,the ,golden ,bough ,a ,study in ,comparative ,religion ,by ,james ,george ,frazer1 ,m4,a4 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,new ,york and ,london ,mac,millan and ,co4 #ahid ,,contents ,chapter ,,iii--7continued74 #aj4--,the corn-spirit as an animal4 #aa4--;,eating the god4 #ab4--,killing the divine animal4 #ac4--,transference of evil4 #ad4--;,expulsion of evils1 #ae4--,scapegoats4 #af4--,killing the god in ,mexico4 ,chapter ,,iv--,the ,golden ,bough4 #a4--;,between heaven and earth4 #b4--;,balder4 #c4--,the external soul in folk-tales4 #d4--,the external soul in folk-custom4 #e4--;,conclusion4 ,note4 ,offerings of first-fruits4 ,index4 ,footnotes ,cover ,art ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the above cover image was produced by the submitter at ,distributed ,proofreaders1 and is being placed into the public domain4 ,,chapter ,,iii--7,,continued74 #aj4--,the corn-spirit as an animal4 ,in some of the examples cited above to establish the meaning of the term 8neck0 as applied to the last sheaf1 the corn-spirit appears in animal form as a gander1 a goat1 a hare1 a cat1 and a fox4 ,this introduces us to a new aspect of the corn-spirit1 which we must now examine4 ,by doing so we shall not only have fresh examples of killing the god1 but may hope also to clear up some points which remain obscure in the myths and worship of ,attis1 ,adonis1 ,osiris1 ,dionysus1 ,demeter1 and ,virbius4 ,amongst the many animals whose forms the corn-spirit is supposed to take are the wolf1 dog1 hare1 cock1 goose1 cat1 goat1 cow 7ox1 bull71 pig1 and horse4 ,in one or other of these forms the corn-spirit is believed to be present in the corn1 and to be caught or killed in the last sheaf4 ,as the corn is being cut the animal flees before the reapers1 and if a reaper is taken ill on the field1 he is supposed to have stumbled unwittingly on the corn-spirit1 who has thus punished the profane intruder4 ,it is said 8,the ,rye-wolf has got hold of him10 8the ,harvest-goat has given him a push40 ,the person who cuts the last corn or binds the last sheaf gets the name of the animal1 as the ,rye-wolf1 the ,rye-sow1 the ,oats-goat1 etc41 and retains the name sometimes for a year4 ,also the animal is frequently represented by a puppet made out of the last sheaf or of wood1 flowers1 etc41 which is carried home amid rejoicings on the last harvest waggon4 ,even where the last sheaf is not made up in animal shape1 it is often called the ,rye-wolf1 the ,hare1 ,goat1 and so on4 ,generally each kind of crop is supposed to have its special animal1 which is caught in the last sheaf1 and called the ,rye-wolf1 the ,barley-wolf1 the ,oats-wolf1 the ,pea-wolf1 or the ,potato-wolf1 according to the crop2 but sometimes the figure of the animal is only made up once for all at getting in the last crop of the whole harvest4 ,sometimes the animal is believed to be killed by the last stroke of the sickle or scythe4 ,but oftener it is thought to live so long as there is corn still unthreshed1 and to be caught in the last sheaf threshed4 ,hence the man who gives the last stroke with the flail is told that he has got the ,corn-sow1 the ,threshing-dog1 etc4 ,when the threshing is finished1 a puppet is made in the form of the animal1 and this is carried by the thresher of the last sheaf to a neighbouring farm1 where the threshing is still going on4 ,this again shows that the corn-spirit is believed to live wherever the corn is still being threshed4 ,sometimes the thresher of the last sheaf himself represents the animal2 and if the people of the next farm1 who are still threshing1 catch him1 they treat him like the animal he represents1 by shutting him up in the pig-sty1 calling him with the cries commonly addressed to pigs1 and so forth47#a7 ,these general statements will now be illustrated by examples4 ,we begin with the corn-spirit conceived as a wolf or a dog4 ,this conception is common in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,slavonic countries4 ,thus1 when the wind sets the corn in wave-like motion1 the peasants often say1 8,the ,wolf is going over1 or through1 the corn10 8the ,rye-wolf is rushing over the field10 8the ,wolf is in the corn10 8the mad ,dog is in the corn10 8the big ,dog is there407#b7 ,when children wish to go into the corn-fields to pluck ears or gather the blue corn-flowers1 they are warned not to do so1 for 8the big ,dog sits in the corn10 or 8the ,wolf sits in the corn1 and will tear you in pieces10 8the ,wolf will eat you40 ,the wolf against whom the children are warned is not a common wolf1 for he is often spoken of as the ,corn-wolf1 ,rye-wolf1 etc42 thus they say1 8,the ,rye-wolf will come and eat you up1 children10 8the ,rye-wolf will carry you off10 and so forth47#c7 ,still he has all the outward appearance of a wolf4 ,for in the neighbourhood of ,feilenhof 7,east ,prussia71 when a wolf was seen running through a field1 the peasants used to watch whether he carried his tail in the air or dragged it on the ground4 ,if he dragged it on the ground1 they went after him1 and thanked him for bringing them a blessing1 and even set tit-bits before him4 ,but if he carried his tail high1 they cursed him and tried to kill him4 ,here the wolf is the corn-spirit1 whose fertilising power is in his tail47#d7 ,both dog and wolf appear as embodiments of the corn-spirit in harvest-customs4 ,thus in some parts of ,silesia the person who binds the last sheaf is called the ,wheat-dog or the ,peas-pug47#e7 ,but it is in the harvest-customs of the north-east of ,france that the idea of the ,corn-dog comes out most clearly4 ,thus when a harvester1 through sickness1 weariness1 or laziness1 cannot or will not keep up with the reaper in front of him1 they say1 8,the ,white ,dog passed near him10 8he has the ,white ,bitch10 or 8the ,white ,bitch has bitten him407#f7 ,in the ,vosges the ,harvest-,may is called the 8,dog of the harvest407#g7 ,about ,lons-le-,saulnier1 in the ,jura1 the last sheaf is called the ,bitch4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,verdun the regular expression for finishing the reaping is1 8,they are going to kill the ,dog20 and at pinal they say1 according to the crop1 8,we will kill the ,wheat-dog1 or the ,rye-dog1 or the ,potato-dog407#h7 ,in ,lorraine it is said of the man who cuts the last corn1 8,he is killing the ,dog of the harvest407#i7 ,at ,dux1 in the ,tyrol1 the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said to 8strike down the ,dog207#aj7 and at ,ahnebergen1 near ,stade1 he is called1 according to the crop1 ,corn-pug1 ,rye-pug1 ,wheat-pug47#aa7 ,so with the wolf4 ,in ,germany it is said that 8,the ,wolf sits in the last sheaf407#ab7 ,in some places they call out to the reaper1 8,beware of the ,wolf20 or they say1 8,he is chasing the ,wolf out of the corn407#ac7 ,the last bunch of standing corn is called the ,wolf1 and the man who cuts it 8has the ,wolf40 ,the last sheaf is also called the ,wolf2 and of the woman who binds it they say1 8,the ,wolf is biting her10 8she has the ,wolf10 8she must fetch the ,wolf0 7out of the corn747#ad7 ,moreover1 she is herself called ,wolf and has to bear the name for a whole year2 sometimes1 according to the crop1 she is called the ,rye-wolf or the ,potato-wolf47#ae7 ,in the island of ,rgen they call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf1 8,you're ,wolf20 and when she comes home she bites the lady of the house and the stewardess1 for which she receives a large piece of meat4 ,the same woman may be ,rye-wolf1 ,wheat-wolf1 and ,oats-wolf1 if she happens to bind the last sheaf of rye1 wheat1 and oats47#af7 ,at ,buir1 in the district of ,cologne1 it was formerly the custom to give to the last sheaf the shape of a wolf4 ,it was kept in the barn till all the corn was threshed4 ,then it was brought to the farmer1 and he had to sprinkle it with beer or brandy47#ag7 ,in many places the sheaf called the ,wolf is made up in human form and dressed in clothes4 ,this indicates a confusion between the conceptions of the corn-spirit as theriomorphic 7in animal form7 and as anthropomorphic 7in human form747#ah7 ,generally the ,wolf is brought home on the last waggon1 with joyful cries47#ai7 ,again1 the ,wolf is supposed to hide himself amongst the cut corn in the granary1 until he is driven out of the last bundle by the strokes of the flail4 ,hence at ,wanzleben1 near ,magdeburg1 after the threshing the peasants go in procession1 leading by a chain a man1 who is enveloped in the threshed out straw and is called the ,wolf47#bj7 ,he represents the corn-spirit who has been caught escaping from the threshed corn4 ,in ,trier it is believed that the ,corn-wolf is killed at threshing4 ,the men thresh the last sheaf till it is reduced to chopped straw4 ,in this way they think that the ,corn-wolf who was lurking in the last sheaf1 has been certainly killed47#ba7 ,in ,france also the ,corn-wolf appears at harvest4 ,thus they call out to the reaper of the last corn1 8,you will catch the ,wolf40 ,near ,chambry they form a ring round the last standing corn1 and cry1 8,the ,wolf is in there40 ,in ,finisterre1 when the reaping draws near an end1 the harvesters cry1 8,there is the ,wolf2 we will catch him40 ,each takes a swath to reap1 and he who finishes first calls out1 8,i've caught the ,wolf407#bb7 ,in ,guyenne1 when the last corn has been reaped1 they lead a wether all round the field4 ,it is called 8the ,wolf of the field40 ,its horns are decked with a wreath of flowers and corn-ears1 and its neck and body are also encircled with garlands and ribbons4 ,all the reapers march1 singing1 behind it4 ,then it is killed on the field4 ,in this part of ,france the last sheaf is called the coujoulage1 which1 in the patois1 means a wether4 ,hence the killing of the wether represents the death of the corn-spirit1 considered as present in the last sheaf2 but two different conceptions of the corn-spirit--as a wolf and as a wether--are mixed up together47#bc7 ,sometimes it appears to be thought that the ,wolf1 caught in the last corn1 lives during the winter in the farmhouse1 ready to renew his activity as corn-spirit in the spring4 ,hence at midwinter1 when the lengthening days begin to herald the approach of spring1 the ,wolf makes his appearance once more4 ,in ,poland a man1 with a wolf's skin thrown over his head1 is led about at ,christmas2 or a stuffed wolf is carried about by persons who collect money47#bd7 ,there are facts which point to an old custom of leading about a man enveloped in leaves and called the ,wolf1 while his conductors collected money47#be7 ,another form which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a cock4 ,in ,austria children are warned against straying in the corn-fields1 because the ,corn-cock sits there1 and will peck their eyes out47#bf7 ,in ,north ,germany they say that 8the ,cock sits in the last sheaf20 and at cutting the last corn the reapers cry1 8,now we will chase out the ,cock40 ,when it is cut they say1 8,we have caught the ,cock40 ,then a cock is made of flowers1 fastened on a pole1 and carried home by the reapers1 singing as they go47#bg7 ,at ,braller1 in ,transylvania1 when the reapers come to the last patch of corn1 they cry1 8,here we shall catch the ,cock407#bh7 ,at ,frstenwalde1 when the last sheaf is about to be bound1 the master lets loose a cock1 which he has brought in a basket1 and lets it run over the field4 ,all the harvesters chase it till they catch it4 ,elsewhere the harvesters all try to seize the last corn cut2 he who succeeds in grasping it must crow1 and is called ,cock47#bi7 ,the last sheaf is called ,cock1 ,cock-sheaf1 ,harvest-cock1 ,harvest-hen1 ,autumn-hen4 ,a distinction is made between a ,wheat-cock1 ,bean-cock1 etc41 according to the crop47#cj7 ,at ,wnschensuhl1 in ,thringen1 the last sheaf is made into the shape of a cock1 and called ,harvest-cock47#ca7 ,a figure of a cock1 made of wood1 pasteboard1 or ears of corn1 is borne in front of the harvest-waggon1 especially in ,westphalia1 where the cock carries in his beak fruits of the earth of all kinds4 ,sometimes the image of the cock is fastened to the top of a ,may-tree on the last harvest-waggon4 ,elsewhere a live cock1 or a figure of one1 is attached to a harvest-crown and carried on a pole4 ,in ,galicia and elsewhere this live cock is fastened to the garland of corn-ears or flowers1 which the leader of the women-reapers carries on her head as she marches in front of the harvest procession47#cb7 ,in ,silesia a live cock is presented to the master on a plate4 ,the harvest supper is called ,harvest-cock1 ,stubble-cock1 etc41 and a chief dish at it1 at least in some places1 is a cock47#cc7 ,if a waggoner upsets a harvest-waggon1 it is said that 8he has spilt the ,harvest-cock10 and he loses the cock--that is1 the harvest supper47#cd7 ,the harvest-waggon1 with the figure of the cock on it1 is driven round the farmhouse before it is taken to the barn4 ,then the cock is nailed over1 or at the side of the house door1 or on the gable1 and remains there till next harvest47#ce7 ,in ,east ,friesland the person who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the ,clucking-hen1 and grain is strewed before him as if he were a hen47#cf7 ,again1 the corn-spirit is killed in the form of a cock4 ,in parts of ,germany1 ,hungary1 ,poland1 and ,picardy1 the reapers place a live cock in the corn which is to be cut last1 and chase it over the field1 or bury it up to the neck in the ground2 afterwards they strike off its head with a sickle or scythe47#cg7 ,in many parts of ,westphalia1 when the harvesters bring the wooden cock to the farmer1 he gives them a live cock1 which they kill with whips or sticks1 or behead with an old sword1 or throw it into the barn to the girls1 or give it to the mistress to cook4 ,if the ,harvest-cock has not been spilt--that is1 if no waggon has been upset--the harvesters have the right of killing the farmyard cock by throwing stones at it or beheading it4 ,where this custom has fallen into disuse1 it is still common for the farmer's wife to make cockie-leekie for the harvesters1 and to show them the head of the cock which has been killed for the soup47#ch7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,klausenburg1 ,transylvania1 a cock is buried on the harvest-field in the earth1 so that only its head appears4 ,a young man then takes a scythe and cuts off the cock's head at a single stroke4 ,if he fails to do this1 he is called the ,red ,cock for a whole year1 and people fear that next year's crop will be bad47#ci7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,udvarhely1 ,transylvania1 a live cock is bound up in the last sheaf and killed with a spit4 ,it is then skinned4 ,the flesh is thrown away1 but the skin and feathers are kept till next year2 and in spring the grain from the last sheaf is mixed with the feathers of the cock and scattered on the field which is to be tilled47#dj7 ,nothing could set in a clearer light the identification of the cock with the spirit of the corn4 ,by being tied up in the last sheaf and killed1 the cock is identified with the corn1 and its death with the cutting of the corn4 ,by keeping its feathers till spring1 then mixing them with the seed-corn taken from the very sheaf in which the bird had been bound1 and scattering the feathers together with the seed over the field1 the identity of the bird with the corn is again emphasised1 and its quickening and fertilising power1 as the corn-spirit1 is intimated in the plainest manner4 ,thus the corn-spirit1 in the form of a cock1 is killed at harvest1 but rises to fresh life and activity in spring4 ,again1 the equivalence of the cock to the corn is expressed1 hardly less plainly1 in the custom of burying the bird in the ground1 and cutting off its head 7like the ears of corn7 with the scythe4 ,another common embodiment of the corn-spirit is the hare47#da7 ,in some parts of ,ayrshire the cutting of the last corn is called 8cutting the ,hare207#db7 and in ,germany a name for the last sheaf is the ,hare47#dc7 ,in ,east ,prussia they say that the ,hare sits in the last patch of standing corn1 and must be chased out by the last reaper4 ,the reapers hurry with their work1 each being anxious not to have 8to chase out the ,hare20 for the man who does so1 that is1 who cuts the last corn1 is much laughed at47#dd7 ,at ,birk in ,transylvania1 when the reapers come to the last patch1 they cry out1 8,we have the ,hare407#de7 ,at ,aurich1 as we have seen17#df7 an expression for cutting the last corn is 8to cut off the ,hare's tail40 8,he is killing the ,hare0 is commonly said of the man who cuts the last corn in ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,holland1 ,france1 and ,italy47#dg7 ,in ,norway the man who is thus said to 8kill the ,hare0 must give 8hare's blood10 in the form of brandy1 to his fellows to drink47#dh7 ,again1 the corn-spirit sometimes takes the form of a cat47#di7 ,near ,kiel children are warned not to go into the corn-fields because 8the ,cat sits there40 ,in the ,eisenach ,oberland they are told 8the ,corn-cat will come and fetch you10 8the ,corn-cat goes in the corn40 ,in some parts of ,silesia at mowing the last corn they say1 8the ,cat is caught20 and at threshing1 the man who gives the last stroke is called the ,cat4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,lyons the last sheaf and the harvest supper are both called the ,cat4 ,about ,vesoul when they cut the last corn they say1 8,we have the ,cat by the tail40 ,at ,brianon1 in ,dauphin1 at the beginning of reaping1 a cat is decked out with ribbons1 flowers1 and ears of corn4 ,it is called the ,cat of the ball-skin 7le chat de peau de balle74 ,if a reaper is wounded at his work1 they make the cat lick the wound4 ,at the close of the reaping the cat is again decked out with ribbons and ears of corn2 then there is dancing and merriment4 ,when the dance is over1 the cat is solemnly stripped of its ornaments by the girls4 ,at ,grneberg in ,silesia the reaper who cuts the last corn is called the ,tom-cat4 ,he is enveloped in rye-stalks and green withes1 and is furnished with a long plaited tail4 ,sometimes as a companion he has a man similarly dressed1 who is called the 7female7 ,cat4 ,their duty is to run after people whom they see and beat them with a long stick4 ,near ,amiens the expression for finishing the harvest is1 8,they are going to kill the ,cat20 and when the last corn is cut a cat is killed in the farmyard4 ,at threshing1 in some parts of ,france1 a live cat is placed under the last bundle of corn to be threshed1 and is struck dead with the flails4 ,then on ,sunday it is roasted and eaten as a holiday dish4 ,further1 the corn-spirit often appears in the form of a goat4 ,in the province of ,prussia1 when the corn bends before the wind1 they say1 8,the ,goats are chasing each other10 8the wind is driving the ,goats through the corn10 8the ,goats are browsing there10 and they expect a very good harvest4 ,again they say1 8the ,oats-goat is sitting in the oats-field10 8the ,corn-goat is sitting in the rye-field407#ej7 ,children are warned not to go into the corn-fields to pluck the blue cornflowers1 or amongst the beans to pluck pods1 because the ,rye-goat1 the ,corn-goat1 the ,oats-goat1 or the ,bean-goat is sitting or lying there1 and will carry them away or kill them47#ea7 ,when a harvester is taken sick or lags behind his fellows at their work1 they call out1 8,the ,harvest-goat has pushed him10 8he has been pushed by the ,corn-goat407#eb7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,braunsberg 7,east ,prussia7 at binding the oats every harvester makes haste 8lest the ,corn-goat push him40 ,at ,oefoten in ,norway each harvester has his allotted patch to reap4 ,when a harvester in the middle has not finished reaping his piece after his neighbours have finished theirs1 they say of him1 8,he remains on the island40 ,and if the laggard is a man1 they imitate the cry with which they call a he-goat2 if a woman1 the cry with which they call a she-goat47#ec7 ,near ,straubing in ,lower ,bavaria1 it is said of the man who cuts the last corn that 8he has the ,corn-goat or the ,wheat-goat1 or the ,oats-goat10 according to the crop4 ,moreover1 two horns are set up on the last heap of corn1 and it is called 8the horned ,goat40 ,at ,kreutzburg1 ,east ,prussia1 they call out to the woman who is binding the last sheaf1 8,the ,goat is sitting in the sheaf407#ed7 ,at ,gablingen in ,swabia1 when the last field of oats upon a farm is being reaped1 the reapers carve a goat out of wood4 ,ears of oats are inserted in its nostrils and mouth1 and it is adorned with garlands of flowers4 ,it is set upon the field and called the ,oats-goat4 ,when the reaping approaches an end1 each reaper hastens to finish his piece first2 he who is the last to finish gets the ,oats-goat47#ee7 ,again1 the last sheaf is itself called the ,goat4 ,thus1 in the valley of the ,wiesent1 ,bavaria1 the last sheaf bound on the field is called the ,goat1 and they have a proverb1 8,the field must bear a goat407#ef7 ,at ,spachbrcken in ,hesse1 the last handful of corn which is cut is called the ,goat1 and the man who cuts it is much ridiculed47#eg7 ,sometimes the last sheaf is made up in the form of a goat17#eh7 and they say1 8,the ,goat is sitting in it40 ,again1 the person who cuts or binds the last sheaf is called the ,goat4 ,thus1 in parts of ,mecklenburg they call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf1 8,you are the ,harvest-goat40 ,in the neighbourhood of ,uelzen in ,hanover1 the harvest festival begins with 8the bringing of the ,harvest-goat20 that is1 the woman who bound the last sheaf is wrapt in straw1 crowned with a harvest-wreath1 and brought in a wheelbarrow to the village1 where a round dance takes place4 ,about ,lneburg1 also1 the woman who binds the last corn is decked with a crown of corn-ears and is called the ,corn-goat47#ei7 ,in the ,canton ,st4 ,gall1 ,switzerland1 the person who cuts the last handful of corn on the field1 or drives the last harvest-waggon to the barn1 is called the ,corn-goat or the ,rye-goat1 or simply the ,goat47#fj7 ,in the ,canton ,thurgau he is called ,corn-goat2 like a goat he has a bell hung round his neck1 is led in triumph1 and drenched with liquor4 ,in parts of ,styria1 also1 the man who cuts the last corn is called ,corn-goat1 ,oats-goat1 etc4 ,as a rule1 the man who thus gets the name of ,corn-goat has to bear it a whole year till the next harvest47#fa7 ,according to one view1 the corn-spirit1 who has been caught in the form of a goat or otherwise1 lives in the farmhouse or barn over winter4 ,thus1 each farm has its own embodiment of the corn-spirit4 ,but1 according to another view1 the corn-spirit is the genius or deity1 not of the corn of one farm only1 but of all the corn4 ,hence when the corn on one farm is all cut1 he flees to another where there is still corn left standing4 ,this idea is brought out in a harvest-custom which was formerly observed in ,skye4 ,the farmer who first finished reaping sent a man or woman with a sheaf to a neighbouring farmer who had not finished2 the latter in his turn1 when he had finished1 sent on the sheaf to his neighbour who was still reaping2 and so the sheaf made the round of the farms till all the corn was cut4 ,the sheaf was called the goabbir bhacagh1 that is1 the ,cripple ,goat47#fb7 ,the corn-spirit was probably thus represented as lame because he had been crippled by the cutting of the corn4 ,we have seen that sometimes the old woman who brings home the last sheaf must limp on one foot47#fc7 ,in the ,bhmer ,wald mountains1 between ,bohemia and ,bavaria1 when two peasants are driving home their corn together1 they race against each other to see who shall get home first4 ,the village boys mark the loser in the race1 and at night they come and erect on the roof of his house the ,oats-goat1 which is a colossal figure of a goat made of straw47#fd7 ,but sometimes the corn-spirit1 in the form of a goat1 is believed to be slain on the harvest-field by the sickle or scythe4 ,thus1 in the neighbourhood of ,bernkastel1 on the ,moselle1 the reapers determine by lot the order in which they shall follow each other4 ,the first is called the fore-reaper1 the last the tail-bearer4 ,if a reaper overtakes the man in front he reaps past him1 bending round so as to leave the slower reaper in a patch by himself4 ,this patch is called the ,goat2 and the man for whom 8the ,goat is cut0 in this way1 is laughed and jeered at by his fellows for the rest of the day4 ,when the tail-bearer cuts the last ears of corn1 it is said 8,he is cutting the ,goat's neck off407#fe7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,grenoble1 before the end of the reaping1 a live goat is adorned with flowers and ribbons and allowed to run about the field4 ,the reapers chase it and try to catch it4 ,when it is caught1 the farmer's wife holds it fast while the farmer cuts off its head4 ,the goat's flesh serves to furnish the harvest supper4 ,a piece of the flesh is pickled and kept till the next harvest1 when another goat is killed4 ,then all the harvesters eat of the flesh4 ,on the same day the skin of the goat is made into a cloak1 which the farmer1 who works with his men1 must always wear at harvest-time if rain or bad weather sets in4 ,but if a reaper gets pains in his back1 the farmer gives him the goat-skin to wear47#ff7 ,the reason for this seems to be that the pains in the back1 being inflicted by the corn-spirit1 can also be healed by it4 ,similarly we saw that elsewhere1 when a reaper is wounded at reaping1 a cat1 as the representative of the corn-spirit1 is made to lick the wound47#fg7 ,esthonian reapers in the island of ,mon think that the man who cuts the first ears of corn at harvest will get pains in his back17#fh7--probably because the corn-spirit is believed to resent especially the first wound2 and1 in order to escape pains in the back1 ,saxon reapers in ,transylvania gird their loins with the first handful of ears which they cut47#fi7 ,here1 again1 the corn-spirit is applied to for healing or protection1 but in his original vegetable form1 not in the form of a goat or a cat4 ,further1 the corn-spirit under the form of a goat is sometimes conceived as lurking among the cut corn in the barn1 till he is driven from it by the threshing-flail4 ,for example1 in the neighbourhood of ,marktl in ,upper ,bavaria the sheaves are called ,straw-goats or simply ,goats4 ,they are laid in a great heap on the open field and threshed by two rows of men standing opposite each other1 who1 as they ply their flails1 sing a song in which they say that they see the ,straw-goat amongst the corn-stalks4 ,the last ,goat1 that is1 the last sheaf1 is adorned with a wreath of violets and other flowers and with cakes strung together4 ,it is placed right in the middle of the heap4 ,some of the threshers rush at it and tear the best of it out2 others lay on with their flails so recklessly that heads are sometimes broken4 ,in threshing this last sheaf1 each man casts up to the man opposite him the misdeeds of which he has been guilty throughout the year47#gj7 ,at ,oberinntal in ,tyrol the last thresher is called ,goat47#ga7 ,at ,tettnang in ,wrtemberg the thresher who gives the last stroke to the last bundle of corn before it is turned goes by the name of the ,he-goat1 and it is said 8he has driven the ,he-goat away40 ,the person who1 after the bundle has been turned1 gives the last stroke of all1 is called the ,she-goat47#gb7 ,in this custom it is implied that the corn is inhabited by a pair of corn-spirits1 male and female4 ,further1 the corn-spirit1 captured in the form of a goat at threshing1 is passed on to a neighbour whose threshing is not yet finished4 ,in ,franche ,comt1 as soon as the threshing is over1 the young people set up a straw figure of a goat on the farmyard of a neighbour who is still threshing4 ,he must give them wine or money in return4 ,at ,ellwangen in ,wrtemberg the effigy of a goat is made out of the last bundle of corn at threshing2 four sticks form its legs1 and two its horns4 ,the man who gives the last stroke with the flail must carry the ,goat to the barn of a neighbour who is still threshing and throw it down on the floor2 if he is caught in the act1 they tie the ,goat on his back47#gc7 ,a similar custom is observed at ,indersdorf in ,upper ,bavaria2 the man who throws the straw ,goat into the neighbour's barn imitates the bleating of a goat2 if they catch him they blacken his face and tie the ,goat on his back47#gd7 ,at ,zabern in ,elsass1 when a farmer is a week or more behind his neighbours with his threshing1 they set a real stuffed goat 7or fox7 before his door47#ge7 ,sometimes the spirit of the corn in goat form is believed to be killed at threshing4 ,in the district of ,traunstein1 ,upper ,bavaria1 it is thought that the ,oats-goat is in the last sheaf of oats4 ,he is represented by an old rake set up on end1 with an old pot for a head4 ,the children are then told to kill the ,oats-goat47#gf7 ,a stranger passing a harvest-field is sometimes taken for the ,corn-goat escaping in human shape from the cut or threshed grain4 ,thus1 when a stranger passes a harvest-field1 all the labourers stop and shout as with one voice 8,he-goat6 ,he-goat60 ,at rape-seed threshing in ,schleswig1 which generally takes place on the field1 the same cry is raised if the stranger does not take off his hat47#gg7 ,at sowing their winter corn the ,prussian ,slavs used to kill a goat1 consume its flesh with many superstitious ceremonies1 and hang the skin on a high pole near an oak and a large stone4 ,here it remained till harvest4 ,then1 after a prayer had been offered by a peasant who acted as priest 7,weidulut7 the young folk joined hands and danced round the oak and the pole4 ,afterwards they scrambled for the bunch of corn1 and the priest distributed the herbs with a sparing hand4 ,then he placed the goat-skin on the large stone1 sat down on it and preached to the people about the history of their forefathers and their old heathen customs and beliefs47#gh7 ,the goat-skin thus suspended on the field from sowing time to harvest represents the corn-spirit superintending the growth of the corn4 ,another form which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a bull1 cow1 or ox4 ,when the wind sweeps over the corn they say at ,conitz in ,west ,prussia1 8,the ,steer is running in the corn207#gi7 when the corn is thick and strong in one spot1 they say in some parts of ,east ,prussia1 8,the ,bull is lying in the corn40 ,when a harvester has overstrained and lamed himself1 they say in the ,graudenz district 7,west ,prussia71 8,the ,bull pushed him20 in ,lothringen they say1 8,he has the ,bull40 ,the meaning of both expressions is that he has unwittingly lighted upon the divine corn-spirit1 who has punished the profane intruder with lameness47#hj7 ,so near ,chambry when a reaper wounds himself with his sickle1 it is said that he has 8the wound of the ,ox407#ha7 ,in the district of ,bunzlau the last sheaf is sometimes made into the shape of a horned ox1 stuffed with tow and wrapt in corn-ears4 ,this figure is called the ,old ,man 7der ,alte74 ,in some parts of ,bohemia the last sheaf is made up in human form and called the ,buffalo-bull47#hb7 ,these cases show a confusion between the anthropomorphic and the theriomorphic conception of the corn-spirit4 ,the confusion is parallel to that of killing a wether under the name of a wolf47#hc7 ,in the ,canton of ,thurgau1 ,switzerland1 the last sheaf1 if it is a large one1 is called the ,cow47#hd7 ,all over ,swabia the last bundle of corn on the field is called the ,cow2 the man who cuts the last ears 8has the ,cow10 and is himself called ,cow or ,barley-cow or ,oats-cow1 according to the crop2 at the harvest supper he gets a nosegay of flowers and corn-ears and a more liberal allowance of drink than the rest4 ,but he is teased and laughed at2 so no one likes to be the ,cow47#he7 ,the ,cow was sometimes represented by the figure of a woman made out of ears of corn and corn-flowers4 ,it was carried to the farmhouse by the man who had cut the last handful of corn4 ,the children ran after him and the neighbours turned out to laugh at him1 till the farmer took the ,cow from him47#hf7 ,here again the confusion between the human and the animal form of the corn-spirit is apparent4 ,in various parts of ,switzerland the reaper who cuts the last ears of corn is called ,wheat-cow1 ,corn-cow1 ,oats-cow1 or ,corn-steer1 and is the butt of many a joke47#hg7 ,in some parts of ,east ,prussia1 when a few ears of corn have been left standing by inadvertence on the last swath1 the foremost reaper seizes them and cries1 8,bull6 ,bull607#hh7 ,on the other hand1 in the district of ,rosenheim1 in ,upper ,bavaria1 when a farmer is later in getting in his harvest than his neighbours1 they set up on his land a ,straw-bull1 as it is called4 ,this is a gigantic figure of a bull made of stubble on a framework of wood and adorned with flowers and leaves4 ,a label is attached to it containing doggerel verses in ridicule of the man on whose land the ,straw-bull is placed47#hi7 ,again1 the corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox is killed on the harvest-field at the close of the reaping4 ,at ,pouilly near ,dijon1 when the last ears of corn are about to be cut1 an ox adorned with ribbons1 flowers1 and ears of corn is led all round the field1 followed by the whole troop of reapers dancing4 ,then a man disguised as the ,devil cuts the last ears of corn and immediately kills the ox4 ,part of the flesh of the animal is eaten at the harvest supper2 part is pickled and kept till the first day of sowing in spring4 ,at ,pont ,mousson and elsewhere on the evening of the last day of reaping a calf adorned with flowers and ears of corn is led three times round the farmyard1 being allured by a bait or driven by men with sticks1 or conducted by the farmer's wife with a rope4 ,the calf selected for this ceremony is the calf which was born first on the farm in the spring of the year4 ,it is followed by all the reapers with their implements4 ,then it is allowed to run free2 the reapers chase it1 and whoever catches it is called ,king of the ,calf4 ,lastly1 it is solemnly killed2 at ,lunville the man who acts as butcher is the ,jewish merchant of the village47#ij7 ,sometimes again the corn-spirit hides himself amongst the cut corn in the barn to reappear in bull or cow form at threshing4 ,thus at ,wurmlingen in ,thringen the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the ,cow1 or rather the ,barley-cow1 ,oats-cow1 ,peas-cow1 etc41 according to the crop4 ,he is entirely enveloped in straw2 his head is surmounted by sticks in imitation of horns1 and two lads lead him by ropes to the well to drink4 ,on the way thither he must low like a cow1 and for a long time afterwards he goes by the name of the ,cow47#ia7 ,at ,obermedlingen in ,swabia1 when the threshing draws near an end1 each man is careful to avoid giving the last stroke4 ,he who does give it 8gets the ,cow10 which is a straw figure dressed in an old ragged petticoat1 hood1 and stockings4 ,it is tied on his back with a straw-rope2 his face is blackened1 he is tied with straw-ropes to a wheelbarrow1 and wheeled round the village47#ib7 ,here1 again1 we are met with that confusion between the anthropomorphic and theriomorphic conception of the corn-spirit1 which has been already signalised4 ,in ,canton ,schaffhausen the man who threshes the last corn is called the ,cow2 in ,canton ,thurgau1 the ,corn-bull2 in ,canton ,zurich1 the ,thresher-cow4 ,in the last-mentioned district he is wrapt in straw and bound to one of the trees in the orchard47#ic7 ,at ,arad in ,hungary the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is enveloped in straw and a cow's hide with the horns attached to it47#id7 ,at ,pessnitz1 in the district of ,dresden1 the man who gives the last stroke with the flail is called ,bull4 ,he must make a straw-man and set it up before a neighbour's window47#ie7 ,here1 apparently1 as in so many cases1 the corn-spirit is passed on to a neighbour who has not finished threshing4 ,so at ,herbrechtingen in ,thringen the effigy of a ragged old woman is flung into the barn of the farmer who is last with his threshing4 ,the man who throws it in cries1 8,there is the ,cow for you40 ,if the threshers catch him they detain him over night and punish him by keeping him from the harvest supper47#if7 ,in these latter customs the confusion between the anthropomorphic and theriomorphic conception of the corn-spirit meets us again4 ,further1 the corn-spirit in bull form is sometimes believed to be killed at threshing4 ,at ,auxerre in threshing the last bundle of corn they call out twelve times1 8,we are killing the ,bull40 ,in the neighbourhood of ,bordeaux1 where a butcher kills an ox on the field immediately after the close of the reaping1 it is said of the man who gives the last stroke at threshing that 8he has killed the ,bull407#ig7 ,at ,chambry the last sheaf is called the sheaf of the ,young ,ox and a race takes place to it1 in which all the reapers join4 ,when the last stroke is given at threshing they say that 8the ,ox is killed20 and immediately thereupon a real ox is slaughtered by the reaper who cut the last corn4 ,the flesh of the ox is eaten by the threshers at supper47#ih7 ,we have seen that sometimes the young corn-spirit1 whose task it is to quicken the corn of the coming year1 is believed to be born as a ,corn-baby on the harvest-field47#ii7 ,similarly in ,berry the young corn-spirit is sometimes believed to be born on the field in calf form4 ,for when a binder has not rope enough to bind all the corn in sheaves1 he puts aside the wheat that remains over and imitates the lowing of a cow4 ,the meaning is that 8the sheaf has given birth to a calf407#ajj7 ,in ,puy-de-,dme when a binder cannot keep up with the reaper whom he or she follows1 they say 8,he or she is giving birth to the ,calf407#aja7 ,in some parts of ,prussia1 in similar circumstances1 they call out to the woman1 8,the ,bull is coming10 and imitate the bellowing of a bull47#ajb7 ,in these cases the woman is conceived as the ,corn-cow or old corn-spirit1 while the supposed calf is the ,corn-calf or young corn-spirit4 ,in some parts of ,austria a mythical calf 7,muhklbchen7 is believed to be seen amongst the sprouting corn in spring and to push the children2 when the corn waves in the wind they say1 8,the ,calf is going about40 ,clearly1 as ,mannhardt observes1 this calf of the spring-time is the same animal which is afterwards believed to be killed at reaping47#ajc7 ,sometimes the corn-spirit appears in the shape of a horse or mare4 ,between ,kalw and ,stuttgart1 when the corn bends before the wind1 they say1 8,there runs the ,horse407#ajd7 ,in ,hertfordshire1 at the end of the reaping1 there is or was a ceremony called 8crying the ,mare40 ,the last blades of corn left standing on the field are tied together and called the ,mare4 ,the reapers stand at a distance and throw their sickles at it2 he who cuts it through 8has the prize1 with acclamations and good cheer40 ,after it is cut the reapers cry thrice with a loud voice1 8,i have her60 ,others answer thrice1 8,what have you80--8,a ,mare6 a ,mare6 a ,mare60--8,whose is she80 is next asked thrice4 8,a4 ,b4's10 naming the owner thrice4 8,whither will you send her80--8,to ,c4 ,d410 naming some neighbour who has not all his corn reaped47#aje7 ,in this custom the corn-spirit in the form of a mare is passed on from a farm where the corn is all cut to another farm where it is still standing1 and where therefore the corn-spirit may be supposed naturally to take refuge4 ,in ,shropshire the custom is similar4 8,crying1 calling1 or shouting the mare is a ceremony performed by the men of that farm which is the first in any parish or district to finish the harvest4 ,the object of it is to make known their own prowess1 and to taunt the laggards by a pretended offer of the #8owd mar' old mare to help out their #8chem' team4 ,all the men assemble 7the wooden harvest-bottle being of course one of the company7 in the stackyard1 or1 better1 on the highest ground on the farm1 and there shout the following dialogue1 preceding it by a grand #8,hip1 hip1 hip1 hurrah6' 8 #8,i 'ave 'er1 ,i 'ave 'er1 ,i 'ave 'er6' 8 #8,whad 'ast thee1 whad 'ast thee1 whad 'ast thee8' 8 #8,a mar'6 a mar'6 a mar'6' 8 #8,whose is 'er1 whose is 'er1 whose is 'er8' 8 #8,maister ,a4's1 ,maister ,a4's1 ,maister ,a4's6' 7naming the farmer whose harvest is finished74 8 #8,w'eer sha't the' send 'er8 w'eer sha't the' send 'er8 w'eer sha't the' send 'er8' 8 #8,to ,maister ,b4's1 to ,maister ,b4's1 to ,maister ,b4's' 7naming one whose harvest is not finished740 ,the farmer who finishes his harvest last1 and who therefore cannot send the ,mare to any one else1 is said 8to keep her all winter40 ,the mocking offer of the ,mare was sometimes responded to by a mocking acceptance of her help4 ,thus an old man told an inquirer1 8,while we wun at supper1 a mon cumm'd wi' a autar halter to fatch her away40 ,but at one place 7,longnor1 near ,leebotwood71 down to about #ahej1 the ,mare used really to be sent4 8,the head man of the farmer who had finished harvest first was mounted on the best horse of the team--the leader--both horse and man being adorned with ribbons1 streamers1 etc4 ,thus arrayed1 a boy on foot led the pair in triumph to the neighbouring farmhouses4 ,sometimes the man who took the #8mare' received1 as well as plenty of harvest-ale1 some rather rough1 though good-humoured1 treatment1 coming back minus his decorations1 and so on407#ajf7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,lille the idea of the corn-spirit in horse form is clearly preserved4 ,when a harvester grows weary at his work1 it is said1 8,he has the fatigue of the ,horse40 ,the first sheaf1 called the 8,cross of the ,horse10 is placed on a cross of box-wood in the barn1 and the youngest horse on the farm must tread on it4 ,the reapers dance round the last blades of corn1 crying1 8,see the remains of the ,horse40 ,the sheaf made out of these last blades is given to the youngest horse of the parish 7commune7 to eat4 ,this youngest horse of the parish clearly represents1 as ,mannhardt says1 the corn-spirit of the following year1 the ,corn-foal1 which absorbs the spirit of the old ,corn-horse by eating the last corn cut2 for1 as usual1 the old corn-spirit takes his final refuge in the last sheaf4 ,the thresher of the last sheaf is said to 8beat the ,horse407#ajg7 ,again1 a trace of the horse-shaped corn-spirit is reported from ,berry4 ,the harvesters there are accustomed to take a noon-day sleep in the field4 ,this is called 8seeing the ,horse40 ,the leader or 8,king0 of the harvesters gives the signal for going to sleep4 ,if he delays giving the signal1 one of the harvesters will begin to neigh like a horse1 the rest imitate him1 and then they all go 8to see the ,horse407#ajh7 ,the last animal embodiment of the corn-spirit which we shall notice is the pig 7boar or sow74 ,in ,thringen1 when the wind sets the young corn in motion1 they sometimes say1 8,the ,boar is rushing through the corn407#aji7 ,amongst the ,esthonians of the island of ,oesel the last sheaf is called the ,rye-boar1 and the man who gets it is saluted with a cry of1 8,you have the ,rye-boar on your back60 ,in reply he strikes up a song1 in which he prays for plenty47#aaj7 ,at ,kohlerwinkel1 near ,augsburg1 at the close of the harvest1 the last bunch of standing corn is cut down1 stalk by stalk1 by all the reapers in turn4 ,he who cuts the last stalk 8gets the ,sow10 and is laughed at47#aaa7 ,in other ,swabian villages also the man who cuts the last corn 8has the ,sow10 or 8has the ,rye-sow407#aab7 ,in the ,traunstein district1 ,upper ,bavaria1 the man who cuts the last handful of rye or wheat 8has the ,sow10 and is called ,sow-driver47#aac7 ,at ,friedingen1 in ,swabia1 the thresher who gives the last stroke is called ,sow--,barley-sow1 ,corn-sow1 etc41 according to the crop4 ,at ,onstmettingen the man who gives the last stroke at threshing 8has the ,sow20 he is often bound up in a sheaf and dragged by a rope along the ground47#aad7 ,and1 generally1 in ,swabia the man who gives the last stroke with the flail is called ,sow4 ,he may1 however1 rid himself of this invidious distinction by passing on to a neighbour the straw-rope1 which is the badge of his position as ,sow4 ,so he goes to a house and throws the straw-rope into it1 crying1 8,there1 ,i bring you the ,sow40 ,all the inmates give chase2 and if they catch him they beat him1 shut him up for several hours in the pig-sty1 and oblige him to take the 8,sow0 away again47#aae7 ,in various parts of ,upper ,bavaria the man who gives the last stroke at threshing must 8carry the ,pig0--that is1 either a straw effigy of a pig or merely a bundle of straw-ropes4 ,this he carries to a neighbouring farm where the threshing is not finished1 and throws it into the barn4 ,if the threshers catch him they handle him roughly1 beating him1 blackening or dirtying his face1 throwing him into filth1 binding the ,sow on his back1 etc42 if the bearer of the ,sow is a woman they cut off her hair4 ,at the harvest supper or dinner the man who 8carried the ,pig0 gets one or more dumplings made in the form of pigs2 sometimes he gets a large dumpling and a number of small ones1 all in pig form1 the large one being called the sow and the small ones the sucking-pigs4 ,sometimes he has the right to be the first to put his hand into the dish and take out as many small dumplings 78sucking-pigs07 as he can1 while the other threshers strike at his hand with spoons or sticks4 ,when the dumplings are served up by the maid-servant1 all the people at table cry1 8,sz1 sz1 sz60 being the cry used in calling pigs4 ,sometimes after dinner the man who 8carried the ,pig0 has his face blackened1 and is set on a cart and drawn round the village by his fellows1 followed by a crowd crying1 8,sz1 sz1 sz60 as if they were calling swine4 ,sometimes1 after being wheeled round the village1 he is flung on the dunghill47#aaf7 ,again1 the corn-spirit in the form of a pig plays his part at sowing-time as well as at harvest4 ,at ,neuautz1 in ,courland1 when barley is sown for the first time in the year1 the farmer's wife boils the chine of a pig along with the tail1 and brings it to the sower on the field4 ,he eats of it1 but cuts off the tail and sticks it in the field2 it is believed that the ears of corn will then grow as long as the tail47#aag7 ,here the pig is the corn-spirit1 whose fertilising power is sometimes supposed to lie especially in his tail47#aah7 ,as a pig he is put in the ground at sowing-time1 and as a pig he reappears amongst the ripe corn at harvest4 ,for amongst the neighbouring ,esthonians1 as we have seen17#aai7 the last sheaf is called the ,rye-boar4 ,somewhat similar customs are observed in ,germany4 ,in the ,salza district1 near ,meiningen1 a certain bone in the pig is called 8the ,jew on the winnowing-fan0 7der ,jud' auf der ,wanne74 ,the flesh of this bone is boiled on ,shrove ,tuesday1 but the bone is put amongst the ashes1 which the neighbours exchange as presents on ,st4 ,peter's ,day 7#bb;d ,february71 and then mix with the seed-corn47#abj7 ,in the whole of ,hessen1 ,meiningen1 etc41 people eat pea-soup with dried pig-ribs on ,ash ,wednesday or ,candlemas4 ,the ribs are then collected and hung in the room till sowing-time1 when they are inserted in the sown field or in the seed-bag amongst the flax seed4 ,this is thought to be an infallible specific against earth-fleas and moles1 and to cause the flax to grow well and tall47#aba7 ,in many parts of ,white ,russia people eat a roast lamb or sucking-pig at ,easter1 and then throw the bones backwards upon the fields1 to preserve the corn from hail47#abb7 ,but the conception of the corn-spirit as embodied in pig form is nowhere more clearly expressed than in the ,scandinavian custom of the ,yule ,boar4 ,in ,sweden and ,denmark at ,yule 7,christmas7 it is the custom to bake a loaf in the form of a boar-pig4 ,this is called the ,yule ,boar4 ,the corn of the last sheaf is often used to make it4 ,all through ,yule the ,yule ,boar stands on the table4 ,often it is kept till the sowing-time in spring1 when part of it is mixed with the seed-corn and part given to the ploughmen and plough-horses or plough-oxen to eat1 in the expectation of a good harvest47#abc7 ,in this custom the corn-spirit1 immanent in the last sheaf1 appears at midwinter in the form of a boar made from the corn of the last sheaf2 and his quickening influence on the corn is shown by mixing part of the ,yule ,boar with the seed-corn1 and giving part of it to the ploughman and his cattle to eat4 ,similarly we saw that the ,corn-wolf makes his appearance at midwinter1 the time when the year begins to verge towards spring47#abd7 ,we may conjecture that the ,yule straw1 of which ,swedish peasants make various superstitious uses1 comes1 in part at least1 from the sheaf out of which the ,yule ,boar is made4 ,the ,yule straw is long rye-straw1 a portion of which is always set apart for this season4 ,it is strewn over the floor at ,christmas1 and the peasants attribute many virtues to it4 ,for example1 they think that some of it scattered on the ground will make a barren field productive4 ,again1 the peasant at ,christmas seats himself on a log2 his eldest son or daughter1 or the mother herself1 if the children are not old enough1 places a wisp of the ,yule straw on his knee4 ,from this he draws out single straws1 and throws them1 one by one1 up to the ceiling2 and as many as lodge in the rafters1 so many will be the sheaves of rye he will have to thresh at harvest47#abe7 ,again1 it is only the ,yule straw which may be used in binding the fruit-trees as a charm to fertilise them47#abf7 ,these uses of the ,yule straw show that it is believed to possess fertilising virtues analogous to those ascribed to the ,yule ,boar2 the conjecture is therefore legitimate that the ,yule straw is made from the same sheaf as the ,yule ,boar4 ,formerly a real boar was sacrificed at ,christmas17#abg7 and apparently also a man in the character of the ,yule ,boar4 ,this1 at least1 may perhaps be inferred from a ,christmas custom still observed in ,sweden4 ,a man is wrapt up in a skin1 and carries a wisp of straw in his mouth1 so that the projecting straws look like the bristles of a boar4 ,a knife is brought1 and an old woman1 with her face blackened1 pretends to sacrifice the man47#abh7 ,so much for the animal embodiments of the corn-spirit as they are presented to us in the folk-customs of ,northern ,europe4 ,these customs bring out clearly the sacramental character of the harvest supper4 ,the corn-spirit is conceived as embodied in an animal2 this divine animal is slain1 and its flesh and blood are partaken of by the harvesters4 ,thus1 the cock1 the goose1 the hare1 the cat1 the goat1 and the ox are eaten sacramentally by the harvesters1 and the pig is eaten sacramentally by ploughmen in spring47#abi7 ,again1 as a substitute for the real flesh of the divine being1 bread or dumplings are made in his image and eaten sacramentally2 thus1 pig-shaped dumplings are eaten by the harvesters1 and loaves made in boar-shape 7the ,yule ,boar7 are eaten in spring by the ploughman and his cattle4 ,the reader has probably remarked the complete parallelism between the anthropomorphic and the theriomorphic conceptions of the corn-spirit4 ,the parallel may be here briefly resumed4 ,when the corn waves in the wind it is said either that the ,corn-mother or that the ,corn-wolf1 etc4 is passing through the corn4 ,children are warned against straying in corn-fields either because the ,corn-mother or because the ,corn-wolf1 etc4 is there4 ,in the last corn cut or the last sheaf threshed either the ,corn-mother or the ,corn-wolf1 etc4 is supposed to be present4 ,the last sheaf is itself called either the ,corn-mother or the ,corn-wolf1 etc41 and is made up in the shape either of a woman or of a wolf1 etc4 ,the person who cuts1 binds1 or threshes the last sheaf is called either the ,old ,woman or the ,wolf1 etc41 according to the name bestowed on the sheaf itself4 ,as in some places a sheaf made in human form and called the ,maiden1 the ,mother of the ,maize1 etc4 is kept from one harvest to the next in order to secure a continuance of the corn-spirit's blessing2 so in some places the ,harvest-cock and in others the flesh of the goat is kept for a similar purpose from one harvest to the next4 ,as in some places the grain taken from the ,corn-mother is mixed with the seed-corn in spring to make the crop abundant2 so in some places the feathers of the cock1 and in ,sweden the ,yule ,boar is kept till spring and mixed with the seed-corn for a like purpose4 ,as part of the ,corn-mother or ,maiden is given to the cattle to eat in order that they may thrive1 so part of the ,yule ,boar is given to the ploughing horses or oxen in spring4 ,lastly1 the death of the corn-spirit is represented by killing 7in reality or pretence7 either his human or his animal representative2 and the worshippers partake sacramentally either of the actual body and blood of the representative 7human or animal7 of the divinity1 or of bread made in his likeness4 ,other animal forms assumed by the corn-spirit are the stag1 roe1 sheep1 bear1 ass1 fox1 mouse1 stork1 swan1 and kite47#acj7 ,if it is asked why the corn-spirit should be thought to appear in the form of an animal and of so many different animals1 we may reply that to primitive man the simple appearance of an animal or bird among the corn is probably sufficient of itself to suggest a mysterious connection between the animal or bird and the corn2 and when we remember that in the old days1 before fields were fenced in1 all kinds of animals must have been free to roam over them1 we need not wonder that the corn-spirit should have been identified even with large animals like the horse and cow1 which nowadays could not1 except by a rare accident1 be found straying among the corn4 ,this explanation applies with peculiar force to the very common case in which the animal embodiment of the corn-spirit is believed to lurk in the last standing corn4 ,for at harvest a number of wild animals--hares1 rabbits1 partridges1 etc4--are commonly driven by the progress of the reaping into the last patch of standing corn1 and make their escape from it as it is being cut down4 ,so regularly does this happen that reapers and others often stand round the last patch of corn armed with sticks or guns1 with which they kill the animals as they dart out of their last refuge among the corn4 ,now1 primitive man1 to whom magical changes of shape seem perfectly credible1 finds it most natural that the spirit of the corn1 driven from his home amongst the corn1 should make his escape in the form of the animal which is seen to rush out of the last patch of corn as it falls under the scythe of the reaper4 ,thus the identification of the corn-spirit with an animal is analogous to the identification of him with a passing stranger4 ,as the sudden appearance of a stranger near the harvest-field or threshing-floor is1 to the primitive mind1 sufficient to identify him as the spirit of the corn escaping from the cut or threshed corn1 so the sudden appearance of an animal issuing from the cut corn is enough to identify it with the corn-spirit escaping from his ruined home4 ,the two identifications are so analogous that they can hardly be dissociated in any attempt to explain them4 ,those who look to some other principle than the one here suggested for the explanation of the latter identification are bound to show that their explanation covers the former identification also4 ,but however we may explain it1 the fact remains that in peasant folk-lore the corn-spirit is very commonly conceived and represented in animal form4 ,may not this fact explain the relation in which certain animals stood to the ancient deities of vegetation1 ,dionysus1 ,demeter1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris8 ,to begin with ,dionysus4 ,we have seen that he was represented sometimes as a goat and sometimes as a bull4 ,as a goat he can hardly be separated from the minor divinities1 the ,pans1 ,satyrs1 and ,silenuses1 all of whom are closely associated with him and are represented more or less completely in the form of goats4 ,thus1 ,pan was regularly represented in sculpture and painting with the face and legs of a goat47#aca7 ,the ,satyrs were depicted with pointed goat-ears1 and sometimes with sprouting horns and short tails47#acb7 ,they were sometimes spoken of simply as goats27#acc7 and in the drama their parts were played by men dressed in goat-skins47#acd7 ,silenus is represented in art clad in a goat-skin47#ace7 ,further1 the ,fauns1 the ,italian counterpart of the ,greek ,pans and ,satyrs1 are described as being half goats1 with goat-feet and goat-horns47#acf7 ,again1 all these minor goat-formed divinities partake more or less clearly of the character of woodland deities4 ,thus1 ,pan was called by the ,arcadians the ,lord of the ,wood47#acg7 ,the ,silenuses associated with the tree-nymphs47#ach7 ,the ,fauns are expressly designated as woodland deities27#aci7 and their character as such is still further brought out by their association1 or even identification1 with ,silvanus and the ,silvanuses1 who1 as their name of itself indicates1 are spirits of the woods47#adj7 ,lastly1 the association of the ,satyrs with the ,silenuses1 ,fauns1 and ,silvanuses17#ada7 proves that the ,satyrs also were woodland deities4 ,these goat-formed spirits of the woods have their counterparts in the folk-lore of ,northern ,europe4 ,thus1 the ,russian wood-spirits1 called ,ljeschie 7from ljes1 8wood107 are believed to appear partly in human shape1 but with the horns1 ears1 and legs of goats4 ,the ,ljeschi can alter his stature at pleasure2 when he walks in the wood he is as tall as the trees2 when he walks in the meadows he is no higher than the grass4 ,some of the ,ljeschie are spirits of the corn as well as of the wood2 before harvest they are as tall as the corn-stalks1 but after it they shrink to the height of the stubble47#adb7 ,this brings out--what we have remarked before--the close connection between tree-spirits and corn-spirits1 and shows how easily the former may melt into the latter4 ,similarly the ,fauns1 though wood-spirits1 were believed to foster the growth of the crops47#adc7 ,we have already seen how often the corn-spirit is represented in folk-custom as a goat47#add7 ,on the whole1 then1 as ,mannhardt argues17#ade7 the ,pans1 ,satyrs1 and ,fauns appear to belong to a widely diffused class of wood-spirits conceived in goat-form4 ,the fondness of goats for straying in woods and nibbling the bark of trees--to which it is well known that they are most destructive--is an obvious and perhaps sufficient reason why wood-spirits should so often be supposed to take the form of goats4 ,the inconsistency of a god of vegetation subsisting upon the vegetation which he personifies is not one to strike the primitive mind4 ,such inconsistencies arise when the deity1 ceasing to be immanent in the vegetation1 comes to be regarded as its owner or lord2 for the idea of owning the vegetation naturally leads to that of subsisting on it4 ,we have already seen that the corn-spirit1 originally conceived as immanent in the corn1 afterwards comes to be regarded as its owner1 who lives on it and is reduced to poverty and want by being deprived of it47#adf7 ,thus the representation of wood-spirits in goat-form appears to be both widespread and1 to the primitive mind1 natural4 ,therefore when we find1 as we have done1 that ,dionysus--a tree-god--is sometimes represented in goat form17#adg7 we can hardly avoid concluding that this representation is simply a part of his proper character as a tree-god and is not to be explained by the fusion of two distinct and independent cults1 in one of which he originally appeared as a tree-god and in the other as a goat4 ,if such a fusion took place in the case of ,dionysus1 it must equally have taken place in the case of the ,pans and ,satyrs of ,greece1 the ,fauns of ,italy1 and the ,ljeschie of ,russia4 ,that such a fusion of two wholly disconnected cults should have occurred once is possible2 that it should have occurred twice independently is improbable2 that it should have occurred thrice independently is so unlikely as to be practically incredible4 ,dionysus was also represented1 as we have seen17#adh7 in the form of a bull4 ,after what has gone before we are naturally led to expect that his bull form must have been only another expression for his character as a deity of vegetation1 especially as the bull is a common embodiment of the corn-spirit in ,northern ,europe27#adi7 and the close association of ,dionysus with ,demeter and ,proserpine in the mysteries of ,eleusis shows that he had at least strong agricultural affinities4 ,the other possible explanation of the bull-shaped ,dionysus would be that the conception of him as a bull was originally entirely distinct from the conception of him as a deity of vegetation1 and that the fusion of the two conceptions was due to some such circumstance as the union of two tribes1 one of which had previously worshipped a bull-god and the other a tree-god4 ,this appears to be the view taken by ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang1 who suggests that the bull-formed ,dionysus 8had either been developed out of1 or had succeeded to the worship of a bull-totem407#aej7 ,of course this is possible4 ,but it is not yet certain that the ,aryans ever had totemism4 ,on the other hand1 it is quite certain that many ,aryan peoples have conceived deities of vegetation as embodied in animal forms4 ,therefore when we find amongst an ,aryan people like the ,greeks a deity of vegetation represented as an animal1 the presumption must be in favour of explaining this by a principle which is certainly known to have influenced the ,aryan race rather than by one which is not certainly known to have done so4 ,in the present state of our knowledge1 therefore1 it is safer to regard the bull form of ,dionysus as being1 like his goat form1 an expression of his proper character as a deity of vegetation4 ,the probability of this view will be somewhat increased if it can be shown that in other rites than those of ,dionysus the ancients slew an ox as a representative of the spirit of vegetation4 ,this they appear to have done in the ,athenian sacrifice known as 8the murder of the ox0 7bouphonia74 ,it took place about the end of ,june or beginning of ,july1 that is1 about the time when the threshing is nearly over in ,attica4 ,according to tradition the sacrifice was instituted to procure a cessation of drought and barrenness which had afflicted the land4 ,the ritual was as follows4 ,barley mixed with wheat1 or cakes made of them1 were laid upon the bronze altar of ,zeus ,polieus on the ,acropolis4 ,oxen were driven round the altar1 and the ox which went up to the altar and ate the offering on it was sacrificed4 ,the axe and knife with which the beast was slain had been previously wetted with water brought by maidens called 8water-carriers40 ,the weapons were then sharpened and handed to the butchers1 one of whom felled the ox with the axe and another cut its throat with the knife4 ,as soon as he had felled the ox1 the former threw the axe from him and fled2 and the man who cut the beast's throat apparently imitated his example4 ,meantime the ox was skinned and all present partook of its flesh4 ,then the hide was stuffed with straw and sewed up2 next the stuffed animal was set on its feet and yoked to a plough as if it were ploughing4 ,a trial then took place in an ancient law-court presided over by the ,king 7as he was called7 to determine who had murdered the ox4 ,the maidens who had brought the water accused the men who had sharpened the axe and knife2 the men who had sharpened the axe and knife blamed the men who had handed these implements to the butchers2 the men who had handed the implements to the butchers blamed the butchers2 and the butchers laid the blame on the axe and knife1 which were accordingly found guilty1 condemned1 and cast into the sea47#aea7 ,the name of this sacrifice1--8the murder of the ox107#aeb7--the pains taken by each person who had a hand in the slaughter to lay the blame on some one else1 together with the formal trial and punishment of the axe or knife or both1 prove that the ox was here regarded not merely as a victim offered to a god1 but as itself a sacred creature1 the slaughter of which was sacrilege or murder4 ,this is borne out by a statement of ,varro that to kill an ox was formerly a capital crime in ,attica47#aec7 ,the mode of selecting the victim suggests that the ox which tasted the corn was viewed as the corn-deity taking possession of his own4 ,this interpretation is supported by the following custom4 ,in ,beauce1 in the district of ,orleans1 on the #bdth or #beth of ,april they make a straw-man called 8the great mondard40 ,for they say that the old mondard is now dead and it is necessary to make a new one4 ,the straw-man is carried in solemn procession up and down the village and at last is placed upon the oldest apple-tree4 ,there he remains till the apples are gathered1 when he is taken down and thrown into the water1 or he is burned and his ashes cast into water4 ,but the person who plucks the first fruit from the tree succeeds to the title of 8the great mondard407#aed74 ,here the straw figure1 called 8the great mondard0 and placed on the apple-tree in spring1 represents the spirit of the tree1 who1 dead in winter1 revives when the apple-blossoms appear in spring4 ,the fact1 therefore1 that the person who plucks the first fruit from the apple-tree receives the name of 8the great mondard0 proves that he is regarded as a representative of the tree-spirit4 ,primitive peoples are1 as a rule1 reluctant to taste the annual first-fruits of any crop1 until some ceremony has been performed which makes it safe and pious for them to do so4 ,the reason of this reluctance appears to be that the first-fruits either are the property of1 or actually contain1 a divinity4 ,therefore when a man or animal is seen boldly to appropriate the sacred first-fruits1 he or it is naturally regarded as the divinity himself in human or animal form taking possession of his own4 ,the time of the ,athenian sacrifice--about the close of the threshing--suggests that the wheat and barley laid upon the altar were a harvest offering2 and the sacramental character of the subsequent repast--all partaking of the flesh of the divine animal--would make it parallel to the harvest suppers of modern ,europe1 in which1 as we have seen1 the flesh of the animal who represents the corn-spirit is eaten by the harvesters4 ,again1 the tradition that the sacrifice was instituted in order to put an end to drought and famine is in favour of taking it as a harvest festival4 ,the resurrection of the corn-spirit1 represented by setting up the stuffed ox and yoking it to the plough1 may be compared with the resurrection of the tree-spirit in the person of his representative1 the ,wild ,man47#aee7 ,the ox appears as a representative of the corn-spirit in other parts of the world4 ,at ,great ,bassam1 in ,guinea1 two oxen are slain annually to procure a good harvest4 ,if the sacrifice is to be effectual1 it is necessary that the oxen should weep4 ,so all the women of the village sit in front of the beasts1 chanting1 8,the ox will weep2 yes1 he will weep60 ,from time to time one of the women walks round the beasts1 throwing manioc meal or palm wine upon them1 especially into their eyes4 ,when tears roll down from the eyes of the oxen1 the people dance1 singing1 8,the ox weeps6 the ox weeps60 ,then two men seize the tails of the beasts and cut them off at one blow4 ,it is believed that a great misfortune will happen in the course of the year if the tails are not severed at one blow4 ,the oxen are afterwards killed1 and their flesh is eaten by the chiefs47#aef7 ,here the tears of the oxen1 like those of the human victims amongst the ,khonds1 are probably a rain-charm4 ,we have already seen that the virtue of the corn-spirit1 embodied in animal form1 is sometimes supposed to reside in the tail1 and that the last handful of corn is sometimes conceived as the tail of the corn-spirit47#aeg7 ,still more clearly does the ox appear as a personification of the corn-spirit in a ceremony which is observed in all the provinces and districts of ,china to welcome the approach of spring4 ,on the first day of spring the governor or prefect of the city goes in procession to the east gate of the city1 and sacrifices to the ,divine ,husbandman1 who is represented with a bull's head on the body of a man4 ,a large effigy of an ox1 cow1 or buffalo has been prepared for the occasion1 and stands outside of the east gate1 with agricultural implements beside it4 ,it is made of differently-coloured pieces of paper pasted on a framework either by a blind man or according to the directions of a necromancer4 ,the colours of the paper indicate the character of the coming year2 if red prevails1 there will be many fires2 if white1 there will be floods and rain1 etc4 ,the mandarins walk slowly round the ox1 beating it severely at each step with rods of various colours4 ,it is filled with five kinds of grain1 which pour forth when the ox is broken by the blows of the rods4 ,the paper fragments are then set on fire1 and a scramble takes place for the burning fragments1 as the people believe that whoever gets one of them is sure to be fortunate throughout the year4 ,a live buffalo is then killed1 and its flesh is divided among the mandarins4 ,according to one account1 the effigy of the ox is made of clay1 and1 after being beaten by the governor1 is stoned by the people till they break it in pieces1 8from which they expect an abundant year407#aeh7 ,here the corn-spirit appears to be plainly represented by the corn-filled ox1 whose fragments may therefore be supposed to bring fertility with them4 ,we may compare the ,silesian spring custom of burning the effigy of ,death1 scrambling for the burning fragments1 and burying them in the fields to secure a good crop1 and the ,florentine custom of sawing the ,old ,woman and scrambling for the dried fruits with which she was filled47#aei7 ,on the whole1 then1 we may perhaps conclude that both as a goat and as a bull ,dionysus was essentially a god of vegetation4 ,the ,chinese and ,european customs just referred to may perhaps shed light on the custom of rending a live bull or goat at the rites of ,dionysus4 ,the animal was torn in fragments1 as the ,khond victim was cut in pieces1 in order that the worshippers might each secure a portion of the life-giving and fertilising influence of the god4 ,the flesh was eaten raw as a sacrament1 and we may conjecture that some of it was taken home to be buried in the fields1 or otherwise employed so as to convey to the fruits of the earth the quickening influence of the god of vegetation4 ,the resurrection of ,dionysus1 related in his myth1 may have been represented in his rites by stuffing and setting up the slain ox1 as was done at the ,athenian bouphonia4 ,passing next to the corn-goddess ,demeter1 and remembering that in ,european folk-lore the pig is a common embodiment of the corn-spirit17#afj7 we may now ask1 may not the pig1 which was so closely associated with ,demeter1 be nothing but the goddess herself in animal form8 ,the pig was sacred to her27#afa7 in art she was represented carrying or accompanied by a pig27#afb7 and the pig was regularly sacrificed in her mysteries1 the reason assigned being that the pig injures the corn and is therefore an enemy of the goddess47#afc7 ,but after an animal has been conceived as a god or a god as an animal1 it sometimes happens1 as we have seen1 that the god sloughs off his animal form and becomes purely anthropomorphic2 and that then the animal1 which at first had been slain in the character of the god1 comes to be regarded as a victim offered to the god on the ground of its hostility to the deity2 in short1 that the god is sacrificed to himself on the ground that he is his own enemy4 ,this happened to ,dionysus1 and it may have happened to ,demeter also4 ,and in fact the rites of one of her festivals1 the ,thesmophoria1 bear out the view that originally the pig was an embodiment of the corn-goddess herself1 either ,demeter or her daughter and double ,proserpine4 ,the ,thesmophoria was an autumn festival1 celebrated by women alone in ,october17#afd7 and appears to have represented with mourning rites the descent of ,proserpine 7or ,demeter77#afe7 into the lower world1 and with joy her return from the dead47#aff7 ,hence the name ,descent or ,ascent variously applied to the first1 and the name ,kalligeneia 7fair-born7 applied to the third day of the festival4 ,now from a scholion on ,lucian1 first edited in #ahgj17afg7 we learn some details about the mode of celebrating the ,thesmophoria1 which shed important light on the part of the festival called the ,descent or the ,ascent4 ,the scholiast tells us that it was customary at the ,thesmophoria to throw pigs1 cakes of dough1 and branches of pine-trees into 8the chasms of ,demeter and ,proserpine10 which appear to have been sacred caverns or vaults47#afh7 ,in these caverns or vaults there were said to be serpents1 which guarded the caverns and consumed most of the flesh of the pigs and dough-cakes which were thrown in4 ,afterwards--apparently at the next annual festival7#afi7--the decayed remains of the pigs1 the cakes1 and the pine-branches were fetched by women called 8drawers10 who1 after observing rules of ceremonial purity for three days1 descended into the caverns1 and1 frightening away the serpents by clapping their hands1 brought up the remains and placed them on the altar4 ,whoever got a piece of the decayed flesh and cakes1 and sowed it with the seed-corn in his field1 was believed to be sure of a good crop4 ,to explain this rude and ancient rite the following legend was told4 ,at the moment that ,pluto carried off ,proserpine1 a swineherd called ,eubuleus was herding his swine on the spot1 and his herd was engulfed in the chasm down which ,pluto vanished with ,proserpine4 ,accordingly at the ,thesmophoria pigs were annually thrown into caverns in order to commemorate the disappearance of the swine of ,eubuleus4 ,it follows from this that the casting of the pigs into the vaults at the ,thesmophoria formed part of the dramatic representation of ,proserpine's descent into the lower world2 and as no image of ,proserpine appears to have been thrown in1 it follows that the descent of the pigs must have been1 not an accompaniment of her descent1 but the descent itself2 in short1 the pigs were ,proserpine4 ,afterwards when ,proserpine or ,demeter 7for the two are equivalent7 became anthropomorphic1 a reason had to be found for the custom of throwing pigs into caverns at her festival2 and this was done by saying that when ,proserpine was carried off1 there happened to be some swine browsing near1 which were swallowed up along with her4 ,the story is obviously a forced and awkward attempt to bridge over the gulf between the old conception of the corn-spirit as a pig and the new conception of her as an anthropomorphic goddess4 ,a trace of the older conception survived in the legend that when ,demeter was looking for the lost ,proserpine1 the footprints of the latter were obliterated by the footprints of a pig27#agj7 originally1 no doubt1 the footprints of the pig were the footprints of ,proserpine and of ,demeter herself4 ,a consciousness of the intimate connection of the pig with the corn lurks in the tradition that the swineherd ,eubuleus was a brother of ,triptolemus1 to whom ,demeter first imparted the secret of the corn4 ,indeed1 according to one version of the story1 ,eubuleus himself received1 jointly with his brother ,triptolemus1 the gift of the corn from ,demeter as a reward for revealing to her the fate of ,proserpine47#aga7 ,further1 it is to be noted that at the ,thesmophoria the women appear to have eaten swine's flesh47#agb7 ,the meal1 if ,i am right1 must have been a solemn sacrament or communion1 the worshippers partaking of the body of the god4 ,as thus explained1 the ,thesmophoria has its analogies in the folk-customs of ,northern ,europe which have been already described4 ,as at the ,thesmophoria--an autumn festival in honour of the corn-goddess--swine's flesh was partly eaten1 partly kept in caverns till the following year1 when it was taken up to be sown with the seed-corn in the fields for the purpose of securing a good crop2 so in the neighbourhood of ,grenoble the goat killed on the harvest-field is partly eaten at the harvest supper1 partly pickled and kept till the next harvest27#agc7 so at ,pouilly the ox killed on the harvest-field is partly eaten by the harvesters1 partly pickled and kept till the first day of sowing in spring7#agd7--probably to be then mixed with the seed1 or eaten by the ploughmen1 or both2 so at ,udvarhely the feathers of the cock which is killed in the last sheaf at harvest are kept till spring1 and then sown with the seed on the field27#age7 so in ,hessen and ,meiningen the flesh of pigs is eaten on ,ash ,wednesday or ,candlemas1 and the bones are kept till sowing-time1 when they are put into the field sown or mixed with the seed in the bag27#agf7 so1 lastly1 the corn from the last sheaf is kept till ,christmas1 made into the ,yule ,boar1 and afterwards broken and mixed with the seed-corn at sowing in spring47#agg7 ,thus1 to put it generally1 the corn-spirit is killed in animal form in autumn2 part of his flesh is eaten as a sacrament by his worshippers2 and part of it is kept till next sowing-time or harvest as a pledge and security for the continuance or renewal of the corn-spirit's energies4 ,whether in the interval between autumn and spring he is conceived as dead1 or whether1 like the ox in the bouphonia1 he is supposed to come to life again immediately after being killed1 is not clear4 ,at the ,thesmophoria1 according to ,clement and ,pausanias1 as emended by ,lobeck17#agh7 the pigs were thrown in alive1 and were supposed to reappear at the festival of the following year4 ,here1 therefore1 if we accept ,lobeck's emendations1 the corn-spirit is conceived as alive throughout the year2 he lives and works under ground1 but is brought up each autumn to be renewed and then replaced in his subterranean abode47#agi7 ,if it is objected that the ,greeks never could have conceived ,demeter and ,proserpine to be embodied in the form of pigs1 it may be answered that in the cave of ,phigalia in ,arcadia the ,black ,demeter was represented with the head and mane of a horse on the body of a woman47#ahj7 ,between the representation of a goddess as a pig1 and the representation of her as a woman with a horse's head1 there is little to choose in respect of barbarism4 ,the legend told of the ,phigalian ,demeter indicates that the horse was one of the animal forms assumed in ancient ,greece1 as in modern ,europe17#aha7 by the corn-spirit4 ,it was said that in her search for her daughter1 ,demeter assumed the form of a mare to escape the addresses of ,poseidon1 and that1 offended at his importunity1 she withdrew to the cave of ,phigalia4 ,there1 robed in black1 she stayed so long that the fruits of the earth were perishing1 and mankind would have died of famine if ,pan had not soothed the angry goddess and persuaded her to quit the cave4 ,in memory of this event1 the ,phigalians set up an image of the ,black ,demeter in the cave2 it represented a woman dressed in a long robe1 with the head and mane of a horse47#ahb7 ,the ,black ,demeter1 in whose absence the fruits of the earth perish1 is plainly a mythical expression for the state of vegetation in winter4 ,passing now to ,attis and ,adonis1 we may note a few facts which seem to show that these deities of vegetation had also1 like other deities of vegetation1 their animal embodiments4 ,the worshippers of ,attis abstained from eating the flesh of swine47#ahc7 ,this fact is certainly in favour of supposing that the pig was regarded as an embodiment of ,attis4 ,and the legend that ,attis was killed by a boar7#ahd7 points in the same direction4 ,for after the examples of the goat ,dionysus and the pig ,demeter it may almost be laid down as a rule that an animal which is said to have injured a god was originally the god himself4 ,perhaps the cry of 8,hyes ,attes6 ,hyes ,attes607#ahe7 which was raised by the worshippers of ,attis1 may be neither more nor less than 8,pig ,attis6 ,pig ,attis60--hyes being possibly a ,phrygian form of the ,greek hs1 8a pig40 ,in regard to ,adonis1 his connection with the boar was not always explained by the story that he was killed by a boar4 ,according to another story1 a boar rent with his tusk the bark of the tree in which the infant ,adonis was born47#ahf7 ,according to another story1 he was killed by ,hephaestus on ,mount ,lebanon while he was hunting wild boars47#ahg7 ,these variations in the legend serve to show that1 while the connection of the boar with ,adonis was certain1 the reason of the connection was not understood1 and that consequently different stories were devised to explain it4 ,certainly the pig was one of the sacred animals of the ,syrians4 ,at the great religious metropolis of ,hierapolis pigs were neither sacrificed nor eaten1 and if a man touched a pig he was unclean for the rest of the day4 ,some people said this was because the pigs were unclean2 others said it was because the pigs were sacred47#ahh7 ,this difference of opinion points to a state of religious thought and feeling in which the ideas of sanctity and uncleanness are not yet differentiated1 and which is best indicated by the word taboo4 ,it is quite consistent with this that the pig should have been held to be an embodiment of the divine ,adonis1 and the analogies of ,dionysus and ,demeter make it probable that the story of the hostility of the animal to the god was only a modern misunderstanding of the old view of the god as embodied in a pig4 ,the rule that pigs were not sacrificed or eaten by worshippers of ,attis and presumably of ,adonis1 does not exclude the possibility that in these cults the pig was slain on solemn occasions as a representative of the god and consumed sacramentally by the worshippers4 ,indeed1 the sacramental killing and eating of an animal1 that is the killing and eating it as a god1 implies that the animal is sacred1 and is1 as a general rule1 not killed47#ahi7 ,the attitude of the ,jews to the pig was as ambiguous as that of the heathen ,syrians towards the same animal4 ,the ,greeks could not decide whether the ,jews worshipped swine or abominated them4 ,on the one hand they might not eat swine2 but on the other hand they might not kill them47#aij7 ,and if the former rule speaks for the uncleanness1 the latter speaks still more strongly for the sanctity of the animal4 ,for whereas both rules may1 and one rule must1 be explained on the supposition that the pig was sacred2 neither rule must1 and one rule cannot1 be explained on the supposition that the pig was unclean4 ,if1 therefore1 we prefer the former supposition1 we must conclude that1 originally at least1 the pig was held to be sacred rather than unclean by the ,israelites4 ,this is confirmed by the fact that down to the time of ,isaiah some of the ,jews used to meet secretly in gardens to eat the flesh of swine and mice as a religious rite47#aia7 ,doubtless this was a very ancient rite1 dating from a time when both the pig and the mouse were venerated as divine1 and when their flesh was partaken of sacramentally on rare and solemn occasions as the body and blood of gods4 ,and in general it may be said that all so-called unclean animals were originally sacred2 the reason why they were not eaten was that they were divine4 ,in ancient ,egypt1 within historical times1 the pig occupied the same dubious position as in ,syria and ,palestine1 though at first sight its uncleanness is more prominent than its sanctity4 ,the ,egyptians are generally said by ,greek writers to have abhorred the pig as a foul and loathsome animal47#aib7 ,if a man so much as touched a pig in passing1 he stepped into the river with all his clothes on1 to wash off the taint47#aic7 ,to drink pig's milk was believed to cause leprosy to the drinker47#aid7 ,swineherds1 though natives of ,egypt1 were forbidden to enter any temple1 and they were the only men who were thus excluded4 ,no one would give his daughter in marriage to a swineherd1 or marry a swineherd's daughter2 the swineherds married among themselves47#aie7 ,yet once a year the ,egyptians sacrificed pigs to the moon and to ,osiris1 and not only sacrificed them1 but ate of their flesh1 though on any other day of the year they would neither sacrifice them nor taste of their flesh4 ,those who were too poor to offer a pig on this day baked cakes of dough1 and offered them instead47#aif7 ,this can hardly be explained except by the supposition that the pig was a sacred animal which was eaten sacramentally by his worshippers once a year4 ,the view that in ,egypt the pig was a sacred animal is borne out by the very facts which1 to moderns1 might seem to prove the contrary4 ,thus the ,egyptians thought1 as we have seen1 that to drink pig's milk produced leprosy4 ,but exactly analogous views are held by savages about the animals and plants which they deem most sacred4 ,thus in the island of ,wetar 7between ,new ,guinea and ,celebes7 people believe themselves to be variously descended from wild pigs1 serpents1 crocodiles1 turtles1 dogs1 and eels2 a man may not eat an animal of the kind from which he is descended2 if he does so1 he will become a leper1 and go mad47#aig7 ,amongst the ,omaha ,indians of ,north ,america men whose totem 7sacred animal or plant7 is the elk1 believe that if they ate the flesh of the male elk they would break out in boils and white spots in different parts of their bodies47#aih7 ,in the same tribe men whose totem is the red maize1 think that if they ate red maize they would have running sores all round their mouths47#aii7 ,the ,bush negroes of ,surinam1 who have totemism1 believe that if they ate the capia 7an animal like a pig7 it would give them leprosy27#bjj7 probably the capia is one of their totems4 ,in ,samoa each man had generally his god in the shape of some species of animal2 and if he ate one of these divine animals1 it was supposed that the god avenged himself by taking up his abode in the eater's body1 and there generating an animal of the kind he had eaten till it caused his death4 ,for example1 if a man whose god was the prickly sea-urchin1 ate one of these creatures1 a prickly sea-urchin grew in his stomach and killed him4 ,if his god was an eel1 and he ate an eel1 he became very ill1 and before he died the voice of the god was heard from his stomach saying1 8,i am killing this man2 he ate my incarnation407#bja7 ,these examples prove that the eating of a sacred animal is often believed to produce skin-disease or even death2 so far1 therefore1 they support the view that the pig must have been sacred in ,egypt1 since the effect of drinking its milk was believed to be leprosy4 ,again1 the rule that1 after touching a pig1 a man had to wash himself and his clothes1 also favours the view of the sanctity of the pig4 ,for it is a common belief that the effect of contact with a sacred object must be removed1 by washing or otherwise1 before a man is free to mingle with his fellows4 ,thus the ,jews wash their hands after reading the sacred scriptures4 ,before coming forth from the tabernacle after the sin-offering1 the high priest had to wash himself1 and put off the garments which he had worn in the holy place47#bjb7 ,it was a rule of ,greek ritual that1 in offering an expiatory sacrifice1 the sacrificer should not touch the sacrifice1 and that1 after the offering was made1 he must wash his body and his clothes in a river or spring before he could enter a city or his own house47#bjc7 ,the ,polynesians felt strongly the need of ridding themselves of the sacred contagion1 if it may be so called1 which they caught by touching sacred objects4 ,various ceremonies were performed for the purpose of removing this sacred contagion4 ,for example1 in ,tonga a man who happened to touch a sacred chief1 or anything personally belonging to him1 as his clothes or his mat1 was obliged to go through the ceremony of touching the soles of the chief's 7or of any chief's7 feet with his hands1 first applying the palm and then the back of each hand2 next he had to rinse his hands in water1 or1 if there was no water near1 the sap of the plantain or banana-tree might be used as a substitute4 ,if he were to feed himself with his hands before he performed this ceremony1 it was believed that he would swell up and die1 or at least be afflicted with scrofula or some other disease47#bjd7 ,we have already seen what fatal effects are supposed to follow1 and do actually follow1 from contact with a sacred object in ,new ,zealand47#bje7 ,in short1 primitive man believes that what is sacred is dangerous2 it is pervaded by a sort of electrical sanctity which communicates a shock to1 even if it does not kill1 whatever comes in contact with it4 ,hence the savage is unwilling to touch or even to see that which he deems peculiarly holy4 ,thus ,bechuanas1 of the ,crocodile clan1 think it 8hateful and unlucky0 to meet or see a crocodile2 the sight is thought to cause inflammation of the eyes4 ,yet the crocodile is their most sacred object2 they call it their father1 swear by it1 and celebrate it in their festivals47#bjf7 ,the goat is the sacred animal of the ,madenassana ,bushmen2 yet 8to look upon it would be to render the man for the time impure1 as well as to cause him undefined uneasiness407#bjg7 ,the ,elk clan1 among the ,omaha ,indians1 believe that even to touch the male elk would be followed by an eruption of boils and white spots on the body47#bjh7 ,members of the ,reptile clan in the same tribe think that if one of them touches or smells a snake1 it will make his hair white47#bji7 ,in ,samoa people whose god was a butterfly believed that if they caught a butterfly it would strike them dead47#baj7 ,again1 in ,samoa the reddish-seared leaves of the banana-tree were commonly used as plates for handing food2 but if any member of the ,wild ,pigeon clan had used banana leaves for this purpose1 it was believed that he would have suffered from rheumatic swellings or an eruption all over the body like chicken-pox47#baa7 ,in the light of these parallels the beliefs and customs of the ,egyptians touching the pig are probably to be explained as based upon an opinion of the extreme sanctity rather than of the extreme uncleanness of the animal2 or rather1 to put it more correctly1 they imply that the animal was looked on1 not simply as a filthy and disgusting creature1 but as a being endowed with high supernatural powers1 and that as such it was regarded with that primitive sentiment of religious awe and fear in which the feelings of reverence and abhorrence are almost equally blended4 ,the ancients themselves seem to have been aware that there was another side to the horror with which swine seemed to inspire the ,egyptians4 ,for the ,greek astronomer and mathematician ,eudoxus1 who resided fourteen months in ,egypt and conversed with the priests17#bab7 was of opinion that the ,egyptians spared the pig1 not out of abhorrence1 but from a regard to its utility in agriculture2 for1 according to him1 when the ,nile had subsided1 herds of swine were turned loose over the fields to tread the seed down into the moist earth47#bac7 ,but when a being is thus the object of mixed and implicitly contradictory feelings1 he may be said to occupy a position of unstable equilibrium4 ,in course of time one of the contradictory feelings is likely to prevail over the other1 and according as the feeling which finally predominates is that of reverence or abhorrence1 the being who is the object of it will rise into a god or sink into a devil4 ,the latter1 on the whole1 was the fate of the pig in ,egypt4 ,for in historical times the fear and horror of the pig seem certainly to have outweighed the reverence and worship of which he must once have been the object1 and of which1 even in his fallen state1 he never quite lost trace4 ,he came to be looked on as an embodiment of ,set or ,typhon1 the ,egyptian devil and enemy of ,osiris4 ,for it was in the shape of a boar that ,typhon menaced the eye of the god ,horus1 who burned him and instituted the sacrifice of the pig1 the sun-god ,ra having declared the pig abominable47#bad7 ,again1 the story that ,typhon was hunting a boar when he discovered and mangled the body of ,osiris1 and that this was the reason why the pig was sacrificed once a year17#bae7 is a transparent modernisation of an older story that ,osiris1 like ,adonis and ,attis1 was slain or mangled by a boar1 or by ,typhon in the form of a boar4 ,thus1 the annual sacrifice of a pig to ,osiris might naturally be interpreted as vengeance inflicted on the hostile animal that had slain or mangled the god4 ,but1 in the first place1 when an animal is thus killed as a solemn sacrifice once and once only in the year1 it generally or always means that the animal is divine--that he is spared and respected the rest of the year as a god and slain1 when he is slain1 also in the character of a god47#baf7 ,in the second place1 the examples of ,dionysus and ,demeter1 if not of ,attis and ,adonis1 have taught us that the animal which is sacrificed to a god on the ground that he is the god's enemy may have been1 and probably was1 originally the god himself4 ,therefore1 the fact that the pig was sacrificed once a year to ,osiris1 and the fact that he appears to have been sacrificed on the ground that he was the god's enemy1 go to show1 first1 that originally the pig was a god1 and1 second1 that he was ,osiris4 ,at a later age the pig was distinguished from ,osiris when the latter became anthropomorphic and his original relation to the pig was forgotten2 later still1 the pig was opposed as an enemy to ,osiris by mythologists who could think of no reason for killing an animal in connection with the worship of a god except that the animal was the god's enemy2 or1 as ,plutarch puts it1 not that which is dear to the gods1 but that which is the contrary1 is fit to be sacrificed47#bag7 ,at this later stage the havoc which a wild boar notoriously makes amongst the corn would supply a plausible reason for regarding him as an enemy of the corn-spirit1 though originally1 if ,i am right1 the very fact that the boar was found ranging at will through the corn was the reason for identifying him with the corn-spirit1 to whom he was afterwards opposed as an enemy4 ,the view which identifies the pig with ,osiris derives not a little support from the fact that the day on which the pigs were sacrificed to him was the day on which1 according to tradition1 ,osiris was killed27#bah7 for thus the killing of the pig was the annual representation of the killing of ,osiris1 just as the throwing of the pigs into the caverns at the ,thesmophoria was an annual representation of the descent of ,proserpine into the lower world2 and both customs are parallel to the ,european practice of killing a goat1 cock1 etc41 at harvest as a representative of the corn-spirit4 ,again1 the view that the pig1 originally ,osiris himself1 afterwards came to be regarded as an embodiment of his enemy ,typhon1 is supported by the similar relation of red-haired men and red oxen to ,typhon4 ,for in regard to the red-haired men who were burned and whose ashes were scattered with winnowing-fans1 we have seen fair grounds for believing that originally1 like the red-haired puppies killed at ,rome in spring1 they were representatives of the corn-spirit himself1 that is1 of ,osiris1 and were slain for the express purpose of making the corn turn red or golden4 ,yet at a later time these men were explained to be representatives1 not of ,osiris1 but of his enemy ,typhon17#bai7 and the killing of them was regarded as an act of vengeance inflicted on the enemy of the god4 ,similarly1 the red oxen sacrificed by the ,egyptians were said to be sacrificed on the ground of their resemblance to ,typhon27#bbj7 though it is more likely that originally they were slain on the ground of their resemblance to the corn-spirit ,osiris4 ,we have seen that the ox is a common representative of the corn-spirit and is slain as such on the harvest-field4 ,osiris was regularly identified with the bull ,apis of ,memphis and the bull ,mnevis of ,heliopolis47#bba7 ,but it is hard to say whether these bulls were embodiments of him as the corn-spirit1 as the red oxen appear to have been1 or whether they were not rather entirely distinct deities which got fused with ,osiris by syncretism4 ,the fact that these two bulls were worshipped by all the ,egyptians17#bbb7 seems to put them on a different footing from the ordinary sacred animals whose cults were purely local4 ,hence1 if the latter were evolved from totems1 as they probably were1 some other origin would have to be found for the worship of ,apis and ,mnevis4 ,if these bulls were not originally embodiments of the corn-god ,osiris1 they may possibly be descendants of the sacred cattle worshipped by a pastoral people47#bbc7 ,if this were so1 ancient ,egypt would exhibit a stratification of the three great types of religion corresponding to the three great stages of society4 ,totemism or 7roughly speaking7 the worship of wild animals--the religion of society in the hunting stage--would be represented by the worship of the local sacred animals2 the worship of cattle--the religion of society in the pastoral stage--would be represented by the cults of ,apis and ,mnevis2 and the worship of cultivated plants1 especially of corn--the religion of society in the agricultural stage--would be represented by the worship of ,osiris and ,isis4 ,the ,egyptian reverence for cows1 which were never killed17#bbd7 might belong either to the second or third of these stages4 ,the fact that cows were regarded as sacred to1 that is1 as embodiments of ,isis1 who was represented with cow's horns1 would indicate that they1 like the red oxen1 were embodiments of the corn-spirit4 ,however1 this identification of ,isis with the cow1 like that of ,osiris with the bulls ,apis and ,mnevis1 may be only an effect of syncretism4 ,but whatever the original relation of ,apis to ,osiris may have been1 there is one fact about the former which ought not to be passed over in a chapter dealing with the custom of killing the god4 ,although the bull ,apis was worshipped as a god with much pomp and profound reverence1 he was not suffered to live beyond a certain length of time which was prescribed by the sacred books1 and on the expiry of which he was drowned in a holy spring47#bbe7 ,the limit1 according to ,plutarch1 was twenty-five years27#bbf7 but it cannot always have been enforced1 for the tombs of the ,apis bulls have been discovered in the present century1 and from the inscriptions on them it appears that in the twenty-second dynasty two bulls lived more than twenty-six years47#bbg7 ,we are now in a position to hazard a conjecture--for it can be little more--as to the meaning of the tradition that ,virbius1 the first of the divine ,kings of the ,wood at ,aricia1 was killed by horses4 ,having found1 first1 that spirits of vegetation are not infrequently represented in the form of horses27#bbh7 and1 second1 that the animal which in later legends is said to have injured the god was sometimes originally the god himself1 we may conjecture that the horses by which ,virbius was said to have been slain were really embodiments of him as a deity of vegetation4 ,the myth that ,virbius had been killed by horses was probably invented to explain certain features in his cult1 amongst others the custom of excluding horses from his sacred grove4 ,for myth changes while custom remains constant2 men continue to do what their fathers did before them1 though the reasons on which their fathers acted have been long forgotten4 ,the history of religion is a long attempt to reconcile old custom with new reason2 to find a sound theory for an absurd practice4 ,in the case before us we may be sure that the myth is more modern than the custom and by no means represents the original reason for excluding horses from the grove4 ,from the fact that horses were so excluded it might be inferred that they could not be the sacred animals or embodiments of the god of the grove4 ,but the inference would be rash4 ,the goat was at one time a sacred animal or embodiment of ,athene1 as may be inferred from the practice of representing her clad in a goat-skin 7aegis74 ,yet the goat was neither sacrificed to her as a rule1 nor allowed to enter her great sanctuary1 the ,acropolis at ,athens4 ,the reason alleged for this was that the goat injured the olive1 the sacred tree of ,athene47#bbi7 ,so far1 therefore1 the relation of the goat to ,athene is parallel to the relation of the horse to ,virbius1 both animals being excluded from the sanctuary on the ground of injury done by them to the god4 ,but from ,varro we learn that there was an exception to the rule which excluded the goat from the ,acropolis4 ,once a year1 he says1 the goat was driven on to the ,acropolis for a necessary sacrifice47#bcj7 ,now1 as has been remarked before1 when an animal is sacrificed once and once only in the year1 it is probably slain1 not as a victim offered to the god1 but as a representative of the god himself4 ,therefore we may infer that if a goat was sacrificed on the ,acropolis once a year1 it was sacrificed in the character of ,athene herself2 and it may be conjectured that the skin of the sacrificed animal was placed on the statue of the goddess and formed the aegis1 which would thus be renewed annually4 ,similarly at ,thebes in ,egypt rams were sacred and were not sacrificed4 ,but on one day in the year a ram was killed1 and its skin was placed on the statue of the god ,ammon47#bca7 ,now1 if we knew the ritual of the ,arician grove better1 we might find the rule of excluding horses from it1 like the rule of excluding goats from the ,acropolis at ,athens1 was subject to an annual exception1 a horse being once a year taken into the grove and sacrificed as an embodiment of the god ,virbius4 ,by the usual misunderstanding the horse thus killed would come in time to be regarded as an enemy offered up in sacrifice to the god whom he had injured1 like the pig which was sacrificed to ,demeter and ,osiris or the goat which was sacrificed to ,athene and ,dionysus4 ,it is so easy for a writer to record a rule without noticing an exception that we need not wonder at finding the rule of the ,arician grove recorded without any mention of an exception such as ,i suppose4 ,if we had had only the statements of ,athenaeus and ,pliny1 we should have known only the rule which forbade the sacrifice of goats to ,athene and excluded them from the ,acropolis1 without being aware of the important exception which the fortunate preservation of ,varro's work has revealed to us4 ,the conjecture that once a year a horse may have been sacrificed in the ,arician grove as a representative of the deity of the grove derives some support from the fact that a horse sacrifice of a similar character took place once a year at ,rome4 ,on the #aeth of ,october in each year a chariot-race took place on the ,field of ,mars4 ,the right-hand horse of the victorious team was sacrificed to ,mars by being stabbed with a spear4 ,the object of the sacrifice was to ensure good crops4 ,the animal's head was cut off and adorned with a string of loaves4 ,the inhabitants of two wards--the ,sacred ,way and the ,subura--then contended with each other who should get the head4 ,if the people of the ,sacred ,way got it1 they fastened it to a wall of the king's house2 if the people of the ,subura got it1 they fastened it to the ,mamilian tower4 ,the horse's tail was cut off and carried to the king's house with such speed that the blood dripped on the hearth of the house47#bcb7 ,further1 it appears that the blood of the horse was caught and preserved till the #bast of ,april1 when it was mixed by the ,vestal virgins with the blood of the unborn calves which had been sacrificed six days before4 ,the mixture was then distributed to shepherds1 and used by them for fumigating their flocks47#bcc7 ,in this ceremony the decoration of the horse's head with a string of loaves1 and the alleged object of the sacrifice1 namely1 to procure a good harvest1 clearly indicate that the horse was killed as one of those animal representatives of the corn-spirit of which we have seen so many examples4 ,the custom of cutting off the horse's tail is like the ,african custom of cutting off the tails of the oxen and sacrificing them to obtain a good crop47#bcd7 ,in both the ,roman and the ,african custom the animal represents the corn-spirit2 and its fructifying power is supposed to reside especially in its tail4 ,the latter idea occurs1 as we have seen1 in ,european folk-lore47#bce7 ,again1 the custom of fumigating the cattle in spring with the blood of the horse may be compared with the custom of giving the ,maiden as fodder to the cattle at ,christmas1 and giving the ,yule ,boar to the ploughing oxen or horses to eat in spring47#bcf7 ,all these customs aim at ensuring the blessing of the corn-spirit on the homestead and its inmates and storing it up for another year4 ,the ,roman sacrifice of the ,october horse1 as it was called1 carries us back to the early days when the ,subura1 afterwards a low and crowded quarter of the great metropolis1 was still a separate village1 whose inhabitants engaged in a friendly contest on the harvest-field with their neighbours of ,rome1 then a little rural town4 ,the ,field of ,mars on which the ceremony took place lay beside the ,tiber1 and formed part of the king's domain down to the abolition of the monarchy4 ,for tradition ran that at the time when the last of the kings was driven from ,rome1 the corn stood ripe for the sickle on the crown lands beside the river2 but no one would eat the accursed grain and it was flung into the river in such heaps that1 the water being low with the summer heat1 it formed the nucleus of an island47#bcg7 ,the horse sacrifice was thus an old autumn custom observed upon the king's corn-fields at the end of the harvest4 ,the tail and blood of the horse1 as the chief parts of the corn-spirit's representative1 were taken to the king's house and kept there2 just as in ,germany the harvest-cock is nailed on the gable or over the door of the farmhouse2 and as the last sheaf1 in the form of the ,maiden1 is carried home and kept over the fireplace in the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,thus the blessing of the corn-spirit was brought to the king's house and hearth and1 through them1 to the community of which he was the head4 ,similarly in the spring and autumn customs of ,northern ,europe the ,may-pole is sometimes set up in front of the house of the mayor or burgomaster1 and the last sheaf at harvest is brought to him as the head of the village4 ,but while the tail and blood fell to the king1 the neighbouring village of the ,subura1 which no doubt once had a similar ceremony of its own1 was gratified by being allowed to compete for the prize of the horse's head4 ,the ,mamilian tower to which the ,suburans nailed the horse's head when they succeeded in carrying it off1 appears to have been a peel-tower or keep of the old ,mamilian family1 the magnates of the village47#bch7 ,the ceremony thus performed on the king's fields and at his house on behalf of the whole town and of the neighbouring village presupposes a time when each commune performed a similar ceremony on its own fields4 ,in the rural districts of ,latium the villages may have continued to observe the custom1 each on its own land1 long after the ,roman