,transcrib]'s note3 ,! lett]s ,a & ,b ) ! plus sign at ! top are %[n z ,a & ,b4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,epitome1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,alb]t ,,s*wegl]4 ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,orig9al ,,g]man1 ,,by ,,julius ,h4 ,,seelye4 ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company1 #ddc #dde ,,broadway4 ,,london3 #af ,,little ,,brita94 #ahfd4 ,,ent]$1 accord+ to act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahef1 ,,by ,,julius ,h4 ,,seelye1 ,9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! ,nor!rn ,di/rict ( ,new ,york4 ,,introductory ,,note ,,by ,,h5ry ,b4 ,,smi?1 ,d4 ,d4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 by ,dr4 ,alb]t ,s*wegl]1 is consid]$ 9 ,g]many z ! be/ concise manual ^u ! subject f ! s*ool ( ,hegel4 ,its acc\nt ( ! ,greek & ( ! ,g]man sy/ems1 is ( especial value & importance4 ,x pres5ts ! :ole hi/ory ( speculation 9 its consecutive ord]4 ,?\gh foll[+ ! me?od ( ,hegel's m ext5d$ lectures ^u ! progress ( philosophy1 & ?\gh x makes ! sy/em ( ,hegel to be ! ripe/ product ( philosophy1 yet x also re/s ^u indep5d5t inve/igations4 ,x w well rew>d dilig5t /udy1 & is "o ( ! be/ works = a text-book 9 our colleges1 ^u ?is neglect$ bran* ( sci5tific inve/igation4 ,! translation is made by a compet5t p]son1 & gives1 ,i d\bt n1 a fai?ful r5d]+ ( ! orig9al4 ,,h5ry ,b4 ,,smi?4 ,,union ,,!ological ,,sem9>y1 ,,new ,,york1 ,nov4 #f1 #ahee4 ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,s*wegl]'s ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy orig9ally appe>$ 9 ! 8,neue ,encyklopdie fr ,wiss5s*aft5 und ,kn/e40 ,its great value soon awak5$ a call = its sep>ate issue1 9 :i* =m x has atta9$ a v wide circulation 9 ,g]many4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! h&s ( almo/ e /ud5t 9 ! philosophical dep>tm5t ( a ,g]man univ]sity1 & is highly e/eem$ = its cle>ness1 concis5ess1 & compreh5siv5ess4 ,! pres5t translation 0 comm5c$ 9 ,g]many ?ree ye>s ago1 & has be5 c>efully f9i%$4 ,x 0 und]tak5 ) ! conviction t ! "w w\ld n lose its int]e/ or its value 9 an ,engli% dress1 & ) ! hope t x might be ( wid] s]vice 9 su* a =m to /ud5ts ( philosophy "h4 ,x 0 ?\ght especially1 t a prop] translation ( ?is manual w\ld supply a want = a suitable text-book on ?is bran* ( /udy1 long felt by bo? tea*]s & /ud5ts 9 our ,am]ican colleges4 ,! ef=t has be5 made to translate1 & n to p>aphrase ! au?or's mean+4 ,_m ( 8 /atem5ts might h be5 amplifi$ )\t diffus5ess1 & made m p]ceptible to ! sup]ficial read] )\t los+ _! int]e/ to ! m pr(\nd /ud5t1 b he has s happily seiz$ ^u ! g]ms ( ! diff]5t sy/ems1 t !y nei!r ne$1 nor w\ld be improv$ by any f>!r developm5t1 & has1 moreov]1 pres5t$ !m s cle>ly1 t no /ud5t ne$ h any difficulty 9 appreh5d+ !m z !y are4 ,! translator has !re=e endeavor$ to repres5t fai?fully & cle>ly ! orig9al hi/ory4 ,z su*1 he (f]s 8 "w to ! ,am]ican public1 indulg+ no hope1 & mak+ no ef=ts = its success beyond t :i* its own m]its %all ensure4 ,j4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,s*5ectady1 ,n4 ,y41 ,janu>y1 #ahef4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,introductory ,,note1 by ,,h5ry ,b4 ,,smi?1 ,d4 ,d4 iii ,,translator',s ,,preface v ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts vii ,,section ,i4--,,:at ,,is ,,meant ,,by ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy #aa ,,ii4--,,classification #af ,,iii4--,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,pre-,,socratic ,,philosophy #ag #a4 ,! ,ionics #ag #b4 ,! ,py?agoreans #ah #c4 ,! ,eleatics #ah #d4 ,h]aclitus #ah #e4 ,! ,atomi/s #ai #f4 ,anaxagoras #ai #g4 ,! ,sophi/s #bj ,,iv4--,,! ,,ionic ,,philosoph]s #ba #a4 ,?ales #ba #b4 ,anaxim&] #bb #c4 ,anaxim5es #bc #d4 ,retrospect #bc ,v4--,,py?agoreanism #bc #a4 ,its ,relative ,position #bc #b4 ,hi/orical & ,*ronological #bc #c4 ,! ,py?agorean ,pr9ciple #bd #d4 ,c>ry+ out ( ?is ,pr9ciple #be ,,vi4--,,! ,,eleatics #bg #a4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,eleatic ,pr9ciple to ! ,py?agorean #bg #b4 ,x5ophanes #bh #c4 ,p>m5ides #bh #d4 ,z5o #cj ,,vii4--,,h]aclitus #ca #a4 ,relation ( ! ,h]aclitic ,pr9ciple to ! ,eleatic #ca #b4 ,hi/orical & ,*ronological #cb #c4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,becom+ #cb #d4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,fire #cc #e4 ,transition to ! ,atomi/s #cc ,,viii4--,,emp$ocles #ce #a4 ,g5]al ,view #ce #b4 ,! ,f\r ,elem5ts #ce #c4 ,! ,two ,p[]s #cf #d4 ,relation ( ! ,emp$oclean to ! ,eleatic & ,h]aclitic ,philosophy #cf ,,ix4--,,! ,,atomi/ic ,,philosophy #cg #a4 ,its ,prop\nd]s #cg #b4 ,! ,atoms #cg #c4 ,! ,fulness & ! ,void #ch #d4 ,! ,atomi/ic ,necessity #ch #e4 ,relative ,position ( ! ,atomi/ic ,philosophy #ci ,x4--,,anaxagoras #dj #a4 ,8 ,p]sonal ,hi/ory #dj #b4 ,8 ,relation to 8 ,pr$ecessors #da #c4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ! #da #d4 ,anaxagoras z ! close ( ! ,pre-,socratic ,realism #db ,,xi4--,,! ,,sophi/ic ,,philosophy #dc #a4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,sophi/ic ,philosophy to ! ,anaxagorean ,pr9ciple #dc #b4 ,relation ( ! ,sophi/ic ,philosophy to ! ,univ]sal ,life ( t ,age #dd #c4 ,t5d5cies ( ! ,sophi/ic ,philosophy #df #d4 ,significance ( ! ,sophi/ic ,philosophy f its relation to ! ,culture ( ! ,age #dg #e4 ,individual ,sophi/s #dh #f4 ,transition to ,socrates1 & *>act]i/ic ( ! foll[+ ,p]iod #ea ,,xii4--,,socrates #eb #a4 ,8 ,p]sonal ,"* #eb #b4 ,socrates & ,ari/ophanes #ee #c4 ,! ,condemnation ( ,socrates #eg #d4 ,! ,g5ius ( ,socrates #fj #e4 ,s\rces ( ! ,philosophy ( ,socrates #fa #f4 ,univ]sal ,"* ( ! ,philosophiz+ ( ,socrates #fb #g4 ,! ,socratic ,me?od #fd #h4 ,! ,socratic ,doctr9e conc]n+ ,virtue #ff ,,xiii4--,,! ,,p>tial ,,disciples ,,( ,,socrates #fg #a4 ,_! ,relation to ! ,socratic ,philosophy #fg #b4 ,anti/h5es & ! ,cynics #fh #c4 ,ari/ippus & ! ,cyr5ians #fi #d4 ,euclid & ! ,meg>ians #gj #e4 ,plato z ! complete ,socratici/ #ga ,,xiv4--,,plato #gb ,i4 ,,plato',s ,,life #gb #a4 ,8 ,y\? #gb #b4 ,8 ,ye>s ( ,discipl9e #gc #c4 ,8 ,ye>s ( ,travel #gc #d4 ,8 ,ye>s ( ,in/ruction #gd ,,ii4 ,,! ,,inn] ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,platonic ,,philosophy ,,& ,,writ+s #ge ,,iii4 ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,platonic ,,sy/em #hb ,,iv4 ,,! ,,platonic ,,dialectics #hc #a4 ,conception ( ,dialectics #hc #b4 ,:at is ,sci5ce8 #hd 7#a47 ,z oppos$ to ,s5sation #hd 7#b47 ,! ,relation ( ,kn[+ to ,op9ion #hf 7#c47 ,! ,relation ( ,sci5ce to ,?9k+ #hf #c4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,ideas 9 its ,g5esis #hg #d4 ,positive ,exposition ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,ideas #ia #e4 ,! ,relation ( ,ideas to ! ,ph5om5al ,_w #ic #f4 ,! ,idea ( ! ,good & ! ,deity #ie ,v4 ,,! ,,platonic ,,physics #if #a4 ,nature #if #b4 ,! ,s\l #ih ,,vi4 ,,! ,,platonic ,,e?ics #ajj #a4 ,good & ,pleasure #ajj #b4 ,virtue #ajb #c4 ,! ,/ate #ajb ,,xv4--,,! ,,old ,,academy #ajg ,,xvi4--,,ari/otle #ajh ,i4 ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,ari/otle #ajh ,,ii4 ,,univ]sal ,,"* ,,& ,,division ,,( ,,! ,,ari/otelian ,,philosophy #aji ,,iii4 ,,logic ,,& ,,metaphysics #aab #a4 ,conception & ,relation ( ! ,two #aab #b4 ,logic #aac #c4 ,metaphysics #aae 7#a47 ,! ,ari/otelian ,criticism ( ! ,platonic ,doctr9e ( ,ideas #aaf 7#b47 ,! ,f\r ,ari/otelian ,pr9ciples1 or ,causes1 & ! ,relation ( ,=m & ,matt] #abj 7#c47 ,pot5tiality & ,actuality #abc 7#d47 ,! ,absolute ,div9e ,_s #abd ,,iv4 ,,! ,,ari/otelian ,,physics #abg #a4 ,motion1 ,matt]1 ,space1 & ,"t #abg #b4 ,! ,collective ,univ]se #abh #c4 ,nature #abi #d4 ,man #abi ,v4 ,,! ,,ari/otelian ,,e?ics #aca #a4 ,relation ( ,e?ics to ,physics #aca #b4 ,! ,highe/ ,good #acb #c4 ,conception ( ,virtue #acd #d4 ,! ,/ate #ace ,,vi4 ,,! ,,p]ipatetic ,,s*ool #acf ,,vii4 ,,transition ,,to ,,! ,,po/-,,ari/otelian ,,philosophy #acg ,,xvii4--,,/oicism #ach #a4 ,logic #aci #b4 ,physics #adj #c4 ,e?ics #adb 7#a47 ,respect+ ! ,relation ( ,virtue to ,pleasure #adb 7#b47 ,! ,view ( ! ,/oics conc]n+ ,ext]nal ,good #adb 7#c47 ,f>!r ,v]ification ( ?is ,view #adc 7#d47 ,impossibility ( furni%+ a ,sy/em ( ,concrete ,moral ,duties f ?is ,/&po9t #adc ,,xviii4-,,epicureanism #ade ,,xix4--,,scepticism ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,academy #adh #a4 ,! ,old ,scepticism #adi #b4 ,! ,new ,academy #aej #c4 ,! ,lat] ,scepticism #aea ,,xx4--,,! ,,romans #aeb ,,xxi4--,,new ,,platonism #aed #a4 ,ec/asy z a ,subjective ,/ate #aed #b4 ,! ,cosmical ,pr9ciples #aed #c4 ,! ,emanation ,!ory ( ! ,new ,platoni/s #aee ,,xxii4--,,*ri/ianity ,,& ,,s*ola/icism #aeg #a4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,idea #aeg #b4 ,s*ola/icism #aei #c4 ,nom9alism & ,realism #afj ,,xxiii4--,,transition ,,to ,,! ,,mod]n ,,philosophy #afa #a4 ,fall ( ,s*ola/icism #afa #b4 ,! ,results ( ,s*ola/icism #afb #c4 ,! ,revival ( ,lett]s #afc #d4 ,! ,g]man ,re=mation #afd #e4 ,! ,advancem5t ( ! ,natural ,sci5ces #afe #f4 ,bacon ( ,v]ulam #aff #g4 ,! ,italian ,philosoph]s ( ! ,transition ,epo* #afg #h4 ,jacob ,boehme #afi ,,xxiv4--,,desc>tes #agb #a4 ,! ,beg9n+ ( ,philosophy ) ,d\bt #agc #b4 ,cogito ergo sum #agc #c4 ,! ,nature ( ,m9d d$uc$ f ?is ,pr9ciple #agc #d4 ,! ,univ]sal ,rule ( all ,c]ta9ty foll[s f ! same #agd #e4 ,! ,exi/5ce ( ,god #agd #f4 ,results ( ?is ,fact 9 ,philosophy #agf #g4 ,! ,two ,sub/ances #agg #h4 ,! ,an?ropology ( ,desc>tes #agg #i4 ,results ( ! ,c>tesian ,sy/em #agh ,,xxv4--,,geul9cx ,,& ,,malebran*e #ahj #a4 ,geul9cx #ahj #b4 ,malebran*e #ahb #c4 ,! ,defects ( ! ,philosophy ( ,desc>tes #ahc ,,xxvi4--,,sp9oza #ahd #a4 ,! ,"o ,inf9ite ,sub/ance #ahe #b4 ,! ,two ,attributes #ahf #c4 ,! ,modes #ahh #d4 ,8 ,practical ,philosophy #ahi ,,xxvii4--,,idealism ,,& ,,realism #aib ,,xxviii4--,,locke #aic ,,xxix4--,,hume #aih ,,xxx4--,,condillac #bja ,,xxxi4--,,helvetius #bjc ,,xxxii4-,,! ,,fr5* ,,cle>+ ,,up ,,& ,,mat]ialism #bje #a4 ,! ,common ,"* ( ! ,fr5* ,philosoph]s ( ?is ,age #bje #b4 ,voltaire #bjf #c4 ,did]ot #bjf #d4 ,la ,mettrie's ,mat]ialism #bjg #e4 ,sy/me de la ,nature #bjh 7#a47 ,! ,mat]iality ( ,man #bjh 7#b47 ,! ,a!ism ( ?is ,sy/em #bji 7#c47 ,its ,d5ial ( ,fre$om & ,immortality #baj 7#d47 ,! ,practical ,consequ5ces ( ^! ,pr9ciples #baj ,,xxxiii4--,,leibnitz #baa #a4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,monads #bac #b4 ,! ,monads m accurately det]m9$ #bad #c4 ,! ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony #bae #d4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,deity to ! ,monads #baf #e4 ,! ,relation ( ,s\l & ,body #bag #f4 ,! ,!ory ( ,k #bah #g4 ,leibnitz's ,?odice #bai ,,xxxiv4--,,b]keley #bbj ,,xxxv4--,,wolff #bbb #a4 ,ontology #bbd #b4 ,cosmology #bbe #c4 ,rational ,psy*ology #bbe #d4 ,natural ,!ology #bbf ,,xxxvi4--,,! ,,g]man ,,cle>+ ,,up #bbg ,,xxxvii4--,,transition ,,to ,,kant #bbi #a4 ,exam9ation ( ! ,faculty ( ,k #bcj #b4 ,?ree ,*ief ,pr9ciples ( ! ,kantian ,!ory ( ,k #bcb ,,xxxviii4--,,kant #bce ,i4 ,,critick ,,( ,,pure ,,reason #bch #a4 ,! ,transc5d5tal /hetics #bch 7#a47 ,! ,metaphysical ,discussion #bci 7#b47 ,! ,transc5d5tal ,discussion #bci #b4 ,! ,transc5d5tal ,analytic #bda #c4 ,! ,transc5d5tal ,dialectics #bdf 7#a47 ,! ,psy*ological ,ideas #bdg 7#b47 ,! ,ant9omies ( ,cosmology #bdh 7#c47 ,! ,ideal ( ! ,pure ,reason #bdi 7a47 ,! ,ontological ,pro( #bdi 7b47 ,! ,cosmological ,pro( #bej 7c47 ,! ,physico-,!ological ,pro( #bej ,,ii4 ,,critick ,,( ,,! ,,practical ,,reason #beb 7#a47 ,! ,analytic #bed 7#b47 ,! ,dialectic3 ,:at is ?is ,highe/ ,good8 #bef 7a47 ,p]fect ,virtue or ,hol9ess #beg 7b47 ,p]fect ,happ9ess #beh 7c47 ,kant's ,views ( ,religion #bei ,,iii4 ,,critick ,,( ,,! ,,faculty ,,( ,,judgm5t #bfb #a4 ,critick ( ! /hetic ,faculty ( ,judgm5t #bfc 7#a47 ,analytic #bfc 7#b47 ,dialectic #bfe #b4 ,critick ( ! ,teleological ,faculty ( ,judgm5t #bff 7#a47 ,analytic ( ! ,teleological ,faculty ( ,judgm5t #bfg 7#b47 ,dialectic #bfg ,,xxxix4--,,transition ,,to ,,! ,,po/-,,kantian ,,philosophy #bfh ,,xl4--,,jacobi #bga ,,xli4--,,fi*te #bgi ,i4 ,,! ,,fi*tian ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,its ,,orig9al ,,=m #bhb #a4 ,! ,!oretical ,philosophy ( ,fi*te1 8 ,wiss5s*aftslehre1 or ,!ory ( ,sci5ce #bhb #b4 ,fi*te's ,practical ,philosophy #bie ,,ii4 ,,! ,,lat] ,,=m ,,( ,,fi*te',s ,,philosophy #cja ,,xlii4--,,h]b>t #cjc #a4 ,! ,basis & ,/>t+ ,po9t ( ,philosophy #cjd #b4 ,! ,fir/ ,act ( ,philosophy #cjd #c4 ,remodell+ ! ,conceptions ( ,exp]i5ce #cje #d4 ,h]b>t's ,reals #cjf #e4 ,psy*ology connect$ ) ,metaphysics #caj #f4 ,! ,importance ( ,h]b>t's ,philosophy #caa ,,xliii4--,,s*ell+ #cab ,i4 ,,fir/ ,,p]iod3 ,,s*ell+',s ,,procession ,,f ,,fi*te #cad ,,ii4 ,,second ,,p]iod3 ,,/&po9t ,,( ,,! ,,di/+ui%+ ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,nature ,,& ,,( ,,m9d #cah #a4 ,natural ,philosophy #cah 7#a47 ,organic ,nature #cai 7#b47 ,inorganic ,nature #cba 7#c47 ,! ,reciprocal ,det]m9ation ( ! ,organic & ,inorganic ,_w #cba #b4 ,transc5d5tal ,philosophy #cbb 7#a47 ,! ,!oretical ,philosophy #cbc 7#b47 ,! ,practical ,philosophy #cbd 7#c47 ,philosophy ( ,art #cbd ,,iii4 ,,?ird ,,p]iod3 ,,p]iod ,,( ,,sp9ozism1 ,,or ,,! ,,indiff]5ce ,,( ,,! ,,ideal ,,& ,,! ,,real #cbf ,,iv4 ,,f\r? ,,p]iod3 ,,! ,,direction ,,( ,,s*ell+',s ,,philosophy ,,z ,,my/ical1 ,,& ,,alli$ ,,to ,,new ,,platonism #ccc ,v4 ,,fif? ,,p]iod3 ,,attempt ,,at ,a ,,!ogony ,,& ,,cosmogony1 ,,aft] ,,! ,,mann] ,,( ,,jacob ,,boehme #cce 7#a47 ,! ,progressive ,developm5t ( ,nature to ,man #ccg 7#b47 ,! ,developm5t ( ,m9d 9 ,hi/ory #ccg ,,vi4 ,,six? ,,p]iod #cch ,,xliv4--,,transition ,,to ,,hegel #cci ,,xlv4--,,hegel #cdc ,i4 ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,logic #cdf #a4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,be+ #cdg 7#a47 ,quality #cdg 7#b47 ,quantity #cdh 7#c47 ,measure #cdh #b4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,ess5ce #cdi 7#a47 ,! ,ess5ce z su* #cdi 7#b47 ,ess5ce & ,ph5om5on #cej 7#c47 ,actuality #cea #c4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,conception #ceb 7#a47 ,! ,subjective ,conception #ceb 7#b47 ,objectivity #cec 7#c47 ,! ,idea #cec ,,ii4 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,nature #cec #a4 ,me*anics #ced #b4 ,physics #cee #c4 ,organics #cee 7#a47 ,geological ,organism #cee 7#b47 ,vegetable ,organism #cee 7#c47 ,animal ,organism #cef ,,iii4 ,,philosophy ,,( ,,m9d #cef #a4 ,! ,subjective ,m9d #cef #b4 ,! ,objective ,m9d #ceh #c4 ,! ,absolute ,m9d #cfb 7#a47 /hetics #cfc 7a47 ,ar*itecture #cfc 7b47 ,sculpture #cfc 7c47 ,pa9t+ #cfd 7d47 ,music #cfd 7e47 ,poetry #cfd 7#b47 ,philosophy ( ,religion #cfd 7a47 ,! ,natural ,religion ( ! ,ori5tal ,_w #cfd 7b47 ,! ,religion ( ,m5tal ,individuality #cfd 7c47 ,reveal$1 or ! ,*ri/ian ,religion #cfe 7#c47 ,absolute ,philosophy #cfe ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,,section ,i4 ,,:at ,,is ,,meant ,,by ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,to philosophize is to reflect2 to exam9e ?+s1 9 ?\ght4 ,yet 9 ?is is ! conception ( philosophy n suffici5tly def9$4 ,man1 z ?9k+1 also employs ^? practical activities conc]n$ 9 ! adaptation ( means to an end2 ! :ole body ( sci5ces also1 ev5 ^? :i* d n 9 /rict s5se belong to philosophy1 /ill lie 9 ! realm ( ?\ght4 ,9 :at1 !n1 is philosophy di/+ui%$ f ^! sci5ces1 e4 g4 f ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy1 ( m$ic9e1 or ( rights8 ,c]ta9ly n 9 t x has a diff]5t mat]ial to "w ^u4 ,its mat]ial is precisely ! same z t ( ! diff]5t empirical sci5ces4 ,! con/ruction & disposition ( ! univ]se1 ! arrangem5t & functions ( ! human body1 ! doctr9es ( prop]ty1 ( rights & ( ! /ate--all ^! mat]ials belong z truly to philosophy z to _! appropriate sci5ces4 ,t :i* is giv5 9 ! _w ( exp]i5ce1 t :i* is real1 is ! cont5t likewise ( philosophy4 ,x is n1 !re=e1 9 its mat]ial b 9 its =m1 9 its me?od1 9 its mode ( k1 t philosophy is to be di/+ui%$ f ! empirical sci5ces4 ,^! latt] d]ive _! mat]ial directly f exp]i5ce2 !y f9d x at h& & take x up j z !y f9d x4 ,philosophy1 on ! o!r h&1 is nev] satisfi$ ) receiv+ t :i* is giv5 simply z x is giv51 b r foll[s x out to its ultimate gr\nds2 x exam9es e individual ?+ 9 ref]5ce to a f9al pr9ciple1 & consid]s x z "o l9k 9 ! :ole *a9 ( k4 ,9 ?is way philosophy removes f ! individual ?+ giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 its imm$iate1 individual1 & accid5tal "*2 f ! sea ( empirical individualities1 x br+s out t :i* is common to all2 f ! inf9ite & ord]less mass ( cont+5cies x f9ds t :i* is necess>y1 & ?r[s ov] all a univ]sal law4 ,9 %ort1 philosophy exam9es ! totality ( exp]i5ce 9 ! =m ( an organic sy/em 9 h>mony ) ! laws ( ?\ght4 ,f ! above x is se51 t philosophy 79 ! s5se we h giv5 x7 & ! empirical sci5ces h a reciprocal influ5ce2 ! latt] condition+ ! =m]1 :ile !y at ! same "t are condition$ by x4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w1 no m f9d an absolute & complete philosophy1 ?an a complete empirical sci5ce 7,empirik74 ,r is philosophy f\nd only 9 ! =m ( ! diff]5t philosophical sy/ems1 :i* h successively appe>$ 9 ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 advanc+ h& 9 h& ) ! progress ( ! empirical sci5ces & ! univ]sal1 social1 & civil culture1 & %[+ 9 _! advance ! diff]5t /eps 9 ! developm5t & improvem5t ( human sci5ce4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy has1 = its object1 to repres5t ! cont5t1 ! succession1 & ! inn] connection ( ^! philosophical sy/ems4 ,! relation ( ^! diff]5t sy/ems to ea* o!r is ?us already intimat$4 ,! hi/orical & collective life ( ! race is b\nd toge!r by ! idea ( a spiritual & intellectual progress1 & manife/s a regul> ord] ( advanc+1 ?\gh n always cont9u\s1 /ages ( developm5t4 ,9 ?is1 ! fact h>monizes ) :at we %\ld expect f antec$5t probabilities4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 e philosophical sy/em is only ! philosophical expression ( ! collective life ( its "t1 x foll[s t ^! diff]5t sy/ems :i* h appe>$ 9 hi/ory w disclose "o organic movem5t & =m toge!r "o rational & int]nally connect$ 7gegli$]tes7 sy/em4 ,9 all _! developm5ts1 we %all f9d "o con/ant ord]1 gr\nd$ 9 ! /riv+ ( ! _s ev] to raise itself to a high] po9t ( consci\sness & k1 & to recognize ! :ole spiritual & natural univ]se1 m & m1 z its outw>d be+1 z its reality1 z ! mirror ( itself4 ,hegel 0 ! fir/ to utt] ^! ?\ghts & to consid] ! hi/ory ( philosophy z a unit$ process1 b ?is view1 :i* is1 9 its pr9ciple1 true1 he has appli$ 9 a way :i* w\ld de/roy ! fre$om ( human actions1 & remove ! v conception ( cont+5cy1 i4 e4 t any ?+ %\ld be contr>y to reason4 ,hegel's view is1 t ! succession ( ! sy/ems ( philosophy :i* h appe>$ 9 hi/ory1 corresponds to ! succession ( logical categories 9 a sy/em ( logic4 ,accord+ to him1 if1 f ! fundam5tal conceptions ( ^! diff]5t philosophical sy/ems1 we remove t :i* p]ta9s to _! outw>d =m or p>ticul> application1 c41 s d we f9d ! diff]5t /eps ( ! logical conceptions 7e4 g4 be+1 becom+1 exi/5ce1 be+ p] se 7frsi*seyn7 quantity1 c474 ,& on ! o!r h&1 if we take up ! logical process by itself1 we f9d also 9 x ! actual hi/orical process4 ,?is op9ion1 h[ev]1 c be su/a9$ nei!r 9 its pr9ciple nor 9 its hi/orical application4 ,x is defective 9 its pr9ciple1 because 9 hi/ory fre$om & necessity int]p5etrate1 &1 !re=e1 :ile we f9d1 if we consid] x 9 its g5]al aspects1 a rational connection runn+ ?r\gh ! :ole1 we also see1 if we look solely at its individual p>ts1 only a play ( numb]less cont+5cies1 j z ! k+dom ( nature1 tak5 z a :ole1 reveals a rational plan 9 its successions1 b view$ only 9 its p>ts1 mocks at e attempt to r$uce !m to a preconceiv$ plan4 ,9 hi/ory we h to d ) free subjectivities1 ) individuals capable ( orig9at+ actions1 & h1 !re=e1 a factor :i* does n admit ( a previ\s calculation4 ,= h[ev] accurately we may e/imate ! controll+ conditions :i* may atta* to an individual1 f ! g5]al circum/ances 9 :i* he may be plac$1 8 age1 8 associations1 8 nationality1 c41 a free w c nev] be calculat$ l a ma!matical problem4 ,hi/ory is no example = a /rict ari?metical calculation4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy1 !re=e1 _c admit ( an apriori con/ruction2 ! actual occurr5ces %\ld n be jo9$ toge!r z illu/rative ( a preconceiv$ plan2 b ! facts1 s f> z !y c be admitt$1 aft] a critical sift+1 %\ld be receiv$ z su*1 & _! rational connection be analytically det]m9$4 ,! speculative idea c only supply ! law = ! arrangem5t & sci5tific connection ( t :i* may be hi/orically furni%$4 ,a m compreh5sive view1 :i* contradicts ! above-giv5 ,hegelian notion1 is ! foll[+4 ,! actual hi/orical developm5t is1 v g5]ally1 diff]5t f ! !oretical4 ,hi/orically e4 g4 ! ,/ate arose z a means ( protection aga9/ robb]s1 :ile !oretically x is d]iv$ f ! idea ( rights4 ,s also1 ev5 9 ! actual hi/ory ( philosophy1 :ile ! logical 7!oretical7 process is an asc5t f ! ab/ract to ! concrete1 yet does ! hi/orical developm5t ( philosophy1 q g5]ally1 desc5d f ! concrete to ! ab/ract1 f intuition to ?\ght1 & sep>ates ! ab/ract f ! concrete 9 ^? g5]al =ms ( culture & ^? religi\s & social circum/ances1 9 :i* ! philosophiz+ subject is plac$4 ,a sy/em ( philosophy proce$s syn!tically1 :ile ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 i4 e4 ! hi/ory ( ! ?9k+ process proce$s analytically4 ,we might1 !re=e1 ) great propriety1 adopt directly ! rev]se ( ! ,hegelian position1 & say t :at 9 reality is ! fir/1 is = u1 9 fact1 ! la/4 ,?is is illu/rat$ 9 ! ,ionic philosophy4 ,x began n ) be+ z an ab/ract conception1 b ) ! mo/ concrete1 & mo/ app>5t1 e4 g4 ) ! mat]ial conception ( wat]1 air1 c4 ,ev5 if we leave ! ,ionics & advance to ! be+ ( ! ,eleatics or ! becom+ ( ! ,h]aclitics1 we f9d1 t ^!1 in/ead ( be+ pure ?\ght det]m9ations1 are only unpurifi$ conceptions1 & mat]ially color$ intuitions4 ,/ill f>!r1 is ! attempt impracticable to ref] e philosophy t has appe>$ 9 hi/ory to "s logical category z its c5tral pr9ciple1 because ! mo/ ( ^! philosophies h tak51 = _! object1 ! idea1 n z an ab/ract conception1 b 9 its realization z nature & m9d1 &1 !re=e1 = ! mo/ "p1 h to d1 n ) logical que/ions1 b ) ^? relat+ to natural philosophy1 psy*ology & e?ics4 ,hegel %\ld n1 !re=e1 limit 8 comp>ison ( ! hi/orical & sy/ematic process ( developm5t simply to logic1 b %\ld ext5d x to ! :ole sy/em ( philosophical sci5ce4 ,grant$ t ! ,eleatics1 ! ,h]aclitics & ! ,atomi/s may h made su* a category z ! c5tre ( _! sy/ems1 & we may f9d ?us f> ! ,hegelian logic 9 h>mony ) ! ,hegelian hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,b if we g f>!r1 h[ is x8 ,h[ ) ,anaxagoras1 ! ,sophi/s1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle8 ,we _c1 c]ta9ly1 )\t viol5ce1 press "o c5tral pr9ciple into ! sy/ems ( ^! m51 b if we %\ld be able to d x1 & c\ld r$uce e4 g4 ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras to ! conception ( 8! end10 t ( ! ,sophi/s to ! conception ( 8! appe>ance10 & ! ,socratic ,philosophy to ! conception ( 8! good10--yet ev5 !n we h ! new difficulty t ! hi/orical does n correspond to ! logical succession ( ^! categories4 ,9 fact1 ,hegel himself has n attempt$ a complete application ( 8 pr9ciple1 & inde$ gave x up at ! v ?re%old ( ! ,grecian philosophy4 ,to ! ,eleatics1 ! ,h]aclitics & ! ,atomi/s1 ! logical categories ( 8be+10 8becom+10 & be+ p] se may be successively ascrib$1 & s f>1 z already rem>k$1 ! p>allelism ext5ds1 b no f>!r4 ,n only does ,anaxagoras foll[ ) ! conception ( reason work+ accord+ to an end1 b if we g back be=e ! ,eleatics1 we f9d 9 ! v beg9n+ ( philosophy a total div]sity betwe5 ! logical & hi/orical ord]4 ,if ,hegel _h c>ri$ out 8 pr9ciple consi/5tly1 he %\ld h ?r[n away entirely ! ,ionic philosophy1 = matt] is no logical category2 he %\ld h plac$ ! ,py?agoreans aft] ! ,eleatics & ! ,atomi/s1 = 9 logical ord] ! categories ( quantity foll[ ^? ( quality2 9 %ort1 he w\ld h be5 oblig$ to set aside all *ronology4 ,unless ?is be done1 we mu/ be satisfi$ ) a !oretical reproduction ( ! c\rse :i* ! ?9k+ _s has tak5 9 its hi/ory1 only s f> z we c see 9 ! gr& /ages ( hi/ory a rational progress ( ?\ght2 only s f> z ! philosophical hi/orian1 survey+ a p]iod ( developm5t1 actually f9ds 9 x a philosophical acquisition1--! acquisition ( a new idea3 b we mu/ gu>d ourselves aga9/ apply+ to ! transition & int]m$iate /eps1 z well z to ! :ole detail ( hi/ory1 ! po/ulate ( an imman5t con=mity to law1 or an organism 9 h>mony ) our own ?\ghts4 ,hi/ory (t5 w9ds its way l a s]p5t 9 l9es :i* appe> retrogressive1 & philosophy1 especially1 has n seldom )drawn h]self f a wide & already fruitful field1 9 ord] to settle d[n ^u a n>r[ /rip ( l&1 ! limits ev5 ( :i* %e has s\ght /ill m closely to abridge4 ,at "o "t we f9d ?\s&s ( ye>s exp5d$ 9 fruitless attempts ) only a negative result2--at ano!r1 a fulness ( philosophical ideas are cr[d$ toge!r 9 ! exp]i5ce ( a lifetime4 ,!re is "h no sway ( an immutable & regul>ly return+ law1 b hi/ory1 z ! realm ( fre$om1 w fir/ completely manife/ itself at ! end ( "t z ! "w ( reason4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,classification4 ,a few words w suffice to def9e our problem & classify its elem5ts4 ,:]e & :5 does philosophy beg98 ,manife/ly1 accord+ to ! analysis made 9 ,i41 :]e a f9al philosophical pr9ciple1 a f9al gr\nd ( be+ is fir/ s\ght 9 a philosophical way1--& h5ce ) ! ,grecian philosophy4 ,! ,ori5tal--,*9ese & ,h9doo--s nam$ philosophies1--b :i* are r !ologies or my?ologies1--& ! my?ic cosmogonies ( ,greece1 9 its e>lie/ p]iods1 are1 !re=e1 exclud$ f our m def9ite problem4 ,l ,ari/otle1 we %all beg9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy ) ,?ales4 ,= simil> reasons we exclude also ! philosophy ( ! ,*ri/ian middle ages1 or ,s*ola/icism4 ,?is is n s mu* a philosophy1 z a philosophiz+ or reflect+ )9 ! already prescrib$ limits ( positive religion4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ess5tially !ology1 & belongs to ! sci5ce ( ! hi/ory ( ,*ri/ian doctr9es4 ,! mat]ial :i* rema9s aft] ?is exclusion1 may be naturally divid$ into two p]iods2 viz3--anci5t--,grecian & ,grco-,romanic--& mod]n philosophy4 ,s9ce a prelim9>y comp>ison ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ^! two epo*s c\ld n "h be giv5 )\t a subsequ5t repetition1 we %all fir/ speak ( _! inn] relations1 :5 we come to treat ( ! transition f ! "o to ! o!r4 ,! fir/ epo* c be /ill f>!r divid$ into ?ree p]iods2 7#a47 ,! pre-,socratic philosophy1 i4 e4 f ,?ales to ! ,sophi/s inclusive2 7#b47 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle2 7#c47 ,! po/-,ari/otelian philosophy1 includ+ ,new ,platonism4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,pre-,,socratic ,,philosophy4 #a4 ,! univ]sal t5d5cy ( ! pre-,socratic philosophy is to f9d "s pr9ciple = ! explanation ( nature4 ,nature1 ! mo/ imm$iate1 t :i* fir/ met ! eye & 0 ! mo/ palpable1 0 t :i* fir/ ar\s$ ! inquir+ m9d4 ,at ! basis ( its *ang+ =ms1--b5ea? its manifold appe>ances1 ?\ght !y1 lies a fir/ pr9ciple :i* abides ! same ?r\gh all *ange4 ,:at !n1 !y ask$1 is ?is pr9ciple8 ,:at is ! orig9al gr\nd ( ?+s8 ,or1 m accurately1 :at elem5t ( nature is ! fundam5tal elem5t8 ,to solve ?is inquiry 0 ! problem ( ! ,ionic natural philosoph]s4 ,"o proposes z a solution1 wat]1 ano!r1 air1 & a ?ird1 an orig9al *aotic matt]4 #b4 ,! ,py?agoreans attempt$ a high] solution ( ?is problem4 ,! proportions & dim5sions ( matt] r ?an its s5sible concretions1 seem$ to !m to furni% ! true explanation ( be+4 ,!y1 accord+ly1 adopt$ z ! pr9ciple ( _! philosophy1 t :i* w\ld express a det]m9ation ( proportions1 i4 e4 numb]s4 8,numb] is ! ess5ce ( all ?+s10 0 _! position4 ,numb] is ! mean betwe5 ! imm$iate s5su\s intuition & ! pure ?\ght4 ,numb] & measure h1 to be sure1 no?+ to d ) matt] only 9 s f> z x possesses ext5sion1 & is capable ( division 9 space & "t1 b yet we %\ld h no numb]s or measures if !re 7 no matt]1 or no?+ :i* c\ld meet ! intuitions ( our s5se4 ,?is elevation above matt]1 :i* is at ! same "t a cleav+ to matt]1 con/itutes ! ess5ce & ! "* ( ,py?agoreanism4 #c4 ,next come ! ,eleatics1 :o /ep absolutely beyond t :i* is giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 & make a complete ab/raction ( e ?+ mat]ial4 ,?is ab/raction1 ?is negation ( all division 9 space & "t1 !y take z _! pr9ciple1 & call x pure be+4 ,in/ead ( ! s5su\s pr9ciple ( ! ,ionics1 or ! symbolic pr9ciple ( ! ,py?agoreans1 ! ,eleatics1 !re=e1 adopt an intelligible pr9ciple4 #d4 ,h]e) closes ! analytic1 ! fir/ c\rse 9 ! developm5t ( ,grecian philosophy1 to make way = ! second1 or syn!tic c\rse4 ,! ,eleatics _h sacrific$ to _! pr9ciple ( pure be+1 ! exi/5ce ( ! _w & e f9ite exi/5ce4 ,b ! d5ial ( nature & ! _w c\ld n be ma9ta9$4 ,! reality ( bo? =c$ itself ^u ! att5tion1 & ev5 ! ,eleatics _h affirm$ x1 ?\gh 9 gu>d$ & hypo!tical t]ms4 ,b f _! ab/ract be+ !re 0 no passage back to ! s5su\s & concrete2 _! pr9ciple ought to h expla9$ ! be+ ( ev5ts1 b x did n4 ,to f9d a pr9ciple = ! explanation ( ^!1 a pr9ciple :i* w\ld acc\nt = ! becom+1 ! ev5t 0 /ill ! problem4 ,h]aclitus solv$ x1 by ass]t+ t1 inasmu* z be+ has no m reality ?an n be+1 !re=e ! unity ( ! two1 or 9 o!r words ! becom+1 is ! absolute pr9ciple4 ,he held t x belong$ to ! v ess5ce ( f9ite be+ t x be conceiv$ 9 a cont9ual fl[1 9 an endless /ream4 8,e ?+ fl[s40 ,we h "h ! conception ( orig9al en]gy1 in/ead ( ! ,ionic orig9al matt]2 ! fir/ attempt to expla9 be+ & its motion f a pr9ciple analytically atta9$4 ,f ! "t ( ,h]aclitus1 ?is inquiry aft] ! cause ( ! becom+1 rema9$ ! *ief int]e/ & ! mov+ spr+ ( philosophical developm5t4 #e4 ,becom+ is ! unity ( be+ & n-be+1 & into ^! two elem5ts is ! ,h]aclitic pr9ciple consci\sly analyz$ by ! ,atomi/s4 ,h]aclitus _h utt]$ ! pr9ciple ( ! becom+1 b only z a fact ( exp]i5ce4 ,he _h simply express$ x z a law1 b _h n expla9$ x4 ,! necessity = ?is univ]sal law yet rema9$ to be prov$4 ,,:y is e ?+ 9 a p]petual fl[--9 an et]nal movem5t8 ,f ! dynamical comb9ation ( matt] & ! mov+ =ce1 ! next /ep 0 to a consci\sly det]m9$ di/9ction1 to a me*anical division ( ! two4 ,?us ,emp$ocles comb9+ ! doctr9es ( ,h]aclitus & ,p>m5ides1 consid]$ matt] z ! abid+ be+1 :ile =ce 0 ! gr\nd ( ! movem5t4 ,b ! ,atomi/s /ill consid]$ ! mov+ my?ic en]gies z =ces2 ,emp$ocles reg>d$ !m z love & hate2 & ,democritus z unconsci\s necessity4 ,! result 01 !re=e1 t ! becom+ 0 r limit$ z a means = ! me*anical explanation ( nature1 ?an itself expla9$4 #f4 ,despair+ ( any m]ely mat]iali/ic explanation ( ! becom+1 ,anaxagoras next appe>s1 & places a _w-=m+ ,intellig5ce by ! side ( matt]4 ,he recogniz$ m9d z ! primal causality1 to :i* ! exi/5ce ( ! _w1 toge!r ) its det]m9$ arrangem5t & design 7zweckmssigkeit7 mu/ be ref]r$4 ,9 ?is1 philosophy ga9$ a great pr9ciple1 viz4--an ideal "o4 ,b ,anaxagoras did n "k h[ to fully c>ry out 8 pr9ciples4 ,in/ead ( a !oretical compreh5sion ( ! univ]se--in/ead ( d]iv+ be+ f ! idea1 he grasp$ aga9 aft] "s me*anical explanation4 ,8 8_w-=m+ reason0 s]ves him only z a fir/ impulse1 only z a mov+ p[]4 ,x is to him a ,deus ex ma*9a4 ,not)/&+1 !re=e1 8 glimpse ( some?+ high] ?an matt]1 yet 0 ,anaxagoras only a physical philosoph]1 l 8 pr$ecessors4 ,m9d _h n yet appe>$ to him z a true =ce above nature1 z an organiz+ s\l ( ! univ]se4 #g4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a f>!r progress 9 ?\ght1 to compreh5d accurately ! di/9ction betwe5 m9d & nature1 & to recognize m9d z some?+ high] & contra-di/+ui%$ f all natural be+4 ,?is problem fell to ! ,sophi/s4 ,!y entangl$ 9 contradictions1 ! ?9k+ :i* _h be5 conf9$ to ! object1 to t :i* 0 giv51 & gave to ! objective _w :i* _h be=e be5 exalt$ above ! subject1 a subord9ate position 9 ! dawn+ & yet infantile consci\sness ( ! sup]iority ( subjective ?9k+4 ,! ,sophi/s c>ri$ _! pr9ciple ( subjectivity1 ?\gh at fir/ ?is 0 only negative1 into ! =m ( ! univ]sal religi\s & political *ang+ condition 7,aufklrung74#a ,!y /ood =? z ! de/roy]s ( ! :ole edifice ( ?\ght t _h be5 ?us f> built1 until ,socrates appe>$1 & set up aga9/ ?is pr9ciple ( empirical subjectivity1 t ( ! absolute subjectivity1--t ( ! _s 9 ! =m ( a free moral w1 & ! ?\ght is positively consid]$ z some?+ high] ?an exi/5ce1 z ! tru? ( all reality4 ,) ! ,sophi/ closes our fir/ p]iod1 = ) ^! ! olde/ philosophy f9ds its self-de/ruction 7,selb/auflsung74 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,! ,,ionic ,,philosoph]s4 #a4 ,,?ales4--,at ! head ( ! ,ionic natural philosoph]s1 & !re=e at ! head ( philosophy1 ! anci5ts are g5]ally agre$ 9 plac+ ,?ales ( ,miletus1 a cotempor>y ( ,crsus & ,solon2 al?\gh ?is beg9n+ lies m 9 ! region ( tradition ?an ( hi/ory4 ,! philosophical pr9ciple to :i* he owes 8 place 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy is1 t1 8! pr9ciple 7! primal1 ! orig9al gr\nd7 ( all ?+s is wat]2 f wat] e ?+ arises & into wat] e ?+ returns40 ,b simply to assume wat] z ! orig9al gr\nd ( ?+s 0 n to advance beyond 8 my?-mak+ pr$ecessors & _! cosmologies4 ,ari/otle1 himself1 :5 speak+ ( ,?ales1 ref]s to ! old 8!ologians10--mean+1 d\btless1 ,hom] & ,hesiod1--:o _h ascrib$ to ,oceanus & ,!tis1 ! orig9 ( all ?+s4 ,?ales1 h[ev]1 m]its 8 place z ! beg9n] ( philosophy1 because he made ! fir/ attempt to e/abli% 8 physical pr9ciple1 )\t resort+ to a my?ical repres5tation1 &1 !re=e1 br\ght into philosophy a sci5tific proc$ure4 ,he is ! fir/ :o has plac$ 8 foot ^u ! gr\nd ( a logical 7v]/ndig7 explanation ( nature4 ,we _c n[ say ) c]ta9ty1 h[ he came to adopt 8 pr9ciple1 ?\gh he might h be5 l$ to x1 by p]ceiv+ t dampness belong$ to ! se$ & n\ri%m5t ( ?+s2 t w>m? is develop$ f moi/ure2 & t1 g5]ally1 moi/ure might be ! pla/ic1 liv+ & life-giv+ pr9ciple4 ,f ! cond5sation & expansion ( ?is fir/ pr9ciple1 he d]ives1 z x seems1 ! *anges ( ?+s1 ?\gh ! way 9 :i* ?is is done1 he has n accurately det]m9$4 ,! philosophical significance ( ,?ales does n appe> to ext5d any f>!r4 ,he 0 n a speculative philosoph] aft] a lat] mode4 ,philosophical book-mak+ 0 n at all ! ord] ( 8 day1 & he does n seem to h giv5 any ( 8 op9ions a writt5 =m4 ,on acc\nt ( 8 e?ico-political wisdom1 he is numb]$ among ! s-nam$ 8sev5 wise m510 & ! *>act]i/ics :i* ! anci5ts furni% conc]n+ him only te/ify to 8 practical und]/&+4 ,he is said e4 g4 to h fir/ calculat$ an eclipse ( ! sun1 to h sup]9t5d$ ! turn+ ( ! c\rse ( ! ,halys "u ,crsus1 c4 ,:5 subsequ5t n>rators relate t he _h ass]t$ ! unity ( ! _w1 _h set up ! idea ( a _w-s\l1 & _h taught ! immortality ( ! s\l & ! p]sonality ( ,god1 x is d\btless an unhi/orical ref]5ce ( lat] ideas to a /&po9t1 :i* 01 z yet1 f> f be+ develop$4 #b4 ,,anaxim&]4--,anaxim&]1 sometimes repres5t$ by ! anci5ts z a s*ol> & sometimes z a companion ( ,?ales1 b :o 01 at all ev5ts1 y\ng] ?an ! latt]1 s\ght to c>ry out /ill f>!r 8 pr9ciples4 ,! orig9al ess5ce :i* he assum$1 & :i* he is said to h be5 ! fir/ to h nam$ pr9ciple 771 he def9$ z ! 8unlimit$1 et]nal & uncondition$10 z t :i* embrac$ all ?+s & rul$ all ?+s1 & :i*1 s9ce x lay at ! basis ( all det]m9at5ess ( ! f9ite & ! *angeable1 is itself inf9ite & undet]m9ate4 ,h[ we are to reg>d ?is orig9al ess5ce ( ,anaxim&] is a matt] ( dispute4 ,evid5tly x 0 n "o ( ! f\r common elem5ts1 ?\gh we mu/ n1 !re=e1 ?9k x 0 some?+ incorporeal & immat]ial4 ,anaxim&] probably conceiv$ x z ! orig9al matt] be=e x _h sep>at$ into det]m9$ elem5ts1--z t :i* 0 fir/ 9 ! ord] ( "t1 or :at is 9 our day call$ ! *emical indiff]5ce 9 ! opposition ( elem5ts4 ,9 ?is respect 8 orig9al ess5ce is inde$ 8unlimit$0 & 8undet]m9$10 i4 e4 has no det]m9ation ( quality nor limit ( quantity1 yet x is n1 !re=e1 9 any way1 a pure dynamical pr9ciple1 z p]haps ! 8fri5d%ip0 & 8enmity0 ( ,emp$ocles might h be51 b x 0 only a m philosophical expression = ! same ?\ght1 :i* ! old cosmogonies h attempt$ to utt] 9 _! repres5tation ( *aos4 ,accord+ly1 ,anaxim&] suff]s ! orig9al opposition ( cold & w>m1 ( dry & moi/ 7i4 e4 ! basis ( ! f\r elem5ts7 to be secret$ f 8 orig9al ess5ce1 a cle> pro( t x 0 only ! undevelop$1 unanalyz$1 pot5tial be+ ( ^! elem5tal opposites4 #c4 ,,anaxim5es4--,anaxim5es1 :o is call$ by "s ! s*ol>1 & by o!rs ! companion ( ,anaxim&]1 turn$ back m closely to ! view ( ,?ales1 9 t he made air z ! pr9ciple ( all ?+s4 ,! p]ception t air surr\nds ! :ole _w1 & t brea? conditions ! activity ( life1 seems to h l$ him to 8 position4 #d4 ,,retrospect4--,! :ole philosophy ( ! ?ree ,ionic sages may be r$uc$ to ^! ?ree po9ts1 viz3--7#a47 ,!y s\ght = ! univ]sal ess5ce ( concrete be+2 7#b47 ,!y f\nd ?is ess5ce 9 a mat]ial sub/ance or sub/ratum2 7#c47 ,!y gave "s intimation respect+ ! d]ivation ( ! elem5ts f ?is orig9al matt]4 ,,section ,v4 ,,py?agoreanism4 #a4 ,,its ,,relative ,,position4--,! developm5t ( ! ,ionic philosophy discloses ! t5d5cy to ab/ract matt] f all else2 ?\gh !y direct$ ?is process solely to ! det]m9$ quality ( matt]4 ,x is ?is ab/raction c>ri$ to a high] /ep1 :5 we look away f ! s5sible concretions ( matt]1 & no m reg>d its qualitative det]m9at5ess z wat]1 air1 c41 b only direct our att5tion to its quantitative det]m9at5ess1--to its space-fill+ prop]ty4 ,b ! det]m9at5ess ( quantity is numb]1 & ?is is ! pr9ciple & /&po9t ( ,py?agoreanism4 #b4 ,,hi/orical ,,& ,,*ronological4--,! ,py?agorean doctr9e ( numb]s is ref]r$ to ,py?agoras ( ,samos1 :o is said to h fl\ri%$ betwe5 #edj & #ejj ,b4 ,c4 ,he dwelt 9 ! latt] "p ( 8 life at ,crotonia1 9 ,magna ,grecia1 :]e he f\nd$ a society1 or1 m prop]ly1 an ord]1 = ! moral & political reg5]ation ( ! l[] ,italian cities4 ,?r\gh ?is society1 ?is new direction ( philosophy seems to h be5 introduc$1--?\gh m z a mode ( life ?an 9 ! =m ( a sci5tific !ory4 ,:at is relat$ conc]n+ ! life ( ,py?agoras1 8 j\rneys1 ! new ord] :i* he f\nd$1 8 political influ5ce ^u ! l[] ,italian cities1 c41 is s ?or\ghly int]wov5 ) traditions1 leg5ds1 & palpable fabrications1 t we c be c]ta9 at no po9t t we /& ^u a hi/orical basis4 ,n only ! old ,py?agoreans1 :o h spok5 ( him1 delight$ 9 ! my/]i\s & esot]ic1 b ev5 8 new-,platoni/ic biograph]s1 ,porphyry & ,jambli*us1 h treat$ 8 life z a hi/orico-philosophical romance4 ,we h ! same unc]ta9ty 9 ref]5ce to 8 doctr9es1 i4 e4 9 ref]5ce to 8 %>e 9 ! numb]-!ory4 ,ari/otle1 e4 g4 does n ascribe ?is to ,py?agoras himself1 b only to ! ,py?agoreans g5]ally1 i4 e4 to _! s*ool4 ,! acc\nts :i* are giv5 respect+ 8 s*ool h no c]ta9ty till ! "t ( ,socrates1 a hundr$ ye>s aft] ,py?agoras4 ,among ! few s\rces ( light :i* we h ^u ?is subject1 are ! m5tion made 9 ,plato's ,phdon ( ! ,py?agorean ,philolaus & 8 doctr9es1 & ! writ+s ( ,ar*ytas1 a cotempor>y ( ,plato4 ,we possess 9 fact ! ,py?agorean doctr9e only 9 ! mann] 9 :i* x 0 tak5 up by ,philolaus1 ,eurytas & ,ar*ytas1 s9ce its e>li] adh]5ts left no?+ 9 a writt5 =m4 #c4 ,,! ,,py?agorean ,,pr9ciple4--,! anci5ts are unit$ 9 affirm+ t ! pr9ciple ( ! ,py?agorean philosophy 0 numb]4 ,b 9 :at s5se 0 ?is _! pr9ciple--9 a mat]ial or a =mal s5se8 ,did !y hold numb] z ! mat]ial ( ?+s1 i4 e4 did !y believe t ?+s _h _! orig9 9 numb]s1 or did !y reg>d x z ! ar*etype ( ?+s1 i4 e4 did !y believe t ?+s 7 made z ! copy or ! repres5tation ( numb]s8 ,f ?is v po9t ! acc\nts giv5 by ! anci5ts div]ge1 & ev5 ! expressions ( ,ari/otle seem to contradict ea* o!r4 ,at "o "t he speaks ( ,py?agoreanism 9 ! =m]1 & at ano!r 9 ! latt] s5se4 ,f ?is circum/ance mod]n s*ol>s h conclud$ t ! ,py?agorean doctr9e ( numb]s _h diff]5t =ms ( developm5t2 t "s ( ! ,py?agoreans reg>d$ numb]s z ! sub/ances & o!rs z ! ar*etypes ( ?+s4 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 gives an intimation h[ ! two /atem5ts may be reconcil$ ) ea* o!r4 ,orig9ally1 )\t d\bt1 ! ,py?agoreans reg>d$ numb] z ! mat]ial1 z ! inh]5t ess5ce ( ?+s1 & !re=e ,ari/otle places !m toge!r ) ! ,hylics 7! ,ionic natural philosoph]s71 & says ( !m t 8!y held ?+s = numb]s0 7,metaph4 ,i41 #e1 #f74 ,b z ! ,hylics did n id5tify _! matt]1 e4 g4 wat]1 imm$iately ) ! s5su\s ?+1 b only gave x out z ! fundam5tal elem5t1 z ! orig9al =m ( ! individual ?+1 s1 on ! o!r side1 numb]s also might be reg>d$ z simil> fundam5tal types1 & !re=e ,ari/otle might say ( ! ,py?agoreans1 t 8!y held numb]s to be ! correspond+ orig9al =ms ( be+1 z wat]1 air1 c40 ,b if !re /ill rema9s a degree ( unc]ta9ty 9 ! expressions ( ,ari/otle respect+ ! s5se ( ! ,py?agorean doctr9e ( numb]s1 x c only h its gr\nd 9 ! fact t ! ,py?agoreans did n make any di/9ction betwe5 a =mal & mat]ial pr9ciple1 b cont5t$ !mselves ) ! undevelop$ view1 t1 8numb] is ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 e ?+ is numb]40 #d4 ,,! ,,c>ry+-,,out ,,( ,,?is ,,pr9ciple4--,f ! v nature ( ! 8numb]-pr9ciple10 x foll[s t its complete application to ! prov9ce ( ! real1 c only lead to a fruitless & empty symbolism4 ,if we take numb]s z ev5 & odd1 & /ill f>!r z f9ite & inf9ite1 & apply !m z su* to a/ronomy1 music1 psy*ology1 e?ics1 c41 !re arise comb9ations l ! foll[+1 viz43 "o is ! po9t1 two are ! l9e1 ?ree are ! sup]ficies1 f\r are ! ext5sion ( a body1 five are ! condition 7bes*aff5heit71 c4--/ill f>!r1 ! s\l is a musical h>mony1 z is also virtue1 ! s\l ( ! _w1 c4 ,n only ! philosophical1 b ev5 ! hi/orical int]e/ "h ceases1 s9ce ! anci5ts !mselves--z 0 unavoidable f ! arbitr>y nature ( su* comb9ations--h giv5 ! mo/ contradictory acc\nt1 "s affirm+ t ! ,py?agoreans r$uc$ righte\sness to ! numb] ?ree1 o!rs1 t !y r$uc$ x to ! numb] f\r1 o!rs aga9 to five1 & /ill o!rs to n9e4 ,naturally1 f su* a vague & arbitr>y philosophiz+1 !re w\ld e>ly arise1 9 ?is1 m ?an 9 o!r s*ools1 a great div]sity ( views1 "o ascrib+ ?is signification to a c]ta9 ma!matical =m1 & ano!r t4 ,9 ?is my/icism ( numb]s1 t :i* alone has tru? & value1 is ! ?\ght1 :i* lies at ! gr\nd ( x all1 t !re prevails 9 ! ph5om5a ( nature a rational ord]1 h>mony & con=mity to law1 & t ^! laws ( nature c be repres5t$ 9 measure & numb]4 ,b ?is tru? has ! ,py?agorean s*ool hid "u extravagant fancies1 z vapid z !y are unbridl$4 ,! physics ( ! ,py?agoreans possesses little sci5tific value1 ) ! exception ( ! doctr9e taught by ,philolaus respect+ ! circul> motion ( ! e>?4 ,_! e?ics is also defective4 ,:at we h rema9+ ( x relates m to ! ,py?agorean life1 i4 e4 to ! practice & discipl9e ( _! ord] ?an to _! philosophy4 ,! :ole t5d5cy ( ,py?agoreanism 0 9 a practical respect ascetic1 & direct$ to a /rict culture ( ! "*4 ,z %[+ ?is1 we ne$ only to cite _! doctr9es conc]n+ ! transmigration ( ! s\l1 or1 z x has be5 call$1 _! 8immortality doctr9e10 _! notion 9 respect ( ! l[] _w1 _! opposition to suicide1 & _! view ( ! body z ! prison ( ! s\l--all ( :i* ideas are ref]r$ to 9 ,plato's ,phdon1 & ! la/ two ( :i* are indicat$ z belong+ to ,philolaus4 ,,section ,,vi ,,! ,,eleatics4 #a4 ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,eleatic ,,pr9ciple ,,to ,,! ,,py?agorean4--,:ile ! ,py?agoreans _h made matt]1 9 s f> z x is quantity & ! manifold1 ! basis ( _! philosophiz+1 & :ile 9 ?is !y only ab/ract$ f ! det]m9$ elem5tal condition ( matt]1 ! ,eleatics c>ry ! process to its ultimate limit1 & make1 z ! pr9ciple ( _! philosophy1 a total ab/raction f e f9ite det]m9at5ess1 f e *ange & vicissitude :i* belongs to concrete be+4 ,:ile ! ,py?agoreans _h held fa/ to ! =m ( be+ z hav+ exi/5ce 9 space & "t1 ! ,eleatics reject ?is1 & make z _! fundam5tal ?\ght ! negation ( all ext]ior & po/]ior4 ,only be+ is1 & !re is no n-be+1 nor becom+4 ,?is be+ is ! purely undet]m9$1 *angeless gr\nd ( all ?+s4 ,x is n be+ 9 becom+1 b x is be+ z exclusive ( all becom+2 9 o!r words1 x is pure be+4 ,eleaticism is1 !re=e1 ,monism1 9 s f> z x /rove to c>ry back ! manifoldness ( all be+ to a s+le ultimate pr9ciple2 b on ! o!r h& x becomes ,dualism1 9 s f> z x c\ld nei!r c>ry out its d5ial ( concrete exi/5ce1 i4 e41 ! ph5om5al _w1 nor yet d]ive ! latt] f its presuppos$ orig9al gr\nd4 ,! ph5om5al _w1 ?\gh x might be expla9$ z only an empty appe>ance1 did yet exi/2 &1 s9ce ! s5su\s p]ception w\ld n ignore ?is1 !re mu/ be all[$ x1 hypo!tically at lea/1 ! "r ( exi/5ce4 ,its orig9 mu/ be expla9$1 ev5 ?\gh ) res]vations4 ,?is contradiction ( an unreconcil$ ,dualism betwe5 be+ & exi/5ce1 is ! po9t :]e ! ,eleatic philosophy is at w> ) itself--?\gh1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! s*ool--) ,x5ophanes1 x does n yet appe>4 ,! pr9ciple itself1 ) its results1 is only fully app>5t 9 ! lapse ( "t4 ,x has ?ree p]iods ( =mation1 :i* successively appe> 9 ?ree successive g5]ations4 ,its f\ndation belongs to ,x5ophanes2 its sy/ematic =mation to ,p>m5ides2 its completion & p>tial dissolution to ,z5o & ,melissus--! latt] ( :om we c pass by4 #b4 ,,x5ophanes4--,x5ophanes is consid]$ z ! orig9ator ( ! ,eleatic t5d5cy4 ,he 0 born at ,colophon2 emigrat$ to ,elea1 a ,phocian colony 9 ,lucania1 & 0 a y\ng] cotempor>y ( ,py?agoras4 ,he appe>s to h fir/ utt]$ ! proposition--8e ?+ is "o10 )\t1 h[ev]1 giv+ any m explicit det]m9ation respect+ ?is unity1 :e!r x be "o simply 9 conception or 9 actuality4 ,turn+ 8 att5tion1 says ,ari/otle1 ^u ! _w z a :ole1 he names ! unity :i* he f9ds1 ,god4 ,god is ! ,"o4 ,! ,eleatic 8,"o & ,all0 7 7 _h1 !re=e1 ) ,x5ophanes1 a !ological & religi\s "*4 ,! idea ( ! unity ( ,god1 & an opposition to ! an?ropomorphism ( ! ord9>y views ( religion1 is 8 />t+ po9t4 ,he declaim$ aga9/ ! delusion t ! gods 7 born1 t !y _h a human voice or =m1 & rail$ at ! robb]y1 adult]y1 & deceit ( ! gods z sung by ,hom] & ,hesiod4 ,accord+ to him ! ,godhead is :olly see+1 :olly und]/&+1 :olly he>+1 unmov$1 undivid$1 calmly rul+ all ?+s by 8 ?\ght1 l m5 nei!r 9 =m nor 9 und]/&+4 ,9 ?is way1 ) 8 ?\ght turn$ only t[>ds remov+ f ! ,godhead all f9ite det]m9ations & pr$icates1 & hold+ fa/ to its unity & un*angeabl5ess1 he decl>$ ?is doctr9e ( its be+ to be ! highe/ philosophical pr9ciple1 )\t h[ev] direct+ ?is pr9ciple polemically aga9/ ! doctr9e ( f9ite be+1 or c>ry+ x out 9 its negative application4 #c4 ,,p>m5ides4--,! prop] head ( ! ,eleatic s*ool is ,p>m5ides ( ,elea1 a s*ol>1 or at lea/ an adh]5t ( ,x5ophanes4 ,?\gh we possess b little reliable in=mation respect+ ! circum/ances ( 8 life1 yet we h1 9 inv]se proportion1 ! h>moni\s voice ( all antiquity 9 an expression ( rev]5ce = ! ,eleatic sage1 & ( admiration = ! dep? ( 8 m9d1 z well z = ! e>ne/ness & elevation ( 8 "*4 ,! say+--8a life l ,p>m5ides10 became aft]w>ds a prov]b among ! ,greeks4 ,p>m5ides embodi$ 8 philosophy 9 an epic poem1 ( :i* we h /ill important fragm5ts4 ,x is divid$ into two p>ts4 ,9 ! fir/ he discusses ! conception ( be+4 ,ris+ f> above ! yet unm$iat$ view ( ,x5ophanes1 he atta9s a conception ( pure s+le be+1 :i* he sets up z absolutely oppos$ to e ?+ manifold & *angeable1 i4 e41 to t :i* has no be+1 & :i* consequ5tly _c be ?\ght4 ,f ?is conception ( be+ he n only excludes all becom+ & dep>t+1 b also all relation to space & "t1 all divisibility & movem5t4 ,?is be+ he expla9s z some?+ :i* has n become & :i* does n dep>t1 z complete & ( its own k9d1 z unalt]able & )\t limit1 z indivisible & pres5t ?\gh n 9 "t1 & s9ce all ^! are only negative1 he ascribes to x1 also1 z a positive det]m9ation--?\ght4 ,be+ & ?\ght are !re=e id5tical ) ,p>m5ides4 ,?is pure ?\ght1 direct$ to ! pure be+1 he decl>es is ! only true & undeceptive k1 9 opposition to ! deceptive notions conc]n+ ! manifoldness & mutability ( ! ph5om5al4 ,he has no hesitancy 9 hold+ t to be only a "n :i* mortals reg>d z tru?1 viz41 becom+ & dep>t+1 be+ & n-be+1 *ange ( place & vicissitude ( circum/ance4 ,we mu/ !re=e be c>eful n to hold 8! ,"o0 ( ,p>m5ides1 z ! collective unity ( all concrete be+4 ,s mu* = ! fir/ "p ( ,p>m5ides' poem4 ,aft] ! pr9ciple t !re is only be+ has be5 develop$ accord+ to its negative & positive det]m9ations1 we might believe t ! sy/em 0 at an end4 ,b !re foll[s a second "p1 :i* is occupi$ solely ) ! hypo!tical attempt to expla9 ! ph5om5al _w & give x a physical d]ivation4 ,?\gh firmly conv9c$ t1 accord+ to reason & conception1 !re is only 8! ,"o10 yet is ,p>m5ides unable to )draw himself f ! recognition ( an appe>+ manifoldness & *ange4 ,=c$1 !re=e1 by 8 s5su\s p]ception to ent] ^u a discussion ( ! ph5om5al _w1 he prefaces ?is second "p ( 8 poem ) ! rem>k1 t he _h n[ clos$ :at he _h to say respect+ ! tru?1 & 0 h]eaft] to deal only ) ! op9ion ( a mortal4 ,un=tunately1 ?is second "p has be5 v imp]fectly transmitt$ to u4 ,en\gh h[ev] rema9s to %[1 t he expla9$ ! ph5om5a ( nature f ! m+l+ ( two un*angeable elem5ts1 :i* ,ari/otle1 ?\gh app>5tly only by way ( example1 indicates z w>m & cold1 fire & e>?4 ,conc]n+ ^! two elem5ts1 ,ari/otle rem>ks /ill f>!r t ,p>m5ides unit$ ! w>m? ) be+1 & ! o!r elem5t ) n-be+4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to rem>k t betwe5 ! two p>ts ( ! ,p>m5idean philosophy--betwe5 ! doctr9e conc]n+ be+ & ! doctr9e conc]n+ appe>ance--!re c exi/ no inn] sci5tific connection4 ,:at ,p>m5ides absolutely d5ies 9 ! fir/ "p1 & inde$ decl>es to be unutt]able1 viz41 ! n-be+1 ! _m & ! *angeable1 he yet 9 ! second "p admits to h an exi/5ce at lea/ 9 ! repres5tation ( m54 ,b x is cle> t ! n-be+ _c once exi/ 9 ! repres5tation1 if x does n exi/ g5]ally & e :]e1 & t ! attempt to expla9 a n-be+ ( ! repres5tation1 is 9 complete contradiction ) 8 exclusive recognition ( be+4 ,?is contradiction1 ?is unm$iat$ juxtaposition ( be+ & n-be+1 ( ! "o & ! _m1 ,z5o1 a s*ol> ( ,p>m5ides1 s\ght to remove1 by affirm+ t f ! v conception ( be+1 ! s5su\s repres5tation1 & ?us ! _w ( ! n-be+1 are dialectically annihilat$4 #d4 ,,z5o4--,! ,eleatic ,z5o 0 born ab\t #ejj ,b4 ,c42 0 a s*ol> ( ,p>m5ides1 & ! e>lie/ prose writ] among ! ,grecian philosoph]s4 ,he is said to h writt5 9 ! =m ( dialogues4 ,he p]fect$1 dialectically1 ! doctr9e ( 8 ma/]1 & c>ri$ out to ! complete/ ext5t ! ab/raction ( ! ,eleatic ,"o1 9 opposition to ! manifoldness & det]m9at5ess ( ! f9ite4 ,he ju/ifi$ ! doctr9e ( a s+le1 simple1 & un*angeable be+1 9 a polemical way1 by %[+ up ! contradictions into :i* ! ord9>y repres5tations ( ! ph5om5al _w become involv$4 ,:ile ,p>m5ides affirms t !re is only ! ,"o1 ,z5o %[s 9 8 well-kn[n pro(s 7:i* un=tunately we _c "h m widely unfold71 t ! _m1 ! *ang+1 t :i* has relation to space1 or t :i* has relation to "t1 is n4 ,:ile ,p>m5ides affirm$ ! be+1 ,z5o d5i$ ! appe>ance4 ,on acc\nt ( ^! pro(s1 9 :i* ,z5o takes up ! conceptions ( ext5sion1 manifoldness & movem5t1 & %[s _! inn] contradictory nature1 ,ari/otle names him ! f\nd] ( dialectics4 ,:ile ! philosophiz+ ( ,z5o is ! completion ( ! ,eleatic pr9ciple1 s is x at ! same "t ! beg9n+ ( its dissolution4 ,z5o _h embrac$ ! opposition ( be+ & exi/5ce1 ( ! "o & ! _m1 s ab/ractly1 & _h c>ri$ x s f>1 t ) him ! inn] contradiction ( ! ,eleatic pr9ciple comes =? /ill m boldly ?an ) ,p>m5ides2 = ! m logical he is 9 ! d5ial ( ! ph5om5al _w1 s mu* ! m /rik+ mu/ be ! contradiction1 ( turn+1 on ! "o side1 8 :ole philosophical activity to ! refutation ( ! s5su\s repres5tation1 :ile1 on ! o!r side1 he sets ov] aga9/ x a doctr9e :i* de/roys ! v possibility ( a false repres5tation4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,h]aclitus4 #a4 ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,h]aclitic ,,pr9ciple ,,to ,,! ,,eleatic4--,be+ & exi/5ce1 ! "o & ! _m1 c\ld n be unit$ by ! pr9ciple ( ! ,eleatics2 ! ,monism :i* !y _h /riv5 = _h result$ 9 an ill-conceal$ ,dualism4 ,h]aclitus reconcil$ ?is contradiction by affirm+ t be+ & n-be+1 ! "o & ! _m1 exi/$ at ! same "t z ! becom+4 ,:ile ! ,eleatics c\ld n extricate !mselves f ! dilemma t ! _w is ei!r be+ or n-be+1 ,h]aclitus removes ! difficulty by answ]+--x is nei!r be+ nor n-be+1 because x is bo?4 #b4 ,,hi/orical ,,& ,,*ronological4--,h]aclitus1 surnam$ by lat] writ]s ! my/ic1 0 born at ,ephesus1 & fl\ri%$ ab\t #ejj ,b4 ,c4 ,8 p]iod 0 subsequ5t to t ( ,x5ophanes1 ?\gh p>tially cotempor>y ) t ( ,p>m5ides4 ,he laid d[n 8 philosophical ?\ghts 9 a writ+ 8,conc]n+ ,nature10 ( :i* we possess only fragm5ts4 ,its rapid transitions1 its expressions s concise1 & full ( mean+1 ! g5]al philosophical peculi>ity ( ,h]aclitus1 & ! antique "* ( ! e>lie/ prose writ+s1 all comb9e to make ?is "w s difficult to be und]/ood t x has long be5 a prov]b4 ,socrates said conc]n+ x1 t 8:at he und]/ood ( x 0 excell5t1 & he _h no d\bt t :at he did n und]/& 0 equally good2 b ! book requires an exp]t swimm]40 ,lat] ,/oics & ,academicians h writt5 comm5t>ies ^u x4 #c4 ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,! ,,becom+4--,! anci5ts unite 9 ascrib+ to ,h]aclitus ! pr9ciple t ! totality ( ?+s %\ld be conceiv$ 9 an et]nal fl[1 9 an un9t]rupt$ movem5t & trans=mation1 & t all cont9uance ( ?+s is only appe>ance4 8,into ! same /ream10 s runs a say+ ( ,h]aclitus1 8we desc5d1 & at ! same "t we d n desc5d2 we are1 & also we are n4 ,= into ! same /ream we _c possibly desc5d twice1 s9ce x is always scatt]+ & collect+ itself aga91 or r x at ! same "t fl[s to u & f u40 ,!re is1 !re=e1 gr\nd = ! ass]tion t ,h]aclitus _h bani%$ all re/ & cont9uance f ! totality ( ?+s2 & x is d\btless 9 ?is v respect t he accuses ! eye & ! e> ( deception1 because !y reveal to m5 a cont9uance :]e !re is only an un9t]rupt$ *ange4 ,h]aclitus has analyz$ ! pr9ciple ( ! becom+ /ill m closely1 9 ! propositions :i* he utt]s1 to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( ?+s1 :]e he %[s t all becom+ mu/ be conceiv$ z ! product ( w>r+ opposites1 z ! h>moni\s union ( opposite det]m9ations4 ,h5ce 8 two well-kn[n propositions3 8,/rife is ! fa!r ( ?+s10 & 8,! ,"o sett+ itself at v>iance ) itself1 h>monizes ) itself1 l ! h>mony ( ! b[ & ! viol40 8,unite10 s runs ano!r ( 8 say+s1 8! :ole & ! n-:ole1 ! coalesc+ & ! n-coalesc+1 ! h>moni\s & ! discordant1 & ?us we h ! "o becom+ f ! all1 & ! all f ! "o40 #d4 ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,fire4--,9 :at relation does ! pr9ciple ( fire1 :i* is also ascrib$ to ,h]aclitus1 /& to ! pr9ciple ( ! becom+8 ,ari/otle says t he took fire z 8 pr9ciple1 9 ! same way t ,?ales took wat]1 & ,anaxim5es took air4 ,b x is cle> we mu/ n int]pret ?is to mean t ,h]aclitus reg>d$ fire z ! orig9al mat]ial or fundam5tal elem5t ( ?+s1 aft] ! mann] ( ! ,ionics4 ,if he ascrib$ reality only to ! becom+1 x is impossible t he %\ld h set by ! side ( ?is becom+1 yet ano!r elem5tal matt] z a fundam5tal sub/ance4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,h]aclitus calls ! _w an ev]-liv+ fire1 :i* 9 c]ta9 /ages & c]ta9 degrees ext+ui%es & aga9 enk9dles itself1 :5 he says t e ?+ c be ex*ang$ = fire1 & fire = e ?+1 j z we b>t] ?+s = gold & gold = ?+s1 he c only mean !reby t fire repres5ts ! abid+ p[] ( ?is et]nal trans=mation & transposition1 9 o!r words1 ! conception ( life1 9 ! mo/ obvi\s & effective way4 ,we might "n fire1 9 ! ,h]aclitic s5se1 ! symbol or ! manife/ation ( ! becom+1 b t x is also ) him ! sub/ratum ( movem5t1 i4 e4 ! means ) :i* ! p[] ( movem5t1 :i* is antec$5t to all matt]1 s]ves x self 9 ord] to br+ out ! liv+ process ( ?+s4 ,9 ! same way ,h]aclitus goes on to expla9 ! manifoldness ( ?+s1 by affirm+ t !y arise f c]ta9 h9drances & a p>tial ext9ction ( ?is fire4 ,! product ( its extreme/ h9drance is ! e>?1 & ! o!r ?+s lie int]m$iately betwe54 #e4 ,,transition ,,to ,,! ,,atomi/s4--,we h above reg>d$ ! ,h]aclitic pr9ciple z ! consequ5t ( ! ,eleatic1 b we might z prop]ly consid] ! two z anti!ses4 ,:ile ,h]aclitus de/roys all abid+ be+ 9 an absolutely fl[+ becom+1 s1 on ! o!r h&1 ,p>m5ides de/roys all becom+ 9 an absolutely abid+ be+2 & :ile ! =m] *>ges ! eye & ! e> ) deception1 9 t !y trans=m ! fl[+ becom+ into a quiesc5t be+1 ! latt] also accuses ^! same s5ses ( an untrue repres5tation1 9 t !y draw ! abid+ be+ into ! movem5t ( ! becom+4 ,we c !re=e say t ! be+ & ! becom+ are equally valid anti!ses1 :i* dem& aga9 a syn!sis & reconciliation4 ,b n[ c we say t ,h]aclitus actually & satisfactorily solv$ ! problem ( ,z5o8 ,z5o _h %[n e ?+ actual to be a contradiction1 & f ?is _h inf]r$ _! n-be+1 & x is only 9 ?is inf]5ce t ,h]aclitus deviates f ! ,eleatics4 ,he also reg>d$ ! ph5om5al _w z an exi/+ contradiction1 b he clung to ?is contradiction z to an ultimate fact4 ,t :i* _h be5 ! negative result ( ! ,eleatics1 he utt]$ z 8 positive pr9ciple4 ,! dialectics :i* ,z5o _h subjectively us$ aga9/ ! ph5om5al1 he direct$ objectively z a pro( = ! becom+4 ,b ?is becom+ :i* ! ,eleatics _h ?\ght !mselves oblig$ to d5y entirely1 ,h]aclitus did n expla9 by simply ass]t+ t x 0 ! only true pr9ciple4 ,! "q cont9ually return$--:y is all be+ a becom+8 ,:y does ! "o g out ov] into ! _m8 ,to give an answ] to ?is "q1 i4 e4 to expla9 ! becom+ f ! presuppos$ pr9ciple ( be+1 =ms ! /&po9t & problem ( ! ,emp$oclean & ,atomi/ic philosophy4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,,emp$ocles4 #a4 ,,g5]al ,,view4--,emp$ocles 0 born at ,agrig5tum1 & is extoll$ by ! anci5ts z a natural philosoph]1 physician & poet1 & also z a se] & work] ( miracles4 ,he fl\ri%$ ab\t #ddj ,b4 ,c41 & 0 consequ5tly y\ng] ?an ,p>m5ides & ,h]aclitus4 ,he wrote a doctr9al poem conc]n+ nature1 :i* has be5 pres]v$ to u 9 tol]ably complete fragm5ts4 ,8 philosophical sy/em may be *>act]iz$ 9 brief1 z an attempt to comb9e ! ,eleatic be+ & ! ,h]aclitic becom+4 ,/>t+ ) ! ,eleatic ?\ght1 t nei!r any ?+ :i* _h previ\sly be5 c\ld become1 nor any ?+ :i* n[ is c\ld dep>t1 he sets up z un*angeable be+1 f\r et]nal orig9al mat]ials1 :i*1 ?\gh divisible1 7 indep5d5t1 & und]iv$ f ea* o!r4 ,9 ?is we h :at 9 our day are call$ ! f\r elem5ts4 ,) ?is ,eleatic ?\ght he unit$ also ! ,h]aclitic view ( nature1 & suff]$ 8 f\r elem5ts to become m+l$ toge!r1 & to receive a =m by ! work+ ( two mov+ p[]s1 :i* he names unify+ fri5d%ip & divid+ /rife4 ,orig9ally1 ^! f\r elem5ts 7 absolutely alike & unmovable1 dwell+ toge!r 9 a div9e sph]e :]e fri5d%ip unit$ !m1 until gradually /rife press+ f ! circumf]5ce to ! c5tre ( ! sph]e 7i4 e4 atta9+ a sep>at+ activity71 broke ?is union1 & ! =mation ( ! _w imm$iately began z ! result4 #b4 ,,! ,,f\r ,,elem5ts4--,) 8 doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts1 ,emp$ocles1 on ! "o side1 may be jo9$ to ! s]ies ( ! ,ionic philosoph]s1 b1 on ! o!r1 he is exclud$ f ?is by 8 assum+ ! orig9al elem5ts to be f\r4 ,he is di/9ctly said by ! anci5ts to h orig9at$ ! !ory ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,he is m def9itely di/+ui%$ f ! old ,ionics1 f ! fact t he ascrib$ to 8 f\r 8root-elem5ts0 a *angeless be+1 by virtue ( :i* !y nei!r arose f ea* o!r nor dep>t$ into ea* o!r1 & 7 capable ( no *ange ( ess5ce b only ( a *ange ( /ate4 ,e ?+ :i* is call$ aris+ & dep>t+1 e *ange re/s !re=e only ^u ! m+l+ & )draw+ ( ^! et]nal & fundam5tal mat]ials2 ! inexhau/ible manifoldness ( be+ re/s ^u ! diff]5t proportions 9 :i* ^! elem5ts are m+l$4 ,e becom+ is conceiv$ z su* only z a *ange ( place4 ,9 ?is we h a me*anical 9 opposition to a dynamic explanation ( nature4 #c4 ,,! ,,two ,,p[]s4--,:5ce n[ c arise any becom+1 if 9 matt] itself !re is f\nd no pr9ciple to acc\nt = ! *ange8 ,s9ce ,emp$ocles did n1 l ! ,eleatics1 d5y t !re 0 *ange1 nor yet1 l ,h]aclitus1 introduce x 9 8 matt]1 z an indwell+ pr9ciple1 s !re 0 no o!r c\rse left him b to place1 by ! side ( 8 matt]1 a mov+ p[]4 ,! opposition ( ! "o & ! _m :i* _h be5 set up by 8 pr$ecessors1 & :i* dem&$ an explanation1 l$ him to ascribe to ?is mov+ p[]1 two orig9ally div]se directions1 viz43 repulsion & attraction4 ,! sep>ation ( ! "o into ! _m1 & ! union aga9 ( ! _m into ! "o1 _h indicat$ an opposition ( p[]s :i* ,h]aclitus _h already recogniz$4 ,:ile n[ ,p>m5ides />t+ f ! "o _h made love z 8 pr9ciple1 & ,h]aclitus />t+ f ! _m _h made /rife z 81 ,emp$ocles comb9es ! two z ! pr9ciple ( 8 philosophy4 ,! difficulty is1 he has n suffici5tly limit$ 9 respect to "o ano!r1 ! sph]e ( op]ation ( ^! two directions ( 8 p[]4 ,al?\gh1 to fri5d%ip belong$ peculi>ly ! attractive1 & to /rife ! repell+ function1 yet does ,emp$ocles1 on ! o!r h&1 suff] 8 /rife to h 9 ! =mation ( ! _w a unify+1 & 8 fri5d%ip a divid+ effect4 ,9 fact1 ! complete sep>ation ( a divid+ & unify+ p[] 9 ! movem5t ( ! becom+1 is an unma9ta9able ab/raction4 #d4 ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,emp$oclean ,,to ,,! ,,eleatic ,,& ,,h]aclitic ,,philosophy4--,emp$ocles1 by plac+1 z ! pr9ciple ( ! becom+1 a mov+ p[] by ! side ( 8 matt]1 makes 8 philosophy a m$iation ( ! ,eleatic & ,h]aclitic pr9ciples1 or m prop]ly a plac+ ( !m side by side4 ,he has int]wov5 ^! two pr9ciples 9 equal proportions 9 8 sy/em4 ,) ! ,eleatics he d5i$ all aris+ & dep>t+1 i4 e4 ! transition ( be+ into n-be+ & ( n-be+ into be+1 & ) ,h]aclitus he %>$ ! int]e/ to f9d an explanation = *ange4 ,f ! =m] he d]iv$ ! abid+1 un*angeable be+ ( 8 fundam5tal matt]1 & f ! latt] ! pr9ciple ( ! mov+ p[]4 ,) ! ,eleatics1 9 f9e1 he consid]$ ! true be+ 9 an orig9al & indi/+ui%able unity z a sph]e1 & ) ,h]aclitus1 he reg>d$ ! pres5t _w z a con/ant product ( /riv+ p[]s & oppositions4 ,he has1 !re=e1 be5 prop]ly call$ an ,eclectic1 :o has unit$ ! fundam5tal ?\ghts ( 8 two pr$ecessors1 ?\gh n always 9 a logical way4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,,! ,,atomi/ic ,,philosophy4 #a4 ,,its ,,prop\nd]s4--,emp$ocles _h s\ght to effect a comb9ation ( ! ,eleatic & ,h]aclitic pr9ciple--! same 0 attempt$1 ?\gh 9 a diff]5t way1 by ! ,atomi/s1 ,leucippus & ,democritus4 ,democritus1 ! bett] kn[n ( ! two1 0 ! son ( ri* p>5ts1 & 0 born ab\t #dfj ,b4 ,c4 9 ,abd]a1 an ,ionian colony4 ,he travell$ ext5sively1 & no ,greek be=e ! "t ( ,ari/otle possess$ su* v>i$ atta9m5ts4 ,he embodi$ ! weal? ( 8 collect$ k 9 a s]ies ( writ+s1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 only a few fragm5ts h come d[n to u4 ,= rhy?m & elegance ( language1 ,cic]o comp>$ him ) ,plato4 ,he di$ 9 a good old age4 #b4 ,,! ,,atoms4--,emp$ocles d]iv$ all det]m9at5ess ( ! ph5om5al f a c]ta9 numb] ( qualitatively det]m9$ & undi/+ui%able orig9al mat]ials1 :ile ! ,atomi/s d]iv$ ! same f an orig9ally unlimit$ numb] ( con/itu5t elem5ts1 or atoms1 :i* 7 homog5e\s 9 respect ( quality1 b div]se 9 respect ( =m4 ,^! atoms are un*angeable1 mat]ial p>ticles1 possess+ inde$ ext5sion1 b yet indivisible1 & c only be det]m9$ 9 respect ( magnitude4 ,z be+1 & )\t quality1 !y are entirely incapable ( any trans=mation or qualitative *ange1 &1 !re=e1 all becom+ is1 z ) ,emp$ocles1 only a *ange ( place4 ,! manifoldness ( ! ph5om5al _w is only to be expla9$ f ! diff]5t =m1 disposition1 & arrangem5t ( ! atoms z !y become1 9 v>i\s ways1 unit$4 #c4 ,,! ,,fulness ,,& ,,! ,,void4--,! atoms1 9 ord] to be atoms1 i4 e4 undivid$ & imp5etrable unities1--mu/ be mutually limit$ & sep>at$4 ,!re mu/ be some?+ set ov] aga9/ !m :i* pres]ves !m z atoms1 & :i* is ! orig9al cause ( _! sep>at5ess & imp5etrability4 ,?is is ! void space1 or m /rictly ! int]vals :i* are f\nd betwe5 ! atoms1 & :i* h9d] _! mutual contact4 ,! atoms1 z be+ & absolute fulness1 & ! int]val betwe5 !m1 z ! void & ! n-be+1 are two det]m9ations :i* only repres5t 9 a real & objective way1 :at are 9 ?\ght1 z logical conceptions1 ! two elem5ts 9 ! ,h]aclitic becom+1 viz4 be+ & ! n-be+4 ,b s9ce ! void space is "o det]m9ation ( be+1 x mu/ possess objective reality no less ?an ! atoms1 & ,democritus ev5 w5t s f> z to expressly affirm 9 opposition to ! ,eleatics1 t be+ is no m ?an no?+4 #d4 ,,! ,,atomi/ic ,,necessity4--,democritus1 l ,emp$ocles1 ?\gh f> m ext5sively ?an he1 attempt$ to answ] ! "q--:5ce arise ^! *anges & movem5ts :i* we behold8 ,:]e9 lies ! gr\nd t ! atoms %\ld ent] into ^! manifold comb9ations1 & br+ =? su* a weal? ( inorganic & organic =ms8 ,democritus attempt$ to solve ! problem by affirm+ t ! gr\nd ( movem5t lay 9 ! gravity or orig9al condition ( ! mat]ial p>ticles1 &1 !re=e1 9 ! matt] itself1 b 9 ?is way he only talk$ ab\t ! "q )\t answ]+ x4 ,! idea ( an inf9ite s]ies ( causalities 0 ?us atta9$1 b n a f9al gr\nd ( all ! manife/ations ( ! becom+1 & ( *ange4 ,su* a f9al gr\nd 0 /ill to be s\ght1 & z ,democritus expressly decl>$ t x c\ld n lie 9 an ultimate reason 1 :]e ,anaxagoras plac$ x1 !re only rema9$ = him to f9d x 9 an absolute necessity1 or a necess>y pre-det]m9at5ess 4 ,?is he adopt$ z 8 8f9al gr\nd10 & is said to h nam$ x *ance 1 9 opposition to ! inquiry aft] f9al causes1 or ! ,anaxagorean teleology4 ,consequ5t ^u ?is1 we f9d z ! prom95t *>act]i/ic ( ! lat] ,atomi/ic s*ool 7,diagoras ! ,meli]71 polemics aga9/ ! gods ( ! p1 & a con/antly m publicly affirm$ ,a!ism & ,mat]ialism4 #e4 ,,relative ,,position ,,( ,,! ,,atomi/ic ,,philosophy4--,hegel *>act]izes ! relative position ( ! ,atomi/ic ,philosophy z foll[s1 viz43--8,9 ! ,eleatic ,philosophy be+ & n-be+ /& z anti!ses1--be+ alone is1 & n-be+ is n2 9 ! ,h]aclitic idea1 be+ & n-be+ are ! same1--bo? toge!r1 i4 e4 ! becom+1 are ! pr$icate ( concrete be+2 b be+ & n-be+1 z objectively det]m9$1 or 9 o!r words1 z appe>+ to ! s5su\s intuition1 are precisely ! same z ! anti!sis ( ! fulness & ! void4 ,p>m5ides1 ,h]aclitus & ! ,atomi/s all s\ght = ! ab/ract univ]sal2 ,p>m5ides f\nd x 9 be+1 ,h]aclitus 9 ! process ( be+ p] se1 & ! ,atomi/s 9 ! det]m9ation ( be+ p] se40 ,s mu* ( ?is z ascribes to ! ,atomi/s ! *>act]i/ic pr$icate ( be+ p] se is d\btless correct1--b ! real ?\ght ( ! ,atomi/ic sy/em is r analog\s ) ! ,emp$oclean1 to expla9 ! possibility ( ! becom+1 by presuppos+ ^! sub/ances z possess+ be+ p] se1 b )\t quality4 ,to ?is end ! n-be+ or ! void1 i4 e4 ! side :i* is oppos$ to ! ,eleatic pr9ciple1 is elaborat$ ) no less c>e ?an ! side :i* h>monizes ) x1 i4 e4 t ! atoms are )\t quality & nev] *ange 9 _! orig9al elem5ts4 ,! ,atomi/ic ,philosophy is !re=e a m$iation betwe5 ! ,eleatic & ! ,h]aclitic pr9ciples4 ,x is ,eleatic 9 affirm+ ! undivid$ be+ p] se ( ! atoms2--,h]aclitic1 9 decl>+ _! multeity & manifoldness4 ,x is ,eleatic 9 ! decl>ation ( an absolute fulness 9 ! atoms1 & ,h]aclitic 9 ! claim ( a real n-be+1 i4 e4 ! void space4 ,x is ,eleatic 9 its d5ial ( ! becom+1 i4 e4 ( ! aris+ & dep>t+1--& ,h]aclitic 9 its affirmation t to ! atoms belong movem5t & a capacity = unlimit$ comb9ations4 ,! ,atomi/s c>ri$ out _! lead+ ?\ght m logically ?an ,emp$ocles1 & we might ev5 say t _! sy/em is ! p]fection ( a purely me*anical explanation ( nature1 s9ce all subsequ5t ,atomi/s1 ev5 to our own day1 h only repeat$ _! fundam5tal conceptions4 ,b ! great defect :i* cleaves to e ,atomi/ic sy/em1 ,ari/otle has ju/ly recogniz$1 :5 he %[s t x is a contradiction1 on ! "o h&1 to set up some?+ corporeal or space-fill+ z indivisible1 & on ! o!r1 to d]ive ! ext5d$ f t :i* has no ext5sion1 & t ! consci\sless & inconceivable necessity ( ,democritus is especially defective1 9 t x totally bani%es f nature all conception ( design4 ,?is is ! po9t to :i* ,anaxagoras turns 8 att5tion1 & introduces 8 pr9ciple ( an intellig5ce work+ ) design4 ,,section ,x4 ,,anaxagoras4 #a4 ,,8 ,,p]sonal ,,hi/ory4--,anaxagoras is said to h be5 born at ,clazam5a1 ab\t ! ye> #ejj ,b4 ,c42 to h gone to ,a!ns imm$iately1 or soon aft] ! ,p]sian w>1 to h liv$ & taught !re = a long "t1 &1 f9ally1 accus$ ( irrev]5ce to ! gods1 to h fl$1 & di$ at ,lampsacus1 at ! age ( #gb4 ,he x 0 :o fir/ plant$ philosophy at ,a!ns1 :i* f ?is "t on became ! c5tre ( intellectual life 9 ,greece4 ,?r\gh 8 p]sonal relations to ,p]icles1 ,euripides1 & o!r important m51--among :om ,!mi/ocles & ,?ucydides %\ld be nam$--he ex]t$ a decisive influ5ce ^u ! culture ( ! age4 ,x 0 on acc\nt ( ?is t ! *>ge ( defam+ ! gods 0 br\ght aga9/ him1 d\btless by ! political oppon5ts ( ,p]icles4 ,anaxagoras wrote a "w 8,conc]n+ ,nature0 :i* 9 ! "t ( ,socrates 0 widely circulat$4 #b4 ,,8 ,,relation ,,to ,,8 ,,pr$ecessors4--,! sy/em ( ,anaxagoras />ts f ! same po9t ) 8 pr$ecessors1 & is simply ano!r attempt at ! solution ( ! same problem4 ,l ,emp$ocles & ! ,atomi/s s did ,anaxagoras mo/ vehem5tly d5y ! becom+4 8,! becom+ & dep>t+10--s runs "o ( 8 say+s--8! ,greeks hold )\t f\ndation1 = no?+ c ev] be said to become or dep>t2 b1 s9ce exi/+ ?+s may be comp\nd$ toge!r & aga9 divid$1 we %\ld "n ! becom+ m correctly a comb9ation1 & ! dep>t+ a sep>ation40 ,f ?is view1 t e ?+ arose by ! m+l+ ( diff]5t elem5ts1 & dep>t$ by ! )draw+ ( ^! elem5ts1 ,anaxagoras1 l 8 pr$ecessors1 0 oblig$ to sep>ate matt] f ! mov+ p[]4 ,b ?\gh 8 po9t ( />t+ 0 ! same1 yet 0 8 direction ess5tially diff]5t f t ( any previ\s philosoph]4 ,x 0 cle> t nei!r ,emp$ocles nor ,democritus _h satisfactorily appreh5d$ ! mov+ p[]4 ,! my?ical en]gies ( love & hate ( ! "o1 or ! unconsci\s necessity ( ! o!r1 expla9$ no?+1 & lea/ ( all1 ! design ( ! becom+ 9 nature4 ,! conception ( an activity :i* c\ld ?us "w design$ly1 mu/1 !re=e1 be br\ght into ! conception ( ! mov+ p[]1 & ?is ,anaxagoras accompli%$ by sett+ up ! idea ( a _w-=m+ intellig5ce 771 absolutely sep>at$ f all matt] & work+ ) design4 #c4 ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,! 4--,anaxagoras describ$ ?is intellig5ce z free to dispose1 unm+l$ ) any ?+1 ! gr\nd ( movem5t1 b itself unmov$1 e :]e active1 & ! mo/ ref9$ & pure ( all ?+s4 ,al?\gh ^! pr$icates re/ p>tly ^u a physical analogy1 & d n exhibit purely ! conception ( immat]iality1 yet on ! o!r h& does ! attribute ( ?\ght & ( a consci\s act+ ) design admit no d\bt to rema9 ( ! decid$ ideali/ic "* ( ! ,anaxagorean pr9ciple4 ,nev]!less1 ,anaxagoras w5t no f>!r ?an to enunciate 8 fundam5tal ?\ght )\t attempt+ its complete application4 ,! explanation ( ?is is obvi\s f ! reasons :i* fir/ l$ him to adopt 8 pr9ciple4 ,x 0 only ! ne$ ( an orig9al cause ( motion1 to :i* also might be attribut$ ! capacity to "w design$ly1 :i* _h l$ him to ! idea ( an immat]ial pr9ciple4 ,8 1 !re=e1 is almo/ no?+ b a mov] ( matt]1 & 9 ?is function ne>ly all its activity is exp5d$4 ,h5ce ! univ]sal compla9t ( ! anci5ts1 especially ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 respect+ ! me*anical "* ( 8 doctr9e4 ,9 ,plato's ,phdon ,socrates relates t1 9 ! hope ( be+ direct$ beyond a simple occasion+1 or m$iate cause1 he _h turn$ to ! book ( ,anaxagoras1 b _h f\nd !re only a me*anical in/ead ( a truly teleological explanation ( be+4 ,& z ,plato s also does ,ari/otle f9d fault ) ,anaxagoras 9 t1 :ile he admits m9d z ! ultimate gr\nd ( ?+s1 he yet resorts to x only z to a ,deus ex ma*9a = ! explanation ( ph5om5a1 ^: necessity he c\ld n d]ive f ! causality 9 nature4 ,anaxagoras1 !re=e1 has r po/ulat$ ?an prov$ m9d z an en]gy above nature1 & z ! tru? & actuality ( natural be+4 ,! fur!r ext5sion ( 8 sy/em1 8 doctr9e conc]n+ ! homoiom]ia 7con/itu5t elem5ts ( ?+s71 :i* accord+ to him exi/$ toge!r orig9ally 9 a *aotic condition until ) _! sep>ation & p>t+ ! =mation ( ! _w began--c "h only be m5tion$4 #d4 ,,anaxagoras ,,z ,,! ,,close ,,( ,,! ,,pre-,,socratic ,,realism4--,) ! ,anaxagorean pr9ciple ( ! 1 i4 e4 ) ! acquisition ( an absolutely immat]ial pr9ciple1 closes ! reali/ic p]iod ( ! old ,grecian ,philosophy4 ,anaxagoras comb9$ toge!r ! pr9ciples ( all 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! inf9ite matt] ( ! ,hylics is repres5t$ 9 8 *aotic orig9al m+l+ ( ?+s2 ! ,eleatic pure be+ appe>s 9 ! idea ( ! 2 ! ,h]aclitic p[] ( becom+ & ! ,emp$oclean mov+ en]gies are bo? se5 9 ! creat+ & arrang+ p[] ( ! et]nal m9d1 :ile ! ,democritic atoms come to view 9 ! homoiom]ia4 ,anaxagoras is ! clos+ po9t ( an old & ! beg9n+ po9t ( a new c\rse ( developm5t1--! latt] ?r\gh ! sett+ up ( 8 ideal pr9ciple1 & ! =m] ?r\gh ! defective & completely physical mann] 9 :i* ?is pr9ciple 0 yet aga9 appli$4 ,,section ,,xi4 ,,! ,,sophi/ic ,,philosophy4 #a4 ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/ic ,,philosophy ,,to ,,! ,,anaxagorean ,,pr9ciple4--,anaxagoras _h =m$ ! conception ( m9d1 & 9 ?is _h recogniz$ ?\ght z a p[] above ! objective _w4 ,^u ?is newly conqu]$ field ! ,sophi/ic philosophy n[ began its gambols1 & ) *ildi% wantonness delight$ itself 9 sett+ at "w ?is p[]1 & 9 de/roy+1 by means ( a subjective dialectic1 all objective det]m9ations4 ,! ,sophi/ic philosophy--?\gh ( f> m significance f its relation to ! culture ( ! age ?an f its philosophy--_h = its />t+ pr9ciple ! brea* :i* ,anaxagoras _h comm5c$ betwe5 ! subjective & ! objective1--! ,ego & ! ext]nal _w4 ,! subject1 aft] recogniz+ himself z some?+ high] ?an ! objective _w1 & especially z some?+ above ! laws ( ! /ate1 above cu/om & religi\s tradition & ! popul> fai?1 9 ! next place attempt$ to prescribe laws = ?is objective _w1 & in/ead ( behold+ 9 x ! hi/orical manife/ation ( reason1 he look$ ^u x only z an exanimat$ matt]1 ^u :i* he might ex]cise 8 w4 ,! ,sophi/ic philosophy %\ld be *>act]iz$ z ! cle>+ up reflection4 ,x is1 !re=e1 no philosophical sy/em1 = its doctr9es & affirmations exhibit (t5 s popul> & ev5 trivial a "* t = _! own sake !y w\ld m]it no place at all 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,x is also no philosophical s*ool 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m1--= ,plato cites a va/ numb] ( p]sons "u ! common "n ( 8,sophi/s10--b x is an intellectual & widely spread direction ( ! age1 :i* _h /ruck its roots into ! :ole moral1 political1 & religi\s "* ( ! ,a!nian life ( t "t1 & :i* may be call$ ! ,a!nian cle>+ up p]iod4 #b4 ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/ic ,,philosophy ,,to ,,! ,,univ]sal ,,life ,,( ,,t ,,age4--,! ,sophi/ic philosophy is1 !oretically1 :at ! :ole ,a!nian life dur+ ! ,peloponnesian w> 0 practically4 ,plato ju/ly rem>ks 9 8 ,republic t ! doctr9es ( ! ,sophi/s only express$ ! v pr9ciples :i* guid$ ! c\rse ( ! great mass ( m5 ( t "t 9 _! civil & social relations1 & ! hatr$ ) :i* !y 7 pursu$ by ! practical /atesm51 cle>ly indicates ! jeal\sy ) :i* ! latt] saw 9 !m _! rivals & ! de/roy]s ( _! polity4 ,if ! absolut5ess ( ! empirical subject--i4 e4 ! view t ! individual ,ego c arbitr>ily det]m9e :at is true1 "r & good1--is 9 fact ! !oretical pr9ciple ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy1 s does ?is 9 a practical direction1 z an unlimit$ ,egoism meet u 9 all ! sph]es ( ! public & private life ( t age4 ,! public life _h become an ar5a ( passion & selfi%ness2 ^? p>ty /ruggles :i* rack$ ,a!ns dur+ ! ,peloponnesian w> _h blunt$ & /ifl$ ! moral feel+2 e individual accu/om$ himself to set up 8 own private int]e/ above t ( ! /ate & ! common weal1 & to seek 9 8 own arbitr>9ess & advantage ! measur+ rod = all 8 actions4 ,! ,protagorean s5t5ce t 8! man is ! measure ( all ?+s0 became practically c>ri$ out only too fai?fully1 & ! influ5ce ( ! orator 9 ! assemblies ( ! p & ! c\rts1 ! corruptibility ( ! great masses & _! lead]s1 & ! weak po9ts :i* %[$ to ! adroit /ud5t ( human nature ! covet\sness1 vanity1 & facti\sness ( o!rs ar\nd him1 (f]$ only too _m opportunities to br+ ?is rule into practice4 ,cu/om _h lo/ its weight2 ! laws 7 reg>d$ z only an agreem5t ( ! majority1 ! civil ord9ance z an arbitr>y re/riction1 ! moral feel+ z ! effect ( ! policy ( ! /ate 9 education1 ! fai? 9 ! gods z a human inv5tion to intimidate ! free p[] ( action1 :ile piety 0 look$ ^u z a /atute :i* "s m5 h enact$ & :i* e "o else is ju/ifi$ 9 us+ all 8 eloqu5ce to *ange4 ,?is degradation ( a necessity1 :i* is con=mable to nature & reason1 & :i* is ( univ]sal validity1--to an accid5tal human ord9ance1 is *iefly ! po9t 9 :i* ! ,sophi/ic philosophy came 9 contact ) ! univ]sal consci\sness ( ! educat$ class ( t p]iod1 & we _c ) c]ta9ty det]m9e :at %>e sci5ce & :at %>e ! life may h _h 9 ?is connection1--:e!r ! ,sophi/ic philosophy f\nd only ! !oretical =mula = ! practical life & t5d5cies ( ! age1 or :e!r ! moral corruption 0 r a consequ5ce ( t de/ructive influ5ce :i* ! pr9ciples ( ! ,sophi/s ex]t$ ^u ! :ole c\rse ( contemporane\s ?\ght4 ,x w\ld be1 h[ev]1 to mi/ake ! _s ( hi/ory if we 7 only to bewail ! epo* ( ! ,sophi/s in/ead ( admitt+ = x a relative ju/ification4 ,^! ph5om5a 7 9 "p ! necess>y product ( ! collective developm5t ( ! age4 ,! fai? 9 ! popul> religion fell s sudd5ly to ! gr\nd simply because x possess$ 9 itself no inn]1 moral support4 ,! grosse/ vices & acts ( bas5ess c\ld all be ju/ifi$ & excus$ f ! examples ( my?ology4 ,ev5 ,plato himself1 ?\gh o!rwise an advocate ( a dev\t fai? 9 ! traditional religion1 accuses ! poets ( 8 nation ) lead+ ! v moral feel+ a/ray1 ?r\gh ! unwor?y repres5tations :i* !y _h spread abroad conc]n+ ! gods & ! h]o _w4 ,x 0 moreov] unavoidable t ! advanc+ sci5ce %\ld cla% ) tradition4 ,! physical philosoph]s _h already long liv$ 9 op5 ho/ility to ! popul> religion1 & ! m conv9c+ly !y demon/rat$ by analogies & laws t _m ?+s :i* _h hi!rto be5 reg>d$ z ! imm$iate effect ( ,div9e omnipot5ce1 7 only ! results ( natural causes1 s mu* ! m easily w\ld x happ5 t ! educat$ classes w\ld become p]plex$ 9 ref]5ce to all _! previ\s convictions4 ,x 0 no wond] !n t ! trans=m$ consci\sness ( ! "t %\ld p5etrate all ! prov9ces ( art & poesy2 t 9 sculpture1 :olly analog\s to ! rhetoric art ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy1 ! emotive %\ld occupy ! place ( ! elevat$ /yle2 t ,euripides1 ! sophi/ among trag$ians1 %\ld br+ ! :ole philosophy ( ! "t & its mann] ( moral reflection ^u ! /age2 & t1 in/ead ( l ! e>li] poets1 br++ =w>d 8 actors to repres5t an idea1 he %\ld use !m only z means to excite a mom5t>y emotion or "s o!r /age effect4 #c4 ,,t5d5cies ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/ic ,,philosophy4--,to give a def9ite classification ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy1 :i* %\ld be d]iv$ f ! conception ( ! g5]al ph5om5a ( ! age1 is exce$+ly difficult1 s9ce1 l ! ,fr5* 8cle>+ up0 ( ! la/ c5tury1 x ent]$ into e dep>tm5t ( k4 ,! ,sophi/s direct$ ! univ]sal culture ( ! "t4 ,protagoras 0 kn[n z a tea*] ( virtue1 ,gorgias z a rhetorician & politician1 ,prodicus z a gramm>ian & tea*] ( synonyms1 ,hippias z a man ( v>i\s atta9m5ts1 :o besides a/ronomical & ma!matical /udies busi$ himself ) a !ory ( mnemonics2 o!rs took = _! problem ! art ( education1 & o!rs /ill ! explanation ( ! old poets2 ! bro!rs ,eu?ydemus & ,dionysidorus gave in/ruction 9 ! be>+ ( arms & milit>y tactics2 _m among !m1 z ,gorgias1 ,prodicus1 & ,hippias1 7 intru/$ ) embassies3 9 %ort ! ,sophi/s1 ea* "o accord+ to 8 individual t5d5cy1 took ^u !mselves e v>iety ( call+ & ent]$ into e sph]e ( sci5ce2 _! me?od is ! only ?+ common to all4 ,moreov] ! relation ( ! ,sophi/s to ! educat$ public1 _! /riv+ aft] popul>ity1 fame & money1 disclose ! fact t _! /udies & occupations 7 = ! mo/ "p controll$1 n by a subjective sci5tific int]e/1 b by "s ext]nal motive4 ,) t rov+ _s :i* 0 an ess5tial peculi>ity ( ! lat] ,sophi/s1 travell+ f city to city1 & ann\nc+ !mselves z ?9k]s by pr(ession--& giv+ _! in/ructions ) prom95t ref]5ce to a good recomp5se & ! favor ( ! ri* private classes1 x 0 v natural t !y %\ld disc\rse ^u ! prom95t que/ions ( univ]sal int]e/ & ( public culture1 ) occasional ref]5ce also to ! favorite occupation ( ?is or t ri* man ) :om !y might be br\ght 9 contact4 ,h5ce _! peculi> /r5g? lay f> m 9 a =mal dext]ity1 9 an acut5ess ( ?\ght & a capacity ( br++ x readily into ex]cise1 9 ! art ( disc\rse ?an 9 any positive k2 _! in/ruction 9 virtue 0 giv5 ei!r 9 positive dogmatism or 9 empty bomba/1 & ev5 :]e ! ,sophi/ic philosophy became really polyma?ic1 ! art ( spee* /ill rema9$ z ! great ?+4 ,s we f9d 9 ,x5ophon1 ,hippias boa/+ t he c speak repeat$ly ^u e subject & say some?+ new ea* "t1 :ile we he> x expressly affirm$ ( o!rs1 t !y _h no ne$ ( positive k 9 ord] to disc\rse satisfactorily ^u e ?+1 & to answ] e "q extemporane\sly2 & :5 _m ,sophi/s make x a great po9t to hold a well-arrang$ disc\rse ab\t some?+ ( ! lea/ possible significance 7e4 g4 salt71 s d we see t ) !m ! ?+ 0 only a means :ile ! ^w 0 ! end1 & we ought n to be surpris$ t 9 ?is respect ! ,sophi/ic philosophy sunk to t empty te*nicality :i* ,plato 9 8 ,phdrus1 on acc\nt ( its want ( "*1 subjects to s rigid a criticism4 #d4 ,,! ,,significance ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/ic ,,philosophy ,,f ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,culture ,,( ,,! ,,age4--,! sci5tific & moral defect ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy is at fir/ view obvi\s2 &1 s9ce c]ta9 mod]n writ]s ( hi/ory ) ov]-(fici\s zeal h pa9t$ its d>k sides 9 black1 & rais$ an e>ne/ accusation aga9/ its frivolity1 immorality1 & gre$9ess = pleasure1 its conceit$ness & selfi%ness1 & b>e appe>ance ( wisdom & art ( dispute--x ne$s "h no f>!r elucidation4 ,b ! po9t 9 x mo/ apt to be ov]look$ is ! m]it ( ! ,sophi/s 9 _! effect ^u ! culture ( ! age4 ,to say1 z is done1 t !y _h only ! negative m]it ( call+ out ! opposition ( ,socrates & ,plato1 is to leave ! imm5se influ5ce & ! high fame ( s _m among !m1 z well z ! revolution :i* !y br\ght ab\t 9 ! ?9k+ ( a :ole nation1 an inexplicable ph5om5on4 ,x 7 inexplicable t e4 g4 ,socrates %\ld att5d ! lectures ( ,prodicus1 & direct to him o!r /ud5ts1 if he did n ackn[l$ge ! wor? ( 8 grammatical p]=mances or recognize 8 m]it = ! s\ndness ( 8 logic4 ,moreov]1 x _c be d5i$ t ,protagoras has hit ^u _m correct pr9ciples ( rhetoric1 & has satisfactorily e/abli%$ c]ta9 grammatical categories4 ,g5]ally may x be said ( ! ,sophi/s1 t !y ?rew among ! p a fulness 9 e dep>tm5t ( k2 t !y /rew$ ab\t !m a va/ numb] ( fruitful g]ms ( developm5t2 t !y call$ out inve/igations 9 ! !ory ( k1 9 logic & 9 language2 t !y laid ! basis = ! me?odical treatm5t ( _m bran*es ( human k1 & t !y p>tly f\nd$ & p>tly call$ =? t wond]ful intellectual activity :i* *>act]iz$ ,a!ns at t "t4 ,_! greate/ m]it is _! s]vice 9 ! dep>tm5t ( language4 ,!y may ev5 be said to h creat$ & =m$ ! ,attic prose4 ,!y are ! fir/ :o made /yle z su* a sep>ate object ( att5tion & /udy1 & :o set ab\t rigid inve/igations respect+ numb] & ! art ( rhetorical repres5tation4 ,) !m ,a!nian eloqu5ce1 :i* !y fir/ incit$1 beg9s4 ,antiphon z well z ,isocrates--! latt] ! f\nd] ( ! mo/ fl\ri%+ s*ool ( ,greek rhetoric--are (f%oots ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy4 ,9 all ?is !re is gr\nd en\gh to reg>d ?is :ole ph5om5on z n b>ely a symptom ( decay4 #e4 ,,individual ,,sophi/s4--,! fir/1 :o is said to h be5 call$1 9 ! receiv$ s5se1 ,sophi/1 is ,protagoras ( ,abd]a1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t #ddj ,b4 ,c4 ,he taught1 & = wages1 9 ,sicily & 9 ,a!ns1 b 0 driv5 out ( ! latt] place z a revil] ( ! gods1 & 8 book conc]n+ ! gods 0 burnt by ! h]ald 9 ! public m>ket-place4 ,x began ) ^! words3 8,i c "k no?+ conc]n+ ! gods1 :e!r !y exi/ or n2 = we are prev5t$ f ga9+ su* k n only by ! obscurity ( ! ?+ itself1 b by ! %ortness ( ! human life10 ,9 ano!r writ+ he develops 8 doctr9e conc]n+ kn[+ or n-kn[+4 ,/>t+ f ! ,h]aclitic position t e ?+ is 9 a con/ant fl[1 & apply+ ?is prem95tly to ! ?9k+ subject1 he taught t ! man is ! measure ( all ?+s1 :o det]m9es 9 respect ( be+ t x may be1 & ( n-be+ t x may n be1 i4 e4 t is true = ! p]ceiv+ subject :i* he1 9 ! con/ant movem5t ( ?+s & ( himself1 at e mom5t p]ceives & is s5sible (--& h5ce he has !oretically no o!r relation to ! ext]nal _w ?an ! s5su\s appreh5sion1 & practically no o!r ?an ! s5su\s desire4 ,b n[1 s9ce p]ception & s5sation are z div]se z ! subjects !mselves1 & are 9 ! highe/ degree v>iable 9 ! v same subject1 !re foll[s ! f>!r result t no?+ has an objective validity & det]m9ation1 t contradictory affirmations 9 ref]5ce to ! same object mu/ be receiv$ z alike true1 & t error & contradiction _c be4 ,protagoras does n seem to h made any ef=ts to give ^! frivol\s propositions a practical & logical application4 ,accord+ to ! te/imony ( ! anci5ts1 a p]sonal "* wor?y ( e/eem1 _c be d5i$ him2 & ev5 ,plato1 9 ! dialogue :i* be>s 8 "n1 goes no f>!r ?an to object to 8 complete obscurity respect+ ! nature ( morality1 :ile1 9 8 ,gorgias & ,philebus1 he *>ges ! lat] ,sophi/s ) affirm+ ! pr9ciples ( immorality & moral bas5ess4 ,next to ,protagoras1 ! mo/ fam\s ,sophi/ 0 ,gorgias4 ,dur+ ! ,peloponnesian w> 7#dbf ,b4 ,c471 he came f ,leontium to ,a!ns 9 ord] to ga9 assi/ance = 8 native city aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( ,syracuse1 ,aft] ! successful accompli%m5t ( 8 err& he /ill abode = "s "t 9 ,a!ns1 b resid$ ! latt] "p ( 8 life 9 ,!ssaly1 :]e he di$ ab\t ! same "t ) ,socrates4 ,! pomp\s o/5tation ( 8 ext]nal appe>ance is (t5 ridicul$ by ,plato1 & ! disc\rses ?r\gh :i* he 0 wont to exhibit himself display ! same "*1 attempt+1 ?r\gh poetical ornam5t1 & florid metaphors1 & uncommon words1 & a mass ( hi!rto unhe>d ( figures ( spee*1 to dazzle & delude ! m9d4 ,z a philosoph] he adh]$ to ! ,eleatics1 especially to ,z5o1 & attempts to prove ^u ! basis ( _! dialectic s*ematism1 t univ]sally no?+ is1 or if !re c\ld be a be+1 x w\ld n be cognizable1 or if cognizable x w\ld n be communicable4 ,h5ce 8 writ+ bore *>act]i/ically en\gh ! title--8,conc]n+ ,n-be+ or ,nature40 ,! pro( ( ! fir/ proposition t univ]sally no?+ is1 s9ce x c be e/abli%$ nei!r z be+ nor z n-be+1 nor yet z at ! same "t bo? be+ & n-be+1 re/s entirely ^u ! position t all exi/5ce is a space-fill+ exi/5ce 7has place & body71 & is 9 fact ! f9al consequ5ce :i* ov]turns itself1 9 o!r words ! self-de/ruction ( ! hi!rto physical me?od ( philosophiz+4 ,! lat] ,sophi/s ) reckless d>+ c>ri$ _! conclusions f> beyond ,gorgias & ,protagoras4 ,!y 7 = ! mo/ "p free ?9k]s1 :o pull$ to ! gr\nd ! religion1 laws1 & cu/oms ( _! bir?4 ,among ^! %\ld be nam$1 prom95tly1 ! tyrant ,critias1 ,polus1 ,callicles1 & ,?rasyma*us4 ,! two latt] op5ly taught ! "r ( ! /rong] z ! law ( nature1 ! unbridl$ satisfaction ( desire z ! natural "r ( ! /rong]1 & ! sett+ up ( re/ra9+ laws z a crafty inv5tion ( ! weak]2 & ,critias1 ! mo/ tal5t$ b ! mo/ ab&on$ ( ! ?irty tyrants1 wrote a poem1 9 :i* he repres5t$ ! fai? 9 ! gods z an inv5tion ( crafty /atesm54 ,hippias ( ,elis1 a man ( great k1 bore an honorable "*1 al?\gh he did n fall beh9d ! re/ 9 bomba/ & boa/+2 b be=e all1 0 ,prodicus1 9 ref]5ce to :om x became a prov]b to say--8z wise z ,prodicus10 & conc]n+ :om ,plato himself & ev5 ,ari/ophanes nev] spoke )\t v5]ation4 ,especially fam\s among ! anci5ts 7 8 p>5etical 7p]suasive7 lectures conc]n+ ! *oice ( a mode ( life 7,x5ophon's ,memorabilia1 ,,ii4 #a71 conc]n+ ext]nal good & its use1 conc]n+ life & dea?1 c41 disc\rses 9 :i* he manife/s a ref9$ moral feel+1 & 8 obs]vation ( life2 al?\gh1 ?r\gh ! want ( a high] e?ical & sci5tific pr9ciple1 he mu/ be plac$ beh9d ,socrates1 ^: =]unn] he has be5 call$4 ,! lat] g5]ations ( ,sophi/s1 z !y are %[n 9 ! ,eu?ydemus ( ,plato1 s9k to a common level ( buffoon]y & disgraceful /rife = ga91 & comprise _! :ole dialectic art 9 c]ta9 =mul = entangl+ fallacies4 #f4 ,,transition ,,to ,,socrates ,,& ,,*>act]i/ic ,,( ,,! ,,foll[+ ,,p]iod4--,t :i* is true 9 ! ,sophi/ic philosophy is ! tru? ( ! subjectivity1 ( ! self-consci\sness1 i4 e4 ! dem& t e ?+ :i* ,i am to admit mu/ be %[n z rational be=e my own consci\sness--t :i* is false 9 x is its appreh5sion ( ?is subjectivity z no?+ f>!r ?an f9ite1 empirical egoi/ic subjectivity1 i4 e4 ! dem& t my accid5tal w & op9ion %\ld det]m9e :at is rational2 its tru? is t x set up ! pr9ciple ( fre$om1 ( self-c]ta9ty2 its untru? is t x e/abli%$ ! accid5tal w & notion ( ! individual ^u ! ?rone4 ,to c>ry out n[ ! pr9ciple ( fre$om & self-consci\sness to its tru?1 to ga9 a true _w ( objective ?\ght ) a real & di/9ct cont5t1 by ! same means ( reflection :i* ! ,sophi/s _h only us$ to de/roy x1 to e/abli% ! objective w1 ! rational ?9k+1 ! absolute or ideal 9 ! place ( ! empirical subjectivity 0 ! problem ( ! next adv5t 9 philosophy1 ! problem :i* ,socrates took up & solv$4 ,to make ! absolute or ideal subjectivity in/ead ( ! empirical = a pr9ciple1 is to affirm t ! true measure ( all ?+s is n my 7i4 e4 ! individual p]son's7 op9ion1 fancy & w2 t :at is true1 "r & good1 does n dep5d ^u my caprice & arbitr>y det]m9ation1 or ^u t ( any o!r empirical subject2 b :ile x is my ?9k+1 x is my ?9k+1 ! rational )9 me1 :i* has to decide ^u all ^? po9ts4 ,b my ?9k+1 my reason1 is n some?+ specially belong+ to me1 b some?+ common to e rational be+2 some?+ univ]sal1 & 9 s f> z ,i am a rational & ?9k+ be+1 is my subjectivity a univ]sal "o4 ,b e ?9k+ individual has ! consci\sness t :at he holds z "r1 z duty1 z good or evil1 does n appe> z su* to him alone b to e rational be+1 & t consequ5tly 8 ?9k+ has ! "* ( univ]sality1 ( univ]sal validity1 9 a ^w--( objectivity4 ,?is !n 9 opposition to ! ,sophi/ic philosophy is ! /&po9t ( ,socrates1 & !re=e ) him ! philosophy ( objective ?\ght beg9s4 ,:at ,socrates c\ld d 9 opposition to ! ,sophi/s 0 to %[ t reflection l$ to ! same results z fai? or ob$i5ce1 hi!rto )\t reflection1 _h done1 & t ! ?9k+ man guid$ by 8 free consci\sness & 8 own conviction1 w\ld le>n to =m ! same judgm5ts & take ! same c\rse to :i* life & cu/om _h already & unconsci\sly induc$ ! ord9>y man4 ,! position1 t :ile ! man is ! measure ( all ?+s1 x is ! man z univ]sal1 z ?9k+1 z rational1 is ! fundam5tal ?\ght ( ! ,socratic philosophy1 :i* is1 by virtue ( ?is ?