,illustration3 ,,ik ,brunel ,signature ,painted by ,j4 ,c4 ,horsley1 ,r4,a4--,engraved by ,t4 ,o4 ,barlow4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,isambard ,,kingdom ,,brunel1 ,,civil ,,engineer4 ,,by ,,isambard ,,brunel1 ,b4,c4,l41 ,,of ,,lincoln',s ,,inn2 ,,chancellor ,,of ,,the ,,diocese ,,of ,,ely4 ,,london3 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ahgj4 ,,preface4 ,i have not attempted to describe the events of my father's life in chronological order beyond the end of ,chapter ,,iii41 which brings down the narrative to the close of #ahce1 the year in which the ,act was obtained for the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,chapter ,,iv4 contains a general account of my father's railway works1 with the exception of the ,bridges1 which are described in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the history of the ,broad ,gauge and of the trial of the ,atmospheric ,system on the ,south ,devon ,railway is given in ,chapters ,v4 and ,,vi4 ,chapters ,,viii4--,,xiii4 contain an account of my father's labours for the advancement of ,ocean ,steam ,navigation4 ,it will be noted that these chapters cover the same period as ,chapters ,,iv4--,,vii41 namely1 from #ahce1 the year of the commencement of the ,great ,western ,railway and the #8,great ,western' ,steam-ship1 to #ahei1 the year of his death1 in which the ,saltash ,bridge and the #8,great ,eastern' were both completed4 ,chapters ,,vii4 7on the ,bridges7 and ,,xiv4 7on the ,docks7 have been written by ,mr4 ,william ,bell1 for many years a member of my father's engineering staff2 and in regard to ,chapter ,v4 7on the ,broad ,gauge71 ,i have to acknowledge assistance rendered me by ,mr4 ,william ,pole1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,for the ,note on the ,carbonic ,acid ,gas ,engine which follows ,chapter ,i41 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,william ,hawes2 and for ,chapter ,,vi4 7on the ,atmospheric ,system7 to ,mr4 ,froude1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,i have also printed letters1 written to me at my request1 relating to various incidents in my father's life4 ,the assistance ,i received in the preparation of the chapters on ,steam ,navigation from my friend the late ,captain ,claxton1 ,r4,n41 has been referred to in the note to p4 #bcd4 ,i have throughout availed myself of my brother's professional knowledge4 ,i have been compelled1 in order to bring the work within the compass of a single volume1 to omit much that would otherwise have been inserted1 and ,i must therefore be held responsible for the general arrangement of those parts which have been contributed by others1 as well as for the chapters which ,i have written myself4 ,lastly1 ,i desire gratefully to thank those friends who1 by supplying me with materials and revising the proof sheets1 have helped me in my endeavour to make this book1 as far as possible1 an accurate record of my father's life1 written in the spirit of which he would have approved4 ,i4 ,b4 #ah ,,duke ,,street1 ,,westminster3 ,november1 #ahgj4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,list ,,of ,,reports ,,and ,,other ,,original ,,documents xvii ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations xxvii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,life4 ,a4,d4 #ahjf--ahbh4 ,birth of ,mr4 ,brunel1 ,april #i1 #ahjf--,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel--,the ,block ,machinery--,mr4 ,brunel's ,school ,life--,the ,thames ,tunnel--,sinking of the ,rotherhithe ,shaft--,description of the ,shield--,extracts from ,sir ,isambard ,brunel's ,journals from the ,commencement of the ,thames ,tunnel to the date of the ,second ,irruption of the ,river1 ,january #ab1 #ahbh--,note ,a3 ,the ,bourbon ,suspension ,bridges--,note ,b3 ,experiments with ,carbonic ,acid ,gas444444#a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,clifton ,,suspension ,,bridge4 ,a4,d4 #ahbi--ahec4 ,,tatis #bd--dh4 ,origin of the ,undertaking--,the ,first ,competition1 ,november #ahbi--;,description of ,mr4 ,brunel's ,plans--,mr4 ,telford's ,decision as ,umpire--,mr4 ,telford's ,design--,the ,second ,competition--,mr4 ,brunel appointed ,engineer1 ,march #ahca--;,commencement of the ,works1 ,august #ahcf--;,description of the ,design--,abandonment of the ,works1 #ahec--;,formation of a ,new ,company and ,completion of the ,bridge1 #ahfd--,note3 ,the ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge44444#df ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway4 ,a4,d4 #ahcc--ahce4 ,,tatis #bg--cj4 ,sketch of the ,history of ,railways in ,england prior to #ahcc--,the ,stockton and ,darlington--,the ,liverpool and ,manchester--,the ,london and ,birmingham--,proposed ,railway between ,london and ,bristol--,mr4 ,brunel appointed ,engineer1 ,march #g1 #ahcc--,survey of the ,line--,unsuccessful ,application to ,parliament in #ahcd--,successful ,application in #ahce--,reminiscences of ,mr4 ,brunel1 #ahcc-ahce--;,extract from ,mr4 ,brunel's ,diary1 written at the close of #ahce44444fa ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,railway ,,works4 ,a4,d4 #ahce--ahei4 ,,tatis #cj--ed4 ,construction of the ,great ,western ,railway--,the ,box ,tunnel--,the ,bath and ,bristol ,stations--,the ,paddington ,station--,the ,great ,western ,hotel--,branches and ,extensions of the ,great ,western ,railway--,the ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway--,railways in ,devonshire and ,cornwall--,railways to ,basingstoke1 to ,weymouth1 and to ,salisbury--,in ,south ,wales--,in ,ireland--,in ,italy--,in ,india--,supervision of ,works--,mr4 ,brunel's ,engineering ,staff--,his ,reputation as a ,witness--,reminiscences of ,mr4 ,brunel1 #ahce-ahch44444gi ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,broad ,,gauge4 ,origin of the ,ordinary ,gauge of ,railways--,adoption by ,mr4 ,brunel of the ,broad ,gauge on the ,great ,western ,railway--,reasons for its ,adoption--,the ,permanent ,way--,reports of ,mr4 ,nicholas ,wood and ,mr4 ,john ,hawkshaw1 #ahch--;,extract from ,report of ,directors of ,great ,western ,railway ,company 7,december #bj1 #ahch7--;,extension of the ,broad ,gauge ,system--,break of ,gauge--,royal ,commission on the ,gauge of ,railways1 #ahde--,letter of ,mr4 ,brunel on the ,broad ,gauge 7,august #f1 #ahde7--;,gauge ,act of #ahdf--,the ,mixed ,gauge--,report of ,railway ,commissioners1 #ahdg--,northern ,extensions of the ,great ,western ,railway--,advantages of the ,broad ,gauge--,partial ,abandonment of the ,broad ,gauge44444#ii ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,atmospheric ,,system4 ,a4,d4 #ahdj--ahdh4 ,,tatis #ce--dc4 ,preliminary ,observations--,the ,south ,devon ,railway--,description of the ,atmospheric ,system--,history of its ,introduction prior to #ahdd--,report by ,mr4 ,brunel1 recommending its ,adoption on the ,south ,devon ,railway 7,august #ai1 #ahdd7--;,examination of this ,report--,mr4 ,brunel's ,evidence before the ,select ,committee on ,atmospheric ,railways1 #ahde--;,history of the ,application of the ,system on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 #ahdd-ahdh--,report on ,state of ,works 7,august #bh1 #ahdg7--,report on ,causes of ,failure 7,august #ai1 #ahdh7--;,abandonment of the ,system1 ,september #ahdh--,note3 ,comparison of ,stationary and ,locomotive ,power44444#aca ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,railway ,,bridges ,,and ,,viaducts4 #a4 ,brickwork and ,masonry ,bridges--,hanwell ,viaduct--,maidenhead ,bridge--,flying ,bridges--,letter from ,mr4 ,brunel on ,bridge ,construction 7,december #cj1 #ahed7--b4 ,timber ,bridges--,sonning ,bridge--,bath ,bridge--,stonehouse ,viaduct--,bourne ,viaduct--,st4 ,mary's ,viaduct--,viaducts on the ,south ,devon ,railway--,ivy-bridge--,viaducts on the ,south ,wales ,railway--,newport--,landore--,viaducts on the ,cornwall ,railway--,st4 ,pinnock--,viaducts on the ,west ,cornwall and ,tavistock ,railways--,preservation of ,timber--#c4 ,cast-iron ,bridges--,letter on ,use of ,cast ,iron 7,april #ah1 #ahdi7--;,hanwell ,bridge--,experiments on ,cast-iron ,girders--,extract from ,letter to ,secretary of ,commission on ,application of ,iron to ,railway ,structures 7,march #ac1 #ahdh7--d4 ,wrought-iron ,bridges--,girder ,bridges--,experiments on ,wrought-iron ,girder--,opening ,bridges--,trussed ,bridges--,newport ,viaduct--,windsor ,bridge--,chepstow ,bridge--,method of ,sinking the ,cylinders--,description of the ,main ,truss--,the ,floating ,operations--,the ,royal ,albert ,bridge at ,saltash--,the ,centre ,pier--,description of the ,superstructure--,the ,floating and ,raising of the ,trusses--,opening of the ,bridge by ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 the ,prince ,consort--,note3 ,experiments on ,matters connected with ,bridge ,construction44444#aga ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,the #8,,great ,,western' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,a ,d4 #ahce--ahdg4 ,,tatis #cj--db4 ,introduction to the ,chapters on ,steam ,navigation--,formation of the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company--,commencement of the ,building of the #8,great ,western'--,report on ,selection of the ,builders of the ,engines 7,june #ah1 #ahcf7--,statements of ,dr4 ,lardner on the probable ,failure of a line of ,steam-ships between ,england and ,america--,voyage of the #8,great ,western' to ,london--,completion of the ,engines--,her return to ,bristol--,fire on ,board1 and ,accident to ,mr4 ,brunel--,voyage to ,new ,york--,comparison between the ,performances of the #8,great ,western' and the #8,sirius'--,subsequent ,history of the #8,great ,western'--,note3 ,dimensions of the ,ship and ,engines44444#bca ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,the #8,,great ,,britain' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,a4,d4 #ahch--ahdg4 ,,tatis #cc--db4 ,commencement of the building of the #8,great ,britain'--,report on the ,engines 7,june #ac1 #ahci7--;,experiments on the ,screw ,propeller--,its ,adoption in the #8,great ,britain'--,completion of the ,ship--,her ,voyage across the ,atlantic--,stranding of the #8,great ,britain' in ,dundrum ,bay--,letter to ,captain ,claxton on the ,condition of the #8,great ,britain' and on the ,means to be adopted for saving her 7,december #aj1 #ahdf7--,report to the ,directors on the same ,subject 7,december #ad1 #ahdf7--;,appointment of ,captain ,claxton to superintend the ,execution of ,mr4 ,brunel's ,plans--,letter to ,captain ,claxton on the ,difficulties to be overcome 7,december #bi1 #ahdf7--,report enclosing ,captain ,claxton's ,account of the ,erection of the ,breakwater 7,february #bg1 #ahdg7--,report on the ,arrangements for ,floating off the ,ship 7,may #d1 #ahdg7--,successful ,accomplishment of the ,floating ,operations--,subsequent ,history of the #8,great ,britain'--,note3 ,dimensions of the ,ship and ,engines44444#bdf ,,chapter ,x4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,screw ,,propeller ,,into ,,the ,,royal ,,navy4 ,a4,d4 #ahda--ahdd4 ,,tatis #cf--ci4 ,appointment of ,mr4 ,brunel to conduct ,experiments for the ,admiralty with various ,forms of the ,screw ,propeller1 ,april #ahda--,trials with the #8,polyphemus'--,opposition to ,mr4 ,brunel's ,experiments--,trials with the #8,rattler'1 ,october #ahdc--,october #ahdd44444bhc ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,the #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,steam-,,ship1 ,,from ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,undertaking ,,to ,,the ,,launch4 ,a4,d4 #ahea--aheg4 ,,tatis #df-eb4 ,introductory ,observations--,the ,australian ,steam ,navigation ,company--,statement of ,mr4 ,brunel's ,project of a ,line of large ,ships 7,june #aj1 #aheb7--;,adoption of his ,plans by the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company--,extract from a ,letter describing the ,scheme 7,july #a1 #aheb7--,letter to ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 ,esq41 on the ,form and ,dimensions of the ,great ,ship 7,july #ac1 #aheb7--,report on ,mode of ,proceeding 7,july #ba1 #aheb7--,report on ,enquiries ,relating to the ,draught and ,form of the ,vessel 7,october #f1 #aheb7--,report on the ,proceedings of the ,committee appointed to consider ,mr4 ,brunel's ,plans 7,march #ba1 #ahec7--,tenders invited for the ,ship and ,engines--,report on ,tenders 7,may #ah1 #ahec7--,preparation of the ,contracts and ,specifications--,extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's ,memoranda 7,a4,d4 #aheb1 #ahec1 #ahed7--,letter on his ,position and ,duties as ,engineer of the ,company 7,august #af1 #ahed7--,letter on an ,article in a ,newspaper 7,november #af1 #ahed7--,report on the ,undertaking 7,february #e1 #ahee7--;,arrangements proposed for obtaining ,astronomical ,observations--,letter to ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 ,esq41 ,astronomer ,royal 7,october #e1 #aheb7--;,appointment of ,mr4 ,william ,harrison to the ,command of the ,ship--,memorandum on the ,management of the ,great ,ship 7,october #ahee7--,letter on the ,duties of the ,chief ,engineer 7,march #ai1 #aheg7--,suspension and ,resumption of the ,works44444#bhi ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,the #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,,the ,,launch4 ,a4,d4 #aheg1 #aheh4 ,,tatis #eb4 ,determination that the ,ship should be launched broadside to the ,river--,and that the ,launch should be slow--,extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's ,report of ,february #ahee--,reasons for the ,adoption of ,iron ,sliding ,surfaces--,description of the ,ways and ,cradles--,and of the ,motive ,power provided for launching the ,ship--,memorandum on proposed ,arrangements for the ,launch 7,september #bf1 #aheg7--,letter to ,captain ,harrison on ,river ,tackle 7,september #cj1 #aheg7--,letter on the ,nature of the ,operations 7,october #bc1 #aheg7--,memorandum on general ,arrangements and intended ,mode of ,proceeding 7,october #cj1 #aheg7--;,history of the ,launch1 ,nov4 #c1 #aheg to ,january #ca1 #aheh--,letter to the ,directors 7,november #bf1 #aheg7--,report and ,memorandum on the ,launching ,operations 7,december #ag1 #aheg7--;,floating the ,ship--,note ,a3 ,experiments and ,observations on ,friction--,note ,b3 ,letter to ,w4 ,froude1 ,esq4 7,february #b1 #aheh744444cdj ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,the #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,,completion ,,and ,,subsequent ,,history4 ,a4,d4 #aheh1 #ahei4 ,,tatis #eb-ed4 ,a4,d4 #ahei-ahgj4 ,preparations for completing the ,ship--,formation of the ,great ,ship ,company--,mr4 ,brunel's ,absence from ,england--,progress of the ,works from his ,return to his last ,illness--,voyage to ,weymouth--,explosion of ,water-,heater--,storm at ,holyhead--,description of the ,ship--,her first ,voyage to ,new ,york1 ,june #ahfj--,second ,voyage to ,new ,york1 ,may #ahfa--,voyage with ,troops to ,quebec1 ,june #ahfa--;,fracture of ,rudder ,head and ,destruction of ,paddlewheels1 ,september #ahfa--,voyages in #ahfb--;,accident off ,montauk ,point1 ,august #bg1 #ahfb--,voyages in #ahfc--;,formation of the ,great ,eastern ,steam-,ship ,company--,remarks on the ,history of the #8,great ,eastern' previous to her ,employment in laying ,submarine ,telegraph ,cables--,telegraph ,expeditions of #ahfe and #ahff--;,french ,cable ,expedition of #ahfi--,voyage to ,bombay and ,aden1 #ahfi1 #ahgj--;,concluding ,remarks--,note3 ,dimensions of the ,ship and ,engines44444#cib ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,dock ,,and ,,pier ,,works4 ,a4,d4 #ahca--ahei4 ,,tatis #bf--ed4 ,monkwearmouth ,docks1 #ahca--;,bristol ,docks--,floating ,harbour1 #ahcb--,proposed ,works at ,portishead--,new ,lock at ,bristol1 #ahde--;,bristol ,dock ,gates--,plymouth ,great ,western ,docks1 #ahdg--;,briton ,ferry ,docks1 #ahea--;,brentford ,dock1 #ahef--,pier at ,milford ,haven1 #aheg44444dag ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,works4 ,the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea--,the ,crystal ,palace ,water ,towers1 #ahec--,polygonal ,rifle1 #aheb--;,gunnery ,experiments1 #ahed--;,floating ,gun-,carriage1 #ahed--,renkioi ,hospital ,buildings1 #ahee44444dde ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,professional ,,opinions ,,and ,,practice4 ,scheme of the ,chapter--,mr4 ,brunel's ,position in relation to the ,companies of which he was ,engineer--,letter on the ,direction of ,railway ,works in ,italy 7,march #d1 #ahde7--,letter on the ,position of ,joint ,engineer 7,october #af1 #ahdc7--,letter on the ,position of ,consulting ,engineer 7,december #cj1 #ahea7--,letter on the ,position of the ,engineer in relation to the ,contractors 7,may #bf1 #ahed7--,letters on the ,position of the ,engineer in relation to the ,directors 7,april #ae1 #ahej1 ,december #f1 #ahea1 ,january #bb1 #aheg7--,mr4 ,brunel's ,assistants--,letters on ,interference of ,directors with the ,assistant ,engineers 7,january #ai1 #ahdb1 ,january #bh1 #ahdb1 ,january #ab1 #ahea7--,mr4 ,brunel's ,pupils--,his ,relations with other ,engineers--,inventors--,letter in reply to an ,inventor 7,september #ag1 #ahdg7--,mr4 ,brunel's ,views as to ,state ,interference--,letter on the ,royal ,commission on the ,application of ,iron to ,railway ,structures 7,march #ac1 #ahdh7--,letter on a ,proposal to obtain the ,recognition in ,england of ,decorations conferred at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahee 7,february #i1 #ahef7--,mr4 ,brunel's ,opinion on the ,patent ,laws--,memorandum for ,evidence before the ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,lords on the ,patent ,laws1 #ahea--;,extract from ,observations on the ,patent ,laws1 made by ,mr4 ,brunel at a ,meeting of the ,society of ,arts1 ,march #bf1 #ahef44444dgd ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,private ,,life4 ,reminiscences of ,mr4 ,brunel's ,private ,life--,removal to #ah ,duke ,street1 ,westminster--,his ,marriage1 #ahcf--,special ,constable in #ahdh--,mr4 ,brunel's ,love of ,art--,his ,journey to ,italy1 #ahdb--;,accident with the ,half-,sovereign1 #ahdc--,purchase of ,property in ,devonshire1 #ahdg--;,his life at ,watcombe--,the ,launch of the #8,great ,eastern1' #aheg--,mr4 ,brunel's ,failing ,health--,journeys to ,switzerland and ,egypt1 #aheh--,letter from ,phil 7,february #ab1 #ahei7--;,his last ,illness--,his ,death1 ,september #ae1 #ahei--;,funeral--,address of ,joseph ,locke1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,november #h1 #ahei44444dii ,,appendix ,i4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway on the ,broad ,gauge1 c4 7,august #ahch744444ebe ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company1 recommending the ,adoption of the ,screw ,propeller in the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-ship 7,october #ahdj744444eci ,,index44444#eei ,,list ,,of ,,reports ,,and ,,other ,,original ,,documents4 ,,page #a4 ,extract from ,mr4 ,brunel's ,diary 7,december #bf1 #ahce744444gh #b4 ,letter on the ,box ,tunnel 7,june #ba1 #ahdb744444ha #c4 ,extract from ,report to ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company on ,break of ,gauge 7,december #ac1 #ahch744444aje #d4 ,extract from ,report to ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company on the ,permanent ,way 7,february #ahcg744444aji #e4 ,letter on various ,points relating to the ,broad ,gauge 7,august #d1 #ahde744444abj #f4 ,extract from ,letter on ,atmospheric ,system 7,april #h1 #ahdd744444acg #g4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,south ,devon ,railway ,company1 recommending them to adopt the ,atmospheric ,system 7,august #ai1 #ahdd744444ach ,the question had been frequently considered by him 7p4 #ach7--,stationary power is cheaper and otherwise better than locomotive power 7p4 #ach7--,the ,atmospheric ,system is a good1 economical mode of applying stationary power 7p4 #ach7--,reasons for considering it applicable to the ,south ,devon ,railway 7p4 #aci7--;,in the construction of the line 7p4 #adj7--;,in the subsequent working 7p4 #ada74 #h1 #i4 ,letters on giving ,evidence before the ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,commons on the ,atmospheric ,system 7,march #ca1 #ahde2 ,april #c1 #ahde744444ade #aj4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,south ,devon ,railway on the ,state of the ,atmospheric ,apparatus 7,august #bg1 #ahdg744444adi ,regret at postponement of working 7p4 #adi7--,which has been caused by delay in completion of the engines 7p4 #adi7--;,experimental trains have run 7p4 #adi7--;,difficulties have exceeded all just anticipations 7p4 #aej74 #aa4 ,report to a ,committee of the ,directors of the ,south ,devon ,railway ,company on the ,causes of the ,failure of the ,atmospheric ,system 7,august #ai1 #ahdh744444aei ,the first difficulty has been in the stationary engines1 which have consumed an excessive amount of fuel 7p4 #aei7--,the difficulties in the working of the longitudinal valve have been more numerous 7p4 #afa7--,the principal evil might be remedied in a new valve 7p4 #afb7--;,an extension of the system beyond ,newton cannot be recommended 7p4 #afb7--,the delay in obtaining the telegraph has been a great disappointment 7p4 #afc74 #ab4 ,letter on the ,design of ,engineering ,works 7,december #cj1 #ahed744444agh #ac4 ,extract from ,letter on the ,use of ,cast ,iron in ,bridge ,construction 7,april #ah1 #ahdi744444aij #ad4 ,extract from ,letter on the same ,subject 7,march #ac1 #ahdh744444aib #ae1 #af1 #ag4 ,extract from ,letters on ,bridges of ,large ,spans 7,january #ca1 #aheb2 ,december #a1 #aheb2 ,may #cj1 #ahed744444bab #ah4 ,extract from ,report on the ,cornwall ,railway as to making the ,saltash ,bridge for a ,single ,line 7,february #e1 #aheb744444bad #ai4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company on the ,selection of the ,builders of the ,engines for the #8,great ,western' ,steam-ship 7,june #ah1 #ahcf744444bce ,every means must be taken to secure the best engines possible in this the boldest attempt yet made 7p4 #bce7--,the peculiar conditions required in these engines 7p4 #bce7--,they must1 as far as is possible1 be perfect in all their details from the moment of their completion 7p4 #bce7--,the machinery required is by no means an ordinary steam-engine 7p4 #bcf7--,modifications necessary in designing engines of so large a size 7p4 #bcf7--,reasons based on these considerations for preferring ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,field as builders of these engines 7p4 #bcf74 #bj4 ,letter on the ,engines for the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-ship 7,june #ab1 #ahci744444bdi ,both the plans of ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,field and ,mr4 ,humphrys are adapted to the case1 and the choice will depend upon the relative cost and advantages of forming an establishment to build the engines1 and that of having the skill of experienced manufacturers 7p4 #bdi74 #ba4 ,letter to ,t4 ,r4 ,guppy1 ,esq41 on the ,construction of ,iron ,ships 7,august #c1 #ahdc744444bei #bb4 ,extract from ,letter on the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-ship 7,december #aa1 #ahdd744444bfa #bc4 ,letter to ,captain ,claxton on the ,state of the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-ship 7,december #aj1 #ahdf744444bfd #bd4 ,report on the ,condition of the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-ship when stranded in ,dundrum ,bay 7,december #ad1 #ahdf744444bfg ,the ship is1 apart from mere local damage1 perfectly sound1 which would not have been the case had she been built of timber 7p4 #bfg7--;,description of her injuries 7p4 #bfh7--;,consideration of the best means of recovering the property invested in her--,it would not be profitable to break her up 7p4 #bfh7--;,how1 then1 is the vessel to be got into port8 7p4 #bfi7--,this question is secondary to that of how she is to be preserved until she can be removed 7p4 #bfi7--;,a stiff timber breakwater would not stand1 even if it could be safely constructed 7p4 #bfi7--,the best plan is to form under the stern and along the exposed side of the ship a mass of fagots 7p4 #bgj7--;,and in order to preserve the ship1 this must be done without delay 7p4 #bgj7--;,as to floating her off1 she should be lifted and made water-tight 7p4 #bga7--;,but she must first be preserved 7p4 #bgb74 #be4 ,letter to ,captain ,claxton on the ,breakwater 7,december #bi1 #ahdf744444bgb #bf4 ,report enclosing ,captain ,claxton's ,account of the ,proceedings at ,dundrum 7,february #bg1 #ahdg744444bgc ,success achieved by ,captain ,claxton in constructing the breakwater of fagots 7p4 #bgc7--;,introduction by him of several important alterations and improvements in the plans proposed 7p4 #bgd74 #bg4 ,report on the proposed ,means of ,floating the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-ship 7,may #d1 #ahdg744444bgh ,the ship has been successfully protected and lifted1 and made water-tight1 so that the operation of floating by camels becomes more practicable 7p4 #bgi7--,the ,directors would do well to call in ,mr4 ,bremner to advise them 7p4 #bhj74 #bh4 ,extract from ,letter relating to ,proceedings at the ,admiralty as to the ,screw ,propeller 7,july #h1 #ahdb744444bhc #bi4 ,extract from ,letter on the same ,subject 7,august #f1 #ahdb744444bhf #cj4 ,statement of ,project for a ,line of large ,steam-ships 7,june #aj1 #aheb744444bib ,the principle advocated is that of making the vessel large enough to carry her own coal for the voyage1 just as the #8,great ,western' steam-ship did in #ahch 7p4 #bib7--,the size being limited only by the extent of demand for freight1 and by the circumstances of the ports to be frequented 7p4 #bib74 #ca4 ,extract from ,letter describing the ,project of the ,great ,ship 7,july #a1 #aheb744444bic #cb4 ,letter to ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 ,esq41 on the ,form and ,dimensions of the ,great ,ship 7,july #ac1 #aheb744444bid #cc4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company on mode of ,proceeding 7,july #ba1 #aheb744444bif #cd4 ,report on ,enquiries relating to the ,draught and ,form of the ,great ,ship 7,october #f1 #aheb744444big #ce4 ,report on the ,dimensions of the ,great ,ship 7,march #ba1 #ahec744444bii #cf4 ,report on the ,tenders for the ,ship and ,engines 7,may #ah1 #ahec744444cja ,a short specification was drawn up for the engines1 and detailed drawings and specifications for the ship 7p4 #cja7--,tenders have been received for the engines from ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 ,messrs4 ,watt and ,co41 and ,mr4 ,humphrys 7p4 #cjb7--;,after frequent communications with these gentlemen1 ,messrs4 ,watt and ,co4's designs are preferred for the screw engines1 which will be the largest yet made1 and on which will mainly depend the performances of the ship 7p4 #cjb71 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott ,russell's for the paddle engines 7p4 #cjb7--;,as regards a tender for the ship1 after communications with several parties1 the result is a tender from ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott ,russell 7p4 #cjc74 #cg4 ,extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's ,memoranda relating to the #8,great ,eastern' ,steam-ship 7,july #aa1 #aheb1 to ,november #ah1 #ahec744444cjd ,july #aa1 #aheb3 ,dimensions of the ship 7p4 #cjd7--;,division of power between the screw and paddle engines 7p4 #cje7--;,every known means must be adopted to ensure efficiency 7p4 #cje7--;,jacketing of steam pipes1 c4 7p4 #cje74 ,july #ag1 #aheb3 ,conference with ,mr4 ,field as to division of power between the screw and paddle engines 7p4 #cje7--,pressure of steam 7p4 #cje7--,nothing uncertain must be risked 7p4 #cje7--;,jacketing 7p4 #cje74 ,july #ai1 #aheb3 ,strong bulkheads every #cj feet or thereabouts1 and the main ribs1 and even at least two main deck beams1 to be longitudinal1 instead of transverse 7p4 #cje74 ,february #b1 #ahec3 ,present views as to the construction of the ship and engines 7p4 #cjf7--;,boilers 7p4 #cjg7--;,advantages of oscillating engines for both screw and paddle engines 7p4 #cjg74 ,february #ba1 #ahec3 ,proper dimensions for the ,calcutta line 7p4 #cjh7--;,gas 7p4 #cjh7--,ventilation 7p4 #cjh7--,steering 7p4 #cjh74 ,march #ad1 #ahec3 ,dimensions now determined on 7p4 #cjh74 ,march #bb1 #ahec3 ,various dimensions settled 7p4 #cjh74 ,april #bh1 #ahec3 ,tenders are being sought for 7p4 #cjh7--;,arrangements for measuring the coal 7p4 #cji7--,use of clean water 7p4 #cji74 ,august #g1 #ahec3 ,memoranda for engines 7p4 #cji74 ,november #ah1 #ahec3 ,governors 7p4 #cji7--;,auxiliary engine and boiler 7p4 #cji74 #ch4 ,extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's ,memoranda relating to the #8,great ,eastern' ,steam-ship 7,february #be to ,march #aj1 #ahed744444caj ,february #be1 #ahed3 ,thought and labour involved in the details of the construction both of the ship and engines 7p4 #caj7--;,cabin arrangements 7p4 #caj7--;,economy of material in the construction of the ship 7p4 #caj7--;,a matter generally neglected in shipbuilding 7p4 #caj7--;,all this misconstruction forbidden 7p4 #caa74 ,march #c1 #ahed3 ,details of screw engines 7p4 #caa74 ,march #aj1 #ahed3 ,details of ship 7p4 #caa74 #ci4 ,letter to the ,secretary of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company1 on ,position as ,engineer of the ,company 7,august #af1 #ahed744444caa ,his unusual stake in the undertaking1 and the heavy responsibility he has incurred 7p4 #caa7--,the work is one which requires that it should be entirely under his individual management and control 7p4 #cab7--;,and therefore there must be no other adviser or source of information on any question connected with the construction or mode of carrying out the work 7p4 #cab74 #dj4 ,letter to the same on an ,article in a ,newspaper 7,november #af1 #ahed744444cac ,his general rule is not to notice newspaper articles1 but this one bears the stamp of authority 7p4 #cac7--,marked care is shown in depreciating his former efforts in advancing steam navigation1 and in representing him1 in the present case1 as the passive approver of the project of another 7p4 #cac7--,whereas it originated solely with him1 and has been worked out by him with great thought and labour 7p4 #cad74 #da4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company1 describing the ,nature of the ,undertaking 7,february #e1 #ahee744444cae ,labour of preparing the preliminary designs for the ship 7p4 #caf7--,proposed arrangements for launching--,principal peculiarities in the construction of the ship 7p4 #caf7--,water-tight compartments 7p4 #caf7--,transverse bulkheads 7p4 #caf7--;,double skin 7p4 #cag7--,longitudinal bulkheads 7p4 #cah7--;,economy in materials 7p4 #cah7--;,engines 7p4 #cah7--;,boilers 7p4 #cai7--,the best advice has been sought on every point 7p4 #cai7--,the position and design of the paddlewheels 7p4 #cai7--,the screw propeller--7p4 #cbj7--,protection from fire 7p4 #cbj7--,masts and sails 7p4 #cbj7--;,astronomical observations 7p4 #cbj7--,lightning conductors 7p4 #cba7--;,adjustment of compasses 7p4 #cba74 #db4 ,letter to ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 ,esq41 ,astronomer ,royal 7,october #e1 #aheb744444cba ,as so much depends on perfect navigation1 every means is to be taken to ensure a constant determination of the ship's position and course 7p4 #cba7--;,it is proposed to have an observatory and staff of observers to be constantly engaged in taking observations 7p4 #cbb7--,what should be the nature of these observations and of the instruments required8 7p4 #cbb74 #dc4 ,memorandum on the ,management of the ,great ,ship 7,october #ahee744444cbd ,the principles to be followed in the use of this new machine1 and the qualifications of the commander1 have long been a subject of anxious consideration by him 7p4 #cbd7--,this ship requires a totally different management from that suited to ordinary vessels 7p4 #cbe7--;,examples of this proposition 7p4 #cbf7--,size of the great ship 7p4 #cbf7--;,by no possibility must she be allowed to touch the ground 7p4 #cbg7--,probable effects of the great size and mass of this vessel 7p4 #cbi7--;,and of her speed 7p4 #ccj7--,the proposed system of continuous observation 7p4 #ccj7--,the exact course the ship is to take must be determined previously to the voyage1 and must be strictly adhered to 7p4 #cca7--;,economy of fuel another consideration of the highest importance 7p4 #ccb7--,proper speed of the engines 7p4 #ccb7--,use of the sails 7p4 #ccc7--,peculiarities of the position of the commander 7p4 #ccc7--;,his attention must be devoted exclusively to the general management of the system by which the ship is to be made to go like a piece of machinery 7p4 #ccc7--;,his assistants 7p4 #ccd7--;,four chief officers 7p4 #ccd7--;,a master at the head of a staff of observers1 who are to make continuous observations upon the position and performances of the ship 7p4 #ccd7--,the chief engineer 7p4 #cce7--,the principles herein set out are to be adopted by the commander as the guide of his conduct in working this machine 7p4 #cce74 #dd4 ,letter on the ,responsibility of his ,position 7sent with last744444#cbd #de4 ,letter on the ,duties of the ,chief ,engineer of the ,great ,ship 7,march #ai1 #aheg744444cce ,the success of the ship as a steamboat will depend entirely upon the amount of power developed by the engines in proportion to the fuel consumed 7p4 #ccf7--,the peculiar duties of the chief engineer will be to obtain the largest amount of steam from the defined expenditure of fuel1 and the use of this steam so as to obtain the largest amount of power and the largest amount of result 7p4 #ccg7--;,accurate measurements required of fuel expended and results obtained 7p4 #ccg7--;,economy in every department may make the difference between the success and failure of the ship 7p4 #ccg7--,the chief engineer should1 if possible1 superintend the erection of the engines 7p4 #cch74 #df4 ,extract from ,report to the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company1 describing the proposed ,arrangements for ,launching 7,february #e1 #ahee744444cda ,reasons for deciding to launch the ship sideways 7p4 #cda7--;,and probably gradually 7p4 #cdb74 #dg4 ,extract from ,memorandum as to ,power required to move the ,ship 7,september #bf1 #aheg744444ceb #dh4 ,letter to ,captain ,harrison on the ,river ,tackle 7,september #cj1 #aheg744444ced #di4 ,letter to the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company on the ,nature of the ,launching ,operations 7,october #bc1 #aheg744444cee ,the date is uncertain 7p4 #cee7--,the ship is to be lowered down and floated off by a slow and laborious operation 7p4 #cee7--,she may stop or not move at all 7p4 #cef74 #ej4 ,memorandum on ,general ,arrangements and intended ,mode of ,proceeding in the ,launching ,operations 7,october #cj1 #aheg744444cef #ea4 ,letter to the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company on the ,state of the ,operations 7,november #bf1 #aheg744444cff #eb4 ,letter to the ,directors1 and ,memorandum on the ,state of the ,operations 7,december #ag1 #aheg744444cgg #ec4 ,letter to ,w4 ,froude1 ,esq41 describing the ,floating of the #8,great ,eastern' 7,february #b1 #aheh744444chi #ed4 ,extract from ,report to the ,directors of the ,bristol ,dock ,company on the ,condition of the ,floating ,harbour 7,august #ca1 #ahcb744444dbc #ee4 ,extract from ,report on the same subject 7,january #ca1 #ahdb744444dbd #ef4 ,extract from ,report on ,portishead ,pier 7,december #bf1 #ahci744444dbg #eg4 ,letter on the ,distribution of ,prizes1 addressed to the ,chairman of the ,committee of the ,section of ,machinery of the ,exhibition of #ahea 7,march #aa1 #ahej744444dde #eh4 ,extract from ,report of the ,jury of ,class ,,vii4 of the ,exhibition of #ahea on ,sir ,joseph ,paxton's ,design for the ,building44444#ddg #ei1 #fj1 #fa4 ,letters to ,westley ,richards1 ,esq41 on the ,polygonal ,rifle 7,october #be1 #aheb2 ,february #g1 #ahec2 ,november #bf1 #aheh744444dej-a #fb4 ,extract from ,letter to ,james ,nasmyth1 ,esq41 on the ,construction of ,large ,guns 7,april #b1 #ahee744444deb #fc4 ,extract from ,letter to ,w4 ,g4 ,armstrong1 ,esq41 on the ,wire ,gun 7,june #h1 #ahee744444ded #fd4 ,memorandum on the ,floating ,gun-,carriage 7,december #bj1 #ahee744444dee ,the principle is fixing a very heavy gun in a floating shot-proof chamber 7p4 #dee7--,mode of working the gun 7p4 #dee7--,mode of manuvring the vessel 7p4 #def7--,mode of attacking the ,baltic forts with a fleet of such vessels 7p4 #deg7--,thickness of iron required to make the vessel shot proof 7p4 #deh7--;,best manner of constructing the vessels 7p4 #deh74 #fe4 ,letter to the ,secretary of the ,admiralty on the ,floating ,gun-,carriage 7,july #bg1 #ahee744444dei #ff4 ,memorandum on ,renkioi ,hospital ,buildings 7,march #ahee744444dfc ,necessary conditions in designing these buildings 7p4 #dfc7--;,general description of them 7p4 #dfc7--;,closets and lavatories 7p4 #dfd7--;,external and internal covering 7p4 #dfd7--,ventilation 7p4 #dfd7--,kitchens 7p4 #dfe7--;,drainage 7p4 #dff7--,officers' quarters 7p4 #dff7--,transport of materials 7p4 #dff7--,portable baths 7p4 #dfg7--;,cost of buildings 7p4 #dfg74 #fg4 ,letter on the ,direction of ,railway ,works 7,march #d1 #ahde744444dge #fh4 ,letter on the ,position of ,joint ,engineer 7,october #af1 #ahdc744444dgf #fi4 ,letter on the ,position of ,consulting ,engineer 7,december #cj1 #ahea744444dgg #gj4 ,letter on the ,position of the ,engineer in relation to the ,contractors 7,may #bf1 #ahed744444dgg #ga1 #gb1 #gc4 ,extracts from ,letters on the ,relations between the ,engineer and the ,directors 7,april #ae1 #ahej2 ,december #f1 #ahea2 ,jan4 #bb1 #aheg744444dgh-dha #gd1 #ge1 #gf4 ,extracts from ,letters on ,interference of ,directors with the ,assistant ,engineers 7,january #ai1 #ahdb2 ,january #bh1 #ahdb2 ,december #ab1 #ahea744444dha-c #gg4 ,extract from ,diary 7,may #e1 #ahdf744444dhe #gh4 ,letter to an ,inventor 7,september #ag1 #ahdg744444dhf #gi4 ,letter on the ,royal ,commission on the ,application of ,iron to ,railway ,structures 7,march #ac1 #ahdh744444dhf #hj4 ,letter on a ,proposal to obtain ,recognition in ,england of ,decorations conferred at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahee 7,feb4 #i1 #ahef744444dhi #ha4 ,memorandum for ,evidence before the ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,lords on the ,patent ,laws1 ,a4,d4 #ahea44444dij ,he has had large experience of the patent laws 7p4 #dij7--;,has never taken out one1 and is of opinion that the system is productive of immense evil 7p4 #dia7--,reasons for this belief 7p4 #dia7--;,conditions necessary for a successful patent 7p4 #dic7--;,disadvantages of patents 7p4 #did7--;,impediments in the way of improvements 7p4 #die74 #hb4 ,extract from ,observations on the ,patent ,laws made by ,mr4 ,brunel at a ,meeting of the ,society of ,arts 7,march #bh1 #ahef744444dig #hc4 ,letter from ,phil1 describing the ,ascent of the ,cataracts 7,february #ab1 #ahei744444eag #hd4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company on the ,broad ,gauge1 c4 7,august #ahch744444ebe ,he is desirous of combining his views into one report 7p4 #ebe7--,the difficulties have been overcome1 or are gradually diminishing 7p4 #ebe7--;,and the result justifies the attempt which has been made 7p4 #ebf7--,the gradients of the ,great ,western ,railway are favourable 7p4 #ebf7--;,advantages of the broad gauge 7p4 #ebg7--,reasons for adopting it 7p4 #ebh7--;,additional cost in construction is very slight 7p4 #ebi7--,weight of carriages 7p4 #ecj7--;,freedom from accidents 7p4 #eca7--;,greater space for works of locomotives 7p4 #ecb7--,the greater width gives scope for improvement in every part 7p4 #ecb7--,speed obtained 7p4 #ecb7--;,design of the engines 7p4 #ecc7--,the continuous system of permanent way is best adapted to high speeds 7p4 #ece7--;,calculations as to its cost compared with that of a well constructed line with stone blocks 7p4 #ecg74 #he4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company1 recommending the ,adoption of the ,screw ,propeller in the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-ship 7,october #ahdj7144444eci ,this subject will be considered under two heads3 #a4 ,the efficiency of the screw propeller1 compared with the paddlewheel4 #b4 ,the advantages or disadvantages attending its use 7p4 #eci7--,the first question involves the consideration not merely of the effect produced1 but also of the proportionate power absorbed in producing that effect 7p4 #eci7--,observations on the slip of the paddlewheel and screw in the #8,great ,western' and #8,archimedes1' respectively 7p4 #edj7--,the result of the comparison being1 that with similar areas the screw will meet with at least equal1 if not a greater resistance1 and will consequently slip as little as or less than the ordinary paddle-board 7p4 #edb7--,refutation of the common error1 that the action of the screw is a very oblique one1 and that it imparts a considerable rotatory motion to the water 7p4 #edc7--;,description of the action of the screw 7p4 #edc7--,the result of the experiments is that1 as compared with the ordinary paddlewheel of sea-going steamers1 the screw is1 both as regards the effect produced and the proportionate power required to obtain that effect1 an efficient propeller 7p4 #edh7--,objections to the use of the screw propeller 7p4 #edh7--;,answered seriatim 7p4 #edi7--,statement of the principal advantages peculiar to the use of the screw 7p4 #eeb7--,the result of these enquiries is a strong and decided opinion in favour of the screw propeller being adopted in the #8,great ,britain' steam-ship 7p4 #eeg74 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,engravings4 ,portrait 7engraved with permission of ,messrs4 ,graves and ,company by ,t4 ,o4 ,barlow1 from a portrait by ,j4 ,c4 ,horsley1 ,r4,a41 in the possession of ,mrs4 ,brunel74 44444,frontispiece ,,plate4 44444to face ,,page ,i4 ,the ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge44444#di ,,ii4 ,the ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge44444#ei ,,iii4 ,the ,royal ,albert ,bridge at ,saltash4 ,general ,view444444#aga ,,iv4 ,the ,newport1 ,windsor1 and ,chepstow ,bridges4 ,elevations and ,sections44444#bjf ,v4 ,the ,royal ,albert ,bridge at ,saltash4 ,elevations and ,sections444444#bah ,,woodcuts4 ,,fig4 44444,,page #a4 ,maidenhead ,bridge 7longitudinal section744444#agd #b4 ,bourne ,viaduct 7outline elevation744444#aha #c4 ,ivybridge ,viaduct 7the same744444#ahb #d4 ,landore ,viaduct 7the same744444#ahd ,,fig4 ,,page #e4 ,st4 ,pinnock ,viaduct 7outline elevation1 transverse section1 and plans of piers744444#ahg #f4 ,experimental ,girder 7transverse section744444#aic #g4 ,girder on ,south ,wales ,railway 7the same744444#aid #h4 ,girder on ,eastern ,bengal ,railway 7the same744444#aie #i4 ,cumberland ,basin ,swing ,bridge 7transverse section of girder744444#aif #aj4 ,windsor ,bridge 7transverse section of truss744444#bjj #aa4 ,chepstow ,bridge 7the same744444#bjh #ab4 ,saltash ,bridge 7the same744444#bai #ac4 ,transverse ,section of the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-,ship44444#bef #ad4 ,copy of a ,sketch in a ,letter on ,iron ,ships44444#bei #ae4 ,transverse ,section of the ,cradles and the ,launching ,ways of the #8,great ,eastern' ,steam-,ship44444#cdg #af4 ,longitudinal ,section1 ,plan1 and ,midship ,section of the #8,great ,eastern' ,steam-,ship44444#cig #ag4 ,monkwearmouth ,dock ,gates44444#dba #ah4 ,bristol ,dock ,gate44444#dcj #ai4 ,plymouth ,great ,western ,dock ,gates44444#dce #bj4 ,briton ,ferry ,dock ,gate44444#dci #ba4 ,brentford ,dock ,gate44444#dda #bb4 ,renkioi ,hospital44444#dgj ,,life ,,of ,,isambard ,,kingdom ,,brunel4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,life4 ,a4,d4 #ahjf--ahbh4 ,,birth ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel1 ,,april #i1 #ahjf--,,sir ,,marc ,,isambard ,,brunel--,,the ,,block ,,machinery--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,school ,,life--,,the ,,thames ,,tunnel--,,sinking ,,of ,,the ,,rotherhithe ,,shaft--,,description ,,of ,,the ,,shield--,,extracts ,,from ,,sir ,,isambard ,,brunel',s ,,journals ,,from ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,thames ,,tunnel ,,to ,,the ,,date ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,irruption ,,of ,,the ,,river1 ,,january #ab1 #ahbh--,,note ,a3 ,,the ,,bourbon ,,suspension ,,bridges--,,note ,b3 ,,experiments ,,with ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,gas4 ,,isambard ,,kingdom ,,brunel was born on the ninth day of ,april1 #ahjf1 at ,portsmouth1 and was the only son of ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel4#a ,most biographies commence with an account of the parentage of the person whose life is about to be written4 ,if this be permitted in any case1 no apology can be needed for prefixing to a ,life of ,mr4 ,brunel some particulars of his father's career1 since he was indebted to him1 not only for the inheritance of many natural gifts1 and for a professional education such as few have been able to procure1 but also for a bright example of the cultivation of those habits of forethought and perseverance1 which alone can ensure the successful accomplishment of great designs4 ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel was a native of ,hacqueville1 a village in ,normandy1 where his family had been settled for several generations4 ,he was originally intended for the priesthood2 but1 as he showed no inclination for that calling1 and a very decided talent for mechanical pursuits1 he was permitted to enter the ,french ,navy2 and he served in the ,west ,indies for six years1 namely1 from #aghf to #agib4 ,on his return home1 at the expiration of his term of service1 his strong ,royalist sympathies made it unsafe for him to remain in ,france1 and with great difficulty he managed to escape to ,america4 ,he landed at ,new ,york in ,september #agic1 and soon obtained employment as a civil engineer4 ,a few years afterwards he was appointed engineer to the ,state of ,new ,york2 and1 while holding that office1 he designed a cannon foundry and other important public works4 ,in ,january #agii1 when ,sir ,isambard was in his thirtieth year1 he came over to ,england1 and shortly after his arrival married ,miss ,sophia ,kingdom1 a lady for whom he had formed an attachment some years before4#b ,the first great work undertaken by him in this country was the machinery for making blocks1 which he designed and erected for ,government at ,portsmouth4 ,the history of the invention and construction of this system of machinery 7for it consisted of forty-three separate machines7 need not be given at length2 but it may be permitted to extract the following passage from ,mr4 ,beamish's #8,life of ,sir ,isambard ,brunel' 7pp4 #ig1 #ii1 #bnd edition71 in which he points out the benefits which have resulted from its introduction1 and the position its inventor is entitled to hold among those who have contributed to the progress of mechanical science4 ,where fifty men were necessary to complete the shells of blocks previous to the erection of ,brunel's machinery1 four men only are now required1 and to prepare the sheaves1 six men can now do the work which formerly demanded the labours of sixty4 ,so that ten men1 by the aid of this machinery1 can accomplish with uniformity1 celerity1 and ease1 what formerly required the uncertain labour of one hundred and ten4 ,when we call to mind that at the time these works were executed1 mechanical engineering was only in its infancy1 we are filled with amazement at the sagacity and skill that should have so far anticipated the progress of the age1 as to leave scarcely any room1 during half a century1 for the introduction of any improvement4444 ,beautiful as are the combinations and contrivances in the block machinery1 and highly deserving as the inventor may be of credit for originating such labour-saving machines for the production of ships' blocks1 there is a far higher claim to the admiration and gratitude of all constructors of machinery1 and of all workers in metal4 ,in this block machinery exist the types and examples of all the modern self-acting tools1 without the aid of which the various mechanical appliances of the present day could not be produced with the marvellous accuracy which has been attained4 ,it is true that to the trades unions or combinations among the artisans1 is in a great measure directly due the introduction of self-acting machines2 but the types of all these tools existed in the machines and combinations of ,brunel's block machinery4 ,the drilling1 the slotting1 and the shaping machines1 the eccentric chuck1 and the slide rest1 with the worm wheel motion1 are all to be found in his machine4 ,on the completion of the block machinery ,sir ,isambard ,brunel removed to ,london1 and took a house in ,lindsay ,row1 ,chelsea1 where he remained until he was obliged to live nearer the works of the ,thames ,tunnel4 ,mr4 ,brunel's first recollections were of the house at ,chelsea2 and in #ahad1 when he was eight years old1 he commenced his school life under the ,rev4 ,weeden ,butler1 who resided in the neighbourhood4 ,previously to his going to ,mr4 ,butler1 he had been taught ,euclid by ,sir ,isambard2 and he had also a great talent for drawing1 for which he had been remarkable even from four years old4 ,his drawings were beautifully precise and neat1 but1 when the subject admitted of it1 full of vigour and picturesque effect4 ,after some time he was sent to ,dr4 ,morell's school at ,hove1 near ,brighton4 ,the following extract is taken from one of his letters home in #ahbj3-- ,i have past ,sallust some time1 but ,i am sorry to say ,i did not read all1 as ,dr4 ,morell wished me to get into another class4 ,i am at present reading ,terence and ,horace4 ,i like ,horace very much1 but not as much as ,virgil4 ,as to what ,i am about1 ,i have been making half a dozen boats lately1 till ,i have worn my hands to pieces4 ,i have also taken a plan of ,hove1 which is a very amusing job4 ,i should be much obliged to you if you would ask papa 7,i hope he is quite well and hearty71 whether he would lend me his long measure4 ,it is a long eighty-foot tape2 he will know what ,i mean4 ,i will take care of it1 for ,i want to take a more exact plan1 though this is pretty exact1 ,i think4 ,i have also been drawing a little4 ,i intend to take a view of all 7about five7 the principal houses in that great town1 ,hove4 ,i have already taken one or two4 ,in the intervals of his classical studies he seems to have employed himself1 not only in making a survey of ,hove in its existing state1 but also in a critical examination of the works in progress for its enlargement4 ,it is told of him that one evening he predicted the fall1 before the next morning1 of some houses which were building opposite the school1 and laid a bet on the subject1 which his companions readily accepted4 ,he had noticed the bad way in which the work was done1 and that the stormy weather1 which appeared to be setting in for the night1 would probably blow the walls down4 ,in the morning he claimed the wager1 for the buildings had fallen in the night4 ,except from ,november #ahbj to ,august #ahbb1 when he was at the ,collge ,henri ,quatre at ,paris1#c ,mr4 ,brunel was so very little absent from home that he became thoroughly acquainted with all his father's undertakings4 ,among these was the veneering machinery at ,battersea1 remarkable for the great diameter of the saw1 the steadiness of its motion1 and the mechanical arrangements for clearing the veneer from the saw2 also the works at the ,government establishments at ,woolwich and ,chatham1 and the machinery for making shoes4 ,they have been fully described by ,mr4 ,beamish2 but the mere mention of their names is enough to show how great were the advantages enjoyed by ,mr4 ,brunel in receiving from his father his early professional education4 ,from the year #ahbc ,mr4 ,brunel was regularly employed in his father's office4 ,it was in the early part of this year that the project of the ,thames ,tunnel first began to occupy ,sir ,isambard's attention2 but he was also engaged at that time in other works of great importance1 among them the suspension bridges for the ,ile de ,bourbon1 and designs for bridges of the same character over the ,serpentine1 and over the ,thames at ,kingston4#d ,some account of the ,bourbon bridges1 and also of experiments with carbonic acid gas1 on which ,mr4 ,brunel was engaged1 will be found in the notes to this chapter4 ,the history of the ,thames ,tunnel will be told1 as far as possible1 in ,sir ,isambard ,brunel's own words1 as given in his journals4#e ,although these extracts do not relate to works for which ,mr4 ,brunel was personally responsible1 they have been inserted in the belief that they are valuable1 not only as showing the nature and extent of his duties as his father's assistant1 but also as displaying1 in the most interesting and authentic form1 ,sir ,isambard's character and genius at a time when his son was brought into hourly contact with him1 and under circumstances which would cause the influence of his example to make a deep and lasting impression4 ,previously to the year #ahbc there had been several plans suggested for the construction of a tunnel under the ,thames2 and it would seem that a great demand was supposed to exist for some such means of communication between the two sides of the river eastward of ,london ,bridge2 for after the failure of the operations undertaken by ,mr4 ,vasie in #ahje1 and ,mr4 ,trevethick in #ahjg1f a high level suspension bridge was proposed1 although it was not intended to be used for heavy traffic4#g ,the first reference to the ,tunnel in ,sir ,isambard's journals is dated ,february #ab1 #ahbc4 #8,engaged on drawings connected with ,tunnel2' and on the #agth and following days of the same month1 #8,isambard was engaged on ,tunnel4' ,these entries become more and more frequent in the pages of his diary1 until it is evident that ,sir ,isambard's whole time and thoughts were absorbed in this work4 ,the spring of #ahbc was occupied in preparing drawings and models of his plans1 and in enlisting the sympathy and assistance of various influential persons4 ,by the close of the year the designs were matured sufficiently to enable the promoters of the scheme to commence the task of organising a company for carrying it out2 and in ,january #ahbd they resolved to call a general meeting of their friends1 and invite public subscriptions4 ,on ,february #ag1 ,sir ,isambard explained his plans at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 and on the next day a meeting was held at the ,city of ,london ,tavern1 under the presidency of ,mr4 ,william ,smith1 ,m4,p41 more than a hundred persons being present4 ,resolutions authorising the formation of a company were passed unanimously1 and the share list was opened4 ,in the course of an hour one-third of the subscriptions was filled up1 namely1 #abej shares2 and before the end of the day the number of shares taken was #acha4 ,borings were then commenced in order to ascertain the nature of the strata through which the ,tunnel would pass4 ,a bed of gravel was found over the clay1 which gave ,sir ,isambard great anxiety4 ,a large pipe or shaft was sunk on the side of the river1 and in it the water rose to within three feet of the surface of the ground1 and fell about eighteen inches with the tide4 #8,it is manifest 7,sir ,isambard writes7 from this that unless the ,tunnel is enclosed in the stratum of clay1 it would be unsafe to drive through the bed of gravel4 ,the ,tunnel must1 therefore1 begin with the substantial clay4' ,however1 the result of thirty-nine borings in two parallel lines across the river1 to the depth of from #bc to #cg feet1 seemed to prove that there was below the gravel a stratum of strong blue clay of sufficient depth to ensure the safety of the ,tunnel4#h ,a report to this effect was made to the shareholders at their first general meeting in ,july1 and it was also stated that the works would be completed in three years4 ,the first operation connected with the works1 was the constriction of a shaft2 and for this purpose land was bought on the ,rotherhithe bank1 about fifty yards from the river4 ,on ,march #b1 #ahbe1 the ceremony of laying the first stone of the shaft was performed4 ,mr4 ,smith1 our chairman1 attended by most of the members of the ,court of ,directors1 and a very numerous cortge of friends invited on the occasion1 proceeded from the ,tunnel ,wharf to the ground1 where they were received among the cheers of a great concourse of people4 ,mr4 ,smith addressed the assembly in a very eloquent speech suitable to the occasion1 and performed the ceremony of laying the first stone4 ,from this day dates the beginning of the work4#i ,the mode in which ,sir ,isambard decided to construct the shaft was one not uncommonly adopted in the construction of wells2 but to apply it to sinking a shaft fifty feet in diameter was a novel and bold undertaking4 ,the brickwork intended to form the lining of the shaft was built on the surface of the ground1 and the earth being excavated from within and underneath the structure1 it sank gradually down to its final position4 ,the brickwork was #c feet thick1 bound together by iron and timber ties1 and there were built into it #dh perpendicular iron rods1 one inch in diameter1 fastened to a wooden curb at the bottom1 and to another curb at the top of the wall1 by nuts and screws4 ,when the shaft or tower of brickwork was completed up to the top1 #db feet in height1 the next step was to remove the blockings on which it rested1 and this being done the gravel was excavated and hoisted up1 and the shaft descended by its own weight4 ,the ,rotherhithe shaft was only sunk forty feet in this manner2 the remaining twenty feet1 in order to leave the opening for the ,tunnel1 was constructed by under-pinning1 or underlaying1 as it was then termed4 ,the underlaying was commenced in the beginning of ,june4#aj ,by ,july #d they had got down to the level of the intended foundation of the shaft1 having passed into a stratum of gravel1 black pebbles embedded in greenish sand1 with little or no water2 from which circumstance ,sir ,isambard was of opinion that it was unconnected with the stratum of gravel above4 ,july #ab4--;,engaged on a general drawing for the great shield1 and in preparing some instructions for moving the same 7a very intricate operation67 ,july #bb4--,underlaying is a very laborious mode of proceeding4 ,the sinking of a wall well bound as the first1 would evidently be the best and cheapest mode for making another tower of #ej feet diameter4 ,on the #bhth ,sir ,isambard enters in his journal the following additional observations upon the success of his plans for sinking the shaft3-- ,considering the great labour necessary for securing the ground for the underlaying1 the waste of planking1 and of shores1 and the time necessarily taken up in moving about1 in securing and in baling out the water1 and the many causes of interruption1 and the imperfect way that things are done in underlaying1 it is quite conclusive that the original plan of making a shaft1 by sinking the structure1 is the safest and the most economical4 ,what is done is sound1 and when once in place1 may be secured with foundations in a very easy manner4 ,the brickwork of the shaft is remarkably hard4 ,had it been made with brick facings and rubble stone1 it would certainly be water-tight1 and almost impenetrable by ordinary ways4 ,the vertical ties and the circular wall bands are not to be dispensed with in a structure destined to be moved as the present has been4 ,on ,august #aa the underlaying was completed1 and preparations were made for constructing a reservoir in the bottom of the shaft for receiving the permanent pumps4 ,this was finished on ,october #aa1 with great difficulty1 owing to the nature of the ground1 which consisted of loose sand containing a large quantity of water4 ,august #ai4--;,engaged at home in revising my plans for the manner of carrying on the horizontal excavation1 more particularly of penetrating through the shaft4 ,this part of the operation requires indeed very great attention1 as it presents great difficulties1 arising from the wall to be broken through1 and chiefly from the angular opening that is to be made at each extremity4 ,then another consideration is the uniting the brick arches to the brickwork of the shaft4 ,september #af4--;,engaged in the early part of the day on revising my plans of future operations in the ,tunnel work1 and in adapting them to the nature of the ground as it is found at the various depths we have penetrated3 namely1 to about #gc feet4 ,went afterwards to ,maudslay to request that the great shield may be completed4 ,sidenote3 ,great shield4 ,october #ad4--;,engaged in the early part of the morning in making some arrangements for the working of the great shield4 ,too much attention cannot be given to that subject at the early part2 for1 when once in its place1 it would be extremely inconvenient to make any alteration4 ,sidenote3 ,preparing for the frames4 ,october #ae4--,the dome of the reservoir will be covered to-day about noon2 the bottom of the shaft will therefore be completed4 ,they are now preparing to apply two frames of the shield4 ,the ground now open in the front is remarkably hard2 it consists of pebbles imbedded in a chalky substance1 with hard loose stones of the nature of the ,kentish rag4 ,everything is going on well4 ,devised with ,isambard how to make our wells for the descent of the materials1 c4 ,thus at last the shaft was completed1 and ,sir ,isambard was able to commence the ,tunnel itself1 which he ultimately determined to construct in the form of a rectangular mass of brickwork1 #cg feet wide and #bb feet high1 pierced by two parallel horseshoe archways1 each #ad feet wide and #ag feet high4 ,before entering upon the history of this undertaking1 some account must be given of the machine which ,sir ,isambard ,brunel devised for effecting its accomplishment4 ,in order to avoid a quicksand of considerable depth and extent1 the ,tunnel had to be carried but a short distance below the bed of the river2 and1 as in all tunnelling through soft soil1#aa the top and sides of the excavation had to be supported until the brickwork was built in2 and the front or face had also to be held up as the miners advanced4 ,this support was given by means of a machine called #8the shield1' described on one occasion by ,sir ,isambard as #8an ambulating cofferdam1 travelling horizontally4'#ab ,the main body of the shield consisted of twelve independent structures or #8frames' made of cast and wrought iron4 ,they were each #bb feet high1 and rather more than #c feet wide2 and1 when placed side by side1 like books on a shelf1 against the face of the excavation1 they occupied the whole area of the face1 and also the top1 bottom1 and sides for #i feet in advance of the brickwork4 ,each frame stood on two feet resting on the ground1 and was divided in its height into three cells by cast-iron floors4 ,in these cells1 of which there were thus thirty-six in all1 the miners stood1 and worked at the ground in front of them4 ,the duty which the shield had to perform was to support the ground until the brickwork was built within the excavation2 but it was essential that this should be done in such a manner as to allow of the mining operations being carried on2 and it was also necessary that the machine itself should be capable of being moved forward4 ,the first point1 therefore1 which has to be explained in the action of the shield is the manner in which the earth was supported by it4 ,it has been already stated that each frame rested upon two feet1 or large iron plates4 ,these two feet together covered the ground under the frame to which they belonged1 and thus the whole of the earth beneath the frames was pressed down by the feet4 ,the earth above was supported by narrow iron plates1 called staves1 laid on the heads of the frames parallel to the line of the ,tunnel1 the ends resting on the completed brickwork behind it4 ,the earth at the sides was kept up by staves resting against the outermost frames4 ,the arrangement for holding up the earth at the face of the excavation was necessarily of a more complicated character4 ,each frame supported a series of boards called poling-boards1 by means of small screw-jacks or poling-screws1 two to each poling-board1 which abutted against the frames1 and pressed the boards against the earth4 ,the boards were #c feet long1 #f inches wide1 and #c inches thick1 and were arranged horizontally4 ,these poling-boards1 more than five hundred in number1 covered the whole surface in front of the frames4 ,to resist the backward thrust of the poling-screws against the frames1 each frame was held forward by two large screws1 one at the top of the frame1 and the other at the bottom1 abutting against the brickwork of the ,tunnel4 ,the brickwork was completed close up behind the shield as it advanced4 ,the way in which the earth was excavated1 and the shield moved forward1 has now to be explained4 ,the plates or staves which supported the ground at the top and sides of the shield were pushed forward separately by screw-jacks2 but in order to advance the poling-boards in front1 it was necessary that that portion of the ground against which they pressed should be removed4 ,the miner1 standing in his cell1 took down one1 or1 at the most1 two of the poling-boards1 commencing at the top of the cell1 and having excavated the earth a few inches in advance1 replaced the poling-boards against the newly-formed face1 pressing them against it with the poling-screws4 ,thus the excavation was carried on without depriving the ground of the support it received from the shield1 except at the point where the miner was actually at work4 ,the operation of advancing the frames was effected in the following way4 ,when everything was ready for a move1 one of the feet which carried the frames on jointed legs was lifted up1 and advanced forward a few inches1 and then pressed down on to the ground1 until in its new position it again bore the weight of the frame4 ,this done1 the other foot was lifted1 moved forward1 and screwed down in the same manner1 and then the frame itself was pushed ahead by means of the large abutting screws1 which kept it top and bottom from being forced back on the brickwork4 ,it is1 however1 evident that these abutting screws would have been unable to push on the frame1 while the ground in front was pressing back the poling-boards against it2 therefore1 during the process of moving a frame1 it had to be relieved from the thrust of its poling-screws4 ,accordingly1 when it was desired to advance any one of the frames1 the butts of the poling-screws of the tier of boards in front of it were shifted sideways1 so as to rest1 not against the frame to which they belonged1 but against the frames next it on either side4 ,this done1 the frame itself was advanced1 and was then ready to receive again its own poling-screws1 and also those belonging to the adjoining frames1 so that they might in their turn be moved forward4 ,it will thus be seen that the whole shield was not moved forward at one time1 but that the frames were advanced alternately4 ,there were many other ingenious arrangements in the design of the shield1 which need not be referred to in a description intended only to give such a general idea of the machine as may make the history of its operation intelligible4#ac ,when the frames had been completed in ,messrs4 ,maudslay's factory1 they were conveyed to ,rotherhithe1 and lowered down the shaft4 ,an opening had been left at the bottom of the wall1 about #cg feet wide by #bb feet high1 and against this the shield was erected4 ,it was then ready to commence its progress through the ground below the river4 ,on ,november #be1 #ahbe1 the shield made its first start4 ,sir ,isambard was unfortunately unable to witness what was in fact the actual commencement of the ,tunnel1 as he had three days before been seized with a sudden and alarming attack of illness1 which kept him at home till ,december #f4 ,the works were left under the direction of ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,december #h4--,the great shield is advancing very slowly1 meeting with much interruption by the water1 which still runs within the cells1 and also by the difficulty of forming abutments for the frames4 ,temporary abutments were necessary until the shield was sufficiently advanced to allow of its being pushed forwards from the brickwork built up behind it4 ,december #bi4--,the frames are very much out of level in the transverse line of the ,tunnel4 ,this would be attended with serious inconvenience if ,i had not provided for the means of recovering any irregularity that might take place1 and which1 as it appears1 cannot perhaps be prevented2 but having foreseen this1 ,i have provided the remedy by being able to take down the top of each frame1 and to remove the top staves in parts1 or the whole1 at pleasure--a very important provision it proves to be4 ,january #af1 #ahbf4--,too much precaution cannot be taken1 in the management of the frames1 to have the leg-screw particularly well secured1 as every foot-run of the arch of the ,tunnel sustains #hb tons4 ,each frame carries as follows3-- ,the two end frames each #fe tons #acj ,ten others1 each #eb #ebe --- #fee tons4 ,january #ba4--,the ground at the top and sides very good2 same in the front4 ,in breaking the ground out of the limits of the shield on the right a great deal of ground fell in4 ,this indicates that1 if it was not for the protection of the shield1 nothing could be done4 ,this accounts also for the occasional breaking of the ground in making the drift in #ahji4 ,sidenote3 ,tunnel begun4 ,the brickwork of the entrance being carried as far as directed1 the body of the ,tunnel was begun to-day4 ,sidenote3 ,water broke into the works4 ,january #bf4--;,isambard went down to ,rotherhithe2 the water had broken in in great abundance upon the work over ,nos4 #d and #e4 ,the twelve frames were distinguished by numbers4 ,a #d-;inch pipe was driven over the shield from inside the shaft1 but the water did not follow it1 and the stream augmented very rapidly4 ,the frame ,no4 #e was moved forward1 and it checked the water for a moment1 but it came again with violence4 ,a heading was immediately ordered by ,armstrong the resident engineer from the east well1 in which ,isambard concurred4 ,february #c4--,ordered a pit to be opened and made by sinking a curb #h feet diameter and #ah inches thick1 well bound with bolts4 ,this pit was a well sunk from the surface to enable the gravel containing water1 into which the head of the shield had penetrated1 to be removed1 and clay substituted4 ,february #f4--,the shaft begun last night1 and was sunk #bj feet to-day1 and remarkably true4 ,had we known the ground as we now know it1 we might1 by having opened a well contiguous to the great shaft1 have sunk the shaft in a week2 but for that purpose we must have had two steam engines1 one for pumping the water1 and the other for taking up the ground4 ,sidenote3 ,unremitted attention wanted4 ,february #aj4--,went very early to the ,tunnel for the purpose of giving directions to prop up the back of the staves1 which1 for want of weight at the new shaft1 might be overbalanced by the pressure of the ground at the back4 ,i could not rest a moment until it was done1 for the consequences might have been fatal1 at this moment in particular4 ,what incessant attention and anxiety6 ,to be at the mercy of ignorance and carelessness6 ,no work like this4 ,sidenote3 ,observations on the mode adopted to check the water4 ,february #ab4--,the ground having been opened carefully from under the curb of the pit see above on date ,february #c1 the greater part of the gravel was removed1 and stiff clay substituted for it4 ,this was done by driving first some wrought-iron flat bars1 which kept the ground up4 ,this shows that the shield is a most powerful protection1 and would enable us to penetrate through a bed of gravel4 ,though the breaking in of the water had somewhat terrified the man in ,no4 #e1 he soon returned to his post1 and the others have acknowledged their full confidence in the security afforded by the shield4 ,the boring ahead had not yet been attended to3 it is owing to the want of this precaution that this accident is chiefly to be ascribed2 for had we known as much as we now do1 we might have passed through without the pit being opened4 ,march #a4--,water at the back of the frames1 but less than before4 ,the men show a great deal of spirit in overcoming the present difficulties4 ,isambard was very busy yesterday and to-day in the frames1 and about the works4 ,he was severely hurt in the leg by a piece of timber falling against it4 ,this accident prevented his attending again at the ,tunnel until the #bdth4 ,on ,march #f the proprietors paid a visit to the ,tunnel1 and were highly satisfied with what they saw4 ,on that evening ,sir ,isambard writes3-- ,it is of absolute necessity now to provide for everything that is conducive to the more expeditious management of the frames1 and to a greater facility in getting up the brickwork4 ,if these two points are realized1 then indeed we may soon expect to be moving at a good rate--not less than ,i have held out1 namely1 #c feet per #bd hours4 ,sidenote3 ,water stopped as expected4 ,march #aa4--,received early in the morning a report from ,armstrong stating that the water was completely stopped--that it had been stopped during the night4 ,aware that we had passed the gravel1 it was of course expected that we were under the clay2 means were therefore resorted to1 to drive clay and oakum at the tail of the top staves1 which was productive of a very good effect4 ,the great shield was soon entirely free of water4 ,this shows the efficiency of the shield to oppose difficulties which could not have been overcome without the complete protection it affords1 under almost any circumstances4 ,indeed this has been a tedious operation since ,january #be1 when the water first burst upon ,no4 #e1 at the front of the shield4 ,the miners as well as the bricklayers have worked with great spirit and perseverance through the whole1 during a period of #dd days4 ,the well that was made at the front of the shaft has been of use in acquainting us with the extent of the open ground we had to pass through4 ,it will be made a useful opening for ventilating the works4 ,by means of this well we have been able to apply the lead pipes with which the water has been diverted3 it is not therefore a useless expense4 ,things were put in better order to prepare for a more expeditious way of working4 ,directions were given to place the frames in a better condition4 ,isambard is still too unwell to go to the ,tunnel4 ,sidenote3 ,considerable slip of ground3 how to check it4 ,sidenote3 ,very dangerous4 ,march #be4--,went to the ,tunnel with ,isambard4 ,found that a considerable fall of ground had taken place again at the right side4 ,no one could account satisfactorily for it4 ,i inspected it1 and directed that1 after making it good1 flat bars of iron be driven at the head of the side staves1 in order to pin it up1 and in order to enable the miners to get at the solid ground4 ,it is very bad and extremely dangerous2 the ground is evidently the same as that which1 in the report of the first attempt1 was found so loose as to have dropped upon the works1 leaving a large cavity above1 when it is said the man ascended and made good the hole4 ,we should be warned by this1 lest we should meet another as fatal as it ultimately was on that occasion4 ,this observation refers to the driftway of #ahjg4 ,april #bd4--;,by ,armstrong's report the water is entirely out1 and the men at work in the morning in removing the dirt1 c4 ,isambard engaged at the ,tunnel1 where ,i am not yet able to attend as often as ,i could wish4 ,everything goes on well1 much through his exertions4 ,may #aa4--,one hundred feet will be completed to-night4 ,may #bb4--,the top plate over the frame ,no4 #a has been cracked without any particular violence or stress4 ,it appears that it is nothing but the change of temperature that is the cause of that rupture4 ,the accident justifies the opinion ,i have of cast-iron not being safe upon traction1 and the precaution of having had wrought-iron bolts at the back of the frames4 ,these were vertical rods which took the tensional strain4 ,without these bolts what would have become of the shield1 if one casting was to break8 ,the fracture was accompanied with a loud report like that of a gun4 ,isambard was in the works at the time of breaking3 nothing could have prevented it4 ,sidenote3 ,the shield being too much out1 resolved to move it bodily4 ,may #be4--;,i observed that nothing whatever had been gained to recover the deviation the shield had gradually worked #b feet #c inches to the westward1 which subjects us to so much inconvenience and loss of time4 ,the only way to bring the shield right is by taking the frames sideways4 ,june #c4--;,finding it too laborious and almost fruitless to bring the frames in the right way1 ,i came to the determination of having them brought bodily to the east by cutting the ground on the side4 ,i accordingly gave directions to ,armstrong to proceed in making a heading out of ,no4 #ab1 and by securing the side staves to continue downwards until the ground be clear4 ,the working was accordingly discontinued in front4 ,june #d4--,the mode of proceeding by the common way of mining shows the impracticability of carrying a large excavation anywhere1 particularly under a considerable body of water4 ,the expense of timbering would be too great1 even if it could be sound4 ,the ground above the frames is remarkably good1 but under it there is a stratum of silt which breaks and falls in large masses4 ,sidenote3 ,isambard's service very important and most efficient4 ,june #e4--;,isambard got into the drift1 and gave the line for the better disposition of the staves1 which was afterwards done in a proper manner4 ,isambard's vigilance and constant attendance were of great benefit4 ,he is in every respect a most useful coadjutor in this undertaking4 ,june #aj4--,the last frame 7,no4 #a7 is brought close to the others1 and the brickwork brought up to fill the back4 ,sidenote3 ,dangerous state of the ground4 ,precautions taken4 ,june #ae4--,on inspecting the face of the ground this morning ,i observed a breach in the front of ,nos4 #c1 #d1 and #e1 where the ground has given way in the lower cell4 ,this was truly alarming4 ,i ordered iron staves to each floor in order to pin the ground1 and thereby to counteract the slipping which would immediately take place4 ,june #ai4--,the bricklayers left off work1 but1 on enquiring into the cause1 ,i learned there was no other but to have a libation upon the new arrangement of piece-work4 ,june #bi4--;,gave positive directions to cut only #d to #e inches thick at a time at the front of the top cells1 instead of #i inches1 as they had done for some time4 ,july #c4--,the great question is1 does the clay undulate at its surface8 ,we should have some reason to apprehend that it does so1 because at the beginning we had not proceeded many feet into the clay when we struck again into the gravelly stratum4 ,the surface of the clay must therefore have sunk at that particular spot2 which circumstance seems to warn one of the need of great vigilance and great prudence in the progress of the enterprise4 ,sidenote3 ,cofferdam burst at ,woolwich4 ,sidenote3 ,warning for us4 ,july #aj4--;,a cofferdam burst yesterday at the works at ,woolwich1 having blown up from the foundation4 ,how cautious this should make our men6 ,the cofferdam may be repaired1 and very easily too1 but an irruption into the ,tunnel--what a difference1 particularly at this early period6 ,sidenote3 ,carelessness of the miners4 ,august #aj4--;,found the lowest cell of ,no4 #a left by the workmen without a single poling against the ground4 ,this is indeed a most unjustifiable neglect4 ,august #ab4--;,at six this morning completed #bje feet4 ,sidenote3 ,observations on the bad effect and consequence of driving on as is done4 ,august #ba4--,this piece-work has not been productive of much effect as to quantity of work4 ,as to quality it is very questionable4 ,a work of this nature should not be hurried in this manner4 ,fewer hands1 enough to produce #i feet per week1 would be far better than the mode now pursued from necessity1 but not from inclination on my part4 ,great risks are in our way1 and we increase them by the manner the excavation is carried on4 ,the frames are in a very bad condition4 ,september #e4--;,it is much to be regretted that such a work as the ,tunnel should be carried on by the piece4 ,obliged to drive on1 no time is left to make any repair1 or to recover any lost advantage4 ,isambard is most active4 ,mr4 ,beamish shows much judgment in his exertions1 and zeal in his attendance4#ad ,sidenote3 ,water breaking in at back of frames4 ,sidenote3 ,how to check it4 ,isambard's exertions4 ,september #h4--;,about #b ,p4,m4 ,i was informed by ,munday that water was running down over ,no4 #i4 ,i went immediately to it4 ,the ground being open1 and consequently unsupported1 it soon became soft1 and settled on the back of the staves1 moving down in a stream of diluted silt1 which is the most dangerous substance we have to contend with4 ,some oakum was forced through the joints of the staves1 and the water was partly checked4 ,isambard was the whole night1 till three1 in the frames4 ,at three ,i relieved him4 ,he went to rest for about a couple of hours2 ,i took some rest on the stage4 ,sidenote3 ,things improving4 ,september #i4--,towards noon the stream changed its character4 ,the clay1 being loosened by the water1 began to run1 but it thickened gradually4 ,it was late in the evening before the loosened clay acquired the consistency of a loose puddling1 which covered the staves1 and made them a complete shield against further irruption1 or rather1 oozings of mud4 ,if we consider that at this place we have at the utmost #i feet between the top staves and the gravel1 over which the river flows1 it is most satisfactory and most encouraging to have this additional proof of the protection which the shield affords4 ,at nine o'clock at night ,isambard sent me word that #8tout va merveille2' indeed it was so1 for it was like a stopper interposed between the river and the top-staves4 ,instructed as the men were by the first accident1 they went on as usual in the irrespective occupations4 ,pascoe1 junr41 and ,collins were remarkably active and persevering1 and some other men equally so2 while old ,greenwell encouraged them by a speech of his own in high commendation of the security of their situation4 ,sidenote3 ,water more abundant4 ,is it from the river8 ,september #ab4--,the water1 bringing with it a sort of clay broken in small particles1 increased to an alarming degree4 ,in consequence of this continued displacement of the silt and clay1 a cavity had been formed above the staves4 ,at about three1 when ,i had gone to the ,court of ,directors1 the ground fell upon the staves with great violence1 causing a surge most alarming as to probable consequences4 ,isambard was at that moment in the upper frames1 and he gave directions for increasing the means of security4 ,on my return ,i found things much worse than ,i left them1 but every means of security was judiciously applied4 ,during the night in particular things presented a very unfavourable appearance4 ,the men1 however1 were as calm as if there were no other danger to be dreaded than wet clothes or the splashing of mud4 ,i observed the men in the lower cells were sound asleep4 ,sidenote3 ,exertions by the men4 ,sidenote3 ,slight improvement4 ,september #ac4--;,every means were resorted to in the course of the night and during the early part of the day to stop the water4 ,the men have shown great zeal and good management in their respective avocations1 and above all the utmost confidence4 ,isambard has not quitted the frames but to lay down now and then on the stage4 ,i have prevailed on him to go to his bed1 or rather1 used my endeavours to induce him2 but he has not since last ,friday night 7the #hth74 ,things were rather better at the close of the day4 ,september #ad4--,things upon the whole have assumed a more favourable aspect4 ,the situation is nevertheless very critical4 ,nothing but the utmost precaution in following up what has begun can bring us out of it4 ,this has been a most eventful week6 ,september #ah4--;,isambard was the greater part of the night in the works1 and the benefit of his exertions is indeed most highly felt3 no one has stood out like him6 ,everything is quite safe1 the water is kept back1 and the work proceeds in a most satisfactory manner4 ,october #bb4--;,it is evident from a flow of silt which had taken place on that day that with the shield we have passed close under a body of collected water a few inches only above the staves4 ,isambard is too unwell to stay long in the works4 ,sidenote3 ,the want of a drain subjects us to much inconvenience4 ,october #bd4--,the want of the main drain which was originally intended to carry the water to the main reservoir is felt everywhere4 ,this drain is in my original plan1 but the committee expressing on several occasions a wish that ,i should dispense with it1 ,i complied1 most reluctantly however1 to prove my earnest wish to reduce the expenses4 ,it will not1 ,i apprehend1 be found an economy4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of the shoes in keeping the ground dense4 ,october #bf4--;,every step we take shows how much security is derived from the shoes1 supporting as they do the shield and the superincumbent weight4 ,they press down in the same proportion the ground on which they bear4 ,they keep it as dense as it originally was1 and fit it for the structure that is to come upon it4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that what is wanted is that the ground should be kept pressed4 ,it is with this object in view that ,i have holdfasts and jacks4 ,what incessant vigilance is required1 what an incessant call on the resources of the mind1 not only to direct1 but more particularly to provide for many things that may occur4 ,november #ag4--;,at this date #cjg feet #i inches had been completed4#ae ,december #h4--,the evil that of not having a proper drain is going on with us1 and without any remedy except the drain1 or a cesspool by way of expedient4 ,how much anxiety must one feel at being so circumstanced6 ,should any water break in1 how should we proceed8 ,this is another source of great solicitude4 ,we have no command of the frames when they rest upon wooden legs1 or when the screws are bent2 and what is worse is that the men drive on without any consideration or any fear of consequences4 ,this circumstance1 and the apprehension of the water breaking in1 are matters of the most dreadful anxiety4 ,sidenote3 ,superincumbent weight varying daily1 and still more every fortnight4 ,what stress on the frames4 ,the shoes have never yielded2 a most important circumstance4 ,december #ab4--,little do others know of the anxiety and fatigue ,i have to undergo day and night4 ,advanced as we are1 we have only gained somewhat more experience1 but the casualties are just the same4 ,an accident now might be as fatal as it would have been #bjj feet back1 or as it would be #bjj feet forwards4 ,we have not a period when we can think ourselves safe except when we have connected these arches with a shaft on the other side4 ,loaded as we are with the weight of the river1 we have to advance our shield and build our structure under that weight1 a weight which varies twice a day1 and twice a month to a much greater extent4 ,the shoes are the great foundation of our security4 ,when once pressed down with the greatest power that can be applied1 they do not give in the least afterwards4 ,they have not yielded even upon loose gravel2 we must therefore congratulate ourselves that they have answered so completely4 ,we have now walked our frames upwards of #cej feet2 we have had to renew the legs and the heads1 but it is not through want of strength so much as from mismanagement4 ,the first legs were never injured so long as their action was limited to #c inches1 but when it was increased to #f inches1 they immediately gave way one after another1 without however any damage to the structure or to the shield4 ,the heads gave way1 or began to give way1 from the moment the legs did2 because1 when a leg gave way1 it brought upon the contiguous frame an increased weight which broke the heads one after another4 ,that the breaking of so important a part of our shield should not have been attended with any bad consequences is a proof that provision had been made for the casualty4 ,the proof that it had been foreseen and provided for is in the manner these heads were adapted to the frames4 ,by the way they were fixed they would be easily taken down and replaced4 ,though the heads gave way1 the top staves were not materially affected by it1 and the service continued until new heads were substituted4 ,some have fancied that the ground did not bear wholly upon the shield and the arches1 but supported itself in parts4 ,experience proves that the pressure is rather more than that which rests artificially on the frames4 ,the ground is compressed all round by the increased weight of high water3 we might therefore conclude that the shield operates as a pillar1 that supports beyond the limits of its base or cap4 ,it is a great satisfaction to be able to say that so long as we followed the original plan1 nothing gave way except the back screws4 ,these again were damaged by being run out of the sockets4 ,we may therefore ascribe most of the evils and damages to the increased range of action1 and still more to the rude implements the men have used1 whenever they met with any difficulty in moving the frames4 ,if it is considered that we had no other men to train in the use of this immense machine but excavators and miners1 very great allowance must be made for what has occurred4 ,sidenote3 ,falling of three facings from neglect4 ,awful6 ,december #bj4--;,an accident of an alarming nature occurred4 ,the poling-screws of ,nos4 #aj and #ab1 being on ,no4 #aa1 ,moul1 the miner in that frame1 removed his butting screw2 the consequence was that the frame started back1 the polings and poling-screws fell down with a tremendous crash1 and the ground followed to a considerable extent4 ,this is the most formidable accident that has yet occurred in the face of the work4 ,the ground was fortunately unusually firm1 and no fatal consequences ensued4 ,december #ca4--;,isambard and nine friends sat down to a dinner under the ,thames6 ,now a year is over since we began to make any progress horizontally1 for we had only #aa feet of arch when the water broke in on ,january #bd last4 ,we may therefore say that the whole of what has been made of the ,tunnel has been made in that period4 ,it is worthy of remark that until the end of ,april no fracture whatever1 no bending of the legs1 had taken place1 notwithstanding that we had supported for a period of nearly three months a greater weight than we ever had since4 ,the ground nearly #dj feet high kept sinking upon us as we advanced1 and yet no stave1 no top1 no leg gave way4 ,each leg was capable of carrying nearly #hj tons at the point of fracture1 consequently the aggregate strength of #cf legs was equal to #b1hhj tons1 which is six times over the greatest effort that could be exerted by the superincumbent weight4 ,the heads1 after they had given way1 remained in place1 some--namely1 ,nos4 #a1 #h1 #ab--;for seven months1 and the others from four to six months4 ,it cannot be said therefore that there was a want of strength1 since the broken heads continued to perform for so many months after being so much damaged2 nor is there any defect in the iron4 ,if the frames were1 as some have fancied1 lanky1 which implies weakness in their sides1 how could they have supported the alternate stress to which they are put by standing alternately on one leg8 ,not one single joint has yet started4 ,every frame has been upwards of #b1jjj times in that raking posture1 consequently the shield has been upwards of #bd1jjj times strained under the weight that has broken the heads4 ,one single side has broken1 and is now as good as the rest4 ,is such a machine to be stigmatised as it has been1 without looking more minutely into its operations8 ,sidenote3 ,observations on the responsibility attached to this enterprise4 ,january #d1 #ahbg4af--;,a work that requires such close attention1 so much ingenuity1 and carried on day and night by the rudest hands possible--what anxiety1 what fatigue1 both of mind and body6 ,every morning ,i say1 ,another day of danger over6 ,january #ab4--;,it is astonishing how the silt resists the sliding of the top staves4 ,assured as we were of having stiff clay from #cc to #cg feet1 with what confidence we might have looked to making #ah feet per week4 ,there would be no difficulty in having accomplished it4 ,we must not look back1 but overcome all difficulties6 ,sidenote3 ,isambard on duty several successive nights4 ,january #af4--;,isambard having been up several successive nights1 went to bed at ten1 and slept till six the next morning4 ,i am very much concerned at his being so unmindful of his health4 ,he may pay dear for it4 ,february #b4--,work done to this day #dje feet #d inches4 ,february #c4--;,i visited the works2 and1 being in the cabin1 ,i complained of the dust there4 ,dust under the ,thames6 ,february #bf4--;,i went to the ,tunnel4 ,the arch being well lighted up1 and the whole walk completed1 a few visitors were admitted4 ,the coup d'il was splendid4 ,mrs4 ,brunel1 ,emma1 ,sophia and her three little children were the first4 ,it gave me great pleasure to see the whole of my family in the new scene4 ,march #ba4--,there being no clay above us1 there is much to apprehend from the springs4 ,it would be much better to work slower than we do4 ,it is indeed very hard to be under the necessity of driving4 ,anxiety increasing daily4 ,sidenote3 ,no clay above head2 should work slower4 ,sidenote3 ,water increasing daily4 ,march #bh4--,the top pumps failed2 the water rose above the abutting screws4 ,the frames of some of them could not be advanced1 nor could the bottom brickwork be laid down--great source of complaint4 ,isambard called the men in at #aj o'clock2 they went on cheerfully4 ,it is surprising that the men are so steady4 ,sidenote3 ,our situation is getting much worse daily4 ,march #bi4--,things are getting worse every day by the influx of water2 by which the ground is softened1 and the operation rendered extremely complicated and slow4 ,as to the ground1 it is evident we are now as ,isambard found it by his borings of ,august last4 ,we have nothing above our heads but clayey silt1 and it is of a nature to be detached and run into mud by the action of water4 ,april #c4--,the pumping now requires forty hands4 ,there is no exaggeration in saying that the influx of water1 and the badness of the ground1 cause an extra expense of #aejl4 a week4 ,sidenote3 ,obstacles in every way4 ,april #g4--;,it may now be said that we are contending with the elements above and around1 gaining and disputing every inch that we add to the structure4 ,april #i4--;,isambard's birthday1 he being of age to-day4 ,april #ad4--;,doing as well as can be expected from the nature of the ground1 and the difficulties that increase upon us4 ,sidenote3 ,to be obliged to drive too fast is a sad alternative4 ,april #ah4--,the faces are found extremely tender2 but having proceeded with great caution1 no accident occurred4 ,none1 ,i feel confident1 would occur if all idea of piece-work were abandoned4 ,it always operates as a stimulant1 a very dangerous one4 ,obliged to drive on1 on account of expense1 we run imminent risks indeed for it4 ,that a work of this nature1 under such circumstances1 should be thus carried on1 is truly lamentable4 ,it is obvious that the clay we have above our heads has been broken1 by the ground beneath it running or breaking in upon us4 ,we shall have to fight it out until we have a stronger or thicker stratum of clay4 ,sad prospect indeed it is for us6 ,april #bj4--,the ground at ,no4 #a broke in again1 and occasioned great delay4 ,some bones and china came down4 ,april #bb4--,the diving-bell being on the spot1 and ,isambard having moored it over the shield1 he and ,gravatt#ag descended at thirty feet water4 ,they found the same substances which had come through the ground into the ,tunnel4 ,when ,isambard was in the bell1 he drove a strong rod into the ground4 ,nelson1 who was in the frame1 heard the blows4 ,sidenote3 ,a dreadful panic4 ,april #bi4--;,ground improving as we advance2 we are not1 however1 free from danger3 a dreadful alarm took place this morning4 ,while ,isambard and ,gravatt were at breakfast1 the porter came running in1 and exclaiming1 #8,it is all over6 ,the ,tunnel has fallen in1 and one man only has escaped4' ,gravatt was the first to get to the spot1 and found all the pumpers upon the floor of the shaft1 all stupefied with horror1 though every one was there quite safe1 and no rush of water was heard4 ,gravatt and ,isambard were soon in the shield1 where they observed that a small portion of clay had fallen from the top on the top floor4 ,may #h4--;,at half-past three in the morning1 an irruption took place1 bringing down the deposits of the bottom of the river--lumps of clay1 stones1 bones1 wood1 nails1 c41 c41 with water4 ,the pumpers and men on the stage 7,irish7 all ran away1 some exclaiming1 #8,the ,thames is in6 ,the ,thames is in6' ,ball and ,rogers stood to their post1 and soon stopped this most formidable attack4 ,may #aj4--;,great difficulties present themselves1 that oppose our progress2 the chief1 however1 is the lodgment of water above our heads4 ,there it loosens the silt or sand1 and runs out1 leaving cavities that cause the clay above to break1 and run down in lumps and disturbed streams4 ,this is very awful6 ,this opens the way for the river4 ,sidenote3 ,consequences of want of care more terrific and mischievous than any preceding ones4 ,may #ab4--;,in moving ,no4 #f1 they left by some unaccountable neglect the top staves behind1 and in that state two top polings were taken down4 ,the ground being very bad1 and high water at the same moment1 the ground began swelling4 ,attention was called to several points1 and ,gravatt continued in ,no4 #f4 ,he drew out at the front of the top staves a shovel1 and also a hammer1 that had come through the ground above4 ,they are the same which ,isambard left at the bottom of the river1 when he went down in the diving-bell4 ,sidenote3 ,triumph of the shield4 ,may #ac4--,notwithstanding every prudence on our part1 a disaster may still occur4 ,may it not be when the arch is full of visitors6 ,it is too awful to think of it4 ,i have done my part by recommending to the directors to shut the ,tunnel4 ,my solicitude is not lessened for that3 ,i have indeed no rest1 and ,i may say have had none for many weeks4 ,so far the shield has triumphed over immense obstacles1 and it will carry the ,tunnel through4 ,during the preceding night the whole of the ground over our heads must have been in movement1 and that too at high water4 ,the shield must have therefore supported upwards of six hundred tons3 it has walked for many weeks with that weight twice a day over its head4 ,what flippancy and inconsistency in some individuals1 who1 without any knowledge of the subject1 without so much as examining the state of the work1 will without the least reflection and hesitation obtrude their suggestions upon every case4 ,what shallow conceit for such to pretend they can know better than those that have already the experience that must result from years of deep thought1 from days and nights of incessant attention2 who have the advantage of the combined talents of several ingenious men1 who devote their undivided study1 the whole resource of their well-stored minds1 to the enterprise2 and to add to this1 the benefit of the skill of one hundred miners and excavators4 ,among this class of men1 some have been employed in the most perilous enterprises1 when each individual must have acted upon his sole judgment1 where1 in fact1 there is no room for an engineer to instruct and direct their efforts4 ,how easy it is to attack everything1 to detract from the merits of the best plan4 ,there is always some weak point which may be open to the penetration of the shallowest mind4 ,then comes the exulting expression1 ,that ,i always said would never do1 c41 and all the consequences with it4 ,sidenote3 ,how easy to detract4 ,may #ae4--,the water increased very much at #i o'clock4 ,this is inquitant6 ,my apprehensions are not groundless4 ,i apprehend nothing1 however1 as to the safety of the men1 but first the visitors1 and next a total invasion by the river4 ,we must be prepared for the worst4 ,i have had no rest for many weeks on this apprehension4 ,should it occur we must make the best of it1 by improving our situation4 ,may #ag4--,there is no doubt of the ground having improved very materially since last ,saturday4 ,very cheering indeed4 ,may #ah4--,visited by ,lady ,raffles and a numerous party4 ,having had an intimation by ,mr4 ,beamish of their intended visit1 ,i waited to receive and to accompany them1 not only from the interest ,i felt at being acquainted with ,lady ,raffles1 but also from motives of solicitude1 knowing that she intended to visit the frames4 ,indeed1 my apprehensions were increasing daily4 ,i had given some instructions for enquiring where we could obtain clay1 that we should have some barges full of clay to be in readiness4 ,i was most anxiously waiting for the removal of the tier of colliers that was over us1 being convinced that we should detect some derangement then4 ,i attended ,lady ,raffles and party to the frames1 most uneasy all the while1 as if ,i had a presentiment1 not so much of the approaching catastrophe to the extent it has occurred1 but of what might result from the misbehaviour of some of the men1 as was the