness and shed their mellow and genial light in our offices1 our stores1 hotels1 and homes4 ,brilliant arc lamps1 rivaling the sun in power1 make night into day1 and produce along our streets coruscations1 silhouettes1 and dancing shadows in spectacular and unceasing pageants4 ,from the towering lighthouses of our coasts its beams are thrown seaward1 and a beacon for the mariner shines beyond all other lights4 ,the great search light of our ships is in itself but a hollow mockery until the dynamo whispers in its ear the word 8light60 and then its beam1 reaching for miles along the horizon1 discovers a stealthy enemy1 or signals the safe return to port4 ,the mighty force of the dynamo entering the electric motors on the street cars turns the wheels and transports its load with scarcely a passenger inside realizing how it is all done4 ,the same energy turns the electric fan1 and with kindly service soothes the weary sufferer1 and at another place remorselessly takes the life of the condemned criminal4 ,the dynamo is one of the great factors of modern civilization1 and its potential name1 like that of 8dynamite10 rightly defines its character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,modern ,,multipolar ,,dynamo4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,electric ,,motor4 ,,barlow',s ,,spur ,,wheel--,,dal ,,negro',s ,,electric ,,pendulum--,,prof4 ,,henry',s ,,electric ,,motor--,,jacobi',s ,,electric ,,boat--,,davenport',s ,,motor--,,the ,,neff ,,motor--,,dr4 ,,page',s ,,electric ,,locomotive--,,dr4 ,,siemens' ,,first ,,electric ,,railway ,,at ,,berlin1 #ahgi--;,,first ,,electric ,,railway ,,in ,,united ,,states1 ,,between ,,baltimore ,,and ,,hampden1 #ahhe--,,third ,,rail ,,system--,,statistics ,,electric ,,railways ,,and ,,general ,,electric ,,co4--,,distribution ,,electric ,,current ,,in ,,principal ,,cities4 ,although the electric motor of to-day depends for practical value entirely upon the dynamo which supplies it with electric power1 nevertheless the motor considerably antedated the dynamo4 ,the genesis of the electric motor began in #ahba with ,faraday's observation of the phenomenon of the conversion of an electric current into mechanical motion4 ,in his experiment a copper wire was supported in a vertical position so as to dip into a cup of mercury1 while a small bar magnet was anchored at one end by a thread to the bottom of the cup and floated in the mercury in upright position4 ,the mass of mercury being connected to one pole of a battery1 and the vertical wire to the other1 it was found that when the circuit was completed by clipping the wire into the mercury1 the floating bar magnet would revolve around the wire as a center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,barlow',s ,,wheel4 ,in #ahbf ,barlow1 of ,woolwich1 made his electrical spur wheel1 ,fig4 #bf1 and in #ahcj the ,abbe ,dal ,negro1 in ,padua1 is said to have constructed a sort of vibrating electrical pendulum1 both of which devices were crude forms of magnetic engines4 ,dal ,negro's machine1 see ,fig4 #bg1 consisted of a magnet ,a1 movable about an axis situated about one-third of its length1 and the upper extremity of which was capable of oscillating between the two branches of an electro-magnet ,e4 ,a current being sent into the electro-magnet1 passed through an eight-cupped mercurial commutator ,c1 which the oscillating magnet controlled by means of a rod t and a fork ,f4 ,when the magnet had been attracted toward one of the poles of the electro-magnet this very motion of attraction acting upon the commutator changed the direction of the current1 and the magnet was repelled toward the other branch of the electro-magnet1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,dal ,,negro',s ,,electric ,,motor4 ,in #ahbh ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry produced his energetic electro-magnets sustaining weights of some thousands of pounds1 and gave prophetic suggestion of the possibilities of electricity as a motive power4 ,in #ahca he devised the electric motor shown in ,fig4 #bh1 which is described in ,prof4 ,henry's own words as follows3 8,a ,b is the horizontal magnet1 about seven inches long1 and movable on an axis at the center2 its two extremities when placed in a horizontal line are about one inch from the north poles of the upright magnets ,c and ,d4 ,g and ,f are two large tumblers containing diluted acid1 in each of which is immersed a plate of zinc surrounded with copper2 l m s t are four brass thimbles soldered to the zinc and copper of the batteries and filled with mercury4 8,the galvanic magnet ,a ,b is wound with three strands of copper bell wire1 each about twenty-five feet long2 the similar ends of these are twisted together so as to form two stiff wires q r1 which project beyond the extremity ,b1 and dip into the thimbles s t4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,prof4 ,,henry',s ,,electric ,,motor4 8,to the wires q r two other wires are soldered so as to project in an opposite direction1 and dip into the thimbles l m4 ,the wires of the galvanic magnet have thus1 as it were1 four projecting ends2 and by inspecting the figure it will be seen that the extremity p1 which dips into the cup m1 attached to the copper of the battery in ,g1 corresponds to the extremity r which dips into the cup t1 connecting1 with the zinc in battery ,f4 ,when the batteries are in action1 if the end ,b is depressed until q r dips into the cups s t1 ,a ,b instantly becomes a powerful magnet1 having its north pole at ,b2 this1 of course1 is repelled by the north pole ,d1 while at the same time it is attracted by ,c2 the position is consequently changed1 and o p comes in contact with the mercury in l m2 as soon as the communication is formed1 the poles are reversed1 and the position again changed4 ,if the tumblers be filled with strong diluted acid1 the motion is at first very rapid and powerful1 but it soon almost entirely ceases4 ,by partially filling the tumblers with weak acid1 and occasionally adding a small quantity of fresh acid1 a uniform motion1 at the rate of seventy-five vibrations in a minute1 has been kept up for more than an hour2 with a large battery and very weak acid the motion might be continued for an indefinite length of time40 ,following ,prof4 ,henry came ,sturgeon's rotary motor of #ahcb1 ,jacobi's rotary motor of #ahcd1 ,fig4 #bi1 which had electro-magnets both in the field and armature2 ,davenport's motor of #ahcd1 ,zabriskie's motor of #ahcg1 in which a vibrating magnet converted reciprocating into rotary motion2 ,davenport's motor of #ahcg 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #acb1 ,feb4 #be1 #ahcg71 ,fig4 #cj2 ,page's rotary motor of #ahch1 ,walkley's motor of #ahch 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #hji1 ,june #bg1 #ahch72 ,stimson's motor of #ahch 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #iaj1 ,sept4 #ab1 #ahch72 ,page's motor of #ahci1 ,cook's of #ahdj 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #a1gce1 ,aug4 #be1 #ahdj72 ,elias' motor of #ahdb1 invented in ,holland2 ,lillie's motor of #ahej 7,u ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #g1bhg1 ,april #af1 #ahej72 the ,neff motor of #ahea 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #g1hhi1 ,jan4 #g1 #ahea71 of which illustration is given in ,fig4 #ca1 and ,page's motor of #ahed 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #aj1dhj1 ,jan4 #ca1 #ahed74 ,in #ahce ,davenport constructed a small circular railway at ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,jacobi',s ,,rotary ,,electric ,,motor4 ,in #ahci ,prof4 ,jacobi1 with the aid of ,emperor ,nicholas1 applied his electric motor to a boat #bh feet long1 carrying fourteen passengers1 and propelled the same at a speed of three miles an hour4 ,about the same time ,robert ,davidson1 a ,scotchman1 experimented with an electric railway car sixteen feet long1 weighing six tons1 and attaining a speed of four miles an hour4 ,in #ahdj ,davenport1 by means of his electric motor1 printed a news sheet called the ,electro ,magnet and ,mechanics' ,intelligencer4 ,in #ahea an electric locomotive made by ,dr4 ,page in accordance with his subsequent patent of #ahed1 drew a train of cars from ,washington to ,bladensburg at a rate of nineteen miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,davenport ,,motor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,neff ,,motor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,westinghouse ,,electric ,,motor4 ,all these motors were operated by voltaic batteries1 and on account of the cost of the latter but little practical use of the electric motor was made until the dynamo was invented4 ,in #ahgc an accidental discovery led to the rapid practical development of the electric motor4 ,it is said that at the industrial exhibition at ,vienna in that year1 a number of ,gramme dynamos were being placed in position1 and a workman in making the electrical connections for one of these machines1 inadvertently connected it to another dynamo in active operation1 and was surprised to find that the dynamo he was connecting began to revolve in the opposite direction4 ,this was the clue that led to the important recognition of the structural identity of the dynamo and the modern type of electric motor4 ,the dynamo and the electric motor then grew into development together1 and the same inventors who brought the dynamo to its present high efficiency1 produced electric motors of corresponding principles and value4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #cb1 is shown a modern electric motor4 ,it is a ,westinghouse two-phase machine1 of #cjj horse power1 of the self starting induction type1 designed to operate at a speed of #ejj revolutions per minute when supplied with two-phase currents of #c1jjj alternations per minute and #b1jjj volts pressure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,siemens' ,,first ,,electric ,,railway4 ,the most important application of the electric motor is for street car operation4 ,the first electric railway was that of ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens1 at ,berlin1 in #ahgi1 an illustration of which is given in ,fig4 #cc4 ,the first electric railway in ,america was installed at ,baltimore in #ahhe1 and ran to ,hampden1 a distance of two miles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,overhead ,,trolley ,,car4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,underground ,,electric ,,trolley ,,system4 ,the familiar overhead trolley cars1 and the far superior conduit trolley system1 represent perhaps the largest use made of electric motors4 ,the motors are arranged under the cars in varying forms adapted to the structure of the car4 ,in the overhead trolley1 shown in ,fig4 #cd1 the current is taken from the overhead wire by a flexible trolley pole1 and in the conduit system a trolley known as a plow extends from the bottom of the car through a narrow slot in the top of the conduit and makes a traveling contact with the conductor rails within the conduit1 which carry the electric current4 ,fig4 #ce is an end view of a street car of the latter type1 with the conduit and conductor rails in cross section4 ,the current goes from one rail to one bearing surface of the plow1 thence to the motor on the car and back to the other bearing surface of the plow and the other conductor rail in the conduit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,third ,,rail ,,system ,,on ,,the ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,railroad--,,front ,,end ,,of ,,motor ,,car4 ,a third system1 which has supplanted to some extent the use of steam on short line railways1 is the so-called third rail system1 of which an example is seen in ,fig4 #cf4 ,a third conductor rail is placed between the usual track rails1 and from this conductor the current is taken by a sliding shoe on the car1 and carried to the motor and thence through the car wheels to the track rails4 ,to reduce danger from the live rail1 the third rail in some systems is made in sections1 and1 by an automatic switching process as the car moves along1 only the sections of the rail beneath the car are brought into circuit1 all other portions being cut out4 ,the use of electric motors has greatly extended1 cheapened1 and expedited the street car service4 ,all the principal thoroughfares of cities and even towns are now so equipped1 and radiating suburban lines extend for miles from the city1 affording for five cents a pleasant and cheap excursion for the poor to the green fields and fresh air of the country4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,electric ,,railway ,,motor1 ,,closed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,electric ,,railway ,,motor1 ,,opened4 ,figs4 #cg and #ch show an electric motor used on street cars1 as made by the ,general ,electric ,company4 ,externally it presents the appearance of some curious1 uncouth1 cast iron box1 which1 to the uninitiated1 piques the curiosity1 and when opened adds no explanation of its real character4 ,in it1 however1 the electrician finds a most interesting combination of metal and magnetism4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,electric ,,locomotive ,,of ,b4 ,o4 ,,tunnel ,,in ,,baltimore4 ,in ,fig4 #ci is shown one of the most powerful electric locomotives ever constructed4 ,it was built in #ahie by the ,general ,electric ,company for the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railroad1 to draw trains through the long tunnel from the ,camden ,street ,station in ,baltimore1 for the purpose of avoiding smoke and gas in the tunnel1 which is #g1cci feet long4 ,the locomotive weighs ninety-six tons1 or twenty-five tons above the average steam locomotive4 ,it was designed to draw #ajj trains daily each way1 moving passenger trains of a maximum weight of #ejj tons at thirty-five miles an hour1 and freight trains of #a1bjj tons at fifteen miles an hour4 ,it has two trucks1 and eight drive wheels of sixty-two inches diameter4 ,there are four motors1 two to each truck1 each rated at #cfj horse power4 ,other important applications of the electric motor are1 the propelling of automobile carriages1 small boats1 and fish torpedoes1 operating steering gear for ships1 passenger elevators1 rock drills in mines1 running printing presses1 fans1 sewing machines1 graphophones1 and in all applications where space is limited and cleanliness a desideratum4 ,according to ,mulhall there were in #ahij in the ,united ,states and ,canada about #fde miles of street railway operated by electricity4 ,this about concluded the first decade of the life of the electric railway4 ,some idea of the rapid increase in this field may be had by the statement of the same authority that there were in #ahij1 at the end of this first decade1 forty-five additional electric railroads in course of construction1 aggregating #eab miles of way1 which nearly doubled the previous existing mileage4 ,in #ahih it was estimated that there were in the ,united ,states #ad1jjj miles of electric railroads1 with a nominal capital of #a1jjj1jjj1jjj1 and employing #agj1jjj men4 ,in the same year a single electrical contract was entered into between the ,third ,avenue ,railroad and the ,union ,railway ,company of ,new ,york1 acting as one1 and the ,westinghouse ,electrical and ,manufacturing ,company1 amounting to #e1jjj1jjj4 ,this was for the electrical equipment of their respective railway lines1 and is the largest electrical contract ever made4 ,the change in equipment from other motive power to the electric is rapidly going on in all directions1 and the rapid succession of trains will doubtless cause it1 for passenger traffic on short lines1 to eventually supersede steam4 ,the eighth annual report of the ,general ,electric ,company shows for the year #ahii orders received for railway and other electrical equipment amounting to #bf1cbc1fbf2 goods shipped1 #bb1cgi1dfc4ge2 profit on same1 #c1hje1hfj4ah4 ,the growth of its business from #ahic to #ahii shows the following per cent4 of increase3 ,in #ahic1 #cf per cent4 above #ahib2 in #ahid1 #abf per cent4 above #ahic2 in #ahie1 #aj per cent4 above #ahid2 in #ahif1 #fj per cent4 above #ahie2 in #ahig1 #fj per cent4 above #ahif2 in #ahih1 #ba per cent4 above #ahig2 in #ahii1 #ea per cent4 above #ahih4 ,the capitalization in electrical appliances in the ,united ,states in #ahih is estimated at #a1ijj1jjj1jjj1 most of which is devoted to industries in which the electric motor is used4 ,the export of electrical apparatus from this country amounts to more than three million dollars annually1 and it is said that there are eight times as many electric railways in the ,united ,states as in all the rest of the world combined4 ,the use of electrical current in twelve principal cities in the ,united ,states was distributed in #ahih as follows3 ,lamps1 arcs1 and motors in sixteen candle power equivalents4 ,boston #faf1jjj ,new ,york #a1gah1jjj ,chicago #a1bgh1jjj ,brooklyn #cbb1jjj ,baltimore #bbd1jjj ,philadelphia #dhh1jjj ,st4 ,louis #cjc1jjj ,san ,francisco #bca1jjj ,buffalo #abe1jjj ,rochester #ahd1jjj ,cincinnati #bja1jjj ,new ,orleans #ha1jjj ,boston makes the largest use of electrical current in proportion to its population of any city in the world4 ,rochester is next4 ,both of these cities employ in electrical units of #af c4 p4 equivalents1 more than one electric lamp for every man1 woman and child in their respective populations4 ,the dynamo and the electric motor have together wrought this great development4 ,the dynamo takes mechanical power and converts it into electrical energy1 and the electric motor takes the electrical energy and converts it back into mechanical power4 ,standing behind them both1 however1 is the steam engine1 and these three afford a beautiful illustration of the law of correlation of forces4 ,the force starts with the combustion of coal under the boiler of the steam engine4 ,when carbon unites chemically with oxygen1 it is an exothermic reaction that gives off heat as correlated energy4 ,the influence of heat on the molecules of water in the boiler causes them1 by repellent action1 to assume the qualities of an elastic gas1 and this expanding as steam drives the piston of the steam engine4 ,the steam engine overcomes by force the resistance existing between the dynamo's field magnets and armature coil1 and sets up in the latter the correlated force of an electric current1 and the electric current1 traveling to its remote destination by suitable conductors1 enters the coils of the electric motor in reverse relation to that of the dynamo1 and in producing the reverse effect between the armature and field magnets1 electrical energy is converted back into mechanical power4 ,it is not possible to obtain in the electric motor the full equivalent of the dynamo's current1 nor in the dynamo the full equivalent of the steam engine's power1 nor in the steam engine the full equivalent of the chemical energy in the combustion of coal4 ,loss by radiation1 by conduction1 by friction1 and by electrical resistance precludes this1 but while there is loss in a utilitarian sense there is no real loss1 for force like matter1 is indestructible1 and the proof of this universal law by ,joule1 in #ahdc1 constitutes one of the highest triumphs of philosophy and one of the most important discoveries of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,electric ,,light4 ,,voltaic ,,arc ,,by ,,sir ,,humphrey ,,davy--,,the ,,jablochkoff ,,candle--,,patents ,,of ,,brush1 ,,weston ,,and ,,others--,,search ,,lights--,,grove',s ,,first ,,incandescent ,,lamp--,,starr-,,king ,,lamp--,,moses ,,farmer ,,lights ,,first ,,dwelling ,,with ,,electric ,,lamps--,,sawyer-,,man ,,lamp--,,edison',s ,,incandescent ,,lamp-- ,,edison',s ,,three-,,wire ,,system ,,of ,,circuits--,,statistics4 ,the popular idea of the electric light is1 that it is a very recent invention1 since even the younger generation remembers when there was no such thing in general use4 ,it will surprise many readers1 then1 to know that the electric light had its birth in the first decade of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,in #ahji ,sir ,humphrey ,davy discovered that when two pieces of charcoal1 which formed the terminals of a powerful voltaic battery1 were separated after having been brought into contact with each other1 at the moment of separation a brilliant arc of flame passed from one piece of charcoal to the other1 producing a temperature of #d1hjj ,f41 and that the intensity of the light exceeded all other known forms of light4 ,various improvements in the organization of devices were made for holding the two pieces of carbon1 which in time assumed the form of two pencils in alignment1 as in ,fig4 #dj1 and devices were provided for feeding one carbon toward the other as they burned away4 ,clock mechanism for thus regulating the feed was first employed1 which served to automatically keep the carbons a definite distance apart1 this being a necessary condition of the arc4 ,for many years1 however1 the use of such a light was confined to laboratory illustration1 for the reason that it could only be produced at great expense by a large number of voltaic batteries4 ,nevertheless very efficient electric lamps working by voltaic batteries were devised by ,foucault1 ,duboscq1 ,deleuil and others as early as #ahec4 ,with the advent of the dynamo1 however1 the electric light grew rapidly and developed into conspicuous use4 ,even before the true dynamo was invented the magneto-electric machine was employed for producing an electric current to supply electric light4 ,the so-called 8,alliance0 generator was1 in #aheh1 used in the ,south ,foreland lighthouse in ,england to supply the arc lamps1 and the beams of the electric light then1 for the first time1 were turned seaward as a beacon for the mariner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,simple ,,electric ,,arc ,,lamp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,,jablochkoff ,,candle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,weston ,,arc ,,lamp4 ,among the early developments of the electric light was the ,jablochkoff candle1 see ,fig4 #da1 brought out in #ahgg4 ,in this device two parallel sticks of carbon ,g ,g were separated by a non-conducting layer of kaolin ,i1 and were held in an asbestos ferrule ,a4 ,metal tubes ,t ,t connected the conducting wires ,f ,f to the carbons4 ,the arc of flame passed from the top of one carbon to the other1 fusing the separating layer of kaolin1 and the whole burned down together as a candle4 ,this form of electric light was extensively used in ,paris in #ahgg1 and also in ,london1 and attracted considerable attention4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,,arc ,,lamp ,,feed ,,mechanism4 ,from the ,jablochkoff candle the arc light has resumed the form of two vertically aligned carbons1 and after passing through various forms and patterns1 of which the ,weston lamp1 ,fig4 #db1 is a modern type1 has come into such universal and conspicuous use for lighting the streets of our cities1 and is so well known to-day1 that but little need be said of its development1 since its real character has undergone no change in principle1 the improvements relating chiefly to means for regulating the feed of the carbons and maintaining them at a uniform distance apart1 so as to avoid flickering4 ,this result is obtained by automatic mechanism operated by the electric current acting upon electro-magnets1 as shown in ,fig4 #dc1 in which the electro-magnets raise the upper carbon when it is too close to the lower carbon1 and lower the upper carbon when the space becomes too great from burning away4 ,among those who have contributed to the development of the arc light the names of ,brush1 ,weston1 and ,thomson and ,houston are most conspicuous1 and the patents of ,brush1 ,no4 #bjc1daa1 ,may #g1 #ahgh1 and ,no4 #bab1ahc1 ,feb4 #aa1 #ahgi1 and ,weston1 ,no4 #bhe1dea1 ,sept4 #be1 #ahhc1 are the most representative developments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,nine ,,thousand ,,candle ,,power ,,arc ,,lamp4 ,the applications of the arc light have been brilliant beyond the dreams of the most sanguine inventor4 ,in the illustrations number #dd1 #de and #df1 is shown a gigantic electric light beacon manufactured by ,henry ,lepaute1 of ,paris1 and first exhibited in this country at the ,chicago ,world's ,fair1 in #ahic4 ,it consists of two great lenses1 each nine feet in diameter1 between which1 in their focus1 is placed a #i1jjj candle power arc light4 ,the great lantern1 ,fig4 #de1 is carried by a vertical shaft1 which terminates at its lower end in a hollow drum1 which latter floats in a bath of mercury4 ,although the weight is estimated at several tons1 so sensitive is its poise on the mercury that the enormous lantern may be easily rotated by the pressure of one's finger4 ,each lens consists of concentric segments1 see ,fig4 #df1 #aij in number1 surrounding a central disk1 which together cause the rays to issue in parallel lines4 ,the nine-foot beam of light thus projected is of #ij1jjj1jjj candle power1 and if placed at a sufficient altitude to avoid the curvature of the earth's surface1 its light would be visible at the range of #adf4i nautical miles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,ninety ,,million ,,candle ,,power ,,bivalve ,,lens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,front ,,view ,,of ,,lens4 ,better known to the patrons of our excursion boats and the visitors to our splendid battleships1 are the electric search lights4 ,the greatest example of all search lights1 however1 is not to be found on the sea1 but in the picturesque altitudes of the ,sierra ,madres in ,southern ,california4 ,at the summit of ,mount ,lowe1 in the neighborhood of ,pasadena1 is the largest search light in the world1 shown in illustration1 ,fig4 #dh4 ,it is of #c1jjj1jjj candle power1 stands eleven feet high1 and its total weight is #f1jjj pounds4 ,its light may be seen for #aej miles out on the ocean1 and as its powerful beam is thrown from mountain top to mountain top hundreds of miles apart1 it adds the illumination of art to the sublimity of nature1 and seems a fitting jewel to this lofty crown of ,mother ,earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,search ,,light ,,with ,,machine ,,gun ,,repelling ,,night ,,attack ,,of ,,torpedo ,,boat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,search ,,light ,,on ,,mount ,,lowe1 ,,california4 ,brilliant as is the arc lamp1 far more in evidence is the incandescent lamp4 ,the little glass bulb with its tiny thread of light we find everywhere4 ,popular opinion and the decision of the courts accord this invention to ,thomas ,a4 ,edison4 ,the evolution of the incandescent lamp is1 however1 interesting1 and may be briefly sketched as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,,first ,,incandescent ,,lamp1 ,,by ,,professor ,,grove1 #ahdj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,starr-,,king ,,lamp4 ,in #ahde there appeared in the ,philosophical ,magazine a description of what was probably the first incandescent electric light4 ,it was devised in #ahdj by ,william ,robert ,grove1 the inventor of the ,grove battery1 and is illustrated in ,fig4 #di4 ,it is stated that he experimented and read by it for hours4 ,it was described as follows3 8,a coil of platinum wire is attached to two copper wires1 the lower parts of which1 or those most distant from the platinum1 are well varnished2 these are fixed erect in a glass of distilled water1 and another cylindrical glass1 closed at the upper end1 is inverted over them1 so that its open mouth rests on the bottom of the former glass2 the projecting ends of the copper wires are connected with a voltaic battery 7two or three pairs of the nitric acid combination71 and the ignited wire now gives a steady light4 ,instead of making the wires pass through the water1 they may be fixed to metallic caps well luted to the necks of a glass globe40 ,in #ahde ,august ,king patented1 in ,england1 an incandescent lamp1 having an unsealed platinum burner1 and also a carbon in a vacuum4 ,mr4 ,king acted as agent for an ,american inventor1 ,mr4 ,starr1 and the lamp came to be known as the ,starr-,king lamp1 shown in ,fig4 #ej4 ,the burner was a thin plate or pencil of carbon ,b1 enclosed in a ,torricellian vacuum at the end of an inverted barometer tube1 and held between the terminals of the connecting wires leading to a battery4 ,in #ahei ,moses ,g4 ,farmer lighted his house at ,salem1 ,mass41 by a series of subdivided electric lights1 which was the first private dwelling lighted by electricity1 and probably the first illustration of the feasibility of subdividing the electric current through a number of electric lamps4 ,in #ahgg ,william ,e4 ,sawyer applied for a ,united ,states patent for an electric engineering and lighting system1 and in ,january1 #ahgh1 entered into a partnership with ,albon ,man1 and the 8,sawyer-,man0 lamp1 see ,fig4 #ea1 was produced4 ,in this an incandescent rod of carbon was inclosed in an atmosphere of nitrogen4 ,this marked the beginning of a period of great activity in this field1 which finally resulted in the well known form of electric lamp shown in ,fig4 #eb1 which was patented by ,edison1 ,no4 #bbc1hih1 ,january #bg1 #ahhj4 ,the distinctive features of this lamp consisted in a bowed filament of carbon of very thin1 thread-like character1 which was made of paper or carbonized cellulose4 ,this1 when sealed in a vacuum1 would not burn away1 but would give the proper incandescence1 and by its small transverse dimension and high resistance to the current1 permitted a proper distribution of the electric current to a number of lamps1 without a special regulator for each lamp2 and which could also be made so cheaply that the lamp could be thrown away when the burner was finally broken4 ,edison's claim on this feature of the electric lamp was sharply contested in an interference in the ,patent ,office by ,sawyer and ,man1 with the decisions alternating first in favor of one and then of the other1 but which finally resulted in the grant of a patent to ,sawyer and ,man1 on ,may #ab1 #ahhe4 ,a struggle then began in the courts1 which on ,october #d1 #ahib1 terminated in a decision by the ,united ,states ,court of ,appeals 7,edison ,electric ,light ,company vs4 ,united ,states ,lighting ,company71 awarding the incandescent lamp to ,edison4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,sawyer-,,man ,,lamp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,edison',s ,,electric ,,lamp4 ,a--,exhausted globe4 ,b--,carbon filament4 ,,cc--,wires sealed in glass4 ,d--,line of fusion of two parts of globe4 ,,ef--,insulating material4 ,g--,screw-threads4 ,,hi--,metal socket4 ,j--,fixture arm ,k--,circuit controlling key4 ,in the early demonstration given by ,edison great disturbance was caused in the stock exchanges among the holders of gas shares1 as the sensational reportings in the press seemed to indicate that gas was to be superseded entirely4 ,this uneasiness on the ,london ,stock ,exchange amounted on ,october #aa1 #ahgh1 to a veritable panic1 but while the electric light has more than fulfilled the prophecy made for it in many directions1 gas shares still continue to be good stocks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,electric ,,light ,,circuit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,edison',s ,,three ,,wire ,,system ,,of ,,electric ,,light ,,circuits4 ,closely allied to the practical use of the incandescent lamp is the method of supplying and regulating the current from the dynamo4 ,although the alternating current is used for arc light1 only the continuous current can be used for the incandescent lights1 and the relation of the dynamo and the incandescent lamps is shown in ,fig4 #ec1 in which ,l represents the lamps between the main conducting wires leading from the dynamo1 which latter has the coils of the field magnets arranged in a shunt or branch circuit1 in which is interposed a regulator ,r in the form of a resistance coil with movable switch lever1 by which more or less of the current is allowed to flow through the field magnet coils to suit the work being done4 ,in late years automatic regulators have been provided for accomplishing this result4 ,in ,fig4 #ed is shown what is known as the ,edison 8three wire system10 patented ,march #bj1 #ahhc1 ,no4 #bgd1bij4 ,in this two dynamos are used as at ,d ,d1 and the three wires emerge from the dynamos1 one from the negative pole of one dynamo1 another from the positive pole of the other dynamo1 and the third or middle one is connected to both the other poles 7positive and negative71 of the two dynamos4 ,for purposes of illustration1 this may be compared to a three-storied arrangement of current1 the upper wire representing the third story1 the middle wire the second story1 and the bottom one the first story4 ,the fall from either story to the next represents the working energy1 but from the top wire to the bottom would be equal to a fall from the third story to the first4 ,the purpose of this arrangement is to save expense in copper wire1 for while three main wires are used instead of two1 the aggregate weight of the wires 7when the lamps are arranged as shown71 may be made so much less than two heavy wires as to make a very great saving in copper4 ,the uses of the incandescent light are legion4 ,besides those which are of common observation it is used for lighting the interior of mines1 caves1 and the dark apartments of ships1 and does not foul the air4 ,it is also used by divers in submarine operations2 in the formation of advertising signs1 and in pyrotechnics1 but perhaps one of the most extraordinary uses to which it has been put is in exploring the interior of the human stomach and other cavities of the body1 a patent for which was granted to ,m4 ,c4 ,f4 ,nitze1 ,no4 #bah1jee1 ,july #bi1 #ahgi4 ,when an electric lamp is arranged with the opposite ends of the carbon burner connected1 one to the outgoing1 the other to the incoming wires from a dynamo1 so as to be bridged across1 this arrangement is said to be 8in multiple0 or 8in parallel10 and the lamps bear the analogy of horses drawing abreast1 and when the opposite ends of the carbon burner are placed in a gap or break in either the outgoing or the incoming wire1 the arrangement is said to be 8in series10 and the lamps bear the analogy of horses in tandem4 ,explanation of electric nomenclature can best be given by the analogy in hydrostatics of a stream of water passing in the hose pipe from a fire-engine4 ,the 8watt0 indicates the sum total unit of electrical power for a definite period of time1 and in the hose pipe would be represented by the effective force of a definite volume of water1 passing at a definite pressure1 during a definite period of time4 8,volt0 is a pressure unit of electro-motive force1 and would be represented by the power of the engine4 8,ampere0 would be the quantity1 or volume unit1 or cross section of the hose pipe1 and the 8ohm0 would be the unit of frictional resistance4 ,the 8watt0 then would be the 8volt0 multiplied by the 8ampere02 thus #ejj watts would be #aj amperes at #ej volts1 or #ej amperes at #aj volts4 ,low tension circuits1 such as are used for incandescent lights1 range from #ajj to #bdj volts and are harmless4 ,trolley circuits are usually #ejj volts1 and will kill an animal1 but are not necessarily fatal to man4 ,high tension currents from #b1jjj to #e1jjj volts1 such as are used for arc lights1 are fatal4 ,of all modern inventions1 not one has advertised itself in such a spectacular way as the electric light4 ,those who have seen the magnificent electrical displays at the ,chicago ,fair1 the electrical celebrations in ,new ,york1 and the ,omaha ,exhibition1 need no introduction to its marvelous splendors and beauties4 ,in the annual report for #ahih of the ,edison ,electric ,illuminating ,company of ,new ,york1 its statement shows that for that city alone the gross earnings were #b1hih1jba4 ,there were #i1iij users of the electric light1 #ddc1jgd incandescent lamps1 and #g1cec arc lights4 ,it is estimated that the electric light stations and plants in the ,united ,states alone amount to #fjj1jjj1jjj4 ,in the year #ahii a single manufacturing concern 7,the ,general ,electric ,company7 received orders for #aj1jjj1jjj incandescent lamps1 which is about one-half of the present annual production4 ,sixteen years ago the lamps were #a each2 to-day they can be bought for #ah cents4 ,what the future has in store for the further development of the electric light no one may dare predict4 ,already a different form or manifestation of electric light has been demonstrated1 in which neither the electric arc nor the incandescent filament is used1 but a peculiar glow is seen disassociated from a direct material habitation1 and produced by currents of enormous frequency and high potential1 in accordance with the patent to ,tesla1 ,no4 #ded1fbb1 ,june #bc1 #ahia4 ,other worthy inventors in this field are at work1 and its development will be one of the interesting problems of the ,twentieth ,century4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,telephone4 ,,preliminary ,,suggestions ,,and ,,experiments ,,of ,,bourseul1 ,,reis ,,and ,,drawbaugh--,,first ,,speaking ,,telephone ,,by ,,prof4 ,,bell--,,differences ,,between ,,reis' ,,and ,,bell',s ,,telephones--,,the ,,blake ,,transmitter-- ,,berliner',s ,,variation ,,of ,,resistance1 ,,and ,,electric ,,undulations ,,by ,,variation ,,of ,,pressure--,,edison',s ,,carbon ,,microphone--,,the ,,telephone ,,exchange--,,statistics4 7far71 and 7sound71 are the ,greek roots from which the word telephone is derived4 ,it has the significance of transmitting sound to distant points1 and is a word antedating the present speaking telephone1 although this fact is generally lost sight of in the dazzling brilliancy of this latter invention4 ,in the effort to hear better1 the ,american ,indian was accustomed to place his ear to the ground4 ,children of former generations also made use of a toy known as the 8lovers' telegraph0--a piece of string held under tension between the flexible bottoms of two tin boxes--which latter when spoken into transmitted through the string the vibrations from one box to the other1 and made audible words spoken at a distance4 ,these expedients simply made available the superior conductivity of the solid body over the air to transmit sound waves4 ,the electro-magnetic telephone operates on an entirely different principle4 ,it is a marvelous creation of genius1 and stands alone as the unique1 superb1 and unapproachable triumph of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,for subtilty of principle1 impressiveness of action1 and breadth of results1 there is nothing comparable with it among mechanical agencies4 ,in its wonderful function of placing one intelligent being in direct vocal and sympathetic communication with another a thousand miles away1 its intangible and mysterious mode of action suggests to the imagination that unseen medium of prayer rising from the conscious human heart to its omniscient and responsive ,god4 ,the telegraph and railroad had already brought all the peoples of the earth into intimate communication and made them close kin1 but the telephone transformed them into the closer relationship of families1 and the tiny wire1 sentient and responsive with its unlimited burden of human thoughts and human feelings1 forms one of the great vital cords in the solidarity of the human family4 ,it is a curious fact that many1 and perhaps most1 great inventions have been in the nature of accidental discoveries1 the by-products of thought directed in another channel1 and seeking other results1 but the telephone does not belong to this class4 ,it is the logical and magnificent outcome of persistent thought and experiment in the direction of the electrical transmittal of speech4 ,prof4 ,bell had his objective point1 and keeping this steadily in view1 worked faithfully for the accomplishment of his object in producing a speaking telephone1 until success crowned his work4 ,he probably did not realize at first the full magnitude of the achievement1 but looking at it from the end of the ,nineteenth ,century1 he might well exclaim in the language of ,horace3 8,exegi monumentum acre perennius40 ,prof4 ,bell's conception of the telephone dates back as far as #ahgd4 ,his first ,united ,states patent1 ,no4 #agd1dfe1 was granted ,march #g1 #ahgf1 and his second ,january #cj1 #ahgg1 ,no4 #ahf1ghg4 ,it is generally the fate of most inventions1 even of a meritorious order1 to languish for many years1 and frequently through the whole term of the patent1 before receiving full recognition and adoption by the public1 but the meteoric brilliancy of this invention at its first public announcement astonished the masses1 and inspired the admiration of the savants of the world4 ,when exhibited at the ,centennial ,exhibition in ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf1 it was spoken of by ,sir ,william ,thomson1 and ,prof4 ,henry1 as the 8greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,philip ,,reis' ,,telephone4 ,it is always the fate of the author of any great invention to be compelled to defend himself against the claims of others4 ,it is one of the failings of human nature to lay claim to that which somebody else has obtained1 and is an old story which finds its first illustration in the squabbles of childhood4 ,when a troop of prattling boys hunt butterflies among the daisies1 and some sharp-eyed youngster has captured a prize1 there are always others of his mates to cry1 8,i saw it first10 and men are but grown-up boys4 ,so in the history of the telephone1 ,prof4 ,bell has found competitors for this honor1 and it is astonishing to know how close some of these prior experimenters came to success without reaching it4 ,in #ahed ,bourseul1 of ,paris suggested an electric telephone1 and in #ahfa ,philip ,reis devised an electric telephone which would transmit musical tones4 ,daniel ,drawbaugh1 of ,pennsylvania1 is alleged to have made an electric telephone in #ahfg-ahfh1 and his claims against the ,bell interests were fought vigorously in the ,patent ,office1 and in the courts1 but without success4 ,elisha ,gray's claims perhaps came nearer to establishing for him a share in the honor of inventing the speaking telephone than any other1 for he filed a caveat in the ,united ,states ,patent ,office upon the same day 7,february #ad1 #ahgf71 upon which ,prof4 ,bell's application for a patent was made4 ,but in the contest in the ,patent ,office with ,gray1 ,edison1 ,berliner1 ,richmond1 ,holcombe1 ,farmer1 ,dolbear1 ,volker1 and others1 it was decided that ,prof4 ,bell was the first to make a practically effective speaking telephone1 and this conclusion has been sustained by the courts4 ,reis was a poor ,german school teacher at ,friedrichsdorf1 and in #ahfj he took a coil of wire1 a knitting needle1 the skin of a ,german sausage1 the bung of a beer barrel1 and a strip of platinum1 and constructed the first electric telephone4 ,a typical form of his transmitter1 see ,fig4 #ee1 was a box covered with a vibrating membrane ,e1 and provided with a mouth-piece at one side4 ,a platinum strip ,f was attached to the membrane or vibrating diaphragm ,e1 and a platinum pointed hammer ,g rested lightly on the platinum strip ,f4 ,the hammer ,g and platinum strip ,f were connected to the opposite ends of a wire1 which had in its circuit a battery and a receiver4 ,air vibrations in the nature of sound waves in the box caused the diaphragm ,e to vibrate1 and a separating make-and-break contact between the platinum strip ,f and the platinum point of hammer ,g caused a series of separate and distinct broken impulses to traverse the battery circuit and be received upon the receiver1 which latter consisted of an iron rod with a coil of wire around it4 ,that ,reis' transmitter did alternately make and break the circuit1 seems clear from his own memoir4 ,a translation from this memoir1 taken from the annual report 7,jahresberichte7 of the ,physical ,society of ,frankfurt am ,main for #ahfj-ahfa1 reads as follows3 8,at the first condensation 7of air vibrations7 the hammer-shaped little wire d 7,g in our illustration71 will be pushed back4 ,at the succeeding rarefaction it cannot follow the return vibration of the membrane1 and the current going through the little strip 7of platinum7 remains interrupted so long as until the membrane driven by a new condensation presses the little strip against d 7the hammer ,g7 once more4 ,in this way each sound wave effects an opening and closing of the current40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,prof4 ,,bell',s ,,telephone1 ,,march #g1 #ahgf4 ,reis evidently did not know how to make the vibrations of his diaphragm translate themselves into exactly commensurate and correlated electric impulses of equal rapidity1 range1 and quality4 ,if he had done this1 he would have had a speaking telephone1 but a make-and-break contact could never do it1 and hence he in his later instruments attached to them a telegraphic key in order that the sending operator might communicate with the receiving operator4 ,if ,reis' telephone had been a speaking telephone1 this would have been unnecessary4 ,furthermore1 it is inconceivable how the intelligent1 progressive1 and scientific ,germans could have failed to have given to a speaking telephone in #ahfj the immediate honor and attention that it deserved4 ,in ,america1 the ,bell speaking telephone1 invented in #ahgf1 was known all over the civilized world the same year4 ,reis' broken contact circuit would transmit musical tones1 because musical tones vary chiefly in rapidity of vibration1 rather than in range1 or quality1 and the chattering contacts of ,reis' telephone would transmit musical tones because said contracts could be adjusted to the practically uniform range of vibration4 ,prof4 ,bell1 however1 had made a special study of articulate speech1 and knew that speech was not essentially musical1 but was composed of an irregular and discordant medley of vowel and consonant sounds1 whose vibrations varied not only in pitch or rapidity like musical tones1 but also in the quality or kind of vibrations as to range and loudness4 ,in his invention1 therefore1 he did not make and break the circuit as did ,reis1 through the contact points1 but he used the more sensitive plan of a constantly closed circuit1 and merely caused the current to undulate in it by a principle of magnetic induction4 ,this principle was first discovered by ,oersted1 and developed into the well known fact that when a piece of iron is moved back and forth from the poles of an electro-magnet an induced current is made to oscillate in the helix of the electro-magnet4 ,the difference between ,reis' separating make-and-break circuit1 and the ,bell continuous but undulating current1 might be illustrated by the difference between the impulses delivered by the beating of the drum sticks on the head of a drum1 on the one hand1 and the alternate pulling and slackening of a kite cord1 on the other4 ,in the successive impacts on the head of a drum there could not be so sensitive a transfer of motion to the lower head of the drum as there would be transferred to the kite by the movement of the hand holding the kite cord4 ,reis' plan resembled the broken drum beats1 and ,bell's the kite cord1 which always preserved a certain amount of tension4 ,bell accomplished his object by the means shown in ,figs4 #ef and #eg1 in which ,fig4 #ef represents his first patent of ,march #g1 #ahgf1 and ,fig4 #eg his second patent of ,january #cj1 #ahgg4 ,in both cases the current was a continuously closed one1 and was not alternately made and broken as by the separating contacts of ,reis4 ,prof4 ,bell caused the vocal air vibrations to undulate or oscillate the continuously closed circuit by the principle of magnetic induction as follows 7see ,fig4 #ef73 ,he caused diaphragm a1 when spoken against1 to vibrate the armature c in front of the electro-magnet b1 but without touching it1 and as the armature approached and receded from the electro-magnet it induced an undulating but never broken current in the helix of this electro-magnet and along the line to and through the helix of the electro-magnet f at the distant receiver1 and this undulating current1 influencing the armature h1 which touched the diaphragm i but not the electro-magnet1 produced in the attractive influence of the magnet on this armature and diaphragm1 vibrations of the same rapidity1 range1 and quality as those vocal vibrations that acted upon the first diaphragm a4 ,in other words1 the sequence of transference was air vibrations in ,a1 mechanical vibrations of diaphragm a1 electrical undulations traversing the line1 induced vibrations in armature h and diaphragm i1 and air vibrations again resolved back into sounds of articulate speech1 the same as those spoken into ,a4 ,it will be perceived that in the ,bell telephone both transmitter and receiver were of identical construction4 ,this is better shown in ,fig4 #eg of his later patent1 in which the horizontal line below the electro-magnet on one side represents a metal transmitting diaphragm1 and the horizontal line under the electro-magnet at the other side was the receiving diaphragm4 ,not only were the sounds thus reproduced1 but as the circuit was continuous and never broken by any separating contacts1 the extreme sensitiveness of the electric vibrations set up by magnetic induction was such that the discordant and irregular quality of the vibrations of articulate speech were transferred and reproduced with exact fidelity1 as well as the musical tones1 and this rendered the speaking telephone a success4 ,in later telephones the current is actually transmitted through the contacting points1 but this only became practicable after the carbon microphone transmitter was invented1 in which the essential undulations of the electric current were produced in another way1 i4 e41 by the application of the important discovery that the varying of the pressure on carbon1 by vibration1 varied its conductivity1 and in this way produced the same result of undulating a current without breaking it4 ,this in no wise detracts from the value of the principle of the continuous undulating current discovered and employed by ,prof4 ,bell1 between which and the breaks of the hard platinum points of ,reis there is a difference as wide as the difference between success and failure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,prof4 ,,bell',s ,,telephone1 ,,january #cj1 #ahgg4 ,the form in which ,prof4 ,bell's telephone was placed before the public was not that shown in the patents1 but it quickly assumed the well-known shape of an elongated cylinder forming a handle1 with a flaring mouth-piece at one end4 ,this development in form is credited to ,dr4 ,channing in #ahgg1 and it is the familiar form to-day1 whose internal construction is shown in ,fig4 #eh4 ,the handle is made of hard rubber1 and the cap or mouth-piece1 which is screwed thereon1 is also of hard rubber4 ,the diaphragm ,a1 of thin ferrotype plate1 is clamped at its edges between the cap1 or mouth-piece1 and the handle4 ,the compound magnet ,b is composed of four thin flat bar magnets1 arranged in pairs on opposite sides of the flat end of the soft iron pole piece c at one end1 and the soft iron spacing piece d at the other end1 the magnets being clamped to these pieces with like poles all in one direction4 ,the end of the pole piece c extends to within #a_/ajj to #b_/ajj of an inch of the diaphragm1 or as near as possible so that the diaphragm does not touch it when it vibrates4 ,on the pole piece c is placed a wooden spool on which is wound silk-covered wire 7,no4 #cd1 ,am4 ,w4 ,g474 ,this wire fills the spool1 and its ends are soldered to two insulated wires which pass through a flexible rubber disc f below the spool and extend respectively to the two binding posts at the opposite end of the handle4 ,the current passes from one binding post and its connecting wire1 through the wire on the spool1 and thence to the other connecting wire and binding post4 ,when used as a transmitter1 vocal vibrations acting mechanically on the diaphragm ,a produce undulatory vibrations by magnetic induction in the spool of wire1 which are transmitted to the other end of the line2 and when used as a receiver1 the undulatory vibrations from the remote end of the line produce mechanical vibrations in the diaphragm1 which set up air vibrations that are reproductions of articulate sounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,bell ,,telephone4 ,although the ,bell telephone is both a transmitter and receiver1 in practice a more sensitive and better form of transmitter has taken its place4 ,that most generally used and best known is the 8,blake transmitter10 which was brought out about #ahhj4 ,this employs two important elements4 ,the first is the carbon microphone1 which is a means for producing the undulations in the current by the variations in pressure on carbon contacts1 and the second is an induction coil operated by a local battery1 whose primary circuit passes through the contacts of the carbon microphone1 and whose secondary circuit passes over the line4 ,these fundamental elements of the ,blake transmitter were the inventions of ,berliner and ,edison1 and were made in #ahgg4 ,the broad idea of producing electric undulations by varying the pressure between electrodes by vocal vibrations1 was a large bone of contention in the ,patent ,office between various inventors4 ,an application for a patent for the same was filed in the ,patent ,office by ,emile ,berliner1 ,june #d1 #ahgg1 which was contested in an interference by ,gray1 ,edison1 ,richmond1 ,dolbear1 ,holcombe1 ,prof4 ,bell1 and others4 ,after fourteen years of litigation the patent was finally awarded to ,berliner4 ,the patent granted to him ,november #ag1 #ahia1 ,no4 #dfc1efi1 is a valuable one1 and has become the property of the ,american ,bell ,telephone ,company4 ,the application of a low resistance conductor 7carbon7 in a microphone was invented by ,edison as early as #ahgg1 but his patent1 ,no4 #dgd1bcj1 did not issue until ,may #c1 #ahib1 on account of the interference with ,berliner on the broader principle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,blake ,,transmitter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,circuits ,,in ,,blake ,,transmitter4 ,the ,blake transmitter takes its name from the inventor of its mechanical features1 who has assembled in it the fundamental principles of ,berliner and ,edison in a sensitive and practical mechanical construction1 covered by minor patents1 dated ,november #bi1 #ahha4 ,it is the little box in the middle of the familiar telephone outfit into which the talking is done4 ,its internal construction is shown in ,fig4 #ei4 ,to the rear of the door is secured the cast iron circular ring ,a1 inside of which lies the ,russia iron diaphragm ,b1 cushioned at its edges with a rubber band4 ,a circular seat a little larger than the diaphragm is formed in the iron ring1 and on this seat the diaphragm rests4 ,a short1 thin metal plate attached to the ring ,a on the right hand side clamps the diaphragm in position by resting squarely on the rubber edge of the diaphragm4 ,its function is like that of a hinge1 which allows the diaphragm to freely swing inward4 ,a steel damping spring is secured to the ring at the opposite edge of the diaphragm1 and has its free end provided with a rubber glove on which is cemented a thin piece of fluffy woolen material4 ,the padded end of the damping spring rests against the diaphragm and prevents excessive vibration4 ,the iron ring ,a has at its bottom a projection holding an adjusting screw1 and to a similar top projection is attached by screws a brass spring1 from which depends another casting ,c1 supporting the microphone apparatus1 which is best shown in the diagram1 ,fig4 #fj4 ,in this diagram ,a is one terminal of the battery connected by wire ,s to the hinge ,h of the box4 ,from the other leaf of the hinge the wire ,m passes to ,k1 where it is soldered to the upper end of a ,german silver spring ,i4 ,at ,k this spring is clamped and insulated from the iron work by two pieces of hard rubber4 ,on the lower end of the spring ,i is soldered a short piece of thick platinum wire1 whose ends are rounded into heads1 one of which bears against the diaphragm ,n1 and the other against the carbon button ,j4 ,this button is attached to a small brass weight1 and is supported by a spring ,r1 clamped at its upper end to the metal support ,t4 ,this spring is surrounded its entire length by rubber tubing to deaden vibration4 ,the transmitter is adjusted by screw ,o1 which1 acting upon casting ,t1 brings the carbon button1 the platinum heads1 and also the diaphragm ,n1 against each other with a regulated pressure4 ,the current passes from the part ,k to the spring ,i1 the platinum head1 carbon button ,j1 and its supporting spring ,r1 to metal casting ,t1 and ring ,v1 thence by wire ,l to the lower hinge ,g1 by wire ,p to the primary of the induction coil1 and thence by wire ,y to binding post ,b1 the two binding posts ,a ,b being the two battery terminals4 ,the secondary wire ,e of the induction coil has its ends connected by wires ,x and ,w with the two binding posts ,c ,b1 which are the line terminals1 or one the line terminal and the other the ground connection4 ,it will thus be seen that the primary current passes through the transmitter1 and the secondary traverses the line4 ,the most familiar forms of the telephone are those seen in ,figs4 #fa and #fb1 but the ideal form is rigged in a cabinet or little room1 which excludes all extraneous interfering sounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,wall ,,telephone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,desk ,,telephone4 ,with the ,bell receiver and the ,blake transmitter a good practical telephone system may be constructed1 but the improvements which have been made in the short life of the telephone are beyond adequate description1 or even mention4 ,they relate to the call bell1 the battery1 the switchboard1 meters for registering calls1 conductors1 conduits1 connections1 lightning arresters1 switches1 anti-induction devices1 repeaters1 and systems4 ,among those most prominently identified with its development are ,bell1 ,edison1 ,berliner1 ,hughes1 ,gray1 ,dolbear and ,phelps4 ,the activity in this field is best illustrated by the fact that the art of telephony1 begun practically in #ahgf1 has at the end of the ,nineteenth ,century grown into some #c1jjj ,united ,states patents on the subject4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,telephone ,,exchange4 ,that which has given the telephone its greatest commercial value is the 8exchange0 system1 by which at a central office any member of a telephonic community may be instantly put into communication with any other member of that community4 ,for this purpose1 see ,fig4 #fc1 a continuous switchboard is arranged along the side of a large room and occupies most of that side of the wall4 ,it comprises a great array of annunciator drops1 spring jacks with plug seats1 and connecting cords with metal plugs at their opposite ends4 ,each subscriber is connected to his own spring jack and annunciator drop1 and his call to central office 7from his magneto-bell7 throws down the annunciator drop which bears the number of his telephone1 and announces to the attendant his desire to communicate with another4 ,to insure the attention of the attendant1 a tiny electric lamp is by the same action lighted directly in front of her1 which acts as a pilot signal to call her attention to the drop4 ,the attendant now puts a plug in that spring jack1 which automatically restores the drop1 and she then asks the number which the subscriber wants1 and1 upon ascertaining this1 puts the plug at the other end of the connecting cord into the spring jack of the subscriber wanted1 and by this action disconnects her own telephone4 ,as every telephone subscriber has in the central office an apparatus exclusively his own1 it will be seen that a telephone community of several thousands of subscribers involves an imposing array of multiple connections1 and a great expense in construction4 ,girls are chosen as exchange attendants because their voices are clearer4 ,every telephone jack1 however1 does not have its ,jill1 for each girl has charge of a hundred or more jacks1 and wears constantly on her head a telephone of special shape1 embracing her head like a child's hoop comb1 but terminating with an ear-piece at one end that covers one ear4 ,she is too busy to waste time in adjusting an ordinary telephone to her ear1 and so wears one of special design all the time4 ,in the twentieth annual report of the ,american ,bell ,telephone ,company1 for the year #ahii1 the number of telephones in use ,january #a1 #aijj1 by that company alone1 in the ,united ,states1 was #a1ehj1aja2 the miles of wire were #a1jaf1ggg1 and the daily connections for persons using the telephone were #e1agc1hjc4 ,the gross earnings of the company were #e1gfj1ajf4de1 and it paid in dividends #c1hhb1ide4 ,the total number of exchange stations of the ,bell ,company in the principal countries of the world are3 ,united ,states1 #fcb1idf2 ,germany1 #bab1aba2 ,great ,britain1 #aab1hdj2 ,sweden1 #fc1fhe2 ,france1 #dd1hfe2 ,switzerland1 #ce1ecf2 ,russia1 #bf1hfe2 ,austria1 #bf1ffd2 ,norway1 #be1cgf4 ,the ,united ,states has nearly #he1jjj more than all the others put together4 ,since the expiration of the ,bell patents many smaller companies have sprung up1 and the number of telephones in use has more than doubled in the last five years4 ,long distance telephony is now carried on up to nearly #b1jjj miles1 and one may to-day lie in bed in ,new ,york and listen to a concert in ,chicago1 and the vocal exchange of business and social intercourse between cities has become so large a feature of modern life as to justify the organization of a great company for this service alone4 ,in the ,old ,testament1 ,book of ,job1 xxxviii4 chapter1 #ceth verse1 it is written3 8,canst thou send lightnings that they may go and say unto thee--#8,here we are8'0 ,for thousands of years this challenge to ,job has been looked upon as a feat whose execution was only within the power of the ,almighty2 but to-day the inventor--that patient modern ,job--has accomplished this seemingly impossible task1 for at the end of this ,nineteenth ,century of the ,christian ,era1 the telephone makes the lightning man's vocal messenger1 tireless1 faithful1 and true1 knowing no prevarication1 and swifter than the winged messenger of the gods4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,electricity--,,miscellaneous4 ,,storage ,,battery--,,batteries ,,of ,,plant1 ,,faure ,,and ,,brush--,,electric ,,welding--,,direct ,,generation ,,of ,,electricity ,,by ,,combustion--,,electric ,,boats--,,electro-,,plating--,,edison', s ,,electric ,,pen--,,electricity ,,in ,,medicine--,,electric ,,cautery--,,electrical ,,musical ,,instruments--,,electric ,,blasting4 ,a prominent factor in the electrical art is the ,storage ,battery1 ,secondary ,battery1 or ,accumulator1 as it is variously called4 ,a storage battery acts upon the same general principle as the ordinary galvanic or voltaic battery in giving forth electrical current as the correlated equivalent of the chemical force1 but differs from it in this respect1 that when the elements of a primary battery are used up1 the battery is exhausted beyond repair4 ,with the storage battery1 it may be regenerated at will by simply subjecting it to an electric current from a dynamo4 ,the dynamo stores up in this battery its electric force by converting it into chemical force1 which is imprisoned in chemical compounds that are formed while the power of the dynamo is being applied4 ,these chemical compounds are1 however1 in a condition of unstable chemical equilibrium1 which is undisturbed so long as the poles of the storage battery are not connected1 but when connected through a circuit1 the instability of the chemical compounds asserts itself1 and in passing back to a condition of normal equilibrium the disruption gives off the correlative equivalent of electric current stored up in it by the dynamo4 ,probably the earliest suggestion of a storage battery is by ,ritter in #ahab1 in his 8secondary pile40 ,this device consisted of alternate discs of copper and moistened card1 and was capable of receiving a charge from a voltaic pile and of then producing the physical1 chemical1 and physiological effects obtained from the ordinary pile4 ,the first storage battery of importance1 however1 was made by ,gaston ,plant in #ahfj1 which consisted of leaden plates immersed in a #aj per cent4 solution of sulphuric acid in water4 ,in ,fig4 #fd is shown a modification of the ,plant type of storage battery1 composed of a series of plates shown on the left4 ,each of these plates is built up1 as shown in detail in ,fig4 #fe1 of lead strips corrugated and arranged in layers alternately with flat strips1 within perforated leaden cases4 ,the corrugation of the leaden lamin gives greater superficial area1 and the alternation of flat and corrugated strips keeps them properly spaced1 so the sulphuric acid solution may penetrate and act upon the same4 ,each plate section has a rod to connect it with its proper terminal4 ,when the charging current is applied1 the positive lead plate becomes covered with lead peroxide 7,pb,o7 and finely divided metallic lead is deposited on the negative plate4 ,when the battery is being discharged the peroxide of lead gives up one of its atoms of oxygen to the spongy metallic lead deposited on the other plate1 and both plates remain coated with lead monoxide 7,pb,o74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,plant ,,storage ,,battery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,,enlarged ,,detail ,,of ,,plant ,,plate4 ,the most important development of the storage battery was made by ,camille ,a4 ,faure1 in #ahhj 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #beb1jjb1 ,jan #c1 #ahhb74 ,in the early part of #ahha there was sent from ,paris to ,glasgow a so-called 8box of electric energy0 for inspection and test by ,sir ,william ,thomson1 the eminent electrician4 ,it was one of the first storage batteries of ,m4 ,faure4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #ff1 shows a battery of this type in which the lead plates covered with red lead 7,pb,o7 replace the plain lead plates in the ,plant cell4 ,the action of the battery is that when a current of electricity is passed into the same1 the red lead on one plate 7the negative7 is reduced to metallic lead1 and that on the other is oxidized to a state of peroxide 7,pb,o74 ,these actions are reversed when the charged cell is discharging itself4 ,the elements of this battery consist of alternate layers of sheet lead1 and a paste of red oxide of lead4 ,these are immersed in a #aj per cent4 solution of sulphuric acid in water4 ,many minor improvements have been made in the storage battery1 covered by #gaf ,united ,states patents1 most of which relate to cellular construction for holding the mass of red lead in place4 ,the most notable are those of ,brush1 to whom many patents were granted in #ahhb and #ahhc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,storage ,,battery--,,faure ,,type4 ,the storage battery finds many important applications4 ,for furnishing current for the propulsion of electric street cars it has proved a disappointment1 on account of the vibrations to which it is subjected1 and the great weight of the lead1 which in batteries of suitable capacity runs up into many thousands of pounds4 ,the storage battery finds a useful place1 however1 for equalizing the load in lighting and power stations1 and is there brought into action to supplement the engine and dynamo during those hours of the day when the tax or load is greatest4 ,it is also used to keep up electrical pressure at the ends of long transmission lines2 for telegraphing purposes2 for isolated electric lighting2 for boat propulsion2 the propulsion of automobile carriages2 and in all cases where a portable source of electric current would find application4 ,the great growth of automobile carriages in the past year has greatly stimulated the output of storage batteries4 ,one large company 7,the ,electric ,storage ,battery ,company71 manufactured and sold storage batteries for the year ending ,june #a1 #ahii1 to the amount of #b1chg1jdi4ia1 and there are many other manufacturers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,electric ,,welding4 ,electric ,welding was invented by ,prof4 ,elihu ,thomson1 of ,lynn1 ,mass41 and patented by him ,august #aj1 #ahhf1 ,no4 #cdg1adj-db1 and ,july #ah1 #ahic1 ,no4 #eja1edf4 ,it is useful for the making of chains1 tools1 carriage axles1 joining shafting1 wires1 and pipes1 mending bands1 tires1 hoops1 and lengthening and shortening bolts1 bars1 etc4 ,for electric welding a current of great volume or quantity1 and very low electro-motive force1 is required4 ,thus a current of from one to two volts1 and one to several thousand amperes1 is best suited4 ,referring to ,fig4 #fg1 the current from the dynamo is conducted to one binding post of the commutator #c1 which is arranged to send the current through one-sixth1 one-third or one-half of the primary wire ,p of a transformer or induction coil4 ,the other binding post of the commutator #c extends to one terminal of an isolated primary coil #d1 and the other terminal of this coil connects with the dynamo4 ,the coil #d is provided with a switch to regulate the amount of current4 ,the rods to be welded are placed in clamps ,c ,c1 ,c being connected with one terminal of the secondary conductor ,s1 and the movable clamp ,c with the other4 ,when the current is turned on ,c is moved so as to project one of the surfaces to be welded against the other1 and as they come in contact they heat and fuse together1 as shown at ,w4 ,larger apparatus has been devised to weld railroad joints on the roadbed1 and for other applications4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,generation ,,of ,,electricity ,,by ,,combustion4 ,the generation of electricity for commercial purposes is almost entirely dependent upon the dynamo1 as this is cheaper than the voltaic battery4 ,the dynamo1 however1 must be energized by a steam engine4 ,the direct production of electric energy by the combustion of coal would be the ideal method4 ,a process invented by ,edison 7,pat4 ,no4 #dij1iec1 ,jan4 #ca1 #ahic71 is interesting as an effort in this direction1 and is presented in ,fig4 #fh4 ,a carbon cylinder ,d is suspended in an air-tight vessel ,b1 and is surrounded by oxide of iron ,f1 the whole being placed above a furnace4 ,the temperature being raised to a point where the carbon will be attacked by the oxygen1 carbonic oxide and carbonic acid will be formed1 which are exhausted by the suction fan ,e4 ,a constant current of electricity is given off from the two electrodes through the wires1 the metallic oxide being reduced and the carbon consumed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,rudder ,,and ,,motor ,,of ,,trouv',s ,,electric ,,boat1 #ahha4 ,electrical ,navigation began with ,jacobi1 who made the first attempt on the ,neva in #ahci4 ,he used voltaic apparatus consisting of two ,grove batteries1 each containing sixty-four pairs of cells1 but little progress was made in this field until the secondary battery was perfected4 ,in #ahha ,mr4 ,g4 ,trouv made an application of the storage battery and electric motor to a small boat on the ,seine4 ,the electric motor1 which was located on top of the rudder1 as seen in ,fig4 #fi1 was furnished with a ,siemens armature connected by an endless belt with a screw propeller having three paddles arranged in the middle of an iron rudder4 ,in the middle of the boat were two storage batteries connected with the motor by two cords that both served to cover the conducting wires and work the rudder4 ,electric launches have in later years rapidly gained in popularity4 ,visitors to the ,chicago fair will remember the fleet of electric launches1 which afforded both pleasure and transportation on the water1 at that great exposition1 and to-day every safe harbor has its quota of these silently gliding and fascinating pleasure crafts4 ,fig4 #gj is a longitudinal section and a general view of one of these launches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,modern ,,electric ,,launch4 ,electro-plating is one of the great industrial applications of electricity which had its origin in1 and has grown into extensive use in1 the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it originated with ,volta1 ,cruikshank1 and ,wollaston in the very first year of the century4 ,in #ahje ,brugnatelli1 a pupil of ,volta1 gilded two large silver medals by bringing them into communication by means of a steel wire with the negative pole of a voltaic pile and keeping them one after the other immersed in a solution of gold4 ,in #ahcd ,henry ,bessemer electro-plated lead castings with copper in the production of antique relief heads4 ,in #ahch ,prof4 ,jacobi announced his galvano-plastic process for the production of electrotype plates for printing4 ,in the same year he superintended the gilding1 by electro-plate1 of the iron dome of the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,isaac at ,st4 ,petersburgh1 using #bgd pounds of ducat gold4 ,in #ahci ,spencer described an electrotype process and carried the date of his operations back to ,september1 #ahcg4 ,in #ahci ,jordan also describes an electro-plating process4 ,in #ahdj ,murray used plumbago to make non-conducting surfaces conductive for electro-plating4 ,in #ahdj ,de ,le ,rive made known his process of electro-gilding1 employed by him in #ahbh1 and in the same year 7#ahdj7 ,de ,ruolz took out a ,french patent for electro-gilding1 and in the following year formed electro deposits of brass from cyanides of zinc and copper4 ,in #ahda ,smee employed his battery for electro-plating with various metals4 ,in #ahdd there were published the electro-plating experiments of ,dancer1 made in #ahch4 ,in #ahdg ,prof4 ,silliman imitated mother-of-pearl by electro-plating process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,electro-,,plating ,,establishment4 ,in the last half of the century the production of electrotype plates for printing in books1 and for the production of rollers for printing fabrics1 and the extensive art of electro-plating with gold1 silver1 nickel and copper1 has grown to enormous proportions1 but the fundamental principles have not materially changed4 ,the dynamo1 however1 has generally supplanted the voltaic battery in this art4 ,the deposition of silver and gold on baser metals not only increases the ornamental effect1 but prevents oxidation4 ,silver plated goods for the table and articles of vertu are to be found everywhere4 ,nickel is employed for cheaper ornamental effect1 and copper finds a large application for electrotypes for printing and for coating iron castings as a protection against rust4 ,in ,fig4 #ga1 which shows the interior of an electro-plating establishment1 the dynamo is shown on the right connected by wires with two horizontal rods running along the wall and across the various tanks containing the plating solution4 ,on the tanks are rods supporting the articles to be plated1 which are suspended in the solution4 ,similar rods support the opposite electrodes of the tank4 ,wires connect these rods to the rods on the side of the wall1 and to the opposite poles of the dynamo4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,edison',s ,,electric ,,pen4 ,the electric pen of ,edison1 brought out in #ahgf 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #aif1gdg1 ,nov4 #f1 #ahgg71 is one of the simple applications of electricity1 which for a number of years was in quite general use for making manifold copies of manuscript4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #gb1 this is shown4 ,it comprises a stylus b reciprocated in a tube a by the vibratory action of an armature k over the poles of an electro-magnet1 supplied with a suitable current and vibrating contacts l h4 ,the stylus was rapidly reciprocated1 and as the operator traced the letters on the paper1 the stylus produced a continuous trail of punctures which permitted the paper to be used as a stencil to make any number of copies4 ,it has1 however1 been rotated out of existence by manifolding carbon paper1 and the almost universal use of the typewriter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,electric ,,cautery4 ,electricity in ,medicine4--,the superstitious mind is prone to resort to mysterious agencies for the cure of diseases1 and for many years men of no scientific knowledge whatever have been employing this seductive instrumentality for all the ills that flesh is heir to4 ,that it has valuable therapeutic qualities when rightly applied no intelligent person will doubt1 and it is unfortunate that for the most part it has been in the hands of charlatans who sell their wares1 and rely upon a faith-cure principle for the result4 ,still there have been intelligent experimenters in this field1 and it is one of much promise for further research4 ,in the first century of the ,christian ,era 7,a4 ,d4 #ej7 ,scribonius ,largus relates that ,athero1 a freedman of ,tiberius1 was cured of the gout by the shocks of the torpedo or electric eel4 ,in #ahjc ,m4 ,carpue published experiments on the therapeutic action of electricity4 ,the discovery of induction currents by ,faraday in #ahca brought a new era in the medical application of electricity1 in the use of what is known as the ,faradaic current4 ,the first apparatus for medical use1 which operated on this principle1 was made by ,m4 ,pixii in ,france1 and the first physician who employed such currents was ,dr4 ,neef1 of ,frankfort4 ,the medical battery is a well-known and useful adjunct to the physician's outfit4 ,electric baths are also common and effective modes of applying the electric current4 ,an early example of such a device is shown in the ,u4 ,s4 patent to ,young1 ,no4 #cb1ccb1 ,may #ad1 #ahfa4 ,the electric cautery and probe are also scientific and useful instruments4 ,the cautery consists of a loop of platinum wire carried by a suitable non-conducting handle1 with means for constricting the white hot loop of wire about the tumor or object to be excised4 ,it was invented in #ahdf by ,crusell1 of ,st4 ,petersburgh4 ,a form of the electric cautery is shown in ,fig4 #gc1 in which a is the platinum wire loop whose branches slide through guide tubes1 the ends being attached to a sliding ring ,b4 ,the current enters through the wire at the binding posts at the end of non-conducting handle ,a1 and heats the platinum loop1 a1 red hot4 ,the loop1 a1 being around the object to be excised1 is constricted by drawing down the handle ring ,b4 ,of the various applications of electricity in body wear and appliances there is scarcely any end4 ,there are patents for belts without number1 for electric gloves1 rings1 bracelets1 necklaces1 trusses1 corsets1 shoes1 hats1 combs1 brushes1 chairs1 couches1 and blankets4 ,patents have also been granted for electric smelling bottles1 an adhesive plaster1 for electric spectacles1 scissors1 a foot warmer1 hair singer1 syringes1 a drinking cup1 a hair cutter1 a torch1 a catheter1 a pessary1 gas lighters1 exercising devices1 a door mat1 and even for an electric hair pin and a pair of electric garters4 ,electrical ,musical ,instruments include pianos1 banjos1 and violins1 all of which are to be played automatically by the aid of electrical appliances4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #gd1 is shown a modern electrical piano4 ,a small electrical motor #a1 run by a storage battery or electric light wires1 turns a belt #c1 and rotates pulley #d and a long horizontal cylinder #e running beneath the keyboard4 ,above this cylinder is the mechanism that acts upon the keys4 ,it consists of a series of brake shoes which1 when brought into frictional contact with the cylinder #e1 are made to act on small vertical rods which bring down the keys just as the fingers do in playing4 ,the selection of the proper keys is made by a traveling strip of paper perforated with dots and dashes representing the notes1 which strip of paper passes between two metal contact faces1 which are terminals of an electric battery4 ,when the contacts are separated by the non-conducting paper the current does not flow1 but when the contacts come together through the perforations the current is completed through an electro-magnet1 and this is made to bring the proper brake shoe into position to be lifted by the cylinder #e1 which rotates constantly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,electric ,,piano4 ,electro-blasting4--,in #ahab ,schilling proposed to blow up mines by the galvanic current4 ,in #ahci ,colonel ,pasley blew up the wreck of the 8,royal ,george0 by electro-blasting4 ,on ,jan4 #bf1 #ahdc1 ,mr4 ,cubitt used electro-blasting to destroy ,round ,down ,cliff1 and in our own time the extensive excavations in deepening the channel and removing the rocks at ,hell ,gate1 from the mouth of ,new ,york harbor1 was a notable operation in electro-blasting1 and doubtless owes its success largely to the electric current employed4 ,only the briefest mention can be made of the induction coil and the electrical transformer1 of electric bells and hotel annunciators1 of electric railway signalling1 and electric brakes1 of electric clocks and instruments of precision1 of heating by electricity1 of electrical horticulture1 and of the beautiful electric fountains4 ,these1 however1 all belong to the ,nineteenth ,century1 and include interesting developments4 ,electro-chemistry and the electrolytic refining of metals represent also1 in the applications of electricity1 a large and important field1 more fully treated under the chapters devoted to chemistry and metal working4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,steam ,,engine4 ,,hero',s ,,engine1 ,,and ,,other ,,early ,,steam ,,engines--,,watt',s ,,steam ,,engine--,,the ,,cut-,,off--,,giffard ,,injector--,,bourdon',s ,,steam ,,gauge--,,feed- ,,water ,,heaters1 ,,smoke ,,consumers1 ,,etc4--,,rotary ,,engines--,,steam ,,hammer-- ,,steam ,,fire ,,engine--,,compound ,,engines--,,schlick ,,and ,,taylor ,,systems ,,of ,,balancing ,,momentum ,,of ,,moving ,,parts--,,statistics4 ,when the primeval man first turned upon himself the critical light of introspection1 and observed his own deficiencies1 there were born within him both the desire and the determination to supplement his weakness1 and become the ruling factor in the world's destiny4 ,the strength of his arm unaided could not cope with that of the wild beast1 he could not travel so fast as the animal1 nor soar so high as the bird1 nor traverse the waters of the sea like the fish4 ,the magnificent power of the elements first inspired him with awe1 then was worshiped as a god1 and he trembled in his weakness4 ,then he began to invent1 and seeing in physical laws an escape from his fears1 and a solution for his ambitions1 he trained these forces and made them subservient to his will1 and established his right to rule4 ,out of the maze of the centuries a steam engine is born--not all at once1 for that would be inconsistent with the law of evolution--but gradually growing first into practicability1 then into efficiency1 and finally into perfection1 it stands to-day a beautiful monument of man's ingenuity1 throbbing with life and energy1 and moving the world4 ,what has not the steam engine done for the ,nineteenth ,century8 ,it speeds the locomotive across the continent faster and farther than the birds can fly2 no fish can equal the mighty steamship on the sea2 it grinds our grain2 it weaves our cloth2 it prints our books2 it forges our steel1 and in every department of life it is the ubiquitous1 tireless1 potent agency of civilization4 ,does the ambitious young philosopher predict that electricity will supersede steam8 ,it is not yet a rational prophecy1 for the direct production of electricity from the combustion of coal is still an unsolved problem1 and behind the electric generator can always be found the steam engine1 modestly and quietly giving its full life's work to the dynamo1 which it actuates1 and caring nothing for the credit1 unmindful of the beautiful and striking manifestations of electricity which astonish the world1 but humbly doing its duty with a silent faith that the law of correlation of force will always lead the way back to the steam engine1 and place it where it belongs1 at the head of all useful agencies of man4 ,the ,nineteenth ,century did not include in its discoveries the invention of the steam engine4 ,the great gift of ,james ,watt was one of the legacies which it received from the past1 but the economical1 efficient1 graceful1 and mathematically perfect engine of to-day is the product of this age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,hero',s ,,engine1 #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,the genesis of the steam engine belongs to ancient history1 for in the year #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,hero made and exhibited in the ,serapeum of ,alexandria the first steam engine4 ,it was of the rotary type and was known as the 8aeolipile40 ,during the middle ages the spirit of invention seems to have slept1 for nearly eighteen centuries passed from the time of ,hero's engine before any active revival of interest was manifested in this field of invention4 ,giovanni ,branca in #afbi1 the ,marquis of ,worcester in #afcc1 ,dr4 ,papin in #afie1 ,savary in #afih1 and ,newcomen in #agje1 were the pioneers of ,watt1 and gave to him a good working basis4 ,strange as it may appear1 there was in #ahid and probably still is in existence in ,england an old ,newcomen steam engine 7see ,fig4 #gf71 which for at least a hundred years has stood exposed to the weather1 slowly rusting and crumbling away4 ,it is to be found in ,fairbottom ,valley1 half way between ,ashton-under-,lyne and ,oldham1 and is the property of the trustees of the late ,earl of ,stamford and ,warrington4 ,it is erected on a solid masonry pillar #ad by #g feet at the base1 which carries on its top1 on trunnions1 an oak beam #bj feet long and #ab by #ad inches thick4 ,this beam is braced with iron1 and has segmental ends with a piston at one end1 and a balance weight at the other4 ,the piston and pump rods are attached by chains4 ,the cylinder is of cast iron1 #bg inches in diameter1 and about six foot stroke1 the steam entering at the bottom only4 ,it was formerly used for pumping a mine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,old ,,newcomen ,,engine4 ,the distinct and valuable legacy1 however1 which the ,nineteenth ,century received from the past1 was the double acting steam engine of ,james ,watt1 disclosed in his ,british ,pat4 ,no4 #a1cba1 of #aghb4 ,prior to this date steam engines had been almost exclusively confined to raising water1 but with the invention of ,watt it extended into all fields of industrial use4 ,watt's double acting engine is shown in ,fig4 #gg4 ,it comprised a cylinder ,a1 with double acting piston and valve gear ,e ,f ,g ,h2 the parallel motion ,r for translating the reciprocating motion of the piston into the curved oscillatory path of the walking beam2 a condenser chamber ,k1 with spray ,i1 for condensing the exhaust steam2 a pump ,l ,j to remove the water from the condenser1 and also the air1 which is drawn out of the water by the vacuum2 a water supply pump ,n2 the automatic ball governor ,d1 and throttle valve ,b4 ,two pins on the pump rod ,l strike the lever ,h and work the valve gear1 and a collecting rod ,p and crank ,q convert the oscillations of the walking beam into the continuous rotation of the fly wheel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,watt',s ,,double ,,acting ,,steam ,,engine4 ,watt's automatic ball governor is shown in ,fig4 #gh and its function is as follows3 ,when the working strain on an engine is relieved by the throwing out of action of a part of the work being performed1 the engine would run too fast1 or if more than a normal tax were placed on the engine1 it would 8slow up40 ,to secure a regular and uniform motion in the performance of his engine ,watt invented the automatic or self-regulating ball governor and throttle valve4 ,a vertical shaft ,d is rotated constantly by a band on pulley d4 ,any tendency in the engine to run too fast throws the balls up by centrifugal action1 and this through toggle links f h1 pulls down on a lever ,f ,g ,h1 and partially closes the throttle valve ,z1 reducing the flow of steam to the engine4 ,when the engine has a tendency to run too slow the balls drop down1 and1 deflecting the lever in the opposite direction1 open the throttle valve1 and increase the flow of steam to the engine4 ,this double acting engine of ,watt marks the beginning of the great epoch of steam engineering1 and his patent expired just in time to give to the ,nineteenth ,century the greatest of all natal gifts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,watt',s ,,automatic ,,governor ,,and ,,throttle ,,valve4 ,steam engines are divided into two principal classes1 the low pressure engine1 using steam usually under #dj pounds to the square inch1 and the high pressure engine1 using steam from #ej to #bjj pounds4 ,in the low pressure engine there is the expansive pressure of the steam on one side of the piston1 aided by the suction of a vacuum on the opposite side of the piston1 which vacuum is created by the condensation of the discharging1 or exhaust steam1 by cold water4 ,as there are two factors at work impelling the piston1 only a relatively low pressure in the boiler is required4 ,in the high pressure engines there is no condensation of the exhaust steam1 but it is discharged directly into the air1 and this type was originally called 8puffers40 ,familiar examples of the low pressure type are to be found in our side wheel passenger steamers1 and of the high pressure type in the steam locomotive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,principle ,,of ,,cut-,,off4 ,one of the most important steps in the development of the steam engine was the addition of the cut-off4 ,prior to its adoption steam was admitted to the cylinder during the whole time the piston was making its stroke from one end of the cylinder to the other4 ,in the cut-off 7see ,fig4 #gi71 when steam is being admitted through the port p1 and the piston is being driven in the direction of the arrow1 it was found that if the steam were cut off when the piston arrived at the position #a1 the expansive action of the steam behind it in chamber a would continue to carry the piston with an effective force to the end of its stroke1 or to position #b4 ,this of course effected a great saving in steam4 ,various cut-offs have been devised4 ,perhaps that most easily recognized by most persons is the one seen in the engine room of our side wheel steamers1 of which illustration is given in ,fig4 #hj4 ,this was invented in #ahda by ,f4 ,e4 ,sickels1 and was the first successful drop cut-off4 ,it was covered by his patents1 ,may #bj1 #ahdb1 ,july #bj1 #ahdc1 ,october #ai1 #ahdd1 ,no4 #c1hjb1 and ,september #ai1 #ahde1 ,no4 #d1bja4 ,a rock shaft s is worked by an eccentric rod e from the paddle wheel shaft4 ,the rock shaft has lifting arms a that act upon and alternately raise the feet c on rods b b4 ,one of these rods b works the valves that admit steam1 and the other the valves that discharge steam4 ,the valve rod that admits steam has a quick drop1 or fall1 to cut off the live steam before the piston reaches the end of its stroke4 ,in ,fig4 #ha is shown the celebrated ,corliss cut-off and valve gear1 in which a central wrist plate and four radiating rods work the valves4 ,this valve gear was covered in ,corliss patents1 ,no4 #f1afb1 ,march #aj1 #ahdi1 and ,no4 #h4bec1 ,july #bi1 #ahea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,sickels' ,,drop ,,cut-,,off ,,valve ,,gear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,corliss ,,cut-,,off ,,and ,,valve ,,gear4 ,among other important improvements in the steam engine are those for replenishing the water in the boiler1 and the ,giffard ,injector is the simplest and most ingenious of all boiler feeds4 ,it was invented in #aheh and covered by ,french patent ,no4 #ba1deg1 ,may #h1 #aheh1 and ,u4 ,s4 patent ,no4 #bg1igi1 ,april #bd1 #ahfj4 ,prior to the ,giffard ,injector1 steam boilers were supplied with water usually by steam pumps1 which forced the water into the boiler against the pressure of the steam4 ,the ,giffard ,injector takes a jet of steam from the boiler1 and causes it to lift the water in an external pipe1 and blow it directly into the boiler against its own pressure4 ,so paradoxical and inoperative did this seem at first that it was met with incredulity1 and not until repeated demonstrations established the fact was it accepted as an operative device4 ,its construction is shown in ,fig4 #hb4 ,a is a steam pipe communicating with the boiler1 ,b another pipe receiving steam from ,a through small holes and terminating in a cone4 ,c is a screw rod1 cone-shaped at its extremity1 turned by the crank ,m1 and serving to regulate and even intercept the passage of steam4 ,d is a water suction pipe4 ,the water that is drawn up introduces itself around the steam pipe and tends to make its exit through the annular space at the conical extremity of the latter steam pipe4 ,this annular space is increased at will by means of the lever ,l1 which acts upon a screw whose office is to cause the pipe ,b and its attached parts to move backward or forward4 ,e is a diverging tube which receives the water injected by the jet of steam that condenses at ,i1 and imparts to the water a portion of its speed in proportion to the pressure of the boiler4 ,f is a box carrying a check valve to keep the water from issuing from the boiler when the apparatus is not at work4 ,g is a pipe that leads the injected water to the boiler4 ,h is a purge or overflow pipe1 ,k a sight hole which permits the operation of the apparatus to be watched1 the stream of water being distinctly seen in the free interval4 ,fig4 #hc shows the application of the injector to locomotives1 which are now almost universally supplied with this device4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,,giffard ,,injector4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,injector ,,on ,,locomotive4 ,to keep the pressure in the boiler within the limit of safety1 and adjusted to the work being performed1 is an important part of the engineer's duty1 and this he could not do without the steam gauge4 ,one of the best known is the ,bourdon gauge1 shown in ,fig4 #hd1 constructed on the principle of the barometer invented by ,bourdon of ,paris in #ahdi and patented in ,france ,june1 #ahdi1 and in the ,united ,states ,august #c1 #aheb1 ,no4 #i1afc4 ,a screw threaded thimble ,b1 with stop cock ,a1 is screwed in the shell of the boiler1 and a coiled pipe ,c communicates at one end with the thimble and is closed at the other end ,e and connected by a link ,f1 with an arm on an axle1 carrying an index hand that moves over a graduated scale4 ,the coiled pipe ,c is in the nature of a flattened tube1 as shown in the enlarged cross section1 and is enclosed in a case4 ,when the steam pressure varies in this flat tube its coil expands or contracts1 and in moving the index hand over the scale indicates the degree of pressure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,bourdon',s ,,pressure ,,gauge4 ,in line with the development of the steam engine must be considered the efforts to economize fuel4 ,these may be divided into the following classes3 ,increased steam generating surface in boiler construction2 surface condensers for exhaust steam2 devices for promoting the combustion of fuel and burning the smoke1 and feed water heaters4 ,even before the ,nineteenth ,century ,smeaton devised the cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue1 but the multitubular steam boiler of to-day represents a very important ,nineteenth ,century adjunct to the steam engine4 ,our locomotives1 fire engines1 and torpedo boat engines would be of no value without it4 ,sectional steam boilers made in detachable portions fastened together by packed or screw joints also represent an important development4 ,these permit of the removal and replacement of any one section that may become defective1 and are also capable of being built up section by section to any size needed4 ,for promoting the combustion of fuel the draft is energized by blasts of air or steam1 or both1 either through hollow grate bars1 jet pipes in the fire box1 or by discharging the exhaust steam in the smoke pipe4 ,surface condensers pass the exhaust steam over the great surface area of a multitubular construction having cold water flowing through it4 ,feed water heaters utilize the waste heat escaping in the smoke flue to heat the water that is being fed to the boiler1 so that it is warm when it is injected into the boiler1 and the furnace is relieved of that much work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,branca',s ,,steam ,,turbine1 #afbi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,section ,,of ,,parsons ,,turbine ,,of #ahia4 ,in the reciprocating type of steam engine the inertia of the piston must be overcome at the beginning of each stroke and its momentum must be arrested at