hamlets had merged their separate harvest-homes in the common celebration on the king's lands47#bci7 ,there is no intrinsic improbability in the supposition that the sacred grove of ,aricia1 like the ,field of ,mars at ,rome1 may have been the scene of a common harvest celebration1 at which a horse was sacrificed with the same rude rites on behalf of the neighbouring villages4 ,the horse would represent the fructifying spirit both of the tree and of the corn1 for the two ideas melt into each other1 as we see in customs like the ,harvest-,may4 #aa4--;,eating the god4 ,we have now seen that the corn-spirit is represented sometimes in human1 sometimes in animal form1 and that in both cases he is killed in the person of his representative and eaten sacramentally4 ,to find examples of actually killing the human representative of the corn-spirit we had of course to go to savage races2 but the harvest suppers of our ,european peasants have furnished unmistakable examples of the sacramental eating of animals as representatives of the corn-spirit4 ,but further1 as might have been anticipated1 the new corn is itself eaten sacramentally1 that is1 as the body of the corn-spirit4 ,in ,wermland1 ,sweden1 the farmer's wife uses the grain of the last sheaf to bake a loaf in the shape of a little girl2 this loaf is divided amongst the whole household and eaten by them47#bdj7 ,here the loaf represents the corn-spirit conceived as a maiden2 just as in ,scotland the corn-spirit is similarly conceived and represented by the last sheaf made up in the form of a woman and bearing the name of the ,maiden4 ,as usual1 the corn-spirit is believed to reside in the last sheaf2 and to eat a loaf made from the last sheaf is1 therefore1 to eat the corn-spirit itself4 ,similarly at ,la ,palisse in ,france a man made of dough is hung upon the fir-tree which is carried on the last harvest-waggon4 ,the tree and the dough-man are taken to the mayor's house and kept there till the vintage is over4 ,then the close of the harvest is celebrated by a feast at which the mayor breaks the dough-man in pieces and gives the pieces to the people to eat47#bda7 ,in these examples the corn-spirit is represented and eaten in human shape4 ,in other cases1 though the new corn is not baked in loaves of human shape1 still the solemn ceremonies with which it is eaten suffice to indicate that it is partaken of sacramentally1 that is1 as the body of the corn-spirit4 ,for example1 the following ceremonies used to be observed by ,lithuanian peasants at eating the new corn4 ,when the harvest and the sowing of the new corn were over1 each farmer held a festival called ,sabarios1 that is1 8the mixing or throwing together40 ,he took a handful of each kind of grain--wheat1 barley1 oats1 flax1 beans1 lentils1 etc42 and each handful he divided into three parts4 ,the twenty-seven portions of each grain were then thrown on a heap and all mixed up together4 ,the grain used had to be the grain which was first threshed and winnowed and which had been set aside and kept for this purpose4 ,a part of the grain thus mixed was used to bake little loaves1 one for each of the household2 the rest was mixed with more barley or oats and made into beer4 ,the first beer brewed from this mixture was for the drinking of the farmer1 his wife1 and children2 the second brew was for the servants4 ,the beer being ready1 the farmer chose an evening when no stranger was expected4 ,then he knelt down before the barrel of beer1 drew a jugful of the liquor and poured it on the bung of the barrel1 saying1 8,o fruitful earth1 make rye and barley and all kinds of corn to flourish40 ,next he took the jug to the parlour1 where his wife and children awaited him4 ,on the floor of the parlour lay bound a black or white or speckled 7not a red7 cock and a hen of the same colour and of the same brood1 which must have been hatched within the year4 ,then the farmer knelt down1 with the jug in his hand1 and thanked ,god for the harvest and prayed for a good crop next year4 ,then all lifted up their hands and said1 8,o ,god1 and thou1 ,o earth1 we give you this cock and hen as a free-will offering40 ,with that the farmer killed the fowls with the blows of a wooden spoon1 for he might not cut their heads off4 ,after the first prayer and after killing each of the birds he poured out a third of the beer4 ,then his wife boiled the fowls in a new pot which had never been used before4 ,a bushel was then set1 bottom upwards1 on the floor1 and on it were placed the little loaves mentioned above and the boiled fowls4 ,next the new beer was fetched1 together with a ladle and three mugs1 none of which was used except on this occasion4 ,when the farmer had ladled the beer into the mugs1 the family knelt down round the bushel4 ,the father then uttered a prayer and drank off the three mugs of beer4 ,the rest followed his example4 ,then the loaves and the flesh of the fowls were eaten1 after which the beer went round again1 till every one had emptied each of the three mugs nine times4 ,none of the food should remain over2 but if anything did happen to be left1 it was consumed next morning with the same ceremonies4 ,the bones were then given to the dog to eat2 if he did not eat them all up1 the remains were buried under the dung in the cattle-stall4 ,this ceremony was observed at the beginning of ,december4 ,on the day on which it occurred no bad word might be spoken47#bdb7 ,such was the custom about two hundred years ago4 ,at the present day in ,lithuania1 when new potatoes or loaves made from the new corn are being eaten1 all the people at table pull each other's hair47#bdc7 ,the meaning of the latter custom is obscure1 but a similar custom was certainly observed by the heathen ,lithuanians at their solemn sacrifices47#bdd7 ,many of the ,esthonians of the island of ,oesel will not eat bread baked of the new corn till they have first taken a bite at a piece of iron47#bde7 ,the iron is here plainly a charm1 intended to render harmless the spirit that is in the corn47#bdf7 ,in ,sutherlandshire at the present day1 when the new potatoes are dug all the family must taste them1 otherwise 8the spirits in them the potatoes take offence1 and the potatoes would not keep407#bdg7 ,in one part of ,yorkshire it is still the custom for the clergyman to cut the first corn2 and my informant believes that the corn so cut is used to make the communion bread47#bdh7 ,if the latter part of the custom is correctly reported 7and analogy is all in its favour71 it shows how the ,christian communion has absorbed within itself a sacrament which is doubtless far older than ,christianity4 ,at the close of the rice harvest in ,boeroe1 ,east ,indies1 each clan 7fenna7 meets at a common sacramental meal1 to which every member of the clan is bound to contribute a little of the new rice4 ,this meal is called 8eating the soul of the rice10 a name which clearly indicates the sacramental character of the repast4 ,some of the rice is also set apart and offered to the spirits47#bdi7 ,amongst the ,alfoers of ,celebes the priest sows the first rice-seed and plucks the first ripe rice in each field4 ,this rice he roasts and grinds into meal1 and gives some of it to each of the household47#bej7 ,shortly before the rice harvest in ,bolang ,mongondo1 ,celebes1 an offering is made of a small pig or a fowl4 ,then the priest plucks a little rice1 first on his own field and then on those of his neighbours4 ,all the rice thus plucked by him he dries along with his own1 and then gives it back to the respective owners1 who have it ground and boiled4 ,when it is boiled the women take it back1 with an egg1 to the priest1 who offers the egg in sacrifice and returns the rice to the women4 ,of this rice every member of the family1 down to the youngest child1 must partake4 ,after this ceremony every one is free to get in his rice47#bea7 ,amongst the ,burghers1 a tribe of the ,neilgherry ,hills in ,southern ,india1 the first handful of seed is sown and the first sheaf reaped by a ,curumbar--a man of a different tribe1 whom the ,burghers regard as sorcerers4 ,the grain contained in the first sheaf 8is that day reduced to meal1 made into cakes1 and1 being offered as a first-fruit oblation1 is1 together with the remainder of the sacrificed animal1 partaken of by the ,burgher and the whole of his family as the meat of a federal offering and sacrifice407#beb7 ,amongst the ,coorgs of ,southern ,india the man who is to cut the first sheaf of rice at harvest is chosen by an astrologer4 ,at sunset the whole household takes a hot bath and then goes to the rice-field1 where the chosen reaper cuts an armful of rice with a new sickle1 and distributes two or more stalks to all present4 ,then all return to the threshing-floor4 ,a bundle of leaves is adorned with a stalk of rice and fastened to the post in the centre of the threshing-floor4 ,enough of the new rice is now threshed1 cleaned1 and ground to provide flour for the dough cakes which each member of the household is to eat4 ,then they go to the door of the house1 where the mistress washes the feet of the sheaf-cutter1 and presents to him1 and after him to all the rest1 a brass vessel full of milk1 honey1 and sugar1 from which each person takes a draught4 ,then the man who cut the sheaf kneads a cake of rice meal1 plantains1 milk1 honey1 seven new rice corns1 seven pieces of cocoa-nut1 etc4 ,every one receives a little of this cake on an ,ashvatha leaf1 and eats it4 ,the ceremony is then over and the sheaf-cutter mixes with the company4 ,when he was engaged in cutting the rice no one might touch him47#bec7 ,among the ,hindoos of ,southern ,india the eating of the new rice is the occasion of a family festival called ,pongol4 ,the new rice is boiled in a new pot on a fire which is kindled at noon on the day when1 according to ,hindoo astrologers1 the sun enters the tropic of ,capricorn4 ,the boiling of the pot is watched with great anxiety by the whole family1 for as the milk boils1 so will the coming year be4 ,if the milk boils rapidly1 the year will be prosperous2 but it will be the reverse if the milk boils slowly4 ,some of the new boiled rice is offered to the image of ,ganesa2 then every one partakes of it47#bed7 ,at ,gilgit1 in the ,hindoo ,koosh1 before wheat-harvest begins1 a member of every household gathers a handful of ears of corn secretly at dusk4 ,a few of the ears are hung up over the door of the house1 and the rest are roasted next morning1 and eaten steeped in milk4 ,the day is spent in rejoicings1 and next morning the harvest begins47#bee7 ,the ceremony of eating the new yams at ,onitsha1 on the ,quorra ,river1 ,guinea1 is thus described3 8,each headman brought out six yams1 and cut down young branches of palm-leaves and placed them before his gate1 roasted three of the yams1 and got some kola-nuts and fish4 ,after the yam is roasted1 the ,libia1 or country doctor1 takes the yam1 scrapes it with a sort of meal1 and divides it into halves2 he then takes one piece1 and places it on the lips of the person who is going to eat the new yam4 ,the eater then blows up the steam from the hot yam1 and afterwards pokes the whole into his mouth1 and says1 #8,i thank ,god for being permitted to eat the new yam2' he then begins to chew it heartily1 with fish likewise407#bef7 ,amongst the ,kafirs of ,natal and ,zululand1 no one may eat of the new fruits till after a festival which marks the beginning of the ,kafir year4 ,all the people assemble at the king's kraal1 where they feast and dance4 ,before they separate the 8dedication of the people0 takes place4 ,various fruits of the earth1 as corn1 mealies1 and pumpkins1 mixed with the flesh of a sacrificed animal and with 8medicine10 are boiled in great pots1 and a little of this food is placed in each man's mouth by the king himself4 ,after thus partaking of the sanctified fruits1 a man is himself sanctified for the whole year1 and may immediately get in his crops47#beg7 ,amongst the ,creek ,indians of ,north ,america1 the busk or festival of first-fruits was the chief ceremony of the year47#beh7 ,it was held in ,july or ,august1 when the corn was ripe1 and marked the end of the old year and the beginning of the new one4 ,before it took place none of the ,indians would eat or even handle any part of the new harvest4 ,sometimes each town had its own busk2 sometimes several towns united to hold one in common4 ,before celebrating the busk1 the people provided themselves with new clothes and new household utensils and furniture2 they collected their old clothes and rubbish1 together with all the remaining grain and other old provisions1 cast them together in one common heap1 and consumed them with fire47#bei7 ,as a preparation for the ceremony1 all the fires in the village were extinguished1 and the ashes swept clean away4 ,in particular1 the hearth or altar of the temple was dug up and the ashes carried out4 ,then the chief priest put some roots of the button-snake plant1 with some green tobacco leaves and a little of the new fruits1 at the bottom of the fireplace1 which he afterwards ordered to be covered up with white clay1 and wetted over with clean water4 ,a thick arbour of green branches of young trees was then made over the altar47#bfj7 ,meanwhile the women at home were cleaning out their houses1 renewing the old hearths1 and scouring all the cooking vessels that they might be ready to receive the new fire and the new fruits47#bfa7 ,the public or sacred square was carefully swept of even the smallest crumbs of previous feasts1 8for fear of polluting the first-fruit offerings40 ,also every vessel that had contained or had been used about any food during the expiring year was removed from the temple before sunset4 ,then all the men who were not known to have violated the law of the first-fruit offering and that of marriage during the year were summoned by a crier to enter the holy square and observe a solemn fast4 ,but the women 7except six old ones71 the children1 and all who had not attained the rank of warriors were forbidden to enter the square4 ,sentinels were also posted at the corners of the square to keep out all persons deemed impure and all animals4 ,a strict fast was then observed for two nights and a day1 the devotees drinking a bitter decoction of button-snake root 8in order to vomit and purge their sinful bodies40 ,that the people outside the square might also be purified1 one of the old men laid down a quantity of green tobacco at a corner of the square2 this was carried off by an old woman and distributed to the people without1 who chewed and swallowed it 8in order to afflict their souls40 ,during this general fast1 the women1 children1 and men of weak constitution were allowed to eat after mid-day1 but not before4 ,on the morning when the fast ended1 the women brought a quantity of the old year's food to the outside of the sacred square4 ,these provisions were then brought in and set before the famished multitude1 but all traces of them had to be removed before noon4 ,when the sun was declining from the meridian1 all the people were commanded by the voice of a crier to stay within doors1 to do no bad act1 and to be sure to extinguish and throw away every spark of the old fire4 ,universal silence now reigned4 ,then the high priest made the new fire by the friction of two pieces of wood1 and placed it on the altar under the green arbour4 ,this new fire was believed to atone for all past crimes except murder4 ,then a basket of new fruits was brought2 the high priest took out a little of each sort of fruit1 rubbed it with bear's oil1 and offered it1 together with some flesh1 8to the bountiful holy spirit of fire1 as a first-fruit offering1 and an annual oblation for sin40 ,he also consecrated the sacred emetics 7the button-snake root and the cassina or black-drink7 by pouring a little of them into the fire4 ,the persons who had remained outside now approached1 without entering1 the sacred square2 and the chief priest thereupon made a speech1 exhorting the people to observe their old rites and customs1 announcing that the new divine fire had purged away the sins of the past year1 and earnestly warning the women that1 if any of them had not extinguished the old fire1 or had contracted any impurity1 they must forthwith depart1 8lest the divine fire should spoil both them and the people40 ,some of the new fire was then laid down outside the holy square2 the women carried it home joyfully1 and laid it on their unpolluted hearths4 ,when several towns had united to celebrate the festival1 the new fire might thus be carried for several miles4 ,the new fruits were then dressed on the new fires and eaten with bear's oil1 which was deemed indispensable4 ,at one point of the festival the men rubbed the new corn between their hands1 then on their faces and breasts47#bfb7 ,during the festival which followed1 the warriors1 dressed in their wild martial array1 their heads covered with white down and carrying white feathers in their hands1 danced round the sacred arbour1 under which burned the new fire4 ,the ceremonies lasted eight days1 during which the strictest continence was practised4 ,towards the conclusion of the festival the warriors fought a mock battle2 then the men and women together1 in three circles1 danced round the sacred fire4 ,lastly1 all the people smeared themselves with white clay and bathed in running water4 ,they came out of the water 8believing themselves out of the reach of temporal evil for their past vicious conduct40 ,so they departed in joy and peace4 ,the solemn preparations thus made for eating the new corn prove that it was eaten as a sacrament4 ,in the ,boeroe and ,creek customs1 this sacrament is combined with a sacrifice1 and in course of time the sacrifice of first-fruits tends to throw the sacrament into the shade1 if not to supersede it4 ,the mere fact of having offered the first-fruits to the gods or ancestral spirits comes now to be thought a sufficient preparation for eating the new corn2 the gods having received their share1 man is free to enjoy the rest4 ,this mode of viewing the new fruits implies that they are regarded no longer as themselves instinct with divine life1 but merely as a gift bestowed by the gods upon man1 who is bound to express his gratitude and homage to his divine benefactors by presenting them with a portion of the fruits of the earth4 ,but with sacrifice1 as distinct from sacrament1 we are not here concerned47#bfc7 ,the custom of eating bread sacramentally as the body of a god was practised by the ,aztecs before the discovery and conquest of ,mexico by the ,spaniards4 ,twice a year1 in ,may and ,december1 an image of the great ,mexican god ,huitzilopochtli or ,vitzilipuztli was made of dough1 then broken in pieces1 and solemnly eaten by his worshippers4 ,the ,may ceremony is thus described by the historian ,acosta4 8,two daies before this feast1 the virgins whereof ,i have spoken 7the which were shut up and secluded in the same temple and were as it were religious women7 did mingle a quantitie of the seede of beetes with roasted ,mays maize1 and then they did mould it with honie1 making an idol of that paste in bignesse like to that of wood1 putting insteede of eyes graines of greene glasse1 of blue or white2 and for teeth graines of ,mays set forth with all the ornament and furniture that ,i have said4 ,this being finished1 all the ,noblemen came and brought it an exquisite and rich garment1 like unto that of the idol1 wherewith they did attyre it4 ,being thus clad and deckt1 they did set it in an azured chaire and in a litter to carry it on their shoulders4 ,the morning of this feast being come1 an houre before day all the maidens came forth attired in white1 with new ornaments1 the which that day were called the ,sisters of their god ,vitzilipuztli1 they came crowned with garlands of ,mays rosted and parched1 being like unto azahar or the flower of orange2 and about their neckes they had great chaines of the same1 which went bauldricke-wise under their left arme4 ,their cheekes were died with vermillion1 their armes from the elbow to the wrist were covered with red parrots' feathers40 ,young men1 crowned like the virgins with maize1 then carried the idol in its litter to the foot of the great pyramid-shaped temple1 up the steep and narrow steps of which it was drawn to the music of flutes1 trumpets1 cornets1 and drums4 8,while they mounted up the idoll all the people stoode in the ,court with much reverence and feare4 ,being mounted to the top1 and that they had placed it in a little lodge of roses which they held readie1 presently came the yong men1 which strawed many flowers of sundrie kindes1 wherewith they filled the temple both within and without4 ,this done1 all the virgins came out of their convent1 bringing peeces of paste compounded of beetes and rosted ,mays1 which was of the same paste whereof their idol was made and compounded1 and they were of the fashion of great bones4 ,they delivered them to the yong men1 who carried them up and laide them at the idoll's feete1 wherewith they filled the whole place that it could receive no more4 ,they called these morcells of paste the flesh and bones of ,vitzilipuztli40 ,then the priests came in their robes of office1 8and putting themselves in order about these morsells and peeces of paste1 they used certaine ceremonies with singing and dauncing4 ,by means whereof they were blessed and consecrated for the flesh and bones of this idoll4444 ,the ceremonies1 dauncing1 and sacrifice ended1 they went to unclothe themselves1 and the priests and superiors of the temple tooke the idoll of paste1 which they spoyled of all the ornaments it had1 and made many peeces1 as well of the idoll itselfe as of the tronchons which were consecrated1 and then they gave them to the people in maner of a communion1 beginning with the greater1 and continuing unto the rest1 both men1 women1 and little children1 who received it with such teares1 feare1 and reverence as it was an admirable thing1 saying that they did eate the flesh and bones of ,god1 wherewith they were grieved4 ,such as had any sicke folkes demaunded thereof for them1 and carried it with great reverence and veneration407#bfd7 ,before the festival in ,december1 which took place at the winter solstice1 an image of the god ,huitzilopochtli was made of seeds of various sorts kneaded into a dough with the blood of children4 ,the bones of the god were represented by pieces of acacia wood1 ,this image was placed on the chief altar of the temple1 and on the day of the festival the king offered incense to it4 ,early next day it was taken down and set on its feet in a great hall4 ,then a priest took a flint-tipped dart and hurled it into the breast of the dough-image1 piercing it through and through4 ,this was called 8killing the god ,huitzilopochtli so that his body might be eaten40 ,one of the priests cut out the heart of the image and gave it to the king to eat4 ,the rest of the image was divided into minute pieces1 of which every man great and small1 down to the male children in the cradle1 received one to eat4 ,but no woman might taste a morsel4 ,the ceremony was called teoqualo1 that is1 8god is eaten407#bfe7 ,at another festival the ,mexicans made little images in human shape to represent the cloud-capped mountains4 ,these images were made of paste of various seeds and were dressed in paper ornaments4 ,some people made five1 others ten1 others as many as fifteen of these paste images4 ,they were placed in the oratory of each house and worshipped4 ,four times in the course of the night offerings of food were made to them in tiny vessels2 and people sang and played the flute before them all night4 ,at break of day the priests stabbed the images with a weaver's instrument1 cut off their heads1 and tore out their hearts1 which they presented to the master of the house on a green saucer4 ,the bodies of the images were then eaten by all the family1 especially by the servants1 8in order that by eating them they might be preserved from certain distempers1 to which those persons who were negligent of worship to those deities conceived themselves to be subject40 7#bff7 ,we are now able to suggest an explanation of the proverb 8there are many ,manii at ,aricia407#bfg7 ,certain loaves made in the shape of men were called by the ,romans maniae1 and it appears that this kind of loaf was especially made at ,aricia47#bfh7 ,now1 ,mania1 the name of one of these loaves1 was also the name of the ,mother or ,grandmother of ,ghosts17#bfi7 to whom woollen effigies of men and women were dedicated at the festival of the ,compitalia4 ,these effigies were hung at the doors of all the houses in ,rome2 one effigy was hung up for every free person in the house1 and one effigy1 of a different kind1 for every slave4 ,the reason was that on this day the ghosts of the dead were believed to be going about1 and it was hoped that they would carry off the effigies at the door instead of the living people in the house4 ,according to tradition1 these woollen figures were substitutes for a former custom of sacrificing human beings47#bgj7 ,upon data so fragmentary and uncertain1 it is of course impossible to build with certainty2 but it seems worth suggesting that the loaves in human form1 which appear to have been baked at ,aricia1 were sacramental bread1 and that in the old days1 when the divine ,king of the ,wood was annually slain1 loaves were made in his image1 like the paste figures of the gods in ,mexico1 and were eaten sacramentally by his worshippers47#bga7 ,the ,mexican sacraments in honour of ,huitzilopochtli were also accompanied by the sacrifice of human victims4 ,the tradition that the founder of the sacred grove at ,aricia was a man named ,manius1 from whom many ,manii were descended1 would thus be an etymological myth invented to explain the name maniae as applied to these sacramental loaves4 ,a dim recollection of the original connection of these loaves with human sacrifices may perhaps be traced in the story that the effigies dedicated to ,mania at the ,compitalia were substitutes for human victims4 ,the story itself1 however1 is probably devoid of foundation1 since the practice of putting up dummies to divert the attention of demons from living people is not uncommon4 ,for example1 when an epidemic is raging1 some of the ,dyaks of ,borneo set up wooden images at their doors1 in the hope that the demons of the plague will be deceived into carrying off the images instead of the people47#bgb7 ,the ,minahassa of ,celebes will sometimes transport a sick man to another house1 leaving on his bed a dummy made up of a pillow and clothes4 ,this dummy the demon is supposed to take by mistake for the sick man1 who consequently recovers47#bgc7 ,similarly in ,burma it is thought that a patient will recover if an effigy be buried in a small coffin47#bgd7 ,the custom of killing the god has now been traced amongst peoples who have reached the agricultural stage of society4 ,we have seen that the spirit of the corn1 or of other cultivated plants1 is commonly represented either in human or in animal form1 and that a custom has prevailed of killing annually either the human or the animal representative of the god4 ,the reason for thus killing the corn-spirit in the person of his representative has been given implicitly in the earlier part of this chapter4 ,but1 further1 we have found a widespread custom of eating the god sacramentally1 either in the shape of the man or animal who represents the god1 or in the shape of bread made in human or animal form4 ,the reasons for thus partaking of the body of the god are1 from the primitive standpoint1 simple enough4 ,the savage commonly believes that by eating the flesh of an animal or man he acquires not only the physical1 but even the moral and intellectual qualities which were characteristic of that animal or man4 ,to take examples4 ,the ,creeks1 ,cherokees1 and kindred tribes of ,north ,american ,indians 8believe that nature is possessed of such a property1 as to transfuse into men and animals the qualities1 either of the food they use1 or of those objects that are presented to their senses2 he who feeds on venison is1 according to their physical system1 swifter and more sagacious than the man who lives on the flesh of the clumsy bear1 or helpless dunghill fowls1 the slow-footed tame cattle1 or the heavy wallowing swine4 ,this is the reason that several of their old men recommend1 and say1 that formerly their greatest chieftains observed a constant rule in their diet1 and seldom ate of any animal of a gross quality1 or heavy motion of body1 fancying it conveyed a dulness through the whole system1 and disabled them from exerting themselves with proper vigour in their martial1 civil1 and religious duties407#bge7 ,the ,zaparo ,indians of ,south ,america 8will1 unless from necessity1 in most cases not eat any heavy meats1 such as tapir and peccary1 but confine themselves to birds1 monkeys1 deer1 fish1 etc41 principally because they argue that the heavier meats make them unwieldy1 like the animals who supply the flesh1 impeding their agility1 and unfitting them for the chase407#bgf7 ,the ,namaquas abstain from eating the flesh of hares1 because they think it would make them faint-hearted as a hare4 ,but they eat the flesh of the lion1 or drink the blood of the leopard or lion to get the courage and strength of these beasts47#bgg7 ,the ,arabs of ,eastern ,africa believe that an unguent of lion's fat inspires a man with boldness1 and makes the wild beasts flee in terror before him47#bgh7 ,when a serious disease has attacked a ,zulu kraal1 the medicine-man takes the bone of a very old dog1 which has died a natural death from mere old age1 or the bone of an old cow1 bull1 or other very old animal1 and administers it to the healthy as well as to the sick people1 in order that they may live to be as old as the animal of whose bone they have partaken47#bgi7 ,the ,miris of ,northern ,india prize tiger's flesh as food for men2 it gives them strength and courage4 ,but 8it is not suited for women2 it would make them too strong-minded407#bhj7 ,amongst the ,dyaks of ,north-west ,borneo young men and warriors may not eat venison1 because it would make them as timid as deer2 but the women and very old men are free to eat it47#bha7 ,men of the ,buro and ,aru ,islands1 ,east ,indies1 eat the flesh of dogs in order to be bold and nimble in war47#bhb7 ,amongst the ,papuans of the ,port ,moresby and ,motumotu districts1 ,new ,guinea1 young lads eat strong pig1 wallaby1 and large fish1 in order to acquire the strength of the animal or fish47#bhc7 ,in ,corea the bones of tigers fetch a higher price than those of leopards as a means of inspiring courage4 ,a ,chinaman in ,soul bought and ate a whole tiger to make himself brave and fierce47#bhd7 ,the special seat of courage1 according to the ,chinese1 is the gall-bladder2 so they sometimes procure the gall-bladders of tigers and bears1 and eat the bile in the belief that it will give them courage47#bhe7 ,in ,norse history1 ,ingiald1 son of ,king ,aunund1 was timid in his youth1 but after eating the heart of a wolf he became very bold2 and ,hialto gained strength and courage by eating the heart of a bear and drinking its blood47#bhf7 ,in ,morocco lethargic patients are given ants to swallow2 and to eat lion's flesh will make a coward brave47#bhg7 ,when a child is late in learning to speak1 the ,turks of ,central ,asia will give it the tongues of certain birds to eat47#bhh7 ,a ,north ,american ,indian thought that brandy must be a decoction of hearts and tongues1 8,because10 said he1 8after drinking it ,i fear nothing1 and ,i talk wonderfully407#bhi7 ,the people of ,darfur1 in ,central ,africa1 think that the liver is the seat of the soul1 and that a man may enlarge his soul by eating the liver of an animal4 8,whenever an animal is killed its liver is taken out and eaten1 but the people are most careful not to touch it with their hands1 as it is considered sacred2 it is cut up in small pieces and eaten raw1 the bits being conveyed to the mouth on the point of a knife1 or the sharp point of a stick4 ,any one who may accidentally touch the liver is strictly forbidden to partake of it1 which prohibition is regarded as a great misfortune for him40 ,women are not allowed to eat liver1 because they have no soul47#bij7 ,again1 the flesh and blood of brave men are commonly eaten and drunk to inspire bravery4 ,the ,australian ,kamilaroi eat the heart and liver of a brave man to get his courage47#bia7 ,it is a common practice with the ,australian blacks to kill a man1 cut out his caul-fat1 and rub themselves with it1 8the belief being that all the qualifications1 both physical and mental1 of the previous owner of the fat were thus communicated to him who used it407#bib7 ,the ,italones of the ,philippine ,islands drink the blood of their slain enemies1 and eat part of the back of their heads and of their entrails raw1 in order to acquire their courage4 ,for the same reason the ,efugaos1 another tribe of the ,philippines1 suck the brains of their foes47#bic7 ,amongst the ,kimbunda of ,western ,africa1 when a new king succeeds to the throne1 a brave prisoner of war is killed in order that the king and nobles may eat his flesh1 and so acquire his strength and courage47#bid7 ,the ,basutos cut off pieces of their slain enemies and make them into a powder1 8which is supposed to communicate to them the courage1 skill1 and good fortune of their adversaries407#bie7 ,the ,zulus think that by eating the centre of the forehead and the eyebrow of an enemy they acquire the power of looking steadfastly at a foe47#bif7 ,in the ,shire ,highlands of ,africa those who kill a brave man eat his heart to get his courage47#big7 ,for the same purpose the ,chinese eat the bile of notorious bandits who have been executed47#bih7 ,in ,new ,zealand 8the chief was an atua god1 but there were powerful and powerless gods2 each naturally sought to make himself one of the former2 the plan therefore adopted was to incorporate the spirits of others with their own2 thus1 when a warrior slew a chief he immediately gouged out his eyes and swallowed them1 the atua tonga1 or divinity1 being supposed to reside in that organ2 thus he not only killed the body1 but also possessed himself of the soul of his enemy1 and consequently the more chiefs he slew the greater did his divinity become407#bii7 ,it is now easy to understand why a savage should desire to partake of the flesh of an animal or man whom he regards as divine4 ,by eating the body of the god he shares in the god's attributes and powers4 ,and when the god is a corn-god1 the corn is his proper body2 when he is a vine-god1 the juice of the grape is his blood2 and so by eating the bread and drinking the wine the worshipper partakes of the real body and blood of his god4 ,thus the drinking of wine in the rites of a vine-god like ,dionysus is not an act of revelry1 it is a solemn sacrament47#cjj7 #ab4--,killing the divine animal4 ,it remains to show that hunting and pastoral tribes1 as well as agricultural peoples1 have been in the habit of killing their gods4 ,the gods whom hunters and shepherds adore and kill are animals pure and simple1 not animals regarded as embodiments of other supernatural beings4 ,our first example is drawn from the ,indians of ,california1 who1 living in a fertile country7#cja7 under a serene and temperate sky1 nevertheless rank near the bottom of the savage scale4 ,the ,acagchemen tribe of ,san ,juan ,capistrano adored the great buzzard4 ,once a year1 at a great festival called ,panes or bird-feast1 they carried one of these birds in procession to their chief temple1 which seems to have been merely an unroofed enclosure of stakes4 ,here they killed the bird without losing a drop of its blood4 ,the skin was removed entire and preserved with the feathers as a relic or for the purpose of making the festal garment or paelt4 ,the carcass was buried in a hole in the temple1 and the old women gathered round the grave weeping and moaning bitterly1 while they threw various kinds of seeds or pieces of food on it1 crying out1 8,why did you run away8 ,would you not have been better with us80 and so on4 ,they said that the ,panes was a woman who had run off to the mountains and there been changed into a bird by the god ,chinigchinich4 ,they believed that though they sacrificed the bird annually1 she came to life again and returned to her home in the mountains4 ,moreover they thought that 8as often as the bird was killed1 it became multiplied2 because every year all the different ,capitanes celebrated the same feast of the ,panes1 and were firm in the opinion that the birds sacrificed were but one and the same female407#cjb7 ,the unity in multiplicity thus postulated by the ,californians is very noticeable and helps to explain their motive for killing the divine bird4 ,the notion of the life of a species as distinct from that of an individual1 easy and obvious as it seems to us1 appears to be one which the ,californian savage cannot grasp4 ,he is unable to conceive the life of the species otherwise than as an individual life1 and therefore as exposed to the same dangers and calamities which menace and finally destroy the life of the individual4 ,apparently he thinks that a species left to itself will grow old and die like an individual1 and that therefore some step must be taken to save from extinction the particular species which he regards as divine4 ,the only means he can think of to avert the catastrophe is to kill a member of the species in whose veins the tide of life is still running strong and has not yet stagnated among the fens of old age4 ,the life thus diverted from one channel will flow1 he fancies1 more freshly and freely in a new one2 in other words1 the slain animal will revive and enter on a new term of life with all the spring and energy of youth4 ,to us this reasoning is transparently absurd1 but so too is the custom4 ,if a better explanation1 that is1 one more consonant with the facts and with the principles of savage thought1 can be given of the custom1 ,i will willingly withdraw the one here proposed4 ,a similar confusion1 it may be noted1 between the individual life and the life of the species was made by the ,samoans4 ,each family had for its god a particular species of animal2 yet the death of one of these animals1 for example an owl1 was not the death of the god1 8he was supposed to be yet alive1 and incarnate in all the owls in existence407#cjc7 ,the rude ,californian rite which we have just considered has a close parallel in the religion of ancient ,egypt4 ,the ,thebans and all other ,egyptians who worshipped the ,theban god ,ammon held rams to be sacred and would not sacrifice them4 ,but once a year at the festival of ,ammon they killed a ram1 skinned it1 and clothed the image of the god in the skin4 ,then they mourned over the ram and buried it in a sacred tomb4 ,the custom was explained by a story that ,zeus had once exhibited himself to ,hercules clad in the fleece and wearing the head of a ram47#cjd7 ,of course the ram in this case was simply the beast-god of ,thebes1 as the wolf was the beast-god of ,lycopolis1 and the goat was the beast-god of ,mendes4 ,in other words1 the ram was ,ammon himself4 ,on the monuments1 it is true1 ,ammon appears in semi-human form with the body of a man and the head of a ram47#cje7 ,but this only shows that he was in the usual chrysalis state through which beast-gods regularly pass before they emerge as full-fledged anthropomorphic gods4 ,the ram1 therefore1 was killed1 not as a sacrifice to ,ammon1 but as the god himself1 whose identity with the beast is plainly shown by the custom of clothing his image in the skin of the slain ram4 ,the reason for thus killing the ram-god annually may have been that which ,i have assigned for the general custom of killing the god and for the special ,californian custom of killing the divine buzzard4 ,as applied to ,egypt1 this explanation is supported by the analogy of the bull-god ,apis1 who was not suffered to outlive a certain term of years47#cjf7 ,the intention of thus putting a limit to the life of the god was1 as ,i have argued1 to secure him from the weakness and frailty of age4 ,the same reasoning would explain the custom--probably an older one--of putting the beast-god to death annually1 as was done with the ram of ,thebes4 ,one point in the ,theban ritual--the application of the skin to the image of the god--deserves special attention4 ,if the god was at first the living ram1 his representation by an image must have originated later4 ,but how did it originate8 ,the answer to this question is perhaps furnished by the practice of preserving the skin of the animal which is slain as divine4 ,the ,californians1 as we have seen1 preserved the skin of the buzzard2 and the skin of the goat1 which is killed on the harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit1 is kept for various superstitious purposes47#cjg7 ,the skin in fact was kept as a token or memorial of the god1 or rather as containing in it a part of the divine life1 and it had only to be stuffed or stretched upon a frame to become a regular image of him4 ,at first an image of this kind would be renewed annually17#cjh7 the new image being provided by the skin of the slain animal4 ,but from annual images to permanent images the transition is easy4 ,we have seen that the older custom of cutting a new ,may-tree every year was superseded by the practice of maintaining a permanent ,may-pole1 which was1 however1 annually decked with fresh leaves and flowers and even surmounted each year by a fresh young tree47#cji7 ,similarly when the stuffed skin1 as a representative of the god1 was replaced by a permanent image of him in wood1 stone1 or metal1 the permanent image was annually clad in the fresh skin of the slain animal4 ,when this stage had been reached1 the custom of killing the ram came naturally to be interpreted as a sacrifice offered to the image1 and was explained by a story like that of ,ammon and ,hercules4 ,west ,africa furnishes another example of the annual killing of a sacred animal and the preservation of its skin4 ,the negroes of ,issapoo1 in the island of ,fernando ,po1 regard the cobra-capella as their guardian deity1 who can do them good or ill1 bestow riches or inflict disease and death4 ,the skin of one of these reptiles is hung tail downwards from a branch of the highest tree in the public square1 and the placing of it on the tree is an annual ceremony4 ,as soon as the ceremony is over1 all children born within the past year are carried out and their hands made to touch the tail of the serpent's skin47#caj7 ,the latter custom is clearly a way of placing the infants under the protection of the tribal god4 ,similarly in ,senegambia a python is expected to visit every child of the ,python clan within eight days after birth27#caa7 and the ,psylli1 a ,snake clan of ancient ,africa1 used to expose their infants to snakes in the belief that the snakes would not harm true-born children of the clan47#cab7 ,in the ,californian1 ,egyptian1 and ,fernando ,po customs the animal slain probably is1 or once was1 a totem4 ,at all events1 in all three cases the worship of the animal seems to have no relation to agriculture1 and may therefore be presumed to date from the hunter or pastoral stage of society4 ,the same may be said of the following custom1 though the people who practise it--the ,zuni ,indians of ,new ,mexico--are now settled in walled villages or towns of a peculiar type1 and practise agriculture and the arts of pottery and weaving4 ,but the ,zuni custom is marked by certain features which appear to place it in a somewhat different category from the preceding cases4 ,it may be well therefore to describe it at full length in the words of an eye-witness4 8,with midsummer the heat became intense4 ,my brother i4e4 adopted ,indian brother and ,i sat1 day after day1 in the cool under-rooms of our house1--the latter sic busy with his quaint forge and crude appliances1 working ,mexican coins over into bangles1 girdles1 ear-rings1 buttons1 and what not for savage ornament4444 ,one day as ,i sat watching him1 a procession of fifty men went hastily down the hill1 and off westward over the plain4 ,they were solemnly led by a painted and shell-bedecked priest1 and followed by the torch-bearing ,shu-lu-wit-si1 or ,god of ,fire4 ,after they had vanished1 ,i asked old brother what it all meant4 8 #8,they are going1' said he1 #8to the city of the ,ka-ka and the home of our others4' 8,four days after1 toward sunset1 costumed and masked in the beautiful paraphernalia of the ,ka-k'ok-shi1 or #8,good ,dance1' they returned in file up the same pathway1 each bearing in his arms a basket filled with living1 squirming turtles1 which he regarded and carried as tenderly as a mother would her infant4 ,some of the wretched reptiles were carefully wrapped in soft blankets1 their heads and forefeet protruding1--and1 mounted on the backs of the plume-bedecked pilgrims1 made ludicrous but solemn caricatures of little children in the same position4 ,while ,i was at supper upstairs that evening1 the governor's brother-in-law came in4 ,he was welcomed by the family as if a messenger from heaven4 ,he bore in his tremulous fingers one of the much abused and rebellious turtles4 ,paint still adhered to his hands and bare feet1 which led me to infer that he had formed one of the sacred embassy4 8 #8,so you went to ,ka-thlu-el-lon1 did you8' ,i asked4 8 #8,e'e1' replied the weary man1 in a voice husky with long chanting1 as he sank1 almost exhausted1 on a roll of skins which had been placed for him1 and tenderly laid the turtle on the floor4 ,no sooner did the creature find itself at liberty than it made off as fast as its lame legs would take it4 ,of one accord the family forsook dish1 spoon1 and drinking-cup1 and grabbing from a sacred meal-bowl whole handfuls of the contents1 hurriedly followed the turtle about the room1 into dark corners1 around water-jars1 behind the grinding-troughs1 and out into the middle of the floor again1 praying and scattering meal on its back as they went4 ,at last1 strange to say1 it approached the footsore man who had brought it4 8 #8,ha6' he exclaimed1 with emotion2 #8see1 it comes to me again2 ah1 what great favours the fathers of all grant me this day1' and passing his hand gently over the sprawling animal1 he inhaled from his palm deeply and long1 at the same time invoking the favour of the gods4 ,then he leaned his chin upon his hand1 and with large wistful eyes regarded his ugly captive as it sprawled about1 blinking its meal-bedimmed eyes1 and clawing the smooth floor in memory of its native element4 ,at this juncture ,i ventured a question3 8 #8,why do you not let him go1 or give him some water8' 8,slowly the man turned his eyes toward me1 an odd mixture of pain1 indignation1 and pity on his face1 while the worshipful family stared at me with holy horror4 8 #8,poor younger brother6' he said at last1 #8know you not how precious it is8 ,it die8 ,it will not die2 ,i tell you1 it cannot die4' 8 #8,but it will die if you don't feed it and give it water4' 8 #8,i tell you it cannot die2 it will only change houses to-morrow1 and go back to the home of its brothers4 ,ah1 well6 ,how should you know8' he mused4 ,turning to the blinded turtle again3 #8,ah6 my poor dear lost child or parent1 my sister or brother to have been6 ,who knows which8 ,maybe my own great-grandfather or mother6' ,and with this he fell to weeping most pathetically1 and1 tremulous with sobs1 which were echoed by the women and children1 he buried his face in his hands4 ,filled with sympathy for his grief1 however mistaken1 ,i raised the turtle to my lips and kissed its cold shell2 then depositing it on the floor1 hastily left the grief-stricken family to their sorrows4 ,next day1 with prayers and tender beseechings1 plumes1 and offerings1 the poor turtle was killed1 and its flesh and bones were removed and deposited in the little river1 that it might #8return once more to eternal life among its comrades in the dark waters of the lake of the dead4' ,the shell1 carefully scraped and dried1 was made into a dance-rattle1 and1 covered by a piece of buckskin1 it still hangs from the smoke-stained rafters of my brother's house4 ,once a ,navajo tried to buy it for a ladle2 loaded with indignant reproaches1 he was turned out of the house4 ,were any one to venture the suggestion that the turtle no longer lived1 his remark would cause a flood of tears1 and he would be reminded that it had only #8changed houses and gone to live for ever in the home of 8our lost others40 ' 07#cac7 ,in this custom we find expressed in the clearest way a belief in the transmigration of human souls into the bodies of turtles47#cad7 ,the same belief in transmigration is held by the ,moqui ,indians1 who belong to the same race as the ,zunis4 ,the ,moquis are divided into totem clans--the ,bear clan1 ,deer clan1 ,wolf clan1 ,hare clan1 etc42 they believe that the ancestors of the clans were bears1 deer1 wolves1 hares1 etc42 and that at death the members of each clan become bears1 deer1 etc47#cae7 ,the ,zuni are also divided into clans1 the totems of which agree closely with those of the ,moquis1 and one of their totems is the turtle47#caf7 ,thus their belief in transmigration into the turtle is probably one of the regular articles of their totem faith4 ,what then is the meaning of killing a turtle in which the soul of a kinsman is believed to be present8 ,apparently the object is to keep up a communication with the other world in which the souls of the departed are believed to be assembled in the form of turtles4 ,it is a common belief that the spirits of the dead return occasionally to their old homes2 and accordingly the unseen visitors are welcomed and feasted by the living1 and then sent upon their way47#cag7 ,in the ,zuni ceremony the dead are fetched back in the form of turtles1 and the killing of the turtles is the way of sending back the souls to the spirit-land4 ,thus the general explanation given above of the custom of killing a god seems inapplicable to the ,zuni custom1 the true meaning of which is somewhat obscure4 ,doubt also hangs over the meaning of the bear-sacrifice offered by the ,ainos1 a primitive people who are found in the ,japanese islands of ,yesso and ,saghalien1 and also in the southern of the ,kurile ,islands4 ,it is not quite easy to make out the attitude of the ,ainos towards the bear4 ,on the one hand they give it the name of ,kamui or 8god02 but as they apply the same word to strangers17#cah7 it probably means no more than a being supposed to be endowed with superhuman powers4 ,again1 it is said 8the bear is their chief divinity207#cai7 8in the religion of the ,ainos the bear plays a chief part207#cbj7 8amongst the animals it is especially the bear which receives an idolatrous veneration207#cba7 8they worship it after their fashion4444 ,there is no doubt that this wild beast inspires more of the feeling which prompts worship than the inanimate forces of nature1 and the ,ainos may be distinguished as bear-worshippers407#cbb7 ,yet1 on the other hand1 they kill the bear whenever they can27#cbc7 8the men spend the autumn1 winter1 and spring in hunting deer and bears4 ,part of their tribute or taxes is paid in skins1 and they subsist on the dried meat207#cbd7 bear's flesh is indeed one of their staple foods2 they eat it both fresh and salted27#cbe7 and the skins of bears furnish them with clothing47#cbf7 ,in fact1 the 8worship0 of which writers on this subject speak appears to be paid only to the dead animal4 ,thus1 although they kill a bear whenever they can1 8in the process of dissecting the carcass they endeavour to conciliate the deity1 whose representative they have slain1 by making elaborate obeisances and deprecatory salutations207#cbg7 8when a bear is trapped or wounded by an arrow1 the hunters go through an apologetic or propitiatory ceremony407#cbh7 ,the skulls of slain bears receive a place of honour in their huts1 or are set up on sacred posts outside the huts1 and are treated with much respect2 libations of sake1 an intoxicating liquor1 are offered to them47#cbi7 ,the skulls of foxes are also fastened to the sacred posts outside the huts2 they are regarded as charms against evil spirits1 and are consulted as oracles47#ccj7 ,yet it is expressly said1 8,the live fox is revered just as little as the bear2 rather they avoid it as much as possible1 considering it a wily animal407#cca7 ,the bear cannot1 therefore1 be described as a sacred animal of the ,ainos1 and it certainly is not a totem2 for they do not call themselves bears1 they appear to have no legend of their descent from a bear17#ccb7 and they kill and eat the animal freely4 ,but it is the bear-festival of the ,ainos which concerns us here4 ,towards the end of winter a young bear is caught and brought into the village4 ,at first he is suckled by an ,aino woman2 afterwards he is fed on fish4 ,when he grows so strong that he threatens to break out of the wooden cage in which he is confined1 the feast is held4 ,but 8it is a peculiarly striking fact that the young bear is not kept merely to furnish a good meal2 rather he is regarded and honoured as a fetish1 or even as a sort of higher being407#ccc7 ,the festival is generally celebrated in ,september or ,october4 ,before it takes place the ,ainos apologise to their gods1 alleging that they have treated the bear kindly as long as they could1 now they can feed him no longer1 and are obliged to kill him4 ,a man who gives a bear-feast invites his relations and friends2 in a small village nearly the whole community takes part in the feast4 ,one of these festivals has been described by an eyewitness1 ,dr4 ,scheube47#ccd7 ,on entering the hut he found about thirty ,ainos present1 men1 women1 and children1 all dressed in their best4 ,the master of the house first offered a libation on the fireplace to the god of the fire1 and the guests followed his example4 ,then a libation was offered to the house-god in his sacred corner of the hut4 ,meanwhile the housewife1 who had nursed the bear1 sat by herself1 silent and sad1 bursting now and then into tears4 ,her grief was obviously unaffected1 and it deepened as the festival went on4 ,next1 the master of the house and some of the guests went out of the hut and offered libations before the bear's cage4 ,a few drops were presented to the bear in a saucer1 which he at once upset4 ,then the women and girls danced round the cage1 their faces turned towards it1 their knees slightly bent1 rising and hopping on their toes4 ,as they danced they clapped their hands and sang a monotonous song4 ,the housewife and a few old women1 who might have nursed many bears1 danced tearfully1 stretching out their arms to the bear1 and addressing it in terms of endearment4 ,the young folks were less affected2 they laughed as well as sang4 ,disturbed by the noise1 the bear began to rush about his cage and howl lamentably4 ,next libations were offered to the inabos or sacred wands which stand outside of an ,aino hut4 ,these wands are about a couple of feet high1 and are whittled at the top into spiral shavings47#cce7 ,five new wands with bamboo leaves attached to them had been set up for the festival4 ,this is regularly done when a bear is killed2 the leaves mean that the bear may come to life again4 ,then the bear was let out of his cage1 a rope was thrown round his neck1 and he was led about in the neighbourhood of the hut4 ,while this was being done the men1 headed by a chief1 shot at the bear with arrows tipped with wooden buttons4 ,dr4 ,scheube had to do so also4 ,then the bear was taken before the sacred wands1 a stick was put in his mouth1 nine men knelt on him and pressed his neck against a beam4 ,in five minutes the bear had expired without uttering a sound4 ,meantime the women and girls had taken post behind the men1 where they danced1 lamenting1 and beating the men who were killing the bear4 ,the bear's carcass was next placed on a mat before the sacred wands2 and a sword and quiver1 taken from the wands1 were hung round the beast's neck4 ,being a she-bear1 it was also adorned with a necklace and ear-rings4 ,then food and drink were offered to it1 in the shape of millet-broth1 millet-cakes1 and a pot of sake4 ,the men now sat down on mats before the dead bear1 offered libations to it1 and drank deep4 ,meanwhile the women and girls had laid aside all marks of sorrow1 and danced merrily1 none more merrily than the old women4 ,when the mirth was at its height two young ,ainos1 who had let the bear out of his cage1 mounted the roof of the hut and threw cakes of millet among the company1 who all scrambled for them without distinction of age or sex4 ,the bear was next skinned and disembowelled1 and the trunk severed from the head1 to which the skin was left hanging4 ,the blood1 caught in cups1 was eagerly swallowed by the men4 ,none of the women or children appeared to drink the blood1 though custom did not forbid them to do so4 ,the liver was cut in small pieces and eaten raw1 with salt1 the women and children getting their share4 ,the flesh and the rest of the vitals were taken into the house to be kept till the next day but one1 and then to be divided among the persons who had been present at the feast4 ,blood and liver were offered to ,dr4 ,scheube4 ,while the bear was being disembowelled1 the women and girls danced the same dance which they had danced at the beginning--not1 however1 round the cage1 but in front of the sacred wands4 ,at this dance the old women1 who had been merry a moment before1 again shed tears freely4 ,after the brain had been extracted from the bear's head and swallowed with salt1 the skull1 detached from the skin1 was hung on a pole beside the sacred wands4 ,the stick with which the bear had been gagged was also fastened to the pole1 and so were the sword and quiver which had been hung on the carcass4 ,the latter were removed in about an hour1 but the rest remained standing4 ,the whole company1 men and women1 danced noisily before the pole2 and another drinking-bout1 in which the women joined1 closed the festival4 ,the mode of killing the bear is described somewhat differently by ,miss ,bird1 who1 however1 did not witness the ceremony4 ,she says3 8,yells and shouts are used to excite the bear2 and when he becomes much agitated a chief shoots him with an arrow1 inflicting a slight wound which maddens him1 on which the bars of the cage are raised1 and he springs forth1 very furious4 ,at this stage the ,ainos run upon him with various weapons1 each one striving to inflict a wound1 as it brings good luck to draw his blood4 ,as soon as he falls down exhausted his head is cut off1 and the weapons with which he has been wounded are offered to it1 and he is asked to avenge himself upon them40 ,at ,usu1 on ,volcano ,bay1 when the bear is being killed1 the ,ainos shout1 8,we kill you1 ,o bear6 come back soon into an ,aino407#ccf7 ,a very respectable authority1 ,dr4 ,siebold1 states that the bear's own heart is frequently offered to the dead animal1 in order to assure him that he is still in life47#ccg7 ,this1 however1 is denied by ,dr4 ,scheube1 who says the heart is eaten47#cch7 ,perhaps the custom may be observed in some places1 though not in others4 ,the ,gilyaks1 a ,tunguzian people of ,eastern ,siberia17#cci7 hold a bear festival of the same sort4 8,the bear is the object of the most refined solicitude of an entire village and plays the chief part in their religious ceremonies407#cdj7 ,an old she-bear is shot and her cub is reared1 but not suckled in the village4 ,when the bear is big enough he is taken from his cage and dragged through the village4 ,but first he is led to the bank of the river1 for this is believed to ensure abundance of fish to each family4 ,he is then taken into every house in the village1 where fish1 brandy1 etc4 are offered to him4 ,some people prostrate themselves before the beast4 ,his entrance into a house is supposed to bring a blessing2 and if he snuffs at the food offered to him1 this also is a blessing4 ,nevertheless they tease and worry1 poke and tickle the animal continually1 so that he is surly and snappish47#cda7 ,after being thus taken to every house1 he is tied to a peg and shot dead with arrows4 ,his head is then cut off1 decked with shavings1 and placed on the table where the feast is set out4 ,here they beg pardon of the beast and worship him4 ,then his flesh is roasted and eaten in special vessels of wood finely carved4 ,they do not eat the flesh raw nor drink the blood1 as the ,ainos do4 ,the brain and entrails are eaten last2 and the skull1 still decked with shavings1 is placed on a tree near the house4 ,then the people sing and both sexes dance in ranks1 as bears47#cdb7 ,the ,goldi1 neighbours of the ,gilyaks1 treat the bear in much the same way4 ,they hunt and kill it2 but sometimes they capture a live bear and keep him in a cage1 feeding him well and calling him their son and brother4 ,then at a great festival he is taken from his cage1 paraded about with marked consideration1 and afterwards killed and eaten4 8,the skull1 jaw-bones1 and ears are then suspended on a tree1 as an antidote against evil spirits2 but the flesh is eaten and much relished1 for they believe that all who partake of it acquire a zest for the chase1 and become courageous407#cdc7 ,in the treatment of the captive bear by these tribes there are features which can hardly be distinguished from worship4 ,such in particular is the ,gilyak custom of leading him from house to house1 that every family may receive his blessing--a custom parallel to the ,european one of taking a ,may-tree or a personal representative of the tree-spirit from door to door in spring1 in order that all may share the fresh energies of reviving nature4 ,again the expected resurrection of the bear is avowedly indicated by the bamboo leaves and by the prayer addressed to him to 8come back soon into an ,aino40 ,and that the eating of his flesh is regarded as a sacrament is made probable by the ,gilyak custom of reserving special vessels to hold the bear's flesh on this solemn occasion4 ,how is the reverence thus paid to particular bears to be reconciled with the fact that bears in general are habitually hunted and killed by these tribes for the sake of their flesh and skins8 ,on the one hand1 the bear is treated as a god2 on the other hand1 as a creature wholly subservient to human needs4 ,the apparent contradiction vanishes when we place ourselves at the savage point of view4 ,the savage1 we must remember1 believes that animals are endowed with feelings and intelligence like those of men1 and that1 like men1 they possess souls which survive the death of their bodies either to wander about as disembodied spirits or to be born again in animal form4 ,to the savage1 therefore1 who regards all living creatures as practically on a footing of equality with man17#cdd7 the act of killing and eating an animal must wear a very different aspect from that which the same act presents to us who regard the intelligence of animals as far inferior to our own and deny them the possession of immortal souls4 ,thus on the principles of his rude philosophy the savage who slays an animal believes himself exposed to the vengeance either of its disembodied spirit or of all the other animals of the same species1 whom he considers as knit together1 like men1 by the ties of kin and the obligations of the blood feud1 and therefore as bound to resent the injury done to one of their number4 ,accordingly the savage makes it a rule to spare the life of those animals which he has no pressing motive for killing1 at least such fierce and dangerous animals as are likely to exact a bloody vengeance for the slaughter of one of their kind4 ,crocodiles are animals of this sort4 ,they are only found in hot countries where1 as a rule1 food is abundant and primitive man has therefore no reason to kill them for the sake of their tough and unpalatable flesh4 ,hence it is a general rule among savages to spare crocodiles1 or rather only to kill them in obedience to the law of blood feud1 that is1 as a retaliation for the slaughter of men by crocodiles4 ,for example1 the ,dyaks of ,borneo will not kill a crocodile unless a crocodile has first killed a man4 8,for why1 say they1 should they commit an act of aggression1 when he and his kindred can so easily repay them8 ,but should the alligator take a human life1 revenge becomes a sacred duty of the living relatives1 who will trap the man-eater in the spirit of an officer of justice pursuing a criminal4 ,others1 even then1 hang back1 reluctant to embroil themselves in a quarrel which does not concern them4 ,the man-eating alligator is supposed to be pursued by a righteous ,nemesis2 and whenever one is caught they have a profound conviction that it must be the guilty one1 or his accomplice407#cde7 ,so the natives of ,madagascar never kill a crocodile 8except in retaliation for one of their friends who has been destroyed by a crocodile4 ,they believe that the wanton destruction of one of these reptiles will be followed by the loss of human life1 in accordance with the principle of lex talionis40 ,the people who live near the lake ,itasy in ,madagascar make a yearly proclamation to the crocodiles1 announcing that they will revenge the death of some of their friends by killing as many crocodiles in return and warning all well-disposed crocodiles to keep out of the way1 as they have no quarrel with them1 but only with their evil-minded relations who have taken human life47#cdf7 ,the ,foulahs of ,senegambia respect crocodiles on similar grounds47#cdg7 ,the ,seminoles1 ,sioux1 and ,iowa ,indians of ,north ,america spare the rattle-snake because they fear that the ghost of the dead rattle-snake would incite its kinsfolk to take vengeance47#cdh7 ,no consideration will induce a ,sumatran to catch or wound a tiger except in self-defence or immediately after the tiger has destroyed a friend or relation4 ,when a ,european has set traps for tigers1 the people of the neighbourhood have been known to go by night to the place and explain to the tiger that the traps are not set by them nor with their consent47#cdi7 ,but the savage clearly cannot afford to spare all animals4 ,he must either eat some of them or starve1 and when the question thus comes to be whether he or the animal must perish1 he is forced to overcome his superstitious scruples and take the life of the beast4 ,at the same time he does all he can to appease his victims and their kinsfolk4 ,even in the act of killing them he testifies his respect for them1 endeavours to excuse or even conceal his share in procuring their death1 and promises that their remains will be honourably treated4 ,by thus robbing death of its terrors he hopes to reconcile his victims to their fate and to induce their fellows to come and be killed also4 ,for example1 it was a principle with the ,kamtchatkans never to kill a land or sea animal without first making excuses to it and begging that the animal would not take it ill4 ,also they offered it cedar-nuts1 etc4 to make it think that it was not a victim but a guest at a feast4 ,they believed that this prevented other animals of the same species from growing shy4 ,for instance1 after they had killed a bear and feasted on its flesh1 the host would bring the bear's head before the company1 wrap it in grass1 and present it with a variety of trifles4 ,then he would lay the blame of the bear's death on the ,russians1 and bid the beast wreak his wrath upon them4 ,also he would ask the bear to tell the other bears how well he had been treated1 that they too might come without fear4 ,seals1 sea-lions1 and other animals were treated by the ,kamtchatkans with the same ceremonious respect47#cej7 ,when the ,ostiaks have hunted and killed a bear1 they cut off its head and hang it on a tree4 ,then they gather round in a circle and pay it divine honours4 ,next they run towards the carcass uttering lamentations and saying1 8,who killed you8 ,it was the ,russians4 ,who cut off your head8 ,it was a ,russian axe4 ,who skinned you8 ,it was a knife made by a ,russian40 ,they explain1 too1 that the feathers which sped the arrow on its flight came from the wing of a strange bird1 and that they did nothing but let the arrow go4 ,they do all this because they believe that the wandering ghost of the slain bear would attack them on the first opportunity1 if they did not thus appease it47#cea7 ,or they stuff the skin of the slain bear with hay2 and after celebrating their victory with songs of mockery and insult1 after spitting on and kicking it1 they set it up on its hind legs1 8and then1 for a considerable time1 they bestow on it all the veneration due to a guardian god407#ceb7 ,when a party of ,koriaks have killed a bear or a wolf1 they skin the beast and dress one of themselves in the skin4 ,then they dance round the skin-clad man1 saying that it was not they who killed the animal1 but some one else1 generally a ,russian4 ,when they kill a fox they skin it1 wrap the body in grass1 and bid him go tell his companions how hospitably he has been received1 and how he has received a new cloak instead of his old one47#cec7 ,the ,finns used to try to persuade a slain bear that he had not been killed by them1 but had fallen from a tree1 etc47#ced7 ,when the ,lapps had succeeded in killing a bear with impunity1 they thanked him for not hurting them and for not breaking the clubs and spears which had given him his death wounds2 and they prayed that he would not visit his death upon them by sending storms or in any other way47#cee7 ,his flesh then furnished a feast4 ,the reverence of hunters for the bear whom they regularly kill and eat may thus be traced all along the northern region of the ,old ,world1 from ,behring's ,straits to ,lappland4 ,it reappears in similar forms in ,north ,america4 ,with the ,american ,indians a bear hunt was an important event for which they prepared by long fasts and purgations4 ,before setting out they offered expiatory sacrifices to the souls of bears slain in previous hunts1 and besought them to be favourable to the hunters4 ,when a bear was killed the hunter lit his pipe1 and putting the mouth of it between the bear's lips1 blew into the bowl1 filling the beast's mouth with smoke4 ,then he begged the bear not to be angry at having been killed1 and not to thwart him afterwards in the chase4 ,the carcass was roasted whole and eaten2 not a morsel of the flesh might be left over4 ,the head1 painted red and blue1 was hung on a post and addressed by orators1 who heaped praise on the dead beast47#cef7 ,when men of the ,bear clan in the ,otawa tribe killed a bear1 they made him a feast of his own flesh1 and addressed him thus3 8,cherish us no grudge because we have killed you4 ,you have sense2 you see that our children are hungry4 ,they love you and wish to take you into their bodies4 ,is it not glorious to be eaten by the children of a chief807#ceg7 ,amongst the ,nootka ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 when a bear had been killed1 it was brought in and seated before the head chief in an upright posture1 with a chief's bonnet1 wrought in figures1 on its head1 and its fur powdered over with white down4 ,a tray of provisions was then set before it1 and it was invited by words and gestures to eat4 ,the animal was then skinned1 boiled1 and eaten47#ceh7 ,a like respect is testified for other dangerous animals by the hunters who regularly trap and kill them4 ,when ,kafir hunters are in the act of showering spears on an elephant1 they call out1 8,don't kill us1 great captain2 don't strike or tread upon us1 mighty chief407#cei7 ,when he is dead they make their excuses to him1 pretending that his death was a pure accident4 ,as a mark of respect they bury his trunk with much solemn ceremony2 for they say that 8,the elephant is a great lord2 his trunk is his hand407#cfj7 ,amongst some tribes of ,eastern ,africa1 when a lion is killed1 the carcass is brought before the king1 who does homage to it by prostrating himself on the ground and rubbing his face on the muzzle of the beast47#cfa7 ,in some parts of ,western ,africa if a negro kills a leopard he is bound fast and brought before the chiefs for having killed one of their peers4 ,the man defends himself on the plea that the leopard is chief of the forest and therefore a stranger4 ,he is then set at liberty and rewarded4 ,but the dead leopard1 adorned with a chief's bonnet1 is set up in the village1 where nightly dances are held in its honour47#cfb7 8,before leaving a temporary camp in the forest1 where they have killed a tapir and dried the meat on a babracot1 ,indians of ,guiana invariably destroy this babracot1 saying that should a tapir passing that way find traces of the slaughter of one of his kind1 he would come by night on the next occasion when ,indians slept at that place1 and1 taking a man1 would babracot him in revenge407#cfc7 ,but it is not merely dangerous animals with whom the savage desires to keep on good terms4 ,it is true that the respect which he pays to wild beasts is in some measure proportioned to their strength and ferocity4 ,thus the savage ,stiens of ,cambodia1 believing that all animals have souls which roam about after their death1 beg an animal's pardon when they kill it1 lest its soul should come and torment them4 ,also they offer it sacrifices1 but these sacrifices are proportioned to the size and strength of the animal4 ,the ceremonies observed at the death of an elephant are conducted with much pomp and last seven days47#cfd7 ,similar distinctions are drawn by ,north ,american ,indians4 8,the bear1 the buffalo1 and the beaver are manidos divinities which furnish food4 ,the bear is formidable1 and good to eat4 ,they render ceremonies to him1 begging him to allow himself to be eaten1 although they know he has no fancy for it4 ,we kill you1 but you are not annihilated4 ,his head and paws are objects of homage4444 ,other animals are treated similarly from similar reasons4444 ,many of the animal manidos1 not being dangerous1 are often treated with contempt--the terrapin1 the weasel1 polecat1 etc407#cfe7 ,the distinction is instructive4 ,animals which are feared1 or are good to eat1 or both1 are treated with ceremonious respect2 those which are neither formidable nor good to eat are despised4 ,we have had examples of reverence paid to animals which are both feared and eaten4 ,it remains to prove that similar respect is shown for animals which1 without being feared1 are either eaten or valued for their skins4 ,when ,siberian sable-hunters have caught a sable1 no one is allowed to see it1 and they think that if good or evil be spoken of the captured sable1 no more sables will be caught4 ,a hunter has been known to express his belief that the sables could hear what was said of them as far off as ,moscow4 ,he said that the chief reason why the sable hunt was now so unproductive was that some live sables had been sent to ,moscow4 ,there they had been viewed with astonishment as strange animals1 and the sables cannot abide that4 ,another1 though minor1 cause of the diminished take of sable was1 he alleged1 that the world is now much worse than it used to be1 so that nowadays a hunter will sometimes hide the sable which he has got instead of putting it into the common stock4 ,this also1 said he1 the sables cannot abide47#cff7 ,alaskan hunters preserve the bones of sables and beavers out of reach of the dogs for a year and then bury them carefully1 8lest the spirits who look after the beavers and sables should consider that they are regarded with contempt1 and hence no more should be killed or trapped407#cfg7 ,the ,canadian ,indians were equally particular not to let their dogs gnaw the bones1 or at least certain of the bones1 of beavers4 ,they took the greatest pains to collect and preserve these bones and1 when the beaver had been caught in a net1 they threw them into the river4 ,to a ,jesuit who argued that the beavers could not possibly know what became of their bones1 the ,indians replied1 8,you know nothing about catching beavers and yet you will be talking about it4 ,before the beaver is stone dead1 his soul takes a turn in the hut of the man who is killing him and makes a careful note of what is done with his bones4 ,if the bones are given to the dogs1 the other beavers would get word of it and would not let themselves be caught4 ,whereas1 if their bones are thrown into the fire or a river1 they are quite satisfied2 and it is particularly gratifying to the net which caught them407#cfh7 ,before hunting the beaver they offered a solemn prayer to the ,great ,beaver1 and presented him with tobacco2 and when the chase was over1 an orator pronounced a funeral oration over the dead beavers4 ,he praised their spirit and wisdom4 8,you will hear no more10 said he1 8the voice of the chieftains who commanded you and whom you chose from among all the warrior beavers to give you laws4 ,your language1 which the medicine-men understand perfectly1 will be heard no more at the bottom of the lake4 ,you will fight no more battles with the otters1 your cruel foes4 ,no1 beavers6 ,but your skins shall serve to buy arms2 we will carry your smoked hams to our children2 we will keep the dogs from eating your bones1 which are so hard407#cfi7 ,the elan1 deer1 and elk were treated by the ,north ,american ,indians with the same punctilious respect1 and for the same reason4 ,their bones might not be given to the dogs nor thrown into the fire1 nor might their fat be dropped upon the fire1 because the souls of the dead animals were believed to see what was done to their bodies and to tell it to the other beasts1 living and dead4 ,hence1 if their bodies were ill used1 the animals of that species would not allow themselves to be taken1 neither in this world nor in the world to come47#cgj7 ,a sick man would be asked by the medicine-man whether he had not thrown away some of the flesh of the deer or turtle1 and if he answered yes1 the medicine-man would say1 8,that is what is killing you4 ,the soul of the deer or turtle has entered into your body to avenge the wrong you did it407#cga7 ,the ,sioux will not stick an awl or needle into a turtle1 for they are sure that1 if they were to do so1 the turtle would punish them at some future time47#cgb7 ,the ,canadian ,indians would not eat the embryos of the elk1 unless at the close of the hunting season2 otherwise the mother-elks would be shy and refuse to be caught47#cgc7 ,some of the ,indians believed that each sort of animal had its patron or genius who watched over and preserved it4 ,an ,indian girl having once picked up a dead mouse1 her father snatched the little creature from her and tenderly caressed and fondled it4 ,being asked why he did so1 he said that it was to appease the genius of mice1 in order that he might not torment his daughter for eating the mouse4 ,with that he handed the mouse to the girl and she ate it47#cgd7 ,for like reasons1 a tribe which depends for its subsistence1 chiefly or in part1 upon fishing is careful to treat the fish with every mark of honour and respect4 ,the ,indians of ,peru 8adored the fish that they caught in greatest abundance2 for they said that the first fish that was made in the world above 7for so they named ,heaven7 gave birth to all other fish of that species1 and took care to send them plenty of its children to sustain their tribe4 ,for this reason they worshipped sardines in one region1 where they killed more of them than of any other fish2 in others1 the skate2 in others1 the dogfish2 in others1 the golden fish for its beauty2 in others1 the crawfish2 in others1 for want of larger gods1 the crabs1 where they had no other fish1 or where they knew not how to catch and kill them4 ,in short1 they had whatever fish was most serviceable to them as their gods407#cge7 ,the ,otawa ,indians of ,canada1 believing that the souls of dead fish passed into other bodies of fish1 never burned fish bones1 for fear of displeasing the souls of the fish1 who would come no more to the nets47#cgf7 ,the ,hurons also refrained from throwing fish bones into the fire1 lest the souls of the fish should go and warn the other fish not to let themselves be caught1 since the ,hurons would burn their bones4 ,moreover1 they had men who preached to the fish and persuaded them to come and be caught4 ,a good preacher was much sought after1 for they thought that the exhortations of a clever man had a great effect in drawing the fish to the nets4 ,in the ,huron fishing village where the ,french missionary ,sagard stayed1 the preacher to the fish prided himself very much on his eloquence1 which was of a florid order4 ,every evening after supper1 having seen that all the people were in their places and that a strict silence was observed1 he preached to the fish4 ,his text was that the ,hurons did not burn fish bones4 8,then enlarging on his theme with extraordinary unction1 he exhorted and conjured and invited and implored the fish to come and be caught and to be of good courage and to fear nothing1 for it was all to serve their friends who honoured them and did not burn their bones407#cgg7 ,the disappearance of herring from the sea about ,heligoland in #aecj was attributed by the fishermen to the fact that two lads had whipped a freshly-caught herring and then flung it back into the sea47#cgh7 ,the natives of the ,duke of ,york ,island annually decorate a canoe with flowers and ferns1 lade it1 or are supposed to lade it1 with shell-money1 and set it adrift to pay the fish for those they lose by being caught47#cgi7 ,it is especially necessary to treat the first fish caught with consideration in order to conciliate the rest of the fish1 for their conduct may be supposed to be influenced by the reception given to the first of their kind which is taken4 ,accordingly the ,maoris always put back into the sea the first fish caught1 8with a prayer that it may tempt other fish to come and be caught407#chj7 ,still more stringent are the precautions taken when the fish are the first of the season4 ,on salmon rivers1 when the fish begin to run up the stream in spring1 they are received with much deference by tribes who1 like the ,indians of the ,pacific ,coast of ,north ,america1 subsist largely upon a fish diet4 ,in ,british ,columbia the ,indians used to go out to meet the first fish as they came up the river4 8,they paid court to them1 and would address them thus4 #8,you fish1 you fish2 you are all chiefs1 you are2 you are all chiefs4' 07#cha7 ,amongst the ,thlinket of ,alaska the first halibut of the season is carefully handled1 addressed as a chief1 and a festival is given in his honour1 after which the fishing goes on47#chb7 ,in spring1 when the winds blow soft from the south and the salmon begin to run up the ,klamath river1 the ,karoks of ,california dance for salmon1 to ensure a good catch4 ,one of the ,indians1 called the ,kareya or ,god-man1 retires to the mountains and fasts for ten days4 ,on his return the people flee1 while he goes to the river1 takes the first salmon of the catch1 eats some of it1 and with the rest kindles the sacred fire in the sweating-house4 8,no ,indian may take a salmon before this dance is held1 nor for ten days after it1 even if his family are starving40 ,the ,karoks also believe that a fisherman will take no salmon if the poles of which his spearing-booth is made were gathered on the river-side1 where the salmon might have seen them4 ,the poles must be brought from the top of the highest mountain4 ,the fisherman will also labour in vain if he uses the same poles a second year in booths or weirs1 8because the old salmon will have told the young ones about them407#chc7 ,among the ,indians of the ,columbia ,river1 8when the salmon make their first appearance in the river1 they are never allowed to be cut crosswise1 nor boiled1 but roasted2 nor are they allowed to be sold without the heart being first taken out1 nor to be kept over night1 but must be all consumed or eaten the day they are taken out of the water4 ,all these rules are observed for about ten days407#chd7 ,they think that if the heart of a fish were eaten by a stranger at the beginning of the season1 they would catch no more fish4 ,hence1 they roast and eat the hearts themselves47#che7 ,there is a favourite fish of the ,ainos which appears in their rivers about ,may and ,june4 ,they prepare for the fishing by observing rules of ceremonial purity1 and when they have gone out to fish1 the women at home must keep strict silence or the fish would hear them and disappear4 ,when the first fish is caught he is brought home and passed through a small opening at the end of the hut1 but not through the door2 for if he were passed through the door1 8the other fish would certainly see him and disappear407#chf7 ,this explains the custom observed by other savages of bringing game into their huts1 not by the door1 but by the window1 the smoke-hole1 or by a special opening at the back of the hut47#chg7 ,with some savages a special reason for respecting the bones of game1 and generally of the animals which they eat1 is a belief that1 if the bones are preserved1 they will in course of time be reclothed with flesh1 and thus the animal will come to life again4 ,it is1 therefore1 clearly for the interest of the hunter to leave the bones intact1 since to destroy them would be to diminish the future supply of game4 ,many of the ,minnetaree ,indians 8believe that the bones of those bisons which they have slain and divested of flesh rise again clothed with renewed flesh1 and quickened with life1 and become fat1 and fit for slaughter the succeeding ,june407#chh7 ,hence on the western prairies of ,america1 the skulls of buffalos may be seen arranged in circles and symmetrical piles1 awaiting the resurrection47#chi7 ,after feasting on a dog1 the ,dacotas carefully collect the bones1 scrape1 wash1 and bury them1 8partly1 as it is said1 to testify to the dog-species1 that in feasting upon one of their number no disrespect was meant to the species itself1 and partly also from a belief that the bones of the animal will rise and reproduce another407#cij7 ,in sacrificing an animal the ,lapps regularly put aside the bones1 eyes1 ears1 heart1 lungs1 sexual parts 7if the animal was a male71 and a morsel of flesh from each limb4 ,then1 after eating the rest of the flesh1 they laid the bones etc4 in anatomical order in a coffin and buried them with the usual rites1 believing that the god to whom the animal was sacrificed would reclothe the bones with flesh and restore the animal to life in ,jabme-,aimo1 the subterranean world of the dead4 ,sometimes1 as after feasting on a bear1 they seem to have contented themselves with thus burying the bones47#cia7 ,thus the ,lapps expected the resurrection of the slain animal to take place in another world1 resembling in this respect the ,kamtchatkans1 who believed that every creature1 down to the smallest fly1 would rise from the dead and live underground47#cib7 ,on the other hand1 the ,north ,american ,indians looked for the resurrection of the animals in the present world4 ,the habit1 observed especially by ,mongolian peoples1 of stuffing the skin of a sacrificed animal1 or stretching it on a framework17#cic7 points rather to a belief in a resurrection of the latter sort4 ,the objection commonly entertained by primitive peoples to break the bones of the animals which they have eaten or sacrificed7#cid7 may be based either on a belief in the resurrection of the animals1 or on a fear of intimidating the other creatures of the same species and offending the ghosts of the slain animals4 ,the reluctance of ,north ,american ,indians to let dogs gnaw the bones of animals7#cie7 is perhaps only a precaution to prevent the bones from being broken4 ,there are traces in folk-tales of the same primitive belief that animals or men may come to life again1 if only their bones are preserved2 not uncommonly the animal or man in the story comes to life lame of a limb1 because one of his bones has been eaten1 broken1 or lost47#cif7 ,in a ,magyar tale1 the hero is cut in pieces1 but the serpent-king lays the bones together in their proper order1 and washes them with water1 whereupon the hero comes to life again4 ,his shoulder-blade1 however1 had been lost1 so the serpent-king supplied its place with one of gold and ivory47#cig7 ,such stories1 as ,mannhardt has seen1 explain why ,pythagoras1 who claimed to have lived many lives1 one after the other1 was said to have exhibited his golden leg as a proof of his supernatural pretensions47#cih7 ,doubtless he was reported to have explained that at one of his resurrections a leg had been broken or mislaid1 and that it had been replaced with one of gold4 ,similarly1 when the murdered ,pelops was restored to life1 the shoulder which ,demeter had eaten was replaced with one of ivory47#cii7 ,the story that one of the members of the mangled ,osiris was eaten by fish1 and that1 when ,isis collected his scattered limbs1 she replaced the missing member with one of wood17#djj7 may perhaps belong to the same circle of beliefs4 ,there is a certain rule observed by savage hunters and fishers which1 obscure at first sight1 may be explained by this savage belief in resurrection4 ,a traveller in ,america in the early part of this century was told by a half-breed ,choctaw that the ,indians 8had an obscure story1 somewhat resembling that of ,jacob wrestling with an angel2 and that the full-blooded ,indians always separate the sinew which shrank1 and that it is never seen in the venison exposed for sale2 he did not know what they did with it4 ,his elder brother1 whom ,i afterwards met1 told me that they eat it as a rarity2 but ,i have also heard1 though on less respectable authority1 that they refrain from it1 like the ancient ,jews4 ,a gentleman1 who had lived on the ,indian frontier1 or in the nation1 for ten or fifteen years1 told me that he had often been surprised that the ,indians always detached the sinew2 but it had never occurred to him to inquire the reason407#dja7 ,james ,adair1 who knew the ,indians of the ,south ,eastern ,states intimately1 and whose theories appear not to have distorted his view of the facts1 observes that 8when in the woods1 the ,indians cut a small piece out of the lower part of the thighs of the deer they kill1 lengthways and pretty deep4 ,among the great number of venison-hams they bring to our trading houses1 ,i do not remember to have observed one without it4444 ,and ,i have been assured by a gentleman of character1 who is now an inhabitant of ,south ,carolina1 and well acquainted with the customs of the ,northern ,indians1 that they also cut a piece out of the thigh of every deer they kill1 and throw it away2 and reckon it such a dangerous pollution to eat it as to occasion sickness and other misfortunes of sundry kinds1 especially by spoiling their guns from shooting with proper force and direction407#djb7 ,in recent years the statement of ,adair's informant has been confirmed by the ,french missionary ,petitot1 who has also published the 8obscure story0 to which ,hodgson refers4 ,the ,loucheux and ,hare-skin ,indians who roam the bleak steppes and forests that stretch from ,hudson's ,bay to the ,rocky ,mountains1 and northward to the frozen sea1 are forbidden by custom to eat the sinew of the legs of animals4 ,to explain this custom they tell the following 8sacred story40 ,once upon a time a man found a burrow of porcupines1 and going down into it after the porcupines he lost his way in the darkness1 till a kind giant called 8,he who sees before and behind0 released him by cleaving open the earth4 ,so the man1 whose name was 8,fireless and ,homeless10 lived with the kind giant1 and the giant hunted elans and beavers for him1 and carried him about in the sheath of his flint knife4 8,but know1 my son10 said the giant1 8that he who uses the sky as his head is angry with me1 and has sworn my destruction4 ,if he slays me the clouds will be tinged with my blood2 they will be red with it1 probably40 ,then he gave the man an axe made of the tooth of a gigantic beaver1 and went forth to meet his enemy4 ,but from under the ice the man heard a dull muffled sound4 ,it was a whale which was making this noise because it was naked and cold4 ,warned by the man1 the giant went toward the whale1 which took human shape1 and rushed upon the giant4 ,it was the wicked giant1 the kind giant's enemy4 ,the two struggled together for a long time1 till the kind giant cried1 8,oh1 my son6 cut1 cut the sinew of the leg40 ,the man cut the sinew1 and the wicked giant fell down and was slain4 ,that is why the ,indians do not eat the sinew of the leg4 ,afterwards1 one day the sky suddenly grew red1 so ,fireless and ,homeless knew that the kind giant was dead1 and he wept47#djc7 ,this myth1 it is almost needless to observe1 does not really explain the custom4 ,no people ever observed a custom because a mythical being was said to have once acted in a certain way4 ,but1 on the contrary1 all peoples have invented myths to explain why they observed certain customs4 ,dismissing1 therefore1 the story of ,fireless and ,homeless as a myth invented to explain why the ,indians abstain from eating a particular sinew1 it may be suggested7#djd7 that the original reason for observing the custom was a belief that the sinew in question was necessary to reproduction1 and that deprived of it the slain animals could not come to life again and stock the steppes and prairies either of the present world or of the spirit land4 ,we have seen that the resurrection of animals is a common article of savage faith1 and that when the ,lapps bury the skeleton of the male bear in the hope of its resurrection they are careful to bury the genital parts along with it47#dje7 ,besides the animals which primitive man dreads for their strength and ferocity1 and those which he reveres on account of the benefits which he expects from them1 there is another class of creatures which he sometimes deems it necessary to conciliate by worship and sacrifice4 ,these are the vermin that infest the crops4 ,to rid himself of these deadly foes the farmer has recourse to a thousand superstitious devices1 of which1 though many are meant to destroy or intimidate the vermin1 others aim at propitiating them and persuading them by fair means to spare the fruits of the earth4 ,thus ,esthonian peasants1 in the ,island of ,oesel1 stand in great awe of the weevil1 an insect which is exceedingly destructive to the grain4 ,they give it a euphemistic title1 and if a child is about to kill a weevil they say1 8,don't do it2 the more we hurt him1 the more he hurts us40 ,if they find a weevil they bury it in the earth instead of killing it4 ,some even put the weevil under a stone in the field and offer corn to it4 ,they think that thus it is appeased and does less harm47#djf7 ,amongst the ,saxons of ,transylvania1 in order to keep sparrows from the corn1 the sower begins by throwing the first handful of seed backwards over his head1 saying1 8,that is for you1 sparrows40 ,to guard the corn against the attacks of leaf-flies 7,erdflhe7 he shuts his eyes and scatters three handfuls of oats in different directions4 ,having made this offering to the leaf-flies he feels sure that they will spare the corn4 ,a ,transylvanian way of securing the crops against all birds1 beasts1 and insects1 is this3 ,after he has finished sowing1 the sower goes once more from end to end of the field imitating the gesture of sowing1 but with an empty hand4 ,as he does so he says1 8,i sow this for the animals2 ,i sow it for everything that flies and creeps1 that walks and stands1 that sings and springs1 in the name of ,god the ,father1 etc407#djg7 ,the following is a ,german way of freeing a garden from caterpillars4 ,after sunset or at midnight the mistress of the house1 or another female member of the family1 walks all round the garden dragging a broom after her4 ,she must not look behind her1 and must keep murmuring1 8,good evening1 ,mother ,caterpillar1 you shall come with your husband to church40 ,the garden gate is left open till the following morning47#djh7 ,sometimes in dealing with vermin the farmer resorts neither to unmitigated severity nor to unbounded indulgence1 but aims at adopting a judicious compromise between the two2 kind but firm1 he tempers severity with mercy4 ,an ancient ,greek treatise on farming advises the husbandman who would rid his lands of mice to act thus3 8,take a sheet of paper and write on it as follows3 #8,i adjure you1 ye mice here present1 that ye neither injure me nor suffer another mouse to do so4 ,i give you yonder field' 7here you specify the field72 #8but if ever ,i catch you here again1 by the ,mother of the ,gods ,i will rend you in seven pieces4' ,write this1 and stick the paper on an unhewn stone in the field before sunrise1 taking care to keep the written side uppermost407#dji7 ,sometimes the desired object is supposed to be attained by treating with high distinction one or two chosen individuals of the obnoxious species1 while the rest are pursued with relentless rigour4 ,in the ,east ,indian island of ,bali1 the mice which ravage the rice-fields are caught in great numbers1 and burned in the same way that corpses are burned4 ,but two of the captured mice are allowed to live1 and receive a little packet of white linen4 ,then the people bow down before them1 as before gods1 and let them go47#daj7 ,in some parts of ,bohemia the peasant1 though he kills field mice and gray mice without scruple1 always spares white mice4 ,if he finds a white mouse he takes it up carefully1 and makes a comfortable bed for it in the window2 for if it died the luck of the house would be gone1 and the gray mice would multiply fearfully in the house47#daa7 ,when caterpillars invaded a vineyard or field in ,syria1 the virgins were gathered1 and one of the caterpillars was taken and a girl made its mother4 ,then they bewailed and buried it4 ,thereafter they conducted the 8mother0 to the place where the caterpillars were1 consoling her1 in order that all the caterpillars might leave the garden47#dab7 ,on the #ast of ,september1 ,russian girls 8make small coffins of turnips and other vegetables1 enclose flies and other insects in them1 and then bury them with a great show of mourning407#dac7 ,in these latter examples the deference shown to a few chosen individuals of the species is apparently regarded as entitling a person to exterminate with impunity all the rest of the species upon which he can lay hands4 ,this principle perhaps explains the attitude1 at first sight puzzling and contradictory1 of the ,ainos towards the bear4 ,the flesh and skin of the bear regularly afford them food and clothing2 but since the bear is an intelligent and powerful animal1 it is necessary to offer some satisfaction or atonement to the bear species for the loss which it sustains in the death of so many of its members4 ,this satisfaction or atonement is made by rearing young bears1 treating them1 so long as they live1 with respect1 and killing them with extraordinary marks of sorrow and devotion4 ,thus the other bears are appeased1 and do not resent the slaughter of their kind by attacking the slayers or deserting the country1 and thus depriving the ,ainos of one of their means of subsistence4 ,thus the primitive worship of animals assumes two forms1 which are in some respects the converse of each other4 ,on the one hand animals are respected1 and are therefore neither killed nor eaten4 ,totemism is a form of this worship1 if worship it can be called2 but it is not the only form1 for we have seen that dangerous and useless animals1 like the crocodile1 are commonly revered and spared by men who do not regard the animal in question as their totem4 ,on the other hand animals are worshipped because they are habitually killed and eaten4 ,in both forms of worship the animal is revered on account of some benefit1 positive or negative1 which the savage hopes to receive from it4 ,in the former worship the benefit comes either in the positive form of protection1 advice1 and help which the animal affords the man1 or in the negative one of abstinence from injuries which it is in the power of the animal to inflict4 ,in the latter worship the benefit takes the material form of the animal's flesh and skin4 ,the two forms of worship are in some measure antithetical3 in the one1 the animal is not eaten because it is revered2 in the other1 it is revered because it is eaten4 ,but both may be practised by the same people1 as we see in the case of the ,north ,american ,indians1 who1 while they revere and spare their totem animals1 also revere the animals and fish upon which they subsist4 ,the aborigines of ,australia have totemism in the most primitive form known to us1 but1 so far as ,i am aware1 there is no evidence that they attempt1 like the ,north ,american ,indians1 to conciliate the animals which they kill and eat4 ,the means which the ,australians adopt to secure a plentiful supply of game appear to be based not on conciliation1 but on sympathetic magic17#dad7 a principle to which the ,north ,american ,indians also resort for the same purpose47#dae7 ,if this is so1 it would appear that the totemistic respect for animals is older than the other1 and that1 before hunters think of worshipping the game as a means of ensuring an abundant supply of it1 they seek to attain the same end by sympathetic magic4 ,this1 again1 would show--what there is good reason for believing--that sympathetic magic is one of the earliest means by which man endeavours to adapt the agencies of nature to his needs4 ,corresponding to the two distinct types of animal worship1 there are two distinct types of the custom of killing the animal god4 ,on the one hand1 when the revered animal is habitually spared1 it is nevertheless killed--and sometimes eaten--on rare and solemn occasions4 ,examples of this custom have been already given and an explanation of them offered4 ,on the other hand1 when the revered animal is habitually killed1 the slaughter of any one of the species involves the killing of the god1 and is atoned for on the spot by apologies and sacrifices1 especially when the animal is a powerful and dangerous one2 and1 in addition to this ordinary and everyday atonement1 there is a special annual atonement1 at which a select individual of the species is slain with extraordinary marks of respect and devotion4 ,clearly the two types of sacramental killing--the ,egyptian and the ,aino types1 as we may call them for distinction--are liable to be confounded by an observer2 and1 before we can say to which type any particular example belongs1 it is necessary to ascertain whether the animal sacramentally slain belongs to a species which is habitually spared1 or to one which is habitually killed by the tribe4 ,in the former case the example belongs to the ,egyptian type of sacrament1 in the latter to the ,aino type4 ,the practice of pastoral tribes appears to furnish examples of both types of sacrament4 8,pastoral tribes10 says the most learned ethnologist of the day1 8being sometimes obliged to sell their herds to strangers who may handle the bones disrespectfully1 seek to avert the danger which such a sacrilege would entail by consecrating one of the herd as an object of worship1 eating it sacramentally in the family circle with closed doors1 and afterwards treating the bones with all the ceremonious respect which1 strictly speaking1 should be accorded to every head of cattle1 but which1 being punctually paid to the representative animal1 is deemed to be paid to all4 ,such family meals are found among various peoples1 especially those of the ,caucasus4 ,when amongst the ,abchases the shepherds in spring eat their common meal with their loins girt and their staffs in their hands1 this may be looked upon both as a sacrament and as an oath of mutual help and support4 ,for the strongest of all oaths is that which is accompanied with the eating of a sacred substance1 since the perjured person cannot possibly escape the avenging god whom he has taken into his body and assimilated407#daf7 ,this kind of sacrament is of the ,aino or expiatory type1 since it is meant to atone to the species for the possible ill-usage of individuals4 ,an expiation1 similar in principle but different in details1 is offered by the ,kalmucks to the sheep whose flesh is one of their staple foods4 ,rich ,kalmucks are in the habit of consecrating a white ram under the title of 8the ram of heaven0 or 8the ram of the spirit40 ,the animal is never shorn and never sold2 but when it grows old and its owner wishes to consecrate a new one1 the old ram must be killed and eaten at a feast to which the neighbours are invited4 ,on a lucky day1 generally in autumn when the sheep are fat1 a sorcerer kills the old ram1 after sprinkling it with milk4 ,its flesh is eaten2 the skeleton1 with a portion of the fat1 is burned on a turf altar2 and the skin1 with the head and feet1 is hung up47#dag7 ,an example of a sacrament of the ,egyptian type is furnished by the ,todas1 a pastoral people of ,southern ,india1 who subsist largely upon the milk of their buffaloes4 ,amongst them 8the buffalo is to a certain degree held sacred0 and 8is treated with great kindness1 even with a degree of adoration1 by the people407#dah7 ,they never eat the flesh of the cow buffalo1 and as a rule abstain from the flesh of the male4 ,but to the latter rule there is a single exception4 ,once a year all the adult males of the village join in the ceremony of killing and eating a very young male calf1--seemingly under a month old4 ,they take the animal into the dark recesses of the village wood1 where it is killed with a club made from the sacred tree of the ,todas 7the tde or ,millingtonia74 ,a sacred fire having been made by the rubbing of sticks1 the flesh of the calf is roasted on the embers of certain trees1 and is eaten by the men alone1 women being excluded from the assembly4 ,this is the only occasion on which the ,todas eat buffalo flesh47#dai7 ,the ,madi or ,moru tribe of ,central ,africa1 whose chief wealth is their cattle1 though they also practice agriculture1 appear to kill a lamb sacramentally on certain solemn occasions4 ,the custom is thus described by ,dr4 ,felkin4 8,a remarkable custom is observed at stated times--once a year1 ,i am led to believe4 ,i have not been able to ascertain what exact meaning is attached to it4 ,it appears1 however1 to relieve the people's minds1 for beforehand they evince much sadness1 and seem very joyful when the ceremony is duly accomplished4 ,the following is what takes place3 ,a large concourse of people of all ages assemble1 and sit down round a circle of stones1 which is erected by the side of a road 7really a narrow path74 ,a very choice lamb is then fetched by a boy1 who leads it four times round the assembled people4 ,as it passes they pluck off little bits of its fleece and place them in their hair1 or on to some other part of their body4 ,the lamb is then led up to the stones1 and there killed by a man belonging to a kind of priestly order1 who takes some of the blood and sprinkles it four times over the people4 ,he then applies it individually4 ,on the children he makes a small ring of blood over the lower end of the breast bone1 on women and girls he makes a mark above the breasts1 and the men he touches on each shoulder4 ,he then proceeds to explain the ceremony1 and to exhort the people to show kindness4444 ,when this discourse1 which is at times of great length1 is over1 the people rise1 each places a leaf on or by the circle of stones1 and then they depart with signs of great joy4 ,the lamb's skull is hung on a tree near the stones1 and its flesh is eaten by the poor4 ,this ceremony is observed on a small scale at other times4 ,if a family is in any great trouble1 through illness or bereavement1 their friends and neighbours come together and a lamb is killed3 this is thought to avert further evil4 ,the same custom prevails at the grave of departed friends1 and also on joyful occasions1 such as the return of a son home after a very prolonged