case when the ,irish labourers ran away from the pumps and the stage4 ,i left the works at half-past five1 leaving everything comparatively well3 ,mr4 ,beamish continued on duty4#ah ,mr4 ,gravatt's account is as follows3 ,i was above with ,i4 ,brunel looking over some prints1 ,beamish being on duty4 ,some men came running up and said to ,isambard something ,i did not hear4 ,he immediately ran towards the works1 and down the men's staircase4 ,i ran towards it1 but could not get down4 ,i leaped over the fence1 and rushed down the visitors' stairs1 and met the men coming up1 and a lady1 who ,i think was fainting4 ,met ,flyn on the landing-place1 who said it was all over4 ,i pushed on1 calling him a coward1 and got down as far as the visitors' barrier4 ,saw ,mr ,beamish pulled from it4 ,he came on towards the shaft walking4 ,i went up to him to ask him what was the matter4 ,he said it was no use resisting4 ,the miners were all upon the staircase2 ,brunel and ,i called to them to come back4 ,lane#ai was upon the stairs1 and he said it was of no use to call the men back4 ,we stayed some time below on the stairs1 looking where the water was coming in most magnificently4 ,we could still see the farthest light in the west arch4 ,the water came upon us so slowly that ,i walked backwards speaking to ,brunel several times4 ,presently ,i saw the water pouring in from the east to the west arch through the cross arches4 ,i then ran and got up the stairs with ,brunel and ,beamish1 who were then five or six steps up4 ,it was then we heard a tremendous burst4 ,the cabin had burst1 and all the lights went out at once4 ,there was a noise at the staircase1 and presently the water carried away the lower flight of stairs4 ,brunel looked towards the men1 who were lining the staircase and galleries of the shaft1 gazing at the spectacle1 and said1 #8,carry on1 carry on1 as fast as you can6' ,upon which they ascended pretty fast4 ,i went up to the top and saw the shaft filling4 ,i looked about and saw a man in the water like a rat4 ,he got hold of a bar1 but ,i afterwards saw he was quite spent4 ,i was looking about how to get down1 when ,i saw ,brunel descending by a rope to his assistance4 ,i got hold of one of the iron ties1 and slid down into the water hand over hand with a small rope1 and tried to make it fast round his middle1 whilst ,brunel was doing the same4 ,having done it he called out1 #8,haul up4' ,the man was hauled up4 ,i swam about to see where to land4 ,the shaft was full of casks4 ,brunel had been swimming too4 ,the first alarm1 as ,i heard it1 was as follows3 ,goodwin1 in ,no4 #aa1 said to ,roger1 in the next box1 #8,roger1 come1 help me4' ,roger said1 #8,i can't1 ,i have my second poling down1 and my face will run in4' ,in a little time ,goodwin said1 #8,you must come1' which ,mr4 ,beamish directed him to do4 ,roger turned round and saw ,goodwin through a sheet of water4 ,corps1 a bricklayer1 went to help ,goodwin3 he was knocked down4 ,roger made his way alone1 calling to ,mr4 ,beamish1 #8,come away1 sir1 #8tis no use to stay4' ,roger saw ,corps fairly washed out of his box like a lump of clay4 ,sir ,isambard's journal continues3-- ,may #ai4--,relieved as ,i have found myself1 though by a terrible catastrophe1 of the worst state of anxiety1 that which ,i have been in for several weeks past1 ,i had a most comfortable night4 ,isambard and ,gravatt descended with the diving-bell1 and stood upon the tails of ,nos4 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab4 ,may #bj4--;,having descended into the hole and probed the ground1 ,i felt that the staves were in their places1 and that the brickwork was quite sound4 ,it is evident that the great hole has been a dredging spot4 ,a large mass of bags full of clay1 and united together with ropes1 was let down4 ,the ,rotherhithe curate1 in his sermon to-day1 adverting to the accident1 said it was a fatal accident1 that it was but a just judgment upon the presumptuous aspirations of mortal men1 c46 ,the poor man6 ,may #bc4--,went with the diving-bell to examine the ground and the bags1 which do apparently well1 but it is working rather in the dark4 ,it cannot1 however1 fail of making a much better stratum than that we had before4 ,the plan is therefore good4 ,on the #cjth a raft was sunk over the shield1 and the water in the shaft was brought so low that the last flight of steps was visible4 ,however1 on the next day the river broke in again2 and as it was found that the raft was open at the west side1 it was raised and towed on shore4 ,june #e4--,there is much danger in getting out of the diving-bell1 the bags are so loose in some places4 ,one might sink and be swallowed1 which had very nearly happened to-day4 ,isambard and ,pinckney being down1 the latter lost his hold4 ,the footboard being accidentally carried away1 he could not have recovered himself had not ,isambard stretched out his leg to his assistance4 ,june #ag4--,visited by ,charles ,bonaparte4 ,isambard took him into the arch with the yawl4 ,isambard fell overboard4#bj ,on ,june #ai1 a general meeting of the proprietors was held1 to consider the position of the company4 ,sir ,isambard addressed the meeting1 and also presented a long report1 in which he entered very fully into the circumstances of the recent accident and the causes which led to it4 ,he then described the means he had taken to restore the works by sinking bags of clay and gravel4 ,he adds3 #8,i have already succeeded in closing the hole through which the water first penetrated1 and feel confident that the second opening which afterwards appeared is also stopped1 but a short time is necessary to elapse for the new ground over the shield to settle and consolidate4 ,it has already supported a head of water of thirty-five feet4' ,june #be4--;,at #g ,p4,m4 made preparations to re-enter the shield4 ,isambard1 mustering the men who had been the last to quit the frames1 told them they would be the first to take possession of them again--a precedence due1 as he said1 to them4 ,rogers1 ,ball1 ,goodwin1 ,corps1 and ,compton1 were accordingly ordered to trim themselves for the expedition1 provided with a phosphorus box1 and dressed in light clothes1 to be fit for a swim4 ,at about ten o'clock1 ,isambard and ,mr4 ,beamish1 accompanied by ,ball and ,woodward 7miners71 went down with the punt1 and got to the large stage1 the head of the crane just emerging4 ,it was found impossible to get into the frames1 as a mound of clay and silt closed the entrance4 ,the centering was in place and quite sound1 and of course the brickwork4 ,finding that they could not get nearer1 they gave three cheers1 which were rapturously answered by the men at the mouth of the ,tunnel4 ,having placed candles upon the ground that closed the entrance1 and upon the head of the crane1 they returned4 ,isambard1 having promised that the men who had left the frames last should be the first to re-enter1 returned with them4 ,this is a great day for our history6 ,june #bg4--,mr4 ,beamish was able to get to the frames1 which he found firm and undisturbed4 ,a small tarpaulin was now spread over the frames1 and operations commenced for cleaning them4 ,this was a most difficult and dangerous work1 especially as the water was still so high that the frames could only be approached by boats4 ,the men1 even the best hands1 were at first greatly alarmed at the danger they were in2 but the example set by ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,beamish produced1 as ,sir ,isambard notes1 the best effect1 and they soon became reconciled to their situation4 ,july #g4--,very uncomfortable in the frames2 the candles cannot burn1 the ventilation cannot act4 ,isambard went several times to-day down in the diving-bell4 ,on one occasion the chain slipped through the stoppers1 but most providentially it jammed itself tight before being altogether run out4 ,the consequence might indeed have been fatal4 ,can there be a more anxious situation than that which ,i am constantly in8 ,not one moment of rest either of mind or body4 ,mr4 ,beamish always ready4 ,poor ,isambard always at his post too1 alternately below1 or in the barges1 and in the diving-bell4 ,on ,july #aa1 ,sir ,isambard thought that matters had so far advanced that a large tarpaulin1 which it was proposed to sink over the frames1 #8would have its full effect4' ,it was accordingly sunk on the following day1 under the superintendence of ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,sir ,isambard adds to his account of the operation--#8,this reflects great credit on ,isambard1 and the apparent facility with which it was effected evinces his presence of mind1 for a single faux pas would have spoilt the whole4'#ba ,july #ba4--;,during the early part of the night an alarm was given1 by ,fitzgerald calling for clay wedges1 and exclaiming that the whole of the faces were coming in altogether4 ,rogers collected a quantity of wedges to go to the frames1 but no boat was to be seen4 ,he called to the men in the frames1 but received no answer4 ,taking the small boat in the east arch1 he reached the frames1 but found nobody1 nor any appearance of derangement in the ground4 ,conjecturing they might be drowned1 he explored further1 and saw the four men stretched on the small stage1 not drowned1 but sound asleep6 ,july #bf4--,water nearly out of the arches4 ,for the first time we could walk to the frames--a most gratifying circumstance indeed6 ,two months and eight days4 ,september #cj4--;,how slow our progress must appear to others2 but it is not so1 if it is considered how much we have had to do in righting the frames and in repairing them2 what with timbering1 shoring1 shipping and refitting--all these operations being in confined situations1 the water bursting in occasionally1 and the ground running in3 in short1 it is truly terrific to be in the midst of this scene4 ,if to this we add the actual danger1 magnified by the re-echoing of the pumps1 and sometimes 7still more awful warning67 the report of large pieces of cast iron breaking1 it is in no way an exaggeration to say that such has been the state of things4 ,nevertheless1 my confidence in the shield is not only undiminished--it is1 on the contrary1 tried with its full effect1 and it is manifest now that it will soon replace us in good ground1 and in a safe situation4 ,no top staves have given way4 ,that is our real protection4 ,october #ag4--;,at #b4ae ,a4,m4 ,kemble1 having first called upon ,gravatt1 came to ,isambard in a hurry1 and1 quite stupefied with fright1 told him that the water was in4 ,says ,isambard--#8,i could not believe him4 ,he said it was up the shaft when he came4 ,this being like positive1 ,i ran without a coat as fast as possible1 giving a double knock at ,gravatt's door in my way4 ,i saw the men on the top1 and heard them calling earnestly to those whom they fancied had not had time to escape4 ,nay1 ,miles had already1 in his zeal for the aid of others1 thrown a long rope1 and was swinging it about1 calling to the unfortunate sufferers to lay hold of it1 encouraging and cheering those who might not find it1 to swim to one of the landings4 ,i immediately1 ,i should say instantly1 flew down the stairs4 ,the shaft was completely dark4 ,i expected at every step to splash into the water4 ,before ,i was aware of the distance ,i had run1 ,i reached the frames in the east arch1 and met there ,pamphillon1 who told me that nothing was the matter1 but a small run in ,no4 #a top1 where ,i found ,huggins and the corps d'lite4 ,they were not even aware that any one had left the frames4 ,the cause of the panic was one of the labourers2 hearing the man in ,no4 #a call for ,ball1 he ran away1 jumping off the stage1 crying1 8,run1 run1 murder1 murder2 put the lights out40 ,his fellow-labourers followed like sheep1 making the same vociferations4' ,november #aj4--;,isambard gave his entertainment to nearly forty persons1 who sat at table in the ,tunnel4 ,nothing could exceed the effect for brilliancy4 ,about #abj men partook of a dinner in the adjoining arch4 ,as the year drew to a close1 the difficulty of working the silt increased1 and with this difficulty increased also the expense of maintaining the staff of men required4 ,on ,december #ah1 ,mr4 ,brunel1 writing for his father1 who was absent from town for a few days1 thus describes the nature of the soil through which they were then passing4 ,the state of the ground over ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c top has caused considerable delay1 particularly this week1 although not such as to give any cause of anxiety as to our future rate of progress1 or to have any serious effect except the increased expense incidental to this delay4 ,my father desired me to describe to the ,board the causes of these difficulties4 ,there is a considerable spring at this point1 and a corresponding soft part in the bed of the river1 which seems to indicate the rising of the spring4 ,the ground in the neighbourhood is affected by this spring in rather a peculiar manner3 at the half-flood tide the pressure is greatest3 dry hard clay oozes with great force through openings hardly observable1 the silt and water running by starts4 ,at high-water the pressure and quantity of water begin to diminish and on the ebb-tide the ground is hard and dry1 and can be worked with ease4 ,on the flood-tide there are as many as twelve and fifteen of the best hands1 besides myself 7or one of my assistants7 and the foreman1 engaged entirely at one face4 ,on ,january #a1 #ahbh1 ,sir ,isambard returned to ,london2 and on the #abth1 when about #fjj feet of the ,tunnel had been completed1 a second irruption occurred1 which put a stop to the works for seven years4 ,the particulars of this accident are thus described by ,mr4 ,brunel1 in a letter to the ,directors of the ,company3-- ,i had been in the frames 7shield7 with the workmen throughout the whole night1 having taken my station there at ten o'clock4 ,during the workings through the night1 no symptoms of insecurity appeared4 ,at six o'clock this morning 7the visual time for shifting the men7 a fresh set or shift of the men came on to work4 ,we began to work the ground at the west top corner of the frame3 the tide had just then begun to flow2 and finding the ground tolerably quiet1 we proceeded by beginning at the top1 and had worked about a foot downwards1 when on exposing the next six inches1 the ground swelled suddenly1 and a large quantity burst through the opening thus made4 ,this was followed instantly by a large body of water4 ,the rush was so violent as to force the man on the spot1 where the burst took place1 out of the frame 7or cell7 on to the timber stage behind the frames4 ,i was in the frame with the man1 but upon the rush of the water ,i went into the next box 7or cell71 in order to command a better view of the irruption1 and seeing that there was no possibility of then opposing the water1 ,i ordered all the men in the frames to retire4 ,all were retiring1 except the three men who were with me1 and they retreated with me4 ,i did not leave the stage until those three were down the ladder of the frames1 when they and ,i proceeded about twenty feet along the west arch of the ,tunnel4 ,at this moment the agitation of the air1 by the rush of water1 was such as to extinguish all the lights1 and the water had gained the height of our waists4 ,i was at that moment giving directions to the three men1 in what manner they ought to proceed in the dark to effect their escape1 when they and ,i were knocked down1 and covered with a part of the timber stage4 ,i struggled under water for some time1 and at length extricated myself from the stage1 and by swimming and being forced by the water1 ,i gained the eastern arch where ,i got a better footing1 and was enabled by laying hold of the railway rope1 to pause a little1 in the hope of encouraging the men who had been knocked down at the same time with myself4 ,this ,i endeavoured to do by calling to them4 ,before ,i reached the shaft the water had risen so rapidly that ,i was out of my depth1 and therefore swam to the visitors' stairs1 the stairs for the workmen being occupied by those who had so far escaped4 ,my knee was so injured by the timber stage that ,i could scarcely swim1 or get up the stairs1 but the rush of the water carried me up the shaft4 ,the three men who had been knocked down with me were unable to extricate themselves1 and ,i am grieved to say1 they are lost2 and ,i believe also two old men1 and one young man1 in other parts of the work4 ,this statement ,sir ,isambard embodied in a report to the ,directors of ,january #bh1 which was circulated among the proprietors4 ,as soon as the first excitement caused by the irruption had ceased1 ,mr4 ,brunel directed the diving-bell to be prepared in order to ascertain the state of the shield and the extent of the disturbance of the bed of the river caused by the rush of water into the ,tunnel4 ,he was1 however1 so seriously injured that he could not actively superintend the preparations1 but his orders were given with his usual clearness1 calmness1 and decision2 and as soon as the barge containing the diving-bell was properly moored over the ,tunnel1 he was carried out and laid upon a mattress on the deck of the barge1 that he might direct what was to be done4 ,as evening came on he became so much worse that he was taken into the cabin2 but everything which took place was reported to him4 ,at length1 the bell being ready1 it was lowered early on the ,sunday morning1 but the chain not being long enough1 proceedings were delayed until a longer chain could be obtained4 ,as1 however1 a chain of the right size and length could not be obtained1 the strongest cable which could be procured in the neighbourhood was substituted for the chain4 ,a controversy then arose between the assistant engineers and the foremen as to the sufficiency of the strength of the cable2 and it was agreed to consult and to abide by the opinion of ,mr4 ,brunel1 who was then lying in great pain in the cabin4 ,no answer could be obtained from him for some minutes1 and then he only said1 #8,don't go down4' ,this not being satisfactory to the advocates of the sufficiency of the cable1 it was agreed to lower the bell empty1 which was done1 and it was brought up safely2 but just as it was swung over the barge1 the rope broke and the bell fell on to the stage4 ,the next day ,mr4 ,brunel was taken home1 when it was found that1 besides the injury to his knee which he received while endeavouring to save the lives of the three men who were with him1#bb he had received serious internal injuries1 which kept him under medical treatment for several months4 ,when he was able to return to ,rotherhithe all hope of continuing the works was for the time abandoned4 ,when they were resumed1 in #ahce1 he was entirely engrossed in the independent pursuit of his profession2 and1 with the exception of a few occasions when he acted for his father1 he had no further connection with the ,tunnel4 ,it is not1 therefore1 necessary to continue the narrative in detail2 but a brief summary of the subsequent history of the enterprise may be interesting to those who are unacquainted with it4 ,the ,tunnel was cleared of water1 and efforts were made1 unfortunately without success1 to raise funds for the completion of the undertaking4 ,great enthusiasm was exhibited by the general public and by many eminent persons1 including the ,duke of ,wellington2 but the money was not forthcoming1 and nothing was left but to brick in the shield1 and wait for more favourable times4 ,it was not till the beginning of #ahce that the ,company was able1 by the aid of a loan from ,government1 to recommence the works4 ,the old shield was removed and a new one substituted1 in which considerable improvements were introduced4 ,slings connecting the frames were added1 which enabled each frame to support its neighbours when necessary1 and important alterations were also made in the arrangements for keeping the frames at the right distance from one another1 and for giving greater facility of adjustment to the various parts4 ,before the ,wapping side was reached there were three more irruptions of the river1 namely1 ,august #bc1 ,november #c1 #ahcg1 and ,march #ba1 #ahch2 but in ,october #ahdj the shaft on the ,wapping shore was commenced4 ,it differed from the ,rotherhithe shaft1 in being sunk the whole depth without underpinning1 and was made of a slightly conical form1 to reduce the friction in sinking1 and had a larger quantity of iron hoops introduced into the brickwork1 in order to increase its strength4 ,when this structure had been sunk to the required depth 7#gj feet71 the excavation of the ,tunnel was resumed1 and at last the shield was brought up to the brickwork of the shaft4 ,the operation of making the junction between the ,tunnel and the shaft was one of much difficulty1 but it was at length satisfactorily accomplished1 and the ,tunnel was opened to the public on ,march #be1 #ahdc--;eighteen years and twenty-three days after the commencement of the work4#bc ,sir ,isambard ,brunel1 whose health had for some time been failing1 now retired altogether from his professional labours4 ,after passing a few years in peaceful and happy seclusion1 surrounded by those he loved1 and watched over by their affectionate care1 he died on ,december #ab1 #ahdi1 in his #hast year1 having been spared to carry to completion his greatest work1 and to see his son following in his footsteps with a success which must have exceeded his most sanguine expectations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the education ,mr4 ,brunel received from his father was well calculated to form the foundation of his future career4 ,during the later and more arduous part of the contest1 which was ended by the irruption of ,january #ahbh1 he held both the nominal and actual post of ,resident ,engineer of the ,thames ,tunnel2 but from the commencement of the works1 when he was only nineteen years old1 he had been1 as stated by ,sir ,isambard1 #8a most valuable coadjutor in the undertaking4' ,while placed in this responsible position he acquired habits of endurance and of self-reliance1 and learnt to act with promptitude and decision in the application of those measures which experience had shown to be effective in each particular class of emergency4 ,but beyond all other advantages1 he had before him the example of his father's character1 in which a rare degree of gentleness and modesty of disposition was joined to unflinching energy1 and a determination to overcome all difficulties4 ,,note ,a 7p4 #e74 ,the ,bourbon ,suspension ,bridges4#bd ,the suspension bridges designed by ,sir ,isambard ,brunel for crossing rivers in the ,ile de ,bourbon were two in number4 ,one of them had two spans of #abb feet each in the clear1 and #aca feet #i inches between the points of suspension of the chains4 ,the second had but one span of the same dimensions as those of the larger bridge4 ,in the design of these bridges one of the most important points to be attended to1 was to render them secure against hurricanes1 which are both frequent and severe in the ,ile de ,bourbon4 ,in the larger bridge there was a pier of masonry1 built in the middle of the river up to the level of the roadway of the bridge4 ,the suspension chains of the bridge were in three groups1 #i feet #h inches apart1 so as to leave room for two roadways1 each about #h feet #i inches wide4 ,each of these groups of chains consisted of two chains side by side4 ,each chain was made with long links like those of the chain cables used for moorings4 ,these links1 which were made of iron #acf inch in diameter1 were #d feet #h inches long1 inside measure1 and were each connected together by two short coupling links1 #h inches long1 inside measure1 of iron #acf inch by #a inch1 and two pins1 each two inches in diameter4 ,the two chains of each group were placed side by side1 with the links upright2 one of the pins at each joint was made long enough to serve for both chains1 and1 in the middle of its length between the two chains1 was passed through an eye at the upper end of one of the suspending rods of the bridge4 ,thus to every joint in each group of the main chains1 or at intervals of about #e feet1 there was a suspending rod4 ,these rods were #a inch in diameter4 ,the pins of the joints of the main chains had half heads at each end of them4 ,they could thus be easily inserted in erecting the bridge1 but once in place were quite secure4 ,at every fourth joint in the main chains one of the joint pins was made in two halves1 with wedges inserted between them for adjusting the length of the main chains4 ,thus there were six chains1 and as the links of these had each two parts of iron #acf inch in diameter1 the total sectional area of the six chains was #agd inches4 ,each group of the main chains was supported at a height of #be feet #f inches above the roadway at the centre pier1 and at a height of #e feet #c inches at each of the side piers1 the lowest portion of the curve of the chain being about #a foot below the points of suspension of the side piers4 ,the upright standards1 carrying the chains both at the centre pier and at the side piers1 consisted for each group of chains of a triangular framework of cast iron1 strengthened by long bolts of wrought iron4 ,there were thus three of these triangular frames parallel to each other at each of the piers1 and those at the centre pier were braced together over the carriage road4 ,the main chains were not bolted to the standards1 but were slung from them by a vertical suspension link1 which thus allowed them to move a little lengthways4 ,this link1 in fact1 performed the function of the rollers now generally put under the saddles of suspension bridges4 ,the ends of the main chains were held by back stays1 formed of bars #c inches broad by #a inch thick1 and #aj feet long1 with joints made with short links1 and #b inch pins4 ,the ends of those back stays were secured to holding down plates #c feet in diameter1 sunk deep in the ground and well loaded4 ,as there was a vertical suspension rod at each joint of the main chains1 there was a suspension rod hanging from each of the three groups of chains at about every five feet of the length of the bridge4 ,to each set of these rods was attached a cross girder of cast iron of a ,t section1 with a large rounded bead at the lower edge of the upright web2 and connecting these under each of the main chains was a longitudinal timber beam about #h inches square4 ,the cast-iron cross girders carried longitudinal teak planking1 the planks on which the carriage wheels ran being #ab inches wide and #d inches thick1 protected at the top by wrought-iron plates running longitudinally4 ,the horse-path was protected by iron plates arranged crosswise4 ,under each span of the bridge were four chains curved upwards and also sideways4 ,these chains were fastened at their ends into the piers1 and were connected to the roadway by ties drawn up tight and attached to the main longitudinal bearers of the platform2 the object being to stiffen the platform4 ,these under tie chains were made each of a set of rods #a inch in diameter with eyes at their ends1 the ends being connected by short joint links and #a inch pins2 and to these joint links were attached the tie rods which connect these inverted chains with the platform of the bridge1 and so prevented its being lifted or blown sideways by the force of the wind4 ,in the smaller bridge1 which1 as has been said1 consisted of one span of #aca feet #i inches between the points of suspension1 these points were #ae feet #e inches above the roadway1 and the lowest part of the chain was #i feet #g inches below the points of suspension4 ,the details of this bridge were similar to those of the larger one4 ,,note ,b 7p4 #e74 ,experiments with ,carbonic ,acid ,gas4 ,in #ahbc ,mr4 ,faraday made the important discovery that under certain conditions of temperature and pressure many gases could be liquefied1 and that these liquids exerted great expansive force by slight additions of temperature1 returning quickly with regularity and certainty to their original state upon the application of cold4 ,the discovery of this new force appeared of such importance1 that ,mr4 ,faraday lost no time in publishing it to the world2 and ,sir ,isambard ,brunel very soon afterwards commenced a series of experiments to determine the value of the liquid gas as a mechanical agent4 ,the first experiments were made at ,chelsea2 but the prosecution of them was soon transferred to the care of ,mr4 ,brunel at ,rotherhithe1 where he devoted all his spare time to the construction of his father's proposed #8,differential ,power ,engine4' ,that the progress of this discovery1 and of the experiments made with a view to the application of the liquid gas1 as a motive power1 may be understood1 it is necessary to state that in ,march #ahbc ,mr4 ,faraday communicated to the ,royal ,society the results of his first experiments on the liquefaction of gases4 ,the fluid was then produced by the decomposition of the hydrate of chlorine by heat in a closed tube1 the amount of gas evolved being so great as to produce a pressure in the tube sufficient to condense the gas into a fluid of the same volume4 ,this interesting experiment was followed by others with that rapidity and success so remarkable in everything undertaken at that time in the laboratory of the ,royal ,institution2 and within a month another paper was read before the ,royal ,society1 in which the degrees of pressure and temperature at which several gases could be liquefied were recorded1 and the means employed to produce and liquefy each gas accurately described4 ,on ,april #ag a third paper was communicated by ,mr4 ,faraday1 #8,on the ,application of ,liquids produced by the ,condensation of ,gases as ,mechanical ,agents4' ,the question is thus stated3 #8,the ratio of the elastic force dependent upon pressure is to be combined with that of the expansive force dependent on temperature2 and the development of latent heat on compression and the necessity of its reabsorption in expansion must awaken doubts as to the economical results to be obtained by employing the steam of water under very great pressures and very elevated temperatures4 ,no such doubt can arise respecting liquids1 which require for their existence even a compression equal to thirty or forty atmospheres1 and where slight elevations of temperature are sufficient to produce an immense elastic force1 and where the principal question arising is whether the effort of mechanical motion is to be most easily produced by an increase or diminution of heat by artificial means4' ,difficulties were suggested by ,mr4 ,faraday as to the possibility of obtaining sufficient strength in the apparatus1 but the small difference of temperature required to produce an elastic force of many atmospheres1 he considered would render the risk of explosion small4 ,to construct the machinery whereby this new force could be practically applied as a substitute for steam1 occupied the time of ,sir ,isambard ,brunel and his son at intervals for several years2 for although ,mr4 ,brunel was satisfied at an early period of the enquiry that the liquefied gases could only be advantageously employed where the cost of motive force was secondary to economy of space and to the avoidance of the cumbrous apparatus required for the use of steam1 still he was so impressed with the importance of the subject1 if the difficulties he foresaw in its application could be overcome1 that he continued his experiments for a long period with unflagging energy and perseverance4 ,the facts relating to the liquefaction of the gases1 their elastic force when liquefied under different temperatures1 the rapidity with which they could be alternately expanded and condensed1 and the best mode of producing each gas1 were determined by ,mr4 ,faraday2 and as ,mr4 ,brunel was at that time attending the morning chemical lectures at the ,royal ,institution1 he was in constant communication with him1 and thoroughly conversant with his experiments4 ,after ,mr4 ,brunel had made a few preliminary experiments1 ,sir ,isambard determined to employ liquefied carbonic acid gas for the motive power of the proposed new engine1 the facility and cheapness of its production1 its great expansive force1 and its neutral character distinguishing it from any other gas2 but it was long before vessels were constructed1 in which gas could be produced in sufficient quantity and purity to exert the force required to liquefy it in its own volume1 for it was soon found to be impossible to obtain the required pressure with pumps4 ,carbonate of ammonia and sulphuric acid were the elements used1 and the generator was so arranged that it could be charged1 emptied of atmospheric air1 and the joints made perfect1 before the commencement of the formation of the gas which was to be liquefied4 ,to the generator was attached a receiver1 which could be surrounded with a freezing mixture1 so that the temperature of the gas in the cylinder might be below that in the generator4 ,the gradual formation of the liquid1 the development of its elastic force1 and the regularity and rapidity with which it increased or diminished by each degree of heat or cold1 were carefully watched through a glass gauge1 and the receiver when filled with liquid could be disconnected from the generator4 ,the mechanical difficulties as they arose1 one after the other1 in the construction and arrangement of the various parts of the generator and receiver were at length overcome2 and the receiver was not only filled with liquid gas1 but found to be capable of retaining it1 whether exerting an elastic force of #cj atmospheres at ordinary temperatures1 or of #ajj atmospheres when subjected to a slight degree of heat4 ,the receiver being satisfactorily completed1 the next object of attention was the design and construction of a working cylinder capable of resisting at least #a1djj lbs4 pressure on the square inch2 a task which was one of great anxiety1 as any weakness might have caused a serious accident4 ,it was only after the trial of every known method of making joints to resist high pressures had failed1 that an arrangement was devised1 requiring the most perfect workmanship1 by which packing of any kind was dispensed with1 and the cylinder fitted for use4 ,with the improved tools of the present day it is not easy to realise the difficulties1 delays1 and disappointments which forty-five years ago occurred from the failure1 first of one part of a joint1 and then of another2 but the construction of vessels capable of producing and also of retaining the gas in its liquid state1 with the means of alternately expanding and condensing it from thirty or forty to eighty or one hundred atmospheres1 having been accomplished1 the object of the expenditure of so much labour and inventive power appeared to be within reach4 ,the construction of the machinery to utilise the elastic force contained in the cylinder was now proceeded with4 ,day by day new difficulties arose1 and each as it was successfully met seemed but to leave another of greater importance to be surmounted4 ,it is not necessary in this ,note to describe the various arrangements which were devised for transferring the great elastic force in the cylinder of small diameter to a piston in another cylinder of much larger dimensions2 it is sufficient to say1 that after the devotion of much valuable time extending over several years1 and a very large expenditure of money1 and after carefully considering the cost of the liquid carbonic acid gas1 the difficulty of preventing waste1 and the necessarily very expensive character of the machinery1 ,mr4 ,brunel was satisfied #8that no sufficient advantage in the sense of economy of fuel can be obtained by the application of liquefied carbonic acid gas as a motive power'2 but so thoroughly did he exhaust the subject before he committed himself to this opinion1 that no one has since renewed the enquiry or attempted to make a machine to be moved by the elastic force of liquefied gases1 the construction of which1 it was well known1 had baffled the inventive genius of ,sir ,isambard ,brunel and his son4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,clifton ,,suspension ,,bridge4 ,a4,d4 #ahbi--ahec4 ,,tatis #bd--dh4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,undertaking--,,the ,,first ,,competition1 ,,november #ahbi--;,,description ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,plans--,,mr4 ,,telford',s ,,decision ,,as ,,umpire--,,mr4 ,,telford',s ,,design--,,the ,,second ,,competition--,,mr4 ,,brunel ,,appointed ,,engineer1 ,,march #ahca--;,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,works1 ,,august #ahcf--;,,description ,,of ,,the ,,design--,,abandonment ,,of ,,the ,,works1 #ahec--;,,formation ,,of ,a ,,new ,,company ,,and ,,completion ,,of ,,the ,,bridge1 #ahfd4 ,,note3 ,,the ,,hungerford ,,suspension ,,bridge4 ,after ,mr4 ,brunel had recovered from his accident in the ,thames ,tunnel1 he went for a trip to ,plymouth1 where he examined with great interest the ,breakwater and other engineering works in the neighbourhood4 ,he notes in his diary that he went to ,saltash1 and that he thought the river there #8much too wide to be worth having a bridge4' ,this remark was no doubt made in consequence of his father having some years before been consulted as to the construction of a suspension bridge at this place1 which ,mr4 ,brunel himself1 eighteen years afterwards1 selected for the crossing of the ,tamar by the ,cornwall ,railway1 and built there the largest and most remarkable of his bridges4 ,for the remainder of the year #ahbh1 and during the greater part of #ahbi1 ,mr4 ,brunel kept himself fully employed in scientific researches1 and in intercourse with ,mr4 ,babbage1 ,mr4 ,faraday1 and other friends2 but he was without any regular occupation1 until1 in the autumn of #ahbi1 he heard that designs were required for a suspension bridge over the ,avon at ,bristol1 and he determined to compete4 ,this project originated in a bequest made in #agec1 by ,alderman ,william ,vick1 of the sum of #a1jjjl4 to be placed in the hands of the ,society of ,merchant ,venturers of ,bristol1 with directions that it should accumulate at compound interest until it reached #aj1jjjl41 when it was to be expended in the erection of a stone bridge over the river ,avon1 from ,clifton ,down to ,leigh ,down4 ,alderman ,vick stated that he had heard and believed that the building of such a bridge was practicable1 and might be completed for less than #aj1jjjl4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the legacy was duly paid to the ,society of ,merchant ,venturers1 and invested by them4 ,the interest accumulated2 and in #ahbi1 when the fund amounted to nearly #h1jjjl41 a committee was appointed to consider in what way it would be possible to carry out ,alderman ,vick's intentions4 ,an estimate for a stone bridge was procured1 but as it gave the cost at #ij1jjjl41 it was evident that this scheme must be abandoned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the committee then advertised for designs for a suspension bridge4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 on hearing through a friend of the proposed competition1 went to ,bristol2 and1 after examining the locality1 he selected four different points within the limits prescribed by the instructions of the committee1 and made a separate design for each of them4 ,his plans were sent in on the day appointed1 ,nov4 #ai1 #ahbi1 with a long statement1 from which the following description of them is taken4 ,the first design was for a bridge of #gfj feet span between the points of suspension1 the length of the suspended floor being #gbj feet4 ,in order to obtain a height of #bae feet above high-water mark 7which was the least that the levels allowed of71 towers #gj feet high would have had to be built on the cliffs to carry the chains4 ,the total length of chain1 including the land-ties1 was about #a1fbj feet4 ,mr4 ,brunel did not approve of this design1 as the situation was not favourable to architectural effect1 a point to which the committee attached great importance2 but he suggested it from its being somewhat more economical in construction than his other plans4 ,in another design1 the situation being some way farther down the river than that of the design last mentioned1 towers would also have been necessary4 ,the distance between the points of suspension was #a1ahj feet1 with a suspended floor of over #ijj feet4 ,it is probable that ,mr4 ,brunel only proposed this plan because the site came within the limits of deviation1 as he does not say anything in favour of it in his report4 ,the two remaining plans are the most interesting of the series1 as there can be no doubt that1 if ,mr4 ,brunel had had his own way1 he would have adopted one of them for execution2 and it appears from a little sketch on the top of one of his earliest letters from ,bristol1 that his first idea for the bridge was that which is carried out in these two designs4 ,the site selected was one where the rocks rise perpendicularly for a considerable height above the proposed level of the bridge1 and therefore piers and land-ties were dispensed with1 the chains being hung directly from the rock4 ,no masonry was required except for architectural effect4#be ,illustration3 ,,clifton ,,suspension ,,bridge4 ,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a4 ,elevation of ,drawing ,n #c of ,mr4 ,brunel's ,designs in the first competition4 ,,ad4 #ahbi ,fig4 #b4 ,h4 ,adlard ,so4 ,elevation of the ,bridge according to the ,design on which the works were commenced4 ,,ad4 #ahcf4 ,the principal difference between these two designs is that in the second a short tunnel is avoided at one end4 ,the style of architecture selected for the tunnel-front and the face of the rock1 as shown on the drawings sent in to the committee1 is ,norman4 ,there are also extant many beautiful sketches made by ,mr4 ,brunel for different parts of the design4#bf ,in determining upon the mode of construction1 which was the same in the four designs1 ,mr4 ,brunel acted upon the principle which guided him in all his subsequent undertakings1 which was1 as he states in his report1 #8to make use of all that has been found good in similar works1 and to avail himself of the experience gained in them1 and to combine with all their advantages the precautions which time and experience had pointed out4' ,he dismissed in a few words the plan of breaking the span into two or three lengths4 ,this was in his opinion unnecessary1 and he computed that the cost of a pier built up from the water's edge to sufficient height above the bridge to carry the chains1 would be at least #aj1jjjl4 ,for this reason he recommended the adoption of spans1 the smallest of which far exceeded any up to that time constructed4 ,in designing the chains1 he dispensed with the short connecting links1 which had been previously adopted in suspension bridges1 introducing instead the method now universally used1 of connecting each set of links directly with the adjoining one by means of a pin passed through the holes of both4 ,the number of joints and pins was thus reduced one half1 and a considerable saving of expense1 as well as diminution of weight1 effected4 ,another improvement1 which diminished still further the weight of the chains1 was making the links in lengths of #af feet1 or nearly double that of the longest links at the ,menai bridge4 ,the chief reason for this alteration was to ensure a near approximation to equality in the strains on the different links1 should all the distances between the holes not be exactly equal4 ,this improvement was afterwards carried still further in the ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge1 the links of which were #bd feet long4#bg ,mr4 ,brunel also intended to introduce equalising beams in the supports of the floor1 so that each chain should bear an equal share of the load4 ,by this arrangement1 there would have been comparatively few points of suspension1 and #8the view of the scenery would not be impeded from the observer being surrounded by a forest of suspension rods4' ,the disturbance of the strains on the links arising from the greater expansion of the metal of the outer links by the direct heat of the sun1 he proposed to obviate by sheet-iron plates placed on each side of the chains1 but separated from them by a small interval1 and thus screening them from the heat4 ,he did not1 however1 use this protecting covering at the ,hungerford bridge4 ,all the designs show a camber or rise in the centre of the platform of the bridge1 to the extent of two or three feet2 and the main chains are brought down almost to the level of the platform4 ,to this last arrangement1 as tending to prevent undulation1 ,mr4 ,brunel attached some importance2 and he further intended to stiffen the bridge against the action of high winds by a system of transverse bracing1 and by the addition of inverted chains1 similar to those used with success by his father in the ,bourbon bridges4#bh ,such1 then1 were the main features of the bold and carefully matured designs placed by ,mr4 ,brunel before the committee4 ,out of twenty-two plans submitted1 only those of ,mr4 ,brunel and four other competitors were deemed worthy of consideration4 ,he and his friends were naturally much gratified at this1 and were full of hope for his ultimate victory4 ,but now1 when he seemed to have a fair chance of success in a contest which he justly deemed would have a most important bearing upon his future professional career1 an obstacle presented itself1 which for the time seemed almost insurmountable2 for he met with an unexpected opponent in ,mr4 ,telford1 the foremost engineer of the day1 and the designer of the famous suspension bridge over the ,menai ,straits4 ,the committee of the ,society of ,merchants had1 not unnaturally1 found themselves unable to decide upon the merits of designs for a suspension bridge1 and had asked ,mr4 ,telford to act as their adviser in the matter4 ,unfortunately for ,mr4 ,brunel1 ,mr4 ,telford was of opinion that the maximum span admissible was that of the ,menai bridge1 i4e4 under #fjj feet1 and that ,mr4 ,brunel's proposed bridge1 though very pretty and ingenious1 would most certainly tumble down in a high wind4 ,this decision was1 of course1 fatal to the success of any design which substituted one large span for two or more smaller ones1 and dispensed with pillars4 ,mr4 ,brunel therefore obtained permission to withdraw his plans from the competition4 ,mr4 ,telford then reported to the committee that none of the remaining designs were suitable for adoption without the introduction of such material alterations as would1 in fact1 constitute a new design4 ,whereupon the committee took the only course which1 under the circumstances1 was open to them1 and requested ,mr4 ,telford to prepare a design himself4 ,mr4 ,brunel was not a little disappointed at the turn matters had taken2 but1 having1 as he said1#8smoked away his anger1' he took leave of his friends at ,bristol1 and went for a visit to some of the principal manufacturing towns in the north4 ,meanwhile ,mr4 ,telford prepared his design1 and it was exhibited in ,bristol in ,january #ahcj4 ,it consisted of a suspension bridge of three spans 7the centre span #cfj feet1 and the side ones #ahj feet each71 the chains being supported at the intermediate points by tall stone piers rising from the river's banks at just sufficient distance apart to avoid interfering with the roadways on either side of the stream4 ,the style of architecture was a florid ,gothic2 and1 in order to display the peculiar features of that style1 the faces of the piers were covered with elaborate panelling1 and the chains ornamented with fret-work4 ,this design was received with a flourish of trumpets2 numerous engravings were published1 exhibiting the bridge from various points of view1 and #8thousands of copies were disposed of2' but1 after a time1 it would appear that the captivating effect of the ,gothic belfries wore off1 and that the more the citizens of ,bristol looked at ,mr4 ,telford's plan1 the less they were satisfied with it2 for1 although it was deposited in the ,private ,bill ,office1 on application being made for an ,act of ,parliament1 the trustees who were appointed under the ,act determined to invite a second competition4 ,on this occasion1 ,mr4 ,telford appeared as a competitor and not as a referee1 that office being filled by ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert1 sometime ,president of the ,royal ,society4 ,the site of the bridge was fixed1 being that selected by ,mr4 ,telford2 but the trustees expressly left it to the judgment of the competitors to decide whether there should be intermediate piers or one unbroken span4 ,of the thirteen designs sent in1 five1 including those submitted by ,mr4 ,telford and ,mr4 ,brunel1 were reserved for further examination4 ,on ,march #ag1 #ahca1 ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert 7who had been assisted by ,mr4 ,seward7 made his report4 ,mr4 ,telford's design was put aside1 #8on account of the inadequacy of the funds requisite for meeting the cost of such high and massive towers as were essential to the plan which that distinguished individual had proposed4' ,mr4 ,brunel's design was placed second4#bi ,although ,mr4 ,gilbert reported that it presented every desirable strength and security1 he saw objections to many of the details1 and therefore did not recommend it for adoption4 ,however1 on the following day1 ,march #ah1 he stated to the trustees that he had seen ,mr4 ,brunel1 and that it gave him much pleasure to state that the explanations made by ,mr4 ,brunel had materially altered his views as to the details of the plans1 which he 7,mr4 ,gilbert7 was now satisfied were quite equal to those which he had placed first1 and that1 considering the superiority of ,mr4 ,brunel's design in the essential particular of strength1 he should judge it preferable to any of the others4 ,thereupon the trustees1 #8having considered ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert's report1 and referred to all the plans1 including ,mr4 ,telford's1 unanimously gave the preference to ,mr4 ,brunel's1' and appointed him their engineer4 ,subscriptions came in but slowly1 and it was not till #ahcf that the works were commenced4 ,the first stone of the abutment on the ,leigh woods or ,somersetshire side of the river was laid on ,august #bg by the ,marquis of ,northampton1 ,president of the ,british ,association1 which was then holding its meeting in ,bristol4#cj ,the span of the bridge is greater than that of ,mr4 ,brunel's design for the second competition1 but much less than the spans of the earlier designs1 to which he had given the preference4#ca ,on this point1 as well as on the question of site1 he had to conform to the wishes of the trustees4#cb ,the span approved of by them necessitated the building of a very large abutment on the ,leigh woods side1 the height of which1 from the surface of the rock to the level of the roadway1 is #aaj feet4 ,above the roadway1 the tower to carry the chains is built to a height of #hf feet4 ,on the ,clifton side1 the base of the tower is formed by one of the boldest of the range of ,st4 ,vincent's rocks1 which here rise almost perpendicularly to a height of #bcj feet above high water1 and consequently a very small abutment was required4 ,the tower on this side is #c feet higher than that on the ,leigh woods side1 and the roadway has a general inclination of about #a in #bcc4 ,mr4 ,brunel thought that if the roadway were level1 it would have the appearance of falling towards ,clifton1 owing to the ground there being precipitous1 while on the ,leigh woods side it is sloping4 ,he intended1 in the construction of the bridge1 to have followed out the ideas embodied in his report of #ahbi1 and would have preferred to have had only one chain on each side of the bridge1 and that much stronger than was usually adopted2 but1 in deference to public opinion1 he put two chains1 though he doubted if they would expand equally4 #8,a rigid platform would in some degree prevent the unequal distribution of load thus caused1 but he endeavoured to lessen the effect of unequal expansion by arranging a stirrup at the top of each suspending rod1 so as to hold equally at all times on both chains1 and thus to cause each to sustain its proportion of the load4' ,the road platform was to have had beneath it #8a complete system of triangular bracing1 which would render it very stiff4' ,in order to lessen the action of wind on the bridge1 he brought down the main chains in the centre nearly to the level of the platform1 and intended to apply the system of brace chains at a small angle to check vibration4 ,there were1 moreover1 to be two curved chains lying horizontally1 and attached underneath the platform1 so as to resist the lateral action of the wind4#cc ,he here introduced movable saddles to carry the chains on the top of the towers1 with rollers running on perfectly flat and horizontal roller beds4#cd ,by this arrangement no pressure except a vertical one could come on the towers4 ,he also devised means1 by levers and hydraulic presses1 for relieving the rollers and roller beds from pressure1 in the event of their requiring renewal4 ,mr4 ,brunel ultimately determined to adopt the ,egyptian style of architecture4 ,his brother-in-law1 ,mr4 ,john ,callcott ,horsley1 ,r4,a41 gives the following account of the proposed designs for the towers3-- #8,his conception of the towers or gateways at either end of the bridge was peculiarly grand and effective1 as may be seen from his sketches still existing4 ,they were to be purely ,egyptian2 and1 in his design1 he had caught the true spirit of the great remains at ,phil and ,thebes4 ,he intended to case the towers with cast iron1 and1 as in perfect accordance with the ,egyptian character of his design1 to decorate them with a series of figure subjects1 illustrating the whole work of constructing the bridge1 with the manufacture of the materials--beginning with quarrying the iron ore1 and making the iron1 and ending with a design representing the last piece of construction necessary for the bridge itself4 ,the subjects would have been arranged in tiers 7divided by simple lines7 from top to bottom of the towers1 and in the exact proportion of those found upon ,egyptian buildings4 ,he made very clever sketches for some of these proposed figure subjects1 just to show what he intended by them4 ,i remember a group of men carrying one of the links of the chainwork1 which was excellent in character4 ,he proposed that ,i should design the figure subjects1 and he asked me to go down with him to ,merthyr ,tydvil1 and make sketches of the iron processes4 ,we accomplished our journey1 and all the requisite drawings for the intended designs were made4' ,the works were commenced with the ,leigh abutment1 which was completed in #ahdj1 great delay having been caused by the failure of the contractors4 ,this misfortune led to a large excess of expenditure over the original estimates4 ,in #ahdc the whole of the funds raised 7amounting to #de1jjjl47 were exhausted1 and there still remained to be executed the ornamental additions to the piers 7the cost of which was estimated at about #d1jjjl471 half of the iron work1 the suspension of the chains and rods1 the construction of the flooring1 and the completion of the approaches1 c41 the estimate for the execution of which was #cj1jjjl4 ,unfortunately1 all efforts to raise further subscriptions were unsuccessful2 and in ,july #ahec1 when the time limited for the completion of the bridge had expired1 the works were closed in1 and the undertaking abandoned4#ce ,several proposals for completing the bridge were made in ,mr4 ,brunel's lifetime1 and he took every opportunity of furthering this object1 which he had very much at heart4 ,it was not1 however1 till about a year after his death that the superstructure of the bridge was actually commenced4 ,a company was formed in #ahfj by some of the principal members of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 #8who had an interest in the work as completing a monument to their late friend ,brunel1 and at the same time removing a slur from the engineering talent of the country4'#cf ,mr4 ,john ,hawkshaw1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,barlow1 ,f4,r4,s41 were appointed the engineers1 and ,mr4 ,brunel's old friend ,captain ,christopher ,claxton1 ,r4,n41 the secretary4 ,the works were carried on with vigour2 and the bridge was opened with much ceremony on ,december #h1 #ahfd4 ,the chains were brought from the ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge1 then in process of demolition4 ,a description of the ,hungerford bridge will be found in the note to this chapter4#cg ,although the ,clifton bridge was not completed by ,mr4 ,brunel1 his connection with it forms a very important passage in the history of his life4 ,doubtless1 if he had never heard of the proposed competition in #ahbi1 or if he had been one of the disappointed competitors1 he would have found some other opportunity of making a name in his profession2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the ,clifton bridge competition did give him the opportunity he desired1 and all his subsequent success was traced by him to this victory1 which he fought hard for1 and gained only by persevering struggles4 ,he never forgot the debt he owed to ,bristol1 and to the friends who helped him there2 and he would have greatly rejoiced to see the completion of his earliest and favourite work4 ,illustration3 ,,hungerford ,,suspension ,,bridge ,h4 ,adiard ,sc4 ,,note 7p4 #eh74 ,the ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge4 ,the suspension bridge which spanned the ,thames at ,charing ,cross1 on the site of the present railway bridge1 was designed and constructed by ,mr4 ,brunel between the years #ahda and #ahde4 ,it consisted of a centre span of #fgf feet1 and two side spans of #cdc feet each4 ,being intended for foot passengers only1 its width was #ad feet4 ,the versed sine1 or deflection of the middle of the catenary1 was #ej feet4 ,the two river piers1 which still exist up to the level of the railway1 and form piers of the present bridge1 were of brickwork1 with large footings at the bottom1 so as to distribute the pressure over a considerable area4 ,the whole structure was made hollow and as light as possible4 ,from the level of the footway the piers were carried up as ornamental campanile towers1 the weight of the chains being taken by four solid pillars of brickwork1 #g feet #c inches square1 forming the angles4 ,mr4 ,brunel introduced here many of the arrangements he had designed for the ,clifton bridge4 ,in order that the pressure from the chains might be always vertical on the piers1 the saddles rested on rollers working in oil1 on the level surface of a large cast-iron bed-plate4 ,by this arrangement it was rendered possible for the chains of the land spans to leave the tower at a greater inclination than those of the middle span1 so that the chains were made shorter1 and as they were at a lower level where they met the abutment1 there was less change in their direction at that point1 and consequently less thrust on the brickwork4 ,freedom of horizontal motion was also secured1 so that1 in the case of unequal loading of the spans1 the chains might accommodate themselves to the strains1 and move horizontally until equilibrium was restored4 ,at each of the land abutments the chains passed down over a fixed saddle1 at an inclination1 to anchorages placed at the bottom of the abutment4 ,the brickwork under the fixed saddle was so disposed as to resist directly the thrust resulting from the change of direction between the main chains and the anchor chains4 ,to resist any movement of the abutments1 the piles on which they rested were driven obliquely1 with their heads inclined from the river4 ,these piles were very numerous1 the abutments spreading out so as to cover a large area at the foundations4 ,nearly all the spaces between the longitudinal1 cross1 and outside walls were filled with concrete1 in order that the abutments might be as massive as possible4 ,the details of the brickwork in the piers and abutments showed ,mr4 ,brunel's skill in the economical employment of this material4 ,the chains were constructed so that the sectional area was proportional to the strain2 the total area at the centre was #bif square inches1 while near the piers it was #cab square inches4 ,there were four chains1 two on each side of the bridge1 placed one above the other1 and consisting each alternately of ten and eleven links4 ,the links were #bd feet long and #g inches in depth1 the thickness varying so as to give the requisite sectional area4 ,the relative diameter of pin1 and proper form of the ends of the link1 were subjects of much consideration1 and many experiments were made in order to determine these points4 ,the fact that two specimens of iron1 apparently identical in every respect1 sometimes exhibit considerable difference in their breaking weights1 shows that an average of a great number of experiments is required in order to test satisfactorily any proposed refinements of construction4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 however1 convinced himself by experiment that he had practically arrived at such a form of link and diameter of pin that the chain would have no tendency to break at one point rather than another4 ,the links were forged with shoulders near the eyes1 in order that by means of clamps the pin could be taken out and the links disengaged1 if necessary4 ,the efficient action of the rollers was demonstrated shortly after the completion of the bridge4 ,on the occasion of the opening of the ,corn ,exchange by ,prince ,albert1 one of the land spans was crowded with people1 while the centre span was nearly empty4 ,in consequence of this the land chains became depressed considerably below their normal position2 and the saddles on the top of the tower nearest to the loaded span moved horizontally on the rollers to the extent of #c inches2 and1 when the crowd had dispersed1 they returned to their original position4 ,many years after the completion of the bridge a proposal was made to widen it for carriage traffic2 but this was not carried out1 and eventually the superstructure was removed1 to make way for the bridge of the ,charing ,cross ,railway4 ,as the ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge has ceased to exist1 an engraving has been given of it 7,plate ,,ii4 p4 #ei71 in order that some record of its appearance may remain4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway4 ,a4,d4 #ahcc--ahce4 ,,tatis #bg--cj4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,railways ,,in ,,england ,,prior ,,to #ahcc--,,the ,,stockton ,,and ,,darlington--,,the ,,liverpool ,,and ,,manchester--,,the ,,london ,,and ,,birmingham--,,proposed ,,railway ,,between ,,london ,,and ,,bristol--,,mr4 ,,brunel ,,appointed ,,engineer1 ,,march #g1 #ahcc--,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,line--,,unsuccessful ,,application ,,to ,,parliament ,,in #ahcd--,,successful ,,application ,,in #ahce--,,reminiscences ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel1 #ahcc-ahce--;,,extract ,,from ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,diary1 ,,written ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of #ahce4 ,before entering upon the history of the ,great ,western and the other railways of which ,mr4 ,brunel was the engineer1 it may be useful to give a brief sketch of the development of the railway system1 previous to the period when he first became engaged in works of this description4 ,the first railway in ,england designed for the conveyance of general merchandise and passengers1 was the ,stockton and ,darlington4 ,an ,act of ,parliament authorising the construction of this line was passed in #ahba4 ,in #ahbc1 a further ,act was obtained1 in which a clause was inserted1 at the request of ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson1 then the engineer of the company1 taking power to work the railway by locomotive engines1 and to employ them for the haulage of passengers4 ,this railway1 which consisted of a single line with four sidings in the mile1 was opened for traffic on ,september #bg1 #ahbe4 ,its success led at once to the promotion of similar works in other parts of the country4 ,next in order must be noticed the celebrated railway between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,a project for constructing a line of railway between these important towns was discussed as early as the year #ahbb2 but a company for carrying it out was not formed till two years later4 ,in #ahbe1 the directors applied to ,parliament for an ,act2 and after a long contest before a committee of the ,house of ,commons1 the preamble approving of the construction of the railway was carried by a majority of one4 ,the ,bill was1 however1 withdrawn1 as the first two clauses empowering the company to make the line1 and to acquire land for that purpose1 were lost4#ch ,in the following year the ,act was obtained1 and the works were commenced under the direction of ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson4 ,the line was opened for traffic on ,september #ae1 #ahcj4 ,in #ahbd1 ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson wrote a report on a proposed line connecting ,liverpool and ,birmingham4 ,surveys were made1 and plans deposited2 but the ,bill was thrown out on standing orders4 ,a similar fate attended the introduction of a ,bill in #ahbf4 ,in #ahcj1 a new line was surveyed by ,mr4 ,joseph ,locke and ,mr4 ,rastrick1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson4 ,the ,act was obtained in #ahcc1 and the railway1 which was called the ,grand ,junction1 and is now a part of the ,london and ,north-,western system1 was constructed by ,mr4 ,locke4#ci ,in #ahcj1 surveys were commenced by ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson for a line between ,london and ,birmingham1 and a ,bill was introduced into ,parliament in #ahcb4 ,the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway had now been opened for some time1 and the promoters of the ,birmingham line had the advantage of being able to give in evidence the results of the working of the earlier undertaking4 ,those results1 it is said1 were such as to startle most of those who heard them4 ,it was shown that a speed had been attained double that of the fastest stage-coach1 that the cost of travelling had been diminished by one half1 and that out of #gjj1jjj persons carried since the opening of the railway1 only one had met with a fatal accident4 ,the amount of travelling between ,liverpool and ,manchester had increased four-fold1 and the value of the shares of the railway had risen one hundred per cent4 ,similar evidence was given as to the results of the working of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 and the promoters endeavoured to prove that advantages at least as great would arise from the construction of a railway between ,birmingham and ,london4 ,they were successful in the ,house of ,commons2 but1 they failed to convince the ,upper ,house that the benefits which such a railway would confer on the country traversed by it were sufficient to entitle its promoters to receive for it the sanction of the legislature4 ,the ,bill was again introduced in the following session 7#ahcc72 and1 strange to relate1 it passed both ,houses almost without opposition4#dj 99 99 99 99 99 ,meanwhile1 the principal merchants of ,bristol1 who had in #ahbe made an attempt to get up a railway company1 were urged forward1 both by the inadequacy of their communications with the metropolis1 and by the success of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 to make another effort4 ,in the autumn of #ahcb a committee was formed of members of the corporation1 and other public bodies of the city of ,bristol1 to carry out the project of a railway to ,london4 ,the first step taken by the committee was the appointment of an engineer to make the preliminary surveys1 and to prepare an estimate of the cost of the undertaking4 ,among the candidates for the post was ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,he was well known in ,bristol as the engineer of the ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge1 and of the works for the improvement of the ,floating ,harbour4 ,he had made many friends among the leading citizens1 and they used their best exertions to procure his election2 but there were several other candidates in the field who had great local interest1 and the contest was a close one4 ,while the issue was yet undecided1 an unexpected difficulty arose4 ,some members of the committee resolved to select their engineer by means of a competition among the candidates1 as to which of them would provide the lowest estimate4 ,upon this being announced1 ,mr4 ,brunel declared that he must withdraw his name1 as he could not consent to become a party to so objectionable a proceeding4 #8,you are holding out1' he wrote to the committee1 #8a premium to the man who will make you the most flattering promises4 ,it is quite obvious that the man who has either least reputation at stake1 or who has most to gain by temporary success1 and least to lose by the consequences of disappointment1 must be the winner in such a race4' ,happily1 this plan was abandoned2 ,mr4 ,brunel obtained a majority of votes1 and was appointed engineer on ,march #g1 #ahcc4 ,he commenced the survey without delay2 and in addition to his strictly professional duties1 he assisted in forming a committee in ,london1 and took a leading part in the consultations which were held upon various important matters connected with the general interests of the undertaking4 ,a hasty survey of the country between ,london and ,bristol occupied him till the middle of ,june2 and as soon as it was completed1 and the course of the line settled on1 preparations were made for placing the scheme before the public4 ,the first public meeting was held on ,july #cj1 #ahcc4 ,mr4 ,brunel thus refers to it in his diary3--#8,got through it very tolerably1 which ,i consider great things4 ,i hate public meetings3 it is playing with a tiger1 and all you can hope is1 that you may not get scratched1 or worse4' ,the result1 however1 seems to have been successful1 and in a month's time a company was formally constituted1 and the parliamentary survey commenced4 ,mr4 ,brunel organised a staff of assistants1 at that time rather a difficult task1 and set them to work on various parts of the line4 ,his own duty of superintendence severely taxed his great powers of work4 ,he spent several weeks travelling from place to place by night1 and riding about the country by day1 directing his assistants1 and endeavouring1 very frequently without success1 to conciliate the landowners on whose property he proposed to trespass4 ,his diary of this date shows that when he halted at an inn for the night1 but little time was spent in rest1 and that often he sat up writing letters and reports until it was almost time for his horse to come round to take him on the day's work4 #8,between ourselves1' he wrote to ,mr4 ,hammond1 his assistant1 #8it is harder work than ,i like4 ,i am rarely much under twenty hours a day at it4' ,a great portion of this labour was for the time thrown away1 for as ,november #cj drew near1 it became evident that subscriptions were not coming in to the extent which would enable the directors to lodge a ,bill for the whole line in the session of #ahcd4 ,the directors therefore determined to apply to ,parliament for powers to make a railway from ,london to ,reading1 and from ,bath to ,bristol1 #8as a means of facilitating the ultimate establishment of a railway between ,london and ,bristol2' postponing till a future session their application for an ,act to enable them to complete the undertaking by making the line from ,reading to ,bath4 ,the ,bill was introduced into the ,house of ,commons1 and on ,march #aj1 ,lord ,granville ,somerset moved that it be read a second time4 ,this motion was seconded by the ,earl of ,kerry1 and supported by several influential members1 amongst whom were ,mr4 ,labouchere 7the late ,lord ,taunton7 and ,mr4 ,daniel ,o',connell4 ,the second reading was carried by a majority of ninety in a ,house of #bgd members4 ,the ,bill was then referred to a committee which met on ,april #af1 ,lord ,granville ,somerset being in the chair4 ,evidence was called to prove the advantages of the railway to the agricultural and trading community of the country through which it would pass1 even if only the two proposed divisions of the line were constructed4 ,the traffic in merchandise between ,bristol and ,london was at this time principally carried on by means of water carriage1 consisting1 first of the river ,avon navigation from ,bristol to ,bath1 next of the ,kennet and ,avon ,canal from ,bath to ,reading1 and lastly of the river ,thames from ,reading to ,london4 ,the evidence went to show that the distance between ,london and ,reading1 which by railway would be thirty-six miles1 amounted by the river to nearly eighty2 that the delays and impediments arising from drought1 flood1 and frosts on the rivers1 were such as sometimes to detain barges for several weeks2 and that so great were the consequent uncertainties and inconveniences of this navigation1 that goods which came as far as ,reading by the canal1 were frequently sent thence to ,london by road1 although at a great increase of expense4 ,even under the most advantageous circumstances1 goods could not be conveyed from ,reading to ,london in less than three days1 or in less than a day by the river ,avon from ,bath to ,bristol4 ,it was therefore contended1 that to form a railway which should supersede1 or at all events come in aid of1 the worst portions of the navigation between ,london and ,bristol1 would be an important public benefit4#da ,the various advantages of the measure were most fully discussed in an investigation which lasted during fifty-seven days4 ,against the ,bill was arrayed every class of opponent that a private ,bill could possibly encounter4 ,those interested in the canals1 rivers1 and stage-coaches1 opposed it from the fear of competition2 the inhabitants of ,windsor opposed it1 because the railway did not run so near to the town as they wished2 the corporation of ,maidenhead opposed it1 because they thought that all the traffic which paid toll on their bridge over the ,thames would be diverted to the railway2 landowners and farmers near town opposed it1 because they feared it would bring produce to ,london from a distance1 as cheap as that supplied by themselves4 ,there was another very formidable class of opponents to the ,bill1 consisting of landed proprietors and owners of houses in the immediate neighbourhood of ,london4 ,many engineers were called by these several opponents1 to show that a more advantageous line of railway might have been selected2 but1 upon sifting the merits of the various new lines proposed1 it became apparent that the one chosen by ,mr4 ,brunel was the best4 ,indeed1 although some trifling deviations of his line were suggested1 the opposing engineers admitted that in all essential features the railway had been most skilfully laid out4 ,it was generally agreed that the line through the valley of the ,thames1 and thence in a direction north of the ,marlborough ,downs1 was the only proper course for a railway between ,bristol and ,london1 as the levels were much better1 and communication could be made with much greater ease with the northern and ,south ,wales districts1 than if the route to the south of the ,marlborough ,downs had been selected4 ,the plans proposed for entering ,london raised great opposition4 ,in this respect public feeling has greatly changed1 for now no railway is thought complete which has not a terminus in the heart of ,london2 and it is considered an advantage for houses to be within easy reach of a railway station2 but in #ahcd such a neighbour was looked upon with horror and dismay--a nuisance to be1 if possible1 absolutely prohibited4 ,when ,mr4 ,brunel commenced the survey for the ,london terminus1 he had some idea of bringing the railway in on the south side of the ,thames2 but this was abandoned1 as it was found to involve very heavy works1 and the line proposed in the first ,bill was made to terminate on the north side of the river at ,vauxhall ,bridge4 ,it was to have been carried on a viaduct #bd feet high1 with a parapet #f feet #f inches high1 to prevent the passengers looking into the windows of the neighbouring houses4 ,the owners of the land through which this part of the line would pass were influential members of the ,upper ,house1 and therefore the directors thought it useless to brave their opposition2 accordingly1 on the thirteenth day of the hearing1 they abandoned the last two miles of the viaduct1 and proposed to stop at the #8,hoop and ,toy1' a public-house near the site of the ,south ,kensington ,station of the ,metropolitan ,railway4 ,but although the opposition of some of the landowners was conciliated by this concession1 that portion of the line through ,brompton which had not been abandoned was attacked with unabated energy4 ,the residents in ,brompton opposed the ,bill from the apprehension that the railway would interfere with their quiet and seclusion2 ,brompton being at that time considered1 at any rate by one of the counsel for the opposition1 #8the most famous of any place in the neighbourhood of ,london for the salubrity of its air1 and calculated for retired residences4' ,they could not1 indeed1 be blamed for indulging in these apprehensions1 if they really believed in their counsel's statement that #8streams of fire would proceed from the locomotive engines4' ,others objected to the viaduct itself as being an undertaking of so colossal a nature as hardly to be practicable2 and the supposed increase of traffic and consequent obstruction in ,piccadilly and other leading thoroughfares brought down upon the promoters the opposition of the ,commissioners of ,metropolitan ,roads4 ,all these objections were made the ground of much argument in committee1 and doubtless had great influence over the minds of those who voted against the ,bill4 ,the engineering evidence occupied1 as might be expected1 the greater part of the forty-two days during which witnesses were examined before the committee1 and of these forty-two days no less than eleven were taken up by the cross-examination of ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,so protracted a cross-examination has probably never been heard in any court or committee-room4 ,one of those present thus describes it3-- #8,the committee-room was crowded with landowners and others interested in the success or defeat of the ,bill1 and eager to hear ,brunel's evidence4 ,his knowledge of the country surveyed by him was marvellously great1 and the explanations he gave of his plans1 and the answers he returned to questions suggested by ,dr4 ,lardner1 showed a profound acquaintance with the principles of mechanics4 ,he was rapid in thought1 clear in his language1 and never said too much1 or lost his presence of mind4 ,i do not remember ever having enjoyed so great an intellectual treat as that of listening to ,brunel's examination1 and ,i was told at the time that ,george ,stephenson and many others were much struck by the ability and knowledge shown by him4' ,in his evidence1 ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson stated that he did not know any existing line so good as that proposed by ,mr4 ,brunel4 #8,i can imagine 7he said7 a better line1 but ,i do not know of one so good4'#db ,at length1 on the fifty-fourth day of the sittings of the committee1 ,mr4 ,harrison1 ,k4,c41 rose to reply on behalf of the promoters1 and on the conclusion of his address the ,bill was passed4 ,in the ,house of ,lords the second reading was moved by ,lord ,wharncliffe4 ,it was opposed1 and on a division being taken1 the motion was lost by a majority of seventeen 7#cj content and #dg non-content74 ,the ,bill was therefore thrown out4 ,the directors1 undaunted by their defeat1 lost no time in making preparations for bringing a ,bill before ,parliament in the session of #ahce1 with such improvements as the experience of the past campaign suggested to them4 ,taking into consideration the various grounds on which opposition had been raised to the plans they had proposed for entering ,london through the ,brompton district1 they opened negotiations with the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway ,company1 and arrangements were concluded by which the traffic of the ,great ,western ,railway was to be carried upon the ,london and ,birmingham line for the first four miles out of ,london1 the junction being made a little to the west of the ,kensal ,green ,cemetery4 ,they had also during the autumn raised money enough to enable them to apply to ,parliament for powers to construct the whole of the line from ,london to ,bristol4 ,they thus escaped all the sarcastic observations which had been made upon the scheme of #ahcd1 of which it had been said1 that it would be a head and a tail without a body1 and neither #8,great' nor #8,western1' nor even a #8railway' at all1 but #8a gross deception1 a trick1 and a fraud upon the public1 in name1 in title1 and in substance6' ,on ,march #i1 the earliest day allowed by the standing orders1 the ,bill was read a second time and committed4 ,a division being taken on the motion for committal1 there appeared in favour of the motion #afj1 and against it none but the tellers4 ,shortly after its first meeting1 the committee1 of which ,mr4 ,charles ,russell1 then member for ,reading1 was chairman1 came to the resolution that1 inasmuch as the evidence given in the previous year as to the public advantages of a ,bristol railway had been referred to them by order of the ,house1 they needed no further evidence on that subject4 ,counsel were therefore directed to confine their case as much as possible to the merits of the line proposed4 ,evidence was called by the opponents chiefly with a view to show the advantages of a proposed line from ,basing to ,bath1 and the inexpediency of granting an entirely new line of #aae miles in length to the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 which involved the construction of a #8monstrous and extraordinary1' #8most dangerous and impracticable1 tunnel' at ,box1 and this1 when #dd miles of railway in a western direction--viz4 as far as ,basingstoke1 had already been sanctioned by the legislature in the ,southampton ,railway ,act1 passed in the previous session4 ,the promoters of the ,bill contended that the levels of the ,basing and ,bath line were not so good as those proposed for their own1 and that the ,great ,western ,railway would approach almost every town of importance situated on the proposed ,basing and ,bath line1 by means of short branches2 whilst at the same time it presented the great advantage of being capable of easy extension to ,gloucester and ,wales1 and to ,oxford1 an object wholly unattainable by the other line4 ,in reply to these assertions1 the opponents maintained that although the levels of the ,basing and ,bath ,railway presented greater inclinations than those of the ,great ,western1 yet that they were so balanced as that the rises and falls compensated one for another1 so as to render the line practically level4 ,the enunciation of this theory called forth a remark by the chairman that according to this principle the ,highlands of ,scotland would be as good as any other place for the construction of a railway4 ,the preamble was voted proved1 and the ,bill passed the ,house of ,commons without further opposition1 and on ,may #bg was read a first time in the ,lords4 ,on ,june #aj1 the second reading was carried after a sharp debate1 the numbers being #df contents1 and #cd non-contents4 ,lord ,wharncliffe was chairman of the committee4#dc ,the proceedings began by an opposition on the standing orders1 which1 after much skirmishing1 were voted to have been complied with4 ,the promoters1 however1 judged from the nature of the first day's proceedings1 that they had to expect a contest of no inconsiderable duration2 and the result proved their anticipations to have been correct4 ,for forty days the battle was fought with a degree of earnestness and vigour on both sides1 almost unequalled in any similar proceedings4 ,the committee soon came to the same decision as the ,house of ,commons1 that1 with regard to the advisability of a ,bristol railway1 they were satisfied1 and needed no further evidence4 ,the case became then one of mere comparison between the relative merits of the two lines proposed4 ,the case in support of the ,bill occupied eighteen days1 and was closed with a speech by the ,hon4 ,john ,talbot4 ,mr4 ,serjeant ,merewether1 whom the opponents had chosen as their leader in the ,house of ,lords1 was then heard on their behalf1 and occupied no less than four days in the delivery of his speech1 in which certainly no argument that ingenuity could devise was omitted to strengthen his case4 ,there was hardly any conceivable injury which1 according to the learned serjeant's notions1 the ,great ,western ,railway would not inflict4 ,it was said that the ,thames would be choked up for want of traffic1 the drainage of the country destroyed1 and ,windsor ,castle left unsupplied with water4 ,as for ,eton ,college it would be absolutely and entirely ruined3 ,london would pour forth the most abandoned of its inhabitants to come down by the railway and pollute the minds of the scholars1 whilst the boys themselves would take advantage of the short interval of their play hours to run up to town1 mix in all the dissipation of ,london life1 and return before their absence could be discovered4 ,moreover1 while the beauty of the country and the retirement of private dwellings would be destroyed1 the interests of the public would be far more effectually served by the adoption of the ,basing and ,bath line1 and a line from the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway to ,gloucester4 ,this was in fact the point at issue1 and on this the result of the contest depended4 ,the promoters of the ,bill had called1 in support of their line1 in addition to ,mr4 ,brunel1 who being engineer to the company might be considered an interested witness1 ,mr4 ,locke1 ,mr4 ,palmer1 ,mr4 ,price1 ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson1 and ,mr4 ,vignoles4 ,they expressed their unqualified approbation of the line chosen by ,mr4 ,brunel1 and of the estimates he had prepared4 ,the preamble was proved1 and after an unsuccessful opposition the ,bill was read a third time1 on ,august #bg4 ,the ,royal ,assent was given on the last day of that month4#dd 99 99 99 99 99 ,during this contest ,mr4 ,brunel made among his fellow-labourers many deep and lasting friendships4 ,one of the most intimate of these friends1 ,mr4 ,st4 ,george ,burke1 ,q4,c41 has1 in compliance with a request made to him1 furnished the following reminiscences of his intercourse with ,mr4 ,brunel during the progress of the ,bill through ,parliament4 ,march #i1 #ahfi4 #8,my dear ,isambard1--,you wish me to supply you with reminiscences of my old associations with your father1 in order that1 in your biography of him1 you may present a true picture of those features of his character which so endeared him to his most intimate friends4 #8,for many years it was my good fortune to enjoy his friendship1 and many of the pleasantest hours of my life were due to it4 #8,for a period of nearly three years1 viz4 during the contest for the ,great ,western ,railway ,bill1 ,i think that seldom a day passed without our meeting1 whether for purposes of business or pleasure1 both of which his buoyant spirits enabled him to combine in a manner which ,i have seldom seen equalled4 #8,it would be wearisome to detail the many incidents which occurred illustrative of the singularly facile manner in which1 in the midst of the heaviest and most responsible labours1 he could enter into the most boyish pranks and fun1 without in the least distracting his attention from the matter of business in which he was engaged2 but all who knew him as ,i did could bear testimony to this characteristic of his disposition4 #8,i believe that a more joyous nature1 combined with the highest intellectual faculties1 was never created1 and ,i love to think of him in the character of the ever gay and kind-hearted friend of my early years1 rather than in the more serious professional aspect under which your pages will1 no doubt1 rightly depict him4 #8,in #ahcc your father and ,i occupied chambers facing each other in ,parliament ,street1 and as my duties involved the superintendence1 as ,parliamentary agent1 of the compliance with all the ,standing ,orders of ,parliament1 and very frequent interviews and negotiations with the landowners on the line1 we were of necessity constantly thrown together4 ,to facilitate our intercourse1 it occurred to your father to carry a string across ,parliament ,street1 from his chambers to mine1 to be there connected with a bell1 by which he could either call me to the window to receive his telegraphic signals1 or1 more frequently1 to wake me up in the morning when we had occasion to go into the country together1 which1 it is needless to observe1 was of frequent occurrence2 and great was the astonishment of the neighbours at this device1 the object of which they were unable to comprehend4 #8,i believe that at that time he scarcely ever went to bed1 though ,i never remember to have seen him tired or out of spirits4 ,he was a very constant smoker1 and would take his nap in an arm-chair1 very frequently with a cigar in his mouth2 and if we were to start out of town at five or six o'clock in the morning1 it was his frequent practice to rouse me out of bed about three1 by means of the bell1 when ,i would invariably find him up and dressed1 and in great glee at the fun of having curtailed my slumbers by two or three hours more than necessary4 #8,no one would have supposed that during the night he had been poring over plans and estimates1 and engrossed in serious labours1 which to most men would have proved destructive of their energies during the following day2 but ,i never saw him otherwise than full of gaiety1 and apparently as ready for work as though he had been sleeping through the night4 #8,in those days we had not the advantage of railways1 and were obliged to adopt the slower1 though perhaps not less agreeable1 mode of travelling with post-horses4 ,your father had a britzska1 so arranged as to carry his plans and engineering instruments1 besides some creature comforts1 never forgetting the inevitable cigar-case among them2 and we would start by daybreak1 or sometimes earlier1 on our country excursions1 which still live in my remembrance as some of the pleasantest ,i have ever enjoyed2 though ,i think ,i may safely say that1 pleasurable as they were1 we never lost sight of the business in which we were engaged1 and for which our excursions were undertaken4 #8,i have never known a man who1 possessing courage which to many would appear almost like rashness1 was less disposed to trust to chance or to throw away any opportunity of attaining his object than was your father4 ,i doubt not that this quality will be fully exemplified in the details which you will have received of his engineering experiments2 but ,i speak of him also in the character of a diplomatist1 in which he was as wary and cautious as any man ,i ever knew4 #8,we canvassed many landowners together1 and ,i had plenty of opportunities of judging of his skill and caution in our discussions with them1 though we had many a good laugh afterwards at the arguments which had been addressed to us as to the inutility and impolicy of the scheme in which we were engaged1 and the utter ruin it would be sure to entail on its promoters1 as well as on the country affected by it4 #8,i frequently accompanied him to the west of ,england1 and into ,gloucestershire and ,south ,wales1 when public meetings were held in support of the measures in which he was engaged1 and ,i had occasion to observe the enormous popularity which he everywhere enjoyed4 ,the moment he rose to address a meeting he was received with loud cheers1 and he never failed to elicit applause at the end of his address1 which was distinguished as much by simplicity of language and modesty of pretension as by accurate knowledge of his subject4 ,yours very truly1 ,,st4 ,,george ,,burke4 ,isambard ,brunel1 ,esq4' ,the following is an extract from ,mr4 ,brunel's diary1 written at the end of the year #ahce3-- #ec ,parliament ,street1 ,december #bf4 ,what a blank in my journal the last entry is dated ,january #ahcd1 and during the most eventful part of my life4 ,when last ,i wrote in this book ,i was just emerging from obscurity4 ,i had been toiling most unprofitably at numerous things1 unprofitably1 at least1 at the moment4 ,the railway was certainly being thought of1 but still very uncertain4 ,what a change4 ,the railway now is in progress4 ,i am thus engineer to the finest work in ,england4 ,a handsome salary1 on excellent terms with my directors1 and all going smoothly4 ,but what a fight we have had1 and how near defeat1 and what a ruinous defeat it would have been4 ,it is like looking back upon a fearful pass2 but we have succeeded4 ,and it is not this alone1 but everything ,i have been engaged in has been successful4 ,clifton bridge--my first child1 my darling1 is actually going on3 recommenced work last ,monday--glorious66 ,here follows a list of the undertakings on which he was then engaged4 ,i think this forms a pretty list of real sound professional work1 unsought for on my part1 that is1 given to me fairly by the respective parties--all1 except the ,wear ,docks1 resulting from the ,clifton bridge1 which ,i fought hard for1 and gained only by persevering struggles4444 ,and this at the age of twenty-nine4 ,i really can hardly believe it1 when ,i think of it4 ,i am just leaving #ec ,parliament ,street1 where ,i may say ,i have made my fortune1 or1 rather1 the foundation of it1 and ,i have taken #ah ,duke ,street4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,railway ,,works4 ,a4,d4 #ahce--ahei4 ,,tatis #cj--ed4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway--,,the ,,box ,,tunnel--,,the ,,bath ,,and ,,bristol ,,stations--,,the ,,paddington ,,station--,,the ,,great ,,western ,,hotel--,,branches ,,and ,,extensions ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway--,,the ,,bristol ,,and ,,exeter ,,railway--,,railways ,,in ,,devonshire ,,and ,,cornwall--,,railways ,,to ,,basingstoke1 ,,to ,,weymouth1 ,,and ,,to ,,salisbury--,,in ,,south ,,wales--,,in ,,ireland--,,in ,,italy--,,in ,,india--,,supervision ,,of ,,works--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,engineering ,,staff--,,his ,,reputation ,,as ,a ,,witness--,,reminiscences ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel1 #ahce-ahch4 ,in the extract from ,mr4 ,brunel's diary given at the close of the last chapter he refers to the successful issue of the contest for the ,great ,western ,railway ,act as a very important event in his life4 ,as the result proved1 he did not take too hopeful a view of his future prospects2 for from that time to his death he was fully employed as the engineer of railways which1 in number and importance1 were not inferior to those of any of his contemporaries4 ,of the main lines he constructed1 one extends uninterruptedly from ,london to the ,land's ,end1 and another to the extremity of ,south ,wales1 at ,milford ,haven1 #bhe miles from ,paddington4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it would be impossible to describe in detail all the engineering works which are to be found on ,mr4 ,brunel's railways1 the aggregate length of which is upwards of #a1bjj miles2 but in this chapter it is proposed to give a brief sketch of the lines he constructed1 omitting all that can be more properly inserted in the three chapters which follow1 relating to the broad gauge1 to the ,atmospheric ,system1 and to the bridges and viaducts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,great ,western ,railway was opened to ,maidenhead1 a distance of nearly twenty-three miles1 in ,june #ahch1 and to ,twyford1 eight miles farther on1 in ,july #ahci4 ,a description of the ,wharncliffe ,viaduct at ,hanwell will be found at p4 #agb1 and of the ,maidenhead bridge at p4 #agc4 ,the line from ,twyford to ,reading was opened in ,march #ahdj1 and from ,reading to ,chippenham by ,may #ahda4 ,meanwhile the portion from ,bristol to ,bath had been opened in ,august #ahdj4 ,the last division1 namely1 that from ,chippenham to ,bath1 containing the ,box ,tunnel1 was opened on ,june #cj1 #ahda2 and the railway was completed throughout its whole length4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a considerable part of the history of the ,great ,western ,railway is connected with the adoption on it of the broad1 or #g-;foot gauge1 and will be dealt with in the next chapter1 in which is also given some account of the longitudinal system of permanent way4 ,the bridges are described in ,chapter ,,vii42 but some of the other works may be noticed here4 ,in laying out the line1 ,mr4 ,brunel endeavoured to make it as straight and as level as possible throughout1 and to concentrate those changes of level1 which could not be avoided1 into short inclines1 to be worked1 if necessary1 by auxiliary power4 ,accordingly the line is thus divided3-- ,miles ,yards ,level1 or with an inclination not exceeding #d feet in the mile #fg #hh ,above #d feet1 and not exceeding #h feet in the mile #dg #aaj ,steep inclines #c #abaj ,the steep inclines are two in number1 of a gradient of #a in #ajj1 or about #ec feet in a mile1 and descend towards the ,bristol end of the line4 ,the ,wootton ,basset incline1 #he miles from ,london1 is #a mile #eej yards long4 ,the second incline is at ,box1 #ii miles from ,london1 and is #b miles #ffj yards in length4 ,an assistant engine is still occasionally used to work heavy trains at this point4 ,on this incline the line passes through the ,box ,tunnel4 ,this tunnel is the first out of ,london1 and could only have been dispensed with by taking a circuitous route several miles longer than that adopted by ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,the tunnel is #a mile in length1 and is ventilated by six shafts4 ,they are #cj feet in diameter1 and from #gj to #cjj feet deep4 ,the ,box ,tunnel had been the subject of much criticism before the works were commenced2 and during its actual construction it did not escape the unfavourable notice of those who were ignorant of the difficulties which presented themselves1 and the means which had been taken to overcome them4 ,indeed1 for some time after the opening of the line1 there were travellers who used to avoid the terrors of the tunnel by posting along the turnpike road in that part of their journey4 ,mr4 ,brunel never troubled himself about the ordinary gossip which is always circulated concerning any remarkable work2 but matters assumed a different aspect when1 a year after the completion of the tunnel1 doubts were expressed as to its safety by an eminent geologist1 at a meeting of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 who was on terms of friendly intercourse with the speaker1 addressed to him the following letter3-- ,june #ba1 #ahdb4 ,i assure you1 my dear ,sir1 that when my attention had been drawn to the statements reported to have been made by you on this subject1 ,i refrained as far as possible from expressing any opinion4 ,i thought it my duty to read the notes taken1 but ,i never said that ,i thought your statements were correct4 ,indeed1 ,i had hoped to have avoided the necessity of making any observations upon these statements2 but as a letter to ,mr4 ,saunders on such a subject is almost the same thing as if it were addressed to myself1 and as it was shown to me1 it would not be candid towards you if ,i now refrained from saying1 that the opinions you are reported to have expressed with respect to the ,box ,tunnel are by no means considered correct1 either by myself or by those others who1 from being intimately acquainted with the rock as it was really found1 and the works as they were really executed1 are capable of judging4 ,in the notes shown to me the observations alluding to this work in particular1 as an illustration of the views you were explaining1 appear to have been curtailed1 and the allusions rendered somewhat less direct2 but still the inference unavoidably to be drawn from them is1 that the back joints1 as we call them1 and other defects which exist originally1 or which show themselves after a time1 in this rock1 are not well known1 and tolerably well understood and guarded against1 by practical engineers1 and even by our workmen4 ,in this opinion ,i assure you you are mistaken4 ,ignorant as ,i may probably be myself of the science of geology1 ,i cannot have been engaged for several years in making very extensive excavations1 probably the largest hitherto made1 in this particular rock1 having also the opportunity of examining very old and large quarries in the same rock and close to the line1 having among my assistants men not meanly acquainted with this particular branch of geology1 and surrounded by workmen of considerable experience1 ,i cannot have gone through such a study without acquiring a very intimate and practical knowledge of the structure and peculiarities of the particular mass of rock which is now in question2 and ,i will say frankly what ,i feel upon this point1 which is1 that ,i ought now to possess a more thorough and practical knowledge of this particular rock and its defects1 and the best mode of remedying them1 than even you yourself1 with your immeasurably greater scientific knowledge of rocks generally4 ,the opinion you are said to have expressed of there being great danger of some serious accident occurring in the tunnel is1 ,i am firmly convinced1 erroneous2 at all events the reason given convinces me that you have not become acquainted with the means which have been