the end of each stroke1 and this involves a great loss of power4 ,if the power of the steam could be applied so as to continuously move the piston in the same direction this loss would be avoided4 ,the effort to do this has engaged the attention of many inventors1 and the devices are called rotary engines4 ,the most successful engines of this kind are those of the impact type1 in which jets of steam impinge upon buckets after the manner of water on a water wheel1 and which are known to-day as steam turbines4 ,the earliest of these is ,branca's steam turbine of #afbi 7see ,fig4 #he7 and the most important of this class in use to-day are those of ,mr4 ,parsons1 of ,england1 and ,de ,laval1 of ,sweden4 ,the internal construction of the ,parsons turbine is seen in ,fig4 #hf and is covered by ,british patent ,no4 #aj1idj1 of #ahia1 and ,united ,states patent ,no4 #eec1feh1 ,january #bhth1 #ahif4 ,a series of turbines are set one after the other on the same axis1 so that each takes steam from the preceding one1 and passes it on to the next4 ,each consists of a ring of fixed steam guides on the casing1 and a ring of moving blades on the shaft4 ,the steam passes through the first set of guides1 then through the first set of moving blades1 then through the second set of guides1 and then through the second set of moving blades1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,parsons ,,compound ,,steam ,,turbine1 ,,on ,,plurality ,,of ,,propeller ,,shafts4 ,in the application of his turbine to marine propulsion ,mr4 ,parsons employs a plurality of propeller shafts and steam turbines1 as seen in ,fig4 #hg1 and covered under ,united ,states patent ,no4 #fjh1ifi1 ,august #i1 #ahih4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,,de ,,laval',s ,,steam ,,turbine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,,de ,,laval ,,turbine ,,geared ,,to ,,dynamo4 ,the ,de ,laval turbine1 as shown in ,fig4 #hh1 is of very simple construction1 consisting only of a steel wheel with a series of buckets at its periphery enclosed by a circular rim1 and a series of steam nozzles on the side with diverging jet orifices directing steam jets against the buckets4 ,a speed of #cj1jjj revolutions a minute may be attained by this construction4 ,in ,fig4 #hi is shown a #cjj horse-power steam turbine of the ,de ,laval type applied to a dynamo2 to which this type of engine is peculiarly adapted4 ,the dynamo is seen on the extreme right1 the steam turbine on the extreme left1 and the drum-shaped casing between contains cog-gearing by which the high revolution of the turbine wheel is reduced to a proper working speed for the dynamo4 ,within the last few years application of the ,parsons steam turbine has been made to marine propulsion with very remarkable results as to speed4 ,the small steam craft1 8,the ,turbinia10 built in #ahig1 and supplied with three of ,parsons' compound steam turbines1 developed a speed of #cb knots1 and more recently the torpedo boat 8,viper0 has with steam turbines attained the remarkable speed of #cg4a knots1 or over #dj statute miles an hour4 ,about #b1jjj ,united ,states patents have been granted on various forms of rotary engines4 ,in the transportation building of the ,world's ,fair at ,chicago in #ahic one of the most conspicuous objects of attention was the model of the great ,bethlehem ,iron ,co4's steam hammer1 standing with its feet apart like some great 8,colossus of ,rhodes0 and towering #ia feet high among the models of the great ocean steamers and battleships which are so largely dependent upon the work of this ,titanic machine4 ,its hammer head1 in the working-machine1 weighs #abe tons1 and many of the seventeen inch thick armor plates for our battleships have been forged by its tremendous blows4 ,in #ahch1 during the construction of the 8,great ,britain10 the largest steamship up to that time ever built1 it was found that there was not a forge hammer in ,england or ,scotland powerful enough to forge a paddle shaft for that vessel4 ,the emergency was met by ,mr4 ,nasmyth1 of ,england1 who invented the steam hammer and covered it in ,british patent ,no4 #i1chb1 of #ahdb 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #c1jdb1 ,april #aj1 #ahdc74 ,a modern example of it is seen in ,fig4 #ij4 ,it consists of a steam cylinder at the top whose piston is attached to a block of iron1 forming the hammer head and sliding vertically in guides between the two legs of the frame4 ,valve gear is arranged to control the flow of steam to and from the opposite sides of the piston1 and so nicely adjusted is the valve gear of such a modern steam hammer that it is said that an expert workman can manipulate the great mass of metal with such accuracy and delicacy as to crack an egg in a wineglass without touching the glass4 ,to the steam hammer we owe the first heavy armor plate for our battle ships and the propeller shafts of our earlier steamships4 ,in fact it was the steam hammer which first rendered the large steamship possible4 ,mr4 ,nasmyth not only invented the steam hammer1 but the steam pile driver as well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,steam ,,hammer4 ,for quick action1 nicely adjusted machinery1 and showy finish the steam fire engine is a familiar and conspicuous application of steam power4 ,a dude among engines when on dress parade1 and a sprinter when on the run1 it gets to work with the vim and efficiency of a thoroughbred1 and is a most business-like and valuable custodian of life and property4 ,the first portable steam fire engine was built about #ahcj by ,mr4 ,brathwaite and ,capt4 ,ericsson in ,london4 ,in #ahda ,mr4 ,hodges produced a similar engine in ,new ,york ,city4 ,cincinnati was the first city to adopt the steamer as a part of its fire department apparatus4 ,to-day all the important cities and towns of the civilized world rely upon the steam fire engines for their longevity and existence4 ,time economy in getting into action is the great objective point of most improvements of the fire-engine1 and one of the most important is the keeping of the water in the boiler hot when the engine is out of action at the engine house1 so that when the fire is built and the run is made to the scene of action1 the water will be hot to start with4 ,this attachment was the invention of ,william ,a4 ,brickill1 and was patented by him ,august #ah1 #ahfh1 ,no4 #ha1acb4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #ia1 the two pipes passing from the engine through the trap door in the floor connect with a water heater in the basement below1 which heater maintains a constant circulation of hot water in the steam boiler4 ,couplings in these pipes serve to quickly disconnect the engine when the run to the fire is to be made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,steam ,,fire ,,engine ,,with ,,water ,,heating ,,attachment4 ,among other useful applications of the steam engine are the steam plow1 steam drill1 steam dredge1 steam press1 and steam pump1 of which latter the ,blake1 ,knowles1 and ,worthington are representative types4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,the ,,six-,,cylinder ,,quadruple ,,expansion ,,engines ,,of ,,the 8,,deutschland10 #ce1fdj ,,horse ,,power4 ,the highest type of modern steam engines is to be found in the compound multiple-expansion engine1 in which three or more cylinders of different diameters with corresponding pistons are so arranged that steam is made to act first upon the piston in the smallest cylinder at high pressure1 and then discharging into the next larger cylinder1 called the intermediate1 acts expansively upon its piston1 and thence1 passing into the still larger low pressure cylinder1 imparts its further expansive effect upon its piston4 ,the fundamental principle of the compound engine dates back to the time of ,watt1 its first embodiment appearing in the ,hornblower compound engine1 as described in ,british patent ,no4 #a1bih1 of #agha1 but modern improvements have differentiated it into almost a new invention4 ,a fine example is shown in ,fig4 #ib1 which represents the quadruple expansion engines of the 8,deutschland10 the new steamer of the ,hamburg-,american ,line4 ,the two high pressure cylinders1 however1 do not appear in the illustration1 being too high for the shops4 ,they stand vertically1 however1 upon the two bed plates which appear at the top of the two low pressure cylinders4 ,in each set of six cylinders the two low pressure cylinders are in the middle1 the two high pressure cylinders immediately above them or arranged tandem1 while at the forward end is the first intermediate cylinder1 and at the after end is the second intermediate4 ,the low pressure cylinders are #ajf inches in diameter1 the intermediate cylinders are #gc4f inches and #ajc4i inches respectively1 and the two high pressure cylinders are #cj4f inches1 and the steam pressure is #bbe pounds4 ,its improvements comprehend the systems of ,schlick1 patented in the ,united ,states ,november #bc1 #ahig1 ,no4 #eid1bhh and #eid1bhi1 and ,taylor1 patented ,november #bb1 #ahih1 ,no4 #fad1fgd1 which embody fine mathematical principles for balancing the momentum of the great masses of moving parts1 so that the engine may run up to high speed without vibrations and damaging strains upon the hull4 ,mulhall gives the steam horse power of the world in #ahie1 not including war vessels1 as follows3 ,stationary4 ,railway4 ,steamboat4 ,total4 ,the ,world #aa1cdj1jjj #cb1bce1jjj #ab1jje1jjj #ee1ehj1jjj ,united ,states #c1idj1jjj #aj1hjj1jjj #b1bjj1jjj #af1idj1jjj ,the increase in steam power in the ,united ,states has been from #c1ejj1jjj horse power in #ahfj1 to #af1idj1jjj horse power in #ahie1 or about five fold within thirty-five years4 ,prof4 ,thurston says that in #ahij the combined power of all the steam engines of the world was not far from #ajj1jjj1jjjb horse power1 of which the ,united ,states had #ae1jjj1jjj1 ,great ,britain the same1 and the other countries smaller amounts4 ,taking the horse power as the equivalent of the work of five men1 the work of steam is equivalent to that of a population of #ejj1jjj1jjj working men4 ,it is also said that one man to-day1 with the aid of a steam engine1 performs the work of #abj men in the last century4 #b ,prof4 ,thurston's estimate doubtless includes war vessels1 which ,mulhall's later estimate does not 7see ,mulhall's 8,industries and ,wealth of ,nations10 #ahif1 pages #d and #cgi74 ,the influence of the steam engine upon the history and destiny of the world is an impressive subject1 far beyond any intelligent computation or estimate4 ,it has been the greatest moving force of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,the labor of #ajj1jjj men for twenty years might build a great pyramid in ,egypt1 and it remains as a monument of patience only1 but the genius of the modern inventor has organized a machine with muscles of steel1 far more patient and tireless than those of the ,egyptian slave4 ,he gave it but a drink of water and making coal its black slave1 and himself the master of both1 he has in the ,nineteenth ,century hitched his chariot to a star and driven to unparalleled achievement4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,steam ,,railway4 ,,trevithick',s ,,first ,,locomotive--,,blenkinsop',s ,,locomotive--,,hedley',s 8,,puffing ,,billy0--,,stephenson',s ,,locomotive--,,the ,,link ,,motion--,,stockton ,,and ,,darlington ,,railway1 #ahbe--;,,hackworth',s 8,,royal ,,george0-- 8,,stourbridge ,,lion0--8,,john ,,bull0--,,baldwin',s ,,locomotives--,,westinghouse ,,air ,,brakes--,,janney ,,car ,,coupling--,,the ,,woodruff ,,sleeping ,,car--,,railway ,,statistics4 ,the fact that more patents have been granted in the class of carriages and wagons than in any other field1 shows that means of transportation has engaged the largest share of man's inventive genius1 and has been most closely allied to his necessities4 ,the moving of passengers and freight seems to be directly related to the progress of civilization1 and the factor whose influence has been most felt in this field is the steam locomotive4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton in #afhj proposed a steam carriage propelled by the reaction of a jet of steam4 ,dr4 ,robinson in #agei suggested the steam carriage to ,watt4 ,cugnot in #agfi built a steam carriage4 ,symington1 in #aggj1 and ,murdock1 in #aghd1 built working models1 and in #agij ,nathan ,read also made experiments in steam transportation1 but the ,nineteenth ,century dawned without any other results than a few abandoned experiments1 and the criticism and disappointment of the inventors in this field4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,trevithick',s ,,locomotive1 #ahjd4 ,,the ,,first ,,to ,,run ,,on ,,rails4 ,the father of the locomotive and the first inventor of the ,nineteenth ,century who directed his energy to its development was ,richard ,trevithick1 of ,camborne1 ,cornwall4 ,in #ahja he built his first steam carriage1 adapted to carry seven or eight passengers1 which was said to have 8gone off like a bird10 but broke down1 and was taken to the home of ,capt4 ,vivian1 who afterward became a partner of ,trevithick4 ,an old lady1 upon seeing this novel and1 to her1 frightful engine1 is said to have cried out3 8,good gracious6 ,mr4 ,vivian1 what will be done next8 ,i can't compare it to anything but a walking1 puffing devil40 ,on the #bdth of ,march1 #ahjb1 ,trevithick and ,vivian obtained ,british patent ,no4 #b1eii for their steam carriage1 and a second one was built in #ahjc which was popularly known as ,capt4 ,trevithick's 8,puffing ,devil40 ,in #ahjd1 at ,pen y ,darran1 ,south ,wales1 a third engine was built1 which was the first steam locomotive ever to run on rails4 ,it is seen in the illustration1 ,no4 #ic4 ,it had a horizontal cylinder inside the boiler1 a cross head sliding on guides in front of the engine1 the cross head being connected to a crank on a rear gear wheel1 which in turn meshes with an intermediate gear wheel above and between two other gear wheels on the running wheels4 ,a fly wheel was on the crank shaft4 ,the steam was discharged into the chimney1 and the whole engine weighed five tons1 and it ran1 when loaded1 at five miles an hour4 ,in #ahjh ,trevithick built a circular railway at ,london within an inclosure1 and charged a shilling for admission to his steam circus and a ride behind his locomotive4 ,the engine here employed was the 8,catch ,me ,who ,can10 and had a vertical cylinder and piston1 without the toothed gear wheels shown in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,,blenkinsop',s ,,locomotive1 #ahaa4 ,in ,fig4 #id is shown ,blenkinsop's locomotive of #ahaa4 ,this was employed at the ,middleton ,colliery in hauling coal4 ,it had cog wheels engaging teeth on the side of the rail4 ,the fire was built in a large tube passing through the boiler and bent up to form a chimney4 ,two vertical cylinders were placed inside the boiler1 and the pistons were connected by cross heads1 and1 by connecting rods1 to cranks on the axles of small cog wheels engaging with the main cog wheels4 ,it drew thirty tons weight at three and three-quarter miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,,hedley',s 8,,puffing ,,billy10 #ahac4 ,in #ahac 8,puffing ,billy0 was built by ,wm4 ,hedley4 ,there were 7see ,fig4 #ie7 four smooth drive wheels running on smooth rails1 which wheels were coupled together by intermediate gear wheels on the axle1 and all propelled by a gear wheel in the middle1 driven by a connecting rod from the walking beam overhead4 ,hedley's locomotive was used on the ,wylam railway1 and was said to have been at work more or less until #ahfb4 ,most prominent among those who took an active interest in the development of the locomotive were ,george ,stephenson and his son1 ,robert4 ,stephenson's first locomotive was tried on the ,killingworth ,railway on ,july #bg1 #ahad4 ,in #ahae ,dodds and ,stephenson patented an arrangement for attaching the connecting rods to the driving wheels1 which took the place of cog wheels heretofore employed1 and in the following year ,stephenson1 in connection with ,mr4 ,losh1 patented the application of steam cushion-springs for supporting the weight of the locomotive in an elastic manner4 ,in #ahbe the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 in ,england1 was opened for traffic1 with ,george ,stephenson's engine1 8,locomotion10 and was put permanently into service for the transportation of freight and passengers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,,hackworth',s ,,locomotive1 8,,royal ,,george10 #ahbg4 ,in #ahbg ,hackworth produced the 8,royal ,george0 7see ,fig4 #if71 whose cylinders were arranged vertically at the rear end of the boiler1 and whose pistons emerged from the cylinders at the lower ends of the latter1 and imparted their power through connecting rods to cranks on the opposite ends of the axle of the rear driving wheels in a more direct manner than heretofore1 and doing away with the overhead mechanism heretofore employed in most engines4 ,hackworth also improved the steam blast1 put on the bell1 and greatly simplified and modernized the appearance of the locomotive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,,george ,,stephenson',s 8,,rocket10 #ahbi4 ,in #ahbi the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway was completed1 and the directors offered a prize of #ejj for the best locomotive4 ,george ,stephenson's 8,rocket10 shown in ,fig4 #ig1 attained a speed of #bd miles an hour1 and took the prize4 ,its success1 however1 was marred by the first railroad fatality1 for it ran over and killed a man on this occasion4 ,it embodied1 as leading features1 the steam blast and the multitubular boiler1 which latter was six feet long and had twenty-five three-inch tubes4 ,the fire box was surrounded by an exterior casing that formed a water jacket1 which1 by means of pipes1 was in open communication with the water space of the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--8,,stourbridge ,,lion10 #ahbi4 ,the first practical locomotive to run on a railroad in the ,united ,states was the 8,stourbridge ,lion10 seen in ,fig4 #ih4 ,this was imported from ,england1 and arrived in ,new ,york in ,may1 #ahbi1 and was tried in that year on a section of the ,delaware ,hudson ,canal ,company's railroad4 ,the boiler was tubular1 and the exhaust steam was carried into the chimney by a pipe in front of the smoke stack as shown4 ,it had vertical cylinders of thirty-six inch stroke1 with overhead grasshopper beams and connecting rods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,locomotive 8,,john ,,bull10 #ahca4 ,in ,fig4 #ii is shown the 8,john ,bull10 now in the ,national ,museum at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,it was built by ,stephenson ,co4 for the ,camden ,amboy ,railroad1 and was brought over from ,england and put into service in #ahca4 ,during the ,columbian ,exposition at ,chicago in #ahic1 after a long rest in the ,washington ,museum1 it made its way under its own steam to ,chicago1 drawing a train of two cars a distance of #iab miles without assistance4 ,it further distinguished itself while there by carrying #ej1jjj passengers over the exhibition tracks1 and although sixty-two years of age at the time1 showed itself quite capable of performing substantial work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,baldwin',s 8,,old ,,ironsides10 #ahcb4 ,most of the early locomotives used in ,america were imported from ,england1 but our inventors soon commenced making them for themselves4 ,the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works1 of ,philadelphia1 has had a notable career in the field of locomotive construction4 8,old ,ironsides10 built in #ahcb1 was the first ,baldwin locomotive1 and it did duty for over a score of years4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #ajj4 ,it had four wheels and weighed a little over five tons4 ,the drive wheels were #ed inches in diameter1 and the cylinder #i inches in diameter1 #ah inches stroke4 ,the wheels had heavy cast iron hubs with wooden spokes and rims and wrought iron tires1 and the frame was of wood placed outside the wheels4 ,the boiler was #cj inches in diameter and had #gb copper flues #a inches in diameter1 #g feet long4 ,the price of the locomotive was #d1jjj1 and it attained a speed of #cj miles an hour1 with its train4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,,eight-,,wheel ,,passenger ,,express ,,locomotive1 #ahfc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,,express ,,passenger ,,locomotive1 #ahha4 ,in ,fig4 #aja is shown a standard type of passenger locomotive of the period of #ahfc1 and in ,fig4 #ajb is illustrated the period of #ahha1 which latter represents perhaps the greatest epoch of railroad building in the history of the world4 ,according to ,poor's ,manual1 #a1jjj1jjj a day was the estimated cash outlay on this account for the three years up to the close of #ahhb1 during which period #bh1jai miles of railroad were opened up in the ,united ,states1 or more than enough to girdle the entire earth4 ,some idea of the wonderful growth of the railroad industry during this period is given by the following tables1 which represent the yearly production of locomotives by the ,baldwin ,company alone for forty years prior to this period3 #ahdb #ad #ahdc #ab #ahdd #bb #ahde #bg #ahdf #db #ahdg #ci #ahdh #bj #ahdi #cj #ahej #cg #ahea #ej #aheb #di #ahec #fj #ahed #fb #ahee #dg #ahef #ei #aheg #ff #aheh #cc #ahei #gj #ahfj #hc #ahfa #dj #ahfb #ge #ahfc #if #ahfd #acj #ahfe #aae #ahff #aah #ahfg #abg #ahfh #abd #ahfi #bce #ahgj #bhj #ahga #cca #ahgb #ddb #ahgc #dcg #ahgd #bje #ahge #acj #ahgf #bcb #ahgg #ahe #ahgh #bib #ahgi #cih #ahhj #eag #ahha #eee #ahhb #efc #ahhc #eeg ,the present capacity of the ,baldwin works is one thousand locomotives a year1 and they have built up to this date about fifteen thousand locomotives1 or nearly one-half of all the locomotives in use in the ,united ,states4 ,the successive steps of the development in detail of the various features of the locomotive are distributed over a long period1 and are somewhat difficult to trace4 ,the turning of the exhaust steam into the smoke stack was done by ,trevithick as early as #ahjd1 but its effect was greatly increased by ,hackworth about #ahbg1 who augmented its power by directing it into the chimney through a narrow orifice4 ,this and the tubular locomotive boiler by ,seguin in #ahbh1 the link-motion in #ahcb1 the steam whistle by ,stephenson in #ahcc1 the ,giffard injector in #aheh1 and the ,westinghouse air brake of #ahfi1 are the most prominent features of the locomotive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,stephenson',s ,,link ,,motion4 ,the link motion has been claimed both for the younger ,stephenson and ,w4 ,t4 ,james1 of ,new ,york1 the latter being probably its real inventor4 ,its purpose is to reverse the engine and also to cut off steam in either direction1 so that it may act expansively4 ,the form of link motion most generally used is shown in ,fig4 #ajc1 and is known as ,stephenson's4 ,a ,b are two eccentrics projecting in opposite directions from the center of the common drive shaft1 their rods being connected at their outer ends by a curved and slotted link ,c ,d4 ,in the slot of this link plays a pin ,e1 carried by a pendent swinging lever ,g ,f1 which lever is jointed at its lower end to the slide valve rod ,h4 ,a ,t-shaped lever ,i ,l ,k ,m has one arm at ,i connected by a rod with the slotted link at ,c4 ,the opposite arm is provided with a counter weight at ,k to balance the weight of the link ,c ,d and eccentric rods1 and the upright arm is connected at ,m to a rod operated by a hand lever ,p within easy access of the engineer4 ,when the link ,c ,d is lowered the eccentric ,b imparts its throw to pendent lever ,g ,f and valve rod ,h1 and the eccentric ,a will only swing the end ,c of the link without imparting any effect to the valve4 ,when link ,c ,d is drawn up so that pin ,e is in the bottom of the slot1 the eccentric ,a is active and ,b inactive1 and as ,a has an opposite throw to ,b1 the action of the valve is reversed4 ,if link ,c ,d be drawn half way up1 the pin ,e becomes the center of the oscillation of the link1 and the valve rod is not moved at all4 ,by adjusting the link nearer to or further from the central position1 the throw of the slide valve may be made shorter or longer1 and the steam cut off at a later or earlier period in the stroke of the piston4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,locomotive ,,engine ,,no4 #iii4 ,fig4 #ajd is a type of the best modern express locomotive4 ,this is the famous #iii of the ,new ,york ,central ,hudson ,river ,railroad4 ,its cylinders are #ai #bd inches1 driving wheels #hf inches in diameter1 weight #fb tons1 steam pressure #aij pounds4 ,this engine hauls the ,empire ,state ,express at a speed of #fd4bb miles an hour1 excluding stops1 or more than a mile a minute4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,,compound ,,locomotive4 ,in securing a higher efficiency and a greater economy in the use of steam1 the most recent developments in the locomotive have been in the application of the principle of the compound expansion engine1 in which two or more cylinders of different diameters are used1 the steam at high pressure acting in the smaller cylinder1 and being then exhausted into and acting expansively upon the piston of the larger cylinder4 ,a fine example of the compound locomotive is shown in ,fig4 #aje4 ,the cylinders are arranged in pairs1 the small high pressure cylinder above1 and the larger low pressure cylinder below1 both piston rods engaging a common cross head4 ,the application of this principle of the compound engine is said to involve a saving in coal of over #be per cent4 ,prominent among modern improvements in steam railways is the air brake4 ,this invention is chiefly the result of the ingenuity of ,mr4 ,george ,westinghouse1 ,jr41 who1 beginning his experiments in #ahfi1 took out his first patents on the automatic air brake ,march #e1 #ahgb1 ,nos4 #abd1djd and #abd1dje1 which have since been followed up by many others in perfecting the system4 ,the principle of the air brake is to store up compressed air in a reservoir on the locomotive by means of a steam pump4 ,this air passing through a train pipe connected by hose couplings between cars charges an auxiliary reservoir under each car4 ,this reservoir is arranged beside a cylinder having a piston and a triple valve4 ,pressure in the train pipe is maintained constantly1 and the power to work the piston to apply the brakes comes from the auxiliary reservoir beside it1 which is set into action by a sudden reduction of pressure in the train pipe by the engineer through a special form of valve on the locomotive4 ,the air brake is capable of stopping a train at average speed within the distance of its own length1 and so great a safeguard to life and property is it1 that its application to a certain number of cars on every train is made compulsory by law4 ,the automatic car coupling is another important life-saving improvement4 ,many thousands of these have been patented1 but the 8,janney0 coupling1 patented ,april #bi1 #ahgc1 ,no4 #ach1dje1 is the most representative type4 ,the year #aijj is to witness the compulsory adoption of automatic car couplings on all cars4 ,the 8block system0 of signals1 by which no train is admitted on to a given section of track until the preceding train has left that section1 improved switches1 which are not dependent upon the memory of men1 and steel rails1 which constitute nine-tenths of all tracks and serve to increase the stability of the track1 are further modern safeguards against danger4 ,sleeping cars were invented by ,woodruff1 and patented ,dec4 #b1 #ahef1 ,nos4 #af1aei and #af1afj4 ,these1 with the palace cars of ,pullman and ,wagner1 the special refrigerator cars for perishable goods1 cars for cattle1 and cars for coal1 multiply the equipment1 swell the traffic1 and supply every want of the great railroad systems of modern times4 ,the first railroad in the ,united ,states was built near ,quincy1 ,mass41 in #ahbf4 ,the ,pacific ,railway1 the first of our half a dozen transcontinental railways1 was completed in #ahfi4 ,the great ,trans-,siberian ,railway is nearing completion1 and in the ,twentieth ,century a ,trans-,sahara ,railway will probably relieve the burdens of the camel1 as it has already done those of the horse4 ,at the end of the year #ahih there were in use in the ,united ,states #cf1gdf locomotives1 #a1cah1gjj cars1 and the mileage in tracks1 including second track and sidings1 was #bde1bch4hg1 which1 if extended in a straight line1 would build a railway to the moon4 ,the money investment represented in capital stock and bonds was #aa1baf1hhf1deb4 ,the gross earnings for the year #ahih were #a1bdi1eeh1gbd4 ,the net earnings were #chi1fff1dgd4 ,tons of freight moved were #iab1igc1hec4 ,receipts from freight were #hfh1ibd1ebf4 ,number of passengers carried was #ead1ihb1bhh4 ,receipts from passengers were #bgb1ehi1eia1 and dividends paid were #id1icg1ebf4 ,add to the above the elevated railroads and street railroads1 which are not included1 and the immensity of the railroad business in the ,united ,states becomes apparent4 ,in #ahih the ,united ,states exported #dfh locomotives1 worth #c1hhc1gai4 ,mulhall estimates that the steam horse power of railroads in the world amounted in #ahif to #dj1dbj1jjj1 of which the ,united ,states had more than one-third4 ,he also states that the railways in the ,united ,states carry every day1 in merchandise1 a weight equal to that of the whole of the seventy millions of persons constituting its population2 that the total railway traffic of the world in #ahid averaged ten million passengers and six million tons of merchandise daily2 and that the total railway capital of the world reached in that year1 #f1gde million sterling1 or about thirty-three billion dollars4 ,it is said that the highest railway speed ever attained by steam prior to #aijj was by locomotive ,no4 #efd of the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern ,railroad1 made during part of a run from ,chicago to ,buffalo4 ,in this run #hf miles were made at an average rate of #gb4ib miles an hour4 ,the train load was #cjd1ejj pounds1 and the #hf mile run included one mile at #ib4c miles an hour1 eight miles at #he4dd miles an hour1 and thirty-three miles at #hj4f miles an hour4 ,on ,may #bf1 #aijj1 however1 an experiment on the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railroad1 made by ,mr4 ,f4 ,u4 ,adams between ,baltimore and ,washington1 demonstrated that by sheathing the train to prevent retardation by the air1 an average speed of #gh4f miles an hour was obtained1 and for five miles on a down grade a speed of #ajb4h miles an hour was reached4 ,the largest and most powerful locomotives in the world are those being built for the ,pittsburg1 ,bessemer ,lake ,erie ,railroad for hauling long trains of iron and ore1 one of which has just been completed4 ,its cylinders are #bd #cb inches2 drive wheels1 #ed inches diameter2 weight1 #abe tons2 draw bar pull #ef1cjj pounds1 and hauling capacity #g1hdg tons4 ,one of these mammoth engines is capable of drawing a train of box cars1 loaded with wheat1 and more than a mile long1 at a speed of ten miles an hour4 ,this load of wheat would represent the yield of #ad square miles of land4 ,no doubt it would greatly astonish our forefathers to know that at the end of the century we would have iron horses capable of carting away1 at a single load1 the products of #ad square miles of the country side1 and do it at a gait faster than that of their local mail coach4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,early ,,experiments--,,symington',s ,,boat--,,col4 ,,john ,,stevens' ,,screw ,,propeller--,,robt4 ,,fulton ,,and ,,the 8,,clermont0--,,first ,,trip ,,to ,,sea ,,by ,,stevens' 8,,ph,,nix0--8,,savannah10 ,,the ,,first ,,steam ,,vessel ,,to ,,cross ,,the ,,ocean--,,ericsson',s ,,screw ,,propeller--,,the 8,,great ,,eastern0--,,the ,,whaleback ,,steamers--,,ocean ,,greyhounds--,,the 8,,oceanic10 ,,largest ,,steamship ,,in ,,the ,,world--,,the 8,,turbinia0--,,fulton',s 8,,demologos10 ,,first ,,war ,,vessel--,,the ,,turret ,,monitor--,,modern ,,battleships ,,and ,,torpedo ,,boats--,,holland ,,submarine ,,boat4 ,the application of steam for the propulsion of boats engaged the attention of inventors along with the very earliest development of the steam engine itself4 ,blasco de ,garay in #aedc1 the ,marquis of ,worcester in #afee1 ,savary in #afih1 ,denys ,papin in #agjg1 ,dr4 ,john ,allen in #agcj1 ,jonathan ,hulls in #agcg1 ,bernouilli and ,genevois in #ageg1 ,william ,henry 7of ,pennsylvania7 in #agfc1 ,count ,d',auxiron and ,m4 ,perier in #aggd1 the ,marquis de ,jouffroy in #agha1 ,james ,rumsey 7on the ,potomac7 in #aghb1 ,benjamin ,franklin and ,oliver ,evans in #aghf and #aghi1 ,john ,fitch in #aghf1 and also again in #agif1 and ,william ,symington in #aghh-hi were the early experimenters4 ,papin's boat was said to have been used on the ,fulda at ,cassel1 and was reported to have been destroyed by bargemen1 who feared that it would deprive them of a livelihood4 ,allen1 ,rumsey1 ,franklin1 and ,evans 7#aghf7 proposed to employ a backwardly discharged column of water issuing from a pump4 ,jonathan ,hulls and ,oliver ,evans 7#aghi7 had stern wheels4 ,bernouilli1 ,genevois1 and the ,marquis de ,jouffroy used paddles on the duck's foot principle1 which closed when dragged forward1 and expanded when pushed to the rear4 ,fitch's first boat employed a system of paddles suspended by their handles from cranks1 which1 in revolving1 gave the paddles a motion simulating that which the ,indian imparts to his paddle4 ,symington's boat of #aghh 7,patrick ,miller's pleasure boat7 had side paddle wheels4 ,symington's next boat1 built in #aghi1 and also owned by ,patrick ,miller1 was of the catamaran type1 i4 e41 it had two parallel hulls with paddle wheels between them4 ,such was the state of this art when the ,nineteenth ,century commenced its wonderful record4 ,no practical steam vessel had been constructed1 as the efforts in this direction were handicapped by the crudeness of all the arts1 and were to be regarded as experiments only1 most of which had to be abandoned4 ,the seed of this invention1 however1 had been sown in the fertile soil of genius1 conception of its great possibilities had fired the zeal of the inventors in this field1 and the new century was shortly to number among its great resources a practical and efficient steamboat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,symington',s ,,steamboat1 #ahja4 ,the first steamboat of the ,nineteenth ,century was the 8,charlotte ,dundas10 built by ,william ,symington in #ahja1 see ,fig4 #ajf1 and used on the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal in #ahjb4 ,she had a double acting 8,watt engine10 which transmitted power by a connecting rod to a crank on the paddle-wheel shaft4 ,the boat had a single paddle wheel in the middle near the stern1 and was intended only for canal use1 in the place of horses4 ,it was abandoned for fear of washing the banks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,stevens' ,,twin ,,screw ,,propeller ,,and ,,engine1 #ahjd4 ,in #ahjd ,col4 ,john ,stevens constructed a boat on the ,hudson1 driven by a ,watt engine1 and having a tubular boiler of his own invention and a twin screw propeller4 ,the engine1 boiler1 and twin screws are shown in ,fig4 #ajg4 ,the same year ,oliver ,evans used a stern paddle wheel boat on the ,delaware and ,schuylkill rivers4 ,it was driven by a double acting high pressure engine1 and geared so as to rotate wagon wheels by which it was transported on land1 as well as the paddle wheels when on the water4 ,it was in primitive form both a locomotive and a steamboat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,the 8,,clermont10 #ahjg4 ,in #ahjg ,robert ,fulton built the 8,clermont10 and permanently established steam navigation on the ,hudson ,river between ,new ,york and ,albany4 ,fulton in #ahjb-ahjc1 while living in ,paris with ,mr4 ,joel ,barlow1 and with the aid and encouragement of ,chancellor ,livingston1 of ,new ,jersey1 had built an earlier steamboat #hf feet long1 and although it broke down owing to defects in the strength of the hull1 he was so encouraged that he ordered ,messrs4 ,boulton ,watt1 of ,england1 to send to ,america a new steam engine1 and upon his return to ,america he built the 8,clermont40 ,this vessel1 although not the first steamboat1 was nevertheless the first to make a voyage of any considerable length1 and to run regularly and continuously for practical purposes1 and ,fulton was the first inventor in this field whose labors were not to be classed as an abandoned experiment4 ,the 8,clermont0 as originally built was quite a different looking boat from that usually given in the histories4 ,a model of the original construction is to be found in the ,national ,museum at ,washington4 ,in the winter of #ahjg-h she was remodeled as shown in ,fig4 #ajh4 ,she then appeared as a side wheel steamer1 whose wheels were provided with outer guards and enclosed in side wheel houses1 and whose shaft had outer bearings in the guards1 which were not in the original boat4 ,the hull was #acc feet long1 #ah feet beam1 and #g feet depth4 ,the 8,clermont's0 engines were coupled to the crank shaft by a bell crank1 and the paddle wheel shaft was separated from the crank shaft1 but connected with it by gearing4 ,the cylinders were #bd inches in diameter1 and #d foot stroke4 ,the paddle wheels had buckets #d feet long with a dip of #b feet4 ,she made the first trip from ,new ,york to ,albany of #aej miles in #cb hours1 and returned in #cj hours1 which was the first voyage of any considerable length ever made by steam power4 ,the honor of inventing the steamboat has been claimed for many inventors1 and that many worthy experimenters had been working in this field1 and that ,fulton had the benefit of their experience is true4 ,the fact is1 however1 that the evolution of any great1 invention is a slow and cumulative process1 the product of many minds1 and while the proposers1 suggesters1 and experimenters are entitled to their share of the credit1 it is the man who achieves success and gives to the public the benefit of his labors whom the world honors1 and in this connection the name of ,fulton stands pre-eminent1 for although the 8,clermont0 was #bfd years later than the steamboat of ,blasco de ,garay1 the 8,clermont0 marks the beginning of practical steam navigation1 and whatever the claims of other inventors may be1 it is certain that steam navigation1 established by ,fulton in #ahjg1 on the ,hudson1 preceded the practical use of the steamboat in any other country by at least five years1 for it was not until #ahab that ,henry ,bell1 of ,scotland1 built the 8,comet10 that plied between ,glasgow and ,greenock1 on the ,clyde1 and not until #ahad was a steam packet used for hire on the ,thames in ,england4 ,at the same time that ,fulton was in ,paris making his first experiments with the steamboat1 ,col4 ,john ,stevens1 the most celebrated boat builder and engineer of his day1 was actively experimenting in ,america in the same line4 ,having in #ahjd made the first application of steam to the screw propeller1 he in #ahjg built the 8,phnix10 which was driven by paddle wheels4 ,the 8,phnix0 was constructed shortly after ,fulton's boat1 but was barred from use on the ,hudson by the exclusive monopoly obtained by ,fulton and ,livingston from the ,state ,legislature1 and she was accordingly taken from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia by sea1 which was the first ocean voyage by a steam vessel4 ,the first steamboat on the ,mississippi was the 8,orleans10 of #ajj tons1 built at ,pittsburg by ,fulton and ,livingston in #ahaa4 ,she had a stern wheel1 and went from ,pittsburg to ,new ,orleans in #ad days4 ,although the first trip out to sea was made in #ahjh by ,col4 ,stevens' son in taking the 8,phnix0 from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia1 no attempt had been made to cross the ocean until #ahai4 ,in this year the 8,savannah10 an ,american steamer of #chj tons1 performed this feat1 and had the honor of being the first steam vessel to cross the ,atlantic4 ,in #ahbd the 8,enterprise10 an ,english steamer1 rounded the ,cape of ,good ,hope and went to ,india4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,screw ,,propeller ,,of ,,the 8,,robt4 ,f4 ,,stockton10 ,,ericsson',s ,,patent1 #ahcf4 ,the screw propeller employed by ,colonel ,stevens in #ahjd was not a new invention with him1 as popularly supposed1 but had its origin early in the preceding century1 being a mere development of the ancient wind wheel4 ,in #ahcf it was further developed by ,francis ,p4 ,smith and by ,capt4 ,john ,ericsson1 then living in ,england4 ,ericsson took out ,british patent ,no4 #g1adi1 of #ahcf1 and ,united ,states patent ,no4 #ehh1 of ,feb4 #a1 #ahch1 and built several screw steamers1 and through ,capt4 ,robert ,f4 ,stockton1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 succeeded in having a screw steamer1 the 8,robert ,f4 ,stockton10 built in accordance with the plans of his patent and sent to the ,united ,states4 ,the arrangement of her machinery is seen in ,fig4 #aji4 ,she had two propellers on the same axis1 but revolving in opposite directions1 one being on the central shaft and the other on a concentric tube4 ,the engines were coupled directly to the propeller shafts1 which feature was one of ,ericsson's improvements1 and has continued to be the approved form to this day4 ,in the early history of steam navigation the side wheel steamer was the favorite1 and was employed for ocean travel as well as for inland waters4 ,in #ahdj the 8,brittania10 the first ,cunarder1 commenced the career of that celebrated line4 ,this vessel had side wheels1 as did also the 8,united ,states10 shown in ,fig4 #aaj1 which was the first ,american steamer built expressly for the ,atlantic trade4 ,in #aheb the ,united ,states mail steamer 8,arctic10 of the ,collins line1 was regarded as the greyhound of the ,atlantic1 her time being #i days1 #ag hours and #ab minutes4 ,she also had side wheels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,steamer 8,,united ,,states10 #ahdg4 ,side wheel steamers for inland waters1 and screw propellers for sea service1 however1 in time established their fitness for their respective scenes of action4 ,in side wheel steamers the most notable improvements have been in stiffening the hull by braces1 and the adoption of feathering paddle wheels1 whose function is to cause the paddles to enter and leave the water in vertical position without dragging dead water4 ,manley in #ahfb1 and ,morgan in #ahge1 patented practical forms of the feathering paddle wheel4 ,in screw propellers1 ,woodcroft in #ahcb1 and ,griffiths at a later period1 made valuable improvements4 ,the surface condenser was used by ,hall in #ahch on the steamship 8,wilberforce10 and ,sickels in #ahda invented the drop cut-off4 ,illustration3 8,,great ,,eastern10 ,,screw ,,and ,,paddle ,,wheels1 #aheh4 ,,length1 ,,fig4 #aaa4--fib ,,feet1 ,,speed #ab ,,knots4 8,,oceanic10 ,,twin ,,screw1 #ahii4 ,,length1 #gjd ,,feet1 ,,speed1 #bj ,,knots4 ,in #ahed the 8,great ,eastern0 was begun and was finished in #aheh4 ,this was the largest steam vessel ever built up to this time1 and has continued to hold the record for size up to the year #ahii1 when her dimensions were exceeded by the 8,oceanic10 which ships are put in comparison in ,fig4 #aaa4 ,the length of the 8,great ,eastern0 was #fib feet1 beam #hc feet1 depth #eg feet1 draft #be feet1 displacement #bg1jjj tons1 and speed #ab knots4 ,she was designed by the ,english engineer ,brunel1 and was intended for the ,australian trade4 ,she had both a screw propeller and paddle wheels at the side1 with four engines coupled to each4 ,the paddle wheel engines had steam cylinders #gd inches in diameter1 with #ad foot stroke1 and those of the screw engines were #hd inches in diameter and #d foot stroke4 ,collectively they were of #aj1jjj horse power4 ,the paddle wheels were #ef feet in diameter1 and the screw propeller #bd feet4 ,on her first voyage to ,new ,york1 across the ,atlantic1 in #ahfj1 she carried from #ae to #bd pounds of steam and consumed #b1hgg tons of coal4 ,her cost was #c1hca1ebj4 ,this mammoth vessel was too large and unwieldy for the uses for which she was designed1 and proved a bad investment4 ,she served1 however1 a most useful purpose1 by virtue of her great bulk1 steadiness1 and carrying capacity1 for relaying the ,atlantic cable in #ahff1 and others in #ahgc-ahgd4 ,in #ahgd the 8,castalia0 was built4 ,this was a steamer with two parallel hulls1 decked across1 and designed for greater steadiness in crossing the ,english ,channel4 ,the 8,bessemer0 steamer1 designed for the same purpose1 and built about the same time1 had four paddle wheels1 and the entire cabin was hung on pivots1 so that it could not partake of the sea motion4 ,in later years great improvements have been made in reducing the weight of the engines1 in forced blast1 steam steering gear1 anchor hoisting devices1 water-tight bulkheads1 surface condensers1 electric lights1 and signalling devices4 ,by the year #ahhj the standard form of marine engine for large powers had become the compound double cylinder type1 expanding steam from an initial pressure as high as #ij pounds4 ,in #ahij triple expansion engines had become common1 employing three cylinders1 and using steam with an initial pressure as high as #ahj pounds4 ,in #ahij ,mc,dougal's whale-back steamers were introduced4 ,see ,united ,states patents ,no4 #dbi1dfg and #dbi1dfh1 ,june #c1 #ahij1 and ,no4 #ejj1daa1 ,june #bg1 #ahic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,,steamboat 8,,priscilla40 ,in no country in the world are such fine examples of side wheel steamers to be found as in the ,united ,states1 and in no country are there such splendid reaches of inland waters as theatres for their performances4 ,the 8,priscilla10 shown in ,fig4 #aab1 of the ,fall ,river ,line1 plying on ,long ,island ,sound1 and the 8,adirondack10 on the ,hudson1 are fine examples of this type4 ,the 8,priscilla10 which is said to be the largest river boat in the world1 is #ddj feet #f inches long and #ic feet breadth over the guards4 ,she is driven by double compound inclined engines1 has feathering paddle wheels #ce feet in diameter and #ad feet face1 and her speed is over #bj miles an hour4 ,the 8,adirondack10 whose engines and feathering paddle wheel are shown in ,fig4 #aac1 is #dab feet long and #ij feet breadth over guards4 ,the engines and paddle wheels of the 8,adirondack0 are distinctly representative of the modern ,american side wheel steamer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,,engines ,,and ,,paddle ,,wheel ,,of ,,steamer 8,,adirondack0 ,,on ,,the ,,hudson ,,river4 ,the largest and in many respects the highest type of marine architecture is to be found in the modern ocean greyhound for transatlantic trade4 ,in recent years the rival companies have vied with each other in the effort to excel1 and steamships of larger size1 greater speed1 and more perfect equipment have followed each other1 until it would seem that the limit had been reached4 ,in the accompanying table the largest and most recent steamers are placed in comparison with the 8,great ,eastern40 ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,largest ,,ocean ,,steamers4 ,,name ,,of ,,date4,,length ,,beam4,,depth4,,draught4,,displace-,,ma ximum ,,ship4 ,,over ,,ment4 ,,speed4 ,,all4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,feet4 ,,feet4 ,,feet4 ,,feet4 ,,tons4 ,,knots4 ,great ,eastern #aheh #fib #hc #eg #be #bg1jjj #ab ,paris #ahhh #efj #fc #db #bf #ac1jjj #bj ,teutonic #ahij #ehe #eg #db #bf #ab1jjj #bj ,campania #ahic #fbe #fe #da #bh #ai1jjj #bb ,st4 ,paul #ahie #eed #fc #db #bg #ad1jjj #ba ,kaiser ,wilhelm #ahig #fdi #ff #dc #bi #bj1jjj #bb4ce der ,grosse ,oceanic #ahii #gjd #fh #di #cb #bh1ejj #bj ,deutschland #aijj #fhf #fg #dd #bi #bb1jjj #bc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--8,,kaiser ,,wilhelm ,,der ,,grosse40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--8,,oceanic0 ,,compared ,,with ,,broadway ,,buildings4 ,the 8,kaiser ,wilhelm der ,grosse10 owned by the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,company1 and built in #ahig1 is shown in ,fig4 #aad1 and for three years held the record as the fastest steamship afloat4 ,the 8,kaiser ,wilhelm0 was followed by the 8,oceanic10 in #ahii1 of the ,white ,star ,company1 which is the largest ocean steamer ever built1 exceeding the proportions of the 8,great ,eastern40 ,just what the dimensions of the 8,oceanic0 mean1 as given in the preceding tables1 can be best illustrated by the accompanying ,fig4 #aae1 in which she is juxtaposed with several blocks of large buildings on ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 opposite ,city ,hall ,park4 ,if the 8,oceanic0 were placed on end beside ,washington's ,monument1 at the ,united ,states ,capital1 she would tower #aej feet above the top of the same4 ,an ordinary brick house four rooms deep and three stories high could be built with its length crosswise in her hull4 ,there is accommodation for #daj first-class passengers1 #cjj second-class passengers1 and #a1jjj third class1 and as her crew will number #cij1 the total number of souls on board1 when she carries her full complement1 will be #b1ajj4 ,the latest achievement in marine architecture1 however1 is the 8,deutschland10 built for the ,hamburg-,american ,company4 ,the 8,deutschland0 is not quite so large as the 8,oceanic10 but is of higher speed1 her maximum speed of #bc knots an hour exceeding that of any other ocean steamer4 ,the 8,savannah10 the first steam vessel to cross the ,atlantic1 made the trip in #ahai in #bf days4 ,the 8,deutschland0 in her eastward trip ,september #d1 #aijj1 crossed the ,atlantic in #e days #g hours and #ch minutes1 which is the fastest time on record4 ,the 8,deutschland0 is of #ce1fdj horse power1 her two bronze propellers are #bc feet diameter1 and weigh #cj tons1 and her propeller shafts are #be inches in diameter4 ,the cranks of her propeller shafts1 like those of the 8,kaiser ,wilhelm0 and the 8,oceanic10 are set according to the ,schlick system1 to reduce vibration4 ,the 8,deutschland's0 engines are seen in ,fig4 #ib1 and in general appearance the ship resembles the 8,kaiser ,wilhelm40 ,still larger and possibly swifter steamships are in process of construction1 viz43 the 8,kaiser ,wilhelm ,,ii410 by the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,company1 and a mammoth unnamed ship by the ,white ,star ,line1 whose length of #gej feet will exceed all others4 ,it may be interesting to note in familiar terms what these enormous traveling palaces comprehend in equipment4 ,for the safety and comfort of passengers1 the great length reduces the pitching1 bilge keels prevent rolling1 and the ,schlick system of cranks neutralizes vibration in the engine4 ,strong bulkheads1 and double bottoms with air-tight compartments1 impart buoyancy in case of collision4 ,boilers are placed in separate water-tight compartments1 so that damage to one does not disable the others4 ,powerful pumps are arranged to discharge inflowing water1 and the best of life boats are provided4 ,spacious dining rooms1 promenade decks1 drawing rooms1 pianos1 library1 smoking room1 state rooms1 cabins for children1 toilets1 baths1 medicine stores1 a printing office1 and electric lights everywhere1 furnish every want and satisfy every luxurious taste4 ,the cuisine includes a refrigerating plant1 the finest ranges1 and provisions galore4 ,it may be interesting to the housewife to see the market list of a modern transatlantic steamer4 ,a specimen is partially represented in the following3 #be1dej pounds of fresh meat1 #c1bej pounds of fish1 #f1cgj pounds of game and poultry1 #ab1gae pounds of bread1 #dc barrels of flour1 #c1ich pounds of butter1 #a1cjg pounds of coffee1 #b1gij pounds of sugar1 #ajb pounds of tea1 #g1bbj pounds of fresh fruit2 #a1bcj gallons of milk1 #bf1ajf eggs1 #bi1ahj oranges and lemons1 #g1jcc bottles of mineral water1 #a1hjj bottles of beer1 #b1fhh gallons of beer in casks1 #a1bdj bottles of wine1 #fcj bottles of champagne1 #a1fjj heads of lettuce1 #hjj jars of preserved fruits1 and other things in proportion4 ,in the matter of size the 8,oceanic0 surpasses all previous efforts in ship building1 but ocean steamers do not reach the highest speed attainable4 ,the little 8,turbinia10 a #dj ton craft equipped with a compound rotary steam turbine of the ,parsons type1 has attained a speed of #cb knots an hour4 ,an even greater speed has recently been attained by the larger boat1 8,hai ,lung10 constructed in ,england for the ,chinese ,government1 which vessel was equipped with reciprocating engines1 and is credited with having made a run of #ah knots at an average speed of #ce knots an hour4 ,the highest speed ever attained1 however1 is by the ,british torpedo boat 8,viper10 which is #baj feet long1 and1 like the 8,turbinia10 is equipped with the ,parsons steam turbines4 ,in a recent trial the 8,viper0 covered a measured mile at the rate of #cg4a knots1 or about #dc miles an hour4 ,in many respects the most important branch of steam navigation in recent years has been its war vessels4 ,the great navies of the world at the end of #ahihc ranked as follows3 ,england1 #a1eeg1ebb tons2 ,france1 #gca1fbi tons2 ,russia1 #dec1hii tons2 ,united ,states1 #cjc1jgj tons2 ,germany1 #bii1fcg tons2 ,italy1 #bhf1age tons1 and they all owe their efficiency entirely to steam4 ,the first steam war vessel was built in #ahad by ,fulton for the defence of ,new ,york ,harbor1 during the then existing war times4 ,she was known as the 8,demologos0 7voice of the people71 or 8,fulton the ,first40 ,as shown in the original designs1 ,fig4 #aaf1 she is a double ender1 whose sides were to be #e feet thick4 ,in her middle was a channel way or well containing a protected paddle wheel #af feet in diameter1 #ad feet wide1 and having a dip of #d feet4 ,a single cylinder engine turned the paddle wheel on one side1 and was balanced by the boiler on the other side4 ,although intended to have only twenty guns1 she was equipped1 when finished1 with thirty long #cb-pounder guns and two ,columbiad #ajj-pounders4 ,it was proposed also to have submarine guns suspended from each bow4 ,an engine was also to be used to discharge hot water on the enemy1 and a furnace was to be provided for heating the cannon balls red hot4 ,she was #aef feet long1 #bj feet deep1 and #ef feet broad1 and was regarded as a very formidable vessel4 ,her cost was #bgh1edd4 ,iron-clad floating batteries were first used in #ahee in the ,crimean war1 and shortly afterward the ,french built the first sea-going iron-clad1 8,gloire10 followed in #ahei by the ,british iron-clad1 8,warrior40 #c ,the figures represent a selective list which excludes about #ae per cent4 of old and inefficient vessels4 ,illustration3 8,,demologos0 ,figure ,ist ,transverse section ,a her ,boiler1 ,b the steam ,engine1 ,c the water-wheel1 ,,ee her wooden walls #e feet thick1 diminishing to below the waterline as at ,,ff4 draught of water #i feet ,,dd her gun deck4 ,figure ,,iid ,this shews her gun deck4 #adj feet long1 #bd feet wide2 mounting #bj guns ,a the ,water wheel ,figure ,,iiid ,side ,view ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,the civil war in #ahfa brought with it a novel and striking form of war vessel known as the 8,monitor40#d ,it was built from plans of ,capt4 ,ericsson1 an engineer of the ripest experience1 skill1 and attainments1 who had then come to make his home in the ,united ,states4 ,he undertook to construct for the ,navy ,department of the ,united ,states some form of iron clad steam batteries of light draft1 suitable to navigate the rivers and harbors of the ,confederate ,states4 ,the 8,monitor0 was the result4 ,the salient features1 shown in vertical cross section in ,fig4 #aag1 are a low deck projecting but a few inches above the water line1 so as to present as little target as possible to the enemy1 and a revolving and heavily armored turret containing the battery of guns4 ,in #ahfb the ,confederate forces had reconstructed a steam vessel with a chicken-coop-shaped covering of armor1 that proved a formidable engine of war1 which was practically invulnerable to the attacks of ordinary war vessels1 and was doing great damage to the ,union vessels4 ,in the spring of #ahfb the 8,monitor0 met the 8,merrimac0 in engagement in ,hampton ,roads1 and established the great value of the turret monitor4 #d ,the revolving turret was invented and patented by ,theodore ,r4 ,timby1 ,no4 #ce1hdf1 ,july #h1 #ahfb1 and ,no4 #cf1eic1 ,september #cj1 #ahfb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,,cross ,,section ,,of 8,,monitor40 ,vessels of the 8,monitor0 type still form useful parts of the ,united ,states ,navy1 in which the 8,monterey0 and 8,monadnock0 are its most representative types4 ,the 8,monadnock10 which is a double-turret coast defence monitor1 is shown in ,fig4 #aah4 ,although regarded by some as unseaworthy on account of the low seaboard and small buoyancy1 the monitor has cleared itself of such suspicion1 for in the recent war with ,spain both the 8,monadnock0 and 8,monterey0 sailed across the ,pacific ,ocean by way of ,honolulu to ,manila1 a distance of #g1jjj miles1 and joined the fleet of ,admiral ,dewey without mishap or delay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,monitor 8,,monadnock40 ,no patriotic ,american citizen would expect to read an account of modern war vessels without finding special mention of those two splendid types of their class1 the battleship 8,oregon0 and the armored cruiser 8,brooklyn10 whose performances during the late war with ,spain contributed so much to the honor and glory of the ,united ,states ,navy1 and demonstrated the skill and efficiency of our ,american shipbuilders4 ,before the war began the 8,oregon0 was stationed on the ,pacific ,coast1 where she had been built1 and it was desired that she should join the fleet of ,admiral ,sampson in ,cuban waters4 ,leaving ,puget ,sound on ,march #f1 #ahih1 this floating fortress of steel1 weighted with her enormous guns and #ah-;inch thick armor1 made the long journey of over #ad1ejj miles around the southern end of the western continent1 and up to ,jupiter ,inlet on the ,florida coast1 arriving there on the #bdth day of ,may1 and was not delayed an hour on account of her machinery1 the only stops being made for coal4 ,immediately after coaling at ,key ,west she took her place in the blockading line at ,santiago1 and in the great battle of ,july #c quickly developed a power greater than that attained on her trial trip and a speed only slightly less1 easily distancing all other ships immediately engaged except the 8,brooklyn10 and in connection with the 8,brooklyn0 forced the fleetest of the ,spanish cruisers to surrender4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,,battleship 8,,oregon40 ,the 8,oregon0 is shown in ,fig4 #aai4 ,she is an armored battleship of the first class1 built by the ,union ,iron ,works of ,san ,francisco1 and launched ,oct4 #bf1 #ahic4 ,her length is #cdh feet1 beam #fi feet1 draft #bd feet1 displacement #aj1bhh tons1 maximum speed #af4gi knots1 and coal capacity #a1eid tons4 ,her side armor is of steel plates #ah inches thick1 and her deck is1 #b inches thick4 ,on the turrets the armor is from #f to #ae inches thick1 and on the barbettes it is from #f to #ag inches thick4 ,her engines are of the twin screw1 vertical triple expansion direct acting inverted cylinder type4 ,the stroke is #db inches1 and the diameters of the cylinders are #cd1 #dh1 and #ge inches1 respectively4 ,the battery consists of four #ac-;inch breech loading rifles1 eight #h-;inch breech loading rifles1 four #f-;inch1 twenty #f-pounder rapid fire guns1 six #a-pounder rapid fire1 two ,colts1 one #c-;inch rapid fire field gun1 and three torpedo tubes4 ,the #ac-;inch guns weigh #acf1jjj pounds each1 are #ci feet #i inches long1 are set #ah feet above the water1 can be moved through an arc of #bgj degrees1 and throw a projectile of #a1ajj pounds a distance of #ab miles1 and with a power which at #a1jjj yards would perforate a mass of steel #b feet in thickness4 ,the cost of the 8,oregon0 was #c1ahj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,,armored ,,cruiser 8,,brooklyn40 ,the 8,brooklyn0 is shown in ,fig4 #abj1 and enjoys the distinction of having borne the brunt of the fight of ,july #c1 #ahih1 having been hit over forty times in that engagement without being disabled4 ,she was built by the ,william ,cramp ,sons ,ship and ,engine ,building ,company1 of ,philadelphia1 was launched ,oct4 #b1 #ahie1 and cost #b1ihf1jjj4 ,she is an armored cruiser1 and is one of the latest and most speedy of that type4 ,she is #djj feet #f inches long1 #fd feet #h inches breadth1 #bd feet draft1 #i1bae tons displacement4 ,her engines are the twin-screw vertical triple expansion type1 imparting a speed of #ba4ia knots an hour4 ,her maximum indicated horse power is #ah1gfi1 and her coal capacity is #a1dfa tons4 ,her battery consists of eight #h-;inch breech loading rifles1 twelve #e-;inch rapid fire guns1 twelve #f-pounder rapid fire1 four #a-pounder rapid fire1 four ,colts1 two #c-;inch rapid fire field guns1 and four ,whitehead torpedo tubes4 ,her side armor is #c inches thick1 her turrets #e inches1 her barbettes from #d to #h inches1 and her deck from #c to #f inches4 ,she also has a water line protection of cocoa fibre to automatically close up an opening made by a shot4 ,although not a steam vessel1 it would be regarded as an omission not to mention among war vessels the 8,holland0 submarine boat1 brought into notice in #ahih by the ,spanish ,american war1 and designed to dive below the surface and make attack below the water level4 ,torpedo boats of this type have been acquired by1 and now form a part of1 the ,united ,states ,navy4 ,among all the types of steam war vessels which have claimed popular attention the most interesting in proportion to its size is the torpedo boat1 for none represent such concentrated pent-up energy and deadly effect as this little demon of the sea4 ,a mere shell in construction1 with engine and boiler built for highest speed1 and crew suffering untold discomforts and dangers below1 this modern engine of destruction1 with the speed of an express locomotive1 and the helplessness and deadly intent of a scorpion1 darts up to the monster battleship under cover of darkness1 and before being discovered discharges a torpedo and delivers a mortal wound in the side of the big ship which sends her to the bottom1 perishing perhaps itself in the destruction which it works4 ,the ,united ,states has #cg of these torpedo boats4 ,the torpedo boat destroyer is a larger and swifter boat1 whose special duty it is to overtake and destroy this dangerous little fighter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,shipping ,,of ,,all ,,nations4 ,,ratio ,,of ,,steam ,,to ,,sails4 ,the growth of steam navigation during the present generation has been wonderfully rapid4 ,the accompanying diagram1 ,fig4 #aba1 from ,mulhall's 8,industries and ,wealth of ,nations10 shows in #ahfj #cj per cent4 of steam to #gj per cent4 of sailing vessels1 while in #ahid the ratio is #hj per cent4 of steam to #bj of sailing vessels4 ,the same authority estimated the total horse power of steam vessels in the merchant marine of the world in #ahie to be #ab1jje1jjj4 ,add to this the growth of the past five years1 and about #d1jjj1jjj horse power for the steam war vessels of the world's navies1 which were not included1 and the total horse power of the steam vessels of the world would not be far from twenty million4 ,this cursory review1 in a single chapter1 cannot adequately treat this great subject1 for a whole library is needed to cover the field4 ,suffice it to say1 however1 that among the great scenes and acts in the theatre of human action1 no figure has occupied so much attention1 and none played so important a part in the drama of life1 as the steam vessel4 ,its stage setting has been the majestic waters of the earth1 and on it the play of the great warships has vied in power and grandeur with the flash and vehemence of the lightning1 and the whirl and turmoil of the elements4 ,tense with a deep meaning which no stage simulation could approximate1 and with the smoke of conflict for a drop curtain1 it has laid tragedies upon the pages of history1 and changed the maps of the world2 while behind the scenes the great passenger steamers1 with their uninterrupted traffic of human freight1 are more silently1 but none the less surely1 stirring the peoples of the earth into the homogeneous ferment of civilization1 and slowly moulding nations into the solidarity of a common brotherhood4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,printing4 ,,early ,,printing ,,presses--,,nicholson',s ,,rotary ,,press--,,the ,,columbian ,,and ,,washington ,,presses--,k,,nig ,,rotary ,,steam ,,press--,,the ,,hoe ,,type ,,revolving ,,machine--,,color ,,printing--,,stereotyping--,,paper ,,making--,,wood ,,pulp--,,the ,,linotype--,,plate ,,printing--,,lithography4 ,the art preservative of all arts it has been rightfully called4 ,before its birth generation after generation of the human family lived and died1 and each was but little wiser1 and but little better than its predecessor4 ,tradition was the misty1 vague1 and sometimes wholly false dependence of the living1 and the experiences of mankind were1 in the words of an eminent writer1 but like the stern lights of a vessel1 which only illumined the pathway over which each had passed4 ,but printing gives to the present the cumulative wisdom of the past1 and marks a great era of growth in civilization4 ,it conserves and preserves man's thoughts and makes them immortal1 so that each generation comes into existence with a richer legacy of ideas1 and is guaranteed a higher plane of existence1 and a more exalted destiny4 ,printing from letters engraved on blocks of wood is an ancient art1 having had its origin in ,china many centuries before the ,christian era4 ,the ,chinese method1 which is still followed1 was to write their characters with a brush on a sheet of paper1 and while still wet1 the piece of paper was laid face downward on a smooth piece of board to transfer the ink lines1 and then all except the ink lines on the board was cut away4 ,thus they have one type plate for each book page4 ,printing with movable type1 i4 e41 with a separate type for each letter1 which may be repeatedly set up into forms of varying composition1 is practically the beginning of the modern art of printing4 ,this invention is usually ascribed to ,johann ,gutenberg1 of ,mentz1 about #adcf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,,benjamin ,,franklin',s ,,press1 #agbe4 ,in the earliest printing presses the form was locked up in a tray1 and placed upon a platform1 and the platen was then brought down upon it by turning a screw in a cross bar above4 ,the first printing press of this type was made by ,blaew1 of ,amsterdam1 in #afbj1 which had a spring to cause the screw to fly back after the impression was taken4 ,the press upon which ,benjamin ,franklin worked in ,london in #agbe is of this pattern1 and is to be seen in the ,national ,museum at ,washington4 ,it is almost entirely of wood1 and is shown in ,fig4 #abb4 ,about the beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century ,lord ,stanhope invented a press entirely of cast iron1 in which the oscillating handle operated a toggle to force down the platen in taking the impression4 ,the bed traveled on guide ways1 and the tympan and frisket were hinged to fold back and lay in elevated position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,the ,,washington ,,press4 ,the 8,columbian0 press was the first important ,american improvement4 ,it was invented by ,george ,clymer1 of ,philadelphia1 and is shown in his ,british ,pat4 ,no4 #d1agd of #ahag4 ,a compound lever was employed for applying the power4 ,the 8,washington0 press was patented in the ,united ,states by ,samuel ,rust1 ,april #ag1 #ahbi4 ,in this press 7see ,fig4 #abc7 the platen is forced downwardly by a compound lever applied to a toggle joint and is raised by springs on each side4 ,the bed is run in and out by turning a crank on a shaft which has a pulley and belt passing around it4 ,as so far described the presses were worked by hand power4 ,an important step in the advancement of this art was made by the introduction of power presses worked by steam4 ,these arranged the type on the surface of a cylinder4 ,probably the earliest form of rotary cylinder press is that invented by ,nicholson1 ,british ,pat4 ,no4 #a1gdh of #agij4 ,its main features are described as follows3 8,the types1 being rubbed or scraped narrower toward the foot1 were to be fixed radially upon a cylinder4 ,this cylinder with its type was to revolve in gear with another cylinder covered with soft leather 7the impression cylinder71 and the type received its ink from another cylinder1 to which the inking apparatus was applied4 ,the paper was impressed by passing between the type and the impression cylinder40 ,the first practical success1 however1 in rotary steam presses was achieved by ,knig1 a ,german1 who in #ahad set up for the ,london ,times two machines1 by which that newspaper was printed at the rate of #a1ajj impressions per hour4 ,he obtained ,british ,pat4 ,no4 #c1cba of #ahaj1 ,no4 #c1dif of #ahaa1 ,no4 #c1gbe of #ahac1 and ,no4 #c1hfh of #ahad4 ,knig's machine was in #ahbg succeeded by that of ,applegath and ,cowper1 which was simpler and more rapid4 ,many improvements upon the methods for handling the paper were subsequently devised1 and double cylinder presses were made which were able to print #d1jjj sheets an hour4 ,in #ahde the firm of ,r4 ,hoe ,co41 which had already been for years engaged in the manufacture of printing presses1 brought out the ,hoe ,type ,revolving ,machine4 ,the first one of these was placed in the office of the ,philadelphia ,ledger in #ahdf1 and had four impression cylinders1 printing #h1jjj papers per hour4 ,the constantly increasing circulation of newspapers1 however1 continued to make insatiable demands for more rapid work1 and to meet this demand the ,hoe company in #ahga brought out their continuous web press1 in which the paper was furnished to the machine in the form of a roll1 and after being printed was separated into sheets4 ,this principle of action gave promise of unlimited speed1 and required important reorganization in all parts of the machine4 ,to meet these conditions of increased speed more rapid drying ink had to be produced to prevent blurring1 paper of uniform quality and strength had to be made1 means had to be devised for printing the opposite side of the web1 and severing devices for cutting the web into sheets were needed1 but perhaps the most important feature was the device called a gathering and delivering cylinder1 whereby the papers could be gathered and disposed of as fast as they could be printed1 and much faster than human hands could work4 ,this was the invention of ,stephen ,d4 ,tucker1 and it is the mechanism upon which the speed of the modern press depends1 for it would obviously be useless to print papers faster than they could be taken from the machine in proper condition4 ,many patents were taken by ,messrs4 ,hoe ,tucker covering various improvements1 prominent among which were ,no4 #ah1fdj1 ,nov4 #ag1 #aheg2 ,no4 #be1aii1 ,aug4 #bc1 #ahei 7re-issue ,no4 #d1dbi72 ,no4 #hd1fbg1 ,dec4 #a1 #ahfh 7re-issue ,no4 #d1djj72 ,no4 #aac1gfi1 ,april #ah1 #ahga2 ,no4 #abd1dfj1 ,march #ab1 #ahgb2 ,no4 #aca1bag1 ,sept4 #aj1 #ahgb4 ,the first rapid printing press of the ,hoe ,company was set up in the office of the ,new ,york ,tribune in #ahga1 and its maximum output was #ah1jjj an hour4 ,this marked the great era of rapid newspaper printing1 and following it many further improvements1 such as devices for folding and counting the papers automatically1 have been added1 until to-day the great ,hoe ,octuple ,press1 shown in ,fig4 #abd1 is the wonder of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it prints #if1jjj papers of four1 six1 or eight pages in an hour1 or at the rate of #a1fjj a minute1 and these papers are not only printed1 but in the same operation and by the same machine are cut1 pasted1 folded1 and counted automatically4 ,fifty miles of paper of the width of an ordinary newspaper pass through it each hour from its several rolls4 ,the machine weighs over #fj tons1 and is composed of about #af1jjj parts1 and yet its touch is so deft1 and its members so delicately and accurately adjusted that it does not tear the tender sheet as it flies through the machine--so fast that one-fifth of a second only is required to print a page4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,,hoe ,,octuple ,,press4 ,,prints1 ,,cuts1 ,,pastes1 ,,folds ,,and ,,counts ,,newspapers ,,at ,,rate ,,of #a1fjj ,a ,,minute4 ,the latest development in the printing press has been in color printing1 which has recently been introduced in the illustration of some of the largest daily newspapers4 ,such a press contains from #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj parts1 and its cost is from #ce1jjj to #de1jjj4 ,collateral with the development of the printing press are three important branches of the art--stereotyping1 paper making1 and type setting4 ,stereotyping was the invention of ,william ,ged1 of ,edinburgh1 in #agca1 and was introduced into the ,united ,states by ,david ,bruce1 of ,new ,york1 in #ahac4 ,the stereotype is simply a moulded duplicate of the type face as set up1 the duplicate being cast in the form of a single block of metal1 by first taking an impression in plastic material from the faces of the type1 after being set up1 to form the mould1 and then casting1 in an easily fusible metal1 an exact duplicate of this type face in this mould4 ,this art prevents the wear on the movable type involved in printing1 and also avoids the locking up into permanent forms of a large body of valuable type1 since a form may be set up1 stereotyped1 and the type then distributed and set up into another form4 ,stereotyping1 although used in book printing1 was not thought practical for newspaper work until about #ahfa1 because of the length of time required for the formation and drying of the mould and the casting of the plate2 but about this time great expedition in the formation of the plate was attained by the employment of a steam bed to dry the mould1 and a novel form of papier mach matrix1 or mould1 which could be conveniently disposed around the cylinders of type4 ,the dampened and plastic papier mach sheets are beaten into the face of the type form by means of brushes1 are then removed1 dried1 and used as moulds to cast the stereotype plate from4 ,a stereotype plate can now be made in about seven minutes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,paper ,,pulp ,,beating ,,engine4 ,paper ,making is an important adjunct of the printing art1 and its formation cheaply into long rolls of uniform strength is an essential condition of success in the rapid web-perfecting printing press4 ,a ,frenchman named ,louis ,robert about #agii was the first to make a continuous web of paper1 and in #ahjj he received from the ,french ,government a reward of #h1jjj francs for his discovery4 ,his invention was subsequently taken up and carried to a success by the great ,english paper makers1 the ,fourdrinier ,brothers1 whose name has been given to the machine4 ,in the ,fourdrinier process rags are ground to a pulp by a revolving beater 7,fig4 #abe7 working in a tank of water4 ,the pulp1 duly beaten1 refined1 screened1 and diluted with water1 is then piped into the 8flow-box0 of the ,fourdrinier machine4 ,the 8flow-box10 shown on right of ,fig4 #abf1 is a deep rectangular chamber extending across the full width of the machine1 from which the pulp flows out in a thin stream onto an endless belt of #gj-mesh wire cloth which runs over end rollers4 ,to prevent the stream of pulp from flowing laterally over the edges of the belt1 two endless rubber guides or bands1 two inches square in cross section1 travel with the belt over the first twenty feet of its length1 and run over two pulleys above the wire cloth4 ,the upper half of the wire cloth belt is supported by and runs over a series of closely juxtaposed rollers4 ,as the pulp passes from the 8flow-box0 the particles of fibre float in it just as an innumerable multitude of particles of cotton fibre would float in a stream of water4 ,to unite and interlace the fibres the wire cloth belt is given a lateral oscillating or shaking movement1 which serves to interlock the fibres4 ,meanwhile the water strains through the wire cloth1 leaving a thin layer of moist interlaced fibre spread in a white sheet over the surface of the belt4 ,the separation of the water is further assisted by suction boxes which extend across close beneath the upper run of the belt and are connected to suction pumps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,,fourdrinier ,,paper ,,machine4 ,the wire cloth with its layer of moist pulp now passes below a roll which compresses the fibre1 and then leaving the machine seen in ,fig4 #abf it passes below a second and larger roll covered with felt1 which presses out more of the water4 ,the fibre next passes to the 8first press10 where it is caught up on an endless belt and passed between two rollers where more water is pressed out of the sheet4 ,then it passes through a 8second press10 and finally the sheet commences a long journey up and down over a series of steam-heated drying rolls1 by which the sheet is dried4 ,wood-,pulp4--,when a purchaser of one of the ,new ,york dailies reads the morning's voluminous edition1 he little realizes that he holds in his hands the remains of a billet of wood as large as a good-sized club1 yet such is the case4 ,originally made from the fibres of the papyrus plant1 and later from rags beaten into a pulp1 paper for the printing of books and newspapers is now made almost entirely of wood4 ,in the formation of paper pulp from wood two processes are employed1 one known as the soda process1 and the other the sulphite process4 ,in both cases the wood is cut into fine chips1 and then digested in great drums with chemicals to extract the resinous matter and leave the pure fibrous cellulose1 which resembles raw cotton in texture4 ,this industry was developed by ,watt and ,burgess in #ahec 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #aa1cdc1 ,july #ah1 #ahed71 who invented the soda process2 by ,voelter 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ba1afa1 ,aug4 #aj1 #aheh71 who devised means for comminuting or shredding the wood2 and by ,tilghman 7,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #gj1dhe1 ,nov4 #e1 #ahfg71 who invented the sulphite process4 ,the logs1 usually of spruce or poplar1 are first split1 as seen at the bottom of ,fig4 #abg1 then placed in the chipper1 where a revolving disc with knives cuts them into small chips1 which are fed to an elevator and raised to a screening device1 seen at the top1 to remove saw-dust1 dirt and knots4 ,in the sulphite process the chips are then delivered into the digesters shown in ,fig4 #abh1 which are supplied with sulphurous acid generated in a plant shown in ,fig4 #abi4 ,in the digesters the gummy and resinous matters are dissolved by the heat and chemicals1 and the woolly fibre left behind is bleached1 washed1 and dried1 and afterwards made into paper upon the ,fourdrinier machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--;,,chipping ,,logs ,,for ,,paper ,,pulp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,digester ,,for ,,wood ,,pulp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,sulphurous ,,acid ,,plant ,,for ,,making ,,wood ,,pulp4 ,it was stated by the ,paper ,trade ,journal in #ahig that the increase in paper making in the ,united ,states during the #ae years preceding amounted to #ceb per cent41 due chiefly to the growth of the wood pulp industry4 ,the ,androscoggin ,pulp ,mill1 established in ,maine in #ahgj1 was one of the pioneers in this field4 ,in that ,state the industry had grown in #ahig to over #ac1jjj1jjj and gave employment to more than #e1jjj men1 but the ,state of ,maine is excelled by both ,new ,york and ,wisconsin in this industry1 for in the same year ,new ,york mills had a daily capacity of #a1hjj1jjj pounds2 ,wisconsin1 #fgj1jjj2 ,maine1 #ffe1jjj1 and other ,states a less capacity4 ,there are over #a1jjj paper mills in the ,united ,states1 and their combined daily capacity amounts to over #ac1jjj tons4 ,in #ahih the ,united ,states exported over five million dollars' worth of paper1 and over fifty million pounds of wood pulp4 ,of the total amount of paper produced in the world ,mulhall estimated it in #ahij to be #b1fbj1jjj1jjj tons annually4 ,this amount is greatly increased at the present time1 and by far the larger part of it is manufactured from wood4 ,in #ahia the ,philadelphia ,record in an experimental test as to speed1 cut trees from the forest1 converted them into paper1 and then into printed newspapers1 all within the space of #bb hours4 ,at a later period in ,germany1 where the wood pulp art began1 even this expeditious work has been excelled4 ,the trees were felled in the morning at #g3ce1 converted into paper1 and presented at #aj ,a4 ,m4 in the form of printed newspapers1 with a record of the news of the forenoon4 ,the great naval edition of the ,scientific ,american of ,april #cj1 #ahih1 consumed a hundred tons of wood pulp paper1 and was therefore built upon a material foundation of #abe cords of wood1 which cleared off over six acres of well-set spruce timber land4 ,it is mainly wood pulp that has enabled books and newspapers to be made so cheaply1 for they are now furnished at a less price than the cost of the paper made in the old way from rags4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,,linotype ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,linotype ,,matrix4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,spacing ,,of ,,assembled ,,line ,,of ,,matrices4 ,the ,linotype4--,the most revolutionary and perhaps the most important development in the printing art of this century has been the linotype machine4 ,the laborious1 painstaking1 and expensive feature of printing has always been the setting and redistribution of the types1 since each little piece had to be separately selected and placed in the composing stick1 and the line afterwards 8justified10 which means an apportionment of the space between the words so as to make each line of type about the same length in the column4 ,the same separate handling of each piece was again involved in restoring the type to the case4 ,machines for thus setting and distributing the type had been devised1 but the operation was so involved1 and required so nearly the discretion of the thinking mind1 that all automatic machinery proved too complicated and impracticable4 ,in #ahhf1 however1 a machine was placed in the office of the ,new ,york ,tribune whose performances astonished and alarmed the old-time compositor4 ,it rendered it unnecessary to handle the type1 or even to have any separate type at all4 ,it was the ,mergenthaler ,linotype machine1 which automatically formed its own type by casting a whole line of it at a time4 ,the first machine was invented in #ahhd1 and patented in #ahhe1 but it was subsequently reorganized and greatly improved in ,pats4 ,no4 #dbe1adj1 ,april #h1 #ahij2 ,nos4 #dcf1eca and #dcf1ecb1 ,sept4 #af1 #ahij1 and ,no4 #dch1ced1 ,oct4 #ad1 #ahij4 ,it is shown in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #acj74 ,by manipulating the keyboard1 which resembles that of a typewriter1 each lettered key is made to bring down from an inclined elevated magazine a little brass plate of the shape shown in ,fig4 #aca1 and which plate is called a matrix1 because it bears on its edge at x a mould of the type letter4 ,there is a matrix plate for every letter and character used4 ,these little matrices are spaced by wedges1 as seen in ,fig4 #acb1 and are assembled1 as in ,fig4 #acc1 along the side of a mould wheel having a slot in it which forms a channel between the aligned type-moulds or matrices on one side and the discharge mouth of a melting pot1 in which molten type metal is maintained in a fluid state by a subjacent gas-burner4 ,in the melting pot there is a cylinder and plunger1 and when the plunger descends1 it forces the molten metal up through the discharge spout into the slot of the mould wheel1 and against the letter mould x of each one of the composed or aligned matrices4 ,the wheel is then turned with the matrices1 and the metal in its slot is afterwards discharged in the form of a linotype slug1 seen in ,fig4 #acd1 which is a metal plate bearing on its edge a completely moulded line of type ready for setting up in the form for printing4 ,the jagged notches in the tops of the matrices 7,fig4 #aca7 are for co-operation with a distributer bar 7not easily explained7 for restoring the matrices to their appropriate magazines after being used4 ,there are altogether about #a1ejj of the little brass matrices4 ,the machine is about five feet square1 weighs #a1gej pounds1 and costs #c1jjj each4 ,notwithstanding this expense these ,linotype machines have to-day made their way into nearly all the daily newspaper offices of the civilized world1 even to ,australia and the ,hawaiian ,islands4 ,in the composing rooms of the daily newspapers and the larger book printing offices we find great rows of these ,linotype machines1 each doing the work of from four to five men4 ,there are now in use in ,america something over #e1jjj ,linotype machines2 and in other countries about #b1jjj1 making #g1jjj in all4 ,each machine may be adjusted in five minutes to produce any size or style of type1 and it gives new1 clean faces for each day's issue1 with none of the ordinary troubles of distributing type4 ,the cheapness of composition1 due to the machine1 has led to an enormous increase in the size of papers1 in the frequency of the editions1 and has correspondingly increased the demand for labor in all the attendant lines1 such as paper-making1 press-making1 the attendants on presses1 stereotyping1 etc4 ,in the ,boston ,library1 which keeps its catalogues printed up to within #bd hours of date1 the ,linotypes print in #bc languages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,,casting ,,the ,,line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--;,a ,,linotype4 ,when the ,linotype machine was first patented it was not regarded by printers generally as a practical machine1 but only one of the many complicated1 theoretical1 but impracticable organizations which the ,patent ,office has to deal with4 ,its history1 however1 has been unique4 ,it is practically the product of the brain of a single man1 ,ottmar ,mergenthaler1 a most ingenious and indefatigable inventor living in ,baltimore4 ,it was exploited under the powerful patronage of a syndicate of newspaper men1 and hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent in perfecting it before any practical results were obtained4 ,to-day it stands a triumph of human ingenuity1 ranking in importance with the rotary web-perfecting press1 and is probably the most ingenious piece of practical mechanism in existence4 ,of the three forms of printing attention has been given thus far only to the leading branch of the art1 which is type printing1 or 8letter press10 as it is called1 in which the characters are raised in relief and receive ink on their raised surfaces only4 ,a second branch of the art is plate printing1 in which the lines and characters are engraved in intaglio in a plate1 and which1 being covered with ink1 and the surface of the plate wiped clean1 leaves the ink in the undercuts1 which is taken up by the paper when pressure is applied through a roller4 ,plate printing is a very old art1 the plate printing press having been ascribed to ,tomasso ,finiguerra1 of ,florence1 in #adfj4 ,the reciprocating table bearing the engraved plate1 and the superposed pressure roller turned by hand through its long radial arms1 is an ancient and familiar form of press which has been in use for many years4 ,this method of printing finds application in fine line engraving in works of art1 card invitations1 and bank note engraving4 ,very ingenious automatic machines have been invented and were in use a few years ago by the ,united ,states ,government for printing its bank notes1 but have since been displaced by the old hand machines4 ,to the credit of the machine1 it should be said1 that it was from no fault in the machine that this retrograde step was taken1 but rather the disfavor of the labor organizations4 ,lithography is another and quite important branch of the printing art1 in which the lines and characters are drawn upon stone with a kind of oily ink to which printers' ink will adhere1 while it is repelled from the other moistened surfaces of the stone4 ,lithography was invented in #agih by ,alois ,senefelder1 of ,munich4 ,it finds its greatest application in artistic and fanciful work in inks of various colors1 and its development into chromo-lithography in the ,nineteenth ,century has grown into a fine art4 ,our beautifully colored chromos1 prints1 labels1 maps1 etc41 are made by this process4 ,a more recent and quite important development of this art is photo-lithography1 which will be more fully considered under photography4 ,many collateral branches of the printing art are interesting in their development1 such as calico printing1 the printing of wall papers1 of oil cloth1 printing for the blind1 book binding1 type founding1 and folding and addressing machines1 but lack of space forbids more than a casual mention4 ,printing is perhaps the greatest of all the arts of civilization1 and the libraries and newspapers of the ,nineteenth ,century attest its value4 ,if ,benjamin ,franklin could wake from his long sleep and enter the composing rooms of our great dailies1 and witness the imposing array of linotype machines1 more resembling a machine shop than a printing office1 and then visit the press room and see the avalanche of finished papers flying at the rate of #a1fjj a minute1 neatly folded1 and counted for delivery1 he would doubtless be overwhelmed with emotions of wonder and incredulity1 for broad-minded man as he was1 he could have no conception of such progress4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,typewriter4 ,,old ,,english ,,typewriter ,,of #agad--,,the ,,burt ,,typewriter ,,of #ahbi-- ,,progin',s ,,french ,,machine ,,of #ahcc--,,thurber',s ,,printing ,,machine ,,of #ahdc--,,the ,,beach ,,typewriter--,,the ,,sholes ,,typewriter1 ,,the ,,first ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,form1 ,,commercially ,,developed ,,into ,,the ,,remington--,,the ,,caligraph--,,smith-,,premier--,,the ,,book ,,typewriter ,,and ,,others4 ,occupying an intermediate place between the old-fashioned scribe and the printer1 the typewriter has in the latter part of the ,nineteenth ,century established a distinct and important avocation1 and has become a necessary factor in modern business life4 ,chirography1 or hand writing1 reflecting1 as it did1 the idiosyncrasies of each writer1 was not only slow1 but when employed was1 in most cases1 in the haste and press of active business reduced to an illegible scrawl4 ,for the use of reporters and others requiring extra speed1 stenography1 or short hand1 was resorted to1 but there was a distinct need for some easy1 quick1 legible1 and uniform record of the busy man's correspondence and copy work1 and this the modern typewriter has supplied4 ,like most other important inventions1 the typewriter did not spring into existence all at once1 for while the practical embodiment in really useful machines has only taken place since about #ahfh1 there had been many experiments and some success attained at a much earlier date4 ,the ,british patent to ,henry ,mills4 ,no4 #cie of #agad1 is the earliest record of efforts in this direction4 ,at this early date no drawings were attached to patents1 and the specification dwells more on the function of the machine than the instrumentalities employed4 ,no record of the construction of this machine remains in existence1 and it may fairly be considered a lost art4 ,in quaint and old-fashioned ,english1 the patent specification proceeds as follows3 8,,anne1 by the grace of ,god1 c41 to all whom these presents shall come1 greeting3 ,,whereas1 our trusty and well-beloved subject1 ,henry ,mills1 hath by his humble peticon represented vnto vs1 that he has by his greate study1 paines1 and expence1 lately invented1 and brought to perfection 8,an ,artificial ,machine or ,method for the ,impressing or ,transcribing ,letters ,singly or ,progressively one after another as in ,writing1 whereby all ,writing whatever may be ,engrossed in ,paper or ,parchment so ,neat and ,exact as not to be ,distinguished from ,print1 that the said ,machine or ,method1 may be of greate vse in ,settlements and ,publick ,recors1 the ,impression being deeper and more ,lasting that any other ,writing1 and not to be erased1 or ,counterfeited without ,manifest ,discovery1 and having therefore humbly prayed vs to grant him our ,royall ,letters ,patents1 for the sole vse of his said ,invention for the term of fourteen yeares40 8,know ,yee1 that wee10 etc4 ,the first ,american typewriter of which any record remains is that described in the patent granted to ,w4 ,a4 ,burt1 ,july #bc1 #ahbi4 ,it was called a 8,typographer40 ,it had a segment bearing the letters of the alphabet and corresponding notches acting as an index4 ,a superposed lever1 which could be worked up and down1 and also moved laterally1 was provided with a series of type1 arranged in a segmental curve1 so that any type could be brought into place on the subjacent paper by swinging the lever over to and down into the proper notch in the index segment below4 ,a restored model of this is to be found in the ,u4 ,s4 ,patent ,office4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,,french ,,typewriter1 #ahcc4 ,the first organized typewriter in which separate key levers were provided for each type is a ,french invention4 ,it is to be found in the ,french patent to ,m4 ,progin 7,xavier71 of ,marseilles1 ,no4 #c1gdh1 ,sept4 #f1 #ahcc 7,brevets d',invention1 ,vol4 #cg1 #ast ,series1 pl4 #cf74 ,it was called a ,typographic ,machine1 and is shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #ace74 ,upright key levers s are arranged in a circle around a circular plate n4 ,they have hook-shaped handles at the upper end1 and terminate below in forks that are pivoted to the shanks of type hammers1 to raise and lower them4 ,these hammers are inked from a pad1 and at a central point deliver a printing blow on the paper below4 ,the paper is held stationary1 and the whole nest of levers was moved over the paper for each letter printed4 ,the circular index plate n had marked on it opposite the respective levers the letters and characters represented by said levers4 ,besides printing letters1 the device was to be used for printing music1 and for making stereotype plates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,,thurber ,,typewriter4 ,on ,aug4 #bf1 #ahdc1 ,charles ,thurber1 of ,worcester1 ,mass41 took out ,pat4 ,no4 #c1bbh for a ,printing ,machine4 ,under the patent he constructed the machine shown in ,fig4 #acf4 ,this differed somewhat from the form shown in his patent1 in that the machine shows a paper feed roller which does not appear in the patent4 ,this machine was found among the effects of ,mr4 ,thurber after having lain neglected and unnoticed for many years1 and its damaged parts were restored by ,mr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,cummings1 of ,worcester4 ,the types are carried on the lower ends of a circular series of depressible bars1 which are spring seated in a horizontal rotatable wheel4 ,by turning the wheel any type can be brought to the front1 and a stationary guide controls its descent as it makes the impression4 ,an inking roller is seen on the right1 which inks the faces of the type4 ,in front of the type wheel is a horizontal roller to which the sheet of paper is attached by clips4 ,finger pawls1 working into ratchets at the ends of the roller1 serve to rotate it after each line is printed4 ,by means of a handle1 seen projecting from the right hand side of the frame1 the roller is shifted longitudinally on its axis rod after each letter has been printed4 ,this appears to be the first embodiment of the feed roller rotating to bring a new line into range1 and having also a longitudinal feed1 but as these movements were required to be separately executed by the operator1 the work of the machine was necessarily very slow4 ,just at what time this old ,thurber machine was constructed it is impossible to state in the light of present information1 but as the feed roller did not appear in ,thurber's patent of #ahdc1 it is possible that the claim to authorship of the feed roller having both a rotary and a longitudinal movement may be maintained in behalf of ,j4 ,jones1 whose ,pat4 ,no4 #h1ihj of ,june #a1 #aheb1 appears to be the first dated record of such a feed roller4 ,jones was also the first to provide a spring to automatically retract the paper