\ght1 ! positive complem5t ( ! ,sophi/ic pr9ciple4 ,) ,socrates beg9s ! second p]iod ( ! ,grecian philosophy4 ,?is p]iod conta9s ?ree philosophical sy/ems1 ^: au?ors1 /&+ to ea* o!r 9 ! p]sonal relation ( tea*] & pupil1 repres5t ?ree successive g5]ations1--,,socrates1 ,,plato1 ,,ari/otle4 ,,section ,,xii4 ,,socrates4#b #a4 ,,8 ,,p]sonal ,,"*4--,! new philosophical pr9ciple appe>s 9 ! p]sonal "* ( ,socrates4 ,8 philosophy is 8 mode ( act+ z an individual2 8 life & doctr9e _c be sep>at$4 ,8 biography1 !re=e1 =ms ! only complete repres5tation ( 8 philosophy1 & :at ! n>rative ( ,x5ophon pres5ts u z ! def9ite doctr9e ( ,socrates1 is consequ5tly no?+ b an ab/ract ( 8 inw>d "*1 z x f\nd expression f "t to "t 9 8 conv]sation4 ,plato yet m reg>d$ 8 ma/] z su* an ar*etypal p]sonality1 & a lum9\s exhibition ( ! hi/orical ,socrates is ! special object ( 8 lat] & matur] dialogues1 & ( ^! aga91 ! ,symposium is ! mo/ brilliant apo!osis ( ! ,eros inc>nat$ 9 ! p]son ( ,socrates1 ( ! philosophical impulse trans=m$ into "*4 ,socrates 0 born 9 ! ye> #dfi ,b4 ,c1 ! son ( ,sophroniscus1 a sculptor1 & ,phn>ete1 a midwife4 ,9 8 y\? he 0 tra9$ by 8 fa!r to foll[ 8 own pr(ession1 & 9 ?is he is said n to h be5 )\t skill4 ,?ree drap$ figures ( ! ,graces1 call$ ! "w ( ,socrates1 7 se5 by ,pausanias1 ^u ! ,akropolis4 ,little f>!r is kn[n ( 8 education4 ,he may h pr(it$ by ! in/ruction ( ,prodicus & ! musician1 ,damon1 b he /ood 9 no p]sonal connection ) ! prop] philosoph]s1 :o fl\ri%$ be=e1 or cotemporane\sly ) him4 ,he became :at he 0 by himself alone1 & j = ?is reason does he =m an era 9 ! old philosophy4 ,if ! anci5ts call him a s*ol> ( ,anaxagoras1 or ( ! natural philosoph]1 ,ar*elaus1 ! fir/ is demon/rably false1 & ! second1 to say ! lea/1 is altoge!r improbable4 ,he nev] s\ght o!r means ( culture ?an ^? af=d$ 9 8 native city4 ,) ! exception ( "o j\rney to a public fe/ival1 ! milit>y campaigns :i* l$ him z f> z ,potida1 ,delion1 & ,amphipolis1 he nev] left ,a!ns4 ,! p]iod :5 ,socrates fir/ began to devote himself to ! education ( y\?1 c be det]m9$ only approximately f ! "t ( ! fir/ repres5tation ( ! ,cl\ds ( ,ari/ophanes1 :i* 0 9 ! ye> #dbc4 ,! date ( ! ,delphic oracle1 :i* pron\nc$ him ! wise/ ( m51 is n kn[n4 ,b 9 ! traditions ( 8 foll[]s1 he is almo/ uni=mly repres5t$ z an old1 or z a gray-head$ man4 ,8 mode ( in/ruction1 :olly diff]5t f ! p$antry & boa/ful o/5tation ( ! ,sophi/s1 0 altoge!r uncon/ra9$1 conv]sational1 popul>1 />t+ f objects ly+ ne>e/ at h& & ! mo/ insignificant1 & d]iv+ ! necess>y illu/rations & pro(s f ! mo/ common matt]s ( e day life2 9 fact1 he 0 reproa*$ by 8 cotempor>ies = speak+ ev] only ( drudges1 smi?s1 cobbl]s & tann]s4 ,s we f9d him at ! m>ket1 9 ! gymnasia1 9 ! work%ops1 busy e>ly & late1 talk+ ) y\?1 ) "y m51 & ) old m51 on ! prop] aim & bus9ess ( life1 conv9c+ !m ( _! ignorance1 & wak5+ up 9 !m ! slumb]+ desires aft] k4 ,9 e human ef=t1 :e!r direct$ to ! int]e/s ( ! commonweal?1 or to ! private individual & ! ga9s ( trade1 to sci5ce or to art1 ?is ma/] ( helps to spiritual bir?s c\ld f9d fit po9ts ( contact = ! awak5+ ( a true self-k1 & a moral & religions consci\sness4 ,h[ev] (t5 8 attempts fail$1 or 7 reject$ ) bitt] scorn1 or requit$ ) hatr$ & un?ankfulness1 yet1 l$ on by ! cle> conviction t a real improvem5t 9 ! condition ( ! /ate c\ld come only f a prop] education ( its y\?1 he rema9$ to ! la/ true to 8 *os5 vocation4 ,purely ,greek 9 ^! relations to ! ris+ g5]ation1 he designat$ himself1 by pref]5ce1 z ! mo/ ard5t lov]2 ,greek too 9 ?is1 t ) him1 not)/&+ ^! free relations ( fri5d%ip1 8 own dome/ic life fell q into ! backgr\nd4 ,he n[h]e %[s mu* reg>d = 8 wife & *ildr52 ! notori\s1 ?\gh altoge!r too mu* exagg]at$ ill-nature ( ,xantippe1 leads u to suspect1 h[ev]1 t 8 dome/ic relations 7 n ! mo/ happy4 ,z a man1 z a practical sage1 ,socrates is pictur$ 9 ! brighte/ colors by all n>rators4 8,he 010 says ,x5ophon1 8s pi\s1 t he did no?+ )\t ! advice ( ! gods2 s j1 t he nev] injur$ any "o ev5 9 ! lea/2 s completely ma/] ( himself1 t he nev] *ose ! agreeable in/ead ( ! good2 s disc]n+1 t he nev] fail$ 9 di/+ui%+ ! bett] f ! worse20 9 %ort1 he 0 8j ! be/ & happie/ man possible40 7,x54 ,mem4 ,i4 #a1 #aa4 ,,iv4 #h1 #aa47 ,/ill t :i* l5ds to 8 p]son su* a peculi> *>m1 is ! happy bl5d+ & h>moni\s connection ( all its *>act]i/ic traits1 ! p]fection ( a beautiful1 pla/ic nature4 ,9 all ?is univ]sality ( 8 g5ius1 9 ?is =ce ( "*1 by :i* he comb9$ ! mo/ contradictory & incongru\s elem5ts into a h>moni\s :ole1 9 ?is l(ty elevation above e human weakness1--9 a ^w1 z a p]fect model1 he is mo/ /rik+ly depict$ 9 ! brilliant eulogy ( ,alcibiades1 9 ! ,symposium ( ,plato4 ,9 ! scanti] repres5tation ( ,x5ophon1 also1 we f9d ev]y:]e a classic =m1 a man possess$ ( ! f9e/ social culture1 full ( ,a!nian polit5ess1 inf9itely remov$ f e ?+ l gloomy asceticism1 a man z valiant ^u ! field ( battle z 9 ! fe/ive hall1 conduct+ himself ) ! mo/ uncon/ra9$ fre$om1 & yet ) entire sobriety & self-control1 a p]fect picture ( ! happie/ ,a!nian "t1 )\t ! ac]bity1 ! "o-sid$ness1 & contract$ res]ve ( ! lat] morali/s1 an ideal repres5tation ( ! g5u9ely human virtues4 #b4 ,,socrates ,,& ,,ari/ophanes4--,socrates seems e>ly to h atta9$ univ]sal celebrity ?r\gh ! peculi>ities atta*+ to 8 p]son & "*4 ,nature _h furni%$ him ) a rem>kable ext]nal physiognomy4 ,8 crook$1 turn$-up nose1 8 project+ eye1 8 bald pate1 8 corpul5t body1 gave 8 =m a /rik+ simil>ity to ! ,sil5ic1 a comp>ison :i* is c>ri$ out 9 ,x5ophon's 8,fea/10 9 sprightly je/1 & 9 ,plato's ,symposium1 ) z mu* +5uity z pr(\ndness4 ,to ?is 0 add$ 8 mis]able dress1 8 go+ b>efoot1 8 po/ure1 8 (t5 /&+ /ill1 & roll+ 8 eyes4 ,aft] all ?is1 "o w h>dly be surpris$ t ! ,a!nian com$y took advantage ( su* a rem>kable "*4 ,b !re 0 ano!r & peculi> motive1 :i* influ5c$ ,ari/ophanes4 ,he 0 a mo/ ard5t admir] ( ! good old times1 an en?usia/ic eulogi/ ( ! mann]s & ! con/itution1 "u :i* ! fa!rs _h be5 re>$4 ,z x 0 8 great object to wak5 up anew 9 8 p1 & to /imulate a long+ aft] ^? good old times1 8 passionate hatr$ broke out aga9/ all mod]n ef=ts 9 politics1 art & philosophy1 ( t increas+ mock-wisdom1 :i* w5t h& 9 h& ) a deg5]at+ democracy4 ,h5ce comes 8 bitt] rail+ at ,cleon1 ! ,demagogue 79 ! ,knights71 at ,euripides1 ! s5tim5tal play-writ] 79 ! ,frogs7 & at ,socrates1 ! ,sophi/ 79 ! ,cl\ds74 ,! latt]1 z ! repres5tative ( a subtle1 de/ructive philosophy1 mu/ h appe>$ to him j z corrupt & p]nici\s1 z ! p>ty ( progress 9 politics1 :o trampl$ )\t consci5ce ^u e ?+ :i* _h come d[n f ! pa/4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ! fundam5tal ?\ght ( ! ,cl\ds to expose ,socrates to public contempt1 z ! repres5tative ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy1 a m]e semblance ( wisdom1 at once va91 pr(itless1 corrupt+ 9 its influ5ce ^u ! y\?1 & und]m9+ all true discipl9e & morality4 ,se5 9 ?is light1 & f a moral /&po9t1 ! motives ( ,ari/ophanes may f9d "s excuse1 b !y _c be ju/ifi$2 & 8 repres5tation ( ,socrates1 into ^: "* all ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy are int]wov51 ev5 ! mo/ contemptible & hateful1 yet s t ! mo/ unmi/akable lik5ess is /ill app>5t1 _c be admitt$ on ! gr\nd t ,socrates did really h ! greate/ =mal resemblance to ! ,sophi/s4 ,! ,cl\ds c only be designat$ z a culpable misund]/&+1 & z an act ( gross inju/ice br\ght ab\t by bl9d$ passion2 & ,hegel1 :5 he attempts to def5d ! conduct ( ,ari/ophanes1 =gets1 t1 :ile ! comic writ] may c>icature1 he mu/ d x )\t hav+ rec\rse to public calumniation4 ,9 fact all ! political & social t5d5cies ( ,ari/ophanes re/ on a gross misund]/&+ ( hi/orical developm5t4 ,! good old times1 z he fancies !m1 are a fiction4 ,x lies j z little 9 ! realm ( possibility1 t a morality )\t reflection1 & a homely +5u\sness1 su* z m>k a nation's *ildhood1 %\ld be =c$ ^u a "t 9 :i* reflection has utt]ly eat5 out all imm$iat5ess1 & unconsci\s moral simplicity1 z t a gr[n up man %\ld became a *ild aga9 9 ! natural way4 ,ari/ophanes himself atte/s ! impossibility ( su* a return1 :5 9 a fit ( humor1 ) cynic raill]y1 he gives up all div9e & human au?ority to ridicule1 & !reby1 h[ev] comm5dable may h be5 ! patriotic motive prompt+ him to ?is comic extravagance1 demon/rates1 t he himself no long] /&s ^u ! basis ( ! old morality1 t he too is ! son ( 8 "t4 #c4 ,,! ,,condemnation ,,( ,,socrates4--,to ?is same conf\nd+ ( 8 ef=ts ) ^? ( ! ,sophi/s1 & ! same t5d5cy to re/ore by viol5t means ! old discipl9e & morality1 ,socrates1 tw5ty-f\r ye>s lat]1 fell a victim4 ,aft] he _h liv$ & labor$ at ,a!ns = _m ye>s 9 8 usual mann]1 aft] ! /orm ( ! ,peloponnesian w> _h pass$ by1 & ?is city _h exp]i5c$ ! mo/ v>i$ political =tunes1 9 8 sev5tie? ye> he 0 br\ght to trial & accus$ ( neglect+ ! gods ( ! /ate1 ( introduc+ new deities1 & also ( corrupt+ ! y\?4 ,8 accus]s 7 ,melitus1 a "y poet1 ,anytus1 a demagogue1 & ,lycon1 an orator1 m5 9 e respect insignificant1 & act+1 z x seems1 )\t motives ( p]sonal enmity4 ,! trial result$ 9 8 condemnation4 ,aft] a =tunate accid5t _h enabl$ him to sp5d ?irty days m ) 8 s*ol>s 9 8 conf9em5t1 spurn+ a flight f prison1 he drank ! poison$ cup 9 ! ye> #cii ,b4 ,c4 ,! fir/ motive to 8 accusation1 z already rem>k$1 0 8 id5tification ) ! ,sophi/s1 ! actual belief t 8 doctr9es & activity 7 m>k$ ) ! same "* ( ho/ility to ! int]e/s ( ! /ate1 z ^? ( ! ,sophi/s1 :i* _h already occasion$ s mu* mis*ief4 ,! ?ree po9ts 9 ! accusation1 ?\gh evid5tly re/+ on a misund]/&+1 alike indicate ?is2 !y are precisely ^? by :i* ,ari/ophanes _h s\ght to *>act]ize ! ,sophi/ 9 ! p]son ( ,socrates4 ,?is 8corruption ( ! y\?10 ?is br++ 9 ( new cu/oms1 & a new mode ( culture & education g5]ally1 0 precisely ! *>ge :i* 0 br\ght aga9/ ! ,sophi/s2 moreov]1 9 ,plato's ,m5on1 ,anytus1 "o ( ! ?ree accus]s1 is introduc$ z ! bitt] enemy ( ! ,sophi/s & ( _! mann] ( in/ruction4 ,s too 9 respect to ! d5ial ( ! national gods3 be=e ?is1 ,protagoras1 accus$ ( d5y+ ! gods1 _h be5 oblig$ to flee1 & ,prodicus1 to dr9k hemlock1 a victim to ! same di/ru/4 ,ev5 five ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,socrates1 ,x5ophon1 :o 0 n pres5t at ! trial1 felt himself call$ ^u to write 8 ,memorabilia 9 def5ce ( 8 tea*]1 s wide-spread & deep-root$ 0 ! prejudice aga9/ him4 ,beside ?is !re 0 also a second1 probably a m decisive reason4 ,z ! ,sophi/ic philosophy 01 9 its v nature1 em95tly ari/ocratic1 & ,socrates1 z a suppos$ ,sophi/1 consequ5tly pass$ = an ari/ocrat1 8 entire mode ( life c\ld n fail to make him appe> l a bad citiz5 9 ! eyes ( ! re/or$ democracy4 ,he _h nev] conc]n$ himself 9 ! affairs ( ! /ate1 _h nev] b once su/a9$ an (ficial "*1 & !n1 z *ief ( ! ,prytanes1 _h disagre$ ) ! w ( ! p & ! rul]s4 7,plat4 ,apol4 #cb4 ,x54 ,mem4 ,i4 #a1 #ah47 ,9 8 sev5tie? ye>1 he m\nt$ ! orator's /& = ! fir/ "t 9 8 life1 on ! occasion ( 8 own accusation4 ,8 :ole mann] 0 some:at cosmopolitan2 he is ev5 said to h rem>k$1 t he 0 n an ,a!nian1 nor a ,greek1 b a citiz5 ( ! _w4 ,we mu/ also take into acc\nt1 t he f\nd fault ) ! ,a!nian democracy ^u e occasion1 especially ) ! democratic in/itution ( *oice by lot1 t he decid$ly pref]r$ ! ,sp>tan /ate to ! ,a!nian1 & t he excit$ ! di/ru/ ( ! democrats by 8 confid5tial relations ) ! =m] lead]s ( ! olig>*ic p>ty4 7,x54 ,mem4 ,i4 #b1 #i1 sq47 ,among o!rs :o 7 ( ! olig>*ic int]e/1 & fri5dly to ! ,sp>tans1 ,critias 9 p>ticul>1 "o ( ! ?irty tyrants1 _h be5 8 s*ol>2 s too ,alcibiades--two m51 :o _h be5 ! cause ( mu* evil to ! ,a!nian p4 ,if n[ we accept ! uni=m tradition1 t two ( 8 accus]s 7 m5 ( fair /&+ 9 ! democratic p>ty1 & f>!r1 t 8 judges 7 m5 :o _h fl$ be=e ! ?irty tyrants1 & lat] _h ov]?r[n ! p[] ( ! olig>*y1 we f9d x mu* m easy to und]/& h[ !y1 9 ! case be=e !m1 %\ld h suppos$ !y 7 act+ :olly 9 ! int]e/ ( ! democratic p>ty1 :5 !y pron\nc$ condemnation ^u ! accus$1 especially z en\gh to all appe>ance c\ld be br\ght aga9/ him4 ,! hurri$ trial pres5ts no?+ v rem>kable1 9 a g5]ation :i* _h gr[n up dur+ ! ,peloponnesian w>1 & 9 a p t adopt$ & rep5t$ ( _! passionate resolves ) ! l ha/e4 ,yea1 m1 if we consid] t ,socrates spurn$ to h rec\rse to ! usual means & =ms adopt$ by ^? accus$ ( capital crime1 & to ga9 ! sympa?y ( ! p by lam5tations1 or _! favor by flatt]y1 t he 9 pr\d consci\sness ( 8 innoc5ce defi$ 8 judges1 x becomes r a matt] ( wond]1 t 8 condemnation 0 c>ri$ by a majority ( only ?ree to six votes4 ,& ev5 n[ he might h escap$ ! s5t5ce to dea?1 _h he be5 will+ to b[ to ! w ( ! sov]eign p = ! sake ( a commutation ( 8 puni%m5t4 ,b z he spurn$ to set a value ^u himself1 by propos+ ano!r puni%m5t1 a f9e1 = example1 in/ead ( ! "o mov$ by 8 accus]1 because ?is w\ld be ! same z to ackn[l$ge himself guilty1 8 disda9 c\ld n fail to exasp]ate ! easily excit$ ,a!nians1 & no f>!r explanation is ne$$ to %[ :y eighty ( 8 judges :o _h be=e vot$ = 8 innoc5ce1 n[ vot$ = 8 dea?4 ,su* 0 ! mo/ lam5table result--a result1 aft]w>ds mo/ deeply regrett$ by ! ,a!nians !mselves--( an accusation1 :i* at ! outset 0 probably only int5d$ to humble ! ari/ocratic philosoph]1 & to =ce him to an ackn[l$gm5t ( ! p[] & ! maje/y ( ! p4 ,hegel's view ( ! fate ( ,socrates1 t x 0 ! result ( ! collision ( equally j p[]s--! ,trag$y ( ,a!ns z he calls x--& t guilt & innoc5ce 7 %>$ alike on bo? sides1 _c be ma9ta9$ on hi/orical gr\nds1 s9ce ,socrates c nei!r be reg>d$ exclusively z ! repres5tative ( ! mod]n _s1 ! pr9ciple ( fre$om1 subjectivity1 ! concrete p]sonality2 nor 8 judges1 z ! repres5tatives ( ! old ,a!nian unreflect+ morality4 ,! fir/ _c be1 s9ce ,socrates1 if 8 pr9ciple 0 at v>iance ) ! old ,greek morality1 re/$ nev]!less s f> on ! basis ( tradition1 t ! accusations br\ght aga9/ him 9 ?is respect 7 false & gr\ndless2 & ! la/ _c be1 s9ce at t "t1 aft] ! close ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 ! old morality & piety _h long be5 want+ to ! mass ( ! p1 & giv5 place to ! mod]n culture1 & ! :ole process aga9/ ,socrates mu/ be reg>d$ r z an attempt to re/ore by viol5ce1 9 connection ) ! old con/itution1 ! old defunct morality4 ,! fault is n !re=e ! same on bo? sides1 & x mu/ be held1 t ,socrates fell a victim to a misund]/&+1 & to an unju/ifiable reaction ( public s5tim5t4 #d4 ,,! 8,,g5ius0 ,,( ,,socrates4--,^? traces ( ! old religi\s s5tim5t1 :i* h be5 h&$ d[n to u f s _m diff]5t s\rces1 & are c]ta9ly n to be expla9$ f a b>e accommodation to ! popul> belief1 on ! "p ( ! philosoph]1 & :i* di/+ui% him s decid$ly f ! ,sophi/s1 %[ h[ little ,socrates is really to be reg>d$ z an innovator 9 discipl9e & morals4 ,he comm5ds ! art ( div9ation1 believes 9 dreams1 sacrifices ) all prop] c>e1 speaks ( ! gods1 ( _! omnisci5ce1 omnipres5ce1 goodness1 & complete suffici5cy 9 !mselves1 ev5 ) ! greate/ rev]5ce1 &1 at ! close ( 8 def5ce1 makes ! mo/ solemn assev]ation ( 8 belief 9 _! exi/5ce4 ,9 keep+ ) 8 atta*+ himself 9 ?is way to ! popul> religion1 8 new pr9ciple1 ?\gh 9 its results ho/ile to all ext]nal au?ority1 nev]!less assum$ ! =m ( ! popul> belief 9 8,demonic0 signs & symbols4 ,^! sugge/ions ( ! 8,demon0 are a k1 :i* is at ! same "t connect$ ) unconsci\sness4 ,!y occupy ! middle gr\nd betwe5 ! b>e ext]nal ( ! ,greek oracle1 & ! purely int]nal ( ! _s4 ,t ,socrates _h ! conception ( a p>ticul> subject1 a p]sonal 8,demon10 or 8,g5ius10 is altoge!r improbable4 ,j z little c ^! 8,demonic0 signs1 ?is inw>d oracle1 ^: voice ,socrates pr(ess$ to he>1 be reg>d$ aft] ! mod]n acceptation1 simply z ! p]sonification ( ! consci5ce1 or ( ! practical in/9ct1 or ( ! individual tact4 ,! fir/ article 9 ! =m ( accusation1 :i* evid5tly ref]s to ?is v po9t1 %[s t ,socrates did n speak b>ely metaphorically ( ?is voice1 to :i* he pr(ess$ to owe 8 prophecies4 ,& x 0 n solely 9 ref]5ce to ^? high] que/ions ( decid$ importance1 t ,socrates _h ^! sugge/ions1 b r & preem95tly ) respect to matt]s ( m]e accid5t & arbitr>y *oice1 z = example1 :e!r1 & :51 8 fri5ds %\ld set out on a j\rney4 ,x is no long] possible to expla9 ! 8,demon0 or 8,g5ius0 ( ,socrates on psy*ological gr\nds2 !re may h be5 some?+ ( a magnetic "* ab\t x4 ,x is possible t !re may be "s connection betwe5 ?is & ! _m o!r ec/atic or cataleptic /ates1 :i* are relat$ ( ,socrates 9 ! ,symposium ( ,plato4 #e4 ,,! ,,s\rces ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,socrates4--,well kn[n is ! old controv]sy1 :e!r ! picture ( ,socrates1 drawn by ,x5ophon or by ,plato1 is ! mo/ complete & true to hi/ory1 & :i* ( ! two m5 is to be consid]$ z ! m reliable s\rce = obta9+ a k ( 8 philosophy4 ,?is "q is be+ decid$ m & m 9 favor ( ,x5ophon4 ,great pa9s has be5 tak5 9 =m] z 9 lat] times1 to br+ ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia into disrepute1 z a %all[ & insuffici5t s\rce1 because _! pla91 & any ?+ o!r ?an speculative cont5ts1 seem$ to furni% no satisfactory gr\nd = su* a revolution 9 ! _w ( m9d z is attribut$ to ,socrates1 or = ! spl5dor :i* inve/s 8 "n 9 hi/ory1 or = ! "* :i* ,plato assigns him2 because aga9 ! ,memorabilia ( ,x5ophon h especially an apologetic aim1 & _! def5ce does n relate s mu* to ! philosoph] z to ! man2 & f9ally1 because !y h be5 suppos$ to h ! appe>ance ( c>ry+ ! philosophical ov] into ! unphilosophical /yle ( ! common und]/&+4 ,a di/9ction has !re=e be5 made betwe5 an exot]ic & an esot]ic ,socrates1 obta9+ ! fir/ f ,x5ophon1 ! latt] f ,plato4 ,b ! pref]5ce ( ,plato to ,x5ophon has 9 ! fir/ place no hi/orical "r 9 its favor1 s9ce ,x5ophon appe>s z a prop] hi/orian & claims hi/orical cr$ibility1 :ile ,plato on ! o!r h& nev] pr(esses to be an hi/orical n>rator1 save 9 a few passages1 & w by no means h all ! re/ :i* he puts 9 ! m\? ( ,socrates und]/ood z 8 au!ntic expressions & disc\rse4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no hi/orical reason = pref]r+ ! repres5tation ( ,socrates :i* is giv5 by ,plato4 ,9 ! second place1 ! "u-valuation ( ,x5ophon re/s1 = ! mo/ "p1 on ! false notion1 t ,socrates _h a prop] philosophy1 i4 e4 a speculative sy/em1 & on an unhi/orical mi/ak+ ( ! limits by :i* ! philosophical "* ( ,socrates 0 condition$ & re/rict$4 ,!re 0 no prop] ,socratic doctr9e1 b a ,socratic life2 &1 j on ?is gr\nd1 are ! diff]5t philosophical t5d5cies ( 8 s*ol>s to be expla9$4 #f4 ,,! ,,univ]sal ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,philosophiz+ ,,( ,,socrates4--,! philosophiz+ ( ,socrates 0 limit$ & re/rict$ by 8 opposition1 p>tly to ! prec$+1 & p>tly to ! ,sophi/ic philosophy4 ,philosophy be=e ! "t ( ,socrates _h be5 9 its ess5tial "* inve/igation ( nature4 ,b 9 ,socrates1 ! human m9d1 = ! fir/ "t1 turn$ itself 9 ^u itself1 ^u its own be+1 & t too 9 ! mo/ imm$iate mann]1 by conceiv+ itself z active1 moral _s4 ,! positive philosophiz+ ( ,socrates1 is exclusively ( an e?ical "*1 exclusively an inquiry into ! nature ( virtue1 s exclusively1 & s onesid$ly1 t1 z is wont to be ! case ^u ! appe>ance ( a new pr9ciple1 x ev5 express$ a contempt = ! /riv+ ( ! entire previ\s p]iod1 ) its natural philosophy1 & its ma!matics4 ,sett+ e ?+ "u ! /&po9t ( imm$iate moral law1 ,socrates 0 s f> f f9d+ any object 9 8irrational0 nature wor?y ( /udy1 t he r1 9 a k9d ( g5]al teleological mann]1 conceiv$ x simply 9 ! light ( ext]nal means = ! atta9m5t ( ext]nal ends2 yea1 he w\ld n ev5 g out to walk1 z he says 9 ! ,phdrus ( ,plato1 s9ce "o c le>n no?+ f trees & di/ricts ( c\ntry4 ,self-k1 ! ,delphic appe>$ to him ! only object wor?y ( a man1 z ! />t+-po9t ( all philosophy4 ,k ( e o!r k9d1 he pron\nc$ s insignificant & wor?less1 t he 0 wont to boa/ ( 8 ignorance1 & to decl>e t he excell$ o!r m5 9 wisdom only 9 ?is1 t he 0 consci\s ( 8 own ignorance4 7,plat4 ,ap4 ,s4 #ba1 #bc47 ,! o!r side ( ! ,socratic philosophiz+1 is its opposition to ! philosophy ( ! "t4 ,8 object1 z is well und]/ood1 c\ld h be5 only ?is1 to place himself ^u ! same position z t occupi$ by ! philosophy ( ! ,sophi/s1 & ov]come x on its own gr\nd1 & by its own pr9ciples4 ,t ,socrates %>$ 9 ! g5]al position ( ! ,sophi/s1 & ev5 _h _m features ( ext]nal resemblance to !m--! ,socratic irony1 = in/ance--has be5 rem>k$ above4 ,_m ( 8 ass]tions1 p>ticul>ly ^! propositions1 t no man kn[+ly does wrong1 & if a man 7 kn[+ly to lie1 or to d "s o!r wrong act1 /ill he w\ld be bett] ?an he :o %\ld d ! same unconsci\sly1 at fir/ sight be> a purely ,sophi/ic /amp4 ,! great fundam5tal ?\ght ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy1 t all moral act+ mu/ be a consci\s act1 0 also 84 ,b :il/ ! ,sophi/s made x _! object1 ?r\gh subjective reflection to confuse & to break up all /able convictions1 to make all rules relat+ to outw>d conduct impossible1 ,socrates _h recogniz$ ?9k+ z ! activity ( ! univ]sal pr9ciple1 free1 objective ?\ght z ! measure ( all ?+s1 &1 !re=e1 in/ead ( ref]r+ moral duties1 & all moral action to ! fancy & caprice ( ! individual1 _h r ref]r$ all to true k1 to ! ess5ce ( _s4 ,x 0 ?is idea ( k t l$ him to seek1 by ! process ( ?\ght1 to ga9 a conceivable objective gr\nd1 some?+ real1 abid+1 absolute1 indep5d5t ( ! arbitr>y volitions ( ! subject1 & to hold fa/ to uncondition$ moral laws4 ,hegel expresses ! same op9ion1 :5 he says t ,socrates put morality f e?ical gr\nds1 9 ! place ( ! morality ( cu/om & habit4 ,hegel di/+ui%es morality1 z consci\s "r conduct1 re/+ on reflection & moral pr9ciples1 f ! morality ( unsophi/icat$1 half-unconsci\s virtue1 :i* re/s on ! compliance ) prevail+ cu/om4 ,! logical condition ( ?is e?ical /riv+ ( ,socrates1 0 ! det]m9+ ( conceptions1 ! me?od ( _! =mation4 ,to se>* out ! 8:at0 ( e ?+ says ,x5ophon 7,mem4 ,,iv4 #f1 #a47 0 ! un9t]rupt$ c>e ( ,socrates1 & ,ari/otle says expressly t a tw(old m]it mu/ be ascrib$ to him1 viz43 ! =m+ ( ! me?od ( induction & ! giv+ ( /rictly logical def9itions1--! two elem5ts :i* con/itute ! basis ( sci5ce4 ,h[ ^! two elem5ts /& connect$ ) ! pr9ciple ( ,socrates we %all at once see4 #g4 ,,! ,,socratic ,,me?od4--,we mu/ n reg>d ! ,socratic me?od z we are accu/om$ to speak ( me?od 9 our day1 i4 e4 z some?+ :i*1 z su*1 0 di/9ctly 9 8 consci\sness1 & :i* he ab/ract$ f e concrete cont5t1 b x r _h its gr[? 9 ! v mode ( 8 philosophiz+1 :i* 0 n direct$ to ! imp>t+ ( a sy/em b to ! education ( ! subject 9 philosophical ?9k+ & life4 ,x is only a subjective te*nicality = 8 mode ( in/ruction1 ! peculi> mann] ( 8 philosophical1 famili> life4 ,! ,socratic me?od has a tw(old side1 a negative & a positive "o4 ,! negative side is ! well kn[n ,socratic irony4 ,! philosoph] takes ! attitude ( ignorance1 & w\ld app>5tly let himself be in/ruct$ by ^? ) :om he conv]ses1 b ?r\gh ! que/ions :i* he puts1 ! unexpect$ consequ5ces :i* he d$uces1 & ! contradictions 9 :i* he involves ! opposite p>ty1 he soon leads !m to see t _! suppos$ k w\ld only entangle & confuse !m4 ,9 ! emb>rassm5t 9 :i* !y n[ f9d !mselves plac$1 & see+ t !y d n "k :at !y suppos$1 ?is suppos$ k completes its own de/ruction1 & ! subject :o _h pret5d$ to wisdom le>ns to di/ru/ 8 previ\s op9ions & firmly held notions4 8,:at we knew1 has contradict$ itself10 is ! refra9 ( ! mo/ ( ^! conv]sations4 ,?is result ( ! ,socratic me?od 0 only to lead ! subject to "k t he knew no?+1 & a great "p ( ! dialogues ( ,x5ophon & ,plato g no f>!r ?an to repres5t o/5sibly ?is negative result4 ,b !re is yet ano!r elem5t 9 8 me?od 9 :i* ! irony loses its negative appe>ance4 ,! positive side ( ! ,socratic me?od is ! s-call$ ob/etrics or art ( intellectual midwif]y4 ,socrates comp>es himself ) 8 "m ,phn>ete1 a midwife1 because 8 position 0 r to help o!rs br+ =? ?\ghts ?an to produce !m himself1 & because he took ^u himself to di/+ui% ! bir? ( an empty ?\ght f "o ri* 9 its cont5t4 7,plato ,!tetus1 p4 #adi47 ,?r\gh ?is art ( midwif]y ! philosoph]1 by 8 assidu\s que/ion+1 by 8 int]rogatory dissection ( ! notions ( him ) :om he might be conv]s+1 knew h[ to elicit f him a ?\ght ( :i* he _h previ\sly be5 unconsci\s1 & h[ to help him to ! bir? ( a new ?\ght4 ,a *ief means 9 ?is op]ation 0 ! me?od ( induction1 or ! lead+ ( ! repres5tation to a conception4 ,! philosoph]1 ?us1 />t+ f "s individual1 concrete case1 & seiz+ hold ( ! mo/ common notions conc]n+ x1 & f9d+ illu/rations 9 ! mo/ ord9>y & trivial occurr5ces1 knew h[ to remove by 8 comp>isons t :i* 0 individual1 & by ?us sep>at+ ! accid5tal & cont+5t f ! ess5tial1 c\ld br+ up to consci\sness a univ]sal tru? & a univ]sal det]m9ation1--9 o!r words1 c\ld =m conceptions4 ,9 ord] e4 g4 to f9d ! conception ( ju/ice or valor1 he w\ld />t f individual examples ( !m1 & f ^! d$uce ! univ]sal "* or conception ( ^! virtues4 ,f ?is we see t ! direction ( ! ,socratic induction 0 to ga9 logical def9itions4 ,i def9e a conception :5 ,i develope :at x is1 its ess5ce1 its cont5t4 ,i def9e ! conception ( ju/ice :5 ,i set up ! common prop]ty & logical unity ( all its diff]5t modes ( manife/ation4 ,socrates s\ght to g no f>!r ?an ?is4 8,to seek = ! ess5ce ( virtue10 says an ,ari/otelian writ+ 7,e?4 ,i4 #e71 8,socrates reg>d$ z ! problem ( philosophy1 & h5ce1 s9ce he reg>d$ all virtue z a kn[+1 he s\ght to det]m9e 9 respect ( ju/ice or valor :at !y might really be1 i4 e4 he inve/igat$ _! ess5ce or conception40 ,f ?is x is v easy to see ! connection :i* 8 me?od ( def9itions or ( =m+ conceptions _h ) 8 practical /riv+s4 ,he w5t back to ! conception ( e individual virtue1 e4 g4 ju/ice1 only because he 0 conv9c$ t ! k ( ?is conception1 ! k ( x = e individual case1 0 ! sure/ guide = e moral relation4 ,e moral action1 he believ$1 %\ld />t z a consci\s action f ! conception4 ,f ?is we might *>act]ize ! ,socratic me?od z ! skill by :i* a c]ta9 sum ( giv51 homog5e\s & individual ph5om5a 0 tak51 & _! logical unity1 ! univ]sal pr9ciple :i* lay at _! base1 inductively f\nd4 ,?is me?od presupposes ! recognition t ! ess5ce ( ! objects mu/ be compreh5d$ 9 ! ?\ght1 t ! conception is ! true be+ ( ! ?+4 ,h5ce we see t ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas is only ! objectify+ ( ?is me?od :i* 9 ,socrates appe>s no f>!r ?an a subjective dext]ity4 ,! ,platonic ideas are ! univ]sal conceptions ( ,socrates posit$ z real individual be+s4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,,xiii4 #d7 mo/ fitt+ly *>act]izes ! relation betwe5 ! ,socratic me?od & ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas ) ! words1 8,socrates posits ! univ]sal conceptions n z sep>ate1 individual sub/ances1 :ile ,plato does ?is1 & names !m ideas40 #h4 ,,! ,,socratic ,,doctr9e ,,conc]n+ ,,virtue4--,! s+le1 positive doctr9al s5t5ce :i* has be5 transmitt$ u f ,socrates is1 t virtue is a kn[+1--t1 consequ5tly1 no?+ is good :i* happ5s )\t disc]nm5t1 & no?+ bad :i* is done ) disc]nm5t1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 t no man is volunt>ily vici\s1 t ! base are su* aga9/ _! w1 aye1 ev5 he :o kn[+ly does wrong is bett] ?an he :o does x ignorantly1 because 9 ! latt] case1 morality & true k are bo? want+1 :ile 9 ! =m]--if su* a case c\ld happ5--morality alone is violat$4 ,socrates c\ld n conceive h[ a man %\ld "k ! good & yet n d x2 x 0 to him a logical contradiction t ! man :o s\ght 8 own well be+ %\ld at ! same "t kn[+ly despise x4 ,!re=e1 ) him ! good action foll[$ z necess>ily f ! k ( ! good z a logical conclusion f its premise4 ,! s5t5ce t virtue is a kn[+1 has = its logical consequ5ce ! unity ( virtue & = its practical consequ5ce ! tea*abl5ess ( x4 ,) ^! ?ree propositions1 9 :i* e ?+ is embrac$ :i* we c prop]ly t]m ! ,socratic philosophy1 ,socrates has laid ! fir/ f\ndation /one = a sci5tific treatm5t ( e?ics1 a treatm5t :i* mu/ be dat$ fir/ f him4 ,b he laid only ! f\ndation /one1 = on ! "o side he attempt$ no c>ry+ out ( 8 pr9ciple into details1 nor any sett+ up ( a concrete doctr9e ( e?ics1 b only1 aft] ! anci5t mann]1 ref]r$ to ! laws ( /ates & ! unwritt5 laws ( ! univ]sal human ord]1 & on ! o!r side1 he has n seldom s]v$ himself ) utilit>ian motives to e/abli% 8 e?ical propositions1 9 o!r words he has ref]r$ to ! ext]nal advantages & useful consequ5ces ( virtue1 by :i* ! purity ( 8 e?ical po9t ( view became t>ni%$4 ,,section ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,p>tial ,,disciples ,,( ,,socrates4 #a4 ,,_! ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,socratic ,,philosophy4--,! dea? ( ,socrates gave to 8 life an ideal p]fection1 & ?is became an animat+ pr9ciple :i* _h its work+ 9 _m directions4 ,! appreh5sion ( him z an ideal type =ms ! common "* ( ! imm$iate ,socratic s*ools4 ,! fundam5tal ?\ght1 t m5 %\ld h "o univ]sal & ess5tially true aim1 !y all receiv$ f ,socrates2 b s9ce _! ma/] left no complete & sy/ematic doctr9e1 b only 8 _m-sid$ life to det]m9e ! nature ( ?is aim1 e ?+ w\ld dep5d ^u ! subjective appreh5sion ( ! p]sonal "* ( ,socrates1 & ( ?is we %\ld at ! outset naturally expect to f9d among 8 diff]5t disciples a diff]5t e/imate4 ,socrates _h num]\s s*ol>s1 b no s*ool4 ,among ^!1 ?ree views ( 8 "* h f\nd a place 9 hi/ory4 ,t ( ,anti/h5es1 or ! ,cynical1 t ( ,ari/ippus1 or ! ,cyr5ian1 & t ( ,euclid1 or ! ,meg>ian--?ree modes ( appreh5d+ him1 ea* ( :i* conta9s a true elem5t ( ! ,socratic "*1 b all ( :i* sep>ate t :i* 9 ! ma/] 0 a h>moni\s unity1 & affirm ( ! isolat$ elem5ts t :i* c\ld be truly pr$icat$ only ( ! :ole4 ,!y are !re=e1 "o-sid$1 & give ( ,socrates a false picture4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 n :olly _! fault2 b 9 t ,ari/ippus 0 =c$ to g back to ! !ory ( k ( ,protagoras1 & ,euclid to ! metaphysics ( ! ,eleatics1 !y r te/ify to ! subjective "* & to ! want ( me?od & sy/em ( ! ,socratic philosophy1 & exhibit 9 _! defects & "o-sid$ness1 9 "p1 only ! orig9al weakness :i* belongs to ! doctr9e ( _! ma/]4 #b4 ,,anti/h5es ,,& ,,! ,,cynics4--,z a /rictly lit]al adh]5t ( ! doctr9e ( ,socrates1 & zeal\sly ?\gh grossly1 & (t5 ) c>icature imitat+ 8 me?od1 ,anti/h5es /&s ne>e/ 8 ma/]4 ,9 e>ly life a disciple ( ,gorgias1 & himself a tea*] ( ! ,sophi/ic philosophy1 he subsequ5tly became an insep>able att5dant ( ,socrates1 aft] ^: dea? he f\nd$ a s*ool 9 ! ,cynos>ges1 :5ce 8 s*ol>s & adh]5ts took ! "n ( ,cynics1 ?\gh accord+ to o!rs ?is "n 0 d]iv$ f _! mode ( life4 ,! doctr9e ( ,anti/h5es is only an ab/ract expression = ! ,socratic ideal ( virtue4 ,l ,socrates he consid]$ virtue ! f9al cause ( m51 reg>d+ x also z k or sci5ce1 & ?us z an object ( in/ruction2 b ! ideal ( virtue z he _h beheld x 9 ! p]son ( ,socrates 0 realiz$ 9 8 e/imation only 9 ! abs5ce ( e ne$ 79 8 appe>ance he imitat$ a begg> ) /aff & scrip7 & h5ce 9 ! disreg>d+ ( all =m] intellectual int]e/s2 virtue ) him aims only to avoid evil1 & !re=e has no ne$ ( dialectical demon/rations1 b only ( ,socratic vigor2 ! wise man1 accord+ to him1 is self-suffici5t1 indep5d5t ( e ?+1 indiff]5t 9 respect ( m>riage1 family1 & ! public life ( society1 z also 9 respect ( weal?1 honor1 & enjoym5t4 ,9 ?is ideal ( ,anti/h5es1 :i* is m negative ?an positive1 we miss entirely ! g5ial humanity & ! univ]sal susceptibility ( 8 ma/]1 & /ill m a cultivation ( ^? fruitful dialectic elem5ts :i* ! ,socratic philosophiz+ conta9$4 ,) a m decid$ contempt = all k1 & a /ill great] scorn ( all ! cu/oms ( society1 ! lat] ,cynicism became frequ5tly a repulsive & %ameful c>icature ( ! ,socratic _s4 ,?is 0 especially ! case ) ,diog5es ( ,s9ope1 ! only "o ( 8 disciples :om ,anti/h5es suff]$ to rema9 ) him4 ,9 _! high e/imation ( virtue & philosophy ^! ,cynics1 :o h be5 suitably /yl$ ! ,capu*9s ( ! ,grecian _w1 pres]v$ a trace ( ! orig9al ,socratic philosophy1 b !y s\ght virtue 89 ! %orte/ way10 9 a life accord+ to nature z !y !mselves express$ x1 t is1 9 %utt+ out ! out] _w1 9 atta9+ a complete indep5d5ce1 & abs5ce ( e ne$1 & 9 r5\nc+ art & sci5ce z well z e det]m9ate aim4 ,to ! wise man said !y no?+ %\ld g amiss2 he %\ld be mighty ov] e ne$ & desire1 free f ! re/ra9ts ( civil law & ( cu/om1 & ( equal privileges ) ! gods4 ,an easy life1 said ,diog5es1 is assign$ by ! gods to t man :o limits himself to 8 necessities1 & ?is true philosophy may be atta9$ by e "o1 ?r\gh p]sev]ance & ! p[] ( self-d5ial4 ,philosophy & philosophical int]e/ is !re none 9 ?is s*ool ( begg>s4 ,all t is relat$ ( ,diog5es are anecdotes & s>casms4 ,we see "h h[ ! e?ics ( ! ,cynic s*ool lo/ itself 9 entirely negative /atem5ts1 a consequ5ce naturally result+ f ! fact t ! orig9al ,socratic conception ( virtue lack$ a concrete positive cont5t1 & 0 n sy/ematically c>ri$ out4 ,cynicism is ! negative side ( ! ,socratic doctr9e4 #c4 ,,ari/ippus ,,& ,,! ,,cyr5ians4--,ari/ippus ( ,cyr5e1 numb]$ till ! dea? ( ,socrates among 8 adh]5ts1 is repres5t$ by ,ari/otle z a ,sophi/1 & ?is ) propriety1 s9ce he receiv$ money = 8 in/ructions4 ,he appe>s 9 ,x5ophon z a man devot$ to pleasure4 ,! adroitness ) :i* he adapt$ himself to e circum/ance1 & ! k ( human nature by :i* 9 e condition he knew h[ to provide means to satisfy 8 desire = good liv+ & luxury1 7 well kn[n among ! anci5ts4 ,br\ght 9 contact ) ! gov]nm5t1 he kept himself alo( f its c>es le/ he %\ld become dep5d5t2 he sp5t mo/ ( 8 "t abroad 9 ord] to free himself f e re/ra9t2 he made x 8 rule t circum/ances %\ld be dep5d5t ^u him1 :ile he %\ld be indep5d5t ( !m4 ,?\gh su* a man seems little wor?y ( ! "n ( a ,socratici/1 yet has he two po9ts ( contact ) 8 ma/] :i* %\ld n be ov]look$4 ,socrates _h call$ virtue & happ9ess coord9ately ! highe/ end ( man1 i4 e4 he _h inde$ ass]t$ mo/ decid$ly ! idea ( a moral action1 b because he br\ght ?is =w>d only 9 an undevelop$ & ab/ract =m1 he 0 only able 9 concrete cases to e/abli% ! obligation ( ! moral law 9 a utilit>ian way1 by appeal+ to ! b5efit result+ f ! practice ( virtue4 ,?is side ( ! ,socratic pr9ciple ,ari/ippus adopt$ = 8 own1 affirm+ t pleasure is ! ultimate end ( life1 & ! highe/ good4 ,moreov]1 ?is pleasure1 z ,ari/ippus reg>ds x1 is n happ9ess z a condition embrac+ ! :ole life1 nor pleasure r$uc$ to a sy/em1 b is only ! individual s5sation ( pleasure :i* ! body receives1 & 9 ?is all det]m9ations ( moral wor? entirely disappe>2 b 9 t ,ari/ippus recomm5ds k1 self-gov]nm5t1 temp]ance1 & intellectual culture z means = acquir+ & pres]v+ enjoym5t1 &1 !re=e1 makes a cultivat$ m9d necess>y to judge respect+ a true satisfaction1 he %[s t ! ,socratic _s 0 n yet :olly ext+ui%$ )9 him1 & t ! "n ( pseudo-,socratici/ :i* ,s*lei]ma*] gives him1 h>dly belongs to him4 ,! o!r lead]s ( ! ,cyr5ian s*ool1 ,hegesias1 ,!odorus1 ,annic]is1 we c "h only "n4 ,! f>!r developm5t ( ?is s*ool is :olly occupi$ 9 m closely def9+ ! nature ( pleasure1 i4 e4 9 det]m9+ :e!r x is to be appreh5d$ z a mom5t>y s5sation1 or z an endur+ condition embrac+ ! :ole life2 :e!r x belong$ to ! m9d or ! body1 :e!r an isolat$ individual c\ld possess x1 or :e!r x is f\nd alone 9 ! social relations ( life2 :e!r we %\ld reg>d x z positive or negative1 7i4 e4 simply ! abs5ce ( pa974 #d4 ,,euclid ,,& ,,! ,,meg>ians4--,! union ( ! dialectical & ! e?ical is a common "* 9 all ! p>tial ,socratic s*ools2 ! diff]5ce consi/s only 9 ?is1 t 9 ! "o ! e?ical is made to d s]vice to ! dialectical1 & t 9 ! o!r1 ! dialectical /&s 9 subjection to ! e?ical4 ,! =m] is especially true ( ! ,meg>ian s*ool1 ^: ess5tial peculi>ity 0 po9t$ out by ! anci5ts !mselves z a comb9ation ( ! ,socratic & ,eleatic pr9ciples4 ,! idea ( ! good is on ! e?ical side ! same z ! idea ( be+ on ! physical2 x 01 !re=e1 only an application to e?ics ( ! ,eleatic view & me?od :5 ,euclid call$ ! good pure be+1 & ! n-good1 n-be+4 ,:at is f>!r relat$ ( ,euclid is obscure1 & may "h be omitt$4 ,! ,meg>ian s*ool 0 kept up "u diff]5t lead]s aft] 8 dea?1 b )\t liv+ =ce1 & )\t ! indep5d5t activity ( an organic developm5t4 ,z h$onism 7! philosophical doctr9e ( ! ,cyr5eans t pleasure is ! *ief good7 l$ ! way to ! doctr9e ( ,epicurus1 & cynicism 0 ! bridge t[>d ! ,/oic1 s ! lat] ,meg>ic developm5t =m$ ! transition po9t to scepticism4 ,direct+ its att5tion ev] m exclusively t[>ds ! culture ( ! =mal & logical me?od ( argum5t1 x left entirely out ( view ! moral ?\ghts ( ,socrates4 ,its sophi/ries & quiddities :i* 71 = ! mo/ "p1 only plays ( ^w & wit1 7 widely kn[n & not$ among ! anci5ts4 #e4 ,,plato1 ,,z ,,! ,,complete ,,socratici/4--,! attempts ?us f> to build ^u ! f\ndation pill>s ( ! ,socratic doctr9e1 />t$ )\t a vigor\s g]m9at+ pr9ciple1 & end$ fruitlessly4 ,plato 0 ! only "o ( 8 s*ol>s :o has approa*$ & repres5t$ ! :ole ,socrates4 ,/>t+ f ! ,socratic idea ( k he br\ght into "o focus ! scatt]$ elem5ts & rays ( tru? :i* c\ld be collect$ f 8 ma/] or f ! philosoph]s prec$+ him1 & gave to philosophy a sy/ematic complet5ess4 ,socrates _h affirm$ ! pr9ciple t conception is ! true be+ & ! only actual1 & _h urg$ to a k accord+ to ! conception2 b ^! positions 7 no f>!r develop$4 ,8 philosophy is n yet a sy/em1 b is only ! fir/ impulse t[>d a philosophical developm5t & me?od4 ,plato is ! fir/ :o has approa*$ a sy/ematic repres5tation & developm5t ( ! ideal _w ( conceptions true 9 !mselves4 ,! ,platonic sy/em is ,socrates objectifi$1 ! bl5d+ & reconcil+ ( prec$+ philosophy4 ,,section ,,xiv4 ,,plato4 ,i4 ,,plato',s ,,life4 #a4 ,8 ,,y\?4--,plato1 ! son ( ,ari/o1 ( a noble ,a!nian family1 0 born 9 ! ye> #dbi ,b4 ,c4 ,x 0 ! ye> ( ! dea? ( ,p]icles1 ! second ye> ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 s fatal to ,a!ns4 ,born 9 ! c5tre ( ,grecian culture & indu/ry1 & desc5d$ f an old & noble family1 he receiv$ a correspond+ education1 al?\gh no f>!r tid+s ( ?is h be5 transmitt$ to u1 ?an ! insignificant names ( 8 tea*]s4 ,t ! y\? gr[+ up "u su* circum/ances %\ld *oose ! seclusion ( a philosophic life r ?an a political c>e] may seem /range1 s9ce _m & favorable opportunities = ! latt] c\rse lay op5 be=e him4 ,critias1 "o ( ! ?irty tyrants1 0 ! c\s9 ( 8 "m1 & ,*>mides1 :o subsequ5tly1 "u ! olig>*ic rule at ,a!ns1 f\nd 8 dea? at ,?rasybulus on ! same day ) ,critias1 0 8 uncle4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 he is nev] kn[n to h appe>$ a s+le "t z a public speak] 9 ! assembly ( ! p4 ,9 view ( ! ris+ deg5]acy & increas+ political corruption ( 8 native l&1 he 0 too pr\d to c\rt = himself ! favor ( ! _m-head$ ,demos2 & m atta*$ to ,doricism ?an to ! democracy & practice ( ! ,attic public life1 he *ose to make sci5ce 8 *ief pursuit1 r ?an z a patriot to /ruggle 9 va9 aga9/ unavoidable disa/]1 & become a m>tyr to 8 political op9ions4 ,he reg>d$ ! ,a!nian /ate z lo/1 & to h9d] its inevitable ru9 he w\ld n br+ a useless (f]+4 #b4 ,,8 ,,ye>s ,,( ,,discipl9e4--,a y\? ( tw5ty1 ,plato came to ,socrates1 9 ^: int]c\rse he sp5t eight ye>s4 ,besides a few d\btful anecdotes1 no?+ is kn[n m p>ticul>ly ( ?is portion ( 8 hi/ory4 ,9 ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia 7,,iii4 #f7 ,plato is only once cursorily m5tion$1 b ?is 9 a way t indicates an intimate relation betwe5 ! s*ol> & 8 ma/]4 ,plato himself 9 8 dialogues has transmitt$ no?+ conc]n+ 8 p]sonal relations to ,socrates2 only once 7,phd4 p4 #ei7 he names himself among ! intimate fri5ds ( ,socrates4 ,b ! influ5ce :i* ,socrates ex]t$ ^u him1 h[ he recogniz$ 9 him ! complete repres5tation ( a wise man1 h[ he f\nd n only 9 8 doctr9e b also 9 8 life & action ! mo/ fruitful philosophic g]ms1 ! significance :i* ! p]sonal "* ( 8 ma/] z an ideal type _h = him--all ?is we le>n ) suffici5t accuracy f 8 writ+s1 :]e he places 8 own incomp>ably m develop$ philosophical sy/em 9 ! m\? ( 8 ma/]1 :om he makes ! c5tre ( 8 dialogues & ! lead] ( 8 disc\rses4 #c4 ,,8 ,,ye>s ,,( ,,travel4--,aft] ! dea? ( ,socrates #cii ,b4 ,c1 9 ! ?irtie? ye> ( 8 age1 ,plato1 fe>+ le/ he also %\ld be met by ! incom+ reaction aga9/ philosophy1 left1 9 company ) o!r ,socratici/s1 8 native city1 & betook himself to ,euclid1 8 =m] fell[-s*ol>1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,meg>ic s*ool 7cf4 ,,xiii4 #d7 at ,meg>a4 ,up to ?is "t a pure ,socratici/1 he became greatly animat$ & en]giz$ by 8 int]c\rse ) ! ,meg>ians1 among :om a peculi> philosophical direction1 a modification ( ,socraticism1 0 already ass]t$4 ,we %all see f>!r on ! influ5ce ( ?is resid5ce at ,meg>a ^u ! f\ndation ( 8 philosophy1 & especially ^u ! elaboration & confirmation ( 8 doctr9e ( ,ideas4 ,"o :ole p]iod ( 8 lit]>y activity & an entire gr\p ( 8 dialogues1 c only be satisfactorily expla9$ by ! intellectual /imulus ga9$ at ?is place4 ,f ,meg>a1 ,plato visit$ ,cyr5e1 ,egypt1 ,magna-,grecia & ,sicily4 ,9 ,magna-,grecia he became acqua9t$ ) ! ,py?agorean philosophy1 :i* 0 !n 9 its highe/ bloom4 ,8 abode among ! ,py?agoreans _h a m>k$ effect ^u him2 z a man x made him m practical1 & increas$ 8 ze/ = life & 8 int]e/ 9 public life & social int]c\rse2 z a philosoph] x furni%$ him ) a new incitem5t to sci5ce1 & new motives to lit]>y labor4 ,! traces ( ! ,py?agorean philosophy may be se5 ?r\gh all ! la/ p]iod ( 8 lit]>y life2 especially 8 av]sion to public & political life 0 greatly s(t5$ by 8 int]c\rse ) ! ,py?agoreans4 ,:ile 9 ! ,!attus1 he affirm$ mo/ positively ! incompatibility ( philosophy ) public life1 we f9d 9 8 lat] dialogues1 especially 9 ! ,republic & also 9 ! ,/atesman--^u :i* ,py?agoreanism seems already to h _h an influ5ce--a return+ favor = ! actual _w1 & ! well-kn[n s5t5ce t ! rul] mu/ be a philosoph] is an expression v *>act]i/ic ( ?is *ange4 ,8 visit to ,sicily gave him ! acqua9tance ( ! eld] ,dionysius & ,dion 8 bro!r-9-law1 b ! philosoph] & ! tyrant _h little 9 common4 ,plato is said to h incurr$ 8 displeasure to s high a degree1 t 8 life 0 9 dang]4 ,aft] ab\t t5 ye>s sp5t 9 travel1 he return$ to ,a!ns 9 ! =tie? ye> ( 8 age1 7#chi or #chh ,b4 ,c47 #d4 ,,plato ,,z ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,academy2 ,,8 ,,ye>s ,,( ,,in/ruction4--,on 8 return1 ,plato surr\nd$ himself ) a circle ( pupils4 ,! place :]e he taught 0 kn[n z ! academy1 a gymnasium outside ( ,a!ns :]e ,plato _h inh]it$ a g>d5 f 8 fa!r4 ,( 8 s*ool & ( 8 lat] life1 we h only ! mo/ meagre acc\nts4 ,8 life pass$ ev5ly along1 int]rupt$ only by a second & ?ird visit to ,sicily1 :]e mean:ile ! y\ng] ,dionysius _h come to ! ?rone4 ,?is second & ?ird resid5ce ( ,plato at ! c\rt ( ,syracuse ab\nds 9 vicissitudes1 & %[s u ! philosoph] 9 a great v>iety ( conditions 7cf4 ,plut>*'s ,life ( ,dion72 b to u1 9 e/imat+ 8 philosophical "*1 x is ( int]e/ only = ! attempt1 :i*1 z seems probable f all acc\nts1 he !re made to realize 8 ideal ( a moral /ate1 & by ! philosophical education ( ! new rul] to unite philosophy & ! re9s ( gov]nm5t 9 "o & ! same h&1 or at lea/ 9 "s way by means ( philosophy to a*ieve a heal?y *ange 9 ! ,sicilian /ate con/itution4 ,8 ef=ts 7 h[ev] fruitless2 ! circum/ances 7 n propiti\s1 & ! "* ( ! "y ,dionysius1 :o 0 "o ( ^? m$iocre natures :o /rive aft] r5[n & di/9ction1 b are capable ( no?+ pr(\nd & e>ne/1 deceiv$ ! expectations conc]n+ him :i* ,plato1 accord+ to ,dion's acc\nt1 ?\ght he _h reason to ent]ta94 ,:5 we look at ,plato's philosophical labors 9 ! academy1 we are /ruck ) ! diff]5t relations to public life :i* philosophy already assumes4 ,in/ead ( c>ry+ philosophy1 l ,socrates1 into ! /reets & public places & mak+ x !re a subject ( social conv]sation ) any "o :o desir$ x1 he liv$ & labor$ entirely )drawn f ! movem5ts ( ! public1 satisfi$ to influ5ce ! pupils :o surr\nd$ him4 ,9 precisely ! measure 9 :i* philosophy becomes a sy/em & ! sy/ematic =m is se5 to be ess5tial1 does x lose its popul> "* & beg9 to dem& a sci5tific tra9+1 & to become a topic = ! s*ool1 an esot]ic affair4 ,yet su* 0 ! respect = ! "n ( a philosoph]1 & especially = ! "n ( ,plato1 t reque/s 7 made to him by diff]5t /ates to compose = !m a book ( laws1 a "w :i* 9 "s in/ances x 0 said 0 actually p]=m$4 ,att5d$ by a ret9ue ( devot$ disciples1 among :om 7 ev5 wom5 disguis$ z m51 & receiv+ reit]at$ demon/rations ( respect1 he rea*$ ! age ( eighty-"o ye>s1 ) 8 p[]s ( m9d unweak5$ to ! late/ mom5t4 ,! close ( 8 life seems to h be5 cl\d$ by di/urbances & divisions :i* arose 9 8 s*ool "u ! lead ( ,ari/otle4 ,engag$ 9 writ+1 or z o!rs /ate x at a m>riage fea/1 dea? came ^u him z a g5tle sleep1 #cdh ,b4 ,c4 ,8 rema9s 7 buri$ 9 ! ,c]amicus1 n f> f ! academy4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,inn] ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,platonic ,,philosophy ,,& ,,writ+s4--,t ! ,platonic philosophy has a real developm5t1 t x %\ld n be appreh5d$ z a p]fectly f9i%$ sy/em to :i* ! diff]5t writ+s /& relat$ z con/itu5t elem5ts1 b t ^! are r /eps ( ?is inn] developm5t1 z x 7 /ages pass$ ov] 9 ! philosophical j\rney+s ( ! philosoph]--is a view ( ! highe/ importance = ! true e/imate ( ,plato's lit]>y labors4 ,plato's philosophical & lit]>y labors may be divid$ into ?ree p]iods1 :i* we c *>act]ize 9 diff]5t ways4 ,look+ at !m 9 a *ronological or biographical respect1 we might call !m respectively ! p]iods ( 8 ye>s ( discipl9e1 ( travel1 ( in/ruction1 or if we view !m 9 ref]5ce to ! prevail+ ext]nal influ5ce "u :i* !y 7 =m$1 !y might be t]m$ ! ,socratic1 ,h]aclitic-,eleatic1 & ! ,py?agorean2 or if we look$ at ! cont5t alone1 we might t]m !m ! ,anti-,sophi/ic-,e?ic1 ! ,dialectic or m$iat+1 & ! sy/ematic or con/ructive p]iods4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,p]iod--! ,socratic--is m>k$ ext]nally by ! pr$om9ance ( ! dramatic elem5t1 & 9 ref]5ce to its philosophical /&po9t1 by an adh]5ce to ! me?od & ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! ,socratic doctr9e4 ,n yet accurately in=m$ ( ! results ( =m] inquiries1 & r repell$ f ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy ?an attract$ to x by ! "* ( ! ,socratic philosophiz+1 ,plato conf9$ himself to an analytical treatm5t ( conceptions1 p>ticul>ly ( ! conception ( virtue1 & to a reproduc+ ( 8 ma/]1 :i*1 ?\gh some?+ m ?an a m]e recital ( v]bal recollections1 _h yet no philosophical indep5d5ce4 ,8 ,socrates exhibits ! same view ( life & ! same sci5tific /&po9t :i* ! hi/orical ,socrates ( ,x5ophon _h _h4 ,8 ef=ts 7 ?us1 l ^? ( 8 contempor>y fell[ disciples1 direct$ prom95tly t[>d practical wisdom4 ,8 conflicts h[ev]1 l ^? ( ,socrates1 _h f> m weight aga9/ ! prevail+ want ( sci5ce & ! %all[ sophisms ( ! day ?an = ! opposite sci5tific directions4 ,! :ole p]iod be>s an eclectic & hortatory "*4 ,! highe/ po9t 9 :i* ! dialogues ( ?is gr\p culm9ate is ! attempt :i* at ! same "t is f\nd 9 ! ,socratic doctr9e to det]m9e ! c]ta9ty ( an absolute cont5t 7( an objective reality7 to ! good4 ,! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! ,platonic philosophy w\ld assume a v diff]5t =m if ! view ( "s mod]n s*ol>s respect+ ! date ( ! ,phdrus 7 correct4 ,if1 z !y claim1 ! ,phdrus 7 ,plato's e>lie/ "w1 ?is circum/ance w\ld betray f ! outset an entirely diff]5t c\rse ( culture = him ?an we c\ld suppose 9 a m]e s*ol> ( ,socrates4 ,! doctr9e 9 ?is dialogue ( ! pre-exi/5ce ( s\ls1 & _! p]iodical transmigrations1 ( ! relation ( e>?ly beauty ) heav5ly tru?1 ( div9e inspiration 9 contra/ to human wisdom1 ! conception ( love1--^! & o!r ,py?agorean +r$i5ts are all s di/9ct f ! orig9al ,socratic doctr9e t we mu/ transf] ! mo/ ( t :i* ,plato has creatively produc$ dur+ 8 :ole philosophical c>e]1 to ! beg9n+ ( 8 philosophical developm5t4 ,! improbability ( ?is1 & num]\s o!r gr\nds ( objection1 claim a f> lat] composition = ?is dialogue4 ,sett+ aside = ! pres5t ! ,phdrus1 ! ,platonic developm5t assumes ! foll[+ =m3 ,among ! e>lie/ works 7if !y are g5u9e7 are ! small dialogues :i* treat ( ,socratic que/ions & !mes 9 a ,socratic way4 ,( ^! e4 g4 ! ,*>mides discusses temp]ance1 ! ,lysis fri5d%ip1 ! ,la*es valor1 ! less] ,hippias kn[+ & wilful wrong-do+1 ! fir/ ,alcibiades1 ! moral & intellectual qualifications ( a /atesman1 c4 ,! immaturity & ! crud5ess ( ^! dialogues1 ! use ( sc5ic means :i* h only an ext]nal relation to ! cont5t1 ! scant9ess & want ( indep5d5ce 9 ! cont5t1 ! indirect mann] ( inve/igation :i* lacks a satisfactory & positive result1 ! =mal & analytical treatm5t ( ! conceptions discuss$--all ^! features indicate ! e>ly "* ( ^! m9or dialogues4 ,! ,protagoras may be tak5 z a prop] type ( ! ,socratic p]iod4 ,s9ce ?is dialogue1 ?\gh direct+ its :ole polemic aga9/ ! ,sophi/ic philosophy1 conf9$ itself almo/ exclusively to ! outw>d manife/ation ( ?is sy/em1 to its influ5ce on its age & its me?od ( in/ruction 9 opposition to t ( ,socrates1 )\t ent]+ into ! gr\nd & philosophical "* ( ! doctr9e itself1 &1 /ill f>!r1 s9ce1 :5 x comes 9 a /rict s5se to philosophize1 x conf9es itself1 9 an indirect inve/igation1 to ! ,socratic conception ( virtue accord+ to its diff]5t sides 7virtue z kn[+1 its unity & its tea*abl5ess1 cf4 ,,xii4 #h17--;x repres5ts 9 ! cle>e/ mann] ! t5d5cy1 "* & want ( ! fir/ p]iod ( ,plato's lit]>y life4 ,! ,gorgias1 writt5 soon aft] ! dea? ( ,socrates1 repres5ts ! ?ird & highe/ /age ( ?is p]iod4 ,direct$ aga9/ ! ,sophi/ical id5tification ( pleasure & virtue1 ( ! good & ( ! agreeable1 i4 e4 aga9/ ! affirmation ( an absolute moral relativity1 ?is dialogue ma9ta9s ! pro( t ! good1 f> f ow+ its orig9 only to ! "r ( ! /rong]1 & ?us to ! arbitr>9ess ( ! subject1 has 9 itself an indep5d5t reality & objective validity1 &1 consequ5tly1 alone is truly useful1 & ?us1 !re=e1 ! measure ( pleasure mu/ foll[ ! high] measure ( ! good4 ,9 ?is direct & positive polemic aga9/ ! ,sophi/ic doctr9e ( pleasure1 9 its t5d5cy to a view ( ! good z some?+ firm & abid+1 & secure aga9/ all subjective arbitr>9ess1 consi/s prom95tly ! advance :i* ! ,gorgias makes ov] ! ,protagoras4 ,9 ! fir/ ,socratic p]iod ! ,platonic philosophiz+ became ripe & ready = ! reception ( ,eleatic & ,py?agorean categories4 ,to grapple by means ( ^! categories ) ! high] que/ions ( philosophy1 & s to free ! ,socratic philosophy f its s close connection ) practical life1 0 ! task ( ! second p]iod4 ,,! ,,second ,,p]iod--! dialectic or ! ,meg>ic--is m>k$ ext]nally1 by a less prom95ce ( =m & poetic contemplation1 & n unfrequ5tly inde$1 by obscurity & difficulties ( /yle1 & int]nally1 by ! attempt to give a satisfactory m$iation = ! ,eleatic doctr9e & a dialectic f\ndation = ! doctr9e ( ideas4 ,by 8 exile at ,meg>a1 & 8 j\rneys to ,italy1 ,plato became acqua9t$ ) o!r & oppos+ philosophical directions1 f :i* he mu/ n[ sep>ate himself 9 ord] to elevate ! ,socratic doctr9e to its true significance4 ,x 0 n[ t he fir/ le>n$ to "k ! philosophic !ories ( ! e>li] sages1 = ^: /udy ! necess>y means c\ld n at t p]iod1 s want+ 9 lit]>y publicity1 be f\nd at ,a!ns4 ,by 8 sep>ation f ^! v>y+ /&po9ts1 z 8 old] fell[ pupils _h already /riv5 to d1 he attempt$ /rid+ ov] ! n>r[ limits ( e?ical philosophiz+1 to rea* ! f9al gr\nd ( kn[+1 & to c>ry out ! art ( =m+ conceptions z br\ght =w>d by ,socrates1 to a sci5ce ( conceptions1 i4 e4 to ! doctr9e ( ideas4 ,t all human act+ dep5ds ^u kn[+1 & t all ?9k+ dep5ds ^u ! conception1 7 results to :i* ,plato might already h atta9$ ?r\gh ! sci5tific g5]alization ( ! ,socratic doctr9e itself1 b n[ to br+ ?is ,socratic wisdom )9 ! circle ( speculative ?9k+1 to e/abli% dialectically t ! conception 9 its simple unity is t :i* abides 9 ! *ange ( ph5om5a1 to disclose ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( k :i* _h be5 evad$ by ,socrates1 to grasp ! sci5tific !ories ( ! oppos]s direct 9 _! sci5tific gr\nds1 & foll[ !m out 9 all _! ramifications1--?is is ! problem :i* ! ,meg>ic family ( dialogues attempts to solve4 ,! ,!attus /&s at ! head ( ?is gr\p4 ,?is is *iefly direct$ aga9/ ! ,protagorean !ory ( k1 aga9/ ! id5tification ( ! ?9k+ & ! s5sible p]ception1 or aga9/ ! claim ( an objective relativity ( all k4 ,z ! ,gorgias be=e x _h s\ght to e/abli% ! indep5d5t be+ ( ! e?ical1 s does ! ,!attus asc5d+ f ! e?ical to ! !oretical1 endeavor to prove an indep5d5t be+ & objective reality = ! logical conceptions :i* lie at ! gr\nd ( all repres5tation & ?9k+1 9 a ^w1 to prove ! objectivity ( tru?1 ! fact t !re lies a prov9ce ( ?\ght imman5t 9 ! ?9k+ & indep5d5t ( ! p]ceptions ( ! s5ses4 ,^! conceptions1 ^: objective reality is ?us affirm$1 are ^? ( a species1 lik5ess & unlik5ess1 sam5ess & diff]5ce1 c4 ,! ,!attus is foll[$ by ! trilogy ( ! ,sophi/1 ! ,/atesman1 & ! ,philosoph]1 :i* completes ! ,meg>ic gr\p ( dialogues4 ,! fir/ ( ^! dialogues exam9es ! conception ( appe>ance1 t is ( ! n-be+1 ! la/ 7= :i* ! ,p>m5ides may be tak57 ! conception ( be+4 ,bo? dialogues are especially direct$ to ! ,eleatic doctr9e4 ,aft] ,plato _h recogniz$ ! conception 9 its simple unity z t :i* abides 9 ! *ange ( ph5om5a1 8 att5tion 0 naturally turn$ t[>ds ! ,eleatics1 :o 9 an opposite way _h atta9$ ! simil> result t 9 unity consi/s all true sub/antiality1 & to multiplicity z su* no true be+ belongs4 ,9 ord] m easily on ! "o side to c>ry out ?is fundam5tal ?\ght ( ! ,eleatic to its legitimate result1 9 :i* ! ,meg>ians _h already prec$$ him1 he 0 oblig$ to give a metaphysical sub/ance to 8 ab/ract conceptions ( species1 i4 e4 ideas4 ,b on ! o!r side1 he c\ld n agree ) ! inflexibility & exclusiv5ess ( ! ,eleatic unity1 unless he w\ld :olly sacrifice ! multiplicity ( ?+s2 he 0 r oblig$ to attempt to %[ by a dialectic developm5t ( ! ,eleatic pr9ciple t ! "o mu/ be at ! same "t a totality1 organically connect$1 & embrac+ multiplicity 9 itself4 ,?is d\ble relation to ! ,eleatic pr9ciple is c>ri$ out by ! ,sophi/ & ! ,p>m5ides2 by ! =m] polemically aga9/ ! ,eleatic doctr9e1 9 t x proves ! be+ ( ! appe>ance or ! n-be+1 & by ! latt] pacifically1 9 t x analyzes ! ,eleatic "o by its own logical consequ5ces into _m4 ,! inn] progress ( ! doctr9e ( ,ideas 9 ! ,meg>ic gr\p ( dialogues is !re=e ?is1 viz41 t ! ,!attus1 9 opposition to ! ,h]aclitico-,protagorean !ory ( ! absolute becom+1 affirms ! objective & indep5d5t reality ( ideas1 & ! ,sophi/ %[s _! reciprocal relation & comb9+ qualities1 :ile ! ,p>m5ides 9 f9e exhibits _! :ole dialectic complet5ess ) _! relation to ! ph5om5al _w4 ,,! ,,?ird ,,p]iod beg9s ) ! return ( ! philosoph] to 8 native city4 ,x unites ! complet5ess ( =m belong+ to ! fir/ ) ! pr(\nd] *>act]i/ical cont5t belong+ to ! second4 ,! memories ( 8 y\?ful ye>s seem at ?is "t to h ris5 anew be=e ! s\l ( ,plato1 & to h imp>t$ aga9 to 8 lit]>y activity ! long lo/ fre%ness & fulness ( t p]iod1 :ile at ! same "t 8 abode 9 =eign l&s1 & especially 8 acqua9tance ) ! ,py?agorean philosophy1 _h greatly enri*$ 8 m9d ) a /ore ( images & ideals4 ,?is reviv+ ( old memories is se5 9 ! fact t ! writ+s ( ?is gr\p return ) fondness to ! p]sonality ( ,socrates1 & repres5t 9 a c]ta9 degree ! :ole philosophy ( ,plato z ! exaltation ( ! doctr9e & ! ideal embodim5t ( ! hi/orical "* ( 8 e>ly ma/]4 ,9 opposition to bo? ( ! fir/ two p]iods1 ! ?ird is m>k$ ext]nally by an excess ( ! my?ical =m connect$ ) ! gr[+ influ5ce ( ,py?agoreanism 9 ?is p]iod1 & int]nally by ! application ( ! doctr9e ( ideas to ! concrete sph]es ( psy*ology1 e?ics & natural sci5ce4 ,t ideas possess objective reality1 & are ! f\ndation ( all ess5tiality & tru?1 :ile ! ph5om5a ( ! s5sible _w are only copies ( ^!1 0 a !ory ^: v9dication 0 no long] attempt$1 b :i* 0 presuppos$ z already prov$1 & z =m+ a dialectical basis = ! pursuit ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( sci5ce4 ,) ?is 0 connect$ a t5d5cy to unite ! hi!rto sep>ate bran*es ( sci5ce into a sy/ematic :ole1 z well z to m\ld toge!r ! previ\s philosophical directions1 & %[ ! inn] application ( ! ,socratic philosophy = e?ics1 ( ! ,eleatic = dialectics1 & ! ,py?agorean = physics4 ,^u ?is /&po9t1 ! ,phdrus1 ,plato's inaugural to 8 labors 9 ! ,academy1 toge!r ) ! ,symposium1 :i* is closely connect$ ) x1 attempts to subject ! rhetorical !ory & practice ( _! "t to a ?or\gh criticism1 9 ord] to %[ 9 opposition to ?is !ory & practice1 t ! fix$ness & /ability ( a true sci5tific pr9ciple c\ld only be atta9$ by gr\nd+ e ?+ on ! idea4 ,on ! same /&po9t ! ,phdon attempts to prove ! immortality ( ! s\l f ! doctr9e ( ideas2 ! ,philebus to br+ out ! conception ( pleasure & ( ! highe/ good2 ! ,republic to develop ! ess5ce ( ! /ate1 & ! ,timu t ( nature4 ,hav+ ?us sket*$ ! inn] developm5t ( ! ,platonic philosophy1 we n[ turn to a sy/ematic /atem5t ( its pr9ciples4 ,,iii4--,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,platonic ,,sy/em4--,! philosophy ( ,plato1 z left by himself1 is )\t a sy/ematic /atem5t1 & has no compreh5sive pr9ciple ( classification4 ,he has giv5 u only ! hi/ory ( 8 ?9k+1 ! /atem5t ( 8 philosophical developm5t2 we are !re=e limit$ 9 ref]5ce to 8 classification ( philosophy to simple intimations4 ,accord+ly1 "s h divid$ ! ,platonic sy/em into !oretical & practical sci5ce1 & o!rs into a philosophy ( ! good1 ! beautiful & ! true4 ,ano!r classification1 :i* has "s support 9 old records1 is m correct4 ,"s ( ! anci5ts say t ,plato 0 ! fir/ to unite 9 "o :ole ! scatt]$ philosophical elem5ts ( ! e>li] sages1 & s to obta9 = philosophy ! ?ree p>ts1 logic1 physics1 & e?ics4 ,! m accurate /atem5t is giv5 by ,sextus ,empiricus1 t ,plato has laid ! f\ndation = ?is ?reefold division ( philosophy1 b t x 0 fir/ expressly recogniz$ & affirm$ by 8 s*ol>s1 ,x5ocrates & ,ari/otle4 ,! ,platonic sy/em may1 h[ev]1 )\t difficulty1 be divid$ into ^! ?ree p>ts4 ,true1 !re are _m dialogues :i* m+le toge!r 9 diff]5t proportions ! logical1 ! e?ical1 & ! physical elem5t1 & ?\gh ev5 :]e ,plato treats ( "s special discipl9e1 ! ?ree are suff]$ con/antly to int]p5etrate ea* o!r1 /ill !re are "s dialogues 9 :i* ?is fundam5tal s*eme c be cle>ly recogniz$4 ,x _c be mi/ak5 t ! ,timu has pr$om9antly a physical1 & ! ,republic z decid$ly an e?ical elem5t1 & if ! dialectic is expressly repres5t$ 9 no sep>ate dialogue1 yet does ! :ole ,meg>ic gr\p pursue ! common end ( br++ out ! conception ( sci5ce & its true object1 be+1 & is1 !re=e1 9 its cont5t decid$ly dialectical4 ,plato mu/ h be5 l$ to ?is ?reefold division by ev5 ! e>li] developm5t ( philosophy1 & ?\gh ,x5ocrates does n cle>ly see x1 yet s9ce ,ari/otle presupposes x z univ]sally admitt$1 we ne$ n scruple to make x ! basis on :i* to repres5t ! ,platonic sy/em4 ,! ord] :i* ^! diff]5t p>ts %\ld take1 ,plato himself has n decl>$4 ,manife/ly1 h[ev]1 dialectics %\ld h ! fir/ place z ! gr\nd ( all philosophy1 s9ce ,plato uni=mly directs t e philosophical inve/igation %\ld beg9 ) accurately det]m9+ ! idea 7,phd4 p4 #ii4 ,phdr4 p4 #bcg71 :ile he subsequ5tly exam9es all ! concrete sph]es ( sci5ce on ! /&po9t ( ! doctr9e ( ideas4 ,! relative position ( ! o!r two p>ts is n s cle>4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! physics culm9ates 9 ! e?ics1 & ! e?ics1 on ! o!r h&1 has = its basis physical inve/igations into ! ens\l+ p[] 9 nature1 we may assign to physics ! =m] place ( ! two4 ,! ma!matical sci5ces ,plato has expressly exclud$ f philosophy4 ,he consid]s !m z helps to philosophical ?9k+ 7,rep4 ,,vii4 #ebf71 z necess>y /eps ( k1 )\t :i* no "o c come to philosophy 7,ib4 ,,vi4 #eaj72 b ma!matics ) him is n philosophy1 = x assumes its pr9ciples or axioms1 )\t at all acc\nt+ = !m1 z ?\gh !y 7 manife/ to all1 a proc$ure :i* is n p]mitt$ to pure sci5ce2 x also s]ves itself = its demon/rations1 ) illu/rative figures1 al?\gh x does n treat ( ^!1 b ( t :i* !y repres5t to ! und]/&+ 7,ib474 ,plato ?us places ma!matics midway betwe5 a correct op9ion & sci5ce1 cle>] ?an ! "o1 b m obscure ?an ! o!r4 7,ib4 ,,vii4 #ecc47 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,platonic ,,dialectics4 #a4 ,,conception ,,( ,,dialectics4--,! conception ( dialectics or ( logic1 is us$ by ! anci5ts = ! mo/ "p 9 a v wide s5se1 :ile ,plato employs x 9 repeat$ in/ances int]*angeably ) philosophy1 ?\gh on ! o!r h& he treats x also z a sep>ate bran* ( philosophy4 ,he divides x f physics z ! sci5ce ( ! et]nal & un*angeable f ! sci5ce ( ! *angeable1 :i* nev] is1 b is only ev] becom+2 he di/+ui%es also betwe5 x & e?ics1 s f> z ! latt] treats ( ! good n absolutely1 b 9 its concrete exhibition 9 morals & 9 ! /ate2 s t dialectics may be t]m$ philosophy 9 a high] s5se1 :ile physics & e?ics foll[ x z two less exact sci5ces1 or z a n yet p]fect$ philosophy4 ,plato himself def9es dialectics1 accord+ to ! ord9>y signification ( ! ^w1 z ! art ( develop+ k by way ( dialogue 9 que/ions & answ]s4 7,rep4 ,,vii4 #ecd74 ,b s9ce ! art ( communicat+ correctly 9 dialogue is accord+ to ,plato1 at ! same "t ! art ( ?9k+ correctly1 & z ?us ?9k+ & speak+ c\ld n be sep>at$ by ! anci5ts1 b e process ( ?\ght 0 a liv+ dialogue1 s ,plato w\ld m accurately def9e dialectics z ! sci5ce :i* br+s spee* to a correct issue1 & :i* comb9es or sep>ates ! species1 i4 e4 ! conceptions ( ?+s correctly ) "o ano!r4 7,soph4 p4 #bec4 ,phdr4 p4 #bff74 ,dialectics ) him has two divisions1 to "k :at c & :at _c be connect$1 & to "k h[ division or comb9ation c be4 ,b z ) ,plato ^! conceptions ( species or ideas are ! only actual & true exi/5ce1 s h we1 9 entire con=mity ) ?is1 a ?ird def9ition ( dialectics 7,philebus p4 #eg71 z ! sci5ce ( be+1 ! sci5ce ( t :i* is true & un*angeable1 ! sci5ce ( all o!r sci5ces4 ,we may !re=e briefly *>act]ize x z ! sci5ce ( absolute be+ or ( ideas4 #b4 ,,:at ,,is ,,sci5ce8 7#a47 ,z oppos$ to s5sation & ! s5su\s repres5tation4--,! ,!attus is devot$ to ! discussion ( ?is "q 9 opposition to ! ,protagorean s5sualism4 ,t all k consi/s 9 p]ception1 & t ! two are "o & ! same ?+1 0 ! ,protagorean proposition4 ,f ?is x foll[$1 z ,protagoras himself _h inf]r$1 t ?+s are1 z !y appe> to me1 t ! p]ception or s5sation is infallible4 ,b s9ce p]ception & s5sation are inf9itely div]sifi$ ) diff]5t individuals1 & ev5 greatly v>y 9 ! same individual1 x foll[s f>!r1 t !re are no objective det]m9ations & pr$icates1 t we c nev] affirm :at a ?+ is 9 itself1 t all conceptions1 great1 small1 light1 heavy1 to increase1 to dim9i%1 c41 h only a relative significance1 & consequ5tly1 also1 ! conceptions ( species1 z comb9ations ( ! *angeful _m1 are :olly want+ 9 con/ancy & /ability4 ,9 opposition to ?is ,protagorean !sis1 ,plato urges ! foll[+ objections & contradictions4 ,fir/4 ,! ,protagorean doctr9e leads to ! mo/ />tl+ consequ5ces4 ,if be+ & appe>ance1 k & p]ception are "o & ! same ?+1 !n is ! irrational brute1 :i* is capable ( p]ception1 z fully entitl$ to be call$ ! measure ( all ?+s1 z man1 & if ! repres5tation is infallible1 z ! expression ( my subjective "* at a giv5 "t1 !n ne$ !re be no m in/ruction1 no m sci5tific conclusion1 no m /rife1 & no m refutation4 ,second4 ,! ,protagorean doctr9e is a logical contradiction2 = accord+ to x ,protagoras mu/ yield ! "q to e "o :o disputes ) him1 s9ce1 z he himself affirms1 no "o is incorrect1 b e "o judges only accord+ to tru?2 ! pret5d$ tru? ( ,protagoras is !re=e true = no man1 n ev5 = himself4 ,?ird4 ,protagoras de/roys ! k ( future ev5ts4 ,t :i* ,i may reg>d z pr(itable may n !re=e c]ta9ly prove itself z su* 9 ! result4 ,to det]m9e t :i* is really pr(itable implies a calculation ( ! future1 b s9ce ! ability ( m5 to =m su* a calculation is v div]se1 x foll[s f ?is t n man z su*1 b only ! wise man c be ! measure ( ?+s4 ,f\r?4 ,! !ory ( ,protagoras de/roys p]ception4 ,p]ception1 accord+ to him1 re/s ^u a di/9ction ( ! p]ceiv$ object & ! p]ceiv+ subject1 & is ! common product ( ! two4 ,b 9 8 view ! objects are 9 su* an un9t]rupt$ fl[1 t !y c nei!r become fix$ 9 see+ nor 9 he>+4 ,?is condition ( con/ant *ange r5d]s all k f s5se1 & h5ce 7! id5tity ( ! two be+ assum$71 all k impossible4 ,fif?4 ,protagoras ov]looks ! apriori elem5t 9 k4 ,x is se5 9 an analysis ( ! s5se-p]ception itself1 t all k _c be trac$ to ! activity ( ! s5ses1 b t !re mu/ also be presuppos$ besides ^!1 intellectual functions1 & h5ce an indep5d5t prov9ce ( sup]s5sible k4 ,we see ) ! eyes1 & he> ) ! e>s1 b to gr\p toge!r ! p]ceptions atta9$ ?r\gh ^! diff]5t organs1 & to hold !m fa/ 9 ! unity ( self-consci\sness1 is beyond ! p[] ( ! activity ( ! s5ses4 ,aga91 we comp>e ! diff]5t s5se-p]ceptions ) "o ano!r1 a function :i* _c belong to ! s5ses1 s9ce ea* s5se c only furni% its own di/9ctive p]ception4 ,/ill f>!r1 we br+ =w>d det]m9ations respect+ ! p]ceptions :i* we manife/ly _c owe to ! s5ses1 9 t we pr$icate ( ^! p]ceptions1 be+ & n-be+1 lik5ess & unlik5ess1 c4 ,^! det]m9ations1 to :i* also belong ! beautiful & ! odi\s1 good & evil1 con/itute a peculi> prov9ce ( k1 :i* ! s\l1 indep5d5tly ( e s5se-p]ception1 br+s =w>d ?r\gh its own indep5d5t activity4 ,! e?ical elem5t ( ?is ,plato exhibits 9 8 attack ^u s5sualism1 & also 9 o!r dialogues4 ,he ma9ta9s 79 ! ,sophi/71 t m5 hold+ su* op9ions mu/ be improv$ be=e !y c be in/ruct$1 & t :5 made morally bett]1 !y w readily recognize ! tru? ( ! s\l & its moral & rational capacities1 & affirm t ^! are real ?+s1 ?\gh objects ( nei!r sight nor ( feel+4 7#b47 ,! ,relation ( ,kn[+ to ,op9ion4--,op9ion is j z little id5tical ) kn[+ z is ! s5se-p]ception4 ,an incorrect op9ion is c]ta9ly diff]5t f kn[+1 & a correct "o is n ! same1 = x c be eng5d]$ by ! art ( spee* )\t !re=e atta9+ ! validity ( true k4 ,! correct op9ion1 s f> z x is true 9 matt] ?\gh imp]fect 9 =m1 /&s r midway betwe5 kn[+ & n-kn[+1 & p>ticipates 9 bo?4 7#c47 ,! ,relation ( ,sci5ce to ,?9k+4--,9 opposition to ! ,protagorean s5sualism1 we h already ref]r$ to an en]gy ( ! s\l indep5d5t ( ! s5su\s p]ception & s5sation1 compet5t 9 itself to exam9e ! univ]sal1 & grasp true be+ 9 ?\ght4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a d\ble s\rce ( k1 s5sation & rational ?9k+4 ,s5sation ref]s to t :i* is conceiv$ 9 ! con/ant becom+ & p]petual *ange1 to ! pure mom5t>y1 :i* is 9 an incessant transition f ! 01 ?r\gh ! n[1 into ! %all be 7,p>m4 p4 #aeb72 x is1 !re=e1 ! s\rce ( dim1 impure1 & unc]ta9 k2 ?9k+ on ! o!r h& ref]s to ! abid+1 :i* nei!r becomes nor dep>ts1 b rema9s ev] ! same4 7,tim4 p4 #ea47 ,exi/5ce1 says ! ,timu 7p4 #bg7 is ( two k9ds1 8t :i* ev] is b has no becom+1 & t :i* ev] becomes b nev] is4 ,! "o k9d1 :i* is always 9 ! same /ate1 is compreh5d$ ?r\gh reflection by ! reason1 ! o!r1 :i* becomes & dep>ts1 b nev] prop]ly is1 may be appreh5d$ by ! s5su\s p]ception )\t ! reason40 ,true sci5ce1 !re=e1 fl[s alone f t pure & ?or\ghly int]nal activity ( ! s\l :i* is free f all corporeal qualities & e s5su\s di/urbance4 7,phd4 p4 #fe47 ,9 ?is /ate ! s\l looks ^u ?+s purely z !y are 7,phd4 p4 #ff7 9 _! et]nal be+ & _! un*angeable condition4 ,h5ce ! true /ate ( ! philosoph] is ann\nc$ 9 ! ,phdon 7p4 #fd7 to be a will+ness to die1 a long+ to fly f ! body1 z f a h9d]ance to true k1 & become pure _s4 ,accord+ to all ?is1 sci5ce is ! ?9k+ ( true be+ or ( ideas2 ! means to discov] & to "k ^! ideas1 or ! organ = _! appreh5sion is ! dialectic1 z ! art ( sep>at+ & comb9+ conceptions2 ! true objects ( dialectics are ideas4 #c4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,ideas ,,9 ,,its ,,g5esis4--,! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas is ! common product ( ! ,socratic me?od ( =m+ conceptions1 ! ,h]aclitic doctr9e ( absolute becom+1 & ! ,eleatic doctr9e ( absolute be+4 ,to ! fir/ ( ^! ,plato owes ! idea ( a kn[+ ?r\gh conceptions1 to ! second ! recognition ( ! becom+ 9 ! field ( ! s5su\s1 to ! ?ird ! position ( a field ( absolute reality4 ,else:]e 79 ! ,philebus7 ,plato connects ! doctr9e ( ideas ) ! ,py?agorean ?\ght t e ?+ may be =m$ f unity & multiplicity1 f ! limit & ! unlimit$4 ,! aim ( ! ,!attus1 ! ,sophi/1 & ! ,p>m5ides is to refute ! pr9ciples ( ! ,eleatics & ,h]aclitics3 ?is refutation is effect$ 9 ! ,!attus by combat+ directly ! pr9ciple ( an absolute becom+1 9 ! ,sophi/ by combat+ directly ! pr9ciple ( ab/ract be+1 & 9 ! ,p>m5ides by tak+ up ! ,eleatic "o & %[+ its true relations4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! ,!attus2 we w n[ look = ! developm5t ( ! doctr9e ( ideas 9 ! ,sophi/ & ,p>m5ides4 ,! o/5sible end ( ! =m] ( ^! dialogues is to %[ t ! ,sophi/ is really b a c>icature ( ! philosoph]1 b its true end is to fix ! reality ( ! appe>ance1 i4 e4 ( ! n-be+1 & to discuss speculatively ! relation ( be+ & n-be+4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,eleatics end$ ) ! rejection ( all s5su\s k1 decl>+ t :at we receive z ! p]ception ( a multiplicity ( ?+s or ( a becom+ is only an appe>ance4 ,9 ?is ! contradiction 0 cle>1 ! n-be+ 0 absolutely d5i$1 & yet its exi/5ce 0 admitt$ 9 ! notion ( m54 ,plato at once draws att5tion to ?is contradiction1 %[+ t a delusive op9ion1 :i* gives rise to a false image or repres5tation1 is n possible1 s9ce ! :ole !ory re/s ^u ! assumption t ! false1 ! n-true1 i4 e4 n-be+ _c ev5 be ?\ght4 ,?is1 ,plato cont9ues1 is ! great difficulty 9 ?9k+ ( n-be+1 t bo? he :o d5ies & he :o affirms its reality is driv5 to contradict himself4 ,= ?\gh x is inexpressible & inconceivable ei!r z "o or z _m1 /ill1 :5 speak+ ( x1 we mu/ attribute to x bo? be+ & multiplicity4 ,if we admit t !re is su* a ?+ z a false op9ion1 we assume 9 ?is v fact ! notion ( n-be+1 = only t op9ion c be said to be false :i* supposes ei!r ! n-be+ to be1 or makes t1 :i* is n1 to be4 ,9 %ort1 if !re actually exi/s a false notion1 s does !re actually & truly exi/ a n-be+4 ,aft] ,plato _h ?us fix$ ! reality ( n-be+1 he discusses ! relation ( be+ & n-be+1 i4 e4 ! relation ( conceptions g5]ally 9 _! comb9ations & diff]5ces4 ,if n-be+ has no less reality ?an be+1 & be+ no m ?an n-be+1 if1 !re=e1 e4 g4 ! n-great is z truly real z ! great1 !n e conception may be appreh5d$ accord+ to its opposite sides z be+ & n-be+ at ! same "t3 x is a be+ 9 ref]5ce to itself1 z some?+ id5tical ) itself1 b x is n-be+ 9 ref]5ce to e "o ( ! numb]less o!r conceptions :i* c be ref]r$ to x1 & ) :i*1 on acc\nt ( its diff]5ce f !m1 x c h no?+ 9 common4 ,! conception ( ! same & ! diff]5t repres5t ! g5]al =m ( an anti!sis4 ,^! are ! univ]sal =mul ( comb9ation = all conceptions4 ,?is reciprocal relation ( conceptions z at ! same "t be+ & n-be+1 by virtue ( :i* !y c be arrang$ among !mselves1 =ms n[ ! basis = ! art ( dialectics1 :i* has to judge :at conceptions c & :at _c be jo9$ toge!r4 ,plato illu/rates "h by tak+ ! conceptions ( be+1 motion 7becom+71 & re/ 7exi/5ce71 & %[+ :at are ! results ( ! comb9ations ( ^! ideas4 ,! conceptions ( motion & re/ _c well be jo9$ toge!r1 ?\gh bo? ( !m may be jo9$ ) t ( be+1 s9ce bo? are2 ! conception ( re/ is !re=e 9 ref]5ce to itself a be+1 b 9 ref]5ce to ! conception ( motion a n-be+ or diff]5t4 ,?us ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas1 aft] hav+ 9 ! ,!attus atta9$ its g5]al f\ndation 9 fix+ ! objective reality ( conceptions1 becomes n[ /ill f>!r develop$ 9 ! ,sophi/ to a doctr9e ( ! agreem5t & disagreem5t ( conceptions4 ,! category :i* conditions ^! reciprocal relations is t ( n-be+ or diff]5ce4 ,?is fundam5tal ?\ght ( ! ,sophi/1 t be+ is n )\t n-be+ & n-be+ is n )\t be+1 may be express$ 9 mod]n phraseology ?us3 negation is n n-be+ b det]m9at5ess1 & on ! o!r h& all det]m9at5ess & concret5ess ( conceptions1 or e ?+ affirmative c be only ?r\gh negation2 9 o!r words ! conception ( contradiction is ! s\l ( a philosophical me?od4 ,! doctr9e ( ideas appe>s 9 ! ,p>m5ides z ! positive consequ5ce & progressive developm5t ( ! ,eleatic pr9ciple4 ,inde$ 9 ?is dialogue1 9 t ,plato makes ,p>m5ides ! *ief speak]1 he seems will+ to all[ t 8 doctr9e is 9 sub/ance t ( ! ,eleatic sage4 ,true1 ! fundam5tal ?\ght ( ! dialogue--t ! "o is n conceivable 9 its complete s+l5ess )\t ! _m1 nor ! _m )\t ! "o1 t ea* necess>ily presupposes & reciprocally conditions ! o!r--/&s 9 ! mo/ direct contradiction to ,eleaticism4 ,yet ,p>m5ides himself1 by divid+ 8 poem into two p>ts1 & treat+ 9 ! fir/ ( ! "o & 9 ! second ( ! _m1 po/ulates an inn] m$iation betwe5 ^! two ext]nally s disjo9t$ p>ts ( 8 philosophy1 & 9 ?is respect ! ,platonic !ory ( ideas might give itself out z ! f>!r elim9ation1 & ! true s5se ( ! ,p>m5idean philosophiz+4 ,?is dialectical m$iation betwe5 ! "o & ! n-"o or ! _m ,plato n[ attempts 9 f\r ant9omies1 :i* h o/5sibly only a negative result 9 s f> z !y %[ t contradictions arise bo? :e!r ! "o be adopt$ or reject$4 ,! positive s5se ( ^! ant9omies1 ?\gh x c be ga9$ only ?r\gh inf]5ces :i* ,plato himself does n expressly utt]1 b leaves to be drawn by ! read]--is z foll[s4 ,! fir/ ant9omy %[s t ! "o is inconceivable z su* s9ce x is only appreh5d$ 9 its ab/ract opposition to ! _m2 ! second1 t 9 ?is case also ! reality ( ! _m is inconceivable2 ! ?ird1 t ! "o or ! idea _c be conceiv$ z n-be+1 s9ce !re c be nei!r conception nor pr$icate ( ! absolute n-be+1 & s9ce1 if n-be+ is exclud$ f all fell[%ip ) be+1 all becom+ & dep>t+1 all simil>ity & diff]5ce1 e repres5tation & explanation conc]n+ x mu/ also be d5i$2 & la/ly1 ! f\r? affirms t ! n-"o or ! _m _c be conceiv$ )\t ! "o or ! idea4 ,:at n[ is ,plato's aim 9 ?is discussion ( ! dialectic relations betwe5 ! conceptions ( ! "o & ! _m8 ,w\ld he use ! conception ( ! "o only z an example to expla9 8 dialectic me?od ) conceptions1 or is ! discussion ( ?is conception itself ! v object be=e him8 ,manife/ly ! latt]1 or ! dialogue ends )\t result & )\t any inn] connection ( its two p>ts4 ,b h[ came ,plato to make su* a special inve/igation ( ?is conception ( ! "o8 ,if we be> 9 m9d t ! ,eleatics _h already p]ceiv$ ! anti!sis ( ! actual & ! ph5om5al _w 9 ! anti!sis ( ! "o & ! _m1 & t ,plato himself _h also reg>d$ 8 ideas z ! unity ( ! manifold1 z ! "o & ! same 9 ! _m--s9ce he repeat$ly uses 8idea0 & 8! "o0 9 ! same s5se1 & places 7,rep4 ,,vii4 #ecg7 dialectics 9 ! same rank ) ! faculty ( br++ _m to unity--!n is x cle> t ! "o :i* is made an object ( inve/igation 9 ! ,p>m5ides is ! idea 9 its g5]al s5se1 i4 e4 9 its logical =m1 & t ,plato consequ5tly 9 ! dialectic ( ! "o & ! _m w\ld repres5t ! dialectic ( ! idea & ! ph5om5al _w1 or 9 o!r words w\ld dialectically det]m9e & e/abli% ! correct view ( ! idea z ! unity 9 ! manifoldness ( ! ph5om5al4 ,9 t x is %[n 9 ! ,p>m5ides1 on ! "o side1 t ! _m _c be conceiv$ )\t ! "o1 & on ! o!r side1 t ! "o mu/ be some?+ :i* embraces 9 itself manifoldness1 s h we ! ready inf]5ce on ! "o side1 t ! ph5om5al _w1 or ! _m1 has a true be+ only 9 s f> z x has ! "o or ! conception )9 x1 & on ! o!r side1 t s9ce ! conception is n an ab/ract "o b manifoldness 9 unity1 x mu/ actually h manifoldness 9 unity 9 ord] to be able to be 9 ! ph5om5al _w4 ,! indirect result ( ! ,p>m5ides is t matt] z ! inf9itely divisible & undet]m9$ mass has no actuality1 b is 9 relation to ! ideal _w a n-be+1 & ?\gh ! ideas z ! true be+ ga9 _! appe>ance 9 x1 yet ! idea itself is all t is actual 9 ! appe>ance or ph5om5on2 ! ph5om5al _w d]ives its :ole exi/5ce f ! ideal _w :i* appe>s 9 x1 & has a be+ only s f> z x has a conception or idea = its cont5t4 #d4 ,,positive ,,exposition ,,( ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,ideas4--,ideas may be def9$ accord+ to ! diff]5t sides ( _! hi/orical connection1 z ! common 9 ! manifold1 ! univ]sal 9 ! p>ticul>1 ! "o 9 ! _m1 or ! con/ant & abid+ 9 ! *ang+4 ,subjectively !y are pr9ciples ( kn[+ :i* _c be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce !y are ! intuitively c]ta9 & innate regulators ( our k4 ,objectively !y are ! immutable pr9ciples ( be+ & ( ! ph5om5al _w1 incorporeal & simple unities :i* h no relation to space1 & :i* may be pr$icat$ ( e indep5d5t ?+4 ,! doctr9e ( ideas grew orig9ally out ( ! desire to give a def9ite conception to ! inn] ess5ce ( ?+s1 & make ! real _w conceivable z a h>moni\sly connect$ intellectual _w4 ,?is desire ( sci5tific k ,ari/otle cites expressly z ! motive to ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas4 8,plato10 he says 7,metaph4 ,,xiii4 #d71 8came to ! doctr9e ( ideas because he 0 conv9c$ ( ! tru? ( ! ,h]aclitic view :i* reg>d$ ! s5sible _w z a ceaseless fl[+ & *ang+4 ,8 conclusion f ?is 01 t if !re be a sci5ce ( any ?+ !re mu/ be1 besides ! s5sible1 o!r sub/ances :i* h a p]man5ce1 = !re c be no sci5ce ( ! fleet+40 ,x is1 !re=e1 ! idea ( sci5ce :i* dem&s ! reality ( ideas1 a dem& :i* _c be grant$ unless an idea or conception is also ! gr\nd ( all be+4 ,?is is ! case ) ,plato4 ,accord+ to him !re c be nei!r a true kn[+ nor a true be+ )\t ideas & conceptions :i* h an indep5d5t reality4 ,:at n[ does ,plato mean by idea8 ,f :at has already be5 said x is cle> t he means some?+ m ?an ideal conceptions ( ! beautiful & ! good4 ,an idea is f\nd1 z ! "n itself 77 indicates1 :]ev] a univ]sal conception ( a species or k9d is f\nd4 ,h5ce ,plato speaks ( ! idea ( a b$1 table1 /r5g?1 heal?1 voice1 color1 ideas ( simple relations & prop]ties1 ideas ( ma!matical figures1 & ev5 ideas ( n-be+1 & ( t1 :i* 9 its ess5ce only contradicts ! idea1 bas5ess & vice4 ,9 a ^w1 we may put an idea :]ev] _m ?+s may be *>act]iz$ by a common "n 7,rep4 ,x4 #eif73 or z ,ari/otle expresses x 7,met4 ,,xii4 #c74 ,plato places an idea to e class ( be+4 ,9 ?is s5se ,plato himself speaks 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,p>m5ides4 ,p>m5ides asks ! "y ,socrates :at he calls ideas4 ,socrates answ]s by nam+ unconditionally ! moral ideas1 ! ideas ( ! true1 ! beautiful1 ! good1 & !n aft] a little delay he m5tions "s physical ones1 z ! ideas ( man1 ( fire1 ( wat]2 he w n all[ ideas to be pr$icat$ ( t :i* is only a =mless mass1 or :i* is a "p ( some?+ else1 z hair1 mud & clay1 b 9 ?is he is answ]$ by ,p>m5ides1 t if he w\ld be fully imbu$ ) philosophy1 he mu/ n consid] su* ?+s z ^! to be :olly despicable1 b %\ld look ^u !m z truly ?\gh remotely p>ticipat+ 9 ! idea4 ,"h at lea/ ! claim is ass]t$ t no prov9ce ( be+ is exclud$ f ! idea1 t ev5 t :i* appe>s mo/ accid5tal & irrational is yet a "p ( rational k1 9 fact t e ?+ exi/+ may be br\ght )9 a rational conception4 #e4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,ideas ,,to ,,! ,,ph5om5al ,,_w4 ,analog\s to ! diff]5t def9itions ( idea are ! diff]5t names :i* ,plato gives to ! s5sible & ph5om5al _w4 ,he calls x ! _m1 ! divisible1 ! unb\nd$1 ! undet]m9$ & measureless1 ! becom+1 ! relative1 great & small1 n-be+4 ,! relation n[ 9 :i* ^! two worlds ( s5se & ( ideas /& to ea* o!r is a "q :i* ,plato has answ]$ nei!r fully nor consi/5tly ) himself4 ,8 mo/ common way is to *>act]ize ! relation ( ?+s to conceptions z a p>ticipant1 or to call ?+s ! copies & adumbrations1 :ile ideas are ! ar*etypes4 ,yet ?is is s indef9ite t ,ari/otle prop]ly says t to talk 9 ?is way is only to use poetical metaphors4 ,! great difficulty ( ! doctr9e ( ideas is n solv$ b only increas$ by ^! figurative repres5tations4 ,! difficulty lies 9 ! contradiction :i* gr[s out ( ! fact t :ile ,plato admits ! reality ( ! becom+ & ( ! prov9ce ( ! becom+1 he /ill affirms t ideas :i* are sub/ances ev] at re/ & ev] ! same are ! only actual4 ,n[ 9 ?is ,plato is =mally consi/5t ) himself1 :ile he *>act]izes ! matriel ( matt] n z a positive sub/ratum b z n-be+1 & gu>ds himself ) ! express affirmation t he does n consid] ! s5sible z be+1 b only z some?+ simil> to be+4 7,rep4 ,x4 #eig47 ,! position laid d[n 9 ! ,p>m5ides is also consi/5t ) ?is1 t a p]fect philosophy %\ld look ^u ! idea z ! cognizable 9 ! ph5om5al _w1 & %\ld foll[ x out 9 ! smalle/ p>ticul>s until e "p ( be+ %\ld be kn[n & all dualism remov$4 ,9 f9e1 ,plato 9 _m ( 8 expressions seems to reg>d ! _w ( s5sation only z a subjective appe>ance1 z a product ( ! subjective notion1 z ! result ( a confus$ way ( repres5t+ ideas4 ,9 ?is s5se ! ph5om5a are entirely dep5d5t on ideas2 !y are no?+ b ! ideas !mselves 9 ! =m ( n be+2 ! ph5om5al _w d]ives its :ole exi/5ce f ! ideal _w :i* appe>s 9 x4 ,b yet :5 ,plato calls ! s5sible a m+l+ ( ! same ) ! diff]5t or ! n-be+ 7,tim4 p4 #ce71 :5 he *>act]izes ! ideas z v[els :i* g ?r\gh e ?+ l a *a9 7,soph4 p4 #bec71 :5 he himself conceives ! possibility t matt] might (f] opposition to ! =mative en]gy ( ideas 7,tim4 p4 #ef71 :5 he speaks ( an evil s\l ( ! _w 7de ,leg4 ,x4 #hif71 & gives intimations ( ! pres5ce 9 ! _w ( a pr9ciple 9 nature ho/ile to ,god 7,polit4 p4 #bfh71 :5 he 9 ! ,phdon treats ( ! relation betwe5 body & s\l z "o :olly discordant & malignant1--9 all ?is !re is evid5ce en\gh1 ev5 aft] all[+ = ! my?ical =m ( ! ,timu1 & ! rhetorical composition :i* prevails 9 ! ,phdon1 to sub/antiate ! contradiction m5tion$ above4 ,?is is mo/ cle> 9 ! ,timu4 ,plato 9 ?is dialogue makes ! s5sible _w to be =m$ by a ,creator aft] ! patt]n ( an idea1 b 9 ?is he lays d[n z a condition t ?is ,demi-urge or ,creator %\ld f9d at h& a some?+ :i* %\ld be apt to receive & exhibit ?is ideal image4 ,?is some?+ ,plato comp>es to ! matt] :i* is fa%ion$ by ! artisan 7:5ce ! lat] "n hyle74 ,he *>act]izes x z :olly undet]m9$ & =mless1 b possess+ 9 itself an aptitude = e v>iety ( =ms1 an invisible & %apeless ?+1 a some?+ :i* x is difficult to *>act]ize1 & :i* ,plato ev5 does n seem incl9$ v closely to describe4 ,9 ?is ! actuality ( matt] is d5i$2 :ile ,plato makes x equival5t to space x is only ! place1 ! negative condition ( ! s5sible :ile x possesses a be+ only z x receives 9 itself ! ideal =m4 ,/ill matt] rema9s ! objective & ph5om5al =m ( ! idea3 ! visible _w arises only ?r\gh ! m+l+ ( ideas ) ?is sub/ratum1 & if matt] be metaphysically express$ z 8! diff]5t10 !n does x foll[ ) logical necessity 9 a dialectical discussion t x is j z truly be+ z n-be+4 ,plato does n conceal f himself ?is difficulty1 & !re=e attempts to repres5t ) comp>isons & images ?is presupposition ( a hyle :i* he f9ds x z impossible to d )\t z to express 9 a conceivable =m4 ,if he w\ld d )\t x he mu/ rise to ! conception ( an absolute creation1 or consid] matt] z an ultimate emanation f ! absolute _s1 or else expla9 x z appe>ance only4 ,?us ! ,platonic sy/em is only a fruitless /ruggle aga9/ dualism4 #f4 ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,good ,,& ,,! ,,deity4 ,if ! true & ! real is exhibit$ 9 g5]al conceptions :i* are s relat$ to ea* o!r t e high] conception embraces & comb9es "u x sev]al l[]1 s t any "o />t+ f a s+le idea may ev5tually discov] all 7,m5o4 p4 #ha71 !n mu/ ! sum ( ideas =m a connect$ organism & succession 9 :i* ! l[] idea appe>s z a /epp+-/one & presupposition to a high]4 ,?is succession mu/ h its end 9 an idea :i* ne$s no high] idea or presupposition to su/a9 x4 ,?is highe/ idea1 ! ultimate limit ( all k1 & itself ! indep5d5t gr\nd ( all o!r ideas1 ,plato calls ! idea ( ! good1 i4 e4 n ( ! moral b ( ! metaphysical good4 7,rep4 ,,vii4 #eag47 ,:at ?is good is 9 itself1 ,plato und]takes to %[ only 9 images4 8,9 ! same mann] z ! sun10 he says 9 ! ,republic 7,,vi4 #ejf71 8is ! cause ( sight1 & ! cause n m]ely t objects are visible b also t !y gr[ & are produc$1 s ! good is ( su* p[] & beauty1 t x is n m]ely ! cause ( sci5ce to ! s\l1 b is also ! cause ( be+ & reality to :atev] is ! object ( sci5ce1 & z ! sun is n itself sight or ! object ( sight b presides ov] bo?1 s ! good is n sci5ce & tru? b is sup]ior to bo?1 !y be+ n ! good itself b ( a goodly nature40 ,! good has uncondition$ wor?1 & gives to e o!r ?+ all ! value x possesses4 ,! idea ( ! good excludes all presupposition4 ,x is ! ultimate gr\nd at ! same "t ( kn[+ & ( be+1 ( ! p]ceiv] & ! p]ceiv$1 ( ! subjective & ! objective1 ( ! ideal & ! real1 ?\gh exalt$ itself above su* a division4 7,rep4 ,,vi4 #ejh-eag47 ,plato1 h[ev]1 has n attempt$ a d]ivation ( ! rema9+ ideas f ! idea ( ! good2 8 c\rse "h is :olly an empirical "o2 a c]ta9 class ( objects are tak51 & hav+ ref]r$ ^! to _! common ess5ce ?is is giv5 out z _! idea4 ,he has treat$ ! individual conceptions s indep5d5tly1 & has made ea* "o s complete 9 itself1 t x is impossible to f9d a prop] division or e/abli% an imman5t cont9uation ( "o into ano!r4 ,x is difficult to say precisely :at relation ?is idea ( ! good bore to ! ,deity 9 ! ,platonic view4 ,tak+ e ?+ toge!r x seems cle> t ,plato reg>d$ ! two z id5tical1 b :e!r he conceiv$ ?is highe/ cause to be a p]sonal be+ or n is a "q :i* h>dly admits ( a def9ite answ]4 ,! logical result ( 8 sy/em w\ld exclude ! p]sonality ( ,god4 ,if only ! univ]sal 7! idea7 is ! true be+1 !n c ! only absolute idea1 ! ,deity1 be only ! absolute univ]sal2 b t ,plato 0 himself consci\s ( ?is logical conclusion we c h>dly affirm1 any m ?an we c say on ! o!r h& t he 0 cle>ly a !i/4 ,= :5ev] 9 a my?ical or popul> /atem5t he speaks ( innum]able gods1 ?is only indicates t he is speak+ 9 ! language ( ! popul> religion1 & :5 he speaks 9 an accurate philosophical s5se1 he only makes ! relation ( ! p]sonal deity ) ! idea a v unc]ta9 "o4 ,mo/ probable1 !re=e1 is x t ?is :ole "q conc]n+ ! p]sonality ( ,god 0 n yet def9itely be=e him1 t he took up ! religi\s idea ( ,god & def5d$ x 9 e?ical int]e/ aga9/ ! an?ropomorphism ( ! my?ic poets1 t he s\ght to e/abli% x by argum5ts drawn f ! evid5ces ( design 9 nature1 & ! univ]sal preval5ce ( a belief 9 a ,god1 :ile z a philosoph] he made no use ( x4 ,v4 ,,! ,,platonic ,,physics4 #a4 ,,nature4--,! connection betwe5 ! ,physics & ! ,dialectics ( ,plato lies pr9cipally 9 two po9ts--! conception ( becom+1 :i* =ms ! *ief prop]ty ( nature1 & t ( real be+1 :i* is at once ! all suffici5t & good1 & ! true end ( all becom+4 ,because nature belongs to ! prov9ce ( irrational s5sation we _c look = ! same accuracy 9 ! treatm5t ( x1 z is furni%$ 9 dialectics4 ,plato !re=e appli$ himself ) mu* less ze/ to physical inve/igations ?an to ^? ( an e?ical or dialectical "*1 & inde$ only att5d$ to !m 9 8 lat] ye>s4 ,only 9 "o dialogue1 ! ,timu1 d we f9d any ext5d$ evolution ( physical doctr9es1 & ev5 "h ,plato seems to h gone to 8 "w ) mu* less indep5d5ce ?an 8 wont1 ?is dialogue be+ m /rongly t9ctur$ ) ,py?agoreanism ?an any o!r ( 8 writ+s4 ,! difficulty ( ! ,timu is increas$ by ! my?ical =m on :i* ! old comm5tators !mselves h /umbl$4 ,if we take ! fir/ impression t x gives u1 we h1 be=e ! creation ( ! _w1 a ,creator z a mov+ & a reflect+ pr9ciple1 ) on ! "o side ! ideal _w exi/+ immovable z ! et]nal ar*etype1 & on ! o!r side1 a *aotic1 =mless1 irregul>1 fluctuat+ mass1 :i* holds 9 itself ! g]m ( ! mat]ial _w1 b has no det]m9$ "* nor sub/ance4 ,) ^! two elem5ts ! ,creator n[ bl5ds ! _w-s\l :i* he di/ributes accord+ to ! relation ( numb]s1 & sets x 9 def9ite & h>moni\s motion4 ,9 ?is way ! mat]ial _w1 :i* has become actual ?r\gh ! arrangem5t ( ! *aotic mass into ! f\r elem5ts1 f9ds its ext]nal frame1 & ! process ?us begun is complet$ 9 its ext]nal /ructure by ! =mation ( ! organic _w4 ,x is difficult to sep>ate ! my?ical & ! philosophical elem5ts 9 ?is cosmogony ( ! ,timu1 especially difficult to det]m9e h[ f> ! hi/orical con/ruction1 :i* gives a succession 9 "t to ! acts ( creation1 is only a =mal "o1 & also h[ f> ! affirmation t matt] is absolutely a n-be+ c be h>moniz$ ) ! g5]al t5or ( ,plato's /atem5ts4 ,! significance ( ! _w-s\l is cle>]4 ,s9ce ! s\l 9 ! ,platonic sy/em is ! mean betwe5 _s & body1 & z 9 ! same way ma!matical relations1 9 _! mo/ univ]sal expression z numb]s1 are ! mean betwe5 m]e s5su\s exi/5ce & ! pure idea 7betwe5 ! "o & ! _m z ,plato expresses x71 x w\ld seem cle> t ! _w-s\l1 con/ru$ accord+ to ! relation ( numb]s1 mu/ express ! relation ( ! _w ( ideas to t ( s5se1 9 o!r words1 t x d5otes ! s5sible _w z a ?\ght repres5t$ 9 ! =m ( mat]ial exi/5ce4 ,! ,platonic view ( nature1 9 opposition to ! me*anical attempts to expla9 x ( ! e>li] philosoph]s1 is entirely teleological1 & bas$ ^u ! conception ( ! good1 or1 on ! moral idea4 ,plato conceives ! _w z ! image ( ! good1 z ! "w ( ! div9e munific5ce4 ,z x is ! image ( ! p]fect x is !re=e only "o1 correspond+ to ! idea ( ! s+le all-embrac+ sub/ance1 = an inf9ite numb] ( worlds is n to be conceiv$ z actual4 ,= ! same reason ! _w is sph]ical1 aft] ! mo/ p]fect & uni=m /ructure1 :i* embraces 9 itself all o!r =ms2 its movem5t is 9 a circle1 because ?is1 by return+ into itself1 is mo/ l ! movem5t ( reason4 ,! p>ticul> po9ts ( ! ,timu1 ! d]ivation ( ! f\r elem5ts1 ! sep>ation ( ! sev5 planets accord+ to ! musical scale1 ! op9ion t ! />s 7 immortal & heav5ly sub/ances1 ! affirmation t ! e>? holds an abid+ position 9 ! middle ( ! _w1 a view :i* subsequ5tly became elaborat$ to ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 ! ref]5ce ( all mat]ial figures to ! triangle z ! simple/ plane figure1 ! division ( inanimate nature1 accord+ to ! f\r elem5ts1 into creatures ( e>?1 wat]1 & air1 8 discussions respect+ organic nature1 & especially respect+ ! con/ruction ( ! human body--all ^! we ne$ "h only m5tion4 ,_! philosophical wor? consi/s n s mu* 9 _! mat]ial cont5t1 b r 9 _! fundam5tal idea1 t ! _w %\ld be conceiv$ z ! image & ! "w ( reason1 z an organism ( ord]1 h>mony1 & beauty1 z ! good actualiz+ itself4 #b4 ,,! ,,s\l4--,! doctr9e ( ! s\l1 consid]+ x simply z ! basis ( a moral action1 & leav+ out ( view all que/ions ( concrete e?ics1 =ms a con/itu5t elem5t 9 ! ,platonic physics4 ,s9ce ! s\l is unit$ to ! body1 x p>ticipates 9 ! motions & *anges ( ! body1 & is1 9 ?is respect1 relat$ to ! p]i%able4 ,b 9 s f> z x p>ticipates 9 ! k ( ! et]nal1 i4 e4 9 s f> z x kn[s ideas1 does !re live )9 x a div9e pr9ciple--reason4 ,accord+ly1 ,plato di/+ui%es two compon5ts ( ! s\l--! div9e & ! mortal1 ! rational & ! irrational4 ,^! two are unit$ by an int]m$iate l9k1 :i* ,plato calls or _s1 & :i*1 ?