taken by me to examine and to ascertain the security of every part of the rock1 to remove or to support with masonry any part not so ascertained to be secure1 or with the precautions taken to prevent any such accidents as those you have imagined4 ,and notwithstanding the heavy responsibility which rests upon me1 from all which you gentlemen of science are1 happily for yourselves1 so free1 ,i feel that as regards the works of the ,box ,tunnel everything necessary has been done to render them secure1 and that the doubts and fears you have so easily raised1 but which it might be more difficult again to set at rest1 are entirely unfounded4 ,in conclusion1 ,i must observe that no man can be more sensible than ,i am of the great advantage it would be to me as a civil engineer to be better acquainted with geology1 as well as with many other branches of science1 that ,i have endeavoured to inform myself on the subject1 and that ,i have not altogether thrown away the many opportunities afforded me in my professional pursuits2 but that if from a conviction that you possessed information far more extensive than mine1 if from doubts of the sufficiency of my abilities or the means ,i was likely to bring to bear upon the subject1 if from a fear of such consequences as you now anticipate1 you had kindly1 on any one of the many occasions when ,i have had the pleasure of meeting you1 intimated that you had any suggestions to make to me1 ,i should have been anxious to have availed myself of your assistance4 ,but after the lapse of years1 the first intimation ,i have of such doubts is the very public expression of a very strong opinion1 which1 if weight be attached to it1 must tend to alarm the public unnecessarily1 and to injure the value of the property of individuals who have embarked several millions in that property4 ,between ,chippenham and ,bristol the nature of the building stone enabled ,mr4 ,brunel1 at moderate cost1 to make the bridges1 tunnel fronts1 and stations ornamental features in the picturesque scenery through which the railway passes4 ,he took great pleasure in finishing minutely the various designs1 and making them correct in their proportions and details4 ,one tunnel front1 near ,bristol1 may be singled out for especial mention4 ,during its construction a part of the ground behind slipped away1 and it became unnecessary to complete the top of one of the side walls4 ,it was therefore left unfinished1 and was planted with ivy so as to present the appearance of a ruined gateway4 ,the roofs of the ,bath and ,bristol stations are of large span1 and are handsome architectural structures4 ,they are each in the form of a ,tudor arch2 the ,bristol roof is #gb feet span1 and the ,bath roof #ej feet span4 ,the framing is an example of a peculiar form of construction1 somewhat analogous to that adopted in the large shipbuilding sheds in the dockyards4 ,there are no cross tie-rods1 but each principal of the roof is formed of two frameworks1 like cranes1 meeting in the middle of the roof2 the weight being carried on columns near the edge of the platform1 and the tail ends of the frames held down by the side walls4 ,as the two frames do not press against each other at their meeting point at the ridge of the roof1 there is no outward thrust4 ,the side walls being on a viaduct could not without difficulty have been made to resist a horizontal thrust4 ,at the ,bristol station ,mr4 ,brunel introduced hydraulic machinery for working lifts4 ,by these the waggons were lowered to and raised up from the goods shed1 which was placed at the level of the ground1 about #ab feet below the railway4 ,although the works already described were completed in #ahda1 the permanent terminus at ,paddington was not commenced till the year #ahdi4 ,it was completed in #ahed4 ,previously to that time a temporary station had been used1 the booking offices being under the arches of the ,bishop's ,road bridge4 ,as the level of the railway was lower than that of the surrounding land1 no exterior architectural effect could be produced2 but ,mr4 ,brunel took this opportunity to carry out his views as to the proper structural use of metal in works of this description4 ,in the design of the ornamental details1 he obtained the assistance of ,mr4 7now ,sir ,matthew7 ,digby ,wyatt4 ,the interior of the principal part of the station is #gjj feet long and #bch feet wide1 divided in its width by two rows of columns into three spans of #fh1 #ajb1 and #fh feet1 and is crossed at two points by transepts #ej feet wide1 which give space for large traversing frames4 ,the roof is very light1 consisting of wrought-iron arched ribs1 covered partly with corrugated iron and partly with the ,paxton glass roofing1 which ,mr4 ,brunel here adopted to a considerable extent4 ,the columns which carry the roof are very strongly bolted down to large masses of concrete1 to enable them to resist sideways pressure4 ,this station may be considered to hold its own in comparison with the gigantic structures which have since been built1 as well as with older stations4 ,the appearance of size it presents is due far more to the proportions of the design than to actual largeness of dimension4 ,the spans of the roof give a very convenient subdivision for a large terminal station1 dispensing with numerous supporting columns and at the same time avoiding heavy and expensive trusses4 ,the graceful forms of the ,paddington station1 the absence of incongruous ornament and useless buildings1 may be appealed to as a striking instance of ,mr4 ,brunel's taste in architecture and of his practice of combining beauty of design with economy of construction4 ,the goods station was erected at about the same time as the passenger station1 and is remarkable for the completeness of its arrangements1 and for the great use made of hydraulic machinery4 ,this is also applied in the passenger station4#de ,in connection with the ,paddington station mention may be made of the ,great ,western ,hotel1 which was built at the extremity of the land belonging to the railway company4 ,when1 in #ahed1 no tenant could be found for it1 a few of the shareholders of the ,great ,western ,railway1 being unwilling that the building should remain empty and be a loss to the proprietors1 formed themselves into a company to lease and work the hotel4 ,mr4 ,brunel became a ,director1 and shortly afterwards 7in ,december #ahee7 the chairman4 ,he occupied this post till his death1 by which time the hotel had become very prosperous4 ,he found attendance at the meetings of the ,directors and the supervision of the management of the hotel a very agreeable relaxation from the more important duties which took him to ,paddington4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the branches and extensions of the ,great ,western ,railway1 as far as their history affected the general interests of the company1 are referred to in the chapter on the broad gauge4 ,branches were opened to ,oxford in #ahdd1 to ,windsor in #ahdi1 to ,wycombe in #ahed1 to ,uxbridge in #ahef1 to ,henley in #aheg1 and to ,brentford in ,july #ahei4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway is a continuation of the ,great ,western ,railway1 and was opened to ,exeter in #ahdd4 ,the two portions of it1 from ,bristol to ,taunton1 and from ,taunton to ,exeter1 are in marked contrast to each other4 ,the former part of the line is almost level1 and has very easy curves4 ,between ,taunton and ,exeter it passes over the high ground on the borders of ,devonshire1 with the ,whiteball ,tunnel at the summit1 mile in length4 ,on this part of the line there are long gradients of from #a in #hj to #a in #abj4 ,mr4 ,brunel resigned the position of engineer in #ahdf1 in consequence of differences having arisen between the ,bristol and ,exeter and the ,great ,western ,companies1 which1 in ,mr4 ,brunel's opinion1 made it impossible for him to continue engineer to both railways4 ,the ,south ,devon ,railway1 and the adoption on it of the ,atmospheric ,system1 are described in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,in connection with this line is the important ,torquay branch1 and the railway in continuation of it to ,dartmouth4 ,this was completed as far as ,paignton during ,mr4 ,brunel's lifetime4 ,the ,south ,devon and ,tavistock ,railway branches off from the ,south ,devon ,railway near ,plymouth1 and has several large viaducts4 ,on the ,cornwall ,railway from ,plymouth to ,truro1 and the ,west ,cornwall ,railway from ,truro to ,penzance1 the most remarkable works are the viaducts1 and the ,royal ,albert ,bridge4 ,in the case of the ,cornwall ,railway1 it became necessary to reduce the capital expenditure1 even at the cost of increasing the charges for maintenance4 ,with this object the line was re-examined and modifications introduced1 principally by an increase in the extent of viaduct4 ,these lines pass through a very difficult country2 involving the adoption of steep gradients and sharp curves4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 in a memorandum written in #ahde1 after having explained his reasons for considering that the prejudicial effects of gradients and curves were commonly overrated1 gives the following opinion in reference to the proposed ,cornwall ,railway3-- ,i must not be understood to argue against the advantage of straight lines or large and easy curves1 but ,i wish to show that where small curves are unavoidable1 they can in practice be so constructed as not to be very prejudicial2 and ,i consider that the character of the country in ,cornwall is such that no railway can be constructed at any moderate expense without either sacrificing all consideration for the interests of localities and the position of the population to the mere choice of levels1 or without steep gradients and sharp curves4 ,the principal lines branching off from the ,great ,western1 and since incorporated with it1 are1 on the south1 the ,berks and ,hants1 from ,reading to ,basingstoke and ,hungerford2 and the ,wilts and ,somerset1 to ,weymouth and ,salisbury4 ,on the north-west is the ,cheltenham and ,great ,western ,union ,railway1 from ,swindon to ,cheltenham and ,gloucester4 ,this line passes through the ,cotswold ,hills at ,sapperton by a tunnel #a mile in length4 ,the ,gloucester and ,dean ,forest ,railway runs from ,gloucester to ,grange ,court1 and thence to ,ross and ,hereford4 ,the ,south ,wales ,railway1 which extends from ,grange ,court to ,milford ,haven1 contains a tunnel at ,swansea mile long1 and some of ,mr4 ,brunel's most important works1 including the ,chepstow bridge and several other bridges of considerable size1 and the viaducts at ,landore and ,newport4 ,there are also on this line four opening bridges across navigable channels4 ,the works at the termination of the line at ,neyland1 in ,milford ,haven1 are described in ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,mr4 ,brunel considered that ,milford ,haven1 with its excellent harbour1 which can be entered at all times of tide by the largest vessels1 would probably become a great port for ocean steamers1 and especially for the #8,great ,eastern' and ships of her class4 ,there are also in ,south ,wales the following railways3 the ,taff ,vale1 the ,vale of ,neath1 the ,llynvi ,valley1 and the ,south ,wales ,mineral4 ,the ,taff ,vale1 a line from ,cardiff to ,merthyr1 was opened on the narrow gauge in #ahda4df ,on this railway is the lofty masonry viaduct at ,quaker's ,yard4 ,on the ,vale of ,neath ,railway1 from ,neath to ,aberdare and ,merthyr1 there is a tunnel1 near ,merthyr1 #a mile long1 and #fej feet below the summit of the hill4 ,full advantage is taken on this railway of the facilities which the broad gauge offers for heavy traffic4 ,the line has long steep gradients1 and the locomotives used on it1 of the class known as tank engines1 are of great power4 ,one of these gradients is #d miles long1 with an inclination of #a in #ej4 ,large quantities of coal are brought down by this railway to the ,swansea and ,briton ,ferry ,docks4 ,the coal of ,south ,wales is of a friable nature1 and1 in order to avoid the breakage consequent on the ordinary mode of shipping coal1 by tipping it down a shoot1 ,mr4 ,brunel introduced on a large scale the use of trucks carrying four iron boxes1 each box about #d feet #h inches cube1 and containing two and a half tons of coal4 ,at the docks machinery is provided by which each box is lowered down into the hold of the ship1 and the under side being allowed to open1 the coal is deposited at once on the bottom of the vessel4 ,the ,llynvi ,valley ,railway is a short line1 leading from the ,south ,wales ,railway at ,bridgend into the coal and iron districts4 ,the ,south ,wales ,mineral ,railway is another line of the same class4 ,it passes through a very heavy country1 and has on it a self-acting incline of #a in #i1 mile long1 worked by a rope1 and a tunnel mile long1 and #dgj feet below the surface4 ,in connection with the ,south ,wales district is the ,bristol and ,south ,wales ,union ,railway1 a line running from ,bristol to the banks of the ,severn1 across which the traffic is carried by a steamer to a short branch from the ,south ,wales ,railway on the other side4 ,this railway had been for a long time contemplated1 and ,mr4 ,brunel devoted much time to a careful investigation of the ,severn in order to determine the most suitable point for the crossing4 ,he decided that the best place would be at what is known as the ,new ,passage4 ,the arrangements had to be made in accordance with the requirements of the ,admiralty4 ,trains run to the end of timber piers extending into deep water1 and there are staircases and lifts leading to pontoons1 alongside which a steamer can come at all times of tide4 ,the tide at this part of the ,severn rises #df feet4 ,the three railways last mentioned were not completed during ,mr4 ,brunel's lifetime4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,bristol and ,gloucester ,railway1 on which is the tunnel at ,wickwar1 mile long1 was opened in #ahdd1 and passed into the hands of the ,midland ,company in #ahdf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the northern extensions of the ,great ,western ,railway are the ,oxford and ,rugby1 constructed as far as ,fenny ,compton2 the ,birmingham and ,oxford ,junction2 and the ,oxford1 ,worcester1 and ,wolverhampton ,railways4 ,mr4 ,brunel ceased to be engineer of the last-mentioned company in #ahea1 and the works were completed by ,mr4 ,fowler4 ,the ,oxford1 ,worcester1 and ,wolverhampton line has since1 under the title of the ,west ,midland1 become a part of the ,great ,western ,railway4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,ireland ,mr4 ,brunel was engineer of the line from ,dublin to ,wicklow1 round ,bray ,head1 and of a line from ,cork to ,youghal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,he laid out two railways in ,italy1 the line from ,florence to ,pistoja1 and that across the ,apennines from ,genoa to ,novi and ,alessandria1 in the direction of ,turin and ,milan4 ,he acted as engineer during the construction of the former line2 but the works of the latter were carried out by the ,sardinian ,government4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the last of ,mr4 ,brunel's important railways was the ,eastern ,bengal ,railway1 a line of about #ajj miles in length1 in a north-easterly direction from ,calcutta4 ,he took a great interest in the work and devoted much time to the special arrangements and designs1 and to the best way of crossing the ,ganges and its branches in the future extension of the railway2 but no part of it was opened during his lifetime4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was impossible for ,mr4 ,brunel to look after all his works to the same extent as he had done in the case of the ,great ,western ,railway2 and he was compelled to spend a very considerable amount of time in attendance on ,committees of the ,houses of ,parliament on behalf of the railways to which he was engineer4 ,mr4 ,brunel frequently regretted this1 and considered it a great evil that engineers were prevented by their duties during the session from attending properly to the construction of their works4 ,he endeavoured as far as possible to superintend the execution of his different undertakings4 ,he availed himself of every opportunity of examining them1 and was acquainted throughout with all the designs which were prepared4 ,he would take advantage of two or three free days to go down to the distant works in ,south ,wales or in ,cornwall1 looking after details1 such as the pickling tanks for timber1 and the masonry of the viaducts4 ,he was fortunate in the selection of the members of his staff1 and in his organisation of it4 ,he had a rare power of utilising the capabilities of his different assistants2 and although he had to deal with a great variety of men1 he managed that they should work in harmony with him4 ,from the complete personal supervision ,mr4 ,brunel sought to maintain over all his works1 his assistants had not perhaps so many opportunities of independent action as they might otherwise have obtained1 but they had1 on the other hand1 the advantage of constant personal communication with their chief4 ,after the time when ,mr4 ,brunel's works became so numerous1 and his time so much occupied1 that he could not exercise in person that general supervision which he conceived to be necessary1 he was ably assisted by ,mr4 ,robert ,pearson ,brereton1 who1 on the death of ,mr4 ,hammond in #ahdg1 became the chief of his engineering staff4 ,mr4 ,brunel rarely made any changes in the personnel of his office4 ,mr4 ,brereton had become one of his assistants in #ahcf2 and his secretary1 the late ,mr4 ,joseph ,bennett1 came to him in the same year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,great ,western ,railway retained its early place in his affections1 and among his most valued friends were members of the ,board of ,directors1 ,mr4 ,saunders the ,secretary1 and other officers of the company4 ,when in the last year of his life he was obliged to go to ,egypt for his health1 it was a matter of deep anxiety to him lest his absence from ,england should cause any alteration in his relations with the ,company1 and it was a source of great pleasure to him that no such consequences followed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,brunel's position as confidential adviser of so large a number of railway companies gave him frequent opportunities of acting as mediator between contending parties2 and his decisions were always received with respect1 for he was known to be scrupulously just4 ,besides the more friendly task of reconciling opponents he had a large practice as a referee under ,acts of ,parliament and orders of the superior courts2 and displayed in these matters great judicial abilities4 ,in all the causes and parliamentary contests affecting the various companies of which he was engineer1 ,mr4 ,brunel was a very important member of the preliminary consultations1 and during the proceedings counsel relied with confidence on his suggestions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the most arduous parts of his duty1 as engineer of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 was connected with the conduct of the great cases of ,ranger and ,mac,intosh4 ,to the former of these reference is made in the letter printed below1 at p4 #dgh4 ,the ,mac,intosh case1 which was commenced shortly after the opening of the line1 was not concluded before ,mr4 ,brunel's death4 ,he was compelled to devote a considerable portion of his time to it1 even after his return home in the evening1 during the launch of the #8,great ,eastern4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,brunel had a very high reputation as a witness4 ,mr4 ,st4 ,george ,burke1 ,q4,c41 has communicated a memorandum on this subject4 #8,as a witness he could always be relied on as a perfect master of the case he had to support1 and he had the rare quality of confining his answers to a simple reply to the questions put to him1 without appearing as an advocate4 ,he was1 however1 extremely particular as to the questions which should be put to him in his examination in chief1 and was therefore never satisfied to entrust the preparation of his proof to the solicitor1 without revising it himself4 #8,in his cross-examinations he was generally a match for the most skilful counsel1 and by the adroitness of his answers would often do as much to advance his case as by his examination in chief4 #8,he was almost as much of a diplomatist as an engineer1 and knew perfectly well how to handle a case in the witness-box so as to leave no loophole for his opponents to take advantage of4 ,at the same time he was a perfectly honest witness1 and while he avoided saying more than was necessary for the advancement of the cause in which he was engaged1 he would have scorned to say or imply anything by his evidence inconsistent with strict truth4 #8,although he had attained to great celebrity as a witness1 the committee room being crowded to hear him1 he always declined to engage in the very lucrative work of a professional witness4 ,he made a rule never to appear except on behalf of undertakings of which he was the engineer1 or with which his own companies were interested4 ,to help a friend1 he occasionally but very rarely broke through this resolve2 but1 whether he appeared in support of his own plans or those of others1 there were few1 if any1 professional men whose evidence carried more weight than his did before ,parliamentary ,committees4' ,the following memorandum from ,mr4 ,george ,t4 ,clark1 of ,dowlais1 formerly one of ,mr4 ,brunel's assistants1 contains his recollections of ,mr4 ,brunel during the construction of the ,great ,western ,railway3-- #8,i made your father's acquaintance1 rather characteristically1 in an unfinished tunnel of the ,coal-pit ,heath ,railway2 and when the shaft in which we were suspended cracked and seemed about to give way1 ,i well remember the coolness with which he insisted upon completing the observations he came to make4 ,shortly afterwards ,i became1 at his request1 his assistant2 and during the parliamentary struggle of #ahce1 and the subsequent organisation of the staff1 and commencement of the works of the ,great ,western1 ,i saw him for many hours daily1 both in his office and in the field1 travelled much with him1 and joined him in the very moderate recreation he allowed himself4 #8,these two years1 and the preceding year1 #ahcd1 were1 ,i apprehend1 the turning points of his life4 ,his vigour1 both of body and mind1 were in their perfection4 ,his powers were continually called forth by the obstacles he had to overcome2 and the result of his examinations in the committee rooms placed him1 in the opinion of the members of the legislature1 and of his own profession1 in the very first rank of that profession1 both for talents and knowledge4 #8,i wish ,i could convey to you even a tolerable idea of your father as he was in those years1 during which ,i knew him intimately1 and saw him often under circumstances of great difficulty4 #8,he was then a young man1 but in the school of the ,thames ,tunnel he had acquired a close acquaintance with all kinds of masons' and carpenters' work1 the strength and cost of materials1 bridge building1 and constructions under water1 and with the working of the steam engine as it then stood4 ,it happened not unfrequently that it was desirable to accept the tender of some contractor for railway work whose prices upon certain items were too high1 and then it became the engineer's business to go into the details and convince the contractor of his error4 ,on such occasions ,brunel would go step by step through the stages of the work1 and it was curious to see the surprise of the practical man as he found himself corrected in his own special business by the engineer4 ,thus1 ,i remember his proving to an eminent brickmaker who had tendered for the ,chippenham contract that the bricks could be made much cheaper than he supposed4 ,he knew accurately how much coal would burn so many bricks1 what it would cost1 what number of bricks could be turned out1 what would be the cost of housing the men1 what the cartage1 and how many men it would require to complete the work in the specified time4 ,the contractor was astonished2 asked if ,mr4 ,brunel had ever been in the brick trade1 and finally took and made money by the contract at the proposed figure4 #8,in the case of the ,maidenhead bridge1 the contractor being alarmed at learning that the arch was the flattest known in brick1 ,brunel pointed out to him that the weight which he feared would crush the bricks1 would be less than in a wall which he1 the contractor1 had recently built1 and he convinced him by geometry1 made easy by diagrams1 that the bridge must stand4 ,knowledge of detail ,brunel shared with the carpenter1 builder1 or contractor for earthwork1 and he was their superior in the accuracy and rapidity with which he combined his knowledge1 and arrived at correct conclusions as to the cost of the work and the time it would take to execute it4 #8,in talking to landowners and others whose opposition it was important to overcome1 ,i have often been struck by your father's great powers of negotiation4 ,the most absurd objections--and there were many such--were listened to with good humour1 and he spared no pains in explaining the real facts1 so that it sometimes happened that he converted opponents into supporters of the railway4 ,in the course he took there was much skilful diplomacy1 but there was no dishonesty1 no humbug4 ,he was very frank and perfectly sincere4 ,his object was to impart his own convictions1 and in that he often succeeded4 ,i never met his equal for sustained power of work4 ,after a hard day spent in preparing and delivering evidence1 and after a hasty dinner1 he would attend consultations till a late hour2 and then1 secure against interruption1 sit down to his papers1 and draw specifications1 write letters or reports1 or make calculations all through the night4 ,if at all pressed for time he slept in his armchair for two or three hours1 and at early dawn he was ready for the work of the day4 ,when he travelled he usually started about four or five in the morning1 so as to reach his ground by daylight4 ,his travelling carriage1 in which he often slept1 was built from his own design1 and was a marvel of skill and comfort4 ,this power of work was no doubt aided by the abstemiousness of his habits and by his light and joyous temperament4 ,one luxury1 tobacco1 he indulged in to excess1 and probably to his injury4 ,at all times1 even in bed1 a cigar was in his mouth2 and wherever he was engaged1 there1 near at hand1 was the enormous leather cigar-case so well known to his friends1 and out of which he was quite as ready to supply their wants as his own4 ,his light and joyous disposition was very attractive4 ,at no time was he stern1 but when travelling or off work he was like a boy set free4 ,there was no fun for which he was not ready4 ,on the old ,bath road1 on a ,wiltshire chalk hill-side1 is cut a large horse1 the pride of the district1 and only inferior in reputation to that of the famous ,berkshire vale4 ,the people of the district1 afraid to lose their coach traffic1 were violently opposed to the ,great ,western ,railway ,bill4 ,talking over this one evening1 some one suggested turning the horse into a locomotive4 ,brunel was much amused at the idea1 and at once sketched off the horse from memory1 roughly calculated its area1 and arranged a plan for converting it into an engine4 ,ten picked men were to go down in two chaises1 and by moonlight to peg and line out the new figure1 and then cut away the turf1 and with it cover up as much of the horse as might be left4 ,from the tube was to issue a towering column of steam1 and below was to be inserted in bold characters the offensive letters ,g4 ,w4 ,r4 ,it was1 of course1 not intended to carry this joke into execution1 but ,brunel often alluded to it1 and laughed over the sensation it would have created4 #8,he possessed a very fine temper1 and was always ready to check differences between those about him1 and to put a pleasant construction upon any apparent neglect or offence4 ,his servants loved him1 and he never forgot those who had stood by his father and himself in the old ,tunnel days of trouble and anxiety4 #8,no doubt the exertions of those three years1 though they laid the foundation1 or rather built the fabric1 of his reputation1 also undermined his constitution1 and eventually shortened his life4 ,everything for which he was responsible he insisted upon doing for himself4 ,i doubt whether he ever signed a professional report that was not entirely of his own composition2 and every structure upon the ,great ,western1 from the smallest culvert up to the ,brent viaduct and ,maidenhead bridge1 was entirely1 in all its details1 from his own designs4' ,in the press of work and the altered circumstances under which he superintended the construction of his later railways1 many changes inevitably followed4 ,the open britzska gave place to a close travelling carriage1 which in its turn became useless2 and no time was left for fun or practical jokes2 but the same energy of mind and the same kindliness of heart remained uninfluenced by increasing occupations or advancing years4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,broad ,,gauge4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,ordinary ,,gauge ,,of ,,railways--,,adoption ,,by ,,mr4 ,,brunel ,,of ,,the ,,broad ,,gauge ,,on ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway--,,reasons ,,for ,,its ,,adoption--,,the ,,permanent ,,way--,,reports ,,of ,,mr4 ,,nicholas ,,wood ,,and ,,mr4 ,,john ,,hawkshaw1 #ahch--;,,extract ,,from ,,report ,,of ,,directors ,,of ,,great ,,western ,,railway ,,company 7,,december #bj1 #ahch7--;,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,broad ,,gauge ,,system--,,break ,,of ,,gauge--,,royal ,,commission ,,on ,,the ,,gauge ,,of ,,railways1 #ahde--,,letter ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel ,,on ,,the ,,broad ,,gauge 7,,august #f1 #ahde7--;,,gauge ,,act ,,of #ahdf--,,the ,,mixed ,,gauge--,,report ,,of ,,railway ,,commissioners1 #ahdg--,,northern ,,extensions ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway--,,advantages ,,of ,,the ,,broad ,,gauge--,,partial ,,abandonment ,,of ,,the ,,broad ,,gauge4 ,the railways designed by ,mr4 ,brunel were1 with a few exceptions1 distinguished from those in all other parts of ,england by a peculiarity in the width between the two rails forming each line of way1 or in what is called the gauge4 ,in most railways1 the distance between the internal edges of the rails is #d feet #h inches1 being what is termed the narrow gauge2 on ,mr4 ,brunel's railways1 it was seven feet1 or what is termed the broad gauge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the gauge of the earlier railways1 which were but a modification of the old wooden tramway1 was made that of the tram plates which they superseded2 and this had been originally fixed to suit the distance between the wheels of the country carts in the north of ,england4 ,when ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson introduced the locomotive engine1 the gauge of the lines in the ,northumberland district had been already fixed4 ,in laying out the ,stockton and ,darlington line 7#ahba-ahbe7 he saw no reason to depart from the gauge he had previously adopted2 and1 indeed1 some of the waggons to be used on this line were brought from the ,northumberland collieries4 ,in this way the first important railway in ,england was made with the gauge of #d feet #h inches2 not from a deliberate choice of this width on the ground of any peculiar advantages1 but from the mere fact of its already being established elsewhere4 ,in the construction of the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway1 in #ahbf1 the same gauge was adopted as on the ,stockton and ,darlington2 this course was also followed by the ,grand ,junction and the ,london and ,birmingham ,railways1 and thus the #d feet #h inches gauge became established in that part of the country4 99 99 99 99 99 ,long experience appears to have determined the general type of wheeled vehicles3 the wheels being of somewhat large size1 and the body placed between them1 so as to come down close upon the axle-tree4 ,this type1 which gives obvious advantages in a mechanical point of view1 appears to have been adhered to in all railway vehicles used before the opening of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway2 these1 however1 were chiefly coal-waggons4 ,but on the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway it was soon perceived that the great increase of carrying power which the railway afforded must be met by a corresponding increase of space in the rolling stock1 as it was necessary to accommodate light bulky goods and passenger traffic4 ,the available width between the wheels was limited to about #d feet #f inches1 and to carry in this width any large amount of cotton goods1 or of passengers1 would have required a train of an inordinate length4 ,to meet this difficulty a new form of vehicle was designed2 the wheels were made small1 and the body was raised and widened out1 projecting on either side over the tops of the wheels4 ,the earliest description of this form of waggon is contained in the second edition of ,wood's #8,practical ,treatise on ,railroads1' published in #ahcb1 about two years after the opening of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,in ,plate ,,iii41 ,mr4 ,wood shows a truck with a raised platform overhanging the wheels1 and adapted for carrying loose boxes of coals2 adding1 in the description3 ,although the drawing shows only the form of boxes used for the conveyance of coals1 yet it will readily occur that the form can be varied to suit the carriage of any kind of articles2 the framework or body of the carriage being raised above the wheels1 the breadth can be extended to any width which the distance between the railways i4e4 between the up and down lines of road will admit 7p4 #ge74 ,such was the state of matters when1 in the year #ahcc1 ,mr4 ,brunel was appointed ,engineer of the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,with the view of leaving the question of gauge open for future consideration1 he procured the omission in the ,great ,western ,act of a clause defining it4 ,he came to the conclusion that it would be desirable to adopt a wider gauge1 and he recommended this measure to the ,directors in a report dated ,october #ahce4dg 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,october #ahcf a ,royal ,commission1 consisting of ,mr4 ,drummond1 ,under-,secretary for ,ireland1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,griffith1 ,colonel 7now ,field-,marshal7 ,sir ,john ,burgoyne1 ,r4,e41 and ,professor ,barlow1 of ,woolwich1 was appointed to report on the establishment of railways in ,ireland4 ,they considered carefully the question of gauge1 and their arguments in favour of an increase in the gauge were afterwards stated by ,mr4 ,brunel to be identical with his own4 ,they drew attention to the advantage of large wheels1 the use of which would be facilitated by a wider gauge2 and they thought it a matter of importance to be able to place the bodies of the carriages between the wheels1 instead of over them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was the width of the carriages1 and not the distance between the rails1 that determined the general dimensions1 and therefore the cost1 of the works of a railway4 ,mr4 ,brunel saw many advantages to be gained by an increase in the gauge1 even while retaining the existing dimensions of carriages2 and he thought it unwise at the commencement of a work of such magnitude as the ,great ,western ,railway to retain a limit the inconvenience of which had already become apparent4 ,he says1 in his evidence before the ,gauge ,commission3 ,looking to the speed which ,i contemplated would be adopted on railways1 and the masses to be moved1 it seemed to me that the whole machine was too small for the work to be done1 and that it required that the parts should be on a scale more commensurate with the mass and the velocity to be attained4 7,q4 #cibd47 ,the width between the rails being the fundamental dimension of #8the whole machine1' on which its entire development must depend1 ,mr4 ,brunel proposed to begin by the enlargement of this dimension1 and recommended that on the ,great ,western ,railway the gauge should be seven feet4 ,he considered that the whole of the parts of the railway and of its rolling stock would be susceptible of continual1 though gradual improvement1 and that it was highly advisable to remove1 in the outset1 a great obstacle in the way of this progress4 ,he did not in the first instance propose any important change in the details as consequent on the wider gauge2 and in regard to one of the principal points1 the diameter of the wheels1 he said3-- ,i am not by any means prepared at present to recommend any particular size of wheel1 or even any great increase of the present dimensions4 ,i believe they will be materially increased2 but my great object would be in every possible way to render each part capable of improvement1 and to remove what appears an obstacle to any great progress in such a very important point as the diameter of the wheels1 upon which the resistance1 which governs the cost of transport and the speed that may be obtained1 so materially depends4 7,report in ,appendix ,i4 p4 #ecb47 ,mr4 ,brunel also looked forward to the advantages which a wider gauge would give for the construction of the locomotive engines4 ,difficulties had been already experienced from the limited width between the wheels1 which cramped the machinery1 rendering it difficult of access for repairs2 it also limited the size of the boiler and fire-box1 on which the power depended4 ,for this reason ,mr4 ,brunel considered that a wider gauge would present great advantages1 as it would allow the locomotives to be constructed of greater power1 and with their machinery arranged in a more advantageous manner4 ,he also thought that the greater width of base for the carriages would give increased steadiness and smoothness of motion1 with greater safety1 particularly at high speeds1 and that there would be the advantage of being able to use larger wheels for the carriages4 ,moreover1 he had in view the possibility which the broad gauge would give of adopting wheels of a still larger diameter without raising the centre of gravity1 the body of the carriage being placed between them1 as in the original type of common road vehicles4 ,the broad gauge was also considered by ,mr4 ,brunel in prominent connection with the peculiarly favourable circumstances of the ,great ,western line1 in regard to its gradients and curves4 ,he thought that #8it would not have been embracing all the benefits derivable from the gradients of the ,great ,western ,railway1 unless a more extended gauge was adopted4' ,in the first place1 it was evident that a diminution of the frictional resistance would present the greatest advantage where the gradients were flat4 ,in regard to curves1 the wider gauge was at that time considered by him to be more advantageously applied where the curves were of large radius than where they were sharp4#dh ,on the ,great ,western ,railway both gradients and curves were remarkably good2 with the exception of two inclines of #a in #ajj1 on which auxiliary power was proposed to be used1 there was no gradient between ,london and ,bristol steeper than #a in #ffj1 the greater part of the line being nearly level1 and except between ,bath and ,bristol there was no curve sharper than about one mile radius4 ,for these reasons ,mr4 ,brunel thought that unusually high speed might easily be attained for passengers1 and great tractive power for goods4 ,he said3-- ,i shall not attempt to argue with those who consider any increase of speed unnecessary4 ,the public will always prefer that conveyance which is the most perfect1 and speed1 within reasonable limits1 is a material ingredient in perfection in travelling4 7,report in ,appendix ,i4 p4 #ecb47 ,in deciding that the distance between the rails should be seven feet1 ,mr4 ,brunel seems to have been guided by the principle that the wheels should be put sufficiently far apart to admit of an ordinary carriage body being placed between them4#di ,mr4 ,brunel did not anticipate that the difference between the gauge he proposed and that of other railways would lead to any important inconvenience4 ,the views he held on this subject were expressed fully by him in a report of ,december #ac1 #ahch4 ,he says1 speaking of the difficulty of communication between the ,great ,western and other railways3-- ,this is undoubtedly an inconvenience2 it amounts to a prohibition to almost any railway running northwards from ,london1 as they must all more or less depend for their supply upon other lines or districts where railways already exist1 and with which they must hope to be connected4 ,in such cases there is no alternative4 ,the ,great ,western ,railway1 however1 broke ground in an entirely new district1 in which railways were unknown4 ,at present it commands this district1 and has already sent forth branches which embrace nearly all that can belong to it2 and it will be the fault of the company if it does not effectually and permanently secure to itself the whole trade of this portion of ,england1 with that of ,south ,wales and the south of ,ireland2 not by a forced monopoly1 which could never long resist the wants of the public1 but by such attention to these wants as shall render any competition unnecessary and hopeless4 ,such is the position of the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,it could have no connection with any other of the main lines1 and the principal branches likely to be made were well considered1 and almost formed part of the original plan2 nor can these be dependent upon any other existing lines for the traffic which they will bring to the main trunk4 ,mr4 ,brunel was not singular in holding the opinion that it would be desirable to allot a given district to one railway1 which might conveniently serve it by means of a trunk line and branches of a special gauge4 ,in the ,eastern ,counties line1 designed in #ahcf1 by ,mr4 ,braithwaite1 and opened in #ahci1 a gauge of #e feet was adopted2 and ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 as engineer of another line1 the ,northern and ,eastern ,railway1 branching out from the ,eastern ,counties to the northward1 adopted the same gauge4 ,it was not till the ,northern and ,eastern line was extended1 some years afterwards1 that the rails of the whole system were altered to the narrow gauge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,brunel's recommendation was adopted by the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway2 and1 in their report of ,august #be1 #ahcf1 after observing that the generally level character of the line would greatly facilitate the attainment of a higher speed of travelling1 they pointed out the advantages of the broad gauge1 and stated that engines had been ordered specially adapted to the nature of the line1 which would be capable of attaining with facility a rate of from thirty-five to forty miles per hour4 ,the line was opened between ,paddington and ,maidenhead on ,june #d1 #ahch1 and the performance of the engines was considered satisfactory1 trains of eighty tons and upwards being drawn at speeds of from thirty-eight to forty miles per hour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notwithstanding these favourable results1 the change in regard to the gauge did not pass unquestioned4 ,attacks were made on it in various quarters1 and considerable excitement was caused among the shareholders and the public4 ,it was asserted that the width of #d feet #h inches was exactly the proper width for all railways1 and that a deviation from it was tantamount to the abandonment of an established principle which experience had proved to be correct4 ,it was further alleged that the cost of all the works connected with the formation of the line would be greatly increased2 that the carriages must be stronger and heavier1 that they would not run round the curves1 and would be liable to run off the rails1 and particularly that the increased length of the axles would render them liable to be broken4 ,these were not advanced as difficulties which1 existing in all railways1 might be somewhat increased by the increase of gauge1 but they were assumed to be peculiar to the broad gauge1 and fatal to it4 ,some urgent representations appear to have been made to the ,directors2 for in their report of ,august #ae1 #ahch1 they state1 that as the gauge and the permanent way1 which had also been the subject of adverse criticism1 had been sources of some anxiety to them1 they had applied to three of the most eminent authorities on the construction and working of railways--,mr4 ,james ,walker1 ,president of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 and ,mr4 ,nicholas ,wood1 of ,newcastle-on-,tyne--to undertake a thorough inspection of the line1 to investigate the working of it1 and to give their opinion on the plan adopted4 ,mr4 ,walker and ,mr4 ,stephenson declined the task1 on the ground that they did not wish to become embroiled in professional controversy1 but ,mr4 ,wood undertook it2 and a similar commission was afterwards given to ,mr4 ,hawkshaw4 ,in order to put the shareholders fully in possession of all the information in their power1 the ,directors published a very complete statement by ,mr4 ,brunel on the arrangements adopted by him4 ,it will be seen that in this report1 which is given in ,appendix ,i4 p4 #ebe1 he states his original arguments1 and answers the objections brought against his plans2 and he contends that the result of experience establishes their success4 ,in regard to the gauge1 he says3-- ,everything that has occurred in the practical working of the line confirms me in my conviction that we have secured a most valuable power to the ,great ,western ,railway1 and that it would be folly to abandon it4 ,but the two engineers1 to whom the consideration of this matter had been referred1 differed materially in opinion from ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,the nature of their investigations and reports1 and of ,mr4 ,brunel's replies1 is stated in the extracts given below from the report of the ,directors in ,january #ahci4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in addition to the question of gauge1 another important matter referred to the consideration of ,mr4 ,wood and ,mr4 ,hawkshaw was the construction of the permanent way4#ej ,on the ,great ,western a construction had been introduced by ,mr4 ,brunel differing materially from that ordinarily used2 and as defects had shown themselves after the opening of the railway1 some anxiety was felt in reference to it by many of the shareholders4 ,the subject of the permanent way adopted on the ,great ,western ,railway does not necessarily belong to the gauge question1 and would1 perhaps1 have been more properly considered in the chapter on ,mr4 ,brunel's railway works2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the controversy concerning it became so interwoven with that of the broad gauge1 that in a historical account it would be difficult to separate them4 ,it appeared to ,mr4 ,brunel that1 with a view of applying the engine power to the greatest advantage1 particularly in attaining high speed1 more attention ought to be paid to the construction of the permanent way4 ,he says1 in a report dated ,february #ahcg3-- ,it appears to be frequently forgotten that although lofty embankments and deep cuttings1 bridges1 viaducts1 and tunnels are all necessary for forming the level surface upon which the rails are to be laid1 yet they are but the means for obtaining that end2 and the ultimate object for which these great works are constructed1 and for which the enormous expenses consequent upon them are incurred1 consits merely of four level parallel lines1 not above two inches wide1 of a hard and smooth surface2 and upon the degree of hardness1 smoothness1 and parallelism 7which last has hitherto been very much neglected7 of these four lines depend the speed and cost of transport1 and in fact the whole result aimed at4444 ,in forming all my plans ,i have looked to the perfection of the surface on which the carriages are to run1 as the great and ultimate desideratum2 and in the detail of construction of this last operation1 without which all the previous labour is comparatively wasted1 ,i have always contemplated introducing all the perfection of materials and workmanship of which it is capable4 ,with a view to improvement on this point1 ,mr4 ,brunel considered it would be advantageous if two important changes were made4 ,he proposed1 in the first place1 to abolish the use of stone blocks for the rails to rest on1 and to substitute timber2 and1 secondly1 to apply the support uniformly and continuously along the whole length of the rails1 instead of only at intervals4 ,the first of these changes1 namely1 the substitution of timber for stone1 was not wholly new1 for transverse wood sleepers were often used in exceptional situations2 but it was the general opinion that stone1 where it could be applied1 formed the best support for the rails1#ea and the exclusive employment of timber was considered a great innovation4 ,the other principle1 that of #8continuous bearing1' was similar to that of the old wooden and stone tramways2 and1 even as applied to iron rails it had been extensively used before1 as ,mr4 ,brunel mentions in his report of ,august #ahch 7see ,appendix ,i4 p4 #ece47 ,mr4 ,brunel designed for this continuous bearing a peculiar shape of rail1 which1 from the form of its section1 acquired the name of the #8bridge rail4' ,the rail was bolted down to the longitudinal timbers1 and the timbers of the two rails were connected together at intervals by cross-pieces1 called transoms1 bolted to them2 these served to keep the two rails at a proper distance apart4 ,the longitudinal timbers lay on gravel or other #8ballast1' which had been found to form the best foundation1 as being firm and solid1 easy of adjustment1 and allowing free drainage4#eb ,mr4 ,brunel1 however1 thought there would be difficulty in giving the longitudinal baulks a sufficiently solid bearing on the gravel below them4 ,a similar difficulty had already been experienced with the heavy stone blocks used on other railways4 ,as a remedy for this1 ,mr4 ,stephenson caused each block to be lifted and dropped several times on its place1 so as to consolidate the ballast below4 ,the same thing could not be done with a long wooden baulk1 and ,mr4 ,brunel therefore contrived another mode of overcoming the difficulty4 ,piles were driven into the ground between the rails1 and their heads bolted to the cross-transoms1 the object being to hold the timber framework firmly down4 ,the gravel was then rammed hard under the longitudinal baulks1 to give the consolidation desired4 ,the result1 however1 of this mode of construction was far from successful1 and the state of the road1 when run over by the trains1 was in many places very defective4#ec ,in the course of his enquiry ,mr4 ,wood tried a large number of experiments on the ,great ,western and other lines4 ,he was of opinion that stone blocks afforded a permanently firmer base1 and so caused less resistance to the train1 but that there was less noise with continuous timber bearings1 and that they gave a smoother and a more perfect road for high rates of speed4 ,he thought1 however1 that the piles were objectionable1 and that the weight of the trains would in the course of time sufficiently consolidate the foundation4 ,mr4 ,brunel accepted ,mr4 ,wood's conclusions and abandoned the piling1 adopting at the same time larger timbers and heavier rails4 ,the experience of the permanent way1 as thus altered1 fully justified the favourable anticipations ,mr4 ,brunel had formed of the continuous timber bearing4#ed 99 99 99 99 99 ,after the reports of ,mr4 ,wood and ,mr4 ,hawkshaw1 with ,mr4 ,brunel's replies to them1 had been circulated among the shareholders1 a special general meeting was called in ,london1 to receive and consider these documents4 ,it was convened for ,december #bj1 #ahch1 but was adjourned till ,january #i1 #ahci4 ,this meeting was of great importance1 not only to the ,company1 but to ,mr4 ,brunel personally1 as on the resolutions to be passed depended whether or not his plans should be proceeded with4 ,he had1 however1 the warm support of the ,directors1 as will appear from the following extracts from their report4 ,it may be here concisely stated1 that ,mr4 ,wood deduces from experiments upon the performance of engines on the ,great ,western and other lines1 that although a higher rate of speed has been attained on the former1 it would appear only to have been accomplished by the increased power of the engines1 with a much greater consumption of coke when calculated per ton per mile4 ,he ascribes this result principally to the resistance presented by the atmosphere to the motion of railway trains1 especially at high rates of speed4 ,his remarks on that subject are qualified1 however1 by the expression of a doubt as to the value to be assigned to the single set of experiments on each of two inclined planes1 which are quoted as the authority for the degree of atmospheric resistance supposed to have been discovered4 ,the reduction of friction by the employment of wheels of increased diameter1 and the benefit of lowering the carriages between the wheels1 are affirmed by ,mr4 ,wood as incontrovertible4 ,the increased stability1 and consequent increased steadiness of motion to carriages on the wider base1 are also admitted by him4444 ,the various propositions of doubtful advantage from the wide gauge1 as well as of alleged objection to it1 appear to have been thoroughly considered in the report in question4 ,the experiments on the consumption of coke at high velocities were unfavourable1 and1 in connection with the theory of atmospheric resistance1 appear to have influenced the mind of ,mr4 ,wood to consider that a seven-feet gauge was beyond the width which he would deem the best4 ,at the same time1 upon a review of all the circumstances1 and considering that there are counteracting advantages1 incidental to an increased width of gauge1 he does not think that the result of his enquiries would justify a change in the dimensions adopted on this line1 and he recommends the present width should be retained4 ,the advice thus given by ,mr4 ,wood1 upon mature reflection1 being directly at variance with the conclusion at which ,mr4 ,hawkshaw had previously arrived upon an investigation similarly delegated to him1 it became the duty of the ,directors to consider most attentively the train of reasoning and argument which led the latter to urge such an opposite course4 ,naturally expecting from that circumstance to find in his report a clear and definite statement of the positive loss or disadvantages accruing from the increased width of gauge1 the ,directors could not fail to remark with some surprise that he enforces his recommendation1 not upon any ascertained injury or failure in the plan1 but almost exclusively upon the presumption that all railways1 however disconnected or locally situated1 should be constructed of one uniform width4 ,while he appears to think that it might be an improvement to have an addition of a few inches1 five or six at the most1 he still questions the expediency of any variation from the #d feet #h inches gauge4 ,mr4 ,hawkshaw1 in his report1 also considers any additional expense upon the gauge1 as well as upon the improvement of gradients1 to be undesirable1 and assumes it at a scale of augmentation far beyond the real difference of cost4 ,his estimates on that head are impeached in the engineer's observations1 and no doubt exists in the minds of the ,directors1 that the subject1 reduced to a mere question of figures1 in its present position1 would undeniably show a pecuniary loss to be borne by the ,company by any such change of system as he advocates1 even if it were on other grounds deemed advisable4 ,the objection that the wide gauge might prevent a junction with other lines seems both to ,mr4 ,wood and the ,directors to have but little weight1 as applied to the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,already has the same width been contemplated and provided for in the extension lines through ,gloucestershire to ,cheltenham and from ,bristol to ,exeter4 ,any local branches hereafter to be made would undoubtedly follow the same course1 and the proprietors1 therefore1 may be satisfied that no apprehension need be entertained by them on that head4 ,the advantage of following ,mr4 ,wood's advice1 in not making any alteration in the width of way1 has been since most forcibly shown by more recent experiments1 which have entirely changed the results upon which the chief objections to the gauge were founded4 ,the performance of the engines1 shown by ,mr4 ,wood's experiments in ,september1 gave such a disproportionate result in their power upon the attainment of high velocities1 as to render it all but impossible that the effect could be entirely produced by the action of the atmosphere on the trains4 ,all doubts were shortly removed by its being ascertained that a different cause 7a mere mechanical defect in the engine itself7 had been in operation4 ,if ,mr4 ,wood had witnessed these recent performances of the engines1 he must unquestionably have changed his opinions as to the means and practicability of carrying full average loads at a high speed1 without the great increased expense of fuel4 ,the ,directors have satisfied themselves of this very important fact1 by personally attending an experiment 7accompanied by several gentlemen1 among whom was a very eminent practical mechanic71 on which occasion the #8,north ,star' took a train of carriages1 calculated for #aff passengers1 and loaded to #dc tons1 to and from ,maidenhead1 at a mean average speed of thirty-eight miles per hour1 the maximum being forty-five miles per hour1 consuming only #jie1 or less than #a lb4 of coke per net ton per mile1 instead of #bgf1 say #b lbs41 as previously shown4 ,this was accomplished by a mere altered proportion in the blast pipe of the engine1 in the manner explained by ,mr4 ,brunel1 being a simple adaptation of size in one of the parts1 which admits a more free escape of steam from the cylinder1 after it has exerted its force on the piston1 still preserving sufficient draft in the fire4#ee ,it must be almost needless to point out to those who have perused the reports1 how importantly this change bears upon the subject in almost every relation of the enquiry4 ,it negatives the assumption that the velocity can only be attained by a ruinous loss of power4 ,it establishes beyond doubt that the consumption of fuel as now ascertained1 in proportion to the load1 is only one-third of that which from the former experiments had been the basis of ,mr4 ,wood's arguments4 ,an analysis in the report of the performance of the ,great ,western engines1 with heavy loads varying from #hj tons to #aff tons1 shows in every respect a peculiarly satisfactory result at a small cost of fuel1 and warrants the expectation of very great benefit to the ,company from the economical transport of goods on the line4 ,that the expenses of locomotive repairs1 especially on that heavy class of repair which arise from lateral strains on the wheels and framing of the engines1 have been materially less than on other lines is ascertained by very detailed accounts1 accurately made and submitted to the ,board by the superintendent of that department4 ,the experience of some months has now enabled the ,directors to witness the progressive improvement in the practical working of the railway4 ,a higher rate of speed has been generally maintained than on other lines1 and at the same time1 with that increased speed1 great steadiness of motion has been found in the carriages1 with consequent comfort to the passengers4 ,if speed1 security1 and comfort1 were three great desiderata in the original institution of railway travelling1 the ,directors feel sure that the public will appreciate and profit by any improvements in those qualities1 the ,company deriving ample remuneration in the shape of increased traffic4 ,a saving of time upon a long journey1 with increased comfort1 will necessarily attract to one line in preference to another many travellers from beyond the ordinary distance of local connection1 and will thus secure a valuable collateral trade which would not otherwise belong to it4 ,it has also a decided tendency to avert competition1 which may with much reason be regarded as the chief peril to which railway property is subjected4 ,the ,directors1 upon a deliberate reconsideration of all the circumstances affecting the permanent welfare of the undertaking1 divesting the question of all personal partialities or obstinate adherence to a system1 unanimously acquiesce in the abandonment of the piles1 in the substitution of a greater scantling of timber1 and of a heavier rail1 retaining the width of gauge with the continuous timber bearings1 as the most conducive to the general interests of the ,company4 ,the views of the ,directors were approved of by the majority of the shareholders 7the numbers being #g1gib for1 and #f1ade against72 and the construction of the line was proceeded with according to ,mr4 ,brunel's plans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by ,june #cj1 #ahda1 the whole length of the ,great ,western ,railway was opened from ,london to ,bristol4 ,some of the ,directors' reports mention the fact that the speed uniformly maintained by the engines much exceeded the ordinary rate of railway travelling1 and allude to the #8general testimony borne to the smoothness and comfort of the line and carriages4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,as has been before mentioned1 extensions and branches on the same gauge1 to all of which ,mr4 ,brunel was engineer1 were projected and ultimately carried out1 in accordance with the original scheme of the undertaking1 to ,exeter1 ,plymouth1 and ,cornwall1 and to ,gloucester1 ,hereford1 and ,south ,wales1 as well as to ,oxford1 ,windsor1 and other towns in the immediate neighbourhood of the line4 ,about #ahdd1 the attention of the ,company began to be directed to projects involving extensions of a much more serious character1 and which were destined to have a powerful influence on the position of the gauge question4 ,during the railway mania1 the ,great ,western ,company found it impossible to stand aloof from the contests which were going on around them1 and thought it necessary1 in order to protect their own interests1 to extend their lines beyond the district to which they had originally intended to confine themselves4 ,at the general meeting in ,august1 an extension from ,oxford to ,rugby was determined on1 as #8of the greatest importance to the ,great ,western line4' ,about the same time a broad-gauge line was promoted from ,oxford to ,worcester1 and thence by ,kidderminster and ,dudley to ,wolverhampton1 in order to open an immediate communication with the ,staffordshire and ,worcestershire districts4 ,there were also rival projects on the narrow gauge1 promoted by the ,london and ,birmingham ,company2 and the competing plans were referred1 as was the custom at that time1 for the examination of the ,railway ,department of the ,board of ,trade4 ,in regard to the communication from north to south1 through ,oxford1 the question was1 where the break of gauge should be4#ef ,the ,board of ,trade saw nothing in the relative merits of the gauges to determine this question1 and from commercial considerations1 they recommended that the change of gauge should be made at ,oxford4 ,on this and other grounds they considered that the narrow gauge schemes to the north of ,oxford were preferable to those of the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,the rival schemes then went before ,parliament1 and after a protracted enquiry1 obstinately fought between the parties1 the decision was given in favour of the ,great ,western lines1 contrary to the recommendation of the ,board of ,trade4 ,it was1 however1 stated by the chairman of the ,commons ,committee that the decision had been founded on the local and general merits of the respective lines1 without any reference to the comparative merits of the two gauges4 ,on this account some peculiar provisions were made in the ,acts2 for though the lines were sanctioned on the broad gauge1 the proprietors were bound also to lay down narrow gauge rails upon them1 if required to do so by the ,board of ,trade4 ,at the same time the ,house of ,commons1 on the motion of ,mr4 ,cobden1 passed a ,resolution praying her ,majesty to refer the gauge question to a ,royal ,commission4 ,a ,commission was issued in ,july2 the ,commissioners being three in number--,sir ,j4 ,m4 ,frederic ,smith1 ,r4,e42 ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 ,astronomer ,royal2 and ,professor ,barlow1 of the ,royal ,military ,academy1 ,woolwich4 ,they took a large amount of evidence1 both oral and documentary1 and made some examinations of the working of the two gauges4 ,their report was presented to ,parliament early in the session of #ahdf4 ,of forty-eight witnesses1 thirty-five were advocates of the narrow gauge2 and against these were arrayed but four champions of the broad gauge1 all officers of the ,great ,western ,railway3--,mr4 ,charles ,alexander ,saunders1 the secretary2 ,mr4 ,seymour ,clarke1 the traffic superintendent2 ,mr4 7now ,sir ,daniel7 ,gooch1 the locomotive superintendent2 and ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,the report was of considerable length1 and in it the ,commissioners addressed themselves to three heads of enquiry1 viz43-- #a4 ,whether the break of gauge was an inconvenience of so much importance as to demand the interference of the legislature4 #b4 ,what means could be adopted for obviating or mitigating such inconvenience4 #c4 ,considerations on the general policy of establishing a uniformity of gauge throughout the country4 ,the general conclusions arrived at on these points were thus summed up by the ,commissioners3-- #a4 ,that1 as regards the safety1 accommodation and convenience of the passengers1 no decided preference is due to either gauge1 but that on the broad gauge the motion is generally more easy at high velocities4 #b4 ,that1 in respect of speed1 we consider that the advantages are with the broad gauge2 but we think the public safety would be endangered in employing the greater capabilities of the broad gauge much beyond their present use1 except on roads more consolidated1 and more substantially and perfectly formed1 than those of the existing lines4 #c4 ,that1 in the commercial case of the transport of goods1 we believe the narrow gauge to possess the greater convenience1 and to be the more suited to the general traffic of the country4 #d4 ,that the broad gauge involves the greater outlay1 and that we have not been able to discover1 either in the maintenance of way1 in the cost of locomotive power1 or in the other annual expenses1 any adequate reduction to compensate for the additional first cost4 ,therefore1 esteeming the importance of the highest speed on express trains for the accommodation of a comparatively small number of persons1 however desirable that may be to them1 as of far less moment than affording increased convenience to the general commercial traffic of the country1 we are inclined to consider the narrow gauge as that which should be preferred for general convenience1 and therefore1 if it were imperative to produce uniformity1 we should recommend that uniformity to be produced by an alteration of the broad to the narrow gauge4444 ,guided by the foregoing considerations1 the ,commissioners recommended that #d feet #h inches should be fixed by law as the standard gauge of the country2 and that as to the existing broad gauge lines1 either they should be altered to the narrow gauge1 or some course adopted which would admit of narrow gauge carriages passing along them4#eg ,this adverse report was a great surprise to the supporters of the broad gauge system1 as rumours had led them to hope for a different result4 ,immediately after its appearance1 several documents were published1 containing powerful and severe strictures on the proceedings and opinions of the ,commissioners4 ,the most important of these was written by ,mr4 ,saunders1 ,mr4 ,daniel ,gooch1 and ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,it occupied fifty closely printed folio pages1 and was entitled1 #8,observations on the ,report of the ,gauge ,commissioners1 presented to ,parliament4' ,to this1 #8,supplemental ,observations' were added1 after the publication of the ,evidence and the ,appendix to the ,report4 ,in the conclusion of the #8,observations' the writers gave a summary of the points they considered to have been proved in the controversy1 namely-- 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the question of #8break of gauge' originated as a cloak to a monopoly4 ,that even if the gauge were uniform1 through trains would be impracticable4 ,that the transfer would be of little inconvenience4 ,that any advantage of small waggons was applicable to the broad gauge1 but that the advantage of large waggons was not applicable to the narrow4 ,that the competition between the two systems was advantageous4 ,that the final recommendations of the ,commissioners were at variance with their separate conclusions4 ,that it would be unjust to refuse to allow the broad gauge to be laid down on lines for which it was already sanctioned by ,parliament4 ,that the enquiry before the ,commissioners was not properly conducted1 and that consequently no legislation ought to be founded on it4 ,that the data published by the ,commissioners were often wrong1 and in some cases led to the reverse of their conclusions4 ,that greater economy was proved on the broad gauge4 ,that the broad gauge was superior in the points of safety1 speed1 and conveyance of troops4 ,that the experiments made in the presence of the ,commissioners had demonstrated beyond all controversy the complete success of the broad-gauge system4 ,for these and other reasons1 a strong protest was made against any legislative interference with the broad-gauge system4 ,a reply was published to these arguments2 and during the controversy a large number of pamphlets1 articles1 and other publications appeared on both sides4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,brunel's views on the whole question1 about this time1 are concisely expressed in the following letter1 written to a friend in ,france1 who asked for information on the subject of the broad gauge3-- ,august #d1 #ahde4 ,i am just off for ,italy1 but write a few hasty lines in reply to ,mons4 ----'s queries1 and which you must scold him for not addressing direct to me4 ,nobody can answer such questions but myself1 and ,i am compelled to be very brief4 ,in answer to the first1 ,i send a drawing4 ,secondly4 ,i see no reason why the ordinary construction of rails1 chairs1 and sleepers should not be equally applicable to the wide gauge as to the narrow4 ,i have used them occasionally4 ,i should think #ge lbs4 per yard heavy enough for any purposes4 ,thirdly4 ,within all ordinary limits1 certainly in curves of more than #bej metres #ab chains radius1 the gauge does not affect the question of curves4 ,the effect of a curve of larger radius than this appears1 both from much observation as from theory1 to arise merely from two causes1 the one centrifugal force1 which is easily neutralised1 and is independent of gauge2 the other from the axles not being able to travel in the direction of the radius1 and consequently the wheels not running in a tangent to the curve4 ,this also is unaffected by the width of gauge4 ,practically ,i believe the conditions are not altered4 ,fourthly4 ,the expenses of construction are not dependent on the breadth of gauge unless the total width allowed for the loads or carriages is thereby or for other reasons increased1 which is not a necessary consequence of a seven-feet gauge4 ,the wide gauge could be laid upon the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway without altering any of the works1 but in constructing the ,great ,western ,railway ,i thought it desirable to provide for carrying larger bodies1 and ,i placed the centres of the two railways #ac feet apart1 instead of #aa feet1 and therefore my railway became four feet wider in total width4 ,the increased cost of this1 including the cost of land1 will vary from #cjjl4 to #ejjl4 per mile4 ,fifthly4 ,the increase of width will not increase the weight of an engine 7of the same power7 #ejj lbs41 but ,i avail myself of the larger width to get more powerful engines1 and they weigh1 with water in the boiler1 #ah to #ba tons4 ,i send a drawing of one2 the stroke is #ah inches4 ,sixthly4 ,the passenger carriages are all on six wheels1 and excessively strong2 at present the framework of carriages and the whole of the waggons are made of iron4 ,the first-class carriages weigh1 with wheels1 c41 #g tons #af cwt4 7#ag1dgb lbs471 and carry #cb passengers4 ,second-class about the same weight1 and hold #gb4 ,seventhly and ,eighthly4 ,the comparison being on different railways under different managements and totally different circumstances1 no strictly correct comparative results can be given2 and of course the most opposite opinions are entertained and expressed4 ,i believe we travel much quicker at the same cost and with more ease1 and certainly the wear and tear of engines and carriages is very much less with us than with the other lines2 but for the reasons above stated it cannot be made matter of exact proof1 but remains matter of opinion4 ,the report of the ,gauge ,commission1 on being presented to ,parliament1 was referred by the ,house of ,commons to the ,board of ,trade1 who reported on it in ,june #ahdf4 ,they did not1 however1 concur with the ,commissioners to the full extent of their recommendations2 for1 while admitting the break of gauge to be an evil1 they could not1 having regard to the circumstances under which the broad gauge companies had been established1 and the interest they had acquired1 recommend either that the broad gauge should be reduced to narrow1 or that rails should be laid down for narrow gauge traffic over all their lines4 ,such measures would involve great expense1 and they were unable to suggest any equitable mode of meeting it4 ,this conclusion necessarily affected the opinion of the ,board of ,trade in regard to the several lines under construction connected with the ,great ,western ,railway1 which the ,board recommended should be all made on the broad gauge4 ,in regard to the broad-gauge lines sanctioned by ,parliament from ,oxford to ,rugby1 and from ,oxford to ,worcester and ,wolverhampton1 the ,board determined to exercise their powers in requiring the narrow gauge to be laid down1 in addition to the broad4 ,the ,house of ,commons adopted the recommendations of the ,board of ,trade1 and passed a series of resolutions in conformity thereto1 and #8,an ,act for regulating the ,gauge of ,railways' received the ,royal ,assent on ,august #ah1 #ahdf4 ,it was enacted that it should not be lawful to construct any new passenger railway on any other gauge than #d feet #h inches in ,england1 and #e feet #c inches in ,ireland4 ,exceptions1 however1 were made in favour of certain lines in the west of ,england and ,south ,wales4 ,the provisions relating to the gauge in the ,acts for the ,oxford and ,rugby1 and the ,oxford1 ,worcester1 and ,wolverhampton ,railways1 were left in force4 ,the ,act also generally excepted #8any railway constructed or to be constructed under the provisions of any present or future ,act containing any special enactment defining the gauge or gauges of such railway or any part thereof4' ,this ,act1 while it professed to establish the narrow gauge as the standard throughout the kingdom1 did so only nominally2 in reality1 by the words #8present or future1' in the passage above quoted1 it left the question of the gauge of any new railway open for the consideration of the committee on the particular bill2 and it only obliged the promoters of the undertaking to adopt the narrow gauge when no case could be proved by them for the adoption of some other4 ,this was equivalent to the former state of things1 so that all the agitation of the question had ended in a mere expression of opinion1 and the broad-gauge party were not only left with all their former liberty1 but were encouraged1 and almost compelled1 to push their system still farther wherever they could4 99 99 99 99 99 ,about the time of the passing of the ,gauge ,act1 a ,board of ,commissioners of ,railways was established1 to whom the powers formerly possessed by the ,board of ,trade were transferred4 ,one of the first duties of the ,commissioners was to provide for the due compliance with the order of the ,board of ,trade respecting the introduction of the narrow gauge1 in conjunction with the broad1 on the ,oxford and ,rugby ,railway4 ,it was proposed to effect this either by laying a narrow gauge line concentrically between the two rails of the broad gauge1 or by laying down only one additional rail between the two broad-gauge rails1 making one of the latter serve for both broad and narrow gauges4 ,mr4 ,brunel recommended the second of these plans to be adopted on the ,oxford and ,rugby line4 ,after a careful consideration of the question1 the ,commissioners sanctioned the mixed gauge formed by the introduction of a third rail2 this was accordingly laid down1 and none of the dangers which were at the time prognosticated in reference to it were found to exist4 ,it has been the plan almost exclusively used in the many cases where the combination of the two gauges has been required4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #ahdf the ,great ,western ,railway ,company had promoted a bill for a branch to ,birmingham from the ,oxford and ,rugby line at ,fenny ,compton4 ,the ,act was obtained1 but they were defeated on the question of the gauge4 ,however1 after the passing of the ,gauge ,act1 the ,company again attempted to carry the broad gauge to ,birmingham4 ,their application was backed by a strong memorial from the districts interested1 and in ,june #ahdg an order was passed by the ,house of ,lords directing the ,board of ,commissioners of ,railways-- ,to inquire into the accommodation afforded by the several lines of railway now open1 or in the course of construction1 or projected1 between ,london and ,birmingham2 and to report to this ,house1 early in the ensuing ,session of ,parliament in what manner they are of opinion that the interests of the public may be most effectually ecured in regard to such lines2 and whether it is expedient that the broad gauge should be extended to ,birmingham2 and if so1 in what manner such an arrangement can be carried into effect with the least interference with existing interests4444 ,this1 of course1 opened up again the whole question of the comparative merits of the two gauges4 ,the ,railway ,commissioners issued a series of queries addressed to the officials of the ,great ,western and the ,london and ,north ,western ,railway ,companies1 and others4 ,on the part of the ,great ,western1 answers were given by ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,daniel ,gooch4 ,mr4 ,gooch also furnished the results1 with tables and diagrams1 of a very comprehensive series of dynamometrical experiments1 made by him on a mile of straight and level line on the ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway4 ,these experiments fully demonstrated the advantages of the broad gauge1 and are still the chief authority on train resistances4#eh ,in their report the ,commissioners adopted the opinion of the ,gauge ,commissioners #8that a break of gauge was a most serious impediment in the transport of merchandise1 and that the broad gauge did not offer any compensating advantage so far as that description of traffic was concerned4' ,in regard1 however1 to passenger traffic1 they found a case for further enquiry4 ,they said-- ,it is notorious that higher speeds1 with larger and heavier passenger trains1 are regularly maintained on a part of the line of the ,great ,western ,railway than on any other railway in the country4 ,this fact is known and greatly appreciated by a very large portion of the public2 and no opinion respecting the extension of the district within which the broad gauge should be adopted is likely to be received with confidence which is not founded on a full consideration of the circumstances to which the above fact is to be attributed1 and of the extent to which1 under differing circumstances1 if attributable to the breadth of gauge1 the gauge of the ,great ,western ,railway offers this advantage 7p4 #aa74 ,they assumed that the greater speed was due to greater engine power1 and they admitted that the increase of gauge allowed of an increase in the size and power of the locomotive4 ,they arrived at the result that the broad-gauge engine #8can draw on a level an ordinary #8passenger train of #fj tons with as much facility at #8sixty miles an hour as the narrow-gauge engines can at #8fifty1' the advantage1 however1 diminishing with steep gradients4 ,in their report the following passages are to be found3-- ,such appear to the ,commissioners to be the advantages which the broad gauge at present offers2 and although they cannot consider them sufficient to compensate the evils attendant on two gauges1 if it were now possible to obtain uniformity of gauge1 yet1 as two gauges are established1 it appears to them that it might be expedient1 and for the public interest1 on account of those advantages1 to extend the broad gauge to ,birmingham 444 7p4 #ad47 ,by introducing the mixed gauge on the ,birmingham and ,oxford ,junction ,railway1 the line from ,birmingham by ,fenny ,compton to ,london would probably offer1 as a broad-gauge railway1 as rapid a communication as the existing direct line2#ei and great as the advantages which the public have received by the rivalry between the gauges1 in the rapid improvement in railway travelling1 have been1 it might even be expected that these would be further increased when the two systems are brought into direct competition1 which as yet they have not been 7p4 #af74 ,the report of the ,railway ,commissioners was presented in ,may #ahdh4 ,their decision was ratified by the passing of an ,act in the same session for extending the broad gauge from ,oxford to ,birmingham2 and the line was opened in ,october #aheb4 ,beyond ,birmingham the ,great ,western ,company purchased existing railways leading through ,wolverhampton and ,shrewsbury to ,chester1 and obtained access to ,birkenhead and ,manchester4 ,it thus secured a communication with the great ,lancashire towns and the manufacturing districts4 ,but all the lines north of ,wolverhampton had been constructed on the narrow gauge1 and therefore1 unless the broad gauge had been laid down on these lines1 there was a break of gauge between the northern districts and ,london4 ,the break of gauge was found to be a much more serious evil than had been anticipated by the ,great ,western ,company when they were fighting their great battle in #ahde4 ,for passengers the inconvenience was unimportant2 but for the goods traffic between the manufacturing towns and ,london it was serious1 partly on account of the expense1 but more especially in consequence of the loss of time4 ,the delay of some hours by change of waggons1 where great competition existed1 was fatal4 ,for these reasons the abolition of the break of gauge became desirable4 ,the number of narrow-gauge lines had by the year #ahfa been so increased that there was no longer any hope of advantageously extending the broad gauge in the north4 ,therefore the mixed gauge was completed to ,london4 ,after the establishment of the narrow-gauge communication on the northern lines of the ,great ,western1 and its prolongation to ,london1 there was but little inducement to use the broad gauge north of ,didcot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so far as it extended1 the broad gauge had exhibited in a marked degree the advantages ,mr4 ,brunel claimed for it1 and which were neither few nor unimportant4 ,it may be desirable before concluding this chapter to sum up those advantages3-- #a4 ,it gave the power of constructing more powerful engines1 by which greater speed for passenger trains and greater tractive power for heavy goods trains were obtained4#fj #b4 ,it gave more space for the convenient arrangement and beneficial proportions of the machinery1 as well as for convenient access to it4 ,in all these points difficulties had been found on the narrow gauge2 and the compulsory restriction of so important a dimension as the width between the rails has been a bar to any improvements of great magnitude or comprehensive nature4 #c4 ,it gave1 even with the overhanging carriage1 the facility for obtaining large wheels1 and consequently diminishing the axle friction without sacrifice of stability4 #d4 ,the greater width of base for the carriages to rest on gave increased steadiness and smoothness of motion1 particularly at high speeds4 ,it was the impulse given by the increase of speed and comfort obtained without difficulty on the broad gauge1 which had led to the chief improvements introduced in railway travelling4 #e4 ,greater safety was secured1 particularly at high speed1 from the greater stability of position due to the wider base1 producing increased steadiness and diminishing the chance under exceptional circumstances of the derangement of any part of the train4 #f4 ,while the broad gauge was but little more costly than the narrow1 the width of the works being determined not by the width of the rails1 but by the width of the carriages1 and the extra cost of rolling stock being very small1#fa the broad gauge could be worked more economically under parallel circumstances than the narrow4 #g4 ,it gave the facility of using broader vehicles with equal steadiness1 in cases where the extra breadth would be useful1 though the extra breadth was by no means an essential part of the scheme4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the truth of these assertions1 as establishing the superiority of the broad gauge1 was of course vehemently denied by the advocates of the narrow gauge4 ,one objection urged by them1 the inconveniences of the break of gauge1 has undoubtedly been proved by experience to be a very powerful one1 so powerful indeed as to compel the abandonment of the broad gauge on the lines where any considerable quantity of goods traffic has to be carried in competition with other companies4 ,had ,mr4 ,brunel's original plan been carried out1 and had the broad-gauge companies taken possession of all the western portions of ,england1 and avoided extensions into the north1 the points of contact would no doubt have been so unimportant that no great inconvenience would have arisen1 or a few miles of double gauge would have removed any difficulty2 but1 under the actual circumstances of the case1 the ,great ,western ,company were forced to yield4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the advantages of the broad gauge were so much appreciated by the districts it served1 that its abandonment was viewed with considerable displeasure1 particularly in the neighbourhood of ,birmingham2 but the inconvenience of double traffic arrangements far outweighed the advantages derivable from the use of the broad gauge1 to the limited extent it could be applied on those outlying portions of the ,great ,western system4 ,for these reasons the ,company came to the determination to work their northern lines on the narrow gauge only4 ,the broad gauge is therefore now confined to the district for which it was originally intended4 ,even in this district there are many points of contact with the narrow gauge2 but the inconveniences of break of gauge are by no means so important as they were in the north1 and do not1 at present at least1 menace the continued existence of ,mr4 ,brunel's design4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,atmospheric ,,system4 ,a4,d4 #ahdj--ahdh4 ,,tatis #ce--dc4 ,,preliminary ,,observations--,,the ,,south ,,devon ,,railway--,,description ,,of ,,the ,,atmospheric ,,system--,,history ,,of ,,its ,,introduction ,,prior ,,to #ahdd--,,report ,,by ,,mr4 ,,brunel1 ,,recommending ,,its ,,adoption ,,on ,,the ,,south ,,devon ,,railway 7,,august #ai1 #ahdd7--;,,examination ,,of ,,this ,,report--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,evidence ,,before ,,the ,,select ,,committee ,,on ,,atmospheric ,,railways1 #ahde--;,,history ,,of ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,system ,,on ,,the ,,south ,,devon ,,railway1 #ahdd-ahdh--,,report ,,on ,,state ,,of ,,works 7,,august #bh1 #ahdg7--,,report ,,on ,,causes ,,of ,,failure 7,,august #ai1 #ahdh7--;,,abandonment ,,of ,,the ,,system1 ,,september #ahdh--,,note--,,comparison ,,of ,,stationary ,,and ,,locomotive ,,power4 ,in the year #ahdd ,mr4 ,brunel recommended the adoption of the ,atmospheric ,system of propulsion on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 a line of #eb miles in length1 which he was then constructing between ,exeter and ,plymouth4 ,this system had1 under the management of ,messrs4 ,clegg and ,samuda1 been in operation with success on the ,dalkey line for some time before ,mr4 ,brunel adopted their apparatus on the ,south ,devon ,railway4 ,after it had been in use on the ,south ,devon for about twelve months1 it was abandoned1 and the railway worked throughout by locomotives4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is therefore as important as it is interesting to examine the causes of the failure of the ,atmospheric ,system1 and to consider the reasons which induced ,mr4 ,brunel in the first instance to adopt it1 and afterwards to recommend its abandonment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,up to about the year #ahdc1 the cost of railways1 which was in a great measure due to the conditions imposed by the limited capabilities of the locomotive1 had prevented their construction1 except in cases where they would secure a large traffic1 and at the same time traverse what was then considered a practicable country4 ,a curvature of one mile radius was regarded as the maximum generally admissible on a line where high speeds were aimed at1 and auxiliary locomotives were required to work heavy gradients4 ,nevertheless1 by the growing wants of the public and the growing boldness of engineers1 the railway system was gradually being forced into districts hitherto regarded as unsuitable for it2 and no country was held to be impracticable where the gradients could be surmounted by the inconvenient and costly expedient of auxiliary power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the south of ,devon had for several years demanded railway accommodation1 and at the period now under review1 ,mr4 ,brunel projected what was called the coast line4 ,this line1 while it best accommodated the population of the district1 passed through a very difficult country4 ,if it was to be constructed at a moderate cost1 curves of a quarter of a mile radius had to be admitted2 and above #cj miles of its entire length traversed a district involving the adoption of gradients steeper than had been elsewhere used for such considerable distances4 ,the ,act for this railway was obtained in the ,session of #ahdd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,south ,devon ,railway1 on leaving ,exeter1 crosses the flat country on the right bank of the river ,exe1 as far as ,starcross1 a village nearly opposite to ,exmouth4 ,from this point it runs down to the coast and along the sea-shore1 by ,dawlish1 to ,teignmouth2 being protected by a sea-wall for the greater part of the distance1 and passing through several headlands by short tunnels4 ,beyond ,teignmouth it follows the left bank of the river ,teign1 which it crosses a short distance before reaching the station at ,newton ,abbott4 ,the portion of the line from ,exeter to ,newton--#ba miles in length--is very nearly level1 the steep inclines for which the railway is noted being west of ,newton4 ,between ,newton and ,totness1 for the first mile and a half the line is almost level1 and in the next two miles it rises #bjj feet1 with gradients of #a in #ajj1 #a in #fj1 and nearly a mile of #a in #dc4 ,at the summit is a short tunnel2 and thence the line descends #agj feet in a mile and three-quarters1 with gradients of #a in #dj and #a in #dc for about three-quarters of a mile1 and gradients of #a in #eg and #a in #hh for the rest of the incline4 ,it then runs with more moderate gradients and about a mile and a half of level line to ,totness4 ,from the valley of the ,dart at ,totness the line rises at once by a rapid ascent of #cej feet in four miles and a half1 with gradients varying from #a in #dh to #a in #ij1 more than a mile and a half averaging #a in #ej4 ,thence it runs1 with easy up and down gradients1 for a distance of #ab miles along the skirts of ,dartmoor1 crossing by lofty viaducts the deep valleys which penetrate the moor4 ,it then descends to ,plympton1 in the valley of the ,plym1 falling #bgc feet in a little more than two miles1 with a gradient of #a in #db4 ,from ,plympton the line for two miles is level1 and then rises on an incline of #a in #hj for a mile and a half1 and descends by a similar gradient into the ,plymouth station4 ,the main characteristics of the railway are that1 while it traverses a very heavy country1 its principal changes of level are concentrated into four long and steep inclines4 ,these four inclines were intended to be worked by auxiliary power4 ,hitherto on gradients of unusual steepness a stationary engine with rope traction had been generally regarded as the only available expedient2 but the special difficulties by which this system was encumbered rendered it unsuitable for high-speed passenger traffic1 and practically inapplicable to an extended line4 ,it had1 however1 been very successfully employed by ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson on the ,blackwall ,railway1 a line of about #c miles in length4 ,messrs4 ,clegg and ,samuda1 the projectors of the ,atmospheric ,system1 which was another mode of using stationary power1 had1 previously to this period1 laboured to attract the attention and win the favourable opinion of engineers and the general public4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is desirable1 before proceeding further1 to give a brief description of this system of traction1 upon the merits of which distinguished engineers entertained widely different opinions4 ,between the two rails of the line of way was laid a cast-iron tube1 which on the ,croydon and ,dalkey railways and the completed or level portion of the ,south ,devon ,railway was fifteen inches in diameter4 ,on the inclines it was proposed to use a twenty-two inch tube4 ,at intervals of about three miles along the line were erected stationary engines1 working large air-pumps1 by means of which air could be exhausted from the tube1 and a partial vacuum created within it4 ,a close-fitting piston was placed in one end of the tube1 and the air being exhausted from it1 the pressure of the external air on the surface of the piston which was towards the open end of the tube forced the piston through the tube towards the end where the air-pumps were working2 so that if the piston were connected with a carriage running on the rails1 it would draw the carriage with it4 ,the connection between the piston and the carriage was arranged by ,messrs4 ,clegg and ,samuda in the following way3#fb ,along the top of the tube was a slit about #b inches wide2 this slit was closed by a long flap of leather1 which was strengthened with iron plates1 and secured to the tube at one side of the slit4 ,one edge of the leather thus formed a continuous hinge2 the other edge1 where it closed on the tube1 was sealed with a composition of grease1 to render it air-tight4 ,this flap was known by the name of the longitudinal valve4 ,when the valve was closed1 the air could be exhausted from the tube in front of the piston1 and a partial vacuum formed4 ,behind the piston1 the air being at atmospheric pressure both within and without the tube1 there was no objection to opening the longitudinal valve2 and a bar1 extending downwards from the under side of the carriage1 entered the slit obliquely under the opened valve1 and was connected to the rear end of a frame about ten feet long1 the front end of which carried the piston4 ,to allow the bar to pass along the slit1 the valve was opened on its hinge1 being pressed upwards by a series of wheels carried by the moving piston-frame inside the tube4 ,the valve closed again after the passage of the train2 and the tube was ready to be exhausted in preparation for the passage of the next train4#fc ,the ,atmospheric ,system was first tried in #ahdj4 ,an experimental tube was laid down at ,wormwood ,scrubs on part of the short line now incorporated into the ,west ,london ,railway1 and then known by the title of the ,bristol1 ,birmingham1 and ,thames ,junction ,railway4 ,its working was the subject of eager discussion among engineers4 ,in #ahdb ,sir ,frederic ,smith1 ,r4,e41 and ,professor ,barlow1 under an order from the ,board of ,trade1 reported so favourably on the system with reference to the proposal for its application on the ,dalkey branch of the ,dublin and ,kingstown ,railway1 that it was adopted there4 ,in #ahdc ,mr4 7afterwards ,sir ,william7 ,cubitt determined to employ it on the ,croydon ,railway2 and about the same time ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson was desired by the ,directors of the ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway to report on the propriety of introducing it on that line4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's report was based on a series of experiments on the working of the system at ,dalkey4 ,the view he took was adverse to its adoption1 not only on the ,chester and ,holyhead1 but on almost every railway whatsoever2 and this on the ground that1 though it was quite capable of being developed into a practical working system1 yet on lines with ordinary gradients the atmospheric traction must be considerably more costly than locomotive traction1 and on steep gradients than rope traction2 in other words1 that1 as a mechanical appliance it was1 though practicable1 not economical4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's report had no sooner appeared than the correctness of his conclusions was disputed on his giving evidence before a ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 in the spring of #ahdd1 on the ,croydon and ,epsom ,railway ,bill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,brunel also was summoned as a witness4 ,previously to this time he had taken a great interest in the various attempts which had been made to introduce the ,atmospheric ,system1 and he had himself conducted experiments at ,wormwood ,scrubs and at ,dalkey4 ,as early as ,july #ahdj he had considered its applicability to the ,box ,tunnel incline on the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,he had also considered it in reference to various projected lines2 and in #ahdc he recommended it for adoption in a long tunnel on one of the steep inclines of the ,genoa and ,turin ,railway1 the success of the system being then 7he wrote7 sufficient to justify its use on a part of the line protected from weather4 ,it was not1 however1 applied on this railway4#fd ,mr4 ,brunel's views at this time are indicated in the following letter3-- ,april #h1 #ahdd4 ,any part ,i have taken in examining into the system has been purely from the desire which ,i always feel to forward good inventions2 and when ,i have formed a decided opinion1 no fear of the consequences ever prevents my expressing it4 ,my great anxiety1 however1 is to see a line of railway and all its appurtenances made expressly for the ,atmospheric ,system1 and worked accordingly2 until this is done the results will be comparatively unsatisfactory4 ,although unwilling to express general opinions1 ,mr4 ,brunel spoke strongly before the ,croydon and ,epsom ,railway ,committee in favour of the advantages of the ,atmospheric ,system under certain circumstances1 and approved of its use on that line4 ,a few months later ,mr4 ,brunel recommended the ,directors of the ,south ,devon ,railway ,company to adopt the ,atmospheric ,system1 and they resolved to act on his advice4 ,his report was as follows3-- ,august #ai1 #ahdd4 ,i have given much consideration to the question referred to me by you at your last meeting--namely1 that of the advantage of the application of the ,atmospheric ,system to the ,south ,devon ,railway4 ,the question is not new to me1 as ,i have foreseen the possibility of its arising1 and have frequently considered it4 ,i shall assume1 and ,i am not aware that it is disputed by anybody1 that stationary power1 if freed from the weight and friction of any medium of communication1 such as a rope1 must be cheaper1 is more under command1 and is susceptible of producing much higher speeds than locomotive power2 and when it is considered that for high speeds1 such as sixty miles per hour1 the locomotive engine with its tender cannot weigh much less than half of the gross weight of the train1 the advantage and economy of dispensing with the necessity of putting this great weight also in motion will be evident4 ,i must assume also that as a means of applying stationary power the ,atmospheric ,system has been successful1 and that1 unless where under some very peculiar circumstances it is inapplicable1 it is a good economical mode of applying stationary power4 ,i am aware that this opinion is directly opposed to that of ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 who has written and published