carriage to the position for beginning a new line1 the spring being put under tension by the movement of the paper carriage in printing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,,beach ,,typewriter4 ,prominent among those whose genius has served to perfect the typewriter occurs the name of ,a4 ,e4 ,beach1 for many years of the firm of ,munn ,co41 and well known to the readers of the ,scientific ,american4 ,mr4 ,beach's first model of a typewriter was made in #ahdg4 ,it printed upon a sheet of paper supported on a roller1 carried in a sliding frame worked by a ratchet and pawl4 ,it had a weight for running the frame1 letter and line spacing keys1 paper feeding devices1 line signal bell1 and carbon tissue4 ,it had a series of finger keys connected with printing levers which were arranged in a circle1 and struck at a common center4 ,this machine was said to have worked well1 but was laid aside for further improvement4 ,in the meantime he constructed a typewriter to print in raised letters1 without ink4 ,this machine1 which was intended primarily for the use of the blind1 is illustrated in ,figs4 #acg and #ach4 ,it was first publicly exhibited in operation at the ,crystal ,palace ,exhibition of the ,american ,institute in the fall of #ahef1 where it attracted great attention and took the gold medal4 ,the embossed letters were printed on a ribbon of paper which ran centrally through the machine4 ,the printing levers were arranged in a circle in pairs1 one riding on the top of the other4 ,when the operator pressed a key1 the two printing levers of each pair answering to the letter key were brought together1 the paper being between them4 ,the printing type were at the extremities of the levers1 one lever having a raised letter1 and its mate a sunken or intaglio letter1 which1 seizing the paper strip between them1 like the jaws of a pair of pincers1 impressed therein an embossed letter4 ,the patent for this machine was granted ,june #bd1 #ahef1 ,no4 #ae1afd1 but the machine showed a much higher degree of development than appeared in the patent4 ,this machine was the earliest representative of the circular basket of radially swinging type levers1 combined with finger keys assembled in a keyboard at one side1 which is now an almost universal feature1 and the suggestion which it handed down to subsequent inventors has doubtless done much to make the typewriter the practical machine that it is to-day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,,central ,,section ,,of ,,beach ,,typewriter4 ,up to the year #ahfh1 however1 typewriting machines were mere illustrations of sporadic genius occuring here and there as the pet hobby of some humanitarian seeking to help the blind1 or supplement the deficiencies of the tremulous fingers of the paralytic4 ,it had not yet come to be regarded as of any special use1 nor had even the demand for such a device been forcibly felt1 until the last quarter of the ,nineteenth ,century began to accumulate its wonderful momentum of progress and prosperity4 ,the man whose genius finally brought forth a practical typewriter1 and made a permanent place for it in the daily business of the world1 was ,c4 ,latham ,sholes4 ,as joint inventor with ,c4 ,glidden and ,s4 ,w4 ,soule1 all of ,milwaukee1 he took out patents ,no4 #gi1bfe1 of ,june #bc1 #ahfh1 and ,no4 #gi1hfh1 of ,july #ad1 #ahfh4 ,these1 together with ,sholes' ,pat4 ,no4 #aah1dia1 of ,aug4 #bi1 #ahga1 formed the working basis of the first typewriters that went into office use4 ,these typewriters were first introduced to the general public under the management of the original inventors 7,sholes1 ,soule and ,glidden7 about #ahgc1 and at first used only capital letters4 ,on ,aug4 #bg1 #ahgh1 a further patent4 ,no4 #bjg1eei1 was granted to ,sholes1 and about this time1 after five years of uncertain and precarious business existence1 the machine was taken for manufacture to ,e4 ,remington ,sons1 at ,ilion1 ,n4 ,y4 ,since this time the well-known 8,remington0 has built up for itself a reputation and a commercial importance that has given it first place among typewriters4 ,in the nine years from #ahgc to #ahhb1 it is said that less than #h1jjj machines had been manufactured4 ,in the year #ahhb ,wyckoff1 ,seamans ,benedict obtained control of the machine1 and during the fourteen years following it is said that nearly #bjj1jjj 8,remingtons0 were made and sold4 ,it is said that #a1jjj men are now employed in making this machine1 and that the present output is about #hjj machines a week1 despite the fact that it has a half dozen worthy competitors for public favor4 ,the modern ,remington1 seen in ,fig4 #aci1 is too well known to require special description4 ,besides the ,sholes patents1 it embodies the improvements covered by patents to ,clough ,jenne1 ,no4 #aii1bfc1 ,jan4 #ae1 #ahgh2 ,jenne1 ,no4 #dgh1ifd1 ,july #ab1 #ahib1 and ,no4 #edh1eec1 ,oct4 #bb1 #ahie1 and also a patent to ,brooks1 ,no4 #bjb1ibc1 ,april #cj1 #ahgh1 a characteristic feature of which latter is the location of both a capital and small letter on the same striking lever1 and the shifting of the paper roller by a key to bring either the large or small letter into printing range4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,,remington ,,typewriter4 ,the earliest rival of the ,remington was the ,caligraph1 made by the ,american ,writing ,machine ,co4 ,this well-known machine1 introduced in the decade of the eighties1 was made under the patents of ,g4 ,y4 ,n4 ,yost1 ,march #ah1 #ahhd1 ,no4 #bie1dfi2 ,march #ag1 #ahhe1 ,no4 #cac1igc2 and ,july #cj1 #ahhi1 ,no4 #djh1jfa4 ,the most modern form of the ,caligraph is known as the 8,new ,century10 which is shown in the accompanying illustration1 ,fig4 #adj4 ,the ,caligraph uses a separate type lever and key for each letter1 and by a system of compound key levers the touch is rendered easy1 even1 and elastic1 and perfect alignment and freedom from noise are among the objects sought in its mechanical construction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,new ,,century ,,caligraph4 ,next among the earlier typewriters is to be mentioned the 8,hammond10 made under the patents to ,j4 ,b4 ,hammond1 ,no4 #bbd1jhh1 ,feb4 #h1 #ahhj1 and #bij1dai1 ,dec4 #ah1 #ahhc4 ,a distinguishing feature of the machine is that the printed work is in full view1 so that the operator can see what he is doing4 ,the impression is made by an oscillating type wheel1 to which a variable throw is imparted by the key letters to bring any desired letter into printing position4 ,when the letter is brought into printing position a hammer1 arranged in the rear of the sheet of paper1 is made to force the latter against the type to produce the impression by the same movement of the key that brought the type wheel into printing position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,,smith-,,premier ,,type ,,bar ,,ring4 ,of later machines1 none has met with more popular favor than the ,smith-,premier1 manufactured under the patent to ,a4 ,t4 ,brown1 ,no4 #dfe1dea1 ,dec4 #bb1 #ahia1 and others4 ,a leading feature of this is the type-bar ring of its printing mechanism4 ,in all typewriters accurate location of the impression is essential to proper alignment of the letters1 and proper alignment is the sine qua non of typewriting4 ,the old pivoted type bars were liable to wear at the joint1 and the slightest looseness at this point would so multiply the lateral play at the end carrying the type that the letters would soon become irregularly placed and out of alignment4 ,in the ,smith-,premier this is reduced to a minimum by making a short type bar1 and arranging each upon an oscillating rock shaft1 the bearings at whose ends are so widely separated as to permit little or no lateral play in the type bar4 ,a view of this type bar ring with tangentially arranged rock shafts disposed in circular series is seen in ,fig4 #ada1 while the full machine is given in ,fig4 #adb4 ,in this latter view there is also shown the cleaning brush for quickly cleaning at one operation all of the types of the outer ring4 ,it is simply a circular brush mounted upon the end of a tool resembling a carpenter's brace1 and is a useful and convenient adjunct to the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,,smith-,,premier ,,and ,,cleaning ,,brush4 ,in #ahia the 8,densmore0 typewriter first made its appearance before the public4 ,it was named after ,james and ,amos ,densmore1 who had been connected with typewriting interests from the time of ,sholes' first practical machine4 ,the ,densmore is made under patents to ,a4 ,densmore1 ,no4 #ejg1gbf and #ejg1gbg1 of ,oct4 #ca1 #ahic4 ,it has ball-bearing type bar joints1 giving accurate alignment and light key action1 the platen rolls to show the work1 and the carriage locks at the end of the line1 protecting the writing4 ,noted for its clear1 sharp print1 the 8,yost0 typewriter comes in for its share of praise4 ,it is made under the patent to ,felbel and ,steiger1 ,march #bf1 #ahhi1 ,no4 #djj1bjj4 ,it does not employ an inked ribbon interposed between the type and the paper1 as do most typewriters1 but its type-bearing levers1 when at rest1 occupy a position in which the type are all arranged within and bear against a circular inking ring or pad1 and when a key is struck1 its lever1 by a peculiar and ingenious movement1 leaves the inking pad1 moves inward and backward toward the center1 and then rises and strikes an upwardly directed blow in the center1 and prints the letter on the paper4 ,as the printing is done directly from the type1 the letters are formed with sharp and clear outlines that give beauty and neatness to the print4 ,alignment is insured by a center guide hole through which the type end of the lever passes in striking the paper4 ,among machines of simple organization may be mentioned the ,blickensderfer1 which is a wonderfully simple and effective little machine1 first made under the patent to ,blickensderfer1 ,no4 #dgb1fib1 ,april #ab1 #ahib4 ,like the ,hammond1 it belongs to the class of typewriters which employ a rotary type wheel1 which is given a variable throw1 from the depression of the keys1 to bring the proper letter into printing position2 but unlike the ,hammond1 its type wheel advances to contact with the paper1 a little felt ink-roller being brought into contact with the type wheel to ink it as the latter moves4 ,the printed work is in full view1 the line spacing may be varied to any fractional adjustment1 and the action is quite free from noise4 ,with its mechanism reduced to the fewest and simplest parts1 the whole machine weighs only six pounds1 and it differs in many respects from the ordinary typewriter4 ,since its introduction a few years ago1 its growth in popularity has been very rapid4 ,another recently appearing machine is the 8,oliver40 ,this has type bars which are normally above the work4 ,each bar is loop shaped1 hinged at its lower ends1 and bearing the type letter on the bend at the upper end4 ,they are arranged in two series1 one on each side of the center1 and in printing each loop swings down like the wing of a bird4 ,as the printing is from the top1 and the ribbon is moved away from in front of the line immediately after the printing blow1 the writing is always visible to the operator4 ,this machine is manufactured under various patents to ,thomas ,oliver1 the first of which was ,no4 #dej1ajg1 granted ,april #g1 #ahia4 ,further improvements are covered by subsequent patents1 ,nos4 #ebh1dhd1 #edb1bge1 #efb1ccg1 and #eii1hfc4 ,the ,oliver has made many friends for itself by its fine alignment and visible writing1 and shares with the other standard machines a considerable patronage4 ,it is not practicable to give a full illustration of the state of the art in typewriters1 as it has grown to an industry of large proportions4 ,nearly #a1gjj patents have been granted for such machines1 and more than #ajj useful and meritorious machines have been devised and put upon the market4 ,among these may be mentioned the ,hall1 ,underwood1 ,manhattan1 ,williams1 ,jewett1 and many others4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--;,,elliott ,,hatch ,,book ,,typewriter4 ,besides the regular typewriters1 various modifications have been made to suit special kinds of work4 ,the 8,comptometer0 used in banks is a species of typewriter1 as is also the ,dudley adding and subtracting machine1 known as the 8,numerograph10 and covered by patents ,nos4 #eed1iic1 #eee1jch1 #eee1jci1 #egi1jdg and #egi1jdh4 ,typewriters for short hand characters1 and for foreign languages1 and for printing on record and blank books1 are also among the modern developments of this art4 ,in the latter the whole carriage and system of type levers move over the book4 ,the ,elliott ,hatch book typewriter1 ,fig4 #adc1 is a well-known example4 ,in attachments1 holders for the copy have received considerable attention1 and simple and practical billing and tabulating attachments have been devised which expedite and facilitate the statements of accounts and other work requiring numeration in columns4 ,the ,gorin ,tabulator is one of those in practical use4 ,in point of speed the typewriter depends entirely upon the aptness of the operator4 ,for ordinary copying work1 where much time is occupied in deciphering the illegible scrawl1 probably forty words a minute is the average work4 ,when taken from dictation1 seventy-five words a minute may be written1 and in special cases1 when copying from memory1 a speed of #aej words a minute has been maintained for a limited time4 ,it was estimated that there were in use in the ,united ,states in #ahif #aej1jjj typewriters1 and that up to that time #dej1jjj had been made altogether4 ,in the last four years this number has been greatly increased1 and a fair estimate of the present output in the ,united ,states is between #ge1jjj and #ajj1jjj yearly4 ,in #ahih there were exported from the ,united ,states typewriting machines to the value of #a1ijb1aec4 ,the typewriter has not only revolutionized modern business methods1 by furnishing a quick and legible copy that may be rapidly taken from dictation1 and also at the same time a duplicate carbon copy for the use of the writer1 but it has established a distinct avocation especially adapted to the deftness and skill of women1 who as bread winners at the end of the ,nineteenth ,century are working out a destiny and place in the business activities of life unthought of a hundred years ago4 ,the typewriter saves time1 labor1 postage and paper2 it reduces the liability to mistakes1 brings system into official correspondence1 and delights the heart of the printer4 ,it furnishes profitable amusement to the young1 and satisfactory aid to the nervous and paralytic4 ,all over the world it has already traveled--from the counting house of the merchant to the ,imperial ,courts of ,europe1 from the home of the new woman in the ,western ,hemisphere to the harem of the ,east--everywhere its familiar click is to be heard1 faithfully translating thought into all languages1 and for all peoples4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,sewing ,,machine4 ,,embroidering ,,machine1 ,,the ,,forerunner ,,of ,,the ,,sewing ,,machine--,,sewing ,,machine ,,of ,,thomas ,,saint--,,the ,,thimonnier ,,wooden ,,machine--,,greenough',s ,,double ,,pointed ,,needle--,,bean',s ,,stationary ,,needle--,,the ,,howe ,,sewing ,,machine--,,bachelder',s ,,continuous ,,feed--,,improvements ,,of ,,singer-- ,,wilson',s ,,rotary ,,hook ,,and ,,four-,,motion ,,feed--,,the ,,mckay ,,shoe ,,sewing ,,machine--,,buttonhole ,,machines--,,carpet ,,sewing ,,machine--,,statistics4 8,with fingers weary and worn1 ,with eyelids heavy and red1 ,a woman sat in unwomanly rags1 ,plying her needle and thread-- ,stitch6 ,stitch6 ,stitch6 ,in poverty1 hunger and dirt1 ,and still with a voice of dolorous pitch1 ,she sang the #8,song of the ,shirt4'0 ,in #ahdd ,thomas ,hood wrote and published his famous 8,song of the ,shirt10 in which the drudgery of the needle is portrayed with pathetic fidelity4 ,it is not to be supposed that any relation of cause and effect exists between the events1 but it is nevertheless a singular fact that about this time ,howe commenced work on his great invention1 which was patented in #ahdf1 and was the prototype of the modern sewing machine4 ,if the sewing machine had appeared a few years earlier1 the 8,song of the ,shirt0 would doubtless never have been written4 ,from the time of ,mother ,eve1 who crudely stitched together her fig leaves1 sewing seems to have been set apart as an occupation peculiarly belonging to women1 and it may be that this was the reason why in the history of mechanical progress the sewing machine was so late appearing1 for women are not1 as a rule1 inventors1 and none of the sewing machines were invented by women4 ,in all the preceding centuries of civilization hand sewing was exclusively employed1 and it was reserved for the ,nineteenth ,century to relieve women from the drudgery which for so many centuries had enslaved them4 ,embroidery machines had been patented in ,england by ,weisenthal in #agee1 and ,alsop in #aggj1 and on ,july #ag1 #agij1 an ,english patent1 ,no4 #a1gfd1 was granted to ,thomas ,saint for a crude form of sewing machine1 having a horizontal arm and vertical needle4 ,in #ahbf a patent was granted in the ,united ,states to one ,lye for a sewing machine1 but no records of the same remain1 as all were burned in the fire of #ahcf4 ,in #ahcj ,b4 ,thimonnier patented a sewing machine in ,france1 #hj of which1 made of wood1 were in use in #ahda for sewing army clothing1 but they were destroyed by a mob1 as many other labor-saving inventions had been before4 ,between #ahcb and #ahce ,walter ,hunt1 of ,new ,york1 made a lock-stitch sewing machine1 but abandoned it4 ,on ,feb4 #ba1 #ahdb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #b1dff was granted to ,j4 ,j4 ,greenough for a sewing machine having a double pointed needle with an eye in the middle1 which needle was drawn through the work by pairs of traveling pincers4 ,it was designed for sewing leather1 and an awl pierced the hole in advance of the needle4 ,on ,march #d1 #ahdc1 ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #b1ihb was granted to ,b4 ,w4 ,bean for a sewing machine in which the needle was stationary1 and the cloth was gathered in crimps or folds and forced over the stationary needle4 ,in #ahdd1 ,british ,pat4 ,no4 #aj1dbd was granted to ,fisher and ,gibbons for working ornamental designs by machinery1 in which two threads were looped together1 one passing through the fabric1 and the other looping with it on the surface without passing through4 ,the great epoch of the sewing machine1 however1 begins with ,elias ,howe and the sewing machine patented by him ,sept4 #aj1 #ahdf1 ,no4 #d1gej4 ,almost everyone is familiar with the modern ,howe sewing machine1 and it will be therefore more interesting to present the form in which it originally appeared4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #add4 ,a curved eye-pointed needle was carried at the end of a pendent vibrating lever1 which had a motion simulating that of a pick-ax in the hands of a workman4 ,the needle took its thread from a spool situated above the lever1 and the tension on the thread was produced by a spring brake whose semicircular end bore upon the spool1 the pressure being regulated by a vertical thumb screw4 ,the work was held in a vertical plane by means of a horizontal row of pins projecting from the edge of a thin metal 8baster plate10 to which an intermittent motion was given by the teeth of a pinion4 ,above1 and to one side of the 8baster plate0 was the shuttle race1 through which the shuttle carrying the second thread was driven by two strikers1 which were operated by two arms and cams located on the horizontal main shaft4 ,as will be seen1 this machine bears but little resemblance to any of the modern machines1 but it embodied the three essential features which characterize most all practical machines1 viz43 a grooved needle with the eye at the point1 a shuttle operating on the opposite side of the cloth from the needle to form a lock stitch1 and an automatic feed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--;,,howe',s ,,sewing ,,machine1 #ahdf4 ,howe first commenced his work on the sewing machine in #ahdd1 and although he had made a rough model of that date1 he was too poor to follow it up with more practical results until a former schoolmate1 ,george ,fisher1 provided #ejj to build a machine and support his family while it was being constructed1 in consideration of which ,mr4 ,fisher was to receive a half interest in the invention4 ,in ,april1 #ahde1 the machine was completed1 and in ,july he sewed two suits of clothes on it1 one for ,mr4 ,fisher and the other for himself4 ,notwithstanding the success of his machine1 which on public exhibition beat five of the swiftest hand sewers1 he met only discouragement and disappointment4 ,he1 however1 built a second machine1 which was the basis of his patent1 and is the one shown in the illustration4 ,after obtaining his ,united ,states patent ,howe went to ,england with the hope of introducing his machine there1 but1 failing1 he returned to ,america1 some years later1 only to find that his invention had been taken up by infringers1 and that sewing machines embodying his invention were being built and sold4 ,these infringers sought to break his patent by endeavoring to prove1 but without success1 that ,howe's invention was anticipated by the abandoned experiments of ,walter ,hunt in #ahcd4 ,howe won his suit1 and the infringers were obliged to pay him royalties1 which1 for a time1 amounted to #be on each machine4 ,howe then bought the outstanding interest in his patent1 established a factory in ,new ,york1 and from the profits of his manufacture1 and the royalties1 he soon reaped a princely fortune of several million dollars4 ,in six years his royalties had grown from #cjj to #bjj1jjj a year1 and in #ahfc his royalties were estimated at #d1jjj a day4 ,a patent that occupied an important place in sewing machine feeds was that granted to ,bachelder ,may #h1 #ahdi1 ,no4 #f1dci1 in which a spiked and endless belt passed horizontally around two pulleys4 ,this patent contained the first continuous feed1 and it was re-issued and extended1 and ran with dominating claims on the continuous feed1 until #ahgg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,,wilson ,,sewing ,,machine1 #aheb4 ,in connection with the development of the sewing machine the name of ,a4 ,b4 ,wilson stands next in rank to that of ,howe4 ,wilson invented the rotary hook carrying a bobbin1 which took the place of the reciprocating shuttle4 ,this was patented by him ,june #ae1 #aheb1 ,no4 #i1jda1 and is shown in ,fig4 #ade4 ,he also invented the far more important improvement of the four-motion feed1 which is a characteristic feature of nearly all practical family sewing machines4 ,this four-motion feed was pooled in the early sewing machine combination with the ,bachelder and other patents1 and earned for its promotors a far greater pecuniary return than the original ,howe sewing machine itself4 ,estimates place this profit high in the millions4 ,the four-motion feed was patented ,december #ai1 #ahed1 ,no4 #ab1aaf1 and it is a comparatively simple affair4 ,divested of its operating mechanism1 it consists simply of a little metal bar serrated with forwardly projecting saw teeth on its upper surface1 to which bar1 by means of an operating cam1 a motion in four directions in the path of a rectangle is given4 ,the serrated bar first rises through a slot in the table1 then moves horizontally to advance the cloth1 then drops below the table1 and finally moves back again horizontally below the table to its starting point4 ,upon these two important features--the rotating hook patented by ,wilson in #aheb1 and the four-motion feed1 patented in #ahed--;a large and important business was built4 ,in this business ,mr4 ,nathaniel ,wheeler was associated with ,mr4 ,wilson1 and the well-known ,wheeler ,wilson machines are the result of their enterprise and ingenuity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--,,original ,,singer ,,sewing ,,machine4 ,contemporaneous with the ,wheeler ,wilson machine were other excellent machines1 among which may be mentioned the ,singer machine1 patented ,aug4 #ab1 #ahea1 ,no4 #h1bid1 by ,isaac ,m4 ,singer1 the original model of which is shown in ,fig4 #adf4 ,the ,singer machine met the demands of the tailoring and leather industries for a heavier and more powerful machine4 ,a characteristic feature was the vertical standard with horizontal arm above the work table1 which was afterwards adopted in many other machines4 ,singer was the first to apply the treadle to the sewing machine for actuating it by foot power in the place of the hand-driven crank wheel4 ,in #ahea ,w4 ,o4 ,grover and ,w4 ,e4 ,baker patented a machine which made the double chain stitch1 characteristic of the ,grover ,baker machine4 ,james ,e4 ,a4 ,gibbs invented and covered in several patents from #ahef to #ahfj the single-thread rotating hook1 which was embodied in the ,wilcox ,gibbs machine4 ,in addition to these1 the 8,weed0 machine1 made under ,fairfield's patents2 the 8,domestic0 machine1 made under ,mack's patents2 and the 8,florence0 machine1 made under ,langdon's patents1 were other representative machines1 which1 in a few years after ,howe's patent1 helped to revolutionize the art of tailoring1 introduced the great era of ready-made clothing and ready-made shoes1 emancipated women from the drudgery of the needle1 and increased the efficiency of one pair of hands fully ten fold4 ,in #ahef the owners of the original sewing machine patents formed the famous 8sewing machine combination10 for the establishment of a common license fee1 and for the protection of their mutual interests4 ,the combination included ,elias ,howe1 the ,wheeler ,wilson ,manufacturing ,company1 the ,grover ,baker ,sewing ,machine ,company1 and ,i4 ,m4 ,singer ,co4 ,the following summary of machines made by the leading companies from #ahec to #ahgf illustrates the early growth of this industry3 ,manufacturer4 #ahec4 #ahei4 #ahfg4 #ahga4 #ahgc4 #ahgf4 ,wheeler ,wilson ,manufacturing ,co4 #gii #ba1cjf #ch1jee #abh1ebf #aai1aij #ajh1iig ,the ,singer ,manufacturing ,company #haj #aj1iec #dc1jec #aha1bfj #bcb1ddd #bfb1caf ,grover ,baker ,sewing ,machine ,co4 #feg #aj1bhj #cb1iii #ej1hch #cf1agi 4444 ,howe ,sewing ,machine ,company 4444 4444 #aa1jec #acd1jaj #ij1jjj #aji1bid ,wilcox ,gibbs ,sewing ,machine ,co4 4444 4444 #ad1aeb #cj1abg #ae1hha #ab1geh ,domestic ,sewing ,machine ,company 4444 4444 4444 #aj1cig #dj1aad #bc1ehg ,from the foregoing table it will be seen that as far back as a quarter of a century ago the output of machines was over a half a million a year4 ,by #ahgg all of the fundamental patents on the sewing machine had expired1 but the continued activity of inventors in this field is attested by the fact that to-day there are many thousands of patents relating to the sewing machine and its parts4 ,besides those relating to the organization of the machine itself there is an endless variety of attachments1 such as hemmers1 tuckers1 fellers1 quilters1 binders1 gatherers and rufflers1 embroiderers1 corders and button hole attachments4 ,every part of the machine has also received separate attention and separate patents1 all tending to the perfection of the machine1 until to-day1 with all fundamental principles public property1 and endless improvements in details1 it is difficult to discriminate as to comparative excellence4 ,there is to-day a great variety of sewing machines on the market1 standard machines for ordinary work1 and special machines for numerous special applications4 ,it is said that one concern alone manufactures over four hundred different varieties of sewing machines4 ,one of the most important and revolutionary of the applications of the sewing machine is for making shoes4 ,prior to #ahfa shoemaking was confined to the slow1 laborious hand methods of the shoemaker4 ,cheap shoes could only be made by roughly fastening the soles to the uppers by wooden pegs1 whose row of projecting points within has made many a man and boy do unnecessary penance4 ,hand sewed shoes cost from #h to #ab a pair1 and were too expensive a luxury for any but the rich4 ,with the ,mc,kay shoe sewing machine in #ahfa1 however1 comfortable shoes were made1 with the soles strongly and substantially sewed to the uppers1 at a less price even than the coarse and clumsy pegged variety4 ,the ,mc,kay machine was the result of more than three years patient study and work4 ,it was covered by ,united ,states patents ,no4 #ce1aje1 ,april #bi1 #ahfb2 ,no4 #ce1afe1 ,may #f1 #ahfb2 ,no4 #cf1afc1 ,aug4 #ab1 #ahfb2 and ,no4 #de1dbb1 ,dec4 #ac1 #ahfd1 and its development cost #acj1jjj before practical results were obtained4 ,a modern form of it is shown in ,fig4 #adg4 ,in preparing a shoe for the machine1 an inner sole is placed on the last1 the upper is then lasted and its edges secured to the inner sole4 ,an outer sole1 channeled to receive the stitches1 is then tacked on so that the edges of the upper are caught and retained between the two soles4 ,the shoe is then placed on the end of a rotary support called a horn1 which holds it up to the needle4 ,a spool containing thread coated with shoemakers' wax is carried by the horn1 and the thread1 with its wax kept soft by a lamp1 runs up the inside of the horn to the whirl4 ,the latter is a small ring placed at the upper end of the horn1 and through which there is an opening for the passage of the needle4 ,the needle has a barb1 or hook1 and as it descends through the sole the whirl lays the thread in this hook1 and as the needle rises it draws the thread through the soles and forms a chain stitch in the external channel of the outer sole4 ,as the sewing proceeds1 the horn is rotated so as to bring every part of the margin of the sole under the needle4 ,with this machine a single operator has been able to sew nine hundred pairs of shoes in a day of ten hours1 and five hundred to six hundred pairs is only an average workman's output4 ,it is said that up to #ahgg there were #cej1jjj1jjj pairs of shoes made on this machine in the ,united ,states1 and probably an equal or greater number in ,europe4 ,shoes made on this machine were strongly made and comfortable1 but they could not be resoled by a shoemaker1 except by pegging or nailing1 and the soles were furthermore somewhat stiff and lacking in flexibility4 ,to meet these difficulties1 a new machine known as the 8,goodyear ,welt ,machine10 was patented in #ahga and #ahge1 and brought out a little later4 ,this sewed a welt to an upper1 which welt in a subsequent operation was sewed by an external row of stitches to the sole4 ,this gave much greater flexibility1 and the further advantage of enabling a shoemaker to half sole the shoe by the old method of hand sewing4 ,this advanced the art of shoemaking in the finer varieties of shoes1 and to-day nearly all men's fine shoes are made in this way4 ,the introduction of the sewing machine into the shoe industry made a new era in foot wear1 and it is said that no nation on earth is so well and cheaply shod as the people of the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,,mckay ,,shoe ,,sewing ,,machine4 ,a buttonhole does not strike the average person as a thing of any importance whatever4 ,the needlewoman1 however1 who has to patiently stitch around and form the buttonholes1 knows differently1 and when this needlewoman1 working in the great shirt factories and shoe factories1 is confronted with the many millions of buttonholes in collars1 cuffs1 shirts and shoes1 the great amount of this painstaking and nerve destroying labor becomes appalling4 ,for cheapening the cost of buttonholes1 and reducing the hand labor1 various buttonhole machines and attachments to sewing machines have been devised4 ,patents ,nos4 #cf1faf and #cf1fag1 to ,humphrey1 ,oct4 #g1 #ahfb1 covered one of the earliest forms1 but the ,reece buttonhole machine1 which is specially devised for the work1 is one of the most modern and successful4 ,it was patented ,april #bf1 #ahha1 ,sept4 #ba1 #ahhf1 and ,aug4 #bj1 #ahie4 ,these machines mark an important departure1 which consists in working the buttonhole by moving the stitch forming mechanism about the buttonhole1 instead of moving the fabric4 ,an illustration of the machine is given in ,fig4 #adh4 ,upon this machine #aj1jaj button holes have been made in nine hours and fifty minutes4 ,the machine first cuts the buttonhole1 then transfers it to the stitching devices1 which stitch and bar the buttonhole1 finishing it entirely in an automatic manner4 ,the saving involved to the manufacturer by this machine over the hand method is several hundred per cent41 but the relief to the needlewoman is of far greater consequence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,,reece ,,buttonhole ,,machine4 ,many striking applications of the sewing machine to various kinds of work have been made4 ,a recent one is the automatic power carpet sewing machine1 made and sold by the ,singer ,manufacturing ,company4 ,it was patented by ,e4 ,b4 ,allen in #ahid4 ,this machine in general appearance resembles a miniature elevated railroad4 ,it consists of an elevated track about thirty-six feet long1 sustained every three or four feet upon standards1 and having clamping jaws1 which hold together the upper edges of the two lengths of carpet to be sewed together4 ,a compact little stitching apparatus1 not larger than a tea-pot1 is actuated by an endless belt from an electric motor at one end4 ,the little machine runs along and stitches together the upper edges of the suspended carpet lengths1 and as it crawls along at its work1 it strikingly reminds one of the movements of a squirrel along the top of a rail fence4 ,this machine will sew five yards of seam every minute1 fastening together evenly and strongly ten yards of carpet1 and entirely dispensing with all hand labor in this roughest and most trying of all fabrics4 ,probably no organized piece of machinery has ever been so systematically exploited1 so thoroughly advertised1 so persistently canvassed1 and so extensively sold as the sewing machine4 ,with their main central offices1 their branch offices1 sub-agencies and traveling canvassers in wagons1 every city1 village1 hamlet1 and farmhouse has been actively besieged1 and with the enticing system of payment by instalments there is scarcely a home too humble to be without its sewing machine4 ,the retail price of sewing machines bears no proper relation to their cost1 but this price to the consumer results from the liberal commissions to agents1 and the expensive methods of canvassing4 ,in the early days of the sewing machine its sales were chiefly for family use1 but this is now no longer the case4 ,while almost every family owns a sewing machine1 it is only brought into requisition for finer and special varieties of work1 since nearly all the clothing of men1 women and children can now be purchased ready made1 at a price much less than the cost of the material and the labor of making it up4 ,a man to-day buys a ready-made shirt for fifty cents1 which fifty years ago would have cost him #b4 ,this has largely transferred the sphere of action of the sewing machine from the family to the factory4 ,great factories now make ready-made clothing for men1 women and children1 shirts1 collars and cuffs1 shoes1 hats1 caps1 awnings1 tents1 sails1 bags1 flags1 banners1 corsets1 gloves1 pocketbooks1 harness1 saddlery1 rubber goods1 etc41 and all these industries are founded upon the sewing machine1 which may be seen in long rows beside the factory walls1 busily supplying the demand of the world4 ,with this transition in the sewing machine foot treadles are no longer relied on1 but the machines are run by power from countershafts4 ,this1 in turn1 has opened up possibilities of much higher speed and greater efficiency in the machine4 ,inventors have found1 however1 that high speed is handicapped with certain limitations4 ,beyond a certain speed the needle gets hot from friction1 which burns off the thread and draws the temper4 ,cams and springs1 moreover1 are not positive enough in action1 as the resilience of the spring does not act quickly enough1 and so more positive gearings1 such as eccentrics and cranks1 must be employed4 ,despite these difficulties1 however1 the modern factory machine has raised the speed of the old-time sewing machine from a few hundred stitches a minute to three and four thousand stitches a minute4 ,the ,united ,states is the home of the sewing machine1 and ,new ,york ,city is the center of the industry1 probably #ij per cent4 of the sewing machine trade being managed and handled there4 ,german manufacturers are making great efforts to compete in this field1 but ,american machines are generally regarded as the best in the world4 ,among those prominently interested in the machine in its early days were ,orlando ,b4 ,potter and the law firm of ,jordan ,clarke4 ,the latter were attorneys representing some of the prominent inventors in litigation1 and in this way ,mr4 ,edward ,clarke became interested in the business1 and it was he who in #ahef instituted the system of selling on the instalment plan4 ,for some years before his death ,mr4 ,clarke was the president of the ,singer ,company4 ,recent statistics in relation to the sewing machine industry are difficult to obtain1 partly by reason of the great extent and ramifications of the business1 and partly by reason of the unwillingness of the larger companies to give out data for publication4 ,at the ,patent ,centennial in ,washington1 in #ahia1 ,ex-,commissioner of ,patents ,butterworth made the statement that 8,csar conquered ,gaul with a force numerically less than was employed in inventing and perfecting the parts of the sewing machine40 ,the great ,singer ,company1 with headquarters at ,new ,york1 operates not only a factory at ,elizabethport1 ,n4 ,j41 employing #e1jjj men1 but also other factories in ,europe and ,canada1 the one at ,kilbowie1 ,scotland1 employing #f1jjj men4 ,of the total of #ac1ejj1jjj machines made by this company from #ahec to the end of #ahif1 nearly #f1jjj1jjj have been made in factories located abroad1 but directly controlled and managed by the ,new ,york office4 ,it is stated that the present output of the ,american factory of the ,singer ,company amounts to over #aa1jjj weekly1 or more than half a million annually4 ,although so many sewing machines are made abroad1 the exports from the ,united ,states for #ahii amounted to #c1bfd1cdd4 ,in the early days of the ,howe sewing machine it was denounced as a menace to the occupations of the thousands of men and women who worked in the clothing shops1 and the struggles of the inventor against this opposition and discouragement form an interesting page of history4 ,but it had come to stay and to grow4 ,some #g1jjj ,united ,states patents attest the interest and ingenuity in this field1 in the neighborhood of #ajj1jjj persons make a living from the manufacture and sale of the machine1 millions find profitable employment in its use1 and from #gjj1jjj to #hjj1jjj machines are annually manufactured in the ,united ,states4 ,the output of all countries is estimated to be from #a1bjj1jjj to #a1cjj1jjj annually4 ,the sewing machine has for its objective result only the simple and insignificant function of fastening one piece of fabric to another1 but its influence upon civilization in ministering to the wants of the race has been so great as to cause it to be numbered with the epoch-making inventions of the age4 ,it has created new industries4 ,it has given useful employment to capital1 has extended the lists of the wage earner1 and increased his daily pay4 ,it has clothed the naked1 fed the hungry1 and warded off the ravages of cold and death2 but1 best of all its tuneful accompaniment has lightened the heart and smoothed the pathway of life for ,hood's weary working woman1 to whose tired fingers and aching eyes it has brought the balm of much-needed rest4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,reaper4 ,,early ,,english ,,machines--,,machine ,,of ,,patrick ,,bell--,,the ,,hussey ,,reaper--,,mccormick',s ,,reaper ,,and ,,its ,,great ,,success--,,rivalry ,,between ,,the ,,two ,,american ,,reapers--,,self ,,rakers--,,automatic ,,binders--,,combined ,,steam ,,reaper ,,and ,,threshing ,,machine--,,great ,,wheat ,,fields ,,of ,,the ,,west--,,statistics4 ,in the harvest scenes upon the tombs of ancient ,thebes the thirsty reaper is depicted1 with curved sickle in hand1 alternately bending his back to the grain and refreshing himself at the skin bottle4 ,for more than thirty centuries did man thus continue to earn his bread by the sweat of his brow4 ,even to the present time the scythe1 with its cradle of wooden fingers1 is occasionally met with1 and it is to the older generation a familiar suggestion of the sweat1 toil1 bustle and excitement of the old harvest time4 ,but all this has been changed by the advent of the reaper1 and ere long the grain cradle will hang on the walls of the museum as an ethnological specimen only4 ,the first reaper of which we find historical evidence is that described by ,pliny in the first century of the ,christian ,era 7,a4 ,d4 #gj74 ,he says3 8,the mode of getting in the harvest varies considerably4 ,in the vast domains of the province of ,gaul a large hollow frame1 armed with comb-like teeth1 and supported on two wheels1 is driven through the standing grain1 the beasts being yoked behind it 7in contrarium juncto71 the result being that the ears are torn off and fall within the frame40 ,this crude machine has in late years been many times re-invented1 and it finds a special application to-day for the gathering of clover seeds1 and is called a 8header40 ,the first attempt of modern times to devise a reaper was the ,english machine of ,pitt1 in #aghf1 which followed the principle of the old ,gallic implement1 in that it stripped the heads from the standing grain4 ,the ,pitt machine1 however1 had a revolving cylinder on which were rows of comb teeth1 which tore off the heads of grain and discharged them into a receptacle4 ,in #agii ,boyce1 of ,england1 invented the vertical shaft1 with horizontally rotating cutters4 ,in #ahjj ,mears devised a machine employing shears4 ,in #ahjf ,gladstone devised a front-draft1 side-cut machine1 in which a curved segment-bar with fingers gathered the grain and held it while a horizontally revolving knife cut the same4 ,in #ahaa ,cumming introduced the reel1 and in #ahad ,dobbs described a wheelbarrow arrangement of reaper in which he used the divider4 ,in #ahbb the important improvement of the reciprocating knife bar was made by ,ogle1 which became a characteristic feature of all subsequent successful reapers4 ,it was drawn by horses in front4 ,the cutter bar projected at the side4 ,it had a reel to gather the grain to the cutter1 and the grain platform was tilted to drop the gavel4 ,in #ahbf ,rev4 ,patrick ,bell1 of ,scotland1 devised a reaper that had a movable vibrating cutter working like a series of shears1 a reel1 and a traveling apron1 which carried off the grain to one side4 ,this machine was pushed from behind1 and1 with a swath of five feet1 cut an acre in an hour4 ,it was1 however1 for some reason laid aside till #ahea1 when it was reorganized and put in service at the ,world's ,fair in ,london in competition with the ,american machines4 ,all the earlier experiments in the development of the reaper were made in ,england4 ,grain raising was in its infancy in the ,united ,states1 and near the end of the ,eighteenth ,century the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england had stimulated its own inventors by offering a prize for the production of a successful reaper1 and continued thus to offer it for many years4 ,there is no evidence1 however1 that the preceding machines attained any practical results1 and it remained for the fertility of ,american genius to invent a practical reaper which satisfactorily performed its work1 and continued to do so4 ,quite a number of patents for reapers were granted to ,american inventors in the early part of the century1 among which may be mentioned that to ,manning1 of ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j41 ,may #c1 #ahca1 which embodied finger bars to hold the grain and a reciprocating cutter bar with spear-shaped blades4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,,patent ,,office ,,drawing1 ,,hussey',s ,,reaper1 ,,december #ca1 #ahcc4 ,cyrus ,h4 ,mc,cormick1 of ,virginia1 and ,obed ,hussey1 of ,maryland1 were the men who brought the reaper to a condition of practical utility4 ,the commercial development of their machines was practically contemporaneous1 and their respective claims for superiority had about an equal number of supporters among the farmers of that day4 ,hussey1 originally of ,cincinnati1 but afterwards of ,maryland1 was the first to obtain a patent1 which was granted ,december #ca1 #ahcc4 ,an illustration of the patent drawing is given in ,fig4 #adi4 ,it embodied a reciprocating saw tooth cutter f sliding within double guard fingers e4 ,it had a front draft1 side-cut1 and a platform4 ,the cutter was driven by a pitman from a crank shaft operated through gear wheels from the main drive wheels4 ,his specification provided for the locking or unlocking of the drive wheels2 also for the hinging of the platform1 and states that the operator who takes off the grain may ride on the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--,,patent ,,office ,,drawing1 ,mc,c,o,r,m,i,c,k',s ,,reaper1 ,,june #ba1 #ahcd4 ,on ,june #ba1 #ahcd1 ,cyrus ,h4 ,mc,cormick1 of ,virginia1 obtained a patent on his reaper4 ,in ,fig4 #aej appears an illustration of his patent drawing4 ,this had two features which were not found in the ,hussey patent1 viz41 a reel on a horizontal axis above the cutter1 and a divider ,l1 at the outer end of the cutter1 which divider projected in front of the cutter1 and separated in advance the grain which was to be cut from that which was to be left standing4 ,mc,cormick's machine had two cutters or knives1 reciprocated by cranks in opposite directions to each other4 ,this feature he afterward abandoned1 adopting the single knife1 described by him as an alternative4 ,this machine was to be pushed ahead of the team1 which was hitched to the bar ,c of the tongue ,b in the rear1 but provision was made for a front draft by a pair of shafts in front1 shown in dotted lines4 ,the curved dotted line beside the shafts indicated a bowed guard to press the standing grain away from the horse4 ,the divider ,l had a cloth screen extending to the rear of the platform4 ,neither ,hussey nor ,mc,cormick appears at that time to have been cognizant of the prior state of the art1 and as the patent law of #ahcf had not yet been enacted1 there was little or no examination as to novelty1 and no interference proceedings as to priority of invention1 and consequently their respective claims were drawn to much that was old1 and probably much that would have been in conflict with each other under the present practice of the ,patent ,office4 ,in the ,scientific ,american1 of ,december #af and #bc1 #ahed1 in a most interesting series of articles on the reaper1 the ,hussey machine is fully described4 ,the first public trial was on ,july #b1 #ahcc1 before the ,hamilton ,county ,agricultural ,society1 near ,carthage1 ,o41 and its success was attested by nine witnesses4 ,great stress was laid by ,mr4 ,hussey on the double finger bar1 i4 e41 a finger bar having one member above and the other below the knife4 ,the ,scientific ,american said the machine was a success from the first2 that 8in #ahcd the machine was introduced into ,illinois and ,new ,york1 and in #ahcg into ,pennsylvania1 and in #ahch ,mr4 ,hussey moved from ,ohio to ,baltimore1 ,md41 and continued to manufacture his reapers there up to the present time40 ,in #ahcf ,hussey was invited by the ,maryland ,agricultural ,society for the ,eastern ,shore to exhibit his machine before them4 ,on ,july #a he did so1 and made practical demonstration of its working to the society at ,oxford1 ,talbot ,county1 and again on ,july #ab at ,easton4 ,on the following ,saturday it was shown at ,trappe1 and it was afterwards used on the farm of ,mr4 ,tench ,tilghman1 where #ahj acres of wheat1 oats and barley were cut with it4 ,the report of the ,board of ,trustees of the society was an unqualified commendation of the practicability1 efficiency and value of the machine1 and a handsome pair of silver cups was awarded to the inventor4 ,the report was signed by the following well-known residents of the ,eastern ,shore3 ,robert ,h4 ,goldsborough1 ,samuel ,stevens1 ,samuel ,t4 ,kennard1 ,robert ,banning1 ,samuel ,hambleton1 ,sr41 ,nichol ,goldsborough1 ,ed4 ,n4 ,hambleton1 ,james ,l4 ,chamberlain1 ,martin ,goldsborough1 ,horatio ,l4 ,edmonson1 and ,tench ,tilghman4 ,hussey made and sold his machine for years4 ,in the ,american ,farmer1 of ,october1 #ahdg1 an agricultural journal printed at ,baltimore1 the advertisement of his machine appears with full price lists of the different sizes of machines1 and also of an improvement in the manner of disposing of the grain1 which was the invention of ,mr4 ,tench ,tilghman1 and was adopted by ,hussey on his reaper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--,,the ,mc,c,o,r,m,i,c,k ,,reaper ,,of #ahdg4 ,while ,hussey was at work at his reaper1 ,mc,cormick also was busily engaged with his1 and he took his second patent ,january #ca1 #ahde1 ,no4 #c1hie4 ,this related to the cutter bar1 the divider1 and reel post4 ,mc,cormick's next patent was dated ,october #bc1 #ahdg1 ,no4 #e1cce1 and in this the raker's seat was to be mounted on the platform as shown in ,fig4 #aea4 ,mc,cormick's last named patent also covered the arrangement of the gearing and crank in front of the drive wheel1 so as to balance the weight of the raker4 ,in the same year ,hussey took out his patent of ,august #g1 #ahdg1 ,no4 #e1bbg1 for the open top and slotted finger guard1 which is an important part of all successful cutter bars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--,,the ,,mann ,,harvester ,,of #ahdi4 ,the rivalry between the ,mc,cormick and ,hussey machines continued for many years1 and they were frequently in competition both in ,america and ,england4 ,the stimulus of this rivalry doubtless had much to do with the development and success of the reaper4 ,both ,hussey and ,mc,cormick asked for extensions of their patents1 but they failed to get them4 ,in #ahdh1 pending ,mc,cormick's extension proceedings1 facts were introduced by him to show that his invention of the reaper antedated ,hussey's1 and that he had made his machine as early as #ahca1 and had used it then on the farm of ,mr4 ,john ,steele1 in ,virginia4 ,this claim to priority was supported by the publication of a description of the machine1 and certificate of its use1 in the ,union1 a newspaper published at ,lexington1 ,va41 ,september #bh1 #ahcc1 and although no adjudication was ever made on this issue1 this fact1 together with ,mr4 ,mc,cormick's success in the contest in ,england in #ahea1 and his subsequent persistence and activity in improving1 developing and introducing the reaper1 has so distinguished him in this connection1 that to-day his name is as commonly associated with the reaper as is ,fulton's with the steamboat1 or that of ,morse with the telegraph4 ,to ,mr4 ,mc,cormick more than to anybody else the perfection of the reaper is due4 ,in the spring of #ahea ,mc,cormick placed his reaper on exhibition at the ,world's ,fair in ,london4 ,hussey also had his machine there1 and they were the only ones represented4 ,the machines were tested in the field1 and astonished all who saw them operate4 ,the ,grand ,council medal1 which was one of four special medals awarded for marked epochs in progress1 was given to ,mc,cormick1 and the judges referred to the ,mc,cormick machine as being worth to the people of ,england 8the whole cost of the exposition40 ,it is only fair to state that ,hussey was not present to direct the trial of his machine1 and that in a subsequent trial another jury decided in his favor1 and ,his ,royal ,highness1 ,prince ,albert1 ordered two of ,hussey's machines in #ahea--one for ,windsor and the other for the ,isle of ,wight4 ,the ,duke of ,marlborough also gave his personal testimonial to ,mr4 ,hussey as to the excellence of his machine4 ,in #ahee1 at a competitive trial of reapers near ,paris1 three machines were entered4 ,the ,american machine cut an acre of oats in twenty-two minutes1 the ,english machine in sixty-six minutes1 and the ,algerian in seventy-two4 ,in #ahfc1 at the great ,international ,exposition at ,hamburg1 the ,mc,cormick reaper again took the grand prize4 ,while in ,paris in #ahgh ,mr4 ,mc,cormick was elected a member of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences as 8having done more for the cause of agriculture than any living man40 ,mr4 ,mc,cormick continued to the end of his days1 in #ahhd1 to devote his entire energies to the development of the reaper1 and well deserved the princely fortune that resulted from his indefatigable labors1 a good portion of which fortune he spent during his life in the cause of education and acts of philanthropy4 ,the inventory of his estate1 filed in the ,probate ,court of ,cook ,county1 ,ill41 showed #aj1jjj1jjj as the reward of his genius and industry1 and is an object lesson of the reward of merit for the ambitious youth of the ,twentieth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--,,the ,,marsh ,,harvester ,,of #aheh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,,the ,,champion ,,reaper4 ,in the development of the reaper one of the first deficiencies to be supplied was automatic mechanism for taking the grain from the platform4 ,in ,november1 #ahdh1 ,f4 ,s4 ,pease took out patent ,no4 #e1ibe for a rake whose teeth projected up through slots in the platform1 and moved back and forth to deposit the grain upon the ground4 ,on ,june #ai1 #ahdi1 ,j4 ,j4 ,h4 ,f4 ,mann took out patent ,no4 #f1edj on a machine employing the principle of an endless band for carrying the cut grain to the side of the machine1 where it passed up an inclined plane and accumulated in a receptacle to form a gavel1 which was clumped upon the ground4 ,this machine is shown in ,fig4 #aeb4 ,on ,july #h1 #ahea1 ,w4 ,h4 ,seymour took out patent ,no4 #h1bab for a self-raker1 and this machine marks the beginning of the era of self-raking reapers1 which for a quarter of a century in various modifications continued to be used1 until displaced by subsequent improvements in binding devices4 ,in #ahec the ,sylla and ,adams machine was brought out1 the patents for which were bought by the ,aultmans1 and the ,aultman and ,miller1 or 8,buckeye0 harvester1 was manufactured thereunder4 ,the general form of the modern harvester has followed along the lines of the ,mann machine of #ahdi4 ,the development began by replacing the gavel receptacle on the right of that machine 7,fig4 #aeb7 with a platform on which stood men who rode on the machine as they bound the grain4 ,an early and important example of a harvester of this class is given in the ,marsh machine1 patented ,august #ae1 #aheh1 ,no4 #ba1bjg1 and shown in ,fig4 #aec4 ,to this type of machine the self-binding devices were subsequently applied1 but before they materialized many other improvements in self-rakers were made and applied1 among which may be mentioned the combined rake and reel of ,owen ,dorsey1 of ,maryland 7#ahef71 sweeping horizontally across the quadrantal platform2 the ,mc,clintock ,young revolving reel1 carrying a rake2 the ,henderson rake 7#ahfj7 used on the ,wood machine2 the ,seiberling dropper 7#ahfa71 which consisted of a slotted platform which moved to discharge the gavel2 and the various improvements covered by ,whiteley's patents1 which were embodied in the ,champion reaper1 of ,springfield1 ,o41 and which is shown in ,fig4 #aed4 ,this machine had a combined rake and reel of the ,dorsey type1 whose arms moved over a circular inclined and stationary cam1 and whose rakes had a horizontal sweep over the platform1 and a vertical return over the wheels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,,the ,,locke ,,wire ,,binder ,,of #ahgc4 ,the next step1 and1 perhaps the most important one1 in the development of the reaper1 was in providing automatic devices for binding the gavels of grain into sheaves4 ,john ,e4 ,heath1 of ,ohio1 in patent ,no4 #g1ebj1 of ,july #bb1 #ahej1 was the pioneer1 and he used cord4 ,watson1 ,renwick ,watson1 in patent ,no4 #h1jhc1 of ,may #ac1 #ahea1 and ,c4 ,a4 ,mc,phitridge1 in patent ,no4 #af1jig1 of ,november #ah1 #ahef1 quickly followed in the attempt to provide such a device1 the former using cord and the latter wire4 ,but the problem was not an easy one to solve4 ,on ,november #af1 #aheh1 ,w4 ,grey took out patent ,no4 #bb1jgd1 for starting the binding mechanism by the weight of the bundle4 ,probably the first to complete a binding attachment that was partly automatic1 and to attach it to a reaping machine1 were ,h4 ,m4 ,w4 ,w4 ,burson1 of ,illinois4 ,on ,june #bf1 #ahfj1 and ,october #d1 #ahfd1 ,w4 ,w4 ,burson patented a cord binder1 and in #ahfc one thousand machines were built4 ,these machines1 however1 used wire1 and being assisted in their operations by hand labor1 were not truly automatic4 ,on ,february #af1 #ahfd1 ,jacob ,behel1 of ,illinois1 obtained a patent1 ,no4 #da1ffa1 for a very important invention in binders4 ,he showed and claimed for the first time the knotting bill1 which loops and forms the knot1 and the turning cord holder for retaining the end of the cord4 ,on ,may #ca1 #ahgj1 ,george ,h4 ,spaulding took out patent ,no4 #ajc1fgc for a binder which automatically regulated the bundles to a uniform size4 ,sylvanus ,d4 ,locke1 of ,wisconsin1 was the next inventor who undertook to solve the problem4 ,he took out patents ,no4 #aba1bij1 ,november #bh1 #ahga1 and ,no4 #adi1bcc1 ,march #ca1 #ahgd1 and many others4 ,in #ahgc he associated himself with ,walter ,a4 ,wood1 and they built and sold probably the first automatic self-binding harvester that was ever put upon the market4 ,the ,locke wire binder of #ahgc is shown in ,fig4 #aee4 ,the use of wire1 however1 for binding grain1 involved certain objections in that it required a special cutting tool for cutting the sheaves at the thresher1 and it was not easy to remove the wire1 and parts of it were likely to go through the thresher4 ,inventors accordingly concentrated their attention on the use of twine or cord4 ,marquis ,l4 ,gorham1 of ,illinois1 built a successful twine binder1 and had it at work in the harvest field in #ahgd4 ,this machine1 covered by patent ,no4 #aei1ejf1 ,february #i1 #ahge1 not only bound by cord1 but produced bundles of the same size4 ,the grain in this machine is delivered by the elevator of the harvester upon a platform1 where it is seized by packers and carried forward into a second chamber1 where it is compacted by the packers against a yielding trip1 so that when sufficient grain is accumulated1 the trip will yield and start the binding mechanism into operation4 ,the ball of cord carried on the machine has one end threaded through the needle and fastened in a holder4 ,the grain is forced against the cord by the packers1 and when the binder starts the needle encircles the gavel1 carrying the cord to a knotting bill1 and the end is again seized by the rotating holder1 the loop formed1 the ends of the band severed1 and the bound bundle is discharged from the machine4 ,a gate1 which has in the meantime shut off the flow of grain1 is now drawn back1 and the operation is repeated4 ,on ,february #ah1 #ahgi1 ,john ,f4 ,appleby took out a patent1 ,no4 #bab1dbj1 for an improvement on the ,gorham binder4 ,in ,fig4 #aef is shown a modern automatic self-binding reaper which embodies the fundamental principles of ,mc,cormick and ,hussey1 the inclined elevator and platform shown by ,marsh1 and the automatic binding devices of ,behel1 ,gorham and ,appleby4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--,,modern ,,automatic ,,self-,,binding ,,reaper4 ,this machine1 under favorable conditions1 with one driver1 cuts twenty acres of wheat in a day1 binds it1 and carries the bound bundles into windrows1 and with one shocker1 performs the work of twenty men1 and does it better1 the saving in the waste of grain over hand labor being sufficient to pay for the twine used in binding4 ,it is said that the self-binding reaper has reduced the cost of harvesting grain to less than half a cent a bushel4 ,it is estimated that more than #ahj1jjj machines of the self-binding type are now produced yearly1 the manufacturers in ,chicago alone turning out more than three-fourths of this number4 ,it is not possible to do justice to all the worthy workers in this great industry4 ,nearly #aj1jjj patents have been granted on reaping and mowing machines1 and the conspicuous names of ,whiteley1 ,wood1 ,atkins1 ,manny1 ,yost1 and ,ketchum1 in addition to those already mentioned1 are only a small part of the great army of inventors who have contributed to the development and perfection of the reaper4 ,in #ahdj it is said there were but three reapers made4 ,to-day the total number of self-binding harvesters1 reapers and mowers in use is estimated to be two millions4 ,the growth of this industry in the four earlier decades is as follows 7the relatively small increase between #ahfj and #ahgj being accounted for by the ,civil ,war73 #ahdj4 #ahej4 #ahfj4 #ahgj4 #ahhj4 ,machines made #c #c1jjj #bj1jjj #cj1jjj #fj1jjj ,immediately succeeding this period the automatic cord binder was put into use1 and within five years the increase in output of reapers and mowers was very great4 ,in #ahhe more than #ajj1jjj self-binding harvesters and #aej1jjj reapers and mowers were built and sold4 ,in #ahij two manufacturing establishments in ,chicago made more than #bjj1jjj machines1 half of which were self-binders and the other half reapers and mowers1 and these two institutions alone employed in their various branches of manufacturing and selling #aj1jjj employees4 ,in #ahie the output of the largest of these manufacturing establishments was #fj1jjj self-binding harvesters1 fitted with bundle carriers and trucks1 #fa1jjj mowers1 #aj1jjj corn harvesters1 and #e1jjj reapers1 making #acf1jjj machines in all4 ,in #ahih the output of this one factory for the year was #gd1jjj self-binding harvesters1 #ajg1jjj mowers1 #i1jjj corn harvesters1 and #aj1jjj reapers1 amounting to #bjj1jjj machines4 ,this output1 together with #ge1jjj horse rakes1 also made1 averaged a complete machine for every forty seconds in the year1 working ten hours a day4 ,the estimated annual production of all factories in this class of agricultural implements is #ahj1jjj self-binding harvesters1 #bej1jjj mowing machines1 #ah1jjj corn harvesters1 and #be1jjj reapers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--,,steam ,,harvester ,,and ,,thresher4 ,the wheat is headed1 threshed1 cleaned and sacked by this machine in one continuous operation4--,cutter1 #bf feet wide2 ,capacity1 #ge acres per day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,,fifty ,,horse ,,power ,,steam ,,planting ,,combination4 ,traction engine pulling sixteen #aj-;inch plows1 four #f-;foot harrows1 and a drill4 ,there were exported in the year #ahhj about #hjj self-binding harvesters1 #b1jjj reapers1 and #a1jjj mowers4 ,in #ahij this was increased to #c1jjj self-binding harvesters1 #d1jjj reapers1 and #b1jjj mowers4 ,the total value of mowers and reapers exported in #ahij was #b1jib1fch4 ,the growth subsequent to #ahij is well attested by the exports for #ahii1 which for mowers and reapers was #i1jec1hcj1 or more than four times what it was in #ahij4 ,these exported machines harvest the crops of the ,argentine ,republic1 ,paraguay1 and ,uruguay1 of ,south ,america2 carry their labor-saving values to ,australia and ,new ,zealand2 traverse the wheat fields along the banks of the ,red ,sea and the ,volga1 and are used throughout all the continent of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,a ,,western ,,harvest ,,scene 7,,left ,,section ,,of ,,view74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,a ,,western ,,harvest ,,scene 7,,right ,,section ,,of ,,view74 ,with the self-binding harvester performing the work of twenty men1 cutting and binding the grain1 and arranging the bundles in windrows1 it would seem that perfection in this art had been reached1 but the tendency of the age is to do things on a constantly increasing scale1 and so the latest developments in harvesters comprise a mammoth machine 7,fig4 #aeg7 propelled across the grain fields by steam1 and which by the same power cuts a swath from #bf to #bh feet wide1 threshes it at once as it moves along1 blows out the chaff1 and puts the grain in bags at the rate of three bags per minute1 each bag containing one hundred and fifteen pounds1 and requiring two expert bag sewers to take the grain away from the spout1 sew the bags1 and dump them on the ground4 ,seventy-five acres a day is its task4 ,a companion piece to this machine is illustrated in ,fig4 #aeh1 which shows the same power utilized for planting4 ,a powerful steam traction engine of fifty horse power hauls across the field a planting combination of sixteen ten-inch plows1 four six-foot harrows and a seeding drill in the rear4 ,such great reaping machines only find useful application in the enormous wheat fields of ,california and the ,pacific ,coast ,states1 where the dry climate permits the grain to ripen and dry sufficiently while standing in the field4 ,moreover1 only the heads of the grain are cut1 the straw being left standing4 ,some conception of the enormous scale upon which grain is raised in the ,western ,states may be gotten from the dimensions of the farms4 ,it is said that ,dr4 ,glenn's wheat farm comprises #de1jjj acres2 the ,dalrymples'1 in ,north ,dakota1 #gj1jjj2 and ,mr4 ,mitchell1 in the ,san ,joaquin ,valley1 in ,california1 has #ij1jjj acres4 ,the ,dalrymple farms in #ahic had #ed1jjj acres in wheat1 and employed #bhc self-binding reapers to harvest the crop4 ,there is a single unbroken wheat field on the banks of the ,san ,joaquin ,river1 near the town of ,clovis1 in ,madera ,county1 ,california1 which comprises #be1jjj acres1 or nearly forty square miles of wheat--a veritable sea of waving grain4 ,the field is nearly square2 each side is a little over six miles long4 ,if its shape were changed to the width of one mile1 the field would then be forty miles long4 ,it has been said of the grain fields of the ,west1 that the men and teams eat breakfast at one end of a furrow1 take dinner in the middle of the row1 and at night camp and sup at the end of the same row4 ,with a field of such proportions it is not difficult to see how this may be true4 ,the cultivation and garnering of crops from such vast areas can only be appreciated by comparisons4 ,if it were one man's work to plow such a field1 even with a double gang plow1 cutting a furrow twenty-four inches wide1 he would travel #aje1fjj miles1 which would be equivalent to going around the world four times4 ,if he plowed twenty miles a day1 it would take #e1bhj days4 ,to harrow would require as long1 and to plant would take about the same time1 or about forty-three years altogether4 ,a full lifetime would be required to plant the crop1 and a second generation would be required to reap it4 ,but great results require great agencies1 and so great labor-saving machines1 operated by armies of men1 are brought into requisition1 and with these the crop is both planted and reaped4 ,a long procession of self-binding harvesters1 following close one behind the other1 makes quick work of it1 and before the weather changes this great field is mowed1 its crop garnered1 and bread supplied for the hungry of all lands4 ,the exports of wheat to foreign lands in #ahih were #adh1bca1bfa bushels1 worth #ade1fhd1fei1 and the exports of wheat flour for the same year were #ae1cdi1idc barrels1 worth #fi1bfc1gah4 ,the total yield of wheat in the ,united ,states for #ahih was #fge1adh1gje bushels4 ,with the fertile earth1 and its prolific inventors1 the ,united ,states has become the richest country in the world4 ,what its future is to be no man may say1 but its destiny is not yet fulfilled1 and it is pregnant with potential possibilities4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,vulcanized ,,rubber4 ,,early ,,use ,,of ,,caoutchouc ,,by ,,the ,,indians--,,collection ,,of ,,the ,,gum--,,early ,,experiments ,,failures--,,goodyear',s ,,persistent ,,experiments--,,nathaniel ,,hayward',s ,,application ,,of ,,sulphur ,,to ,,the ,,gum--,,goodyear',s ,,process ,,of ,,vulcanization--,,introduction ,,of ,,his ,,process ,,into ,,europe--,,trials ,,and ,,imprisonment ,,for ,,debt--,,rubber ,,shoe ,,industry--,,great ,,extent ,,and ,,variety ,,of ,,applications--,,statistics4 ,most all important inventions have grown into existence by slow stages of development1 and by successive contributions from many minds1 not a few having descended by gradual processes of evolution from preceding centuries4 ,vulcanized rubber1 however1 is not of this class4 ,it belongs exclusively to the ,nineteenth ,century1 and owes its existence to the tireless energy of one man4 ,the value of the crude gum had been previously speculated upon1 and for years attempts had been made to utilize it1 but not until ,goodyear invented his process of vulcanizing it did it have any real value4 ,this process was an important1 distinct and unique step1 entirely the work of ,mr4 ,goodyear1 and it has never been superseded nor improved upon to any extent4 ,charles ,goodyear was born in ,new ,haven1 ,december #bi1 #ahjj1 and his life1 beginning two days in advance of the ,nineteenth ,century1 furnishes an extraordinary illustration of the struggles and trials of the inventor against adverse fortune1 and is a pathetic example of self denial1 indefatigable labor1 and unrequited toil4 ,of feeble health1 small stature1 poor1 and frequently in prison for debt1 he made the development of this art the paramount object of his life1 and with a pious faith and unfaltering courage for thirty years he devoted himself to this work4 ,money he cared nothing for1 except in so far as it was necessary to carry on his work1 and he died ,july #a1 #ahfj1 poor in this world's goods1 but rich in the consciousness of the great benefit conferred by his invention upon the human race4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--;,,collecting ,,the ,,gum4 ,india rubber1 or caoutchouc1 as it is more properly called1 is a concentrated gum derived from the evaporation of the milky juice of certain trees found in ,south ,america1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america and the ,east ,indies4 ,the ,south ,american variety is called ,jatropha elastica1 and the ,east ,indian variety the ,ficus elastica4 ,the ,south ,american ,indians called it cahuchu4 ,the province of ,para1 south of the equator1 in ,brazil1 furnishes the largest part and best quality of gum4 ,the tree from which the gum exudes grows to the height of eighty1 and sometimes to one hundred feet4 ,it runs up straight for forty or fifty feet without a branch4 ,its top is spreading1 and is ornamented with a thick and glossy foliage4 ,the gum is collected by chopping through the bark with a hatchet and placing under each series of cuts a little clay cup formed by the hands of the workman4 ,about a gill of the sap accumulates in each cup in the course of a day1 and it is then transferred to receiving vessels and taken to camp4 ,the first use of the gum was made by the ,south ,american ,indians1 who made shoes1 bottles1 playing balls and various other articles from it4 ,their method for making a shoe was to take a crude wooden last1 which they covered with clay to prevent the adhesion of the gum4 ,it was then dipped in the sap1 or the latter was poured over it1 which gave it a thin coating4 ,it was then held over a smoky fire1 which gave it a dark color and dried the gum4 ,when one coating became sufficiently hard another was added1 and smoked in turn1 and so successive coatings were applied until a sufficient thickness was obtained4 ,when the work was completed it was exposed for some days in the sun1 and while still soft the shoes were decorated as the fancy or taste of the maker suggested4 ,the clay forms were then broken out1 and the shoe stuffed with grass to keep it in shape for use or sale4 ,in #ahbj a pair of these clumsy shoes was brought to ,boston and exhibited as a curiosity4 ,they were covered with gilding1 and resembled the shoe of a ,chinaman4 ,subsequently considerable numbers of these shoes were brought from ,south ,america1 and being sold at a large price1 they served to stimulate ,yankee ingenuity into devising methods of making them from the raw material1 which being brought as ballast in the ships from ,brazil1 could be had cheaply4 ,in ,france some attention had been given to the material1 and the rubber bottles of the ,indians had been cut into narrow threads which were woven into strips of cloth to form suspenders and garters4 ,in ,england an application of it in thin solution had been made by a ,mr4 ,macintosh1 who spread it between two thicknesses of thin cloth to form ,macintosh water-proof coats4 ,the first practical use of the gum on a large scale was instituted by ,mr4 ,chaffee in ,roxbury1 ,mass41 about #ahcj4 ,he dissolved the gum in spirits of turpentine and invented steam-heated rolls for spreading it upon cloth4 ,companies were formed to exploit the products1 and in the fall and winter of #ahcc and #ahcd many thousands of dollars' worth of goods were made by the ,roxbury ,company1 but the business proved a total failure1 for in the summer the goods melted1 decomposed and became so offensive as to be worse than useless1 while the cold of winter rendered them stiff and liable to crack4 ,with a knowledge of these facts and conditions ,charles ,goodyear commenced his experiments1 believing that there was a great future for this material if it could only be prevented from melting in summer and stiffening in winter4 ,he tried mixing it with many materials1 first using magnesia1 which1 however1 proved ineffective4 ,on ,june #ag1 #ahcg1 he took out patent ,no4 #bdj1 in which he proposed to destroy the adhesive properties of caoutchouc by superficial application of an acid solution of the metals1 nitric acid with copper or bismuth being specially recommended4 ,he also claimed the incorporation of lime with the gum to bleach it4 ,under this process ,mr4 ,goodyear made various articles in the form of fabrics1 toys and ornamental articles1 using the fabric to make clothing for himself1 which he wore to demonstrate its value and wearing qualities4 ,a striking word picture of ,mr4 ,goodyear at this time is given by the reply of a gentleman who1 being asked by a man looking for ,mr4 ,goodyear as to how he might recognize him1 replied1 8,if you meet a man who has on an ,india rubber cap1 stock1 coat1 vest1 and shoes1 and an ,india rubber money purse in his pocket1 without a cent of money in it1 that is he40 ,many useful and artistic articles were made under this first patented process1 including maps1 surgical bandages1 etc41 and were brought by ,mr4 ,goodyear to the notice of ,president ,jackson1 ,henry ,clay and ,john ,c4 ,calhoun1 from whom he received very encouraging letters4 ,his efforts1 however1 to introduce his process commercially were not attended with success4 ,capitalists and manufacturers had been rendered so conservative by the large loss of money in the ,roxbury ,company1 that they were disinclined to have anything further to do with it4 ,practically alone he was obliged to continue his work4 ,by the kindness of ,mr4 ,chaffee and ,mr4 ,haskins he was allowed the use of the valuable machinery standing idle in their factory at ,roxbury1 and he made shoes1 piano covers1 table cloths and carriage covers of superior quality1 and from the sale of these1 and of licenses to manufacture1 he for the first time was able to support his family in comfort4 ,mr4 ,goodyear had not yet discovered1 however1 the process of vulcanization1 upon which the rubber industry is founded4 ,in #ahch ,mr4 ,nathaniel ,hayward1 of ,woburn1 ,mass41 who had been employed in the bankrupt rubber company1 discovered that the stickiness of the rubber could be prevented by spreading a small quantity of sulphur on it4 ,the same result had also been noticed by a ,german chemist4 ,on ,feb4 #bd1 #ahci1 ,mr4 ,hayward procured the patent1 ,no4 #a1jij1 on his process1 and assigned it to ,mr4 ,goodyear4 ,the patent covered a process of dissolving sulphur in oil of turpentine and mixing it with the gum1 and also included the incorporation of the dry flowers of sulphur with the gum1 the product afterwards being treated by ,mr4 ,goodyear's metallic salt process4 ,this was the starting point of vulcanization1 for vulcanization consists simply in admixing sulphur with the rubber1 and then subjecting it for six to eight hours to a temperature of about #cjj4 ,its effect is to so change the nature of the gum to prevent it from melting or becoming sticky under the influence of heat1 or of hardening and becoming stiff under the influence of cold1 the vulcanized gum remaining elastic1 impervious1 and unchangeable under all ordinary conditions4 ,this great discovery of the influence of heat on the sulphur treated gum was quite accidental and wholly unexpected4 ,heat above all things was the agency which in all previous observations was most to be feared1 for it was this more than anything else that melted down1 decomposed and destroyed all of his manufactured articles4 ,while sitting near a hot stove engaged in an animated discussion concerning his experiments1 a piece of the gum treated with sulphur1 which he held in his hand1 was1 by a rapid gesture1 thrown upon the stove4 ,to his astonishment1 he found that this relatively high heat did not melt it1 as heretofore1 and while it charred slightly1 it was not made at all sticky4 ,he nailed the piece of gum outside the kitchen door in the intense cold1 and upon examining it the next morning found it as perfectly flexible as when he put it out4 ,goodyear had discovered the process which afterwards came to be known as 8vulcanization40 ,the discovery was made in #ahci1 but was not accepted by those to whom it was submitted as possessing any importance4 ,prof4 ,silliman1 of ,yale ,college1 however1 in the fall of #ahci testified to the results claimed for it by ,mr4 ,goodyear--that it did not melt with heat1 nor stiffen with the cold4 ,on ,june #ae1 #ahdd1 ,mr4 ,goodyear took out his celebrated patent1 ,no4 #c1fcc1 covering this process1 in which he not only used sulphur1 but added a proportion of white lead4 ,the proportions named were #be parts of rubber1 #e parts of sulphur1 and #g parts of white lead1 the ingredients either to be ground in spirits of turpentine1 or to be incorporated dry between rolls4 ,the odor imparted by the sulphur was to be destroyed by washing with potash or vinegar4 ,this patent was reissued in two divisions ,dec4 #be1 #ahdi1 and again on ,nov4 #bj1 #ahfj1 and was extended for seven years from ,june #ae1 #aheh1 which was the end of the first term4 ,under this patent two kinds of rubber were made and sold--8soft rubber10 containing only a small proportion of sulphur1 while the other1 known as the 8vulcanite10 8ebonite10 or 8hard rubber10 had from #be to #ce per cent4 of sulphur and was subjected to a longer heat4 ,the history of this patent is a remarkable one4 ,immensely valuable as it was1 ,goodyear reaped but a small share of the profit1 for in the midst of his poverty and necessities he was obliged to sell licenses and establish royalties at a figure far below the real value of the rights conveyed4 ,some idea of the great value of the business which ,mr4 ,goodyear had developed may be had from the fact that the companies who held rights under the patent for the manufacture of shoes paid at one time to ,daniel ,webster the enormous fee of #be1jjj for defending their patent interests4 ,with the idea of extending his invention ,mr4 ,goodyear visited ,england in #ahea1 where he found that ,thomas ,hancock1 of the house of ,macintosh ,co41 had forestalled him1 although not the inventor4 ,a peculiar provision of the ,english patent law1 which gives the patent to the first introducer1 permitted this4 ,nothing daunted1 however1 he organized a magnificent exhibit for the ,great ,international ,exhibition held in ,crystal ,palace at ,hyde ,park1 ,london1 in #ahea4 ,this exhibit cost him #cj1jjj1 and he called it the ,goodyear ,vulcanite ,court4 ,it comprehended an elegantly constructed suite of open rooms made of hard rubber ornamented with handsome carvings1 and furnished with rubber furniture1 musical instruments1 and globes made of rubber1 and it was also carpeted with the same material4 ,for his exhibit he received the 8,grand ,council ,medal10 which was one of the highest testimonials of the exposition4 ,this exhibit was afterwards moved from ,london to ,sydenham1 where it was exposed and used as an agency for some years for the sale of rubber goods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,machine ,,for ,,grinding ,,and ,,washing ,,crude ,,rubber4 ,mr4 ,goodyear had obtained a ,french patent for his invention1 and at the ,exposition ,universelle in ,paris1 in #ahee1 he fitted up at an expense of #ej1jjj two elegant courts with ,india rubber furniture1 caskets and rich jewelry1 and for this exhibit he had conferred upon him by the ,emperor ,napoleon the 8,grand ,medal of ,honor0 and the 8,cross of the ,legion of ,honor40 ,it was a singular instance of the irony of fate that the decoration of the 8,cross of the ,legion of ,honor0 should have been conveyed to him while imprisoned for debt in 8,clichy10 the debtors' prison in ,paris4 ,the lofty courage of the man was well illustrated at this time in his reply to his wife's solicitous inquiries as to how he had spent the night while in prison4 ,he said1 8,i have been through nearly every form of trial that human flesh is heir to1 and ,i find that there is nothing in life to fear but sin40 ,the declining years of his life were full of sorrow1 pain and affliction1 and at his death in #ahfj his estate was #bjj1jjj in debt4 ,he lived long enough1 however1 to see his material applied to nearly five hundred uses1 giving employment in ,england1 ,france and ,germany to #fj1jjj persons1 and producing in this country alone goods worth #h1jjj1jjj a year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--,,making ,,rubber ,,cloth4 ,the greatest of all applications of rubber are to be found in the manufacture of boots and shoes4 ,the number of attacks of cold1 rheumatism1 and death-dealing diseases from wet feet1 that have been averted by the use of rubber shoes1 can never be estimated1 but perhaps it is safe to say that the rubber shoe has done more to conserve the health of the human family than any other single article of apparel4 ,in the manufacture of shoes the finest quality of rubber is received in wooden boxes #d #b #a feet1 containing about #cej pounds in lumps of #a to #ge pounds4 ,these lumps are cut to suitable size1 and are then ground and washed in the machine shown in ,fig4 #afa1 water and steam being sprayed on the rubber during the operation4 ,it is then worked into sheets or mats between rolls4 ,from the grinding room the sheets are taken to the mixing room1 where lampblack1 sulphur and other ingredients are added1 and worked into it by being passed many times between heated rolls1 the sheets being finally reduced to a thickness of less than #a_/cb of an inch4 ,the rubber sheets are then applied to a cloth backing by cloth calendering rolls1 shown in ,fig4 #afb1 which are steam heated and by great pressure serve to incorporate the sheets of rubber and cloth into intimate and inseparable union4 ,out of this rubber fabric1 which is made of different thicknesses for the upper1 sole and heel1 the patterns for the shoe are cut1 and the parts are deftly fitted around the forms by girls1 and secured by rubber cement1 as shown in ,fig4 #afc4 ,the shoes are then covered with a coat of rubber varnish1 and are put into cars and run into the vulcanizing ovens1 where they remain from six to seven hours at a temperature of about #bge4 ,the goods are then taken out1 and after being inspected are boxed for the market4 ,the vulcanizing is a very important part of the manufacture of a rubber shoe1 for it is absolutely necessary in order to give them stability and wearing qualities4 ,a shoe that had not been vulcanized would mash down1 spread1 become sticky and go to pieces after a few hours' wear4 ,the rubber shoe industry of the ,united ,states is carried on by about fifteen large companies1 representing an investment of many millions of dollars1 most of which companies are located in ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut4 ,some idea of the immensity of this industry may be obtained from the import statistics4 ,in #ahii the ,united ,states alone imported crude rubber to the extent of #ea1jfc1jff pounds1 as much as #a1jjj1jjj pounds a month coming from the single port of ,para4 ,the export of manufactured rubber goods for the same year amounted to #a1gfe1che4 ,the statistics for ,great ,britain for #ahif showed the imports of rubber to that country to be one-third more than the imports of the ,united ,states4 ,germany also is a large consumer4 ,the great ,harburg-,vienna factories cover sixty-seven acres1 are capitalized at #i1jjj1jjj marks1 and employ #c1ejj hands4 ,much fine technical apparatus1 toys1 and balls are made here1 the daily output of balls reaching #h1jjj4 ,these1 with the ,noah's arks of ,india rubber animals1 are the delight of the little ones all over the world4 ,although so much in evidence about us1 ,india rubber is not by any means a cheap material4 ,costing only five cents a pound when ,goodyear commenced his experiments1 it is now worth a dollar a pound1 and is therefore much more expensive than any of the ordinary metals1 woods1 or building materials4 ,many substitutes in the form of compositions of various ingredients have been devised and patented1 but no real substitute for nature's product has yet been found4 ,for many years old and worn out rubber goods were thrown away as worthless4 ,now all such rubber is reclaimed1 and used in many grades of goods which do not require a pure gum4 ,insatiable as the demands of the trade may appear1 there is no need to fear a rubber famine1 for the forests of trees in ,south ,america and the ,east ,indies are practically inexhaustible1 and in the rich alluvial soil of their habitat nature's processes of growth rapidly restore the decimation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,,making ,,rubber ,,shoes4 ,since the time of ,goodyear1 the amplification of this art and the multiplication of uses for rubber1 and its increased commercial importance1 have gone on at such a rate of increase that to-day we may be said to be living in the rubber age4 ,its uses and applications are legion1 and they extend literally from the cradle to the grave4 ,when the baby comes into the world its introduction to ,india rubber begins at once with the nursing bottle and the gum cloth1 and when the aged invalid takes leave of the world his last moments are soothed with the water bag and the rubber bed1 and between these extremes we find it in evidence everywhere about us4 ,in wearing apparel it extends from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot--rubber cap1 coat1 gloves1 and shoes4 ,the man has it in his suspenders and his pipe stem1 the woman in her garters and dress shields1 and the baby in its teething ring and rattle4 ,the soldier stands on picket duty in the rain1 and the rubber blanket protects him from rheumatism4 ,if wounded1 the surgeon dresses his mangled limb with rubber bandages1 and when he gets well he has a rubber cushion on the end of his crutch1 or on the foot of his artificial leg4 ,if wounded in the mouth perhaps the government gives him a set of artificial teeth on a rubber plate4 ,the rubber mat greets you at the front door1 a little pad cushions the door stops and the backs of chairs1 and a ring seals the mouth of the fruit jar4 ,the whole array of toilet articles1 including combs1 brushes1 mirrors1 shoe horns1 etc41 are made from it4 ,in the parlor it is found in picture frames and the piano cover2 in the bath room the wash rag1 water bag1 rubber cup1 and hose pipe of the shower bath are all made of it2 in the play room are found rubber balls and toys of all kinds2 in the kitchen the clothes wringer and the table cloth2 in the dining room the handles of knives1 and the tea tray1 and what is more useful and more ubiquitous in the office than the rubber band1 the rubber ruler1 the pencil eraser1 or the fountain pen8 ,but these are only a few of the personal and indoor uses and applications4 ,rubber belting for machinery1 fire engine and garden hose1 steam engine packing1 car springs1 covers for carriages and the big guns of the navy1 life preservers1 billiard table cushions1 and chemical and surgical apparatus in endless variety4 ,the electrical world is almost entirely dependent upon it for the insulation of our ocean cables and electric light wires1 for battery cups1 and the insulating mountings of all electrical apparatus4 ,the pneumatic bicycle tire could not exist without rubber1 and the modern application of it to this use alone amounts to nearly four million pounds annually4 ,every automobile carriage takes twenty-five pounds of rubber for each tire1 or #ajj pounds altogether4 ,this great and growing industry1 together with the now common use of rubber tires on horse-drawn vehicles1 raises the sum total of rubber employed in the arts to an enormous figure4 ,that the sap of an uncultivated tree in a swampy1 tropical1 and malarial forest1 thousands of miles from civilization1 should cut so great a figure in the necessities of modern life1 seems strange and unaccountable on any basis of probabilities4 ,it is only another illustration of the possibilities of the patient and persistent work of the inventor4 ,charles ,goodyear took this nearly worthless material1 and made of it1 as ,parton said in #ahfe--8not a new material merely1 but a new class of materials1 applicable to a thousand divers uses4 ,it was still ,india rubber1 but its surface would not adhere1 nor would it harden at any degree of cold1 nor soften at any degree of heat4 ,it was a cloth impervious to water2 it was a paper that would not tear2 it was a parchment that would not crease2 it was leather which neither rain nor sun would injure2 it was ebony that could be run into a mould2 it was ivory that could be worked like wax2 it was wood that never cracked1 shrunk nor decayed4 ,it was metal1 #8elastic metal1' as ,daniel ,webster termed it1 that could be wound round the finger1 or tied into a knot1 and which preserved its elasticity like steel4 ,trifling variations in the ingredients1 in the proportion and in the heating1 made it either pliable as kid1 tougher than ox hide1 as elastic as whalebone1 or as rigid as flint40 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,chemistry4 ,,its ,,evolution ,,as ,a ,,science--,,the ,,coal ,,tar ,,products--,,fermenting ,,and ,,brewing--,,glucose1 ,,gun ,,cotton ,,and ,,nitro-,,glycerine--,,electro-,,chemist ry --,,fertilizers ,,and ,,commercial ,,products--,,new ,,elements ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,the foundation stones of empirical discovery1 upon which this science is based1 had been crudely shaped by the workmen of preceding centuries1 but the classification and laying of them into the structure of an exact science is the work of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,the glass of the ,phnicians1 and the dyes and metallurgical operations of the ,egyptians1 involved some chemical knowledge2 much more did the operations of the alchemists1 who vainly sought to convert the baser metals into gold1 but these were only the crude building stones1 out of which the great complex modern structure has been raised4 ,in the ,sixteenth ,century the study of chemistry1 apart from alchemy1 began1 and some attention was given to its application to the uses of medicine4 ,aristotle's four elements--fire1 air1 earth and water--were no longer accepted as representing a correct theory1 and new ones were proposed only to be found as erroneous1 and to be superseded in time by others4 ,briefly traversing the more important of the earlier steps1 there may be mentioned the phlogiston theory of ,stahl in the earlier part of the ,eighteenth ,century2 the discovery of the composition of water by ,cavendish in #agff2 of oxygen by ,priestly and ,scheele in #aggd2 the electro-chemical dualistic theory of ,lavoisier in the latter part of the ,eighteenth ,century1 followed by a rational nomenclature established by ,guyton de ,morveau1 ,berthollet and ,fourcroy2 the doctrine of chemical equivalents by ,wenzel in #aggg and ,richter in #agib2 ,dalton's atomic theory2 ,wollaston's scale of chemical equivalents2 ,gay ,lussac's law of combining volumes2 ,berzelius' system of chemical symbols and theory of compound radicals2 contributions of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy and ,faraday in electro-chemistry1 and ,thenard's grouping of the metals4 ,these interesting phases of development of the old chemistry have been followed by the new theory of substitution1 by ,dumas and others4 ,this change1 beginning about #ahfj and running through a period of nearly twenty years1 has gradually supplanted the old electro-chemical dualistic theory and established the present system4 ,among the important and interesting achievements of chemistry in the ,nineteenth ,century is the artificial production of organic compounds4 ,all such compounds had heretofore been either directly or indirectly derived from plants or animals4 ,in #ahbh ,wohler produced urea from inorganic substances1 which was the first example of the synthetic production of organic compounds1 and it was for many years the only product so formed4 ,berthelot1 of ,paris1 by heating carbonic oxide with hydrate of potash produced formiate of potash1 from which formic acid is obtained2 by agitating olefiant gas with oil of vitriol a compound is produced from which1 upon the addition of water and distillation1 alcohol is formed2 he also re-combined the fatty acids with glycerine to form the original fats4 ,in the classification of this science1 it has been divided into inorganic chemistry1 relating to metals1 minerals and bodies not associated with organic life1 and organic chemistry1 which was formerly limited to matter associated with or the result of growth or life processes1 but which is now extended to the broader field of all carbon compounds4 ,in later years the most remarkable advances have been made in the field of organic chemistry4 ,the four elements carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen and nitrogen have been juggled into innumerable associations1 and in various proportions1 and endless permutations1 have been combined to produce an unlimited series of useful compounds1 such as dyes1 explosives1 medicines1 perfumes1 flavoring extracts1 disinfectants1 etc4 ,the most interesting of these compounds are the coal tar products4 ,coal tar1 for many years1 was the waste product of gas making4 ,forty years ago about the only use made of it was by the farmer1 who painted the ends of his fence posts with it to prevent decay1 or by the fisherman1 who applied it to the bottoms of his boats and his fishing nets4 ,to-day the black1 offensive and unpromising substance1 with magical metamorphosis1 has been transformed by the chemist into the most beautiful dyes1 excelling the hues and shades of the rainbow1 the most delightful perfumes and flavoring extracts1 the most useful medicines1 the most powerful antiseptics1 and a product which is the very sweetest substance known4 ,the aniline dyes represent one of the great developments in this field4 ,in #ahbf ,unverdorben obtained from indigo a substance which he called 8,crystalline40 ,in #ahcd ,runge obtained from coal tar 8,kyanol40 ,in #ahdj ,fritzsch obtained from indigo a product which he called 8,aniline10 from 8,anil10 the ,portuguese for indigo4 ,zinin soon after obtained 8,benzidam40 ,all these substances were afterward proved to be the same as aniline4 ,perkins' ,british patent1 ,no4 #a1ihd1 of #ahef1 is the first patented disclosure of the aniline dyes1 and represents the beginning of their commercial production4 ,this combines sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potash to produce an exquisite lilac1 or purple color4 ,the first ,united ,states patent was in #ahfa1 and now there are about #a1djj patents on carbon dyes and compounds1 the most of which belong to the coal tar group4 ,in dyes artificial alizarine1 by ,graebe and ,lieberman 7,pat4 ,no4 #ie1dfe1 ,oct4 #e1 #ahfi72 aniline black1 by ,lightfoot 7,pat4 ,no4 #ch1ehi1 ,may #ai1 #ahfc72 naphthazarin black1 by ,bohn 7,pat4 ,no4 #cgi1aej1 ,march #f1 #ahhh72 artificial indigo1 by ,baeyer 7,pat4 ,no4 #bei1fbi1 ,june #ac1 #ahhb72 the azo-colors1 by ,roussin 7,pat4 ,no4 #baj1jed1 ,nov4 #ai1 #ahgh72 and the processes for making colors on fibre1 by ,holliday 7,pat4 ,no4 #bda1ffa1 ,may #ag1 #ahha71 are the most important4 ,the artificial production of salicylic acid1 by ,kolbe 7,pat4 ,no4 #aej1hfg1 ,may #ab1 #ahgd71 marks