\gh alli$ to reason is n reason itself1 s9ce x is (t5 exhibit$ 9 *ildr5 & also 9 brutes1 & s9ce ev5 m5 are (t5 c>ri$ away by x )\t reflection4 ,?is ?reefoldness1 "h exhibit$ psy*ologically1 is f\nd1 9 diff]5t applications1 ?r\gh all ! la/ g5]al p]iod ( ,plato's lit]>y life4 ,bas$ ^u ! an?ropological triplicate ( reason1 s\l & body1 x corresponds also to ! division ( !oretical k into sci5ce 7or ?9k+71 correct op9ions 7or s5se-p]ception71 & ignorance1 to ! triple ladd] ( eroticism 9 ! ,symposium & ! my?ological repres5tation connect$ ) ?is ( ,poros1 ,eros1 & ,p5ia2 to ! metaphysical triplicate ( ! ideal _w1 ma!matical relations & ! s5sible _w2 & furni%es gr\nd = d]iv+ ! e?ical division ( virtue & ! political division ( ranks4 ,s f> z ! s\l is a mean betwe5 ! spiritual & corporeal1 may we connect ! ,phdon's pro(s ( its immortality ) ! psy*ological view n[ be=e u4 ,! common ?\ght ( ^! argum5ts is t ! s\l1 9 its capacity = ?9k+1 p>ticipates 9 ! reason1 & be+ ?us ( an opposite nature to1 & uncontroll$ by ! corporeal1 x may h an indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,! argum5ts are :olly analytical1 & possess no valid & univ]sal pro(2 !y proce$ entirely ^u a petitio pr9cipii1 !y are d]iv$ p>tly f my?ical philosophemes1 & manife/ n only an obscure conception ( ! s\l1 b ( its relations to ! body & ! reason1 &1 s f> z ! relation ( ! s\l to ! ideal _w is 9 view1 !y furni% 9 ! be/ case only "s pro( = ! immortality ( him :o has rais$ 8 s\l to a pure _s1 i4 e4 ! immortality ( ! philosoph]4 ,plato 0 n himself deceiv$ z to ! !oretical insuffici5cy ( 8 argum5ts4 ,_! numb] w\ld %[ ?is1 &1 besides1 he expressly calls !m pro(s :i* am\nt to only human probability1 & furni% practical po/ulates alone4 ,) ?is view he introduces at ! close ( 8 argum5ts ! my? ( ! l[] _w1 & ! /ate ( dep>t$ s\ls1 9 ord]1 by comply+ ) ! religi\s notions1 & traditions ( 8 c\ntrym51 to ga9 a positive support = belief 9 ! s\l's immortality4 ,else:]e ,plato also speaks ( ! l[] _w1 & ( ! future rew>ds & puni%m5ts ( ! good & ! evil1 9 accordance ) ! popul> notions1 z ?\gh he saw ! elem5ts ( a div9e revelation !re92 he tells ( purify+ puni%m5t 9 ,hades1 analog\s to a purgatory2 he avails himself ( ! common notion to affirm t %ades /ill subject to ! corporeal pr9ciple w hov] aft] dea? ov] _! graves1 seek+ to recov] _! lifeless bodies1 & at times he dilates ^u ! migration ( ! s\l to v>i\s human & brute =ms4 ,on ! :ole1 we f9d 9 ,plato's pro(s ( immortality1 z 9 8 psy*ology g5]ally1 t dualism1 :i* "h expresses itself z hatr$ to ! corporeal1 & is connect$ ) ! t5d5cy to seek ! ultimate gr\nd ( evil 9 ! nature ( ! 8diff]5t0 & ! s5sible _w4 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,platonic ,,e?ics4--,! gr\nd idea ( ! good1 :i* 9 physics s]v$ only z an inv5tive conception1 f9ds n[1 9 ! e?ics1 its true exhibition4 ,plato has develop$ x prom95tly accord+ to ?ree sides1 z good1 z individual virtue1 & z e?ical _w 9 ! /ate4 ,! conception ( duty rema9s 9 ! backgr\nd ) him z ) ! old] philosoph]s4 #a4 ,,good ,,& ,,pleasure4--,t ! highe/ good c be no?+ o!r ?an ! idea ( ! good itself1 has already be5 %[n 9 ! dialectics1 :]e ?is idea 0 suff]$ to appe> z ! ultimate end ( all our /riv+4 ,b s9ce ! dialectics repres5t ! supreme good z unatta9able by human reason1 & only cognizable 9 its diff]5t modes ( manife/ation1 we c1 !re=e1 only foll[ ^! diff]5t manife/ations ( ! highe/ good1 :i* repres5t n ! good itself1 b ! good 9 becom+1 :]e x appe>s z sci5ce1 tru?1 beauty1 virtue1 c4 ,we are ?us n requir$ to be equal to ,god1 b only l him 7,!t47 ,x is ?is po9t ( view :i* lies at ! basis ( ! graduat$ table ( good1 giv5 9 ! ,philebus4 ,9 seek+ ! highe/ good1 ! conception ( pleasure mu/ be inve/igat$4 ,! ,platonic /&po9t "h is ! attempt to /rike a balance betwe5 ,h$onism1 7! ,cyr5ian !ory t pleasure is ! highe/ good1 cf4 ,,xiii4 #c71 & ,cynicism4 ,:ile he w n admit ) ,ari/ippus t pleasure is ! true good1 nei!r w he f9d x z ! ,cynics ma9ta91 simply 9 ! negation ( its contr>y1 pa91 & ?us d5y t x belongs to ! good ?+s ( human life4 ,he f9ds 8 refutation ( ,h$onism 9 ! indet]m9at5ess & relativity ( all pleasure1 s9ce t :i* at "o "t may seem z pleasure1 "u o!r circum/ances may appe> z pa92 & s9ce he :o *ooses pleasure )\t di/9ction1 w f9d impure pleasures always comb9$ 9 8 life ) m or less ( pa92 8 refutation ( ,cynicism he e/abli%es by %[+ ! necess>y connection betwe5 virtue & true pleasure1 %[+ t !re is a true & endur+ pleasure1 ! pleasure ( reason1 f\nd 9 ! possession ( tru? & ( goodness1 :ile a rational condition sep>ate f all pleasure1 _c be ! highe/ good ( a f9ite be+4 ,x is mo/ prom95tly by ?is di/9ction ( a true & false1 ( a pure & impure pleasure1 t ,plato adju/s ! controv]sy ( ! two ,socratic s*ools4--,a detail$ exhibition ( ! ,philebus we mu/ "h omit4--,on ! :ole1 9 ! ,platonic appreh5sion ( pleasure1 we _c b notice t same vacillation ) :i* ,plato e :]e treats ( ! relation betwe5 ! corporeal & ! spiritual1 at "o "t consid]+ ! =m] z a h9drance to ! latt]1 & at ano!r z its s]v+ in/rum5t2 n[1 reg>d+ x z a concurr+ cause to ! good1 & !n1 z ! gr\nd ( all evil2 "h1 z some?+ purely negative1 & !re1 z a positive sub/ratum :i* supports all ! high] intellectual developm5ts2 & 9 con=mity ) ?is1 pleasure is also consid]$ at "o "t z some?+ equival5t to a moral act1 & to k1 & at ano!r z ! means & accid5tal consequ5ce ( ! good4 #b4 ,,virtue4--,9 8 !ory ( virtue1 ,plato is :olly ,socratic4 ,he holds fa/ to ! op9ion t x is sci5ce 7,protagoras71 & !re=e1 tea*able 7,m5o71 & z to its unity1 x foll[s f ! dialectical pr9ciple t ! "o c be manifold1 or ! manifold "o1 t1 !re=e1 virtue mu/ bo? be reg>d$ z "o1 & also 9 a diff]5t respect1 z _m4 ,plato ?us br+s out prom95tly ! union & connection ( all virtues1 & is fond ( pa9t+1 especially 9 ! introductory dialogues1 "s s+le virtue z compris+ 9 itself ! sum ( all ! re/4 ,plato foll[s = ! mo/ "p ! f\rfold division ( virtues1 z popul>ly made2 & fir/1 9 ! ,republic 7,,iv4 #dda71 he attempts a sci5tific d]ivation ( !m1 by ref]r+ to ea* ( ! ?ree p>ts ( ! s\l its appropriate virtue4 ,! virtue ( ! reason he calls prud5ce or wisdom1 ! direct+ or measur+ virtue1 )\t ^: activity valor w\ld s9k to brute impulse1 & calm endurance to /upid indiff]5ce2 ! virtue ( _s is valor1 ! help-meet ( reason1 or _s 77 p5etrat$ by sci5ce1 :i* 9 ! /ruggle aga9/ pleasure & pa91 desire & fe>1 pres]ves ! rational intellig5ce aga9/ ! al>ms ) :i* s5su\s desires1 w\ld seek to sway ! s\l2 ! virtue ( ! s5su\s desires1 & :i* has to r$uce ^! )9 true & prop] gr\nds1 is temp]ance1 & t virtue 9 f9e to :i* belong ! due regulation & mutual adju/m5t ( ! sev]al p[]s ( ! s\l1 & :i*1 !re=e1 con/itutes ! bond & ! unity ( ! ?ree o!r virtues1 is ju/ice4 ,9 ?is la/ conception1 t ( ju/ice1 all ! elem5ts ( moral culture meet toge!r & c5tre1 exhibit+ ! moral life ( ! individual z a p]fect :ole1 & !n1 by requir+ an application ( ! same pr9ciple to communities1 ! moral consid]ation is advanc$ beyond ! n>r[ circle ( individual life4 ,?us is e/abli%$ ! :ole ( ! moral _w--,ju/ice 89 great lett]s10 ! moral life 9 its complete totality1 is ! /ate4 ,9 ?is is fir/ actualiz$ ! dem& = ! complete h>mony ( ! human life4 ,9 & ?r\gh ! /ate comes ! complete =mation ( matt] = ! reason4 #c4 ,,! ,,/ate4--,! ,platonic /ate is g5]ally reg>d$ z an ideal or *im]a1 :i* x is impracticable to realize among m54 ,?is view ( ! case has ev5 be5 ascrib$ to ,plato1 & x has be5 said t 9 8 ,republic he attempt$ to sket* only a f9e ideal ( a /ate con/itution1 :ile 9 ! ,laws he trac$ out a practicable philosophy ( ! /ate f ! /&po9t ( ! common consci\sness4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place1 ?is 0 n ,plato's true mean+4 ,al?\gh he ackn[l$ges t ! /ate he describes _c be f\nd on e>?1 & has its ar*etype only 9 heav51 by :i* ! philosoph] ought to =m himself 7,,ix4 #eib71 /ill he dem&s t ef=ts %\ld be made to realize x "h1 & he ev5 attempts to %[ ! conditions & means "u :i* su* a /ate c\ld be made actual1 n ov]look+ 9 all ?is ! defects aris+ f ! diff]5t *>act]s & temp]am5ts ( m54 ,a composition1 dissociat$ f ! idea1 c\ld only appe> untrue to a philosoph] l ,plato1 :o saw ! actual & ! true only 9 ! idea2 & ! common view :i* supposes t he wrote 8 ,republic 9 ! full consci\sness ( its impracticability1 mi/akes entirely ! /&po9t ( ! ,platonic philosophy4 ,/ill f>!r ! "q :e!r su* a /ate z ! ,platonic is atta9able & ! be/1 is g5]ally p]v]t$4 ,! ,platonic /ate is ! ,grecian /ate-idea giv5 9 a n>rative =m4 ,x is no va9 & p[]less ideal to picture ! idea z a rational pr9ciple 9 e mom5t ( ! _w's hi/ory1 s9ce ! idea itself is t :i* is absolutely actual1 t :i* is ess5tial & necess>y 9 exi/+ ?+s4 ,! truly ideal ought n to be actual1 b is actual1 & ! only actual2 if an idea 7 too good = exi/5ce1 or ! empirical actuality too bad = x1 !n 7 ?is a fault ( ! ideal itself4 ,plato has n giv5 himself up m]ely to ab/ract !ories1 ! philosoph] _c leap beyond 8 age1 b c only see & grasp x 9 its true cont5t4 ,?is ,plato has done4 ,8 /&po9t is 8 own age4 ,he looks ^u ! political life ( ! ,greeks z !n exi/+1 & x is ?is life1 exalt$ to its idea1 :i* =ms ! real cont5t ( ! ,platonic ,republic4 ,plato has "h repres5t$ ! ,grecian morality 9 its sub/antial condition1 ,if ! ,platonic ,republic seems prom95tly an ideal :i* c nev] be realiz$1 ?is is ow+ mu* less to its ideality ?an to ! defects ( ! old political life4 ,! mo/ prom95t *>act]i/ic ( ! ,hell5ic conception ( ! /ate1 be=e ! ,greeks began to fall into unbridl$ lic5ti\sness1 0 ! con/ra9t ?r[n ^u p]sonal subjective fre$om1 9 ! sacrifice ( e individual int]e/ to ! absolute sov]eignty ( ! /ate4 ,) ,plato also1 ! /ate is e ?+4 ,8 political in/itutions1 s l\dly ridicul$ by ! anci5ts1 are only ! und5iable consequ5ces foll[+ f ! v idea ( ! ,grecian /ate1 :i* all[$ nei!r to ! individual citiz5 nor to a corporation1 any lawful sph]e ( action indep5d5t ( itself4 ,! gr& feature ( ! ,platonic /ate is1 z has be5 said1 ! exclusive sacrifice ( ! individual to ! /ate1 ! ref]5ce ( moral to political virtue4 ,s9ce man _c rea* 8 complete developm5t 9 isolation1 b only z a memb] ( an organic society 7! /ate71 ,plato !re=e concludes t ! individual purpose %\ld :olly con=m to ! g5]al aim1 & t ! /ate mu/ repres5t a p]fect & h>moni\s unity1 & be a c\nt]p>t ( ! moral life ( ! individual4 ,9 a p]fect /ate all ?+s1 joy & sorr[1 & ev5 eyes1 e>s & h&s1 mu/ be common to all1 s t ! social life w\ld be z x 7 ! life ( "o man4 ,?is p]fect univ]sality & unity1 c only be actualiz$ :5 e ?+ individual & p>ticul> falls away1 & h5ce ! difficulty ( ! ,platonic ,republic4 ,private prop]ty & dome/ic life 79 place ( :i* comes a community ( goods & ( wives71 ! duty ( education1 ! *oice ( rank & pr(ession1 ! arts & sci5ces1 all ^! mu/ be subject$ & plac$ "u ! exclusive & absolute control ( ! /ate4 ,! individual may lay claim only to t happ9ess :i* belongs to him z a con/itu5t elem5t ( ! /ate4 ,f ?is po9t ,plato goes d[n into ! m9ute/ p>ticul>s1 & gives ! close/ directions respect+ gymna/ics & music1 :i* =m ! two means ( culture ( ! high] ranks2 respect+ ! /udy ( ma!matics1 & philosophy1 ! *oice ( /r+$ in/rum5ts1 & ! prop] measure ( v]se2 respect+ bodily ex]cise & ! s]vice ( wom5 9 w>2 respect+ m>riage settlem5ts1 & ! age at :i* any "o %\ld /udy dialectics1 m>ry1 & beget *ildr54 ,! /ate ) him is only a great educational e/abli%m5t1 a family 9 ! mass4--,lyric poetry he w\ld all[ only "u ! inspection ( compet5t judges4 ,epic & dramatic poetry1 ev5 ,hom] & ,hesiod1 %\ld be bani%$ f ! /ate1 s9ce !y r\se & lead a/ray ! passions1 & give unwor?y repres5tations ( ! gods4 ,exhibitions ( physical deg5]acy or weakness %\ld n be tol]at$ 9 ! ,platonic /ate2 de=m$ & sickly infants %\ld be ab&on$1 & food & att5tion %\ld be d5i$ to ! sick4--,9 all ?is we f9d ! *ief anti!sis ( ! anci5t to ! mod]n /ate4 ,plato did n recognize ! w & *oice ( ! individual1 & yet ! individual has a "r to dem& ?is4 ,! problem ( ! mod]n /ate has be5 to unite ^! two sides1 to br+ ! univ]sal end & ! p>ticul> end ( ! individual into h>mony1 to reconcile ! highe/ possible fre$om ( ! consci\s individual w1 ) ! highe/ possible supremacy ( ! /ate4 ,! political in/itutions ( ! ,platonic /ate are decid$ly ari/ocratic4 ,gr[n up 9 opposition to ! extravagances ( ! ,a!nian democracy1 ,plato pref]s an absolute mon>*y to e o!r con/itution1 ?\gh ?is %\ld h z its absolute rul] only ! p]fect philosoph]4 ,x is a well-kn[n expression ( 81 t ! /ate c only atta9 its end :5 philosoph]s become its rul]s1 or :5 its pres5t rul]s h c>ri$ _! /udies s f> & s accurately1 t !y c unite philosophy ) a sup]9t5d5ce ( public affairs 7,v4 #dgc74 ,8 reason = claim+ t ! sov]eign p[] %\ld be ve/$ only 9 "o1 is ! fact t v few are end[$ ) political wisdom4 ,?is ideal ( an absolute rul] :o %\ld be able to lead ! /ate p]fectly1 ,plato ab&ons 9 ! ,laws1 9 :i* "w he %[s 8 pref]5ce = a mix$ con/itution1 embrac+ bo? a mon>*ical & an ari/ocratic elem5t4 ,f ! ari/ocratic t5d5cy ( ! ,platonic ideal ( a /ate1 foll[s f>!r ! %>p division ( ranks1 & ! total exclusion ( ! ?ird rank f a prop] political life4 ,9 reality ,plato makes b two classes 9 8 /ate1 ! subjects & ! sov]eign1 analog\s to 8 tw(old psy*ological division ( s5sible & intellectual1 mortal & immortal1 b z 9 psy*ology he _h introduc$ a middle /ep1 _s1 to /& betwe5 8 two divisions !re1 s 9 ! /ate he br+s 9 ! milit>y class betwe5 ! rul] & ^? int5d$ to supply ! bodily wants ( ! community4 ,we h ?us ?ree ranks1 t ( ! rul]1 correspond+ to ! reason1 t ( ! wat*] or w>rior1 answ]+ to _s1 & t ( ! craftsman1 :i* is made p>allel to ! appetites or s5su\s desires4 ,to ^! ?ree ranks belong ?ree sep>ate functions3 to ! fir/1 t ( mak+ ! law & c>+ = ! g5]al good2 to ! second1 t ( def5d+ ! public welf>e f attacks ( ext]nal foes2 & to ! ?ird1 ! c>e ( sep>ate int]e/s & wants1 z agriculture1 me*anics1 c4 ,f ea* ( ^! ?ree ranks & its functions ! /ate d]ives a peculi> virtue--wisdom f ! rul]1 brav]y f ! w>rior1 & temp]ance f ! craftsman1 s f> z he lives 9 ob$i5ce to 8 rul]s4 ,9 ! prop] union ( ^! ?ree virtues is f\nd ! ju/ice ( ! /ate1 a virtue :i* is ?us ! sum ( all o!r virtues4 ,plato pays little att5tion to ! l[e/ rank1 t ( ! craftsman1 :o exi/s 9 ! /ate only z means4 ,he held t x 0 n necess>y to give laws & c>e = ! rights ( ?is portion ( ! community4 ,! sep>ation betwe5 ! rul] & ! w>rior is n s broad4 ,plato suff]s ^! two ranks to int]p5etrate ea* o!r1 & analog\s to 8 orig9al psy*ological division1 z ?\gh ! reason 7 b _s 9 ! highe/ /ep ( its developm5t1 he makes ! olde/ & ! be/ ( ! w>riors rise to ! dignity & p[] ( ! rul]s4 ,! education ( its w>riors %\ld !re=e be a *ief c>e ( ! /ate1 9 ord] t _! _s1 ?\gh los+ none ( its peculi> en]gy1 may yet be p5etrat$ by reason4 ,! be/ end[$ by nature & culture among ! w>riors1 may be select$ at ! age ( ?irty1 & put ^u a c\rse ( c>eful tra9+4 ,:5 he has rea*$ ! age ( fifty & look$ ^u ! idea ( ! good1 he may be b\nd to actualize ?is ar*etype 9 ! /ate1 provid$ always t e "o wait 8 turn1 & sp5d 8 rema9+ "t 9 philosophy4 ,only ?us c ! /ate be rais$ to ! uncondition$ rule ( reason "u ! supremacy ( ! good4 ,,section ,,xv4 ,,! ,,old ,,academy4 ,9 ! old ,academy1 we lose ! pres5ce ( inv5tive g5ius2 ) few exceptions we f9d "h no movem5ts ( progress1 b r a gradual retrogression ( ! ,platonic philosophiz+4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,plato1 ,speusippus1 8 nephew & disciple1 held ! *air ( 8 ma/] 9 ! ,academy dur+ eight ye>s4 ,he 0 succe$$ by ,x5ocrates1 aft] :om we meet ) ,polemo1 ,crates1 & ,crantor4 ,x 0 a "t 9 :i* s*ools = high culture 7 e/abli%$1 & ! old] tea*] yield$ to 8 y\ng] successor ! po/ ( in/ruction4 ,! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! old ,academy1 s f> z c be ga!r$ f ! scanty acc\nts1 7 great att5tion to le>n+1 ! preval5ce ( ,py?agorean elem5ts1 especially ! doctr9e ( numb]s1 & la/ly1 ! reception ( fanta/ic & demonological notions1 among :i* ! wor%ip ( ! />s play$ a "p4 ,! preval5ce ( ! ,py?agorean doctr9e ( numb]s 9 ! lat] in/ructions ( ! ,academy1 gave to ma!matical sci5ces1 p>ticul>ly ari?metic & a/ronomy1 a high place1 & at ! same "t assign$ to ! doctr9e ( ideas a mu* l[] position ?an ,plato _h giv5 x4 ,subsequ5tly1 ! attempt 0 made to get back to ! unadult]at$ doctr9e ( ,plato4 ,crantor is said to be ! fir/ editor ( ! ,platonic writ+s4 ,z ,plato 0 ! only true ,socratici/1 s 0 ,ari/otle ! only g5u9e disciple ( ,plato1 ?\gh (t5 abus$ by 8 fell[-disciples z unfai?ful to 8 ma/]'s pr9ciples4 ,we pass on at once to him1 )\t /opp+ n[ to inquire into 8 relation to ,plato1 or ! advance :i* he made beyond 8 pr$ecessor1 s9ce ^! po9ts w come up be=e u 9 ! exhibition ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy4 7,see ,,xvi3 ,,iii4 #a47 ,,section ,,xvi4 ,,ari/otle4 ,i4 ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,ari/otle4--,ari/otle 0 born #chd ,b4 ,c4 at ,/agira1 a ,greek colony 9 ,?race4 ,8 fa!r1 ,nicoma*us1 0 a physician1 & ! fri5d ( ,amyntas1 k+ ( ,mac$onia4 ,! =m] fact may h _h its influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! sci5tific direction ( ! son1 & ! latt] may h procur$ 8 subsequ5t summons to ! ,mac$onian c\rt4 ,ari/otle at a v e>ly age lo/ bo? 8 p>5ts4 ,9 8 sev5te5? ye> he came to ,plato at ,a!ns1 & cont9u$ ) him tw5ty ye>s4 ,on acc\nt ( 8 indomitable zeal = /udy1 ,plato nam$ him 8! ,tea*]10 & said1 ^u comp>+ him ) ,x5ocrates1 t ! latt] requir$ ! spur1 ! =m] ! bit4 ,among ! _m *>ges made aga9/ 8 "*1 mo/ prom95t are ^? ( jeal\sy & +ratitude t[>ds 8 ma/]1 b mo/ ( ! anecdotes 9 :i* ^! *>ges are embodi$ m]it little cr$5ce4 ,x is c]ta9 t ,ari/otle1 aft] ! dea? ( ,plato1 /ood 9 fri5dly relations ) ,x5ocrates2 /ill1 z a writ]1 he c h>dly be absolv$ f a c]ta9 want ( fri5d%ip & reg>d t[>ds ,plato & 8 philosophy1 ?\gh all ?is c be expla9$ on psy*ological gr\nds4 ,aft] ,plato's dea?1 ,ari/otle w5t ) ,x5ocrates to ,h]meas1 tyrant ( ,at>neus1 ^: si/] ,py?ias he m>ri$ aft] ,h]meas _h fall5 a prey to ,p]sian viol5ce4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,py?ias he is said to h m>ri$ 8 concub9e1 ,h]pyllis1 :o 0 ! "m ( 8 son ,nicoma*us4 ,9 ! ye> #cdc he 0 call$ by ,philip ( ,mac$on1 to take ! *>ge ( ! education ( 8 son ,alex&]1 !n ?irte5 ye>s old4 ,bo? fa!r & son honor$ him highly1 & ! latt]1 ) royal munific5ce1 subsequ5tly support$ him 9 8 /udies4 ,:5 ,alex&] w5t to ,p]sia1 ,ari/otle betook himself to ,a!ns1 & taught 9 ! ,lyceum1 ! only gymnasium !n vacant1 s9ce ,x5ocrates _h possession ( ! ,academy1 & ! ,cynics ( ! ,cynosa]ges4 ,f ! %ady walks ( ! ,lyceum1 9 :i* ,ari/otle 0 accu/om$ to walk & exp\nd 8 philosophy1 8 s*ool receiv$ ! "n ( ! ,p]ipatetic4 ,ari/otle is said to h sp5t 8 morn+s ) 8 m mature disciples1 ex]cis+ !m 9 ! pr(\nde/ que/ions ( philosophy1 :ile 8 ev5+s 7 occupi$ ) a great] numb] ( pupils 9 a m g5]al & prep>atory in/ruction4 ,! =m] inve/igations 7 call$ acroamatic1 ! latt] exot]ic4 ,he abode at ,a!ns1 & taught ?irte5 ye>s1 & !n1 aft] ! dea? ( ,alex&]1 ^: displeasure he _h incurr$1 he is said to h be5 accus$ by ! ,a!nians ( impiety t[>ds ! gods1 & to h fl$ to ,*alcis1 9 ord] to escape a fate simil> to t ( ,socrates4 ,he di$ 9 ! ye> #cbb at ,*alcis1 9 ,euba4 ,ari/otle left a va/ numb] ( writ+s1 ( :i* ! small] 7p]haps a f\r?71 b unque/ionably ! m important portion h come d[n to u1 ?\gh 9 a =m :i* _c be receiv$ )\t "s scruples4 ,! /ory ( ,/rabo ab\t ! fate ( ! ,ari/otelian writ+s1 & ! injury :i* !y suff]$ 9 a cell> at ,scepsis1 is confess$ly a fable1 or at lea/ limit$ to ! orig9al manuscripts2 b ! fragm5t>y & descriptive =m :i* _m among !m1 & ev5 ! mo/ important 7e4 g4 ! metaphysics7 possess1 ! fact t scatt]$ portions ( "o & ! same "w 7e4 g4 ! e?ics7 are repeat$ly f\nd 9 diff]5t treatises1 ! irregul>ities & /rik+ contradictions 9 "o & ! same writ+1 ! disagreem5t f\nd 9 o!r p>ticul>s among diff]5t works1 & ! di/9ction made by ,ari/otle himself betwe5 acroamatic & exot]ical writ+s1 all ?is gives reason to believe t we h1 = ! mo/ "p1 be=e u only 8 oral lectures writt5 d[n1 & subsequ5tly edit$ by 8 s*ol>s4 ,,ii4 ,,univ]sal ,,"* ,,& ,,division ,,( ,,! ,,ari/otelian ,,philosophy4--,) ,plato1 philosophy _h be5 national 9 bo? its =m & cont5t1 b ) ,ari/otle1 x loses its ,hell5ic peculi>ity1 & becomes univ]sal 9 scope & mean+2 ! ,platonic dialogue *anges into b>r5 prose2 a rigid1 arti/ic language takes ! place ( ! my?ical & poetical dress2 ! ?9k+ :i* _h be5 ) ,plato intuitive1 is ) ,ari/otle discursive2 ! imm$iate behold+ ( reason 9 ! =m]1 becomes reflection & conception 9 ! latt]4 ,turn+ away f ! ,platonic unity ( all be+1 ,ari/otle pref]s to direct 8 att5tion to ! manifoldness ( ! ph5om5al2 he seeks ! idea only 9 its concrete actualization1 & consequ5tly grasps ! p>ticul> f> m prom95tly 9 its peculi> det]m9at5ess & reciprocal diff]5ces1 ?an 9 its connection ) ! idea4 ,he embraces ) equal int]e/ ! facts giv5 9 nature1 9 hi/ory1 & 9 ! inn] life ( man4 ,b he ev] t5ds t[>d ! individual1 he mu/ ev] h a fact giv5 9 ord] to develope 8 ?\ght ^u x2 x is always ! empirical1 ! actual1 :i* solicits & guides 8 speculation2 8 :ole c\rse is a description ( ! facts giv51 & only m]its ! "n ( a philosophy because x compreh5ds ! empirical 9 its totality & syn!sis2 because x has c>ri$ out its induction to ! f>!/ ext5t4 ,only because he is ! absolute empirici/ may ,ari/otle be call$ ! truly philosoph]4 ,?is "* ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy expla9s at ! outset its encyclop$ian t5d5cy1 inasmu* z e ?+ giv5 9 exp]i5ce is equally wor?y ( reg>d & inve/igation4 ,ari/otle is ?us ! f\nd] ( _m c\rses ( /udy unkn[n be=e him2 he is n only ! fa!r ( logic1 b also ( natural hi/ory1 empirical psy*ology1 & ! sci5ce ( natural rights4 ,?is devotion ( ,ari/otle to t :i* is giv5 w also expla9 8 pr$om9ant incl9ation t[>ds physics1 = nature is ! mo/ imm$iate & actual4 ,connect$ also ) ?is is ! fact t ,ari/otle is ! fir/ among philosoph]s :o has giv5 to hi/ory & its t5d5cies an accurate att5tion4 ,! fir/ book ( ! ,metaphysics is also ! fir/ attempt at a hi/ory ( philosophy1 z 8 politics is ! fir/ critical hi/ory ( ! diff]5t /ates & con/itutions4 ,9 bo? ^! cases he br+s out 8 own !ory only z ! consequ5ce ( t :i* has be5 hi/orically giv51 bas+ x 9 ! =m] case ^u ! works ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & 9 ! latt] case ^u ! con/itutions :i* lie be=e him4 ,x is cle> t accord+ to ?is1 ! me?od ( ,ari/otle mu/ be a diff]5t "o f t ( ,plato4 ,in/ead ( proce$+ l ! latt]1 syn!tically & dialectically1 he pursues = ! mo/ "p an analytic & regressive c\rse1 t is1 go+ backw>d f ! concrete to its ultimate gr\nd & det]m9ation4 ,:ile ,plato w\ld take 8 /&po9t 9 ! idea1 9 ord] to expla9 f ?is position & set 9 a cle>] light t :i* is giv5 & empirical1 ,ari/otle on ! o!r h&1 />ts ) t :i* is giv51 9 ord] to f9d & exhibit ! idea 9 x4 ,8 me?od is1 h5ce1 induction2 t is1 ! d]ivation ( c]ta9 pr9ciples & maxims f a sum ( giv5 facts & ph5om5a2 8 mode ( proc$ure is1 usually1 argum5t1 a b>r5 balanc+ ( facts1 ph5om5a1 circum/ances & possibilities4 ,he /&s out = ! mo/ "p only z ! ?\ghtful obs]v]4 ,r5\nc+ all claim to univ]sality & necessity 9 8 results1 he is cont5t to h br\ght out t :i* has an approximative tru?1 & ! highe/ degree ( probability4 ,he (t5 affirms t sci5ce does n simply relate to ! *angeless & necess>y1 b also to t :i* ord9>ily takes place1 t be+ alone exclud$ f its prov9ce1 :i* is /rictly accid5tal4 ,philosophy1 consequ5tly1 has ) him ! "* & wor? ( a reckon+ ( probabilities1 & 8 mode ( exhibition assumes n unfrequ5tly only ! =m ( a d\btful delib]ation4 ,h5ce !re is no trace ( ! ,platonic ideals1 h5ce1 also1 8 repugnance to a gl[+ & poetic /yle 9 philosophy1 a repugnance :i*1 :ile inde$ x induces 9 him a fix$1 philosophical t]m9ology1 also frequ5tly leads him to mi/ake & misrepres5t ! op9ions ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,h5ce1 also1 9 :atev] he treat$1 8 ?or\gh adh]5ce to t :i* is actually giv54 ,connect$ 9 f9e ) ! empirical "* ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophiz+1 is ! fragm5t>y =m ( 8 writ+s1 & _! want ( a sy/ematic division & arrangem5t4 ,proce$+ always 9 ! l9e ( t :i* is giv51 f individual to individual1 he consid]s e prov9ce ( ! actual by itself1 & makes x ! subject ( a sep>ate treatise2 b he1 = ! mo/ "p1 fails to indicate ! l9es by :i* ! diff]5t p>ts hang toge!r1 & are compreh5d$ 9 a sy/ematic :ole4 ,?us he holds up a numb] ( co-ord9ate sci5ces1 ea* "o ( :i* has an indep5d5t basis1 b he fails to give u ! highe/ sci5ce :i* embraces !m all4 ,! pr9ciple is sometimes affirm$ t all ! writ+s foll[ ! idea ( a :ole2 b 9 _! proc$ure !re is su* a want ( all sy/ematic connection1 & e "o ( 8 writ+s is a monograph s ?or\ghly indep5d5t & complete 9 itself1 t we are sometimes puzzl$ to "k :at ,ari/otle himself receiv$ z a "p ( philosophy1 & :at he exclud$4 ,we are nev] furni%$ ) an indep5d5t s*eme or outl9e1 we r>ely f9d def9ite results or summ>y explanations1 & ev5 ! diff]5t divisions ( philosophy :i* he gives1 v>y ess5tially f "o ano!r4 ,at "o "t he divides sci5ce into !oretical & practical1 at ano!r1 he adds to ^! two a poetical creative sci5ce1 :ile /ill aga9 he speaks ( ! ?ree p>ts ( sci5ce1 e?ics1 physics1 & logic4 ,at "o "t he divides ! !oretical philosophy into logic & physics1 & at ano!r into !ology1 ma!matics1 & physics4 ,b no "o ( ^! divisions has he expressly giv5 z ! basis on :i* to repres5t 8 sy/em2 he himself places no value ^u ?is me?od ( division1 &1 inde$1 op5ly decl>es himself oppos$ to x4 ,x is1 !re=e1 only = ! sake ( uni=mity t we c give ! pref]5ce "h to ! ?reefold division ( philosophy z already adopt$ by ,plato4 ,,iii4 ,,logic ,,& ,,metaphysics4 #a4 ,,conception ,,& ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,two4--,! ^w metaphysics 0 fir/ furni%$ by ! ,ari/otelian comm5tators4 ,plato _h us$ ! t]m dialectics1 & ,ari/otle _h *>act]iz$ ! same ?+ z 8fir/ philosophy10 :ile he calls physics ! 8second philosophy40 ,! relation ( ?is fir/ philosophy to ! o!r sci5ces ,ari/otle det]m9es 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,e sci5ce1 he says1 mu/ h = inve/igation a det]m9$ prov9ce & sep>ate =m ( be+1 b none ( ^! sci5ces rea*es ! conception ( be+ itself4 ,h5ce !re is ne$$ a sci5ce :i* %\ld inve/igate t :i* ! o!r sci5ces take up hypo!tically1 or ?r\gh exp]i5ce4 ,?is is done by ! fir/ philosophy :i* has to d ) be+ z su*1 :ile ! o!r sci5ces relate only to det]m9$ & concrete be+4 ,! metaphysics1 :i* is ?is sci5ce ( be+ & its primitive gr\nds1 is ! fir/ philosophy1 s9ce x is presuppos$ by e o!r discipl9e4 ,?us1 says ,ari/otle1 if !re 7 only a physical sub/ance1 !n w\ld physics be ! fir/ & ! only philosophy1 b if !re be an immat]ial & unmov$ ess5ce :i* is ! gr\nd ( all be+1 !n mu/ !re also be an antec$5t1 & because x is antec$5t1 a univ]sal philosophy4 ,! fir/ gr\nd ( all be+ is ,god1 :5ce ,ari/otle occasionally gives to ! fir/ philosophy ! "n ( !ology4 ,x is difficult to det]m9e ! relation betwe5 ?is fir/ philosophy z ! sci5ce ( ! ultimate gr\nd ( ?+s1 & t sci5ce :i* is ord9>ily t]m$ ! logic ( ,ari/otle1 & :i* is exhibit$ 9 ! writ+s be>+ ! "n ( ! ,organon4 ,ari/otle himself has n accurately exam9$ ! relations ( ^! two sci5ces1 ! reason ( :i* is d\btless to be f\nd 9 ! incomplete =m ( ! metaphysics4 ,b s9ce he has embrac$ !m bo? "u ! same "n ( logic1 s9ce ! inve/igation ( ! ess5ce ( ?+s 7,,vii4 #ag71 & ! doctr9e ( ideas 7,,xiii4 #e71 are expressly call$ logical1 s9ce he repeat$ly attempts 9 ! ,metaphysics 7,book ,,iv471 to e/abli% ! logical pr9ciple ( contradiction z an absolute presupposition = all ?9k+ & speak+ & philosophiz+1 & employs ! me?od ( argum5t belong+ to t sci5ce :i* has to d ) ! ess5ce ( ?+s 7,,iii4 #b4 ,,iv4 #c71 & s9ce1 9 f9e1 ! categories to :i* he _h already d$icat$ a sep>ate book 9 ! ,organon are also discuss$ aga9 9 ! ,metaphysics 7,book ,v471 x foll[s t ?is mu* at lea/ may be affirm$ ) c]ta9ty1 t he w\ld n absolutely sep>ate ! inve/igations ( ! ,organon f ^? ( ! ,metaphysics1 & t he w\ld n c\nsel ! ord9>y division ( =mal logic & metaphysics1 al?\gh he has omitt$ to %[ m cle>ly _! inn] connection4 #b4 ,,logic4--,! great problem bo? ( ! logical faculty & also ( logic bo? z sci5ce & art1 consi/s 9 ?is1 viz41 to =m & judge ( conclusions1 & ?r\gh conclusions to be able to e/abli% a pro(4 ,! conclusions1 h[ev]1 arise f propositions1 & ! propositions f conceptions4 ,accord+ to ?is natural po9t ( view1 :i* lies 9 ! v nature ( ! case1 ,ari/otle has divid$ ! cont5t ( ! logical & dialectical doctr9e conta9$ 9 ! diff]5t treatises ( ! ,organon4 ,! fir/ treatise 9 ! ,organon is t conta9+ ! categories1 a "w :i* treats ( ! univ]sal det]m9ations ( be+1 & gives ! fir/ attempt at an ontology4 ,( ^! categories ,ari/otle enum]ates t52 ess5ce1 magnitude1 quality1 relation1 ! :]e1 ! :51 position1 habit1 action1 & passion4 ,! second treatise 7de int]pretatione7 inve/igates spee* z ! expression ( ?\ght1 & discusses ! doctr9e ( ! p>ts ( spee*1 propositions & judgm5ts4 ,! ?ird are ! analytic books1 :i* %[ h[ conclusions may be ref]r$ back to _! pr9ciples & arrang$ 9 ord] ( _! antec$5ce4 ,! fir/ ,analytic conta9s 9 two books ! univ]sal doctr9e ( ! ,syllogism4 ,conclusions are accord+ to _! cont5t & end ei!r apodictic1 :i* possess a c]ta9 & incontrov]tible tru?1 or dialectic1 :i* are direct$ t[>d t :i* may be disput$ & is probable1 or1 f9ally1 sophi/ic1 :i* are ann\nc$ deceptively z correct conclusions :ile !y are n4 ,! doctr9e ( apodictic conclusions & ?us ( pro(s is giv5 9 ! two books ( ! second ,analytic1 t ( dialectic1 is furni%$ 9 ! eight books ( ! ,topic1 & t ( sophi/ic 9 ! treatise conc]n+ 8,sophi/ical ,convictions40 ,a clos] /atem5t ( ! ,ari/otelian logic w\ld be famili> to e "o1 s9ce ! =mal repres5tations ( ?is sci5ce ord9>ily giv51 employ = ! mo/ "p only ! mat]ial furni%$ by ,ari/otle4 ,kant has rem>k$1 t s9ce ! "t ( ! ,grecian sage1 logic has made nei!r progress nor retrogression4 ,only 9 two po9ts has ! =mal logic ( our "t advanc$ beyond t ( ,ari/otle2 fir/1 9 add+ to ! categorical conclusion :i* 0 ! only "o ,ari/otle _h 9 m9d1 ! hypo!tical & disjunctive1 & second1 9 add+ ! f\r? to ! fir/ ?ree figures ( conclusion4 ,b ! incomplet5ess ( ! ,ari/otelian logic1 :i* might be p>don$ 9 ! f\nd] ( ?is sci5ce1 yet abides1 & its ?or\ghly empirical me?od n only /ill cont9ues1 b has ev5 be5 exalt$ to a pr9ciple by mak+ ! anti!sis1 :i* ,ari/otle did n1 betwe5 ! =m ( a ?\ght & ! cont5t4 ,ari/otle1 9 reality1 only attempt$ to collect ! logical facts 9 ref]5ce to ! =mation ( propositions1 & ! me?od ( conclusions2 he has giv5 9 8 logic only ! natural hi/ory ( f9ite ?9k+4 ,h[ev] highly n[ we may rate ! correctness ( 8 ab/raction1 & ! cle>ness ) :i* he br+s into consci\sness ! logical op]ation ( ! und]/&+1 we mu/ make equally conspicu\s ) ?is ! want ( all sci5tific d]ivation & f\ndation4 ,! t5 categories :i* he1 z already rem>k$1 has discuss$ 9 a sep>ate treatise1 he simply m5tions1 )\t furni%+ any gr\nd or pr9ciple = ?is enum]ation2 t !re are ?is numb] ( categories is only a matt] ( fact to him1 & he ev5 cites !m diff]5tly 9 diff]5t writ+s4 ,9 ! same way also he takes up ! figures ( ! conclusion empirically2 he consid]s !m only z =ms & det]m9ations ( relation ( ! =mal ?9k+1 & cont9ues ?us1 al?\gh he all[s ! conclusion to /& = ! only =m ( sci5ce )9 ! prov9ce ( ! logic ( ! und]/&+4 ,nei!r 9 8 ,metaphysics nor 9 8 ,physics does he cite ! rules ( ! =mal me?ods ( conclusion :i* he develops 9 ! ,organon1 cle>ly prov+ t he has n[h]e 9 8 sy/em prop]ly elaborat$ ei!r 8 categories or 8 analytic2 8 logical inve/igations d n influ5ce g5]ally ! developm5t ( 8 philosophical ?\ght1 b h = ! mo/ "p only ! value ( a prelim9>y scrut9y4 #c4 ,,metaphysics4--,among all ! ,ari/otelian writ+s1 ! ,metaphysics is lea/ entitl$ to be call$ a connect$ :ole2 x is only a connection ( sket*es1 :i*1 ?\gh !y foll[ a c]ta9 fundam5tal idea1 utt]ly fail ( an inn] m$iation & a p]fect developm5t4 ,we may di/+ui% 9 x sev5 di/9ct gr\ps4 7#a7 ,criticism ( ! previ\s philosophic sy/ems view$ 9 ! light ( ! f\r ,ari/otelian pr9ciples1 ,book ,i4 7#b7 ,posit+ ( ! apories or ! philosophical prelim9>y que/ions1 ,,iii4 7#c7 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 ,,iv4 7#d7 ,def9itions1 ,v4 7#e7 ,exam9ation ( ! conception ( ess5ce 77 & conceivable be+ 7! 7 or ! conception ( matt] 771 =m 771 & t :i* arises f ! connection ( ^! two 771 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 7#f7 ,pot5tiality & actuality1 ,,ix4 7#g7 ,! ,div9e ,_s mov+ all1 b itself unmov$1 ,,xii4 7#h7 ,to ^! we may add ! polemic aga9/ ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas & numb]s1 :i* runs ?r\gh ! :ole ,metaphysics1 b is especially c>ri$ out 9 ,books ,,xiii4 & ,,xiv4 7#a7 ,! ,ari/otelian ,criticism ( ! ,platonic ,doctr9e ( ,ideas4--,9 ,ari/otle's antagonism to ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas1 we mu/ seek = ! specific diff]5ce betwe5 ! two sy/ems1 a diff]5ce ( :i* ,ari/otle avails himself ( e opportunity 7especially ,metaph4 ,i4 & ,,xiii47 to express4 ,plato _h beheld e ?+ actual 9 ! idea1 b ! idea 0 to him a rigid tru?1 :i* _h n yet become int]wov5 ) ! life & ! movem5t ( exi/5ce4 ,su* a view1 h[ev]1 _h ?is difficulty1 ! idea1 h[ev] little ,plato w\ld h x s1 f\nd /&+ ov] aga9/ x 9 indep5d5t be+ ! ph5om5al _w1 :ile x furni%$ no pr9ciple on :i* ! be+ ( ! ph5om5al _w c\ld be affirm$4 ,?is ,ari/otle recognizes & *>ges ^u ,plato1 t 8 ideas 7 only 8immortaliz$ ?+s ( s5se10 out ( :i* ! be+ & becom+ ( ! s5sible c\ld n be expla9$4 ,9 ord] to avoid ?is consequ5ce1 he himself makes out an orig9al ref]5ce ( m9d to ph5om5on1 affirm+ t ! relation ( ! two is1 t ( ! actual to ! possible1 or t ( =m to matt]1 & consid]+ also m9d z ! absolute actuality ( matt]1 & matt]1 z ! pot5tially m9d4 ,8 argum5t aga9/ ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas1 ,ari/otle makes out 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,pass+ by n[ ! fact t ,plato has furni%$ no satisfactory pro( = ! objective & indep5d5t reality ( ideas1 & t 8 !ory is )\t v9dication1 we may affirm 9 ! fir/ place t x is :olly unfruitful1 s9ce x possesses no gr\nd ( explanation = be+4 ,! ideas h no prop] & indep5d5t cont5t4 ,to see ?is we ne$ only ref] to ! mann] 9 :i* ,plato introduc$ !m4 ,9 ord] to make sci5ce possible he _h posit$ c]ta9 sub/ances indep5d5t ( ! s5sible1 & un9flu5c$ by its *anges4 ,b to s]ve su* a purpose1 !re 0 (f]$ to him no?+ o!r ?an ?is individual ?+ ( s5se4 ,h5ce he gave to ?is individual a univ]sal =m1 :i* 0 ) him ! idea4 ,f ?is x result$1 t 8 ideas c h>dly be sep>at$ f ! s5sible & individual objects :i* p>ticipate 9 !m4 ,! ideal duality & ! empirical duality is "o & ! same cont5t4 ,! tru? ( ?is we c readily see1 :5ev] we ga9 f ! adh]5ts to ! doctr9e ( ideas a def9ite /atem5t respect+ ! peculi> "* ( _! un*angeable sub/ances1 9 comp>ison ) ! s5sible & individual ?+s :i* p>ticipate 9 !m4 ,! only diff]5ce betwe5 ! two consi/s 9 app5d+ p] se to ! names express+ ! respective ideas2 ?us1 :ile ! individual ?+s are e4 g4 man1 horse1 etc41 ! ideas are man p] se1 horse p] se1 etc4 ,!re is only ?is =mal *ange = ! doctr9e ( ideas to re/ ^u2 ! f9ite cont5t is n remov$1 b is only *>act]iz$ z p]petual4 ,?is objection1 t 9 ! doctr9e ( ideas we h 9 reality only ! s5sible posit$ z a n-s5sible1 & end[$ ) ! pr$icate ( immutability1 ,ari/otle urges z above rem>k$ :5 he calls ! ideas 8immortaliz$ ?+s ( s5se10 n z ?\gh !y 7 actually some?+ s5sible & spacial1 b because 9 !m ! s5sible individual loses at once its individuality1 & becomes a univ]sal4 ,he comp>es !m 9 ?is respect ) ! gods ( ! popul> & an?ropomorphical religion2 z ^! are no?+ b deifi$ m51 s ! ideas are only ?+s ( nature end[$ ) a sup]natural pot5cy1 a s5sible exalt$ to a n-s5sible4 ,?is id5tity betwe5 ! ideas & _! respective individual ?+s am\nts moreov] to ?is1 t ! introduction ( ideas d\bles ! objects to be kn[n 9 a burd5some mann]1 & )\t any good results4 ,:y set up ! same ?+ ov] aga98 ,:y besides ! s5sible tw(oldness & ?reefoldness1 affirm a tw(oldness & ?reefoldness 9 ! idea8 ,! adh]5ts ( ! doctr9e ( ideas1 :5 !y posit an idea = e class ( natural ?+s1 & ?r\gh ?is !ory set up two equival5t !ories ( s5sible & n-s5sible sub/ances1 seem !re=e to ,ari/otle l m5 :o ?9k !y c reckon bett] ) _m numb]s ?an ) few1 & :o !re=e g to multiply+ _! numb]s be=e !y beg9 _! reckon+4 ,!re=e aga9 ! doctr9e ( ideas is a tautology1 & :olly unfruitful ( ! explanation ( be+1 8,! ideas give no aid to ! k ( ! individual ?+s p>ticipat+ 9 !m1 s9ce ! ideas are n imman5t 9 ^! ?+s1 b sep>ate f !m40 ,equally unfruitful are ! ideas :5 consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to ! aris+ & dep>t+ ( ! ?+s ( s5se4 ,!y conta9 no pr9ciple ( becom+1 ( movem5t4 ,!re is 9 !m no causality :i* might br+ out ! ev5t1 or expla9 ! ev5t :5 x _h actually happ5$4 ,!mselves )\t motion & process1 if !y _h any effect1 x c\ld only be t ( p]fect repose4 ,true1 ,plato affirms 9 8 ,phdon t ! ideas are causes bo? ( be+ & becom+1 b 9 spite ( ! ideas1 no?+ ev] becomes )\t a mov+2 ! ideas1 by _! sep>ation f ! becom+1 h no su* capacity to move4 ,?is indiff]5t relation ( ideas to ! actual becom+1 ,ari/otle br+s "u ! categories1 pot5tiality & actuality1 & f>!r says t ! ideas are only pot5tial1 !y are only b>e possibility & ess5tiality because !y are want+ 9 actuality4--,! inn] contradiction ( ! doctr9e ( ideas is 9 brief ?is1 viz41 t x posits an individual imm$iately z a univ]sal1 & at ! same "t pron\nces ! univ]sal1 ! species1 z num]ically an individual1 & also t ! ideas are set up on ! "o side z sep>ate individual sub/ances1 & on ! o!r side z p>ticipant1 & !re=e z univ]sal4 ,al?\gh ! ideas z ! orig9al conceptions ( species are a univ]sal1 :i* arise :5 be+ is fix$ 9 exi/5ce1 & ! "o br\ght out 9 ! _m1 & ! abid+ is giv5 a place 9 ! *angeable1 yet c !y n be def9$ z !y %\ld be accord+ to ! ,platonic notion1 t !y are individual sub/ances1 = !re c be nei!r def9ition nor d]ivation ( an absolute individual1 s9ce ev5 ! ^w 7& only 9 words is a def9ition possible7 is 9 its nature a univ]sal1 & belongs also to o!r objects1 consequ5tly1 e pr$icate 9 :i* ,i attempt to det]m9e an individual ?+ _c belong exclusively to t ?+4 ,! adh]5ts ( ! doctr9e ( ideas1 are !re=e n at all 9 a condition to give an idea a conceivable t]m9ation2 _! ideas are indef9able4--,9 g5]al1 ,plato has left ! relation ( ! individual objects to ideas v obscure4 ,he calls ! ideas ar*etypes1 & all[s t ! objects may p>ticipate 9 !m2 yet are ^! only poetical metaphors4 ,h[ %all we repres5t to ourselves ?is 8p>ticipation10 ?is copy+ ( ! orig9al ar*etype8 ,we seek 9 va9 = m accurate explanations ( ?is 9 ,plato4 ,x is impossible to conceive h[ & :y matt] p>ticipates 9 ! ideas4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ?is1 we mu/ add to ! ideas a /ill high] & wid] pr9ciple1 :i* conta9s ! cause = ?is 8p>ticipation0 ( objects1 = )\t a mov+ pr9ciple we f9d no gr\nd = 8p>ticipation40 ,alike above ! idea 7e4 g4 ! idea ( man71 & ! ph5om5on 7e4 g4 ! individual man71 !re mu/ /& a ?ird common to bo?1 & 9 :i* ! two 7 unit$1 i4 e4 z ,ari/otle 0 9 ! habit ( express+ ?is objection1 ! doctr9e ( ideas leads to ! adoption ( a 8?ird man40 ,! result ( ?is ,ari/otelian criticism is ! imman5ce ( ! univ]sal 9 ! individual4 ,! me?od ( ,socrates 9 try+ to f9d ! univ]sal z ! ess5ce ( ! individual1 & to give def9itions accord+ to conception1 0 z correct 7= no sci5ce is possible )\t ! univ]sal7 z ! !ory ( ,plato 9 exalt+ ^! univ]sal conceptions to an indep5d5t subsi/5ce z real individual sub/ances1 0 errone\s4 ,no?+ univ]sal1 no?+ :i* is a k9d or a species1 exi/s besides & sep>ate f ! individual2 a ?+ & its conception _c be sep>at$ f ea* o!r4 ,) ^! pr9ciples ,ari/otle h>dly deviat$ f ,plato's fundam5tal idea t ! univ]sal is ! only true be+1 & ! ess5ce ( individual ?+s2 x may r be said t he has fre$ ?is idea f its orig9al ab/raction1 & giv5 x a m pr(\nd m$iation ) ! ph5om5al _w4 ,not)/&+ 8 app>5t contradiction to ,plato1 ! fundam5tal position ( ,ari/otle is ! same z t ( 8 ma/]1 viz41 t ! ess5ce ( a ?+ 7 1 7 is kn[n & repres5t$ 9 ! conception2 ,ari/otle h[ev] recognizes ! univ]sal1 ! conception to be z little sep>at$ f ! det]m9$ ph5om5on z =m f matt]1 & ess5ce or sub/ance 77 9 its mo/ prop] s5se is1 accord+ to him1 only t :i* _c be pr$icat$ ( ano!r1 ?\gh ( ?is o!r e rema9+ ?+ may be pr$icat$2 x is t :i* is a ?is 7 71 ! individual ?+ & n a univ]sal4 7#b47 ,! f\r ,ari/otelian pr9ciples or causes1 & ! relation ( =m & matt]4--,f ! criticism ( ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas arose directly ! gr\ndwork ( ! ,ari/otelian sy/em1 ! det]m9ations ( matt] 771 & =m 774 ,ari/otle enum]ates f\r metaphysical pr9ciples or causes3 matt]1 =m1 mov+ cause1 & end4 ,9 a h\se1 = in/ance1 ! matt] is ! wood1 ! =m is ! conception ( ! h\se1 ! mov+ cause is ! build]1 & ! end is ! actual h\se4 ,^! f\r det]m9ations ( all be+ resolve !mselves ^u a clos] scrut9y into ! fundam5tal anti!sis ( matt] & =m4 ,! conception ( ! mov+ cause is involv$ ) ! two o!r ideal pr9ciples ( =m & ( end4 ,! mov+ cause is t :i* has secur$ ! transition ( ! incomplete actuality or pot5tiality to ! complete actuality1 or induces ! becom+ ( matt] to =m4 ,b 9 e movem5t ( ! incomplete to ! complete1 ! latt] ant$ates 9 conception ?is movem5t1 & is its motive4 ,! mov+ cause ( matt] is !re=e =m4 ,s is man ! mov+ & produc+ cause ( man2 ! =m ( ! /atue 9 ! und]/&+ ( ! arti/ is ! cause ( ! movem5t by :i* ! /atue is produc$2 heal? mu/ be 9 ! ?\ght ( ! physician be=e x c become ! mov+ cause ( convalesc5ce2 s 9 a c]ta9 degree is m$ic9e1 heal?1 & ! art ( build+ ! =m ( ! h\se4 ,b 9 ! same way1 ! mov+ or fir/ cause is also id5tical ) ! f9al cause or end1 = ! end is ! motive = all becom+ & movem5t4 ,! mov+ cause ( ! h\se is ! build]1 b ! mov+ cause ( ! build] is ! end to be atta9$1 i4 e4 ! h\se4 ,f su* examples z ^! x is se5 t ! det]m9ations ( =m & end may be consid]$ "u "o1 9 s f> z bo? are unit$ 9 ! conception ( actuality 771 = ! end ( e ?+ is its complet$ be+1 its conception or its =m1 ! br++ out into complete actuality t :i* 0 pot5tially conta9$ 9 x4 ,! end ( ! h& is its conception1 ! end ( ! se$ is ! tree1 :i* is at ! same "t ! ess5ce ( ! se$4 ,! only fundam5tal det]m9ations1 !re=e1 :i* _c be :olly resolv$ into ea* o!r1 are matt] & =m4 ,matt] :5 ab/ract$ f =m 9 ?\ght1 ,ari/otle reg>d$ z t :i* 0 entirely )\t pr$icate1 det]m9ation & di/9ction4 ,x is t abid+ ?+ :i* lies at ! basis ( all becom+2 b :i* 9 its own be+ is diff]5t f e ?+ :i* has become4 ,x is capable ( ! wide/ div]sity ( =ms1 b is itself )\t det]m9ate =m2 x is e ?+ 9 possibility1 b no?+ 9 actuality4 ,!re is a fir/ matt] :i* lies at ! basis ( e det]m9ate ?+1 precisely z ! wood is relat$ to ! b5* & ! m>ble to ! /atue4 ,) ?is conception ( matt] ,ari/otle prides himself ^u hav+ conqu]$ ! difficulty s frequ5tly urg$ ( expla9+ ! possibility t any ?+ c become1 s9ce be+ c nei!r come out ( be+ nor out ( n-be+4 ,= x is n out ( n-be+ absolutely1 b only out ( t :i* z to actuality is n-be+1 b :i* pot5tially is be+1 t any ?+ becomes4 ,possible or pot5tial be+ is no m n-be+ ?an actuality4 ,e exi/+ object ( nature is h5ce b a pot5tial ?+ :i* has become actualiz$4 ,matt] is ?us a f> m positive sub/ratum ) ,ari/otle ?an ) ,plato1 :o _h treat$ x z absolutely n-be+4 ,f ?is is cle>ly se5 h[ ,ari/otle c\ld appreh5d matt] 9 opposition to =m z some?+ positively negative & anti!tic to ! =m1 & z its positive d5ial 774 ,z matt] coalesces ) pot5tiality1 s does =m co9cide ) actuality4 ,x is t :i* makes a di/+ui%able & actual object1 a ?is 7 7 out ( ! undi/+ui%$ & indet]m9ate matt]2 x is ! peculi> virtue1 ! complet$ activity1 ! s\l ( e ?+4 ,t :i* ,ari/otle calls =m1 !re=e1 is n to be conf\nd$ ) :at we p]haps may call %ape2 a h& sev]$ f ! arm1 = in/ance1 has /ill ! outw>d %ape ( a h&1 b accord+ to ! ,ari/otelian appreh5sion1 x is only a h& n[ z to matt] & n z to =m3 an actual h&1 a h& z to =m1 is only t :i* c d ! prop] "w ( a h&4 ,pure =m is t :i*1 9 tru?1 is )\t matt] 7 72 or1 9 o!r words1 ! conception ( be+1 ! pure conception4 ,b su* pure =m does n exi/ 9 ! realm ( det]m9$ be+2 e det]m9$ be+1 e individual sub/ance 771 e ?+ :i* is a ?is1 is r a totality ( matt] & =m1 a 774 ,x is1 !re=e1 ow+ to matt]1 t be+ is n pure =m & pure conception2 matt] is ! gr\nd ( ! becom+1 ! manifold1 & ! accid5tal2 & x is ?is1 also1 :i* gives to sci5ce its limits4 ,= 9 precisely ! measure 9 :i* ! individual ?+ be>s 9 itself a mat]ial elem5t is x uncognizable4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x foll[s t ! opposition betwe5 matt] & =m is a v>iable "o1 t be+ matt] 9 "o respect :i* 9 ano!r is =m2 build+-wood1 e4 g4 is matt] 9 relation to ! complet$ h\se1 b 9 relation to ! unhewn tree x is =m2 ! s\l 9 respect to ! body is =m1 b 9 respect to ! reason1 :i* is ! =m ( =m 7 7 is x matt]4 ,on ?is /&po9t ! totality ( all exi/5ce may be repres5t$ z a ladd]1 ^: l[e/ /ep is a prime matt] 7 71 :i* is n at all =m1 & ^: highe/ /ep is an ultimate =m :i* is n at all matt]1 b is pure =m 7! absolute1 div9e _s74 ,t :i* /&s betwe5 ^! two po9ts is 9 "o respect matt]1 & 9 ano!r respect =m1 i4 e4 ! =m] is ev] translat+ itself into ! latt]4 ,?is position1 :i* lies at ! basis ( ! ,ari/otelian view ( nature1 is atta9$ analytically ?r\gh ! obs]vation t all nature exhibits ! p]petual & progressive transition ( matt] into =m1 & %[s ! exhau/less & orig9al gr\nd ( ?+s z x comes to view 9 ev] asc5d+ ideal =mations4 ,t all matt] %\ld become =m1 & all t is pot5tial %\ld be actual1 & all t is %\ld be kn[n1 is d\btless ! dem& ( ! reason & ! end ( all becom+2 yet is ?is actually impracticable1 s9ce ,ari/otle expressly affirms t matt] z ! anti!sis1 or d5ial ( =m1 c nev] become :olly actualiz$1 & !re=e c nev] be p]fectly kn[n4 ,! ,ari/otelian sy/em ends ?us l its pr$ecessors1 9 ! unsubdu$ dualism ( matt] & =m4 7#c47 ,pot5tiality & ,actuality 7 & 74--,! relation ( matt] to =m1 logically appreh5d$1 is b ! relation ( pot5tiality to actuality4 ,^! t]ms1 :i* ,ari/otle fir/ employ$ accord+ to _! philosophical significance1 are v *>act]i/ic = 8 sy/em4 ,we h 9 ! movem5t ( pot5tial be+ to actual be+ ! explicit conception ( becom+1 & 9 ! f\r pr9ciples we h a di/ribution ( ?is conception 9 its p>ts4 ,! ,ari/otelian sy/em is consequ5tly a sy/em ( ! becom+1 9 :i* ! ,h]aclitic pr9ciple appe>s aga9 9 a ri*] & pr(\nd] appreh5sion1 z t ( ! ,eleatics _h done ) ,plato4 ,ari/otle 9 ?is has made no insignificant /ep t[>ds ! subjection ( ! ,platonic dualism4 ,if matt] is ! possibility ( =m1 or reason becom+1 !n is ! opposition betwe5 ! idea & ! ph5om5al _w pot5tially ov]come1 at lea/ 9 pr9ciple1 s9ce !re is "o be+ :i* appe>s bo? 9 matt] & =m only 9 diff]5t /ages ( developm5t4 ,! relation ( ! pot5tial to ! actual ,ari/otle exhibits by ! relation ( ! unf9i%$ to ! f9i%$ "w1 ( ! unemploy$ c>p5t] to ! "o at "w ^u 8 build+1 ( ! individual asleep to him awake4 ,pot5tially ! se$-corn is ! tree1 b ! gr[n up tree is x actually2 ! pot5tial philosoph] is he :o is n at ?is mom5t 9 a philosophiz+ condition2 ev5 be=e ! battle ! bett] g5]al is ! pot5tial conqu]or2 pot5tially is space inf9itely divisible2 9 fact e ?+ is pot5tially :i* possesses a pr9ciple ( motion1 ( developm5t1 or ( *ange1 & :i*1 if unh9d]$ by any ?+ ext]nal1 w be ( itself4 ,actuality or entele*y on ! o!r h& indicates ! p]fect act1 ! end z ga9$1 ! completely actual 7! gr[n-up tree e4g4 is ! entele*y ( ! se$-corn71 t activity 9 :i* ! act & ! complet5ess ( ! act fall toge!r1 e4 g4 to see1 to ?9k :]e he sees & he has se51 he ?9ks & he has ?\ght 7! act+ & ! complet5ess ( ! act7 are "o & ! same1 :ile 9 ^? activities :i* involve a becom+1 e4 g4 to le>n1 to g1 to become well1 ! two are sep>at$4 ,9 ?is appreh5sion ( =m 7or idea7 z actuality or entele*y1 i4 e4 9 jo9+ x ) ! movem5t ( ! becom+1 is f\nd ! *ief antagonism ( ! ,ari/otelian & ,platonic sy/ems4 ,plato consid]s ! idea z be+ at re/1 & consi/+ = itself1 9 opposition to ! becom+ & to motion2 b ) ,ari/otle ! idea is ! et]nal product ( ! becom+1 x is an et]nal en]gy1 i4 e4 an activity 9 complete actuality1 x is n p]fect be+1 b is be+ produc$ 9 e mom5t & et]nally1 ?r\gh ! movem5t ( ! pot5tial to its actual end4 7#d47 ,! ,absolute1 ,div9e ,_s4--,ari/otle has s\ght to e/abli% f a numb] ( sides1 ! conception ( ! absolute _s1 or z he calls x1 ! fir/ mov]1 & especially by jo9+ x to ! relation ( pot5tiality & actuality4 7a47 ,! ,cosmological ,=m4--,! actual is ev] antec$5t to ! pot5tial n only 9 conception 7= ,i c speak ( pot5tiality only 9 ref]5ce to "s activity7 b also 9 "t1 = ! act+ becomes actual only ?r\gh an act+2 ! un$ucat$ becomes educat$ ?r\gh ! educat$1 & ?is leads to ! claim ( a fir/ mov] :i* %all be pure activity4 ,or1 aga91 x is only possible t !re %\ld be motion1 becom+1 or a *a9 ( causes1 except z a pr9ciple ( motion1 a mov] exi/s4 ,b ?is pr9ciple ( motion mu/ be "o ^: ess5ce is actuality1 s9ce t :i* only exi/s 9 possibility _c alone become actual1 & !re=e _c be a pr9ciple ( motion4 ,all becom+ po/ulates ) itself t :i* is et]nal & :i* has n become1 t :i* itself unmov$ is a pr9ciple ( motion1 a fir/ mov]4 7b47 ,! ,ontological ,=m4--,9 ! same way x foll[s f ! conception ( pot5tiality1 t ! et]nal & necess>y be+ _c be pot5tial4 ,= t :i* pot5tially is1 may j z well ei!r be or n be2 b t :i* possibly is n1 is temporal & n et]nal4 ,no?+ !re=e :i* is absolutely p]man5t1 is pot5tial1 b only actual4 ,or1 aga91 if pot5tiality be ! fir/1 !n c !re be no possible exi/5ce1 b ?is contradicts ! conception ( ! absolute or t :i* x is impossible %\ld n be4 7c47 ,! ,moral ,=m4--,pot5tiality always involves a possibility to ! mo/ opposite4 ,he :o has ! capacity to be well1 has also ! capacity to be sick1 b actually no man is at ! same "t bo? sick & well4 ,!re=e actuality is bett] ?an pot5tiality1 & only x c belong to ! et]nal4 7d47 ,s f> z ! relation ( pot5tiality & actuality is id5tical ) ! relation ( matt] & =m1 we may appreh5d 9 ! foll[+ way ^! argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( a be+ :i* is pure actuality4 ,! supposition ( an absolute matt] )\t =m 7! 7 involves also ! supposition ( an absolute =m )\t matt] 7a 74 ,& s9ce ! conception ( =m resolves itself into ! ?ree det]m9ations1 ( ! mov+1 ! conceivable1 & ! f9al cause1 s is ! et]nal "o ! absolute pr9ciple ( motion 7! fir/ mov] 71 ! absolute conception or pure intelligible 7! pure 71 & ! absolute end4 ,all ! o!r pr$icates ( ! fir/ mov] or ! highe/ pr9ciple ( ! _w1 foll[ f ^! premises ) logical necessity4 ,unity belongs to him1 s9ce ! gr\nd ( ! manifoldness ( be+ lies 9 ! matt] & he has no p>ticipation 9 matt]2 he is immovable & abid+ ev] ! same1 s9ce o!rwise he c\ld n be ! absolute mov] & ! cause ( all becom+2 he is life z active self-end & actuality2 he is at ! same "t intelligible & intellig5ce1 because he is absolutely immat]ial & free f nature2 he is active1 i4 e4 ?9k+ intellig5ce1 because 8 ess5ce is pure actuality2 he is self-contemplat+ intellig5ce1 because ! div9e ?\ght _c atta9 its actuality 9 any ?+ extr9sic1 & because if x 7 ! ?\ght ( any ?+ o!r ?an itself1 ?is w\ld make x dep5d ^u "s pot5tial exi/5ce = its actualization4 ,h5ce ! fam$ ,ari/otelian def9ition ( ! absolute t x is ! ?\ght ( ?\ght 7 71 ! p]sonal unity ( ! ?9k+ & ! ?\ght1 ( ! kn[+ & ! kn[n1 ! absolute subject-object4 ,9 ! ,metaphysics 7,,xii4 #a47 we h a /atem5t 9 ord] ( ^! attributes ( ! ,div9e ,_s1 & an almo/ dev\t sket* ( ! et]nally bless$ ,deity1 kn[+ himself 9 8 et]nal tranquillity z ! absolute tru?1 satisfi$ ) himself1 & want+ nei!r 9 activity nor 9 any virtue4 ,z w\ld appe> f ?is /atem5t1 ,ari/otle has nev] fully develop$ ! idea ( 8 absolute _s1 & /ill less has he h>moniz$ x ) ! fundam5tal pr9ciples & dem&s ( 8 philosophy1 al?\gh _m consequ5ces ( 8 sy/em w\ld seem to drive him to ?is1 & num]\s pr9ciples :i* he has laid d[n w\ld seem to prep>e ! way = x4 ,?is idea is unexpect$ly introduc$ 9 ! twelf? book ( ! ,metaphysics simply z an ass]tion1 )\t be+ f>!r & inductively sub/antiat$4 ,x is at once att5d$ ) important difficulties4 ,we d n see :y ! ultimate gr\nd ( motion or ! absolute _s mu/ be conceiv$ z a p]sonal be+2 we d n see h[ any ?+ c he a mov+ cause & yet itself unmov$2 h[ x c be ! orig9 ( all becom+1 t is ( ! dep>t+ & aris+1 & itself rema9 a *angeless en]gy1 a pr9ciple ( motion ) no pot5tiality to be mov$1 = ! mov+ ?+ mu/ /& 9 a relation ( passive & active ) ! ?+ mov$4 ,moreov]1 ,ari/otle1 z w\ld foll[ f ^! contradictory det]m9ations1 has nev] ?or\ghly & consi/5tly det]m9$ ! relation betwe5 ,god & ! _w4 ,he has consid]$ ! absolute _s only z contemplative & !oretical reason1 f :om all action mu/ be exclud$ because he is p]fect end 9 himself1 b e action presupposes an end n yet p]fect$2 we h ?us no true motive = 8 activity 9 ref]5ce to ! _w4 ,he _c be truly call$ ! fir/ mov] 9 8 !oretical relation alone1 & s9ce he is 9 8 ess5ce extra-mundane & unmov$1 he _c once p]meate ! life ( ! _w ) 8 activity2 & s9ce also matt] on "o side nev] rises :olly to =m1 we h1 !re=e1 "h aga9 ! unreconcil$ dualism betwe5 ! ,div9e _s & ! unmi/akable reality ( matt]4 ,_m ( ! argum5ts :i* ,ari/otle br+s aga9/ ! gods ( ,anaxagoras may be urg$ aga9/ 8 own !ory4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,ari/otelian ,,physics4--,! ,ari/otelian ,physics1 :i* embraces ! great] portion ( 8 writ+s1 foll[s ! becom+ & ! build+ up ( matt] into =m1 ! c\rse ?r\gh :i* nature z a liv+ be+ progresses 9 ord] to become individual s\l4 ,all becom+ has an end2 b end is =m1 & ! absolute =m is _s4 ,) p]fect consi/5cy1 !re=e1 ,ari/otle reg>ds ! human individual ( ! male sex z ! end & ! c5tre ( e>?ly nature 9 its realiz$ =m4 ,all else b5ea? ! moon is1 z x 71 an unsuccessful attempt ( nature to produce ! male human1 a sup]fluity :i* arises f ! impot5ce ( nature to subdue ! :ole ( matt] & br+ x into =m4 ,e ?+ :i* does n ga9 ! univ]sal end ( nature mu/ be reg>d$ z incomplete1 & is prop]ly an exception or abortion4 ,= in/ance1 he calls x an abortion :5 a *ild does n resemble its fa!r2 & ! female *ild he looks ^u z an abortion 9 a less degree1 :i* he acc\nts = by ! insuffici5t en]gy ( ! male z ! =m+ pr9ciple4 ,9 g5]al1 ,ari/otle reg>ds ! female z imp]fect 9 comp>ison ) ! male1 an imp]fection :i* belongs 9 a high] degree to all animals except man4 ,if nature did h] "w ) p]fect consci\sness1 !n 7 all ^! mi/akes1 ^! incomplete & improp] =mations inexplicable1 b %e is an arti/ work+ only aft] an unconsci\s impulse1 & does n complete h] "w ) a cle> & rational insight4 #a4 ,! univ]sal conditions ( all natural exi/5ce1 motion1 matt]1 space & "t1 ,ari/otle inve/igates 9 ! books ( ,physics4 ,^! physical conceptions may1 moreov]1 be r$uc$ to ! metaphysical notions ( pot5tiality & actuality2 motion is accord+ly def9$ z ! activity ( be+ pot5tially1 & is !re=e a mean betwe5 ! m]ely pot5tial entity & ! p]fectly realiz$ activity2--space is ! possibility ( motion & possesses1 !re=e1 pot5tially1 ?\gh n actively1 ! prop]ty ( inf9ite divisibility2 "t is 9 ! same way ! inf9itely divisible1 express+ ! measure ( motion 9 numb]1 & is ! numb] ( motion accord+ to be=e & aft]4 ,all ?ree are inf9ite1 b ! inf9ite :i* is repres5t$ 9 !m is only pot5tially b n actually a :ole3 x compreh5ds no?+1 b is itself compreh5d$1--a fact mi/ak5 by ^? :o are accu/om$ to extol ! inf9ite z ?\gh x compreh5d$ & held e ?+ 9 itself1 because x _h "s simil>ity ) ! :ole4 #b4 ,f 8 conception ( motion ,ari/otle d]ives 8 view ( ! collective univ]se1 z br\ght out 9 8 books ,de ,clo4 ,! mo/ p]fect motion is ! circul>1 because ?is is con/ant1 uni=m1 & ev] return+ into itself4 ,! _w z a :ole is !re=e condition$ by ! circul> motion1 & be+ a :ole complete 9 itself1 x has a sph]ical =m4 ,b because ! motion :i* returns into itself is bett] ?an e o!r1 x foll[s1 f ! same gr\nd1 t 9 ?is sph]ical univ]se ! bett] sph]e w be 9 ! circumf]5ce :]e ! circul> motion is mo/ p]fect1 & ! inf]ior "o w arrange itself ar\nd ! c5tre ( ! univ]sal sph]e4 ,! =m] is heav51 ! latt] is e>?1 & betwe5 ! two /& ! planet>y sph]es4 ,heav51 z ! place ( circul> motion1 & ! sc5e ( un*angeable ord]1 /&s ne>e/ ! fir/ mov+ cause1 & is "u its imm$iate influ5ce2 x is ! place :]e ! anci5ts1 guid$ by ! correct tradition ( a lo/ wisdom1 h1 plac$ ! ,div9e abode4 ,its p>ts1 ! fix$ />s1 are passionless & et]nal ess5ces1 :i* h atta9$ ! be/ end1 :i* mu/ be et]nally conceiv$ 9 a tireless activity1 & :i*1 ?\gh n cle>ly cognizable1 are yet mu* m div9e ?an man1 ,a l[] sph]e1 next to t ( ! fix$ />s1 is ! sph]e ( ! planets1 among :i*1 besides ! five kn[n to ! anci5ts1 he reckons ! sun & ! moon4 ,?is sph]e /&s a little remov$ f ! greate/ p]fection3 in/ead ( mov+ directly f "r to left1 z d ! fix$ />s1 ! planets move 9 contr>y directions & 9 oblique orbits2 !y s]ve ! fix$ />s1 & are rul$ by _! motion4 ,la/ly1 ! e>? is 9 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 f>!/ remov$ f ! fir/ mov]1 & h5ce p>tak+ 9 ! smalle/ degree ( ! ,div9e4 ,!re are ?us ?ree k9ds ( be+1 exhibit+ ?ree /ages ( p]fection1 & necess>y = ! explanation ( nature2 fir/1 ! absolute _s or ,god1 an immat]ial be+1 :o1 himself unmov$1 produces motion2 second1 ! sup]-t]re/rial region ( ! heav5s1 a be+ :i* is mov$ & :i* moves1 & :i*1 ?\gh n )\t matt]1 is et]nal & un*angeable1 & possesses ev] a circul> motion2 &1 la/ly1 9 ! l[e/ c\rse ?is e>?1 a *angeful be+1 :i* has only to play ! passive "p ( be+ mov$4 #c4 ,nature 9 a /rict s5se1 ! sc5e ( elem5tal work+1 repres5ts to u a con/ant & progressive transition ( ! elem5t>y to ! vegetative1 & ( ! vegetative to ! animal _w4 ,! l[e/ /ep is occupi$ by ! inanimate bodies ( nature1 :i* are simple products ( ! elem5ts m+l+ !mselves toge!r1 & h _! entele*y only 9 ! det]m9ate comb9ations ( ^! elem5ts1 b ^: en]gy consi/s only 9 /riv+ aft] a fitt+ place 9 ! univ]se1 & 9 re/+ !re s f> z !y rea* x unh9d]$4 ,b n[ su* a m]e ext]nal entele*y is n possess$ by ! liv+ bodies2 )9 !m dwells a motion z organiz+ pr9ciple by :i* !y atta9 to actuality1 & :i* z a pres]v+ activity develops 9 !m t[>ds a p]fect$ organization1--9 a ^w !y h a s\l1 = a s\l is ! entele*y ( an organic body4 ,9 plants we f9d ! s\l work+ only z p]sev]+ & n\ri%+ en]gy3 ! plant has no o!r function ?an to n\ri% itself & to propagate its k9d2 among animals--:]e we f9d a progress accord+ to ! mode ( _! reproduction--! s\l appe>s z s5sitive2 animals h s5se1 & are capable ( locomotion2 la/ly1 ! human s\l is at ! same "t nutritive1 s5sitive1 & cognitive4 #d4 ,man1 z ! end ( all nature1 embraces 9 himself ! diff]5t /eps ( developm5t 9 :i* ! life ( nature is exhibit$4 ,! division ( ! faculties ( ! s\l mu/ !re=e be necess>ily regulat$1 accord+ to ! division ( liv+ creatures4 ,z ! nutritive faculty is alone ! prop]ty ( vegetables1 & s5sation1 ( animals1 :ile to ! m p]fect animals locomotion also belongs1 s are ^! ?ree activities also developm5t /eps ( ! human s\l1 ! antec$5t be+ ! necess>y condition (1 & presuppos$ 9 "t by1 ! subsequ5t1 :ile ! s\l itself is no?+ o!r ?an ! union ( ^! diff]5t activities ( an organic body 9 "o common end1 z ! entele*y ( ! organic body4 ,! f\r? /ep1 ?\ght or reason1 :i*1 add$ to ! ?ree o!rs1 con/itutes ! peculi>ity ( ! human s\l1 =ms alone an exception f ! g5]al law4 ,x is n a simple product ( ! l[] facilities ( ! s\l1 x does n /& relat$ to !m simply z a high] /age ( developm5t1 nor simply z ! s\l to ! body1 z ! end to ! in/rum5t1 z actuality to possibility1 z =m to matt]4 ,b z pure intellectual activity1 x completes itself )\t any m$iation ( a bodily organ2 z ! reason comes into ! body f )\t1 s is x sep>able f ! body1 & !re=e has x no inn] connection ) ! bodily functions1 b is some?+ :olly =eign 9 nature4 ,true1 !re exi/s a connection betwe5 ?\ght & s5sation1 = :ile ! s5sations are outw>dly divid$1 accord+ to ! diff]5t objects ( s5se1 yet int]nally !y meet 9 "o c5tre1 z a common s5se4 ,"h !y become *ang$ into images & repres5tations1 :i* aga9 become transmut$ into ?\ghts1 & s x might seem z if ?\ght 7 only ! result ( ! s5sation1 z if intellig5ce 7 passively det]m9$2 7"h we might notice ! proposition falsely ascrib$ to ,ari/otle3 nihil e/ 9 intellectu quod non fu]it 9 s5su1 & also ! well-kn[n ?\gh (t5 misund]/ood comp>ison ( ! s\l ) an unwritt5 tablet1 :i* only implies ?is mu*1 viz41 t z ! unwritt5 tablet is pot5tially b n actually a book1 s does k belong pot5tially ?\gh n actually to ! human reason2 fundam5tally & radically ! ?\ght may h 9 itself univ]sal conceptions1 s f> z x has ! capacity to =m !m1 b n actually1 nor 9 a det]m9$ or develop$ =m74 ,b ?is passivity presupposes r an activity2 = if ! ?\ght 9 its actuality1 9 t x appe>s z k1 becomes all =ms & !re=e all ?+s1 !n mu/ ! ?\ght con/itute itself t :i* x becomes1 & !re=e all passively det]m9$ human intellig5ce re/s on an orig9ally active intellig5ce1 :i* exi/s z self-actualiz+ possibility & pure actuality1 & :i*1 z su*1 is :olly indep5d5t ( ! human body1 & has n its entele*y 9 x b 9 itself1 & is n !re=e p>ticipant 9 ! dea? ( ! body1 b lives on z univ]sal reason1 et]nal & immortal4 ,! ,ari/otelian dualism "h aga9 appe>s4 ,manife/ly ?is active intellig5ce /&s relat$ to ! s\l z ,god to nature4 ,! two sides possess no ess5tial relation to ea* o!r4 ,z ! ,div9e _s c\ld n ent] ! life ( ! _w1 s is ! human _s unable to p]meate ! life ( s5se2 al?\gh x is det]m9$ z some?+ passionless & immat]ial1 /ill mu/ x z s\l be connect$ ) matt]1 & al?\gh x is pure & self-contemplative =m1 /ill x %\ld be di/+ui%$ f ! ,div9e _s :i* is its c\nt]p>t2 ! want ( a satisfactory m$iation on ! side ( ! human & on t ( ! ,div9e1 is 9 ^! respects unmi/akable4 ,v4 ,,! ,,ari/otelian ,,e?ics4 #a4 ,,relation ,,( ,,e?ics ,,to ,,physics4--,ari/otle1 guid$ by 8 t5d5cy t[>ds ! natural1 has m closely connect$ e?ics & physics ?an ei!r ( 8 pr$ecessors1 ,socrates or ,plato1 _h done4 ,:ile ,plato f\nd x impossible to speak ( ! good 9 man's moral condition1 disconnect$ f ! idea ( ! good 9 itself1 ,ari/otle's pr9cipal object is to det]m9e :at is good = man solely2 & he supposes t ! good 9 itself1 ! idea ( ! good1 9 no way facilitates ! k ( t good1 :i* alone is atta9able 9 practical life4 ,x is only ! latt]1 ! moral elem5t 9 ! life ( m51 & n ! good 9 ! great affairs ( ! univ]se1 ) :i* e?ics has to d4 ,ari/otle !re=e consid]s ! good especially 9 its relation to ! natural condition ( m51 & affirms t x is ! end t[>ds :i* nature h]self t5ds4 ,in/ead ( view+ ! moral elem5t z some?+ purely intellectual1 he r appreh5ds x z only ! bloom ( ! physical1 :i* "h becomes spiritualiz$ & e?ical2 in/ead ( mak+ virtue to be k1 he treats x z ! normal p]fection ( ! natural in/9ct4 ,t man is by nature a political animal1 is 8 fundam5tal proposition = ! doctr9e ( ! /ate4 ,f ?is connection ( ! e?ical & ! physical1 arose ! objections :i* ,ari/otle urg$ aga9/ ! ,socratic conception ( virtue4 ,socrates _h look$ to ! dialectical exclusively = ! gr\nd ( all morality1 & _h accord+ly made virtue & k "o4 ,b 9 ?is1 said ,ari/otle1 ! pa?ological elem5t :i* is associat$ by nature ) e moral act1 is de/roy$4 ,x is n reason1 b ! circum/ances & natural bias ( ! s\l :i* are ! fir/ gr\nd ( virtue4 ,!re is an in/9ct 9 ! s\l :i* at fir/ /rives unconsci\sly aft] ! good1 :i* is only subsequ5tly s\ght ) ! full moral insight4 ,moral virtue arises fir/ f t :i* is natural4 ,x is on ?is gr\nd1 also1 t ,ari/otle combats ! notion t virtue may be le>n$4 ,x is n ?r\gh ! p]fection ( k1 b by ex]cise t we become acqua9t$ ) ! good4 ,x is by a practice ( moral acts t we become virtu\s1 j z by a practice ( build+ & ( music we become ar*itects & musicians2 = ! habit :i* is ! gr\nd ( moral con/ancy1 is only a fruit ( ! abundant repetition ( a moral action4 ,h5ce x is t orig9ally we h our virtu\s or our vici\s dispositions 9 our p[]1 b z soon z !y are =m$ ei!r to virtue or to vice1 we are no long] able to control !m4 ,x is by ?ree ?+s1 !re=e1 nature1 habit1 & reason1 t man becomes good4 ,! /&po9t ( ,ari/otle is 9 ^! respects directly oppos$ to t ( ,socrates4 ,:ile ,socrates reg>d$ ! moral & ! natural z two opposites1 & made ! moral conduct to be ! consequ5t ( a rational enlight5m5t1 ,ari/otle treat$ bo? z diff]5t /eps ( developm5t1 & rev]s+ ! ord] ( ,socrates1 made ! rational enlight5m5t 9 moral ?+s consequ5t ^u ! moral conduct4 #b4 ,,! ,,highe/ ,,good4--,e action has an end2 b s9ce e end is only itself a means to "s o!r1 we ne$ !re=e some?+ aft] :i* we c /rive = its own sake1 & :i* is a good absolutely1 or a be/4 ,:at n[ is ?is highe/ good & supreme object ( human pursuit8 ,9 "n1 at lea/1 all m5 are agre$ ^u x1 & call x happ9ess1 b :at happ9ess is1 is a mu* disput$ po9t4 ,if ask$ 9 :at human happ9ess consi/s1 ! fir/ *>act]i/ic giv5 w\ld be t x belongs alone to ! peculi> be+ ( man4 ,b s5sation is n peculi> to man1 = he %>es ?is ) ! brute4 ,a s5sation ( pleasure1 !re=e1 :i* arises :5 "s desire is gratifi$1 may be ! happ9ess ( ! brute1 b c]ta9ly does n con/itute ! ess5tial ( human happ9ess4 ,human happ9ess mu/ express ! complet5ess ( intellig5t exi/5ce1 & because intellig5ce is ess5tially activity1 !re=e ! happ9ess ( man _c consi/ 9 any m]ely passive condition1 b mu/ express a complet5ess ( human action4 ,happ9ess !re=e is a well-be+1 :i* is at ! same "t a well-do+1 & x is a well-do+ :i* satisfies all ! conditions ( nature1 & :i* f9ds ! highe/ cont5tm5t or well-be+ 9 an unre/ra9$ en]gy4 ,activity & pleasure are ?us insep>ably b\nd toge!r by a natural bond1 & happ9ess is ! result ( _! union :5 !y are su/a9$ ?r\gh a p]fect life4 ,h5ce ! ,ari/otelian def9ition ( happ9ess4 ,x is a p]fect practical activity 9 a p]fect life4 ,al?\gh x might seem f ?is z ?\gh ,ari/otle plac$ ! happ9ess ( man 9 ! natural activity ( ! s\l1 & reg>d$ ?is z self-suffici5t1 /ill he is n bl9d to ! fact t p]fect happ9ess is dep5d5t on o!r k9ds ( good ^: possession is n absolutely )9 our p[]4 ,x is true he expresses an op9ion1 t outw>d ?+s 9 mod]ation are suffici5t1 & t only great success or signal rev]ses mat]ially influ5ce ! happ5s ( life2 /ill he holds t weal?1 ! possession ( fri5ds & *ildr51 noble bir?1 beauty ( body1 etc41 are m or less necess>y conditions ( happ9ess1 ?\gh ^! are p>tly dep5d5t on accid5tal circum/ances4 ,^! wav]+ & inconsi/5t views ( ,ari/otle respect+ ! nature ( happ9ess1 naturally rise f 8 empirical me?od ( inve/igation4 ,c>eful 9 not+ e ?+ :i* our limit$ exp]i5ce seems to utt]1 he expressly avoids mak+ ei!r virtue or pleasure 8 pr9ciple1 because actual exp]i5ce %[s ! sep>ation ( ! two4 ,al?\gh !re=e he gives directions 9 g5]al to /rive aft] t pleasure 9 :i* ! good man delights1 or :i* is connect$ ) a virtu\s activity1 yet is pleasure ) him an end = its own sake1 & n m]ely an accid5t ( virtue1 an empirici/1 ,ari/otle is "h also a duali/1 :ile ! ,/oics & ,epicureans h respectively tak5 & held fa/ to ea* ( ! two sides4 #c4 ,,conception ,,( ,,virtue4--,z has already be5 se5 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,polemic aga9/ ,socrates1 virtue is ! product ( an (t-repeat$ moral action1 a condition acquir$ ?r\gh practice1 a moral dext]ity ( ! s\l4 ,! nature ( ?is dext]ity is se5 9 ! foll[+ way3 e action completes some?+ z its "w2 b n[ if a "w is imp]fect :5 x has ei!r a want or a sup]fluity1 s also is e action imp]fect 9 s f> z !re is 9 x ei!r too little or too mu*2 its p]fection1 !re=e1 is only f\nd z x conta9s ! "r degree1 ! true mean betwe5 ! too mu* & too little4 ,accord+ly1 virtue 9 g5]al may be expla9$ z ! obs]vation ( ! "r mean 9 action1 by :i* is meant n ! ari?metical or absolute mean1 b ! "o relative to ourselves4 ,= :at is en\gh = "o individual is insuffici5t = ano!r4 ,! virtue ( a man1 ( a woman1 ( a *ild1 & ( a slave is respectively diff]5t4 ,?us1 virtue dep5ds ^u "t1 circum/ance1 & relation4 ,! det]m9ation ( ?is correct mean w always wav]4 ,9 ! impossibility ( an active & exhau/ive =mula1 we c only say respect+ x t x is ! correct mean z det]m9$ by a correct practical insight :i* is se5 to be su* by ! intellig5t man4 ,x foll[s f ?is g5]al conception ( virtue1 t !re w be z _m sep>ate virtues z !re are circum/ances ( life1 & z m5 are ev] ent]+ into new relations1 9 :i* x becomes difficult practically to det]m9e ! correct me?od ( action1 ,ari/otle1 9 opposition to ,plato1 w\ld limit ! field ( sep>ate virtues by no def9ite numb]4 ,only c]ta9 fundam5tal virtues c be nam$ accord+ z !re are c]ta9 fix$ & fundam5tal relations among m54 ,= in/ance1 man has a fix$ relation to pleasure & pa94 ,9 relation to pa91 ! true moral mean is f\nd 9 nei!r fe>+ nor c\rt+ x1 & ?is is valor4 ,9 relation to pleasure1 ! true mean /&+ betwe5 gre$9ess & indiff]5ce is temp]ance4 ,9 social life1 ! moral mean is betwe5 do+ & suff]+ wrong1 :i* is ju/ice4 ,9 a simil> way _m o!r virtues might be *>act]iz$1 ea* "o ( !m /&+ z a mean betwe5 two vices1 ! "o ( :i* expresses a want & ! o!r a sup]fluity4 ,a clos] exhibition ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( virtue w\ld h mu* psy*ological & l+ui/ic int]e/1 ?\gh b little philosophical wor?4 ,ari/otle takes ! conception ( 8 virtues m f ! use ( language ?an f a ?or\ghly appli$ pr9ciple ( classification4 ,8 classification ( virtues is1 !re=e1 )\t any /able gr\nd1 & is diff]5tly giv5 9 diff]5t places4 ,! conception ( ! correct mean :i* ,ari/otle makes ! measure ( a moral act is obvi\sly unwor?y ( a sy/ematic repres5tation1 = z x _c be det]m9$ h[ ! intellig5t man w\ld act 9 e case1 !re c\ld nev] be giv5 any specific directions h[ o!rs %\ld act4 ,9 f9e1 ! crit]ion ( virtue z ! correct mean betwe5 two vices _c be always appli$ = 9 ! virtue ( wisdom1 e4 g4 :i* ,ari/otle describes z ! mean betwe5 simplicity & cunn+1 !re is no su* ?+ z too mu*4 #d4 ,,! ,,/ate4--,ari/otle1 l ,plato1 makes ! highe/ condition ( moral virtue atta9able only ?r\gh political life4 ,! /ate exi/s be=e ! individual1 z ! :ole is prior to its p>ts4 ,! rationality & morality ( ! /ate is ?us antec$5t to t ( ! individual4 ,h5ce 9 ! be/ /ate1 moral & political virtue1 ! virtue ( ! man & ! virtue ( ! citiz5 are "o & ! same ?+1 al?\gh 9 /ates z !y are1 ! good citiz5 is n necess>ily also ! good man4 ,b ?\gh ?is pr9ciple h>moniz$ ) ,plato1 yet ,ari/otle1 at ^: "t ! old aborig9al /ates _h already begun _! process ( dissolution1 *]i%$ a v diff]5t view conc]n+ ! relation ( ! individual & ! family to ! /ate4 ,he all[s to bo? ^! an incomp>ably great] consid]ation1 & yields to !m a f> wid] field ( indep5d5t action4 ,h5ce he combats ,plato's community ( wives & goods1 n simply on ! gr\nd ( its practicability1 b also on ! gr\nd ( its pr9ciple1 s9ce ! /ate _c be conceiv$ z a /rict unit1 or z possess+ any su* c5tralization z w\ld weak5 or de/roy individual activity4 ,) ,plato ! /ate is b ! product ( ! philosophical reflection1 :ile ) ,ari/otle x results f giv5 circum/ances1 f hi/ory & exp]i5ce1 & he !re=e :olly omits to sket* a model /ate or a normal con/itution1 b c>efully conf9es 8 att5tion to ^? :i* actually exi/4 ,al?\gh ! ideal ( a /ate con/itution 9 ! =m ( a limit$ mon>*y is unmi/akably 9 8 m9d1 /ill he cont5ts himself ) portray+ ! diff]5t k9ds ( polities 9 _! peculi>ities1 _! orig91 & _! reciprocal transitions4 ,he does n und]take to decl>e :i* is ! be/ /ate absolutely1 s9ce ?is dep5ds ^u circum/ances1 & "o con/itution is n adapt$ = e /ate4 ,he simply attempts to %[ :at =m ( ! /ate is relatively ! be/ & ! mo/ advisable "u c]ta9 hi/orical circum/ances1 & "u giv5 natural1 climatic1 geographic1 economic1 & intellectual conditions4 ,9 ?is he is fai?ful to ! "* ( 8 :ole philosophy4 ,/&+ on ! basis ( ! empirical1 he advances "h z else:]e1 critically & reflectively1 & 9 despair ( atta9+ ! absolutely true & good1 he seeks = ^! relatively1 ) 8 eye fix$ only on ! probable & ! practicable4 ,,vi4--,,! ,,p]ipatetic ,,s*ool4--,! s*ool ( ,ari/otle1 call$ ! ,p]ipatetic1 c "h only be m5tion$2 ! want ( indep5d5ce 9 its philosophiz+1 & ! abs5ce ( any great & univ]sal influ5ce1 r5d]+ x unwor?y an ext5d$ notice4 ,!ophra/us1 ,eudemus1 & ,/rato are its mo/ fam\s lead]s4 ,l mo/ philosophical s*ools1 x conf9es itself *iefly to a m ?or\gh elaboration & explanation ( ! sy/em ( its ma/]4 ,9 "s empirical prov9ces1 especially ! physical1 ! attempt 0 made to c>ry out /ill fur!r ! sy/em1 :ile at ! same "t its speculative basis 0 set aside & neglect$4 ,,vii4--,,transition ,,to ,,! ,,po/-,,ari/otelian ,,philosophy4--,! productive en]gy ( ,grecian philosophy exp5ds itself ) ,ari/otle1 contemporane\sly & 9 connection ) ! univ]sal decay ( ,grecian life & _s4 ,in/ead ( ! great & univ]sal sy/ems ( a ,plato & an ,ari/otle1 we h n[ sy/ems ( a p>tial & "o-sid$ "*1 correspond+ to t univ]sal brea* betwe5 ! subject & ! objective _w :i* *>act]iz$ ! civil1 religi\s1 & social life ( ?is la/ epo* ( ,greece1 ! "t succe$+ ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,t subjectivity1 :i* _h be5 fir/ prop\nd$ by ! ,sophi/s1 0 at l5g?1 aft] num]\s /ruggles1 victori\s1 ?\gh its triumph 0 ga9$ ^u ! ru9s ( ! ,grecian civil & arti/ic life2 ! individual has become emancipat$1 ! subject is no long] to be giv5 up to ! objective _w1 ! lib]at$ subjectivity mu/ n[ be p]fect$ & satisfi$4 ,?is process ( developm5t is se5 9 ! po/-,ari/otelian philosophy1 ?\gh x f9ds its condition+ cause 9 ! "* ( ! prec$+ philosophical /riv+s4 ,! dualism :i* =m$ ! *ief want ( ! sy/ems bo? ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 has =c$ itself ^u our att5tion at e /ep4 ,! attempt :i* _h be5 made1 ) ! greate/ exp5diture ( :i* ! ,grecian m9d 0 capable1 to ref] back to "o ultimate gr\nd bo? subject & object1 m9d & matt]1 _h produc$ no satisfactory result2 & ^! two oppositions1 ar\nd :i* all previ\s philosophy _h /ruggl$ 9 va91 /ill rema9$ disconnect$4 ,we>i$ ) ! fruitless attempts at m$iation1 ! subject n[ breaks ) ! objective _w4 ,its att5tion is direct$ t[>ds itself 9 its own self-consci\sness4 ,! result ( ?is gives u ei!r ,,/oicism1 :]e ! moral subject appe>s 9 ! self-suffici5cy ( ! sage to :om e ext]nal good & e objective "w is indiff]5t1 & :o f9ds a good only 9 a moral activity2 or ,,epicureanism1 :]e ! subject delights itself 9 ! inn] feel+ ( pleasure & ! calm repose ( a satisfi$ he>t1 enjoy+ ! pres5t & ! pa/1 & nev] fe>+ ! future :ile x sees 9 ! objective _w only a means by :i* x c utt] itself2 or1 aga91 ,scepticism1 :]e ! subject1 d\bt+ & reject+ all objective tru? & sci5ce1 appe>s 9 ! apa?y ( ! ,sceptic1 :o has brok5 bo? !oretically & practically ) ! objective _w4 ,9 f9e1 ,,new-,,platonism1 ! la/ ( ! anci5t philosophical sy/ems1 be>s ?is same "* ( subjectivity1 = ?is :ole sy/em turns ^u ! exaltation ( ! subject to ! absolute1 & :]ev] x speculates respect+ ,god & 8 relation to man1 x is alone 9 ord] to e/abli% ! progressive transition f ! absolute object to ! human p]sonality4 ,! rul+ pr9ciple 9 x all is ! int]e/ ( ! subjectivity1 & ! fact t 9 ?is sy/em !re are num]\s objective det]m9ations1 is only because ! subject has become absolute4 ,,section ,,xvii4 ,,/oicism4 ,z5o1 ( ,cittium1 a city ( ,cyprus1 an eld] contempor>y ( ,antigonus ,gonatas1 k+ ( ,mac$on1 is g5]ally giv5 z ! f\nd] ( ! ,/oical s*ool4 ,depriv$ ( 8 prop]ty by %ipwreck1 he took refuge 9 philosophy1 incit$ also by an inn] bias to su* pursuits4 ,he at fir/ became a disciple ( ! ,cynic ,crateas1 !n ( ,/ilpo1 "o ( ! ,meg>ians1 & la/ly he betook himself to ! ,academy1 :]e he he>d ! lessons ( ,x5ocrates & ,polemo4 ,h5ce ! eclectic "* ( 8 tea*+4 ,x has 9 fact be5 *>g$ aga9/ him1 t diff]+ b little if at all f ! e>li] s*ools1 he attempt$ to =m a s*ool ( 8 own1 ) a sy/em :]e9 he _h *ang$ no?+ b names4 ,he op5$ a s*ool at ,a!ns1 9 ! 8v>iegat$ por*10 s call$ f ! pa9t+s ( ,polygnotus1 ) :i* x 0 adorn$1 :5ce 8 adh]5ts receiv$ ! "n ( 8philosoph]s ( ! por*0 7,/oics74 ,z5o is said to h presid$ ov] 8 s*ool = fifty-eight ye>s1 & at a v advanc$ age to h put an end to 8 exi/5ce4 ,he is prais$ = ! temp]ance & ! au/]ity ( 8 habits1 :ile 8 ab/emi\sness is prov]bial4 ,! monum5t 9 8 honor1 erect$ aft] 8 dea? by ! ,a!nians1 at ! in/ance ( ,antigonus1 bore ! high b simple eulogium t 8 life _h be5 9 unison ) 8 philosophy4 ,clean!s 0 ! successor ( ,z5o 9 ! ,/oic s*ool1 & fai?fully c>ri$ out ! me?od ( 8 ma/]4 ,clean!s 0 succe$$ by ,*rysippus1 :o di$ ab\t #bjh ,b4 ,c4 ,he has be5 reg>d$ z ! *ief prop ( ?is s*ool1 9 :i* respect x 0 said ( him1 t )\t a ,*rysippus !re w\ld nev] h be5 a ,por*4 ,at all ev5ts1 z ,*rysippus 0 an object ( ! greate/ v5]ation1 & ( almo/ undisput$ au?ority ) ! lat] ,/oics1 he ought to be consid]$ z ! pr9cipal f\nd] ( ! s*ool4 ,he 0 a writ] s volum9\s1 t 8 works h be5 said to am\nt to sev5 hundr$ & five1 among :i*1 h[ev]1 7 repeat$ treatises ^u ! same propositions1 & citations )\t measure f poets & hi/orians1 giv5 to prove & illu/rate 8 op9ions4 ,n "o ( all 8 writ+s has come d[n to u4 ,*rysippus closes ! s]ies ( ! philosoph]s :o f\nd$ ! ,por*4 ,! lat] heads ( ! s*ool1 z ,pantius1 ! fri5d ( ! y\ng] ,scipio 78 fam\s "w ,de ,(ficiis1 ,cic]o has elaborat$ 9 8 treatise ( ! same "n71 & ,posidonius1 may be class$ ) ,cic]o1 ,pompeius1 & o!rs1 & 7 eclectic 9 _! tea*+s4 ,! ,/oics h connect$ philosophy mo/ intimately ) ! duties ( practical life4 ,philosophy is ) !m ! practice ( wisdom1 ! ex]cise ( virtue4 ,virtue & sci5ce are ) !m "o1 9 s f> at lea/ t !y divide virtue 9 ref]5ce to philosophy into physical1 e?ical1 & logical4 ,b ?\gh !y g on accord+ to ?is ?reefold division1 & treat ( logic & physics1 & ?\gh !y ev5 rank physics high] ?an ei!r ( ! o!r sci5ces1 reg>d+ x z ! "m ( ! e?ical & ! sci5ce ( ! ,div9e1 yet d we f9d _! *>act]i/ic /&po9t mo/ prom95tly 9 _! !ory ( morals4 #a4 ,,logic4--,we h already said t x is ! brea* betwe5 subject & object1 :i* =ms ! basis ( all po/-,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,! beg9n+ ( ?is philosophy ( subjectivity is f\nd ) ! ,/oics4 ,! feature mo/ wor?y ( notice 9 _! logic1 is ! /riv+ aft] a subjective crit]ion ( ! tru?1 by :i* !y might di/+ui% ! true repres5tation f ! false4 ,s9ce !y limit$ all sci5tific k to ! k ( ! s5ses1 !y f\nd ?is crit]ion 9 t :i* 0 evid5t 9 ! s5su\s impression4 ,!y conceiv$ t !y _h answ]$ ! :ole problem1 9 affirm+ t ! true or conceivable repres5tation reveals n only itself1 b also its object3 x1 !y said1 is no?+ else ?an a repres5tation :i* is produc$ by a pres5t object 9 a mann] l itself4 #b4 ,,physics4--,9 _! physics1 :]e !y foll[ = ! mo/ "p ,h]aclitus1 ! ,/oics are di/+ui%$ f _! pr$ecessors1 especially f ,plato & ,ari/otle1 by _! ?or\ghly c>ri$ out proposition t no?+ uncorporeal exi/s1 t e ?+ ess5tial is corporeal 7j z 9 _! logic !y _h s\ght to d]ive all k f ! s5su\s p]ception74 ,?is s5sualism or mat]ialism ( ! ,/oics :i*1 z we h se5 9 _! logic1 lies at ! basis ( _! !ory ( k1 might seem =eign to all _! moral & ideali/ic t5d5cies1 b is cle>ly expla9$ f _! subjective /&po9t1 =1 :5 ! ?\ght has become s int5sely engross$ 9 ! subject1 ! objective _w c only be reg>d$ z a corporeal & mat]ial exi/5ce4 ,! mo/ imm$iate consequ5ce ( su* a view is _! pan!ism4 ,ari/otle be=e !m _h sep>at$ ! ,div9e ,be+ f ! _w1 z ! pure & et]nal =m f ! et]nal matt]2 b s f> z ?is sep>ation impli$ a di/9ction :i* 0 n simply logical1 b actual & real1 ! ,/oics w\ld n admit x4 ,x seem$ to !m impossible to dissev] ,god f matt]1 & !y !re=e consid]$ ,god & ! _w z p[] & its manife/ation1 & ?us z "o4 ,matt] is ! passive gr\nd ( ?+s1 ! orig9al sub/ratum = ! div9e activity3 ,god is ! active & =mative en]gy ( matt] dwell+ )9 x1 & ess5tially unit$ to x3 ! _w is ! body ( ,god1 & ,god is ! s\l ( ! _w4 ,! ,/oics1 !re=e1 consid]$ ,god & matt] z "o id5tical sub/ance1 :i*1 on ! side ( its passive & *angeable capacity !y call matt]1 & on ! side ( its active & *angeless en]gy1 ,god4 ,b s9ce !y1 z already rem>k$1 consid]$ ! _w z ens\l$ by ,god 9 ! light ( a liv+ & rational be+1 !y 7 oblig$ to treat ! conception ( ,god n only 9 a physical b also 9 its e?ical aspect4 ,god is n only 9 ! _w z ! rul+ & liv+ en]gy ( ?is great ,greek3 zon 7animal71 b he is also ! univ]sal reason :i* rules ! :ole _w & p5etrates all matt]2 he is ! graci\s ,provid5ce :i* c>es = ! individual & ! :ole2 he is wise1 & is ! gr\nd ( t natural law :i* comm&s ! good & =bids ! evil2 he puni%es & rew>ds2 he possesses a p]fect & bless$ life4 ,b accu/om$ to reg>d e ?+ spiritual only 9 a s5su\s way1 ! ,/oics 7 oblig$ to clo! ?is ideal conception ( ,god 9 a mat]ial =m1 appreh5d+ x z ! vital w>m? or an orig9al fire1 analog\s to ! view ( ! e>li] natural philosoph]s1 :o held t ! s\l1 & ev5 reason itself1 consi/$ 9 ! vital w>m?4 ,! ,/oics express ?is ?\ght 9 diff]5t ways4 ,at "o "t !y call ,god ! rational brea? :i* passes ?r\gh all nature2 at ano!r1 ! arti/ic fire :i* fa%ions or begets ! univ]se2 & /ill aga9 ! e!r2 :i*1 h[ev]1 !y h>dly di/+ui% f ! arti/ic fire4 ,f ^! v>y+ views1 we see t x did n belong to ! ,/oics to repres5t ! conception ( ,god 9 any det]m9ate k9d ( exi/5ce4 ,!y avail$ !mselves ( ^! expressions only to indicate t ,god1 z ! univ]sal animat+ en]gy 9 ! _w1 c\ld n be disconnect$ f a corporeal ag5cy4 ,?is id5tification ( ,god & ! _w1 accord+ to :i* ! ,/oics reg>d$ ! :ole =mation ( ! univ]se z b a p]iod 9 ! developm5t ( ,god1 r5d]s _! rema9+ doctr9e conc]n+ ! _w v simple4 ,e ?+ 9 ! _w seem$ to !m to be p]meat$ by ! div9e life1 & 0 reg>d$ z b ! fl[+ out ( ?is mo/ p]fect life ?r\gh c]ta9 *annels1 until x return$ 9 a necess>y circle back aga9 to itself4 ,x is n necess>y "h to speak m closely ( ! physics ( ?is s*ool4 #c4 ,,! ,,e?ics4--,! e?ics ( ! ,/oics is mo/ closely connect$ ) _! physics4 ,9 ! physics we saw ! rational ord] ( ! univ]se z x exi/$ ?r\gh ! div9e ?\ght4 ,9 ! e?ics1 ! highe/ law ( human action1 & ?us ! :ole moral legality ( life is dep5d5t ^u ?is rational ord] & con=mity to law 9 univ]sal nature1 & ! highe/ good or ! highe/ end ( our /riv+s is to %ape our life accord+ to ?is univ]sal law1 to live 9 con=mity ) ! h>mony ( ! _w or ) nature4 8,foll[ nature10 or 8live 9 h>mony ) nature10 is ! moral maxim ( ! ,/oics4 ,m accurately3 live 9 h>mony ) ?y rational nature s f> z ?is has n be5 di/ort$ nor ref9$ by art1 b is held 9 its natural simplicity4 ,f ?is moral pr9ciple1 9 :i* we h also ! ,/oic conception ( virtue1 ! peculi>ities ( _! !ory ( morals foll[ ) logical necessity4 7#a47 ,respect+ ! ,relation ( ,virtue to ,pleasure4--,:5 ! dem& is made t ! life %\ld be 9 con=mity ) nature1 ! individual becomes :olly subject$ to ! univ]sal1 & e p]sonal end is exclud$4 ,h5ce pleasure1 :i* ( all ends is ! mo/ individual1 mu/ be disreg>d$4 ,9 pleasure t activity 9 :i* bless$ness consi/s is abat$1 & ?is c\ld only appe> to ! ,/oics z a re/ra9t ( life1 & ?us z an evil4 ,pleasure is n 9 con=mity ) nature1 & is no end ( nature1 says ,clean!s2 & ?\gh o!r ,/oics relax a little f ! /rictness ( ?is op9ion1 & admit t pleasure may be accord+ to nature1 & is to be consid]$ 9 a c]ta9 degree z a good1 yet !y all held fa/ to ! doctr9e1 t x has no moral wor? & is no end ( nature1 b is only some?+ :i* is accid5tally connect$ ) ! free & fitt+ activity ( nature1 :ile itself is n an activity1 b a passive condition ( ! s\l4 ,9 ?is lies ! :ole sev]ity ( ! ,/oic doctr9e ( morals2 e ?+ p]sonal is ca/ aside1 e ext]nal end ( action is =eign to ! moral man1 ! action 9 wisdom is ! only good4 ,f ?is foll[s directly3 7#b47 ,! ,view ( ! ,/oics ,conc]n+ ,ext]nal ,good4--,if virtue1 z ! activity 9 con=mity to nature1 is exclusively a good1 & if x alone c lead to happ9ess1 !n ext]nal good ( e k9d is some?+ morally indiff]5t1 & c nei!r be ! object ( our /riv+ nor ! end ( any moral action4 ,! action itself & n t t[>ds :i* x t5ds is good4 ,h5ce su* special ends z heal?1 weal?1 c41 are 9 !mselves wor?less & indiff]5t4 ,!y may result ei!r 9 good or evil1 & :5 depriv$ ( !m ! happ9ess ( ! virtu\s man is n de/roy$4 ,! ,/oics yield f ! rigor ( _! fundam5tal pr9ciple only 9 a s+le in/ance4 ,!y admit t !re may be a di/9ction among indiff]5t ?+s2 t :ile none ( ^! c be call$ a moral good1 yet "s may be pref]able to o!rs1 & t ! pref]able1 s f> z x contributes to a life 9 con=mity to nature1 %\ld ent] into ! acc\nt ( a moral life4 ,s ! sage w pref] heal? & weal? :5 ^! are balanc$ 9 ! *oice ) sickness & pov]ty1 b ?\gh ^! objects h be5 rationally *os51 he does n e/eem !m z really good1 = !y are n ! highe/1 !y are inf]ior to ! virtu\s act+1 9 comp>ison ) :i* e ?+ else s9ks to insignificance4 ,9 mak+ ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! good & ! pref]able1 we see h[ ! ,/oics exclude f ! good e ?+ relative1 & hold fa/ to x alone 9 its highe/ significance4 7#c47 ,?is ab/ract appreh5sion ( ! conception ( virtue is /ill f>!r v]ifi$ 9 ! rigid antagonism :i* ! ,/oics affirm$ betwe5 virtue & n-virtue1 reason & s5se4 ,ei!r1 !y conclude1 reason is awak5$ 9 ! life ( man & holds ! ma/]y ov] him1 or x is n awak5$1 & he s]ves 8 irrational in/9cts4 ,9 ! =m] case we h a good & 9 ! latt] a bad man1 :ile betwe5 ^! two cases z betwe5 virtue & vice1 !re is no mean4 ,& s9ce virtue _c be p>tially possess$1 b ! man mu/ be :olly virtu\s or n at all1 x foll[s t virtue z su* is )\t degree1 j z tru? is1 & h5ce also all good acts are equally good1 because !y spr+ f ! full fre$om ( ! reason1 & all vici\s ones equally bad1 because !y are impell$ by ! irrational in/9ct4 7#d47 ,b ?is ab/ract$ness ( ! moral /&po9t1 ?is rigid opposition ( reason & irrationality1 ( ! highe/ good & ! individual good1 ( virtue & pleasure1 has no p[] to furni% a sy/em ( concrete moral duties4 ,! univ]sal moral pr9ciple ( ! ,/oics fails 9 its applicability to ! individual in/ance4 ,! ,/oic morals has no concrete pr9ciple ( moral self-det]m9ation4 ,h[ mu/ we act 9 e individual in/ance1 9 e moral relation1 s z to act accord+ to nature8 ,to ?is inquiry ,/oicism c give no answ]4 ,its sy/em ( p>ticul> duties is ?us :olly )\t a sci5tific =m1 & is only held toge!r by "s univ]sal conceptions :i* x conta9s4 ,= ! mo/ "p !y satisfy !mselves ) describ+ 9 g5]al t]ms ! action accord+ to nature1 & ) portray+ _! ideal ( ! wise man4 ,! *>act]i/ics :i* !y give ?is ideal are p>tly p>adoxical4 ,! wise man is free ev5 9 *a9s1 = he acts f himself unmov$ by fe> or desire2 ! wise man alone is k+1 = he alone is n b\nd by laws & owes fealty to no "o2 he is ! true ri* man1 ! true prie/1 prophet1 & poet4 ,he is exalt$ above all law & e cu/om2 ev5 t :i* is mo/ despicable & base--deception1 suicide1 murd]--he may commit at a prop] "t & 9 a virtu\s "*4 ,9 a ^w ! ,/oics describe _! wise man z a god1 & yield x to him to be pr\d & to boa/ ( 8 life l ,zeus4 ,b :]e %all we f9d su* a sage8 ,c]ta9ly n among ! liv+4 ,9 ! "t long ago !re may h be5 a p]fect sage ( su* a patt]n2 b n[1 & = a long "t back1 are m5 at be/ only fools :o /rive aft] wisdom & virtue4 ,! conception ( ! wise man repres5t$1 !re=e1 to ! ,/oics only an ideal1 ! actualization ( :i* we %\ld /rive aft]1 ?\gh )\t ev] hop+ to rea* x2 & yet _! sy/em ( p>ticul> duties is almo/ :olly occupi$ 9 portray+ ?is unreal & ab/ract ideal--a contradiction 9 :i* x is se5 mo/ cle>ly t _! :ole /&po9t is "o ( ab/ract subjectivity4 ,,section ,,xviii4 ,,epicureanism4 ,! ,epicurean s*ool arose at ,a!ns1 almo/ contemporane\sly ) ! ,por*1 ?\gh p]haps a little e>li] ?an ?is4 ,epicurus1 its f\nd]1 0 born #cdb ,b4,c41 six ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,plato4 ,( 8 y\? & education little is kn[n4 ,9 8 ?irty-six? ye> he op5$ a philosophical s*ool at ,a!ns1 ov] :i* he presid$ till 8 dea?1 #bga ,b4,c4 ,8 disciples & adh]5ts =m$ a social league1 9 :i* !y 7 unit$ by ! close/ b& ( fri5d%ip1 illu/rat+ ! g5]al condition ( ?+s 9 ,greece aft] ! "t ( ,alex&]1 :5 ! social took ! place ( ! decay+ poetical life4 ,epicurus himself comp>$ 8 society to ! ,py?agorean frat]nity1 al?