an elaborate statement of experiments and calculations founded upon them1 the results of which support his opinion4 ,it does not seem to me that we can obtain the minute data required for the mathematical investigation of such a question1 and that such calculations1 dependent as they are upon an unattained precision in experiments1 are as likely to lead you very far from the truth as not4 ,by the same mode ,m4 ,mallet and other ,french engineers have proved the success of the system2 and by the same mode of investigation ,dr4 ,lardner arrived at all those results regarding steam navigation and the speed to be attained on railways1 which have since proved so erroneous4 ,experience has led me to prefer what some may consider a more superficial1 but what ,i should call a more general and broader view1 and more capable of embracing all the conditions of the question--a practical view4 ,having considered the subject for several years past1 ,i have cautiously1 and without any cause for a favourable bias1 formed an opinion which subsequent experiments at ,dalkey have fully proved to be correct2 viz4 that the mere mechanical difficulties can be overcome1 and that the full effect of the partial vacuum produced by an air-pump can be communicated1 without any loss or friction worth taking into consideration1 to a piston attached to the train4 ,in this point of view the experiment at ,dalkey has entirely succeeded4 ,a system of machinery which even at the first attempt works without interruption and constantly for many months1 may be considered practically to be free from any mechanical objection4 ,no locomotive line that ,i have been connected with has been equally free from accidents4 ,that which is true for one railway of two miles in length is equally true for a second or third1 although they may be placed the one at the end of the other2 the chances of an accident are only in the proportion of the number1 or in other words1 the length1 a proportion which holds equally good with locomotives1 except that a locomotive may be affected by the distance it has previously run1 while a stationary engine and its pipes cannot in like manner be affected by the previous working of the neighbouring engine and pipes4 ,in my opinion the ,atmospheric ,system is1 so far as any stationary power can be1 as applicable to a great length of line as it is to a short one4 ,upon all these points ,i could advance many arguments and many proofs1 but ,i shall content myself with saying that1 as a professional man1 ,i express a decided opinion that1 as a mechanical contrivance1 the ,atmospheric apparatus has succeeded perfectly as an effective means of working trains by stationary power1 whether on long or short lines1 at higher velocity and with less chance of interruption than is now effected by locomotives4 ,i will now proceed to consider the question of the advantage of its application to the ,south ,devon ,railway4 ,it will simplify the discussion of the question very much if it is considered as a comparison between a double line worked by locomotives in the usual manner1 and a single line of railway worked by stationary power1 the only peculiarity of the present case being that upon four separate portions of the whole #eb miles stationary assistant power would under any circumstances have been used1 these four inclines forming together one-fifth of the whole distance4 ,it is necessary to consider it as a question of a single line on account of the expense1 the cost of the pipe for each line being about #c1ejjl4 per mile4 ,an addition of #g1jjjl4 per mile1 or of about #ccj1jjjl41 in the first construction could not be counterbalanced by any adequate advantage in the saving in the works on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 and probably not by any subsequent economy or advantage in the working2 but the system admits of the working with a single line1 without danger of collision1 certainly with less than upon a double locomotive line4 ,and ,i believe also that1 considering the absence of most of the causes of accidents1 there will even be less liability of interruption and less delay in the average resulting from accidents than in the ordinary double locomotive railway4 ,by the modification of the gradients and by reducing the curves to #a1jjj feet radius where any great advantage can be gained by so doing1 and by constructing the cuttings1 embankments1 tunnels1 and viaducts for a single line1 a considerable saving may be effected in the first cost4 ,in the permanent way and ballasting1 the reduction will be about one-half4 ,i should propose to make the rails about #eb lbs4 weight and the timber #ab #f2 the quantity of ballast would probably be rather more than half1 but at the present prices of iron and timber the saving could not be less than #b1ejjl4 per mile4 ,from a careful revision of the works generally1 ,i consider that a reduction may be effected in the following items1 and to the amount specified in each1 viz41 ballasting gradients and curves3-- s4 d4 ,reduction in earth work #af1ejj #j #j in length of principal tunnel #ad1jjj #j #j -------------- #cj1ejj #j #j ,saving by single line4 ,earthwork #be1jjj #j #j ,tunnels #aa1ejj #j #j ,viaducts #ae1jjj #j #j ,permanent way and ballast4 ,to allow for sidings1 say #ej miles1 #b1ejjl4 #abe1jjj #j #j --------------- #bjg1jjj #j #j ,per contra4 ,pipe on #da miles#fe #ach1ejj ,increase on inclined planes1 #aj miles #f1ejj s4 d4 #ade1jjj #j #j ,engines for the #da miles #ce1jjj #j #j ,patent right1 say #aj1jjj #j #j --------------- #aij1jjj #j #j ,the difference in first cost therefore is #ag1jjj #j #j ,to this must however be added the cost of the locomotive power1 with its attendant expenses of engine-houses1 c41 which cannot1 ,i think1 be put at less than #ej1jjj #j #j -------------- ,making a saving of #fg1jjj #j #j ,i have not included in the expense of the ,atmospheric apparatus that of the telegraph1 because at its present reduced cost of #afjl4 per mile ,i am convinced its use would repay the outlay in either case4 ,it would appear1 then1 that the line can be constructed and furnished with the moving power1 in working order1 on the ,atmospheric ,system1 for something less than the construction only of the railway fitted for the locomotive power1 but without the engines2 and that taking into consideration the cost of locomotive power1 a saving in first outlay may be effected of upwards of #fj1jjjl4 ,but it is in the subsequent working that ,i believe the advantages will be most sensible4 ,in the first place1 with the gradients and curves of the ,south ,devon ,railway between ,newton and ,plymouth1 a speed of thirty miles per hour would have been1 for locomotives1 a high speed1 and under unfavourable circumstances of weather and of load1 it would probably have been found difficult and expensive to have maintained even this2 with the ,atmospheric1 and with the dimensions of pipes ,i have assumed1 a speed of forty to fifty miles may certainly be depended upon1 and ,i have no doubt that from twenty-five to thirty-five minutes may be saved in the journey4 ,secondly1 the cost of running a few additional trains so far as the power is concerned is so small1 the plant of engines1 the attendance of engine-men1 c41 remaining the same1 that it may almost be neglected in the calculations2 so that short trains1 or extra trains with more frequent departures1 adapted in every respect to the varying demands of the public1 can be worked at a very moderate cost4 ,i have no doubt that a considerable augmentation of the general traffic will be thus effected1 by means which with locomotive engines would be very expensive1 and frequently unattainable1 particularly as regards one class of short trains1 whether for passenger or goods1 which from the inconvenience of working them by locomotives are hardly known--,i refer to trains between the intermediate stations4 ,by many means1 which the easy command of a motive power at any time1 at every part of a line1 must afford of accommodating the public1 ,i believe the traffic may be increased4 ,it appears to me also that the quality of the travelling will be much improved2 that we shall attain greater speed1 less noise and motion1 and an absence of the coke dust1 which is certainly still a great nuisance2 and an inducement will thus be held out to those 7the majority of travellers7 who travel either solely for pleasure1 or at least not from necessity1 and who are mainly influenced by the degree of comfort with which they can go from place to place4 ,lastly1 the average cost of working the trains will be much less than by locomotives4 ,with the gradients of the ,south ,devon ,railway1 and assuming that not less than eight trains1 including mail and goods trains1 running the whole distance1 and certainly one short train running half the distance1 be the least number that would suffice1 ,i think an annual saving of #h1jjjl4 a year in locomotive expenses1 including allowance for depreciation of plant1 may very safely be relied upon4 ,for all the reasons above quoted1 ,i have no hesitation in taking upon myself the full and entire responsibility of recommending the adoption of the ,atmospheric ,system on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 and of recommending as a consequence that the line and works should be constructed for a single line only4#ff ,in this report ,mr4 ,brunel rested his recommendation principally on two assumptions1 which he held to be indisputable--7#a7 ,that stationary power1 if freed from incumbrances such as the friction and dead weight of a rope1 was superior to locomotive power2 and 7#b7 ,that the ,atmospheric ,system of traction was theoretically a good and economical method of applying stationary power1 and that it was also a practical and working system1 as had been shown in its first and somewhat crude application at ,dalkey4 ,the superiority of stationary as compared with locomotive power depends on two principles--7a7 ,that a given amount of power may be supplied by a stationary engine at a less cost than if supplied by a locomotive4 7b7 ,that the dead weight of a locomotive forms a large proportion of the whole travelling load1 and thus inherently involves a proportionate waste of power--a waste which is enhanced by the steepness of the gradients and the speed of the trains4 ,a detailed examination of these principles is given in the note to this chapter4 ,it is there shown that at the time referred to stationary power could be obtained for one farthing per horse-power per hour1 while locomotive power cost more than one penny per indicated horse-power per hour1 the cost of the locomotive power being more than four times that of the stationary power4 ,on a level line at a speed of #fj miles per hour1 for each horse-power usefully employed1 a locomotive1 in consequence of its own dead weight and the friction of its machinery1 is obliged to expend more than one and a half horse-power2 in this case1 therefore1 the useful work done costs nearly seven times as much as if it had been performed by a stationary engine4 ,again1 on so moderate an ascent as one in #ge1 for each horse-power usefully employed1 the locomotive has to expend at #dj miles per hour more than two horse-power1 and at #fj miles per hour three horse-power2 so that the useful work done costs in the one case nearly ten times1 in the other thirteen times1 as much as if it had been performed by a stationary engine4 ,this great advantage of stationary over locomotive power was a sufficient justification for introducing a system which promised to realise it to any considerable extent2 although many difficulties might have to be encountered4 ,as has been already stated1 ,mr4 ,brunel had satisfied himself that the ,atmospheric ,system was theoretically economical1 and that its trial at ,dalkey had shown that it was practically free from mechanical objections4 ,mr4 ,stephenson1 indeed1 had admitted that the mechanical details had been brought to a remarkable degree of perfection2 but this admission was not any qualification of the radical difference of opinion which existed between him and ,mr4 ,brunel1 to which ,mr4 ,brunel drew attention in his report of ,august #ahdd4 ,the subsequent abandonment of the ,atmospheric ,system led many to believe that ,mr4 ,brunel had been rash in rejecting the detailed investigations and conclusions of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 and that the adverse conclusions which ,mr4 ,brunel had refused to entertain were subsequently established4 ,but1 in fact1 the failure of the ,atmospheric ,system was due to failure in some of its mechanical details1 and was not due to those inherent defects in its principle which ,mr4 ,stephenson in his report considered that his experimental data had established4 ,mr4 ,brunel's opinions were again brought prominently into notice in the evidence given by him before a ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 which was appointed in the ,session of #ahde1 in consequence of the number of projected lines which it was proposed to work by the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,the following letter1 written by ,mr4 ,brunel to one of the members of the ,committee1 explains what he considered to be his position at this time3-- ,april #c1 #ahde4 ,i am summoned to attend your ,committee on ,friday1 and as it is known that ,i have expressed opinions favourable to the ,atmospheric ,system1 and that ,i am actually applying it upon a line of some length1 it would be considered an absurd affectation1 and would1 moreover1 be useless to attempt1 to avoid giving evidence when so called upon2 but ,i am a most unwilling witness4 ,i think it rather hard upon a professional man1 who wishes to be cautious and prudent1 that he should be called upon to express general opinions1 which1 if written even in the most studied and careful language1 cannot be so worded as to be applicable to every case that may hereafter arise1 or to be proof against the unfair and unscrupulous attack of the paid writers on these controversies4 ,i mention these difficulties1 which ,i feel that you may make some allowances for1 if my feelings should appear in my evidence1 or if that evidence should appear to fall very short of the opinions ,i am known to entertain1 and which ,i must entertain to induce me to apply the system extensively1 as ,i am doing4 ,i find it difficult to define the points upon which it would be desirable to examine engineering witnesses1 and ,i really believe that1 entering freshly upon the subject and feeling as one of the public1 you are more likely to elicit the useful points than one who1 like myself1 has been turning his whole attention 7lately1 at least7 solely to the mechanical construction4 ,however1 ,i enclose a copy of a letter ,i addressed to a party interested in the patent1 which refers to my opinions on the several points--opinions1 however1 expressed without that caution to which ,i referred as so necessary4 7,enclosure47 ,march #ca1 #ahde4 ,i object very much to giving evidence upon the abstract point of the applicability of a particular system1 and thus furnishing general opinions which others are to apply as they may choose to particular cases2 and if ,i could1 ,i would refuse to give evidence at all before the present ,committee1 whatever might be the consequence to the promoters of the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,circumstances1 however1 render such a refusal impossible2 but ,i am equally anxious not to be drawn into becoming an advocate of a system4 ,when ,i gave evidence last year1#fg although it was then very much against my inclination1 it was in support of a particular case2 and it was only incidentally that my opinion was advanced as to a system4 ,the evidence is now avowedly sought in support of a system1 and ,i do not1 as ,i before stated1 intend to become an advocate of this or any other system4 ,i mention these my views to prevent disappointment4 ,if the following facts and opinions are likely to be of use to the ,committee1 ,i can give evidence on them4 ,i made experiments upon the portion of railway laid on ,wormwood ,scrubs4 ,these experiments were made for my own private satisfaction1 and not made public in any way4 ,they satisfied me of the mechanical practicability of the system4 ,in #ahdc and #ahdd ,i made several experiments upon the ,dalkey railway4 ,the result of my observations and of those experiments is an opinion that the mechanical difficulties attending the application of this system may be overcome1 and the whole as a machine made to work in a very perfect manner2 that is1 as a mechanical power for locomotion it will generally1 but not in every case1 be more economical than what is strictly called locomotive power1 that high speeds may be more easily attained1 that1 from the absence of the locomotive engine1 the rails may be constructed and maintained in more perfect order1 and as a consequence the carriages may be constructed and worked in a more perfect manner1 and so as to run more smoothly1 and that in all respects the travelling may be rendered more rapid1 more luxurious1 and more safe4 ,as regards the last1 viz4 safety1 collisions may be rendered altogether impossible1 or most remotely possible2 while all other sources of danger1 now very small1 may be almost entirely removed by the increased perfection of the rails4 ,as regards first cost1 a single line may be made to answer all the purposes of a double locomotive line for most railways1 except main lines in immediate connection with the metropolis1 or forming trunk lines for others with important branches not under the same control2 and a single ,atmospheric line will generally cost as little1 often less1 including the working power1 than a double locomotive line without the engines4 ,i am now constructing a line of #eb miles in length entirely for the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,i already see many advantages to be attained in the setting out and constructing of a railway1 if originally designed for this system2 the principal advantages can only be attained1 and1 above all1 the principal difficulties in the system can only be properly provided against1 where the line is originally designed for the system2 the choice of gradients and curves and levels1 the position1 and1 above all1 the arrangements of stations1 will generally be totally different in the two systems1 and the difficulties to be avoided will equally differ4 ,it is unnecessary to give any extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's evidence1#fh as it only repeats the opinions and calculations embodied in his report of ,august #ahdd4 ,the ,committee1 while they allowed that experience could alone determine under what circumstances of traffic or of country the preference to the ,atmospheric or the ,locomotive ,system should be given1 reported very strongly in favour of the general merits of the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,as soon as it had been decided that the ,south ,devon was to be constructed as an ,atmospheric line1 the dimensions of the cuttings1 embankments1 and tunnels were arranged for a single line1 except on the long incline west of ,totness1 and on that east of ,plympton4 ,in the approaches to the principal summits the gradients were made somewhat steeper1 so as to reduce the excavations4 ,in ,december #ahdd1 ,mr4 ,brunel prepared a specification and drawing of a steam-engine and vacuum pump1 and a copy was sent to the most eminent engine-builders1 together with a letter inviting tenders for six pairs of engines4 ,the letter concluded as follows3-- ,any party whose tenders may be accepted1 shall1 if required1 furnish forthwith a more detailed drawing and specification of the engines as they propose to furnish them2 the specification and drawing now sent being expressly made very general1 in order that each manufacturer may1 so far as is consistent with the general requisites and conditions1 adopt his own methods of construction1 or use any existing patterns4 ,the economical character of the engines which ,mr4 ,brunel desired to obtain is sufficiently indicated by the requirement that they were to be high-pressure condensing engines1 fitted with double-seated expansion valves1 and having boilers proved to #ajj lbs4 per square inch1 and guaranteed to work with safety valves loaded to #dj lbs4 per square inch4 ,the tenders accepted were those of ,messrs4 ,boulton and ,watt1 ,messrs4 ,rennie1 and ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,field4 ,mr4 ,brunel left it to the contractors to prepare their designs without any interference on his part1 deeming it best to rely on their unfettered judgment4 ,the task of manufacturing and fitting the cast-iron tube was one of some difficulty1 the longitudinal slit allowing of considerable distortion in the casting4 ,this work was undertaken by ,mr4 ,george ,hennett1 by the aid of a set of very effective tools devised by ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,guppy4 ,the tubes were supplied at the rate of one mile per week1 and by the middle of #ahdf nearly the whole line was laid to ,newton1 and the valve was ready to be fixed4 ,in the autumn of #ahdf1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,samuda went to ,dawlish1 taking with him a staff of assistants trained in the working of the system at ,croydon2 and every effort was made to advance the completion of the engines and the other parts of the apparatus4 ,owing1 however1 to vexatious delays in the erection of the engine-houses and engines1 it was not until the commencement of #ahdg that a piston-carriage was able to traverse the first six miles out of ,exeter4 ,and1 though repeated experimental trains continued to be run1 no passengers had been conveyed by ,atmospheric trains prior to the general meeting of the shareholders1 at the end of ,august4 ,mr4 ,brunel's report on this occasion was as follows3-- ,august #bg1 #ahdg4 ,it is a subject of great regret1 and to no one more than to myself1 that we have as yet been unable to open any portion of the line to the public with the ,atmospheric apparatus1 although a considerable distance has for some months been in a state to admit of frequent experiments being made upon it4 ,this delay has arisen principally1 if not entirely1 in that part of the whole system which it might have been expected would have been the least exposed to it--namely1 the construction and completion of the steam-engines4 ,it is due to ,mr4 ,samuda that ,i should say that1 so far as regards the mere pipe and valve1 and other details which may be said to constitute the ,atmospheric apparatus1 we might long since have commenced4 ,but the engines1 although designed without any interference with their plans1 and furnished by the best makers of the country1 and although differing so slightly from the ordinary construction of steam-engines1 have proved sources of continued and most vexatious delays1 both in the unexpected length of time occupied originally in their erection1 and in subsequent correction of defects in minor parts4 ,while the engines were imperfect1 it would not only have been unwise to have commenced working the line1 even had it been practicable1 but the frequent interruptions to the continuous working of all the engines rendered it impossible to complete and test the different portions of the ,atmospheric apparatus4 ,there are still some defects to be remedied in one or two of the engines1 and ,i am using every endeavour1 by persuasion and by every other means in my power1 to urge on the manufacturers in their work of completion4 ,within the last week or two only have we been able to work at all continuously between ,exeter and ,teignmouth1 so as to have the opportunity of trying the different parts1 and getting the various details requisite for actually working trains tested and brought to sufficient perfection to ensure efficiency and regularity4 ,since the beginning of last week1 however1 four trains per day have been run regularly1 stopping at the stations1 and keeping their time as if working for traffic4 ,the tube and valve appear in good order1 and the whole has worked well1 but the running in this manner can alone show the deficiencies which may still exist in the details necessary for stopping1 and starting quickly from the stations1 and all the other minor operations incidental to working the traffic in the ordinary course2 and1 until all these arrangements are completed1 and the engines in more perfect order1 ,i think it would be much better to defer at least the substitution of the ,atmospheric for the locomotive working4 ,trains1 in addition to those now running may perhaps be advantageously worked for the public1 after a further short continuance of the present practising4 ,the two engines completing the number to ,newton are nearly ready for trial1 and it is to be presumed that1 after the experience of the past1 the makers will be enabled to put them at once into an efficient state4 ,the delays and difficulties attending the bringing into operation the ,atmospheric ,system upon this portion of the railway have been beyond all anticipation1 and beyond what any previous experience would have justified anybody in anticipating4 ,the difficulties have all been seriously aggravated by the necessity 7consequent1 certainly1 upon the original delays7 of working the line with locomotives during the construction and completion of the ,atmospheric apparatus4 ,not only has the constant occupation of the line interfered with the progress of the work1 but it has been necessary to devise all the arrangements so as to admit stations1 sidings1 and line being worked either by locomotive or by ,atmospheric in succession1 or even at the same time4 ,these difficulties1 added to those always consequent upon the introduction of any new system1 have been most wearying and incessant1 and ,i am not surprised that the public and the proprietors should have been impatient4 ,i trust the ultimate result will remove any grounds for disappointment4 ,the stress of personal anxiety and personal fatigue1 experienced by ,mr4 ,brunel and by all who were engaged in the work1 was very severe1 and continued so to the end4 ,not only was the progress in the completion of the work slow1 but in spite of every exertion the results were incessantly marred by unfortunate contingencies which involved further delay1 discouragement1 and expenditure4 ,moreover1 the reaction which followed the railway mania had set in2 calls were ill responded to1 and great difficulty was experienced in raising the money requisite for the completion of the line4 ,under these circumstances it was resolved1 on ,september #a1 not to incur any new expenses in relation to the ,atmospheric ,system beyond ,totness1 and to limit any expenditure already contracted for1 until its working between ,exeter and ,totness had been fairly tried1 except to provide assistant power up the two inclines4 ,on ,september #h the ,atmospheric trains began to take their share in the passenger duty of the line1 four trains running each way daily2 and1 except when occasional mishaps caused delay1 the new mode of traction was almost universally approved of4 ,the motion of the train1 relieved of the impulsive action of the locomotive1 was singularly smooth and agreeable2 and the passengers were freed from the annoyance of coke dust and the sulphureous smell from the engine chimney4 ,in other respects the record of progress is but a chequered one1 and exhibits1 in spite of great and able efforts and brightening intervals of occasional improvement1 indications of growing difficulties deepening into ultimate defeat4 ,in examining the chronicle of events which correspondence and memoranda supply1 it is inevitable that references to failure and disaster should be found relatively in far greater abundance than records of success2 and this for the simple reason that there was at that time great use in taking note of the unfavourable incidents that occurred1 almost none in mentioning successful work4 ,there is therefore some danger of falling into a mood of unjust depreciation1 such as ,mr4 ,brunel had in energetic terms urged the ,directors to guard themselves against4 ,he protested against their requiring 7as they once intended to do7-- continuous and detailed reports--if true and honest1 of course containing nothing but accounts of mishaps--of a system which 7he says7 we are struggling to render perfect4 ,why1 a daily account of our locomotive mishaps would ruin the locomotive system1 if it were new6 ,i will undertake to say that the mishaps of yesterday or to-day on the ,great ,western ,railway were as great as that of ,tuesday on the ,south ,devon4 ,the ,atmospheric ,system was vaguely credited with every delay which a train had experienced in any part of its journey2 though1 in point of fact1 a large proportion of these delays was really chargeable to that part of the journey which was performed with locomotives4 ,it often happened that time thus lost was made up on the ,atmospheric part of the line1 as is shown by a record of the working1 which is still extant4 ,in the week1 ,september #bj-be1 #ahdg1 it appears that the ,atmospheric trains are chargeable with a delay of #bh minutes in all2 while delays due to the late arrival of the locomotive trains1 amounting in all to #fb minutes1 were made up by the extra speed attainable on the ,atmospheric part of the line4 ,not unfrequently1 however1 casualties occurred2 due indeed to remediable causes1 but yet of discouraging aspect in themselves1 and deriving additional weight from the manner in which they reacted on the cost of working4 ,such1 for instance1 were the frequent and occasionally very serious breakages in essential parts of the pumping-engines4 ,again1 the cupped leathers of the travelling-piston1 which made it air-tight1 were often destroyed while it was passing the various inlet and outlet valves4 ,improvements in the valves were introduced to meet this difficulty2 but the remedy could not be applied at once throughout the line1 and much inconvenience was thus experienced1 and a considerable expense incurred4 ,another source of inconvenience was the water which at times accumulated within the tube4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in many respects the results which had been calculated on were realised1 and the new arrangements necessary to the working of the system were successfully brought into operation4 ,the speed of the trains corresponded fully with the degree of vacuum obtained2 that is to say1 the train resistances proved to be what had been anticipated4#fi ,after the trial of a great variety of air-pump valves1 a form was adopted which was found to answer exceedingly well4#gj ,in the ,atmospheric tube1 the system of self-acting inlet and outlet valves1 by which the piston was enabled to leave the tube on approaching a station and enter it again on recommencing its journey1 were1 on the whole1 successfully adapted to their duty4 ,again1 an arrangement for starting the train rapidly from the station1 without the help of horses or of locomotives1 had been brought practically into operation4 ,this arrangement consisted of a short auxiliary vacuum tube containing a piston which could be connected with the train by means of a tow-rope1 and thus draw it along till the piston of the piston carriage entered the main ,atmospheric tube4 ,some accidents at first occurred in using this apparatus1 but its defects were after a time removed2 and it is hardly to be doubted that the various minor difficulties of the ,atmospheric ,system could soon have been effectually mastered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it now remains to show how it was that1 in spite of much that was hopeful1 a vigorously sustained contest ended in defeat1 instead of being prolonged into victory4 ,in working the ,atmospheric ,system on the ,south ,devon ,railway grave difficulties were throughout encountered1 for which to the last only imperfect remedies could be found4 ,as regards the power consumed1 the engines of each pumping station worked up to about #bcf indicated horse-power1 and their regulated duty for each train1 including the anticipatory pumping1 was equivalent to #ee minutes of work for every mile of the length of tube they had to exhaust4 ,as the running speed averaged #dj miles per hour1 or a mile in #ae minutes1 the #bcf horse-power during the #ee minutes of pumping must be regarded as equivalent to #hfe horse-power during the actual passage of the train4 ,now1 making full allowance for piston friction and extra friction on curves1 for the power expended in getting up speed1 for the excess of air-pump resistance due to the changes of temperature experienced by the air under exhaustion1 and even for the very large actual amount of friction in the engines employed1 the work done should have been represented by an expenditure of #bdj horse-power during the passage of the train4 ,if to this is added an allowance for leakage1 such as the experiments at ,dalkey indicated would be amply sufficient with the longitudinal valve in good condition1 it may be said that ,mr4 ,brunel had a right to expect that the duty would be performed with an expenditure of #cjj horse-power2 whereas it actually required #hfe horse-power1 or nearly three times the amount4 ,the explanation of this waste is simple4 ,serious and unexpected causes of failure developed themselves in the longitudinal valve1 and led to an excessive amount of leakage4 ,a great part of the normal duty of the engines was1 as has been stated1 to exhaust the tube previous to the entry of the train2 and when1 owing to leakage1 the amount of air to be so pumped out was greatly increased1 it became necessary that the operation should be commenced much earlier4 ,there was thus a longer time during which the leakage could take place1 and a still greater amount of air to be pumped out4 ,it therefore followed that a large increase of leakage involved waste of power in an enormously increased proportion4 ,the length of time occupied by the anticipatory pumping was often increased by the difficulty of arranging proper telegraphic communication on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 and by the absence of it on the ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway4 ,the ,electric ,telegraph was in its infancy1 and though ,mr4 ,brunel had been the first to apply it in connection with railways1 namely1 between ,london and ,slough on the ,great ,western ,railway in the year #ahci1 it was not brought into perfect working order on the ,south ,devon ,railway till the ,atmospheric ,system was on the point of being abandoned4 ,the result of the defects in the telegraph was that1 when a train was late1 warning was not received at the several engine-houses2#ga and thus1 when this was the case1 the pumping-engines which had been started at the right interval of time before the train was due1 had to be kept at work for a needlessly long period pumping out the air1 which was all the while leaking in through the deteriorated valve4 ,this inefficiency of the telegraphic apparatus would have been of trifling importance but for the defects of the valve4 ,had the valve been as perfect as it was expected to be1 the vacuum1 after it had been formed1 could have been maintained by an expenditure of power very moderate in comparison with that which was actually required4 ,as regards the relative cost of the power consumed1 it appears that1 owing to imperfections in the engines1 their expenditure of fuel per indicated horse-power was more than double that of the best of the ,cornish pumping-engines1 to which they were analogous2 while the cost of working was more than three times as great4 ,the defects in the engines were for the most part such as might have been remedied2 and this would have been done1 had not the excessive duty imposed on them by the leakage of the longitudinal valve prevented their being stopped for repairs and alterations4 ,in this way the defects of the different parts of the apparatus mutually aggravated each other4 ,it appears then that1 chiefly owing to the defective longitudinal valve1 the engines were expending nearly three times the power which they should have done for a given tractive duty1 according to previous experience1 and the results obtained on the ,dalkey line1 and that they cost per horse-power at least three times as much as was expected4 ,the cost of traction1 nearly nine times as much as had been calculated on1 was between two and a half and three times what it would have been with locomotive power2 and this was on a level part of the line1 where the comparative advantages of the ,atmospheric ,system were not exhibited as they would have been in the part which had steep gradients4 ,the imperfections of the longitudinal valve have now to be described4 ,by its condition the ,atmospheric ,system had to stand or fall4 ,with an efficient valve1 the defects of the other parts of the apparatus would have been of minor importance1 and time would have been given for remedying them4 ,when the leakage became considerable1 the defects of the telegraph and the defects of the engines alike assumed a formidable aspect4 ,the failure of the valve was due1 partly to the composition which was used to seal the joint where it opened1 and partly to the material of which the valve consisted4 ,the difficulty of obtaining a suitable composition was the first which had to be encountered4 ,on the ,south ,devon a lime soap was eventually found to answer the purpose well4 ,its surface1 however1 from exposure to light and air1 formed into a hard skin2 and to remedy this a thinner and more fluid material1 a compound of cod-oil and soap1 was laid on to keep it soft4 ,this answered satisfactorily1 but it required frequent renewal1 as it was apt to be drawn into the tube by the rush of air when the valve was opened4 ,the renewal of the various compositions1 and the careful examination and repair which the valve constantly required1 was a cause of great anxiety and expense4 ,but in the materials of the valve lay the source of the more serious difficulty4 ,the ready affinity of leather for oil and grease1 and its suppleness and closeness of grain when saturated with substances of that nature1 had long been known and utilised4 ,it had not been anticipated how readily1 with air-pressure on one side and a partial vacuum on the other1 the oily matters with which the leather was charged would escape from it1 especially in the presence of water4 ,although1 while the leather was saturated with water1 the valve was remarkably air-tight2 when frost supervened the water became frozen1 and gave a fatal stubbornness of texture1 which rendered the valve incapable of closing properly4 ,again1 in long-continued drought the leather became intractable from its dryness2 and the stiffening1 whether from frost or drought1 rendered it liable to be torn4 ,an immediate application of seal-oil penetrated the leather1 and relaxed its stiffness2 but the remedy often could not be applied in time1 and1 moreover1 was expensive4 ,a still more grave defect was all the while becoming matured1 and was undermining every hope that a suitable dressing could be discovered1 and that the longitudinal valve might be made perfect4 ,under the joint action of water in the leather1 and of the affinity of iron for tannin--and on the enduring presence of tannin within its texture the consistency of leather depends--a destructive decomposition had long been at work2 the oxide1 established in the iron plates of the valve by continued contact with damp leather1 had been steadily abstracting the tannin2 thus the leather had become converted into an ink-stained and comparatively decomposed tissue4 ,large portions of it became torn1 and incurably pervious to air4 ,it was not until early in ,june #ahdh that ,mr4 ,brunel discovered the condition which the valve had assumed4 ,he then instituted a careful examination throughout the line1 and the extent of the disorder was realised4 ,the state of things which existed when this discovery was made in effect involved the renewal of the valve the whole distance from ,exeter to ,newton2 so that1 as the cost of the valve was #a1afjl4 per mile1 an immediate outlay of some #be1jjjl4 became essential to the maintenance of the system1 and this at the time when the real difficulties of the valve question had become most apparent4 ,by galvanising the iron plates of the valve the mutually destructive action of the iron and the leather might have been prevented2 but a remedy was also required for the other serious defect which leather1 as the material of the valve1 was found to exhibit1 namely1 its tendency to become permeable to air after long-continued use under air-pressure1 owing to the inward escape of the material with which it had been dressed4 ,these difficulties were not only such as had not been anticipated1 but such as no one was justified in anticipating4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it now became necessary for ,mr4 ,brunel to consider what course1 under the circumstances1 it was most advisable for the ,company to adopt4 ,a ,committee of the ,board was appointed to examine the whole question2 and1 at their desire1 ,mr4 ,brunel made a report upon it1 which was as follows3-- ,august #ai1 #ahdh4 ,you have called upon me to report to you upon the present state of the ,atmospheric apparatus1 and particularly upon the circumstances connected with the partial destruction of the longitudinal valve which has lately occurred1 and the probability of remedying this serious defect1 and of keeping the valve in repair and in good working order4 ,such a report involves necessarily the consideration of the whole question of our experience of the working of the ,atmospheric ,system2 because1 to arrive at any clear appreciation of the present state of the apparatus1 ,i must refer to the circumstances which have affected our working up to the present time1 and particularly to the several difficulties which we have had to encounter and their effects4 ,the first difficulty1 and one which was as unexpected as it was serious1 was in the working of our stationary engines4 ,upon the efficiency of these machines must of course ultimately depend the economy and efficiency of the working of the whole system1 however perfect in itself might be the ,atmospheric apparatus4 ,accordingly1 great precautions were taken--precautions which ,i still think such as to justify the expectation that we should secure the best engines that could be made4 ,the three first manufacturers of the day were employed--,messrs4 ,maudslay 7who had had some experience in this particular branch1 having made the engines for the ,croydon railway71 ,messrs4 ,boulton and ,watts1 and ,messrs4 ,rennie4 ,they prepared their own designs2 and ,i know that they each bestowed much thought in the preparation of these designs1 and took considerable interest in the results4 ,mr4 ,samuda1 a man of considerable mechanical abilities1 having all the experience that could be had upon the subject1 and deeply interested in the success of the engines1 was also employed to superintend their manufacture4 ,notwithstanding all these precautions1 notwithstanding excellent workmanship1 these engines have not1 on the whole1 proved successful2 none of them have as yet worked very economically1 and some are very extravagant in the consumption of fuel1 burning nearly double the quantity of others1 while the average is very considerably more than it ought to be4 ,the apparent causes of this excess are various in the different engines1 but all resulting more or less apparently from the want of experience in this particular application of power1 and from the circumstance of the form of the engines being somewhat novel1 and involving slight differences in the proportion and arrangement of the parts2 and the consumption of steam being greater than was calculated upon1 it has been obtained by a more wasteful expenditure of fuel1 and the evil has been aggravated4 ,the difficulty of remedying this state of things has been increased by the consequence of defects in the ,atmospheric apparatus1 which1 causing a much greater demand upon the working of the engines1 has delayed1 or has entirely prevented1 our throwing an engine out of work1 to introduce the requisite improvements4 ,still1 so far as this defect in the engines is concerned1 there is no doubt that it is susceptible of considerable1 if not complete remedy1 and that a reduction of one-third may be effected in the consumption of fuel4 ,in the ,atmospheric apparatus itself our difficulties have been more numerous4 ,we have suffered from extreme cold1 particularly when it followed quickly upon wet4 ,we have suffered from extreme heat1 and also from heavy falls of rain4 ,these difficulties have in turn been encountered and gradually overcome1 and ,i think the effects of all these causes upon a valve in good condition may now be obviated1 if not entirely1 yet so much so as to render their operation unimportant4 ,the same remedy applies to all three--keeping the leather of the valve oiled and varnished1 and rendering it impervious to the water1 which otherwise soaks through it in wet weather1 or which freezes in it in cold1 rendering it too stiff to shut down2 and the same precaution prevents the leather being dried up and shrivelled by the heat2 for this1 and not the melting of the composition1 is the principal inconvenience resulting from heat4 ,a little water spread on the valve from a tank in the piston-carriage has also been found to be useful in very dry weather1 showing that the dryness1 and not the heat1 was the cause of leakage2 but a new difficulty has arisen1 and a new defect has been discovered1 one much more serious in its extent and its possible consequences1 and one which renders the operation of each of the previously mentioned causes of difficulty much more powerful and mischievous4 ,within the last few months1 but more particularly during the dry weather of last ,may and ,june1 a considerable extent of longitudinal valve failed by the tearing of the leather1 at the joints between the plates2 the leather first partially cracked at these points1 which causes a considerable leakage1 particularly in dry weather2 after a time it tears completely through1 and that part of the valve is destroyed1 and requires to be replaced4 ,a considerable extent has thus been replaced1 but the whole of the valve is more or less defective from this cause2 the amount of leakage is considerable1 and the working altogether inefficient4 ,i have examined carefully portions of the valve that have been removed1 and ,i find that at the part which has given way the texture of the leather seems to be destroyed--it is black1 and has evidently been acted upon by the iron of the plates4 ,upon some parts of the line the injury seems to be more general than upon others2 but it is very difficult to examine the valve in place1 so as to form any correct opinion of the extent of the evil4 ,as regards the cause of this defect1 ,mr4 ,samuda1 who under his contract is at present liable for the repair of the valve1 urges that the valve was kept for a length of time in cases after it was delivered to the ,company1 and that1 exposed to damp1 and the oil in the leather not being renewed on the surface1 the iron may have rusted1 and the leather have been injured2 and he refers to instances lately observed1 in which valves taken out of the top of a case which had been exposed to wet do show similar signs of injury4 ,supposing1 however1 this assumption to be correct1 it would not seem to affect the question of his liability4 ,he suggests also1 as a cause1 that the valve remained for a length of time in place without been used and even worked over by locomotive engines1 which prevented its being properly oiled and attended to2 that the evil has been aggravated by an attempt to reduce too much the use of oil to the leather2 and1 lastly1 that the piston-gear has been allowed to get out of adjustment1 so that the leather of the valve has been strained4 ,i shall not1 however1 here enter into the discussion of this question of liability1 but confine myself to the consideration of the evil1 and the possibility of remedying it4 ,of the extent of the evil1 for the reason ,i have given1 it is impossible to form any accurate opinion2 it is impossible1 therefore1 to say that it does not extend more or less over the whole distance1 excepting1 of course1 that which has been already replaced4 ,that which is injured cannot be repaired in place1 but must be removed1 and the remedy can only be applied in the new valve4 ,it is quite possible that a valve made in the same manner as the present1 if properly attended to from the first1 and with our present experience1 might not be subject to this destruction1 and ,mr4 ,samuda states that such is the case at ,dalkey2 but ,i do not think that ,i could rely upon this result4 ,by painting1 but1 better still1 by zincing or galvanising the iron plates1 and making them overlap a short distance1 both the chemical and the mechanical action of the plate upon the leather appears to be prevented1 and ,i believe1 therefore1 that this evil may be remedied at a small increased cost in any new or repaired valve that might be laid down3 but of the existing valve ,i can say no more than ,i have done4 ,it is not now in good working condition1 and ,i see no immediate prospect of its being rendered so4 ,from the foregoing observations1 it will be evident that ,i cannot consider the result of our experience of the working between ,exeter and ,newton such as to induce one to recommend the extension of the system4 ,i believe that if the longitudinal valve were restored1 the working expenses might be immensely reduced2 that the quantity of fuel consumed which is the great item of expense1 may be diminished by one-third2 that the price of the fuel1 which now costs #ahs4 per ton at the engine-houses1 ought to be reduced at least #ab per cent42 and that the total cost may thus be brought down to a moderate amount1 such as ,i had originally calculated upon4 ,but the cost of construction has far exceeded our expectations1 and the difficulties of working a system so totally different from that to which everybody1 traveller as well as workmen1 is accustomed1 have proved too great2 and therefore1 although1 no doubt1 after some further trial1 great reductions may be effected in the cost of working the portion now laid1 ,i cannot anticipate the possibility of any inducement to continue the system beyond ,newton4 ,with respect to the future working of the apparatus between ,exeter and ,newton1 ,i feel in great difficulty as to expressing any opinion1 seeing that a very large expense has been incurred1 and believing1 as ,i do1 that the cost of working may be so very much reduced2 but that reduction can only be effected by the almost entire renewal of the valve1 and by some expenditure in the engines4 ,and unless ,mr4 ,samuda or the patentees undertake the first1 and extend considerably the period during which they would maintain it in repair1 and unless they can offer some guarantee for the efficiency of that valve1 ,i fear that the ,company would not be justified in taking that upon themselves1 or incurring the expense attending the alteration of the engines4 ,i believe that for the inclined planes1 as an assistant power1 the apparatus will be found applicable and efficient2 and as the engines and the pipes are nearly ready at ,dainton1 it may be found desirable to try it there1 provided a satisfactory arrangement can be entered into for the maintenance and efficiency of the valve4 ,i have not referred to our great disappointment in not obtaining the assistance of the telegraph in the working of the engines1 and the greatly increased consumption of coal consequent upon the working the engines unnecessarily1 because this evil is now nearly removed2 but some further reductions may still be made by using the telegraph by night as well as day1 which has not yet been in our power to do1 but which ,i trust will be commenced this week4 ,the ,committee to whom this report was made1 and who had been also in constant communication with ,mr4 ,brunel1 placed the result of their investigation before the ,board4 ,the ,directors1 after carefully considering the information given them1 reported as follows3-- ,your ,directors1 without pronouncing any judgment as to the ultimate success of the ,atmospheric ,system1 and while they are prepared to afford to the patentees and other parties interested in it the use of their machinery for continuing their own experiments1 have arrived at the conclusion1 with the entire concurrence and on the recommendation of ,mr4 ,brunel1 that it is expedient for them to suspend the use of the ,atmospheric ,system until the same shall be made efficient at the expense of the patentees and ,mr4 ,samuda4 ,at the meeting in ,august1 the proprietors adopted the ,directors' report1 and the line was worked throughout by locomotives on and after ,september #i4 ,in the following ,november ,mr4 ,thomas ,gill1 the chairman of the ,board of ,directors1 published an #8,address to the ,proprietors1' in which he strongly deprecated the abandonment of the ,atmospheric ,system1 and proposed that the ,company should embark on a further experiment4 ,mr4 ,gill's pamphlet was referred to three of the ,directors1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,woollcombe1 ,mr4 ,charles ,russell1 and ,mr4 ,james ,wentworth ,buller4 ,with ,mr4 ,brunel's assistance1 and to a great extent from memoranda written by him1 they prepared a statement which went very fully into all the points raised by ,mr4 ,gill4 ,after combating ,mr4 ,gill's propositions1 they observe3-- ,of the two men who are most deeply concerned in the further trial of any reasonable experiment to perfect the ,atmospheric ,system1 we find that one1 ,mr4 ,brunel1 disapproves of the proposal for the purpose as insufficient and unsatisfactory2 the other1 ,mr4 ,samuda1 had not sufficient confidence in the result1 or in ,mr4 ,gill's estimates for its accomplishment1 to offer the only security which would justify the ,company in endeavouring to effect it4 ,in conclusion they express an opinion that the suspension of the ,atmospheric ,system in the previous ,september was a prudent and necessary step1 and that nothing had since occurred to justify its resumption4 ,the proprietors adopted the view taken by the ,committee1 and no further attempt was made to work the railway on the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,under these circumstances1 it cannot be a matter of surprise that ,mr4 ,brunel was much censured for having advised the ,south ,devon ,railway ,company to work their line on the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,the reasons which led him to recommend the use of the ,atmospheric ,system on the ,south ,devon1 and the causes of its failure1 have been very fully described1 and it has been also shown that the most important of these were the defects of the pumping-engines1 and the deterioration of the longitudinal valve4 ,when the formidable character of these difficulties had fully declared itself1 the ,south ,devon ,railway ,company were not in a position to spend any more money upon a system which1 as the event had proved1 was1 in one of its most important details1 still in the experimental stage4 ,there can be no doubt that the abandonment of the ,atmospheric ,system was the wisest step which1 under the circumstances1 could be adopted2 and it was recommended to the ,directors by ,mr4 ,brunel with a simple and self-sacrificing disregard of every consideration except that which was always paramount with him1 the interests of those by whom he was employed4#gb ,,note 7p4 #adc74 ,comparison of ,stationary and ,locomotive ,power4 ,in order clearly to set forth the reasons which justify the statement made by ,mr4 ,brunel1#gc that stationary power if freed from the weight and friction of any medium of communication1 such as a rope1 must be cheaper than locomotive power1 it is desirable to consider1 7#a7 the waste of power which arises from the locomotive having to move itself as well as the train2 and 7#b7 the excess of cost at which a given power was supplied by a locomotive1 as compared with that at which it could have been supplied by a stationary engine4 ,on the first point1 the best information can be obtained from experiments made by ,mr4 ,daniel ,gooch during the gauge controversy4 ,the results are very suitable for use in the present investigation1 as the ,south ,devon was to be a broad-gauge railway4 ,moreover1 as the broad-gauge engine with which these experiments were tried was one of a class more powerful for their weight not only than the contemporary narrow-gauge engine1 but also than the engines ,mr4 ,brunel had experience of when he wrote his report three years previously1 the results may be considered to represent very favourably the then existing case for the locomotives4 ,the engine employed in the experiments weighed1 with its tender1 about fifty tons4 ,the maximum power it was capable of delivering by the pressure of steam in its cylinders was represented as a tractive force of #d1ijj lbs4 at a speed of #fj miles an hour1 equivalent to #ghd indicated horse-power2 and at #dj miles an hour #e1bjj lbs41 equivalent to #eee indicated horse-power4 ,it is next to be considered how this power would1 when running at the speeds mentioned1 be employed in overcoming the elements of resistance4 ,these are3-- 7#a7 ,the working friction of the machinery4 7#b7 ,the rolling resistance of the engine and tender4 7#c7 ,the air resistance due to the engine frontage4 7#d7 ,the rolling resistance of the train4 7#e7 ,the air resistance on the portion of the train unprotected by the tender4 7#f7 ,the resistance due to gradient4 ,the following symbols and quantities may be conveniently made use of to denote the various terms of the equation between force and resistance4 ,total available tractive force in lbs4 ,f ,weight of engine and tender 7superfluous load7 in tons #ej ,weight of train 7useful load7 in tons ,w ,the sum of the resistances of machinery1 rolling resistance1 and air resistance of engine and tender ,r ,rolling resistance of train in lbs4 per ton ,k ,gradient ,g ,speed in miles per hour ,v ,resistance of air 7according to the received empirical formula7 #a --- 7frontage area7 ,v#b #djj ,frontage area of train in square feet #fc ,frontage area of portion of train unprotected by the tender1 in square feet #bd ,for a locomotive train therefore #bd ,f ,r ,,wk --- ,v#b 7#ej ,w7 #bbdj ,g4 #djj ,for a system that dispenses with the locomotive #fc ,tractive force ,,wk --- ,v#b ,w #bbdj ,g4 #djj ,therefore ,w 7,k #bbdj ,g7 #aege ,v#b the useful tractive force1 and ,r #aabjjj ,g - #jige ,v#b the tractive force wasted by the use of the locomotive4 ,therefore ,f,r #aabjjj ,g-#jige ,v#b ,w 7,k #bbdj ,g7 #aege ,v#b and the useful load 7,f- ,r - #aabjjj ,g - #jf ,v#b7 ,w ----------------------------- ,k #bbdj ,g4 ,the values which ,mr4 ,gooch's experiments give for the two selected speeds are as follows#gd3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,miles per ,hour ,r 7lbs47 ,k 7lbs4 per ton7 ,f 7lbs47 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #dj #aejj #abe #ebjj #fj #bajj #ahf #dijj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,using these values1 the results in the following table are obtained1 being the conditions appropriate to the two speeds at successive ascending gradients3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,miles ,ascending,useful ,super- ,gross,useful ,waste ,gross ,ratio of per ,gradient ,load fluous ,load ,horse-,horse-,horse-power ,hour in tons,load in in tons power power,waste to tons ,useful ,horse-power ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #j #bhh #ej #cch #daa #add #eee #ce #a_/bjj #abh #ej #agh #ceb #bjc #eee #eh #a_/ajj #ga #ej #aba #bib #bfc #eee #ij #dj #a_/ge #ej #ej #ajj #beb #cjc #eee #abj #a_/ej #bch #ej #gch #agc #chb #eee #bba #a_/dj #aag #ej #fag #aac #ddb #eee #cia #a_/cfc #g #ej #eg #hb #dgc #eee #egg #j #aci #ej #ahi #ejd #bhj #ghd #ef #a_/bjj #fh #ej #aah #dae #cfi #ghd #hi #a_/ajj #ceg #ej #heg #cbe #dei #ghd #ada #fj #a_/ge #bbe #ej #gbe #bfe #eai #ghd #aif #a_/ebc #g #ej #eg #afj #fbd #ghd #cij ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,thus1 on a level line1 the engine1 working up to #eee horse-power1 could just draw #bhh tons of train at the rate of #dj miles per hour1 wasting on its own resistance only one-third of the power usefully employed on the train2 but when the speed was increased to #fj miles per hour1 it could not1 though working up to #ghd horse-power1 draw more than #aci tons of train1 wasting on its own resistance more than half the power usefully employed on the train4 ,and again1 at #dj miles per hour1 though1 as just stated1 it could draw on the level #bhh tons1 it could only draw #bd tons of useful load at that speed up #a in #ej2 while at #fj miles per hour1 though it could draw1 as stated1 #aci tons of train on the level1 it could only draw #bc tons of useful load up #a in #ge2 and at the respective speeds of #dj and #fj miles per hour1 it could only take one carriage 7#g tons7 up the respective gradients of #a in #cf1 and #a in #eb4 ,hence to maintain a minimum speed of #dj miles per hour with locomotive power on a line with long gradients of #a in #dj involved on those parts of the line a wasted power of nearly #d times that usefully employed2 and if a minimum limit of #fj miles per hour were contemplated1 a locomotive of the most powerful class in existence three years subsequent to ,mr4 ,brunel's report advising the adoption of the ,atmospheric ,system would only have been able to take a single carriage up an incline of #a in #eb4 ,so heavily at high speeds on steep gradients is the performance of a locomotive taxed by the resistance due to its own dead weight4#ge 99 99 99 99 99 ,a comparison has now to be made between the cost of power as developed by a locomotive and as developed by a stationary engine4 ,from the well-known experiments made for the information of the ,gauge ,commissioners in ,december #ahde1 taking the high speed trials as the basis of calculation1 it appears that #de lbs4 of coke per horse-power per hour may be taken as the average consumption of the engine4#gf ,it will be well1 however1 to allow for the improvement which was at the time anticipated in locomotive working1 and to assume an expenditure of #d lbs4 of coke per indicated horse-power per hour1 as representing the case then for the locomotive engine4 ,coke may be taken to have at that time cost #bas4 a ton1 or #jjids4 per lb4 ,moreover1 a careful analysis of the ,great ,western ,railway half-yearly reports1 for #ahdd and #ahde1 shows that for every shilling expended in coke1 #add shillings were expended on the average in wages1 oil and waste1 repairs1 etc4 ,putting the results together1 it appears that for each single indicated horse-power delivered by a high-speed locomotive1 the cost per hour was #jjiaes4 or #ajih;d42 that is to say1 about #a-a_/aj;d4 per hour4 ,let this now be compared with the cost per horse-power per hour at which the best ,cornish pumping engines had long been known to perform the work4 ,this comparison is manifestly a rational one--with reference to the kindred employment of engine power in atmospheric pumping-engines4 ,the performances of nearly all the pumping-engines in ,cornwall were for many years so systematically and exactly reported1 and the reports of each were so critically scrutinised by the rival makers1 that the data they supply may be relied on without hesitation4 ,it was well known that the best of the engines continuously performed useful work with a consumption of coal at the rate of #bcc lbs4 per delivered horse-power per hour1 or1 counting coal at #afs4 per ton 7a fair price on the ,south ,devon71 at the cost of #b;d41 or one-fifth of a penny per horse-power per hour4 ,but it was not in its consumption of fuel alone that stationary power was the more economical2 the expenditure in wages1 oil1 and tallow on one of the pumping-engines above referred to1 when doing #bjj horse-power of useful work1 did not exceed #bjs4 for the twenty-four hours1 or one-twentieth of a penny per horse-power per hour1 while the cost of repairs was merely nominal4 ,thus if fuel1 wages1 oil1 and tallow be brought into one item1 it is seen that the cost of one horse-power in stationary engines such as the then existing ,cornish engines was only #be;d4 per hour1 or less than one-fourth of its cost when developed by a locomotive1 which has been shown to have been #ajih;d4 per hour4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,,the ,,royal ,,albert ,,bridge4 ,h4 ,adlard4 ,sc4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,railway ,,bridges ,,and ,,viaducts4 #a4 ,,brickwork ,,and ,,masonry ,,bridges--,,hanwell ,,viaduct--,,maidenhead ,,bridge--,,flying ,,bridges--,,letter ,,from ,,mr4 ,,brunel ,,on ,,bridge ,,construction 7,,december #cj1 #ahed7--b4 ,,timber ,,bridges--,,sonning ,,bridge--,,bath ,,bridge--,,stonehouse ,,viaduct--,,bourne ,,viaduct--,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,viaduct--,,viaducts ,,on ,,the ,,south ,,devon ,,railway--,,ivy-,,bridge--,,viaducts ,,on ,,the ,,south ,,wales ,,railway--,,newport--,,landore--,,viadu cts ,,on ,,the ,,cornwall ,,railway--,,st4 ,,pinnock--,,viaducts ,,on ,,the ,,west ,,cornwall ,,and ,,tavistock ,,railways--,,preservation ,,of ,,timber--#c4 ,,cast-,,iron ,,bridges--,,letter ,,on ,,use ,,of ,,cast ,,iron 7,,april #ah1 #ahdi7--;,,hanwell ,,bridge--,,experiments ,,on ,,cast-,,iron ,,girders--,,extract ,,from ,,letter ,,to ,,secretary ,,of ,,commission ,,on ,,application ,,of ,,iron ,,to ,,railway ,,structures 7,,march #ac1 #ahdh7--d4 ,,wrought-,,iron ,,bridges--,,girder ,,bridges--,,experiments ,,on ,,wrought-,,iron ,,girder--,,opening ,,bridges--,,trussed ,,bridges--,,newport ,,viaduct--,,windsor ,,bridge--,,chepstow ,,bridge--,,method ,,of ,,sinking ,,the ,,cylinders--,,description ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,truss--,,the ,,floating ,,operations--,,the ,,royal ,,albert ,,bridge ,,at ,,saltash--,,the ,,centre ,,pier--,,description ,,of ,,the ,,superstructure--,,the ,,floating ,,and ,,raising ,,of ,,the ,,trusses--,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,bridge ,,by ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,the ,,prince ,,consort--,,note3 ,,experiments ,,on ,,matters ,,connected ,,with ,,bridge ,,construction4 ,in ,chapter ,,iv4 a general history has been given of the railways of which ,mr4 ,brunel was the engineer2 but the bridges and viaducts designed by him are so numerous and important that it has been thought advisable to devote a separate chapter to their consideration4 ,the bridges selected for mention have been grouped according to the nature of the material used in their superstructure4 ,this arrangement is the most convenient one for giving a concise description of the most remarkable of ,mr4 ,brunel's bridges1 and for stating the circumstances which guided him in the determination of the particular form of construction used in each case4 ,the works are therefore divided into four groups1 namely1 brickwork and masonry1 timber1 cast iron1 and wrought iron4#gg ,brickwork and ,masonry ,bridges4#gh ,the viaduct which carries the ,great ,western ,railway over the valley of the river ,brent near ,hanwell is the first of ,mr4 ,brunel's important railway works4#gi ,it is a handsome brickwork structure1 #fe feet high1 with eight semi-elliptical arches1 each #gj feet span and #ag feet #f inches rise4 ,the spandrils of the arches are lightened by longitudinal spandril-walls2 the piers are also hollow1 and the structure is throughout made as light as possible4 ,it is on this account interesting1 as showing the care taken by ,mr4 ,brunel from the commencement of his practice to distribute the material in the simplest and most effective manner4#hj ,the great bridge over the ,thames at ,maidenhead contains two of the flattest1 and probably the largest arches that have yet been constructed in brickwork4 ,the river1 which is about #bij feet wide1 flows between low banks2 in the middle of the stream there is a small shoal1 of which ,mr4 ,brunel took advantage in building the centre pier4 ,it was originally intended that the foundation of the bridge should be on the chalk1 which was at a short distance below the surface2 but it was found to be very soft1 and ,mr4 ,brunel therefore decided to place the foundations of the bridge on a hard gravel conglomerate overlying the chalk4 ,the main arches are semi-elliptical1 each of #abh feet span and #bd feet #c inches rise4 ,they are flanked at each end by four semicircular arches1 one of #ba feet span1 and three of #bh feet span1 intended to give additional water-way during floods4 ,the radius of curvature at the crown of the large arches is #afe feet1 and the horizontal thrust on the brickwork at that point is about #aj tons per square foot4 ,in the interior of the structure immediately landward of the large arches1 ,mr4 ,brunel constructed flat arches loaded with concrete4 ,the centerings of these were struck1 and an active thrust opposed to the main arches before their centerings were eased4#ha ,the line of pressure of each main arch was diverted downwards by the thrust of the flat arch adjoining it without the necessity of employing a great mass of brickwork in the abutment4 ,the woodcut 7fig4 #a7 shows the form of the main arches and the flat arch referred to4#hb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,maidenhead ,bridge4 ,longitudinal ,section4 ,scale of feet4 ,the ,maidenhead bridge is remarkable not only for the boldness and ingenuity of its design1 but also for the gracefulness of its appearance4 ,if ,mr4 ,brunel had erected this bridge at a later period1 he would probably have employed timber or iron2 but it cannot be a matter of regret that this part of the ,thames1 although subjected to the dreaded invasion of a railway1 has been crossed by a structure which enhances the beauty of the scenery4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are two other large brick bridges over the ,thames1 one at ,gathampton and another at ,moulsford1 that at ,moulsford crossing the river obliquely at an angle of #de4 ,in each of these bridges there are four arches1 of #fb feet span on the square4 ,other good examples of brick bridges are the turnpike road bridge1 #fj feet high1 with three arches1 across the deep cutting at ,sonning ,hill1 and the bridge1 with one opening of #fj feet and four side arches of #ah feet span1 over the river ,kennet at ,reading4 ,the bridge over the ,avon at ,bathford1 of #hg feet span1 and the bridge crossing the same river at ,bath1 with an arch of #hh feet span1 are handsome ,bath-stone structures with semi-elliptical arches4 ,near ,bristol there is an ornamental bridge of masonry with three ,gothic arches1 the centre arch having a span of #ajj feet4#hc ,another bridge of ,gothic design1 with two arches of #ef feet span1 carries the railway over the ,floating ,harbour4#hd 99 99 99 99 99 ,the bridges which have hitherto been noticed are all on the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,on the ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway there is a large stone bridge over the ,new ,cut at ,bristol1 built in #ahdj1 which has a single segmental arch of #abj feet span1 and #bj feet rise4 ,owing to some imperfect workmanship in the interior masonry of the arch1 and possibly to some unequal yielding of the abutments1 the crown sunk much more than had been expected4 ,on his later railways ,mr4 ,brunel did not build large arches of brickwork or masonry1 though he constructed several lofty and extensive viaducts of these materials with spans varying from #dj to #fj feet4 ,mr4 ,brunel seldom employed artificially piled foundations to support masonry4 ,when the ground was soft1 he preferred to rely on a large extent of bearing surface1 and ensured uniformity of settlement by an accurate distribution of the load4 ,several of his large viaducts and bridges1 standing on ground of a soft and spongy nature1 were constructed on this principle4 ,a class of bridge of striking outline was used in the cuttings on the ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway1 and on the other railways subsequently made4 ,bridges of this class were called flying bridges4 ,instead of arches resting on piers and abutments1 the bridge has a single arch1 reaching from one side of the cutting to the other1 and springing from the slopes1 which it helps in some measure to support4 ,a flying bridge of large dimensions near ,weston-super-,mare carries a road across the cutting at a height of #fj feet above the line of rails1 with a clear span of #aaj feet4 ,the quantity of masonry in these bridges is much less than in those of the ordinary construction2 and lofty and expensive centering is not required1 as the bridge can be built before the cutting is excavated to its full dimensions4 ,this class of bridge1 by the avoidance of abutments and counterforts1 simplifies the construction of skew arches1 while on sharp curves it presents but little obstruction to the view along the line4 ,a curious use of arches of this construction1 as applied by ,mr4 ,brunel1 may be seen on the ,south ,wales ,railway near ,llansamlet1 between ,neath and ,swansea4 ,a deep cutting through the coal measures showed a tendency to slip1 and a large amount of excavation would have been required to flatten the slope1 as a hill rose immediately above the side of the cutting4 ,four of these flying arches were thrown across the cutting at short intervals1 and weighted with heavy copper slag1 so that the sides of the cutting are kept apart by the thrust of the loaded arches4 ,among the skew bridges on ,mr4 ,brunel's railways1 there are a few of extreme obliquity4 ,of these may be mentioned two large road bridges near ,berkeley1 over the ,bristol and ,gloucester ,railway1 one being #dh and the other #ec off the square4 ,both the bridges are of brickwork1 and in the arch of the first one1 which was set in ,roman cement1 hoop iron was introduced in the manner successfully employed by ,sir ,isambard ,brunel4 ,on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 near ,plympton1 there is a skew bridge #fc off the square4 ,on the ,great ,western ,railway1 in the neighbourhood of ,bath and ,bristol1 there are skew bridges of ashlar masonry built on the mechanically correct principle of spiral tapering courses1 the bed-joints in every part of the arch being made at right angles to the lines of pressure4 ,by this method the arch does not depend for its stability on the friction and cohesion of the materials1 as it does to a great extent in very skew bridges1 built in the usual way with spiral parallel courses1 especially when the arches are semi-circular or semi-elliptical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,brunel's bridges of masonry and brickwork were well known for the comparatively small quantity of material used in them2 and1 though it was requisite that the materials and workmanship should be of superior quality1 their cost was comparatively small4 ,the specifications he prepared for all his works1 and on which the contracts were based1 were noted for the completeness with which they were drawn up1 and for their not requiring a standard of perfection higher than that which was actually to be carried out4 ,the confidence with which ,mr4 ,brunel was regarded enabled him to insist with effect on the work being executed according to his interpretation of the contract4 ,in connection with the design of engineering works1 and especially of brickwork and masonry bridges1 the following letter from ,mr4 ,brunel to one of his assistants1 who was abroad1 will be found interesting3-- ,december #cj1 #ahed4 ,let me give you one general piece of advice--that while in all works you endeavour to employ the materials used in the most economical manner1 and to avoid waste1 yet always put rather an excess of material in quantity4 ,you cannot take too much pains in making everything in equilibrio2 that is to say1 that all forces should pass exactly through the points of greater resistance1 or through the centres of any surfaces of resistance4 ,thus1 in anything resembling a column or strut1 whether of iron1 wood1 or masonry1 take care that the surface of the base should be proportioned that the strain should pass through the centre of it4 ,consider all structures1 and all bodies1 and all materials of foundations to be made of very elastic india-rubber1 and proportion them so that they will stand and keep their shape3 you will by those means diminish greatly the required thickness3 then add #ej per cent4 ,so in trussed framework of wood or iron1 experience shows that you cannot refine too much upon the perfection of the designing of every little detail by which all strains are carried exactly through the centres of the rods or struts and the centres of the bearing surfaces4 ,and remember1 always in retaining walls to give plenty of batter2 never build an upright wing-wall1 or retaining wall4 ,to a man who has an instinctively mechanical mind--and no other can be an engineer--the advice ,i have given you above is all ,i need say2 but this advice is the result of a good deal of experience1 purchased by failures of my own1 and by looking at those of others1 and is1 ,i assure you1 valuable advice1 to be followed literally and strictly1 and not to be considered as a mere theoretical refinement1 to be neglected in practice4 ,practically too much attention cannot be paid to these precautions4 ,i have found that there is not a single substance we have to deal with1 from cast-iron to clay1 which should not practically be treated strictly as a yielding elastic substance1 and that the amount of the compression or tension1 as the case may be1 is by no means to be neglected in practice any more than in theory4 ,bear in mind also that which is too often neglected and involves serious consequences1 that masonry or brickwork has not half the strength which is generally calculated upon until the mortar is hard1 and that you cannot keep centres or shores up too long4 ,timber ,bridges and ,viaducts4 ,mr4 ,brunel's timber bridges and viaducts are remarkable on account of the extensive scale on which he employed that material1 and the simple and efficient type of construction which he adopted in the largest structure as well as in the smallest4 ,in #ahda ,mr4 ,brunel constructed a timber bridge of five spans to carry a public road over the ,sonning cutting of the ,great ,western ,railway1 a short distance east of ,reading4 ,the total width of the space across which the road had to be carried was #bdj feet4 ,the superstructure rests on four tall frameworks or trestles of timber forming the piers4 ,two of these piers are on either side of the railway1 and the others are about halfway up each slope4 ,the road rests on a platform of timber planking1 carried on three longitudinal beams1 which are supported at nearly equal distances by timber struts radiating from points on the piers about #ab feet below the level of the carriage road4 ,the system of arrangement of these struts will be best understood by a reference to the woodcut given below 7fig4 #e1 p4 #ahg7 of one of the ,cornwall viaducts1 of which the ,sonning bridge may be regarded as in some measure the prototype4#he 99 99 99 99 99 ,the skew timber bridge on the ,great ,western ,railway near the ,bath ,station1 carrying the line over the river ,avon1 was constructed about the same time as the ,sonning bridge4 ,it has two spans of #cf feet each on the square1 but the obliquity is so great that the span on the skew is #hi feet4 ,each opening has six laminated arched ribs parallel to the line of the railway4 ,these support the platform of the bridge1 and are built up in five layers of curved ,memel timber1 six inches thick1 bolted together4 ,the thrust is counteracted by iron ties connecting the ends of the ribs4 ,the inner spandrils are filled in by cross-ties and braces1 and those of the outer ribs by ornamental cast ironwork4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the two bridges already described are almost the only timber bridges of importance on the main line of the ,great ,western ,railway from ,london to ,bristol4 ,shortly after the completion of this railway ,mr4 ,brunel began to make an extensive use of timber in his designs1 and in so doing took full advantage of the largeness of the material1 in order to avoid intricacy of construction4 ,a well-known arrangement for forming beams of greater strength than could be obtained by single pieces of timber was adopted by ,mr4 ,brunel after a careful investigation of its merits4 ,this arrangement consists in joining together two beams of timber placed one above the other1 by means of bolts and joggles1 so as to form a beam nearly equivalent in strength to a single piece of timber of the same depth as the two pieces united4#hf ,by this plan1 the length which could be spanned by simple beams1 without the introduction of trussed framework1 was nearly doubled4 ,the distance between the piers of railway bridges is generally too great to allow of the superstructure being constructed of simple beams1 and in such cases ,mr4 ,brunel adopted forms of framing similar in the arrangement of their parts to the common designs of king and queen trusses employed in roofs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of ,mr4 ,brunel's early timber viaducts was that erected in #ahdb at ,stonehouse1 on the ,bristol and ,gloucester ,railway4 ,it consisted of a series of five openings of queen trusses #ej feet span1 resting on piers formed of timber trestles4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,truss4 ,illustration3 ,,king ,,truss4 ,in the ,bourne viaduct1 across the ,stroudwater ,canal1 on the ,cheltenham and ,great ,western ,union ,railway1 there was a span of #ff feet1 with three timber trusses1 for the two lines of way4 ,each of these trusses may be described as a king truss with an internal queen truss4 ,the inclined timbers or principals rested in iron shoes upon the piers1 and were connected together by bolts and joggles4 ,the upper horizontal or collar beam of the queen truss carried the roadway planking1 which was continued upon beams supported by the principals4 ,the timbers carrying the roadway received support from struts radiating from the feet of the queen posts1 which were connected with the apex of the king truss by iron ties4 ,the horizontal tie bars were of wrought iron4 ,the arrangement of the truss is shown in the woodcut 7fig4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,bourne ,viaduct4 ,scale of feet4 ,the side openings consisted of four spans of #cj feet1 with trusses of the ,stonehouse viaduct type1 of one span of #be feet and ten spans of #bj feet1 with double beams4 ,the ,st4 ,mary's viaduct1 across the canal in the ,stroud ,valley1 was constructed with one span of #gd feet1 with trusses similar to those at the ,bourne viaduct4#hg ,in the year #ahdf ,mr4 ,brunel made an elaborate series of experiments on the strength of large timber4 ,some account of these is given in the note to this chapter4 ,fortified by the information thus obtained1 he was able to proceed with confidence to an extensive use of timber in the viaducts of the ,south ,devon1 the ,cornwall1 and other railways4 ,between ,totness and ,plympton1 the ,south ,devon ,railway1 running along the skirts of ,dartmoor1 crosses four deep valleys1 by lofty viaducts1 all of the same design4 ,three of them can be seen at one time1 and they form striking and elegant features in the landscape4 ,the viaduct at ,ivybridge is the highest of these4 ,it is on a curve1 and has eleven openings of #fa feet each2 the extreme height is #ajd feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,ivybridge ,viaduct4 ,scale of feet4 ,the piers are of masonry1 each consisting of two slender and slightly tapered shafts about #g feet square1 rising to the level of the rails4 ,the superstructure was originally designed for a railway on the ,atmospheric ,system1 and was therefore only intended to bear the load of a train of carriages4 ,the framework was placed below the level of the rails1 and1 as will be seen in the woodcut 7fig4 #c71 it consists of a polygonal frame1 with a few subsidiary struts1 the feet of the main timbers being tied together by wrought-iron rods4 ,there are two of these frames1 one at each side of the bridge1 to support the planking of the roadway4 ,before the construction of the viaducts was proceeded with1 a complete span of the superstructure1 consisting of a pair of the frames with the planking1 was erected at ,bristol1 and tested to ascertain the efficiency of every part4 ,when it became necessary to strengthen the superstructure to enable it to carry the weight of locomotives1 a strongly trussed parapet was added above the trusses1 as shown in the woodcut4 ,after the lapse of twenty years1 the timber having begun to decay1 wrought-iron girders have been inserted1 which rest on the stone piers2 the framing1 however1 has not been removed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,shortly after the completion of the viaducts on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 those on the ,south ,wales ,railway were constructed4 ,the most important on this line are those at ,landore and ,newport4 ,the viaduct at ,landore1 near ,swansea1 is #a1gfj feet long1 as the railway here crosses a wide valley4 ,it has #cg openings1 and there are a variety of spans1 one of #ajj feet1 two of #gc feet1 two of #fd feet1 two of #ej feet1 and the rest of about #dj feet each4 ,most of these consist of a superstructure of queen trusses4 ,the piers are of different materials1 some being almost entirely of masonry1 some partly of masonry and partly of timber1 and others entirely of timber1 according to the nature of the foundation4#hh ,the chief feature is the centre span1 with an opening of #ajj feet1 the superstructure of which is a very fine piece of timber-work4#hi ,it has four trusses1 one on either side of the two lines of rails1 of the form shown in the woodcut 7fig4 #d74 ,the truss consists of a four-sided frame placed within a five-sided frame1 the angles of each polygon being connected by bolts and struts with the middle of the sides of the other polygon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,landore ,viaduct4 ,scale of feet4 ,the planking of the roadway rests on double beams1 supported at several points in the manner shown in the woodcut1 each point having suspension-rods to connect it with the nearest angles of the frames4 ,the arrangement of the double polygonal frame and of the tie-rods enables the transverse strength of the timbers to exercise considerable resistance to any distortion of the shape of the truss by a rolling load4 ,to prevent any tendency of the top of the frame to yield sideways under the compressive strain1 the tops of the trusses are connected by transverse struts or braces1 the two outside trusses being steadied by raking ties attached to outriggers projecting from below the flooring of the bridge4 ,the thrust of the polygonal frames is resisted by wrought-iron tie-bars at the level of the roadway beams4 ,all the tie-rods in this bridge are double1 with one bar on each side of the timbers1 to avoid the necessity of making large bolt-holes4#ij ,the viaduct at ,newport consists of eleven spans with queen trusses1 resting on piles4 ,the main span1 over the river ,usk1 is #ajj feet1 and was constructed with timber trusses very similar to those at ,landore4 ,shortly before it was finished1 the viaduct was burnt down4 ,in rebuilding it1 wrought-iron trusses were employed for the main span4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the works of the ,cornwall ,railway were commenced in the year #aheb4 ,the district through which the line passes is very deficient in the materials requisite for the construction of a railway4 ,the granite of the country is for the most part only applicable for ashlar2 and the slate1 which is flat-bedded and so far fit for rubble masonry1 is frequently inferior in quality4 ,in consequence of the number of valleys that the railway had to cross1 the aggregate length of the viaducts1 thirty-four in number1 exclusive of the ,saltash bridge1 is upwards of four miles on a line of sixty miles4 ,by the use of timber1 a great saving was effected in the first cost of the works2 and though it is a material which in time requires renewal1 its use on the ,cornwall ,railway enabled the line to be made with the capital at the command of the ,company2 while1 allowing for the cost of subsequent repairs1 the total expenditure did not differ much from what it would have been had the superstructure of the viaducts been of more durable materials4 ,the comparatively small cost of these structures enables them to be1 in certain places1 economically substituted for embankments1 as was done on the ,cornwall ,railway4 ,the viaducts are to be found over the whole length of the line1 but they are most frequent between the ,liskeard and ,bodmin ,road stations1 where the railway crosses numerous branches of the ,glynn valley4 ,most of these viaducts are of one type of construction4 ,the piers are formed of plain walls1 built up to thirty-five feet below the level of the rails1 those of the more lofty viaducts being strengthened by buttresses4 ,in the woodcut 7fig4 #e7 is shown a portion of the ,st4 ,pinnock viaduct1 from which the form of these piers will be understood4 ,this viaduct is the loftiest on the ,cornwall ,railway1 the rails being at a height of #aec feet above the ground4 ,a description of the superstructure will serve to explain the design of the principal viaducts on the line4 ,the roadway planking rests on three beams1 which run longitudinally throughout the whole length of the viaduct4 ,each of these beams consists of two pieces of timber1 one above the other1 fastened together by bolts and joggles4 ,the piers are #ff feet apart1 centre to centre1 and the longitudinal beams are supported1 at four nearly equidistant points in this space1 by straight single timbers radiating from the tops of the piers4 ,the feet of the timbers1 which rest on the masonry in cast-iron shoes1 are connected together by wrought-iron tie-bars2 and the framework is made rigid by iron diagonals4 ,illustration3 ,scale of ,feet ,transverse section ,plan of base of pier4 ,plan of top of pier4 ,fig4 #e4 ,st4 ,pinnock ,viaduct4 ,it will be observed in the transverse section 7fig4 #e7 that the whole weight of the superstructure is concentrated immediately over those points in the piers where the three buttresses meet4 ,the diagonal braces which are attached to each set of the main timbers give transverse stability to the superstructure4#ia ,it was desirable1 both in first construction and in subsequent repairs1 to have a uniform dimension for the spans1 and the subdivision of #ff feet was determined on as being suitable for the economic construction of the greater part of the work4 ,the subdivision of this length was such as to allow of single whole timbers being sufficient for the direct supports of the longitudinal beams2 and as these beams were supported at intervals of #ae to #bj feet1 no intermediate trussing was required4 ,as the inclined timbers met the tops of the piers at a moderate inclination1 the outward thrust caused by unequal loading of the spans of the viaduct was inconsiderable1 and was easily counteracted by light iron ties4 ,the stone for the piers was for the most part procured in the neighbourhood1 the design of the masonry being such as to enable stone of the country to be used2 and1 as the timber superstructure was built in pieces of moderate size1#ib and easily obtained1 the expenditure was probably not far from the minimum under the existing conditions4#ic ,on the ,south ,devon and ,tavistock ,railway1 the viaducts are six in number1 and from #fb to #acb feet in height4 ,in these the piers were made of a somewhat simpler form than those just described4 ,at the lofty viaducts1 the buttresses were made with a uniform batter throughout their height4 ,the ,walkham viaduct1 near ,tavistock1 #acb feet high1 with fifteen openings of #ff feet span each1 may be considered to exhibit the most matured design of ,mr4 ,brunel's timber viaducts4 ,on the ,west ,cornwall ,railway a type of viaduct similar to that described above was adopted2 but as the general height was not so great1 the spans were #ej feet each1 and the longitudinal beams were supported at three points in each span1 instead of at four as on the ,cornwall ,railway4 ,in consequence of the nature of the foundations1 the piers of the nine viaducts on this line were for the most part formed of upright timbers well braced together1 standing upon masonry footings4 ,the viaduct at ,angarrack1 #ih feet high1 with #af spans1 which was constructed in #ahea1 was remarkable for its light appearance1 owing to the small number of timbers in the superstructure and piers4 ,mr4 ,brunel paid great attention to the preservation of the material of the timber bridges and viaducts4 ,as early as #ahce he had been in communication with ,mr4 ,faraday as to the best method of testing the extent to which the ,kyanising solution penetrated into wood4 ,mr4 ,brunel made a careful trial of all the different methods of preserving timber1 and employed the more successful of them on a very considerable scale4 ,he was so impressed with the importance of the preserving processes being properly applied1 that he on several occasions preferred to keep the operation of preserving the timber in the hands of the ,company1 in order that it might be done thoroughly1 and under his own supervision4 ,he also minutely attended to the details by which timber structures may be protected from decaying influences4 ,cast-,iron ,bridges4 ,mr4 ,brunel did not make an extensive use of cast iron for the superstructure of bridges4 ,his views as to the employment of this material in girders are clearly expressed in the following extract from a letter to one of the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway3-- ,april #ah1 #ahdi4 ,cast-iron girder bridges are always giving trouble--from such cases as the ,chester ,bridge1 and our ,great ,western road bridge at ,hanwell1 which1 since #ahch1 has always been under repair1 and has cost its first cost three times over1 down to petty little ones1 which1 either in frosty weather or from other causes1 are frequently failing4 ,i never use cast iron if ,i can help it2 but1 in some cases it is necessary1 and to meet these ,i have had girders cast of a particular mixture of iron carefully attended to1 and ,i have taught them at the ,bridgewater foundry to cast them with the flange downwards instead of sideways4 ,by these means1 and having somebody always there1 ,i ensure better castings1 and have much lighter girders than ,i should otherwise be obliged to have4 ,the number ,i have is but few1 because1 as ,i before said1 ,i dislike them1 and ,i pay a price somewhat above ordinary castings1 believing it to be economy to do so4 ,i won't trust a bridge of castings run in the ordinary way1 and at foundries where ,i have not a person always watching2 and1 even if ,i did1 the weight requisite in a beam of ordinary metal and mode of running would more than make up for the reduced price4 ,the bridge at ,hanwell referred to in this letter was one on the main line of the ,great ,western ,railway1 over the ,uxbridge road4 ,in #ahdg the planking caught fire1 and the cast-iron girders were destroyed by the heat4 ,the researches of ,mr4 ,eaton ,hodgkinson had drawn attention to the importance of a proper proportionment of the top and bottom flanges of cast-iron girders1 and ,mr4 ,brunel now made some experiments on this point4 ,as part of this investigation1 eight girders1 #cj feet long and #af inches deep1 were tested by weights until they gave way4 ,the comparative areas of the top and bottom flanges were varied until a correct proportion between the two was arrived at4 ,the general result of these large-scale experiments showed a lower breaking-weight than that deduced from ,mr4 ,hodgkinson's formula4 ,when ,mr4 ,brunel afterwards had occasion to use cast-iron girders1 which was chiefly for road bridges over railways1 they were made of the form which his experiments had shown to be the best2#id but he repaired the ,hanwell ,bridge with wrought iron4 ,at about the same time the necessity for spanning wide openings had led to larger girders being required than could be manufactured in single castings1 and ,mr4 ,brunel had a large cast-iron girder made1 #df feet long and #d feet deep1 of five pieces bolted and keyed together4 ,it was tested until it gave way with a load of #ib tons on the middle4 ,the result showed that the several parts had been well connected1 and that the strength of the beam was not much less than the calculated strength of a beam of the same size in a single piece4 ,mr4 ,brunel did not1 however1 use girders of this construction1 as the rapid introduction of wrought iron rendered it unnecessary4 ,cast iron was introduced1 though not for girders1 in many of the brick and stone bridges on the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,it was used in the form of troughs sunk into the crown of the arch in bridges where the headway was very limited4 ,the rails were laid along the bottom of the trough within a few inches of the soffit or underside of the arch4 ,although1 after the careful experiments and investigations he had made1 and the experience he had obtained1 ,mr4 ,brunel did not make use of cast iron for large girders1 he looked forward to the possibility of such improvements being introduced into the manufacture as would enable sound castings of considerable size to be made of homogeneous material4 ,he expressed this opinion in a letter to the ,secretary of the ,commission on the ,application of ,iron to ,railway ,structures4 ,this ,commission 7which ,mr4 ,brunel called #8,the ,commission for stopping further improvements in bridge building'7 was appointed #8for the purpose of inquiring into the conditions to be observed by engineers in the application of iron in structures exposed to violent concussions and vibration4' ,mr4 ,brunel1 in common with most engineers1 thought it would be very inexpedient that any rgles de l'art should be laid down1 and took up the cudgels boldly on behalf of the liberty of the profession3-- ,march #ac1 #ahdh4 ,at present cast iron is looked upon1 to a certain extent1 as a friable1 treacherous1 and uncertain material2 castings of a limited size only can be safely depended upon2 wrought iron is considered comparatively trustworthy1 and by riveting1 or welding1 there is no limit to the size of the parts to be used4 ,yet1 who will venture to say1 if the direction of improvement is left free1 that means may not be found of ensuring sound castings of almost any form1 and of twenty or thirty tons weight1 and of a perfectly homogeneous mixture of the best metal8 ,who will say that beams of great size of such a material1 either in single pieces or built1 may not prove stronger1 safer1 less exposed to change of texture or to injury from vibration1 than wrought-iron1 which in large masses cannot be so homogeneous as a fused mass may be made and which when welded is liable to sudden fracture at the welds8#ie ,wrought-,iron ,bridges4 ,notwithstanding the cost of wrought iron1 but a short time elapsed between its introduction into bridge building and its use in structures of great magnitude4 ,mr4 ,brunel had been long familiar with the application of riveted wrought-iron work1 and he was the first to encourage its use on a large scale in shipbuilding by recommending its adoption in the #8,great ,britain' steam-ship in #ahch4 ,girder ,bridges4 ,the strains on girders made of homogeneous material have been carefully and ably calculated by mathematicians2 and the investigations thus made have directed inquiry into the right channels for determining the nature of the stresses on the several parts of the built-up structures now so much in use4 ,principles have by degrees been laid down1 and lines of thought have been suggested and followed out which were unknown at the time when wrought-iron girders were first introduced in the construction of railway bridges4#if 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,scale of feet4 ,fig4 #f4 ,experimental ,girder4 ,transverse ,section4 ,shortly after ,mr4 ,brunel began to use wrought iron for bridge girders1 he made an experiment in order to determine the weak points of a large wrought-iron plate-girder4 ,mr4 ,edwin ,clark1 in his work on the #8,britannia and ,conway ,tubular ,bridges1' vol4 i4 p4 #dcg1 gives a description of what he justly terms #8this magnificent experiment4' ,the girder was of the section shown in the woodcut 7fig4 #f71 #gj feet in length1 and of -inch plate throughout4 ,it was weighted gradually1 and gave way with a load of #afe tons on the centre1 by the tearing apart of the vertical web plate near the ends of the girder4 ,when this portion had been strengthened1 and the girder again loaded1 it gave way with a load of #ahh tons by the simultaneous failure of the top and bottom flanges1 that is to say1 of the plates forming the triangles shown in the woodcut4#ig ,the superior tensile strength of wrought iron to that of cast iron1 and the facility with which pieces could be joined together by riveting1 enabled girders of great size to be made4 ,the thin wrought-iron plates were arranged so as to form the top and bottom flanges of the girders as well as the upright web connecting them4 ,the metal in the top of a girder being in compression1 it was important so to dispose it that it should resist the tendency to yield sideways under the strain4 ,this requirement was met in the experimental girder by the triangular section of the top flange2 and the convenience of this form for joining together a number of plates1 without difficulty or the use of long rivets1 led ,mr4 ,brunel to use the triangular section also for the bottom flange4 ,illustration3 ,scale of feet4 ,fig #g4 ,girder on ,south ,wales ,railway1 #gj feet span4 ,transverse ,section4 ,subsequent improvements in the