an important step in antiseptics4 ,artificial vanilla1 by ,fritz ,ach 7,pat4 ,no4 #dhg1bjd1 ,nov4 #bi1 #ahib71 represents flavoring extracts2 and artificial musk1 by ,baur 7,pat4 ,no4 #ecf1cbd1 ,march #bf1 #ahie71 is an example of perfumes4 ,in medicines a great array of compounds has been produced1 such as antipyrin1 the fever remedy1 by ,knorr 7,pat4 ,no4 #cjg1cii1 ,oct4 #bh1 #ahhd72 phenacetin1 by ,hinsberg 7,pat4 ,no4 #djj1jhf1 ,march #bf1 #ahhi72 salol1 by ,von ,nencki 7,pat4 ,no4 #cej1jab1 ,sept4 #bh1 #ahhf71 and sulfonal by ,bauman 7,pat4 ,no4 #cif1ebf1 ,jan4 #bb1 #ahhi74 ,to these may be added antikamnia 7acetanilide71 the headache remedy1 and saccharin1 by ,fahlberg 7,pat4 ,no4 #cai1jhb1 ,june #b1 #ahhe71 which latter is a substitute for sugar1 and thirteen times sweeter than sugar4 ,among the more familiar products of coal tar or petroleum are moth balls1 carbolic acid1 benzine1 vaseline1 and paraffine4 ,in the commercial application of chemistry the work of ,louis ,pasteur in fermenting and brewing deserves special notice as making a great advance in this art4 ,his ,united ,states patent1 ,no4 #ada1jgb1 ,july #bb1 #ahgc1 deals with the manufacture of yeast for brewing4 ,the manufacture of sugar and glucose from starch is an industry of great magnitude1 which has grown up in the last twenty-five years4 ,water1 acidulated with #a_/ajjth part of sulphuric acid1 is heated to boiling1 and a hot mixture of starch and water is allowed to flow into it gradually4 ,after boiling a half hour chalk is added to neutralize the sulphuric acid1 and when the sulphate of lime settles the clear syrup is drawn off1 and either sold as syrup1 or is evaporated to produce crystallized grape sugar1 which latter is only about half as sweet as cane sugar4 ,glucose syrup1 however1 has largely superseded all other table syrups1 and is extensively used in brewing1 for cheap candies1 and for bee food4 ,our exports of glucose and grape sugar for #ahii amounted to #bbi1jjc1ega pounds1 worth #c1fbd1hij4 ,an important discovery1 made in #ahdf1 was that carbohydrates1 such as starch1 sugar1 or cellulose1 and glycerine1 when acted upon by the strongest nitric acid1 produced compounds remarkable for their explosive character4 ,gun cotton and nitro-glycerine are the most conspicuous examples4 ,gun cotton is made by treating raw cotton with nitric acid1 to which a proportion of sulphuric acid is added to maintain the strength of the nitric acid and effect a more perfect conversion4 ,besides its use as an explosive1 gun cotton when dissolved in ether has found an important application as collodion in the art of photography4 ,nitro-glycerine only differs in its manufacture from gun cotton in that glycerine is acted upon by the acids1 instead of cotton4 ,pyroxiline1 xyloidine1 and celluloid are allied products1 which have found endless applications in toilet articles and for other uses1 as a substitute for hard rubber4 ,the applications of chemistry in the commercial world have been in recent years so numerous and varied that it is not possible to do more than to refer to its uses in the manufacture of soda and potash1 of alcohol1 ether1 chloroform1 and ammonia1 in soap making1 washing compounds and tanning1 the production of gelatine1 the refining of cotton seed and other oils1 the art of oxidizing oils for the manufacture of linoleum and oil cloth1 the manufacture of fertilizers1 white lead and other paints1 the preparation of proprietary medicines1 of soda water and photographic chemicals1 the manufacture of salt and preserving compounds1 in the fermentation of liquors and brewing of beer1 the preparation of cements and street pavements1 the manufacture of gas1 and the embalming of the dead4 ,the most interesting and1 in many respects1 the most important1 development of the last twenty-five years has been in electro-chemistry4 ,electro-chemical methods are now employed for the production of a large number of elements1 such as the alkali and alkaline earth metals1 copper1 zinc1 aluminum1 chromium1 manganese1 the halogens1 phosphorus1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and ozone2 various chemicals1 including the mineral acids1 hydrates1 chlorates1 hypochlorites1 chromates1 permanganates1 disinfectants1 alkaloids1 coal tar dyes1 and various carbon compounds2 white lead and other pigments2 varnish2 in bleaching1 dyeing1 tanning2 in extracting grease from wool2 in purifying water1 sewerage1 sugar solutions1 and alcoholic beverages4 ,the present low price of aluminum1 reduced from #ab per pound in #ahgh to #cc cents now1 is due to its production by electrical methods4 ,among the earliest successful processes is that described in patents to ,cowles and ,cowles1 ,no4 #cai1gie1 ,june #i1 #ahhe1 and ,no4 #cbd1feh1 ,august #ah1 #ahhe1 in which a mixture of alumina1 carbon and copper is heated to incandescence by the passage of a current1 the reduced aluminum alloying with the copper4 ,this has now been superseded by the ,hall process 7,pat4 ,no4 #djj1gff1 ,april #b1 #ahhi71 in which alumina1 dissolved in fused cryolite1 is electrolytically decomposed4 ,practically all the copper now produced1 except that from ,lake ,superior1 is refined electrolytically by substantially the method of ,farmer's patent 7,pat4 ,no4 #cbb1agj1 ,july #ad1 #ahhe74 ,all metallic sodium and potassium are now obtained by electrolysis of fused hydroxides or chlorides 7,pats4 ,no4 #deb1jcj1 ,may #ab1 #ahia1 to ,castner1 and ,no4 #eda1dfe1 ,june #be1 #ahie1 to ,vautin74 ,the production of caustic soda1 sodium carbonate1 and chlorine by the electrolysis of brine1 is carried on upon a large scale1 and will probably supersede all other methods4 ,nolf's process 7,pat4 ,no4 #bga1ijf1 ,feb4 #f1 #ahhc71 and ,caster's 7,no4 #ebh1cbb1 ,oct4 #cj1 #ahid71 employ a receiving body or cathode of mercury1 alternately brought in contact with the brine undergoing decomposition1 and with water to oxidize the contained sodium4 ,carborundum1 or silicide of carbon1 is largely superseding emery and diamond dust as an abradant4 ,it is produced by ,acheson 7,pat4 ,no4 #dib1gfg1 ,feb4 #bh1 #ahic71 by passing a current of electricity through a mixture of silica and carbon4 ,calcium carbide1 a rare compound a few years ago1 is now cheaply produced by the action of an electric arc on a mixture of lime and carbon1 as described by ,willson 7,pats4 ,nos4 #eda1acg1 #eda1ach1 ,june #ah1 #ahie74 ,calcium carbide resembles coke in general appearance1 and it is used for the manufacture of acetylene gas1 for which purpose it is only necessary to immerse the calcium carbide in water1 and the gas is at once given off by the mutual decomposition of the water and the carbide4 ,agricultural chemistry is another one of the practical developments of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,a hundred years ago the farmer planted his crops1 prayed for rain1 and trusted to ,providence for the increase2 he was not infrequently disappointed1 but was wholly unable to account for the failure4 ,to-day the intelligent farmer understands the value of nitrogen1 has ascertained how it may be fed to his crops through the agency of nitrifying organisms1 or he has his soil analyzed at the ,agricultural ,department1 finds out what element it lacks for the crop desired1 and in chemically prepared fertilizers supplies that deficiency4 ,the chemical analysis of drinking water has also contributed much to the knowledge of right living and to the avoidance of disease and death1 which our forefathers were accustomed to regard as dispensations of ,providence4 ,america has furnished some eminent chemists in the ,nineteenth ,century1 who have made valuable contributions to the science1 notably in the field of metallurgy4 ,it is a fact1 however1 which must be admitted with regret1 that ,america has not in the field of chemical research occupied the leading place she has in mechanical progress4 ,the ,european laboratory is the birthplace of most modern inventions in the chemical field1 and this is so simply by reason of the fact that these more patient investigators have set themselves studiously1 systematically and persistently to the work of chemical invention4 ,it is said that some of the large commercial works in ,germany have over #ajj ,ph4 ,d4's in a single manufacturing establishment1 whose work is not directed to the management of the manufacture1 but solely to original research1 and the making of inventions4 ,the laboratories in such works differ from those in the universities only in being more perfectly equipped1 and more sumptuously appointed4 ,the result of this is seen in the fact that in #ahii the ,united ,states imported coal tar dyes alone to the extent of #c1gii1cec1 and #e1bbg1jih pounds of alizarine1 most of which came from ,germany1 and for which we paid a good price1 since the ,german manufacturers control the ,united ,states patents4 ,the alizarine dyes are for the most part the artificial kind made by ,german chemists4 ,prior to #ahfi the red alizarine dye was of plant origin1 being obtained from madder root1 and it cost #b a pound4 ,the ,german chemist produced an artificially made product1 which took the place of the madder dye1 and was sold at #a4bj a pound4 ,at the end of the patent term 7seventeen years7 the price fell to #ae;c4 a pound1 showing that the product was produced at a profit of more than #a4je a pound1 and as millions of pounds were imported annually1 it is estimated that #ce1jjj1jjj was the price paid the ,german chemists for their foresight in combining science with business4 ,many ,united ,states patents granted to foreign chemists are still in force1 and the rich reward of their skill is reaped at our expense4 ,discovery of elements4--,in the early days of chemical knowledge1 fire1 air1 earth and water constituted the insignificant category of the elements1 which was as faulty in classification as it was small in size4 ,gradual splitting up of compounds1 and an increase in the number of elements1 has gone on progressively for some hundreds of years1 until to-day the list extends well on to one hundred elementary bodies4 ,those which belong to the credit of the ,nineteenth ,century are given in the table following1 with the name of the discoverer1 and the date of its discovery4 ,,elements ,,discovered ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,elements4 ,,discoverer4 ,,year4 ,columbium ,hatchett #ahja ,tantalum ,ekeberg #ahjb ,iridium ,tenant #ahjc ,osmium ,tenant #ahjc ,cerium ,berzelius #ahjc ,palladium ,wollaston #ahjd ,rhodium ,wollaston #ahjd ,potassium ,davy #ahjg ,sodium ,davy #ahjg ,barium ,davy #ahjh ,strontium ,davy #ahjh ,calcium ,davy #ahjh ,boron ,davy #ahjh ,iodine ,courtois #ahaa ,cyanogen ,gay ,lussac #ahad 7,comp4 rad47 ,selenium ,berzelius #ahag ,cadmium ,stromeyer #ahag ,lithium ,arfvedson #ahag ,silicon ,berzelius #ahbc ,zirconium ,berzelius #ahbd ,bromine ,balard #ahbf ,thorium ,berzelius #ahbh ,yttrium ,wohler #ahbh ,glucinum ,wohler #ahbh ,aluminum ,wohler #ahbh ,magnesium ,bussey #ahbi ,vanadium ,sefstroem #ahcj ,lanthanum ,mosander #ahci ,didymium ,mosander #ahci ,erbium ,mosander #ahdc ,terbium ,mosander #ahdc ,ruthenium ,claus #ahde ,rubidium ,bunsen #ahfj ,caesium ,bunsen #ahfj ,thallium ,crookes #ahfb ,indium ,reich #ahfc ,richter ,gallium ,boisbaudran #ahge ,ytterbium ,marignac #ahgh ,samarium ,boisbaudran #ahgi ,scandium ,nilson #ahgi ,thulium ,cleve #ahgi ,neodymium ,welsbach #ahhe ,praseodymium ,welsbach #ahhe ,gadolinium ,marignac #ahhf ,germanium ,winkler #ahhf ,argon ,raleigh #ahid ,ramsey ,krypton ,ramsey #ahig ,travers ,neon ,ramsey #ahih ,travers ,metargon ,ramsey #ahih ,travers ,coronium ,nasini #ahih ,xenon ,ramsey #ahih ,monium ,crookes #ahih ,etherion 787 ,brush #ahih ,whether or not these so-called elements are really true elementary forms of matter1 which are absolutely indivisible1 is a problem for the chemists of the coming centuries to solve4 ,the classification has the approval of the present age4 ,what new elements may be found no one may predict4 ,mendelejeff's periodic law1 however1 suggests great possibilities in this field4 ,allotropism1 in which the same element will present entirely different physical aspects1 is also a significant and suggestive phenomenon1 for in it we see carbon appearing at one time as a crude1 black and ungainly mass of coal1 and at another it appears as the limpid and flashing diamond4 ,in more than one mind there is a lurking suspicion that there may1 after all1 be only one form of primordial matter1 from which all others are derived by some wondrous play of the atoms1 and if so the old idea of the alchemist as to the transmutation of metals may not be entirely wrong4 ,the ,twentieth ,century may give us more light4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,food ,,and ,,drink4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,food--,,the ,,roller ,,mill--,,the ,,middlings ,,purifier-- ,,culinary ,,utensils--,,bread ,,machinery--,,dairy ,,appliances--,,centrifugal ,,milk ,,skimmer--,,the ,,canning ,,industry--,,sterilization--,,butcherin g ,,and ,,dressing ,,meats--,,oleomargarine--,,manufacture ,,of ,,sugar--,,the ,,vacuum ,,pan--,,centrifugal ,,filter--,,modern ,,dietetics ,,and ,,patented ,,foods4 ,if called upon to name the most important of all factors of human existence1 that which underlies and sustains all others1 even to life itself1 everyone must agree that it is food4 ,a remarkable fact in this connection is that all animal life lives and thrives by eating some other thing that is or has been alive1 or is the product of organic growth4 ,the vegetarian may pride himself upon his higher ideals of living1 but after all his fruit1 vegetables1 and cereals belong to the great category of living organisms1 and are to a certain extent sentient and conscious1 for even the plant will turn to the sun4 ,the beasts of the field and fowls of the air live by preying upon other weaker animals and birds1 these upon plants and grasses1 and the plants and grasses upon the decaying mosses and organic mould of the soil1 and the mosses upon still lower organisms4 ,the big fish of the sea eat the little fish1 the little fish the small fry1 and these in turn live upon worms and animalcula1 and so on all the way down to protoplasm4 ,omniverous man1 in spite of his boasted civilization and enlightment1 not only eats them all1 flesh1 fowl1 fish1 grain and plants1 but lives exclusively upon them4 ,but he can only live on that which has been produced by the mysterious agency of life1 and this furnishes a significant suggestion for the philosopher1 for it may be that life itself is only an accumulated active power or unitary force regenerated in some metamorphic way from vital force stored up in the bacteria of organic food1 and necessarily connected therewith in an endless chain of reproductions1 and if this be true1 the hope of the scientist as to the synthesis of food from its elements must ever remain a philosophic dream1 because the scientist cannot create a bacterium4 ,it has been said that when a man eats meat he thinks meat1 and when he eats bread he thinks bread1 and when he eats fruit he thinks fruit4 ,it is not clear that the quality or character of man's food is so closely correlated to his thought1 but that it has its influence cannot be doubted4 ,it would be safer to say1 however1 that when a man eats meat he acts meat1 and when he eats bread he acts bread1 for the muscular energy and aggressive potentiality appear to be much more closely related to the quality of his food than are his thoughts4 ,may it not be that the powerful achievement of the ,british ,empire was directly related to its roast beef8 ,is not the listless apathy of the ,chinese due to a diet of rice8 ,is not the dominant and masterful power of the lion or the eagle related to a carniverous diet1 and the mild and placid temper of the ox the reflex expression of his vegetable food8 ,it is quite true that our potentialities are largely represented by what we eat1 and our food therefore becomes a most interesting topic1 not only by virtue of its indispensable quality1 but by reason also of the possibilities of development in the betterment and elevation of the human race4 ,from the earliest times even down to the present day man's food has been the same--flesh1 fish1 cereals1 fruits and vegetables4 ,the development of the present century has not extended this category1 but it has been directed to an increase in the supply1 an improvement in quality1 the preservation against decay and waste1 and its intelligent selection and adaptation to the special needs of the body4 ,progress manifests itself in the great field of agriculture1 in improved processes and machines for milling2 in butchering1 packing and handling meats2 in preserving and drying fruits2 in the preparation of canned goods1 in dairy appliances1 in cake and cracker machines2 in the manufacture of sugar2 in the great advance in cookery2 in the science of dietetics1 and in thousands of minor industries4 ,in agriculture the raising of grain has extended in the ,nineteenth ,century to enormous proportions4 ,more than ten thousand patents for plows1 as many for reapers1 and a proportionate number of planters1 cultivators1 threshers1 and other implements and tools represent the extent to which inventive genius has been directed to the increase of the yield in the harvest field4 ,this yield in the ,united ,states for the year #ahih was3 ,corn #a1ibd1ahd1ffj bushels ,wheat #fge1adh1gje bushels ,oats #gcj1ijf1fdc bushels ,rye #be1feg1ebb bushels ,barley #ee1gib1beg bushels ,buckwheat #aa1gba1ibg bushels ,potatoes #aib1cjf1cch bushels ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,,roller ,,process ,,of ,,making ,,flour1 ,,wegmann',s ,,patent4 ,for converting the grain into flour1 the inventors of the ,nineteenth ,century have made revolutionary changes4 ,milling processes within the last twenty-five years have been completely transformed by the introduction of the roller mill and middlings purifier4 ,formerly two horizontal disk-shaped stones or burrs were employed1 the lower one stationary and the upper one revolving in a horizontal plane and crudely crushing the grain between them4 ,in all modern mills these have been entirely displaced by porcelain rolls revolving on horizontal axes and crushing the grain between them4 ,the first of these roller mills is shown in pat4 ,no4 #ahb1bej1 to ,wegmann1 ,sept4 #ab1 #ahgf4 7,see ,fig4 #afd74 ,the outer rolls d e are pressed against the inner ones a c by a system of weighted levers1 and scrapers below remove the crushed grain from the periphery of the rolls4 ,many subsequent improvements have been made1 one type of which employs a succession of rolls which act in pairs on the grain one after the other and reduce it by successive gradations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,,middlings ,,purifier4 ,the middlings purifier1 see ,fig4 #afe1 comprehends a flat bolt or shaker screen b1 of bolting cloth1 arranged as a horizontal partition in an enclosing case through which passes an upward draft of air produced by suction fan ,d at the top4 ,this air passing up through the bolting screen lifts the bran specks and fuzz from the shaken material as it passes downward through the screen1 brushes ,k being arranged below to keep the screen constantly clean4 ,a representative and pioneer type of this machine is seen in ,pat4 ,no4 #afd1jej to ,george ,t4 ,smith1 ,june #a1 #ahge1 from which the view is taken4 ,the useful effect of the roller mill and middlings purifier is to save the most nutritious and valuable part of the grain1 which lies between the outer cuticle and the white starch within1 and which breaks up in fine grains and is of a golden hue4 ,this portion of the grain was formerly unseparated1 and was mixed with the middlings and bran as an inferior product4 ,modern analysis has disclosed its superior food value1 and the roller mill and middlings purifier have provided means by which it can be separated from the bran and incorporated with the flour1 thereby greatly adding to its wholesome character and nutritive value1 and imparting to the flour the rich creamy tint which characterizes all higher grades4 ,minneapolis1 ,minn41 is the great center of the milling interests of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,pillsbury ,mills are located there1 and the 8,pillsbury ,a40 which is said to be the largest in the world1 has a capacity of #g1jjj barrels per day4 ,in #ahgg-gh disastrous flour dust explosions at ,minneapolis brought about the development of the dust collector1 for withdrawing from the air of the mills the suspended particles of flour dust1 which not only invited explosion1 but rendered the air unfit to breathe4 ,washburn's ,pat4 ,no4 #bac1aea1 ,march #aa1 #ahgi1 is an early example4 ,the use of crushing rolls has also developed a great variety of new foods1 such as cracked wheat1 oatmeal grits1 etc4 ,these crushing rolls have sometimes been made hollow1 and are steam heated1 and as they crush the grain they simultaneously effect the cooking or partial conversion of the starch1 and the product is known as hominy flake1 ceraline1 coralline1 etc41 which furnish popular breakfast foods when served with cream4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--;,,dough ,,mixer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,,brake1 ,,or ,,kneading ,,machine4 ,in the field of cookery such activity has been displayed that the average kitchen to-day is a veritable museum of modern inventions4 ,egg beaters1 waffle irons1 toasters1 broilers1 baking pans1 apple parers1 cherry stoners1 cheese cutters1 butter workers1 coffee mills1 corn poppers1 cream freezers1 dish washers1 egg boilers1 flour sifters1 flat irons1 knife sharpeners1 can openers1 lemon squeezers1 potato mashers1 meat boilers1 nutmeg graters1 sausage grinders1 and frying pans in endless array2 all patented and clustered around the modern cooking range as a central figure1 and all presenting points of excellence in the matter of economy and convenience1 or the betterment of result4 ,the most extensive application of inventive genius is to be found in the large manufacturing bakeries1 which make and sell the millions of pounds of crackers and cakes that fill the bins and shelves of the grocery store4 ,in these manufactories the dough is prepared by a mixer1 see ,fig4 #aff1 which consists of a spiral working blade revolving in a trough1 and capable of handling half a dozen barrels of flour at a time4 ,it is then put through a kneading machine1 called a 8brake10 shown in ,fig4 #afg1 and is then ready to be converted into crackers or cakes on a great machine #be feet long1 which finishes the crackers and puts them in the pan ready for the oven4 ,this machine1 see ,fig4 #afh1 receives the dough at ,a1 where it is coated with flour and flattened into a sheet between rolls4 ,it is then received on a traveling apron ,b1 has the flour brushed off by a rotary brush ,c1 and is then cut into crackers or cakes by vertically reciprocating dies ,d4 ,at ,e a series of fingers press the cakes down through the sheet of dough1 while the surrounding scraps are raised on a belt ,f and delivered into a suitable receptacle4 ,the separated cakes at ,b are then delivered into pans at ,g1 the pans being fed on the subjacent belt at ,g4 ,such machines1 costing nearly a thousand dollars1 produce from forty to sixty barrels of crackers a day1 enabling them to be sold at about #e cents a pound at retail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,,cracker ,,and ,,cake ,,machine4 ,dairy ,appliances have come in for a large share of attention at the hands of the ,nineteenth ,century inventor4 ,there are about sixteen million milch cows in the ,united ,states1 and their contribution to the food stuffs of the day in milk1 butter1 and cheese is no insignificant factor4 ,there have been over #b1gjj patents granted for churns alone1 and besides these there are milk coolers1 cheese presses1 milk skimmers1 and even cow milkers4 ,the centrifugal milk skimmer is an interesting type of this class of machine4 ,in the old way the milk was set for the cream to rise1 which it did slowly from its lighter specific gravity4 ,in the centrifugal skimmer the milk is continuously poured in through a funnel1 and the cream runs out continuously through one spout1 and the skimmed milk at the other4 ,an illustrative type of this machine is shown in ,fig4 #afi4 ,a steam turbine wheel near the base turns a vertical shaft bearing at its upper end a pan which rotates within the outer case4 ,the milk enters through the faucet at the top1 and as the pan within rotates1 the heavier milk1 by its greater specific gravity1 is thrown to the outer part of the pan and passes out through the larger of the two spouts1 while the lighter cream is crowded to the center and passes out of the upper spout1 which opens into the center of the pan4 ,patents to ,lefeldt ,lentsch1 ,no4 #aie1eae1 ,sept4 #be1 #ahgg1 and ,houston and ,thomson1 ,no4 #bci1fei1 ,april #e1 #ahha1 represent pioneer milk skimmers of this type4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--;,,centrifugal ,,milk ,,skimmer4 ,closely allied to the dairy appliances are the incubator and the bee hive1 both of which have claimed a large share of attention1 and for which many patents have been granted4 ,one important and characteristic feature of the present age is the conservation of waste in perishable foodstuffs4 ,fruits1 vegetables1 fish and oysters were suitable food to our forefathers only when freshly taken1 and any superabundance in supply was either wasted by natural processes of decay1 or was fed to the hogs4 ,to-day thousands of patented fruit dryers1 cider mills1 and preserving processes save this waste and carry over for valuable use through the unproductive winter months these wholesome and valuable articles of diet4 ,even more important is the canning industry1 by which not only fruits are maintained in a practically fresh condition for an indefinite time1 but oysters1 meats1 fish1 soups1 and vegetables are also put up in enormous quantities4 ,to-day the grocer's shelves present an endless array of canned tomatoes1 peaches1 corn1 peas1 beans1 fish1 oysters1 condensed milk1 and potted meats1 which constitute probably three-fourths of his staple goods4 ,the tin can is in itself a very insignificant thing1 not entitled to rank with any of the great inventions1 but in the every-day campaign of life it is playing its part1 and working its influence to an extent that is little dreamed of by the casual observer4 ,it renders possible our military and exploring expeditions2 it holds famine and starvation in abeyance2 it gives wholesome variety to the diet of both rich and poor2 and it transfers the glut of the full season to the want of future days4 ,perhaps no single factor of modern life has so great an economic value4 ,simple as is the tin can1 quite complex machines are required to make it4 ,originally such machines were operated by hand or foot power1 but within the last #be years power machines have been devised which automatically convert a simple blank or plate of sheet metal into a finished can4 ,of the many patents granted for such machines the most representative ones are #bdc1bhg1 #bej1jif1 #bfg1jad1 #chd1hbe1 #dej1fbd1 #dfe1jah1 #dhj1bef1 #die1dbf1 #dhi1dhd4 ,in the process of putting up canned goods the products are filled into the cans1 and the caps1 or heads1 are soldered on4 ,these caps have a minute hole in the center for the escape of air and steam in the process of cooking and sterilizing1 which is conducted as follows3 ,a large number of cans are placed on a tray swung from a crane and the cans lowered into one of a series of great cooking boilers4 ,the cover of the boiler is then closed and fastened by lugs1 and steam turned on until the goods in the can are thoroughly heated through4 ,during this process the air and steam escape through the little vent hole from the interior of each can4 ,the cans are then removed1 the vent hole closed by a drop of solder1 and the goods thus hermetically sealed in a cooked or sterilized condition will keep for a long period of time4 ,sterilizing4--,during the last quarter of the century1 which has witnessed the growth of the wonderful science of bacteriology1 a class of devices known as sterilizers has come into existence1 whose primary function is to kill the germs of decay by heat4 ,this has had in the canning industry an important commercial application4 ,an example is found in the patent to ,shriver1 ,no4 #adi1bef1 ,march #ca1 #ahgd4 ,in some of these devices the receptacles containing the food stuffs are in large numbers placed within the heating chamber1 and by devices operated from the outside the cans or bottles are opened and shut while within the steam filled chamber4 ,a late illustration is found in patent to ,popp et al41 #ebd1fdi1 ,august #ad1 #ahid4 ,butchering and ,dressing ,meats4--,chicago is the leading city of the world in this industry1 and ,armour ,co4 the largest packers4 ,in the year ending ,april #a1 #ahia1 they killed and dressed #a1gad1jjj hogs1 #gab1jjj cattle1 and #dac1jjj sheep4 ,they had #g1ijj employees1 and #b1bej refrigerating cars were employed for the transportation of their products4 ,the ground area covered by their buildings was fifty acres1 giving a floor area of #adj acres1 a chill room and cold storage area of forty acres1 and a storage capacity of #acj1jjj tons4 ,in addition to its meat packing business the firm has separate glue works1 with buildings covering fifteen acres1 where #fjj hands are employed1 their production in #ahij being #g1jjj1jjj pounds of glue1 and #i1ejj tons of fertilizer4 ,since #ahia this great business has increased until to-day it is said that the army of workmen employed is greater than that of ,xenophon1 that the firm pays out in wages alone1 half a million dollars every month1 that four thousand cars are required to carry the products of their factory1 and whose business amounts to the enormous sum of one hundred million dollars annually4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--,,killing ,,and ,,dressing ,,pork4 ,there are from forty to fifty million cattle raised in the ,united ,states1 and an equal amount of sheep4 ,the number of hogs raised has diminished somewhat in the past few years1 but from #ahhi to #ahib more than fifty million were maintained4 ,the process of slaughtering and dressing pork1 as practiced to-day1 is a continuous one1 and is well illustrated in ,fig4 #agj1 in #ac operations4 ,the animals are driven into a catching pen at #a1 where they are strung up by one leg1 and secured to a traveling pulley on an overhead rail4 ,at #b the animal is instantly killed by a knife thrust that reaches the heart2 at #c he is dumped into a vat of scalding water1 kept hot by steam pipes1 where the hair is loosened 7see detail view ,fig4 #aga74 ,a series of oscillating curved arms1 shaped like a horse hay-rake1 dips the carcass out of the scalding vat and deposits it upon the table #d 7,fig4 #agj71 where it is attached to an endless cable that drags it through a scraping machine at #e4 ,this takes off the hair1 as shown in detail view ,fig4 #agb4 ,at #f 7,fig4 #agj7 the remnants of hair are removed by hand1 and at #g the skin is washed clean4 ,at #h the carcass is inspected1 and the throat cut across2 at #i the entrails are removed2 at #aj the leaf lard is taken out2 at #aa the heads are severed and tongues removed2 at #ab the carcass is split into halves1 and at #ac the sections are ready to be run into the cooling room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--,,scalding ,,to ,,loosen ,,the ,,hair4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4--,,scraping ,,off ,,the ,,hair ,,by ,,machinery4 ,from #aj to #ae minutes only are required to convert the living animal into dressed pork4 ,every part of the animal is utilized4 ,the lungs1 heart1 liver and trimmings go to the sausage department4 ,the feet are pickled or converted into glue4 ,the intestines are stripped and cleaned for sausage casings4 ,the soft parts of the head are made into so-called cheese1 and the fat is rendered into lard4 ,the finer quality of bristles goes to the brushmakers1 and the balance is used by upholsterers for mixing with horse hair4 ,the blood is largely used for making albumen for photographic uses1 as well as in sugar refining1 for meat extracts1 and for fertilizers4 ,the bones are ground for fertilizer1 and even the tank waters are concentrated and used for the same purpose4 ,oleomargarine4--,about #ahfh ,m4 ,mege1 a ,french chemist1 commissioned by his government to investigate certain questions of domestic economy1 was led into the study of beef fat1 and to make comparisons of the same with butter4 ,he found that when cows were deprived of food containing fat they still continued to give milk yielding cream or fatty products4 ,he therefore concluded that the stored-up fat in the animal was then converted into cream1 and that it was practicable1 therefore1 to convert beef fat into butter fat4 ,physiology taught that in the living animal the change was wrought through the withdrawal of the larger part of the stearine by respiratory combustion1 while the oleomargarine was secreted by the milk glands1 and its conversion into butyric oleomargarine effected in the udder under the influence of the mammary pepsin4 ,in the process of making butter by the ordinary method of churning the cream1 the finely divided butter fat globules are united into masses1 containing by mechanical admixture from #ab to #ad per cent4 of water or buttermilk carrying a fractional per cent4 of cheese4 ,this buttermilk contributes somewhat to the flavor1 but at the same time furnishes a ferment which ultimately spoils the butter by making it rancid4 ,it is a purely accidental ingredient1 and one not at all desirable4 ,to some extent the same may be said of the soluble fats which give to the butter its variable though characteristic flavor4 ,they are unstable compounds1 decomposing readily1 and furnish the acrid products which make 8strong0 butter4 ,m4 ,mege sought to imitate the natural process of butter-making1 which was first to separate from the oily fat of suet the cellular tissue and excess of stearine or hard fat2 second1 to add to the oil a sufficient proportion of butyric compounds to give the necessary flavor1 and third1 to consolidate the butter fat without grain1 and to add at the same time the requisite proportion of water1 salt1 and coloring matter1 to make a compound substantially the same in composition1 flavor1 and appearance1 as butter churned from the cream1 and all this without adding to the original fat anything dietetically objectionable1 and without submitting it to any process capable of impairing its wholesome quality4 ,these objects were fairly obtained in the product known as oleomargarine1 the ,united ,states patent for which was granted to ,mege ,dec4 #cj1 #ahgc1 ,no4 #adf1jab4 ,the process in brief is to take fresh beef fat1 which is first chopped up and thoroughly washed4 ,it is then placed in melting tanks at a temperature of #abb to #abd ,f1 and the clear yellow oil is drawn off and allowed to stand until it granulates4 ,the fat is then packed in cloths set in moulds and a slowly increasing pressure squeezes out the pure amber colored oil1 leaving the stearine behind4 ,this sweet and pure yellow oil is then churned with milk for #bj minutes until the oil is completely broken up1 and a small quantity of annato1 a vegetable coloring matter1 is added to give a yellow color4 ,the product is then cooled in ice1 and after a second churning with milk it is salted and finished like butter4 ,chemical analysis shows oleomargarine to have substantially the same constituents and in almost the identical proportions of pure butter4 ,it is equally wholesome1 and while it does not have the same rich flavor1 it has the advantage that it keeps better1 and is not so liable to become rancid or strong4 ,the oleomargarine industry is closely related to the beef packing industries of the ,united ,states1 and its growth has been enormous4 ,notwithstanding the stringent laws on the subject1 much of the oleomargarine made is sold for1 and by the average purchaser is not distinguishable from1 pure butter4 ,in #ahii there were #hj1die1fbh pounds of oleomargarine made in the ,united ,states1 or more than a pound for every man1 woman1 and child in the country4 ,the internal revenue tax paid on it was #a1fji1iab4ef4 ,the exports for the year #ahii were #e1edi1cbb pounds of the artificial butter1 and #adb1cij1dib pounds of the oleo oil prepared for conversion into the complete product by simply churning with milk4 ,sugar4--,sugar-cane1 beets1 and the sap of the maple constitute the sources from which sugar is extracted1 but the cane furnishes by far the largest supply4 ,when crushed between rolls it yields #fe per cent4 of its weight as juice1 and #ah per cent4 of this juice is sugar4 ,it is concentrated by evaporation at a low temperature1 the crystallized portion being known as 8raw0 or brown sugar1 which is subsequently refined1 while the uncrystallized portion forms molasses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,,vacuum ,,pan ,,for ,,evaporating ,,the ,,syrup ,,to ,,produce ,,sugar4 ,in the process of refining1 #b or #c parts of raw sugar1 with one of water containing a little lime1 ground bone black1 and the serum of bullocks' blood1 is heated by the passage of steam through it4 ,the albumen of the serum coagulates and rises to the surface in a scum which entangles the impurities and bone black1 leaving the syrup light in color4 ,the latter is then filtered through bone black until it is colorless and is then evaporated in the vacuum pan1 which is the important invention of the century in sugar making4 ,heat has the effect of converting the crystallized sugar into the uncrystallized variety1 and hence the evaporation must1 to prevent this1 be conducted at a low temperature4 ,contact with the air is also objectionable4 ,these conditions are provided for by conducting the evaporation in a vacuum1 which lowers the evaporating temperature and avoids contact with the air4 ,the vacuum pan was the invention of ,howard1 an ,englishman4 7,british ,pat4 ,no4 #c1ged1 of #ahac74 ,as constructed to-day it is an enormous vessel 7see ,fig4 #agc71 capable of holding #g1jjj or more gallons1 and yielding #bej barrels of sugar at a strike4 ,in this a vacuum is maintained by a condenser1 the vapors passing from the pan to the condenser through the great curved pipe rising from the top1 which pipe is five feet in diameter4 ,a gentle heat is applied through internal steam-heated coils which connect with an external series of steam inlet pipes on one side1 and a corresponding series of steam outlet pipes on the other4 ,a large discharge valve for the concentrated syrup closes the bottom of the pan4 ,after concentration the crystallized sugar is separated from the syrup by a centrifugal filter1 in which the liquid is thrown from the crystallized sugar by centrifugal action4 ,the first centrifugal filter is shown in ,british patent to ,joshua ,bates1 ,no4 #f1jfh1 of #ahca4 ,this1 however1 revolved about a horizontal axis4 ,the present form of centrifugal filter is a cylinder revolving about a vertical axis1 the sides of the cylinder being formed of filtering medium1 through which the liquid is thrown by centrifugal action1 while the sugar is retained within4 ,this was the invention of ,joseph ,hurd1 of ,mass41 ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #c1ggb1 ,oct4 #c1 #ahdd2 re-issue ,no4 #fjg1 ,sept4 #bi1 #aheh1 which patent was extended for seven years1 from ,oct4 #c1 #aheh4 ,the diffusion process1 which extracts the juice by cutting the cane in slices and soaking in water2 the bagasse furnace1 which dries and burns the expressed cane stalks as fuel1 and the manufacture of glucose and grape sugar by the reaction of sulphuric acid on starch1 are interesting allied features of this industry which can only be briefly mentioned4 ,most of the sugar consumed in the ,united ,states is imported1 much raw sugar being imported and refined here4 ,the imports for the year #ahii were #c1ihj1bej1efi pounds1 and the per capita consumption in #ahih was #fa4a pounds a year4 ,aids to ,digestion4--,it is only during the last part of the ,nineteenth ,century that the world has learned how to live4 8,what is one man's food is another man's poison0 has been a trite old saying for many years1 but the reason why has only in late years been fully understood4 ,the physiology of digestion1 the relative digestibility of different articles of food1 and their nutritive values1 have received of late years the earnest attention of physicians and students of dietetics and have contributed much to the quality and kind of food1 and a knowledge of when and how to eat it4 ,we know that the starchy foods are digested by the saliva1 which is an alkaline digestion2 that meat1 fish1 eggs1 cheese and the albumenoids are digested in the stomach by the gastric juices 7pepsin and hydrochloric acid7 which is an acid digestion1 and that the remaining portions of starch1 the sugars1 and fats are digested in the intestines1 and that this is also an alkaline digestion1 and this has helped to solve the problem for us4 ,we also know that starch is an excellent food1 provided the vital powers are sufficiently stimulated by fresh air1 sunlight1 and exercise to digest it1 as do the horse and the ox when they eat corn1 but we know furthermore that the sedentary occupations of modern life leave many stomachs in a condition unable to assimilate starch1 and so bread1 oatmeal1 potatoes and such simple staples1 instead of nourishing the body1 ferment in the enfeebled stomach1 produce acids and gas1 and lay the foundation for serious chronic diseases4 ,the student of chemistry and dietetics knows to-day that one part of diastase will effect the conversion of #b1jjj parts of starch into grape sugar1 as a preliminary step to its digestion1 and so by treating starchy matter with substances containing diastase 7derived from malt7 a partial transformation is effected which will materially shorten and assist its digestion4 ,this fact has been largely made use of in the preparation of easily soluble or pre-digested foods1 examples of which are found in patent to ,horlick 7malted milk71 ,no4 #bgh1ifg1 ,june #e1 #ahhc2 to ,carnrick 7milk-wheat food71 ,dec4 #bg1 #ahhg1 ,no4 #cge1fja2 and ,boynton and ,van ,patten 7cereals and diastase71 #cdd1gag1 ,june #bi1 #ahhf4 ,beverages4--,pure water1 nature's own gift1 has ever supplied every legitimate need of the human race1 but civilized life has greatly extended its list of drinks1 much to its own detriment4 ,soda water1 whiskey1 beer1 ginger ale1 tea1 coffee1 and chocolate represent enormous industries1 and probably all do more harm than they do good4 ,much inventive genius in the ,nineteenth ,century has been bestowed upon the soda water fountain1 on stills1 and processes for aging liquors and processes for brewing beer1 on cider and wine presses1 on bottling machines and bottle stoppers1 on devices for carbonating waters1 and in coffee and teapots4 ,the trend of the times is shown in the following figures1 which represent the per capita consumption of beverages in the ,united ,states for #ahih3 tea1 4#ia of a pound2 coffee1 #aa4de pounds2 wines1 4#bh of a gallon2 distilled spirits1 #a4aj gallons2 and malt liquors #ae4fd gallons4 ,the largest per capita increase since #ahgj has been in malt liquors1 and the next in coffee4 ,in tea and distilled spirits there has been a decrease1 while the consumption of wines is the smallest of all and has varied but little4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,medicine1 ,,surgery1 ,,sanitation4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood ,,by ,,harvey--,,vaccination ,,by ,,jenner--,,use ,,of ,,an,,sthetics ,,the ,,great ,,step ,,of ,,medical ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century--,,materia ,,medica--,,instruments--,,schools ,,of ,,medicine--,,dentistry --,,artificial ,,limbs--,,digestion--,,bacteriology1 ,,and ,,disease ,,germs-- ,,antiseptic ,,surgery--,,house ,,sanitation4 ,in the early gropings through the uncertain light of first progress1 man was accustomed to ascribe the ills of his flesh to the anger of the gods1 and in his craven and abject superstition made peace offerings4 ,later he learned to locate the cause within himself1 and constructed the theory that the fluids of the body had become disordered4 ,the characteristic feature of progress in the ,nineteenth ,century1 in this field1 has been in the accurate tracing of the relation of cause and effect1 and with the discovery of true causes has grown efficient means of treatment4 ,the old expedients of charms1 incantations1 conjuration and exorcism gave place first to intelligent medication1 and this in turn is rapidly giving way to the prevention of disease by improved conditions of sanitation and right living4 ,the ounce of prevention has been found to be worth more than the pound of cure4 ,with the improved knowledge of physiology1 anatomy1 chemistry and biology1 which the century has brought1 the intelligent physician was able to make a logical and for the most part a correct diagnosis1 but supplemented with the microscope1 that great revealer of the unseen world of small things1 corporeal existence itself becomes an open book1 and from the principles of organic evolution to the germ theory of disease the mystery of life and death is being slowly revealed4 ,when the ,eighteenth ,century gave birth to the ,nineteenth1 its great natal gift in medicine was vaccination4 ,jenner in #agih for the first time announced his discovery of this great boon to the human race4 ,in #agii ,dr4 ,benjamin ,waterhouse1 in ,boston1 obtained virus from ,jenner and vaccinated four of his children1 and in #ahja ,dr4 ,valentine ,seaman obtained virus from ,dr4 ,waterhouse and performed the first vaccination in ,new ,york4 ,during the ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries the annual death rate from smallpox in ,london ranged from #b to #d per #a1jjj of population4 ,in #ahib it was only #j4jgc per #a1jjj4 ,it is also stated on good authority that the mortality from smallpox in ,england alone1 was #bj1jjj a year less after the introduction of vaccination than it was in the preceding century1 and that its benefits to the world at large have been so great that the lancet of ,jenner has saved more lives than were sacrificed by the sword of ,napoleon4 ,each century in modern history has been marked by some important discovery in the field of medicine4 ,the ,seventeenth ,century was notable for the discovery of the circulation of the blood by ,harvey2 the ,eighteenth ,century brought with it vaccination by ,jenner4 ,the ,nineteenth ,century's greatest gift in this field has been ansthesia1 or insensibility to pain4 ,nature has wisely endowed man with nerves of sensation as danger signals for the conservation of life4 ,accident and disease1 however1 are the inseparable concomitants of human existence1 and suffering and pain the ineffaceable legacies of mortality4 ,sometimes these nerves of sensation are no longer useful as monitors1 and in the unavoidable emergency of accident1 surgical operations1 child birth1 and certain diseases1 suffering can do no good1 and then pain--that ,prince of ,terrors--thrusting his presence upon the hapless victim1 racks body and limb1 calling forth groans1 and shrieks and writhings1 till the poor sufferer1 possessed with a dominating agony which displaces all thought of life1 memory of friends1 and love of ,god1 breaks down in unutterable distress1 and prays for death and oblivion4 ,to this poor sufferer insensibility is next to heaven4 ,for the past half century all the formidable operations of the surgeon have been performed with the aid of ansthetics and without suffering to the patient1 producing happy recoveries1 and greatly contributing to the success of the result by relieving the surgeon of the distraction of the patient's pain1 and the interference of his involuntary movements4 ,quite a number of ansthetics are known and used to-day4 ,those more generally employed are--naming them in the order of their first application--nitrous oxide gas1 ether1 and chloroform4 ,nitrous oxide gas is chiefly used for the extraction of teeth4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 in #ahjj1 was the first to observe the peculiar quality of nitrous oxide gas1 which gave it the name of 8laughing gas10 from the fact that it caused those inhaling it to act in a manner exhibiting an abnormal exhilaration4 ,dr4 ,horace ,wells1 a dentist of ,hartford1 ,conn41 in #ahdd1 had the gas administered1 experimentally1 to himself during the operation of extracting a tooth1 and was the discoverer of its useful application as an ansthetic4 ,the greatest discovery1 however1 in ansthetics is the application of ether for this purpose4 ,ether as a chemical product has been known for several centuries1 and as early as #ahah ,faraday pointed out the similarity between the effects of ether and nitrous oxide gas4 ,dr4 ,morton1 a dentist1 of ,boston1 first applied it as an ansthetic ,oct4 #af1 #ahdf1 being guided largely in its selection and use by ,dr4 ,jackson1 an eminent chemist of the same city4 ,on ,nov4 #ab1 #ahdf1 ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,no4 #d1hdh was issued to them for this invention4 ,in the latter part of ,december of the same year ,dr4 ,liston1 an eminent ,english surgeon1 performed the operation of amputating the thigh while the patient was under the influence of ether4 ,chloroform1 discovered by ,guthrie in #ahca1 was first applied as an ansthetic by ,sir ,james ,y4 ,simpson1 of ,edinburgh1 in #ahdg4 ,of the two leading ansthetics1 ether is more generally used in the ,united ,sates and chloroform in ,europe4 ,ether is less dangerous1 but its administration is more difficult and disagreeable4 ,it is said on the highest authority that in the ,crimean ,war chloroform was administered #be1jjj times without a single death1 and ether is even safer than chloroform4 ,in the hands of a skillful physician practically no danger is to be apprehended from the use of either of the two agents4 ,a little over fifty years ago any severe or prolonged surgical operation involved such irresistible pain that the patient's writhings were required to be restrained by powerful muscular assistants1 and by straps which bound the patient to the table1 and when it is remembered that a false cut of a hundredth part of an inch might be fatal1 the haste1 the disquieting influence upon the surgeon1 and the interference with the accuracy of his hand1 added greatly to the percentage of unsuccessful operations1 as well as to the prolonged agony of the patient4 ,contrast this with the present methods of using ansthetics1 and we find the patient dropping into a quiet and peaceful sleep before the operation1 and awakening thereafter to find1 to his astonishment1 that it is all over1 and that recovery is only a question of careful nursing4 ,materia ,medica4--,many important contributions have been made to the pharmacopia in the century4 ,in #ahjg the remedy known as ergot was brought to the notice of the profession by ,dr4 ,stearns1 and named by him pulvis parturiens4 ,iodine was first used as a medicine in #ahai by ,dr4 ,coindet1 ,sr41 of ,geneva4 ,quinine was discovered by ,pelletier and ,caventou in #ahbj1 although ,peruvian bark had long been used for the same purpose4 ,chloral hydrate1 discovered by ,liebig in #ahcb1 was applied in medicine in #ahfi by ,dr4 ,liebreich1 of ,berlin4 ,carbolic acid was discovered in #ahcd by ,runge4 ,artificial seidlitz powders were first put up under ,savory's ,british ,pat4 ,no4 #c1ied1 of #ahae4 ,veratrum viride1 lobelia1 worm seed1 and chloroform were all introduced in the first part of the century4 ,the sulphates of morphia1 strychnia1 atropia and other alkaloids are of comparatively recent addition to the pharmacopia1 and the iodide of potash1 tincture of iron1 digitalis1 bichloride of mercury1 sub-nitrate of bismuth1 boracic acid and gallic acid1 chlorate of potash and ,dover's powders have become standard remedies within a hundred years4 ,in the latter part of the century the new remedies derived from coal tar have occupied an important place4 ,of these may be mentioned antipyrine1 by ,knorr 7pat4 ,oct4 #bh1 #ahhd71 phenacetin1 by ,hinsberg 7pat4 ,march #bf1 #ahhi71 salol1 by ,von ,nencki 7pat4 ,sept4 #bh1 #ahhf71 sulfonal1 by ,bauman 7patented ,jan4 #bb1 #ahhi71 antikamnia 7acetanilide71 and many others1 besides new and valuable antiseptic compounds1 such as salicylic acid and formalin4 ,a characteristic feature of the modern practice of medicine is in improved forms of its administration4 ,sugar-coated pills1 gelatine capsules and cod liver oil emulsions make the remedy much less disagreeable to take1 and very ingenious and effective machines have been devised for putting up remedies in such forms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--,,the ,,ophthalmometer4 ,instruments4--,laennec's discovery in #ahai of auscultation1 and the stethoscope1 for determining internal conditions by sound1 was a great step in diagnosing diseases4 ,the binaural stethoscope was invented by ,cammann in #ahed1 and a later improvement is the phonendoscope1 by ,bianchi4 ,the opthalmoscope is an instrument for inspecting the interior of the eye1 which was invented by ,prof4 ,helmholtz1 and described by him in #ahea4 ,the laryngoscope1 for obtaining a view of the larynx1 was said to have been constructed by ,mr4 ,john ,avery1 of ,london1 as early as #ahdf4 ,the opthalmometer1 ,fig4 #agd1 is a comparatively recent invention4 ,it is designed to ascertain variations in corneal curvature for the correction of corneal astigmatism4 ,electric lights with reflectors are arranged on each side of the patient's head1 while the operator looks into the eye with a telescope4 ,the sphygmograph1 a little instrument to be strapped on to the wrist to record the action of the pulse1 was first reduced to a practically useful form by ,marey in #ahfj4 ,a later development of these devices1 by ,verdin1 known as the sphygmometrograph1 is shown in ,fig4 #age4 ,the endoscope1 for looking into the urethra1 and the cystoscope1 for looking into the bladder1 are other useful instruments of the modern practitioner4 ,greater than them all1 however1 is the modern ,x-ray apparatus1 for locating foreign substances in the body and making visible the bones through the flesh1 for which see special chapter4 ,the use of the thermometer in recording the progress of fevers is also a valuable modern application1 and the list of instruments and small tools is beyond enumeration4 ,there are series of obstetrical appliances1 instruments relating to bone surgery1 to the taking up of arteries1 cupping instruments1 trepanning instruments1 speculums1 hypodermic syringes1 electric cauteries1 fracture appliances1 instruments for lithotrity1 bandages for varicose veins1 atomizers1 breast pumps1 inhalers1 nasal douches1 trusses1 pessaries1 catheters1 abdominal supporters1 and an endless variety of proprietary articles1 such as electric baths and belts1 plasters1 chest protectors1 liver pads1 and so forth1 all of which are practically the products of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,the surgeon of to-day can straighten the eyes of a cross-eyed man1 or take the bow out of his bandy legs1 can make him a new nose of his own flesh1 patch his skull with a silver plate1 remove the stone from his bladder1 supply him with a wind-pipe1 wash out his stomach1 and perform many other operations even more difficult4 ,among such more important operations may be mentioned ovariotomy1 which was first performed by ,dr4 ,ephraim ,mc,dowell1 of ,danville1 ,kentucky1 in #ahji1 and the tying of the great arteries4 ,the operation of lithotrity1 for removing stone from the bladder by crushing the stone1 was introduced by ,civiale1 #ahag-ahbd1 who devised successful instruments and modes of using them4 ,in #ahcf to #ahdj ,richard ,bright1 an ,english physician1 made important researches and discoveries in relation to the functions and diseases of the kidneys1 and established the nature of the so-called 8,bright's disease40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4--,,verdin',s ,,sphygmometrograph1 ,,for ,,recording ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,pulse4 ,schools of ,medicine4--,while the regular school of medicine 7called by some 8,allopathy07 has held the leading place in medicine1 various other schools have sprung up in the ,nineteenth ,century1 all of which represent advances in a knowledge of the laws of health1 and the modes of preventing and curing diseases4 ,hahnemann1 in his 8,organon der ,rationellen ,heilkunde10 in #ahaj1 gave homopathy its name1 and reduced it to a system4 ,the doctrine of similia similibus curantur 7like cures like71 has gained great popularity in the latter part of the century4 ,hydropathy1 as a school1 also made its appearance in the early part of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,priessnitz was its first disciple1 and the ,grafenberg cure1 established in #ahbf1 was a noted institution for many years4 ,the useful application of water in the form of baths and cold packs1 has been known for centuries1 and will always be used as a valuable agency in sickness and in health4 ,the 8,thompsonian0 system of treating diseases was covered by patents in #ahac1 #ahbc and #ahcf1 and attained considerable notoriety in the early half of the century4 ,sweating by hot bricks and hot tea made of 8,composition ,powders10 vomiting with lobelia to produce relaxation1 and a fiery liquid for cramps1 called 8,no4 #f10 were the chief remedies1 and very few boys who had once taken the treatment were ever willing afterwards to admit that they were sick4 ,in the latter part of the ,nineteenth ,century electro-therapeutics has received a large share of attention1 many forms of medical batteries have been devised1 and probably no more promising field of study and research exists in the whole domain of medicine4 ,dentistry4--,george ,washington had false teeth1 and it is said that the teeth of some of the mummies of ,egypt had gold fillings1 but it remained for the ,nineteenth ,century to establish dentistry as an art1 and its influence in securing better mastication and digestion of food1 more sanitary mouths and shapely faces1 cannot be estimated4 ,few people can be found to-day who have not either filled teeth1 bridge work1 gold caps1 or artificial sets of teeth4 ,the most important advance in the art was in the invention of the rubber plate for holding the porcelain teeth4 ,this was the invention of ,j4 ,a4 ,cummings1 and was covered by him in his patent ,no4 #dc1jji1 ,june #g1 #ahfd4 ,in more recent years 8bridge-work0 represents the most important advance4 ,in this practice one or more artificial teeth are firmly held in the place of missing teeth by a strong bridge-piece of metal1 which at its ends is anchored to the adjacent natural teeth4 ,this was first done by ,bing 7,british ,pat4 ,no4 #afg1 of #ahga71 and was afterwards patented in somewhat different form in the ,united ,states by ,j4 ,e4 ,lowe1 ,no4 #bch1idj1 ,march #ae1 #ahha1 ,no4 #cac1dcd1 ,march #c1 #ahhe1 and ,richmond1 ,may #bb1 #ahhc1 ,no4 #bgg1icc4 ,porcelain and gold crowns and dental pluggers run by electricity represent other important advances in this art4 ,it is said that there are #bj1dbe dentists in the ,united ,states1 and that in #ahii they employed in their practice #bj1dii1jjj false teeth4 ,artificial ,limbs4--,with the successful work of the surgeon came the effort to repair1 as far as possible1 the loss of the limb4 ,until about the middle of the ,nineteenth ,century the survivor of an operation was an unsymmetrical1 unique1 and pitiful object4 ,the peg-leg of ,peter ,stuyvesant lives in history1 and the arm-hook of ,capt4 ,cuttle is familiar to every reader4 ,the first ,united ,states patent for an artificial leg was granted to ,b4 ,f4 ,palmer1 ,nov4 #d1 #ahdf1 ,no4 #d1hcd4 ,wooden legs with a restricted back and forward ankle motion and a spring1 were constructed by ,a4 ,a4 ,marks from #ahec to #ahfc4 ,on ,dec4 #a1 #ahfc1 a patent1 ,no4 #dj1gfc1 was granted to ,mr4 ,marks for the use of sponge rubber for constructing artificial feet and hands that dispensed with the articulated joints1 and made a great improvement4 ,in patent ,no4 #cff1did1 ,july #ab1 #ahhg1 to ,g4 ,e4 ,marks1 the foot and leg portion of a wooden leg are made from wood which grows with a crook1 as at the root of a tree1 where the strength and lightness of a continuous natural grain is obtained at the instep4 ,about #cjj patents have been granted for artificial legs and arms4 ,modern improvements have extended to every detail of construction1 and so perfect to-day is the average wooden leg that it is hardly to be detected4 ,men with wooden legs ride horseback1 are expert users of the bicycle1 and have even performed feats on the tight rope4 ,the inventor's genius has not stopped at repairing limbs1 however1 for artificial eyes1 artificial ear drums1 the audiphone1 foot extensions for short legs1 crutches1 braces1 abdominal supporters1 and various other applications to supplement the defects of the body have been devised4 ,digestion4--,the physiology of digestion had1 perhaps1 the first real light shed upon it by ,beaumont's observations from #ahbe to #ahcb4 ,a ,canadian boatman1 ,alexis ,san ,martin1 was wounded in the abdomen from a charge of buckshot1 and the wound healed1 leaving a permanent opening in the stomach1 through which the operation of digestion could be observed4 ,this furnished visible evidence of the relative digestibility of different kinds of foods1 and the general functions of the stomach4 ,the peculiar and different conditions governing the digestion of the starch foods1 the albumenoids 7such as meat and fish71 and the sugars and fats1 have been clearly ascertained1 and 8what is one man's food is another man's poison0 is now susceptible of intelligent diagnosis and effective adjustment4 ,of late years the stomach has been greatly aided in its functions by prepared or predigested foods4 ,the action of diastase1 in converting starch into grape sugar1 has been taken advantage of1 and cereals treated with diatase1 malted milk1 lactated and peptonized foods1 have proven a boon to the enfeebled digestion1 while the intelligent study of dietetics has done much to relieve the physician and promote the health of the individual by right living4 ,bacteriology4--,although ,leeuwenhoeck discovered the bacterium in #affh-afge1 up to #ajj years ago disease and death were largely regarded as dispensations of ,providence1 and with fatuous resignation were accepted as inevitable4 ,the microscope and the study of bacteriology1 however1 have revealed to us the presence of minute living organisms or germs1 which are everywhere around us1 infesting the air1 the earth1 the water1 our food1 our bodies1 and all organic matter in countless millions4 ,these infinitely small beings multiply with a rapidity and fecundity that bewilders the imagination4 ,their method of multiplication is by fissiparism--that is to say1 each splits into two independent beings that separate and afterwards lead independent lives4 ,it is said that there is one species in which not more than six or seven minutes are required for the division to take place4 ,a single individual might consequently produce more than a thousand offspring in an hour1 more than a million in two hours1 and in three hours more than the number of inhabitants on the globe4 ,they are known as micro-organisms1 of which the bacteria are the most important4 ,the bacteria are further divided into species1 and names are given them to distinguish the different forms4 ,the little rod-shaped ones are called bacilli3 the spheroidal ones micrococci or cocci4 ,if they cling together in chains they are called streptococci2 if of a spiral or corkscrew form they are called spirallae4 ,the curved bacilli are called 8comma0 bacilli1 from their resemblance to the punctuation mark of that name4 ,the presence of peculiar forms of these bacteria in diseases has so suggested the relation of cause and effect as to have given rise to the so-called 8germ theory0 of disease4 ,now we know with reasonable certainty that cholera1 diphtheria1 typhoid fever1 whooping cough1 mumps1 cerebro-spinal meningitis1 pneumonia1 tuberculosis1 hydrophobia1 and many other diseases have each its specific cause in the form of a microbe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,,bacillus ,,of ,,tuberculosis ,,in ,,sputum4 ,,bacillus ,,of ,,diphtheria 7,,klebs-,,loeffler74 ,,bacillus ,,of ,,typhoid ,,fever4 7,photo-,micrographs1 #a1jjj diam41 by ,william ,m4 ,gray1 ,m4 ,d47 ,illustration3 ,,tertian ,,form4 ,,aestivo-,,autumnal ,,form4 ,,fig4 #agg4--;,,blood ,,of ,,man4 ,,showing ,,parasite ,,of ,,malaria 7,,laveran74 7,photo-,micrographs1 #a1jjj diam41 by ,william ,m4 ,gray1 ,m4 ,d47 ,henle1 a ,german physiologist1 as early as #ahdj1 maintained the doctrine of contagium vivum1 or contagion by the transmission of living germs4 ,certain classes of diseases have also long been known as zymotic1 or ferment diseases4 ,louis ,pasteur's work1 however1 marks the first definite and important results in the study of bacteriology1 and he is the father of the 8germ theory0 of disease4 ,he exploded the previously held theories of scientists concerning the spontaneous generation of living things1 and clearly established and promulgated the knowledge of disease germs4 ,commencing his great work about #ahfe with the investigation of the silk worm plague in ,france1 he discovered it to be due to parasites1 and checked it4 ,he also gave great attention to the subject of fermentation1 proving it to be caused by micro-organisms4 ,taking up the diseases of men and animals1 he gave practical value to the truths of his theory in the treatment of hydrophobia1 diphtheria1 and other diseases1 using the principle of vaccination to destroy or render innocuous the toxins or disease-producing poisons derived from living germs4 ,working along the same lines must be mentioned ,dr4 ,koch1 whose success in detecting the microbes which cause consumption and cholera has made him famous the world over4 ,of the great variety of these little microbes which have been separately identified1 many are innocuous1 and1 in fact1 subserve many important and useful purposes in nature1 while others are to be as much dreaded as the deadly cobra or the rattlesnake4 ,a few typical examples of the latter are given in ,figs4 #agf and #agg1 multiplied #a1jjj diameters4 ,the illustrations represented in ,fig4 #agg show the parasites that cause malaria1 or fever and ague4 ,the dark bean-shaped cells are the normal blood corpuscles1 and the few speckled cells are those infested with the malarial parasites4 ,it is now believed that the mosquito is the active factor in the dissemination of malaria1 and it is1 therefore1 to be remembered that this pestiferous little insect not only inflicts a painful and disagreeable sensation with his puncture1 but innoculates the system with poisonous malarial germs at the same time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,,tube ,,containing ,,culture ,,of ,,bacilli ,,of ,,tuberculosis4 ,,tube ,,containing ,,culture ,,of ,,comma ,,bacilli ,,of ,,cholera4 ,for the study of bacteria they are propagated artificially in a test tube--i4 e41 a substance called a 8culture0 is prepared from some organic material which1 like the substances of the human body1 is favorable to their propagation4 ,such culture media are found in beef blood1 gelatine1 beef extracts1 meat broth1 milk1 etc4 ,an ordinary test-tube is supplied with some of the culture medium1 and is then sterilized over the fire to destroy all interfering germs4 ,material infected with the microbe is then placed in the test-tube by a sterilized platinum wire and the tube closed by raw cotton4 ,it is then placed in an incubator oven and is subjected to a gentle heat4 ,in a little while the microbes begin to develop and increase1 forming colonies1 in which they swarm by the million1 and present the clotted appearance seen in ,fig4 #agh4 ,the separation of different bacteria existing in the same material1 so as to isolate each species and get what is called a 8pure culture10 has been greatly promoted by ,prof4 ,koch's method of plate culture4 ,in this the propagation of bacteria is effected upon a sterilized glass plate under a bell jar in such a thin layer as to facilitate the segregation of species1 enabling them to be counted under the microscope and picked out and sown in another culture to get an unmixed crop of a definite species4 ,such a culture so multiplies the same microbe1 to the exclusion of others1 as to permit it to be easily identified and studied4 ,according to the practice in modern municipal health regulations1 the test as to when a child recovering from diphtheria is incapable of disseminating the disease is by test culture4 ,a swab of cotton is rubbed against the interior walls of the child's throat to secure the germs 7if present71 and the swab is then placed in a 8culture0 in a test-tube and the tube put in an incubator4 ,if1 after the period of incubation1 no colonies of the germs develop1 it is accepted as evidence that the diphtheria germs are no longer present in the throat1 and the child is released from quarantine4 ,it is the presence of these specific microbes in the fluids or solids of the system which constitutes the disease1 and for the cure of the same the intelligent physician of to-day looks less to medication1 and more for some agent that will destroy the germ1 neutralize its effect1 or render the body tolerant thereto4 ,out of the knowledge of disease germs has grown the great era of antiseptic surgery1 inaugurated by ,sir ,joseph ,lister1 about #ahfe4 ,carbolic acid1 the bichloride of mercury1 and formalin are the most efficient weapons against the dreaded microbe4 ,to-day every surgeon in the civilized world sterilizes his knife1 and conducts the treatment of wounds and all operations by antiseptic methods1 in accordance with a knowledge of the deadly influence of the ubiquitous microbe1 and the result has been to so reduce the risk to life that even capital operations are no longer coupled with the apprehensions of death4 ,every hospital1 board of health1 and organized medical and sanitary body predicates its laws and modes of treatment upon the principles of bacteriology4 ,house ,sanitation4--,the permanent home of the microbe is the sewer1 and sanitary plumbing1 designed to exclude from the house the germ-laden and disease-breeding gases from the sewer1 constitutes one of the great advances of the century4 ,about #c1ejj patents have been granted for water closets and bath appliances1 and about #ijj patents on sewerage alone1 the most of which are directed to improved conditions of sanitation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi;,a4--,,street ,,connections1 ,,modern ,,sanitary ,,house ,,plumbing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--,,modern ,,sanitary ,,house ,,plumbing4 ,an illustration of the plumbing and sewer connections of a modern house is given in ,figs4 #agi and #agi;,a4 ,the sewer pipes are shown in solid black1 the unshaded pipes 7in outline only7 are air ventilation pipes1 the single black lines are cold water pipes1 and the dotted lines hot water pipes4 ,the important sanitary feature in modern plumbing is to keep all sewer gas and disease germs out of the house4 ,for this purpose traps have long been used under the wash basins1 closet hoppers1 and sinks2 but the back pressure of sewer gas would sometimes bubble through the trap into the house1 and besides the water in passing out from a basin would sometimes1 by a siphon effect1 pass entirely out of the trap1 leaving it unsealed4 ,both these results are prevented by the air ventilation pipes which connect with the discharge side of every trap in the house and lead to a stack extending out through the roof4 ,this prevents pressure of sewer gas on the water seal of the trap1 destroys the siphon action of the trap and allows a circulation of air to be taken in from the sidewalk on the house side of the running trap and through the sewer pipe of the house1 and thence through the air vent pipes to the roof4 ,the great science of bacteriology1 dealing with these smallest of living things1 only came into existence with the microscope1 and it was a field which was not only wholly unknown and unexplored a few years ago1 but there was no suggestion visible to the eye to direct attention to it1 until the lens began to reveal the secrets of microcosm4 ,what development the future may bring no one can predict1 but to the biologist and the physician no more promising field exists4 ,certain it is that the knowledge already gained is of incalculable benefit1 and constitutes one of the greatest eras of progress the world has known1 for with the noble army of patient1 devoted1 and self-sacrificing physicians1 the discoveries of the scientist1 our boards of health1 our hospitals and asylums for the insane1 our quarantine laws1 our modern plumbing and improved sanitation in the home and public departments1 there is no reason why the life of man should not be extended far beyond the three-score and ten years1 and the #ej per cent4 of population dying in childhood saved for useful lives and citizenship4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,bicycle ,,and ,,automobile4 ,,the ,,draisine1 #ahaf--,,michaux',s ,,bicycle1 #ahee--,,united ,,states ,,patent ,,to ,,lallement ,,and ,,carrol1 #ahff--,,transition ,,from 8,,vertical ,,fork0 ,,and 8,,star0 ,,to ,,modern 8,,safety0--,,pneumatic ,,tire--,,automobile1 ,,the ,,prototype ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive--,,trevithick',s ,,steam ,,road ,,carriage1 #ahja--,,the ,,locomobile ,,of ,,to-,,day--,,gas ,,engine ,,automobiles ,,of ,,pinkus1 #ahci2 ,,selden1 #ahgi2 ,,duryea1 ,,winton ,,and ,,others--,,electric ,,automobiles ,a ,,development ,,of ,,electric ,,locomotives ,,as ,,early ,,as #ahcf--;,,grounelle',s ,,electric ,,automobile ,,of #aheb--,,the ,,columbia1 ,,and ,,other ,,electric ,,carriages--,,statistics4 ,however superior to other animals man may be in point of intellect1 it must be admitted that he is vastly inferior in his natural equipment for locomotion4 ,quadrupeds have twice as many legs1 run faster1 and stand more firmly4 ,birds have their two legs supplemented with wings that give a wonderfully increased speed in flight1 and fish1 with no legs at all1 run races with the fastest steamers2 but man has awkwardly toddled on two stilted supports since prehistoric time1 and for the first year of his life is unable to walk at all4 ,that he has felt his inferiority is clear1 for his imagination has given wings to the angels1 and has depicted ,mercury1 the messenger of the gods1 with a similar equipment on his heels4 ,we see the ambition for speed exemplified even in the baby1 who crows in exhilaration at rapid movement1 and in the boy when the ride on the flying horses1 the glide on the ice1 or the swift descent on the toboggan slide1 brings a flash to his eye and a glow to his cheeks4 ,a characteristic trend of the present age is toward increased speed in everything1 and the most conspicuous example of accelerated speed in late years is the bicycle4 ,it has1 with its fascination of silent motion and the exhilaration of flight1 driven the younger generation wild with enthusiasm1 has limbered up the muscles of old age1 has revolutionized the attire of men and women1 and well-nigh supplanted the old-fashioned use of legs4 ,it is the most unique and ubiquitous piece of organized machinery ever made4 ,the thoroughfares and highways of civilization fairly swarm with thousands of glistening and silently gliding wheels4 ,it is to be found everywhere1 even to the steppes of ,asia1 the plains of ,australia1 and the ice fields of the ,arctic4 ,the true definition of the bicycle is a two-wheeled vehicle1 with one wheel in front and the other in the rear1 and both in the same vertical plane4 ,its life principle is the physical law that a rotating body tends to preserve its plane of rotation1 and so it stands up1 when it moves1 on the same principle that a top does when it spins or a child's hoop remains erect when it rolls4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--,,the ,,draisine1 #ahaf4 ,a form of carriage adapted to be propelled by the muscular effort of the rider was constructed and exhibited in ,paris by ,blanchard and ,magurier1 and was described in the ,journal de ,paris as early as ,july #bg1 #aggi1 but the true bicycle was the product of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it was invented by ,baron von ,drais1 of ,manheim-on-the ,rhine4 ,see ,fig4 #ahj4 ,it consisted of two wheels1 one before the other1 in the same plane1 and connected together by a bar bearing a saddle1 the front wheel being arranged to turn about a vertical axis and provided with a handle for guiding4 ,the rider supported his elbows on an arm rest and propelled the device by striking his toes upon the ground1 and in this way thrusted himself along1 while guiding his course by the handle bar and swivelling front wheel4 ,this machine was called the 8,draisine40 ,it was patented in ,france for the ,baron by ,louis ,joseph ,dineur1 and was exhibited in ,paris in #ahaf4 ,in #ahah ,denis ,johnson secured an ,english patent for an improved form of this device1 but the principle of propulsion remained the same4 ,this device1 variously known as the 8,draisine10 8vlocipde10 8clrifre10 8pedestrian curricle10 8dandy horse10 and 8hobby-horse10 was introduced in ,new ,york in #ahai1 and was greeted for a time with great enthusiasm in that and other cities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--,,velocipede ,,of #ahfh4 ,on ,june #bf1 #ahai1 ,william ,k4 ,clarkson was granted a ,united ,states patent for a vlocipde1 but the records were destroyed in the fire of #ahcf4 ,in #ahba ,louis ,gompertz devised an improved form of 8hobby-horse10 in which a vibrating handle1 with segmental rack engaging with a pinion on the front wheel axle1 enabled the hands to be employed as well as the feet in propelling the machine4 ,such devices all relied1 however1 upon the striking of the ground with the toes4 ,their fame was evanescent1 however1 and for forty years thereafter little or no attention was paid to this means of locomotion1 except in the construction of children's carriages and velocipedes having three or more wheels4 ,in #ahee ,ernst ,michaux1 a ,french locksmith1 applied1 for the first time1 the foot cranks and pedals to the axle of the drive wheel4 ,a ,united ,states patent1 ,no4 #ei1iae1 taken ,nov4 #bj1 #ahff1 in the joint names of ,lallement and ,carrol1 represented1 however1 the revival of development in this field4 ,lallement was a ,frenchman1 and built a machine having the pedals on the axle of the drive wheel1 and it was at one time believed that it was he who deserved the credit for this feature1 but it is claimed for ,michaux1 and the monument erected by the ,french in #ahid to ,ernest and ,pierre ,michaux at ,bar le ,duc gives strength to the claim4 ,the bicycle1 as represented at this stage of development1 is shown in ,fig4 #aha4 ,in #ahfh-'fi machines of this type went extensively into use4 ,bicycle schools and riding academies appeared all through the ,east1 and notwithstanding the excessive muscular effort required to propel the heavy and clumsy wooden wheels1 the old 8bone-shaker0 was received with a furor of enthusiasm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,,vertical ,,fork ,,of #ahgi4 ,in #ahfi ,magee1 in ,paris1 made the entire bicycle of iron and steel1 solid rubber tires and brakes followed1 and the front wheel began to grow to larger size1 until in #ahgi the bicycle presented the form shown in ,fig4 #ahb4 ,this placed the weight of the rider more directly over the drive wheel1 and was known as the 8vertical fork40 ,it gave good results but for the accidents from 8headers10 to which it was especially liable4 ,means to overcome the danger were resorted to1 and the 8,star0 bicycle represented such a construction4 ,in this the high wheel was behind and the small one in front1 and straps and ratchet wheels connected the pedals to the axle4 ,in #ahgg ,rousseau1 of ,marseilles1 removed the pedals from the wheel axle and applied the power to the axle by a chain extending from a sprocket wheel on the pedal shaft to a sprocket wheel on the wheel axle4 ,by gradual steps1 initiated in ,starley's 8,rover0 in #ahhj1 7see ,fig4 #ahc71 the high front wheel was reduced in size1 until the proportions of the modern 8,safety0 7,fig4 #ahd7 have been obtained4 ,strange to say1 these proportions have1 through nearly a century of evolution1 gone back to those employed in the old 8,draisine10 where the two wheels were of the same size4 ,the modern 8,safety10 however1 is quite a different machine4 ,its diamond frame of light but strong tubular steel1 its ball bearings1 its suspension wheels and pneumatic tires impart to the modern bicycle strength with lightness1 and beauty with efficiency1 to a degree scarcely attained by any other piece of organized machinery designed for such trying work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--8,,rover10 #ahhj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--,,modern 8,,safety40 ,the most important of all modern improvements on the bicycle was perhaps the pneumatic tire4 ,this was not originally designed for the bicycle1 but was patented in ,england by ,r4 ,w4 ,thompson in #ahde and in the ,united ,states ,may #h1 #ahdg1 ,no4 #e1ajd4 ,its application to the bicycle was made in #ahhi by ,dunlop1 ,united ,states patent ,no4 #dce1iie1 ,sept4 #i1 #ahij1 and #dec1eej1 ,june #b1 #ahia4 ,it furnishes not only an elastic bearing which cushions the jar1 but also makes a broader tread that renders cycling on the soft roads of the country at once practical and delightful4 ,the chainless wheel1 which connects the axle of the pedal crank with the axle of the rear wheel by a shaft with bevel gears1 is the most recent form exploited by the manufacturers1 but it is doubtful whether it presents any points of superiority over the chain type4 ,all of the parts of the bicycle have come in for a share of attention at the hands of inventors1 differential speed gears and brakes having received especial attention4 ,the ,morrow hub brake1 which applies friction to the rear wheel hub by back pressure on the pedal1 is a popular modern form4 ,the first back-pedal brake is shown in ,united ,states ,pat4 ,no4 #dah1adb1 to ,stover ,hance1 ,dec4 #bd1 #ahhi4 ,among the many modifications of the bicycle as used to-day may be mentioned the drop frame1 which has made cycling possible for ladies1 the tandem1 for two riders1 the sextet or octet1 carrying six or eight riders and resembling a centipede in movement and an express train in speed3 the ice velocipede1 in which two runners are combined with a spiked driving wheel1 and the hydrocycle1 or water velocipede1 in which the drive wheel1 formed with paddles1 is used to propel a buoyant hull through the water4 ,in point of speed there seems to be no limit to the bicycle4 ,in a test made on the ,long ,island ,railroad in the summer of #ahii between a wheel and an express train1 the bicyclist1 riding on a plank road between the rails and protected behind the train by a wind break1 covered a mile in #eg seconds1 and while going at top speed of more than a mile a minute1 overtook the train1 was caught by his friends on a rear platform and pulled on board1 bicycle and all4 ,this is the first instance on record of overtaking and boarding an express train going at the rate of sixty-four miles an hour1 and yet it is said that the rider 7,murphy7 was not doing his best4 ,nearly #e1jjj patents have been granted on velocipedes and bicycles4 ,most of them were for bicycles which1 as improved to-day1 are not only as fleet as the birds1 but almost as countless in numbers4 ,it is estimated that in #ahhi the total product of bicycles in this country reached #bjj1jjj machines annually4 ,in #ahib1 after the general adoption of the pneumatic tire1 a great increase followed1 which has grown from year to year until in the year #ahii a conservative estimate for the output in the ,united ,states is #a1jjj1jjj wheels annually1 worth from thirty to fifty million dollars4 ,each bicycle tire takes about two pounds of pure rubber1 or four pounds to the wheel4 ,the annual output in wheels consequently consumes about #d1jjj1jjj pounds1 or #b1jjj tons of rubber4 ,ten years ago there were not more than twenty-five legitimate manufacturers of bicycles in the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahig there were over #bjj concerns in the business4 ,it is estimated that there are to-day between #aej and #aee regular manufacturers1 exclusive of the mere assemblers of parts4 ,the ,pope ,manufacturing ,company1 which occupies the leading place1 employed in #ahhh about #ejj hands4 ,to-day their shops give employment to #c1hjj workmen1 which furnishes a significant object lesson as to the importance and growth of the industry4 ,the ,automobile4--,gliding silently along our city streets without the customary accompaniment of the clatter of the horse's hoofs1 the automobile suggests to the average observer a very recent invention4 ,this is1 however1 not the case4 ,the automobile is older even than the locomotive1 and is1 in fact1 the early model from which the rail locomotive was evolved4 ,as early as #afhj ,sir ,isaac ,newton proposed a steam carriage in which the propelling power was the reactionary discharge of a rearwardly directed jet of steam4 ,cugnot1 in #agfi1 built a steam carriage1 which is still preserved in the museum of the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,mtiers in ,paris4 ,hornblower also in the same year devised a steam carriage4 ,watt's patents of #agfi and #aghd contemplated the application of his steam engines to carriages running on land4 ,symington in #aggj1 and ,murdoch in #aghd1 built experimental models4 ,in #aghg ,oliver ,evans obtained a patent in ,maryland for the exclusive right to make steam road wagons4 ,nathan ,read in #agij also patented and built a steam carriage4 ,of these1 ,cugnot represents the pioneer in the heavier forms of self-propelled vehicles1 but the steam carriage which best deserves to be regarded as the prototype of the modern passenger automobile is that of ,trevithick1 in ,england1 who may also be considered as the father of the locomotive4 ,on ,christmas eve1 #ahja1 this steam carriage made its experimental trip along the high road carrying seven or eight passengers4 ,the next day the party1 with ,trevithick in charge of the engine1 visited ,tehidy ,house1 the home of ,lord ,dunstanville4 ,they met with an accident1 however1 and the carriage turned over4 ,it was placed under shelter1 and while the party were at the hotel regaling themselves with roast goose and popular drinks1 the water in the engine boiled away1 the iron became red hot1 and nothing combustible was left either of the carriage or the building in which it was sheltered4 ,on ,march #bd1 #ahjb1 ,trevithick and ,vivian obtained a ,british patent1 ,no4 #b1eii1 on this device1 and another carriage was built1 and in the spring of #ahjc started a run from ,camborne to ,redruth1 but it stuck in the mud4 ,it was popularly known as ,capt4 ,trevithick's 8,puffing ,devil40 ,it was subsequently reconstructed in ,london and run upon the streets of that city4 ,fig4 #ahe presents an illustration of the first steam automobile4 ,the cylinders and pistons were enclosed within the fire box in the rear4 ,clutches 7called striking boxes7 on the axle of the front gear wheel allowed either running wheel to move independently of the other in turning4 ,a pair of small front steering wheels was arranged to turn about a vertical axis and was manipulated by a handle bar4 ,a brake was provided for in the specification1 as were also variable gears for changing speed1 and an automatic blower for the fire4 ,the carriage had an elevated coach body mounted on springs1 and the running wheels were of large size1 adapted to the higher speed and lighter uses of passenger traffic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--,,trevithick',s ,,steam ,,carriage1 #ahja4 ,it is not possible to trace the succeeding steps in steam carriage development by ,james and ,anderson1 by ,gurney1 in #ahbb1 by ,marcerone and ,squire in #ahcc1 by ,russel in #ahdf1 and many others2 it is sufficient to know that bad roads and the success attending the steam locomotive on rails diverted attention from the steam road carriage1 and not until the latter part of the ,nineteenth ,century was there any marked revival of interest in this field4 ,then came first the ponderous road engine1 known as a traction engine1 and used for heavy hauling2 and this in the last decade has been followed by the modern steam motor carriage1 an example of which is seen in ,figs4 #ahf and #ahf;,a1 which represent the 8,locomobile0 and its actuating mechanism4 ,the fuel used is gasoline1 stored in a three-gallon tank under the footboard4 ,the boiler1 which is arranged under the seat1 is a vertical cylinder wrapped with piano wire for greater tensile strength1 and contains #bih copper tubes4 ,the engine1 which is seen in ,fig4 #ahf;,a1 is arranged in upright position under the seat1 in front of the boiler1 has two cylinders1 #b-;inch diameter and #d-;inch stroke1 a ,stephenson link-motion and an ordinary ,d-valve4 ,sprocket wheels and a chain connect the engine shaft to the rear axle4 ,the engine runs from #cjj to #djj revolutions per minute and develops from four to five horse power4 ,it has a muffle for the steam exhaust and the whole weight is #eej pounds4 ,it is one of the lightest and cheapest of automobiles1 runs easily at ten to twelve miles an hour1 and is an efficient hill-climber4 ,although naming the steam automobile first because of its earlier genesis1 it is not to be understood as representing at present the most popular type of motor carriage1 although it bids fair to become so4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--8,,locomobile0 ,,steam ,,carriage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf;,a4--,,the ,,four ,,horse ,,power ,,engines ,,of 8,,locomobile40 ,in ,france and the continent of ,europe the type employing an explosive mixture of gasoline and air is most frequently found1 and in ,england and the ,united ,states the electric motor with the storage battery is chiefly used4 ,in automobiles of the explosive gas type probably the earliest example is found in the ,british patent to ,pinkus1 ,no4 #h1bjg1 of #ahci4 ,in ,france ,lenoir1 in #ahfj1 is credited with being the pioneer4 ,among modern applications the patent to ,george ,b4 ,selden1 ,no4 #edi1afj1 occupies a prominent place4 ,this was only granted ,nov4 #e1 #ahie1 but the application for the patent was filed in the ,patent ,office ,may #h1 #ahgi so that the invention described has quite an early date1 and some broad claims have been allowed to the inventor4 ,in the last decade many applications of the explosive gas engine to road carriages and tricycles have been made1 especially in ,france4 ,representative motor carriages of this type are to be found in the ,united ,states in the ,duryea and the ,winton4 ,an illustration of the latter is given in ,fig4 #ahg4 ,the form shown represents a phaeton weighing #a1djj pounds2 the motor is of the single hydrocarbon type1 and is simple1 powerful and compact4 ,it is also free from noise and vibration1 and is under control at all times4 ,the maximum speed is eighteen miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--,,winton ,,automobile4 ,,hydrocarbon ,,type4 ,probably the most popular type of the automobile in the ,united ,states is the 8electric40 ,the application of the electric motor to the propulsion of vehicles dates back to quite an early period4 ,it is said that as far back as #ahce ,stratingh and ,becker1 of ,groeningen1 and in #ahcf ,botto1 of ,turin1 constructed crude electric carriages4 ,davenport1 in #ahce1 ,davidson1 in #ahch1 and ,dr4 ,page1 in #ahea1 built electric locomotives which ran on rails4 ,the prototype of the electric automobile1 however1 is best represented in the ,french patent to ,m4 ,grounelle1 ,no4 #g1gbh1 ,feb4 #g1 #aheb 7#b ,ser41 ,vol4 #be1 p4 #bbj1 pl4 #df47 ,this shows a perfectly equipped electric automobile4 ,it did not have a practical electric generator1 however1 for the storage battery was not then known4 ,a large sulphate of copper battery was employed1 which could through the agency of a train of gears give only a very slow speed4 ,this road carriage1 however1 only needed a storage battery to make it a well organized and efficient electric automobile4 ,it is believed by many that electricity fulfills more of the necessary conditions of a successful motive power for motor carriages than any other power4 ,it is clean1 compact1 noiseless1 free from vibration1 heat1 dirt and gases1 and is under perfect control4 ,its chief objection is that it is only possible to recharge it where electric power is available1 and in this respect it is inferior to the gasoline motor1 whose supply may be conveniently obtained at every city1 village1 and country store4 ,the ,columbia two-seated ,dos-a-,dos 7,fig4 #ahh71 ,woods' ,victoria ,hansom ,cab1 and the ,riker ,electric ,delivery ,wagon are representative types of the modern electric automobile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--,,the ,,columbia 8,,dos-,a-,,dos40 ,all of the motor carriages illustrated are of ,american make1 and for lightness1 grace1 and efficiency they have no superiors4 ,a peculiar and recent type which attracted much attention and took the gold medal at the ,motor ,carriage ,exposition at ,berlin1 held in ,september1 #ahii1 is the ,pieper double motor carriage4 ,it has both a benzine motor and an electric motor1 which can be worked separately or together1 and yet is said to be lighter than most electric carriages4 ,on a long journey1 remote from electrical supply1 the benzine motor is used not only to propel the carriage1 but by running the electric motor as a dynamo or generator1 recharges the storage battery4 ,on level1 easy roads1 where the power required falls below the maximum power exerted by the benzine motor1 the electric motor changes automatically to a dynamo and the surplus force of the benzine motor is converted into current and stored4 ,in running down hill or stopping the carriage1 the momentum of the vehicle is also received by the electric motor acting as a dynamo and brake1 and is stored as electricity in the battery1 which is thus in an ordinary journey kept constantly charged4 ,it is not probable that man will ever be able to get along without the horse1 but the release of the noble animal from the bondage of city traffic1 which was begun only a few years ago with mechanical street car propulsion1 promises now to be extensively advanced by the substitution of the motor carriage and the auto-truck for team-drawn vehicles4 ,the rapidity with which this industry has grown1 and its promise for the future may be realized when it is remembered that so far as practical results are concerned it has all grown up in the last decade of the ,nineteenth ,century1 and yet to-day it is said that there are already in the ,united ,states about #bjj incorporated concerns with an aggregate capitalization of some #ejj1jjj1jjj1 organized to build automobiles1 to say nothing of the vast number of individuals who are experimenting in this field4 ,the greatest activity1 however1 is to be found in ,france1 which claims over #fjj manufacturers and has in use #f1jjj automobiles out of a total of #aa1jjj in all of ,europe4 ,the most significant suggestion for the future of the automobile is that the cost of maintenance and all things considered1 it is in some applications cheaper than the horse-drawn vehicles of the same efficiency4 ,in a consular report of ,oct4 #af1 #ahii1 forwarded to the ,state ,department by ,mr4 ,marshal ,halsted1 consul at ,birmingham1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,bayley1 an ,english authority1 is quoted as saying that in operating heavy motor vehicles for hauling1 the cost is three half-pence 7three cents7 per net ton per mile1 as compared with #ah to #bd cents per net ton per mile by horse-drawn vehicles4 ,in ,england much attention is being given to this subject4 ,as before stated1 the modern automobile cannot be considered as a new invention so far as fundamental principles are concerned4 ,its success1 in late years1 is to be credited to the perfection of the arts in general1 and as essential factors contributing to this may be named the refinement of steel1 giving increased strength with lightness1 the increased efficiency of motive power1 the vulcanization of rubber1 the mathematical nicety of mechanical adjustment1 the reduction of friction by ball bearings1 the wonderful developments in electricity and improvement in roads4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,phonograph4 ,,invention ,,of ,,phonograph ,,by ,,edison--,,scott',s ,,phonautograph-- ,,improvements ,,of ,,bell ,,and ,,tainter--,,the ,,graphophone--,,library ,,of ,,wax ,,cylinders--,,the ,,gramophone4 ,following closely upon the discovery of the telephone the phonograph came1 literally speaking for itself1 and adding another surprise to the wonderful inventions of that prolific