\gh ! community ( goods1 :i* =ms an elem5t 9 ! latt]1 ,epicurus excludes1 affirm+ t true fri5ds c confide 9 "o ano!r4 ,! moral conduct ( ,epicurus has be5 repeat$ly assail$ b1 accord+ to ! te/imony ( ! mo/ reliable witnesses1 8 life 0 blameless 9 e respect1 & 8 p]sonal "* 0 e/imable & amiable4 ,moreov]1 x _c be d\bt$ t mu* ( t1 :i* is told by "s1 ( ! (f5sive voluptu\sness ( ! ,epicurean b&1 %\ld be reg>d$ z calumny4 ,epicurus 0 a volum9\s writ]1 surpass+1 9 ?is respect1 ev5 ,ari/otle1 & exce$$ by ,*rysippus alone4 ,to ! loss ( 8 great] works he has himself contribut$1 by 8 practice ( compos+ summ>ies ( 8 sy/em1 :i* he recomm5d$ 8 disciples to commit to memory4 ,^! summ>ies h be5 = ! mo/ "p pres]v$4 ,! end :i* ,epicurus propos$ to himself 9 sci5ce is di/9ctly reveal$ 9 8 def9ition ( philosophy4 ,he calls x an activity :i*1 by means ( conceptions & argum5ts1 procures ! happ9ess ( life4 ,its end is1 !re=e1 ) him ess5tially a practical "o1 & on ?is acc\nt ! object ( 8 :ole sy/em is to produce a s*eme ( morals :i* %\ld tea* u h[ we might inevitably atta9 a happy life4 ,x is true t ! ,epicureans adopt$ ! usual division ( philosophy into logic1 :i* !y call$ canonics1 physics1 & e?ics2 b !y conf9$ logic to ! doctr9e ( ! crit]ion ( tru?1 & consid]$ x only z an in/rum5t & introduction to physics1 :ile !y only treat$ ( physics z exi/+ :olly = e?ics1 & be+ necess>y 9 ord] to free m5 f sup]/iti\s fe>1 & deliv] !m f ! p[] ( fables & my?ical fancies conc]n+ nature1 :i* might h9d] ! atta9m5t ( happ9ess4 ,we h !re=e 9 ,epicureanism ! ?ree old p>ts ( philosophy1 b 9 a rev]s$ ord]1 s9ce logic & physics "h /& z ! h&maids ( e?ics4 ,we %all conf9e ourselves 9 our exposition to ! latt]1 s9ce ! ,epicurean canonics & physics (f] little sci5tific int]e/1 & s9ce ! physics especially is n only v incomplete & )\t any int]nal connection1 b re/s entirely ^u ! atomic !ory ( ,democritus4 ,epicurus1 l ,ari/otle & ! o!r philosoph]s ( 8 day1 plac$ ! highe/ good 9 happ9ess1 or a happy life4 ,m closely he makes pleasure to be ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( happ9ess1 & ev5 calls x ! highe/ good4 ,b ,epicurus goes on to give a m accurate det]m9ation ( pleasure1 & 9 ?is he diff]s ess5tially f 8 pr$ecessors1 ! ,cyr5ians4 7cf4 ,,xiii4 #c47 #a4 ,:ile ) ,ari/ippus ! pleasure ( ! mom5t is made ! end ( human ef=ts1 ,epicurus directs m5 to /rive aft] a sy/em ( pleasures :i* %\ld insure an abid+ c\rse ( happ9ess = ! :ole life4 ,true pleasure is ?us ! object to be consid]$ & weigh$4 ,_m a pleasure %\ld be despis$ because x w result 9 pa91 & _m a pa9 %\ld be rejoic$ 9 because x w\ld lead to a great] pleasure4 #b4 ,s9ce ! sage w seek aft] ! highe/ good1 n simply = ! pres5t b = 8 :ole life1 he w hold ! pleasures & pa9s ( ! s\l1 :i* l memory & hope /ret* ov] ! pa/ & ! future1 9 great] e/eem ?an ^? ( ! body1 :i* relate only to ! pres5t mom5t4 ,! pleasure ( ! s\l consi/s 9 ! untr\bl$ tranquillity ( ! sage1 :o re/s secure 9 ! feel+ ( 8 inn] wor? & 8 exaltation above ! /rokes ( de/9y4 ,?us ,epicurus1 w\ld say t x is bett] to be mis]able b rational ?an to be happy & irrational1 & t ! wise man might be happy ?\gh 9 torture4 ,he w\ld ev5 affirm1 l a true foll[] ( ,ari/otle1 t pleasure & happ9ess 7 mo/ closely connect$ ) virtue1 t virtue is 9 fact insep>able f true pleasure1 & t !re c be no agreeable life )\t virtue1 & no virtue )\t an agreeable life4 #c4 ,:ile o!r ,h$oni/s w\ld reg>d ! mo/ positive & int5se feel+ ( pleasure z ! highe/ good1 ,epicurus1 on ! o!r h&1 fix$ 8 eye on a happ9ess :i* %\ld be abid+ & = ! :ole life4 ,he w\ld n seek ! mo/ exquisite enjoym5ts 9 ord] to atta9 to a happy life1 b he r recomm5ds "o to be satisfi$ ) little1 & to practise sobriety & temp]ance ( life4 ,he gu>ds himself aga9/ su* a false application ( 8 doctr9e z w\ld imply t ! pleasure ( ! debau*ee 7 ! highe/ good1 & boa/s t ) a little b>ley-bread & wat] he w\ld rival ,zeus 9 happ9ess4 ,he ev5 expresses an av]sion = all co/ly pleasures1 n1 h[ev]1 9 !mselves1 b because ( ! evil consequ5ces :i* !y entail4 ,true1 ! ,epicurean sage ne$ n !re=e live z a ,cynic4 ,he w enjoy himself :]e he c )\t h>m1 & w ev5 seek to acquire means to live ) dignity & ease4 ,b ?\gh all ^! enjoym5ts ( life may prop]ly belong to ! sage1 yet he c deprive himself ( !m )\t mis]y--?\gh he ought n to d s--s9ce he enjoys ! true/ & mo/ ess5tial pleasure 9 ! calmness ( 8 s\l & ! tranquillity ( 8 he>t4 ,9 opposition to ! positive pleasure ( "s ,h$oni/s1 ! !ory ( ,epicurus exp5ds itself 9 negative conceptions1 repres5t+ t fre$om f pa9 is pleasure1 & t h5ce ! activity ( ! sage %\ld be prom95tly direct$ to avoid t :i* is disagreeable4 ,all t man does1 says ,epicurus1 is t he may nei!r suff] nor appreh5d pa91 & 9 ano!r place he rem>ks1 t n to live is f> f be+ an evil4 ,h5ce dea?1 = :i* m5 h ! greate/ t]ror1 ! wise man does n fe>4 ,= :ile we live1 dea? is n1 & :5 dea? is1 we are n2 :5 x is pres5t we feel x n1 = x is ! end ( all feel+1 & t1 :i* by its pres5ce _c affect our happ9ess1 ought n1 :5 ?\ght ( z a future1 to tr\ble u4 ,"h ,epicurus mu/ be> ! c5sure urg$ aga9/ him by ! anci5ts1 t he does n recognize any positive end ( life1 & t ! object aft] :i* 8 sage %\ld /rive is a m]e passionless /ate4 ,! cr[n ( ,epicurus's view ( ! univ]se is 8 doctr9e ( ! gods1 :]e he has c>ri$ ov] 8 ideal ( happ9ess4 ,to ! gods belong a human =m1 ?\gh )\t any fix$ body or human wants4 ,9 ! void space !y lead an undi/urb$ & *angeless life1 ^: happ9ess is incapable ( increase4 ,f ! bless$ness ( ! gods he inf]r$ t !y _h no?+ to d ) ! managem5t ( our affairs1 = bless$ness is repose1 & on ?is acc\nt ! gods nei!r take tr\ble to !mselves nor cause x to o!rs4 ,x may inde$ be said t ^! inactive gods ( ,epicurus1 ^! inde/ructible & yet n fix$ =ms1 ^! bodies :i* are n bodies1 h b an ill connection ) 8 g5]al sy/em1 9 :i* !re is 9 fact no po9t to :i* 8 doctr9e ( ! gods c be fitly jo9$--b a /rict sci5tific connection is h>dly ! m]it ( ?is :ole philosophy4 ,,section ,,xix4 ,,scepticism ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,academy4 ,?is subjective direction already notic$ 0 c>ri$ out to its f>!/ ext5t by ! ,sceptics1 :o broke d[n completely ! bridge betwe5 subject & object1 d5y+ all objective tru?1 k & sci5ce1 & :olly )draw+ ! philosoph] f e ?+ b himself & 8 own subjective e/imates4 ,9 ?is direction we may di/+ui% betwe5 ! old ,scepticism1 ! new ,academy1 & ! lat] ,scepticism4 #a4 ,,! ,,old ,,scepticism4--,pyrrho ( ,elis1 :o 0 p]haps a cotempor>y ( ,ari/otle1 0 ! head ( ! old ,sceptics4 ,he left no writ+s beh9d him1 & we are dep5d5t = a k ( 8 op9ions ^u 8 s*ol> & foll[]1 ,timon ( ,phlius4 ,! t5d5cy ( ^! sceptical philosoph]s1 l t ( ! ,/oics & ,epicureans1 0 a practical "o1 = philosophy1 said !y1 ought to lead u to happ9ess4 ,b 9 ord] to live happily we mu/ "k h[ ?+s are1 &1 !re=e1 9 :at k9d ( a relation we /& to !m4 ,! fir/ ( ^! que/ions ! ,sceptics answ]$ by attempt+ to %[ t all ?+s1 )\t exception1 are indiff]5t z to tru? & falsehood1 unc]ta91 & 9 n[ise subject to man's judgm5t4 ,nei!r our s5ses nor our op9ions conc]n+ any ?+ tea* u any tru?2 to e precept & to e position a contr>y may be advanc$1 & h5ce ! contradictory views ( m51 & especially ( ! philosophies ( ! s*ools respect+ "o & ! same ?+4 ,all objective k & sci5ce be+ ?us impossible1 ! true relation ( ! philosoph] to ?+s consi/s 9 ! entire susp5sion ( judgm5t1 & ! )hold+ ( e positive ass]tion4 ,9 ord] to avoid e ?+ l a positive ass]tion1 ! ,sceptics _h rec\rse to a v>iety ( artifices1 & avail$ !mselves ( d\btful modes ( expression1 su* z x is possible2 x may be s2 p]haps2 ,i ass]t no?+1--cauti\sly subjo9+ to ?is la/--n ev5 t ,i ass]t no?+4 ,by ?is susp5sion ( judgm5t ! ,sceptics ?\ght !y c\ld atta9 _! practical end1 happ9ess2 = ! ab/95ce f all positive op9ion is foll[$ by a fre$om f all m5tal di/urbance1 z a sub/ance is by a %ad[4 ,he :o has embrac$ ,scepticism lives !nce=w>d tranquilly1 )\t inquietude1 )\t agitation1 ) an equable /ate ( m9d1 &1 9 fact1 dive/$ ( 8 humanity4 ,pyrrho is said to h orig9at$ ! doctr9e :i* lies at ! basis ( sceptical apa?y1 t no diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 sickness & heal?1 or betwe5 life & dea?4 ,! ,sceptics1 = ! mo/ "p1 d]iv$ ! mat]ial = _! views f ! previ\s inve/igations 9 ! dogmatic s*ools4 ,b ! gr\nds on :i* !y re/$ 7 f> f be+ pr(\nd1 & 7 = ! mo/ "p ei!r dialectic errors :i* c\ld easily be refut$1 or m]e subtleties4 ,! use ( ! foll[+ t5 tropes is ascrib$ to ! old ,sceptics1 ?\gh ^! 7 p]haps n def9itely br\ght out by ei!r ,pyrrho or ,timon1 b 7 probably fir/ collect$ by nesidemus1 soon aft] ! "t ( ,cic]o4 ,! )hold+ ( all decisive judgm5t may re/2 7#a7 ^u ! di/9ction g5]ally exi/+ betwe5 individual liv+ objects2 7#b7 ^u ! diff]5ce among m52 7#c7 ! diff]5t functions ( ! organs ( s5se2 7#d7 ! circum/ances "u :i* objects appe>2 7#e7 ! relative positions1 int]vals1 & places2 7#f7 int]mixtures2 7#g7 ! quantities & modifications ( ! objects we p]ceive2 7#h7 relations2 7#i7 ! frequ5t or r>e occurr5ce2 7#aj7 ! diff]5t ways ( life1 ! v>ieties ( cu/oms & laws1 ! my?ical repres5tations & dogmatic op9ions ( m54 #b4 ,,! ,,new ,,academy4--,scepticism1 9 its conflict ) ! ,/oics1 z x appe>$ 9 ! ,platonic s*ool e/abli%$ by ,arcesilaus 7#caf-bda71 has a f> great] significance ?an belongs to ! p]=mances ( ! ,pyrrhoni/s4 ,9 ?is s*ool ,scepticism s\ght its support by its great respect = ! writ+s & its transmission ( ! oral tea*+s ( ,plato4 ,arcesilaus c\ld nei!r h assum$ nor ma9ta9$ ! *air ( in/ruction 9 ! ,academy1 _h he n c>efully *]i%$ & imp>t$ to 8 disciples ! impression t 8 own view1 respect+ ! )hold+ ( a decisive judgm5t1 co9cid$ ess5tially ) t ( ,socrates & ( ,plato1 & if he _h n also taught t he only re/or$ ! g5u9e & orig9al significance ( ,platonism1 :5 he set aside ! dogmatic me?od ( tea*+4 ,an imm$iate incitem5t to ! ef=ts ( ,arcesilaus is f\nd 9 8 opposition to ! rigid dogmatic sy/em :i* _h lately aris5 9 ! ,por*1 & :i* claim$ to be 9 e respect an improvem5t ^u ,platonism4 ,h5ce1 z ,cic]o rem>ks1 ,arcesilaus direct$ all 8 sceptical & polemic attacks aga9/ ,z5o1 ! f\nd] ( ,/oicism4 ,he grant$ ) 8 oppon5t t no repres5tation %\ld =m a "p ( und\bt$ k1 if x c\ld possibly h aris5 ?r\gh any o!r object ?an t f :i* x actually sprung1 b he w\ld n admit t !re might be a notion :i* express$ s truly & accurately its own object1 t x c\ld n h aris5 f any o!r4 ,accord+ly1 ,arcesilaus d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( a crit]ion :i* c\ld c]tify to u ! tru? ( our k4 ,if !re be any tru? 9 our affirmations1 said he1 we _c be c]ta9 ( x4 ,9 ?is s5se he taught t "o c "k no?+1 n ev5 t he does "k no?+4 ,b 9 moral matt]s1 9 *oos+ ! good & reject+ ! evil1 he taught t we %\ld foll[ t :i* is probable4 ,( ! subsequ5t lead]s 9 ! new ,academy1 ,c>neades 7#bad-abi7 alone ne$ "h be m5tion$1 ^: :ole philosophy1 h[ev]1 consi/s almo/ exclusively 9 a polemic aga9/ ,/oicism & 9 ! attempt to set up a crit]ion ( tru?4 ,8 positive p]=mance is ! attempt to br+ out a philosophical !ory ( probabilities4 ,! lat] ,academicians fell back to an eclectic dogmaticism4 #c4 ,,! ,,lat] ,,scepticism4--,once m we meet ) a peculi> ,scepticism at ! "t :5 ,grecian philosophy _h :olly fall5 to decay4 ,to ?is "t belong nesidemus1 :o probably--?\gh ?is _c be affirm$ ) c]ta9ty--liv$ b a little aft] ,cic]o2 ,agrippa1 ^: date is also unc]ta91 ?\gh subsequ5t to nesidemus1 & ,sextus ,empiricus--i4 e4 a ,grecian physician ( ! empiric sect1 :o probably fl\ri%$ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! ?ird c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,^! are ! mo/ significant names4 ,( ^! ! la/ has ! greate/ int]e/ = u1 f two writ+s :i* he left beh9d him 7! hypotyposes ( ,pyrrho 9 ?ree books1 & a treatise aga9/ ! ma!maticians 9 n9e books71 :i* are s\rces ( mu* hi/orical in=mation4 ,9 ^! he has pr(usely collect$ e ?+ :i* ! ,scepticism ( ! anci5ts knew h[ to advance aga9/ ! c]ta9ty ( k4 ,,section ,,xx4 ,,! ,,romans4 ,! ,romans h tak5 no indep5d5t "p 9 ! progress ( philosophy4 ,aft] ,grecian philosophy & lit]ature _h begun to ga9 a foo?old among !m1 & especially aft] ?ree di/+ui%$ repres5tatives ( ,attic culture & eloqu5ce--,c>neades ! ,academician1 ,critolaus ! ,p]ipatetic1 & ,diog5es ! ,/oic--_h appe>$ 9 ,rome z envoys f ,a!ns2 & aft] ,greece1 a few ye>s lat]1 _h become a ,roman prov9ce1 & ?us outw>dly 9 a close connection ) ,rome1 almo/ all ! m significant sy/ems ( ,grecian philosophy1 especially ! ,epicurean 7,lucretius71 & ! ,/oic 7,s5eca71 fl\ri%$ & f\nd adh]5ts 9 ,rome1 ?\gh )\t ga9+ any real philosophical progress4 ,! ,romi% philosophiz+ is :olly eclectic1 z is se5 9 ,cic]o1 ! mo/ important & influ5tial philosophic writ] among ! ,romans4 ,b ! popul> philosophy ( ?is man & ( ! m9ds ak9 to him _c be /rongly assail$1 =1 not)/&+ its want ( orig9ality & logical sequ5ce1 x gave philosophy a broad dissem9ation1 & made x a means ( univ]sal culture4 ,,section ,,xxi4 ,,new ,,platonism4 ,9 ,new ,platonism1 ! anci5t m9d made its la/ & almo/ despair+ attempt at a philosophy :i* %\ld resolve ! dualism betwe5 ! subjective & ! objective4 ,! attempt 0 made by tak+ on ! "o side a subjective /&po9t1 l ! o!r philosophies ( ! po/-,ari/otelian "t 7cf4 ,,xvi #g72 & on ! o!r ) ! design to br+ out objective det]m9ations conc]n+ ! highe/ conceptions ( metaphysics1 & conc]n+ ! absolute2 9 o!r words1 to sket* a sy/em ( absolute philosophy4 ,9 ?is respect ! ef=t 0 made to copy ! ,platonic & ,ari/otelian philosophy1 & ! claim 0 set up by ! new sy/em to be a revival ( ! orig9al ,platonism4 ,on bo? sides ! new attempt =m$ ! clos+ p]iod ( an anci5t philosophy4 ,x repres5ts ! la/ /ruggle1 b at ! same "t ! exhau/ion ( ! anci5t ?9k+ & ! dissolution ( ! old philosophy4 ,! fir/1 & also ! mo/ important1 repres5tative ( ,new ,platonism1 is ,plot9us4 ,he 0 a pupil ( ,ammonius ,saccas1 :o taught ! ,platonic philosophy at ,alex&ria 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird c5tury1 ?\gh he left no writ+s beh9d him4 ,plot9us 7,a4 ,d4 #bje-bgj7 f 8 =tie? ye> taught philosophy at ,rome4 ,8 op9ions are conta9$ 9 a c\rse ( ha/ily writt5 & n closely connect$ treatises1 :i*1 aft] 8 dea?1 7 collect$ & publi%$ 9 six enneads by ,porphyry 7:o 0 born ,a4 ,d4 #bcc1 & taught bo? philosophy & eloqu5ce at ,rome71 8 mo/ not$ disciple4 ,f ,rome & ,alex&ria1 ! ,new ,platonism ( ,plot9us pass$ ov] 9 ! f\r? c5tury to ,a!ns1 :]e x e/abli%$ itself 9 ! ,academy4 ,9 ! f\r? c5tury1 ,jambli*us1 a s*ol> ( ,porphyry1 & 9 ! fif?1 ,proclus1 7#dab-dhe71 7 prom95tly di/+ui%$ among ! ,new ,platoni/s4 ,) ! triumph ( ,*ri/ianity & ! consequ5t fall ( hea!nism1 9 ! c\rse ( ! six? c5tury1 ev5 ?is la/ bloom ( ,grecian philosophy fad$ away4 ,! common *>act]i/ic ( all ! ,new ,platoni/s is a t5d5cy to my/icism1 !osophy1 & !urgy4 ,! majority ( !m gave !mselves up to magic & sorc]y1 & ! mo/ di/+ui%$ boa/$ t !y 7 ! subjects ( div9e inspiration & illum9ation1 able to look into ! future1 & to "w miracles4 ,!y pr(ess$ to be hi]ophants z mu* z philosoph]s1 & exhibit$ ! unmi/akable t5d5cy to repres5t a ,pagan copy ( ,*ri/ianity1 :i* %\ld be at ! same "t a philosophy & a univ]sal religion4 ,9 ! foll[+ sket* ( ,new ,platonism we foll[ ma9ly ! track ( ,plot9us4 #a4 ,,ec/asy ,,z ,a ,,subjective ,,/ate4--,! result ( ! philosophical /riv+s antec$5t to ,new ,platonism _h be5 ,scepticism2 :i*1 see+ ! impracticability ( bo? ! ,/oic & ,epicurean wisdom1 _h assum$ a totally negative relation to e positive & !oretical cont5t4 ,b ! end :i* ,scepticism _h actually ga9$ 0 ! opposite ( t = :i* x _h /riv54 ,x _h /riv5 = ! p]fect apa?y ( ! sage1 b x _h ga9$ only ! necessity ( incessantly oppos+ e positive affirmation4 ,in/ead ( ! re/ :i* !y _h s\ght1 !y f\nd r an absolute unre/4 ,?is absolute unre/ ( ! consci\sness /riv+ aft] an absolute re/1 begat imm$iately a long+ to be fre$ f ?is unre/1 a long+ aft] "s cont5t :i* %\ld be absolutely satisfy+1 & /ripp$ ( e sceptical objection4 ,?is long+ aft] an absolutely true1 f\nd its hi/orical expression 9 ,new ,platonism4 ,! subject s\ght to ma/] & compreh5d ! absolute2 & ?is1 nei!r by objective k nor dialectic m$iation1 b imm$iately1 by an inn] & my/ical m\nt+ up ( ! subject 9 ! =m ( an imm$iate behold+1 or ec/asy4 ,! k ( ! true1 says ,plot9us1 is n ga9$ by pro( nor by any m$iation2 x _c be f\nd :5 ! objects kn[n rema9 sep>ate f ! subject kn[+1 b only :5 ! di/9ction betwe5 kn[] & kn[n disappe>s2 x is a behold+ ( ! reason 9 itself1 n 9 ! s5se t we see ! reason1 b ! reason beholds itself2 9 no o!r way c k come4 ,if any "o has atta9$ to su* a behold+1 to su* a true unison ) ! div9e1 he w despise ! pure ?9k+ :i* he o!rwise lov$1 = ?is ?9k+ 0 only a movem5t :i* presuppos$ a diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]ceiv] & ! p]ceiv$4 ,?is my/ical absorption into ! ,deity1 or1 ! ,"o1 ?is resolv+ ! self into ! absolute1 is t :i* gives to ,new ,platonism a "* s peculi>ly di/9ct f ! g5u9e ,grecian sy/ems ( philosophy4 #b4 ,,! ,,cosmical ,,pr9ciples4--,! doctr9e ( ! ?ree cosmical pr9ciples is mo/ closely connect$ ) ! !ory j nam$4 ,to ! two cosmical pr9ciples already receiv$1 viz41 ! _w-s\l & ! _w-reason1 a ?ird & high] "o 0 add$ by ! ,new ,platoni/s4 ,= if ! reason appreh5ds ! true by means ( ?9k+1 & n )9 itself alone2 if1 9 ord] to grasp ! absolute & behold ! div9e1 x mu/ lose its own self-consci\sness1 & g out beyond itself1 !n reason _c be ! highe/ pr9ciple1 b !re /&s above x t primal ess5ce1 ) :i* x mu/ be unit$ if x w behold ! true4 ,to ?is primal ess5ce ,plot9us gives diff]5t names1 z 8! fir/10 8! "o10 8! good10 & 8t :i* /&s above be+0 7be+ is ) him b a conception1 :i*1 l ! reason1 may be resolv$ into a high] gr\nd1 & :i*1 unit$ ) ! reason1 =ms b ! second /ep 9 ! s]ies ( highe/ conceptions74 ,9 all ^! names1 ,plot9us does n pr(ess to h satisfactorily express$ ! ess5ce ( ?is primal "o1 b only to h giv5 a repres5tation ( x4 ,9 *>act]iz+ x /ill f>!r1 he d5ies x all ?9k+ & will+1 because x ne$s no?+ & c desire no?+2 x is n en]gy1 b above en]gy2 life does n belong to x2 nei!r be+ nor ess5ce nor any ( ! mo/ g5]al categories ( be+ c be ascrib$ to x2 9 %ort1 x is t :i* c nei!r be express$ nor ?\ght4 ,plot9us has ?or\ghly /riv5 to ?9k ( ?is fir/ pr9ciple n z fir/ pr9ciple1 i4 e4 n 9 its relation to t ( :i* x is ! gr\nd1 b only 9 itself1 z be+ :olly )\t ref]5ce ei!r to u or to any ?+ else4 ,?is pure ab/raction1 h[ev]1 he c\ld n c>ry out4 ,he sets himself to %[ h[ e ?+ else1 & especially ! two o!r cosmical pr9ciples1 c\ld emanate f ?is fir/2 b 9 ord] to h a pr9ciple = 8 emanation !ory1 he 0 oblig$ to consid] ! fir/ 9 its relation to ! second & z its produc]4 #c4 ,,! ,,emanation ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,new ,,platoni/s4--,e emanation !ory1 & h5ce also t ( ! ,new ,platoni/s1 consid]s ! _w z ! efflu5ce ( ,god1 & gives to ! emanation a great] or less degree ( p]fection1 accord+ z x is ne>] or m remote f its s\rce4 ,!y all h = _! pr9ciple ! totality ( be+1 & repres5t a progressively asc5d+ relation 9 its sev]al p>ts4 ,fire1 says ,plot9us1 emits heat1 sn[ cold1 fragrant bodies odors1 & e organic ?+ s f> z x is p]fect begets some?+ l itself4 ,9 ! same way ! all-p]fect & ! et]nal1 9 ! ov]fl[+ ( 8 p]fection s5ds out f himself t :i* is also et]nal1 & aft] him1 ! be/1 viz41 ! reason or _w-intellig5ce1 :i* is ! imm$iate reflection & image ( ! primal "o4 ,plot9us ab\nds 9 figures to %[ h[ ! primal "o ne$ lose no?+ nor become weak5$ by ?is emanation ( reason4 ,next to ! orig9al "o1 reason is ! mo/ p]fect4 ,x conta9s 9 itself ! ideal _w1 & ! :ole ( true & *angeless be+4 ,"s notion may be =m$ ( its exaltation & glory by c>efully behold+ ! s5sible _w 9 its greatness1 its beauty1 & ! ord] ( its ceaseless motion1 & !n by ris+ to contemplate its ar*etype 9 ! pure & *angeless be+ ( ! intelligible _w1 & !n by recogniz+ 9 intellig5ce ! au?or & f9i%] ( all4 ,9 x !re is nei!r pa/ nor future1 b only an ev] abid+ pres5t4 ,x is1 moreov]1 z incapable ( division 9 space z ( *ange 9 "t4 ,x is ! true et]nity1 :i* is only copi$ by "t4 ,z reason fl[s f ! primal "o1 s does ! _w-s\l et]nally emanate f reason1 ?\gh ! latt] incurs no *ange !reby4 ,! _w-s\l is ! copy ( reason1 p]meat$ by x1 & actualiz+ x 9 an out] _w4 ,x gives ideas ext]nally to s5sible matt]1 :i* is ! la/ & l[e/ /ep 9 ! s]ies ( emanations & 9 itself is undet]m9$1 & has nei!r quality nor be+4 ,9 ?is way ! visible univ]se is b ! transcript ( ! _w-s\l1 :i* =ms x out ( matt]1 p]meates & animates x1 & c>ries x =w>d 9 a circle4 ,"h closes ! s]ies ( emanations1 &1 z 0 ! aim ( ! !ory1 we h be5 c>ri$ 9 a con/ant curr5t f ! highe/ to ! l[e/1 f ,god to ! m]e image ( true be+1 or ! s5sible _w4 ,individual s\ls1 l ! _w-s\l1 are l9k$ bo? to ! high] & ! l[]1 to reason & ! s5sible2 n[ b\nd ) ! latt] & %>+ its de/9y1 & anon ris+ to _! s\rce 9 reason4 ,_! orig9al & prop] home 0 9 ! rational _w1 f :5ce !y h come d[n1 ea* "o 9 its prop] "t1 into ! corporeal2 n1 h[ev]1 :olly =sak+ _! ideal abode1 b z a sunbeam t\*es at ! same "t ! sun & ! e>?1 s are !y f\nd alike 9 ! _w ( reason & ! _w ( s5se4 ,our call+1 !re=e--& "h we come back to ! po9t f :i* we />t$ 9 our exhibition ( ,new ,platonism--c only be to direct our s5ses & aspirations t[>ds our prop] home1 9 ! ideal _w1 & by asceticism & crucify+ ( ! fle%1 to free our bett] self f its p>ticipation ) ! body4 ,b :5 our s\l has once m\nt$ up to ! ideal _w1 t image ( ! orig9ally good & beautiful1 x !n atta9s ! f9al goal ( all its long+s & ef=ts1 ! imm$iate union ) ,god1 ?r\gh ! enraptur$ behold+ ( ! primal "o 9 :i* x loses its consci\sness & becomes buri$ & absorb$4 ,accord+ to all ?is1 ! ,new ,platonic philosophy w\ld seem to be a monism1 & ?us ! mo/ p]fect developm5t ( anci5t philosophy1 9 s f> z ?is _h /riv5 to c>ry back ! sum ( all be+ to "o ultimate gr\nd4 ,b z x atta9$ its highe/ pr9ciple f :i* all ! re/ 0 d]iv$1 by means ( ec/asy1 by a my/ical self-de/ruction ( ! individual p]son 7,i*heit71 by asceticism & !urgy1 & n by means ( self-consci\s ?9k+1 nor by any natural or rational way1 x is se5 t anci5t philosophy1 in/ead ( becom+ p]fect$ 9 ,new ,platonism1 only makes a despair+ leap beyond itself to its own self-de/ruction4 ,,section ,,xxii4 ,,*ri/ianity ,,& ,,s*ola/icism4 #a4 ,,! ,,*ri/ian ,,idea4--,! ,grecian intellectual life at ! "t ( its faire/ bloom1 0 *>act]iz$ by ! imm$iate sacrifice ( ! subject to ! object 7nature1 ! /ate1 c473 ! full brea* betwe5 ! two1 betwe5 _s & nature1 _h n yet arriv$2 ! subject _h n yet s f> reflect$ ^u himself t he c\ld appreh5d 8 own absolute wor?4 ,?is brea* came 91 ) ! decay ( ,grecian life1 9 ! "t aft] ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,z ! objective _w lo/ its influ5ce1 ! ?9k+ consci\sness turn$ back ^u itself2 b ev5 9 ?is v process1 ! bridge betwe5 subject & object 0 brok5 d[n4 ,! self-consci\sness _h n yet become suffici5tly absorb$ 9 itself to look ^u ! true1 ! div9e1 9 any o!r light ?an z sep>ate f itself1 & belong+ to an opposite _w2 :ile a feel+ ( pa91 ( unsatisfi$ desire1 took ! place ( t fair unity betwe5 _s & nature :i* _h be5 peculi> to ! bett] p]iods ( ! ,grecian civil & arti/ic life4 ,new ,platonism1 by its ov]leap+ speculation1 &1 practically1 by its mortification ( ! s5se1 made a la/ & despair+ attempt to ov]come ?is sep>ation1 or to bury itself )9 x1 by br++ ! two sides =cibly toge!r4 ,! attempt 0 9 va91 & ! old philosophy1 totally exhau/$1 came to its end4 ,dualism is !re=e ! rock on :i* x split4 ,?is problem1 ?us left )\t a solution1 ,*ri/ianity took up4 ,x assum$ = its pr9ciple ! idea :i* ! anci5t ?9k+ _h n kn[n h[ to c>ry out1 affirm+ t ! sep>ation betwe5 ,god & man might be ov]come1 & t ! human & ! div9e c\ld be unit$ 9 "o4 ,! speculative fundam5tal idea ( ,*ri/ianity is1 t ,god has become inc>nate1 & ?is _h its practical exhibition 7= ,*ri/ianity 0 a practical religion7 9 ! idea ( ! atonem5t & ! dem& ( ! new bir?1 i4 e4 ! positive purify+ ( ! s5se f its corruptions1 in/ead ( hold+ x1 z asceticism1 9 a m]ely negative relation4 ,f ! introduction ( ,*ri/ianity1 monism has be5 ! "* & ! fundam5tal t5d5cy ( ! :ole mod]n philosophy4 ,9 fact1 ! new philosophy />t$ f ! v po9t at :i* ! old _h /ood /ill4 ,! turn+ ( ! self-consci\sness ^u itself1 :i* 0 ! /&po9t ( ! po/-,ari/otelian speculations1 =ms 9 ,desc>tes ! />t+-po9t ( ! new philosophy1 ^: :ole c\rse has be5 ! reconcil+ ( t opposition beyond :i* ! old c\ld n pass4 #b4 ,,s*ola/icism4--,x v e>ly result$ t ,*ri/ianity came 9 contact ) ! cotemporane\s philosophy1 especially ) ,platonism4 ,?is arose fir/ ) ! apologi/s ( ! second c5tury1 & ! fa!rs ( ! ,alex&rian *ur*4 ,subsequ5tly1 9 ! n9? c5tury1 ,scotus ,erig5a made an attempt to comb9e ,*ri/ianity ) ,new ,platonism1 ?\gh x 0 n till ! second half ( ! ,middle ,ages1 f ! elev5? c5tury1 t !re 0 develop$ any ?+ t might be prop]ly t]m$ a ,*ri/ian philosophy4 ,?is 0 ! s-call$ ,s*ola/icism4 ,! ef=t ( ,s*ola/icism 0 to m$iate betwe5 ! dogma ( religion & ! reflect+ self-consci\sness2 to reconcile fai? & k4 ,:5 ! dogma pass$ ov] into ! s*ools f ! ,*ur* :i* _h giv5 x utt]ance1 & !ology became a sci5ce ( ! univ]sities1 ! sci5tific int]e/ ass]t$ its rights1 & und]took to br+ ! dogma :i* _h hi!rto /ood ov] aga9/ ! self-consci\sness z an ext]nal p[]1 into a clos] relation to ! ?9k+ subject4 ,a s]ies ( attempts 0 n[ made to br+ out ! doctr9es ( ! ,*ur* 9 ! =m ( sci5tific sy/ems 7! fir/ complete dogmatic sy/em 0 giv5 by ,pet] ,lomb>d1 :o di$ #aafd1 9 8 f\r books ( s5t5ces1 & 0 volum9\sly comm5t$ ^u by ! lat] ,s*ola/ics71 all />t+ f ! indisputable premise 7beyond :i* s*ola/ic ?9k+ nev] rea*$71 t ! fai? ( ! *ur* is absolute tru?2 b all guid$ likewise by ! int]e/ to make ?is reveal$ tru? intelligible1 & to %[ x to be rational4 8,cr$o ut intelligam0--?is expression ( ,anselm1 ! beg9n] & f\nd] ( ,s*ola/icism 7he 0 born ab\t #ajcd1 & made ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury 9 #ajic71 0 ! wat*word ( ?is :ole direction4 ,s*ola/icism appli$ to ! solution ( its problem ! mo/ rem>kable logical acum51 & br\ght out sy/ems ( doctr9e l ! ,go?ic ca!drals 9 _! ar*itecture4 ,! ext5d$ /udy ( ,ari/otle1 call$ p> em95ce 8! philosoph]10 :om _m ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ,s*ola/ics wrote comm5t>ies ^u1 & :o 0 greatly /udi$ at ! same p]iod among ! ,arabians 7,avic5na & ,av]roes71 furni%$ _! t]m9ology & mo/ ( _! po9ts ( view4 ,at ! summit ( ,s*ola/icism we mu/ place ! two inconte/ably greate/ ma/]s ( ! ,s*ola/ic art & me?od1 ,?omas ,aqu9as 7,dom9ican1 :o di$ #abgd7 & ,duns ,scotus 7,franciscan1 :o di$ #acjh71 ! f\nd]s ( two s*ools1 9 :i* s9ce _! "t ! :ole ,s*ola/ic !ology divides itself--! =m] exalt+ ! und]/&+ 7intellectus71 & ! latt] ! w 7voluntas71 z _! highe/ pr9ciple1 bo? be+ driv5 into ess5tially diff]+ directions by ?is opposition ( a !oretical & a practical pr9ciple4 ,ev5 ) ?is began ! d[nfall ( ,s*ola/icism2 its highe/ po9t 0 also ! turn+-po9t to its self-de/ruction4 ,! rationality ( ! dogma1 ! on5ess ( fai? & k1 _h be5 con/antly _! fundam5tal premise2 b ?is premise fell away1 & ! :ole basis ( _! metaphysics 0 giv5 up 9 pr9ciple1 ! mom5t ,duns ,scotus plac$ ! problem ( !ology 9 ! practical4 ,:5 ! practical & ! !oretical became divid$1 & /ill m :5 ?\ght & be+ 7 sep>at$ by ,nom9alism 7cf4 #c71 philosophy broke loose f !ology & k f fai?2 k assum$ its position above fai? & above au?ority 7mod]n philosophy71 & ! religi\s consci\sness broke ) ! traditional dogma 7! ,re=mation74 #c4 ,,nom9alism ,,& ,,realism4--,h& 9 h& ) ! :ole developm5t ( ,s*ola/icism1 !re 0 develop$ ! opposition betwe5 ,nom9alism & ,realism1 an opposition ^: orig9 is to be f\nd 9 ! relation ( ,s*ola/icism to ! ,platonic & ,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,! ,nom9ali/s 7 ^? :o held t ! conceptions ( ! univ]sal 7! univ]salia7 7 simple names1 flatus vocis1 repres5tations )\t cont5t & )\t reality4 ,accord+ to !m !re are no univ]sal conceptions1 no species1 no class2 e ?+ :i* is1 exi/s only z sep>ate 9 its pure individuality2 !re is1 !re=e1 no pure ?9k+1 b only a repres5tation & s5su\s p]ception4 ,! ,reali/s1 on ! o!r h&1 tak+ patt]n f ,plato1 held fa/ to ! objective reality ( ! univ]sals 7univ]salia ante rem74 ,^! opposite directions appe>$ fir/ betwe5 ,roscell9us1 :o took ! side ( ,nom9alism1 & ,anselm1 :o advocat$ ! ,reali/ic !ory1 & x is se5 f ?is "t ?r\gh ! :ole p]iod ( ,s*ola/icism1 ?\gh f ! age ( ,abel>d 7born #ajgi7 a middle view1 :i* 0 bo? ,nom9ali/ic & ,reali/ic1 held ) "s slight modifications ! prom95t place 7univ]salia 9 re74 ,accord+ to ?is view ! univ]sal is only some?+ ?\ght & repres5t$1 ?\gh z su* x is n simply a product ( ! repres5t+ consci\sness1 b has also its objective reality 9 objects !mselves1 f :i* x 0 argu$ we c\ld n ab/ract x if x 7 n ess5tially conta9$ 9 !m4 ,?is id5tity ( ?\ght & be+1 is ! fundam5tal premise on :i* ! :ole dialectic c\rse ( ! ,s*ola/ics re/s4 ,all _! argum5ts are f\nd$ on ! claim1 t t :i* has be5 syllogi/ically prov$ is 9 reality ! same z 9 logical ?9k+4 ,if ?is premise is ov]?r[n1 s falls ) x ! :ole basis ( ,s*ola/icism2 & !re rema9s no?+ m = ! ?9k] to d1 :o has gone a/ray 9 8 objectivity1 b to fall back ^u himself4 ,?is self-dissolution ( ,s*ola/icism actually appe>s ) ,william ( ,occam 7di$ #acdg71 ! mo/ influ5tial reviv] ( t ,nom9alism :i* _h be5 s mighty 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,s*ola/icism1 b :i* n[1 m victori\s aga9/ a decay+ ?an !n aga9/ a ris+ =m ( culture1 pluck$ away its f\ndation f ! framework ( ,s*ola/ic dogmatism1 & br\ght ! :ole /ructure into inevitable ru94 ,,section ,,xxiii4 ,,transition ,,to ,,! ,,mod]n ,,philosophy4 ,! emancipation ( mod]n philosophy f ! bondage ( ,s*ola/icism 0 a gradual process4 ,x fir/ %[$ itself 9 a s]ies ( prep>ative movem5ts dur+ ! fifte5? c5tury1 & became p]fect$1 negatively1 9 ! c\rse ( ! sixte5?1 & positively 9 ! fir/ half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 #a4 ,,fall ,,( ,,s*ola/icism4--,! imm$iate gr\nd ( ?is *ang$ direction ( ! "t1 we h already se5 9 ! inn] decay ( ,s*ola/icism itself4 ,j s soon z ! fundam5tal premise on :i* ! ,s*ola/ic !ology & me?od re/$1 ! rationality ( ! dogma1 0 ab&on$1 ! :ole /ructure1 z already rem>k$1 fell to inevitable ru94 ,! conviction1 directly oppos$ to ! pr9ciple ( ,s*ola/icism1 t :at might be true dogmatically1 might be false1 or1 at lea/1 incapable ( pro( 9 ! eye ( ! reason--a po9t ( view f :i* e4 g4 ! ,ari/otelian ,pomponatius 7#adfb-aecj7 treat$ ! doctr9es ( ! future /ate1 & 9 ^: light ,van9i subsequ5tly w5t ov] ! *ief problems ( philosophy--kept ga9+ gr\nd1 not)/&+ ! opposition ( ! ,*ur*1 & ev5 associat$ ) itself ! op9ion t reason & revelation c\ld n be h>moniz$4 ,! feel+ became preval5t t philosophy mu/ be fre$ f its previ\s condition ( m9ority & s]vitude2 a /ruggle aft] a great] indep5d5ce ( philosophic inve/igation 0 awak5$1 & ?\gh no "o yet v5tur$ to attack directly ! doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*1 ! ef=t 0 made to %att] ! confid5ce 9 ! *ief bulw>k ( ,s*ola/icism1 ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 or :at at t p]iod 0 reg>d$ z su*2 7especially 9 ?is connection ,pet] ,ramus1 7#aeae-aegb7 %\ld be m5tion$1 :o fell 9 ! massacre ( ,/4 ,b>?olomew74 ,! au?ority ( ! ,*ur* became m & m weak5$ 9 ! fai? ( ! p1 & ! great pr9ciples ( ,s*ola/icism came to an end4 #b4 ,,! ,,results ,,( ,,s*ola/icism4--,not)/&+ all1 ,s*ola/icism 0 n )\t its positively good results4 ,?\gh /&+ :olly 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,*ur*1 x _h1 nev]!less1 gr[n out ( a sci5tific impulse1 & s naturally awak5$ a free _s ( inquiry & a s5se = k4 ,x made ! objects ( fai? ! objects ( ?\ght1 x rais$ m5 f ! sph]e ( unconditional fai? to ! sph]e ( d\bt1 ( inve/igation & ( k1 & by its v ef=t to demon/rate ! pr9ciples ( !ology x e/abli%$1 ?\gh aga9/ its k & design1 ! au?ority ( reason4 ,x ?us introduc$ to ! _w ano!r pr9ciple ?an t ( ! old ,*ur*1 ! pr9ciple ( ! ?9k+ _s1 ! self-consci\sness ( ! reason1 or at lea/ prep>$ ! way = ! victory ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,ev5 ! de=mities & unfavorable side ( ,s*ola/icism1 ! _m absurd que/ions ^u :i* ! ,s*ola/ics divid$1 ev5 _! ?\s&fold unnecess>y & accid5tal di/9ctions1 _! inquisitiv5ess & subtleties1 all sprang f a rational pr9ciple1 & grew out ( a _s ( inve/igation1 :i* c\ld only utt] itself 9 ?is way "u ! all p[]ful ecclesia/ical _s ( ! "t4 ,only :5 x 0 surpass$ by ! advanc+ _s ( ! age1 did ,s*ola/icism1 falsify+ its orig9al mean+1 make common cause & int]e/ ) ! old ecclesia/icism1 & turn$ itself z ! mo/ viol5t oppos] aga9/ ! improvem5ts ( ! new p]iod4 #c4 ,,! ,,revival ,,( ,,lett]s4--,! revival ( classic lit]ature contribut$ prom95tly to t *ange 9 ! _s ( ! age :i* m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! new epo* ( philosophy4 ,! /udy ( ! anci5ts1 especially ( ! ,greeks1 _h almo/ :olly ceas$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! ,middle ,ages2 ev5 ! philosophy ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 0 kn[n1 = ! mo/ "p1 only ?r\gh ,lat9 translations or second>y s\rces2 no "o realiz$ ! _s ( classic life1 & all s5se = beauty ( =m & elegant composition _h pass$ away4 ,! *ange 0 *iefly br\ght ab\t by means ( ! ,greek s*ol>s :o fl$ f ,con/ant9ople to ,italy2 ! /udy ( ! anci5ts 9 ! orig9al s\rces came up aga92 ! newly discov]$ art ( pr9t+ all[$ ! classics to be widely circulat$2 ! ,m$icis drew classic s*ol>s to _! c\rt2 all ?is work+ = a f> bett] und]/&+ ( ! anci5t philosophy4 ,bes>ion 7di$ #adgb7 & ,fic9us 7di$ #adii7 7 prom95t 9 ?is movem5t4 ,! result 0 pres5tly se54 ,! new s*ol>s cont5d$ aga9/ ! /iff & unc\? mann] 9 :i* ! sci5ces _h hi!rto be5 treat$1 new ideas began to circulate1 & !re arose aga9 ! free1 univ]sal1 ?9k+ _s ( antiquity4 ,9 ,g]many1 also1 classic /udies f\nd a fruitful soil4 ,reu*l9 7born #aded71 ,melanc?on & ,erasmus1 labor$ 9 ?is s5se1 & ! classic movem5t1 ho/ile z x 0 to ! ,s*ola/ic impulse1 favor$ mo/ decid$ly ! gr[+ t5d5cies to ! ,re=mation4 #d4 ,,! ,,g]man ,,re=mation4--,all ! elem5ts ( ! new age1 ! /ruggle aga9/ ,s*ola/icism1 ! revival ( lett]s & ! m enl>g$ culture ?us secur$1 ! /riv+ aft] national indep5d5ce1 ! attempts ( ! /ate to free itself f ! ,*ur* & ! hi]>*y1 & above all1 ! desire ( ! ?9k+ self-consci\sness = autonomy1 = fre$om f ! fett]s ( au?ority--all ^! elem5ts f\nd _! focus & po9t ( union 9 ! ,g]man ,re=mation4 ,?\gh hav+ its root at fir/ 9 practical1 & religi\s1 & national int]e/s1 & exp5d+ itself ma9ly ^u ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e & ,*ur*1 yet 0 ! ,re=mation 9 pr9ciple & 9 its true consequ5ces a rupture ( ! ?9k+ _s ) au?ority1 a prote/+ aga9/ ! fett]s ( ! positive1 a return ( ! m9d f its self-e/rangem5t to itself4 ,f t :i* 0 )\t1 ! m9d n[ came back to t :i* is )91 & ! purely human z su*1 ! individual he>t & consci5ce1 ! subjective conviction1 9 a ^w1 ! rights ( ! subject n[ began to be ( wor?4 ,:ile m>riage _h =m]ly be5 reg>d$1 ?\gh n immoral1 z yet inf]ior to cont95ce & celibacy1 x appe>$ n[ z a div9e in/itution1 a natural law orda9$ ( ,god4 ,:ile pov]ty _h =m]ly be5 e/eem$ high] ?an weal?1 & ! contemplative life ( ! monk 0 sup]ior to ! manual labor ( ! layman support+ himself by 8 own toil1 yet n[ pov]ty ceas$ to be desirable 9 itself1 & labor 0 no long] despis$4 ,ecclesia/ical fre$om took ! place ( spiritual bondage2 mona/icism & ! prie/hood lo/ _! p[]4 ,9 ! same way1 on ! side ( k ! individual man came back to himself1 & ?rew (f ! re/ra9ts ( au?ority4 ,he 0 impress$ ) ! conviction t ! :ole process ( r$emption mu/ be exp]i5c$ )9 himself1 t 8 reconciliation to ,god & salvation 0 8 own conc]n1 = :i* he ne$$ no m$iation ( prie/s1 & t he /ood 9 an imm$iate relation to ,god4 ,he f\nd 8 :ole be+ 9 8 fai?1 9 ! dep? ( 8 feel+s & convictions4 ,s9ce ?us ,prote/antism sprang f ! ess5ce ( ! same _s 9 :i* mod]n philosophy _h its bir?1 ! two h ! close/ relation to ea* o!r1 ?\gh ( c\rse !re is a specific diff]5ce betwe5 ! religi\s & ! sci5tific pr9ciple4 ,yet 9 _! orig91 bo? k9ds ( ,prote/antism1 t ( religion & t ( ?\ght1 are "o & ! same1 & 9 _! progress !y h also gone h& 9 h& toge!r4 ,= religion1 r$uc$ to its simple elem5ts1 w be f\nd to h its s\rce1 l philosophy1 9 ! self-k ( ! reason4 #e4 ,,! ,,advancem5t ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,sci5ces4--,to all ^! ph5om5a1 :i* %\ld be reg>d$ bo? z causes & z symptoms ( ! intellectual revolution ( ?is p]iod1 we mu/ add yet ano!r1 :i* ess5tially facilitat$ & gave a positive assi/ance to ! fre$om ( ! m9d f ! fett]s ( au?ority--! />t+ up ( ! natural sci5ces & ! inductive me?od ( exam9+ nature4 ,?is epo* 0 a p]iod ( ! mo/ fruitful & influ5tial discov]ies 9 nature4 ,! discov]y ( ,am]ica & ! passage to ! ,ea/ ,indies _h already wid5$ ! circle ( view1 b /ill great] revolutions are connect$ ) ! "n ( a ,cop]nicus 7di$ #aedc71 ,kepl] 7di$ #afcj71 & ,galileo 7di$ #afdb71 revolutions :i* c\ld n rema91 )\t an influ5ce ^u ! :ole mode ( ?9k+ ( t age1 & :i* contribut$ prom95tly to break ! fai? 9 ! prevail+ ecclesia/ical au?ority4 ,s*ola/icism _h turn$ away f nature & ! ph5om5al _w1 &1 bl9d t[>ds t :i* lay be=e ! v eyes1 _h sp5t itself 9 a dreamy intellectuality2 b n[ nature rose aga9 9 honor2 h] glory & exaltation1 h] inf9ite div]sity & fulness ( life became aga9 ! imm$iate objects ( obs]vation2 to inve/igate nature became an ess5tial object ( philosophy1 & sci5tific empiricism 0 ?us reg>d$ z a univ]sal & ess5tial conc]n ( ! ?9k+ man4 ,f ?is "t ! natural sci5ces date _! hi/orical importance1 = only f ?is "t h !y _h an un9t]rupt$ hi/ory4 ,! results ( ?is new intellectual movem5t c be readily e/imat$4 ,su* a sci5tific inve/igation ( nature n only de/roy$ a s]ies ( traditional errors & prejudices1 b1 :at 0 ( great] importance1 x direct$ ! intellectual int]e/ t[>ds t :i* is real & actual1 x n\ri%$ & protect$ ! self-?9k+ & feel+ ( self-dep5d5ce1 ! _s ( inquiry & pro(4 ,! /&po9t ( obs]vation & exp]im5t presupposes an indep5d5t self-consci\sness ( ! individual1 a break+ loose f au?ority--9 a ^w1 scepticism1 ) :i*1 9 fact1 ! f\nd]s ( mod]n philosophy1 ,bacon & ,desc>tes1 began2 ! =m] by condition+ ! k ( nature ^u ! removal ( all prejudice & e preconceiv$ op9ion1 & ! latt] by dem&+ t philosophy %\ld be begun ) univ]sal d\bt4 ,no wond] t a bitt] /ruggle %\ld soon break out betwe5 ! natural sci5ces & ecclesia/ical or?odoxy1 :i* c\ld only result 9 break+ ! p[] ( ! latt]4 #f4 ,,bacon ,,( ,,v]ulam4--,francis ( ,v]ulam 0 born 9 #aefa1 & 0 ,"l ,high ,*ancellor ( ,engl& & keep] ( ! k+'s seal "u ,james ,i4 ,f ^! (fices he 0 subsequ5tly expell$1 & di$ 9 #afbf1 ) a "* :i* has n be5 )\t reproa*4 ,he took z 8 pr9ciple ! inductive me?od1 :i* he direct$ expressly aga9/ ,s*ola/icism & ! rul+ sci5tific me?od4 ,on ?is acc\nt he is frequ5tly plac$ at ! head ( mod]n philosophy4 ,! sci5ces1 says ,bacon1 h hi!rto be5 9 a mo/ sad condition4 ,philosophy1 wa/$ 9 empty & fruitless logoma*ies1 has fail$ dur+ s _m c5turies to br+ out a s+le "w or exp]im5t ( actual b5efit to human life4 ,logic hi!rto has s]v$ m to ! e/abli%m5t ( error ?an to ! inve/igation ( tru?4 ,:5ce all ?is8 ,:y ?is p5ury ( ! sci5ces8 ,simply because !y h brok5 away f _! root 9 nature & exp]i5ce4 ,! blame ( ?is is *>geable to _m s\rces2 fir/1 ! old & root$ prejudice t ! human m9d loses some:at ( its dignity :5 x busies itself mu* & cont9u\sly ) exp]im5ts & mat]ial ?+s2 next1 sup]/ition & a bl9d religi\s zeal1 :i* has be5 ! mo/ irreconcilable oppos] to natural philosophy2 aga91 ! exclusive att5tion paid to morals & politics by ! ,romans1 & s9ce ! ,*ri/ian era to !ology by e acute m9d2 /ill f>!r1 ! great au?ority :i* c]ta9 philosoph]s h pr(ess$1 & ! great rev]5ce giv51 to antiquity2 & 9 f9e1 a want ( c\rage & a despair ( ov]com+ ! _m & great difficulties :i* lie 9 ! way ( ! inve/igation ( nature4 ,all ^! causes h contribut$ to keep d[n ! sci5ces4 ,h5ce !y mu/ n[ be r5ew$1 & reg5]at$1 & re=m$ 9 _! mo/ fundam5tal pr9ciples2 !re mu/ n[ be f\nd a new basis ( k & new pr9ciples ( sci5ce4 ,?is radical re=mation ( ! sci5ces dep5ds ^u two conditions1 objectively ^u ! ref]r+ ( sci5ce to exp]i5ce & ! philosophy ( nature1 & subjectively ^u ! purify+ ( ! s5se & ! intellect f all ab/ract !ories & traditional prejudices4 ,bo? conditions furni% ! correct me?od ( natural sci5ce1 :i* is no?+ o!r ?an ! me?od ( induction4 ,^u a true induction dep5ds all ! s\ndness ( ! sci5ces4 ,9 ^! propositions ! ,baconian philosophy is conta9$4 ,! hi/orical significance ( its f\nd] is1 !re=e1 9 g5]al ?is1--t he direct$ ! att5tion & reflection ( 8 contempor>ies aga9 ^u ! giv5 actuality1 ^u nature2 t he affirm$ ! necessity ( exp]i5ce1 :i* _h be5 =m]ly only a matt] ( accid5t1 & made x z 9 & = itself an object ( ?\ght4 ,8 m]it consi/s 9 hav+ br\ght up ! pr9ciple ( sci5tific empiricism1 & only 9 ?is4 ,/rictly speak+1 we c all[ no cont5t to ! ,baconian philosophy1 al?\gh 79 8 treatise de augm5tis sci5ti>um7 he has attempt$ a sy/ematic encyclop$ia ( ! sci5ces accord+ to a new pr9ciple ( classification1 ?r\gh :i* he has scatt]$ an abundance ( f9e & fruitful obs]vations1 :i* are /ill us$ z apo!gms4 #g4 ,,! ,,italian ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,transition ,,epo*4--,besides ,bacon1 o!r ph5om5a mu/ be notic$ :i* h prep>$ & introduc$ ! new age ( philosophy4 ,fir/ among ^! is a li/ ( ,italian philosoph]s1 f ! second half ( ! sixte5? & ! fir/ half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,^! philosoph]s are connect$ 9 a tw(old mann] ) ! movem5ts already sket*$ ( ?is transition p]iod1 fir/ by an en?usiasm = nature :i* among !m all p>took 9 a great] or less degree ( pan!ism 7,van9i e4 g4 gave to "o ( 8 writ+s ! title 8conc]n+ ! wond]ful secrets ( nature1 ! que5 & goddess ( mortals071 & second1 by _! connection ) ! sy/ems ( anci5t philosophy4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ^! philosoph]s are ! foll[+3 ,c>danus 7#aeja-aege71 ,campanella 7#aefh-afci71 ,giordano ,bruno 7--#afjj71 ,van9i 7#aehf-afai47 ,!y 7 all m5 ( a passionate1 en?usia/ic & impetu\s nature1 un/eady & wild 9 "*1 re/less & adv5tur\s 9 life1 m5 :o 7 inspir$ by an eag] impulse t[>ds k1 b :o 7 c>ri$ away by great fantasy1 wildness ( imag9ation1 & a seek+ aft] secret a/rological & geomantic k4 ,= ^! reasons !y also pass$ away1 leav+ no fruitful result beh9d4 ,!y 7 all p]secut$ by ! hi]>*y1 & two ( !m 7,bruno & ,van9i7 end$ _! lives at ! /ake4 ,9 _! :ole hi/orical appe>ance !y are l ! eruption ( a volcano1 & are to be reg>d$ m z =]unn]s & ann\nc]s ?an z beg9n]s & f\nd]s ( ! new age ( philosophy4 ,! mo/ important among !m is ,giordano ,bruno4 ,he review$ ! old idea ( ! ,/oics1 t ! _w is a liv+ be+1 & t a _w-s\l p5etrates x all4 ,! cont5t ( 8 g5]al ?\ght is ! pr(\nde/ en?usiasm = nature1 & ! pla/ic reason :i* is pres5t 9 x4 ,! reason is1 accord+ to him1 ! inn] arti/ :o %apes ! matt] & manife/s himself 9 ! =ms ( ! univ]se4 ,f ! he>t ( ! root or ! g]m he s5ds out ! lobes1 & f ^! aga9 he evolves ! %oots1 & f ! %oots ! bran*es1 until bud1 & leaf1 & blossom are br\ght =?4 ,e ?+ is arrang$1 adju/$1 & p]fect$ )94 ,?us ! univ]sal reason calls back f )9 ! sap out ( ! fruits & fl[]s to ! bran*es aga91 c4 ,! univ]se ?us is an inf9ite liv+ ?+1 9 :i* e ?+ lives & moves aft] ! mo/ manifold way4 ,! relation ( ! reason to matt]1 ,bruno det]m9es :olly 9 ! ,ari/otelian mann]2 bo? /& relat$ to ea* o!r z =m & matt]1 z actuality & pot5tiality1 nei!r is )\t ! o!r2 ! =m is ! inn] impell+ might ( matt]1 & matt]1 z ! unlimit$ possibility1 z ! capability = an inf9ite div]sity ( =m1 is ! "m ( all =ms4 ,! o!r side ( ,bruno's philosophiz+1 8 elaboration ( ! topics ( ,lullus1 :i* occupies ! great] "p ( 8 writ+s1 has little philosophic int]e/1 & we !re=e pass x by4 #h4 ,,jacob ,,boehme4--,z ,bacon among ! ,engli% & ,bruno among ! ,italians1 s ,jacob ,boehme is ! index among ! ,g]mans ( ?is transition p]iod4 ,ea* "o ( ^! ?ree indicates x 9 a way peculi> to 8 own nationality2 ,bacon z ! h]ald ( empiricism1 ,bruno z ! repres5tative ( a poetic pan!ism1 & ,boehme z ! fa!r ( ! !osophic my/icism4 ,if we reg>d$ alone ! pr(\ndness ( 8 pr9ciple1 ,boehme %\ld hold a mu* lat] place 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 b if we look$ *iefly at ! imp]fect =m ( 8 philosophiz+1 8 rank w\ld be assign$ to ! my/ics ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :ile *ronologically we mu/ associate him ) ! ,g]man ,re=mation & ! prote/ant elem5ts t 7 n\ri%$ at t "t4 ,8 true position is among ! =]unn]s & prophets ( ! new age4 ,jacob ,boehme 0 born 9 #aege1 9 old ,seid5burg1 a village ( upp] ,lusace1 n f> f ,go]litz4 ,8 p>5ts 7 poor peasants4 ,9 8 boyhood be took c>e ( ! cattle1 & 9 8 y\?1 aft] he _h acquir$ ! rudim5ts ( read+ & writ+ 9 a village s*ool1 he 0 s5t to ,go]litz to le>n ! %oe-mak]'s art4 ,he f9i%$ 8 appr5tice%ip & settl$ d[n at ,go]litz 9 #aeid z ma/] ( 8 trade4 ,ev5 9 8 y\? he _h receiv$ illum9ations or my/]i\s reveal+s1 :i* 7 subsequ5tly repeat$ :5 8 s\l1 /riv+ = ! tru?1 _h become pr(\ndly agitat$ by ! religi\s conflicts ( ! age4 ,besides ! ,bible1 ! only books :i* ,boehme read 7 "s my/ical writ+s ( a !osophic & al*ymi/ic cont5t1 e4 g4 ^? ( ,p>acelsus4 ,8 entire want ( culture is se5 z soon z he und]takes to write d[n 8 ?\ghts1 or1 z he calls !m1 8 illum9ations4 ,h5ce ! imp]i\s /ruggle ( ! ?\ght ) ! expression1 :i*1 h[ev]1 n unfrequ5tly rises to a dialectical acut5ess & a poetic beauty4 ,8 fir/ treatise1 ,aurora1 compos$ 9 ! ye> #afab1 br\ght ,boehme into tr\ble ) ! *ief pa/or 9 ,go]litz1 ,gregori\s ,ri*t]1 :o publicly condemn$ ! book f ! pulpit1 & ev5 ridicul$ ! p]son ( its au?or4 ,! writ+ ( books 0 prohibit$ him by a magi/rate1 a prohibition :i* ,boehme obs]v$ = _m ye>s1 till at l5g? ! comm& ( ! _s 0 too mighty )9 him1 & he took up aga9 8 lit]>y labors4 ,boehme 0 a pla91 quiet1 mode/ & g5tle man4 ,he di$ 9 #afbd4 ,to give an exhibition ( 8 !osophy 9 a few words is v difficult1 s9ce ,boehme1 in/ead ( clo?+ 8 ?\ghts 9 a logical =m1 dress$ !m only 9 pictures ( ! s5se & obscure analogies1 & (t5 avail$ himself ( ! mo/ arbitr>y & s+ul> modes ( expression4 ,a twilight reigns 9 8 writ+s1 z 9 a ,go?ic ca!dral :]e ! light falls ?r\gh v>iegat$ w9d[s4 ,h5ce ! magic effect :i* he has made ^u _m he>ts4 ,! *ief ?\ght ( 8 philosophiz+ is ?is1 viz41 t ! di/+ui%+ ( ! self f ! n-self is ! ess5tial det]m9ation ( _s1 & h5ce ( ,god s f> z ,god is to be appreh5d$ z _s4 ,god1 accord+ to ,boehme1 is liv+ _s only at ! "t & 9 ! degree 9 :i* he conceives ! di/9ction )9 himself f himself1 & is 9 ?is di/9ction object & consci\sness4 ,! di/9ction ( ,god 9 himself is ! only s\rce ( 8 & ( all actuosity & spontaneity1 ! spr+ & f\nta9 ( t self-active life :i* produces consci\sness out ( itself4 ,boehme is inexhau/ible 9 images by :i* ?is negativity 9 ,god1 8 self-di/+ui%+ & self-r5unciation to ! _w1 may be made conceivable4 ,! great expansion )\t end1 he says1 ne$s limitation & a compass 9 :i* x may manife/ itself1 = 9 expansion )\t limit !re c\ld be no manife/ation1 !re mu/ be a contraction & an enclos+1 9 ord] t a manife/ation may arise4 ,see1 he says 9 ano!r place1 if ! w 7 only ( "o k9d1 !n w\ld ! s\l h only "o quality1 & 7 an immovable ?+1 :i* w\ld always lie /ill & nev] d any ?+ f>!r ?an "o ?+2 9 ?is !re c\ld be no joy1 z also no art nor sci5ce ( o!r ?+s1 & no wisdom2 e ?+ w\ld be a no?+1 & !re w\ld be nei!r he>t nor w = any ?+1 = !re w\ld be only ! s+le4 ,h5ce x _c be said t ! :ole ,god is 9 "o w & ess5ce1 !re is a di/9ction4 ,no?+ c ev] become manife/ to itself )\t resi/ance1 = if x has no?+ resi/+1 x exp5ds itself & nev] comes to itself aga92 b if x does n come to itself aga9 except 9 t f :i* x has orig9ally sprung1 x ?us kn[s no?+ ( its orig9al condition4 ,! above ?\ght ,boehme expresses :5 he says 9 8 ,que/ionibus ,!osophicis2 ! read] %\ld "k t 9 yea & nay all ?+s consi/1 :e!r div9e1 devili%1 e>?ly1 or :atev] may be nam$4 ,! "o z ! yea1 is simple en]gy & love1 & is ! tru? ( ,god & ,god himself4 ,b ?is 7 inconceivable1 & !re 7 nei!r delight1 nor importance1 nor s5sibility1 )\t ! nay4 ,! nay is ?r[n 9 ! way ( ! yea1 or ( tru?1 9 ord] t ! tru? may be manife/ & some?+1 9 :i* !re may be a contr>ium1 :]e et]nal love may "w & become s5sitive & will+4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! "o :i* is an occasion = will+ until ! "o becomes duplicat$1 & s !re c be no s5sation 9 unity1 b only 9 duality4 ,9 brief1 accord+ to ,boehme1 nei!r k nor consci\sness is possible1 )\t di/9ction1 )\t opposition1 )\t duplication2 a ?+ becomes cle> & an object ( consci\sness only ?r\gh some?+ else1 ?r\gh its own opposition id5tical ) its own be+4 ,x 0 v natural to connect ?is ?\ght ( a unity di/+ui%+ itself 9 itself1 ) ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity1 z ,boehme has1 9 fact1 repeat$ly done :5 treat+ ( ! ,div9e life & its process ( duplication4 ,s*ell+ aft]w>ds took up ^! ideas ( ,boehme & philosophically elaborat$ !m4 ,if we %\ld assign to ! !osophy ( ,boehme a position 9 ! developm5t ( lat] philosophy correspond+ to ! inn] cont5t ( its pr9ciple1 x w\ld mo/ prop]ly be plac$ z a complem5t to ! sy/em ( ,sp9oza4 ,if ,sp9oza taught ! fl[+ back ( all ! f9ite into ! et]nal "o1 ,boehme1 on ! o!r h&1 %[s ! procession ( ! f9ite f ! et]nal "o1 & ! inn] necessity ( ?is procession1 s9ce ! be+ ( ?is "o w\ld be r a n-be+ )\t su* a self-duplication4 ,comp>$ ) ,desc>tes1 ,boehme has at lea/ m pr(\ndly appreh5d$ ! conception ( self-consci\sness & ! relation ( ! f9ite to ,god4 ,b 8 hi/orical position 9 o!r respects is f> too isolat$ & exceptional1 & 8 mode ( /atem5t f> too impure1 to w>rant u 9 incorporat+ him any:]e 9 a s]ies ( sy/ems develop$ cont9u\sly & 9 a g5etic connection4 ,,section ,,xxiv4 ,,desc>tes4 ,! beg9n] & f\nd] ( mod]n philosophy is ,desc>tes4 ,:ile he1 l ! m5 ( ! transition epo* j notic$1 broke loose entirely f ! previ\s philosophiz+1 & began 8 "w :olly de novo1 yet he did n cont5t himself1 l ,bacon1 ) m]ely br++ out a new me?od1 or l ,boehme & 8 contempor>ies among ! ,italians1 ) affirm+ philosophical views )\t a me?odical gr\nd4 ,he w5t fur!r ?an any ( ^!1 & mak+ 8 /&po9t "o ( univ]sal d\bt1 he affirms a new1 positive1 & pregnant philosophical pr9ciple1 f :i* he attempt$ logically to d$uce ! *ief po9ts ( 8 sy/em4 ,! "* & novelty ( 8 pr9ciple makes him ! beg9n]1 & its inn] fruitfulness ! f\nd]1 ( mod]n philosophy4 ,r5e ,desc>tes 7,r5atus ,c>tesius7 0 born 9 #aeif1 at ,la ,haye 9 ,torra9e4 ,possess+ an indep5d5t prop]ty1 he volunte]$ z a soldi] 9 8 tw5ty-fir/ ye>1 & s]v$ 9 ! w>s ) ! ,dut*1 ! ,bav>ians1 & ! ,imp]iali/s4 ,aft] ?is he travell$ a good deal1 & !n abode a consid]able "t 9 ,p>is4 ,9 #afbi he left 8 native l&1 & betook himself to ,holl&1 t he might !re1 undi/urb$ & unkn[n1 devote himself to philosophy1 & elaborate 8 sci5tific ideas4 ,he sp5t tw5ty ye>s 9 ,holl&1 endur+ mu* vexati\s treatm5t f fanatical !ologians1 till 9 #afdi he accept$ an invitation f ,que5 ,*ri/9a ( ,sw$51 to visit ,/ockholm1 :]e he di$ 9 ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! *ief cont5t ( ! ,c>tesian sy/em may be se5 cond5s$ 9 ! foll[+ epitome4 #a4 ,if sci5ce w\ld h any ?+ fix$ & abid+1 x mu/ beg9 ) ! primal gr\nd ( ?+s2 e presupposition :i* we may h *]i%$ f infancy mu/ be ab&on$2 9 a ^w1 we mu/ d\bt at e po9t to :i* ! lea/ unc]ta9ty is atta*$4 ,we mu/ !re=e d\bt n only ! exi/5ce ( ! objects ( s5se1 s9ce ! s5ses s frequ5tly deceive1 b also ! tru?s ( ma!matics & geometry--=1 h[ev] evid5t ! proposition may appe> t two & ?ree make five1 or t ! squ>e has f\r sides1 yet we _c "k b :at ,god may h design$ly =m$ u = errone\s judgm5ts4 ,x is !re=e advisable to d\bt e ?+1 9 fact to d5y e ?+1 to posit e ?+ z false4 #b4 ,b ?\gh we posit e ?+ z false to :i* ! slighte/ d\bt may be atta*$1 yet we _c d5y "o ?+1 viz41 ! tru? t we1 :o s ?9k1 d exi/4 ,b r f ! v fact t ,i posit e ?+ z false1 t ,i d\bt e ?+1 is x manife/ t ,i1 ! d\bt]1 exi/4 ,h5ce ! proposition3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am 7cogito ergo sum71 is ! fir/ & mo/ c]ta9 position :i* (f]s itself to e "o attempt+ to philosophize4 ,^u ?is ! mo/ c]ta9 ( all propositions1 ! c]ta9ty ( all o!r k dep5ds4 ,! objection ( ,gass5di t ! tru? ( exi/5ce foll[s f any o!r activity ( man z well z f ?9k+1 t ,i might j z well say3 ,i g to walk1 !re=e ,i exi/1--has no weight2 =1 ( all my actions1 ,i c be absolutely c]ta9 only ( my ?9k+4 #c4 ,f ! proposition ,i ?9k1 !re=e1 ,i am1 ! :ole nature ( ! m9d may be det]m9$4 ,:5 we exam9e :o we are :o hold e ?+ to be false t is di/9ct f ourselves1 we see cle>ly t nei!r ext5sion nor figure1 nor any ?+ :i* c be pr$icat$ ( body1 b only ?\ght1 belongs to our nature4 ,i am !re=e only a ?9k+ be+1 i4 e4 m9d1 s\l1 intellig5ce1 reason4 ,?\ght is my sub/ance4 ,m9d c !re=e be appreh5d$ cle>ly & completely = itself alone1 )\t any ( ^? attributes :i* belong to body4 ,its conception conta9s no?+ ( t :i* belongs to ! conception ( body4 ,x is !re=e impossible to appreh5d x ?r\gh any s5su\s repres5tation1 or to make an image ( x3 x appreh5ds itself only ?r\gh ! pure intellig5ce4 #d4 ,f ! proposition cogito ergo sum1 foll[s /ill f>!r ! univ]sal rule ( all c]ta9ty4 ,i am c]ta9 t ,i am a ?9k+ be+1 :at n[ is involv$ 9 ! fact t ,i am c]ta9 ( any ?+8 ,:5ce comes ?is c]ta9ty8 ,f no o!r s\rce ?an ! k t ?is fir/ proposition conta9s a cle> conception ( t :i* ,i affirm4 ,i "k ( a c]ta9ty t ,i am1 & ,i "k any ?+ else only :5 ,i "k x z c]ta9ly z ,i "k t ,i am4 ,h5ce ,i may reg>d x z a univ]sal rule1 t e ?+ is true :i* ,i "k cle>ly & det]m9ately4 #e4 ,?is rule1 h[ev]1 is only a pr9ciple ( c]ta9ty1 n ( k & ( tru?4 ,we apply x !re=e to our ?\ghts or ideas1 9 ord] to discov] :at is objectively true4 ,b our ideas are p>tly innate1 p>tly acquir$1 & p>tly self-orig9at$4 ,among ^? ( ! fir/ class we f9d ! idea ( a ,god4 ,! "q arises1 :5ce h we ?is idea8 ,manife/ly n f ourselves2 ?is idea c\ld only be implant$ )9 u by a be+ :o has ! fulness ( all p]fection 9 himself1 i4 e4 only by an actually exi/+ ,god4 ,if ,i ask n[ ! "q1 :5ce h ,i ! faculty to conceive ( a nature m p]fect ?an my own8 ! answ] mu/ ev] come1 t ,i h x only f him ^: nature is actually m p]fect4 ,all ! attributes ( ,god1 ! m ,i contemplate !m1 %[ t _! idea c\ld n h orig9at$ ) myself alone4 ,= ?\gh !re might be 9 me ! idea ( sub/ance because ,i am a sub/ance1 yet ,i c\ld n ( myself h ! idea ( an inf9ite sub/ance1 s9ce ,i am f9ite2 su* an idea c\ld only be giv5 me ?r\gh a sub/ance actually inf9ite4 ,moreov]1 we mu/ n ?9k t ! conception ( ! inf9ite is to be ga9$ ?r\gh ab/raction & negation1 z we might ga9 d>kness ?r\gh ! negation ( light2 b ,i p]ceive1 r1 t ! inf9ite conta9s m reality ?an ! f9ite1 & t1 !re=e1 ! conception ( ! inf9ite mu/ be correspond+ly antec$5t 9 me to t ( ! f9ite4 ,s9ce !n ,i h a cle> & det]m9$ idea ( ! inf9ite sub/ance1 & s9ce ?is has a great] objective reality ?an e o!r1 s is !re no o!r :i* ,i h s little reason to d\bt4 ,b n[ s9ce ,i am c]ta9 t ! idea ( ,god has come to me f ,god himself1 x only rema9s = me to exam9e ! way 9 :i* ,i h receiv$ x f ,god4 ,i h nev] d]iv$ x directly nor indirectly f ! s5se1 = ideas ?r\gh ! s5se arise only by affect+ ! ext]nal organs ( s5se2 nei!r h ,i devis$ x1 = ,i c nei!r add to x nor dim9i% x 9 any respect1--x mu/1 !re=e1 be innate z ! idea ( myself is innate4 ,h5ce ! fir/ pro( we c assign = ! be+ ( a ,god is ! fact t we f9d ! idea ( a ,god )9 u1 & t we mu/ h a cause = its be+4 ,aga91 ! be+ ( a ,god may be conclud$ f my own imp]fection1 & especially f ! k ( my imp]fection4 ,= s9ce ,i "k t !re is a p]fection :i* is want+ 9 me1 x foll[s t !re mu/ exi/ a be+ :o is m p]fect ?an ,i1 on :om ,i dep5d & f :om ,i receive all ,i possess4--,b ! be/ & mo/ evid5t pro( = ! be+ ( a ,god is1 9 f9e1 t :i* is ga9$ f ! conception ( a ,god4 ,! m9d among all its diff]5t ideas s+les out ! *iefe/ ( all1 t ( ! mo/ p]fect be+1 & p]ceives t ?is has n only ! possibility ( exi/5ce1 i4 e4 accid5tal exi/5ce l all o!r ideas1 b t x possesses necess>y exi/5ce 9 itself4 ,& z ! m9d kn[s t 9 e triangle its ?ree angles are equal to two "r angles1 because ?is is involv$ 9 ! v idea ( a triangle1 s does ! m9d necess>ily inf] t necess>y exi/5ce belongs to ! conception ( ! mo/ p]fect be+1 & t1 !re=e1 ! mo/ p]fect be+ actually exi/s4 ,no o!r idea :i* ! m9d f9ds )9 itself conta9s necess>y exi/5ce1 b f ! idea ( ! highe/ be+ exi/5ce _c be sep>at$ )\t contradiction4 ,x is only our prejudices :i* keep u f see+ ?is4 ,s9ce we are accu/om$ 9 e ?+ to sep>ate its conception f its exi/5ce1 & s9ce we (t5 make ideas arbitr>ily1 x readily happ5s1 t :5 we contemplate ! highe/ be+ we are 9 d\bt :e!r its idea may n be "o also arbitr>ily devis$1 or at lea/ "o 9 ^: conception exi/5ce does n lie4--,?is pro( is ess5tially diff]5t f t ( ,?omas 7,anselm ( ,cant]bury74 ,8 argum5t 0 z foll[s3 8,if we und]/& :at is indicat$ by ! ^w ,,god1 x is all t c be conceiv$ ( greatness2 b n[ !re is actually & 9 ?\ght m belong+ to him ?an ! ^w repres5ts1 & !re=e ,god exi/s n only 9 ^w 7or repres5tation71 b 9 fact40 ,"h ! defect 9 ! syllogism is manife/1 = f ! premise x c\ld only be conclud$ t ,god mu/ !re=e be repres5t$ z exi/+ 9 fact1 :ile 8 actual exi/5ce w\ld n foll[4 ,my pro( on ! o!r h& is ?is1--we may pr$icate ( a ?+ :at we cle>ly see belongs to its true & *angeless nature1 or to its ess5ce1 or to its =m4 ,b n[ aft] we _h exam9$ :at ,god is1 we f\nd exi/5ce to belong to 8 true & *angeless nature1 & !re=e may we prop]ly pr$icate exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,necess>y exi/5ce is conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! mo/ p]fect be+1 n by a fiction ( our und]/&+ b because exi/5ce belongs to 8 et]nal & *angeless nature4 #f4 ,! result j f\nd--! exi/5ce ( ,god--is ( ! highe/ consequ5ce4 ,be=e atta9+ ?is we 7 oblig$ to d\bt e ?+1 & give up ev5 e c]ta9ty1 = we did n "k b t x belong$ to ! nature ( ! human m9d to err1 b t ,god _h creat$ u = error4 ,b s soon z we look at ! necess>y attributes ( ,god 9 ! innate idea ( him1 s soon z we "k t he is true1 x w\ld be a contradiction to suppose t he w\ld deceive u1 or t he c\ld h made u to err2 = ?\gh an ability to deceive might prove 8 skill1 a will+ness to deceive w\ld only demon/rate 8 frailty4 ,our reason1 !re=e1 c nev] appreh5d an object :i* w\ld n be true s f> z ! reason appreh5d$ x1 i4 e4 s f> z x is cle>ly kn[n4 ,= ,god might ju/ly be /yl$ a deceiv] if he _h giv5 u a reason s p]v]t$ z to hold ! false = ! true4 ,& ?us e absolute d\bt ) :i* we began is dispell$4 ,f ! be+ ( ,god we d]ive e c]ta9ty4 ,= e sure k x is only necess>y t we h cle>ly kn[n a ?+1 & are also c]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( a ,god1 :o w\ld n deceive4 #g4 ,f ! true idea ( ,god foll[ ! pr9ciples ( a philosophy ( nature or ! doctr9e ( ! two sub/ances4 ,sub/ance is t :i* s exi/s t x ne$s no?+ else = its exi/5ce4 ,9 ?is 7highe/7 s5se ,god is ! only sub/ance4 ,god1 z ! inf9ite sub/ance1 has 8 gr\nd 9 himself1 is ! cause ( himself4 ,! two creat$ sub/ances1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ?9k+ & ! corporeal sub/ance1 m9d & matt]1 are sub/ances only 9 a broad] s5se ( ! ^w2 !y may be appreh5d$ "u ! common conception t !y are ?+s :i* ne$ only ! co-op]ation ( ,god = _! exi/5ce4 ,ea* ( ^! two sub/ances has an attribute :i* con/itutes its nature & its ess5ce1 & to :i* all its o!r det]m9ations may be ref]r$4 ,! attribute & ess5ce ( matt] is ext5sion1 t ( m9d1 ?\ght4 ,= e ?+ else :i* c be pr$icat$ ( body presupposes ext5sion1 & is only a mode ( ext5sion1 z e ?+ we c f9d 9 m9d is only a modification ( ?\ght4 ,a sub/ance to :i* ?\ght imm$iately belongs is call$ m9d1 & a sub/ance1 ^: imm$iate sub/ratum is ext5sion1 is call$ body4 ,s9ce ?\ght & ext5sion are di/9ct f ea* o!r1 & s9ce m9d _c only be kn[n )\t ! attributes ( ! body1 b is 9 itself ! negation ( ^? attributes1 we may say t ! ess5ce ( ^! sub/ances is 9 _! reciprocal negation4 ,m9d & body are :olly di/9ct1 & h no?+ 9 common4 #h4 ,we pass by ! physics ( ,desc>tes1 :i* has only a subord9ate philosophical int]e/1 & notice next 8 views ( an?ropology4 ,f ?is duali/ic relation betwe5 m9d & matt]1 !re foll[s a duali/ic relation betwe5 s\l & body4 ,if matt] is ess5tially ext5sion1 & m9d ess5tially ?\ght1 & if ! two h no?+ 9 common1 !n ! union ( s\l & body c be conceiv$ only z a me*anical "o4 ,! body is to be reg>d$ z an arti/ic automaton1 :i* ,god has made1 z a /atue or ma*9e =m$ by ,god f ! e>?4 ,)9 ?is body ! s\l dwells1 closely b n int]nally connect$ ) x4 ,! union ( ! two is only a p[]ful br++ ( ! two toge!r1 s9ce ea* is n only an indep5d5t factor1 b is ess5tially di/9ct f & ev5 oppos$ to ! o!r4 ,! body by itself is a ma*9e fully prep>$1 9 :i* no?+ is *ang$ by ! entrance ( ! ?9k+ s\l1 except t ?r\gh x c]ta9 motions are secur$3 ! :eel-"w ( ! ma*9e rema9s z x 04 ,x is only ?\ght :i* di/+ui%es ?is ma*9e f e o!r2 h5ce1 !re=e1 brutes :i* are n self-consci\s nor ?9k+1 mu/ be rank$ ) all o!r ma*9es4 ,f ?is /&po9t arose especially ! "q conc]n+ ! seat ( ! s\l4 ,if body & s\l are indep5d5t sub/ances1 ea* ess5tially oppos$ to ! o!r1 !y _c int]p5etrate ea* o!r1 b c t\* only at "o po9t :5 !y are p[]fully br\ght toge!r4 ,?is po9t :]e ! s\l has its seat1 is1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 n ! :ole bra9 b ! p9eal gl&1 a little k]nel 9 ! middle ( ! bra94 ,! pro( = ?is claim1 t ! p9eal gl& is ! only place :]e ! s\l imm$iately exhibits its en]gy1 is f\nd 9 ! circum/ance t all o!r p>ts ( ! bra9 are tw(old1 :i* %\ld n be 9 an organ :]e ! s\l has its seat1 else objects w\ld appe> d\ble4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no o!r place 9 ! body :]e impressions c be s well unit$ z 9 ?is gl&4 ,! p9eal gl& is1 !re=e1 ! *ief seat ( ! s\l1 & ! place :]e all our ?\ghts are =m$4 ,we h ?us develop$ ! fundam5tal ?\ghts ( ! ,c>tesian sy/em1 & w n[ recapitulate 9 a few words ! features *>act]i/ic ( its /&po9t & hi/oric position4 ,desc>tes 0 ! f\nd] ( a new epo* 9 philosophy1 fir/1 f 8 po/ulate ( univ]sal fre$om f all preconceptions4 ,8 prote/+ aga9/ e ?+ :i* is n posit$ by ! ?\ght1 aga9/ tak+ any ?+ = grant$ 9 respect ( ! tru?1 has rema9$ f t "t onw>d ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! new age4 ,secondly4 ,desc>tes has br\ght out ! pr9ciple ( self-consci\sness 7! m9d or ! ?9k+ sub/ance is reg>d$ by him z an individual self1 a p>ticul> ,ego7--a new pr9ciple1 unkn[n 9 ?is view to ! anci5ts4 ,?irdly4 ,desc>tes has %[n ! opposition betwe5 be+ & ?\ght1 exi/5ce & consci\sness1 & ! m$iation ( ?is opposition1 :i* has be5 ! problem ( ! :ole mod]n philosophy1 he fir/ affirm$ z ! true philosophical problem4 ,b ) ^! ideas1 :i* make an epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 !re are at ! same "t connect$ ! defects ( ! ,c>tesian philosophiz+4 ,fir/4 ,desc>tes ga9$ ! cont5t ( 8 sy/em1 namely 8 ?ree sub/ances1 empirically4 ,true1 ! sy/em :i* beg9s ) a prote/ation aga9/ all exi/5ce w\ld seem to take no?+ = grant$1 b to d]ive e ?+ f ! ?9k+4 ,b 9 fact ?is prote/+ is n ?or\ghly c>ri$ out4 ,t :i* seems to be ca/ aside is aft]w>ds1 :5 ! pr9ciple ( c]ta9ty is ga9$1 tak5 up aga9 un*ang$4 ,& s x happ5s t ,desc>tes f9ds at h& n only ! idea ( ,god1 b 8 two sub/ances z some?+ imm$iately giv54 ,true1 9 ord] to rea* !m1 he ab/racts e ?+ :i* lies imm$iately be=e him1 b 9 ! end ! two sub/ances are se5 z t :i* rema9s :5 all else is ab/ract$4 ,!y are receiv$ empirically4 ,! second defect is1 t ,desc>tes sep>ates s :olly f ea* o!r ! two sides ( ! opposition betwe5 ?\ght & be+4 ,he posits bo? z 8sub/ances10 i4 e4 z p[]s1 :i* reciprocally exclude & negate ea* o!r4 ,! ess5ce ( matt] accord+ to him consi/s only 9 ext5sion1 i4 e4 9 ! pure be+ extra se 7,auss]si*se971 & t ( m9d only 9 ?\ght1 i4 e4 9 ! pure be+ 9 se 7,insi*se947 ,! two /& ov] aga9/ ea* o!r z c5trifugal & c5tripetal4 ,b ) ?is appreh5sion ( m9d & matt]1 an inn] m$iation ( ! two is an impossibility2 !re mu/ be a p[]ful act ( creation1 !re mu/ be ! div9e assi/ance 9 ord] t ! two sides may ev] come toge!r1 & be unit$ z !y are 9 man4 ,nev]!less ,desc>tes dem&s & attempts su* a m$iation ( ! two sides4 ,b ! impossibility ( truly ov]com+ ! dualism ( 8 /&po9t is ! ?ird1 & ! *ief defect ( 8 sy/em4 ,9 ! proposition 8,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am10 or 8,i am ?9k+10 ! two sides1 be+ & ?\ght1 are inde$ connect$ toge!r1 b only t !y may become fix$ indep5d5tly 9 respect ( ea* o!r4 ,if ! "q is ask$1 h[ does ! ,ego /& relat$ to ! ext5d$8 ! answ] c only be3 by ?9k+1 i4 e4 negatively1 by exclud+ x4 ,! idea ( ,god1 !re=e1 is all t rema9s = ! m$iation ( ^! two sides4 ,! two sub/ances are creat$ by ,god1 & ?r\gh ! div9e w may be b\nd toge!r2 ?r\gh ! idea ( ,god1 ! ,ego atta9s ! c]ta9ty t ! ext5d$ exi/s4 ,god is !re=e 9 a c]ta9 degree a ,deus ex ma*9a1 necess>y 9 ord] to m$iate ! conflict ( ! ,ego ) ! ext5d$4 ,x is obvi\s h[ ext]nal su* a m$iation is4 ,?is defect ( ! ,c>tesian sy/em op]at$ z an impell+ motive to ^? :i* succe$$4 ,,section ,,xxv4 ,,geul9cx ,,& ,,malebran*e4 #a4 ,m9d & matt]1 consci\sness & exi/5ce1 ,desc>tes _h fix$ 9 ! f>!/ sep>ation f ea* o!r4 ,bo?1 ) him1 are sub/ances1 indep5d5t p[]s1 reciprocally exclud+ oppositions4 ,m9d 7i4 e4 9 8 view ! simple self1 ! ,ego7 he reg>d$ z ess5tially ! ab/raction f ! s5su\s1 ! di/+ui%+ itself f matt] & ! sep>at+ ( matt] f itself2 matt] 0 ess5tially ! complete opposition to ?\ght4 ,if ! relation ( ^! two p[]s be z has be5 giv51 !n ! "q arises1 h[ c !re ev] be a filiation 7,rapport7 betwe5 !m8 ,h[1 on ! "o h&1 c ! affections ( ! body "w ^u ! s\l1 & on ! o!r h&1 h[ c ! volition ( ! s\l direct ! body1 if ! two are absolutely di/9ct & oppos$ to ea* o!r8 ,at ?is po9t1 ,arnold ,geul9cx 7a disciple ( ,desc>tes1 born at ,antw]p #afbe1 & di$ z pr(essor ( philosophy at ,leyd5 #affi7 took up ! ,c>tesian sy/em1 & endeavor$ to give x a great] logical p]fection4 ,accord+ to ,geul9cx nei!r ! s\l works imm$iately ^u ! body1 nor ! body imm$iately ^u ! s\l4 ,c]ta9ly n ! =m]3 = ?\gh ,i c det]m9e & move my body 9 _m respects arbitr>ily1 yet ,i am n ! cause ( ?is movem5t2 = ,i "k n h[ x happ5s1 ,i "k n 9 :at mann] motion is communicat$ f my bra9 to ! diff]5t p>ts ( my body1 & x is impossible t ,i %\ld d t 9 respect ( :i* ,i _c see h[ x is done4 ,b if ,i _c produce motion 9 my body1 mu* less c ,i d ?is outside ( my body4 ,i am !re=e simply a contemplator ( ! _w2 ! only act :i* is peculi>ly m9e is contemplation4 ,b ev5 ?is contemplation arises 9 a s+ul> mann]4 ,= if we ask h[ we obta9 our obs]vations ( ! ext]nal _w1 we f9d x impossible t ! ext]nal _w %\ld directly give !m to u4 ,= h[ev] mu* we may say t1 e4 g4 9 ! act ( see+1 ! ext]nal objects produce an image 9 my eye or an impression 9 my bra9 z 9 wax1 yet ?is impression or picture is aft] all only some?+ corporeal or mat]ial1 & _c !re=e come into my m9d1 :i* is absolutely di/9ct f e ?+ mat]ial4 ,!re rema9s1 !re=e1 only t we seek ! m$iation ( ! two sides 9 ,god4 ,x is ,god alone :o c unite ! out] ) ! inn]1 & ! inn] ) ! out]2 :o c make ! out] ph5om5a to become inn] repres5tations or notions ( ! m9d2 :o c ?us br+ ! _w )9 ! m9d's obs]vation1 & ! inn] det]m9ations ( ! w outw>d into de$4 ,h5ce e work+1 e act :i* unites ! out] & inn]1 :i* br+s ! m9d & ! _w into connection1 is nei!r a work+ ( ! m9d nor ( ! _w1 b only an imm$iate work+ ( ,god4 ,! movem5t ( my limbs does n foll[ f my w1 b only because x is ! w ( ,god t ^! movem5ts %\ld foll[ :5 ,i w4 ,my w is an occasion by :i* ,god moves my body--an affection ( my body is an occasion by :i* ,god br+s )9 me a repres5tation ( ! ext]nal _w3 ! "o is only ! occasional cause ( ! o!r 7h5ce ! "n occasionalism74 ,my w1 h[ev]1 does n move ,god to move my limbs1 b he :o has imp>t$ motion to matt] & giv5 x its laws1 creat$ also my w1 & has s connect$ toge!r ! mo/ div]se ?+s1 ! movem5t ( matt] & ! arbitrium ( my w1 t :5 my w puts =? a volition1 su* a motion foll[s z x wills1 & ! motion foll[s ! volition )\t any int]action or physical influ5ce ex]t$ by ! "o ^u ! o!r4 ,b j z x is ) two clocks :i* g exactly alike1 ! "o /rik+ precisely z ! o!r1 _! h>mony is n ! result ( any reciprocal int]act+1 b foll[s because bo? h be5 fa%ion$ & direct$ alike1--s is x ) ! movem5ts ( ! body & ! w1 !y h>monize only ?r\gh t exalt$ arti/ :o has 9 ?is ineffable way connect$ !m toge!r4 ,we see f ?is t ,geul9cx has c>ri$ to its limit ! duali/ic basis ( ,desc>tes4 ,:ile ,desc>tes call$ ! union ( m9d & matt] a conjunction ?r\gh p[]1 ,geul9cx nam$ x a miracle4 ,!re is consequ5tly 9 ?is view no imman5t1 b only a transc5d5t m$iation possible4 #b4 ,closely connect$ ) ?is view ( ,geul9cx1 & at ! same "t a real consequ5ce & a wid] developm5t ( ! ,c>tesian philosophiz+1 is ! philosophic /&po9t ( ,nicolas ,malebran*e4 ,he 0 born at ,p>is 9 #afch1 *os5 a memb] ( ! 8,congrgation de l'oratoire0 9 8 tw5ty-second ye>1 won ov] to philosophy ?r\gh ! writ+s ( ,desc>tes1 & di$1 aft] num]\s feuds ) !ological oppos]s1 9 #agae4 ,malebran*e />t$ ) ! ,c>tesian view ( ! relation betwe5 m9d & matt]4 ,bo? are /rictly di/9ct f ea* o!r1 & 9 _! ess5ce oppos$4 ,h[ n[ does ! m9d1 7i4 e4 ! ,ego7 ga9 a k ( ! ext]nal _w & h ideas ( corporeal ?+s8 ,= x comes to "k ?+s only by means ( ideas1--n ?r\gh itself1 n imm$iately4 ,n[ ! m9d c nei!r ga9 ^! ideas f itself1 nor f ! ?+s !mselves4 ,n f itself1 = x is absolutely oppos$ to ! bodily _w1 & h5ce has no capacity to idealize1 to spiritualize mat]ial ?+s1 ?\gh !y mu/ become spiritualiz$ be=e !y c be introduc$ to ! m9d2 9 a ^w1 ! m9d1 :i* 9 relation to ! mat]ial _w is only an opposition1 has no p[] to de/roy ?is opposition4 ,j z little has ! m9d d]iv$ ^! ideas f ?+s3 = matt] is n visible ?r\gh itself1 b r z anti!tic to m9d is x t :i* is absolutely un9telligible1 & :i* _c be idealiz$1 t :i* is absolutely )\t light & cle>ness4--,x only rema9s1 !re=e1 t ! m9d beholds ?+s 9 a ?ird t /&s above ! opposition ( ! two1 viz41 ,god4 ,god1 z ! absolute sub/ance1 is ! absolute ideality1 ! inf9ite p[] to spiritualize all ?+s4 ,mat]ial ?+s h no real opposition = ,god1 to him !y are no imp5etrable d>kness1 b an ideal exi/5ce2 all ?+s are 9 him spiritually & ideally2 ! :ole _w1 z intellectual or ideal1 is ,god4 ,god is1 !re=e1 ! high] mean betwe5 ! ,ego & ! ext]nal _w4 ,9 him we behold ideas1 we be+ s /rictly unit$ ) him1 t he may prop]ly be call$ ! place ( m9ds4 ,! philosophy ( ,malebran*e1 ^: simple ?\ght is ?is1 t we "k & see all ?+s 9 ,god1--%[s itself1 l ! occasionalism ( ,geul9cx1 to be a peculi> attempt to /& ^u ! basis ( ! ,c>tesian philosophy1 & ) its fundam5tal ?\ght to ov]come its dualism4 #c4 ,two defects or inn] contradictions h manife/$ !mselves 9 ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes4 ,he _h consid]$ m9d & matt] z sub/ances1 ea* "o ( :i* exclud$ ! o!r f itself1 & _h s\ght a m$iation ( ! two4 ,b ) su* conditions no m$iation o!r ?an an ext]nal "o is possible4 ,if ?\ght & exi/5ce are ea* "o sub/ance1 !n c !y only negate & exclude ea* o!r4 ,unnatural !ories1 l ^? :i* h be5 m5tion$1 are ! inevitable result ( ?is4 ,! simple/ way out ( ! difficulty is to give up ! pr9ciple fir/ assum$1 to /rip (f _! indep5d5ce f ! two opposites1 & in/ead ( reg>d+ !m z sub/ances1 view !m z accid5ts ( "o sub/ance4 ,?is way ( escape is moreov] indicat$ by a p>ticul> circum/ance4 ,accord+ to ,desc>tes1 ,god is ! inf9ite sub/ance1 ! peculi> sub/ance 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w4 ,m9d & matt] are inde$ sub/ances1 b only 9 relation to ea* o!r2 9 relation to ,god !y are dep5d5t1 & n sub/ances4 ,?is is1 /rictly tak51 a contradiction4 ,! true consequ5ce 7 r to say t nei!r ! ,ego 7i4 e4 ! individual ?9k+7 nor ! mat]ial ?+s are indep5d5t1 b t ?is c be pr$icat$ only ( ! "o sub/ance1 ,god2 ?is sub/ance alone has a real be+1 & all ! be+ :i* belongs to individual ess5ces ^! latt] possess n z a sub/antial be+1 b only z accid5ts ( ! "o only true & real sub/ance4 ,malebran*e approa*$ ?is consequ5ce4 ,) him ! bodily _w is ideally at lea/ resolv$ & made to s9k 9 ,god1 9 :om are ! et]nal ar*etypes ( all ?+s4 ,b ,sp9oza has mo/ decid$ly & logically adopt$ ?is consequ5ce1 & affirm$ ! accid5ce ( all individual be+ & ! exclusive sub/antiality ( ,god alone4 ,8 sy/em is ! p]fection & ! tru? ( ! ,c>tesian4 ,,section ,,xxvi4 ,,sp9oza4 ,b>u* or ,b5$ict ,sp9oza 0 born at ,am/]dam1 ,nov4 #bd1 #afcb4 ,8 p>5ts 7 ,jews ( ,portuguese desc5t1 & be+ m]*ants ( opul5ce1 !y gave him a f9i%$ education4 ,he /udi$ ) great dilig5ce ! ,bible & ! ,talmud1 b soon ex*ang$ ! pursuit ( !ology = ! /udy ( physics & ! works ( ,desc>tes4 ,he e>ly became dissatisfi$ ) ,judaism1 & pres5tly came to an op5 rupture ) x1 ?\gh )\t go+ ov] =mally to ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 ord] to escape ! p]secutions ( ! ,jews1 :o _h excommunicat$ him1 & :o ev5 w5t s f> z to make an attempt ^u 8 life1 he left ,am/]dam & betook himself to ,rhynsb]g1 ne> ,leyd54 ,he f9ally settl$ d[n at ! ,hague1 :]e he sp5t 8 life 9 ! greate/ seclusion1 devot$ :olly to sci5tific pursuits4 ,he support$ himself by gr9d+ optic glasses1 :i* 8 fri5ds sold = him4 ,! ,elector ,palat9e1 ,*>les ,l\is1 (f]$ him a ,pr(essor%ip ( ,philosophy at ,heidelb]g1 ) ! full p]mission to tea* z he *ose1 b ,sp9oza decl9$ ! po/4 ,naturally ( a weak con/itution1 :i* consumption _h = _m ye>s be5 und]m9+1 ,sp9oza di$ at ! age ( #dd1 on ! #ba/ ( ,febru>y1 #afgg4 ,9 8 life !re 0 mirror$ ! uncl\d$ cle>ness & exalt$ s]5ity ( ! p]fect$ sage4 ,ab/emi\s 9 8 habits1 satisfi$ ) little1 ! ma/] ( 8 passions1 nev] intemp]ately sad nor joy\s1 g5tle & b5evol5t1 ) a "* ( s+ul> excell5ce & purity1 he fai?fully illu/rat$ 9 8 life1 ! doctr9es ( 8 philosophy4 ,8 *ief "w1 ! ,e?ica1 appe>$ ! ye> ( 8 dea?4 ,8 design 0 probably to h publi%$ x dur+ 8 life1 b ! odi\s report t he 0 an a!i/ re/ra9$ him4 ,! fri5d he mo/ tru/$1 ,l\is ,may]1 a physician1 att5d$ to its publication aft] ! au?or's dea? & accord+ to 8 w4 ,! sy/em ( ,sp9oza re/s ^u ?ree fundam5tal conceptions1 f :i* all ! re/ may be d]iv$ ) ma!matical necessity4 ,^! conceptions are t ( sub/ance1 ( attribute1 & ( mode4 #a4 ,sp9oza />ts f ! ,c>tesian conception ( sub/ance3 sub/ance is t :i* ne$s no?+ o!r = its exi/5ce4 ,b ) su* a conception !re c exi/ only "o s+le sub/ance4 ,a numb] ( sub/ances l t ( ,desc>tes is necess>ily a contradiction4 ,!re c be no?+ :i* has a sub/antial be+ besides ! "o sub/ance ( all ?+s4 ,?is "o sub/ance ,sp9oza calls ,god4 ,( c\rse1 ) su* a view1 ! ,*ri/ian idea ( ,god1 ! notion ( a spiritual & p]sonal be+1 mu/ be laid aside4 ,sp9oza expressly decl>es1 t 8 notion ( ,god is entirely diff]5t f t ( ! ,*ri/ian2 he d5i$ t und]/&+ & w c\ld be pr$icat$ ( ,god2 he ridicul$ ^? :o suppos$ t ,god work$ = an end1 & ev5 scorn$ ! view :i* reg>d$ ! _w z a product ( ! ,div9e will+ or ?9k+4 ,god is1 ) him1 only sub/ance1 & no?+ m4 ,! propositions t !re is only "o ,god1 & t ! sub/ance ( all ?+s is only "o1 are ) him id5tical4 ,:at n[ peculi>ly is ?is sub/ance8 ,:at is positive be+8 ,?is "q x is v difficult to answ] directly f ! /&po9t ( ,sp9oza1 p>tly because a def9ition1 accord+ to him1 mu/ conta9 7i4 e4 mu/ be g5etically7 ! imm$iate cause ( t :i* is to be expla9$1 b sub/ance is uncreat$ & c h no cause besides itself2 b prom95tly because ,sp9oza held t e det]m9ation is a negation1 s9ce x mu/ indicate a want ( exi/5ce1 a relative n-be+4 7,omnis det]m9atio e/ negatio is an expression :i*1 ?\gh he uses x only occasionally1 expresses ! fundam5tal idea ( 8 :ole sy/em47 ,h5ce1 by sett+ up any positive det]m9ations ( be+1 we only take away f sub/ance its inf9ity & make x f9ite4 ,:5 we !re=e affirm any ?+ conc]n+ x1 we c only speak negatively1 e4 g4 t x has no =eign cause1 t x has no plurality1 t x _c be divid$1 etc4 ,x is ev5 reluctantly t ,sp9oza decl>es conc]n+ x t x is "o1 = ?is pr$icate might readily be tak5 num]ically1 z imply+ t o!rs1 ! _m1 /ood ov] aga9/ x4 ,?us !re c rema9 only su* positive affirmations respect+ x z express its absolute ref]5ce to itself4 ,9 ?is s5se ,sp9oza says t sub/ance is ! cause ( itself1 i4 e4 its be+ concludes exi/5ce 9 itself4 ,:5 ,sp9oza calls x et]nal1 x is only ano!r expression = ! same ?\ght2 = by et]nity he und]/&s exi/5ce itself1 s f> z x is conceiv$ to foll[ f ! def9ition ( ! ?+1 9 a s5se simil> to t 9 :i* geometricians speak ( ! et]nal prop]ties ( figures4 ,/ill f>!r he calls sub/ance inf9ite1 because ! conception ( inf9ity express$ to him ! conception ( true be+1 ! absolute affirmation ( exi/5ce4 ,s also ! expression1 ,god is free1 affirms no?+ m ?an ^? already m5tion$1 viz41 negatively1 t e =eign re/ra9t is exclud$ f him1 & positively1 t ,god is 9 h>mony ) himself1 t 8 be+ corresponds to ! laws ( 8 ess5ce4 ,! compreh5sive /atem5t = ! above is1 t !re is only "o inf9ite sub/ance t excludes f itself all det]m9ation & negation1 & is nam$ ,god1 or nature4 #b4 ,besides ! inf9ite sub/ance or ,god1 ,desc>tes _h assum$ two o!r sub/ances creat$ by ,god1 viz41 m9d 7?\ght71 & matt] 7ext5sion74 ,^! two ,sp9oza consid]s 9 ! light ( attributes1 ?\gh1 l ,desc>tes1 he receives !m empirically4 ,:at1 n[1 is ! relation ( ^! attributes to ! inf9ite sub/ance8 ,?is is ! sev]e "q1 ! t5don-,a*illes ( ,sp9oza's sy/em4 ,!y _c be ess5tial =ms 9 :i* ! sub/ance may manife/ itself or appe>1 = ?is w\ld make !m det]m9e ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance1 :i* w\ld contradict its conception z already giv54 ,sub/ance1 z su*1 is nei!r und]/&+ nor ext5sion4 ,if1 !n1 ! two attributes d n fl[ out ( ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance1 & d n con/itute ! sub/ance1 !re rema9s only "o o!r supposition1 viz41 t !y are ext]nally atta*$ to ! sub/ance2 & ?is is1 9 fact1 ,sp9oza's view4 ,attribute1 accord+ to him1 is t :i* ! und]/&+ p]ceives 9 ! sub/ance z con/itut+ its ess5ce4 ,b und]/&+1 z ,sp9oza expressly says1 does n belong to sub/ance z su*4 ,attributes1 !re=e1 are ^? det]m9ations :i* express ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance only = ! p]ceiv+ und]/&+2 s9ce !y express ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance 9 a det]m9ate way1 :ile sub/ance itself has no det]m9ate way ( be+1 !y c only fall outside ! sub/ance1 viz41 9 ! reflective und]/&+4 ,to ! sub/ance itself x is indiff]5t :e!r ! und]/&+ contemplate x "u ^! two attributes or n2 ! sub/ance 9 itself has an inf9ity ( attributes1 i4 e4 e possible attribute :i* is n a limitation1 may be pr$icat$ ( x2 x is only ! human und]/&+ :i* atta*es ^! two attributes to ! sub/ance1 & x affixes no m ?an ^!1 because1 among all ! conceptions x c =m1 ^! alone are actually positive1 or express a reality4 ,god1 or ! sub/ance1 is !re=e ?9k+1 9 s f> z ! und]/&+ contemplates him "u ! attribute ( ?\ght1 & is ext5d$ 9 s f> z ! und]/&+ contemplates him "u ! attribute ( ext5sion4 ,x is1 says ,sp9oza--us+ a figure to express ?is relation ( sub/ance to attribute--x is1 l a surface reflect+ ! light1 :i* 7objectively tak57 may be hot1 ?\gh1 9 ref]5ce to ! man look+ ^u x1 x is :ite4 ,m accurately sub/ance is a surface1 /&+ opposite to a behold] :o c see only ?r\gh yell[ & blue glasses2 to :om1 !re=e1 ! surface mu/ appe> ei!r yell[ or blue1 ?\gh x is nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,9 relation to sub/ance1 !re=e1 ! attributes mu/ be appreh5d$ z entirely indep5d5t3 !y mu/ be conceiv$ ?r\gh !mselves3 _! conception is n dep5d5t ^u t ( sub/ance4 ,?is is necess>ily true2 = s9ce ! sub/ance c h no det]m9at5ess1 !n ! attribute :i* is its det]m9ate be+1 _c be expla9$ f ! sub/ance1 b only ?r\gh itself4 ,only by appreh5d+ ! attribute indep5d5tly c ! unity ( ! sub/ance be ma9ta9$4 ,9 relation to ea* o!r1 ! attributes are to be tak5 z opposites /rictly & det]m9ately div]se4 ,betwe5 ! bodily & ! ideal _w !re is no reciprocal influ5ce nor int]action3 a body c only spr+ f a body1 & an idea c only h an idea = its s\rce4 ,h5ce1 !re=e1 nei!r ! m9d c "w ^u ! body nor ! body ^u ! m9d4 ,nev]!less !re exi/s betwe5 ! two worlds a p]fect h>mony & an entire p>allelism4 ,x is "o & ! same sub/ance :i* is conceiv$ "u ea* ( ! two attributes1 & "u :i* "o ( ! two we may contemplate x is indiff]5t to ! sub/ance itself1 = ea* mode ( contemplation is equally correct4 ,f ?is foll[s at once ! proposition ( ,sp9oza1 t ! connection ( ideas & ( ?+s is ! same4 ,h5ce ! solution to ! problem ( ! relation ( body & s\l1 s difficult to f9d f ! ,c>tesian /&po9t1 is readily se5 f t ( ,sp9oza4 ,body & s\l are "o & ! same ?+1 only view$ "u diff]5t attributes4 ,m9d is no?+ b ! idea ( body1 i4 e4 x is ! same ?+ z body1 only t x is view$ "u ! attribute ( ?\ght4 ,9 ! same way is expla9$ ! app>5t b n real influ5ce ( ! body ^u ! m9d1 & ! m9d ^u ! body4 ,t :i*1 9 "o po9t ( view is bodily motion1 9 ano!r is an act ( ?\ght4 ,9 %ort1 ! mo/ p]fect p>allelism reigns betwe5 ! _w ( bodily ?+s & t ( ideas4 #c4 ,individual be+s1 :i* consid]$ "u ! attribute ( ?\ght are ideas1 & "u ! attribute ( ext5sion are bodies1 ,sp9oza compreh5ds "u ! conception ( accid5ce1 or1 z he calls x1 mode4 ,by modes we are !re=e to und]/& ! *ang+ =ms ( sub/ance4 ,! modes /& relat$ to ! sub/ance z ! rippl+ waves ( ! sea to ! wat] ( ! sea1 z =ms con/antly disappe>+ & nev] hav+ a real be+4 ,9 fact ?is example goes too f>1 = ! waves ( ! sea are at lea/ a "p ( ! wat] ( ! sea1 :ile ! modes1 in/ead ( be+ p>ts ( ! sub/ance1 are ess5tially no?+ & )\t be+4 ,! f9ite has no exi/5ce z f9ite2 only ! inf9ite sub/ance has actual exi/5ce4 ,sub/ance1 !re=e1 c\ld n be reg>d$ m falsely ?an if x %\ld be view$ z made up ( modes4 ,t w\ld be1 ,sp9oza rem>ks1 z if "o %\ld say t ! l9e is made up out ( po9ts4 ,x is j z false to affirm t ,sp9oza id5tifies ,god & ! _w4 ,he id5tifies !m s little t he w\ld r say t ! _w1 z _w1 i4 e4 z an aggregate ( individuals1 does n at all exi/2 we might r say ) ,hegel t he d5ies ! _w 78 sy/em is an acosmism71 ?an ) ,bayle1 t he makes e ?+ ,god1 or t he ascribes div9ity to e ?+4 ,:5ce d f9ite ?+s or individuals arise1 if !y c h no exi/5ce by ! side ( sub/ance8 ,!y are only ! product ( our deceptive appreh5sion4 ,!re are two *ief ways ( k--! intuitive1 ?r\gh ! reason1 & ! imag9ative4 ,to ! latt] belong ! k ( exp]i5ce1 & all t is ab/ract1 sup]ficial1 & confus$2 to ! =m]1 ! collection ( all fitt+ 7adequate7 ideas4 ,x is only ! fault ( ! imag9ation t we %\ld look ^u ! _w z a manifoldness ( individuals2 ! manifoldness is only a =m ( repres5tation4 ,! imag9ation isolates & individualizes :at ! reason sees toge!r 9 its unity4 ,h5ce x is only z consid]$ ?r\gh ! imag9ation 7exp]i5ce or op9ion7 t modes are ?+s2 ! reason looks ^u !m z necess>y1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 z et]nal4 ,su* are ! fundam5tal ?\ghts & features ( ,sp9oza's sy/em4 ,8 practical philosophy yet rema9s to be *>act]iz$ & 9 a few words4 ,its *ief propositions foll[ necess>ily f ! metaphysical gr\nds already cit$4 ,fir/1 x foll[s f ^!1 t :at is call$ free w _c be admitt$4 ,= s9ce man is only a mode1 he1 l e o!r mode1 /&s 9 an endless s]ies ( condition+ causes1 & no free w c !re=e be pr$icat$ ( him4 ,! w mu/ ?us1 l ! body 7& ! resolution ( ! w is only a modification ( ! body71 be det]m9$ by some?+ o!r ?an itself4 ,m5 reg>d !mselves z free only because !y are consci\s ( _! actions & n ( ! det]m9+ causes4 ,j s ! notions :i* "o commonly connects ) ! words good & evil1 re/ on an error z foll[s at once f ! conception ( ! absolute div9e causality4 ,good & evil are n some?+ actually 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 b only express relative conceptions :i* we h =m$ f a comp>ison ( ?+s ) "o ano!r4 ,?us1 by obs]v+ c]ta9 ?+s we =m a c]ta9 univ]sal conception1 :i* we !reupon treat z ?\gh x 7 ! rule = ! be+ & act+ ( all individuals1 & if any individual v>ies f ?is conception we fancy t x does n correspond to its nature1 & is incomplete4 ,evil or s9 is !re=e only some?+ relative1 = no?+ happ5s aga9/ ,god's w4 ,x is only a simple negation or deprivation1 :i* only seems to be a reality 9 our repres5tation4 ,) ,god !re is no idea ( ! evil4 ,:at is !re=e good & :at evil8 ,t is good :i* is useful to u1 & t evil :i* h9d]s u f p>tak+ ( a good4 ,t1 moreov]1 is useful to u :i* br+s u to a great] reality1 :i* pres]ves & exalts our be+4 ,b our true be+ is k1 & h5ce t only is useful to u :i* aids u 9 kn[+2 ! highe/ good is ! k ( ,god2 ! highe/ virtue ( ! m9d is to "k & love ,god4 ,f ! k ( ,god we ga9 ! highe/ gladness & joy ( ! m9d1 ! highe/ bless$ness4 ,bless$ness1 h5ce1 is n ! rew>d ( virtue1 b virtue itself4 ,! gr& feature ( ,sp9oza's philosophy is t x buries e ?+ individual & p>ticul>1 z a f9ite1 9 ! abyss ( ! div9e sub/ance4 ,) its view unalt]ably fix$ ^u ! et]nal "o1 x loses sight ( e ?+ :i* seems actual 9 ! ord9>y notions ( m54 ,b its defect consi/s 9 its inability to trans=m ?is negative abyss ( sub/ance into ! positive gr\nd ( all-be+ & becom+4 ,! sub/ance ( ,sp9oza1 has be5 ju/ly comp>$ to ! lair ( a lion1 :i* _m foot/eps ent]1 b f :i* none em]ge4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! ph5om5al _w1 ?\gh x be only ! app>5t & deceptive reality ( ! f9ite1 ,sp9oza does n expla94 ,) 8 ab/ract conception ( sub/ance he _c expla9 x4 ,& yet ! means to help him out ( ! difficulty lay ne> at h&4 ,he fail$ to apply univ]sally 8 fundam5tal pr9ciple t all det]m9ation is negation2 he appli$ x only to ! f9ite1 b ! ab/ract inf9ite1 9 s f> z x /&s ov] aga9/ ! f9ite1 is also a det]m9ate2 ?is inf9ite mu/ be d5i$ by its negation1 :i* is ! case :5 a f9ite _w is posit$4 ,jacob ,boehme rightly appreh5d$ ?is1 :5 he affirm$1 t )\t a self-duplication1 )\t an +ress into ! limit$1 ! f9ite1 ! orig9al gr\nd ( ?+s is an empty no?+ 7cf4 ,,xxiii4 #h74 ,s ! orig9al gr\nd ( ,sp9oza is a no?+1 a purely indet]m9ate1 because ) him sub/ance 0 only a pr9ciple ( unity & n also a pr9ciple ( di/9ction1 because its attributes1 in/ead ( be+ an expression ( an actual diff]5ce & a positive di/9ction to itself1 are r :olly indiff]5t to itself4 ,! sy/em ( ,sp9oza is ! mo/ ab/ract ,mono!ism t c be ?\ght4 ,x is n accid5tal t its au?or1 a ,jew1 %\ld h br\ght out aga9 ?is view ( ! _w1 ?is view ( absolute id5tity1 = x is 9 a c]ta9 degree ) him only a consequ5ce ( 8 national religion--an e*o ( ! ,ori5t4 ,,section ,,xxvii4 ,,idealism ,,& ,,realism4 ,we h n[ rea*$ a po9t ( div]g5ce 9 ! developm5t ( philosophy4 ,desc>tes _h affirm$ & attempt$ to m$iate ! opposition1 betwe5 ?\ght & be+1 m9d & matt]4 ,?is m$iation1 h[ev]1 0 h>dly successful1 = ! two sides ( ! opposition he _h fix$ 9 _! wide/ sep>ation1 :5 he posit$ !m z two sub/ances or p[]s1 :i* reciprocally negat$ ea* o!r4 ,! foll[]s ( ,desc>tes s\ght a m satisfactory m$iation1 b ! !ories to :i* !y saw !mselves driv51 only indicat$ ! m cle>ly t ! :ole premise f :i* !y />t$ mu/ be giv5 up4 ,at l5g? ,sp9oza ab&on$ ! false notion1 & took away its sub/antiality f ea* ( ! two oppos$ pr9ciples4 ,m9d & matt]1 ?\ght & ext5sion1 are n[ "o 9 ! inf9ite sub/ance4 ,yet !y are n "o 9 !mselves1 :i* w\ld be ! only true unity ( ! two4 ,t !y are "o 9 ! sub/ance is ( little avail1 s9ce !y are indiff]5t to ! sub/ance1 & are n imman5t di/9ctions 9 x4 ,?us ev5 ) ,sp9oza ! two rema9 /rictly sep>ate4 ,! gr\nd ( ?is isolation we f9d 9 ! fact t ,sp9oza himself did n suffici5tly r5\nce ! ,c>tesian notion1 & ?us c\ld n escape ! ,c>tesian dualism4 ,) him1 z ) ,desc>tes1 ?\ght is only ?\ght1 & ext5sion only ext5sion1 & 9 su* an appreh5sion ( ! two1 ! "o necess>ily excludes ! o!r4 ,if we w\ld f9d an inn] m$iation = ! two1 we mu/ cease to ab/ract e ?+ ess5tial f ea*4 ,! opposite sides mu/ be m$iat$ ev5 9 _! /ricte/ opposition4 ,to d ?is1 two ways alone 7 possible4 ,a position c\ld be tak5 ei!r on ! mat]ial or on ! ideal side1 & ! attempt made to expla9 ! ideal "u ! mat]ial1 or ! mat]ial "u ! ideal1 compreh5d+ "o ?r\gh ! o!r4 ,bo? ^! attempts 7 9 fact made1 & at ab\t ! same "t4 ,! two p>allel c\rses ( a "o-sid$ idealism1 & a "o-sid$ realism 7,empiricism1 ,s5sualism1 ,mat]ialism71 n[ beg9 _! developm5t4 ,,section ,,xxviii4 ,,locke4 ,! f\nd] ( ! reali/ic c\rse & ! fa!r ( mod]n ,empiricism & ,mat]ialism1 is ,john ,locke1 an ,engli%man4 ,?omas ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi7 0 8 pr$ecessor & c\ntryman1 ^: "n we ne$ "h only m5tion1 z x has no importance except = ! hi/ory ( natural rights4 ,john ,locke 0 born at ,wr+ton1 #afcb4 ,8 /ud5t ye>s he devot$ to philosophy & prom95tly to m$ic9e1 ?\gh 8 weak heal? prev5t$ him f practis+ z a physician4 ,few c>es ( bus9ess int]rupt$ 8 leisure1 & he devot$ 8 "t mo/ly to lit]>y pursuits4 ,8 fri5dly relations ) ,"l ,an?ony ,a%ley1 aft]w>ds ,e>l ( ,%aftesbury1 ex]t$ a weighty influ5ce ^u 8 c\rse 9 life4 ,at ! h\se ( ?is di/+ui%$ /atesman & au?or he always f\nd ! mo/ cordial reception1 & an int]c\rse ) ! mo/ important m5 ( ,engl&4 ,9 ! ye> #afgj he sket*$ = a numb] ( fri5ds ! fir/ plan ( 8 fam\s ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+1 ?\gh ! complet$ "w did n appe> till #afhi4 ,locke di$ ag$ #gb 9 ! ye> #agjd4 ,8 writ+s are *>act]iz$ by cle>ness & precision1 op5ness & det]m9at5ess4 ,m acute ?an pr(\nd 9 8 philosophiz+1 he does n 9 ?is respect belie ! *>act]i/ic ( 8 nation4 ,! fundam5tal ?\ghts & results ( 8 philosophy h n[ become common prop]ty1 especially among ! ,engli%1 ?\gh x %\ld n !re=e be =gott5 t he is ! fir/ :o has sci5tifically e/abli%$ !m1 & is1 on ?is acc\nt1 entitl$ to a true place 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 ev5 ?\gh 8 pr9ciple 0 want+ 9 an inn] capacity = developm5t4 ,locke's ,philosophy 7i4 e4 8 !ory ( k1 = 8 :ole philosophiz+ exp5ds itself 9 inve/igat+ ! faculty ( kn[+7 re/s ^u two ?\ghts1 to :i* he nev] ceases to rev]t3 fir/ 7negatively71 !re are no innate ideas2 second 7positively71 all our k arises f exp]i5ce4 ,_m1 says ,locke1 suppose t !re are innate ideas :i* ! s\l receives coetane\s ) its orig91 & br+s ) x into ! _w4 ,9 ord] to prove t ^! ideas are innate1 x is said t !y univ]sally exi/1 & are univ]sally valid ) all m54 ,b admitt+ t ?is 7 s1 su* a fact w\ld prove no?+ if ?is univ]sal h>mony c\ld be expla9$ 9 any o!r way4 ,b m5 mi/ake :5 !y claim su* a fact4 ,!re is1 9 reality1 no fundam5tal proposition1 !oretical or practical1 :i* w\ld be univ]sally admitt$4 ,c]ta9ly !re is no su* practical pr9ciple1 = ! example ( diff]5t p z well z ( diff]5t ages %[s t !re is no moral rule univ]sally admitt$ z valid4 ,nei!r is !re a !oretical "o1 = ev5 ^? propositions :i* might lay ! /ronge/ claim to be univ]sally valid1 e4 g4 ! proposition1--8:at is1 is10 or--8x is impossible t "o & ! same ?