absence407#dbj7 ,the sorrow thus manifested by the people at the annual slaughter of the lamb clearly indicates that the lamb slain is a divine animal1 whose death is mourned by his worshippers17#dba7 just as the death of the sacred buzzard was mourned by the ,californians and the death of the ,theban ram by the ,egyptians4 ,the smearing each of the worshippers with the blood of the lamb is a form of communion with the divinity27#dbb7 the vehicle of the divine life is applied externally instead of being taken internally1 as when the blood is drunk or the flesh eaten4 ,the form of communion in which the sacred animal is taken from house to house1 that all may enjoy a share of its divine influence1 has been exemplified by the ,gilyak custom of promenading the bear through the village before it is slain4 ,a similar form of communion with the sacred snake is observed by a ,snake tribe in the ,punjaub4 ,once a year in the month of ,september the snake is worshipped by all castes and religions for nine days only4 ,at the end of ,august the ,mirasans1 especially those of the ,snake tribe1 make a snake of dough which they paint black and red1 and place on a winnowing basket4 ,this basket they carry round the village1 and on entering any house they say-- 8,god be with you all6 ,may every ill be far6 ,may our patron's 7,gugga's7 word thrive60 ,they then present the basket with the snake1 saying-- 8,a small cake of flour3 ,a little bit of butter3 ,if you obey the snake1 ,you and yours shall thrive60 ,strictly speaking1 a cake and butter should be given1 but it is seldom done4 ,every one1 however1 gives something1 generally a handful of dough or some corn4 ,in houses where there is a new bride or whence a bride has gone1 or where a son has been born1 it is usual to give a rupee and a quarter1 or some cloth4 ,sometimes the bearers of the snake also sing-- 8,give the snake a piece of cloth1 ,and he will send a lively bride40 ,when every house has been thus visited1 the dough snake is buried and a small grave is erected over it4 ,hither during the nine days of ,september the women come to worship4 ,they bring a basin of curds1 a small portion of which they offer at the snake's grave1 kneeling on the ground and touching the earth with their foreheads4 ,then they go home and divide the rest of the curds among the children4 ,here the dough snake is clearly a substitute for a real snake4 ,this is proved by the fact that in districts where snakes abound the worship is offered1 not at the grave of the dough snake1 but in the jungles where snakes are known to be4 ,besides this yearly worship performed by all the people1 the members of the ,snake tribe worship in the same way every morning after a new moon4 ,the ,snake tribe is not uncommon in the ,punjaub4 ,members of it will not kill a snake and they say that its bite does not hurt them4 ,if they find a dead snake1 they put clothes on it and give it a regular funeral47#dbc7 ,ceremonies closely analogous to this ,indian worship of the snake have survived in ,europe into recent times1 and doubtless date from a very primitive paganism4 ,the best-known example is the 8hunting of the wren40 ,by many ,european peoples--the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 the modern ,italians1 ,spaniards1 ,french1 ,germans1 ,dutch1 ,danes1 ,swedes1 ,english1 and ,welsh--the wren has been designated the king1 the little king1 the king of birds1 the hedge king1 etc417#dbd7 and has been reckoned amongst those birds which it is extremely unlucky to kill4 ,in ,england it is thought that if any one kills a wren or harries its nest1 he will infallibly break a bone or meet with some dreadful misfortune within the year27#dbe7 sometimes it is thought that the cows will give bloody milk47#dbf7 ,in ,scotland the wren is called 8the ,lady of ,heaven's hen10 and boys say-- 8,malisons1 malisons1 mair than ten1 ,that harry the ,ladye of ,heaven's hen607#dbg7 ,at ,saint ,donan1 in ,brittany1 people believe that if children touch the young wrens in the nest1 they will suffer from the fire of ,st4 ,lawrence1 that is1 from pimples on the face1 legs1 etc47#dbh7 ,in other parts of ,france it is believed that if a person kills a wren or harries its nest1 his house will be struck by lightning1 or that the fingers with which he did the deed will shrivel up and drop off1 or at least be maimed1 or that his cattle will suffer in their feet47#dbi7 ,notwithstanding such beliefs1 the custom of annually killing the wren has prevailed widely both in this country and in ,france4 ,in the ,isle of ,man last century the custom was observed on ,christmas ,eve or rather ,christmas morning4 ,on the #bdth of ,december1 towards evening1 all the servants got a holiday2 they did not go to bed all night1 but rambled about till the bells rang in all the churches at midnight4 ,when prayers were over1 they went to hunt the wren1 and having found one of these birds they killed it and fastened it to the top of a long pole with its wings extended4 ,thus they carried it in procession to every house chanting the following rhyme-- 8,we hunted the wren for ,robin the ,bobbin1 ,we hunted the wren for ,jack of the ,can1 ,we hunted the wren for ,robin the ,bobbin1 ,we hunted the wren for every one40 ,after going from house to house and collecting all the money they could1 they laid the wren on a bier 8with the utmost solemnity1 singing dirges over her in the ,manks language1 which they call her knell2 after which ,christmas begins40 ,after the burial the company outside the churchyard formed a circle and danced to music4 ,about the middle of the present century the burial of the wren took place in the ,isle of ,man on ,st4 ,stephen's ,day 7,december #bfth74 ,boys went from door to door with a wren suspended by the legs in the centre of two hoops which crossed each other at right angles and were decorated with evergreens and ribbons4 ,the bearers sang certain lines in which reference was made to boiling and eating the bird4 ,if at the close of the song they received a small coin1 they gave in return a feather of the wren2 so that before the end of the day the bird often hung almost featherless4 ,the wren was then buried1 no longer in the churchyard1 but on the sea-shore or in some waste place4 ,the feathers distributed were preserved with religious care1 it being believed that every feather was an effectual preservative from shipwreck for a year1 and a fisherman would have been thought very foolhardy who had not one of them47#dcj7 ,in ,ireland the 8hunting of the wren0 still takes place in parts of ,leinster and ,connaught4 ,on ,christmas ,day or ,st4 ,stephen's ,day the boys hunt and kill the wren1 fasten it in the middle of a mass of holly and ivy on the top of a broomstick1 and on ,st4 ,stephen's ,day go about with it from house to house1 singing-- 8,the wren1 the wren1 the king of all birds1 ,st4 ,stephen's ,day was caught in the furze2 ,although he is little1 his family's great1 ,i pray you1 good landlady1 give us a treat40 ,money or food 7bread1 butter1 eggs1 etc47 were given them1 upon which they feasted in the evening4 ,sometimes in ,ireland1 as in the ,isle of ,man1 the bird was hung by the leg in the centre of two hoops crossing each other at right angles47#dca7 ,in ,essex a similar custom used to be observed at ,christmas1 and the verses sung by the boys were almost identical with those sung in ,ireland47#dcb7 ,in ,pembrokeshire a wren1 called the ,king1 used to be carried about on ,twelfth ,day in a box with glass windows surmounted by a wheel1 from which hung various coloured ribbons4 ,the men and boys who carried it from house to house sang songs1 in one of which they wished 8joy1 health1 love1 and peace0 to the inmates of the house47#dcc7 ,in the first half of this century similar customs were still observed in various parts of the south of ,france4 ,thus at ,carcassone1 every year on the first ,sunday of ,december the young people of the street ,saint ,jean used to go out of the town armed with sticks1 with which they beat the bushes1 looking for wrens4 ,the first to strike down one of these birds was proclaimed ,king4 ,then they returned to the town in procession1 headed by the ,king1 who carried the wren on a pole4 ,on the evening of the last day of the year the ,king and all who had hunted the wren marched through the streets of the town with torches and music4 ,at the door of every house they stopped1 and one of them wrote with chalk on the door vive le roi6 with the number of the year which was about to begin4 ,on the morning of ,twelfth ,day the ,king again marched in procession with great pomp1 wearing a crown and a blue mantle and carrying a sceptre4 ,in front of him was borne the wren fastened to the top of a pole1 which was adorned with a wreath of olive1 oak1 and mistletoe4 ,after hearing high mass in the church1 surrounded by his officers and guards1 he visited the bishop1 mayor1 magistrates1 and the chief inhabitants1 collecting money to defray the expenses of the royal banquet which took place in the evening47#dcd7 ,at ,entraigues men and boys used to hunt the wren on ,christmas ,eve4 ,when they caught one alive they presented it to the priest1 who1 after the midnight mass1 set the bird free in the church4 ,at ,mirabeau the priest blessed the bird4 ,if the men failed to catch a wren and the women succeeded in doing so1 the women had the right to mock and insult the men1 and to blacken their faces with mud and soot1 if they caught them47#dce7 ,at ,la ,ciotat1 near ,marseilles1 a large body of men armed with swords and pistols used to hunt the wren every year about the end of ,december4 ,when a wren was caught it was hung on the middle of a pole which two men carried1 as if it were a heavy burden4 ,thus they paraded round the town2 the bird was weighed in a great pair of scales2 and then the company sat down to table and made merry47#dcf7 ,the parallelism between this custom of 8hunting the wren0 and some of those we have considered1 especially the ,gilyak procession with the bear1 and the ,indian one with the snake1 seems too close to allow us to doubt that they all belong to the same circle of ideas4 ,the worshipful animal is killed with special solemnity once a year2 and before or immediately after death1 he is promenaded from door to door1 that each of his worshippers may receive a portion of the divine virtues that are supposed to emanate from the dead or dying god4 ,religious processions of this sort must have had a great place in the ritual of ,european peoples in prehistoric times1 if we may judge from the numerous traces of them which have survived in folk-custom4 ,a well-preserved specimen is the following1 which survived in the ,highlands of ,scotland and in ,st4 ,kilda down to the latter half of last century4 8,on the evening before ,new ,year's ,day1 it is usual for the cowherd and the young people to meet together1 and one of them is covered with a cow's hide4 ,the rest of the company are provided with staves1 to the end of which bits of raw hide are tied4 ,the person covered with the hide runs thrice round the dwelling-house1 deiseil--i4e4 according to the course of the sun2 the rest pursue1 beating the hide with their staves1 and crying here follows the ,gaelic1 #8,let us raise the noise louder and louder2 let us beat the hide4' ,they then come to the door of each dwelling-house1 and one of them repeats some verses composed for the purpose4 ,when admission is granted1 one of them pronounces within the threshold the beannachadthurlair1 or verses by which he pretends to draw down a blessing upon the whole family here follows the ,gaelic1 #8,may ,god bless this house and all that belongs to it1 cattle1 stones1 and timber6 ,in plenty of meat1 of bed and body-clothes1 and health of men1 may it ever abound6' ,then each burns in the fire a little bit of hide which is tied to the end of the staff4 ,it is applied to the nose of every person and domestic animal that belongs to the house4 ,this1 they imagine1 will tend much to secure them from diseases and other misfortunes during the ensuing year4 ,the whole of the ceremony is called colluinn1 from the great noise which the hide makes407#dcg7 ,from another authority17#dch7 we learn that the hide of which pieces were burned in each house and applied to the inmates was the breast part of a sheep-skin4 ,formerly1 perhaps1 pieces of the cow-hide in which the man was clad were detached for this purpose1 just as in the ,isle of ,man a feather of the wren used to be given to each household4 ,similarly1 as we have seen1 the human victim whom the ,khonds slew as a divinity was taken from house to house1 and every one strove to obtain a relic of his sacred person4 ,such customs are only another form of that communion with the deity which is attained most completely by eating the body and drinking the blood of the god4 ,in the 8hunting of the wren10 and the procession with the man clad in a cow-skin1 there is nothing to show that the customs in question have any relation to agriculture4 ,so far as appears1 they may date from the pre-agricultural era when animals were revered as divine in themselves1 not merely as divine because they embodied the corn-spirit2 and the analogy of the ,gilyak procession of the bear1 and the ,indian procession of the snake is in favour of assigning the corresponding ,european customs to this very early date4 ,on the other hand1 there are certain ,european processions of animals1 or of men disguised as animals1 which may possibly be purely agricultural in their origin27#dci7 in other words1 the animals which figure in them may have been from the first nothing but representatives of the corn-spirit conceived in animal shape4 ,but it is at least equally possible that these processions originated in the pre-agricultural era1 and have only received an agricultural tinge from the environment in which they have so long survived4 ,but the question is an obscure and difficult one1 and cannot be here discussed4 #ac4--,transference of evil4 ,the custom of killing the god has now been proved to have been practised by peoples in the hunting1 pastoral1 and agricultural stages of society1 and the various reasons for observing the custom have been explained4 ,one aspect of the custom still remains to be noticed4 ,the accumulated misfortunes and sins of the whole people are sometimes laid upon the dying god1 who is supposed to bear them away for ever1 leaving the people innocent and happy4 ,the notion that we can transfer our pains and griefs to some other being who will bear them in our stead is familiar to the savage mind4 ,it arises from a very obvious confusion between the physical and the mental4 ,because it is possible to transfer a load of wood1 stones1 or what not1 from our own back to the back of another1 the savage fancies that it is equally possible to transfer the burden of his pains and sorrows to another1 who will suffer them in his stead4 ,upon this idea he acts1 and the result is an endless number of often very unamiable devices for putting off upon some one else the trouble which a man shrinks from bearing himself4 ,such devices are amongst the most familiar facts in folk-lore2 but for the benefit of readers who are not professed students of folk-lore1 a few illustrations may be given4 ,it is not necessary that the pain or trouble should be transferred from the sufferer to a person2 it may equally well be transferred to an animal or a thing1 though in the last case the thing is often only a vehicle to convey the trouble to the first person who touches it4 ,in some of the ,east ,indian islands epilepsy is believed to be cured by striking the patient on the face with the leaves of certain trees and then throwing the leaves away4 ,the epilepsy is believed to have passed into the leaves1 and to have been thrown away with them47#ddj7 ,to cure toothache some of the ,australian blacks apply a heated spear-thrower to the cheek4 ,the spear-thrower is then cast away1 and the toothache goes with it1 in the shape of a black stone called karriitch4 ,stones of this kind are found in old mounds and sandhills4 ,they are carefully collected and thrown in the direction of enemies1 in order to give them toothache47#dda7 ,when a ,moor has a headache1 he will sometimes take a lamb or a goat and beat it till it falls down1 believing that the headache will thus be transferred to the animal47#ddb7 ,after an illness1 a ,bechuana king seated himself upon an ox which lay stretched on the ground4 ,the native doctor next poured water on the king's head till it ran down over his body4 ,then the head of the ox was held in a vessel of water till the animal expired2 whereupon the doctor declared1 and the people believed1 that the ox died of the king's disease1 which had been transferred to it from the king47#ddc7 ,amongst the ,malagasy the vehicle for carrying away evils is called a faditra4 8,the faditra is anything selected by the sikidy divining-board for the purpose of taking away any hurtful evils or diseases that might prove injurious to an individual's happiness1 peace1 or prosperity4 ,the faditra may be either ashes1 cut money1 a sheep1 a pumpkin1 or anything else the sikidy may choose to direct4 ,after the particular article is appointed1 the priest counts upon it all the evils that may prove injurious to the person for whom it is made1 and which he then charges the faditra to take away for ever4 ,if the faditra be ashes1 it is blown1 to be carried away by the wind4 ,if it be cut money1 it is thrown to the bottom of deep water1 or where it can never be found4 ,if it be a sheep1 it is carried away to a distance on the shoulders of a man1 who runs with all his might1 mumbling as he goes1 as if in the greatest rage against the faditra for the evils it is bearing away4 ,if it be a pumpkin1 it is carried on the shoulders to a little distance1 and there dashed upon the ground with every appearance of fury and indignation407#ddd7 ,a ,malagasy was informed by a diviner that he was doomed to a bloody death1 but that possibly he might avert his fate by performing a certain rite4 ,carrying a small vessel full of blood upon his head1 he was to mount upon the back of a bullock2 while thus mounted1 he was to spill the blood upon the bullock's head1 and then send the animal away into the wilderness1 whence it might never return47#dde7 ,the ,battas of ,sumatra have a ceremony which they call 8making the curse to fly away40 ,when a woman is childless1 a sacrifice is offered to the gods of three grasshoppers1 representing a head of cattle1 a buffalo1 and a horse4 ,then a swallow is set free1 with a prayer that the curse may fall upon the bird and fly away with it47#ddf7 ,at the cleansing of a leper and of a house suspected of being tainted with leprosy1 the ,jews let a bird fly away47#ddg7 ,amongst the ,miaotse of ,china1 when the eldest son of the house attains the age of seven years1 a ceremony called 8driving away the devil0 takes place4 ,the father makes a kite of straw and lets it fly away in the desert1 bearing away all evil with it47#ddh7 ,in ,morocco most wealthy ,moors keep a wild boar in their stables1 in order that the jinn and evil spirits may be diverted from the horses and enter into the boar47#ddi7 ,the ,dyaks believe that certain men possess in themselves the power of neutralising bad omens4 ,so1 when evil omens have alarmed a farmer for the safety of his crops1 he takes a small portion of his farm produce to one of these wise men1 who eats it raw for a small consideration1 8and thereby appropriates to himself the evil omen1 which in him becomes innocuous1 and thus delivers the other from the ban of the pemali or taboo407#dej7 ,in ,travancore1 when a ,rajah is dangerously ill and his life is despaired of1 a holy ,brahman is brought1 who closely embraces the ,king1 and says1 8,o ,king6 ,i undertake to bear all your sins and diseases4 ,may your ,highness live long and reign happily40 ,then the sin-bearer is sent away from the country1 and never allowed to return47#dea7 ,amongst the ,burghers or ,badagas of the ,neilgherry ,hills in ,southern ,india1 when a death has taken place1 the sins of the deceased are laid upon a buffalo calf4 ,a set form of confession of sins1 the same for every one1 is recited aloud1 then the calf is set free1 and is never afterwards used for common purposes4 8,the idea of this ceremony is that the sins of the deceased enter the calf1 or that the task of his absolution is laid on it4 ,they say that the calf very soon disappears1 and that it is never after heard of407#deb7 ,similar attempts to shift the burden of disease and sin from one's self to another person1 or to an animal or thing1 have been common in ancient and modern ,europe4 ,grave writers of antiquity recommended that1 if a man be stung by a scorpion1 he should sit upon an ass with his face to the tail1 or whisper in the ear of the ass1 8,a scorpion has stung me02 in either case1 they thought1 the pain would be transferred from the man to the ass47#dec7 ,a ,roman cure for fever was to pare the patient's nails1 and stick the parings with wax upon a neighbour's door before sunrise2 the fever then passed from the sick man to his neighbour47#ded7 ,similar devices must have been practised by the ,greeks2 for in laying down laws for his ideal state1 ,plato thinks it too much to expect that men should not be alarmed at finding certain wax figures adhering to their doors or to the tombstones of their parents1 or lying at cross-roads47#dee7 ,in modern ,europe there is no end to such devices4 ,thus the ,orkney ,islanders will wash a sick person and then throw the water down at a gateway1 in the belief that the sickness will leave the patient and be transferred to the first person who passes through the gate47#def7 ,a ,bavarian cure for the fever is to write upon a piece of paper1 8,fever1 stay away1 ,i am not at home10 and to put the paper in some person's pocket4 ,the latter then catches the fever and the patient is rid of it47#deg7 ,another cure is for the patient to stick a twig of the elder-tree in the ground without speaking4 ,the fever then adheres to the twig1 and whoever pulls up the twig will catch the disease47#deh7 ,to get rid of warts1 take a string and make as many knots in it as you have warts4 ,then lay the string under a stone4 ,whoever treads upon the stone will get the warts1 and you will be rid of them47#dei7 ,gout may be transferred from a man to a tree thus4 ,pare the nails of the sufferer's fingers and clip some hairs from his legs4 ,bore a hole in an oak1 stuff the nails and hair in the hole1 stop up the hole again1 and smear it with cow's dung4 ,if1 for three months afterwards1 the patient is free of gout1 then the oak has it in his stead47#dfj7 ,a ,flemish cure for the ague is to go early in the morning to an old willow1 tie three knots in one of its branches1 say1 8,good-morrow1 ,old ,one1 ,i give thee the cold1 good-morrow1 ,old ,one10 then turn and run away without looking round47#dfa7 ,a cure current in ,sunderland for a cough is to shave the patient's head and hang the hair on a bush4 ,when the birds carry the hair to their nests1 they will carry the cough with it4 ,a ,northamptonshire and ,devonshire cure is to put a hair of the patient's head between two slices of buttered bread and give it to a dog4 ,the dog will get the cough and the patient will lose it47#dfb7 ,in the ,greek island of ,carpathus the priest ties a red thread round the neck of a sick person4 ,next morning the friends of the patient remove the thread and go out to the hillside1 where they tie the thread to a tree1 thinking that they thus transfer the sickness to the tree47#dfc7 ,the old ,welsh custom known as 8sin-eating0 is another example of the supposed transference of evil from one person to another4 ,according to ,aubrey1 8,in the ,county of ,hereford was an old ,custome at funeralls to hire poor people1 who were to take upon them all the sinnes of the party deceased4 ,one of them1 ,i remember1 lived in a cottage on ,rosse-high way 7he was a long1 leane1 ugly1 lamentable poor raskal74 ,the manner was that when the ,corps was brought out of the house and layd on the ,biere2 a ,loafe of bread was brought out1 and delivered to the ,sinne-eater over the corps1 as also a ,mazar-bowle of maple 7,gossips bowle7 full of beer1 which he was to drinke up1 and sixpence in money1 in consideration whereof he took upon him 7ipso facto7 all the ,sinnes of the ,defunct1 and freed him 7or her7 from walking after they were dead4444 ,i believe this custom was heretofore used over all ,wales4444 ,in ,north ,wales the ,sinne-eaters are frequently made use of2 but there1 instead of a ,bowle of ,beere1 they have a bowle of ,milke407#dfd7 ,according to a letter dated ,february #a1 #agad-e1 8within the memory of our fathers1 in ,shropshire1 in those villages adjoyning to ,wales1 when a person dyed1 there was notice given to an old sire 7for so they called him71 who presently repaired to the place where the deceased lay1 and stood before the door of the house1 when some of the family came out and furnished him with a cricket1 on which he sat down facing the door4 ,then they gave him a groat1 which he put in his pocket2 a crust of bread1 which he eat2 and a full bowle of ale1 which he drank off at a draught4 ,after this he got up from the cricket and pronounced1 with a composed gesture1 the ease and rest of the soul departed for which he would pawn his own soul4 ,this ,i had from the ingenious ,john ,aubrey1 ,esq407#dfe7 ,in recent years some doubt has been thrown on ,aubrey's account of the custom47#dff7 ,the practice1 however1 is reported to have prevailed in a valley not far from ,llandebie to a recent period4 ,an instance was said to have occurred about forty years ago47#dfg7 ,aubrey's statement is supported by the analogy of similar customs in ,india4 ,when the ,rajah of ,tanjore died in #ahja1 some of his bones and the bones of the two wives1 who were burned with his corpse1 were ground to powder and eaten1 mixed with boiled rice1 by twelve ,brahmans4 ,it was believed that the sins of the deceased passed into the bodies of the ,brahmans1 who were paid for the service47#dfh7 ,a ,brahman1 resident in a village near ,raipr1 stated that he had eaten food 7rice and milk7 out of the hand of the dead ,rajah of ,bilspr1 and that in consequence he had been placed on the throne for the space of a year4 ,at the end of the year he had been given presents and then turned out of the territory and forbidden apparently to return4 ,he was an outcast among his fellows for having eaten out of a dead man's hand47#dfi7 ,a similar custom is believed to obtain among the hill states about ,kngr1 and to have given rise to a caste of 8outcaste0 ,brahmans4 ,at the funeral of a ,rn of ,chamb rice and gh were eaten out of the hands of the corpse by a ,brahman paid for the purpose4 ,afterwards a stranger1 who had been caught outside the ,chamb territory1 was given the costly wrappings of the corpse1 then told to depart and never show his face in the country again47#dgj7 ,in ,oude when an infant was killed it used to be buried in the room in which it had been born4 ,on the thirteenth day afterwards the priest had to cook and eat his food in that room4 ,by doing so he was supposed to take the whole sin upon himself and to cleanse the family from it47#dga7 ,at ,utch ,kurgan in ,turkistan ,mr4 ,schuyler saw an old man who was said to get his living by taking on himself the sins of the dead and thenceforth devoting his life to prayer for their souls47#dgb7 #ad4--;,expulsion of evils1 ,these examples illustrate the primitive principle of the transference of ills to another person1 animal1 or thing4 ,in the instances cited the principle is applied for the benefit of individuals only4 ,but analogous proceedings are employed by barbarous peoples to rid a whole community of all their troubles at a blow4 ,the frame of mind which prompts such wholesale clearances of evil may be described in the language of ,mr4 ,im ,thurn1 for though he wrote of the ,indians of ,guiana in particular1 his description is capable of a much wider application4 ,he says3 8,thus the whole world of the ,indian swarms with these spiritual beings4 ,if by a mighty mental effort we could for a moment revert to a similar mental position we should find ourselves surrounded by a host of possibly hurtful beings1 so many in number that to describe them as innumerable would fall ridiculously short of the truth4 ,it is not therefore wonderful that the ,indian fears to move beyond the light of his camp-fire after dark1 or1 if he is obliged to do so1 carries a firebrand with him that he may at least see among what enemies he walks2 nor is it wonderful that occasionally the air round the settlement seems to the ,indian to grow so full of beings that a peaiman sorcerer1 who is supposed to have the power of temporarily driving them away1 is employed to effect a general clearance of these beings1 if only for a time407#dgc7 ,such general clearances of evil influences may be divided into two classes1 according as the expelled evils are immaterial and invisible or are embodied in a material vehicle or scapegoat4 ,the former may be called the direct or immediate expulsion of evils2 the latter the indirect or mediate expulsion1 or the expulsion by scapegoat4 ,we begin with examples of the former4 ,in the island of ,rook1 between ,new ,guinea and ,new ,britain1 when any misfortune has happened1 all the people run together1 scream1 curse1 howl1 and beat the air with sticks to drive away the devil 7,marsba71 who is supposed to be the author of the mishap4 ,from the spot where the mishap took place they drive him step by step to the sea1 and on reaching the shore they redouble their shouts and blows in order to expel him from the island4 ,he generally retires to the sea or to the island of ,lottin47#dgd7 ,the natives of ,new ,britain ascribe sickness1 drought1 the failure of crops1 and in short all misfortunes1 to the influence of wicked spirits4 ,so at times when many people sicken and die1 as at the beginning of the rainy season1 all the inhabitants of a district1 armed with branches and clubs1 go out by moonlight to the fields1 where they beat and stamp on the ground with wild howls till morning1 believing that this drives away the devils47#dge7 ,when a village has been visited by a series of disasters or a severe epidemic1 the ,minahassa of ,celebes lay the blame upon the devils who are infesting the village and must be expelled from it4 ,accordingly1 early one morning all the people1 men1 women1 and children1 quit their homes1 carrying their household goods with them1 and take up their quarters in temporary huts which have been erected outside the village4 ,here they spend several days1 offering sacrifices and preparing for the final ceremony4 ,at last the men1 some wearing masks1 others with their faces blackened1 and so on1 but all armed with swords1 guns1 pikes1 or brooms1 steal cautiously and silently back to the deserted village4 ,then1 at a signal from the priest1 they rush furiously up and down the streets and into and under the houses 7which are raised on piles above the ground71 yelling and striking on walls1 doors1 and windows1 to drive away the devils4 ,next1 the priests and the rest of the people come with the holy fire and march nine times round each house and thrice round the ladder that leads up to it1 carrying the fire with them4 ,then they take the fire into the kitchen1 where it must burn for three days continuously4 ,the devils are now driven away1 and great and general is the joy47#dgf7 ,the ,alfoers of ,halmahera attribute epidemics to the devil who comes from other villages to carry them off4 ,so1 in order to rid the village of the disease1 the sorcerer drives away the devil4 ,from all the villagers he receives a costly garment and places it on four vessels1 which he takes to the forest and leaves at the spot where the devil is supposed to be4 ,then with mocking words he bids the demon abandon the place47#dgg7 ,in the ,key ,islands1 south of ,new ,guinea1 when sickness prevails1 the people erect a stage on the shore and load it with meat and drink4 ,then the priest in presence of the people bans the spirits which are causing the disease1 whereupon the people run back to the village at full speed1 like fugitives47#dgh7 ,in the island of ,nias1 when a man is seriously ill and other remedies have been tried in vain1 the sorcerer proceeds to exorcise the devil who is causing the illness4 ,a pole is set up in front of the house1 and from the top of the pole a rope of palm-leaves is stretched to the roof of the house4 ,then the sorcerer mounts the roof with a pig1 which he kills and allows to roll from the roof to the ground4 ,the devil1 anxious to get the pig1 lets himself down hastily from the roof by the rope of palm-leaves1 and a good spirit1 invoked by the sorcerer1 prevents him from climbing up again4 ,if this remedy fails1 it is believed that other devils must still be lurking in the house4 ,so a general hunt is made after them4 ,all the doors and windows in the house are closed1 except a single dormer-window in the roof4 ,the men1 shut up in the house1 hew and slash with their swords right and left to the clash of gongs and the rub-a-dub of drums4 ,terrified at this onslaught the devils escape by the dormer-window1 and sliding down the rope of palm-leaves take themselves off4 ,as all the doors and windows1 except the one in the roof1 are shut1 the devils cannot get into the house again4 ,in the case of an epidemic the proceedings are similar4 ,all the gates of the village1 except one1 are closed2 every voice is raised1 every gong and drum beaten1 every sword brandished4 ,thus the devils are driven out and the last gate is shut behind them4 ,for eight days thereafter the village is in a state of siege1 no one being allowed to enter it47#dgi7 ,when cholera has broken out in a ,burmese village the able-bodied men scramble on the roofs and lay about them with bamboos and billets of wood1 while all the rest of the population1 old and young1 stand below and thump drums1 blow trumpets1 yell1 scream1 beat floors1 walls1 tin-pans1 everything to make a din4 ,this uproar1 repeated on three successive nights1 is thought to be very effective in driving away the cholera demons47#dhj7 ,when small-pox first appeared amongst the ,kumis of ,south-,eastern ,india1 they thought it was a devil come from ,arracan4 ,the villages were placed in a state of siege1 no one being allowed to leave or enter them4 ,a monkey was killed by being dashed on the ground1 and its body was hung at the village gate4 ,its blood1 mixed with small river pebbles1 was sprinkled on the houses1 the threshold of every house was swept with the monkey's tail1 and the fiend was adjured to depart47#dha7 ,at ,great ,bassam1 in ,guinea1 the ,french traveller ,hecquard witnessed the exorcism of the evil spirit who was believed to make women barren4 ,the women who wished to become mothers offered to the fetish wine-vessels or statuettes representing women suckling children4 ,then being assembled in the fetish hut1 they were sprinkled with rum by the priest1 while young men fired guns and brandished swords to drive away the demon47#dhb7 ,when sickness was prevalent in a ,huron village1 and all other remedies had been tried in vain1 the ,indians had recourse to the ceremony called ,lonouyroya1 8which is the principal invention and most proper means1 so they say1 to expel from the town or village the devils and evil spirits which cause1 induce1 and import all the maladies and infirmities which they suffer in body and mind40 ,accordingly1 one evening the men would begin to rush like madmen about the village1 breaking and upsetting whatever they came across in the wigwams4 ,they threw fire and burning brands about the streets1 and all night long they ran howling and singing without cessation4 ,then they all dreamed of something1 a knife1 dog1 skin1 or whatever it might be1 and when morning came they went from wigwam to wigwam asking for presents4 ,these they received silently1 till the particular thing was given them which they had dreamed about4 ,on receiving it they uttered a cry of joy and rushed from the hut1 amid the congratulations of all present4 ,the health of those who received what they had dreamed of was believed to be assured2 whereas those who did not get what they had set their hearts upon regarded their fate as sealed47#dhc7 ,the observance of such ceremonies1 from being occasional1 tends to become periodic4 ,it comes to be thought desirable to have a general riddance of evil spirits at fixed times1 usually once a year1 in order that the people may make a fresh start in life1 freed from all the malignant influences which have been long accumulating about them4 ,some of the ,australian blacks annually expelled the ghosts of the dead from their territory4 ,the ceremony was witnessed by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley on the banks of the river ,barwan4 8,a chorus of twenty1 old and young1 were singing and beating time with boomerangs4444 ,suddenly1 from under a sheet of bark darted a man with his body whitened by pipeclay1 his head and face coloured with lines of red and yellow1 and a tuft of feathers fixed by means of a stick two feet above the crown of his head4 ,he stood twenty minutes perfectly still1 gazing upwards4 ,an aboriginal who stood by told me he was looking for the ghosts of dead men4 ,at last he began to move very slowly1 and soon rushed to and fro at full speed1 flourishing a branch as if to drive away some foes invisible to us4 ,when ,i thought this pantomime must be almost over1 ten more1 similarly adorned1 suddenly appeared from behind the trees1 and the whole party joined in a brisk conflict with their mysterious assailants4444 ,at last1 after some rapid evolutions in which they put forth all their strength1 they rested from the exciting toil which they had kept up all night and for some hours after sunrise3 they seemed satisfied that the ghosts were driven away for twelve months4 ,they were performing the same ceremony at every station along the river1 and ,i am told it is an annual custom407#dhd7 ,certain seasons of the year mark themselves naturally out as appropriate moments for a general expulsion of devils4 ,such a moment occurs towards the close of an ,arctic winter1 when the sun reappears on the horizon after an absence of weeks or months4 ,accordingly1 at ,point ,barrow1 the most northerly extremity of ,alaska1 and nearly of ,america1 the ,eskimo choose the moment of the sun's reappearance to hunt the mischievous spirit ,tua from every house4 ,the ceremony was witnessed a few years ago by the members of the ,united ,states ,polar ,expedition1 who wintered at ,point ,barrow4 ,a fire was built in front of the council-house1 and an old woman was posted at the entrance to every iglu 7,eskimo house74 ,the men gathered round the council-fire1 while the young women and girls drove the spirits out of every iglu with their knives1 stabbing viciously under the bunk and deer-skins1 and calling upon ,tua to leave the iglu4 ,when they thought he had been driven out of every hole and corner1 they thrust him down through the hole in the floor and chased him into the open air with loud cries and frantic gestures4 ,meanwhile the old woman at the entrance of the iglu made passes with a long knife in the air to keep him from returning4 ,each party drove the spirit towards the fire and invited him to go into it4 ,all were by this time drawn up in a semicircle round the fire1 when several of the leading men made specific charges against the spirit2 and each after his speech brushed his clothes violently1 calling on the spirit to leave him and go into the fire4 ,two men now stepped forward with rifles loaded with blank cartridges1 while a third brought a vessel of urine and flung it on the fire4 ,at the same time one of the men fired a shot into the fire2 and as the cloud of steam rose it received the other shot1 which was supposed to finish ,tua for the time being47#dhe7 ,in autumn1 when heavy gales are raging1 the ,eskimo of ,baffin ,land think that the female spirit ,sedna dwells amongst them1 and the most powerful enchanter is employed to drive her out4 ,beside a small hole in the centre of the floor a line of seal-skin is coiled up4 ,holding a sealing-spear in his left hand the enchanter watches the hole in the floor4 ,another sorcerer sits in the rear of the hut chanting songs to attract ,sedna4 ,now she is heard approaching under the floor of the hut4 ,when she reaches the hole the enchanter strikes her with his harpoon and pays out the line4 ,a severe struggle ensues1 but ultimately ,sedna flies to her country1 ,adlivun4 ,the performance is cleverly managed4 ,when the harpoon is drawn out of the hole it is covered with blood1 and the heavy breathing of ,sedna can be distinctly heard under the floor47#dhf7 ,the ,iroquois inaugurated the new year in ,january1 ,february1 or ,march 7the time varied7 with a 8festival of dreams0 like that which the ,hurons observed on special occasions47#dhg7 ,the whole ceremonies lasted several days1 or even weeks1 and formed a kind of ,saturnalia4 ,men and women1 variously disguised1 went from wigwam to wigwam smashing and throwing down whatever they came across4 ,it was a time of general licence2 the people were supposed to be out of their senses1 and therefore not to be responsible for what they did4 ,accordingly1 many seized the opportunity of paying off old scores by belabouring obnoxious persons1 drenching them with ice-cold water1 and covering them with filth or hot ashes4 ,others seized burning brands or coals and flung them at the heads of the first persons they met4 ,the only way of escaping from these persecutors was to guess what they had dreamed of4 ,on one day of the festival the ceremony of driving away evil spirits from the village took place4 ,men clothed in the skins of wild beasts1 their faces covered with hideous masks1 and their hands with the shell of the tortoise1 went from hut to hut making frightful noises2 in every hut they took the fuel from the fire and scattered the embers and ashes about the floor with their hands4 ,the general confession of sins which preceded the festival was probably a preparation for the public expulsion of evil influences2 it was a way of stripping the people of their moral burdens1 that these might be collected and cast out4 ,this ,new ,year festival is still celebrated by some of the heathen ,iroquois1 though it has been shorn of its former turbulence4 ,a conspicuous feature in the ceremony is now the sacrifice of the ,white ,dog1 but this appears to have been added to the festival in comparatively modern times1 and does not figure in the oldest descriptions of the ceremonies4 ,we shall return to it later on47#dhh7 ,a great annual festival of the ,cherokee ,indians was the ,propitiation1 8,cementation10 or ,purification festival4 8,it was celebrated shortly after the first new moon of autumn1 and consisted of a multiplicity of rigorous rites1 fastings1 ablutions1 and purifications4 ,among the most important functionaries on the occasion were seven exorcisers or cleansers1 whose duty it was1 at a certain stage of the proceedings1 to drive away evil1 and purify the town4 ,each one bore in his hand a white rod of sycamore4 #8,the leader1 followed by the others1 walked around the national heptagon1 and coming to the treasure or store-house to the west of it1 they lashed the eaves of the roofs with their rods4 ,the leader then went to another house1 followed by the others1 singing1 and repeated the same ceremony until every house was purified4' ,this ceremony was repeated daily during the continuance of the festival4 ,in performing their ablutions they went into the water and allowed their old clothes to be carried away by the stream1 by which means they supposed their impurities removed407#dhi7 ,in ,september the ,incas of ,peru celebrated a festival called ,situa1 the object of which was to banish from the capital and its vicinity all disease and troubles4 ,the festival fell in ,september because the rains begin about this time1 and with the first rains there was generally much sickness4 ,as a preparation for the festival the people fasted on the first day of the moon after the autumnal equinox4 ,having fasted during the day1 and the night being come1 they baked a coarse paste of maize4 ,this paste was made of two sorts4 ,one was kneaded with the blood of children aged five to ten years1 the blood being obtained by bleeding the children between the eye-brows4 ,these two kinds of paste were baked separately1 because they were for different uses4 ,each family assembled at the house of the eldest brother to celebrate the feast2 and those who had no elder brother went to the house of their next relation of greater age4 ,on the same night all who had fasted during the day washed their bodies1 and taking a little of the blood-kneaded paste1 rubbed it over their head1 face1 breast1 shoulders1 arms1 and legs4 ,they did this in order that the paste might take away all their infirmities4 ,after this the head of the family anointed the threshold with the same paste1 and left it there as a token that the inmates of the house had performed their ablutions and cleansed their bodies4 ,meantime the ,high ,priest performed the same ceremonies in the temple of the ,sun4 ,as soon as the ,sun rose1 all the people worshipped and besought him to drive all evils out of the city1 and then they broke their fast with the paste that had been kneaded without blood4 ,when they had paid their worship and broken their fast1 which they did at a stated hour1 in order that all might adore the ,sun as one man1 an ,inca of the blood royal came forth from the fortress1 as a messenger of the ,sun1 richly dressed1 with his mantle girded round his body1 and a lance in his hand4 ,the lance was decked with feathers of many hues1 extending from the blade to the socket1 and fastened with rings of gold4 ,he ran down the hill from the fortress brandishing his lance1 till he reached the centre of the great square1 where stood the golden urn1 like a fountain1 that was used for the sacrifice of chicha4 ,here four other ,incas of the blood royal awaited him1 each with a lance in his hand1 and his mantle girded up to run4 ,the messenger touched their four lances with his lance1 and told them that the ,sun bade them1 as his messengers1 drive the evils out of the city4 ,the four ,incas then separated and ran down the four royal roads which led out of the city to the four quarters of the world4 ,while they ran1 all the people1 great and small1 came to the doors of their houses1 and with great shouts of joy and gladness shook their clothes1 as if they were shaking off dust1 while they cried1 8,let the evils be gone4 ,how greatly desired has this festival been by us4 ,o ,creator of all things1 permit us to reach another year1 that we may see another feast like this40 ,after they had shaken their clothes1 they passed their hands over their heads1 faces1 arms1 and legs1 as if in the act of washing4 ,all this was done to drive the evils out of their houses1 that the messengers of the ,sun might banish them from the city4 ,this was done not only in the streets through which the ,incas ran1 but generally in all quarters of the city4 ,moreover1 they all danced1 the ,inca himself amongst them1 and bathed in the rivers and fountains1 saying that their maladies would come out of them4 ,then they took great torches of straw1 bound round with cords4 ,these they lighted1 and passed from one to the other1 striking each other with them1 and saying1 8,let all harm go away40 ,meanwhile the runners ran with their lances for a quarter of a league outside the city1 where they found four other ,incas ready1 who received the lances from their hands and ran with them4 ,thus the lances were carried by relays of runners for a distance of five or six leagues1 at the end of which the runners washed themselves and their weapons in rivers1 and set up the lances1 in sign of a boundary within which the banished evils might not return47#dij7 ,the negroes of ,guinea annually banish the devil from all their towns with much ceremony4 ,at ,axim1 on the ,gold ,coast1 this annual expulsion is preceded by a feast of eight days1 during which mirth and jollity reign1 and 8a perfect lampooning liberty is allowed1 and scandal so highly exalted1 that they may freely sing of all the faults1 villanies1 and frauds of their superiors as well as inferiors1 without punishment1 or so much as the least interruption40 ,on the eighth day they hunt out the devil with a dismal cry1 running after him and pelting him with sticks1 stones1 and whatever comes to hand4 ,when they have driven him far enough out of the town1 they all return4 ,in this way he is driven out of more than a hundred towns at the same time4 ,to make sure that he does not return to their houses1 the women wash and scour all their wooden and earthen vessels1 8to free them from all uncleanness and the devil407#dia7 ,at ,onitsha1 on the ,quorra ,river1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,taylor witnessed the celebration of ,new ,year's ,day by the negroes4 ,it fell on #bjth ,december #aheh4 ,every family brought a firebrand out into the street1 threw it away1 and exclaimed as they returned1 8,the gods of the new year6 ,new ,year has come round again40 ,mr4 ,taylor adds1 8,the meaning of the custom seems to be that the fire is to drive away the old year with its sorrows and evils1 and to embrace the new year with hearty reception407#dib7 ,of all ,abyssinian festivals that of ,mascal or the ,cross is celebrated with the greatest pomp4 ,the eve of the festival witnesses a ceremony which doubtless belongs to the world-wide class of customs we are dealing with4 ,at sunset a discharge of firearms takes place from all the principal houses4 8,then every one provides himself with a torch1 and during the early part of the night bonfires are kindled1 and the people parade the town1 carrying their lighted torches in their hands4 ,they go through their houses too1 poking a light into every dark corner in the hall1 under the couches1 in the stables1 kitchen1 etc41 as if looking for something lost1 and calling out1 #8,akho1 akhoky6 turn out the spinage1 and bring in the porridge2 ,mascal is come6'4444 ,after this they play1 and poke fun and torches at each other407#dic7 ,sometimes the date of the annual expulsion of devils is fixed with reference to the agricultural seasons4 ,among the ,hos of ,north-,eastern ,india the great festival of the year is the harvest home1 held in ,january1 when the granaries are full of grain1 and the people1 to use their own expression1 are full of devilry4 8,they have a strange notion that at this period men and women are so overcharged with vicious propensities1 that it is absolutely necessary for the safety of the person to let off steam by allowing for a time full vent to the passions40 ,the ceremonies open with a sacrifice to the village god of three fowls1 two of which must be black4 ,along with them are offered flowers of the ,pals tree1 bread made from rice-flour1 and sesamum seeds4 ,these offerings are presented by the village priest1 who prays that during the year about to begin they and their children may be preserved from all misfortune and sickness1 and that they may have seasonable rain and good crops4 ,prayer is also made in some places for the souls of the dead4 ,at this time an evil spirit is supposed to infest the place1 and to get rid of it men1 women1 and children go in procession round and through every part of the village with sticks in their hands1 as if beating for game1 singing a wild chant1 and shouting vociferously1 till they feel assured that the evil spirit must have fled4 ,then they give themselves up to feasting and drinking rice-beer1 till they are in a fit state for the wild debauch which follows4 ,the festival now 8becomes a saturnale1 during which servants forget their duty to their masters1 children their reverence for parents1 men their respect for women1 and women all notions of modesty1 delicacy1 and gentleness2 they become raging bacchantes40 ,usually the ,hos are quiet and reserved in manner1 decorous and gentle to women4 ,but during this festival 8their nature appears to undergo a temporary change4 ,sons and daughters revile their parents in gross language1 and parents their children2 men and women become almost like animals in the indulgence of their amorous propensities40 ,the ,mundaris1 kinsmen and neighbours of the ,hos1 keep the festival in much the same manner4 8,the resemblance to a ,saturnale is very complete1 as at this festival the farm labourers are feasted by their masters1 and allowed the utmost freedom of speech in addressing them4 ,it is the festival of the harvest home2 the termination of one year's toil1 and a slight respite from it before they commence again407#did7 ,amongst some of the ,hindoo ,koosh tribes1 as among the ,hos and ,mundaris1 the expulsion of devils takes place after harvest4 ,when the last crop of autumn has been got in1 it is thought necessary to drive away evil spirits from the granaries4 ,a kind of porridge called mool is eaten1 and the head of the family takes his matchlock and fires it into the floor4 ,then1 going outside1 he sets to work loading and firing till his powder horn is exhausted1 while all his neighbours are similarly employed4 ,the next day is spent in rejoicings4 ,in ,chitral this festival is called 8devil-driving407#die7 ,on the other hand the ,khonds of ,india expel the devils at seed-time instead of at harvest4 ,at this time they worship ,pitteri ,pennu1 the god of increase and of gain in every shape4 ,on the first day of the festival a rude car is made of a basket set upon a few sticks1 tied upon bamboo rollers for wheels4 ,the priest takes this car first to the house of the lineal head of the tribe1 to whom precedence is given in all ceremonies connected with agriculture4 ,here he receives a little of each kind of seed and some feathers4 ,he then takes the car to all the other houses in the village1 each of which contributes the same things4 ,lastly1 the car is conducted to a field without the village1 attended by all the young men1 who beat each other and strike the air violently with long sticks4 ,the seed thus carried out is called the share of the 8evil spirits1 spoilers of the seed40 8,these are considered to be driven out with the car2 and when it and its contents are abandoned to them1 they are held to have no excuse for interfering with the rest of the seed-corn40 ,next day each household kills a hog over the seed for the year1 and prays to ,pitteri ,pennu4 ,the elders then feast upon the hogs4 ,the young men are excluded from the repast1 but enjoy the privilege of waylaying and pelting with jungle fruit their elders as they return from the feast4 ,upon the third day the lineal head of the tribe goes out and sows his seed1 after which all the rest may do so47#dif7 ,the people of ,bali1 an island to the east of ,java1 have periodical expulsions of devils upon a great scale4 ,generally the time chosen for the expulsion is the day of the 8dark moon0 in the ninth month4 ,when the demons have been long unmolested the country is said to be 8warm10 and the priest issues orders to expel them by force1 lest the whole of ,bali should be rendered uninhabitable4 ,on the day appointed the people of the village or district assemble at the principal temple4 ,here at a cross-road offerings are set out for the devils4 ,after prayers have been recited by the priests1 the blast of a horn summons the devils to partake of the meal which has been prepared for them4 ,at the same time a number of men step forward and light their torches at the holy lamp which burns before the chief priest4 ,immediately afterwards1 followed by the bystanders1 they spread in all directions and march through the streets and lanes crying1 8,depart6 go away60 ,wherever they pass1 the people who have stayed at home hasten by a deafening knocking on doors1 beams1 rice-blocks1 etc41 to take their share in the expulsion of devils4 ,thus chased from the houses1 the fiends flee to the banquet which has been set out for them2 but here the priest receives them with curses which finally drive them from the district4 ,when the last devil has taken his departure1 the uproar is succeeded by a dead silence1 which lasts during the next day also4 ,the devils1 it is thought1 are anxious to return to their old homes1 and in order to make them think that ,bali is not ,bali but some desert island1 no one may stir from his own premises for twenty-four hours4 ,even ordinary household work1 including cooking1 is discontinued4 ,only the watchmen may show themselves in the streets4 ,wreaths of thorns and leaves are hung at all the entrances to warn strangers from entering4 ,not till the third day is this state of siege raised1 and even then it is forbidden to work at the rice-fields or to buy and sell in the market4 ,most people still stay at home1 striving to while away the time with cards and dice47#dig7 ,in some parts of ,fiji an annual ceremony took place which has much the aspect of an expulsion of devils4 ,the time of its celebration was determined by the appearance of a certain fish or sea-slug 7balolo7 which swarms out in dense shoals from the coral reefs on a single day of the year1 usually in the last quarter of the moon in ,november4 ,the appearance of the sea-slugs was the signal for a general feast at those places where they were taken4 ,an influential man ascended a tree and prayed to the spirit of the sky for good crops1 fair winds1 and so on4 ,thereupon a tremendous clatter1 with drumming and shouting1 was raised by all the people in their houses for about half an hour4 ,this was followed by a dead quiet for four days1 during which the people feasted on the sea-slug4 ,all this time no work of any kind might be done1 not even a leaf plucked nor the offal removed from the houses4 ,if a noise was made in any house1 as by a child crying1 a forfeit was at once exacted by the chief4 ,at daylight on the expiry of the fourth night the whole town was in an uproar2 men and boys scampered about1 knocking with clubs and sticks at the doors of the houses and crying 8,sinariba40 ,this concluded the ceremony47#dih7 ,on the night before spring begins the ,japanese throw roasted beans against the walls and floors of their houses1 crying thrice loudly1 8,away from here1 wicked spirit60 but adding softly1 8,enter1 ,o god of riches607#dii7 ,amongst some of the ,hindus of the ,punjaub on the morning after ,diwali or the festival of lamps 7at which the souls of ancestors are believed to visit the house7 the oldest woman of the family takes all the sweepings and rubbish of the family and throws them out1 with the words1 8,let all dirt and wretchedness depart from here1 and all good fortune come in407#ejj7 ,in ,tonquin a theckydaw or general expulsion of malevolent spirits commonly took place once a year1 especially if there was a great mortality amongst men or cattle1 8the cause of which they attribute to the malicious spirits of such men as have been put to death for treason1 rebellion1 and conspiring the death of the king1 general1 or princes1 and in that revenge of the punishment they have suffered1 they are bent to destroy everything and commit horrible violence4 ,to prevent which their superstition has suggested to them the institution of this theckydaw as a proper means to drive the devil away1 and purge the country of evil spirits40 ,the day appointed for the ceremony was generally the #beth of ,february1 one month after the commencement of the new year1 which began on the #beth of ,january4 ,the intermediate month was a season of feasting1 merry-making of all kinds1 and general licence4 ,during the whole month the great seal was kept shut up in a box1 face downwards1 and the law was1 as it were1 laid asleep4 ,all courts of justice were closed2 debtors could not be seized2 small crimes1 such as petty larceny1 fighting1 and assault1 escaped with impunity2 only treason and murder were taken account of and the malefactors detained till the great seal should come into operation again4 ,at the close of the saturnalia the wicked spirits were driven away4 ,great masses of troops and artillery having been drawn up with flying colours and all the pomp of war1 8the general beginneth then to offer meat offerings to the criminal devils and malevolent spirits 7for it is usual and customary likewise amongst them to feast the condemned before their execution71 inviting them to eat and drink1 when presently he accuses them in a strange language1 by characters and figures1 etc41 of many offences and crimes committed by them1 as to their having disquieted the land1 killed his elephants and horses1 etc41 for all which they justly deserved to be chastised and banished the country4 ,whereupon three great guns are fired as the last signal2 upon which all the artillery and musquets are discharged1 that1 by their most terrible noise the devils may be driven away2 and they are so blind as to believe for certain1 that they really and effectually put them to flight407#eja7 ,in ,cambodia the expulsion of evil spirits took place in ,march4 ,bits of broken statues and stones1 considered as the abode of the demons1 were collected and brought to the capital4 ,here as many elephants were collected as could be got together4 ,on the evening of the full moon volleys of musketry were fired and the elephants charged furiously to put the devils to flight47#ejb7 ,in ,siam the banishment of demons is annually carried into effect on the last day of the old year4 ,a signal gun is fired from the palace2 it is answered from the next station1 and so on from station to station1 till the firing has reached the outer gate of the city4 ,thus the demons are driven out step by step4 ,as soon as this is done a consecrated rope is fastened round the circuit of the city walls to prevent the banished demons from returning4 ,the rope is made of tough couch-grass and is painted in alternate stripes of red1 yellow1 and blue47#ejc7 ,the ,shans of ,southern ,china annually expel the fire-spirit4 ,the ceremony was witnessed by the ,english ,mission under ,colonel ,sladen on the #acth of ,august #ahfh4 ,bullocks and cows were slaughtered in the market-place2 the meat was all sold1 part of it was cooked and eaten1 while the rest was fired out of guns at sundown4 ,the pieces of flesh which fell on the land were supposed to become mosquitoes1 those which fell in the water were believed to turn into leeches4 ,in the evening the chief's retainers beat gongs and blew trumpets2 and when darkness had set in torches were lit and a party1 preceded by the musicians1 searched the central court for the fire-spirit1 who is supposed to lurk about at this season with evil intent4 ,they then searched all the rooms and the gardens1 throwing the light of the torches into every nook and corner where the evil spirit might find a hiding-place47#ejd7 ,annual expulsions of demons or of evil influences are not unknown in ,europe at the present day4 ,amongst the heathen ,wotyaks1 a ,finnish people of ,eastern ,russia1 all the young girls of the village assemble on the last day of the year or on ,new ,year's ,day armed with sticks1 the ends of which are split in nine places4 ,with these they beat every corner of the house and yard1 saying1 8,we are driving ,satan out of the village40 ,afterwards the sticks are thrown into the river below the village1 and as they float down stream ,satan goes with them to the next village1 from which he must be driven out in turn4 ,in some villages the expulsion is managed otherwise4 ,the unmarried men receive from every house in the village groats1 flesh1 and brandy4 ,these they take to the field1 light a fire under a fir-tree1 boil the groats1 and eat of the food they have brought with them1 after pronouncing the words1 8,go away into the wilderness1 come not into the house40 ,then they return to the village and enter every house where there are young women4 ,they take hold of the young women and throw them into the snow1 saying1 8,may the spirits of disease leave you40 ,the remains of the groats and the other food are then distributed among all the houses in proportion to the amount that each contributed1 and each family consumes its share4 ,according to a ,wotyak of the ,malmyz district the young men throw into the snow whomever they find in the houses1 and this is called 8driving out ,satan20 moreover some of the boiled groats are thrown into the fire with the words1 8,o god1 afflict us not with sickness and pestilence1 give us not up as a prey to the spirits of the wood40 ,but the most antique form of the ceremony is that observed by the ,wotyaks of the ,kasan ,government4 ,first of all a sacrifice is offered to the ,devil at noon4 ,then all the men assemble on horseback in the centre of the village1 and decide with which house they shall begin4 ,when this question1 which often gives rise to hot disputes1 is settled1 they tether their horses to the paling1 and arm themselves with whips1 clubs of lime-wood1 and bundles of lighted twigs4 ,the lighted twigs are believed to have the greatest terrors for ,satan4 ,thus armed1 they proceed with frightful cries to beat every corner of the house and yard1 then shut the door1 and spit at the ejected fiend4 ,so they go from house to house1 till the ,devil has been driven from every one4 ,then they mount their horses and ride out of the village1 yelling wildly and brandishing their clubs in every direction4 ,outside of the village they fling away the clubs and spit once more at the ,devil47#eje7 ,the ,cheremiss1 another ,finnish people of ,eastern ,russia1 chase ,satan from their dwellings by beating the walls with cudgels of lime-wood4 ,when he has fled to the wood1 they pelt the trees with some of the cheese-cakes and eggs which furnished the feast47#ejf7 ,in ,albania on ,easter ,eve the young people light torches of resinous wood and march in procession1 swinging them1 through the village4 ,at last they throw the torches into the river1 crying1 8,ha1 ,kore6 we throw you into the river1 like these torches1 that you may never return407#ejg7 ,in some villages of ,calabria the month of ,march is inaugurated with the expulsion of the witches4 ,it takes place at night to the sound of the church bells1 the people running about the streets and crying1 8,march is come40 ,they say that the witches roam about in ,march1 and the ceremony is repeated every ,friday evening during the month47#ejh7 ,in the ,tyrol the expulsion of witches takes place on the first of ,may4 ,on a ,thursday at midnight bundles are made up of resinous splinters1 black and red spotted hemlock1 caper-spurge1 rosemary1 and twigs of the sloe4 ,these are kept and burned on ,may ,day by men who must first have received plenary absolution from the church4 ,on the last three days of ,april all the houses are cleansed and fumigated with juniper berries and rue4 ,on ,may ,day1 when the evening bell has rung and the twilight is falling1 the ceremony of 8burning out the witches10 as it is called1 begins4 ,men and boys make a racket with whips1 bells1 pots1 and pans2 the women carry censers2 the dogs are unchained and run barking and yelping about4 ,as soon as the church bells begin to ring1 the bundles of twigs1 fastened on poles1 are set on fire and the incense is ignited4 ,then all the house-bells and dinner-bells are rung1 pots and pans are clashed1 dogs bark1 every one must make a noise4 ,and amid this hubbub all scream at the pitch of their voices1 8,witch flee1 flee from here1 ,or it will go ill with thee40 ,then they run seven times round the houses1 the yards1 and the village4 ,so the witches are smoked out of their lurking-places and driven away47#eji7 ,at ,brunnen in ,switzerland the boys go about in procession on ,twelfth ,night1 carrying torches and lanterns1 and making a great noise with horns1 cow-bells1 whips1 etc4 ,this is said to frighten away the two female spirits of the wood1 ,strudeli and ,strtteli47#eaj7 #ae4--,scapegoats4 ,thus far the examples cited have belonged to the class of direct or immediate expulsion of ills4 ,it remains to illustrate the second class of expulsions1 in which the evil influences are either embodied in a visible form or are at least supposed to be loaded upon a material medium1 which acts as a vehicle to draw them off from the people1 village1 or town4 ,the ,pomos of ,california celebrate an expulsion of devils every seven years1 at which the devils are represented by disguised men4 8,twenty or thirty men array themselves in harlequin rig and barbaric paint1 and put vessels of pitch on their heads2 then they secretly go out into the surrounding mountains4 ,these are to personify the devils4 ,a herald goes up to the top of the assembly-house1 and makes a speech to the multitude4 ,at a signal agreed upon in the evening the masqueraders come in from the mountains1 with the vessels of pitch flaming on their heads1 and with all the frightful accessories of noise1 motion1 and costume which the savage mind can devise in representation of demons4 ,the terrified women and children flee for life1 the men huddle them inside a circle1 and1 on the principle of fighting the devil with fire1 they swing blazing firebrands in the air1 yell1 whoop1 and make frantic dashes at the marauding and bloodthirsty devils1 so creating a terrific spectacle1 and striking great fear into the hearts of the assembled hundreds of women1 who are screaming and fainting and clinging to their valorous protectors4 ,finally the devils succeed in getting into the assembly-house1 and the bravest of the men enter and hold a parley with them4 ,as a conclusion of the whole farce1 the men summon courage1 the devils are expelled from the assembly-house1 and with a prodigious row and racket of sham fighting are chased away into the mountains407#eaa7 ,in spring1 as soon as the willow leaves were full grown on the banks of the river1 the ,mandan ,indians celebrated their great annual festival1 one of the features of which was the expulsion of the devil4 ,a man1 painted black to represent the devil1 entered the village from the prairie1 chased and frightened the women1 and acted the part of a buffalo bull in the buffalo dance1 the object of which was to ensure a plentiful supply of buffaloes during the ensuing year4 ,finally he was chased from the village1 the women pursuing him with hisses and gibes1 beating him with sticks1 and pelting him with dirt47#eab7 ,on the last night of the year the palace of the ,kings of ,cambodia is purged of devils4 ,men painted as fiends are chased by elephants about the palace courts4 ,when they have been expelled1 a consecrated thread of cotton is stretched round the palace to keep them out47#eac7 ,the ,kasyas1 a hill tribe of ,assam1 annually expel the demons4 ,the ceremony takes place on a fixed month in the year1 and part of it consists in a struggle between two bands of men who stand on opposite sides of a stream1 each side tugging at the end of a rope which is stretched across the water4 ,in this contest1 which resembles the game of 8,french and ,english10 the men on one side probably represent the demons47#ead7 ,at ,carmona in ,andalusia1 on one day of the year1 boys are stripped naked and smeared with glue in which feathers are stuck4 ,thus disguised1 they run from house to house1 the people trying to avoid them and to bar their houses against them47#eae7 ,the ceremony is probably a relic of an annual expulsion of devils4 ,oftener1 however1 the expelled demons are not represented at all1 but are understood to be present invisibly in the material and visible vehicle which conveys them away4 ,here1 again1 it will be convenient to distinguish between occasional and periodical expulsions4 ,we begin with the former4 ,the vehicle which conveys away the demons may be of various kinds4 ,a common one is a little ship or boat4 ,thus1 in the southern district of the island of ,ceram1 when a whole village suffers from sickness1 a small ship is made and filled with rice1 tobacco1 eggs1 etc41 which have been contributed by all the people4 ,a little sail is hoisted on the ship4 ,when all is ready1 a man calls out in a very loud voice1 8,o all ye sicknesses1 ye small-poxes1 agues1 measles1 etc41 who have visited us so long and wasted us so sorely1 but who now cease to plague us1 we have made ready this ship for you1 and we have furnished you with provender sufficient for the voyage4 ,ye shall have no lack of food nor of siri nor of pinang nor of tobacco4 ,depart1 and sail away from us directly2 never come near us again1 but go to a land which is far from here4 ,let all the tides and winds waft you speedily thither1 and so convey you thither that for the time to come we may live sound and well1 and that we may never see the sun rise on you again40 ,then ten or twelve men carry the vessel to the shore1 and let it drift away with the land-breeze1 feeling convinced that they are free from sickness for ever1 or at least till the next time4 ,if sickness attacks them again1 they are sure it is not the same sickness1 but a different one1 which in due time they dismiss in the same manner4 ,when the demon-laden bark is lost to sight1 the bearers return to the village1 whereupon a man cries out1 8,the sicknesses are now gone1 vanished1 expelled1 and sailed away40 ,at this all the people come running out of their houses1 passing the word from one to the other with great joy1 beating on gongs and on tinkling instruments47#eaf7 ,similar ceremonies are commonly resorted to in other ,east ,indian islands4 ,thus in ,timorlaut1 to mislead the demons who are causing sickness1 a small prao1 containing the image of a man and provisioned for a long voyage1 is allowed to drift away with wind and tide4 ,as it is being launched1 the people cry1 8,o sickness1 go from here2 turn back2 what do you here in this poor land80 ,three days after this ceremony a pig is killed1 and part of the flesh is offered to ,dudilaa1 who lives in the sun4 ,one of the oldest men says1 8,old sir1 ,i beseech you1 make well the grandchildren1 children1 women1 and men1 that we may be able to eat pork and rice and to drink palm-wine4 ,i will keep my promise4 ,eat your share1 and make all the people in the village well40 ,if the prao is stranded at any inhabited spot1 the sickness will break out there4 ,hence a stranded prao excites much alarm amongst the coast population1 and they immediately burn it1 because demons fly from fire47#eag7 ,in the island of ,buro the prao which carries away the demons of disease is about twenty feet long1 rigged out with sails1 oars1 anchor1 etc41 and well stocked with provisions4 ,for a day and a night the people beat gongs and drums1 and rush about to frighten the demons4 ,next morning ten stalwart young men strike the people with branches1 which have been previously dipped in an earthen pot of water4 ,as soon as they have done so1 they run down to the beach1 put the branches on board the prao1 launch another prao in great haste1 and tow the disease-burdened prao far out to sea4 ,there they cast it off1 and one of them calls out1 8,grandfather ,small-pox1 go away--go willingly away--go visit another land2 we have made you food ready for the voyage1 we have now nothing more to give40 ,when they have landed1 all the people bathe together in the sea47#eah7 ,in this ceremony the reason for striking the people with the branches is clearly to rid them of the disease-demons1 which are then supposed to be transferred to the branches4 ,hence the haste with which the branches are deposited in the prao and towed away to sea4 ,so in the inland districts of ,ceram1 when small-pox or other sickness is raging1 the priest strikes all the houses with consecrated branches1 which are then thrown into the river1 to be carried down to the sea27#eai7 exactly as amongst the ,wotyaks of ,russia the sticks which have been used for expelling the devils from the village are thrown into the river1 that the current may sweep the baleful burden away4 ,in ,amboina1 for a similar purpose1 the whole body of the patient is rubbed with a live white cock1 which is then placed on a little prao and committed to the waves27#ebj7 and in the ,babar archipelago the bark which is to carry away to sea the sickness of a whole village contains a bowl of ashes taken from every kitchen in the village1 and another bowl into which all the sick people have spat47#eba7 ,the plan of putting puppets in the boat to represent sick persons1 in order to lure the demons after them1 is not uncommon47#ebb7 ,the practice of sending away diseases in boats is known outside the limits of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago4 ,thus when the people of ,tikopia1 a small island in the ,pacific1 to the north of the ,new ,hebrides1 were attacked by an epidemic cough1 they made a little canoe and adorned it with flowers4 ,four sons of the principal chiefs carried it on their shoulders all round the island1 accompanied by the whole population1 some of whom beat the bushes1 while others uttered loud cries4 ,on returning to the spot from which they had set out1 they launched the canoe on the sea47#ebc7 ,in the ,nicobar ,islands1 in the ,bay of ,bengal1 when there is much sickness in a village or no fish are caught1 the blame is laid upon the spirits4 ,they must be propitiated with offerings4 ,all relations and friends are invited1 a huge pig is roasted1 and the best of it is eaten1 but some parts are offered to the shades4 ,the heap of offerings remains in front of the house till it is carried away by the rising tide4 ,then the priests1 their faces reddened with paint and swine's blood1 pretend to catch the demon of disease1 and1 after a hand-to-hand struggle1 force him into a model boat1 made of leaves and decked with garlands1 which is then towed so far to sea that neither wind nor tide is likely to drive it back to the shore47#ebd7 ,often the vehicle which carries away the collected demons or ills of a whole community is an animal or scapegoat4 ,in the ,central ,provinces of ,india1 when cholera breaks out in a village1 every one retires after sunset to his house4 ,the priests then parade the streets1 taking from the roof of each house a straw1 which is burnt with an offering of rice1 ghi1 and turmeric1 at some shrine to the east of the village4 ,chickens daubed with vermilion are driven away in the direction of the smoke1 and are believed to carry the disease with them4 ,if they fail1 goats are tried1 and last of all pigs47#ebe7 ,when cholera is very bad among the ,bhrs1 ,mallns1 and ,kurms of ,india1 they take a goat or a buffalo--in either case the animal must be a female1 and as black as possible--then they tie some grain1 cloves1 and red lead in a yellow cloth on its back1 and turn it out of the village4 ,it is conducted beyond the boundary1 and is not allowed to return47#ebf7 ,the people of the city and cantonments of ,sagar being afflicted with a violent influenza1 8,i had an application from the old ,queen ,dowager of ,sagar to allow of a noisy religious procession1 for the purpose of imploring deliverance from this great calamity4 ,men1 women1 and children in this procession were to do their utmost to add to the noise by 'raising their voices in psalmody1' beating upon their brass pots and pans with all their might1 and discharging firearms where they could get them4 ,before the noisy crowd was to be driven a buffalo1 which had been purchased by general subscription1 in order that every family might participate in the merit4 ,they were to follow it out eight miles1 where it was to be turned loose for any man who would take it4 ,if the animal returned the disease must return with it1 and the ceremony be performed over again4444 ,it was1 however1 subsequently determined that the animal should be a goat2 and he was driven before the crowd accordingly4 ,i have on several occasions been requested to allow of such noisy ceremonies in cases of epidemics407#ebg7 ,once1 when influenza was raging in ,pithuria1 a man had a small carriage made1 after a plan of his own1 for a pair of scapegoats1 which were harnessed to it and driven to a wood at some distance1 where they were let loose4 ,from that hour the disease entirely ceased in the town4 ,the goats never returned2 had they done so1 8the disease must have come back with them407#ebh7 ,the idea of the scapegoat is not uncommon in the hills of the ,eastern ,ghats4 ,in #ahhf1 during a severe outbreak of small-pox1 the people of ,jeypur made 8puja0 to a goat1 marched it to the ,ghats1 and let it loose on the plains47#ebi7 ,in ,southern ,konkan1 on the appearance of cholera1 the villagers went in procession from the temple to the extreme boundaries of the village1 carrying a basket of cooked rice covered with red powder1 a wooden doll representing the pestilence1 and a cock4 ,the head of the cock was cut off at the village boundary1 and the body was thrown away4 ,when cholera was thus transferred from one village to another1 the second village observed the same ceremony and passed on the scourge to its neighbours1 and so on through a number of villages47#ecj7 ,when the ,aymara ,indians were suffering from a plague1 they loaded a llama with the clothes of the plague-stricken people1 and drove the animal into the mountains1 hoping that it would take the plague away with it47#eca7 ,sometimes the scapegoat is a man4 ,some of the aboriginal tribes of ,china1 as a protection against pestilence1 select a man of great muscular strength to act the part of scapegoat4 ,having besmeared his face with paint1 he performs many antics with the view of enticing all pestilential and noxious influences to attach themselves to him only4 ,he is assisted by a priest4 ,finally the scapegoat1 hotly pursued by men and women beating gongs and tom-toms1 is driven with great haste out of the town or village47#ecb7 ,a ,hindu cure for the murrain is to hire a man of the ,chamr caste1 turn his face away from the village1 brand him with a red-hot sickle1 and let him go out into the jungle1 taking the murrain with him4 ,he must not look back47#ecc7 ,the mediate expulsion of evils by means of a scapegoat or other material vehicle1 like the immediate expulsion of them in invisible form1 tends to become periodic1 and for a like reason4 ,thus every year1 generally in ,march1 the people of ,leti1 ,moa1 and ,lakor send away all their diseases to sea4 ,they make a prao about six feet long1 rig it with sails1 oars1 rudder1 etc41 and every family deposits in it some rice1 fruit1 a fowl1 two eggs1 insects that ravage the fields1 etc4 ,then they let it drift away to sea1 saying1 8,take away from here all kinds of sickness1 take them to other islands1 to other lands1 distribute them in places that lie eastward1 where the sun rises407#ecd7 ,the ,biajas of ,borneo annually send to sea a little bark laden with the sins and misfortunes of the people4 ,the crew of any ship that falls in with the ill-omened bark at sea will suffer all the sorrows with which it is laden47#ece7 ,at the beginning of the dry season1 every year1 the ,nicobar islanders carry the model of a ship through their villages4 ,the devils are chased out of the huts1 and driven on board the little ship1 which is then launched and suffered to sail away with the wind47#ecf7 ,at ,sucla-,tirtha1 in ,india1 an earthen pot containing the accumulated sins of the people is 7annually87 set adrift on the river4 ,legend says that the custom originated with a wicked priest who1 after atoning for his guilt by a course of austerities and expiatory ceremonies1 was directed to sail upon the river in a boat with white sails4 ,if the white sails turned black1 it would be a sign that his sins were forgiven him4 ,they did so1 and he joyfully allowed the boat to drift with his sins to sea47#ecg7 ,amongst many of the aboriginal tribes of ,china1 a great festival is celebrated in the third month of every year4 ,it is held by way of a general rejoicing over what the people believe to be a total annihilation of the ills of the past twelve months4 ,this annihilation is supposed to be effected in the following way4 ,a large earthenware jar filled with gunpowder1 stones1 and bits of iron is buried in the earth4 ,a train of gunpowder1 communicating with the jar1 is then laid2 and a match being applied1 the jar and its contents are blown up4 ,the stones and bits of iron represent the ills and disasters of the past year1 and the dispersion of them by the explosion is believed to remove the ills and disasters themselves4 ,the festival is attended with much revelling and drunkenness47#ech7 ,at ,old ,calabar1 in ,guinea1 the devils are expelled once every two years4 ,a number of figures called nabikems are made of sticks and bamboos1 and fixed indiscriminately about the town4 ,some of them represent human beings1 others birds1 crocodiles1 and so on4 ,after three or four weeks the devils are expected to take up their abode in these figures4 ,when the night comes for their general expulsion1 the people feast and sally out in parties1 beating at empty corners1 and shouting with all their might4 ,shots are fired1 the nabikems are torn up with violence1 set in flames1 and flung into the river4 ,the orgies last till daybreak1 and the town is considered to be rid of evil influences for two years to come47#eci7 ,mr4 ,george ,bogle1 the ,english envoy sent to ,tibet by ,warren ,hastings1 witnessed the celebration of the ,tibetan ,new ,year's ,day at ,teshu ,lumbo the capital of the ,teshu ,lama4 8,the figure of a man1 chalked upon paper1 was laid upon the ground4 ,many strange ceremonies1 which to me who did not understand them appeared whimsical1 were performed about it2 and a great fire being kindled in a corner of the court1 it was at length held over it1 and being formed of combustibles1 vanished with much smoke and explosion4 ,i was told it was a figure of the devil407#edj7 ,on one day of the year some of the people of the ,western ,himalayas take a dog1 intoxicate him with spirits and bhang or hemp1 and having fed him with sweetmeats1 lead him round the village and let him loose4 ,they then chase and kill him with sticks and stones1 and believe that1 when they have done so1 no disease or misfortune will visit the village during the year47#eda7 ,in some parts of ,breadalbane it was formerly the custom on ,new ,year's ,day to take a dog to the door1 give him a bit of bread1 and drive him out1 saying1 8,get away you dog6 ,whatever death of men1 or loss of cattle would happen in this house to the end of the present year1 may it all light on your head607#edb7 ,it appears that the white dogs annually sacrificed by the ,iroquois at their ,new ,year ,festival are1 or have been1 regarded as scapegoats4 ,according to ,mr4 ,j4 ,v4 ,h4 ,clark1 who witnessed the ceremony in ,january #ahda1 on the first day of the festival all the fires in the village were extinguished1 the ashes scattered to the winds1 and a new fire was kindled with flint and steel4 ,on a subsequent day1 men dressed in fantastic costumes went round the village1 gathering the sins of the people4 ,on the morning of the last day of the festival1 two white dogs1 decorated with red paint1 wampum1 feathers1 and ribbons were led out4 ,they were soon strangled1 and hung on a ladder4 ,firing and yelling succeeded1 and half an hour later the dogs were taken into a house1 8where the peoples' sins were transferred to them40 ,the dogs were afterwards burnt on a pyre of wood47#edc7 ,according to the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,kirkland1 who wrote last century1 the ashes of the pyre upon which one of the white dogs was burned were carried through the village and sprinkled at the door of every house47#edd7 ,formerly1 however1 as we have seen1 the ,iroquois expulsion of evils was immediate and not by scapegoat47#ede7 ,the ,jews annually laid all the sins of the people upon the head of a goat and sent it away into the wilderness47#edf7 ,the scapegoat upon whom the sins of the people are periodically laid1 may also be a human being4 ,at ,onitsha1 on the ,quorra ,river1 two human beings are annually sacrificed to take away the sins of the land4 ,the victims are purchased by public subscription4 ,all persons who1 during the past year1 have fallen into gross sins1 such as incendiarism1 theft1 adultery1 witchcraft1 etc4 are expected to contribute #bh ngugas1 or a little over #b4 ,the money thus collected is taken into the interior of the country and expended in the purchase of two sickly persons 8to be offered as a sacrifice for all these abominable crimes--one for the land and one for the river40 ,a man from a neighbouring town is hired to put them to death4 ,the sacrifice of one of these victims was witnessed by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,taylor on #bgth ,february #aheh4 ,the sufferer was a woman1 about nineteen or twenty years of age4 ,she was dragged alive along the ground1 face downwards1 from the king's house to the river1 a distance of two miles4 ,the crowds who accompanied her cried 8,wickedness6 wickedness60 ,the intention was 8to take away the iniquities of the land4 ,the body was dragged along in a merciless manner1 as if the weight of all their wickedness was thus carried away407#edg7 ,in ,siam it was formerly the custom on one day of the year to single out a woman broken down by debauchery1 and carry her on a litter through all the streets to the music of drums and hautboys4 ,the mob insulted her and pelted her with dirt2 and after having carried her through the whole city1 they threw her on a dunghill or a hedge of thorns outside the ramparts1 forbidding her ever to enter the walls again4 ,they believed that the woman thus drew upon herself all the malign influences of the air and of evil spirits47#edh7 ,the people of ,nias offer either a red horse or a buffalo as a public sacrifice to purify the land and obtain the favour of the gods4 ,formerly1 it is said1 a man was bound to the same stake as the buffalo1 and when the animal was killed1 the man was driven away2 no one might receive him1 converse with him1 or give him food47#edi7 ,doubtless he was supposed to carry away the sins and misfortunes of the people4 ,in ,tibet the ceremony of the scapegoat is marked by some peculiar features4 ,the ,tibetan ,new ,year begins with the new moon1 which appears about #aeth ,february4 ,for twenty-three days afterwards the government of ,lhs1 the capital1 is taken out of the hands of the ordinary rulers and entrusted to the monk of the ,debang monastery who offers to pay the highest sum for the privilege4 ,the successful bidder is called the ,jalno1 and he announces the fact in person through the streets of ,lhs1 bearing a silver stick4 ,monks from all the neighbouring monasteries and temples assemble to pay him homage4 ,the ,jalno exercises his authority in the most arbitrary manner for his own benefit1 as all the fines which he exacts are his by purchase4 ,the profit he makes is about ten times the amount of the purchase money4 ,his men go about the streets in order to discover any conduct on the part of the inhabitants that can be found fault with4 ,every house in ,lhs is taxed at this time1 and the slightest fault is punished with unsparing rigour by fines4 ,this severity of the ,jalno drives all working classes out of the city till the twenty-three days are over4 ,meantime1 all the priests flock from the neighbourhood to the ,mchindrnth temple1 where they perform religious ceremonies4 ,the temple is a very large one1 standing in the centre of the city1 surrounded by bazaars and shops4 ,the idols in it are richly inlaid with gold and precious stones4 ,twenty-four days after the ,jalno has ceased to have authority1 he assumes it again1 and for ten days acts in the same arbitrary manner as before4 ,on the first of the ten days the priests assemble as before at the ,mchindrnth temple1 pray to the gods to prevent sickness and other evils among the people1 8and1 as a peace-offering1 sacrifice one man4 ,the man is not killed purposely1 but the ceremony he undergoes often proves fatal47#eej7 ,grain is thrown against his head1 and his face is painted half white1 half black40 ,on the tenth day1 all the troops in ,lhs march to the temple and form in line before it4 ,the victim is brought forth from the temple and receives small donations from the assembled multitude4 ,he then throws dice with the ,jalno4 ,if the victim wins1 much evil is foreboded2 but if the ,jalno wins1 there is great rejoicing1 for it is then believed that the victim has been accepted by the gods to bear all the sins of the people of ,lhs4 ,thereupon his face is painted half white and half black1 a leathern coat is put on him1 and he is marched to the walls of the city1 followed by the whole populace1 hooting1 shouting1 and firing volleys after him4 ,when he is driven outside the city1 the people return1 and the victim is carried to the ,sme monastery4 ,should he die shortly afterwards1 the people say it is an auspicious sign2 but if not1 he is kept a prisoner at the monastery for a whole year1 after which he is allowed to return to ,lhs47#eea7 ,human scapegoats1 as we shall see presently1 were well known in classical antiquity1 and even in medival ,europe the custom seems not to have been wholly extinct4 ,in the town of ,halberstadt in ,thringen there was a church which was said to have been founded by ,charlemagne4 ,in this church every year a man was chosen1 who was believed to be stained with heinous sins4 ,on the first day of ,lent he was brought to the church1 dressed in mourning garb1 with his head muffled up4 ,at the close of the service he was turned out of the church4 ,during the forty days of ,lent he perambulated the city barefoot1 neither entering the churches nor speaking to any one4 ,the canons took it in turn to feed him4 ,after midnight he was allowed to sleep on the streets4 ,on the day before ,good ,friday1 after the consecration of the holy oil1 he was readmitted to the church and absolved from his sins4 ,the people gave him money4 ,he was called ,adam1 and was now believed to be in a state of innocence47#eeb7 ,at ,entlebuch in ,switzerland1 down to the close of last century1 the custom of annually expelling a scapegoat was preserved in the ceremony of driving 8,posterli0 from the village into the lands of the neighbouring village4 8,posterli0 was represented by a lad disguised as an old witch or as a goat or an ass4 ,amid a deafening noise of horns1 clarionets1 bells1 whips1 etc4 he was driven out4 ,sometimes 8,posterli0 was represented by a puppet1 which was drawn in a sledge and left in a corner of the neighbouring village4 ,the ceremony took place on the ,thursday evening of the last week but one before ,christmas47#eec7 ,sometimes the scapegoat is a divine animal4 ,the people of ,malabar share the ,hindu reverence for the cow1 to kill and eat which 8they esteem to be a crime as heinous as homicide or wilful murder40 ,nevertheless 8the ,bramans transfer the sins of the people into one or more ,cows1 which are then carry'd away1 both the ,cows and the ,sins wherewith these ,beasts are charged1 to what place the ,braman shall appoint407#eed7 ,when the ancient ,egyptians sacrificed a bull1 they invoked upon its head all the evils that might otherwise befall themselves and the land of ,egypt1 and thereupon they either sold the bull's head to the ,greeks or cast it into the river47#eee7 ,now1 it cannot be said that in the times known to us the ,egyptians worshipped bulls in general1 for they seem to have commonly killed and eaten them47#eef7 ,but a good many circumstances point to the conclusion that originally all cattle1 bulls as well as cows1 were held sacred by the ,egyptians4 ,for not only were all cows esteemed holy by them and never sacrificed1 but even bulls might not be sacrificed unless they had certain natural marks2 a priest examined every bull before it was sacrificed2 if it had the proper marks1 he put his seal on the animal in token that it might be sacrificed2 and if a man sacrificed a bull which had not been sealed1 he was put to death4 ,moreover1 the worship of the black bulls ,apis and ,mnevis1 especially the former1 played an important part in ,egyptian religion2 all bulls that died a natural death were carefully buried in the suburbs of the cities1 and their bones were afterwards collected from all parts of ,egypt and buried in a single spot2 and at the sacrifice of a bull in the great rites of ,isis all the worshippers beat their breasts and mourned47#eeg7 ,on the whole1 then1 we are perhaps entitled to infer that bulls were originally1 as cows were always1 esteemed sacred by the ,egyptians1 and that the slain bull upon whose head they laid the misfortunes of the people was once a divine scapegoat4 ,it seems not improbable that the lamb annually slain by the ,madis of ,central ,africa is a divine scapegoat1 and the same supposition may partly explain the ,zuni sacrifice of the turtle47#eeh7 ,lastly1 the scapegoat may be a divine man4 ,thus1 in ,november the ,gonds of ,india worship ,ghansyam ,deo1 the protector of the crops1 and at the festival the god himself is said to descend on the head of one of the worshippers1 who is suddenly seized with a kind of fit and1 after staggering about1 rushes off into the jungle1 where it is believed that1 if left to himself1 he would die mad4 ,as it is1 he is brought back1 but does not recover his senses for one or two days4 8,the idea is1 that one man is thus singled out as a scapegoat for the sins of the rest of the village407#eei7 ,in the temple of the ,moon the ,albanians of the ,eastern ,caucasus kept a number of sacred slaves1 of whom many were inspired and prophesied4 ,when one of these men exhibited more than usual symptoms of inspiration and wandered solitary up and down the woods1 like the ,gond in the jungle1 the high priest had him bound with a sacred chain and maintained him in luxury for a year4 ,at the end of the year he was anointed with unguents and led forth to be sacrificed4 ,a man whose business it was to slay these human victims and to whom practice had given dexterity1 advanced from the crowd and thrust a sacred spear into the victim's side1 piercing his heart4 ,from the manner in which the slain man fell1 omens were drawn as to the welfare of the commonwealth4 ,then the body was carried to a certain spot where all the people stood upon it as a purificatory ceremony47#efj7 ,this last circumstance clearly indicates that the sins of the people were transferred to the victim1 just as the ,jewish priest transferred the sins of the people to the scapegoat by laying his hand on the animal's head2 and since the man was believed to be possessed by the divine spirit1 we have here an undoubted example of a man-god slain to take away the sins and misfortunes of the people4 ,the foregoing survey of the custom of publicly expelling the accumulated evils of a village or district suggests a few general observations4 ,in the first place1 it will not be disputed that what ,i have called the immediate and the mediate expulsions of evil are identical in intention2 in other words1 that whether the evils are conceived of as invisible or as embodied in a material form1 is a circumstance entirely subordinate to the main object of the ceremony1 which is simply to effect a total clearance of all the ills that have been infesting a people4 ,if any link were wanting to connect the two kinds of expulsion1 it would be furnished by such a practice as that of sending the evils away in a boat4 ,for here1 on the one hand1 the evils are invisible and intangible2 and1 on the other hand1 there is a visible and tangible vehicle to convey them away4 ,and a scapegoat is nothing more than such a vehicle4 ,in the second place1 when a general clearance of evils is resorted to periodically1 the interval between the celebrations of the ceremony is commonly a year1 and the time of year when the ceremony takes place usually coincides with some well-marked change of season--such as the close of winter in the arctic and temperate zones1 and the beginning or end of the rainy season in the tropics4 ,the increased mortality which such climatic changes are apt to produce1 especially amongst ill-fed1 ill-clothed1 and ill-housed savages1 is set down by primitive man to the agency of demons1 who must accordingly be expelled4 ,hence1 in ,new ,britain and ,peru1 the devils are or were driven out at the beginning of the rainy season4 ,when a tribe has taken to agriculture1 the time for the general expulsion of devils is naturally made to agree with one of the great epochs of the agricultural year1 as sowing or harvest2 but1 as these epochs themselves often coincide with changes of season1 it does not follow that the transition from the hunting or pastoral to the agricultural life involves any alteration in the time of celebrating this great annual rite4 ,some of the agricultural communities of ,india and the ,hindoo ,koosh1 as we have seen1 hold their general clearance of demons at harvest1 others at sowing-time4 ,but1 at whatever season of the year it is held1 the general expulsion of devils commonly marks the beginning of the new year4 ,for1 before entering on a new year1 people are anxious to rid themselves of the troubles that have harassed them in the past2 hence the fact that amongst so many people--,iroquois1 ,tonquinese1 ,siamese1 ,tibetans1 etc4--the beginning of the new year is inaugurated with a solemn and public banishment of evil spirits4 ,in the third place1 it is to be observed that this public and periodic expulsion of devils is commonly preceded or followed by a period of general licence1 during which the ordinary restraints of society are thrown aside1 and all offences1 short of the gravest1 are allowed to pass unpunished4 ,in ,guinea and ,tonquin the period of licence precedes the public expulsion of demons2 and the suspension of the ordinary government in ,lhs previous to the expulsion of the scapegoat is perhaps a relic of a similar period of universal licence4 ,amongst the ,hos the period of licence follows the expulsion of the devil4 ,amongst the ,iroquois it hardly appears whether it preceded or followed the banishment of evils4 ,in any case1 the extraordinary relaxation of all ordinary rules of conduct on such occasions is doubtless to be explained by the general clearance of evils which precedes or follows it4 ,on the one hand1 when a general riddance of evil and absolution from all sin is in immediate prospect1 men are encouraged to give the rein to their passions1 trusting that the coming ceremony will wipe out the score which they are running up so fast4 ,on the other hand1 when the ceremony has just taken place1 men's minds are freed from the oppressive sense1 under which they generally labour1 of an atmosphere surcharged with devils2 and in the first revulsion of joy they overleap the limits commonly imposed by custom and morality4 ,when the ceremony takes place at harvest-time1 the elation of feeling which it excites is further stimulated by the state of physical wellbeing produced by an abundant supply of food47#efa7 ,fourthly1 the employment of a divine man or animal as a scapegoat is especially to be noted2 indeed1 we are here directly concerned with the custom of banishing evils only in so far as these evils are believed to be transferred to a god who is afterwards slain4 ,it may be suspected that the custom of employing a divine man or animal as a public scapegoat is much more widely diffused than appears from the examples cited4 ,for1 as has already been pointed out1 the custom of killing a god dates from so early a period of human history that in later ages1 even when the custom continues to be practised1 it is liable to be misinterpreted4 ,the divine character of the animal or man is forgotten1 and he comes to be regarded merely as an ordinary victim4 ,this is especially likely to be the case when it is a divine man who is killed4 ,for when a nation becomes civilised1 if it does not drop human sacrifices altogether1 it at least selects as victims only such criminals as would be put to death at any rate4 ,thus1 as in the ,sacaean festival at ,babylon1 the killing of a god may come to be confounded with the execution of a criminal4 ,if we ask why a dying god should be selected to take upon himself and carry away the sins and sorrows of the people1 it may be suggested that in the practice of using the divinity as a scapegoat we have a combination of two customs which were at one time distinct and independent4 ,on the one hand we have seen that it has been customary to kill the human or animal god in order to save his divine life from being weakened by the inroads of age4 ,on the other hand we have seen that it has been customary to have a general expulsion of evils and sins once a year4 ,now1 if it occurred to people to combine these two customs1 the result would be the employment of the dying god as a scapegoat4 ,he was killed1 not originally to take away sin1 but to save the divine life from the degeneracy of old age2 but1 since he had to be killed at any rate1 people may have thought that they might as well seize the opportunity to lay upon him the burden of their sufferings and sins1 in order that he might bear it away with him to the unknown world beyond the grave4 ,the use of the divinity as a scapegoat clears up the ambiguity which1 as we saw1 appeared to hang about the ,european folk-custom of 8carrying out ,death407#efb7 ,grounds have been shown for believing that in this ceremony the so-called ,death was originally the spirit of vegetation1 who was annually slain in spring1 in order that he might come to life again with all the vigour of youth4 ,but1 as we saw1 there are certain features in the ceremony which are not explicable on this hypothesis alone4 ,such are the marks of joy with which the effigy of ,death is carried out to be buried or burnt1 and the fear and abhorrence of it manifested by the bearers4 ,but these features become at once intelligible if we suppose that the ,death was not merely the dying god of vegetation1 but also a public scapegoat1 upon whom were laid all the evils that had afflicted the people during the past year4 ,joy on such an occasion is natural and appropriate2 and if the dying god appears to be the object of that fear and abhorrence which are properly due not to himself1 but to the sins and misfortunes with which he is laden1 this arises merely from the difficulty of distinguishing or at least of marking the distinction between the bearer and the burden4 ,when the burden is of a baleful character1 the bearer of it will be feared and shunned just as much as if he were himself instinct with those dangerous properties of which1 as it happens1 he is only the vehicle4 ,similarly we have seen that disease-laden and sin-laden boats are dreaded and shunned by ,east ,indian peoples47#efc7 ,again1 the view that in these popular customs the ,death is a scapegoat as well as a representative of the divine spirit of vegetation derives some support from the circumstance that its expulsion is always celebrated in spring and chiefly by ,slavonic peoples4 ,for the ,slavonic year began in spring27#efd7 and thus1 in one of its aspects1 the ceremony of 8carrying out ,death0 would be an example of the widespread custom of expelling the accumulated evils of the past year before entering on a new one4 ,we are now prepared to notice the use of the scapegoat in classical antiquity4 ,every year on the #adth of ,march a man clad in skins was led in procession through the streets of ,rome1 beaten with long white rods1 and driven out of the city4 ,he was called ,mamurius ,veturius17#efe7 that is1 8the old ,mars107#eff7 and as the ceremony took place on the day preceding the first full moon of the old ,roman year 7which began on #ast ,march71 the skin-clad man must have represented the ,mars of the past year1 who was driven out at the beginning of a new one4 ,now ,mars was originally not a god of war but of vegetation4 ,for it was to ,mars that the ,roman husbandman prayed for the prosperity of his corn and his vines1 his