facilities for bending wrought-iron plates enabled him to use a form of cross section of wrought-iron girder1 the top flange of which was a nearly circular tube1 the best shape of strut to resist longitudinal compression4 ,it is shown in the woodcut 7fig4 #g71 and was used in many of his bridges4 ,this form was afterwards modified to that shown in fig4 #h4 ,the semicircular top plate is stiffened by occasional cross diaphragms1 and while it was a good form to resist compression1 it was more easily painted than the closed-in top flanges shown in figs4 #f and #g4 ,the forms of wrought-iron girder already referred to are those known as plate girders1 with continuous webs made of plates riveted together1 and therefore analogous to the beams of cast iron which they almost entirely superseded4 ,on ,mr4 ,brunel's railways there are a great number of bridges of these forms of girder1 where the spans do not exceed #ajj feet4 ,for larger spans he used wrought iron1 in large and deep trussed frames1 by which means a great degree of economy was attained in the employment of the material4 ,illustration3 ,scale of feet4 ,fig4 #h4 ,girder on ,eastern ,bengal ,railway1 #ib feet span4 ,transverse ,section4 ,the care which he had taken to satisfy himself of the action of the strains in plate girders was of service in all the greater structures he designed1 as in all of them he employed wrought-iron girders to carry the roadway1 of a type somewhat similar to those already described1 the girders being supported at frequent intervals by the main framework or truss4 ,opening ,bridges4 ,the first large opening bridge which ,mr4 ,brunel constructed was a roadway swing bridge1 #ab feet wide1 across the new lock at the ,bristol ,docks4 ,the length of the overhanging end is #hh feet1 and the other1 or tail end1 which is #cd feet long1 rests upon two wheels1 which travel on a circular rail4 ,the weight of the overhanging end is rather more than counterbalanced by large blocks of cast iron1 forming part of the pavement of the tail end4 ,almost the whole weight is borne on a centre pivot1 assisted by four wheels in fixed bearings1 upon which runs an inverted circular rail attached to the underside of the bridge4 ,on the pivot1 which rests on a large cast-iron bed-plate1 are two discs1 one of steel and the other of brass1 which can readily be lubricated1 or taken out and renewed4 ,illustration3 ,scale of feet4 ,fig4 #i4 ,cumberland ,basin ,swing ,bridge4 ,on the sides of the bridge are longitudinal wrought-iron plate-girders4 ,the top flange is pear-shaped1 and the bottom flange triangular1 having three curved plates4 ,the flanges are connected together by a vertical plate web of wrought iron4 ,the section is shown on the woodcut 7fig4 #i74 ,it admits of very simple riveting1 without the use of angle irons4 ,the form of the bottom flange is suited to the compressive strain it has to bear when the bridge is being moved4 ,the top flange has also wrought-iron tie-bars within the tube4 ,when the bridge is across the lock and open for traffic1 the overhanging end rests on cams1 which are tightened up so as to lift and support the ends of the girders4 ,as the bridge rests almost entirely on a pivot of small diameter1 it turns with great ease4 ,near ,gloucester there are two skew swing bridges somewhat similar to each other in arrangement4 ,almost all the weight while turning is supported on the piston of a hydraulic press1 and the bridge therefore turns round on the water in the cylinder4 ,the first bridge is on the main line of railway leading to ,south ,wales1 across a branch of the ,river ,severn1 and is for two lines of way4 ,it has three girders1 #abe feet long1 of the form shown in fig4 #g 7p4 #aid74 ,the water pivot is in the middle of the length of the bridge1 which spans two openings of #ej feet on the square4 ,before being turned the bridge was intended to be lifted slightly off its bearings by the hydraulic press1 and steadied by four wheels1 on which a portion of the weight was to be made to rest by long springs within the girders1 the range of which was to be limited in one direction by a fixed stop4 ,the central pier consists of five cylinders of cast iron1 each #f feet in diameter1 filled with concrete1 surmounted by a cast-iron ring or roller path4 ,the railway company was obliged to make this an opening bridge in order to provide for the free navigation of the river should the old stone bridge lower down be altered4 ,this has not been done1 and the railway swing bridge1 constructed in #ahea1 has not yet been opened4 ,the other swing bridge at ,gloucester is on the ,dock branch1 for one line of way1 with an opening of #ej feet on the square1 the overhanging length of the girders being #gj feet4 ,while raised from its bearing and turning on its water pivot it is steadied by two tail wheels1 like the bridge at the ,bristol ,docks4 ,on the ,bullo ,pill branch of the ,south ,wales ,railway there is a small wrought-iron drawbridge1 for one line of way1 of #cj feet span4 ,it is a lifting bridge on the bascule principle1 like many bridges over canals in this country and in ,holland4 ,the opening part turns on a horizontal axle1 and is lifted by rods attached to the ends of two large beams or levers1 turning vertically1 which are supported above the railway on a timber framework4 ,at the other ends of these beams is a counterbalance weight4 ,the bridge is opened or shut by pulling down either end of the beams with a small chain4 ,the other bridges are on the main line of the ,south ,wales ,railway1 and are four in number1 each for two lines of way4 ,one at ,loughor is a wrought-iron swing bridge1 of #cj feet opening1 of the ordinary construction1 with girders #ij feet in length1 resting upon #cf rollers1 which are secured in a ring concentric with the pivot4 ,the opening and closing is effected by means of a crab1 fixed clear of the bridge1 near the centre4 ,a chain passes from the overhanging end of the bridge to this crab1 and taking one or two turns round the barrel1 to ensure a sufficient amount of friction1 is led to the tail end4 ,the bridge can thus be opened or shut by turning the crab handle in opposite directions4 ,the overhanging end1 when across the river1 is raised upwards to a small extent by weighted levers1 and wedges are then drawn in under it to give it a solid bearing4 ,at ,kidwelly and at ,haverfordwest there are wrought-iron lifting bridges1 the former of #bj feet1 and the latter of #cj feet span4 ,each of these turns on a horizontal axle like the ,bullo ,pill bridge2 but1 instead of being lifted by levers overhead1 it has a narrow1 heavily-weighted tail end1 beneath the planking of the viaduct1 which is pulled down with a chain worked by a crab4 ,the portion which carries each line of way is made to open independently4 ,in this form of bridge no wedges or adjusting arrangements are required for the bearings of the overhanging end4 ,over the river at ,caermarthen is a skew bridge of three girders1 each #aaf feet long1 for a double line of way4 ,it occupies two spans and rolls back1 so as to leave a #ej-;feet opening for the navigation4 ,the swing bridge at ,bristol1 already described1 was at first intended to be a rolling bridge1 and to be furnished with wheels to run back on fixed rails1 but the difficulty of forming a good foundation for the wheel path led to the design being altered4 ,at ,caermarthen the same difficulty was overcome by putting wheels turning in fixed bearings on the pier and abutment of the bridge4 ,the undersides of the girders carry inverted rails1 and run back on the wheels4 ,the bridge1 when shut1 is on an incline of #a in #ej4 ,when about to be opened it is made to assume a horizontal position by turning a supporting cam to lower the overhanging end1 and the tail end then rises sufficiently to pass clear above the part of the railway over which it runs back4 ,by this arrangement the bridge1 while in motion1 moves along a level path4 ,it is opened and closed by hydraulic machinery4 ,all these opening bridges have worked satisfactorily since they were constructed4 ,trussed ,bridges4 ,when the timber viaduct over the river ,usk1 at ,newport1 was burnt down1#ih ,mr4 ,brunel decided to form the new superstructure of the centre opening with three iron trusses1 for the two lines of way4 ,these are bow and string girders1 of #ajj feet span1 and were made of considerable height1 not only to reduce the strain on each of the members of the framework1 but also in order that the rib or upper portion of each truss might be braced diagonally to the corresponding portion of the other trusses1 and headway left for the locomotive chimneys to pass underneath4 ,this bracing counteracts any tendency of the ribs to bend sideways under the compressive strain4 ,the form of the trusses is shown in fig4 #a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 7p4 #bjf74 ,each truss is a wrought-iron polygonal arch of triangular section1 from which is suspended a horizontal girder supporting the roadway4 ,this girder also forms the tie which connects the feet of the arch and counteracts its thrust4 ,the diagonal braces shown on the elevation of the bridge prevent the arch from being distorted by the unequal loading caused by a passing train4 ,the middle truss is twice the strength of each of those at the outside1 being made so by increasing the thickness of the plates4 ,one of the outside trusses was tested with a distributed load of #a tons per foot-run of its length4 ,illustration3 ,scale of feet4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,truss of ,windsor ,bridge4 ,transverse ,section4 ,at about the same time that the ,newport viaduct was reconstructed1 ,mr4 ,brunel designed the bridge over the ,thames on the ,windsor branch of the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,this is a very large example of the bow and string girder1 the span being #bjb feet1 and the height of the truss #bc feet4 ,the trusses are three in number1 for two lines of way1 the middle one being twice the strength of the outside trusses4 ,the elevation of the ,windsor bridge is shown in fig4 #b1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 7p4 #bjf74 ,the bridge is oblique to the river1 being #bj off the square4 ,to steady the arched ribs sideways a system of diagonal bracing extends over the whole of the top of the trusses1 except at the ends1 where headway has to be left for the trains4 ,a section of the arched ribs and of the roadway girders in the centre of one of the trusses is given in the woodcut 7fig4 #aj74 ,the arched rib1 to resist compression1 is of triangular section4#ii 99 99 99 99 99 ,the borings to ascertain the nature of the ground at the foundations of the piers were made in #ahdf1 but it was not until #ahdh that the works were commenced4 ,each abutment consists of six cast-iron cylinders1 #f feet diameter1 which were sunk by excavating the gravel from their interior by hand dredging and by placing weights on the top so as to force them down4 ,when each cylinder had been by this means sunk low enough to ensure a good foundation1 it was filled with concrete in the following manner4 ,a mixture formed of ,thames ballast and ,portland cement1 in the proportions of #h to #a1 was put into a canvas bag2 this was lowered inside the cylinder to the bottom1 and1 by pulling a rope1 the mouth of the bag was opened1 and the concrete deposited under water in the bottom of the cylinder4 ,whenever the work was interrupted1 great care was taken before recommencing it to clean off any deposit1 in order that the new concrete might adhere well to the old4 ,when the cylinder had been filled to such a height that there was no danger of its floating up when emptied1 the water was pumped out4 ,the inside was then filled with concrete in the ordinary manner4 ,on the top were placed oak platforms1 which support the trusses of the bridge4 ,one of the outside trusses was tested at ,bristol in ,july #ahdi1 by loading it gradually with iron rails1 beginning from one end1 until the whole truss was uniformly weighted with #bgj tons1 or #a tons per foot-run1 observations on the deflection of different points of the bottom girder being made both during the loading and unloading4 ,the results of this test were perfectly satisfactory4 ,the superstructure of the bridge was erected on scaffolding1 and the line was opened on ,october #h1 #ahdi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it will be desirable here to notice one or two important features in this as in almost all ,mr4 ,brunel's bridges4 ,the ordinary permanent way was laid over the bridges with ballast of sufficient thickness to enable the road to be kept in repair in the same manner as the other parts of the line4 ,as there was no change in the nature of the support given to the rails1 no concussion was caused on a train entering or leaving a bridge4 ,the ballast took off from the structure the vibration of the train2 and1 in the event of carriages or even engines getting off the line1 it helped in a great measure to prevent their ploughing through the flooring4 ,where the flooring was of timber the ballast protected it from fire4 ,also in long bridges there was no necessity for any contrivance of sliding rails to allow for the effects on the structure of changes of temperature4 ,on the other hand1 the ballast added to the weight on the bridge4 ,with the timber viaducts this was an advantage1 since it kept the various parts of the framework in close contact1 and prevented sudden jars being brought on them by the rapidly applied load of a passing train4 ,even on the large bridges the cost of the extra material requisite to support the weight of the ballast was more than compensated for by the advantages above referred to4 ,mr4 ,brunel employed timber flooring1 as being the safest in the case of carriages getting off the line1 and also as being the cheapest4 ,this flooring in the iron bridges was generally laid diagonally on wrought-iron cross girders1 which were placed not at right angles to the line1 but obliquely1 in order that the two wheels of the same axle of an engine or heavy waggon might be on different cross girders at the same time4 ,by this arrangement the cross girders could be made of less strength1 and a saving effected in their cost and weight4 ,the bridge over the ,wye at ,chepstow1 and the ,royal ,albert ,bridge over the ,tamar at ,saltash1 are the largest and most important of ,mr4 ,brunel's bridges4 ,they are remarkable not only for their dimensions1 but also for the economical character of the designs1 the form of their superstructures1 and the methods by which the foundations of the piers were made4 ,at the part of the river ,wye where it is crossed by the ,chepstow ,bridge1 a cliff of limestone rock rises on the left bank to a height of #abj feet above the bed of the river1 forming the precipitous edge of a broad table-land2 while on the right bank the ground slopes gently for a considerable distance1 rising only a little above high water1 and is composed partly of clay and partly of loose shingle interspersed with large boulder stones4 ,as it was necessary to leave a clear headway of #ej feet above high water for the navigation1 the line on one side of the river is on an embankment of great height1 and on the other side it penetrates the cliff about #bj feet below the top4 ,the whole space to be bridged over1 #fjj feet wide1 was divided into a river span of #cjj feet1 and three land spans of #ajj feet each 7see fig4 #c1 ,pl4 ,v4 p4 #bjf47 ,at one end of the great span a secure abutment was offered by the cliff of limestone rock2 but at the other end1 and under the piers of the smaller spans1 the ground throughout was soft1 and full of water4 ,there was1 however1 rock at a depth of #cj feet below the bed of the river4 ,to reach this foundation with masonry1 by means of a coffer dam1 was almost impracticable1 as it was #hd feet below high water4 ,the plan of building a stone pier on a foundation of piles was considered1 and abandoned on account of the expense4 ,the method of sinking the cast-iron cylinders of the ,windsor bridge has been already described4 ,the pneumatic process of sinking cylinders had been introduced with great success at the ,rochester bridge4 ,in this process the cylinder is closed at the top and air forced in by pumps until the water is expelled at the bottom4 ,workmen in the interior excavate the ground and remove any obstacles which prevent the cylinder from sinking1 weights being added to force it down4 ,as the air within is at high pressure1 the workmen enter1 and the materials are passed in and out1 through an intermediate chamber1 called an #8air lock1' fitted with air-tight doors4 ,the pneumatic method was ultimately employed at ,chepstow1 to assist in sinking the cylinders4 ,before he decided on the plan for the foundations1 ,mr4 ,brunel had an experimental cylinder made of cast iron1 #c feet in diameter1 at the bottom of which was an exterior screw flange #ab inches broad1 and #g inches pitch1 making one complete turn4 ,this screw cylinder penetrated the ground like an ordinary screw pile4 ,in one instance it was rapidly sunk to a depth of #eh feet1 through stiff clay and sand1 in #adb revolutions2#ajj yet1 on another trial1 when boulders were encountered1 there did not appear to be sufficient penetrating power4 ,in one of these trials1 the screw1 having got into a bed of running sand1 had no hold1 and failed to descend4 ,mr4 ,brunel then had the cylinder partly raised1 and another screw added at some distance above the lower one4 ,it was then successfully screwed down4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 however1 ultimately decided on forming the piers of cast-iron cylinders forced down by loading and afterwards filled with concrete1 and the work was commenced in the spring of #ahdi4 ,with this form of construction all uncertainty of obtaining a secure foundation was removed1 as the pneumatic method was in reserve1 in case of excessive influx of water1 to sink the cylinders to the rock1 if it could not be reached by simpler means2 and additional cylinders could be added1 so as to obtain any amount of area of base that might be thought necessary4 ,the land piers for the #ajj feet spans consist each of three cylinders1 which are #f feet in diameter1 joined together in lengths of #g feet4 ,the main pier1 which supports one end of the great truss1 consists of a double row of cylinders1 six in all1 the lower parts of which are #h feet in diameter1 joined together in lengths of #f feet4 ,the bottom of each cylinder was made with a cutting edge1 so as to penetrate the ground easily4 ,most of the cylinders were sunk by the process of excavating the ground within them and weighting the top1 the water being kept down by pumping4 ,as the ground consisted chiefly of wet sand and shingle1 danger was apprehended from its tendency to run in from the outside1 while the excavation was in progress4 ,this would have diminished the lateral stability of the cylinders2 and great care was taken not to excavate too near the bottom1 but merely to loosen the ground round the cutting edge and to force the cylinder down by weights4 ,stiff clay was sometimes used to prevent the wet sand and gravel from being squeezed in from the outside4 ,when the cylinders had been sunk to the rock1 and it had been dressed off to form a level foundation1 they were filled with concrete in the same manner as at the ,windsor bridge4 ,in sinking the cylinders of the main pier1 much greater difficulties were encountered than with those of the land piers1 owing to large boulders and pieces of timber being met with near the bottom4 ,when still at some distance from the rock1 a length of one of these large cylinders cracked1 from its having met with an obstruction4 ,timber struts were then fixed within it1 until the obstacle was passed1 when it was strengthened by a strong wrought-iron hoop1 and forced down to the rock4 ,in ,april #ahea1 when the greater number of the cylinders had been sunk1 it was apparent that1 from delays due to the influx of water and other causes1 some of them could not be completed by the time that the superstructure would be ready4 ,mr4 ,brunel then decided to employ the pneumatic method1 and by means of this apparatus some of the remaining cylinders were sunk4 ,in the main pier four auxiliary columns1 formed of #g-;feet cylinders1 were placed close to the others4 ,they were connected to the #h-;feet cylinders by strong brackets1 and supplied a great additional bearing surface4 ,any slight inaccuracy of position in the cylinders was corrected by adjusting cones at the level of the ground2 on these cones #f-;feet cylinders were built up to the level of the railway4 ,the depth to which the cylinders were sunk and their position are shown in fig4 #c1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,from this drawing also the general form of the superstructure will be understood4 ,the bridge is for two lines of way2 each line is carried between two longitudinal girders #g feet deep1 of the section given in the woodcut1 fig4 #aa 7p4 #bjh74 ,each girder has a triangular top flange with a plate iron vertical web1 and a slightly curved plate for the bottom flange4 ,the roadway girders over the three land spans of #ajj feet are in one piece1 and are therefore continuous girders1 #cjj feet long1 supported at two intermediate points4 ,those across the main span are also #cjj feet long1 and are supported by the main truss4 ,illustration3 ,,iron ,,bridges ,the truss for each line of way consists of two suspension chains1 one on each side of the roadway1 hung from either side of the ends of a horizontal circular tube1 arched slightly for the sake of appearance1 which rests on piers rising about #ej feet above the level of the rails4 ,the pier at the land end is of masonry1 and the upper part of the middle pier is of cast iron1 resting on the cylinders already mentioned4 ,each pier has two archways for the trains to pass through4 ,the chains carry the roadway girders at four points1 and the tube is supported at two intermediate points in its length by upright standards resting on the chains4 ,thus1 while the weight of the structure is supported somewhat in the same manner as in a suspension bridge1 the inward drag of the chains is resisted by the tube4 ,to prevent the framework from being distorted by unequal loading1 it is made rigid by diagonal chains connecting the upper and lower ends of the two upright standards4 ,the main truss may be described as an inverted queen truss4 ,the tube which has to resist the compressive strain due to the inward pull of the chains is #i feet in diameter1 and is made of boiler plate and of an inch thick1 stiffened at intervals by diaphragms4 ,the chains are like those of suspension bridges1 each formed of #ab and #ad links alternately1 these being #aj inches deep1 and varying from to #aa_/af of an inch thick4#aja ,at the ends of the tube1 where the chains are connected to it1 there are several thicknesses of plate1 between which the links of the chains are introduced1 and a round pin1 #g inches in diameter1 passes through both plates and links4 ,the strain is thus conveyed from the chains to the ends of the tube4 ,though the trusses for the two lines of way are completely distinct1 the tubes are braced together horizontally1 to increase their stiffness sideways4 ,the woodcut 7fig4 #aa7 represents a transverse section of the truss for one line of way1 and shows the circular tube with the internal diaphragms1 the upright standards which support it1 the roadway girders1 and the chains4 ,illustration3 ,scale of feet4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,truss of ,chepstow ,bridge4 ,transverse ,section4 ,in consequence of the great depth of the truss1 which is about #ej feet1 or one-sixth of the length1 the strains on the several parts are comparatively small for such a large span4 ,the weight of wrought-iron work in each of the trusses of the main opening is #dfj tons1 inclusive of the longitudinal and cross girders1 which weigh #acj tons4 ,at the points where the roadway girders are intersected by the inclined chains1 they are not fixed to the chains1 but rest upon them1 rollers and saddles being placed between2 and at the ends of the short horizontal links1 in the middle of the span1 there are screws for adjusting the level of the girders4 ,these arrangements were made in order that the roadway girders might not be strained by the slight alteration in the form of the truss which takes place when a load comes on the bridge4 ,the continuous roadway girders were1 in the case of the large span1 supported at six points1 and in those over the three land spans at four points4 ,as the strains on continuous beams1 supported at so many points1 had not at that time been fully investigated1 ,mr4 ,brunel had the subject carefully enquired into both by calculation and experiment1 and was thus enabled to proportion the section of the girders to the strains at each point in their length4 ,some account of this investigation is given in the note at the end of this chapter4 ,as soon as the ironwork for the first truss was completed1 it was put together parallel to the river bank close to the site of the bridge4 ,the ends were supported on temporary piers1 and the structure was uniformly weighted with a load of #ggj tons1 or #b tons per foot run4 ,in unloading it1 the weight was taken off from one end of the truss1 so as to test its strength when unequally loaded4 ,the testing having been satisfactorily completed1 the truss was taken to pieces1 and preparations were made for erecting it4 ,it was necessary that the river traffic should not be interrupted for any long period2 this circumstance materially influenced the nature of the design of the superstructure1 which was such that no scaffolding was required in its erection1 nor was there any interference with the navigation for more than a single tide4 ,the truss was made so that it could be divided into parts1 each of which could be lifted separately and quickly4 ,for the operation of lifting ,mr4 ,brunel determined to use chain purchases worked by crabs4#ajb ,the tube was temporarily stiffened by portions of the main chains1 arranged so as to form a truss4 ,with this assistance it was able to carry its own weight when suspended by the two ends4 ,the preliminary operation of slewing the tube to its position on a platform at right angles to the river1 was a work requiring a good deal of careful contrivance4 ,when this had been accomplished1 a pontoon1 consisting of six wrought-iron barges1 was placed opposite the end of the tube1 and all was ready for floating it across the river4 ,the floating took place on ,thursday morning1 ,april #h1 #aheb4 ,the tube had been rolled forward on two trucks till its end overhung the pontoon2 and1 as the tide rose1 the pontoon floated with the end of the tube resting on it4 ,in order to guide it in a straight line across the river1 hawsers were attached to points on the bank up and down the stream1 and were led to crabs on the pontoon1 so that by hauling on either hawser the tube was kept in its right course4 ,as spring tides at ,chepstow rise #dj feet1 there is a rapid current except for a very short time4 ,the operation of drawing the tube across was commenced at a little after nine o'clock1 and by a quarter to ten the pontoon had reached the other side safely1 and the tube spanned the river4 ,all proceeded with perfect quiet and regularity under the management of ,mr4 ,brunel1 who was assisted by ,mr4 ,brereton and ,captain ,claxton4 ,as soon as the pontoon reached the further shore1 the chains of the lifting tackles were attached to the tube4 ,the tube was lifted in the course of the day to the level of the railway1 and afterwards to its place on the top of the piers1 when the suspension chains and the rest of the truss were attached to it4 ,the bridge was opened for a single line of way on ,july #ad1 #aheb4 ,the second tube was floated in a similar manner to the first1 and the bridge was completed shortly afterwards4 ,the total cost of the ,chepstow bridge was #gg1jjjl4#ajc 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,royal ,albert ,bridge1 which carries the ,cornwall ,railway across the ,river ,tamar at ,saltash1 is the last and greatest of ,mr4 ,brunel's railway works4 ,a railway into ,cornwall1 crossing the river ,tamar1 was proposed as early as #ahdd4 ,mr4 ,brunel at one time thought of carrying the trains across on a steam ferry similar to those which had been successfully introduced by ,mr4 ,rendel4 ,in #ahde a company was formed and an application made for an ,act to construct the railway either with a steam ferry at ,torpoint or by a bridge at ,saltash4 ,the latter plan was sanctioned by ,parliament4 ,the height of the line shown on the section at the crossing of the ,tamar was #hj feet above high water4 ,the ,admiralty1 however1 required that this height should be increased4 ,no further steps were taken till the beginning of #ahdg1 when some preliminary borings and sections were made1 in order to prepare definite plans for the bridge4 ,the facts then ascertained were so encouraging as to strengthen ,mr4 ,brunel in his opinion that the difficulties to be encountered would not be found greater than had been anticipated4 ,the river at ,saltash is #a1ajj feet wide1 with a depth in the middle of about #gj feet at high water4 ,it had at first been intended to construct the bridge with one span of #bee feet1 and six of #aje feet1 with superstructures of timber-trussed arches4#ajd ,in compliance with the requirements of the ,admiralty1 the design was altered to two spans of #cjj feet1 and two of #bjj feet1 with a clear headway of #ajj feet4 ,this arrangement would have required three piers in deep water4 ,mr4 ,brunel subsequently decided to have only one pier in deep water1 and to have two spans of #dfe feet each4 ,it was afterwards found that these could be reduced to #dee feet4#aje ,twenty years before1 while engaged with his father on the ,thames ,tunnel1 he had conceived the idea of working under a diving-bell of great dimensions4 ,sir ,isambard approved of the suggestion1 and thought of applying it in sinking the shafts of the ,tunnel4 ,drawings were prepared1 but the circumstance of a patent for a similar idea having been taken out by ,lord ,cochrane partly deterred him from carrying out the project1 though some sketches were afterwards made for constructing a lighthouse by means of this arrangement4 ,when the construction of the ,cornwall ,railway had to be considered1 ,mr4 ,brunel thought that his old idea would be applicable to the difficulties to be encountered at ,saltash4 ,although the plan of using a large diving-bell was one which was nearly certain to be successful1 ,mr4 ,brunel thought it probable that a large cylinder of wrought iron could be constructed to serve as a coffer-dam1 and that after sinking it through the mud1 the bottom edge might be sufficiently water-tight to admit of the water being pumped out1 and the masonry of the pier built in the ordinary manner4 ,a trial cylinder1 #f feet diameter and #he feet long1 was made1 partly to ascertain whether or not this plan was practicable1 but mainly for the purpose of thoroughly examining the site of the centre pier1 where the surface of the rock was #hj feet below high water4 ,a strong framework was fitted on two gun-brig hulks1 with powerful tackle for lowering and raising the cylinder4 ,after it had been lowered to the bottom1 five borings were taken within it1 reaching through the mud to the rock4 ,the cylinder was then shifted and similar borings made4 ,the positions of the borings1 one hundred and seventy five in all1 were carefully recorded2 and thus a minute and accurate survey was obtained of the surface of the rock4 ,the site of the pier was afterwards determined by means of a model constructed from these observations4 ,in ,january #ahdi1 when sufficient information had been obtained1 the water was pumped out of the trial cylinder1 and the mud excavated down to the rock4 ,a short piece of masonry was then built1 to demonstrate the practicability of building a pier in such a situation4 ,the expenditure of the ,company for works of all kinds was shortly afterwards curtailed as much as possible1 and no further progress was made for upwards of three years4 ,however1 information had been gained which proved that a masonry pier could be built in the middle of the river1 on a good rock foundation which was there covered by a thickness of about #af feet of mud4 ,during the suspension of the works1 all the plans were revised1 with the view of reducing the first cost wherever practicable2 and ,mr4 ,brunel decided not to make the bridge for a double line1 even if there were money forthcoming to do so4 ,his reason for this is given in the following report to the ,board of ,trade1 made in #aheb3-- ,this bridge had been always assumed to be constructed for a double line of railway as well as the rest of the line4 ,in constructing the whole of the line at present with a single line of rails1 except at certain places1 the prospect of doubling it hereafter is not wholly abandoned1 but with respect to the bridge it is otherwise4 ,it is now universally admitted that when a sufficient object is to be attained1 arrangements may easily be made by which a short piece of single line can be worked without any appreciable inconvenience4444 ,this will make a reduction of at least #ajj1jjjl4 ,in the summer of #aheb the designs of the bridge were matured1 and by the beginning of #ahec the ,admiralty had approved of them2 the work of constructing the great cylinder for the centre pier was then commenced4 ,it was determined to provide for the possibility of having to employ the pneumatic process4 ,the cylinder had a diameter of #ce feet at the bottom1 and about #bj feet above the lower end of it a dome was made to form the roof of the diving-bell2 from the centre of the dome rose a tube #aj feet in diameter to the level of the top of the great cylinder4 ,as a diving-bell of this size1 under #hj feet of water1 might have proved unmanageable1 an annular space1 forming a gallery or jacket of #d feet in width and #bj feet high1 was formed round the inner circumference of the bottom of the cylinder below the dome4 ,this annular space was divided by radial vertical partitions into eleven compartments1 and was connected at the top by an air-passage with a #f-;foot cylinder1 which was placed eccentrically inside the #aj-;foot cylinder already mentioned1 and served as a communication between the outside and the annulus4 ,on the top of the #f-;foot cylinder were placed the air-locks of the pneumatic apparatus which had been used at ,chepstow4 ,thus air might be pumped into the annular space1 the water expelled1 and the work carried on without having to use air pressure under the whole of the dome4 ,in that part of the #aj-;foot cylinder which was not occupied by the #f-;foot cylinder a powerful set of pumps were fixed to keep down the water in the central space1 and diminish the pressure under which the men worked1 thus utilising whatever advantage could be gained from the great cylinder acting as a coffer-dam4 ,as it had been ascertained that the surface of the rock dipped to the south-west to the extent of about #f feet in the width of the pier1 the bottom of the cylinder was made oblique1 so as to fit the surface of the rock4 ,these arrangements are represented in the transverse section of the great cylinder 7,pl4 ,v4 p4 #bah74ajf ,the great cylinder1 having been constructed on the river-bank1 was moved down to low water on launching-ways1 and floated off by the rising tide4 ,guided between four pontoons1 it was finally sunk in correct position in ,june #ahed4 ,some delay in penetrating the mud was caused by a bed of oyster shells1 which had to be cut through by one edge of the cylinder4 ,in consequence of some irregularities of the surface of the rock1 the cylinder at first deviated considerably from an upright position2 and it was necessary to use the pneumatic apparatus to gain access to the rock1 and excavate it4 ,the height of the annulus below the dome was such that it was not quite filled by the mud when the cylinder rested on the bottom4 ,the work of getting the mud out of the annular space was much facilitated by the division of it into compartments4 ,by ,february #ahee1 the cylinder had been sunk to its full depth in an upright position1 and it then rested everywhere on the rock1 its lowest point being #hg feet #f inches below high water4 ,much trouble was given by a spring of water issuing out of a fissure in the rock1 in one of the compartments1 but the flow was stopped by driving close sheet piles into the fissure4 ,the rock in the annulus was dressed1 and the space filled by a ring of granite ashlar masonry which was built to a height of about #g feet all round4 ,the state of the work at this time is that represented in the section of the cylinder1 7,pl4 ,v4 p4 #bah74 ,the rock consisted of greenstone trap1 so hard that tools could with difficulty be got to work it4 ,when the ring of masonry was completed1 it was expected that the bottom might be sufficiently water-tight to act as a coffer-dam1 and allow of the mud being taken out from the central part of the cylinder1 below the dome4 ,but the pumping power was not at first sufficient for this purpose1 and it was thought that it would be necessary to employ the pneumatic process in this space also4 ,however1 by rapid and incessant pumping the water was lowered so as to allow of the mud and rock being excavated1 and the masonry in the central space built without having again recourse to the use of air pressure4 ,the leakage water was conveyed to two wells1 formed of cast-iron pipes built into the masonry1 from which the water was pumped4 ,the inner plates of the annulus were cut out1 and the work in the centre which consisted of granite ashlar set in cement was thoroughly bonded into the ring of masonry already built4 ,when the work was carried up to the level of the dome1 both the dome and the internal #aj-;foot cylinder were cut out and removed4 ,when the building had been carried up some height1 the pump wells were filled with cement concrete1 and the influx of water stopped4 ,finally1 about the end of #ahef1 when the masonry was completed to the cap of the pier1 the upper part of the great cylinder was unbolted and taken ashore1 it having been made in two halves with that object4 ,thus the most difficult part of the undertaking was successfully completed4#ajg ,the centre pier of the ,saltash bridge is1 like many great engineering works1 out of sight1 and little regarded by any but professional men4 ,the rest of the bridge forms a striking feature in a beautiful landscape1 and its appearance is well known4 ,the whole length of the bridge is about #b1bjj feet1 and is divided into two great spans over the river of #dee feet each and seventeen side spans1 varying from #gj to #ij feet1 which are on sharp curves4 ,the piers of the side spans1 as well as the two large piers carrying the land ends of the main trusses1 are of masonry4 ,the masonry of the centre pier is #ce feet in diameter1 and is carried up about #ab feet above high water level4 ,on it stand four cast-iron octagonal columns1 rising up to the level of the railway4 ,the piers which support the ends of the great trusses are constructed with arched openings1 through which the trains pass4 ,the transverse elevation of the centre pier 7,pl4 ,v47 shows the octagonal columns connected by cast-iron open-work1 and the arched opening4 ,the upper part of the centre pier is a cast-iron standard1 and that of the land piers is of masonry cased with cast iron4#ajh ,the elevation shows the great height of the structure1 the rails being #aij feet and the highest part of the truss #bfj feet above the lowest point of the foundations4 ,the railway is carried over each of the smaller openings between two longitudinal girders1 and over the main spans it is carried between similar longitudinal girders1 which are suspended at intervals from the main truss4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,royal ,,albert ,,bridge ,each truss consists of a wrought-iron oval tube1 which forms an arch1 and of two suspension chains1#aji one on either side of the tube1 connecting its two ends4 ,the rise of the arched tube above its abutments on the top of the piers is the same as the fall of the suspension chains below the same level4 ,at eleven points in the length of the truss the chains are connected to the tube by upright standards1 which are braced together by diagonal bars1 in order to resist the strains due to unequal loading4 ,the roadway girders are suspended from the truss at the upright standards already mentioned1 and at an intermediate point between each of them4 ,the truss has the great depth of #ef feet in the centre2 this conduces materially to the economy of the construction1 as it diminishes the strain upon the principal parts1 the tube and the chains1 and so enables them to be made of smaller dimensions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,truss of ,saltash ,bridge4 ,transverse section4 ,scale of feet4 ,the woodcut 7fig4 #ab7 is a transverse section in the centre of the truss1 showing the oval tube1 the chains1 the upright and standards1 the roadway girders4 ,the tube is made oval in section with the greater diameter horizontal1 in order that it may have stiffness sideways under the compressive strain1 and that the main chains may hang vertically at such a distance as to leave room for the roadway between them4 ,the tube is #af feet #i inches broad and #ab feet #c inches in height4 ,each chain consists of two tiers of links1 each tier formed of #ad and #ae links alternately4 ,these are #g inches deep and about #a inch thick4 ,the arrangements of the ironwork of the tube and its connections with the main chains are generally similar to those at ,chepstow4 ,the truss may be described as a combination of an arch and a suspension bridge1 half the weight being placed on the one and half on the other1 the outward thrust of the arch on the abutments being counterbalanced by the inward drag of the chains4 ,the mechanical arrangement of the ,saltash truss is similar to that of the one at ,chepstow4#aaj ,the tube1 resting on standards1 the railway passing beneath1 the suspension chains hung from either side of the tube1 the upright standards1 and the diagonal bracing are common to the two structures4 ,the difference in the form of the two trusses is principally the result of the difference in the circumstances attending the construction of the bridges at ,chepstow and ,saltash4 ,the design of the ,chepstow truss was chiefly determined by the necessity of lifting up the separate parts of it under conditions of peculiar difficulty2 while at ,saltash the mode of floating and lifting the superstructure had great influence in the preparation of the design4 ,on ,plate ,v4 7p4 #bah7 is given an elevation of one span of the ,saltash bridge1 and a general elevation on a smaller scale of the whole bridge4 ,the total weight of wrought ironwork in the superstructure of each span is #a1jfj tons4#aaa ,the trusses at ,saltash were not lifted in parts1 as at ,chepstow2 for1 as the river was divided by the centre pier into two openings1 one of them could be left clear for the navigation1 and each truss1 with its roadway girders attached1 could be raised to its position slowly and in one piece4 ,the trusses were constructed parallel to the river on the ,devonshire side1 close to the site of the bridge4 ,when the truss for the ,cornwall or western span was completed1 temporary piers were erected to support the ends1 and the scaffolding having been removed1 the roadway was loaded with #a1aij tons1 uniformly distributed4#aab ,this test having proved satisfactory1 preparations were made for floating the truss4 ,docks were made underneath it near the two ends1 and in each of these docks two iron pontoons were placed4 ,valves were then opened to admit water1 and the pontoons were allowed to sink on timbers prepared to receive them4 ,upon each pair of pontoons was erected an elaborate framework of timber to carry the weight of half the truss1 or between #ejj and #fjj tons4 ,the framework consisted of stout timber props1 some of them #dj feet long1 extending from the pontoon to the arched tube1 and was attached to the tube by iron suspension rods1 so that when the operation of floating was completed1 the pontoons would be free to pass from underneath the truss4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,brunel had previously taken part in operations of this nature4 ,when ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson was about to undertake the floating of the tubes of the ,conway and ,britannia bridges1 he asked his friends ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,locke to give him their assistance4 ,they were present at all1 or nearly all1 these difficult operations1 and ,mr4 ,brunel had an active share in the work1 especially in the floating of the first ,conway tube4 ,by ,mr4 ,brunel's advice ,mr4 ,stephenson had obtained the services of ,captain ,claxton to superintend the nautical part of the work2 and ,captain ,claxton was1 as a matter of course1 with ,mr4 ,brunel in a similar capacity at ,chepstow and ,saltash4 ,at ,saltash fortunately there was not so swift a tide as there had been at the ,britannia and ,conway floatings4 ,in order to haul the truss out1 warps were laid from the pontoons to a gun-brig hulk near the centre pier1 and to a barge higher up the river4 ,on this barge were also placed ready for use the ends of four warps1 leading to capstans and crabs on board vessels moored at various points4 ,to keep the truss from being drifted up or down the river while being moved out1 radius lines were laid from the pontoons to moorings1 with arrangements for hauling in on them if required4 ,in order to ensure his directions being clearly understood and promptly attended to1 ,mr4 ,brunel assembled a number of his assistants1 one of whom was placed as #8,captain' in each of the vessels containing the hauling capstans1 to superintend the men1 and to execute orders4 ,these orders were given by signals4 ,it was most important that the attention of the captain should not be diverted by looking out for the signals1 and that there should be no chance of a signal not being seen by him because he was attending to some other of his duties4 ,there was1 therefore1 in each vessel an assistant whose sole duty it was to watch for the signals1 to give the appropriate interpretation to the captain1 and to acknowledge the signal by a flag corresponding to that by which it was given4 ,mr4 ,brunel directed the operations from a platform in the centre of the truss4 ,the signals were given from a smaller platform immediately above1 and were made by red and white flags1 held in front of black boards1 which were turned towards the vessel signalled to4 ,printed papers containing instructions were distributed to all engaged2 the signalling was carefully rehearsed1 as also was every other part of the operations which could be tried beforehand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,september #a1 #aheg1 was the day fixed for the floating4 ,during the morning1 the men1 about #ejj in number1 assembled at their stations on the vessels and pontoons4 ,captain ,claxton had command of the arrangements afloat1 and as a reserve force to act in any emergency several boats were lent from ,h4,m4,s4 #8,ajax' and the ,dockyard4 ,with ,mr4 ,brunel were ,mr4 ,brereton and ,captain ,harrison1 the commander of the #8,great ,eastern4' ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson was expected1 but a serious attack of illness prevented him from being present4 ,at about one o'clock in the afternoon signals from the tops of the temporary piers on which the truss rested1 showed that the ends had been lifted three inches clear4 ,mr4 ,brunel then gave the signal for the men in the pontoons to haul on the warps1 and the great structure glided slowly out to the centre of the river4 ,a pause was then made1 while the warps which were to swing the truss round into its place were being attached to the pontoon which was farthest from the centre pier4 ,when this was done1 the different ropes were hauled upon in obedience to signals1 so as to keep the other pontoon close to the centre pier1 upon which1 as a pivot1 the truss swung round in a quarter circle till it occupied the whole of the western half of the river1 and was brought close to its appointed resting-place4 ,it was finally adjusted to its exact position by strong tackles attached to the piers4 ,water was then admitted into the pontoons2 and1 as the tide fell1 they were allowed to drift away1 leaving the truss resting on the piers1 the roadway girders being but a few feet above the water4 ,the whole operation was conducted with the most perfect order and regularity4 ,the beauty of the scenery and the changing effect produced by the truss in the various positions it assumed as it was being moved forward and swung round into its place1 rendered the operation as interesting to the spectators as its results were satisfactory to ,mr4 ,brunel and to those who assisted him4#aac 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the task of lifting the truss1 as well as in that of floating it1 ,mr4 ,brunel had the great advantage of the experience gained at the ,britannia ,bridge4 ,there the piers were built first1 and the tubes hauled up with link chains by hydraulic presses placed on the tops of the towers4 ,the design of the piers at ,saltash did not allow of this plan being adopted1 and they were built up under the truss as it was lifted4 ,under each end of the truss were three hydraulic presses2 the two outside presses combined1 or the middle one by itself1 were sufficient to lift the weight4 ,mr4 ,brunel had also at first intended to have strong screw-jacks1 which were to be kept screwed up underneath the truss1 and so to support the weight1 if by any accident the presses failed4 ,a modification of this plan was adopted2 the rams of the presses had a screw thread cut on them1 and a large nut on each was kept screwed up hard against the top of the press as the ram emerged from it4 ,as an additional precaution1 timber packing1 in thin layers1 was placed in the space between the completed portion of the pier and the end of the truss as it was lifted4 ,great care was thus taken to guard against any mishap4 ,the tube was lifted #c feet at a time at each end4 ,the operation went on slowly1 in order to allow the masonry of the land pier to set after it had been built up underneath the truss4 ,the work was carried on with great system and care under the immediate superintendence of ,mr4 ,brereton4 ,mr4 ,brunel was only able to be present during one of the lifting operations1 as he was then engaged in the launch of the #8,great ,eastern4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,by ,july #aheh1 the first truss had been lifted to its full height1 and the second truss was ready for floating4 ,the arrangements were generally similar to those on the previous occasion2 the course1 however1 to be traversed by the pontoons was more intricate than on the previous occasion1 as the land pier on the ,devonshire side of the river1 over which the first truss had passed1 had been built up to receive the end of the second4 ,this truss had1 therefore1 to be moved first outwards till the pontoons were clear of the docks1 then it had to move endways up the river1 and to swing round into position4 ,mr4 ,brunel was obliged to remain abroad from ill-health1 and ,mr4 ,brereton conducted the operations4 ,although the weather was not favourable1 and the wind high1 the truss was safely landed on the piers2 and was afterwards raised in the same manner as the first one4#aad ,the general elevation1 ,plate ,v41 shows the proportions of the bridge4 ,on the ,devonshire side1 the side spans pass over fields1 and on the ,cornwall side over the town of ,saltash4 ,the general effect of the bridge is in no way heightened by an expenditure of money on architectural ornament2 for1 with the exception of a few unimportant mouldings1 the bridge is absolutely unadorned4 ,the total cost was #bbe1jjjl4--a very moderate expenditure1 especially when the difficult work at the centre pier is taken into account4 ,this result is due not only to the careful manner in which all the details of the design were prepared1 but also to the great attention given throughout to the construction4 ,his ,royal ,highness the ,prince ,consort1 as ,lord ,warden of the ,stannaries1 permitted the bridge to be called the ,royal ,albert ,bridge1 and consented to open it in person4 ,the ceremony was performed on ,may #c1 #ahei4 ,mr4 ,brunel was compelled to be absent on the ,continent1 for the sake of his health1 and was represented on the occasion by ,mr4 ,brereton4 ,after ,mr4 ,brunel's return to ,england1 he paid a hurried visit to the ,cornwall ,railway1 and1 for the first and last time1 saw in its completed state the great work on which he had expended so much thought and care4 ,,note1 7pp4 #ahb1 #aid1 #bji74 ,experiments on ,matters connected with ,bridge ,construction4 ,no account of the structures designed by ,mr4 ,brunel would be complete without a reference to the elaborate care he always took1 wherever it was practicable1 to satisfy himself by experiment of the qualities of the materials employed1 and of the correctness of the principles followed4 ,it would not here be possible to give a detailed record of all his experiments1 but an account of some of the methods employed by him will be interesting4 ,some of the larger of ,mr4 ,brunel's experiments on cast and wrought-iron girders have already been mentioned4#aae ,he scarcely ever made any large girder or framework without having it fully tested1 and he made extensive and elaborate experiments1 most of them on a very large scale1 on the strength of some of the materials and component parts of his different structures4 ,among the large scale experiments tried by ,mr4 ,brunel1 were those on the compressive strength of yellow pine-timber1 which were made at ,bristol in #ahdf1 and were on specimens from #aj to #dj feet in length1 and from #f to #ae inches square4 ,a framework of four upright pieces of whole timber1 nearly #ej feet high1 contained four strong bars of wrought iron1 placed vertically1 and attached at their lower ends to the cylinder of a hydraulic press4 ,along these bars1 a casting could be moved1 and fastened at different heights by keys1 in such a manner as to have its under-surface1 which was planed1 perfectly horizontal4 ,the ends of a specimen having been made exactly square to its length1 it was put in this apparatus1 with the upper end bearing against the lower surface of the movable casting1 and the lower end resting on the top-surface of the ram of the hydraulic press1 which was also planed and adjusted so as to be horizontal4 ,the keys1 which attached the movable casting to the bars1 were now driven tight1 and the pump of the press worked1 weights being placed on the end of the lever1 to correspond with increments of pressure on the ram4 ,these weights were added gradually1 until the specimen gave way4 ,the accuracy of this mode of measuring the pressure was tested by direct loading of the ram with rails1 which was repeated several times during the course of the experiments1 so as to guard against any change in the amount of friction of the press4 ,for each increment of weight1 the compression of the specimen was measured on its four faces1 and its deflection1 or amount of bending1 on two adjacent faces4 ,the transverse stiffness of long specimens was also tried1 by supporting them at each end1 and loading them in the middle4 ,the deflection in the middle thus observed corresponded very closely with what might have been expected from the observations on the direct compression2 and from the constants so obtained1 the strength of those specimens1 whose length was very great as compared with their transverse dimensions1 could be obtained by ,euler's theory1 but for the stouter specimens the strength per square inch was found to be nearly constant4 ,from these experiments1 a complete practical knowledge of the properties of yellow pine timber1 when subjected to end pressures1 was obtained1 knowledge new at the time1 and almost essential to ,mr4 ,brunel in designing the many viaducts which he afterwards constructed4 ,mr4 ,brunel also made experiments on the strength of pine timber when exposed to pressure on the side or at right angles to the fibre4 ,by this means he determined the area which it was desirable to provide for the washers of bolts1 and the weight which might safely be placed on transverse timbers or sills of viaducts4 ,mr4 ,brunel's experiments on riveting were also important4 ,most of these were made with specimens #bj inches wide1 and half an inch thick4 ,they were compared with specimens of solid iron1 of the same quality and thickness as the riveted specimens1 and also the same width minus the rivet holes1 so as to have equal efficient sectional areas4 ,double covering plates and double riveting were used in all cases1 the variation being in the widths of the covering plates1 and the number and arrangement of the rivets4 ,the experiments were continued until thirty in all had been made1 and the strongest form of joint was considered to have been arrived at4 ,in connection with the lifting of the parts of the ,chepstow ,bridge1 an elaborate series of experiments was made on ropes1 chains1 and wire-rope1 so as to ascertain which of these it was desirable to employ1 as possessing the greatest advantages4 ,the experiments made were of two kinds1 one to determine the absolute strength of the specimen when subjected to a straight pull1 and the other to observe what took place when it was worked over a sheave4 ,in the first set the specimen was held at each end in the jaws of a pair of wrought-iron clamps1 which were tightened up by means of screws4 ,one of the clamps was attached to a fixed beam1 and from the other was suspended a large cylindrical tank1 which was gradually filled with water until the specimen gave way1 the breaking strain being the weight of the tank and water4 ,this weight was ascertained by actual weighing with a steelyard when the water in the tank was at different heights4 ,observations on the extension1 shrinkage of the circumference1 and change in the pitch of the spiral of the rope were made with different loads1 and the strength of a sufficient number of the yarns of which the rope was composed was tried to ascertain the loss of strength by combining the yarns into a rope4 ,in the second set the specimen1 clamped as before1 was passed over a sheave1 the axle of which rolled horizontally on planed cast-iron plates1 in order to diminish friction4 ,to each clamp was attached a cylindrical iron tank4 ,water being admitted to the highest tank until downward motion commenced1 its influx was stopped1 and the tank descended1 the other one rising4 ,water was then admitted to the now highest tank until motion again commenced1 and this process was repeated until the specimen gave way1 the tanks getting fuller of water at each movement1 at which times the difference of weight of the two tanks was observed4 ,this1 minus the slight friction of the apparatus1 represented the rigidity of the rope4 ,the extensions were observed as in the first set of experiments4 ,the specimens consisted of hemp1 manilla1 shroud laid and hawser laid ropes1 from #h to #aj inches in circumference1 round and flat wire ropes1 and chains of different sizes of about the same strength as the ropes4 ,the sheaves also were of different diameters4 ,these experiments resulted in ,mr4 ,brunel deciding to use chains for lifting the bridge1 and this mainly from the circumstance that chains work more satisfactorily over a sheave than either hemp or wire ropes4 ,some small scale experiments made by ,mr4 ,brunel are deserving of notice4 ,these were made to verify calculations on the longitudinal girders of the ,chepstow truss1 which are virtually continuous beams of five unequal spans4 ,it was desirable to test the results of analysis by experiment1 in order to be assured that no errors had been committed in its application4 ,mr4 ,brunel accordingly devised the following simple form of experiment for this purpose4 ,a deal rod1 exactly half an inch square and #ch feet long1 quite free from knots1 was supported on props of equal height1 above the perfectly horizontal and planed surface of a large beam of timber4 ,the props were placed so as to correspond relatively to the actual spans1 and the rod was loaded uniformly by means of a chain4 ,it was thus bent into an elastic curve1 the ordinates of which were very carefully measured1 at every foot along the length1 by a finely divided scale and magnifier4 ,the pressure on each prop was also determined1 by removing any particular one1 and suspending the point of the rod immediately over it to a steel-yard1 the weight being observed when the point of the rod was exactly at the same level as before the prop was removed4 ,the obvious condition1 that the sum of the pressures on the props should be equal to the weight of the rod and its load1 furnished a satisfactory means of testing the results of these weighings4 ,the rod being turned over on each of its four sides1 the experiments were repeated1 and the average taken1 in order to eliminate the effects of initial curvature1 or of unequal elasticity4 ,diagrams of the elastic curves were then made1 showing the correspondence of theory with experiment1 and this was so close as to leave no doubt that a true knowledge of the nature of the strains had been arrived at4 ,one of these diagrams is given by ,mr4 ,edwin ,clark in his work on the #8,britannia and ,conway ,tubular ,bridges1' vol4 i4 p4 #dfb4 ,by modifications of the plan ,mr4 ,brunel adopted in this experiment1 the strains on continuous beams of varying section may be ascertained with considerable accuracy4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,the #8,,great ,,western' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,a4,d4 #ahce--ahdg4 ,,tatis #cj--db4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,chapters ,,on ,,steam ,,navigation--,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,steam-,,ship ,,company--,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,western'--,,report ,,on ,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,builders ,,of ,,the ,,engines 7,,june #ah1 #ahcf7--,,statements ,,of ,,dr4 ,,lardner ,,on ,,the ,,probable ,,failure ,,of ,a ,,line ,,of ,,steam-,,ships ,,between ,,england ,,and ,,america--,,voyage ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,western' ,,to ,,london--,,completion ,,of ,,the ,,engines--,,her ,,return ,,to ,,bristol--,,fire ,,on ,,board ,,and ,,accident ,,to ,,mr4 ,,brunel--,,voyage ,,to ,,new ,,york--,,comparison ,,between ,,the ,,performances ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,western' ,,and ,,the #8,,sirius'--,,subsequent ,,history ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,western'--,,note3 ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,ship ,,and ,,engines4 ,it will readily be conceded that ,mr4 ,brunel's railway works1 which have formed the subject of the five preceding chapters1 would have given him ample employment for the thirty years of his professional life4 ,nevertheless1 during almost the whole of that period--namely1 from #ahce1 the year of the passing of the ,great ,western ,railway ,bill1 to his death in #ahei--;he was also engaged in the accomplishment of undertakings which had for their object the systematic development of ,ocean ,steam ,navigation4#aaf ,the #8,great ,western1' the first steam-ship which made regular voyages across the ,atlantic1 the #8,great ,britain1' the first large iron steam-ship1 and the first large ship in which the screw propeller was used1 and1 lastly1 the #8,great ,eastern1' were ,mr4 ,brunel's works1 built under his direction1 in the midst of his other engrossing occupations1 and at the sacrifice of his health and life4 ,the history of these projects will contain records of many disappointments as well as of success2 for no great and novel undertaking can be perfected at once and without changes of plan and arrangement4 ,as engineer to the ,companies which built these steam-ships1 ,mr4 ,brunel advised the adoption of measures strongly in opposition to current popular opinion1 and far bolder and more daring than even his recommendation of the broad gauge and the atmospheric system4 ,the results obtained have verified his calculations1 and the conclusions he sought to establish are now so generally accepted that it is difficult to believe that they were ever questioned4 ,no one now has any doubt that large vessels can with safety be built of iron1 or that the screw propeller can be advantageously employed in ships of war and the mercantile navy2 no one can now deny that it is practicable for steam-ships to make long voyages across the ocean with regularity and speed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a detailed account will now be given of the ships whose performances first demonstrated the truth of these propositions4 ,although the #8,great ,western' was the first steamer which was built for regular voyages between ,europe and ,america1 the first attempt to use steam in the direct voyage across the ,atlantic was made by an ,american ship of #cjj tons burden1 called the #8,savannah1' and built at ,new ,york4 ,her engines were of small power1 with paddles made to ship and unship4 ,she made only two voyages to and from ,europe3 in the first of these she left the port of ,savannah on ,may #be1 and anchored at ,liverpool on ,june #bj1 #ahai4 ,no further advance in ,ocean ,steam ,navigation seems to have been attempted until #ahce4 ,in the ,october of that year1 at a meeting of the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 at ,radley's ,hotel1 in ,bridge ,street1 ,blackfriars1 one of the party spoke of the enormous length1 as it then appeared1 of the proposed railway from ,london to ,bristol4 ,mr4 ,brunel exclaimed1 #8,why not make it longer1 and have a steamboat to go from ,bristol to ,new ,york1 and call it the 8,great ,western80' ,this suggestion was treated as a joke by most of those who heard it2 but at night ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,guppy1 one of the ,directors1 talked it over1 and afterwards consulted three of the leading members of the ,board--,mr4 ,scott1 ,mr4 ,pycroft1 and ,mr4 ,robert ,bright4 ,they took up the idea warmly1 and a committee was formed to carry out the project4 ,as a preliminary measure1 ,mr4 ,guppy and ,captain ,christopher ,claxton1 ,r4,n41 made a tour of the great ship-building ports of the kingdom1 in order to collect information4 ,the results of their inquiries were embodied in a report1 dated ,january #a1 #ahcf1 which describes at great length the advantages to be gained in large vessels4 ,the manuscript was submitted to ,mr4 ,brunel previously to its publication1 and he inserted the following passage3-- ,the resistance of vessels in the water does not increase in direct proportion to their tonnage4 ,this is easily explained2 the tonnage increases as the cubes of their dimensions1 while the resistance increases about as their squares2 so that a vessel of double the tonnage of another1 capable of containing an engine of twice the power1 does not really meet with double the resistance4 ,speed therefore will be greater with the large vessel1 or the proportionate power of the engine and consumption of fuel may be reduced4 ,this was an important addition to the report1 for it enunciates the principle which governed ,mr4 ,brunel in determining the dimensions and power1 not only of the #8,great ,western1' but also of the #8,great ,britain' and #8,great ,eastern' steam-ships4 ,immediately after the publication of this report a ,company was formed in ,bristol called #8,the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company1' ,mr4 ,peter ,maze being the ,chairman1 and ,captain ,claxton the ,managing ,director4 ,captain ,claxton's exertions in the service of the ,company from its formation to its dissolution were unremitting and invaluable4 ,he was also1 from the date of ,mr4 ,brunel's first connection with ,bristol1 one of his most intimate friends1 and his confidential adviser on all points on which nautical experience was of value4#aag ,mr4 ,patterson 7an eminent ship-builder of ,bristol7 was selected to superintend the building of the first ship1 under the direction of a #8,building ,committee' consisting of ,captain ,claxton1 ,mr4 ,guppy1 and ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,whenever railway business called ,mr4 ,brunel to ,bristol1 which at this time was at least once in every week1 the ,committee and ,mr4 ,patterson used to meet at the office1 or at ,captain ,claxton's or ,mr4 ,guppy's house1 and often sat far into the night discussing the details of the design of the ship4#aah ,one of the most important questions which occupied ,mr4 ,brunel's attention was the selection of the builders of the engines4 ,tenders were invited2 and on receiving them1 he addressed the following report to ,captain ,claxton1 the ,managing ,director3-- ,june #ah1 #ahcf4 ,in considering the three tenders for the supply of marine engines for your first vessel1 which you have submitted to me for my opinion1 ,i have assumed that the interests of the company are paramount1 and that all feelings of partiality towards any particular manufacturer or any local interest must yield to the absolute necessity1 in this the first and the boldest attempt of the kind yet made1 of not merely satisfying yourselves that you will obtain a good engine1 but also of taking all those means of securing the best which in the eyes of the public may be unquestionable4 ,in this view of the case1 if you agree with me1 ,i think you will consider that1 provided the prices are fair individually1 the relative amount of the tenders is a secondary consideration4 ,i assume1 also1 that the high respectability of all these parties would ensure equally from either the best materials and workmanship1 and ,i shall confine myself simply to pointing out a few of the conditions peculiar to the engines which you require1 and the means which the different parties have of complying with these conditions4 ,i need hardly remind you that1 owing to the lateness of the season1 you will require that the vessel should be prepared to run her first voyage almost immediately after the engines are fixed4 ,you will remember1 also1 that it will be the longest voyage yet run2 that in the event of unfavourable weather a total failure might be the result of the engine not working to its full power1 or consuming too great a quantity of coals--a very common occurrence with engines apparently well made1 after six or eight days' constant work2 and1 lastly1 that the future success of the boat as a passenger ship--nay1 even of the company's boats generally1 and1 to a great extent1 and for some time1 the reputation of ,bristol as an ,american steamboat station1 may depend upon the success of this first voyage4 ,it is indispensable1 therefore1 to secure as far as possible a machine which shall be perfect in all its details from the moment of its completion4 ,there may be time for a few trials for ascertaining the fact of its completion1 but there will be none for effecting any alterations should they be found necessary1 or for making any experiments4 ,the machinery which you require to be so perfect is by no means an ordinary steam-engine4 ,marine engines of #hj or #ij1 and even some of #ajj horse-power1 are mere models on a large scale of the ordinary-sized engines4 ,engines of #afj or #ahj horse-power each would be unmanageable without many material modifications in the details2 the arrangement must be different1 and1 as the strength of materials remains the same1 the proportionate dimensions of the parts must be modified4 ,many contrivances of this description have been introduced into the large engines of #aaj horse-power each made for the ,navy4 ,from #aaj to #afj is still another and a very great stride4 ,those who have led the way in the first step are certainly the most likely to be aware of the difficulties of the second1 and to be able to appreciate them better1 and be more prepared to overcome them than those who have as yet only manufactured1 however successfully1 engines of the ordinary class4 ,of three parties tendering4444 ,messrs4 ,maudslay have made by far the largest number1 and have for some years led the way in the introduction of the largest armed steamboats2 and there can be no question as to the fact that they are the oldest manufacturers of marine engines1 that they are themselves the originators of the greatest number of the improvements of the day1 that they have made the largest engines yet made1 and the greatest number of large engines of all sizes2 and1 lastly1 that they have the principal supply of engines for the large war ships now used for the ,navy1 and have had hitherto the sole supply of all above #gj horse-power4 ,with these facts before you1 it remains only for you to consider how far you agree with me in the conclusion ,i have come to1 and which ,i have no hesitation in expressing--that ,i think you will be safest1 in the peculiar case of the first ship1 in the hands of the parties who have had most experience1 and that ,messrs4 ,maudslay are those persons4 ,their price is1 ,i think1 moderate4 ,this report was read by ,mr4 ,brunel at a meeting of the ,board1 summoned at his request2 the ,directors adopted his advice1 and accepted the offer of ,messrs4 ,maudslay ,field1 of ,lambeth4#aai ,the #8,great ,western1' for so the ship was called1 had not been long commenced when a somewhat celebrated controversy arose1 in which the correctness of ,mr4 ,brunel's views was questioned by the late ,dr4 ,dionysius ,lardner4 ,the circumstances which led to this discussion were as follows3-- ,the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science held its sixth meeting at ,bristol in ,august #ahcf2 and1 as ,dr4 ,lardner was announced to lecture on ,transatlantic ,steam ,navigation1 great interest was felt in ,bristol on the occasion4 ,after some postponement1 he delivered his lecture on ,august #be1 to a crowded meeting of the ,mechanical ,section4 ,the proceedings of the ,association unfortunately do not give any report of ,dr4 ,lardner's observations2 but1 as in his latest work on the subject#abj he speaks in commendatory terms of the report given in the #8,times' newspaper1 that account may be relied on as correct4 ,in the #8,times' of ,august #bg1 #ahcf1 it is stated that in the course of his lecture ,dr4 ,lardner said1-- ,let them take a vessel of #a1fjj tons1 provided with #djj horse-power engines4 ,they must take #b tons for each horse-power1 the vessel must have #a1cdh tons of coal1 and to that add #djj tons1 and the vessel must carry a burden of #a1gdh tons4 ,he thought it would be a waste of time1 under all the circumstances1 to say much more to convince them of the inexpediency of attempting a direct voyage to ,new ,york1 for in this case #b1jhj miles was the longest run a steamer could encounter3 at the end of that distance she would require a relay of coals4 ,there is no detailed report remaining of the animated discussion which followed the lecture1 and in which ,mr4 ,brunel took part4 ,he exposed several errors in ,dr4 ,lardner's calculations1 but failed to produce any effect upon the majority of those present1 who were powerfully impressed by the lecturer's dogmatic assertions4 ,those assertions seem to have had a wide circulation beyond the walls of the lecture-room2 and if ,dr4 ,lardner's arguments were sound1 and if transatlantic steamers ought to have taken their departure from #8the most western shore of the ,british ,isles1' the enthusiastic advocate of a railway scheme in ,ireland might well exclaim1-- ,the promoters of this vast object stand forewarned of defeat4 ,dr4 ,lardner1 who has bestowed a great deal of pains in arguing the bearings of this undertaking1 has pronounced it impracticable2 and ,i entirely agree with him in his conclusions4 ,the effort1 nevertheless1 will be made2 the genius of ,english enterprise will hazard the consequences2 and every honest spirit that shall hear of the brave ,british crew which will embark upon that perilous expedition will feel his heart beating high for the merchant-sailor1 whom nothing can deter4 ,he will sail2 but1 though dangers will encompass him1 and destruction appear1 there is yet a hope for his ultimate success4 ,let us cheer ourselves with the expectation that1 as the exhausted mariner returns1 he will fall in with the western shores of ,ireland2 that1 worn out and hopeless of home and comfort upon earth1 the ,shannon will win him to her bosom2 that1 invited by the graceful sinuosities of that noble stream1 and the rich and fertile lands around1 he will advance to this convenient and improving city2 and as he rests within its walls that he will exclaim1 #8,this is the place from which ,i ought to have set out1 for here have ,i returned with ease and safety6'#aba ,dr4 ,lardner's views are repeated in an article in the #8,edinburgh ,review' for ,april #ahcg 7vol4 lxv472 and in the report of the proceedings of the ,british ,association for #ahcf 7p4 #acj of the proceedings of the sections71 the reader is referred to this article1 apparently as a substitute for an abstract of the lecture4 ,the following rsum is there given of the lecture3-- ,the conclusions at which he arrived were briefly these3 that1 in the present state of the steam-engine as applied to nautical purposes1 he regarded a permanent and profitable communication between ,great ,britain and ,new ,york by steam-vessels making the voyage in one trip as in a high degree improbable2 that since the length of the voyage exceeds the present limits of steam-power1 it would be advisable to resolve it into the shortest practicable stages2 and that1 therefore1 the most eligible point of departure would be the most western shores of the ,british ,isles1 and the first point of arrival the most eastern available parts of the western continent2 and that1 under such circumstances1 the length of the trip1 though it would come fully up to the present limit of this application of steam-power1 would1 nevertheless1 not exceed it1 and that we might reasonably look for such a degree of improvement in the efficiency of marine engines as would render such an enterprise permanent and profitable4 7,p4 #aai47 ,among other objections to long voyages the reviewer enumerates the incrustation of boilers1 and the choking of smoke flues2 and then1 with reference to the quantity of fuel required1 he proceeds3-- ,in proportion as the capacity of the vessel is increased1 in the same ratio or nearly so must the mechanical power of the engines be enlarged1 and the consumption of fuel augmented4444 ,it is therefore demonstrable that1 in the present state of steam navigation1 if this voyage shall be accomplished in one uninterrupted trip1 the vessel which performs it must1 whatever may be her power and tonnage1 be capable of extracting from coals a greater mechanical virtue1 in the proportion of three to two1 than can be obtained from them by the combined nautical and mechanical skill of ,mr4 ,lang1 the builder of the #8,medea1' and ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,field4444 ,that the passage from ,liverpool to ,new ,york cannot on any occasion be made in one run by a steam-ship we do not maintain4444 ,the average time of the outward voyage to ,new ,york is thirty-six days1 and we say that when the circumstances of wind and water are such that a sailing vessel would require that time to make the passage1 a steamer cannot make it without an intermediate supply of fuel4 7,pp4 #abg1 #aci1 #adc47 ,to sum up ,dr4 ,lardner's views in his own words written at about this time1#abb #8,we have as an extreme limit of a steamer's practicable voyage1 without receiving a relay of coals1 a run of about #b1jjj miles4'#abc ,it will be seen from these extracts that the proposition ,dr4 ,lardner laid down as the basis of his #8demonstration' was1 that the power of the engines must be increased as the size of the vessel4 ,were this true his conclusion would also be true--namely1 that the capacity of a given vessel regularly to accomplish a given voyage does not increase with the increase of size1 since the consumption of fuel is augmented in about the same ratio4 ,this assumption is directly opposed to the opinion held by ,mr4 ,brunel1 and acted on by him in his recommendations to the ,steam-,ship ,company--namely1 that while the tonnage of a ship is increased as the cube of her dimensions1 the resistance is increased only about as the square4 ,this question was the main point at issue between ,dr4 ,lardner and ,mr4 ,brunel2 and the proposition which ,mr4 ,brunel then asserted is at the present time the basis of the calculations which determine the proportion between the tonnage of a steam-ship and the length of voyage she has to perform without a relay of fuel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of the #8,great ,western' steam-ship has been interrupted by this examination of ,dr4 ,lardner's propositions4 ,the weight at one time attached to his opinions1 the sinister influence they exercised over the early efforts of those who differed from him1 and the great and enduring importance of the points at issue1 have made it necessary to refer to them at length4 ,the ship had been steadily proceeded with1 notwithstanding the adverse criticism of philosophers1 and she was launched on ,july #ai1 #ahcg4 ,on ,august #ah she left with a tug-boat for ,london to take her engines on board1 and arrived in the ,thames after a passage of four days1 four-fifths of the way under sail4 ,when anchored in the river she was crowded with visitors1 who1 according to the newspapers of the day1 were astonished at #8her magnificent proportions and stupendous machinery4' ,the engines were at length completed1 and received in every detail ,mr4 ,brunel's constant supervision4 ,extraordinary efforts were made to get the ship back to ,bristol and to start her on her voyage across the ,atlantic before the departure of the #8,sirius'--a vessel of about #gjj tons and #cbj horse-power1 bought by the ,st4 ,george's ,steam ,packet ,company in order to anticipate the #8,great ,western4' ,at length the #8,great ,western' left ,blackwall for ,bristol1 at #f4aj ,a4,m4 on ,saturday1 ,march #ca1 #ahch1 having on board ,captain ,claxton1 ,mr4 ,guppy1 ,mr4 ,brunel1 and many other persons interested in her success4 ,all went well at first1 but at about half-past eight o'clock a very alarming fire broke out4 ,the felt which covered the boilers had been carried up too high1 and the red lead which fastened it became hot2 oil gas was generated1 and it burst into a fearful flame1 setting fire to the beams and under part of the deck4 ,the ship was immediately run ashore on a mud-bank not far from the ,chapman ,beacon1 while ,captain ,claxton1 ,captain ,hosken 7the commander71 and ,mr4 ,pearne 7the chief engineer7 endeavoured to extinguish the fire4 ,captain ,claxton went below through the engine-rooms1 and forward between the boilers to the fore-hatch1 and in a stifling atmosphere of burning paint and felt he directed the nozzle of the fire-hose against the flames4 ,while he was at work1 something heavy fell on him from above4 ,on recovering from the blow1 he stooped down1 and found the body of a man1 who was lying insensible1 with his head covered to the ears with the water which had collected on the floor4 ,captain ,claxton called for a rope1 and the almost lifeless body was hauled up4 ,it was not till he went on deck some time afterwards that he learnt that the person who had fallen on him was ,mr4 ,brunel1 and that he had saved the life of his friend4 ,it appeared that ,mr4 ,brunel was going down to ,captain ,claxton's assistance by the long ladder which reached from the fore-hatch to the keelson1 and put his foot on a burnt rung4 ,he fell about #ah feet1 striking an iron bar in his descent4 ,had he not fallen on ,captain ,claxton he must have struck the keelson or floor and been killed1 and had not his head been raised at once he would have been suffocated by the water into which he fell4 ,he was so severely hurt that he could not move1 and he was laid on a sail on deck until the fire was extinguished1 and then lowered into a boat1 and landed on ,canvy ,island1 where he remained some weeks4 ,although his sufferings were very great1 he was able1 within three days of the accident1 to dictate a long letter to ,captain ,claxton on the state of the ship and engines4 ,the fire was soon got under1 the ship resumed her voyage to ,bristol1 and anchored at ,kingroad in the afternoon of ,monday1 ,april #b1 to the great surprise of the good people of ,bristol1 who had heard that she had been burnt in the ,thames4 ,their astonishment was increased by finding no outward signs of the disaster2 but1 as a fact1 the deck above the boiler was charred a fourth of its thickness1 and so remained till the ship was broken up4 ,the #8,great ,western' started on her first voyage to ,new ,york on ,sunday1 ,april #h1 at #aj ,a4,m41#abd and struck soundings off ,newfoundland on the ninth day4 ,she arrived at ,new ,york at #b ,p4,m4 on ,monday1 the #bcrd1 having consumed three-fourths of the coal she had taken on board4 ,she found that the #8,sirius' had arrived before her2 but under all the circumstances the palm was due to the #8,great ,western1' for the #8,sirius' had left ,cork eight hours before the #8,great ,western' left ,bristol 7which lies a whole day's run further from ,new ,york71 and had only arrived at ,new ,york in the morning of the day in the afternoon of which the #8,great ,western' came in2 and1 what is after all the most important point for comparison1 the #8,great ,western' had nearly #bjj tons of coal left1 while the #8,sirius1' when she dropped her anchor at ,sandy ,hook1 had not only consumed all her coal1 but also all the combustible articles which could possibly be thrown on the fire1 including 7to repeat the well-known anecdote7 a child's doll6 ,the #8,great ,western' was received at ,new ,york with well-deserved honour4 ,according to the journal of one of her passengers1 #8,myriads were collected1 boats had gathered round us in countless confusion1 flags were flying1 guns were firing1 and cheering rose from the shore1 the boats1 and all around loudly and gloriously1 as though it would never have done4 ,it was an exciting moment1 a moment of triumph4' ,the ship started on her return home on ,may #g1 #ahch1 with sixty-eight passengers on board4 ,she made the voyage in fourteen days1 although twenty-four hours were lost by a stoppage at sea4 ,after this she ran regularly between ,bristol and ,new ,york till the end of #ahdf4 ,in ,april #ahdg she was sold to the ,west ,india ,mail ,steam ,packet ,company1 and became one of their best vessels4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at length in #aheg she was broken up by ,messrs4 ,castle1 of ,vauxhall4 ,among those who went there to take a farewell of her before she finally disappeared was ,mr4 ,brunel2 thus he saw the last of his famous ship4 ,,note 7p4 #bce74 ,dimensions of the #8,great ,western' ,steam-,ship4 ,feet ,inch ,length from fore-part of figurehead to after-part of taffrail #bcf #j ,length between the perpendiculars #bab #j ,length of keel #bje #j ,breadth #ce #d ,breadth over paddle-boxes #ei #h ,depth of hold #bc #b ,draught of water #af #h ,length of engine-room #gb #j ,tonnage by measurement #a1cdj tons ,displacement at load draught #b1cjj ,dimensions of ,engines1 c4 ,diameter of cylinders #gc inches ,length of stroke #g feet ,weight of engines1 wheels1 c4 #caj tons ,weight of boilers #ij ,water #bj tons to each boiler #hj ,diameter of wheel #bh feet #i inches ,width of floats #aj feet ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,the #8,,great ,,britain' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,a4,d4 #ahch--ahdg4 ,,tatis #cc--db4 ,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,britain'--,,report ,,on ,,the ,,engines 7,,june #ac1 #ahci7--;,,experiments ,,on ,,the ,,screw ,,propeller--,,its ,,adoption ,,in ,,the #8,,great ,,britain'--,,completion ,,of ,,the ,,ship--,,her ,,voyage ,,across ,,the ,,atlantic--,,stranding ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,britain' ,,in ,,dundrum ,,bay--,,letter ,,to ,,captain ,,claxton ,,on ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,britain1' ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,means ,,to ,,be ,,adopted ,,for ,,saving ,,her 7,,december #aj1 #ahdf7--,,report ,,to ,,the ,,directors ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,subject 7,,december #ad1 #ahdf7--;,,appointment ,,of ,,captain ,,claxton ,,to ,,superintend ,,the ,,execution ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,plans--,,letter ,,to ,,captain ,,claxton ,,on ,,the ,,difficulties ,,to ,,be ,,overcome 7,,december #bi1 #ahdf7--,,report ,,enclosing ,,captain ,,claxton',s ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,erection ,,of ,,the ,,breakwater 7,,february #bg1 #ahdg7--,,report ,,on ,,the ,,arrangements ,,for ,,floating ,,off ,,the ,,ship 7,,may #d1 #ahdg7--,,successful ,,accomplishment ,,of ,,the ,,floating ,,operations--,,subsequent ,,history ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,britain'--,,note3 ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,ship ,,and ,,engines4 ,the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company1 encouraged by the success of the #8,great ,western1' determined shortly after her first return to ,england to lay down a second ship of not less than #b1jjj tons burden4 ,as they did not at that time contemplate the use of iron1 a portion of the timber was purchased1 and drawings were put in hand for a wooden ship4 ,the proposed vessel was intended to be in all respects a companion ship to the #8,great ,western2' only she was to be of larger dimensions1 as it was found that additional cargo space would be remunerative4 ,in ,october #ahch1 ,mr4 ,guppy 7one of the ,directors7 communicated to the ,board the results of some calculations ,mr4 ,brunel had made relative to the cost and efficiency of iron vessels as compared with wooden ones4 ,mr4 ,brunel then suggested that ,captain ,claxton and ,mr4 ,patterson1 accompanied by one of his assistants1 should make a voyage to ,antwerp and back in the #8,rainbow1' an iron steam-boat of #djg tons burden1 and report on the subject4 ,on receiving their report1 which was revised by ,mr4 ,brunel1 and which was strongly in favour of the adoption of iron1 the ,directors resolved to build their ship of that material1 and of not less than #b1jjj tons measurement1 the same size as that which they had intended for their wooden ship4 ,they also determined to erect the shops1 and provide the tools for building her themselves4 ,as in the case of the #8,great ,western1' the details of construction were settled by the ,building ,committee--,captain ,claxton1 ,mr4 ,guppy1 and ,mr4 ,brunel--who were assisted by ,mr4 ,patterson4 ,the preparation of the design occupied some time4 ,in each succeeding drawing an increased size was proposed2 at length the fifth design1 showing a ship of #c1ddc tons burden1 was finally approved of4 ,on ,july #ai1 #ahci1 the flat keel plates were laid1 and the construction of the hull was commenced4 ,it will be necessary to enter with some detail into the history of the construction of the engines of the #8,great ,britain1' as it has often been stated that it was on ,mr4 ,brunel's recommendation that the ,company built their own engines4 ,it appears1 however1 that ,mr4 ,brunel repeatedly urged upon the ,directors the utmost caution and economy1 and that they ultimately acted #8against his suggestion4' ,when the ,directors determined1 in ,may #ahch1 to build a second ship1 they did not entertain any idea of undertaking so great a responsibility as the manufacture of the engines2 nor had they any intention of doing so1 even when1 towards the end of the same year1 they resolved to build the ship themselves1 and to construct her of iron4 ,the dimensions of the proposed paddle engines 7for at this date the use of the screw propeller was not contemplated7 were sent1 in ,november #ahch1 to ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,field1 ,messrs4 ,hall1 and ,messrs4 ,seaward4#abe ,messrs4 ,maudslay declined to tender1 and the negotiations seem to have fallen through at the time2 but they were renewed in ,april #ahci1 when estimates for engines 7with cylinders of #ajj inches diameter and seven feet stroke7 were again invited from several makers4 ,the contest lay eventually between ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,mr4 ,humphrys 7whose patent for trunk engines was worked by ,messrs4 ,hall74 ,at ,mr4 ,brunel's desire they prepared designs for engines with cylinders of #abj inches diameter4 ,he twice induced the ,directors to postpone coming to a decision on the subject1 in order that ,messrs4 ,maudslay might mature their new patent for double-cylinder engines4 ,when their tender was placed before the ,board1 the ,directors were of opinion that it largely exceeded the estimate of ,mr4 ,humphrys4 ,mr4 ,humphrys' estimate1 however1 had been more than once sent back to him for revision1 at the suggestion of ,mr4 ,brunel1 who expressed doubts as to the possibility of ,mr4 ,humphrys being able to construct his engines within the sum named by him4 ,messrs4 ,hall stated that if they tendered for the supply of engines on ,mr4 ,humphrys' plan1 large tools would have to be purchased by them1 and the cost charged on the one pair of engines2 they therefore strongly recommended the ,company to become their own engine makers4 ,influenced by these considerations1 the ,directors determined to adopt the plan of ,mr4 ,humphrys1 and to construct their own engines2 and they appointed him the superintending engineer of their works4 ,it appears from a report by the secretary1 ,captain ,claxton1 dated ,march #bc1 #ahdj1 that #8previous to coming to this decision1 ,mr4 ,brunel succinctly laid before the ,directors his views of the matter1 and his opinion of the great responsibility they would incur if they made their own engines2 and doubtless the ,directors would have yielded to his suggestions1 but for the report of ,mr4 ,humphrys1 showing the utter hopelessness of getting the engines made piecemeal in ,bristol4' ,the following is the report of ,mr4 ,brunel on the subject3-- ,june #ab1 #ahci4 ,at the request of ,mr4 ,maze and ,mr4 ,scott1 whom ,i had the pleasure of meeting on ,saturday last1 ,i send you the following observations on the two plans and the estimates of ,messrs4 ,maudslay1 and of our ,mr4 ,humphrys4 ,i have a copy of ,messrs4 ,maudslay's letter of the #bith ult4 containing their tender1 and a subsequent letter of the #aath inst4 in reply to some enquiries of mine respecting their tender and ,mr4 ,humphrys' estimates1 according to which the total cost of a pair of engines of #aaj inches diameter and #h feet stroke1 upon his plan1 and ,i presume modified as last recommended by ,mr4 ,guppy and myself1 including boilers and fixing on board1 would be #bi1bifl41 or1 as stated by ,captain ,claxton in a letter to me of the #ast inst41 #cj1gjjl4 ,first1 as to the comparative merits of the plans1 ,i consider them both excellently adapted to our particular case1 and that the choice will depend upon other circumstances than the construction of the engines1 and these circumstances1 ,i consider1 would be1 the relative cost and the advantages of forming an establishment which will eventually become necessary for the repair and maintenance of our engines1 contrasted with all the advantages to be derived from the responsibility and experience in all the details of a first-rate manufacturer1 and to which ,i attach very great value1 particularly in the early proceedings of a ,company like ours4 ,as regards the cost1 ,i understand ,messrs4 ,maudslay's tender to be for an engine of four #ge-;inch cylinders1 which is equal to a pair of ordinary engines of about #ajf inches4 ,engine1 boiler1 and paddle-wheels1 fixed on board1 supposing the vessel in ,london1 and with reduced size of boiler1 #da1djj ,deduct allowance for coal-boxes and combings for hatchways as proposed by ,messrs4 ,maudslay1 #ejj #dj1ijj ,additional expense incurred by ,messrs4 ,maudslay in consequence of the engines being fixed on board at ,bristol instead of ,london1 ,i estimate at1 #bej ,total amount to be paid ,messrs4 ,maudslay1 #da1aej ,in addition to this will be the freight and insurance1 which we are to pay1 and also the unloading at ,bristol and placing in the vessel1 which ,i take at ,captain ,claxton's estimate1 #b1jjj ,making a total of #dc1aej ,it is to be observed that this includes ,mr4 ,field's apparatus for changing water1 ,kingston's cocks1 casing the cylinders1 and all those extras which were applied to the #8,great ,western1' and also the paddle-beams and paddle-wheels4 ,without these latter the nett cost of the engine1 fixed in place1 and including all other extras1 would appear to be about #dj1jjjl4 or #dj1ejjl4 ,if the cylinders be increased to #gg1 which would be equivalent to the pair of #aaj inch1 and supposing the cost of the engines to increase in the same ratio as the power resulting from this increase1 but which ought not to be the case1 the total cost1 according to ,messrs4 ,maudslay's estimate1 will be #df1ejjl41 and deducting the paddle-beams or framework for carrying the paddles1 which do not1 ,i think1 form part of ,mr4 ,humphrys' estimate1 probably about #de1ejjl4 as compared with ,mr4 ,humphrys' estimate of #cj1gjjl4 ,with respect to this latter estimate1 ,i cannot help expressing the fears ,i entertain that ,mr4 ,humphrys is over-sanguine1 and that the cost would greatly exceed the sum named4 ,the items seem to me to be moderate prices only for each article named1 and ,i see no allowance for those alterations1 damages1 and waste of parts1 and a variety of other contingencies1 which in a piece of machinery of this magnitude and novelty is certain to amount to a very large sum4 ,in his estimate of the fittings and smaller parts1 ,i think also he has greatly underrated them4 ,the outlay for tools and tackle would1 ,i think1 also be greater than he seems to anticipate1 and on the whole ,i cannot but come to the conclusion in my own mind1 and ,i should not act rightly if ,i did not communicate that opinion to you1 that the first outlay will be fully as large and probably larger by adopting the plan of making our own engines than by employing a manufacturer4 ,it is true we shall have some valuable and costly tools and shops included in this outlay1 and a fine establishment formed1 which may be rendered fully competent in point of means to continue the manufacture of engines for others1 and to keep up the repairs of any number of engines which the ,company are likely to have at work4 ,my only fear would be that of the risk of the undertaking being too great for a newly-formed establishment4 ,the making of the vessel itself is no mean effort1 and to superadd the construction of the largest pair of engines and boilers yet made1 and upon a new plan1 is calculating very much upon every effort being successful1 and particularly upon the continued assistance of those who have hitherto attended to the subject2 as it must be well known to the ,directors that if ,mr4 ,guppy1 for instance1 should be prevented from giving his time as he has hitherto done1 or if ,mr4 ,humphrys should1 from illness or other causes1 leave us1 the manufactory would be brought to a stand1 and the loss would be serious4 ,i have no wish to deter the ,company from becoming their own manufacturers--,i think it a course which must ultimately be adopted if the ,company thrive--but ,i should have much preferred that it had been adopted gradually1 that we had commenced with a vessel1 and then proceeded with boilers and repairs2 and1 as our establishment became formed and matured1 and when we might no longer depend entirely upon the engineering talents and assistance of one ,director1 who may be unable to attend to it1 or upon the health of one superintendent who1 as yet1 is alone in possession of all our plans and ideas1 and at present is alone capable of carrying them out1 we might then have ventured upon making the engines perhaps for the third vessel4 ,circumstances may1 however1 render it necessary that we should proceed more expeditiously1 and ,i am only anxious that the ,directors should be aware of the difficulties that we may have to encounter1 and that they should not form expectations as regards economy in which they may be disappointed4 ,the result of the best consideration ,i have been able to give to it is1 that the question does not seem to be one of cost4 ,in that respect1 according to my view1 the two modes of proceeding would be nearly balanced1 but it resolves itself into the following question3--,is it better in our present position to enter at once upon the manufacture of the engines and boilers1 in doing which we shall in part repay the cost of tools and shops1 which must eventually be required1 and by which we shall be more independent1 and more capable of expediting the works1 should it become desirable to incur any additional expense for that purpose1 or to throw all the responsibility and risk on another party or contractor--the vessel1 for which we could not easily contract1 being still made in the ,company's yard8 ,i have thus reduced the question to that state in which ,i can offer no further opinion or advice2 it is now for you to determine4 ,the question is one which has frequently to be decided upon by the ,directors of public works2 it is very much a matter of feeling1 but it is simplified in the present instance by the circumstance that the expense in either case will be1 to my view at least1 about the same1 and the work1 ,i have no doubt1 equally good in either case4 ,upon this point1 as perhaps upon the subject of cost1 ,i have no doubt there will be some difference of