+ %\ld be & n be at ! same "t10--receive by no means a univ]sal ass5t4 ,*ildr5 & idiots h no notion ( ^! pr9ciples1 & ev5 uncultivat$ m5 "k no?+ ( ^! ab/ract propositions4 ,!y _c !re=e h be5 impr9t$ on all m5 by nature4 ,if ideas 7 innate1 !n !y mu/ be kn[n by all f e>lie/ *ildhood4 ,= 8to be 9 ! und]/&+10 & 8to become kn[n10 is "o & ! same ?+4 ,! ass]tion !re=e t ^! ideas are impr9t$ on ! und]/&+ :ile x does n "k x1 is h5ce a manife/ contradiction4 ,j z little is ga9$ by ! subt]fuge1 t ^! pr9ciples come into ! consci\sness s soon z m5 use _! reason4 ,?is affirmation is directly false1 = ^! maxims :i* are call$ univ]sal come into ! consci\sness mu* lat] ?an a great deal ( o!r k1 & *ildr51 e4 g4 give _m pro(s ( _! use ( reason be=e !y "k t x is impossible t a ?+ %\ld be & at ! same "t n be4 ,x is only correct to say t no "o becomes consci\s ( ^! propositions )\t reason+1--b to say t !y are all kn[n ) ! fir/ reason+ is false4 ,moreov]1 t :i* is fir/ kn[n is n univ]sal propositions1 b relates to individual impressions4 ,! *ild kn[s t sweet is n bitt] long be=e he und]/&s ! logical proposition ( contradiction4 ,he :o c>efully be?9ks himself1 w hesitate be=e he affirms t p>ticul> dicta z 8sweet is n bitt]10 are d]iv$ f univ]sal ones4 ,if ! univ]sal propositions 7 innate1 !n mu/ !y be ! fir/ 9 ! consci\sness ( ! *ild2 = t :i* nature has /amp$ ^u ! human s\l mu/ come into consci\sness antec$5tly to any ?+ :i* %e has n writt5 !re4 ,consequ5tly1 if !re are no innate ideas1 ei!r !oretical or practical1 !re c be j z truly no innate art nor sci5ce4 ,! und]/&+ 7or ! s\l7 is ess5tially a tabula rasa1--a blank & void space1 a :ite pap] on :i* no?+ is writt54 ,h[ n[ does ! und]/&+ become possess$ ( ideas8 ,only ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 ^u :i* all k re/s1 & on :i* z its pr9ciple all k dep5ds4 ,exp]i5ce itself is tw(old2 ei!r x arises ?r\gh ! p]ception ( ext]nal objects by means ( ! s5se1 9 :i* case we call x s5sation2 or x is a p]ception ( ! activities ( our own und]/&+1 9 :i* case x is nam$ ! inn] s5se1 or1 bett]1 reflection4 ,s5sation & reflection give to ! und]/&+ all its ideas2 !y are ! w9d[s ?r\gh :i* alone ! light ( ideas falls ^u ! naturally d>k space ( ! m9d2 ext]nal objects furni% u ) ! ideas ( s5sible qualities1 & ! inn] object1 :i* is ! und]/&+ itself1 (f]s u ! ideas ( its own activities4 ,to %[ ! d]ivation & to give an explanation ( all ! ideas d]iv$ f bo? is ! problem ( ! ,lockian philosophy4 ,= ?is end ,locke divides ideas 7repres5tations or notions7 into simple & comp\nd4 ,simple ideas1 he names ^? :i* are impress$ f )\t ^u ! und]/&+ :ile x rema9s :olly passive1 j z ! images ( c]ta9 objects are repres5t$ 9 a mirror4 ,^! simple ideas are p>tly su* z come to ! und]/&+ ?r\gh an individual s5se1 e4 g4 ! ideas ( color1 :i* are furni%$ to ! m9d ?r\gh ! eye1 or ^? ( s\nd1 :i* come to x ?r\gh ! e>1 or ^? ( solidity or imp5etrability1 :i* we receive ?r\gh ! t\*2 p>tly su* z a numb] ( s5ses h comb9$ to give u1 z ^? ( space & ( motion1 ( :i* we become consci\s by means ( ! s5se bo? ( t\* & ( sight2 p>tly su* z we receive ?r\gh reflection1 z ! idea ( ?\ght & ( w2 & p>tly1 9 f9e1 su* z arise f bo? s5sation & reflection comb9$1 e4 g4 p[]1 unity1 c4 ,^! simple ideas =m ! mat]ial1 z x 7 ! lett]s ( all our k4 ,b n[ z language arises f a manifold comb9ation ( lett]s1 syllables & words1 s ! und]/&+ =ms complex ideas by ! manifold comb9ation ( simple ideas ) ea* o!r4 ,! complex ideas may be ref]r$ to ?ree classes1 viz43 ! ideas ( mode1 ( sub/ance1 & ( relation4 ,"u ! ideas ( mode1 ,locke consid]s ! modifications ( space 7z di/ance1 measurem5t1 imm5sity1 surface1 figure1 c471 ( "t 7z succession1 duration1 et]nity71 ( ?\ght 7p]ception1 memory1 ab/raction1 c471 ( numb]1 p[]1 c4 ,special att5tion is giv5 by ,locke to ! conception ( sub/ance4 ,he expla9s ! orig9 ( ?is conception 9 ?is way1 viz43 we f9d bo? 9 s5sation & reflection1 t a c]ta9 numb] ( simple ideas seem (t5 to be connect$ toge!r4 ,b z we _c dive/ ourselves ( ! impression t ^! simple ideas h n be5 produc$ ?r\gh !mselves1 we are accu/om$ to furni% !m ) a gr\nd 9 "s exi/+ sub/ratum1 :i* we indicate ) ! ^w sub/ance4 ,sub/ance is some?+ unkn[n1 & is conceiv$ ( z possess+ ^? qualities :i* are necess>y to furni% u ) simple ideas4 ,b f ! fact t sub/ance is a product ( our subjective ?9k+1 x does n foll[ t x has no exi/5ce outside ( ourselves4 ,on ! contr>y1 ?is is di/+ui%$ f all o!r complex ideas 9 ! fact t ?is is an idea :i* has its ar*etype di/9ct f ourselves1 & possesses objective reality1 :ile o!r complex ideas are =m$ by ! m9d at pleasure1 & h no reality correspond+ to !m ext]nal to ! m9d4 ,we d n "k :at is ! ar*etype ( sub/ance1 & ( ! sub/ance itself we are acqua9t$ only ) its attributes4 ,f consid]+ ! conception ( sub/ance1 ,locke next passes ov] to ! idea ( relation4 ,a relation arises :5 ! und]/&+ has connect$ two ?+s ) ea* o!r1 9 su* a way1 t 9 consid]+ !m x passes ov] f ! "o to ! o!r4 ,e ?+ is capable ( be+ br\ght by ! und]/&+ into relation1 or :at is ! same ?+1 to be trans=m$ into some?+ relative4 ,x is consequ5tly impossible to enum]ate ! sum ( e possible relation4 ,h5ce ,locke treats only ( "s ( ! m weighty conceptions ( relation1 among o!rs1 t ( id5tity & diff]5ce1 b especially t ( cause & effect4 ,! idea ( cause & effect arises :5 our und]/&+ p]ceives t any ?+ :atsoev]1 be x sub/ance or quality1 beg9s to exi/ ?r\gh ! activity ( ano!r4 ,s mu* conc]n+ ideas4 ,! comb9ation ( ideas among !mselves gives ! conception ( kn[+4 ,h5ce k /&s 9 ! same relation to ! simple & complex ideas z a proposition does to ! lett]s1 syllables & words :i* compose x4 ,f ?is x foll[s t our k does n pass beyond ! compass ( our ideas1 & h5ce t x is b\nd$ by exp]i5ce4 ,^! are ! prom95t ?\ghts 9 ! ,lockian philosophy4 ,its empiricism is cle> z day4 ,! m9d1 accord+ to x1 is 9 itself b>e1 & only a mirror ( ! out] _w1--a d>k space :i* passively receives ! images ( ext]nal objects2 its :ole cont5t is made by ! impressions furni%$ x by mat]ial ?+s4 ,nihil e/ 9 intellectu1 quod non fu]it 9 s5su--is ! wat*word ( ?is /&po9t4 ,:ile ,locke1 by ?is proposition1 expresses ! und\bt$ prepond]ance ( ! mat]ial ov] ! intellectual1 he does s /ill m decisively :5 he decl>es t x is possible & ev5 probable t ! m9d is a mat]ial ess5ce4 ,he does n admit ! rev]se possibility1 t mat]ial ?+s may be class$ "u ! intellectual z a special k9d4 ,h5ce ) him m9d is ! second>y to matt]1 & h5ce he is se5 to take ! *>act]i/ic /&po9t ( realism 7cf4 ,,xxvii74 ,x is true t ,locke 0 n always logically consi/5t1 & 9 _m po9ts did n ?or\ghly c>ry out 8 empiricism3 b we c cle>ly see t ! road :i* w be tak5 9 ! f>!r developm5t ( ?is direction1 w result 9 a ?or\gh d5ial ( ! ideal factor4 ,! empiricism ( ,locke1 :olly national z x is1 soon became ! rul+ philosophy 9 ,engl&4 ,/&+ on its basis we f9d ,isaac ,newton1 ! great ma!matician 7#afdb-agbg71 ,samuel ,cl>ke1 a disciple ( ,newton1 ^: *ief att5tion 0 giv5 to moral philosophy 7#afge-agbi71 ! ,engli% morali/s ( ?is p]iod1 ,william ,wolla/on 7#afei-agbd71 ! ,e>l ( ,%aftesbury 7#afga-agac71 ,francis ,hut*eson 7#afid-agdf71 & ev5 "s oppon5ts ( ,locke1 z ,pet] ,br[n1 :o di$ #agce4 ,,section ,,xxix4 ,,hume4 ,z already rem>k$1 ,locke _h n be5 :olly consi/5t ) ! /&po9t ( empiricism4 ,?\gh conc$+ to mat]ial objects a decid$ sup]iority above ! ?9k+ subject1 !re 0 yet "o po9t1 viz41 ! recognition ( sub/ance1 :]e he claim$ = ! ?9k+ a p[] above ! objective _w4 ,among all ! complex ideas :i* are =m$ by ! subjective ?9k+1 ! idea ( sub/ance is1 accord+ to ,locke1 ! only "o :i* has objective reality2 all ! re/ be+ purely subjective1 ) no?+ actually correspond+ to !m 9 ! objective _w4 ,b 9 ! v fact t ! subjective ?9k+ places ! conception ( sub/ance1 :i* x has =m$1 9 ! objective _w1 x affirms an objective relation ( ?+s1 an objective connection ( !m among ea* o!r1 & an exi/+ rationality4 ,! reason ( ! subject 9 ?is respect /&s 9 a c]ta9 degree above ! objective _w1 = ! relation ( sub/ance is n d]iv$ imm$iately f ! _w ( s5se1 & is no product ( s5sation nor ( p]ception ?r\gh ! s5se4 ,on a pure empirical /&po9t--& su* 0 ,locke's--x 0 !re=e illogical to all[ ! conception ( sub/ance to rema9 possess$ ( objective be+4 ,if ! und]/&+ is ess5tially a b>e & empty space1 a :ite unwritt5 pap]1 if its :ole cont5t ( objective k consi/s 9 ! impressions made ^u x by mat]ial ?+s1 !n mu/ ! conception ( sub/ance also be expla9$ z a m]e subjective notion1 a union ( ideas jo9$ toge!r at ! m9d's pleasure1 & ! subject itself1 ?us fully depriv$ ( e ?+ to :i* x c\ld lay claim1 mu/ become :olly subord9at$ to ! mat]ial _w4 ,?is /ride to a logical empiricism ,hume has made 9 8 criticism on ! conception ( causality4 ,david ,hume 0 born at ,ed9burgh #agaa4 ,devot$ 9 y\? to ! /udy ( law1 !n = "s "t a m]*ant1 he aft]w>ds gave 8 att5tion exclusively to philosophy & hi/ory4 ,8 fir/ lit]>y attempt 0 h>dly notic$4 ,a m favorable reception 01 h[ev]1 giv5 to 8 8,essays10--( :i* he publi%$ diff]5t collections f #agdb to #ageg1 mak+ 9 all five volumes4 ,9 ^! ,hume has treat$ philosophical !mes z a ?\ghtful & cultivat$ man ( ! _w1 b )\t any /rict sy/ematic connection4 ,9 #ageb he 0 elect$ to ! c>e ( a public libr>y 9 ,ed9burgh1 & began 9 ?is same ye> 8 fam\s hi/ory ( ,engl&4 ,aft]w>ds he became secret>y ( legation at ,p>is1 :]e he became acqua9t$ ) ,r\sseau4 ,9 #agfg he became "u secret>y ( /ate1 an (fice1 h[ev]1 :i* he fill$ = only a brief p]iod4 ,8 la/ ye>s 7 sp5t 9 ,ed9burgh1 9 a quiet & cont5t$ seclusion4 ,he di$ #aggf4 ,! c5tre ( ,hume's philosophiz+ is 8 criticism ( ! conception ( cause4 ,locke _h already express$ ! ?\ght t we atta9 ! conception ( sub/ance only by ! habit ( always see+ c]ta9 modes toge!r4 ,hume takes up ?is ?\ght ) e>ne/ness4 ,:5ce d we "k1 he asks1 t two ?+s /& to ea* o!r 9 ! relation ( cause & effect8 ,we d n "k x apriori1 = s9ce ! effect is some?+ o!r ?an ! cause1 :ile k apriori embraces only t :i* is id5tical1 ! effect _c ?us be discov]$ 9 ! cause2 nei!r d we "k x ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 = exp]i5ce reveals to u only ! succession 9 "t ( two facts4 ,all our conclusions f exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 re/ simply ^u habit4 ,because we are 9 ! habit ( see+ t "o ?+ is foll[$ 9 "t by ano!r1 d we =m ! notion t ! latt] mu/ foll[ out ( ! =m]3 we make ! relation ( causality out ( ! relation ( succession2 b a connection 9 "t is naturally some?+ o!r ?an a causal connection4 ,h5ce1 ) ! conception ( causality1 we transc5d t :i* is giv5 9 p]ception & =m = ourselves1 notions to :i* we are prop]ly n entitl$4--,t :i* belongs to causality belongs to e necess>y relation4 ,we f9d )9 u conceptions1 z ^? ( p[] & expression1 & 9 g5]al t ( necess>y connection2 b let u note h[ we atta9 ^!3 n ?r\gh s5sation1 = ?\gh ext]nal objects seem to u to h coetane\sness ( be+1 !y %[ z no necess>y connection4 ,d !y !n come ?r\gh reflection8 ,true1 x seems z if we might get ! idea ( p[] by see+ t ! organs ( our body move 9 consequ5ce ( ! dictate ( our m9d4 ,b s9ce we d n "k ! means ?r\gh :i* ! m9d works1 & s9ce all ! organs ( ! body _c be mov$ by ! w1 x foll[s1 t we are inde$ po9t$ to exp]i5ce 9 ref]5ce to ?is activity2 b s9ce exp]i5ce c %[ u only a frequ5t conjunction1 b no real connection1 x foll[s also t we come to ! conception ( p[] z ( e necess>y connection1 only because we are accu/om$ to a transc5d+ process 9 our notions4 ,all conceptions :i* express a relation ( necessity1 all k presumptive ( a real objective connection ( ?+s1 re/s !re=e ultimately only ^u ! association ( ideas4 ,hav+ d5i$ ! conception ( sub/ance1 ,hume 0 l$ also to d5y t ( ! ,ego or self4 ,if ! ,ego or self really exi/s1 x mu/ be a sub/ance possess+ inh]5t qualities4 ,b s9ce our conception ( sub/ance is purely subjective1 )\t objective reality1 x foll[s t !re is no correspond5t reality to our conception ( ! self or ! ,ego4 ,! self or ! ,ego is1 9 fact1 no?+ o!r ?an a comp\nd ( _m notions foll[+ rapidly ^u ea* o!r2 & "u ?is comp\nd we lay a conceiv$ sub/ratum1 :i* we call s\l1 self1 ,ego 7,i74 ,! self1 or ! ,ego1 re/s :olly on an illusion4 ,( c\rse1 ) su* premises1 no?+ c be said ( ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,if ! s\l is only ! comp\nd ( our notions1 x necess>ily ceases ) ! notions--t :i* is comp\nd$ ( ! movem5ts ( ! body dies ) ^? movem5ts4 ,!re ne$s no fur!r pro(1 ?an simply to utt] ^! *ief ?\ghts ( ,hume1 to %[ t 8 scepticism is only a logical c>ry+ out ( ,locke's empiricism4 ,e det]m9ation ( univ]sality & necessity mu/ fall away1 if we d]ive our k only f p]ceptions ?r\gh ! s5se2 ^! det]m9ations _c be compris$ 9 s5sation4 ,,section ,,xxx4 ,,condillac4 ,! ,fr5* took up ! problem ( c>ry+ out ! empiricism ( ,locke1 to its ultimate consequ5ces 9 s5sualism & mat]ialism4 ,al?\gh ?is empiricism _h sprung up on ,engli% soil1 & _h soon become univ]sally preval5t !re1 x 0 res]v$ = ,france to pu% x to ! la/ extreme1 & %[ t x ov]?rew all ! f\ndations ( moral & religi\s life4 ,?is f9al consequ5ce ( empiricism did n correspond to ! ,engli% national "*4 ,b on ! contr>y1 bo? ! empiricism ( ,locke1 & ! scepticism ( ,hume1 f\nd !mselves oppos$ 9 ! latt] half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 by a reaction 9 ! ,scot* philosophy 7,reid #agja-agii1 ,beattie1 ,oswald1 ,dugald ,/ew>t1 #agec-ahbh74 ,! attempt 0 "h made to e/abli% c]ta9 pr9ciples ( tru? z innate & imman5t 9 ! subject1 :i* %\ld avail bo? aga9/ ! tabula rasa ( ,locke1 & ! scepticism ( ,hume4 ,^! pr9ciples 7 tak5 9 a ?or\ghly ,engli% way1 z ^? ( common s5se1 z facts ( exp]i5ce1 z facts ( ! moral in/9ct & s\nd human und]/&+2 z some?+ empirically giv51 & f\nd 9 ! common consci\sness by self-contemplation & reflection4 ,b 9 ,france1 on ! o!r h&1 !re 0 su* a public & social condition ( ?+s dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 t we c only reg>d ! sy/ems ( mat]ialism & egoi/ic moralism :i* "h appe>$1 z ! la/ practical consequ5ces ( ! empirical /&po9t1--to be ! natural result ( ! univ]sal desolation4 ,! expression ( a lady respect+ ! sy/em ( ,helvetius is well kn[n1 t x utt]$ only ! secret ( all ! _w4 ,mo/ closely connect$ ) ! empiricism ( ,locke1 is ! s5sualism ( ! ,abb ,condillac4 ,condillac 0 born at ,gr5oble1 #agae4 ,9 8 fir/ writ+s he adh]$ to ,locke1 b subsequ5tly pass$ beyond him1 & s\ght to gr\nd a philosophical /&po9t ( 8 own4 ,he 0 elect$ a memb] ( ! ,fr5* ,academy 9 #agfh1 & di$ 9 #aghj4 ,8 writ+s fill tw5ty-?ree volumes1 & h _! orig9 9 a moral & religi\s int]e/4 ,condillac1 l ,locke1 />t$ ) ! proposition t all our k comes f exp]i5ce4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ,locke _h indicat$ two s\rces = ?is k1 s5sation & reflection1 ! out] & ! inn] s5se1 ,condillac ref]r$ reflection to s5sation1 & r$uc$ ! two s\rces to "o4 ,reflection is1 ) him1 only s5sation2 all intellectual occurr5ces1 ev5 ! comb9ation ( ideas & volition1 are to be reg>d$ only z modifi$ s5sations4 ,x is ! *ief problem & cont5t ( ,condillac's philosophiz+ to c>ry out ?is ?\ght1 & d]ive ! diff]5t functions ( ! s\l out ( ! s5sations ( ! out] s5se4 ,he illu/rates ?is ?\ght by a /atue1 :i* has be5 made ) a p]fect int]nal organization l a man1 b :i* possesses no ideas1 & 9 :i* only gradually "o s5se aft] ano!r awak5s & fills ! s\l ) impressions4 ,9 su* a view man /&s on ! same foot+ z ! brute1 = all 8 k & all 8 inc5tives to action he receives f s5sation4 ,condillac consequ5tly names m5 p]fect animals1 & brutes imp]fect m54 ,/ill he revolts f affirm+ ! mat]iality ( ! s\l1 & d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,^! ultimate consequ5ces ( s5sualism 7 fir/ drawn by o!rs aft] him1 z w\ld naturally en\gh foll[4 ,z s5sualism affirm$ t tru? or be+ c\ld only be p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! s5se1 s we h only to rev]se ?is proposition1 & h ! !sis ( mat]ialism1 viz43 ! s5sible alone is1 !re is no o!r be+ b mat]ial be+4 ,,section ,,xxxi4 ,,helvetius4 ,helvetius has exhibit$ ! moral consequ5ces ( ! s5suali/ic /&po9t4 ,:ile !oretical s5sualism affirms t all our k is det]m9$ by s5sation1 practical s5sualism adds to ?is ! analog\s proposition t all our volition spr+s f ! same s\rce1 & is regulat$ by ! s5su\s desire4 ,helvetius adopt$ x z ! pr9ciple ( morals to satisfy ?is s5su\s desire4 ,helvetius 0 born at ,p>is 9 #agae4 ,ga9+ a position 9 8 tw5ty-?ird ye> z f>m]-g5]al1 he f\nd himself e>ly 9 ! possession ( a ri* income1 b aft] a few ye>s he f\nd ?is (fice s vexati\s t he ab&on$ x4 ,! /udy ( ,locke decid$ 8 philosophic direction4 ,helvetius wrote 8 fam$ "w1 de l',esprit1 aft] he _h giv5 up 8 (fice & )drawn himself 9 seclusion4 ,x appe>$ 9 #ageh1 & attract$ a great att5tion at home & abroad1 ?\gh x drew ^u him a viol5t p]secution1 especially f ! cl]gy4 ,x 0 =tunate = him t ! p]secution satisfi$ itself ) suppress+ 8 book4 ,! repose 9 :i* he sp5t 8 lat] ye>s 0 int]rupt$ only by two j\rneys :i* he made to ,g]many & ,engl&4 ,he di$ 9 #agga4 ,8 p]sonal "* 0 :olly e/imable1 full ( k9dness & g5]osity4 ,especially 9 8 place z f>m]-g5]al he %[$ himself b5evol5t t[>ds ! poor1 & resolute aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( 8 subalt]ns4 ,! /yle ( 8 writ+s is easy & elegant4 ,self-love or int]e/1 says ,helvetius1 is ! lev] ( all our m5tal activities4 ,ev5 t activity :i* is purely intellectual1 our in/9ct t[>ds k1 our =m+ ( ideas1 re/s ^u ?is4 ,s9ce n[ all self-love ref]s ess5tially only to bodily pleasure1 x foll[s t e m5tal occurr5ce )9 u has its peculi> s\rce only 9 ! /riv+ aft] ?is pleasure2 b 9 say+ ?is1 we h only affirm$ :]e ! pr9ciple ( all morality is to be s\ght4 ,x is an absurdity to require a man to d ! good simply = its own sake4 ,?is is j z impracticable z t he %\ld d ! evil simply = ! sake ( ! evil4 ,h5ce if morality w\ld n be :olly fruitless1 x mu/ return to its empirical basis1 & v5ture to adopt ! true pr9ciple ( all act+1 viz41 s5su\s pleasure & pa91 or1 9 o!r words1 selfi%ness z an actual moral pr9ciple4 ,h5ce1 z a correct legislation is t :i* secures ob$i5ce to its laws ?r\gh rew>d & puni%m5t1 i4 e4 ?r\gh selfi%ness1 s w a correct sy/em ( morals be t :i* d]ives ! duties ( m5 f self-love1 :i* %[s t t :i* is =bidd5 is some?+ :i* is foll[$ by disagreeable consequ5ces4 ,a sy/em ( e?ics :i* does n involve ! self-int]e/ ( m51 or :i* w>s aga9/ ?is1 necess>ily rema9s fruitless4 ,,section ,,xxxii4 ,,! ,,fr5* ,,cle>+ ,,up 7,aufkla]ung7 ,,& ,,mat]ialism4 #a4 ,x has already be5 rem>k$ 7 ,,xxx47 t ! c>ry+ out ( empiricism to its extremes1 z 0 attempt$ 9 ,france1 0 mo/ intimately connect$ ) ! g5]al condition ( ! ,fr5* p & /ate1 9 ! p]iod be=e ! revolution4 ,! contradictory elem5t 9 ! "* ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ! ext]nal & duali/ic relation to ! spiritual _w1 _h develop$ itself 9 ,ca?olic ,france till x _h corrupt$ & de/roy$ e condition4 ,morality1 ma9ly ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( a lic5ti\s c\rt1 _h become :olly corrupt$2 ! /ate _h sunk to an unbridl$ despotism1 & ! *ur* to a hi]>*y z hypocritical z x 0 p[]ful4 ,?us1 z e intellectual edifice 0 ?reat5$ ) ru91 nature1 z matt] )\t intellect1 z ! object ( s5sation & desire1 alone rema9$4 ,yet x is n ! mat]iali/ic extreme :i* con/itutes ! peculi> "* & t5d5cy ( ! p]iod n[ be=e u4 ,! common "* ( ! philosoph]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury is r1 & mo/ prom95tly1 ! opposition aga9/ e rul+ re/ra9t1 & p]v]sion 9 morals1 religion1 & ! /ate4 ,_! criticism & polemics1 :i* 7 mu* m +5i\s & eloqu5t ?an /rictly sci5tific1 7 direct$ aga9/ ! :ole realm ( traditional & giv5 & positive notions4 ,!y s\ght to %[ ! contradiction betwe5 ! exi/+ elem5ts 9 ! /ate & ! *ur*1 & ! incontrov]tible dem&s ( ! reason4 ,!y s\ght to ov]?r[ 9 ! fai? ( ! _w e fix$ op9ion :i* _h n be5 e/abli%$ 9 ! eye ( reason1 & to give ! ?9k+ man ! full consci\sness ( 8 pure fre$om4 ,9 ord] t we may correctly e/imate ! m]it ( ^! m51 we mu/ br+ be=e u ! ,fr5* _w ( t age aga9/ :i* _! attacks 7 direct$2 ! dissolut5ess ( a pitiful c\rt1 ! slavi% ob$i5ce exact$ by a corrupt prie/hood1 a *ur* sunk5 into decay yet seek+ worldly honor1 a /ate con/itution1 a condition ( rights & ( society1 :i* mu/ be pr(\ndly revolt+ to e ?9k+ man & e moral feel+4 ,x is ! immortal m]it ( ^! m5 t !y gave ov] to scorn & hatr$ ! abjectness & hypocrisy :i* !n reign$2 t !y br\ght ! m9ds ( m5 to look ) indiff]5ce ^u ! idols ( ! _w1 & awak5$ )9 !m a consci\sness ( _! own autonomy4 #b4 ,! mo/ fam\s & influ5tial actor 9 ?is p]iod ( ! ,fr5* cle>+ up1 is ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh74 ,?\gh a writ] ( great v]satility1 r ?an a philosoph]1 !re 0 yet no philosoph] ( t "t :o ex]t$ s p[]ful an influ5ce ^u ! :ole ?9k+ ( 8 c\ntry & 8 age4 ,voltaire 0 no a!i/4 ,on ! contr>y1 he reg>d$ ! belief 9 a ,supreme ,be+ to be s necess>y1 t he once said t if !re 7 no ,god we %\ld be "u ! necessity ( inv5t+ "o4 ,he 0 j z little dispos$ to d5y ! immortality ( ! s\l1 ?\gh he (t5 express$ 8 d\bts ^u x4 ,he reg>d$ ! a!i/ic mat]ialism ( a ,la ,mettrie z no?+ b nons5se4 ,9 ^! respects1 !re=e1 he is f> remov$ f ! /&po9t ( ! philosoph]s :o foll[$ him4 ,8 :ole hatr$ 0 exp5d$ aga9/ ,*ri/ianity z a positive religion4 ,to de/roy ?is sy/em he consid]$ z 8 peculi> mission1 & he left no means untri$ to atta9 ?is anxi\sly long$-= end4 ,8 unwe>i$ w>f>e aga9/ e positive religion prep>$ ! way & gave weapons = ! attacks aga9/ spiritualism :i* foll[$4 #c4 ,! ,encyclop$i/s _h a m decid$ly sceptical relation to ! pr9ciples & ! basis ( spiritualism4 ,! philosophical ,encyclop$ia e/abli%$ by ,did]ot 7#agac-aghd71 & publi%$ by him 9 connection ) d',alemb]t1 is a memorable monum5t ( ! rul+ _s 9 ,france 9 ! "t be=e ! revolution4 ,x 0 ! pride ( ,france at t age1 because x express$ 9 a spl5did & univ]sally accessible =m ! inn] consci\sness ( ! ,fr5* p4 ,) ! ke5e/ wit x reason$ away law f ! /ate1 & fre$om f morality1 & _s & ,god f nature1 ?\gh all ?is 0 done only 9 scatt]$1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 timor\s intimations4 ,9 ,did]ot's indep5d5t writ+s we f9d tal5t ( mu* philosophic importance unit$ ) great e>ne/ness4 ,b x is v difficult to fix & accurately to limit 8 philosophic views1 s9ce !y 7 v gradually =m$1 & ,did]ot express$ !m always ) "s res]ve & accommodation4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 x may be rem>k$1 t 9 ! progress ( 8 speculations he con/antly approa*$ ne>] ! extreme ( ! philosophical direction ( 8 age4 ,9 8 e>li] writ+s a ,dei/1 he aft]w>ds av[$ ! op9ion t e ?+ is ,god4 ,at fir/ def5d+ ! immat]iality & immortality ( ! s\l1 he express$ himself at a lat] p]iod decid$ly aga9/ ^! doctr9es1 affirm+ t ! species alone has an abid+ be+ :ile ! individual passes away1 & t immortality is no?+ o!r ?an to live 9 ! ?\ghts ( com+ g5]ations4 ,b ,did]ot did n v5ture to ! real extreme ( logical mat]ialism2 8 moral e>ne/ness re/ra9$ him f ?is4 #d4 ,! la/ ^w ( mat]ialism 0 spok5 ) reckless audacity by ,la ,mettrie 7#agji-agea71 a contempor>y ( ,did]ot3 e ?+ spiritual is a delusion1 & physical enjoym5t is ! highe/ end ( m54 ,fai? 9 ! exi/5ce ( a ,god1 says ,la ,mettrie1 is j z gr\ndless z x is fruitless4 ,! _w w n be happy till a!ism becomes univ]sally e/abli%$4 ,!n alone w !re be no m religi\s /rife1 !n alone w !ologians1 ! mo/ odi\s ( combatants1 disappe>1 & nature1 poison$ at pres5t by _! influ5ce1 w come aga9 to its rights4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! human s\l1 !re c be no philosophy b mat]ialism4 ,all ! obs]vation & exp]i5ce ( ! greate/ philosoph]s & physicians decl>e ?is4 ,s\l is no?+ b a m]e "n1 :i* has a rational signification only :5 we und]/& by x t "p ( our body :i* ?9ks4 ,?is is ! bra91 :i* has its muscles ( ?\ght1 j z ! limbs h _! muscles ( motion4 ,t :i* gives man 8 advantage ov] ! brutes is1 fir/1 ! organization ( 8 bra91 & second1 its capacity = receiv+ in/ruction4 ,o!rwise1 is man a brute l ! bea/s ar\nd him1 ?\gh 9 _m respects surpass$ by ^!4 ,immortality is an absurdity4 ,! s\l p]i%es ) ! body ( :i* x =ms a "p4 ,) dea? e ?+ is ov]1 la f>ce e/ j\e6 ,! practical & selfi% application ( all ?is is--let u enjoy ourselves z long z we exi/1 & n ?r[ away any satisfaction we c atta94 #e4 ,! ,sy/me de la ,nature aft]w>ds attempt$ to elaborate ) great] e>ne/ness & sci5tific precision1 t :i* _h be5 utt]$ s sup]ficially & s sup]cili\sly by ,la ,mettrie1 viz41 ! doctr9e t matt] alone exi/s1 :ile m9d is no?+ o!r ?an matt] ref9$4 ,! ,sy/me de la ,nature appe>$ 9 ,london "u a fictiti\s "n 9 #aggj4 ,x 0 !n publi%$ z a po/hum\s "w ( ,mirabaud1 late secret>y ( ! ,academy4 ,x d\btless _h its orig9 9 ! circle :i* 0 wont to assemble ) ,b>on ,holba*1 & ( :i* ,did]ot1 ,grimm1 & o!rs =m$ a "p4 ,:e!r ! ,b>on ,holba* himself1 or 8 tutor ,lagrange is ! au?or ( ?is "w1 or :e!r x is ! jo9t production ( a numb]1 _c n[ be det]m9$4 ,! ,sy/me de la ,nature is h>dly a ,fr5* book3 ! /yle is too heavy & t$i\s4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 no?+ b matt] & motion1 says ?is "w4 ,bo? are insep>ably connect$4 ,if matt] is at re/1 x is only because h9d]$ 9 motion1 = 9 its ess5ce x is n a dead mass4 ,motion is tw(old1 attraction & repulsion4 ,! diff]5t motions :i* we see are ! product ( ^! two1 & ?r\gh ^! diff]5t motions arise ! diff]5t connections & ! :ole manifoldness ( ?+s4 ,! laws :i* direct 9 all ?is are et]nal & un*angeable4--,! mo/ weighty consequ5ces ( su* a doctr9e are3 7#a47 ,! mat]iality ( man4 ,man is no tw(old be+ comp\nd$ ( m9d & matt]1 z is errone\sly believ$4 ,if ! inquiry is closely made :at ! m9d is1 we are answ]$1 t ! mo/ accurate philosophical inve/igations h %[n1 t ! pr9ciple ( activity 9 man is a sub/ance ^: peculi> nature _c be kn[n1 b ( :i* we c affirm t x is indivisible1 unext5d$1 invisible1 c4 ,b n[1 :o %\ld conceive any ?+ det]m9ate 9 a sub/ance :i* is only ! negation ( t :i* gives k1 an idea :i* is peculi>ly only ! abs5ce ( all ideas8 ,/ill f>!r1 h[ c x be expla9$ ^u su* a hypo!sis1 t a sub/ance :i* itself is n mat]ial c "w ^u mat]ial ?+s2 & h[ c x set ^! 9 motion1 s9ce !re is no po9t ( contact betwe5 ! two8 ,9 fact1 ^? :o di/+ui% _! s\l f _! body1 h only to make a di/9ction betwe5 _! bra9 & _! body4 ,?\ght is only a modification ( our bra91 j z volition is ano!r modification ( ! same bodily organ4 7#b47 ,ano!r *im]a1 ! belief 9 ! be+ ( a ,god1 is connect$ ) ! tw(old division ( man into body & s\l4 ,?is belief arises l ! hypo!sis ( a s\l-sub/ance1 because m9d is falsely divid$ f matt]1 & nature is ?us made tw(old4 ,! evil :i* m5 exp]i5c$1 & ^: natural cause !y c\ld n discov]1 !y assign$ to a deity :i* !y imag9$ = ! purpose4 ,! fir/ notions ( a ,god h _! s\rce !re=e 9 sorr[1 fe>1 & unc]ta9ty4 ,we tremble because our =efa!rs = ?\s&s ( ye>s h done ! same4 ,?is circum/ance awak5s no auspici\s prepossession4 ,b n only ! rude1 b also ! !ological idea ( ,god is wor?less1 = x expla9s no ph5om5on ( nature4 ,x is1 moreov]1 full ( absurdities1 =1 s9ce x ascribes moral attributes to ,god1 x r5d]s him human2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 by a mass ( negative attributes1 x seeks to di/+ui% him absolutely f e o!r be+4 ,! true sy/em1 ! sy/em ( nature1 is h5ce a!i/ic4 ,b su* a doctr9e requires a culture & a c\rage :i* nei!r all m5 nor mo/ m5 possess4 ,if we und]/& by ! ^w a!i/ "o :o consid]s only dead matt]1 or :o designates ! mov+ p[] 9 nature ) ! "n ,god1 !n is !re no a!i/1 or :oev] w\ld be "o is a fool4 ,b if ! ^w means "o :o d5ies ! exi/5ce ( a spiritual be+1 a be+ ^: attributes c only be a s\rce ( annoyance to m51 !n are !re inde$ a!i/s1 & !re w\ld be m ( !m1 if a correct k ( nature & a s\nd reason 7 m widely diffus$4 ,b if a!ism is true1 !n %\ld x be diffus$4 ,!re are1 inde$1 _m :o h ca/ (f ! yoke ( religion1 :o nev]!less ?9k x is necess>y = ! common p 9 ord] to keep !m )9 prop] limits4 ,b ?is is j z if we %\ld det]m9e to give a man poison le/ he %\ld abuse 8 /r5g?4 ,e k9d ( ,deism leads necess>ily to sup]/ition1 s9ce x is n possible to cont9ue on ! /&po9t ( pure deism4 7#c47 ,) su* premises ! fre$om & immortality ( ! s\l bo? disappe>4 ,man1 l e o!r sub/ance 9 nature1 is a l9k 9 ! *a9 ( necess>y connection1 a bl9d in/rum5t 9 ! h&s ( necessity4 ,if any ?+ %\ld be end[$ ) self-motion1 t is1 ) a capacity to produce motion )\t any o!r cause1 !n w\ld x h ! p[] to de/roy motion 9 ! univ]se2 b ?is is contr>y to ! conception ( ! univ]se1 :i* is only an endless s]ies ( necess>y motions spread+ out into wid] circles cont9ually4 ,! claim ( an individual immortality is absurd4 ,= to affirm t ! s\l exi/s aft] ! de/ruction ( ! body1 is to affirm t a modification ( a sub/ance c exi/ aft] ! sub/ance itself has disappe>$4 ,!re is no o!r immortality ?an to live 9 ! remembrance ( po/]ity4 7#d47 ,! practical consequ5ces ( ^! pr9ciples are 9 ! highe/ degree favorable = ! sy/em ( nature1 ! utility ( any doctr9e be+ ev] ! fir/ crit]ion ( its tru?4 ,:ile ! ideas ( !ologians are productive only ( disquiet & anxiety to man1 ! sy/em ( nature frees him f all su* unre/1 tea*es him to enjoy ! pres5t mom5t1 & to quietly yield to 8 de/9y1 :ile x gives him t k9d ( apa?y :i* e "o mu/ reg>d z a bless+4 ,if morality w\ld be active1 x c re/ only ^u self-love & self-int]e/2 x mu/ %[ man :i!r 8 well-consid]$ int]e/ w\ld lead him4 ,he is a good man :o ga9s 8 own int]e/ 9 su* a way t o!rs w f9d x = _! int]e/ to assi/ him4 ,! sy/em ( self-int]e/1 !re=e1 dem&s ! union ( m5 among ea* o!r1 & h5ce we h true morality4 ,! logical dogmatic mat]ialism ( ! ,sy/me de la ,nature is ! f>!/ limit ( an empirical direction 9 philosophy1 & consequ5tly closes t c\rse ( ! developm5t ( a "o-sid$ realism :i* _h begun ) ,locke4 ,! attempt fir/ made by ,locke to expla9 & d]ive ! ideal _w f ! mat]ial1 end$ 9 mat]ialism ) ! total r$uction ( e ?+ spiritual to ! mat]ial1 ) ! total d5ial ( ! spiritual4 ,we mu/ n[1 be=e proce$+ f>!r1 accord+ to ! classification made ,,xxvii41 consid] ! ideali/ic c\rse ( developm5t :i* ran p>allel ) ! sy/ems ( a p>tial realism4 ,at ! head ( ?is c\rse /&s ,leibnitz4 ,,section ,,xxxiii4 ,,leibnitz4 ,z empiricism sprang f ! /riv+ to subject ! intellectual to ! mat]ial1 to mat]ialize ! spiritual1 s on ! o!r h&1 idealism _h its s\rce 9 ! ef=t to spiritualize ! mat]ial1 or s to appreh5d ! conception ( m9d t matt] c\ld be subsum$ "u x4 ,to ! empiric-s5suali/ic direction1 m9d 0 no?+ b ref9$ matt]1 :ile to ! ideali/ic direction matt] 0 only deg5]at$ 7v]grb]t7 m9d 78a confus$ notion10 z ,leibnitz expresses x74 ,! =m]1 9 its logical developm5t1 0 driv5 to ! pr9ciple t only mat]ial ?+s exi/1 ! latt] 7z ) ,leibnitz & ,b]keley7 comes to ! opposite pr9ciple1 t !re are only s\ls & _! ideas4 ,= ! p>tial reali/ic /&po9t1 mat]ial ?+s 7 ! truly sub/antial4 ,b = ! ideali/ic /&po9t1 ! sub/antial belongs alone to ! intellectual _w1 to ! ,egos4 ,m9d1 to ! p>tial realism1 0 ess5tially void1 a tabula rasa1 its :ole cont5t came to x f ! ext]nal _w4 ,b a p>tial idealism s\ght to c>ry out ! pr9ciple t no?+ c come into ! m9d :i* _h n at lea/ be5 pre=m$ )9 x1 t all its k is furni%$ x by itself4 ,accord+ to ! =m] view k 0 a passive relation1 accord+ to ! latt] 0 x :olly active4 ,:ile1 9 f9e1 a p>tial realism _h attempt$ to expla9 ! becom+ 9 nature = ! mo/ "p ?r\gh real1 i4 e4 ?r\gh me*anical motives 7l'homme ma*9e is ! title ( "o ( la ,mettrie's writ+s71 idealism _h s\ght an explanation ( ! same ?r\gh ideal motives1 i4 e4 teleologically4 ,:ile ! =m] _h made its prom95t inquiry = mov+ causes1 & _h1 inde$1 (t5 ridicul$ ! se>* = a f9al cause2 x is f9al causes t[>d :i* ! latt] directs its *ief aim4 ,! m$iation betwe5 m9d & matt]1 betwe5 ?\ght & be+1 w n[ be s\ght 9 ! f9al cause1 9 ! teleological h>mony ( all ?+s 7pre-e/abli%$ h>mony74 ,! /&po9t ( ,leibnitz may ?us be *>act]iz$ 9 a ^w4 ,gottfri$ ,wilhelm ,leibnitz 0 born 9 #afdf1 at ,leipsic1 :]e 8 fa!r 0 pr(essor4 ,hav+ *os5 ! law z 8 pr(ession1 he ent]$ ! univ]sity 9 #affa1 & 9 #affc he def5d$ = 8 degree ( doctor 9 philosophy1 8 diss]tation de pr9cipio individui1 a !me well *>act]i/ic ( ! direction ( 8 lat] philosophiz+4 ,he aft]w>ds w5t to ,j5a1 & subsequ5tly to ,altdorf1 :]e he became doctor ( laws4 ,at ,altdorf he 0 (f]$ a pr(essor%ip ( jurisprud5ce1 :i* he refus$4 ,! re/ ( 8 life 0 unsettl$ & desultory1 sp5t = ! mo/ "p 9 c\rts1 :]e1 z a v]satile c\rti]1 he 0 employ$ 9 ! mo/ v>i$ duties ( diplomacy4 ,9 ! ye> #afgb he w5t to ,p>is1 9 ord] to induce ,l\is ,,xiv4 to und]take ! conque/ ( ,egypt4 ,he subsequ5tly visit$ ,london1 :5ce he 0 aft]w>ds call$ to ,hanov]1 z c\ncillor ( ! ,duke ( ,brunswick4 ,he receiv$ lat] a po/ z libr>ian at ,wolf5bttel1 betwe5 :i* place & ,hanov] he sp5t ! mo/ ( 8 subsequ5t life1 ?\gh int]rupt$ ) num]\s j\rneys to ,vi5na1 ,b]l91 etc4 ,he 0 intimately associat$ ) ! ,prussian ,electress1 ,m>ia ,*>lotte1 a highly tal5t$ woman1 :o surr\nd$ h]self ) a circle ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ s*ol>s ( ! "t1 & = :om ,liebnitz wrote1 at h] own reque/1 8 ,!odice4 ,9 #agja1 aft] ,prussia _h become a k+dom1 an academy 0 e/abli%$ at ,b]l91 ?r\gh1 8 ef=ts1 & he became its fir/ presid5t4 ,simil>1 b fruitless attempts 7 made by him to e/abli% academies 9 ,dresd5 & ,vi5na4 ,9 #agaa ! title ( imp]ial c\rt c\ncillor1 & a b>onage1 0 be/[$ ^u him by ! emp]or ,*>les ,,vi4 ,soon aft]1 he betook himself to ,vi5na1 :]e he rema9$ a consid]able p]iod1 & wrote 8 ,monadology1 at ! solicitation ( ,pr9ce ,eug5e4 ,he di$ 9 #agaf4 ,next to ,ari/otle1 ,leibnitz 0 ! mo/ highly gift$ s*ol> t _h ev] liv$2 ) ! ri*e/ & mo/ ext5sive le>n+1 he unit$ ! highe/ & mo/ p5etrat+ p[]s ( m9d4 ,g]many has reason to be pr\d ( him1 s9ce1 aft] ,jacob ,boehme1 he is ! fir/ philosoph] ( any note among ! ,g]mans4 ,) him philosophy f\nd a home 9 ,g]many4 ,x is to be regrett$ t ! great v>iety ( 8 ef=ts & lit]>y und]tak+s1 toge!r ) 8 rov+ mann] ( life1 prev5t$ him f giv+ any connect$ exhibition ( 8 philosophy4 ,8 views are = ! mo/ "p develop$ only 9 brief & occasional writ+s & lett]s1 compos$ frequ5tly 9 ! ,fr5* language4 ,x is h5ce n easy to /ate 8 philosophy 9 its int]nal connection1 ?\gh none ( 8 views are isolat$1 b all /& /rictly connect$ ) ea* o!r4 ,! foll[+ are ! *ief po9ts3 #a4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,monads4--,! fundam5tal peculi>ity ( ,leibnitz's !ory is its opposition to ,sp9ozism4 ,sub/ance1 z ! indet]m9ate univ]sal1 0 ) ,sp9oza ! only positive4 ,) ,leibnitz also ! conception ( sub/ance lay at ! basis ( 8 philosophy1 b 8 def9ition ( x 0 entirely diff]5t4 ,:ile ,sp9oza _h s\ght to exclude f 8 sub/ance e positive det]m9ation1 & especially all act+1 & _h appreh5d$ x simply z pure be+1 ,leibnitz view$ x z liv+ activity & active en]gy1 an example = :i* might be f\nd 9 a /ret*$ b[1 :i* mov$ & /raight5$ itself ?r\gh its own en]gy z soon z ! ext]nal h9drance 0 remov$4 ,t ?is active en]gy =ms ! ess5ce ( sub/ance is a pr9ciple to :i* ,leibnitz ev] returns1 & f :i*1 9 fact1 all ! o!r *ief po9ts 9 8 philosophy may be d]iv$4 ,f ?is !re foll[ at ! outset two det]m9ations ( sub/ance directly oppos$ to ,sp9ozism2 fir/1 t x is a s+le be+1 a monad2 & second1 t !re are a multiplicity ( monads4 ,! fir/ foll[s because sub/ance1 9 s f> z x ex]cises an activity simil> to an ela/ic body1 is ess5tially an exclud+ activity1 or repulsion2 ! conception ( an individual or a monad be+ t :i* excludes ano!r f itself4 ,! second foll[s because ! exi/5ce ( "o monad involves ! exi/5ce ( _m4 ,! conception ( "o individual po/ulates o!r individuals1 :i* /& ov] aga9/ ! "o z exclud$ f x4 ,h5ce ! fundam5tal !sis ( ! ,leibnitz philosophy 9 opposition to ,sp9ozism is ?is1 viz41 !re is a multiplicity ( individual sub/ances or monads4 #b4 ,,! ,,monads ,,m ,,accurately ,,det]m9$4--,! monads ( ,leibnitz are simil> to atoms 9 _! g5]al features4 ,l ^! !y are corpuscul> units1 indep5d5t ( any ext]nal influ5ce1 & inde/ructible by any ext]nal p[]4 ,b not)/&+ ?is simil>ity1 !re is an important & *>act]i/ic diff]5ce betwe5 ! two4 ,fir/1 ! atoms are n di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 !y are all qualitatively alike2 b ea* "o ( ! monads is diff]5t 9 quality f e o!r1 e "o is a peculi> _w = itself1 e "o is diff]5t f e o!r4 ,accord+ to ,leibnitz1 !re are no two ?+s 9 ! _w :i* are exactly alike4 ,secondly1 atoms c be consid]$ z ext5d$ & divisible1 b ! monads are metaphysical po9ts1 & actually indivisible4 ,"h1 le/ we %\ld /umble at ?is proposition 7= an aggregate ( unext5d$ monads c nev] give an ext5d$ _w71 we mu/ take into consid]ation ,leibnitz's view ( space1 :i*1 accord+ to him1 is n some?+ real1 b only confus$1 subjective repres5tation4 ,?irdly1 ! monad is a repres5tative be+4 ,) ! atomi/s su* a det]m9ation w\ld am\nt to no?+1 b ) ,leibnitz x has a v important "p to play4 ,accord+ to him1 9 e monad1 e o!r is reflect$2 e monad is a liv+ mirror ( ! univ]se1 & ideally conta9s ! :ole )9 itself z 9 a g]m4 ,9 ?us mirror+ ! _w1 h[ev]1 ! monad is n passive b spontane\sly self-active3 x does n receive ! images :i* x mirrors1 b produces !m spontane\sly itself1 z ! s\l does a dream4 ,9 e monad1 !re=e1 ! all-see+ & all-kn[+ "o might read e ?+1 ev5 ! future1 s9ce ?is is pot5tially conta9$ 9 ! pres5t4 ,e monad is a k9d ( ,god4 7,p>vus 9 suo g5]e ,deus47 #c4 ,,! ,,pre-,,e/abli%$ ,,h>mony4--,! univ]se is ?us ! sum ( all ! monads4 ,e ?+1 e composite1 is an aggregate ( monads4 ,?us e bodily organism is n "o sub/ance1 b _m1 x is a multiplicity ( monads1 l a ma*9e :i* is made up ( a numb] ( di/9ct pieces ( me*anism4 ,leibnitz comp>$ bodies to a fi%-pond1 :i* might be full ( liv+ elem5ts1 ?\gh dead itself4 ,! ord9>y view ( ?+s is ?us :olly set aside2 ! truly sub/antial does n belong to bodies1 i4 e4 to ! aggregates1 b to _! orig9al elem5ts4 ,matt]1 9 ! vulg> s5se1 z some?+ conceiv$ to be )\t m9d1 does n at all exi/4 ,h[ n[ mu/ ! inn] connection ( ! univ]se be conceiv$8 ,9 ! foll[+ way4 ,e monad is a repres5tative be+1 & at ! same "t1 ea* "o is diff]5t f e o!r4 ,?is diff]5ce1 !re=e1 dep5ds alone ^u ! diff]5ce ( repres5tation3 !re are j z _m diff]5t degrees ( repres5tation z !re are monads1 & ^! degrees may be fix$ accord+ to "s ( _! prom95t /ages4 ,! repres5tations may be classifi$ accord+ to ! di/9ction betwe5 confus$ & di/9ct k4 ,h5ce a monad ( ! l[e/ rank 7a monad t\te nue7 w be "o :i* simply repres5ts1 i4 e4 :i* /&s on ! /age ( mo/ confus$ k4 ,leibnitz comp>es ?is /ate ) a swoon1 or ) our condition 9 a dreamy sleep1 9 :i* we are n )\t repres5tations1 7notions7--= o!rwise we c\ld h none :5 awak+--b 9 :i* ! repres5tations are s num]\s t !y neutralize ea* o!r & d n come into ! consci\sness4 ,?is is ! /age ( inorganic nature4 ,9 a high] rank are ^? monads 9 :i* ! repres5tation is active z a =mative vital =ce1 ?\gh /ill )\t consci\sness4 ,?is is ! /age ( ! vegetable _w4 ,/ill high] asc5ds ! life ( ! monad :5 x atta9s to s5sation & memory1 z is ! case 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,! l[] monads may be said to sleep1 & ! brute monads to dream4 ,:5 /ill f>!r ! s\l rises to reason or reflection1 we call x m9d1 _s4--,! di/9ction ( ! monads f ea* o!r is1 !re=e1 ?is1 t ea* "o1 ?\gh mirror+ ! :ole & ! same univ]se 9 itself1 does x f a diff]5t po9t ( view1 &1 !re=e1 diff]5tly1 ! "o m1 & ! re/ less p]fectly4 ,ea* "o is a diff]5t c5tre ( ! _w :i* x mirrors4 ,ea* "o conta9s ! :ole univ]se1 ! :ole inf9ity )9 itself1 & 9 ?is respect is l ,god1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t ,god kn[s e ?+ ) p]fect di/9ctness1 :ile ! monad repres5ts x confus$ly1 ?\gh "o monad may repres5t x m confus$ly ?an ano!r4 ,! limitation ( a monad does n1 !re=e1 consi/ 9 its conta9+ less ?an ano!r or ?an ,god1 b only 9 its conta9+ m imp]fectly or 9 its repres5t+ less di/9ctly4--,^u ?is /&po9t ! univ]se1 9 s f> z e monad mirrors "o & ! same univ]se1 ?\gh ea* 9 a diff]5t way1 repres5ts a drama ( ! greate/ possible diff]5ce1 z well z ( ! greate/ possible unity & ord]1 i4 e4 ( ! greate/ possible p]fection1 or ! absolute h>mony4 ,= di/9ction 9 unity is h>mony4--,b 9 /ill ano!r respect ! univ]se is a sy/em ( h>mony4 ,s9ce ! monads d n "w ^u ea* o!r1 b ea* "o foll[s only ! law ( its own be+1 !re is dang] le/ ! inn] h>mony ( ! univ]se may be di/urb$4 ,h[ is ?is dang] remov$8 ,?us1 viz41 e monad mirrors ! :ole & ! same univ]se4 ,! *anges ( ! collect$ monads1 !re=e1 run p>allel ) ea* o!r1 & 9 ?is consi/s ! h>mony ( all z pre-e/abli%$ by ,god4 #d4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,deity ,,to ,,! ,,monads4--,:at "p does ! conception ( ,god play 9 ! sy/em ( ,leibnitz8 ,an almo/ idle "o4 ,foll[+ ! /rict consequ5ces ( 8 sy/em1 ,leibnitz %\ld h held to no prop] !ism1 b ! h>mony ( ! univ]se %\ld h tak5 ! place ( ! ,deity4 ,ord9>ily he consid]s ,god z ! suffici5t cause ( all monads4 ,b he 0 also accu/om$ to consid] ! f9al cause ( a ?+ z its suffici5t cause4 ,9 ?is respect1 !re=e1 he almo/ id5tifies ,god & ! absolute f9al cause4 ,else:]e he consid]s ! ,deity z a simple primitive sub/ance1 or z ! individual primitive unity4 ,aga91 he speaks ( ,god z a pure immat]ial actuality1 actus purus1 :ile to ! monads belongs matt]1 i4 e4 re/ra9$ actuality1 /riv+1 appetitio4 ,once he calls him a monad1 ?\gh ?is is 9 manife/ contradiction ) ! det]m9ations o!rwise assign$ him4 ,x 0 = ,leibnitz a v difficult problem to br+ 8 monadology & 8 !ism into h>mony ) ea* o!r1 )\t giv+ up ! premises ( bo?4 ,if he held fa/ to ! sub/antiality ( ! monads1 he 0 9 dang] ( mak+ !m indep5d5t ( ! ,deity1 & if he did n1 he c\ld h>dly escape fall+ back into ,sp9ozism4 #e4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,s\l ,,& ,,body is cle>ly expla9$ on ! /&po9t ( ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,?is relation1 tak+ ! premises ( ! monadology1 might seem enigmatical4 ,if no monad c "w ^u any o!r1 h[ c ! s\l "w ^u ! body to lead & move x8 ,! enigma is solv$ by ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,:ile ! body & s\l1 ea* "o indep5d5tly ( ! o!r1 foll[s ! laws ( its be+1 ! body work+ me*anically1 & ! s\l pursu+ ends1 yet ,god has e/abli%$ su* a concordant h>mony ( ! two activities1 su* a p>allelism ( ! two functions1 t !re is 9 fact a p]fect unity = body & s\l4 ,!re are1 says ,leibnitz1 ?ree views respect+ ! relation ( body & s\l4 ,! fir/ & mo/ common supposes a reciprocal influ5ce betwe5 ! two1 b su* a view is unt5able1 because !re c be no int]*ange betwe5 m9d & matt]4 ,! second & occasional "o 7cf4 ,,xxv4 #a71 br+s ab\t ?is int]*ange ?r\gh ! con/ant assi/ance ( ,god1 :i* is no?+ m nor less ?an to make ,god a ,deus ex ma*9a4 ,h5ce ! only solution = ! problem is ! hypo!sis ( a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,leibnitz illu/rates ^! ?ree views 9 ! foll[+ example4 ,let "o conceive ( two wat*es1 ^: h&s ev] accurately po9t to ! same "t4 ,?is agreem5t may be expla9$1 fir/ 7! common view71 by suppos+ an actual connection betwe5 ! h&s ( ea*1 s t ! h& ( ! "o wat* might draw ! h& ( ! o!r aft] x1 or second 7! occasional view71 by conceiv+ ( a wat*-mak] :o cont9ually keeps ! h&s alike1 or 9 f9e 7! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony71 by ascrib+ to ea* a me*anism s exquisitely wr\ght t ea* "o goes 9 p]fect indep5d5ce ( ! o!r1 & at ! same "t 9 entire agreem5t ) x4--,t ! s\l is immortal 7inde/ructible71 foll[s at once f ! doctr9e ( monads4 ,!re is no prop] dea?4 ,t :i* is call$ dea? is only ! s\l los+ a "p ( ! monads :i* compose ! me*anism ( its body1 :ile ! liv+ elem5t goes back to a condition simil> to t 9 :i* x 0 be=e x came ^u ! !atre ( ! _w4 #f4 ,! monadology has v important consequ5ces 9 ref]5ce to ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,k4 ,z ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz1 by its opposition to ,sp9ozism1 _h to d ) ! doctr9e ( be+1 s by its opposition to ! empiricism ( ,locke mu/ x exp\nd ! !ory ( k4 ,locke's ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ _h attract$ ,leibnitz )\t satisfy+ him1 & he !re=e attempt$ a new inve/igation 9 8 ,n\veaux ,essais1 9 :i* he def5d$ ! doctr9e ( innate ideas4 ,b ?is hypo!sis ( innate ideas ,leibnitz n[ fre$ f t defective view :i* _h ju/ifi$ ! objections ( ,locke4 ,! innat5ess ( ! ideas mu/ n be held z ?\gh !y 7 explicitly & consci\sly conta9$ 9 ! m9d1 b r ! m9d possesses !m pot5tially & only virtually1 ?\gh ) ! capacity to produce !m out ( itself4 ,all ?\ghts are prop]ly innate1 i4 e4 !y d n come into ! m9d f )\t1 b are r produc$ by x f itself4 ,any ext]nal influ5ce ^u ! m9d is inconceivable1 x ev5 ne$s no?+ ext]nal = its s5sations4 ,:ile ,locke _h comp>$ ! m9d to an unwritt5 piece ( pap]1 ,leibnitz lik5$ x to a block ( m>ble1 9 :i* ! ve9s prefigure ! =m ( ! /atue4 ,h5ce ! common anti!sis betwe5 rational & empirical k disappe>s ) ,leibnitz 9 ! degrees ( great] or less di/9ctness4--,among ^! !oretically innate ideas1 ,leibnitz recognizes two ( special prom95ce1 :i* take ! fir/ rank z pr9ciples ( all k & all ratioc9ation1--! pr9ciple ( contradiction 7pr9cipium contradictionis71 & ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t cause 7pr9cipium rationis suffici5tis74 ,to ^!1 z a pr9ciple ( ! second rank1 mu/ be add$ ! pr9cipium indisc]nibilium1 or ! pr9ciple t !re are 9 nature no two ?+s :olly alike4 #g4 ,! mo/ elaborate exhibition ( ,leibnitz's !ological views is giv5 9 8 ,?odice4 ,! ,?odice1 is1 h[ev]1 8 weake/ "w1 & has b a loose connection ) ! re/ ( 8 philosophy4 ,writt5 at ! in/igation ( a woman1 x belies ?is orig9 nei!r 9 its =m nor 9 its cont5t--n 9 its =m1 = 9 its ef=t to be popul> x becomes diffuse & unsci5tific1 & n 9 its cont5t1 = x accommodates itself to ! positive dogmas & ! premises ( !ology f>!r ?an ! sci5tific basis ( ! sy/em ( ,leibnitz w\ld p]mit4 ,9 ?is "w1 ,leibnitz inve/igates ! relation ( ,god to ! _w 9 ord] to %[ a con=mity 9 ?is relation to a f9al cause1 & to free ,god f ! *>ge ( act+ )\t or contr>y to an aim4 ,:y is ! _w z x is8 ,god might h creat$ x v diff]5tly4 ,true1 answ]s ,leibnitz1 ,god saw an inf9ite numb] ( worlds z possible be=e him1 b out ( all ^! he *ose ! "o :i* actually is z ! be/4 ,?is is ! fam\s doctr9e ( ! be/ _w1 accord+ to :i* no m p]fect _w is possible ?an ! "o :i* is4--,b h[ s8 ,is n ! exi/5ce ( evil at v>iance ) ?is8 ,leibnitz answ]s ?is objection by di/+ui%+ ?ree k9ds ( evil1 ! metaphysical1 ! physical1 & ! moral4 ,! metaphysical evil1 i4 e4 ! f9it5ess & incomplet5ess ( ?+s1 is necess>y because insep>able f f9ite exi/5ce1 & is ?us indep5d5t ( ! w ( ,god4 ,physical evil 7pa91 c471 ?\gh n indep5d5t ( ! w ( ,god1 is (t5 a good conditionally1 i4 e4 z a puni%m5t or means ( improvem5t4 ,moral evil or wick$ness c 9 no way be *>g$ to ! w ( ,god4 ,leibnitz took v>i\s ways to acc\nt = its exi/5ce1 & obviate ! contradiction ly+ betwe5 x & ! conception ( ,god4 ,at "o "t he says t wick$ness is only p]mitt$ by ,god z a conditio s9e qua non1 because )\t wick$ness !re 7 no fre$om1 & )\t fre$om no virtue4 ,aga91 he r$uces ! moral evil to ! metaphysical1 & makes wick$ness no?+ b a want ( p]fection1 a negation1 a limitation1 play+ ! same "p z d ! %ad[s 9 a pa9t$ picture1 or ! discords 9 a piece ( music1 :i* d n dim9i% ! beauty1 b only increase x ?r\gh contra/4 ,aga91 he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! mat]ial & ! =mal elem5t 9 a wick$ act4 ,! mat]ial ( s91 ! p[] to act1 is f ,god1 b ! =mal elem5t1 ! wick$ness ( ! act1 belongs :olly to man1 & is ! result ( 8 limitation1 or1 z ,leibnitz "h & !re expresses x1 ( 8 et]nal self-pr$e/9ation4 ,9 no case c ! h>mony ( ! univ]se be de/roy$ ?r\gh su* a cause4 ,^! are ! *ief po9ts ( ,leibnitz's philosophy4 ,! g5]al *>act]i/ic ( x z giv5 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t section1 w be f\nd to h its sanction 9 ! specific exhibition t has n[ be5 furni%$4 ,,section ,,xxxiv4 ,,b]keley4 ,leibnitz _h n c>ri$ out ! /&po9t ( idealism to its extreme4 ,he _h inde$1 on ! "o side1 expla9$ space & motion & bodily ?+s z ph5om5a :i* _h _! exi/5ce only 9 a confus$ repres5tation1 b on ! o!r side1 he _h n :olly d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! bodily _w1 b _h recogniz$ z a reality ly+ at its basis1 ! _w ( monads4 ,! ph5om5al or bodily _w _h its fix$ & sub/antial f\ndation 9 ! monads4 ,?us ,leibnitz1 ?\gh an ideali/1 did n :olly break ) realism4 ,! ultimate consequ5ce ( a subjective idealism w\ld h be5 to :olly d5y ! reality ( ! objective1 s5sible _w1 & expla9 corporeal objects z simply ph5om5a1 z no?+ b subjective notions )\t any objective reality z a basis4 ,?is consequ5ce ! ideali/ic c\nt]p>t to ! ultimate reali/ic result ( mat]ialism--appe>s 9 ,george ,b]keley1 :o 0 born 9 ,irel&1 #afhd1 made bi%op ( ! ,anglican ,*ur* 9 #agcd1 & di$ 9 #agec4 ,h5ce1 ?\gh he foll[$ ! empiricism ( ,locke1 & su/a9$ no outw>d connection ) ,leibnitz1 we mu/ place him 9 imm$iate succession to ! latt] z ! p]fect] ( a subjective idealism4 ,our s5sations1 says ,b]keley1 are entirely subjective4 ,we are :olly 9 error if we believe t we h a s5sation ( ext]nal objects or p]ceive !m4 ,t :i* we h & p]ceive is only our s5sations4 ,x is e4 g4 cle>1 t by ! s5se ( sight we c see nei!r ! di/ance1 ! size1 nor ! =m ( objects1 b t we only conclude t ^! exi/1 because our exp]i5ce has taught u t a c]ta9 s5sation ( sight is always att5d$ by c]ta9 s5sations ( t\*4 ,t :i* we see is only colors1 cle>ness1 obscurity1 c41 & x is !re=e false to say t we see & feel ! same ?+4 ,s also we nev] g out ( ourselves = ^? s5sations to :i* we ascribe mo/ decid$ly an objective "*4 ,! peculi> objects ( our und]/&+ are only our own affections2 all ideas are h5ce only our own s5sations4 ,b j z !re c be no s5sations outside ( ! s5sitive subject1 s no idea c h exi/5ce outside ( him :o possesses x4 ,! s-call$ objects exi/ only 9 our notion1 & h a be+ only z !y are p]ceiv$4 ,x is ! great error ( mo/ philosoph]s t !y ascribe to corporeal objects a be+ outside ! conceiv+ m9d1 & d n see t !y are only m5tal4 ,x is n possible t mat]ial ?+s %\ld produce any ?+ s :olly di/9ct f !mselves z s5sations & notions4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a mat]ial ext]nal _w2 m9d alone exi/s z ?9k+ be+1 ^: nature consi/s 9 ?9k+ & will+4 ,b :5ce !n arise all our s5sations :i* come to u l ! images ( fancy1 )\t our ag5cy1 & :i* are ?us no products ( our w8 ,!y arise f a _s sup]ior to ourselves--= only a _s c produce )9 u notions--ev5 f ,god4 ,god gives u ideas2 b z x w\ld be contradictory to ass]t t a be+ c\ld give :at x does n possess1 s ideas exi/ 9 ,god1 & we d]ive !m f him4 ,^! ideas 9 ,god may be call$ ar*etypes1 & ^? 9 u ectypes4--,9 consequ5ce ( ?is view1 says ,b]keley1 we d n d5y an indep5d5t reality ( ?+s1 we only d5y t !y c exi/ else:]e ?an 9 an und]/&+4 ,in/ead !re=e ( speak+ ( a nature 9 :i*1 e4 g4 ! sun is ! cause ( w>m?1 c41 ! accurate expression w\ld be ?is3 ,god ann\nces to u ?r\gh ! s5se ( sight t we %\ld soon p]ceive a s5sation ( w>m?4 ,h5ce by nature we are only to und]/& ! succession or ! connection ( ideas1 & by natural laws ! con/ant ord] 9 :i* !y proce$1 i4 e4 ! laws ( ! association ( ideas4 ,?is ?or\gh-go+ subjective idealism1 ?is complete d5ial ( matt]1 ,b]keley consid]$ z ! sure/ way to oppose mat]ialism & a!ism4 ,,section ,,xxxv4 ,,wolff4 ,! idealism ( ,b]keley1 z 0 to be expect$ f ! nature ( ! case1 rema9$ )\t any f>!r developm5t1 b ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz 0 tak5 up & subject$ to a f>!r revision by ,*ri/ian ,wolff4 ,he 0 born 9 ,breslau 9 #afgi4 ,he 0 *os5 pr(essor at ,halle1 :]e he became obnoxi\s to ! *>ge ( tea*+ a doctr9e at v>iance ) ! ,scriptures1 & drew ^u himself su* a viol5t opposition f ! !ologians ( ! univ]sity1 t a cab9et ord] 0 issu$ = 8 dismissal on ! #h? ( ,novemb]1 #agbc1 & he 0 enjo9$ to leave ,prussia )9 =ty-eight h\rs on pa9 ( be+ hung4 ,he !n became pr(essor 9 ,m>burg1 b 0 aft]w>ds recall$ to ,prussia by ,fr$]ic ,,ii4 imm$iately ^u 8 accession to ! ?rone4 ,he 0 subsequ5tly made b>on1 & di$ #aged4 ,9 8 *ief ?\ghts he foll[$ ,leibnitz1 a connection :i* he himself admitt$1 ?\gh he prote/$ aga9/ ! id5tification ( 8 philosophy ) t ( ,leibnitz1 & object$ to ! "n1 ,philosophia ,leibnitio-,wolffiana1 :i* 0 tak5 by 8 disciple ,bilf+]4 ,! hi/orical m]it ( ,wolff is ?reefold4 ,fir/1 & mo/ important1 he laid claim aga9 to ! :ole doma9 ( k 9 ! "n ( philosophy1 & s\ght aga9 to build up a sy/ematic framework1 & make an encyclop$ia ( philosophy 9 ! highe/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,?\gh he did n himself furni% mu* new mat]ial = ?is purpose1 yet he c>efully elaborat$ & arrang$ t :i* he f\nd at h&4 ,secondly1 he made aga9 ! philosophical me?od z su*1 an object ( att5tion4 ,8 own me?od is1 inde$1 an ext]nal "o z to its cont5t1 namely1 ! ma!matical or ! ma!matico-syllogi/ical1 recomm5d$ by ,leibnitz1 & by ! application ( ?is 8 :ole philosophiz+ s9ks to a level =malism4 7,= in/ance1 9 8 pr9ciples ( ar*itecture1 ! eigh? proposition is--8a w9d[ mu/ be wide en\gh = two p]sons to recl9e toge!r conv5i5tly10--a proposition :i* is ?us prov$3 8we are m frequ5tly accu/om$ to recl9e & look out at a w9d[ 9 company ) ano!r p]son ?an alone1 & h5ce1 s9ce ! build] ( ! h\se %\ld satisfy ! own] 9 e respect 7 #a71 he mu/ make a w9d[ wide en\gh = two p]sons conv5i5tly to recl9e )9 x at ! same "t047 ,/ill ?is =malism is n )\t its advantage1 = x subjects ! philosophical cont5t to a logical treatm5t4 ,?irdly1 ,wolff has taught philosophy to speak ,g]man1 an art :i* x has n s9ce =gott54 ,next to ,leibnitz1 he is entitl$ to ! m]it ( hav+ made ! ,g]man language = ev] ! organ ( philosophy4 ,! foll[+ rem>ks w suffice = ! cont5t & ! sci5tific classification ( ,wolff's philosophy4 ,he def9es philosophy to be ! sci5ce ( ! possible z su*4 ,b t is possible :i* conta9s no contradiction4 ,wolff def5ds ?is def9ition aga9/ ! *>ge ( presum+ too mu*4 ,x is n affirm$1 he says1 ) ?is def9ition t ei!r he or any o!r philosoph] kn[s e ?+ :i* is possible4 ,! def9ition only claims = philosophy ! :ole prov9ce ( human k1 & x is c]ta9ly prop] t philosophy %\ld be describ$ accord+ to ! highe/ p]fection :i* x c atta91 ev5 ?\gh x has n yet actually rea*$ x4--,9 :at p>ts n[ does ?is sci5ce ( ! possible consi/8 ,re/+ on ! p]ception t !re are )9 ! s\l two faculties1 "o ( kn[+ & "o ( will+1 ,wolff divides philosophy into two great p>ts1 !oretical philosophy 7an expression1 h[ev]1 :i* fir/ appe>s among 8 foll[]s71 or metaphysics1 & practical philosophy4 ,logic prec$es bo? z a prelim9>y tra9+ = philosophical /udy4 ,metaphysics are /ill f>!r divid$ by ,wolff into ontology1 cosmology1 psy*ology1 & natural !ology2 practical philosophy he divides into e?ics1 ^: object is man z man2 economics1 ^: object is man z a memb] ( ! family2 & politics1 ^: object is man z a citiz5 ( ! /ate4 #a4 ,,ontology is ! fir/ "p ( ,wolff's metaphysics4 ,ontology treats ( :at are n[ call$ categories1 or ^? fundam5tal conceptions :i* are appli$ to e object1 & mu/ !re=e at ! outset be inve/igat$4 ,ari/otle _h already furni%$ a table ( categories1 b he _h d]iv$ !m :olly empirically4 ,x is n mu* bett] ) ! ontology ( ,wolff2 x is laid out l a philosophical diction>y4 ,at its head he places ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 viz43 x is n possible = any ?+ to be1 & at ! same "t n to be4 ,! conception ( ! possible at once foll[s f ?is pr9ciple4 ,t is possible :i* conta9s no contradiction4 ,t is necess>y1 ! opposite ( :i* contradicts itself1 & t is accid5tal1 ! opposite ( :i* is possible4 ,e ?+ :i* is possible is a ?+1 ?\gh only an imag9>y "o2 t :i* nei!r is1 nor is possible1 is no?+4 ,:5 _m ?+s toge!r compose a ?+1 ?is is a :ole1 & ! individual ?+s compreh5d$ by x are its p>ts4 ,! greatness ( a ?+ consi/s 9 ! multitude ( its p>ts4 ,if ,a conta9s t by :i* we c und]/& ! be+ ( ,b1 !n t 9 ,a by :i* ,b becomes und]/ood is ! gr\nd ( ,b1 & ! :ole ,a :i* conta9s ! gr\nd ( ,b is its cause4 ,t :i* conta9s ! gr\nd ( its prop]ties is ! ess5ce ( a ?+4 ,space is ! arrangem5t ( ?+s :i* exi/ conjo9tly4 ,place is ! det]m9ate way 9 :i* a ?+ exi/s 9 conjunction ) o!rs4 ,movem5t is *ange ( place4 ,"t is ! arrangem5t ( t :i* exi/s successively1 etc4 #b4 ,,cosmology4--,wolff def9es ! _w to be a s]ies ( *ang+ objects1 :i* exi/ conjo9tly & successively1 b :i* are s connect$ toge!r t "o ev] conta9s ! gr\nd ( ! o!r4 ,?+s are connect$ 9 space & 9 "t4 ,by virtue ( ?is univ]sal connection1 ! _w is "o unit$ :ole2 ! ess5ce ( ! _w consi/s 9 ! mann] ( its connection4 ,b ?is mann] _c be *ang$4 ,x c nei!r receive any new +r$i5ts nor lose any ( ^? x possesses4 ,f ! ess5ce ( ! _w spr+ all its *anges4 ,9 ?is respect ! _w is a ma*9e4 ,ev5ts 9 ! _w are only hypo!tically necess>y 9 s f> z previ\s ev5ts h _h a c]ta9 "*2 !y are accid5tal 9 s f> z ! _w might h be5 direct$ o!rwise4 ,9 respect to ! "q :e!r ! _w _h a beg9n+ 9 "t1 ,wolff does n express himself explicitly4 ,s9ce ,god is indep5d5t ( "t1 b ! _w has be5 f et]nity 9 "t1 ! _w !re=e is 9 no case et]nal 9 any s5se l ,god4 ,b accord+ to ,wolff1 nei!r space nor "t has any sub/antial be+4 ,body is a connect$ ?+ compos$ ( matt]1 & possess+ a mov+ p[] )9 itself4 ,! p[]s ( a body tak5 toge!r are call$ its nature1 & ! compreh5sion ( all be+ is call$ nature 9 g5]al4 ,t :i* has its gr\nd 9 ! ess5ce ( ! _w is call$ natural1 & t :i* has n1 is sup]natural1 or a wond]4 ,at ! close ( 8 cosmology1 ,wolff treats ( ! p]fection & imp]fection ( ! _w4 ,! p]fection ( a _w consi/s 9 ! h>mony ) ea* o!r ( e ?+ :i* exi/s conjo9tly & successively4 ,b s9ce e ?+ has its sep>ate rules1 ! individual mu/ give up s mu* f its p]fection z is necess>y = ! symmetry ( ! :ole4 #c4 ,,rational ,,psy*ology4--,! s\l is t )9 u :i* is self-consci\s4 ,9 ! self-consci\sness ( ! s\l are itself & o!r objects4 ,consci\sness is ei!r cle> or indi/9ct4 ,cle> consci\sness is ?\ght4 ,! s\l is a simple incorporeal sub/ance4 ,!re dwells )9 x a p[] to repres5t to itself a _w4 ,9 ?is s5se brutes also may h a s\l1 b a s\l :i* possesses und]/&+ & w is m9d1 & m9d belongs alone to m54 ,! s\l ( man is a m9d jo9$ to a body1 & ?is is ! di/9ction betwe5 m5 & sup]ior spirits4 ,! movem5ts ( ! s\l & ( ! body h>monize ) ea* o!r by virtue ( ! pre/abli%$ h>mony4 ,! fre$om ( ! human s\l is ! p[] accord+ to its own arbitram5t1 to *oose ( two possible ?+s t :i* pleases x be/4 ,b ! s\l does n decide )\t motives1 x ev] *ooses t :i* x holds to be ! be/4 ,?us ! s\l w\ld seem impell$ to its action by its repres5tations1 b ! und]/&+ is n con/ra9$ to its repres5tations ( t :i* is good & bad1 & h5ce also ! w is n con/ra9$1 b free4 ,z a simple be+ ! s\l is indivisible1 & h5ce incorruptible2 ! s\ls ( brutes1 h[ev]1 h no und]/&+1 & h5ce enjoy no consci\s exi/5ce aft] dea?4 ,?is belongs alone to ! human s\l1 & h5ce ! human s\l alone is immortal4 #d4 ,,natural ,,!ology4--,wolff uses "h ! cosmological argum5t to demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( a ,god4 ,god might h made diff]5t worlds1 b has pref]r$ ! pres5t "o z ! be/4 ,?is _w has be5 call$ into be+ by ! w ( ,god4 ,8 aim 9 its creation 0 ! manife/ation ( 8 own p]fection4 ,evil 9 ! _w does n spr+ f ! ,div9e w1 b f ! limit$ be+ ( human ?+s4 ,god p]mits x only z a means ( good4 ,?is brief aphori/ic exposition ( ,wolff's metaphysics1 %[s h[ greatly x is relat$ to ! doctr9e ( ,leibnitz4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 loses mu* ( its speculative pr(\ndness by ! ab/ract & logical treatm5t x receives 9 ! h&s ( ,wolff4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 ! specific elem5ts ( ! monadology rema9 9 ! backgr\nd2 ) ,wolff1 8 simple be+s are n repres5tative l ! ,monads1 b m l ! ,atoms4 ,h5ce !re is ) him mu* t is illogical & contradictory4 ,8 peculi> m]it 9 metaphysics is ontology1 :i* he has elaborat$ f> m /rictly ?an 8 pr$ecessors4 ,a multitude ( philosophical t]m9ations owe to him _! orig91 & _! introduction into philosophical language4 ,! philosophy ( ,wolff1 compreh5sible & di/9ct z x 01 & by its composition 9 ! ,g]man language m accessible ?an t ( ,leibnitz1 soon became ! popul> philosophy1 & ga9$ an ext5sive influ5ce4 ,among ! names :i* des]ve cr$it = _! sci5tific treatm5t ( x1 we may m5tion ,?mm+1 #afig-agbh2 ,bilf+]1 #afic-agej2 ,baumei/]1 #agjh-aghe2 ,baumg>t5 ! e/hetic1 #agad-agfb2 & 8 s*ol> ,mei]1 #agah-aggg4 ,,section ,,xxxvi4 ,,! ,,g]man ,,cle>+ ,,up4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz & ,wolff1 ?\gh )\t any imm$iate connection ) x1 !re arose 9 ,g]many dur+ ! latt] half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 an eclectic popul> philosophy1 ^: diff]5t phases may be embrac$ "u ! "n ( ! ,g]man cle>+ up4 ,x has b little significance = ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 ?\gh n )\t importance 9 o!r respects4 ,its great aim 0 to secure a high] culture1 & h5ce a cultivat$ & poli%$ /yle ( reason+ is ! =m 9 :i* x philosophiz$4 ,x is ! ,g]man c\nt]p>t ( ! ,fr5* cle>+ up4 ,z ! latt] clos$ ! reali/ic p]iod ( developm5t by draw+ ! ultimate consequ5ce ( mat]ialism1 s ! =m] clos$ ! ideali/ic s]ies by its t5d5cy to an extreme subjectivism4 ,to ! m5 ( ?is direction1 ! empirical1 individual ,ego becomes ! absolute2 !y =get e ?+ else = x1 or r e ?+ else has a value 9 _! eyes only 9 proportion z x ref]s & m9i/]s to ! subject by contribut+ to its dem&s & satisfy+ its inn] crav+s4 ,h5ce ! "q ( immortality becomes n[ ! great problem ( philosophy 79 :i* respect we may m5tion ,m5delssohn1 #agbg-aghf1 ! mo/ important man 9 ?is direction72 ! et]nal duration ( ! individual s\l is ! *ief po9t ( int]e/2 objective ideas or tru?s ( fai?1 e4 g4 ! p]sonality ( ,god1 ?\gh n d5i$1 cease to h an int]e/2 x is held z a /&+ article ( belief t we c "k no?+ ( ,god4 ,9 ano!r curr5t ( ?is direction1 x is moral philosophy & e/hetics 7,g>vey1 #agdb-agih2 ,engel1 #agda-ahjb2 ,abbt1 #agch-agff2 ,sulz]1 #agbj-aggi7 :i* f9d a sci5tific treatm5t1 because bo? ^! pres]ve a subjective int]e/4 ,9 g5]al1 e ?+ is view$ 9 its useful relations2 ! useful becomes ! peculi> crit]ion ( tru?2 t :i* is n useful to ! subject1 or :i* does n m9i/] to 8 subjective ends1 is set aside4 ,9 connection ) ?is turn ( m9d /&s ! prevail+ teleological direction :i* ! inve/igations ( nature assum$ 7,reim>us1 #afid-agfe71 & ! utilit>ian "* giv5 to e?ics4 ,! happ9ess ( ! individual 0 consid]$ z ! highe/ pr9ciple & ! supreme end 7,bas$[1 #agbc-agij74 ,ev5 religion is contemplat$ f ?is po9t ( view4 ,reim>us wrote a treatise ^u ! 8advantages0 ( religion1 9 :i* he attempt$ to prove t religion 0 n subv]sive ( e>?ly pleasure1 b r increas$ x2 & ,/e9b>t 7#agch-ahji7 elaborat$1 9 a numb] ( treatises1 ! !me t all wisdom consi/s alone 9 atta9+ happ9ess1 i4 e4 endur+ satisfaction1 & t ! ,*ri/ian religion1 in/ead ( =bidd+ ?is1 0 r itself ! true doctr9e ( happ9ess4 ,9 o!r p>ticul>s ,*ri/ianity receiv$ only a temp]ate respect2 :]ev] x laid claim to any au?ority disagreeable to ! subject 7z 9 individual doctr9es l t ( future puni%m5t71 x 0 oppos$1 & 9 g5]al ! ef=t 0 made to c\nt]act1 z f> z possible1 ! positive dogma by natural religion4 ,reim>us1 = example1 ! mo/ zeal\s def5d] ( !ism & ( ! teleological inve/igation ( nature1 is at ! same "t ! au?or ( ! ,wolf5bttel fragm5ts4 ,by criticiz+ ! ,gospel hi/ory1 & e ?+ positive & transmitt$1 & by rationaliz+ ! sup]natural 9 religion1 ! subject display$ its new-f\nd indep5d5ce4 ,9 f9e1 ! subjective /&po9t ( ?is p]iod exhibits itself 9 ! num]\s autobiographies & self-confessions !n s preval5t2 ! isolat$ self is ! object ( admir+ contemplation 7,r\sseau1 #agab-aggh1 & 8 confessions72 x beholds itself mirror$ 9 its p>ticul> conditions1 s5sations1 & views--a sort ( flirtation ) itself1 :i* (t5 rises to sickly s5tim5tality4 ,accord+ to all ?is1 x is se5 to be ! extreme consequ5ce ( subjective idealism :i* con/itutes ! "* ( ! ,g]man cle>+ up p]iod1 :i* ?us closes ! s]ies ( an ideali/ic developm5t4 ,,section ,,xxxvii4 ,,transition ,,to ,,kant4 ,! ideali/ic & ! reali/ic /age ( developm5t to :i* we h n[ be5 att5d+1 ea* end$ ) a "o-sid$ result4 ,in/ead ( actually & int]nally reconcil+ ! opposition betwe5 ?\ght & be+1 !y bo? issu$ 9 d5y+ ! "o or ! o!r ( ^! factors4 ,realism1 on its side1 _h made matt] absolute2 & idealism1 on its side1 _h end[$ ! empirical ,ego ) ! same attribute--extremes 9 :i* philosophy 0 ?reat5$ ) total de/ruction4 ,x _h1 9 fact1 9 ,g]many z 9 ,france1 become m]g$ 9 ! mo/ sup]ficial popul> philosophy4 ,!n ,kant arose1 & br\ght aga9 into "o *annel ! two /reams :i*1 :5 sep>ate f ea* o!r1 ?reat5$ to lose !mselves amid ! s&s4 ,kant is ! great r5ovator ( philosophy1 :o br\ght back to _! po9t ( div]g5ce ! "o-sid$ ef=ts :i* _h prec$$ him1 & embrac$ !m 9 _! unity & totality4 ,he /&s 9 "s special & fitt+ relation ei!r antagoni/ic or h>moni\s to all o!rs--to ,locke no less ?an to ,hume1 to ! ,scotti% philosoph]s no less ?an to ! ,engli% & ,fr5* morali/s1 to ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz & ( ,wolff1 z well z to ! mat]ialism ( ! ,fr5* & ! utilit>ianism ( ! ,g]man cle>+ up p]iod4 ,8 relation to ! developm5t ( a p>tial idealism & a "o-sid$ realism is ?us /at$3 ,empiricism _h made ! ,ego purely passive & subord9ate to ! s5sible ext]nal _w--idealism _h made x purely active1 & giv5 x a sov]eignty ov] ! s5sible _w2 ,kant attempt$ to /rike a balance betwe5 ^! two claims1 by affirm+ t ! ,ego z practical is free & autonomic1 an uncondition$ lawgiv] = itself1 :ile z !oretical x is receptive & condition$ by ! ph5om5al _w2 b at ! same "t ! !oretical ,ego conta9s ! two sides )9 itself1 = if1 on ! "o side1 empiricism may be ju/ifi$ ^u ! gr\nd t ! mat]ial & only field ( all our k is furni%$ by exp]i5ce1 s on ! o!r side1 rationalism may be ju/ifi$ on ! gr\nd t !re is an apriori factor & basis to our k1 = 9 exp]i5ce itself we make use ( conceptions :i* are n furni%$ by exp]i5ce1 b are conta9$ apriori 9 our und]/&+4 ,9 ord]1 n[1 t we may br+ ! v elaborate framework ( ! ,kantian philosophy into a cle>] outl9e1 let u briefly glance at its fundam5tal conceptions1 & notice its *ief pr9ciples & results4 ,kant subject$ ! activity ( ! human m9d 9 kn[+1 & ! orig9 ( our exp]i5ce1 to 8 critical inve/igation4 ,h5ce 8 philosophy is call$ critical philosophy1 or criticism1 because x aims to be ess5tially an exam9ation ( our faculty ( k2 x is also call$ transc5d5tal philosophy1 s9ce ,kant calls ! reflection ( ! reason ^u its relation to ! objective _w1 a transc5d5tal reflection 7transc5d5tal mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) transc5d5t71 or1 9 o!r words1 a transc5d5tal k is "o 8:i* does n relate s mu* to objects ( k1 z to our way ( kn[+ !m1 s f> z ?is is apriori possible40 ,! exam9ation ( ! faculty ( k1 :i* ,kant attempts 9 8 8,critick ( ,pure ,reason10 %[s ! foll[+ results4 ,all k is a product ( two factors1 ! kn[+ subject & ! ext]nal _w4 ,( ^! two factors1 ! latt] furni%es our k ) exp]i5ce1 z ! matt]1 & ! =m] ) ! conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 z ! =m1 ?r\gh :i* a connect$ k1 or a syn!sis ( our p]ceptions 9 a :ole ( exp]i5ce fir/ becomes possible4 ,if !re 7 no ext]nal _w1 !n w\ld !re be no ph5om5a2 if !re 7 no und]/&+1 !n ^! ph5om5a1 or p]ceptions1 :i* are inf9itely manifold1 w\ld nev] be br\ght into ! unity ( a notion1 & ?us no exp]i5ce 7 possible4 ,?us1 :ile intuitions )\t conceptions are bl9d1 & conceptions )\t intuitions are empty1 k is a union ( ! two1 s9ce x requires t ! =m ( conception %\ld be fill$ ) ! matt] ( exp]i5ce1 & t ! matt] ( exp]i5ce %\ld be appreh5d$ 9 ! net ( ! und]/&+'s conceptions4 ,nev]!less1 we d n "k ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves4 ,fir/1 because ! categories1 or ! =ms ( our und]/&+ prev5t4 ,by br++ t :i* is giv5 z ! mat]ial ( k into our own conceptions z ! =m1 !re is manife/ly a *ange 9 respect ( ! objects1 :i* become ?\ght ( n z !y are1 b only z we appreh5d !m2 !y appe> to u only z !y are transmut$ into categories4 ,b besides ?is subjective addition1 !re is yet ano!r4 ,secondly1 we d n "k ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves1 because ev5 ! intuitions :i* we br+ )9 ! =m ( ! und]/&+'s conceptions1 are n pure & uncolor$1 b are already p5etrat$ by a subjective m$ium1 namely1 by ! univ]sal =m ( all objects ( s5se1 space & "t4 ,space & "t are also subjective additions1 =ms ( s5su\s intuition1 :i* are j z orig9ally pres5t 9 our m9ds z ! fundam5tal conceptions or categories ( our und]/&+4 ,t :i* we w\ld repres5t intuitively to ourselves we mu/ place 9 space & "t1 = )\t ^! no intuition is possible4 ,f ?is x foll[s t x is only ph5om5a :i* we "k1 & n ?+s 9 !mselves sep>ate f space & "t4 ,a sup]ficial appreh5sion ( ^! ,kantian pr9ciples might lead "o to suppose t ,kant's criticism did n ess5tially g beyond ! /&po9t ( ,locke's empiricism4 ,b su* a supposition disappe>s ^u a c>eful scrut9y4 ,kant 0 oblig$ to recognize ) ,hume t ! conceptions1 cause & effect1 sub/ance & attribute1 & ! o!r conceptions :i* ! human und]/&+ sees itself necessitat$ to ?9k 9 ! ph5om5a1 & 9 :i* e "o ( its ?\ghts mu/ be f\nd1 d n arise f any exp]i5ce ( ! s5se4 ,= in/ance1 :5 we become affect$ ?r\gh diff]5t s5ses1 & p]ceive a :ite color1 a sweet ta/e1 a r\gh surface1 c41 & pr$icate all ^! ( "o ?+1 z a piece ( sug>1 !re come f )\t only ! plurality ( s5sations1 :ile ! conception ( unity _c come ?r\gh s5sation1 b is a category or conception borne ov] to ! s5sations f ! m9d itself4 ,b in/ead ( d5y+1 = ?is reason1 ! reality ( ^! conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 ,kant took a /ep 9 advance1 assign+ a peculi> prov9ce to ?is activity ( ! und]/&+1 & %[+ t ^! =ms ( ?\ght ?us furni%$ to ! matt] ( exp]i5ce are imman5t laws ( ! human faculty ( k1 ! peculi> laws ( ! und]/&+'s op]ations1 :i* may be obta9$ by a p]fect analysis ( our ?9k+ activity4 7,( ^! laws or conceptions !re are twelve1 viz41 unity1 plurality1 totality2 reality1 negation1 limitation2 sub/antiality1 causality1 reciprocal action2 possibility1 actuality1 & necessity47 ,f :at has be5 said we c see ! ?ree *ief pr9ciples ( ! ,kantian !ory ( k3 #a4 ,,we ,,"k ,,only ,,ph5om5a ,,& ,,n ,,?+s ,,9 ,,!mselves4--,! exp]i5ce furni%$ u by ! ext]nal _w becomes s adju/$ & alt]$ 9 its relations 7= we appreh5d x at fir/ 9 ! subjective framework ( space & "t1 & !n 9 ! equally subjective =ms ( our und]/&+'s conceptions71 t x no long] repres5ts ! ?+ itself 9 its orig9al condition1 pure & unmix$4 #b4 ,,nev]!less ,,exp]i5ce ,,is ,,! ,,only ,,prov9ce ,,( ,,our ,,k1 ,,& ,,!re ,,is ,,no ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,uncondition$4--,?is foll[s ( c\rse1 = s9ce e k is ! product ( ! matt] ( exp]i5ce1 & ! =m ( ! und]/&+1 & dep5ds ?us ^u ! co-work+ ( ! s5sory & ! und]/&+1 !n no k is possible ( objects = :i* "o ( ^! factors1 exp]i5ce1 fails u2 a k alone f ! und]/&+'s conceptions ( ! uncondition$ is illusory s9ce ! s5sory c %[ no uncondition$ object correspond+ to ! conception4 ,h5ce ! que/ions :i* ,kant places at ! head ( 8 :ole ,critick2 h[ are syn!tical judgm5ts apriori possible8 i4 e4 c we wid5 our k apriori1 by ?\ght alone1 beyond ! s5su\s exp]i5ce8 is a k ( ! sup]s5sible possible8 mu/ be answ]$ ) an unconditional negative4 #c4 ,/ill1 if ! human k makes no ef=t to /ride beyond ! n>r[ limits ( exp]i5ce1 i4 e4 to become transc5d5t1 x involves itself 9 ! greate/ contradictions4 ,! ?ree ideas ( ! reason1 ! psy*ological1 ! cosmological1 & ! !ological1 viz4 7a7 ! idea ( an absolute subject1 i4 e4 ( ! s\l1 or ( immortality1 7b7 ! idea ( ! _w z a totality ( all conditions & ph5om5a1 7c7 ! idea ( a mo/ p]fect be+--are s :olly )\t application to ! empirical actuality1 are s truly regulative1 & n con/itutive pr9ciples1 :i* are only ! pure products ( ! reason1 & are s entirely )\t a correspond5t object 9 exp]i5ce1 t :5ev] !y are appli$ to exp]i5ce1 i4 e4 become conceiv$ ( z actually exi/+ objects1 !y lead to pure logical errors1 to ! mo/ obvi\s p>alogisms & sophisms4 ,^! errors1 :i* are p>tly false conclusions & p>alogisms1 & p>tly unavoidable contradictions ( ! reason ) itself1 ,kant und]took to %[ 9 ref]5ce to all ! ideas ( ! reason4 ,take1 e4 g4 ! cosmological idea4 ,:5ev] ! reason posits any transc5d5tal expressions 9 ref]5ce to ! univ]se1 i4 e4 attempts to apply ! =ms ( ! f9ite to ! inf9ite1 x is at once evid5t t ! anti!sis ( ^? expressions c be prov$ j z well z ! !sis4 ,! affirmation t ! _w has a beg9n+ 9 "t1 & limits 9 space1 c be prov$ z well z1 & no bett] ?an its opposite1 t ! _w has no beg9n+ 9 "t1 & no spacial limits4 ,:5ce x foll[s t all speculative cosmology is an assumption by ! reason4 ,s also ) ! !ological idea2 x re/s on b>e logical p>alogisms1 & false conclusions1 z ,kant1 ) great acut5ess1 %[s 9 ref]5ce to ea* ( ! pro(s = ! be+ ( a ,god1 :i* previ\s dogmatic philosophies _h attempt$4 ,x is !re=e impossible to prove & to conceive ( ! exi/5ce ( a ,god z a ,supreme ,be+1 or ( ! s\l z a real subject1 or ( a compreh5d+ univ]se4 ,! peculi> problems ( metaphysics lie outside ! prov9ce ( philosophical k4 ,su* is ! negative "p ( ! ,kantian philosophy2 its positive complem5t is f\nd 9 ! 8,critick ( ! ,practical ,reason40 ,:ile ! m9d z !oretical & cognitive is :olly condition$1 & rul$ by ! objective & s5sible _w1 & ?us k is only possible ?r\gh intuition1 yet z practical does x g :olly beyond ! giv5 7! s5se impulse71 & is det]m9$ only ?r\gh ! categorical imp]ative1 & ! moral law1 :i* is itself1 & is !re=e free & autonomic2 ! ends :i* x pursues are ^? :i* itself1 z moral _s1 places be=e itself2 objects are no m its ma/]s & lawgiv]s1 to :i* x mu/ yield if x w\ld "k ! tru?1 b its s]vants1 :i* x may use = its own ends 9 actualiz+ its moral law4 ,:ile ! !oretical m9d is unit$ to a _w ( s5se & ph5om5a1 a _w ob$i5t to necess>y laws1 ! practical m9d1 by virtue ( ! fre$om ess5tial to x1 by virtue ( its direction t[>ds an absolute aim1 belongs to a purely intelligible & sup]s5sible _w4 ,?is is ! practical idealism ( ,kant1 f :i* he d]ives ! ?ree practical po/ulates ( ! immortality ( ! s\l1 moral fre$om1 & ! be+ ( a ,god1 :i*1 z !oretical tru?s1 _h be5 be=e d5i$4 ,) ?is brief sket* = our guidance1 let u n[ pass on to a m ext5d$ exposition ( ! ,kantian ,philosophy4 ,,section ,,xxxviii4 ,,kant4 ,immanuel ,kant 0 born at ,knigsb]g 9 ,prussia1 ,april #bb1 #agbd4 ,8 fa!r an hone/ saddlemak]1 & 8 "m a prud5t & pi\s woman1 ex]t$ a good influ5ce ^u him 9 8 e>lie/ y\?4 ,9 ! ye> #agdj he ent]$ ! univ]sity1 :]e he connect$ himself ) ! !ological dep>tm5t1 b devot$ ! mo/ ( 8 "t to philosophy1 ma!matics1 & physics4 ,he comm5c$ 8 lit]>y c>e] 9 8 tw5ty-?ird ye>1 9 #agdg1 ) a treatise entitl$ 8,?\ghts conc]n+ ! true e/imate ( ,liv+ ,=ces40 ,he 0 oblig$ by 8 pecuni>y circum/ances to sp5d "s ye>s z a private tutor 9 diff]5t families 9 ! neighborhood ( ,knigsb]g4 ,9 #agee he took a place 9 ! univ]sity z 8privat-doc5t10 :i* position he held = fifte5 ye>s1 dur+ :i* "t he gave lectures ^u logic1 metaphysics1 physics1 ma!matics1 & also1 dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! "t1 ^u e?ics1 an?ropology1 & physical geography4 ,at ?is p]iod he adh]$ = ! mo/ "p to ! s*ool ( ,wolff1 ?\gh e>ly express+ 8 d\bts 9 respect ( dogmatism4 ,f ! publication ( 8 fir/ treatise he appli$ himself to writ+ ) unwe>i$ activity1 ?\gh 8 great "w1 ! 8,critick ( pure ,reason10 did n appe> till 8 fifty-sev5? ye>1 #agha4 ,8 8,critick ( ! practical ,reason10 0 issu$ 9 #aghg1 & 8 8,religion )9 ! b\nds ( pure ,reason10 9 #agic4 ,9 #aggj1 9 8 =ty-six? ye>1 he 0 *os5 ord9>y pr(essor ( logic & metaphysics1 a *air :i* he cont9u$ to fill un9t]rupt$ly till #agid1 :5 ! weakness ( age oblig$ him to leave x4 ,invitations to pr(essor%ips at ,j5a1 ,erlang51 & ,halle1 7 giv5 him & reject$4 ,z soon z he became kn[n1 ! noble/ & mo/ active m9ds flock$ f all p>ts ( ,g]many to ,knigsb]g1 to sit at ! feet ( ! sage :o 0 ma/] !re4 ,"o ( 8 wor%ipp]s1 ,reuss1 pr(essor ( philosophy at ,wrzburg1 :o abode b a brief "t at ,knigsb]g1 ent]$ 8 *amb]1 decl>+ t he _h come "o hundr$ & sixty miles#c 9 ord] to see ,kant & to speak ) him4--,dur+ ! la/ sev5te5 ye>s ( 8 life he occupi$ a little h\se ) a g>d51 9 a quiet qu>t] ( ! city1 :]e 8 calm & regul> mode ( life might be undi/urb$4 ,8 habits ( life 7 v simple4 ,he nev] left 8 native prov9ce ev5 to g z f> z ,dantzic4 ,8 longe/ j\rneys 7 to visit "s c\ntry-seats 9 ! environs ( ,knigsb]g4 ,nev]!less1 z 8 lectures ^u physical geography te/ify1 he acquir$ by read+ ! mo/ accurate k ( ! e>?4 ,he knew all ( ,r\sseau's works1 ( :i* ,emile at its fir/ appe>ance deta9$ him = a numb] ( days f 8 cu/om>y walks4 ,kant di$ ,febru>y #ab1 #ahjd1 9 ! eightie? ye> ( 8 life4 ,he 0 ( m$ium /ature1 f9ely built1 ) blue eyes1 & always enjoy$ s\nd heal? till 9 8 latt] ye>s1 :5 he became *ildi%4 ,he 0 nev] m>ri$4 ,8 "* 0 m>k$ by an e>ne/ love ( tru?1 great c&or1 & simple mode/y4 ,?\gh ,kant's great "w1 ! 8,critick ( pure ,reason10 :i* creat$ an epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 did n appe> till #agha2 yet _h he previ\sly %[n an approa* t[>ds ! same /&po9t 9 sev]al small] treatises1 & p>ticul>ly 9 8 inaugural diss]tation :i* appe>$ 9 #aggj1 8,conc]n+ ! =m & ! pr9ciples ( ! ,s5se-,_w & t ( ! ,und]/&+40 ,kant himself ref]s ! inn] g5esis ( 8 critical /&po9t to ,hume4 8,i freely confess10 he says1 8t x 0 ,david ,hume :o fir/ r\s$ me f my dogmatic slumb]1 & gave a diff]5t direction to my inve/igations 9 ! field ( speculative philosophy40 ,! critical view !re=e fir/ became develop$ 9 ,kant z he left ! dogmatic metaphysical s*ool1 ! ,wolffian philosophy 9 :i* he _h gr[n up1 & w5t ov] to ! /udy ( a sceptical empiricism 9 ,hume4 8,hi!rto10 says ,kant at ! close ( 8 ,critick ( pure ,reason1 8m5 h be5 oblig$ to *oose ei!r a dogmatical direction1 l ,wolff1 or a sceptical "o1 l ,hume4 ,! critical road alone is yet op54 ,if ! read] has _h pleasure & pati5ce 9 travell+ along ?is 9 my company1 let him n[ contribute 8 aid 9 mak+ ?is by-pa? into a highway1 9 ord] t t :i* _m c5turies c\ld n effect may n[ be atta9$ be=e ! expiration ( ! pres5t1 & ! reason become p]fectly cont5t 9 respect ( t :i* has hi!rto1 b 9 va91 engag$ its curiosity40 ,kant _h ! cle>e/ consci\sness respect+ ! relation ( 8 criticism to ! previ\s philosophy4 ,he comp>es ! revolution :i* he himself _h br\ght ab\t 9 philosophy ) t wr\ght by ,cop]nicus 9 a/ronomy1 8,hi!rto x has be5 assum$ t all our k mu/ regulate itself accord+ to ! objects2 b all attempts to make any ?+ out ( !m apriori1 ?r\gh notions :]eby our k might be enl>g$1 prov$1 "u ?is supposition1 abortive4 ,let u1 !n1 try = once :e!r we d n succe$ bett] ) ! problems ( metaphysics1 by assum+ t ! objects mu/ regulate !mselves accord+ to our k1 a mode ( view+ ! subject :i* accords s mu* bett] ) ! desir$ possibility ( a k ( !m apriori1 :i* mu/ decide some?+ conc]n+ objects be=e !y are giv5 u4 ,! circum/ances are 9 ?is case precisely ! same z ) ! fir/ ?\ghts ( ,cop]nicus1 :o1 f9d+ t 8 attempt to expla9 ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies did n succe$1 :5 he assum$ ! :ole />ry ho/ to revolve ar\nd ! spectator1 tri$ :e!r he %\ld n succe$ bett]1 if he left ! spectator himself to turn1 & ! />s on ! contr>y at re/40 ,9 ^! words we h ! pr9ciple ( a subjective idealism1 mo/ cle>ly & decid$ly express$4 ,9 ! succe$+ exposition ( ! ,kantian philosophy we %all mo/ suitably foll[ ! classification adopt$ by ,kant himself4 ,8 pr9ciple ( classification is a psy*ological "o4 ,all ! faculties ( ! s\l1 he says1 may be ref]r$ to ?ree1 :i* are incapable ( any f>!r r$uction2 kn[+1 feel+1 & desire4 ,! fir/ faculty conta9s ! pr9ciples1 ! gov]n+ laws = all ! ?ree4 ,s f> z ! faculty ( k conta9s ! pr9ciples ( k itself1 is x !oretical reason1 & s f> z x conta9s ! pr9ciples ( desire & action1 is x practical reason1 :ile1 s f> z x conta9s ! pr9ciples :i* regulate ! feel+s ( pleasure & pa91 is x a faculty ( judgm5t4 ,?us ! ,kantian philosophy 7on its critical side7 divides itself into ?ree criticks1 7#a7 ,critick ( pure i4 e4 !oretical reason1 7#b7 ,critick ( practical reason1 7#c7 ,critick ( ! judgm5t4 ,i4 ,,critick ,,( ,,pure ,,reason4--,! critick ( pure reason1 says ,kant1 is ! inv5tory 9 :i* all our possessions ?r\gh pure reason are sy/ematically arrang$4 ,:at are ^! possessions8 ,:5 we h a cognition1 :at is x t we br+ !reto8 ,to answ] ^! que/ions1 ,kant explores ! two *ief fields ( our !oretical consci\sness1 ! two *ief factors ( all k1 ! s5sory & ! und]/&+4 ,fir/ly3 :at does our s5sory or our faculty ( intuition possess apriori8 ,secondly3 :at is ! apriori possession ( our und]/&+8 ,! fir/ ( ^! que/ions is discuss$ 9 ! transc5d5tal /hetics 7a title :i* we mu/ take n 9 ! s5se n[ commonly atta*$ to ! ^w1 b 9 its etymological signification z ! 8sci5ce ( ! apriori pr9ciples ( ! s5sory072 & ! second 9 ! transc5d5tal ,logic or ,analytics4 ,s5se & und]/&+ are ?us ! two factors ( all k1 ! two /alks--z ,kant expresses x--( our k1 :i* may spr+ f a common root1 ?\gh ?is is unkn[n to u3 ! s5sory is ! receptivity1 & ! und]/&+ ! spontaneity ( our cognitive faculty2 by ! s5sory1 :i* c only furni% intuitions1 objects become giv5 to u2 by ! und]/&+1 :i* =ms conceptions1 ^! objects become ?\ght4 ,conceptions )\t intuitions are empty2 intuitions )\t conceptions are bl9d4 ,intuitions & conceptions con/itute ! reciprocally complem5tal elem5ts ( our intellectual activity4 ,:at n[ are ! apriori pr9ciples respectively ( our k1 ?r\gh ! s5se & ?r\gh ! ?\ght8 ,! fir/ ( ^! que/ions1 z already said1 is answ]$ by #a4 ,,! ,,transc5d5tal ,,/hetics4--,to anticipate at once ! answ]1 we may say t ! apriori pr9ciples ( our k ?r\gh ! s5se1 ! orig9al =ms ( s5su\s intuition1 are space & "t4 ,space is ! =m ( ! ext]nal s5se1 by means ( :i* objects are giv5 to u z exi/+ outside ( ourselves sep>ately & conjo9tly2 "t is ! =m ( ! inn] s5se1 by means ( :i* ! circum/ances ( our own s\l-life become objects to our consci\sness4 ,if we ab/ract e ?+ belong+ to ! matt] ( our s5sations1 space rema9s z ! univ]sal =m 9 :i* all ! mat]ials ( ! ext]nal s5se mu/ be arrang$4 ,if we ab/ract e ?+ :i* belongs to ! matt] ( our inn] s5se1 "t rema9s z ! =m :i* ! movem5t ( ! m9d _h fill$4 ,space & "t are ! highe/ =ms ( ! out] & inn] s5se4 ,t ^! =ms lie apriori 9 ! human m9d1 ,kant proves1 fir/1 directly f ! nature ( ^! conceptions !mselves2 &1 secondly1 indirectly by %[+ t )\t apriori presuppos+ ^! conceptions1 x 7 n possible to h any c]ta9 sci5ce ( und\bt$ validity4 ,! fir/ ( ^! he calls ! metaphysical1 & ! second ! transc5d5tal discussion4 7#a47 ,9 ! metaphysical discussion x is to be %[n1 7a7 t space & "t are apriori giv51 7b7 t ^! notions belong to ! s5sory 7/hetics7 & n to ! und]/&+ 7logic71 i4 e4 t !y are intuitions & n conceptions1 7a7 ,t space & "t are apriori is cle> f ! fact t e exp]i5ce1 be=e x c be1 mu/ presuppose already a space & "t4 ,i p]ceive some?+ z ext]nal to me2 b ?is ext]nal presupposes space4 ,aga91 ,i h two s5sations at ! same "t & successively2 ?is presupposes "t1 7b7 ,space & "t1 h[ev]1 are by no means conceptions1 b =ms ( intuition1 or intuitions !mselves4 ,= 9 e univ]sal conception ! individual is compreh5d$ "u x1 & is n a "p ( x2 b 9 space & "t1 all individual spaces & times are p>ts ( & conta9$ )9 ! univ]sal space & ! univ]sal "t4 7#b47 ,9 ! transc5d5tal discussion ,kant draws 8 pro( indirectly by %[+ t c]ta9 sci5ces1 univ]sally recogniz$ z su*1 c only be conceiv$ ^u ! supposition t space & "t are apriori4 ,a pure ma!matics is only possible on ! gr\nd t space & "t are pure & n empirical intuitions4 ,kant comprises ! :ole problem ( ! ,transc5d5tal /hetics 9 ! "q--h[ are pure ma!matical sci5ces possible8 ,! gr\nd1 says ,kant1 ^u :i* pure ma!matics moves1 is space & "t4 ,b n[ ma!matics utt]s its pr9ciples z univ]sal & necess>y4 ,univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples1 h[ev]1 c nev] come f exp]i5ce2 !y mu/ h an apriori gr\nd2 consequ5tly x is impossible t space & "t1 out ( :i* ma!matics receives its pr9ciples1 %\ld be fir/ giv5 apo/]iori2 !y mu/ be giv5 apriori z pure intuitions4 ,h5ce we h a k apriori1 & a sci5ce :i* re/s ^u apriori gr\nds2 & ! matt] simply resolves itself into ?is1 viz43 :osoev] %\ld d5y t apriori k c be1 mu/ also at ! same "t d5y ! possibility ( ma!matics4 ,b if ! fundam5tal tru?s ( ma!matics are intuitions apriori1 we might conclude t !re may be also apriori conceptions1 out ( :i*1 9 connection ) ^! pure intuitions1 a metaphysics c\ld be =m$4 ,?is is ! positive result ( ! ,transc5d5tal /hetics1 ?\gh ) ?is positive side ! negative is closely connect$4 ,intuition or imm$iate k c be atta9$ by man only ?r\gh ! s5sory1 ^: univ]sal intuitions are only space & "t4 ,b s9ce ^! intuitions ( space & "t are no objective relations1 b only subjective =ms1 !re is !re=e some?+ subjective m+l$ ) all our intuitions1 & we c "k ?+s n z !y are 9 !mselves1 b only z !y appe> to u ?r\gh ?is subjective m$ium ( space & "t4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( ! ,kantian pr9ciple1 t we d n "k ?+s 9 !mselves1 b only ph5om5a4 ,b if on ?is acc\nt we %\ld affirm t all ?+s are 9 space & "t1 ?is w\ld be too mu*2 !y are 9 space & "t only = u1--all ph5om5a ( ! ext]nal s5se appe>+ bo? 9 space & 9 "t1 & all ph5om5a ( ! inn] s5se appe>+ only 9 "t4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 ,kant w\ld 9 no ways h admitt$ t ! _w ( s5se is m]e appe>ance4 ,he affirm$1 t :ile he cont5d$ = a transc5d5tal ideality1 !re 01 nev]!less1 an empirical reality ( space & "t3 ?+s ext]nal to ourselves exi/ j z c]ta9ly z d we & ! circum/ances )9 u1 only !y are n repres5t$ to u z !y are 9 !mselves & 9 _! indep5d5ce ( space & ( "t4 ,z to ! "q1 :e!r !re is any ?+ 9 ! ?+ itself back ( ! ph5om5a1 ,kant intimates 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 ,critick1 t x is n impossible t ! ,ego & ! ?+-9-itself are "o & ! same ?9k+ sub/ance4 ,?is ?\ght1 :i* ,kant ?rew out z a m]e conjecture1 0 ! s\rce ( all ! wid] developm5ts ( ! late/ philosophy4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds ! fundam5tal idea ( ! ,fi*tian sy/em1 t ! ,ego does n become affect$ ?r\gh a ?+ ess5tially =eign to x1 b purely ?r\gh itself4 ,9 ! second edition ( 8 ,critick1 h[ev]1 ,kant omitt$ ?is s5t5ce4 ,! ,transc5d5tal /hetics closes ) ! discussion ( space & "t1 i4 e4 ) f9d+ out :at is 9 ! s5sory apriori4 ,b ! human m9d _c be satisfi$ m]ely ) ! receptive relation ( ! s5sory2 x does n simply receive objects1 b x applies to ^! its own spontaneity1 & attempts to ?9k ^! ?r\gh its conceptions1 & embrace !m 9 ! =ms ( its und]/&+4 ,x is ! object ( ! ,transc5d5tal ,analytic 7:i* =ms ! fir/ "p ( ! ,transc5d5tal ,logic71 to exam9e ^! apriori conceptions or =ms ( ?\ght :i* lie orig9ally 9 ! und]/&+1 z ! =ms ( space & "t d 9 ! intuitive faculty4 #b4 ,,! ,,transc5d5tal ,,analytic4--,x is ! fir/ problem ( ! ,analytic to atta9 ! pure conceptions ( ! und]/&+4 ,ari/otle _h already attempt$ to =m a table ( ^! conceptions or categories1 b he _h collect$ !m empirically in/ead ( d]iv+ !m f a common pr9ciple1 & _h numb]$ among !m space & "t1 ?\gh ^! are no pure conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 b only =ms ( intuition4 ,b if we w\ld h a p]fect1 pure1 & regul>ly arrang$ table ( all ! conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 or all ! apriori =ms ( ?\ght1 we mu/ look = a pr9ciple out ( :i* we may d]ive !m4 ,?is pr9ciple is ! judgm5t4 ,! g5]al fundam5tal conceptions ( ! und]/&+ may be p]fectly atta9$ if we look at all ! diff]5t modes or =ms ( ! judgm5t4 ,= ?is end ,kant consid]s ! diff]5t k9ds ( judgm5t z ord9>ily po9t$ out to u by ! sci5ce ( logic4 ,n[ logic %[s t !re are f\r k9ds ( judgm5t1 viz41 judgm5ts ( ,quantity4 ,quality4 ,relation4 ,modality4 ,univ]sal1 ,affirmative1 ,categorical1 ,problematical1 ,plurative1 ,negative1 ,hypo!tical1 ,ass]tive1 ,s+ul>4 ,illimitable4 ,disjunctive4 ,apodictic4 ,f ^! judgm5ts result ! same numb] ( fundam5tal conceptions or categories ( ! und]/&+1 viz43 ,quantity4 ,quality4 ,relation4 ,modality4 ,totality1 ,reality1 ,sub/ance & ,possibility & inh]5ce1 impossibility1 ,multiplicity1 ,negation1 ,cause & ,be+ & dep5d5ce1 n-be+1 ,unity4 ,limitation4 ,reciprocal action4 ,necessity & accid5ce4 ,f ^! twelve categories all ! re/ may be d]iv$ by comb9ation4 ,f ! fact t ^! categories are %[n to belong apriori to ! und]/&+1 x foll[s1 7#a7 t ^! conceptions are apriori1 & h5ce h a necess>y & univ]sal validity1 7#b7 t by !mselves !y are empty =ms1 & atta9 a cont5t only ?r\gh intuitions4 ,b s9ce our intuition is :olly ?r\gh ! s5se1 ^! categories h _! validity only 9 _! application to ! s5su\s intuition1 :i* becomes a prop] exp]i5ce only :5 appreh5d$ 9 ! conceptions ( ! und]/&+4--,"h we meet a second "q2 h[ does ?is happ58 ,h[ d objects become subsum$ "u ^! =ms ( ! und]/&+1 :i* = !mselves are s empty8 ,!re w\ld be no difficulty ) ?is subsumption if ! objects & ! conceptions ( ! und]/&+ 7 ! same 9 k9d4 ,b !y are n4 ,because ! objects come to ! und]/&+ f ! s5sory1 !y are ( ! nature ( ! s5se4 ,h5ce ! "q arises3 h[ c ^! s5sible objects be subsum$ "u pure conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 & fundam5tal pr9ciples 7judgm5ts apriori71 be =m$ f !m8 ,?is _c result imm$iately1 b !re mu/ come 9 betwe5 ! two1 a ?ird1 :i* mu/ h "s ?