fruit-trees and his copses27#efg7 it was to ,mars that the priestly college of the ,arval ,brothers1 whose business it was to sacrifice for the growth of the crops17#efh7 addressed their petitions almost exclusively27#efi7 and it was to ,mars1 as we saw17#egj7 that a horse was sacrificed in ,october to secure an abundant harvest4 ,moreover1 it was to ,mars1 under his title of 8,mars of the woods0 7,mars ,silvanus7 that farmers offered sacrifice for the welfare of their cattle47#ega7 ,we have already seen that cattle are commonly supposed to be under the special patronage of tree-gods47#egb7 ,once more1 the fact that the vernal month of ,march was dedicated to ,mars seems to point him out as the deity of the sprouting vegetation4 ,thus the ,roman custom of expelling the old ,mars at the beginning of the ,new ,year in spring is identical with the ,slavonic custom of 8carrying out ,death10 if the view here taken of the latter custom is correct4 ,the similarity of the ,roman and ,slavonic customs has been already remarked by scholars1 who appear1 however1 to have taken ,mamurius ,veturius and the corresponding figures in the ,slavonic ceremonies to be representatives of the old year rather than of the old god of vegetation47#egc7 ,it is possible that ceremonies of this kind may have come to be thus interpreted in later times even by the people who practised them4 ,but the personification of a period of time is too abstract an idea to be primitive4 ,however1 in the ,roman1 as in the ,slavonic1 ceremony1 the representative of the god appears to have been treated not only as a deity of vegetation but also as a scapegoat4 ,his expulsion implies this2 for there is no reason why the god of vegetation1 as such1 should be expelled the city4 ,but it is otherwise if he is also a scapegoat2 it then becomes necessary to drive him beyond the boundaries1 that he may carry his sorrowful burden away to other lands4 ,and1 in fact1 ,mamurius ,veturius appears to have been driven away to the land of the ,oscans1 the enemies of ,rome47#egd7 ,the ancient ,greeks were also familiar with the use of a human scapegoat4 ,at ,plutarch's native town of ,chaeronea in ,boeotia1 there was a ceremony of this kind performed by the chief magistrate at the ,town ,hall1 and by each householder at his own home4 ,it was called the 8expulsion of hunger40 ,a slave was beaten with rods of the agnus castus1 and turned out of doors with the words1 8,out with hunger1 and in with wealth and health40 ,when ,plutarch held the office of chief magistrate of his native town he performed this ceremony at the ,town ,hall1 and he has recorded the discussion to which the custom afterwards gave rise47#ege7 ,the ceremony closely resembles the ,japanese1 ,hindoo1 and ,highland customs already described47#egf7 ,but in civilised ,greece the custom of the scapegoat took darker forms than the innocent rite over which the amiable and pious ,plutarch presided4 ,whenever ,marseilles1 one of the busiest and most brilliant of ,greek colonies1 was ravaged by a plague1 a man of the poorer classes used to offer himself as a scapegoat4 ,for a whole year he was maintained at the public expense1 being fed on choice and pure food4 ,at the expiry of the year he was dressed in sacred garments1 decked with holy branches1 and led through the whole city1 while prayers were uttered that all the evils of the people might fall on his head4 ,he was then cast out of the city47#egg7 ,the ,athenians regularly maintained a number of degraded and useless beings at the public expense2 and when any calamity1 such as plague1 drought1 or famine befell the city1 they sacrificed two of these outcasts as scapegoats4 ,one of the victims was sacrificed for the men and the other for the women4 ,the former wore round his neck a string of black1 the latter a string of white figs4 ,sometimes1 it seems1 the victim slain on behalf of the women was a woman4 ,they were led about the city and then sacrificed1 apparently by being stoned to death outside the city47#egh7 ,but such sacrifices were not confined to extraordinary occasions of public calamity2 it appears that every year1 at the festival of the ,thargelia in ,may1 two victims1 one for the men and one for the women1 were led out of ,athens and stoned to death47#egi7 ,from the ,lover's ,leap1 a white bluff at the southern end of their island1 the ,leucadians used annually to hurl a criminal into the sea as a scapegoat4 ,but to lighten his fall they fastened live birds and feathers to him1 and a flotilla of small boats waited below to catch him and convey him beyond the boundary47#ehj7 ,doubtless these humane precautions were a mitigation of an earlier custom of flinging the scapegoat into the sea to drown4 ,the custom of the scapegoat as practised by the ,greeks of ,asia ,minor in the sixth century ,b4,c4 was as follows4 ,when a city suffered from plague1 famine1 or other public calamity1 an ugly or deformed person was chosen to take upon himself all the evils by which the city was afflicted4 ,he was brought to a suitable place where dried figs1 a barley loaf1 and cheese were put into his hand4 ,these he ate4 ,then he was beaten seven times upon his genital organs with squills and branches of the wild fig and other wild trees4 ,afterwards he was burned on a pyre constructed of the wood of forest trees2 and his ashes were cast into the sea47#eha7 ,a similar custom appears to have been annually celebrated by the ,asiatic ,greeks at the harvest festival of the ,thargelia47#ehb7 ,in the ritual just described the beating of the victim with squills1 branches of the wild fig1 etc41 cannot have been intended to aggravate his sufferings1 otherwise any stick would have been good enough to beat him with4 ,the true meaning of this part of the ceremony has been explained by ,w4 ,mannhardt47#ehc7 ,he points out that the ancients attributed to squills a magical power of averting evil influences1 and accordingly hung them up at the doors of their houses and made use of them in purificatory rites47#ehd7 ,hence the ,arcadian custom of beating the image of ,pan with squills at a festival or whenever the hunters returned empty-handed17#ehe7 must have been meant1 not to punish the god1 but to purify him from the harmful influences which were impeding him in the exercise of his divine functions as a god who should supply the hunter with game4 ,similarly the object of beating the human scapegoat on the genital organs with squills1 etc41 must have been to release his reproductive energies from any restraint or spell under which they might be laid by demoniacal or other malignant agency2 and as the ,thargelia at which he was annually sacrificed was an early harvest festival17#ehf7 we must recognise in him a representative of the creative and fertilising god of vegetation4 ,the representative of the god was annually slain for the purpose ,i have indicated1 that of maintaining the divine life in perpetual vigour1 untainted by the weakness of age2 and before he was put to death it was not unnatural to stimulate his reproductive powers in order that these might be transmitted in full activity to his successor1 the new god or new embodiment of the old god1 who was doubtless supposed immediately to take the place of the one slain47#ehg7 ,similar reasoning would lead to a similar treatment of the scapegoat on special occasions1 such as drought or famine4 ,if the crops did not answer to the expectation of the husbandman1 this would be attributed to some failure in the generative powers of the god whose function it was to produce the fruits of the earth4 ,it might be thought he was under a spell or was growing old and feeble4 ,accordingly he was slain in the person of his representative1 with all the ceremonies already described1 in order that1 born young again1 he might infuse his own youthful vigour into the stagnant energies of nature4 ,on the same principle we can understand why ,mamurius ,veturius was beaten with rods1 why the slave at the ,chaeronean ceremony was beaten with the agnus castus 7a tree to which magical properties were ascribed717#ehh7 why the effigy of ,death in north ,europe is assailed with sticks and stones1 and why at ,babylon the criminal who played the god was scourged before he was crucified4 ,the purpose of the scourging was not to intensify the agony of the divine sufferer1 but on the contrary to dispel any malignant influences by which at the supreme moment he might conceivably be beset4 ,the interpretation here given to the custom of beating the human scapegoat with certain plants is supported by many analogies4 ,with the same intention some of the ,brazilian ,indians beat themselves on the genital organs with an aquatic plant1 the white aninga1 three days before or after the new moon47#ehi7 ,we have already had examples of the custom of beating sick people with the leaves of certain plants or with branches in order to rid them of the noxious influences47#eij7 ,at the autumn festival in ,peru people used to strike each other with torches saying1 8,let all harm go away407#eia7 ,indians of the ,quixos1 in ,south ,america1 before they set out on a long hunting expedition1 cause their wives to whip them with nettles1 believing that this renders them fleeter and helps them to overtake the peccaries4 ,they resort to the same proceeding as a cure for sickness47#eib7 ,at ,mowat in ,new ,guinea small boys are beaten lightly with sticks during ,december 8to make them grow strong and hardy407#eic7 ,in ,central ,europe a similar custom is very commonly observed in spring4 ,on the #ast of ,march the ,albanians strike men and beasts with cornel branches1 believing that this is very good for their health47#eid7 ,on ,good ,friday and the two previous days people in ,croatia and ,slavonia take rods with them to church1 and when the service is over they beat each other 8fresh and healthy407#eie7 ,in some parts of ,russia people returning from the church on ,palm ,sunday beat the children and servants who have stayed at home with palm branches1 saying1 8,sickness into the forest1 health into the bones407#eif7 ,in ,germany the custom is widely known as ,schmeckostern1 being observed at ,eastertide4 ,people beat each other1 especially with fresh green twigs of the birch4 ,the beating is supposed to bring good luck2 the person beaten will1 it is believed1 be free of vermin during the summer1 or will have no pains in his back or his legs for a year47#eig7 ,if the view here taken of the ,greek scapegoat is correct1 it obviates an objection which might otherwise be brought against the main argument of this chapter4 ,to the theory that the priest of ,nemi was slain as a representative of the spirit of the grove1 it might have been objected that such a custom has no analogy in classical antiquity4 ,but reasons have now been given for believing that the human being periodically and occasionally slain by the ,asiatic ,greeks was regularly treated as an embodiment of a divinity4 ,probably the persons whom the ,athenians kept to be sacrificed were similarly treated as divine4 ,that they were social outcasts did not matter4 ,on the primitive view a man is not chosen to be the mouth-piece or embodiment of a god on account of his high moral qualities or social standing4 ,the divine afflatus descends equally on the good and the bad1 the lofty and the lowly4 ,if then the civilised ,greeks of ,asia and ,athens habitually sacrificed men whom they regarded as incarnate gods1 there can be no inherent improbability in the supposition that at the dawn of history a similar custom was observed by the semi-barbarous ,latins in the ,arician ,grove4 #af4--,killing the god in ,mexico4 ,but the religion of ancient ,mexico1 as it was found and described by the ,spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century1 offers perhaps the closest parallels to the rule of the ,arician priesthood1 as ,i conceive that rule to have been originally observed4 ,certainly nowhere does the custom of killing the human representative of a god appear to have been carried out so systematically and on so extensive a scale as in ,mexico4 8,they tooke a captive10 says ,acosta1 8such as they thought good2 and afore they did sacrifice him unto their idolls1 they gave him the name of the idoll1 to whom hee should be sacrificed1 and apparelled him with the same ornaments like their idoll1 saying that he did represent the same idoll4 ,and during the time that this representation lasted1 which was for a yeere in some feasts1 in others six moneths1 and in others lesse1 they reverenced and worshipped him in the same maner as the proper idoll2 and in the meane time he did eate1 drincke1 and was merry4 ,when hee went through the streetes the people came forth to worship him1 and every one brought him an almes1 with children and sicke folkes1 that he might cure them1 and bless them1 suffering him to doe all things at his pleasure1 onely hee was accompanied with tenne or twelve men lest he should flie4 ,and he 7to the end he might be reverenced as he passed7 sometimes sounded upon a small flute1 that the people might prepare to worship him4 ,the feast being come1 and hee growne fatte1 they killed him1 opened him1 and eat him1 making a solempne sacrifice of him407#eih7 ,for example1 at the annual festival of the great god ,tezcatlipoca1 which fell about ,easter or a few days later1 a young man was chosen to be the living image of ,tezcatlipoca for a whole year4 ,he had to be of unblemished body1 and he was carefully trained to sustain his lofty role with becoming grace and dignity4 ,during the year he was lapped in luxury1 and the king himself took care that the future victim was apparelled in gorgeous attire1 8for already he esteemed him as a god40 ,attended by eight pages clad in the royal livery1 the young man roamed the streets of the capital day and night at his pleasure1 carrying flowers and playing the flute4 ,all who saw him fell on their knees before him and adored him1 and he graciously acknowledged their homage4 ,twenty days before the festival at which he was to be sacrificed1 four damsels1 delicately nurtured1 and bearing the names of four goddesses1 were given him to be his brides4 ,for five days before the sacrifice divine honours were showered on him more abundantly than ever4 ,the king remained in his palace1 while the whole court went after the destined victim4 ,everywhere there were solemn banquets and balls4 ,on the last day the young man1 still attended by his pages1 was ferried across the lake in a covered barge to a small and lonely temple1 which1 like the ,mexican temples in general1 rose in the form of a pyramid4 ,as he ascended the stairs of the temple he broke at every step one of the flutes on which he had played in the days of his glory4 ,on reaching the summit he was seized and held down on a block of stone1 while a priest cut open his breast with a stone knife1 and plucking out his heart1 offered it to the sun4 ,his head was hung among the skulls of previous victims1 and his legs and arms were cooked and prepared for the table of the lords4 ,his place was immediately filled up by another young man1 who for a year was treated with the same profound respect1 and at the end of it shared the same fate47#eii7 ,the idea that the god thus slain in the person of his representative comes to life again immediately1 was graphically represented in the ,mexican ritual by skinning the slain man-god and clothing in his skin a living man1 who thus became the new representative of the godhead4 ,thus at an annual festival a woman was sacrificed who represented ,toci or the ,mother of the ,gods4 ,she was dressed with the ornaments1 and bore the name of the goddess1 whose living image she was believed to be4 ,after being feasted and diverted with sham fights for several days1 she was taken at midnight to the summit of a temple1 and beheaded on the shoulders of a man4 ,the body was immediately flayed1 and one of the priests1 clothing himself in the skin1 became the representative of the goddess ,toci4 ,the skin of the woman's thigh was removed separately1 and a young man who represented the god ,cinteotl1 the son of the goddess ,toci1 wrapt it round his face like a mask4 ,various ceremonies then followed1 in which the two men1 clad in the woman's skin1 played the parts respectively of the god and goddess47#fjj7 ,again1 at the annual festival of the god ,totec1 a number of captives having been killed and skinned1 a priest clothed himself in one of their skins1 and thus became the image of the god ,totec4 ,then wearing the ornaments of the god--a crown of feathers1 golden necklaces and ear-rings1 scarlet shoes1 etc4--he was enthroned1 and received offerings of the first fruits and first flowers of the season1 together with bunches of the maize which had been kept for seed47#fja7 ,every fourth year the ,quauhtitlans offered sacrifices in honour of the god of fire4 ,on the eve of the festival they sacrificed two slaves1 skinned them1 and took out their thigh bones4 ,next day two priests clothed themselves in the skins1 took the bones in their hands1 and with solemn steps and dismal howlings descended the stairs of the temple4 ,the people1 who were assembled in crowds below1 called out1 8,behold1 there come our gods407#fjb7 ,thus it appears that human sacrifices of the sort ,i suppose to have prevailed at ,aricia were1 as a matter of fact1 systematically offered on a large scale by a people whose level of culture was probably not inferior1 if indeed it was not distinctly superior1 to that occupied by the ,italian races at the early period to which the origin of the ,arician priesthood must be referred4 ,the positive and indubitable evidence of the prevalence of such sacrifices in one part of the world may reasonably be allowed to strengthen the probability of their prevalence in places for which the evidence is less full and trustworthy4 ,taken all together1 the evidence affords a fair presumption that the custom of killing men whom their worshippers regard as divine has prevailed in many parts of the world4 ,whether the general explanation which ,i have offered of that custom is adequate1 and whether the rule that the priest of ,aricia had to die a violent death is1 as ,i have tried to show1 a particular instance of the general custom1 are questions which ,i must now leave to the judgment of the reader4 ,,chapter ,,iv--,,the ,,golden ,,bough4 8,und grn des ,lebens goldner ,baum40--,,faust4 #a4--;,between heaven and earth4 ,at the outset of this book two questions were proposed for answer2 ,why had the priest of ,nemi 7,aricia7 to slay his predecessor8 ,and why1 before doing so1 had he to pluck the ,golden ,bough8 ,of these two questions the first has now been answered4 ,the priest of ,nemi1 if ,i am right1 embodied in himself the spirit1 primarily1 of the woods and1 secondarily1 of vegetable life in general4 ,hence1 according as he was well or ill1 the woods1 the flowers1 and the fields were believed to flourish or fade2 and if he were to die of sickness or old age1 the plant world1 it was supposed1 would simultaneously perish4 ,therefore it was necessary that this priest of the woodlands1 this sylvan deity incarnate in a man1 should be put to death while he was still in the full bloom of his divine manhood1 in order that his sacred life1 transmitted in unabated force to his successor1 might renew its youth1 and thus by successive transmissions through a perpetual line of vigorous incarnations might remain eternally fresh and young1 a pledge and security that the buds and blossoms of spring1 the verdure of summer woods1 and the mellow glories of autumn would never fail4 ,but we have still to ask1 ,what was the ,golden ,bough8 and why had each candidate for the ,arician priesthood to pluck it before he could slay the priest8 ,these questions ,i will now try to answer4 ,it will be well to begin by noticing two of those rules or taboos by which1 as we have seen1 the life of divine kings or priests is regulated4 ,the first of the rules to which ,i desire to call the reader's attention is that the divine personage may not touch the ground with his foot4 ,this rule was observed by the ,mikado of ,japan and by the supreme pontiff of the ,zapotecs in ,mexico4 ,the latter 8profaned his sanctity if he so much as touched the ground with his foot407#fjc7 ,for the ,mikado to touch the ground with his foot was a shameful degradation2 indeed1 in the sixteenth century1 it was enough to deprive him of his office4 ,outside his palace he was carried on men's shoulders2 within it he walked on exquisitely wrought mats47#fjd7 ,the king and queen of ,tahiti might not touch the ground anywhere but within their hereditary domains2 for the ground on which they trod became sacred4 ,in travelling from place to place they were carried on the shoulders of sacred men4 ,they were always accompanied by several pairs of these sacred men2 and when it became necessary to change their bearers1 the king and queen vaulted on to the shoulders of their new bearers without letting their feet touch the ground47#fje7 ,it was an evil omen if the king of ,dosuma touched the ground1 and he had to perform an expiatory ceremony47#fjf7 ,the king of ,persia was never seen on foot outside his palace47#fjg7 ,the second rule to be here noted is that the sun may not shine upon the divine person4 ,this rule was observed both by the ,mikado and by the pontiff of the ,zapotecs4 ,the latter 8was looked upon as a god whom the earth was not worthy to hold1 nor the sun to shine upon407#fjh7 ,the ,japanese would not allow that the ,mikado 8should expose his sacred person to the open air1 and the sun is not thought worthy to shine on his head407#fji7 ,the heir to the throne of ,bogota in ,colombia1 ,south ,america1 had to undergo a severe training from the age of sixteen2 he lived in complete retirement in a temple1 where he might not see the sun nor eat salt nor converse with a woman47#faj7 ,the heir to the kingdom of ,sogamoso in ,colombia1 before succeeding to the crown1 had to fast for seven years in the temple1 being shut up in the dark and not allowed to see the sun or light47#faa7 ,the prince who was to become ,inca of ,peru had to fast for a month without seeing light47#fab7 ,now it is remarkable that these two rules--not to touch the ground and not to see the sun--are observed either separately or conjointly by girls at puberty in many parts of the world4 ,thus amongst the negroes of ,loango girls at puberty are confined in separate huts1 and they may not touch the ground with any part of their bare body47#fac7 ,amongst the ,zulus and kindred tribes of ,south ,africa1 when the first signs of puberty show themselves 8while a girl is walking1 gathering wood1 or working in the field1 she runs to the river and hides herself among the reeds for the day so as not to be seen by men4 ,she covers her head carefully with her blanket that the sun may not shine on it and shrivel her up into a withered skeleton1 assured result from exposure to the sun's beams4 ,after dark she returns to her home and is secluded0 in a hut for some time47#fad7 ,in ,new ,ireland girls are confined for four or five years in small cages1 being kept in the dark and not allowed to set foot on the ground4 ,the custom has been thus described by an eye-witness4 8,i heard from a teacher about some strange custom connected with some of the young girls here1 so ,i asked the chief to take me to the house where they were4 ,the house was about twenty-five feet in length1 and stood in a reed and bamboo enclosure1 across the entrance to which a bundle of dried grass was suspended to show that it was strictly #8tabu'4 ,inside the house were three conical structures about seven or eight feet in height1 and about ten or twelve feet in circumference at the bottom1 and for about four feet from the ground1 at which point they tapered off to a point at the top4 ,these cages were made of the broad leaves of the pandanus-tree1 sewn quite close together so that no light1 and little or no air could enter4 ,on one side of each is an opening which is closed by a double door of plaited cocoa-nut tree and pandanus-tree leaves4 ,about three feet from the ground there is a stage of bamboos which forms the floor4 ,in each of these cages we were told there was a young woman confined1 each of whom had to remain for at least four or five years1 without ever being allowed to go outside the house4 ,i could scarcely credit the story when ,i heard it2 the whole thing seemed too horrible to be true4 ,i spoke to the chief1 and told him that ,i wished to see the inside of the cages1 and also to see the girls that ,i might make them a present of a few beads4 ,he told me that it was #8tabu1' forbidden for any men but their own relations to look at them2 but ,i suppose the promised beads acted as an inducement1 and so he sent away for some old lady who had charge1 and who alone is allowed to open the doors4444 ,she had to undo the door when the chief told her to do so1 and then the girls peeped out at us1 and1 when told to do so1 they held out their hands for the beads4 ,i1 however1 purposely sat at some distance away and merely held out the beads to them1 as ,i wished to draw them quite outside1 that ,i might inspect the inside of the cages4 ,this desire of mine gave rise to another difficulty1 as these girls were not allowed to put their feet to the ground all the time they were confined in these places4 ,however1 they wished to get the beads1 and so the old lady had to go outside and collect a lot of pieces of wood and bamboo1 which she placed on the ground1 and then going to one of the girls1 she helped her down and held her hand as she stepped from one piece of wood to another until she came near enough to get the beads ,i held out to her4 ,i then went to inspect the inside of the cage out of which she had come1 but could scarcely put my head inside of it1 the atmosphere was so hot and stifling4 ,it was clean and contained nothing but a few short lengths of bamboo for holding water4 ,there was only room for the girl to sit or lie down in a crouched position on the bamboo platform1 and when the doors are shut it must be nearly or quite dark inside4 ,the girls are never allowed to come out except once a day to bathe in a dish or wooden bowl placed close to each cage4 ,they say that they perspire profusely4 ,they are placed in these stifling cages when quite young1 and must remain there until they are young women1 when they are taken out and have each a great marriage feast provided for them407#fae7 ,in some parts of ,new ,guinea 8daughters of chiefs1 when they are about twelve or thirteen years of age1 are kept indoors for two or three years1 never being allowed1 under any pretence1 to descend from the house1 and the house is so shaded that the sun cannot shine on them407#faf7 ,among the ,ot ,danoms of ,borneo girls at the age of eight or ten years are shut up in a little room or cell of the house and cut off from all intercourse with the world for a long time4 ,the cell1 like the rest of the house1 is raised on piles above the ground1 and is lit by a single small window opening on a lonely place1 so that the girl is in almost total darkness4 ,she may not leave the room on any pretext whatever1 not even for the most necessary purposes4 ,none of her family may see her all the time she is shut up1 but a single slave woman is appointed to wait on her4 ,during her lonely confinement1 which often lasts seven years1 the girl occupies herself in weaving mats or with other handiwork4 ,her bodily growth is stunted by the long want of exercise1 and when1 on attaining womanhood1 she is brought out1 her complexion is pale and wax-like4 ,she is now shown the sun1 the earth1 the water1 the trees1 and the flowers1 as if she were newly born4 ,then a great feast is made1 a slave is killed1 and the girl is smeared with his blood47#fag7 ,in ,ceram girls at puberty were formerly shut up by themselves in a hut which was kept dark47#fah7 ,amongst the ,aht ,indians of ,vancouver ,island1 when girls reach puberty they are placed in a sort of gallery in the house 8and are there surrounded completely with mats1 so that neither the sun nor any fire can be seen4 ,in this cage they remain for several days4 ,water is given them1 but no food4 ,the longer a girl remains in this retirement the greater honour is it to the parents2 but she is disgraced for life if it is known that she has seen fire or the sun during this initiatory ordeal407#fai7 ,amongst the ,thlinkeet or ,kolosh ,indians of ,alaska1 when a girl shows signs of womanhood she is shut up in a little hut or cage1 which is completely blocked up with the exception of a small air-hole4 ,in this dark and filthy abode she had formerly to remain a year1 without fire1 exercise1 or associates4 ,her food was put in at the small window2 she had to drink out of the wing-bone of a white-headed eagle4 ,the time has now been reduced1 at least in some places1 to six months4 ,the girl has to wear a sort of hat with long flaps1 that her gaze may not pollute the sky2 for she is thought unfit for the sun to shine upon47#fbj7 ,amongst the ,koniags1 an ,esquimaux people of ,alaska1 girls at puberty were placed in small huts in which they had to remain on their hands and knees for six months2 then the hut was enlarged enough to let them kneel upright1 and they had to remain in this posture for six months more47#fba7 ,when symptoms of puberty appeared on a girl for the first time1 the ,indians of the ,rio de la ,plata used to sew her up in her hammock as if she were dead1 leaving only a small hole for her mouth to allow her to breathe4 ,in this state she continued so long as the symptoms lasted47#fbb7 ,in similar circumstances the ,chiriguanos of ,bolivia hoisted the girl in her hammock to the roof1 where she stayed for a month2 the second month the hammock was let half way down from the roof2 and in the third month old women1 armed with sticks1 entered the hut and ran about striking everything they met1 saying they were hunting the snake that had wounded the girl4 ,this they did till one of the women gave out that she had killed the snake47#fbc7 ,amongst some of the ,brazilian ,indians1 when a girl attained to puberty1 her hair was burned or shaved off close to the head4 ,then she was placed on a flat stone and cut with the tooth of an animal from the shoulders all down the back1 till she ran with blood4 ,then the ashes of a wild gourd were rubbed into the wounds2 the girl was bound hand and foot1 and hung in a hammock1 being enveloped in it so closely that no one could see her4 ,here she had to stay for three days without eating or drinking4 ,when the three days were over1 she stepped out of the hammock upon the flat stone1 for her feet might not touch the ground4 ,if she had a call of nature1 a female relation took the girl on her back and carried her out1 taking with her a live coal to prevent evil influences from entering the girl's body4 ,being replaced in her hammock she was now allowed to get some flour1 boiled roots1 and water1 but might not taste salt or flesh4 ,thus she continued to the end of the first monthly period1 at the expiry of which she was gashed on the breast and belly as well as all down the back4 ,during the second month she still stayed in her hammock1 but her rule of abstinence was less rigid1 and she was allowed to spin4 ,the third month she was blackened with a certain pigment and began to go about as usual47#fbd7 ,amongst the ,macusis of ,british ,guiana1 when a girl shows the first signs of puberty1 she is hung in a hammock at the highest point of the hut4 ,for the first few days she may not leave the hammock by day1 but at night she must come down1 light a fire1 and spend the night beside it1 else she would break out in sores on her neck1 throat1 etc4 ,so long as the symptoms are at their height1 she must fast rigorously4 ,when they have abated1 she may come down and take up her abode in a little compartment that is made for her in the darkest corner of the hut4 ,in the morning she may cook her food1 but it must be at a separate fire and in a vessel of her own4 ,in about ten days the magician comes and undoes the spell by muttering charms and breathing on her and on the more valuable of the things with which she has come in contact4 ,the pots and drinking vessels which she used are broken and the fragments buried4 ,after her first bath1 the girl must submit to be beaten by her mother with thin rods without uttering a cry4 ,at the end of the second period she is again beaten1 but not afterwards4 ,she is now 8clean10 and can mix again with people47#fbe7 ,other ,indians of ,guiana1 after keeping the girl in her hammock at the top of the hut for a month1 expose her to certain large ants1 whose bite is very painful47#fbf7 ,the custom of stinging the girl with ants or beating her with rods is intended1 we may be sure1 not as a punishment or a test of endurance1 but as a purification1 the object being to drive away the malignant influences with which a girl at such times is believed to be beset and enveloped4 ,examples of purification1 both by beating and by stinging with ants1 have already come before us47#fbg7 ,probably1 beating or scourging as a religious or ceremonial rite always originated with a similar intention4 ,it was meant to wipe off and drive away a dangerous contagion 7whether personified as demoniacal or not7 which was supposed to be adhering physically1 though invisibly1 to the body of the sufferer47#fbh7 ,the pain inflicted on the person beaten was no more the object of the beating than it is of a surgical operation with us2 it was a necessary accident1 that was all4 ,in later times such customs were interpreted otherwise1 and the pain1 from being an accident1 became the prime object of the ceremony1 which was now regarded either as a test of endurance imposed upon persons at critical epochs of life1 or as a mortification of the flesh well pleasing to the god4 ,but asceticism1 under any shape or form1 is never primitive4 ,amongst the ,uaupes of ,brazil a girl at puberty is secluded in the house for a month1 and allowed only a small quantity of bread and water4 ,then she is taken out into the midst of her relations and friends1 each of whom gives her four or five blows with pieces of sipo 7an elastic climber71 till she falls senseless or dead4 ,if she recovers1 the operation is repeated four times at intervals of six hours1 and it is considered an offence to the parents not to strike hard4 ,meantime1 pots of meats and fish have been made ready2 the sipos are dipped into them and then given to the girl to lick1 who is now considered a marriageable woman47#fbi7 ,when a ,hindoo maiden reaches maturity she is kept in a dark room for four days1 and is forbidden to see the sun4 ,she is regarded as unclean2 no one is allowed to touch her4 ,her diet is restricted to boiled rice1 milk1 sugar1 curd1 and tamarind without salt47#fcj7 ,in ,cambodia a girl at puberty is put to bed under a mosquito curtain1 where she should stay a hundred days4 ,usually1 however1 four1 five1 ten1 or twenty days are thought enough2 and even this1 in a hot climate and under the close meshes of the curtain1 is sufficiently trying47#fca7 ,according to another account1 a ,cambodian maiden at puberty is said to 8enter into the shade40 ,during her retirement1 which1 according to the rank and position of her family1 may last any time from a few days to several years1 she has to observe a number of rules1 such as not to be seen by a strange man1 not to eat flesh or fish1 and so on4 ,she goes nowhere1 not even to the pagoda4 ,but this state of retirement is discontinued during eclipses2 at such times she goes forth and pays her devotions to the monster who is supposed to cause eclipses by catching the heavenly bodies between his teeth47#fcb7 ,the fact that her retirement is discontinued during an eclipse seems to show how literally the injunction is interpreted which forbids maidens entering on womanhood to look upon the sun4 ,a superstition so widely diffused as this might be expected to leave traces in legends and folk-tales4 ,and it has done so4 ,in a modern ,greek folk-tale the ,fates predict that in her fifteenth year a princess must be careful not to let the sun shine on her1 for if this were to happen she would be turned into a lizard47#fcc7 ,a ,tyrolese story tells how it was the doom of a lovely maiden to be transported into the belly of a whale if ever a sunbeam fell on her47#fcd7 ,in another modern ,greek tale the ,sun bestows a daughter upon a childless woman on condition of taking the child back to himself when she is twelve years old4 ,so1 when the child was twelve1 the mother closed the doors and windows1 and stopped up all the chinks and crannies1 to prevent the ,sun from coming to fetch away her daughter4 ,but she forgot to stop up the key-hole1 and a sunbeam streamed through it and carried off the girl47#fce7 ,in a ,sicilian story a seer foretells that a king will have a daughter who1 in her fourteenth year1 will conceive a child by the ,sun4 ,so1 when the child was born1 the king shut her up in a lonely tower which had no window1 lest a sunbeam should fall on her4 ,when she was nearly fourteen years old1 it happened that her parents sent her a piece of roasted kid1 in which she found a sharp bone4 ,with this bone she scraped a hole in the wall1 and a sunbeam shot through the hole and impregnated her47#fcf7 ,the old ,greek story of ,danae1 who was confined by her father in a subterranean chamber or a brazen tower1 but impregnated by ,zeus1 who reached her in the shape of a shower of gold1 perhaps belongs to the same class of tales4 ,it has its counterpart in the legend which the ,kirgis of ,siberia tell of their ancestry4 ,a certain ,khan had a fair daughter1 whom he kept in a dark iron house1 that no man might see her4 ,an old woman tended her2 and when the girl was grown to maidenhood she asked the old woman1 8,where do you go so often80--8,my child10 said the old dame1 8there is a bright world4 ,in that bright world your father and mother live1 and all sorts of people live there4 ,that is where ,i go40 ,the maiden said1 8,good mother1 ,i will tell nobody1 but show me that bright world40 ,so the old woman took the girl out of the iron house4 ,but when she saw the bright world1 the girl tottered and fainted2 and the eye of ,god fell upon her1 and she conceived4 ,her angry father put her in a golden chest and sent her floating away 7fairy gold can float in fairyland7 over the wide sea47#fcg7 ,the shower of gold in the ,greek story1 and the eye of ,god in the ,kirgis legend1 probably stand for sunlight and the sun4 ,the idea that women may be impregnated by the sun is not uncommon in legends17#fch7 and there are even traces of it in marriage customs47#fci7 ,the ground of this seclusion of girls at puberty lies in the deeply engrained dread which primitive man universally entertains of menstruous blood4 ,evidence of this has already been adduced17#fdj7 but a few more facts may here be added4 ,amongst the ,australian blacks 8the boys are told from their infancy that1 if they see the blood1 they will early become gray-headed1 and their strength will fail prematurely40 ,hence a woman lives apart at these times2 and if a young man or boy approaches her she calls out1 and he immediately makes a circuit to avoid her4 ,the men go out of their way to avoid even crossing the tracks made by women at such times4 ,similarly the woman may not walk on any path frequented by men1 nor touch anything used by men2 she may not eat fish1 or go near water at all1 much less cross it2 for if she did1 the fish would be frightened1 and the fishers would have no luck2 she may not even fetch water for the camp2 it is sufficient for her to say ,thama to ensure her husband fetching the water himself4 ,a severe beating1 or even death1 is the punishment inflicted on an ,australian woman who breaks these rules47#fda7 ,the ,bushmen think that1 by a glance of a girl's eye at the time when she ought to be kept in strict retirement1 men become fixed in whatever position they happen to occupy1 with whatever they were holding in their hands1 and are changed into trees which talk47#fdb7 ,the ,guayquiries of the ,orinoco think that1 when a woman has her courses1 everything upon which she steps will die1 and that if a man treads on the place where she has passed1 his legs will immediately swell up47#fdc7 ,the ,creek and kindred ,indians of the ,united ,states compelled women at menstruation to live in separate huts at some distance from the village4 ,there the women had to stay1 at the risk of being surprised and cut off by enemies4 ,it was thought 8a most horrid and dangerous pollution0 to go near the women at such times2 and the danger extended to enemies who1 if they slew the women1 had to cleanse themselves from the pollution by means of certain sacred herbs and roots47#fdd7 ,similarly1 among the ,chippeways and other ,indians of the ,hudson ,bay ,territory1 women at such seasons are excluded from the camp1 and take up their abode in huts of branches4 ,they wear long hoods1 which effectually conceal the head and breast4 ,they may not touch the household furniture nor any objects used by men2 for their touch 8is supposed to defile them1 so that their subsequent use would be followed by certain mischief or misfortune10 such as disease or death4 ,they may not walk on the common paths nor cross the tracks of animals4 ,they 8are never permitted to walk on the ice of rivers or lakes1 or near the part where the men are hunting beaver1 or where a fishing-net is set1 for fear of averting their success4 ,they are also prohibited at those times from partaking of the head of any animal1 and even from walking in or crossing the track where the head of a deer1 moose1 beaver1 and many other animals have lately been carried1 either on a sledge or on the back4 ,to be guilty of a violation of this custom is considered as of the greatest importance2 because they firmly believe that it would be a means of preventing the hunter from having an equal success in his future excursions407#fde7 ,so the ,lapps forbid women at menstruation to walk on that part of the shore where the fishers are in the habit of setting out their fish47#fdf7 ,amongst the civilised nations of ,europe the superstitions which have prevailed on this subject are not less extravagant4 ,in the oldest existing cyclopaedia--the ,natural ,history of ,pliny--the list of dangers apprehended from menstruation is longer than any furnished by savages4 ,according to ,pliny1 the touch of a menstruous woman turned wine to vinegar1 blighted crops1 killed seedlings1 blasted gardens1 brought down the fruit from trees1 dimmed mirrors1 blunted razors1 rusted iron and brass 7especially at the waning of the moon71 killed bees1 or at least drove them from their hives1 caused mares to miscarry1 and so forth47#fdg7 ,similarly1 in various parts of ,europe1 it is still believed that if a woman in her courses enters a brewery the beer will turn sour2 if she touches beer1 wine1 vinegar1 or milk1 it will go bad2 if she makes jam1 it will not keep2 if she mounts a mare1 it will miscarry2 if she touches buds1 they will wither2 if she climbs a cherry-tree1 it will die47#fdh7 ,thus the object of secluding women at menstruation is to neutralise the dangerous influences which are supposed to emanate from them at such times4 ,that the danger is believed to be especially great at the first menstruation appears from the unusual precautions taken to isolate girls at this crisis4 ,two of these precautions have been illustrated above1 namely1 the rules that the girl may not touch the ground nor see the sun4 ,the general effect of these rules is to keep the girl suspended1 so to say1 between heaven and earth4 ,whether enveloped in her hammock and slung up to the roof1 as in ,south ,america1 or elevated above the ground in a dark and narrow cage1 as in ,new ,ireland1 she may be considered to be out of the way of doing mischief1 since1 being shut off both from the earth and from the sun1 she can poison neither of these great sources of life by her deadly contagion4 ,in short1 she is rendered harmless by being1 in electrical language1 insulated4 ,but the precautions thus taken to isolate or insulate the girl are dictated by a regard for her own safety as well as for the safety of others4 ,for it is thought that the girl herself would suffer if she were to neglect the prescribed regimen4 ,thus ,zulu girls1 as we have seen1 believe that they would shrivel to skeletons if the sun were to shine on them at puberty1 and in some ,brazilian tribes the girls think that a transgression of the rules would entail sores on the neck and throat4 ,in short1 the girl is viewed as charged with a powerful force which1 if not kept within bounds1 may prove the destruction both of the girl herself and of all with whom she comes in contact4 ,to repress this force within the limits necessary for the safety of all concerned is the object of the taboos in question4 ,the same explanation applies to the observance of the same rules by divine kings and priests4 ,the uncleanness1 as it is called1 of girls at puberty and the sanctity of holy men do not1 to the primitive mind1 differ from each other4 ,they are only different manifestations of the same supernatural energy which1 like energy in general1 is in itself neither good nor bad1 but becomes beneficent or maleficent according to its application47#fdi7 ,accordingly1 if1 like girls at puberty1 divine personages may neither touch the ground nor see the sun1 the reason is1 on the one hand1 a fear lest their divinity might1 at contact with earth or heaven1 discharge itself with fatal violence on either2 and1 on the other hand1 an apprehension1 that the divine being1 thus drained of his ethereal virtue1 might thereby be incapacitated for the future performance of those supernatural functions1 upon the proper discharge of which the safety of the people and even of the world is believed to hang4 ,thus the rules in question fall under the head of the taboos which we examined in the second chapter2 they are intended to preserve the life of the divine person and with it the life of his subjects and worshippers4 ,nowhere1 it is thought1 can his precious yet dangerous life be at once so safe and so harmless as when it is neither in heaven nor in earth1 but1 as far as possible1 suspended between the two47#fej7 #b4--;,balder4 ,a god whose life might in a sense be said to be neither in heaven nor earth but between the two1 was the ,norse ,balder1 the good and beautiful god4 ,the story of his death is as follows3 ,once on a time ,balder dreamed heavy dreams which seemed to forebode his death4 ,thereupon the gods held a council and resolved to make him secure against every danger4 ,so the goddess ,frigg took an oath from fire and water1 iron and all metals1 stones and earth1 from trees1 sicknesses and poisons1 and from all four-footed beasts1 birds1 and creeping things1 that they would not hurt ,balder4 ,when this was done ,balder was deemed invulnerable2 so the gods amused themselves by setting him in their midst1 while some shot at him1 others hewed at him1 and others threw stones at him4 ,but whatever they did1 nothing could hurt him2 and at this they were all glad4 ,only ,loki1 the mischief-maker1 was displeased1 and he went in the guise of an old woman to ,frigg1 who told him that the weapons of the gods could not wound ,balder1 since she had made them all swear not to hurt him4 ,then ,loki asked1 8,have all things sworn to spare ,balder80 ,she answered1 8,east of ,walhalla grows a plant called mistletoe2 it seemed to me too young to swear40 ,so ,loki went and pulled the mistletoe and took it to the assembly of the gods4 ,there he found the blind god ,hdur standing at the outside of the circle4 ,loki asked him1 8,why do you not shoot at ,balder80 ,hdur answered1 8,because ,i do not see where he stands2 besides ,i have no weapon40 ,then said ,loki1 8,do like the rest and show ,balder honour1 as they all do4 ,i will show you where he stands1 and do you shoot at him with this twig40 ,hdur took the mistletoe and threw it at ,balder1 as ,loki directed him4 ,the mistletoe struck ,balder and pierced him through and through1 and he fell down dead4 ,and that was the greatest misfortune that ever befel gods and men4 ,for a while the gods stood speechless1 then they lifted up their voices and wept bitterly4 ,they took ,balder's body and brought it to the sea-shore4 ,there stood ,balder's ship2 it was called ,ringhorn1 and was the hugest of all ships4 ,the gods wished to launch the ship and to burn ,balder's body on it1 but the ship would not stir4 ,so they sent for a giantess called ,hyrrockin4 ,she came riding on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the rollers and all the earth shook4 ,then ,balder's body was taken and placed on the funeral pile upon his ship4 ,when his wife ,nanna saw that1 her heart burst for sorrow and she died4 ,so she was laid on the funeral pile with her husband1 and fire was put to it4 ,balder's horse1 too1 with all its trappings1 was burned on the pile47#fea7 ,the circumstantiality of this story suggests that it belongs to the extensive class of myths which are invented to explain ritual4 ,for a myth is never so graphic and precise in its details as when it is a simple transcript of a ceremony which the author of the myth witnessed with his eyes4 ,at all events1 if it can be made probable that rites like those described in the ,balder myth have been practised by ,norsemen and by other ,european peoples1 we shall be justified in inferring that the ritual gave birth to the myth1 not the myth to the ritual4 ,for while many cases can be shown in which a myth has been invented to explain a rite1 it would be hard to point to a single case in which a myth has given rise to a rite4 ,ritual may be the parent of myth1 but can never be its child47#feb7 ,the main incidents in the myth of ,balder's death are two2 first1 the pulling of the mistletoe1 and second1 the death and burning of the god4 ,now both these incidents appear to have formed parts of an annual ceremony once observed by ,celts and ,norsemen1 probably also by ,germans and ,slavs4 ,in most parts of ,europe the peasants have been accustomed from time immemorial to kindle bonfires on certain days of the year1 and to dance round them or leap over them4 ,customs of this kind can be traced back on historical evidence to the ,middle ,ages17#fec7 and their analogy to similar customs observed in antiquity goes with strong internal evidence to prove that their origin must be sought in a period long prior to the spread of ,christianity4 ,indeed the earliest evidence of their observance in ,northern ,europe is furnished by the attempts made by ,christian synods in the eighth century to put them down as heathenish rites47#fed7 ,not uncommonly effigies are burned in these fires1 or a pretence is made of burning a living person in them2 and there are grounds for believing that anciently human beings were actually burned on these occasions4 ,a brief review of the customs in question will bring out the traces of human sacrifice1 and will serve at the same time to throw light on their meaning47#fee7 ,the seasons of the year at which these bonfires are most commonly lit are spring and midsummer1 but in some places they are kindled at ,hallow ,e'en 7,october #cast7 and ,christmas4 ,in spring the first ,sunday in ,lent 7,quadragesima7 and ,easter ,eve are the days on which in different places the ceremony is observed4 ,thus in the ,eifel ,mountains1 ,rhenish ,prussia1 on the first ,sunday in ,lent young people used to collect straw and brushwood from house to house4 ,these they carried to an eminence and piled them up round a tall1 slim1 beech-tree1 to which a piece of wood was fastened at right angles to form a cross4 ,the structure was known as the 8hut0 or 8castle40 ,fire was set to it and the young people marched round the blazing 8castle0 bareheaded1 each carrying a lighted torch and praying aloud4 ,sometimes a straw man was burned in the 8hut40 ,people observed the direction in which the smoke blew from the fire4 ,if it blew towards the corn-fields1 it was a sign that the harvest would be abundant4 ,on the same day1 in some parts of the ,eifel1 a great wheel was made of straw and dragged by three horses to the top of a hill4 ,thither the village boys marched at nightfall1 set fire to the wheel1 and sent it rolling down the slope4 ,two lads followed it with levers to set it in motion again1 in case it should anywhere meet with a check47#fef7 ,about ,echternach the same ceremony is called 8burning the witch407#feg7 ,at ,voralberg in the ,tyrol on the first ,sunday in ,lent a slender young fir-tree is surrounded with a pile of straw and fire-wood4 ,at the top of the tree is fastened a human figure called the 8witch02 it is made of old clothes and stuffed with gunpowder4 ,at night the whole is set on fire and boys and girls dance round it1 swinging torches and singing rhymes in which the words 8corn in the winnowing-basket1 the plough in the earth0 may be distinguished47#feh7 ,in ,swabia on the first ,sunday in ,lent a figure called the 8witch0 or the 8old wife0 or 8winter's grandmother0 is made up of clothes and fastened to a pole4 ,this is stuck in the middle of a pile of wood1 to which fire is applied4 ,while the 8witch0 is burning the young people throw blazing discs into the air4 ,the discs are thin round pieces of wood1 a few inches in diameter1 with notched edges to imitate the rays of the sun or stars4 ,they have a hole in the middle1 by which they are attached to the end of a wand4 ,before the disc is thrown it is set on fire1 the wand is swung to and fro1 and the impetus thus communicated to the disc is augmented by dashing the rod sharply against a sloping board4 ,the burning disc is thus thrown off1 and mounting high into the air1 describes a long curve before it reaches the ground4 ,a single lad may fling up forty or fifty of these discs1 one after the other4 ,the object is to throw them as high as possible4 ,the wand by which they are hurled must1 at least in some parts of ,swabia1 be of hazel4 ,sometimes the lads also leap over the fire brandishing blazing torches of pine-wood4 ,the charred embers of the burned 8witch0 and discs are taken home and planted in the flax-fields the same night1 in the belief that they will keep vermin from the fields47#fei7 ,in the ,rhn ,mountains1 ,bavaria1 on the first ,sunday in ,lent the people used to march to the top of a hill or eminence4 ,children and lads carried torches1 brooms daubed with tar1 and poles swathed in straw4 ,a wheel1 wrapt in combustibles1 was kindled and rolled down the hill2 and the young people rushed about the fields with their burning torches and brooms1 till at last they flung them in a heap1 and standing round them1 struck up a hymn or a popular song4 ,the object of running about the fields with the blazing torches was to 8drive away the wicked sower40 ,or it was done in honour of the ,virgin1 that she might preserve the fruits of the earth throughout the year and bless them47#ffj7 ,it seems hardly possible to separate from these bonfires1 kindled on the first ,sunday in ,lent1 the fires in which1 about the same season1 the effigy called ,death is burned as part of the ceremony of 8carrying out ,death40 ,we have seen that at ,spachendorf1 ,austrian ,silesia1 on the morning of ,rupert's ,day 7,shrove ,tuesday87 a straw-man1 dressed in a fur coat and a fur cap1 is laid in a hole outside the village and there burned1 and that while it is blazing every one seeks to snatch a fragment of it1 which he fastens to a branch of the highest tree in his garden or buries in his field1 believing that this will make the crops to grow better4 ,the ceremony is known as the 8burying of ,death407#ffa7 ,even when the straw-man is not designated as ,death1 the meaning of the observance is probably the same2 for the name ,death1 as ,i have tried to show1 does not express the original intention of the ceremony4 ,at ,cobern in the ,eifel ,mountains the lads make up a straw-man on ,shrove ,tuesday4 ,the effigy is formally tried and accused of having perpetrated all the thefts that have been committed in the neighbourhood throughout the year4 ,being condemned to death1 the straw-man is led through the village1 shot1 and burned upon a pyre4 ,they dance round the blazing pile1 and the last bride must leap over it47#ffb7 ,in ,oldenburg on the evening of ,shrove ,tuesday people used to make long bundles of straw1 which they set on fire1 and then ran about the fields waving them1 shrieking1 and singing wild songs4 ,finally they burnt a straw-man on the field47#ffc7 ,in the district of ,dsseldorf the straw-man burned on ,shrove ,tuesday was made of an unthreshed sheaf of corn47#ffd7 ,on the first ,monday after the spring equinox the urchins of ,zurich drag a straw-man on a little cart through the streets1 while at the same time the girls carry about a ,may-tree4 ,when vespers ring1 the straw-man is burned47#ffe7 ,in the district of ,aachen on ,ash ,wednesday a man used to be encased in peas-straw and taken to an appointed place4 ,here he slipped quietly out of his straw casing1 which was then burned1 the children thinking that it was the man who was being burned47#fff7 ,in the ,val di ,ledro 7,tyrol7 on the last day of the ,carnival a figure is made up of straw and brushwood and then burned4 ,the figure is called the ,old ,woman1 and the ceremony 8burning the ,old ,woman407#ffg7 ,another occasion on which these fire-festivals are held is ,easter ,eve1 the ,saturday before ,easter ,sunday4 ,on that day it has been customary in ,catholic countries to extinguish all the lights in the churches1 and then to make a new fire1 sometimes with flint and steel1 sometimes with a burning-glass4 ,at this fire is lit the ,easter candle1 which is then used to rekindle all the extinguished lights in the church4 ,in many parts of ,germany a bonfire is also kindled1 by means of the new fire1 on some open space near the church4 ,it is consecrated1 and the people bring sticks of oak1 walnut1 and beech1 which they char in the fire1 and then take home with them4 ,some of these charred sticks are thereupon burned at home in a newly-kindled fire1 with a prayer that ,god will preserve the homestead from fire1 lightning1 and hail4 ,thus every house receives 8new fire40 ,some of the sticks are placed in the fields1 gardens1 and meadows1 with a prayer that ,god will keep them from blight and hail4 ,such fields and gardens are thought to thrive more than others2 the corn and the plants that grow in them are not beaten down by hail1 nor devoured by mice1 vermin1 and beetles1 no witch harms them1 and the ears of corn stand close and full4 ,the charred sticks are also applied to the plough4 ,the ashes of the ,easter bonfire1 together with the ashes of the consecrated palm-branches1 are mixed with the seed at sowing4 ,a wooden figure called ,judas is sometimes burned in the consecrated bonfire47#ffh7 ,sometimes instead of the consecrated bonfire a profane fire used to be kindled on ,easter ,eve4 ,in the afternoon the lads of the village collected firewood and carried it to a corn-field or to the top of a hill4 ,here they piled it together and fastened in the midst of it a pole with a cross-piece1 all wrapt in straw1 so that it looked like a man with outstretched arms4 ,this figure was called the ,easter-man1 or the ,judas4 ,in the evening the lads lit their lanterns at the new holy fire in the church1 and ran at full speed to the pile4 ,the one who reached it first set fire to it and to the effigy4 ,no women or girls might be present1 though they were allowed to watch the scene from a distance4 ,great was the joy while the effigy was burning4 ,the ashes were collected and thrown at sunrise into running water1 or were scattered over the fields on ,easter ,monday4 ,at the same time the palm branches which had been consecrated on ,palm ,sunday1 and sticks which had been charred in the fire and consecrated on ,good ,friday1 were also stuck up in the fields4 ,the object was to preserve the fields from hail47#ffi7 ,in ,mnsterland1 these ,easter fires are always kindled upon certain definite hills1 which are hence known as ,easter or ,pascal ,mountains4 ,the whole community assembles about the fire4 ,fathers of families form an inner circle round it4 ,an outer circle is formed by the young men and maidens1 who1 singing ,easter hymns1 march round and round the fire in the direction of the sun1 till the blaze dies down4 ,then the girls jump over the fire in a line1 one after the other1 each supported by two young men who hold her hands and run beside her4 ,when the fire has burned out1 the whole assemblage marches in solemn procession to the church1 singing hymns4 ,they march thrice round the church1 and then break up4 ,in the twilight boys with blazing bundles of straw run over the fields to make them fruitful47#fgj7 ,in ,holland1 also1 ,easter fires used to be kindled on the highest eminences1 the people danced round them1 and leaped through the flames47#fga7 ,in ,schaumburg1 the ,easter bonfires may be seen blazing on all the mountains around for miles4 ,they are made with a tar barrel fastened to a pine-tree1 which is wrapt in straw4 ,the people dance singing round them47#fgb7 ,easter bonfires are also common in the ,harz ,mountains and in ,brunswick1 ,hanover1 and ,westphalia4 ,they are generally lit upon particular heights and mountains which are hence called ,easter ,mountains4 ,in the ,harz the fire is commonly made by piling brushwood about a tree and setting it on fire1 and blazing tar barrels are often rolled down into the valley4 ,in ,osterode1 every one tries to snatch a brand from the bonfire and rushes about with it2 the better it burns1 the more lucky it is4 ,in ,grund there are torch races47#fgc7 ,in the ,altmark1 the ,easter bonfires are composed of tar barrels1 bee-hives1 etc41 piled round a pole4 ,the young folk dance round the fire2 and when it has died out1 the old folk come and collect the ashes1 which they preserve as a remedy for the ailments of bees4 ,it is also believed that as far as the blaze of the bonfire is visible1 the corn will grow well throughout the year1 and no conflagration will break out47#fgd7 ,in some parts of ,bavaria1 bonfires were kindled at ,easter upon steep mountains1 and burning arrows or discs of wood were shot high into the air1 as in the ,swabian custom already described4 ,sometimes1 instead of the discs1 an old waggon wheel was wrapt in straw1 set on fire1 and sent rolling down the mountain4 ,the lads who hurled the discs received painted ,easter eggs from the girls47#fge7 ,in some parts of ,swabia the ,easter fires might not be kindled with iron or flint or steel2 but only by the friction of wood47#fgf7 ,at ,braunrde in the ,harz ,mountains it was the custom to burn squirrels in the ,easter bonfire47#fgg7 ,in the ,altmark1 bones were burned in it47#fgh7 ,in the central ,highlands of ,scotland bonfires1 known as the ,beltane fires1 were formerly kindled with great ceremony on the #ast of ,may1 and the traces of human sacrifices at them were particularly clear and unequivocal4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,callander1 in ,perthshire1 the custom lasted down to the close of last century4 ,the fires were lit by the people of each hamlet on a hill or knoll round which their cattle were pasturing4 ,hence various eminences in the ,highlands are known as 8the hill of the fires10 just as in ,germany some mountains take their name from the ,easter fires which are kindled upon them4 ,on the morning of ,may ,day the people repaired to a hill or knoll and cut a round trench in the green sod1 leaving in the centre a platform of turf large enough to contain the whole company4 ,on this turf they seated themselves1 and in the middle was placed a pile of wood or other fuel1 which of old they kindled with tein-eigin--that is1 forced fire or need-fire4 ,the way of making the need-fire was this3 8,the night before1 all the fires in the country were carefully extinguished1 and next morning the materials for exciting this sacred fire were prepared4 ,the most primitive method seems to be that which was used in the islands of ,skye1 ,mull1 and ,tiree4 ,a well-seasoned plank of oak was procured1 in the midst of which a hole was bored4 ,a wimble of the same timber was then applied1 the end of which they fitted to the hole4 ,but in some parts of the mainland the machinery was different4 ,they used a frame of green wood1 of a square form1 in the centre of which was an axle-tree4 ,in some places three times three persons1 in others three times nine1 were required for turning round1 by turns1 the axle-tree or wimble4 ,if any of them had been guilty of murder1 adultery1 theft1 or other atrocious crime1 it was imagined either that the fire would not kindle1 or that it would be devoid of its usual virtue4 ,so soon as any sparks were emitted by means of the violent friction1 they applied a species of agaric which grows on old birch-trees1 and is very combustible4 ,this fire had the appearance of being immediately derived from heaven1 and manifold were the virtues ascribed to it4 ,they esteemed it a preservative against witchcraft1 and a sovereign remedy against malignant diseases1 both in the human species and in cattle2 and by it the strongest poisons were supposed to have their nature changed40 ,for many years1 however1 before the close of last century1 the ,beltane fires were kindled in the usual way4 ,the fire being lit1 the company prepared a custard of eggs and milk1 which they ate4 ,afterwards they amused themselves a while by singing and dancing round the fire4 ,then 8they knead a cake of oatmeal1 which is toasted at the embers against a stone4 ,after the custard is eaten up they divide the cake into so many portions1 as similar as possible to one another in size and shape1 as there are persons in the company4 ,they daub one of these portions all over with charcoal until it be perfectly black4 ,they put all the bits of cake into a bonnet4 ,every one1 blindfold1 draws out a portion4 ,he who holds the bonnet is entitled to the last bit4 ,whoever draws the black bit is the devoted person who is to be sacrificed to ,baal1 whose favour they mean to implore1 in rendering the year productive of the sustenance of man and beast40 ,the victim thus selected 8was called cailleach bealtine--i4e4 the ,beltane carline1 a term of great reproach4 ,upon his being known1 part of the company laid hold of him1 and made a show of putting him into the fire2 but1 the majority interposing1 he was rescued4 ,and in some places they laid him flat on the ground1 making as if they would quarter him4 ,afterwards he was pelted with eggshells1 and retained the odious appellation during the whole year4 ,and1 while the feast was fresh in people's memory1 they affected to speak of the cailleach bealtine as dead40 ,he had to leap thrice through the flames1 and this concluded the ceremony47#fgi7 ,another account of the ,beltane festival1 written in the latter half of last century1 is as follows3 8,on the #ast of ,may the herdsmen of every village hold their ,beltien1 a rural sacrifice4 ,they cut a square trench on the ground1 leaving the turf in the middle2 on that they make a fire of wood1 on which they dress a large caudle of eggs1 butter1 oatmeal1 and milk1 and bring1 besides the ingredients of the caudle1 plenty of beer and whisky2 for each of the company must contribute something4 ,the rites begin with spilling some of the caudle on the ground1 by way of libation2 on that every one takes a cake of oatmeal1 upon which are raised nine square knobs1 each dedicated to some particular being1 the supposed preserver of their flocks and herds1 or to some particular animal1 the real destroyer of them2 each person then turns his face to the fire1 breaks off a knob1 and1 flinging it over his shoulder1 says1 #8,this ,i give to thee1 preserve thou my horses2 this to thee1 preserve thou my sheep2 and so on4' ,after that they use the same ceremony to the noxious animals3 #8,this ,i give to thee1 ,o fox6 spare thou my lambs2 this to thee1 ,o hooded crow6 this to thee1 ,o eagle6' ,when the ceremony is over they dine on the caudle2 and1 after the feast is finished1 what is left is hid by two persons deputed for that purpose2 but on the next ,sunday they reassemble1 and finish the reliques of the first entertainment407#fhj7 ,the #ast of ,may is a great popular festival in the more midland and southern parts of ,sweden4 ,on the preceding evening huge bonfires1 which should be lighted by striking two flints together1 blaze on all the hills and knolls4 ,every large hamlet has its own fire1 round which the young people dance in a ring4 ,the old folk notice whether the flames incline to the north or to the south4 ,in the former case the spring will be cold and backward2 in the latter mild and genial47#fha7 ,but the season at which these fire-festivals are most generally held all over ,europe is the summer solstice1 that is1 ,midsummer ,eve 7#bc;d ,june7 or ,midsummer ,day 7#bdth ,june74 ,according to a medival writer the three great features of this festival were the bonfires1 the procession with torches round the fields1 and the custom of rolling a wheel4 ,the writer adds that the smoke drives away harmful dragons which cause sickness1 and he explains the custom of rolling the wheel to mean that the sun has now reached the highest point in the ecliptic1 and begins thenceforward to descend47#fhb7 ,from his description1 which is still applicable1 we see that the main features of the midsummer fire-festival are identical with those which characterise the spring festivals4 ,in ,swabia lads and lasses1 hand in hand1 leap over the midsummer bonfire1 praying that the hemp may grow three ells high1 and they set fire to wheels of straw and send them rolling down the hill47#fhc7 ,in ,lechrain bonfires are kindled on the mountains on ,midsummer ,day2 and besides the bonfire a tall beam1 thickly wrapt in straw1 and surmounted by a cross-piece1 is burned in many places4 ,round this cross1 as it burns1 the lads dance2 and when the flames have subsided1 the young people leap over the fire in pairs1 a young man and a young woman together4 ,it is believed that the flax will grow that year as high as they leap over the fire2 and that if a charred billet be taken from the fire and stuck in a flax field it will promote the growth of the flax47#fhd7 ,at ,deffingen1 as they jumped over the midsummer bonfire1 they cried out1 8,flax1 flax6 may the flax this year grow seven ells high607#fhe7 ,in ,bohemia bonfires are kindled on many of the mountains on ,midsummer ,eve2 boys and girls1 hand in hand1 leap over them2 cart-wheels smeared with resin are ignited and sent rolling down the hill2 and brooms covered with tar and set on fire are swung about or thrown high into the air4 ,the handles of the brooms or embers from the fire are preserved and stuck in gardens to protect the vegetables from caterpillars and gnats4 ,sometimes the boys run down the hillside in troops1 brandishing the blazing brooms and shouting4 ,the bonfire is sometimes made by stacking wood and branches round the trunk of a tree and setting the whole on fire47#fhf7 ,in old farm-houses of the ,surenthal and ,winenthal a couple of holes or a whole row of them may sometimes be seen facing each other in the door-posts of the barn or stable4 ,sometimes the holes are smooth and round2 sometimes they are deeply burnt and blackened4 ,the explanation of them is this4 ,about midsummer1 but especially on ,midsummer ,day1 two such holes are bored opposite each other1 into which the extremities of a strong pole are fixed4 ,the holes are then stuffed with tow steeped in resin and oil2 a rope is looped round the pole1 and two young men1 who must be brothers or must have the same baptismal name1 and must be of the same age1 pull the ends of the rope backwards and forwards so as to make the pole revolve rapidly1 till smoke and sparks issue from the two holes in the door-posts4 ,the sparks are caught and blown up with tinder1 and this is the new and pure fire1 the appearance of which is greeted with cries of joy4 ,heaps of combustible materials are now ignited with the new fire1 and blazing bundles are placed on boards and sent floating down the brook4 ,the boys light torches at the new fire and run to fumigate the pastures4 ,this is believed to drive away all the demons and witches that molest the cattle4 ,finally the torches are thrown in a heap on the meadow and allowed to burn out4 ,on their way back the boys strew the ashes over the fields3 this is supposed to make them fertile4 ,if a farmer has taken possession of a new house1 or if servants have changed masters1 the boys fumigate the new abode and are rewarded by the farmer with a supper47#fhg7 ,at ,konz1 on the ,moselle1 the midsummer fire-festival used to be celebrated as follows4 ,a quantity of straw1 contributed jointly by every house1 was collected on the top of the ,stromberg ,hill4 ,here1 towards evening1 the men and boys assembled1 while the women and girls took up their position at a certain well down below4 ,on the top of the hill a huge wheel was completely covered with a portion of the collected straw1 the remainder of which was made into torches4 ,the mayor of ,sierk1 who always received a basket of cherries for his services1 gave the signal1 the wheel was ignited with a torch1 and sent rolling down the hill amid shouts of joy4 ,all the men and boys swung their torches in the air1 some of them remained on the top of the hill1 while others followed the fiery wheel on its course down the hillside to the ,moselle4 ,as it passed the women and girls at the well they raised cries of joy which were answered by the men on the top of the hill4 ,the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages also stood on the banks of the river and mingled their voices with the general shout of jubilation4 ,the wheel was often extinguished before it reached the water1 but if it plunged blazing into the river the people expected an abundant vintage1 and the inhabitants of ,konz had the right to exact a waggon-load of white wine from the surrounding vineyards47#fhh7 ,in ,france the midsummer customs are similar4 ,in ,poitou a wheel enveloped in straw is set on fire1 and people run with it through the fields1 which are supposed to be fertilised thereby2 also1 the people leap thrice over the fire1 holding in their hands branches of nut-trees1 which are afterwards hung over the door of the cattle-stall4 ,at ,brest torches are brandished1 and hundreds of them flung up into the air together47#fhi7 ,in ,britanny midsummer fires blaze on the hills1 the people dance round them1 singing and leaping over the glowing embers4 ,the bonfire is made by piling wood round a pole which is surmounted by a nosegay or crown47#fij7 ,sometimes1 instead of rolling fiery wheels1 discs of wood are ignited in the midsummer fires and thrown into the air in the manner already described47#fia7 ,at ,edersleben1 near ,sangerhausen1 a high pole was planted in the ground and a tar barrel was hung from it by a chain which reached to the ground4 ,the barrel was then set on fire and swung round the pole amid shouts of joy47#fib7 ,in our own country the custom of lighting bonfires at midsummer has prevailed extensively4 ,in the ,north of ,england these fires used to be lit in the open streets4 ,young and old gathered round them2 the former leaped over the fires and engaged in games1 while the old people looked on4 ,sometimes the fires were kindled on the tops of high hills4 ,the people also carried firebrands about the fields47#fic7 ,in ,herefordshire and ,somersetshire people used to make fires in the fields on ,midsummer ,eve 8to bless the apples407#fid7 ,in ,devonshire the custom of leaping over the midsummer fires was also observed47#fie7 ,in ,cornwall bonfires were lit on ,midsummer ,eve and the people marched round them with lighted torches1 which they also carried from village to village4 ,on ,whiteborough1 a large tumulus near ,launceston1 a huge bonfire used to be kindled on ,midsummer ,eve2 a tall summer pole with a large bush at the top was fixed in the centre of the bonfire47#fif7 ,at ,darowen in ,wales small bonfires were lit on ,midsummer ,eve47#fig7 ,on the same day people in the ,isle of ,man used to light fires to the windward of every field1 so that the smoke might pass over the corn2 and they folded their cattle and carried blazing furze or gorse round them several times47#fih7 ,in ,ireland1 8on the ,eves of ,st4 ,john ,baptist and ,st4 ,peter1 they always have in every town a bonfire late in the evening1 and carry about bundles of reeds fast tied and fired2 these being dry1 will last long1 and flame better than a torch1 and be a pleasing divertive prospect to the distant beholder2 a stranger would go near to imagine the whole country was on fire407#fii7 ,another writer says of the ,south of ,ireland3 8,on ,midsummer's ,eve1 every eminence1 near which is a habitation1 blazes with bonfires2 and round these they carry numerous torches1 shouting and dancing407#gjj7 ,an author who described ,ireland in the first quarter of last century says3 8,on the vigil of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist's nativity1 they make bonfires1 and run along the streets and fields with wisps of straw blazing on long poles to purify the air1 which they think infectious by believing all the devils1 spirits1 ghosts1 and hobgoblins fly abroad this night to hurt mankind407#gja7 ,another writer states that he witnessed the festival in ,ireland in #aghb3 8,exactly at midnight the fires began to appear1 and taking advantage of going up to the leads of the house1 which had a widely extended view1 ,i saw on a radius of thirty miles1 all around1 the fires burning on every eminence which the country afforded4 ,i had a further satisfaction in learning1 from undoubted authority1 that the people danced round the fires1 and at the close went through these fires1 and made their sons and daughters1 together with their cattle1 pass through the fire2 and the whole was conducted with religious solemnity407#gjb7 ,that the custom prevailed in full force as late as #ahfg appears from a notice in the ,liverpool ,mercury1 #bith ,june #ahfg1 which runs thus3 8,the old pagan fire-worship still survives in ,ireland1 though nominally in honour of ,st4 ,john4 ,on ,sunday night bonfires were observed throughout nearly every county in the province of ,leinster4 ,in ,kilkenny fires blazed on every hillside at intervals of about a mile4 ,there were very many in the ,queen's county1 also in ,kildare and ,wexford4 ,the effect in the rich sunset appeared to travellers very grand4 ,the people assemble and dance round the fires1 the children jump through the flames1 and in former times live coals were carried into the corn-fields to prevent blight407#gjc7 ,in ,scotland the traces of midsummer fires are few4 ,in reference to the parish of ,mongahitter it is said3 8,the ,midsummer ,eve fire1 a relic of ,druidism1 was kindled in some parts of this country407#gjd7 ,moresin states that on ,st4 ,peter's ,day 7#bith ,june7 the ,scotch ran about with lighted torches on mountains and high grounds27#gje7 and at ,loudon in ,ayrshire it appears that down to the close of last century the custom still prevailed for herdsmen and young people to kindle fires on high grounds on ,st4 ,peter's ,day47#gjf7 ,in the ,perthshire ,highlands on ,midsummer ,day the cowherd used to go three times round the fold1 according to the course of the sun1 with a burning torch in his hand4 ,this was believed to purify the flocks and herds and prevent diseases47#gjg7 ,in ,slavonic countries also the midsummer festival is celebrated with similar rites4 ,in ,russia fires are lighted and young people1 crowned with flowers1 jump through them and drive their cattle through them4 ,in ,little ,russia a stake is driven into the ground on ,st4 ,john's ,night1 wrapt in straw1 and set on fire4 ,as the flames rise the peasant women throw birch-tree boughs into them1 saying1 8,may my flax be as tall as this bough607#gjh7 8,in ,ruthenia the bonfires are lighted by a flame procured from wood by friction1 the operation being performed by the elders of the party1 amid the respectful silence of the rest4 ,but as soon as the fire is #8churned1' the bystanders break forth with joyous songs1 and when the bonfires are lit the young people take hands1 and spring in couples through the smoke1 if not through the flames1 and after that the cattle in their turn are driven through it407#gji7 ,in many parts of ,prussia and ,lithuania great fires are kindled on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john 7,midsummer ,eve74 ,all the heights are ablaze with them1 as far as the eye can see4 ,the fires are supposed to be a protection against thunder1 hail1 and cattle disease1 especially if next morning the cattle are driven over the places where the fires burned47#gaj7 ,in some parts of ,masuren it is the custom on the evening of ,midsummer ,day to put out all the fires in the village4 ,then an oaken stake is driven into the ground1 a wheel is fixed on it as on an axle and is made to revolve rapidly1 till the friction produces fire4 ,every one takes home a light from the new fire and rekindles the fire on the domestic hearth47#gaa7 ,in ,bohemia the cows used to be driven over the midsummer fires to protect them from witchcraft47#gab7 ,in ,servia on ,midsummer ,eve herdsmen light torches of birch bark and march round the sheepfolds and cattle-stalls2 then they climb the hills and there allow the torches to burn out47#gac7 ,in ,greece the women light fires on ,st4 ,john's ,eve and jump over them crying1 8,i leave my sins behind me407#gad7 ,italy must also have had its midsummer bonfires1 since at ,orvieto they were specially excepted from the prohibition directed against bonfires in general47#gae7 ,we have seen that they are still lighted in ,sardinia47#gaf7 ,in ,corsica on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john the people set fire to the trunk of a tree or to a whole tree1 and the young men and maidens dance round the blaze1 which is called fucaraja47#gag7 ,midsummer fires are1 or were formerly1 lighted in ,spain47#gah7 ,even the ,mohammedans of ,algeria and ,morocco are reported to have kindled great midsummer bonfires of straw1 into which they kept throwing incense and spices the whole night1 invoking the divine blessing on their fruit-trees47#gai7 ,it remains to show that the burning of effigies of human beings in the midsummer fires was not uncommon4 ,at ,rottenburg in ,wrtemberg1 down to the beginning of the present century1 a ceremony was observed on ,midsummer ,day which was called 8beheading the angel-man40 ,a stump was driven into the ground1 wrapt with straw1 and fashioned into the rude likeness of a human figure1 with arms1 head1 and face4 ,this was the angel-man2 round about him wood was piled up4 ,the boys1 armed with swords1 assembled in crowds1 covered the figure completely over with flowers1 and eagerly awaited the signal4 ,when the pile of wood was fired and the angel-man burst into a blaze1 the word was given and all the boys fell upon him with their swords and hewed the burning figure in pieces4 ,then they leaped backwards and forwards over the fire47#gbj7 ,in some parts of the ,tyrol a straw-man is carted about the village on ,midsummer ,day and then burned4 ,he is called the ,lotter1 which has been corrupted into ,luther47#gba7 ,in ,french ,flanders down to #aghi a straw figure representing a man was always burned in the midsummer bonfire1 and the figure of a woman was burned on ,st4 ,peter's ,day1 #bith ,june47#gbb7 ,at ,grtz on the #bc;d ,june the common people used to make a puppet called the ,tatermann1 which they dragged to the bleaching-ground1 and pelted with burning besoms till it took fire47#gbc7 ,in some parts of ,russia a figure of ,kupalo is burned or thrown into a stream on ,st4 ,john's ,night47#gbd7 ,the ,russian custom of carrying the straw effigy of ,kupalo over the midsummer bonfire has been already described47#gbe7 ,the best general explanation of these ,european fire-festivals seems to be the one given by ,mannhardt1 namely1 that they are sun-charms or magical ceremonies intended to ensure a proper supply of sunshine for men1 animals1 and plants4 ,we have seen that savages resort to charms for making sunshine17#gbf7 and we need not wonder that primitive man in ,europe has done the same4 ,indeed1 considering the cold and cloudy climate of ,europe during a considerable part of the year1 it is natural that sun-charms should have played a much more prominent part among the superstitious practices of ,european peoples than among those of savages who live nearer the equator4 ,this view of the festivals in question is supported by various considerations drawn partly from the rites themselves1 partly from the influence which they are believed to exert upon the weather and on vegetation4 ,for example1 the custom of rolling a burning wheel down a hillside1 which is often observed on these occasions1 seems a very natural imitation of the sun's course in the sky1 and the imitation is especially appropriate on ,midsummer ,day when the sun's annual declension begins4 ,not less graphic is the imitation of his apparent revolution by swinging a burning tar-barrel round a pole47#gbg7 ,the custom of throwing blazing discs1 shaped like suns1 into the air is probably also a piece of imitative magic4 ,in these1 as in so many cases1 the magic force is supposed to take effect through mimicry or sympathy2 by imitating the desired result you actually produce it2 by counterfeiting the sun's progress through the heavens you really help the luminary to pursue his celestial journey with punctuality and despatch4 ,the name 8fire of heaven10 by which the midsummer fire is sometimes popularly known17#gbh7 clearly indicates a consciousness of the connection between the earthly and the heavenly flame4 ,again1 the manner in which the fire appears to have been originally kindled on these occasions favours the view that it was intended to be a mock-sun4 ,for1 as various scholars have seen17#gbi7 it is highly probable that originally at these festivals fire was universally obtained by the friction of two pieces of wood4 ,we have seen that this is still the case in some places both at the ,easter and midsummer fires1 and that it is expressly stated to have been formerly the case at the ,beltane fires47#gcj7 ,but what makes it almost certain that this was once the invariable mode of kindling the fire at these periodic festivals is the analogy of the need-fires4 ,need-fires are kindled1 not at fixed periods1 but on occasions of special distress1 particularly at the outbreak of a murrain1 and the cattle are driven through the need-fire1 just as they are sometimes driven through the midsummer fires47#gca7 ,now1 the need-fire has always been produced by the friction of wood and sometimes by the revolution of a wheel2 in ,mull1 for example1 it was made by turning an oaken wheel over nine oaken spindles from east to west1 that is1 in the direction of the sun4 ,it is a plausible conjecture that the wheel employed to produce the need-fire represents the sun27#gcb7 and if the spring and midsummer fires were originally produced in the same way1 it would be a confirmation of the view that they were originally sun-charms4 ,in point of fact there is1 as ,kuhn has pointed out17#gcc7 some evidence to show that the midsummer fire was originally thus produced4 ,for at ,obermedlingen in ,swabia the 8fire of heaven10 as it was called1 was made on ,st4 ,vitus's ,day 7#aeth ,june7 by igniting a cart-wheel1 which1 smeared with pitch and plaited with straw1 was fastened on a pole twelve feet high1 the top of the pole being inserted in the nave of the wheel4 ,this fire was made on the summit of the mountain1 and as the flame ascended1 the people uttered a set form of words1 with eyes and arms directed heaven-ward47#gcd7 ,here the fact of a wheel being fixed on the top of a pole and ignited makes it probable that originally the fire was produced1 as in the need-fire1 by the revolution of a wheel4 ,the day on which the ceremony takes place 7#aeth ,june7 is near midsummer2 and we have seen that in ,masuren fire is 7or was7 actually made on ,midsummer ,day by turning a wheel rapidly about an oaken pole1 though it is not said that the new fire so produced is used to light a bonfire4 ,once more1 the influence which these bonfires are supposed to exert on the weather and on vegetation1 goes to show that they are sun-charms1 since the effects ascribed to them are identical with those of sunshine4 ,thus1 in ,sweden the warmth or cold of the coming season is inferred from the direction in which the flames of the bonfire are blown2 if they blow to the south1 it will be warm1 if to the north1 cold4 ,no doubt at present the direction of the flames is regarded merely as an augury of the weather1 not as a mode of influencing it4 ,but we may be pretty sure that this is one of the cases in which magic has dwindled into divination4 ,so in the ,eifel ,mountains1 when the smoke blows towards the corn-fields1 this is an omen that the harvest will be abundant4 ,but doubtless the older view was1 not merely that the smoke and flames prognosticated1 but that they actually produced an abundant harvest1 the heat of the flames acting like sunshine on the corn4 ,indeed1 this older view must still have been held by people in the ,isle of ,man when they lit fires to windward of their fields in order that the smoke might blow over them4 ,again1 the idea that the corn will grow well as far as the blaze of the bonfire is visible1 is certainly a remnant of the belief in the quickening and fertilising power of the bonfires4 ,the same belief reappears in the notion that embers taken from the bonfires and inserted in the fields will promote the growth of the crops1 and again it plainly underlies the custom of mixing the ashes of the bonfire with the seed-corn at sowing1 or of scattering the ashes by themselves over the field4 ,the belief that the flax will grow as high as the people leap over the bonfire belongs clearly to the same class of ideas4 ,once more1 we saw that at ,konz1 on the banks of the ,moselle1 if the blazing wheel which was trundled down the hillside reached the river without being extinguished1 this was hailed as a proof that the vintage would be abundant4 ,so firmly was this belief held that the successful performance of the ceremony entitled the villagers to levy a tax upon the owners of the neighbouring vineyards4 ,here the unextinguished wheel meant an unclouded sun1 and this in turn meant an abundant vintage4 ,so the waggon-load of white wine which the villagers received from the vineyards round about was in fact a payment for the sunshine which they had procured for the grapes4 ,the interpretation of these fire-customs as charms for making sunshine is confirmed by a parallel custom observed by the ,hindoos of ,southern ,india at the ,pongol or ,feast of ,ingathering4 ,the festival is celebrated in the early part of ,january1 when1 according to ,hindoo astrologers1 the sun enters the tropic of ,capricorn1 and the chief event of the festival coincides with the passage of the sun4 ,for some days previously the boys gather heaps of sticks1 straw1 dead leaves1 and everything that will burn4 ,on the morning of the first day of the festival the heaps are fired4 ,every street and lane has its bonfire4 ,the young folk leap over the fire or pile on fresh fuel4 ,this fire is an offering to ,srya1 the sun-god1 or to ,agni1 the deity of fire2 it 8wakes him from his sleep1 calling on him again to gladden the earth with his light and heat407#gce7 ,to say that the fires awaken the sun-god from his sleep is only a metaphorical and perhaps modernised expression of the belief that they actually help to rekindle the sun's light and heat4 ,the custom of leaping over the fire and driving cattle through it may be intended1 on the one hand1 to secure for man and beast a share of the vital energy of the sun1 and1 on the other hand1 to purify them from all evil influences2 for to the primitive mind fire is the most powerful of all purificatory agents4 ,the latter idea is obviously uppermost in the minds of ,greek women when they leap over the midsummer fire1 saying1 8,i leave my sins behind me40 ,so in ,yucatan at a ,new ,year's festival the people used to light a huge bonfire and pass through it1 in the belief that this was a means of ridding themselves of their troubles47#gcf7 ,the custom of driving cattle through a fire is not confined to ,europe4 ,at certain times the ,hottentots make a fire of chips1 dry branches1 and green twigs1 so as to raise a great smoke4 ,through this fire they drive their sheep1 dragging them through by force1 if necessary4 ,if the sheep make their escape without passing through the fire1 it is reckoned a heavy disgrace and a very bad omen4 ,but if they pass readily through or over the fire1 the joy of the ,hottentots is indescribable47#gcg7 ,the procession or race with burning torches1 which so often forms a part of these fire-festivals1 appears to be simply a means of diffusing far and wide the genial influence of the bonfire or of the sunshine which it represents4 ,hence on these occasions lighted torches are very frequently carried over the fields1 sometimes with the avowed intention of fertilising them27#gch7 and with the same intention live coals from the bonfire are sometimes placed in the field 8to prevent blight40 ,the custom of trundling a burning wheel over the fields1 which is practised for the express purpose of fertilising them1 embodies the same idea in a still more graphic form2 since in this way the mock-sun itself1 not merely its light and heat represented by torches1 is made actually to pass over the ground which is to receive its quickening and kindly influence4 ,again1 the custom of carrying lighted brands round the cattle is plainly equivalent to driving the animals through the fire4 ,it is quite possible that in these customs the idea of the quickening power of fire may be combined with the conception of it as a purgative agent for the expulsion or destruction of evil beings4 ,it is certainly sometimes interpreted in the latter way by persons who practise the customs2 and this purgative use of fire comes out very prominently1 as we have seen1 in the general expulsion of demons from towns and villages4 ,but in the present class of cases this aspect of it is perhaps secondary1 if indeed it is more than a later misinterpretation of the custom4 ,it remains to ask1 ,what is the meaning of burning an effigy in these bonfires8 ,the effigies so burned1 as was remarked above1 can hardly be separated from the effigies of ,death which are burned or otherwise destroyed in spring2 and grounds have been already given for regarding the so-called effigies of ,death as really representations of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation4 ,are the other effigies1 which are burned in the spring and midsummer bonfires1 susceptible of the same explanation8 ,it would seem so4 ,for just as the fragments of the so-called ,death are stuck in the fields to make the crops grow1 so the charred embers of the figure burned in the spring bonfires are sometimes placed in the fields in the belief that they will keep vermin from the crop4 ,again1 the rule that the last married bride must leap over the fire in which the straw-man is burned on ,shrove ,tuesday1 is probably intended to make her fruitful4 ,but1 as we have seen1 the power of blessing women with offspring is a special attribute of tree-spirits27#gci7 it is therefore a fair presumption that the burning effigy over which the bride must leap is a representative of the fertilising tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation4 ,this character of the effigy1 as representative of the spirit of vegetation1 is almost unmistakable when the effigy is composed of an unthreshed sheaf of corn or is covered from head to foot with flowers47#gdj7 ,again1 it is to be noted that instead of an effigy living trees are sometimes burned both in the spring and midsummer bonfires47#gda7 ,now1 considering the frequency with which the tree-spirit is represented in human shape1 it is hardly rash to suppose that when sometimes a tree and sometimes an effigy is burned in these fires1 the effigy and the tree are regarded as equivalent to each other1 each being a representative of the tree-spirit4 ,this1 again1 is confirmed by observing1 first1 that sometimes the effigy which is to be burned is carried about simultaneously with a ,may-tree1 the former being carried by the boys1 the latter by the girls27#gdb7 and1 second1 that the effigy is sometimes tied to a living tree and burned with it47#gdc7 ,in these cases1 we can scarcely doubt1 the tree-spirit is represented1 as we have found it represented before1 in duplicate1 both by the tree and by the effigy4 ,that the true character of the effigy as a representative of the beneficent spirit of vegetation should sometimes be forgotten1 is natural4 ,the custom of burning a beneficent god is too foreign to later modes of thought to escape misinterpretation4 ,naturally enough the people who continued to burn his image came in time to identify it as the effigy of persons1 whom1 on various grounds1 they considered objectionable1 such as ,judas ,iscariot1 ,luther1 and a witch4 ,the general reasons for killing a god or his representative have been examined in the preceding chapter4 ,but when the god happens to be a deity of vegetation1 there are special reasons why he should die by fire4 ,for light and heat are necessary to vegetable growth2 and1 on the principle of sympathetic magic1 by subjecting the personal representative of vegetation to their influence1 you secure a supply of these necessaries for trees and crops4 ,in other words1 by burning the spirit of vegetation in a fire which represents the sun1 you make sure that1 for a time at least1 vegetation shall have plenty of sun4 ,it may be objected that1 if the intention is simply to secure enough sunshine for vegetation1 this end would be better attained1 on the principles of sympathetic magic1 by merely passing the representative of vegetation through the fire instead of burning him4 ,in point of fact this is sometimes done4 ,in ,russia1 as we have seen1 the straw figure of ,kupalo is not burned in the midsummer fire1 but merely carried backwards and forwards across it47#gdd7 ,but1 for the reasons already given1 it is necessary that the god should die2 so next day ,kupalo is stripped of her ornaments and thrown into a stream4 ,in this ,russian custom1 therefore1 the passage of the image through the fire is a sun-charm pure and simple2 the killing of the god is a separate act1 and the mode of killing him--by drowning--is probably a rain-charm4 ,but usually people have not thought it necessary to draw this fine distinction2 for the various reasons already assigned1 it is advantageous1 they think1 to expose the god of vegetation to a considerable degree of heat1 and it is also advantageous to kill him1 and they combine these advantages in a rough-and-ready way by burning him4 ,finally1 we have to ask1 were human beings formerly burned as representatives of the tree-spirit or deity of vegetation8 ,we have seen reasons for believing that living persons have often acted as representatives of the tree-spirit1 and have suffered death as such4 ,there is no reason1 therefore1 why they should not have been burned1 if any special advantages were likely to be attained by putting them to death in that way4 ,the consideration of human suffering is not one which enters into the calculations of primitive man4 ,it would have been surprising if it did1 when we remember the record of ,christian ,europe4 ,now1 in the fire-festivals which we are discussing1 the pretence of burning people is sometimes carried so far that it seems reasonable to regard it as a mitigated survival of an older custom of actually burning them4 ,thus in ,aachen1 as we saw1 the man clad in peas-straw acts so cleverly that the children really believe he is being burned4 ,and at the ,beltane fires the pretended victim was seized1 and a show made of throwing him into the fire1 and for some time afterwards people affected to speak of him as dead4 ,in the following customs ,mannhardt is probably right in recognising traces of an old custom of burning a leaf-clad representative of the spirit of vegetation4 ,at ,wolfeck1 in ,austria1 on ,midsummer ,day1 a boy completely clad in green fir branches goes from house to house1 accompanied by a noisy crew1 collecting wood for the bonfire4 ,as he gets the wood he sings-- 8,forest trees ,i want1 ,no sour milk for me1 ,but beer and wine1 ,so can the wood-man be jolly and gay407#gde7 ,in some parts of ,bavaria1 also1 the boys who go from house to house collecting fuel for the midsummer bonfire envelop one of their number from head to foot in green branches of firs1 and lead him by a rope through the whole village47#gdf7 ,at ,moosheim1 in ,wrtemberg1 the festival of ,st4 ,john's ,fire usually lasted for fourteen days1 ending on the second ,sunday after ,midsummer ,day4 ,on this last day the bonfire was left in charge of the children1 while the older people retired to a wood4 ,here they encased a young fellow in leaves and twigs1 who1 thus disguised1 went to the fire1 scattered it1 and trod it out4 ,all the people present fled at the sight of him47#gdg7 ,but it seems possible to go farther than this4 ,of human sacrifices offered on these occasions the most unequivocal traces1 as we have seen1 are those which1 about a hundred years ago1 still lingered at the ,beltane fires in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 that is1 among a ,celtic people who1 situated in a remote corner of ,europe1 enjoying practical independence1 and almost completely isolated from foreign influence1 had till then conserved their old heathenism better than any other people in the ,west of ,europe4 ,it is significant1 therefore1 that human sacrifices by fire are known1 on unquestionable evidence1 to have been systematically practised by the ,celts4 ,the earliest description of these sacrifices is by ,julius ,caesar4 ,as conqueror of the hitherto independent ,celts of ,gaul1 ,caesar had ample opportunity of observing the national ,celtic religion and manners1 while these were still fresh and crisp from the native mint and had not yet been fused in the melting-pot of ,roman civilisation4 ,with his own notes ,caesar appears to have incorporated the observations of a ,greek explorer1 by name ,posidonius1 who travelled in ,gaul about fifty years before ,caesar carried the ,roman arms to the ,english ,channel4 ,the ,greek geographer ,strabo and the historian ,diodorus seem also to have derived their descriptions of the ,celtic sacrifices from the work of ,posidonius1 but independently of each other and of ,caesar1 for each of the three derivative accounts contains some details which are not to be found in either of the others4 ,by combining them1 therefore1 we can restore the original account of ,posidonius with some certainty1 and thus obtain a picture of the sacrifices offered by the ,celts of ,gaul at the close of the second century ,b4,c47#gdh7 ,the following seem to have been the main outlines of the custom4 ,condemned criminals were reserved by the ,celts in order to be sacrificed to the gods at a great festival which took place once in every five years4 ,the more there were of such victims1 the greater was believed to be the fertility of the land47#gdi7 ,when there were not enough criminals to furnish victims1 captives taken in war were sacrificed to supply the deficiency4 ,when the time came the victims were sacrificed by the ,druids or priests4 ,some were shot down with arrows1 some were impaled1 and some were burned alive in the following manner4 ,colossal images of wicker-work or of wood and grass were constructed2 these were filled with live men1 cattle1 and animals of other kinds2 fire was then applied to the images1 and they were burned with their living contents4 ,such were the great festivals held once every five years4 ,but besides these quinquennial festivals1 celebrated on so grand a scale and with1 apparently1 so large an expenditure of human life1 it seems reasonable to suppose that festivals of the same sort1 only on a lesser scale1 were held annually1 and that from these annual festivals are lineally descended some at least of the fire-festivals which1 with their traces of human sacrifices1 are still celebrated year by year in many parts of ,europe4 ,the gigantic images constructed of osiers or covered with grass in which the ,druids enclosed their victims remind us of the leafy framework in which the human representative of the tree-spirit is still so often encased47#gej7 ,considering1 therefore1 that the fertility of the land was apparently supposed to depend upon the due performance of these sacrifices1 ,mannhardt is probably right in viewing the ,celtic victims1 cased in osiers and grass1 as representatives of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation4 ,these wicker giants of the ,druids seem to have still their representatives at the spring and midsummer festivals of modern ,europe4 ,at ,douay a procession takes place annually on the ,sunday nearest to the #gth of ,july4 ,the great feature of the procession is a colossal figure made of osiers1 and called 8the giant10 which is moved through the streets by means of rollers and ropes worked by men who are enclosed within the figure4 ,the wooden head of the giant is said to have been carved and painted by ,rubens4 ,the figure is armed as a knight with lance and sword1 helmet and shield4 ,behind him march his wife and his three children1 all constructed of osiers on the same principle1 but on a smaller scale47#gea7 ,at ,dunkirk the giant is forty to fifty feet high1 being made of basket-work and canvas1 properly painted and dressed4 ,it contains a great many living men within it1 who move it about4 ,wicker giants of this sort are common in the towns of ,belgium and ,french ,flanders2 they are led about at the ,carnival in spring4 ,the people1 it is said1 are much attached to these grotesque figures1 speak of them with patriotic enthusiasm1 and never weary of gazing at them47#geb7 ,in ,england artificial giants seem to have been a standing feature of the midsummer festival4 ,a writer of the sixteenth century speaks of 8,midsommer pageants in ,london1 where1 to make the people wonder1 are set forth great and uglie gyants1 marching as if they were alive1 and armed at all points1 but within they are stuffed full of browne paper and tow1 which the shrewd boyes1 underpeeping1 do guilefully discover1 and turne to a greate derision407#gec7 ,the ,mayor of ,chester in #aeii 8altered many antient customs1 as the shooting for the sheriff's breakfast2 the going of the ,giants at ,midsommer1 etc407#ged7 ,in these cases the giants only figure in the processions4 ,but sometimes they are burned in the spring or summer bonfires4 ,thus the people of the ,rue aux ,ours in ,paris used annually to make a great wicker-work figure1 dressed as a soldier1 which they promenaded up and down the streets for several days1 and solemnly burned on the #c;d of ,july1 the crowd of spectators singing ,salve ,regina4 ,the burning fragments of the image were scattered among the people1 who eagerly scrambled for them4 ,the custom was abolished in #agdc47gee7 ,in ,brie1 ,isle de ,france1 a wicker-work giant1 eighteen feet high1 was annually burned on ,midsummer ,eve47#gef7 ,again1 the ,druidical custom of burning live animals1 enclosed in wicker-work1 has its counterpart at the spring and midsummer festivals4 ,at ,luchon in the ,pyrenees on ,midsummer ,eve 8a hollow column1 composed of strong wicker-work1 is raised to the height of about sixty feet in the centre of the principal suburb1 and interlaced with green foliage up to the very top2 while the most beautiful flowers and shrubs procurable