period4 ,it was in the latter part of #ahgg that ,thomas ,a4 ,edison showed to a few privileged friends a modest looking little machine4 ,he turned the crank1 and to the astonishment of those present it said4 8,good morning6 ,how do you do8 ,how do you like the phonograph80 ,its voice was a little metallic1 it is true1 but here was presented an insignificant looking piece of mechanism which was undeniably a talking machine and one with an unlimited vocabulary4 ,so-called talking machines had been made before1 of which the ,faber machine was a type4 ,these1 by an arrangement of bellows to furnish air1 and flexible pipes in imitation of the larynx and vocal organs1 made laborious and wheezy efforts to imitate the mechanical functions of the throat and tongue in articulate speech1 but the method was fundamentally faulty and no success was attained4 ,edison followed no such leading4 ,his phonograph made no attempt at imitating in construction the complex organization of the human throat1 but was as wonderful in its divergence therefrom and in its simplicity as it was in the success of its results4 ,the machine was patented by him ,feb4 #ai1 #ahgh1 ,no4 #bjj1eba1 and its life principle is simply and clearly defined in the first claim of the patent1 as follows3 8,the method herein specified of reproducing the human voice1 or other sounds1 by causing the sound vibrations to be recorded substantially as specified1 and obtaining motion from that record as set forth for the reproduction of sound vibrations40 ,the invention was a striking and interesting novelty and at once attracted the attention of scientific men as well as the general public4 ,its first public exhibition was about the latter part of ,january1 #ahgh1 before the ,polytechnic ,association of the ,american ,institute1 at ,new ,york4 ,it spoke ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,dutch1 ,spanish and ,hebrew with equal facility4 ,it imitated the barking of a dog and crowing of a cock1 and then catching cold1 coughed and sneezed and wheezed until it is said a physician in the audience proposed sending a prescription for it4 ,it was also suggested by an irreverent man that it might take the place of preachers in the rendition of sermons1 while another thought that as it reproduced music with equal facility it might take the place of preacher and choir both4 ,in the spring of #ahgh it was exhibited at ,washington by ,edison and his assistant1 ,mr4 ,batchelor4 ,mr4 ,edison was the guest of ,mr4 ,u4 ,h4 ,painter1 and in his parlors it was shown to a party of gentlemen4 ,from ,mr4 ,painter's house the machine was taken to the office of the ,assistant ,secretary of the ,interior1 thence to the ,academy of ,sciences1 in session at the ,smithsonian ,institution1 and at night it was taken to the ,white ,house and exhibited to ,president and ,mrs4 ,hayes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--;,,first ,,phonograph4 ,the form of the first phonograph is shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,it consisted of three principal parts--the mouthpiece ,a1 into which speech was uttered1 the spirally grooved cylinder ,b1 carrying on its periphery a sheet of tin foil1 and a second mouthpiece ,d4 ,the cylinder ,b and its axial shaft were both provided with spiral grooves or screw threads of exactly the same pitch1 and when the shaft was turned by its crank its screw threaded bearings caused the cylinder to slowly advance as it rotated4 ,the mouthpiece ,a had adjacent to the cylinder a flexible diaphragm carrying a little point or stylus which bore against the tin foil on the cylinder4 ,when the mouthpiece ,a was spoken into and the cylinder ,b was turned1 the little stylus1 vibrating from the voice impulses1 traced by indentations a little jagged path in the tin foil that formed the record4 ,to reproduce the record in speech again1 the mouthpiece ,a was adjusted away from the cylinder1 the cylinder run back to the starting point1 and mouthpiece ,d was then brought up to the cylinder4 ,this mouthpiece had a diaphragm and stylus similar to the other one1 only more delicately constructed4 ,this stylus was adjusted to bear lightly in the little spiral path in the tin foil traced by the other stylus1 and as the tin foil revolved with the cylinder its jagged irregularities set up the same vibrations in the diaphragm of mouthpiece ,d as those caused by the voice on the other diaphragm1 and thus translated the record into sounds of articulate speech1 exactly corresponding to the words first spoken into the instrument4 ,in ,fig4 #aij is shown a further development of the phonograph1 in which a single mouthpiece with diaphragm and stylus serves the purpose both of recorder for making the record and a speaker for reproducing it1 a trumpet or horn being used1 as indicated in dotted lines1 to concentrate the vibrations in recording and to augment the sound in reproducing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--,,second ,,form ,,of ,,phonograph4 ,the phonograph is in reality a development of the phonautograph1 which was an instrument invented by ,leon ,scott in #aheg to automatically record sounds by diagrams4 ,there is a model of ,scott's phonautograph in the ,national ,museum at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c1 and it consists of a chamber to catch the sound waves and an elastic diaphragm with stylus working on a revolving cylinder bearing a sheet of paper coated with lampblack4 ,the phonograph's record-making mouthpiece1 with its diaphragm and stylus1 is substantially a phonautograph1 but instead of simply causing the stylus to trace a record on carbon-coated paper and stopping with this result1 ,edison traced a record in a substance--tinfoil--which was capable of mechanically translating that record into sound again by a mere reversal of the function of the stylus and diaphragm4 ,this was the very essence of simplicity and logical reasoning4 ,all records had been heretofore traced for visual inspection only4 ,edison's record was not for visual inspection1 but was endowed with the mechanical function of reproducing sound4 ,from the first ,edison believed that his phonograph was to fill an important place in the business activities of the world1 since here seemed a silent but faithful stenographer which reproduced the words of the speaker with absolute fidelity1 even to the quality of emphasis and inflection1 and which made no mistakes1 was always even with the speaker in its work1 and asked no questions4 ,for a number of years1 however1 the invention lay dormant and served no other purpose than that of a scientific curiosity or an amusing toy4 ,the difficulty of its practical application largely existed in the perishable form of the record1 which1 being in tinfoil1 was liable to be mutilated and distorted1 and was not well adapted for storage or transportation4 ,a few years after the announcement of ,mr4 ,edison's invention4 ,dr4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 the distinguished inventor of the telephone1 with his associates1 ,messrs4 ,chichester ,a4 ,bell and ,charles ,sumner ,tainter1 directed their attention to the improvement of the phonograph4 ,dr4 ,bell had received from the ,french government1 upon the recommendation of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 the ,volta prize of #ej1jjj francs as a recognition of his successful work in acoustics and the invention of the telephone1 and with this sum he built the ,volta ,institute in ,washington and carried on the work of developing the phonograph4 ,on ,may #d1 #ahhf1 ,chichester ,a4 ,bell and ,sumner ,tainter obtained patents ,nos4 #cda1bad and #cda1bhh1 which covered a great improvement in the record of the phonograph4 ,this invention substituted for the tinfoil sheet a surface of wax1 which was finally fashioned into a cylinder1 and instead of merely indenting the record on tinfoil the stylus cut a distinct groove or kerf in the wax cylinder as it revolved1 dislodging therefrom a minute filament or shaving and forming a record which was not only far more positive in its translating effect and more easily transported and stored1 but was also less perishable1 and besides it could be easily effaced without loss of the cylinder by simply smoothing off the surface of the cylinder again when it was desired to make a new record4 ,this invention quickly grew into practical use1 and is known as the 8,graphophone40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4--,,the ,,graphophone1 ,,recording ,,and ,,reproducing ,,devices4 ,in ,fig4 #aia is shown on the left a cross section of the diaphragm1 recording stylus1 and wax cylinder1 of the graphophone1 the stylus plowing a tiny groove in the wax cylinder in the act of recording the speech1 and on the right is shown the reproducing stylus traversing the record groove in the wax cylinder1 and the diaphragm chamber with which the ear tubes are connected4 ,the grooves in the wax1 although giving forth mechanical movement that is translated into sound1 are very minute1 being only #f_/aj1jjj of an inch deep4 ,when the possibilities of the graphophone became known1 capital was quickly supplied for its commercial exploitation1 and the ,columbia ,phonograph ,company was organized4 ,at the present time1 owing to the great increase in the business1 the control of the graphophone business is vested in two branches1 the ,columbia ,phonograph ,company1 which has charge of the selling1 and which has offices throughout all the principal cities of this country and some of the larger ones of ,europe1 and the ,american ,graphophone ,company1 which attends to the manufacturing branch1 and whose factory is located at ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 where1 it is said1 that in #ahih the production of the factory reached the point of one graphophone for every minute of the day1 making a total daily output of #fjj machines4 ,although the ,bell and ,tainter patents of #ahhf represent the basic principles of the graphophone1 its development and perfection have been contributed to in many subsequent improvements by ,messrs4 ,bell1 ,tainter1 ,mc,donald1 and others4 ,the more important of these are covered by patents ,no4 #cge1egi1 ,dec4 #bg1 #ahhg2 ,no4 #chj1ece1 ,april #c1 #ahhh2 ,no4 #ebg1gee1 ,oct4 #af1 #ahid1 and ,no4 #egi1eie1 ,march #cj1 #ahig4 ,at the beginning of this industry it was thought that the principal use of the instrument would be found in business applications1 to take the place of the stenographer1 but it proved difficult to revolutionize office methods1 especially as the earlier machines were somewhat intricate1 and the business man had no time to divide in engineering a machine4 ,these difficulties1 however1 have been so far overcome by modern improvements and simplification of the machine that its use in business houses as an amanuensis has become quite common4 ,the greatest use of the graphophone is1 however1 for amusement purposes4 ,its songs1 orchestral and solo renditions1 and its humorous monologue reproductions constitute to-day a great library of wax cylinders1 regularly catalogued and sold by the thousands4 ,it will readily be understood that the formation of the cylinders must constitute a great business of itself when it is remembered that many record cylinders accompany each graphophone1 and that the latter are turned out at the rate of one a minute by a single company4 ,many thousands of these cylinders are made daily4 ,some are sent out simply as plain wax cylinders1 onto which the records are made by the voice of the purchaser1 while others have records made for them of popular music1 monologues in dialect1 humorous speeches1 etc4 ,the waxy composition1 which is in reality a species of soap1 is melted in huge pots1 and then passes from one floor to another1 undergoing a refining process in its progress1 and finally reaches the molds4 ,these molds are arranged in rows around a horizontal wheel about eight feet in diameter4 ,the wheel is kept revolving1 and a man on one side is kept constantly busy in filling the molds with the molten material as they reach him4 ,a half revolution of the wheel brings the filled molds to the other side of the room1 and by that time the material has hardened sufficiently to enable another attendant1 stationed there1 to remove the cylinders from the molds4 ,thus the wheel is kept going1 receiving at one side a charge of the melted wax and discharging at the other molded cylinders1 which are afterwards turned true on the surface4 ,the record-making department is both unique and interesting4 ,here the records of music are produced1 and they are made by bands and performers engaged for the purpose1 many of which1 operating at the same time1 produce such a medley as to be scarcely distinguishable to the visitor4 ,the records are tested by about half a hundred women1 each of whom has a little compartment or booth framed in by glass partitions4 ,the duty of the tester is to decide upon the merits of the record by actually listening to it on the graphophone4 ,a very important feature in record-making1 from a commercial standpoint1 is in means for cheaply duplicating records4 ,if every record cylinder had to be made by the separate act of a performer such records would be very expensive4 ,an original record is first made by some celebrated musician or speaker1 and this record is afterwards multiplied and reproduced in large numbers4 ,for this purpose an original record by suitable mechanism is made to take the place of the speaker or singer1 and so multiplies and reproduces the original record4 ,the duplicating of records was contemplated by ,edison from the first1 as seen in his ,british patent1 #a1fdd of #ahgh1 and later appliances for accomplishing such results are covered under ,tainter's patent1 ,no4 #cda1bhg1 ,bettini's1 ,no4 #dhh1cha1 and ,mc,donald's1 ,no4 #eei1hjf4 ,the diaphragms used in the recorders and reproducers are made of ,french rolled plate glass1 thinner than a sheet of ordinary writing paper4 ,the recording stylus is shaped like a little gouge to cut the little grooves in the wax1 while the corresponding stylus of the reproducer has a ball-shaped end to travel in the groove4 ,both the recording stylus and reproducing ball are made of sapphire1 chosen on account of its hardness1 to resist the great frictional wear to which they are subjected4 ,when a record is to be effaced from a cylinder1 it is turned off smooth on a sort of lathe1 and the cutting tool or knife for this purpose is also made of sapphire4 ,the latest1 loudest1 and most impressive form of the talking machine is the 8,graphophone ,grand40 ,this has a horn attachment exceeding the big horn of a brass band in size1 and the wax cylinder is about four inches in diameter4 ,its reproductions in music and speech are so full and strong as to be clearly heard at the most remote part of a large hall1 and its versatile voice lends effective rendition to all sorts and kinds of sounds1 from the inspiring chords of 8,a ,choir ,invisible0 to the grandiloquent and facetious rattle of a noisy and hustling auctioneer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--,,modern ,,phonograph4 ,it is not to be understood1 however1 that the graphophone is the only speaking machine on the market1 for about #bej patents have been granted on phonographs and graphophones4 ,the ,national ,phonograph ,company1 under many later patents granted to ,mr4 ,edison1 manufactures and sells the phonograph shown in ,fig4 #aib1 which is a very ingenious and effective instrument4 ,this modern form of phonograph is actuated either by electricity or spring power1 is regulated by a speed governor1 and bifurcated ear tubes connect with the diaphragm case1 which tubes are placed in the ears when the instrument is operated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--,,the ,,gramophone ,,recorder4 ,the gramophone is also another speaking machine4 ,this is the invention of ,mr4 ,e4 ,berliner and covered by him in patent ,no4 #cgb1ghf1 ,nov4 #h1 #ahhg4 ,an illustration of the gramophone recorder is given in ,fig4 #aic4 ,instead of a wax cylinder this machine employs a flat disc on which the record is formed as a volute spiral groove1 gradually drawing toward the center4 ,it is produced as follows3 ,a zinc disc is covered by a thin film of acid resisting material1 such as wax or grease1 and is placed in a horizontal pan1 mounted to revolve as a turn table about a vertical axis4 ,a stylus and diaphragm1 with speaking tube attached1 are arranged above the disc1 and when spoken into the vibrations of the diaphragm cause1 through the stylus1 a record to be traced through the wax1 down to the zinc4 ,as the waxed disc and pan are revolved1 the stylus and diaphragm are gradually moved by gears toward the center of the disc4 ,while the record is being traced the waxed disc is kept flooded with alcohol from a glass jar1 seen in the cut1 to soften the film and prevent the clogging of the stylus4 ,the disc1 when completed1 is then rinsed off and etched with acid1 chromic acid being used1 to prevent liberation of hydrogen bubbles4 ,the etched disc is then electrotyped to form a matrix1 and from this electrotype hard rubber duplicates of the original record are molded1 which are capable of giving #a1jjj reproductions4 ,these rubber discs are placed on the reproducing instrument1 which is arranged to cause the stylus to freely trail along in the spiral groove1 and when the disc is rotated under the said stylus its record is converted into articulate speech4 ,such flat disc records give quite loud reproductions1 are not easily destroyed1 and may be compactly stored and transported4 ,in the gramophone the diaphragm stands at right angles to the record disc and the stylus does not vibrate endwise to make a path of varying depth1 as in the phonograph and graphophone1 but the stylus vibrates laterally and traces a little zigzag line4 ,the cost of a talking machine is from #e to #aej4 ,the wax cylinders cost from #be cents to #c4jj1 and the cylinders will hold a record of from #hjj to #a1bjj words1 equivalent to about three or four pages of print in an octavo volume4 ,an important part of such machines is the motor1 which must maintain a uniform rate of speed1 and much ingenuity has been displayed on this part of the machine4 ,probably the largest use of the phonograph or graphophone is for home amusement and exhibition purpose4 ,the coin operated1 or 8nickel-in-the-slot0 machine1 finds a popular demand1 while its utilitarian use as an amanuensis1 or stenographer1 is as yet a subordinate one4 ,although twenty-one years of age1 and of full growth1 the phonograph is ever a wonderfully new and impressive device4 ,when listening to it for the first time the conflict of emotions which it excites is difficult to analyze4 ,a voice full of human quality1 of clear and familiar enunciation1 and speaking in the most matter of fact way about the most matter of fact things1 proceeds from an insignificant and insensible bit of metal1 presenting the apparently anomalous condition of speech without a speaker4 ,when convinced that there is no trick1 astonishment struggles with admiration and a desire for a personal introduction4 ,we speak into it1 and have the unique experience of listening to our own voice emanating from a different part of the room1 instead of our own mouths4 ,it is really difficult to believe one's own senses1 and no wonder that it inspires the superstitious with a feeling of awe4 ,if ,mr4 ,edison had lived a few centuries earlier1 and had produced such an instrument1 his life might have paid the penalty of his ingenuity1 for without doubt he would have been classed as a wizard1 and of close kin to the evil one4 ,the phonograph is the truth-telling and incontrovertible witness whose memory is never at fault1 and whose nerves are never discomposed by any cross-examination4 ,as evidence in court its word cannot be doubted1 and the witness confronted by his own utterances from the phonograph must yield to its infallible dictum4 ,the dying father1 unable to write1 may dictate to it his last will and testament1 and leave a message for his loved ones1 and long after the sod is green on his grave1 that message would still be audible1 and fresh and true to all the tender inflections of the heart's emotions4 ,by its aid the ,holy ,father1 at ,rome1 may give his personal and audible blessing to his children throughout the world1 though separated by thousands of miles4 ,who can tell what stories of interesting and instructive knowledge would be in our possession if the phonograph had appeared in the ages of the past1 and its records had been preserved8 ,the voices of our dead ancestors1 whose portraits hang on the wall1 and the eloquent words of ,demosthenes and ,cicero would be preserved to us4 ,in fact1 we should be brought into vocal contact with the world's heroes1 martyrs1 saints1 and sages1 and all the great actors and teachers whose personalities have made history1 and whose teachings have given us our best ideals4 ,but perhaps the most practical and best characterization of the phonograph is given in ,mr4 ,edison's own terse words4 ,he says3 8,in one sense it knows more than we know ourselves1 for it retains the memory of many things which we forget1 even though we have said them4 ,it teaches us to be careful of what we say1 and ,i am sure makes men more brief1 more businesslike1 and more straightforward40 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,optics4 ,,early ,,telescopes--,,the ,,lick ,,telescope--,,the ,,grande ,,lunette--,,the ,,stereo-,,binocular ,,field ,,glass--,,the ,,microscope--,,the ,,spectroscope-- ,,polarization ,,of ,,light--,,kaleidoscope--,,stereoscope-- ,,range ,,finder-- ,,kinetoscope ,,and ,,moving ,,pictures4 8,and ,god said1 ,let there be light3 and there was light4 ,and ,god saw the light that it was good2 and ,god divided the light from the darkness40 ,thus early in the account of the creation is evidenced man's appreciation of the value of vision4 ,of all the senses which place man in intelligent relation to his environment none is so important as sight4 ,more than all the others does it establish our relation to the material world4 ,when the babe is born1 and its little emancipated soul is brought in contact with the world1 its wondering gaze sees the panorama of visible things touching its eyes1 and it stretches forth its tiny arms in the vain effort to pluck the stars1 apparently within its reach4 ,distance and time add their values to light and vision1 and as his life expands to greater fullness1 the perspective of his existence creeps into his consciousness1 and he finds himself farther away1 but still peering beyond into the infinity of distance1 searching for the visible evidence of knowledge4 ,from the earliest times man learned to spurn the groveling things of earth1 and to delight his soul with the marvelous infinity of the sky and its heavenly bodies4 ,nunc ad astra was his ambitious cry1 and in no field has his quest for knowledge been more skillfully directed1 faithfully maintained1 or richly rewarded than in the study of astronomy4 ,many important discoveries in this field have been made in the ,nineteenth ,century1 among which may be named the discovery of the planet ,neptune by ,adams1 ,leverrier and ,galle in #ahdf2 the satellites of ,neptune in #ahdf1 and those of ,saturn in #ahdh by ,mr4 ,lassell2 the two satellites of ,mars by ,prof4 ,asaph ,hall in #ahgg2 and the discovery of the so-called canals of ,mars by ,schiaparelli in #ahgg4 ,but the purpose of this work is to deal with material inventions rather than scientific discoveries1 and the leading invention in optics is the telescope4 ,who invented the telescope is a question that cannot now be answered4 ,for many years ,galileo was credited in popular estimation with having made this invention in #afji4 ,but it is now known that1 while he built telescopes1 and discovered the mountains of the moon1 the spots on the sun's disk1 the crescent phases of ,venus1 the four satellites of ,jupiter1 the rings of ,saturn1 and made the first important astronomical observations1 the invention of the telescope1 as an instrument1 could not be rightly claimed for him4 ,borelli credits it to ,jansen ,lippersheim1 spectacle makers1 of ,middelburg1 ,holland1 about #aeij2 ,descartes credits it to ,james ,metius2 ,humboldt says ,hans ,lippershey 7or ,laprey71 a native of ,wesel and a spectacle maker of ,middelburg in #afjh1 naming also ,jacob ,adriansz1 sometimes called ,metius and also ,zacharias ,jansen4 ,the great impetus given to the study of astronomy by ,galileo1 in #afji1 was followed up by ,huygens in #afee with his improvement1 by ,gregory's reflecting telescope of #affc1 and ,newton's in #affh4 ,in #agcc ,chester ,more ,hall invented the achromatic object glass of crown and flint glass4 ,in #ageh ,john ,dolland reinvented and introduced the same in the manufacture of telescopes4 ,in #aggi ,herschel built his reflecting telescope1 and in ,march1 #agha1 he discovered the planet ,uranus4 ,in #aghi he built his great reflector4 ,it was while the latter telescope was exploring the heavens that the ,nineteenth ,century began1 and in the early part of this century ,herschel laid before the ,royal ,society a catalogue of many thousand nebul and clusters of stars4 ,among the great telescopes of the ,nineteenth ,century may be mentioned that made in ,london in #ahjb for the observatory of ,madrid1 which cost #aa1jjj2 the great reflecting telescope of the ,earl of ,rosse1 erected at ,parsonstown1 in ,ireland1 in #ahdb-de4 ,this was #f feet diameter1 #ed feet focal length1 and cost over #bj1jjj2 the magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the ,national ,observatories at ,greenwich and ,paris in #ahfj2 ,foucault's reflecting telescope at ,paris1 #ahfb1 whose mirror was #ca inches diameter1 and focal length #ag feet2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,s4 ,newall's telescope1 set up at ,gateshead by ,cookes1 of ,york1 in #ahgj2 object glass1 #be inches1 tube1 #cj feet2 ,mr4 ,a4 ,ainslie ,common's reflecting telescope1 ,ealing1 ,middlesex1 #ahgi1 mirror1 #cg inches diameter1 tube1 #bj feet2 the telescope at the ,united ,states ,observatory1 at ,washington1 #ahgc1 object glass1 #bf inches1 tube1 #cc feet long2 and the large refracting telescope by ,howard ,grubb1 at ,dublin1 for ,vienna1 #ahha4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--,,telescope ,,at ,,lick ,,observatory4 ,in more recent times the great refracting telescope by ,alvan ,clark ,sons1 for the ,lick ,observatory on ,mount ,hamilton1 ,california1 in #ahhh1 attracted attention as superior to anything in existence up to that time4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #aid4 ,the supporting column and base are of iron1 weighing twenty-five tons4 ,this rests on a masonry foundation1 which forms the tomb of ,james ,lick1 its founder4 ,the tube is #eb feet long1 #d feet diameter in the middle1 tapering to a little over #c feet at the ends4 ,the object glass is #cf inches in diameter1 and weighs1 with its cell1 #ecj lbs4 ,the steel dome is #ge feet #d inches in diameter1 and the weight of its moving parts is #ajj tons4 ,this instrument was perfectly equipped with all gauges1 scales1 photographic and spectroscope accessories1 and fulfilled the condition imposed in the trust deed of ,james ,lick1 of being 8superior to and more powerful than any telescope made40 ,it is a giant among instruments of precision1 and its ponderous aspect still asserts the dignity of its purpose1 and impresses even the frivolous visitor with a silent and thoughtful respect4 ,it is not to be understood1 however1 that the great ,lick telescope still maintains its supremacy4 ,the ,yerkes telescope1 which was exhibited at the ,world's ,fair ,exposition in #ahic1 at ,chicago1 had an object glass of #c4bh feet in diameter and a focal distance of #fe feet1 and it moved around a central axis in a vast cupola or dome #gh feet in diameter4 ,the ,grand ,equatorial of ,gruenewald1 at the recent ,berlin ,exposition1 was even still larger1 since its object glass was #c feet #g inches1 or nearly #b inches larger than the ,yerkes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--;,,great ,,telescope1 ,,paris ,,exposition4 #aijj4 ,even these great instruments have now been excelled in the ,grande ,lunette1 of the ,paris ,exposition1 in #aijj4 ,when it is remembered that an increase in the diameter of any circular body causes1 for every additional inch1 a vastly disproportionate increase in the cross-sectional area and weight1 it will readily be seen how handicapped the instrument maker is in any increase in the power of such a telescope4 ,an increased diameter of a few inches in the glass lens means an enormous increase in the cross section1 its weight and the difficulties attending its successful casting free from imperfections1 and the perfect grinding and polishing of the lens4 ,an increased length of the tubular case of the telescope is liable to involve1 from the great weight1 a slight bending or springing out of axial alignment when supported near the middle for equatorial adjustment1 and a few feet increase in the diameter of the massive and movable steel dome add greatly to the weight and incidental difficulties of constructing and delicately adjusting it4 ,the great ,lunette1 see ,fig4 #aie1 changes entirely the method of manipulating the telescope1 and also1 in a measure1 its principle of action1 so as to avoid some of these difficulties4 ,its tube1 instead of being pointed upwardly through the slot of a movable dome1 and made adjustable with the dome1 is laid down horizontally on a stationary base of supporting pillars1 and an adjustable reflecting mirror and regulating mechanism1 called a 8siderostat10 is arranged at one end1 to catch the view of the star1 or moon1 and reflect it into the great tube1 and through its lenses on to the screen at the other end4 ,the tube is #aig feet long1 and the object glass or lens is a fraction over #d feet in diameter4 ,there are two of these1 which together cost #abj1jjj4 ,the siderostat is supported on a large cast iron frame1 and is provided with clockwork and devices for causing the mirror to follow the movement of the celestial object which is being viewed4 ,the entire weight of the siderostat and base is #ii1jjj pounds1 the movable part weighs #cc1jjj pounds1 and the mirror and its cell weigh #ad1gdj4 ,the mirror itself is of glass1 weighs #g1ibj pounds1 is #f4ef feet in diameter1 and #aj4fc inches thick4 ,to facilitate the free and sensitive adjustment of this great mirror its base floats in a reservoir of mercury4 ,the entire cost of the instrument is said to be over #b1jjj1jjj francs4 ,with the wonderful strides of improvement in all fields of invention1 it is not unreasonable to suppose that the revelations in astronomy may keep pace with those of mundane interest1 and that great discoveries may be made in the near future4 ,the average individual does not bother himself much about the calculation of eclipses1 or the laws which govern the movements of an erratic comet4 ,he is1 however1 intensely personal and neighborly1 and what he wants to know is1 ,is ,mars inhabited8 and if so1 are its denizens men1 and may we communicate with them8 ,the wonderful regularity of the so-called canals1 of apparently intelligent design1 already discovered on the surface of ,mars1 has stimulated this neighborly curiosity into an expectant interest1 and who knows what marvelous introductions the modern telescope may bring about8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--,,prof4 ,,abbe',s ,,stereo-,,binocular4 ,many minor improvements have been made in recent years in the form of the telescope known as field and opera glasses4 ,probably the most important of these is the ,stereo-,binocular1 invented by ,prof4 ,abbe1 of ,germany1 and patented by him in that country in #ahic1 and also in the ,united ,states1 ,june #bb1 #ahig1 ,no4 #ehd1igf4 ,this gives a much increased field1 and also an increased stereoscopic effect1 or conception of relative distance1 by having the object glasses wider apart than the eyes of the observer4 ,the field is also flatter1 the instrument rendered very much smaller and more compact1 and no change of focus is required for changing from near-by to remote objects4 ,the rays of light1 see ,fig4 #aif1 enter the object glasses1 strike a double reflecting prism1 and are first thrown away from the observer1 and then striking another double reflecting prism1 arranged after ,porro's method1 are returned to the observer in line with the eye-piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--,,modern ,,microscope4 ,the ,microscope4--,just as the telescope reveals the infinity of the great world above and around us1 so does the microscope reveal the infinity of the little world around1 about1 and within us4 ,its origin1 like the telescope1 is hidden in the dim distance of the past1 but it is believed to antedate the telescope4 ,probably the dewdrop on a leaf constituted the first microscope4 ,the magnifying power of glass balls was known to the ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,assyrians and ,egyptians1 and a lens made of rock crystal was found among the ruins of ,ninevah4 ,the microscope is either single or compound4 ,in the single the object is viewed directly4 ,in the compound two or more lenses are so arranged that the image formed by one is magnified by the others1 and viewed as if it were the object itself4 ,the single microscope cannot be claimed by any inventor4 ,the double or compound microscope was invented by ,farncelli in #afbd1 and it was in that century that the first important applications were made for scientific investigation4 ,most of the investigations were made1 however1 by the single microscope1 and the names of ,borelli1 ,malpighi1 ,lieberkuhn1 ,hooke1 ,leeuwenhoek1 ,swammerden1 ,lyonnet1 ,hewson and ,ellis were conspicuous as the fathers of microscopy4 ,for more than two hundred and fifty years the microscope has lent its magnifying aid to the eye1 and step by step it has been gradually improved4 ,joseph ,j4 ,lister's aplanatic foci and compound objective1 in #ahbi1 was a notable improvement in the first part of the century1 and this has been followed up by contributions from various inventors1 until the modern compound microscope1 ,fig4 #aig1 is a triumph of the optician's art1 and an instrument of wonderful accuracy and power4 ,its greatest work belongs to the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,multiplying the dimensions of the smallest cells to more than a thousand times their size1 it has brought into range of vision an unseen world1 developed new sciences1 and added immensely to the stores of human knowledge4 ,to the biologist and botanist it has yielded its revelations in cell structure and growth2 to the physician its diagnosis in urinary and blood examinations2 in histology and morbid secretions it is invaluable2 in geology its contribution to the knowledge of the physical history of the world is of equal importance2 while in the study of bacteriology and disease germs it has so revolutionized our conception of the laws of health and sanitation1 and the conditions of life and death1 and is so intimately related to our well being1 as to mark probably the greatest era of progress and useful extension of knowledge the world has ever known4 ,in the useful arts1 also1 it figures in almost every department2 the jeweler1 the engraver1 the miner1 the agriculturalist1 the chemical manufacturer1 and the food inspector1 all make use of its magnifying powers4 ,to the microscope the art of photography has lent its valuable aid1 so that all the revelations of the microscope are susceptible of preservation in permanent records1 as photomicrographs4 ,a curious1 but very practical1 use of the microscope was made in the establishment of the pigeon-post during the siege of ,paris in #ahgj-ga4 ,shut in from the outside world1 the resourceful ,frenchmen photographed the news of the day to such microscopic dimensions that a single pigeon could carry #ej1jjj messages1 which weighed less than a gramme4 ,these messages were placed on delicate films1 rolled up1 and packed in quills4 ,the pigeons were sent out in balloons1 and flying back to ,paris from the outer world1 carried these messages back and forth1 and the messages1 when reaching their destination1 were enlarged to legible dimensions and interpreted by the microscope4 ,it is said that two and a half million messages were in this way transmitted4 ,the ,spectroscope4--,to the popular comprehension1 the best definition of any scientific instrument is to tell what it does4 ,few things1 however1 so tax the credulity of the uninformed as a description of the functions and possibilities of the spectroscope4 ,to state that it tells what kind of materials there are in the sun and stars1 millions of miles away1 seems like an unwarranted attack upon one's imagination1 and yet this is one of the things that the spectroscope does4 ,a few commonplace observations will help to explain its action4 ,every schoolboy has seen the play of colors through a triangular prism of glass1 as seen in ,fig4 #aih1 and the older generation remembers the old-fashioned candelabras1 which1 with their brilliant pendants of cut glass cast beautiful colored patches on the wall1 and whose dancing beauties delighted the souls of many a boy and girl of fifty years ago4 ,this spread of color is called the spectrum1 and it is with the spectrum that the spectroscope has to deal4 ,the white light of the sun is composed of the seven colors3 red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo1 and violet4 ,when a sunbeam falls upon a triangular prism of glass the beam is bent from its course at an angle1 and the different colors of its light are deflected at different angles or degrees1 and consequently1 instead of appearing as white light1 the beam is spread out into a divergent wedge shape1 that separates the colors and produces what is called the spectrum4 ,this discovery was made by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 in #afge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--,,prism ,,and ,,spectrum4 ,in #ahjb ,dr4 ,wollaston1 in repeating ,newton's experiments1 admitted the beam of light through a very narrow slit1 instead of a round hole1 and noticed that the spectrum1 as spread out in its colors1 was not a continuous shading from one color into another1 but he found black lines crossing the spectrum4 ,these black lines were1 in #ahad1 carefully mapped by a ,german optician1 named ,fraunhofer1 and were found by him to be #egf in number4 ,the next step toward the spectroscope was made by ,simms1 an optician1 in #ahcj1 who placed a lens in front of the prism so that the slit was in the focus of the lens1 and the light passing through the slit first passed through the lens1 and then through the prism4 ,this lens was called the 8,collimating0 lens4 ,with these preliminary steps of development1 ,prof4 ,kirchhoff began in #ahei his great work of mapping the solar spectrum1 and he1 in connection with ,prof4 ,bunsen1 found several thousand of the dark lines in the spectrum1 and laid the foundation of spectrum-analysis1 or the determination of the nature of substances from the spectra cast by them when in an incandescent state4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,,kirchhoff',s ,,four-,,prism ,,spectroscope4 ,the form of ,kirchhoff's spectroscope is given in ,fig4 #aii4 ,the slit forming slide is seen on the far end of the tube ,a1 and is shown in enlarged detached view on the right4 ,the collimating lens is contained in the tube ,a4 ,the beam of light entering the slit at the far end of the tube ,a1 passes through the lens in that tube1 and then passes successively through the four triangular prisms on the table1 and is successively bent by these and thrown in the form of a spectrum into the telescopic tube ,b1 and is seen by the eye at the remote end of said tube ,b4 ,the greater the number of prisms the wider is the dispersion of the rays and the longer is the spectrum1 and the more easily studied are the peculiar lines which ,wollaston and ,fraunhofer found crossing it4 ,it was the presence of these black lines on the spectrum which led to the development of the spectroscope and established its significance and value4 ,the work which the spectroscope does is simply to form an extended spectrum1 but this spectrum varies with the different kinds of light admitted through the slit1 the different kinds of light showing different arrangement of colored bands and dark lines1 and such a definite relation between the light of various incandescing elementary bodies and their spectra has been found to exist1 that the casting of a definite spectrum from the sun or stars indicates with certainty the presence in the sun or stars of the incandescing element which produces that spectrum4 ,this application of the spectroscope is called spectrum-analysis1 and by rendering any substance incandescent in the flame of a ,bunsen burner1 and directing the light of its incandescence through the spectroscope1 its spectrum gives the basis of intelligent chemical identification4 ,so delicate is its test that it has been calculated by ,profs4 ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen that the eighteen-millionth part of a grain of sodium may be detected4 ,the useful applications of the spectroscope are found principally in astronomy and the chemical laboratory1 but some industrial applications have also been made of it in metallurgical operations1 as1 for instance1 in determining the progress of the ,bessemer process of making steel1 and also for testing alloys4 ,many hitherto unknown metals have also been discovered through the agency of the spectroscope1 among which may be named caesium1 rubidium1 thallium1 and indium4 ,the field of optics is so large that many interesting branches can receive only a casual mention4 ,the polarization of light1 first noticed by ,bartholinus in #affi1 and by ,huygens in #afgh1 in experiments in double refraction with crystals of ,iceland spar1 were followed in the ,nineteenth ,century by the discoveries of ,malus1 ,arago1 ,fresnel1 ,brewster1 and ,biot4 ,malus1 in #ahjh1 discovered polarization by reflection from polished surfaces2 ,arago1 in #ahaa1 discovered colored polarization2 ,nicol1 in #ahbh1 invented the prism named after him4 ,the ,kaleidoscope was invented by ,sir ,david ,brewster in #ahad1 and ,british patent ,no4 #d1acf granted him ,july #aj1 #ahag1 for the same4 ,the reflecting stereoscope was invented by ,wheatstone in #ahch1 and the lenticular form1 as now generally used1 was invented by ,sir ,david ,brewster in the year #ahdi4 ,among the more recent inventions of importance in optics may be mentioned the ,fiske range finder 7,patent ,no4 #dah1eaj1 ,december #ca1 #ahhi71 for enabling a gunner to direct his cannon upon the target when its distance is unknown1 or even when obscured by fog or smoke4 ,the ,beehler solarometer 7,patent ,no4 #ecc1cdj1 ,january #bi1 #ahie71 is also an important scientific invention1 which has for its object to determine the position1 or the compass error1 of a ship at sea when the horizon is obscured4 ,there is also in late years a great variety of entertaining and instructive apparatus in photography1 and improvements in the stereopticon and magic lantern4 ,the most interesting of the latter is the ,kinetoscope1 for producing the so-called moving pictures1 in which the magic lantern and modern results in the photographic art1 have wrought wonders on the screen4 ,the old-fashioned magic lantern projections were interesting and instructive object lessons1 but modern invention has endowed the pictures with all the atmosphere and naturalness of real living scenes1 in which the figures move and act1 and the scenes change just as they do in real life4 ,the foundation principle upon which these moving pictures exist is that of persistence of vision4 ,if a succession of views of the same object in motion is made1 with the moving object in each consecutive figure changed just a little1 and progressively so in a constantly advancing attitude in a definite movement1 and those different positions are rapidly presented in sequence to the eye in detached views1 the figures appear to constantly move through the changing position4 ,the theory of the duration of visible impressions was taught by ,leonardo da ,vinci in the fifteenth century1 and practical advantage has been taken of the same in a variety of old-fashioned toys1 known as the phenakistoscope1 thaumatrope1 zoetrope1 stroboscope1 rotascope1 etc4 ,the phenakistoscope was invented by ,dr4 ,roget1 and improved by ,plateau in #ahbi1 and also by ,faraday4 ,a circular disk1 bearing a circular series of figures is mounted on a handle to revolve4 ,the figures following each other show consecutively a gradual progression1 or change in position4 ,the disk has radial slits around its periphery1 and is held with its figured face before a looking glass4 ,when the reflection is viewed in the looking glass through the slits1 the figures rapidly passing in succession before the slits appear to have the movements of life4 ,the thaumatrope1 which originated with ,sir ,john ,herschel1 consists of a thin disc1 bearing on opposite sides two associated objects1 such as a bird and a cage1 or a horse and a man4 ,this1 when rotated about its diameter1 to bring alternately the bird and cage into view1 appears to bring the bird into the cage1 or to put the rider on the horse's back1 as the case may be4 ,the zoetrope1 described in the ,philosophical ,magazine1 ,january1 #ahcd1 employs the general principle of the phenakistoscope1 except that1 instead of a disc before a looking glass1 an upright rotating drum or cylinder is employed1 and has its figures on the inside1 and is viewed1 when rotating1 through a succession of vertical slits in the drum4 ,the earliest patents found in this art are the ,british patent to ,shaw1 ,no4 #a1bfj1 ,may #bb1 #ahfj2 ,united ,states patents1 ,sellers1 ,no4 #ca1ceg1 ,february #e1 #ahfa1 and ,lincoln1 ,no4 #fd1aag1 ,april #bc1 #ahfg4 ,in ,brown's patent1 ,no4 #ic1eid1 ,august #aj1 #ahfi1 the magic lantern was applied to the moving pictures1 and ,muybridge's photos of trotting horses in #ahgb1 followed by instantaneous photography1 which enabled a great number of views to be taken of moving objects in rapid succession1 laid the foundation for the modern art4 ,illustration3 ,,shooting ,,glass ,,balls4 ,,firing ,,disappearing ,,gun4 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,in ,fig4 #bjj is shown a succession of instantaneous photographs of a sportsman shooting a glass ball1 and the firing of a disappearing gun4 ,a multiplicity of views extending through all the phases of these movements1 when successively presented in order1 before a magic lantern projecting apparatus1 gives to the eye the striking semblance of real movements4 ,in practice these views are taken by special cameras1 and are printed on long transparent ribbons that contain many hundreds1 and even thousands of the views4 ,edison's ,kinetoscope is covered by patent ,no4 #dic1dbf1 ,march #ad1 #ahic1 and his instrument known as the ,vitascope1 is one of those used for projecting the views upon a screen4 ,in ,fig4 #bja a similar instrument1 called the ,biograph1 is shown1 in which the seeming approach of the locomotive makes those who witness it shudder with the apparent danger4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--;,,biograph ,,in ,,the ,,theatre4 ,to secure the best results1 the ribbon with its views should remain with a figure the longest possible time between the light and the lens1 and the shifting to the next view should be as nearly instantaneous as possible4 ,this problem has been admirably solved by ,c4 ,f4 ,jenkins1 who1 in #ahid1 devised means for accomplishing it1 and was one of the first1 if not the first1 to successfully project the views on a large screen adapted to public exhibitions4 ,his apparatus is shown in ,fig4 #bjb4 ,an electric motor1 seen on the left1 drives1 through a belt and pulley1 a countershaft1 and also through a worm gear turns another shaft parallel to the countershaft1 and bearing a sprocket pulley1 whose teeth penetrate little marginal holes in the ribbon of views1 and1 drawing it down from the reel above1 deliver it to the receiving reel on the right4 ,on the end of the countershaft1 just in front of the sprocket wheel1 is a revolving crank pin or spool1 which intermittently beats down the ribbon of views1 causing the latter to advance through the vertical guides in front of the lens by a succession of jerks4 ,this holds each view for a maximum period before the lens1 and then suddenly jerks the ribbon to bring the next view into position4 ,in the ,kinetoscope the animated pictures not only present the movements of life1 but1 by a combination with the phonograph1 the audible speech1 or music fitting the occasion1 is also presented at the same time1 making a marvelous simulation of real life to both the eye and the ear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--;,,jenkins' ,,phantascope4 ,among the latest promises of the inventor is the 8,distance ,seer10 or telectroscope1 which1 it is said1 enables one to see at any distance over electric wires1 just as one may telegraph or telephone over them4 ,the surprises of the ,nineteenth ,century have been so many and so astounding1 and the principles of this invention are so far correct1 that it would be dogmatic to say that this hope may not be realized4 ,to the sum total of human knowledge no department of science has contributed more than that of optics4 ,with the telescope man has climbed into the limitless space of the heavens1 and ascertained the infinite vastness of the universe4 ,the flaming sun which warms and vitalizes the world1 is found more than ninety millions of miles away4 ,the nearest fixed stars visible to the naked eye are more than #bjj1jjj times the distance of the sun1 and their light1 traveling at the rate of #aij1jjj miles a second1 requires more than three years to reach us4 ,although so far away1 their size1 distance1 and constitution have been ascertained1 and their movements are scheduled with such accuracy that the going and coming thereof are brought to the exactness of a railroad time table4 ,the astronomer predicts an eclipse1 and on the minute the spheres swing into line1 verifying1 beyond all doubt1 the correctness of the laws predicated for their movements4 ,the wonders of the telescope1 the microscope1 and the spectroscope are1 however1 but suggestions of what we may still expect1 for science abundantly teaches that the eye may yet see what to the eye is now invisible1 and that light exists in what may now seem darkness4 ,no man may say with certainty what thought was uppermost in ,goethe's mind when1 grappling in the final struggle with the ,king of ,terrors1 he exclaimed 8,mehr licht60 ,it may be that it was but the wish to dispel the gathering gloom of his dimming senses1 or perchance the unfolding of an illuminated vision of a brighter threshold1 but certain it is that no words so voice the aspirations of an enlightened humanity as that one cry of 8,more light60 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,photography4 ,,experiments ,,of ,,wedgewood ,,and ,,davy--,,ni,,pce',s ,,heliography--,,daguerre ,,and ,,the ,,daguerreotype--,,fox ,,talbot ,,makes ,,first ,,proofs ,,from ,,negatives--,,sir ,,john ,,herschel ,,introduces ,,glass ,,plates--,,the ,,collodion ,,process--,,silver ,,and ,,carbon ,,prints--,,ambrotypes--,,emulsions--,,d ry ,,plates--,,the ,,kodak ,,camera--,,the ,,platinotype--,,photography ,,in ,,colors-- ,,panorama ,,cameras--,,photo-,,engraving ,,and ,,photo-,,lithography--,,half ,,tone ,,engraving4 8,art's proudest triumph is to imitate nature40 ,when nature paints she does so with the brush of beauty1 dipped in the pigment of truth4 ,the tender affection of a ray of light touches the heart of a rose1 brings a blush to its cheek1 and life1 becoming the bride of chemical affinity1 blooms into surpassing beauty and loveliness4 ,photography is closely allied to nature's painting1 for just as light brings into existence nature's living beauties1 so does light fix1 preserve1 and perpetuate these beauties by the same subtile and mysterious agency of a quickened chemical affinity4 ,photography is both an art and a science1 and as such is both beautiful and true4 ,it is an art intimately associated with the tenderest affections of the human heart in keeping alive its precious memories4 ,by it the youthful sweetheart of long ago1 the loving face of the departed mother1 and the cherished form of the dead child are brought back to us in familiar presence1 while our great men have become the every-day friends and ideals of the common people4 ,what an enrichment and satisfaction it would have added to our lives if the art had been coeval with history1 and all the world's exalted scenes and faces had come to us through the camera with the knowledge of absolute truth and fidelity4 ,but not only in portraiture is photography a great art1 for it catches the stately pose of the mountain1 the grandeur of the sea1 the beauty of the forest1 or the majesty of ,niagara ,falls1 and brings them all home to us1 even to the vision of the bed-ridden invalid4 ,the camera alike records the secrets of the starry heavens and the bacteria of the microscopic world4 ,hanging on the tail of a kite it photographs the face of mother earth1 and1 acting quicker than the lightning1 it catches and defines the path of that erratic flash4 ,it plays the part of a private detective1 and its testimony in court is never doubted4 ,the architect1 engineer1 and illustrator find it in constant requisition4 ,by the aid of the ,roentgen ,rays1 it locates a bullet in a wounded soldier1 and takes a picture of one's spinal column4 ,in fact1 it sees and records things both visible and invisible1 acts with the rapidity of thought1 and is never mistaken4 ,the art of photography1 named from the two ,greek words 7the writing of light71 is a comparatively new one1 and belongs entirely to the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it was known to the ancient alchemists that 8horn silver0 7fused chloride of silver7 would blacken on exposure to light1 but there was neither any clear understanding of the nature of this action1 nor any application made of it prior to the year #ahjj4 ,we now know that the art of photography is dependent upon the actinic effect of certain of the rays of the spectrum upon certain chemical salts1 notably those of silver and chromic acid1 in connection with organic matter4 ,the rays which have this effect are the blue and violet rays at one end of the spectrum1 and even invisible rays beyond the violet1 the red and yellow rays having little or no such actinic effect4 ,that which made photography possible for the ,nineteenth ,century was the philosophical observation of ,scheele1 in #aggg1 upon the decomposing influence of light on the salts of silver1 and the superior activity of the violet rays of the spectrum over the others in producing this effect4 ,in #ahja ,ritter proved the existence of such invisible rays beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum by the power they possessed of blackening chloride of silver4 ,earliest ,application of ,principles4--,the first attempt to render the blackening of silver salts by light available for artistic purposes1 was made by ,wedgewood and ,davy in #ahjb4 ,a sheet of white paper was saturated with a solution of nitrate of silver1 and the shadow of the figure intended to be copied was projected upon it4 ,where the shadow fell the paper remained white1 while the surrounding exposed parts darkened under the sun's rays4 ,there was1 however1 no means of fixing such a picture1 and in time the white parts would also turn black4 ,introduction of ,camera4--,the camera obscura1 a very old invention designed for the use of artists in copying from nature1 was at a very early period brought into this art1 but it was found that the chemicals employed by ,wedgewood and ,davy were not sufficiently sensitive to be affected by its subdued light4 ,in #ahad1 however1 ,joseph ,nicphore ,nipce1 of ,chalns1 invented a process that utilized the camera1 and which was called 8,heliography10 or sun drawing4 ,in #ahbg he discarded the use of silver salts1 and employed a resin known as 8,bitumen of ,judea0 7asphaltum74 ,a plate was coated with a solution of this resin and exposed4 ,the light acting upon the plate rendered the resin insoluble where exposed1 and left it soluble under the shadows4 ,hence1 when treated with an oleaginous solvent the shadows dissolved out1 and the lights1 represented by the undissolved resin1 formed a picture1 which was in reality a permanent negative4 ,the process1 however1 was slow1 requiring some hours4 ,the ,daguerreotype4--,in #ahbi ,nipce and ,daguerre became partners1 and in #ahci1 after the death of the elder ,nipce1 the process named after ,daguerre was perfected 7,british patent ,no4 #h1aid1 of #ahci74 ,he abandoned the resin as a sensitive material1 and went back to the salts of silver4 ,he employed a polished silver surfaced plate1 and exposed it to the action of the vapors of iodine1 so as to form a layer of iodide of silver upon the surface1 which rendered it very sensitive4 ,by a short exposure in the camera an effect was produced1 not visible to the eye1 but appearing when the plate was subjected to the vapor of mercury4 ,this process reduced the time required from hours to minutes1 and as it involved the production of a latent image1 which was subsequently developed by a chemical agent1 it represented practically the beginning of the photographic art as practiced to-day4 ,daguerre sought also to permanently fix his pictures1 but this was accomplished only imperfectly until #ahci1 when ,sir ,john ,herschel made known the properties of the hyposulphites for dissolving the salts of silver4 ,in #ahdd ,hunt introduced the protosulphate of iron as a developer4 ,production of ,positive ,proofs from ,negatives4--,this was first done by ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot1 of ,england1 between #ahcd and #ahci4 ,in his first communication to the ,royal ,society1 in ,january1 #ahci1 it was directed that the paper should be dipped first in a solution of chloride of sodium1 and then in nitrate of silver1 which1 by reaction1 produced1 on the face of the paper1 chloride of silver1 which was more sensitive to the light than nitrate of silver4 ,the object to be reproduced was laid in contact with the prepared paper1 and exposed to the light until a copy was produced which was a negative1 having the lights and shadows reversed4 ,a second sheet was then prepared1 and the first or negative impression was laid upon it1 and used as a stencil to produce a second print which1 by a reversal of the lights and shadows1 formed an exact reproduction of the original4 ,in #ahda1 ,british patent ,no4 #h1hdb was obtained by ,mr4 ,talbot1 for what he called the 8,calotype10 and which was afterward known as the 8,talbotype40 ,a sheet of paper was first coated with iodide of silver1 by soaking it alternately in iodide of potassium and nitrate of silver1 and was then washed with a solution of gallic acid containing nitrate of silver1 by which the sensitiveness to light was increased4 ,an exposure of some seconds or minutes1 according to the brightness of the light1 produced an impression upon the plate1 which1 when treated with a fresh portion of gallic acid and nitrate of silver1 developed into the image4 ,after being fixed it formed a negative from which any number of prints might be obtained4 ,the ,talbot process represented a great advance in this art4 ,glass plates to retain the sensitive film were introduced by ,sir ,john ,herschel in #ahci1 and were a great improvement over the paper negatives1 which latter1 from lack of transparency and uniformity in texture1 had prevented fine definition and sharpness of outline4 ,blue printing was also invented by ,sir ,john ,herschel in #ahdb1 and he was the first to apply the term 8negative0 in photography4 ,in #ahdh ,m4 ,nipce de ,st4 ,victor1 a nephew of ,daguerre's former partner1 applied to the glass a film of albumen to receive the sensitive silver coating4 ,collodion ,process4--,the most important step in the preparation of the negative was the application of collodion4 ,this is a solution of pyroxilin in ether and alcohol1 which rapidly evaporates and leaves a thin film adhering to the glass4 ,m4 ,le ,gray1 of ,paris1 was the first to suggest collodion for this purpose1 but ,mr4 ,scott ,archer1 of ,london1 in #ahea1 was the first to carry it out practically4 ,a clean plate of glass is coated with collodion sensitized with iodides of potassium1 etc41 and is then immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver4 ,metallic silver takes the place of potassium1 forming insoluble iodide of silver on the film4 ,the plate is then exposed and the latent image developed by an aqueous solution of pyrogallic acid1 or protosulphate of iron4 ,when sufficiently developed1 the plate is washed1 and the image fixed by dissolving the unacted-upon iodide of silver with a solution of cyanide of potassium or hyposulphite of soda4 ,this completed the negative or stencil from which the positives are printed by passing rays of light through it upon sensitive paper4 ,the ,ambrotype succeeded the ,daguerreotype1 and was produced by making a very thin negative by under exposure on glass1 using the collodion process1 and1 after drying1 backing the glass with black asphaltum varnish or black velvet1 causing the dense portions of the negative to appear white by reflected light1 and the transparent portions black4 ,such pictures were quickly made1 and were much in vogue forty years ago1 but are now obsolete4 ,a modification of the ambrotype1 however1 still survives in what is known as the 8tin-type0 or 8ferro-type40 ,in the tin-type the collodion picture is made directly upon a very thin iron plate1 covered with black enamel1 which both protects the plate from the action of the chemicals in the bath1 and forms the equivalent of the black background of the ambrotype4 ,silver ,printing4--,a sheet of paper1 previously treated with a solution of chloride of sodium and dried1 is sensitized in an alkaline bath of nitrate of silver4 ,when the paper is exposed under a negative1 the light through the transparent parts of the negative reduces the silver1 converting the chloride1 it is supposed1 into a metallic sub-chloride of silver which becomes dark or black1 and constitutes the main portion of the picture4 ,the image is then fixed by dissolving out the chloride of silver unaltered by light in a bath of hyposulphite of soda4 ,after fixation1 the image is well washed in several changes of water to eliminate all traces of the hyposulphite of soda and prevent the subsequent fading of the darkened portions of the picture and the yellowing of the whites4 ,if the printed image is immediately fixed1 it will have a red color4 ,to avoid this it is washed first in water and then immersed in a chloride of gold toning bath and fixed4 ,the ,platinotype ,process is one in which potassium chloroplatinite and ferric oxalate are converted by light into the ferrous state1 and metallic platinum is reduced when in contact with the ferrous oxalate of potash solution4 ,the unacted upon portions are dissolved out by dilute hydrochloric acid1 leaving a black permanent image4 ,this process is characterized by simplicity1 sensitiveness in action1 permanence of print1 and a peculiarly soft and artistic quality in the picture4 ,british ,patent ,no4 #b1jaa1 of #ahgc1 to ,willis1 is the first disclosure of the platinotype4 ,carbon ,printing is a process in which lampblack or other indestructible pigment is mixed with the chemicals to render the photograph more stable against fading from the gradual decomposition of its elements4 ,mungo ,ponton1 in #ahch1 discovered the sensitive quality of potassium bichromate1 which led up to carbon printing4 ,becquerel and ,poitevin1 in ,paris1 in #ahee1 were the first to experiment in this direction1 and ,fargier1 ,swan1 and ,johnson were successors who made valuable contributions4 ,emulsions4--,a photographic emulsion is a viscous liquid1 such as collodion or a solution of gelatine1 containing a sensitive silver salt with which the glass plate is at once coated1 instead of coating the plate with collodion or gelatine1 and then immersing it in a sensitizing bath4 ,the desirability of emulsions was recognized as early as #ahej by ,gustave ,le ,gray1 and in #ahec by ,gaudin4 ,collodion emulsion with bromide of silver was invented by ,sayce and made known in #ahfd4 ,in #ahga ,maddox published his first notice of gelatine emulsion1 and in #ahgc the gelatine emulsions of ,burgess were advertised for sale4 ,in #ahgh ,mr4 ,charles ,bennett brought out gelatino-bromide emulsion of extreme sensitiveness1 by the application of heat1 and from this time gelatine began to supersede all other organic media4 ,dry ,plates were a great improvement over the old wet process1 with its tray for baths1 its bottles of chemicals1 and other accessories4 ,especially was this the case with out of door work1 which heretofore had involved the carrying along of much unwieldy and inconvenient paraphernalia4 ,with the dry plate process only the camera and the plates were needed1 and this step marks the beginning of the spread of the art among amateurs1 and the great snap-shot era of photography1 growing into a distinct movement about the year #ahhh1 has since spread over the entire world4 ,the first practical dry plate process 7collodion-albumen7 was published in #ahee by ,dr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,taupenot1 a ,french scientist4 ,russell1 in #ahfb2 ,sayce1 in #ahfd2 ,captain ,abney1 for photographing the transit of ,venus in #ahgd2 ,rev4 ,canon ,beechey1 of ,england1 in #ahge2 ,prof4 ,john ,w4 ,draper1 of the ,university of ,new ,york1 and the ,eastman ,walker ,company1 of ,rochester1 were the chief promoters of dry plate photography4 ,the practical introduction began about #ahfb with the application of the alkaline developer4 ,the progress of the photographic art may be approximately noted as follows3 ,process4 ,time ,required4 ,introduced4 ,heliography #f hours' exposure #ahad ,daguerreotype #cj minutes' exposure #ahci ,calotype or ,talbotype #c minutes' exposure #ahda ,collodion process #aj seconds' exposure #ahea ,collodion emulsion 7dry plate7 #ae seconds' exposure #ahfd ,gelatine emulsion 7dry plate7 #a second exposure #ahgh ,mechanical ,development4--,the photographic camera is but an adaptation of the optical principles of the old camera obscura1 which has been credited to various persons1 including ,roger ,bacon in #abig1 ,baptista ,porta about #aefi1 and others4 ,the essential elements of the camera obscura are a dark chamber1 having in one end a perforation containing a lens1 and opposite it on the back of the chamber a screen upon which an image of the object is projected by the lens for the purpose of enabling it to be directly traced by a pencil4 ,the photographic camera1 introduced by ,daguerre in #ahci1 adds to the camera obscura some means for adjusting the distance between the lens and the screen on which the image falls4 ,this was accomplished by making the dark chamber adjustable in length by forming it in two telescopic sections sliding over each other1 and in later years by the well-known bellows arrangement4 ,a luminous image of any object placed in front of the lens is thrown in an inverted position upon the screen1 which is of ground glass1 to permit the image to be seen in focusing4 ,when the proper focus on this ground glass is obtained a sensitive plate is put in the plane of this screen to receive the image4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--,,kodak4 ,it is not possible to trace all the steps of development of the camera which have brought it to its present perfection4 ,most of the improvements have had relation to the lens in correcting chromatic and spherical aberration1 and in shutters for regulating exposure1 in stops for shutting out the oblique rays and holders for the sensitive plate4 ,the 8,iris0 shutter1 so-called from its resemblance in function to the iris of the eye1 consists of a series of tangentially arranged plates which open or close a central opening symmetrically from all sides4 ,the ordinary camera of the photographic artist is too familiar an object to require special illustration4 ,it has been looked into by the rich and the poor1 and the high and the low1 all over the whole world4 ,between the traveling outfit1 and the 8look pleasant1 please60 of the peripatetic artist1 and the handsome studios of the cities1 it is hard to find an individual in the civilized world who has not posed before its lens4 ,through its agency the great man of the day has found himself in evidence everywhere2 the country maiden has many times experienced the delicious thrill of satisfied vanity as she posed before it1 and the superstitious savage is paralyzed with fear lest the mysterious thing should steal his soul4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--;,,folding ,,kodak4 ,in #ahea the first instantaneous views were made by ,mr4 ,cady and ,mr4 ,beckers1 of ,new ,york1 and also by ,mr4 ,talbot1 who employed as a flash light a spark from a ,leyden jar4 ,in #ahfd magnesium light was employed by ,mr4 ,brothers1 of ,manchester1 for photographic purposes1 and about #ahgf-h ,van der ,weyde made use of the electric light for the same purpose4 ,the roller slide1 or roll film1 was invented by ,a4 ,j4 ,melhuish1 in ,england1 in #ahed 7,british patent ,no4 #a1aci1 of #ahed74 ,the films were1 however1 of paper4 ,in #ahef ,norris produced sensitized dry films of collodion or gelatine 7,british patent ,no4 #b1jbi1 of #ahef74 ,in later years apparatus for utilizing the roll film has been greatly improved and extensively applied by ,eastman1 ,walker ,co41 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,about #ahhh a new thing in the photographic world made its appearance4 ,it was a little black leather-covered rectangular box1 about six inches long1 with a sort of blind eye at one end closed by a cylindrical shutter1 substantially as seen in ,fig4 #bjc4 ,this shutter was wound up by a spring operated by a pull cord4 ,in the back of the box was a film or ribbon of sensitized paper wound upon one spool1 and unwinding therefrom and winding onto another spool1 and being distended as it passed so as to form a flat surface which was directly in rear of the lens4 ,a thumb piece or key on the top1 and a push button on the side1 were the only suggestions of the operative mechanism within4 ,when the button was pressed the shutter for an instant passed from in front of the lens1 and as quickly covered it again1 but in this brief interval an image had been flashed upon the sensitive ribbon or film1 and a snap-shot picture was taken4 ,by a simple movement of the thumb piece or key1 the receiving roll was made to take up the exposed section of the sensitive film and bring another section into the range of the lens1 for a repetition of the operation4 ,this little instrument was slung in a case looking like a cartridge box1 and its sensitive roll was able to receive #ajj successive pictures4 ,when the roll was exhausted1 it was removed and developed in a dark room4 ,the device was placed upon the market by the ,eastman ,company1 and it was called the 8,kodak40 ,the advertisement of the company1 that 8,you press the button and we do the rest10 was soon realized to be founded in fact1 and in a short while the great era of snap-shot photography had set in4 ,to-day this form of camera is a part of the luggage of every tourist1 traveler1 scientist1 and dilletante4 ,in fact1 it has become the familiar scientific toy of man1 woman1 and child1 interesting1 instructive1 and useful to all4 ,in ,fig4 #bjd is shown a modern form of ,kodak1 which is made in various sizes and is foldable for compact and convenient portability4 ,a very convenient and useful development in films is to be found in the cartridge system1 by which the film may be placed in and removed from the camera in broad daylight4 ,the film has throughout its length a backing of black paper which extends far enough beyond the ends of the film to allow it to be unwound1 so far1 in making connection with the roll holder1 without exposing the film to light1 and also to allow it to be removed without exposure to light1 after all the exposures have been made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--;,,hand ,,premo4 ,among the many other ingenious and useful hand cameras may be mentioned the 8,premo10 made by the ,rochester ,optical ,company1 and shown in ,fig4 #bje4 ,the 8,premo0 is arranged for either snap-shot or time exposure1 is adapted to be either held in the hand or mounted upon a tripod1 and is furnished for use either with glass plates or roll films4 ,in ,fig4 #bjf is shown the 8,premo0 for stereoscopic work1 in which two pictures are taken at once1 a sufficient distance from each other to produce the effect of binocular vision and give the appearance of relief when viewed through the stereoscope4 ,brett's ,british patent ,no4 #a1fbi1 of #ahec1 appears to be the earliest description of a stereoscopic camera4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--,,stereoscopic ,,camera4 ,there have been #b1jjj ,united ,states patents granted in photography1 most of which have been taken in the past thirty years1 and great efficiency and detail in both the chemical and mechanical branches of the art have been obtained4 ,the useful applications of the art have been numerous and varied4 ,portrait making is probably the largest field4 ,this was first successfully accomplished in #ahci by ,professor ,morse1 of telegraph fame1 working with ,prof4 ,john ,w4 ,draper1 of the ,university of ,new ,york4 ,celestial ,photography began with ,prof4 ,draper's photograph of the moon in ,march1 #ahdj1 and ,prof4 ,bond1 of ,cambridge1 ,mass41 in #ahea4 ,in #ahgb ,prof4 ,draper photographed the spectra of the stars1 and in #ahhj-ha the nebul of ,orion1 and in #ahhg the ,photographic ,congress of ,astronomers of the ,world1 organized in ,paris1 began the work of photographing the entire heavens4 ,in late years notable work has been done at the ,lick ,observatory by ,prof4 ,holden4 ,in #ahfa ,mr4 ,thompson1 of ,weymouth1 photographed the bottom of the sea1 and ,prof4 ,o4 ,n4 ,rood1 of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 the same year described his application of it to the microscope4 ,in #ahga criminals were ordered to be photographed in ,england1 and in ,america the ,rogues' ,gallery became an institution in ,new ,york as early as #aheg1 ambrotypes being first used4 ,in #ahgf the ,adams ,cabinet for holding and displaying the photos was invented4 ,to-day the ,new ,york collection amounts to nearly #cj1jjj1 while that of the ,national ,bureau of ,identification at ,chicago approximates #ajj1jjj4 ,it is a striking illustration of the law of compensation that the counterfeiter who invokes the aid of photography to copy a bank note is1 by the same agency of his photo in the ,rogues' ,gallery1 identified and convicted4 ,photography in ,colors has been the goal of artists and scientists in this field for many years4 ,robt4 ,hunt1 in ,england1 in #ahdc1 and ,edmond ,becquerel1 in ,france1 in #ahdh1 made evanescent photographs in colors1 but little progress was made until about the last decade of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,franz ,veress in #ahij1 ,f4 ,e4 ,ives 7,united ,states patent ,no4 #dcb1ecj1 ,july #bb1 #ahij71 ,w4 ,kurtz 7,united ,states patent ,no4 #dih1cif1 ,may #cj1 #ahic71 ,gabriel ,lippmann in #ahib and #ahif1 ,ives in #ahib1 ,m4 ,lumire in #ahic1 ,dr4 ,joly in #ahie1 ,m4 ,villedien ,chassagne1 and ,dr4 ,adrien1 ,m4 ,dansac and ,m4 ,bennetto1 all in #ahig1 represent active workers in this field4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--,,panoram-,,kodak4 ,among recent developments of the camera may be mentioned the wide angle lens1 which permits larger images to be made on the plate from small near-by objects1 and the telephotographic camera1 which gives a large image of remote objects1 such as an enemy's fort1 and the panorama camera1 which is designed to cover a broad field4 ,for this purpose the lens is movably mounted for a semi-circular swing1 and the image is flashed across a curved film in the case4 ,the ,eastman ,panoram-,kodak1 seen in ,fig4 #bjg1 is an external illustration of this type1 and in ,fig4 #bjg;,a is shown a sectional view of another make of panorama camera which clearly shows the internal construction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg;,a4--,,sectional ,,plan ,,of ,,panoramic ,,camera4 ,as allied branches of the photographic art1 photo-engraving1 photo-lithographing1 and half-tone engraving are important developments of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,photo-engraving is a process by means of which photographs may be used in forming plates from which prints in ink can be taken4 ,the process depends upon the property possessed by bichromate of potassium1 and other chemicals1 of rendering insoluble under the action of light1 gelatine or some similar substance4 ,a picture is thus produced on a metal plate1 and the blank spaces are etched out by acid1 leaving the lines in relief as printing surfaces4 ,when the operation is reversed1 and only the darks are etched in intaglio1 to be filled with ink1 as in copper-plate engraving1 it is called photo-gravure4 ,mungo ,ponton1 in #ahci1 discovered the sensitive quality of a sheet of paper treated with bichromate of potash4 ,in #ahdj ,becquerel discovered that the sizing had an important function1 and ,fox ,talbot1 in #ahec1 discovered and utilized the insolubility of gelatine exposed to light in presence of bichromate of potash4 ,in #ahed ,paul ,pretsch observed that the exposed parts of the gelatine did not swell in water4 ,one of the first suggestions of photo-engraving appears in the ,british patent ,no4 #ac1gcf1 of #ahea1 of ,james ,palmer4 ,in recent times great perfection in details has been obtained by ,mr4 ,moss1 of the ,photo-,engraving ,company1 and others4 ,the ,albert-type and ,woodbury-type are early modifications of this art4 ,in photo-lithography the photograph is transferred to the stone1 and the latter then used to print from1 as in lithography4 ,the operation consists3 #a1 in making the photographic negative2 #b1 printing with it upon transfer paper coated with gelatine and bichromate of potash3 #c1 the transfer paper is then given a coat of insoluble fatty transfer ink from an inking stone2 #d1 all ink on surfaces not reached by the light being on a soluble surface is washed off1 leaving the insoluble lines acted upon by light forming the picture2 #e1 the washed transfer sheet is then applied to the stone1 and the remaining inked lines of the design are transferred to the stone2 #f1 the stone with transferred lines will now receive ink from the ink rolls on these lines1 and repels ink from all other surfaces1 which latter are made repellent by being kept constantly wet1 as in ordinary lithography4 ,the first attempts in this art were by ,dixon1 of ,jersey ,city1 and ,lewis1 of ,dublin1 in #ahda1 who used resins4 ,joseph ,dixon1 in #ahed1 was the first to use organic matter and bichromate of potash upon stone to produce a photo-lithograph4 ,in #ahei ,j4 ,w4 ,osborne patented in ,australia1 and in #ahfa in the ,united ,states1 a transfer process which gave such great impetus to the art that he may be considered its founder and chief promotor4 ,his ,united ,states patents are ,no4 #cb1ffh1 ,june #be1 #ahfa1 and ,no4 #cc1agb1 ,august #bg1 #ahfa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--,,photograph ,,gallery4 ,for photo-lithography only line drawing1 type print1 or script1 without any smooth shading1 can be employed4 ,the most extensive application of photo-lithography is in the reproduction of the ,patent ,office drawings1 which amount to about #fj1jjj sheets weekly4 ,the contracting firm1 which is probably the largest in the world1 also prints each week by photo-lithography #g1jjj copies of the ,patent ,office ,gazette1 of about #afe pages each1 including both drawings and claims1 and also reproduces specifications without errors or proof reading1 thus saving about #bjj per cent4 in cost over type setting4 ,this art is also largely employed for printing maps1 and the reproduction of the pages of books by this process has flooded the stores and news stands with cheap literature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,production ,,of ,,dot4 ,half-tone engraving enables a photograph to be reproduced on a printing press1 and for faithfulness in reproduction and low cost has revolutionized the art of illustrating1 as nearly all books1 magazines1 and newspapers are now illustrated by this process4 ,before its introduction it was not possible to reproduce cheaply in printers' ink shaded pictures like photographs1 brush drawings1 paintings1 etc4 ,half-tone engraving renders it possible to thus print on a press1 with printers' ink1 reproductions of photographs or any shaded picture1 in which the soft shadows fade away in depth to white by an imperceptible tenuity4 ,it does so by breaking up the soft shadows into minute stipples which form inkable printing faces in relief1 by the interposition of a fine reticulated screen between the camera lens and the sensitive plate4 ,this forms a sort of stencil negative through which the copper plate is etched1 which latter is thus converted into a relief plate whose raised surfaces left by the etching may receive ink and print like an ordinary relief plate4 ,by making the screen lines very fine 7#hj to #bej meshes to the inch71 the visible effect of the shading is so far preserved that the photograph may be reproduced in printers' ink with but little depreciation4 ,at first1 bolting cloth was used for the screen1 but at present two glass plates1 with closely ruled lines1 laid crosswise upon each other1 form the screen4 ,a characteristic distinction of half-tone work is the regularly stippled surface1 formed by the stenciling out of a portion of the picture by the screen1 which may be easily seen with any magnifying glass4 ,it is called half-tone process because half of the tones or shadows are preserved1 the other half being stenciled out4 ,the use of gauze screens was first described by ,fox ,talbot in ,british patent ,no4 #efe1 ,october #bi1 #aheb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--,,trimming ,,film4 ,in the making of a half-tone negative1 the photograph1 painting1 or wash drawing which is to be reproduced1 is set up in front of the camera1 which is arranged on an inclined runway1 as seen in ,fig4 #bjh1 and an exposure is made on a plate prepared by the wet collodion process 7see page #cjd74 ,the shadows of the picture are broken up into stipples or dots by the interposition of a cross-lined screen arranged in the plate holder between the lens and the sensitive plate1 so that the picture taken is 8half-toned0 or stippled4 ,fig4 #bji illustrates the relation of the parts1 in which the picture to be copied is seen on the right1 the camera lens in the middle1 and the cross-lined screen on the left in front of the sensitive plate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4--,,stripping ,,film4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--,,printing ,,by ,,electric ,,light4 ,the image on the plate is then developed and fixed1 and in order to secure a printed image exactly like the copy as to right and left position it is necessary to reverse the negative4 ,this is done by cutting the film square1 as seen in ,fig4 #baj1 and then peeling it off the glass1 as seen at ,fig4 #baa1 and transferring it to another glass plate in reversed relation4 ,the copper printing plate is produced as follows3 ,the plate is first polished1 as seen at the top of ,fig4 #bac1 and is then sensitized with a solution of organic matter and an alkaline bichromate4 ,the face of the reversed negative is laid flat against and in direct contact with the face of the sensitized copper plate1 and tightly held thereto by the screw clamps of the half tone printing frame4 ,the printing on the sensitized copper face through the stippled or half-tone negative is then effected either by daylight or by the electric light4 ,the application of the electric light for this purpose is shown in ,fig4 #bab4 ,the copper plate is then taken out and subjected to the three lower operations seen in ,fig4 #bac4 ,it is first developed under a stream of water from a faucet1 seen on the left1 and is then taken in a pair of pliers and held over a gas stove1 as seen at the bottom1 to 8burn-in0 the image1 and then placed in a tray containing an etching bath of chloride of iron seen on the right1 by which the copper is eaten away around the little stipples1 and the latter1 representing the half tones of the original picture1 are left raised1 or in relief1 to form the inkable surfaces of the printing plate4 ,so fine are these stipples1 however1 that the picture is to the eye perfectly reproduced4 ,the several views illustrating this process are made in this way1 the lines of the reticulated screen being #age to the inch4 ,the plate is next subjected to the mechanical operation of 8routing out0 or cutting away the undesirable portions by a routing machine1 seen in ,fig4 #bad4 ,it then receives further mechanical treatment to correct imperfections and finish its edges1 and is finally mounted upon a block ready for the printer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4--,,treatment ,,of ,,copper ,,plate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--,,router ,,at ,,work ,,on ,,half-,,tone ,,plate4 ,the most striking application made of photography in recent years is in the production of so-called moving pictures1 in which a series of photographic figures thrown upon the screen have all the motion of animated scenes which have been caught and imprisoned by the swiftly acting and never failing memory of the camera1 to be again turned loose in active play through the ,kinetoscope or ,biograph4 ,perhaps the most valuable contribution to science at the end of the century made by this art is in surgery1 for photographing through opaque bodies by the aid of the ,roentgen rays1 but for the latter subjects treatment in separate chapters must be reserved4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,roentgen ,,or ,x-,,rays4 ,,geissler ,,tubes--,,vacuum ,,tubes ,,of ,,crookes1 ,,hittorf ,,and ,,lenard--,,the ,,cathode ,,ray--,,roentgen',s ,,great ,,discovery ,,in #ahie--,x-,,ray ,,apparatus-- ,,salvioni',s ,,cryptoscope--,,edison',s ,,fluoroscope--,,the ,,fluorometer--,,sun ,,burn ,,from ,x-,,rays--,,uses ,,of ,x-,,rays4 ,the majority of people have been accustomed to regard light as something to be excluded and controlled by opaque screens just as effectively as rain is excluded by a tin roof1 or cold is kept out by a brick wall4 ,the shady retreat furnished relief from the garish day to the primitive man1 and the opaque shades and ,venetian blinds of modern civilization exclude the excess of light at our windows4 ,sunshine and shadow have1 in fact1 been correlated conditions to the ordinary observation of man since time began4 ,the last few years of the ,nineteenth ,century1 however1 were to witness the discovery of a new kind of light ray which1 in its behavior1 subverted all previous conception of the nature and action of light4 ,it was a species of electric light1 which we are accustomed to regard as brilliant1 but this light ray was invisible to the eye4 ,it could not be refracted or bent from its course by a prism or lens1 and it was so subtle1 penetrating and insidious1 that it could not be barred out like sunlight1 but passed readily through many opaque substances1 such as wood1 flesh tissue1 paper 7even a book of #a1jjj pages71 as well as some of the metals4 ,the lighter the weight of the substance1 or less its density1 the easier these rays passed through it1 or the more transparent such bodies were to the rays4 ,the heavier metals1 like platinum1 gold and lead1 were practically opaque1 or allowed none of the rays to pass through them1 while the very light metal aluminum was about as transparent to these rays as was glass to ordinary light1 and for that reason this metal could form window panes for such rays1 while excluding other light4 ,most organic substances are transparent or semi-transparent to these rays1 and hence such rays readily pass through the body of an individual1 being only intercepted in part by the denser parts of the anatomy1 such as the bones1 so that a man in such light no longer casts a well-defined shadow of his outline1 but the shadow disclosed is that of a skeleton1 by virtue of the greater density of the bones4 ,any object of higher density1 such as a ring upon the finger1 clearly establishes its shadow by virtue of its greater density4 ,likewise1 any foreign object in the body1 such as a bullet from a gun-shot wound1 or a foreign body accidentally swallowed1 is perfectly disclosed and located by the shadow which it casts4 ,as these light rays have been characterized as invisible1 it may be difficult to understand how invisible rays can cast a visible shadow1 and it should be here stated that when these unseen rays fall upon certain chemical substances the latter are made to glow with a peculiar fluorescence1 and a screen made of such fluorescing materials will light up where the rays fall upon it1 and remain dark at the points where the rays are intercepted by a substance opaque to such rays1 thus outlining a shadow4 ,not only do these light rays in passing through the body tissues 7transparent to them7 cast a shadow of the bones or any foreign objects1 but by the application of photography to these shadow pictures a species of photograph1 called a radiograph1 or skiagraph1 may be taken1 and thus any foreign body1 such as a bullet1 may be definitely located in the human body and quickly extracted1 without the element of doubt which beset the old method of diagnosis1 which1 at best1 was only intelligent guessing4 ,not only are foreign bodies so located1 but the fractures of the bones may also be accurately observed1 studied and adjusted4 ,stone in the bladder may be discovered1 and the condition and movements of the heart and lungs ascertained4 ,this new kind of light ray was discovered ,november #h1 #ahie1 by ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,roentgen1 of the ,royal ,university of ,wurzburg1 and was named by him the 8,x-,ray10 probably because the letter x in algebraic formula represents the unknown quantity1 and the hitherto unknown and elusive quality of this light suggested to ,prof4 ,roentgen this appropriate name4 ,as before stated1 a peculiar quality of the ,x-,rays is that they are not visible to the eye4 ,a beam of ,x-,rays1 thrown into a dark chamber through an aluminum window1 would produce no illumination whatever in the room1 but such rays would still penetrate the room1 and if a fluorescing screen were placed in their path it would instantly light up4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that these subtle rays should have so long eluded the observation of the scientist4 ,a brief sketch of the conditions leading up to the discovery of the rays is necessary to a proper understanding of the same4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--,,the ,,cathode ,,ray4 ,every student of physics remembers the old-time lecture room experiments in which the ,geissler tubes1 with their beautiful play of colored lights1 illustrated the action of the electrical discharge from the glass plate machine or the ,ruhmkorff coil1 on rarified gaseous media4 ,electrical experiments in high vacua by ,sir ,william ,crookes1 and by ,hittorf and ,lenard1 have greatly added to the present knowledge in this field1 and paved the way to the discovery of ,prof4 ,roentgen4 ,it was known that a vacuum tube1 variously called after the names of these scientists1 as a ,crookes1 ,hittorf1 or ,lenard tube1 having platinum electrodes sealed in its ends1 would1 under the static discharge of electricity through it1 give peculiar manifestations of light4 ,one of the conducting terminals of such tubes was called1 in electrical parlance1 the 8anode10 from the ,greek 7up7 7way71 meaning the way up or into the tube1 and referring to the entering path of an electric current1 or its positive pole2 while the other was called the 8cathode10 from 7down71 7way71 meaning the way down or out1 and referring to the outgoing path of an electric current1 or its negative pole4 ,when such glass tube1 partially exhausted of air1 received through its anode and cathode terminals a discharge of static electricity1 a peculiar manifestation of light is seen between the anode and cathode terminals4 ,at the anode it appears as a peach blossom glow1 and at the cathode it appears as a bluish green light4 ,if the exhaustion of the air in the tube is carried very high1 approaching a perfect vacuum1 or to about one millionth of the atmospheric pressure1 the glow light at the anode disappears1 and that at the cathode increases until it fills the entire tube with its characteristic light4 ,this is called the 8cathode ray10 or 8cathodic ray10 an illustration of which is given in ,fig4 #bae1 where the cathode ray is seen in a ,crookes tube emanating from the negative pole ,n or cathode a1 and casting a shadow of the ,maltese cross b into the end of the tube1 as seen at d4 ,many of the characteristics of the cathode ray had been observed prior to ,prof4 ,roentgen's discovery1 which1 briefly stated1 grew out of the following observation3 ,he noticed that when a vacuum tube illumined by the cathode ray was completely masked or covered up by an external shield of black paper1 so that no illumination of the tube was visible to the eye1 there still passed through it certain subtle rays of light1 invisible to the eye1 but which would instantly illuminate a sheet of paper coated on one side with barium platino-cyanide1 even at a distance of two yards or more1 and that these invisible light rays were capable of passing through many substances opaque to ordinary light4 ,he also discovered that these rays could be made to take a shadow photograph on a sensitive plate without even exposing the plate in the usual way1 the ,x-,rays passing freely through the opaque ebonite or pasteboard screen of the plate holder4 ,it did not take the scientific world long to realize the immense importance of this discovery1 and to-day ,x-,ray apparatus constitutes the greatest addition to the surgeon's resources that has ever been made in the form of mechanical appliances1 since by its aid any foreign body in the human frame of greater density than the flesh may be at once definitely located and extracted1 or any fracture of the bone disclosed1 as the case may be4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #baf1 is shown an ,x-,ray photograph of the hand of a gentleman whose thumb bone has been destroyed by disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--,x-,,ray ,,photo ,,of ,,hand1 ,,showing ,,diseased ,,thumb ,,bone4 ,soon after the announcement of ,prof4 ,roentgen's discovery1 apparatus was devised for seeing with the naked eye the image formed by the shadow of the ,x-,rays4 ,prof4 ,salvioni constructed such a device and described it before the ,rome ,medical ,society as early as ,february #h1 #ahif4 ,he called it the 8cryptoscope40 ,it was quite a simple affair1 and consisted of an observation tube with a lens1 having in front of it a screen of fluorescing material1 such as platino-cyanide of barium4 ,when the object to be examined1 the hand1 for instance1 was held in front of the fluorescing screen1 and the ,x-,rays from the vacuum tube fell upon the hand1 located between the vacuum tube and the fluorescing screen1 a shadow of the bones was cast on the fluorescing screen by virtue of the greater density of the bones1 which shadow was clearly discernible to the eye at the end of the observation tube4 ,by this device one was able to see his own bones through the flesh4 ,a device1 invented by ,edison and called the 8fluoroscope10 was constructed on substantially the same principle4 ,this used a tapered observation tube like the old-fashioned stereoscope box1 which had at its outer wide end the fluorescing screen1 and its small end fashioned to fit the forehead and strapped thereto so as to enclose both eyes4 ,this device is shown in ,fig4 #bag1 in which an ,x-,ray vacuum tube is housed in a wooden box1 on which the hand of the patient1 or other part to be viewed1 is laid1 the ,x-,rays passing readily through the top of the box and casting a shadow of the bones of the hand1 or foreign body1 on the fluorescing screen of the observation tube4 ,edison's experiments also led him in constructing his fluorescing screen1 after testing a great number of substances1 to select the chemical known as calcium tungstate1 instead of the barium platino-cyanide1 since the calcium tungstate appeared to give better results in fluorescing4 ,many other chemicals can be used1 however1 for making the fluorescing screen1 such as the sulphides of calcium1 barium and strontium4 ,a recently discovered and powerful fluorescing substance is the double fluoride of ammonium and uranium1 discovered by ,dr4 ,mecklebeke4 ,such fluorescing materials are spread in a thin layer on the side of the