+ 9 common ) ea*1 i4 e4 :i* is 9 "o respect pure & apriori1 & 9 ano!r s5sible4 ,! two pure intuitions ( ! ,transc5d5tal /hetics1 space & "t1 especially ! latt]1 are ( su* a nature4 ,a transc5d5tal "t det]m9ation1 z ! det]m9ation ( coetane\sness1 corresponds on ! "o side to ! categories1 because x is apriori1 & on ! o!r side to ! ph5om5al objects1 because e ?+ ph5om5al c be repres5t$ only 9 "t4 ,! transc5d5tal "t det]m9ation1 ,kant calls 9 ?is respect ! transc5d5tal s*ema1 & ! use :i* ! und]/&+ makes ( x1 he calls ! transc5d5tal s*ematism ( ! pure und]/&+4 ,! s*ema is a product ( ! imag9ative faculty1 :i* self-actively det]m9es ! inn] s5se to ?is1 ?\gh ! s*ema is some?+ o!r ?an a m]e image4 ,an image is always m]ely an individual & det]m9ate intuition1 b ! s*ema m]ely repres5ts ! univ]sal process ( ! imag9ation1 by :i* x furni%es = a conception a prop] image4 ,h5ce ! s*ema c only exi/ 9 ! conception1 & nev] suff]s itself to be br\ght )9 ! s5su\s intuition4 ,if1 n[1 we consid] m closely ! s*ematism ( ! und]/&+1 & seek ! transc5d5tal "t det]m9ation = e category1 we f9d t3 7#a7 ,quantity has = a univ]sal s*ema ! s]ies ( "t or numb]1 :i* repres5ts ! successive addition ( "o & "o ( ! same k9d4 ,i c only repres5t to myself ! pure und]/&+ conception ( greatness1 except z ,i br+ into ! imag9ation a numb] ( units "o aft] ano!r4 ,if ,i /op ?is process at its fir/ beg9n+1 ! result is unity2 if ,i let x g on f>!r ,i h plurality2 & if ,i suff] x to cont9ue )\t limit1 !re is totality4 ,:5ev] ,i meet ) objects 9 ! ph5om5al _w1 :i* ,i c only appreh5d successively1 ,i am direct$ to apply ! conception ( greatness1 :i* w\ld n be possible )\t ! s*ema ( ! s]ies ( "t4 7#b7 ,quality has = its s*ema ! cont5t ( "t4 ,if ,i wi% to repres5t to myself ! und]/&+ conception ( reality1 :i* belongs to quality1 ,i br+ be=e me 9 ?\ght a "t fill$ up1 or a cont5t ( "t4 ,t is real :i* fills a "t4 ,if also ,i w\ld repres5t to myself ! pure und]/&+ conception ( negation1 ,i br+ into ?\ght a void "t4 7#c7 ,! categories ( relation take _! s*emata f ! ord] ( "t2 = if ,i w\ld repres5t to myself a det]m9ate relation1 ,i always br+ into ?\ght a det]m9ate ord] ( ?+s 9 "t4 ,sub/ance appe>s z ! p]si/5ce ( ! real 9 "t2 causality z regul> succession 9 "t2 reciprocal action z ! regul> coetane\sness ( ! det]m9ations 9 ! "o sub/ance1 ) ! det]m9ations 9 ! o!r4 7#d7 ,! categories ( modality take _! s*ema f ! :ole ( "t1 i4 e4 f :e!r1 & h[1 an object belongs to "t4 ,! s*ema ( possibility is ! g5]al h>mony ( a repres5tation ) ! conditions ( "t2 ! s*ema ( actuality is ! exi/5ce ( an object 9 a det]m9$ "t2 t ( necessity is ! exi/5ce ( an object = all "t4 ,we are ?us furni%$ ) all ! means = =m+ metaphysical fundam5tal pr9ciples 7judgm5ts apriori72 we h1 fir/ly1 conceptions apriori1 & secondly1 s*emata ?r\gh :i* we c apply ^! conceptions to objects2 = s9ce e object :i* we c p]ceive1 falls 9 "t1 s mu/ x also fall "u "o ( ^! s*emata1 :i* h be5 borr[$ f "t1 & mu/ consequ5tly p]mit ! correspond+ category to be appli$ to x4 ,! judgm5ts :i* we "h atta9 are syn!tical4 ,!y are1 correspond+ to ! f\r classes ( categories1 ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,all ph5om5a are1 accord+ to intuition1 ext5sive greatness1 s9ce !y _c be appreh5d$ o!rwise ?an ?r\gh space & "t4 ,on ?is pr9ciple ! axioms ( intuition rely4 7#b7 ,all ph5om5a are1 accord+ to s5sation1 int5sive greatness1 s9ce e s5sation has a det]m9$ degree1 & is capable ( increase & dim9ution4 ,on ?is pr9ciple ! anticipations ( p]ception re/4 7#c7 ,! ph5om5a /& "u necess>y "t-det]m9ations4 ,!y conta9 ! sub/antial1 :i* abides1 & ! accid5tal1 :i* *anges4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! *ange ( accid5ce1 !y are subject to ! law ( ! foll[+ connection1 ?r\gh ! relation ( cause & effect3 z sub/ances !y are1 9 respect ( _! accid5ces1 9 a con/ant reciprocal action4 ,f ?is pr9ciple spr+ ! analogies ( exp]i5ce4 7#d7 ,! po/ulates ( empirical ?9k+ are conta9$ 9 ! pr9ciples3 7a7 t :i* co9cides ) ! =mal conditions ( exp]i5ce1 is possible1 & c become ph5om5on2 7b7 t :i* agrees ) ! mat]ial conditions ( exp]i5ce is actual1 & is ph5om5on2 7c7 t1 ^: connection ) ! actual is det]m9$ accord+ to ! univ]sal conditions ( exp]i5ce1 is necess>y1 & mu/ be ph5om5on4 ,su* are ! possible & au?oriz$ syn!tical judgm5ts apriori4 ,b x mu/ n be =gott5 t we are entitl$ to make only an empirical use ( all ^! conceptions & pr9ciples1 & t we mu/ ev] apply !m only to ?+s z objects ( a possible exp]i5ce1 & nev] to ?+s 9 !mselves2 = ! conception )\t an object is an empty =m1 b ! object _c be giv5 to ! conception except 9 intuition1 & ! pure intuition ( space & "t ne$s to be fill$ by exp]i5ce4 ,h5ce1 )\t ref]5ce to human exp]i5ce1 ^! apriori conceptions & pr9ciples are no?+ b a sport+ ( ! imag9ation & ! und]/&+1 ) _! repres5tations4 ,_! peculi> det]m9ation is only to enable u to spell p]ceptions1 t we may read !m z exp]i5ces4 ,b "h "o is apt to fall into a delusion1 :i* c h>dly be avoid$4 ,s9ce ! categories are n gr\nd$ ^u ! s5sory1 b h an apriori orig91 x w\ld seem z ?\gh _! application w\ld rea* f> beyond ! s5se2 b su* a view is a delusion2 our conceptions are n able to lead u to a k ( ?+s 9 !mselves 7n\m5a71 s9ce our intuition gives u only ph5om5a = ! cont5t ( our conceptions1 & ! ?+ 9 itself c nev] be giv5 9 a possible exp]i5ce2 our k rema9s limit$ to ! ph5om5a4 ,! s\rce ( all ! confusions & errors & /rife 9 previ\s metaphysics1 0 9 conf\nd+ ! ph5om5al ) ! n\m5al _w4 ,besides ! categories or conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 :i* h be5 consid]$1 & :i* are especially important = exp]i5ce1 ?\gh (t5 appli$ errone\sly beyond ! prov9ce ( exp]i5ce1 !re are o!r conceptions ^: peculi> prov9ce is only to deceive2 conceptions ^: express det]m9ation is to pass beyond ! prov9ce ( exp]i5ce1 & :i* may consequ5tly be call$ transc5d5t4 ,^! are ! fundam5tal conceptions & pr9ciples ( ! previ\s metaphysics4 ,to exam9e ^! conceptions1 & de/roy ! appe>ance ( objective sci5ce & k1 :i* !y falsely exhibit1 is ! problem ( ! ,transc5d5tal ,dialectics 7! second "p ( ! transc5d5tal logic74 #c4 ,,! ,,transc5d5tal ,,dialectics4--,9 a /rict s5se1 ! reason is di/+ui%$ f ! und]/&+4 ,z ! und]/&+ has its categories1 ! reason has its ideas2 z ! und]/&+ =ms fundam5tal maxims f conceptions1 ! reason =ms pr9ciples f ideas1 9 :i* ! maxims ( ! und]/&+ h _! highe/ confirmation4 ,! peculi> "w ( ! reason is1 9 g5]al1 to f9d ! uncondition$ = ! condition$ k ( ! und]/&+1 & to unify x4 ,h5ce ! reason is ! faculty ( ! uncondition$1 or ( pr9ciples2 b s9ce x has no imm$iate ref]5ce to objects1 b only to ! und]/&+ & its judgm5ts1 its activity mu/ rema9 an imman5t "o4 ,if x w\ld take ! highe/ unity ( ! reason n simply 9 a transc5d5tal s5se1 b exalt x to an actual object ( k1 !n x w\ld become transc5d5t 9 t x appli$ ! conceptions ( ! und]/&+ to ! k ( ! uncondition$4 ,f ?is transc5d+ & false use ( ! categories1 arises ! transc5d5tal appe>ance :i* decoys u beyond exp]i5ce1 by ! delusive pretext ( wid5+ ! doma9 ( ! pure und]/&+4 ,x is ! problem ( ! transc5d5tal logic to discov] ?is transc5d5tal appe>ance4 ,! speculative ideas ( ! reason1 d]iv$ f ! ?ree k9ds ( logical conclusion1 ! categorical1 ! hypo!tical1 & ! disjunctive1 are ?reefold4 7#a47 ,! psy*ological idea1 ! idea ( ! s\l1 z a ?9k+ sub/ance 7! object hi!rto ( rational psy*ology74 7#b47 ,! cosmological idea1 ! idea ( ! _w z includ+ all ph5om5a 7! object hi!rto ( cosmology74 7#c47 ,! !ological idea1 ! idea ( ,god z ! highe/ condition ( ! possibility ( all ?+s 7! object hi!rto ( rational !ology74 ,b ) ^! ideas1 9 :i* ! reason attempts to apply ! categories ( ! und]/&+ to ! uncondition$1 ! reason becomes unavoidably entangl$ 9 a semblance & an illusion4 ,?is transc5d5tal semblance1 or ?is optical illusion ( ! reason1 exhibits itself diff]5tly 9 ea* ( ! diff]5t ideas4 ,) ! psy*ological ideas ! reason p]petrates a simple p>alogism1 :ile ) ! cosmological x f9ds itself driv5 to contradictory affirmations or ant9omies1 &1 ) ! !ological1 x w&]s ab\t 9 an empty ideal4 7#a47 ,! psy*ological ideas1 or ! p>alogisms ( ! pure reason4 ,kant has attempt$1 "u ?is rubric1 to ov]?r[ all rational psy*ology z ?is _h be5 previ\sly appreh5d$4 ,rational psy*ology has consid]$ ! s\l z a ?+ call$ by t "n ) ! attribute ( immat]iality1 z a simple sub/ance ) ! attribute ( incorruptibility1 z a num]ically id5tical1 intellectual sub/ance ) ! pr$icate ( p]sonality1 z an unext5d$ & ?9k+ be+ ) ! pr$icate ( immortality4 ,all ^! pr9ciples ( rational psy*ology1 says ,kant1 are surreptiti\s2 !y are all d]iv$ f ! "o premise1 8,i ?9k20 b ?is premise is nei!r intuition nor conception1 b a simple consci\sness1 an act ( ! m9d :i* att5ds1 connects1 & be>s 9 itself all repres5tations & conceptions4 ,?is ?9k+ is n[ falsely tak5 z a real ?+2 ! be+ ( ! ,ego z object is connect$ ) ! ,ego z subject1 & t :i* is affirm$ analytically ( ! latt] is pr$icat$ syn!tically ( ! =m]4 ,b 9 ord] to treat ! ,ego also z object1 & to be able to apply to x categories1 x mu/ be giv5 empirically1 9 an intuition1 :i* is n ! case4 ,f all ?is x foll[s t ! pro(s = immortality re/ ^u false conclusions4 ,i c1 inde$1 sep>ate my pure ?9k+ ideally f ! body2 b obvi\sly1 x does n foll[ f ?is t my ?9k+ c exi/ really :5 sep>ate f ! body4 ,! result :i* ,kant d]ives f 8 critick ( rational psy*ology is ?is1 viz41 !re is no rational psy*ology z a doctr9e :i* c furni% u ) any addition to our self-k1 b only z a discipl9e1 :i* places impassable limits to ! speculative reason 9 ?is field1 9 ord] t x may nei!r ?r[ itself into ! bosom ( a s\lless mat]ialism1 nor lose itself 9 ! delusion ( a gr\ndless spiritualism4 ,9 ?is respect rational psy*ology w\ld r rem9d u1 t ?is refusal ( our reason to give a satisfactory answ] to ! que/ions :i* /ret* beyond ?is life1 %\ld be reg>d$ z an intimation ( ! reason = u to leave ?is fruitless & sup]flu\s speculation1 & apply our self-k to "s fruitful & practical use4 7#b47 ,! ,ant9omies ( ,cosmology4 ,! cosmological ideas _c be fully atta9$ )\t ! aid ( ! categories4 7#a7 ,s f> z ! quantity ( ! _w is conc]n$1 space & "t are ! orig9al quanta ( all intuition4 ,9 a quantitative respect1 !re=e1 ! cosmological idea mu/ hold fa/ to some?+ conc]n+ ! totality ( ! times & spaces ( ! _w4 7#b7 ,9 respect ( quality1 ! divisibility ( matt] mu/ be reg>d$4 7#c7 ,9 respect ( relation1 ! complete s]ies ( causes mu/ be s\ght = ! exi/+ effects 9 ! _w4 7#d7 ,9 respect ( modality1 ! accid5tal accord+ to its conditions1 or ! complete dep5d5ce ( ! accid5tal 9 ! ph5om5on mu/ be conceiv$4 ,:51 n[1 ! reason attempts to e/abli% det]m9ations respect+ ^! problems1 x f9ds itself at once entangl$ 9 a contradiction ) itself4 ,directly contr>y affirmations c be made ) equal validity 9 ref]5ce to ea* ( ^! f\r po9ts4 ,we c %[1 ^u gr\nds equally valid1 7#a7 ! !sis1 ! _w has a beg9n+ 9 "t & limits 9 space2 & ! anti!sis1 ! _w has nei!r beg9n+ 9 "t nor limit 9 space4 7#b7 ,! !sis3 e comp\nd sub/ance 9 ! _w consi/s ( simple p>ts1 & !re exi/s no?+ else ?an ! simple & t :i* x composes2 & ! anti!sis3 no comp\nd ?+ consi/s ( simple p>ts1 & !re exi/s no?+ simple 9 ! _w4 7#c7 ,! !sis3 causality accord+ to ! laws ( nature1 is n ! only "o f :i* ! ph5om5a ( ! _w may be d$uc$1 b ^! may be expla9$ ?r\gh a causality 9 fre$om2 & ! anti!sis3 !re is no fre$om1 b e ?+ 9 ! _w happ5s only accord+ to natural laws4 ,la/ly1 7#d7 ! !sis3 some?+ belongs to ! _w ei!r z its "p or its cause1 :i* is an absolutely necess>y be+2 & ! anti!sis3 !re exi/s no absolutely necess>y be+ z cause ( ! _w1 ei!r 9 ! _w or )\t x4 ,f ?is dialectic conflict ( ! cosmological ideas1 !re foll[s at once ! wor?lessness ( ! :ole /ruggle4 7#c47 ,! ideal ( ! pure ,reason or ! idea ( ,god4 ,kant %[s at fir/ h[ ! reason comes to ! idea ( a mo/ real be+1 & !n turns himself aga9/ ! ef=ts ( previ\s metaphysics to prove its valid exi/5ce4 ,8 critick ( ! argum5ts employ$ to prove ! exi/5ce ( a ,god1 is ess5tially ! foll[+4 7a47 ,! ,ontological pro(4--,! argum5t "h is z foll[s3 x is possible t !re is a mo/ real be+2 n[ exi/5ce is impli$ 9 ! conception ( all reality1 & h5ce1 exi/5ce necess>ily belongs to ! conception ( ! mo/ real be+4 ,b1 answ]s ,kant1 exi/5ce is n at all a reality1 or real pr$icate :i* c be add$ to ! conception ( a ?+1 b x is ! position ( a ?+ ) all its prop]ties4 ,a ?+1 h[ev]1 may lose its exi/5ce1 & /ill be depriv$ ( none ( its prop]ties4 ,h5ce if x h any prop]ty1 x does n at all foll[ t x possesses exi/5ce4 ,be+ is no?+ b ! logical copula1 :i*1 does n 9 ! lea/ enl>ge ! cont5t ( ! subject4 ,a hundr$ actual doll>s1 e4 g4 conta9 no m ?an a hundr$ possible ones2 !re is only a diff]5ce betwe5 !m 9 ref]5ce to my own weal?4 ,?us ! mo/ real be+ may ) p]fect propriety be conceiv$ ( z ! mo/ real1 :ile at ! same "t x %\ld only be conceiv$ ( z possible1 & n z actual4 ,x 0 !re=e :olly unnatural1 & a simple play ( s*ool wit1 to take an idea :i* _h be5 arbitr>ily =m$1 & d$uce f x ! exi/5ce ( its correspond+ object4 ,any ef=t & toil :i* might be sp5t ^u ?is fam\s pro( is ?us only ?r[n away1 & a man w\ld become no ri*] 9 k out ( simple ideas ?an a m]*ant w\ld increase 8 prop]ty by add+ a numb] ( ciph]s to ! balance ( 8 acc\nts4 7b47 ,! ,cosmological pro(4--,?is1 l ! ontological1 inf]s ! exi/5ce ( an absolute be+ f ! necessity ( exi/5ce4 ,if any ?+ exi/ !re mu/ also exi/ an absolutely necess>y be+ z its cause4 ,b n[ !re exi/s at lea/ ,i myself1 & !re mu/ h5ce also exi/ an absolutely necess>y be+ z my cause4 ,! la/ cosmological ant9omy is "h br\ght 9 to criticise ! argum5t at ?is /age4 ,! conclusion is errone\s1 because f ! ph5om5al & ! accid5tal a necess>y be+ above exp]i5ce is inf]r$4 ,moreov]1 if we all[ ! conclusion to be valid1 x is /ill no ,god :i* x gives u4 ,h5ce ! f>!r inf]5ce is made3 t be+ c alone be necess>y :i* includes all reality )9 itself4 ,if n[ ?is proposition %\ld be rev]s$1 & ! affirmation made t t be+ :i* includes all reality is absolutely necess>y1 !n h we aga9 ! ontological pro(1 & ! cosmological falls ) ?is4 ,9 ! cosmological pro(1 ! reason uses ! trick ( br++ =? z a new argum5t an old "o ) a *ang$ dress1 t x might seem to h ! p[] ( summon+ two witnesses4 7c47 ,! ,physico-!ological pro(4--,if ?us nei!r conception nor exp]i5ce c furni% a pro( = ! div9e exi/5ce1 !re /ill rema9s a ?ird attempt1 viz41 to />t f a det]m9ate exp]i5ce1 & endeavor to see :e!r ! exi/5ce ( a supreme be+ c n be inf]r$ f ! arrangem5t & condition ( ?+s 9 ! _w4 ,su* is ! physico-!ological pro(1 :i* />ts f ! evid5ces ( design 9 nature1 & directs its argum5t z foll[s3 !re is evid5tly design 9 ! univ]se2 ?is is extrane\s to ! ?+s ( ! _w1 & adh]es to !m only cont+5tly2 !re exi/s !re=e a necess>y cause ( ?is design :i* works ) wisdom & intellig5ce2 ?is necess>y cause mu/ be ! mo/ real be+2 ! mo/ real be+ has !re=e necess>y exi/5ce4--,to ?is ,kant answ]s3 ,! physico-!ological pro( is ! olde/1 cle>e/1 & mo/ con=mable to ! common reason4 ,b x is n demon/ration 7apodictic74 ,x inf]s1 f ! =m ( ! _w1 a proportionate & suffici5t cause ( ?is =m2 b 9 ?is way we only atta9 an orig9ator ( ! =m ( ! _w1 & n an orig9ator ( its matt]1 a _w-build]1 & n a _w-creator4 ,to help out ) ?is difficulty ! cosmological pro( is br\ght 91 & ! orig9ator ( ! =m becomes conceiv$ z ! necess>y be+ ly+ at ! gr\nd ( ! cont5t4 ,?us we h an absolute be+ ^: p]fection corresponds to t ( ! _w4 ,b 9 ! _w !re is no absolute p]fection2 we h !re=e only a v p]fect be+2 to get ! mo/ p]fect1 we mu/ rev]t aga9 to ! ontological pro(4 ,?us ! teleological pro( re/s ^u ! cosmological1 :ile ?is 9 turn has its basis 9 ! ontological1 & f ?is circle ! metaphysical modes ( pro( _c escape4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 x w\ld foll[ t ! ideal ( a supreme be+ is no?+ o!r ?an a regulative pr9ciple ( ! reason1 by :i* x looks ^u e connection 9 ! _w z if x sprang f an all-suffici5t & necess>y cause2 9 ord] t1 9 expla9+ ?is connection1 x may e/abli% ! rule ( a sy/ematic & necess>y unity1 x be+ also true t 9 ?is process ! reason ?r\gh a transc5d5tal subreption _c avoid repres5t+ to itself ?is =mal pr9ciple z con/itutive1 & ?is unity z p]sonal4 ,b 9 tru? ?is supreme be+ rema9s = ! simply speculative use ( ! reason1 a m]e b faultless ideal1 a conception :i* is ! summit & ! cr[n ( ! :ole human k1 ^: objective reality1 ?\gh x _c be prov$ ) apodictic c]ta9ty1 c j z little be disprov$4 ,) ?is critick ( ! ideas ( ! reason !re is /ill ano!r "q4 ,if ^! ideas h no objective significance1 :y are !y f\nd )9 u8 ,s9ce !y are necess>y1 !y w d\btless h "s good purpose to subs]ve4 ,:at ?is purpose is1 has already be5 indicat$ 9 speak+ ( ! !ological idea4 ,?\gh n con/itutive1 yet are !y regulative pr9ciples4 ,we _c bett] ord] ! faculties ( our s\l1 ?an by act+ 8z if0 !re 7 a s\l4 ,! cosmological idea leads u to consid] ! _w 8z if0 ! s]ies ( causes 7 inf9ite1 )\t1 h[ev]1 exclud+ an intellig5t cause4 ,! !ological idea enables u to look ^u ! _w 9 all its complexity1 z a regulat$ unity4 ,?us1 :ile ^! ideas ( ! reason are n con/itutive pr9ciples1 by means ( :i* our k c\ld be wid5$ beyond exp]i5ce1 !y are regulative pr9ciples1 by means ( :i* our exp]i5ce may be ord]$1 & br\ght "u c]ta9 hypo!tical unities4 ,^! ?ree ideas1 !re=e1 ! psy*ological1 ! cosmological1 & ! !ological1 d n =m an organon = ! discov]y ( tru?1 b only a canon = ! simplification & sy/ematiz+ ( our exp]i5ces4 ,besides _! regulative significance1 ^! ideas ( ! reason h also a practical importance4 ,!re is a suffici5t c]ta9ty1 n objective1 b subjective1 :i* is especially ( a practical nature1 & is call$ belief or confid5ce4 ,if ! fre$om ( ! w1 ! immortality ( ! s\l1 & ! exi/5ce ( a ,god1 are ?ree c>d9al pr9ciples1 :i*1 ?\gh n 9 any way contribut+ to our k1 are yet press$ cont9ually ^u u by ! reason1 ?is difficulty is remov$ 9 ! practical field :]e ^! ideas h _! peculi> significance = ! moral confid5ce4 ,?is confid5ce is n logical1 b moral c]ta9ty4 ,s9ce x re/s :olly ^u subjective gr\nds1 ^u ! moral "*1 ,i _c say x is morally c]ta9 t !re is a ,god1 b only ,i am morally c]ta91 c4 ,t is1 ! belief 9 a ,god & 9 ano!r _w is s int]wov5 ) my moral "*1 t ,i am 9 j z mu* dang] ( los+ ?is "* z ( be+ depriv$ ( ?is belief4 ,we are ?us br\ght to ! basis ( ! ,,practical ,,reason4 ,,ii4 ,,critick ,,( ,,! ,,practical ,,reason4--,) ! ,critick ( ! ,practical ,reason1 we ent] a :olly diff]5t _w1 :]e ! reason ri*ly recov]s t ( :i* x 0 depriv$ 9 ! !oretical prov9ce4 ,! ess5tial problem ( ! ,critick ( ! ,practical ,reason is almo/ diametrically diff]5t f t ( ! critick ( ! !oretical reason4 ,! object ( inve/igation 9 ! critick ( ! speculative reason1 01--h[ c ! pure reason "k objects apriori2 9 ! practical reason x is1--h[ c ! pure reason det]m9e apriori ! w 9 respect ( objects4 ,! critick ( ! speculative reason inquir$ aft] ! cognizabl5ess ( objects apriori3 ! practical reason has no?+ to d ) ! cognizabl5ess ( objects1 b only ) ! det]m9ation ( ! w4 ,h5ce1 9 ! latt] critick1 we h an ord] directly ! rev]se ( t :i* we f9d 9 ! =m]4 ,z ! orig9al det]m9ations ( our !oretical k are intuitions1 s ! orig9al det]m9ations ( our w are pr9ciples & conceptions4 ,! critick ( ! practical reason mu/1 !re=e1 />t f moral pr9ciples1 & only aft] ^! are firmly fix$1 may we inquire conc]n+ ! relation 9 :i* ! practical reason /&s to ! s5sory4 ,fre$om1 says ,kant1 is giv5 to u apriori z an inn] fact1 x is a fact ( ! inn] exp]i5ce4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 ! reason 9 ! !oretical field _h only a negative result1 because1 :5 x w\ld atta9 to a true ?+ 9 itself x became transc5d5t1 yet n[ 9 ! practical prov9ce x becomes positive ?r\gh ! idea ( fre$om1 because ) ! fact ( fre$om we h no ne$ to g out beyond ourselves1 b possess a pr9ciple imman5t to ! reason4 ,b :y !n give a critick ( practical reason8 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! relation ( fre$om to ! s5sory4 ,s9ce ! free w works ?r\gh its acts ^u ! s5sory1 !re mu/ be a po9t ( contact betwe5 ! two4 ,?is is f\nd 9 ! s5su\s motives ( ! w1 :i* exi/ implant$ 9 x by nature1 9 ! impulses & incl9ations :i*1 z ! pr9ciple ( ! empiric 9 opposition to ! free or pure w1 be> 9 !mselves ! "* ( a want ( fre$om4 ,s9ce1 !n1 fre$om _c be t\*$1 a critick ( ! practical reason c only relate to ^! empirical motives1 9 ! s5se ( dive/+ ^! f ! claim ( be+ exclusively ! motives by :i* ! w is det]m9$4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 9 ! !oretical reason ! empirical elem5t 0 imman5t1 & ! intelligible transc5d5t1 ! rev]se is ! case 9 ! practical reason1 s9ce "h ! empirical is transc5d5t1 & ! intelligible imman5t4 ,x is ! object ( ! ,analytic to %[ ! relation ( ^! two mom5ta ( ! w1 & ! highe/ moral pr9ciple :i* spr+s !refrom1 :ile x belongs to ! ,dialectic to solve ! ant9omies :i* result f ! contradiction ( ! pure & empiric w4 7#a47 ,! ,analytic4--,fre$om1 z ! "o con/itu5t elem5t :i* %[s itself 9 ! activity ( our w1 is ! simple =m ( our actions4 ,! univ]sal law b9d+ ! w1 is t x %\ld det]m9e itself purely f itself1 indep5d5tly ( e ext]nal incitem5t4 ,?is capacity ( self-lawgiv+1 or self-det]m9+1 ,kant calls ! autonomy ( ! w4 ,! free autonomic w says to man3 ?\ oughte/6 & s9ce ?is moral ought comm&s to an uncondition$ ob$i5ce1 ! moral imp]ative is a categorical imp]ative4 ,:at is x n[ :i* is categorically comm&$ by ! practical reason8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 we mu/ fir/ consid] ! empirical w1 i4 e4 ! nature-side ( man4 ,! empirical1 z ! o!r con/itu5t elem5t ( our w1 fir/ produces a def9ite de$ :5 x has fill$ ! empty =m ( action ) ! matt] ( action4 ,! matt] ( ! w is furni%$ by ! s5sory 9 ! desire ( pleasure & ! dread ( pa94 ,s9ce ?is second pr9ciple ( our actions does n f9d its seat 9 ! fre$om ( ! w z ! high] faculty ( desire1 b 9 ! s5sory1 z ! l[] faculty ( desire1 & a =eign law is ?us laid ^u ! w1--,kant calls x1 9 opposition to ! autonomy ( ! reason1 ! het]onomy ( ! w4 ,! categorical imp]ative is ! necess>y law ( fre$om b9d+ ^u all m51 & is di/+ui%$ f mat]ial motives1 9 t ! latt] h no fix$ "*4 ,= m5 are at v>iance 9 respect ( pleasure & pa91 s9ce t :i* is disagreeable to "o may seem pleasant to ano!r1 & if !y ev] agree1 ?is is simply accid5tal4 ,consequ5tly1 ^! mat]ial motives c nev] act ! "p ( laws b9d+ ^u e be+1 b ea* subject may f9d 8 end 9 a diff]5t motive4 ,su* rules ( act+1 ,kant calls maxims ( ! w4 ,he also c5sures ^? morali/s :o h exalt$ su* maxims z univ]sal pr9ciples ( morality4 ,nev]!less1 ^! maxims1 ?\gh n ! highe/ pr9ciples ( morality1 are yet necess>y to ! autonomy ( ! w1 because !y alone furni% = x a cont5t4 ,x is only by unit+ ! two sides1 t we ga9 ! true pr9ciple ( morality4 ,to ?is end ! maxims ( act+ mu/ be fre$ f _! limitation1 & wid5$ to ! =m ( univ]sal laws ( ! reason4 ,only ^? maxims %\ld be *os5 z motives ( action :i* are capable ( becom+ univ]sal laws ( ! reason4 ,! highe/ pr9ciple ( morality w !re=e be ?is3 act s t ! maxims ( ?y w c at ! same "t be valid z ! pr9ciple ( a univ]sal lawgiv+1 i4e4 t no contradiction %all arise 9 ! attempt to conceive ! maxims ( ?y act+ z a law univ]sally obey$4 ,?r\gh ?is =mal moral pr9ciple all mat]ial moral pr9ciples :i* c only be ( a het]onomic nature1 are exclud$4 ,! "q next arises--:at impels ! w to act con=mably to ?is highe/ moral law8 ,kant answ]s3 ! moral law itself1 appreh5d$ & rev]$1 mu/ be ! only mov+ spr+ ( ! human w4 ,if an act :i* 9 itself might be con=mable to ! moral law1 be done only ?r\gh "s impulse to happ9ess aris+ simply f an incl9ation ( ! s5se1 if x be n done purely = ! sake ( ! law1 !n h we simply legality & n morality4 ,t :i* is includ$ 9 e incl9ation ( ! s5se is self-love & self-conceit1 & ( ^! ! =m] is re/rict$ by ! moral law1 & ! latt] :olly /rick5 d[n4 ,b t :i* /rikes d[n our self-conceit & humbles u mu/ appe> to u 9 ! highe/ degree wor?y ( e/eem4 ,b ?is is done by ! moral law4 ,consequ5tly ! positive feel+ :i* we %all *]i% 9 respect ( ! moral law w be rev]5ce4 ,?is rev]5ce1 ?\gh a feel+1 is nei!r s5su\s nor pa?ological1 = x /&s oppos$ to ^!2 b is r an intellectual feel+1 s9ce x arises f ! notion ( ! practical law ( ! reason4 ,on ! "o side z subord9ation to law1 ! rev]5ce includes pa92 on ! o!r side1 s9ce ! co]cion c only be ex]cis$ ?r\gh ! prop] reason1 x includes pleasure4 ,rev]5ce is ! s+le s5sation befitt+ man 9 ref]5ce to ! moral law4 ,man1 z creature ( s5se1 _c re/ on any inn] incl9ation to ! moral law1 = he has ev] incl9ations )9 him :i* resi/ ! law2 love to ! law c only be consid]$ z some?+ ideal4--,?us ! moral purism ( ,kant1 or 8 ef=t to sep>ate e impulse ( ! s5se f ! motives to action1 m]ges into rigorism1 or ! d>k view t duty c nev] be done except ) resi/ance4 ,a simil> exagg]ation belongs to ! well-kn[n epigram ( ,s*ill]1 :o answ]s ! foll[+ scruple ( consci5ce-- ,! fri5ds :om ,i love1 ,i gladly w\ld s]ve1 ,b to ?is incl9ation incites me2 ,& s ,i am =c$ f virtue to sw]ve ,s9ce my act1 ?r\gh affection1 delights me-- ) ! foll[+ decision3 ,! fri5ds :om ?\ lov'/1 ?\ mu/ fir/ seek to scorn1 ,= to no o!r way c ,i guide !e3 ',tis alone ) disgu/ ?\ can/ rightly p]=m ,! acts to :i* duty w\ld lead !e4 7#b47 ,! ,dialectic4--,! pure reason has always its dialectics1 s9ce x belongs to ! nature ( ! reason to dem& ! uncondition$ = ! giv5 condition$4 ,h5ce also ! practical reason seeks an uncondition$ highe/ good = t condition$ good aft] :i* man /rives4 ,:at is ?is highe/ good8 ,if we und]/& by ! highe/ good ! fundam5tal condition ( all o!r goods1 !n x is virtue4 ,b virtue is n ! p]fect good1 s9ce ! f9ite reason z s5sitive /&s 9 ne$ also ( happ9ess4 ,h5ce ! highe/ good is only p]fect :5 ! highe/ happ9ess is jo9$ to ! highe/ virtue4 ,! "q n[ arises3 :at is ! relation ( ^! two elem5ts ( ! highe/ good to ea* o!r8 ,are !y analytically or syn!tically connect$ toge!r8 ,! =m] w\ld be affirm$ by mo/ ( ! anci5ts1 especially by ! ,greek moral philosoph]s4 ,we might all[ ) ! ,/oics1 t happ9ess is conta9$ z an accid5tal elem5t 9 virtue1 or1 ) ! ,epicureans1 t virtue is conta9$ z an accid5tal elem5t 9 happ9ess4 ,! ,/oics said3 to be consci\s ( "o's virtue is happ9ess2 ! ,epicureans said3 to be consci\s ( ! maxims lead+ "o to happ9ess is virtue4 ,b1 says ,kant1 an analytic connection betwe5 ^! two conceptions is n possible1 s9ce !y are :olly diff]5t 9 k9d4 ,consequ5tly !re c be betwe5 !m only a syn!tic unity1 & ?is unity m closely scann$ is se5 to be a causal "o1 s t ! "o elem5t is cause1 & ! o!r effect4 ,su* a relation mu/ be reg>d$ z its highe/ good by ! practical reason1 ^: !sis mu/ !re=e be3 virtue & happ9ess mu/ be b\nd toge!r 9 a correspond5t degree z cause & effect4 ,b ?is !sis is all ?w>t$ by ! actual fact4 ,nei!r ( ! two is ! direct cause ( ! o!r4 ,nei!r is ! /riv+ aft] happ9ess a mov+ spr+ to virtue1 nor is virtue ! effici5t cause ( happ9ess4 ,h5ce ! anti!sis3 virtue & happ9ess d n necess>ily correspond1 & are n univ]sally connect$ z cause & effect4 ,! critical solution ( ?is ant9omy ,kant f9ds 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! s5sible & ! intelligible _w4 ,9 ! _w ( s5se1 virtue & happ9ess d n1 x is true1 correspond2 b ! reason z n\m5on is also a citiz5 ( a sup]s5sible _w1 :]e ! c\nt]-/rife betwe5 virtue & happ9ess has no place4 ,9 ?is sup]s5sible _w virtue is always adequate to happ9ess1 & :5 man passes ov] into ?is he may look = ! actualization ( ! highe/ good4 ,b ! highe/ good has1 z already rem>k$1 two elem5ts1 7#a7 highe/ virtue1 7#b7 highe/ happ9ess4 ,! actualization dem&$ = ! fir/ ( ^! elem5ts po/ulates ! immortality ( ! s\l1 & = ! second1 ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 7a47 ,to ! highe/ good belongs 9 ! fir/ place p]fect virtue or hol9ess4 ,b no creature ( s5se c be holy3 reason unit$ to s5se c only approximate hol9ess z an ideal 9 an endless progression4 ,b su* an endless progress is only possible 9 an endless cont9uance ( p]sonal exi/5ce4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! highe/ good %all ev] be actualiz$1 ! immortality ( ! s\l mu/ be presuppos$4 7b47 ,to ! highe/ good belongs1 9 ! second place1 p]fect happ9ess4 ,happ9ess is t condition ( a rational creature 9 ! _w1 to :om e ?+ goes accord+ to 8 desire & w4 ,?is c only occur :5 all nature is 9 accord ) 8 ends4 ,b ?is is n ! case2 z act+ be+s we are n ! cause ( nature1 & !re is n ! slighte/ gr\nd 9 ! moral law = connect+ morality & happ9ess4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 we ought to endeavor to secure ! highe/ good4 ,x mu/ !re=e be possible4 ,!re is ?us po/ulat$ ! necess>y connection ( ^! two elem5ts1 i4 e4 ! exi/5ce ( a cause ( nature di/9ct f nature1 & :i* conta9s ! gr\nd ( ?is connection4 ,!re mu/ be a be+ z ! common cause ( ! natural & moral _w1 a be+ :o kn[s our *>act]s ( intellig5ce1 & :o1 accord+ to ?is intellig5ce imp>ts to u happ9ess4 ,su* a be+ is ,god4 ,?us f ! practical reason !re issue ! ideas ( immortality & ( ,god1 z we h already se5 to be ! case ) ! idea ( fre$om4 ,! reality ( ! idea ( fre$om is d]iv$ f ! possibility ( a moral law2 t ( ! idea ( immortality is borr[$ f ! possibility ( a p]fect virtue2 t ( ! idea ( a ,god foll[s f ! necess>y dem& ( a p]fect happ9ess4 ,^! ?ree ideas1 !re=e1 :i* ! speculative reason has treat$ z problems t c\ld n be solv$1 ga9 a firm basis 9 ! prov9ce ( ! practical reason4 ,/ill !y are n yet !oretical dogmas1 b z ,kant calls !m practical po/ulates1 necess>y premises ( moral action4 ,my !oretical k is n enl>g$ by !m3 ,i only "k n[ t !re are objects correspond+ to ^! ideas1 b ( ^! objects ,i c "k no m4 ,( ,god1 = in/ance1 we possess & "k no m ?an ?is v conception2 & if we %\ld attempt to e/abli% ! !ory ( ! sup]s5sible gr\nd$ ^u su* categories1 ?is w\ld be to make !ology l a magic lant]n1 ) its phantasmagorical repres5tations4 ,yet has ! practical reason acquir$ = u a c]ta9ty respect+ ! objective reality ( ^! ideas1 :i* ! !oretical reason _h be5 oblig$ to leave undecid$1 & 9 ?is respect ! practical reason has ! primacy4 ,?is relation ( ! two faculties ( k is wisely e/abli%$ 9 relation to ! de/9y ( m54 ,s9ce ! ideas ( ,god & immortality are !oretically obscure to u1 !y d n defile our moral motives by fe> & hope1 b leave u free space to act ?r\gh rev]5ce = ! moral law4 ,?us f> ,kant's ,critick ( ! ,practical ,reason4 ,9 connection ) ?is we may "h m5tion 8 views ( religion z !y appe> 9 8 treatise ^u 8,religion )9 ! ,b\nds ( ,pure ,reason40 ,! *ief idea ( ?is treatise is ! ref]r+ ( religion to morality4 ,betwe5 morality & religion !re may be ! tw(old relation1 t ei!r morality is f\nd$ ^u religion1 or else religion ^u morality4 ,if ! fir/ relation 7 real1 x w\ld give u fe> & hope z pr9ciples ( moral action2 b ?is _c be1 & we are !re=e left alone to ! second4 ,morality leads necess>ily to religion1 because ! highe/ good is a necess>y ideal ( ! reason1 & ?is c only be realiz$ ?r\gh a ,god2 b 9 no way may religion fir/ incite u to virtue1 = ! idea ( ,god may nev] become a moral motive4 ,religion1 accord+ to ,kant1 is ! recognition ( all our duties z div9e comm&s4 ,x is reveal$ religion :5 ,i f9d 9 x ! div9e comm&1 & ?us le>n my duty2 x is natural religion :5 ,i f9d 9 x my duty1 & ?us le>n ! div9e comm&4 ,! ,*ur* is an e?ical community1 :i* has = its end ! fulfilm5t & ! mo/ p]fect exhibition ( moral comm&s1--a union ( ^? :o ) unit$ en]gies purpose to resi/ evil & advance morality4 ,! ,*ur*1 9 s f> z x is no object ( a possible exp]i5ce1 is call$ ! invisible ,*ur*1 :i*1 z su*1 is a simple idea ( ! union ( all ! righte\s "u ! div9e moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,! visible ,*ur*1 on ! o!r h&1 is t :i* pres5ts ! k+dom ( ,god ^u e>?1 s f> z ?is c be atta9$ ?r\gh m54 ,! requisites1 & h5ce also ! *>act]i/ics ( ! true visible ,*ur* 7:i* are divid$ accord+ to ! table ( ! categories s9ce ?is ,*ur* is giv5 9 exp]i5ce7 are ! foll[+3 7a7 ,9 respect ( quantity ! ,*ur* mu/ be total or univ]sal2 & ?\gh x may be divid$ 9 accid5tal op9ions1 yet mu/ x be in/itut$ ^u su* pr9ciples z w necess>ily lead to a univ]sal union 9 "o s+le *ur*4 7b7 ,! quality ( ! true visible ,*ur* is purity1 z a union "u no o!r ?an moral motives1 s9ce x is at ! same "t purifi$ f ! /upidness ( sup]/ition & ! madness ( fanaticism4 7c7 ,! relation ( ! memb]s ( ! ,*ur* to ea* o!r re/s ^u ! pr9ciple ( fre$om4 ,! ,*ur* is1 !re=e1 a free /ate1 nei!r a hi]>*y nor a democracy1 b a volunt>y1 univ]sal1 & endur+ union ( he>t4 7d7 ,9 respect ( modality ! ,*ur* dem&s t its con/itution %\ld n be *ang$4 ,! laws !mselves may n *ange1 ?\gh "o may res]ve to himself ! privilege ( *ang+ "s accid5tal arrangem5ts :i* relate simply to ! adm9i/ration4--,t alone :i* c e/abli% a univ]sal ,*ur* is ! moral fai? ( ! reason1 = ?is alone c be %>$ by ! convictions ( e man4 ,b1 because ( ! peculi> weakness ( human nature1 we c nev] reckon en\gh on ?is pure fai? to build a ,*ur* on x alone1 = m5 are n easily conv9c$ t ! /riv+ aft] virtue & an irreproa*able life is e ?+ :i* ,god dem&s3 !y always suppose t !y mu/ (f] to ,god a special s]vice prescrib$ by tradition1 9 :i* x only comes to ?is--t he is s]v$4 ,to e/abli% a ,*ur*1 we mu/ !re=e h a /atutory fai? hi/orically gr\nd$ ^u facts4 ,?is is ! s-call$ fai? ( ! ,*ur*1 ,9 e ,*ur* !re are !re=e two elem5ts--! purely moral1 or ! fai? ( reason1 & ! hi/orico-/atutory1 or ! fai? ( ! ,*ur*4 ,x dep5ds n[ ^u ! relation ( ! two elem5ts :e!r a ,*ur* %all h any wor? or n4 ,! /atutory elem5t %\ld ev] be only ! vehicle ( ! moral4 ,j s soon z ?is elem5t becomes 9 itself an indep5d5t end1 claim+ an indep5d5t validity1 w ! ,*ur* become corrupt & irrational1 & :5ev] ! ,*ur* passes ov] to ! pure fai? ( reason1 does x approximate to ! k+dom ( ,god4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple we may di/+ui% ! true f ! spuri\s s]vice ( ! k+dom ( ,god1 religion f prie/craft4 ,a dogma has wor? alone 9 s f> z x has a moral cont5t4 ,! apo/le ,paul himself w\ld ) difficulty h giv5 cr$it to ! dicta ( ! fai? ( ! ,*ur* )\t ?is moral fai?4 ,f ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity1 e4 g4 tak5 lit]ally1 no?+ actually practical c be d]iv$4 ,:e!r we h to rev]5ce 9 ! ,godhead ?ree p]sons or t5 makes no diff]5ce1 if 9 bo? cases we h ! same rules = our conduct ( life4 ,! ,bible also1 ) its int]pretation1 mu/ be consid]$ 9 a moral po9t ( view4 ,! records ( revelation mu/ be int]pret$ 9 a s5se :i* w h>monize ) ! univ]sal rules ( ! religion ( reason4 ,reason is 9 religi\s ?+s ! highe/ int]pret] ( ! ,bible4 ,?is int]pretation 9 ref]5ce to "s texts may seem =c$1 yet x mu/ be pref]r$ to any su* lit]al int]pretation z w\ld conta9 no?+ = morality1 or p]haps g aga9/ e moral motive4 ,t su* a moral signification may always be f\nd )\t ev] entirely repudiat+ ! lit]al s5se1 results f ! fact t ! f\ndation = a moral religion lay orig9ally 9 ! human reason4 ,we ne$ only to dive/ ! repres5tations ( ! ,bible ( _! my?ical dress 7an attempt :i* ,kant has himself made1 by moral explanation ( "s ( ! weightie/ doctr9es71 9 ord] to atta9 a rational s5se :i* %all be univ]sally valid4 ,! hi/orical elem5t ( ! sacr$ books is 9 itself ( no acc\nt4 ,! matur] ! reason becomes1 ! m x c hold fa/ = itself ! moral s5se1 s mu* ! m unnecess>y w be ! /atutory in/itutions ( ! fai? ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! transition ( ! fai? ( ! ,*ur* to ! pure fai? ( reason is ! approximation to ! k+dom ( ,god1 to :i*1 h[ev]1 we c only approa* ne>] & ne>] 9 an inf9ite progress4 ,! actual realization ( ! k+dom ( ,god is ! end ( ! _w1 ! cessation ( hi/ory4 ,,iii4 ,,critick ,,( ,,! ,,faculty ,,( ,,judgm5t4--,! conception ( ?is sci5ce ,kant gives 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! two faculties ( ! human m9d hi!rto consid]$ 7 ! faculty ( k & t ( desire4 ,x 0 prov$ 9 ! ,critick ( pure ,reason1 t ! und]/&+ only z faculty ( k includ$ con/itutive pr9ciples apriori2 & x 0 %[n 9 ! ,critick ( ,practical ,reason1 t ! reason possesses con/itutive pr9ciples apriori1 simply 9 ref]5ce to ! faculty ( desire4 ,:e!r n[ ! faculty ( judgm5t1 z ! middle l9k betwe5 und]/&+ & reason1 c take its object--! feel+ ( pleasure & pa9 z ! middle l9k betwe5 ! faculty ( k & t ( desire--& furni% x apriori ) pr9ciples :i* %all be = !mselves con/itutive & n simply regulative3 ?is is ! po9t ^u :i* ! ,critick ( ! ,faculty ( ,judgm5t has to turn4 ,! faculty ( judgm5t is ! middle l9k betwe5 ! und]/&+ z ! faculty ( conceptions1 & ! reason z ! faculty ( pr9ciples4 ,9 ?is position x has ! foll[+ functions3 ,! speculative reason _h taught u to consid] ! _w only accord+ to natural laws2 ! practical reason _h inf]r$ = u a moral _w1 9 :i* e ?+ is det]m9$ ?r\gh fre$om4 ,!re 0 ?us a gulf betwe5 ! k+dom ( nature & t ( fre$om1 :i* c\ld n be pass$ unless ! faculty ( judgm5t %\ld furni% a conception :i* %\ld unite ! two sides4 ,t x is entitl$ to d ?is lies 9 ! v conception ( ! faculty ( judgm5t4 ,s9ce x is ! faculty ( conceiv+ ! p>ticul> z conta9$ "u ! univ]sal1 x ?us ref]s ! empirical manifoldness ( nature to a sup]s5sible1 transc5d5tal pr9ciple1 :i* embraces 9 itself ! gr\nd = ! unity ( ! manifold4 ,! object ( ! faculty ( judgm5t is1 !re=e1 ! conception ( design 9 nature2 = ! evid5ce ( ?is po9ts to t sup]s5sible unity :i* conta9s ! gr\nd = ! actuality ( an object4 ,& s9ce all design & e actualization ( an end is connect$ ) pleasure1 we may f>!r expla9 ! faculty ( judgm5t by say+1 t x conta9s ! laws = ! feel+ ( pleasure & pa94 ,! evid5ce ( design 9 nature c be repres5t$ ei!r subjectively or objectively4 ,9 ! fir/ case ,i p]ceive pleasure & pa91 imm$iately ?r\gh ! repres5tation ( an object1 be=e ,i h =m$ a conception ( x2 my delight1 9 ?is in/ance1 c only be ref]r$ to a design$ h>mony ( relation1 betwe5 ! =m ( an object1 & my faculty ( behold+4 ,! faculty ( judgm5t view$ ?us subjectively1 is call$ ! /hetic faculty4 ,9 ! second case1 ,i =m to myself at ! outset1 a conception ( ! object1 & !n judge :e!r ! =m ( ! object corresponds to ?is conception4 ,9 ord] to f9d a fl[] t is beautiful to my behold+1 ,i d n ne$ to h a conception ( ! fl[]2 b1 if ,i w\ld see a design 9 x1 !n a conception is necess>y4 ,! faculty ( judgm5t1 view$ z capacity to judge ( ^! objective designs1 is call$ ! teleological faculty4 #a4 ,,critick ,,( ,,! ,,/hetic ,,faculty ,,( ,,judgm5t4 7#a47 ,analytic4--,! analytic ( ! /hetic faculty ( judgm5t is divid$ into two p>ts1 ! analytic ( ! beautiful1 & ! analytic ( ! sublime4 ,9 ord] to discov] :at is requir$ 9 nam+ an object beautiful1 we mu/ analyze ! judgm5t ( ta/e1 z ! faculty = decid+ ^u ! beautiful4 7a7 ,9 respect ( quality1 ! beautiful is ! object ( a pure1 un9t]e/$ satisfaction4 ,?is dis9t]e/$ness enables u to di/+ui% betwe5 ! satisfaction 9 ! beautiful1 & ! satisfaction 9 ! agreeable & ! good4 ,9 ! agreeable & ! good ,i am int]e/$2 my satisfaction 9 ! agreeable is connect$ ) a s5sation ( desire2 my satisfaction 9 ! good is1 at ! same "t1 a motive = my w to actualize x4 ,my satisfaction 9 ! beautiful alone is )\t int]e/4 7b7 ,9 respect ( quantity1 ! beautiful is t :i* univ]sally pleases4 ,9 respect ( ! agreeable1 e "o decides t 8 satisfaction 9 x is only a p]sonal "o2 b if any "o %\ld affirm ( a picture1 t x is beautiful1 he w\ld expect t n only he1 b e o!r "o1 w\ld also f9d x s4 ,nev]!less1 ?is judgm5t ( ! ta/e does n arise f conceptions2 its univ]sal validity is !re=e purely subjective4 ,i d n judge t all ! objects ( a species are beautiful1 b only t a c]ta9 specific object w appe> beautiful to e behold]4 ,all ! judgm5ts ( ta/e are individual judgm5ts4 7c7 ,9 respect ( relation1 t is beautiful 9 :i* we f9d ! =m ( design1 )\t repres5t+ to ourselves any specific design4 7d7 ,9 respect ( modality1 t is beautiful :i* is recogniz$ )\t a conception1 z ! object ( a necess>y satisfaction4 ,( e repres5tation1 x is at lea/ possible1 t x may awak5 pleasure4 ,! repres5tation ( ! agreeable awak5s actual pleasure4 ,! repres5tation ( ! beautiful1 on ! o!r h&1 awak5s pleasure necess>ily4 ,! necessity :i* is conceiv$ 9 an /hetic judgm5t1 is a necessity = det]m9+ e ?+ by a judgm5t1 :i* c be view$ z an example ( a univ]sal rule1 ?\gh ! rule itself _c be /at$4 ,! subjective pr9ciple :i* lies at ! basis ( ! judgm5t ( ta/e1 is !re=e a common s5se1 :i* det]m9es :at is pleas+1 & :at displeas+1 only ?r\gh feel+1 & n ?r\gh conception4 ,! sublime is t :i* is absolutely1 or beyond all comp>ison1 great1 comp>$ ) :i* e ?+ else is small4 ,b n[ 9 nature !re is no?+ :i* has no great]4 ,! absolutely great is only ! inf9ite1 & ! inf9ite is only to be met ) 9 ourselves1 z idea4 ,! sublime1 !re=e1 is n prop]ly f\nd 9 nature1 b is only c>ri$ ov] to nature f our own m9ds4 ,we call t sublime 9 nature1 :i* awak5s )9 u ! idea ( ! inf9ite4 ,z 9 ! beautiful !re is prom95t ref]5ce to quality1 s1 9 ! sublime1 ! mo/ important elem5t ( all1 is quantity2 & ?is quantity is ei!r greatness ( ext5sion 7! ma!matically sublime71 or greatness ( p[] 7! dynamically sublime74 ,9 ! sublime !re is a great] satisfaction 9 ! =mless1 ?an 9 ! =m4 ,! sublime excites a vigor\s movem5t ( ! he>t1 & awak5s pleasure only ?r\gh pa91 i4 e4 ?r\gh ! feel+ t ! en]gies ( life are = ! mom5t re/ra9$4 ,! satisfaction 9 ! sublime is h5ce n s mu* a positive pleasure1 b r an amazem5t & awe1 :i* may be call$ a negative pleasure4 ,! elem5ts = an /hetic judgm5t ( ! sublime are ! same z 9 ! feel+ ( ! beautiful4 7a7 ,9 respect ( quantity1 t is sublime :i* is absolutely great1 9 comp>ison ) :i* e ?+ else is small4 ,! /hetic e/imate ( greatness does n lie1 h[ev]1 9 num]ation1 b 9 ! simple intuition ( ! subject4 ,! greatness ( an object ( nature1 :i* ! imag9ation attempts 9 va9 to compreh5d1 leads to a sup]s5sible sub/ratum1 :i* is great beyond all ! measures ( ! s5se1 & :i* has ref]5ce prop]ly to ! feel+ ( ! sublime4 ,x is n ! object itself1 z ! surg+ sea1 :i* is sublime1 b r ! subject's frame ( m9d1 9 ! e/imation ( ?is object4 7b7 ,9 respect ( quality1 ! sublime does n awak5 pure pleasure1 l ! beautiful1 b fir/ pa91 & ?r\gh ?is1 pleasure4 ,! feel+ ( ! insuffici5cy ( our imag9ation1 9 ! /hetic e/imate ( greatness1 gives rise to pa92 b1 on ! o!r side1 ! consci\sness ( our indep5d5t reason1 = :i* ! faculty ( imag9ation is inadequate1 awak5s pleasure4 ,9 ?is respect1 !re=e1 t is sublime :i* imm$iately pleases u1 ?r\gh its opposition to ! int]e/ ( ! s5se4 7c7 ,9 respect ( relation1 ! sublime suff]s nature to appe> z a p[]1 inde$1 b 9 ref]5ce to :i*1 we h ! consci\sness ( sup]iority4 7d7 ,9 respect ( modality1 ! judgm5ts conc]n+ ! sublime are z necess>ily valid1 z ^? = ! beautiful2 only ) ?is diff]5ce1 t our judgm5t ( ! sublime f9ds an entrance to "s m9ds1 ) great] difficulty ?an our judgm5t ( ! beautiful1 s9ce to p]ceive ! sublime1 culture1 & develop$ moral ideas1 are necess>y4 7#b47 ,dialectic4--,a dialectic ( ! /hetic faculty ( judgm5t1 l e dialectic1 is only possible :]e we c meet ) judgm5ts :i* lay claim to univ]sality apriori4 ,= dialectics consi/s 9 ! opposition ( su* judgm5ts4 ,! ant9omy ( ! pr9ciples ( ta/e re/s ^u ! two opposite elem5ts ( ! judgm5t ( ta/e1 t x is purely subjective1 & at ! same "t1 lays claim to univ]sal validity4 ,h5ce1 ! two common-place say+s3 8!re is no disput+ ab\t ta/e10 & 8!re is a conte/ ( ta/e40 ,f ^!1 we h ! foll[+ ant9omy4 7a7 ,!sis3 ! judgm5t ( ta/e _c be gr\nd$ on conception1 else might we dispute x4 7b7 ,anti!sis3 ! judgm5t ( ta/e mu/ be gr\nd$ on conception1 else1 not)/&+ its div]sity1 !re c\ld be no conte/ respect+ x4--,?is ant9omy1 says ,kant1 is1 h[ev]1 only an app>5t "o1 & disappe>s z soon z ! two propositions are m accurately appreh5d$4 ,! !sis %\ld be3 ! judgm5t ( ta/e is n gr\nd$ ^u a def9ite conception1 & is n /rictly demon/rable2 ! anti!sis %\ld be3 ?is judgm5t is gr\nd$ ^u a conception1 ?\gh an indef9ite "o1 viz41 ^u ! conception ( a sup]s5sible sub/ratum = ! ph5om5al4 ,?us appreh5d$1 !re is no long] any contradiction betwe5 ! two propositions4 ,9 ! conclusion ( ! /hetic faculty ( judgm5t1 we c n[ answ] ! "q1 :e!r ! fitness ( ?+s to our faculty ( judgm5t 7_! beauty & sublimity71 lies 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 or 9 u8 ,! /hetic realism claims t ! supreme cause ( nature design$ to produce ?+s :i* %\ld affect our imag9ation1 z beautiful & sublime1 & ! organic =ms ( nature /rongly support ?is view4 ,b on ! o!r b&1 nature exhibits ev5 9 h] m]ely me*anical =ms1 su* a t5d5cy to ! beautiful1 t we might believe t %e c\ld produce also ! mo/ beautiful organic =ms ?r\gh me*anism alone2 & t ?us ! design w\ld lie n 9 nature1 b 9 our s\l4 ,?is is ! /&po9t ( idealism1 ^u :i* x becomes explicable h[ we c det]m9e any ?+ apriori conc]n+ beauty & sublimity4 ,b ! highe/ view ( ! /hetical1 is to use x z a symbol ( ! moral good4 ,?us ,kant makes ! !ory ( ta/e1 l religion1 to be a coroll>y ( morality4 #b4 ,,critick ,,( ,,! ,,teleological ,,faculty ,,( ,,judgm5t4--,9 ! =ego+1 we h consid]$ ! subjective /hetical design 9 ! objects ( nature4 ,b ! objects ( nature h also a relation ( design to ea* o!r4 ,! teleological faculty ( judgm5t has also to consid] ?is faculty ( design4 7#a47 ,analytic ( ! ,teleological ,faculty ( ,judgm5t4--,! analytic has to det]m9e ! k9ds ( objective design4 ,objective1 mat]ial design1 is ( two k9ds1 ext]nal1 & int]nal4 ,! ext]nal design is only relative1 s9ce x simply indicates a usefulness ( "o ?+ = ano!r4 ,s&1 = in/ance1 :i* bord]s ! sea %ore1 is ( use 9 be>+ p9e =e/s4 ,9 ord] t animals c live ^u ! e>?1 ! e>? mu/ produce n\ri%m5t = !m1 etc4 ,^! examples ( ext]nal design1 %[ t "h ! design nev] belongs to ! means 9 itself1 b only accid5tally4 ,we %\ld nev] get a conception ( ! s& by say+ t x is a means = p9e =e/s2 x is conceivable = itself1 )\t any ref]5ce to ! conception ( design4 ,! e>? does n produce n\ri%m5t1 because x is necess>y t m5 %\ld dwell ^u x4 ,9 brief1 ?is ext]nal or relative design may be conceiv$ f ! me*anism ( nature alone4 ,n s ! inn] design ( nature1 :i* %[s itself prom95tly 9 ! organic products ( nature4 ,9 an organic product ( nature1 e "o ( its p>ts is end1 & e "o1 means or in/rum5t4 ,9 ! process ( g5]ation1 ! natural product appe>s z species1 9 gr[? x appe>s z individual1 & 9 ! process ( complete =mation1 e "p ( ! individual %[s itself4 ,?is natural organism _c be expla9$ f me*anical causes1 b only ?r\gh f9al causes1 or teleologically4 7#b47 ,dialectic4--,! dialectic ( ! teleological faculty ( judgm5t1 has to adju/ ?is opposition betwe5 ?is me*anism ( nature & teleology4 ,on ! "o side we h ! !sis3 e production ( mat]ial ?+s mu/ be judg$ z possible1 accord+ to simple me*anical laws4 ,on ! o!r side we h ! anti!sis3 c]ta9 products ( mat]ial nature _c be judg$ z possible1 accord+ to simple me*anical laws1 b dem& ! conception ( design = _! explanation4 ,if ^! two maxims are posit$ z con/itutive 7objective7 pr9ciples = ! possibility ( ! objects !mselves1 !n d !y contradict ea* o!r1 b z simply regulative 7subjective7 pr9ciples = ! inve/igation ( nature1 !y are n contradictory4 ,e>li] sy/ems treat$ ! conception ( design 9 nature dogmatically1 & ei!r affirm$ or d5i$ its ess5tial exi/5ce 9 nature4 ,b we1 conv9c$ t teleology is only a regulative pr9ciple1 h no?+ to d ) ! "q :e!r an inn] design belongs ess5tially to nature or n1 b we only affirm t our faculty ( judgm5t mu/ look ^u nature z design$4 ,we envisage ! conception ( design 9 nature1 b leave x :olly undecid$ :e!r to ano!r und]/&+1 :i* does n ?9k discursively l ours1 nature may n be und]/ood1 )\t at all ne$+ to br+ 9 ?is conception ( design4 ,our und]/&+ ?9ks discursively3 x proce$s f ! p>ts1 & compreh5ds ! :ole z ! product ( its p>ts2 x _c1 !re=e1 conceive ! organic products ( nature1 :]e ! :ole is ! gr\nd & ! prius ( ! p>ts1 except f ! po9t ( view ( ! conception ( design4 ,if !re 71 on ! o!r h&1 an intuitive und]/&+1 :i* c\ld "k ! p>ticul> & ! p>ts z co-det]m9$ 9 ! univ]sal & ! :ole2 su* an und]/&+ might conceive ! :ole ( nature out ( "o pr9ciple1 & w\ld n ne$ ! conception ( end4 ,if ,kant _h ?or\ghly c>ri$ out ?is conception ( an intuitive und]/&+ z well z ! conception ( an imman5t design 9 nature1 he w\ld h ov]come1 9 pr9ciple1 ! /&po9t ( subjective idealism1 :i* he made num]\s attempts1 9 8 critick ( ! faculty ( judgm5t1 to break ?r\gh2 b ^! ideas he only prop\nd$1 & left !m to be positively c>ri$ out by 8 successors4 ,,section ,,xxxix4 ,,transition ,,to ,,! ,,po/-,,kantian ,,philosophy4 ,! ,kantian philosophy soon ga9$ 9 ,g]many an almo/ undisput$ rule4 ,! impos+ boldness ( its /&po9t1 ! novelty ( its results1 ! applicability ( its pr9ciples1 ! moral sev]ity ( its view ( ! _w1 & above all1 ! _s ( fre$om & moral autonomy :i* appe>$ 9 x1 & :i* 0 s directly c\nt] to ! ef=ts ( t age1 ga9$ = x an ass5t z en?usia/ic z x 0 ext5d$4 ,x ar\s$ among all cultivat$ classes a wid] int]e/ & p>ticipation 9 philosophic pursuits1 ?an _h ev] appe>$ 9 an equal degree among any p4 ,9 a %ort "t x _h drawn to itself a v num]\s s*ool3 !re 7 soon few ,g]man univ]sities 9 :i* x _h n _h its tal5t$ repres5tatives1 :ile 9 e dep>tm5t ( sci5ce & lit]ature1 especially 9 !ology 7x is ! p>5t ( !ological rationalism71 & 9 natural rights1 z also 9 belles-lettres 7,s*ill]71 x began to ex]t its influ5ce4 ,yet mo/ ( ! writ]s :o appe>$ 9 ! ,kantian s*ool1 conf9$ !mselves to an exposition or popul> application ( ! doctr9e z ,kant _h giv5 x1 & ev5 ! mo/ tal5t$ & indep5d5t among ! def5d]s & improv]s ( ! critical philosophy 7e4 g4 ,re9hold1 #ageh-ahbc2 ,b>dili1 #agfa-ahjh2 ,s*ulze1 ,beck1 ,fries1 ,krug1 ,b\t]weck71 only attempt$ to give a firm] basis to ! ,kantian philosophy z !y _h receiv$ x1 to obviate "s ( its wants & defici5cies1 & to c>ry out ! /&po9t ( transc5d5tal idealism m purely & consi/5tly4 ,among ^? :o c>ri$ out ! ,kantian philosophy1 only two m51 ,fi*te & ,h]b>t1 c be nam$1 :o made by _! actual advance an epo* 9 philosophy2 & among its oppos]s 7e4 g4 ,hamann1 ,h]d]71 only "o1 ,jacobi1 is ( philosophic importance4 ,^! ?ree philosoph]s are h5ce ! fir/ objects = u to consid]4 ,9 ord] to a m accurate developm5t ( _! pr9ciples1 we preface a brief & g5]al *>act]i/ic ( _! relation to ! ,kantian philosophy4 #a4 ,dogmatism _h be5 critically annihilat$ by ,kant2 8 ,critick ( pure ,reason _h = its result ! !oretical indemon/rabl5ess ( ! ?ree ideas ( ! reason1 ,god1 fre$om1 & immortality4 ,true1 ^! ideas :i*1 f ! /&po9t ( !oretical k1 _h be5 ?ru/ out1 ,kant _h introduc$ aga9 z po/ulates ( ! practical reason2 b z po/ulates1 z only practical premises1 !y possess no !oretic c]ta9ty1 & rema9 expos$ to d\bt4 ,9 ord] to d away ) ?is unc]ta9ty1 & ?is despair+ ( k :i* _h seem$ to be ! end ( ! ,kantian philosophy1 ,jacobi1 a y\ng] cotempor>y ( ,kant1 plac$ himself ^u ! /&po9t ( ! fai? philosophy 9 opposition to ! /&po9t ( criticism4 ,?\gh ^! highe/ ideas ( ! reason1 ! et]nal & ! div9e1 _c be rea*$ & prov$ by means ( demon/ration1 yet is x ! v ess5ce ( ! div9e t x is indemon/rable & unatta9able = ! und]/&+4 ,9 ord] to be c]ta9 ( ! highe/1 ( t :i* lies beyond ! und]/&+1 !re is only "o organ1 viz41 feel+4 ,9 feel+1 !re=e1 9 imm$iate k1 9 fai?1 ,jacobi ?\ght he _h f\nd t c]ta9ty :i* ,kant _h s\ght 9 va9 on ! basis ( discursive ?9k+4 #b4 ,:ile ,jacobi /ood 9 an anti!tic relation to ! ,kantian philosophy1 ,fi*te appe>s z its imm$iate consequ5ce4 ,fi*te c>ri$ out to its consequ5ce ! ,kantian dualism1 accord+ to :i* ! ,ego1 z !oretic1 is subject$ to ! ext]nal _w1 :ile z practical1 x is its ma/]1 or1 9 o!r words1 accord+ to :i* ! ,ego /&s relat$ to ! objective _w1 n[ receptively & aga9 spontane\sly4 ,he all[$ ! reason to be exclusively practical1 z w alone1 & spontaneity alone1 & appreh5d$ its !oretical & receptive relation to ! objective _w z only a circumscrib$ activity1 z a limitation prescrib$ to itself by ! reason4 ,b = ! reason1 s f> z x is practical1 !re is no?+ objective except z x is produc$4 ,! w kn[s no be+ b only an ought4 ,h5ce ! objective be+ ( tru? is univ]sally d5i$1 & ! ?+ :i* is ess5tially unkn[n mu/ fall away ( itself z an empty %ad[4 8,e ?+ :i* is1 is ! ,ego10 is ! pr9ciple ( ! ,fi*tian sy/em1 & repres5ts at ! same "t ! subjective idealism 9 its consequ5ce & completion4 #c4 ,:ile ! subjective idealism ( ,fi*te 0 c>ri$ out 9 ! objective idealism ( ,s*ell+1 & ! absolute idealism ( ,hegel1 !re arose cotemporane\sly ) ^! sy/ems a ?ird (f%oot ( ! ,kantian criticism1 viz41 ! philosophy ( ,h]b>t4 ,x _h its subjective orig9 9 ! ,kantian philosophy1 b its objective & hi/oric connection ) ,kant is slight4 ,x breaks up all hi/oric cont9uity1 & holds an isolat$ position 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,its g5]al basis is ,kantian1 9 s f> z x makes = its problem a critical inve/igation ( ! subjective exp]i5ce4 ,we place x betwe5 ,fi*te & ,s*ell+4 ,,section ,,xl4 ,,jacobi4 ,fri$ri* ,he9ri* ,jacobi 0 born at ,dsseldorf 9 #agdc4 ,8 fa!r de/9$ him = a m]*ant4 ,aft] he _h /udi$ 9 ,g5eva & become int]e/$ 9 philosophy1 he ent]$ 8 fa!r's m]cantile e/abli%m5t1 b aft]w>ds ab&on$ ?is bus9ess1 hav+ be5 made *ancellor ( ! ex*equ] & cu/oms commission] = ,cleves & ,b]g1 & also privy c\ncillor at ,dsseldorf4 ,9 ?is city1 or at 8 neighbor+ e/ate ( ,pempel=t1 he sp5t a great "p ( 8 life devot$ to philosophy & 8 fri5ds4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjd he 0 call$ to ! newly-=m$ ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 ,muni*4 ,9 #ahjg he 0 *os5 presid5t ( ?is in/itution1 a po/ :i* he fill$ till 8 dea? 9 #ahai4 ,jacobi _h a ri* intellect & an amiable "*4 ,besides be+ a philosoph]1 he 0 also a poet & citiz5 ( ! _w2 & h5ce we f9d 9 8 philosophiz+ an abs5ce ( /rict logical arrangem5t & precise expression ( ?\ght4 ,8 writ+s are no sy/ematic :ole1 b are occasional treatises writt5 8rhapsodically & 9 gras%opp] gait10 = ! mo/ "p 9 ! =m ( lett]s1 dialogues1 & romances4 8,x 0 nev] my purpose10 he says himself1 8to set up a sy/em = ! s*ools4 ,my writ+s h sprung f my inn]mo/ life1 & 7 ! result ( t :i* _h tak5 place )9 me4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se ,i did n make !m volunt>ily1 b !y 7 drawn out ( me by a high] p[] irresi/ible to myself40 ,?is want ( an inn] pr9ciple ( classification & ( a sy/ematic arrangem5t1 r5d]s a developm5t ( ,jacobi's philosophy n easy4 ,x may be/ be repres5t$ "u ! foll[+ ?ree po9ts ( view3--#a4 ,jacobi's polemic aga9/ m$iate k4 #b4 ,8 pr9ciple ( imm$iate k4 #c4 ,8 relation to ! cotemporane\s philosophy1 especially to ! ,kantian criticism4 #a4 ,sp9oza 0 ! negative />t+ po9t ( ,jacobi's philosophiz+4 ,9 8 "w 8,on ! ,doctr9e ( ,sp9oza1 9 lett]s to ,moses ,m5delssohn0 7#aghe71 he direct$ public att5tion aga9 to ! almo/ :olly =gott5 philosophy ( ,sp9oza4 ,! correspond5ce orig9at$ ?us3 ,jacobi made ! discov]y t ,less+ 0 a ,sp9ozi/1 & ann\nces ?is to ,m5delssohn4 ,! latt] w n believe x1 & !nce grew ! f>!r hi/orical & philosophical exam9ation4 ,! positive philosophic views :i* ,jacobi exhibits 9 ?is treatise c be r$uc$ to ! foll[+ ?ree pr9ciples3 7#a7 ,sp9ozism is fatalism & a!ism4 7#b7 ,e pa? ( philosophic demon/ration leads to fatalism & a!ism4 7#c7 ,9 ord] t we may n fall into ^!1 we mu/ set a limit to demon/rat+1 & recognize fai? z ! elem5t ( all metaphysic k4 7#a47 ,sp9ozism is a!ism1 because1 accord+ to x1 ! cause ( ! _w is no p]son--is no be+ work+ = an end1 & end[$ ) reason & w--& h5ce is no ,god4 ,x is fatalism1 =1 accord+ to x1 ! human w reg>ds itself only falsely z free4 7#b47 ,?is a!ism & fatalism is1 h[ev]1 only ! necess>y consequ5ce ( all /rictly demon/rative philosophiz+4 ,to conceive a ?+1 says ,jacobi1 is to ref] a ?+ to its ne>e/ cause2 x is to f9d a possible = an actual1 ! condition = a condition$1 ! m$iation = an imm$iate4 ,we conceive only t :i* we c expla9 out ( ano!r4 ,h5ce our conceiv+ moves 9 a *a9 ( condition$ conditions1 & ?is connection =ms a me*anism ( nature1 9 ^: inve/igation our und]/&+ has its immeasurable field4 ,h[ev] f> we may c>ry conception & demon/ration1 we mu/ hold1 9 ref]5ce to e object1 to a /ill high] "o :i* conditions x2 :]e ?is *a9 ( ! condition$ ceases1 !re d conception & demon/ration also cease2 till we give up demon/rat+ we c rea* no inf9ite4 ,if philosophy det]m9es to appreh5d ! inf9ite ) ! f9ite und]/&+1 !n mu/ x br+ d[n ! div9e to ! f9ite2 & "h is :]e e prec$+ philosophy has be5 entangl$1 :ile x is obvi\sly an absurd und]tak+ to attempt to discov] ! conditions ( ! uncondition$1 & make ! absolutely necess>y a possible1 9 ord] t we may be able to con/ruct x4 ,a ,god :o c\ld be prov$ is no ,god1 = ! gr\nd ( pro( is ev] above t :i* is to be prov$2 ! latt] has its :ole reality f ! =m]4 ,if ! exi/5ce ( ,god %\ld be prov$1 !n ,god w\ld be d]iv$ f a gr\nd :i* 7 be=e & above him4 ,h5ce ! p>adox ( ,jacobi2 x is = ! int]e/ ( sci5ce t !re be no ,god1 no sup]natural & no extra or supramundane be+4 ,only ^u ! condition t nature alone is1 & is !re=e indep5d5t & all 9 all1 c sci5ce hope to ga9 its goal ( p]fection1 & become1 l its object itself1 all 9 all4 ,h5ce ! result :i* ,jacobi d]ives f ! 8,drama ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy0 is ?is3--8,!re is no o!r philosophy ?an t ( ,sp9oza4 ,he :o consid]s all ! works & acts ( m5 to be ! effect ( natural me*anism1 & :o believes t intellig5ce is b an accompany+ consci\sness1 :i* has only to act ! "p ( a look]-on1 _c be cont5d$ ) & _c be help$ till we set him free f 8 philosophy4 ,no philosophical conclusion c rea* him1 = :at he d5ies _c be philosophically prov$1 & :at he proves _c be philosophically d5i$40 ,:5ce !n is help to come8 8,! und]/&+1 tak5 by itself1 is mat]iali/ic & irrational2 x d5ies _s & ,god4 ,! reason tak5 by itself is ideali/ic1 & has no?+ to d ) ! und]/&+2 x d5ies nature & makes itself ,god40 7#c47 ,h5ce we mu/ seek ano!r way ( kn[+ ! sup]s5sible1 :i* is fai?4 ,jacobi calls ?is flight f cognition ?r\gh conception to fai?1 ! salto mortale ( ! human reason4 ,e c]ta9ty ?r\gh a conception dem&s ano!r c]ta9ty1 b 9 fai? we are l$ to an imm$iate c]ta9ty :i* ne$s no gr\nd nor pro(1 & :i* is 9 fact absolutely exclusive ( all pro(4 ,su* a confid5ce :i* does n arise f argum5ts1 is call$ fai?4 ,we "k ! s5sible z well z ! sup]s5sible only ?r\gh fai?4 ,all human k spr+s f revelation & fai?4 ,^! pr9ciples :i* ,jacobi br\ght out 9 8 lett]s conc]n+ ,sp9oza1 did n fail to ar\se a univ]sal opposition 9 ! ,g]man philosophical _w4 ,x 0 *>g$ ^u him t he 0 an enemy ( reason1 a prea*] ( bl9d fai?1 a despis] ( sci5ce & ( philosophy1 a fanatic & a papi/4 ,to rebut ^! attacks1 & to ju/ify 8 /&po9t1 he wrote 9 #aghg1 a ye> & a half aft] ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! "w already nam$1 8 dialogue entitl$ 8,david ,hume1 or ,fai?1 ,idealism1 & ,realism10 9 :i* he developes m ext5sively & def9itely 8 pr9ciple ( fai? or imm$iate k4 #b4 ,jacobi di/+ui%$ 8 fai? at ! outset f a bl9d cr$5ce 9 au?ority4 ,a bl9d fai? is t :i* supports itself on a =eign view1 in/ead ( on ! gr\nds ( reason4 ,b ?is is n ! case ) 8 fai?1 :i* r re/s ^u ! inn]mo/ necessity ( ! subject itself4 ,/ill f>!r3 8 fai? is n an arbitr>y imag9ation3 we c imag9e to ourselves e ?+ possible1 b 9 ord] to reg>d a ?+ z actual1 !re mu/ be an inexplicable necessity ( our feel+1 :i* we _c o!rwise "n ?an fai?4 ,jacobi 0 n con/ant 9 8 t]m9ology1 & h5ce did n always express himself alike 9 respect ( ! relation 9 :i* fai? /ood to ! diff]5t sides ( ! human faculty ( k4 ,9 8 e>li] t]m9ology he plac$ fai? 7or z he also call$ x1 ! p[] ( fai?71 on ! side ( ! s5se or ! receptivity1 & let x /& oppos$ to ! und]/&+ & ! reason1 tak+ ^! two t]ms z equival5t expressions = ! f9ite & imm$iate k ( previ\s philosophy2 aft]w>ds he foll[$ ,kant1 &1 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! reason & ! und]/&+1 he call$ t reason :i* he _h previ\sly nam$ s5se & fai?4 ,accord+ to him n[1 ! fai? or intuition ( ! reason is ! organ = p]ceiv+ ! sup]s5sible4 ,z su*1 x /&s oppos$ to ! und]/&+4 ,!re mu/ be a high] faculty :i* c le>n1 9 a way inconceivable to s5se & ! und]/&+1 t :i* is true 9 & above ! ph5om5a4 ,ov] aga9/ ! expla9+ und]/&+ /&s ! reason1 or ! natural fai? ( ! reason1 :i* does n expla91 b positively reveals & unconditionally decides4 ,z !re is an intuition ( ! s5se1 s is !re a rational intuition ?r\gh ! reason1 & a demon/ration has no m validity 9 respect ( ! latt] ?an 9 respect ( ! =m]4 ,jacobi ju/ifies 8 use ( ! t]m1 intuition ( ! reason1 f ! want ( any o!r suitable designation4 ,language has no o!r expression to indicate ! way 9 :i* t1 :i* is unatta9able to ! s5se1 becomes appreh5d$ 9 ! transc5d5tal feel+4 ,if any "o affirms t he kn[s any ?+1 he may prop]ly be requir$ to /ate ! orig9 ( 8 k1 & 9 do+ ?is1 he mu/ ( necessity g back ei!r to s5sation or to feel+2 ! latt] /&s above ! =m] z high z ! human species above ! brute4 ,s ,i affirm1 !n1 )\t hesitation1 says ,jacobi1 t my philosophy />ts f pure feel+1 & decl>es ! au?ority ( ?is to be supreme4 ,! faculty ( feel+ is ! highe/ 9 man1 & t alone :i* specifically di/+ui%es him f ! brute4 ,?is faculty is "o & ! same ) reason2 or1 reason may be said to f9d 9 x its s+le & only />t+ po9t4 ,jacobi _h ! cle>e/ consci\sness ( ! opposition 9 :i* he /ood1 ) ?is pr9ciple ( imm$iate k1 to previ\s philosophy4 ,9 8 introduction to 8 complete works1 he says3 8,!re _h aris5 s9ce ! "t ( ,ari/otle an increas+ ef=t 9 philosophical s*ools1 to subject ! imm$iate k to ! m$iate1 to make t faculty ( p]ception :i* orig9ally e/abli%es e ?+1 dep5d5t on ! faculty ( reflection1 :i* is condition$ ?r\gh ab/raction2 to subord9ate ! ar*etype to ! copy1 ! ess5ce to ! ^w1 ! reason to ! und]/&+1 &1 9 fact1 to make ! =m] :olly disappe> 9 ! latt]4 ,no?+ is all[$ to be true :i* is n capable ( a d\ble demon/ration1 9 ! intuition & 9 ! conception1 9 ! ?+ & 9 its image or ^w2 ! ?+ itself1 x is said1 mu/ truly lie & actually be kn[n only 9 ! ^w40 ,b e philosophy :i* all[s only ! reflect+ reason1 mu/ lose itself at l5g? 9 an utt] ignorance4 ,its end is nihilism4 #c4 ,f :at has be5 already said1 ! position ( ,jacobi ) 8 pr9ciple ( fai?1 9 relation to ! ,kantian philosophy1 c1 p>tly at lea/1 be se54 ,jacobi _h sep>at$ himself f ?is philosophy1 p>tly 9 ! above-nam$ dialogue 8,david ,hume10 7especially 9 an app5dix to ?is1 9 :i* he discuss$ ! transc5d5tal ,idealism71 & p>tly 9 8 essay 8,on ! attempt ( criticism to br+ ! reason to ! und]/&+0 7#ahja74 ,8 relation to x may be r$uc$ to ! foll[+ ?ree g5]al po9ts3 7#a47 ,jacobi does n agree ) ,kant's !ory ( s5su\s k4 ,9 opposition to ?is !ory he def5ds ! /&po9t ( empiricism1 affirms ! tru?fulness ( ! s5se-p]ception1 & d5ies ! apriority ( space & "t1 = :i* ,kant cont5ds 9 ord] to prove t objects z well z _! relations are simply det]m9ations ( our own self1 & d n at all exi/ ext]nally to u4 ,=1 h[ev] mu* x may be affirm$ t !re is some?+ correspond+ to our notions z _! cause1 yet does x rema9 conceal$ :at ?is some?+ is4 ,accord+ to ,kant1 ! laws ( our behold+ & ?9k+ are )\t objective validity1 our k has no objective significance4 ,b x is wrong to claim t 9 ! ph5om5a !re is no?+ reveal$ ( ! hidd5 tru? :i* lies beh9d !m4 ,) su* a claim1 x 7 f> bett] to give up completely ! unkn[n ?+-9-itself1 & c>ry out to its results ! consequ5t idealism4 8,logically1 ,kant is at fault1 :5 he presupposes objects :i* make impressions on our s\l4 ,he is b\nd to tea* ! /ricte/ idealism40 7#b47 ,yet ,jacobi ess5tially agrees ) ,kant's critick ( ! und]/&+4 ,jacobi affirm$1 z ,kant _h done1 t ! und]/&+ is insuffici5t to "k ! sup]s5sible1 & t ! highe/ ideas ( ! reason c\ld be appreh5d$ only 9 fai?4 ,jacobi places ,kant's great m]it 9 hav+ cle>$ away ! ideas1 :i* 7 simply ! products ( reflection & logical phantasms4 8,x is v easy = ! und]/&+1 :5 produc+ "o notion f ano!r1 & ?us gradually m\nt+ up to ideas1 to imag9e t1 by virtue ( ^!1 :i*1 ?\gh !y c>ry x beyond ! intuitions ( ! s5se1 are no?+ b logical phantasms1 x has n only ! faculty b ! mo/ decid$ det]m9ation to fly truly above ! _w ( s5se1 & to ga9 by its flight a high] sci5ce indep5d5t ( ! intuition1 a sci5ce ( ! sup]s5sible4 ,kant discov]s & de/roys ?is error & self-deception4 ,?us !re is ga9$1 at lea/1 a cle> place = a g5u9e rationalism4 ,?is is ,kant's truly great de$1 8 immortal m]it4 ,b ! s\nd s5se ( our sage did n all[ him to hide f himself t ?is cle> place mu/ disappe> 9 a gulf1 :i* w\ld swall[ up 9 itself all k ( ! true1 unless a ,god %\ld int]pose to h9d] x4 ,"h ,kant's doctr9e & m9e meet40 7#c47 ,b ,jacobi does n fully agree ) ,kant1 9 :olly d5y+ to ! !oretical reason ! faculty ( objective k4 ,he blames ,kant = compla9+ t ! human reason _c !oretically prove ! reality ( its ideas4 ,he affirms t ,kant is ?us /ill entangl$ 9 ! delusion1 t ! only reason :y ^! ideas _c be prov$1 is f\nd 9 ! nature ( ! ideas !mselves1 & n 9 ! defici5t nature ( our k4 ,kant !re=e attempts to seek1 9 a practical way1 a k9d ( sci5tific pro(2 a r\ndab\t way1 :i*1 to e pr(\nd seek]1 mu/ seem folly1 s9ce e pro( is z impossible z x is unnecess>y4 ,jacobi agre$ bett] ) ,kant1 ?an ) ! po/-,kantian philosophy4 ,! a!i/ic t5d5cy ( ! latt] 0 especially repulsive to him4 8,to ,kant1 t pr(\nd ?9k] & upright philosoph]1 ! words ,god1 fre$om1 immortality1 & religion1 signifi$ ! same z !y h ev] done to ! s\nd human und]/&+2 he 9 no way treats !m z no?+ b deception4 ,he creat$ (f5ce by irresi/ibly %[+ ! insuffici5cy ( all pro(s ( speculative philosophy = ^! ideas4 ,t :i* 0 want+ 9 ! !oretical pro(1 he made up by ! necess>y po/ulates ( a pure practical reason4 ,) ^!1 accord+ to ,kant's assurance1 philosophy 0 fully help$ out ( h] difficulty1 & ! goal1 :i* _h be5 always miss$1 actually rea*$4 ,b ! fir/ daught] ( ! critical philosophy 7,fi*te's sy/em7 makes ! liv+ & work+ moral ord] itself to be ,god1 a ,god expressly decl>$ to be )\t consci\sness & self-exi/5ce4 ,^! frank words1 spok5 publicly & )\t re/ra9t1 r\s$ "s att5tion1 b ! fe> soon subsid$4 ,pres5tly a/oni%m5t ceas$ :olly1 = ! second daught] ( ! critical philosophy 7,s*ell+'s sy/em7 gave up entirely ! di/9ction :i* ! fir/ _h all[$ to rema9 betwe5 natural & moral philosophy1 necessity & fre$om1 & )\t any fur!r ado affirm$ t ! only exi/5ce is nature1 & t !re is no?+ above2 ?is second daught] is ,sp9ozism transfigur$ & rev]s$1 an ideal mat]ialism40 ,?is latt] allusion to ,s*ell+1 connect$ z x 0 ) o!r & h>d] ?ru/s 9 ! same essay1 call$ out f ?is philosoph] ! well-kn[n answ]3 8,s*ell+'s ,monum5t to ! ,treatise on ,div9e ,?+s1 #ahab40 ,if we n[ take a critical survey ( ! philosophical /&po9t ( ,jacobi1 we %all f9d its peculi>ity to consi/ 9 ! ab/ract sep>ation ( und]/&+ & feel+4 ,^! two ,jacobi c\ld n br+ into h>mony4 8,!re is light 9 my he>t10 he says1 8b x goes out :5ev] ,i attempt to br+ x into ! und]/&+4 ,:i* is ! true lum9>y ( ^! two8 ,t ( ! und]/&+1 :i*1 ?\gh x reveals fix$ =ms1 %[s beh9d !m only a baseless gulf8 ,or t ( ! he>t1 :i* po9ts its light promis+ly upw>ds1 ?\gh det]m9ate k escapes x8 ,c ! human _s grasp ! tru? unless x possesses ^! two lum9>ies unit$ 9 "o light8 ,& is ?is union conceivable except ?r\gh a miracle80 ,if n[1 9 ord] to escape 9 a c]ta9 degree ?is contradiction betwe5 und]/&+ & feel+1 ,jacobi gave to imm$iate k ! place ( m$iate z f9ite k1 ?is 0 a self-deception4 ,ev5 t k1 :i* is suppos$ to be imm$iate1 & :i* ,jacobi reg>ds z ! peculi> organ = kn[+ ! sup]s5sible1 is also m$iate1 oblig$ to g ?r\gh a c\rse ( subjective m$iations1 & c only give itself out z imm$iate :5 x :olly =gets its own orig94 ,,section ,,xli4 ,,fi*te ,johann ,gottlieb ,fi*te 0 born at ,ramm5au1 9 ,upp] ,lusatia1 #agfb4 ,a nobleman ( ,silesia became int]e/$ 9 ! boy1 & hav+ committ$ him fir/ to ! in/ruction ( a cl]gyman1 he aft]w>ds plac$ him at ! high s*ool at ,s*ulp=te4 ,9 8 eighte5? ye>1 at ,mi*aelmas1 #aghj1 ,fi*te ent]$ ! univ]sity at ,j5a to /udy !ology4 ,he soon f\nd himself attract$ to philosophy1 & became p[]fully affect$ by ! /udy ( ,sp9oza4 ,8 pecuni>y circum/ances 7 /rait5$1 b ?is only s]v$ to h>d5 8 w & 8 en]gy4 ,9 #aghd he became employ$ z a tea*] 9 a c]ta9 family1 & sp5t "s "t 9 ?is occupation ) diff]5t families 9 ,saxony4 ,9 #aghg he s\ght a place z c\ntry cl]gyman1 b 0 refus$ on acc\nt ( 8 religi\s op9ions4 ,he 0 n[ oblig$ to leave 8 fa!rl&1 to :i* he clung ) 8 :ole s\l4 ,he repair$ to ,zuri*1 :]e1 9 #aghh1 he took a po/ z private tutor1 & :]e also he became acqua9t$ ) 8 future wife1 a si/]'s daught] ( ,klop/ock4 ,at ,ea/]1 #agij1 he return$ to ,saxony & taught privately at ,leipsic1 :]e he became acqua9t$ ) ! ,kantian philosophy1 by means ( lessons :i* he 0 oblig$ to give to a /ud5t4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #agia we f9d him z private tutor at ,w>saw1 & soon aft] 9 ,konigsb]g1 :]e he resort$1 t he might become p]sonally acqua9t$ ) ! ,kant he _h le>n$ to rev]e4 ,in/ead ( a lett] ( recomm5dation he pres5t$ him 8 8,critick ( all ,revelation10 a treatise :i* ,fi*te compos$ 9 eight days4 ,9 ?is he attempt$ to d$uce1 f ! practical reason1 ! possibility ( a revelation4 ,?is is n se5 purely apriori1 b only "u an empirical condition2 we mu/ consid] humanity to be 9 a moral ru9 s complete1 t ! moral law has lo/ all its influ5ce ^u ! w & all morality is ext+ui%$4 ,9 su* a case we may expect t ,god1 z moral gov]nor ( ! _w1 w\ld give man1 ?r\gh ! s5se1 "s pure moral impulses1 & reveal himself z lawgiv] to !m ?r\gh a special manife/ation det]m9$ = ?is end1 9 ! _w ( s5se4 ,9 su* a case a p>ticul> revelation 7 a po/ulate ( ! practical reason4 ,fi*te s\ght also to det]m9e apriori ! possible cont5t ( su* a revelation4 ,s9ce we ne$ to "k no?+ b ,god1 fre$om1 & immortality1 ! revelation w conta9 naught b ^!1 & ^! x mu/ conta9 9 a compreh5sible =m1 yet s t ! symbolical dress may lay no claim to unlimit$ v5]ation4 ,?is treatise1 :i* appe>$ anonym\sly 9 #agib1 at once attract$ ! greate/ att5tion1 & 0 at fir/ univ]sally reg>d$ z a "w ( ,kant4 ,x procur$ = its au?or1 soon aft]1 a call to ! *air ( philosophy at ,j5a1 to succe$ ,re9hold1 :o !n w5t to ,kiel4 ,fi*te receiv$ ?is appo9tm5t 9 #agic at ,zuri*1 :]e he _h gone to consummate 8 m>riage4 ,at ! same "t he wrote & publi%$1 also anonym\sly1 8 8,aids to correct views ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution10 an essay :i* ! gov]nm5ts nev] look$ ^u ) favor4 ,at ,ea/]1 #agid1 he ent]$ ^u 8 new (fice1 & soon saw 8 public call confirm$4 ,tak+ n[ a new /&po9t1 :i* transc5d$ ,kant1 he s\ght to e/abli% ?is1 & c>ry x out 9 a s]ies ( writ+s 7! ,wiss5s*aftslehre appe>$ 9 #agid1 ! ,naturre*t 9 #agif1 & ! ,sitt5lehre 9 #agih71 by :i* he ex]t$ a p[]ful influ5ce ^u ! sci5tific movem5t 9 ,g]many1 aid$ z he 0 9 ?is by ! fact t ,j5a 0 !n "o ( ! mo/ fl\ri%+ ( ! ,g]man univ]sities1 & ! resort ( e vigor\s head4 ,) ,goe!1 ,s*ill]1 ! bro!rs ,s*legel1 ,william von ,humboldt1 & ,hufel&1 ,fi*te 0 9 close fell[%ip1 ?\gh ?is 0 un=tunately brok5 aft] a few ye>s4 ,9 #agie he became associate editor ( ! 8,philosophical ,j\rnal10 :i* _h be5 e/abli%$ by ,nie?amm]4 ,a fell[-labor]1 ,rector ,=b]g1 at ,saalfeld1 (f]$ = publication 9 ?is j\rnal an article 8to det]m9e ! conception ( religion40 ,fi*te advis$ ! au?or n to publi% x1 b at l5g? ins]t$ x 9 ! j\rnal1 prefac+ x1 h[ev]1 ) an introduction ( 8 own4 8,on ! gr\nd ( our fai? 9 a div9e gov]nm5t ( ! _w10 9 :i* he endeavor$ to remove1 or at lea/ s(t51 ! views 9 ! article :i* might give (f5ce4 ,bo? ! essays rais$ a great cry ( a!ism4 ,! elector ( ,saxony confiscat$ ! j\rnal 9 8 t]ritory1 & s5t a requisition to ! dukes ,erne/1 :o held 9 common ! univ]sity ( ,j5a1 to summon ! au?or to trial & puni%m5t4 ,fi*te answ]$ ! edict ( confiscation & attempt$ to ju/ify himself to ! public 7#agii71 by 8 8,appeal to ! ,public4 ,an essay :i* x is reque/$ may be read be=e x is confiscat$20 :ile he def5d$ 8 c\rse to ! gov]nm5t by an article entitl$ 8,! ,publi%]s ( ! ,philosophical ,j\rnal ju/ifi$ f ! *>ge ( ,a!ism40 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,weim>1 be+ z anxi\s to sp>e him z x 0 to please ! elector ( ,saxony1 delay$ its decision4 ,b z ,fi*te1 ei!r ) or )\t reason1 _h privately le>n$ t ! :ole matt] 0 to be settl$ by reprim&+ ! accus$ p>ties = _! want ( caution2 &1 desir+ ei!r a civil acquittal or an op5 & prop] satisfaction1 he wrote a private lett] to a memb] ( ! gov]nm5t1 9 :i* he desir$ 8 dismission 9 case ( a reprim&1 & :i* he clos$ ) ! intimation t _m ( 8 fri5ds w\ld leave ! univ]sity ) him1 9 ord] to e/abli% toge!r a new "o 9 ,g]many4 ,! gov]nm5t reg>d$ ?is lett] z an application = 8 dis*>ge1 indirectly decl>+ t ! reprim& 0 unavoidable4 ,fi*te1 n[ an object ( suspicion1 bo? on acc\nt ( 8 religi\s & political views1 look$ ab\t him 9 va9 = a place ( refuge4 ,! pr9ce ( ,rudol/adt1 to :om he turn$1 d5i$ him 8 protection1 & 8 arrival 9 ,b]l9 7#agii7 attract$ great notice4 ,9 ,b]l91 :]e he _h mu* int]c\rse ) ,fr$]ick ,s*legel1 & also ) ,s*lei]ma*] & ,novalis1 8 views became gradually modifi$2 ! cata/rophe at ,j5a _h l$ him f ! exclusive moral /&po9t :i* he1 re/+ ^u ,kant1 _h hi!rto held1 to ! sph]e ( religion2 he n[ s\ght to reconcile religion ) 8 /&po9t ( ! ,wiss5%aftslehre1 & turn$ himself to a c]ta9 my/icism 7! second =m ( ! ,fi*tian !ory74 ,aft] he _h privately taught a numb] ( ye>s 9 ,b]l91 & _h also held philosophical lectures = m5 ( culture1 he 0 recomm5d$ 7#ahje7 by ,beyme & ,alt5/e91 *ancellor ( /ate ( ,h>d5b]g1 to a pr(essor%ip ( philosophy 9 ,erlang51 an appo9tm5t :i* he receiv$ toge!r ) a p]mit to return to ,b]l9 9 ! w9t]1 & hold !re 8 philosophical lectures be=e ! public4 ,?us1 9 ! w9t] ( #ahjg-h1 :ile a ,fr5* m>%al 0 gov]nor ( ,b]l91 & :ile 8 voice 0 (t5 dr[n$ by ! ho/ile tumults ( ! enemy ?r\gh ! /reets1 he deliv]$ 8 fam\s 8,addresses to ! ,g]man nation40 ,fi*te labor$ mo/ assidu\sly = ! f\ndation ( ! ,b]l9 univ]sity1 = only by :olly trans=m+ ! common education did he believe ! reg5]ation ( ,g]many c\ld be secur$4 ,z ! new univ]sity 0 op5$ #ahji1 he 0 made 9 ! fir/ ye> dean ( ! philosophical faculty1 & 9 ! second 0 inve/$ ) ! dignity ( rector4 ,9 ! 8w> ( lib]ation10 !n break+ out1 ,fi*te took ! livelie/ p>ticipation by ^w & de$4 ,8 wife _h contract$ a n]v\s fev] by h] c>e ( ! sick & w\nd$1 & ?\gh %e recov]$1 he fell a victim to ! same disease4 ,he di$ ,jan4 #bh1 #ahad1 n hav+ yet complet$ 8 fifty-second ye>4 ,9 ! foll[+ exposition ( ,fi*te's philosophy1 we di/+ui% betwe5 ! two int]nally diff]5t p]iods ( 8 philosophiz+1 t ( ,j5a & t ( ,b]l94 ,! fir/ division w include two p>ts--,fi*te's !ory ( sci5ce & 8 practical philosophy4 ,i4 ,,! ,,fi*tian ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,its ,,orig9al ,,=m4 #a4 ,,! ,,!oretical ,,philosophy ,,( ,,fi*te1 ,,8 ,,wiss5s*aftslehre1 ,,or ,,!ory ,,( ,,sci5ce4--,x has already be5 %[n 7 #ci7 t ! ?or\ghly-go+ subjective idealism ( ,fi*te 0 only ! logical consequ5ce ( ! ,kantian /&po9t4 ,x 0 :olly unavoidable t ,fi*te %\ld entirely reject ! ,kantian ess5tially ?+ 7?+ 9 itself71 :i* ,kant _h himself decl>$ to be unrecognizable ?\gh real1 & t he %\ld posit z a prop] act ( ! m9d1 t ext]nal influ5ce :i* ,kant _h ref]r$ to ! ess5tially ?+4 ,t ! ,ego alone is1 & t :i* we reg>d z a limitation ( ! ,ego by ext]nal objects1 is r ! prop] self-limitation ( ! ,ego2 ?is is ! gr& feature ( ! ,fi*tian z ( e idealism4 ,fi*te himself support$ ! /&po9t ( ?is ,!ory ( ,sci5ce z foll[s3 ,9 e exp]i5ce !re is conjo9tly an ,ego & a ?+1 ! intellig5ce & its object4 ,:i* ( ^! two sides mu/ n[ be r$uc$ to ! o!r8 ,if ! philosoph] ab/racts ! ,ego1 he has rema9+ an ess5tially ?+1 & mu/ !n appreh5d 8 repres5tations or s5sations z ! products ( ?is object2 if he ab/racts ! object1 he has rema9+ an ess5tially ,ego 7an ,ego 9 itself74 ,! =m] is dogmatism1 ! latt] idealism4 ,bo? are irreconcilable ) ea* o!r1 & !re is no ?ird way possible4 ,we mu/ !re=e *oose betwe5 ! two4 ,9 ord] to decide betwe5 ! two sy/ems1 we mu/ note ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,t ! ,ego appe>s 9 consci\sness1 :]e=e ! ess5tially ?+ is a pure inv5tion1 s9ce 9 consci\sness we h only t :i* is p]ceiv$2 7#b7 ,dogmatism mu/ acc\nt = ! orig9 ( its repres5tation ?r\gh "s ess5tially object1 x mu/ />t f some?+ :i* does n lie 9 ! consci\sness4 ,b ! effect ( be+ is only be+1 & n repres5tation4 ,h5ce idealism alone c be correct :i* does n />t f be+1 b f intellig5ce4 ,accord+ to idealism1 intellig5ce is only active1 n passive1 because x is a fir/ & absolute3 & on ?is acc\nt !re belongs to x no be+1 b simply an act+4 ,! =ms ( ?is act+1 ! sy/em ( ! necess>y mode 9 :i* intellig5ce acts1 mu/ be f\nd f ! ess5ce ( intellig5ce4 ,if we %\ld take ! laws ( intellig5ce f exp]i5ce1 z ,kant did 8 categories1 we fail 9 two respects3 7#a7 ,we d n see :y intellig5ce mu/ s act1 nor :e!r ^! laws are imman5t laws ( intellig5ce2 7#b7 ,we d n see h[ ! object itself orig9ates4 ,h5ce ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( intellig5ce1 z well z ! objective _w1 mu/ be d]iv$ f ! ,ego itself4 ,fi*te suppos$ t 9 ^! results he only express$ ! true s5se ( ! ,kantian philosophy4 8,:atev] my sy/em may prop]ly be1 :e!r ! g5u9e criticism ?or\ghly c>ri$ out1 z ,i believe x is1 or h[soev] x be nam$1 is ( no acc\nt40 ,8 sy/em1 ,fi*te affirms1 _h ! same view ( ! matt] z ,kant's1 :ile ! num]\s foll[]s ( ?is philosoph] _h :olly mi/ak5 & misund]/ood _! ma/]'s idealism4 ,9 ! second introduction to ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce 7#agig71 ,fi*te grants to ^! exp\nd]s ( ! ,critick ( pure ,reason t x conta9s "s passages :]e ,kant w\ld affirm t s5sations mu/ be giv5 to ! subject f )\t z ! mat]ial conditions ( objective reality2 b %[s t ! innum]ably repeat$ decl>ations ( ! ,critick1 t !re c\ld be no influ5ce ^u u ( a real transc5d5tal object outside ( u1 _c at all be reconcil$ ) ^! passages1 if any ?+ o!r ?an a simple ?\ght be und]/ood z ! gr\nd ( ! s5sations4 8,s long10 adds ,fi*te1 8z ,kant does n expressly decl>e t he d]ives s5sations f an impression ( "s ess5tially ?+1 or1 to use 8 t]m9ology1 t s5sation mu/ be expla9$ f a transc5d5tal object exi/+ ext]nally to u3 s long w ,i n believe :at ^! exp\nd]s tell u ( ,kant4 ,b if he %\ld give su* an explanation1 ,i %\ld soon] reg>d ! ,critick ( ,pure ,reason to be a "w ( *ance ?an ( design40 ,= su* an explanation ! ag$ ,kant did n suff] him long to wait4 ,9 ! ,intellig5zblatt d] ,allgeme95 ,litt]aturzeitung 7#agii71 he =mally1 & ) mu* emphasis1 rejects ! ,fi*tian improvem5t ( 8 sy/em1 & prote/s aga9/ e int]pretation ( 8 writ+s accord+ to ! conceit ( any m9d1 :ile he ma9ta9s ! lit]al int]pretation ( 8 !ory z laid d[n 9 ! ,critick ( ,reason4 ,re9hold rem>ks ^u all ?is3 8,s9ce ! well kn[n & public explanation ( ,kant respect+ ,fi*te's philosophy1 !re c be no long] a d\bt t ,kant himself w\ld repres5t 8 own sy/em1 & desire to h x repres5t$ by 8 read]s1 entirely o!rwise ?an ,fi*te _h repres5t$ & int]pret$ x4 ,b f ?is x irresi/ibly foll[s1 t ,kant himself did n reg>d 8 sy/em z illogical because x presuppos$ some?+ ext]nal to ! subjectivity4 ,nev]!less1 x does n at all foll[ t ,fi*te err$ :5 he decl>$ t ?is sy/em1 ) su* a presupposition1 mu/ be illogical40 ,s mu* = ,re9hold4 ,t ,kant himself did n fail to see ?is inconclusiv5ess1 is evid5t f ! *anges he introduc$ into ! second edition ( ! ,critick ( ,pure ,reason1 :]e he suff]$ ! ideali/ic side ( 8 sy/em to fall back decid$ly beh9d ! empirical4 ,f :at has be5 said1 we c see ! univ]sal /&po9t ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce2 ! ,ego is made a pr9ciple1 & f ! ,ego e ?+ else is s\ght to be d]iv$4 ,x h>dly ne$s to be rem>k$1 t by ?is ,ego we are to und]/&1 n any individual1 b ! univ]sal ,ego1 ! univ]sal rationality4 ,! ,ego & ! individual1 ! pure & ! empirical ,ego1 are :olly diff]5t conceptions4 ,we h /ill ! foll[+ preface to make conc]n+ ! =m ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce4 ,a !ory ( sci5ce1 accord+ to ,fi*te1 mu/ posit "s supreme pr9ciple1 f :i* e o!r mu/ be d]iv$4 ,?is supreme pr9ciple mu/ be absolutely1 & ?r\gh itself1 c]ta94 ,if our human k %\ld be any ?+ b fragm5t>y1 !re mu/ be su* a supreme pr9ciple4 ,b n[1 s9ce su* a pr9ciple does n admit ( pro(1 e ?+ dep5ds ^u giv+ x a trial4 ,its te/ & demon/ration c only be ?us ga9$1 viz41 if we f9d a pr9ciple to :i* all sci5ce may be ref]r$1 !n is ?is %[n to be a fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,b besides ! fir/ fundam5tal pr9ciple1 !re are yet two o!rs to be consid]$1 ! "o ( :i* is uncondition$ z to its cont5t1 b z to its =m1 condition$ ?r\gh & d]iv$ f ! fir/ fundam5tal pr9ciple2 ! o!r ! rev]se4 ,! relation ( ^! ?ree pr9ciples to ea* o!r is1 9 f9e1 ?is1 viz41 t ! second /&s oppos$ to ! fir/1 :ile a ?ird is ! product ( ! two4 ,h5ce1 accord+ to ?is plan1 ! fir/ absolute pr9ciple />ts f ! ,ego1 ! second opposes to ! ,ego a ?+ or a non-,ego1 & ! ?ird br+s =w>d ! ,ego aga9 9 reaction aga9/ ! ?+ or ! non-,ego4 ,?is me?od ( ,fi*te 7!sis1--anti!sis1--syn!sis7 is ! same z ,hegel subsequ5tly adopt$1 & appli$ to ! :ole sy/em ( philosophy1 a union ( ! syn!tical & analytical me?ods4 ,we />t ) a fundam5tal syn!sis1 :i* we analyze to produce its anti!ses1 9 ord] to unite ^! anti!ses aga9 ?r\gh a second syn!sis4 ,b 9 mak+ ?is second syn!sis1 our analysis discov]s /ill f>!r anti!ses1 :i* obliges u !re=e to f9d ano!r syn!sis1 & s onw>d 9 ! process1 till we come at l5g? to anti!ses :i* c no long] be p]fectly b only approximately connect$4 ,we /& n[ ^u ! ?re%old ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce4 ,x is divid$ into ?ree p>ts4 7#a7 ,g5]al pr9ciples ( a !ory ( sci5ce4 7#b7 ,pr9ciples ( !oretical k4 7#c7 ,pr9ciples ( practical sci5ce4 ,z has already be5 said1 !re are ?ree supreme fundam5tal pr9ciples1 "o absolutely uncondition$1 & two relatively uncondition$4 7#a47 ,! absolutely fir/ & absolutely uncondition$ fundam5tal pr9ciple ought to express t act ( ! m9d :i* lies at ! basis ( all consci\sness1 & alone makes consci\sness possible4 ,su* is ! pr9ciple ( id5tity1 ,a ,a4 ,?is pr9ciple rema9s1 & _c be ?\ght away1 ?\gh e empirical det]m9ation be remov$4 ,x is a fact ( consci\sness1 & mu/1 !re=e1 be univ]sally admitt$3 b at ! same "t x is by no means condition$1 l e o!r empirical fact1 b uncondition$1 because x is a free act4 ,by affirm+ t ?is pr9ciple is c]ta9 )\t any f>!r gr\nd1 we ascribe to ourselves ! faculty ( posit+ some?+ absolutely4 ,we d n1 !re=e1 affirm t ,a is1 b only t if ,a is1 !n x is equal to ,a4 ,x is no matt] n[ ab\t ! cont5t ( ! pr9ciple1 we ne$ only reg>d its =m4 ,! pr9ciple ,a ,a is1 !re=e1 condition$ 7hypo!tically7 z to its cont5t1 & uncondition$ only z to its =m & its connection4 ,if we w\ld n[ h a pr9ciple uncondition$ 9 its cont5t z well z 9 its connection1 we put ,ego 9 ! place ( ,a1 z we are fully entitl$ to d1 s9ce ! connection ( subject & pr$icate conta9$ 9 ! judgm5t ,a ,a is posit$ 9 ! ,ego & ?r\gh ! ,ego4 ,h5ce ,a ,a becomes trans=m$ into ,ego ,ego4 ,?is pr9ciple is uncondition$ n only z to its connection1 b also z to its cont5t4 ,:ile we c\ld n1 in/ead ( ,a ,a1 say t ,a is1 yet we c in/ead ( ,ego ,ego1 say t ,ego is4 ,all ! facts ( ! empirical consci\sness f9d _! gr\nd ( explanation 9 ?is1 viz41 t be=e any ?+ else is posit$ 9 ! ,ego1 ! ,ego itself is !re4 ,?is fact1 t ! ,ego is absolutely posit$ & gr\nd$ on itself1 is ! basis ( all act+ 9 ! human m9d1 & %[s ! pure "* ( activity 9 itself4 ,! ,ego is1 because x posits itself1 & x only is1 because ?is simple posit+ ( itself is :olly by itself4 ,! be+ ( ! ,ego is ?us se5 9 ! posit+ ( ! ,ego1 & on ! o!r h&1 ! ,ego is enabl$ to posit simply by virtue ( its be+4 ,x is at ! same "t ! act+1 & ! product ( ! action4 ,i am1 is ! expression ( ! only possible de$4 ,logically consid]$ we h1 9 ! fir/ pr9ciple ( a ,!ory ( ,sci5ce1 ,a ,a1 ! logical law ( id5tity4 ,f ! proposition ,a ,a1 we arrive at ! proposition ,ego ,ego4 ,! latt] proposition1 h[ev]1 does n d]ive its validity f ! =m]1 b contr>ywise4 ,! prius ( all judgm5ts is ! ,ego1 :i* posits ! connection ( subject & pr$icate4 ,! logical law ( id5tity arises1 !re=e1 f ,ego ,ego4 ,metaphysically consid]$1 we h 9 ?is same fir/ pr9ciple ( a ,!ory ( ,sci5ce1 ! category ( reality4 ,we obta9 ?is category by ab/ract+ e ?+ f ! cont5t1 & reflect+ simply ^u ! mode ( act+ ( ! human m9d4 ,f ! ,ego1 z ! absolute subject1 e category is d]iv$4 7#b47 ,! second fundam5tal pr9ciple1 condition$ 9 its cont5t1 & only uncondition$ 9 its =m1 :i* is j z incapable z ! fir/ ( demon/ration or d]ivation1 is also a fact ( ! empirical consci\sness3 x is ! proposition non-,a is n ,a4 ,?is s5t5ce is uncondition$ 9 its =m1 because x is free act l ! fir/1 f :i* x _c be d]iv$2 b 9 its cont5t1 z to its matt] x is condition$1 because if a non-,a is posit$1 !re mu/ h previ\sly be5 posit$ an ,a4 ,let u exam9e ?is pr9ciple m closely4 ,9 ! fir/ pr9ciple1 ,a ,a1 ! =m ( ! act 0 a posit+1 :ile 9 ?is second pr9ciple x is an opposit+4 ,!re is an absolute opposition1 & ?is opposition1 9 its simple =m1 is an act absolutely possible1 /&+ "u no condition1 limit$ by no high] gr\nd4 ,b z to its matt]1 ! opposition presupposes a position2 ! non-,a _c be posit$ )\t ! ,a4 ,:at non-,a is1 ,i d n ?r\gh t yet "k3 ,i only "k conc]n+ non-,a t x is ! opposite ( ,a3 h5ce ,i only "k :at non-,a is "u ! condition t ,i "k ,a4 ,b n[ ,a is posit$ ?r\gh ! ,ego2 !re is orig9ally no?+ posit$ b ! ,ego1 & no?+ b ?is absolutely posit$4 ,h5ce !re c be an absolute opposition only to ! ,ego4 ,t :i* is oppos$ to ! ,ego is ! non-,ego4 ,a non-,ego is absolutely oppos$ to ! ,ego1 & ?is is ! second fact ( ! empirical consci\sness4 ,9 e ?+ ascrib$ to ! ,ego1 ! contr>y1 by virtue ( ?is simple opposition1 mu/ be ascrib$ to ! non ,ego4--,z we obta9$ f ! fir/ pr9ciple ,ego ,ego1 ! logical law ( id5tity1 s n[ we h1 f ! second s5t5ce ,ego is n non-,ego1 ! logical law ( contradiction4 ,& metaphysically1--s9ce we :olly ab/ract ! def9ite act ( judgm5t1 &1 simply 9 ! =m ( sequ5ce1 conclude n-be+ f opposite be+1--we possess f ?is second pr9ciple ! category ( negation4 7#c47 ,! ?ird pr9ciple1 condition$ 9 its =m1 is almo/ capable ( pro(1 s9ce x is det]m9$ by two o!rs4 ,at e /ep we approa* ! prov9ce :]e e ?+ c be prov$4 ,?is ?ird pr9ciple is condition$ 9 its =m1 & uncondition$ only 9 its cont5t3 i4 e4 ! problem1 b n ! solution ( ! act to be e/abli%$ ?r\gh x1 has be5 giv5 ?r\gh ! two prec$+ pr9ciples4 ,! solution is af=d$ unconditionally & absolutely by a decisive ^w ( ! reason4 ,! problem to be solv$ by ?is ?ird pr9ciple is ?is1 viz41 to adju/ ! contradiction conta9$ 9 ! two =m] ones4 ,on ! "o side1 ! ,ego is :olly suppress$ by ! non-,ego3 !re c be no posit+ ( ! ,ego s f> z ! non-,ego is posit$4 ,on ! o!r side1 ! non-,ego is only an ,ego posit$ 9 ! consci\sness1 & h5ce ! ,ego is n suppress$ by ! non-,ego4 ,! ,ego appe>+ on ! "o side to be suppress$1 is n really suppress$4 ,su* a result w\ld be non-,a ,a4 ,9 ord] to remove ?is contradiction1 :i* ?reat5s to de/roy ! id5tity ( our consci\sness1 & ! only absolute f\ndation ( our k1 we mu/ f9d 9 x t :i* w ju/ify bo? ( ! fir/ two pr9ciples1 & leave ! id5tity ( our consci\sness undi/urb$4 ,! two opposites1 ! ,ego & ! non-,ego1 %\ld be unit$ 9 ! consci\sness1 %\ld be alike posit$ )\t ei!r exclud+ ! o!r2 !y %\ld be receiv$ 9 ! id5tity ( ! prop] consci\sness4 ,h[ %all be+ & n-be+1 reality & negation1 be conceiv$ toge!r )\t de/roy+ ea* o!r8 ,!y w reciprocally limit ea* o!r4 ,h5ce ! unkn[n quantity x1 ^: t]ms we are seek+1 /&s = ^! limits3 limitation is ! s\ght-= act ( ! ,ego1 & z category 9 ! ?\ght1 we h ?us ! category ( det]m9ation or limitation4 ,b 9 limitation1 !re is also giv5 ! category ( quantity1 = :5 we say t any ?+ is limit$1 we mean t its reality is ?r\gh negation1 n :olly1 b only p>tially suppress$4 ,?us ! conception ( limit conta9s also ! conception ( divisibility1 besides ! conceptions ( reality & negation4 ,?r\gh ! act ( limitation1 ! ,ego z well z ! non-,ego1 is posit$ z divisible4 ,/ill f>!r1 we see h[ a logical law foll[s f ! ?ird fundam5tal pr9ciple z well z f ! fir/ two4 ,if we ab/ract ! def9ite cont5t1 ! ,ego & ! non-,ego1 & leave rema9+ ! simple =m ( ! union ( opposites ?r\gh ! conception ( divisibility1 we h !n ! logical pr9ciple ( ! gr\nd1 or f\ndation1 :i* may be express$ 9 ! =mula3 ,a 9 "p non-,a1 non-,a 9 "p ,a4 ,:]ev] two opposites are alike 9 "o *>act]i/ic1 we consid] ! gr\nd z a gr\nd ( relation1 & :]ev] two simil> ?+s are opposite 9 "o *>act]i/ic1 we consid] ! gr\nd z a gr\nd ( di/9ction4--,) ^! ?ree pr9ciples we h n[ exhau/$ ! measure ( t :i* is uncondition$ & absolutely c]ta94 ,we c embrace ! ?ree 9 ! foll[+ =mula3 ,i posit 9 ! ,ego a divisible non ,ego ov] aga9/ ! divisible ,ego4 ,no philosophy c g beyond ?is cognition1 & e fundam5tal philosophy %\ld g back to ?is4 ,j s f> z x does ?is1 x becomes sci5ce 7,wiss5s*aftslehre74 ,e ?