are artistically arranged in groups below1 so as to form a sort of background to the scene4 ,the column is then filled with combustible materials1 ready for ignition4 ,at an appointed hour--about #h ,p4,m4--a grand procession1 composed of the clergy1 followed by young men and maidens in holiday attire1 pour forth from the town chanting hymns1 and take up their position around the column4 ,meanwhile1 bonfires are lit1 with beautiful effect1 in the surrounding hills4 ,as many living serpents as could be collected are now thrown into the column1 which is set on fire at the base by means of torches1 armed with which about fifty boys and men dance around with frantic gestures4 ,the serpents1 to avoid the flames1 wriggle their way to the top1 whence they are seen lashing out laterally until finally obliged to drop1 their struggles for life giving rise to enthusiastic delight among the surrounding spectators4 ,this is a favourite annual ceremony for the inhabitants of ,luchon and its neighbourhood1 and local tradition assigns to it a heathen origin407#geg7 ,in the midsummer fires formerly kindled on the ,place de ,grve at ,paris it was the custom to burn a basket1 barrel1 or sack full of live cats2 sometimes a fox was burned4 ,the people collected the embers and ashes of the fire and took them home1 believing that they brought good luck47#geh7 ,at ,metz midsummer fires were lighted on the ,esplanade1 and six cats were burned in them47#gei7 ,in ,russia a white cock was sometimes burned in the midsummer bonfire27#gfj7 in ,meissen or ,thringen a horse's head used to be thrown into it47#gfa7 ,sometimes animals are burned in the spring bonfires4 ,in the ,vosges cats were burned on ,shrove ,tuesday2 in ,elsass they were thrown into the ,easter bonfire47#gfb7 ,we have seen that squirrels were sometimes burned in the ,easter fire4 ,if the men who were burned in wicker frames by the ,druids represented the spirit of vegetation1 the animals burned along with them must have had the same meaning4 ,amongst the animals burned by the ,druids or in modern bonfires have been1 as we saw1 cattle1 cats1 foxes1 and cocks2 and all of these creatures are variously regarded by ,european peoples as embodiments of the corn-spirit47#gfc7 ,i am not aware of any certain evidence that in ,europe serpents have been regarded as representatives of the tree-spirit or corn-spirit27#gfd7 as victims at the midsummer festival in ,luchon they may have replaced animals which really had this representative character4 ,when the meaning of the custom was forgotten1 utility and humanity might unite in suggesting the substitution of noxious reptiles as victims in room of harmless and useful animals4 ,thus it appears that the sacrificial rites of the ,celts of ancient ,gaul can be traced in the popular festivals of modern ,europe4 ,naturally it is in ,france1 or rather in the wider area comprised within the limits of ancient ,gaul1 that these rites have left the clearest traces in the customs of burning giants of wicker-work and animals enclosed in wicker-work or baskets4 ,these customs1 it will have been remarked1 are generally observed at or about midsummer4 ,from this we may infer that the original rites of which these are the degenerate successors were solemnised at midsummer4 ,this inference harmonises with the conclusion suggested by a general survey of ,european folk-custom1 that the midsummer festival must on the whole have been the most widely diffused and the most solemn of all the yearly festivals celebrated by the primitive ,aryans in ,europe4 ,and in its application to the ,celts this general conclusion is corroborated by the more or less perfect vestiges of midsummer fire-festivals which we have found lingering in all those westernmost promontories and islands which are the last strongholds of the ,celtic race in ,europe--,britanny1 ,cornwall1 ,wales1 the ,isle of ,man1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland4 ,in ,scotland1 it is true1 the chief ,celtic fire-festivals certainly appear to have been held at ,beltane 7#ast ,may7 and ,hallow ,e'en2 but this was exceptional4 ,to sum up3 the combined evidence of ancient writers and of modern folk-custom points to the conclusion that amongst the ,celts of ,gaul an annual festival was celebrated at midsummer1 at which living men1 representing the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation1 were enclosed in wicker-frames and burned4 ,the whole rite was designed as a charm to make the sun to shine and the crops to grow4 ,but another great feature of the ,celtic midsummer festival appears to have been the gathering of the sacred mistletoe by the ,druids4 ,the ceremony has been thus described by ,pliny in a passage which has often been quoted4 ,after enumerating the different kinds of mistletoe he proceeds3 8,in treating of this subject1 the admiration in which the mistletoe is held throughout ,gaul ought not to pass unnoticed4 ,the ,druids1 for so they call their wizards1 esteem nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the tree on which it grows1 provided only that the tree is an oak4 ,but apart from this they choose oak-woods for their sacred groves and perform no sacred rites without oak-leaves2 so that the very name of ,druids may be regarded as a ,greek appellation derived from their worship of the oak47#gfe7 ,for they believe that whatever grows on these trees is sent from heaven1 and is a sign that the tree has been chosen by the god himself4 ,the mistletoe is very rarely to be met with2 but when it is found1 they gather it with solemn ceremony4 ,this they do especially in the sixth month 7the beginnings of their months and years are determined by the moon7 and after the tree has passed the thirtieth year of its age1 because by that time it has plenty of vigour1 though it has not attained half its full size4 ,after due preparations have been made for a sacrifice and a feast under the tree1 they hail it as the universal healer and bring to the spot two white bulls1 whose horns have never been bound before4 ,a priest clad in a white robe climbs the tree and with a golden7#gff7 sickle cuts the mistletoe1 which is caught in a white cloth4 ,then they sacrifice the victims1 praying that ,god may make his own gift to prosper with those upon whom he has bestowed it4 ,they believe that a potion prepared from mistletoe will make barren animals to bring forth1 and that the plant is a remedy against all poison407#gfg7 ,in saying that the ,druids cut the mistletoe in the sixth month ,pliny must have had in his mind the ,roman calendar1 in which the sixth month was ,june4 ,now1 if the cutting of the mistletoe took place in ,june1 we may be almost certain that the day which witnessed the ceremony was ,midsummer ,eve4 ,for in many places ,midsummer ,eve1 a day redolent of a thousand decaying fancies of yore1 is still the time for culling certain magic plants1 whose evanescent virtue can be secured at this mystic season alone4 ,for example1 on ,midsummer ,eve the fern is believed to burst into a wondrous bloom1 like fire or burnished gold4 ,whoever catches this bloom1 which very quickly fades and falls off1 can make himself invisible1 can understand the language of animals1 and so forth4 ,but he must not touch it with his hand2 he must spread a white cloth under the fern1 and the magic bloom 7or seed7 will fall into it47#gfh7 ,again1 ,st4 ,john's wort 7,hypericum perforatum71 a herb which is believed to heal all kinds of wounds and to drive away witches and demons1 is gathered on ,midsummer ,eve 7,eve of ,st4 ,john71 and is worn as an amulet or hung over doors and windows on that day47#gfi7 ,again1 mugwort 7,artemisia vulgaris7 is believed to possess magic qualities provided it be gathered on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,hence in ,france it is called the herb of ,st4 ,john4 ,people weave themselves a girdle of the plant1 believing that it will protect them against ghosts1 magic1 misfortune1 and disease1 throughout the year4 ,or they weave garlands of it on ,st4 ,john's ,eve1 and look through them at the midsummer bonfire or put them on their heads4 ,whoever does this will suffer no aches in his eyes or head that year4 ,sometimes the plant is thrown into the midsummer bonfire47#ggj7 ,the superstitious association of fern-seed1 ,st4 ,john's wort1 and mugwort with ,midsummer ,eve is widely diffused over ,europe4 ,the following associations seem to be more local4 ,in ,england the orpine 7,sedum telephium7 is popularly called ,midsummer ,men1 because it has been customary to gather it on ,midsummer ,eve for the purpose of using it to ascertain the fate of lovers27#gga7 and in ,england sprigs of red sage are sometimes gathered on ,midsummer ,eve for the same purpose47#ggb7 ,in ,bohemia poachers fancy they can make themselves invulnerable by means of fir-cones gathered before sunrise on ,st4 ,john's ,day47#ggc7 ,again1 in ,bohemia wild thyme gathered on ,midsummer ,day is used to fumigate the trees on ,christmas ,eve1 in order that they may grow well47#ggd7 ,in ,germany and ,bohemia a plant called ,st4 ,john's ,flower or ,st4 ,john's ,blood 7,hieracium pilosella7 is gathered on ,midsummer ,eve4 ,it should be rooted up with a gold coin4 ,the plant is supposed to bring luck and to be especially good for sick cattle47#gge7 ,these facts by themselves would suffice to raise a strong presumption that1 if the ,druids cut the mistletoe in ,june1 as we learn from ,pliny that they did1 the day on which they cut it could have been no other than ,midsummer ,eve or ,midsummer ,day4 ,this presumption is converted into practical certainty when we find it to be still a rule of folk-lore that the mistletoe should be cut on ,midsummer ,eve47#ggf7 ,further1 the peasants of ,piedmont and ,lombardy still go out on ,midsummer morning to search the oak-leaves for the 8oil of ,st4 ,john10 which is supposed to heal all wounds made with cutting instruments47#ggg7 ,originally no doubt the 8oil of ,st4 ,john0 was simply the mistletoe1 or a decoction made from it4 ,for in ,holstein the mistletoe1 especially oak-mistletoe1 is still regarded as a panacea for green wounds27#ggh7 and if1 as is alleged1 8all-healer0 is an epithet of the mistletoe in the modern ,celtic speech of ,britanny1 ,wales1 ,ireland1 and ,scotland17#ggi7 this can be nothing but a survival of the name by which1 as we have seen1 the ,druids addressed the oak1 or rather1 perhaps1 the mistletoe4 ,thus it appears that the two main features of the ,balder myth--the pulling of the mistletoe and the burning of the god--were reproduced in the great midsummer festival of the ,celts4 ,but in ,scandinavia itself1 the home of ,balder1 both these features of his myth can still be traced in the popular celebration of midsummer4 ,for in ,sweden on ,midsummer ,eve mistletoe is 8diligently sought after1 they believing it to be1 in a high degree1 possessed of mystic qualities2 and that if a sprig of it be attached to the ceiling of the dwelling-house1 the horse's stall1 or the cow's crib1 the #8,troll' will then be powerless to injure either man or beast407#ghj7 ,and in ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,denmark huge bonfires are kindled on hills and eminences on ,midsummer ,eve47#gha7 ,it does not appear1 indeed1 that any effigy is burned in these bonfires2 but the burning of an effigy is a feature which might easily drop out after its meaning was forgotten4 ,and the name of ,balder's bale-fires 7,balder's ,blar71 by which these midsummer fires were formerly known in ,sweden17#ghb7 puts their connection with ,balder beyond the reach of doubt1 and makes it certain that in former times either a living representative or an effigy of ,balder must have been annually burned in them4 ,midsummer was the season sacred to ,balder1 and the fact that the ,swedish poet ,tegner1 in his ,frithiofssaga1 places the burning of ,balder at midsummer7#ghc7 may perhaps be allowed as evidence of a ,swedish tradition to that effect4 ,from this double coincidence of the ,balder myth1 on the one hand with the midsummer festival of ,celtic ,gaul and on the other with the midsummer festival in ,scandinavia1 we may safely conclude that the myth is not a myth pure and simple1 that is1 a mere description of physical phenomena in imagery borrowed from human life2 it must undoubtedly be a ritualistic myth1 that is a myth based on actual observation of religious ceremonies and purporting to explain them4 ,now1 the standing explanation which myth gives of ritual is that the ritual in question is a periodic commemoration of some remarkable transaction in the past1 the actors in which may have been either gods or men4 ,such an explanation the ,balder myth would seem to offer of the annual fire-festivals which1 as we saw1 must have played so prominent a part in the primitive religion of the ,aryan race in ,europe4 ,balder must have been the ,norse representative of the being who was burnt in effigy or in the person of a living man at the fire-festivals in question4 ,but if1 as ,i have tried to show1 the being so burnt was the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation1 it follows that ,balder also must have been a tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation4 ,but it is desirable to determine1 if we can1 the particular kind of tree or trees1 of which a personal representative was burned at the fire-festivals4 ,for we may be quite sure that it was not as a representative of vegetation in general that the victim suffered death4 ,the conception of vegetation in general is too abstract to be primitive4 ,most probably the victim at first represented a particular kind of sacred tree4 ,now of all ,european trees none has such claims as the oak to be considered as pre-eminently the sacred tree of the ,aryans4 ,its worship is attested for all the great branches of the ,aryan stock in ,europe4 ,we have seen that it was not only the sacred tree1 but the principal object of worship of both ,celts and ,slavs47#ghd7 ,according to ,grimm1 the oak ranked first among the holy trees of the ,germans1 and was indeed their chief god4 ,it is certainly known to have been adored by them in the age of heathendom1 and traces of its worship have survived in various parts of ,germany almost to the present day47#ghe7 ,amongst the ancient ,italians1 according to ,preller1 the oak was sacred above all other trees47#ghf7 ,the image of ,jupiter on the ,capitol at ,rome seems to have been originally nothing but a natural oak-tree47#ghg7 ,at ,dodona1 perhaps the oldest of all ,greek sanctuaries1 ,zeus was worshipped as immanent in the sacred oak1 and the rustling of its leaves in the wind was his voice47#ghh7 ,if1 then1 the great god of both ,greeks and ,romans was represented in some of his oldest shrines under the form of an oak1 and if the oak was the principal object of worship of ,celts1 ,germans1 and ,slavs1 we may certainly conclude that this tree was one of the chief1 if not the very chief divinity of the ,aryans before the dispersion2 and that their primitive home must have lain in a land which was clothed with forests of oak47#ghi7 ,now1 considering the primitive character and remarkable similarity of the fire-festivals observed by all the branches of the ,aryan race in ,europe1 we may infer that these festivals form part of the common stock of religious observances which the various peoples carried with them in their wanderings from their original home4 ,but1 if ,i am right1 an essential feature of those primitive fire-festivals was the burning of a man who represented the tree-spirit4 ,in view1 then1 of the place occupied by the oak in the religion of the ,aryans1 the presumption is that the tree so represented at the fire-festivals must originally have been the oak4 ,so far as the ,celts and ,slavs are concerned1 this conclusion will perhaps hardly be contested4 ,but both for them and for the ,germans it is confirmed by a remarkable piece of religious conservatism4 ,the most primitive method known to man of producing fire is by rubbing two pieces of wood against each other till they ignite2 and we have seen that this method is still used in ,europe for kindling sacred fires such as the need-fire1 and that most probably it was formerly resorted to at all the fire-festivals under discussion4 ,now it is sometimes prescribed that the need-fire1 or other sacred fire1 must be made by the friction of a particular kind of wood2 and wherever the kind of wood is prescribed1 whether among ,celts1 ,germans1 or ,slavs1 that wood is always the oak4 ,thus we have seen that amongst the ,slavs of ,masuren the new fire for the village is made on ,midsummer ,day by causing a wheel to revolve rapidly round an axle of oak till the axle takes fire47#gij7 ,when the perpetual fire which the ancient ,slavs used to maintain chanced to go out1 it was rekindled by the friction of a piece of oak-wood1 which had been previously heated by being struck with a gray 7not a red7 stone47#gia7 ,in ,germany the need-fire was regularly kindled by the friction of oak-wood27#gib7 and in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 both the ,beltane and the need-fires were lighted by similar means47#gic7 ,now1 if the sacred fire was regularly kindled by the friction of oak-wood1 we may infer that originally the fire was also fed with the same material4 ,in point of fact1 the perpetual fire which burned under the sacred oak at the great ,slavonian sanctuary of ,romove was fed with oak-wood27#gid7 and that oak-wood was formerly the fuel burned in the midsummer fires may perhaps be inferred from the circumstance that in many mountain districts of ,germany peasants are still in the habit of making up their cottage fire on ,midsummer ,day with a heavy block of oak-wood4 ,the block is so arranged that it smoulders slowly and is not finally reduced to charcoal till the expiry of a year4 ,then upon next ,midsummer ,day the charred embers of the old log are removed to make room for the new one1 and are mixed with the seed-corn or scattered about the garden4 ,this is believed to promote the growth of the crops and to preserve them from blight and vermin47#gie7 ,it may be remembered that at the ,boeotian festival of the ,daedala1 the analogy of which to the spring and midsummer festivals of modern ,europe has been already pointed out1 the great feature was the felling and burning of an oak47#gif7 ,the general conclusion is1 that at those periodic or occasional ceremonies1 of which the object was to cause the sun to shine1 and the fruits of the earth to grow1 the ancient ,aryans both kindled and fed the fire with the sacred oak-wood4 ,but if at these solemn rites the fire was regularly made of oak-wood1 it follows that the man who was burned in it as a personification of the tree-spirit could have represented no tree but the oak4 ,the sacred oak was thus burned in duplicate2 the wood of the tree was consumed in the fire1 and along with it was consumed a living man as a personification of the oak-spirit4 ,the conclusion thus drawn for the ,european ,aryans in general is confirmed in its special application to the ,celts and ,scandinavians by the relation in which1 amongst these peoples1 the mistletoe stood to the burning of the victim in the midsummer fire4 ,we have seen that among ,celts and ,scandinavians it has been customary to gather the mistletoe at midsummer4 ,but so far as appears on the face of this custom1 there is nothing to connect it with the midsummer fires in which human victims or effigies of them were burned4 ,even if the fire1 as seems probable1 was originally always made with oak-wood1 why should it have been necessary to pull the mistletoe8 ,the last link between the midsummer customs of gathering the mistletoe and lighting the bonfires is supplied by ,balder's myth1 which certainly cannot be disjoined from the customs in question4 ,the myth shows that a vital connection must once have been believed to subsist between the mistletoe and the human representative of the oak who was burned in the fire4 ,according to the myth1 ,balder could be killed by nothing in heaven or earth except the mistletoe2 and so long as the mistletoe remained on the oak1 he was not only immortal1 but invulnerable4 ,now1 as soon as we see that ,balder was the oak1 the origin of the myth becomes plain4 ,the mistletoe was viewed as the seat of life of the oak1 and so long as it was uninjured nothing could kill or even wound the oak4 ,the conception of the mistletoe as the seat of life of the oak would naturally be suggested to primitive people by the observation that while the oak is deciduous1 the mistletoe which grows on it is evergreen4 ,in winter the sight of its fresh foliage among the bare branches must have been hailed by the worshippers of the tree as a sign that the divine life which had ceased to animate the branches yet survived in the mistletoe1 as the heart of a sleeper still beats when his body is motionless4 ,hence when the god had to be killed--when the sacred tree had to be burnt--it was necessary to begin by breaking off the mistletoe4 ,for so long as the mistletoe remained intact1 the oak 7so people thought7 was invulnerable2 all the blows of their knives and axes would glance harmless from its surface4 ,but once tear from the oak its sacred heart--the mistletoe--and the tree nodded to its fall4 ,and when in later times the spirit of the oak came to be represented by a living man1 it was logically necessary to suppose that1 like the tree he personated1 he could neither be killed nor wounded so long as the mistletoe remained uninjured4 ,the pulling of the mistletoe was thus at once the signal and the cause of his death4 ,but since the idea of a being whose life is thus1 in a sense1 outside itself1 must be strange to many readers1 and has1 indeed1 not yet been recognised in its full bearing on primitive superstition1 it will be worth while to devote a couple of sections to the subject4 ,the result will be to show that1 in assuming this idea as the explanation of the relation of ,balder to the mistletoe1 ,i assume a principle which is deeply engraved on the mind of primitive man4 #c4--,the external soul in folk-tales4 ,in a former chapter we saw that1 in the opinion of primitive people1 the soul may temporarily absent itself from the body without causing death4 ,such temporary absences of the soul are often believed to involve considerable risk1 since the wandering soul is liable to a variety of mishaps at the hands of enemies1 and so forth4 ,but there is another aspect to this power of externalising the soul4 ,if only the safety of the soul can be ensured during its absence from the body1 there is no reason why the soul should not continue absent for an indefinite time2 indeed a man may1 on a pure calculation of personal safety1 desire that his soul should never return to his body4 ,unable to conceive of life abstractly as a 8permanent possibility of sensation0 or a 8continuous adjustment of internal arrangements to external relations10 the savage thinks of it as a concrete material thing of a definite bulk1 capable of being seen and handled1 kept in a box or jar1 and liable to be bruised1 fractured1 or smashed in pieces4 ,it is not needful that the life1 so conceived1 should be in the man2 it may be absent from his body and still continue to animate him1 by virtue of a sort of sympathy or 8action at a distance40 ,so long as this object which he calls his life or soul remains unharmed1 the man is well2 if it is injured1 he suffers2 if it is destroyed1 he dies4 ,or1 to put it otherwise1 when a man is ill or dies1 the fact is explained by saying that the material object called his life or soul1 whether it be in his body or out of it1 has either sustained injury or been destroyed4 ,but there may be circumstances in which1 if the life or soul remains in the man1 it stands a greater chance of sustaining injury than if it were stowed away in some safe and secret place4 ,accordingly1 in such circumstances1 primitive man takes his soul out of his body and deposits it for security in some safe place1 intending to replace it in his body when the danger is past4 ,or if he should discover some place of absolute security1 he may be content to leave his soul there permanently4 ,the advantage of this is that1 so long as the soul remains unharmed in the place where he has deposited it1 the man himself is immortal2 nothing can kill his body1 since his life is not in it4 ,evidence of this primitive belief is furnished by a class of folk-tales of which the ,norse story of 8,the giant who had no heart in his body0 is perhaps the best-known example4 ,stories of this kind are widely diffused over the world1 and from their number and the variety of incident and of details in which the leading idea is embodied1 we may infer that the conception of an external soul is one which has had a powerful hold on the minds of men at an early stage of history4 ,for folk-tales are a faithful reflection of the world as it appeared to the primitive mind2 and we may be sure that any idea which commonly occurs in them1 however absurd it may seem to us1 must once have been an ordinary article of belief4 ,this assurance1 so far as it concerns the supposed power of externalising the soul for a longer or shorter time1 is amply corroborated by a comparison of the folk-tales in question with the actual beliefs and practices of savages4 ,to this we shall return after some specimens of the tales have been given4 ,the specimens will be selected with a view of illustrating both the characteristic features and the wide diffusion of this class of tales4 ,in the first place1 the story of the external soul is told1 in various forms1 by all ,aryan peoples from ,hindustan to the ,hebrides4 ,a very common form of it is this3 ,a warlock1 giant1 or other fairyland being is invulnerable and immortal because he keeps his soul hidden far away in some secret place2 but a fair princess1 whom he holds enthralled in his enchanted castle1 wiles his secret from him and reveals it to the hero1 who seeks out the warlock's soul1 heart1 life1 or death 7as it is variously called71 and1 by destroying it1 simultaneously kills the warlock4 ,thus a ,hindoo story tells how a magician called ,punchkin held a queen captive for twelve years1 and would fain marry her1 but she would not have him4 ,at last the queen's son came to rescue her1 and the two plotted together to kill ,punchkin4 ,so the queen spoke the magician fair1 and pretended that she had at last made up her mind to marry him4 8 #8,and do tell me1' she said1 #8are you quite immortal8 ,can death never touch you8 ,and are you too great an enchanter ever to feel human suffering8' 444 #8,it is true1' he said1 #8that ,i am not as others4 ,far1 far away--hundreds of thousands of miles from this--there lies a desolate country covered with thick jungle4 ,in the midst of the jungle grows a circle of palm-trees1 and in the centre of the circle stand six chattees full of water1 piled one above another2 below the sixth chattee is a small cage1 which contains a little green parrot--on the life of the parrot depends my life--and if the parrot is killed ,i must die4 ,it is1 however1' he added1 #8impossible that the parrot should sustain any injury1 both on account of the inaccessibility of the country1 and because1 by my appointment1 many thousand genii surround the palm-trees1 and kill all who approach the place4' 0 ,but the queen's young son overcame all difficulties1 and got possession of the parrot4 ,he brought it to the door of the magician's palace1 and began playing with it4 ,punchkin1 the magician1 saw him1 and1 coming out1 tried to persuade the boy to give him the parrot4 8 #8,give me my parrot6' cried ,punchkin4 ,then the boy took hold of the parrot and tore off one of his wings2 and as he did so the magician's right arm fell off4 ,punchkin then stretched out his left arm1 crying1 #8,give me my parrot6' ,the prince pulled off the parrot's second wing1 and the magician's left arm tumbled off4 #8,give me my parrot6' cried he1 and fell on his knees4 ,the prince pulled off the parrot's right leg1 the magician's right leg fell off2 the prince pulled off the parrot's left leg1 down fell the magician's left4 ,nothing remained of him except the lifeless body and the head2 but still he rolled his eyes1 and cried1 #8,give me my parrot6' #8,take your parrot1 then1' cried the boy2 and with that he wrung the bird's neck1 and threw it at the magician2 and1 as he did so1 ,punchkin's head twisted round1 and1 with a fearful groan1 he died607#gig7 ,in another ,hindoo tale an ogre is asked by his daughter1 8 #8,papa1 where do you keep your soul8' #8,sixteen miles away from this place1' said he1 #8is a tree4 ,round the tree are tigers1 and bears1 and scorpions1 and snakes2 on the top of the tree is a very great fat snake2 on his head is a little cage2 in the cage is a bird2 and my soul is in that bird4' 0 ,the end of the ogre is like that of the magician in the previous tale4 ,as the bird's wings and legs are torn off1 the ogre's arms and legs drop off2 and when its neck is wrung he falls down dead47#gih7 ,in another ,hindoo story a princess called ,sodewa ,bai is born with a golden necklace about her neck1 and the astrologer told her parents1 8,this is no common child2 the necklace of gold about her neck contains your daughter's soul2 let it1 therefore1 be guarded with the utmost care2 for if it were taken off and worn by another person1 she would die40 ,so her mother caused it to be firmly fastened round the child's neck1 and1 as soon as the child was old enough to understand1 she told her its value1 and warned her never to let it be taken off4 ,in course of time ,sodewa ,bai was married to a prince who had another wife living4 ,the first wife1 jealous of her young rival1 persuaded a negress to steal from ,sodewa ,bai the golden necklace which contained her soul4 ,the negress did so1 and1 as soon as she put the necklace round her own neck1 ,sodewa ,bai died4 ,all day long the negress used to wear the necklace2 but late at night1 on going to bed1 she would take it off and put it by till morning2 and whenever she took it off1 ,sodewa ,bai's soul returned to her and she lived4 ,but when morning came1 and the negress put on the necklace1 ,sodewa ,bai died again4 ,at last the prince discovered the treachery of his elder wife and restored the golden necklace to ,sodewa ,bai47#gii7 ,in another ,hindoo story a holy mendicant tells a queen that she will bear a son1 adding1 8,as enemies will try to take away the life of your son1 ,i may as well tell you that the life of the boy will be bound up in the life of a big boal-fish which is in your tank in front of the palace4 ,in the heart of the fish is a small box of wood1 in the box is a necklace of gold1 that necklace is the life of your son40 ,the boy was born and received the name of ,dalim4 ,his mother was the ,suo or younger queen4 ,but the ,duo or elder queen hated the child1 and learning the secret of his life1 she caused the boal-fish1 with which his life was bound up1 to be caught4 ,dalim was playing near the tank at the time1 but 8the moment the boal-fish was caught in the net1 that moment ,dalim felt unwell2 and when the fish was brought up to land1 ,dalim fell down on the ground1 and made as if he was about to breathe his last4 ,he was immediately taken into his mother's room1 and the king was astonished on hearing of the sudden illness of his son and heir4 ,the fish was by the order of the physician taken into the room of the ,duo queen1 and as it lay on the floor striking its fins on the ground1 ,dalim in his mother's room was given up for lost4 ,when the fish was cut open1 a casket was found in it2 and in the casket lay a necklace of gold4 ,the moment the necklace was worn by the queen1 that very moment ,dalim died in his mother's room40 ,the queen used to put off the necklace every night1 and whenever she did so1 the boy came to life again4 ,but every morning when the queen put on the necklace1 he died again47#hjj7 ,in a ,cashmeer story a lad visits an old ogress1 pretending to be her grandson1 the son of her daughter who had married a king4 ,so the old ogress took him into her confidence and showed him seven cocks1 a spinning-wheel1 a pigeon1 and a starling4 8,these seven cocks10 said she1 8contain the lives of your seven uncles1 who are away for a few days4 ,only as long as the cocks live can your uncles hope to live2 no power can hurt them as long as the seven cocks are safe and sound4 ,the spinning-wheel contains my life2 if it is broken1 ,i too shall be broken1 and must die2 but otherwise ,i shall live on for ever4 ,the pigeon contains your grandfather's life1 and the starling your mother's2 as long as these live1 nothing can harm your grandfather or your mother40 ,so the lad killed the seven cocks and the pigeon and the starling1 and smashed the spinning-wheel2 and at the moment he did so the ogres and ogresses perished47#hja7 ,in another story from ,cashmeer an ogre cannot die unless a particular pillar in the verandah of his palace be broken4 ,learning the secret1 a prince struck the pillar again and again till it was broken in pieces4 ,and it was as if each stroke had fallen on the ogre1 for he howled lamentably and shook like an aspen every time the prince hit the pillar1 until at last1 when the pillar fell down1 the ogre also fell down and gave up the ghost47#hjb7 ,in another ,cashmeer tale an ogre is represented as laughing very heartily at the idea that he might possibly die4 ,he said that 8he should never die4 ,no power could oppose him2 no years could age him2 he should remain ever strong and ever young1 for the thing wherein his life dwelt was most difficult to obtain40 ,it was in a queen bee1 which was in a honeycomb on a tree4 ,but the bees in the honeycomb were many and fierce1 and it was only at the greatest risk that any one could catch the queen4 ,but the hero achieved the enterprise and crushed the queen bee2 and immediately the ogre fell stone dead to the ground1 so that the whole land trembled with the shock47#hjc7 ,in some ,bengalee tales the life of a whole tribe of ogres is described as concentrated in two bees4 ,the secret was thus revealed by an old ogress to a captive princess who pretended to fear lest the ogress should die4 8,know1 foolish girl10 said the ogress1 8that we ogres never die4 ,we are not naturally immortal1 but our life depends on a secret which no human being can unravel4 ,let me tell you what it is that you may be comforted4 ,you know yonder tank2 there is in the middle of it a crystal pillar1 on the top of which in deep water are two bees4 ,if any human being can dive into the water and bring up the two bees from the pillar in one breath1 and destroy them so that not a drop of their blood falls to the ground1 then we ogres shall certainly die2 but if a single drop of blood falls to the ground1 then from it will start up a thousand ogres4 ,but what human being will find out this secret1 or1 finding it1 will be able to achieve the feat8 ,you need not1 therefore1 darling1 be sad2 ,i am practically immortal40 ,as usual1 the princess reveals the secret to the hero1 who kills the bees1 and that same moment all the ogres drop down dead1 each on the spot where he happened to be standing47#hjd7 ,in another ,bengalee story it is said that all the ogres dwell in ,ceylon1 and that all their lives are in a single lemon4 ,a boy cuts the lemon in pieces1 and all the ogres die47#hje7 ,in a ,siamese or ,cambodian story1 probably derived from ,india1 we are told that ,thossakan or ,ravana1 the ,king of ,ceylon1 was able by magic art to take his soul out of his body and leave it in a box at home1 while he went to the wars4 ,thus he was invulnerable in battle4 ,when he was about to give battle to ,rama1 he deposited his soul with a hermit called ,fire-eye1 who was to keep it safe for him4 ,so in the fight ,rama was astounded to see that his arrows struck the king without wounding him4 ,but one of ,rama's allies1 knowing the secret of the king's invulnerability1 transformed himself by magic into the likeness of the king1 and going to the hermit asked back his soul4 ,on receiving it he soared up into the air and flew to ,rama1 brandishing the box and squeezing it so hard that all the breath left the ,king of ,ceylon's body1 and he died47#hjf7 ,in a ,bengalee story a prince going into a far country planted with his own hands a tree in the courtyard of his father's palace1 and said to his parents1 8,this tree is my life4 ,when you see the tree green and fresh1 then know that it is well with me2 when you see the tree fade in some parts1 then know that ,i am in an ill case2 and when you see the whole tree fade1 then know that ,i am dead and gone407#hjg7 ,in another ,indian tale a prince1 setting forth on his travels1 left behind him a barley plant with instructions that it should be carefully tended and watched1 for if it flourished1 he would be alive and well1 but if it drooped1 then some mischance was about to happen to him4 ,and so it fell out4 ,for the prince was beheaded1 and as his head rolled off1 the barley plant snapped in two and the ear of barley fell to the ground47#hjh7 ,in the legend of the origin of ,gilgit there figures a fairy king whose soul is in the snows and who can only perish by fire47#hji7 ,in ,greek tales1 ancient and modern1 the idea of an external soul is not uncommon4 ,when ,meleager was seven days old1 the ,fates appeared to his mother and told her that ,meleager would die when the brand which was blazing on the hearth had burnt down4 ,so his mother snatched the brand from the fire and kept it in a box4 ,but in after years1 being enraged at her son for slaying her brothers1 she burnt the brand in the fire and ,meleager at once expired47#haj7 ,again1 ,nisus ,king of ,megara1 had a purple or golden hair on the middle of his head1 and it was fated that whenever the hair was pulled out the king should die4 ,when ,megara was besieged by the ,cretans1 the king's daughter ,scylla fell in love with ,minos1 their ,king1 and pulled out the fatal hair from her father's head4 ,so he died47#haa7 ,similarly ,poseidon made ,pterelaus immortal by giving him a golden hair on his head4 ,but when ,taphos1 the home of ,pterelaus1 was besieged by ,amphitryon1 the daughter of ,pterelaus fell in love with ,amphitryon and killed her father by plucking out the golden hair with which his life was bound up47#hab7 ,in a modern ,greek folk-tale a man's strength lies in three golden hairs on his head4 ,when his mother pulls them out1 he grows weak and timid and is slain by his enemies47#hac7 ,in another modern ,greek story the life of an enchanter is bound up with three doves which are in the belly of a wild boar4 ,when the first dove is killed1 the magician grows sick1 when the second is killed1 he grows very sick1 and when the third is killed1 he dies47#had7 ,in another ,greek story of the same sort an ogre's strength is in three singing birds which are in a wild boar4 ,the hero kills two of the birds1 and then coming to the ogre's house finds him lying on the ground in great pain4 ,he shows the third bird to the ogre1 who begs that the hero will either let it fly away or give it to him to eat4 ,but the hero wrings the bird's neck and the ogre dies on the spot47#hae7 ,in a variant of the latter story the monster's strength is in two doves1 and when the hero kills one of them1 the monster cries out1 8,ah1 woe is me6 ,half my life is gone4 ,something must have happened to one of the doves40 ,when the second dove is killed1 he dies47#haf7 ,in another ,greek story the incidents of the three golden hairs and the three doves are artificially combined4 ,a monster has three golden hairs on his head which open the door of a chamber in which are three doves2 when the first dove is killed1 the monster grows sick1 when the second is killed1 he grows worse1 and when the third is killed1 he dies47#hag7 ,in another ,greek tale an old man's strength is in a ten-headed serpent4 ,when the serpent's heads are being cut off1 he feels unwell1 and when the last head is struck off1 he expires47#hah7 ,in another ,greek story a dervish tells a queen that she will have three sons1 that at the birth of each she must plant a pumpkin in the garden1 and that in the fruit borne by the pumpkins will reside the strength of the children4 ,in due time the infants are born and the pumpkins planted4 ,as the children grow up the pumpkins grow with them4 ,one morning the eldest son feels sick1 and on going into the garden they find that the largest pumpkin is gone4 ,next night the second son keeps watch in a summer-house in the garden4 ,at midnight a negro appears and cuts the second pumpkin4 ,at once the boy's strength goes out of him and he is unable to pursue the negro4 ,the youngest son1 however1 succeeds in slaying the negro and recovering the lost pumpkins47#hai7 ,ancient ,italian legend furnishes a close parallel to the ,greek story of ,meleager4 ,silvia1 the young wife of ,septimius ,marcellus1 had a child by the god ,mars4 ,the god gave her a spear1 with which he said that the fate of the child would be bound up4 ,when the boy grew up he quarrelled with his maternal uncles and slew them4 ,so in revenge his mother burned the spear on which his life depended47#hbj7 ,in one of the stories of the ,pentamerone a certain queen has a twin brother1 a dragon4 ,the astrologers declared at her birth that she would live just as long as the dragon and no longer1 the death of the one involving the death of the other4 ,if the dragon were killed1 the only way to restore the queen to life would be to smear her temples1 breast1 pulses1 and nostrils with the blood of the dragon47#hba7 ,in a modern ,roman version of 8,aladdin and the ,wonderful ,lamp10 the magician tells the princess whom he holds captive in a floating rock in mid-ocean that he will never die4 ,the princess reports this to the prince her husband1 who has come to rescue her4 ,the prince replies1 8,it is impossible but that there should be some one thing or other that is fatal to him2 ask him what that one fatal thing is40 ,so the princess asked the magician and he told her that in the wood was a hydra with seven heads2 in the middle head of the hydra was a leveret1 in the head of the leveret was a bird1 in the bird's head was a precious stone1 and if this stone were put under his pillow he would die4 ,the prince procured the stone and the princess laid it under the magician's pillow4 ,no sooner did the enchanter lay his head on the pillow than he gave three terrible yells1 turned himself round and round three times1 and died47#hbb7 ,stories of the same sort are current among ,slavonic peoples4 ,thus in a ,russian tale a warlock called ,koshchei the ,deathless is asked where his death is4 8,my death10 he answered1 8is in such and such a place4 ,there stands an oak1 and under the oak is a casket1 and in the casket is a hare1 and in the hare is a duck1 and in the duck is an egg1 and in the egg is my death40 ,a prince obtained the egg and squeezed it1 whereupon ,koshchei the ,deathless bent double4 ,but when the prince shivered the egg in pieces1 the warlock died47#hbc7 8,in one of the descriptions of ,koshchei's death1 he is said to be killed by a blow on the forehead inflicted by the mysterious egg--that last link in the magic chain by which his life is darkly bound4 ,in another version of the same story1 but told of a snake1 the fatal blow is struck by a small stone found in the yolk of an egg1 which is inside a duck1 which is inside a hare1 which is inside a stone1 which is on an island407#hbd7 ,in another variant the prince shifts the fatal egg from one hand to the other1 and as he does so ,koshchei rushes wildly from side to side of the room4 ,at last the prince smashes the egg1 and ,koshchei drops dead47#hbe7 ,in another ,russian story the death of an enchantress is in a blue rose-tree in a blue forest4 ,prince ,ivan uproots the rose-tree1 whereupon the enchantress straightway sickens4 ,he brings the rose-tree to her house and finds her at the point of death4 ,then he throws it into the cellar1 crying1 8,behold her death60 and at once the whole building shakes1 8and becomes an island1 on which are people who had been sitting in ,hell1 and who offer up thanks to ,prince ,ivan407#hbf7 ,in another ,russian story a prince is grievously tormented by a witch who has got hold of his heart1 and keeps it seething in a magic cauldron47#hbg7 ,in a ,bohemian tale a warlock's strength lies in an egg1 which is in a duck1 which is in a stag1 which is under a tree4 ,a seer finds the egg and sucks it4 ,then the warlock grows as weak as a child1 8for all his strength had passed into the seer407#hbh7 ,in a ,serbian story a fabulous being called ,true ,steel declares1 8,far away from this place there is a very high mountain1 in the mountain there is a fox1 in the fox there is a heart1 in the heart there is a bird1 and in this bird is my strength40 ,the fox is caught and killed and its heart is taken out4 ,out of the fox's heart is taken the bird1 which is then burnt1 and that very moment ,true ,steel falls dead47#hbi7 ,in a ,south ,slavonian story a dragon tells an old woman1 8,my strength is a long way off1 and you cannot go thither4 ,far in another empire under the emperor's city is a lake1 in that lake is a dragon1 and in the dragon a boar1 and in the boar a pigeon1 and in that is my strength407#hcj7 ,amongst peoples of the ,teutonic stock stories of the external soul are not wanting4 ,in a tale told by the ,saxons of ,transylvania it is said that a young man shot at a witch again and again4 ,the bullets went clean through her but did her no harm1 and she only laughed and mocked at him4 8,silly earthworm10 she cried1 8shoot as much as you like4 ,it does me no harm4 ,for know that my life resides not in me but far1 far away4 ,in a mountain is a pond1 on the pond swims a duck1 in the duck is an egg1 in the egg burns a light1 that light is my life4 ,if you could put out that light1 my life would be at an end4 ,but that can never1 never be40 ,however1 the young man got hold of the egg1 smashed it1 and put out the light1 and with it the witch's life went out also47#hca7 ,in a ,german story a cannibal called ,soulless keeps his soul in a box1 which stands on a rock in the middle of the ,red ,sea4 ,a soldier gets possession of the box and goes with it to ,soulless1 who begs the soldier to give him back his soul4 ,but the soldier opens the box1 takes out the soul1 and flings it backward over his head4 ,at the same moment the cannibal drops down stone dead47#hcb7 ,in an ,oldenburg story a king has three sons and a daughter1 and for each child there grows a flower in the king's garden4 ,each of the flowers is a life flower2 it blooms and flourishes while the child lives1 but when the child dies it withers away47#hcc7 ,in another ,german story an old warlock lives with a damsel all alone in the midst of a vast and gloomy wood4 ,she fears that being old he may die and leave her alone in the forest4 ,but he reassures her4 8,dear child10 he said1 8,i cannot die1 and ,i have no heart in my breast40 ,but she importuned him to tell her where his heart was4 ,so he said1 8,far1 far from here in an unknown and lonesome land stands a great church4 ,the church is well secured with iron doors1 and round about it flows a broad deep moat4 ,in the church flies a bird and in the bird is my heart4 ,so long as that bird lives1 ,i live4 ,it cannot die of itself1 and no one can catch it2 therefore ,i cannot die1 and you need have no anxiety40 ,however1 the young man1 whose bride the damsel was to have been before the warlock spirited her away1 contrived to reach the church and catch the bird4 ,he brought it to the damsel1 who stowed him and it away under the warlock's bed4 ,soon the old warlock came home4 ,he was ailing1 and said so4 ,the girl wept and said1 8,alas1 daddy is dying2 he has a heart in his breast after all40 8,child10 replied the warlock1 8hold your tongue4 ,i can't die4 ,it will soon pass over40 ,at that the young man under the bed gave the bird a gentle squeeze2 and as he did so1 the old warlock felt very unwell and sat down4 ,then the young man gripped the bird tighter1 and the warlock fell senseless from his chair4 8,now squeeze him dead10 cried the damsel4 ,her lover obeyed1 and when the bird was dead1 the old warlock also lay dead on the floor47#hcd7 ,in the ,norse tale of 8the giant who had no heart in his body10 the giant tells the captive princess1 8,far1 far away in a lake lies an island1 on that island stands a church1 in that church is a well1 in that well swims a duck1 in that duck there is an egg1 and in that egg there lies my heart40 ,the hero of the tale obtains the egg and squeezes it1 at which the giant screams piteously and begs for his life4 ,but the hero breaks the egg in pieces and the giant at once bursts47#hce7 ,in another ,norse story a hill-ogre tells the captive princess that she will never be able to return home unless she finds the grain of sand which lies under the ninth tongue of the ninth head of a certain dragon2 but if that grain of sand were to come over the rock in which the ogres live1 they would all burst 8and the rock itself would become a gilded palace1 and the lake green meadows40 ,the hero finds the grain of sand and takes it to the top of the high rock in which the ogres live4 ,so all the ogres burst and the rest falls out as one of the ogres had foretold47#hcf7 ,in an ,icelandic parallel to the story of ,meleager1 the spae-wives or sybils come and foretell the high destiny of the infant ,gestr as he lies in his cradle4 ,two candles were burning beside the child1 and the youngest of the spae-wives1 conceiving herself slighted1 cried out1 8,i foretell that the child shall live no longer than this candle burns40 ,whereupon the chief sybil put out the candle and gave it to ,gestr's mother to keep1 charging her not to light it again until her son should wish to die4 ,gestr lived three hundred years2 then he kindled the candle and expired47#hcg7 ,in a ,celtic tale a giant says1 8,there is a great flagstone under the threshold4 ,there is a wether under the flag4 ,there is a duck in the wether's belly1 and an egg in the belly of the duck1 and it is in the egg that my soul is40 ,the egg is crushed1 and the giant falls down dead47#hch7 ,in another ,celtic tale1 a sea beast has carried off a king's daughter1 and an old smith declares that there is no way of killing the beast but one4 8,in the island that is in the midst of the loch is ,eillid ,chaisthion--the white-footed hind1 of the slenderest legs1 and the swiftest step1 and1 though she should be caught1 there would spring a hoodie out of her1 and though the hoodie should be caught1 there would spring a trout out of her1 but there is an egg in the mouth of the trout1 and the soul of the beast is in the egg1 and if the egg breaks1 the beast is dead40 ,as usual the egg is broken and the beast dies47#hci7 ,in a ,breton story there figures a giant whom neither fire nor water nor steel can harm4 ,he tells a princess whom he has just married1 8,i am immortal1 and no one can hurt me1 unless he crushes on my breast an egg which is in a pigeon1 which is in the belly of a hare2 this hare is in the belly of a wolf1 and this wolf is in the belly of my brother1 who dwells a thousand leagues from here4 ,so ,i am quite easy on that score40 ,a soldier gets the egg and crushes it on the breast of the giant1 who immediately expires47#hdj7 ,in another ,breton tale a giant is called ,body-without-,soul because his life does not reside in his body4 ,it resides in an egg1 the egg is in a dove1 the dove is in a hare1 the hare is in a wolf1 and the wolf is in an iron chest at the bottom of the sea4 ,the hero kills the animals one after another1 and at the death of each animal the giant grows weaker1 as if he had lost a limb4 ,when at last the hero comes to the giant's castle bearing the egg in his hand1 he finds ,body-without-,soul stretched on his bed at the point of death4 ,so he dashes the egg against the giant's forehead1 the egg breaks1 and the giant straightway dies47#hda7 ,the notion of an external soul has now been traced in folk-tales told by ,aryan peoples from ,india to ,brittany and the ,hebrides4 ,we have still to show that the same idea occurs commonly in the popular stories of non-,aryan peoples4 ,in the first place it appears in the ancient ,egyptian story of 8,the ,two ,brothers40 ,this story was written down in the reign of ,rameses ,,ii1 about #acjj years ,b4,c4 ,it is therefore older than our present redaction of ,homer1 and far older than the ,bible4 ,the outline of the story1 so far as it concerns us here1 is as follows3 ,once upon a time there were two brethren2 the name of the elder was ,anupu and the name of the younger was ,bitiu4 ,now ,anupu had a house and a wife1 and his younger brother dwelt with him as his servant4 ,it was ,anupu who made the garments1 and every morning when it grew light he drove the kine afield4 ,as he walked behind them they used to say to him1 8,the grass is good in such and such a place10 and he heard what they said and led them to the good pasture that they desired4 ,so his kine grew very sleek and multiplied greatly4 ,one day when the two brothers were at work in the field the elder brother said to the younger1 8,run and fetch seed from the village40 ,so the younger brother ran and said to the wife of his elder brother1 8,give me seed that ,i may run to the field1 for my brother sent me saying1 tarry not40 ,she said1 8,go to the barn and take as much as you desire40 ,he went and filled a jar full of wheat and barley1 and came forth bearing it on his shoulders4 ,when the woman saw him her heart went out to him1 and she laid hold of him and said1 8,come1 let us rest an hour together40 ,but he said1 8,thou art to me as a mother1 and my brother is to me as a father40 ,so he would not hearken to her1 but took the load on his back and went away to the field4 ,in the evening1 when the elder brother was returning from the field1 his wife feared for what she had said4 ,so she took soot and made herself as one who has been beaten4 ,and when her husband came home1 she said1 8,when thy younger brother came to fetch seed1 he said to me1 ,come1 let us rest an hour together4 ,but ,i would not1 and he beat me40 ,then the elder brother became like a panther of the south2 he sharpened his knife and stood behind the door of the cow-house4 ,and when the sun set and the younger brother came laden with all the herbs of the field1 as was his wont every day1 the cow that walked in front of the herd said to him1 8,behold1 thy elder brother stands with a knife to kill thee4 ,flee before him40 ,when he heard what the cow said1 he looked under the door of the cow-house and saw the feet of his elder brother standing behind the door1 his knife in his hand4 ,so he fled and his brother pursued him with the knife4 ,but the younger brother cried for help to the ,sun1 and the ,sun heard him and caused a great water to spring up between him and his elder brother1 and the water was full of crocodiles4 ,the two brothers stood1 the one on the one side of the water and the other on the other1 and the younger brother told the elder brother all that had befallen4 ,so the elder brother repented him of what he had done and he wept aloud4 ,but he could not come at the farther bank by reason of the crocodiles4 ,his younger brother called to him and said1 8,go home and tend the cattle thyself4 ,for ,i will dwell no more in the place where thou art4 ,i will go to the ,valley of the ,acacia4 ,but this is what thou shalt do for me4 ,thou shalt come and care for me1 if evil befalls me1 for ,i will enchant my heart and place it on the top of the flower of the ,acacia2 and if they cut the ,acacia and my heart falls to the ground1 thou shalt come and seek it1 and when thou hast found it thou shalt lay it in a vessel of fresh water4 ,then ,i shall come to life again4 ,but this is the sign that evil has befallen me2 the pot of beer in thine hand shall bubble40 ,so he went away to the ,valley of the ,acacia1 but his brother returned home with dust on his head and slew his wife and cast her to the dogs4 ,for many days afterwards the younger brother dwelt alone in the ,valley of the ,acacia4 ,by day he hunted the beasts of the field1 but at evening he came and laid him down under the ,acacia1 on the top of whose flower was his heart4 ,and many days after that he built himself a house in the ,valley of the ,acacia4 ,but the gods were grieved for him2 and the ,sun said to ,khnum1 8,make a wife for ,bitiu1 that he may not dwell alone40 ,so ,khnum made him a woman to dwell with him1 who was perfect in her limbs more than any woman on earth1 for all the gods were in her4 ,so she dwelt with him4 ,but one day a lock of her hair fell into the river and floated down to the land of ,egypt1 to the house of ,pharaoh's washerwomen4 ,the fragrance of the lock perfumed ,pharaoh's raiment1 and the washerwomen were blamed1 for it was said1 8,an odour of perfume in the garments of ,pharaoh60 ,so the heart of ,pharaoh's chief washerman was weary of the complaints that were made every day1 and he went to the quay1 and there in the water he saw the lock of hair4 ,he sent one down into the river to fetch it1 and1 because it smelt sweetly1 he took it to ,pharaoh4 ,then ,pharaoh's magicians were sent for and they said1 8,this lock of hair belongs to a daughter of the ,sun1 who has in her the essence of all the gods4 ,let messengers go forth to all foreign lands to seek her40 ,so the woman was brought from the ,valley of the ,acacia with chariots and archers and much company1 and all the land of ,egypt rejoiced at her coming1 and ,pharaoh loved her4 ,but when they asked her of her husband1 she said to ,pharaoh1 8,let them cut down the ,acacia and let them destroy him40 ,so men were sent with tools to cut down the ,acacia4 ,they came to it and cut the flower upon which was the heart of ,bitiu2 and he fell down dead in that evil hour4 ,but the next day1 when the elder brother of ,bitiu was entered into his house and had sat down1 they brought him a pot of beer and it bubbled1 and they gave him a jug of wine and it grew turbid4 ,then he took his staff and his sandals and hied him to the ,valley of the ,acacia1 and there he found his younger brother lying dead in his house4 ,so he sought for the heart of his brother under the ,acacia4 ,for three years he sought in vain1 but in the fourth year he found it in the berry of the ,acacia4 ,so he threw the heart into a cup of fresh water4 ,and when it was night and the heart had sucked in much water1 ,bitiu shook in all his limbs and revived4 ,then he drank the cup of water in which his heart was1 and his heart went into its place1 and he lived as before47#hdb7 ,in the story of ,seyf-el-,mulook in the ,arabian ,nights1 the ,jinnee declares1 8,when ,i was born1 the astrologers declared that the destruction of my soul would be effected by the hand of one of the sons of the human kings4 ,i therefore took my soul1 and put it into the crop of a sparrow1 and ,i imprisoned the sparrow in a little box1 and put this into another small box1 and this ,i put within seven other small boxes1 and ,i put these within seven chests1 and the chests ,i put into a coffer of marble within the verge of this circumambient ocean2 for this part is remote from the countries of mankind1 and none of mankind can gain access to it40 ,but ,seyf-el-,mulook got possession of the sparrow and strangled it1 and the ,jinnee fell upon the ground a heap of black ashes47#hdc7 ,in a modern ,arabian tale a king marries an ogress1 who puts out the eyes of the king's forty wives4 ,one of the blinded queens gives birth to a son whom she names ,mohammed the ,prudent4 ,but the ogress queen hated him and compassed his death4 ,so she sent him on an errand to the house of her kinsfolk the ogres4 ,in the house of the ogres he saw some things hanging from the roof1 and on asking a female slave what they were1 she said1 8,that is the bottle which contains the life of my lady the queen1 and the other bottle beside it contains the eyes of the queens whom my mistress blinded40 ,a little afterwards he spied a beetle and rose to kill it4 8,don't kill it10 cried the slave1 8for that is my life40 ,but ,mohammed the ,prudent watched the beetle till it entered a chink in the wall2 and when the female slave had fallen asleep1 he killed the beetle in its hole1 and so the slave died4 ,then ,mohammed took down the two bottles and carried them home to his father's palace4 ,there he presented himself before the ogress queen and said1 8,see1 ,i have your life in my hand1 but ,i will not kill you till you have replaced the eyes which you took from the forty queens40 ,the ogress did as she was bid1 and then ,mohammed the ,prudent said1 8,there1 take your life40 ,but the bottle slipped from his hand and fell1 the life of the ogress escaped from it1 and she died47#hdd7 ,in a ,kabyl story an ogre declares that his fate is far away in an egg1 which is in a pigeon1 which is in a camel1 which is in the sea4 ,the hero procures the egg and crushes it between his hands1 and the ogre dies47#hde7 ,in a ,magyar folk-tale1 an old witch detains a young prince called ,ambrose in the bowels of the earth4 ,at last she confided to him that she kept a wild boar in a silken meadow1 and if it were killed1 they would find a hare inside1 and inside the hare a pigeon1 and inside the pigeon a small box1 and inside the box one black and one shining beetle3 the shining beetle held her life1 and the black one held her power2 if these two beetles died1 then her life would come to an end also4 ,when the old hag went out1 ,ambrose killed the wild boar1 took out the hare1 from the hare he took the pigeon1 from the pigeon the box1 and from the box the two beetles2 he killed the black beetle1 but kept the shining one alive4 ,so the witch's power left her immediately1 and when she came home1 she had to take to her bed4 ,having learned from her how to escape from his prison to the upper air1 ,ambrose killed the shining beetle1 and the old hag's spirit left her at once47#hdf7 ,in another ,hungarian story the safety of the ,dwarf-king resides in a golden cockchafer1 inside a golden cock1 inside a golden sheep1 inside a golden stag1 in the ninety-ninth island4 ,the hero overcomes all these golden animals and so recovers his bride1 whom the ,dwarf-king had carried off47#hdg7 ,a ,samoyed story tells how seven warlocks killed a certain man's mother and carried off his sister1 whom they kept to serve them4 ,every night when they came home the seven warlocks used to take out their hearts and place them in a dish1 which the woman hung on the tent-poles4 ,but the wife of the man whom they had wronged stole the hearts of the warlocks while they slept1 and took them to her husband4 ,by break of day he went with the hearts to the warlocks1 and found them at the point of death4 ,they all begged for their hearts2 but he threw six of their hearts to the ground1 and six of the warlocks died4 ,the seventh and eldest warlock begged hard for his heart1 and the man said1 8,you killed my mother4 ,make her alive again1 and ,i will give you back your heart40 ,the warlock said to his wife1 8,go to the place where the dead woman lies4 ,you will find a bag there4 ,bring it to me4 ,the woman's spirit is in the bag40 ,so his wife brought the bag2 and the warlock said to the man1 8,go to your dead mother1 shake the bag and let the spirit breathe over her bones2 so she will come to life again40 ,the man did as he was bid1 and his mother was restored to life4 ,then he hurled the seventh heart to the ground1 and the seventh warlock died47#hdh7 ,in a ,tartar poem two heroes named ,ak ,molot and ,bulat engage in mortal combat4 ,ak ,molot pierces his foe through and through with an arrow1 grapples with him1 and dashes him to the ground1 but all in vain1 ,bulat could not die4 ,at last when the combat has lasted three years1 a friend of ,ak ,molot sees a golden casket hanging by a white thread from the sky1 and bethinks him that perhaps this casket contains ,bulat's soul4 ,so he shot through the white thread with an arrow1 and down fell the casket4 ,he opened it1 and in the casket sat ten white birds1 and one of the birds was ,bulat's soul4 ,bulat wept when he saw that his soul was found in the casket4 ,but one after the other the birds were killed1 and then ,ak ,molot easily slew his foe47#hdi7 ,in another ,tartar poem1 two brothers going to fight two other brothers take out their souls and hide them in the form of a white herb with six stalks in a deep pit4 ,but one of their foes sees them doing so and digs up their souls1 which he puts into a golden ram's horn1 and then puts the ram's horn in his quiver4 ,the two warriors whose souls have thus been stolen know that they have no chance of victory1 and accordingly make peace with their enemies47#hej7 ,in another ,tartar poem a terrible demon sets all the gods and heroes at defiance4 ,at last a valiant youth fights the demon1 binds him hand and foot1 and slices him with his sword4 ,but still the demon is not slain4 ,so the youth asked him1 8,tell me1 where is your soul hidden8 ,for if your soul had been hidden in your body1 you must have been dead long ago40 ,the demon replied1 8,on the saddle of my horse is a bag4 ,in the bag is a serpent with twelve heads4 ,in the serpent is my soul4 ,when you have killed the serpent1 you have killed me also40 ,so the youth took the saddle-bag from the horse and killed the twelve-headed serpent1 whereupon the demon expired47#hea7 ,in another ,tartar poem a hero called ,kk ,chan deposits with a maiden a golden ring1 in which is half his strength4 ,afterwards when ,kk ,chan is wrestling long with a hero and cannot kill him1 a woman drops into his mouth the ring which contains half his strength4 ,thus inspired with fresh force he slays his enemy47#heb7 ,in a ,mongolian story the hero ,joro gets the better of his enemy the lama ,tschoridong in the following way4 ,the lama1 who is an enchanter1 sends out his soul in the form of a wasp to sting ,joro's eyes4 ,but ,joro catches the wasp in his hand1 and by alternately shutting and opening his hand he causes the lama alternately to lose and recover consciousness47#hec7 ,in a ,tartar poem two youths cut open the body of an old witch and tear out her bowels1 but all to no purpose1 she still lives4 ,on being asked where her soul is1 she answers that it is in the middle of her shoe-sole in the form of a seven-headed speckled snake4 ,so one of the youths slices her shoe-sole with his sword1 takes out the speckled snake1 and cuts off its seven heads4 ,then the witch dies47#hed7 ,another ,tartar poem describes how the hero ,kartaga grappled with the ,swan-woman4 ,long they wrestled4 ,moons waxed and waned and still they wrestled2 years came and went1 and still the struggle went on4 ,but the piebald horse and the black horse knew that the ,swan-woman's soul was not in her4 ,under the black earth flow nine seas2 where the seas meet and form one1 the sea comes to the surface of the earth4 ,at the mouth of the nine seas rises a rock of copper2 it rises to the surface of the ground1 it rises up between heaven and earth1 this rock of copper4 ,at the foot of the copper rock is a black chest1 in the black chest is a golden casket1 and in the golden casket is the soul of the ,swan-woman4 ,seven little birds are the soul of the ,swan-woman2 if the birds are killed the ,swan-woman will die straightway4 ,so the horses ran to the foot of the copper rock1 opened the black chest1 and brought back the golden casket4 ,then the piebald horse turned himself into a bald-headed man1 opened the golden casket1 and cut off the heads of the seven birds4 ,so the ,swan-woman died47#hee7 ,in a ,tartar story a chief called ,tash ,kan is asked where his soul is4 ,he answers that there are seven great poplars1 and under the poplars a golden well2 seven ,maralen 787 come to drink the water of the well1 and the belly of one of them trails on the ground2 in this ,maral is a golden box1 in the golden box is a silver box1 in the silver box are seven quails1 the head of one of the quails is golden and its tail silver2 that quail is ,tash ,kan's soul4 ,the hero of the story gets possession of the seven quails and wrings the necks of six of them4 ,then ,tash ,kan comes running and begs the hero to let his soul go free4 ,but the hero wrings the quail's neck1 and ,tash ,kan drops dead47#hef7 ,in another ,tartar poem the hero1 pursuing his sister who has driven away his cattle1 is warned to desist from the pursuit because his sister has carried away his soul in a golden sword and a golden arrow1 and if he pursues her she will kill him by throwing the golden sword or shooting the golden arrow at him47#heg7 ,a ,malay poem relates how once upon a time in the city of ,indrapoera there was a certain merchant who was rich and prosperous1 but he had no children4 ,one day as he walked with his wife by the river they found a baby girl1 fair as an angel4 ,so they adopted the child and called her ,bidasari4 ,the merchant caused a golden fish to be made1 and into this fish he transferred the soul of his adopted daughter4 ,then he put the golden fish in a golden box full of water1 and hid it in a pond in the midst of his garden4 ,in time the girl grew to be a lovely woman4 ,now the ,king of ,indrapoera had a fair young queen1 who lived in fear that the king might take to himself a second wife4 ,so1 hearing of the charms of ,bidasari1 the queen resolved to put her out of the way4 ,so she lured the girl to the palace and tortured her cruelly2 but ,bidasari could not die1 because her soul was not in her4 ,at last she could stand the torture no longer and said to the queen1 8,if you wish me to die1 you must bring the box which is in the pond in my father's garden40 ,so the box was brought and opened1 and there was the golden fish in the water4 ,the girl said1 8,my soul is in that fish4 ,in the morning you must take the fish out of the water1 and in the evening you must put it back into the water4 ,do not let the fish lie about1 but bind it round your neck4 ,if you do this1 ,i shall soon die40 ,so the queen took the fish out of the box and fastened it round her neck2 and no sooner had she done so1 than ,bidasari fell into a swoon4 ,but in the evening1 when the fish was put back into the water1 ,bidasari came to herself again4 ,seeing that she thus had the girl in her power1 the queen sent her home to her adopted parents4 ,to save her from further persecution her parents resolved to remove their daughter from the city4 ,so in a lonely and desolate spot they built a house and brought ,bidasari thither4 ,here she dwelt alone1 undergoing vicissitudes that corresponded with the vicissitudes of the golden fish in which was her soul4 ,all day long1 while the fish was out of the water1 she remained unconscious2 but in the evening1 when the fish was put into the water1 she revived4 ,one day the king was out hunting1 and coming to the house where ,bidasari lay unconscious1 was smitten with her beauty4 ,he tried to waken her1 but in vain4 ,next day1 towards evening1 he repeated his visit1 but still found her unconscious4 ,however1 when darkness fell1 she came to herself and told the king the secret of her life4 ,so the king returned to the palace1 took the fish from the queen1 and put it in water4 ,immediately ,bidasari revived1 and the king took her to wife47#heh7 ,the last story of an external soul which ,i shall notice comes from ,nias1 an island to the west of ,sumatra1 which we have visited more than once in the course of this book4 ,once on a time a chief was captured by his enemies1 who tried to put him to death but failed4 ,water would not drown him nor fire burn him nor steel pierce him4 ,at last his wife revealed the secret4 ,on his head he had a hair as hard as a copper wire2 and with this wire his life was bound up4 ,so the hair was plucked out1 and with it his spirit fled47#hei7 #d4--,the external soul in folk-custom4 ,thus the idea that the soul may be deposited for a longer or shorter time in some place of security outside the body1 or at all events in the hair1 is found in the popular tales of many races4 ,it remains to show that the idea is not a mere figment devised to adorn a tale1 but is a real article of primitive faith1 which has given rise to a corresponding set of customs4 ,we have seen that in the tales the hero1 as a preparation for battle1 sometimes removes his soul from his body1 in order that his body may be invulnerable and immortal in the combat4 ,with a like intention the savage removes his soul from his body on various occasions of real or imaginary danger4 ,thus we have seen that among the ,minahassa of ,celebes1 when a family moves into a new house1 a priest collects the souls of the whole family in a bag1 and afterwards restores them to their owners1 because the moment of entering a new house is supposed to be fraught with supernatural danger47#hfj7 ,in ,southern ,celebes when a woman is brought to bed the messenger who fetches the doctor or the midwife always carries with him a piece of iron1 which he delivers to the doctor4 ,the doctor must keep it in his house till the confinement is over1 when he gives it back1 receiving a fixed sum of money for doing so4 ,the piece of iron represents the woman's soul1 which at this critical time is believed to be safer out of her body than in it4 ,hence the doctor must take great care of the piece of iron2 for if it were lost1 the woman's soul would assuredly1 it is supposed1 be lost with it47#hfa7 ,again1 we have seen that in folk-tales a man's soul or strength is sometimes represented as bound up with his hair1 and that when his hair is cut off he dies or grows weak4 ,so the natives of ,amboina used to think that their strength was in their hair and would desert them if it were shorn4 ,a criminal under torture in a ,dutch ,court of that island persisted in denying his guilt till his hair was cut off1 when he immediately confessed4 ,one man who was tried for murder endured without flinching the utmost ingenuity of his torturers till he saw the surgeon standing with a pair of shears4 ,on asking what this was for1 and being told that it was to cut his hair1 he begged they would not do it1 and made a clean breast4 ,in subsequent cases1 when torture failed to wring a confession from a prisoner1 the ,dutch authorities made a practice of cutting off his hair47#hfb7 ,in ,ceram it is still believed that if young people have their hair cut they will be weakened and enervated thereby47#hfc7 ,in ,zacynthus people think that the whole strength of the ancient ,greeks resided in three hairs on their breasts1 and vanished whenever these hairs were cut2 but if the hairs were allowed to grow again1 their strength returned47#hfd7 ,again1 we have seen that in folk-tales the life of a person is sometimes so bound up with the life of a plant that the withering of the plant will immediately follow or be followed by the death of the person47#hfe7 ,similarly among the ,m',bengas in ,western ,africa1 about the ,gaboon1 when two children are born on the same day1 the people plant two trees of the same kind and dance round them4 ,the life of each of the children is believed to be bound up with the life of one of the trees2 and if the tree dies or is thrown down1 they are sure that the child will soon die47#hff7 ,in the ,cameroons1 also1 the life of a person is believed to be sympathetically bound up with that of a tree47#hfg7 ,some of the ,papuans unite the life of a new-born child sympathetically with that of a tree by driving a pebble into the bark of the tree4 ,this is supposed to give them complete mastery over the child's life2 if the tree is cut down1 the child will die47#hfh7 ,after a birth the ,maoris used to bury the navel-string in a sacred place and plant a young sapling over it4 ,as the tree grew1 it was a tohu oranga or sign of life for the child2 if it flourished1 the child would prosper2 if it withered and died1 the parents augured the worst for their child47#hfi7 ,in ,southern ,celebes1 when a child is born1 a cocoa-nut is planted1 and is watered with the water in which the after-birth and navel-string have been washed4 ,as it grows up1 the tree is called the 8contemporary0 of the child47#hgj7 ,so in ,bali a cocoa-palm is planted at the birth of a child4 ,it is believed to grow up equally with the child1 and is called its 8life-plant407#hga7 ,on certain occasions the ,dyaks of ,borneo plant a palm-tree1 which is believed to be a complete index of their fate4 ,if it flourishes1 they reckon on good fortune2 but if it withers or dies1 they expect misfortune47#hgb7 ,it is said that there are still families in ,russia1 ,germany1 ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy who are accustomed to plant a tree at the birth of a child4 ,the tree1 it is hoped1 will grow with the child1 and it is tended with special care47#hgc7 ,the custom is still pretty general in the canton of ,aargau in ,switzerland2 an apple-tree is planted for a boy and a pear-tree for a girl1 and the people think that the child will flourish or dwindle with the tree47#hgd7 ,in ,mecklenburg the after-birth is thrown out at the foot of a young tree1 and the child is then believed to grow with the tree47#hge7 ,in ,england persons are sometimes passed through a cleft tree as a cure for rupture1 and thenceforward a sympathetic connection is believed to exist between them and the tree4 8,thomas ,chillingworth1 son of the owner of an adjoining farm1 now about thirty-four years of age1 was1 when an infant of a year old1 passed through a similar tree1 now perfectly sound1 which he preserves with so much care that he will not suffer a single branch to be touched1 for it is believed that the life of the patient depends on the life of the tree2 and the moment that it is cut down1 be the patient ever so distant1 the rupture returns1 and a mortification ensues407#hgf7 ,when ,lord ,byron first visited his ancestral estate of ,newstead 8he planted1 it seems1 a young oak in some part of the grounds1 and had an idea that as it flourished so should he407#hgg7 ,but in practice1 as in folk-tales1 it is not merely with trees and plants that the life of an individual is occasionally believed to be united by a bond of physical sympathy4 ,the same bond1 it is supposed1 may exist between a man and an animal or a thing1 so that the death or destruction of the animal or thing is immediately followed by the death of the man4 ,the ,emperor ,romanus ,lecapenus was once informed by an astronomer that the life of ,simeon prince of ,bulgaria was bound up with a certain column in ,constantinople1 so that if the capital of the column were removed ,simeon would immediately die4 ,the ,emperor took the hint and removed the capital1 and at the same hour1 as the emperor learned by inquiry1 ,simeon died of heart disease in ,bulgaria47#hgh7 ,amongst the ,karens of ,burma 8the knife with which the navel-string is cut is carefully preserved for the child4 ,the life of the child is supposed to be in some way connected with it1 for if lost or destroyed it is said the child will not be long-lived407#hgi7 ,the ,malays believe that 8the soul of a person may pass into another person or into an animal1 or rather that such a mysterious relation can arise between the two that the fate of the one is wholly dependent on that of the other407#hhj7 ,in the ,banks ,islands 8some people connect themselves with an object1 generally an animal1 as a lizard or a snake1 or with a stone1 which they imagine to have a certain very close natural relation to themselves4 ,this1 at ,mota1 is called tamaniu--likeness4 ,this word at ,aurora is used for the #8atai' i4e4 soul of ,mota4 ,some fancy dictates the choice of a tamaniu2 or it may be found by drinking the infusion of certain herbs and heaping together the dregs4 ,whatever living thing is first seen in or upon the heap is the tamaniu4 ,it is watched1 but not fed or worshipped4 ,the natives believe that it comes at call4 ,the life of the man is bound up with the life of his tamaniu4 ,if it dies1 gets broken or lost1 the man will die4 ,in sickness they send to see how the tamaniu is1 and judge the issue accordingly4 ,this is only the fancy of some407#hha7 ,but what among the ,banks ,islanders and the ,malays is irregular and occasional1 among other peoples is systematic and universal4 ,the ,zulus believe that every man has his ihlozi1 a kind of mysterious serpent1 8which specially guards and helps him1 lives with him1 wakes with him1 sleeps and travels with him1 but always under ground4 ,if it ever makes its appearance1 great is the joy1 and the man must seek to discover the meaning of its appearance4 ,he who has no ihlozi must die4 ,therefore if any one unintentionally kills an ihlozi serpent1 the man whose ihlozi it was dies1 but the serpent comes to life again407#hhb7 ,amongst the ,zapotecs of ,central ,america1 when a woman was about to be confined1 her relations assembled in the hut1 and began to draw on the floor figures of different animals1 rubbing each one out as soon as it was completed4 ,this went on till the moment of birth1 and the figure that then remained sketched upon the ground was called the child's tona or second self4 8,when the child grew old enough he procured the animal that represented him and took care of it1 as it was believed that health and existence were bound up with that of the animal's1 in fact that the death of both would occur simultaneously10 or rather that when the animal died the man would die47#hhc7 ,among the ,indians of ,guatemala the nagual or naual is an 8animate or inanimate object1 generally an animal1 which stands in a parallel relation to a particular man1 so that the weal and woe of the man depend on the fate of the animal40 ,among the ,chontal ,indians who inhabit the part of ,honduras bordering on ,guatemala and in point of social culture stand very close to the ,pipil ,indians of ,guatemala1 the nagual used to be obtained as follows4 ,the young ,indian went into the forest to a lonely place by a river or to the top of a mountain1 and prayed with tears to the gods that they would vouchsafe to him what his forefathers had possessed before him4 ,after sacrificing a dog or a bird he laid himself down to sleep4 ,then in a dream or after awakening from sleep there appeared to him a jaguar1 puma1 coyote 7prairie-wolf71 crocodile1 serpent1 or bird4 ,to this visionary animal the ,indian offered blood drawn from his tongue1 his ears1 and other parts of his body1 and prayed for an abundant yield of salt and cacao4 ,then the animal said to him1 8,on such and such a day you shall go out hunting1 and the first animal that meets you will be myself1 who will always be your companion and nagual40 ,a man who had no nagual could never grow rich4 ,the ,indians were persuaded that the death of their nagual would entail their own4 ,legend affirms that in the first battles with the ,spaniards on the plateau of ,quetzaltenango the naguals of the ,indian chiefs fought in the form of serpents4 ,the nagual of the highest chief was especially conspicuous1 because it had the form of a great bird1 resplendent in green plumage4 ,the ,spanish general ,pedro de ,alvarado killed the bird with his lance1 and at the same moment the ,indian chief fell dead to the ground47#hhd7 ,in many of the ,australian tribes each sex regards a particular species of animals in the same way that a ,central ,american ,indian regards his nagual1 but with this difference1 that whereas the ,indian apparently knows the individual animal with which his life is bound up1 the ,australians only know that each of their lives is bound up with some one animal of the species1 but they cannot say with which4 ,the result naturally is that every man spares and protects all the animals of the species with which the lives of the men are bound up2 and every woman spares and protects all the animals of the species with which the lives of the women are bound up2 because no one knows but that the death of any animal of the respective species might entail his or her own2 just as the killing of the green bird was immediately followed by the death of the ,indian chief1 and the killing of the parrot by the death of ,punchkin in the fairy tale4 ,thus1 for example1 the ,wotjobaluk tribe of ,south ,eastern ,australia 8held that #8the life of ,ngnngnt 7the ,bat7 is the life of a man and the life of ,yrtatgrk 7the ,nightjar7 is the life of a woman1' and that when either of these creatures is killed the life of some man or of some woman is shortened4 ,in such a case every man or every woman in the camp feared that he or she might be the victim1 and from this cause great fights arose in this tribe4 ,i learn that in these fights1 men on one side and women on the other1 it was not at all certain which would be victorious1 for at times the women gave the men a severe drubbing with their yamsticks while often women were injured or killed by spears407#hhe7 ,the particular species of animals with which the lives of the sexes were believed to be respectively bound up varied somewhat from tribe to tribe4 ,thus whereas among the ,wotjobaluk the bat was the animal of the men1 at ,gunbower ,creek on the lower ,murray the bat seems to have been the animal of the women1 for the natives would not kill it for the reason that 8if it was killed1 one of their lubras women would be sure to die in consequence407#hhf7 ,but the belief itself and the fights to which it gave rise are known to have extended over a large part of ,south ,eastern ,australia1 and probably they extended much farther47#hhg7 ,the belief is a very serious one1 and so consequently are the fights which spring from it4 ,thus where the bat is the men's animal they 8protect it against injury1 even to the half-killing of their wives for its sake20 and where the fern owl or large goatsucker 7a night bird7 is the women's animal1 8it is jealously protected by them4 ,if a man kills one1 they are as much enraged as if it was one of their children1 and will strike him with their long poles407#hhh7 ,the jealous protection thus afforded by ,australian men and women to bats and owls respectively 7for bats and owls seem to be the creatures usually allotted to men and women respectively7 is not based upon purely selfish considerations4 ,for each man believes that not only his own life1 but the lives of his father1 brothers1 sons1 etc41 are bound up with the lives of particular bats1 and that therefore in protecting the bat species he is protecting the lives of all his male relations as well as his own4 ,similarly1 each woman believes that the lives of her mother1 sisters1 daughters1 etc41 equally with her own1 are bound up with the lives of particular owls1 and that in guarding the owl species she is guarding the lives of all her female relations in addition to her own4 ,now1 when men's lives are thus supposed to be contained in certain animals1 it is obvious that the animals can hardly be distinguished from the men1 or the men from the animals4 ,if my brother ,john's life is in a bat1 then1 on the one hand1 the bat is my brother as well as ,john2 and1 on the other hand1 ,john is in a sense a bat1 since his life is in a bat4 ,similarly1 if my sister ,mary's life is in an owl1 then the owl is my sister and ,mary is an owl4 ,this is a natural enough conclusion1 and the ,australians have not failed to draw it4 ,when the bat is the man's animal1 it is called his brother2 and when the owl is the woman's animal1 it is called her sister4 ,and conversely a man addresses a woman as an owl1 and she addresses him as a bat47#hhi7 ,so with the other animals allotted to the sexes respectively in other tribes4 ,for example1 among the ,kurnai all ,emu ,wrens were 8brothers0 of the men1 and all the men were ,emu ,wrens2 all ,superb ,warblers were 8sisters0 of the women1 and all the women were ,superb ,warblers47#hij7 ,but when a savage names himself after an animal1 calls it his brother1 and refuses to kill it1 the animal is said to be his totem4 ,accordingly the bat and the owl1 the ,emu ,wren and the ,superb ,warbler1 may properly be described as totems of the sexes4 ,but the assignation of a totem to a sex is comparatively rare1 and has hitherto been discovered nowhere but in ,australia4 ,far more commonly the totem is appropriated not to a sex1 but to a tribe or clan1 and is hereditary either in the male or female line4 ,the relation of an individual to the tribal totem does not differ in kind from his relation to the sex totem2 he will not kill it1 he speaks of it as his brother1 and he calls himself by its name47#hia7 ,now if the relations are similar1 the explanation which holds good of the one ought equally to hold good of the other4 ,therefore the reason why a tribe revere a particular species of animals or plants 7for the tribal totem may be a plant7 and call themselves after it1 must be a belief that the life of each individual of the tribe is bound up with some one animal or plant of the species1 and that his or her death would be the consequence of killing that particular animal1 or destroying that particular plant4 ,this explanation of totemism squares very well with ,sir ,george ,grey's definition of a totem or kobong in ,western ,australia4 ,he says1 8,a certain mysterious connection exists between a family and its kobong1 so that a member of the family will never kill an animal of the species to which his kobong belongs1 should he find it asleep2 indeed he always kills it reluctantly1 and never without affording it a chance to escape4 ,this arises from the family belief that some one individual of the species is their nearest friend1 to kill whom would be a great crime1 and to be carefully avoided4 ,similarly1 a native who has a vegetable for his kobong may not gather it under certain circumstances1 and at a particular period of the year407#hib7 ,here it will be observed that though each man spares all the animals or plants of the species1 they are not all equally precious to him2 far from it1 out of the whole species there is only one which is specially dear to him2 but as he does not know which the dear one is1 he is obliged to spare them all from fear of injuring the one4 ,again1 this explanation of the tribal totem harmonises with the supposed effect of killing one of the totem species4 8,one day one of the blacks killed a crow4 ,three or four days afterwards a ,boortwa 7crow7 i4e4 a man of the ,crow clan or tribe named ,larry died4 ,he had been ailing for some days1 but the killing of his wingong totem hastened his death407#hic7 ,here the killing of the crow caused the death of a man of the ,crow clan1 exactly as1 in the case of the sex totems1 the killing of a bat causes the death of a ,bat man1 or the killing of an owl causes the death of an ,owl woman4 ,similarly1 the killing of his nagual causes the death of a ,central ,american ,indian1 the killing of his ihlozi causes the death of a ,zulu1 the killing of his tamaniu causes the death of a ,banks ,islander1 and the killing of the animal in which his life is stowed away causes the death of the giant or warlock in the fairy tale4 ,thus it appears that the story of 8,the giant who had no heart in his body0 furnishes the key to the religious aspect of totemism1 that is1 to the relation which is supposed to subsist between a man and his totem4 ,the totem1 if ,i am right1 is simply the receptacle in which a man keeps his life1 as ,punchkin kept his life in a parrot1 and ,bidasari kept her soul in a golden fish4 ,it is no valid objection to this view that when a savage has both a sex totem and a tribal totem his life must be bound up with two different animals1 the death of either of which would entail his own4 ,if a man has more vital places than one in his body1 why1 the savage may think1 should he not have more vital places than one outside it8 ,why1 since he can externalise his life1 should he not transfer one portion of it to one animal and another to another8 ,the divisibility of life1 or1 to put it otherwise1 the plurality of souls1 is an idea suggested by many familiar facts1 and has commended itself to philosophers like ,plato as well as to savages4 ,it is only when the notion of a soul1 from being a quasi-scientific hypothesis1 becomes a theological dogma that its unity and indivisibility are insisted upon as essential4 ,the savage1 unshackled by dogma1 is free to explain the facts of life by the assumption of as many souls as he thinks necessary4 ,hence1 for example1 the ,caribs supposed that there was one soul in the head1 another in the heart1 and other souls at all the places where an artery is felt pulsating47#hid7 ,some of the ,hidatsa ,indians explain the phenomena of gradual death1 when the extremities appear dead first1 by supposing that man has four souls1 and that they quit the body1 not simultaneously1 but one after the other1 dissolution being only complete when all four have departed47#hie7 ,the ,laos suppose that the body is the seat of thirty spirits1 which reside in the hands1 the feet1 the mouth1 the eyes1 etc47#hif7 ,hence1 from the primitive point of view1 it is perfectly possible that a savage should have one soul in his sex totem1 and another in his tribal totem4 ,however1 as ,i have observed1 sex totems occur nowhere but in ,australia2 so that as a rule the savage who practises totemism need not have more than one soul out of his body at a time4 ,if this explanation of the totem as a receptacle in which a man keeps his soul or one of his souls is correct1 we should expect to find some totemistic tribes of whom it is expressly stated that every man amongst them is believed to keep at least one soul permanently out of his body1 and that the destruction of this external soul is supposed to entail the death of its owner4 ,such a tribe are the ,battas of ,sumatra4 ,the ,battas are divided into exogamous clans 7margas7 with descent in the male line2 and each clan is forbidden to eat the flesh of a particular animal4 ,one clan may not eat the tiger1 another the ape1 another the crocodile1 another the dog1 another the cat1 another the dove1 another the white buffalo4 ,the reason given by members of a clan for abstaining from the flesh of the particular animal is either that they are descended from animals of that species1 and that their souls after death may transmigrate into the animals1 or that they or their forefathers have been under certain obligations to the animals4 ,sometimes1 but not always1 the clan bears the name of the animal47#hig7 ,thus the ,battas have totemism in full4 ,but1 further1 each ,batta believes that he has seven or1 on a more moderate computation1 three souls4 ,one of these souls is always outside the body1 but nevertheless whenever it dies1 however far away it may be at the time1 that same moment the man dies also47#hih7 ,the writer who mentions this belief says nothing about the ,batta totems2 but on the analogy of the ,australian and ,central ,american evidence we can scarcely avoid concluding that the external soul1 whose death entails the death of the man1 must be housed in the totem animal or plant4 ,against this view it can hardly be thought to militate that the ,batta does not in set terms affirm his external soul to be in his totem1 but alleges other1 though hardly contradictory1 grounds for respecting the sacred animal or plant of his clan4 ,for if a savage seriously believes that his life is bound up with an external object1 it is in the last degree unlikely that he will let any stranger into the secret4 ,in all that touches his inmost life and beliefs the savage is exceedingly suspicious and reserved2 ,europeans have resided among savages for years without discovering some of their capital articles of faith1 and in the end the discovery has often been the result of accident4 ,above all1 the savage lives in an intense and perpetual dread of assassination by sorcery2 the most trifling relics of his person--the clippings of his hair and nails1 his spittle1 the remnants of his food1 his very name--all these may1 he fancies1 be turned by the sorcerer to his destruction1 and he is therefore anxiously careful to conceal or destroy them4 ,but if in matters such as these1 which are but the outposts and outworks of his life1 he is shy and secretive to a degree1 how close must be the concealment1 how impenetrable the reserve in which he enshrouds the inner keep and citadel of his being6 ,when the princess in the fairy tale asks the giant where he keeps his soul1 he generally gives false or evasive answers1 and it is only after much coaxing and wheedling that the secret is at last wrung from him4 ,in his jealous reticence the giant resembles the timid and furtive savage2 but whereas the exigencies of the story demand that the giant should at last reveal his secret1 no such obligation is laid on the savage2 and no inducement that can be offered is likely to tempt him to imperil his soul by revealing its hiding-place to a stranger4 ,it is therefore no matter for surprise that the central mystery of the savage's life should so long have remained a secret1 and that we should be left to piece it together from scattered hints and fragments and from the recollections of it which linger in fairy tales4 ,this view of totemism throws light on a class of religious rites of which no adequate explanation1 so far as ,i am aware1 has yet been offered4 ,amongst many savage tribes1 especially such as are known to practise totemism1 it is customary for lads at puberty to undergo certain initiatory rites1 of which one of the commonest is a pretence of killing the lad and bringing him to life again4 ,such rites become intelligible if we suppose that their substance consists in extracting the youth's soul in order to transfer it to his totem4 ,for the extraction of his soul would naturally be supposed to kill the youth or1 at least1 to throw him into a death-like trance1 which the savage hardly distinguishes from death4 ,his recovery would then be attributed either to the gradual recovery of his system from the violent shock which it had received1 or1 more probably1 to the infusion into him of fresh life drawn from the totem4 ,thus the essence of these initiatory rites1 so far as they consist in a simulation of death and resurrection1 would be an exchange of life or souls between the man and his totem4 ,the primitive belief in the possibility of such an exchange of souls comes clearly out in the story of the ,basque hunter who affirmed that he had been killed by a bear1 but that the bear had1 after killing him1 breathed its own soul into him1 so that the bear's body was now dead1 but he himself was a bear1 being animated by the bear's soul47#hii7 ,this revival of the dead hunter as a bear is exactly analogous to what1 if ,i am right1 is supposed to take place in the totemistic ceremony of killing a lad at puberty and bringing him to life again4 ,the lad dies as a man and comes to life again as an animal2 the animal's soul is now in him1 and his human soul is in the animal4 ,with good right1 therefore1 does he call himself a ,bear or a ,wolf1 etc41 according to his totem2 and with good right does he treat the bears or the wolves1 etc41 as his brethren1 since in these animals are lodged the souls of himself and his kindred4 ,examples of this supposed death and resurrection at initiation are the following4 ,among some of the ,australian tribes of ,new ,south ,wales1 when lads are initiated1 it is thought that a being called ,thuremlin takes each lad to a distance1 kills him1 and sometimes cuts him up1 after which he restores him to life and knocks out a tooth47#ijj7 ,in one part of ,queensland the humming sound of the ,bullroarer1 which is swung at the initiatory rites1 is said to be the noise made by the wizards in swallowing the boys and bringing them up again as young men4 8,the ,ualaroi of the ,upper ,darling ,river say that the boy meets a ghost which kills him and brings him to life again as a man407#ija7 ,this resurrection appears to be represented at the initiatory rites by the following ceremony4 ,an old man1 disguised with stringy bark fibre1 lies down in a grave1 and is lightly covered up with sticks and earth1 and as far as possible the natural appearance of the ground is restored1 the excavated earth being carried away4 ,the buried man holds a small bush in his hand2 it appears to be growing in the soil1 and other bushes are stuck in the soil to heighten the effect4 ,the novices are then brought to the edge of the grave1 and a song is sung1 in which the only words used are the 8class-name0 of the buried man and the word for stringy bark fibre4 ,gradually1 as the song continues1 the bush held by the buried man begins to quiver and then to move more and more1 and finally the man himself starts up from the grave47#ijb7 ,similarly1 ,fijian lads at initiation were shown a row of apparently dead men1 covered with blood1 their bodies seemingly cut open1 and their entrails protruding4 ,but at a yell from the priest the pretended dead men sprang to their feet and ran to the river to cleanse themselves from the blood and entrails of pigs with which they had been besmeared47#ijc7 ,in the valley of the ,congo initiatory rites of this sort are common4 ,in some places they are called ,ndembo4 8,in the practice of ,ndembo the initiating doctors get some one to fall down in a pretended fit1 and in that state he is carried away to an enclosed place outside the town4 ,this is called #8dying ,ndembo4' ,others follow suit1 generally boys and girls1 but often young men and women4444 ,they are supposed to have died4 ,but the parents and friends supply food1 and after a period varying1 according to custom1 from three months to three years1 it is arranged that the doctor shall bring them to life again4444 ,when the doctor's fee has been paid1 and money 7goods7 saved for a feast1 the ,ndembo people are brought to life4 ,at first they pretend to know no one and nothing2 they do not even know how to masticate food1 and friends have to perform that office for them4 ,they want everything nice that any one uninitiated may have1 and beat them if it is not granted1 or even strangle and kill people4 ,they do not get into trouble for this1 because it is thought that they do not know better4 ,sometimes they carry on the pretence of talking gibberish1 and behaving as if they had returned from the spirit-world4 ,after this they are known by another name1 peculiar to those who have #8died ,ndembo4' 444 ,we hear of the custom far along on the upper river1 as well as in the cataract region407#ijd7 ,the following account of the rites1 as practised in this part of ,africa1 was given to ,bastian by an interpreter4 8,in the land of ,ambamba every one must die once1 and when the fetish priest shakes his calabash against a village1 all the men and lads whose hour is come fall into a state of lifeless torpidity1 from which they generally awake after three days4 ,but if the fetish loves a man he carries him away into the bush and buries him in the fetish house1 often for many years4 ,when he comes to life again1 he begins to eat and drink as before1 but his understanding is gone and the fetish man must teach him and direct him in every motion1 like the smallest child4 ,at first this can only be done with a stick1 but gradually his senses return1 so that it is possible to talk with him1 and when his education is complete1 the priest brings him back to his parents4 ,they would seldom recognise their son but for the express assurances of the fetish priest1 who moreover recalls previous events to their memory4 ,he who has not gone through the ceremony of the new birth in ,ambamba is universally looked down upon and is not admitted to the dances40 ,during the period of initiation the novice is sympathetically united to the fetish by which his life is henceforward determined47#ije7 ,the novice1 plunged in the magic sleep or death-like trance within the sacred hut1 8beholds a bird or other object with which his existence is thenceforward sympathetically bound up1 just as the life of the young ,indian is bound up with the animal which he sees in his dreams at puberty407#ijf7 ,rites of this sort were formerly observed in ,quoja1 on the west coast of ,africa1 to the north of the ,congo4 ,they are thus described by an old writer3--8,they have another ceremony which they call ,belli-,paaro1 but it is not for everybody4 ,for it is an incorporation in the assembly of the spirits1 and confers the right of entering their groves1 that is to say1 of going and eating the offerings which the simple folk bring thither4 ,the initiation or admission to the ,belli-,paaro is celebrated every twenty or twenty-five years4 ,the initiated recount marvels of the ceremony1 saying that they are roasted1 that they entirely change their habits and life1 and that they receive a spirit quite different from that of other people and quite new lights4 ,the badge of membership consists in some lines traced on the neck between the shoulders2 the lines seem to be pricked with a needle4 ,those who have this mark pass for persons of spirit1 and when they have attained a certain age they are allowed a voice in all public assemblies2 whereas the uninitiated are regarded as profane1 impure1 and ignorant persons1 who dare not express an opinion on any subject of importance4 ,when the time for the ceremony has come1 it is celebrated as follows3 ,by order of the king a place is appointed in the forest1 whither they bring the youths who have not been marked1 not without much crying and weeping2 for it is impressed upon the youths that in order to undergo this change it is necessary to suffer death4 ,so they dispose of their property1 as if it were all over with them4 ,there are always some of the initiated beside the novices to instruct them4 ,they teach them to dance a certain dance called killing1 and to sing verses in praise of ,belli4 ,above all1 they are very careful not to let them die of hunger1 because if they did so1 it is much to be feared that the spiritual resurrection would profit them nothing4 ,this manner of life lasts five or six years1 and is comfortable enough1 for there is a village in the forest1 and they amuse themselves with hunting and fishing4 ,other lads are brought thither from time to time1 so that the last comers have not long to stay4 ,no woman or uninitiated person is suffered to pass within four or five leagues of the sacred wood4 ,when their instruction is completed1 they are taken from the wood and shut up in small huts made for the purpose4 ,here they begin once more to hold communion with mankind and to talk with the women who bring them their food4 ,it is amusing to see their affected simplicity4 ,they pretend to know no one1 and to be ignorant of all the customs of the country1 such as the customs of washing themselves1 rubbing themselves with oil1 etc4 ,when they enter these huts1 their bodies are all covered with the feathers of birds1 and they wear caps of bark which hang down before their faces4 ,but after a time they are dressed in clothes and taken to a great open place1 where all the people of the neighbourhood are assembled4 ,here the novices give the first proof of their capacity by dancing a dance which is called the dance of ,belli4 ,after the dance is over1 the novices are taken to the houses of their parents by their instructors407#ijg7 ,among the ,indians of ,virginia1 an initiatory ceremony1 called ,huskanaw1 took place every sixteen or twenty years1 or oftener1 as the young men happened to grow up4 ,the youths were kept in solitary confinement in the woods for several months1 receiving no food but an infusion of some intoxicating roots1 so that they went raving mad1 and continued in this state eighteen or twenty days4 8,upon this occasion it is pretended that these poor creatures drink so much of the water of ,lethe that they perfectly lose the remembrance of all former things1 even of their parents1 their treasure1 and their language4 ,when the doctors find that they have drank sufficiently of the ,wysoccan 7so they call this mad potion71 they gradually restore them to their senses again by lessening the