screen next to the observer in the viewing apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--;,,edison',s ,,surgeon',s ,x-,,ray ,,apparatus4 ,it is not to be understood that such viewing apparatus is necessary in taking a surgical photograph4 ,in such case only the ,x-,ray tube1 means for exciting it1 the patient's body1 and the sensitive photographic plate1 are essential factors1 the patient's limb or body being interposed between the light tube and photographic plate1 so as to cause the ,x-,rays emanating from the tube to cast the shadow of the patient's bones1 the bullet in his body1 or other foreign object1 directly upon the photographic plate1 the sensitive and conscious plate obeying the will of these subtle rays1 and receiving the impress of their actinic effect under conditions which it denies to ordinary light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--;,,complete ,x-,,ray ,,apparatus ,,in ,,use4 ,for exciting the vacuum tube any electrical machine capable of throwing a series of sparks across a gap of about five inches is sufficient4 ,various electrical machines may be used for this purpose1 the ,holtz1 or the ,wimshurst glass plate machine1 the ,ruhmkorff1 or induction coil1 or even the high frequency transformer4 ,a good example of a complete ,x-,ray apparatus is that in use at the ,army ,medical ,museum at ,washington1 made by ,otis ,clapp ,son1 and shown in ,fig4 #bah4 ,the electrical generator is of the ,wimshurst type1 and is shown in a large glass-enclosed cabinet on the right4 ,the glass disks within are rotated either by a small electric motor shown on the floor1 or by a hand crank above4 ,the ,x-,ray tube1 of globular or bulb shape1 is shown just above the patient's hip1 and its opposite poles are connected by wires to the opposite electrodes of the generator4 ,when the current is switched on by the operator1 the bulb is illuminated with the cathode rays1 and the ,x-,rays1 proceeding therefrom through the clothing and flesh of the patient1 cast a shadow of the patient's hip joint upon the photographic plate placed on the cot beneath the patient4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4--,x-,,ray ,,focus ,,tube4 ,in the effort to secure greater sharpness in the image cast by the ,x-,rays1 various forms of vacuum tubes have been devised4 ,that shown in ,fig4 #bai represents one of the most important improvements4 ,k is the cathode plate1 formed of a concave disk of aluminum1 which focuses the rays at a point near the center of the bulb4 ,at this point a plate of platinum ,a1 which metal allows practically none of the ,x-,rays to pass through it1 is mounted on the anode in such an angular position that it gathers the focused rays and reflects them through the side of the tube4 ,they thus make a sharper shadow than when radiating from the more extended surface of the glass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--,,locating ,a ,,foreign ,,body ,,in ,,the ,,brain4 ,in ,fig4 #bbj is shown an ,x-,ray tube1 as applied for locating a foreign body in the brain cavity1 in which view the patient's head is interposed between the ,x-,ray tube and the fluorescing screen1 or photographic plate1 as the case may be2 while ,fig4 #bba shows the application of the same devices to the body4 ,in both these views the particular form of ,x-,ray apparatus is known as the 8,fluorometer10 made under the ,dennis ,patent1 ,no4 #eha1edj1 ,april #bg1 #ahig1 and it is devised with reference to more accurately locating the foreign object by its shadow1 for which purpose adjustable bracket-sights1 seen in ,fig4 #bba on opposite sides of the body1 are provided for bringing the ,x-,rays into proper alignment for projecting the shadow of the foreign body in true indicative position on the fluorescing screen1 while a cross hatched grating behind the body1 graduated in aliquot spaces of an inch1 furnishes a measured field1 and forms an easy and quick means of platting the position of said object4 ,in the position of parts in the two figures the horizontal line1 on which the foreign object lies1 would be determined1 but it would not indicate how deep in the object was1 i4 e41 whether it was in the middle1 or on one side4 ,to determine this the fluorescing screen and grating are placed under the patient1 and the ,x-,ray tube above1 and the vertical line of the object is thus obtained4 ,both the vertical line and horizontal line having been obtained1 it will be obvious that the foreign object will lie at the intersection of these two lines1 which establishes for the surgeon its definite location4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4--,x-,,ray ,,apparatus ,,applied ,,to ,,the ,,body4 ,it has been observed by ,prof4 ,elihu ,thomson1 and also by ,dr4 ,kolle1 that the ,x-,rays are not absorbed and destroyed by the sensitive chemicals of a single photographic plate1 but so potent and penetrating is their influence that the rays pass through and produce an image on a number of plates1 placed one behind the other1 thus affording means for multiplying the image at one exposure4 ,among other uses of the ,x-,ray may be mentioned its capacity to detect spurious from genuine gems1 the diamond giving a distinct color from its imitations1 as do also most other precious stones4 ,a peculiar physiological effect of the ,x-,rays is their capacity to produce a severe effect on the skin1 somewhat resembling sunburn4 ,such result1 produced by long and continued exposure1 has sometimes so deranged the skin tissues as to make sores that resulted in the entire loss of and renewal of the skin4 ,the discovery of the ,x-,ray by ,prof4 ,roentgen may be fairly considered one of the most wonderful scientific achievements of the century1 and his first memoir in #ahie is so full1 clear and exact1 as to have left very little more to be said about it4 ,it is to-day1 as it was found by him in #ahie1 the same mysterious1 unseen1 but positive force1 a species of electrical energy without a domicile1 and needing no conductor1 a form of light passing through closed doors1 invisible itself1 and yet lighting up certain substances with a halo of glory1 and radically changing and decomposing others4 ,rivaling the sun in actinic power1 and writing its autograph with an unseen hand1 it is truly called the ,x-1 or unknown1 ray4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,gas ,,lighting4 ,,early ,,use ,,of ,,natural ,,gas--,,coal ,,gas ,,introduced ,,by ,,murdoch--,,winsor ,,organizes ,,first ,,gas ,,company ,,in #ahjd--,,melville ,,in ,,united ,,states ,,lights ,,beaver-,,tail ,,lighthouse ,,with ,,gas ,,in #ahag--,,lowe',s ,,process ,,of ,,making ,,water ,,gas--,,acetylene ,,gas--,,carburetted ,,air--,,pintsch ,,gas--,,gas ,,meter--,,otto ,,gas ,,engine--,,the ,,welsbach ,,burner4 ,for many centuries the going down of the sun marked a cessation of man's labors1 and among his first efforts toward increasing his efficiency was the prolongation of his hours of vision by artificial illumination4 ,beginning with a shell for a lamp1 a rush for a wick1 and the fat of his game for oil1 the first crude lamp was made1 and while it shed but a feeble and flickering light1 man ceased to go to sleep with the fowls and the beasts1 and continued his labors and amusements into the night4 ,for many centuries the lamp held its exclusive sway1 and probably will ever find a useful place2 but with the discovery of coal gas and its practical manufacture the nights of the ,nineteenth ,century have been made to represent illuminated illustrations of the world's progress4 ,coal gas can hardly be claimed as an invention1 however1 for natural gas from the bowels of the earth had been observed and used in ,china from time immemorial4 ,the holy fires of ,baku on the shores of the ,caspian and elsewhere were also thus supplied4 ,the first steps toward its artificial production began in the latter part of the ,seventeenth ,century with ,dr4 ,clayton4 ,bishop ,watson1 in #agej1 and ,lord ,dundonald1 in #aghf1 also experimented with combustible gas made from coal1 but the man who more than any other contributed to its practical manufacture and introduction was ,mr4 ,murdoch1 of ,redruth1 ,cornwall1 ,england4 ,in #agib ,murdoch erected a gas distilling apparatus1 and lighted his house and offices by gas distributed through service pipes4 ,in #agih he so lighted the steam engine works of ,boulton ,watt1 at ,soho1 near ,birmingham2 and in #ahjb made public illumination of the works by this means on the occasion of a public celebration4 ,in #ahja ,le ,bon1 of ,paris1 used a gas made from wood for lighting his house4 ,in #ahjc-d ,frederick ,albert ,winsor lighted the ,lyceum ,theatre1 took out a ,british patent ,no4 #b1gfd1 of #ahjd1 for lighting streets by gas1 and established the ,national ,light and ,heat ,company1 which was the first gas company4 ,in #ahjd-e ,murdoch lighted the cotton factory of ,phillips ,lee at ,manchester1 the light being estimated as equal to #c1jjj candles1 and this was the largest undertaking up to that date4 ,in #ahjg ,winsor lighted one side of ,pall ,mall1 ,london1 and this was the first street lighting4 ,a disastrous explosion occurred shortly afterwards1 and such eminent men as ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 ,wollaston1 and ,watt expressed the opinion that it could not be safely used2 but the so-called 8coal smoke0 had come to stay1 and in #ahac ,westminster ,bridge and the ,houses of ,parliament were lighted with gas4 ,in #ahae there was general adoption of gas in the streets of ,london1 and shortly afterwards in ,paris4 ,in #ahje-f ,david ,melville1 of ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 invented a gas apparatus and lighted his house with it4 ,he took out ,united ,states patent ,march #ah1 #ahac1 and in #ahag contracted with the ,united ,states to supply for a year the ,beaver ,tail ,lighthouse4 ,in #ahae ,james ,mc,murtrie proposed the lighting of the streets of ,philadelphia2 ,baltimore commenced the use of gas in #ahaf1 ,boston in #ahbb1 and ,new ,york in #ahbe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4--;,a ,,coal ,,gas ,,plant4 ,in ,fig4 #bbb is shown a diagrammatic illustration of the principal features of a gas works1 as employed throughout the greater part of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,on the left is seen the furnace1 in which is arranged above the fire a series of retorts1 which are in the nature of horizontal closed cast iron boxes4 ,only one of the series is visible in the view4 ,their ends project out beyond the furnace walls1 and have doors for giving access to the interior1 and each retort outside the furnace is connected by an upright pipe to an elevated cylinder called a hydraulic main4 ,when the retort is charged with coal through its end door1 and is heated red hot by the subjacent fire of the furnace1 a heavy gas is driven off from the coal1 which passes up the pipe to the hydraulic main1 where it partially condenses and leaves its heavier portions in the form of coal tar and ammoniacal liquor4 ,the gas then passes through the series of bent pipes1 which form a condenser1 where other remaining portions of the tar and other impurities are condensed1 and drawn off from time to time in the little well shown on the left of the coil4 ,from the condenser coils the gas passes into the purifier1 shown on the right of the coils as an enclosed case having a series of shelves on which is spread slaked lime1 which takes up from the gas impurities in the form of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid4 ,from this purifier the gas passes downwardly through a pipe into a large gas holder whose lower end is sealed in a water tank1 and which gas holder is balanced by weights and chains passing over pulleys4 ,with the gas holder1 the distributing mains of the city are made to connect to receive their supply4 ,when the gas holder is full it is buoyed up by the lighter gas1 and occupies an elevated position1 and as its supply is used up1 the gas holder settles down into the water4 ,in the operation of gas making many valuable secondary products are formed4 ,the coal in the retorts is not entirely consumed1 but is reduced to the condition of coke1 and in this form is sold for fuel4 ,the ammoniacal condensations are purified to form ammonia1 while the coal tar1 which but a few years ago was little more than a waste material1 is now a valuable commercial product1 being extensively used in the manufacture of the aniline1 phenol1 and naphthalene dyes1 also in medicines and perfumes1 and being used in crude form also as an important element in street paving compositions4 ,water ,gas4--,in #ahge an important era in gas making was inaugurated by the introduction of what is known as 8water gas10 so called for the reason that water in the form of steam is decomposed and its hydrogen1 mixed with carbonic oxide gas1 is mingled with a heavier carbon gas from oil1 and is converted at a high temperature into a permanent1 stable illuminating gas1 at a much lower cost than coal gas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--,,lowe',s ,,water ,,gas ,,apparatus1 ,,patented ,,september #ba1 #ahge4 ,fontana was the first to notice the decomposition of steam by incandescent carbon to form hydrogen and carbonic oxide4 ,ibbetson's ,british patent1 ,no4 #d1ied1 of #ahbd1 represents the first application of this principle4 ,this was followed by ,alexander ,selligue1 who1 in #ahcd1 obtained a ,french patent1 ,no4 #i1hjj1 and in #ahdb produced water gas at ,batignolles1 a suburb of ,paris4 ,sanders' ,united ,states patent1 #ba1jbg1 ,july #bg1 #aheh1 was the basis of an experiment tried at the ,girard ,house in ,philadelphia4 ,these1 with ,siemens' ,british patents1 ,nos4 #b1hfa1 of #ahef1 and #igb1 of #ahfc1 for methods of constructing furnaces1 constitute the earlier steps in the development of water gas1 although many other patents were granted prior to the latter date for various methods and forms of apparatus4 ,the practical production and successful commercial use of water gas1 however1 began with ,t4 ,s4 ,c4 ,lowe1 who obtained ,united ,states patent ,no4 #afg1hdg1 ,september #ba1 #ahge1 and revolutionized the gas making industry4 ,in less than a dozen years from the date of his patent #aej cities and towns in the ,united ,states were using water gas1 and in #ahhf the ,franklin ,institute gave to ,mr4 ,lowe a grand medal of honor for his invention1 which of those exhibited that year was believed to contribute most to the welfare of mankind by cheapening the cost of light4 ,fig4 #bbc represents an illustration of the ,lowe apparatus as shown in his patent1 and whose operation is as follows3 ,valves #i and #aj being open1 an anthracite coal fire in generator chamber #a gives off carbonic oxide gas1 which passes down pipe #b and enters the base of superheater #c1 where mixing with air coming down pipe #d1 it burns to form an intense heat4 ,the chamber1 #c1 is filled with loose pieces of fire brick1 which are soon heated white hot4 ,valves #i and #aj are then closed and steam is taken from an upright boiler1 #f1 and carried by a small pipe1 #g1 to the incandescent mass in chamber #c1 and passing down through it is superheated4 ,this superheated steam passes from the bottom of chamber #c to the bottom of chamber #a1 and then up through the mass of red hot coal4 ,the intensely hot steam is thus decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen1 and the oxygen unites with the carbon of the coal to form carbonic oxide gas4 ,as hydrogen and carbonic oxide burn with only a feeble blue flame1 these gases are now made richer in light giving carbon at this point by the addition of oil contained in an elevated tank1 #h4 ,this1 dripping on the incandescent coal in chamber #a1 is volatilized1 and at the same time enriches and combines with the hydrogen and carbonic oxide to form a permanent illuminating gas 7water gas7 that passes up pipe #e and through the flues in boiler #f1 to outlet #ac1 and thence on in the usual way to the condenser1 scrubber and gas holder1 which are not shown1 and merely act to purify the gas4 ,as the excessively hot water gas passes through the boiler flues it furnishes the necessary heat to generate the steam4 ,the air used in the process is forced at #ab into a drum in the smokestack1 #aa1 and is heated by the escaping products of combustion4 ,in practical operation there are two 7or more7 of the steam superheating chambers #c1 working alternately1 and one of them is being heated up while the other is superheating the steam4 ,water gas has neither the illuminating nor the heating qualities of coal gas1 and it is also much more poisonous4 ,according to ,o4 ,wyss1 one-tenth of #a per cent4 of uncarburetted water gas renders the air of a room injurious to health1 and #a per cent4 is fatal to all warm-blooded animals4 ,notwithstanding these facts1 however1 its extreme cheapness and fairly satisfactory light have carried it into such general use that to-day it is said that two-thirds of all gas made in the ,united ,states is carburetted water gas4 ,acetylene ,gas is a combination of two parts carbon and two parts hydrogen4 ,it was discovered in #ahcf by ,edmond ,davy1 who produced carburet of potassium1 and evolved acetylene gas therefrom by decomposing it with water4 ,it was long known as klumene1 and when burned it produced an intense white light4 ,for a long time it was only produced in a small way in the laboratory4 ,it is now made commercially by the mutual decomposition of water and calcium carbide1 the latter giving off1 when brought in contact with the water1 acetylene gas1 which rises in bubbles4 ,in the reaction the carbon of the carbide unites with a portion of the hydrogen of the water1 producing acetylene gas 7,c,h71 while the calcium of the carbide unites with the oxygen of the water and the remaining portion of the hydrogen and forms calcium hydrate1 or slaked lime1 which precipitates as a slush4 ,the union of carbon with an alkali metal1 first accomplished by ,davy in #ahcf1 was followed in #ahfa by the combination of carbon with calcium by ,wohler4 ,it was not1 however1 until the electrical furnace became an agency in chemical reaction that calcium carbide was made on a commercial scale4 ,the production of acetylene gas for illuminating purposes began with the operations of ,thomas ,l4 ,willson in #ahic1 and his patents1 ,nos4 #eda1acg and #eda1ach1 of ,june #ah1 #ahie1 and #efc1ebg and #efc1ebh of ,july #g1 #ahif1 cover the chemical process1 the product1 and the mode of operating4 ,the reaction is a very simple one4 ,a mixture of lime and carbon is subjected to the heat of an electric arc1 and the carbon combines with the calcium of the lime to form calcium carbide1 which appears on the market as dirty black stone-like lumps4 ,the simplicity of the method of generating acetylene gas from this substance by merely bringing it in contact with water has greatly stimulated invention in this field4 ,the art began practically in #ahie1 and since that time more than #ejj patents have been granted for acetylene gas apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--;,,acetylene ,,gas ,,apparatus4 ,a very simple apparatus for the purpose is shown in ,fig4 #bbd1 in which a vessel containing water has an inverted bell or cylinder within it1 open at its lower end4 ,a basket or cage is suspended within the inner cylinder1 and contains a few lumps of calcium carbide1 which are first immersed in the water by being forced down by the rod supporting the same1 which passes through a stuffing box4 ,acetylene gas is immediately generated and its pressure forces the level of the water down in the inner cylinder1 causing it to rise in the annular space between said cylinder and the case4 ,as the water level descends in the inner chamber it passes out of contact with the calcium carbide1 and the generation of gas is discontinued until some of the gas is drawn off or consumed at the burners1 whose pipe is shown connecting with the gas space of the inner cylinder4 ,when so drawn off1 the pressure in the inner cylinder is relieved1 and the water therein rises to contact again with the calcium carbide and renews the generation of gas4 ,this principle of automatic action is a very old one1 and will be recognized by the student as that of the ,dobereiner lamp of the chemical laboratory1 invented by ,prof4 ,dobereiner1 of ,jena1 in #ahbd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--,,multi-,,charge ,,acetylene ,,gas ,,generator4 ,in acetylene gas apparatus a great variety of methods are employed for bringing the water and carbide into contact4 ,instead of the automatic pressure level principle described1 many devices discharge a regulated quantity of powdered calcium carbide into the water1 while in another form the water is discharged upon the calcium carbide4 ,an example of the latter is given in ,fig4 #bbe1 which represents the ,criterion generator4 ,a number of receptacles containing charges of calcium carbide are made to successively receive a regulated quantity of water1 the gas being collected in a rising and falling holder4 ,acetylene gas finds its principal uses for isolated plants1 and in country houses4 ,one form of using it is to compress it under high tension in cylinders1 but this method has been attended with some disastrous explosions1 and is discriminated against by the insurance companies4 ,calcium carbide is now made in a large way by the ,willson ,aluminum ,company1 at ,spray1 ,n4 ,c41 and also at ,niagara ,falls and at ,sault ,st4 ,marie1 ,mich41 and its cost is between #c and #d cents per pound4 ,acetylene gas has an acrid1 garlicy odor1 and burns with an intensely white flame1 and so superior is it to coal gas in illuminating power that it only requires a pipe of one-third the diameter of that used for coal gas to produce the same illuminating effect4 ,carburetted ,air is another form of illuminating gas which has found some useful applications4 ,this consists simply of air forced through some light hydrocarbon1 such as naphtha1 benzine or gasoline1 and so saturated with the vapors of these volatile substances as to become an inflammable mixture4 ,many patents have been granted for apparatus operating on this principle1 and it has been put to some practical use in country houses1 and seaside resorts4 ,pintsch ,gas is another special application4 ,it is a gas made from oil and compressed in storage cylinders by means of pumps for portable use4 ,it is stored under a pressure sometimes as high as #aej pounds to the inch1 its pressure being reduced at the burners through the agency of pressure regulators4 ,it is used for lighting railway cars1 buoys1 and lightships4 ,gas making has probably been the most extensive and important of all the commercial chemical operations of the ,nineteenth ,century1 and with it has come a great array of minor inventions as accessories4 ,among these first came the gas meter and pressure regulator4 ,with the introduction of gas into houses some means of determining the amount consumed as a basis of payment was required1 and for this purpose the gas meter was devised4 ,the first gas meters were known as wet meters1 and effected a measurement by passing the gas through a liquid and rotating a wheel therein4 ,the wet meter was invented by ,clegg 7,british patent ,no4 #c1ifh1 of #ahae71 and the dry meter1 by ,malam 7,british patent ,no4 #d1deh1 of #ahbj71 and improved by ,defries 7,british patent4 ,no4 #g1gje1 of #ahch74 ,the gas regulator is simply a little automatic apparatus whereby the variation of pressure in the gas main is reduced and the flow rendered perfectly uniform at the burner4 ,it effects a saving of gas by preventing it from blowing when the pressure is too great1 and also gives a more steady and uniform light4 ,among the great number of mechanical devices which have grown out of the use of gas may be mentioned the gas range for heat1 the gas engine for power1 and the ,welsbach burner for light4 ,the gas range has contributed much to the domestic economy of the city house4 ,it gives an immediate heat in the kitchen for all culinary and domestic purposes1 without the incidental objections of having to transport fuel and remove ashes4 ,it is put into or out of action in an instant1 saves labor and time1 and avoids the heat and discomfort of a coal stove during the hot months of summer4 ,it is organized in principle after the ,bunsen burner1 whereby a perfect combustion of the carbon is obtained with maximum heating effect and without smoke or deposits of lampblack4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--,,otto ,,gas ,,engine4 ,the ,otto gas engine1 seen in ,fig4 #bbf1 is a pioneer and representative type of a great number of explosive gas engines1 which in recent years have become active competitors of the steam engine where only small power is required4 ,the ,otto engine is covered by patent ,no4 #aid1jdg1 ,august #ad1 #ahgg4 ,patents ,no4 #bbb1dfg1 #big1cbi1 #ccf1eje1 #ceh1gif1 #cbj1bhe1 #chf1baa and #edi1afj represent important developments in this art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--,,welsbach ,,gas ,,burner4 ,the ,welsbach burner for improving the quality of gaslight1 and economizing its consumption1 is also well and favorably known4 ,it utilizes the ,bunsen burner principle to make a very perfect combustion of the gas1 with the greatest possible heat and the least smoke1 and then directs its great heat on to a refractory body which will not burn1 but glows with a brilliant white incandescence4 ,the ,welsbach burner was brought out in #ahhe4 ,the ,united ,states patent therefor was granted ,october #g1 #ahij1 to ,carl ,auer ,von ,welsbach1 ,no4 #dch1abe4 ,the ,welsbach light is a development of the ,drummond1 or limelight1 invented by ,lieut4 ,drummond1 of ,england1 in #ahbf4 ,this latter exposed a piece of quick lime to the intensely hot flame of the oxy-hydrogen blow pipe1 which was invented by ,dr4 ,robt4 ,hare in #ahjb4 ,the piece of lime glows with an intense brilliancy approximating that of the electric light4 ,the ,welsbach burner1 see ,fig4 #bbg1 operates on the same general principle1 except that the refractory body1 which is heated to incandescence1 is a tubular sleeve of netted fabric first steeped in a solution of the salts of refractory earths1 and then incinerated by heat to burn out the textile fibre and leave the refractory earthy oxides as a skeleton of the fabric1 and which is called a 8mantle40 ,this mantle is suspended above the flame arising from a proper admixture of air and gas1 and is heated thereby to a brilliant incandescence which furnishes the light4 ,in the ,welsbach burner the light seen does not proceed directly from the combustion of the gas1 but from the white hot mantle4 ,the light is a very pure white one1 does not distort or falsify colors1 and effects a great saving of gas4 ,an important improvement upon the mantle is covered by ,rawson's patent1 ,july #cj1 #ahhi1 ,no4 #djg1ifc1 for coating the mantles with paraffine or analogous material to toughen them and prevent them from breaking in packing and transportation4 ,natural ,gas4--,no review of gas lighting would be complete without some reference to the development incident to the use of the natural gas flowing from the internal reservoirs of the earth4 ,such gas has been known and utilized for centuries in ,china1 and was conveyed by the ,chinese in bamboo pipes to points of utilization4 ,the discovery of coal oil in the ,united ,states in #ahei1 and the great advances made in the methods and apparatus for sinking oil wells1 have resulted in the discovery of numerous wells of natural gas1 whose values were quickly perceived and utilized by their owners4 ,the village of ,fredonia1 ,n4 ,y41 was probably the first to be lighted by natural gas1 and a flow from a well at ,west ,bloomfield1 ,n4 ,y41 opened in #ahfe1 was carried in a wooden main more than twenty miles to the city of ,rochester4 ,many wells of natural gas have since been found at various points1 and so extensive has been its use for cooking1 heating1 lighting and metallurgical processes1 that thousands of patents have been taken for various forms of burners1 pressure regulators and other appliances for utilizing the same4 ,the annual production of natural gas in the ,united ,states for #ahhh was valued at #bb1fbi1hge4 ,there has1 however1 been a steady decrease in the past ten years4 ,the amount produced in #ahig was #ac1hbf1dbb4 ,the insatiable demands of modern civilization must some day exhaust the supply1 and what will take place when the subterranean chambers are relieved of their burden is a question for the geologists to answer4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,civil ,,engineering4 ,,great ,,bridges--,,pneumatic ,,caissons--,,tunnels--,,the ,,beach ,,tunnel ,,shield --,,suez ,,canal--,,dredges--,,the ,,lidgerwood ,,cableway--,,canal ,,locks-- ,,artesian ,,wells--,,compressed ,,air ,,rock ,,drills--,,blasting--,,mississippi ,,jetties--,,iron ,,and ,,steel ,,buildings--,,eiffel ,,tower--,,washington',s ,,monument--,,the ,,united ,,states ,,capitol4 ,almost entirely of an outdoor character1 and necessarily on public exhibition1 the engineering achievements of the ,nineteenth ,century have always been conspicuously in evidence1 challenging the admiration of the public eye4 ,they represent man's attack upon the obstacles presented by nature to his irrepressible spirit of progress4 ,difficulties apparently insuperable have confronted him1 only to melt away under his persistent genius until nothing seems impossible4 ,he has connected continents with the telegraph1 has crosshatched the land with railroads1 penetrated the bowels of the earth with artesian wells1 opened communication between oceans with the ,suez ,canal1 reclaimed territory from the sea in ,holland1 pierced mountain ranges with tunnels1 drained marshes1 irrigated deserts1 reared lofty structures of masonry and steel1 spanned waters with magnificent bridges1 opened channel-ways to the sea1 built beacons for the mariner1 and breakwaters for the storm beaten ship4 ,probably the most important branch of engineering work is railroad construction1 already considered under steam railways4 ,closely related to the railroad1 however1 is bridge building1 and many of these noble structures hang between heaven and earth1 conspicuous monuments of the engineer's skill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--,,the ,,forth ,,bridge4 ,,largest ,,viaduct ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,when ,,in ,,process ,,of ,,construction4 ,,length1 #h1bij ,,feet2 ,,height ,,above ,,water1 #cfa ,,feet2 ,,main ,,spans1 #a1gaj ,,feet ,,long1 #aej ,,feet ,,high4 ,the ,forth ,bridge4--,this massive structure1 of the cantilever type1 is shown in ,fig4 #bbh4 ,it was begun in #ahhb and finished in #ahij1 and is the largest and most costly viaduct in the world4 ,it is built across the ,firth of ,forth1 and is the most important link in the direct railway communication of the ,north ,british ,railway1 and associated roads1 between ,edinburgh on the one side1 and ,perth and ,dundee on the other4 ,the total length of the viaduct is #h1bif feet1 or nearly #a miles4 ,the extreme height of the structure is #cfa feet above the water level1 and the foundations extend #ia feet below the water level4 ,the two main spans are #a1gaj feet1 and these both give a clear headway for navigation of #aej feet height4 ,there are over #ej1jjj tons of steel in the superstructure1 and about #adj1jjj cubic yards of masonry and concrete in the foundation piers4 ,the three main piers consist each of a group of four masonry columns faced with granite1 #di feet in diameter at the top1 and #cf feet high1 which rest on solid rock1 or on concrete carried down in most cases by means of caissons of a maximum diameter of #gj feet to rock or boulder clay4 ,no intelligent conception of the enormous size of this great structure can be obtained except by comparison4 ,estimating from the bottom of the masonry piers to the towering heights of the cantilevers1 it reaches above the dome of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and is only a little short of the height of the greatest of the pyramids of ,egypt4 ,the cost of the bridge is given as #c1bej1jjj or nearly #af1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,brooklyn ,bridge4--,having for its successful construction and maintenance the same foundation principle upon which the spider builds its web1 this magnificent bridge of steel wires spans the ,east ,river between ,new ,york and ,brooklyn1 with a total length of #e1ihi feet1 and in length of span and cost is second only to the great ,forth ,bridge4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #bbi1 and among suspension bridges it ranks first4 ,it has a central span of #a1eie feet between the two towers1 over which the suspension cables are hung1 and has a clear headway beneath of #ace feet4 ,it has two side spans of #icj feet each between the towers and the shore4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--,,the ,,brooklyn ,,bridge4 ,,longest ,,suspension ,,bridge ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,,total ,,length1 #e1ihi ,,feet2 ,,span ,,between ,,towers1 #a1eie ,,feet #f ,,inches4 ,the suspension towers stand on two piers founded in the river on solid rock at depths of #gh and #de feet below high water1 and they rise #bgg feet above the same level4 ,there are four suspension cables #ae inches in diameter1 each composed of #e1bhb galvanized steel wires1 placed side by side1 without any twist1 and arranged in groups of #ai strands bound up with wire4 ,these cables have a dip in the center of the large span of #abh feet1 rest on movable saddles on the top of the towers to allow for slight movement of the cables due to expansion and contraction1 and are held down at the shore ends by massive anchorages of masonry4 ,the bridge has a width of #he feet1 and has two roadways1 two lines of railway1 and a foot way4 ,it was begun in #ahgf and opened for traffic in #ahhc1 and its cost was about #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,it fulfills a great function for the busy metropolis1 and it hangs in the air a monument in steel wire to the genius of the ,roeblings4 ,masonry ,bridges4--,the largest and finest single span of masonry in ,america1 and believed to be the largest in the world1 is to be found about #i miles northwest of the city of ,washington4 ,it is known as the ,washington ,aqueduct or ,cabin ,john ,bridge1 and is seen in ,fig4 #bcj4 ,it extends across the small stream known as ,cabin ,john ,creek1 and carries an aqueduct #i feet in diameter1 that supplies the ,national ,capital with water1 its upper surface above the water conduit being formed into a fine roadway4 ,it is #dej feet long4 ,its span is #bbj feet1 the height of the roadway above the bed of the stream is #ajj feet1 and the width of the structure is #bj feet #d inches4 ,gen4 ,montgomery ,c4 ,meigs was the engineer in charge of its construction4 ,it was begun in #aheg and finished in #ahfd1 with the exception of the parapet walls of the roadway1 which were added in #ahgb-c4 ,its cost was #bed1jjj4 ,only one other masonry arch has ever been built which equalled this in size4 ,the ,trezzo ,bridge1 built in the fourteenth century1 over the ,adda in ,north ,italy1 and subsequently destroyed1 is said to have had a span of #bea feet1 but the ,washington ,aqueduct ,bridge at ,cabin ,john is a noble work in masonry1 and when standing beneath its majestic sweep1 and viewing the regular courses of masonry hanging nearly a hundred feet high in the air1 and springing more than a hundred feet from the embankment upon either side1 one loses sight of the principles of the arch1 and the fear that the mass may fall upon him gives way to the impression that nature has bowed to the genius of man1 and suspended the law of gravity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--;,,cabin ,,john ,,bridge1 ,,near ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,largest ,,masonry ,,arch ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,,length1 #dej ,,feet2 ,,span ,,of ,,arch1 #bbj ,,feet2 ,,height1 #ajj ,,feet4 ,among the patents granted for bridges the most important are those relating to the cantilever type1 among which may be mentioned those to ,bender1 ,latrobe1 and ,smith1 ,no4 #ada1caj1 ,july #bi1 #ahgc2 ,eads1 ,no4 #adb1cgh to #adb1chb1 ,september #b1 #ahgc1 and ,clarke1 ,no4 #ejd1eei1 ,september #e1 #ahic4 ,caissons4--,for submarine explorations the ancient diving bell1 which was said to have been used more than #b1jjj years ago1 has given place to diving armor1 while for more extensive local work the pneumatic caisson is employed4 ,the latter was invented by ,m4 ,triger1 a ,french engineer1 in #ahda4 ,an early example of it is also given in ,cochrane's ,british patent ,no4 #c1bbf1 of #ahfa4 ,it consists of a vertical cylinder divided into compartments1 its lower open end resting on the river bottom4 ,compressed air forced into the lower compartment forces the water back1 while the men are at work1 the intermediate chamber forming an air lock1 by which entrance to1 or egress from1 the lower working chamber is obtained4 ,the pneumatic caissons of ,eads 7patents ,nos4 #abc1jjb1 ,january #bc1 #ahgb1 and #abc1fhe1 ,february #ac1 #ahgb7 and ,flad 7patent ,no4 #cjc1hcj1 ,august #ai1 #ahhd7 are modern applications of the same principle4 ,the sinking of shafts through quicksand1 by artificially freezing the same and then treating it as solid material1 is an ingenious modern method shown in patents to ,poetsch1 ,no4 #cjj1hia1 ,june #bd1 #ahhd2 and ,smith1 ,no4 #cga1chi1 ,october #aa1 #ahhg4 ,tunnels4--,less conspicuous than bridges1 by virtue of their underground character1 but none the less important1 are these mole-like means of communication4 ,especially difficult of construction for the reason that the nature of the soil or rock is largely unknown1 and for the reason also that the work may have to encounter faults in rocks1 and springs or quicksands in the earth2 nevertheless the demands of the railroads for shortening the distance of travel and economizing time have stimulated the engineer to expend millions of dollars in piercing the earth with these great underground passageways4 ,the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel was constructed to establish railway communication between ,france and ,italy through the ,alps4 ,it was begun in #aheg1 and after having been in progress of construction for thirteen years1 was opened for traffic in #ahga4 ,this tunnel was commenced by hand borings1 being for the most part through solid rock1 and its progress up to #ahfb was so slow that it was estimated that thirty years would be required for its construction4 ,its earlier completion was due to the introduction of rock drills operated by compressed air1 which trebled the rate of advance1 and which device made a new epoch in all rock-boring and mining operations4 ,this tunnel was cut from both ends at the same time1 and so accurate were the surveys in establishing the alignment of the two headings through the mountain mass1 that1 although the tunnel was more than #g miles long1 when the two headings came together in the middle1 only a difference of one foot in level existed between them4 ,when it is remembered that most of the #g miles of tunnel was cut through solid rock1 by boring and blasting1 the immensity of the undertaking can be appreciated4 ,as completed the tunnel is #h miles long1 and wide enough for a double track railway4 ,the ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel is another tunnel through the ,alps1 which involved even a longer and deeper cut through the mountains than the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel4 ,this is #i miles long1 and it was begun in #ahgb1 the headings joined in #ahhj1 and the tunnel opened for traffic in #ahhb4 ,although by far the largest undertaking yet made1 the improvement in rock-boring machinery enabled it to be constructed much more rapidly and at less expense4 ,the ,arlberg is still another ,alpine tunnel4 ,it is #f miles long1 was commenced in #ahhj1 and opened for traffic in #ahhd4 ,tunneling under rivers presents many more difficulties than driving through the hardest rock4 ,this is so by reason of the inflow of water4 ,among successful tunnels of this kind may be named the ,mersey and ,severn tunnels in ,england1 opened in #ahhf1 and the ,st4 ,clair tunnel between the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,the histories of the abandoned ,detroit and ,hudson river tunnels are object lessons of the difficulties encountered in this class of work4 ,an important engineering invention for tunneling through silt or soft soil is the so-called 8shield40 ,this was first employed by the engineer ,brunel in the construction of the ,thames tunnel1 which was begun in #ahbe and opened as a thoroughfare in #ahdc4 ,the shield1 as now used1 is a sort of a cylinder or sleeve as large as the tunnel1 which sleeve1 as the excavation proceeds in front of it1 is forced ahead to act both as a ring-shaped cutter and a protection to the workmen1 its advance being effected by powerful hydraulic jacks or screws which find a back bearing against the completed wall of the tunnel4 ,as the digging proceeds the shield is advanced1 and a section of tunnel is built behind it which1 in turn1 furnishes a bearing for the jacks in the further advance of the shield4 ,this latter improvement was the invention of the late ,alfred ,e4 ,beach1 of the ,scientific ,american1 and was covered by him in patent ,no4 #ia1jga1 ,june #h1 #ahfi1 and was used in driving the experimental pneumatic subway constructed by him under ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 in #ahfh-i1 and also in the ,st4 ,clair ,river tunnel and the unfinished ,hudson ,river tunnel and other works4 ,subsequent improvements made upon the shield by ,j4 ,h4 ,greathead of ,england and covered by him in ,united ,states patents ,nos4 #cfj1iei1 ,april #ab1 #ahhg2 and #dcb1hga1 ,july #bb1 #ahij1 have greatly added to the value and efficiency of this device1 and made it one of the leading instrumentalities in tunnel construction4 ,suez ,canal4--,it is said that the undertaking of connecting the ,mediterranean and ,red ,seas was considered as long ago as the time of ,herodotus1 and a small channel appears to have been opened twenty-five centuries ago1 but was subsequently abandoned4 ,in #ahdg the subject was again taken up for serious consideration1 the work begun in #ahfj1 and finished in #ahfi1 at a cost of #bj1ejj1jjj1 or more than a hundred million dollars4 ,the canal starts at ,port ,said1 on the ,mediterranean1 a view of which with its ships of all nations and the canal reaching far away in the distance is seen in ,fig4 #bca4 ,the canal extends nearly due south to ,suez on the ,red ,sea1 a distance of about #ajj miles1 through barren wastes of sand and an occasional lake4 ,it was originally formed with a bottom width of #gb feet1 spreading out to #aif to #cbh feet at the top1 and of a depth of #bf feet1 but has since been increased in transverse dimension to accommodate the great increase in travel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4--,,port ,,said ,,entrance ,,to ,,suez ,,canal1 ,,showing ,,harbor ,,with ,,ships ,,of ,,all ,,nations1 ,,and ,,the ,,canal ,,reaching ,,away ,,in ,,the ,,distance4 ,sixty great dredges were employed on the work1 and the dredged material was discharged in chutes on to the bank4 ,the canal was the work of ,m4 ,de ,lesseps1 the eminent ,french engineer1 and has proved a great success from both an engineering and financial standpoint4 ,the stock is mainly held in ,england1 having been bought from the ,khedive of ,egypt4 ,in #ahih the ships passing through the canal during the year reached the remarkable number of #c1ejc4 ,the rate of tolls is #aj francs 7about #b7 per net ton4 ,the gross tonnage of ships passing through in #ahih was #ab1ifb1fcb1 the net tonnage #i1bch1fjc4 ,the total receipts for the year were #hg1ijf1bee francs 7about #ag1ejj1jjj71 and the net profit #fc1dda1ihg francs 7about #ab1ejj1jjj74 ,an average size ocean liner pays about #e1jjj for the privilege of sailing through this great ditch4 ,admiral ,dewey's ship1 the 8,olympia10 returning from the ,philippines1 paid for her toll #c1eaf4jd1 and the 8,chicago10 #c1afe4ie4 ,going the other way1 our supply ship 8,alexander0 paid #d1ajg4ii1 while the 8,glacier0 paid #e1jeb4ch4 ,ships making the passage through the canal move slowly on account of the washing of the banks1 about #bb hours being required1 but the shortening of the travel of ships going east and west1 and the saving of life1 property1 and time1 involved in avoiding the circuitous and stormy passage around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 has been of incalculable benefit to the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4--;,,hercules ,,dredger4 ,with the construction of canals and harbors1 great improvements have been made in dredges4 ,some of these are of the clam-shell type1 some employ the scoop and lever1 others an endless series of buckets4 ,an example of the latter1 used on the ,panama ,canal1 is seen in ,fig4 #bcb4 ,still another form1 and the most recent if not the most important is the hydraulic dredger1 which1 by rotating cutters1 stirs and cuts the mud and silt1 and by powerful suction pumps and immense tubes draws up the semi-fluid mass and sends it to suitable points of discharge4 ,the best known of the latter type is the ,bowers hydraulic dredge1 covered by many patents1 of which ,nos4 #cah1hei and #cah1hfj1 ,may #bf1 #ahhe2 #chh1bec1 ,august #ba1 #ahhh2 and #dhd1gfc1 ,october #ah1 #ahib1 are the most important4 ,for surface excavations in solid earth the ,lidgerwood ,cableway is an important and labor saving device4 ,a track cable is stretched from two distant towers1 and a bucket holding well on to a ton of earth is made to travel on a trolley running on said cable track1 rising at one end out of the excavation1 and dumping at the other end to fill in the excavation as the cutting progresses1 all in a continuous and economical manner4 ,this device is made under the patent to ,m4 ,w4 ,locke1 ,no4 #bie1ggf1 ,march #be1 #ahhd1 and comprehends many subsequent improvements patented by ,miller1 ,delaney1 ,north and others4 ,the ,chicago ,drainage ,canal is a work just completed1 which largely employed these devices4 ,this canal was designed to connect the ,chicago ,river with the ,mississippi ,river1 so as to send the sewage of ,chicago down the ,mississippi instead of into ,lake ,michigan4 ,although it cost #cc1jjj1jjj and required seven years for completion1 the labor-saving cableways greatly cheapened its cost and shortened the time of its construction4 ,among the leading inventions relating to canal construction may be mentioned the bear-trap canal-lock gate 7patents ,nos4 #bbi1fhb1 #bcf1dhh and #eeb1jfc71 and the ,dutton pneumatic lift locks4 ,the latter provide ease and rapidity of action by a principle of balancing locks in pairs1 and are covered by his patent ,no4 #deg1ebh1 ,august #aa1 #ahia1 and others of subsequent date4 ,artesian ,wells represent an important branch of engineering work1 and they are so called from the province of ,artois1 in ,france1 where they have for a long time been in use4 ,extending several thousand feet into the subterranean chambers of the earth1 they have brought abundant water supply to the surface all over the world1 from the desert sands of ,sahara to the hotels of the modern city2 they have contributed oil and gas in incredible quantities to supply light and heat1 and have made valuable additions to the salt supply of the world4 ,they are driven by reciprocating a ponderous chisel-shaped drill within an iron tube1 six inches more or less in diameter1 which is built up in sections1 and moved down as the cutting descends4 ,the drill is reciprocated by a suspending rope from machinery in a derrick1 and in order to give a hammer-like blow to the chisel a pair of ponderous iron links coupled together like those of a chain1 and called a 8drill jar0 connect the drill to the rope4 ,as the sections of the link slide over each other they come together with a hammer blow at the moment of lifting that dislodges the drill from the rock1 and on the descending movement they come together with a hammering blow immediately after the drill touches the rock to drive it into the same4 ,the first ,united ,states patent for a drill jar is that to ,morris1 ,no4 #b1bdc1 ,september #d1 #ahda4 ,when an oil well ceases to flow1 it is rejuvenated by being 8shot10 which is quite contrary to the ordinary conception of prolonging life4 ,for this purpose a dynamite cartridge is exploded at the lower end of the well1 which shatters the rock1 and1 in opening up new channels of flow for the oil1 renews the yield4 ,many patented inventions have been made in the field of well boring1 and the discovery of coal oil in the ,united ,states in #ahei has developed a great industry and built up enormous fortunes4 ,the amount of petroleum produced in the ,united ,states in #ahif was #fj1ifj1cfa barrels1 the largest yield on record4 ,in #ahig the amount was #fj1efh1jha barrels4 ,of less consequence than the artesian well1 but finding many useful applications1 is the drive well4 ,a metal tube with a perforated lower end is driven down by hammers into the ground1 and furnishes a quick and cheap source of water supply4 ,this was invented by ,col4 ,green in #ahfa1 in meeting the necessities of his military camp during the civil war1 and was patented by him ,january #ad1 #ahfh1 ,no4 #gc1dbe4 ,rock ,drills4--,in mining and tunneling through rock1 the rock drill has been the implement of paramount importance and utility4 ,for boring by rotary action the diamond drill is most effective4 ,this uses bits set with diamonds which1 by their extreme hardness1 cut through the most refractory rock with great rapidity4 ,it was invented by ,hermann and patented by him in ,france1 ,june #c1 #ahed4 ,more important1 however1 is the compressed air rock drill1 in which a piston has the drill bit directly on its piston rod and cuts by a reciprocating action4 ,the piston is actuated by compressed air admitted alternately to its opposite sides in an automatic manner by valves4 ,the compressed air conveyed to the drill in the tunnel or mine not only operates the drill1 but helps to ventilate the tunnel4 ,as early as #ahdi ,clarke and ,motley1 in ,england1 invented a machine drill1 and in #ahea ,fowle devised a similar machine1 having the drill attached directly to the piston cross head4 ,the ,hoosac and ,mont ,cenis tunnels greatly stimulated invention in this field1 and among the notable drills of this class may be named the ,burleigh1 ,ingersoll1 and ,sergeant4 ,the ,burleigh drill was brought out in #ahff1 and was covered by patents ,nos4 #eb1ifj1 #eb1ifa and #ei1ifj of that year1 and #aac1hej of #ahga1 and the ,ingersoll drill1 by patents ,no4 #aab1bed1 and ,no4 #abj1bgi1 of #ahga4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4--;,,blowing ,,up ,,flood ,,rock4 ,blasting4--,the discovery of nitro-glycerine in #ahdf1 followed by its convenient commercial preparation in the form of dynamite1 gave a great impetus to blasting4 ,notable as the largest operation of the kind in the century is the blowing up of ,flood ,rock1 in the path of commerce between ,new ,york ,city and ,long ,island ,sound4 ,the dangerous character of this and other rocks in this vicinity gave long ago to this channel the significant name of ,hell ,gate4 ,the undermining of the rocks by shafts and galleries is seen in ,fig4 #bcc1 and the final blowing up of the same in a single blast was the culmination of a series of similar operations at this point tending to safer navigation4 ,on ,october #aj1 #ahhe1 #dj1jjj cartridges1 containing #ge1jjj pounds of dynamite and #bdj1jjj pounds of rack-a-rock1 were1 by the touching of a button and the closing of an electric circuit1 simultaneously exploded4 ,in the twinkling of an eye nine acres of solid rock were shattered into fragments by the prodigious force1 and a vast upheaval of water #a1djj feet long1 #hjj feet wide1 and #bjj feet high1 sprang into the air in tangled and gigantic fountains4 ,as the termination of the most stupendous piece of engineering of the kind the world has ever seen1 and with spectacular features fitting the enormous expense of #a1jjj1jjj1 which the work cost1 this final scene put an end to the menaces of ,flood ,rock1 and wiped out of existence the worst dangers of ,hell ,gate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4--;,,cross ,,section ,,mississippi ,,jetties4 ,mississippi ,jetties4--,the broad bar and shallow waters at the mouth of the ,mississippi involved such an obstruction to commerce that in #ahgb it received the attention of ,congress1 resulting in the building1 by ,capt4 ,eads1 of the celebrated jetties4 ,they were begun in #ahge and finished in #ahgi1 and cost #e1bej1jjj4 ,the channel obtained was #cj feet deep and #bjj feet wide4 ,its construction involved the building across the bar and out into the ,gulf of ,mexico two long reaches of parallel embankments1 called jetties4 ,this was effected by sinking mattresses of willow branches bound together and weighted with stone4 ,these were laid in four layers1 and when submerged1 and resting upon the bottom1 were covered with a layer of loose stone1 and this in turn was surmounted with a capping of concrete blocks1 as seen in cross section in ,fig4 #bcd4 ,these jetties so concentrated the flow of waters into a narrow channel as to cause its increased velocity to wash out the mud and silt and deepen the channel4 ,the immensity of the work may be measured by the quantity of material used in its construction1 which included #f1jjj1jjj cubic yards of willow mattresses1 #a1jjj1jjj cubic yards of stone1 #ac1jjj1jjj feet 7board measure7 of lumber1 and #h1jjj1jjj cubic yards of concrete4 ,the mattresses were laid #ce to #ej feet wide at the bottom1 which width was considerably increased by the superimposed layer of stone1 and the jetties extended #b miles into the sea4 ,their influence upon commerce is indicated by the fact that before their construction the annual grain export from ,new ,orleans was less than half a million bushels1 and in #ahhj1 the year following their completion1 it was increased to #ad1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4--;,,interior ,,construction ,,modern ,,steel ,,building4 ,high ,buildings4--,a distinct feature of modern architecture is the enormously tall steel frame building known as the 8sky scraper40 ,the increasing value of city lots first brought about the vertical extension of buildings to a greater number of stories1 and the necessity for making them fireproof1 coupled with the desire to avoid loss of interior space1 due to thick walls at the base1 made a demand for a different style of architecture4 ,to meet this a skeleton frame of steel is bolted together in unitary structure1 the floors being all carried on the steel frame1 and the outer masonry walls being relatively thin1 and carrying only their own weight4 ,in ,fig4 #bce is shown an example of the interior structure of such a building4 ,the vertical columns are erected upon a very firm foundation1 and to them are bolted1 on the floor levels1 horizontal ,i-beams and girders1 stayed by tie rods1 which ,i-beams receive between them hollow fireproof tile to form the floor4 ,the outer masonry walls are built around the skeleton frame1 as seen in ,fig4 #bcf1 and the details of connections for the floor members appear in ,fig4 #bcg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4--;,,enclosure ,,of ,,steel ,,frame ,,by ,,masonry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4--;,,details ,,of ,,internal ,,construction4 ,the construction of iron buildings began about the middle of the century4 ,in #ahde ,peter ,cooper erected the largest rolling mill at that time in the ,united ,states for making railroad iron1 and at this mill wrought iron beams for fireproof buildings were first rolled4 ,in the building of the ,cooper ,institute in ,new ,york ,city in #aheg he was the first to employ such beams with brick arches to support the floors4 ,the unifying of the iron work into an integral skeleton frame1 for relieving the side walls of the weight of the floors is1 however1 a comparatively recent development1 and this has so raised the height of the modern office building as to cause it to impress the observer as an obelisk rather than a place of habitation4 ,an earthquake-proof steel palace for the ,crown ,prince of ,japan is one of the modern applications of steel in architecture4 ,it is being built by ,american engineers1 and is to cost #c1jjj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4--,,the ,,eiffel ,,tower4 ,,height1 #ihd ,,feet4 ,,tallest ,,structure ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4--,,washington',s ,,monument4 ,,height #eee ,,feet1 #e ,,inches4 ,,highest ,,masonry ,,structure ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,eiffel ,tower4--,loftiest among the high structures of the world1 and significant as indicating the possibilities of iron construction1 the ,eiffel ,tower of the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi was a distinct achievement in the engineering world4 ,it is seen in ,fig4 #bch4 ,it is #ihd feet high1 and #daj feet across its foundation1 and has a supporting base of four independent lattice work piers4 ,in the top was constructed a scientific laboratory surmounted by a lantern containing a powerful electric light4 ,the total weight of iron in the structure is about #g1jjj tons1 the weight of the rivets alone being #dej tons1 and the total number of them #b1ejj1jjj4 ,the level of the first story is marked by a bold frieze1 on the panels of which1 around all four faces1 were inscribed in gigantic letters of gold the names of the famous ,frenchmen of the century4 ,the summit of the tower was reached by staircases containing #a1gic steps1 and by hydraulic elevators running in four stages4 ,the cost of this structure was nearly #a1jjj1jjj4 ,washington's ,monument4--,next in height to the ,eiffel ,tower1 and being1 in fact1 the tallest masonry structure in the world1 this noble obelisk1 by its simplicity1 boldness and solidity1 challenges the admiration of every visitor1 and gratifies the pride of every patriot4 ,it is seen in ,fig4 #bci1 and is #eee feet #e inches high1 #ee feet square at the base1 and #cd feet square at the top4 ,the walls are #ae feet thick at the base1 and #ah inches at the top1 and its summit is reached by an internal winding staircase and a central elevator4 ,at the height of #ejd feet the walls are pierced with port holes1 from which a magnificent view is had of the capital city and surrounding country4 ,the summit is crowned with a cap of aluminum1 inscribed ,laus ,deo4 ,the foundation of rock and cement is #cf feet deep and #abf feet square1 and the total cost of the monument was #a1cjj1jjj4 ,the corner stone was laid in #ahdh4 ,in #ahee the work was discontinued at the height of #aeb feet1 from lack of funds4 ,in #ahgh it was resumed by appropriation from ,congress1 and completed and dedicated in #ahhe1 under the direction of ,col4 ,thomas ,l4 ,casey1 of the ,united ,states ,corps of ,engineers4 ,the ,capitol ,building4--,representing the heart of the great ,american ,republic1 and overlooking its ,capital ,city1 this grand building1 shown in ,fig4 #bdj1 is a poem in architecture4 ,massive1 symmetrical and harmonious1 its highest point reaches #cjg feet above the plaza on the east4 ,it is #gea feet #d inches long1 #cej feet wide1 and the walls of the building proper cover #c acres4 ,crowning the center of the building is the imposing dome of iron1 surmounted by a lantern1 and above this is the bronze statue of ,freedom1 #ai feet #f inches high1 and weighing #ad1ihe pounds1 the latter being set in place ,december #b1 #ahfc4 ,the dome is #ace feet #e inches in diameter at the base1 and the open space of the rotunda within is #if feet in diameter and #ahj feet high4 ,the corner stone of the original building was laid in #agic by ,washington4 ,the first session of ,congress held there was in #ahjj1 while the building was still incomplete4 ,the original building was finished in #ahaa4 ,in #ahad it was partly burned by the ,british4 ,in #ahae reconstruction was begun1 and completed in #ahbg4 ,in #ahej ,congress passed an act authorizing the extension of the ,capitol1 which resulted in the building of the north and south wings1 containing the present ,senate ,chamber and ,hall of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,the corner stones of the extension were laid by ,president ,fillmore in #ahea1 ,daniel ,webster being the orator of the occasion1 and the wings were finished in #ahfg4 ,since this time handsome additions in the shape of marble terraces on the west front have added greatly to the beauty and apparent size of the building4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4--,,the ,,united ,,states ,,capitol4 ,,length1 #gea ,,feet2 ,,width1 #cej ,,feet2 ,,height1 #cjg ,,feet2 ,,building ,,covers #c ,,acres4 ,it is not possible to give anything like an adequate review of the engineering inventions and achievements of the ,nineteenth ,century in a single chapter1 and only the most noteworthy have been mentioned4 ,the modern life of the world1 however1 has been replete with the resourceful expedients of the engineer1 and the ingenious instrumentalities invented by him to carry out his plans4 ,there have been about #a1jjj patents granted for bridges1 about #b1ejj for excavating apparatus1 and about #a1ejj for hydraulic engineering4 ,in mining the safety-lamp of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 in #ahae1 has been followed by stamp mills1 rock-drills1 derricks1 and hoisting and lowering apparatus1 and lately by hydraulic mining apparatus1 by which a stream of water under high pressure is made to wash away a mountain side4 ,apparatus for loading and unloading1 pneumatic conveyors1 great systems of irrigation1 lighthouses1 breakwaters1 pile drivers1 dry-docks1 ship railways1 road-making apparatus1 fire escapes1 fireproof buildings1 water towers1 and filtration plants have been devised1 constructed and utilized4 ,many gigantic schemes1 already begun1 still await successful completion1 among which may be named the draining of the ,zuyder ,zee1 the ,siberian railway1 the ,panama and ,nicaraguan ,canals1 the ,simplon tunnel1 the new ,east ,river ,bridge1 and the ,rapid ,transit ,tunnel under ,new ,york ,city2 while a bridge or tunnel across the ,english ,channel1 a ship canal for ,france1 connecting the ,bay of ,biscay with the ,mediterranean1 a tunnel under the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 and a ship canal connecting the great lakes with the ,gulf of ,mexico1 are among the possible achievements which challenge the engineer of the ,twentieth ,century4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,woodworking4 ,,early ,,machines ,,of ,,sir ,,samuel ,,bentham--,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,saw--,,circular ,,saw--,,hammering ,,to ,,tension--,,steam ,,feed ,,for ,,saw ,,mill ,,carriage--,,quarter ,,sawing--,,the ,,band ,,saw--,,planing ,,machines--,,the ,,woodworth ,,planer--,,the ,,woodbury ,,yielding ,,pressure ,,bar--,,the ,,universal ,,woodworker--,,the ,,blanchard ,,lathe--,,mortising ,,machines--,,special ,,woodworking ,,machines4 ,surrounded as we are in the modern home with beautiful and artistic furniture1 and installed in comfortable and inexpensive houses1 one does not appreciate the contrast which the life of the average citizen of to-day presents to that of his great-grandfather in the matter of his dwelling house appointments4 ,a hundred years ago most of the dwellings of the middle and poorer classes were crudely made1 with clap-boards and joists laboriously hewn with the broad ax1 and the roof was covered with split shingles4 ,uncouth and clumsy doors1 windows and blinds1 were framed on the simplest utilitarian basis1 and a scanty supply of rude hand-made furniture imperfectly filled the simple wants of the home4 ,to-day nearly every cottage has beautifully moulded trimmings1 paneled doors1 handsomely carved mantels and turned balusters1 all furnished at an insignificant price1 and art has so added its sthetic values to the furniture and other useful things in wood1 that beautiful1 artistic and tasteful homes are no longer confined to the rich1 but may be enjoyed by all4 ,this great change has been brought about by the sawmill1 the planing machine1 mortising and boring machines1 and the turning lathe4 ,pre-eminent in the field of woodworking machinery1 and worthy to be called the father of the art1 is to be mentioned the name of ,gen4 ,sir ,samuel ,bentham1 of ,england1 whose inventions in the last decade of the ,eighteenth ,century formed the nucleus of the modern art of woodworking4 ,the ,saw was the great pioneer in woodworking machinery1 and the circular saw has1 in the ,nineteenth ,century1 been the representative type4 ,pushing its way along the outskirts of civilization1 its glistening and apparently motionless disk1 filled with a hidden1 but terrific energy1 and singing a merry tune in the clearings1 has transformed trees into tenements1 forests into firesides1 and altered the face of the earth1 the record of its work being only measured by the immensity of the forests which it has depleted4 ,it is not possible to fix the date of the first circular saw1 for rotary cutting action dates from the ancient turning lathes4 ,the earliest description of a circular saw is to be found in the ,british patent to ,miller1 ,no4 #a1aeb1 of #aggg4 ,it was not until the ,nineteenth ,century1 however1 that it was generally applied1 and its great work belongs to this period4 ,the preceding saws were of the straight1 reciprocating kind4 ,the old pit-saw is the earliest form1 and in course of time the men were replaced by machinery to form the 8muley0 saw1 the man in the pit being replaced by a mechanical 8pitman10 which accounts for the etymology of the word4 ,with the 8muley0 saw the log was held at each end1 and each end shifted alternately to set for a new cut4 ,the first development was along the lines of this form of saw1 and to increase its efficiency the saws were arranged in gangs1 so as to make a number of cuts at one pass of the log4 ,this type was especially used in ,europe1 but on the up stroke there was no work being done1 and hence half of the time was lost4 ,this and other difficulties led finally to the adoption of the circular type1 whose continuous cut and high speed saved much time and presented many other advantages4 ,a representative example of the circular saw is given in ,fig4 #bda4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4--,,portable ,,circular ,,saw4 ,with the increased diameter and peripheral speed of the circular saw1 however1 a grave difficulty presented itself4 ,the saw would heat at its periphery1 and its rim portion expanding without commensurate expansion of the central portion1 would cause the saw to crack and fly to pieces under the tremendous centrifugal force4 ,this difficulty is provided for by what is known as 8hammering to tension10 i4 e41 the saw is hammered to a gradually increasing state of compression from the rim to the center1 thus causing an initial expansion or spread of the molecules of metal of the central parts of the saw1 which is stored up as an elastic expansive force that accommodates itself to the tension caused by the expansion of the rim1 and prevents the unequal and destructive strain1 due to the expansion of the rim from the great heat of friction in passing through the log4 ,mounted upon a portable frame1 this machine was put to its great work upon the logs in the forests of ,america1 and for many years this type of sawmill held its sway1 and an enormous amount of work was done through its agency4 ,among its useful accessories were the set-works for adjusting the log holding knees to the position for a new cut1 log turners for rotating the log to change the plane of the cut1 and the rack and pinion feed1 by which the saw carriage was run back and forth4 ,following the rack and pinion feed came the rope feed1 in which a rope wrapped around a drum was carried at its opposite ends over pulleys and back to the opposite ends of the carriage1 which was thereby carried back and forth by the forward or backward movement of the drum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4--;,,direct-,,acting ,,steam ,,feed ,,sawmill ,,carriage4 ,the greatest advance in sawmills in recent years1 however1 has been the steam feed1 in which a very long steam cylinder was provided with a piston1 whose long rod was directly attached to the saw carriage1 and the latter moved back and forth by the admission of steam alternately to opposite sides of the piston4 ,this type of feed1 also known as the shot gun feed1 from the resemblance of the long cylinder to a gun barrel1 was invented about twenty-five years ago1 by ,de ,witt ,c4 ,prescott1 and is covered by his patent1 ,no4 #agd1jjd1 ,february #bb1 #ahgf1 later improvements being shown in his patent1 ,no4 #cfj1igb1 ,april #ab1 #ahhg4 ,the value of the steam feed was to increase the speed and efficiency of the saw1 by expediting the movement of its carriage1 as many as six boards per minute being cut by its aid from a log of average length4 ,an example of a modern steam feed for sawmill carriages is seen in ,fig4 #bdb4 ,with the modern development of the art the ease and rapidity of steam action have recommended it for use in most all of the work of the sawmill1 and the direct application of steam pistons working in cylinders has been utilized for canting1 kicking1 flipping and rolling the logs1 lifting the stock1 taking away the boards1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4--,,method ,,of ,,shaping ,,and ,,holding ,,log ,,for ,,quarter ,,sawing4 ,beautifully finished furniture in quartered oak has always excited the pleasure1 and piqued the curiosity of the uninformed as to how this result is obtained4 ,fig4 #bdc illustrates the method of sawing to produce this effect4 ,the log is simply divided longitudinally into four quarters1 and the quarter sections are then cut by the vertical plane of the saw at an oblique angle to the sawed sides1 which brings to the surface of the boards the peculiar flecks or patches of the wood's grain so much admired when finished and polished4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4--;,,automatic ,,band ,,rip ,,saw4 ,the ,band ,saw is an endless belt of steel having teeth formed along one edge and traveling continuously around an upper and lower pulley1 with its toothed edge presented to the timber to be cut1 as seen in ,fig4 #bdd1 which represents a form of band saw made by the ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,egan ,company1 of ,cincinnati4 ,a form of band saw is found as early as #ahjh1 in ,british patent ,no4 #c1aje1 to ,newberry4 ,on ,march #be1 #ahcd1 a ,french patent was granted for a band saw to ,etiennot1 ,no4 #c1cig4 ,the first ,united ,states patent for a band saw was granted to ,b4 ,barker1 ,january #f1 #ahcf1 but it remained for the last quarter of the ,nineteenth ,century to give the band saw its prominence in woodworking machines4 ,that it did not find general application at an earlier period was due to the difficulty experienced in securely and evenly joining the ends of the band4 ,for many years the only moderately successful band saws were made in ,france1 but expert mechanical skill has so mastered the problem that in recent years the band saw has gone to the very front in wood-sawing machinery4 ,to-day it is in service in sizes from a delicate filament1 used for scroll sawing and not larger than a baby's ribbon1 to an enormous steel belt #ej feet in peripheral measurement1 and #ab inches wide1 traveling over pulleys #h feet in diameter1 making #ejj revolutions per minute1 and tearing its way through logs much too large for any circular saw1 at the rate of nearly two miles a minute4 ,a modern form of such a saw is seen in ,fig4 #bde4 ,prescott's patents1 ,nos4 #cfh1gca and #cfi1hha1 of #ahhg2 #daf1jab1 of #ahhi1 and #dgb1ehf and #dgh1hag1 of #ahib1 represent some of the important developments in the band saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4--,,modern ,,band ,,saw ,,for ,,large ,,timber4 ,when the band saw is applied to cutting logs the backward movement of the carriage would1 if there were any slivers on the cut face of the log1 be liable to force those slivers against the smooth edge of the band saw1 and distort and possibly break it4 ,to obviate this the saw carriage is provided with a lateral adjustment on the back movement called an 8off-set10 so that the log returns for a new cut out of contact with the saw4 ,examples of such off-setting are found in patents to ,gowen1 ,no4 #chc1dfj1 ,may #bi1 #ahhh1 and ,no4 #dja1ide1 ,april #bc1 #ahhi1 and ,hinkley1 ,no4 #cfh1ffi1 ,august #bc1 #ahhg4 ,a modern form of the band saw1 however1 has teeth on both its edges1 which requires no off-setting mechanism1 but cuts in both directions4 ,an example of this1 known as the telescopic band mill1 is made by the ,edward ,p4 ,allis ,company1 of ,milwaukee4 ,a saw which planes1 as well as severs1 is shown in patents to ,douglass1 ,nos4 #dca1eaj1 ,july #a1 #ahij1 and #edb1fcj1 ,july #af1 #ahie4 ,steam power mechanism for operating the knees is shown in patent to ,wilkin1 ,no4 #cag1bef1 ,may #e1 #ahhe4 ,means for quarter sawing in both directions of log travel are shown in patent to ,gray1 ,no4 #eej1hbe1 ,december #c1 #ahie4 ,means for operating log turners and log loaders appear in patents to ,hill1 ,no4 #dif1ich1 ,may #i1 #ahic2 ,no4 #dff1fhb1 ,january #e1 #ahib2 ,no4 #ebf1fbd1 ,september #be1 #ahid1 and ,kelly1 ,no4 #dig1jih1 ,may #i1 #ahic4 ,a self cooling circular saw is found in patent to ,jenks1 ,no4 #aic1jjd1 ,july #aj1 #ahgg2 shingle sawing machines in patents to ,o',connor1 ,no4 #ceh1dgd1 ,march #a1 #ahhg1 and ,no4 #bib1cdg1 ,january #bb1 #ahhd1 and ,perkins1 ,no4 #chj1cdf1 ,april #c1 #ahhh2 and means for severing veneer spirally and dividing it into completed staves1 are shown in patent to ,hayne1 ,no4 #eji1ecd1 ,november #bh1 #ahic4 ,planing ,machines4--,while the saw plays the initial part of shaping the rough logs into lumber1 it is to the planing machine that the refinements of woodworking are due4 ,its rapidly revolving cutter head reduces the uneven thickness of the lumber to an exact gauge1 and simultaneously imparts the fine smooth surface4 ,the planing machine is organized in various shapes for different uses4 ,when the cutters are straight and arranged horizontally1 it is a simple planer4 ,when the cutters are short and arranged to work on the edge of the board they are known as edgers2 when the edges are cut into tongues and grooves it is called a matching machine2 and when the cutters have a curved ornamental contour it is known as a molding machine1 and is used for cutting the ornamental contour for house trimmings and various ornamental uses4 ,the planing machine was one of the many woodworking devices invented by ,general ,bentham4 ,his first machine1 ,british patent ,no4 #a1hch1 of #agia1 was a reciprocating machine1 but in his ,british patent ,no4 #a1iea1 of #agic1 he described the rotary form along with a great variety of other woodworking machinery4 ,bramah's planer1 ,british patent ,no4 #b1feb1 of #ahjb1 was about the first planing machine of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it is known as a transverse planer1 the cutters being on the lower surface of a horizontal disc1 which is fixed to a vertical revolving shaft1 and overhangs the board passing beneath it1 the cutters revolving in a plane parallel with the upper surface of the board4 ,the planing machine of ,muir1 of ,glasgow1 ,british patent ,no4 #e1ejb1 of #ahbg1 was designed for making boards for flooring1 and represented a considerable advance in the art4 ,with the greater wooded areas of ,america1 the rapid growth of the young republic1 and the resourceful spirit of its new civilization1 the leading activities in woodworking machinery were in the second quarter of the ,nineteenth ,century transferred to the ,united ,states1 and a phenomenal growth in this art ensued4 ,conspicuous among the early planing machine patents in the ,united ,states was that granted to ,william ,woodworth1 ,december #bg1 #ahbh4 ,this covered broadly the combination of the cutting cylinders1 and rolls for holding the boards against the cutting cylinders1 and also means for tongueing and grooving at one operation4 ,the revolving cutting cylinder had been used by ,bentham thirty-five years before1 and rollers for feeding lumber to circular saws were described in ,hammond's ,british patent ,no4 #c1dei1 of #ahaa1 but ,woodworth did not employ his rolls for feeding1 as a rack and pinion were provided for that1 but his rolls had a co-active relation with a planer cylinder1 or cutter head1 in holding the board against the tendency of the cutter head to pull the board toward it4 ,a patent was granted to ,woodworth for these two features in combination1 which patent was reissued ,july #h1 #ahde1 twice extended1 and for a period of twenty-eight years from its first grant1 exerted an oppressive monopoly in this art1 since it covered the combination of the two necessary elements of every practical planer4 ,following the ,woodworth patent came a host of minor improvements1 among which were the ,woodbury patents1 extending through the period of the third quarter of the ,nineteenth ,century1 and prominent among which is the patent to ,j4 ,p4 ,woodbury1 ,no4 #ach1dfb1 ,april #bj1 #ahgc1 covering broadly a rotary cutter head combined with a yielding pressure bar to hold the board against the lifting action of the cutter head4 ,in modern planing machinery the climax of utility is reached in the so-called universal woodworker4 ,this is the versatile ,jack-of-all-work in the planing mill4 ,it planes flat1 moulded1 rabbeted1 or beaded surfaces2 it saws with both the rip and crosscut action2 it cuts tongues and grooves2 makes miters1 chamfers1 wedges1 mortises and tenons1 and is the general utility machine of the shop4 ,in ,fig4 #bdf is shown a well known form of planing machine4 ,its work is to plane the surfaces of boards1 and to cut the edges into tongues and groves1 such as are required for flooring4 ,this machine planes boards up to #bd inches wide and #f inches thick1 and will tongue and grove #ad inches wide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4--bd-;,,inch ,,single ,,surfacer ,,and ,,matcher4 ,wood ,turning4--,to this ancient art ,blanchard added1 in #ahai1 his very ingenious and important improvement for turning irregular forms4 ,a few efforts at irregular turning had been made before1 but in the arts generally only circular forms had been turned4 ,with ,blanchard's improvement1 patented ,january #bj1 #ahbj1 any irregular form1 such as a shoe-last1 gun-stock1 ax-handle1 wheel-spokes1 etc41 could be smoothly and expeditiously turned and finished in any required shape4 ,in the ordinary lathe the work is revolved rapidly1 and the cutting tool is held stationary1 or only slowly shifted in the hand4 ,in the ,blanchard lathe the work is hung in a swinging frame1 and turned very slowly to bring its different sides to the cutting action1 and the cutting tool is constructed as a rapidly revolving disk1 against which the work is projected bodily by the oscillation of the swinging frame1 to accommodate the irregularities of the form4 ,in order to do this automatically1 a pattern or model of the article to be turned was also hung in the swinging frame1 and made to slowly revolve and bear against a pattern wheel1 which1 acting upon the swinging frame carrying the work1 caused it to advance to or recede from the cutting disc exactly in proportion to the contour of the model1 and thus cause the revolving cutters to cut the block as it turns synchronously with the model1 to a shape exactly corresponding to said model4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4--;,,blanchard ,,lathe4 ,in ,fig4 #bdg is shown a perspective view of ,blanchard's lathe1 as patented ,january #bj1 #ahbj4 ,h is a swinging frame1 carrying the model ,t of a shoe last1 and a roughed-out block ,u1 partly converted into a shoe last4 ,a sliding frame1 fed horizontally by a screw1 carries a pattern wheel ,k1 that bears against the pattern ,t1 and a rotary cutter ,e1 acting against the roughed-out block ,u4 ,the revolving disk-shaped cutter ,e is rotated by a pulley and belt from a drum1 which latter is made long enough to accommodate the travel of the frame4 ,the pattern ,t and block ,u are advanced to contact respectively1 with pattern wheel ,k and cutter ,e by the swinging action of frame ,h1 and as the pattern ,t and block ,u are slowly revolved1 the travel of ,t against ,k is made to react on frame ,h and regulate the advance of ,u against ,e1 with the result that the rough block ,u is cut to the identical shape of the pattern ,t4 ,among modern developments in this art may be mentioned the patents to ,kimball1 ,no4 #dga1jjf1 ,march #ae1 #ahib1 and ,no4 #dih1agj1 ,may #bc1 #ahic1 the latter showing ingenious means whereby shoe lasts of the same length1 but varying widths1 may be turned4 ,a polygonal-form lathe is shown in patent to ,merritt1 ,no4 #ejd1hab1 ,september #ab1 #ahic2 a multiple lathe in patents to ,albee1 ,no4 #dbi1big1 ,june #c1 #ahij1 and ,aram1 ,no4 #eej1dja1 ,november #bf1 #ahie2 a tubular lathe in patent to ,lenhart1 ,no4 #cee1edj1 ,january #d1 #ahhg2 and a spiral cutting lathe in patent to ,mackintosh1 ,no4 #cif1bhc1 ,january #ae1 #ahhi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4--,,mortising ,,machine4 ,mortising ,machines have exercised an important influence in mill work in the joining of the stiles in doors1 sashes and blinds1 and in the making of furniture4 ,the ,fay ,egan machine is seen in ,fig4 #bdh4 ,the self acting mortising machine was among the numerous early contributions of ,gen4 ,bentham in woodworking machinery1 and was described in his ,british patent ,no4 #a1iea1 of #agic1 a number of them having been made by him for the ,british ,admiralty4 ,brunel's mortising machine for making ships' blocks is another early form described in ,british patent ,no4 #b1dgh1 of #ahja4 ,as representing novel departures in this art1 the endless chain mortising machine shown in ,douglas patent1 ,no4 #cgi1eff1 ,march #bj1 #ahhh1 may be mentioned1 and reissue patent1 ,no4 #aj1fee1 ,october #bg1 #ahhe1 to ,oppenheimer1 and ,no4 #dfa1fff1 ,october #bj1 #ahia1 to ,charlton1 are examples of mortising augers4 ,special ,woodworking ,machines4--,of these there have been great numbers and variety4 ,no sooner does an article become extensively used than a machine is made for turning it out automatically4 ,indeed1 machines for cheaply turning out articles have1 in many cases1 led the way to popular use of the article by the extreme cheapness of its production4 ,among various automatic machines for making special articles may be mentioned those for making clothes pins1 scooping out wood trays1 pointing skewers1 dovetailing box blanks1 cutting sash stile pockets1 cutting and packing toothpicks1 making matches1 boxing matches1 duplicating carvings1 cutting bungs1 cutting corks1 making umbrella sticks1 making brush blocks1 boring chair legs1 screw-driving machines1 box nailing machines1 making cigar boxes1 nailing baskets1 wiring box blanks1 applying slats1 gluing boxes1 gluing slate frames1 making veneers1 bushing mortises1 covering piano hammers1 making staves and barrels1 making fruit baskets1 etc4 ,it is impossible to give in any brief review a proper conception of the immensity of the woodworking industry in the ,united ,states4 ,it is estimated in the ,patent ,office that about #h1jjj patents have been granted for woodworking machines4 ,besides this there are about #e1jjj patents in the separate class of wood sawing1 about an equal number for woodworking tools1 and these1 with other patented inventions in wood turning1 coopering1 or the making of barrels1 wheelwrighting1 and other minor classes1 give some idea of the activity in this great field of industry4 ,the exports of wood and wooden manufactures from the ,united ,states in #ahii amounted to #da1dhi1ebf1 of which #ae1jca1agf were for finished boards1 #d1ajg1cej for barrels1 staves and heads1 and #c1ega1cge for household furniture1 but this is only an insignificant portion1 for with a prosperous country1 an abundance of wood1 and a thrifty and ambitious nation of home builders1 the home consumption has been incalculable4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,metal ,,working4 ,,early ,,iron ,,furnace--,,operations ,,of ,,lord ,,dudley1 ,,abraham ,,darby ,,and ,,henry ,,cort--,,neilson',s ,,hot ,,blast--,,great ,,blast ,,furnaces ,,of ,,modern ,,times--,,the ,,puddling ,,furnace--,,bessemer ,,steel ,,and ,,the ,,converter--,,open ,,hearth ,,steel--,,siemens' ,,regenerative ,,furnace--,,siemens-,,martin ,,process --,,armor ,,plate--,,making ,,horse ,,shoes--,,screws ,,and ,,special ,,machines-- ,,electric ,,welding1 ,,annealing ,,and ,,tempering--,,coating ,,with ,,metal--,,metal ,,founding--,,barbed ,,wire ,,machines--,,making ,,nails1 ,,pins1 ,,etc4--,,making ,,shot--,,alloys--,,making ,,aluminum1 ,,and ,,metallurgy ,,of ,,rarer ,,metals--,,the ,,cyanide ,,process--,,electric ,,concentrator4 ,take away iron and steel from the resources of modern life1 and the whole fabric of civilization disintegrates4 ,the railroad1 steam engine and steamship1 the dynamo and electric motor1 the telegraph and telephone1 agricultural implements of all sorts1 grinding mills1 spinning machines and looms1 battleships and firearms1 stoves and furnaces1 the printing press1 and tools of all sorts--each and every one would be robbed of its essential basic material1 without which it cannot exist4 ,steam and electricity may be the heart and soul of the world's life1 but iron is its great body4 ,king among metals1 it gives its name to the present cycle1 as the 8,iron ,age10 and the ,nineteenth ,century has crowned it with such refinements of shape1 and endowed it with such attributes of utility1 and such grandeur of estate1 that its powers in organized machinery have1 for effective service1 risen to all the functions and dignity of human capacity--except that of thought4 ,a crude gift of nature1 in the mountain side1 it remained1 however1 a sodden mass until extracted1 refined1 and wrought into shape by the genius of man4 ,yielding to the magical touch of invention1 it has been cast in moulds into cannon1 mills1 plowshares1 and ten thousand articles2 it has been drawn into wire of any fineness and length to form cables for great suspension bridges2 it has been rolled into rails that grill the continents2 into sheets that cover our roofs2 and into nails that hold our houses together4 ,it has been wrought into a softness that lends its susceptible nature to the influence of magnetism1 and has been hardened into steel to form the sword and cutting tool4 ,from the delicate hair spring of a watch to the massive armor plate of a battleship1 it finds endless applications1 and is nature's most enduring gift to man--abundant1 cheap1 and lasting4 ,metallurgy is an ancient art1 and the working of gold1 silver and copper dates back to the beginning of history4 ,being found in a condition of comparative purity1 and needing but little refinement1 they were1 for that reason1 the first metals fashioned to meet the wants of man4 ,iron1 somewhat more refractory1 appeared later1 but it also has an early history1 and is mentioned in the ,old ,testament of the ,bible 7,genesis iv41 #bb71 in which reference is made to ,tubal ,cain as an artificer in brass and iron4 ,the iron bedstead of ,og1 ,king of ,bashan1 is another reference4 ,that it was known to the ,egyptians and the ,greeks at least #ajjj ,b4 ,c41 seems reasonably certain4 ,the ,assyrians were also acquainted with iron1 as is clearly established by the explorations of ,mr4 ,layard1 whose contributions to the ,british ,museum of iron articles from the ruins of ,ninevah include saws1 picks1 hammers1 and knives of iron1 which are believed to be of a date not later than #hhj ,b4 ,c4 ,iron ore is usually found in the form of an oxide 7hematite71 and its reduction to the metallic form consists in displacing the oxygen1 which is effected by mixing carbon in some form with the ore1 and subjecting the mixture to a high heat by means of a blast4 ,the carbon unites with the oxygen and forms carbonic acid gas1 which escapes1 while the metallic iron fuses and runs out at the bottom of the furnace1 and when collected in trough-shaped moulds1 is known as pig iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4--,,primitive ,,iron ,,furnace ,,of ,,hindostan4 ,the first iron furnaces were known as air bloomeries1 and had no forced draft4 ,the first step of importance in iron making was the forced blast4 ,an early form of blast furnace is shown in ,fig4 #bdi1 which represents an iron furnace of the ,kols1 a tribe of iron smelters in ,lower ,bengal and ,orissa4 ,an inclined tray terminates at its lower end in a furnace inclosure4 ,charcoal in the furnace being well ignited1 ore and charcoal resting on the tray are alternately raked into the furnace4 ,the blowers are two boxes1 connected to the furnace by bamboo pipes1 and provided with skin covers1 which are alternately depressed by the feet and raised by cords from the spring poles4 ,each skin cover has a hole in the middle1 which is stopped by the heel of the workman as the weight of the person is thrown upon it1 and is left open by the withdrawal of the foot as the cover is raised4 ,the heels of the workman1 alternately raised1 form alternately acting valves1 and the skin cover1 when depressed1 acts as a bellows4 ,the fused metal sinks to a basin in the bottom of the furnace1 and the slag or impurities run off above the level of the basin at the side of the furnace4 ,the great modern art of iron working dates from ,lord ,dudley's ,british patent1 ,no4 #ah1 of #afba1 which related to 8,the mistery1 arte1 way and meanes of melting iron owre1 and of makeing the same into cast workes or barrs with seacoales or pittcoales in furnaces with bellowes of as good condicon as hath bene heretofore made of charcoale40 ,the next step of importance after the blast furnace was the substitution of coke for coal for the reduction of the ore1 which was introduced by ,abraham ,darby1 about #agej4 ,next came the conversion of cast iron into wrought iron4 ,this was mainly the work of ,mr4 ,henry ,cort1 of ,gosport1 ,england1 who1 in #aghc-hd1 introduced the processes of puddling and rolling1 which were two of the most important inventions connected with the production of iron since the employment of the blast furnace4 ,mr4 ,cort obtained ,british patents ,no4 #a1cea1 of #aghc1 and ,no4 #a1dbj1 of #aghd1 for his invention4 ,his first patent related to the hammering1 welding1 and rolling of the iron1 while in his second patent he introduced what is known as the reverberatory furnace1 having a concave bottom1 into which the fluid metal is run from the smelting furnace1 and which is converted from brittle cast iron1 containing a certain per cent4 of carbon1 into wrought iron1 which has the carbon eliminated1 and is malleable and tough4 ,this process is called puddling1 and consists in exposing the molten metal to an oxidizing current of flame and air4 ,the metal boils as the carbon is burned out1 and as it becomes more plastic and stiff it is collected into what are called blooms1 and these are hammered to get rid of the slag1 and are reduced to marketable shape as wrought iron by the process described in his previous patent4 ,mr4 ,cort expended a fortune in developing the iron trade1 and was one of the greatest pioneers in this art4 ,the first notable development of the ,nineteenth ,century was the introduction of the hot air blast in forges and furnaces where bellows or blowing apparatus was required4 ,this was the invention of ,j4 ,beaumont ,neilson1 of ,glasgow1 and was covered by him in ,british patent ,no4 #e1gja of #ahbh4 ,this consisted in heating the air blast before admitting it to the furnace1 and it so increased the reduction of refractory ores in the blast furnace as to permit three or four times the quantity of iron to be produced with an expenditure of little more than one-third of the fuel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bej4--,,modern ,,hot ,,blast ,,furnace4 ,an illustration of a modern blast furnace plant is given in ,fig4 #bej4 ,a is the furnace1 in which the iron ore and fuel are arranged in alternate layers4 ,the hot air blast comes in through pipes t at the bottom1 called tuyeres4 ,as gas escapes through the opening b at the top1 it is first cleared of dust in the settler and washer ,b1 and then passes through the pipe ,c to the regenerators ,d ,d ,d1 where it is made to heat the incoming air4 ,the gas mixed with some air burns in the regenerators1 and1 after heating a mass of brick within the regenerators red hot1 escapes by the underground passageway to the chimney on the right4 ,when the bricks are sufficiently hot in one of the regenerators1 gas is turned off therefrom1 and into another regenerator1 and fresh air from pipe ,h is passed through the bricks of the heated regenerator1 and being heated passes out pipe ,f at the top and thence to the pipe ,g and tuyeres t1 to promote the chemical reactions in the blast furnace4 ,in the earlier blast furnaces a vast amount of heat was allowed to escape and was wasted4 ,the utilization of this heat engaged the attention of ,aubertot in ,france1 #ahaj-ad2 ,teague in ,england 7,british patent ,no4 #f1baa1 of #ahcb72 ,budd 7,british patent ,no4 #aj1dge1 of #ahde71 and others4 ,to enable the escaping hot gases to be employed for heating the hot blast regenerators a charging device is now used1 as seen at a in ,fig4 #bej1 in which the admission of ore and fuel is regulated by a large conical valve1 and the gases are compelled to pass out at b and be utilized4 ,among the world's largest blast furnaces may be mentioned the ,austrian ,alpine ,montan ,gesellschaft1 which concern owns thirty-two furnaces4 ,this is said to be the largest number owned by any one concern in the world1 but most of them are of small size and run on charcoal iron4 ,the furnaces of the ,united ,states are1 however1 of the largest yield1 and the leading ones of these are3 ,no4 ,annual capacity ,furnaces4 in tons4 ,carnegie ,steel ,co4 #ag #b1bjj1jjj ,federal ,steel ,co4 #ai #a1ijj1jjj ,tennessee ,coal and ,iron ,co4 #bj #a1cjg1jjj ,national ,steel ,co4 #ab #a1bje1jjj ,the present annual output of pig iron in the ,united ,states is about ten million tons1 of which these four companies make about one-half4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bea4--,,puddling ,,furnace4 ,when the iron runs from the bottom of the blast furnace it is allowed to flow into trough-like moulds in the sand of the floor1 and forms pig iron4 ,pig iron can be remelted and cast into various articles in moulds1 but it cannot be wrought with the hammer1 nor rolled into rails or plates1 nor welded on the anvil1 because it is still a compound of iron and carbon with other impurities1 and is crystalline in character4 ,to bring it into wrought iron1 which is malleable and ductile1 it is puddled and refined1 which involves chiefly the burning out of the carbon and silicon4 ,the pig iron is remelted 7see ,fig4 #bea7 in the tray-shaped hearth b from the heat of the fire in the reverberatory furnace a1 the reverberatory furnace being one in which the materials treated are exposed to the heat of the flame1 but not to contact with the fuel4 ,the hot flame mixed with air beating down upon the melted iron on hearth b for two hours or so1 burns out the silicon and carbon1 the process being facilitated by stirring and working the mass with tools4 ,during the operation the oxygen of the air combines with the carbon and forms carbonic acid gas1 which1 in escaping from the metal1 appears to make it boil4 ,when the iron parts with its carbon it loses its fluidity and becomes plastic and coherent1 and is formed into balls called blooms4 ,these blooms consist of particles of nearly pure iron cohering1 but retaining still a quantity of slag or vitreous material1 and other impurities1 which slag1 etc41 is worked out while still1 hot by a squeezing1 kneading1 and hammering process to form wrought iron that may be worked into any shape between rolls or under the hammer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beb4--;,,bessemer ,,converter ,,during ,,the 8,,blow40 ,bessemer ,steel4--,steel is a compound of iron and carbon1 standing between wrought iron and cast iron4 ,wrought iron has1 when pure1 practically no carbon in it1 while cast iron has a considerable proportion in excess of steel4 ,steel making consists mainly in so treating cast iron as to get rid of a part of the carbon and other impurities4 ,of all methods of steel making1 and in fact of all the steps of progress in the art of metal working1 none has been so important and so far reaching in effect as the ,bessemer process3 ,it was invented by ,henry ,bessemer1 of ,england1 in #ahee4 ,about fifty ,british patents were taken by ,mr4 ,bessemer relating to various improvements in the iron industry1 but those representing the pioneer steps of the so-called ,bessemer process are ,no4 #b1cba1 of #ahee2 ,no4 #b1gfh1 of #ahee1 and ,no4 #cef1 of #ahef4 ,the