+ :i* c appe> 9 a sy/em ( k1 z well z a f>!r division ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce itself1 mu/ be d]iv$ f ?is4 ,! proposition t ! ,ego & ! non-,ego reciprocally limit ea* o!r1 may be divid$ into ! foll[+ two3 7#a7 ! ,ego posits itself z limit$ ?r\gh ! non-,ego 7i4 e4 ! ,ego is 9 a cognitive 7or passive7 relation72 7#b7 ! ,ego posits ! non-,ego z limit$ ?r\gh ! ,ego 7i4 e4 ! ,ego is 9 an active relation74 ,! =m] proposition is ! basis ( ! !oretical1 & ! latt] ( ! practical "p ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce4 ,! latt] "p _c1 at ! outset1 be br\ght ^u ! /age2 = ! non-,ego1 :i* %\ld be limit$ by ! act+ ,ego1 does n at ! outset exi/1 & we mu/ wait & see :e!r x w f9d1 9 ! !oretical "p1 a reality4 ,! gr\ndwork ( !oretical k advances ?r\gh an un9t]rupt$ s]ies ( anti!ses & syn!ses4 ,! fundam5tal syn!sis ( ! !oretical ,!ory ( ,sci5ce is ! proposition3 ! ,ego posits itself z det]m9$ 7limit$7 by ! non-,ego4 ,if we analyze ?is s5t5ce1 we f9d 9 x two subord9ate s5t5ces :i* are reciprocally opposite4 7#a7 ,! non-,ego z active det]m9es ! ,ego1 :i* ?us f> is passive2 b s9ce all activity mu/ />t f ! ,ego1 s 7#b7 ! ,ego det]m9es itself ?r\gh an absolute activity4 ,h]e9 is a contradiction1 t ! ,ego %\ld be at ! same "t active & passive4 ,s9ce ?is contradiction w\ld de/roy ! above proposition1 & also suppress ! unity ( consci\sness1 we are =c$ to seek "s po9t1 "s new syn!sis1 9 :i* ^! giv5 anti!ses may be unit$4 ,?is syn!sis is atta9$ :5 we f9d t ! conceptions ( action & passion1 :i* are conta9$ "u ! categories ( reality & negation1 f9d _! comp5sation & due adju/m5t 9 ! conception ( divisibility4 ,! propositions3 8! ,ego det]m9es10 & 8! ,ego is det]m9$10 are reconcil$ 9 ! proposition3 8! ,ego det]m9es itself 9 "p1 & is det]m9$ 9 "p40 ,bo?1 h[ev]1 %\ld be consid]$ z "o & ! same4 ,h5ce m accurately3 z _m p>ts ( reality z ! ,ego posits 9 itself1 s _m p>ts ( negation does x posit 9 ! non-,ego2 & z _m p>ts ( reality z ! ,ego posits 9 ! non-,ego1 s _m p>ts ( negation does x posit 9 itself4 ,?is det]m9ation is reciprocal det]m9ation1 or reciprocal action4 ,?us ,fi*te d$uces ! la/ ( ! ?ree categories "u ,kant's g5]al category ( relation4 ,9 a simil> way 7viz41 by f9d+ a syn!sis = app>5t contradictions71 he d$uces ! two o!r categories ( ?is class1 viz41 t ( cause1 & t ( sub/ance4 ,! process is ?us3 ,s f> z ! ,ego is det]m9$1 & !re=e passive1 has ! non-,ego reality4 ,! category ( reciprocal det]m9ation1 to :i* we may ascribe indiff]5tly ei!r ( ! two sides1 reality or negation1 may1 m /rictly tak51 imply t ! ,ego is passive1 & ! non-,ego active4 ,! notion :i* expresses ?is relation is t ( causality4 ,t1 to :i* activity is ascrib$1 is call$ cause 7primal reality71 & t to :i* passiv5ess is ascrib$1 is call$ effect2 bo?1 conceiv$ 9 connection1 may be t]m$ a work+4 ,on ! o!r side1 ! ,ego det]m9es itself4 ,h]e9 is a contradiction2 7#a7 ! ,ego det]m9es itself2 x is !re=e t :i* det]m9es1 & is ?us active2 7#b7 x det]m9es itself2 x is !re=e t :i* becomes det]m9$1 & is ?us passive4 ,?us 9 "o respect & 9 "o action bo? reality & negation are ascrib$ to x4 ,to resolve ?is contradiction1 we mu/ f9d a mode ( action :i* is activity & passiv5ess 9 "o2 ! ,ego mu/ det]m9e its passiv5ess ?r\gh activity1 & its activity ?r\gh passiv5ess4 ,?is solution is atta9$ by aid ( ! conception ( quantity4 ,9 ! ,ego all reality is fir/ ( all posit$ z absolute quantum1 z absolute totality1 & ?us f> ! ,ego may be comp>$ to a greate/ circle :i* conta9s all ! re/4 ,a def9ite quantum ( activity1 or a limit$ sph]e )9 ?is greate/ circle ( activity1 is inde$ a reality2 b :5 comp>$ ) ! totality ( activity1 is x also a negation ( ! totality or passiv5ess4 ,"h we h f\nd ! m$iation s\ght =2 x lies 9 ! notion ( sub/ance4 ,9 s f> z ! ,ego is consid]$ z ! :ole circle1 embrac+ ! totality ( all realities1 is x sub/ance2 b s f> z x becomes posit$ 9 a det]m9ate sph]e ( ?is circle1 is x accid5tal4 ,no accid5ce is conceivable )\t sub/ance2 =1 9 ord] to "k t any ?+ is a def9ite reality1 x mu/ fir/ be ref]r$ to reality 9 g5]al1 or to sub/ance4 ,9 e *ange we ?9k ( sub/ance 9 ! univ]sal2 accid5ce is some?+ specific 7det]m9ate71 :i* *anges ) e *ang+ cause4 ,!re is orig9ally b "o sub/ance1 ! ,ego2 9 ?is "o sub/ance all possible accid5ts1 & !re=e all possible realities1 are posit$4 ,! ,ego alone is ! absolutely inf9ite4 ,! ,ego1 z ?9k+ & z act+1 indicates a limitation4 ,! ,fi*tian !ory is accord+ly ,sp9ozism1 only 7z ,jacobi /rik+ly call$ x7 a rev]s$ & ideali/ic ,sp9ozism4 ,let u look back a mom5t4 ,! objectivity :i* ,kant _h all[$ to exi/ ,fi*te has de/roy$4 ,!re is only ! ,ego4 ,b ! ,ego presupposes a non-,ego1 & !re=e a k9d ( object4 ,h[ ! ,ego comes to posit su* an object1 mu/ ! !oretical ,!ory ( ,sci5ce n[ proce$ to %[4 ,!re are two extreme views respect+ ! relation ( ! ,ego to ! non-,ego1 accord+ z we />t f ! conception ( cause1 or t ( sub/ance4 7#a7 ,/>t+ f ! conception ( cause1 we h posit$ ?r\gh ! passiv5ess ( ! ,ego an activity ( ! non-,ego4 ,?is passiv5ess ( ! ,ego mu/ h "s gr\nd4 ,?is _c lie 9 ! ,ego1 :i* 9 itself posits only activity4 ,consequ5tly x lies 9 ! non-,ego4 ,"h ! di/9ction betwe5 action & passion is appreh5d$1 n simply z quantitative 7i4 e41 view+ ! passiv5ess z a dim9i%$ activity71 b ! passion is 9 quality oppos$ to ! action2 a presuppos$ activity ( ! non-,ego is1 !re=e1 a real gr\nd ( ! passiv5ess 9 ! ,ego4 7#b7 ,/>t+ f ! conception ( sub/ance1 we h posit$ a passiv5ess ( ! ,ego ?r\gh its own activity4 ,"h ! passiv5ess 9 respect ( quality is ! same z activity1 x be+ only a dim9i%$ activity4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! fir/ view1 ! passive ,ego has a gr\nd di/9ct 9 quality f ! ,ego1 & ?us a real gr\nd1 yet "h its gr\nd is only a dim9i%$ activity ( ! ,ego1 di/9ct only 9 quantity f ! ,ego1 & is ?us an ideal gr\nd4 ,! =m] view is dogmatic realism1 ! latt] is dogmatic idealism4 ,! latt] affirms3 all reality ( ! non-,ego is only a reality giv5 x f ! ,ego2 ! =m] decl>es3 no?+ c be giv51 unless !re be some?+ to receive1 unless an indep5d5t reality ( ! non-,ego1 z ?+ 9 itself1 be presuppos$4 ,bo? views pres5t ?us a contradiction1 :i* c only be remov$ by a new syn!sis4 ,fi*te attempt$ ?is syn!sis ( idealism & realism1 by br++ out a m$iat+ sy/em ( critical idealism4 ,= ?is purpose he s\ght to %[ t ! ideal gr\nd & ! real gr\nd are "o & ! same4 ,nei!r is ! simple activity ( ! ,ego a gr\nd = ! reality ( ! non-,ego1 nor is ! simple activity ( ! non-,ego a gr\nd = ! passiv5ess 9 ! ,ego4 ,bo? mu/ be conceiv$ toge!r 9 ?is way1 viz41 ! activity ( ! ,ego meets a h9drance1 :i* is set up aga9/ x1 n )\t "s assi/ance ( ! ,ego1 & :i* circumscribes & reflects 9 itself ?is activity ( ! ,ego4 ,! h9drance is f\nd :5 ! subjective c be no f>!r ext5d$1 & ! exp&+ activity ( ! ,ego is driv5 back into itself1 produc+ z its result self-limitation4 ,:at we call objects are no?+ o!r ?an ! diff]5t imp++ ( ! activity ( ! ,ego on "s inconceivable h9drance1 & ^! det]m9ations ( ! ,ego1 we c>ry ov] to some?+ ext]nal to ourselves1 & repres5t !m to ourselves z space fill+ matt]4 ,t :i* ,fi*te calls a h9drance ?r\gh ! non-,ego1 is ?us 9 fact ! same z ,kant calls ?+ ess5tially1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t ) ,fi*te x is made subjective4 ,f ?is po9t ,fi*te !n d$uces ! subjective activities ( ! ,ego1 :i* m$iate1 or seek to m$iate1 !oretically1 ! ,ego ) ! non-,ego--z imag9ation1 repres5tation 7s5sation1 intuition1 feel+71 und]/&+1 faculty ( judgm5t1 reason2 & 9 connection ) ?is he br\ght out ! subjective projections ( ! intuition1 space1 & "t4 ,we h n[ rea*$ ! ?ird "p ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce1 via41 ! f\ndation ( ! practical4 ,we h se5 t ! ,ego repres5ts4 ,b t x may repres5t does n dep5d ^u ! ,ego alone1 b is det]m9$ by some?+ ext]nal to x4 ,we c\ld 9 no way conceive ( a repres5tation1 except ?r\gh ! presupposition t ! ,ego f9ds "s h9drance to its undet]m9$ & unlimit$ activity4 ,accord+ly ! ,ego1 z intellig5ce1 is univ]sally dep5d5t ^u an indef9ite1 & hi!rto :olly indef9able non-,ego1 & only ?r\gh & by means ( su* non-,ego1 is x intellig5ce4 ,a f9ite be+ is only f9ite z intellig5ce4 ,^! limits1 h[ev]1 we %all break ?r\gh4 ,! practical law :i* unites ! f9ite ,ego ) ! inf9ite1 c dep5d ^u no?+ ext]nal to ourselves4 ,! ,ego1 accord+ to all its det]m9ations1 %\ld be posit$ absolutely ?r\gh itself1 & h5ce %\ld be :olly indep5d5t ( e possible non-,ego4 ,consequ5tly1 ! absolute ,ego & ! intellig5t ,ego1 bo? ( :i* %\ld con/itute b "o1 are oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,?is contradiction is obviat$1 :5 we see t because ! absolute ,ego is capable ( no passiv5ess1 b is absolute activity1 !re=e ! ,ego det]m9es1 ?r\gh itself1 t hi!rto unkn[n non-,ego1 to :i* ! h9drance has be5 ascrib$4 ,! limits :i* ! ,ego1 z !oretic1 has set ov] aga9/ itself 9 ! non-,ego1 x mu/1 z practical1 seek to de/roy1 & absorb aga9 ! non-,ego 9 itself 7or conceive x z ! self-limitation ( ! ,ego74 ,! ,kantian primacy ( ! practical reason is "h made a tru?4 ,! transition ( ! !oretical "p into ! practical1 ! necessity ( advanc+ f ! "o to ! o!r1 ,fi*te repres5ts m closely ?us3--,! !oretical ,!ory ( ,sci5ce _h to d ) ! m$iation ( ! ,ego1 & ! non-,ego4 ,= ?is end x introduc$ "o connect+ l9k aft] ano!r1 )\t ev] atta9+ its end4 ,!n ent]s ! reason ) ! absolute & decisive ^w3 8!re ought to be no non-,ego1 s9ce ! non-,ego c 9 no way be unit$ ) ! ,ego20 & ) ?is ! knot is cut1 ?\gh n unti$4 ,?us x is ! incongruity betwe5 ! absolute 7practical7 ,ego1 & ! f9ite 7intellig5t7 ,ego1 :i* is c>ri$ ov] beyond ! !oretical prov9ce into ! practical4 ,true1 ?is incongruity does n :olly disappe>1 ev5 9 ! practical prov9ce1 :]e ! act is only an inf9ite /riv+ to surpass ! limits ( ! non-,ego4 ,! ,ego1 s f> z x is practical1 has1 inde$1 ! t5d5cy to pass beyond ! actual _w1 & e/abli% an ideal _w1 z x w\ld be 7 e reality posit$ by ! absolute ,ego2 b ?is /riv+ is always conf9$ to ! f9ite p>tly ?r\gh itself1 because x goes out t[>ds objects1 & objects are f9ite1 & p>tly ?r\gh ! resi/ance ( ! s5sible _w4 ,we ought to seek to rea* ! inf9ite1 b we _c d x2 ?is /riv+ & inability is ! impress ( our de/9y = et]nity4 ,?us--& 9 ^! words ,fi*te br+s toge!r ! result ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce--! :ole be+ ( f9ite rational natures is compreh5d$ & exhau/$3 an orig9al idea ( our absolute be+2 an ef=t to reflect ^u ourselves1 9 ord] to ga9 ?is idea2 a limitation1 n ( ?is /riv+1 b ( our own exi/5ce1 :i* fir/ becomes actual ?r\gh ?is limitation1 or ?r\gh an opposite pr9ciple1 a non-,ego1 or our f9it5ess2 a self-consci\sness1 & especially a consci\sness ( our practical /riv+s2 a det]m9ation accord+ly ( our repres5tations1 & ?r\gh ^! ( our actions2 a con/ant wid5+ ( our limits into ! inf9ite4 #b4 ,,fi*te',s ,,practical ,,philosophy4--,! pr9ciples :i* ,fi*te _h develop$ 9 8 ,!ory ( ,sci5ce he appli$ to practical life1 especially to ! !ory ( rights & morals4 ,he s\ght to d$uce "h e ?+ ) me?odical rigidness1 )\t admitt+ any ?+ :i* c\ld n be prov$ f exp]i5ce4 ,?us1 9 ! !ory ( rights & ( morals1 he w n presuppose a plurality ( p]sons1 b fir/ d$uces ?is3 ev5 t ! man has a body is fir/ demon/rat$1 ?\gh1 to be sure1 n /r+5tly4 ,! ,!ory ( ,rights 7! rights ( nature7 ,fi*te f\nds ^u ! conception ( ! individual4 ,fir/1 he d$uces ! conception ( rights1 & z foll[s3--,a f9ite rational be+ _c posit itself )\t ascrib+ to itself a free activity4 ,?r\gh ?is posit+ ( its faculties to a free activity1 ?is rational be+ posits an ext]nal _w ( s5se1 = x c ascribe to itself no activity till x has posit$ an object t[>ds :i* ?is activity may be direct$4 ,/ill f>!r1 ?is free activity ( a rational be+ presupposes o!r rational be+s1 = )\t ^! x w\ld nev] be consci\s t x 0 free4 ,we h !re=e a plurality ( free individuals1 ea* "o ( :om has a sph]e ( free activity4 ,?is co-exi/5ce ( free individuals is n possible )\t a relation ( rights4 ,s9ce no "o ) fre$om passes beyond 8 sph]e1 & ea* "o !re=e limits himself1 !y recognize ea* o!r z rational & free4 ,?is relation ( a reciprocal act+ ?r\gh intellig5ce & fre$om betwe5 rational be+s1 accord+ to :i* ea* "o has 8 fre$om limit$ by ! conception ( ! possibility ( ! o!r's fre$om1 "u ! condition also t ?is o!r limits 8 own fre$om also ?r\gh t ( ! fir/1 is call$ a relation ( rights4 ,! supreme maxim ( a !ory ( rights is !re=e ?is3 limit ?y fre$om ?r\gh ! conception ( ! fre$om ( e o!r p]son ) :om ?\ can/ be connect$4 ,aft] ,fi*te has attempt$ ! application ( ?is conception ( rights1 & = ?is end has d$uc$ ! corporeity1 ! an?ropological side ( man1 he passes ov] to a prop] !ory ( rights4 ,! !ory ( rights may be divid$ into ?ree p>ts4 7#a7 ,rights :i* belong to ! simple conception ( p]son are call$ orig9al rights4 ,! orig9al "r is ! absolute "r ( ! p]son to be only a cause 9 ! s5sible _w1 ?\gh he may be absolutely 79 o!r relations ?an to ! s5se7 an effect4 ,9 ?is are conta9$1 7a7 ! "r ( p]sonal 7bodily7 fre$om1 & 7b7 ! "r ( prop]ty4 ,b e relation ( rights betwe5 individual p]sons is condition$ ?r\gh ea* "o's recognition ( ! rights ( ! o!r4 ,ea* "o mu/ limit ! quantum ( 8 free acts = ! sake ( ! fre$om ( ! o!r1 & only s f> z ! o!r has respect to my fre$om ne$ ,i h reg>d to 84 ,9 case1 !re=e1 ! o!r does n respect my orig9al rights1 "s me*anical necessity mu/ be s\ght 9 ord] to secure ! rights ( p]son1 & ?is involves 7#b7 ! ,"r ( ,co]cion4 ,! laws ( puni%m5t h _! end 9 secur+ t ! opposite ( t :i* is int5d$ %all foll[ e unrighte\s aim1 t e vici\s purpose %all be de/roy$1 & ! "r 9 its integrity be e/abli%$4 ,to e/abli% su* a law ( co]cion1 & to secure a univ]sal co]cive p[]1 ! free individuals mu/ ent] into cov5ant among !mselves4 ,su* a cov5ant is only possible on ! gr\nd ( a common nature4 ,natural "r1 i4 e4 ! rightful relation betwe5 man & man1 presupposes ?us 7#c7 a civil "r1 viz41 7a7 a free cov5ant1 a compact ( citiz5s by :i* ! free individuals gu>antee to ea* o!r _! reciprocal rights2 7b7 positive laws1 a civil legislation1 ?r\gh :i* ! common w ( all becomes law2 7c7 an executive =ce1 a civil p[] :i* executes ! common w1 & 9 :i*1 !re=e1 ! private w & ! common w are syn!tically unit$4 ,! p>ticul> view ( ,fi*te's !ory ( rights is ?is3 on ! "o side !re is ! /ate z reason dem&s 7philosophical !ory ( rights71 & on ! o!r side ! /ate z x actually is 7!ory ( positive rights & ( ! /ate74 ,b n[ comes up ! problem1 to make ! actual /ate ev] m & m con=mable to ! /ate ( reason4 ,! sci5ce :i* has ?is approximation = its aim1 is polity4 ,we c dem& ( no actual /ate a p]fect con=mity to ! idea ( a /ate4 ,e /ate con/itution is accord+ to "r1 if x only leaves possible an advancem5t to a bett] /ate1 & ! only con/itution :olly contr>y to "r is t ^: end is to hold e ?+ j z x is4 ,! absolute ,ego ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce is sep>at$ 9 ! ,!ory ( ,rights into an inf9ite numb] ( p]sons ) rights3 to br+ x out aga9 9 its unity is ! problem ( ,e?ics4 ,"r & morals are ess5tially diff]5t4 ,"r is ! ext]nal necessity to omit or to d some?+ 9 ord] n to infr+e ^u ! fre$om ( ano!r2 ! inn] necessity to d or omit some?+ :olly indep5d5t ( ext]nal ends1 con/itutes ! moral nature ( man4 ,& z ! !ory ( rights arose f ! conflict ( ! impulse ( fre$om 9 "o subject ) ! impulse ( fre$om 9 ano!r subject1 s does ! !ory ( morals or e?ics arise f su* a conflict1 :i*1 9 ! pres5t case1 is n ext]nal b int]nal1 betwe5 two impulses 9 "o & ! same p]son4 7#a7 ,! rational be+ is impell$ t[>ds absolute indep5d5ce1 & /rives aft] fre$om = ! sake ( fre$om4 ,?is fundam5tal impulse may be call$ ! pure impulse1 & x furni%es ! =mal pr9ciple ( e?ics1 ! pr9ciple ( absolute autonomy1 ( absolute indet]m9abl5ess ?r\gh any?+ ext]nal to ! ,ego4 ,b 7#b7 z ! rational be+ is actually empirical & f9ite1 z x by nature posits ov] aga9/ itself a non-,ego & posits itself z corporeal1 s !re is f\nd beside ! pure impulse ano!r1 ! impulse ( nature1 :i* makes = its end n fre$om b enjoym5t4 ,?is impulse ( nature furni%es ! mat]ial1 utilit>ian 7eudmoniacal7 pr9ciple ( /riv+ aft] a connect$ enjoym5t4 ,bo? impulses1 :i* f a transc5d5tal /&po9t are "o & ! same orig9al impulse ( ! human be+1 /rive aft] unity1 & furni% a ?ird impulse :i* is a m+l+ ( ! two4 ,! pure impulse gives ! =m1 & ! natural impulse ! cont5t ( an action4 ,x is true t s5su\s objects w be *os51 b by virtue ( ! pure impulse ^! are modifi$ s z to con=m to ! absolute ,ego4 ,?is m+l$ impulse is n[ ! moral impulse4 ,x m$iates ! pure & ! natural impulse4 ,b s9ce ^! two lie inf9itely ap>t1 ! approximation ( ! natural to ! pure impulse is an inf9ite progression4 ,! int5t 9 an action is direct$ t[>ds a complete free+ f nature1 & x is only ! result ( our limitation t ! act %\ld rema9 /ill con=mable to ! natural impulse4 ,s9ce ! ,ego c nev] be indep5d5t s long z x is ,ego1 ! f9al aim ( ! rational be+ lies 9 inf9ity4 ,!re mu/ be a c\rse 9 ^: progress ! ,ego c conceive itself z approximat+ t[>ds absolute indep5d5ce4 ,?is c\rse is det]m9$ 9 inf9ity 9 ! idea2 !re is1 !re=e1 no possible case 9 :i* x is n det]m9$ :at ! pure impulse %\ld dem&4 ,we might "n ?is c\rse ! moral det]m9ation 7de/9y7 ( ! f9ite rational be+4 ,! pr9ciple ( e?ics is1 !re=e3 ,always fulfil ?y de/9y6 ,t :i* is 9 e mom5t con=mable to our moral de/9y1 is at ! same "t dem&$ by our natural impulse1 ?\gh x does n foll[ t e ?+ :i* ! latt] dem&s agrees !re=e ) ! =m]4 ,i ought to act only :5 consci\s t some?+ is duty1 & ,i ought to dis*>ge ! duty = its own sake4 ,! bl9d motives ( sympa?y1 love ( mank9d1 c41 h n1 z m]e impulses ( nature1 morality4 ,! moral impulse has causality z hav+ none1 = x dem&s be free6 ,?r\gh ! conception ( ! absolute ought1 is ! rational be+ absolutely indep5d5t1 & is repres5t$ ?us only :5 act+ f duty4 ,! =mal condition ( ! morality ( our actions1 is3 act always accord+ to ! be/ conviction ( ?y duty2 or1 act accord+ to ?y consci5ce4 ,! absolute crit]ion ( ! correctness ( our conviction ( duty is a feel+ ( tru? & c]ta9ty4 ,?is imm$iate feel+ nev] deceives1 = x only exi/s ) ! p]fect h>mony ( our empirical ,ego ) t :i* is pure & orig9al4 ,f ?is po9t ,fi*te developes 8 p>ticul> e?ics1 or !ory ( duties1 :i*1 h[ev]1 we mu/ "h pass by4 ,fi*te's !ory ( religion is develop$ 9 ! above m5tion$ treatise3 8,on ! gr\nd ( our fai? 9 a div9e gov]nm5t ( ! _w10 & 9 ! writ+s :i* he subsequ5tly put =? 9 its def5ce4 ,! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w1 says ,fi*te1 we assume to be ! div9e4 ,?is div9e gov]nm5t becomes liv+ & actual 9 u ?r\gh "r-do+3 x is presuppos$ 9 e "o ( our actions :i* are only p]=m$ 9 ! presupposition t ! moral end is atta9able 9 ! _w ( s5se4 ,! fai? 9 su* an ord] ( ! _w comprises ! :ole ( fai?1 = ?is liv+ & active moral ord] is ,god2 we ne$ no o!r ,god1 & c compreh5d no o!r4 ,!re is no gr\nd 9 ! reason to g out ( ?is moral ord] ( ! _w1 & by conclud+ f design to a design]1 affirm a sep>ate be+ z its cause4 ,is1 !n1 ?is ord] an accid5tal "o8 ,x is ! absolute ,fir/ ( all objective k4 ,b n[ if y %\ld be all[$ to draw ! conclusion t !re is a ,god z a sep>ate be+1 :at h y ga9$ by ?is8 ,?is be+ %\ld be di/9ct f y & ! _w1 x %\ld "w 9 ! latt] accord+ to conceptions2 x %\ld1 !re=e1 be capable ( conceptions1 & possess p]sonality & consci\sness4 ,b :at d y call p]sonality & consci\sness8 ,c]ta9ly t :i* y h f\nd 9 y\rself1 :i* y h le>n$ to "k 9 y\rself1 & :i* y h *>act]iz$ ) su* a "n4 ,b t y _c conceive ( ?is )\t limitation & f9it5ess1 y might see by ! slighte/ att5tion to ! con/ruction ( ?is conception4 ,by atta*+1 !re=e1 su* a pr$icate to ?is be+1 y br+ x d[n to a f9ite1 & make x a be+ l y\rself2 y h n conceiv$ ,god z y int5d$ to d1 b h only multipli$ y\rself 9 ?\ght4 ,! conception ( ,god1 z a sep>ate sub/ance1 is impossible & contradictory4 ,god has ess5tial exi/5ce only z su* a moral ord] ( ! _w4 ,e belief 9 a div9e be+1 :i* conta9s any ?+ m ?an ! conception ( ! moral ord] ( ! _w1 is an abom9ation to me1 & 9 ! highe/ degree unwor?y ( a rational be+4--,religion & morality are1 on ?is /&po9t1 z on t ( ,kant1 naturally "o2 bo? are an appreh5d+ ( ! sup]s5sible1 ! =m] ?r\gh action & ! latt] ?r\gh fai?4 ,?is 8,religion ( joy\s "r-do+10 ,fi*te f>!r c>ri$ out 9 ! writ+s :i* he put =? to rebut ! *>ge ( a!ism4 ,he affirms t no?+ b ! pr9ciples ( ! new philosophy c\ld re/ore ! deg5]ate religi\s s5se among m51 & br+ to light ! inn] ess5ce ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e4 ,especially he seeks to %[ ?is 9 8 8,appeal0 to ! public4 ,9 ?is he says3 to furni% an answ] to ! que/ions3 :at is good8 :at is true8 is ! aim ( my philosophical sy/em4 ,we mu/ />t ) ! affirmation t !re is some?+ absolutely true & good2 t !re is some?+ :i* c hold & b9d ! free flight ( ?\ght4 ,!re is a voice 9 man :i* _c be sil5c$1 :i* affirms t !re is a duty1 & t x mu/ be done simply = its own sake4 ,re/+ on ?is basis1 !re is op5$ to u an entirely new _w 9 our be+2 we atta9 a high] exi/5ce1 :i* is indep5d5t ( all nature1 & is gr\nd$ simply 9 ourselves4 ,i w\ld call ?is absolute self-satisfaction ( ! reason1 ?is p]fect fre$om f all dep5d5ce1 bless$ness4 ,z ! s+le b un]r+ means ( bless$ness1 my consci5ce po9ts me to ! fulfilm5t ( duty4 ,i am1 !re=e1 impress$ by ! un%ak5 conviction1 t !re is a rule & fix$ ord]1 accord+ to :i* ! purely moral disposition necess>ily makes bless$4 ,x is absolutely necess>y1 & x is ! ess5tial elem5t 9 religion1 t ! man :o ma9ta9s ! dignity ( 8 reason1 w repose on ! fai? 9 ?is ord] ( a moral _w1 w reg>d ea* "o ( 8 duties z an enactm5t ( ?is ord]1 & w joyfully submit himself to1 & f9d bliss 91 e consequ5ce ( 8 duty4 ,?\ %alt "k ,god if ,i c only beget 9 !e a dutiful "*1 & ?\gh to o!rs ( u ?\ maye/ seem to be /ill 9 ! _w ( s5se1 yet = ?yself art ?\ already a p>tak] ( et]nal life4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,lat] ,,=m ,,( ,,fi*te',s ,,philosophy4--,e ?+ ( importance :i* ,fi*te accompli%$ z a speculative philosoph]1 is conta9$ 9 ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce z above consid]$4 ,subsequ5tly1 aft] 8 dep>ture f ,j5a1 8 sy/em gradually became modifi$1 & f diff]5t causes4 ,p>tly1 because x 0 difficult to ma9ta9 ! rigid idealism ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce2 p>tly1 because ,s*ell+'s natural philosophy1 :i* n[ appe>$1 0 n )\t an influ5ce ^u ,fi*te's ?9k+1 ?\gh ! latt] d5i$ ?is & became involv$ 9 a bitt] controv]sy ) ,s*ell+2 &1 p>tly1 8 outw>d relations1 :i* 7 f> f be+ happy1 contribut$ to modify 8 view ( ! _w4 ,fi*te's writ+s1 9 ?is second p]iod1 are = ! mo/ "p popul>1 & int5d$ = a mix$ class ( read]s4 ,!y all be> ! impress ( 8 acute m9d1 & ( 8 exalt$ manly "*1 b lack ! orig9ality & ! sci5tific sequ5ce ( 8 e>li] productions4 ,^? ( !m :i* are sci5tific d n satisfy ! dem&s :i* he himself _h previ\sly laid d[n ) s mu* /rictness1 bo? = himself & o!rs1 9 respect ( g5etic con/ruction & philosophical me?od4 ,8 doctr9e at ?is "t seems r z a web1 ( 8 old subjective ideali/ic conceptions & ! newly add$ objective idealism1 s loosely connect$ t ,s*ell+ might call x ! complete/ syncretism & eclecticism4 ,8 new /&po9t is *iefly di/+ui%$ f 8 old by 8 attempt to m]ge 8 subjective idealism into an objective pan!ism 79 accordance ) ! new ,platonism71 to transmute ! ,ego ( 8 e>li] philosophy into ! absolute1 or ! ?\ght ( ,god4 ,god1 ^: conception he _h =m]ly plac$ only at ! end ( 8 sy/em1 9 ! d\btful =m ( a moral ord] ( ! _w1 becomes to him n[ ! absolute beg9n+1 & s+le elem5t ( 8 philosophy4 ,?is gave to 8 philosophy an entirely new color4 ,! moral sev]ity gives place to a religi\s mildness2 in/ead ( ! ,ego & ! ,ought1 life & love are n[ ! *ief features ( 8 philosophy2 9 place ( ! exact dialectic ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce1 he n[ makes *oice ( my/ical & metaphorical modes ( expression4 ,?is second p]iod ( ,fi*te's philosophy is especially *>act]iz$ by its incl9ation to religion & ,*ri/ianity1 z exhibit$ mo/ prom95tly 9 ! essay 8,direction to a ,bless$ ,life40 ,fi*te "h affirms t 8 new doctr9e is exactly t ( ,*ri/ianity1 & especially ( ! ,gospel accord+ to ,john4 ,he w\ld make ?is gospel alone ! cle> f\ndation ( ,*ri/ian tru?1 s9ce ! o!r apo/les rema9$ half ,jews aft] _! conv]sion1 & adh]$ to ! fundam5tal error ( ,judaism1 t ! _w _h a creation 9 "t4 ,fi*te lays great weight ^u ! fir/ "p ( ,john's prologue1 :]e ! =mation ( ! _w out ( no?+ is confut$1 & a true view laid d[n ( a revelation co-et]nal ) ,god1 & necess>ily giv5 ) 8 be+4 ,t :i* ?is prologue says ( ! inc>nation ( ! ,logos 9 ! p]son ( ,jesus1 has1 accord+ to ,fi*te1 only a hi/oric validity4 ,! absolute & et]nally true /&po9t is1 t at all times1 & 9 e "o1 )\t exception1 :o is vitally s5sible ( 8 union ) ,god1 & :o actually & 9 fact yields up 8 :ole individual life to ! div9e life )9 him1--! et]nal ^w becomes fle% 9 ! same way z 9 ,jesus ,*ri/ & holds a p]sonal1 s5sible1 & human exi/5ce4 ,! :ole communion ( believ]s1 ! fir/-born alike ) ! lat] born1 co9cides 9 ! ,godhead1 ! common s\rce ( life = all4 ,& s !n1 ,*ri/ianity hav+ ga9$ its end1 disappe>s aga9 9 ! et]nal tru?1 & affirms t e man %\ld come to a union ) ,god4 ,s long z man desires to be himself any ?+ :atsoev]1 ,god does n come to him1 = no man c become ,god4 ,b j s soon z he purely1 :olly1 & radically gives up himself1 ,god alone rema9s1 & is all & 9 all4 ,! man himself c beget no ,god1 b he c give up himself z a prop] negation1 & ?us he disappe>s 9 ,god4 ,! result ( 8 advanc$ philosophiz+1 ,fi*te has briefly & cle>ly compreh5d$ 9 ! foll[+ l9es1 :i* we extract f two po/hum\s sonnets3 ,! ,et]nal ,"o ,lives 9 my life & sees 9 my behold+4 ,n\ght is b ,god1 & ,god is n\ght b life4 ,cle>ly ! vail ( ?+s rises be=e !e2 ,x is ?yself1 :at ?\gh ! mortal die ,& h5ce !re lives b ,god 9 ?9e endeavors1 ,if ?\ wilt look ?r\gh t :i* lives beyond ?is dea?1 ,! vail ( ?+s %all seem to !e z vail1 ,& unveil$ ?\ %alt look ^u ! life div9e4 ,,section ,,xlii4 ,,h]b>t4 ,a peculi>1 & 9 _m respects noticeable1 c>ry+ out ( ! ,kantian philosophy1 0 attempt$ by ,johann ,fri$ri* ,h]b>t1 :o 0 born at ,old5burg 9 #aggf1 *os5 pr(essor ( philosophy 9 ,gtt+5 9 #ahje2 made ,kant's successor at ,knigsb]g 9 #ahjh1 & recall$ to ,gtt+5 9 #ahcc1 :]e he di$ 9 #ahda4 ,8 philosophy1 in/ead ( mak+1 l mo/ o!r sy/ems1 = its pr9ciple1 an idea ( ! reason1 foll[$ ! direction ( ,kant1 & exp5d$ itself ma9ly 9 a critical exam9ation ( ! subjective exp]i5ce4 ,x is ess5tially a criticism1 b ) results :i* are peculi>1 & :i* diff] :olly f ^? ( ,kant4 ,its fundam5tal position 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy is an isolat$ "o2 in/ead ( reg>d+ antec$5t sy/ems z elem5ts ( a true philosophy1 x looks ^u almo/ all ( !m z failures4 ,x is especially ho/ile to ! po/-,kantian ,g]man philosophy1 & mo/ ( all to ,s*ell+'s philosophy ( nature1 9 :i* x c\ld only behold a phantom & a delusion2 soon] ?an come 9 contact ) ?is1 x w\ld jo9 ,hegelianism1 ( :i* x is ! opposite pole4 ,we w give a brief exposition ( its prom95t ?\ghts4 #a4 ,,! ,,basis ,,& ,,/>t+-,,po9t ,,( ,,philosophy is1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 ! common view ( ?+s1 or a k :i* %all accord ) exp]i5ce4 ,a philosophical sy/em is 9 reality no?+ b an attempt by :i* a ?9k] /rives to solve c]ta9 que/ions :i* pres5t !mselves be=e him4 ,e "q br\ght up 9 philosophy %\ld ref] itself s+ly & solely to t :i* is giv51 & mu/ arise f ?is s\rce alone1 because !re is no o!r orig9al field ( c]ta9ty1 = m51 ?an exp]i5ce alone4 ,e philosophy %\ld beg9 ) x4 ,! ?9k+ %\ld yield itself to exp]i5ce1 :i* %\ld lead x1 & n be l$ by x4 ,exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 is ! only object & basis ( philosophy2 t :i* is n giv5 _c be an object ( ?\ght1 & x is impossible to e/abli% any k :i* transc5ds ! limits ( exp]i5ce4 #b4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,act ,,( ,,philosophy4--,?\gh ! mat]ial furni%$ by exp]i5ce is ! basis ( philosophy1 yet1 s9ce x is furni%$1 x /&s outside ( philosophy4 ,! "q arises1 :at is ! fir/ act or beg9n+ ( philosophy8 ,! ?9k+ %\ld fir/ sep>ate itself f exp]i5ce1 t x may cle>ly see ! difficulties ( its und]tak+4 ,! beg9n+ ( philosophy1 :]e ! ?9k+ rises above t :i* is giv51 is accord+ly d\bt or scepticism4 ,scepticism is tw(old1 a l[] & a high]4 ,! l[] scepticism simply d\bts t ?+s are s con/itut$ z !y appe> to u to be2 ! high] scepticism passes beyond ! =m ( ! ph5om5on1 & inquires :e!r 9 reality any ?+ !re exi/s4 ,x d\bts e4 g4 ! succession 9 "t2 x asks 9 ref]5ce to ! =ms ( ! objects ( nature :i* exhibit design1 :e!r ! design is p]ceiv$1 or only atta*$ to !m 9 ! ?\ght1 c4 ,?us ! problems :i* =m ! cont5t ( metaphysics1 are gradually br\ght out4 ,! result ( scepticism is !re=e n negative1 b positive4 ,d\bt is no?+ b ! ?9k+ ^u ^? conceptions ( exp]i5ce :i* are ! mat]ial ( philosophy4 ,?r\gh ?is reflection1 scepticism leads u to ! k t ^! conceptions ( exp]i5ce1 ?\gh !y ref] to some?+ giv51 yet conta9 no conceivable cont5t free f logical incongruities4 #c4 ,,remodell+ ,,( ,,! ,,conceptions ,,( ,,exp]i5ce4--,metaphysics1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 is ! sci5ce ( t :i* is conceivable 9 exp]i5ce4 ,our view ?us f> has be5 a tw(old "o4 ,on ! "o side we hold fa/ to ! op9ion t ! s+le basis ( philosophy is exp]i5ce1 & on ! o!r side1 scepticism has %ak5 ! cr$ibility ( exp]i5ce4 ,! po9t n[ is to trans=m ?is scepticism into a def9ite k ( metaphysical problems4 ,conceptions f exp]i5ce cr[d ^u u1 :i* _c be ?\ghts1 i4 e4 !y may inde$ be ?\ght by ! ord9>y und]/&+1 b ?is ?9k+ is obscure & confus$1 & does n sep>ate nor comp>e oppos+ *>act]i/ics4 ,b an acute process ( ?\ght1 a logical analysis1 w f9d 9 ! conceptions ( exp]i5ce 7e4 g4 space1 "t1 becom+1 motion1 c47 contradictions & *>act]i/ics1 :i* are totally inconsi/5t ) ea* o!r4 ,:at n[ is to be done8 ,we may n reject ^! conceptions1 = !y are giv51 & beyond ! giv5 we _c /ep2 we _c reta9 !m1 = !y are inconceivable & _c logically be e/abli%$4 ,! only way ( escape :i* rema9s to u is to remodel !m4 ,to remodel ! conceptions ( exp]i5ce1 to elim9ate _! contradictions1 is ! prop] act ( speculation4 ,scepticism has br\ght to light ! m def9ite problems :i* involve a contradiction1 & ^: solution x !re=e belongs to metaphysics to attempt2 ! mo/ important ( ^! are ! problems ( inh]5ce1 *ange1 & ! ,ego4 ,! relation betwe5 ,h]b>t & ,hegel is v cle> at ?is po9t4 ,bo? are agre$ respect+ ! contradictory nature ( ! det]m9ations ( ?\ght1 & ! conceptions ( exp]i5ce4 ,b f ?is po9t !y sep>ate4 ,x is ! nature ( ^! conceptions z ( e ?+1 says ,hegel1 to be an inn] contradiction2 becom+1 = in/ance1 is ess5tially ! unity ( be+1 & n be+1 c4 ,?is is impossible1 says ,h]b>t1 on ! o!r side1 s long z ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is valid2 if ! conceptions ( exp]i5ce conta9 inn] contradictions1 ?is is n ! fault ( ! objective _w1 b ( ! repres5t+ subject :o mu/ rectify 8 false appreh5sion by remodell+ ^! conceptions1 & elim9at+ ! contradiction4 ,h]b>t ?us *>ges ! philosophy ( ,hegel ) empiricism1 because x receives f exp]i5ce ^! contradictory conceptions un*ang$1 & n only reg>ds ^! z e/abli%$1 b ev5 goes s f> z to metamorphose logic on _! acc\nt1 & ?is simply because !y are giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 ?\gh _! contradictory nature is cle>ly se54 ,hegel & ,h]b>t /& relat$ to ea* o!r z ,h]aclitus & ,p>m5ides 7cf4 ,,vi4 & ,,vii47 #d4 ,,h]b>t',s ,,reals4--,f ?is po9t ,h]b>t rea*es 8 8reals0 7,real57 z foll[s3 ,to discov] ! contradictions1 he says1 9 all our conceptions ( exp]i5ce1 might lead u to absolute scepticism1 & to despair ( ! tru?4 ,b "h we rememb] t if ! exi/5ce ( e ?+ real be d5i$1 !n ! appe>ance1 s5sation1 repres5tation1 & ?\ght itself w\ld be de/roy$4 ,we p]ceive1 !re=e1 j z /rong an indication ( be+ z ( appe>ance4 ,we _c1 inde$1 ascribe to ! giv5 any true & ess5tial be+ p] se1 x is n p] se alone1 b only on1 or 91 or ?r\gh some?+ o!r4 ,! truly be+ is an absolute be+1 :i* z su* excludes e ?+ relative & dep5d5t2 x is absolute position1 :i* x is n = u fir/ to posit1 b only to recognize4 ,9 s f> z ?is be+ is attribut$ to any ?+1 ?is latt] possesses reality4 ,! truly be+ is1 !re=e1 ev] a quale1 a some?+ :i* is consid]$ z be+4 ,9 ord] n[ t ?is posit$ may correspond to ! conditions :i* lie 9 ! conception ( absolute position1 ! :at ( ! real mu/ be ?\ght 7a7 z absolutely positive or affirmative1 i4 e4 )\t any negation or limitation1 :i* might de/roy aga9 ! absolut5ess2 7b7 z absolutely simple1 i4 e4 9 no way1 z a multiplicity or admitt+ ( inn] anti!ses2 7c7 z indet]m9ate by any conceptions ( greatness1 i4 e4 n z a quantum :i* may be divid$ & ext5d$ 9 "t & space2 h5ce1 also1 n z a con/ant greatness or cont9uity4 ,b we mu/ nev] =get t ?is be+ or ?is absolute reality is n simply some?+ ?\ght1 b is some?+ indep5d5t & re/+ on itself1 & h5ce x is simply to be recogniz$ by ! ?9k+4 ,! conception ( ?is ?9k+ lies at ! basis ( all ,h]b>t's metaphysics4 ,take an example ( ?is4 ,! fir/ problem to be solv$ 9 metaphysics is ! problem ( inh]5ce1 or ! ?+ ) its *>act]i/ics4 ,e p]ceptible ?+ repres5ts itself to ! s5ses z a complex ( sev]al *>act]i/ics4 ,b all ! attributes ( a ?+ :i* are giv5 9 p]ception are relative4 ,we say e4 g4 t s\nd is a prop]ty ( a c]ta9 body4 ,x s\nds--b x _c-d ?is )\t air2 :at n[ becomes ( ?is prop]ty 9 a space )\t air8 ,aga91 we say t a body is heavy1 b x is only s on ! e>?4 ,or aga91 t a body is color$1 b light is necess>y = ?is2 :at n[ becomes ( su* a prop]ty 9 d>kness8 ,/ill f>!r1 a multiplicity ( prop]ties is incompatible ) ! unity ( an object4 ,if y ask :at is ?is ?+1 y are answ]$ ) ! sum ( its *>act]i/ics2 x is s(t1 :ite1 full-s\nd+1 heavy1--b y\r "q 0 ( "o1 n ( _m4 ,! answ] only affirms :at ! ?+ has1 n :at x is4 ,moreov]1 ! li/ ( *>act]i/ics is always incomplete4 ,! :at ( a ?+ c !re=e lie nei!r 9 ! individual giv5 prop]ties1 nor 9 _! unity4 ,9 det]m9+ :at a ?+ is1 we h only ?is answ] rema9+1 viz41 ! ?+ is t unkn[n1 :i* we mu/ posit be=e we c posit any ?+ z ly+ 9 ! giv5 prop]ties2 9 a ^w1 x is ! sub/ance4 ,= if1 9 ord] to see :at ! ?+ purely & ess5tially is1 we take away ! *>act]i/ics :i* x may h1 we f9d t no?+ m rema9s1 & we p]ceive t :at we consid]$ z ! real ?+ 0 only a complex ( *>act]i/ics1 & ! union ( ^! 9 "o :ole4 ,b s9ce e appe>ance indicates a def9ite reality1 & ?us s9ce !re mu/ be z mu* reality z !re is appe>ance1 we h to consid] ! reality1 :i* lies at ! basis ( ! ?+1 ) its *>act]i/ics1 z a complex ( _m simple sub/ances or monads1 & ^: quality is diff]5t 9 diff]5t in/ances4 ,:5 our exp]i5ce has l$ u to a repeat$ gr\p+ toge!r ( ^! monads1 we call ! gr\p a ?+4 ,let u n[ briefly look at ! =mation ( ^? fundam5tal conceptions ( metaphysics1 :i* involve ! same ?\ghts ?r\gh ! fundam5tal conception ( be+4 ,fir/1 !re is ! conception ( causality1 :i* _c be ma9ta9$ 9 its ord9>y =m4 ,all t we c p]ceive 9 ! act is succession 9 "t1 & n ! necess>y connection ( cause ) effect4 ,! cause 9 itself c be nei!r transc5d5t nor imman5t2 x _c be transc5d5t1 because a real influ5ce ( "o real ?+ ^u ano!r1 contradicts ! conception ( ! absolute reality2 nor imman5t1 = !n ! sub/ance mu/ be ?\ght z "o ) its *>act]i/ics1 :i* contradicts ! inve/igations conc]n+ a ?+ ) its *>act]i/ics4 ,we c j z little f9d 9 ! conception ( ! real an answ] to ! "q1 h[ "o det]m9ate be+ c be br\ght into contact ) ano!r1 = ! real is ! absolute un*angeable4 ,we c !re=e only expla9 ! conception ( causality on ! gr\nd t ! diff]5t reals :i* lie at ! basis ( ! *>act]i/ics are conceiv$1 ea* "o = itself1 z cause ( ! ph5om5on1 !re be+ j z _m causes z !re are ph5om5a4 ,! problem ( *ange1 is intimately connect$ ) ! conception ( cause4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 !re is no inn] *ange1 no self-det]m9ation1 no becom+ & no life2 s9ce ! monads are1 & rema9 9 !mselves un*angeable1 !y d n !re=e become diff]5t 9 respect ( quality1 b !y are orig9ally diff]5t "o f ano!r1 & ea* "o exhibits its equality )\t ev] any *ange4 ,! problem ( *ange c ?us only be solv$ ?r\gh ! !ory ( ! di/urbance & self-pres]vation ( ^! ess5ces4 ,b if t :i* we call n simply an app>5t b an actual ev5t1 9 ! ess5ce ( ! monads1 may be r$uc$ to a 8self-pres]vation10 z ! la/ gleam ( an activity & life1 /ill we h ! "q ev] rema9+1 h[ to expla9 ! appe>ance ( *ange4 ,= ?is x is necess>y to br+ 9 two auxili>y conceptions2 fir/1 t ( accid5tal views1 & second1 t ( intellectual spaces4 ,! accid5tal views1 an expression tak5 f ma!matics1 signify1 9 ref]5ce to ! problem be=e u ?is mu*1 viz41 "o & ! same conception may (t5 be consid]$ 9 v diff]5t relations to "s o!r ess5ce1 )\t ! slighte/ *ange 9 its own ess5ce1 e4 g4 a /raight l9e may be consid]$ z radius or z tang5t1 & a tone z h>moni\s or discordant4 ,by help ( ^! accid5tal views1 we may n[ reg>d t :i* actually results 9 ! monad1 :5 o!r monads1 opposite 9 quality1 come 9 contact ) x1 z on ! "o side an actual occurr5ce1 ?\gh on ! o!r side1 no actual *ange c be imput$ to ! orig9al condition ( ! monads 7a gray color1 e4 g4 seems comp>atively :ite by ! side ( black1 & comp>atively black by ! side ( :ite1 )\t *ang+ at all its quality74 ,a fur!r auxili>y conception is t ( intellectual space1 :i*1 arises :5 we mu/ consid] ^! ess5ces z at ! same "t toge!r & n toge!r4 ,by means ( ?is conception we c elim9ate ! contradictions f ! conception ( movem5t4 ,la/ly1 x c be se5 t ! conception ( matt] & t ( ! ,ego 79 psy*ologically expla9+ :i*1 ! re/ ( ! metaphysics is occupi$7 are1 l ! prec$+ ones1 no less contradictory 9 !mselves ?an !y are irreconcilable ) ! fundam5tal conception ( ! real2 = nei!r c an ext5d$ be+1 l matt]1 be =m$ out ( spaceless monads--& ) matt]1 !re=e1 fall also ! ord9>y conceptions ( space & "t--nor c we admit1 )\t trans=mation1 ! conception ( ! ,ego1 s9ce x exhibits ! contradictory conception ( a ?+ ) _m & *ang+ *>act]i/ics 7conditions1 p[]s1 faculties1 c47 ,we are rem9d$ by ,h]b>t's 8reals0 ( ! atomic !ory ( ! atomi/s 7cf4 ,,ix4 #b71 ( ! ,eleatic !ory ( ! "o be+ 7cf4 ,,vi471 & ( ,leibnitz's monadology4 ,8 reals h[ev] are di/+ui%$ f ! atoms by n possess+ imp5etrability4 ,! monads ( ,h]b>t may be j z well repres5t$ 9 ! same space z a ma!matical po9t may be conceiv$ z accurately coexi/+ ) ano!r 9 ! same place4 ,9 ?is respect ! 8real0 ( ,h]b>t has a f> great] simil>ity to ! 8"o0 ( ! ,eleatics4 ,bo? are simple1 & to be conceiv$ 9 intellectual spaces1 b ! ess5tial diff]5ce is1 t ,h]b>t's sub/ances exi/ 9 numb]s di/9ct f "o ano!r1 & ev5 f opposites among !mselves4 ,h]b>t's simple quantities h already be5 comp>$ to ! monads ( ,leibnitz1 b ^! latt] h ess5tially a p[] ( repres5tation2 !y are ess5ces ) inn] circum/ances1 :ile1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 repres5tation1 j z little z e o!r circum/ance1 belongs to ! ess5ce itself4 #e4 ,,psy*ology is connect$ ) metaphysics4 ,! ,ego is prim>ily a metaphysical problem1 & comes 9 ?is respect "u ! category ( ! ?+ ) its *>act]i/ics4 ,x is a real ) _m prop]ties *ang+ circum/ances1 p[]s1 faculties1 activities1 c41 & ?us is n )\t contradictions4 ,b !n ! ,ego is a psy*ological pr9ciple1 & "h ^? contradictions may be consid]$ :i* lie 9 ! ideality ( subject & object4 ,! subject posits itself & is !re=e itself object4 ,b ?is posit$ object is no?+ o!r ?an ! posit+ subject4 ,?us ! ,ego is1 z ,fi*te says1 subject-object1 &1 z su*1 full ( ! h>de/ contradictions1 = subject & object w nev] be affirm$ z "o & ! same )\t contradiction4 ,b n[ if ! ,ego is giv5 x _c be ?r[n away1 b mu/ be purifi$ f its contradictions4 ,?is occurs :5ev] ! ,ego is conceiv$ z t :i* repres5ts1 & ! diff]5t s5sations1 ?\ghts1 c4 are embrac$ "u ! common conception ( *ang+ appe>ance4 ,! solution ( ?is problem is simil> to t ( inh]5ce4 ,z 9 ! latt] problem ! ?+ 0 appreh5d$ z a complex ( z _m reals z x has *>act]i/ics1 j s "h ! ,ego2 b ) ! ,ego inn] circum/ances & repres5tations correspond to ! *>act]i/ics4 ,?us t :i* we are accu/om$ to "n ,ego is no?+ o!r ?an ! s\l4 ,! s\l z a monad1 z absolutely be+1 is !re=e simple1 et]nal1 indissoluble1 f :i* we may conclude its et]nal exi/5ce4 ,f ?is /&po9t ,h]b>t combats ! ord9>y c\rse ( psy*ology :i* ascribes c]ta9 p[]s & faculties to ! s\l4 ,t :i* /&s out 9 ! s\l is no?+ o!r ?an self-pres]vation1 :i* c only be manifold & *ang+ 9 opposition to o!r reals4 ,! causes ( *ang+ circum/ances are !re=e ^! o!r reals1 :i* come v>i\sly 9 conflict ) ! s\l-monad1 & ?us produce t app>5tly inf9ite manifoldness ( s5sations1 repres5tations1 & affections4 ,?is !ory ( self-pres]vation lies at ! basis ( all ,h]b>t's psy*ology4 ,t :i* psy*ology ord9>ily calls feel+1 ?9k+1 repres5t+1 c41 are only specific diff]5ces 9 ! self-pres]vation ( ! s\l2 !y indicate no prop] condition ( ! inn] real ess5ce itself1 b only relations betwe5 ! reals1 relations1 :i*1 com+ up toge!r at ! same "t f diff]5t sides1 are p>tly suppress$1 p>tly =w>d$1 & p>tly modifi$4 ,consci\sness is ! sum ( ^? relations 9 :i* ! s\l /&s to o!r ess5ces4 ,b ! relations to ! objects1 & h5ce to ! repres5tations correspond+ to ^!1 are n all equally /rong2 "o presses1 re/ricts1 & obscures ano!r1 a relation ( equilibrium :i* c be calculat$ accord+ to ! doctr9e ( /atics4 ,b ! suppress$ repres5tations d n :olly disappe>1 b wait+ on ! ?re%old ( consci\sness = ! favorable mom5t :5 !y %all be p]mitt$ aga9 to arise1 !y jo9 !mselves ) k9dr$ repres5tations1 & press =w>d ) unit$ en]gies4 ,?is movem5t ( ! repres5tations 7sket*$ 9 a ma/]ly mann] by ,h]b>t7 may be calculat$ accord+ to ! rules ( ma!matics1 & ?is is ,h]b>t's well kn[n application ( ma!matics to ! empirical !ory ( ! s\l4 ,! repres5tations :i* 7 press$ back1 :i* wait on ! ?re%old ( consci\sness & only "w 9 ! d>kness1 & ( :i* we are only half consci\s1 are feel+s4 ,!y express !mselves z desires1 accord+ z _! /ruggle =w>d is m or less successful4 ,desire becomes w :5 unit$ ) ! hope ( success4 ,! w is no sep>ate faculty ( ! m9d1 b consi/s only 9 ! relation ( ! dom9ant repres5tations to ! o!rs4 ,! p[] ( decid+ & ! "* ( a man1 prom95tly dep5d ^u ! con/ant pres5ce 9 ! consci\sness ( a c]ta9 numb] ( repres5tations1 :ile o!r repres5tations are weak5$1 or d5i$ an entrance ov] ! ?re%old ( consci\sness4 #f4 ,,! ,,importance ,,( ,,h]b>t',s ,,philosophy4--,h]b>t's philosophy is important ma9ly = its metaphysics & psy*ology4 ,9 ! o!r sph]es & activities ( ! human m9d1 e4 g4 rights1 morality1 ! /ate1 art1 religion1 8 philosophy is mo/ly b>r5 ( results1 & ?\gh !re are n want+ "h /rik+ obs]vations1 yet ^! h no connection ) ! speculative pr9ciples ( ! sy/em4 ,h]b>t fundam5tally isolates ! diff]5t philosophical sci5ces1 di/+ui%+ especially & 9 ! /ricte/ mann] betwe5 !oretical & practical philosophy4 ,he *>ges ! ef=t aft] unity 9 philosophy1 ) occasion+ ! greate/ errors2 = logical1 metaphysical1 & /hetic =ms are entirely div]se4 ,e?ics & /hetics h to d ) objects 9 :i* an imm$iate evid5ce appe>s1 b ?is is =eign to ! :ole nature ( metaphysics1 :i* c only ga9 its k z errors h be5 remov$4 /hetic judgm5ts on :i* practical philosophy re/s1 are indep5d5t ( ! reality ( any object1 & appe> ) imm$iate c]ta9ty 9 ! mid/ ( ! /ronge/ metaphysical d\bts4 ,moral elem5ts1 says ,h]b>t1 are pleas+ & displeas+ relations ( ! w4 ,he ?us gr\nds ! :ole practical philosophy ^u /hetic judgm5ts4 ,! /hetic judgm5t is an involunt>y & imm$iate judgm5t1 :i* atta*es to c]ta9 objects1 )\t pro(1 ! pr$icates ( goodness & badness4--,"h is se5 ! greate/ diff]5ce betwe5 ,h]b>t & ,kant4 ,we may *>act]ize1 on ! :ole1 ! philosophy ( ,h]b>t z a c>ry+ out ( ! monadology ( ,leibnitz1 full ( endur+ acut5ess1 b )\t any inn] fruitfulness or capacity ( developm5t4 ,,section ,,xliii4 ,,s*ell+4 ,s*ell+ sprang f ,fi*te4 ,we may pass on to an exposition ( 8 philosophy )\t any f>!r introduction1 s9ce t :i* x conta9s f ,fi*te =ms a "p ( its hi/orical developm5t1 & w !re=e be treat$ ( z ?is is unfold$4 ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,joseph ,s*ell+ 0 born at ,leonb]g1 9 ,wrtemb]g1 ,janu>y #bg?1 #agge4 ,) a v precoci\s developm5t1 he ent]$ ! !ological sem9>y at ,tb+5 9 8 fifte5? ye>1 & devot$ himself p>tly to philology & my?ology1 b especially to ,kant's philosophy4 ,dur+ 8 c\rse z a /ud5t1 he 0 9 p]sonal connection ) ,hld]l9 & ,hegel4 ,s*ell+ came be=e ! _w z an au?or v e>ly4 ,9 #agib appe>$ 8 graduat+ treatise on ! ?ird *apt] ( ,g5esis1 9 :i* he gave an int]e/+ philosophical signification to ! ,mosaic acc\nt ( ! fall4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 #agic1 he publi%$ 9 ,paulus' ,memorabilia an essay ( a k9dr$ nature 8,on ! ,my?s & ,philosophemes ( ! ,anci5t ,_w40 ,to ! la/ ye> ( 8 abode at ,tb+5 belong ! two philosophical writ+s3 8,on ! ,possibility ( a ,=m = ,philosophy0 & 8,on ! ,ego z a ,pr9ciple ( ,philosophy1 or on ! ,uncondition$ 9 ,human ,k40 ,aft] complet+ 8 univ]sity /udies1 ,s*ell+ w5t to ,leipsic z tutor to ! ,b>on von ,ri$esel1 b soon aft]w>ds repair$ to ,j5a1 :]e he became ! pupil & co-labor] ( ,fi*te4 ,aft] ,fi*te's dep>ture f ,j5a1 he became himself1 #agih1 tea*] ( philosophy !re1 & n[ began1 remov+ himself f ,fi*te's /&po9t1 to develope m & m 8 own peculi> views4 ,he publi%$ 9 ,j5a ! ,j\rnal ( ,speculative ,physics1 & also 9 company ) ,hegel1 ! ,critical ,j\rnal4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjc he w5t to ,wrzburg z pr(essor ord9>ius ( philosophy4 ,9 #ahjg he repair$ to ,muni* z memb] ord9>ius ( ! newly e/abli%$ academy ( sci5ces !re4 ,! ye> aft] he became g5]al secret>y ( ! ,academy ( ! pla/ic arts1 & subsequ5tly1 :5 ! univ]sity pr(essor%ip 0 e/abli%$ at ,muni*1 he became its incumb5t4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,jacobi1 he 0 *os5 presid5t ( ! ,muni* ,academy4 ,9 #ahda he remov$ to ,b]l91 :]e he has sometimes held lectures4 ,= ! la/ t5 ye>s ,s*ell+ has writt5 no?+ ( importance1 al?\gh he has repeat$ly promis$ an exposition ( 8 pres5t sy/em4 ,by f> ! great] portion ( 8 writ+s belongs to 8 e>ly life4 ,s*ell+'s philosophy is no complet$ sy/em ( :i* 8 sep>ate works are ! con/itu5t elem5ts2 b1 l ,plato's1 x has a hi/orical developm5t1 a c\rse ( =mative /eps :i* ! philosoph] has pass$ ?r\gh 9 8 own life4 ,in/ead ( sy/ematically elaborat+ ! sep>ate sci5ces f ! /&po9t ( 8 pr9ciple1 ,s*ell+ has gone back repeat$ly to ! beg9n+ aga91 seek+ ev] = new f\ndations & new /&po9ts1 connect+ ^! = ! mo/ "p 7l ,plato7 ) "s antec$5t philosophemes1 7,fi*te1 ,sp9oza1 ,new ,platonism1 ,leibnitz1 ,jacob ,bhme1 ,gno/icism17 :i* 9 _! ord] he attempt$ to int]weave ) 8 sy/em4 ,we mu/ modify accord+ly our exposition ( ,s*ell+'s ,philosophy1 & take up its diff]5t p]iods1 sep>at$ accord+ to ! diff]5t gr\ps ( 8 writ+s4#d ,i4 ,,fir/ ,,p]iod4 ,,s*ell+',s ,,procession ,,f ,,fi*te4 ,s*ell+'s />t+ po9t 0 ,fi*te1 :om he decid$ly foll[$ 9 8 e>lie/ writ+s4 ,9 8 essay1 8,on ! ,possibility ( a ,=m ( ,philosophy0 he %[s ! necessity ( t supreme pr9ciple :i* ,fi*te _h fir/ prop\nd$4 ,9 8 essay1 8,on ! ,ego0 ,s*ell+ %[s t ! ultimate gr\nd ( our k c only lie 9 ! ,ego1 & h5ce t e true philosophy mu/ be idealism4 ,if our k %all possess reality1 !re mu/ be "o po9t 9 :i* ideality & reality1 ?\ght & be+1 c id5tically co9cide2 & if outside ( our k1 !re 7 some?+ high] :i* condition$ x1 if itself 7 n ! highe/1 !n x c\ld n be absolute4 ,fi*te reg>d$ ?is essay z a comm5t>y on 8 ,!ory ( ,sci5ce2 yet x conta9s already indications ( ,s*ell+'s subsequ5t /&po9t1 9 its expressly affirm+ ! unity ( all k1 ! necessity t 9 ! end all ! diff]5t sci5ces %all become m]g$ into "o4 ,9 ! 8,lett]s on ,dogmatism & ,criticism10 #agie1 ,s*ell+ combatt$ ! notions ( ^? ,kantians :o _h left ! critical & ideali/ic /&po9t ( _! ma/]1 & fall5 back aga9 into ! old dogmatism4 ,x 0 also on ! /&po9t ( ,fi*te t ,s*ell+ publi%$ 9 ,nie?amm]'s & ,fi*te's ,j\rnal1 #agig-ih1 a s]ies ( articles1 9 :i* he gave a survey ( ! rec5t philosophical lit]ature4 ,"h he beg9s to turn 8 att5tion t[>ds a philosophical d$uction ( nature1 ?\gh he /ill rema9s on ! /&po9t ( ,fi*te :5 he d$uces nature :olly f ! ess5ce ( ! ,ego4 ,9 ! essay :i* 0 compos$ soon aft]1 & entitl$ 8,ideas = a philosophy ( ,nature10 #agig1 & ! "o 8,on ! ,_w-s\l10 #agih1 he gradually unfold$ m cle>ly 8 views4 ,! *ief po9ts :i* are br\ght out 9 ! two la/ nam$ essays are ! foll[+3 ,! fir/ orig9 ( ! conception ( matt] spr+s f nature & ! intuition ( ! human m9d4 ,! m9d is ! union ( an unlimit$ & a limit+ en]gy4 ,if !re 7 no limit to ! m9d1 consci\sness w\ld be j z impossible z if ! m9d 7 totally & absolutely limit$4 ,feel+1 p]ception & k are only conceivable1 z ! en]gy :i* /rives = ! unlimit$ becomes limit$ ?r\gh its opposite1 & z ?is latt] becomes itself fre$ f its limitations4 ,! actual m9d or he>t consi/s only 9 ! antagonism ( ^! two en]gies1 & h5ce only 9 _! ev] approximate or relative unity4 ,j s is x 9 nature4 ,matt] z su* is n ! fir/1 = ! =ces ( :i* x is ! unity are be=e x4 ,matt] is only to be appreh5d$ z ! ev] becom+ product ( attraction & repulsion2 x is n1 !re=e1 a m]e in]t grossness1 z we are apt to repres5t x1 b ^! =ces are its orig9al4 ,b =ce 9 ! mat]ial is l some?+ immat]ial4 ,=ce 9 nature is t :i* we may comp>e to m9d4 ,s9ce n[ ! m9d or he>t exhibits precisely ! same conflict1 z matt]1 ( opposite =ces1 we mu/ unite ! two 9 a high] id5tity4 ,b ! organ ( ! m9d = appreh5d+ nature is ! intuition :i* takes1 z object ( ! ext]nal s5se1 ! space :i* has be5 fill$ & limit$ by ! attract+ & repell+ =ces4 ,?us ,s*ell+ 0 l$ to ! conclusion t ! same absolute appe>s 9 nature z 9 m9d1 & t ! h>mony ( ^! is some?+ m ?an a ?\ght 9 ref]5ce to !m4 8,or if y affirm t we only c>ry ov] su* an idea to nature1 !n h y utt]ly fail$ to appreh5d ! only nature :i* !re c be to u4 ,= our view ( nature is n t x accid5tally meets ! laws ( our m9d--7p]haps ?r\gh ! m$iation ( a ?ird7--b t x necess>ily & orig9ally n only expresses1 b itself realizes1 ! laws ( our m9d1 & t x is nature1 & is call$ su* only 9 s f> z x does ?is40 8,nature %\ld be ! visible m9d1 & m9d invisible nature4 ,"h1 !re=e1 9 ! absolute ideality ( ! m9d )9 u1 & nature )\t u1 mu/ we solve ! problem h[ x is possible = a nature outside ( u to be40 ,?is ?\ght1 t nature or matt] is j z mu* ! actual unity ( an attract+ & a repell+ =ce1 z ! m9d or he>t is ! unity ( an unlimit$ & a limit+ t5d5cy1 & t ! repell+ =ce 9 matt] corresponds to ! positive or unlimit$ activity ( ! m9d1 :ile ! attract+ =ce corresponds to ! m9d's negative or limit+ activity--?is id5tical d$uction ( matt] f ! ess5ce ( ! ,ego1 is v prom95t 9 all t ,s*ell+ wrote ^u natural philosophy dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,nature ?us appe>s z a copy 7,doppelbild7 ( ! m9d1 :i* ! m9d itself produces1 9 ord] to return1 by its means1 to pure self-intuition1 to self-consci\sness4 ,h5ce we h ! successive /ages ( nature1 9 :i* all ! /ations ( ! m9d 9 its way to self-consci\sness are ext]nally e/abli%$4 ,x is especially 9 ! organic _w t ! m9d c behold its own self-production4 ,h5ce1 9 e ?+ organic1 !re is some?+ symbolical1 e plant be>s "s feature ( ! s\l4 ,! *ief *>act]i/ics ( an organic =mation1--! self-=m+ process f )9 outw>ds1 ! con=mity to "s end1 ! *ange ( int]p5etration ( =m & matt]--are equally *ief features ( ! m9d4 ,s9ce n[ !re exi/s 9 our m9d an endless /riv+ to organize itself1 s !re mu/ also be manife/$ 9 ! ext]nal _w a univ]sal t5d5cy to organization4 ,! :ole univ]se may ?us be call$ a k9d ( organization :i* has =m$ itself f a c5tre1 ris+ ev] f a l[] to a high] /age4 ,f su* a po9t ( view1 ! natural philosoph] w make x 8 *ief ef=t to br+ to a unity 9 8 contemplations t life ( nature1 :i* by _m rese>*es into physical sci5ce _h be5 sep>at$ into numb]less diff]5t p[]s4 8,x is a ne$less tr\ble :i* _m h giv5 !mselves1 to %[ h[ v diff]5t is ! work+ ( fire & electricity1 = e "o kn[s ?is :o has ev] se5 or he>d ( ! two4 ,b our m9d /rives aft] unity 9 ! sy/em ( its k2 x w n endure t !re %\ld be press$ ^u x a sep>ate pr9ciple = e s+le ph5om5on1 & x w only believe t x sees nature :]e x c discov] ! greate/ simplicity ( laws 9 ! greate/ multiplicity ( ph5om5a1 & ! highe/ frugality ( means 9 ! highe/ prodigality ( effects4 ,!re=e1 e ?\ght1 ev5 t :i* is n[ r\gh & crude1 m]its att5tion s soon z x t5ds t[>ds ! simplify+ ( pr9ciples1 & if x s]ves no o!r end1 x at lea/ /r5g!ns ! impulse to inve/igate & trace out ! hidd5 process ( nature40 ,! special t5d5cy ( ! sci5tific inve/igation ( nature :i* prevail$ at t "t1 0 to make a duality ( =ces ! pr$om9ant elem5t 9 ! life ( nature4 ,9 me*anics1 ! ,kantian !ory ( ! opposition ( attraction & repulsion 0 adopt$2 9 *emi/ry1 by appreh5d+ electricity z positive & negative1 its ph5om5on 0 br\ght ne> t ( magnetism2 9 physiology !re 0 ! opposition ( irritability & s5sibility1 c4 ,9 opposition to ^! dualities1 ,s*ell+ n[ insi/$ ^u ! unity ( e ?+ opposite1 ! unity ( all dualities1 & ?is n simply z an ab/ract unity1 b z a concrete id5tity1 z ! h>moni\s co-work+ ( ! het]og5e\s4 ,! _w is ! actual unity ( a positive & a negative pr9ciple1 8& ^! two conflict+ =ces tak5 toge!r1 or repres5t$ 9 _! conflict1 lead to ! idea ( an organiz+ pr9ciple :i* makes ( ! _w a sy/em1 9 o!r words1 to ! idea ( a _w-s\l40 ,9 8 above-cit$ essay on 8! _w-s\l10 ,s*ell+ took ! great /ep =w>d ( appreh5d+ nature z entirely autonomic4 ,9 ! _w-s\l nature has a peculi> pr9ciple :i* dwells )9 x1 & works accord+ to conception4 ,9 ?is way ! objective _w 0 recogniz$ z ! indep5d5t life ( nature 9 a mann] :i* ! logical idealism ( ,fi*te w\ld n p]mit4 ,s*ell+ proce$$ /ill f>!r 9 ?is direction1 & di/+ui%$ def9itely1 z ! two sides ( philosophy1 ! philosophy ( nature & a transc5d5tal philosophy4 ,by plac+ a philosophy ( nature by ! side ( idealism1 ,s*ell+ pass$ decid$ly beyond ! /&po9t ( sci5ce1 & we ?us ent] a second /adium ( 8 philosophiz+1 ?\gh 8 me?od /ill rema9$ t ( ,fi*te1 & he cont9u$ to believe t he 0 speculat+ 9 ! _s ( ! ,!ory ( ,sci5ce4 ,,ii4 ,,second ,,p]iod4 ,,/&po9t ,,( ,,! ,,di/+ui%+ ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,nature ,,& ,,( ,,m9d4 ,?is /&po9t ( ,s*ell+ is *iefly c>ri$ out 9 ! foll[+ works3--8,fir/ ,draft ( a ,sy/em ( ,natural ,philosophy10 #agii2 an introduction to ?is1 #agii2 articles 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ,speculative ,physics10 #ahjj1 #ahja2 8,sy/em ( ,transc5d5tal ,idealism10 #ahjj4 ,s*ell+ ?us di/+ui%es ! two sides ( philosophy4 ,all k re/s ^u ! h>mony ( a subject ) an object4 ,t :i* is simply objective is natural1 & t :i* is simply subjective is ! ,ego or intellig5ce4 ,!re are two possible ways ( unit+ ^! two sides3 we may ei!r make nature fir/1 & inquire h[ x is t intellig5ce is associat$ ) x 7natural philosophy72 or we may make ! subject fir/1 & inquire h[ d objects proce$ f ! subject 7transc5d5tal philosophy74 ,! end ( all philosophy mu/ be to make ei!r an intellig5ce out ( nature1 or a nature out ( intellig5ce4 ,z ! transc5d5tal philosophy has to subject ! real to ! ideal1 s mu/ natural philosophy attempt to expla9 ! ideal f ! real4 ,bo?1 h[ev]1 are only ! two poles ( "o & ! same k :i* reciprocally attract ea* o!r2 h5ce1 if we />t f ei!r pole1 we are necess>ily drawn t[>ds ! o!r4 #a4 ,,natural ,,philosophy4--,to philosophize conc]n+ nature is1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 to create nature--to raise x f ! dead me*anism 9 :i* x _h seem$ conf9$1 to inspire x ) fre$om1 & transpose x into a prop]ly free developm5t4 ,& :at1 !n1 is matt]1 o!r ?an m9d :i* has become ext9ct8 ,accord+ to ?is view1 s9ce nature is only ! visible organism ( our und]/&+1 x c produce no?+ b :at is con=mable to a rule & an end4 ,b y radically de/roy e idea ( nature j s soon z y all[ its design to h come to x f )\t1 by pass+ ov] f ! und]/&+ ( any be+4 ,! complete exhibition ( ! intellectual _w 9 ! laws & =ms ( ! ph5om5al _w1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! complete conception ( ^! laws & =ms f ! intellectual _w1 & !re=e ! exhibition ( ! ideality ( nature ) ! ideal _w1 is ! "w ( natural philosophy4 ,imm$iate exp]i5ce is inde$ its />t+ po9t2 we "k orig9ally no?+ except ?r\gh exp]i5ce2 b j z soon z ,i ga9 an insight into ! inn] necessity ( a pr9ciple ( exp]i5ce1 x becomes a pr9ciple apriori4 ,natural philosophy is empiricism ext5d$ until x becomes absolute4 ,s*ell+ expresses himself z foll[s1 conc]n+ ! *ief pr9ciples ( a philosophy ( nature4 ,nature is a susp5sion 7,s*web57 betwe5 productivity & product1 :i* is always pass+ ov] into def9ite =ms & products1 j z x is always productively pass+ beyond ^!4 ,?is susp5sion indicates a duality ( pr9ciples1 ?r\gh :i* nature is held 9 a con/ant activity1 & h9d]$ f exhau/+ itself 9 its products4 ,a univ]sal duality is ?us ! pr9ciple ( e explanation ( nature2 x is ! fir/ pr9ciple ( a philosophic !ory ( nature1 to end 9 all nature ) pol>ity & dualism4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! f9al cause ( all our contemplation ( nature is to "k t absolute unity :i* compreh5ds ! :ole1 & :i* suff]s only "o side ( itself to be kn[n 9 nature4 ,nature is1 z x 71 ! in/rum5t ( ?is absolute unity1 ?r\gh :i* x et]nally executes & actualizes t :i* is prefigur$ 9 ! absolute und]/&+4 ,! :ole absolute is !re=e cognizable 9 nature1 ?\gh ph5om5al nature only exhibits 9 a succession1 & produces 9 an endless developm5t1 t :i* ! true or real nature et]nally possesses4 ,s*ell+ treats ( natural philosophy 9 ?ree sections3 7#a7 ! pro( t nature1 9 its orig9al products1 is organic2 7#b7 ! conditions ( an inorganic nature2 7#c7 ! reciprocal det]m9ation ( organic & inorganic nature4 7#a47 ,organic nature ,s*ell+ ?us d$uces3 ,nature absolutely appreh5d$ is no?+ o!r ?an inf9ite activity1 inf9ite productivity4 ,if ?is 7 unh9d]$ 9 express+ itself1 x w\ld at once1 ) inf9ite cel]ity1 produce an absolute product1 :i* w\ld all[ no explanation = empirical nature4 ,if ?is latt] may be expla9$--if !re may be f9ite products1 we mu/ consid] ! productive activity ( nature z re/ra9$ by an opposite1 a ret>d+ activity1 :i* lies 9 nature itself4 ,?us arises a s]ies ( f9ite products4 ,b s9ce ! absolute productivity ( nature t5ds t[>ds an absolute product1 ^! individual products are only app>5t ones1 beyond ea* "o ( :i* nature h]self advances1 9 ord] to satisfy ! absolut5ess ( h] inn] productivity ?r\gh an inf9ite s]ies ( individual products4 ,9 ?is et]nal produc+ ( f9ite products1 nature %[s itself z a liv+ antagonism ( two opposite =ces1 a productive & a ret>d+ t5d5cy4 ,&1 inde$1 ! work+ ( ?is latt] is inf9itely manifold2 ! orig9al productive impulse ( nature has n only to combat a simple re/ra9t1 b x mu/ /ruggle ) an inf9ity ( reactions1 :i* may be call$ orig9al qualities4 ,h5ce e organic be+ is ! p]man5t expression = a conflict ( reciprocally de/roy+ & limit+ actions ( nature4 ,& f ?is1 viz41 f ! orig9al limitation & inf9ite re/ra9t ( ! =mative impulse ( nature1 we see ! reason :y e organization1 in/ead ( atta9+ to an absolute product1 only reproduces itself ad inf9itum4 ,^u ?is re/s ! special significance = ! organic _w1 ( ! di/9ction ( sex4 ,! di/9ction ( sex fixes ! organic products ( nature1 x re/ra9s !m )9 _! own processes ( developm5t1 & suff]s !m only to produce ! same aga94 ,b 9 ?is production nature has no reg>d = ! individual1 b only = ! species4 ,! individual is contr>y to nature2 nature desires ! absolute1 & its con/ant ef=t is to repres5t ?is4 ,individual products1 !re=e1 9 :i* ! activity ( nature is br\ght to a /&1 c only be reg>d$ z abortive attempts to repres5t ! absolute4 ,h5ce ! individual mu/ be ! means1 & ! species ! end ( nature4 ,j s soon z ! species is secur$1 nature ab&ons ! individuals & labors = _! de/ruction4 ,s*ell+ divides ! dynamic scale ( organic nature accord+ to ! ?ree gr& functions ( ! organic _w3 7a7 ,=mative impulse 7reproductive en]gy72 7b7 ,irritability2 7c7 ,s5sibility4 ,highe/ 9 rank are ^? organisms 9 :i* s5sibility has ! prepond]ance ov] irritability2 a l[] rank is held by ^? :]e irritability prepond]ates1 & l[] /ill are ^? :]e reproduction fir/ comes out 9 its entire p]fection1 :ile s5sibility & irritability are almo/ ext9ct4 ,yet ^! ?ree p[]s are int]wov5 toge!r 9 all nature1 & h5ce !re is b "o organization1 desc5d+ ?r\gh all nature f man to ! plant4 7#b47 ,inorganic nature (f]s ! anti!sis to organic4 ,! exi/5ce & ess5ce ( inorganic nature are condition$ ?r\gh ! exi/5ce & ess5ce ( organic nature4 ,:ile ! p[]s ( organic nature are productive1 ^? ( inorganic nature are n productive4 ,:ile organic nature aims only to e/abli% ! species1 inorganic nature reg>ds only ! individual1 & (f]s no reproduction ( ! species ?r\gh ! individual4 ,x possesses a great multitude ( mat]ials1 b c only use ^! mat]ials 9 ! way ( conjo9+ or sep>at+4 ,9 a ^w1 inorganic nature is simply a mass held toge!r by "s ext]nal cause z gravity4 ,yet x1 l organic nature1 has its gradations4 ,! p[] ( reproduction 9 ! latt] has its c\nt]p>t 9 ! *emical process 9 ! =m]2 t :i* 9 ! "o case is irritability1 9 ! o!r is electricity2 & s5sibility1 :i* is ! highe/ /age ( organic life1 corresponds to ! univ]sal magnetism1 ! highe/ /age ( ! inorganic4 7#c47 ,! reciprocal det]m9ation ( ! organic & inorganic _w1 is made cle> by :at has already be5 said4 ,! result to :i* e g5u9e philosophy ( nature mu/ come1 is t ! di/9ction betwe5 organic & inorganic nature is only 9 nature z object1 & t nature1 z orig9ally productive1 waves ov] bo?4 ,if ! functions ( an organism are only possible on ! condition t !re is a def9ite ext]nal _w1 & an organic _w1 !n mu/ ! ext]nal _w & ! organic _w h a common orig94 ,?is c only be expla9$ on ! gr\nd t inorganic nature presupposes 9 ord] to its exi/5ce a high] dynamical ord] ( ?+s1 to :i* x is subject4 ,!re mu/ be a ?ird1 :i* c unite aga9 organic & inorganic nature2 :i* c be a m$ium1 hold+ ! cont9uity betwe5 ! two4 ,bo? mu/ be id5tifi$ 9 "s ultimate cause1 ?r\gh :i*1 z ?r\gh "o common s\l ( nature 7_w-s\l71 bo? ! organic & inorganic1 i4 e4 univ]sal nature1 is inspir$2 9 "s common pr9ciple1 :i*1 fluctuat+ betwe5 inorganic & organic nature1 & ma9ta9+ ! cont9uity ( ! two1 conta9s ! fir/ cause ( all *anges 9 ! "o1 & ! ultimate gr\nd ( all activity 9 ! o!r4 ,we h "h ! idea ( a univ]sal organism4 ,t x is "o & ! same organization :i* unites 9 "o ! organic & inorganic _w1 w\ld appe> f :at has already be5 said ( ! p>allel gradations ( ! two worlds4 ,t :i* 9 univ]sal nature is ! cause ( magnetism1 is 9 organic nature ! cause ( s5sibility1 & ! latt] is only a high] pot5cy ( ! =m]4 ,j z 9 ! organic _w ?r\gh s5sibility1 s 9 univ]sal nature ?r\gh magnetism1 !re arises a duality f ! ideality4 ,9 ?is way organic nature appe>s only z a high] /age ( ! inorganic2 ! v same dualism :i* is se5 9 magnetic pol>ity1 electrical ph5om5a1 & *emical diff]5ces1 displays itself also 9 ! organic _w4 #b4 ,,transc5d5tal ,,philosophy4--,transc5d5tal philosophy is ! philosophy ( nature become subjective4 ,! :ole succession ( objects ?us f> describ$1 becomes n[ repeat$ z a successive developm5t ( ! behold+ subject4 ,x is ! peculi>ity ( transc5d5tal idealism1 t s soon z x is once admitt$1 x requires t ! orig9 ( all k %all be s\ght = anew2 t ! tru? :i* has long be5 consid]$ z e/abli%$1 %\ld be subject$ to a new exam9ation1 & t ?is exam9ation %\ld proce$ "u at lea/ an entirely new =m4 ,all p>ts ( philosophy mu/ be exhibit$ 9 "o cont9uity1 & ! :ole ( philosophy mu/ be reg>d$ z t :i* x is1 viz41 ! advanc+ hi/ory ( consci\sness1 :i* c use only z monum5ts or docum5ts t :i* is laid d[n 9 exp]i5ce4 7,s*ell+'s transc5d5tal idealism is1 9 ?is respect1 ! =]unn] to ,hegel's ,phnom5ology1 :i* pursues a simil> c\rse74 ,! exhibition ( ?is connection is prop]ly a succession ( intuitions ?r\gh :i* ! ,ego raises itself to consci\sness 9 ! highe/ pot5cy4 ,nei!r transc5d5tal philosophy nor ! philosophy ( nature1 c alone repres5t ! p>allelism betwe5 nature & intellig5ce2 b1 9 ord] to ?is1 bo? sci5ces mu/ be unit$1 ! =m] be+ consid]$ z a necess>y c\nt]p>t to ! o!r4 ,! division ( transc5d5tal philosophy foll[s f its problem1 to seek anew ! orig9 ( all k1 & to subject to a new exam9ation e previ\s judgm5t :i* _h be5 held to be e/abli%$ tru?4 ,! pre-judgm5ts ( ! common und]/&+ are pr9cipally two3 7#a7 ,t a _w ( objects exi/ indep5d5t (1 & outside (1 ourselves1 & are repres5t$ to u j z !y are4 ,to expla9 ?is pre-judgm5t1 is ! problem ( ! fir/ "p ( ! transc5d5tal philosophy 7!oretical philosophy74 7#b7 ,t we c produce an effect ^u ! objective _w accord+ to repres5tations :i* arise freely )9 u4 ,! solution ( ?is problem is practical philosophy4 ,b1 ) ^! two problems we f9d ourselves entangl$1 7#c7 9 a contradiction4 ,h[ is x possible t our ?\ght %\ld ev] rule ov] ! _w ( s5se1 if ! repres5tation is conditional 9 its orig9 by ! objective8 ,! solution ( ?is problem1 :i* is ! highe/ ( transc5d5tal philosophy1 is ! answ] to ! "q3 h[ c ! repres5tations be conceiv$ z direct+ !mselves accord+ to ! objects1 & at ! same "t ! objects be conceiv$ z direct+ !mselves accord+ to ! repres5tations8 ,?is is only conceivable on ! gr\nd t ! activity ?r\gh :i* ! objective _w is produc$1 is orig9ally id5tical ) t :i* utt]s itself 9 ! w4 ,to %[ ?is id5tity ( consci\s & unconsci\s activity1 is ! problem ( ! ?ird "p ( transc5d5tal philosophy1 or ! sci5ce ( ends 9 nature & ( art4 ,! ?ree p>ts ( ! transc5d5tal philosophy correspond ?us entirely to ! ?ree criticks ( ,kant4 7#a47 ,! !oretical philosophy />ts f ! highe/ pr9ciple ( k1 ! self-consci\sness1 & f ?is po9t developes ! hi/ory ( self-consci\sness1 accord+ to its mo/ prom95t epo*s & /ations1 viz41 s5sation1 intuition1 productive intuition 7:i* produces matt]7--out] & inn] intuition 7f :i* space & "t1 & all ,kant's categories may be d]iv$71 ab/raction 7by :i* ! intellig5ce di/+ui%es itself f its products7--absolute ab/raction1 or absolute act ( w4 ,) ! act ( ! w !re is spread be=e u1 7#b47 ,! ,field ( ,practical ,philosophy4--,9 practical philosophy ! ,ego is no long] behold+1 i4 e4 consci\sless1 b is consci\sly produc+1 i4 e4 realiz+4 ,z a :ole1 nature developes itself f ! orig9al act ( self-consci\sness1 s f ! second act1 or ! act ( free self-det]m9ation1 !re is produc$ a second nature1 to f9d ! orig9 = :i* is ! object ( practical philosophy4 ,9 8 exposition ( ! practical philosophy1 ,s*ell+ foll[s almo/ :olly ! !ory ( ,fi*te1 b closes ?is section ) "s rem>kable expressions respect+ ! philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,hi/ory1 z a :ole1 is1 accord+ to him1 a gradual & self-disclos+ revelation ( ! absolute1 a progress+ demon/ration ( ! exi/5ce ( a ,god4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is revelation may be divid$ into ?ree p]iods4 ,! fir/ is t 9 :i* ! ov]rul+ p[] 0 appreh5d$ only z de/9y1 i4 e4 z a bl9d p[]1 cold & consci\sless1 :i* br+s ! greate/ & mo/ glori\s ?+s ( e>? to ru92 x is m>k$ by ! decay ( ! magnific5ce & wond]s ( ! anci5t _w1 & ! fall ( ! noble/ manhood t has ev] bloom$4 ,! second p]iod ( hi/ory is t 9 :i* ?is de/9y manife/s itself z nature1 & ! hidd5 law seems *ang$ into a manife/ law ( nature1 :i* compels fre$om & e *oice to submit to & s]ve a plan ( nature4 ,?is p]iod seems to beg9 ) ! spread ( ! great ,roman republic4 ,! ?ird p]iod w be t :]e :at has previ\sly be5 reg>d$ z de/9y & nature1 w develope itself z ,provid5ce4 ,:5 ?is p]iod %all beg91 we _c say2 we c only affirm t if x be1 !n ,god w be se5 also to be4 7#c47 ,philosophy ( ,art4--,! problem ( transc5d5tal philosophy is to h>monize ! subjective & ! objective4 ,9 hi/ory1 ) :i* practical philosophy closes1 ! id5tity ( ! two is n exhibit$1 b only approximat$ 9 an inf9ite progress4 ,b n[ ! ,ego mu/ atta9 a position :]e x c actually look ^u ?is id5tity1 :i* con/itutes its inn] ess5ce4 ,if n[ all consci\s activity exhibits design1 !n a consci\s & consci\sless activity c only co9cide 9 a product1 :i*1 ?\gh x exhibits design1 0 yet produc$ )\t design4 ,su* a product is nature2 we h "h ! pr9ciple ( all teleology1 9 :i* alone ! solution ( ! giv5 problem c be s\ght4 ,! peculi>ity ( nature is ?is1 viz41 t ?\gh x exhibits itself z no?+ b a bl9d me*anism1 x yet displays design1 & repres5ts an id5tity ( ! consci\s subjective1 & ! consci\sless objective activity2 9 x ! ,ego beholds its own mo/ peculi> ess5ce1 :i* consi/s alone 9 ?is id5tity4 ,b 9 nature ! ,ego beholds ?is id5tity1 n z some?+ objective1 :i* has a be+ only outside ( x1 b also z t ^: pr9ciple lies )9 ! ,ego itself4 ,?is behold+ is ! art-intuition4 ,z ! production ( nature is consci\sless1 ?\gh simil> to t :i* is consci\s1 s ! /hetic production ( ! arti/ is a consci\s production1 simil> to t :i* is consci\sless4 /hetics mu/ !re=e be jo9$ to teleology4 ,t contradiction betwe5 ! consci\s & ! consci\sless1 :i* moves =w>d untir+ly 9 hi/ory1 & :i* is unconsci\sly reconcil$ 9 nature1 f9ds its consci\s reconciliation 9 a "w ( art4 ,9 a "w ( art1 ! intellig5ce atta9s a p]fect intuition ( itself4 ,! feel+ :i* accompanies ?is intuition1 is ! feel+ ( an endless satisfaction2 all contradictions be+ resolv$1 & e riddle expla9$4 ,! unkn[n1 :i* unexpect$ly h>monizes ! objective & ! consci\s activity1 is no?+ o!r ?an t absolute & un*angeable id5tity1 to :i* e exi/5ce mu/ be ref]r$4 ,9 ! arti/ x lays aside ! veil1 :i* else:]e surr\nds x1 & irresi/ibly impels him to complete 8 "w4 ,?us !re is no o!r et]nal revelation b art1 & ?is is also ! miracle :i* %\ld conv9ce u ( ! reality ( t supreme1 :i* is nev] itself objective1 b is ! cause ( all objective4 ,h5ce art holds a high] rank ?an philosophy1 = only 9 art has ! intellectual intuition objectivity4 ,!re is no?+1 !re=e1 high] to ! philosoph] ?an art1 because ?is op5s be=e him1 z x 71 ! holy ( holies1 :]e t :i* is sep>ate 9 nature & hi/ory1 & :i* 9 life & action1 z 9 ?\ght1 mu/ ev] div]ge1 burns1 z x 71 9 "o flame1 9 an et]nal & orig9al union4 ,f ?is we see also bo? ! fact & ! reason = x1 t philosophy1 z philosophy1 c nev] be univ]sally valid4 ,art is t alone to :i* is giv51 an absolute objectivity1 & x is ?r\gh ?is alone t nature1 consci\sly productive1 concludes & completes itself )9 itself4 ,! 8,transc5d5tal ,idealism0 is ! la/ "w :i* ,s*ell+ wrote aft] ! me?od ( ,fi*te4 ,9 its pr9ciple he goes decid$ly beyond ! /&po9t ( ,fi*te4 ,t :i* 0 ) ,fi*te ! inconceivable limit ( ! ,ego1 ,s*ell+ d]ives z a necess>y duality1 f ! simple ess5ce ( ! ,ego4 ,:ile ,fi*te _h reg>d$ ! union ( subject & object1 only z an inf9ite progression t[>ds t :i* ought to be1 ,s*ell+ look$ ^u x z actually accompli%$ 9 a "w ( art4 ,) ,fi*te ,god 0 appreh5d$ only z ! object ( a moral fai?1 b ) ,s*ell+ he 0 look$ ^u z ! imm$iate object ( ! /hetic intuition4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! two c\ld n long be conceal$ f ,s*ell+4 ,he 0 oblig$ to see t he no long] /ood ^u ! basis ( subjective idealism1 b t 8 real position 0 t ( objective idealism4 ,if he _h already gone beyond ,fi*te 9 sett+ ! philosophy ( nature & transc5d5tal philosophy opposite to ea* o!r1 x 0 p]fectly consi/5t = him n[ to g "o /ep f>!r1 &1 plac+ himself on ! po9t ( indiff]5ce betwe5 ! two1 make ! id5tity ( ! ideal & ! real1 ( ?\ght & be+1 z 8 pr9ciple4 ,?is pr9ciple ,sp9oza _h already possess$ be=e him4 ,to ?is philosophy ( id5tity ,s*ell+ n[ f\nd himself peculi>ly attract$4 ,in/ead ( foll[+ ,fi*te's me?od1 he n[ avail$ himself ( t ( ,sp9oza1 ! ma!matical1 to :i* he ascrib$ ! greate/ evid5ce ( pro(4 ,,iii4 ,,?ird ,,p]iod3 ,,p]iod ,,( ,,sp9ozism1 ,,or ,,! ,,indiff]5ce ,,( ,,! ,,ideal ,,& ,,! ,,real4 ,! pr9cipal writ+s ( ?is p]iod are3--8,exposition ( my ,sy/em ( ,philosophy0 7,j\rnal = ,speculative ,physics1 ii4 #b72 ! second edition1 ) additions1 ( ! 8,ideas = a ,philosophy ( ,nature0 #ahjc2 ! dialogue1 8,bruno1 or conc]n+ ! ,div9e & ! ,natural ,pr9ciple ( ,?+s0 #ahjb2 8,lectures on ! ,me?od ( ,academical ,/udy10 #ahjc2 ?ree numb]s ( a 8,new ,j\rnal = ,speculative ,physics10 #ahjb-c4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( ! new /&po9t ( ,s*ell+1 to :i* we n[ arrive1 is p]fectly exhibit$ 9 ! def9ition ( reason1 :i* he places at ! head ( ! fir/ ( ! above-nam$ writ+s2 ,i give to reason ! "n absolute1 or ! reason 9 s f> z x is conceiv$ z ! total indiff]5ce ( ! subjective & ! objective4 ,to ?9k ( reason is dem&$ ( e man2 to ?9k ( x z absolute1 & ?us to rea* ! /&po9t :i* ,i require1 e ?+ mu/ be ab/ract$ f ! ?9k+ subject4 ,to him :o makes ?is ab/raction1 reason imm$iately ceases to be some?+ subjective1 z mo/ m5 repres5t x2 nei!r c x be conceiv$ z some?+ objective1 s9ce an objective1 or t :i* is ?\ght1 is only possible 9 opposition to t :i* ?9ks4 ,we ?us rise ?r\gh ?is ab/raction to ! reality ( ?+s 7zum wahr5 an-si*71 :i* reality is precisely 9 ! indiff]5ce po9t ( ! subjective & ! objective4 ,! /&po9t ( philosophy is ! /&po9t ( reason2 its k is a k ( ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves1 i4 e4 z !y are 9 ! reason4 ,x is ! nature ( philosophy to de/roy e di/9ction :i* ! imag9ation has m+l$ ) ! ?9k+1 & to see 9 ?+s only t ?r\gh :i* !y express ! absolute reason1 n reg>d+ 9 !m t :i* is simply an object = t reflection :i* exp5ds itself on ! laws ( me*anism & 9 "t4 ,besides reason !re is no?+1 & 9 x is e ?+4 ,reason is ! absolute4 ,all objections to ?is pr9ciple c only arise f ! fact1 t m5 are 9 ! habit ( look+ at ?+s n z !y are 9 reason1 b z !y appe>4 ,e ?+ :i* is1 is 9 ess5ce l ! reason1 & is "o ) x4 ,x is n ! reason :i* posits some?+ ext]nal to itself1 b only ! false use ( reason1 :i* is connect$ ) ! incapacity ( =gett+ ! subjective 9 itself4 ,! reason is absolutely "o & l itself4 ,! highe/ law = ! be+ ( reason1 & s9ce !re is no?+ besides reason1 ! highe/ law = all be+1 is ! law ( id5tity4 ,betwe5 subject & object !re=e--s9ce x is "o & ! same absolute id5tity :i* displays itself 9 bo?--!re c be no diff]5ce except a quantitative diff]5ce 7a diff]5ce ( m or less71 s t no?+ is ei!r simple object or simple subject1 b 9 all ?+s subject & object are unit$1 ?is union be+ 9 diff]5t proportions1 s t sometimes ! subject & sometimes ! object has ! prepond]ance4 ,b s9ce ! absolute is pure id5tity ( subject & object1 !re c be no quantitative diff]5ce except outside ( ! id5tity1 i4 e4 9 ! f9ite4 ,z ! fundam5tal =m ( ! ,inf9ite is ,a ,a1 s ! s*eme ( ! f9ite is ,a ,b 7i4 e4 ! union ( a subjective ) ano!r objective 9 a diff]5t proportion74 ,b1 9 reality1 no?+ is f9ite1 because ! id5tity is ! only reality4 ,s f> z !re is diff]5ce 9 individual ?+s1 ! id5tity exi/s 9 ! =m ( indiff]5ce4 ,if we c\ld see toge!r e ?+ :i* is1 we %\ld f9d 9 all ! pure id5tity1 because we %\ld f9d 9 all a p]fect quantitative equilibrium ( subjectivity & objectivity4 ,true1 we f9d1 9 look+ at individual objects1 t sometimes ! prepond]ance is on "o side & sometimes on ! o!r1 b 9 ! :ole ?is is comp5sat$4 ,! absolute id5tity is ! absolute totality1 ! univ]se itself4 ,!re is 9 reality 7an-si*7 no individual be+ or ?+4 ,!re is 9 reality no?+ beyond ! totality2 & if any ?+ beyond ?is is beheld1 ?is c only happ5 by virtue ( arbitr>y sep>ation ( ! individual f ! :ole1 :i* is done ?r\gh reflection1 & is ! s\rce ( e error4 ,! absolute id5tity is ess5tially ! same 9 e "p ( ! univ]se4 ,h5ce ! univ]se may be conceiv$ "u ! figure ( a l9e1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is ! ,a ,a1 :ile at ! end on "o side is ,a ,b1 i4 e4 a transc5d5ce ( ! subjective1 & at ! end on ! o!r side is ,a ,b1 i4 e4 a transc5d5ce ( ! objective1 ?\gh ?is mu/ be conceiv$ s t a relative id5tity may exi/ ev5 9 ^! extremes4 ,! "o side is ! real or nature1 ! o!r side is ! ideal4 ,! real side developes itself accord+ to ?ree pot5ces 7a pot5ce1 or p[]1 indicates a def9ite quantitative diff]5ce ( subjectivity & objectivity74 7#a7 ,! fir/ pot5ce is matt] & weight--! greate/ prepond]ance ( ! object4 7#b7 ,! second pot5ce is light 7,a71 an inn]--z weight is an out]--intuition ( nature4 ,! light is a high] ris+ ( ! subjective4 ,x is ! absolute id5tity itself4 7#c7 ,! ?ird pot5ce is organism 7,a71 ! common product ( light & weight4 ,organism is j z orig9al z matt]4 ,inorganic nature1 z su*1 does n exi/3 x is actually organiz$1 & is1 z x 71 ! univ]sal g]m out ( :i* organization proce$s4 ,! organization ( e globe is b ! inn] evolution ( ! globe itself2 ! e>? itself1 by its own evolv+1 becomes animal & plant4 ,! organic _w has n =m$ itself out ( ! inorganic1 b has be5 at lea/ pot5tially pres5t 9 x f ! beg9n+4 ,t matt] :i* lies be=e u1 app>5tly inorganic1 is ! residuum ( organic metamorphoses1 :i* c\ld n become organic4 ,! human bra9 is ! highe/ bloom ( ! :ole organic metamorphosis ( ! e>?4 ,f ! above1 ,s*ell+ adds1 x mu/ be p]ceiv$ t we affirm an inn] id5tity ( all ?+s1 & a pot5tial pres5ce ( e ?+ 9 e o!r1 & !re=e ev5 ! s-call$ dead matt] may be view$ only z a sleep+-_w ( animals & plants1 :i*1 9 "s p]iod1 ! absolute id5tity may animate & raise to life4 ,at ?is po9t ,s*ell+ /ops sudd5ly1 )\t develop+ fur!r ! ?ree pot5ces ( ! ideal s]ies1 correspond+ to ^? ( ! real4 ,else:]e he completes ! "w by sett+ up ! foll[+ ?ree pot5ces ( ! ideal s]ies3 7#a7 ,k1 ! pot5ce ( reflection2 7#b7 ,action1 ! pot5ce ( subsumption2 7#c7 ! ,reason z ! unity ( reflection & subsumption4 ,^! ?ree pot5ces repres5t !mselves3 7#a7 z ! true1 ! impr9t+ ( ! matt] 9 ! =m2 7#b7 z ! good1 or ! impr9t+ ( ! =m 9 ! matt]2 7#c7 z ! beautiful1 or ! "w ( art1 ! absolute bl5d+ toge!r ( =m & matt]4 ,s*ell+ s\ght also to furni% himself ) a new me?od = kn[+ ! absolute id5tity4 ,nei!r ! analytic nor ! syn!tical me?od seems to him suitable = ?is1 s9ce bo? are only a f9ite k4 ,gradually1 also1 he ab&on$ ! ma!matical me?od4 ,! logical =ms ( ! ord9>y me?od ( k1 & ev5 ! ord9>y metaphysical categories1 7 n[ insuffici5t = him4 ,s*ell+ n[ places ! intellectual intuition z ! />t+ po9t ( true k4 ,intuition1 9 g5]al1 is an equal posit+ ( ?\ght & be+4 ,:5 ,i behold an object1 ! be+ ( ! object & my ?\ght ( ! object is = me absolutely ! same4 ,b 9 ! ord9>y intuition1 "s sep>ate s5sible be+ is posit$ z "o ) ! ?\ght4 ,b 9 ! intellectual or rational intuition1 be+ 9 g5]al1 & e be+ is made id5tical ) ! ?\ght1 & ! absolute subject-object is beheld4 ,! intellectual intuition is absolute k1 & z su* x c only be conceiv$ z t 9 :i* ?\ght & be+ are n oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,x is ! beg9n+ & ! fir/ /ep t[>ds philosophy to behold1 imm$iately & intellectually )9 ?yself1 t same indiff]5ce ( ! ideal & ! real :i* ?\ beholde/ project$ z x 7 f ?yself 9 space & "t4 ,?is absolutely absolute mode ( k is :olly & entirely 9 ! absolute itself4 ,t x c nev] become taught is cle>4 ,x _c1 moreov]1 be se5 :y philosophy is b\nd to h special reg>d to ! unatta9able4 ,x seems mu* m fitt+ to make s complete a sep>ation on e side betwe5 ! entrance to philosophy & ! common k1 t no road nor track %all lead f ! latt] to ! =m]4 ,! absolute mode ( k1 l ! tru? :i* x conta9s1 has no true opposition outside ( itself1 & z x _c be demon/rat$ by any intellig5t be+1 s no?+ c be set up 9 opposition to x by any4--,s*ell+ has attempt$ to br+ ! intellectual intuition into a me?od1 & has nam$ ?is me?od con/ruction4 ,! possibility & ! necessity ( ! con/ructive me?od is bas$ ^u ! fact t ! absolute is 9 all1 & t all is ! absolute4 ,con/ruction is no?+ o!r ?an ! prov+ t ! :ole is absolutely express$ 9 e p>ticul> relation & object4 ,to con/rue an object1 philosophically1 is to prove t 9 ?is object ! :ole inn] /ructure ( ! absolute repeats itself4 ,9 ,s*ell+'s 8,lectures on ! ,me?od ( ,academical ,/udy0 7deliv]$ 9 #ahjb1 & publi%$ 9 #ahjc71 he s\ght to treat encyclopdiacally1 e philosophical discipl9e f ! giv5 /&po9t ( id5tity or indiff]5ce4 ,!y furni% a connect$ & popul> exposition ( ! outl9es ( 8 philosophy1 9 ! =m ( a critical modell+ ( ! /udies ( ! univ]sity c\rse4 ,! mo/ noticeable feature 9 !m is ,s*ell+'s attempt at a hi/orical con/ruction ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! inc>nation ( ,god is an inc>nation f et]nity4 ,! et]nal ,son ( ,god1 born f ! ess5ce ( ! fa!r ( all ?+s1 is ! f9ite itself1 z x is 9 ! et]nal intuition ( ,god4 ,*ri/ is only ! hi/orical & ph5om5al p9nacle ( ! inc>nation2 z an individual1 he is a p]son :olly conceivable f ! circum/ances ( ! age 9 :i* he appe>$4 ,s9ce ,god is et]nally outside ( all "t1 x is inconceivable t he %\ld h assum$ a human nature at any def9ite mom5t ( "t4 ,! temporal =m ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! exot]ic ,*ri/ianity does n correspond to its idea1 & has its p]fection yet to be hop$ =4 ,a *ief h9drance to ! p]fection ( ,*ri/ianity1 01 & is ! s-call$ ,bible1 :i*1 moreov]1 is f> inf]ior to o!r religi\s writ+s1 9 a g5u9e religi\s cont5t4 ,! future mu/ br+ a new bir? ( ! esot]ic ,*ri/ianity1 or a new & high] =m ( religion1 9 :i* philosophy1 religion & poesy %all melt toge!r 9 unity4--,?is latt] rem>k conta9s already an intimation ( ! 8,philosophy ( ,revelation10 a "w subsequ5tly writt5 by ,s*ell+1 & :i* exhibit$ _m ( ! pr9ciples curr5t 9 ! age ( ! apo/le ,john4 ,9 ! "w we are n[ consid]+1 !re are also _m o!r po9ts :i* correspond to ?is lat] /&po9t ( ,s*ell+4 ,?us he places at ! summit ( hi/ory a k9d ( gold5 age4 ,x is inconceivable1 he says1 t man z he n[ appe>s1 %\ld h rais$ himself ?r\gh himself f in/9ct to consci\sness1 f animality to rationality4 ,ano!r human race1 mu/1 !re=e1 h prec$$ ! pres5t1 :i* ! old saga h immortaliz$ "u ! =m ( gods & h]oes4 ,! fir/ orig9 ( religion & culture is only conceivable ?r\gh ! in/ruction ( high] natures4 ,i hold ! condition ( culture z ! fir/ condition ( ! human race1 & consid]e ! fir/ f\ndation ( /ates1 sci5ces1 religion & arts z cotempor>y1 or r z "o ?+3 s t all ^! 7 n truly sep>ate1 b 9 ! complete/ int]p5etration1 z x w be aga9 9 ! f9al consummation4 ,s*ell+ is no m ?an consi/5t :5 he accord+ly appreh5ds ! symbols ( my?ology :i* we meet ) at ! beg9n+ ( hi/ory1 z disclosures ( ! highe/ wisdom4 ,!re is "h also a /ep t[>ds 8 subsequ5t 8,philosophy ( ,my?ology40 ,! my/ical elem5t reveal$ 9 ^! expressions ( ,s*ell+ ga9$ cont9ually a great] prom95ce ) him4 ,its gr[? 0 p>tly connect$ ) 8 fruitless se>* aft] an absolute me?od1 & a fitt+ =m 9 :i* he might h satisfactorily express$ 8 philosophic intuitions4 ,all noble my/icism re/s on ! incapacity ( adequately express+ an inf9ite cont5t 9 ! =m ( a conception4 ,s ,s*ell+1 aft] he _h be5 re/lessly toss$ ab\t 9 e me?od1 soon gave up also 8 me?od ( con/ruction1 & ab&on$ himself :olly to ! unlimit$ curr5t ( 8 fancy4 ,b ?\gh ?is 0 p>tly ! cause ( 8 my/icism1 x is also true t 8 philosophical /&po9t 0 gradually und]go+ a *ange4 ,f ! speculative sci5ce ( nature1 he 0 gradually pass+ ov] m & m into ! philosophy ( m9d1 by :i* ! det]m9ation ( ! absolute 9 8 conception became *ang$4 ,:ile he _h previ\sly det]m9$ ! absolute z ! indiff]5ce ( ! ideal & ! real1 he n[ gives a prepond]ance to ! ideal ov] ! real1 & makes ideality ! fundam5tal det]m9ation ( ! absolute4 ,! fir/ is ! ideal2 secondly1 ! ideal det]m9es itself 9 itself to ! real1 & ! real z su* is ! ?ird4 ,! e>li] h>mony ( m9d & matt] is dissolv$3 matt] appe>s n[ z ! negative ( m9d4 ,s9ce ,s*ell+ 9 ?is way di/+ui%es ! univ]se f ! absolute z its c\nt]p>t1 we see t he leaves decid$ly ! basis ( ,sp9ozism on :i* he _h previ\sly /ood1 & places himself on a new /&po9t4 ,,iv4 ,,f\r? ,,p]iod3 ,,! ,,direction ,,( ,,s*ell+',s ,,philosophy ,,z ,,my/ical ,,& ,,alli$ ,,to ,,new-,,platonism4 ,! writ+s ( ?is p]iod are3--8,philosophy & ,religion10 #ahjd4 8,exposition ( ! true relation ( ! ,philosophy ( ,nature to ! improv$ ,!ory ( ,fi*te10 #ahjf2 8,m$ical ,annual0 7publi%$ 9 company ) ,m>cus7 #ahje-ahjh4--;,z has already be5 said1 ! absolute & ! univ]se 71 on ! /&po9t ( indiff]5ce1 id5tical4 ,nature & hi/ory 7 imm$iate manife/ations ( ! absolute4 ,b n[ ,s*ell+ lays /ress ^u ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two1 & ! indep5d5ce ( ! _w4 ,?is he expresses 9 a /rik+ way 9 ! fir/ ( ! above nam$ writ+s1 by plac+ ! orig9 ( ! _w :olly aft] ! mann] ( ,new-,platonism1 9 a break+ away or a fall+ (f f ! absolute4 ,f ! absolute to ! actual1 !re is no abid+ transition2 ! orig9 ( ! s5sible _w is only conceivable z a complete break+ (f p] saltum f ! absolute4 ,! absolute is ! only real1 f9ite ?+s are n real2 !y c1 !re=e1 h _! gr\nd 9 no reality imp>t$ to !m f ! absolute1 b only 9 a sep>ation & complete fall+ away f ! absolute4 ,! reconciliation ( ?is fall1 & ! manife/ation ( ,god made complete1 is ! f9al cause ( hi/ory4 ,) ?is idea !re are also connect$ o!r repres5tations borr[$ f ,new-,platonism1 :i* ,s*ell+ br+s out 9 ! same "w4 ,he speaks 9 x ( ! desc5t ( ! s\l f intellectuality1 to ! _w ( s5se1 & l ! ,platonic my? he all[s ?is fall ( s\ls to be a puni%m5t = _! selfhood 7pride72 he speaks also 9 connection ) ?is ( a reg5]ation1 or transmigration ( s\ls1 by :i* !y ei!r beg9 a high] life on a bett] sph]e1 or intoxicat$ ) matt]1 !y are driv5 d[n to a /ill l[] abode1 accord+ z !y h 9 ! pres5t life laid aside m or less ( _! selfhood1 & become purifi$ 9 a great] or less degree1 to an id5tity ) ! inf9ite2 b we are especially rem9d$ ( ,new-,platonism by ! high place & ! my/ical & symbolical significance1 :i* ,s*ell+ gives 9 ?is "w to ! ,greek my/]ies 7z did ,bruno71 & ! view t if religion w\ld be held 9 its pure ideality1 x c only exi/ z exot]ic1 or 9 ! =m ( my/]ies4--,?is notion ( a high] bl5d+ toge!r ( religion & philosophy goes ?r\gh all ! writ+s ( ?is p]iod4 ,all true exp]i5ce1 says ,s*ell+ 9 ! 8,m$ical ,annual10 is religi\s4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god is an empirical tru?1 & ! gr\nd ( all exp]i5ce4 ,true1 religion is n philosophy1 b ! philosophy :i* does n unite 9 sacr$ h>mony1 religion ) sci5ce1 7 unwor?y ( ! "n4 ,true1 ,i "k some?+ high] ?an sci5ce4 ,& if sci5ce has only ^! two ways op5 be=e x to k1 viz41 t ( analysis or ab/raction1 & t ( syn!tic d]ivation1 !n we d5y all sci5ce ( ! absolute4 ,speculation is e ?+1 i4 e4 a behold+1 a contemplation ( t :i* is 9 ,god4 ,sci5ce itself has wor? only s f> z x is speculative1 i4 e4 only s f> z x is a contemplation ( ,god z he is4 ,b ! "t w come :5 ! sci5ces %all m & m cease1 & imm$iate k take _! place4 ,! mortal eye closes only 9 ! highe/ sci5ce1 :]e x is no long] ! man :o sees1 b ! et]nal behold+ :i* has n[ become see+ 9 him4 ,) ?is !osophic view ( ! _w1 ,s*ell+ 0 l$ to pay att5tion to ! e>li] my/ics4 ,he began to /udy _! writ+s4 ,he answ]$ ! *>ge ( my/icism 9 8 controv]sy ) ,fi*te z foll[s3--,among ! le>n$ ( ! la/ c5tury1 !re 0 a tacit agreem5t nev] to g beyond a c]ta9 height1 &1 !re=e1 ! g5u9e _s ( sci5ce 0 giv5 up to ! unle>n$4 ,^!1 because !y 7 un$ucat$ & _h drawn ^u !mselves ! jeal\sy ( ! le>n$1 7 call$ fanatics4 ,b _m a philosoph] by pr(ession might well h ex*ang$ all 8 rhetoric = ! fulness ( m9d & he>t :i* ab\nd 9 ! writ+s ( su* fanatics4 ,!re=e ,i am n a%am$ ( ! "n ( su* a fanatic4 ,i w ev5 seek to make ?is reproa* true2 if ,i h n hi!rto /udi$ ! writ+s ( ^! m5 correctly1 x has be5 ow+ to neglig5ce4 ,s*ell+ did n omit to v]ify ^! words4 ,!re 7 "s special m5tal aff9ities betwe5 himself & ,jacob ,boehme1 ) :om he n[ became m & m closely jo9$4 ,a /udy ( 8 writ+s is inde$ indicat$ 9 ,s*ell+'s works ( ! pres5t p]iod4 ,"o ( ! mo/ fam\s ( ,s*ell+'s writ+s1 8 !ory ( fre$om1 :i* appe>$ aft] ?is 78,philosophis*e ,unt]su*ung5 b] das ,wes5 d] m5s*li*5 ,freiheit10 #ahji71 is compos$ entirely 9 ! _s ( ,jacob ,boehme4 ,we beg9 ) x a new p]iod ( ,s*ell+'s philosophiz+1 :]e ! w is affirm$ z ! ess5ce ( ,god1 & we h ?us a new def9ition ( ! absolute diff]+ f e previ\s "o4 ,v4 ,,fif? ,,p]iod3--,,attempt ,,at ,a ,,!ogony ,,& ,,cosmogony ,,aft] ,,! ,,mann] ,,( ,,jacob ,,boehme4 ,s*ell+ _h mu* 9 common ) ,jacob ,boehme4 ,bo? consid]$ ! speculative cognition z a k9d ( imm$iate intuition4 ,bo? made use ( =ms :i* m+l$ ! ab/ract & ! s5su\s1 & int]p5etrat$ ! def9it5ess ( logic ) ! color+ ( fancy4 ,bo?1 9 f9e1 7 speculatively 9 close contact4 ,! self-duplication ( ! absolute 0 a fundam5tal ?\ght ( ,boehme4 ,he />t$ ) ! pr9ciple1 t ! div9e ess5ce 0 ! indet]m9able1 inf9ite1 & inconceivable1 ! abs5ce ( gr\nd 7,ungrund74 ,?is abs5ce ( gr\nd n[ projects itself 9 a prop] feel+ ( its ab/ract & inf9ite ess5ce1 into ! f9ite1 i4 e4 into a gr\nd1 or ! c5tre ( nature1 9 ! d>k womb ( :i* qualities are produc$1 f ^: h>% collision ! lightn+ /reams =?1 :i*1 z m9d or pr9ciple ( light1 is de/9$ to rule & expla9 ! /ruggl+ p[]s ( nature1 s t ! ,god :o has be5 rais$ f ! abs5ce ( gr\nd ?r\gh a gr\nd to ! light ( ! m9d1 may h5ce=? move 9 an et]nal k+dom ( joy4 ,?is !ogony ( ,jacob ,boehme is 9 /rik+ accord ) ! pres5t /&po9t ( ,s*ell+4 ,z ,boehme _h appreh5d$ ! absolute z ! indet]m9able abs5ce ( gr\nd1 s _h ,s*ell+ 9 8 e>li] writ+s appreh5d$ x z indiff]5ce4 ,z ,boehme _h di/+ui%$ ?is abs5ce ( gr\nd f a gr\nd1 or f nature & f ,god1 z ! light ( m9ds1 s _h ,s*ell+1 9 ! writ+s ( ! la/ p]iod1 appreh5d$ ! absolute z a self-r5unciation1 & a return back f ?is r5unciation into a high] unity ) itself4 ,we h "h ! ?ree *ief elem5ts ( t hi/ory ( ,god1 ar\nd :i* ,s*ell+'s essay on fre$om turns3 7#a7 ,god z indiff]5ce1 or ! abs5ce ( gr\nd2 7#b7 ,god z duplication into gr\nd & exi/5ce1 real & ideal2 7#c7 ,reconciliation ( ?is duplication1 & elevation ( ! orig9al indiff]5ce to id5tity4 ,! fir/ elem5t ( ! div9e life is t ( pure indiff]5ce1 or indi/+ui%abl5ess4 ,?is1 :i* prec$es e ?