opinion4 ,it will be said that the work done under our own superintendence can be more relied upon than the work of a manufacturer1 and that even in the engines of the #8,great ,western' steam-ship1 coming from one of the most experienced manufacturers1 many defects may be pointed out4 ,i should agree fully with both these arguments1 but ,i think these advantages are fully counterbalanced by that of the experience in all the details which is brought into operation in an old-established manufactory1 and the great relief from responsibility and risk obtained by contracting for the whole work4 ,the ,directors having determined to make the engines1 erected shops and fitted them up with proper tools4 ,the services rendered to them by ,mr4 ,brunel at this period were fully acknowledged at the next meeting of the shareholders4#abf ,mr4 ,brunel's attention was now anxiously devoted to the consideration of the numerous questions involved in the construction of the ship and her engines2 and1 in order to obtain reliable information on many points1 he sent one of his assistants1 ,mr4 ,berkeley ,claxton1 in the #8,great ,western4' ,his sole occupation during six voyages was to note the amount of rolling and pitching1 and the exact performance of her engines1 with the effect of the use of the expansion valves on her speed1 and on the consumption of fuel4 ,these reports furnished ,mr4 ,brunel with information which was of great value1 especially when1 shortly afterwards1 he advised the ,directors to adopt the screw propeller instead of paddlewheels4 ,the circumstances which led to the adoption of the screw propeller in the #8,great ,britain' instead of paddlewheels were as follows3-- ,in the early part of the year #ahdj1 the performances of the #8,archimedes' steamer began to attract the attention of scientific men4 ,this vessel1 which was fitted with the screw propeller patented by ,mr4 ,francis ,pettitt ,smith1 arrived at ,bristol in ,may4 ,a few trips were made up and down the ,float1 but the advantages of the screw propeller were not fully appreciated by those to whom they were explained4 ,but ,mr4 ,guppy1 who had attended some of these trials1 went round in the ship to ,liverpool4 ,on his return he made a report to the ,building ,committee1 and the ,directors1 on ,mr4 ,brunel's advice1 passed a resolution delaying the progress of the engines of the #8,great ,britain1' and of those parts of the frame which would be affected by any change of plans4 ,mr4 ,brunel was also requested by them to give his attention to the question of the adoption of the screw1 and to report thereon4 ,during the next three months experiments were made by ,mr4 ,brunel1 assisted by ,mr4 ,guppy and ,captain ,claxton1 on the screw propeller in the #8,archimedes4'#abg ,these experiments afforded ample opportunity of trying the performances of several forms of screws4#abh ,on ,october #a1 ,mr4 ,brunel attended a special meeting of the ,board1 and read and explained a report he had drawn up1 in which he laid before the ,directors at great length the results of the different experiments he had made1 and the advantages which he believed would attend the use of the screw propeller4#abi ,a resolution was passed adopting it for the #8,great ,britain4' ,mr4 ,brunel at first thought that he would be able to retain the form of engines which had been originally determined on for working the paddle wheels2 but1 on consideration1 this was found impracticable4 ,as the ,company had by this time erected complete engine works1 there could now be no question as to their undertaking the construction of the new description of engines required for working the screw propeller4#acj ,mr4 ,humphrys resigned the post of superintendent of the works1 and ,mr4 ,harman was appointed assistant engineer under ,mr4 ,guppy1 to whom the ,directors1 on the advice of ,mr4 ,brunel1 entrusted the supreme control of their manufacturing establishment4 ,the duties and responsibilities which devolved on the ,building ,committee--,captain ,claxton1 ,mr4 ,guppy1 and ,mr4 ,brunel--were most arduous4 ,to design and construct a steam-ship larger than any that had1 up to that time1 been launched1 to make this ship of a material which had but lately been introduced into shipbuilding1 and which had never before been employed on a large scale1 to adapt to this ship a novel form of propeller which had not previously been used save in a merely experimental steamer1 and to build in a newly opened manufactory marine engines of a much greater size than any that had hitherto been contemplated1 and of a totally different character1 was indeed a bold enterprise4 ,mr4 ,brunel had1 as has been shown1 recommended the ,company not to undertake one part of the work1 that1 namely1 of the manufacture of the engines1 which he thought would have been better entrusted to the most experienced engine builders4 ,but although the ,directors had acted contrary to his advice1 this circumstance in no way diminished the zeal with which he and his coadjutors entered upon their task4 ,a short statement of the principal dimensions of the vessel and engines is given in a note to this chapter2 but some of the more remarkable features in the design may be mentioned here4 ,in the construction of the #8,great ,britain1' the same care which had been spent in securing longitudinal strength in the wooden hull of the #8,great ,western1' was now given to the suitable distribution of the metal4 ,over the transverse angle iron ribs at the bottom of the ship were laid ten deep longitudinal beams 7see woodcut1 fig4 #ac1 a71 which1 over the greater part of the bottom of the ship1 were covered with an iron deck 7b7 riveted to their upper edges by angle irons1 thus forming a cellular structure which added greatly to the strength of the ship4 ,it does not appear that this deck was designed to be watertight1 so that it did not form the same security against accident as the inner skin of the cellular structure which ,mr4 ,brunel afterwards adopted in the #8,great ,eastern4' ,the upper part of the sides of the ship1 in the middle of her length1 were carefully designed so as to give her longitudinal strength4 ,the side plates were thickened1 and were riveted to iron shelf-plates three feet broad 7c72 and two bands of iron1 six inches wide and one inch thick1 with the joints strengthened1 ran along the top of the ship's side4 ,there were bands of iron riveted to the shelf-plate1 and iron deck beams crossed diagonally under the planking of the upper and main decks4 ,also at the junction of the ship's side with the shelf-plate there ran longitudinally a tie of ,baltic pine timber1 #cdj square inches in section 7d72 this being well secured to the shelf-plate and ribs1 added considerably to the strength of this portion of the hull4 ,the ship had five watertight bulkheads1 and was thus separated into six compartments4 ,illustration3 ,scale of feet4 ,fig4 #ac4 #8,great ,britain' ,steam-,ship4 ,transverse ,section4 ,she had no keel1 as there did not appear to be sufficient advantage gained by such an appendage to make up for the increase of the ship's draught by the amount of the depth of the keel4 ,there were two side or bilge keels 7e71 reaching down to the level of the keel plate of the ship1 so that when grounded in dock she might rest on three points in her width4 ,the #8,great ,britain' had what is termed a balanced rudder1 a portion of the rudder 7in this case about one third7 being in advance of the pivot on which it turned4 ,the result of this arrangement was that1 the pressures on either side of the pivot nearly balancing one another1 there was no difficulty in putting the helm over rapidly4 ,this rudder was knocked away when the ship ran ashore at ,dundrum1 and was subsequently replaced by an ordinary rudder4#aca ,in the construction of the hull of the ship1 instead of a mere imitation of the arrangements of the timber in wooden ships1 the proper distribution of the material to receive the strains that would come upon it was carefully considered4 ,in the result1 the ship contained1 in the structure of her bottom1 bulkheads1 deck shelves1 and longitudinal kelsons1 the longitudinal principle of construction which ,mr4 ,brunel afterwards so fully developed in the #8,great ,eastern4' ,apart from their size1 the design of the engines of the #8,great ,britain' necessarily presented many peculiarities4 ,the boilers1 which were six in number1 were placed touching each other1 so as to form one large boiler about thirty-three feet square1 divided by one transverse and two longitudinal partitions4 ,this boiler1 which was fitted in between the longitudinal bulkheads of the ship1 had a double set of furnaces1 and therefore of stoke-holes1 one at the fore end1 and the other at the after end1 next the engine room4 ,it would seem that the boiler was only worked with a pressure of about eight pounds on the square inch4 ,the feed water for the boiler was passed through a casing surrounding the funnel1 in which it was heated before passing into the boiler4 ,this casing was open at the top1 and the water flowed thence into the boiler by gravitation4 ,a similar arrangement was adopted by ,mr4 ,brunel in the #8,great ,eastern4' ,the condensers were made of wrought iron1 being in fact part of the frame of the ship4 ,the main shaft of the engine had a crank at either end of it1 and was made hollow1 a stream of water being kept running through it so as to prevent heating in the bearings4 ,an important point in the design was the method by which the motion was transmitted from the engine-shaft to the screw-shaft1 for the screw was arranged to go three revolutions to each revolution of the engines4 ,where the engines do not drive the screw directly1 this is now universally effected by means of toothed gearing2 but1 when the engines of the #8,great ,britain' were made1 it was thought that this arrangement would be too jarring and noisy4 ,after much consideration1 chains were used1 working round different-sized drums with notches in them1 into which fitted projections on the chains4 ,the greater part of the length of the screw-shaft consisted of a hollow wrought-iron boiler-plate tube1 the metal being thus very advantageously placed for taking torsional strain1 and the shaft was in this way made very light4 ,the engines were designed to work expansively1 the steam being cut off at one-sixth of the stroke4 ,the completion of the #8,great ,britain' was delayed many months1 owing to the financial difficulties in which the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company had become involved2 the profit on working the #8,great ,western' having been seriously diminished in consequence of the competition of the ,cunard steamers4 ,at length1 however1 the ship was finished2 and she was floated out of dock into the ,floating ,harbour on ,july #ai1 #ahdc1 in the presence of ,his ,royal ,highness ,prince ,albert4 ,this seems a fitting place to insert the following letter from ,mr4 ,brunel to ,mr4 ,guppy1 written at the beginning of ,august #ahdc3-- ,i have been thinking a great deal of your plans for iron-ship building1 and have come to a conclusion which ,i believe agrees with your ideas2 but ,i will state mine without reference to yours4 ,at bottom and at top ,i would give longitudinal strength and stiffness1 gaining the latter by the former1 so that all the metal used should add to the longitudinal tie1 while in the neutral axis and along the sides1 and to resist swells from seas1 ,i would have vertical strength by ribs and shelf-pieces1 thus3 the black lines being sections of longitudinal pieces1 the dotted lines vertical and transverse diagonal plates1 throwing the metal as much as possible into the outside bottom plates1 and getting the strength inside by form1 that is1 depth of beams1 c41 the former being liable to injury from blows1 c41 the latter being protected4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,and now for the screw of which ,i am constantly thinking1 and in the success of which for the #8,great ,britain1' remember1 ,i am even more deeply interested than you4 ,if all goes well we shall all gain credit1 but #8quod scriptum est manet1' if the result disappoint anybody1 my written report will be remembered by everybody1 and ,i shall have to bear the storm--and all that spite and revenge can do at the ,admiralty will be done6 ,the words #8better sailing qualities than could be given to the 8,polyphemus10' which ,i used in my first report to the ,admiralty1 ,i believe have never been forgotten4 ,well1 the result of all my anxious thoughts--for ,i assure you ,i feel more anxious about this than about most things ,i have had to do with--is first that we must adopt as a principle not to be departed from1 that all mechanical difficulties of construction must give way1 must in fact be lost sight of in determining the most perfect form--if we find that the screw determined upon cannot be made 7but what cannot be done871 then it is quite time enough to try another form2 though even then my rule would be to try again at making it4444 ,the #8,great ,britain' was built wider than the locks through which she would have to pass1 as it was supposed that the ,dock ,company would allow them to be temporarily widened4#acb ,after a good deal of discussion1 negotiations were satisfactorily concluded1 and the requisite alterations were made3 the ship passed through into ,cumberland ,basin1 and the upper lock was restored to its original state in a few days4 ,on ,december #aj1 everything was ready for her passing into the ,avon through the lower lock4 ,a steam-tug commenced towing her at high water1 but1 before she had moved half her length in the lock1 it became evident to ,captain ,claxton1 who was on board the tug1 that there was not an inch to spare2 she was touching the lock walls on either side--in fact1 she had stuck between the copings4 ,upon this he gave orders to haul her back again as quickly as possible4 ,this was hardly effected before the tide began to fall2 a few minutes later1 and the ship would have remained jammed in the entrance4 ,as the tides had passed their highest1 it was necessary immediately to widen the lock1 in order not to lose the spring tide2 and this was accomplished under ,mr4 ,brunel's superintendence1 just in time to get the vessel through that night4 ,mr4 ,brunel described this occurrence in the following letter1 written to excuse himself from keeping an important engagement in ,wales3-- ,december #aa1 #ahdd4 ,we have had an unexpected difficulty with the #8,great ,britain' this morning4 ,she stuck in the lock2 we did get her back4 ,i have been hard at work all day altering the masonry of the lock4 ,to night1 our last tide1 we have succeeded in getting her through2 but1 being dark1 we have been obliged to ground her outside1 and ,i confess ,i cannot leave her till ,i see her afloat again1 and all clear of her difficulties4 ,i have1 as you will admit1 much at stake here1 and ,i am too anxious about it to leave her4 ,the #8,great ,britain1' after making several experimental trips1 sailed for ,london on ,january #bc1 #ahde1 and1 although she experienced very severe weather1 made an average speed of #ab knots an hour4 ,the excitement caused by her arrival at ,blackwall was very great4 ,thousands of persons flocked to see her1 and she was honoured by a visit from ,her ,majesty and ,his ,royal ,highness ,prince ,albert4 ,she left ,liverpool on her first voyage on ,august #bf1 and arrived at ,new ,york on ,september #aj1 having made the passage out in fourteen days and twenty-one hours4 ,she made her return passage in fifteen days and a half4 ,she started again in ,october1 taking sixteen days and a half across4 ,on her homeward passage1 she broke her screw1 and got home under canvas after eighteen days of rough weather which fully tested her sailing qualities4 ,the experience of these voyages showed that the supply of steam from the boilers was defective2 the necessary alterations were carried out during the winter months1 and the ship was fitted with a new screw4 ,in the beginning of #ahdf1 everything seemed to promise well for the success of the #8,great ,britain4' ,she started on ,may #i1 with her full complement of passengers and cargo1 but again an accident happened1 which prevented this passage from affording a trial of her steaming power4 ,on ,may #ac1 the guard of the after air-pump broke2 but up to that time her speed had averaged eleven and three-quarters knots4 ,she returned from ,new ,york in thirteen days and six hours1 against adverse winds for ten days1 with a speed varying from eight and a half to twelve knots4 ,on one day of her voyage1 ,june #ac1 she ran #ccj knots in the twenty-four hours1 or nearly sixteen statute miles an hour4 ,this was said to have been the quickest passage which had1 up to that time1 been made under similar circumstances of wind and weather4 ,she left ,liverpool again at the beginning of ,july1 and arrived at ,new ,york in thirteen days and eight hours1 or1 deducting stoppages1 in twelve days and eleven hours--the shortest passage then and for some time afterwards recorded4 ,her homeward passage was accomplished in thirteen days1 including a stoppage of eighteen hours to repair the driving chains which had been damaged4 ,she started again from ,liverpool on her outward voyage on the morning of ,september #bb1 #ahdf1 having on board #ahj passengers 7a larger number than had ever before started to cross the ,atlantic in a steamer71 and a considerable quantity of freight4 ,a few hours after her departure1 and at a time when it was supposed that she was rounding the ,isle of ,man1 the ship ran ashore1 and all immediate efforts to get her off were unavailing4 ,when daylight came1 the captain found1 to his surprise1 that she was in ,dundrum ,bay1 on the north-east coast of ,ireland4 ,the passengers were landed safely when the tide ebbed4 ,captain ,claxton1 the managing ,director of the ,company1 went at once to the ship4 ,he found her lying at the bottom of a deep and extensive bay2 the ground on which she rested had an upper surface of sand1 but underneath this were numerous detached rocks4 ,the ship had settled down upon two of them1 and had knocked holes in her bottom4 ,her head lay ,,nw41 leaving her stern and port quarter exposed to a heavy sea1 which1 at ,dundrum1 always accompanies southerly gales4 ,when ,captain ,claxton got to the ship1 he made arrangements for trying to get her off at the next spring tides1 which were on the following ,monday 7,september #bh72 but on the ,sunday1 a gale of wind from the southward sprung up1 and at the night flood-tide the water broke over her2 nothing remained to be done but to drive the ship higher up the beach into a position of greater safety4 ,sails were therefore set1 and she was driven forward a considerable distance4 ,mr4 ,patterson was sent by the ,directors to ,dundrum with ,mr4 ,alexander ,bremner 7who had had considerable experience in floating stranded ships71 and they endeavoured to protect the vessel by breakwaters4 ,these1 however1 were soon carried away2 and1 after this misfortune1 the ,directors seem for a time to have lost all hope of saving their ship4 ,on ,december #h1 when the immediate pressure of ,parliamentary work was over1 ,mr4 ,brunel went to ,dundrum1 having some time before been requested by the ,directors and underwriters to examine and report on the ship4 ,he was delighted1 he said1 in spite of all the discouraging accounts he had received1 to find the #8,great ,britain' #8almost as sound as the day she was launched1 and ten times stronger and sounder in character1' though at the same time he was grieved to see her #8lying unprotected1 deserted1 and abandoned4' ,whatever may have been the misgivings of others1 he felt no doubt as to the possibility of saving the ship1 by at once protecting her by a breakwater made of fagots2 and before he left ,dundrum he set ,captain ,hosken at work at the new arrangements1 and he guaranteed the immediate expense in the event of the ,directors not sanctioning the measure4 ,immediately on his return to town1 he wrote the following somewhat vigorous letter to ,captain ,claxton3-- ,december #aj1 #ahdf4 ,i have returned from ,dundrum with very mixed feelings of satisfaction and pain1 almost amounting to anger1 with whom ,i don't know4 ,i was delighted to find our fine ship1 in spite of all the discouraging accounts received1 even from you1 almost as sound as the day she was launched1 and ten times stronger and sounder in character4 ,i was grieved to see this fine ship lying unprotected1 deserted and abandoned by all those who ought to know her value1 and ought to have protected her1 instead of being humbugged by schemers and underwriters4 ,don't let me be understood as wishing to read a lecture to our ,directors2 but the result1 whoever is to blame1 is1 at least in my opinion1 that the finest ship in the world1 in excellent condition1 such that #d1jjjl4 or #e1jjjl4 would repair all the damage done1 has been left1 and is lying1 like a useless saucepan kicking about on the most exposed shore that you can imagine1 with no more effort or skill applied to protect the property than the said saucepan would have received on the beach at ,brighton4 ,does the ship belong to the ,company8 ,for protection1 if not for removal1 is the ,company free to act without the underwriters8 ,if we are in this position1 and if we have ordinary luck from storms for the next three weeks1 ,i have little or no anxiety about the ship2 but if the ,company is not free to act as they like in protecting her1 and in preventing our property being thrown away by trusting to schemers1 then please write off immediately to ,hosken to stop his proceeding with my plans1 because ,i took the pecuniary responsibility of the cost of what ,i ordered until he could hear from you1 and of course ,i do not want to incur useless expense1 but still more ,i do not wish any proceeding taken as from me to be afterwards stopped4 ,i will now describe as nearly as ,i can what ,i have seen1 and what ,i think4 ,as to the state of the ship1 she is as straight and as sound as she ever was1 as a whole4 ,she is resting and working upon rocks1 which have broken in at several places1 and forced up perhaps #ab to #ah inches many parts of the bottom1 from the fore stoke-hole to about the centre of the engines1 lifting the boilers about #ae inches and the condenser of the fore engine about #f or #h inches2 the after-condenser1 perhaps1 half an inch4 ,the lifting of the fore-condenser has broken that air-pump1 the connecting rod having been unwisely left in1 and the crank being at the bottom of the stroke4 ,of course the air-pump could not help being broken2 except this1 the whole vessel1 machinery1 c41 are perfect4 ,i told you that ,hosken's drawing was a proof1 to my eye1 that the ship was not broken3 the first glimpse of her satisfied me that all the part above her #e or #f feet water line is as true as ever4 ,it is beautiful to look at1 and really how she can be talked of in the way she has been1 even by you1 ,i cannot understand4 ,it is positively cruel2 it would be like talking away the character of a young woman without any grounds whatever4 ,the ship is perfect1 except that at one part the bottom is much bruised1 and knocked in holes in several places4 ,but even within three feet of the damaged part there is no strain or injury whatever4 ,i think it very likely that she may have started leaks where she has been pounding away upon the rocks1 but nothing more2 and as ,i said before1 all above her #e or #f feet water line is uninjured1 except her overhanging stern2 there is some slight damage to this1 not otherwise important than as pointing out the necessity of some precautions if she is to be saved4 ,i say #8if1' for really when ,i saw a vessel still in perfect condition left to the tender mercies of an awfully exposed shore for weeks1 while a parcel of quacks are amusing you with schemes for getting her off1 she in the meantime being left to go to pieces1 ,i could hardly help feeling as if her own parents and guardians meant her to die there4 ,why1 no man in his senses can dream of calculating upon less than three months for the execution of any rational scheme of getting her off2 and no man in his senses1 ,i should think1 would dream of taking her across the channel in the winter months1 even if he had got the camels or floats fast4 ,of this ,i don't feel so competent to form an opinion1 though ,i think ,i can judge1 and ,i should consider it a wanton throwing away of my shares if the ,directors allowed her to be taken out1 even if afloat2 but at all events ,i am competent to judge of the probable time occupied in getting means to float her1 and ,i maintain that it would be absurd to calculate upon less than two or three months4 ,it is not therefore the mode of getting her off that we ought to have been all this time thinking of1 but how to keep her where she is4 ,i feel so strongly on this point that ,i feel quite angry4 ,what are we doing8 ,what are we wasting precious time about8 ,the steed is being quietly stolen while we are discussing the relative merits of a ,bramah or a ,chubb's lock to be put on at some future time6 ,it is really shocking4 ,having expended a little of my feeling1 ,i will tell you what ,i have done1 and what ,i should recommend4 ,first1 instantly to disconnect the engines and air-pumps1 and remove all the working gear1 so at least to leave the mischief to the lower part4 ,by the bye1 the cylinders are not disturbed or hurt in any way at present1 but with the engines exactly at the bottom of the stroke1 and the connecting rods on1 it is a wonder they are not4 ,if the air-pump had been disconnected it would not have been broken4 ,i have taken upon myself to order this4 ,secondly1 ,i suggested to ,hosken1 in which he quite agreed with me1 to take off all strain from her extreme stern4 ,at present she has cables out from this prodigious mass overhanging nearly #cj feet from any part capable of bearing the strain4 ,i recommend his taking the chain cables through the ship's side1 and making them fast with a spar or timber outside the starboard side1 about as far forward as the capstan4 ,at present she is canted seaward4 ,i thought she was better so than presenting the hollow lines of her quarter to the sea1 and both ,hosken and ,bremner came round to my opinion4 ,thirdly1 there is a stream of water which now washes away the sand from her bottom4 ,i think it essential this should be diverted1 and kept so4 ,fourthly1 my plan for protecting her is totally different from any that have been proposed1 and if we have not such excessively bad weather as would prevent anything being done1 ,i believe it may easily be done4 ,and if done will1 ,i am convinced1 be perfectly good2 while any solid timbering1 even if made1 would1 ,i think1 be most likely the cause itself of tremendous damage1 if once beat by the sea4 ,i will only premise by saying that both ,hosken and ,bremner came to the conclusion that it was the best thing that could be done4 ,i should stack a mass of large strong fagots lashed together1 skewered together with iron rods1 weighted down with iron1 sandbags1 c41 wrapping the whole round with chains1 just like a huge poultice under her quarters1 round under her stern1 and half way up her length on the sea side4 ,the detail of the mode1 and the precautions of detail1 ,i have not time now to describe4 ,i am as certain as ,i can be of anything that1 once made1 such a mass of fagots would stand any sea for the next six months1 and the chances of making it 7after one or two failures1 no doubt7 are so good1 that if properly taken in hand1 ,i look upon it as certain4 ,i will write more fully to-morrow--in the meantime ,i have ordered the fagots to be begun delivering4 ,i went myself with ,hosken to ,lord ,roden's agent about it1 and ,i hope they are already beginning to deliver them4 ,write and stop them or not--if not1 of course my responsibility ceases4 ,i will write again to-morrow1 but let me know by train how we stand with the underwriters4 ,this letter was a few days later supplemented by the following formal report to the ,directors1 which was printed and circulated amongst the proprietors4 ,december #ad1 #ahdf4 ,according to your request ,i have1 as soon as my engagements would allow of my leaving ,london1 paid a visit to the #8,great ,britain1' and ,i now beg to report to you the state in which ,i found the vessel1 and my opinion of the best means to be taken for recovering the largest possible amount of the property invested in her4 ,if ,i state these opinions concisely1 and without any qualifications1 you will not suppose that ,i have the presumption to think them infallible1 but merely that ,i am compelled1 by the shortness of the time left me to write to you1 to avoid all circumlocution1 and to give you as simply and briefly as possible the opinions ,i have formed--at the same time ,i am bound to say that ,i have not formed them hastily1 and that my convictions upon the several points upon which ,i may express my feelings are very strong4 ,first1 as regards the present state of the vessel1 ,i was agreeably disappointed1 after the reports that had reached me1 to find her as a whole1 and1 independently of the mere local damages of which ,i will speak presently1 perfectly sound1 and as strong and as perfect in form as on the day she was launched4 ,in receiving this statement you must bear in mind the great difference between an iron vessel and a timber-built ship4 ,in the former1 parts may be considerably damaged or even destroyed1 and the remainder may not only be untouched1 but may be left unstrained and uninjured4 ,in a timber ship this can hardly be the case2 if any considerable portion of a ship's bottom is stove in1 the timbers or ribs completely across the ship and the planking longitudinally1 cannot fail to be strained to a very considerable distance in both directions4 ,you must therefore remove from your minds all impressions derived from your experience of damages sustained by timber-built ships in order to understand my statement1 which is strictly correct3--that1 except the parts actually damaged1 the extent of which is comparatively small1 the ship is perfectly sound1 and as good as at the hour when she struck4 ,this soundness and freedom from any damage extends from about the #e feet water line to the top 7with the exception of the injury sustained by the knocking away of the rudder post and a blow under the stern72 nearly the whole of the vessel is therefore sound3 the principal injury is in her bottom under the boilers and engines4 ,the vessel has evidently been thumping upon the rocks1 and almost entirely upon this part of the bottom from the first few days after she grounded2 and at present in all probability her whole weight is resting upon this part2 yet notwithstanding this she is perfectly straight1 and has not broken nor even sprung an inch in the whole length4 ,the boilers have been forced up about #ae inches1 and one of the condensers has been lifted about #h inches1 breaking the air-pump4 ,at present this is nearly the extent of the damage done2 all of which could easily be repaired if the vessel were in dock4 ,i will now state my opinion of the best means of recovering the largest possible amount of the property which has been invested in her4 ,in this view ,i can only imagine two alternatives--the one to break her up on the spot and make the most of the materials2 the other to get her afloat and into port1 and restore her into good condition1 or sell her to those who would so restore her4 ,the first alternative may ,i think be discarded at once2 the plates and ribs of an iron vessel are difficult enough to convert into useful materials for any other purposes1 even in the midst of workshops and with tools and appliances at hand4 ,in such a place as ,dundrum ,bay ,i do not believe the materials would pay the expense of cutting up2 the masts1 spars1 chains1 c41 in fact the stores and perhaps a few of the lighter part of the engines1 might repay the cost of removal1 but the whole would certainly not amount to many thousands2 probably hundreds would be a safer estimate of the amount to be realised clear of all expenses4 ,to remove the vessel and take her into port1 and either restore her or sell her1 is then the only means of recovering any part of the whole of the capital invested in this ship4 ,if she is so brought into port she may be worth1 unrepaired1 #dj1jjjl41 #ej1jjjl41 or #fj1jjjl41 according to the opportunities that may offer themselves of employing her usefully or selling her4 ,the only question is1 then1 how at the least expense1 and at the smallest risk1 is the vessel to be got into port8 ,but1 as ,i will now endeavour to prove to you1 the mode of getting the vessel off the shore and into port is again quite secondary to the consideration of how to preserve her where she is so that she may be in a condition to be removed1 and to be worth removing1 when the means of doing this are ready1 and the proper time is arrived for attempting it4 ,in the first place ,i assert unhesitatingly1 that no man in his senses and who thoroughly understands the circumstances of the case1 the weight and position of the vessel1 the amount of the rise and fall of the tide1 and the draught of water around her1 and the extraordinarily exposed situation1 would dream of calculating upon completing the requisite means for floating her under three months4 ,in the meantime the ship must be protected4 ,even if it were practicable to construct the necessary apparatus1 and to float the vessel to-morrow1 it would be little short of madness to go to sea with her at this time of the year2 but ,i am doing wrong to discuss a case which cannot arise4 ,the vessel cannot1 according to any rational calculation of chances1 be got off under three months1 and it is equally against all probability that1 if left unprotected1 there would be anything worth taking off at that time4 ,it is useless1 therefore1 at this moment discussing the best mode of floating the vessel2 and ,i think1 under such circumstances1 it would be most unwise hastily to determine upon any plan4 ,the first thing is to know whether there are any means of preserving the vessel1 and whether any such plans can be carried into effect at some reasonable cost1 which it may be worth incurring4 ,i have looked at the vessel1 and considered the very exposed situation in which she is placed 7and a more exposed one could hardly be found71 and ,i am convinced that no fixed breakwater of ordinary construction could be made at any reasonable expense1 or in time to prevent mischief4 ,there is no depth of sand into which to drive piles1 and the rock is too uneven and broken to allow of any framing being constructed and secured to it2 and any framework would be liable to be destroyed during the progress of its construction1 as that already attempted has been1 and the timber might be the cause of serious damage to the ship4 ,the plan ,i should recommend would at least be free from these objections1 would be comparatively inexpensive1 and ,i am firmly convinced would be perfectly effectual as a protection4 ,at the same time few persons who have not seen the effect of a sea beating against fagots will share in that conviction2 what ,i recommend is1 to form under the stern and along the exposed side of the vessel a mass of fagots made of strong and long sticks1 and used in the manner which has been so successfully practised in ,holland and elsewhere1 for the repair and protection of banks against the sea4 ,the fagots should be packed closely1 and for a considerable thickness against the ship's side and up to the level of the decks1 and secured with rods run vertically through the mass1 and chains laid horizontally and binding the whole tightly to the ship4 ,the heaviest sea has no effect upon such a mass1 and ,i believe the vessel would remain as uninjured and indeed as unaffected by the sea as if in dock2 #h1jjj or #aj1jjj fagots1 #cjj or #djj fathoms of #a inch or inch second-hand chain cable1 none of which need be lost1 #cjj or #djj inch rods sharpened at the ends1 #a1jjj bags to fill with sand1 with what stores you have on board1 would suffice2 and1 if next coming springs and the gales which have hitherto accompanied them are safely passed1 ,i cannot foresee any difficulty whatever in the way of completing the protection ,i propose4 ,of course1 in all works dependent upon wind1 weather1 and tides1 certainty cannot be obtained2 but of one thing ,i am quite certain1 that no other plan offers the same chance of success1 or at so small a cost4 ,i have communicated to ,captain ,claxton the steps which ,i took1 in conjunction with ,captain ,hosken1 for procuring the fagots before ,i left ,dundrum2 ,i have also communicated to him the directions which ,i gave with respect to the engines1 c41 and it is unnecessary therefore that ,i should repeat them4 ,i will only recapitulate in a few words the substance of the advice ,i have above given1 and of my reasoning4 ,you have a valuable piece of property lying on a most exposed shore2 if preserved for a few months that property will in all probability be worth #dj1jjjl4 or #ej1jjjl42 if neglected for a few weeks longer it will probably be worth nothing4 ,can you1 as men of business1 under such circumstances1 waste your time at this moment in discussing what you will do in three months hence1 and what plan you will then adopt to take your property to market1 but will you not rather first and immediately adopt decisive steps for preserving that property1 and then consider what you had best do with it8 ,i have no wish to escape the responsibility of advising you1 as you request me to do so1 as to my opinion of the best plan to be adopted hereafter for removing the ship2 but adhering to the principle that ,i have laid down1 ,i should decline to do so at present1 did ,i not see reason to fear that you might be losing time and money by relying upon expectations which ,i am convinced would be disappointed4 ,i would strongly urge upon you not to place your reliance upon any plan which depends upon floating the vessel by camels1 and taking her to sea unrepaired1 and therefore entirely dependent upon those camels4 ,the immense breadth of these floating camels1 and the risk of taking such an unmanageable floating ill-connected mass to sea1 cannot have been correctly or sufficiently estimated2 and the certainty of the whole going to the bottom1 in the event of even a very moderate gale of wind or a slight swell1 has been apparently quite lost sight of4 ,i am also of opinion that the difficulty of lifting the vessel at all by auxiliary floats has been underrated4 ,the vessel has worked herself about #e or #f feet into the solid rock and sand1 and may very probably get a little deeper before the time for lifting arrives4 ,she must therefore be lifted1 say at least #d feet to #d feet #f inches1 before she could be got out of the dock she has made2 and the floating power must therefore be calculated at least to raise her #e feet #f inches1 so as to be quite sure of moving her4 ,now there is not more than #aj feet water around the vessel even at high water of ordinary springs1 and it would be impossible to calculate upon more than #i feet as a certainty4 ,no floating power worth having can be got in the vessel1 and the floating vessels must therefore be capable of sustaining the whole weight1 with a draught when the vessel is lifted of only about #d feet4 ,the weight to be sustained is #b1jjj tons1 and to do this with vessels drawing only #d feet would require that they should be upwards of #cj feet in breadth on each side1 forming with the ship a total width of upwards of #ajj to #abj feet1 and upwards of #cjj feet in length4 ,i do not say that this operation is impracticable1 but it is at least a very difficult one1 and must be almost entirely dependent upon weather1 and1 unless in perfectly smooth water1 a very hazardous one4 ,my belief and conviction is that the safe mode of proceeding1 and by far the cheapest1 will be to lift the vessel by mechanical means1 to lay ways under her1 and to haul her up sufficiently far for her to be safe from the sea2 to repair her just sufficiently to make her water-tight1 then launch and bring her to ,liverpool or ,bristol4 ,but1 as ,i have before stated1 there is time to consider these points1 if in the meantime we take steps to preserve the ship4 ,if the property is not even now worth protecting1 it will indeed be waste of money to be preparing at some considerable expense to remove what will in all probability be only then a valueless carcase4 ,if the ,directors should determine upon adopting the course ,i have recommended1 ,i must remind them that the plan is one depending entirely on the skill1 the vigour1 the aptitude for expedients1 and possibly1 if bad weather should come on1 and day after day the work be destroyed1 on the unwearying perseverance and determined confidence in the plan of the person directing it1 and the sufficiency of means at his command4 ,i cannot conclude without doing justice to ,mr4 ,bremner1 whom ,i met on board1 and acknowledging the friendly and liberal manner in which he discussed the various means to be adopted1 and assisted me with his valuable advice2 and1 although ,i may have somewhat differed with him as to the advisability of attempting to float the vessel away to sea without first repairing her1 yet upon most points we were perfectly agreed2 and ,i firmly believe that if any man could take her off 7and if it would be prudent to let him do so71 ,mr4 ,bremner's great experience and sound practical knowledge and good sense in devising any plan1 and his energy and skill in carrying it out1 would ensure every chance of success which the circumstances admit of4#acc ,the ,directors adopted ,mr4 ,brunel's suggestions2 and1 at his urgent request1 they appointed ,captain ,claxton to superintend the execution of his plans4 ,captain ,claxton thereupon went to ,dundrum1 where he took sole charge of all the subsequent operations4 ,the following is selected from the many letters written by ,mr4 ,brunel to ,captain ,claxton at this time4 ,december #bi1 #ahdf4 ,you have failed1 ,i think1 in sinking and keeping down the fagots from that which causes nine-tenths of all failures in this world1 from not doing quite enough4 ,two and a half hundredweight of sandbags1 weighing barely one hundredweight in water1 would not of course keep quiet a large fagot of five bundles1 and two and a half hundredweight of fire-bars1 ,i should think1 would only barely do4 ,the load must always be excessive1 to make sure of a thing4444 ,i would only impress upon you one principle of action which ,i have always found very successful1 which is to stick obstinately to one plan 7until ,i believe it wrong71 and to devote all my scheming to that one plan1 and1 on the same principle1 to stick to one method1 and push that to the utmost limits before ,i allow myself to wander into others2 in fact1 to use a simile1 to stick to the one point of attack1 however defended1 and if the force first brought up is not sufficient1 to bring ten times as much2 but never to try back upon another point in the hope of finding it easier4 ,so with the fagots--if a six-bundle fagot wont reach out of water1 try a twenty-bundle one2 if hundredweights wont keep it down1 try tons4 ,the able manner in which ,captain ,claxton carried out ,mr4 ,brunel's plans1 and suggested important modifications of them1 is acknowledged by ,mr4 ,brunel1 in a report to the ,directors1 written after the successful completion of the breakwater4 ,february #bg1 #ahdg4 ,i beg to enclose ,captain ,claxton's account of the proceedings at ,dundrum ,bay during the time that he has been engaged in forming the breakwater or protection to the ship in the manner recommended by me4 ,notwithstanding the great difficulties he has had to contend with from almost incessant bad weather1 with the wind blowing dead on shore nearly the whole of the month of ,january1 and consequently preventing the tides from ebbing sufficiently out to allow of the work being properly proceeded with1 and notwithstanding the occurrence of more than one storm at the most critical period of the work1 he has1 as ,i fully relied upon his doing1 succeeded in so far protecting the ship1 that she has been comparatively unaffected by violent seas1 which1 there is no doubt whatever1 would otherwise have seriously damaged her4 ,we may now calculate with tolerable certainty upon preserving her without further injury until the finer or at least more settled weather sets in4 ,in the work which ,captain ,claxton undertook1 and has so successfully completed1 he has been compelled to vary very materially the mode of proceeding first laid down2 he has1 in fact1 been obliged to adapt his plans to his means of execution1 and almost from day to day to devise modes of proceeding with only the experience of the past day to guide him4 ,numerous unforeseen difficulties have occurred1 upon which he kept me daily informed2 and simple as my plan might have appeared to others1 it required much skill1 contrivance1 and unwearying perseverance to carry out so many alterations and improvements as it progressed4 ,i had relied confidently on success when my friend ,captain ,claxton undertook the work1 and the result has fully confirmed my expectations4 ,it is now necessary to turn our attention to the best mode of removing the ship4 ,i hope in about a fortnight from the present time to be able to give you some opinion upon this point1 but it is one requiring much consideration2 and until ,i had the opportunity of conferring with ,captain ,claxton on the subject1 and also had before me all the measurements and data which he has collected1 it was useless to attempt it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the construction of the breakwater will be understood by the following extracts from a report made by ,captain ,claxton to the ,admiralty4 #8,great ,britain1' ,july #af1 #ahdg4 444,mr4 ,brunel's instructions to me were principally by word of mouth2 the difficulty to be got over1 in his opinion1 being the foundation upon sand1 varying in depth according to the points or hollow of a substratum of rock1 and according to the quarter from which the wind blew4 ,the foundation could only be made at low water1 and as fast as a layer of fagots was laid1 it was rapidly pinned down with iron rods1 bent at the heads1 varying from #i to #f feet in length1 and driven to the rock under1 loaded with stones quarried from the nearest reefs1 and upon these1 the last thing as the flood came in1 chain cables1 air-pump covers1 fire-bars in large bundles1 and the ship's guns were dropped1 care being always taken to have the ends of the chains1 and the slings of other heavy matters1 fast to the ship4 ,as the tide in smooth water began to recede1 or in heavy seas began to lose effect in striking1 these iron weights were lifted1 and the fagots which were ready were 444 placed2 and the same process followed tide after tide when the water ebbed sufficiently1 which upon the neaps it never did at all1 and upon the springs it only did for about an hour1 unless there was either no wind at all1 or unless the wind blew off the land1 or from the ,west round by the ,north to ,,ese4 ,it is necessary1 to a proper understanding of the nature of this really large work1 to describe a bundle of fagots1 lest an idea should be formed that it is a small thing and easily handled4 ,they averaged #aa feet in length1 and #e feet in circumference near the butts1 which all pointed one way4 ,when tied in ,lord ,roden's wood1 many were #ac feet long1 and none were taken under #aj feet4 ,a cart of the country with one horse could carry about ten bundles when well lashed1 and as they came down there was rarely more than the head of the horse to be seen4 ,sixpence per bundle1 and sixpence for delivery1 was the contract2 the distance at high water nine miles1 at low water six miles2 and our sailors made them into large bundles of twos1 threes1 and fours2 now and then we experimented with bundles of eight or even ten1 in the middle of which were bags of sand 7old guano bags71 varying in number1 of #b cwt4 each1 and sometimes as many as amounted to a ton in weight4 ,these large bundles stood if the water remained smooth2 but if1 before we could build up to their height with smaller bundles1 and1 as it were1 prop or shoulder them fore and aft1 we were caught by a breeze and sea1 we found them rolled up to high water mark1 or on spring tides four hundred yards2 while some are now being hove out of the sand entire1 and with the sand bags and sand complete4444 ,having got the foundation1 on which1 ,i may mention1 we placed one of the ship's iron life-boats1 #cj feet long1 #h feet wide1 and #e feet deep1 and loaded her with stones1 and which also1 although over bundles of fagots1 went bodily down1 until only the gunwale was above the level of the strand1 we began to build the part which was to save the ship from the blows of the sea1 and which ,i was instructed by ,mr4 ,brunel to bring up to a point to the ship's gunwale in the form of a large poultice1 occupying the whole space under her counter1 the whole of the exposed quarter 7the port quarter71 and inclining inwards from the outside1 and declining from the top to the same point forward1 to the after end of the bilge keel4 ,i was to be1 and was1 as careful as ,i could be to secure as well as to weight down as we built4 ,chains were secured in many places to the lower bundles of fire-bars sunk in the sand outside all1 and these were brought into the arms of the screw1 and to ring bolts let into the ship2 and rarely were two layers placed without a repetition of the securing and weighting process all the while we had chains to use4444 ,we were frequently beaten2 whole masses were capsized1 but it was found that even the foundation broke the ground swell1 which1 instead of having a fair run as it has over the strand1 seemed stopped1 and to break differently2 and certainly the ship was daily eased of the blows of the sea4444 ,finding the wind keeping on shore1 the fagots we placed shrinking1 sinking1 or settling down1 and1 notwithstanding the weights and lashings1 commonly breaking away1 ,i proposed to try spars4 ,mr4 ,brunel acceded1 and recommended my trying four long ones1 to the heels of which were to be attached chains with a spread of eight feet1 the spars being pointed at the heels1 the slack of the chains1 and the height at which they were stopped to the spars1 being intended to be sufficient to embrace about a dozen bundles of fagots1 the points of the spars sticking through the foundation below the level of the sand4 ,after placing the first pair of spars at an angle from the gunwale of about #gj degrees1 and before the second pair with its fagots could be got in place1 and after heaving them down tight with a tackle to each from the head to the gunwale1 a heavy sea came with the flood dead on1 and although the spars were seven inches square1 they stood the blows of the sea1 bending in the middle full five feet when heavily struck4 ,this gave me the idea of green trees3 firs being the first that occurred to me2 first because of their height1 and next because in ,lord ,downshire's grounds at ,dundrum the castle wood consisted of them only1 and lastly1 because they were cheap and at hand4 ,the spars we fortunately placed1 and which stood so well1 were ,american elm1 a large balk of which had been sawed in four lengths of #db feet for framing1 for ,mr4 ,bremner's breakwater4444 ,the lengths required to allow the application of a tackle to the head to heave them tight down to the gunwale1 or to the scuttle-holes of the ship1 were from #de to #ej feet4 ,i found that the firs of this length were scarce1 and too fine at the head2 but on looking in ,lord ,roden's wood1 a better substitute was offered in the form of beech trees of any size1 and a contract was speedily made1 and as speedily completed2 the carts of the country bringing in one tree at a time1 until about eighty were placed at the most exposed point1 the quarter1 in three rows1 the outside row at an angle of #de degrees4 ,beech-trees were found decidedly better than firs1 or1 ,i believe1 than any other description of tree1 as their weight was soon found sufficient to keep them in place without the heaving down tackles4 ,they can be got of great length1 without being so large and 7carting1 pointing1 and handling considered7 so unwieldy a butt as firs1 and they are of greater diameter aloft1 consequently stronger1 and altogether tougher than firs4 ,having got the whole stern surrounded1 and having continued them at from #d to #e feet apart up to the bilge keel1 or about #hj feet of the ship from the screw1 ,i applied smaller spars 7easily and economically obtained from the ,tyrella domain1 or within half a mile of the ship7 laterally and diagonally1 and about a foot apart in the former case1 and #c or #d feet in the latter2 the number about #cjj1 of all or any lengths between #ae and #cj feet4 ,while this was about1 the fagot process was going on2 and before that was completed1 ,i found the foundation with the boat1 and its #dj tons of stones1 and even the spars1 although pointed at the angles1 indicated an inclination to move forward through the sheer force of the rollers4 ,to check this1 tackles were made fast to three warps out to seaward1 with two anchors to each1 and brought to the spars with four spans to the inner block4 ,thus twelve of the largest spars were grappled1 the falls taken on board1 and all hove tight2 the whole of the spars having first been attached to one another by a round turn of a half-inch chain with strong staples1 and of course by the lateral spars or spreaders1 and their innumerable seizings4 ,suffice it to say1 as regards the spars1 that when struck by violent seas from half-flood to half-ebb1 they bend in a body from #c to #d feet1 and spring back after the blow2 and this is1 ,i believe1 the whole secret of the efficiency of the spar part of the breakwater1 which has stood the whole winter1 only one having broken1 and that because the head took against the topsail yard1 lashed along stanchions of the rails as a hold-down for the tackles attached to their heads4 ,as a proof that this is the probable cause of its standing so well1 ,i may refer to ,mr4 ,bremner's breakwater1 which went with the first heavy gale and sea1 although made of balks of from #ag inches to #ac inches thick3 also to our having ourselves placed a pine spar #i inches diameter down by the side of the outside tree on the starboard quarter1 and which broke in two right in the middle with the first sea that struck it4 ,the sea struck very hard against the spars and framework1 from which it was received by the fagots without any shock to the ship worth speaking of4 ,with respect to the fagots1 ,i could not find materials to go on weighting down as we went on piling up4444 ,i therefore ran the remaining fagots up light4 ,no sooner1 however1 was this done1 and a gale came on1 than we were compelled to let go the lashings1 and to help some of the top ones to escape1 as the whole of the unloaded body rose and fell full three feet with the sea1 and would have done mischief to the spars and to the ship1 by shouldering her quarter1 and twisting her4 ,about #bjj bundles broke away in this gale4 ,they were1 however1 all recovered1 and placed further forward and low down1 and then loaded with stones2 about one third of the top space having after this been left open1 or one third down from the apex levelled4 ,shrinkage did much towards this1 and breaking in pieces a good deal2 so it was not deemed advisable to fill that space again4 ,about the #ast of ,may the progress made in lifting the ship by tightening her from the inside1 and by lightening her of everything moveable1 led me to believe that we should be about getting her off towards the end of this month4 ,i therefore felt that it was time to begin removing the fagot portion of the breakwater4444 ,the process of levelling went on for about three weeks1 when all above the loaded portion was taken away4 ,we commenced on that portion from necessity1 and found that by no contrivance of purchases and levers could our ten men get up or out more than four or five bundles per tide4 ,this became1 and even now is1 a serious matter4 ,we have got up all our chains and weights1 and nothing remains but the fagots and stones1 which are so embedded in sand as to form a mass which is more difficult to move than granite rock would be1 as we cannot blast4 ,twenty labourers have been twenty-one tides at work1 by contract1 and certainly they have made an impression2 but it is not lowered over two feet4 ,the lower portion was made of furze bundles1 here called whins1 and they are great collectors of sand1 and only come up at all by being cut to pieces4 ,i mention this to show that furze and fagots loaded with stones on sand #ejj yards from high-water mark1 exposed to the sea1 will form a foundation on which a building of any weight might be erected4444 ,mr4 ,brunel informed me1 when ,i undertook to carry out his views1 that there was nothing new in using fagots to stop breaches in sea-walls1 as in ,holland2 and that he saw no reason why they should not stop the force of the sea in protecting ships as well1 provided they could be secured1 and a foundation got4 ,they were to be made of alders1 ash1 holly1 laurel1 oak1 or anything tough1 to be cut down1 and made up green1 to be placed with all their leaves on1 to be pointed to the sea at their butts2 and inside the walls of them1 if ,i may so speak1 whin 7furze7 bundles were to be weighted down1 the fagots placed in steps or rows of about #d feet from the outside to the ship's gunwale4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as the summer came on1 the mode of lifting and floating the ship had to be decided4 ,on this point ,mr4 ,brunel wrote to the ,directors3-- ,may #d1 #ahdg4 ,you have heard from time to time from ,captain ,claxton of the result of the means adopted by him for protecting the #8,great ,britain' from the effects of the sea1 and which1 ,i am happy to say1 have been quite successful2 and you will have heard also generally from him of the steps which we have since taken1 preparatory to getting off the ship4 ,i will now explain to you the object ,i have kept in view in these preparations1 and the course ,i should now advise you to follow4 ,after completing the works for the protection of the ship1 and before determining upon any mode to be recommended to you for getting her off1 ,i thought it would be desirable to lighten her of all that could be easily removed1 and to ascertain how much of the vessel could be made water-tight1 and what extent of buoyancy could be obtained in the vessel herself1 as1 in my opinion1 upon our success in this would depend altogether the practicability of lifting the ship by camels4 ,if no great extent of buoyancy could have been obtained1 ,i should certainly have recommended lifting the vessel by mechanical means1 as ,i do not consider that1 with the draft of water which could be calculated upon around her on ordinary tides1 sufficient floating power by camels could be obtained in an easy practicable manner4 ,it was also quite possible that we might succeed in making the vessel alone sufficiently buoyant to lift high enough on the spring tides2 and by shifting her position1 or by other means1 to maintain the lift thus got1 to allow of getting under her bottom to repair her4 ,by great exertion nearly the whole of the compartments forward and aft of the engine space1 and part of the coal bunkers1 have been made tight2 and if the tides had ebbed as low as usual1 the other bunkers and the boilers1 fireplace and flues1 would also have been made water-tight by these last springs4 ,unfortunately1 from the direction of the wind and other causes1 these tides have neither ebbed nor flowed to their full extent2 still1 the vessel has been lifted1 and some of this lift has been maintained1 and if we were fortunate1 it is evidently quite possible that our utmost expectations might be realized1 and possibly the vessel might be lifted sufficiently to be made tight without any external assistance4 ,this1 however1 would be too much to calculate upon1 and the weight to be lifted having been reduced to one-half what it was1 and being capable of still further reduction1 the operation of lifting by camels becomes a much more practicable undertaking4 ,i should now therefore recommend that application be made to some parties who have had the most experience in such work1 to lay their proposals before the ,directors2 and that in the meantime we should continue to make every effort to add to the buoyancy of the ship4444 ,i believe that1 in such a case1 quiet1 sober consideration1 assisted by experience1 and by careful examination of all the circumstances on the spot1 will be infinitely more valuable than the most ingenious and brilliant schemes4 ,and ,i believe we are most likely to obtain these conditions by calling in a man like ,mr4 ,bremner1 and leaving him to confer with ,captain ,claxton1 and that he should have the benefit of our advice and assistance1 and then lay his plans and proposals before the ,directors4 ,mr4 ,bremner and his son1 assisted by ,captain ,claxton1 made preparations for releasing the ship4 ,the system followed was that sketched out by ,mr4 ,brunel--namely1 that of lifting the ship by mechanical arrangements1 and then making good the leaks4 ,the difficulties they had to contend with are graphically described in the reports which were sent almost daily by ,captain ,claxton to ,mr4 ,brunel1 and which were afterwards printed by the ,directors at ,mr4 ,brunel's suggestion4#acd ,the principal leak was stopped1 and the ship's head raised #h feet #g inches by ramming wedges and stones under her at high water4 ,at last1 on ,august #bg1 the ship was floated1 and ,captain ,claxton wrote to ,mr4 ,brunel3-- ,huzza6 huzza6 you know what that means4444 ,i made up my mind to stop her at the edge of low water1 and then examine and secure all that might discover itself4 ,the tide rose to #ae feet #h inches4 ,she rose therefore easily over the rock1 but was clear of it by only just five inches1 which shows how near a squeak we had--it was a most anxious affair1 but it is over4 ,i marked #agj yards in the sand and on our warp1 and at that extent ,i stopped her4444 ,i have no doubt that to-morrow we shall see her free4 ,the following day they started for ,liverpool4 ,one hundred and twenty labourers were hired to work at the pumps1 but only thirty-six came on board1 and their services were unavailable1 as they spent their time in discussing how much they were to be paid4 ,consequently1 when the ship was taken in tow at #d ,a4,m4 on the #bhth there was #f feet of water in the engine room and #e feet in the fore hold1 and she was making #af inches an hour4 ,men from ,her ,majesty's ships #8,birkenhead' and #8,victory1' which had been sent by the ,admiralty to assist1 were drafted on board1 and the influx of water was reduced to four inches an hour4 ,it was evident that ,liverpool could not be attempted1 so they made for ,strangford ,lough4 ,a dense fog came on when they were off the entrance1 and they pushed on to ,belfast ,lough1 where the ship was grounded4 ,during the night she was cleared of water1 and the next day she started for ,liverpool4 ,the landsmen who had been hired the previous night to work the pumps were incapacitated by sea-sickness2 and the ship was only kept afloat by the exertions of ,captain ,claxton and the dockyard hands who had been sent to assist in navigating her across4 ,when she arrived at ,liverpool she was placed over a gridiron1 on which she sank when her pumps were stopped4 ,notwithstanding the successful result of the efforts made for her rescue1 the stranding of the #8,great ,britain' in ,dundrum ,bay led to the ruin of the ,company2 and she was some time afterwards sold to ,messrs4 ,gibbs1 ,bright1 ,co41 of ,liverpool1 by whom she was repaired1 and fitted with auxiliary engines of #ejj nominal horse-power4 ,on a general survey being made1 it was found that she had not suffered any alteration of form1 nor was she at all strained4 ,she was taken out of dock in ,october #ahea1 and since that time she has made regular voyages between ,liverpool and ,australia4 ,she is known as one of the fastest vessels on that line2 and remains to testify to the ability and wisdom of those who1 more than thirty years ago1 were daring enough to build so large a ship of iron1 and to fit her with the screw propeller4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note 7p4 #bee74 ,dimensions of the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-,ship4 feet inches ,total length #cbb #j ,the length of keel #bhi #j ,beam #ea #j ,depth #cb #f ,feet of water #af #j ,tonnage measurement #c1ddc tons4 ,displacement #b1ihd ,dimensions of original ,engines1 c4 ,number of cylinders #d ,diameter of cylinders #hh inches ,length of stroke #f feet ,weight of engines #cdj tons ,weight of boilers #bjj ,water in boilers #bjj ,weight of screw-shaft #ch ,diameter of screw #ae ft4 #f in4 ,pitch of screw #be ft4 ,weight of screw #d tons ,diameter of main drum #ah feet ,diameter of screw-shaft drum #f ,weight of coal #a1bjj tons ,,chapter ,x4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,screw ,,propeller ,,into ,,the ,,royal ,,navy4 ,a4,d4 #ahda--ahdd4 ,,tatis #cf--ci4 ,,appointment ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel ,,to ,,conduct ,,experiments ,,for ,,the ,,admiralty ,,with ,,various ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,screw ,,propeller1 ,,april #ahda--,,trials ,,with ,,the #8,,polyphemus'--,,opposition ,,to ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,experiments--,,trials ,,with ,,the #8,,rattler1' ,,october #ahdc-,,october #ahdd4 ,soon after ,mr4 ,brunel had taken the bold step of recommending the adoption of the screw propeller in the #8,great ,britain1' he was asked to send a copy of his report to the ,admiralty4 ,he did so2 and in the course of a few months was invited to attend the ,board on the subject of some experiments their ,lordships proposed to make4 ,an interview took place on ,april #bg1 #ahda2 of which ,mr4 ,brunel gives the following account3-- ,i attended the ,board3 ,lord ,minto stated that he wished a complete experiment to be made on the applicability of the screw to ,government boats1 and he proposed to place the conduct of the experiments in my hands as a professional man4 ,i stated that ,i should have great pleasure in doing it1 and should take great interest in it1 provided they intended to make a good experiment and would place it entirely in my hands1 without the intervention of any ,government officers1 but that ,i should communicate direct with the ,lords1 and of course with ,sir ,e4 ,parry4#ace ,he said he proposed to build a vessel and engines on purpose1 and that he particularly wished it to be left entirely in my hands1 and took me apart to the window to impress this last condition on me4 ,within a fortnight of his appointment1 ,mr4 ,brunel invited ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,field and ,messrs4 ,seaward to send him designs for the engines3 they were to have been of #bjj-;horse power1 with a stroke of #d feet4 ,the engines were to make a smaller number of revolutions than the screw1 the motion being communicated from the engine shaft to the screw shaft by drums and straps4 ,this arrangement was adopted in preference to tooth-gearing1 in order to facilitate the variation of the number of revolutions1 in the experiments with different screws4 ,the designs ultimately sent to ,mr4 ,brunel for his approval were those of ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,messrs4 ,forrester4 ,he reported to the ,admiralty in favour of ,messrs4 ,maudslay's engines4 ,before drawing up the detailed specifications1 ,mr4 ,brunel was desirous of procuring data for estimating the surface of the screw required to obtain the same resistance as that offered by the paddles of a ship similar to the new vessel4 ,with this object he applied to the ,admiralty for permission to make an accurate trial of the performances of the paddle steamer #8,polyphemus' at various speeds4 ,this permission was granted2 the trial1 however1 was fixed for such an early day that ,mr4 ,brunel had barely time to make the preliminary arrangements1 with the assistance of his friend ,captain ,claxton4 ,when ,captain ,claxton arrived at ,southampton1 the day before the trial1 he found that there was no measured mile set out4 ,he immediately hired men1 got chains1 staffs1 and flags1 and set out both a nautical mile and a statute mile4 ,they made half a dozen runs each way with the #8,polyphemus1' noting carefully all particulars of speed1 revolutions1 c42 and the results obtained were considered very satisfactory4 ,on ,october #a1 ,mr4 ,brunel received information from the ,admiralty 7now under the administration of the ,earl of ,haddington7 that ,messrs4 ,maudslay and ,field's tender was accepted4 ,the engines were immediately put in hand1 under ,mr4 ,brunel's supervision4 ,when they were approaching completion1 he became anxious to learn something about the progress of the ship which was to have been built for them4 ,nowhere could she be found4 ,the minutes were searched at the ,admiralty1 and it was ascertained that the ship was ordered1 but that no ship had been laid down4 ,this discovery1 as might be supposed1 excited considerable surprise4 ,mr4 ,brunel was sent for to the ,admiralty to see ,sir ,george ,cockburn1 the ,first ,naval ,lord4 ,almost the first words to him were3 #8,do you mean to suppose that we shall cut up ,her ,majesty's ships after this fashion1 sir8'--,sir ,george at the same time pointing to a model of the stern of an old-fashioned three-decker1 in which large slices were taken off to give room for the screw1 and the whole of the lower deck exposed to view1 thus making the application of the screw look very ridiculous4 ,on the model was written1 #8,mr4 ,brunel's mode of applying the screw to ,her ,majesty's ships4' ,mr4 ,brunel smiled1 and denied its being his idea at all2 he had never seen it before1 and knew nothing about it4 #8,why1 sir1 you sent it to the ,admiralty4' ,this also ,mr4 ,brunel denied having done4 ,while an enquiry was being made as to where the model came from1 ,mr4 ,brunel employed himself in effacing the inscription with his knife4 ,when the messenger returned1 he reported that the model had come from the office of the ,surveyor of the ,navy4 ,he was sent for1 but did not appear4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 to terminate this awkward interview1 pleaded business1 and bowed himself out4 ,mr4 ,brunel often told this anecdote1 and spoke of the adverse influence which had been exerted in some department of the ,admiralty to prevent the successful issue of these experiments4 ,soon afterwards ,mr4 ,brunel was informed that the #8,acheron' would be prepared for the screw4 ,he thereupon represented to their ,lordships that the #8,acheron' could not1 from her full after-body and other defects1 be converted into such a ship as the ,board had originally determined to construct for trying the screw2 and1 indeed1 her unfitness was admitted by the authorities themselves4 ,to a letter on this subject1 in which he stated that the attempt to apply the screw propeller to the #8,acheron' would not answer any of the objects which their ,lordships had in view1 ,mr4 ,brunel received no reply1 and for the next four months was kept quite in the dark as to what was going on4 ,at length he made enquiries as to the cause of a treatment which1 he said1 he had never before experienced from any public body4 ,these enquiries proving fruitless1 he at last wrote to the ,admiralty1 declining further interference1 as it had appeared on investigation that the condition on which he had accepted his position from ,lord ,minto--namely1 that he should have the entire superintendence of the experiments--had not been observed4 ,on the receipt of his resignation1 ,mr4 ,brunel was summoned to the ,admiralty4 ,he thus described his interview in a letter to a friend3-- ,not a word was said about my complaint of the past1 but they said they wished me to continue the experiments1 and that my screw was to be tried first4 ,i said that was not at all what would suit me2 that ,i would1 if they wished it1 conduct an experiment as originally proposed2 that ,i had no screw1 that ,i was no competitor1 but an arbitrator in whom the ,admiralty had perfect confidence2 that ,i was this or nothing4 ,then commenced a tedious fencing4444 ,however1 it ended in all parties being written to1 and told that they were to follow my directions1 and that ,i was to proceed to give such instructions as should enable a full experiment to be made of all screws generally4 ,i then requested that this time ,i might have my instructions in writing4 ,in a few days ,mr4 ,brunel received an official intimation that the #8,rattler' was to be adapted for the screw1 under his directions4 ,the #8,rattler' was a vessel of #hhh tons burden1 #agf feet #f inches between the perpendiculars1 and #cb feet #h inches beam4#acf ,she had been commenced for a paddle-wheel steamer shortly before1 and was of nearly the same tonnage and midship section as the #8,polyphemus1' but she had not the fine lines aft which were so important for the use of the screw4 ,she was not launched until ,april #ac1 #ahdc1 just two years after ,mr4 ,brunel's first interview with ,lord ,minto2 and she was then delivered to ,messrs4 ,maudslay in the roughest possible state4 ,except during the time that ,mr4 ,brunel was prevented from attending to business by the half-sovereign accident1 he was in constant communication with the dockyard authorities on matters relating to the construction of the ship1 with ,messrs4 ,maudslay as to the multiplying-gear and engines1 and with ,mr4 ,f4 ,p4 ,smith as to the forms of the various screws to be tried4 ,the engines and screw were fitted in the ship1 after considerable delay2 and1 on ,october #bd1 #ahdc1 ,mr4 ,brunel reported on them in their completed state4 ,on the #cjth1 the experiments were commenced4 ,more than twenty trials were made between that date and the following ,october1 when the #8,rattler' went to sea1 and ,mr4 ,brunel could not of course any longer personally superintend the experiments2 but1 except on one or two occasions when his place was supplied by an assistant1 all the trials that were made during the first year were conducted in his presence1 and he transmitted the results from time to time to the ,admiralty4#acg ,the performance of the #8,rattler' was found to be satisfactory2 and the position of the engines and screw being below the water line was so pre-eminent an advantage1 that in #ahde the ,lords of the ,admiralty ordered more than twenty vessels to be fitted with the screw2#ach and since that time it has gradually superseded the paddlewheel for ships of war4 ,the services which ,mr4 ,brunel rendered to the country during the whole of these proceedings were given entirely without pecuniary recompense1 and in the face of opposition and discouragement2 but he had the satisfaction of knowing that he had been mainly instrumental1 not only in introducing the screw propeller into the mercantile navy1 but also in securing its adoption in ,her ,majesty's fleet4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,steam ,,navigation--,,the #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,steam-,,ship1 ,,from ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,undertaking ,,to ,,the ,,launch4 ,a4,d4 #ahea--aheg4 ,,tatis #df--eb4 ,,introductory ,,observations--,,the ,,australian ,,steam ,,navigation ,,company--,,statement ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,project ,,of ,a ,,line ,,of ,,large ,,ships 7,,june #aj1 #aheb7--;,,adoption ,,of ,,his ,,plans ,,by ,,the ,,eastern ,,steam ,,navigation ,,company--,,extract ,,from ,a ,,letter ,,describing ,,the ,,scheme 7,,july #a1 #aheb7--,,letter ,,to ,j4 ,,scott ,,russell1 ,,esq41 ,,on ,,the ,,form ,,and ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,ship 7,,july #ac1 #aheb7--,,report ,,on ,,mode ,,of ,,proceeding 7,,july #ba1 #aheb7--,,report ,,on ,,enquiries ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,draught ,,and ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,vessel 7,,october #f1 #aheb7--,,report ,,on ,,the ,,proceedings ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,appointed ,,to ,,consider ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,plans 7,,march #ba1 #ahec7--,,tenders ,,invited ,,for ,,the ,,ship ,,and ,,engines--,,report ,,on ,,tenders 7,,may #ah1 #ahec7--,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,contracts ,,and ,,specifications--,,extracts ,,from ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,memoranda 7,a4,d4 #aheb1 #ahec1 #ahed7--,,letter ,,on ,,his ,,position ,,and ,,duties ,,as ,,engineer ,,of ,,the ,,company 7,,august #af1 #ahed7--,,letter ,,on ,,an ,,article ,,in ,a ,,newspaper 7,,november #af1 #ahed7--,,report ,,on ,,the ,,undertaking 7,,february #e1 #ahee7--;,,arrangements ,,proposed ,,for ,,obtaining ,,astronomical ,,observations--,,letter ,,to ,g4 ,b4 ,,airy1 ,,esq41 ,,astronomer ,,royal 7,,october #e1 #aheb7--;,,appointment ,,of ,,mr4 ,,william ,,harrison ,,to ,,the ,,command ,,of ,,the ,,ship--,,memorandum ,,on ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,ship 7,,october1 #ahee7--,,letter ,,on ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,engineer 7,,march #ai1 #aheg7--,,suspension ,,and ,,resumption ,,of ,,the ,,works4 ,mr4 ,brunel's earlier labours in connection with the progress of ,ocean ,steam ,navigation have been described in the chapters on the #8,great ,western' and #8,great ,britain' steam-ships4#aci ,the #8,great ,eastern' is but the result of the application1 under different circumstances1 of the same principles which had guided him in his previous under-takings1 the practical working out of the #8idea which he had frequently entertained1 that1 to make long voyages economically and speedily by steam1 required the vessels to be large enough to carry the coal for the entire voyage at least outwards2 and1 unless the facility for obtaining coal was very great at the out port1 then for the return voyage also2 and that vessels much larger than had been previously built could be navigated with great advantage from the mere effect of size4'#adj ,in #ahea1 four years after the release of the #8,great ,britain' from ,dundrum ,bay1 ,mr4 ,brunel became again connected with the construction of steam-ships4 ,in that year he was consulted by the ,directors of the ,australian ,mail ,company upon the class of vessels which it would be advantageous for them to purchase1 in order to carry out their contract for the conveyance of the mails to ,australia4 ,he advised them to have ships of from #e1jjj to #f1jjj tons burden1 in order that they might only have to touch for coal at the ,cape4 ,some of the ,directors would not hear of so startling a proposition2 but they nevertheless asked ,mr4 ,brunel to become their ,engineer2 and he retained the post till ,february #ahec4 ,two ships were built under his direction by ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott ,russell--the #8,victoria' and the #8,adelaide4' ,it was1 no doubt1 his connection with the ,australian ,mail ,company that led ,mr4 ,brunel to work out into practical shape the idea of #8a great ship' for the ,indian or ,australian service1 which had so long occupied his mind2 and it appears that in the latter part of #ahea and the beginning of #aheb he devoted much time and thought to the subject4 ,he collected facts relating to the trade with ,india and ,australia which demonstrated the advantages to be gained by a rapid and direct communication for the conveyance of passengers and troops1 as well as of merchandise4 ,it was with these enlarged views that ,mr4 ,brunel entered upon the construction of the #8,great ,eastern4' ,he writes in ,february #ahed1 #8,in ,february and ,march #aheb ,i matured my ideas of the large ship with nearly all my present details1 and in ,march ,i made my first sketch of one with paddles and screw4 ,the size ,i then proposed was #fjj #gj1 and in ,june and ,july ,i determined on the mode of construction now adopted of cellular bottom2 intending then to make the outer skin of wood for the sake of coppering4' ,in the spring of #aheb he communicated the results at which he had arrived to ,mr4 ,john ,scott ,russell1 ,captain ,claxton1 and other scientific friends1 and also to several ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company4 ,this ,company had been formed in ,january #ahea for the purpose of establishing an additional line of steam communication by the overland route1 for the conveyance of mails1 passengers1 c41 between ,england1 ,india1 and ,china1 with a branch to ,australia4 ,however1 in ,march #aheb the ,government determined to grant the contract for the whole service to the ,peninsular and ,oriental ,company4 ,the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,company were therefore obliged to report to their shareholders that the object for which the ,company had been incorporated could not be carried out4 ,at about this time ,mr4 ,brunel's scheme was brought before the ,directors1 and he submitted to them a detailed statement of his project4 ,after describing the size and capacities of the vessels then used on the route between ,england and the ,east1 and the amount and cost of the coals they consumed1 he continued3-- ,june #aj1 #aheb4 ,the same amount of capital and the same expenditure in money for fuel now required for a line of ships of the present dimensions would build and work ships to carry in the year double the number of passengers1 with far superior accommodation1 and in about half the time1 and two or three times the amount of cargo2 the whole difference being produced simply by making the vessel large enough to carry its own coal1 exactly as when the #8,great ,western' was projected for the ,new ,york line1 the passage had been considered an impossible one for steamboats1 or1 if possible1 only at a total sacrifice of all return for the cost4 ,certainly1 no steamboat then built could get across except by a chance fair weather passage1 and then only by being completely filled with coals and leaving no room for passengers or cargo4 ,simply by building a ship of the size necessary to take the coal1 over and above the accommodation required for a due number of passengers and a reasonable quantity of cargo1 the passage was rendered perfectly easy and certain1 and has since become a mere matter of course1 and an ordinary and profitable trading voyage4 ,the increased size1 instead of being a disadvantage1 was found1 as predicted by the projectors1 to be a great benefit1 and gave increased speed1 even beyond that proportionate to the power2 and this steamboat1 built in #ahcf1 is still as good as any of her size afloat4 ,nothing more novel is proposed now1 but again to build a vessel of the size required to carry her own coals for the voyage4 ,the use of iron1 which has since #ahcf become common1 removes all difficulty in the construction1 and the experience of several years has proved1 what was believed before by most unprejudiced persons1 that size in a ship is an element of speed1 and of strength1 and of safety1 and of great relative economy1 instead of a disadvantage2 and that it is limited only by the extent of demand for freight1 and by the circumstances of the ports to be frequented4 ,a ,committee was appointed to confer with ,mr4 ,brunel and with ,mr4 ,scott ,russell1 #8who was fully acquainted with all ,mr4 ,brunel's plans1 and had ably assisted him in maturing them4'#ada ,the ,committee reported to the ,directors that they had met on the day after their appointment1 when1 ,mr4 ,brunel being unavoidably absent1 ,mr4 ,russell had attended and entered into a very full explanation of ,mr4 ,brunel's plans1 and that a long investigation of his proposition had taken place2 that a few days later they had met again1 when ,mr4 ,brunel attended1 and that after a further and most satisfactory investigation1 they had come to an unanimous decision in favour of the scheme4 ,this resolution was adopted1 and ,mr4 ,brunel was appointed ,engineer to the ,company4 ,the following extracts from his reports and correspondence carry on the narrative till the date of the next meeting of the shareholders 7,december #a1 #aheb71 when the details of the project were laid before them3-- ,extract from a ,letter describing the ,scheme4 ,july #a1 #aheb4 ,the principle is1 as ,i explained to you1 a very simple one--that of building ships to carry their own coals1 instead of incurring large expenses and great delay in coaling at numerous intermediate stations2 and the result is a large vessel certainly1 but one which1 at the same cost of fuel as is now required for small ones1 has1 besides that room1 for #d1jjj or even #e1jjj tons 7measurement7 of cargo1 and as many passengers as offer4 ,thus the capital embarked in the one vessel is not so great in proportion to the tonnage space for cargo as the capital embarked in several smaller vessels carrying the same amount2 while the current expenses are greatly less1 and the speed1 and economy of time by that speed and by avoiding tedious stoppages1 greatly in favour of the large one4 ,practical men concur with me1 not merely in the practicability of constructing the vessel1 but in the great advantage as regards speed1 seaworthiness1 and safety resulting merely from the increased size2 while all the mercantile men concur in the opinion that if goods can be carried direct in thirty to thirty-five days1 the certainty of freight ensures a return far beyond all present proportion of return to cost4444 ,on these points1 of course1 ,i quote only the opinions of the ,directors4 ,on the mechanical part ,i offer my own opinion1 and may quote those of the first practical men of the day--,messrs4 ,maudslay1 ,messrs4 ,watt and ,co41 and ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 all of whom have assisted me in the project1 and are prepared to join in it4 ,letter to ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 ,esq41 on the ,form and ,dimensions of the ,great ,ship4 ,july #ac1 #aheb4 ,the adoption of this plan being now determined upon1 we must proceed to determine the details1 and the first step unquestionably is the determination of the size and form of the ship4 ,now1 in preparing the general design1 ,i think the following conditions should be strictly complied with4 ,if any of them appear to involve any great sacrifice in cost1 or to involve any other peculiar difficulties1 these difficulties can be considered afterwards2 but the wisest and safest plan in striking out a new path is to go straight in the direction which we believe to be right1 disregarding the small impediments which may appear to be in our way--to design everything in the first instance for the best possible results strictly according to the principles which theory1 so far as it is supported by practice1 teaches us1 and without yielding in the least to any prejudices now existing unsupported by theory and practice1 or any fear of the consequences2 we can then afterwards weigh and balance deliberately the advantages of adhering to or giving up this or that particular part1 or modifying dimensions1 either from motives of economy1 or as yielding to public opinion from motives of policy4 ,in determining the lines of the ship1 for instance1 ,i should adopt that which we have reason to believe the best possible without any concession1 or any compromise or regard to any assumed difficulties of construction1 or regard to assumed opinions2 these difficulties will very likely vanish afterwards if disregarded in the first instance1 as in the case of the continuous curve1 in which my fresh ideas had the advantage even of your much greater knowledge1 hampered by a little preconceived idea4 ,with respect to the size1 to arrive at it by constructive calculations from the fixed conditions that we can lay down is perhaps possible1 but rather difficult1 and ,i think we know sufficiently nearly now what the minimum size must be to work upon2 that1 and a trifling alteration afterwards in the scale1 will suffice to bring it to the exact required capacity4 ,the positive conditions1 then1 are a maximum draught of water of #bd feet1 when leaving the ,hooghly with the coals for the voyage home2 and the capacity must be at least #ba1jjj tons of displacement at this draught of #bd feet4 ,i think you will find that to effect this comfortably you must give a length of #fej feet at least1 and an extreme breadth of #hj feet1 but this beam of #hj feet requiring no fuller entrance than you would make with a beam of #gj feet1 the #hj feet being obtained entirely by continuing a gentle curvature throughout the whole length1 instead of having any parallel lines4 ,if the experiments upon the friction of surfaces turn out as ,i hope1 and give us reason to expect a very much less resistance from a copper surface than that now created by painted iron1 ,i suspect we may be led rather to increase our length and diminish the proportion of beam2 but this is a very serious question1 not entirely dependent on the consideration of the form of least resistance including friction1 but also materially affected by the consideration of the advantages of the extreme steadiness of motion which length seems to give4 ,it is a subject which must be well discussed and well considered1 with the assistance of all those whose opinions and experience are likely to be of use to us4 ,my own impressions1 ,i confess1 derived from considering the cases which we have1 even after the striking result of the #8,ocean ,queen1' are that positive length1 independently of relative length1 has much to do with it4 ,when ,i see that the #8,great ,britain1' although with a beam of about one-sixth of her length at the water line1 and a midship section favourable to rolling1 is nevertheless steady1 ,i must conclude that positive length may compensate very greatly for a relatively wide beam4 ,now1 we shall unquestionably have abundance of positive length4 ,we must then be careful not to sacrifice much to keep a small beam1 without being very sure that there are very great advantages2 and1 except for the assumed advantages of the long parallel or equal bearings1 the form of least resistance1 including friction1 with a draught limited to #bd feet1 and a required displacement of #ba1jjj tons1 would1 ,i apprehend1 give us a beam nearer #ij feet than #gj feet4 ,i should like to know exactly what the proportion would be without regard to the theory of the long narrow parallel forms2 and then let us consider how much1 if anything1 should be sacrificed to attain the advantage assumed to be attained by relative length4 ,let us therefore have at once the draft of a vessel of #ba1jjj tons displacement at the #bd feet water line1 and of such form as will in your opinion give the greatest speed in smooth water1 without seeking to make it narrow4 ,we must1 of course1 also bear in mind the comparative weakness of form caused by length1 and the consequent increased thickness of material required1 besides an actual increase of surface1 involving a very considerably greater quantity and weight of material in the ship1 which last consideration is very greatly in favour of breadth of beam2 for ,i think you will find that the quantity of iron in two ships of #fjj and #gjj feet in length respectively1 with the same displacement and the same ultimate strength to resist strains1 will be fully in the ratio of their length4 ,report to the ,directors on ,mode of ,proceeding4 ,july #ba1 #aheb4 ,since the adoption by the general meeting of the plan recommended by the ,directors1 ,i have been engaged very constantly in maturing the details of that plan1 and considering the course which it would be necessary to follow in order to carry them out in the surest1 safest1 and most efficient manner4 ,the steps which are about to be taken are unquestionably in the right direction1 but they are considerable ones1 and must be taken with deliberation and certainty1 and without leaving anything doubtful2 and1 when determined upon1 they must be followed up with decision4 ,although you will probably determine upon constructing not less than two vessels in the first instance1 yet they must both be proceeded with at once1 and must in fact be exact duplicates of each other4 ,the success of the two1 therefore1 depends upon that of each2 there can be no average struck in such a case1 but the two ships must be designed and executed on such principles and with such perfection that no doubt can exist of the result4 ,by well considering all that has been done1 by selecting all that has been most successful1 and by a judicious application of such results to the peculiar circumstances of our case1 all this certainly can1 ,i think1 be assured1 but it can be assured only by proceeding with the caution and the decision which the circumstances demand4 ,in the first place1 as to the designing of the whole1 the principle being determined upon1 much may be ascertained by mere calculation1 but for these calculations data are required1 which nothing but experience can furnish4 ,i have1 therefore1 availed myself of the assistance of those most competent to afford the required information4 ,i have called in to my assistance the gentlemen whom ,i had already named to you as best able to give strength to our position by the value of their opinions1 and best able to execute the various parts of the work with that experience and perfection which are essential to our success4 ,with respect to the form and construction of the vessel itself1 nobody can1 in my opinion1 bring more scientific and practical knowledge to bear than ,mr4 ,scott ,russell4 ,as to the proportion of power to be adopted1 the form and construction of the engines1 screw1 and paddles1 besides ,mr4 ,scott ,russell1 ,i have had the benefit of the deliberate consideration and advice of ,mr4 ,field1 of the firm of ,maudslay and ,field1 and of ,mr4 ,blake1 of the firm of ,watt and ,co4 ,i have written also to my friend ,mr4 ,f4 ,p4 ,smith1 to whom the public are indebted for the success of the screw1 for his advice on the subject4 ,with such assistance ,i think we may rely upon the certainty of being able to design and to execute all that is best in the mechanical and ship-building department4 ,in the naval department ,i have had the opportunity also of consulting two gentlemen1 ,captain ,claxton and ,captain ,robert ,ford1 who possess special knowledge and experience on the subject4 ,i have had several conferences with all these gentlemen1 ,i have explained fully my views1 and1 with their assistance1 settled preliminarily some of the principal points of detail4 ,what ,i should propose to the ,directors now is1 that with that assistance ,i should proceed to prepare in detail the design of the ship1 and the exact dimensions and form of the engines2 that1 in the meantime1 ,i should obtain information upon certain points which will govern you as to the mode of contracting for the construction of the ships1 and also that ,i should be authorised to adopt some means of determining one or two most important points which must govern some of the principal dimensions4#adb ,report to the ,directors on ,enquiries relating to the ,draught and ,form of the ,vessel4 ,october #f1 #aheb4 ,since the date of my last letter to you1 recommending that certain enquiries and investigations should be set on foot to determine several points which would materially influence the plans ,i should have to submit to you1 many circumstances have occurred to delay these investigations4 ,not having sent any competent person expressly to ,calcutta to ascertain with certainty the draught of water that might be adopted1 ,i have endeavoured to obtain as much information as possible upon this point from persons capable of affording it1 who might be in ,england4 ,several very competent men1 captains of long experience in that particular navigation1 and even local pilots of the first standing1 happened to be within reach1 and ,i have had personal communication with these gentlemen4 ,notwithstanding1 however1 these fortunate opportunities of obtaining information from the best existing authorities1 we are left in pretty nearly the same state of doubt as to the maximum depth as we should be by a mere inspection of the charts1 the opinion of very competent men varying so much as to fix this maximum as low as #ba and as high as #bc and even #bd feet4 ,they all concur1 however1 in fixing ,diamond ,harbour as the point in the ,hooghly which may easily be reached1 but beyond which it would be almost impossible to go4 ,a question as to the extent of swell which in so large a ship might be given to the sides1 increasing the capacity without materially increasing the resistance1 involved one of the experiments to which ,i referred in my former letter2 these experiments have been made1 and the result1 such as it was1 of the enquiries before referred to as to the navigation of the ,hooghly1 led me to direct the preparation of draughts of three different models of ships1 and upon further consideration of these three1 and under the circumstances1 ,i have come to the conclusion of recommending one which will have the following dimensions3--namely1 #fgj feet in length1 #he feet beam1 and a deep water draught of #cj feet4 ,such a vessel would be able to carry her own coal for the voyage home out of the ,hooghly with about #bc feet draught2 but if between now and the period when the exact arrangement must be determined1 it is found expedient not to attempt so great a draught in the ,hooghly1 the same vessel will1 by coaling at ,trincomalee on the return voyage1 be exactly adapted to work out of the ,hooghly with a good cargo of goods and coals for ,trincomalee with only #bj to #ba feet draught4 ,i have been in communication with the eminent engine builders whose names ,i have mentioned on a former occasion1 and with ,mr4 ,f4 ,p4 ,smith1 the inventor of the screw propeller4 ,some trials and investigations are still in progress to determine the relative advantages of a copper and iron bottom1 on which question may depend the arrangements which may be requisite to provide for docking or rather laying up for cleaning1 and when these points are determined ,i shall be prepared to lay before you a complete design of ship and engines for your consideration4 ,efforts were made to induce the public to assist in carrying out the project4 ,in ,february #ahec1 the ,chairman 7the late ,mr4 ,henry ,thomas ,hope7 and several of his colleagues formed themselves into a committee for the purpose of communicating with ,mr4 ,brunel on the subject of his plans1 and reporting to the ,board thereon4 ,the results of this conference were embodied in the following report which ,mr4 ,brunel addressed to the ,directors3-- ,report on the ,proceedings of the ,committee4 ,march #ba1 #ahec4 ,to enable the ,committee to arrive at a correct conclusion on this difficult question1 ,i had gone through rather lengthy calculations of the minimum dimensions and the comparative estimated cost of the ships which would in each case answer the purpose under the several different circumstances which might be assumed2 and the results of these calculations were laid before the ,committee1 and the relative advantages and disadvantages of each assumed case discussed4444#adc ,after much discussion1 and comparing the probable receipts with the estimated expenditure1 and allowing fully for interest of capital embarked1 ,i think it appeared to the ,committee that as a mere mercantile transaction1 and with reference only to the ,australian trade1 the larger vessel would be the most economical1 showing not merely the means of securing the largest return1 but involving an actual diminution of annual expenditure4444 ,the ,committee were unanimously of opinion that the largest size of the first class would be the best1 and would in every way answer the objects of the ,company4 ,the dimensions arrived at by calculation for this ship would be in round numbers1 #fgj feet long1 #hj feet beam4 ,this sized vessel would combine most of the advantages which we seek to obtain4 ,it would carry coal to ,diamond ,harbour and back to ,trincomalee2 it would afford room for about #hjj separate cabins larger than those now fitted up in packet ships1 with large saloons1 capable of accommodating #a1jjj or #a1ejj first and second-class passengers2 and would carry #c1jjj tons weight of cargo1 without making any allowance for that increase of speed proportionate to the mere increase of size of which we see every day fresh proofs2 the average speed of the ship1 with the proposed power of engine and calculated consumption of coal1 would be #ad knots at the average1 making the passage out in #cd days1 say #cf2 but with that increased speed which has been shown to take place with increased dimensions1 we may speculate upon the voyage being performed in #cj days4 ,this same vessel1 fitted up for the ,australian voyage1 and loaded deeper1 would carry coals to ,australia and back1 would take out #c1jjj passengers easily1 and a small amount of cargo only1 but could bring back any amount that could be conveniently collected1 or if provision were made for taking in #c1jjj or #d1jjj tons of coal in ,australia1 that additional amount of cargo might be taken in the passage out4 ,the passage out to ,port ,philip should be made easily in #cf days1 and home by ,cape ,horn in the same time4 ,the ,committee having come to the conclusion that this class of vessel would best fulfil the several conditions which the circumstances imposed1 ,i have been engaged in determining the several details consequent upon this selection of size1 and have put in hand drawings of the ship1 which will enable me to arrive more correctly at the cost1 and will enable us to obtain tenders for the construction4 ,these details involve a great deal of study and consideration1 and the making of the drawings alone requires some considerable time1 so that ,i do not think much advance can be made under three weeks from the present date1 but ,i will