process is illustrated in ,figs4 #beb1 #bec and #bed4 ,the converter in which the process is carried out is a great bottle-shaped vessel #ae feet high and #i feet wide1 consisting of an iron shell with a heavy lining of refractory material1 capable of holding eight or more tons of melted iron1 and with an open neck at the top turned to one side4 ,it is mounted on trunnions1 and is provided with gear wheels by which it may be turned on its trunnions1 so that it may be maintained erect1 as in ,fig4 #beb1 or be turned down to pour out the contents into the casting ladle1 as in ,figs4 #bec and #bed4 ,at the bottom of the converter there is an air chamber supplied by a pipe leading from one of the trunnions1 which is hollow1 and a number of upwardly discharging air openings or nozzles send streams of air into the molten mass of red hot cast iron4 ,the red hot cast iron contains more or less carbon and silicon1 and the air uniting with the carbon and silicon burns it out1 and in doing so furnishes the heat for the continuance of the operation4 ,when the pressure of air is turned into the mass of molten iron a tongue of flame increasing in brilliancy to an intense white1 comes roaring out of the mouth of the converter1 and a violent ebullition takes place within1 and throws sparks and spatters of metal high in the air around1 producing the impression and scenic effect of a volcano in eruption4 ,in fifteen minutes the volume and brilliancy of the flame diminish1 and this indicates the critical moment of conversion into tough steel1 which must be adjusted to the greatest nicety4 ,when the carbon is sufficiently burned out the blast is stopped and the converter turned down to receive a quantity of ferro-manganese or spiegeleisen 7a compound of iron containing manganese71 which unites with and removes the sulphur and oxide of iron1 and then the lurid monster1 with its breath of fire abated1 and its energy exhausted1 bows its head and vomits forth its charge of boiling steel1 to be wrought or cast into ten thousand useful articles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bec4--,,pouring ,,the ,,molten ,,metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bed4--,,side ,,view1 ,,showing ,,turning ,,gears4 ,like most all valuable inventions1 ,mr4 ,bessemer's claim to priority for the invention was contested4 ,an ,american inventor1 ,william ,kelly1 in an interference with ,mr4 ,bessemer's ,united ,states patent1 successfully established a claim to the broad idea of forcing air into the red hot cast iron1 and ,united ,states patent ,no4 #ag1fbh1 ,june #bc1 #aheg1 was granted to ,mr4 ,kelly4 ,the honor of inventing and introducing a successful process and apparatus for making steel by this method1 however1 fairly belongs to ,mr4 ,bessemer1 to whose work was to be added the valuable contribution of ,robert ,f4 ,mushet 7,british patent ,no4 #b1bai1 of #ahef7 of adding spiegeleisen1 a triple compound of iron1 carbon and manganese1 to the charge in the converter4 ,this step served to regulate the supply of carbon and eliminate the oxygen1 and completed the process of making steel4 ,the ,holly converter1 covered by ,united ,states patents ,no4 #hf1cjc1 and ,no4 #hf1cjd1 ,january #bf1 #ahfi1 represented one of the most important ,american developments of the ,bessemer converter4 ,the importance of ,bessemer steel in its influence upon modern civilization is everywhere admitted4 ,it has so cheapened steel that it now competes with iron in price4 ,practically all railroad rails1 iron girders and beams for buildings1 nails1 etc41 are made from it at a cost of between one and two cents per pound4 ,in recognition of the great benefits conferred upon humanity by this process1 ,queen ,victoria conferred the degree of knighthood upon the inventor1 and his fortune resulting from his invention is estimated to have grown for some time at the rate of #ejj1jjj a year4 ,in a historical sketch of the development of his process1 delivered by ,sir ,henry ,bessemer in ,december1 #ahif1 before the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers at ,new ,york1 ,mr4 ,bessemer was reported as saying that the annual production of ,bessemer steel in ,europe and ,america amounted to #aj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the production of ,bessemer steel in the ,united ,states for #ahig was for ingots and castings #e1dge1cae tons1 and for railroad rails #a1fdd1ebj tons4 ,the extent to which steel has displaced iron is shown by the fact that in the same year iron rails to the extent of #b1hgb tons only were made1 as compared with more than a million and a half tons of ,bessemer steel4 ,in the popular vote taken by the ,scientific ,american1 ,july #be1 #ahif1 as to what invention introduced in the past fifty years had conferred the greatest benefit upon mankind1 ,bessemer steel was given the place of honor4 ,a recent improvement in the handling of iron from the blast furnace is shown in ,fig4 #bee4 ,heretofore1 the iron was run in open sand moulds on the floor and allowed to cool in bars called 8pigs10 which were united in a series to a main body of the flow1 called a 8sow40 ,to break the 8pigs0 from the 8sow10 and handle the iron in transportation1 was a very laborious and expensive work4 ,the illustration shows two series of parallel trough moulds1 each forming an endless belt1 running on wheels4 ,the molten cast iron is poured direct into these moulds1 and as they travel along they pass beneath a body of water1 which cools and solidifies the iron into pigs1 and then carries them up an incline and dumps them directly into the cars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bee4--;,,casting ,,and ,,loading ,,pig ,,iron4 ,open ,hearth ,steel is not so cheap as ,bessemer steel1 but it is of a finer and more uniform quality4 ,bessemer steel is made in a few minutes by the most energetic1 rapid and critical of processes1 while the open hearth steel requires several hours1 and its development being thus prolonged it may be watched and regulated to a greater nicety of result4 ,for railroad rails and architectural construction ,bessemer steel still finds a great field of usefulness1 but for the finest quality of steel1 such as is employed in making steam boilers1 tools1 armor plate for war vessels1 etc41 steel made by the open hearth process is preferred4 ,it consists in the decarburization of cast iron by fusion with wrought iron1 iron sponge1 steel scrap1 or iron oxide1 in the hearth of a reverberatory furnace heated with gases1 the flame of which assists the reaction1 and the subsequent recarburization or deoxidation of the bath by the addition1 at the close of the process1 of spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese4 ,the period of fusion lasts from four to eight hours4 ,the advantages over the ,bessemer process are1 a less expensive plant and the greater duration of the operation1 permitting1 by means of sampling1 more complete control of the quality of the product and greater uniformity of result4 ,the ,british patents of ,siemens1 ,no4 #b1hfa1 of #ahef2 ,no4 #afg1 of #ahfa1 and ,no4 #igb1 of #ahfc1 for regenerative furnaces1 and the ,british patents of ,emile and ,pierre ,martin1 ,no4 #b1jca1 of #ahfd2 ,no4 #b1acg1 of #ahfe1 and ,no4 #hei1 of #ahff1 represent the so-called ,siemens-,martin process1 which is the best known and generally used open hearth process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef4--,,siemens ,,regenerative ,,furnace4 ,the ,siemens ,regenerative ,furnace1 in which this process is carried out1 is seen in ,fig4 #bef4 ,four chambers1 ,c1 ,e1 ,e1 ,c1 are filled with fire brick loosely stacked with spaces between1 in checker-work style4 ,gas is forced in the bottom of chamber ,c1 and air in bottom of chamber ,e1 and they pass up separate flues1 ,g1 on the left1 and being ignited in chamber ,d above1 impinge in a flame on the metal in hearth ,h1 the hot gases passing out flues ,f on the right1 and percolating through and highly heating the checker-work bricks in chambers ,e and ,c4 ,as soon as these are hot1 gas and air are shut off by valves from chambers ,c and ,e1 and gas and air admitted to the bottoms of the now hot chambers ,c and ,e4 ,the gas and air now passing up through these chambers ,c1 ,e1 become highly heated1 and when burned above the melted iron on hearth ,h produce an intense heat4 ,the waste gases now pass down flues ,g1 and impart their heat to the checker-work bricks in chambers ,c and ,e4 ,when the bricks in ,e ,c become cooled by the passage of gas and air1 the valves are again adjusted to reverse the currents of gas and air1 sending them now through chambers ,c and ,e again4 ,in this way the heat escaping to the smoke stack is stored up in the bricks and utilized to heat the incoming fuel gases before burning them1 thus greatly increasing the effective energy of the furnace1 saving fuel1 and keeping the smoke stack relatively cool4 ,armor ,plate4--,in these late days of struggle for supremacy between the power of the projectile and the resistance of the battleship1 the production of armor plate has become an interesting and important industry4 ,three methods are employed4 ,one is to roll the massive ingots directly into plates between tremendous rolls1 a single pair of which1 such as used in the ,krupp works1 are said to weigh in the rough as much as #ajj1jjj pounds4 ,usually there are three great rollers arranged one above the other1 and automatic tables are provided for raising and lowering the plates in their passage from one set of rolls to the other4 ,the man in charge uses a whistle in giving the signals which direct these movements1 and without the help of tongs and levers the glowing blocks move easily back and forth between the rollers4 ,the men standing on both sides of the rollers have only to wipe off the plates with brooms and occasionally turn the plates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg4--ad1jjj-,,ton ,,hydraulic ,,press ,,forging ,,an ,,armor ,,plate4 ,the second method utilizes great steam hammers weighing #abe tons1 and striking ,titanic blows upon the yielding metal4 ,the most modern method1 however1 is by the hydraulic press forge1 now used in the shops of the ,bethlehem steel works in the production of ,harveyized armor plate4 ,in ,fig4 #beg is seen the great #ad1jjj-ton hydraulic press-forge squeezing into shape a port armor plate for the battleship 8,alabama40 ,after leaving the forge1 the plate is trimmed to shape by the savage bite of a rotary saw and planer1 seen in ,figs4 #beh and #bei1 whose insatiable appetites tear off the steel like famished fiends4 ,the plate is then taken to be ,harveyized by cementation1 hardening1 and tempering1 as seen in ,figs4 #bfj1 #bfa1 and #bfb4 ,the #abe-ton mass of metal representing the plate in the rough1 and weighing more than a locomotive1 is thus handled and brought to shape with an ease and dispatch that inspires the observer with mixed emotions of admiration and awe4 ,making ,horse ,shoes4--,anthony's patent1 ,april #h1 #ahca2 ,tolles'1 of ,october #bd1 #ahcd1 and ,h4 ,burden's1 of ,november #bc1 #ahce1 were pioneers in horse-shoe machines4 ,mr4 ,burden took many subsequent patents1 and to him more than any other inventor belongs the credit of introducing machine-made horse shoes1 which greatly cheapened the cost of this homely1 but useful article4 ,nearly #djj ,united ,states patents have been granted for horse-shoe machines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh4--,,rotary ,,saw1 ,,cutting ,,heavy ,,armor ,,plate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei4--,,rotary ,,planer1 ,,trimming ,,heavy ,,armor ,,plate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4--,,the ,,cementation ,,furnace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4--;,,hardening ,,the ,,plate ,,by ,,jets ,,of ,,water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4--,,oil ,,tempering4 ,making ,screws1 ,bolts1 ,nuts1 ,etc4--,screw-making according to modern methods began between #ahjj-ahaj with the operations of ,maudsley4 ,sloan1 in #ahea1 and ,harvey1 in #ahfd1 made many improvements in machines1 operating upon screw blanks4 ,the gimlet-pointed screw1 which allows the screw to be turned into wood without having a hole bored for it1 was an important advance in the art4 ,it was the invention of ,thomas ,j4 ,sloan1 patented ,august #bj1 #ahdf1 ,no4 #d1gjd1 and was twice re-issued and extended4 ,in later years the rolling of screws1 instead of cutting the threads by a chasing tool1 has attained considerable importance1 and provides a simpler and cheaper method of manufacture4 ,knowles' ,united ,states patent of ,april #a1 #ahca1 re-issued ,march #a1 #ahcc1 described such a process1 while ,rogers1 in patents ,no4 #cgj1ced1 ,september #bj1 #ahhg2 ,no4 #djh1ebi1 ,august #f1 #ahhi2 ,no4 #dcj1bcg1 ,june #ag1 #ahij1 and ,no4 #dcd1hji1 ,august #ai1 #ahij1 added such improvement in the process as to make it practical4 ,in the great art of metal working the names of ,bramah1 ,whitworth1 ,clements and ,sellers appear conspicuously in the early part of the century as inventors of planing1 boring and turning machinery for metals4 ,our present splendid machine shops1 gun shops1 locomotive works1 typewriter and bicycle factories1 are examples of the wonderful extensions of this art4 ,in later years the field has been filled so full of improvements and special machines for special work1 that only a brief citation of a few representative types is possible1 and even then selection becomes a very difficult task4 ,many special tools1 particularly those designed for bicycle work1 have been devised1 as exhibited by patent to ,hillman1 ,august #aa1 #ahia1 ,no4 #deg1gah4 ,in turning car wheels1 an improvement consists in bringing the wheel to be dressed into close proximity to the edge of a rapidly revolving smooth metal disk1 whereby the surface of the wheel is melted away without there being any actual contact between the wheel surface and the disk4 ,this is shown in patent to ,miltimore1 ,august #bd1 #ahhf1 ,no4 #cdg1iea4 ,in metal tube manufacture three processes are worthy of mention3 7#a7 ,passing a heated solid rod endwise between the working faces of two rapidly rotating tapered rolls1 set with their axes at an angle to each other1 as shown in ,mannesmann's patent1 ,april #bf1 #ahhg1 ,no4 #cfa1ied and #cfa1iee4 7#b7 ,forcing a tube into a rapidly rotating die1 whereby the friction softens the tube1 and the pressure and rotation of the die spin it into a tube of reduced diameter1 shown in patent to ,bevington1 ,january #ac1 #ahia1 ,no4 #ddd1gba4 7#c7 ,placing a hot ingot in a die and forcing a mandrel through the ingot1 thereby causing it to assume the shape of the interior of the die1 and greatly condensing the metal1 shown in patents to ,robertson1 ,november #bf1 #ahhi1 ,no4 #daf1jad1 and ,ehrhardt1 ,april #aa1 #ahic1 ,no4 #die1bde4 ,in welding1 the employment of electricity constitutes the most important departure4 ,this was introduced by ,elihu ,thomson1 and is covered in his patents ,nos4 #cdg1adj to #cdg1adb1 ,august #aj1 #ahhf1 and ,no4 #eja1edf1 ,july #ah1 #ahic4 ,in annealing and tempering1 electricity has also been employed as a means of heating 7see patent to ,shaw1 ,no4 #baa1ich1 ,february #d1 #ahgi74 ,it supplies an even heat and uniform temperature1 and is much used in producing clock and watch springs4 ,the making of iron castings malleable by a prolonged baking in a furnace in a bed of metallic oxide was an important1 but early1 step4 ,it was the invention of ,samuel ,lucas1 and is disclosed in his ,british patent ,no4 #b1gfg1 of #ahjd4 ,the ,harvey process of making armor plate is an important recent development in cementation and case hardening1 and is covered by his ,united ,states patents ,no4 #cgf1aid1 ,january #aj1 #ahhh1 and ,no4 #dfj1bfb1 ,september #bi1 #ahia4 ,it consists1 see ,fig4 #bfj1 in embedding the face of the plate in carbon1 protecting the back and sides with sand1 heating to about the melting point of cast iron1 and subsequently hardening the face4 ,the ,krupp armor plate1 now rated as the best1 is made under the patent to ,schmitz and ,ehrenzberger1 ,no4 #ecd1agh1 ,february #ab1 #ahie4 ,in coating with metals1 the so-called 8galvanizing0 of iron is an important art4 ,this was introduced by ,craufurd 7,british patent ,no4 #g1cee1 of ,april #bi1 #ahcg71 and consisted in plunging the iron into a bath of melted zinc covered with sal ammoniac4 ,in more recent years the tinning of iron has become an important industry1 and machines have been made for automatically coating the plates and dispensing with hand labor1 examples of which are found in patents ,no4 #bbj1gfh1 ,october #ba1 #ahgi1 ,morewood2 ,no4 #cbi1bdj1 ,october #bg1 #ahhe1 ,taylor1 et al41 and ,no4 #dbf1ifb1 ,april #bi1 #ahij1 ,rogers and ,player4 ,in metal founding the employment of chill moulds is an important step4 ,where any portion of a casting is subjected to unusual wear1 the mould is formed1 opposite that part of the casting1 out of metal1 instead of sand1 and this metal surface1 by rapidly extracting the heat at that point by virtue of its own conductivity1 hardens the metal of the casting at such point4 ,the casting of car wheels by chill moulds1 by which the tread portion of the wheel was hardened and increased in wearing qualities1 is a good illustration4 ,important types are found in patents to ,wilmington1 ,no4 #he1jdf1 ,december #ae1 #ahfh2 ,barr1 ,no4 #bjg1gid1 ,september #aj1 #ahgh1 and ,whitney1 re-issue patent1 ,no4 #aj1hjd1 ,february #a1 #ahhg4 ,in wire-working great advances have been made in machines for making barbed wire fences4 ,the ,french patent to ,grassin ,baledans1 in #ahfa1 is the first disclosure of a barbed wire fence4 ,this art began practically1 however1 with the ,united ,states patent to ,glidden and ,vaughan for a barbed wire machine1 ,no4 #aeg1ejh1 ,december #h1 #ahgd1 re-issued ,march #bj1 #ahgg1 ,no4 #g1eff1 and has assumed great proportions4 ,a machine for making wire net is shown in patent to ,scarles1 ,no4 #chj1ffd1 ,april #c1 #ahhh1 and wire picket fence machines are shown in patents to ,fultz1 ,no4 #bih1cfh1 ,may #ac1 #ahhd1 and ,kitselman1 ,no4 #cef1cbb1 ,january #ah1 #ahhg4 ,machines for making wire nails were invented at an early period1 but the product found but little favor until about #ahhj1 when they began to be extensively used1 and have almost entirely supplanted cut nails for certain classes of work1 since their round cross section and lack of taper give great holding power and avoid cutting the grain of the wood4 ,in #ahig the wire nails produced in the ,united ,states amounted to #h1iig1bde kegs of #ajj pounds each1 which nearly doubled the output of #ahif4 ,the output of cut nails for the same year was #b1ajf1gii kegs4 ,the bending of wire to form chains without welding the links has long been done for watch chains1 etc41 but in late years the method has extended to many varieties of heavy chains4 ,the patents to ,breul1 ,no4 #cei1jed1 ,march #h1 #ahhg1 and ,no4 #dfg1cca1 ,january #ai1 #ahib1 are good examples4 ,an interesting class of machines1 but one impossible of illustration on account of their complication1 are machines for making pins4 ,in earlier times pins had their heads applied in a separate operation4 ,making pins from wire and forming the heads out of the cut sections began in the ,nineteenth ,century with ,hunt's ,british patent ,no4 #d1abi1 of #ahag4 ,this art received its greatest impetus1 however1 under ,wright's ,british patent ,no4 #d1iee1 of #ahbd4 ,a paper of pins containing a pin for every day in the year1 and costing but a few cents1 gives no idea to the purchaser of the time1 thought and capital expended in machines for making them1 and yet were it not for such machines1 rapidly cutting coils of wire into lengths1 pointing and heading the pins1 and sticking them into papers1 the world would be deprived of one of its most ubiquitous and useful articles4 ,many tons of pins are made in the ,united ,states weekly1 and it is said that #bj1jjj1jjj pins a day are required to meet the demand4 ,in the metal working art the making of firearms and projectiles has grown to wonderful proportions4 ,cutlery and builders' hardware is an enormous branch2 wire-drawing1 sheet metal-making1 forging1 and the making of tools1 springs1 tin cans1 needles1 hooks and eyes1 nails and tacks1 and a thousand minor articles1 have grown to such proportions that only a bird's-eye view of the art is possible4 ,in the making of shot1 the old method was to pour the melted metal through a sieve1 and allow it to drop from a tower #ahj feet or more in height4 ,david ,smith's patent1 ,no4 #f1dfj1 ,may #bb1 #ahdi1 provided an ascending current of air through which the metal dropped1 and which1 by cooling the shot by retarding its fall and bringing a greater number of air particles in contact with them1 avoided the necessity of such high towers4 ,in #ahfh1 ,glasgow and ,wood patented a process of dropping the shot through a column of glycerine or oil4 ,still another method is to allow the melted metal to fall on a revolving disk1 which divides it into drops by centrifugal action4 ,alloys4--,over #cjj ,united ,states patents have been granted for various alloys of metals4 ,the so-called babbit metal was patented in the ,united ,states by ,isaac ,babbit1 ,july #ag1 #ahci1 and in ,england1 ,may #ae1 #ahdc1 ,no4 #i1gbd4 ,this consists of an antifriction compound of tin1 #aj parts1 copper1 #a part1 and antimony1 #a part1 and is specially adapted for the lubricated bearings of machinery4 ,phosphor bronze1 introduced in #ahga1 combines #hj to #ib parts copper1 #g of tin1 and #a of phosphorus 7see ,united ,states patents to ,lavroff1 ,no4 #aah1cgb1 ,august #bb1 #ahga1 and ,levi and ,kunzel1 ,no4 #aae1bbj1 ,may #bc1 #ahga74 ,the addition of phosphorus promotes the fluidity of the metal and makes very clean1 fine and strong castings4 ,in alloys of iron1 chromium steel is covered by patents to ,baur1 ,no4 #di1die1 ,august #bb1 #ahfe2 ,no4 #ii1fbd1 ,february #h1 #ahgj1 and ,no4 #abc1ddc1 ,february #f1 #ahgb2 manganese steel1 by ,hadfield's patent1 ,no4 #cjc1aej1 ,august #e1 #ahhd2 aluminum steel1 by ,wittenstrm's patent1 ,no4 #ccc1cgc1 ,december #bi1 #ahhe1 and phosphorus steel1 by ,kunkel's patent1 ,no4 #ahb1cga1 ,september #ai1 #ahgf4 ,the most recent and perhaps most important1 however1 is nickel steel1 used in making armor for battleships4 ,this is covered by ,schneider's patents1 ,nos4 #dae1fee1 and #dae1feg1 ,november #ai1 #ahhi4 ,in #ahgh ,england led the world in the iron industry with a production of #f1cha1jea tons of pig iron1 as compared with #b1cja1bae tons by the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahig the ,united ,states leads the world in the following ratios3 ,tons ,pig ,iron4 ,tons ,steel4 ,united ,states #i1feb1fhj #g1aef1ieg ,great ,britain #h1ghi1dee #d1ehe1ifa ,germany #f1hgi1eda #d1gif1bbf ,france #b1dgb1adc #a1cab1jjj ,the ,united ,states made in that year #bi4cj per cent4 of the world's production of pig iron1 and #cd4eh per cent4 of its steel4 ,the total output of the whole world in that year was #cb1icg1dij tons pig iron1 and #bj1fif1ghg tons of steel4 ,metallurgy of ,rarer ,metals4--,although less in evidence than iron1 this has engaged the attention of the scientist from the earliest years of the century4 ,the full list of metals discovered since #ahjj may be found under 8,chemistry40 ,the more important only are here given4 ,palladium and rhodium were reduced by ,wollaston in #ahjd4 ,potassium and sodium were first separated in metallic form by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy in #ahjg1 through the agency of the voltaic arc2 barium1 strontium1 calcium and boron by the same scientist in #ahjh2 iodine by ,courtois in #ahaa2 selenium by ,berzelius in #ahag2 cadmium by ,stromeyer in #ahag2 silicon by ,berzelius in #ahbc1 and bromium by ,balard in #ahbf4 ,magnesium was first prepared by ,bussey in #ahbi4 ,aluminum was first separated in #ahbh by ,wohler1 by decomposing the chloride by means of potassium4 ,oersted1 in #ahbg1 preceded him with important preliminary steps1 and ,deville1 in #ahed1 followed in the first commercial applications4 ,in late years the metallurgy of aluminum has made great advances4 ,the ,cowles process heats to incandescence by the electric current a mixture of alumina1 carbon and copper1 the reduced aluminum alloying with the copper4 ,this process is covered by ,united ,states patents to ,cowles and ,cowles1 ,no4 #cai1gie1 ,june #i4 #ahhe1 and ,nos4 #cbd1feh and #cbd1fei1 ,august #ah1 #ahhe4 ,it has1 however1 for the most parts been superseded by the process patented by ,hall1 ,april #b1 #ahhi1 ,no4 #djj1gff1 in which alumina dissolved in fused cryolite is electrically decomposed4 ,in the metallurgy of the precious metals probably the most important step has been the cyanide process of obtaining gold and silver4 ,in #ahjf it was known that gold was soluble in a solution of cyanide of potassium4 ,in #ahdd ,l4 ,elsner published investigations along this line1 and demonstrated that the solution took place only in the presence of oxygen4 ,mc,arthur and ,forrest perfected the process for commercial application1 and it is now extensively used in the ,transvaal and elsewhere4 ,it is covered by their ,british patent1 ,no4 #ad1agd1 of #ahhg1 and ,united ,states patents ,no4 #djc1bjb1 ,may #ad1 #ahhi1 and ,no4 #dah1acg1 ,december #bd1 #ahhi1 which describe the application of dilute solutions of cyanide of potassium1 not exceeding #h parts cyanogen to #a1jjj parts of water3 the use of zinc in a fine state of division to precipitate the gold out of solution1 and the preparatory treatment of the partially oxidized ores with an alkali or salts of an alkali4 ,by this solution-process gold1 in the finest state of subdivision1 which could not be extracted by other processes from the earthy matters1 may be recovered and saved in a simple1 practical and cheap way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4--;,,edison ,,magnetic ,,concentrating ,,works4 ,,the ,,giant ,,crushing ,,rolls4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4--;,,edison ,,magnetic ,,concentrator4 ,in the working of ores of gold and silver the old method of comminution of the rock and the separation of the gold and silver by amalgamation with mercury has given birth to thousands of inventions in stamp mills1 amalgamators1 ore washers1 concentrators and separators4 ,in the treatment of iron ores1 and especially those of low grade1 the magnetic concentrator is an interesting and striking departure4 ,this method goes back to the first half of the ,nineteenth ,century1 an example being found in the patent to ,cook1 ,no4 #f1aba1 ,february #bj1 #ahdi4 ,edison's patent1 ,no4 #bbh1cbi1 ,june #a1 #ahhj1 is however1 the basis of the first practical operations in which magnets1 operating by attraction upon falling particles of iron ore1 are made to separate the particles rich in iron from the sand4 ,in ,fig4 #bfc is shown the ,edison magnetic concentrating apparatus4 ,the ore1 in masses of all sizes up to boulders of five or six tons weight1 is dumped between the giant rolls1 and these enormous masses are crunched and comminuted more easily than a dog crunches a bone4 ,these gigantic rolls are six feet in diameter1 six feet long1 and their surfaces are covered with crushing knobs4 ,they weigh with the moving machinery seventy tons1 and when revolved at a circumferential speed of #c1ejj feet in a minute1 their insatiable and irresistible bite soon chews the rock into fragments that pass into similar crushing rolls set closer together until reduced to the desired fineness4 ,the sand is then raised to the top of the concentrating devices1 shown in ,fig4 #bfd1 and is allowed to fall in sheets from inclined boards in front of a series of magnets1 of which four sets are shown in the figure4 ,these magnets deflect the fall of the particles rich in iron 7which are attracted71 while the non-magnetic particles of sand drop straight down4 ,a thin knife-edge partition board1 arranged below the falling sheets of sand1 separates the deflected magnetic particles from the straight-falling sand4 ,these magnetic particles are then collected and pressed into little bricks1 which are now so rich in iron1 by virtue of concentration1 as to make the final reduction of the iron in the blast furnace easy and profitable4 ,more recent developments in this art are shown in patents to ,wetherill1 ,no4 #eee1gib1 ,march #c1 #ahif1 and ,payne1 ,no4 #fda1adh1 ,january #i1 #aijj4 ,in the production of copper the well-known ,bessemer process for refining iron is now largely used1 as shown in patent to ,manhes1 ,no4 #def1eaf1 ,july #ba1 #ahia1 in which blasts of air are forced through the melted copper to remove sulphur and other impurities4 ,electrolytic processes of refining copper are also largely used1 as described in ,farmer's patent1 ,no4 #cbb1agj1 ,july #ad1 #ahhe4 ,the production of metals1 other than iron1 in the ,united ,states for the year #ahig1 was as follows3 ,gold1 #b1ggd1ice ounces2 worth #eg1cfc1jjj4 ,silver1 #ec1hfj1jjj ounces2 worth #cb1caf1jjj4 ,copper1 #bbj1ega long tons4 ,lead1 #bab1jjj short tons4 ,zinc1 #ii1ihj short tons4 ,aluminum1 #d1jjj1jjj lbs42 worth 7#cg cents lb47 #a1ejj1jjj4 7,this was three times the product of #ahif47 ,mercury1 #bf1fia flasks2 worth #iic1dde4 ,nickel1 #bc1gjg pounds2 worth 7#cc cents pound7 #g1hbc4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,firearms ,,and ,,explosives4 ,,the ,,cannon ,,the ,,most ,,ancient ,,of ,,firearms--,,muzzle ,,and ,,breech ,,loaders ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century--,,the ,,armstrong ,,gun--,,the ,,rodman1 ,,dahlgren ,,and ,,parrott ,,guns--,,breech ,,loading ,,ordnance--,,rapid ,,fire ,,breech ,,loading ,,rifles--,,disappearing ,,gun--,,gatling ,,gun--,,dynamite ,,gun--,,the ,,colt ,,and ,,smith ,,wesson ,,revolvers--,,german ,,automatic ,,pistol--,,breech ,,loading ,,small ,,arms--,,magazine ,,guns--,,the ,,lee1 ,,krag-,,jorgensen1 ,,and ,,mauser ,,rifles--,,hammerless ,,guns--,,rebounding ,,locks--,,gun ,,cotton--,,nitro- ,,glycerine ,,and ,,smokeless ,,powder--,,mines ,,and ,,torpedoes4 ,strange as it may appear1 the evolution of an enlightened civilization and the deadly use of firearms have developed in parallel lines4 ,what relation there may be between the adoption of the teachings of ,christ to men to love one another1 and the invention of increased facilities among men for killing one another1 is a problem for the philosopher4 ,is it because killing at long range is less brutal1 or does the deterrent influence of this increased facility operate as a check appealing to the fear of the individual1 or is the cannon one of ,god's missionaries in working out the great law of the survival of the fittest8 ,whatever it may be1 there does seem to be some relation of cause and effect between the two factors1 and doubtless all three of the causes have exercised a contributory influence4 ,in the olden days the wage of battle was almost universally decided by the strength of brawn1 and the higher qualities of mind were subservient4 ,the advent of firearms has changed all this4 ,it has made the weakest arm equal to the strongest when supported by the same or a superior mental equipment1 and this has made a great step toward the supremacy of the intellectual against the attack of the physically strong4 ,in the fifth century the great civilization of ,rome fell under the ruthless attack of the northern barbarian4 ,could such a thing have been possible with the gates defended by ,gatling guns1 magazine rifles1 and dynamite shells8 ,on the contrary1 we find to-day a handful of trained soldiers equipped with modern firearms putting to flight a horde of ignorant savages4 ,the history of modern wars is filled with illustrations of the shifting of the contest among men from an issue of brute force to a contest of brains1 and of the support rendered the latter by firearms4 ,but is war really necessary1 and may we not hope that it shall cease8 ,we can only say that the ideal sentiment of beating the sword into the plowshare is as yet the dream of the optimist1 for man has gone right along in perfecting the arts of war and raising the execution of firearms to such a deadly efficacy1 that the ,nineteenth ,century in a paramount degree has been conspicuously notable for its advances in this art4 ,invention after invention has followed in such rapid succession1 even to the last years of the ,nineteenth ,century1 until war now assumes the conditions of suicide and annihilation4 ,no coherent history of firearms and explosives is possible in any short review4 ,the cannon1 bombard or mortar1 musket1 pistol and petard1 all belong to former centuries1 and in one form or another extend back to the most ancient times1 but they have grown in the ,nineteenth ,century into such accuracy and distance of range1 into such rapidity of action1 into such multiplied efficiency in repeating systems1 into such energy of explosives1 and such convenient embodiment and penetration of projectile1 that these subjects must needs be considered in separate divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4--,,muzzle ,,loading ,,cannon ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,the ,cannon is the most ancient of all firearms1 and1 like gunpowder1 is believed to have had its origin with the ,chinese4 ,in the ,eleventh ,century the vessels of the ,king of ,tunis1 in the attack on ,seville1 are said to have had on board iron pipes from which a thundering fire was discharged4 ,cond1 in his history of the ,moors in ,spain1 speaks of them as used in that country as early as #aaah4 ,ferdinand1 in #acji1 took ,gibraltar from the ,moors by cannon1 and in #acdf the ,english used them at the battle of ,crcy1 and from that time on they became a common weapon of warfare4 ,in the first cannon used the balls were of stone1 and some of them were of enormous size4 ,the bronze cannon of ,mohammed ,,ii41 ,a4 ,d41 #adfd1 had a bore of #be inches1 and threw a stone ball of #hjj pounds4 ,the ,tsar-,pooschka1 the great bronze gun of ,moscow1 cast in #aehf1 was even larger1 and had a bore #cf inches in diameter4 ,early in the history of the cannon the breech-loading feature was introduced4 ,in ,figs4 #bfe and #bff are shown illustrations from the ,sixteenth ,century1 ,fig4 #bfe representing a muzzle loader1 and ,fig4 #bff a breech-loader4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff4--;,,breech ,,loading ,,cannon ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,passing through various stages of development1 the cannon came down to the ,nineteenth ,century1 and was known generally as ordnance or artillery1 and specifically as cannon or heavy guns1 mortars for throwing shell at a great elevation1 and howitzers for field1 mountain1 or siege1 and which latter are lighter and shorter than cannon1 and designed to throw hollow projectiles with comparatively small charges4 ,the feature of importance in the cannon which contributed most to its efficiency was the rifling of the bore with spiral grooves4 ,this1 by giving a rotating effect to the projectile1 caused it to maintain a truer flight by taking advantage of the law of physics that a rotating body tends to preserve its plane of rotation4 ,the rifling of the barrels of firearms is1 however1 of very ancient origin4 ,the ,british patent to ,rotsipen1 ,no4 #ga1 of #afce1 is an early disclosure of this art4 ,the patent was granted him for 8,fourteen yeares if he live soe long40 99 99 99 8,to draw or to shave barrells for pieces of all sortes straight even and smooth1 and to make anie crooked barrell perfectly straight with greate ease1 and to rifle cutt out or screwe barrells as wyde or as close or as deepe or as shallowe as shalbe required1 with greate ease40 ,the rifle grooves1 however1 were first made spiral or 8screwed0 by ,koster1 of ,birmingham1 about #afbj1 while straight grooves are said to have been in use as far back as #adih4 ,in ,berlin there is a rifled cannon of #affd with thirteen grooves4 ,rifled cannon were first employed in actual service in ,louis ,napoleon's ,italian campaign of #ahei1 and were first introduced in the ,united ,states service by ,general ,james in #ahfa4 ,about the middle of the ,nineteenth ,century a great impetus was given to the development of artillery by the ,crimean ,war1 followed by the ,civil ,war of the ,united ,states4 ,in ,england the ,armstrong gun was introduced about #ahee1 and was covered by ,british patents ,no4 #dja1 of #aheg2 ,no4 #b1efd1 of #aheh2 ,no4 #faa1 of #ahei1 and ,no4 #gdc1 of #ahfa4 ,this originally consisted of an internal tube of wrought iron or gun metal1 with cylindrical casings of wrought iron shrunk on4 ,it was afterwards improved in what was known as the ,fraser gun4 ,in ,germany the operations of ,krupp as a gun maker began to be notable about this period4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,colonel ,rodman devised a means of casting guns of large calibre1 by having a hollow core through which water was circulated to rapidly cool and harden the metal in the vicinity of the bore1 and to relieve the unequal strain in cooling4 ,he obtained patent ,no4 #e1bcf1 ,august #ad1 #ahdg1 for the same4 ,the ,dahlgren gun was patented ,august #f1 #ahfa1 ,nos4 #cb1ihc1 #cb1ihd1 and #cb1ihe1 by ,admiral ,dahlgren1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,the improvement covered the adjustment of the thickness of the metal at the breech of the gun to the varying pressure strains along the bore4 ,these guns were distinguishable by the smooth bulbous breech of great thickness and curvilinear contour4 ,the ,parrott gun1 patented ,october #a1 #ahfa1 ,no4 #cc1dja1 and ,may #f1 #ahfb1 ,no4 #ce1aga1 comprehended a form of hooped ordnance in which the breech was re-enforced by an encompassing hoop or sleeve1 which was shrunk on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4--,,the ,,krupp ,,breech ,,mechanism4 ,breech-,loading ,ordnance4--,while the breech-loading cannon is several centuries old1 and was1 in fact1 one of the first forms of that firearm1 it is to this principle of action that the rapid fire and great execution of the modern weapon are chiefly due4 ,the earliest of existing forms of breech mechanism is that which comprehends the channeling of the breech transversely to receive a tapered plug1 which permits the charge to be placed in the open rear end of the gun in front of the channel1 and the transverse plug then closed behind the charge4 ,this is described in ,hadley's ,british patent ,no4 #egg1 of #agda2 was first patented in the ,united ,states in a modified form by ,wright and ,gould1 ,no4 #bb1cbe1 ,december #ad1 #aheh1 and afterwards came to be known as the ,broadwell system1 being developed by him and covered in patents ,no4 #cc1hgf1 of ,december #aj1 #ahfa2 ,no4 #dc1eec1 ,july #ab1 #ahfd1 and ,no4 #ee1gfb1 ,june #ai1 #ahff4 ,this general principle is still employed by ,krupp in some of his guns1 and as used by him is shown in ,fig4 #bfg4 ,the transverse channel through the breech is tapered1 and the sliding breech block ,x is slightly wedge-shaped to fit tightly therein4 ,when the breech block is withdrawn for loading1 as shown1 a sleeve ,s1 shown in dotted lines1 is temporarily arranged in alignment with the bore and gives smooth passage way to the charge to a position in front of the breech block4 ,this sleeve is then withdrawn1 the breech block forced in1 and is there locked by a turn of the threads of a locking screw b into the corresponding recesses a in the breech4 ,a detachable wrench e may be applied either to the screw d b to turn it to lock or unlock1 or to the traversing screw c1 which1 by engaging with a nut 7not shown71 runs the breech block in and out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4--;,,interrupted ,,thread ,,breech ,,mechanism4 ,by far the most popular principle of the breech block1 however1 is that of the interrupted thread1 shown in ,fig4 #bfh1 in which the plug1 when closed1 has its axis in alignment with the axial bore of the gun4 ,its threads are interrupted by longitudinally arranged channels1 and the breech of the gun has corresponding threads and channels4 ,when the plug is pushed into the gun1 the screw threads of the plug enter the channels of the breech1 and a rotary turn of the screw plug then locks its threads into those of the breech4 ,the screw plug is supported by a carrier hinged at one side to the gun1 and arranged to swing the plug into axial alignment with the bore1 or be thrown to one side to admit the charge4 ,the patents to ,chambers1 ,no4 #f1fab1 ,july #ca1 #ahdi 7re-issue ,no4 #bcg1 ,april #ai1 #ahec71 and to ,cochran1 ,no4 #bf1bef1 ,november #bi1 #ahei1 are the earliest ,american examples of this principle of action1 and are believed to be the original inventions of the same4 ,in one form or another this construction enters into most all modern breech mechanisms4 ,among the forms used by the ,united ,states are the ,driggs-,seabury1 the ,dashiell1 and the ,vickers-,maxim4 ,to prevent the expanding gases from driving through the crevices of the breech block1 expanding or swelling rings1 known as gas checks1 are arranged on the front of the breech block4 ,de ,bange's patent1 ,no4 #cja1bbj1 ,july #a1 #ahhd1 covers the most popular form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4--,,sighting ,a ,,six-,,inch ,,rapid ,,fire ,,gun4 ,the elements of efficiency of the modern rapid-fire breech-loading rifle are to be found in the following features3 ,first1 in the increased length of the gun1 which1 for a #f-;inch gun is now as much as #be feet1 the increased length lending a longer period of expansion for the explosion of the powder charge1 and imparting a correspondingly higher momentum2 secondly1 in the fixed ammunition1 which means a cartridge case in which a metallic shell encloses the powder charge1 and is connected with the projectile1 and third1 in the great improvement and rapidity of action of the breech mechanism1 which permits as many as eight rounds per minute to be fired4 ,in ,fig4 #bfi is shown a #f-;inch rapid-fire gun of the ,united ,states ,navy1 loaded1 and being sighted for fire4 ,rapid-fire guns of this class represent the most effective form of modern ordnance4 ,it was largely such rapid fire batteries of ,admiral ,dewey's squadron that swept the ,spanish fleet out of existence at ,manila1 and that demolished the fleet of ,cervera at ,santiago by the awful hail of shells poured into his ships4 ,these relatively small guns throw a shell six miles1 and the striking energy of their projectiles at the muzzle is equal to the penetration of iron plate #ba inches thick1 or #af inches of steel4 ,when the gun is loaded1 it is held in the forward position by coil springs1 inclosed in cylinders and holding a recoil seat for the trunnions1 and also has two pistons traveling in cylinders filled with glycerine4 ,when the gun is fired1 the recoil causes it to slide back1 carrying the pistons1 and the recoil is checked by the resistance of the glycerine traveling through an opening past the pistons4 ,after full recoil1 the gun is automatically returned to its forward position by the action of the coil springs1 which are compressed during the recoil4 ,the gun crew is protected by ,harveyized steel plate #d inches thick1 and the gun is so delicately mounted on ball bearings that its great weight of #g tons responds readily to the slight pressure in training the same4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4--,,range ,,of ,,sixteen-,,inch ,,gun4 ,powerful as these guns appear to be1 their big brothers in the revolving turrets are far more so4 ,while not so nimble in action1 the great power of these guns of the main battery1 and the elaboration and completeness of mechanism for operating them1 for supplying them with ammunition1 and for rotating the turrets1 constitute a complete world in ordnance in itself4 ,as the gun increases in size1 its cost both in construction and service increases in a greatly disproportionate ratio4 ,a #f-;inch breech-loading rifle costs #fd4dj for each discharge1 while a #ab-;inch gun costs #deh for each discharge4 ,the largest guns of our battleships are of #ac inch calibre1 and about #dj feet long1 but larger ones are employed for sea coast defenses4 ,the great #af-;inch #abf-ton gun1 now building for the ,united ,states at the ,watervliet arsenal1 is #di feet long1 over #f feet in diameter at the breech1 and it will have an extreme range of over twenty miles4 ,its projectile will weigh #b1cgj pounds1 and it will cost #hfe to fire the gun once4 ,the accompanying view1 ,fig4 #bgj1 will give graphic illustration of the range of this gun4 ,if fired at its maximum elevation from the battery at the south end of ,new ,york in a northerly direction1 its projectile would pass over the city of ,new ,york1 over ,grant's ,tomb1 ,spuyten ,duyvil1 ,riverdale1 ,mount ,st4 ,vincent1 ,ludlow1 ,yonkers1 and would land near ,hastings-on-the-,hudson1 nearly twenty miles away1 as shown in our map1 ,fig4 #bga4 ,the extreme height of its trajectory would be #cj1eaf feet1 or nearly six miles4 ,this means that if ,pike's ,peak1 of the ,western ,hemisphere1 had piled on top of it ,mont ,blanc1 of the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 this gun would hurl its enormous projectile so high above them both as to still leave space below its curve to build ,washington's ,monument on top of ,mont ,blanc1 as shown in ,fig4 #bgj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bga4--,,radius ,,of ,,action ,,of ,,sixteen-,,inch ,,gun4 ,the ,disappearing ,gun4--,the importance of secreting the location of the battery in coast defences1 and the better protection of the gunners1 have suggested a species of gun carriage which would permit the gun to be normally hidden behind and under the protection of the parapet1 and be only temporarily elevated to a position above the parapet while firing4 ,various forms of this have been devised4 ,general ,r4 ,e4 ,de ,russy1 ,corps ,engineers1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 devised such a carriage in #ahce4 ,moncrieff1 of ,england1 was one of the first to put in practice such a form of carriage4 ,united ,states patents covering this invention were granted him as follows3 ,no4 #hc1hgc1 ,november #aj1 #ahfh2 ,no4 #aae1ejb1 ,may #cj1 #ahga1 and ,no4 #add1abj1 ,october #bh1 #ahgc4 ,its principle of operation was to utilize the force of the recoil as a power to raise the gun into firing position4 ,the gun is fulcrumed in a lever frame provided with a counterpoise which more than balances the gun4 ,when the gun is fired the recoil raises the counterweight1 and the gun descends and is locked in its lower position4 ,when loaded and released the counterpoise raises the gun again to firing position4 ,among later gun carriages of this type of ,american construction may be mentioned those devised by ,spiller1 ,gordon1 ,howell1 and others1 but the one most generally known is the ,buffington-,crozier1 covered by patents ,no4 #eee1dbf1 ,february #be1 #ahif1 and ,no4 #fac1beb1 ,november #a1 #ahih4 ,this carriage1 sustaining the #h and #aj inch breech-loading rifles at ,fort ,wadsworth for the defence of ,new ,york harbor1 is shown in ,figs4 #bgb and #bgc1 ,fig4 #bgb representing it in its lowered position1 and ,fig4 #bgc in its elevated position for firing4 ,the trunnions of the gun rest in bearings at the upper ends of the pair of levers1 which latter are fulcrumed near the middle to horizontally sliding carriages connected to hydraulic cylinders that move backward as the gun recoils4 ,these cylinders move over stationary pistons which have orifices that allow the liquid to pass from one side of the piston to the other4 ,as the gun recoils and the levers turn to the horizontal position1 the forward ends of the levers are made to raise vertically an immense leaden counterweight1 weighing #cb1jjj pounds1 which ordinarily over-balances the weight of the gun on the levers4 ,this cylindrical counterweight is seen raised on the left of ,fig4 #bgb4 ,in firing1 the energy of the recoil is absorbed partly by raising the counterweight1 and partly by the resistance of the hydraulic cylinders1 and when the gun reaches its lowest position it is caught and retained by pawls4 ,after loading the pawls are tripped1 and the greater gravity of the counterweight raises the gun to firing position again4 ,ten shots from an #h-;inch gun on this carriage have been fired in #ab minutes #ba seconds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4--;,,buffington-,,crozier ,,disappearing ,,gun1 ,,lowered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4--;,,buffington-,,crozier ,,disappearing ,,gun1 ,,elevated ,,for ,,firing4 ,the ,machine ,gun4--,during the ,civil ,war a gun made its appearance which1 although of small calibre1 rivaled in its deadly effectiveness the wholesale slaughter of the cannon4 ,it was a new type1 and was known as the machine gun1 or battery gun1 in which balls of comparatively small size were discharged uninterruptedly and in incredible succession4 ,it was the invention of ,dr4 ,r4 ,j4 ,gatling1 and was covered by him in patents ,no4 #cf1hcf1 ,november #d1 #ahfb1 and ,no4 #dg1fca1 ,may #i1 #ahfe1 and in many subsequent patents for minor improvements1 and is now universally known as the ,gatling gun4 ,it consisted of a circular series of barrels mounted on a central shaft1 and revolved by suitable gears and a hand crank4 ,the cartridges were automatically and successively fed into the chambers of the barrel1 and its several hammers were so arranged in connection with the barrels that the whole operation of loading1 closing the breech1 discharging and expelling the empty cartridge cases was conducted while the barrels were kept in a continuous revolving movement by turning the hand crank4 ,in ,fig4 #bgd is shown a modern example of the ,gatling gun equipped with the ,accles feed4 ,ordinarily the gun has ten barrels1 with ten corresponding locks1 which revolve together during the working of the gun4 ,when the gun is in action there are always five cartridges going through the process of loading1 and five empty shells in different stages of being extracted1 and many hundred shots a minute can be fired4 ,many modifications of this gun have been made by ,hotchkiss and others4 ,maxim1 ,nordenfelt1 and ,benet have each made valuable inventions in machine guns of a somewhat different type1 some of which utilize the force of the exploding charges to react on the feed and firing mechanism1 and thus furnish the power to continue the consecutive operation of the gun1 so that no hand crank is required1 but the gun works itself with an incessant hail of balls until its supply of cartridges is exhausted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4--;,,gatling ,,gun ,,on ,,united ,,states ,,army ,,model ,,carriage4 ,the ,dynamite ,gun4--,most impressive to the layman1 and most demoralizing to the enemy1 is this latter day form of ordnance4 ,the first efforts to hurl dynamite shells from a gun were made with compressed air for fear of prematurely exploding the sensitive dynamite in the gun1 which would be more disastrous to the gunners themselves than to the enemy4 ,the ,zalinski dynamite gun was of this class1 and the first which attained any notoriety4 ,foolhardy as it might appear1 ,yankee genius was led to believe that dynamite shells could be fired with powder charges1 and this is now done in a practical and safe way in the ,sims-,dudley ,dynamite ,gun4 ,this is manufactured under the fundamental patents of ,dudley1 ,nos4 #djg1dgd1 #djg1dge1 #djg1dgf1 of ,july #bc1 #ahhi1 which cover a method of exploding a charge of powder in one gun barrel1 and causing it to compress the air in front of it1 and force it into another barrel behind the dynamite shell1 so that this relatively cool body of air is interposed between the hot powder gases and the dynamite4 ,fig4 #bge represents ,dudley's patent drawing4 ,c is the powder charge in barrel ,a1 and ,h is the dynamite shell in barrel ,g4 ,the front of barrel ,a is connected to the rear of barrel ,g behind the dynamite shell by the tube ,f4 ,when the powder ,c explodes1 all the air in barrel ,a and tube ,f is driven out and acts on the dynamite shell ,h to discharge it without allowing it to come in contact with the hot powder gases4 ,a frangible plate ,d closes the end of barrel ,a1 but blows out above a certain pressure to avoid bursting strain in the gun4 ,the ,sims patent1 ,no4 #fai1jbe1 ,february #g1 #ahii1 covers a more simple and practical form of constructing a gun on this principle1 and the gun as used in the ,united ,states is constructed in accordance with this latter improvement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bge4--;,,dynamite ,,gun1 ,,dudley',s ,,patent1 ,,july #bc1 #ahhi4 ,small ,arms4--,pistols and guns are the two classes into which the layman divides small arms1 although in latter years this classification has been much disturbed by the western frontiersman1 who calls his pistol a gun1 and by the artillerist1 who also calls his cannon a gun4 ,the pistol may be defined as a small arm held in one hand to be fired4 ,it is an ancient weapon1 but had attained no special importance or popularity prior to the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,the duelling pistol1 with its long barrel1 its hair trigger and inlaid stock1 and the derringer1 with its short barrel of large bore1 were the popular forms4 ,not until the revolver made its appearance did the pistol attain any importance4 ,colt is popularly credited with having invented this1 but it is really a very old principle4 ,in the ,alte ,deutscher ,drehling ,der ,ruckladungs ,gewehre1 by ,edward ,zernin1 #ahgb1 ,darmstadt and ,leipzig1 is shown an ancient form of match lock revolver1 said to belong to the period #adhj-aejj4 ,it is probably the same as the match-lock revolver in the museum of the ,tower of ,london1 which is also credited to the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,in the ,british patent to ,puckle1 ,no4 #dah1 of #agah1 is shown and described a well-constructed revolver carried on a tripod1 and of the dimensions of the modern machine gun4 ,the inventor navely states that it has round chambers for round balls1 designed for ,christians1 and square chambers1 with square balls1 for the ,turks4 ,the first revolving firearm in the ,united ,states was made by ,john ,gill1 of ,newberne1 ,n4 ,c41 in #ahbi4 ,it had fourteen chambers1 and was a percussion gun1 but was never patented4 ,the first revolver patented in the ,united ,states was that to ,d4 ,g4 ,colburn1 ,june #bi1 #ahcc4 ,the revolver of ,col4 ,samuel ,colt was patented ,february #be1 #ahcf1 7re-issue ,no4 #abd1 ,october #bd1 #ahdh71 and again ,august #bi1 #ahci1 ,no4 #a1cjd2 ,september #c1 #ahej1 ,no4 #g1fac1 and ,september #aj1 #ahej1 ,no4 #g1fbi4 ,it was the first practical invention of this kind1 and it embodied as a leading feature the automatic rotation of the cylinder in cocking by a pawl on the hammer engaging a ratchet on the end of the cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4--,,smith ,,wesson ,,revolver ,,discharging ,,shells4 ,various types followed1 such as the old pepper box1 patented by ,darling ,april #ac1 #ahcf2 the self-cocking pepper box1 patented by ,allen1 ,no4 #c1iih1 ,april #af1 #ahde2 the four sliding barrels of ,sharp1 ,no4 #f1ifj1 ,december #ah1 #ahdi1 and many others4 ,the most popular and successful1 however1 of the succeeding types is that of ,smith ,wesson1 shown in ,fig4 #bgf1 and covered by many patents4 ,one of its most important features is the simultaneous extraction of the shells by an ejector1 having a stem sliding through the cylinder4 ,this was the invention of ,w4 ,c4 ,dodge1 patented ,january #ag1 #ahfe1 ,no4 #de1iab1 re-issue ,no4 #d1dhc1 ,july #be1 #ahga4 ,in ,fig4 #bgg is shown ,smith ,wesson's latest pattern of ,hammerless ,safety ,revolver1 with automatic shell extractor and rebounding lock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4--,,smith ,,wesson ,,self ,,acting ,,hammerless ,,revolver4 ,the latest development in this class of arms is the automatic magazine pistol1 designed for the use of the officers of the ,german army1 and adapted to fire ten shots in as many seconds4 ,only a slight pressure on the trigger is necessary1 as it is not required to perform the work of turning any other part by the trigger1 as is the case in the self-cocking revolver4 ,the pressure of gas at each explosion does all the work of pushing back the closing piece of the breech through the recoil of the shell1 extracts and ejects the shell1 cocks the hammer1 and also compresses recuperative springs1 which effect the reloading and closing of the weapon1 all of these functions being performed in proper sequence at each explosion in a fraction of a second4 ,the act of firing thus prepares the pistol for the next shot automatically4 ,in ,fig4 #bgh are shown two makes of pistol of this type4 ,no4 #a is known as the ,mauser 7,united ,states patent ,no4 #ehd1dgi1 ,june #ae1 #ahig72 ,no4 #b shows it with an extemporized stock1 to be used as a carbine in firing from the shoulder4 ,this stock is hollow and forms the holster or case for the pistol4 ,at ,no4 #c is shown the ,mannlicher pistol 7,united ,states patent ,no4 #eha1bif1 ,april #bg1 #ahig71 which is another form of the same type4 ,in the ,mauser the breech moves to the rear during recoil4 ,in the ,mannlicher the barrel moves to the front1 leaving space for a fresh cartridge to come up from the magazine below4 ,the calibre of this pistol is #j4c inch1 and the initial velocity #a1cie feet4 ,at #cc feet the ball passes through #aj inches of spruce1 at #dij through #e inches1 and its extreme range is #c1jjj feet1 or more than half a mile4 ,when empty it is quickly re-charged with cartridges1 which are made up in sets of ten in a case and inserted in one movement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4--;,,automatic ,,pistols4 ,breech-,loading ,guns4--,although the breech-loading principle was well known prior to the ,nineteenth ,century1 it remained for this period to give it effective development4 ,the first ,united ,states patent for a breech-loading gun was to ,thornton and ,hall1 ,may #ba1 #ahaa4 ,it was a flint lock1 and many of these arms were made at ,harper's ,ferry ,armory in #ahad1 and issued to the troops1 one being given by order of ,congress to each member of ,congress to take home with him to show to his constituents4 ,the present style of break-down gun was invented by ,pauly1 in ,france1 and is to be found in his ,british patent ,no4 #c1hcc1 of #ahad4 ,lefaucheux1 of ,paris1 however1 made this form of gun practical4 ,minesinger1 in ,united ,states patent ,no4 #f1aci1 ,february #bg1 #ahdi1 supplied the important improvement of making the front edge of the metallic cartridge shell thinner than elsewhere1 so as to expand by the pressure of the exploding charge1 and swell to a tight fit of the barrel4 ,the ,maynard rifle1 first patented ,may #bg1 #ahea1 ,no4 #h1abf1 was one of the earliest practical forms of breech-loaders4 ,magazine ,guns4--,walter ,hunt's ,united ,states patent ,no4 #f1ffc1 ,august #ba1 #ahdi1 was the first on a magazine firearm of modern type4 ,it had a sliding breech block carrying the main spring and firing pin4 ,the ,spencer rifle was one of the early ones that came into use4 ,this had a row of cartridges in the stock1 and was first patented ,march #f1 #ahfj1 ,no4 #bg1cic4 ,it was this weapon which in the ,civil ,war gave proof of the deadly efficacy of the breech-loading magazine gun1 and its superiority to the old style military arm4 ,another type of magazine firearm which in the last half century has gained great prominence and popularity is the so-called 8,winchester40 ,this has its cartridges arranged in a tube below and parallel with the barrel1 and they are fed in a column to the rear by a helical spring as fast as they are used up at the breech4 ,the pioneer of this type is the arm patented by ,smith ,wesson ,february #ad1 #ahed1 ,no4 #aj1ece1 re-issued ,december #cj1 #ahgc1 ,no4 #e1gaj4 ,this was subsequently improved as to the extractor by ,b4 ,f4 ,henry in patent ,no4 #cj1ddf1 ,october #af1 #ahfj1 re-issued ,december #g1 #ahfh1 ,no4 #c1bbg1 and was manufactured and favorably known for many years as the ,henry rifle4 ,this rifle was also used in the ,civil ,war4 ,o4 ,f4 ,winchester subsequently re-organized it in patent ,no4 #eg1hjh1 ,september #d1 #ahff1 and the arm in late years has taken his name4 ,the ,needle ,gun1 of ,prussia1 represents an early form of breech loader1 and may be considered the prototype of the modern bolt gun4 ,the needle gun has in the place of the swinging hammer a rectilinearly sliding bolt1 carrying in front a needle which pierces the charge and ignites the fulminate by its friction4 ,its construction permits the fulminate to be placed in advance of the powder1 which thus burns from the front1 and is entirely consumed in the gun1 instead of being partially blown out of the gun1 as may occur when ignited in the rear4 ,the needle gun was invented by ,dreyse in #ahch1 was first introduced about #ahdf1 and gave effective service in the ,prusso-,austrian war of #ahff4 ,the ,chassepot1 brought out in #ahfg1 ,united ,states patent ,no4 #fj1hcb1 was a ,french development of the ,prussian needle gun4 ,about #ahgi two forms of magazine guns appeared which have become types for most all subsequent guns of this class4 ,both of them employed the bolt system as previously embodied in the needle gun1 but added to it the magazine principle and changed the method of supplying and feeding the cartridges4 ,one was the invention of ,james ,lee1 and the other was the joint invention of ,colonel ,livermore1 of the ,corps of ,engineers1 and ,major ,russell1 of the ,ordnance ,department1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,in the ,lee1 whose name has been much in evidence in late years1 there was a relatively small detachable box 7see ,fig4 #bgi7 capable of holding five cartridges and designed to be filled and then placed in a slot opening centrally under the gun1 below the receiver1 and directly in front of the trigger guard4 ,a spring within the magazine fed the cartridges up into alignment with the barrel4 ,lee's first patent was ,no4 #bba1cbh1 ,november #d1 #ahgi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4--,,lee',s ,,magazine ,,rifle1 ,,patented ,,november #d1 #ahgi4 ,the ,livermore-,russell gun1 patented ,october #bh1 #ahgi1 ,no4 #bba1jgi1 had a magazine opening transversely in the upper edge of the stock behind the bolt1 and the cartridges were fed to the barrel beneath the bolt4 ,the important feature of the gun1 however1 was a cartridge case slotted on its side and detachable from the gun1 and each bearing a group of five cartridges1 which were to be thus made up in small packets and carried in the belt or cartridge box of the soldier4 ,this idea was subsequently developed by ,livermore and ,russell in patent ,no4 #bcj1hbc1 ,august #c1 #ahhj1 and this feature1 viewed in the light of the importance subsequently attained by the 8clip0 in the ,mauser and ,mannlicher guns1 may be fairly considered the pioneer of this idea of grouping cartridges in made-up packets for bolt guns4 ,its great advantage is the large number of shots that may be fired in a short space of time without an excessive weight in the gun itself4 ,subsequent patents for improvements were taken by ,lee as follows3 ,no4 #eac1fdg1 ,january #cj1 #ahid1 and ,no4 #edg1ehc1 ,october #h1 #ahie1 and the gun used by the ,united ,states ,navy is modeled along the lines of ,lee's invention4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4--,,krag-,,jorgensen ,,magazine ,,rifle4 ,the ,krag-,jorgensen ,magazine ,rifle was patented ,june #aj1 #ahij1 ,no4 #dbi1haa1 and ,february #ba1 #ahic1 ,no4 #dib1bab4 ,it is the arm adopted by the ,united ,states infantry service1 and is seen in ,fig4 #bhj4 ,the fixed magazine chamber1 shown in the cross section1 passes through the breech laterally below the barrel1 and is filled with cartridges on one side of the gun1 which cartridges pass through the breech laterally1 and1 turning a curve1 enter the barrel from the opposite side4 ,when the bolt is drawn back by the knob handle a cartridge is fed up into position to enter the barrel1 and when pushed forward the cartridge is forced into the bore of the gun1 and at the same time a spiral spring is put under tension to set the hammer of the gun1 which carries a firing pin at its front end4 ,when the trigger is pulled the hammer and firing pin plunge forward to explode the cap in the cartridge1 and when the handle of the bolt is drawn back again to extract the empty shell1 a fresh cartridge rises to take its place4 ,the ,mauser ,rifle is shown in ,fig4 #bha4 ,this is the arm of which so much was heard during the recent war with ,spain1 and against which our soldiers had to contend4 ,five cartridges are carried in a magazine immediately in front of the trigger1 and are fed up by a subjacent spring1 one at a time1 centrally through the breech into line with the barrel1 as the bolt with the knobbed handle is worked back and forth4 ,the cartridges are carried by the soldier in groups of five in a 8clip10 which is a simple strip of metal with inturned parallel edges1 which enclose the flanged heads of the cartridges as they project at right angles to the clip4 ,to transfer the cartridges to the magazine1 the clip with its cartridges is placed above the barrel1 and the cartridges forced down out of the clip into the magazine4 ,in the ,mannlicher gun1 adopted by the ,german army1 the clip which holds the cartridges is itself inserted into the magazine1 along with the cartridges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bha4--,,the ,,mauser ,,rifle ,,and ,,clip4 ,the modern trend of development in firearms has been toward the reduction of calibre1 the standard for small arms being #cj_/ajj4 ,the lead bullets are covered with a seamless jacket of harder metal 7,geiger's patents1 ,no4 #cjf1gch and #cjf1gci1 ,october #ba1 #ahhd71 which prevents the 8leading0 and fouling of the gun1 and the distortion of the bullet4 ,modern magazine guns permit twenty-five to thirty shots a minute as single loaders1 and besides they hold in reserve five cartridges4 ,they have a killing range of a mile1 and the cost of the cartridge is #c4b cents4 ,at a trial at the ,washington ,navy ,yard a few years past a steel projectile #a4jg inches long and #cb_/ajj calibre penetrated solid iron #a4ae inch thick1 fired at an angle of #hj4 ,it also penetrated #ej inches of pine boards1 and its range was estimated at three miles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4--,,the ,,greener ,,hammerless ,,gun4 ,hammerless ,guns4--,among improvements in shot guns the so-called 8hammerless0 feature is a noteworthy departure4 ,this hides the hammers in the breech and cocks them by the act of breaking down the gun4 ,in ,fig4 #bhb is given a section and plan view of the ,greener mechanism1 which was patented ,july #f1 #ahhj1 ,no4 #bbi1fjd1 and was one of the first guns of this kind put on the market4 ,the hammers ,a are constructed as elbow levers4 ,their upper ends have each a round point adapted to strike through a small hole in the breech onto the cap of the cartridge4 ,the lower front portions of the hammers are extended forward and curved inwardly toward each other1 so that their inner ends nearly meet4 ,c is a pendent hook jointed to the barrel1 and when the latter is tilted1 as shown in dotted lines1 the hook acting upon the forwardly projecting arms of the hammers turns them backward to the cocked position1 in which they are retained by the dogs ,b engaging with their notches4 ,as the hammers move back the mainspring is compressed1 and when the dog ,b is removed from the notch by pulling on the trigger1 the hammers are released and the gun fired4 ,the rebounding lock1 now universally applied to shot guns1 is another comparatively recent improvement4 ,this promotes safety by causing the hammers to be normally and automatically held away from the firing pins4 ,the first practical form of this lock was patented by ,hailer1 ,july #bf1 #ahgj1 ,no4 #aje1gii1 in which a single spring serves to deliver the blow of the hammer and also withdraws the hammer from the firing pin4 ,a marked tendency in shot guns in late years is toward a reduction in bore1 many sportsmen now using a #bh gauge in preference to the old regulation #ab4 ,nearly #e1jjj patents have been granted in the ,united ,states for firearms1 and about #b1djj for projectiles4 ,the most important of the latter is the torpedo1 of which the ,whitehead1 or fish torpedo1 which supplies its own means of propulsion1 is the best known and most used4 ,it was first brought out in #ahff by ,whitehead1 at ,fiume1 a port of ,hungary4 ,the ,gathmann aerial torpedo1 weighing #a1hjj pounds and carrying #fbe pounds of wet gun cotton1 is designed to be fired from a gun #dd feet long and #ah inch bore1 and is supposed to have a range of ten miles4 ,tests are about to be made under special appropriation of ,congress1 and if its claim can be substantiated1 it may become the most destructive engine of warfare known4 ,explosives4--,the invention of gunpowder is ascribed to the ,chinese1 and at a period so far back that its origin is buried in antiquity4 ,it is believed to have been known since the time of ,moses1 something very like it being mentioned in the ancient ,gentoo laws of ,india #a1ejj to #b1jjj ,b4 ,c4 ,for many years it was thought that ,roger ,bacon invented it in #abdi1 but it is now known that he was only a factor in its development4 ,most likely the saltpetre of the plains of ,china came first in accidental contact with the charred embers of a prehistoric fire1 and to the observant man the oxygen-giving saltpetre furnished the charcoal with its means of energetic combustion for the first time4 ,gunpowder consists of about #ge parts of saltpetre 7nitrate of potash71 #ae of charcoal1 and #aj of sulphur1 the proportions varying somewhat with the use to which it is to be applied4 ,in ordinary combustion the air supplies the necessary oxygen4 ,in gunpowder the presence of the air is not necessary1 as the saltpetre has imprisoned in its composition a large quantity of oxygen which furnishes to the carbon and sulphur the means for its combustion1 gasification and enormous expansion4 ,originally1 gunpowder was pulverulent1 like that used in fire works1 and had but little propelling force4 ,the making of it in grains 78corned07 is ascribed to ,berthold ,schwarz1 a ,german monk1 about #acbj1 and this1 by promoting the rapidity of its burning1 added greatly to its effective force1 and gave a new impetus to firearms4 ,in the early part of the ,nineteenth ,century there were but few improvements in either the composition or manufacture of gunpowder4 ,the introduction of the percussion cap1 which exploded the charge by a blow1 in the place of the old flint lock1 was1 however1 a notable advance4 ,alexander ,john ,forsyth1 a ,scotch clergyman1 was the first to apply a percussion or detonating compound1 as set forth in his ,british patent ,no4 #c1jcb1 of #ahjg4 ,the embodiment of such compounds in the little copper caps was made about #ahah1 and has been claimed by various parties4 ,manton's ,british patent ,no4 #d1bhe1 of #ahah1 describes a thin copper tube filled with fulminate and struck sidewise by the hammer to explode it4 ,joshua ,shaw took a ,united ,states patent on a percussion gun1 ,june #ai1 #ahbb1 and the copper percussion cap was said to have been introduced in the ,united ,states by him in #ahdb4 ,the embodiment of the charge of powder and ball in brass and copper shells was done in ,france by ,galay ,cazalat as early as #ahbf4 ,drawn metallic shells were made by ,flobert and ,lefaucheux1 in #ahec1 and ,palmer1 in #ahed4 ,drawn copper cartridges with center fire were introduced in the ,united ,states1 and patented by ,smith ,wesson ,august #h1 #ahed1 ,no4 #aa1dif1 and solid headed shells by ,hotchkiss1 ,august #ca1 #ahfi1 ,no4 #id1baj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4--,,submarine ,,mine4 ,,charge1 #bej ,,pounds ,,dynamite4 ,in #ahdf a new and distinct development in explosives was made in the discovery of gun cotton by ,schnbein1 and of nitro-glycerine in #ahdg by ,sobrero4 ,the former is made by the reaction of nitric acid1 aided by sulphuric acid1 on ordinary raw cotton1 which1 while changing the physical aspects of the cotton but little1 gives to it a terrific explosive energy4 ,nitro-glycerine is made in a somewhat similar way by treating glycerine with nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,at first it found no practical applications1 except as a homopathic medicine for headache1 but about #ahfd ,nobel commenced its manufacture for explosive uses1 and since that time nearly all the great blasting operations have been performed through its agency4 ,its most familiar form is dynamite1 or giant powder1 ,nobel's patent1 ,no4 #gh1cag1 ,may #bf1 #ahfh1 which is simply nitro-glycerine held in absorption by some inert granular solid1 such as infusorial earth1 and is thus rendered safer to handle and more convenient to use4 ,a suggestive application of the terrible power of these explosives is in submarine mines4 ,the instantaneous and dastardly destruction of our battleship1 8,the ,maine10 with #bej of her crew1 in ,havana harbor1 ,february #ae1 #ahih1 by one of these agencies1 is a harrowing illustration4 ,fig4 #bhc represents one of these submarine mines carrying #bej pounds of dynamite1 and ,fig4 #bhd is an instantaneous photograph at the moment of explosion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4--;,,explosion ,,of ,a ,,mine4 ,,base ,,of ,,water ,,column1 #ajj ,,feet ,,wide1 ,,height1 #bdf ,,feet4 ,white gunpowder1 or wood powder1 was invented by ,captain ,schultz1 of the ,prussian army4 ,it is made by treating granulated wood with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids1 which1 acting upon the cellulose of the wood1 convert it into an explosive something of the nature of gun cotton4 ,the grains are afterward saturated with saltpetre4 ,this was patented in the ,united ,states ,june #b1 #ahfc1 ,no4 #ch1ghi1 and in ,great ,britain1 ,no4 #ijj1 of #ahfd4 ,dittmar's powder is another of the same general nature1 covered by ,united ,states patents ,no4 #ih1hed1 ,january #ah1 #ahgj2 ,no4 #ii1jfi1 ,january #be1 #ahgj1 and ,no4 #ade1djc1 ,december #i1 #ahgc4 ,among the high explosives of more recent date may be mentioned3 ,tonite 7gun cotton and barium nitrate71 ,british patents ,no4 #c1fab1 of #ahgd1 and ,no4 #b1gdb1 of #ahgf4 ,rack-a-rock 7potassium chlorate and nitro-benzene71 ,united ,states patent ,no4 #bdc1dcb1 ,june #bh1 #ahha2 ,british patent ,no4 #e1ehd1 of #ahha4 ,bellite 7ammonium nitrate and nitro-benzene71 ,united ,states patent ,no4 #dee1bag1 ,june #cj1 #ahia2 ,british patent ,no4 #ac1fij1 of #ahhe4 ,melinite 7picric acid and gun cotton71 ,british patent ,no4 #ae1jhi1 of #ahhe4 ,lyddite1 not patented1 but believed to be substantially same as melinite1 and containing for its active ingredient picric acid1 which is a compound formed by the reaction of nitric acid on carbolic acid4 ,cordite 7nitro-glycerine1 gun cotton1 and mineral jelly or oil71 ,british patent ,no4 #e1fad1 of #ahhi2 ,united ,states patent ,no4 #dji1edi1 ,august #bj1 #ahhi4 ,indurite 7gun cotton and nitro-benzene1 indurated71 ,united ,states patent1 ,no4 #dhi1fhd1 ,january #aj1 #ahic2 ,british patent1 ,no4 #ehj1 of #ahic4 ,in recent years smokeless powders have largely superseded all others4 ,these contain usually nitro-cellulose 7gun cotton71 or nitro-glycerine1 or both1 made up into a plastic1 coherent1 and homogeneous compound of a gluey nature1 and fashioned into horn-like sticks or rods by being forced under pressure through a die plate having small holes1 through which the plastic material is strained into strings like macaroni1 or else is molded into tablets1 pellets1 or grains of cubical shape4 ,prominent among those who have contributed to this art are the names of ,turpin1 ,abel and ,dewar1 ,nobel1 ,maxim1 ,munroe1 ,du ,pont1 ,bernadou and others4 ,in the recent years of the ,nineteenth ,century great activity has been manifest in this field of invention4 ,in the ,united ,states more than #fjj different patents have been granted for explosives1 the larger portion of them being for nitro-compounds1 which partake in a greater or less degree of the qualities of gun cotton or nitro-glycerine4 ,the influence exerted by them has been incalculable4 ,subtile as is the force imprisoned in inter-atomic relation1 it has been the power behind the boom of the cannon2 it has lent itself to the driving of great tunnels through the solid rock2 it has lifted the coal and ore from the solid embrace of the mountain1 and the building stone from its sleep in the quarry2 it has opened up channels to the sea1 canals on land1 and in both war and peace has been one of the great agencies of civilization4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,textiles4 ,,spinning ,,and ,,weaving ,,an ,,ancient ,,art--,,hargreaves' ,,spinning ,,jenny-- ,,arkwright',s ,,roll-,,drawing ,,spinning ,,machine--,,crompton',s ,,mule ,,spinner--,,the ,,cotton ,,gin--,,ring ,,spinning--,,the ,,rabbeth ,,spindle--,,john ,,kay',s ,,flying ,,shuttle ,,and ,,robert ,,kay',s ,,drop ,,box--,,cartwright',s ,,power ,,loom--,,the ,,jacquard ,,loom--,,crompton',s ,,fancy ,,loom--,,bigelow',s ,,carpet ,,looms--,,lyall ,,positive ,,motion ,,loom--,,knitting ,,machines--,,cloth ,,pressing ,,machinery--,,artificial ,,silk--,,mercerized ,,cloth4 ,far back in the obscuring gloom of a prehistoric antiquity1 man wore probably only the hirsute covering which nature gave him4 ,as he emerged from barbarism1 sentiments of modesty marked the evolution of his mind1 and this1 together with the need for a more sufficient protection against cold and heat1 suggested an artificial covering for his body4 ,at first he robbed the brute of his fleecy skin and wore it bodily4 ,later he learned to spin and weave2 next to food and drink1 clothing became a fundamental necessity1 for without it his life could not extend outside of the limited zone of the tropics4 ,food and drink were to be found as nature's free gifts1 but clothing had to be made1 and its manufacture constituted probably the oldest of all the living arts4 ,the making of cloth may be said to be coeval with history4 ,the ,old ,testament of the ,bible is replete with references to spinning and weaving1 and the cloths wrapped about the mummies of ancient ,egypt1 although thousands of years old1 were of exceeding regularity and fineness4 ,so old an art1 and so great and continuous a need for its products necessarily must have resulted in much development and progress4 ,when the ,nineteenth ,century began1 the world already enjoyed the results of ,hargreaves' spinning-jenny1 ,arkwright's roll-drawing spinning machine1 the mule spinner1 the cotton gin1 and the power loom1 all of which were most radical inventions1 equaling in importance1 perhaps1 any that have followed4 ,prior to the invention of the spinning-jenny1 the loose fibre was spun into yarns and thread by hand on the old-fashioned spinning wheel1 each thread requiring the attention of one person4 ,in #agfc ,hargreaves invented the spinning-jenny 7see ,fig4 #bhe71 in which a multiplicity of spindles was employed1 whereby one person could attend to the making of many threads simultaneously4 ,for this purpose the spindles were set upright at the end of the frame1 and the rovings or strips of untwisted fibre were carried on bobbins on the inclined frame4 ,the rovings extended from these bobbins to a reciprocating 8clasp0 held in the left hand of the workman1 and thence extended to the spindles at the end of the frame4 ,the workman drew out the rovings by moving the clasp back and forth1 and at the same time turned the crank with his right hand to rotate the spindles4 ,hargreaves' machine is shown and described in his ,british patent1 ,no4 #ifb of #aggj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4--;,,hargreaves' ,,spinning ,,jenny4 ,the next important step in spinning was the introduction of drawing rolls1 which were a series of rolls running at different speeds for drawing out or elongating the roving as it was spun into a thread4 ,this was mainly due to ,arkwright1 a contemporary of ,hargreaves4 ,the principle of the drawing rolls had been foreshadowed in the ,british patents of ,louis ,paul1 ,no4 #efb1 of #agch1 and ,no4 #gbd1 of #ageh1 but ,arkwright made the first embodiment of it in practically useful machines1 which were covered by him in ,british patents ,no4 #ica1 of #agfi1 and ,no4 #a1aaa1 of #agge4 ,arkwright's spinning machine is shown in ,fig4 #bhf1 the drawing rolls being shown at the top of the figure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4--;,,arkwright',s ,,roll-,,drawing ,,spinning ,,machine4 ,following these important inventions came the mule spinner4 ,this was invented by ,crompton between #aggd and #aggi1 but was never patented4 ,it combined the leading features of ,hargreaves and ,arkwright4 ,the spindles were mounted on a wheeled carriage that traveled back and forth a considerable distance from the drawing rolls1 which were mounted in bearings in a stationary frame4 ,the long travel of the carriage back and forth1 and the simultaneous twisting and drawing of the yarns1 produced threads of great fineness and regularity4 ,the value of the long travel of the carriage may be briefly noted as follows3 ,when the threads or slivers emerge from the drawing rolls they are not absolutely of uniform size1 and the thick portions do not twist as tightly as the thinner portions4 ,the stretching and drawing of these thicker parts down to a uniform size by the receding of the carriage is the distinctive feature of its action4 ,as the thread has greater tensile strength at the thinner hard-twisted parts than it has at the thicker untwisted parts1 it will be seen that the stretching action is localized on the thicker untwisted parts of the thread1 which are thus brought down to uniform size by elongation4 ,the drawing and twisting of the thread is effected as the carriage runs out1 and when the carriage runs in these twisted lengths are wound around the spindles4 ,the rendering of the action of the mule automatic or self-acting in its travel back and forth was the invention of ,richard ,roberts1 of ,england1 and was covered by him in ,british patents ,no4 #e1ach of #ahbe1 and ,no4 #e1fdi of #ahcj4 ,the mule spinner shown in ,fig4 #bhg is a good modern example of this machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4--,,mule ,,spinning ,,machine4 ,one of the most important of the early inventions in the textile art was the cotton gin4 ,this was the invention of ,eli ,whitney1 of ,massachusetts1 and was patented by him ,march #ad1 #agid4 ,prior to its use the picking of the cotton fibre from the bean-like seed with which it is compactly stored in the boll was entirely effected by hand1 and it was a slow and tedious process1 and about #d pounds per day was the average work of one man4 ,the cotton gin1 shown in ,fig4 #bhh1 is a device for doing this by machinery in a rapid1 thorough1 and expeditious manner4 ,the cotton1 mixed with seed1 is fed to the roll box ,j1 in which a sort of reel ,f continually turns the cotton4 ,the bottom of the roll box is formed with a grating of parallel ribs ,e1 between which project the teeth of a gang of circular saws ,c1 which pull the fibre through between the ribs and deliver it to the revolving brush ,b1 which beats the fibre off the teeth of the saws and produces a blast that discharges the fleece through the rear of the gin4 ,the cotton seed1 which are too large to pass between the ribs with the fibre1 drop out the bottom of the roll-box4 ,with the aid of the cotton gin the efficiency of one man is raised from four pounds per day to several thousand pounds per day1 and the culture and manufacture of cotton fibre was revolutionized and greatly stimulated by providing a mode of putting it into merchantable condition at a reasonable price4 ,it is said that the crop of cotton increased from #ahi1caf pounds in #agia to #b1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds in #ahei4 ,the cotton gin1 as invented by ,whitney more than a hundred years ago1 is still in use1 substantially unchanged in principle1 but its efficiency has been raised from #gj pounds per day to several thousands4 ,the cotton crop of the ,united ,states for #ahii1 which was handled by the modern gins at this rate1 amounted to #aa1bgd1hdj bales1 of about #ejj pounds each1 or more than five thousand million pounds4 ,but for the cotton gin this great staple would have only a very limited use1 and one of the greatest of the world's industries would have practically no existence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4--;,,cotton ,,gin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4--,,modern ,,spinning ,,spindle4 ,a modern step of importance in spinning was the ring frame4 ,ring spinning was invented by ,john ,thorp1 of ,rhode ,island1 who took out two patents for the same ,november #bj1 #ahbh4 ,the leading feature of the ring frame is the substitution of a light steel hoop or traveler running upon the upper edge of a ring surrounding the spindle in lieu of the flyer formerly employed4 ,the thread passes through the hoop as it is wound upon the spindle4 ,in modern times ring spinning has attained considerable proportions1 especially in cotton manufactures4 ,nearly #c1jjj ,united ,states patents have been granted in the class of spinning1 and many valuable improvements in the details of construction in spinning machinery have been made in recent years4 ,the most important1 perhaps1 are those relating to spindle structure1 whereby the speed and efficiency of spinning machines have been greatly increased4 ,prior to #ahgh the speed of the average spindle was limited to #e1jjj revolutions a minute4 ,in #ahgh improvements were made which doubled its working speed and permitted as high as #bj1jjj revolutions a minute4 ,this result was accomplished by making a yielding bolster4 ,the bolster is an upright sleeve bearing1 in which the spindle revolves1 and against which is sustained the pull of the band that drives the spindle4 ,by making this bolster or sleeve bearing to yield laterally by means of an elastic packing which surrounds it1 a much greater freedom and speed of revolution were obtained4 ,the preliminary step in this direction was made by ,birkenhead in patent ,no4 #bje1gah1 ,july #i1 #ahgh4 ,in the same year this idea was perfected by ,rabbeth4 ,the bolster was placed loosely in a bolster case of slightly larger diameter than the bolster1 and the bottom of the spindle had a free lateral movement as well as the top1 as shown in his patent ,no4 #bbg1abi1 ,may #d1 #ahhj4 ,with such perfect freedom of movement1 the spindle at high speed could find its own center of revolution1 and an indefinitely high speed and quadrupled efficiency were attained4 ,the ,draper ,spindle is shown in ,fig4 #bhi as one of the most modern and representative of spinning spindles4 ,considering the great speed of the modern spindle and the fact that a single workman attends a thousand or more of them1 the record of progress in this art becomes impressive4 ,in #ahje there were only #d1ejj cotton spindles at work in the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahii there were #ah1ajj1jjj4 ,weaving4--,a woven fabric consists of threads which run lengthwise1 called the 8warp10 crossed by threads running transversely1 called the 8woof10 8weft10 or 8filling10 which latter are imprisoned or locked in by the warp4 ,in a simple loom the warp threads are divided into two groups1 the threads of one group alternating with those of the other1 and means are provided for separating these groups to form a wedge-shaped space between them called a 8shed40 ,through this shed the shuttle which carries the woof or filling thread is sent crosswise the warp threads4 ,means are provided for changing the inclination and position of the two groups of warp threads in relation to each other1 so as to lock in the filling1 and put the warp threads in position to receive the next filling thread4 ,for this purpose the warp threads1 usually horizontal1 are each passed through a loop1 and every alternate loop is attached to a frame called a 8heddle40 ,the intervening loops and threads are attached to another frame or 8heddle10 and the two heddles by being worked1 one up and the other down1 separate the warp threads to form the shed4 ,formerly the shuttle was thrown by hand through the shed4 ,in #agcc ,john ,kay1 of ,england1 took out ,british patent ,no4 #edb1 for the flying shuttle and picking stick1 by which the shuttle was struck a hammer-like blow and driven like a ball from a bat across the warp1 and was struck by a similar stick on the other side1 to be returned in the same way4 ,this gave a much more rapid action than could be obtained by hand-throwing1 and enabled one weaver to do the work of two or three4 ,in #agfj ,robert ,kay invented the drop box1 by which different shuttles carrying different colors of thread were employed4 ,the power loom1 however1 marked the first great growth in the art of weaving4 ,the enormously increased quantity of cotton spun by ,arkwright's machinery made a demand for increased facilities for weaving it into cloth4 ,dr4 ,cartwright1 of ,england1 foresaw and met this demand in his power loom1 in which all of the intricate operations were performed by power-driven machinery4 ,his invention was not extensively introduced until about the beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,one difficulty experienced was that the warp threads1 from their fuzzy nature1 had to be dressed with size1 and this required the loom to be stopped from time to time1 and necessitated the services of a man to dress or size the warp threads4 ,this difficulty was overcome1 however1 by ,johnson ,radcliffe1 about #ahjc1 by the sizing and dressing of the yarns by passing them between rollers and coating them with a thin layer of paste before being put into the loom4 ,dr4 ,cartwright was granted ,british patents ,no4 #a1dgj1 of #aghe2 ,no4 #a1efe1 of #aghf2 ,no4 #a1faf1 of #aghg1 and ,no4 #a1fgf1 of #aghh1 but being unable to maintain any monopoly under his patents he was compensated by ,parliament with a grant of #aj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bij4--,,modern ,,jacquard ,,loom4 ,jacquard ,loom4--,this most notable step in the art of weaving was made at the very beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it enabled all kinds of fabrics1 from the finest to the coarsest1 to be cheaply woven into patterns having figured or ornamental designs4 ,jacquard1 a native of ,lyons1 conceived the plan of his great invention in the last decade of the ,eighteenth ,century1 and on ,december #bh1 #ahja1 took out ,french patent ,no4 #bde1 on the same4 ,his invention was not1 in fact1 a new form of loom1 but rather an attachment to a loom which was universally applicable to all looms4 ,before his invention1 figured patterns of cloth could only be made by slow and laborious processes4 ,jacquard's invention consisted in individualizing and differentiating the movement of the warp threads1 instead of operating them in constant groups4 ,this individualizing of the movement of the warp threads allowed any warp thread to be held up automatically any length of time1 or let down1 according as was necessary to form the figure of the pattern4 ,this was accomplished by making a chain of articulated cards1 like a slatted belt1 and perforating these cards with varying arrangements of holes4 ,the cards were successively and intermittently fed to a set of needles1 which latter1 by rising and falling1 raise or lower the warp threads attached to the same4 ,by perforating these cards differently1 and arranging them so that when one card was brought in front of the needles it would let certain needles through the perforations and hold the others back1 it will be seen that each card controlled the action of a different set of needles1 and the sequence of the series of cards effected the necessary change in the needles and movement of the warp threads to form the growth of the figure in the fabric4 ,in ,fig4 #bij is seen a modern form of ,jacquard loom1 showing at the far end the chain of perforated cards4 ,jacquard received a bronze medal at the ,french ,exposition in #ahja1 was decorated with the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honor1 and the gratitude of his countrymen was attested by a pension of #f1jjj francs1 and a statue erected to his memory at ,lyons in #ahdj4 ,subsequent improvements and developments of the ,jacquard loom have carried its work to great nicety and refinement of action4 ,in the chain of pattern cards it is said that as many as #be1jjj separately punched cards or plates are sometimes used in weaving a single yard of brocade4 ,the great variety of elaborate designs of delicate tracery in silk1 rich patterns in brocades1 and gorgeous figures in carpets1 attest the value of ,jacquard's important step in this art4 ,nearly #e1jjj ,united ,states patents have been granted in the class of weaving4 ,in the early part of the century much notable work was done4 ,steam was applied to looms by ,william ,horrocks 7,british patent ,no4 #b1fii1 #ahjc74 ,from #ahcj to #ahdb there were brought out the fancy looms of ,crompton1 the application of the ,jacquard mechanism to the lace frame by ,draper1 and the carpet looms of ,bigelow4 ,in #ahec ,bonelli sought to improve on the ,jacquard mechanism by employing electro-magnets to effect the selection of the needles1 instead of perforated cards 7,british patent ,no4 #a1hib1 of #ahec74 ,among more recent developments is the ,positive ,motion loom of ,lyall1 patented ,december #aj1 #ahgb1 ,no4 #acc1hfh1 re-issue ,no4 #i1jdi1 ,january #bj1 #ahhj4 ,the distinguishing feature of this is that the shuttle is not thrown or impelled as a projectile through the wedge-shaped space 7shed71 between the two sets of warp threads1 but is positively dragged back and forth through the same by an endless belt attached to the shuttle carriage and running first in one direction and then in the other to drag the shuttle through4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bia4--;,,crompton ,,fancy ,,loom4 ,it is not to be understood that the positive motion loom has superseded the flying shuttle4 ,the latter is still the leading type1 of which the ,crompton fancy loom1 shown in ,fig4 #bia1 is a representative illustration4 ,the tendency in late years in the art of weaving has been toward labor-saving devices1 a reduction in the cost to the consumer of all kinds of textile fabrics1 and the extension of the loom to the weaving of new kinds of materials4 ,prominent among these are the inventions in the loom for weaving plain fabrics made between the years #ahha and #ahie1 shown in patents to ,northrop1 ,no4 #ded1haj1 ,june #bc1 #ahia2 ,no4 #ebi1idc1 ,november #bg1 #ahid1 and ,draper1 ,no4 #ecf1idh1 ,april #b1 #ahie4 ,this loom1 as usual1 employs a single shuttle1 but as the weft becomes exhausted another bobbin is automatically supplied to the shuttle without stopping the operation of the machine4 ,during the year #ahie the first loom for weaving an open mesh cane fabric having diagonal strands was invented4 ,patents to ,morris1 ,no4 #edi1icj1 and to ,crompton1 ,no4 #eej1jfh1 ,november #ai1 #ahie1 were obtained for this4 ,prior to this time two distinct machines were necessary to produce this fabric1 and the operation was slow and expensive4 ,between #ahic and #ahie two machines were invented1 upon either of which the well-known ,turkish carpets can be woven4 ,patents to ,youngjohns1 ,no4 #eaj1gee1 ,december #ab1 #ahic1 and to ,reinhart von ,seydlitz1 ,no4 #ecc1ccj1 ,january #bi1 #ahie1 disclose this4 ,the drawing of warp threads into the eyes of the heddles and through the reed of a loom requires great skill1 and prior to #ahhj was performed by hand at great expense4 ,in #ahhb1 however1 a machine for doing this was invented1 thereby dispensing with the old hand method and cheapening the operation4 ,patents to ,sherman and ,ingersoll1 ,no4 #bee1jch1 ,march #ad1 #ahhb1 and ,ingersoll1 ,no4 #dfa1fac1 ,october #bj1 #ahia1 were granted for this machine4 ,to-day the shuttle flies at the rate of #ahj to #bej strokes a minute1 and yet the complex organization of the machine works with an energy1 a uniformity1 an accuracy and a continuity that leaves far behind the strength of the arm1 the memory of mind1 and the accuracy of the human eye1 and yet1 if the tiny thread breaks1 the whole organization instantly stops and patiently waits the remedial care of its watchful master4 ,knitting ,machines4--,knitting differs from weaving1 braiding1 or plaiting in the following respects3 ,in weaving there are longitudinal threads called warp threads1 which are crossed on a separate weft or filling thread4 ,in braiding or plaiting all the threads may be considered warp threads1 since they are arranged to run longitudinally1 and instead of locking around a separate transverse thread at right angles1 they extend diagonally and are interwoven with each other4 ,in netting and knitting1 however1 there is but a single thread1 which1 in netting1 is knotted into itself at definite intervals to leave a mesh of definite size1 while in knitting the single thread is merely looped into itself without any definite mesh4 ,knitted goods have the peculiarity of great elasticity in consequence