intoxication of their diet2 but before they are perfectly well they bring them back into their towns1 while they are still wild and crazy through the violence of the medicine4 ,after this they are very fearful of discovering anything of their former remembrance2 for if such a thing should happen to any of them1 they must immediately be ,huskanaw'd again2 and the second time the usage is so severe that seldom any one escapes with life4 ,thus they must pretend to have forgot the very use of their tongues1 so as not to be able to speak1 nor understand anything that is spoken1 till they learn it again4 ,now1 whether this be real or counterfeit1 ,i don't know2 but certain it is that they will not for some time take notice of any body nor any thing with which they were before acquainted1 being still under the guard of their keepers1 who constantly wait upon them everywhere till they have learnt all things perfectly over again4 ,thus they unlive their former lives1 and commence men by forgetting that they ever have been boys407#ijh7 ,among some of the ,indian tribes of ,north ,america there are certain religious associations which are only open to candidates who have gone through a pretence of being killed and brought to life again4 ,captain ,carver witnessed the admission of a candidate to an association called 8the friendly society of the ,spirit0 among the ,naudowessies4 ,the candidate knelt before the chief1 who told him that 8he himself was now agitated by the same spirit which he should in a few moments communicate to him2 that it would strike him dead1 but that he would instantly be restored again to life4444 ,as he spoke this1 he appeared to be greatly agitated1 till at last his emotions became so violent that his countenance was distorted and his whole frame convulsed4 ,at this juncture he threw something that appeared both in shape and colour like a small bean at the young man1 which seemed to enter his mouth1 and he instantly fell as motionless as if he had been shot40 ,for a time the man lay like dead1 but under a shower of blows he showed signs of consciousness1 and finally1 discharging from his mouth the bean1 or whatever it was the chief had thrown at him1 he came to life47#iji7 ,in other tribes the instrument by which the candidate is apparently slain is the medicine-bag4 ,the bag is made of the skin of an animal 7such as the otter1 wild cat1 serpent1 bear1 raccoon1 wolf1 owl1 weasel71 of which it roughly preserves the shape4 ,each member of the society has one of these bags1 in which he keeps the odds and ends that make up his 8medicine0 or charms4 8,they believe that from the miscellaneous contents in the belly of the skin bag or animal there issues a spirit or breath1 which has the power1 not only to knock down and kill a man1 but also to set him up and restore him to life40 ,the mode of killing a man with one of these medicine-bags is to thrust it at him2 he falls like dead1 but a second thrust of the bag restores him to life47#iaj7 ,a ceremony witnessed by ,jewitt during his captivity among the ,indians of ,nootka ,sound doubtless belongs to this class of customs4 ,the ,indian king or chief 8discharged a pistol close to his son's ear1 who immediately fell down as if killed1 upon which all the women of the house set up a most lamentable cry1 tearing handfuls of hair from their heads1 and exclaiming that the prince was dead2 at the same time a great number of the inhabitants rushed into the house armed with their daggers1 muskets1 etc41 inquiring the cause of their outcry4 ,these were immediately followed by two others dressed in wolf skins1 with masks over their faces representing the head of that animal4 ,the latter came in on their hands and feet in the manner of a beast1 and taking up the prince1 carried him off upon their backs1 retiring in the same manner as they entered407#iaa7 ,in another place ,jewitt mentions that the young prince--a lad of about eleven years of age--wore a mask in imitation of a wolf's head47#iab7 ,now1 as the ,indians of this part of ,america are divided into totem clans1 of which the ,wolf clan is one of the principal1 and as the members of each clan are in the habit of wearing some portion of the totem animal about their person17#iac7 it is probable that the prince belonged to the ,wolf clan1 and that the ceremony described by ,jewitt represented the killing of the lad in order that he might be born anew as a wolf1 much in the same way that the ,basque hunter supposed himself to have been killed and to have come to life again as a bear4 ,the ,toukaway ,indians of ,texas1 one of whose totems is the wolf1 have a ceremony in which men1 dressed in wolf skins1 run about on all fours1 howling and mimicking wolves4 ,at last they scratch up a living tribesman1 who has been buried on purpose1 and putting a bow and arrows in his hands1 bid him do as the wolves do--rob1 kill1 and murder47#iad7 ,the ceremony probably forms part of an initiatory rite like the resurrection from the grave of the old man in the ,australian rites4 ,the people of ,rook1 an island east of ,new ,guinea1 hold festivals at which one or two disguised men1 their heads covered with wooden masks1 go dancing through the village1 followed by all the other men4 ,they demand that the circumcised boys who have not yet been swallowed by ,marsaba 7the devil7 shall be given up to them4 ,the boys1 trembling and shrieking1 are delivered to them1 and must creep between the legs of the disguised men4 ,then the procession moves through the village again1 and announces that ,marsaba has eaten up the boys1 and will not disgorge them till he receives a present of pigs1 taro1 etc4 ,so all the villagers1 according to their means1 contribute provisions1 which are then consumed in the name of ,marsaba47#iae7 ,in ,new ,britain all males are members of an association called the ,duk-duk4 ,the boys are admitted to it very young1 but are not fully initiated till their fourteenth year1 when they receive from the ,tubuvan a terrible blow with a cane1 which is supposed to kill them4 ,the ,tubuvan and the ,duk-duk are two disguised men who represent cassowaries4 ,they dance with a short hopping step in imitation of the cassowary4 ,each of them wears a huge hat like an extinguisher1 woven of grass or palm-fibres2 it is six feet high1 and descends to the wearer's shoulders1 completely concealing his head and face4 ,from the neck to the knees the man's body is hidden by a crinoline made of the leaves of a certain tree fastened on hoops1 one above the other4 ,the ,tubuvan is regarded as a female1 the ,duk-duk as a male4 ,no woman may see these disguised men4 ,the institution of the ,duk-duk is common to the neighbouring islands of ,new ,ireland and the ,duke of ,york47#iaf7 ,amongst the ,galela and ,tobelorese of ,halmahera1 an island to the west of ,new ,guinea1 boys go through a form of initiation1 part of which seems to consist in a pretence of begetting them anew4 ,when a number of boys have reached the proper age1 their parents agree to celebrate the ceremony at their common expense1 and they invite others to be present at it4 ,a shed is erected1 and two long tables are placed in it1 with benches to match1 one for the men and one for the women4 ,when all the preparations have been made for a feast1 a great many skins of the rayfish1 and some pieces of a wood which imparts a red colour to water1 are taken to the shed4 ,a priest or elder causes a vessel to be placed in the sight of all the people1 and then begins1 with significant gestures1 to rub a piece of the wood with the ray-skin4 ,the powder so produced is put in the vessel1 and at the same time the name of one of the boys is called out4 ,the same proceeding is repeated for each boy4 ,then the vessels are filled with water1 after which the feast begins4 ,at the third cock-crow the priest smears the faces and bodies of the boys with the red water1 which represents the blood shed at the perforation of the hymen4 ,towards daybreak the boys are taken to the wood1 and must hide behind the largest trees4 ,the men1 armed with sword and shield1 accompany them1 dancing and singing4 ,the priest knocks thrice on each of the trees behind which a boy is hiding4 ,all day the boys stay in the wood1 exposing themselves to the heat of the sun as much as possible4 ,in the evening they bathe and return to the shed1 where the women supply them with food47#iag7 ,in the west of ,ceram boys at puberty are admitted to the ,kakian association47#iah7 ,modern writers have commonly regarded this association as primarily a political league instituted to resist foreign domination4 ,in reality its objects are purely religious and social1 though it is possible that the priests may have occasionally used their powerful influence for political ends4 ,the society is in fact merely one of those widely-diffused primitive institutions1 of which a chief object is the initiation of young men4 ,in recent years the true nature of the association has been duly recognised by the distinguished ,dutch ethnologist1 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel4 ,the ,kakian house is an oblong wooden shed1 situated under the darkest trees in the depth of the forest1 and is built to admit so little light that it is impossible to see what goes on in it4 ,every village has such a house4 ,thither the boys who are to be initiated are conducted blindfolded1 followed by their parents and relations4 ,each boy is led by the hand by two men1 who act as his sponsors or guardians1 looking after him during the period of initiation4 ,when all are assembled before the shed1 the high priest calls aloud upon the devils4 ,immediately a hideous uproar is heard to proceed from the shed4 ,it is made by men with bamboo trumpets1 who have been secretly introduced into the building by a back door1 but the women and children think it is made by the devils1 and are much terrified4 ,then the priests enter the shed1 followed by the boys1 one at a time4 ,as soon as each boy has disappeared within the precincts1 a dull chopping sound is heard1 a fearful cry rings out1 and a sword or spear1 dripping with blood1 is thrust through the roof of the shed4 ,this is a token that the boy's head has been cut off1 and that the devil has carried him away to the other world1 there to regenerate and transform him4 ,so at sight of the bloody sword the mothers weep and wail1 crying that the devil has murdered their children4 ,in some places1 it would seem1 the boys are pushed through an opening made in the shape of a crocodile's jaws or a cassowary's beak1 and it is then said that the devil has swallowed them4 ,the boys remain in the shed for five or nine days4 ,sitting in the dark1 they hear the blast of the bamboo trumpets1 and from time to time the sound of musket shots and the clash of swords4 ,every day they bathe1 and their faces and bodies are smeared with a yellow dye1 to give them the appearance of having been swallowed by the devil4 ,during his stay in the ,kakian house each boy has one or two crosses tattooed with thorns on his breast or arm4 ,when they are not sleeping1 the lads must sit in a crouching posture without moving a muscle4 ,as they sit in a row cross-legged1 with their hands stretched out1 the chief takes his trumpet1 and placing the mouth of it on the hands of each lad1 speaks through it in strange tones1 imitating the voice of the spirits4 ,he warns the lads1 under pain of death1 to observe the rules of the ,kakian society1 and never to reveal what has passed in the ,kakian house4 ,the novices are also told by the priests to behave well to their blood relations1 and are taught the traditions and secrets of the tribe4 ,meantime the mothers and sisters of the lads have gone home to weep and mourn4 ,but in a day or two the men who acted as guardians or sponsors to the novices return to the village with the glad tidings that the devil1 at the intercession of the priests1 has restored the lads to life4 ,the men who bring this news come in a fainting state and daubed with mud1 like messengers freshly arrived from the nether world4 ,before leaving the ,kakian house1 each lad receives from the priest a stick adorned at both ends with cock's or cassowary's feathers4 ,the sticks are supposed to have been given to the lads by the devil at the time when he restored them to life1 and they serve as a token that the lads have been in the spirit-land4 ,when they return to their homes they totter in their walk1 and enter the house backward1 as if they had forgotten how to walk properly2 or they enter the house by the back door4 ,if a plate of food is given to them1 they hold it upside down4 ,they remain dumb1 indicating their wants by signs only4 ,all this is to show that they are still under the influence of the devil or the spirits4 ,their sponsors have to teach them all the common acts of life1 as if they were new-born children4 ,further1 upon leaving the ,kakian house the boys are strictly forbidden to eat of certain fruits until the next celebration of the rites has taken place4 ,and for twenty or thirty days their hair may not be combed by their mothers or sisters4 ,at the end of that time the high priest takes them to a lonely place in the forest1 and cuts off a lock of hair from the crown of each of their heads4 ,after these initiatory rites the lads are deemed men1 and may marry2 it would be a scandal if they married before4 ,the simulation of death and resurrection or of a new birth at initiation appears to have lingered on1 or at least to have left traces of itself1 among peoples who have advanced far beyond the stage of savagery4 ,thus1 after his investiture with the sacred thread--the symbol of his order--a ,brahman is called 8twice-born40 ,manu says1 8,according to the injunction of the revealed texts the first birth of an ,aryan is from his natural mother1 the second happens on the tying of the girdle of ,muga grass1 and the third on the initiation to the performance of a ,srauta sacrifice407#iai7 ,a pretence of killing the candidate appears to have formed part of the initiation to the ,mithraic mysteries47#ibj7 ,thus1 if ,i am right1 wherever totemism is found1 and wherever a pretence is made of killing and bringing to life again at initiation1 there must exist or have existed not only a belief in the possibility of permanently depositing the soul in some external object--animal1 plant1 or what not--but an actual intention of so depositing it4 ,if the question is put1 why do men desire to deposit their life outside their bodies8 the answer can only be that1 like the giant in the fairy tale1 they think it safer to do so than to carry it about with them1 just as people deposit their money with a banker rather than carry it on their persons4 ,we have seen that at critical periods the life or soul is sometimes temporarily deposited in a safe place till the danger is past4 ,but institutions like totemism are not resorted to merely on special occasions of danger2 they are systems into which every one1 or at least every male1 is obliged to be initiated at a certain period of life4 ,now the period of life at which initiation takes place is regularly puberty2 and this fact suggests that the special danger which totemism and systems like it are intended to obviate is supposed not to arise till sexual maturity has been attained1 in fact1 that the danger apprehended is believed to attend the relation of the sexes to each other4 ,it would be easy to prove by a long array of facts that the sexual relation is associated in the primitive mind with many supernatural perils2 but the exact nature of the danger apprehended is still obscure4 ,we may hope that a more exact acquaintance with savage modes of thought will in time disclose this central mystery of primitive society1 and will thereby furnish the clue1 not only to the social aspect of totemism 7the prohibition of sexual union between persons of the same totem71 but to the origin of the marriage system4 #e4--;,conclusion4 ,thus the view that ,balder's life was in the mistletoe is entirely in harmony with primitive modes of thought4 ,it may indeed sound like a contradiction that1 if his life was in the mistletoe1 he should nevertheless have been killed by a blow from it4 ,but when a person's life is conceived as embodied in a particular object1 with the existence of which his own existence is inseparably bound up1 and the destruction of which involves his own1 the object in question may be regarded and spoken of indifferently as the person's life or as his death1 as happens in the fairy tales4 ,hence if a man's death is in an object1 it is perfectly natural that he should be killed by a blow from it4 ,in the fairy tales ,koshchei the ,deathless is killed by a blow from the egg or the stone in which his life or death is27#iba7 the ogres burst when a certain grain of sand--doubtless containing their life or death--is carried over their heads27#ibb7 the magician dies when the stone in which his life or death is contained is put under his pillow27#ibc7 and the ,tartar hero is warned that he may be killed by the golden arrow or golden sword in which his soul has been stowed away47#ibd7 ,the idea that the life of the oak was in the mistletoe was probably suggested1 as ,i have said1 by the observation that in winter the mistletoe growing on the oak remains green1 while the oak itself is leafless4 ,but the position of the plant--growing1 not from the ground1 but from the trunk or branches of the tree--might confirm this idea4 ,primitive man might think that1 like himself1 the oak-spirit had sought to deposit his life in some safe place1 and for this purpose had pitched on the mistletoe1 which1 being in a sense neither on earth nor in heaven1 was as secure a place as could be found4 ,at the beginning of this chapter we saw that primitive man seeks to preserve the life of his human divinities by keeping them in a sort of intermediate position between earth and heaven1 as the place where they are least likely to be assailed by the dangers that encompass the life of man on earth4 ,we can therefore understand why in modern folk-medicine the mistletoe is not allowed to touch the ground2 if it touches the ground1 its healing virtue is supposed to be gone47#ibe7 ,this may be a survival of the old superstition that the plant in which the life of the sacred tree was concentrated should not be exposed to the risk incurred by contact with the ground4 ,in an ,indian legend1 which offers a parallel to the ,balder myth1 ,indra promised the demon ,namuci not to kill him by day or by night1 nor with what was wet or what was dry4 ,but he killed him in the morning twilight by sprinkling over him the foam of the sea47#ibf7 ,the foam of the sea is just such an object as a savage might choose to put his life in1 because it occupies that sort of intermediate or nondescript position between earth and sky or sea and sky in which primitive man sees safety4 ,it is therefore not surprising that the foam of the river should be the totem of a clan in ,india47#ibg7 ,again1 the view that the mistletoe owes its mystic character partly to the fact of its not growing on the ground is confirmed by a parallel superstition about the mountain-ash or rowan-tree4 ,in ,jutland a rowan that is found growing out of the top of another tree is esteemed 8exceedingly effective against witchcraft3 since it does not grow on the ground witches have no power over it2 if it is to have its full effect it must be cut on ,ascension ,day407#ibh7 ,hence it is placed over doors to prevent the ingress of witches47#ibi7 ,similarly the mistletoe in ,germany is still universally considered a protection against witchcraft1 and in ,sweden1 as we saw1 the mistletoe which is gathered on ,midsummer ,eve is attached to the ceiling of the house1 the horse stall1 or the cow's crib1 in the belief that this renders the ,troll powerless to injure man or beast47#icj7 ,the view that the mistletoe was not merely the instrument of ,balder's death1 but that it contained his life1 is countenanced by the analogy of a ,scottish superstition4 ,tradition ran that the fate of the family of ,hay was bound up with the mistletoe of a certain oak4 8,while the mistletoe bats on ,errol's oak1 ,and that oak stands fast1 ,the ,hays shall flourish1 and their good gray hawk ,shall not flinch before the blast4 8,but when the root of the oak decays1 ,and the mistletoe dwines on its withered breast1 ,the grass shall grow on the ,earl's hearthstone1 ,and the corbies craw in the falcon's nest40 8,a large oak with the mistletoe growing on it was long pointed out as the tree referred to4 ,a piece of the mistletoe cut by a ,hay was believed to have magical virtues4 #8,the oak is gone and the estate is lost to the family1' as a local historian says407#ica7 ,the idea that the fate of a family1 as distinct from the lives of its members1 is bound up with a particular plant or tree1 is no doubt comparatively modern4 ,the older view probably was that the lives of all the ,hays were in this particular mistletoe1 just as in the ,indian story the lives of all the ogres are in a lemon2 to break a twig of the mistletoe would then have been to kill one of the ,hays4 ,similarly in the island of ,rum1 whose bold mountains the voyager from ,oban to ,skye observes to seaward1 it was thought that if one of the family of ,lachlin shot a deer on the mountain of ,finchra1 he would die suddenly or contract a distemper which would soon prove fatal47#icb7 ,probably the life of the ,lachlins was bound up with the deer on ,finchra1 as the life of the ,hays was bound up with the mistletoe on ,errol's oak4 ,it is not a new opinion that the ,golden ,bough was the mistletoe47#icc7 ,true1 ,virgil does not identify but only compares it with the mistletoe4 ,but this may be only a poetical device to cast a mystic glamour over the humble plant4 ,or1 more probably1 his description was based on a popular superstition that at certain times the mistletoe blazed out into a supernatural golden glory4 ,the poet tells how two doves1 guiding ,aeneas to the gloomy vale in whose depth grew the ,golden ,bough1 alighted upon a tree1 8whence shone a flickering gleam of gold4 ,as in the woods in winter cold the mistletoe--a plant not native to its tree--is green with fresh leaves and twines its yellow berries about the boles2 such seemed upon the shady oak the leafy gold1 so rustled in the gentle breeze the golden leaf407#icd7 ,here ,virgil definitely describes the ,golden ,bough as growing on an oak1 and compares it with the mistletoe4 ,the inference is almost inevitable that the ,golden ,bough was nothing but the mistletoe seen through the haze of poetry or of popular superstition4 ,now grounds have been shown for believing that the priest of the ,arician grove--the ,king of the ,wood--personified the tree on which grew the ,golden ,bough47#ice7 ,hence1 if that tree was the oak1 the ,king of the ,wood must have been a personification of the oak-spirit4 ,it is1 therefore1 easy to understand why1 before he could be slain1 it was necessary to break the ,golden ,bough4 ,as an oak-spirit1 his life or death was in the mistletoe on the oak1 and so long as the mistletoe remained intact1 he1 like ,balder1 could not die4 ,to slay him1 therefore1 it was necessary to break the mistletoe1 and probably1 as in the case of ,balder1 to throw it at him4 ,and to complete the parallel1 it is only necessary to suppose that the ,king of the ,wood was formerly burned1 dead or alive1 at the midsummer fire festival which1 as we have seen1 was annually celebrated in the ,arician grove47#icf7 ,the perpetual fire which burned in the grove1 like the perpetual fire under the oak at ,romove1 was probably fed with the sacred oak-wood2 and thus it would be in a great fire of oak that the ,king of the ,wood formerly met his end4 ,at a later time1 as ,i have suggested1 his annual tenure of office was lengthened or shortened1 as the case might be1 by the rule which allowed him to live so long as he could prove his divine right by the strong hand4 ,but he only escaped the fire to fall by the sword4 ,thus it seems that at a remote age in the heart of ,italy1 beside the sweet lake of ,nemi1 the same fiery tragedy was annually enacted which ,italian merchants and soldiers were afterwards to witness among their rude kindred1 the ,celts of ,gaul1 and which1 if the ,roman eagles had ever swooped on ,norway1 might have been found repeated with little difference among the barbarous ,aryans of the ,north4 ,the rite was probably an essential feature in the primitive ,aryan worship of the oak47#icg7 ,it only remains to ask1 ,why was the mistletoe called the ,golden ,bough8 ,the name was not simply a poet's fancy1 nor even peculiarly ,italian2 for in ,welsh also the mistletoe is known as 8the tree of pure gold407#ich7 ,the whitish-yellow of the mistletoe berries is hardly enough to account for the name4 ,for ,virgil says that the ,bough was altogether golden1 stem as well as leaves17#ici7 and the same is implied in the ,welsh name1 8the tree of pure gold40 ,a clue to the real meaning of the name is furnished by the mythical fern-seed or fern-bloom4 ,we saw that fern-seed is popularly supposed to bloom like gold or fire on ,midsummer ,eve4 ,thus in ,bohemia it is said that 8on ,st4 ,john's ,day fern-seed blooms with golden blossoms that gleam like fire407#idj7 ,now it is a property of this mythical fern-seed that whoever has it1 or will ascend a mountain holding it in his hand on ,midsummer ,eve1 will discover a vein of gold or will see the treasures of the earth shining with a bluish flame47#ida7 ,and if you place fern-seed among money1 the money will never decrease1 however much of it you spend47#idb7 ,sometimes the fern-seed is supposed to bloom at ,christmas1 and whoever catches it will become very rich47#idc7 ,thus1 on the principle of like by like1 fern-seed is supposed to discover gold because it is itself golden2 and for a similar reason it enriches its possessor with an unfailing supply of gold4 ,but while the fern-seed is described as golden1 it is equally described as glowing and fiery47#idd7 ,hence1 when we consider that two great days for gathering the fabulous seed are ,midsummer ,eve and ,christmas--that is1 the two solstices 7for ,christmas is nothing but an old heathen celebration of the winter solstice7--we are led to regard the fiery aspect of the fern-seed as primary1 and its golden aspect as secondary and derivative4 ,fern-seed1 in fact1 would seem to be an emanation of the sun's fire at the two turning-points of its course1 the summer and winter solstices4 ,this view is confirmed by a ,german story in which a hunter is said to have procured fern-seed by shooting at the sun on ,midsummer ,day at noon2 three drops of blood fell down1 which he caught in a white cloth1 and these blood-drops were the fern-seed47#ide7 ,here the blood is clearly the blood of the sun1 from which the fern-seed is thus directly derived4 ,thus it may be taken as certain that fern-seed is golden1 because it is believed to be an emanation of the sun's golden fire4 ,now1 like fern-seed1 the mistletoe is gathered either at ,midsummer or ,christmas7#idf7--that is1 at the summer and winter solstices--and1 like fern-seed1 it is supposed to possess the power of revealing treasures in the earth4 ,on ,midsummer ,eve people in ,sweden make divining-rods of mistletoe or of four different kinds of wood1 one of which must be mistletoe4 ,the treasure-seeker places the rod on the ground after sundown1 and when it rests directly over treasure1 the rod begins to move as if it were alive47#idg7 ,now1 if the mistletoe discovers gold1 it must be in its character of the ,golden ,bough2 and if it is gathered at the solstices1 must not the ,golden ,bough1 like the golden fern-seed1 be an emanation of the sun's fire8 ,the question cannot be answered with a simple affirmative4 ,we have seen that the primitive ,aryans probably kindled the midsummer bonfires as sun-charms1 that is1 with the intention of supplying the sun with fresh fire4 ,but as this fire was always elicited by the friction of oak wood17#idh7 it must have appeared to the primitive ,aryan that the sun was periodically recruited from the fire which resided in the sacred oak4 ,in other words1 the oak must have seemed to him the original storehouse or reservoir of the fire which was from time to time drawn out to feed the sun4 ,but the life of the oak was conceived to be in the mistletoe2 therefore the mistletoe must have contained the seed or germ of the fire which was elicited by friction from the wood of the oak4 ,thus1 instead of saying that the mistletoe was an emanation of the sun's fire1 it would be more correct to say that the sun's fire was regarded as an emanation of the mistletoe4 ,no wonder1 then1 that the mistletoe shone with a golden splendour1 and was called the ,golden ,bough4 ,probably1 however1 like fern-seed1 it was thought to assume its golden aspect only at those stated times1 especially midsummer1 when fire was drawn from the oak to light up the sun47#idi7 ,at ,pulverbatch1 in ,shropshire1 it was believed within living memory that the oak-tree blooms on ,midsummer ,eve and the blossom withers before daylight47#iej7 ,this fleeting bloom of the oak1 if ,i am right1 could originally have been nothing but the mistletoe in its character of the ,golden ,bough4 ,as ,shropshire borders on ,wales1 the superstition may be ,welsh in its immediate origin1 though probably the belief is a fragment of the primitive ,aryan creed4 ,in some parts of ,italy1 as we saw17#iea7 peasants still go out on ,midsummer morning to search the oak-trees for the 8oil of ,st4 ,john10 which1 like the mistletoe1 heals all wounds1 and is doubtless the mistletoe itself in its glorified aspect4 ,thus it is easy to understand how a title like the ,golden ,bough or the 8tree of pure gold10 so little descriptive of the real appearance of the plant1 should have held its ground as a name for the mistletoe in ,italy and ,wales1 and probably in other parts of the ,aryan world47#ieb7 ,now1 too1 we can fully understand why ,virbius came to be confounded with the sun4 ,if ,virbius was1 as ,i have tried to show1 a tree-spirit1 he must have been the spirit of the oak on which grew the ,golden ,bough2 for tradition represented him as the first of the ,kings of the ,wood4 ,as an oak-spirit he must have been supposed periodically to rekindle the sun's fire1 and might therefore easily be confounded with the sun itself4 ,similarly we can explain why ,balder1 an oak-spirit1 was described as 8so fair of face and so shining that a light went forth from him107#iec7 and why he should have been so often taken to be the sun4 ,and in general we may say that in primitive society1 when the only known way of making fire is by the friction of wood1 the savage must necessarily conceive fire as a property stored away1 like sap or juice1 in trees1 from which he has laboriously to extract it4 ,thus all trees1 or at least the particular sorts of trees whose wood he employs in fire-making1 must be regarded by him as reservoirs of hidden fire1 and it is natural that he should describe them by epithets like golden1 shining1 or bright4 ,may not this have been the origin of the name1 8the ,bright or ,shining ,one0 7,zeus1 ,jove7 by which the ancient ,greeks and ,italians designated their supreme god87#ied7 ,it is at least highly significant that1 amongst both ,greeks and ,italians1 the oak should have been the tree of the supreme god1 that at his most ancient shrines1 both in ,greece and ,italy1 this supreme god should have been actually represented by an oak1 and that so soon as the barbarous ,aryans of ,northern ,europe appear in the light of history1 they should be found1 amid all diversities of language1 of character1 and of country1 nevertheless at one in worshipping the oak as the chief object of their religious reverence1 and extracting their sacred fire from its wood4 ,if we are to judge of the primitive religion of the ,european ,aryans by comparing the religions of the different branches of the stock1 the highest place in their pantheon must certainly be assigned to the oak4 ,the result1 then1 of our inquiry is to make it probable that1 down to the time of the ,roman ,empire and the beginning of our era1 the primitive worship of the ,aryans was maintained nearly in its original form in the sacred grove at ,nemi1 as in the oak woods of ,gaul1 of ,prussia1 and of ,scandinavia2 and that the ,king of the ,wood lived and died as an incarnation of the supreme ,aryan god1 whose life was in the mistletoe or ,golden ,bough4 ,if1 in bidding farewell to ,nemi1 we look around us for the last time1 we shall find the lake and its surroundings not much changed from what they were in the days when ,diana and ,virbius still received the homage of their worshippers in the sacred grove4 ,the temple of ,diana1 indeed1 has disappeared1 and the ,king of the ,wood no longer stands sentinel over the ,golden ,bough4 ,but ,nemi's woods are still green1 and at evening you may hear the church bells of ,albano1 and perhaps1 if the air be still1 of ,rome itself1 ringing the ,angelus4 ,sweet and solemn they chime out from the distant city1 and die lingeringly away across the wide ,campagnan marshes4 ,le roi est mort1 vive le roi6 ,,note4 ,,offerings ,,of ,,first-,,fruits4 ,we have seen 7vol4 ii4 p4 #fh sqq47 that primitive peoples often partake of the new corn sacramentally1 because they suppose it to be instinct with a divine spirit or life4 ,at a later age1 when the fruits of the earth are conceived as produced rather than as animated by a divinity1 the new fruits are no longer partaken of sacramentally as the body and blood of a god2 but a portion of them is presented as a thank-offering to the divine beings who are believed to have produced them4 ,sometimes the first-fruits are presented to the king1 probably in his character of a god4 ,till the first-fruits have been offered to the deity or the king1 people are not at liberty to eat of the new crops4 ,but1 as it is not always possible to draw a sharp line between the sacrament and the sacrifice of first-fruits1 it may be well to round off this part of the subject by appending some miscellaneous examples of the latter4 ,among the ,basutos1 when the corn has been threshed and winnowed1 it is left in a heap on the threshing-floor4 ,before it can be touched a religious ceremony must be performed4 ,the persons to whom the corn belongs bring a new vessel to the spot1 in which they boil some of the grain4 ,when it is boiled they throw a few handfuls of it on the heap of corn1 saying1 8,thank you1 gods2 give us bread to-morrow also60 ,when this is done the rest is eaten1 and the provision for the year is considered pure and fit to eat47#iee7 ,here the sacrifice of the first-fruits to the gods is the prominent idea1 which comes out again in the custom of leaving in the threshing-floor a little hollow filled with grain1 as a thank-offering to the gods47#ief7 ,still the ,basutos retain a lively sense of the sanctity of the corn in itself2 for1 so long as it is exposed to view1 all defiled persons are carefully kept from it4 ,if it is necessary to employ a defiled person in carrying home the harvest1 he remains at some distance while the sacks are being filled1 and only approaches to place them upon the draught oxen4 ,as soon as the load is deposited at the dwelling he retires1 and under no pretext may he help to pour the corn into the baskets in which it is kept47#ieg7 ,in ,ashantee a harvest festival is held in ,september when the yams are ripe4 ,during the festival the king eats the new yams1 but none of the people may eat them till the close of the festival1 which lasts a fortnight4 ,during its continuance the grossest liberty prevails2 theft1 intrigue1 and assault go unpunished1 and each sex abandons itself to its passions47#ieh7 ,the ,hovas of ,madagascar present the first sheaves of the new grain to the sovereign4 ,the sheaves are carried in procession to the palace from time to time as the grain ripens47#iei7 ,so in ,burma1 when the pangati fruits ripen1 some of them used to be taken to the king's palace that he might eat of them2 no one might partake of them before the king47#ifj7 ,every year1 when they gather their first crops1 the ,kochs of ,assam offer some of the first-fruits to their ancestors1 calling to them by name and clapping their hands47#ifa7 ,in ,august1 when the rice ripens1 the ,hos offer the first-fruits of the harvest to ,sing ,bonga1 who dwells in the sun4 ,along with the new rice a white cock is sacrificed2 and till the sacrifice has been offered no one may eat the new rice47#ifb7 ,among the hill tribes near ,rajamahall1 in ,india1 when the kosarane grain is being reaped in ,november or early in ,december1 a festival is held as a thanksgiving before the new grain is eaten4 ,on a day appointed by the chief a goat is sacrificed by two men to a god called ,chitariah ,gossaih1 after which the chief himself sacrifices a fowl4 ,then the vassals repair to their fields1 offer thanksgiving1 make an oblation to ,kull ,gossaih 7who is described as the ,ceres of these mountaineers71 and then return to their houses to eat of the new kosarane4 ,as soon as the inhabitants have assembled at the chief's house--the men sitting on one side and the women on the other--a hog1 a measure of kosarane1 and a pot of spirits are presented to the chief1 who in return blesses his vassals1 and exhorts them to industry and good behaviour2 8after which1 making a libation in the names of all their gods1 and of their dead1 he drinks1 and also throws a little of the kosarane away1 repeating the same pious exclamations40 ,drinking and festivity then begin1 and are kept up for several days4 ,the same tribes have another festival at reaping the ,indian corn in ,august or ,september4 ,every man repairs to his fields with a hog1 a goat1 or a fowl1 which he sacrifices to ,kull ,gossaih4 ,then1 having feasted1 he returns home1 where another repast is prepared4 ,on this day it is customary for every family in the village to distribute to every house a little of what they have prepared for their feast4 ,should any person eat of the new kosarane or the new ,indian corn before the festival and public thanksgiving at the reaping of these crops1 the chief fines him a white cock1 which is sacrificed to ,chitariah47#ifc7 ,in the ,central ,provinces of ,india the first grain of the season is always offered to the god ,bhmsen or ,bhm ,deo47#ifd7 ,in the ,punjaub1 when sugar-cane is planted1 a woman puts on a necklace and walks round the field1 winding thread on to a spindle27#ife7 and when the sugar-cane is cut the first-fruits are offered on an altar1 which is built close to the press and is sacred to the sugar-cane god4 ,afterwards the first-fruits are given to ,brahmans4 ,also1 when the women begin to pick the cotton1 they go round the field eating rice-milk1 the first mouthful of which they spit upon the field toward the west2 and the first cotton picked is exchanged at the village shop for its weight in salt1 which is prayed over and kept in the house till the picking is finished47#iff7 ,in the island of ,tjumba1 ,east ,indies1 a festival is held after harvest4 ,vessels filled with rice are presented as a thank-offering to the gods4 ,then the sacred stone at the foot of a palm-tree is sprinkled with the blood of a sacrificed animal2 and rice1 with some of the flesh1 is laid on the stone for the gods4 ,the palm-tree is hung with lances and shields47#ifg7 ,the ,dyaks of ,borneo hold a feast of first-fruits when the paddy 7unhusked rice7 is ripe4 ,the priestesses1 accompanied by a gong and drum1 go in procession to the farms and gather several bunches of the ripe paddy4 ,these are brought back to the village1 washed in cocoa-nut water1 and laid round a bamboo altar1 which at the harvest festivals is erected in the common room of the largest house4 ,the altar is gaily decorated with white and red streamers1 and is hung with the sweet-smelling blossom of the areca palm4 ,the feast lasts two days1 during which the village is tabooed2 no one may leave it4 ,only fowls are killed1 and dancing and gong-beating go on day and night4 ,when the festival is over the people are free to get in their crops47#ifh7 ,the pounding of the new paddy is the occasion of a harvest festival which is celebrated all over ,celebes4 ,the religious ceremonies which accompany the feast were witnessed by ,dr4 ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes in ,july #aheg4 ,two mats were spread on the ground1 each with a pillow on it4 ,on one of the pillows were placed a man's clothes and a sword1 on the other a woman's clothes4 ,these were seemingly intended to represent the deceased ancestors4 ,rice and water were placed before the two dummy figures1 and they were sprinkled with the new paddy4 ,also dishes of rice were set down for the rest of the family and the slaves of the deceased4 ,this was the end of the ceremony47#ifi7 ,the ,minahassa of ,celebes have a festival of 8eating the new rice40 ,fowls or pigs are killed2 some of the flesh1 with rice and palm-wine1 is set apart for the gods1 and then the eating and drinking begin47#igj7 ,the people of ,kobi and ,sariputi1 two villages on the north-east coast of ,ceram1 offer the first-fruits of the paddy1 in the form of cooked rice1 with tobacco1 etc41 to their ancestors1 as a token of gratitude4 ,the ceremony is called 8feeding the dead407#iga7 ,in the ,tenimber and ,timorlaut ,islands1 ,east ,indies1 the first-fruits of the paddy1 along with live fowls and pigs1 are offered to the matmate4 ,the matmate are the spirits of their ancestors1 which are worshipped as guardian-spirits or household gods4 ,they are supposed to enter the house through an opening in the roof1 and to take up their abode temporarily in their skulls1 or in images of wood or ivory1 in order to partake of the offerings and to help the family4 ,they also take the form of birds1 pigs1 crocodiles1 turtles1 sharks1 etc47#igb7 ,in ,amboina1 after the rice or other harvest has been gathered in1 some of the new fruits are offered to the gods1 and till this is done1 the priests may not eat of them4 ,a portion of the new rice1 or whatever it may be1 is boiled1 and milk of the cocoa-nut is poured on it1 mixed with ,indian saffron4 ,it is then taken to the place of sacrifice and offered to the god4 ,some people also pour out oil before the deity2 and if any of the oil is left over1 they take it home as a holy and priceless treasure1 wherewith they smear the forehead and breast of sick people and whole people1 in the firm conviction that the oil confers all kinds of blessings47#igc7 ,the ,irayas and ,catalangans of ,luzon1 tribes of the ,malay stock1 but of mixed blood1 worship chiefly the souls of their ancestors under the name of anitos1 to whom they offer the first-fruits of the harvest4 ,the anitos are household deities2 some of them reside in pots in the corners of the houses2 and miniature houses1 standing near the dwelling-house1 are especially sacred to them47#igd7 ,in certain tribes of ,fiji 8the first-fruits of the yam harvest are presented to the ancestors in the ,nanga sacred stone enclosure with great ceremony1 before the bulk of the crop is dug for the people's use1 and no man may taste of the new yams until the presentation has been made4 ,the yams thus offered are piled in the ,great ,nanga1 and are allowed to rot there4 ,if any one were impiously bold enough to appropriate them to his own use1 he would be smitten with madness4 ,the mission teacher before mentioned told me that when he visited the ,nanga he saw among the weeds with which it was overgrown numerous yam vines which had sprung up out of the piles of decayed offerings4 ,great feasts are made at the presentations of the first-fruits1 which are times of public rejoicing1 and the ,nanga itself is frequently spoken of as the ,mbaki1 or ,harvest407#ige7 ,in other parts of ,fiji the practice with regard to the first-fruits seems to have been different1 for we are told by another observer that 8the first-fruits of the yams1 which are always presented at the principal temple of the district1 become the property of the priests1 and form their revenue1 although the pretence of their being required for the use of the god is generally kept up407#igf7 ,in ,tana1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 the general name for gods appeared to be aremha1 which meant 8a dead man40 ,the spirits of departed ancestors were among the gods of the people4 ,chiefs who reached an advanced age were deified after their death1 addressed by name1 and prayed to on various occasions4 ,they were supposed to preside especially over the growth of the yams and fruit-trees4 ,the first-fruits were presented to them4 ,a little of the new fruit was laid on a stone1 or on a shelving branch of the tree1 or on a rude temporary altar1 made of a few sticks lashed together with strips of bark1 in the form of a table1 with its four feet stuck in the ground4 ,all being quiet1 the chief acted as high priest1 and prayed aloud as follows3 8,compassionate father6 here is some food for you2 eat it2 be kind to us on account of it40 ,then all the people shouted4 ,this took place about noon1 and afterwards the assembled people feasted and danced till midnight or morning47#igg7 ,in some of the ,kingsmill ,islands the god most commonly worshipped was called ,tuburiki4 ,he was represented by a flat coral stone1 of irregular shape1 about three feet long by eighteen inches wide1 set up on one end in the open air4 ,leaves of the cocoa-nut palm were tied about it1 considerably increasing its size and height4 ,the leaves were changed every month1 that they might be always fresh4 ,the worship paid to the god consisted in repeating prayers before the stone1 and laying beside it a portion of the food prepared by the people for their own use4 ,this they did at their daily meals1 at festivals1 and whenever they specially wished to propitiate the favour of the god4 ,the first-fruits of the season were always offered to him4 ,every family of distinction had one of these stones which was considered rather in the light of a family altar than as an idol47#igh7 ,the following is a description of the festival of first-fruits as it was celebrated in ,tonga in the days when a ,european flag rarely floated among the islands of the ,pacific4 8,inachi4 ,this word means literally a share or portion of any thing that is to be1 or has been1 distributed out3 but in the sense here mentioned it means that portion of the fruits of the earth1 and other eatables1 which is offered to the gods in the person of the divine chief ,tooitonga1 which allotment is made once a year1 just before the yams in general are arrived at a state of maturity2 those which are used in this ceremony being planted sooner than others1 and1 consequently1 they are the first-fruits of the yam season4 ,the object of this offering is to insure the protection of the gods1 that their favour may be extended to the welfare of the nation generally1 and in particular to the productions of the earth1 of which yams are the most important4 8,the time for planting most kinds of yams is about the latter end of ,july1 but the species called caho-caho1 which is always used in this ceremony1 is put in the ground about a month before1 when1 on each plantation1 there is a small piece of land chosen and fenced in1 for the purpose of growing a couple of yams of the above description4 ,as soon as they have arrived at a state of maturity1 the ,how ,king sends a messenger to ,tooitonga1 stating that the yams for the inachi are fit to be taken up1 and requesting that he would appoint a day for the ceremony2 he generally fixes on the tenth day afterwards1 reckoning the following day for the first4 ,there are no particular preparations made till the day before the ceremony2 at night1 however1 the sound of the conch is heard occasionally in different parts of the islands1 and as the day of the ceremony approaches1 it becomes more frequent1 so that the people of almost every plantation sound the conch three or four times1 which1 breaking in upon the silence of the night1 has a pleasing effect1 particularly at ,vavaoo1 where the number of woods and hills send back repeated echoes1 adding greatly to the effect4 ,the day before the ceremony the yams are dug up1 and ornamented with a kind of ribbon prepared from the inner membrane of the leaf of a species of pandanus1 and dyed red4444 8,the sun has scarcely set when the sound of the conch begins again to echo through the island1 increasing as the night advances4 ,at the ,mooa capital and all the plantations the voices of men and women are heard singing ,nfo oa tegger gnaoe1 ooa gnaoe1 ,rest thou1 doing no work2 thou shalt not work4 ,this increases till midnight1 men generally singing the first part of the sentence1 and the women the last3 it then subsides for three or four hours1 and again increases as the sun rises4 ,nobody1 however1 is seen stirring out in the public roads till about eight o'clock1 when the people from all quarters of the island are seen advancing towards the ,mooa1 and canoes from all the other islands are landing their men2 so that all the inhabitants of ,tonga seem approaching by sea and land1 singing and sounding the conch4 ,at the ,mooa itself the universal bustle of preparation is seen and heard2 and the different processions entering from various quarters of men and women1 all dressed up in new gnatoos1 ornamented with red ribbons and wreaths of flowers1 and the men armed with spears and clubs1 betoken the importance of the ceremony about to be performed4 ,each party brings in its yams in a basket1 which is carried in the arms with great care by the principal vassal of the chief to whom the plantation may belong4 ,the baskets are deposited in the mali7#igi7 7in the ,mooa71 and some of them begin to employ themselves in slinging the yams1 each upon the centre of a pole about eight or nine feet long1 and four inches diameter4 ,the proceedings are regulated by attending matabooles47#ihj7 ,the yams being all slung1 each pole is carried by two men upon their shoulders1 one walking before the other1 and the yam hanging between them1 ornamented with red ribbons4 ,the procession begins to move towards the grave of the last ,tooitonga 7which is generally in the neighbourhood1 or the grave of one of his family will do71 the men advancing in a single line1 every two bearing a yam1 with a slow and measured pace1 sinking at every step1 as if their burden were of immense weight4 ,in the meantime the chiefs and matabooles are seated in a semicircle before the grave1 with their heads bowed down1 and their hands clasped before them40 ,the procession then marched round the grave twice or thrice in a great circle1 the conchs blowing and the men singing4 ,next the yams1 still suspended from the poles1 were deposited before the grave1 and their bearers sat down beside them4 ,one of the matabooles of ,tooitonga now addressed the gods generally1 and afterwards particularly1 mentioning the late ,tooitonga1 and the names of several others4 ,he thanked them for their divine bounty in favouring the land with the prospect of so good a harvest1 and prayed that their beneficence might be continued in future4 ,when he had finished1 the men rose and resumed their loads1 and after parading two or three times round the grave1 marched back to the mali1 singing and blowing the conchs as before4 ,the chiefs and matabooles soon followed to the same place1 where the yams had been again deposited4 ,here the company sat down in a great circle1 presided over by ,tooitonga4 ,then the other articles that formed part of the ,inachi were brought forward1 consisting of dried fish1 mats1 etc41 which1 with the yams1 were divided into shares4 ,about a fourth was allotted to the gods1 and appropriated by the priests2 about a half fell to the king2 and the remainder belonged to ,tooitonga4 ,the materials of the ,inachi having been carried away1 the company set themselves to drink cava1 and a mataboole addressed them1 saying that the gods would protect them1 and grant them long lives1 if they continued to observe the religious ceremonies and to pay respect to the chiefs47#iha7 ,the ,samoans used to present the first-fruits to the spirits 7aitus7 and chiefs47#ihb7 ,for example1 a family whose god was in the form of an eel presented the first-fruits of their taro plantations to the eel47#ihc7 ,in ,tahiti 8the first fish taken periodically on their shores1 together with a number of kinds regarded as sacred1 were conveyed to the altar4 ,the first-fruits of their orchards and gardens were also taumaha1 or offered1 with a portion of their live stock1 which consisted of pigs1 dogs1 and fowls1 as it was supposed death would be inflicted on the owner or the occupant of the land from which the god should not receive such acknowledgment407#ihd7 ,in ,huahine1 one of the ,society ,islands1 the first-fruits were presented to the god ,tani4 ,a poor person was expected to bring two of the earliest fruits gathered1 of whatever kind2 a raatira had to bring ten1 and chiefs and princes had to bring more1 according to their rank and riches4 ,they brought the fruits to the temple1 where they threw them down on the ground1 with the words1 8,here1 ,tani1 ,i have brought you something to eat407#ihe7 ,the chief gods of the ,easter ,islanders were ,make-,make and ,haua4 ,to these they offered the first of all the produce of the ground47#ihf7 ,amongst the ,maoris the offering of the first-fruits of the sweet potatoes to ,pani1 son of ,rongo1 the god of sweet potatoes1 was a solemn religious ceremony47#ihg7 ,it has been affirmed that the old ,prussians offered the first-fruits of their crops and of their fishing to the god ,curcho1 but doubt rests on the statement47#ihh7 ,the ,romans sacrificed the first ears of corn to ,ceres1 and the first of the new wine to ,liber2 and until the priests had offered these sacrifices1 the people might not eat the new corn nor drink the new wine47#ihi7 ,the chief solemnity of the ,natchez1 an ,indian tribe on the ,lower ,mississippi1 was the ,harvest ,festival or the ,festival of ,new ,fire4 ,when the time for the festival drew near1 a crier went through the villages calling upon the people to prepare new vessels and new garments1 to wash their houses1 and to burn the old grain1 the old garments1 and the old utensils in a common fire4 ,he also proclaimed an amnesty to criminals4 ,next day he appeared again1 commanding the people to fast for three days1 to abstain from all pleasures1 and to make use of the medicine of purification4 ,thereupon all the people took some drops extracted from a root which they called the 8root of blood40 ,it was a kind of plantain and distilled a red liquor which acted as a violent emetic4 ,during their three days' fast the people kept silence4 ,at the end of it the crier proclaimed that the festival would begin on the following day4 ,so next morning1 as soon as it began to grow light in the sky1 the people streamed from all quarters towards the temple of the ,sun4 ,the temple was a large building with two doors1 one opening to the east1 the other to the west4 ,on this morning the eastern door of the temple stood open4 ,facing the eastern door was an altar1 placed so as to catch the first beams of the rising sun4 ,an image of a chouchouacha 7a small marsupial7 stood upon the altar2 on its right was an image of a rattlesnake1 on its left an image of a marmoset4 ,before these images a fire of oak bark burned perpetually4 ,once a year only1 on the eve of the ,harvest ,festival1 was the sacred flame suffered to die out4 ,to the right of the altar1 on 8this pious morn10 stood the great chief1 who took his title and traced his descent from the ,sun4 ,to the left of the altar stood his wife4 ,round them were grouped1 according to their ranks1 the war chiefs1 the sachems1 the heralds1 and the young braves4 ,in front of the altar were piled bundles of dry reeds1 stacked in concentric rings4 ,the high priest1 standing on the threshold of the temple1 kept his eyes fixed on the eastern horizon4 ,before presiding at the festival he had to plunge thrice into the ,mississippi4 ,in his hands he held two pieces of dry wood which he kept rubbing slowly against each other1 muttering magic words4 ,at his side two acolytes held two cups filled with a kind of black sherbet4 ,all the women1 their backs turned to the east1 each leaning with one hand on her rude mattock and supporting her infant with the other1 stood in a great semicircle at the gate of the temple4 ,profound silence reigned throughout the multitude while the priest watched attentively the growing light in the east4 ,as soon as the diffused light of dawn began to be shot with beams of fire1 he quickened the motion of the two pieces of wood which he held in his hands2 and at the moment when the upper edge of the sun's disc appeared above the horizon1 fire flashed from the wood and was caught in tinder4 ,at the same instant the women outside the temple faced round and held up their infants and their mattocks to the rising sun4 ,the great chief and his wife now drank the black liquor4 ,the priests kindled the circle of dried reeds2 fire was set to the heap of oak bark on the altar1 and from this sacred flame all the hearths of the village were rekindled4 ,no sooner were the circles of reeds consumed than the chief's wife came forth from the temple and placing herself at the head of the women marched in procession to the harvest fields1 whither the men were not allowed to follow them4 ,they went to gather the first sheaves of maize and returned to the temple bearing them on their heads4 ,some of the sheaves they presented to the high priest1 who laid them on the altar4 ,others they used to bake the unleavened bread which was to be eaten in the evening4 ,the eastern door of the sanctuary was now closed1 and the western door was opened4 ,when the day began to decline1 the multitude assembled once more at the temple1 this time at its western gate1 where they formed a great crescent1 with the horns turned toward the west4 ,the unleavened bread was held up and presented to the setting sun1 and a priest struck up a hymn in praise of his descending light4 ,when darkness had fallen the whole plain twinkled with fires1 round which the people feasted2 and the sounds of music and revelry broke the silence of night47#iij7 ,,index4 ,aachen1 fire festival at1 ii4 #bea ,aargau1 trees planted at births in1 ii4 #ccj ,aberdeenshire1 ceremony at the cutting of the last sheaf in1 i4 #cde ,abyssinia1 rain-making on the outskirts of1 i4 #ec ,abyssinian festivals1 ii4 #aga ,acagchemen tribe1 adoration of the buzzard by the1 ii4 #ij1 #ia ,adonis1 myth and worship of1 i4 #bgi-bhb1 #bif2 connection with vegetation1 i4 #bha2 gardens of1 i4 #bhd-bif2 rites of1 similar to those of ,osiris1 i4 #cai1 #cbj2 probable origin of the cult of1 i4 #cfc2 lament of1 i4 #bhj1 #cii2 as a pig1 ii4 #di1 #ej ,aegira1 blood drunk at1 before prophesying1 i4 #cd ,aethiopian kings confined to their palaces1 i4 #afd ,afghan ,boundary ,mission1 reception of the1 by the natives1 i4 #aee ,afghanistan1 reception of strangers in1 i4 #aee ,africa1 weather kings common in1 i4 #dd2 reluctance to accept the crown in some parts of ,west1 i4 #aah1 #aai2 priestly kings on the west coast of1 i4 #aab2 human heart eaten in the ,shire ,highlands of1 ii4 #hi ,ague1 cure for1 ii4 #aec ,aht ,indians1 seclusion of girls amongst the1 ii4 #bbi1 #bcj ,ain1 ,may-day customs in the ,dpartement de l'1 i4 #hh ,aino type of sacrament1 ii4 #acd-acf ,ainos1 bear festival of the1 ii4 #aja-aje2 preparation for fishing1 ii4 #abb2 treatment of the bear1 ii4 #acb ,alaskan sable hunters1 ii4 #aaf ,alban hills1 i4 #a2 mount1 i4 #b ,albania1 ,easter ,eve custom in1 i4 #bgf2 ii4 #aha2 scapegoat in1 ii4 #bja1 #bjb2 beating in1 ii4 #baf ,alexandria1 commemoration of the death of ,adonis and ,aphrodite at1 i4 #bgi1 #bhj ,alfoers1 function of their high priest ,leleen1 i4 #aff2 ceremony for restoring the soul1 i4 #acd1 #ace2 priest's hair uncut1 i4 #aid2 priest sows the first rice seed and plucks the first ripe rice1 ii4 #ga2 driving away the devil by the1 ii4 #aei ,algeria1 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bff ,alligator1 the man-eating1 ii4 #aji ,alps1 ,may-day custom in the1 i4 #ajd ,altisheim1 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccg ,altmark1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 i4 #ih2 ,easter bonfires1 ii4 #bed ,amboina1 soul-abstracting in1 i4 #aci1 #adj2 sprinkling the sick with spices in1 i4 #aed2 hair burying in1 i4 #bja2 disease boats in1 ii4 #ahh2 strength thought to be in the hair in1 ii4 #cbh2 offerings of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgg ,amenhtep ,,iv and the sun-god1 i4 #cad1 #cae ,america1 belief in the resurrection of the buffalo in the western prairies of1 ii4 #abc ,ammon1 rage of the sun-god ,ra against1 i4 #cae2 rams held sacred by the worshippers of1 ii4 #ib1 #ic ,andamanese belief in the reflection as the soul1 i4 #ade ,anderida1 wealds of ,kent1 ,surrey1 and ,sussex1 remnants of the forest of1 i4 #eg ,angel-man1 beheading the1 ii4 #bfg ,angoulme1 custom of burning a poplar on ,st4 ,peter's ,day in1 i4 #aja ,angoy1 king of1 must have no bodily defects1 i4 #bba ,animal worship1 two types of1 ii4 #acc1 #acd2 sacred carried in procession1 ii4 #aci-adg2 employed as a scapegoat1 ii4 #ahi-aia1 #aid1 #aie2 eaten to obtain its quality1 ii4 #hf1 #hg2 spared by savages from fear of the vengeance of other animals of the same kind1 ii4 #ajg-aaj2 respect shown by the savage for the animal he kills1 ii4 #aaj-acb2 ,savage belief in the resurrection of the1 ii4 #abb-abe2 burnt as representative of the spirit of vegetation1 ii4 #bhb-bhd ,annamites1 soul superstition amongst the1 i4 #acb ,antaymour kings responsible for the general welfare1 i4 #df ,antrim1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cci ,apache ,indians1 rain-making by the1 i4 #ae ,apalai ,indians1 ceremony on the arrival of a stranger by the1 i4 #aec1 #aed ,aphrodite1 i4 #bgi ,apis the sacred ,egyptian bull drowned1 ii4 #fa sq4 ,apollo ,diradiotes1 blood of sacrificial lamb drunk in the temple of1 i4 #cd ,apple-tree1 superstition with regard to the1 by barren women1 i4 #gc ,arabia1 belief concerning a man's shadow in1 i4 #adc ,arabian stories1 the external soul in1 ii4 #cah1 #cai ,arabic belief in the properties of lion's fat1 ii4 #hf ,arabs1 rain-making by the heathen1 i4 #bj ,arcadia1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ba2 beating the scapegoat1 ii4 #bad ,archon of ,plataeae1 the1 may not touch iron1 i4 #agc ,arden1 forest of1 i4 #eg ,argive tradition concerning ,dionysus1 i4 #cbd1 #cbe ,ariadne1 marriage of1 i4 #ajd ,aricia1 8there are many ,manii at10 explanation of the proverb1 ii4 #hb1 #hc ,arician ,grove1 the1 i4 #a-f2 ritual1 ii4 #fc1 #fd2 harvest celebration1 ii4 #fg2 ,manius the traditional founder of the1 ii4 #hd2 sacrament1 ii4 #hc1 #hd ,aru ,islands1 soul superstition in the1 i4 #abe1 #abf2 custom after a death in the1 i4 #adg2 hair cutting1 i4 #bja2 dog's flesh eaten1 ii4 #hg ,arval ,brothers1 priestly college of the1 and the sacred grove1 i4 #fe2 sacred grove of the1 and iron1 i4 #agb ,aryans1 the1 tree worshippers1 i4 #ef-ei1 #ii2 totemism and the1 ii4 #ch2 oak the sacred tree of the1 ii4 #bia2 primitive worship1 ii4 #cgj ,ascension ,day custom1 i4 #bfe ,aschbach1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cfh ,ash ,wednesday customs1 i4 #bed-beg2 ii4 #bi1 #dh1 #bea ,ashantee1 royal blood not shed in1 i4 #aha2 harvest festival in1 ii4 #cgd ,asia ,minor1 ,pontiffs of1 i4 #g1 #h ,athene1 relation of the goat to1 ii4 #fc ,athens1 annual marriage of the queen to ,dionysus at1 i4 #ajc1 #ajd2 rites of ,adonis observed in1 i4 #bhd1 #bhe2 scapegoats in1 ii4 #bab2 ritual at the sacrifice of the ox in1 ii4 #ch1 #ci1 #da ,attis1 myth and festival of1 i4 #bif-bih2 ii4 #ej2 a tree-spirit or corn-spirit1 i4 #bih-cjj2 probability that the high priest of1 was slain in the character of the god1 i4 #cjj2 probable origin of the cult of1 i4 #cfc2 relation to ,lityerses1 i4 #cif1 #cig2 as a pig1 ii4 #di1 #ej ,australia1 rain-making in1 i4 #bj1 #ba2 ceremony on entering strange territory by the ,australians1 i4 #aef2 seclusion of women in1 i4 #agj2 blood may not be spilt on the ground in some parts of1 i4 #aha1 #ahb2 hair burning after child-birth in1 i4 #bjf2 totemism1 ii4 #acc1 #ccd-ccf ,australian blacks' charm for staying the sun1 i4 #be2 attack the dust columns of red sand1 i4 #bi1 #cj2 fear of women's blood1 i4 #ahe1 #ahf2 ii4 #bch2 remedy for toothache1 ii4 #adi2 annual expulsion of ghosts1 ii4 #afc ---- ,kamilaroi1 cannibalism by the1 ii4 #hh ---- medicine man and recall of the soul1 i4 #aca1 #acb ---- ,wotjobaluk1 rain-making by the1 i4 #ad ,austria1 charm for lulling the wind in1 i4 #bh2 old peasant belief in the souls of trees in1 i4 #fa ,auxerre1 reaping custom at1 i4 #cce ,axim1 annual expulsion of devils at1 ii4 #agj ,aymara ,indians1 scapegoat used by the1 in times of plague1 ii4 #aia ,aztecs1 the1 and the reflection-soul1 i4 #ade2 aversion to wine1 i4 #ahe ,baba1 a name given to the last sheaf1 i4 #cci1 #cdj ,babar ,islands1 restoration of the soul in the1 i4 #acg2 the soul believed to be in the shadow1 i4 #adb ,babylon1 ,sacaea festival at1 i4 #bbf ,babylonian legend concerning the goddess ,istar1 i4 #bhg ,baffin ,land1 expulsion of evil by the ,eskimo of1 ii4 #afe ,bagota1 restrictions on the heir to the throne in1 ii4 #bbe ,balder killed by the mistletoe1 ii4 #bdd sq42 the oak1 ii4 #bie2 life of1 in the mistletoe1 ii4 #cei-cfb ,balder's bale-fires1 ii4 #bhi sq4 ,bali1 mice and the rice fields of the island of1 ii4 #aca2 periodic expulsion of devils1 ii4 #agd1 #age2 custom at a birth1 ii4 #cbi ,balquhidder1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cdd ,banjar kings held responsible for the weather1 i4 #df1 #dg ,banks ,islanders1 the tamaniu of the1 ii4 #cca1 #ccb ,baranton1 fountain of1 i4 #ae ,barcelona1 ,mid-,lent custom in1 i4 #bfb ,bari tribe1 rain kings of the1 i4 #eb1 #ec ,barotse1 the chief a demigod in1 i4 #df ,barren women's superstition regarding the apple-tree1 i4 #gc ,bassam1 ,great1 sacrifice of oxen at1 ii4 #da1 #db2 ceremony of driving out the evil spirit1 ii4 #afa1 #afb ,basutos1 the1 and the reflection-soul1 i4 #ade2 cannibalism by the1 ii4 #hi2 offerings of first-fruits1 ii4 #cgc ,bat1 the1 ii4 #ccd-ccg ,battambang1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ai ,battas1 the1 fighting the wind1 i4 #bh1 #bi2 refuse to fell trees1 i4 #fd1 #fe2 soul superstition1 i4 #abd1 #abe1 #ace1 #acf2 soul straying1 i4 #afj2 ceremony of making the curse to fly away by the1 ii4 #aej1 #aea2 totemism amongst the1 ii4 #cdj1 #cda2 belief in plurality of souls1 ii4 #cda ,bavaria1 ,may custom in1 i4 #hd2 ,whitsuntide representative of the tree-spirit in1 i4 #bdb2 harvest custom in1 i4 #cdb2 ii4 #bg1 #bh2 cure for fever1 ii4 #aec2 ,easter bonfires in1 ii4 #bed2 midsummer bonfires in1 ii4 #bgh ,bear1 ,shrovetide1 i4 #bed1 #bee2 sacrifice of the1 ii4 #ii-ajh2 ceremony at killing a1 ii4 #aaa-aac1 #aae2 ceremony before a bear-hunt1 ii4 #aab1 #aac ,bears1 dead1 treated with respect1 ii4 #aaa-aac ,beasts1 divine1 held responsible for the course of nature1 i4 #dh ,beating as a ceremonial purification1 ii4 #bac-bag1 #bcb-bcd ,beauce1 straw man in1 ii4 #dj ,beavers1 superstition about killing1 ii4 #aaf ,bechuanaland1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ah2 sun superstition in1 i4 #bc2 hack-thorn held sacred in1 i4 #fi2 purification after travel1 i4 #aeg2 crocodile superstition in1 ii4 #ee1 #ef2 transference of ills in1 ii4 #adi ,bedouins1 pursuing the wind1 i4 #bi ,belfast1 harvest custom at1 i4 #ccf1 #ccg ,belgium1 procession with wicker giant in1 ii4 #bha ,belli-,paaro1 ceremony of1 in ,quoja1 ii4 #cdg1 #cdh ,beltane fires1 ii4 #bed-beh ,bengal1 ,gardens of ,adonis in1 i4 #bhh1 #bhi ,bernkastel1 reaping custom in1 ii4 #ae ,berry1 belief regarding the birth of the corn-spirit in1 ii4 #bc2 harvest custom1 ii4 #bf ,bhagats1 mock human sacrifices by the1 i4 #beb1 #bec ,bhotan1 man worshippers in1 i4 #db ,biajas of ,borneo1 expulsion of diseases to sea by the1 ii4 #aib ,bidasari1 ii4 #cbe sq4 ,bilaspur1 custom at1 on the death of a ,rajah1 i4 #bcb ,birch-tree dressed in women's clothes in ,russia at ,whitsuntide1 i4 #gg ,births1 trees planted at1 ii4 #bbi1 #bcj ,bison1 resurrection of the1 ii4 #abb1 #abc ,bithynia1 lament by the reapers in1 i4 #cfe ,black ,lake1 i4 #ae ,blankenfelde1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cgj ,bleeding trees1 i4 #fa ,blekinge1 midsummer ceremonies in1 i4 #bib ,blood1 the soul thought to be in the1 i4 #agh1 #agi2 not eaten1 ib42 royal blood not spilt upon the ground1 i4 #agi-ahc2 ill effect of seeing1 i4 #ahe1 #ahf2 dread of contact with1 i4 #ahe-ahg2 primitive dread of menstruous1 ii4 #bch-bda ,blood-drinking1 inspiration by1 i4 #cd1 #ce ,boba1 a name given to the last sheaf1 i4 #cdj1 #cda ,boeotians of ,plataea1 festival of the1 i4 #ajj-ajc ,boeroe1 ceremony at the rice harvest in1 ii4 #ga ,bohemian midsummer custom1 i4 #gi2 ii4 #bei2 ,mid-,lent custom1 i4 #hb2 ,whit ,monday custom1 i4 #ia1 #bdd-bdg2 ceremony of carrying out ,death1 i4 #beh-bfj2 superstition regarding death1 i4 #bfj2 ceremony of bringing back summer1 i4 #bfc2 harvest custom1 i4 #cdj2 white mice spared in ,bohemia1 ii4 #aca1 #acb2 superstition held by poachers in ,bohemia1 ii4 #bhh ,bhmer ,wald ,mountains1 custom of the reapers in the1 ii4 #ae ,bolang ,mongondo1 recapture of the soul in1 i4 #aca2 preservation of cut hair1 i4 #bjc2 ceremony at rice harvest in1 ii4 #ga1 #gb ,bombay1 soul superstition in1 i4 #abg ,bones of animals not broken by savages1 ii4 #abd ,boni1 king of1 and his courtiers1 i4 #bbb1 #bbc ,booandik tribe superstition concerning the blood of women1 i4 #ahf ,book of the ,dead1 i4 #cab ,bormus1 the name given to the lament of the ,bithynian reapers1 i4 #cfe1 #cih ,borneo1 custom in1 regarding infested persons1 i4 #aed ,bouphonia1 the1 ii4 #ch-da ,brabant1 ,north1 ,whitsuntide custom in1 i4 #hh ,brahman soul story1 i4 #abh1 #abi2 sin eaters1 ii4 #aef ,brahmans1 temple of the1 i4 #bcj2 transference of sins by the1 ii4 #bjj ,brandy1 ,north ,american ,indian theory about1 ii4 #hg ,brazilian ,indians1 self-beating by the1 ii4 #bae1 #baf2 treatment of girls at the age of puberty by the1 ii4 #bca1 #bcb ,bresse1 ,may customs in1 i4 #ih2 ceremony regarding the last sheaf1 i4 #djh ,brest1 fire festival at1 ii4 #bfa ,breton peasant and the wind1 i4 #cj ,brianon1 ,may-day in the neighbourhood of1 i4 #ie2 harvest ceremony at1 ii4 #aa ,bride1 a name given to the binder of the last sheaf1 i4 #cde ,brie1 ,may-day custom in1 i4 #hd2 harvest custom in1 i4 #cgj1 #cge2 burning of mock giant in1 ii4 #bhb ,britanny1 reaping custom in1 i4 #cce1 #ccf2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bfa ,british ,columbia1 fish ceremony by the ,indians of1 ii4 #aba ,bruck1 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccc1 #ccd ,brd's bed in the ,highlands1 i4 #ig ,brunnen1 ,twelfth ,night custom at1 ii4 #ahb ,brunswick1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 i4 #ij ,buddhist animism1 i4 #ei ---- ,tartar worship1 i4 #db1 #dc ,buffalo1 belief in the resurrection of the1 ii4 #abc2 held sacred by the ,todas1 ii4 #acf1 #acg ---- bull1 ii4 #ai ,bulgarian rain-charm1 i4 #af2 custom at the laying of a foundation stone1 i4 #add2 harvest custom1 i4 #cda ,bull1 ,dionysus as a1 i4 #cbe1 #cbf2 ii4 #cg-dd2 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #ai-bd2 ,osiris and the1 ii4 #ei-fa2 sacred1 ii4 #fj2 as a scapegoat1 ii4 #bjj1 #bja ,burghers1 first seed sowing and reaping amongst the1 ii4 #gb2 transference of sins by the1 ii4 #aea1 #aeb ,burgundian kings deposed in times of scarcity1 i4 #dg ,burma1 mode of executing princes of the blood in1 i4 #ahj2 head-washing in1 i4 #ahh1 #ahi2 mock burial in time of sickness in1 ii4 #hd2 ceremony of driving away cholera in1 ii4 #afa2 offering of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgd ,burmese and the soul1 i4 #acj ,burnt sacrifices among the ,celts1 ii4 #bgh-bhj ,buro ,islands1 dog's flesh eaten in the1 ii4 #hg2 disease boats1 ii4 #ahg ,burying alive1 i4 #bag ,busiris1 legend of1 i4 #djj1 #dja ,butterfly1 the ,samoans and the1 ii4 #ef ,buzzard1 sacrifice of the sacred1 ii4 #ij-ib ,byblus1 lamentation for the death of ,adonis at1 i4 #bhj ,calabria1 expulsion of witches in1 ii4 #aha ,calcutta1 iron-charm used in1 i4 #agf ,calf1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #ai-bd ,calicut1 kings killed at the expiry of twelve years in1 i4 #bbd1 #bbe ,californian ,indians1 their opinion of the dust columns1 i4 #cj ---- sacrifice of the buzzard1 ii4 #ij1 #ia ,caligula1 i4 #d ,callander1 ,beltane fires in1 ii4 #bed1 #bee ,cambodia1 search for inspired man in time of epidemic in1 i4 #cf2 kings of fire and water in1 i4 #ec-ef2 its sacred tree1 i4 #fg2 kings of1 i4 #aah2 touching the king's body in1 i4 #agb2 man's head not touched in1 i4 #ahi2 ceremony at the cutting of the king's hair in1 i4 #aig2 temporary kings of1 i4 #bbh2 the ,stiens of ,cambodia and the killing of animals1 ii4 #aae2 expulsion of evil spirits1 etc4 in1 ii4 #agh1 #ahd2 seclusion of girls in1 ii4 #bce ,cambridgeshire1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cda1 #cdb ,cameroons1 the life of a person supposed to be bound up with that of a tree by the1 ii4 #cbi ,canadian ,indians1 detention of the soul amongst the1 i4 #aci2 beaver hunting by the1 ii4 #aaf1 #aag ,candlemas ,day customs1 i4 #ig2 ii4 #bi1 #dh ,canelos ,indians1 their belief of the soul in the portrait1 i4 #adh ,cannibalism1 ii4 #hh1 #hi ,capital offences1 i4 #afb1 #aij ,carcassonne1 hunting the wren in1 ii4 #adc1 #add ,caribs1 the1 belief in the plurality of souls1 ii4 #cci ,carinthia1 ceremonies on ,st4 ,george's ,day in1 i4 #hd1 #he2 ceremony at the installation of a prince of1 i4 #bcb1 #bcc ,carmona1 custom in1 ii4 #ahd1 #ahe ,carnival1 ceremony of burying the1 i4 #bdd1 #beb-beg1 #bgj1 #bgb ,carnival ,fool1 i4 #bef ,carpathus islanders1 reluctance to have their likenesses drawn1 i4 #adh1 #adi2 transference of sickness by the1 ii4 #aed ,cashmere stories1 the external soul in1 ii4 #cjb-cjd ,cat1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #aa1 #ab2 burnt1 ii4 #bhc ,caterpillars1 method of freeing a garden from1 ii4 #acj ,cattle1 trees and1 i4 #gb sq42 driven through the fire1 ii4 #bgc ,cedar1 the sacred1 of ,gilgit1 i4 #fi ,celebes1 the1 and the soul1 i4 #abc-abe2 custom regarding infested persons1 i4 #aed2 superstition regarding the knife1 i4 #agg2 blood not spilt on the ground by the1 i4 #ahb2 custom at a birth1 ii4 #cbi2 harvest festival1 ii4 #cgf ,celtic human sacrifices1 ii4 #bgh-bhd2 the external soul in ,celtic stories1 ii4 #cac1 #cad ,ceram1 rain-making in1 i4 #ac2 superstition regarding the blood of women in1 i4 #ahg2 hair cutting superstition in1 i4 #aid2 ii4 #cbh2 disease boats in1 ii4 #ahe1 #ahf2 ceremony in epidemic1 ii4 #ahg2 seclusion of girls in1 ii4 #bbi2 initiation ceremony1 ii4 #ced-cef ,chaeronea1 human scapegoat in1 ii4 #baj1 #baa ,chambry1 threshing ceremony at1 ii4 #bc ,chedooba1 ceremony on felling a tree in the island of1 i4 #fd ,cheremiss1 expulsion of ,satan by the1 ii4 #ahj1 #aha ,cherokee ,indians1 purification festival of the1 ii4 #aff1 #afg ,chester1 procession of mock giant at1 ii4 #bha ,chibchas1 weather kings of the1 i4 #dd ,children sacrificed by their parents1 i4 #bce-bcg ,chile1 preservation of cut hair in1 i4 #bjd ,china1 emperors of1 offer public sacrifices1 i4 #h2 rain-charm in1 i4 #ah2 emperor held responsible for drought1 etc41 i4 #di2 abstention from knives after a death in1 i4 #agg2 ceremony to welcome the return of spring in1 ii4 #db1 #dc2 special seat of courage amongst the ,chinese1 ii4 #hg2 cannibalism in1 ii4 #hi2 human scapegoat in1 ii4 #aia2 festival of the aboriginal tribes of1 ii4 #aic ,chios1 rites of ,dionysus at1 i4 #cbi ,chippeways1 seclusion of women amongst the1 ii4 #bci1 #bdj ,chiriguanos1 seclusion of girls by the1 ii4 #bca ,chitom1 the1 i4 #aac-aae2 not allowed to die a natural death1 i4 #bag1 #bah ,cholera1 driving away1 ii4 #afa1 #ahi1 #aia ,chontal ,indians1 the nagual amongst the1 ii4 #ccc ,christian1 ,captain1 shooting of1 i4 #aha ,christmas customs1 i4 #fj1 #ccd2 ii4 #f1 #g1 #bi-ca1 #ada1 #adb1 #add ,chrudim1 ceremony of carrying out ,death at1 i4 #bei1 #bfj ,chuwash1 the1 test of a suitable sacrificial victim1 i4 #cf ,circassians1 the pear-tree believed to be the protector of cattle by the1 i4 #gc ,circumcision1 i4 #aga ,clucking-hen1 ii4 #h ,cobern1 fire festival at1 ii4 #bej ,cobra ,capella1 sacrifice of the1 ii4 #id1 #ie ,cock1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #g-aj ,columbia ,river1 ,indians of the1 and the salmon1 ii4 #aba1 #abb ,comanches1 rain-charm used by the1 i4 #ah ,compitalia1 festival of the1 ii4 #hc ,congo belief in the souls of trees1 i4 #fj2 the ,chitom in the kingdom of1 i4 #aac2 negroes and soul selling1 i4 #aci2 initiatory rites in the valley of the1 ii4 #cde1 #cdf ,coorg rice-harvest ceremonies1 ii4 #gb1 #gc ,corea1 kings of1 confined to their palaces1 i4 #afd2 may not be touched1 i4 #agb2 tigers' bones valuable in1 ii4 #hg ,corn drenched as a rain-charm1 i4 #bhf2 double personification of the1 i4 #ceh1 #cei2 reaper1 binder1 or thresher wrapt up in corn1 i4 #cgj1 #cga ---- baby1 ii4 #bc ---- goat1 ii4 #ac1 #ad ---- mother1 i4 #bcb1 #bcc2 a prototype of ,demeter1 i4 #cef ,corn queen1 i4 #cda ---- spirit1 the1 as the grandmother1 etc41 i4 #ccf-cdc2 as youthful1 i4 #cdc-cdf2 death of1 i4 #cfc1 #cfd2 binding persons in sheaves as representatives of the1 i4 #cfg-cgb2 pretence of killing the1 or its representative1 i4 #cgb-chj2 represented by a stranger1 i4 #cge-chj2 represented by a human victim1 i4 #cij-cie2 how the representative is chosen1 i4 #cic2 as an animal1 ii4 #a-fg2 as a cock1 ii4 #g-aj2 as a hare1 ii4 #aa2 as a cat1 ii4 #aa1 #ab2 as a goat1 ii4 #ab-ag2 as a bull1 ii4 #ai-bd2 as a calf1 ib42 as a cow1 ii4 #bj1 #ba2 as a mare1 ii4 #bd1 #be2 as a horse1 ii4 #bf2 as a pig1 ii4 #bf-ca2 parallelism between the anthropomorphic and theriomorphic conceptions of the1 ii4 #cb2 death of the1 ii4 #cc2 suggested explanation of the embodiment of the1 in animal form1 ii4 #cd2 the ox as the embodiment of the1 ii4 #da-dc ---- wolf1 ii4 #c-g1 #cj ---- woman1 i4 #cdb1 #cdc ,cornwall1 ,may-day custom in1 i4 #ge2 midsummer bonfires in1 i4 #aja2 ii4 #bfb2 reaping cries in1 i4 #djg ,corsica1 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bff ,cough1 cure for1 ii4 #aed ,court ceremonies1 i4 #bb1 #bc2 ii4 #hh ,cow1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #bj1 #ba2 sacred1 ii4 #fa2 man in cow's hide1 ii4 #ade1 #adf2 cow as a scapegoat1 ii4 #bjj1 #bja ,cracow1 harvest customs in1 i4 #cdj ,crannon1 rain-charm at1 i4 #ba ,creek ,indians1 festival of the first-fruits amongst the1 ii4 #ge-gh2 opinions held regarding the properties of various foods amongst the1 ii4 #he1 #hf2 seclusion of women by the1 ii4 #bci ,crete1 sacrifices in1 i4 #agc2 festival of ,dionysus in1 i4 #cbd2 worship of ,demeter in1 i4 #cca ,croatia1 beating in1 ii4 #baf ,crocodiles spared from fear of the vengeance of other crocodiles1 ii4 #aji ,crops1 kings and priests punished for the failure of the1 i4 #df-dh2 human sacrifices for the1 i4 #chc1 #chd2 ceremonies at the eating of the new1 ii4 #fi1 #ga2 sacramental eating of the new1 ii4 #fh-gg ,crying the ,neck1 i4 #dje-djh ,curka ,coles of ,india1 their belief that the tops of trees are inhabited1 i4 #fe ,curse1 ceremony of making the curse to fly away1 ii4 #aej1 #aea ,cyzicus1 construction of the council chamber of1 i4 #agd ,dacotas and the resurrection of the dog1 ii4 #abc ,daedala1 festival of the1 i4 #ajj-ajc ,dahomey1 king of1 a capital offence to see him eat1 i4 #afb ,damaras1 custom of the1 after travel1 i4 #aeh2 blood of cattle not shed by the1 i4 #ahb ,danae1 ii4 #bcg ,danger ,islanders1 soul snare used by the1 i4 #ach1 #aci ,danzig1 burying of cut hair in1 i4 #bjb2 reaping custom1 i4 #ccc2 harvest ceremony1 i4 #cfg1 #cfh ,dards1 the1 rain-charm1 i4 #ai ,darfur1 veiling the sultan of1 i4 #afb2 the sultans and their courtiers1 i4 #bbb2 the liver thought to be the seat of the soul in1 ii4 #hh ,darowen1 midsummer bonfires at1 ii4 #bfb ,dead ,sunday1 i4 #bed1 #bfj ,death1 preference for a violent1 i4 #baf1 #bag2 superstition concerning1 i4 #bfj2 8carrying out10 i4 #beg-bfa1 #bfd-bga2 ii4 #bjg2 driving out1 i4 #beh1 #bei1 #bgb1 #bgf2 in the custom of 8carrying out0 ,death is probably a divine scapegoat1 ii4 #bjf-bjh2 ceremonies at the burying of1 ii4 #bej2 effigy of1 i4 #beg sq4 ,debden1 ,may ,day custom in1 i4 #gf ,deer1 regard for1 ii4 #aag1 #aah ,deities1 reduplication of1 i4 #cfj-cfb ,demeter1 the corn mother1 i4 #cca1 #ccb2 festivals of1 ii4 #dd-dg2 as a pig1 ii4 #dd-di2 legend of the ,phigalian1 ii4 #di2 representation of the black1 ii4 #di2 and ,proserpine1 myth of1 i4 #ccj1 #cca2 probable origin of1 i4 #cee sq42 prototypes of1 i4 #cef1 #ceg ,demons1 the soul carried off by1 i4 #acb-ace ,denderah1 tree of ,osiris at1 i4 #cjh ,denmark ,christmas customs1 ii4 #bi1 #cj2 midsummer bonfires1 ii4 #bhi ,devils1 ceremony at the expulsion of1 ii4 #aea1 #aeh1 #aei-afb1 #agj-ahe1 #aib1 #aic1 #bjc2 represented by men and expelled1 ii4 #ahc-ahe ,devonshire reaping cries1 i4 #dje1 #djf2 rain-charm1 i4 #djh2 cure for cough1 ii4 #aed ,diana1 rule of the priesthood of1 i4 #b1 #c1 #f2 ceremonies at the festival of1 i4 #e2 ,arician ,grove said to be first consecrated to her by ,manius ,egerius1 i4 #e2 a tree goddess1 i4 #aje ,diana's mirror1 i4 #a ,dieyerie of ,south ,australia1 rain-making by the1 i4 #bj2 tree superstition amongst the1 i4 #fb ,dingelstedt1 harvest custom at1 i4 #cga ,dionysus1 marriage of1 i4 #ajd2 titles of1 i4 #cbj1 #cba2 myth of1 i4 #cbb-cbe2 rites of1 i4 #cbd1 #cbi2 ii4 #dc-df1 #ij2 rites of1 similar to those of ,osiris1 i4 #cai1 #cbj2 as an animal1 i4 #cbe-cbg1 ii4 #cd-ch2 association of1 with ,demeter and ,proserpine1 ii4 #cg ,diseases sent away in boats1 ii4 #ahe-ahi1 #aib sq4 ,divine beasts1 i4 #dh ---- king1 dependence of nature upon the1 i4 #aji ---- kings1 i4 #di2 care taken of1 i4 #aae2 cease to govern1 i4 #aah1 #aai ---- kings and priests1 burdensome observances placed upon1 i4 #aaj-aah2 effects of these burdens1 i4 #aah-abj ---- ,man as scapegoat1 ii4 #bja1 #bje ---- persons1 seclusion of1 ii4 #bdb1 #bdc ---- spirit1 transmigration of1 i4 #db-dd ,divining rods made from the mistletoe1 ii4 #cfg ,dog1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #c-g2 the flesh of the1 eaten1 ii4 #hg2 resurrection of the1 ii4 #abc2 used as a scapegoat1 ii4 #aid1 #aie ,domalde1 ,king of ,sweden1 sacrificed1 i4 #dg ,douai1 annual procession at1 ii4 #bhj ,dreams1 festival of1 ii4 #afe1 #aff ,druids1 oak-worship of the1 i4 #eh ,dublin1 ,may ,day custom in1 i4 #aja ,duk-duk1 the1 ii4 #ceb sq4 ,duke of ,york ,island1 fishing ceremony by the natives of1 ii4 #abj ,dulyn1 i4 #ae ,dunkirk1 annual procession at1 ii4 #bhj1 #bha ,dust columns1 i4 #cj ,dutch criminals1 cutting the hair of1 to enforce confession1 ii4 #cbh ,dyaks1 belief in the souls of trees amongst the1 i4 #ei1 #fj2 abduction of the soul1 i4 #acb1 #acc2 restoration of the soul1 i4 #ach2 harvest custom1 i4 #fh1 #fi1 #cec1 #ced2 the ,dyaks and bad omens1 ii4 #aea2 custom in epidemic1 ii4 #hd2 may not eat venison1 ii4 #hf1 #hg2 spare the crocodile1 ii4 #aji2 ,dyaks and the palm-tree1 ii4 #cbi2 festival of first-fruits1 ii4 #cgf ,east ,indian ,islands1 supposed cure for epilepsy in the1 ii4 #adh1 #adi ,easter customs1 i4 #bgb1 #bgf1 #ccd2 ii4 #bi1 #aha1 #baf1 #bag ---- fires1 ii4 #bea1 #beb ---- ,islanders1 blood of an animal not shed by the1 i4 #ahb1 #ahc2 offerings of first fruits1 ii4 #cha ,eating animals to get their qualities1 ii4 #he-hi ---- the god1 ii4 #fg-ij ---- and drinking1 precautions taken at1 i4 #afj-afb ,edersleben1 midsummer fire festival in1 ii4 #bfb ,efugaos1 cannibalism by the1 ii4 #hh ,egeria1 i4 #e ,egypt1 beasts responsible for the course of nature in ,upper1 i4 #dh2 ,egyptian kings deified1 i4 #di1 #ej2 ,egyptian kings blamed for failure of crops1 i4 #ej2 ancient ,egyptian kings did not drink wine1 i4 #ahd1 #ahe2 temporary-rulers in ,upper ,egypt1 i4 #bca2 custom of burning red-haired men by the ancient ,egyptians1 i4 #cjg2 religion of ancient ,egypt1 i4 #cac2 ,egyptians and the pig1 ii4 #eb1 #ec1 #ef1 #eg2 the bulls ,apis and ,mnevis worshipped1 ii4 #fj2 sacred cattle in ,egypt1 ii4 #fj1 #fa2 sacrifice of the ram in1 ii4 #ib1 #ic2 ,egyptian type of sacrament1 ii4 #acd-acf2 ,egyptian scapegoat1 ii4 #bjj2 the external soul in ,egyptian story1 ii4 #cae-cah ,eifel mountains1 fire festival in the1 ii4 #bdg1 #bdh2 harvest omens in the1 ii4 #bga ,eisenach1 ceremony of bringing back summer in1 i4 #bfc2 ceremony of carrying out death in1 ib4 ,elan1 regard for the1 ii4 #aag1 #aah ,elephant1 ceremony at the killing of an1 ii4 #aac-aae ,eleusis1 mysteries of1 ii4 #cg ,elk1 regard for the1 ii4 #aag1 #aah ,ellwangen1 harvest ceremony in1 ii4 #ag ,emin ,pasha's reception in a ,central ,african village1 i4 #aee ,emu wren1 ii4 #ccf1 #ccg ,encounter ,bay tribe1 their dread of women's blood1 i4 #ahf ,english tradition concerning the killing of the wren1 ii4 #adj1 #ada ,entlebuch1 human scapegoat in1 ii4 #aii ,entraigues1 hunting the wren in1 ii4 #add ,epidemic1 ceremony in time of1 i4 #cf2 ii4 #hd1 #ahg-ahi ,epilepsy1 supposed cure for1 ii4 #adh1 #adi ,erfurt1 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccf ,ertingen1 midsummer custom in1 i4 #hi ,erzgebirge1 ,shrovetide custom in the1 i4 #bdd ,eskimos1 charm for lulling the wind1 i4 #bh2 ,eskimos and the soul1 i4 #abb2 reception of strangers1 i4 #aee2 ,eskimo women1 i4 #agj ,essex1 hunting the wren in1 ii4 #adc ,esthonian superstition regarding the welfare of cattle1 i4 #gb sq42 blood not tasted by the ,esthonians1 i4 #agh1 #agi2 belief concerning women's blood1 i4 #ahg2 preservation of the parings of nails by the ,esthonians1 i4 #bjd2 carrying out the effigy of ,death1 i4 #bgj2 ceremony at the eating of the new corn1 ii4 #fi1 #gj2 dread of the weevil by the ,esthonian peasants1 ii4 #abi1 #acj ,ethiopian kings and their courtiers1 i4 #bbb ,etruscan wizards1 i4 #bb ,european rain-charm1 i4 #ah2 forests1 i4 #eg2 fire festivals1 ii4 #bdf-bhe ,evils1 expulsion of1 ii4 #ade sq42 occasional1 ii4 #aeh-afb2 periodic1 ii4 #afb-ahb2 two kinds of expulsion of evils1 the direct or immediate1 and the indirect or mediate1 ii4 #aeh2 general observations on1 ii4 #bjb-bjf2 transference of1 ii4 #ade sq4 ,fauns1 representation of the1 ii4 #ce2 the ,fauns wood and corn-spirits1 ii4 #ce1 #cf ,feilenhof1 the wolf a corn-spirit in1 ii4 #c ,feloupes of ,senegambia1 charm for rain-making1 i4 #ah ,fern seed1 midsummer1 ii4 #cfe1 #cff ,fernando ,po1 restrictions on the food of the king of1 i4 #bjh ,fever1 cure for1 ii4 #aeb1 #aec ,fida1 no one to drink out of the king's glass in1 i4 #aff ,field of ,mars1 chariot race on the1 ii4 #fd-ff ,fiji1 charm used for staying the sun in1 i4 #bd2 gods of1 i4 #ci2 soul extraction in1 i4 #ach2 belief in two souls in1 i4 #ade2 eating in the presence of suspected persons avoided in1 i4 #afj2 self-immolation at old age in1 i4 #baf2 expulsion of devils in1 ii4 #age1 #agf2 initiatory rites in1 ii4 #cdd1 #cde2 offerings of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgg1 #cgh ,finland1 wind selling in1 i4 #bg2 cattle protected by the wood god in1 i4 #aje1 #ajf2 ceremony at the killing of a bear in1 ii4 #aab ,fire festivals1 human sacrifices offered at1 i4 #bea ---- festivals in ,europe1 ii4 #bdf-bhe2 they were charms to make the sun shine1 ii4 #bfg1 #bgd ---- kings1 i4 #ec-ef ---- sacred1 made by the friction of wood1 ii4 #bfi2 made with oak wood1 ii4 #bib1 #bic ,fire spirit1 expulsion of the1 ii4 #agh ,firstborn sacrificed1 i4 #bcf1 #bcg ,first-fruits1 festival of the1 ii4 #ge-gh2 offerings of1 ii4 #cgc-chd ,fish1 respect shown by savages to1 ii4 #aah-abb2 fish preachers1 ii4 #aai1 #abj ,fladda's chapel and wind-making1 i4 #bf1 #bg ,flamen ,dialis1 rules of life1 i4 #aag2 not allowed to walk under a trellised vine1 i4 #ahc1 #ahd2 cuttings from the hair and nails buried1 i4 #bjj2 restriction on the food of the1 i4 #bjg ---- ,virbialis1 i4 #f ,flaminica1 rules of life for the1 i4 #aag1 #aah ,flanders1 midsummer bonfires in1 ii4 #bfg2 ,flemish cure for ague1 ii4 #aec ,flax-pullers1 custom of the1 i4 #cge ,florence1 8sawing the old woman0 in1 i4 #bfa ,florida1 sacrifice of the firstborn by the ,indians of1 i4 #bcf1 #bcg ,folk tales1 resurrection in1 ii4 #abe ,food1 unconsumed1 buried1 i4 #aff2 prohibited food1 i4 #bjg1 #bjh2 strong food1 ii4 #he ,forests1 ,europe covered with1 in prehistoric times1 i4 #ef ,fors1 the1 of ,central ,africa1 preservation of nail parings by the1 i4 #bjd1 #bje ,forsaken sleeper1 i4 #if ,foulahs of ,senegambia spare the crocodile1 ii4 #aaj ,france1 harvest customs in the northeast of1 ii4 #d ,franche ,comt1 harvest customs in1 ii4 #ag ,frankish kings not allowed to cut their hair1 i4 #aic ,friedingen1 harvest custom in1 ii4 #bg ,friesland1 harvest customs in ,east1 ii4 #h ,frog-flayer1 i4 #ib ,funeral custom1 i4 #abi1 #acj ,frstenwalde1 harvest ceremonies in1 ii4 #g ,gablingen1 harvest customs in1 ii4 #ac ,galela1 ceremony at the initiation of boys amongst the1 ii4 #cec ,galicia1 harvest customs in1 ii4 #h ,gall-bladder the special seat of courage amongst the ,chinese1 ii4 #hg ,gareloch1 ,dumbartonshire1 harvest customs on some farms on the1 i4 #cde ,garos1 rain-charm used by the1 i4 #ah ,georgia1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ag ,germany--,german peasants and a whirlwind1 i4 #cj2 sacred groves common amongst the ancient ,germans1 i4 #eh2 ceremony on felling a tree1 i4 #fd2 rain-charm1 i4 #ic2 custom after a death1 i4 #adg2 superstition regarding the knife1 i4 #agg2 superstition concerning hair cutting1 i4 #aif1 #aii2 harvest custom1 i4 #ccg1 #cde1 #cgd1 #cge2 ii4 #i2 harvest cries1 i4 #djh1 #dji2 way to free a garden from caterpillars1 ii4 #acj2 beating as a charm1 ii4 #baf1 #bag2 oak the sacred tree1 ii4 #bia2 oak log burnt on ,midsummer ,day1 ii4 #bid2 the external soul in ,german stories1 ii4 #caj-cab ,gervasius1 rain spring mentioned by1 i4 #ai ,ghosts1 the soul carried off by1 i4 #abi-acb2 annual expulsion of the ghosts of the dead1 ii4 #afc ,giant1 sham1 procession and burning of the1 ii4 #bhj-bhb ,gilgit1 ceremony on felling a tree in1 i4 #fe2 sacred cedar of1 i4 #fi sq42 harvest custom at1 ii4 #gc1 #gd ,gilyak sacrifice of the bear1 ii4 #aje-ajg ,girls secluded at puberty1 ii4 #bbe-bdg2 reason for1 ii4 #bch-bdb2 not allowed to touch the ground or see the sun1 ii4 #bbe-bec2 traces in folk tales of the rule which forbids girls at puberty to see the sun1 ii4 #bce-bcg ,goat1 the1 sacred1 ii4 #ef1 #fc2 ,dionysus as a1 i4 #cbf-cbh2 ii4 #cd-cg2 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #ab-ai ,god1 killing the1 i4 #bac2 ii4 #bah-bbb2 killing a god in animal form1 i4 #cbg1 #cbh2 motives for killing the god1 i4 #bad-baf ,god's ,mouth1 the name of the supreme ruler of the old ,prussians1 i4 #bbc ,gods die and are buried1 i4 #bac1 #bad ---- incarnate1 slain1 ii4 #bah-bbb ,gold ,coast1 sacrifices of the negroes of the1 i4 #fg2 their superstition with regard to iron1 i4 #agc ,golden ,bough1 ,turner's picture of the1 i4 #a2 legend of the1 i4 #d2 the representative of the tree-spirit1 i4 #ajg2 between heaven and earth1 ii4 #bbc-bdc2 what was it1 ii4 #bbd2 the ,golden ,bough is the mistletoe1 ii4 #cfc1 #cfh2 why was the mistletoe called the ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #cfe2 the ,golden ,bough an emanation of the sun's fire1 ii4 #cfg ,goldi sacrifice of the bear1 ii4 #ajg1 #ajh ,gommern1 harvest festival at1 i4 #cgj ,gonds1 human sacrifices by the1 i4 #beb1 #chd2 mock-human sacrifices1 i4 #beb2 scapegoats amongst the1 ii4 #bjj ,good ,friday custom1 ii4 #baf ,gout transferred from a man to a tree1 ii4 #aec ,grand ,lama1 death and reappearance of the1 i4 #db1 #dc2 and the shadow of ,sankara1 i4 #adb ,grandmother1 a name given to the last sheaf1 i4 #ccf ,granny1 a name given to the last sheaf1 i4 #ccf ,grass king1 i4 #ia-ic1 #bdg ,grtz1 midsummer custom in1 ii4 #bfg ,greece1 rain-making in1 i4 #af2 tree worship in1 i4 #eh1 #ei1 #ii2 festivals of the ,greeks1 i4 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajc2 ceremony at the laying of a foundation stone in1 i4 #add2 sacrificial ritual in1 ii4 #ed1 #ee2 human scapegoats in1 ii4 #baj-bag2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bff2 the external soul in ,greek stories1 ii4 #cje-cjg ,green ,george1 i4 #hd-hf ,grenoble1 ,may ,day in1 i4 #id2 harvest custom in1 ii4 #ae1 #dg ,grihya-,stras1 provision in the1 for the burning of cut hair1 i4 #bjb ,grossvargula1 ,whitsuntide custom in1 i4 #ia ,ground1 sacred persons not allowed to touch the1 ii4 #bbd1 #bdc note2 girls at puberty not allowed to touch the1 ii4 #bbe-bec2 sacred things may not touch the1 ii4 #bdc note ,grneberg1 harvest ceremony in1 ii4 #aa ,guanches1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ai ,guatemala1 the nagual amongst the1 ii4 #ccc1 #ccd ,guaycurus and storms1 i4 #bh ,guinea1 secreting of cut hair and nails in1 i4 #bjc2 annual expulsion of the devil by the negroes of1 ii4 #agj2 time of licence in1 ii4 #bjd ,guyenne1 harvest ceremony in1 ii4 #f ,hack-thorn1 sacred1 i4 #fi ,hadeln1 reaping custom in the district of1 i4 #ccc ,haida ,indian wind-charm1 i4 #bf ,hair1 burning of loose1 i4 #bje2 burning after child-birth1 i4 #bjf2 cut hair deposited in a safe place1 i4 #bjj-bje2 cutting1 i4 #aic sq42 most sacred day of the year appointed for hair cutting1 i4 #aig2 superstition concerning the cutting of the1 i4 #aif1 #aih1 #aii2 cut only during a storm1 i4 #aii2 haircutting as a disinfectant1 i4 #bjf1 #bjg2 magic use of cut hair1 i4 #aih1 #aii2 strength supposed to be in the1 ii4 #cbh2 hair not cut1 i4 #aic-aie2 superstition about cutting the hair and nails1 i4 #aic-bjg ,halberstadt1 human scapegoats in1 ii4 #aii ,halibut1 festival in honour of the1 ii4 #aba ,halmahera1 rain-making in1 i4 #ac1 #ba ,hampstead1 forest of1 i4 #eg ,hare1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #aj sq4 ,harran1 ritual observed by the heathen ,syrians of1 i4 #bhc ,harvest child1 a name given to the last sheaf1 i4 #cdd ---- cock1 a name given to the last sheaf1 ii4 #g1 #h ---- cries1 i4 #djd-dji ---- customs1 i4 #ccc-cdg1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cfg-cha1 #djh2 ii4 #d-bg1 #cb1 #dg1 #dh1 #fh-gc1 #bac ---- festival1 i4 #afi2 ii4 #aga1 #agb1 #cgd-cgf1 #chb-chd ---- goat1 ii4 #ac ---- maiden1 a prototype of ,proserpine1 i4 #cef ---- ,may1 i4 #fh1 #fi1 #ha1 #hb2 ii4 #d ---- omens1 ii4 #bga ---- queen1 i4 #cdd ---- songs and cries1 ii4 #cfd-cff1 #djd-dji ,harz ,mountains1 ,easter fires in the1 ii4 #bec ,hawaii1 detention of the soul in1 i4 #aci2 capital offences in1 i4 #aij ,hay family1 the1 and the mistletoe1 ii4 #cfb ,head1 sanctity of the1 i4 #ahg-aic2 ceremony at the washing of the1 i4 #ahh ,headache1 transference of1 ii4 #adi ,headington1 ,may-day custom at1 i4 #id1 #ie ,heaven1 the ,golden ,bough between heaven and earth1 ii4 #bbc-bdc ,hebrides1 representation of spring in the1 i4 #ig ,heligoland1 disappearance of the herring from1 ii4 #abj ,herbrechtingen1 threshing custom in1 ii4 #bb ,hercynian forest1 i4 #ef1 #eg ,hereford1 sin eaters in1 ii4 #aed1 #aee ,herefordshire1 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bfb ,hermsdorf1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cch ,herodotus1 story by1 of the wind fighters of ,psylli1 i4 #bi ,herring1 disappearance of the1 from ,heligoland1 ii4 #abj ,hertfordshire harvest custom1 ii4 #bd ,hessen1 ,ash ,wednesday custom in1 ii4 #bi2 sowing-time customs in1 ii4 #dh ,hidatsa ,indians1 belief in the plurality of souls amongst the1 ii4 #cci ,hierapolis1 pigs sacred at1 ii4 #ej ,himalayas1 scapegoats in the ,western1 ii4 #aid ,hindoo cure for the murrain1 ii4 #aia2 festival of ,ingathering1 ii4 #bgb2 girls and puberty1 ii4 #bcd1 #bce2 the external soul in ,hindoo stories1 ii4 #bih-cjb ,hindoos1 the1 test of a suitable sacrificial victim1 i4 #cf2 ,hindoos and yawning1 i4 #abc2 custom of nail cutting by the1 i4 #aif2 festival at the eating of the new rice by the1 ii4 #gc ,hindoo ,koosh1 smoke from the sacred tree inhaled by the sybil1 i4 #ce2 blood sucking the test of a diviner amongst the1 ib42 expulsion of devils amongst the1 ii4 #agc ,hippolytus1 i4 #f ,holland1 ,whitsuntide custom in1 i4 #hh2 ,easter fires1 ii4 #bec ,holstein1 reaping custom in1 i4 #ccc2 healing effects of the mistletoe in1 ii4 #bhi ,hornkampe1 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccg ,horse1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #bd-bf2 sacrifice of the1 ii4 #fd ,horses excluded from the ,arician grove1 i4 #f ---- and ,virbius1 ii4 #fb-fd ,hos1 harvest festival amongst the1 ii4 #aga1 #agb2 time of licence with the1 ii4 #bjd2 offering of first-fruits by the1 ii4 #cgd ,hottentot priests do not use iron1 i4 #agc2 wind-charm1 i4 #bg1 #bh2 sheep driven through the fire by the1 ii4 #bgc ,hovas of ,madagascar1 offerings of first-fruits by the1 ii4 #cgd ,how1 coffer of ,osiris at1 i4 #cji ,huahine1 offerings of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cha ,huitzilopochtli1 dough image of the ,mexican god1 made and eaten1 ii4 #ha ,human sacrifices1 i4 #bce-bcg1 #bea1 #beb1 #cha2 replaced by mock sacrifices1 i4 #bej-bec ---- victim represents the corn-spirit1 i4 #cij-cie ,hungary1 ,whitsuntide custom in1 i4 #ic2 the external soul in ,hungarian stories1 ii4 #cbj1 #cba ,hunger1 expulsion of1 ii4 #baj1 #baa ,hunting the wren1 ii4 #adj-add ,hurons1 the1 and fish bones1 ii4 #aai2 their idea of the soul1 i4 #abb2 driving away sickness amongst the1 ii4 #afb ,huskanaw1 the name of an initiatory ceremony amongst the ,indians of ,virginia1 ii4 #cdh ,hyl1 sacred men inspired by the image of ,apollo at1 i4 #cg ,ibo1 king of1 confined to his premises1 i4 #afd ,iddah1 king of1 asserts that he is god1 i4 #da1 #db ,ihlozi1 the1 of the ,zulus1 ii4 #ccb ,incarnate gods1 i4 #cj-ed ,incarnation1 temporary and permanent1 i4 #cb1 #cg-db ,incas of ,peru revered as gods1 i4 #di2 preservation of cut hair and parings of the nails of the1 i4 #bjc2 restrictions upon the prince who is to become ,inca of ,peru1 ii4 #bbe2 ceremony for the expulsion of diseases1 etc4 by the1 ii4 #afg-afi ,indersdorf1 harvest custom in1 ii4 #ag1 #ah ,india1 devil dancer drinks sacrificial blood in ,southern1 i4 #cd2 human gods in1 i4 #da1 #db2 marriage of shrubs and trees in1 i4 #fj2 sin eating in1 ii4 #aee1 #aef2 iron used as a charm in1 i4 #age1 #agf2 harvest custom in the ,central ,provinces of1 i4 #cga1 #cgb2 custom during cholera in ,central ,provinces of1 ii4 #ahi2 offerings of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgd1 #cge ,indians of ,alaska1 preservation of cut hair by the1 i4 #bja1 #bjb ---- of ,arizona offer human sacrifices1 i4 #bea ---- of ,guayaquil sacrifice human beings at seed time1 i4 #cha ---- of ,guiana1 treatment of girls at puberty by the1 ii4 #bcb-bcd ---- of ,peru and their fish gods1 ii4 #aah1 #aai ---- of ,virginia1 initiatory ceremony amongst the1 ii4 #cdh1 #cdi ,influenza1 ii4 #aij ,initiatory rites1 simulation of death and resurrection at1 ii4 #cdb-ceh ,innuit of ,alaska1 custom after a death amongst the1 i4 #agg ,inspiration1 i4 #cc2 by blood drinking1 i4 #cd1 #ce2 by use of sacred tree1 i4 #ce2 #cf ,inspired men1 i4 #cf1 #cg ---- victims1 i4 #cf ,irayas of ,luzon1 offerings of first-fruits by the1 ii4 #cgg ,ireland1 ,may ,day in the south-east of1 i4 #id2 hunting the wren at ,christmas in1 ii4 #adb1 #adc2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bfc1 #bfd ,iron1 superstitious aversion to1 i4 #agb-agd2 as a charm1 i4 #age ,iron-,beard1 ,dr41 i4 #bdi1 #beg ,iroquois1 ceremony at the festival of dreams by the1 ii4 #afe1 #aff2 scapegoat used by the1 ii4 #aid1 #aie2 time of licence amongst the1 ii4 #bjd ,isis1 acorn goddess1 i4 #caj1 #caa2 named the moon by the aboriginal inhabitants of ,egypt1 i4 #caa2 as a cow1 ii4 #fa ,isle of ,man1 wind selling in the1 i4 #bg2 hunting the wren at ,christmas in the1 ii4 #adb2 midsummer bonfires1 ii4 #bfc ,issapoo1 the cobra capella the guardian deity of the negroes of1 ii4 #id1 #ie ,istar1 legend concerning the goddess1 i4 #bhg ,italones1 cannibalism by the1 ii4 #hh ,italy1 tree worship in ancient1 i4 #eh1 #ei2 custom of 8sawing the old woman0 in1 i4 #bfa1 #bfb2 gardens of ,adonis in1 i4 #bid2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bff2 oak the sacred tree in1 ii4 #bia2 the external soul in ,italian stories1 ii4 #cjg1 #cjh ,itonamas1 the1 and the soul1 i4 #abc ,itzgrund1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cch ,ivy girl1 i4 #cdd ,jack-in-the-green1 i4 #hh1 #hi1 #bdg ,jambi1 temporary kings in1 i4 #bca1 #bcb ,japanese1 expulsion of evil spirits by the1 ii4 #agf ,jarkino1 belief in animate trees in1 i4 #fa ,javanese and rice bloom1 i4 #fj1 #fa2 ceremony at rice harvest1 i4 #cee2 ,javanese and the soul1 i4 #abd1 #abe ,jerome of ,prague1 i4 #bd ,jeypur1 scapegoat used in cases of smallpox in1 ii4 #aij1 #aia ,jubilee1 i4 #bbe ,jupiter represented by an oak on the ,capitol at ,rome1 ii4 #bia ,kaffa1 worship of human god in1 i4 #db ,kafir boys at circumcision1 i4 #aga2 ,new ,year festival1 ii4 #gd2 elephant hunters1 ii4 #aac1 #aad2 burying of cut hair and nails by the ,kafirs1 i4 #bjb1 #bjc ,kakian ,association1 ii4 #ced-ceg ,kakongo1 king of1 not allowed to touch certain ,european goods1 i4 #afj2 not seen eating1 i4 #afb ,kalamba1 ceremonies on a visit to1 by subject chiefs1 i4 #aei ,kalmucks1 consecration of the white ram by the1 ii4 #acf ,kamant tribe do not allow a natural death1 i4 #bag ,kamtchatkans excuse themselves before killing land or sea animals1 ii4 #aaj1 #aaa2 respect the seal and sea lion1 ii4 #aaa ,knagr1 spring custom in1 i4 #bgf1 #bgg ,kngr1 custom at1 on the death of a ,rajah1 i4 #bcb2 sin eaters in1 ii4 #aef ,karens1 funeral custom by the1 i4 #abi1 #acj2 transference of the soul in ,karen1 i4 #adj2 dread of women's blood by the1 i4 #ahf2 belief concerning the head1 i4 #ahg2 custom at rice sowing1 i4 #ced1 #cee ,karma tree1 i4 #bhi ,karoks of ,california and salmon catching1 ii4 #aba ,kasyas1 expulsion of devils by the1 ii4 #ahd ,katodis1 ceremony before felling a tree by the1 i4 #fc ,kent1 the ivy girl in1 i4 #cdd ,keramin tribe of ,new ,south ,wales1 rain-making by the1 i4 #ae ,key ,islanders1 soul superstition amongst the1 i4 #acj1 #aca2 expulsion of sickness by the1 ii4 #afj ,khonds1 human sacrifices by the1 i4 #chd-cij2 rain-charm1 ii4 #db2 expulsion of devils by the1 ii4 #agc1 #agd ,kibanga1 kings killed in1 i4 #bah ,kilema1 ceremony in1 before a stranger is allowed to see the king1 i4 #aei ,kilimanjaro ,mount1 believed to be tenanted by demons1 i4 #aea ,kimbunda1 cannibalism amongst the1 ii4 #hh1 #hi ,king ,hop1 the title of a temporary king1 i4 #bcj ---- of the calf1 ii4 #ba ---- of the ,may1 i4 #bdg ---- of the sacred rites1 i4 #g ---- of the ,wood1 i4 #a-ajh2 why so called1 i4 #g2 never a temporal sovereign1 i4 #ea2 an incarnation of the tree spirit1 i4 #ajf-ajh2 probability that he was formerly slain annually1 i4 #bdj1 #bda2 similarity to ,north ,european personages1 i4 #bdi1 #bej2 a personification of the oak1 ii4 #cfd2 probably burned in a fire of oak wood1 ii4 #cfc-cfe ,kings--as gods1 i4 #h2 supposed to control the weather1 i4 #dd-df2 punished for the failure of crops1 i4 #df-dh2 killed1 i4 #dh2 divine1 i4 #di2 of nature1 i4 #eb2 of fire1 i4 #ec-ef2 of rain1 i1 #eb1 #ec2 of water1 i4 #ec-ef2 divine1 cease to govern1 i4 #aah1 #aai2 abdicate1 i4 #abj2 guarded against strangers1 i4 #aeh1 #aei2 veiled1 i4 #afb1 #afc2 at meals1 i4 #afb2 confined to their palaces1 i4 #afd1 #afe2 killed when they show signs of decay1 i4 #bag-bbc2 killed at expiry of fixed term1 i4 #bbc2 mitigation of the above rule1 kings allowed to defend themselves1 i4 #bbd2 killed annually1 i4 #bbe-bbg2 temporary1 i4 #bbh-bcd2 temporary kings sometimes hereditary1 i4 #bbh1 #bcb2 sons sacrificed in times of great danger1 i4 #bce ,kingsmill ,islands1 offerings of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgh ,kirn1 the name of a harvest supper1 i4 #cde ,klausenburg1 harvest custom at1 ii4 #i ,kloxin1 harvest ceremony in1 i4 #cfi ,knives1 reluctance to use1 after a death1 i4 #agf1 #agg ,kobi1 offering of first-fruits by the1 ii4 #cgf ,kochs of ,assam1 offerings of first-fruits by the1 ii4 #cgd ,kohlerwinkel1 harvest ceremony at1 ii4 #bg ,kolosh ,indians1 seclusion of girls amongst the1 ii4 #bcj ,koniags1 seclusion of girls amongst the1 ii4 #bcj ,knigshain1 driving out ,death in1 i4 #bgf ,konkan1 scapegoat used in ,southern1 in cases of cholera1 ii4 #aia ,konz1 midsummer fire festival in1 ii4 #bfj1 #bfa ,kostroma1 funeral of1 i4 #bgc ,kostrubonko1 i4 #bgb ,kukulu1 the priest king1 i4 #aab1 #aac ,kumis1 driving away small-pox by the1 ii4 #afa ,kupalo1 funeral of1 i4 #bgb2 representation of1 i4 #bib ,kupole's festival1 i4 #bid ,lachlin family and the deer1 ii4 #cfc ,la ,ciotat1 hunting the wren in1 ii4 #add ,lada1 funeral of1 i4 #bgc ,lagos1 human sacrifices at1 i4 #chc ,lakor1 expulsion of diseases to sea in1 ii4 #aib ,lamas1 ,grand1 i4 #db1 #dc2 the chief of the1 i4 #dc1 #dd ,lamb killed sacramentally by the ,madi tribe of ,central ,africa1 ii4 #acg1 #ach ,lamps1 festival of1 ii4 #agf ,laos1 precautions against strangers in1 i4 #aeb2 belief in plurality of souls amongst the1 ii4 #cci ,laosia1 women worshippers in1 i4 #db ,la ,palisse1 harvest custom in1 ii4 #fh ,lapis manalis1 i4 #bb ,lappland1 wind selling in1 i4 #bg2 ceremony at the sacrifice of an animal in1 ii4 #abc2 seclusion of women in1 ii4 #bdj ,larch-tree1 sacred1 i4 #fa1 #fb ,lazy man1 the1 i4 #hi ,lechrain1 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #beh1 #bei ,leipzig1 carrying out the effigy of ,death in1 i4 #bfh ,lent customs1 ii4 #bdg-bdi ,leopard1 ceremony at the killing of a1 ii4 #aad ,leper1 custom at the cleansing of a1 ii4 #aea ,lerwick wind-sellers1 i4 #bg ,leti1 expulsion of diseases to sea by the1 ii4 #ib ,leucadian scapegoat1 ii4 #bac ,lewis1 wind selling in the island of1 i4 #bg ,lhoosai1 harvest festival of the1 i4 #fi ,libchowic1 ,mid-,lent custom in the neighbourhood of1 i4 #ic ,licence1 periods of1 ii4 #bjd ,life of a person bound up with that of a plant1 ii4 #cbh-ccj ,life plants1 ii4 #cbi1 #ccj ,lille1 harvest ceremonies at1 ii4 #be1 #bf ,linus1 the name given to the ,phoenician lament at vintage time1 i4 #cfe ---- song1 i4 #cih1 #cii ---- identified with ,adonis1 i4 #cii ,lion1 ceremony at the killing of a1 ii4 #aad2 ,arabic belief in the properties of lion's fat1 ii4 #hf ,lithuania1 sun worshippers in1 i4 #bd1 #be2 tree worshippers in1 i4 #eh2 superstition concerning the felling of sacred groves in1 i4 #ff1 #fg2 ,may customs in1 i4 #hc1 #hd2 custom after a funeral in1 i4 #agg2 harvest custom in1 i4 #cdj1 #cda2 ceremony at threshing time in1 i4 #cgb1 #cgc2 ceremonies by the peasants at the eating of the new corn in1 ii4 #fi1 #gj ,little leaf man1 i4 #hh ,lityerses compared with harvest customs1 i4 #cff1 #cfg2 story of1 i4 #cib-cie2 relation of1 to ,attis1 i4 #cif1 #cig ---- the name given to a song by the ,phrygian reapers1 i4 #cfe1 #cff ,liver1 the1 thought to be the seat of the soul1 ii4 #hh ,livonia1 sacred grove in1 i4 #fe ,llandebie1 sin eating in1 ii4 #aee ,loango1 king of1 deposed when the harvest fails1 i4 #dg2 supernaturally endowed kings of1 i4 #aaf2 a capital offence to see the king eat1 i4 #afa2 the king confined to his palace after coronation1 i4 #afd2 food left by the king buried1 i4 #aff2 food restrictions in1 i4 #bjg1 #bjh2 girls secluded at puberty in1 ii4 #bbf ,london1 midsummer pageants in1 ii4 #bha ,longnor1 harvest custom at1 ii4 #be ,lost children1 superstition concerning1 i4 #fc ,loucheux ,indians1 abstinence from the sinew of the thigh by the1 ii4 #abg1 #abh ,luchon1 midsummer fire ceremony at1 ii4 #bhb ,lumley1 ,sir ,j41 excavation of the site of the ,diana ,nemorensis by1 i4 #b note ,lneberg1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cgg ,lusatia1 ceremony of carrying out ,death in1 i4 #bei1 #bfd ,m',bengas1 life of a child supposed to be