endeavour to expedite the work as much as possible4 ,mr4 ,brunel was authorized to continue his communications with engine-makers and ship-builders1 and to invite tenders4 ,after very detailed and careful calculations of the smallest capacity that would secure the attainment of the objects sought for1 the dimensions of the vessel and the power of the engines were finally determined2 tenders were received from ,mr4 ,scott ,russell1 ,messrs4 ,watt and ,co41 and ,messrs4 ,humphrys and ,co4 for both sets of engines1 and from ,mr4 ,russell for the construction of the hull of the ship and for placing her afloat4 ,a meeting of the ,directors was held on ,may #ah1 when ,mr4 ,brunel submitted the various tenders he had received4 ,the ,board agreed to adopt his recommendations1 and to accept the tenders of ,mr4 ,scott ,russell for the ship and paddle engines1 and that of ,messrs4 ,james ,watt and ,co4 for the screw engines4 ,the following report1 which ,mr4 ,brunel placed before the ,directors1 gives a detailed account of the steps he had taken to procure the tenders1 and the grounds on which he had formed his judgment of them3-- ,report on ,tenders4#add ,may #ah1 #ahec4 ,according to your instructions1 ,i applied to the several parties with whom ,i had previously been in communication on the subject of the engines and ship1 for tenders for their supply4 ,as regards the engines1 ,i drew up a short specification1 defining generally what was required1 and leaving the parties to make their own designs and propose to me the form of engine they would adopt4 ,with respect to the ship1 where no such variation could be permitted1 ,i have had very detailed drawings and specifications prepared4 ,copies of the specifications are annexed4 ,in defining the power of the engines and boilers1 ,i have1 in conformity with my own views and of those of several of the ,directors1 who have expressed themselves strongly on the subject1 required a very full amount of power1 without naming the nominal horse-power1 which is a very vague mode of defining anything but the cost which by custom is made dependent upon that nominal power2 but ,i have defined dimensions of parts and surface of boilers which will ensure the means of exerting a very large amount of power4 ,as regards the ship1 ,i have not spared strength of materials1 and have required the best workmanship4 ,the result of this application for designs and tenders is1 upon the whole1 very satisfactory1 although two of the parties from whom ,i had hoped to have received proposals have not been able to send any4444 ,mr4 ,blake1 of the firm of ,watt and ,co41 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,russell and ,mr4 ,humphrys1 have1 as ,i had before reported1 devoted much attention to the subject3 from these gentlemen ,i have received distinct well-considered designs of the screw and paddle-engines4 ,i have been in frequent communication with these gentlemen1 and have seen their plans while in progress1 and have made my suggestions upon them1 and assisted more or less in maturing them1 and at all events in preventing the adoption of any principle or arrangement that ,i should afterwards object to4 ,notwithstanding this1 the three designs1 particularly for the screw engines1 are totally dissimilar1 and ,i am placed in the difficulty of having to choose between three totally different plans1 each designed by skilful and experienced men1 and each possessing many known and acknowledged advantages4 ,i should also observe that1 although ,i have known the general arrangement which each would adopt1 ,i did not receive the plans or the tenders which ,i now forward until last evening1 and that of ,mr4 ,humphrys as late as #aj o'clock this morning1 and that ,i have not therefore had time to draw up any very detailed report upon them4 ,the following are1 however1 the principal considerations which influence me in the selection which ,i am disposed to recommend4 ,it must be borne in mind that the screw engines will be the largest engines that have yet been made4 ,the principal part of the propelling power of the ship will be thrown upon the screw2 and upon these engines therefore will mainly depend the performance of the ship1 and particularly upon their constant never-failing working1 probably for thirty or forty days and nights1 must depend the certainty of the ship's performance4#ade ,under all these circumstances1 the compactness and stiffness of framing1 the greatest possible simplicity of construction1 and the fewest possible number of parts1 and1 finally1 the absence of any novelty1 however promising1 that can introduce any unforeseen difficulties1 are conditions which would outweigh in my mind many advantages that might1 and ,i think would1 be attained by several arrangements which have been suggested4 ,all the designs now submitted comply with these conditions to a very considerable extent 444 but the extreme simplicity of ,mr4 ,blake's engine leads me to prefer it4 ,as regards the paddle engine1 ,i unhesitatingly give the preference to that proposed by ,mr4 ,russell4 ,i believe it to be as simple an arrangement as can be adopted for engines with such a slow motion and so long a stroke as these must have1 and the single crank in the centre ,i consider a great advantage4444 ,as regards a contract for the ship1 ,i have found it more difficult to proceed in the ordinary course4 ,the conditions which we must ensure of quality of workmanship and execution1 under close inspection and within reach of one's own supervision1 are not easily attained2 and1 though as a matter of course readily promised and undertaken by all ship-builders1 they are rarely secured4 ,it is essential also that the ship should be built where the engines can be readily fixed on board before launching1 and in a yard which can be devoted to the purposes of the ship1 and whence the launching can be effected with the engines and boilers on board4 ,all these are conditions not easily secured4 ,i have been in communication with one or two parties1 and the result is a tender from ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 which ,i enclose1 and which has in fact been framed upon my calculations4 ,owing to the recent rise in iron it is somewhat1 but not materially1 above the amount at which ,i had originally estimated the vessels2 but the tender1 founded upon the supposition of two such vessels being ultimately ordered1 is as nearly as may be the same as my original estimate1 and upon the whole ,i consider the tenders both for engines and ships very satisfactory and confirming fully our previous calculations4 ,these tenders do not include1 in the case of the engines1 either the screw itself or the paddle wheels1 nor1 in the case of the vessel1 the cabin fittings1 masts1 and rigging1 boats1 or stores4 ,i should estimate these roughly at #ej1jjjl4 more1--at least such an allowance ought to be ample2 but these details will require a great deal of consideration1 and could not be included in the original contracts2 while at the same time they can mostly be better and more economically supplied by competition or by arrangement with the special makers of the respective articles4444 ,during the next six months ,mr4 ,brunel was engaged in preparing the formal contracts and specifications4 ,these documents were settled with much care1 and after frequent communications with the contractors1 who consented to the insertion of clauses which gave the full control and supervision over every part of the work to the ,engineer1 with very large powers of interpretation4 ,they required1 however1 that1 should ,mr4 ,brunel cease to act as ,engineer1 any disputed point should be settled by arbitration1 and not by his successor4 ,besides the delay occasioned by the magnitude and novelty of the undertaking1 there were other difficulties which helped to postpone the commencement of the works4 ,the ,directors were unable1 under their charter1 to enter into any contracts until a certain amount of their capital was actually paid up2 and1 as several shareholders had retired when the change of plans was determined upon1 it was no easy work to get the shares taken4 ,that this was eventually accomplished was due mainly to the exertions of ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,charles ,geach1 one of the ,directors4#adf #8,could ,i have foreseen1' ,mr4 ,brunel writes1 #8the work ,i have had to go through1 ,i would never have entered upon it2 but ,i never flinch when ,i have once begun1 and do it we will4' ,several times they nearly broke down1 but at length the contracts were signed1 and on the same day1 ,december #bb1 ,mr4 ,brunel gave the formal notice to the contractors to proceed with the works4 #8,after two years' exertions 7he wrote71 #8we are set going1 the contracts entered into1 and the work commenced4' ,extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's ,memoranda1 ,a4,d4 #aheb-ahec4 ,july #aa1 #aheb4--,the dimensions ,i commenced with in ,march last1 of #fej #gj #cj appear after all to be not far wrong1 according to present views4 ,i make them now #gjj #gj #bd about2 but much depends upon the last dimension1 the draught4 ,if another foot or two can be safely taken it will be of great advantage4444 ,with this size of vessel1 having a midship section of about #a1hjj1 and a length of #gjj1 ,i assume a nominal horse-power of about #b1ejj4 ,the first question of importance is1 in what proportion shall this be divided between the screw and paddles8444 ,my present impression is to halve the power between the two4 ,in both the engines every known means must be adopted to secure efficiency3--#a1 ,an excess of boiler power2 #b1 expansion permanently1 say at 2 #c1 steam of not less pressure than #bj lbs41 and ,i should prefer #be lbs42 #d1 that cylinders1 particularly top and bottom1 slide chest1 and steam pipes1 be all jacketed1 and the jacket supplied with steam from an auxiliary boiler of at least #aj lbs4 more pressure than that of main boilers2 and it would be very desirable to make some experiments to determine whether it is not worth having a heating apparatus to heat the steam immediately before it enters the cylinders4#adg ,july #ag4--;,after a long conference with ,mr4 ,field1 ,i continue of the opinion that it would be well to apply about three-fifths of the power to the screw and two-fifths to the paddles1 and probably1 as the vessel gets light1 diminishing a little the expenditure of power on the paddles1 and keeping up the full power on the screw4 ,mr4 ,field is not in favour of increasing the pressure of steam beyond #ab lbs4 or #ae lbs41 on the ground that all the mechanical difficulties increase rapidly without a corresponding advantage1 particularly where size and weight are not so important4 ,there seems much truth in this4444 ,the possible advantages of a slight increase are not sufficient to justify the risk of the possible new difficulties in a work on so large a scale4 ,nothing uncertain must be risked4 ,these arguments do not apply to the jacketing and heating1 which ,mr4 ,field also deprecated1 or rather discouraged1 simply on the ground of the trouble and difficulty of effecting it1 but he admitted that all experience went to show the advantages of it2 and as to the difficulties1 which ,i could not see1 they involve no other risk than that of being useless3 they cannot do mischief4 ,the heating of the top and bottom of the cylinders1 ,i think1 must be particularly important in a short-stroked engine working expansively4 ,in a cylinder of #hj inches diameter and #dj inches stroke1 having regard to the time of contact1 the area of the bottom will be nearly equal in effect to the surface of the cylinder4 ,july #ai4--;,after much consideration1 ,i think ,i feel satisfied that the best construction will be to have strong bulkheads every #cj feet or thereabouts1 this distance being dependent on what is required for one set of boilers and its stock of coals2 these bulkheads being carried right up wherever practicable--,i think every alternate one may be--and then place the main ribs of the ship1 and even at least two main deck beams1 longitudinal instead of transverse4 ,february #b1 #ahec4--,several drafts of ships have been made and much consideration given to the subject1 and frequent discussions with various parties4 ,the result of all is that my present views are as follows3-- ,the ship1 all iron1 double bottom1 and sides up to water line1 with ribs longitudinal like the ,britannia tube4 ,i have not been able to devise any good mode of determining the relative amount of friction of a copper and an iron surface2 and1 although ,i believe in copper1 it would not do to act on mere belief4 ,i therefore at present settle iron1 the surface being carefully made smooth4 ,doubts have come across me also as to whether with a very long surface the difference between the smoothness will so much affect the total resistance4 ,is not a film of water1 after a certain distance1 carried with the body8 and1 if so1 its greater or less roughness1 if not producing currents1 is almost unimportant4 ,would there be any difference in the resistance of a fine file or a rough one drawn through tallow1 if they both covered themselves with grease8 ,is there any similarity8 ,as to size1 if we are to go round the world1#adh ,i do not think we can do with less than--length1 #gcj2 beam1 #he2 draught deep1 #cd2 and ,i assume a nominal horse-power of engines equal to #a of the sectional area at #cj feet2 but1 taking consumption as a better measure1 and assuming that every possible economy is practised1 and every refinement introduced that can produce economy1 ,i shall assume #g lbs4 per hour per nominal horse-power1 or say #jjh ton per day per horse-power2 and as ,i assume the horse-power to be #a sectional area1 it makes the consumption #ja ton per day per foot of sectional area4 ,and this is a very large allowance and ought to ensure a very high speed4 ,in order to effect the utmost economy1 ,i should work up to #bj lbs4 steam 7calling it #af lbs471 cutting off certainly at the stroke1 and adopting every precaution to keep the steam hot and the condenser cool4 ,the latter depends1 ,i believe1 solely upon the perfect dispersion of the injection water1 so that the condensation of the steam may take place suddenly1 otherwise the same amount of water may condense the steam in time1 the same amount of heat be given off1 the same quantity of injection water used1 and yet the condenser be always full of steam at a good pressure4 ,it might be well worth the experiment to try the effect of a large injection at the moment of the exhaust port being opened2 but above all things ,i believe the heating of the steam to be important2 and for this purpose ,i should jacket the steam pipes and cylinders top and bottom1 and heat with high pressure steam1 say at #fj lbs4--,i have increased this pressure the more ,i think of it2 #fj lbs4 would be above #cjj degrees1 and #bj lbs4 not quite #bfj degrees2 therefore there would be a full #dj degrees of surplus to ensure the temperature4 ,i have a great tendency to believe in the advantage of further heating even1 which might be done by a ,perkins' arrangement of hot water2 but possibly the new conditions1 as regards oiling1 c41 might involve difficulties not desirable to introduce in this case4 ,in the boilers it will also be necessary to adopt every refinement which has been found really to answer1 although not always adopted2 above all1 every means of keeping them clean--scum pans1 and ,field's exchanging apparatus4 ,but what would be even more effectual would be some easy means of removing a whole bundle of tubes and replacing them by clean ones2 and surely this would not be difficult1 the tubes being large and with plenty of space1 so that a man could pass his arm between4 ,a rather important addition to boilers would also be a means of blowing off without noise4 ,several modes would seem to be possible1 but whatever plan is adopted1 it should be one which is completely self-acting1 and perfectly effectual when used suddenly and without any preparation1 and at a moment of confusion and alarm4 ,blowing through a wire gauze pipe would probably be as likely a way as any4#adi ,the more consideration ,i give to the subject the more disposed ,i am to adopt oscillating engines for both screw and paddles4 ,the extreme simplicity and small number of parts1 and compactness1 and the direct action of every resistance to the force which it is wanted to resist1 seem to leave nothing to be desired1 and would seem to make it a better and more mechanical arrangement of a cylinder and crank than any other1 quite independently of the object for which it was originally designed1 which was simply #8stumpiness4' ,february #ba4--,the original line 7to ,calcutta7 seems likely1 after all1 as usual with most original ideas1 to be the best2 at all events1 so good that the vessel must be built to be able to go there4 ,the dimensions best fitted for this would seem to be--length1 #gjj feet2 beam1 #he feet2 depth of hold1 #eh feet2 screw1 #bd feet2 paddle #fj feet4 ,if arranged for ,calcutta1 we must arrive there on an even keel1 and therefore1 to maintain the most equal level for the paddles1 they must be kept well forward1 and the change principally at the stern4 ,engines indicated horse-power #h1jjj2 steam at #be lbs42 auxiliary steam at #fj lbs4 ,the ship to be lighted with gas1 to be thoroughly ventilated by mechanical means1 having large air trunks1 with small pipes and valves to each cabin1 with the means of warming this air in cold latitudes and seasons1 and cooling it in the more frequent cases of hot climates4 ,the ship must be steered from the forecastle1 whence a perfect look-out must be kept with fixed telescope1 c41 and speaking pipes and bells to the engine rooms4 ,march #ad4--;,at a meeting of the ,committee1 held this evening here1 the several costs and qualities of four different sizes of ships1 of which all the calculations had been made by me1 namely3-- ,no4 ,length ,breadth ,mid4 ,sec4 ,draught #a #ffc #gii #a1fdf #bd #b #fcd #gfci #a1fdj #be #c #fji #gce #a1fci #bf #d #gcj #hg #b1jij #bh were discussed1 and the ,no4 #a determined upon as the best under all the circumstances4 ,i should propose1 therefore1 to make the dimensions of ,no4 #a3--length1 #fhj feet2 beam1 #ha feet1 to be swelled to #hc feet2 extreme draught1 #cj feet2 mean1 #bd feet2 daily consumption1 say #bjj tons4 ,this ship can carry her coal to ,calcutta1 and arrive and leave with only #ba feet #f inches draught1 having #i days' coal and #c1jjj tons cargo2 or she could first go to ,australia and back1 without or with very little cargo out1 and consequently would take out as much cargo as you might choose to send coal for her to ,australia4444 ,these dimensions are worked out in the design ,no4 #e 7,april #i1 #ahec71 but they would be better for a slight increase1 if the #hc feet were made #he feet1 and the #fhj feet were made #gjj4 ,we should have an increase in capacity of #hc #fhjef1ddj to #he #gjjei1ejj1 or #f per cent4 of displacement4 ,this would bring the displacement at #cb feet draught up to #ca1bej tons4 ,march #bb4--,settled the various dimensions of scantlings with ,s4 ,russell to enable him to direct drawings of all details to be got out4 ,april #bh4--,we are now seeking tenders for engines and ship of the following dimensions3--,length1 #fhj feet2 beam1 #hc feet2 mean draught1 about #be feet2 screw engine1 indicated horse-power #d1jjj2 nominal horse-power1 #a1fjj2 paddle1 indicated horse-power1 #b1fjj2 nominal horse-power1 #a1jjj2 to work with steam #ae lbs4 to #be lbs42 speed of screw1 #de to #ee revolutions2 paddle1 #aj to #ab4 ,among the details of improvements still to be considered are the receiving through measures the coal from the bunkers1 and running it on tramways and waggons to the front of the fires1 thus at the same time measuring out accurately the hourly consumption1 and saving labour2 but a still more important object1 the use of clean water--that is1 using the same water over again--is well worth considering2 and it is well worth the experiment1 whether cooling down the water of condensation to use again is not in fact the easiest way4 ,with an unlimited supply of cooling water this ought to be easy4 ,august #g4--,memoranda for engines4--,very sensitive governors to be applied to both engines to prevent running away4 ,november #ah4--;,it is curious that the above should be the last memorandum1 as ,i now open the book to make the same in consequence of the accident to the #8,agamemnon4'#aej ,there can be no reason why a sensitive governor should not act in less than one revolution of the crank1 and act upon a tumbler which should shut off instantly the expansion valve4 ,there should be two such governors1 one to each end of the crank shaft1 and they should work direct from a spur wheel from the shaft without any intermediate shafting1 to give elasticity1 or to risk breaking4 7,query1 hydraulic governors87 ,the auxiliary engine and boiler to be at least #bj feet from bottom1 and1 better still1 above load water line1 or so boxed as to be out of reach of water2 so that if the ship grounded and filled1 this engine would remain serviceable for pumping or anything else4 ,the history of the #8,great ,eastern' has now been traced up to the date of the contracts for the construction of the ship and her engines4 ,the following selections from ,mr4 ,brunel's memoranda illustrate the progress of the design during the early months of the year #ahed3-- ,february #be1 #ahed4--,the details of construction1 both of engines and ship1 involve an immense amount of thought and labour4 ,i have devoted a great deal of time to it already1 and yet even the preliminary details either of engines or ship are far from being satisfactorily settled4 ,i have no record of the many consultations hitherto held on the subject1 but shall hope to keep one hereafter4 ,on the #fth inst41 some of the drawings of the ship and of parts of the engines1 having been several times revised and altered1 being ready1 ,i spent the greater part of the day at ,millwall#aea in going again into them1 and settled some parts1 such as the dimensions1 c41 of cranks1 and bearings1 general form of engine frame1 and some of the general principles of framing and plating of the ship4 ,some other consultations have been held1 and again to-day 7,february #bf7 ,i have spent some hours at ,millwall4444 ,discussed the details of a midship section1 the drawings of which were in a forward state2 directed that the cabins should positively be made #f feet #f inches each in the clear1 and the bulkheads made subordinate to this2 found that it could be done without difficulty1 and without causing any mechanical objections in construction4 ,i am anxious to have some approximate estimates of weights4 ,it is evident that large weights may most easily be wasted or saved by a careless or close consideration of the best application of iron in every single detail4 ,i found1 for instance1 an unnecessary introduction of a filling piece or strip1 such as is frequently used in ship-building to avoid bending to angle irons2 made a slight alteration in the disposition of the plates that rendered this unnecessary2 found that we thus saved #dj tons weight of iron1 or say #a1bjjl4 of money in first cost1 and #dj tons of cargo freight--at least #c1jjjl4 a year4 ,the principle of construction of the ship is in fact entirely new1 if merely from the rule which ,i have laid down1 and shall rigidly preserve1 that no materials shall be employed on any part except at the place1 and in the direction1 and in the proportion1 in which it is required1 and can be usefully employed for the strength of the ship1 and none merely for the purpose of facilitating the framing and first construction4 ,in the present construction of iron ships the plates are not proportioned to the strength required at different parts1 and nearly #bj per cent1 of the total weight is expended in angle irons or frames1 which may be useful or convenient in the mere putting together of the whole as a great box1 but is almost useless1 or very much misapplied1 in affecting the strength of the structure as a ship4 ,all this misconstruction ,i forbid1 and the consequence is that every part has to be considered and designed as if an iron ship had never before been built2 indeed ,i believe we should get on much quicker if we had no previous habits and prejudices on the subject4 ,march #c4--,mr4 ,blake of the firm of ,messrs4 ,james ,watt and ,co41 called1 and went fully into the general drawings which he brought4 ,on the necessity of large surfaces he quite concurred with me4 ,the extent to which such a general principle should be carried is of course very difficult to determine2 my idea is that it has never yet been approached4444 ,march #aj4--;,engaged all the afternoon at ,millwall4444 ,settled and signed the drawings of crank and piston rods4 ,went into many details of ship4444 ,the extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's correspondence which follow1 have been selected as containing a definition in his own words of the position he held as ,engineer to the ,company by which the great ship was built4 ,letter to the ,secretary of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company4 ,this letter was written in consequence of a resolution of the ,directors1 asking ,mr4 ,brunel to recommend them a resident engineer1 in order that constant supervision might be exercised over the works1 and frequent reports made to the ,board4 ,the ,directors rescinded their resolution2 but this letter is inserted as showing1 in clear and forcible language1 ,mr4 ,brunel's view of the nature of his duties and responsibilities1 and as laying down what in his opinion ought to be the relations between the ,directors of a ,company and their ,engineer4 ,august #af1 #ahed4 444,it surely cannot be necessary to remind the ,directors that the very unusual stake which as a professional man ,i have been willing1 perhaps imprudently1 to risk on the success of this project--,i mean stake of professional character1 not mere pecuniary risk--must secure a much greater amount of attention to any step1 and supervision of any detail on my part1 than any ordinary professional engagement would obtain2 the heavy responsibility of having induced more than half of the present ,directors of the ,company to join1 and the equally heavy responsibility towards the holders of nearly half of the capital1 must ensure on my part an amount of anxious and constant attention to the whole business of the ,company which is rarely given by a professional man to any one subject1 and1 as it seems to me1 ought to command a proportionate degree of confidence1 or rather command entire confidence1 in me1 if any at all1 for in such a case there can hardly be any medium4 ,the fact is1 that ,i never embarked in any one thing to which ,i have so entirely devoted myself1 and to which ,i have devoted so much time1 thought1 and labour1 on the success of which ,i have staked so much reputation1 and to which ,i have so largely committed myself and those who were disposed to place faith in me2 nor was ,i ever engaged in a work which from its nature required for its conduct and success that it should be entrusted so entirely to my individual management and control4444 ,the ,directors have a right to expect1 and will ever receive1 from me the fullest information and the most unreserved communication upon all points as they arise1 as from one who feels the responsibility of being their sole professional adviser in a very important and serious business1 in which we are all embarked1 and all deeply interested2 but ,i cannot act under any supervision1 or form part of any system which recognises any other adviser than myself1 or any other source of information than mine1 on any question connected with the construction or mode of carrying out practically this great project1 on which ,i have staked my character2 nor could ,i continue to act if it could be assumed for a moment that the work required to be looked after by a ,director1 or by anybody but myself or those employed directly by me and for me personally for that purpose4 ,if any doubt ever arises on these points ,i must cease to be responsible1 and cease to act4 ,letter to the ,secretary of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company4 ,in explanation of the following letter it need only be stated that an elaborate article on the great ship appeared in one of the ,london newspapers of ,november #ahed4 ,mr4 ,brunel's name was only once mentioned throughout the whole of it1 and in these words3 #8,mr4 ,brunel1 the ,engineer of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company1 approved of the project1 and ,mr4 ,scott ,russell undertook to carry out the design4' ,november #af1 #ahed4 ,since ,i wrote to you ,i have taken the trouble to read through the long article in the----1 and am much annoyed by it4 ,i have always made it a rule1 which ,i have found by some years' experience a safe and profitable one1 to have nothing to do with newspaper articles2 but then1 if on the one hand the works ,i have been connected with have rarely been puffed 7never by me71 they have also been rarely affected by misstatements2 as such notices1 when not inserted by interested parties1 are always slight and unauthentic1 and drop without producing any effect4 ,this article in the----1 however1 bears rather evidently a stamp of authority1 or at least it professes to give an amount of detail which could only be obtained from ourselves2 and if1 as ,i think is the case1 copies of it have been circulated by us1 it may acquire the character of being an authorized statement2 and1 as such1 ,i am individually much annoyed by a great deal that is in it1 and by the omission of much that might with propriety have been introduced4 ,what is constantly repeated or implied1 and remains uncontradicted1 is at last received almost unconsciously as fact even by those who have the means of knowing it to be incorrect1 if they thought about it2 and1 although from system ,i have never interfered with newspaper statements1 it has not been from any affected or real indifference to public opinion1 perhaps it was more from pride than modesty1 and therefore ,i am by no means indifferent to a statement which would lead the public1 and perhaps by degrees our own friends1 to forget the origin of our present scheme1 and to believe that ,i1 happening at the time to be the consulting ,engineer of this ,company1 which ,i was not1 and having had no peculiar connection with previous successful improvements in steam navigation1 allowed them to adopt some plan suggested by others1 who ,i suspect1 if even such were the case1 would never appear to share with me the responsibility if any failure should result4 ,of this certainly ,i have no fear1 but at the same time ,i am desirous of something more than mere immunity from blame4 ,i not only read this article once1 but ,i was so struck by the marked care shown in depreciating those efforts which ,i had successfully made in advancing steam navigation1 and mainly on the strength of which no doubt ,i originally obtained the confidence of the ,directors1 which induced them to enter upon our present bold undertaking1 that ,i read the paper a second time1 and for the very reason that ,i have for so many years shunned public writings1 namely1 to escape misstatements1 ,i feel compelled on the present occasion to take some steps publicly to correct those erroneous impressions1 which must be created by a document having the appearance of emanating from ourselves4444 ,the objectionable points that ,i refer to evidently did not strike you1 and that is a strong proof how easily incorrect impressions insinuate themselves unawares2 but ,i feel strongly that a judicious friend would not have failed to do justice to the spirited merchants of ,bristol1 who1 in spite of the strongest condemnation of the plan by the highest authorities1 and the ridicule of others1 persevered in building and starting the first transatlantic steamer4 ,the circumstances as regards the #8,sirius' are coloured so as to be quite incorrect2 and the same friendly hand would not have thrown ridicule1 and that by a positive false statement1 upon that which he at the same time admits to have been the means of almost introducing two of the greatest improvements in steam navigation4 ,a writer wishing success to our enterprise would not have omitted to mention that ,i had a claim to public confidence on this occasion1 for the reason that ,i was at least the principal adviser in those previously successful attempts4 ,and lastly1 ,i cannot allow it to be stated1 apparently on authority1 while ,i have the whole heavy responsibility of its success resting on my shoulders1 that ,i am a mere passive approver of the project of another1 which in fact originated solely with me1 and has been worked out by me at great cost of labour and thought devoted to it now for not less than three years4444 ,the works had been commenced in the spring of the year #ahed1 and the progress of the ship towards completion was eagerly watched1 both by scientific men and by the general public4 ,the newspapers and periodicals of the day frequently contained descriptions of the work1 and statements of the anticipated performances of the ship1 often very much exaggerated4 ,the writers seem to have been quite at a loss how to convey to their readers any idea of her size1 and they generally attempted to do so by comparing her dimensions with those of some of the well-known streets and squares in ,london4#aeb ,in the beginning of the year #ahee1 the longitudinal and transverse bulkheads1 which formed the main framework of the ship1 were completed for nearly #djj feet of the centre portion1 and the plating was being fixed in place4 ,as the general design was now settled1 it was thought that the time had arrived when it would be desirable for ,mr4 ,brunel to describe at some length the nature of the undertaking1 and the manner in which it was being carried out4 ,report to the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company4 ,this ,report was published at the time and excited much attention4#aec ,the paragraphs which describe the arrangements proposed for launching the ship have been omitted1 as they will more conveniently be inserted in the following chapter4 ,february #e1 #ahee4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although the simple description of the present state of the works of the ship and engines1 and of what has been done during the last six months1 may be summed up in a few words1 ,i shall1 in compliance with the request of the ,directors1 embody in this the substance of the several other reports which ,i have from time to time made to the ,court of ,directors during this half year1 and take this opportunity of laying before the proprietors the fullest information upon our plans and proceedings4 ,in doing this it may be difficult to avoid some appearance of repetition of statements previously made2 but ,i have thought it better1 even at the risk of this1 to refer to the objects we have had in view1 and explain fully the nature of the works we have undertaken1 and the manner in which we are carrying them out4 ,the construction of the vessel is the portion of our work which1 without being actually novel1 involved in all its details the greatest amount of special consideration and contrivance4 ,the unusual dimensions1 the general form and the mode of construction of all the parts involved by these dimensions1 the necessity of studying each part in detail1 so as to obtain1 by judicious mode of construction alone1 the greatest amount of strength with the minimum amount of material2 all these circumstances1 and particularly the last1 have rendered necessary a very large1 though unseen1 amount of labour in the preliminary plans and stages of the work2 and1 although ,i had for nearly two years before the contracts were entered into1 devoted a great deal of time and thought to the subject1 yet of course until the exact size of the vessel1 and the general plans of the ,company1 had been finally determined upon none of these matters could be entered into in detail4 ,much time has consequently been required to mature and prepare these plans2 and as ,i have made it a rule from the first that no part of the work should be commenced until it had been specially considered and determined upon1 and working drawings in full detail prepared1 and1 after due deliberation1 formally settled and signed1 the work did not make at the onset that display of progress which might have been made1 if less regard had been paid to establishing a good system which would prevent delays hereafter1 and ensure a more perfect and satisfactory result4 ,i am not prepared to say that the work is in that state of progress which will ensure its completion within the period fixed in the contract2 but ,i am quite certain that if we had proceeded with less system we should have considerably delayed the final completion4 ,i shall now refer to a few of the principal peculiarities in the construction of the ship4 ,in the preparation of the detailed plans1 ,i have carried out fully those principles which ,i originally described as leading features of the construction4 ,the whole of the vessel is divided transversely into ten separate perfectly water-tight compartments by bulkheads carried up to the upper-deck1 and consequently far above the deepest water lines1 even if the ship were water-logged1 so far as such a ship could be2 and these are not nominal divisions1 but complete substantial bulkheads1 water-tight1 and of strength sufficient to bear the pressure of the water1 should a compartment be even filled with water2 so that if the ship were supposed to be cut in two1 the separate portions would float2 and no damage1 however great1 to the ship's bottom1 in one or even two of these compartments would endanger the floating of the whole1 or even damage the cargo in the rest of the ship1 or above the main-decks of the compartment in question1 and all damageable cargo would be stowed above that deck4 ,besides these principal bulkheads there is in each compartment a second intermediate bulkhead1 forming a coal bunker1 and carried up to the main-deck1 which can1 on an emergency1 also be closed4 ,there are no openings under the deep-water line through the principal bulkheads1 except one continuous gallery or pipe near the water line1 through which the steam pipes pass1 and which will be so constructed as to remain closed1 the opening being the exception1 and the closing again being easy1 and the height being such that1 under the most improbable circumstances of damage to the ship1 ample time would be afforded to close it leisurely1 and to make it perfectly water-tight4 ,i have also adopted the system1 to be followed rigidly and without exception1 of making no openings whatever--even by pipes and cocks--through the ship's bottom1 or through the inner skin below the load water line1 and ,i attach much importance to this system4 ,in the majority of cases in which steamboats are compelled to put into port from failure of bilge-pumps and other really trifling defects1 no such serious consequence would have resulted1 but from the difficulty and almost impossibility of remedying at sea any defects in the numerous pipes and openings now carried through the ship's bottom1 wherever convenient1 and without much regard to the danger of doing so4 ,i have found no great difficulty in carrying out this system completely1 and the advantages1 both as regards safety and the facility of remedying defects without delaying the ship on her voyage1 must be obvious4 ,independently of the security attained by the perfect division of the ship into really water-tight compartments of a sufficient number1 so that the entire filling of one or even two of them will not endanger the buoyancy of the whole1 the chances of any such damage as can cause the filling of one of them are greatly diminished by the mode adopted in the construction of the ship's bottom4 ,the whole of the vessel 7except the extreme stem and stern1 the whole buoyancy of which is comparatively unimportant from the fineness of the lines71 up to a height considerably above the deepest water line1 is formed with a double skin1 with an intervening space of about three feet4 ,this arrangement resulted originally from the system of construction ,i adopted1 in which the bulkheads1 placed at intervals of twenty feet1 form the main transverse frames or ribs of the ship1 and in the intermediate space the material is disposed longitudinally in webs connecting the two skins1 giving to the whole much greater strength with the same amount of material2 but one of the most important results has been the great increased security attained1 as the outer skin may be torn or rent against a rock without causing the ship to leak4 ,the space between these two skins is thus divided1 by the longitudinal beams or webs and the principal bulkheads1 into some fifty separate water-tight compartments1 any one or more of which may be allowed to fill without materially affecting the immersion of the ship4 ,besides the main transverse bulkheads1 at about #fj feet intervals1 there are two longitudinal bulkheads of iron running fore and aft1 at about #dj feet in width1 adding greatly to the strength of the whole1 and forming1 with the transverse bulkheads1 being all carried up to the upper deck1 fire-proof party walls1 cutting up the whole into so many separate parts1 that any danger from fire may be almost entirely prevented4 ,the transverse bulkheads being perfect1 there being only one door--and that of iron--in each1 at one of the upper decks1 all currents of air or means of communicating fire may be completely cut off2 and with an additional precaution1 which ,i will refer to afterwards1 besides the most ample means of supplying water1 ,i believe that all possibility of danger from fire may be completely prevented4 ,all these principles of construction being kept in view1 the details of construction--that is1 the arrangement and due apportionment of the strength and sizes of all the plates1 and the mode of fastening them--having been determined separately1 the plates have been made at once of the required dimensions1 and the work has proceeded systematically4 ,this system is the most important1 as securing not only good work1 but affecting1 to a much greater extent than might at first be supposed1 the total weight of the ship2 which1 although the terms of the contract protect the ,company against any excess of expenditure beyond a certain fixed sum1 is yet of the greatest importance1 as will be easily understood when ,i mention the fact that several merely trifling alterations in the modes of arranging the plates and other details have caused an economy of #bj to #ej tons each1 and that the vessel may thus be made capable of carrying #bjj to #cjj tons more of coal1 cargo1 or provisions2 or iron to the same amount may be usefully applied to strengthen other parts or effect useful additions4 ,the details of the engines have all been settled2 and the principal parts1 as already stated1 are in an advanced state of completion4 ,in considering the plans of those engines1 the largest that have yet been manufactured1 ,i have endeavoured to ascertain what may be termed the weak points of the best engines hitherto constructed by the same or by other makers--those points in which experience has pointed out deficiencies--and to provide fully against similar defects in our case4 ,before commencing the boilers1 ,i have taken every means in my power of profiting by the experience of others1 and have collected all the evidence and opinions as to the precise form and proportions which have been found most efficient2 and particularly such as have been found best suited to the combustion of anthracite coal4 ,a very great difference is found to exist in the useful and economical results of boilers1 even of good manufacture4 ,some are noted for the power of producing rapidly abundance of steam1 at the cost of great consumption of fuel2 others have the opposite qualities1 and some combine successfully both those qualities which are desirable4 ,it might have been supposed that all points of such a simple subject would have been long since settled1 and that no boiler would be made inferior to the best4 ,such is not1 however1 the case2 and although the differences of construction are in themselves slight1 the difference of result is often considerable4 ,i have taken some pains to satisfy myself on these points1 and have endeavoured to select and to copy the most successful boilers2 and in order to remove all doubts as to their fitness for the use of anthracite1 ,i have made an experimental boiler1 and1 after numerous trials1 determined upon the form and dimensions to be adopted4 ,in the consideration of these details1 as indeed on all other points affecting the success of this undertaking1 ,i have not hesitated to consult everybody whose opinions ,i considered valuable1 and to bring the result of their opinions in aid of my own and the manufacturer's experience4 ,i have only to add1 that after giving much consideration to the question of the diameter of the paddle-wheels and screw1 ,i have determined them sufficiently for fixing the position of the shafts1 and am now engaged in considering the best form and construction of the propeller itself1 and also the construction of the stern-frame and rudder of the ship4 ,the position of the paddle-shaft1 and the diameter of the paddles1 have been questions of some difficulty4 ,it being necessary to provide for a considerable variation in the draught of water1 though not proportionably so great as with many existing large steamers1 and to balance well the relative advantages of securing the highest average speed1 at all the various draughts1 or the highest speed at a light draught1 and to combine as far as possible the two1 so that the vessel may be as well adapted to perform comparatively short and very quick passages to ports not affording a great draught of water1 as long voyages1 heavily laden1 at a more moderate maximum1 but still a large average rate of speed4 ,although the full advantage of the great capacity of the vessel for carrying coal for long voyages would not be felt in a voyage1 for instance1 to ,new ,york1 or in other short voyages1 yet1 unquestionably1 she would exceed all other vessels in speed and extent of accommodation2 and if it should be found desirable to make such voyages1 your vessels ought to be able to command almost a monopoly by their superior capabilities1 and ,i have therefore endeavoured so to place the paddle-shaft1 and so to construct the wheels1 that they may be adapted to the convenient application of the full power of the engine at a light draught of water and at very high speed4 ,as regards the screw1 the same points have to be considered1 and a choice made amongst the various forms and proportions more or less successfully adopted at the present time4 ,i have always found the reports made upon the results of various forms of screws and propellers1 and the performance of different vessels1 so little to be depended upon1 even when apparently made in good faith1 and the results obtained from good authority1 that ,i have been long since compelled to adopt no conclusion1 unless from results witnessed by myself or by persons observing for me4 ,i have for some time past availed myself of every opportunity that offered of observing and obtaining something like accurate results upon the various points affecting immersion of paddles or screw1 and ,i am engaged in considering those results4 ,i have referred to the subject of protection from fire2 it is one of considerable importance1 and ,i have some hopes that a process1 which has been recently patented by ,lieutenant ,jackson1 may be successfully applied to rendering wood uninflammable4 ,some door panels have been already experimented upon with results which have induced me to pursue the experiments1 and ,i am about to try the comparative inflammability of various qualities of wood1 both prepared and unprepared2 and if we can succeed in preventing the wood producing a flame1 and thus communicating the fire2 with the numerous metallic subdivisions we shall have in the ship1 the spreading of fire1 even from cargo or furniture1 would become impossible4 ,i am also engaged in determining the character and extent of mast and sail to be carried1 as provision must now be made in the construction of the ship for receiving the masts4 ,the ,directors are aware that ,i have been in communication with ,professor ,airy as to the instruments which may be used in such a ship1 to ensure more accurate and frequent observations1 and as to the nature of these observations2 an enquiry into which he has entered with that liberality and desire to assist all improvements1 in navigation especially1 for which he is so well known4 ,several new instruments are now making for trials4 ,sir ,w4 ,snow ,harris has promised to turn his attention to the subject of the lightning conductors2 and as soon as the iron work is a little more advanced1 and while the form and position of all the principal masses are visible1 the subject of local attraction and the adjustment of the compasses will be considered by those most competent to advise2 and ,i am not without hope that the means of correction may be rendered much more certain and perfect than usual4 ,i mention these1 as some of the numerous points which require and are receiving attention4 ,in the last paragraph but one of this report ,mr4 ,brunel mentions that he proposed to adopt a system for obtaining continuous observations in order to determine the position of the ship4#aed ,his first letter to the ,astronomer ,royal1 which is dated as early as ,october #aheb1 explains the object with which he began his investigations3-- ,october #e1 #aheb4 ,you may possibly have heard of a project in which ,i am engaged1 of building some very large steamboats4444 ,among the several requirements1 which it appears to me are involved in such a large project1 is one in which ,i hope for your advice and assistance1 and ,i trust you will consider the subject worthy of your attention4 ,in such a voyage1 where so much depends upon perfect navigation1 and with such a capital at stake1 no means can be too perfect and no expense or trouble must be spared to ensure the constant determination1 with the greatest attainable accuracy1 of the ship's position and course4 ,the determination of her speed1 the effect of winds and currents1 and the variation of her compasses1 together with meteorological observations1 are all involved in this2 and ,i propose to have an observatory and establishment of observers1 whose duty it will be to be constantly engaged1 day and night1 at any moment when anything can be visible in the heavens1 in taking such observations as will determine more or less accurately1 according to the nature of the observations that the state of the weather or other circumstances may admit of1 the several points to be ascertained4 ,now1 the questions to be determined are1 what is the nature of the various observations that can best be made under all the different1 and the favourable and unfavourable circumstances that may daily arise8 what the instruments required1 and what the character and extent of the staff of observers required2 and even whether any1 and if any what1 new tables might be useful for such a purpose8 ,the primary object being to be constantly determining either correctly or approximately the ship's true position1 and in like manner constantly checking the compasses and giving her true course4 ,i will not unnecessarily expose my ignorance in such matters by stating what ,i have assumed to be practicable4 ,i will only remind you that experience proves that in a vessel of such size there will be great steadiness of motion1 and therefore unusual facilities for accurate observation4 ,mr4 ,airy entered very warmly into the subject1 as did also ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth1 the ,astronomer ,royal for ,scotland2 and a long and interesting correspondence passed between them and ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,experiments were conducted1 principally with the view of obtaining a stand for astronomical instruments by means of the contrivance known as the gyroscope1 the principle of which had been already adopted by ,mr4 ,brunel in a level designed by him in #ahbi4 ,in connection with the observers' department1 ,mr4 ,brunel paid much attention to designs of sounding apparatus and means for accurately measuring the speed of the ship4 ,he also intended to have a stream of surface water constantly pumped up through the observers' cabin1 which should1 by its change of temperature1 immediately indicate the presence of icebergs1 instead of the plan of an occasional bucketful being hauled up on to the deck according to the humour of the officer of the watch4 ,mr4 ,brunel made a very curious contrivance for enabling the man on the look-out to keep his eyes open in a gale of wind4 ,this consisted of two sets of vertical plates of tin placed one behind another1 diverging from the direction of the wind1 with a clear wide passage between the two sets of plates4 ,the wind1 entering at the end of the apparatus1 became separated by the first two inclined plates1 and the residue that passed on in the direct line was again subdivided1 so that at the end of the last set of plates there was no rush of air between them1 and a man looking through the aperture1 with his face to the wind1 was in a perfect calm4 ,this was a useful arrangement1 the look-out man's eyes being as well protected as though behind a glass4 ,a glass would not answer the purpose1 as it would become obscured with spray4 ,the unfortunate circumstances which attended the completion of the ship prevented the introduction of these and many other arrangements which ,mr4 ,brunel had originally proposed4#aee ,in ,november #ahee1 the ,directors proceeded to appoint a commander to the ship2 and their choice fell upon ,mr4 ,william ,harrison1 one of the most distinguished of the captains of the ,cunard ,company's steamers4 ,this appointment gave ,mr4 ,brunel great satisfaction2 he found in ,captain ,harrison a warm and faithful friend1 and an able adviser on all matters connected with the completion and equipment of the ship4#aef ,before they came to a decision1 the ,directors asked ,mr4 ,brunel to communicate to them his views on the considerations which ought to influence them in their choice4 ,the memorandum he drew up on the management of the great ship1 and a letter on the duties of the chief engineer1 are inserted at length1 as forming a complete record of the principles which1 in his opinion1 should be followed #8in the use of this new machine1' while employed on the voyages which she was specially designed to make4 ,memorandum on the ,management of the ,great ,ship4 ,october1 #ahee4 ,the question of the principles to be followed in the use of this new machine1 for such it must be considered1 and the character and the qualifications of the man to whom it is to be entrusted1 and the points to which his attention must be particularly devoted1 have long been subjects of deep and serious consideration with me4#aeg ,and the difficulties are complicated by the consideration that public opinion1 and those established and universally received opinions which1 being the result of experience1 cannot be called prejudices1 have to be considered1 and must be yielded to to a great extent1 even when somewhat opposed to sound reasoning1 or to conclusions deliberately formed upon a due consideration of the novel circumstances under which we have to act2 but1 while conceding much to past experience1 and to preconceived opinions1 the real requirements of the case must have the first consideration4 ,thus1 as it is a ship that we have to navigate1 public opinion1 if nothing else1 requires that we should have a sailor of undoubted experience and skill to command her2 but although seamanship may be one of the essential conditions or qualifications for the commander1 ,i think we shall find1 upon examination1 that the work we have to do1 and the duties to be performed1 and the qualifications we consequently require in the man who is to conduct this work1 are so peculiar that mere seamanship1 in the ordinary sense of the term1 if it were to be solely relied upon1 would be even a disadvantage rather than otherwise1 and that we require much that is not necessarily found in the most perfect specimen of a seaman1 and much that is far more difficult to find than the ordinary qualifications4 ,i wish particularly to impress this upon you3 the subject has occupied long1 frequent1 and serious deliberations4 ,i have come to the conclusion which you will no doubt readily acquiesce in1 that our first practical mechanical success1 upon which so much of our financial success hangs 7although others might reap the benefit even of our failure in the first instance71 will depend mainly upon the skilful management in our earliest voyages of the machine we are about to set afloat2 but ,i have also come to the conclusion1 the correctness of which may not be so immediately apparent to you1 that this machine1 though nominally a ship1 not only admits of1 but requires1 a totally different management from that which may have successfully navigated ordinary ships1 and that most of the habits1 feelings1 and sensations1 amounting to instinct1 possessed by a good sailor1 and the peculiar power of skilful adaptation of expedients to emergencies1 which constitute the merits of a first-rate sailor1 have to be put aside for a time rather than applied in the first instance to make a successful commander of the vessel4 ,in navigating a small vessel1 a man has to study the appearance of the weather1 the direction of the wind1 and that of the seas2 to consider the probabilities of change2 to vary his course more or less with reference to any of these causes1 and according not only to the then state of all these operating causes1 but also with reference to the probabilities of change2 and with their consideration his mind is principally occupied1 and it is in the exercise of judgment and foresight in these points that he shows his skill4 ,steam navigation1 and the gradual increase in the size of vessels1 have no doubt materially modified this1 but much still remains to occupy the mind of the commander of a steamer1 with which not only we shall have nothing to do1 but too much attention to which1 from previous habits1 would divert his attention from that which1 under the different circumstances1 will become much more important4 ,in the same manner1 in manuvring such a vessel in harbour1 the ordinary modes would be totally inapplicable2 whereas1 by entirely discarding all previous practices1 and keeping in his mind and making use of the peculiar powers which are at command in this vessel1 and judiciously attending to the immense effect of the vis inerti1 or momentum of such a mass1 so far beyond that of anything now afloat that it becomes a totally new influence1 this machine may be managed by a skilful man with a facility which is not attainable with small craft2 while such a mass would be destruction to itself or to anything that comes in contact with it1 if treated at all in the same manner as even the largest steamers are now handled4 ,another peculiarity to be attended to in the management of this mighty mass is that by no possibility must she be allowed to touch the ground4 ,our ship will be found1 ,i believe1 if tried1 to possess unusual strength3 no combination of circumstances within the range of ordinary probabilities can cause such damage to her as to sink her1 even if she were to be run on sharp rocks with deep water around2 and ,i believe she might remain for months aground1 exposed to the heaviest seas without serious damage4 ,the lives of the passengers1 and even the cargo generally1 will be safe1 almost perfectly safe1 and so far she will be very different from and very superior to any vessel now afloat2 but there will also be another great difference1 although she may remain safely aground1 she will probably remain so for a long time4 ,if she were to ground at high water or where there is a little tide1 and when she happens to be rather light of coal1 and should take in any water so as to deepen her1 no ordinary appliances in the power of the crew will get her off1 or1 at all events1 not without great loss of time1 and at very heavy sacrifices4 ,such an event in the first year of her career would probably ruin our ,company1 as the grounding of the #8,great ,britain' did the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company1 although it proved the good qualities of that ship1 and thus advanced iron ship-building4 ,a sailor will no doubt receive with disgust and as an insult the suggestion of the possibility of his running his ship ashore4 ,we cannot afford1 however1 to rest contented with this expression of feeling1 natural and praiseworthy as it may be3 our circumstances are totally different2 and that which is considered certainly as a serious evil1 but still only an evil more or less serious1 would be to us fatal2 it is no longer a question of degree of injury--it is death4 ,i have had some costly experience2 ,i have had to do with many steamers--several remarkable for their size and their value1 according to the ideas of the time1 and two of them each in their day considered ,leviathans1 more wondered at than even ours1 and exciting much more anxiety on the part of their promoters1 and there was as much care taken in the selection of commanders as ,i ask you to take now2 nevertheless both of these1 to the ruin of the ,company in one case1 and almost every other steamer ,i have had anything to do with1 has not merely touched1 but been aground4 ,not a season hardly passes without a case of even a ,queen's ship going ashore1 although navigated by men educated for the purpose1 with the advantage of every appliance hitherto thought necessary and sufficient1 and with fearful responsibility attached to them4 ,all these are published cases known to the world2 and if the log books of all the steamers were searched1 ,i believe the result would be a list in which the ships that had not been aground would form the exceptions1 and1 in the majority of cases1 the blunder is so gross1 that the most far-fetched excuses of errors of compass and unknown currents1 although in well-known channels1 are obliged to be invented4 ,the real explanation is a simple one4 ,ships are navigated with far too reckless a confidence in the mere personal instinct and skill of those in command1 and in their ability to get out of a scrape in time4 ,methodical systems and mechanical means of ensuring accuracy are far too much neglected1 or rather have not kept pace at all with the great improvements in speed and the power of locomotion which science has introduced1 whether in the construction of steam vessels or even of sailing ships1 and which the advance of the day now calls for4 ,there are no means at present used of taking soundings worth having while a ship is going fast through the water1 or in time to be of any use if the soundings shoal rapidly2 the trouble is so great and the operation so slow that it is not resorted to sufficiently often4 ,the steering by compass is so rough and so coarse1 that no real accuracy is attained4 ,good observations to determine position are taken at too long intervals of distance run1 and consequently are subject to be interrupted for too long a period by what is called and supposed to be continual bad weather2 although it would rarely happen1 if persons were continually on the watch1 who had nothing else to do or to think of1 that twenty-four hours would pass without some glimpses of a star or of the sun4 ,thus with a speed of ten or fifteen knots1 and cloudy weather1 and1 above all1 with that unfortunate confidence of seamen to which ,i have referred1 there is never any certainty just at the time when it is really required4 ,no doubt1 skilful seamen do generally arrive at an astonishing approximation in their estimates1 and the results on the average are most successful1 and remarkable proofs of the skill brought into action4 ,but the instrumental means of attaining accuracy are lamentably in rear of the improvements that have been made in the means of locomotion1 and have not at all kept pace with the vast increase of capital embarked in each individual case4 ,all these deficiencies are1 however1 easily remedied2 the means do exist1 or can be devised1 and might be applied if we insisted on their application4 ,we have seen numerous instances where the difficulties are admitted and grappled with systematically1 and with what patience and skill a fleet has been piloted up unknown rivers full of shoals in ,china1 and through intricate channels with covered rocks in the ,baltic4 ,in our case1 the object to be attained is a vital one to us2 and what ,i most dread is the confidence of our commander resulting from his previous experience preventing his appreciating the peculiarities of the case1 and applying that greatly increased amount of method and system which is essential to change that1 which is now rendered only highly probable by the skill of man1 into mechanical certainty4 ,the man who takes charge of such a machine1 in which is embarked so large a capital1 must have a mind capable of setting aside1 without forgetting1 all his previous experience and habits1 and must be prepared to commence as an observer of new facts1 and seize rapidly the results4 ,a man of sense and observation1 with a good mechanical head1 and with decision and courage1 would succeed without much previous nautical knowledge2 but1 unquestionably1 a man familiar with all that is going on around would be much more competent1 provided he does not allow his habits derived from former experience to induce him to neglect any of the new means of information in his power1 to all which his former knowledge should be made subservient4 ,if much has to be unlearnt1 or rather carefully set aside for the time1 as generally inapplicable in its present shape1 there is also much to be learnt in the navigation of such a vessel2 and one of the most essential qualifications of the commander would be a belief in his want of experience1 and a readiness to see the novelty of his position1 and a cautious and sound but quick perception of the new and powerful influences and new effects of those same causes with which he may have been familiar under very different circumstances4 ,the great mass and size of this vessel must necessarily render it so much less affected by the ordinary disturbing causes of wind and sea1 that1 practically1 little attention ought to be paid to these1 at least not as expecting the ordinary results2 but other effects may be produced which must be carefully studied and learnt in the early voyages1 so that they may be met and counteracted as they have been by experienced men under the present system4 ,thus1 as an example of this class of effects to which ,i would refer1 there is reason to believe that this vessel1 although apparently unaffected by a wind on the beam1 or a cross sea1 which would be very noticeable even with the largest of the present steamers1 would nevertheless have a steady and rather strong tendency to come up to the wind4 ,a certain direction of a cross sea is not unlikely to produce a contrary effect4 ,it is quite possible also that the apparent lee-way1 or the deviation of the axis 7or keel7 of the ship from the line of the course1 will be greater with the wind on the beam than with smaller vessels1 although the actual drift or lee-way may be less2 and all these effects will result from her great length 7unless counteracted by causes ,i do not now foresee71 and will probably be totally different in degree from any similar effects now felt4 ,these effects must be carefully studied1 and with a mind prepared to consider them as new1 for they will be new and distinct from anything now experienced4 ,in the same manner1 and to a much greater degree1 the effects of the speed which we must hope to attain will upset all the usual methods of determining accurately the position and the course of the vessel1 and still more the precautions to be taken in approaching land4 ,a #bd hours' run1 at #bj miles per hour1 without a good observation1 and with a possible error of estimate1 or a doubt1 at all events1 of the exact effect of the set of currents1 or of the speed of the ship through the water1 or of the precise amount of lee-way1 may easily make an error of #bj or #cj miles in position at the end of the day's run4 ,on the other hand1 by almost abandoning the present modes1 and adopting measures which ,i shall point out presently1 adapted to the new circumstances1 a much greater degree of certainty and accuracy may be attained than is now even sought for4 ,i have had the best advice on these points1 both astronomical and nautical3 the ,astronomer ,royal1 ,mr4 ,airy1 who both as a man of science and a practical man1 and by his official position1 is the first authority on such matters1 and ,professor ,smyth1 of the ,edinburgh ,observatory1 ,captain ,beecher of the ,admiralty1 and several other scientific naval men1 have assisted me2 and1 under their advice1 instruments are being constructed1 and a system devised1 which will admit of continuous observations being made with great accuracy at all times of the day1 and particularly at night1 and by means of which also a continuous correction of the ship's compasses with the most minute accuracy can be kept up1 and her position be ascertained with almost the same accuracy as a point on land2 and ,i have their authority for saying that such improved means are desirable1 and are attainable4 ,the importance and advantage of continuous observation throughout the twenty-four hours1 whenever a glimpse can be obtained of any object which will answer the purpose1 and even when the horizon is invisible1 may not at first be evident1 but it cannot be over-estimated4 ,an exact knowledge of the ship's movements will be soon acquired that would almost replace observation1 and the average of numerous observations secures an accuracy which cannot be approached by any other method4 ,by a careful and continuous comparison of the exact distances run1 with accurate records of the speed of the engine and of the ship through the water1 registered by good instruments 7the performance of which has been tested1 and which are being made71 and having proper reference to the varying draught of water of the vessel1 the most precise measure of the speed of the vessel through the water can be learnt2 and by careful observation of the force and direction of the wind1 the effect of any given wind1 and an accurate measure of her drift or lee-way1 may be obtained2 and then1 by adhering strictly1 without regard to wind or weather1 to a course previously laid down on good charts1 having upon them the sets of currents1 as already observed1 the true position of the ship may be determined at any moment1 and there need never be the slightest hesitation1 or any time or distance lost by doubts4 ,in addition to the instruments above named1 ,i hope to be able to provide the means of sounding at moderate depths while the ship is going her full speed4 ,having the means1 then1 of determining the ship's course and position with much greater accuracy than is now practised1 we must seek to make that course1 or the distance to be run1 the shortest possible1 that is to say1 the course which will occupy the least time4 ,the exact course to be taken by such a vessel must be determined upon and laid down upon the charts after a due consideration of all the circumstances which can possibly affect the time occupied in the voyage between any two points1 and particularly by examining and considering well all the information which scientific observers have collected and recorded as to the currents1 probabilities of fogs1 or of ice1 and other impediments1 the chances of meeting vessels1 which must be avoided as much as possible1 the average direction of prevailing winds1 varying such course1 perhaps1 in certain latitudes with the season of the year1 but certainly not with the temporary direction or force of the winds or state of weather at the moment2 for the speed which we shall attain renders these causes of secondary consideration1 and would interfere with all ordinary calculations derived from present experience of the probable state of the wind in the new position which the ship would attain after a few hours' run4 ,the business of the commander would be1 therefore1 to adhere rigidly to the exact course previously deliberately determined upon1 and not to be tempted to deviate except slightly1 and even then only according to rules which he shall have previously laid down for himself4 ,the importance of adhering strictly to this rule cannot be over-estimated4 ,the period occupied in a voyage will be materially influenced by the exact course followed1 and as such course must be determined upon only by a calm and somewhat laborious study of documents1 it cannot be safely determined upon except in the closet1 that is1 before the voyage1 and uninfluenced by the excitement of hopes or by disappointments caused by difficulties4 ,the safety of the ship and of the enterprise may also mainly depend upon the rigid adherence to this rule4 ,with the means at his disposal for checking that course1 and with the method and regularity involved by a rigid adherence to it1 and a correction at once of any departure from it1 a degree of certainty will be attained as to the ship's position which will almost preclude the possibility of an accident1 and which ,i consider practically invaluable as affecting the safety of our vessel4 ,this rigid adherence to an exactly prescribed course will prevent any risk of that which is the cause of the greater number of losses4 ,no inducement of fine weather1 or a happy state of mind and body of the captain1 or a desire to save time1 or to show the beauties of a coast1 or any other temporary cause1 will lead to a nearer approach to dangerous points than had been previously determined upon as safe4 ,the shortest and best route1 the safest from all dangers1 and giving the widest berth to all shores or shoals1 having been laid down1 must be kept to against all temptations4 ,economy of fuel is another consideration of the highest importance4 ,the engines are of power sufficient1 if fully worked1 to consume considerably more than the cargo provided4 ,large as may be the supply which the ship is capable of carrying1 it is no more than that which is calculated as necessary for the voyage intended1 with a moderate allowance for contingencies2 and it must be borne in mind that the ordinary means of making up any deficiencies would be totally inapplicable in our case1 since no supply capable of being drawn in an emergency from other sources would be sufficient4 ,the precise quantity calculated and provided must be made sufficient1 or the consequences would be serious4 ,the usual practice1 therefore1 of going ahead as fast as the engines will take the ship must be entirely abandoned4 ,careful observations1 systematically pursued1 will show the speed which1 under different states of immersion1 can be attained without a disproportionate expenditure of power1 and to this speed the engines must be limited4 ,a little experience will probably show that1 under certain circumstances of immersion of the ship1 or of the state of the sea1 it may be economical to force the screw or the paddle engine1 the one more than the other4 ,this can only be determined by somewhat delicate and very precise and accurate observations4 ,these must be made4 ,it is not merely a question of degree1 but our whole success depends upon the application1 not of one1 but of all these refinements4 ,a close study of the relative speed of the ship1 as ascertained by the self-registering logs1 and by continuous astronomical observations1 compared with the expenditure of power in the engines as indicated by the number of revolutions constantly registered1 and the power expended as measured and recorded by the chief engineer1 will be necessary for some time to come1 and until indeed the management of such large ships becomes as much a matter of rule as it is now1 or perhaps ought to be more than it is1 with smaller ones4 ,as to the use of the sails1 while the engines are nevertheless in full action1 it must be entirely a matter of experiment1 and an experiment in which1 again1 all previous habits and prejudices must be set aside4 ,whether a sail steadies such a ship usefully or not can be1 and must therefore be1 positively determined by measurement with proper instruments1 and not by the sensations2 and the result upon the speed of the vessel as compared with the power expended must1 in like manner1 be ascertained by positive observations and measurements4 ,no past experience can do other than mislead4 ,it is quite possible that the same means which improve the rate of the present large steamers may be prejudicial to our performance4 ,the commander must appreciate the necessity of all this study and attention to what is rather mechanical than nautical1 or our voyage will be a failure4 ,the difference between the peculiar qualities of such a floating mass as compared with those of the largest steamer now afloat1 is likely to be as great as between the last and a #ajj-ton cutter2 and the most prejudiced believer in the acquired skill of an old sailor who had learnt to manage the small vessel in the most perfect and masterly manner1 would not expect him to be able to handle one of the present large steamers1 still less to elicit the best performance out of her4 ,in the same degree the man who takes the command of our ship must1 if he is to succeed1 enter upon his duties with a belief that he has nearly all to learn1 at the same time that this feeling is perfectly consistent with a proper confidence in his own powers to master the new circumstances1 and to succeed with this as he may have done with other vessels4 ,finally1 the commander's attention must be devoted exclusively to the general management of the whole system under his control1 and his attention must not be diverted by frivolous pursuits and unimportant occupations4 ,i believe that even in the present large steamers much advantage would result from relieving the captain from all care of the passengers and cargo2 but in our case1 where we may have to provide for thousands instead of hundreds1 and arranged in different classes1 and living in completely separate saloons and compartments1 the present system of a captain dining at the table and associating with the passengers would be impracticable1 even if it were desirable4 ,but for much more important reasons1 and on general grounds1 ,i think that while the commander is of course supreme over every department1 he should not be embarrassed by undertaking any one1 still less should he have his mind occupied with the troublesome and frivolous concerns of a vast hotel1 nor should he be hampered by the necessity of attending to the hours and the forms of a large society4 ,moreover1 ,i consider it essential that he should by his presence and control keep up the position and the sense of responsibility of the chief officers under him1 by living and messing with them2 the commander and those acting immediately under him must occupy a more dignified position than they now do4 ,the result of all these general views is1 that the command of this ship must be considered to consist mainly in the superintending and keeping up in a high state of order the perfect working of a highly methodical pre-arranged system1 by means of which the ship is to be made to go like a piece of very accurate machinery1 precisely in the course which has been pre-arranged1 and precisely at the speed1 and with the consumption of power1 which has been ascertained to be the highest attainable with the requisite economy2 and there must be a proper establishment of assistants1 competent to control each department of this system4 ,as regards the constitution of this establishment1 ,i consider the commander should have a staff of chief officers or captains4 ,i believe three will be necessary1 with a fourth performing general duties and ready to take the place of any one of the three2 that one of them should always be in command of the ship 7under the commander72 that1 besides these chief officers1 there should be a master1 corresponding to a master in a ,queen's ship1 who would have assistants and calculators or clerks1 whose duties would be to keep the ship's reckoning1 to keep up perfect and continuous observations1 to calculate with precision and set from hour to hour the exact course by compass which has to be followed1 to keep in the course determined upon by the captain1 to keep a series of accurate observations and records of all matters that can affect the ship's movements--duties involving an amount of science and practical astronomical and mathematical knowledge which requires a superior education1 and which is found only in this class of men4 ,the duty of the master would be therefore to supply the science necessary for the conduct of the ship1 and to be the commander's cyclopdia and book of reference1 to be able at any moment to report to the commander the exact position of the ship and her course1 and the variation of her compasses1 and take the soundings1 if any1 to note the fact of a change in the temperature of the water1 indicating approach of ice1 and any other symptom or fact which can affect the ship's movements--all which should be determined by continuous observations methodically and mechanically made1 and not be dependent upon the chance of the commander's anxiety or greater or less forethought4 ,the chief engineer should also be a superior man1 selected more for his general qualifications as a good director of men and machinery1 than as a mere marine engineer4 ,these should form a staff1 and be of a standing to live and mess with the commander2 so that each department should thus be furnished with a chief competent for the special duties of his department1 and reporting to and acting under the general control of the commander4 ,that the principles thus laid down as to following exactly a prescribed and predetermined course1 and as to regulating exactly the consumption of power and consequently of fuel1 and the keeping up a system of what may be termed scientific observation for the purpose of ensuring this regularity1 ,i submit should be rigidly enforced2 and the commander should be required to adopt these principles as the guide of his conduct1 and to use the measures that are placed at his disposal for working this machine in the manner and with the precision pointed out4 ,letter on the ,duties of the ,chief ,engineer4 ,march #ai1 #aheg4 ,the duties which ,i apprehend will devolve upon the chief engineer of our ship will be1 firstly1 the supreme direction and management of both the principal engines1 and all the auxiliary engines and machinery worked by them in the ship2 and as the construction of such a ship1 and of many of its adjuncts1 such as the iron masts and yards1 steering apparatus1 and other parts1 are strictly of an engineering character1 and such as in the event of repairs1 particularly at sea or in foreign ports1 would require a mechanical engineer rather than a shipwright1 ,i think it must be made part of your duty1 as the most competent officer1 to make yourself thoroughly acquainted with the construction of the ship and all its parts1 and all mechanism within it1 so as to be prepared to take such share of responsibility as to the state of the structure of the ship as it may be found desirable to throw upon you as chief engineer1 and at all events to be prepared to be the captain's chief authority and responsible adviser on all matters of mechanical engineering4 ,the principal duty1 however1 will of course be the management of the engines1 including the care of the paddle1 screw1 and other machinery immediately connected with the engines1 or worked by them2 and as the success of the ship as a steamboat will depend entirely upon the amount of power developed by the engines1 in proportion to the fuel consumed1 there is no limit to the degree of attention1 of judgment1 and of skill1 that not only may be usefully applied1 but that must be applied to ensure success4 ,i have no wish to alarm you as to the amount of work or responsibility that will devolve upon you2 my object is rather to show you the opportunity afforded of displaying judgment1 skill1 and assiduous attention1 and thus1 as ,i hope1 to excite your ambition1 when ,i seek to draw your attention very strongly to the peculiarities of this case4 ,in ordinary steam navigation1 whatever perfection has as yet been sought for or attained1 the business of the engineer has been mainly to keep the engines in perfect order1 and to develope the greatest amount of power possible1 and1 secondly1 to effect as great economy as possible in the consumption of fuel2 but the latter has been merely a question of economy in a pecuniary point of view1 and not of necessity1 and has been entirely secondary to the first condition1 so much so that the most successful ships have not been by any means the most economical1 on the contrary1 they have been rather extravagant consumers4 ,in the present case1 the circumstances are totally different1 and it will be essential that you should change altogether your accustomed views on this subject4 ,this ship is built to go round the world with a defined and limited amount of fuel1 which you have no power to exceed1 or rather1 if you exceed it1 at any part of the voyage1 the whole is a failure4 ,the circumstances are therefore reversed1 with this additional condition1 that there is no medium or partial success4 ,in the ordinary cases you have a limited power of engine and an excess of fuel1 in which it is desirable but not essential that you should effect economy2 in the present case you have a limited and defined quantity of fuel to consume1 with an excess of engine power1 and the art will be to obtain the largest total amount of power from this fuel1 expending it progressively1 and in such a manner as to reach a given point4 ,to effect this1 and obtain the best possible results1 will require of course that the engines should be kept in the best possible order2 but this1 although a preliminary condition1 is an ordinary one1 requiring no peculiar duties or exercise of judgment1 and must be assumed1 as on all occasions1 a matter of course4 ,the peculiar duties in our case will be the continuous study in every trifling detail that can effect the result of the means of obtaining the largest amount of steam from the defined expenditure of fuel and the use of this steam1 so as to obtain the largest amount of power1 and the largest amount of result4 ,the mere study of this question must necessarily occupy some time1 and for several voyages it will be a subject of experiment2 but the more rapidly positive information can be obtained1 the more prompt and certain will be our success4 ,to attain success will require a degree of attention to every minute detail1 which it has never yet been necessary or profitable to devote to this branch4 ,the continuous weighing out of coals and measure of the products of each boiler 7for which means will be provided71 the continual observation of the extent to which blowing-off is desirable1 the continuous measure by indicator of the performance of the engines under different pressures and degrees of expansion1 so that you can at all times furnish the captain with the exact performances of the two engines1 and the cost of fuel required to produce given results in each2 so that he may have the means of comparing your expenditure with the results he obtained in the speed of the ship1 and of learning the relative beneficial effects of employing more or less the paddle or the screw in different states of weather1 or different immersions of the ship1 will be required2 and every method of increasing the performance of each gang of stokers1 and of stimulating their skill and care1 and every refinement in each separate branch of the work1 to effect economy of fuel1 or rather1 development of power with a given amount of fuel1 will be necessary4 ,we all know full well how1 if every effort is continuously made and every possible care is continuously bestowed in each department1 #d or #e per cent4 can be saved or gained in many points1 and at many times in the #bd hours1 between the drawing of the coals from the bunkers and the development of power at the paddle board or the screw blades2 and if only #a per cent4 can be thus gained in a few points1 the aggregate will soon amount to #aj per cent41 which with us may make the difference between success and failure4 ,all these things will require judgment1 thought and attention1 rather than labour1 and1 above all1 close watching and method1 and good management of men4 ,besides these more than ordinary duties during the voyage1 the only peculiarity in the service will be that1 with such a costly machine1 the mere interest of money and fixed expenditure upon which will not be short of #bjjl4 a day1 and the perfect state of which is so essential1 you will be required to give more attention to the machinery when in port than is usually required4 ,i trust that this strong but not exaggerated statement of what would be expected of the chief engineer1 will excite your desire to undertake the duties1 rather than deter you from seeking the post2 and that1 if the ,directors should accept the offer of your services1 you will enter upon the duties with confidence1 though with a sense of their serious importance4 ,in the event of your appointment1 it will be a necessary condition that you should be able to commence at once the supervision of the erection of the engines4 ,this work is already much farther advanced than ,i should have wished it to be before the chief engineer had taken charge of it4 ,i attach great importance to his having that familiar knowledge of all the parts and their condition1 which no study of drawings can give so well as actual inspection during erection1 and ,i wish also that he should satisfy himself of the perfect truth of every adjustment4 ,it will be seen from the documents which have been printed in this chapter how #8deeply and seriously' ,mr4 ,brunel had considered all the conditions which were1 in his opinion1 necessary for the economical construction1 and the successful employment1 of the great ship2 but it is hardly possible1 by means of extracts from his correspondence1 to convey an adequate impression of the amount of labour he expended--from the year #aheb to the last days of his life--on the supervision of every detail of the work4 #8,the fact is1' he said1 #8,i never embarked in any one thing to which ,i have so entirely devoted myself1 and to which ,i have devoted so much time1 thought1 and labour1 and on the success of which ,i have staked so much reputation4' ,heavy as ,mr4 ,brunel's duties were in ,october #ahed1 when he wrote these words1 a far greater amount of labour was subsequently imposed upon him4 ,during the year #ahee financial difficulties arose which interfered with the progress of the ship2 and at last1 in ,february #ahef1 although ,mr4 ,brunel had done everything in his power to prevent the necessity of such a step1 the works were suspended2 and they were not resumed till the end of ,may1 after which date they were carried on by the ,company under the supervision of the existing staff4 ,it was greatly against ,mr4 ,brunel's wishes that this was attempted1 except as a temporary measure1 as he considered it impossible for a company to carry on such a work efficiently and economically4 ,notwithstanding all these difficulties1 that which seemed at first only a confused mass of iron assumed by slow degrees the graceful proportions of a #8great ship'2 and the hull of the vessel was completed by the end of the summer of #aheg1 so far as it was desirable to proceed before the commencement of the launching operations4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,steam ,,navigation--,,the #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,,the ,,launch4 ,a4,d4 #aheg--aheh4 ,,tatis #eb4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,determination ,,that ,,the ,,ship ,,should ,,be ,,launched ,,broadside ,,to ,,the ,,river--,,and ,,that ,,the ,,launch ,,should ,,be ,,slow--,,extracts ,,from ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,report ,,of ,,february #ahee--,,reasons ,,for ,,the ,,adoption ,,of ,,iron ,,sliding-,,surfaces--,,description ,,of ,,the ,,ways ,,and ,,cradles--,,and ,,of ,,the ,,motive ,,power ,,provided ,,for ,,launching ,,the ,,ship--,,memorandum ,,on ,,proposed ,,arrangements ,,for ,,the ,,launch 7,,september #bf1 #aheg7--,,letter ,,to ,,captain ,,harrison ,,on ,,river ,,tackle 7,,september #cj1 #aheg7--,,letter ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,operations 7,,october #bc1 #aheg7--,,memorandum ,,on ,,general ,,arrangements ,,and ,,intended ,,mode ,,of ,,proceeding 7,,october #cj1 #aheg7--;,,history ,,of ,,the ,,launch1 ,,november #c1 #aheg-;,,january #ca1 #aheh--,,letter ,,to ,,the ,,directors1 ,,november #bf1 #aheg--,,report ,,and ,,memorandum ,,on ,,the ,,launching ,,operations 7,,december #ag1 #aheg7--;,,floating ,,the ,,ship--,,note ,a3 ,,experiments ,,and ,,observations ,,on ,,friction4--,,note ,b3 ,,letter ,,to ,w4 ,,froude1 ,,esq4 7,,february #b1 #aheh74 ,the mode in which1 the great ship was to be launched had necessarily to be determined before she was commenced4 ,in ,may #aheh1 when the contract for her construction was entered into1 the question was left open1 and the contractor was either to launch her1 or to build her in a dock #8if it be found preferable4' ,with ,mr4 ,brunel's full concurrence1 ,mr4 ,russell determined to build the ship on the river-bank1 broadside to the river4 ,the reasons which led to this determination were fully described by ,mr4 ,brunel in his report of ,february #e1 #ahee4 ,this report has1 with the exception of the parts relating to the launching operations1 been printed above1 p4 #cae4 ,the passages there omitted are as follows3-- ,one of the first points to be decided was the mode of launching the vessel1 which of course would determine the position in which it was to be built2 and ,i wish to take this opportunity of explaining my reason for adopting the plan ,i have decided upon1 which1 being unusual1 might be supposed to be unnecessary4 ,vessels are generally built above the level of high water1 and then allowed to slide down an inclined plane into the water2 occasionally1 as in the case of the #8,great ,britain1' they are built in a dry dock1 into which the water is afterwards admitted1 and they are floated out4 ,both plans were well considered in the present case2 but the size of the dock required1 the difficulty of finding a proper site for such a dock1 the depth required for floating a ship with her engines and boilers1 which it was most desirable to introduce while building the hull1 and the depth of channel required to communicate between such a dock and the deep water of the river1 all combined to render the dock plan a very expensive1 and1 considering the nature of the soil in which it would have to be formed1 a somewhat hazardous proceeding4 ,launching seems to offer the fewest difficulties and the greatest certainty2 but the dimensions of the vessel required some modifications of the usual modes of proceeding4 ,launching is generally effected by building the ship on an inclined plane1 which experience has determined should be at an inclination of about #a in #ab1 to #a in #ae1 the keel of the ship being laid at that angle1 and the head consequently raised above the stern1 say one fifteenth of the whole length of the ship4 ,in the present case this would have involved raising the fore part of the keel1 or the fore-foot1 about #dj feet in the air1 and the forecastle would have been nearly #ajj feet from the ground2 the whole vessel would have been on an average #bb feet higher than if built on an even keel4 ,the inconvenience and cost of building at such a great height above ground may be easily imagined2 but another difficulty presented itself which almost amounted to an impossibility1 and which has been sensibly felt with the larger vessels hitherto launched1 and will probably1 ere long1 prevent launching longitudinally vessels of great length4 ,the angle required for the inclined plane to ensure the vessel moving by gravity being1 say #a in #ad1 or even if diminished by improved construction in ways to #a in #be1 is such that the end first immersed would become water-borne1 or would require a very great depth of water before the forepart of the ship would even reach the water's edge4 ,vessels of #dej or #ejj feet in length would be difficult to launch in the ,thames unless kept as light as possible2 but our ship could not be so launched1 the heel of the sternpost being required to be1 as ,i before said1 about #dj feet below the level of the fore-foot4 ,some mitigation of the difficulty might be obtained by an improved construction of the ways2 but the great length of ways to be carried out into the river would1 under any circumstances1 be a serious difficulty4 ,these considerations led me to examine into the practicability of launching or lowering the vessel sideways2 and ,i found that such a mode would be attended with every advantage1 and1 so far as ,i can see1 it involves no countervailing disadvantages4 ,this plan has been accordingly determined upon1 and the vessel is building parallel to the river1 and in such a position as to admit of the easy construction of an inclined plane at the proper angle down to low-water mark4 ,in constructing the foundation of the floor on which the ship is being built1 provision is made at two points to ensure sufficient strength to bear the whole weight of the ship when completed4 ,at these two points1 when the launching has to be effected1 two cradles will be introduced1 and the whole will probably be lowered down gradually to low-water mark2 whence1 on the ensuing tide1 the vessel will be floated off4 ,the operation may thus be performed as slowly as may be found convenient2 or1 if upon further consideration more rapid launching should be thought preferable1 it may be adopted4 ,i have entered at some length into an explanation of all the reasons which led to the adoption of this plan2 as ,i am anxious that they should be known1 and particularly that it should be well understood by the proprietors and those interested in our success1 that ,i am not adopting any novelties2 unless1 so far as those modifications of the more usual practices which experience points out as necessary to meet the peculiarities of a particular case may be deemed such4 ,i should add that the necessity1 arising from the same causes1 of launching transversely has been felt with long vessels of another description1 namely1 pontoons1 or floating piers2 one of #cjj feet in length1 which ,i have built at ,plymouth1 was so launched1 and previously to this1 one of #djj feet in length by ,mr4 ,fowler on the ,humber4#aeh ,i hope to be able to arrange that the machinery1 which is to be provided by the contractor1 for lowering the vessel down the ways will be also fitted to form a #8patent slip' arrangement for hauling the ship up for repairs2 so that1 if it should be found desirable to do so1 such apparatus may be purchased for that purpose1 and fitted up at the port which the ship will frequent4 ,with the view of facilitating such an operation1 or the grounding of the ship on a gridiron for examination at low water1 a sufficient extent of the floor of the ship is formed perfectly flat1 and is so strengthened as to allow the ship when loaded to be grounded without being unduly strained4 ,after it was determined that the ship should be built on the river-bank instead of in a dock1 and parallel to the river instead of at right angles to it1 the next point for consideration was1 whether the ship should be lowered gradually to low-water mark1 or whether a free launch should be attempted4 ,in a free launch the ship is allowed by the action of the force of gravity to run down the ways at a considerable velocity4 ,in the case of the #8,great ,eastern' there were insurmountable objections to this plan4 ,some of them might have been overcome by mechanical appliances2 but these would have introduced complication and additional elements of risk4 ,in accordance with the opinion which he had from the first entertained1 ,mr4 ,brunel determined to move the ship slowly down the ways4 99 99 99 99 99 ,subsequently to his determination to launch slowly1 ,mr4 ,brunel decided to employ sliding-surfaces of iron instead of greased wood4 ,in ordinary launches the ways are thickly greased1 so that there is between the ways and the cradles a thick stratum of grease1 which renders the friction very small4 ,the conditions1 however1 do not remain the same throughout the passage of a ship down the ways2 for1 when she has moved some distance1 the cradle has been rubbing away and squeezing out the grease2 and therefore the part of the cradle which supports the middle and bows of the ship meets with increasing resistance from friction4 ,another and more serious cause of the destruction of the lubrication arises from unevenness in the ways4 ,the result of the action of the friction between the wooden surfaces after the destruction of the grease is sometimes so great that they become mutually imbedded1 the fibres of the wood being rolled up together to such an extent that it has been found difficult afterwards to separate the timbers4 ,the increased friction due to the deterioration of the sliding-surfaces of grease does not often produce failure in ordinary ship launches1 because the vessel1 while still on the fresh grease1 acquires a momentum sufficient to carry it over the lower part of the ways1 notwithstanding the retardation resulting from increased friction4 ,it was from a legitimate fear of the development of a retarding force due to the destruction of the grease1 that ,mr4 ,brunel hesitated to employ wooden sliding-surfaces4 ,the ground