of this formation of the fabric1 and for that reason find a special application in all garments which are required to snugly conform to irregular outlines1 such as stockings for the feet1 gloves for the hands1 and underwear for the body4 ,weaving1 braiding1 and netting are very old arts1 but the art of knitting is comparatively modern4 ,it is believed to have originated about the year #aejj in ,scotland4 ,in #aehi ,william ,lee1 of ,england1 is credited with making the first knitting machine4 ,it is said that the girl with whom he was in love1 and to whom he was paying his attention1 was so busy with her work of hand knitting that she could not give him the requisite attention1 and he invented the knitting machine that they might have more time to devote to their love affairs4 ,another version is that he married the girl and invented the machine to relieve her weary fingers from the work of the knitting needle1 and still another is that the machine was the leading object of his affections1 to the neglect of his sweetheart1 who 8gave him the mitten0 before he had knitted one on his machines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bib4--;,,branson #ae_/af ,,automatic ,,knitter4 ,the earliest circular knitting machine was by ,brunel1 described in ,british patent ,no4 #c1iic1 of #ahaf4 ,power was applied to the knitting frame by ,bailey in #ahca1 and the latch needle was patented in the ,united ,states by ,hibbert1 ,january #i1 #ahdi1 ,no4 #f1jbe4 ,this patent was extended for seven years from ,january #i1 #ahfc1 and covered a very important and universally used feature of the knitting machine4 ,research has shown1 however1 that the latch was not broadly new with ,hibbert1 as it appeared in the ,french patent to ,jeandeau1 ,no4 #a1ijj1 of ,april #be1 #ahjf4 ,among the earlier knitting machines1 the straight reciprocating type was most in evidence1 and of which the ,lamb machine was a popular form4 ,the increased speed and capacity of the circular machine have1 however1 caused it to largely supersede the others4 ,in the circular machine a circular series of vertical parallel needles slide in grooves in a cylinder1 and are raised and lowered successively by an external rotating cylinder which has on the inner side cams that act upon the needles4 ,the ,branson #ae_/af ,automatic ,knitter1 shown in ,fig4 #bib1 is a good modern illustration4 ,it performs automatically fifteen-sixteenths of the various movements which ordinarily would be performed by hand on a hand machine4 ,its salient features are covered by patents ,no4 #ccc1ajb1 ,december #bi1 #ahhe1 and ,no4 #eai1agj1 ,may #a1 #ahid4 ,about #b1jjj ,united ,states patents have been granted in the class of knitting and netting1 and the value of hosiery and knit goods in the ,united ,states in #ahij was #fg1bda1jac4 ,an important branch of the textile art is cloth finishing1 whereby the rough surface of the cloth as it comes from the loom is rendered soft and smooth4 ,one method is to raise the nap of the cloth by pulling out the fibre by a multitude of fine points4 ,originally this was done by combing it with teasles1 a sort of dried burr of vegetable growth1 having a multitude of fine hook-shaped points4 ,machines with fine metal card teeth are now largely used for this purpose1 and of which the planetary napping machine of ,ott1 patent ,no4 #cdd1iha1 ,july #f1 #ahhf1 is an example4 ,another method of finishing the cloth is to iron or press it4 ,plate presses were first used in which smooth plates were folded in alternate layers with the cloth and pressure then applied1 but in later years continuous rotary presses have been employed1 that of ,gessner1 patent ,no4 #bjf1gah1 ,august #f1 #ahgh1 re-issue ,no4 #i1jgf1 #i1jgg1 ,february #ag1 #ahhj1 is one of the earliest examples of a continuous rotary press4 ,the old ,gessner presses of ,saxony were the pioneers in this field4 ,a modern ,gessner cloth press is seen in ,fig4 #bic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bic4--,,modern 8,,gessner0 ,,cloth ,,pressing ,,machine4 ,in the field of textiles there are many related arts and machines4 ,there are hat felting and finishing machines1 darning machines1 quilting machines1 embroidering machines1 processes and apparatus for dyeing and sizing1 machines for printing fabrics1 machines for making rope and cord1 machines for winding and working silk1 and in treating the raw material there are cotton-pickers1 cotton baling presses1 cotton openers and cleaners1 flax brakes and hackling machines1 feeding devices1 wool carding and cleaning apparatus1 all in variety and numbers that defy both comment and count4 ,in fabrics every class of fibre has been called into requisition4 ,flax1 wool1 silk1 and cotton have been supplemented with the fibres of metal1 of glass1 of cocoanut1 pine needles1 ramie1 wood-pulp1 and of many other plants1 leaves and grasses4 ,artificial silk is made out of a chemically prepared composition1 and the fibres are spun by processes simulating not only the act of the silkworm1 but its product in quality4 ,vandura silk was spun from an aqueous solution of gelatine by forcing it through a fine capillary tube1 but it attained little or no practical value4 ,a far more important artificial silk is covered by the patents to ,de ,chardonnet1 ,no4 #cid1eei1 ,december #ah1 #ahhh2 ,no4 #dfj1fbi1 ,october #f1 #ahia1 and ,no4 #eca1aeh1 ,december #ah1 #ahid1 and also in subsequent patents to ,lehner and to ,turk4 ,these all relate to the manufacture of artificial silk by spinning threads or filaments from pyroxiline 7solution of gun cotton71 collodion1 or some such glutinous solution which evaporates rapidly1 leaving a tiny thread1 having most of the characteristics of silk and produced by the same method employed by the silk worm when it expresses and draws out its viscid liquid4 ,the ,de ,chardonnet artificial silk took a 8,grand ,prix0 at the ,paris ,exposition in #ahhi1 and the industry is growing to considerable proportions4 ,large works are in operation at ,besanon1 in ,france1 producing #g1jjj pounds per week1 and it is said that the plant is to be increased to a capacity of #b1jjj pounds a day4 ,similar works at ,avon1 near ,coventry1 ,england1 have an equal capacity1 and other factories are about to be established in ,belgium and ,germany4 ,polished or diamond cotton is a lustrous looking article of a soft silky nature1 formed by plating the threads with a liquid emulsion of a waxy and starchy substance1 and polishing the threads with rapidly revolving brushes4 ,mercerized ,cloth4--,in late years a distinct novelty has appeared on the shelves of the dry goods stores4 ,beautiful1 filmy fabrics1 and lustrous embroidery thread1 not of silk1 but so close to it in appearance as to be scarcely distinguishable1 have gained much popularity and attained a large sale4 ,they are known as mercerized goods4 ,about the middle of the century ,john ,mercer1 of ,england1 found that when cotton goods were treated with chemicals 7either alkalies or acids71 a change was produced in the fibre which caused it to shrink and become thicker1 and which imparted also an increased affinity for dyes4 ,he took out ,british patent ,no4 #ac1bif1 of #ahej1 for his invention1 but practically nothing further was done with the process4 ,recently the important step of ,thomas and ,prevost of mercerizing under tension gave some new and wonderful results4 ,united ,states patents ,no4 #fjj1hbf and ,no4 #fjj1hbg1 of ,may #ae1 #ahih1 disclose this process4 ,the cloth or thread1 while being treated chemically1 is at the same time subjected to a powerful tension that causes the fibres 7softened and rendered glutinous by the chemicals7 to be elongated or pulled out like fibres of molten glass1 giving it the same striated texture and fine luster that silk has1 and by substantially the same mechanical agency1 for it is the elongation of the plastic glutinous thread from the silk worm that gives the thread its silky luster1 by a process which has a familiar illustration in the molecular adjustment that imparts luster to spun glass or drawn taffy4 ,standing in the light of the ,twentieth ,century1 and looking back through past ages1 we find the art of spinning and weaving in an ever present and unbroken thread of evidence all along the path of history--through wars and famine1 floods and conflagrations2 through the progress and decay of nations1 through all phases of change1 and the vicissitudes of centuries1 it has never been relegated to the domain of the lost arts1 but has remained a persisting invention4 ,it has been a paramount necessity to the human race1 indissolubly locked up with its continuity and welfare1 and will ever continue to supply its work in maintaining the greater fabric of human existence4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,ice ,,machines4 ,,general ,,principles--,,freezing ,,mixtures--,,perkins' ,,ice ,,machine1 #ahcd-- ,,pictet',s ,,apparatus--,,carr',s ,,ammonia ,,absorption ,,process--,,direct ,,compression ,,and ,,can ,,system--,,the ,,holden ,,ice ,,machine--,,skating ,,rinks-- ,,windhausen',s ,,apparatus ,,for ,,cooling ,,and ,,ventilating ,,ships4 ,very few people have any correct conception of the principles of ice-making4 ,most persons have heard in a vague sort of way that chemicals are employed in its manufacture1 and many a fastidious individual has been known to object to artificial ice on the ground that he could taste the chemicals1 and that it could not therefore be wholesome4 ,such is the power of imagination1 and such the misconception in the public mind4 ,nothing could be more erroneous1 nor more amusing to the physicist1 since no chemicals ever come in contact with either the water or the ice4 ,an intelligent understanding of the operations of an ice machine involves only a correct appreciation of one of the physical laws governing the relation of heat to matter1 and the forms which matter assumes under different degrees of heat4 ,we see water passing from solid ice to liquid water and gaseous steam1 by a mere rise in temperature1 and conversely1 by abstraction of heat1 steam passes back to water1 and then to ice4 ,when one's hands get wet they get cold4 ,a commonplace1 but convenient proof of this is to wet the finger in the mouth and hold it in the air4 ,a sensible reduction of temperature is instantly noticeable4 ,a more pronounced illustration is to wet the hands in a basin of water1 and then plunge them in the blast of hot1 dry air coming from a furnace register4 ,instead of warming the hands1 as many would suppose1 this will1 as long as the hands are wet1 produce a distinct sensation of increased cold4 ,it is due to rapid evaporation1 which in changing the water from a liquid to a gaseous form1 abstracts heat from the hands4 ,evaporation may be effected in two ways4 ,the common one is by applying extraneous heat1 as under a tea kettle1 in which case the evaporated vapor is hot by virtue of the heat absorbed from the fire4 ,the other way is to reduce pressure or produce a partial vacuum over the liquid without any application of heat1 in which case the vapor is made cold4 ,as early as #agee ,dr4 ,cullen observed this1 and discovered that the cold thus produced was sufficient to make ice4 ,an incident of evaporation is the passing from the limited volume of a liquid to the greatly increased volume of a gas4 ,water1 for instance1 when it changes to a vapor1 increases in volume about #a1gjj times2 that is1 a cubic inch of water makes about a cubic foot of steam1 and when evaporation takes place from a reduction of pressure1 this involves a dissipation of heat throughout the increased volume1 and the corresponding production of cold4 ,when1 however1 matter changes from a liquid to a gas1 or from a solid to a liquid1 a peculiar phenomenon manifests itself1 in that a great amount of heat is absorbed and1 so far as the evidence of the senses goes1 disappears in the mere change of state4 ,it is called latent heat4 ,in such case the heat becomes hidden from the senses by being converted into some other form of intermolecular force not appreciable as sensible heat1 and producing no elevation of temperature4 ,in illustration1 if a pound of water at #bab ,f4 be mixed with a pound of water at #cd 7both being matter in the same state71 there results two pounds of water at the mean temperature of #abc4 ,if1 however1 a pound of water at #bab be mixed with a pound of ice at #cb 7matter in another state71 there will not be two pounds of water at the mean temperature of #abb1 as might be expected1 but two pounds at #ea only1 an amount of heat sufficient to raise two pounds of water #ga being absorbed in the mere change of ice to water without any sensible raise in temperature4 ,this absorbed heat is called latent heat1 and it plays an important part in artificial freezing4 ,a familiar illustration of the absorption of heat in changing from a solid to a liquid is found in the admixture of salt and ice around an ice-cream freezer4 ,these two solids1 when brought together1 liquefy rapidly with an absorption of heat that produces in a limited time a far greater degree of cold than that which could be obtained from the ice by mere conduction1 since the reduction of temperature proceeds faster by liquefaction than can be compensated for by the absorption of heat from the air4 ,were this not true1 ice cream could not be frozen by a mixture of salt and ice4 ,many such freezing mixtures are known1 and a few have been made commercially available1 but they cannot be economically employed in ice-making1 and it is therefore only necessary to consider the development of the more common principle of evaporation and expansion1 in which the change from a liquid to a gas occurs4 ,the volatile liquid which was first employed was water1 but as it did not vaporize as readily as some other liquids1 more volatile substitutes were soon found1 among which may be named ether1 ammonia1 liquid carbonic acid1 liquid sulphurous acid1 bisulphide of carbon and chymogene1 which latter is a petroleum product lighter and more volatile than benzine or gasoline4 ,as these liquids were expensive1 it is obvious that their vaporization could not be allowed to take place in the open air1 since the reagent would thus be quickly dissipated and lost1 and hence means were devised to condense and save this valuable volatile liquid to be used over again4 ,the vaporization of the volatile liquid to produce cold1 and its re-condensation to liquid form to be used over again in an endless cycle of circulation1 seems to have been first effected by ,mr4 ,perkins1 of ,england1 whose ,british patent ,no4 #f1ffb1 of #ahcd1 affords a simple and clear illustration of the fundamental principles of most modern ice machines4 ,his apparatus is shown in ,fig4 #bid4 ,a tank a is filled with water to be frozen or cooled4 ,a refrigerating chamber b1 submerged in the water1 is charged internally with some volatile liquid1 such as ether4 ,when the piston of suction pump c rises a partial vacuum is formed beneath it1 and the volatile liquid in b being relieved of pressure1 evaporates and expands into greater volume1 the vapor passing out through pipe f and upwardly opening valve e4 ,this vapor is rendered intensely cold by expansion1 and this cold is imparted to the water in tank a to freeze it4 ,a more scientific statement1 however1 is that the cold vapor absorbs the heat units of the water1 and taking them away with it1 lowers the temperature of the water to the freezing point4 ,when the piston of pump c descends1 valve e closes1 and the vapor1 laden with the heat units absorbed from the water1 is forced through the downwardly opening valve e1 and through pipe g to a cooling coil d1 around which a body of cold water is continually flowed4 ,this water1 in turn1 takes the heat units from the vapor1 and passes off with them in a constant flow1 while the vapor of ether is condensed into a liquid again by the cold water1 and passing through a weighted valve h1 goes into the evaporating or refrigerating chamber to be again vaporized in an endless circuit of flow4 ,it will be seen that the heat units from the water in tank a are first handed over to the cold ether vapors passing out from chamber b1 and by this vapor are then transferred to the flowing body of water surrounding the coil d4 ,the result is that the heat units carried off by the water flowing around coil d are the same heat units abstracted from the water in tank a1 which water is thus reduced to congealation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bid4--,,perkins' ,,ice ,,machine1 #ahcd4 ,among later ice machines of this type the ,pictet machine was a conspicuous example4 ,this employed anhydrous sulphurous acid as the volatile agent1 and is described in ,united ,states patent ,no4 #ahg1dac1 ,february #ac1 #ahgg2 ,french patent ,no4 #aji1jjc1 of #ahge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bie4--,,the ,,pictet ,,ice ,,machine4 ,in ,fig4 #bie is represented a vertical longitudinal and also a vertical transverse section of a ,pictet ice machine4 ,a is a double acting suction and compression pump1 ,d and ,e are two cylinders which are similarly constructed in the respect that they are both provided with flue pipes and heads for a double circulation of fluids1 one fluid passing through the pipes while the other passes through the spaces between the pipes1 much like the condenser of a steam engine4 ,the cylinder ,d is the refrigerator where the volatile liquid is evaporated to produce cold1 and the cylinder ,e is the condenser where the gasified vapor is cooled and condensed again to liquid form to be returned to the refrigerator4 ,the action is as follows3 ,the pump ,a by pipe ,b draws from the chamber in the refrigerator ,d containing the volatile liquid1 causing it to evaporate and produce an intense degree of cold which is imparted to the liquid surrounding it and filling the tank4 ,this liquid is either brine1 or a mixture of glycerine and water1 or a solution of chloride of magnesium1 or other liquid which does not freeze at a temperature considerably below the freezing point of water4 ,now1 this non-congealable liquid being below the freezing point1 it will be seen that if cans ,h be filled with pure water1 and are immersed in this intensely cold non-congealable liquid1 the water in the cans will freeze4 ,this is exactly what takes place1 and this is how the ice is formed4 ,as the volatile liquid is drawn out of the refrigerator ,d through pipe ,b by the pump ,a it is forced by the pump through pipe ,c and into the chamber of the condenser ,e4 ,a current of cold water is kept flowing around the pipes in ,e1 coming in through a pipe at one end and passing out through a pipe at the other end4 ,the compressed and relatively hot gases are by the contact of this cold water along the sides of the pipes cooled and condensed into a liquid again1 which passes up the small curved pipe ,f and is returned to the refrigerator ,d1 to be again evaporated by the suction of the pump to continue the production of cold4 ,in large plants the non-congealable liquid and cans of water to be frozen are 7in order to get larger capacity7 carried to a large floor tank in a removed situation4 ,one of the earliest methods of producing ice in a limited quantity was by evaporating water by a reduction of pressure and causing the vapor to be absorbed by sulphuric acid1 which has a great affinity for the water vapor4 ,mr4 ,nairne1 in #aggg1 was the first to discover the affinity that sulphuric acid had for water vapor1 and in #ahaj ,leslie froze water by this means4 ,in #ahbd ,vallance obtained ,british patents ,no4 #d1hhd and #e1jja1 operating on this principle1 in which leaden balls were coated with sulphuric acid to increase the absorbing surfaces1 and which apparatus was effective in freezing considerable quantities of ice4 ,the carafes frappees of the ,parisian restaurant were decanters in which water was frozen by being immersed in tanks of sea water whose temperature was reduced below freezing by the vaporization of ether in a reservoir immersed in the sea water4 ,edmond ,carr's method of preparing carafes frappees involved the use of the sulphuric acid principle of absorption1 and to that end the aqueous vapor was directly exhausted from the decanter by a pump1 and the said vapor was absorbed by a large volume of sulphuric acid so rapidly as to freeze the water remaining in the decanter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bif4--;,,compression ,,pumps ,,of ,,ice ,,plant4 ,probably the earliest practical ice machine to be organized on a commercial basis was the ammonia absorption machine of ,ferdinand ,carr1 which was a continuously working machine4 ,it is disclosed in ,french patents ,nos4 #ha and #djd1 of #ahfj1 and ,no4 #ge1gjb1 of #ahfg2 ,united ,states patent ,no4 #cj1bja1 ,october #b1 #ahfj4 ,in this case advantage is taken first of the very volatile character of anhydrous ammonia1 in the expansion part of the process1 and1 secondly1 of the great affinity which water has for absorbing such gas4 ,strange as it may appear1 the production of ice in the ,carr process begins with the application of heat4 ,it must be understood1 however1 that this forms no part of the refrigerating process proper1 but only a means of driving off or distilling the anhydrous ammonia gas 7the refrigerant7 from its aqueous solution4 ,ammonia dissolved in water1 known as aqua ammonia1 is placed in a boiler or still above a furnace4 ,the pure ammonia gas is thus driven off from the water by heat under pressure1 similar to that in a steam boiler1 and passes direct to a condenser1 where1 by cold water flowing through pipes1 the pure gas is liquefied under pressure4 ,the liquefied gas is then admitted to the evaporating or refrigerating chamber1 where it expands to produce the cold1 and is afterward re-absorbed by the water from which it was originally driven off in the still1 to be used over again4 ,machines of this type are known as absorption machines1 for the reason that the volatile gas is after expansion re-absorbed by the liquid in which it was dissolved1 and is continuously driven off therefrom by the heat of a still4 ,absorption machines were the outgrowth of ,faraday's observations in #ahbc4 ,a bent glass tube was prepared containing at one end a quantity of chloride of silver1 saturated with ammonia and hermetically sealed4 ,when the mixture was heated1 the ammonia was driven over to the other end of the tube1 immersed in a cold bath1 and the ammonia gas became liquefied4 ,it was found by him then that if the end containing the chloride was plunged in a cold bath and the end containing liquid ammonia was immersed in water1 the heat of the water made the ammonia rapidly evaporate1 the chloride at the other end of the tube absorbed the ammonia vapors1 and the water around the end of the tube containing the liquefied ammonia was converted into ice1 by the loss of its heat imparted to the ammonia to volatilize it4 ,it only needed the substitution of water for the chloride of silver1 as an absorbing agent for the ammonia1 and mechanical means for economically working the process in a continuous way to produce the ,carr absorption machine4 ,the most common form of ice machine to-day is1 however1 what is known as the compression or direct system1 in which the absorption principle is dispensed with1 the ammonia being compressed by powerful steam pumps1 then cooled to liquid form by condensers1 and then allowed to expand from its own pressure through pipes immersed in brine in a large floor tank1 in which cans containing pure water are immersed1 and the water frozen4 ,fig4 #bife shows the compression pumps1 and ,fig4 #big the floor tanks1 of such a system4 ,many hundred cans filled with pure water are lowered into the cold brine of the tank1 and their upper ends form a complete floor1 as seen in ,fig4 #big4 ,when the water in the cans is frozen1 the cans are raised out of the floor by a traveling crane and carried to one of the four doors seen at the far end of the room4 ,the ice in the can is then loosened by warm water1 and the block dumped through the door into a chute1 whence it passes into the storage room below1 seen in ,fig4 #bih4 ,in the can system the water is frozen from all four sides to the center1 and imprisons in the center any air bubbles or impurities that may exist in the water4 ,the plate system freezes the water on the exterior walls of hollow plates1 which contain within them the freezing medium4 ,in freezing the water externally on these plates all impurities and air bubbles are repelled and excluded1 and the ice rendered clear and transparent4 #e ,by courtesy of 8,ice and ,refrigeration40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #big4--;,,floor ,,tank ,,of ,,can ,,system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bih4--,,storage ,,room ,,of ,,ice ,,plant4 ,an ice plant1 employing what is known as the 8can0 system and capable of producing #ajj tons of ice in twenty-four hours1 requires a building about #ajj feet wide and #aej feet long1 on account of the great floor space needed to accommodate the freezing tank1 and the great number of cans which are immersed in the same4 ,a radical departure from this style of plant is presented in the ,holden ice machine4 ,this does not require a multitude of cans and a great floor space1 but a lot #be by #ej feet is sufficient1 for the ice is turned out in a continuous process like bricks from a brick machine4 ,the machine works on the ammonia absorption principle1 but the freezing is done on the outer periphery of a revolving cylinder1 from which the film of ice is scraped off automatically and the ice slush carried away by a spiral conveyor to one of two press molds1 in which a heavy pressure solidifies the ice into blocks1 which are successively shot down from the presses on a chute to the storage room1 as seen in ,fig4 #bii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bii4--;,,holden ,,ice ,,machine4 ,the foregoing examples of ice machines give no idea of the great activity in this field of refrigeration in the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,over #fjj ,united ,states patents have been granted for ice machines alone1 to say nothing of refrigerating buildings1 refrigerator cars1 domestic refrigerators1 and ice cream freezers1 etc4 ,among the earlier workers in ice machines1 in addition to those already named1 may be mentioned the names of ,gorrie1 patent ,no4 #h1jhj1 ,may #f1 #ahea1 followed by ,twining1 #ahec-ahfb2 ,mignon and ,rouart1 in #ahfe2 ,lowe1 in #ahfg2 ,somes1 in #ahfg-ahfh2 ,windhausen1 in #ahgj2 ,rankin1 in #ahgf-ahgg1 and many others4 ,an application of the ice machine which attracted much attention and attained great popularity for a while was that made in the production of artificial skating rinks1 in which a floor of ice was frozen by means of a system of submerged pipes1 through which the cold liquid from the ice machine was made to circulate4 ,the earliest artificial skating rink is to be found in the ,british patent to ,newton1 ,no4 #bcf1 of #ahgj1 but it was ,gamgee1 in #ahge and #ahgf1 who devised practical means for carrying it out and brought it into public use4 ,his inventions are described in his ,british patents ,no4 #d1dab1 of #ahge1 and ,no4 #d1agf1 of #ahgf1 and ,united ,states patent4 ,no4 #aif1fec1 ,october #cj1 #ahgg1 and others in #ahgh4 ,the ,windhausen machine was one of the earliest applications for cooling and ventilating ships4 ,this machine operated upon the principle of alternately compressing and expanding air1 and is described in ,united ,states patents ,no4 #aja1aih1 ,march #bb1 #ahgj 7re-issue ,no4 #d1fjc1 ,october #ag1 #ahga71 and ,no4 #aaa1bib1 ,january #bd1 #ahga4 ,to-day every ocean liner is equipped with its own cold storage and ice-making plant1 refrigerator cars transport vast cargoes of meats1 fish1 etc41 across the continent1 and bring the ripe fruits of ,california to the ,eastern coast2 every market house has its cold storage compartments1 and to the brewery the refrigerating plant is one of its fundamental and important requisites4 ,the great value of refrigerating appliances is to be found in the retardation of chemical decomposition or arrest of decay1 and as this has relation chiefly to preserving the food stuffs of the world1 its value can be easily understood4 ,this branch of industry has grown up entirely in the ,nineteenth ,century1 and the activity in this field is attested by the #d1jjj ,united ,states patents in this class4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,liquid ,,air4 ,,liquefaction ,,of ,,gases ,,by ,,northmore1 #ahje2 ,,faraday1 #ahbc2 ,,bussy1 #ahbd2 ,,thilorier1 #ahcd1 ,,and ,,others--,,liquefaction ,,of ,,oxygen1 ,,nitrogen ,,and ,,air ,,by ,,pictet ,,and ,,cailletet ,,in #ahgg--,,self-,,intensification ,,of ,,cold ,,by ,,siemens ,,in #aheg1 ,,and ,,windhausen ,,in #ahgj--,,operations ,,of ,,dewar1 ,,wroblewski1 ,,and ,,olszewski--,,self-,,intensifying ,,processes ,,of ,,solvay1 ,,tripler1 ,,lind1 ,,hampson1 ,,and ,,ostergren ,,and ,,berger--,,liquid ,,air ,,experiments ,,and ,,uses4 ,until quite recently the physicist divided gaseous matter into condensable vapors and permanent vapors4 ,to-day it is known that there are no permanent gases1 since all the so-called permanent gases1 even to the most tenuous1 such as hydrogen1 may be made to assume the liquid and even the solid form4 ,the average individual knows very little about hydrogen1 but he is very well acquainted with air1 and when he was told that the air that he breathes--the gentle zephyr that blows--the wind that storms from the north1 or twists itself into the rage of a cyclone in ,kansas--may be bound down in liquid form1 and imprisoned within the limits of an open tumbler1 or be bottled up in a flask or even frozen solid1 he was at first impressed with the suspicion of a fairy story4 ,seeing is believing1 however1 to him1 and the striking experiments from the lecture platform1 the approval of the scientists1 and the sensational accounts of it in the press1 have not only been convincing1 but have completely turned his head and made him a too willing victim of the speculator4 ,liquid air is a real achievement1 however1 and while it is astonishing to the layman1 the physicist looks upon it in the most matter-of-fact way1 for it is only a fulfilment of the simplest of nature's laws1 and entirely consonant with what he has been led to expect for many years4 ,the liquefaction of gases has engaged the attention of the scientist almost from the beginning of the century4 ,in #ahje-f ,northmore liquefied chlorine gas4 ,this was done again in #ahbc by ,faraday4 ,in #ahbd ,bussy condensed sulphurous acid vapors to liquid form4 ,in #ahcd ,thilorier made extensive experiments and demonstrations in the liquefaction of carbonic acid gas4 ,in #ahdc ,aime experimented with the liquefaction of gases by sinking them in suitable vessels to great depths in the ocean4 ,natterer1 in #ahdd1 greatly advanced the study of this subject by both novel methods and apparatus4 ,liquefaction of air was attempted as early as #ahbc by ,perkins1 and again in #ahbh by ,colladon1 but it was not accomplished until #ahgg4 ,in this year the liquefaction of oxygen1 by ,pictet1 of ,geneva1 and ,cailletet1 of ,chatillon-sur-,seine1 was independently accomplished4 ,pictet used a pressure of #cbj atmospheres and a temperature of -#adj1 obtained by the evaporation of liquid sulphurous acid and liquid carbonic acid4 ,cailletet used a pressure of #cjj atmospheres and a temperature of -#bi1 which latter was obtained by the evaporation of liquid sulphurous acid4 ,in #ahhc ,dewar1 ,wroblewski and ,olszewski commenced operations in this field1 and greatly advanced the study of this subject4 ,in ,january of #ahhd1 ,wroblewski confirmed the liquefaction of hydrogen1 which had been imperfectly accomplished by ,cailletet before4 ,in the liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen1 the principal component gases of air1 the liquefaction of air itself followed immediately as a matter of course4 ,air has usually been held to consist of four volumes of nitrogen and one volume of oxygen1 with a very small proportion of carbonic acid gas and ammonia4 ,recent discoveries have definitely identified new gases in it1 however1 chief among which is argon4 ,for all practical purposes1 however1 air may be considered simply a mixture of the two gases2 nitrogen1 which is inert and neither maintains life nor combustion2 and oxygen1 which performs both of these functions in a most energetic way4 ,air is more dense at the surface of the earth1 and becomes continually more rarified as the altitude increases1 until it becomes an indefinitely tenuous ether4 ,light as we are accustomed to regard it1 the weight of a column of air one inch square is #ae pounds1 and this tenuous and unfelt covering presses upon our globe with a total weight of #cjj1jjj million tons4 ,liquid air is simply air which has been compressed and cooled to what is called its critical temperature and pressure1 i4 e41 the temperature and pressure at which it passes into another state of matter1 as from a gas to a liquid4 ,to liquefy air it is compressed until its volume is reduced to #a_/hjj1 that is to say1 #hjj cubic feet of air are reduced to one cubic foot4 ,this requires a pressure of #a1bej to #b1jjj pounds to the square inch4 ,the important step in liquefying air cheaply and on a large scale was accomplished by the discovery of what is known as the self-intensifying action4 ,this dispenses with auxiliary refrigerants1 and causes the expanding gases to supply the cold required for their own liquefaction by an entirely mechanical process4 ,it consists in compressing the air 7which produces heat71 then cooling it by a flowing body of water1 then passing it through a long coil of pipes and expanding the cool compressed air by allowing it to escape through a valve into an expansion chamber1 where its pressure falls from #a1bej pounds to #cjj pounds1 which produces a great degree of cold2 then taking this very cold current of air back in reverse direction along the walls of the coil of pipes1 and causing said returning cold air to further cool the air flowing from the compressor to the expansion tank1 and finally delivering the cold return flow to the compressors and compressing it again from a lower initial point than it started with on the first round1 and so continuing this cycle of circulation through the alternating compressing and cooling stages until the air condenses in liquid form in the bottom of the expansion chamber4 ,this successive reduction of temperature by the air acting upon itself is called self-intensification of cold1 and it has an analogy in the regenerative furnace1 where the augmentation of heat corresponds to the augmentation of cold in the self-intensifying action4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4--,,the ,,self-,,intensifying ,,principle ,,of ,,producing ,,cold1 ,,used ,,to ,,liquefy ,,air4 ,this principle of self-intensification was first announced by ,prof4 ,c4 ,w4 ,siemens in the provisional specification of his ,british patent ,no4 #b1jfd1 of #aheg1 but it does not seem at that time to have been carried out with any practical result4 ,the first embodiment of the principle in a refrigerating apparatus is by ,windhausen--,united ,states patent ,no4 #aja1aih1 ,march #bb1 #ahgj4 ,solvay1 in ,british patent ,no4 #ac1dff1 of #ahhe1 gave further development to the idea1 and following him came the operations of ,prof4 ,tripler1 who was the first to liquefy large quantities of air and to introduce it to the ,american people4 ,lind1 ,hampson and ,ostergren and ,berger are more recent operators in this field of self-intensification1 and ,lind's ,british patent1 ,no4 #ab1ebh1 of #ahie1 may be regarded as a representative exposition of the principle4 ,a simplified form of the ,lind apparatus is seen in ,fig4 #cjj4 ,c is an air compressing pump1 whose plunger descending compresses the air and forces it out through valve ,i1 pipe #b1 and coil #c4 ,the coil #c is immersed in a flowing body of water in the condenser ,w1 the water entering at ,y and passing out at ,z4 ,the cold compressed air then passes through pipes #d and #e1 pipe #e being arranged concentrically within a larger coil #g4 ,the cold air flowing down pipe #e escapes through a valve adjusted by handle #f1 into the subjacent chamber ,l1 and expanding to a larger volume1 produces a great degree of cold2 this cold expanded air then passing up the larger and outer pipe #g flows back over the incoming stream of air in pipe #e1 chilling it still lower than the condenser ,w did1 and this cold return flow then passing from the top of coil #g descends through pipe #h to the compressing pump ,c1 and as its piston rises1 it enters the pump through the inwardly opening valve #i1 and here it undergoes another compression and circuit through the pipes #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 but it is compressed on its second round of travel at a lower temperature than it had initially1 and so this circulation of air going to the chamber ,l1 expanding1 and returning over the inlet flow pipe #e1 successively cooling the latter and also successively entering the compressor at a continually lower temperature at each cycle of circulation1 finally issues through the valve at the lower end of pipe #e1 and expands to such a low temperature that it condenses in chamber ,l in liquid form4 ,fresh accessions of air are furnished to the apparatus through valve #aj as fast as the air is liquefied4 ,the inlet flow to the liquefying chamber is shown by the full line arrows1 and the return flow to the compressor by the dotted arrows1 and the explanation of the term self-intensification is to be found in the cooling of the incoming air in pipe #e by the outflowing air in the surrounding pipe #g1 and the repeated reductions of temperature at which the air is returned to the compressor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cja4--;,,commercial ,,production ,,of ,,liquid ,,air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4--,,vessel ,,for ,,transporting ,,liquid ,,air4 ,in ,fig4 #cja is shown the liquefier of a modern liquid air plant1 in which liquid air is being drawn into a pail from the liquefier4 ,liquid air evaporates very rapidly1 and produces the intense cold of #cab below zero4 ,there is no known way to preserve it beyond a limited time1 for1 if put in strong1 tightly closed vessels1 it would soon absorb enough heat to vaporize1 and in time would acquire a tension of #ab1jjj pounds per square inch1 and would burst the vessel with a disastrous explosion4 ,if left exposed to the air1 which is the only safe way to transport it1 it is quickly dissipated4 ,a shipment of eight gallons from ,new ,york to ,washington for lecture purposes shrunk to three gallons in two days' time4 ,it may usually be kept longer than this1 however1 as the jarring of a railway train promotes its evaporation and loss4 ,a small quantity1 such as a half pint1 will boil away in twenty-five to thirty minutes4 ,the only way to preserve it for any length of time is to surround it with a heat-excluding jacket4 ,the simplest and most effective means for doing this in the laboratory is to surround it with a vacuum4 ,fig4 #cjb shows a specially devised vessel for the commercial transportation of liquid air4 ,a double walled globular vessel has between its walls air spaces and non-conducting packing4 ,the liquid air in the interior chamber vaporizes gradually1 and escaping through the outwardly opening valve at the top1 expands around the air space surrounding the inner vessel4 ,from this space it reaches the outer air by a valve at the bottom of the outer vessel4 ,the liquid air in evaporating is thus carried around the body of liquid air in the center1 and surrounding it with an intensely cold envelope1 prevents the transmission of heat to the inner vessel4 ,to withdraw the liquid air1 a pipette or so-called siphon tube1 shown in detached view1 is substituted for the valve at the top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjc4--,,separation ,,of ,,liquid ,,air ,,into ,,its ,,constituents4 ,evaporation of ,nitrogen4 ,evaporation of ,nitrous ,oxide4 ,evaporation of ,pure ,oxygen4 ,as to the uses of liquid air it may be said that up to the present time it has attained little or no practical application4 ,there are two principal ways in which it may be utilized2 one is to employ its enormous expansive force to produce mechanical power1 and the other is as a refrigerant4 ,as a means for obtaining motive power it is a fallacy to suppose that any more power can be obtained from its expansion than was originally required to make it4 ,it is like a resilient spring in this respect1 that it can give out no more power than was required to compress it4 ,in some special applications1 however1 as for propelling torpedoes1 where its cost is entirely subordinate to effective results1 it might prove to be of value4 ,for blasting purposes also it presents the promise of possible utilization4 ,as a refrigerant for commercial purposes1 and for supplying a dry1 cool temperature to the sick room1 and for the preparation of chemicals requiring a low temperature to manufacture1 it might find useful application4 ,inasmuch as the nitrogen of liquid air evaporates first1 and leaves nearly pure liquid oxygen1 it may also be employed as a means for producing and applying oxygen4 ,good illustration of this is given in ,fig4 #cjc1 in which at #a is shown a vessel filled with liquid air4 ,the gas first evaporating is nitrogen1 and a lighted match applied to the surface of the liquid is quickly extinguished1 since nitrogen does not support combustion4 ,as the level of the liquid falls by evaporation1 the remaining portions become richer in oxygen and poorer in nitrogen1 and nitrous oxide gas is then given off1 which supports combustion as seen at #b2 and when the last portions of the liquid are being evaporated1 as at #c1 it is practically pure oxygen1 which gives a brilliant combustion of a carbon pencil1 or even of a steel spring when the latter is heated red hot4 ,already ,prof4 ,pictet has formulated a plan for the commercial production and separation of the ingredients of liquid air--the nitrogen1 carbonic acid1 and oxygen being separated by their different evaporating temperatures with a view to applying them to various industrial uses4 ,all of the commercial applications of liquid air1 however1 depend upon its cost of production1 which seems at present an uncertain factor4 ,according to the claims of some it may be produced at a cost of a few cents a gallon4 ,more conservative physicists say that it costs #e a gallon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjd4--,,liquid ,,air ,,experiments4 #a4 ,magnetism of oxygen4 #b4 ,steel burning in liquid oxygen4 #c4 ,frozen sheet iron4 #d4 ,explosion of confined liquid air4 #e4 ,burning paper4 #f4 ,explosion of sponge4 #g4 ,freezing rubber ball4 #h4 ,double walled vacuum bulb4 #i4 ,boiling liquid air4 ,however this may be1 the phenomena which it presents are both interesting and instructive4 ,in ,figs4 #cjd and #cje are shown some of the experiments4 ,at ,no4 #a a test tube containing liquid air1 from which the nitrogen has escaped1 is strongly attracted by an electro-magnet1 showing the magnetic quality of oxygen4 ,at ,no4 #b is shown the combustion of a heated piece of steel in liquid air1 which has become rich in oxygen by the evaporation of the nitrogen4 ,at ,no4 #c a tin dipper1 which has been immersed in liquid air1 has become so cold and crystalline that it breaks like glass when dropped4 ,at ,no4 #d liquid air imprisoned in a tube and tightly corked up1 blows the stopper out in a few minutes with explosive effect4 ,at ,no4 #e a piece of paper saturated with liquid air burns with great energy1 and at ,no4 #f a piece of sponge or raw cotton similarly saturated explodes when ignited4 ,at ,no4 #g a rubber ball floated on liquid air in a tumbler is frozen so hard that when dropped it flies into fragments like a glass ball4 ,the white1 snow-like vapor seen falling over the edges of the tumbler is intensely cold and heavier than ordinary air4 ,at ,no4 #h is illustrated the preservation of liquid air by surrounding it with a vacuum in a ,dewar bulb4 ,at ,no4 #i a flask of liquid air is made to boil by the mere heat of the hand4 ,a more striking experiment still of the same kind is to place a tea kettle containing liquid air on a block of ice4 ,the block of ice is relatively so much hotter than the liquid air that the liquid air in the kettle is made to boil4 ,at ,no4 #aj1 ,fig4 #cje1 a heavy weight is suspended by a link composed of a bar of mercury frozen solid in liquid air4 ,so hard is the mercury frozen that a hammer made of it will drive a tenpenny nail up to its head in a pine board4 ,in ,no4 #aa a layer of liquid air on water at first floats because it is lighter than water4 ,as the lighter nitrogen evaporates1 the heavier oxygen sinks in drops through the water4 ,at ,no4 #ab a tumbler of whiskey is frozen solid by immersing a tube containing liquid air in it4 ,the frozen block of whiskey with the cavity formed by the tube is shown on the left4 ,it is a whiskey tumbler made out of whiskey4 ,a more sensational experiment is to substitute a tapering tin cup for the tube1 then fill it with liquid air and immerse it in water4 ,in a few minutes the tapering tin cup has frozen on its outer walls a tumbler of ice4 ,this may be carefully removed1 and the ice tumbler is then filled with liquid air rich in oxygen1 which1 by maintaining the cold of the ice tumbler1 keeps it from melting4 ,a carbon pencil or a steel spring heated to redness will now1 if dipped in the liquid oxygen in the ice tumbler1 burn with vehement brilliancy and beautiful scintillations1 involving the anomalous conditions of a white hot heat and active combustion in the center of a tumbler of ice1 without melting the tumbler4 ,in experiment #ac1 ,fig4 #cje1 a jet of carbonic acid gas directed into a dish floating in a glass of liquid air is immediately frozen into minute flakes1 producing a miniature snow storm of carbonic acid4 ,in experiment #ad an electric light carbon heated to a red heat at its tip1 is plunged vertically into a deep glass of liquid oxygen4 ,a most singular combustion takes place4 ,the heat of the carbon evaporates the oxygen in its immediate vicinity1 and the carbon burns with great brilliancy and violence1 forming carbonic acid1 which is largely frozen in the liquid before it reaches the surface1 and falls back to the bottom of the dish1 so that the combustion is maintained and its products retained within the dish4 ,a beefsteak may be frozen in liquid air to such brittleness that it is shattered like a china plate when struck a slight blow4 ,the intense cold of liquid air does not destroy the vitality or germinating power of seed1 but produces serious so-called burns on the flesh that destroy the tissues and do not heal for many months1 and yet for a moment the finger may be dipped in liquid air with impunity because of the gaseous envelope with which the finger is temporarily surrounded4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cje4--,,liquid ,,air ,,experiments4 #aj4 ,frozen mercury4 #aa4 ,liquid oxygen in water4 #ab4 ,frozen whisky4 #ac4 ,carbonic acid snow4 #ad4 ,combustion of carbon pencil4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,minor ,,inventions ,,and ,,patents ,,in ,,principal ,,countries ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,if the reader has been patient enough to have reviewed the preceding pages1 the impression may have been formed that the notable inventions referred to represent all that is worth while to consider in this great field of human achievement4 ,it would be a fallacy to entertain such a thought1 for the little stars out-number the big ones1 and the twigs of the tree are far more numerous than its branches4 ,the great things in life are comparatively few and far between1 and the bulk of human existence is made up of an unclassified mass of little things1 sown like sands along the shore of time between the boulders of great events4 ,so also in invention is its warp and woof made up of a multitude of little threads behind the gorgeous patterns of meteoric genius4 ,every hour of the day of modern life is replete with the achievements of invention4 ,look around the room1 and there is not a thing in sight that does not suggest the material advance of the age2 the books1 the furniture1 the carpets1 the curtains1 the wall paper1 the clock1 the mantels1 the house trimmings1 the culinary utensils1 and the clothing1 all represent creations of this century4 ,so full is the daily life of these things1 and so much of a necessity have they all become1 that their commonplace character dismisses them from conspicuous notice4 ,take the most matter-of-fact and prosy half hour of the day1 that at the time of rising1 and see what a faithful account of the average man's everyday life would present4 ,the awakening is definitely determined by an alarm clock1 and the sleepy ,nineteenth ,century man rolling over under the seductive comfort of a spring bed1 takes another nap1 because he knows that the rapid transit cars will give him time to spare4 ,rising a little later his bare feet find a comfortable footing on a machine-made rug1 until thrust into full fashioned hose1 and ensconced in a pair of machine-sewed slippers4 ,drawing the loom-made lace curtains1 he starts up the window shade on the automatic ,hartshorn roller and is enabled to see how to put in his collar button and adjust his shirt studs4 ,he awakens the servant below with an electric bell1 calls down the speaking tube to order breakfast1 and perhaps lights the gas for her by the push button4 ,he then proceeds to the bath1 where hot and cold water1 the sanitary closet1 a gas heater1 and a great array of useful modern articles present themselves1 such as vaseline1 witch hazel1 dentifrices1 cold cream1 soaps and antiseptics1 which supply every luxurious want and every modern conception of sanitation4 ,his bath concluded1 he proceeds to dress1 and maybe puts in his false teeth1 or straps on an artificial leg4 ,donning his shirt with patented gussets and bands1 he quickly adjusts his separable cuff buttons1 puts on his patented suspenders1 and1 winding a stem-winding watch1 proceeds down stairs to breakfast4 ,a revolving fly brush and fly screens contribute to his comfort4 ,a cup of coffee from a drip coffee-pot1 a lump of artificial ice in his tumbler1 sausage ground in a machine1 batter cakes made with an egg beater1 waffles from a patented waffle iron1 honey in artificial honey comb1 cream raised by a centrifugal skimmer1 butter made in a patented churn1 hot biscuits from the cooking range1 and a refrigerator with a well stocked larder1 all help to make him comfortable and happy4 ,the picture is not exceptional in its fullness of invented agencies1 and one could just as well go on with our citizen through the rest of the day's experience1 and start him off after breakfast with a patented match1 in a patented match case1 and a patented cigarette1 with his patented overshoes and umbrella1 and send him along over the patented pavement to the patented street car1 or automobile1 and so on to the end of the day4 ,some of the minor inventions are really of too much importance to be passed without comment4 ,the cable car is a factor which has cut no small figure in the activities of city life4 ,the first patent on a slotted underground conduit between the rails1 with traction cable inside and running on pulleys1 was that to ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1 ,no4 #ai1gcf1 ,march #bc1 #aheh4 ,hallidie1 in ,san ,francisco1 in #ahgf1 directed his energies to a development of this system1 and brought it to a degree of perfection and general adoption that made it for many years the leading system of street car propulsion4 ,to-day1 however1 it represents but a decadent type1 being largely supplanted by the superior advantages of electricity4 ,passenger elevators constitute one of the conspicuous features of modern locomotion4 ,without them the tall office buildings1 hotels1 and department stores would have no existence2 the ,eiffel ,tower would never have been dreamed of1 and the expenditure of vital force in stair climbing would have been greatly augmented4 ,the passenger elevator has for its prototype the ancient hoist or lift for mines1 but in the latter half of the ,nineteenth ,century it has developed into a distinct institution--a luxurious little room1 gliding noiselessly up and down1 actuated by a power that is not seen1 and supplied with every appliance for safety and comfort1 such as governors1 safety catches1 automatic stops1 mirrors and cushioned seats4 ,the principle of the screw1 of balance weights1 of the lazy tongs1 and other mechanical powers have each found application in the elevator1 but steam1 hydraulic power1 and electricity constitute the moving agencies of the modern type4 ,the patent to ,e4 ,g4 ,otis1 ,no4 #ca1abh1 ,january #ae1 #ahfa1 marks the beginning of its useful applications4 ,of close kin to the elevator are the fire escape1 dumb waiter and grain elevator1 each of which fills a more or less important function in the life of to-day4 ,what more ubiquitous or ingenious illustration of modern progress than the ,american stem winding watch6 ,up to the middle of the century all watches were made by hand throughout4 ,each watch had its own individuality as a separate creation1 and only the privileged few were able to carry them4 ,in #ahdh ,aaron ,l4 ,dennison1 a ,boston watch maker1 began making watches by machinery1 and the foundation of the system of interchangeable parts was laid4 ,a small factory at ,roxbury1 ,mass41 was established in #ahej1 which four years later was moved to ,waltham4 ,in #aheg it passed into the hands of ,appleton1 ,tracy ,co41 and was subsequently acquired by the ,american ,watch ,co4 ,as presenting some idea of the great elaboration involved in this art1 it was estimated a few years ago that #c1gdf distinct mechanical operations were required to make an ordinary machine made watch4 ,a single pound of steel wire is sometimes converted into a couple of hundred thousand tiny screws1 and another pound of fine steel wire furnishes #ag1bhj hair springs1 worth several thousand dollars4 ,the absolute uniformity and perfect interchangeability of parts in the ,american watch have been obtained by substituting the invariable and mathematical accuracy of the machine for the nervous fingers and dimming eyes of the old time watchmaker1 and the ,american machine made watch1 discredited as it was at first1 stands to-day the greatest modern advance in horology4 ,friction ,matches4--,in #ahje ,thenard1 of ,paris1 made the first attempt to utilize chemical agencies for the ordinary production of fire4 ,in #ahbg ,john ,walker1 an ,english druggist1 made friction matches called 8congreves40 ,in #ahcc phosphorus friction matches were introduced on a commercial scale by ,preschel1 of ,vienna4 ,in #ahde red phosphorus matches 7parlor matches7 were made by ,von ,schrotter1 of ,vienna1 and in #ahee safety matches1 which ignited only on certain substances1 were made by ,lundstrm1 of ,sweden4 ,prior to the ,nineteenth ,century1 and in fact until about #ahcc1 the old flint and steel and tinder box were the clumsy and uncertain means for producing fire4 ,to-day the friction match is turned out by automatic machinery by the million1 and constitutes probably the most ubiquitous and useful of all the minor inventions4 ,step into any of the great department stores and the genius of the inventor confronts you in the cash carrier whisking its little cars back and forth from the cashier's desk to the most remote corners of the great building4 ,the first of these mechanical carriers adapted for store service was patented by ,d4 ,brown1 ,july #ac1 #ahge1 ,no4 #afe1dgc4 ,not until about #ahhb1 however1 was there any noticeable adoption of the system1 when practical development was given in ,martin's patents1 ,no4 #bee1ebe1 ,march #bh1 #ahhb2 ,no4 #bgf1dda1 ,april #bd1 #ahhc1 and ,no4 #bhd1def1 ,september #d1 #ahhc4 ,go to the lunch counter1 and the cash register reminds you that the millenium of absolute honesty is not yet realized4 ,the bell punch on the street car and the burglar proof safe with its combination locks are other suggestions in the same line4 ,the first fire proof safe is disclosed in the ,british patent to ,richard ,scott1 ,no4 #b1dgg1 of #ahja4 ,the time lock1 which prevents the safe from being opened by anyone except at a certain period of daylight1 was invented by ,j4 ,v4 ,savage1 and was covered by him in ,united ,states patent ,no4 #e1cba1 ,october #i1 #ahdg4 ,the practical adoption of time locks began about #ahge with the operations of ,sargent1 ,stockwell and others1 and to-day they constitute one of the most important features of bank safes and vaults1 and represent a marvelously beautiful and accurate example of mechanical skill4 ,the ,otto gas-engine1 and the ,ericsson air-engine are important developments in power producing motors1 and the improvements in pavements and in street sweepers for cleaning them1 contribute to the cleanliness1 sanitation1 and sthetic values of city life4 ,the cigarette machine1 which continuously curls a ribbon of paper around a core of tobacco to form a rope1 and then cuts it off into cigarettes1 is an important invention in the tobacco industry1 however doubtful its hygienic value to the world may be4 ,the lightning rod has brought protection to homes and lives1 and the incubator has become the hen's wet nurse4 ,in agriculture1 the reaper has been supplemented with threshing machines1 seeders1 drills1 cultivators1 horse rakes and plows4 ,in the farm yard appear the improved carriage and wagon1 the well pump1 the wind wheel1 the fruit drier1 the bee hive1 and the cotton and cider press4 ,in the kitchen1 the washing machine1 the churn1 the cheese press1 ironing machine1 wringer1 the rat trap1 and fruit jar4 ,in the house1 the folding bed1 tilting chair1 carpet sweeper1 and the piano4 ,in heating appliances1 steam and water heating systems1 base burning and ,latrobe stoves1 hot air furnaces1 gas and oil stoves4 ,in plastics there are brick machines1 pressed glass ware1 enameled sheet iron ware1 tiles1 paper buckets1 celluloid and rubber articles4 ,in hydraulics there are rams1 water closets1 pumps1 and turbine water wheels4 ,in mining there are stamp mills1 ore crushers1 separators1 concentrators1 and amalgamators4 ,in the leather and boot and shoe industry there is a great variety of machines and appliances4 ,the paper industry1 with book binding machines1 and paper box machines1 is a fertile field of invention4 ,steam boilers1 metallurgical appliances1 soap making1 chemical fire extinguishers1 fountain pens1 the sand blast1 bottle stoppers1 and a thousand other things present themselves in miscellaneous and endless array4 ,these are1 however1 only some of the things which the limitation of space precludes from individual treatment1 but which are none the less important in making up the great resources of modern life1 and1 for the most part1 represent the contributions of the ,nineteenth ,century not heretofore considered4 ,the observant and thoughtful reader finds just here occasion to inquire the meaning of this great rising tide of progress which has so distinguished the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,it is largely due to the ,patent ,law1 which justly regards the inventor as a public benefactor1 and seeks to make for him some protection in the enjoyment of his rights4 ,if a man be in the possession of a legacy by the accident of birth1 the law of inheritance rules that it is rightfully his4 ,the finding of a thing1 whether by jetsam1 flotsam1 or the lucky accident of a first discovery1 this also makes good his title1 if there be no other owner4 ,there is1 however1 a right of property which is higher than all others1 and in which there is coupled with the possession of the thing the sacred function of its creation4 ,the right of a mother to her child is of this nature1 and like unto it is the right of the inventor to the creation of his genius4 ,in the last two centuries of the world's history this right has been recognized by an enlightened civilization1 and provision made for its enjoyment in the grant of patents1 and if there be any right more strongly entrenched than another in the eternal verities of equity and justice it is this4 ,our first crude patent law was enacted in #agij1 but not until #ahcf was the present system adopted4 ,our own and comparatively new country has1 therefore1 not yet had a hundred years of existence under our present ,patent ,system1 and yet to-day it outstrips the world both in its material resources and in its wealth of patented inventions4 ,the accompanying diagram1 ,fig4 #cjf1 illustrates in a graphic way just what relation the ,united ,states bears to the other leading countries of the world in the matter of patents granted1 and when it is remembered that under our system a patent can only be granted for a new invention1 while in some of the other countries it is not essential to the grant1 the richness in invention of the ,united ,states1 with its six hundred and fifty thousand patents1 can be better appreciated4 ,this is a greater number than has been issued by ,great ,britain and ,france put together4 ,connecticut is the most productive ,state in invention in proportion to its people1 and ,edison is the most prolific inventor4 ,from #ahgj to #aijj he has taken #gbg ,united ,states patents1 and there are from twenty-five to thirty other ,american inventors each of whom has taken #ajj or more patents4 ,illustration3 ,,total ,,number ,,patents ,,to ,,jan #a,,st4 #aijj 7,,foreign ,,patents ,,for #ahii1 ,,estimated7 ,,rate ,,of ,,issue ,,of ,u4,s4 ,,patents ,,fig4 #cjf4 ,the year #agij was notable in two events1 the birth of our patent system and the death of ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,that grand old philosopher1 with a prescience of future greatness to come from the genius of the inventor1 is said to have expressed the wish before he died that he might be sealed up in a cask of old ,madeira and be brought to life a hundred years in the future1 that he might witness the growth of the world4 ,who can tell what his emotions would be if he were with us to-day8 ,it is said1 when he first saw the fibres of the string diverge1 and the spark pass from the cord of his kite1 and the lightning was for the first time obedient to the will of man1 that he uttered a deep sigh and wished that that moment were his last4 ,to this poor knowledge of electricity he would now have added all the wonders and powers of the telegraph1 the dynamo1 the telephone1 and the great modern electrical science2 to his primitive hand press he would have contrasted the ,octuple perfecting press1 turning out papers at the rate of #a1fjj a minute2 his modest type-setting case would be replaced by a great array of linotype machines1 and he would find several acres of woodland sacrificed to produce the wood-pulp paper of a single edition of a ,new ,york daily4 ,would he not realize indeed that truth is stranger than fiction1 and fact more wonderful than fancy's dream6 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,epilogue4 ,whatever the future centuries may bring in new and useful inventions1 certain it is that the ,nineteenth ,century stands pre-eminent in this field of human achievement1 so far excelling all other like periods as to establish on the pages of history an epoch as remarkable as it is unique4 ,never before has human conception so expressed itself in materialized embodiment1 never has thought been so fruitfully wedded to the pregnant possibilities of matter1 never has the divine function of creation been so closely approximated1 never has such an accretion of helpful instrumentalities and material resources been added to the world's wealth--not merely the miserly and inert wealth of gold and gems1 but the wealth of an enlarged human existence4 ,this life itself is but a limited span2 beginning in infancy1 expanding to highest achievement in middle age1 and declining at the end1 it quickly passes away1 and another generation follows4 ,growth and decay with all living things mark the immutable law of nature1 and the inevitable fate of mortality4 ,the rose blossoms into beauty1 fades1 and decays4 ,the bird in the air1 and the beast in the field1 each plays his part and passes to the great unknown1 leaving no record2 man himself is mortal1 but his work is immortal4 ,the inspired conception of his best thought1 the materialized embodiment of his work in useful agencies1 and the subjugation of the laws of nature to his service1 all endure and live forever in his inventions4 ,these partake of the breath of life1 and in their immortality are of kin to the soul4 ,cities may grow up and vanish1 civilizations may decay1 and man himself may degenerate1 but the principle of the lever and the screw1 once discovered1 is for all time perfect1 invariable and immortal4 ,every invention made is another permanent gift to posterity4 ,all of enduring wealth that the present gets from the past are its ideas reduced to a working basis4 ,all else is but dross1 or evanescent dreams which vanish into oblivion in the light of a larger knowledge4 ,but ideas wrought into practical1 substantive things1 tried and proven true1 these are inventions--immortal creations--and of these the ,nineteenth ,century has borne fruit in paramount abundance1 and this legacy it now bequeaths to the coming century4 ,to follow conventional methods1 the final chapter of a book should be an 8,in conclusion0 with a 8finis0 and a dismantled torch1 but the history of invention will ever be a continued story4 ,there is no end in this field4 ,the trusteeship of the ,twentieth ,century man is great1 and great his responsibilities2 but his restless and dominant spirit knows no decadence1 and his mental endowment and material equipment1 without parallel in history1 are a guarantee of future achievements4 ,will not the chemist learn how to produce electricity direct from the combustion of coal1 or solve the problem of the synthesis of food8 ,will not the ,american continent be parted by an inter-oceanic canal1 or the rough waters of the ,english ,channel be avoided with a submarine tunnel8 ,may not a ship canal through ,france to the ,mediterranean give to that country the connected enjoyment of riparian rights1 without passing the frowning battlements of ,gibraltar1 or might not a tunnel under the ,straits of ,gibraltar put ,europe and ,africa in direct railway communication8 ,the relation of electricity to life is a field of pregnant possibilities1 and may we not also learn to swap the surplus heat of summer for the winter's cold1 and by an equalization of their two extremes bring eternal spring and joy to the animated world8 ,shall we not yet stand on the ,north ,pole1 or looking away into space may we not extend a neighborly welcome to our brothers in ,mars1 if any there be8 ,it is permitted to dream in this field1 for it is this reaching out into the unknown that plats the boundaries of an extended world1 and adds to the possessions of man4 ,the old man in his dreams of the past rejoices in his achievements1 for he has stolen the fires of ,prometheus and forged anew the thunderbolts of ,jove for the arts of peace4 ,delving into the secret recesses of the earth1 he has tapped the hidden supplies of nature's fuel1 has invaded her treasure house of gold and silver1 robbed ,mother ,earth of her hoarded stores1 and possessed himself of her family record1 finding on the pages of geology sixty millions of years' existence4 ,peering into the invisible little world1 the infinite secrets of microcosm have yielded their fruitful and potent knowledge of bacteria and cell growth4 ,pain has been robbed of its terrors by ansthesia2 the heat of the sun has been brought down in the electric furnace1 and the cold of inter-stellar space in the ice machine and liquid air4 ,with telescope and spectroscope he has climbed into limitless space above1 and defined the size1 distance1 and constitution of a star millions of miles away4 ,the north star has been made his sentinel on the sea4 ,the lightning is made his swift messenger1 and thought flashes in submarine depths around the world4 ,dead matter is made to speak in the phonograph1 the invisible has been revealed in the ,x-,rays1 coal has been made his black slave1 steam the breath of the world's life1 and all of nature's forces have been made his constant servants in attendance4 ,with such a retrospect1 the sage of the ,nineteenth ,century may lie down to quiet rest1 with an assuring faith that what ,god hath wrought is good1 and what is not may yet be4 ,,index4 ,abbe's ,stereo-,binocular1 #bhi ,absorption ,process1 ,ice ,making1 #dda ,acetylene ,gas1 #ccc ,adirondack1 ,steamer1 #ada ,agricultural ,chemistry1 #bbe ,aids to ,digestion1 #bdc ,air ,blast1 #cgd ,air ,brakes1 #abi ,air1 ,carburetted1 #ccf ,alloys1 #chi ,aluminum1 #bbe-cij ,ambrotype1 #cjd ,ansthesia1 #bdf ,ansthesia by ,chloroform1 #bdg ,ancient ,iron ,furnace1 #cgb ,aniline1 #bbb ,annealing and ,tempering1 ,electricity in1 #chg ,antikamnia 7,acetanilide71 #bdh ,antipyrine1 #bdh ,antiseptic ,surgery1 #bef ,antiseptics1 ,coal ,tar1 #bbc ,archer's ,collodion ,process ,photos1 #cjd ,arc ,lamp ,feed1 #ff ,arc ,lamp1 ,simple1 #fd ,arc ,lamp1 ,weston1 #fe ,arc ,lamp1 ,large1 #fe-fi ,arkwright's ,drawing ,rolls1 #dba ,arlberg ,tunnel1 #cdf ,armored ,cruiser1 #aej ,armor ,plates1 ,manufacture of1 #chc ,artesian ,wells1 #cej ,artificial ,limbs1 #bea ,atlantic ,cable1 #cb-cg ,automatic ,ball ,governor1 #ajd ,automatic ,telegraph1 #bb ,automobile1 #bfe-bgb ,automobile ,statistics1 #bga ,babbitt ,metal1 #chi ,bachelder ,sewing ,machine ,feed1 #ahf ,bacteriology1 #beb ,bain's ,telegraph1 #bb ,baldwin's ,locomotives1 #abf ,band ,saws1 #cfd ,barbed ,wire ,fences1 #chh ,barlow's ,electric ,wheel1 #dh ,battery1 ,storage1 #hh ,battleships1 #aej ,beach1 ,alfred ,e41 ,tunneling ,shield1 #cdf ,beach's ,typewriter1 #agd ,bell ,tainter's ,improved ,phonograph1 #bgf ,bell's ,telephone1 #gg ,bentham1 ,sir ,s41 ,invents ,woodworking ,machinery1 #cfj ,berliner's ,telephone1 #hb ,bessemer ,steel1 #cgf ,beverages1 #bdd ,blake ,telephone ,transmitter1 #hc ,blanchard's ,lathe1 #cfh ,blast ,furnace1 #cgd-cge ,blasting1 #cea ,blasting1 ,electro1 #ii ,blenkinsop's ,locomotive1 #aai ,blickensderfer ,typewriter1 #ahj ,bloomeries1 ,air1 #cgc ,body ,appliances1 ,electric1 #ig ,book ,typewriter1 #aha ,bourdon's ,steam ,gauge1 #ajg ,bicycle1 #bei-bfe ,bicycle ,speed1 #bfd ,bicycle ,statistics1 #bfe ,binding ,devices for ,reaper1 #bjc ,biograph1 #bih ,bipolar ,dynamo1 #db ,brake1 ,bicycle1 #bfd ,bramah's ,planer1 #cff ,branca's ,steam ,turbine1 #aji ,branson's ,automatic ,knitter1 #dca ,breech ,mechanism1 ,interrupted ,thread1 #cii ,bridge1 ,brooklyn1 #cdb ,bridge1 ,cabin ,john1 #cdd ,bridge1 ,forth1 #cdj ,bridges1 ,masonry1 #cdb ,bridge1 ,trezzo1 #cdd ,bright's ,disease1 #bej ,brooklyn1 ,armored ,cruiser1 #aea ,brooklyn ,bridge1 #cdb ,buildings1 ,high1 #cec ,burt's ,typewriter1 #agb ,butchering and ,dressing ,meats1 #bcg ,buttonhole ,machine1 #aia ,cabin ,john ,bridge1 #cdd ,cablegrams1 ,first1 #cc ,cable ,statistics1 #cf ,cable1 ,submarine1 #cb ,cable ,tolls1 #cg ,cableway1 ,lidgerwood1 #cdi ,caissons1 #cde ,calcium ,carbide1 #bbe ,calcium ,carbide ,factories1 #ccf ,calcium ,carbide ,furnace1 #df ,caligraph ,typewriter1 #agg ,calotype1 #cjc ,camera1 #cjf ,camera ,obscura1 #cjf ,camera ,shutter1 #cjg ,canal1 ,chicago ,drainage1 #cej ,canal1 ,suez1 #cdg ,candle1 ,jablochkoff1 #fd ,canning ,industry1 #bce ,cannon1 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,washington ,monument1 #cef ,washington ,press1 #aef ,watch1 ,stem-,winding1 #dfj ,water ,closets1 #bef ,water ,gas1 #cca ,watt's ,steam ,engine1 #ajc ,wax ,cylinder1 ,phonograph1 #bgg ,weaving1 #dbe ,wegmann's ,roller ,mill1 #bcj ,welding1 ,electric1 #ia ,wells1 ,artesian1 #cej ,wells1 ,petroleum1 #cej ,wells1 ,dr41 ,produces ,ansthesia1 #bdf ,welsbach ,gas ,burner1 #cch ,westinghouse ,air ,brake1 #abi ,westinghouse ,electric ,motor1 #ec ,wheat ,produced1 #bji ,whitney ,invents ,cotton ,gin1 #dbc ,willis ,invents ,platinotypes1 #cje ,wilson's ,sewing ,machine1 #ahf ,windhausen ,cold ,storage ,device1 #dde ,winsor ,introduces ,gas in ,london1 #ccj ,winton ,automobile1 #bfi ,wire ,bending1 #chh ,wire ,fences1 #chh ,wireless ,telegraphy1 #bf ,wood ,pulp1 #afa ,woodruff ,sleeping ,car1 #aca ,wood ,turning1 #cfh ,woodworker1 ,universal1 #cfg ,woodworking1 #cfj-cgj ,woodworth ,wood ,planer1 #cfg ,world's ,blast ,furnaces1 #cge ,x-,rays1 #cai ,x-,ray ,apparatus1 #cbd ,x-,ray ,focus ,tube1 #cbf ,x-,ray ,photograph1 #cbb ,x-,ray ,surgery1 #cbe ,yerkes ,telescope1 #bhg ,yost ,typewriter1 #ahj ,zoetrope1 #big ,,advice ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,patents4 ,the influence of invention on modern life can be very justly estimated by a perusal of 8,the ,progress of ,invention in the ,nineteenth ,century40 ,it is1 of course1 well known that inventors are necessarily assisted in the prosecution of their applications for patents in the ,patent ,office by patent attorneys4 ,it gives ,messrs1 ,munn ,co4 pleasure to announce that they have prosecuted1 during a period of over fifty years1 some of the most important patent cases which have ever been sent to the ,patent ,office4 ,during this long period they have filed and prosecuted over one hundred thousand applications for patents4 ,their reputation is such that inventors have found that they may submit their ideas with entire confidence that their trust will not be betrayed1 and that their interests will be protected to the fullest extent4 ,they secure patents1 trade-marks1 caveats and copyrights4 ,a little book entitled 8,hand-,book on ,patent ,practice0 will be sent free to any address1 and any questions relating to patents will be cheerfully answered by return mail without charge4 ,thousands of clients all over the ,united ,states1 many of them the most successful inventors which this country has produced1 have had the professional services of ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 in the preparation and prosecution of their patent applications before the ,united ,states and foreign patent offices4 ,the integrity of this firm1 and their attention to this branch of their business1 has resulted in the largest practice of any firm of patent attorneys in the ,united ,states4 ,inventors are invited to write freely regarding their inventions1 and their sketches will be carefully and promptly examined4 ,all communications of this kind are treated as strictly confidential4 ,the readers of 8,the ,progress of ,invention in the ,nineteenth ,century0 may also be interested to know that ,munn ,co4 have offices in both ,new ,york and ,washington1 and thus are able to keep in close touch with the work of the ,patent ,office4 ,they have unsurpassed facilities for examining and reporting on the probable patent-ability of inventions1 and they render opinions on questions of infringement and validity of patents2 and they also have been most successful in the prosecution of interferences4 ,further particulars may be obtained by addressing ,,munn ,,co41 ,branch ,office3 #fbe ,f ,street1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,scientific ,,american ,,the ,,most ,,popular ,,scientific ,,paper ,,in ,,the ,,world ,established #ahde4 ,weekly1 #c4jj a ,year2 #a4ej ,six ,months ,this unrivalled periodical is now in its ,,fifty-,,sixth ,,year1 and1 owing to its ever increasing popularity1 it enjoys the largest circulation ever attained by any scientific publication4 ,every number contains sixteen large pages1 beautifully printed1 handsomely illustrated2 it presents in popular style a descriptive record of the most novel1 interesting and important developments in ,science1 ,arts and ,manufactures4 ,it abounds in fresh and interesting subjects for discussion1 thought or study4 ,it provides material for experiment at home and in the laboratory1 and it enables the intelligent reader to keep informed as to the industrial and scientific development of the country4 ,to the inventor it is invaluable1 as every number contains a complete list of all patents and trade marks issued weekly from the ,patent ,office4 ,it promotes industry1 progress1 thrift and intelligence in every community where it circulates4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american should have a place in every dwelling1 shop1 office1 school or library4 ,workmen1 foremen1 engineers1 superintendents1 directors1 presidents1 officials1 merchants1 farmers1 teachers1 lawyers1 physicians1 clergymen--people in every walk and profession in life1 will derive satisfaction and benefit from a regular reading of ,,the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,as an instructor for the young it is of peculiar advantage4 ,,try ,,it4--,subscribe for yourself--it will bring you valuable ideas2 subscribe for your sons--it will make them manly and self-reliant2 subscribe for your workmen--it will please and assist their labor2 subscribe for your friends--it will be likely to give them a practical lift in life4 ,terms1 #c4jj a year2 #a4ej six months4 ,specimen copies free4 ,remit by postal order or check4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement ,established #ahgf ,this journal is a separate publication from ,,the ,,scientific ,,american1 and is designed to extend and amplify the work carried on by the parent paper4 ,in size and general make-up it is uniform therewith1 covering sixteen pages of closely printed matter1 handsomely illustrated4 ,it has no advertising pages1 and the entire space is given up to the scientific1 mechanical and engineering news of the day4 ,it differs from ,,the ,,scientific ,,american in that it contains many articles that are too long to be published in the older journal or of a more technical nature4 ,college professors and students find this edition especially adapted to their wants4 ,it contains reports of the meetings of the scientific societies1 both in this country and abroad1 and abstracts of many papers read before such societies4 ,it has a page of short notes concerning the electrical1 engineering and general scientific news of the day1 together with a column of selected formul4 ,each number contains much foreign scientific news1 and1 when taken in connection with ,,the ,,scientific ,,american1 it places before the reader a weekly review of the latest and most important discoveries and the most advanced technical and scientific work of the times all over the world4 ,,price ,,for ,,the ,,supplement1 #e ,a ,,year1 or one copy of ,,the ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,supplement1 both mailed to one address1 for one year1 for #g4 ,address and remit by postal order or check4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,,the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,,architects' and ,,builders' ,,edition4 #b4ej a ,year ,single copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a special edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about #bjj ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern architectural construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost1 as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with plans1 specifications1 costs1 etc4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans and specifications1 regularly presented1 as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,thousands of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 builders and house owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 have before them in this work an almost endless series of the latest and best examples from which to make selections1 thus saving time and money4 ,many other subjects1 including sewerage1 piping1 lighting1 warming1 ventilating1 decorating1 laying out of grounds1 etc41 are illustrated4 ,an extensive ,compendium of manufacturers' announcements is also given1 in which the most reliable and approved building materials1 goods1 machines1 tools and appliances are described and illustrated1 with addresses of the makers1 etc4 ,the fulness1 richness1 cheapness and convenience of this work have won for it the largest circulation of any architectural publication in the world4 ,,fiftieth ,,anniversary ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,in commemoration of the fiftieth year of the publication of the weekly edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 its publishers on ,july #beth1 #ahif1 issued a memorial edition which forms a valuable resum of the progress of science and invention during the past fifty years4 ,among the subjects treated are3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,invention ,,on ,,the ,,people',s ,,life4 ,,the ,,patent ,,system4 ,,the ,,transatlantic ,,steamship4 ,,railroads ,,and ,,bridges4 ,,the ,,telegraph4 ,,physics4 ,,men ,,of ,,progress4 ,,the ,,textile ,,industries ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,since #ahdf4 ,,the ,,submarine ,,cable4 ,,fifty ,,years ,,of ,,photography4 ,,chemistry4 ,,the ,,phonograph4 ,,the ,,progress ,,made ,,in ,,the ,,generation ,,of ,,electric ,,energy ,,and ,,its ,,application ,,to ,,the ,,operation ,,of ,,motors ,,during ,,the ,,past ,,fifty ,,years4 ,,the ,,american ,,locomotive4 ,,the ,,bicycle4 ,,the ,,sewing ,,machine4 ,,agricultural ,,machinery4 ,,naval ,,and ,,coast ,,defense4 ,,fifty ,,years ,,in ,,the ,,printing ,,business4 ,,the ,,prize ,,essay ,,of ,,the ,,semi-,,centennial ,,anniversary ,,number--8,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,invention ,,during ,,the ,,last ,,fifty ,,years40 ,,steel4 ,,distinguished ,,inventors4 ,,american ,,shipbuilding4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,astronomical ,,telescope ,,in ,,fifty ,,years4 ,,the ,,telephone4 ,,fifty ,,years ,,of ,,the 8,,scientific ,,american40 ,the number is fully illustrated and contains fifty pages4 ,in it is printed 8,the ,progress of ,invention ,during the ,last ,fifty ,years10 for which a prize of #bej was offered4 ,it is interesting to note that this prize was won by ,edward ,w4 ,byrn1 the author of 8,the ,progress of ,invention in the ,nineteenth ,century40 ,never before has so much valuable information of historical interest and importance been published in so condensed and popular a form4 ,it forms a valuable addition to any library1 and copies of the ,anniversary ,number can be supplied at #be cents per copy4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,experimental ,science4 ,by ,,george ,m4 ,,hopkins4 ,,twentieth ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,greatly ,,enlarged4 #iad ,pages4 #hbj ,illustrations4 ,handsomely ,bound in ,cloth4 ,price by mail1 postpaid1 #d4jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #e4jj4 ,the new matter comprises eighty pages of text in the form of an appendix1 including among other subjects ,a ,complete ,article on the ,x-,ray4 ,wireless ,telegraphy4 ,acetylene ,gas ,apparatus4 ,liquefaction of ,air4 ,artificial ,spectrum4 ,and other articles which bring the work fully up to date4 ,this is a book full of interest and value for teachers1 students and others who desire to impart or obtain a practical knowledge of ,physics4 ,,the ,,most ,,popular ,,scientific ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,day4 ,what the press says of 8,,experimental ,,science40 ,illustration 8,the electrical chapters of the book are notably good1 and the practical instruction given for building simple electrical machinery may be safely carried out by those--not a few--who like to make their own apparatus40--,electrical ,world4 8,the author has avoided repeating the hackneyed illustrations which have been passed from one book to another so long1 and1 instead1 offers a set of experiments which are largely of a novel character and very striking40--,engineering and ,mining ,journal4 8,it is a treat to read a book of this kind1 that sets forth the principles of physics so fully1 and without the use of mathematics40-,the ,locomotive4 8,all teachers of science are aware that real knowledge is acquired best by the student making experiments for himself1 and anyone who points out how those experiments may be easily made is doing excellent work40--,english ,mechanic and ,world of ,science4 8,the work bears the stamp of a writer who writes nothing but with certainty of action and result1 and of a teacher who imparts scientific information in an attractive and fascinating manner40--,american ,engineer4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison says3 8,the practical character of the physical apparatus1 the clearness of the descriptive matter1 and its entire freedom from mathematics1 give the work a value1 in my mind1 superior to any other work on elementary physics of which ,i am aware40 ,send for ,illustrated ,circular and ,complete ,table of ,contents4 ,send for our ,new and ,complete ,catalogue of ,books1 sent free to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers4 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,cyclopedia of ,receipts ,,notes ,,and ,,queries #ab1ejj ,,receipts1 #gjh ,,pages ,edited by ,,albert ,a4 ,,hopkins ,this splendid work contains a careful compilation of the most useful ,receipts and ,replies given in the ,notes and ,queries of correspondents as published in the ,scientific ,american during the past fifty years2 together with many valuable and important additions4 ,,over ,,twelve ,,thousand selected receipts are here collected2 nearly every branch of the useful arts being represented4 ,it is by far the most comprehensive volume of the kind ever placed before the public4 ,the work may be regarded as the product of the studies and practical experience of the ablest chemists and workers in all parts of the world2 the information given being of the highest value1 arranged and condensed in concise form1 convenient for ready use4 ,almost every inquiry that can be thought of1 relating to formulae used in the various manufacturing industries1 will here be found answered4 ,instructions for working many different processes in the arts are given4 ,illustration3 #ab1ejj ,,receipts1 #gjh ,,pages4 ,many of the principal substances and raw materials used in manufacturing operations are defined and described4 ,no pains have been spared to render this collateral information trustworthy4 ,those who are engaged in any branch of industry will probably find in this book much that is of practical value in their respective callings4 ,those who are in search of independent business or employment1 relating to the home manufacture of salable articles1 will find in it hundreds of most excellent suggestions4 ,it is impossible within the limits of a prospectus to give more than an outline of a few features of so extensive a work4 ,to those interested1 a fully descriptive circular will be sent free upon application4 ,price1 #e4jj in ,cloth2 #f4jj in ,sheep2 #f4ej in ,half ,morocco2 ,postpaid4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,a ,complete ,electrical ,library4 ,by ,prof4 ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane1 ,a4,m41 ,e4,m4 ,ph4,d4 ,illustration ,an inexpensive library of the best books on ,electricity4 ,put up in a neat folding box4 ,for the student1 the amateur1 the workshop1 the electrical engineer1 schools and colleges4 ,comprising five books1 as follows3 ,arithmetic of ,electricity1 #ach pages #a4jj ,electric ,toy ,making1 #adj pages #a4jj ,how to ,become a ,successful ,electrician1 #ahi pages #a4jj ,standard ,electrical ,dictionary1 #fhb pages #c4jj ,electricity ,simplified1 #aeh pages #a4jj ,five volumes1 #a1cjj pages1 and over #dej illustrations4 ,a valuable and indispensable addition to every library4 ,our ,great ,special ,offer4--,we will send prepaid the above five volumes handsomely bound in blue cloth1 with silver lettering1 and inclosed in a neat folding box1 at the ,special ,reduced ,price of #e4jj for the complete set4 ,the regular price of the five volumes is #g4jj4 ,a special circular will be sent free to any address on application4 ,,magic4 ,stage ,illusions and ,scientific ,diversions ,,including ,,trick ,,photography4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,edited ,,by ,,albert ,a4 ,,hopkins1 ,editor of 8,scientific ,american ,cyclopedia of ,receipts4 ,notes and ,queries10 etc4 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,henry ,,ridgely ,,evans4 ,author of 8,hours with the ,ghosts2 or1 ,,xix4 ,century ,witchcraft10 etc4 #efh ,pages4 #dbj ,illustrations4 ,price1 #b4ej4 ,illustration ,this work appeals to old and young alike1 and it is one of the most attractive holiday books of the year4 ,the illusions are illustrated by the highest class of engravings1 and the exposs of the tricks are in many cases furnished by the prestidigitateurs themselves4 ,conjuring1 large stage illusions1 fire eating1 sword-swallowing1 ventriloquism1 metal magic1 ancient magic1 automata1 curious toys1 stage effects1 photographic tricks1 and the projection of moving photographs are all well described and illustrated1 making a handsome volume4 ,it is tastefully printed and bound4 ,acknowledged by the profession to be the ,,standard ,,work ,,on ,,magic4 ,send for large illustrated circular1 sent free to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers4 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,,mechanical ,,movements1 ,,powers1 ,,devices ,,and ,,appliances4 ,by ,,gardner ,d4 ,,hiscox1 ,m4 ,e4 ,author of 8,gas1 ,gasoline1 and ,oil ,engines40 ,large #hvo4 #djb ,pages4 #afdi ,illustrations1 with ,descriptive ,text4 ,price1 #c4jj4 ,a ,dictionary of ,mechanical ,movements1 ,powers1 ,devices and ,appliances1 embracing an illustrated description of the greatest variety of mechanical movements and devices in any language4 ,a new work on illustrated mechanics1 mechanical movements1 devices and appliances1 covering nearly the whole range of the practical and inventive field1 for the use of ,machinists1 ,mechanics1 ,inventors1 ,engineers1 ,draughtsmen1 ,students and all others interested in any way in the devising and operation of mechanical works of any kind4 ,,the ,,chapters ,,treat ,,of3 ,i4 ,mechanical ,powers4 ,,ii4 ,transmission of ,power4 ,,iii4 ,measurement of ,power4 ,,iv4 ,steam ,power--,boilers and ,adjuncts4 ,v4 ,steam ,appliances4 ,,vi4 ,motive ,power--,gas and ,gasoline ,engines4 ,,vii4 ,hydraulic ,power and ,devices4 ,,viii4 ,air ,power ,appliances4 ,,ix4 ,electric ,power and ,construction4 ,x4 ,navigation and ,roads4 ,,xi4 ,gearing4 ,,xii4 ,motion and ,devices ,controlling ,motion4 ,,xiii4 ,horological4 ,,xiv4 ,mining4 ,,xv4 ,mill and ,factory ,appliances4 ,,xvi4 ,construction and ,devices4 ,,xvii4 ,draughting ,devices4 ,,xviii4 ,miscellaneous ,devices4 ,send for descriptive ,circular4 ,,gas ,,engine ,,construction1 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,describing ,,in ,,every ,,detail ,,the ,,actual ,,building ,,of ,a ,,gas ,,engine4 ,by ,,henry ,y4 ,h4 ,,parsell1 ,jr41 ,mem4 ,a4 ,i4 ,elec4 ,el41 and ,,arthur ,j4 ,,weed1 ,m4 ,e4 ,large #hvo4 ,handsomely ,illustrated and ,bound4 #cjj ,pages4 ,price1 #b4ej4 ,this book treats of the subject more from the standpoint of practice than that of theory4 ,the principles of operation of ,gas ,engines are clearly and simply described1 and then the actual construction of a half-horse power engine is taken up1 step by step1 showing in detail the making of a ,gas ,engine4 ,first come directions for making the patterns2 this is followed by all the details of the mechanical operations of finishing up and fitting the castings1 and is profusely illustrated with beautiful engravings of the actual work in progress1 showing the modes of chucking1 turning1 boring and finishing the parts in the lathe1 and also plainly showing the lining up and erection of the engine4 ,dimensioned working drawings give clearly the sizes and forms of the various details4 ,the entire engine1 with the exception of the fly-wheels1 is designed to be made on a simple eight inch lathe1 with slide rest4 ,the book closes with a chapter on ,american practice in ,gas ,engine design1 and gives simple rules so that anyone can figure out the dimensions of similar engines of other powers4 ,every illustration in this book is new and original1 having been made expressly for this work4 ,,send ,,for ,,descriptive ,,circular4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,transcriber's notes ,this text uses the text from the original work1 including inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation1 punctuation1 etc41 except as mentioned below4 ,the spelling of ,english 7omniverous1 millenium71 non- ,english words 7licht1 tuyeres1 frappees7 and names 7,swammerden1 ,mege7 has not been corrected either1 except as listed below4 ,depending on the hard- and software and their settings used to read this text1 not all characters and symbols may display properly or display at all4 ,remarks on the text3 p4 vii and #cga3 the list of contents lists ,electric ,concentrators1 the text deals with ,magnetic ,concentrators4 p4 #aga_/agb 7text of patent73 one closing quote mark is missing4 p4 #bia1 ,swammerden3 this refers to ,jan ,swammerdam 7#afcg-afhj74 p4 #cgc1 condicon3 possibly error for condicion or a similar word4 p4 #bci1 ,m4 ,mege1 a ,french chemist3 this refers to ,hippolyte ,mge- ,mouris 7#ahag-ahhj74 p4 #djh1 ,alte ,deutscher ,drehling ,der ,ruckladungs ,gewehre3 the reference is to ,alte ,rckladegewehre3 ,alt-,deutscher ,drehling4 p4 #dbh1 photograph3 the chain of perforated cards is hardly visible in the original work4 ,index3 the entries are not fully alphabetically sorted2 this has not been changed4 ,the order of subjects as given in the table of contents and in the chapter headings is not always the order in which the text gives them2 the table of contents is sometimes slightly different from the chapter headings2 this has not been changed4 ,the table of contents is not complete3 many subjects are not listed4 ,in several instances the author uses knots for distance and knots per hour and feet for speed2 this has not been changed4 ,changes made3 ,footnotes and illustrations have 7where appropriate7 been moved in order not to interrupt the text4 ,some obvious punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,if both ligature and single letters occur in the same word in the text 7with the exception of the advertisements71 these have been standardised3 ae_/ to 7ansthetics72 e_/ to 7,carr1 ,lind1 ,nipce72 oe_/ to 7homopathy1 ,phnix74 ,the original work uses fractions of the form #ab as well as #ae-af4 ,these have been standardised to xy or changed to the appropriate ,unicode character4 p4 v3 ,nitroglycerine changed to ,nitro-,glycerine as elsewhere p4 vi1 ,chapter ,photography3 ,the ,platinotype added as in the chapter heading p4 #f3 ,kinetescope changed to ,kinetoscope as elsewhere p4 #g3 ,hahneman changed to ,hahnemann p4 #i3 ,perkin's changed to ,perkins' p4 #aj3 ,rhumkorff changed to ,ruhmkorff p4 #aa3 ,foucalt changed to ,foucault2 ,herman's changed to ,hermann's p4 #ae3 ecomony changed to economy p4 #bi3 choking coils k k changed to choking coils k k as in illustration p4 #ce3 ,gallilee changed to ,galilee p4 #cg3 ,somnenberg changed to ,sonnenberg p4 #da3 and other changed to and others p4 #dg3 corruscations changed to coruscations p4 #ea3 ,badensburg changed to ,bladensburg p4 #hg3 ,chrstian ,era changed to ,christian ,era p4 #hh3 ,plante changed to ,plant p4 #hi3 ,,plante changed to ,,plant 7#bx7 p4 #ib3 commerical changed to commercial p4 #ic3 electrictiy changed to electricity2 ,,trouve',s changed to ,,trouv',s p4 #ie3 ,st4 ,petersburg changed to ,st4 ,petersburgh p4 #ig3 atached changed to attached p4 #ih3 whch changed to which p4 #aje3 colon in list of patents changed to comma 7#bx7 as elsewhere p4 #ajh3 ,ninetenth ,century changed to ,nineteenth ,century p4 #abi3 air-brake changed to air brake as elsewhere p4 #acc3 ,pennsylvaina changed to ,pennsylvania p4 #aej3 greater that changed to greater than p4 #aec3 for from changed to far from p4 #aei3 sterereotyping changed to stereotyping2 ,edinburg changed to ,edinburgh as elsewhere p4 #afj3 the the wire cloth changed to the wire cloth p4 #ahb3 vearly changed to yearly p4 #ahh3 ,manufacturning changed to ,manufacturing p4 #bce3 ilustrative changed to illustrative p4 #bcg3 half a millions changed to half a million p4 #bdj3 carry- a fractional per cent4 changed to carrying a fractional per cent4 p4 #bdg3 irresitable changed to irresistible p4 #bdh3 acetanalide changed to acetanilide2 ,,ophthalmometer changed to ,,opthalmometer as elsewhere p4 #bej3 rationallen ,heilkunde changed to rationellen ,heilkunde p4 #bec3 bactilli changed to bacilli p4 #bfj3 vlocipde changed to vlocipde2 celrifre changed to clrifre p4 #bfa3 vlocipde changed to vlocipde p4 #bfe3 ,metiers changed to ,mtiers p4 #bhe3 ,middeburg1 ,middleburg changed to ,middelburg p4 #cja3 ,niepce's changed to ,nipce's p4 #cji3 advertisment changed to advertisement p4 #cbd3 currrent changed to current p4 #chi3 fire-arms changed to firearms as elsewhere p4 #cie3 must must changed to must p4 #dja3 ,moncrief changed to ,moncrieff p4 #dab3 ,livermore-,russel changed to ,livermore-,russell2 ,russel changed to ,russell p4 #daf3 pulvurulent changed to pulverulent p4 #dbe3 effciency changed to efficiency p4 #dfb3 latrobe stoves changed to ,latrobe stoves p4 #dfi3 ,acetanalide changed to ,acetanilide p4 #dgj3 ,cemementation changed to ,cementation4