+ exi/+1 may be call$ ! orig9al gr\nd1 or ! abs5ce ( gr\nd4 ,! abs5ce ( gr\nd is n a product ( opposites1 nor are !y conta9$ implicite 9 x1 b x is a prop] ess5ce sep>ate f e opposite1 & hav+ no pr$icate b t ( pr$icatelessness4 ,real & ideal1 d>kness & light1 c nev] be pr$icat$ ( ! abs5ce ( gr\nd z opposites2 !y c only be affirm$ ( x z n-opposites 9 a nei!r-nor4 ,f ?is indiff]5ce n[ rises ! duality3 ! abs5ce ( gr\nd sep>ates into two co-et]nal beg9n+s1 s t gr\nd & exi/5ce may become "o ?r\gh love1 & ! indet]m9able & lifeless indiff]5ce may rise to a det]m9ate & liv+ id5tity4 ,s9ce no?+ is be=e or ext]nal to ,god1 he mu/ h ! gr\nd ( 8 exi/5ce 9 himself4 ,b ?is gr\nd is n simply logical1 z conception1 b real1 z some?+ :i* is actually to be di/+ui%$ 9 ,god f exi/5ce2 x is nature 9 ,god1 an ess5ce insep>able inde$ f him1 b yet di/9ct4 ,h5ce we _c assign to ?is gr\nd und]/&+ & w1 b only desire aft] ?is2 x is ! long+ to produce itself4 ,b 9 t ?is gr\nd moves 9 its long+ accord+ to obscure & unc]ta9 laws l a swell+ sea1 !re is1 self-begott5 9 ,god1 ano!r & reflexive motion1 an inn] repres5tation by :i* he beholds himself 9 8 image4 ,?is repres5tation is ! et]nal ^w 9 ,god1 :i* rises z light 9 ! d>kness ( ! gr\nd1 & end[s its bl9d long+ ) und]/&+4 ,?is und]/&+1 unit$ ) ! gr\nd1 becomes pre-creat+ w4 ,its "w is to give ord] to nature1 & to regulate ! hi!rto unregulat$ gr\nd2 & f ?is explanation ( ! real ?r\gh ! ideal1 comes ! creation ( ! _w4 ,! developm5t ( ! _w has two /adia3 7#a7 ! travail ( light1 or ! progressive developm5t ( nature to man2 7#b7 ! travail ( m9d1 or ! developm5t ( m9d 9 hi/ory4 7#a47 ,! progressive developm5t ( nature proce$s f a conflict ( ! gr\nd ) ! und]/&+4 ,! gr\nd orig9ally s\ght to produce e ?+ solely f itself1 b its products _h no consi/5ce )\t ! und]/&+1 & w5t aga9 to ! gr\nd1 a creation :i* we see exhibit$ 9 ! ext9ct classes ( animals & plants ( ! pre-,adamite _w4 ,b consecutively & gradually1 ! gr\nd admitt$ ! "w ( ! und]/&+1 & e su* /ep t[>ds light is indicat$ by a new class ( nature's be+s4 ,9 e creature ( nature we mu/1 !re=e1 di/+ui% two pr9ciples3 fir/1 ! obscure pr9ciple ?r\gh :i* ! creatures ( nature are sep>ate f ,god1 & h a p>ticul> w2 second1 ! div9e pr9ciple ( ! und]/&+1 ( ! univ]sal w4 ,) irrational creatures ( nature1 h[ev]1 ^! two pr9ciples are n yet br\ght to unity2 b ! p>ticul> w is simple seek+ & desire1 :ile ! univ]sal w1 )\t ! individual w1 reigns z an ext]nal p[] ( nature1 z controll+ in/9ct4 7#b47 ,! two pr9ciples1 ! p>ticul> & ! univ]sal w1 are fir/ unit$ 9 man z !y are 9 ! absolute3 b 9 ,god !y are unit$ insep>ably1 & 9 man sep>ably1 = o!rwise ,god c\ld n reveal himself 9 man4 ,x is ev5 ?is sep>abl5ess ( ! univ]sal w1 & ! p>ticul> w1 :i* makes good & evil possible4 ,! good is ! subjection ( ! p>ticul> w to ! univ]sal w1 & ! rev]se ( ?is "r relation is evil4 ,human fre$om consi/s 9 ?is possibility ( good & evil4 ,! empirical man1 h[ev]1 is n free1 b 8 :ole empirical condition is posit$ by a previ\s act ( intellig5ce4 ,! man mu/ act j z he does1 b is nev]!less free1 because he has f et]nity freely made himself t :i* he n[ necess>ily is4 ,! hi/ory ( ! human race is f\nd$ = ! mo/ "p on ! /ruggle ( ! individual w ) ! univ]sal w1 z ! hi/ory ( nature is f\nd$ on ! /ruggle ( ! gr\nd ) ! und]/&+4 ,! diff]5t /ages ?r\gh :i* evil1 z a hi/orical p[]1 takes its way 9 conflict ) love1 con/itute ! p]iods ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,*ri/ianity is ! c5tre ( hi/ory3 9 ,*ri/1 ! pr9ciple ( love came 9 p]sonal contact ) inc>nate evil3 ,*ri/ 0 ! m$iator to reconcile on ! highe/ /age ! creation ) ,god2 = t :i* is p]sonal c alone r$eem ! p]sonal4 ,! end ( hi/ory is ! reconciliation ( ! p>ticul> w & love1 ! preval5ce ( ! univ]sal w1 s t ,god %all be all 9 all4 ,! orig9al indiff]5ce is ?us elevat$ to id5tity4 ,s*ell+ has giv5 a f>!r ju/ification ( ?is 8 idea ( ,god1 9 8 controv]sial pamphlet aga9/ ,jacobi1 7#ahab74 ,! *>ge ( naturalism :i* ,jacobi made aga9/ him1 he s\ght to refute by %[+ h[ ! true idea ( ,god 0 a union ( naturalism & !ism4 ,naturalism seeks to conceive ( ,god z gr\nd ( ! _w 7imman5t71 :ile !ism w\ld view him z ! _w's cause 7transc5d5t73 ! true c\rse is to unite bo? det]m9ations4 ,god is at ! same "t gr\nd & cause4 ,x no way contradicts ! conception ( ,god to affirm t1 s f> z he reveals himself1 he developes himself f himself1 advanc+ f ! imp]fect to ! p]fect3 ! imp]fect is 9 fact ! p]fect itself1 only 9 a /ate ( becom+4 ,x is necess>y t ?is becom+ %\ld be by /ages1 9 ord] t ! fulness ( ! p]fect may appe> on all sides4 ,if !re 7 no obscure gr\nd1 no nature1 no negative pr9ciple 9 ,god1 we c\ld n speak ( a consci\sness ( ,god4 ,s long z ! ,god ( mod]n !ism rema9s ! simple ess5ce :i* ought to be purely ess5tial1 b :i* 9 fact is )\t ess5ce1 s long z an actual tw(oldness is n recogniz$ 9 ,god1 & a limit+ & d5y+ en]gy 7a nature1 a negative pr9ciple7 is n plac$ 9 opposition to ! ext5d+ & affirm+ en]gy 9 ,god1 s long w sci5ce be entitl$ to make its d5ial ( a p]sonal ,god4 ,x is univ]sally & ess5tially impossible to conceive ( a be+ ) consci\sness1 :i* has n be5 br\ght into limit by "s d5y+ en]gy )9 himself--z univ]sally & ess5tially impossible z to conceive ( a circle )\t a c5tre4 ,,vi4 ,s9ce ! essay aga9/ ,jacobi1 :i* 9 its philosophical cont5t accords ma9ly ) 8 !ory ( fre$om1 ,s*ell+ has n made public any ?+ ( importance4 ,he has (t5 ann\nc$ a "w entitl$ 8,die ,weltalt]10 :i* %\ld conta9 a complete & elaborate exposition ( 8 philosophy1 b has always )drawn x be=e its appe>ance4 ,paulus has surreptiti\sly br\ght 8 lat] ,b]l9 lectures be=e ! public 9 a mann] = :i* he has be5 greatly blam$3 b s9ce ?is publication is n recogniz$ by ,s*ell+ himself1 x _c be us$ z an au!ntic s\rce ( k ( 8 philosophy4 ,dur+ ?is long p]iod1 ,s*ell+ has publi%$ only two articles ( a philosophical cont5t3 8,on ! ,deities ( ,samo?racos10 #ahae1 & a 8,critical ,preface0 to ,beck]'s translation ( a preface ( ,c\s91 #ahcd4 ,bo? articles are v *>act]i/ic ( ! pres5t /&po9t ( ,s*ell+'s philosophiz+--he himself calls 8 pres5t philosophy ,positive ,philosophy1 or ! ,philosophy ( ,my?ology & ,revelation1--b z !y give only intimations ( ?is1 & d n rea* a complete exposition1 !y d n admit ( be+ us$ = our purpose4 ,,section ,,xliv4 ,,transition ,,to ,,hegel4 ,! great want ( ,s*ell+'s philosophiz+1 0 its inability to furni% a suitable =m = ! philosophic cont5t4 ,s*ell+ w5t ?r\gh ! li/ ( all me?ods1 & at la/ ab&on$ all4 ,b ?is abs5ce ( me?od into :i* he ultimately sank1 contradict$ ! v pr9ciple ( 8 philosophiz+4 ,if ?\ght & be+ are id5tical1 yet =m & cont5t _c be indiff]5t 9 respect to ea* o!r4 ,on ! /&po9t ( absolute k1 !re mu/ be f\nd = ! absolute cont5t an absolute =m1 :i* %all be id5tical ) ! cont5t4 ,?is is ! position assum$ by ,hegel4 ,hegel has fus$ ! cont5t ( ,s*ell+'s philosophy by means ( ! absolute me?od4 ,hegel sprang z truly f ,fi*te z f ,s*ell+2 ! orig9 ( 8 sy/em is f\nd 9 bo?4 ,8 me?od is ess5tially t ( ,fi*te1 b 8 g5]al philosophical /&po9t is ,s*ell+'s4 ,he has comb9$ bo? ,fi*te & ,s*ell+4 ,hegel has himself1 9 8 8,ph5om5ology10 ! fir/ "w 9 :i* he appe>$ z a philosoph] on 8 own hook1 hav+ previ\sly be5 consid]$ z an adh]5t ( ,s*ell+--cle>ly express$ 8 diff]5ce f ,s*ell+1 :i* he compreh5sively affirms 9 ! foll[+ ?ree hits 7,s*lagworte73--,9 ,s*ell+'s philosophy1 ! absolute is1 z x 71 %ot out ( a pi/ol2 x is only ! night 9 :i* e c[ looks black2 :5 x is wid5$ to a sy/em1 x is l ! c\rse ( a pa9t]1 :o has on 8 palette b two colors1 r$ & gre51 & :o w\ld cov] a surface ) ! =m] :5 a hi/orical piece 0 dem&$1 & ) ! latt] :5 a l&scape 0 requir$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! *>ges ref]s to ! mode ( atta9+ ! idea ( ! absolute1 viz41 imm$iately1 ?r\gh intellectual intuition2 ?is leap ,hegel *anges1 9 8 ,ph5om5ology1 to a regul> transit1 proce$+ /ep by /ep4 ,! second *>ge relates to ! way 9 :i* ! absolute ?us ga9$ is conceiv$ & express$1 viz41 simply z ! abs5ce ( all f9ite di/9ctions1 & n z ! imman5t posit+ ( a sy/em ( di/9ctions )9 itself4 ,hegel decl>es t e ?+ dep5ds ^u appreh5d+ & express+ ! true n z sub/ance 7i4 e4 z negation ( det]m9at5ess71 b z subject 7z a posit+ & produc+ ( f9ite di/9ction74 ,! ?ird *>ge has to d ) ,s*ell+'s mann] ( c>ry+ out 8 pr9ciple ?r\gh ! concrete cont5t ( ! facts giv5 9 ! natural & intellectual worlds1 viz41 by ! application ( a ready-made s*ema 7! opposition ( ! ideal & ! real7 to ! objects1 in/ead ( suff]+ !m to unfold & sep>ate !mselves f !mselves4 ,! s*ool ( ,s*ell+ 0 especially giv5 to ?is s*ematiz+ =malism1 & t :i* ,hegel rem>ks1 9 ! introduction to 8 ,ph5om5ology1 may v well be appli$ to x3 8,if ! =malism ( a philosophy ( nature %\ld happ5 to tea* t ! und]/&+ is electricity1 or t ! animate is nitrog51 ! inexp]i5c$ might look ^u su* in/ructions ) deep amazem5t1 & p]haps rev]e !m z display+ ! m>ks ( pr(\nd g5ius4 ,b ! trick ( su* a wisdom is z readily le>n$ z x is easily practis$2 its repetition is z insuff]able z ! repetition ( a discov]$ feat ( leg]dema94 ,?is me?od ( affix+ to e ?+ heav5ly & e>?ly1 to all natural & intellectual =ms1 ! two det]m9ations ( ! univ]sal s*eme1 makes ! univ]se l a groc]'s %op1 9 :i* a r[ ( clos$ j>s /& ) _! labels pa/$ on !m40 ,! po9t1 !re=e1 ( greate/ diff]5ce betwe5 ,s*ell+ & ,hegel is _! philosophical me?od1 & ?is at ! same "t =ms ! bond ( close connection :i* unites ,hegel ) ,fi*te4 ,!sis1 anti!sis1 syn!sis--?is 0 ! me?od by :i* ,fi*te _h s\ght to d$uce all be+ f ! ,ego1 & 9 precisely ! same way ,hegel d$uces all be+--! intellectual & natural univ]se--f ! ?\ght1 only ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ) him t :i* 0 ideali/ically d$uc$ _h at ! same "t an objective reality4 ,:ile ! practical idealism ( ,fi*te /ood relat$ to ! objective _w z a produc]1 & ! ord9>y empiricism z a behold]1 yet ) ,hegel ! speculative 7conceiv+7 reason is at ! same "t productive & behold+4 ,i produce 7= myself7 t :i* is 79 itself7 )\t my produc+4 ,! result ( philosophy1 says ,hegel1 is ! ?\ght :i* is by itself1 & :i* compreh5ds 9 itself ! univ]se1 & *anges x into an intellig5t _w4 ,to raise all be+ to be+ 9 ! consci\sness1 to k1 is ! problem & ! goal ( philozophiz+1 & ?is goal is rea*$ :5 ! m9d has become able to beget ! :ole objective _w f itself4 ,9 8 fir/ great "w1 ! 8,ph5om5ology ( ! ,m9d10 ,hegel s\ght to e/abli% ! /&po9t ( absolute k or absolute idealism4 ,he furni%es 9 ?is "w a hi/ory ( ! ph5om5al consci\sness 7:5ce its title71 a developm5t ( ! =mative epo*s ( ! consci\sness 9 its progress to philosophical k4 ,! inn] developm5t ( consci\sness consi/s 9 ?is1 viz41 t ! peculi> condition 9 :i* x f9ds itself becomes objectifi$ 7or consci\s71 & ?r\gh ?is k ( its own be+ ! consci\sness rises ev] a new /ep to a high] condition4 ,! 8,ph5om5ology0 seeks to %[ h[1 & out ( :at necessity ! consci\sness advances f /ep to /ep1 f reality to be+ p] se 7vom ,ansi* zum ,frsi*71 f be+ to k4 ,! au?or beg9s ) ! imm$iate consci\sness z ! l[e/ /ep4 ,he entitl$ ?is section3 8,! ,s5su\s ,c]ta9ty1 or ! ,?is & ! ,m9e40 ,at ?is /age ! "q is ask$ ! ,ego3 :at is ?is1 or :at is "h8 & x answ]s1 e4 g4 ! tree2 & to ! "q1 :at is n[8 x answ]s n[ is ! night4 ,b if we turn ourselves ar\nd1 "h is n a tree b a h\se2 & if we write d[n ! second answ]1 & look at x aga9 aft] a little "t1 we f9d t n[ is no long] night b mid-day4 ,! ?is becomes1 !re=e1 a n-?is1 i4 e4 a univ]sal4 ,& v naturally2 = if ,i say3 ?is piece ( pap]1 yet ea* & e pap] is a ?is piece ( pap]1 & ,i h only said ! univ]sal4 ,by su* inn] dialectics ! :ole field ( ! imm$iate c]ta9ty ( ! s5se 9 p]ception is gone ov]4 ,9 ?is way--s9ce e =mative /ep 7e =m7 ( ! consci\sness ( ! philosophiz+ subject is involv$ 9 contradictions1 & is c>ri$ by ?is imman5t dialectics to a high] =m ( consci\sness--?is process ( developm5t goes on till ! contradiction is de/roy$1 i4 e4 till all /rang5ess betwe5 subject & object disappe>s1 & ! m9d rises to a p]fect self-k & self-c]ta9ty4 ,to *>act]ize briefly ! diff]5t /eps ( ?is process1 we might say t ! consci\sness is fir/ f\nd z a c]ta9ty ( ! s5se1 or z ! ?is & ! m9e2 next z p]ception1 :i* appreh5ds ! objective z a ?+ ) its prop]ties2 & !n z und]/&+1 i4 e4 appreh5d+ ! objects z be+ reflect$ 9 itself1 or di/+ui%+ betwe5 p[] & expression1 be+ & manife/ation1 out] & inn]4 ,f ?is po9t ! consci\sness1 :i* has only recogniz$ itself1 its own pure be+ 9 its objects & _! det]m9ations1 & = :i* !re=e e o!r ?+ ?an itself has1 z su*1 no significance1 becomes ! self-l ,ego1 & rises to ! tru? & c]ta9ty ( itself to self-consci\sness4 ,! self-consci\sness become univ]sal1 or z reason1 n[ trav]ses also a s]ies ( developm5t-/eps1 until x manife/s itself z _s1 z ! reason :i*1 9 accord ) all rationality1 & satisfi$ ) ! rational _w )\t1 ext5ds itself ov] ! natural & intellectual univ]se z its k+dom1 9 :i* x f9ds itself at home4 ,m9d n[ passes ?r\gh its /ages ( uncon/ra9$ morality1 culture & ref9em5t1 e?ics & ! e?ical view ( ! _w to religion2 & religion itself 9 its p]fection1 z reveal$ religion becomes absolute k4 ,at ?is la/ /age be+ & ?\ght are no m sep>ate1 be+ is no long] an object = ! ?\ght1 b ! ?\ght itself is ! object ( ! ?\ght4 ,sci5ce is no?+ o!r ?an ! true k ( ! m9d conc]n+ itself4 ,9 ! conclusion ( ! 8,ph5om5ology10 ,hegel ca/s ! foll[+ retrospect on ! c\rse :i* he has laid d[n3 8,! goal :i* is to be rea*$1 viz41 absolute k1 or ! m9d kn[+ itself z m9d1 requires u to take notice ( m9ds z !y are 9 !mselves1 & ! organization ( _! k+dom4 ,^! elem5ts are pres]v$1 & furni%$ to u ei!r by hi/ory1 :]e we look at ! side ( ! m9d's free exi/5ce z x accid5tally appe>s1 or by ! sci5ce ( ph5om5al k1 :]e we look at ! side ( ! m9d's ideal organization4 ,^! two s\rces tak5 toge!r1 z ! ideal hi/ory1 give u ! real hi/ory & ! true be+ ( ! absolute _s1 ! actuality1 tru?1 & c]ta9ty ( 8 ?rone1 )\t :i* he 7 lifeless & alone2 only #8f ! cup ( ?is k+dom ( m9ds does !re /ream =? = him 8 inf9ity4'0 ,,section ,,xlv4 ,,hegel4 ,george ,wilhelm ,fri$ri* ,hegel 0 born at ,/uttg>t1 ! #bg? ( ,augu/1 #aggj4 ,9 8 eighte5? ye> he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( ,tb+51 9 ord] to devote himself to ! /udy ( !ology4 ,dur+ 8 c\rse ( /udy "h1 he attract$ no m>k$ att5tion2 ,s*ell+1 :o 0 8 junior 9 ye>s1 %one f> beyond all 8 contempor>ies4 ,aft] leav+ ,tb+51 he took a situation z private tutor1 fir/ 9 ,switz]l&1 & aft]w>ds 9 ,frank=t-on-!-,ma9 till #ahja1 :5 he settl$ d[n at ,j5a4 ,at fir/ he 0 reg>d$ z a disciple1 & def5d] ( ,s*ell+'s philosophy1 & z su* he wrote 9 #ahja 8 fir/ m9or treatise on ! 8,diff]5ce betwe5 ,fi*te & ,s*ell+40 ,soon aft]w>ds he became associat$ ) ,s*ell+ 9 publi%+ ! 8,critical ,j\rnal ( ,philosophy10 #ahjb-c1 = :i* he furni%$ a numb] ( important articles4 ,8 labors z an academical tea*] met at fir/ ) b little enc\ragem5t2 he gave 8 fir/ lecture to only f\r he>]s4 ,yet 9 #ahjf he became pr(essor 9 ! univ]sity1 ?\gh ! political cata/rophe 9 :i* ! c\ntry 0 soon aft]w>ds involv$1 depriv$ him aga9 ( ! place4 ,amid ! cannon's ?und] ( ! battle ( ,j5a he f9i%$ 8! ,ph5om5ology ( ! ,m9d10 8 fir/ great & indep5d5t "w1 ! cr[n ( 8 ,j5a labors4 ,he 0 subsequ5tly 9 ! habit ( call+ ?is book :i* appe>$ 9 #ahjg1 8 8voyage ( discov]y40 ,f ,j5a1 ,hegel = want ( ! means ( subsi/5ce w5t to ,bamb]g1 :]e = two ye>s he 0 editor ( a political j\rnal publi%$ !re4 ,9 ! fall ( #ahjh1 he became rector ( ! gymnasium at ,nuremb]g4 ,9 ?is situation he wrote 8 ,logic1 #ahab-af4 ,all 8 works 7 produc$ sl[ly1 & he fir/ prop]ly began 8 lit]>y activity z ,s*ell+ f9i%$ 84 ,9 #ahaf1 he receiv$ a call to a pr(essor%ip ( philosophy at ,heidelb]g1 :]e 9 #ahag he publi%$ 8 8,encyclopdia ( ! philosophical sci5ces10 9 :i* = ! fir/ "t he %[$ ! :ole circuit ( 8 sy/em4 ,b 8 peculi> fame1 & 8 f>-rea*+ activity1 dates fir/ f 8 call to ,b]l9 9 #ahah4 ,x 0 at ,b]l9 t he surr\nd$ himself ) an ext5sive & v actively sci5tific s*ool1 & :]e ?r\gh 8 connection ) ! ,prussian gov]nm5t he ga9$ a political influ5ce & acquir$ a reputation = 8 philosophy1 z ! philosophy ( ! ,/ate1 ?\gh ?is nei!r speaks favorably = its inn] purity1 nor its moral cr$it4 ,yet 9 8 8,philosophy ( ,rights10 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahba 7a "t1 to be sure1 :5 ! ,prussian ,/ate _h n yet %[n any decid$ly anti-con/itutional t5d5cy71 ,hegel does n d5y ! political dem&s ( ! pres5t age2 he decl>es 9 favor ( popul> repres5tation1 fre$om ( ! press1 & publicity ( judicial proce$+s1 trial by jury1 & an adm9i/rative indep5d5ce ( corporations4 ,9 ,b]l91 ,hegel gave lectures ^u almo/ e bran* ( philosophy1 & ^! h be5 publi%$ by 8 disciples & fri5ds aft] 8 dea?4 ,8 mann] z a lectur] 0 /amm]+1 clumsy1 & unadorn$1 b 0 /ill n )\t a peculi> attraction z ! imm$iate expression ( pr(\nd ?\ghtfulness4 ,8 social int]c\rse 0 m ) ! uncultivat$ ?an ) ! le>n$2 he 0 n fond ( %9+ z a g5ius 9 social circles4 ,9 #ahbi he became rector ( ! univ]sity1 an (fice :i* he adm9i/]$ 9 a m practical mann] ?an ,fi*te _h done4 ,hegel di$ ) ! *ol]a1 ,nov4 #ad?1 #ahca1 ! day also ( ,leibnitz's dea?4 ,he re/s 9 ! same *ur*y>d ) ,solg] & ,fi*te1 ne> by ! latt]1 & n f> f ! =m]4 ,8 writ+s & lectures =m sev5te5 volumes :i* h appe>$ s9ce #ahhb3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,m9or ,articles2 ,,ii4 ,ph5om5ology2 ,,iii-,v4 ,logic2 ,,vi4-,,vii4 ,encyclopdia2 ,,viii4 ,philosophy ( ,rights2 ,,ix4 ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory2 ,x4 /hetics2 ,,xi4-,,xii4 ,philosophy ( ,religion2 ,,xiii4-,,xv4 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy2 ,,xvi4-,,xvii4 ,miscellanies4 ,8 life has be5 writt5 by ,ros5kranz4 ,hegel's sy/em may be divid$ 9 a numb] ( ways4 ,! be/ mode is by connect+ x ) ,s*ell+4 ,s*ell+s's absolute 0 ! id5tity or ! indiff]5ce po9t ( ! ideal & ! real4 ,f ?is ,hegel's ?reefold division imm$iately foll[s4 7#a7 ,! exposition ( ! indiff]5ce po9t1 ! developm5t ( ! pure conceptions or det]m9ations 9 ?\ght1 :i* lie at ! basis ( all natural & intellectual life2 9 o!r words1 ! logical unfold+ ( ! absolute1--! sci5ce ( logic4 7#b7 ,! developm5t ( ! real _w or ( nature--natural philosophy4 7#c7 ,! developm5t ( ! ideal _w1 or ( m9d z x %[s itself concretely 9 "r1 morals1 ! /ate1 art1 religion1 & sci5ce4--,philosophy ( ,m9d4 ,^! ?ree p>ts ( ! sy/em repres5t ! ?ree elem5ts ( ! absolute me?od1 !sis1 anti!sis1 syn!sis4 ,! absolute is at fir/ pure1 & immat]ial ?\ght2 secondly1 x is diff]5tiation 7,&]sseyn7 ( ! pure ?\ght or its diremption 7,v]z]rung7 9 space & "t--nature2 ?irdly1 x returns f ?is self-e/rangem5t to itself1 de/roys ! diff]5tiation ( nature1 & ?us becomes actual self-kn[+ ?\ght or m9d4 ,i4 ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,logic4--,! ,hegelian logic is ! sci5tific exposition & developm5t ( ! pure conceptions ( reason1 ^? conceptions or categories :i* lie at ! basis ( all ?\ght & be+1 & :i* det]m9e ! subjective k z truly z !y =m ! indwell+ s\l ( ! objective reality2 9 a ^w1 ^? ideas 9 :i* ! ideal & ! real h _! po9t ( co9cid5ce4 ,! doma9 ( logic1 says ,hegel1 is ! tru?1 z x is p] se 9 its native "*4 ,x is z ,hegel himself figuratively expresses x1 ! repres5tation ( ,god z he is 9 8 et]nal be+1 be=e ! creation ( ! _w or a f9ite m9d4 ,9 ?is respect x is1 to be sure1 a doma9 ( %ad[s2 b ^! %ad[s are1 on ! o!r h&1 ^? simple ess5ces fre$ f all s5su\s matt]s1 9 ^: diamond net ! :ole univ]se is con/ruct$4 ,diff]5t philosoph]s _h already made a ?ankwor?y beg9n+ t[>ds collect+ & exam9+ ! pure conceptions ( ! reason1 z ,ari/otle 9 8 categories1 ,wolff 9 8 ontology1 & ,kant 9 8 transc5d5tal analytics4 ,b !y _h nei!r completely collect$1 nor critically sift$1 nor 7,kant except$7 d]iv$ !m f "o pr9ciple1 b _h only tak5 !m up empirically1 & treat$ !m lexicologically4 ,b 9 opposition to ?is c\rse1 ,hegel attempt$1 7#a7 to completely collect ! pure art-conceptions2 7#b7 to critically sift !m 7i4 e4 to exclude e ?+ b pure ?\ght72 & 7#c7--:i* is ! mo/ *>act]i/ic peculi>ity ( ! ,hegelian logic--to d]ive ^! dialectically f "o ano!r1 & c>ry !m out to an int]nally connect$ sy/em ( pure reason4 ,hegel />ts ) ! view1 t 9 e conception ( ! reason1 e o!r is conta9$ implicite1 & may be dialectically develop$ f x4 ,fi*te _h already claim$ t ! reason mu/ d$uce ! :ole sy/em ( k purely f itself1 )\t any ?+ tak5 = grant$2 t "s pr9ciple mu/ be s\ght :i* %\ld be ( itself c]ta91 & ne$ no f>!r pro(1 & f :i* e ?+ else c\ld be d]iv$4 ,hegel holds fa/ to ?is ?\ght4 ,/>t+ f ! simple/ conception ( reason1 t ( pure be+1 :i* ne$s no f>!r e/abli%+1 he seeks f ?is1 by advanc+ f "o conception ev] to ano!r & a ri*] "o1 to d$uce ! :ole sy/em ( ! pure k ( reason4 ,! lev] ( ?is developm5t is ! dialectical me?od4 ,hegel's dialectical me?od is p>tly tak5 f ,plato1 & p>tly f ,fi*te4 ,! conception ( negation is ,platonic4 ,all negation1 says ,hegel1 is position1 affirmation4 ,if a conception is negat$1 ! result is n ! pure no?+--a pure negative1 b a concrete positive2 !re results a new conception :i* ext5ds ar\nd ! negation ( ! prec$+ "o4 ,! negation ( ! "o e4 g4 is ! conception ( ! _m4 ,9 ?is way ,hegel makes negation a vehicle = dialectical progress4 ,e presuppos$ conception is d5i$1 & f its negation a high] & ri*] conception is ga9$4 ,?is is connect$ ) ! me?od ( ,fi*te1 :i* posits a fundam5tal syn!sis2 & by analyz+ ?is1 seeks its anti!ses1 & !n unites aga9 ^! anti!ses ?r\gh a second syn!sis1--e4 g4 be+1 no?+1 becom+1 quality1 quantity1 measure1 c4 ,?is me?od1 :i* is at ! same "t analytical & syn!tical1 ,hegel has c>ri$ ?r\gh ! :ole sy/em ( sci5ce4 ,we n[ proce$ to a brief survey ( ! ,hegelian ,logic4 ,x is divid$ into ?ree p>ts2 ! doctr9e ( be+1 ! doctr9e ( ess5ce1 & ! doctr9e ( conception4 #a4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,be+4 7#a47 ,quality4--,sci5ce beg9s ) ! imm$iate & indet]m9ate conception ( be+4 ,?is1 9 its want ( cont5t & empt9ess1 is no?+ m ?an a pure negation1 a no?+4 ,^! two conceptions are ?us z absolutely id5tical z !y are absolutely oppos$2 ea* ( ! two disappe>s imm$iately 9 its contr>y4 ,?is oscillation ( ! two is ! pure becom+1 :i*1 if x be a transition f no?+ to be+1 we call aris+1 or1 9 ! rev]se case1 we call x a dep>t+4 ,! /ill & simple precipitate ( ?is process ( aris+ & dep>t+1 is exi/5ce 7,daseyn74 ,exi/5ce is be+ ) a det]m9at5ess1 or x is quality2 m closely1 x is reality or limit$ exi/5ce4 ,limit$ exi/5ce excludes e o!r f itself4 ,?is ref]5ce to itself1 :i* is se5 ?r\gh its negative relation to e o!r1 we call be+ p] se 7,frsi*seyn74 ,be+ p] se :i* ref]s itself only to itself1 & repels e o!r f itself1 is ! "o4 ,b1 by means ( ?is repell+1 ! "o posits imm$iately _m ones4 ,b ! _m ones are n di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r4 ,"o is :at ! o!r is4 ,! _m are !re=e "o4 ,b ! "o is j z truly ! manifold4 ,= its exclusion is ! posit+ ( its contr>y1 or x posits itself !reby z manifold4 ,by ?is dialectic ( attraction & repulsion1 quality passes ov] into quantity3 = indiff]5ce 9 respect ( di/9ction or qualitative det]m9at5ess is quantity4 7#b47 ,quantity4--,quantity is det]m9ation ( greatness1 :i*1 z su*1 is indiff]5t 9 respect ( quality4 ,9 s f> z ! greatness conta9s _m ones di/+ui%ably )9 itself1 x is a discrete1 or has ! elem5t ( discretion2 b on ! o!r h&1 9 s f> z ! _m ones are simil>1 & ! greatness is ?us indi/+ui%able1 x is cont9u\s1 or has ! elem5t ( cont9uity4 ,ea* ( ^! two det]m9ations is at ! same "t id5tical ) ! o!r2 discretion _c be conceiv$ )\t cont9uity1 nor cont9uity )\t discretion4 ,! exi/5ce ( quantity1 or ! limit$ quantity1 is ! quantum4 ,! quantum has also manifoldness & unity 9 itself2 x is ! enum]ation ( ! unities1 i4 e4 numb]4 ,correspond+ to ! quantum or ! ext5sive greatness1 is ! int5sive greatness or ! degree4 ,) ! conception ( degree1 s f> z degree is simple det]m9at5ess1 quantity approa*es quality aga94 ,! unity ( quantity & quality is ! measure4 7#c47 ,! measure is a qualitative quantum1 a quantum on :i* ! quality is dep5d5t4 ,an example ( quantity det]m9+ ! quality ( a def9ite object is f\nd 9 ! temp]ature ( wat]1 :i* decides :e!r ! wat] %all rema9 wat] or turn to ice or /eam4 ,"h ! quantum ( heat actually con/itutes ! quality ( ! wat]4 ,quality & quantity are1 !re=e1 ideal det]m9ations1 p]petually turn+ ar\nd on "o be+1 on a ?ird1 :i*1 is di/+ui%$ f ! imm$iate :at & h[ mu* 7quality & quantity7 ( a ?+4 ,?is ?ird is ! ess5ce1 :i* is ! negation ( e ?+ imm$iate1 or quality indep5d5t ( ! imm$iate be+4 ,ess5ce is be+ 9 se1 be+ divid$ 9 itself1 a self-sep>ation ( be+4 ,h5ce ! tw(oldness ( all det]m9ations ( ess5ce4 #b4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,ess5ce4 7#a47 ,! ,ess5ce z su*4 ,! ess5ce z reflect$ be+ is ! ref]5ce to itself only z x is a ref]5ce to some?+ o!r4 ,we apply to ?is be+ ! t]m reflect$ analog\sly ) ! reflection ( light1 :i*1 :5 x falls on a mirror1 is ?r[n back by x4 ,z n[ ! reflect$ light is1 ?r\gh its ref]5ce to ano!r object1 some?+ m$iat$ or posit$1 s ! reflect$ be+ is t :i* is %[n to be m$iat$ or gr\nd$ ?r\gh ano!r4 ,f ! fact t philosophy makes its problem to "k ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 ! imm$iate be+ ( ?+s is repres5t$ z a cov]+ or curta9 beh9d :i* ! ess5ce is conceal$4 ,if1 !re=e1 we speak ( ! ess5ce ( an object1 ! imm$iate be+ /&+ ov] aga9/ ! ess5ce 7= )\t ?is ! ess5ce _c be conceiv$71 is set d[n to a m]e negative1 to an appe>ance4 ,! be+ appe>s 9 ! ess5ce4 ,! ess5ce is1 !re=e1 ! be+ z appe>ance 9 itself4 ,! ess5ce :5 conceiv$ 9 di/9ction f ! appe>ance1 gives ! conception ( ! ess5tial1 & t :i* only appe>s 9 ! ess5ce1 is ! ess5celess1 or ! uness5tial4 ,b s9ce ! ess5tial has a be+ only 9 di/9ction f ! uness5tial1 x foll[s t ! latt] is ess5tial to ! =m]1 :i* ne$s its uness5tial j z mu* z ! uness5tial ne$s x4 ,ea* ( ! two1 !re=e1 appe>s 9 ! o!r1 or !re takes place betwe5 !m a reciprocal ref]5ce :i* we call reflection4 ,we h1 !re=e1 to d 9 ?is :ole sph]e ) det]m9ations ( reflection1 ) det]m9ations1 ea* "o ( :i* ref]s to ! o!r1 & _c be conceiv$ )\t x 7e4 g4 positive & negative1 gr\nd & sequ5ce1 ?+ & prop]ties1 cont5t & =m1 p[] & expression74 ,we h1 !re=e1 9 ! developm5t ( ! ess5ce1 ^? same det]m9ations :i* we f\nd 9 ! developm5t ( be+1 only no long] 9 an imm$iate1 b 9 a reflect$ =m4 ,in/ead ( be+ & no?+1 we h n[ ! =ms ( ! positive & negative2 in/ead ( ! !re-exi/5t 7,daseyn71 we n[ h exi/5ce4 ,ess5ce is reflect$ be+1 a ref]5ce to itself1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is m$iat$ ?r\gh a ref]5ce to some?+ o!r :i* appe>s 9 x4 ,?is reflect$ ref]5ce to itself we call id5tity 7:i* is unsatisfactorily & ab/ractly express$ 9 ! s-call$ fir/ pr9ciple ( ?\ght1 t ,a ,a74 ,?is id5tity1 z a negativity ref]r+ itself to itself1 z a repulsion ( its own f itself1 conta9s ess5tially ! det]m9ation ( di/9ction4 ,! imm$iate & ext]nal di/9ction is ! diff]5ce4 ,! ess5tial di/9ction1 ! di/9ction 9 itself1 is ! anti!sis 7positive & negative74 ,! self-opposition ( ! ess5ce is ! contradiction4 ,! anti!sis ( id5tity & di/9ction is put 9 agreem5t 9 ! conception ( ! gr\nd4 ,s9ce n[ ! ess5ce di/+ui%es itself f itself1 !re is ! ess5ce z id5tical ) itself or ! gr\nd1 & ! ess5ce z di/+ui%$ f itself or ! sequ5ce4 ,9 ! category ( gr\nd & sequ5ce ! same ?+1 i4 e4 ! ess5ce1 is twice posit$2 ! gr\nd$ & ! gr\nd are "o & ! same cont5t1 :i* makes x difficult to def9e ! gr\nd except ?r\gh ! sequ5ce1 or ! sequ5ce except ?r\gh ! gr\nd4 ,! two c1 !re=e1 be divid$ only by a p[]ful ab/raction2 b because ! two are id5tical1 x is peculi>ly a =malism to apply ?is category4 ,if reflection w\ld inquire aft] a gr\nd1 x is because x w\ld see ! ?+ z x 7 9 a tw(old relation1 once 9 its imm$iat5ess1 & !n z posit$ ?r\gh a gr\nd4 7#b47 ,ess5ce & ,ph5om5on4--,! ph5om5on is ! appe>ance :i* ! ess5ce fills1 & :i* is h5ce no long] ess5celess4 ,!re is no appe>ance )\t ess5ce1 & no ess5ce :i* may n ent] into ph5om5on4 ,x is "o & ! same cont5t :i* at "o "t is tak5 z ess5ce1 & at ano!r z ph5om5on4 ,9 ! ph5om5al ess5ce we recognize ! positive elem5t :i* has hi!rto be5 call$ gr\nd1 b :i* we n[ "n cont5t1 & ! negative elem5t :i* we call ! =m4 ,e ess5ce is a unity ( cont5t & =m1 i4 e4 x exi/s4 ,9 di/9ction f imm$iate be+1 we call t be+ :i* has proce$$ f "s gr\nd1 exi/5ce1 i4 e4 gr\nd$ be+4 ,:5 we view ! ess5ce z exi/+1 we call x ?+4 ,9 ! relation ( a ?+ to its prop]ties we h a repetition ( ! relation ( =m & cont5t4 ,! prop]ties %[ u ! ?+ 9 respect ( its =m1 b x is ?+ 9 respect ( its cont5t4 ,! relation betwe5 ! ?+ & its prop]ties is commonly indicat$ by ! v]b to h 7e4 g4 ! ?+ has prop]ties71 9 ord] to di/+ui% betwe5 ! two4 ,! ess5ce z a negative ref]5ce to itself1 & z repell+ itself f itself 9 ord] to a reflection 9 an alt]um1 is p[] & expression4 ,9 ?is category1 l all ! o!r categories ( ess5ce1 "o & ! same cont5t is posit$ twice4 ,! p[] c only be expla9$ f ! expression1 & ! expression only f ! p[]2 consequ5tly e explanation ( :i* ?is category avails itself1 is tautological4 ,to reg>d p[] z uncognizable1 is only a self-deception ( ! und]/&+ respect+ its own do+4--,a high] expression = ! category ( p[] & expression is ! category ( inn] & out]4 ,! latt] category /&s high] ?an ! =m]1 because p[] ne$s "s solicitation to express itself1 b ! inn] is ! ess5ce spontane\sly manife/+ itself4 ,bo? ( ^!1 ! inn] & ! out]1 are also id5tical2 nei!r is )\t ! o!r4 ,t1 e4 g4 :i* ! man is int]nally 9 respect ( 8 "*1 is he also ext]nally 9 8 action4 ,! tru? ( ?is relation w be1 !re=e1 ! id5tity ( inn] & out]1 ( ess5ce & ph5om5on1 viz43 7#c47 ,actuality4--,actuality mu/ be add$ z a ?ird to be+ & exi/5ce4 ,9 ! actuality1 ! ph5om5on is a complete & adequate manife/ation ( ! ess5ce4 ,! true actuality is1 !re=e 79 opposition to possibility & cont+5cy71 a necess>y be+1 a rational necessity4 ,! well-kn[n ,hegelian s5t5ce t e ?+ is rational1 & e ?+ rational is actual1 is se5 9 ?is appreh5sion ( 8actuality0 to be a simple tautology4 ,! necess>y1 :5 posit$ z its own gr\nd1 id5tical ) itself1 is sub/ance4 ,! ph5om5al side1 ! uness5tial 9 ! sub/ance1 & ! cont+5t 9 ! necess>y1 are accid5ces4 ,^! are no long] relat$ to ! sub/ance1 z ! ph5om5on to ! ess5ce1 or ! out] to ! inn]1 i4 e4 z an adequate manife/ation2 !y are only transitory affections ( ! sub/ance1 accid5tally *ang+ ph5om5al =ms1 l sea waves on ! wat] ( ! sea4 ,!y are n produc$ by ! sub/ance1 b are r de/roy$ 9 x4 ,! relation ( sub/ance leads to ! relation ( cause4 ,9 ! relation ( cause !re is "o & ! same ?+ posit$ on ! "o side z cause1 & on ! o!r side z effect4 ,! cause ( w>m? is w>m?1 & its effect is aga9 w>m?4 ,! effect is a high] conception ?an ! accid5ce1 s9ce x actually /&s ov] aga9/ ! cause1 & ! cause itself passes ov] into effect4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 z ea* side 9 ! relation ( cause presupposes ! o!r1 we %all f9d ! true relation "o 9 :i* ea* side is at ! same "t cause & effect1 i4 e4 reciprocal action4 ,reciprocal action is a high] relation ?an causality1 because !re is no pure causality4 ,!re is no effect )\t c\nt]action4 ,we leave ! prov9ce ( ess5ce ) ! category ( reciprocal action4 ,all ! categories ( ess5ce _h %[n !mselves z a duplex ( two sides1 b :5 we come to ! category ( reciprocal action1 ! opposition betwe5 cause & effect is de/roy$1 & !y meet toge!r2 unity ?us takes aga9 ! place ( duplicity4 ,we h1 !re=e1 aga9 a be+ :i* co9cides ) m$iate be+4 ,?is unity ( be+ & ess5ce1 ?is inn] or realiz$ necessity1 is ! conception4 #c4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,! ,,conception4--,a conception is a rational necessity4 ,we c only h a conception ( t ^: true necessity we h recogniz$4 ,! conception is1 !re=e1 ! truly actual1 ! peculi> ess5ce2 because x /ates z well t :i* is actual z t :i* %\ld be4 7#a47 ,! subjective conception conta9s ! elem5ts ( univ]sality 7! conception ( species71 p>ticul>ity 7gr\nd ( classification1 logical diff]5ce71 & individuality 7species--logical diff]5ce74 ,! conception is !re=e a unity ( t :i* is di/9ct4 ,! self-sep>ation ( ! conception is ! judgm5t4 ,9 ! judgm5t1 ! conception appe>s z self-exclud+ duality4 ,! tw(oldness is se5 9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 subject & pr$icate1 & ! unity 9 ! copula4 ,progress 9 ! diff]5t =ms ( judgm5t1 consi/s 9 ?is1 viz41 t ! copula fills itself m & m ) ! conception4 ,b ?us ! judgm5t passes ov] into ! conclusion or inf]5ce1 i4 e4 to ! conception :i* is id5tical ) itself ?r\gh ! conception4 ,9 ! inf]5ce "o conception is conclud$ ) a ?ird ?r\gh a second4 ,! diff]5t figures ( ! conclusion are ! diff]5t /eps 9 ! self-m$iation ( ! conception4 ,! conception is :5 x m$iates itself ) itself & ! conclusion is no long] subjective2 x is no long] my act1 b an objective relation is fulfill$ 9 x4 7#b47 ,objectivity is a reality only ( ! conception4 ,! objective conception has ?ree /eps1--,me*anism1 or ! indiff]5t relation ( objects to ea* o!r2 ,*emism1 or ! int]p5etration ( objects & _! neutralization2 ,teleology1 or ! inn] design ( objects4 ,! end accompli%+ itself or ! self-end is1 7#c47 ,! idea4--,! idea is ! highe/ logical def9ition ( ! absolute4 ,! imm$iate exi/5ce ( ! idea1 we call life1 or process ( life4 ,e ?+ liv+ is self-end imman5t-end4 ,! idea posit$ 9 its diff]5ce z a relation ( objective & subjective1 is ! true & good4 ,! true is ! objective rationality subjectively posit$2 ! good is ! subjective rationality c>ri$ into ! objectivity4 ,bo? conceptions toge!r con/itute ! absolute idea1 :i* is j z truly z x %\ld be1 i4 e4 ! good is j z truly actualiz$ z ! true is liv+ & self-realiz+4 ,! absolute & full idea is 9 space1 because x dis*>ges itself f itself1 z its reflection2 ?is its be+ 9 space is ,nature4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,nature4--,nature is ! idea 9 ! =m ( diff]5tiation4 ,x is ! idea ext]naliz+ itself2 x is ! m9d e/rang$ f itself4 ,! unity ( ! conception is !re=e conceal$ 9 nature1 & s9ce philosophy makes x its problem to seek out ! intellig5ce :i* is hidd5 9 nature1 & to pursue ! process by :i* nature loses its own "* & becomes m9d1 x %\ld n =get t ! ess5ce ( nature consi/s 9 be+ :i* has ext]naliz$ itself1 & t ! products ( nature nei!r h a ref]5ce to !mselves1 nor correspond to ! conception1 b gr[ up 9 unre/ra9$ & unbridl$ cont+5cy4 ,nature is a bac*analian god :o nei!r bridles nor *ecks himself4 ,x !re=e repres5ts no ideal succession1 ris+ ev] 9 regul> ord]1 b1 on ! contr>y1 x e :]e oblit]ates all ess5tial limits by its d\btful /ructures1 :i* always defy e fix$ classification4 ,because x is impossible to ?r[ ! det]m9ations ( ! conception ov] nature1 natural philosophy is =c$ at e po9t1 z x 71 to capitulate betwe5 ! _w ( concrete individual /ructures1 & ! regulative ( ! speculative idea4 ,natural philosophy has its beg9n+1 its c\rse1 & its end4 ,x beg9s ) ! fir/ or imm$iate det]m9ation ( nature1 ) ! ab/ract univ]sality ( its be+ extra se1 space & matt]2 its end is ! dissev]+ ( ! m9d f nature 9 ! =m ( a rational & self-consci\s individuality--man2 ! problem :i* x has to solve is1 to %[ ! int]m$iate l9k betwe5 ^! two extremes1 & to foll[ out successively ! increas+ly successful /ruggles ( nature to raise itself to self-consci\sness1 to man4 ,9 ?is process1 nature passes ?r\gh ?ree pr9cipal /ages4 #a4 ,,me*anics1 or matt] & an ideal sy/em ( matt]4 ,matt] is ! be+ extra se 7,auss]si*seyn7 ( nature1 9 its mo/ univ]sal =m4 ,yet x %[s at ! outset t t5d5cy to be+ p] se :i* =ms ! guid+ ?read ( natural philosophy--gravity4 ,gravity is ! be+ 9 se 7,insi*seyn7 ( matt]2 x is ! desire ( matt] to come to itself1 & %[s ! fir/ trace ( subjectivity4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( a body is ! "o :i* x seeks4 ,?is same t5d5cy ( br++ all ! manifold unto be+ p] se lies at ! basis ( ! sol> sy/em & ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,! c5trality :i* is ! fundam5tal conception ( gravity1 becomes "h a sy/em1 :i* is 9 fact a rational sy/em s f> z ! =m ( ! orbit1 ! rapidity ( motion1 or ! "t ( revolution may be ref]r$ to ma!matical laws4 #b4 ,,physics4--,b matt] possesses no individuality4 ,ev5 9 a/ronomy x is n ! bodies !mselves1 b only _! geometrical relations :i* int]e/ u4 ,we h "h at ! outset to treat ( quantitative & n yet ( qualitative det]m9ations4 ,yet 9 ! sol> sy/em1 matt] has f\nd its c5tre1 itself4 ,its ab/ract & holl[ be+ 9 se has resolv$ itself into =m4 ,matt] n[1 z possess+ a quality1 is an object ( physics4 ,9 physics we h to d ) matt] :i* has p>ticul>iz$ itself 9 a body1 9 an individuality4 ,to ?is prov9ce belongs inorganic nature1 its =ms & reciprocal ref]5ces4 #c4 ,,organics4--,inorganic nature1 :i* 0 ! object ( physics1 de/roys itself 9 ! *emical process4 ,9 ! *emical process1 ! inorganic body loses all its prop]ties 7cohesion1 color1 %9+1 s\nd1 transp>5cy1 c471 & ?us %[s ! evanesc5ce ( its exi/5ce & t relativity :i* is its be+4 ,?is *emical process is ov]come by ! organic1 ! liv+ process ( nature4 ,true1 ! liv+ body is ev] on ! po9t ( pass+ ov] to ! *emical process2 oxyg51 hydrog5 & salt1 are always ent]+ into a liv+ organism1 b _! *emical action is always ov]come2 ! liv+ body resi/s ! *emical process till x dies4 ,life is self-pres]vation1 self-end4 ,:ile !re=e nature 9 physics _h ris5 to individuality1 9 organics1 x progresses to subjectivity4 ,! idea1 z life1 repres5ts itself 9 ?ree /ages4 7#a47 ,! g5]al image ( life 9 geological organism1 or ! m9]al k+dom4 ,yet ! m9]al k+dom is ! result1 & ! residuum ( a process ( life & =mation already pass$4 ,! primitive rock is ! /iff5$ cry/al ( life1 & ! geological e>? is a giant corpse4 ,! pres5t life :i* produces itself et]nally anew1 breaks =? z ! fir/ mov+ ( subjectivity1 7#b47 ,9 ! organism ( plants or ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! plant rises inde$ to a =mative process1 to a process ( assimilation1 & to a process ( species4 ,b x is n yet a totality p]fectly organiz$ 9 itself4 ,ea* "p ( ! plant is ! :ole individual1 ea* twig is ! :ole tree4 ,! p>ts are relat$ indiff]5tly to ea* o!r2 ! cr[n c become a root1 & ! root a cr[n4 ,! plant1 !re=e1 does n yet atta9 a true be+ 9 se ( individuality2 =1 9 ord] t ?is may be atta9$1 an absolute unity ( ! individual is necess>y4 ,?is unity1 :i* con/itutes an individual & concrete subjectivity1 is fir/ se5 9 7#c47 ,! animal organism1 ! animal k+dom4 ,an un9t]rupt$ intus-susception1 free motion & s5sation1 are fir/ f\nd 9 ! animal organism4 ,9 its high] =ms we f9d an inn] w>m? & a voice4 ,9 its highe/ =m1 man1 nature1 or r ! _s1 :i* works ?r\gh nature1 appreh5ds itself z consci\s individuality1 z ,ego4 ,! _s ?us become a free & rational self1 has n[ complet$ its self-emancipation f nature4 ,,iii4 ,,philosophy ,,( ,,m9d4--#a4 ,,! ,,subjective ,,m9d4--,! m9d is ! tru? ( nature2 x is be+ remov$ f its e/rangem5t1 & become id5tical ) itself4 ,its =mal ess5ce1 !re=e1 is fre$om1 ! possibility ( ab/ract+ itself f e ?+ else2 its mat]ial ess5ce is ! capacity ( manife/+ itself z m9d1 z a consci\s rationality1--( posit+ ! intellectual univ]se z its k+dom1 & ( build+ a /ructure ( objective rationality4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to "k itself1 & e ?+ rational1--9 ord] to posit nature m & m negatively1 ! m9d1 l nature1 mu/ pass ?r\gh a s]ies ( /ages or emancipative acts4 ,z x comes f nature & rises f its ext]nality to be+1 p] se1 x is at fir/ s\l or _s ( nature1 & z su*1 x is an object ( an?ropology 9 a /rict s5se4 ,z ?is _s ( nature1 x sympa?izes ) ! g5]al planet>y life ( ! e>?1 & is 9 ?is respect subject to div]sity ( climate1 & *ange ( seasons & days2 x sympa?izes ) ! geographical portion ( ! _w :i* x occupies1 i4 e41 x is relat$ to a div]sity ( race2 /ill f>!r1 x be>s a national type1 & is moreov] det]m9$ by mode ( life1 =mation ( ! body1 c41 :ile ^! natural conditions "w also ^u its intellig5t & moral "*4 ,la/ly1 we mu/ "h take notice ( ! way 9 :i* nature has det]m9$ ! individual subject1 i4 e4 8 natural temp]am5t1 "*1 idiosyncrasy1 c4 ,to ?is belong ! natural *anges ( life1 age1 sexual relation1 sleep1 & wak+4 ,9 all ?is ! m9d is /ill buri$ 9 nature1 & ?is middle condition betwe5 be+ p] se & ! sleep ( nature1 is s5sation1 ! holl[ =m+ ( ! m9d 9 its unconsci\s & un5light5$ 7v]/&los7 individuality4 ,a high] /age ( s5sation is feel+1 i4 e4 s5sation 9 se1 :]e be+ p] se appe>s2 feel+ 9 its complet$ =m is self-feel+4 ,s9ce ! subject1 9 self-feel+1 is buri$ 9 ! peculi>ity ( 8 s5sations1 b at ! same "t concludes himself ) himself1 z a subjective "o1 ! self-feel+ is se5 to be ! prelim9>y /ep to consci\sness4 ,! ,ego n[ appe>s z ! %aft 9 :i* all ^! s5sations1 repres5tations1 cognitions & ?\ghts are pres]v$1 :i* is ) !m all1 & con/itutes ! c5tre 9 :i* !y all come toge!r4 ,! m9d z consci\s1 z a consci\s be+ p] se1 z ,ego1 is ! object ( ! ph5om5ology ( consci\sness4 ,! m9d 0 individual1 s long z x 0 int]wov5 ) nature2 x is consci\sness or ,ego :5 x has dive/$ itself ( nature4 ,:5 di/+ui%+ itself f nature1 ! m9d )draws itself into itself1 & t ) :i* x 0 =m]ly int]wov51 & :i* gave x a peculi> 7e>?ly1 national1 c47 det]m9ation1 /&s n[ di/9ct f x1 z its ext]nal _w 7e>?1 p1 c74 ,! awak+ ( ! ,ego is ?us ! act by :i* ! objective _w1 z su*1 is creat$2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 ! ,ego awak5s to a consci\s subjectivity only 9 ! objective _w1 & 9 di/9ction f x4 ,! ,ego1 ov] aga9/ ! objective _w1 is consci\sness 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w4 ,consci\sness becomes self-consci\sness by pass+ ?r\gh ! /ages ( imm$iate s5su\s consci\sness1 p]ception1 & und]/&+1 & conv9c+ itself 9 ?is its =mative hi/ory1 t x has only to d ) itself1 :ile x believ$ t x _h to d ) some?+ objective4 ,aga91 self-consci\sness becomes univ]sal or rational self-consci\sness1 z foll[s3 ,9 its /riv+s to /amp ! impress ( ! ,ego ^u ! objective1 & ?us make ! objective subjective1 x falls 9 conflict ) o!r self-consci\snesses1 & beg9s a w> ( ext]m9ation aga9/ !m1 b rises f ?is bellum omnium contra omnes1 z common consci\sness1 z ! f9d+ ( ! prop] mean betwe5 comm& & ob$i5ce1 i4 e4 z truly univ]sal1 i4 e4 rational self-consci\sness4 ,! rational self-consci\sness is actually free1 because1 :5 relat$ to ano!r1 x is really relat$ to itself1 & 9 all is /ill ) itself2 x has emancipat$ itself f nature4 ,we h n[ m9d z m9d1 dive/$ ( its naturalness & subjectivity1 & z su*1 x is an object ( ,pneumatology4 ,m9d is at fir/ !oretical m9d1 or intellig5ce1 & !n practical m9d1 or w4 ,x is !oretical 9 t x has to d ) ! rational z some?+ giv51 & n[ posits x z its own2 x is practical 9 t x imm$iately wills ! subjective cont5t 7tru?71 :i* x has z its own1 to be fre$ f its "o-sid$ subjective =m1 & trans=m$ into an objective4 ,! practical m9d is1 s f>1 ! tru? ( ! !oretical4 ,! !oretical m9d1 9 its way to ! practical1 passes ?r\gh ! /ages ( intuition1 repres5tation1 & ?\ght2 & ! w on its side =ms itself into a free w ?r\gh impulse1 desire1 & incl9ation4 ,! free w1 z hav+ a be+ 9 space 7,daseyn71 is ! objective m9d1 "r1 & ! /ate4 ,9 "r1 morals & ! /ate1 ! fre$om & rationality1 :i* are *os5 by ! w1 take on an objective =m4 ,e natural det]m9ation & impulse n[ becomes moraliz$1 & comes up to view aga9 z e?ical in/itute1 z "r & duty 7! sexual impulse n[ appe>s z m>riage1 & ! impulse ( rev5ge z civil puni%m5t1 c47 #b4 ,,! ,,objective ,,m9d4--7#a47 ,! imm$iate objective be+ 7,daseyn7 ( ! free w is ! "r4 ,! individual1 s f> z he is capable ( rights1 s f> z he has rights & ex]cises !m1 is a p]son4 ,! maxim ( "r is1 !re=e1 be a p]son & h respect to o!r p]sons4 ,! p]son all[s himself an ext]nal sph]e = 8 fre$om1 a sub/ratum 9 :i* he c ex]cise 8 w3 z prop]ty1 possession4 ,z p]son ,i h ! "r ( possession1 ! absolute "r ( appropriation1 ! "r to ca/ my w ov] e ?+1 :i* !reby becomes m9e4 ,b !re exi/ o!r p]sons besides myself4 ,my "r is1 !re=e1 limit$ ?r\gh ! "r ( o!rs4 ,!re ?us arises a conflict betwe5 w & w1 :i* is settl$ 9 a compact1 9 a common w4 ,! relation ( compact is ! fir/ /ep t[>ds ! /ate1 b only ! fir/ /ep1 = if we %\ld def9e ! /ate z a compact ( all ) all1 ?is w\ld s9k x 9 ! category ( private rights & private prop]ty4 ,x does n dep5d ^u ! w ( ! individual :e!r he w live 9 ! /ate or n4 ,! relation ( compact ref]s to private prop]ty4 ,9 a compact1 !re=e1 two wills m]ge !mselves 9 a common w1 :i* z su* becomes a "r4 ,b j "h lies also ! possibility ( a conflict betwe5 ! individual w & ! "r or ! univ]sal w4 ,! sep>ation ( ! two is a wrong 7civil wrong1 fraud1 crime74 ,?is sep>ation dem&s a reconciliation1 a re/oration ( ! "r or ! univ]sal w f its mom5t>y suppression or negation1 by ! p>ticul> w4 ,! "r re/or+ itself 9 respect ( ! p>ticul> w1 & e/abli%+ a negation ( ! wrong1 is puni%m5t4 ,^? !ories1 :i* f\nd ! "r ( puni%m5t 9 "s end ( w>n+ or improvem5t1 mi/ake ! ess5ce ( puni%m5t4 ,?reat5+1 w>n+1 c41 are f9ite ends1 i4 e4 means1 & moreov] unc]ta9 means3 b an act ( righte\sness %\ld n be made a means2 righte\sness is n ex]cis$ 9 ord] t any ?+ o!r ?an itself %all be ga9$4 ,! fulfilm5t & self-manife/ation ( righte\sness is absolute end1 self-end4 ,! p>ticul> views we h m5tion$1 c only be consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to ! mode ( puni%m5t4 ,! puni%m5t :i* is inflict$ on a crim9al1 is 8 "r1 8 rationality1 8 law1 b5ea? :i* he %\ld be subsum$4 ,8 act comes back ^u himself4 ,hegel also def5ds capital puni%m5t ^: abolition seem$ to him z an untimely s5tim5talism4 7#b47 ,! removal ( ! opposition ( ! univ]sal & p>ticul> w 9 ! subject con/itutes morality4 ,9 morality ! fre$om ( ! w is c>ri$ =w>d to a self-det]m9ation ( ! subjectivity1 & ! ab/ract "r becomes duty & virtue4 ,! moral /&po9t is ! /&po9t ( consci5ce1 x is ! "r ( ! subjective w1 ! "r ( a free e?ical decision4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( /rict "r1 x is no inquiry :at my pr9ciple or my view might be1 b 9 morality ! "q is at once direct$ t[>ds ! purpose & mov+ spr+ ( ! w4 ,hegel calls ?is /&po9t ( moral reflection & dutiful action = a reason--morality1 9 di/9ction f a sub/antial1 uncondition$ & unreflect+ e?ics4 ,?is /&po9t has ?ree elem5ts2 7#a7 ! elem5t ( resolution 7vorsatz71 :]e we consid] ! inn] det]m9ation ( ! act+ subject1 t :i* all[s an act to be ascrib$ only to me1 & ! blame ( x to re/ only on my w 7imputation72 7#b7 ! elem5t ( purpose1 :]e ! complet$ act is reg>d$ n accord+ to its consequ5ces1 b accord+ to its relative wor? 9 ref]5ce to myself4 ,! resolution 0 /ill int]nal2 b n[ ! act is complet$1 & ,i mu/ suff] myself to judge accord+ to ! con/itu5ts ( ! act1 because ,i mu/ h kn[n ! circum/ances "u :i* ,i act$2 7#c7 ! elem5t ( ! good1 :]e ! act is judg$ accord+ to its univ]sal wor?4 ,! good is peculi>ly ! reconciliation ( ! p>ticul> subjective w ) ! univ]sal w1 or ) ! conception ( ! w2 9 o!r words1 to w ! rational is good4 ,oppos$ to ?is is evil1 or ! elevation ( ! subjective w aga9/ ! univ]sal1 ! attempt to set up ! peculi> & individual *oice z absolute2 9 o!r words1 to w ! irrational is evil4 7#c47 ,9 morality we _h consci5ce & ! ab/ract good 7! good :i* ought to be7 /&+ ov] aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,! concrete id5tity ( ! two1 ! union ( subjective & objective good1 is e?ics4 ,9 ! e?ical ! good has become actualiz$ 9 an exi/+ _w1 & a nature ( self-consci\sness4 ,! e?ical m9d is se5 at fir/ imm$iately1 or 9 a natural =m1 z m>riage & ! family4 ,?ree elem5ts meet toge!r 9 m>riage1 :i* %\ld n be sep>at$1 & :i* are s (t5 & s wrongly isolat$4 ,m>riage is 7#a7 a sexual relation1 & is f\nd$ ^u a diff]5ce ( sex2 x is1 !re=e1 some?+ o!r ?an ,platonic love or monki% asceticism2 7#b7 x is a civil contract2 7#c7 x is love4 ,yet ,hegel lays no great /ress ^u ?is subjective elem5t 9 conclud+ ^u m>riage1 = a reciprocal affection w spr+ up 9 ! m>ri$ life4 ,x is m e?ical :5 a det]m9ation to m>ry is fir/1 & a def9ite p]sonal affection foll[s aft]w>ds1 = m>riage is mo/ prom95tly duty4 ,hegel w\ld1 !re=e1 place ! greate/ ob/acles 9 ! way ( a dissolution ( m>riage4 ,he has also develop$ & describ$ 9 o!r respects ! family /ate ) a pr(\nd e?ical feel+4 ,s9ce ! family becomes sep>at$ into a multitude ( families1 x is a civil society1 9 :i* ! memb]s1 ?\gh /ill indep5d5t individuals1 are b\nd 9 unity by _! wants1 by ! con/itution ( rights z a means ( security = p]son & prop]ty1 & by an outw>d adm9i/rative arrangem5t4 ,hegel di/+ui%$ ! civil society f ! /ate 9 opposition to mo/ mod]n !ori/s ^u ! subject1 :o1 reg>d+ x z ! great end ( ! /ate to give security ( prop]ty & ( p]sonal fre$om1 r$uc$ ! /ate to a civil society4 ,b on su* a /&po9t :i* w\ld make ! /ate :olly ( wants & ( rights1 x is impossible1 e4 g4 to conceive ( w>4 ,on ! gr\nd ( civil society ea* "o /&s = himself1 is indep5d5t1 & makes himself z end1 :ile e ?+ else is a means = him4 ,b ! /ate1 on ! contr>y1 kn[s no indep5d5t individuals1 ea* "o ( :om may reg>d & pursue only 8 own well-be+2 b 9 ! /ate1 ! :ole is ! end1 & ! individual is ! means4--,= ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 ,hegel1 9 opposition to ^? ( our "t :o d5y ! "r ( legislation1 w\ld h writt5 & intelligible laws1 :i* %\ld be )9 rea* ( e "o2 /ill f>!r1 ju/ice %\ld be adm9i/]$ by a public trial by jury4--,9 respect ( ! organization ( civil society1 ,hegel expresses a great pref]5ce = a corporation4 ,sanctity ( m>riage1 he says1 & honor 9 corporations1 are ! two elem5ts ar\nd :i* ! disorganization ( civil society turns4 ,civil society passes ov] into ! /ate s9ce ! int]e/ ( ! individual loses itself 9 ! idea ( an e?ical :ole4 ,! /ate is ! e?ical idea actualiz$1 x is ! e?ical m9d z x rules ov] ! action & k ( ! individuals conceiv$ 9 x4 ,f9ally ! /ates !mselves1 s9ce !y appe> z individuals 9 an attract+ or repell+ relation to ea* o!r1 repres5t1 9 _! de/9y1 9 _! rise & fall1 ! process ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,9 8 appreh5sion ( ! /ate1 ,hegel approa*$ v ne> ! anci5t notion1 :i* m]g$ ! individual & ! "r ( individuality1 :olly 9 ! w ( ! /ate4 ,he held fa/ to ! omnipot5ce ( ! /ate 9 ! anci5t s5se4 ,h5ce 8 resi/ance to mod]n lib]alism1 :i* w\ld all[ individuals to po/ulate1 to criticize1 & to w accord+ to _! improv$ k4 ,! /ate is ) ,hegel ! rational & e?ical sub/ance 9 :i* ! individual has to live1 x is ! exi/+ reason to :i* ! individual has to submit himself ) a free view4 ,he reg>d$ a limit$ mon>*y z ! be/ =m ( gov]nm5t1 aft] ! mann] ( ! ,engli% con/itution1 to :i* ,hegel 0 especially incl9$1 & 9 ref]5ce to :i* he utt]$ 8 well-kn[n say+ t ! k+ 0 b ! dot ^u ! i4 ,!re mu/ be an individual1 ,hegel supposes1 :o c affirm = ! /ate1 :o c prefix an 8,i w0 to ! resolves ( ! /ate1 & :o c be ! head ( a =mal decision4 ,! p]sonality ( a /ate1 he says1 8is only actual z a p]son1 z mon>*40 ,h5ce ,hegel def5ds h]$it>y mon>*y1 b he places ! nobility by its side z a m$iat+ elem5t betwe5 p & pr9ce--n inde$ to control or limit ! gov]nm5t1 nor to ma9ta9 ! rights ( ! p1 b only t ! p may exp]i5ce t !re is a good rule1 t1 ! consci\sness ( ! p may be ) ! gov]nm5t & t ! /ate may ent] into ! subjective consci\sness ( ! p4 ,/ates & ! m9ds ( individual races p\r _! curr5ts into ! /ream ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! /rife1 ! victory1 & ! subjection ( ! spirits ( individual races1 & ! pass+ ov] ( ! _w _s f "o p to ano!r1 is ! cont5t ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! developm5t ( ! _w's hi/ory is g5]ally connect$ ) "s rul+ race1 :i* c>ries 9 itself ! _w _s 9 its pres5t /age ( developm5t1 & 9 di/9ction f :i* ! spirits ( o!r races h no rights4 ,?us ^! race-spirits /& ar\nd ! ?rone ( ! absolute _s1 z ! executors ( its actualization1 z ! witnesses & adornm5t ( its glory4 #c4 ,,! ,,absolute ,,m9d4--7#a47 /hetics4 ,! absolute m9d is imm$iately pres5t to ! s5su\s intuition z ! beautiful or z art4 ,! beautiful is ! appe>ance ( ! idea ?r\gh a s5sible m$ium 7a cry/al1 color1 tone1 poetry72 x is ! idea actualiz$ 9 ! =m ( a limit$ ph5om5on4 ,to ! beautiful 7& to its subord9ate k9ds1 ! simply beautiful1 ! sublime1 & ! comical7 two factors always belong1 ?\ght & matt]2 b bo? ^! are insep>able f ea* o!r2 ! matt] is ! out] ph5om5on ( ! ?\ght1 & %\ld express no?+ b ! ?\ght :i* inspires x & %9es ?r\gh x4 ,! diff]5t ways 9 :i* matt] & =m are connect$1 furni% ! diff]5t =ms ( art4 ,9 ! symbolic =m ( art ! matt] prepond]ates2 ! ?\ght presses ?r\gh x1 & br+s out ! ideal only ) difficulty4 ,9 ! classic =m ( art1 ! ideal has atta9$ its adequate exi/5ce 9 ! matt]2 cont5t & =m are absolutely befitt+ ea* o!r4 ,la/ly1 9 romantic art1 ! m9d prepond]ates1 & ! matt] is a m]e appe>ance & sign ?r\gh :i* ! m9d e :]e breaks out1 & /ruggles up above ! mat]ial4 ,! sy/em ( p>ticul> arts is connect$ ) ! diff]5t =ms ( art2 b ! di/9ction ( "o p>ticul> art f ano!r1 dep5ds especially ^u ! diff]5ce ( ! mat]ial4 7a47 ,! beg9n+ ( art is ,ar*itecture4 ,x belongs ess5tially to ! symbolic =m ( art1 s9ce 9 x ! s5sible matt] f> prepond]ates1 & x fir/ seeks ! true con=mity betwe5 cont5t & =m4 ,its mat]ial is /one1 :i* x fa%ions accord+ to ! laws ( gravity4 ,h5ce x has ! "* ( magnitude1 ( sil5t e>ne/ness1 ( ori5tal sublimity4 7b47 ,sculpture4--,! mat]ial ( ?is art is also /one1 b x advances f ! inorganic to ! organic4 ,x gives ! /one a bodily =m1 & makes x only a s]v+ vehicle ( ! ?\ght4 ,9 sculpture1 ! mat]ial1 ! /one1 s9ce x repres5ts ! body1 t build+ ( ! s\l1 9 its cle>ness & beauty1 disappe>s :olly 9 ! ideal2 !re is no?+ left ( ! mat]ial :i* does n s]ve ! idea4 7c47 ,pa9t+4--,?is is preem95tly a romantic art4 ,x repres5ts1 z sculpture _c d1 ! life ( ! s\l1 ! look1 ! disposition1 ! he>t4 ,its m$ium is no long] a co>se mat]ial sub/ratum1 b ! color$ surface1 & ! s\l-l play ( light2 x gives ! appe>ance only ( complete spacial dim5sion4 ,h5ce x is able to repres5t 9 a complete dramatic movem5t ! :ole scale ( feel+s1 conditions ( he>t1 & actions4 7d47 ,music4--,?is leaves out all relation ( space4 ,its mat]ial is s\nd1 ! vibration ( a sonor\s body4 ,x leaves1 !re=e1 ! field ( s5su\s intuition1 & works exclusively ^u ! s5sation4 ,its basis is ! brea/ ( ! s5sitive s\l4 ,music is ! mo/ subjective art4 7e47 ,la/ly 9 ,poetry1 or ! speak+ art1 is ! tongue ( art loos$2 poetry c repres5t e ?+4 ,its mat]ial is n ! m]e s\nd1 b ! s\nd z ^w1 z ! sign ( a repres5tation1 z ! expression ( reason4 ,b ?is mat]ial _c be =m$ at r&om1 b only 9 v]se accord+ to c]ta9 rhy?mical & musical laws4 ,9 poetry1 all o!r arts return aga92 z epic1 repres5t+ 9 a pleas+ & ext5d$ n>rative ! figurative hi/ory ( races1 x corresponds to ! pla/ic arts2 z lyric1 express+ "s inn] condition ( s\l1 x corresponds to music2 z dramatic poetry1 exhibit+ ! /ruggles betwe5 *>act]s act+ out ( directly opposite int]e/s1 x is ! union ( bo? ^! arts4 7#b47 ,philosophy ( ,religion4--,poetry =ms ! transition f art to religion4 ,9 art ! idea 0 pres5t = ! intuition1 9 religion x is pres5t = ! repres5tation4 ,! cont5t ( e religion is ! reconciliation ( ! f9ite ) ! inf9ite1 ( ! subject ) ,god4 ,all religions seek a union ( ! div9e & ! human4 ,?is 0 done 9 ! crude/ =m by 7a47 ,! natural religions ( ! ori5tal _w4 ,god is1 ) !m1 b a p[] ( nature1 a sub/ance ( nature1 9 comp>ison ) :i* ! f9ite & ! individual disappe> z no?+4 7b47 ,a high] idea ( ,god is atta9$ by ! religions ( spiritual individuality1 9 :i* ! div9e is look$ ^u z subject1--z an exalt$ subjectivity1 full ( p[] & wisdom 9 ,judaism1 ! religion ( sublimity2 z a circle ( pla/ic div9e =ms 9 ! ,grecian religion1 ! religion ( beauty2 z an absolute end ( ! /ate 9 ! ,roman religion1 ! religion ( ! und]/&+ or ( design4 7c47 ,! reveal$ or ,*ri/ian religion fir/ e/abli%es a positive reconciliation betwe5 ,god & ! _w1 by behold+ ! actual unity ( ! div9e & ! human 9 ! p]son ( ,*ri/1 ! ,god-man1 & appreh5d+ ,god z triune1 i4 e4 z ,himself1 z inc>nate1 & z return+ f ?is inc>nation to ,himself4 ,! intellectual cont5t ( reveal$ religion1 or ( ,*ri/ianity1 is ?us ! same z t ( speculative philosophy2 ! only diff]5ce be+1 t 9 ! "o case ! cont5t is repres5t$ 9 ! =m ( ! repres5tation1 9 ! =m ( a hi/ory2 :ile1 9 ! o!r1 x appe>s 9 ! =m ( ! conception4 ,/ripp$ ( its =m ( religi\s repres5tation1 we h n[ ! /&po9t ( 7#c47 ,! ,absolute ,philosophy1 or ! ?\ght kn[+ itself z all tru?1 & reproduc+ ! :ole natural & intellectual univ]se f itself1 hav+ ! sy/em ( philosophy = its developm5t--a clos$ circle ( circles4 tb ,) ,hegel closes ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,! philosophical developm5ts :i* h succe$$ him1 & :i* are p>tly a c>ry+ out ( 8 sy/em1 & p>tly ! attempt to lay a new basis = philosophy1 belong to ! pres5t1 & n yet to hi/ory4 ,,! ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,?is ^w lit]ally means cle>+ up1 b has a philosophical s5se = :i* no precise equival5t is f\nd 9 ! ,engli% language4 ,:5 us$ physically1 x d5otes t e ob/ruction :i* prev5t$ ! cle> sight ( ! bodily eye is remov$1 & :5 us$ psy*ologically x implies ! same fact 9 ref]5ce to our m5tal vision4 ,! ,aufklrung 9 philosophy is h5ce ! cle>+ up ( difficulties :i* h h9d]$ a true philosophical insight4 ,to express ?is1 ,i "k ( no bett] ^w ?an ! lit]al r5d]+1 8up-cle>+0 or 8cle>+ up0 :i* ! read] w f9d adopt$ 9 ! foll[+ pages4--,,translator4 ,footnote #b3 ,! article on ,socrates1 f page #eb to page #fd1 0 translat$ by ,pr(4 ,n4 ,g4 ,cl>k1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,v]mont4 ,footnote #c3 ,a ,g]man mile is ab\t f\r & a half ,engli% miles4--,,tr4 ,footnote #d3 ,s*ell+ di$ ,augu/ #bj?1 #ahed1 at ,ragaz1 ,switz]l&1 :i!r he _h gone = ! b5efit ( 8 heal?1 :i* _h long be5 decl9+4--,,translator4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ,,! ,,two ,,great ,,answ]s ,,to ,,! ,,rec5t ,,attack ,,on ,,! ,,bible4 ,i4--,,replies ,,to 8,,essays ,,& ,,reviews40 ,) a ,preface by ! ,"l ,bi%op ( ,ox=d4 #a ,vol41 #abmo1 ,clo?1 #a4ej4 ,,cont5ts4 ,i4--,,! ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,g\lburn4 ,,ii4--,,buns51 ! ,,critical ,,s*ool1 & ,dr4 ,,williams4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,rose4 ,,iii4--,,miracles4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,heurtley1 ,d4,d4 ,,iv4--,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,national ,,*ur*4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,j4 ,,irons1 ,d4,d4 ,v4--,,! ,,creative ,,week4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,g4 ,,rob9son1 ,m4,a4 ,,vi4--,,rationalism4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,a4 ,w4 ,,haddan4 ,,vii4--,,on ,,! ,,int]pretation ,,( ,,scripture4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,,*r4 ,,wordswor?1 ,d4,d4 ,,app5dix3 ,i4--,,lett] ,,f ,,! ,,rev4 ,,rob]t ,,ma91 ,m4,a41 ,pembroke ,college1 ,radcliffe ,obs]v]4 ,,ii4--,,lett] ,,f ,,john ,,phillips1 ,m4,a41 ,magdal5 ,college1 ,read] 9 ,geology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d4 ,,ii4--,,aids ,,to ,,fai?4 ,a ,s]ies ( ,!ological ,essays by ,v>i\s ,writ]s1 #a ,volume1 #abmo1 #ech pages1 #a4ej4 ,,cont5ts4 ,i4--,,on ,,miracles ,,z ,,evid5ces ,,( ,,*ri/ianity4 ,by ,h4 ,l4 ,,mansel1 ,b4,d4 ,,ii4--,,on ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,! ,,evid5ces ,,( ,,*ri/ianity4 ,by ,,william ,,fitzg]ald1 ,d4,d4 ,,iii4--,,prophecy4 ,by ,a4 ,,mccaul1 ,d4,d4 ,,iv4--,,ideology ,,& ,,subscription4 ,by ,f4 ,c4 ,,crooke1 ,m4,a4 ,v4--,,! ,,mosaic ,,record ,,( ,,creation4 ,by ,a4 ,,mccaul1 ,d4,d4 ,,vi4--,,on ,,! ,,g5u95ess ,,& ,,au!nticity ,,( ,,! ,,p5tateu*4 ,by ,,geo4 ,,rawl9son1 ,m4,a4 ,,vii4--,,inspiration4 ,by ,,edw>d ,,h>old ,,br[ne1 ,b4,d4 ,,viii4--,,! ,,dea? ,,( ,,*ri/4 ,by ,,wm4 ,,?omson1 ,bi%op ( ,gl\ce/] & ,bri/ol4 ,,ix4--,,scripture ,,& ,,its ,,int]pretation4 ,by ,,*as4 ,,john ,,ellicott1 ,b4,d4 ,,on ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,species by ,means ( ,natural ,selection2 ,,or1 ,,! ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,favor$ ,,races ,,9 ,,! ,,/ruggle ,,= ,,life4 ,,by ,,*>les ,,d>w91 ,a4 ,m4 ,"o ,volume4 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #a4ej4 8,8 fir/ po9t is to %[ t species are 9 _m cases n well def9$1 & t ! :ole ord] ( natural hi/ory seems to be 9 a /ate ( mutation1 by reason ( con/ant v>iations4 ,?us ev5 "u dome/ication1 important *anges may be introduc$ by int]cross+1 by selection ( ! be/ individuals = propagation1 by cross+ p>5ts m>k$ by h[ev] slight1 b favorable peculi>ities4 8,8 second po9t is :at he t]ms ! univ]sal & necess>y /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,?is foll[s f ! high geometrical ratio ( increase common to all be+s4 ,if !re 7 no cata/rophes1 any "o ( ! exi/+ species w\ld be suffici5tly num]\s 9 a few ?\s& ye>s to cov] ! :ole e>?1 to ! exclusion ( ev]y?+ else4 8,8 ?ird po9t is to prove t ?is /ruggle is direct$ by ! law ( natural selection4 ,ev5 ! races ( dome/ic animals may be con/antly improv$ & modifi$ by *oos+ ! be/ individuals = propagation4 ,nature br+s ! same discipl9e to be> ^u ! :ole doma9 ( animal & vegetable life4 ,%e seizes at once ^u any slight v>iation t is favorable1 & p]petuates x2 9 ! univ]sal pressure1 any v>iation t is injuri\s is imm$iately ext+ui%$40 ,any ( ! above s5t free by mail on receipt ( price4 ,,new ,,publications ,,( ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #ddc & #dde ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,evid5ce z to ,man's ,place 9 ,nature4 ,by ,,?omas ,h4 ,,huxley1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,f4 ,l4 ,s4 #a ,vol4 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,illu/rat$1 #a4be4 ,,cont5ts3 ,i4 ,on ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,man-l ,apes4 ,,ii4 ,on ! ,relation ( ,man to ! ,l[] ,animals4 ,,iii4 ,on "s ,fossil ,rema9s ( ,man4 ,money4 ,by ,,*as4 ,,moran4 #a ,vol4 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #a4be4 8,! con/antly increas+ division ( labor daily increases ! ex*ange ( commodities & s]vices1 9 :i* money plays s important a "p4 ,! subject ( money is1 !re=e1 suppos$ by ! writ] to be ( suffici5t g5]al int]e/ to w>rant ! publication ( ! pres5t "w4 ,if x %all aid 9 dissipat+ any ( ! num]\s errors & prejudices s long connect$ ) money1 & ?us increase ! p[] ( ?is in/rum5t to fur!r ! well-be+ & progress ( humanity1 ! object ( ! writ] w be atta9$ & 8 labors amply comp5sat$40 ,! ,g5tle ,skeptic2 ,or1 ,essays & ,conv]sations ( a ,c\ntry ,ju/ice on ! ,au!nticity & ,tru?fulness ( ! ,old ,te/am5t ,records4 ,edit$ by ! ,rev4 ,c4 ,,walwor?4 #a ,vol4 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #a4be4 8,?is is "o ( ^? books t require n only read+ b /udy+1 & yet x c be read ) int]e/ ev5 by ^? :o nev] /udy4 ,x is a book ri* 9 s*ol>ly rese>*1 ma/]ly 9 argum5t1 admirable 9 me?odical arrangem5t40--,! ,tablet4 ,! ,am]ican ,annual ,encyclopdia1 ,& ,regi/] ( ,important ,ev5ts ( ! ye> #ahfb4 ,embrac+ ,political1 ,civil1 ,milit>y1 & ,social ,affairs2 ,public ,docum5ts2 ,biography1 ,/ati/ics1 ,comm]ce1 ,f9ance1 ,lit]ature1 ,sci5ce1 ,agriculture1 & ,me*anical ,indu/ry4 #a ,vol4 #hvo4 ,clo?1 #d4jj2 ,libr>y ,lea!r1 #d4ge2 ,half ,mor41 #e4ej2 ,half ,russia1 #f4jj4 ,! favorable reception giv5 to ! volume = ! prec$+ ye>1 has induc$ u to make special ef=ts 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is "o4 ,its cont5ts embrace ! mat]ial & intellectual progress ( ! ye>1 p>ticul>ly 9 ?is c\ntry2 ! important civil & political measures ( ! ,f$]al & ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts2 an accurate & m9ute hi/ory ( ! /ruggles ( ! great armies & _! battles1 illu/rat$ ) maps & plans ( actions tak5 f (ficial copies2 ! debates ( ! ,f$]al & ,conf$]ate ,congresses2 f9ancial measures ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 comm]ce1 c41 c42 ! proce$+s 9 ! ,conf$]ate ,/ates to ma9ta9 ! w> & e/abli% _! gov]nm5t2 also1 ! progress ( =eign nations2 ! developm5ts 9 ! physical sci5ces2 ! progress ( lit]ature2 me*anical inv5tions & improvem5ts1 embrac+ ! results ( ! ,briti% ,indu/rial ,exhibition2 ! pr9ciples involv$1 & ! developm5ts 9 plat+ %ips ) iron2 descriptions ( ! mo/ useful pat5ts2 ! pres5t /ati/ics ( ! religi\s d5om9ations2 & biographical sket*es ( ! em95t p]sons deceas$ 9 #ahfb1 c4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bank ,law3 ,an ,act to ,provide a ,national ,curr5cy1 secur$ by a pl$ge ( ,unit$ ,/ates ,/ocks1 & to provide = ! circulation & ,r$emption !re(4 ,pap] cov]s1 #be c5ts4 ,! ,p5tateu* & ,book ( ,jo%ua1 ,critically exam9$4 ,by ! ,"r ,rev4 ,,john ,,wm4 ,,col5so1 ,bi%op ( ,natal4 #b ,vols41 #abmo4 #a4be ea*4 8,bi%op ,col5so's books1 9 :i* ! g5u95ess & au!nticity ( ! e>li] portions ( ! ,old ,te/am5t are d\bt$1 or1 z he expresses x1 8 #8argum5ts to prove ! non-,mosaic & unhi/orical "* ( ! ,p5tateu*1' h creat$ int5se int]e/ 9 ,engl&40--,*icago ,po/4 ,man's ,cry1 & ,god's ,graci\s ,answ]1 ,a ,contribution ,t[>d ! ,def5ce ( ! ,fai?4 ,by ,rev4 ,b4 ,,frankl94 ,clo?1 crimp$1 #ej c5ts4 8,a ?\ghtful discussion ( !ism--or man's ne$ ( a ,god1 & :at k9d ( a ,god2 & ( ,*ri/ianity--or ,god's graci\s answ] to t ne$1 & h[ x is an answ]40--,congregationali/4 ,pr(4 ,huxley's ,lectures 8,on ! ,orig9 ( ,species40 #a ,vol4 #abmo4 #a4 #a4 ,! ,pres5t ,condition ( ,organic ,nature4--#b4 ,! ,pa/ ,condition ( ,organic ,nature4--#c4 ,! ,me?od by :i* ! ,causes ( ! ,pres5t & ,pa/ ,conditions ( ,organic ,nature are to be discov]$4 ,! ,orig9ation ( ,liv+ ,be+s4--#d4 ,! ,p]petuation ( ,liv+ ,be+s1 ,h]$it>y ,transmission & ,v>iation4--#e4 ,! ,condition ( ,exi/5ce z affect+ ! ,p]petuation ( ,liv+ ,be+s4--#f4 ,a ,critical ,exam9ation ( ! ,position ( ,mr4 ,d>w9's ,"w 8,on ! ,orig9 ( ,species10 9 relation to ! complete ,!ory ( ! ,causes ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ,organic ,nature4 8,read]s :o _c accept ,mr4 ,d>w9's doctr9es & conclusions w /ill be delight$ ) ^! lectures1 s9ce !y embody s mu* curi\s in=mation & s _m important pr9ciples ( biological sci5ce1 express$ s cle>ly z to r5d] ! book1 ev5 to read]s possess+ sc>cely any previ\s k ( ! subject1 n only intelligible b m int]e/+ ?an any romance40--,weldon's ,regi/]4 ,lectures on ! ,symbolic ,"* ( ! ,scriptures4 ,by ,rev4 ,,ariel ,,silv]1 ,m9i/] ( ! ,new ,j]usalem ,*ur*4 #a ,vol41 #abmo4 #bhf pages4 #a4be4 ,^! lectures1 deliv]$ to a mix$ congregation dur+ ! pa/ w9t]1 are n[ giv5 to ! public4 8,! au?or assures ! read]1 :o has n look$ into ! spiritual s5se ( ! ,holy ,^w1 t if he has a desire to d s1 & w /udy ! sci5ce ( correspond5ces1 & read ^! simple illu/rations ( ! sacr$ ,scriptures1 ) a s9c]e desire to become acqua9t$ ) ! ,^w ( ,god t he may ! bett] "k 8 ,heav5ly ,fa!r1 8 own s\l1 & ! true way ( life1 t he may walk 9 x1 ! ,"l w op5 to 8 m9d a new field ( ?\ght & lead him to a f\nta9 ( heav5ly wisdom :i* he w prize z m valuable ?an all ?+s else2 = he w f9d !re9 ! true life ( ,heav540--,extract f ,preface4 ,! ,new & ,complete ,taxpay]'s ,manual1 ,conta9+ ! ,direct & ,excise ,taxes2 ) ! ,rec5t ,am5dm5ts ( ,congress1 & ! ,decisions ( ! ,commission]4 ,also1 complete ,m>g9al ,ref]5ces1 & an analytical index1 %[+ all ! ,items ( ,taxation1 ! ,mode ( ,proce$+1 & ! ,duties ( ! ,(fic]s1 ) an ,explanatory ,preface4 #a ,vol4 #hvo1 #ahd pages4 ,pap] cov]s1 #ej c5ts2 clo?1 #ge c5ts4 ,an indisp5sable book = e citiz54 ,! ,crisis4 #a ,vol41 #hvo4 ,pap] cov]s1 #ie pages1 #ej c5ts4 ,madge2 ,or1 ,night & ,morn+4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,b4 #a ,vol41 #abmo4 #a4be4 ,f ! ,congregationali/4 8,x conta9s ! /ory ( a "y girl #8b\nd out1' z ! cu/om is 9 ! ,new ,engl& villages4 ,h] ,nor!rn mi/ress 0 a h>%1 selfi% & unfeel+ woman1 & ! #8b\nd girl's' "* is pleasantly & int]e/+ly portray$1 z x becomes m\ld$ & hewn out by ! h>d circum/ances ( h] lot1 till %e becomes #8purifi$ by suff]+1' a p]fect woman40 ,! ,new ,am]ican ,cyclopdia4 ,edit$ by ,,george ,,ripley & ,,*>les ,a4 ,,dana4 ,n[ complete1 9 #af vols4 #hvo1 d\ble columns1 #gej pages ea*4 ,clo?1 #d2 ,%eep1 #d4ge2 ,half ,mor41 #e4ej2 ,half ,russia1 #f p] volume4 ,! lead+ claims to public consid]ation :i* ! ,new ,am]ican ,cyclopdia possesses may be ?us briefly /at$3 8#a4 ,x surpasses all o!r simil> works 9 ! fulness & ability ( ! articles relat+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 8#b4 ,no o!r "w conta9s s _m reliable biographies ( ! lead+ m5 ( ?is & o!r nations4 ,9 ?is respect x is f> sup]ior ev5 to ! m bulky ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 8#c4 ,! be/ m9ds ( ?is c\ntry h be5 employ$ 9 enri*+ its pages ) ! late/ data1 & ! mo/ rec5t discov]ies 9 e bran* ( manufactures1 me*anics1 & g5]al sci5ce4 8#d4 ,x is a libr>y 9 itself1 :]e e topic is treat$1 & :]e in=mation c be glean$ :i* w enable a /ud5t1 if he is s dispos$1 to consult o!r au?orities1 ?us af=d+ him an invaluable key to k4 8#e4 ,x is neatly pr9t$ ) readable type on good pap]1 & conta9s a mo/ copi\s index4 8#f4 ,x is ! only "w :i* gives any?+ approa*+ correct descriptions ( cities & t[ns ( ,am]ica1 or embraces reliable /ati/ics %[+ ! wond]ful gr[? ( all sections40 ,two ,pictures2 ,or1 ,:at ,we ,?9k ( ,ourselves1 & ,:at ! ,_w ,?9ks ( ,u4 ,by ,,m>ia ,j4 ,,mc9to%1 au?or ( 8,two ,lives10 8,*>ms & ,c\nt]*>ms10 etc4 #a vol41 #abmo41 #dgf pages4 #a4ej4 8,! previ\s works ( ,miss ,mc,intosh h be5 popul> 9 ! be/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! simple beauty ( h] n>ratives1 comb9+ pure s5tim5t ) high pr9ciple1 & noble views ( life & its duties1 ought to w9 = !m a he>+ at e fireside 9 our l&4 ,! lapse ( "t s9ce we h _h any "w ( fiction f h] p51 has only s]v$ to increase h] p[]40 ,a ,glimpse ( ! ,_w4 ,by ,miss ,,sewell1 au?or ( 8,amy ,h]b]t10 etc4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #a4be4 8,( ! au?oress's /yle & language x w\ld be sup]flu\s to speak4 ,! simplicity ( a ref9$ nature1 ! ease ( a skill$ writ]1 & ! correctness ( an indu/ri\s "o1 are conspicu\s 9 e page4 ,!re is no /ra9+ at effect1 no di/ortion ( ,engli% palm$ (f z orig9ality1 no di/ru/ ( native vigor ev9c$ by a rec\rse to artificial40--,! ,press4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,civilization 9 ,engl&4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,?omas ,,buckle4--#b vols4 #hvo4 ,clo?1 #f4 ,:oev] misses read+ ?is book1 w miss read+ :at is1 9 v>i\s respects1 to ! be/ ( our judgm5t & exp]i5ce1 ! mo/ rem>kable book ( ! day--"o1 inde$1 t no ?\ghtful1 inquir+ m9d w\ld miss read+ = a good deal4 ,let ! read] be z adv]se z he may to ! writ]'s philosophy1 let him be z devot$ to ! ob/ructive z ,mr4 ,buckle is to ! progress p>ty1 let him be z or?odox 9 *ur* cre$ z ! o!r is het]odox1 z dogmatic z 8 au?or is skeptical--let him1 9 %ort1 f9d 8 prejudices %ock$ at e turn ( ! argum5t1 & all 8 prepossessions :i/l$ d[n ! w9d--/ill !re is s mu* 9 ?is extraord9>y volume to /imulate reflection1 & excite to inquiry1 & provoke to e>ne/ inve/igation1 p]haps 7to ?is or t read]7 on a track hi!rto untrodd51 & across ! virg9 soil ( untill$ fields1 fre% woods & pa/ures new--t we may fairly defy ! mo/ ho/ile _s1 ! mo/ mi/ru/ful & lea/ sympa!tic1 to read x ?r\gh )\t be+ glad ( hav+ done s1 or1 hav+ begun x1 or ev5 glanc$ at almo/ any "o ( its #hed pages1 to pass x away unread4--,new ,mon?ly 7,london7 ,magaz9e4 ,hi/ory ( ! ,romans "u ! ,empire4 ,by ,,*>les ,,m]ivale1 ,b4,d41 late ,fell[ ( ,/4 ,john's ,college4 #g ,vols4 small #hvo4 ,h&somely pr9t$ on t9t$ pap]4 ,price1 #b p] ,vol4 7,ne>ly ready47 ,,cont5ts3 ,vols4 ,i & ,,ii4--,compris+ ! ,hi/ory to ! ,fall ( ,julius ,cs>4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,to ! ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,mon>*y by ,augu/us4 ,vols4 ,,iv4 & ,v4--,f ,augu/us to ,claudius1 ,b4,c4 #bg to ,a4,d4 #ed4 ,vol4 ,,vi4--,f ! ,reign ( ,n]o1 ,a4,d4 #ed1 to ! ,fall ( ,j]usalem1 ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,vol4 ,,vii4--,f ! ,de/ruction ( ,j]usalem1 ,a4,d4 #gj1 to ! ,dea? ( ,m4 ,aurelius4 ,?is valuable "w t]m9ates at ! po9t :]e ! n>rative ( ,gibbon comm5ces4 444 8,:5 we ent] on a m se>*+ criticism ( ! two writ]s1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ,m]ivale has z firm a grasp ( 8 subject z ,gibbon1 & t 8 "w is *>act]iz$ by a great] fre$om f prejudice1 & a s\nd] philosophy4 444 8,?is hi/ory mu/ always /& z a spl5did monum5t ( 8 le>n+1 8 c&or1 & 8 vigor\s grasp ( intellect4 ,?\gh he is 9 "s respects inf]ior to ,macaulay & ,grote1 he mu/ /ill be class$ ) !m z "o ( ! second great triumvirate ( ,engli% hi/orians40--,nor? ,am]ican ,review4 ,april1 #ahfc4 ,,new ,,views ,,( ,,heat ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,=ces4 ,,heat1 ,,consid]$ ,,z ,a ,,mode ,,( ,,motion1 ,be+ a ,c\rse ( ,twelve ,lectures deliv]$ be=e ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita94 ,,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,natural ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,royal ,,in/itution--,,au?or ,,( ,,! 8,,glaci]s ,,( ,,! ,,alps40 ,) ,"o ,hundr$ ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #dhj pages4 ,price1 #b4jj4 ,?is volume is by ! gift$ successor ( ,f>aday1 ! "y ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,engl&4 ,! au?or1 himself celebrat$ z a discov]]1 an +5i\s & f]tile exp]im5t]1 a bold b discipl9$ ?9k]1 a vivid & imag9ative speak]1 & deal+ ) ! mo/ spl5did g5]alizations & ! gr&e/ ph5om5a ( nature1 0 li/5$ to ) ! pr(\nde/ att5tion4 ,! new views ( ! nature ( heat1 its connections ) ! o!r =ms ( =ce1 & ! sublime "p x plays 9 ! s*eme ( ,nature--views :i* h b rec5tly be5 adopt$ 9 ! sci5tific _w--are "h = ! fir/ "t br\ght =w>d1 & illu/rat$ ) a res\rce ( exp]im5t1 a brilliancy ( illu/ration1 & a cle>ness & eloqu5ce ( /yle = :i* ,pr(essor ,tyndall is unequall$4 b,f ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4_/b--,) all ! skill :i* has made ,f>aday ! ma/] ( exp]im5tal sci5ce 9 ,great ,brita91 ,pr(essor ,tyndall enjoys ! advantage ( a sup]ior g5]al culture1 & is ?us enabl$ to set =? 8 philosophy ) all ! graces ( eloqu5ce & ! f9i% ( sup]ior diction4 ,) a simplicity1 & abs5ce ( te*nicalities :i* r5d] 8 explanations lucid to unsci5tific m9ds1 & at ! same "t a ?or\ghness & orig9ality by :i* he in/ructs ! mo/ le>n$1 he unfolds all ! mod]n philosophy ( heat4 b,new ,york ,times4_/b--,pr(essor ,tyndall's c\rse ( lectures on heat is "o ( ! mo/ beautiful illu/rations ( a mode ( h&l+ sci5tific subjects1 :i* is comp>atively new1 & :i* promises ! be/ results1 bo? to sci5ce & to lit]ature g5]ally2 we mean ! treatm5t ( subjects 9 a /yle at once pr(\nd & popul>4 ,! title ( ,pr(essor ,tyndall's "w indicates ! !ory ( heat held by him1 & inde$ ! only "o n[ held by sci5tific m5--x is a mode ( motion4 b,bo/on ,j\rnal4_/b--,he exhibits ! curi\s & beautiful work+s ( nature 9 a mo/ delightful mann]4 ,be=e ! read] p>ticles ( wat] lock !mselves or fly asund] ) a movem5t regulat$ l a dance4 ,!y =m !mselves into liquid fl[]s ) f9e s]rat$ petals1 or into rosettes ( froz5 gauze1 !y b\nd upw>d 9 boil+ f\nta9s1 or creep sl[ly onw>d 9 /up5d\s glaci]s4 ,flames bur/ into music & s+1 or cease to s+1 z ! exp]im5t] pleases1 & metals pa9t !mselves ^u a scre5 9 dazzl+ hues z ! pa9t] t\*es 8 canvas4 b,new ,york ,tribune4_/b--,! mo/ orig9al & important contribution t has yet be5 made to ! !ory & lit]ature ( !rmotics4 b,sci5tific ,am]ican4_/b--,! "w is writt5 9 a *>m+ /yle1 & is ! mo/ valuable contribution to sci5tific lit]ature t has be5 publi%$ 9 _m ye>s4 ,x is ! mo/ popul> exposition ( ! dynamical !ory ( heat t has yet appe>$4 ,! old mat]ial !ory ( heat may be said to be defunct4 b,l\isville ,democrat4_/b--,?is is "o ( ! mo/ delightful sci5tific works we h ev] met4 ,! lectures are s full ( life & _s t we c almo/ imag9e ! lectur] be=e u1 & see 8 brilliant exp]im5ts 9 e /age ( _! progress4 ,! !ory is s c>efully & ?or\ghly expla9$ t no "o c fail to und]/& x4 ,su* books z ^! create a love = sci5ce4 b,troy ,:ig4_/b--,no "o c take up ^! lectures & pursue ! g5]al tra9 & scope ( ?\ght :i* !y compel1 )\t hav+ atta9$ already to a love ( practical sci5ce :i* w inevitably impress itself on 8 m5tal habits h]eaft]4 b,indep5d5t4_/b--,pr(essor ,tyndall's expositions & exp]im5ts are rem>kably ?\ghtful1 +5i\s1 cle> & conv9c+2 portions ( ! book h almo/ ! int]e/ ( a romance1 s />tl+ are ! descriptions & elucidations4 ,any ( ^! ,books s5t free by mail to any address on receipt ( ,price4 ,,rec5t ,,publications ,,( ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #ddc #dde ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,! ,life & ,correspond5ce ( ,,!odore ,,p>k]1 ,m9i/] ( ! ,tw5ty-eigh? ,congregational ,society1 ,bo/on4 ,by ,,john ,,weiss4 ,) two ,portraits on ,/eel1 fac-simile ( ,h&writ+1 & n9ete5 ,wood ,engrav+s4 #b vols41 #hvo4 #a1jjh pages4 ,price1 #f4 8,^! volumes conta9 an acc\nt ( ,mr4 ,p>k]'s *ildhood & self-education2 ( ! developm5t ( 8 !ological ideas2 ( 8 s*ol>ly & philosophical pursuits2 & ( 8 relation to ! ,anti-,slav]y cause1 & to ! epo* 9 ,am]ica :i* prec$$ ! civil w>4 ,8 two visits to ,europe are describ$ 9 lett]s & extracts f 8 j\rnal4 ,an autobiographical fragm5t is introduc$ 9 relation to ,mr4 ,p>k]'s e>ly life1 & 8 lett]s ( fri5d%ip on lit]>y1 speculative1 & political topics are freely int]sp]s$4 ,! illu/rations repres5t sc5es connect$ ) v>i\s p]iods ( ,mr4 ,p>k]'s life1 ! h\ses he dwelt 91 8 c\ntry haunts1 ! meet+ h\se1 8 libr>y1 & ! ,music ,hall 9 :i* he prea*$40 ,cate*ism ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e1 ,9 its v>i\s ,applications to ,m9es1 ,mills1 ,/eam ,navigation1 ,railways1 & ,agriculture4 ,) ,practical ,in/ructions = ! ,manufacture & ,managem5t ( ,eng9es ( e ,class4 ,by ,,john ,,b\rne1 ,c4 ,e4 ,new & ,revis$ ,edition4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,illu/rat$4 ,clo?4 #b4 8,9 (f]+ to ! ,am]ican public a repr9t ( a "w on ! ,/eam ,eng9e s des]v$ly successful1 & s long consid]$ /&>d1 ! ,publi%]s h n ?\ght x necess>y t x %\ld be an exact copy ( ! ,engli% edition4 ,!re 7 "s details 9 :i* !y ?\ght x c\ld be improv$ & bett] adapt$ to ! use ( ,am]ican ,eng9e]s4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! size ( ! page has be5 increas$ to a full #abmo1 to admit ( l>g] illu/rations1 :i*1 9 ! ,engli% edition1 are (t5 on too small a scale1 & "s ( ! illu/rations !mselves h be5 suppli$ by o!rs equally applicable1 m rec5t1 & to u m famili> examples4 ,! fir/ "p ( ,*apt] ,,xi41 devot$ 9 ! ,engli% edition to ,engli% portable & fix$ agricultural eng9es1 9 ?is edition gives place entirely to illu/rations f ,am]ican practice1 ( /eam eng9es z appli$ to diff]5t purposes1 & ( appliances & ma*9es necess>y to !m4 ,b ) ! exception ( "s ( ! illu/rations & ! description ( !m1 & ! correction ( a few typographical errors1 ?is edition is a fai?ful transcript ( ! late/ ,engli% edition40 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ,hi/ory ( ! ,romans "u ! ,empire4 ,by ,,*>les ,,m]ivale1 ,b4 ,d41 late ,fell[ ( ,/4 ,john's ,college4 #g vols41 small #hvo4 ,h&somely pr9t$ on t9t$ pap]4 ,price1 9 clo?1 #b p] vol4 ,half ,morocco extra1 #c #ej4 ,,cont5ts3 ,vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii4--,compris+ ! ,hi/ory to ! ,fall ( ,julius ,cs>4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,to ! ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,mon>*y by ,augu/us4 ,vols4 ,,iv4 & ,v4--,f ,augu/us to ,claudius1 ,b4 ,c4 #bg to ,a4 ,d4 #ed4 ,vol4 ,,vi4--,f ! ,reign ( ,n]o1 ,a4 ,d4 #ed1 to ! ,fall ( ,j]usalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #gj4 ,vol4 ,,vii4--,f ! ,de/ruction ( ,j]usalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #gj1 to ! ,dea? ( ,m4 ,aurelius4 ,?is valuable "w t]m9ates at ! po9t :]e ! n>rative ( ,gibbon comm5ces4 444 8,:5 we ent] on a m se>*+ criticism ( ! two writ]s1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ,m]ivale has z firm a grasp ( 8 subject z ,gibbon1 & t 8 "w is *>act]iz$ by a great] fre$om f prejudice1 & a s\nd] philosophy4 444 8,?is hi/ory mu/ always /& z a spl5did monum5t ( 8 le>n+1 8 c&or1 & 8 vigor\s grasp ( intellect4 ,?\gh he is 9 "s respects inf]ior to ,macaulay & ,grote1 he mu/ /ill be class$ ) !m1 z "o ( ! second great triumvirate ( ,engli% hi/orians40--,nor? ,am]ican ,review1 ,april1 #ahfc4 ,practice 9 ! ,executive ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 "u ! ,p5sion1 ,b\nty1 & ,prize ,laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) ,=ms & ,in/ructions = ,collect+ ,arre>s ( ,pay1 ,b\nty1 & ,prize ,money1 & = ,obta9+ ,p5sions4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,sewell1 ,c\nsellor at ,law4 #a vol41 #hvo4 ,%eep4 ,price1 #c #ej4 8,i (f] ?is little book ) confid5ce to ! pr(ession1 z c]ta9 to save lawy]s1 9 "o case1 if !y nev] h any m1 m "t & tr\ble ?an its co/4 ,to ! public g5]ally1 ! book is (f]$ z conta9+ a l>ge am\nt ( useful in=mation on a subject n[1 un=tunately1 br\ght home to half ! families 9 ! l&4 ,to ! (fic]s & soldi]s ( ! ,army x w also be f\nd a useful companion2 & x is hop$ t by x an am\nt ( in=mation ( great value to ! soldi]s1 & to _! families at home1 w be dissem9at$1 & ! prevail+ ignorance respect+ ! subject treat$ ( 9 a great degree remov$40--,extract f ,preface4 ,h9ts to ,riflem54 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,s4 ,,clevel&4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,illu/rat$1 ) num]\s ,designs ( ,rifles & ,rifle ,practice4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a #ej4 8,i (f] ^! h9ts z ! contribution ( an old sportsman1 & if ,i succe$ 9 any degree 9 excit+ an int]e/ 9 ! subject1 my end w be accompli%$1 ev5 if ! future inve/igations ( ^? :o are ?us attract$ %\ld prove any ( my op9ions to be errone\s40--,extract f ,preface4 ,laws & ,pr9ciples ( ,:i/1 ,/at$ & ,expla9$1 & its ,practice ,illu/rat$ on an ,orig9al ,sy/em1 by means ( h&s play$ completely ?r\gh4 ,by ,,cav5di%4 ,f ! fif? ,london edition4 #a vol41 squ>e #afmo4 ,gilt edge4 #a #be4 8,an excell5t & v cle>ly writt5 treatise2 ! rules ( ! game ?or\ghly expla9$2 its practice illu/rat$ by means ( h&s play$ completely ?r\gh1 & mu* ( ! m9uti & f9esse ( ! game giv5 t we h nev] se5 9 any o!r volume ( ! k9d4 ,:i/ play]s w recognize x z an au?ority2 & t x is a success is prov$ by its hav+ already gone ?r\gh five editions4 ,x is got out v neatly1 9 blue & gold1 by ! publi%]s40--,com4 ,bullet94 ,roba di ,roma4 ,by ,w4 ,w4 ,,/ory4 #b vols41 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #c4 8,till ,rome %all fall1 ! ,city ( ! ,sev5 ,hills w be inexhau/ible z a subject ( int]e/4 #8,roba di ,roma' conta9s ! ga!r+s ( an hone/ obs]v] & a real arti/4444 ,x has p]man5t value to entitle x to a place ( honor on ! %elf :i* conta9s e lov] ( ,italy's ,rome-books40--,a!num4 ,heat consid]$ z a ,mode ( ,motion4 ,be+ a ,c\rse ( ,twelve ,lectures deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita94 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,au?or ( 8,! ,glaci]s ( ! ,alps40 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,) #aja illu/rations4 ,clo?4 #b4 8,no "o c r5d ,dr4 ,tyndall's book )\t be+ impress$ ) ! int5sity ( ! au?or's conviction ( ! tru? ( ! !ory :i* x is 8 object to illu/rate1 or ) ! boldness ) :i* he confronts ! difficulties :i* lie enc\nt]s4444 ,dr4 ,tyndall's is ! fir/ "w 9 :i* ! undulatory or me*anical !ory ( heat has be5 plac$ 9 a popul> light2 b we are sure t no "o1 h[ev] pr(\nd 8 k ^u ! subject ( :i* x treats1 w rise f its p]usal )\t a feel+ t he has be5 bo? gratifi$ & in/ruct$ 9 a high degree :ile read+ its pages40--,london ,read]4 ,life ( ,edw>d ,liv+/on1 ,mayor ( ! ,city ( ,new ,york2 ,memb] ( ,congress2 ,s5ator ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ,secret>y ( ,/ate2 ,m9i/] to ,france2 ,au?or ( a ,sy/em ( ,p5al ,law = ,l\isiana2 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itute ( ,france1 etc4 ,by ,,*>les ,h4 ,,hunt1 ) an ,introduction by ,,george ,,bancr(t4 #a vol41 #hvo4 ,clo?1 #c4ej4 8,"o ( ! pure/ ( /atesm5 & ! mo/ g5ial ( m51 0 ,edw>d ,liv+/on1 ^: c>e] is pres5t$ 9 ?is volume4444 8,! au?or ( ?is volume has done ! c\ntry a s]vice4 ,he has giv5 u 9 a becom+ =m an appropriate memorial ( "o :om succe$+ g5]ations w be pr\d to "n z an ,am]ican juri/ & /atesman40--,evangeli/4 ,r\nd ! ,block4 ,an ,am]ican ,novel4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a #ej4 8,! /ory is rem>kably clev]4 ,x pres5ts ! mo/ vivid & v>i\s pictures ( m5 & mann]s 9 ! great ,metropolis4 ,unlike mo/ novels t n[ appe>1 x has no #8mission1' ! au?or be+ nei!r a politician nor a re=m]1 b a /ory tell]1 accord+ to ! old patt]n1 & a capital /ory he has produc$1 writt5 9 ! happie/ /yle1 & full ( wit & action4 ,he evid5tly kn[s 8 gr\nd1 & moves ov] x ) ! foot ( a ma/]4 ,x is a "w t w be read & admir$1 unless all love = good novels has dep>t$ f u2 & we "k t su* is n ! case40--,bo/on ,travel]4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,civilization 9 ,engl&4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,?omas ,,buckle4 #b vols41 #hvo4 ,clo?4 #f4 8,:oev] misses read+ ?is book1 w miss read+ :at is1 9 v>i\s respects1 to ! be/ ( our judgm5t & exp]i5ce1 ! mo/ rem>kable book ( ! day--"o1 inde$1 t no ?\ghtful1 inquir+ m9d w\ld miss read+ = a good deal4 ,let ! read] be z av]se z he may to ! writ]'s philosophy1 let him be z devot$ to ! ob/ructive z ,mr4 ,buckle is to ! progress p>ty1 let him be z or?odox 9 *ur* cre$ z ! o!r is het]odox1 z dogmatic z 8 au?or is skeptical--let him1 9 %ort1 f9d 8 prejudices %ock$ at e turn ( ! argum5t1 & all 8 prepossessions :i/l$ d[n ! w9d--/ill !re is s mu* 9 ?is extraord9>y volume to /imulate reflection1 & excite to inquiry1 & provoke to e>ne/ inve/igation1 p]haps 7to ?is or t read]7 on a track hi!rto untrodd51 & across ! virg9 soil ( untill$ fields1 fre% woods & pa/ures new--t we may fairly defy ! mo/ ho/ile _s1 ! mo/ mi/ru/ful & lea/ sympa!tic1 to read x ?r\gh )\t be+ glad ( hav+ done s1 or hav+ begun x1 or ev5 glanc$ at almo/ any "o ( its pages1 to pass x away unread40--,new ,mon?ly 7,london7 ,magaz9e4 ,illu/rations ( ,univ]sal ,progress4 ,a ,s]ies ( ,essays4 ,by ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]1 ,au?or ( 8,! ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology20 8,social ,/atics20 8,education40 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #a #ge4 8,! read]s :o h made ! acqua9tance ( ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] ?r\gh 8 "w on ,education1 & are int]e/$ 9 8 views ^u a l>g] range ( subjects1 w welcome ?is new volume ( #8,essays4' ,pass+ by ! m sci5tific & philosophical speculations1 we may call att5tion to a gr\p ( articles ^u moral & political subjects1 :i* are v p]t95t to ! pres5t condition ( affairs40--,tribune4 ,?irty ,poems4 ,,by ,,wm4 ,,cull5 ,,bryant4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #a4be2 clo? gilt1 #a4ge2 mor41 #c4ej4 8,no ,engli% poet surpasses him 9 k ( nature1 & b few are 8 equals4 ,he is bett] ?an ,c[p] & ,?omson 9 _! special walks ( poetry1 & ! equal ( ,wordswor?1 t great high prie/ ( nature40--,! ,_w4 ,an ,introduction to ,municipal ,law1 design$ = ,g5]al ,read]s1 & = ,/ud5ts 9 ,colleges & ,high ,s*ools4 ,by ,,john ,,norton ,,pom]oy4 #a vol41 #hvo4 #edd pages4 ,clo?1 #c4 8,i h sp5t ne>ly f\r days 9 read+ y\r book1 & am will+ to say1 9 ref]5ce to x1 t1 :5 consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to its scope & ! design _h 9 view 9 ent]+ ^u x1 x is a "w ( great m]it4 ,! topics are pres5t$ cle>ly1 discuss$ ) ability1 & 9 ! ma9 satisfactory results arriv$ at4 ,p>ts ,i4 & ,,ii41 ,i ?9k1 may prove v useful to /ud5ts at law & "y lawy]s1 z !re is a great deal 9 ! hi/ory ( ! law1 & especially 9 its s\rces1 bo? common & civil1 t is v cle>ly1 briefly1 & logically /at$1 & m available 9 ! mann] pres5t$ 9 y\r "w ?an 9 any o!r t ,i am acqua9t$ )40--,f ,,amos ,,dean1 ,esq41 ,albany ,law ,s*ool4 ,?ack]ay2 ,! ,humori/ & ,man ( ,lett]s1 ! ,/ory ( 8 ,life1 ) p>ticul>s ( 8 e>ly c>e] nev] be=e made public4 ,by ,,!odore ,,taylor1 ,esq4 ,illu/rat$ ) a ,portrait1 "o ( ! late/ tak5 f life2 ,view ( ,?ack]ay's ,h\se2 ,facsimile ( 8 ,h&writ+2 ,humor\s ,illu/rations by ,george ,cruik%ank2 & o!r ,pictures & ,sket*es4 ,"o vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a #be4 8,! au?or1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,taylor1 long resid5t 9 ,p>is1 has be5 collect+ in=mation = _m ye>s1 & has mu* to say ( ,mr4 ,?ack]ay's arti/ life 9 t city4 ,! book is illu/rat$ ) a portrait & "s curi\s orig9al sket*es40--,f ! ,gu>dian4 ,! ,iron ,manufacture ( ,great ,brita94 ,!oretically & ,practically consid]$3 ,includ+ ,descriptive ,details ( ! ,ores1 ,fuels1 & ,fluxes employ$2 ! ,prelim9>y ,op]ation ( ,calc9ation2 ! ,bla/1 ,ref9+1 & ,puddl+ ,furnaces2 ,eng9es & ,ma*9]y2 & ! ,v>i\s ,processes 9 ,union1 etc41 etc4 ,by ,w4 ,,truran1 ,c4 ,e41 =m]ly ,eng9e] at ! ,d[lais ,iron ,works1 "u ! late ,sir ,john ,gue/1 ,b>t4 ,second ,edition1 revis$ f ! manuscripts ( ! late ,mr4 ,truran1 by ,j4 ,,ar?ur ,,phillips1 ,au?or ( 8,a ,manual ( ,metallurgy10 8,records ( ,m9+10 etc41 & ,,wm4 ,h4 ,,dorman4 ,"o vol41 imp]ial #hvo4 ,conta9+ #hd ,plates4 ,price1 #aj4