bound up with that of a tree by the1 ii4 #cbh1 #cbi ,macusis of ,british ,guiana1 treatment of girls at the age of puberty by the1 ii4 #bcb sq4 ,madagascar1 power ascribed to the souls of the dead in1 i4 #acb2 blood of nobles may not be shed in1 i4 #aha2 crocodile not killed in1 ii4 #aji1 #aaj ,madenassana bushmen1 the goat sacred to the1 ii4 #ef ,madi tribe1 burying of the parings of the nails by the1 i4 #bjb2 lamb killed sacramentally by the1 ii4 #acg1 #ach ,magic1 sympathetic1 i4 #i-ab ---- use of cut hair1 i4 #aih-bjj ,maiden1 a name given to the last handful of corn1 i4 #cdd1 #cde ,maize1 mother of the1 i4 #cej-ceb ,makololo1 burning or burying of cut hair by the1 i4 #bje ,malabar1 reverence for the cow in1 ii4 #bjj ,malagasy1 vehicle used by the1 for the transference of ills1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,malay poem1 the external soul in a1 ii4 #cbe1 #cbf ,malays and the soul1 i4 #abd2 ii4 #cca2 do not touch a man's head1 i4 #ahi ,maldives1 cuttings from the hair and nails buried by the natives of the1 i4 #bjj ,mamilian tower1 ii4 #fg ,mamurius ,veturius or the old ,mars1 ii4 #bjh-baj ,man in cow-skin1 ii4 #ade1 #adf ---- gods in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 i4 #ch1 #ci ,mandan ,indians1 and their portraits1 i4 #adh2 expulsion of devils by the1 ii4 #ahc1 #ahd ,maneros1 the name given to the lament of the ,egyptian reapers at the cutting of the first sheaf1 i4 #cfd ,mangaia1 priests called gods in1 i4 #cc2 spiritual and temporal government in1 i4 #abj2 story of a warrior's shadow1 i4 #adb1 #adc ,man-god1 two types of1 i4 #ab ,mania1 i4 #f 8,manii1 there are many at ,aricia10 explanation of the proverb1 ii4 #hb1 #hc ,manius ,egerius1 traditional founder of the ,arician ,grove1 etc41 i4 #e2 ii4 #hd ,maori ceremonies on entering strange territory1 i4 #aef2 the ,maoris and dead bodies1 i4 #afi2 fear of the blood of women1 i4 #ahf2 sacredness of the head amongst the1 i4 #aia1 #aib2 ceremony at hair cutting1 i4 #aif1 #aig2 fishing custom1 ii4 #abj2 offerings of first-fruits1 ii4 #cha1 #chb ,mare1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #bd-bf ,marimos1 human sacrifices by the1 i4 #chc1 #chd ,marktl1 harvest ceremonies in the neighbourhood of1 ii4 #af1 #ag ,marquesas ,islands1 men deified in their life-time in the1 i4 #cg1 #ch2 the ,marquesans and the soul1 i4 #abc2 shaving of the head in the1 i4 #aie ,mars1 chariot race on the field of1 ii4 #fd-ff ---- the old1 ii4 #bjh-baj ,marseilles1 human scapegoat in1 ii4 #bab ,masuren1 midsummer fire festival in1 ii4 #bfe1 #bff ,may bride1 i4 #ih ---- ,day carols1 i4 #ge1 #gf ---- ,day customs1 i4 #gb-hf1 #hh1 #hi1 #id1 #ie1 #ih-aja2 ii4 #aha1 #ahb1 #bed1 #bee1 #beg1 #beh ---- king1 i4 #ij1 #ia ---- poles1 i4 #gh sq41 #bcj1 #cjh2 ii4 #ff ---- queen1 i4 #ic1 #id ---- sleeping bridegroom of1 i4 #ie ---- trees1 i4 #gd-hb1 #ij1 #ia1 #bdc1 #bdg1 #bfh1 #bfi2 ii4 #h1 #bea ,mayenne1 ,may ,day custom in1 i4 #gf ,mecklenburg1 reaping custom in1 i4 #cgf ,meiningen1 ,ash ,wednesday custom in1 ii4 #bi2 sowing time custom1 ii4 #dh ,melanesia1 sunshine making in1 i4 #bd2 bringing back the soul in1 i4 #acf2 ,melanesian stones and a man's shadow1 i4 #adb ,meleager1 ii4 #cje ,men eaten to obtain their qualities1 ii4 #hh1 #hi ,menstruation1 seclusion of women at periods of1 ii4 #bch-bdb ,menstruous blood1 primitive dread of1 ii4 #bch1 #bda ,mentawej ,islands1 precautions against strangers in the1 i4 #aeb ,meroe1 ,ethiopian kings of1 killed1 i4 #bah ,metz1 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bhc ,mexican sacraments1 paste images of the god eaten1 ii4 #gi-hb2 festivals1 ii4 #hj-hd ,mexico1 oath of kings at accession in1 i4 #di2 sacrifice of new-born babes in1 i4 #cjg2 human sacrifice at harvest festival in1 i4 #cha2 incarnate gods slain in1 ii4 #bah-bbb ,miaotse1 ceremony of driving away the devil by the1 ii4 #aea ,mice1 charm for ridding lands from1 ii4 #aca ,mid-,lent customs1 i4 #hb1 #ic1 #bed1 #bfa-bfc1 #bfh1 #bfi ,midsummer customs1 i4 #gh sq41 #hi1 #aja1 #bgb1 #bij-bid2 ii4 #cff1 #cfg ---- ,european fire festivals at1 ii4 #beh-bfg1 #bhb1 #bhc2 burning of effigies in the midsummer fires1 ii4 #bff1 #bfg ---- ,eve superstitions1 ii4 #bhf1 #bhg2 magic plants gathered on ,midsummer ,eve1 ii4 #bhf-bhh ---- omens1 i4 #bid ,mikado1 description of the life of the1 i4 #aaj-aab2 cooking of his food1 i4 #aff1 #afg2 effects of wearing his clothes without leave1 i4 #afg2 cutting his hair and nails1 i4 #aig2 not allowed to touch the ground1 ii4 #bbd1 #bbe ,miklucho-,maclay1 ,baron1 ceremony on his entering a village on the ,maclay coast1 i4 #aef ,milkmen worshipped by the ,todas1 i4 #da ,minahassa1 rain-charm used by the1 i4 #ag2 blood drinking at festivals by the1 i4 #ce2 custom in time of sickness1 ii4 #hd2 driving away devils by the1 ii4 #aeh1 #aei ,mingrelia1 rain-getting in1 i4 #ae ,minnetaree ,indians and the resurrection of the bison1 ii4 #abb1 #abc ,miris1 tree superstition of the1 i4 #fc2 tiger's flesh eaten by the1 ii4 #hf ,mirrors1 covering up of1 i4 #adg ,mistletoe1 the1 worshipped by the ,celts and gathered by the ,druids1 ii4 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bie2 gathered on ,midsummer ,eve1 ii4 #bhf sq42 qualities of1 ii4 #bhi2 viewed as the seat of life1 ii4 #bie2 life of the oak in the1 ii4 #cfj1 #cfa2 not allowed to touch the ground1 ii4 #cfa2 a protection against witchcraft1 ii4 #cfb2 the ,golden ,bough the1 ii4 #cfc1 #cfh2 reason it was called the ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #cfe2 why called golden1 ii4 #cff1 #cfg2 divining rods made from1 in ,sweden1 ii4 #cfg2 gathered at midsummer and ,christmas1 ii4 #cfg ,mithraic mysteries1 ii4 #ceh ,mnevis1 the bull1 ii4 #fj1 #fa ,moa1 expulsion of diseases to sea by the1 ii4 #aib ,mock executions1 i4 #bfa ---- human sacrifices1 i4 #bej-bec ,mole1 ,le1 i4 #e ,moluccas1 festivals in the1 i4 #dj2 treatment of clove-trees in blossom in the1 i4 #fj2 soul abduction in the1 i4 #acc1 #acd2 ceremony in the1 after a journey1 i4 #aeh ,mondard1 the great1 ii4 #dj ,mongolians1 stuffing the skin of a sacrificed animal by the1 ii4 #abd ,mongols1 the1 and the soul1 i4 #abh ,monomotapa1 precautions taken for the king of1 i4 #aei ,montalto1 ,mid ,lent custom in1 i4 #bfb ,mooris1 custom at births by the1 ii4 #cbi ,moosheim1 fire festival at1 ii4 #bgh ,moqui ,indians1 belief in the transmigration of human souls into turtles held by the1 ii4 #ih1 #ii2 totem clans of the1 ii4 #ii ,moresby1 ,captain1 at ,shepherd's ,isle1 i4 #aeb1 #aec ,morocco1 iron a protection against demons in1 i4 #age2 ants eaten in1 ii4 #hg2 diverting evil spirits in1 ii4 #aea ,mother-cotton1 the1 i4 #cec ---- of the maize1 i4 #cej-ceb ,motumotu theory of storms1 i4 #bg ----1 the soul believed to be in the reflection by the1 i4 #ade ,mowat1 the chief of1 supposed to have power of affecting crops1 etc41 i4 #df2 boys beaten to make them grow in1 ii4 #baf ,mozcas1 weather kings of the1 i4 #dd ,muato ,jamwo1 a capital offence to see him eat1 i4 #afb ,mundaris1 sacred groves of the1 i4 #fc2 superstition concerning the felling of sacred groves1 i4 #fg2 harvest festival1 ii4 #agb ,mundas1 ceremony at the planting of the rice by the1 i4 #bhh1 #bhi ,munster1 rain fountain in1 i4 #ai ,mnsterland1 ,easter fires in1 ii4 #beb1 #bec ,murrain1 cure for the1 ii4 #aia ,murrams of ,manipur1 restrictions of food among the1 i4 #bjh ,muyscas1 weather kings of the1 i4 #dd ,nagual1 the1 of the ,indians of ,guatemala1 ii4 #ccc1 #ccd ,nails1 cutting the1 i4 #aie1 #aif2 burying the first cuttings of a child's1 i4 #bja2 cuttings of1 preserved1 i4 #bjb-bje ,namaquas1 foods eaten and rejected by the1 ii4 #hf ,nanumea1 precautions against strangers in the island of1 i4 #aea ,narrinyeri and their totems1 i4 #afe1 #aff ,nass ,river1 ,indians of the1 and the recall of the soul1 i4 #adj1 #ada ,natchez1 harvest festival by the1 ii4 #chb-chd ,nature1 kings of1 i4 #eb2 dependence of1 upon the divine king1 i4 #aji ,nauders1 sacred larch-tree at1 i4 #fa1 #fb ,naudowessies1 initiatory ceremony amongst the1 ii4 #cej ,navarre1 rain-making in1 i4 #ae ,ndembo1 the1 ii4 #cde ,need fires1 ii4 #bfi1 #bic ,negro idea of the soul1 i4 #abe ,nemi1 lake of1 i4 #a2 tree within the sanctuary1 i4 #d2 priest of1 i4 #bdi1 #bec1 ii4 #bbc2 unchanged1 ii4 #cgj1 #cga ,nerechta1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 i4 #if ,neuautz1 custom at barley sowing in1 ii4 #bh ,neuhausen1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cgj ,neusaass1 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccg ,new ,britain1 rain-making in1 i4 #ac1 #ad2 wind-charm1 i4 #bf2 driving away evil in1 ii4 #aeh2 expulsion of devils in1 ii4 #bjc2 initiation ceremony in1 ii4 #ceb1 #cec ,new ,caledonia1 rain-making in1 i4 #af2 charm for making sunshine in1 i4 #bb-bd ,new fruits etc4 eaten sacramentally1 ii4 #fh-gi ,new ,guinea1 seclusion of girls in1 ii4 #bbh1 #bbi ,new ,ireland1 seclusion of girls in1 ii4 #bbf-bbh ,new ,south ,wales1 ceremony of initiation in1 i4 #afc2 first-born eaten in1 i4 #bcf ,new ,year's ,day customs1 ii4 #agj1 #aga1 #agi1 #aic1 #aid1 #bgb1 #bgc ,new ,zealand1 sacredness of blood in1 i4 #ahc2 superstition concerning the head1 i4 #aib2 hair cutting in1 i4 #aig1 #aii2 clippings from the hair buried in1 i4 #bjj2 effects of sacred contagion in1 ii4 #ee2 gods1 ii4 #hi ,nias1 the people of1 and the soul1 i4 #abb1 #ach2 precautions against strangers in1 i4 #aed2 succession in1 i4 #bch2 slaves sacrificed at the funeral of a chief in1 i4 #bea2 exorcising the devil in1 ii4 #afj1 #afa2 scapegoats in1 ii4 #aif1 #aig ,nicobar ,islands1 ceremony in cases of epidemic in the1 ii4 #ahh1 #ahi2 expulsion of devils in the1 ii4 #aib ,nightjar1 the1 ii4 #ccd1 #cce ,nisus1 ,king of ,megara1 ii4 #cje ,nootka ,indians1 ceremony by the1 at the killing of a bear1 ii4 #aac2 initiatory ceremony by the1 ii4 #cea ,nrdlingen1 threshing custom in1 i4 #cga ,norse stories1 the external soul in1 ii4 #cab1 #cac ,north ,american ,indians1 their idea with regard to strangers1 i4 #aec2 restrictions upon women at certain times1 i4 #agj2 cleansing after the slaying of enemies1 i4 #agj1 #aga2 abstinence from blood1 i4 #agi2 nail cutting amongst the1 i4 #aif2 belief concerning the various properties of food1 ii4 #he1 #hf2 spare the rattlesnake1 ii4 #aaj2 ceremony at bear killing1 ii4 #aae2 respect for the elan1 deer and elk1 ii4 #aag1 #aah2 regard for the bones of animals1 ii4 #abe ,northamptonshire1 ,may-day custom in1 i4 #ge2 cure for cough1 ii4 #aed ,norway1 cut hair and nails buried or burned in1 i4 #bje2 midsummer bonfires in1 ii4 #bhi ,nrnberg1 ceremony of carrying out ,death in1 i4 #bei ,oak worship1 ii4 #bia2 the chief sacred tree of the ,european ,aryans1 ii4 #bia-cgj2 sacred fires made of1 ii4 #bib2 oak wood burnt on ,midsummer ,day1 ii4 #bid2 ,balder is the1 ii4 #bie2 human representative of the1 slain1 ii4 #bid-bif2 life of1 in the mistletoe1 ii4 #cfj1 #cfa2 superstition concerning the oak tree1 ii4 #cfh2 a store of solar fire1 ii4 #cfi ,oats-goat1 ii4 #ac-ae ,obermedlingen1 threshing custom in1 ii4 #ba1 #bb2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bgj ,oberpfalz1 threshing custom in1 i4 #cga ,october horse1 ii4 #fd-fg ,offerings of first-fruits1 ii4 #cgc-chd ,oil of ,st4 ,john1 ii4 #bhh1 #bhi ,ojebways1 sunshine charm used by the1 i4 #bb2 seldom fell living trees1 i4 #fa ,olaf1 ,king of ,sweden1 sacrificed1 i4 #dg1 #dh ,old ,calabar1 revellings at the expulsion of devils in1 ii4 #aic ,old man1 a name given to the last sheaf1 i4 #ccg1 #cch ,old woman1 a name given to the last sheaf1 i4 #ccg1 #cch ,oldenburg1 superstition regarding the reflection in1 i4 #adg2 custom with regard to clippings from the hair in1 i4 #bja2 fire festival in1 ii4 #bej ,omaha ,indians1 rain-making by the1 i4 #ad2 wind clan of the ,omahas1 i4 #bf2 their totems1 ii4 #ec1 #ef ,omens1 neutralising bad1 ii4 #aea ,onitsha1 ceremony of eating the new yams at1 ii4 #gd2 ,new ,year festival in1 ii4 #agj1 #aga2 human scapegoats in1 ii4 #aie1 #aif ,oraon festival1 i4 #he1 #hf ,oraons1 ceremony at rice planting by the1 i4 #bhh ,orchomenus1 human sacrifice at the rites of ,dionysus in1 i4 #cbi ,oregon1 belief in the recall of the soul by the ,salish ,indians of1 i4 #acf1 #acg ,orestes1 the originator of the worship of ,diana1 i4 #c ,orinoco rain-charm1 i4 #ah1 #ic2 sunshine charm1 i4 #bb ,orissa1 worshippers of the ,queen of ,england in1 i4 #da2 rice growing in1 i4 #fa ,orkney ,islands1 transference of sickness in the1 ii4 #aec ,osiris1 myth of1 i4 #cja sq42 ritual of1 i4 #cjc-cje2 representation of the dead body of1 in the temple of ,isis1 i4 #cje2 a corn-spirit1 i4 #cje-cjg2 a tree-spirit1 i4 #cjg-cji2 grave of1 at ,philae1 i4 #cji2 arguments for and against his being the sun-god1 i4 #caa-cac1 #caf1 #cag1 #cah1 #cbj2 a god of vegetation1 i4 #cai2 rites of1 similar to those of ,dionysus and ,adonis1 i4 #cai1 #cbj2 probable origin of the cult of1 i4 #cfc2 once represented by a human victim1 i4 #djj-djd2 on monuments1 i4 #djc2 key to the mysteries of1 i4 #djd2 as a pig1 ii4 #eb-fj2 death of1 ii4 #eh1 #ei2 annual sacrifice of a pig to1 ii4 #eh1 #ei2 as a bull1 ii4 #ei-fa ,osnabrck1 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccf ,osterode1 ,easter fires in1 ii4 #bec ,ostiaks1 ceremony by the1 at the killing of a bear1 ii4 #aaa1 #aab ,ot ,damons1 custom with regard to strangers by the1 i4 #aea1 #aeb2 seclusion of girls amongst the1 ii4 #bbi ,otawa ,indians1 ceremony at the killing of a bear by the1 ii4 #aac2 do not burn fish bones1 ii4 #aai ,oude1 sin eating in1 ii4 #aef ,owl1 the1 ii4 #cce1 #ccf ,ox1 ritual at the ,athenian sacrifice of the1 ii4 #ch1 #ci1 #da2 as an embodiment of the corn-spirit1 ii4 #da-dc2 ,osiris and the1 ii4 #ei-fa ,ozieri1 ,gardens of ,adonis at1 i4 #bij ,pacific1 human gods in the1 i4 #ch1 #ci ,pdams of ,assam1 superstition concerning lost children by the1 i4 #fc ,palermo1 8sawing the old woman0 in1 i4 #bfa ,palm-tree1 the ,dyaks and the1 ii4 #cbi ---- ,sunday custom1 ii4 #baf ,pan1 representation of1 ii4 #cd1 #ce2 the ,lord of the ,wood1 ii4 #ce ,panes1 festival of the1 ii4 #ij1 #ia ,papuans1 foods eaten by the1 ii4 #hg2 belief in a child's life being bound up with that of a tree1 ii4 #cbi ,paris1 procession of mock giant in1 ii4 #bha ,parthian monarchs worshipped as deities1 i4 #di ,patagonians1 burning of loose hair by the1 i4 #bje ,pawnees1 human sacrifices by the1 at sowing1 i4 #cha1 #chb ,payaguas1 method of fighting the wind by the1 i4 #bh ,pear-tree1 the protector of cattle1 i4 #gc ,pelew ,islanders1 god of the1 i4 #ci1 #dj2 custom at tree-felling by the1 i4 #fb1 #fc2 ceremony on the killing of a man by the1 i4 #agh ,pembrokeshire1 ,twelfth ,day custom in1 ii4 #adc ,pepper ,coast1 high priest held responsible for the general welfare1 i4 #dg ,permanent incarnation1 i4 #cg-db ,persian kings not seen eating1 i4 #afb ,peru1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ag2 charm for staying the sun in1 i4 #bd2 preservation of the representative corn-spirit by the ancient ,peruvians1 i4 #cej1 #cea2 expulsion of devils in1 ii4 #bjc2 self-beating in1 ii4 #baf4 ,see also under ,incas4 ,philippine ,islands1 belief in the souls of trees in the1 i4 #fb2 cannibalism in the1 ii4 #hh ,philosophy1 primitive1 defect of1 i4 #baj-bab2 rules of life of sacred men are the outcome of1 ib4 ,phoenician custom at vintage1 i4 #cfe2 ,linus song1 i4 #cih1 #cii ,phrygia1 mock human sacrifices in1 i4 #cjj2 reapers' song in1 i4 #cfe1 #cff ,piedmont1 midsummer peasant custom in1 i4 #bhh ,pig1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #bf-ca2 sacred1 ii4 #ej-eg2 ,osiris as a1 ii4 #eb-fj ,pigs1 ,demeter and ,proserpine as1 ii4 #dd-di2 ,attis and ,adonis as1 ii4 #di1 #ej ,pilsen1 ,whitsuntide custom near1 i4 #ib ,pine-tree sacred to ,dionysus1 i4 #cba ,pinsk1 ,whit ,monday customs by ,russian girls in1 i4 #hg1 #hh ,plas1 ,whitsuntide custom in the neighbourhood of1 i4 #ib ,po1 excavations in the valley of the1 i4 #eg ,poachers and the fir-cones1 ii4 #bhh ,point ,barrow1 hunting the evil spirit by the ,eskimo of1 ii4 #afd1 #afe ,poitou1 midsummer fire festival in1 ii4 #bfa ,poland1 ceremony of carrying out ,death in1 i4 #bfa2 harvest custom in1 i4 #cci1 #cdj1 #cdb1 #cdc2 ,christmas custom in1 ii4 #f1 #g ,polynesians1 superstition held by the1 concerning the head1 i4 #ahi1 #aij2 and sacred contagion1 ii4 #ee ,pomerania1 cut hair buried in1 i4 #bje2 reaping custom in1 i4 #bje ,pomos of ,california1 expulsions of devils by the1 ii4 #ahc ,pongol festival1 ii4 #gc ,pont ,mousson1 harvest ceremony at1 ii4 #ba ,poplar1 burning of a1 on ,st4 ,peter's ,day1 i4 #aja ,portrait1 the soul in the1 i4 #adh1 #adi ,portraits1 life in1 i4 #adh ,potato-dog1 ii4 #d ---- wolf1 ii4 #b1 #e ,potatoes1 custom at the digging of new1 in ,sutherlandshire1 ii4 #ga ,potniae1 rites of ,dionysus at1 i4 #cbi ,pouilly1 harvest ceremony at1 ii4 #bj1 #ba1 #dg ,preacher to the fish1 ii4 #aai1 #abj ,pregnancy1 i4 #bci ,priestly kings1 i4 #g1 #h ,priests1 ,roman and ,sabine1 not shaved with iron razors1 i4 #agb ,primitive man and the supernatural1 i4 #f-cj ---- philosophy1 rules of life are the outcome of1 i4 #bjh-baj ,prophesying1 drinking blood before1 i4 #cd1 #ce ,propitiation of the fish1 ii4 #aah1 #aai ,proserpine and the pig1 ii4 #dd-di ,prussia1 reverence for the oak in1 i4 #eh2 high trees worshipped by the ancient ,prussians1 i4 #fd2 custom after a funeral by the old ,prussians1 i4 #agg2 self-immolation of the supreme ruler of the old ,prussians1 i4 #bbc2 ceremony at spring ploughing in1 i4 #bhf2 corn drenching in1 i4 #bhg2 gardens of ,adonis in1 i4 #bid1 #bie2 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccf1 #cch1 #cdc2 ceremony at the sowing of the winter corn by the ,prussian ,slavs1 ii4 #ah1 #ai2 midsummer fire festival in1 ii4 #bfe ,puberty1 girls at1 not allowed to touch the ground or see the sun1 ii4 #bbe-bec2 girls secluded at1 ii4 #bbe2 reasons for the seclusion1 ii4 #bch sq4 ,pulverbatch1 oak tree superstition at1 ii4 #cfh ,punjaub1 ,gen4 ,nicholson worshipped by a sect in the1 i4 #da2 ceremony at the bursting of the cotton boles in the1 i4 #cec2 custom at the festival of lamps1 ii4 #agf ,purification after travel1 i4 #aeg1 #aeh ,pyrenees1 customs in the1 i4 #aja ,quauhtitlans1 human sacrifices by the1 ii4 #bba ,queen of the sacred rites1 i4 #g ,queensland1 initiatory rites in1 ii4 #cdc1 #cdd ,quilacare1 self-immolation of the king of1 i4 #bbd ,quoja1 initiatory rites in1 ii4 #cdg ,ra1 the sun-god1 i4 #cac-caf ,rain-charm1 i4 #ic1 #aii1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #bii1 #ccc1 #cgd1 #cij1 #djj2 ii4 #db ---- kings of1 i4 #eb1 #ec ---- making1 i4 #ac-bb ,rajah1 custom at the death of a1 i4 #bcb ,rajah ,vijyanagram1 his aversion to iron1 i4 #agd ,rajamahall1 offerings of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgd1 #cge ,rali fair1 the1 i4 #bgf1 #bgg ,ram1 sacred1 ii4 #fc2 ,egyptian sacrifice of the1 ii4 #ib-id2 consecration of the white ram by the ,kalmucks1 ii4 #acf ,ramin1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cgg ,raskolniks1 the1 and mirrors1 i4 #adg ,rattlesnake not killed1 ii4 #aaj ,ratzeburg1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cgf1 #cgg ,red cock1 ii4 #i ---- haired victims1 i4 #cjf1 #cjg ,reflection1 the soul in the1 i4 #ade-adh ,religion1 marks of a primitive1 i4 #cdh1 #cdi ---- and magic1 relation of1 i4 #cj-cb ,religious aspect of ,peruvian1 ,parthian and ,egyptian sovereigns1 i4 #dh-ej ,resurrection1 the1 of animals1 ii4 #abc-abe2 traces in folk-tales of the belief in1 ii4 #abe2 simulation of death and resurrection at initiatory rites1 ii4 #cdb-ceh ,rhetra1 priest tastes the sacrificial blood at1 i4 #ce ,rhn mountains1 fire festivals in the1 ii4 #bdi ,rice-bride1 the1 i4 #cee ,rice harvest1 ceremonies at the1 ii4 #ga1 #gb ,rio de la ,plata1 seclusion of girls amongst the ,indians of1 ii4 #bcj1 #bca ,roman cure for fever1 ii4 #aeb ---- haircutting custom1 i4 #aii ,romans1 tree worship by the1 i4 #ii ,rome1 ceremony of driving out the old ,mars from1 ii4 #bjh-baj ,romove1 sacred oak at1 i4 #eh1 #fd ,rook1 expulsion of evil in the island of1 ii4 #aeh2 initiation festival1 ii4 #ceb ,rosenheim1 harvest custom in1 ii4 #bj ,roti1 haircutting ceremony in the island of1 i4 #bja1 #bje1 #bjf ,rottenburg1 midsummer ceremony in1 ii4 #bff1 #bfg ,roumanians1 rain-making by the1 i4 #af2 custom after a death by the1 i4 #agf2 corn-drenching by the1 i4 #bhf ,rowan1 the1 effective against witchcraft1 ii4 #cfa ,royal and priestly taboos1 i4 #aji-abj1 #adi-bji ---- blood not spilt upon the ground1 i4 #agi-ahc ,ruhla1 springtide custom in1 i4 #hh ,rupture1 cure for1 ii4 #ccj ,russia1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 i4 #gf1 #gg2 first-born sacrificed by the heathen in1 i4 #bcg2 ,eastertide customs in ,little ,russia1 i4 #bgb1 #bgc2 harvest custom in1 i4 #cda2 ceremony on the cutting of the first sheaf in1 i4 #cfd2 ,easter custom in ,white ,russia1 ii4 #bi2 ,russian wood-spirits1 ii4 #ce1 #cf2 ,russian corn-spirits1 ii4 #cf2 beating as a charm in1 ii4 #baf2 midsummer customs in1 ii4 #bfe1 #bfg ,ruthenia1 fire festival in1 ii4 #bfe ,rye-boar1 ii4 #bf1 #bg ---- goat1 ii4 #ab ---- wolf1 ii4 #a-c1 #e ,sabaea1 kings of1 not allowed out of their palaces1 i4 #afd ,sabarios1 festival of1 ii4 #fi ,sables1 superstition about killing1 ii4 #aae ,sacaea festival at ,babylon1 i4 #bbf1 #djj ,sacramental bread1 traces of the use of1 at ,aricia1 ii4 #hb-hd ---- character of the harvest supper1 corn-spirit eaten in animal form1 ii4 #ca ---- killing of an animal1 two types of the1 ii4 #acd sq4 ,sacramental killing of sacred animal by pastoral peoples1 ii4 #ace-ach ,sacraments in ancient ,mexico1 ii4 #gh1 #gi ,sacred cattle in ,egypt1 ii4 #fj1 #fa ---- persons' vessels not to be used by others1 i4 #aff2 sacred persons are dangerous1 i4 #aff1 #afg2 not allowed to see the sun1 ii4 #bbe1 #bdc note2 not allowed to touch the ground1 ii4 #bbd1 #bdc note ,sacredness and uncleanness not distinguished by primitive man1 i4 #afi-agb ,sacrifices1 human1 i4 #bce-bcg1 #bea1 #beb ,sacrificial king1 i4 #g ,saddle ,island1 the reflection and the soul in the1 i4 #ade ,saffron ,walden1 ,may-day custom in1 i4 #gf ,sagar1 influenza in1 ii4 #ahi1 #aij ,salign1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cdc ,salii1 the1 ii4 #baj note ,salmon-catching1 ii4 #aba1 #abb ,salza district1 ,shrove ,tuesday custom in the1 ii4 #bi ,salzwedel1 ,whitsuntide custom in1 i4 #ij ,samoan gods1 i4 #ci2 ii4 #ed ,samoans1 the1 and bleeding trees1 i4 #fa2 recall of the soul amongst the1 i4 #ace2 turtle not eaten by the1 i4 #afc2 ,samoans and the butterfly1 ii4 #ef2 presentation of first-fruits by the1 ii4 #cha ,samogitians1 tree superstition amongst the1 i4 #fe2 birds and beasts of the wood held sacred by the1 i4 #aje ,samorin kings1 i4 #bbe ,samoyed story1 the external soul in a1 ii4 #cba ,sankara and his shadow1 i4 #adb ,santals1 story of a soul by the1 i4 #abf ,sardinia1 ,gardens of ,adonis in1 i4 #bij ,satyrs1 representation of the1 ii4 #ce ,savage1 our debt to the1 i4 #baj-bab ,savage ,island1 kings killed in the1 i4 #dh2 collapse of the monarchy in the1 i4 #aah2 killing of strangers in the1 i4 #aeh ,savages and the soul1 i4 #aba1 #abb 8,sawing the old woman10 i4 #bfa1 #bfb ,saxon villages1 ,whitsuntide custom in1 i4 #ie ,saxons of ,transylvania1 charm for keeping sparrows from the corn used by the1 ii4 #acj ,saxony1 ,whitsuntide ceremonies in1 i4 #bdc ,scandinavian ,christmas custom1 ii4 #bi ,scapegoat1 ii4 #ahb-bag2 animal employed as a1 ii4 #ahi-aia1 #aid sq42 human1 ii4 #aia sq42 dog used as a1 ii4 #aid1 #aie2 ,tibetan ceremony of the1 ii4 #aig1 #aih2 divine1 ii4 #aii-bja1 #bje2 cow and bull as1 ii4 #bja1 #bjb2 use of1 in classical antiquity1 ii4 #bjh-bag2 reason for beating the1 ii4 #bac-bae ,schaumburg1 ,easter fires in1 ii4 #bec ,schluckenau1 ,shrovetide custom in1 i4 #bdd ,scotland1 representation of spring in the ,highlands of1 i4 #ig2 iron as a charm in1 i4 #age1 #agf2 harvest custom in1 i4 #cci1 #cde2 cowherd clothed in cow's hide in the ,highlands of1 ii4 #ade1 #adf2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bfd1 #bfe ,scythian kings put in bonds in times of scarcity1 i4 #df ,sea-lion1 respect for the1 ii4 #aaa ,seal1 respect for the1 ii4 #aaa ,self-immolation1 i4 #baf1 #bbd ,semites1 sacrifice of children by the1 i4 #bce2 the king's son sacrificed1 ib42 worship of ,adonis1 i4 #bgi ,senegambia1 the ,python clan in1 ii4 #ie2 soul detention among the ,sereres of1 i4 #aci ,senjero1 first-born sacrificed in1 i4 #bcf1 #bcg ,servia1 rain-making in1 i4 #af2 torchlight procession in1 ii4 #bff ,seven ,oaks1 ,may-day custom in1 i4 #gf ,sex-totems in ,australia1 ii4 #ccd-ccg ,shadow1 the soul in the1 i4 #ada-adi ,shamans1 the1 sacrifice their chief on account of pestilence1 i4 #dh ,shans1 expulsion of the fire-spirit by the1 ii4 #agh1 #agi ,shark ,point the home of the priestly ,king ,kukulu1 i4 #aab ,sharp instruments supposed to wound spirits1 i4 #agf1 #agg ,sheaf1 the last1 various names given to1 and ceremonies in connection with1 i4 #ccf-cch1 #cdj-cdf1 #djh2 ii4 #d1 #g1 #h1 #fh ,shepherd's ,isle1 precautions taken against strangers in1 i4 #aeb1 #aec ,shetland seamen and wind buying1 i4 #bg ,shropshire1 8,neck0 the name given to the last handful of corn in1 i4 #djg1 #djh2 harvest custom1 ii4 #bd1 #be2 sin-eating in1 ii4 #aee ,shrovetide ,bear1 i4 #bed1 #bee ---- customs1 i4 #if1 #bdd1 #bgj2 ii4 #bi1 #bej1 #bed-beg1 #bhc ,siam1 soul superstition in1 i4 #ei2 mode of royal executions in1 i4 #agi1 #ahj2 superstition concerning the head1 i4 #ahg1 #ahh2 temporary king of1 i4 #bbi2 banishment of demons in1 ii4 #agh2 human scapegoats in1 ii4 #aif2 the external soul in ,siamese story1 ii4 #cjd1 #cje ,siberian sable hunters1 ii4 #aae1 #aaf ,sicily1 ,gardens of ,adonis in1 i4 #bid1 #bie ,silenus both a wood and corn spirit1 ii4 #ce2 representation of1 ib4 ,silesia1 driving out ,death in1 i4 #bfj2 8carrying out ,death0 in1 i4 #bfg2 bringing back summer in1 i4 #bfc2 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccf1 #cdf2 ii4 #h ,silvanus both a wood and corn spirit1 ii4 #ce ,sin-bearers1 ii4 #aea1 #aeb ,sin-eating1 ii4 #aed-aeg 8,sinew which shrank10 abstinence from the1 ii4 #abf-abh ,skye1 harvest festival in1 ii4 #ad2 ,beltane fires in1 ii4 #bee1 #bef ,slaves sacrificed1 i4 #bea1 #beb ,slavonia1 8carrying out ,death0 in1 i4 #bfj2 ii4 #bji2 custom of 8sawing the old woman0 amongst the ,slavs1 i4 #bfb2 reaping custom amongst the ,slavs1 i4 #ccd1 #cee2 beating in1 ii4 #baf2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bfe2 perpetual fire of the ,slavs1 ii4 #bic2 the external soul in ,slavonic stories1 ii4 #cji1 #caj ,slovenes of ,oberkrain1 ,shrove ,tuesday custom amongst the1 i4 #if ,small-pox1 driving away the1 ii4 #afa2 scapegoat used for1 ii4 #aij1 #aia ,snake1 communion with the1 ii4 #aci ---- tribe1 ii4 #ie2 ceremony performed with a dough snake by the1 ii4 #aci1 #adj ,soest1 custom of flax pullers at1 i4 #cge ,sofala1 kings of1 killed1 i4 #bai1 #bbj ,sogamoso1 restrictions on the heir to the throne in1 ii4 #bbe ,solr1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cge ,somersetshire1 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bfb ,sorcerers1 the soul extracted or detained by1 i4 #ace-ada ,soul1 perils of the1 i4 #aji sq42 a miniature of the body1 i4 #aba-abc2 precautions to prevent its escape1 i4 #abc2 conceived as a bird1 i4 #abd2 its flight1 i4 #abd1 #abe2 absent in sleep1 i4 #abe-abi2 its departure not always voluntary1 i4 #abi2 carried off by ghosts1 i4 #abi-acb2 recall of the1 i4 #abi-ada2 stolen by demons1 i4 #acb-ace2 brought back in visible shape1 i4 #acf-ach2 extracted or detained by sorcerers1 i4 #ach-ada2 transference of the1 i4 #adj2 the soul thought to be in the portrait1 i4 #adh1 #adi2 in the shadow1 i4 #ada-adi2 in the reflection1 i4 #ade-adh2 in the blood1 i4 #agh1 #agi2 transmigration of the human soul into that of a turtle1 ii4 #ih2 the external soul in folk tales1 ii4 #bif-cbf2 in folk custom1 ii4 #cbg-cei ,souls1 of trees1 i4 #ei-fa2 of divine persons transmitted to successors1 i4 #bcg-bci2 plurality of1 ii4 #cci ,south ,american ,indians1 foods eaten and avoided by the1 ii4 #hf2 beating by the1 ii4 #baf ,south ,sea ,islands1 man-gods in the1 i4 #ch1 #ci4 ,sowing-time custom1 ii4 #bh-cj1 #cb1 #dh ,spachendorf1 fire festivals in1 ii4 #bdi1 #bej ,spain1 custom of 8sawing the old woman0 in1 i4 #bfa1 #bfb2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #bff ,sparrows1 the1 and the corn1 ii4 #acj ,sparta1 state sacrifices offered by the kings of1 i4 #g ,spices1 sprinkling the sick with1 i4 #aed ,spirit1 of vegetation1 in human shape1 i4 #hg1 #hh ---- robbing the1 i4 #chj ,spirits1 sharp instruments supposed to wound1 i4 #agf1 #agg ,spitting as a protective charm1 i4 #bje ,spring and harvest customs compared1 i4 #cdf1 #cdg ---- ceremony in1 in ,china1 ii4 #db1 #dc2 ,european fire festivals in1 ii4 #bdg-bed ,storms1 ,motumotu theory of1 i4 #bg ,strangers1 precautions against the magic arts of1 i4 #aej-afj2 tied up in the sheaves by the reapers as representatives of the corn-spirit1 i4 #cgd-chj ,straw goats1 ii4 #af ,sucla-,tirtha1 expulsion of sins to sea by the1 ii4 #aib ,suicide of ,fijians at old age1 i4 #baf ,sumatra1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ag2 tree-superstition in1 i4 #fc2 reluctance to wound a tiger in1 ii4 #aaj ,summer1 bringing back1 i4 #bfc1 #bfh ---- tree1 i4 #bfh1 #bfi ,sun1 staying the1 i4 #bd2 sacred person not allowed to see the1 ii4 #bbe1 #bdc note2 girls at puberty not allowed to see the1 ii4 #bbe-bec2 traces in folktales of the rule which forbids girls at puberty to see the sun1 ii4 #bce-bcg2 belief that the sun can impregnate women1 ii4 #bcf2 tabooed persons may not see the1 ii4 #bdc note2 fires as sun charms1 ii4 #bfg-bgd ,suni ,mohammedans1 covering up mirrors by the1 i4 #adg ,sunshine1 making1 i4 #bb-bd ,superb warbler1 ii4 #ccf1 #ccg ,surenthal1 midsummer fire ceremony in the1 ii4 #bei1 #bfj ,surinam1 the bush negroes of1 and their totems1 ii4 #ec1 #ed ,sutherland1 cure for cough in1 ii4 #aed ,sutherlandshire1 custom at the digging of new potatoes in1 ii4 #ga ,swabia1 burying of cut hair in1 i4 #bjb2 burying the carnival in1 i4 #bed-beg2 harvest custom1 ii4 #bg2 fire festival1 ii4 #bdh-bdi2 ,easter fires in1 ii4 #bed2 midsummer fires in1 ii4 #beh ,sweden1 harvest superstition in1 i4 #fh2 ,king ,domalde sacrificed on account of famine1 i4 #dg1 #dh2 ,may ,eve customs in1 i4 #gh2 midsummer ceremonies1 i4 #gh1 #gi2 ,christmas customs in1 ii4 #bi-ca2 superstitious use of ,yule straw in1 ii4 #cj1 #ca2 ,may ,day fires in1 ii4 #beh2 midsummer bonfires in1 ii4 #bhi2 mistletoe superstition in1 ib42 divining rods made from the mistletoe in1 ii4 #cfg ,swineherds1 restrictions on1 in ,egypt1 ii4 #eb ,syleus1 legend of1 i4 #cih ,sympathetic eating1 ,savage belief that a man acquires the character of the animal or man whose flesh he eats1 ii4 #he-hi ---- magic1 i4 #i-ab ,syria1 caterpillars in1 ii4 #acb ,taboo1 i4 #aba1 #agh2 fatal effects of1 i4 #afg-agj2 seclusion of tabooed persons1 i4 #agj1 #aga2 the object of1 is to preserve life1 i4 #adi2 royal and priestly taboos1 i4 #aji-abj1 #adi-aej1 #bji ,tabor1 in ,bohemia1 ceremony of carrying out ,death in1 i4 #beh ,tahiti1 abdication of kings of1 i4 #abj2 the bodies of the king and queen not allowed to be touched1 i4 #agb2 superstition concerning the head in1 i4 #aij1 #aia2 burying of cut hair in1 i4 #bjj ,tif1 hair cut on returning from a journey in1 i4 #aid ,tamaniu1 the1 of the ,bank ,islanders1 ii4 #cca1 #ccb ,tana1 disposal of unconsumed food by the islanders1 i4 #aff2 offerings of first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgh ,tarnow1 reaping custom in1 i4 #cce ,tartar ,khan1 ceremony on a visit by a stranger to a1 i4 #aeh1 #aei ---- poems1 the external soul in1 ii4 #cba-cbd ,ta-ta-thi tribe of ,new ,south ,wales1 rain-making by the1 i4 #ad ,t-uz1 festival in honour of1 i4 #bhc1 #bhd ,temporary kings1 i4 #bbh-bcd2 sometimes hereditary1 i4 #bbh1 #bcb ,tenedos1 rites of ,dionysus at1 i4 #cbi ,tenimber ,islands1 offering of first-fruits in the1 ii4 #cgf1 #cgg ,teutonic kings exercised the powers of high priests1 i4 #h ,texas1 initiatory ceremony among the ,toukaway ,indians of1 ii4 #ceb ,thammuz as a corn-spirit1 i4 #bhc1 #bhh ,thann1 ,may-,day customs in1 i4 #hc ,theban ritual1 ii4 #ib1 #ic2 rams sacred at ,thebes1 ii4 #fc ,thesmophoria1 the1 ii4 #dd-dh ,thlinket of ,alaska1 festival to the halibut by the1 ii4 #aba ,thuringen1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 i4 #ij1 #ia1 #bdc2 ,mid-,lent customs in1 i4 #beg1 #beh2 threshing custom in1 i4 #cga ,tibetan ,new ,year's day custom1 ii4 #aic-aie2 scapegoat1 ii4 #aig-aih ,tiger1 flesh of1 eaten1 ii4 #hf2 reluctance to wound a1 ii4 #aaj ,tikopia islanders1 ceremony by the1 in cases of epidemic1 ii4 #ahh ,tillot1 threshing custom in the canton of1 i4 #cgb ,timor1 ,west1 custom of a speaker in1 i4 #afc ,timorese rain-charm1 i4 #ah ,timorlaut1 married men not allowed to cut their hair in1 i4 #aid2 disease-boats in1 ii4 #ahf1 #ahg ,tjumba1 harvest festival in1 ii4 #cge1 #cgf ,todas1 the dairy a sanctuary amongst the1 i4 #da2 buffalo held sacred by the1 ii4 #acf1 #acg ,tom-cat1 ii4 #aa ,tona1 the1 of the ,zapotecs1 ii4 #ccb1 #ccc ,tonga1 king of1 not seen eating1 i4 #afb2 ceremony in1 with regard to sacred contagion1 ii4 #ee2 festival of the first-fruits in1 ii4 #cgi-cha ,tongues of birds given to backward children to eat1 ii4 #hg ,tonquin1 the test of a suitable sacrificial victim in1 i4 #cf2 selection of guardian spirits in1 i4 #dj2 the monarchy1 i4 #aai1 #abj2 kings not allowed to be viewed in public1 i4 #afe2 mode of royal executions in1 i4 #ahj1 #aha2 expulsion of evil spirits in1 ii4 #agf-agh2 time of licence in1 ii4 #bjd ,toothache cure1 ii4 #adi ,torchlight processions1 ii4 #bff1 #bgc ,totem1 a1 is an object 7animal1 plant1 etc47 in which a man deposits his soul for safety1 ii4 #ccg-cdb ,totemism1 ii4 #ch1 #ec1 #ed1 #ef1 #acc1 #ccg-cdb1 #ceh1 #cei ,totems1 sex1 ii4 #ccd ,touaregs of the ,sahara1 custom of veiling the face amongst the1 i4 #afc ,transmigration of divine spirit1 i4 #db-dd ,transylvania1 rain-charm in1 i4 #ag2 burying the carnival amongst the ,saxons of1 i4 #bee2 8carrying out ,death0 in1 i4 #bfe1 #bff2 corn-drenching in1 i4 #bhf2 custom for preserving the crops from insects1 etc4 in1 ii4 #acj ,transylvanian story of a soul1 i4 #abf1 #abg ,traunstein district1 harvest custom in the1 ii4 #bg ,travancore1 transference of sickness in1 ii4 #aea ,travel1 purification after1 i4 #aeg1 #aeh ,tree-spirit represented by leaf-clad persons alone1 i4 #hg-ij2 killing the1 i4 #bdj-bec2 reason for annually killing the1 i4 #bdg-bdi2 the goat as an embodiment of the1 ii4 #cd-cg2 burnt in effigy1 ii4 #bgd-bgg2 human beings burnt as representatives of the1 ii4 #bgg-bhe ---- spirits give rain and sunshine1 i4 #ff2 cause the crops to grow1 i4 #fg-gj2 influence of1 on women and cattle1 i4 #gj-gd ---- worship1 i4 #ef-ih2 in antiquity1 #ih-ajh ,trees1 bleeding1 i4 #fa2 souls of1 i4 #ei-fa2 souls of the dead believed to animate1 i4 #fb2 inhabited by spirits1 i4 #fb-fe2 planted at the births of children1 ii4 #cbi1 #ccj2 regarded as storehouses of the sun's fire1 ii4 #cfi sq4 ---- and cattle1 i4 #gb sq4 ,trier1 harvest custom in1 ii4 #f ,tukaitawa and his shadow1 i4 #adb1 #adc ,turks1 parings from the nails preserved by the1 i4 #bjd2 ,turks of ,central ,asia give backward children tongues of birds to eat1 ii4 #hg ,turner's picture of the ,golden ,bough1 i4 #a ,turtle1 the1 not eaten1 i4 #afc2 sacrifice of the sacred1 ii4 #ie-ii2 belief in the transmigration of human souls into1 ii4 #ih1 #ii ,twelfth ,day customs1 ii4 #adc1 #add1 #ahb ,tycoons1 the1 i4 #aai ,types1 two1 of animal worship1 ii4 #acc1 #acd ,typhon1 ii4 #eg-fj ,tyrol1 expulsion of witches in the1 i4 #aha1 #ahb2 witches said to make use of the hair cut in the1 i4 #aii2 midsummer customs in the1 ii4 #bfg ,ualaroi1 ceremony at initiatory rites in1 ii4 #cdd ,uapes of ,brazil1 treatment of girls at the age of puberty in1 ii4 #ccd ,udvarhely1 harvest home in1 i4 #cgj1 #cga2 ceremony with the last sheaf in1 ii4 #i1 #dh ,uea1 power ascribed to the souls of the dead in1 i4 #acb ,uelzen1 harvest ceremony in1 ii4 #ac ,uganda1 custom of burning the king's brothers in1 i4 #aha2 king of1 and his courtiers1 i4 #bbb ,ugi1 dread of women's blood in1 i4 #ahf2 burying of cut hair in1 i4 #bjb ,uliase1 sprinkling the sick with spices in1 i4 #aed ,unyoro1 kings killed in1 i4 #bah ,upsala1 sacred grove at1 i4 #eh ,utch ,kurgan1 sin eating in1 ii4 #aef1 #aeg ,val di ,ledro1 fire festival in1 ii4 #bea ,vat1 burying alive at1 i4 #bag ,vegetation1 spirit of1 in human shape1 i4 #hg1 #hh2 slain at midsummer1 i4 #bgd1 #bge ,veiling1 i4 #afb1 #afc ,venison not eaten1 ii4 #hf1 #hg ,vermin1 respect shown by primitive people for1 ii4 #abi-acb ,vestal fire1 i4 #e ---- virgins1 hair of1 i4 #bjj ,victoria1 ,queen1 worshipped by a sect in ,orissa1 i4 #da ,vine1 not to walk under a1 i4 #ahc2 sacred to ,dionysus1 i4 #cba ,vintage1 ,phoenician custom at1 i4 #cfe ,virbius1 legend of1 i4 #f2 possible explanation of his relation to the ,arician ,diana1 i4 #cfb2 and the horse1 ii4 #fb-fg2 reason why he was confounded with the sun1 ii4 #cfi ,volders1 threshing custom at1 i4 #cgd ,vorarlberg1 fire festival at1 ii4 #bdh ,vosges ,mountains1 ,may ,day customs in the1 i4 #gf ,wadai1 veiling of the ,sultan of1 i4 #afc2 he must have no bodily defect1 i4 #bba ,waganda1 worship in1 i4 #de ,walber1 the1 i4 #hd1 #hf ,wallachia1 corn-drenching in1 i4 #bhf ,wanika1 the1 believers in the souls of trees1 i4 #ei2 do not shed the blood of animals1 i4 #ahb ,wanyoro1 secretion of cut hair and nails by the1 i4 #bjc ,wanzleben1 harvest custom in1 ii4 #e ,warts1 cure for1 ii4 #aec ,warua1 the1 not seen eating1 i4 #afj1 #afa ,wa-teita1 the1 their reluctance to be photographed1 i4 #adh ,water1 kings of1 i4 #ec-ef ---- fairy1 ,english superstition regarding the1 i4 #adf ,watjobaluk1 the1 and the bat1 ii4 #ccd ,weather kings1 i4 #dd-df ---- omens1 ii4 #bgj1 #bga ,weevil1 the1 ii4 #abi1 #acj ,weiden1 harvest custom in1 i4 #cch ,welsh custom of sin eating1 ii4 #aed1 #aee ,wends dancing round the oak-tree1 i4 #gb ,wermland1 custom among the threshers in1 i4 #cgh2 ceremony with regard to the last sheaf in1 ii4 #fh ,west ,african rain-makers1 i4 #bj ,westerhsen1 reaping custom in1 i4 #ccd ,westphalia1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 i4 #ih2 harvest custom in1 i4 #ccf2 ii4 #h1 #i ,wetar1 men injured by attacking their shadows in1 i4 #adb2 superstition concerning the blood of women in1 i4 #ahg2 opinion of the inhabitants as to their descent1 ii4 #ec ,wheat-bride1 a name given to the binder of the last sheaf1 i4 #cdf ---- dog1 a name given to the binder of the last sheaf1 ii4 #d ,white dog1 sacrifice of the1 ii4 #aff ---- mice spared1 ii4 #aca1 #acb ,whitsuntide basket1 i4 #hi ---- bride1 i4 #ih ---- customs1 i4 #gf1 #gg1 #hj1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij-if1 #ih1 #bdb1 #bdc-bdg ---- flower1 i4 #hh ---- king1 i4 #ij ---- queen1 i4 #ic ,wiedingharde1 threshing custom in1 i4 #cgh ,wild man1 i4 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bdh1 #bej1 #bgj2 ii4 #da ,wind1 buying and selling1 i4 #bg2 fighting the1 i4 #bh-cj2 wind-making1 i4 #bf1 #bg ,wine the blood of the vine1 i4 #ahd1 #ahe2 abstention from1 ib4 ,winenthal1 midsummer fire ceremony in the1 ii4 #bei1 #bfj ,witchcraft1 protection against1 ii4 #cfa1 #cfb ,witches1 expulsion of1 ii4 #aha ,wolf1 the corn-spirit as a1 ii4 #c-g ,wolfeck1 midsummer bonfire in1 ii4 #bgg ,women1 superstition concerning the blood of1 i4 #ahe-ahg ---- secluded1 ii4 #bch-bdb ---- and tree-spirits1 i4 #gj-gd ,wotjaks1 sacred groves of the1 i4 #fe2 driving out ,satan by the1 ii4 #agi1 #ahj ,wren1 hunting the1 ii4 #adj-add2 ,english tradition concerning the hunting of the1 ii4 #adj1 #ada ,wurmlingen1 ,whit ,monday custom in1 i4 #bdb1 #bdc2 threshing custom in1 ii4 #ba ,yakut charm for making wind1 i4 #bf2 sacrifices1 i4 #cf ,yawning1 ,hindoo custom when1 i4 #abc ,yarilo1 funeral of1 i4 #bgc ,yorkshire custom of the clergyman cutting the first corn1 ii4 #ga ,yoruba1 precautions against strangers in1 i4 #aea ,yucutan charm for staying the sun1 i4 #be2 ,new ,year's festival1 ii4 #bgb1 #bgc ,yule boar1 ii4 #bi-cb1 #dh ---- straw1 ii4 #cj1 #ca ,zabern1 ,may ,day custom in1 i4 #gg2 harvest custom in1 ii4 #ah ,zacynthus1 strength thought to be in the hair by the people of1 ii4 #cbh ,zafimanelo1 the1 not seen eating1 i4 #afj ,zaparo ,indians of ,south ,america1 foods eaten and avoided by the1 ii4 #hf ,zapotecs1 high pontiff of the1 i4 #aac1 #aad2 ii4 #bbd2 harvest custom1 i4 #ceb1 #cec2 the tona of the1 ii4 #ccb ,zealand1 custom at the madder harvest in1 i4 #cgh1 #cgi ,zend ,avesta1 directions by the1 concerning the clippings of hair and nails1 i4 #bjb ,zeus1 a man's shadow lost on entering the sanctuary of1 i4 #adc2 represented by an oak at ,dodona1 ii4 #bia ---- and ,hera1 representation of the marriage of1 i4 #ajc ,zoolas1 qualities required for the king of the1 i4 #bai ,zulu rain-charm1 i4 #ai2 belief in the reflection as the soul1 i4 #ade2 kings put to death1 i4 #bah1 #bai2 custom in time of disease1 ii4 #hf2 cannibalism1 ii4 #hi2 girls secluded at puberty1 ii4 #bbf2 the ,ihlozi of the1 ii4 #ccb ,zuni sacrifice of the turtle1 ii4 #ie-ii2 totem clans1 ii4 #ii ,zrich1 fire festival in1 ii4 #bej1 #bea ,,footnotes #a ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 pp4 #a-f4 #b ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und ,roggenhund 7,danzig1 #ahfe71 p4 #e2 id41 ,antike ,wald-und ,feldkulte1 p4 #cah sq42 id41 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #ajc2 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bac4 #c ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf u4 ,roggenhund1 p4 #g sqq42 id41 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cai4 #d ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf1 etc4 p4 #aj4 #e ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ajd4 #f ,ib4 #g ,ib4 p4 #ajd sq4 ,on the ,harvest-,may1 see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #fh4 #h ,ib4 p4 #aje4 #i ,ib4 p4 #cj4 #aj ,ib4 pp4 #cj1 #aje4 #aa ,ib4 p4 #aje sq4 #ab ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cbj2 ,roggenwolf1 p4 #bd4 #ac ,roggenwolf1 p4 #bd4 #ad ,roggenwolf1 p4 #bd4 #ae ,ib4 p4 #be4 #af ,ib4 p4 #bh2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cbj4 #ag ,roggenwolf1 p4 #be4 #ah ,ib4 p4 #bf4 #ai ,ib4 p4 #bf2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cbj4 #bj ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cba4 #ba ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cba sq4 #bb ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cbj4 #bc ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cbj sq4 #bd ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cbb4 #be ,ib4 p4 #cbc4 #bf ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ac4 #bg ,ib42 ,schmitz1 ,sitten und ,sagen des ,eifler ,volkes1 i4 p4 #ie2 ,kuhn1 ,westflische ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 ii4 p4 #aha2 ,kuhn und ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #cih4 #bh ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #ba4 #bi ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ac4 ,cp4 ,kuhn and ,schwartz1 l4c4 #cj ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ac4 #ca ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bbj4 #cb ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ac sq42 ,kuhn1 ,westflische ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 ii4 p4 #ahj sq42 ,pfannenschmid1 ,germanische ,erntefeste1 p4 #aaj4 #cc ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ad2 ,pfannenschmid1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aaa1 #dai sq4 #cd ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ae4 ,so in ,shropshire1 where the corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander 7see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #djg71 the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is 8to lose the goose10 and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the harvest supper 7,burne and ,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore1 p4 #cge72 and in some parts of ,england the harvest supper was called the ,harvest ,gosling1 or the ,inning ,goose 7,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bc1 #bf1 ,bohn's ed47 #ce ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ad4 #cf ,ib4 p4 #ae4 #cg ,m4 ,f4 p4 #cj4 #ch ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ae4 #ci ,ib4 p4 #ae sq4 #dj ,ib4 p4 #ae2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #cj4 #da ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #a4 #db ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #dg4 #dc ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #c4 #dd ,lemke1 ,volksthmliches in ,ostpreussen1 i4 #bd4 #de ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #ba4 #df ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #djh4 #dg ,m4 ,f4 p4 #bi4 #dh ,m4 ,f4 p4 #bi sq42 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #e4 #di ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 pp4 #agb-agd2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #cj4 #ej ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #aee sq4 #ea ,ib4 p4 #aeg sq4 #eb ,ib4 p4 #aei4 #ec ,ib4 p4 #afa sq4 #ed ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afb4 #ee ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #bcb sq4 ,no4 #dbf2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afb4 #ef ,panzer1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bbh sq4 ,no4 #dbb2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afc4 #eg ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afc4 #eh ,ib4 p4 #afd4 #ei ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afd4 #fj ,ib4 p4 #afd sq4 #fa ,ib4 p4 #afe4 #fb ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bd1 ,bohn's ed42 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afe4 #fc ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #chj4 #fd ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afe4 #fe ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #aff2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ahe4 #ff ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #aff4 #fg ,above1 p4 #aa4 #fh ,holzmayer1 ,osiliana1 p4 #ajg4 #fi ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten u4 ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #ai4 ,cp4 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dhb sqq4 #gj ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #bbe sqq4 ,no4 #dba2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afg sq4 #ga ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afh4 #gb ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #dde1 ,no4 #afb2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afh4 #gc ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afi4 #gd ,panzer1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bbd sq4 ,no4 #dbj2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afi4 #ge ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afi4 #gf ,ib4 p4 #agj4 #gg ,ib4 p4 #agj4 #gh ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae1 p4 #bc sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cid sq4 #gi ,m4 ,f4 p4 #eh4 #hj ,ib4 #ha ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fb4 #hb ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ei4 #hc ,above1 p4 #f4 #hd ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ei4 #he ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #ddj sq4 ,nos4 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec2 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #bcd1 ,no4 #dbh2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ei4 #hf ,panzer1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bcc1 ,no4 #dbg2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ei4 #hg ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ei sq4 #hh ,m4 ,f4 p4 #eh4 #hi ,m4 ,f4 p4 #eh sq4 #ij ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fj4 #ia ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #ddd sq4 ,no4 #afb2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fa4 #ib ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #bcc1 ,no4 #dbg4 #ic ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fa sq4 #id ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fb4 #ie ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fb4 #if ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4 p4 #dde sq4 ,no4 #afc4 #ig ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fj4 #ih ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fb4 #ii ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdc sq4 #ajj ,laisnel de la ,salle1 ,croyances et ,lgendes du ,centre de la ,france1 ii4 #ace4 #aja ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fb1 8,il fait le veau40 #ajb ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fb4 #ajc ,m4 ,f4 p4 #fc4 #ajd ,m4 ,f4 p4 #afg4 #aje ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bd1 ,bohn's ed4 #ajf ,burne and ,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore1 p4 #cgc sq4 #ajg ,m4 ,f4 p4 #afg4 #ajh ,laisnel de la ,salle1 ,croyances et ,lgendes du ,centre de la ,france1 ii4 #acc2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #afg sq4 #aji ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bac1 ,no4 #d4 #aaj ,holzmayer1 ,osiliana1 p4 #ajg2 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ahg4 #aaa ,birlinger1 ,aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #cbh4 #aab ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 pp4 #bbc1 #bbd1 ,nos4 #dag1 #dai4 #aac ,m4 ,f4 p4 #aab4 #aad ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #dde1 ,no4 #afb4 #aae ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #dbe1 ,no4 #cgi4 #aaf ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 pp4 #bba-bbd1 ,nos4 #dji1 #daj1 #daa1 #dab1 #dac1 #dad1 #dae1 #dah4 #aag ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ahf sq4 #aah ,above1 p4 #c4 #aai ,above1 p4 #bf sq4 #abj ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ahg4 #aba ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ahg sq42 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 pp4 #ahi1 #bah2 ,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessische ,volks-,sitten und ,gebruche 7,marburg1 #ahhh71 p4 #ce4 #abb ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ahh2 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bbj4 #abc ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #aig sq42 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #dia2 ,jamieson1 ,dictionary of the ,scottish ,language1 s4v4 8,maiden02 ,afzelius1 ,volkssagen und ,volkslieder aus ,schwedens lterer und neuerer ,zeit1 bersetzt von ,ungewitter1 i4 #i4 #abd ,above1 p4 #f sq4 #abe ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 pp4 #afi sq41 #ahb4 ,on ,christmas night children sleep on a bed of the ,yule straw 7ib4 p4 #agg74 #abf ,jahn1 ,deutsche ,opfergebruche1 p4 #bae4 ,cp4 above1 vol4 i4 p4 #fj4 #abg ,afzelius1 op4 cit4 i4 #ca4 #abh ,afzelius1 op4 cit4 i4 #i2 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 pp4 #aha1 #ahe4 #abi ,above1 pp4 #h sq41 #aa1 #ab1 #ae sq41 #ba1 #bc1 #bh4 ,in regard to the hare the substitution of brandy for hare's blood is doubtless comparatively modern4 #acj ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #a4 #aca ,herodotus1 ii4 #df4 #acb ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 #c i4 #fjj2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #ach4 #acc ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #aci4 #acd ,pollux1 iv4 #aah4 #ace ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #adb sq4 #acf ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ii4 #cfa2 iii4 #cab2 v4 #aja2 id41 ,heroides1 iv4 #di4 #acg ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #bb1 #c4 #ach ,homer1 ,hymn to ,aphrodite1 #bfb sqq4 #aci ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xii4 #c2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 vi4 #cib2 id41 ,fasti1 iii4 #cjc1 #cji2 ,gloss4 ,isid4 ,mart4 ,cap4 ii4 #afg1 cited by ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #aac4 #adj ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xii4 #c2 ,martianus ,capella1 ii4 #afg2 ,augustine1 ,civ4 ,dei1 xv4 #bc2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,origo gentis ,romanae1 iv4 #f4 #ada ,servius on ,virgil1 ,ecl4 vi4 #ad2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 vi4 #cib sq42 ,martianus ,capella1 ii4 #afg4 #adb ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ach sq42 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #ade4 #adc ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #aj4 #add ,above1 p4 #ab sqq4 #ade ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 ch4 iii4 #adf ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cgi sq4 #adg ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbf sq4 #adh ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbe sq4 #adi ,above1 p4 #ai sqq4 #aej ,a4 ,lang1 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 ii4 #bcb4 #aea ,pausanias1 i4 #bd1 #d2 id41 i4 #bh1 #aj2 ,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 ii4 #bi sq42 ,aelian1 ,var4 ,hist4 viii4 #c2 ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,peace1 #dai2 ,hesychius1 ,suidas1 and ,etymol4 ,magnum1 s4v4 4 ,the date of the sacrifice 7#adth ,skirophorion7 is given by the ,schol4 on ,aristophanes and the ,etym4 ,magn42 and this date corresponds1 according to ,mannhardt 7,m4 ,f4 p4 #fh71 with the close of the threshing in ,attica4 ,no writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife4 ,pausanias speaks of the trial of the axe1 ,porphyry and ,aelian of the trial of the knife4 ,but from ,porphyry's description it is clear that the slaughter was carried out by two men1 one wielding an axe and the other a knife1 and that the former laid the blame on the latter4 ,perhaps the knife alone was condemned4 ,that the ,king ,archon 7on whom see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #g71 presided at the trial of all lifeless objects1 is mentioned by ,pollux1 viii4 #ij2 cp4 id4 viii4 #abj4 #aeb ,the real import of the name bouphonia was first perceived by ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 ,see his ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #bhf sqq4 #aec ,varro1 ,de re rustica1 ii4 #e1 #d4 ,cp4 ,columella1 vi4 praef4 #g4 ,perhaps1 however1 ,varro's statement may be merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the bouphonia and the legend told to explain it4 #aed ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dji4 #aee ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdc4 #aef ,hecquard1 ,reise an die ,kste und in das ,innere von ,west-,afrika1 pp4 #da-dc4 #aeg ,above1 p4 #c1 and vol4 i4 p4 #djh4 #aeh ,china ,review1 i4 #fb1 #aed1 #afb1 #bjc sq42 ,doolittle1 ,social ,life of the ,chinese1 p4 #cge sq41 ed4 ,paxton ,hood2 ,gray1 ,china1 ii4 #aae sq4 #aei ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bfa1 #bfg4 #afj ,see above1 p4 #bf sqq4 #afa ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,acharn4 #gdg4 #afb ,overbeck1 ,griechische ,kunstmythologie1 ii4 #dic2 ,mller-,wieseler1 ,denkmler d4 alt4 ,kunst1 ii4 pl4 viii4 #id4 #afc ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bgg2 ,cornutus1 ,de nat4 deor4 c4 #bh2 ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #ab1 #bc2 ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,acharn4 #gdg2 id4 on ,frogs1 #cch2 id4 on ,peace1 #cgd2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #chj2 ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 x4 #af4 #afd ,for the authorities on the ,thesmophoria and a discussion of some doubtful points in the festival1 ,i may be permitted to refer to my article 8,thesmophoria0 in the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ninth ed4 #afe ,photius1 s4v4 1 speaks of the ascent of ,demeter from the lower world2 and ,clement of ,alexandria speaks of both ,demeter and ,proserpine as having been engulfed in the chasm 7,protrept4 ii4 #ag74 ,the original equivalence of ,demeter and ,proserpine must be borne steadily in mind4 #aff ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #fi2 ,photius1 s4v4 4 #afg ,e4 ,rohde1 8,unedirte ,luciansscholien1 die attischen ,thesmophorien und ,haloen betreffend10 in ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4 ,f4 xxv4 7#ahgj7 #edh sqq4 ,two passages of classical writers 7,clemens ,alex41 ,protrept4 ii4 #ag and ,pausanias1 ix4 #h1 #a7 refer to the rites described by the ,scholiast on ,lucian1 and had been rightly interpreted by ,lobeck 7,aglaophamus1 p4 #hbg sqq47 #afh ,the scholiast speaks of them as megara and adyta4 ,megara 7from a ,phoenician word meaning 8cavern10 8subterranean chasm10 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #bbj7 were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods4 ,see ,hesychius1 quoted by ,movers1 l4c4 7the passage does not appear in ,m4 ,schmidt's minor edition of ,hesychius72 ,porphyry1 ,de antro nymph4 #f4 #afi ,we infer this from ,pausanias1 ix4 #h1 #a1 though the passage is incomplete and apparently corrupt4 ,for ,lobeck proposes to read or 4 ,at the spring and autumn festivals of ,isis at ,tithorea geese and goats were thrown into the adyton and left there till the following festival1 when the remains were removed and buried at a certain spot a little way from the temple4 ,pausanias1 x4 #cb1 #ad 7#i74 ,this analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the caverns at the ,thesmophoria were left there till the next festival4 #agj ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #dfa-dff1 upon which ,gierig remarks1 8,sues melius poeta omisisset in hac narratione40 ,such is the wisdom of the commentator4 #aga ,pausanias1 i4 #ad1 #c4 #agb ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #cch4 #agc ,above1 p4 #ae sq4 #agd ,above1 p4 #bj sq4 #age ,above1 p4 #i4 #agf ,above1 p4 #bi4 #agg ,above1 p4 #bi sq4 #agh ,in ,clemens ,alex41 ,protrept4 ii4 #ag1 for ,lobeck 7,aglaophamus1 p4 #hca7 would read 4 ,for his emendation of ,pausanias1 see above1 p4 #de4 #agi ,it is worth noting that in ,crete1 which was an ancient seat of ,demeter worship 7see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cca71 the pig was esteemed very sacred and was not eaten1 ,athenaeus1 #cge ,f#cgf ,a4 ,this would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten sacramentally1 as at the ,thesmophoria4 #ahj ,pausanias1 viii4 #db4 #aha ,above1 p4 #bd sqq4 #ahb ,pausanias1 viii4 #be and #db4 ,on the ,phigalian ,demeter1 see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #bdd sqq4 #ahc ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bif sq4 #ahd ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bif4 #ahe ,demosthenes1 ,de corona1 p4 #cac4 #ahf ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bha4 #ahg ,cureton1 ,spicilegium ,syriacum1 p4 #dd4 #ahh ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ed4 #ahi ,the heathen ,harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the flesh2 ,en-,nedim1 in ,chwolsohn's ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 ii4 #db4 ,my friend ,professor ,w4 ,robertson ,smith has conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in ,cyprus on #b;d ,april 7,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #de7 represented ,adonis himself4 ,see his ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #bgb sq41 #cib4 #aij ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 iv4 #e4 #aia ,isaiah lxv4 #c1 #d1 lxvi4 #c1 #ag4 #aib ,herodotus1 ii4 #dg2 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #h2 ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 x4 #af4 #aic ,herodotus1 l4c4 #aid ,plutarch and ,aelian1 ll4cc4 #aie ,herodotus1 l4c4 #aif ,herodotus1 ii4 #dg sq42 ,aelian and ,plutarch1 ll4cc4 ,herodotus distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to ,osiris4 ,according to him1 at the sacrifice to the moon1 the extremity of the pig's tail1 together with the spleen and the caul1 were covered with fat and burned2 the rest of the flesh was eaten4 ,on the evening 7not the eve1 see ,stein on the passage7 of the festival the sacrifice to ,osiris took place4 ,each man slew a pig before his door1 then gave it to the swineherd1 from whom he had bought it1 to take away4 #aig ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 pp4 #dcb1 #deb4 #aih ,third ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington71 p4 #bbe4 #aii ,ib4 p4 #bca4 #bjj ,j4 ,crevaux1 ,voyages dans l',amrique au ,sud1 p4 #ei4 #bja ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ag sq41 #ej sq4 #bjb ,leviticus xvi4 #bc sq4 #bjc ,porphyry1 ,de abstin4 ii4 #dd4 ,for this and the ,jewish examples ,i am indebted to my friend ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 #bjd ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #dcd1 note2 ii4 #hb1 #bbb sq4 #bje ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #afg sqq4 #bjf ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #baa2 ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa1 p4 #bee2 ,john ,mackenzie1 ,ten ,years north of the ,orange ,river1 p4 #ace note4 #bjg ,j4 ,mackenzie1 l4c4 #bjh ,third ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington71 p4 #bbe4 #bji ,ib4 p4 #bge4 #baj ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #gf4 #baa ,ib4 p4 #gj4 #bab ,diogenes ,laertius1 ,vitae ,philos4 viii4 #h4 #bac ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 x4 #af4 ,the story is repeated by ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #afh4 #bad ,lefbure1 ,le mythe ,osirien1 i4 #dd4 #bae ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #h4 ,lefbure 7op4 cit4 p4 #df7 recognises that in this story the boar is ,typhon himself4 #baf ,this important principle was first recognised by ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 ,see his article 8,sacrifice10 ,encycl4 ,britann4 #ith ed4 xxi4 #acg sq4 ,cp4 his ,religion of the ,semites1 pp4 #cec sq41 #cia sq4 #bag ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ca4 #bah ,lefbure1 ,le mythe ,osirien1 p4 #dh sq4 #bai ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #cc1 #gc2 ,diodorus1 i4 #hh4 #bbj ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ca2 ,diodorus1 i4 #hh4 ,cp4 ,herodotus1 ii4 #ch4 #bba ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #bj1 #bi1 #cc1 #dc2 ,strabo1 xvii4 #a1 #ca2 ,diodorus1 i4 #ba1 #he2 ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1#e i4 #ee sqq4 ,on ,apis and ,mnevis1 see also ,herodotus1 ii4 #aec1 iii4 #bg sq42 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxii4 #ad1 #g2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #ahd sqq42 #ag42 ,solinus1 xxxii4 #ag-ba2 ,cicero1 ,de nat4 deor4 i4 #bi2 ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 xi4 #aj sq42 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 viii4 #a1 #c2 id41 ,isis et ,osiris1 #e1 #ce3 ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 iii4 #ac1 #a sq42 ,pausanias1 i4 #ah1 #d1 vii4 #bb1 #c sq4 ,both ,apis and ,mnevis were black bulls1 but ,apis had certain white spots4 #bbb ,diodorus1 i4 #ba4 #bbc ,on the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle1 and the possible derivation of the ,apis and ,isis-,hathor worship from the pastoral stage of society1 see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #bgg sqq4 #bbd ,herodotus1 ii4 #da4 #bbe ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #ahd2 ,solinus1 xxxii4 #ah2 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxii4 #ad1 #g4 ,the spring or well in which he was drowned was perhaps the one from which his drinking water was procured2 he might not drink the water of the ,nile4 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #e4 #bbf ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ef4 #bbg ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne1#d p4 #ca4 ,cp4 ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1#e i4 #ef4 #bbh ,see above1 p4 #bd sqq4 #bbi ,athenaeus1 #ehg ,a2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #bjd4 ,cp4 ,encycl4 ,britann4 #ith ed4 art4 8,sacrifice10 xxi4 #ace4 #bcj ,varro1 ,de agri cult4 i4 #b1 #ai sq4 #bca ,herodotus1 ii4 #db4 #bcb ,festus1 ed4 ,mller1 pp4 #agh1 #agi1 #bbj2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #ig2 ,polybius1 xii4 #d ,b4 ,the sacrifice is referred to by ,julian1 ,orat4 #agf ,d4 #bcc ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gca sqq41 cp4 #fbi sqq42 ,propertius1 v4 #a1 #ai sq4 #bcd ,above1 p4 #da sq4 #bce ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #djh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #c4 #bcf ,above1 p4 #cj4 #bcg ,livy1 ii4 #e4 #bch ,festus1 ed4 ,mller1 pp4 #acj1 #aca4 #bci ,the ,october horse is the subject of an essay by ,mannhardt 7,mytholog4 ,forsch4 pp4 #aef-bja71 of which the above account is a summary4 #bdj ,m4 ,f4 p4 #agi4 #bda ,b4 ,k4 p4 #bje4 ,it is not said that the dough-man is made of the new corn2 but probably this is1 or once was1 the case4 #bdb ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae1 pp4 #fj-fd2 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #bdi sqq4 #bdc ,bezzenberger1 ,litauische ,forschungen 7,gttingen1 #ahhb71 p4 #hi4 #bdd ,simon ,grunau1 ,preussische ,chronik1 ed4 ,perlbach1 i4 #ia4 #bde ,holzmayer1 ,osiliana1 p4 #ajh4 #bdf ,on iron as a charm against spirits1 see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #age sq4 #bdg ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #ed4 #bdh ,communicated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,j4 ,c4 ,yarborough1 of ,chislehurst1 ,kent4 ,see ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #ej4 #bdi ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,bijdrage tot de kennis der ,alfoeren van het eiland ,boeroe1 p4 #bf4 #bej ,p4 ,n4 ,wilken1 8,bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der ,alfoeren in de ,minahassa10 in ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 vii4 7#ahfc7 p4 #abg4 #bea ,n4 ,p4 ,wilken en ,j4 ,a4 ,schwarz1 8,allerlei over het land en volk van ,bolaang ,mongondou10 in ,mededeel4 v4 w4 h4 ,nederl4 ,zendelinggen4 xi4 #cfi sq4 #beb ,h4 ,harkness1 ,description of a ,singular ,aboriginal ,race inhabiting the ,summit of the ,neilgherry ,hills1 p4 #ef sq4 #bec ,gover1 ,folk-songs of ,southern ,india1 p4 #aje sqq42 ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #cjb sqq4 #bed ,gover1 8,the ,pongol ,festival in ,southern ,india10 ,journ4 ,r4 ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4 ,s4 v4 7#ahga7 p4 #ia sqq4 #bee ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #ajc4 #bef ,crowther and ,taylor1 ,the ,gospel on the ,banks of the ,niger1 p4 #bhg sq4 ,mr4 ,taylor's information is repeated in ,west ,african ,countries and ,peoples1 by ,j4 ,africanus ,b4 ,horton 7,london1 #ahfh71 p4 #ahj sq4 #beg ,speckmann1 ,die ,hermannsburger ,mission in ,afrika1 p4 #aej sq4 ,on the ,zulu feast of first-fruits1 see also ,n4 ,isaacs1 ,travels and ,adventures in ,eastern ,africa1 ii4 #bia sq42 ,arbousset et ,daumas1 ,voyage d'exploration1 etc4 p4 #cjh sq42 ,callaway1 ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 p4 #chi note2 ,south ,african ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 #ace sqq42 ,fritsch1 ,die ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrikas1 p4 #adc2 ,lewis ,grout1 ,zululand1 p4 #afj sqq4 ,from ,mr4 ,grout's description it appears that a bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and people4 ,in killing it the men must use nothing but their naked hands4 ,the flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and burn the rest2 the men may not taste it4 ,as a final ceremony the king breaks a green calabash in presence of the people1 8thereby signifying that he opens the new year1 and grants the people leave to eat of the fruits of the season40 ,if a man eats the new fruits before the festival1 he will die or is actually put to death4 #beh ,the ceremony is described independently by ,james ,adair1 ,history of the ,american ,indians 7,london1 #agge71 pp4 #if-aaa2 ,w4 ,bartram1 ,travels through ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,east and ,west ,florida 7,london1 #agib71 p4 #ejg sq42 ,b4 ,hawkins1 8,sketch of the ,creek country10 in ,collections of the ,georgia ,historical ,society1 iii4 7,savannah1 #ahdh71 pp4 #ge-gh2 ,a4 ,a4 ,m',gillivray1 in ,schoolcraft's ,indian ,tribes1 v4 #bfg sq4 ,adair's description is the fullest and has been chiefly followed in the text4 ,in ,observations on the ,creek and ,cherokee ,indians1 by ,william ,bartram 7#aghi71 with prefatory and supplementary notes1 by ,e4 ,g4 ,squier1 p4 #ge1 there is a description--extracted from an ,,ms4 of ,j4 ,h4 ,payne 7author of ,home1 ,sweet ,home7--of the similar ceremony observed by the ,cherokees4 ,i possess a copy of this work in pamphlet form1 but it appears to be an extract from the transactions or proceedings of a society1 probably an ,american one4 ,mr4 ,squier's preface is dated ,new ,york1 #ahea4 #bei ,w4 ,bartram1 ,travels1 p4 #ejg4 #bfj ,so amongst the ,cherokees1 according to ,j4 ,h4 ,payne1 an arbour of green boughs was made in the sacred square2 then 8a beautiful bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots1 and planted in the very centre of the sacred square4 ,every man then provided himself with a green bough40 #bfa ,so ,adair4 ,bartram1 on the other hand1 as we have seen1 says that the old vessels were burned and new ones prepared for the festival4 #bfb ,b4 ,hawkins1 8,sketch10 etc41 p4 #gf4 #bfc ,see ,note on 8,offerings of first-fruits0 at the end of the volume4 #bfd ,acosta1 ,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies1 bk4 v4 c4 #bd1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cef-cfj 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahhj74 #bfe ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 iii4 #big-cjj 7after ,torquemada72 ,clavigero1 ,history of ,mexico1 trans4 by ,cullen1 i4 #cji sqq42 ,sahagun1 ,histoire gnrale des choses de la ,nouvelle-,espagne1 traduite et annote par ,jourdanet et ,simon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 p4 #bjc sq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 ,geschichte der amerikanischen ,urreligionen1 p4 #fje4 #bff ,clavigero1 i4 #caa2 ,sahagun1 pp4 #gd1 #aef sq42 ,mller1 p4 #fjf2 ,bancroft1 iii4 #caf4 ,this festival took place on the last day of the #afth month 7which extended from #bc;d ,december to #aath ,january74 ,at another festival the ,mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it sacramentally as the bone of the god4 ,sahagun1 p4 #cc4 #bfg ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #e sq4 #bfh ,festus1 ed4 ,mller1 pp4 #abh1 #abi1 #ade4 ,the reading of the last passage is1 however1 uncertain 78et ,ariciae genus panni fieri2 quod manici appelletur074 #bfi ,varro1 ,de ling4 lat4 ix4 #fa2 ,arnobius1 ,adv4 nationes1 iii4 #da2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn1 i4 #g1 #ce2 ,festus1 p4 #abh1 ed4 ,mller4 ,festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the larvae2 the other writers speak of the mother of the lares4 #bgj ,macrobius1 l4c42 ,festus1 pp4 #aba1 #bci1 ed4 ,mller4 ,the effigies hung up for the slaves were called pilae1 not maniae4 ,pilae was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena4 ,martial1 ,epigr4 ii4 #dc1 #e sq42 ,asconius1 ,in ,cornel4 p4 #ee1 ed4 ,kiessling and ,schoell4 #bga ,the ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves4 ,it was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice1 it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax4 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ii4 #aaf4 7,similarly a ,north-,american ,indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl2 but the elans could not be procured1 and the girl's parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead4 ,relations des ,jesuites1 #afcf1 p4 #aa1 ed4 #aheh74 ,poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them4 ,suidas1 s4v4 2 cp4 ,hesychius1 s4 vv4 1 4 ,hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods4 ,proculus1 quoted and emended by ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #ajgi4 ,when ,cyzicus was besieged by ,mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of ,proserpine1 they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar4 ,plutarch1 ,lucullus1 #aj4 ,in a ,boeotian sacrifice to ,hercules1 in place of the ram which was the proper victim1 an apple was regularly substituted1 four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns4 ,pollux1 i4 #cj sq4 ,the ,athenians are said to have once offered to ,hercules a similar substitute for an ox4 ,zenobius1 ,cent4 v4 #bb4 ,and the ,locrians1 being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice1 made one out of figs and sticks1 and offered it instead of the animal4 ,zenobius1 ,cent4 v4 #e4 ,at the ,athenian festival of the ,diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed4 ,schol4 on ,thucydides1 i4 #abf1 quoted by ,lobeck1 l4c4 ,we have seen above 7p4 #ec7 that the poorer ,egyptians offered dough images of pigs and ate them sacramentally4 #bgb ,p4 ,j4 ,veth1 ,borneo's ,wester ,afdeeling1 ii4 #cji4 #bgc ,n4 ,graafland1 ,de ,minahassa1 i4 #cbf4 #bgd ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 ii4 #ach4 #bge ,james ,adair1 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #acc4 #bgf ,alfred ,simson1 ,travels in the ,wilds of ,ecuador 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4 #afh2 id4 in ,journal of the ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vii4 #ejc4 #bgg ,theophilus ,hahn1 ,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being of the ,khoi-,khoi1 p4 #ajf4 ,compare ,john ,buchanan1 ,the ,shire ,highlands1 pg4 #ach2 ,callaway1 ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 p4 #dch note4 #bgh ,jerome ,becker1 ,la ,vie en ,afrique1 7,paris and ,brussels1 #ahhg71 ii4 #cff4 #bgi ,callaway1 ,nursery ,tales1 ,traditions1 and ,histories of the ,zulus1 p4 #age note4 #bhj ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #cc4 #bha ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1#b i4 #ahf1 #bjf4 #bhb ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 pp4 #aj1 #bfb4 #bhc ,james ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #aff4 #bhd ,proceedings ,royal ,geogr4 ,society1 ,n4 ,s4 viii4 7#ahhf7 p4 #cjg4 #bhe ,j4 ,henderson1 8,the ,medicine and ,medical ,practice of the ,chinese10 ,journ4 ,north ,china ,branch ,r4 ,asiatic ,society1 ,new ,series1 i4 7,shanghai1 #ahfe7 p4 #ce sq4 #bhf ,mller on ,saxo ,grammaticus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fj4 #bhg ,leared1 ,morocco and the ,moors1 p4 #bha4 #bhh ,vambery1 ,das ,trkenvolk1 p4 #bah4 #bhi ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 vi4 #h4 #bij ,felkin1 8,notes on the ,for tribe of ,central ,africa10 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 xiii4 7#ahhd-ahhf7 p4 #bah4 #bia ,w4 ,ridley1 ,kamilaroi1 p4 #afj4 #bib ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ii4 #cac4 #bic ,blumentritt1 8,der ,ahnencultus und die religisen ,anschauungen der ,malaien des ,philippinen-,archipels10 in ,mittheilungen d4 ,wiener ,geogr4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahhb1 p4 #aed4 #bid ,magyar1 ,reisen in ,sd-,afrika in den ,jahren #ahdi-aheg1 pp4 #bgc-bgf4 #bie ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #beg sq4 #bif ,callaway1 ,nursery ,tales1 ,traditions and ,histories of the ,zulus1 p4 #afc note4 #big ,john ,buchanan1 ,the ,shire ,highlands1 p4 #ach4 #bih ,journal of the ,north ,china ,branch ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 l4c4 #bii ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #ceb4 ,cp4 ib4 p4 #agc2 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #ceh2 ,j4 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde sur la corvette ,astrolabe1 ii4 #edg2 ,journal of the ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xix4 #ajh4 #cjj ,on the custom of eating a god1 see also a paper by ,felix ,liebrecht1 8,der aufgegessene ,gott10 in ,zur ,volkskunde1 pp4 #dcf-dci2 and especially ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1 art4 8,sacrifice10 ,encycl4 ,britann4 #ith ed4 vol4 xxi4 p4 #acg sq4 ,on wine as the blood of a god1 see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahc sqq4 #cja ,this does not refer to the ,californian peninsula1 which is an arid and treeless wilderness of rock and sand4 #cjb ,boscana1 in ,alfred ,robinson's ,life in ,california 7,new ,york1 #ahdf71 p4 #bia sq42 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 iii4 #afh4 #cjc ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ba1 cp4 pp4 #bf1 #fa4 #cjd ,herodotus1 ii4 #db4 ,the custom has been already referred to1 above1 p4 #fc4 #cje ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 #eh4 ,cp4 ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 iii4 #a sqq4 7ed4 #ahgh74 #cjf ,above1 p4 #fa sq4 #cjg ,above1 p4 #ae sq4 #cjh ,the ,italmens of ,kamtchatka1 at the close of the fishing season1 used to make the figure of a wolf out of grass4 ,this figure they carefully kept the whole year1 believing that it wedded with their maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins2 for twins were esteemed a great misfortune4 ,steller1 ,beschreibung von dem ,lande ,kamtschatka1 p4 #cbg sq4 ,according to ,hartknoch 7,dissertat4 histor4 de variis rebus ,prussicis1 p4 #afc2 ,altpreussen1 p4 #afa7 the image of the old ,prussian god ,curcho was annually renewed4 ,but see ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #bg4 #cji ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ha4 #caj ,t4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 ,impressions of ,western ,africa 7,london1 #aheh71 p4 #aif sq4 ,the writer does not expressly state that a serpent is killed annually1 but his statement implies it4 #caa ,revue d',ethnographie1 iii4 #cig4 #cab ,varro in ,priscian1 x4 #cb1 vol4 i4 p4 #ebd1 ed4 ,keil2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 vii4 #ad4 ,pliny's statement is to be corrected by ,varro's4 #cac ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,cushing1 8,my ,adventures in ,zui10 in ,the ,century1 ,may #ahhc1 p4 #de sq4 #cad ,mr4 ,cushing1 indeed1 while he admits that the ancestors of the ,zuni may have believed in transmigration1 says1 8,their belief1 to-day1 however1 relative to the future life is spiritualistic40 ,but the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of ,zuni faith4 #cae ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 iv4 #hf4 ,on the totem clans of the ,moquis1 see ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke1 ,snake-,dance of the ,moquis of ,arizona1 pp4 #aaf sq41 #ccd sqq4 #caf ,for this information ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,captain ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke1 #c;d4 ,cavalry1 ,u4,s4 ,army1 author of the work mentioned in the preceding note4 #cag ,the old ,prussian and ,japanese customs are typical4 ,for the former1 see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #agg4 ,for the latter1 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire et ,description gnrale du ,japon1 i1 #abh sq4 ,thunberg1 ,voyages au ,japon1 etc4 iv4 #ah sqq4 ,a general account of such customs must be reserved for another work4 #cah ,b4 ,scheube1 8,der ,baerencultus und die ,baerenfeste der ,ainos10 in ,mittheilungen der deutschen ,gesellschaft b4 ,s4 und ,s4 ,ostasiens 7,yokama71 ,heft xxii4 p4 #de4 #cai ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society1 iv4 #cf4 #cbj ,rein1 ,japan1 i4 #ddf4 #cba ,h4 von ,siebold1 ,ethnologische ,studien ber die ,ainos auf der ,insel ,yesso1 p4 #bf4 #cbb ,miss ,bird1 ,unbeaten ,tracks in ,japan 7new ed4 #ahhe71 p4 #bge4 #cbc ,trans4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 l4c4 #cbd ,miss ,bird1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfi4 #cbe ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #d4 #cbf ,scheube1 8,baerencultus10 etc4 p4 #de2 ,joest1 in ,verhandlungen d4 ,berliner ,gesell4 f4 ,anthropologie1 #ahhb1 p4 #ahh4 #cbg ,trans4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 l4c4 #cbh ,miss ,bird1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgg4 #cbi ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #ae2 ,siebold1 op4 cit4 p4 #bf2 ,trans4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 l4c42 ,rein1 ,japan1 i4 #ddg2 ,von ,brandt1 8,the ,ainos and ,japanese10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 iii4 #acd2 ,miss ,bird1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bge1 #bgf4 #ccj ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 pp4 #ae1 #af2 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 iii4 #acd4 #cca ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #af4 #ccb ,reclus 7,nouvelle ,gographie ,universelle1 vii4 #gee7 mentions a 7,japanese87 legend which attributes the hairiness of the ,ainos to the fact of their first ancestor having been suckled by a bear4 ,but in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism4 #ccc ,rein1 ,japan1 i4 #ddg4 #ccd 8,der ,baerencultus10 etc4 ,see above4 #cce ,scheube1 8,baerencultus10 etc4 p4 #df2 id41 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #ae2 ,miss ,bird1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgc sq4 #ccf ,miss ,bird1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgf sq4 ,miss ,bird's information must be received with caution1 as there are grounds for believing that her informant deceived her4 #ccg ,siebold1 ,ethnolog4 ,studien ber die ,ainos1 p4 #bf4 #cch 8,baerencultus10 etc4 p4 #ej note4 #cci ,they inhabit the banks of the lower ,amoor and the north of ,saghalien4 ,e4 ,g4 ,ravenstein1 ,the ,russians on the ,amur1 p4 #chi4 #cdj 8,notes on the ,river ,amur and the adjacent districts10 translated from the ,russian1 ,journal ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 xxviii4 7#aheh7 p4 #cif4 #cda ,compare the custom of pinching the frog before cutting off his head1 above vol4 i4 p4 #ic4 ,in ,japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth1 tease him1 then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic4 ,bastian1 ,die ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 i4 #dge note1 who adds 8wie im ostindischen ,archipelago die ,schutzseele gereizt wird40 ,he probably refers to the ,batta ,pang-hulu-balang4 ,see ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel1 p4 #ei sq42 ,w4 ,kdding1 8,die ,batakschen ,gtter10 in ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xii4 7#ahhe7 #dgh sq42 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane-en ,bila-stroomgebied op het eiland ,sumatra10 in ,tijdschrift v4 h4 ,nederl4 ,aardrijks ,genootsch4 ii4 series1 dl4 iii4 ,afdeeling3 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #cjf4 #cdb ,w4 ,joest1 in ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #ag2 ,revue d',ethnographie1 ii4 #cjg sq4 7on the authority of ,mr4 ,seeland72 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnologie1 i4 #ajb 7on the authority of ,captain ,jacobsen74 ,what exactly is meant by 8dancing as bears0 78tanzen beide ,geschlechter ,reigentnze1 wie ,bren10 ,joest1 l4c47 does not appear4 #cdc ,ravenstein1 ,the ,russians on the ,amur1 p4 #cgi sq42 ,t4 ,w4 ,atkinson1 ,travels in the ,regions of the ,upper and ,lower ,amoor 7,london1 #ahfj71 p4 #dhb sq4 #cdd ,a ,bushman1 questioned by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,campbell1 8could not state any difference between a man and a brute--he did not know but a buffalo might shoot with bows and arrows as well as a man1 if it had them40 ,john ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south ,africa1 being a ,narrative of a ,second ,journey in the ,interior of that ,country1 ii4 #cd4 ,when the ,russians first landed on one of the ,alaskan islands the people took them for cuttle-fish1 8on account of the buttons on their clothes40 ,petroff1 ,alaska1 p4 #ade4 #cde ,rev4 ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #aj1 p4 #bba4 ,cp4 ,c4 ,hupe1 8,korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden1 enz4 der ,dajakkers10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,nerland's ,indi1 #ahdf1 dl4 iii4 #afj2 ,s4 ,mller1 ,reizen en onderzoekingen in den ,indischen ,archipel1 i4 #bch2 ,perelaer1 ,ethnographische ,beschrijving der ,dayaks1 p4 #g4 #cdf ,sibree1 ,the ,great ,african ,island1 p4 #bfi4 #cdg ,raffenel1 ,voyage dans l',afrique ,occidentale 7,paris1 #ahdf71 p4 #hd sq4 #cdh ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 v4 #fe4 #cdi ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 p4 #bib4 #cej ,steller1 ,beschreibung von dem ,lande ,kamtschatka1 pp4 #bhj1 #cca4 #cea ,voyages au ,nord 7,amsterdam1 #agbg71 viii4 #da1 #daf2 ,pallas1 ,reise durch verschiedene ,provinzen des russischen ,reichs1 iii4 #fd2 ,georgi1 ,beschreibung aller ,nationen des russischen ,reichs1 p4 #hc4 #ceb ,erman1 ,travels in ,siberia1 ii4 #dc4 ,for the veneration of the polar bear by the ,samoyedes1 who nevertheless kill and eat it1 see ib4 #ed sq4 #cec ,bastian1 ,der ,mensch in der ,geschichte1 iii4 #bf4 #ced ,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjken1 p4 #aci4 #cee ,scheffer1 ,lapponia 7,frankfort1 #afgc71 p4 #bcc sq4 ,the ,lapps 8have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear4 ,they pray and chant to his carcase1 and for several days worship before eating it40 ,e4 ,rae1 ,the ,white ,sea ,peninsula 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #bgf4 #cef ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 v4 #agc sq42 ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique1 pp4 #agb-aha 7,paris1 ,michel ,lvy1 #ahgj74 #ceg ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 vi4 #aga4 ,morgan states that the names of the ,otawa totem clans had not been obtained 7,ancient ,society1 p4 #afg74 ,from the ,lettres difiantes1 vi4 #afh-aga1 he might have learned the names of the ,hare1 ,carp1 and ,bear clans1 to which may be added the ,gull clan1 as ,i learn from an extract from ,the ,canadian ,journal 7,toronto7 for ,march #aheh1 quoted in the ,academy1 #bgth ,september #ahhd1 p4 #bjc4 #ceh ,a ,narrative of the ,adventures and ,sufferings of ,john ,r4 ,jewitt1 p4 #aag 7,middletown1 #ahbj71 p4 #acc 7,edinburgh1 #ahbd74 #cei ,stephen ,kay1 ,travels and ,researches in ,caffraria 7,london1 #ahcc71 p4 #ach4 #cfj ,alberti1 ,de ,kaffers aan de ,zuidkust van ,afrika 7,amsterdam1 #ahaj71 p4 #ie4 ,alberti's information is repeated by ,lichtenstein 7,reisen im sdlichen ,afrika1 i4 #dab71 and by ,rose 7,four ,years in ,southern ,africa1 p4 #aee74 ,the burial of the trunk is also mentioned by ,kay1 l4c4 #cfa ,jerome ,becker1 ,la ,vie en ,afrique 7,paris and ,brussels1 #ahhg71 ii4 #bih sq4 #cje4 #cfb ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 ii4 #bdc4 #cfc ,im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana1 p4 #ceb4 #cfd ,mouhot1 ,travels in the ,central ,parts of ,indo-,china1 i4 #beb2 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #dbb4 #cfe ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 v4 #dbj4 #cff ,j4 ,g4 ,gmelin1 ,reise durch ,sibirien1 ii4 #bgh4 #cfg ,w4 ,dall1 ,alaska and its ,resources1 p4 #hi4 #cfh ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcd1 p4 #bd1 ed4 #aheh4 ,nets are regarded by the ,indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat1 speak1 and marry wives4 ,sagard1 ,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des ,hurons1 p4 #bef 7p4 #agh sq4 of the ,paris reprint1 ,librairie ,tross1 #ahfe72 ,s4 ,hearne1 ,journey to the ,northern ,ocean1 p4 #cbi sq42 ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcf1 p4 #aji2 ib4 #afci1 p4 #ie2 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 v4 #bbe2 ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique1 p4 #adj sqq4 #cfi ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique1 pp4 #age1 #agh4 ,they will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground1 or their luck in hunting them would be gone4 ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcc1 p4 #ba4 ,compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground1 above1 vol4 i4 p4 #agi sqq4 #cgj ,hennepin1 ,nouveau voyage d'un pais plus grand que l',europe 7,utrecht1 #afih71 p4 #ada sq42 ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcf1 p4 #aji2 ,sagard1 ,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des ,hurons1 p4 #bee 7p4 #agh of the ,paris reprint74 ,not quite consistently the ,canadian ,indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase1 lest any should escape to warn their fellows 7,sagard1 l4c47 #cga ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 viii4 #cci4 #cgb ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 iii4 #bcj4 #cgc ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcd1 p4 #bf4 #cgd ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 v4 #ddc4 #cge ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas1 ,first ,part1 bk4 i4 ch4 #aj1 vol4 i4 p4 #di sq41 ,hakluyt ,society4 ,cp4 id41 ii4 p4 #adh4 #cgf ,relations des ,jsuites1 #affg1 p4 #ab4 #cgg ,sagard1 ,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des ,hurons1 p4 #bee sqq4 7p4 #agh sqq4 of the ,paris reprint74 #cgh ,schleiden1 ,das ,salz1 p4 #dg4 ,for this reference ,i am indebted to my friend ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 #cgi ,w4 ,powell1 ,wanderings in a ,wild ,country1 p4 #ff sq4 #chj ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui2 or1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 p4 #bjj2 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand1 i4 #bjb2 ,e4 ,tregear1 8,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand10 ,journal ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xix4 #aji4 #cha ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilisation1#d1 p4 #bgg1 quoting ,metlahkatlah1 p4 #if4 #chb ,w4 ,dall1 ,alaska and its ,resources1 p4 #dac4 #chc ,stephen ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california1 p4 #ca sq4 #chd ,alex4 ,ross1 ,adventures of the ,first ,settlers on the ,oregon or ,columbia ,river1 p4 #ig4 #che ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 iv4 #cbd1 v4 #aai1 where it is said1 8a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon2 and in order to prevent this1 they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it40 #chf ,h4 ,c4 ,st4 ,john1 8,the ,ainos10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 ii4 #bec2 id4 ,notes and ,sketches from the ,wild ,coasts of ,nipon1 p4 #bg sq4 #chg ,scheffer1 ,lapponia1 p4 #bdb sq42 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 vii4 #bjg2 ,revue d',ethnographie1 ii4 #cjh sq4 #chh ,james1 ,expedition from ,pittsburgh to the ,rocky ,mountains1 i4 #beg4 #chi ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bgh4 #cij ,keating1 ,expedition to the ,source of ,st4 ,peter's ,river1 i4 #deb4 #cia ,e4 ,j4 ,jessen1 ,de ,finnorum ,lapponumque ,norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis1 pp4 #df sq41 #eb sq41 #fe4 ,the work of ,jessen is bound up 7paged separately7 with the work of ,c4 ,leem1 ,de ,lapponibus ,finmarchiae eorumque lingua1 vita1 et religione pristina commentatio 7,latin and ,danish71 ,copenhagen1 #agfg4 ,compare ,leem's work1 pp4 #dah-dbj 7,latin71 #dbh sq41 also ,acerbi1 ,travels through ,sweden1 ,finnland1 and ,lapland1 ii4 #cjb4 #cib ,steller1 ,beschreibung von dem ,lande ,kamtschatka1 p4 #bfi2 ,kraschennikow1 ,kamtschatka1 p4 #bdf4 #cic ,see ,erman1 referred to above1 p4 #aaa sq42 ,gmelin1 ,reise durch ,sibirien1 i4 #bgd1 ii4 #ahb sq41 #bad2 ,vambery1 ,das ,trkenvolk1 p4 #aah sq4 ,when a fox1 the sacred animal of the ,conchucos in ,peru1 had been killed1 its skin was stuffed and set up4 ,bastian1 ,die ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 i4 #ddc4 ,cp4 the bouphonia1 above1 p4 #ch sq4 #cid ,at the annual sacrifice of the ,white ,dog1 the ,iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones4 ,the dog was afterwards burned4 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,league of the ,iroquois1 p4 #baj4 ,it is a rule with some of the ,australian blacks that in killing the native bear they must not break his bones4 ,they say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river1 and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him1 he would do so again4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #ddg sqq4 ,when the ,tartars whom ,carpini visited killed animals for eating1 they might not break their bones but burned them with fire4 ,carpini1 ,historia ,mongalorum 7,paris1 #ahch71 cap4 iii4 i4 #b1 p4 #fbj4 ,north ,american ,indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts4 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 vi4 #gb4 ,in the war feast held by ,indian warriors after leaving home1 a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten4 ,no bone of it might be broken4 ,after being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree4 ,narrative of the ,captivity and ,adventures of ,john ,tanner1 p4 #bhg4 ,on ,st4 ,olaf's ,day 7#bith ,july7 the ,karels of ,finland kill a lamb1 without using a knife1 and roast it whole4 ,none of its bones may be broken4 ,the lamb has not been shorn since spring4 ,some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits1 some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as ,may-trees next year4 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #afj sq4 note4 ,the ,innuit 7,esquimaux7 of ,point ,barrow1 ,alaska1 carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea1 either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice4 ,by doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals4 ,report of the ,international ,expedition to ,point ,barrow1 ,alaska 7,washington1 #ahhe71 p4 #dj4 ,in this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again4 ,the ,mosquito ,indians of ,central ,america carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs1 lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear4 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 i4 #gda4 ,the ,yurucares of ,bolivia 8carefully put by even small fish bones1 saying that unless this is done the fish and game will disappear from the country40 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bgh4 #cie ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcd1 p4 #be1 ed4 #aheh2 ,a4 ,mackenzie1 ,voyages through the ,continent of ,america1 civ2 ,j4 ,dunn1 ,history of the ,oregon ,territory1 p4 #ii2 ,whymper in ,journ4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 xxxviii4 7#ahfh7 p4 #bbh2 id4 in ,transact4 ,ethnolog4 ,soc4 vii4 #agd2 ,a4 ,p4 ,reid1 8,religious ,belief of the ,ojibois ,indians10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 iii4 #aaa4 ,after a meal the ,indians of ,costa ,rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs4 ,w4 ,m4 ,gabb1 ,on the ,indian ,tribes and ,languages of ,costa ,rica 7read before the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 #bjth ,aug4 #ahge71 p4 #ebj 7,philadelphia1 #ahge74 ,the fact that the bones are often burned to prevent the dogs getting them does not contradict the view suggested in the text4 ,it may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land4 ,the aborigines of ,australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat1 but for a different reason2 they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms1 it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal4 ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 pp4 #bd1 #aif4 #cif ,mannhardt1 ,germanische ,mythen1 pp4 #eg-gd2 id41 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #aaf2 ,cosquin1 ,contes populaires de ,lorraine1 ii4 #be2 ,hartland1 8,the physicians of ,myddfai10 ,archaeological ,review1 i4 #cj sq4 ,in folk-tales1 as in primitive custom1 the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground4 ,see ,cosquin1 l4c4 #cig ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,germ4 ,myth4 p4 #ff4 #cih ,jamblichus1 ,vita ,pythag4 #ib1 #ace1 #adj2 ,porphyry1 ,vit4 ,pythag4 #bh4 #cii ,pindar1 ,olymp4 i4 #cg sqq41 with the ,scholiast4 #djj ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ah4 ,this is one of the sacred stories which the pious ,herodotus 7ii4 #dh7 concealed and the pious ,plutarch divulged4 #dja ,adam ,hodgson1 ,letters from ,north ,america1 i4 #bdd4 #djb ,adair1 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #acg sq4 #djc ,petitot1 ,monographie des ,dn-,dindji8 7,paris1 #ahfg71 pp4 #gg1 #ha sq42 id41 ,traditions indiennes du ,canada ,nord-ouest 7,paris1 #ahhf71 p4 #acb sqq41 cp4 pp4 #da1 #gf1 #bac1 #bfd4 #djd ,the first part of this suggestion is that of my friend ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 ,see his ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,semites1 first series1 p4 #cfj1 note #b4 ,the ,faleshas1 a ,jewish sect of ,abyssinia1 after killing an animal for food1 8carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh40 ,halvy1 8,travels in ,abyssinia10 in ,publications of the ,society of ,hebrew ,literature1 second series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj4 #dje ,it seems to be a common custom with hunters to cut out the tongues of the animals which they kill4 ,omaha hunters remove the tongue of a slain buffalo through an opening made in the animal's throat4 ,the tongues thus removed are sacred and may not touch any tool or metal except when they are boiling in the kettles at the sacred tent4 ,they are eaten as sacred food4 ,third ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington71 p4 #bhi sq4 ,indian bear-hunters cut out what they call the bear's little tongue 7a fleshy mass under the real tongue7 and keep it for good luck in hunting or burn it to determine from its crackling1 etc41 whether the soul of the slain bear is angry with them or not4 ,kohl1 ,kitschi-,gami1 ii4 #bea sq42 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 v4 #agc2 ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique1 pp4 #agi sq41 #ahd4 ,in folk-tales the hero commonly cuts out the tongue of the wild beast which he has slain and preserves it as a token4 ,the incident serves to show that the custom was a common one1 since folk-tales reflect with accuracy the customs and beliefs of a primitive age4 ,for examples of the incident1 see ,blade1 ,contes populaires recueillis en ,agenais1 pp4 #ab1 #ad2 ,dasent1 ,tales from the ,norse1 p4 #acc sq4 78,shortshanks072 ,schleicher1 ,litauische ,mrchen2 ,sepp1 ,altbayerischer ,sagenschatz1 p4 #aad2 ,khler on ,gonzenbach's ,sicilianische ,mrchen1 ii4 #bcj2 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #ac1 #c2 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #ec2 ,poestion1 ,lapplandische ,mrchen1 p4 #bca sq4 ,it may be suggested that the cutting out of the tongues is a precaution to prevent the slain animals from telling their fate to the live animals and thus frightening away the latter4 ,at least this explanation harmonises with the primitive modes of thought revealed in the foregoing customs4 #djf ,holzmayer1 ,osiliana1 p4 #aje note4 #djg ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #ae sq4 #djh ,e4 ,krause1 8,aberglaubische ,kuren und sonstiger ,aberglaube in ,berlin10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xv4 7#ahhc7 p4 #ic4 #dji ,geoponica1 xiii4 #e4 ,according to the commentator1 the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour's1 but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer's own land4 #daj ,r4 van ,eck1 8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,n4,s4 viii4 7#ahgi7 p4 #abe4 #daa ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1 #dje4 #dab ,lagarde1 ,reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae1 p4 #ace4 ,for this passage ,i am indebted to my friend ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 who kindly translated it for me from the ,syriac4 #dac ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bee4 #dad ,compare ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #bhj1 with the customs referred to in the following note4 #dae ,catlin1 ,o-,kee-pa1 ,folium reservatum2 ,lewis and ,clarke1 ,travels to the ,source of the ,missouri ,river 7,london1 #ahae71 i4 #bje sq4 #daf ,a4 ,bastian1 in ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie1 und ,urgeschichte1 #ahgj-ga1 p4 #ei4 ,reinegg 7,beschreibung des ,kaukasus1 ii4 #ab sq47 describes what seems to be a sacrament of the ,abghazses 7,abchases74 ,it takes place in the middle of autumn4 ,a white ox called ,ogginn appears from a holy cave1 which is also called ,ogginn4 ,it is caught and led about amongst the assembled men 7women are excluded7 amid joyful cries4 ,then it is killed and eaten4 ,any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate4 ,the bones are then carefully collected1 burned in a great hole1 and the ashes buried there4 #dag ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 vi4 #fcb note4 ,on the ,kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton1 see ,georgi1 ,beschreibung aller ,nationen des russischen ,reichs1 p4 #djf sq41 cp4 #bjg2 ,b4 ,bergmann1 ,nomadische ,streifereien unter den ,kalmcken1 ii4 #hj sqq41 #abb2 ,pallas1 ,reise durch verschiedene ,provinzen des russischen ,reichs1 i4 #cai1 #cbe4 ,according to ,pallas1 it is only rich ,kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating2 ordinary ,kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings4 ,it is1 therefore1 especially the rich who need to make expiation4 #dah ,w4 ,e4 ,marshall1 ,travels amongst the ,todas1 p4 #abi sq4 ,on the ,todas1 see also above1 vol4 i4 p4 #da4 #dai ,marshall1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hj sq4 #acj4 #dbj ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 8,notes on the ,madi or ,moru tribe of ,central ,africa10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 xii4 7#ahhb-hd7 p4 #ccf sq4 #dba ,the fact that the flesh of sheep appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food 7,felkin1 op4 cit4 p4 #cjg71 is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep4 #dbb ,see ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 p4 #cbe sq4 #dbc ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #eee4 #dbd ,see ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 iii4 #aie sq41 ,bohn's ed42 ,swainson1 ,folk-lore of ,british ,birds1 p4 #cf2 ,e4 ,rolland1 ,faune populaire de la ,france1 ii4 #bhh sqq4 ,the names for it are 1 regulus1 rex avium 7,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #ij2 x4 #bjc71 re di siepe1 reyezuelo1 roitelet1 roi des oiseaux1 ,zaunknig1 etc4 #dbe ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 iii4 #aid4 #dbf ,chambers1 ,popular ,rhymes of ,scotland1 p4 #ahh4 #dbg ,ib4 p4 #ahf4 #dbh ,p4 ,sbillot1 ,traditions et ,superstitions de la ,haute ,bretagne1 ii4 #bad4 #dbi ,rolland1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bid sq42 ,sbillot1 l4c42 ,swainson1 op4 cit4 p4 #db4 #dcj ,g4 ,waldron1 ,description of the ,isle of ,man 7reprinted for the ,manx ,society1 ,douglas1 #ahfe71 p4 #di sqq42 ,j4 ,train1 ,account of the ,isle of ,man1 ii4 #abd sqq4 #ada4 #dca ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 iii4 #aie2 ,swainson1 ,folk-lore of ,british ,birds1 p4 #cf sq42 ,rolland1 ,faune populaire de la ,france1 ii4 #big2 ,professor ,w4 ,ridgeway in ,academy1 #ajth ,may #ahhd1 p4 #ccb2 ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #dig4 #dcb ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 p4 #abe4 #dcc ,swainson1 op4 cit4 p4 #dj sq4 #dcd ,rolland1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bie sq42 ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #dcg sq4 #dce ,rolland1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bif sq4 #dcf ,brand's ,popular ,antiquities1 iii4 #aih4 ,the 8hunting of the wren0 may be compared with a ,swedish custom4 ,on the #ast of ,may children rob the magpies' nests of both eggs and young4 ,these they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and show them to the housewives1 while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that1 if a present is not given1 the hens1 chickens1 and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie4 ,they receive bacon1 eggs1 milk1 etc41 upon which they afterwards feast4 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bcg sq4 ,the resemblance of such customs to the 8swallow song0 and 8crow song0 of the ancient ,greeks 7on which see ,athenaeus1 pp4 #cei1 #cfj7 is obvious and has been remarked before now4 ,probably the ,greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them4 ,in modern ,greece it is said to be still customary for children on #ast ,march to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow1 which is kept turning on a cylinder4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fcf4 #dcg ,john ,ramsay1 ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 ii4 #dch sq42 cp4 ,chambers1 ,popular ,rhymes of ,scotland1 p4 #aff sq42 ,samuel ,johnson1 ,journey to the ,western ,islands of ,scotland1 p4 #bbh sq4 7first ,american edition1 #ahaj74 ,the custom is clearly referred to in the 8,penitential of ,theodore10 quoted by ,kemble1 ,saxons in ,england1 i4 #ebe2 ,elton1 ,origins of ,english ,history1 p4 #daa2 8,si quis in ,kal4 ,januar4 in cervulo vel vitula vadit1 id est in ferarum habitus se communicant1 et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum10 etc4 #dch ,chambers1 l4c4 #dci ,such are the ,bohemian processions at the ,carnival when a man called the ,shrovetide ,bear1 swathed from head to foot in peas-straw and sometimes wearing a bear's mask1 is led from house to house4 ,he dances with the women of the house1 and collects money and food4 ,then they go to the alehouse1 where all the peasants assemble with their wives4 ,for at the ,carnival1 especially on ,shrove ,tuesday1 it is necessary that every one should dance1 if the flax1 the corn1 and the vegetables are to grow well4 ,the higher they leap the better will be the crops4 ,sometimes the women pull out some of the straw in which the ,shrovetide ,bear is swathed1 and put it in the nests of the geese and fowls1 believing that this will make them lay well4 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #di-eb4 ,on similar customs1 see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 pp4 #ahc-bjj4 #ddj ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 pp4 #bff sq41 #cje1 #ceg sq42 cp4 id4 pp4 #ada1 #cdj4 #dda ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #ei4 #ddb ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #aag4 #ddc ,john ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south ,africa 7second journey71 ii4 #bjg sq4 #ddd ,ellis1 ,history of ,madagascar1 i4 #dbb sq42 cp4 id4 pp4 #bcb1 #dce1 #dcf sq42 ,sibree1 ,the ,great ,african ,island1 p4 #cjc sq4 #dde ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cgd2 ,sibree1 op4 cit4 p4 #cjd2 ,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1 iii4 #bfc4 #ddf ,kdding1 8,die ,batakschen ,gtter10 ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xii4 7#ahhe7 #dgh4 #ddg ,leviticus xiv4 #g1 #ec4 ,for a similar use in ,arabia see ,wellhausen1 ,reste arabischen ,heidentumes1 p4 #aef2 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #djb4 #ddh ,r4 ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallele und ,vergleiche1 p4 #bi sq4 #ddi ,a4 ,leared1 ,morocco and the ,moors1 p4 #cja4 #dej ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10 in ,journ4 ,straits ,branch ,royal ,asiatic ,soc4 ,no4 #aj1 p4 #bcb4 #dea ,s4 ,mateer1 ,native ,life in ,travancore1 p4 #acf4 #deb ,h4 ,harkness1 ,singular ,aboriginal ,race of the ,neilgherry ,hills1 p4 #acc2 ,metz1 ,the ,tribes ,inhabiting the ,neilgherry ,hills1 p4 #gh2 ,jagor1 8,ueber die ,badagas im ,nilgiri-,gebirge10 ,verhandl4 d4 ,berlin4 ,gesell4 f4 ,anthropol4 7#ahgf71 p4 #aif sq4 ,for the custom of letting a bullock go loose after a death1 compare also ,grierson1 ,bihar ,peasant ,life1 p4 #dji2 ,ibbetson1 ,settlement ,report of the ,panipat1 ,tahsil1 and ,karnal ,parganah of the ,karnal district 7,allahabad1 #ahhc7 p4 #acg4 ,in the latter case it is said that the animal is let loose 8to become a pest40 ,perhaps the older idea was that the animal carried away death from the survivors4 ,the idea of sin is not primitive4 #dec ,geoponica1 xiii4 #i1 xv4 #a2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #aee4 ,the authorities for these cures are respectively ,apuleius and ,democritus4 ,the latter is probably not the atomic philosopher4 ,see ,archaeological ,review1 i4 #ahj1 note4 #ded ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #hf4 #dee ,plato1 ,laws1 xi4 c4 #ab1 p4 #icc ,b4 #def ,ch4 ,rogers1 ,social ,life in ,scotland1 iii4 #bbf4 #deg ,g4 ,lammert1 ,volkmedizin und medizinischer ,aberglaube in ,bayern1 p4 #bfd4 #deh ,ib4 p4 #bfc4 #dei ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1 i4 #he4 #dfj ,carl ,meyer1 ,der ,aberglaube des ,mittelalters1 p4 #ajd4 #dfa ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #igi4 #dfb ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 p4 #adc4 ,collections of cures by transference will be found in ,strackerjan's work1 cited above1 i4 #he sqq42 ,w4 ,g4 ,black1 ,folk-medicine1 ch4 ii4 ,cp4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 c4 #cf4 #dfc ,blackwood's ,magazine1 ,february #ahhf1 p4 #bci4 #dfd ,aubrey1 ,remains of ,gentilisme and ,judaisme 7,folk-lore ,society1 #ahha71 p4 #ce sq4 #dfe ,bagford's letter in ,leland's ,collectanea1 i4 #gf1 quoted by ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bdf sq41 ,bohn's ed4 #dff ,in the ,academy1 #acth ,nov4 #ahge1 p4 #eje1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,silvan ,evans stated that he knew of no such custom anywhere in ,wales2 and ,miss ,burne knows no example of it in ,shropshire4 ,burne and ,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore1 p4 #cjg sq4 #dfg ,the authority for the statement is a ,mr4 ,moggridge1 reported in ,archaeologia ,cambrensis1 second series1 iii4 #ccj4 ,but ,mr4 ,moggridge did not speak from personal knowledge1 and as he appears to have taken it for granted that the practice of placing bread and salt upon the breast of a corpse was a survival of the custom of 8sin-eating10 his evidence must be received with caution4 ,he repeated his statement1 in somewhat vaguer terms1 at a meeting of the ,anthropological ,institute1 #adth ,december #ahge4 ,see ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 v4 #dbc sq4 #dfh ,dubois1 ,moeurs des ,peuples de l',inde1 ii4 #cb4 #dfi ,r4 ,richardson1 in ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 ,no4 #fgd4 #dgj ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 ,no4 #fgd2 ii4 ,no4 #eei4 ,some of these customs have been already referred to in a different connection4 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bcb4 #dga ,op4 cit4 iii4 ,no4 #gde4 #dgb ,e4 ,schuyler1 ,turkistan1 ii4 #bh4 #dgc ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana1 p4 #cef sq4 #dgd ,paul ,reina1 8,ueber die ,bewohner der ,insel ,rook10 ,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde1 ,n4 ,f4 iv4 #cef4 #dge ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,im ,bismarck-,archipel1 p4 #adb4 #dgf ,p4 ,n4 ,wilken1 8,de godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der ,alfoeren in de ,menahassa op het eiland ,celebes10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,december #ahdi1 pp4 #cib-cid2 id41 8,bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der ,alfoeren in de ,minahassa10 ,mededeelingen v4 w4 het ,nederland4 ,zendelinggenootsch4 vii4 7#ahfc7 #adi sqq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 8,de ,minahasa in #ahbe10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xviii4 7#ahgb71 #eba sq4 ,wilken's first and fuller account is reprinted in ,graafland's ,de ,minahassa1 i4 #aag-abj4 #dgg ,riedel1 8,galela und ,tobeloresen10 in ,zeitschrift f4 ,ethnologie1 xvii4 7#ahhe7 #hb2 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,het ,shamanisme bij de ,volken van de ,indischen ,archipel1 p4 #eh4 #dgh ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #bci4 #dgi ,nieuwenhuisen en ,rosenberg1 ,verslag omtrent het eiland ,nias1 p4 #aaf sq41 ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel1 p4 #agd sq4 ,cp4 ,chatelin1 8,godsdienst en ,bijgeloof der ,niassers10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxvi4 #aci4 ,the ,dyaks also drive the devil at the point of the sword from a house where there is sickness4 ,see ,hupe1 8,korte verhandeling over de godsdienst1 zeden1 enz4 der ,dajakkers0 in ,tijdschrift voor ,nerland's ,indi1 viii4 7#ahdf7 dl4 iii4 p4 #adi4 #dhj ,forbes1 ,british ,burma1 p4 #bcc2 ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 i4 #bhb1 ii4 #aje sqq42 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #ih4 #dha ,lewin1 ,wild ,tribes of ,south-,eastern ,india1 p4 #bbf4 #dhb ,hecquard1 ,reise an die ,kste und in das ,innere von ,west ,afrika1 p4 #dc4 #dhc ,sagard1 ,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des ,hurons1 p4 #bgi sqq4 7#aie sq4 of the ,paris reprint74 ,compare ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afci1 pp4 #hh-ib 7,canadian reprint71 from which it appears that each man demanded the subject of his dream in the form of a riddle1 which the hearers tried to solve4 ,the propounding of riddles is not uncommon as a superstitious observance4 ,probably enigmas were originally a kind of divination4 ,cp4 ,vambery1 ,das ,trkenvolk1 p4 #bcb sq42 ,riedel1 ,de sluiken kroesharige rassen1 etc4 p4 #bfg sq4 ,in ,bolang ,mongondo 7,celebes7 riddles may never be asked except when there is a corpse in the village4 ,n4 ,p4 ,wilken en ,j4 ,a4 ,schwarz1 8,allerlei over het land en volk van ,bolang ,mongondou10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsch4 ,zendelinggenootschap1 xi4 7#ahfg7 p4 #ceg4 #dhd ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley1 in ,j4 ,d4 ,lang's ,queensland1 p4 #dda2 cp4 ,ridley1 ,kamilaroi1 p4 #adi4 #dhe ,report of the ,international ,polar ,expedition to ,point ,barrow1 ,alaska 7,washington1 #ahhe71 p4 #db sq4 #dhf ,franz ,boas1 8,the ,eskimo10 ,proceedings and ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada for #ahhg1 vol4 v4 7,montreal1 #ahhh71 sect4 ii4 #cf sq4 #dhg ,above1 p4 #afb4 #dhh ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 vi4 #hb sqq42 ,timothy ,dwight1 ,travels in ,new ,england and ,new ,york1 iv4 #bja sq42 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,league of the ,iroquois1 p4 #bjg sqq42 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,a4 ,smith1 8,myths of the ,iroquois10 ,second ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhc71 p4 #aab sqq42 ,horatio ,hale1 8,iroquois sacrifice of the ,white ,dog10 ,american ,antiquarian1 vii4 #g sqq42 ,w4 ,m4 ,beauchamp1 8,iroquois ,white ,dog feast10 ib4 p4 #bce sqq4 #dhi ,squier's notes upon ,bartram's ,creek and ,cherokee ,indians1 p4 #gh1 from the ,,ms4 of ,mr4 ,payne4 ,see above1 p4 #ge note4 #dij ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas1 pt4 i4 bk4 vii4 ch4 #f1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbh sqq41 ,markham's translation2 ,molina1 8,fables and ,rites of the ,yncas10 in ,rites and ,laws of the ,yncas 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahgc71 p4 #bj sqq42 ,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 bk4 v4 ch4 #bh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cge sq4 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahhj74 ,the accounts of ,garcilasso and ,molina are somewhat discrepant1 but this may be explained by the statement of the latter that 8in one year they added1 and in another they reduced the number of ceremonies1 according to circumstances40 ,molina places the festival in ,august1 ,garcilasso and ,acosta in ,september4 ,according to ,garcilasso there were only four runners in ,cuzco2 according to ,molina there were four hundred4 ,acosta's account is very brief4 ,in the description given in the text features have been borrowed from all three accounts1 where these seemed consistent with each other4 #dia ,bosman's 8,guinea10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #djb4 ,cp4 ,pierre ,bouche1 ,la ,cte des ,esclaves1 p4 #cie4 #dib ,s4 ,crowther and ,j4 ,c4 ,taylor4 ,the ,gospel on the ,banks of the ,niger1 p4 #cbj4 #dic ,mansfield ,parkyns1 ,life in ,abyssinia1 p4 #bhe sqq4 #did ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #aif sq4 #die ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #ajc4 #dif ,w4 ,macpherson1 ,memorials of ,service in ,india1 p4 #ceg sq4 ,possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate expulsions1 the devils being driven out upon the car4 ,perhaps1 however1 the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually carted away4 ,anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an agricultural festival4 #dig ,r4 van ,eck1 8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,n4 ,s4 viii4 7#ahgi7 #eh-fj4 ,van ,eck's account is reprinted in ,j4 ,jacobs's ,eenigen tijd onder de ,balirs 7,batavia1 #ahhc71 p4 #aij sqq4 #dih ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 by ,h4 ,hale1 p4 #fg sq42 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #ij sq4 ,according to the latter1 the sea-slug was eaten by the men alone1 who lived during the four days in the temple1 while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses4 #dii ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 v4 #cfg4 #ejj ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #gib2 ,d4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,outlines of ,panjab ,ethnography1 p4 #aai4 #eja ,baron1 8,description of the ,kingdom of ,tonqueen10 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 #fgc1 #fie sq42 cp4 ,richard1 8,history of ,tonquin10 ib4 p4 #gdf4 ,the account of the ceremony by ,tavernier 7whom ,baron criticises very unfavourably7 is somewhat different4 ,according to him the expulsion of wicked souls at the ,new ,year is combined with sacrifice to the honoured dead4 ,see ,harris1 ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #hbc4 #ejb ,aymonier1 ,notice sur le ,cambodge1 p4 #fb4 #ejc ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #bcg1 #bih1 #cad1 #ebi sq42 ,pallegoix1 ,royaume ,thai ou ,siam1 i4 #beb4 ,bastian 7p4 #cad71 with whom ,pallegoix seems to agree1 distinctly states that the expulsion takes place on the last day of the year4 ,yet both state that it occurs in the fourth month of the year4 ,according to ,pallegoix 7i4 #bec7 the ,siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months1 and the first month usually begins in ,december4 ,hence the expulsion of devils would commonly take place in ,march1 as in ,cambodia4 #ejd ,j4 ,anderson1 ,mandalay to ,momien1 p4 #cjh4 #eje ,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjken1 p4 #aec sq4 #ejf ,bastian1 ,der ,mensch in der ,geschichte1 ii4 #id4 #ejg ,j4 ,g4 von ,hahn1 ,albanesische ,studien1 i4 #afj4 ,cp4 above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgf4 #ejh ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della ,calabria ,citeriore1 p4 #db sq4 #eji ,von ,alpenburg1 ,mythen und ,sagen ,tirols1 p4 #bfj sq4 ,a ,westphalian form of the expulsion of evil is the driving out the ,sntevgel1 ,sunnenvgel1 or ,sommervgel1 i4e41 the butterfly4 ,on ,st4 ,peter's ,day1 #bb;d ,february1 children go from house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing doggerel rhymes in which they bid the ,sommervgel to depart4 ,presents are given to them at every house4 ,or the people of the house themselves go through all the rooms1 knocking on all the doors1 to drive away the ,sunnenvgel4 ,if this ceremony is omitted1 it is thought that various misfortunes will be the consequence4 ,the house will swarm with rats1 mice1 and other vermin1 the cattle will be sick1 the butterflies will multiply at the milk-bowls1 etc4 ,woeste1 ,volksberlieferungen in der ,grafschaft ,mark1 p4 #bd2 ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #hg2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,westflische ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen1 ii4 #cff-cgd2 ,montanus1 ,die deutschen ,volksfeste1 ,volksbruche1 etc41 p4 #ba sq42 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und ,viehzucht1 pp4 #id-if4 #eaj ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 in ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4 ,f4 xxx4 #aih4 #eaa ,s4 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california1 p4 #aei4 #eab ,g4 ,catlin1 ,north ,american ,indians1 i4 #aff sqq42 id41 ,o-kee-pa1 a ,religious ,ceremony1 and other ,customs of the ,mandans4 #eac ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #agb4 ,cp4 above1 p4 #agh4 #ead ,a4 ,bastian1 in ,verhandl4 d4 ,berlin4 ,gesellsch4 f4 ,anthropol4 #ahha1 p4 #aea2 cp4 id41 ,vlkerstmme am ,brahmaputra1 p4 #f sq4 ,amongst the ,chukmas of ,south-east ,india the body of a priest is conveyed to the place of cremation on a car2 ropes are attached to the car1 the people divide themselves into two equal bodies and pull at the ropes in opposite directions4 8,one side represents the good spirits2 the other1 the powers of evil4 ,the contest is so arranged that the former are victorious4 ,sometimes1 however1 the young men representing the demons are inclined to pull too vigorously1 but a stick generally quells this unseemly ardour in the cause of evil40 ,lewin1 ,wild ,tribes of ,south-,eastern ,india1 p4 #ahe4 ,the contest is like that between the angels and devils depicted in the frescoes of the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa4 ,in ,burma a similar contest takes place at the funeral of a holy man2 but there the original meaning of the ceremony appears to be forgotten4 ,see ,sangermano1 ,description of the ,burmese ,empire 7ed4 #ahhe71 p4 #ih2 ,forbes1 ,british ,burma1 p4 #baf sq42 ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 ii4 #ccd sq41 #cdb4 ,sometimes ceremonies of this sort are instituted for a different purpose4 ,in some ,east ,indian islands when the people want a rainy wind from the west1 the population of the village1 men1 women1 and children1 divide into two parties and pull against each other at the ends of a long bamboo4 ,but the party at the eastern end must pull the harder1 in order to draw the desired wind out of the west4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #bhb4 ,the ,cingalese perform a ceremony like 8,french and ,english0 in honour of the goddess ,patin4 ,forbes1 ,eleven ,years in ,ceylon 7,london1 #ahdj71 i4 #ceh4 #eae ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #agd4 #eaf ,franois ,valentyn1 ,oud-en nieuw ,ost-,indin1 iii4 #ad4 ,backer1 ,l',archipel ,indien1 p4 #cgg sq41 copies from ,valentyn4 #eag ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #cjd sq4 #eah ,ib4 p4 #be sq4 #eai ,ib4 p4 #ada4 #ebj ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #gh4 #eba ,ib4 p4 #ceg4 #ebb ,ib4 pp4 #bff1 #cjd sq41 #cbg1 #ceg4 ,for other examples of sending away disease-laden boats in these islands1 ib4 pp4 #aha1 #baj2 ,van ,eck1 8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,n4,s4 viii4 7#ahgi7 p4 #ajd2 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #adg2 ,hupe1 8,korte verhandeling over de godsdienst1 zeden1 enz4 der ,dajakkers10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nerland's ,indi1 #ahdf1 dl4 iii4 #aej2 ,campen1 8,de godsdienstbegrippen der ,halmaherasche ,alfoeren10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxvii4 7#ahhb7 p4 #dda2 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #ab1 pp4 #bbi-bca2 ,van ,hasselt1 ,volksbeschrijving van ,midden-,sumatra1 p4 #ih4 #ebc ,j4 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du monde et la recherche de ,la ,prouse1 sur la corvette ,astrolabe1 v4 #caa4 #ebd ,roepstorff1 8,ein ,geisterboot der ,nicobaresen10 ,verhandl4 der ,berlin4 ,gesellsch4 f4 ,anthropologie 7#ahha71 p4 #dja4 ,for ,siamese applications of the same principle to the cure of individuals1 see ,bastian1 ,die ,volker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #bie sq41 #dhe sq4 #ebe ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 ,no4 #dah4 #ebf ,id4 iii4 ,no4 #cgc4 #ebg ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #aabg4 #ebh ,id4 ii4 ,no4 #aabc4 #ebi ,f4 ,fawcett1 8,on the ,saoras 7or ,savaras710 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4 ,bombay1 i4 #bac note4 #ecj ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4 ,bombay1 i4 #cg4 #eca ,r4 ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen und ,vergleiche 7first series71 p4 #cj4 #ecb ,j4 ,h4 ,gray1 ,china1 ii4 #cjf4 #ecc ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #eih4 #ecd ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #cic4 #ece ,bastian1 ,der ,mensch in der ,geschichte1 ii4 #ic4 #ecf ,id4 ii4 #ia4 #ecg ,asiatic ,researches1 ix4 #if sq4 #ech ,j4 ,h4 ,gray1 ,china1 ii4 #cjf sq4 #eci ,t4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 ,impressions of ,western ,africa1 p4 #afb4 #edj ,bogle and ,manning1 ,tibet1 edited by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 p4 #ajf sq4 #eda ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 8,notes on the ,history of ,religion in the ,himalaya of the ,north-,west ,provinces10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 liii4 pt4 i4 7#ahhd71 p4 #fb4 #edb ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 from the ,,mss4 of ,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre1 edited by ,alex4 ,allardyce 7,edinburgh1 #ahhh71 ii4 #dci4 #edc ,w4 ,m4 ,beauchamp1 8,the ,iroquois ,white ,dog ,feast10 ,american ,antiquarian1 vii4 #bcg4 #edd ,ib4 p4 #bcf2 ,t4 ,dwight1 ,travels in ,new ,england and ,new ,york1 iv4 #bjb4 #ede ,above1 p4 #afe sq4 #edf ,leviticus xvi4 ,modern ,jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of the ,festival of ,expiation1 nine days after the beginning of their ,new ,year4 ,the father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his own head1 saying1 8,let this cock be a substitute for me1 let it take my place1 let death be laid upon this cock1 but a happy life bestowed on me and on all ,israel40 ,then he cuts its throat and dashes the bird violently on the ground4 ,the intestines are thrown on the roof of the house4 ,the flesh of the cock was formerly given to the poor4 ,buxtorf1 ,synagoga ,judaica1 c4 xxv4 #edg ,s4 ,crowther and ,j4 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,the ,gospel on the ,banks of the ,niger1 pp4 #cdc-cde4 ,cp4 ,j4 ,f4 ,schon and ,s4 ,crowther1 ,journals1 p4 #dh sq4 ,the account of the custom by ,j4 ,africanus ,b4 ,horton 7,west ,african ,countries and ,peoples p4 #ahe sq47 is entirely from ,taylor4 #edh ,turpin1 8,history of ,siam10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 #egi4 #edi ,kdding1 8,die ,bataksche ,gtter10 ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xii4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #dgf1 #dgh4 #eej ,the ceremony referred to is probably the one performed on the tenth day1 as described in the text4 #eea 8,report of a ,route ,survey by ,pundit--from ,nepal to ,lhasa10 etc41 ,journal ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 xxxviii4 7#ahfh7 pp4 #afg1 #agj sq42 8,four ,years' ,journeying through ,great ,tibet1 by one of the ,trans-,himalayan ,explorers10 ,proceed4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 ,n4,s4 vii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #fg sq4 #eeb ,aeneas ,sylvius1 ,opera 7,ble1 #aega71 p4 #dbc sq4 #eec ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f4 xxx4 #aih4 #eed ,j4 ,thomas ,phillips1 ,account of the ,religion1 ,manners1 and ,learning of the ,people of ,malabar1 pp4 #f1 #ab sq4 #eee ,herodotus1 ii4 #ci4 #eef ,herodotus1 ii4 #ch-da2 ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 iii4 #djc sqq4 7ed4 #ahgh74 #eeg ,herodotus1 l4c4 #eeh ,see above1 pp4 #ie sqq41 #acg sq4 #eei ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #cce4 #efj ,strabo1 xi4 #d1 #g4 ,for the custom of standing upon a sacrificed victim1 cp4 ,demosthenes1 p4 #fdb2 ,pausanias1 iii4 #bj1 #i4 #efa ,in the ,dassera festival1 as celebrated in ,nepaul1 we seem to have another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a time of licence4 ,the festival occurs at the beginning of ,october and lasts ten days4 8,during its continuance there is a general holiday among all classes of the people4 ,the city of ,kathmandu at this time is required to be purified1 but the purification is effected rather by prayer than by water-cleansing4 ,all the courts of law are closed1 and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the city4444 ,the ,kalendar is cleared1 or there is a jail-delivery always at the ,dassera of all prisoners40 ,this seems a trace of a period of licence4 ,at this time 8it is a general custom for masters to make an annual present1 either of money1 clothes1 buffaloes1 goats1 etc41 to such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year4 ,it is in this respect1 as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes on1 something like our #8boxing-time' at ,christmas40 ,on the seventh day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital1 including the artillery4 ,at a given signal the regiments commence firing1 the artillery takes it up1 and a general firing goes on for about twenty minutes1 when it suddenly ceases4 ,this probably represents the expulsion of the demons4 8,the grand cutting of the rice-crops is always postponed till the ,dassera is over1 and commences all over the valley the very day afterwards40 ,see the description of the festival in ,oldfield's ,sketches from ,nipal1 ii4 #cdb-cea4 ,on the ,dassera in ,india1 see ,dubois1 ,moeurs1 ,institutions et ,crmonies des ,peuples de l',inde1 ii4 #cbi sqq4 ,amongst the ,wasuahili of ,east ,africa ,new ,year's ,day was formerly a day of general licence1 8every man did as he pleased4 ,old quarrels were settled1 men were found dead on the following day1 and no inquiry was instituted about the matter40 ,ch4 ,new1 ,life1 ,wanderings1 and ,labours in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #fe4 ,in ,ashantee the annual festival of the new yams is a time of general licence4 ,see the ,note on 8,offerings of first fruits0 at the end of the volume4 #efb ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bge sq4 #efc ,above1 pp4 #ahf sq41 #aib4 #efd ,h4 ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4 ,f4 7#ahge7 xxx4 #aid4 #efe ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iii4 #bi1 iv4 #cf4 ,lydus places the expulsion on the ,ides of ,march1 that is #aeth ,march4 ,but this seems to be a mistake4 ,see ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 ,rheinisches ,museum1 xxx4 #bji sqq4 ,again1 ,lydus does not expressly say that ,mamurius ,veturius was driven out of the city1 but he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype was beaten with rods and expelled the city4 ,lastly1 ,lydus only mentions the name ,mamurius4 ,but the full name ,mamurius ,veturius is preserved by ,varro1 ,ling4 ,lat4 vi4 #de2 ,festus1 ed4 ,muller1 p4 #aca2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ac4 #eff ,usener1 op4 cit4 p4 #bab sq42 ,roscher1 ,apollon und ,mars1 p4 #bg2 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1#c i4 #cfj2 ,vaniek1 ,griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches ,wrterbuch1 p4 #gae4 ,the three latter scholars take ,veturius as annuus1 because vetus is etymologically equivalent to 4 ,but1 as ,usener argues1 it seems quite unallowable to take the ,greek meaning of the word instead of the ,latin4 #efg ,cato1 ,de agri cult4 #ada4 #efh ,varro1 ,de lingua latina1 v4 #he4 #efi ,see the song of the ,arval ,brothers in ,acta ,fratrum ,arvalium1 ed4 ,henzen1 p4 #bf sq42 ,wordsworth1 ,fragments and ,specimens of ,early ,latin1 p4 #aeh4 #egj ,above1 p4 #fd4 #ega ,cato1 ,de agri cult4 #hc4 #egb ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #gj sqq4 p4 #aje sq4 #egc ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1#c i4 #cfj2 ,rosscher1 ,apollon und ,mars1 p4 #di2 ,usener1 op4 cit4 ,the ceremony also closely resembles the ,highland ,new ,year ceremony described above1 p4 #ade sq4 #egd ,propertius1 v4 #b1 #fa sq42 ,usener1 op4 cit4 p4 #baj4 ,one of the functions of the ,salii or dancing priests1 who during ,march went up and down the city dancing1 singing1 and clashing their swords against their shields 7,livy1 i4 #bj2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ac2 ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,antiq4 ii4 #gj7 may have been to rout out the evils or demons from all parts of the city1 as a preparation for transferring them to the scapegoat ,mamurius ,veturius4 ,similarly1 as we have seen 7above1 p4 #aid sq471 among the ,iroquois1 men in fantastic costume went about collecting the sins of the people as a preliminary to transferring them to the scapegoat dogs4 ,we have had many examples of armed men rushing about the streets and houses to drive out demons and evils of all kinds4 ,the blows which were showered on ,mamurius ,veturius seem to have been administered by the ,salii 7,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #ahh2 ,minucius ,felix1 #bd1 #c2 ,preller1 ,rm4 ,myth4#c i4 #cfj1 note #a2 ,rosscher1 ,apollon und ,mars1 p4 #di74 ,the reason for beating the scapegoat will be explained presently4 ,as priests of ,mars1 the god of agriculture1 the ,salii probably had also certain agricultural functions4 ,they were named from the remarkable leaps which they made4 ,now dancing and leaping high are common sympathetic charms to make the crops grow high4 ,see ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus ,oesterreichisch ,schlesien1 ii4 #bff2 ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #dii1 ,no4 #ccc2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #di2 ,o4 ,knoop1 ,volkssagen1 etc41 aus dem stlichen ,hinterpommern1 p4 #agf1 ,no4 #aig2 ,e4 ,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,sachsen und ,thringen1 p4 #adh2 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #aij1 ,no4 #ac2 ,woeste1 ,volksberlieferungen in der ,grafschaft ,mark1 p4 #ef2 ,bavaria1 ii4 #bih2 id41 iv4 ,abth4 ii4 pp4 #cgi1 #chb2 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten u4 ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #aa sq42 ,schulenberg1 ,wendische ,volkssagen und ,gebruche1 p4 #beb2 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1#b #feg2 ,jahn1 ,die deutsche ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und ,viehzucht1 p4 #aid sq42 cp4 ,schott1 ,walachische ,mhrchen1 p4 #cja sq42 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 i4 #bfd2 ,cieza de ,leon1 ,travels 7,hakluyt ,soc4 #ahfd71 p4 #dac4 ,was it one of the functions of the ,salii to dance and leap on the fields at the spring or autumn sowing1 or at both8 ,the dancing processions of the ,salii took place in ,october as well as in ,march 7,marquardt1 ,sacralwesen1#b p4 #dcf sq471 and the ,romans sowed both in spring and autumn 7,columella1 ii4 #i1 #f sq47 ,in their song the ,salii mentioned ,saturnus or ,saeturnus the god of sowing 7,festus1 p4 #cbe1 ed4 ,mller4 ,saeturnus is an emendation of ,ritschl's4 ,see ,wordsworth1 ,fragments and ,specimens of ,early ,latin1 p4 #dje74 ,the weapons borne by the ,salii1 while effective against demons in general1 may have been especially directed against the demons who steal the seed corn or the ripe grain4 ,compare the ,khond and ,hindoo ,koosh customs described above1 p4 #agc4 ,in ,western ,africa the field labours of tilling and sowing are sometimes accompanied by dances of armed men on the field4 ,see ,labat1 ,voyage du ,chevalier des ,marchais en ,guine1 ,isles voisines1 et ,cayenne1 ii4 p4 #ii of the ,paris ed41 p4 #hj of the ,amsterdam ed42 ,olivier de ,sanderval1 ,de l',atlantique au ,niger par le ,foulah-,djallon 7,paris1 #ahhc71 p4 #bcj4 ,in ,calicut 7,southern ,india7 8they plough the land with oxen as we do1 and when they sow the rice in the field they have all the instruments of the city continually sounding and making merry4 ,they also have ten or twelve men clothed like devils1 and these unite in making great rejoicing with the players on the instruments1 in order that the devil may make that rice very productive40 ,varthema1 ,travels 7,hakluyt ,soc4 #ahfc71 p4 #aff sq4 ,the resemblance of the ,salii to the sword-dancers of northern ,europe has been pointed out by ,k4 ,mllenhoff1 8,ueber den ,schwerttanz10 in ,festgaben fr ,gustav ,homeyer 7,berlin1 #ahga74 ,in ,england the ,morris ,dancers who accompanied the procession of the plough through the streets on ,plough ,monday 7the first ,monday after ,twelfth ,day7 sometimes wore swords 7,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #eje1 ,bohn's ed471 and sometimes they 8wore small bunches of corn in their hats1 from which the wheat was soon shaken out by the ungainly jumping which they called dancing4444 ,bessy rattled his box and danced so high that he showed his worsted stockings and corduroy breeches40 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #id4 ,it is to be observed that in the 8,lord of ,misrule10 who reigned from ,christmas till ,twelfth ,night 7see ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #dig sqq471 we have a clear trace of one of those periods of general licence and suspension of ordinary government which so commonly occur at the end of the old year or beginning of the new one in connection with a general expulsion of evils4 ,the fact that this period of licence immediately preceded the procession of the ,morris ,dancers on ,plough ,monday seems to indicate that the functions of these dancers were like those which ,i have attributed to the ,salii4 ,but the parallel cannot be drawn out here4 ,cp4 meantime ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 pp4 #ca1 #ci4 ,the ,salii were said to have been founded by ,morrius1 ,king of ,veii 7,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #bhe74 ,morrius seems to be etymologically the same with ,mamurius and ,mars 7,usener1 ,italische ,mythen1 p4 #bac74 ,can the ,english ,morris 7in ,morris dancers7 be the same8 ,analogy suggests that at ,rome the ,saturnalia1 which fell in ,december when the ,roman year began in ,january1 may have been celebrated in ,february when the ,roman year began in ,march4 ,thus at ,rome1 as in so many places1 the public expulsion of evils at the ,new ,year would be preceded by a period of general licence1 such as the ,saturnalia was4 ,a trace of the former celebration of the ,saturnalia in ,february or the beginning of ,march may perhaps be seen in the ,matronalia1 celebrated on #ast ,march1 at which mistresses feasted their slaves1 just as masters feasted theirs at the ,saturnalia4 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ab1 #g2 ,solinus1 i4 #ce1 p4 #ac1 ed4 ,mommsen2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iii4 #ae4 #ege ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 vi4 #h4 #egf ,see above1 pp4 #agf1 #aid4 #egg ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iii4 #eg1 from ,petronius4 #egh ,helladius1 in ,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4 #ecd ,a1 ed4 ,bekker2 ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #gcd1 and on ,knights1 #aacf2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 cp4 ,suidas1 s4vv4 1 1 and 2 ,lysias1 ,orat4 vi4 #ec4 ,that they were stoned is an inference from ,harpocration4 ,see next note4 #egi ,harpocration1 s4v4 1 who says 1 1 4 ,he does not expressly state that they were put to death2 but as he says that the ceremony was an imitation of the execution of a mythical ,pharmacus who was stoned to death1 we may infer that the victims were killed by being stoned4 ,suidas 7sv4 7 copies ,harpocration4 #ehj ,strabo1 x4 #b1 #i4 ,i do not know what authority ,wordsworth 7,greece1 ,pictorial1 ,historical1 and ,descriptive1 p4 #ced7 has for saying that the priests of ,apollo1 whose temple stood near the edge of the cliff1 sometimes flung themselves down in this way4 #eha ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1 v4 #gbf-gfa4 ,tzetzes's authority is the satyrical poet ,hipponax4 #ehb ,this may be inferred from the verse of ,hipponax1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 #cgj ,b1 where for we should perhaps read with ,schneidewin 7,poetae lyr4 ,gr4#c ed4 ,bergk1 ii4 #gfc74 #ehc ,see his ,mytholog4 ,forschungen1 p4 #aac sqq41 especially #abc sq4 #acc4 #ehd ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xx4 #aja2 ,dioscorides1 ,de mat4 med4 ii4 #bjb2 ,lucian1 ,necyom4 #g2 id41 ,alexander1 #dg2 ,theophrastus1 ,superstitious ,man4 #ehe ,theocritus1 vii4 #ajf sqq4 with the scholiast4 #ehf ,cp4 ,aug4 ,mommsen1 ,heortologie1 #dad sqq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #bae4 #ehg ,at certain sacrifices in ,yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol4 ,de ,landa1 ,relation des choses de ,yucatan1 ed4 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg 7,paris1 #ahfd7 p4 #afg4 ,was the original intention of this rite to transfuse into the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy8 #ehh ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 ix4 #bf4 #ehi ,de ,santa-,anna ,nery1 ,folk-lore ,brsilien 7,paris1 #ahhi7 p4 #bec4 #eij ,above1 pp4 #adh sq4 #ahg4 ,compare ,plutarch1 ,parallela1 #ce1 where a woman is represented as going from house to house striking sick people with a hammer and bidding them be whole4 #eia ,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 ii4 #cge 7,hakluyt ,soc47 ,see above1 p4 #afi4 #eib ,osculati1 ,esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il ,napo ed il fiume delle ,amazzoni 7,milan1 #ahed71 p4 #aah4 #eic ,ed4 ,beardmore1 ,anthropological ,notes collected at ,mowat1 ,dandai1 ,new ,guinea 7#ahhh7 7in manuscript74 #eid ,hahn1 ,albanesische ,studien1 i4 #aee4 #eie ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,kroatien und ,slavonien 7,vienna1 #ahhi71 p4 #ajh4 #eif ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #beg4 #eig ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #beh-bfc4 ,see his whole discussion of such customs1 pp4 #bea-cjc1 and ,myth4 ,forsch4 pp4 #aac-aec4 #eih ,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 ii4 #cbc 7,hakluyt ,soc4 #ahhj74 #eii ,sahagun1 ,histoire des choses de la ,nouvelle ,espagne 7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4 #fa sq41 #if-ii1 #ajc2 ,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 ii4 #cej sq42 ,clavigero1 ,history of ,mexico1 trans4 by ,cullen1 i4 #cjj2 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #cai sq4 ,for other ,mexican instances of persons representing deities and slain in that character1 see ,sahagun1 pp4 #ge1 #aaf sq41 #abc1 #aeh sq41 #afd sq41 #ehe sqq41 #ehi2 ,acosta1 ii4 #chd sqq42 ,clavigero1 i4 #cab2 ,bancroft1 ii4 #cbe sqq41 #ccg sq4 #fjj ,sahagun1 pp4 #ah sq41 #fh sq41 #acc-aci2 ,bancroft1 iii4 #cec-cei4 #fja ,sahagun1 p4 #ehd sq4 ,for this festival see also id4 pp4 #cg sq4 #eh sq4 #fj1 #hg sqq4 #ic2 ,clavigero1 i4 #big2 ,bancroft1 ii4 #cjf sqq4 #fjb ,clavigero1 i4 #bhc4 #fjc ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #adb4 #fjd ,memorials of ,japan 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahej71 pp4 #ad1 #ada2 ,varenius1 ,descriptio regni ,japoniae1 p4 #aa2 ,caron1 8,account of ,japan10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 vii4 #fac2 ,kaempfer1 8,history of ,japan10 in id41 vii4 #gaf4 #fje ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iii4 #ajb sq4 ed4 #ahcf2 ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #cbi4 #fjf ,bastian1 ,der ,mensch in der ,geschichte1 iii4 #ha4 #fjg ,athenaeus1 #ead ,c4 #fjh ,bancroft1 l4c4 #fji ,kaempfer1 8,history of ,japan10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 vii4 #gag2 ,caron1 8,account of ,japan10 id4 vii4 #fac2 ,varenius1 ,descriptio regni ,japoniae1 p4 #aa1 8,radiis solis caput nunquam illustrabatur3 in apertum arem non procedebat40 #faj ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 iv4 #cei4 #faa ,alonzo de ,zurita1 8,rapport sur les differentes classes de chefs de la ,nouvelle-,espagne10 p4 #cj1 in ,ternaux-,compans's ,voyages1 ,relations et ,mmoires originaux 7,paris1 #ahdj72 ,waitz1 l4c42 ,bastian1 ,die ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 ii4 #bjd4 #fab ,cieza de ,leon1 ,second ,part of the ,chronicle of ,peru 7,hakluyt ,soc4 #ahhc71 p4 #ah4 #fac ,pechuel-,loesche1 8,indiscretes aus ,loango10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 x4 7#ahgh7 #bc4 #fad ,rev4 ,james ,macdonald 7,reay ,free ,manse1 ,caithness71 ,manners1 ,customs1 ,superstitions1 and ,religions of ,south ,african ,tribes 7in manuscript74 #fae ,the ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1 quoted by the ,rev4 ,b4 ,danks1 8,marriage ,customs of the ,new ,britain ,group10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 xviii4 #bhd sq42 cp4 ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1 8,notes on the ,duke of ,york ,group1 ,new ,britain1 and ,new ,ireland10 ,journ4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 xlvii4 7#ahgg7 p4 #adb sq4 ,powell's description of the ,new ,ireland custom is similar 7,wanderings in a ,wild ,country1 p4 #bdi74 ,according to him the girls wear wreaths of scented herbs round the waist and neck2 an old woman or a little child occupies the lower floor of the cage3 and the confinement lasts only a month4 ,probably the long period mentioned by ,mr4 ,brown is that prescribed for chiefs' daughters4 ,poor people could not afford to keep their children so long idle4 ,this distinction is sometimes expressly stated2 for example1 among the ,goajiras of ,colombia rich people keep their daughters shut up in separate huts at puberty for periods varying from one to four years1 but poor people cannot afford to do so for more than a fortnight or a month4 ,f4 ,a4 ,simons1 8,an exploration of the ,goajira ,peninsula10 ,proceed4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 ,n4,s4 vii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #gia4 ,in ,fiji1 brides who were being tattooed were kept from the sun4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #agj4 ,this was perhaps a modification of the ,melanesian custom of secluding girls at puberty4 ,the reason mentioned by ,mr4 ,williams1 8to improve her complexion10 can hardly have been the original one4 #faf ,chalmers and ,gill1 ,work and ,adventure in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #aei4 #fag ,schwaner1 ,borneo1 ,beschrijving van het stroomgebied van den ,barito1 etc4 ii4 #gg sq42 ,zimmerman1 ,die ,inseln des ,indischen und ,stillen ,meeres1 ii4 #fcb sq42 ,otto ,finsch1 ,neu ,guinea und seine ,bewohner1 p4 #aaf4 #fah ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #ach4 #fai ,sproat1 ,scenes and ,studies of ,savage ,life1 p4 #ic sq4 #fbj ,erman1 8,ethnographische ,wahrnehmungen u4 ,erfahrungen an den ,ksten des ,berings-,meeres10 ,zeitschrift f4 ,ethnologie1 ii4 #cah sq42 ,langsdorff1 ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #aad sq42 ,holmberg1 8,ethnogr4 ,skizzen ber die ,vlker d4 russischen ,amerika10 ,acta ,societatis ,scientiarum ,fennicae1 iv4 7#ahef7 p4 #cbj sq42 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 i4 #aaj sq42 ,krause1 ,die ,tlinkit-,indianer1 p4 #bag sq42 ,rev4 ,sheldon ,jackson1 8,alaska and its ,inhabitants10 ,american ,antiquarian1 ii4 #aaa sq42 ,w4 ,m4 ,grant1 in ,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 i4 #afi4 ,for caps1 hoods1 and veils worn by girls at such seasons1 compare ,g4 ,h4 ,loskiel1 ,history of the ,mission of the ,united ,brethren among the ,indians1 i4 #ef2 ,journal ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vii4 #bjf2 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 ,report of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 #ahgh 7,geological ,survey of ,canada71 p4 #acj ,b2 ,petitot1 ,monographie des ,dn-,dindji1 pp4 #gb1 #ge2 id41 ,traditions indiennes du ,canada ,nord-,ouest1 p4 #beh4 #fba ,holmberg1 op4 cit4 p4 #dja2 ,bancroft1 i4 #hb2 ,petroff1 ,report on the ,population1 etc4 of ,alaska1 p4 #adc4 #fbb ,lafitau1 ,moeurs des ,sauvages amriquains i4 #bfb sq4 #fbc ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 viii4 #ccc4 ,on the ,chiriguanos see ,von ,martius1 ,zur ,ethnographie ,amerika's zumal ,brasiliens1 p4 #bab sqq4 #fbd ,thevet1 ,cosmographie ,universelle 7,paris1 #aege7 ii4 #idf ,b sq42 ,lafitau1 op4 cit4 i #bij sqq4 #fbe ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,britisch ,guiana1 ii4 #cae sq42 ,martius1 ,zur ,ethnographie ,amerika's1 p4 #fdd4 #fbf ,labat1 ,voyage du ,chevalier des ,marchais en ,guine1 ,isles voisines1 et ,cayenne1 iv4 p4 #cfe sq4 7,paris ed471 p4 #ag sq4 7,amsterdam ed47 #fbg ,above1 p4 #bac sq41 vol4 i4 p4 #aec sq4 #fbh ,this interpretation of the custom is supported by the fact that beating or scourging is inflicted on inanimate objects expressly for the purpose indicated in the text4 ,thus the ,indians of ,costa ,rica hold that there are two kinds of ceremonial uncleanness1 nya and bu-ku-r4 ,anything that has been connected with a death is nya4 ,but bu-ku-r is much more virulent4 ,it can not only make one sick but kill4 8,the worst bu-ku-r of all is that of a young woman in her first pregnancy4 ,she infects the whole neighbourhood4 ,persons going from the house where she lives carry the infection with them to a distance1 and all the deaths or other serious misfortunes in the vicinity are laid to her charge4 ,in the old times1 when the savage laws and customs were in full force1 it was not an uncommon thing for the husband of such a woman to pay damages for casualties thus caused by his unfortunate wife4444 ,bu-ku-r emanates in a variety of ways2 arms1 utensils1 even houses become affected by it after long disuse1 and before they can be used again must be purified4 ,in the case of portable objects left undisturbed for a long time1 the custom is to beat them with a stick before touching them4 ,i have seen a woman take a long walking stick and beat a basket hanging from the roof of a house by a cord4 ,on asking what that was for1 ,i was told that the basket contained her treasures1 that she would probably want to take something out the next day1 and that she was driving off the bu-ku-r4 ,a house long unused must be swept1 and then the person who is purifying it must take a stick and beat not only the movable objects1 but the beds1 posts1 and in short every accessible part of the interior4 ,the next day it is fit for occupation4 ,a place not visited for a long time or reached for the first time is bu-ku-r4 ,on our return from the ascent of ,pico ,blanco1 nearly all the party suffered from little calenturas1 the result of extraordinary exposure to wet and cold and want of food4 ,the ,indians said that the peak was especially bu-ku-r1 since nobody had ever been on it before40 ,one day ,mr4 ,gabb took down some dusty blow-guns amid cries of bu-ku-r from the ,indians4 ,some weeks afterwards a boy died1 and the ,indians firmly believed that the bu-ku-r of the blow-guns had killed him4 8,from all the foregoing1 it would seem that bu-ku-r is a sort of evil spirit that takes possession of the object1 and resents being disturbed2 but ,i have never been able to learn from the ,indians that they consider it so4 ,they seem to think of it as a property the objects acquires40 ,w4 ,m4 ,gabb1 ,indian ,tribes and ,languages of ,costa ,rica 7read before the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 #bjth ,august #ahge71 p4 #ejd sq4 #fbi ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,narrative of ,travels on the ,amazon and ,rio ,negro1 p4 #dif4 #fcj ,bose1 ,the ,hindoos as they are1 p4 #hf4 ,similarly1 after a ,brahman boy has been invested with the sacred thread1 he is for three days strictly forbidden to see the sun4 ,he may not eat salt1 and he is enjoined to sleep either on a carpet or a deer's skin1 without a mattress or mosquito curtain4 ,ib4 p4 #ahf4 ,in ,bali1 boys who have had their teeth filed1 as a preliminary to marriage1 are kept shut up in a dark room for three days4 ,van ,eck1 8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,n4 ,s4 ix4 7#ahhj7 #dbh sq4 #fca ,moura1 ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #cgg4 #fcb ,aymonier1 8,notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des ,cambodgiens10 ,cochinchine ,franaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af 7,saigon1 #ahhc71 p4 #aic sq4 ,cp4 id4 ,notice sur le ,cambodge1 p4 #ej4 #fcc ,b4 ,schmidt1 ,griechische ,mrchen1 ,sagen und ,volkslieder1 p4 #ih4 #fcd ,schneller1 ,mrchen und ,sagen aus ,wlschtirol1 ,no4 #bb4 #fce ,j4 ,g4 von ,hahn1 ,griechische und albanesische ,mrchen1 ,no4 #da4 #fcf ,gonzenbach1 ,sicilianische ,mrchen1 ,no4 #bh4 ,the incident of the bone occurs in other folk-tales4 ,a prince or princess is shut up for safety in a tower and makes his or her escape by scraping a hole in the wall with a bone which has been accidentally conveyed into the tower2 sometimes it is expressly said that care was taken to let the princess have no bones with her meat4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #ae2 ,gonzenbach1 ,nos4 #bf1 #bg2 ,pentamerone1 ,no4 #bc4 ,from this we should infer that it is a rule with savages not to let women handle the bones of animals during their monthly seclusions4 ,we have already seen the great respect with which the savage treats the bones of game 7see above1 p4 #aaf sqq472 and women in their courses are specially forbidden to meddle with the hunter or fisher1 as their contact or neighbourhood would spoil his sport 7see below1 p4 #bch sqq47 ,in folk-tales the hero who uses the bone is sometimes a boy2 but the incident might easily be transferred from a girl to a boy after its real meaning had been forgotten4 ,amongst the ,hare-skin ,indians a girl at puberty is forbidden to break the bones of hares4 ,petitot1 ,traditions indiennes du ,canada ,nordouest1 p4 #beh4 ,on the other hand1 she drinks out of a tube made of a swan's bone 7,petitot1 l4c4 and id41 ,monographie des ,dn-,dindji1 p4 #gf71 and we have seen that a ,thlinkeet girl in the same circumstances used to drink out of the wing-bone of a white-headed eagle 7,langsdorff1 ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #aad74 #fcg ,w4 ,radloff1 ,proben der ,volkslitteratur der trkischen ,stmme ,sd-,sibiriens1 iii4 #hb sq4 #fch ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 i4 #daf1 vi4 #be2 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bjj2 ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #gig4 #fci ,amongst the ,chaco ,indians of ,south ,america a newly-married couple sleep the first night on a skin with their heads towards the west2 8for the marriage is not considered as ratified till the rising sun shines on their feet the succeeding morning40 ,t4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 8,the ,chaco ,indians10 ,transact4 ,ethnolog4 ,soc4 iii4 #cbg4 ,at old ,hindoo marriages1 the first ceremony was the 8,impregnation-rite0 7,garbhdhna74 8,during the previous day the young married woman was made to look towards the sun1 or in some way exposed to its rays40 ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,life and ,thought in ,india1 p4 #ced4 ,amongst the ,turks of ,siberia it was formerly the custom on the morning after marriage to lead the young couple out of the hut to greet the rising sun4 ,the same custom is said to be still practised in ,iran and ,central ,asia1 the belief being that the beams of the rising sun are the surest means of impregnating the new bride4 ,vambery1 ,das ,trkenvolk1 p4 #aab4 #fdj ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #agj4 #fda ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #ahf2 ,e4 ,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals1 ii4 #bie1 #cjd2 ,w4 ,ridley1 ,kamilaroi1 p4 #aeg2 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 ii4 #bfh1 ix4 #dei sq42 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #fe1 #bcf4 ,cp4 ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,journals1 ii4 #cdd2 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 ci4 sq4 #fdb ,bleek1 ,brief ,account of ,bushman ,folk-lore1 p4 #ad2 cp4 ib4 p4 #aj4 #fdc ,gumilla1 ,histoire de l',ornoque1 i4 #bdi4 #fdd ,james ,adair1 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #abc sq4 #fde ,s4 ,hearne1 ,journey to the ,northern ,ocean1 p4 #cad sq42 ,alex4 ,mackenzie1 ,voyages through the ,continent of ,north ,america1 cxxiii42 ,petitot1 ,monographie des ,dn-,dindji1 p4 #ge sq4 #fdf ,c4 ,leemius1 ,de ,lapponibus ,finmarchiae eorumque lingua vita et religione pristina 7,copenhagen1 #agfg71 p4 #did4 #fdg ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 vii4 #fd sq41 xxviii4 #gg sqq4 ,cp4 ,geoponica1 xii4 c4 #bj1 #e1 and c4 #be1 #b2 ,columella1 xi4 #c1 #ej4 #fdh ,a4 ,schleicher1 ,volkstmliches aus ,sonnenberg2 p4 #acd2 ,b4 ,souch1 ,croyances1 ,prsages et ,traditions diverses1 p4 #aa2 ,v4 ,fossel1 ,volksmedicin und medicinischer ,aberglaube in ,steiermark 7,graz1 #ahhf71 p4 #abd4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans thought that a field was completely protected against insects if a menstruous woman walked round it with bare feet and streaming hair4 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvii4 #bff1 xxviii4 #gh2 ,columella1 x4 #ceh sq41 xi4 #c1 #fd2 ,palladius1 ,de re rustica1 i4 #ce1 #c2 ,geoponica1 xii4 #h1 #e sq42 ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 vi4 #cf4 ,a similar remedy is employed for the same purpose by ,north ,american ,indians and ,european peasants4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 v4 #gj2 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und ussern ,leben der ,ehsten1 p4 #dhd4 ,cp4 ,haltrich1 ,zur ,volkskunde der ,siebenbrger ,sachsen1 p4 #bhj2 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #ad2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d iii4 #dfh4 #fdi ,for an example of the beneficent application of the menstrual energy1 see note on p4 #bda4 #fej ,the rules just discussed do not hold exclusively of the persons mentioned in the text1 but are applicable in certain circumstances to other tabooed persons and things4 ,whatever1 in fact1 is permeated by the mysterious virtue of taboo may need to be isolated from earth and heaven4 ,mourners are taboo all the world over2 accordingly in mourning the ,ainos wear peculiar caps in order that the sun may not shine upon their heads4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 v4 #cff4 ,during a solemn fast of three days the ,indians of ,costa ,rica eat no salt1 speak as little as possible1 light no fires1 and stay strictly indoors1 or if they go out during the day they carefully cover themselves from the light of the sun1 believing that exposure to the sun's rays would turn them black4 ,w4 ,m4 ,gabb1 ,indian ,tribes and ,languages of ,costa ,rica1 p4 #eaj4 ,on ,yule night it has been customary in parts of ,sweden from time immemorial to go on pilgrimage1 whereby people learn many secret things and know what is to happen in the coming year4 ,as a preparation for this pilgrimage1 8some secrete themselves for three days previously in a dark cellar1 so as to be shut out altogether from the light of heaven4 ,others retire at an early hour of the preceding morning to some out-of-the way place1 such as a hayloft1 where they bury themselves in the hay1 that they may neither hear nor see any living creature2 and here they remain1 in silence and fasting1 until after sundown2 whilst there are those who think it sufficient if they rigidly abstain from food on the day before commencing their wanderings4 ,during this period of probation a man ought not to see fire40 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #aid4 ,during the sixteen days that a ,pima ,indian is undergoing purification for killing an ,apache he may not see a blazing fire4 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 i4 #eec4 ,again warriors on the war-path are strictly taboo2 hence ,indians may not sit on the bare ground the whole time they are out on a warlike expedition4 ,j4 ,adair1 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #chb2 ,narrative of the ,captivity and ,adventures of ,john ,tanner1 p4 #abc4 ,the holy ark of the ,north ,american ,indians is deemed 8so sacred and dangerous to be touched0 that no one1 except the war chief and his attendant1 will touch it 8under the penalty of incurring great evil4 ,nor would the most inveterate enemy touch it in the woods for the very same reason40 ,in carrying it against the enemy they never place it on the ground1 but rest it on stones or logs4 ,adair1 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #afb sq4 ,the sacred clam shell of the ,elk clan among the ,omahas is kept in a sacred bag1 which is never allowed to touch the ground4 ,e4 ,james1 ,expedition from ,pittsburgh to the ,rocky ,mountains1 ii4 #dg2 ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1 8,omaha ,sociology10 ,third ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhd71 p4 #bbf4 ,newly born infants are strongly taboo2 accordingly in ,loango they are not allowed to touch the earth4 ,pechuel-,loesche1 8,indiscretes aus ,loango10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 x4 7#ahgh7 p4 #bi sq4 ,in ,laos the hunting of elephants gives rise to many taboos2 one of them is that the chief hunter may not touch the earth with his foot4 ,accordingly when he alights from his elephant1 the others spread a carpet of leaves for him to step upon4 ,e4 ,aymonier1 ,notes sur le ,laos1 p4 #bf4 ,in some parts of ,aberdeenshire1 the last bit of standing corn 7which1 as we have seen1 is very sacred7 is not allowed to touch the ground2 but as it is cut1 it is placed on the lap of the 8gueedman40 ,w4 ,gregor1 8,quelques coutumes du ,nord-,est du ,comt d',aberdeen10 ,revue des ,traditions populaires1 iii4 7#ahhh7 #dhe ,b4 ,sacred food may not1 in certain circumstances1 touch the ground4 ,f4 ,grabowsky1 8,der ,distrikt ,dusson ,timor in ,sdost-,borneo und seine ,bewohner10 ,ausland 7#ahhd71 ,no4 #bd1 p4 #dgd2 ,ch4 ,f4 ,hall1 ,narrative of the ,second ,arctic ,expedition1 edited by ,prof4 ,j4 ,e4 ,nourse 7,washington1 #ahgi71 p4 #aaj2 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 ii4 #g4 ,in ,scotland1 when water was carried from sacred wells to sick people1 the water-vessel might not touch the ground4 ,c4 ,f4 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,in the ,hebrides1 p4 #baa4 ,on the relation of spirits to the ground1 compare ,denzil ,ibbetson in ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 ,no4 #e4 #fea ,die ,edda1 bersetzt von ,k4 ,simrock1#h pp4 #bhf-bhh1 cp4 pp4 #h1 #cd1 #bfd4 ,in ,english the ,balder story is told at length by ,prof4 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #ebi sqq4 #feb ,it is strange to find so learned and judicious a student of custom and myth as ,h4 ,usener exactly inverting their true relation to each other4 ,after showing that the essential features of the myth of the marriage of ,mars and ,nerio have their counterpart in the marriage customs of peasants at the present day1 he proceeds to infer that these customs are the reflection of the myth4 8,italische ,mythen10 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4 ,f4 xxx4 #bbh sq4 ,surely the myth is the reflection of the custom4 ,men not only fashion gods in their own likeness 7as ,xenophanes long ago remarked7 but make them think and act like themselves4 ,heaven is a copy of earth1 not earth of heaven4 #fec ,see ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #ejb1 #eaj1 #eaf4 #fed ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #eah sq4 #fee ,in the following survey of these fire-customs ,i follow chiefly ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 kap4 vi4 p4 #dig sqq4 ,compare also ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #ejj sqq4 #fef ,schmitz1 ,sitten und ,sagen etc4 des ,eifler ,volkes1 i4 pp4 #ba-be2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eja4 #feg ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eja4 #feh ,vonbun1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 p4 #bj2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eja4 #fei ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #chj sqq42 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #ei sq4 1 #ff sq42 ,bavaria1 ii4 #b1 p4 #hch sq42 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 p4 #baa1 ,no4 #bcb1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eja sq4 #ffj ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #ahi2 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #bjg2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejj sq4 #ffa ,th4 ,vernalcken1 ,mythen und ,bruche des ,volkes in ,oesterreich1 p4 #bic sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dih4 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfg4 #ffb ,schmitz1 ,sitten1 u4 ,sagen des ,eifler ,volkes1 i4 p4 #bj2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dii4 #ffc ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube u4 ,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1 ii4 #ci1 ,no4 #cjf2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dii4 #ffd ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dii4 #ffe ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dih sq4 #fff ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dii4 #ffg ,schneller1 ,mrchen u4 ,sagen aus ,wlschtirol1 p4 #bcd sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dii sq4 #ffh ,b4 ,k4 pp4 #ejb-eje2 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1#b #ha2 ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche und ,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes1#b p4 #adi1 #abhf-abhi2 ,bavaria1 i4 #a1 p4 #cga4 #ffi ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 p4 #bab sq41 ii4 p4 #gh sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eje4 #fgj ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1 ii4 p4 #dc sq41 ,no4 #cac2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eje sq4 #fga ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #ge sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejf4 #fgb ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #eab2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejf sq4 #fgc ,h4 ,prhle1 ,harzbilder1 p4 #fc2 ,kuhn und ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #cgc2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejg4 #fgd ,kuhn1 ,markische ,sagen und ,mrchen1 p4 #cab sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejg4 #fge ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 p4 #baa sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejg sq4 #fgf ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 p4 #hb1 ,no4 #ajf2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejh4 #fgg ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejh2 cp4 ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutsch4 ,myth4 i4 #gd2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,myth4#d i4 #eab4 ,the two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods4 #fgh ,kuhn1 l4c42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejh4 #fgi ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bbd sq41 ,bohn's ed41 quoting ,sinclair's ,statistical ,account of ,scotland1 #agid1 xi4 #fbj2 ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 from the ,,mss4 of ,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre1 edited by ,alex4 ,allardyce1 ii4 #dci-dde2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ejh4 #fhj ,pennant1 8,tour in ,scotland10 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #di2 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bbf4 #fha ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bcc sq4 #fhb ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eji2 ,brand1 ,pop4 ,antiq4 i4 #bih sq42 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eaf4 #fhc ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 p4 #if sqq4 ,no4 #abh1 p4 #ajc sq4 ,no4 #abi2 ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #dbc sqq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eaj4 #fhd ,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain1 p4 #ahb sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eaj4 ,cp4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #baj2 ,bavaria1 iii4 #ief4 #fhe ,panzer1 op4 cit4 ii4 #edi4 #fhf ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #cjf-caa2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eaj4 ,for the custom of burning a tree in the midsummer bonfires1 see vol4 i4 p4 #gi4 #fhg ,rochholz1 ,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch1 ii4 #add sqq4 #fhh ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eae sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eaj sq4 #fhi ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #cic2 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eag2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eaa4 #fij ,sbillot1 ,coutumes populaires de la ,haute ,bretagne1 p4 #aic sq4 ,wolf1 op4 cit4 ii4 #cib sq4 #fia ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 etc4 des ,tiroler ,volkes1#b p4 #aei1 ,no4 #aced2 ,panzer1 ,beitrag1 i4 #baj2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eaa4 #fib ,kuhn u4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #cij2 ,b4 ,k4 #eaa4 #fic ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cjj sq41 #cah1 cp4 pp4 #cje1 #cjf1 #cjh sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eab4 #fid ,aubrey1 ,remaines of ,gentilisme and ,judaisme1 p4 #if1 cp4 id4 p4 #bf4 #fie ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #caa4 #fif ,id4 i4 #cjc1 #cah1 #cai2 ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #cae4 #fig ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #cah4 #fih ,j4 ,train1 ,account of the ,isle of ,man1 ii4 #abj4 #fii ,brand1 i4 #cjc1 quoting ,sir ,henry ,piers's ,description of ,westmeath4 #gjj ,brand1 l4c41 quoting the author of the ,survey of the ,south of ,ireland4 #gja ,brand1 i4 #cje1 quoting the author of the ,comical ,pilgrim's ,pilgrimage into ,ireland4 #gjb ,brand1 i4 #cjd1 quoting ,the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 ,february #agie1 p4 #abd4 #gjc ,quoted by ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #cba sq4 #gjd ,brand1 i4 #caa1 quoting ,statistical ,account of ,scotland1 xxi4 #ade4 #gje ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eab4 #gjf ,brand1 i4 #ccg4 #gjg ,j4 ,ramsay and ,a4 ,allardyce1 ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 ii4 #dcf4 #gjh ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bdj2 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eai4 #gji ,ralston4 l4c4 #gaj ,tettau und ,temme1 ,die ,volkssagen ,ostpreussens1 ,litthauens und ,westpreussens1 p4 #bgg2 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eai4 #gaa ,tppen1 ,aberglauben aus ,masuren1#b p4 #ga4 #gab ,grimm1 l4c42 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #cjg note4 #gac ,grimm1 l4c4 #gad ,grimm1 l4c4 #gae ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eah4 #gaf ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bia4 #gag ,gubernatis1 ,mythologie des ,plantes1 i4 #ahe4 #gah ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cag2 ,grimm1 l4c4 #gai ,g4 ,ferraro1 ,superstizioni1 usi e proverbi ,monferrini1 p4 #cd sq41 referring to ,alvise da ,cadamosto1 ,relazion dei viaggi d',africa1 in ,ramusio4 #gbj ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #ajj sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eac sq4 #gba ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 etc41 des ,tiroler ,volkes1#b p4 #aei1 ,no4 #acec1 cp4 ,no4 #acee2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eac4 #gbb ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #cib2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eac4 #gbc ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eac4 #gbd ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bdj4 #gbe ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgb sq4 #gbf ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bb sqq4 #gbg ,above1 p4 #bfb4 #gbh ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #eg1 #ig2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eaj2 cp4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag1 ii4 #bdj4 #gbi ,cp4 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eba2 ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #chi2 ,ad4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1#b pp4 #da sq41 #dg2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eba4 #gcj ,see above1 pp4 #bed1 #bee1 #bfj1 #bfe4 #gca ,on the need-fires1 see ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4 i4 #eja sqq42 ,wolf1 op4 cit4 i4 #aaf sq41 ii4 #cgh sqq42 ,kuhn1 op4 cit4 p4 #da sqq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eah sqq42 ,elton1 ,origins of ,english ,history1 p4 #bic sq42 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und ,viehzucht1 p4 #bf sqq4 #gcb ,this is the view of ,grimm1 ,wolf1 ,kuhn1 and ,mannhardt4 #gcc ,herabkunft des ,feuers1#b p4 #dg4 #gcd ,panzer1 ,beitrag1 ii4 #bdj4 #gce ,ch4 ,e4 ,gover1 8,the ,pongol festival in ,southern ,india10 ,journ4 ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s4 v4 7#ahgj7 p4 #if sq4 #gcf ,diego de ,landa1 ,relation des choses de ,yucatan 7,paris1 #ahfd71 p4 #bcc4 #gcg ,kolben1 ,present ,state of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 i4 #abi sqq4 #gch ,p4 #bec4 ,the torches of ,demeter1 which figure so largely in her myth and on the monuments1 are perhaps to be explained by this custom4 ,to regard1 with ,mannhardt 7,b4 ,k4 p4 #ecf71 the torches in the modern ,european customs as imitations of lightning seems unnecessary4 #gci ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #gj sqq4 #gdj ,pp4 #bej1 #bfg4 #gda ,pp4 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bec1 #bei1 #bff4 #gdb ,p4 #bej sq4 #gdc ,pp4 #bdg1 #bdh4 #gdd ,vol4 i4 p4 #bgb4 #gde ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ebd4 #gdf ,bavaria1 iii4 #ief2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ebd4 #gdg ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #aba sq41 ,no4 #adf2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ebd sq4 #gdh ,caesar1 ,bell4 ,gall4 vi4 #ae2 ,strabo1 iv4 #d1 #e1 p4 #aih2 ,casaubon2 ,diodorus1 v4 #cb4 ,see ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ebe sqq4 #gdi ,strabo1 iv4 #d1 #d1 p4 #aig1 i4e4 the ,druids 1 1 4 ,on this passage see ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ebi sqq4 #gej ,see vol4 i4 p4 #hh sqq4 #gea ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ebc1 note4 #geb ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ebc1 note2 ,john ,milner1 ,the ,history1 ,civil and ,ecclesiastical1 and ,survey of the ,antiquities of ,winchester1 i4 #h sq42 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cbe sq42 ,james ,logan1 ,the ,scottish ,gael1 ii4 #ceh 7new ed472 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,calendrier ,belge1 p4 #abc sqq4 #gec ,puttenham1 ,arte of ,english ,poesie1 #aehi1 p4 #abh1 quoted by ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cbc4 #ged ,king's ,vale ,royal of ,england1 p4 #bjh1 quoted by ,brand1 l4c4 #gee ,liebrecht1 ,gervasius von ,tilbury1 p4 #bab sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ead4 #gef ,b4 ,k4 pp4 #ead1 #ebc4 #geg ,athenaeum1 #bdth ,july #ahfi1 p4 #aae2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eae sq4 #geh ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #chh2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eae4 #gei ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eae4 #gfj ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #eai2 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eae4 #gfa ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eae4 #gfb ,ib4 #gfc ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #djh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #a sqq4 #gfd ,some of the serpents worshipped by the old ,prussians lived in hollow oaks1 and as oaks were sacred among the ,prussians1 the serpents may have been regarded as genii of the trees4 ,simon ,grunau1 ,preussische ,chronik1 ed4 ,perlbach1 i4 p4 #hi2 ,hartknoch1 ,altund ,neues ,preussen1 pp4 #adc1 #afc4 ,serpents1 again1 played an important part in the worship of ,demeter1 as we have seen4 ,but that they were regarded as embodiments of her can hardly be assumed4 ,in ,siam the spirit of the takhien tree is believed to appear1 sometimes in the form of a woman1 sometimes in the form of a serpent4 ,bastian1 ,die ,volker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #bea4 #gfe ,pliny derives the name ,druid the ,greek drs1 8oak40 ,he did not know that the ,celtic word for oak was the same 7daur71 and that therefore ,druid1 in the sense of priest of the oak1 was genuine ,celtic1 not borrowed from the ,greek4 ,see ,curtius1 ,griech4 ,etymologie1#e p4 #bch sq42 ,vaniek1 ,griechisch-lateinisches etymolog4 ,wrterbuch1 p4 #cfh sqq42 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #bba sqq4 ,in the ,highlands of ,scotland the word is found in place-names like ,bendarroch 7the mountain of the oak71 ,craigandarroch1 etc4 #gff ,it is still a folk-lore rule not to cut the mistletoe with iron2 some say it should be cut with gold4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie#d ii4 #ajja4 ,on the objection to the use of iron in such cases1 see ,liebrecht1 ,gervasius von ,tilbury1 p4 #ajc2 and above1 vol4 i4 p4 #agg sqq4 #gfg ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bdi sqq4 ,on the ,celtic worship of the oak1 see also ,maximus ,tyrius1 ,dissert4 viii4 #h1 4 ,with this mode of gathering the mistletoe compare the following4 ,in ,cambodia when a man perceives a certain parasitic plant growing on a tamarind-tree1 he dresses in white and taking a new earthen pot climbs the tree at mid-day4 ,he puts the plant in the pot and lets the whole fall to the ground4 ,then in the pot he makes a decoction which renders invulnerable4 ,aymonier1 8,notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des ,cambodgiens10 in ,cochinchine ,franaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af1 p4 #acf4 #gfh ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1#b #abc2 ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1 #fgc-fgg2 ,gubernatis1 ,mythologie des ,plantes1 ii4 #add sqq42 ,friend1 ,flowers and ,flower ,lore1 p4 #cfb2 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cad sqq42 ,vonbun1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 p4 #acc sqq42 ,burne and ,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore1 p4 #bdb4 ,cp4 ,archaeological ,review1 i4 #afd sqq4 #gfi ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cjg1 #cab2 ,dyer1 ,folk-lore of ,plants1 pp4 #fb1 #bhf2 ,friend1 ,flowers and ,flower ,lore1 pp4 #adg1 #adi1 #aej1 #edj2 ,wuttke1 #acd4 #ggj ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #ead sq41 ii4 #ajac sq41 iii4 #cef2 ,grohmann1 op4 cit4 #fce-fcg2 ,friend1 op4 cit4 p4 #ge2 ,gubernatis1 ,myth4 des ,plantes1 i4 #ahi sq41 ii4 #af sqq4 #gga ,aubrey1 ,remaines of ,gentilisme and ,judaisme1 p4 #be sq42 ,brand1 ,pop4 ,ant4 i4 #cbi sqq42 ,friend1 p4 #acf4 #ggb ,brand1 i4 #ccc4 #ggc ,grohmann1 #adbf4 #ggd ,grohmann1 #fdh4 #gge ,grohmann1 #fha2 ,wuttke1 #acd2 ,rochholz1 ,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch1 i4 #i2 ,gubernatis1 ,mythologie des ,plantes1 i4 #aij4 #ggf ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d iii4 #gh1 #cec4 #ggg ,gubernatis1 ,mythologie des ,plantes1 ii4 #gc4 #ggh ,friend1 ,flowers and ,flower ,lore1 p4 #cgh4 ,hunters believe that the mistletoe heals all wounds and brings luck in hunting4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunjt des ,feuers1#b p4 #bjf4 #ggi ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d ii4 #ajji4 #ghj ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bfi4 #gha ,lloyd1 op4 cit4 p4 #bei2 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #eag sq4 #ghb ,lloyd1 l4c4 #ghc ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d iii4 #gh1 who adds1 8,mahnen die ,johannisfeuer an ,baldrs ,leichenbrand80 ,this pregnant hint1 which contains in germ the solution of the whole myth1 has been quite lost on the mythologists who since ,grimm's day have enveloped the subject in a cloud of learned dust4 #ghd ,above1 p4 #bhe1 and vol4 i4 pp4 #eh1 #fd4 #ghe ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #ee sq41 #eh sq41 ii4 #edb1 iii4 #ahg sq4 #ghf ,preller1 ,rm4 ,mythol4#c i4 #ajh4 #ghg ,livy1 i4 #aj4 ,cp4 ,c4 ,btticher1 ,der ,baumkultus der ,hellenen1 p4 #acc sq4 #ghh ,btticher1 op4 cit4 p4 #aaa sqq42 ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythol4#d ed4 ,c4 ,robert1 i4 #abb sqq4 #ghi ,without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the primitive home of the ,aryans1 ,i may observe that in various parts of ,europe the oak seems to have been formerly more common than it is now4 ,in ,denmark the present beech woods were preceded by oak woods and these by the ,scotch fir4 ,lyell1 ,antiquity of ,man1 p4 #i2 ,j4 ,geikie1 ,prehistoric ,europe1 p4 #dhf sq4 ,in parts of ,north ,germany it appears from the evidence of archives that the fir has ousted the oak4 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,sprachvergleichung und ,urgeschichte1#b 7,jena1 #ahij71 p4 #cid4 ,in prehistoric times the oak appears to have been the chief tree in the forests which clothed the valley of the ,po2 the piles on which the pile villages rested were of oak4 ,w4 ,helbig1 ,die ,italiker in der ,poebene1 p4 #be sq4 ,the classical tradition that in the olden time men subsisted largely on acorns is borne out by the evidence of the pile villages in ,northern ,italy1 in which great quantities of acorns have been discovered4 ,see ,helbig1 op4 cit4 pp4 #af sq41 #bf1 #gb sq4 #gij ,above1 p4 #bfe sq4 #gia ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae1 p4 #ai sq4 ,mr4 ,ralston states 7on what authority ,i do not know7 that if the fire maintained in honour of the ,lithuanian god ,perkunas went out1 it was rekindled by sparks struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand4 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #hh4 #gib ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #ejb1 #ejc2 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1#b p4 #dc2 ,prhle1 ,harzbilder1 p4 #ge2 ,bartsch1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,mecklenburg1 ii4 #aej2 ,rochholz1 ,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch1 ii4 #adh4 ,the writer who styles himself ,montanus says 7,die deutschen ,volksfeste1 etc41 p4 #abg7 that the need-fire was made by the friction of oak and fir4 ,sometimes it is said that the need-fire should be made with nine different kinds of wood 7,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #ejc1 #eje2 ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #chj2 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen ,opfergebruche1 p4 #bg72 but the kinds of wood are not specified4 #gic ,john ,ramsay1 ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 ii4 #ddb2 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #ejf4 ,see above1 p4 #bee4 #gid ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #eh4 #gie ,montanus1 ,die deutschen ,volksfeste1 etc41 p4 #abg4 #gif ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajj4 #gig ,mary ,frere1 ,old ,deccan ,days1 p4 #ab sqq4 #gih ,maive ,stokes1 ,indian ,fairy ,tales1 p4 #eh sqq4 ,for similar stories1 see id4 p4 #ahg sq42 ,lal ,behari ,day1 ,folk-tales of ,bengal1 p4 #aba sq42 ,f4 ,a4 ,steel and ,r4 ,c4 ,temple1 ,wide-awake ,stories1 p4 #eh sqq4 #gii ,old ,deccan ,days1 p4 #bci sqq4 #hjj ,lal ,behari ,day1 op4 cit4 p4 #a sqq4 ,for similar stories of necklaces1 see ,old ,deccan ,days1 p4 #bcc sq42 ,wide-awake ,stories1 p4 #hc sqq4 #hja ,j4 ,h4 ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmir 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #di sq4 #hjb ,j4 ,h4 ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmir 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #acd4 #hjc ,id4 p4 #chb sqq4 #hjd ,lal ,behari ,day1 op4 cit4 p4 #he sq41 cp4 id4 p4 #bec sqq42 ,indian ,antiquary1 i4 7#ahgb7 #aag4 ,for an ,indian story in which a giant's life is in five black bees1 see ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales and ,fictions1 i4 #cej4 #hje ,indian ,antiquary1 i4 #aga4 #hjf ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iv4 #cdj sq4 #hjg ,lal ,behari ,day1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahi4 #hjh ,wide-awake ,stories1 pp4 #eb1 #fd4 #hji ,g4 ,w4 ,leitner1 ,the ,languages and ,races of ,dardistan1 p4 #i4 #haj ,apollodorus1 i4 #h2 ,diodorus1 iv4 #cd2 ,pausanias1 x4 #ca1 #d2 ,aeschylus1 ,choeph4 #fjd sqq4 #haa ,apollodorus1 iii4 #ae1 #h2 ,aeschylus1 ,choeph4 #fab sqq42 ,pausanias1 i4 #ai1 #d4 ,according to ,tzetzes 7,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #fej7 not the life but the strength of ,nisus was in his golden hair2 when it was pulled out1 he became weak and was slain by ,minos4 ,according to ,hyginus 7,fab4 #aih7 ,nisus was destined to reign only so long as he kept the purple lock on his head4 #hab ,apollodorus1 ii4 #d1 #e1 #g4 #hac ,hahn1 ,griechische und ,albanesische ,mrchen1 i4 p4 #bag2 a similar story1 id4 ii4 p4 #bhb4 #had ,hahn1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bae sq4 #hae ,id4 ii4 p4 #bge sq4 ,similar stories1 id4 ii4 pp4 #bjd1 #bid sq4 ,in an ,albanian story a monster's strength is in three pigeons1 which are in a hare1 which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar4 ,when the boar is killed1 the monster feels ill2 when the hare is cut open1 he can hardly stand on his feet2 when the three pigeons are killed1 he expires4 ,dozon1 ,contes albanais1 p4 #acb sq4 #haf ,hahn1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bfj sqq4 #hag ,id4 i4 p4 #ahg4 #hah ,id4 ii4 p4 #bc sq4 #hai ,legrand1 ,contes populaires grecs1 p4 #aia sqq4 #hbj ,plutarch1 ,parallela1 #bf4 ,in both the ,greek and ,italian stories the subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar1 which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles took from her4 #hba ,basile1 ,pentamerone1 ii4 p4 #fj sq4 7,liebrecht's ,german trans47 #hbb ,r4 ,h4 ,busk1 ,folk-lore of ,rome1 p4 #afd sqq4 #hbc ,ralston1 ,russian ,folk-tales1 p4 #ajc sq42 so ,dietrich1 ,russian ,popular ,tales1 p4 #bc sq4 #hbd ,ralston1 op4 cit4 p4 #aji4 #hbe ,ib4 #hbf ,ralston1 ,russian ,folk-tales1 p4 #aac sq4 #hbg ,id41 p4 #aad4 #hbh ,id41 p4 #aaj4 #hbi ,mijatovics1 ,serbian ,folk-lore1 edited by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,denton1 p4 #agb2 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sagen und ,mrchen der ,sdslaven1 i4 7,no4 #cd7 p4 #afh sq4 #hcj ,a4 ,h4 ,wraitslaw1 ,sixty ,folk-,tales from exclusively ,slavonic sources 7,london1 #ahhi71 p4 #bbe4 #hca ,haltrich1 ,deutsche ,volksmrchen aus dem ,sachsenlande in ,siebenbrgen1#d ,no4 #cd 7,no4 #cc of the first ed471 p4 #adi sq4 #hcb ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1 ,deutsche ,marchen und ,sagen1 ,no4 #bj1 p4 #hg sqq4 #hcc ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1 ii4 p4 #cjf sq4 #hcd ,k4 ,mllenhoff1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,lieder der ,herzogthmer ,schleswig-,holstein und ,lauenburg1 p4 #djd sqq4 #hce ,asbjrnsen og ,moe1 ,norske ,folke-,eventyr1 ,no4 #cf2 ,dasent1 ,popular ,tales from the ,norse1 p4 #ee sqq4 #hcf ,asbjrnsen og ,moe1 ,norske ,folke-,eventyr1 ,ny ,samling1 ,no4 #gj2 ,dasent1 ,tales from the ,fjeld1 p4 #bbi 78,boots and the ,beasts407 #hcg ,mannhardt1 ,germanische ,mythen1 p4 #eib2 ,jamieson1 ,dictionary of the ,scottish ,language1 s4v4 8,yule40 #hch ,j4 ,f4 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales of the ,west ,highlands1 i4 p4 #aj sq4 #hci ,j4 ,f4 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales of the ,west ,highlands1 i4 p4 #hj sqq4 #hdj ,sbillot1 ,contes populaires de la ,haute-,bretagne 7,paris1 #ahhe71 p4 #fc sqq4 #hda ,f4 ,m4 ,luzel1 ,contes populaires de ,basse-,bretagne 7,paris1 #ahhg71 i4 #dde-ddi4 #hdb ,maspero1 ,contes populaires de l'gypte ancienne 7,paris1 #ahhb71 p4 #e sqq4 #hdc ,lane's ,arabian ,nights1 iii4 #caf sq4 #hdd ,g4 ,spitta-,bey1 ,contes arabes modernes 7,leyden and ,paris1 #ahhc71 ,no4 #b1 p4 #ab sqq4 ,the story in its main outlines is identical with the ,cashmeer story of 8,the ,ogress ,queen0 7,j4 ,h4 ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmir1 p4 #db sqq47 and the ,bengalee story of 8,the ,boy whom ,seven ,mothers ,suckled0 7,lal ,behari ,day1 ,folk-tales of ,bengal1 p4 #aag sqq42 ,indian ,antiquary1 i4 #agj sqq47 ,in another ,arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial3 when it is broken1 she dies4 ,w4 ,a4 ,clouston1 ,a ,group of ,eastern ,romances and ,stories1 p4 #cj4 ,a similar incident occurs in a ,cashmeer story4 ,knowles1 op4 cit4 p4 #gc4 ,in the ,arabian story mentioned in the text1 the hero1 by a genuine touch of local colour1 is made to drink the milk of an ogress's breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son4 ,cp4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 p4 #adi2 and for the same mode of creating kinship among other races1 see ,d',abbadie1 ,douze ans dans la ,haute ,ethiopie1 p4 #bgb sq42 ,tausch1 8,notices of the ,circassians10 ,journ4 ,royal ,asiatic ,soc4 i4 7#ahcd7 p4 #ajd2 ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 pp4 #gg1 #hc 7cp4 ,leitner1 ,languages and ,races of ,dardistan1 p4 #cd72 ,denzil ,ibbetson1 ,settlement ,report of the ,panipat1 ,tahsil1 and ,karnal ,parganah of the ,karnal ,district1 p4 #aja2 ,moura1 ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #dbg2 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte und ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 p4 #ad4 #hde ,rivire1 ,contes populaires de la ,kabylie du ,djurdjura1 p4 #aia4 #hdf ,w4 ,h4 ,jones and ,l4 ,l4 ,kropf1 ,the ,folk-tales of the ,magyar 7,london1 #ahhi71 p4 #bje sq4 #hdg ,r4 ,h4 ,busk1 ,the ,folk-lore of ,rome1 p4 #afh4 #hdh ,castren1 ,ethnologische ,vorlesungen ber die ,altaischen ,vlker1 p4 #agc sqq4 #hdi ,schiefner1 ,heldensagen der ,minussinschen ,tataren1 pp4 #agb-agf4 #hej ,schiefner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ajh-aab4 #hea ,schiefner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cfj-cfd2 ,castren1 ,vorlesungen ber die finnische ,mythologie1 p4 #ahf sq4 #heb ,schiefner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahi-aic4 ,in another ,tartar poem 7,schiefner1 op4 cit4 p4 #cij sq47 a boy's soul is shut up by his enemies in a box4 ,while the soul is in the box1 the boy is dead2 when it is taken out1 he is restored to life4 ,in the same poem 7p4 #chd7 the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box1 because it is feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on earth4 ,but these cases are1 to some extent1 the converse of those in the text4 #hec ,schott1 8,ueber die ,sage von ,geser ,chan10 ,abhandlungen d4 ,knigl4 ,akad4 d4 ,wissensch4 zu ,berlin1 #ahea1 p4 #bfi4 #hed ,w4 ,radloff1 ,proben der ,volkslitteratur der trkischen ,stmme ,sd-,siberiens1 ii4 #bcg sq4 #hee ,w4 ,radloff1 op4 cit4 ii4 #eca sqq4 #hef ,id41 iv4 #hh sq4 #heg ,w4 ,radloff1 op4 cit4 i4 #cde sq4 #heh ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,de ,simsonsage10 ,de ,gids1 #ahhh1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #f sqq4 7of the separate reprint74 ,cp4 ,backer1 ,l',archipel ,indien1 pp4 #add-adi4 #hei ,nieuwenhuisen en ,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het eiland ,nias10 ,verhandel4 van het ,batav4 ,genootsch4 v4 ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 p4 #aaa2 ,sundermann1 8,die ,insel ,nias10 ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xi4 7#ahhd7 p4 #dec4 #hfj ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #acd4 #hfa ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes1 p4 #ed4 #hfb ,f4 ,valentyn1 ,oud en ,nieuw ,oost-,indin1 ii4 #adc sq42 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,de ,simsonsage1 p4 #ae sq4 #hfc ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #acg4 #hfd ,b4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,volksleben der ,neugriechen1 p4 #bjf4 #hfe ,above1 pp4 #cje1 #cjg1 #cji1 #caa4 #hff ,revue d',ethnographie1 ii4 #bbc4 #hfg ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #afe4 #hfh ,bastian1 ,ein ,besuch in ,san ,salvador1 p4 #ajc sq42 id41 ,der ,mensch in der ,geschichte1 iii4 #aic4 #hfi ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui2 or1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1#b p4 #ahd2 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du monde et la recherche de ,la ,prouse sur la corvette ,astrolabe1 ii4 #ddd4 #hgj ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes1 p4 #ei4 #hga ,van ,eck1 8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,n4 ,s4 ix4 7#ahhj7 p4 #dag sq4 #hgb ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,de ,simsonsage1 p4 #bf4 #hgc ,gubernatis1 ,mythologie des ,plantes1 i4 xxviii4 sq4 #hgd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ej2 ,ploss1 ,das ,kind1#b i4 #gi4 #hge ,k4 ,bartsch1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,mecklenburg1 ii4 #dc1 ,no4 #fc4 #hgf ,gentleman's ,magazine1 ,october #ahjd1 p4 #iji1 quoted by ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 iii4 #bhi2 ,w4 ,g4 ,black1 ,folk-medicine1 pp4 #ca sq41 #fg4 #hgg ,moore's ,life of ,lord ,byron1 i4 #aja4 #hgh ,cedrenus1 ,compend4 ,histor4 p4 #fbe ,b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjh1 ed4 ,bekker4 #hgi ,f4 ,mason1 8,physical ,character of the ,karens10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 #ahff1 pt4 ii4 p4 #i4 #hhj ,matthes1 ,makassarsch-,hollandsch ,woordenboek1 s4v4 soemg1 p4 #efi2 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,het animsme bij de volken van den ,indischen ,archipel10 ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 p4 #icc4 #hha ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 8,notes on the ,customs of ,mota1 ,banks ,islands0 7communicated by the ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison71 ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,victoria1 xvi4 #acf4 #hhb ,f4 ,speckmann1 ,die ,hermannsburger ,mission in ,afrika 7,hermannsburg1 #ahgf71 p4 #afg4 #hhc ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,coast1 i4 #ffa4 ,the words quoted by ,bancroft 7p4 #ffb1 note7 8,consrvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida est unida la de un animal1 y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando ste muere10 are not quite accurately represented by the statement of ,bancroft in the text4 #hhd ,otto ,stoll1 ,die ,ethnologie der ,indianerstmme von ,guatemala 7,leyden1 #ahhi71 p4 #eg sq42 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 i4 #gdj sq42 ,bastian1 ,die ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 ii4 #bhb4 #hhe ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,further ,notes on the ,australian ,class ,systems10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xviii4 #eh4 #hhf ,gerard ,krefft1 8,manners and ,customs of the ,aborigines of the ,lower ,murray and ,darling10 ,transact4 ,philos4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 #ahfb-fe1 p4 #cei sq4 #hhg ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 l4c4 #hhh ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #eb4 #hhi ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiv4 #cej1 xv4 #daf1 xviii4 #eg 7the 8nightjar0 is apparently an owl74 #hij ,fison and ,howitt1 ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai1 pp4 #aid1 #bja sq41 #bae2 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xv4 #daf1 xviii4 #ef sq4 #hia ,the chief facts of totemism have been collected by the present writer in a little work1 ,totemism 7,edinburgh1 ,a4 and ,c4 ,black1 #ahhg74 #hib 7,sir7 ,george ,grey1 ,journals of ,two ,expeditions of ,discovery in ,north-,west and ,western ,australia1 ii4 #bbh sq4 #hic ,fison and ,howitt1 ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai1 p4 #afi4 #hid ,de la ,borde1 8,relation de l',origine1 etc4 des ,caraibes10 p4 #ae1 in ,recueil de divers ,voyages faits en ,afrique et en l',amrique 7,paris1 #afhd74 #hie ,washington ,matthews1 ,the ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #ej4 #hif ,bastian1 ,die ,volker des ostlichen ,asien1 iii4 #bdh4 #hig ,i4 ,b4 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane-en ,bila-stroomgebied op het eiland ,sumatra10 ,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijks1 ,genootsch41 ,tweede ,serie1 dl4 iii4 ,afdeeling3 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #caa sq42 id41 dl4 iv4 ,no4 #a1 p4 #h sq42 ,van ,hovell1 8,iets over 't oorlogvoeren der ,batta's10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indie1 ,n4 ,s4 vii4 7#ahgh7 p4 #dcd2 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,over de verwantschap en het huwelijks-en erfrecht bij de volken van het maleische ras1 pp4 #bj sq41 #cf2 id41 ,iets over de ,papoewas van de ,geelvunksbaai1 p4 #bg sq4 7reprint from ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,ned4-,indi1 #e;e ,volgreeks ii472 ,journal ,anthrop4 ,inst4 ix4 #bie2 ,backer1 ,l',archipel ,indien1 p4 #dgj4 #hih ,b4 ,hagen1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,battareligion10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde xxviii4 #ead4 ,j4 ,b4 ,neumann 7op4 cit4 dl4 iii4 ,no4 #b1 p4 #bii7 is the authority for the seven souls4 #hii ,th4 ,benfey1 ,pantschatantra1 i4 #abh sq4 #ijj ,a4 ,l4 ,p4 ,cameron1 8,notes on some ,tribes of ,new ,south ,wales10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,instit4 xiv4 #ceh4 #ija ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,on ,australian ,medicine ,men10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xvi4 #dg sq4 ,on the ,bullroarer 7a piece of wood fastened to a cord or thong and swung round so as to produce a booming sound71 see ,a4 ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1 p4 #bi sqq4 ,the religious use of the ,bullroarer is best known in ,australia1 but in the essay just referred to ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang has shown that the instrument has been similarly employed not only in ,south ,africa and by the ,zunis of ,new ,mexico1 but also by the ancient ,greeks in their religious mysteries4 ,as a sacred instrument it also occurs in ,western ,africa 7,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 ,abeokuta and the ,cameroons ,mountains1 i4 #aig sq42 ,bouche1 ,la ,cte des ,esclaves1 p4 #abd71 and in ,new ,guinea 7,j4 ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #he74 #ijb ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,on some ,australian ceremonies of initiation10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiii4 #dec sq4 ,the 8class-name0 is the name of the totemic division to which the man belongs4 #ijc ,l4 ,fison1 8,the ,nanga1 or sacred stone enclosure of ,wainimala1 ,fiji10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiv4 #bb4 #ijd ,w4 ,h4 ,bentley1 ,life on the ,congo 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4 #gh sq4 #ije ,a4 ,bastian1 ,ein ,besuch in ,san ,salvador1 pp4 #hb sq4 #hf4 #ijf ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 ii4 #ahc2 cp4 id41 pp4 #ae-ah1 #cj sq4 ,on these initiatory rites in the ,congo region see also ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston in ,proceed4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 ,n4 ,s4 v4 7#ahhc7 p4 #egb sq41 and in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiii4 #dgb2 ,e4 ,delmar ,morgan1 in ,proceed4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 ,n4 ,s4 vi4 #aic4 #ijg ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #bfh sq4 ,dapper's account has been abbreviated in the text4 #ijh 7,beverley's7 ,history of ,virginia 7,london1 #agbb71 p4 #agg sq4 #iji ,j4 ,carver1 ,travels through the ,interior ,parts of ,north ,america1 pp4 #bga-bge4 #iaj ,carver1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgg sq42 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 iii4 #bhg1 v4 #dcj sqq42 ,kohl1 ,kitschi-,gami1 i4 #fd-gj4 #iaa ,narrative of the ,adventures and ,sufferings of ,john ,r4 ,jewitt 7,middletown1 #ahbj71 p4 #aai4 #iab ,id41 p4 #dd4 ,for the age of the prince1 see id41 p4 #ce4 #iac ,holmberg1 8,ueber die ,vlker des russischen ,amerika10 ,acta ,soc4 ,scient4 ,fennicae1 iv4 7,helsingfors1 #ahef7 pp4 #bib sqq41 #cbh2 ,petroff1 ,report on the ,population1 etc4 of ,alaska1 p4 #afe sq42 ,a4 ,krause1 ,die ,tlinkit-,indianer1 p4 #aab2 ,r4 ,c4 ,mayne1 ,four years in ,british ,columbia and ,vancouver ,island1 p4 #beg sq41 #bfh4 #iad ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 v4 #fhc4 ,in a letter dated #afth ,dec4 #ahhg1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,gatschet1 of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 ,washington1 writes to me3 8,among the ,toukawe whom in #ahhd ,i found at ,fort ,griffin 81 ,texas1 ,i noticed that they never kill the big or gray wolf1 hatchukunn1 which has a mythological signification1 #8holding the earth' 7hatch74 ,he forms one of their totem clans1 and they have had a dance in his honor1 danced by the males only1 who carried sticks40 #iae ,reina1 8,ueber die ,bewohner der ,insel ,rook10 ,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde1 ,n4 ,f4 iv4 7#aheh7 p4 #cef sq4 #iaf ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,im ,bismarck ,archipel1 pp4 #abi-acd2 ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1 8,notes on the ,duke of ,york ,group1 ,new ,britain1 and ,new ,ireland10 ,journ4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 xlvii4 7#ahgh7 p4 #adh sq42 ,h4 ,h4 ,romilly1 8,the ,islands of the ,new ,britain ,group10 ,proceed4 ,royal ,geogr4 ,soc4 ,n4 ,s4 ix4 7#ahhg7 p4 #aa sq42 ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1 ib4 p4 #ag2 ,w4 ,powell1 ,wanderings in a ,wild ,country1 pp4 #fj-ff2 ,c4 ,hager1 ,kaiser ,wilhelm's ,land und der ,bismarck ,archipel1 pp4 #aae-abh4 ,the inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes1 which in the ,duke of ,york ,island have two insects for their totems4 ,one of the insects is the mantis religiosus2 the other is an insect that mimicks the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very closely4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,danks1 8,marriage customs of the ,new ,britain ,group10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xviii4 #bha sq4 #iag ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 8,galela und ,tobeloresen10 ,zeitschrift f4 ,ethnologie1 xvii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #ha sq4 #iah ,the ,kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been described4 ,see ,valentyn1 ,oud en nieuw ,oost-,indin1 iii4 #c sq42 ,von ,schmid1 8,het ,kakihansch ,verbond op het eiland ,ceram10 ,tijdschrift v4 ,nerlands ,indi1 v4 dl4 ii4 7#ahdc7 #be-ch2 ,van ,ekris1 8,het,ceramsche ,kakianverbond10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederland4 ,zendelinggenootschap1 7#ahfe7 ix4 #bje-bbf 7repeated with slight changes in ,tijdschrift v4 ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xvi4 #ahff1 pp4 #bij-cae72 ,f4 ,fournier1 8,de ,zuidkust van ,ceram10 ,tijdschrift v4 ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xvi4 #aed sqq42 ,van ,rees1 ,die ,pionniers der ,beschaving in ,nerlands ,indi1 pp4 #ib-ajf2 ,van ,hovell1 ,ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de ,oeliasers1 p4 #aec sqq42 ,schulze1 8,ueber ,ceram und seine ,bewohner10 ,verhandl4 d4 ,berliner ,gesell4 f4 ,anthropologie1 etc4 7#ahgg7 p4 #aag2 ,w4 ,joest1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,eingebornen der ,insel ,formosa und ,ceram10 id4 7#ahhb71 p4 #fd2 ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel1 p4 #cah2 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #ade-adh2 ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 pp4 #ajg-aaa4 ,the best accounts are those of ,valentyn1 ,von ,schmid1 ,van ,ekris1 ,van ,rees1 and ,riedel1 which are accordingly followed in the text4 #iai ,laws of ,manu1 ii4 #afi1 trans4 by ,bhler2 ,dubois1 ,moeurs1 ,institutions et ,crmonies des ,peuples de l',inde1 i4 #abe2 ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,life and ,thought in ,india1 pp4 #cfj sq4 #cff sq4 #ibj ,lampridius1 ,commodus1 #i2 ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,gnostics and their ,remains1#b pp4 #abg1 #abi4 #iba ,above1 p4 #cji4 #ibb ,above1 p4 #cab sq4 #ibc ,above1 p4 #cjh sq4 #ibd ,above1 p4 #cbd sq4 ,in the myth the throwing of the weapons and of the mistletoe at ,balder and the blindness of ,hdur who slew him remind us of the custom of the ,irish reapers who kill the corn-spirit in the last sheaf by throwing their sickles blindfold at it4 7,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cci74 ,in ,mecklenburg a cock is sometimes buried in the ground and a man who is blindfolded strikes at it with a flail4 ,if he misses it1 another tries1 and so on till the cock is killed4 ,bartsch1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,mecklenburg1 ii4 #bhj4 ,in ,england on ,shrove ,tuesday a hen used to be tied upon a man's back1 and other men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they killed it4 ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #fh4 ,mannhardt 7,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #af sq47 has made it probable that such sports are directly derived from the custom of killing a cock upon the harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit 7see above1 p4 #i74 ,these customs1 therefore1 combined with the blindness of ,hdur in the myth suggest that the man who killed the human representative of the oak-spirit was blindfolded1 and threw his weapon or the mistletoe from a little distance4 ,after the ,lapps had killed a bear--which was the occasion of many superstitious ceremonies--the bear's skin was hung on a post1 and the women1 blindfolded1 shot arrows at it4 ,scheffer1 ,lapponia1 p4 #bdj4 #ibe ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #ajja1 #ajaj4 #ibf ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #fa4 #ibg ,col4 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 8,the ,kols of ,chota-,nagpore10 ,trans4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 vi4 #cf4 #ibh ,jens ,kamp1 ,danske ,folkeminder 7,odense1 #ahgg71 pp4 #agb1 #fe sq4 referred to in ,feilberg's ,bidrag til en ,ordbog over ,jyske ,almuesml1 ,fjerde hefte 7,copenhagen1 #ahhh71 p4 #cbj4 ,for a sight of ,feilberg's work ,i am indebted to the kindness of the ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor1 ,m4,a41 ,pitsligo1 who pointed out the passage to me4 #ibi ,e4 ,t4 ,kristensen1 ,iydske ,folkeminder1 vi4 #chj1 referred to by ,feilberg1 l4c4 #icj ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1#b #abh2 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bfi4 #ica ,extract from a newspaper1 copied and sent to me by the ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor1 ,m4,a41 ,pitsligo4 ,mr4 ,gregor does not mention the name of the newspaper4 #icb ,martin1 8,description of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #ffa #icc ,rochholz1 ,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch1 i4 #i4 #icd ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #bjc sqq41 cp4 #acf sqq4 ,on the mistletoe 7viscum7 see ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bde sqq4 #ice ,virgil 7,aen4 vi4 #bja sqq47 places the ,golden ,bough in the neighbourhood of ,lake ,avernus4 ,but this was probably a poetical liberty1 adopted for the convenience of ,aeneas's descent to the infernal world4 ,italian tradition1 as we learn from ,servius1 placed the ,golden ,bough in the grove at ,nemi4 #icf ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #d sq4 #icg ,a custom of annually burning a human representative of the corn-spirit has been noted among the ,egyptians1 ,pawnees1 and ,khonds4 ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #chb1 #chg1 #dja sq4 ,in ,semitic lands there are traces of a practice of annually burning a human god4 ,for the image of ,hercules 7that is1 of ,baal7 which was periodically burned on a pyre at ,tarsus1 must have been a substitute for a human representative of the god4 ,see ,dio ,chrysostom1 ,orat4 #cc1 vol4 ii4 p4 #af1 ed4 ,dindorf2 ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #cec sq4 ,the ,druids seem to have eaten portions of the human victim4 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxx4 #ac4 ,perhaps portions of the flesh of the ,king of the ,wood were eaten by his worshippers as a sacrament4 ,we have seen traces of the use of sacramental bread at ,nemi4 ,see above1 p4 #hb sq4 #ich ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 ii4 #ajji1 pren puraur4 #ici ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #acg sq4 #idj ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1 #fgc4 #ida ,grohmann1 op4 cit4 #fgf2 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1 #abc4 #idb ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche und ,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes1#b #hhb4 #idc ,zingerle1 op4 cit4 #aegc4 #idd ,grohmann1 op4 cit4 #fge2 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #ih4 #ide ,l4 ,bechstein1 ,deutsches ,sagenbuch ,no4 #ejj2 id41 ,thringer ,sagenbuch 7,leipzig1 #ahhe71 ii4 ,no4 #afa4 #idf ,for gathering it at midsummer1 see above1 p4 #bhi4 ,the custom of gathering it at ,christmas still survives among ourselves4 ,at ,york 8on the eve of ,christmas ,day they carry mistletoe to the high altar of the cathedral1 and proclaim a public and universal liberty1 pardon1 and freedom to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people at the gates of the city1 towards the four quarters of heaven40 ,stukeley1 ,medallic ,history of ,carausius1 quoted by ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #ebe4 ,this last custom is of course now obsolete4 #idg ,afzelius1 ,volkssagen und ,volkslieder aus ,schwedens lterer und neuerer ,zeit1 i4 #da sq42 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d iii4 #bhi2 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bff sq4 #idh ,above1 p4 #bic4 #idi ,fern-seed is supposed to bloom at ,easter as well as at midsummer and ,christmas 7,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #ih sq472 and ,easter1 as we have seen1 is one of the times when sun-fires are kindled4 #iej ,burne and ,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore1 p4 #bdb4 #iea ,p4 #bhh4 #ieb ,the reason why ,virgil represents ,aeneas as taking the mistletoe with him to ,hades is perhaps that the mistletoe was supposed to repel evil spirits 7see above1 p4 #cfb74 ,hence when ,charon is disposed to bluster at ,aeneas1 the sight of the ,golden ,bough quiets him 7,aen4 vi4 #djf sq47 ,perhaps also the power ascribed to the mistletoe of laying bare the secrets of the earth may have suggested its use as a kind of 8open ,sesame0 to the lower world4 ,compare ,aen4 vi4 #adj sq4-- 8,sed non ante datur telluris operta subire1 ,auricomos quam qui decerpserit arbore fetus40 #iec ,die ,edda1 bersetzt von ,k4 ,simrock1#h p4 #bfd4 #ied ,on the derivation of the names ,zeus and ,jove from a root meaning 8shining10 8bright10 see ,curtius1 ,griech4 ,etymologie1#e p4 #bcf2 ,vani1 ,griech4-,latein4 ,etymolog4 ,wrterbuch1 p4 #cec sqq4 ,on the relation of ,jove to the oak1 compare ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #c1 arborum genera numinibus suis dicata perpetuo servantur1 ut ,jovi aesculus2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #ccb1 omnis quercus ,jovi est consecrata4 ,zeus and ,jupiter have commonly been regarded as sky gods1 because their names are etymologically connected with the ,sanscrit word for sky4 ,the reason seems insufficient4 #iee ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #bea sq4 #ief ,ib4 p4 #beb4 #ieg ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #beb sq4 #ieh ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast1 p4 #bbi sq42 ,t4 ,e4 ,bowdich1 ,mission to ,ashantee1 p4 #bbf sq4 7ed4 #ahgc47 #iei ,j4 ,cameron1 8,on the ,early ,inhabitants of ,madagascar10 ,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1 iii4 #bfc4 #ifj ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #aje4 #ifa ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #ia4 #ifb ,dalton1 op4 cit4 p4 #aih4 #ifc ,thomas ,shaw1 8,the ,inhabitants of the ,hills near ,rajamahall10 ,asiatic ,researches1 iv4 #ef sq4 #ifd ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 ,no4 #ejb4 #ife ,this is curiously unlike the custom of ancient ,italy1 in most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the highroads twirling a spindle1 because this was supposed to injure the crops4 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #bh4 #iff ,d4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,outlines of ,panjab ,ethnography 7,calcutta1 #ahhc71 p4 #aai4 #ifg ,fr4 ,junghuhn1 ,die ,battalnder auf ,sumatra1 ii4 #cab4 #ifh ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1 i4 #aia4 ,on taboos observed at agricultural operations1 see id4 i4 #ahe2 ,r4 ,g4 ,woodthorpe1 8,wild ,tribes ,inhabiting the so-called ,naga ,hills10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xi4 #ga2 ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #ajc sq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui2 or1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1#b p4 #afe sq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 8,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xix4 #aaj4 #ifi ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,beknopt ,verslag mijner reizen in de ,binnenlanden van ,celebes1 in de jaren #aheg en #ahfa1 p4 #e4 #igj ,n4 ,graafland1 ,de ,minahassa1 i4 #afe4 #iga ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #ajg4 #igb ,riedel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bha1 #bif sq4 #igc ,fr4 ,valentyn1 ,oud en nieuw ,oost-,indin1 iii4 #aj4 #igd ,c4 ,semper1 ,die ,philippinen und ihre ,bewohner1 p4 #ef4 #ige ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 8,the ,nanga1 or sacred stone enclosure1 of ,wainimala1 ,fiji10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiv4 #bg4 #igf ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 p4 #beb4 #igg ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cah sq4 #igh ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnology and ,philology1 p4 #ig4 #igi ,the mali is 8a piece of ground1 generally before a large house1 or chief's grave1 where public ceremonies are principally held40 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ,vocabulary4 #ihj ,the mataboole is 8a rank next below chiefs or nobles40 ,ib4 #iha ,w4 ,mariner1 ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands 7,london1 #ahah71 ii4 #aif-bjc4 #ihb ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #acc4 #ihc ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #gj sq4 #ihd ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #cej4 #ihe ,tyerman and ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #bhd4 #ihf ,geiseler1 ,die ,oester-,insel 7,berlin1 #ahhc71 p4 #ca4 #ihg ,e4 ,tregear1 8,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand10 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xix4 #aaj4 #ihh ,hartknoch1 ,alt und neues ,preussen1 p4 #afa2 id41 ,dissertationes historicae de variis rebus ,prussicis1 p4 #afc 7appended to his edition of ,dusburg's ,chronicon ,prussiae74 ,cp4 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #bg4 #ihi ,festus1 s4v4 sacrima1 p4 #cai1 ed4 ,mller2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #h4 #iij ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique1 pp4 #acj-acf 7,michel ,lvy1 ,paris1 #ahgj74 ,chateaubriand's description is probably based on earlier accounts1 which ,i have been unable to trace4 ,compare1 however1 ,le ,petit1 8,relation des ,natchez10 in ,recueil de voiages au ,nord1 ix4 #ac sq4 7,amsterdam edition72 ,de ,tonti1 8,relation de la ,louisiane et du ,mississippi10 ib4 v4 #abb2 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 vi4 #ahc2 ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 vii4 #ah sq4