was far from solid2 and the use of piles as a foundation for the ways would not have prevented the possibility of excessive local pressure being brought on parts of the surfaces4 ,the heat produced by undue pressure at any point under the great area covered by the cradles would tend to spread and aggravate the evil2 and1 had any considerable portion of the sliding-surfaces become wood-bound1 the difficulty would have been far less remediable than in the case of an ordinary launch1 where the cradles and ways are throughout accessible4 ,but in the case of the #8,great ,eastern' the space between the ship and the ways1 over a considerable portion of the area covered by the cradles1 was very confined1 and it would have been a most tedious1 if not a hopeless1 task to get at the injured part so as to repair it properly4 ,at the end of the year #ahef1 when the construction of the ways had to be commenced1 ,mr4 ,brunel acted upon his views as to the dangers attendant on the use of wooden sliding-surfaces1 and adopted iron4 ,by this step1 although there might be some fresh difficulties to be encountered1 the disastrous consequences were avoided which might have followed from employing wooden surfaces4 99 99 99 99 99 ,under two places in the length of the ship the ground had been prepared for the reception of the launching ways4 ,these ways or inclined planes were two in number1 and reached to low-water mark4 ,they were placed at such positions as best to carry the weight of the ship without straining her4 ,the ways1 as originally designed by ,mr4 ,brunel1 were each #hj feet wide2 but1 with the desire of spreading the weight of the ship over a still larger area1 he decided to add #bj feet to each side of each way1 thus increasing their breadth to #abj feet4 ,the ship's head pointed down the river2 #ahj feet of the bow projected beyond the forward way1 #aaj feet were unsupported between the two ways1 and #aej feet of the stern projected beyond the after way4 ,the distance from the starboard side1 the side next to the river1 down to low-water mark1 was about #bdj feet2 and the actual length of the ways1 including the portion under the ship1 was about #ccj feet4 ,at the same time that he decided to use iron as the sliding-surface1 ,mr4 ,brunel adopted means for ensuring1 as far as possible1 the even distribution of the weight upon the ways4 ,with this object he did not attempt to make them unyielding1 but allowed them to yield slightly1 so that1 like a cushion1 they might adapt themselves to the under surface of all parts of the cradles with a sufficient upward pressure4 ,the ways rested on the river-bank1 and piles were used to prevent the earth under the edges of the ways from swelling out at the sides1 and yielding more than the ground under the middle portion4 ,the ground having been prepared to the slope of #a in #ab1 a layer of concrete of about two feet in thickness was laid over the area of the ways4 ,on the concrete were placed timbers running at right angles to the ship4 ,these timbers1 which were imbedded in the concrete1 were #a foot square1 with a space of #b feet #f inches between them4 ,across these timbers1 and parallel to the ship1 were placed other timbers1 with intervals of #b feet between them2 and upon these again were laid rails #ah inches apart1 parallel to the ways1 and at right angles to the ship4 ,the rails were of the ordinary kind used on the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,thus the ways consisted of a network of timber resting on a thin bed of concrete2 and on the top of the timber network were placed the rails which formed the actual sliding-surface4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the under side of the cradles consisted of iron bars1 which were laid parallel to the ship1 and therefore across the rails of the ways4 ,these bars were each #a inch thick and #g inches broad1 with an interval of #aa inches between the bars4 ,upon these bars was fixed #f inches of hard wood planking 7see fig4 #ae1 a71 and on this again came the framing of the cradles4 ,tapered timbers 7b7 were driven in1 so as to fill up the wedge-shaped space between the hard wood over the bars and the flat bottom of the ship4 ,on the side next the river1 between these timbers and the rounded part of the under side of the ship1 were driven in separate wedge-shaped pieces 7c71 which were secured to the timbers below by long bolts1 arranged so as to allow the removal of the wedge-pieces when required4 ,the means of unbolting the wedge-pieces was an essential provision for floating off the ship1 as they had to be removed before she could move sideways off the cradles4 ,resting on the lower timbers of the cradle were stout props 7d71 which pressed against the ship's side higher up than the wedge-pieces1 and took part of the weight1 and spread it over the outer part of the cradle4 ,there were similar props 7e7 on the landward side of the cradles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,transverse ,section of ,ship1 showing ,ways and ,cradles4 ,scale of feet4 ,there were #hj rails on each of the ways1 and nearly #fj transverse bars under each cradle2 so that there were #i1jjj intersections of the bars and rails4 ,as the ship and the cradles weighed #ab1jjj tons1 each intersection carried on the average a weight of #a tons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after the construction of the ways was settled1 the amount of power required to move the ship down had to be determined4 ,the motive power was not simply the chains1 tackle1 presses1 c42 but there was also the action of gravity4 ,one motive power1 then1 was not only available1 but was inevitably present2 and1 as the ways were at an inclination of #a in #ab1 the motive power of gravity upon the weight of #ab1jjj tons was #a1jjj tons4 ,the question to be decided was1 whether the #a1jjj tons of motive force was sufficient to overcome the friction2 and1 if not1 then what additional force would be required to do so4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,january #aheg1 immediately upon the adoption of iron sliding-surfaces1 an experiment was arranged on a considerable scale1 in order to form some idea on this important point4 ,two rails were laid at an inclination of #a in #ab1 and upon them an experimental cradle was placed1 weighing some #h tons1 and representing a small portion of the actual cradle4 ,the effect of the friction of iron sliding-surfaces may be summed up very simply4 ,it appeared that the motive power need not1 at most1 be more than would have been given by placing the ways at an inclination of #a in #h1 and that restraining power could not have been safely dispensed with if the ways had been placed at a greater inclination than #a in #af2 as it was observed that1 contrary to received notions1 the friction became less as the velocity increased1 and that1 in case any considerable velocity were attained1 a great force would be required merely to overcome the motive power of gravity down the incline1 independently of that required to destroy the velocity4#aei ,the task of getting the ship from the place where she was built to her moorings in the river divided itself naturally into two parts--the moving of the ship down the ways1 and the floating her from off her cradles4 ,this subdivision of the whole undertaking of the launch into two almost distinct operations is of great importance in considering the manner in which ,mr4 ,brunel conducted them2 especially when it is borne in mind that one1 the moving down the ways1 was capable of being1 by careful precautions1 rendered almost safe2 whereas the other1 the floating the ship off1 was dependent on the successful issue of various minor operations1 in the management of which the fallible human element had a greater share1 and where small accidents1 though1 in their primary effects1 productive only of delay1 might cause irretrievable disaster4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the operation of lowering the ship1 there had to be provided both power to move her and power to check her motion4 ,in floating1 but one force was necessary1 namely1 that required to pull the ship off if she got jammed on the cradles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with a desire to provide for the possibility of an extreme amount of resistance on the ways1 ,mr4 ,brunel designed a complete hydraulic apparatus1 which would have been sufficiently powerful to move the ship down without interruption or delay4 ,it is much to be regretted that he did not persist in carrying out his original intention4 ,in the operation of floating1 chains and tackle were the best means of supplying the tractive force that might be required2 and ,mr4 ,brunel decided to have a very large amount of available power4 ,if the weather were fine1 and the tide at its calculated height1 if no part of the cradles got disarranged1 if the calculations as to the ship's draught of water were correct--if everything went right1 there would be no necessity for any great hauling power2 a few tug-boats would suffice to take the ship to her moorings4 ,but ,mr4 ,brunel determined that in this critical operation of floating he would not trust to good fortune1 when the absence of it might produce grave injury4 ,the power which he thought it desirable to provide in chain purchases for the floating was very considerable1 being equal to a pull of #ejj tons4 ,as it seemed probable that the ship would not require much force to move her down the ways1 it seemed also probable that the river tackle 7as the chains and appliances for hauling the ship off were called7 would be sufficient for both purposes4 ,this being the case1 it at the time appeared right1 in the embarrassed state of the ,company's finances1 to dispense with the more powerful and costly apparatus which ,mr4 ,brunel had proposed for moving the ship down2 there being no fatal consequences to be apprehended from a defect of power4 ,influenced by these considerations1 ,mr4 ,brunel resolved to trust to the river tackle alone4 ,he referred to this decision in a letter to the ,secretary of the ,company written during the launch3-- ,november #bf1 #aheg4 ,my original intention1 the right one1 was to fit up properly such an hydraulic apparatus as should be fitted to move the ship the whole length of the ways1 and to depend upon the whole river tackle only in the event of her moving very easily1 and for getting her off the ways at the end4 ,from an unwise attempt to economise ,i determined to dispense with the immediate costly apparatus for pushing1 and by sufficient power merely to move the ship at starting or in the event of sticking1#afj and to depend upon the same river tackle to keep her moving down the ways4 ,the experiments made with the trial cradle had shown the necessity of providing a certain amount of restraining force4 ,as will be seen in the description of the launch1 it was only used once1 but it must not therefore be supposed that there was no necessity for providing it4#afa ,the arrangement of the checking gear was the same at each of the ways4 ,attached to the land side of the cradle1 by means of bolts1 was a strong iron framework which held two large horizontal wheels or sheaves4 ,at the upper end of the ways another sheave was fixed in a strong timber framing2 and opposite the middle of the upper end of the ways was placed a large windlass or drum4 ,this drum was a cylinder1 about #bj feet long and #f feet in diameter1 of solid timbers1 strongly bolted together1 and secured at each end in a broad cast-iron disc1 #ab feet in diameter4 ,to a point in the framing was attached one end of a #b-;inch chain cable2 this chain was passed round one of the sheaves attached to the cradle1 then round the sheave attached to the upper end of the ways1 then round the second sheave attached to the cradle2 and its end was coiled round the drum4 ,thus1 as one end of the chain was secured1 it was necessary1 before the ship could move down the ways1 that the drum should revolve1 and slacken the end of the chain coiled round it4 ,round the discs of the drum were wrought-iron straps2 these1 when tightened by levers1 formed brakes by which the revolution of the drum could be retarded4 ,gearing was provided with a train of toothed wheels1 so that the drum could be turned round by handles1 and the chain wound on to it4 ,the following paragraph is from the commencement of a memorandum by ,mr4 ,brunel on the launching arrangements1 written about five weeks before the launch began3-- ,september #bf1 #aheg4 ,it is expected that1 with the present construction of the ways1 the friction and the tendency to descend by gravity will be about balanced2 so that when once in motion no very great amount of power 7at least1 in proportion to the mass to be moved7 will be required to keep the vessel in motion1 or to check it if disposed to move too quick1 or quicker at one end than at the other2 still the forces which may be required either to help it on or to check it1 though relatively small as compared with the mass to be operated upon1 will be very large as compared with forces usually obtained by the ordinary means of rope or chain purchases1 and at the first start1 or after any accidental or intentional stoppage1 a still larger power may be required4 ,the apparatus which ,mr4 ,brunel prepared for performing the double duty of moving the ship down the ways and hauling her off the cradles was as follows3--,at each end of the ship was a powerful chain tackle4 ,one end of a chain cable was secured to a mooring in the river1 and it was passed round a large sheave attached to the ship1 then round a sheave fixed on a barge about #cjj feet from the ship1 and the end brought on shore1 where it was hauled on by a chain tackle worked by a steam crab4 ,the sheave attached to the ship at the bow was slung by chains about #hj feet from the stem4 ,the sheave at the stern was fixed on the end of the screw shaft4 ,these purchases were intended to be good for #hj and #ajj tons respectively1 and were to be able to follow up the ship quickly if she moved4 ,in addition to these purchases1 ,mr4 ,brunel desired to have #8the means of bringing a considerable strain to bear in the event of the ship sticking at starting1 or at any subsequent time1 and particularly at the last2' and he considered that #8nothing under #bej or #cjj tons would be of any use for the purpose4' ,this power he desired to apply to the centre of the ship between the two cradles by means of double crabs and treble purchase blocks on four barges4 ,one of the double crabs was mounted on each of the four centre barges1 and was placed on a platform1 elevated so that the blocks of the chain tackle could pass underneath it4 ,this tackle was made fast to a chain attached to the ship2 and the mooring chain extending across the river was hauled on by the tackle4 ,each of these four crabs and tackle was to be capable of working up to a strain of #hj tons4 ,the strain which ,mr4 ,brunel intended to be able to put on the ship by the river tackle1 in the form of a good continuous pull1 was in all #ejj tons4 ,two hydraulic presses were also provided1 one at each of the cradles1 to overcome adhesion in first moving the ship4 ,each of these presses should have been able to exert a strain of #cjj tons4 ,therefore1 including the force of gravitation1 the power which ,mr4 ,brunel hoped to have to start the ship was #b1ajj tons1 or more than one-sixth of the weight to be moved2 and for a continuous steady pull to keep her moving1 #a1ejj tons1 or one-eighth of the weight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was at one time thought possible that the launch might be effected in ,october4 ,but it was found that it would be impossible to be ready before the spring-tides at the beginning of ,november2 and even then1 when the time came1 there was considerable hurry1 and important matters were1 as will be seen1 insufficiently attended to4 ,the cradles were put together and wedged up under the ship1 and every effort was made at low water to extend the ways as far as possible2 so that1 by moving her further down the slope1 a greater margin might be obtained1 to allow for any falling off in the expected level of the tide1 or for any miscalculation in the ship's draught4 ,in the memorandum already referred to on the launching arrangements ,mr4 ,brunel instructed ,captain ,harrison to superintend the moorings for the river tackle1 and to satisfy himself of their sufficiency4 ,a few days afterwards he wrote to ,captain ,harrison on the subject3-- ,september #cj1 #aheg4 ,i fancy 7,i may be wrong7 that you hardly estimate sufficiently highly the forces that we may require to get the ship down if she sticks at all1 or to drag the cradle from under her1 or to force her off the cradle at the last4 ,she may move down pretty easily1 and the cradles may possibly not stick2 but if she does stick at all1 it is as likely to require a dead pull of #ejj tons as not1 and we must not shut our eyes to the real exact amount of strain which may and will come upon purchases and moorings1 c41 if this force is required and is exerted2 but we must provide for it4 ,the several moorings must really be good for the #hj and #ajj tons respectively mentioned in the memorandum--and we must not rest satisfied with the feeling that the moorings are stronger than any generally sold or than common tackle will effect1 but must apply purchases that will produce the strain1 and if necessary we must strain them to it2 and our moorings ought to be beyond a doubt4 ,we are going to move #aa1jjj tons1 a far greater weight than ever was moved before1 and we must not hesitate at providing a clear pull of #ejj tons2 but bear in mind that #ejj tons clear pull is something much beyond what one is accustomed to4 ,the power usually brought to bear with purchases1 chain cables1 c41 is never measured1 but is very small2 and we must take care and not be misled by comparison with them4 #hj tons is a heavy pull1 and nothing under #b or #b chain will be safe4444 ,these are great strains we have to deal with1 but they must be had1 and therefore we must meet them boldly4 ,frequent enquiries were now made relative to the time of launching2 and the number of applications which poured in for admission to the yard led ,mr4 ,brunel to write the following letter to the ,directors of the ,company1 and it was published by them in the newspapers4 ,in it he not only removed current misapprehensions as to the nature of the proposed operations1 but he also took the opportunity of pointing out that there would be no risk to the ship in the mode of launching adopted1 and that1 although it might at first be unsuccessful1 further power could be applied1 and the ship safely launched4 ,october #bc1 #aheg4 ,the difficulty of replying to the numerous enquiries made respecting the period at which the ship will be launched seems to render it desirable that some means should be taken of giving the information generally1 that it may be uncertain1 up to the end of next week1 whether the ship will be launched on the #crd proximo or the #bnd of ,december1 and also of correcting the erroneous impressions which exist as to the nature of the operation1 which can only lead to the disappointment of those who are erroneously anticipating a display1 on an unusually large scale1 of that which is a beautiful spectacle with ships of ordinary dimensions4 ,as regards the period of the launch ,i have1 for some time past1 calculated upon being ready by the first tides of next month1 and by the unwearied exertions of those on whose assistance ,i have depended1 with the advantage of unusually fine weather1 the principal works required are so far advanced that there seems every prospect of success2 but a change in the weather is threatening1 the time remaining is short1 and comparatively small causes may create such delay as to render it more prudent1 if not unavoidable1 to postpone the operation until the following available tide1 namely1 that of ,december #b4 ,as no mere desire to launch on the day supposed to have been fixed will induce me to hurry an operation of such importance1 or to omit the precaution of a careful and deliberate examination of all the parts of the arrangements after all the principal works of preparation shall have been completed1 should such postponement prove necessary or be adopted from prudence1 everything having been now prepared1 the launch would be on ,december #b4 ,as regards the nature of the operation1 it has frequently been stated1 but it seems necessary to repeat it1 that the ship will not be #8launched1' in the ordinary sense of the term1 but merely lowered or drawn down to low-water mark1 to be thence floated off by a slow and laborious operation1 requiring two and possibly three tides1 and very probably effected partly in the night1 and at no one time offering any particularly interesting spectacle1 or even the excitement of risk2 as ,i am happy to feel that1 even assuming accidents to occur or miscalculations to have been made1 rendering the operation unsuccessful--the ship may stop halfway or not move at all1 more power or other remedies may have to be applied--but no injury to the ship can result from any failure in the course of proceeding in this mode of launching4 ,throughout ,october an immense amount of work had to be done1 and the multiplicity of matters to be attended to pressed heavily on ,mr4 ,brunel and his assistants4 ,with the check tackle he had reason to be content4 ,the chains1 which were the ship's cables1 had been very carefully made2 and1 in addition to the usual tests1 pieces had been taken at hazard1 and were found to bear a good breaking-strain4 ,the river tackle was not so satisfactory4 ,in operations that have to be conducted afloat unexpected delays arise1 and all the work may be suspended by bad weather1 and it is moreover frequently dependent on tides4 ,in the present case the work to be done was not easy4 ,heavy chain cables had to be laid out1 and moorings picked up and connected to the tackles2 one work having often to wait for the completion of another4 ,mr4 ,brunel had determined that each purchase should be tested by being strained to the utmost stress for which it was intended2 but1 owing to the delays which had occurred in preparing the river tackle1 this was not done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a few days before the launch ,mr4 ,brunel addressed the following memorandum to all who were to take part in the operation3-- ,general ,arrangements and intended ,mode of ,proceeding4 ,october #cj1 #aheg4 ,it is desirable that all engaged in directing any part of the work should understand the general course of proceeding which it is intended to pursue1 so far as may be found practicable2 circumstances may modify these pre-arranged plans1 and may compel a total departure from them1 but every endeavour will be made to adhere to them4 ,,general ,,course ,,of ,,proceeding4 ,sidenote3 ,to start about noon of ,tuesday4 ,i propose to commence operations about two hours before high water1 or about noon1 and to endeavour to get the ship down as quickly as ,i can into the water1 and down to within about #cf feet of the bottom of the ways4 ,my object in starting at this particular time of tide would be to get the ship into the water1 and waterborne to some extent as soon as ,i could4 ,sidenote3 ,stop short of end of ways4 ,i propose to stop short of the end1 in order to avoid the necessity of having to knock away all the shores1 and clear the cradle at the evening tide1 when it would be dark1 and to float on the morning tide1 when it would be also dark4 ,i should propose then to stop about #cf feet short of the end4#afb ,sidenote3 ,evening4 ,clear away shores of the #bj-;feet cradles4 ,at low water1 although dark1 ,i shall endeavour to knock away the shores of the #bj-;feet cradles1 or as many of them as possible1 and clear all from these cradles except the unbolting of the filling-pieces4 ,sidenote3 ,under favourable circumstances clear away also all the shores on the port side4 ,if the operations have proceeded easily1 and the ways not sunk much1 ,i shall also knock away all the long shores on the inshore or port side of the ship1 so as to leave less to do on the following day4 ,sidenote3 ,prepare for a further pull at the night's high water4 ,i shall then prepare at leisure to place the barges to get one pull of #cf feet1 or as much more as ,i can 7as ,i shall not hesitate to pull the cradles #bj feet off the ways7 after high water of that night4 ,sidenote3 ,last move at #d ,a4,m4 ,soon after the high water of that night1 and when the water has fallen sufficiently to prevent any risk of floating1 but while the ship is still waterborne1 probably about #d or half-past #d ,a4,m41 ,i shall make the last pull2 and although it will be in the dark1 yet having only one pull to make1 and plenty of time to prepare1 and no expedition required in the operation1 ,i think it may be easily done4 ,sidenote3 ,float on high water1 ,wednesday afternoon4 ,the ship will then be left till low water1 when we shall clear away everything we can from the cradles1 and get all ready for floating at high water on the afternoon of ,wednesday4 ,provided the mechanical arrangements should prove efficient1 the success of the operation will depend entirely upon the perfect regularity and absence of all haste or confusion in each stage of the proceeding and in every department1 and to attain this nothing is more essential than perfect silence4 ,i would earnestly request1 therefore1 that the most positive orders be given to the men not to speak a word1 and that every endeavour should be made to prevent a sound being heard1 except the simple orders quietly and deliberately given by those few who will direct4 ,in a memorandum of #8,particular ,instructions1' dated the next day1 ,october #ca1 there is the following passage3-- ,starting4--,a strain being brought upon all the purchases1 and the holding-back purchase being slack1 if the ship does not move1 the two presses will then be worked2 if she does not then move1 or if1 when moved1 she stops and each time requires the presses1 the attempt will be postponed1 and more moving power applied for the next time4 ,if1 after being started by the presses1 the river purchases are found sufficient to move her1 the operations will proceed4 ,in another part of these #8,instructions' ,mr4 ,brunel again shows that he was not1 as has sometimes been supposed1 under the impression that the friction would be so small that the only important thing to be thought of was to check the ship from rushing too fast4 ,on the contrary1 he foresaw the possibility of her not moving at all1 even with the presses1 that is to say1 with a force of #a1ajj tons over and above the action of gravity4 ,if after moving she stopped1 and then required the presses again to move her1 this would show that the operation could not be properly carried out1 and that the work must be suspended till more motive power was applied4 ,if1 again1 the river tackle were sufficient to move her1 then the work was to proceed1 but the friction might even then be so great as to render it desirable to remove all retarding force4 ,he says1 in another passage in his #8,instructions3'-- ,it is very likely that no checking whatever at the drums will be found necessary1 but that1 on the contrary1 it will be found desirable to get rid of any resistance by overhauling the heavy chains through the sheaves4 ,the best day on which to begin the launch was ,tuesday1 ,november #c1 as it left two or three days of the high full moon spring-tides for the operations1 should they be prolonged4 ,on ,monday1 ,november #b1 the chief work remaining to be done was stowing kentledge or iron ballast on the cradles1 to prevent the timbers floating when the ship should be moved off them4 ,all the appliances were ready1 and1 except the river tackle1 had been carefully examined4 ,this1 as has been already said1 had not been tested4 ,it was now for ,mr4 ,brunel to consider whether1 in consequence of the river tackle not having been properly tested1 he should postpone the launch till the following month4 ,it was most important for the ,company that the ship should be afloat as soon as possible2 and1 as any defects which might exist in the river tackle would almost certainly declare themselves in the earlier part of the operation1 when nothing worse than delay could be apprehended1 ,mr4 ,brunel1 after a careful review of all the circumstances1 determined to attempt the launch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the morning of ,november #c1 the work of putting kentledge on to the cradles was completed by firelight1 and the rails were rubbed over with a mixture of oil and black-lead4 ,all the shores and props which supported the weight of the ship had been removed1 and she was now resting entirely on the cradles4 ,later on in the morning the brakes of the drums were tightened down1 and the dogshores were removed from the ways in front of the cradles4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 who had been engaged from an early hour in examining all the preparations1 superintended this operation1 and1 having satisfied himself that all was clear and ready1 returned to the upper part of the yard4 ,by this time it was crowded with people4 ,the ,directors1 contrary to ,mr4 ,brunel's expressed wish1 and without informing him of their intention1 had issued a large number of tickets of admission4 ,a few days before1 ,mr4 ,brunel had suggested that four policemen should be obtained1 thinking that all they would have to do would be to contend with trespassers4 ,the police force actually present were ignorant of the portions of the yard to be kept clear1 and ,mr4 ,brunel had himself to go and assist in ordering visitors away from the neighbourhood of the path prepared for the tackle of the stern hauling gear4 ,the crowd soon became so great that it was almost impossible for the men in charge of the hauling-engine at the stern to see the signals given from the middle of the yard1 or for those in the middle of the yard to see what was happening at the stern4 ,at about half-past #ab o'clock the fastenings of the ship at the bow and stern were let go1 and ,mr4 ,brunel ordered a small amount of slack to be given off from each drum4 ,this was done by men turning the handles of the gearing which had been provided for winding the chain on to the drums4 ,the order was then given to haul on the bow and stern tackle1 and to pump at the hydraulic presses4 ,it is doubtful what amount of strain was put on by the tackle and the presses1 but it was probably not very great4 ,presently a shout from the forward cradle announced that it was moving1 and almost immediately the stern cradle also started with what appeared to be a considerable speed4 ,the men who had been engaged in turning the handles of the gearing had remained leaning against them4 ,as soon as the ship had moved a few inches1 she took up all the slack chain4 ,this made the drum revolve1 and the handles of the gearing spun round very rapidly1 striking the men1 and throwing them into the air4 ,the men who were at the brake-handle next to the gearing ran away4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 who was standing near the drum when the accident happened1 shouted to the men to hold on to the brakes1 and ran to the spot4 ,the men who had remained at the other brake-handle hauled it down with the tackle4 ,a great restraining force was thereby brought upon the ship1 and her progress ceased2 the forward cradle having moved #c feet1 and the after cradle #d feet #c inches4 ,five men were injured4 ,on the death of one of them it was stated at the inquest1 by the foreman of the drum1 that1 after the slack had been paid out1 he had ordered the men to stand clear4 ,be this as it may1 it cannot be denied that the handles should not have been used after the securing chains had been let go2 and indeed ,mr4 ,brunel said at the inquest1 #8,i may blame myself1 for ,i did not anticipate that the handles would have revolved so rapidly4' ,after this accident1 ,mr4 ,brunel determined to wait till high water before recommencing the operations4 ,in the meantime the gearing was removed from both drums4 ,a more important change was also made in the arrangements4 ,when the ship moved1 the men on the four middle barges became frightened1 thinking she was about to overwhelm them2 a rush was made1 and one man1 jumping into a small boat1 shoved off1 leaving the rest to their fate4 ,a report was at once sent to ,mr4 ,brunel that the men were untrustworthy1 and that they would not remain2 and that1 as the barges would be of no use without the men1 the chains had better be dropped and the barges removed4 ,to this ,mr4 ,brunel consented4 ,it would1 however1 have been sufficient to take the men off1 leaving a tug-boat and a few steady men to keep the barges out of the way of the ship2 they would then have been available if required4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 a short time after he had given the order1 ran round the bow with ,captain ,harrison to countermand it2 but it was too late1 as it had been already acted upon4 ,as events turned out no harm was done1 as the centre barges alone would not have been sufficient to go on with1 after the rest of the tackle failed4 ,the result of these changes was that when the operations were recommenced1 the only hauling gear was the bow and stern purchases2 the hydraulic presses were also available to start the ship4 ,at a little after #b o'clock the signal was given to haul on the bow and stern tackle1 the presses being at the same time pumped up4 ,the brakes of the drums were slackened1 but kept all ready for tightening4 ,not long after the strain had been brought on the tackle1 several of the teeth of one of the wheels of the bow steam crab gave way1 and the chief anchor at the stern began to drag1 so that no efficient strain could be obtained4 ,on this being reported1 the operations were discontinued2 and1 as there was no possibility of getting things ready by the next day1 the launching operations were postponed till ,december #b1 the next full moon spring-tides4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as soon as this was known the visitors rushed in on the works1 crowding about the cradles and ways2 and ,mr4 ,brunel had to postpone those investigations which he wished to make at once4#afc ,the whole yard was thrown into confusion by a struggling mob1 and there was nothing to be done but to see that the ship was properly secured1 and to wait till the following morning4#afd 99 99 99 99 99 ,the next day was devoted to an examination of what had gone wrong1 and to the consideration of what should be altered before another attempt was made4 ,at the stern mooring the anchor was bedded into the ground on the further side of the river4 ,the difficulty with regard to the four centre barges was got over by placing the four crabs with their tackles in the yard1 on the landward side of the ship4 ,the four chains attached to the ship1 which had before been hauled on directly from the barges1 were now passed round sheaves on the barges1 and brought back under the ship's bottom to the tackles in the yard4 ,the chief alteration1 however1 was in the arrangement of the hydraulic presses4 ,on ,november #c1 there were1 as has been said1 two presses4 ,two additional presses were now provided2 each of these consisted of two #g-;inch cylinders1 and was equivalent to a #aj-;inch press4 ,with the object of being able to employ the presses continuously during the descent of the ship1 they were arranged to point down the ways at an inclination of #a in #ab4 ,the four presses were placed one on either side of the check tackle at the two ways1 and were supported by abutments of timber-work4 ,these abutments each consisted of four rows of piles1 one behind the other at intervals of about #h feet4 ,the press abutted against the row of piles nearest to the ship1 which were connected by wooden struts to the piles behind them4 ,long balks of timber of various lengths were prepared to transmit the pressure to the cradles4#afe ,the four presses might be considered equivalent1 at their full power1 to a force of #hjj tons2 this was so much in excess of the small force that had moved the ship on ,november #c1 that1 even making every allowance for the advantage of the fresh lubrication in the first instance1 it seemed reasonable to suppose that with this force the ship could be moved down easily4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as the process of moving the ship with the presses would naturally be a slow one1 ,mr4 ,brunel determined to proceed with the operations as soon as everything was ready4 ,on ,november #ai the work was commenced4#aff ,the bow tackle was hauled upon first1 as the forward cradle was more than a foot behind the after one1 and the men at the forward presses were set to work4 ,after a short time the timber backing of the presses began to crack and #8cry out'2 and1 without much stress on them1 the abutments were forced back some #c or #d inches4 ,the mooring chain of the bow tackle also gave way1 although there was not any excessive strain on it4 ,on examining the abutments1 ,mr4 ,brunel saw the cause of their failure1 and ordered the strain to be taken off4 ,the number of piles was sufficient1 but the way in which the strain was communicated to them did not enable them to exert the proper amount of resisting power4 ,this defect was cured by tying the heads of the rearward piles with bolts to the foremost piles4 ,the ship being secured1 each press was tested to a full strain1 and the adequacy of its abutments ascertained4 ,it was different1 however1 with the river tackle4 ,the chain which had parted was an old river mooring-chain of great size4 ,much delay in replacing it was caused by dense fogs1 which made it almost impossible to work on the river4 ,moreover1 there seemed a fatality about every attempt to get a regular trial of any part of the tackle4 ,when1 at last1 a trial took place1 and a strain was put on1 a mooring-chain gave way2 then this had to be fished up from the bottom of the river1 and pieced together1 the accident being ascribed to a defective link in the chain4 ,the trials were1 therefore1 so few that it was only proved by degrees that all the regular moorings were worthless2 although they had large chains which ought to have been good for three times the strain put on them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the stubbornness of the ship on ,november #ai gave ,mr4 ,brunel great anxiety2 not from any fear of being unable to apply sufficient power to move her1 but because1 on continued consideration of the subject1 he apprehended that a serious difficulty might arise1 if there should be a prolonged delay at a particular part of the ship's progress4 ,it has been explained that ,mr4 ,brunel1 with a view of obtaining uniformity of bearing over the surface of the ways1 had not attempted to support them rigidly on piles1 but had rested them on the river-bank4 ,as1 however1 the foundation of the building slip was comparatively rigid1 he feared lest an unequal subsidence might cause injury to the ship1 if she were stopped for any length of time before she had completely left the ground on which she was built4 ,he thought that if the ways sank at this point they would assume a slightly convex form1 and tend to force upwards the flat bottom of the ship4 ,the main part of the ship's bottom1 between the longitudinal bulkheads1 could bend in slightly under a heavy upward pressure2 but this action could not take place at the transverse bulkheads1 as they would not yield without injury4 ,mr4 ,brunel shrank from proceeding with the launch without having in reserve such an amplitude of power as would prevent the ship's being stopped at this critical point4 ,this consideration1 together with the continued failure of the river tackle under such tests as were applied to it1 led him to address the following communication to the ,directors3-- ,november #bf1 #aheg4 ,we proved two of the presses yesterday afternoon up to the full pressure4 ,a third1 the largest1 was proved partially2 it required some additions1 which are nearly completed1 and will be in a few hours4 ,the fourth may1 ,i think1 also be relied on to the same extent1 nevertheless1 after a careful examination of the effects of these strains and other circumstances1 ,i have1 after a night's consideration1 come to the conclusion that our means are too imperfect to justify my moving the ship with them in their present form4 ,the presses would start the ship1 but it is evident that if required to be used constantly1 that is repeatedly1 the piles would become loosened so as to draw and rise2 this again might be remedied by loading1 but clumsily1 and with other contingencies1 which ,i will report1 combine to render it hazardous to depend upon them4 ,my original intention1 the right one1 was to fit up properly such an hydraulic apparatus as should be fitted to move the ship the whole length of the ways1 and to depend upon the whole river tackle only in the event of her moving very easily and for getting her off the ways at the end4 ,from an unwise attempt to economise ,i determined to dispense with the immediate costly apparatus for pushing1 and by sufficient power merely to move the ship at starting or in the event of sticking1 and to depend upon the same river tackle to keep her moving down the ways4 ,the power originally calculated upon for the river tackle has gradually1 step by step1 failed us2 the moorings supposed to be sufficient for certain strains have failed us at one-third of those strains1 another has parted since our last attempt1 and1 instead of full #cej tons of power from this source1 we cannot now depend upon #bjj1 and this1 added to the inefficiency of the pushing power1 would risk the sticking of the ship1 which might occur exactly at a point which would involve serious difficulty to remedy4 ,i am assuming a combination of adverse circumstances1 perhaps not likely to occur1 but quite possible2 and the conclusion ,i am compelled to come to is that our apparatus is too defective1 and that the original plan of a proper and sufficient hydraulic apparatus1 arranged in a complete well-constructed mechanical manner1 to push the ship continuously down the ways1 ought to have been followed out1 and is now the only mode of doing the work safely1 that is1 without the risk of being involved in a difficulty much greater and more costly4 ,i have only to add that bad as this report of our condition is1 it is at any rate the worst that can be made of it1 that nothing whatever has occurred to show that any new difficulty has arisen or anything whatever to create any new difficulty4 ,we could move the ship now if it were wise to do so1 but with great doubts whether our pushing apparatus in its present form1 imperfect and unmechanical1 would continue effective if repeatedly used1 and the certainty that our river tackle is far inferior to what is required1 and also of doubtful and more than doubtful permanency for repeated strains1 it would not be right to commence4444 ,mr4 ,brunel at the same time determined to obtain1 on a large scale1 a measure of the deflection that might be expected from the weight of the ship coming on the ways4 ,more than #ajj tons of kentledge was piled on a portion of the ways #aj feet square1 in such a manner as to give a pressure thereon of about double that which would be produced by the weight of the ship4 ,it was necessary that this test should not be tried on too small a scale1 as a weight resting on an isolated patch would receive support from the surrounding ground1 which it could not of course do if that ground was equally loaded4 ,the ways sunk so little under the test as completely to reassure ,mr4 ,brunel1 and to show that no serious evil need be contemplated in the passage of the ship from off the place where she was built on to the newly made ways1 even though she might be again stopped for some time4 ,he therefore determined to go on at once with the launching operations4 ,the result of the test was very satisfactory to him1 and it enabled him to carry on the work with the same confidence as he had at the first felt--#8that the ship may stop halfway or not move at all 444 but no injury to the ship can result from any failure in the course of proceeding in this mode of launching4' ,shortly before the second attempt to move the ship1 on ,november #ai1 the experimental cradle had been again put up with a view of obtaining some additional data as to the hauling strain that might be required4 ,the deductions made from them were the same as those obtained in the commencement of the year1 and encouraged the hope that the motive power required would not be excessive4#afg 99 99 99 99 99 ,by ,saturday1 ,november #bh1 the four presses had been got ready2 and the river tackle1 though still far from being beyond reproach1 had been got into place1 and partly tested4 ,the brakes were eased1 and a small amount of slack was overhauled on the check-tackle chains by the men stationed on the ways for that purpose4 ,as on the previous occasion1 the pressure was to be first put on the presses at the foremost cradle4 ,arrangements were made for promptly following up the ship if she moved freely4 ,a black board was placed on each cradle for recording the progress of the ship4 ,mr4 ,brunel stood on a low platform in the centre of the yard1 as a convenient position from which to watch and command the operations4 ,a little before ten he gave the order to commence pumping1 and the men at the hydraulic presses got to work4 ,when the pressure came on the timber framing which formed the abutments1 there was considerable noise of creaking and crushing as the several parts subjected to strain came in to their proper bearing4 ,the men soon changed from the large plunger handle to the small one which put on the full pressure2 the timbers of the abutments kept on crying out1 but it was evident that they were not yielding as they had done before4 ,presently1 while the noise of the timber-work was still attracting attention1 the man in charge of the measuring apparatus recorded on his black board a movement of one inch2 the ship was again in motion4 ,she moved steadily1 but slowly1 under the force of the presses1 at a rate of about one inch a minute1 and as soon as the forward cradle had been moved about a foot in this way1 the presses at the after-ways were set to work1 and the river tackle was put into operation1 first the bow and stern tackle1 and then the four middle purchases4 ,all went well with the presses1 but the strain had not been put on long1 when the stern mooring-chain and one of the two chains at the bow broke2 an anchor at the bow had also begun to drag4 ,later in the day part of the moorings of the centre barges also gave way4 ,captain ,harrison set to work to repair these defects as fast as they occurred2 in no way dismayed that1 as he was at work remedying one mishap1 the news of another was brought to him4 ,barges had to be got into place1 the broken ends of cables fished up or under-run and pieced together1 and this often in the dark2 for it must be remembered that the work was going on at the end of ,november1 when the sun rose1 invisible for fog1 at half-past seven1 and set at half-past four4 ,with the exception of the river tackle1 all had gone well2 the presses and their abutments had acted efficiently1 and the ship had been moved easily down the ways about #ad feet before work was suspended at night4 99 99 99 99 99 ,though the progress had not been great1 there still seemed a reasonable hope that1 by pushing on1 the ship might be got down to the bottom of the ways in time for floating her off at the next spring-tides1 namely1 on ,december #b4 ,mr4 ,brunel therefore decided to go on with the operation on the ,sunday4 ,early in the morning the presses and crabs were again set to work4 ,the river tackle soon gave way2 and1 indeed1 there was no reason why it should be superior to that used the day before1 as almost all that could be done in the night was to piece together the broken chains1 and to replace the anchors4 ,the moorings at the bow and stern began at once to drag1 and two of the mooring-chains amidships parted4 ,the hydraulic presses were then the only available power2 and1 although the full pressure was put on1 the ship did not move4 ,this was very disheartening2 it was1 however1 thought that the resistance was due to some exceptional adhesion4 ,every effort was therefore made to get together the means of giving the ship a first start4 ,it was not till the afternoon that a large number of screw-jacks and hydraulic jacks which had been procured were got into place2 they were then screwed up hard1 and the hydraulic presses being set to work1 the ship began to move in a manner very similar to that of the day before4 ,there was not1 however1 much daylight left2 and1 when night came on1 the distance traversed was only about #h feet4 ,the comparative facility with which the ship moved when once started gave hopes that good progress might be made the next day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on ,monday morning the ship moved without more difficulty than when she had stopped the evening before1 and the work went on quite satisfactorily4 ,she continued to move slowly1 and by dinner-time had gone about #h feet4 ,three feet an hour was not much1 but still if it could be kept up it would suffice to get the ship down by the next spring-tides4 ,arrangements were therefore commenced for lighting up the ways and pumping machinery1 so that the work might be continued through the night4 ,the repairs of the river tackle were pushed on1 the ship's anchors1 which had just been finished and tested1 were laid down for part of the moorings1 and some of the chains were replaced with chains lent by the ,government and by ,messrs4 ,brown and ,lenox4 ,when work was recommenced after dinner the ship made a short slip of about #g inches4 ,on pressure being again applied the #aj-;inch press at the forward cradle burst4 ,this put an end to all work for the day1 and it was then determined to replace the broken press and to add two more presses to each cradle1 before proceeding with the launch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the preparations for the new presses were pushed on vigorously1 but it was not till the afternoon of ,thursday1 ,december #c1 that things were again ready for a start4 ,the pumps were set to work and the tackle hauled upon4 ,the ship made several short slips of a foot or so1 and then moved more than #e feet at one slide4 ,when darkness set in she had moved about #ad feet1 in slips of greater or less length4#afh ,on ,friday1 ,december #d1 all was ready early1 and during the morning everything went as well as on the day before2 but in the afternoon increased difficulty was found in getting the ship to move1 and the #ad-;inch press at the after cradle burst1 as did also a #g-;inch cylinder of one of the coupled presses4 ,notwithstanding the delay due to the bursting of the presses1 the ship was moved some #cj feet2 but there was no longer any chance of getting her afloat at the spring-tides1 and the increased adhesion gave cause for the fear that still more power would have to be applied4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the next day1 ,saturday1 ,december #e1 the ship made a short slip2 but1 although the pressure was kept constantly on1 no further advance was made until late in the afternoon4 ,mr4 ,brunel then tried suddenly letting go the strain on the stern tackle4 ,the sudden relief of the side-way strain on the end of the ship sent a tremor through the hull1 which served to destroy the adhesion1 and she slid several inches4 ,this operation was several times repeated1 and although there were a number of vexatious delays from pushing-pieces giving way and other mishaps1 she was moved by the evening a distance of about #g feet1 the resistance due to adhesion being very great4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on ,sunday some of the presses farthest from the cradles were moved down the ways nearer to the ship1 so as to avoid the necessity of using long pushing-pieces1 which required much attention to prevent their bulging sideways4 ,the river tackle now consisted of the bow and stern steam-engine purchases1 and two crabs and tackle1 one at each end of the ship4 ,the moorings opposite the centre of the ship having proved worthless1 it was necessary to lay down new moorings1 and it was found more convenient to lay them opposite the ends of the ship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the next day1 ,monday the #gth1 after the commencement of operations1 considerable delay was caused by the failure of some of the feed pipes of the presses4 ,these defects were not cured till after dinner-time1 when the operations were resumed1 and before dark the ship was moved about #f feet4 ,on the following morning several short slips were made1 and the ship had been moved about #d feet2 but1 at #aj o'clock1 a dense fog came on1 and rendered it impossible to proceed4 ,the next day was occupied in re-arranging the tackle and presses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these were not ready till the morning of ,thursday1 ,december #aj2 when1 on the presses being again set to work1 and one of the chains being as before suddenly slackened1 the ship made one slip of a little over a foot2 but1 on the strain being again applied1 two of the anchors began to drag4 ,as it was now essential to have the river tackle1 in order by shaking the ship to destroy the adhesion1 and by the drag of the catenaries to increase the length of the slides1 ,mr4 ,brunel determined to dispense with the anchors1 and to attach the chain cables to piles connected by framework4 ,these abutments or pulling points for the chains were now constructed on the other side of the river1 opposite the bow and stern of the ship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the launching operations last described1 namely1 from ,december #c to ,december #aj1 were full of incident4 ,nor was the scene wanting in that animation which agreeably interests a bystander1 the more so if he is not thoroughly conversant with the meaning of all he sees and hears1 so that he mistakes a loudly spoken word1 loudly spoken merely that it may be plainly heard1 for a prompt and urgent command4 ,the labourers at the pumps relieved the monotony of their work1 and shook off the cold1 by taking a lively and talkative interest in the progress of the launch1 and echoed the orders given them to pump with the #8big plunger1' or #8little plunger' of the pumps1 or to #8fleet' the press4 ,this and the singing of the gangs1 which were constantly at work moving chains for the repair of the river tackle1 or rolling logs of timber on to the ways to serve as pushing-pieces for the presses1 gave plenty of life to the operations2 and then when the pressure had been got on the presses1 and shouts from the bow and stern of the ship passed the word that the river tackle was hauled taut1 the order would be given to #8let go' the chain at one end of the ship4 ,immediately the rattling noise announced that this had been done1 and1 after a second or two of anxious watching1 the ship slid off1 the timbers1 abutments1 and pushing-pieces creaking and groaning as the strain was suddenly relieved4 ,while the ship was in motion1 the whole of the ground forming the yard would perceptibly shake1 or rather sway1 on the discharge of the power stored up in the presses and their abutments4 ,the appearance of the ship moving sideways in these short slips1 when seen from the ways1 was very imposing4 ,all these somewhat striking surroundings of the operations were naturally heightened in effect1 when the work was being carried on in the early morning or late in the afternoon2 and when the timber-framing and the groups of men at work were illuminated by the glare from the open fires which were kept burning near the pumps and presses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the preparations already described were not completed till ,december #ae4 ,in the meantime ,mr4 ,brunel had been joined by his friend ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson4 ,mr4 ,stephenson had not been aware of many vexatious circumstances which had even prevented ,mr4 ,brunel from making full use of his own staff of assistants4 ,mr4 ,stephenson expressed to a common friend his regret that ,mr4 ,brunel had not invited him down to the ship1 and said that he should have gone down uninvited1 but that he thought ,mr4 ,brunel had reasons for not wishing it4 ,on the state of affairs being explained to him1 ,mr4 ,stephenson said1 #8,i'll go down to him at once2' he did so1 and his arrival at ,millwall was very welcome to ,mr4 ,brunel4#afi ,mr4 ,stephenson agreed with ,mr4 ,brunel as to the expediency of suspending operations until an ample excess of power was applied4 ,fortified by the support of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 ,mr4 ,brunel was prepared to advise the ,directors to adopt this course2 but1 as the preparations for recommencing the work were just completed1 it was determined to make a trial on the afternoon of ,december #ae4 ,the presses were all pumped up1 and the river tackle hauled on2 but1 although the force applied was at least #cjj or #djj tons greater than that which had last moved her1 the ship did not yield1 and the attempt was abandoned4 ,after a careful consultation on the depressing result of this day's work1 it was determined to make another attempt the next morning1 in order to see if any new form of difficulty had arisen2 and that after this operations should be suspended1 and an ample number of additional presses provided4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following day1 ,december #af1 as soon as ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,stephenson had arrived1 the pressure was again put on the presses1 and the river tackle having been hauled taut1 the chains at the bow were let go1 and1 to the great satisfaction of all present1 the ship made a short slide4 ,the record of her movement showed that1 although the adhesion was much greater1 the retarding force of friction was about the same as before1 and that therefore there was no reason to assume the existence of any special obstacle4 ,another short slip was made2 but1 in getting up the pressure again1 a press was burst1 and the work was then stopped4#agj ,mr4 ,brunel's decision to suspend the launching operations at this point was approved at a meeting of the principal shareholders held the next day4 ,his report to the ,directors1 and a memorandum of a verbal statement which he made to the meeting1 are as follows3-- ,december #ag1 #aheg4 ,in my letter of ,october #bc1 which was published at the time in the daily papers1 ,i referred to the possible contingency of the power provided to move the vessel down the ways proving insufficient1 and the operation then about to be attempted being so far unsuccessful2 and1 referring to what ,i considered a countervailing advantage in the absence of risk1 ,i stated1 #8the ship may stop half-way1 or may not move at all1 more power may have to be applied1 but no injury to the ship can result from any failure in the course of proceeding in this mode of launching4' ,the result has been that after moving the vessel nearly half the distance to low water1 it has become necessary to increase very considerably the power which has effected this much1 although it had already been much added to during the operation4 ,this will unavoidably be attended with some expense and delay1 but not considerable1 as the requisite hydraulic presses can be obtained ready made1 and their application is simple1 and the result cannot1 ,i apprehend1 be doubtful4 ,i do not mean to imply that ,i contemplated any such great increase of resistance as probable1 such experiments as could be made before moving the ship having given me good reason to hope for a different result2 but the possibility of it was contemplated1 and ,i refer to this merely as explaining the statement ,i now make1 that the difficulty is simply one of degree1 of more or less power being required1 and that nothing whatever has occurred to create any new class of difficulty4 ,the launching ways1 about which anxiety had been expressed1 and not unnaturally1 have stood perfectly and without any settlement or any derangement by being passed over4 ,there is no change of gradient or inclination in the ways capable of producing any effect1 as has been supposed2 the upper part of the ways having an inclination of #ajbe inches per foot1 and the lower part1 where the ship now is1 one of #ajjj per foot1 a difference too small to be appreciable1 but which possibly by some mistake of figures may have led to the erroneous impression referred to4 ,the amount of resistance upon the ways in their present condition and inclination has now been positively ascertained1 and an ample excess of power being applied1 there can be no reason to doubt the result4 ,i propose to apply that excess by going considerably beyond the amount which the calculation founded upon the results actually obtained would give as the maximum1 and to double the power which has last moved the vessel4 ,memorandum of a verbal ,report made to the ,directors1 and a small ,meeting of the ,principal ,proprietors4 ,december #ag1 #aheg4 ,that after full consideration of all the circumstances1 and assisted by the best advice ,i could call in to my aid1 namely1 that of my friend ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 ,i considered that the only mode of proceeding1 and one which there appeared no reason to doubt would succeed1 was to apply considerably more press power2 that ,i proposed to double what we had2 that ,i believed ,i was able to put my hands upon the requisite presses2 that the river tackle so far as it went might now be considered good1 but that unfortunately we were obliged to take up the principal part of the chains1 which with great kindness and liberality ,messrs4 ,brown and ,lenox had lent us1 and were now peremptorily called upon to deliver up2 but that with their assistance ,i could replace them4444 ,a large number of presses were obtained1 the owners for the most part lending them free of charge4 ,among these presses was the large one1 with a #bj-;inch cylinder1 which had been used for lifting the tubes of the ,britannia ,bridge4 ,on each of the ways were placed nine presses4 ,the total sectional area of the cylinders at the forward cradle was #a1jff circular inches1 and that of the cylinders at the after cradle was #a1ceh circular inches2 but the ,britannia press was not to be worked to its full power1 so the total area of the cylinders may be taken as #b1cjj circular inches1 or #a1hjj square inches4 ,the presses might be considered as good for at least #b tons on the square inch2 this gave a power of #d1ejj tons1 which1 with the #a1jjj tons due to gravity1 gave #e1ejj tons1 or equal to nearly half the weight of the ship4 ,the presses were now coupled together in groups1 in order to ensure that an equal pressure should be brought on them2 and to each of these groups an accurate pressure gauge was attached4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all the presses having been tested1 it was determined to recommence the actual operation of launching on ,tuesday1 ,january #e4 ,so much of the water in the pipes had been frozen that it was eleven o'clock before the order was given to the men to pump4 ,when at one group after another the pressure was shown to be one ton on the circular inch1 the pumps were stopped4 ,as the backing of the presses continued to yield slightly1 a stroke or two of the handles had to be made from time to time1 to keep up the required strain4 ,for six minutes there was perfect silence1 and then the ship moved1 sliding down about #c inches4 ,the same process was repeated at the stern cradle once or twice1 and then at both cradles4 ,after this the order was given that the pumps should be kept going till she moved4 ,this was accordingly done1 and when the pressure amounted to #a ton on the circular inch the ship made a slide of about #d inches4 ,in this manner she was moved about #e feet before work was stopped in the evening4#aga ,on ,january #f1 there was a singular change in the behaviour of the ship4 ,during the whole of the forenoon she moved gradually1 yielding to the pressure at a rate of about an inch in four minutes4 ,in the afternoon1 however1 she moved in short slides4 ,during this and the three following days her progress was about #aj feet each day4 ,after this the ship1 being to a considerable extent waterborne1 was moved with greater ease1 and on ,tuesday1 ,january #ab1 #bj feet was accomplished in less than four hours4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by ,thursday1 the #adth1 the ship had traversed a distance of #aig feet at the forward cradle1 and #bjg feet at the after cradle4 ,it was thought unwise to advance further till the coming spring-tides on the #aith of the month were past1 lest an exceptionally high tide might come unexpectedly1 and partially float her4 ,as soon as the spring-tides had passed1 she was moved on cautiously1 a short distance at a time1 and the depression of the ways was carefully observed4 ,this was found to be inconsiderable1 and the cradles were gradually pushed #be feet off the ways4 ,as the spring-tides came on1 water was run into the ship1 to prevent her from floating prematurely4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the upright struts of the cradle on the side next to the river were all removed1 and the wedge-pieces had chains fastened to them1 with the ends brought on deck2 so that1 if any of the wedge-pieces got jammed and did not come out when the ship floated1 they might be hauled out by the chains4 ,the river tackle now consisted of two purchases at the bow and two at the stern4 ,to keep the ship1 when she floated1 from being drifted by the tide or wind1 chains were carried from the bow and stern to moorings1 by which her movement up and down stream might be regulated4 ,four tugs were in attendance to tow the ship to her berth1 and a floating fire-engine was also ready to pump water into her1 should this be necessary owing to any sudden postponement of the launch4 ,nothing now remained but to watch carefully for a suitable tide4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was determined that1 if the weather were favourable1 the floating should be effected on ,saturday1 ,january #cj4 ,the tides had been below the average1 and on the ,friday matters did not look promising2 the tides had continued low1 and the weather was bad4 ,a careful watch was kept on the tide1 observations being taken every half hour1 and plotted on a diagram so as to show at a glance the probable height to which it would rise4 ,the tides showed signs of improvement1 and they commenced to pump water out of the ship on ,friday night2 but1 as time went on1 the weather did not mend1 and the wind was blowing from the south-west against her broadside2 therefore in the early morning ,mr4 ,brunel1 who was in person attending each turn of affairs1 ordered water to be pumped in by the fire-engine4 ,there was hard rain and strong wind2 and telegrams which1 according to arrangement1 were being frequently sent from ,liverpool and ,plymouth1 showed similar weather4 ,this continued throughout the ,saturday1 and the tide was low2 but1 when it began to rise in the evening1 it gave indications of being a very high one4 ,as soon as the tide reached the ,kingston valves1 ,mr4 ,brunel had water run into the ship4 ,although she rested uneasily on the cradles1 she remained safely in her position4 ,in the evening the rain came down in torrents2 nevertheless1 after midnight the weather mended1 and the wind went round to the north-east4 ,as the telegraph gave the same report from ,liverpool1 ,mr4 ,brunel1 encouraged by every sign of fine weather1 and having the good promise given by the high tide of the night before1 determined early on the morning of ,sunday1 ,january #ca1 to float the ship on that day4 ,the pumps were immediately started to discharge the water from the ship4 ,the bolts securing the wedge-pieces of the cradles were unfastened at daybreak1 and the ship was then ready4 ,the morning broke with great splendour after the gloom of the previous days1 and the tide1 as soon as it had turned1 began to rise with unusual rapidity4 ,it had been arranged that all the men should be at their posts at the presses and crabs by eleven o'clock2 but the tide was not only very high1 but exceptionally early2 and1 although a considerable margin had been allowed1 it was not sufficient4 ,mr4 ,brunel and his assistants hurried the men to their places1 the presses were set to work1 and the ship was put in motion down the ways for the last time4 ,at a little before one o'clock observations taken by levels showed that the ship had ceased to descend1 although she was still being pushed forward4 ,shortly afterwards ,captain ,harrison1 who had gone on board1 sent ,mr4 ,brunel word that all the wedge-pieces had floated up on the outer side of the ship2 and at twenty minutes past one the stern was seen to be afloat4 ,mr4 ,brunel had been loath to haul out the ship by the river tackle1 lest the wedge-pieces might get jammed2 but1 as soon as he was informed that they had floated up1 he sent orders for a strain to be put on the bow tackle4 ,this was at once done1 and by twenty minutes to two the bow rose from the cradle4 ,mr4 ,brunel then ordered the checking gear to be secured1 that the ship might be sooner hauled clear of the cradles1 and he went on board4 ,he had scarcely done so when a serious difficulty arose4 ,it has been already said1 that in order to keep the ship from moving up or down stream1 cables had been carried out to moorings ahead and astern2 and both these chains had been hauled up tolerably taut1 at least the slack had been taken out of them1 so that if required they might be at once available4 ,now when ,mr4 ,brunel had given the order for the bow out-haul tackle to be hauled upon1 ,captain ,harrison1 in order to supplement it1 ordered the tug-boats to haul the bow off4 ,this order was by some one conceived to have been given with the object of hauling the ship ahead2 and to facilitate this the stern mooring-chain was let go4 ,by this time1 though the tide was still running up the river1 its strength was much diminished2 and the drag of the chain at the bow of the ship was sufficient to pull her forward against the tide4 ,the paddlewheel on the shore side then came in contact with the upright timbers of the forward cradle4 ,mr4 ,brunel ran down from the ship into a boat and examined the place where the wheel was fouled4 ,he then hurried back on board1 where1 as through some blunder the stern outhaul had also been let go1 he had now little but the tug-boats to depend upon4 ,they were of course of but small value for a dead pull as compared with the chain tackle4 ,he had the bow chain veered out and the tugs all set to work1 assisted by the tide1 to haul the ship up the river4 ,in about twenty minutes time1 the paddlewheel was got clear of the cradle1 and this great difficulty was overcome4 ,fortunately1 the tide was an extraordinarily high one1 and the time of available high water was long4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ship had not been moved far towards her berth when another mishap delayed her progress4 ,the barge of the bow purchase came foul of the starboard paddlewheel1 and the only way of freeing the ship was to scuttle the barge4 ,when this was done it sank away clear of the wheel1 and the ship proceeded to her berth on the ,deptford side of the river4#agb 99 99 99 99 99 ,by about seven o'clock she was safely moored2 and the cheers of the men1 as ,mr4 ,brunel went down her side1 announced that the launch of the #8,great ,eastern' was at length accomplished4 ,,note ,a 7pp4 #cdh1 #cfh1 #cgb74 ,experiments and ,observations on ,friction4 ,in ,january #aheg1 ,mr4 ,brunel took steps to form an estimate of the amount of hauling or of retarding force that would probably be required in the launch4 ,two rails were laid at an inclination of #a in #ab1 and upon them an experimental cradle was placed1 with three cross-bars similar to those which were to form the under surface of the cradles4 ,the three cross-bars therefore made six intersections on the two rails1 and the small cradle was loaded with about #h tons1 so that the weight on each intersection was about equal to that which would come on each of the intersections of the actual cradle4 ,this arrangement was not therefore a model1 but a correct representation of a part of the cradles1 and which might1 with an exception to be noted presently1 be taken to exactly represent1 by its conduct1 the conduct of every similar part of the actual cradles4 ,experiments were made with one or two kinds of unguents1 and1 what was a more correct representation of what was likely to occur1 with the rails and bars clean but not bright1 and without lubrication4 ,the experiments with lubrication were useful rather as comparing the various lubricants one with another than as representing1 by a mere process of multiplication1 what would be the behaviour of the ship on her cradles1 because1 for the reason already pointed out in the case of wooden sliding-surfaces1 the lubrication would be more and more rubbed away as more of the cradle passed over it2 thus the experimental cradle1 when tried with lubrication1 represented rather the behaviour of the front part of the cradle than that of the whole4 ,had the ship herself been moved uninterruptedly down the ways1 the state of things would have been something between good lubrication and none at all4 ,as the under sides of the bars were lubricated1 any motion of one end of the ship before the other would tend to move the bars sideways over the rails1 and so to spread the lubrication1 and to pick it up and re-deposit it4 ,mr4 ,brunel thought but little of the black-leading of the ways1 considering that it would be rubbed off by the leading bars of the cradles2 but a very little lubrication on metal surfaces is sufficient2 and doubtless1 had the ship been moved continuously down the ways1 considerable assistance would have been derived from the lubrication which was applied4 ,the results of the experiment were curious4 ,the generally received notion is1 that friction between rubbing surfaces is independent of the velocity2 that is to say1 that whether a body be moving fast or slow within reasonable limits1 the retardation due to friction is the same2 that if a body be sliding at a given velocity1 whether that velocity be great or small1 a drag of a certain number of pounds will keep it moving at that velocity4 ,it was1 however1 always understood that a greater force was necessary to start a body from rest1 to overcome adhesion4 ,the experiments made with the experimental cradle distinctly showed that any rule as to friction being constant at different velocities was untrue4 ,it was evident that1 as the speed increased1 the power required to overcome the friction became less4 ,no exact records are extant of the experiments made with this experimental cradle before the launch2 they were1 however1 repeated during the launch with great care1 and the results very carefully analysed4 ,the experiments showed generally that the tractive force1 including the action of gravity1 was never more than 1 or less than #a_/ae1 of the weight4 ,although the experiments showed that the amount of friction in the case of the actual launch would lie between the limits above mentioned1 they at the same time indicated that it would not probably approach either of those limits4 99 99 99 99 99 ,shortly after the commencement of the launch1 ,mr4 ,brunel had the experimental cradle and ways re-erected4 ,a very simple arrangement was fitted up1 by which the forces at work at each period of the progress of the cradle in each experiment might be deduced4 ,the results of these experiments1 which1 as may be supposed1 were similar to those obtained in the commencement of the year1 were most instructive2 they showed quantitatively the decided diminution in friction which took place as the velocity increased1 and the amount of that diminution4 ,the apparatus was very simple4 ,the experimental cradle1 which has already been described1 was made to slide down its ways by a chain attached to a suspended weight4 ,the weight employed was generally about #e cwt4 ,after the cradle had run a certain distance1 the weight reached the ground and the cradle proceeded with the momentum it had obtained4 ,the velocity given to the cradle down the ways was measured in the following manner4 ,a long piece of tape was coiled round a reel placed at the top of the inclined rails or experimental ways1 so that it could revolve freely and pay out the tape as required4 ,one end of this tape was attached to the cradle1 so as to be drawn after it as it ran down the rails4 ,the tape1 as it ran off the reel1 passed over a guiding board over which swung transversely a pendulum arranged to swing once every quarter of a second4 ,at the lower end of this pendulum was attached a brush which was filled with paint2 and as soon as the model cradle moved1 the pendulum was set oscillating by a self-acting trigger arrangement4 ,the pendulum in its oscillations made marks on the tape as it ran out at every quarter of a second of time4 ,thus1 by an examination of the tape1 could be determined the exact distance which had been passed over by the cradle during each quarter of a second of the time during which it was moving4 ,the rate of progress being thus known1 and the actuating force 7gravity acting on the cradle and on the suspended weight7 being also known1 it will be understood that the exact amount of the resisting force1 namely1 friction1 could be calculated exactly1 and this for each moment and position of the descent of the experimental cradle4 ,the following results of these experiments were recorded in terms of the corresponding amounts of tractive force that would be required to produce similar results in the case of the ship and cradles1 a weight of #ab1jjj tons4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,force in tons required to move or restrain ship on incline of #a in #ab ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,velocity1 feet per second #j #j to #age #aae #b to #c ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,rails ,,and ,,cradle ,,bars4 ,retard- ing #aaj ,no4 #a4 ,ample lubrication 44 44#fj #j to #bjj ,no4 #b4 ,medium lubrication #abj 4444 #j #fj ,no4 #c4 ,very little lubrication#djj #bjj44 #j 44 #efj ,no4 #d4 ,no lubrication to 4444 #j 44 #djj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,force in tons required to move a weight equal to the ship on similar ways1 but on the level ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,velocity1 feet per second #j #j to #a #ge #a #ae #b to #c ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,rails ,,and ,,cradle ,,bars4 #hij ,no4 #a4 ,ample lubrication 44 44 #a1jfja1jjj to #hjj ,no4 #b4 ,medium lubrication #a1bbj 44 44 #a1jjj #idj ,no4 #c4 ,very little lubrication#a1djj 44 #a1bjj 44 #a1jjj 44 #a1efj ,no4 #d4 ,no lubrication to 44 44 #a1jjj 44 #a1djj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,in every case where a velocity approaching to #c feet per second was attained1 whether the ways were lubricated or were quite dry1 the model1 though there was no tractive force acting on it other than that of gravity down the incline of #a in #ab1 rapidly increased its speed till it reached the end of the ways4 ,these experiments are worthy of note for the contradiction1 already referred to1 which they gave to the received rules relative to friction4 ,it will be seen by these experiments1 and as will hereinafter appear from the results of the movements of the ship herself during the launch1 that with different degrees of velocity very great variation in the friction was apparent1 amounting to a difference of about thirty per cent4 in the case of unlubricated surfaces1 according as the velocity was nearly nil or was #ae feet per second1 which is a comparatively small velocity4 ,the friction in this case was1 on a weight of #ab1jjj tons1 #a1ejj tons at a very low velocity1 and but #a1jjj tons at a velocity of #ae feet a second or about one mile an hour1 the friction at the very low velocity being fifty per cent4 greater than that at one mile an hour4 ,as soon as the ship began to move by slides1 the recording apparatus of tape and pendulum was applied to record the nature of the ship's movements4 ,this apparatus was similar to that already described4 ,the tape was attached to the bottom of the ship under her centre of gravity1 and recorded the rate of retardation of the ship when left to herself after the motive appliances had1 with the exception of gravity1 ceased to act2 and the amount of friction acting to retard the ship was determined with a very considerable amount of accuracy4 ,the best experiments made were on ,december #g1 #h1 and #aj2 and the results are very interesting4 ,the dirt and rust of the sliding surfaces had increased the adhesion very much1 and a considerable force was necessary to start the ship4 ,there being no good pressure gauges to the presses1 it was impossible to decide exactly what was the force required to start the ship1 for of course the tape record gave no information on this point2 but there is no doubt it was considerable1 probably #hjj or #a1jjj tons in addition to gravity1 and was thus far greater than the force to start that had been observed with the experimental cradle4 ,but the remarkable fact was that1 notwithstanding the deterioration of the sliding-surfaces as evinced in the increased difficulty in starting1 the friction1 when once motion was established1 was proved not to be very largely in excess of that which had been exhibited in the experiments4 ,in the various experiments tried1 it was shown that when the ship had a velocity of between #f and #h inches per second1 the amount of friction was only about #ajj tons in excess of the action of gravity down the incline2 while as the velocity became less1 the friction became greater1 till1 as the velocity became smaller1 the friction increased from #bjj to #cjj tons in excess of the action of gravity4 ,the results obtained by the observations made on the motion of the ship having shown that its behaviour when in motion accorded with that of the experimental cradle1 there is every reason to believe that if the ship had ever attained a velocity of #a to #b feet per second1 which might have happened had the river tackle acted well1 the friction would1 as in the experimental cradle1 have become less than the action of gravity down the slope1 and the brakes would have had to be employed to check the motion4 ,,note ,b 7p4 #chd74 ,letter from ,mr4 ,brunel to ,w4 ,froude1 ,esq4 ,february #b1 #aheh4 ,my dear ,froude1--,it is no news to you to tell you that we have floated1 but still you will perhaps feel sympathetically some pleasure in hearing of it from me1 as ,i do in writing to you upon it4 ,we have in fact gone on well and without mishap since we have resumed operations with plenty of power2 we have not gone very quickly because our jumps have been small1 or we have gone by a continuous motion--we have had a great deal of this1 and all the last #cj or #dj feet ,i think1 or more1 has been so1 the power being with gravity about a quarter of the weight1 sometimes less--occasionally1 when the water was high1 considerably less--buoyancy being of course taken duly into the calculation4 ,once1 when still weighing fully #c1ejj tons1 and with #a1bjj tons of water in her1 making #d1gjj1 less some buoyancy of the cradle1 she moved so easily that they came running to me from the other cradle1 to say that she was moving of herself1 and asking what to do4 ,she certainly had not much more pressure on than we had assumed to be necessary to overcome all the friction of thrust timbers1 c41 certainly could not have had above #cjj tons of real push to move #b1jjj #b1jjj tons1 #b1jjj -- ----- 7gravity7 #a1hcc tons4 #ab ,i think that when the load became much lighter on the rails1 that the mud and even the sand of the ,thames form a lubricator and rollers which offered less resistance than the dry rail1 or the rail with pressure enough to displace the mud or imbed the sand4 ,having at last pushed the cradles beyond the rail1 and found her stand well1 and moved a few feet more and still stand upright1 ,i waited for a tide1 and arranged a good communication with ,liverpool and ,plymouth to telegraph up wind and weather1 morning and night1 so as to help in foreseeing a tide4 ,on ,friday morning1 at #c ,a4,m41 the tide began to improve1 but the wind was still in the wrong quarter for a good tide1 and as ,i think ,i have told you the tides of this month1 and of the whole year of #8#eh1 are very poor4 ,besides this1 it blew a gale4 ,i therefore began pumping out the water1 but stopped at #a1bjj tons1 and at #aj ,a4,m41 seeing no improvement in the weather1 ,i filled in by the fire-engine about #a1cjj or #a1djj more1 and gave up the attempt1 and very fortunately1 as the tide did not rise high enough1 and the wind right on her broadside increased4 ,on ,saturday night things grew worse1 and the wind at ,liverpool and ,falmouth finished in the evening still ,,ssw4 ,about midnight the wind lulled1 the rain came down in torrents2 the wind gradually stole round to the northward1 and the tide came rolling up uncomfortably quick4 ,i admitted water as soon as it would run in1 and only just prevented her floating2 when1 if she had1 we should have been in a mess1 as our wedge-pieces were not yet unbolted from the bottom1 nor could we in the night have managed the floating1 even if all had been ready1 which nothing was4 ,under these circumstances1 the wedge-piece being bolted was perhaps our security1 as she all but floated2 the stern rose #c inches though we had #c1jjj tons of water in her1 the tide rose so high2 we began pumping immediately on the turn of tide1 and by half-past #f ,a4,m4 the wind was gentle from the ,,nne41 and telegraphs came to announce the same in ,liverpool1 c4 ,i therefore determined upon floating4 ,we pumped away1 and at #aj ,a4,m4 cleared everything away1 and began our preparations4 ,i had fixed #ab o'clock to begin forcing her further down1 thinking half-past #ab would have been as early as she would have moved easily1 but the tide came rushing up an hour and a half before its time2 and1 although ,i hurried the men to their posts1 we were rather caught napping4 ,the instant we began pressing1 she moved easily1 and by a quarter past #a we had pushed her centre past the ways1 and she began lifting with the tide4 ,i had a centre station with a chalk board1 giving me the curve of the tide1 and two good levels reading off her stem and stern water marks4 ,our calculations had proved very correct4 ,in the skew position ,i had pushed her to1 she began lifting at the stern first1 as she ought to have done1 and her bows soon followed the example4 ,we stopped pushing the cradles1 made them fast1 and began hauling out the ship--she moved very slowly of course4 ,when she began to move out1 our first difficulty occurred by a little mismanagement1 or over confidence1 on board2 our stern chain was let go1 and she forged ahead against the tide by the elastic strain of the bow chain1 and ,i think also by the tug-boats pulling too much1 which ought not to have been done1 and in going ahead her port paddles caught hold of some cradle timber rising1 with long #b inch bolts holding them to the bottom of cradle4 ,no tug power would have had any effect upon them4 ,but we had two hours before us1 with a promise of an unusual tide2 ,i hurried on board1 and we succeeded in about twenty minutes in getting a little astern a little out1 and getting clear4 ,we had some mishaps after this1 such as fouling one of our barges1 getting it jammed under the paddlewheels1 and the barge fast by the chain tackle dropt overboard4 ,however1 we scuttled and sunk the barge1 and got safely across4 ,we had an extraordinary tide1 and several assistances from nature to counteract any of our own bungling1 and got safely across1 and she is now moored in her right place4 ,yours faithfully1 ,i4 ,k4 ,,brunel4 ,william ,froude1 ,esq4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,steam ,,navigation--,,the #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,steam-,,ship4 ,,completion ,,and ,,subsequent ,,history4 ,a4,d4 #aheh-ahei3 ,,tatis #eb-ed4 ,a4,d4 #ahei-ahgj4 ,,preparations ,,for ,,completing ,,the ,,ship--,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,ship ,,company--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,absence ,,from ,,england--,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,works ,,from ,,his ,,return ,,to ,,his ,,last ,,illness--,,voyage ,,to ,,weymouth--,,explosion ,,of ,,water-,,heater--,,storm ,,at ,,holyhead--,,description ,,of ,,the ,,ship--,,her ,,first ,,voyage ,,to ,,new ,,york1 ,,june #ahfj--,,second ,,voyage ,,to ,,new ,,york1 ,,may #ahfa--,,voyage ,,with ,,troops ,,to ,,quebec1 ,,june #ahfa--;,,fracture ,,of ,,rudder-,,head ,,and ,,destruction ,,of ,,paddlewheels1 ,,september #ahfa--,,voyages ,,in #ahfb--;,,accident ,,off ,,montauk ,,point1 ,,august #bg1 #ahfb--,,voyages ,,in #ahfc--;,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,eastern ,,steam-,,ship ,,company--,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,previous ,,to ,,her ,,employment ,,in ,,laying ,,submarine ,,telegraph ,,cables--,,telegraph ,,expeditions ,,of #ahfe ,,and #ahff--;,,french ,,cable ,,expedition ,,of #ahfi--,,voyage ,,to ,,bombay ,,and ,,aden1 #ahfi-gj--;,,concluding ,,remarks--,,note3 ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,ship ,,and ,,engines4 ,soon after the launch of the #8,great ,eastern1' efforts were made to obtain funds for finishing her1 and ,mr4 ,brunel proceeded to prepare designs with the view of obtaining tenders for the execution of the decks1 skylights1 fittings1 rigging1 c4 ,he obtained advice from persons thoroughly conversant with this class of work2 and a specification was carefully prepared1 providing for the completion of the ship in a perfect manner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,meanwhile it had been considered that1 large as the ship was1 she might be profitably employed in the ,american trade1 and that it might be expedient to run her on that line for a few voyages before placing her on the ,eastern route4 ,captain ,harrison went to ,america to examine the harbour at ,portland1 and brought back a favourable report of it4 ,all efforts to raise the funds for finishing the ship proved unavailing2 and it was determined to reconstitute the company4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the new company1 which was called the #8,great ,ship ,company1' was formed towards the end of the year #aheh4 ,in the beginning of ,december1 ,mr4 ,brunel was compelled by ill-health to go to ,egypt for the winter4 ,on leaving ,england1 he strongly urged the ,directors on no account to fail to make a strict contract1 distinctly defining the work to be done1 and the manner of its execution1 as provided for by the specifications he had drawn out4 ,but his advice was not followed4 ,after ,mr4 ,brunel's return to ,england in ,may #ahei1 he continued to give the greater part of his time to the ship4 ,the difficulties which he had to encounter were certainly neither fewer nor less vexatious than those which had arisen at earlier periods in her history2 but they were the last with which he had to contend4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on ,september #e he left her in the morning1 feeling the commencement of the illness which ten days afterwards terminated fatally4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ship left her moorings on ,september #g1 and with the assistance of several tugs steamed down the river4 ,she stopped for a night at ,purfleet1 and again at the ,nore1 and then left for ,weymouth4 ,on the voyage a serious accident happened1 which was made the subject of much misrepresentation4 ,round each of the funnels of the paddle engines was what was termed a water-casing1 or jacket1 consisting of an outer cylinder1 about #f inches from the inner cylinder which formed the funnel4 ,the top of the annular space between the cylinders was at about the level of the deck4 ,from it a stand-pipe was carried up1 which1 after rising to a certain height1 was turned over1 and the end brought down into the stokehole4 ,the object of this arrangement was to heat the feed-water before it entered the boiler1 and at the same time to keep the saloons cool1 through which the funnels passed4 ,the arrangement of the stand-pipe gave this advantage1 that when the head of water in the heater and stand-pipe together became equivalent to the pressure in the boiler1 the water could be run into the boiler by gravitation4 ,the stand-pipe at the same time1 being open to the air at the top1 formed a safety-valve to the water-heater4 ,for the purpose of testing the joints of the jacket with water pressure1 while the ship was being finished1 a stop-cock had been placed on the stand-pipe1 which unfortunately had not been afterwards removed4 ,while the ship was proceeding down ,channel1 the donkey feed-pumps were not working well1 and to ease them it was thought better to cut off the water-heater1 and to force the water direct into the boiler4 ,the communication of the water-heater with the boiler was therefore cut off2 and1 as was afterwards ascertained1 the stop-cock at the top of the water-heater had been also closed4 ,the water confined in the heater soon produced steam1 and when the ship was off ,hastings the casing exploded4 ,the funnel was thrown up on to the deck1 and a body of boiling water and steam was driven down into the boiler room1 severely injuring several of the firemen1 who afterwards died4 ,that the effects of this accident were confined to one compartment of the ship1 was due to the complete protection afforded by the transverse bulkheads4 ,after she arrived at ,weymouth the funnel was repaired2 but as an outcry was raised against the water-heaters1 it was thought desirable1 from deference to public opinion1 to discontinue their use2 although this accident had not in any way proved them to be objectionable1 and they are now generally adopted4 ,while the #8,great ,eastern' was at ,weymouth ,mr4 ,brunel died4 ,many visitors went in the ship when she left ,weymouth on a trial trip to ,holyhead4 ,at ,holyhead she lay in a somewhat exposed situation2 and the sudden storm came on in which the #8,royal ,charter' was lost4 ,the great advantage of having both paddle and screw was now1 for the first time1 felt4 ,a portion of the temporary staging erected by the contractor at the breakwater was carried away1 and drifted down upon the ship4 ,during the gale her engines were kept going1 in order to relieve the strain on the cables4 ,the timbers of the staging got foul of both paddlewheels and screw2 but1 as it was always possible to keep one of the engines at work1 the ship was saved from drifting4 ,the season being now too far advanced for a profitable voyage to ,america1 the ship left ,holyhead and went to ,southampton ,water for the winter1 where several alterations and additions were made4 ,in ,mr4 ,brunel's report of ,february #e1 #ahee1 printed above1 at p4 #cae1 he describes the leading features of the #8,great ,eastern' as she was then being constructed1 but a more detailed account of them will fitly precede the history of her career as a passenger-ship4 ,the main arrangements of the ship are shown in the woodcut 7fig4 #af1 p4 #cig74agc ,the ship is #fhj feet long1 #hc feet wide1 and #eh feet deep4 ,her gross tonnage is #ah1iae tons4 ,she is divided into water-tight compartments by ten bulkheads 7a and b71 all of which1 except two 7b71 extend completely across the ship1 and up to the upper deck4 ,these two are complete to #f feet above the #bh-;foot water line4 ,in addition there are partial bulkheads 7c71 which form the ends of coal bunkers1 and aid materially in strengthening the flat bottom of the ship4 ,the more remarkable parts of the construction of the ship will be understood by means of the transverse section4 ,the bottom is made double1 and between the two skins are webs1 running longitudinally4 ,mr4 ,brunel considered that the double skin would greatly diminish the chance of such an accident occurring as would cause any of the compartments to be filled with water4 ,the material being arranged in the direction of the length of the ship is all capable of taking part in the strains that are thrown on the bottom1 as well as on the top1 by forces tending to bend the ship4 ,mr4 ,brunel also made the upper deck cellular1 in order to resist the compressive strain that would come on it when the ship was heavily loaded in the middle of her length4 ,great additional strength to the ship1 considered as a girder1 is given by two longitudinal bulkheads1 #cf feet apart1 extending for #cej feet4 ,these bulkheads1 with the sides of the ship1 form the vertical web plates of the girder4 ,her structure resembles the tubes of the ,britannia bridge2 the cellular top flange being connected with the cellular bottom flange by plate-iron webs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,longitudinal ,section ,plan showing ,machinery and ,coals ,midship ,section showing ,cabins and ,boiler ,room4 #8,,great ,,eastern' ,,steam-,,ship a4 ,complete transverse watertight bulkhead b4 ,transverse watertight bulkheads complete up to water line c4 ,partial transverse bulkheads d4 ,longitudinal bulkheads ,e4 ,cable decks ,f4 ,chain cable lockers1 c4 ,g4 ,ice-house1 stores1 c4 ,h4 ,forward cargo space ,i4 ,paddle boiler rooms ,j4 ,paddle engines ,k4 ,cross coal bunkers ,l4 ,paddle auxiliary engines ,m4 ,screw boiler rooms ,n4 ,screw engines ,o4 ,screw auxiliary engines ,p4 ,screw alley ,q4 ,grand saloon ,r4 ,ladies' saloon ,s1,u4 ,lower saloons ,t4 ,upper saloons ,v4 ,passage tunnel ,w4 ,steam-pipe tunnel ,x4 ,aft cargo space ,y4 ,aft cable deck1 c4 ,y'4 ,deck for auxiliary tiller1 c4 ,z4 ,cabins ,,note4--,the masts of the ship1 six in number1 are not shown on this woodcut4 ,the two skins of the ship1 with the web plates between them1 forming the cellular bottom of the great girder1 may also be considered as a number of smaller girders placed side by side1 each resisting the excess of the pressure of the water over the load that may happen to be resting on it inside the ship4 ,the difference of pressure or upward strain is transmitted by the cross bulkheads 7a1 b1 c7 from the bottom of the ship to the sides and longitudinal bulkheads4 ,the double skin extends up to about #f feet above the water level throughout the whole length of the ship1 with the exception of the extreme ends4 ,the foremost compartment next the bow has two cable decks 7,e71 with capstans and all the necessary riding-bitts1 stoppers1 and other appliances for working the cables4 ,these arrangements answer well1 and the #c-;inch chain cables are worked with great facility4 ,the capstans were originally driven by a shaft from the paddle auxiliary engines1 but this was found inconvenient1 and a small independent engine has been put to work them4 ,the cables are stowed in chain lockers on a deck 7,f7 below the cable decks1 and below this 7,g7 are ice-houses and store-rooms4 ,the next compartment of the ship 7,h7 is intended for cargo4 ,it is at present occupied by the forward cable tank4 ,the main part of the ship1 #cej feet in length1 up to the level of the lower deck1 #cd feet above the bottom1 is occupied with her engines1 boilers1 and coal bunkers4 ,the space above the lower deck was occupied with saloons and cabins for passengers1 except at the paddle engine room 7,j74 ,the boilers1 four in number1 two in each boiler room 7,i71 which supply steam to the paddle engines1 are placed forward of the engines2 and forward of the boiler rooms is a coal bunker 7,k71 #bj feet long2 and abaft of the paddle engines are the six boilers1 two in each boiler room 7,m71 that supply steam to the screw engines 7,n74 ,these three boiler rooms are separated by coal bunkers 7,k71 #bj feet long4 ,on either side of the boilers and engines1 and also upon plate iron arches above the boilers1 are bunkers for coal4 ,this will be seen on the transverse section of the ship4 ,between the paddle engines and boilers is a water-tight compartment1 #aj feet long 7,l71 in which are placed a pair of auxiliary engines of sixty horse-power1 which pump water out of the ship and also work fire-pumps4 ,there are two other auxiliary engines of sixty horse-power in a compartment 7,o7 aft of the screw engines1 intended to keep the screw propeller turning round1 either when the ship is at anchor1 to relieve the strain on the cables1 or when1 for any reason1 she is only using her paddle engines4 ,they also work bilge-pumps and fire-pumps4 ,each set of auxiliary engines has two independent high-pressure boilers4 ,throughout the bottom of the ship there are two bilge-pipes1 fitted with valves1 with branch-pipes leading to the various compartments of the double skin4 ,these bilge-pipes can be connected with either of the auxiliary engines1 and so the water can be pumped out of any part of the ship4 ,the paddle engines1 of #a1jjj nominal horse-power1 consist of four inclined oscillating cylinders1 #ad feet stroke and #f feet #b inches diameter1 each pair of which work on to a single crank4 ,there are means for disengaging either paddlewheel from the engines4 ,the screw engines1 of #a1fjj nominal horse-power1 consist of four fixed horizontal cylinders1 #d feet stroke and #g feet diameter1 the two cylinders of each pair working opposite to each other on one crank4 ,in each boiler room are two donkey engines for supplying the boilers with water1 and the main engines are also fitted with feed-pumps4 ,each of the donkey engines is capable of pumping water out of the ship1 and of being used in case of fire4 ,the screw shaft passes along what is termed a screw alley 7,p74 ,the weight of the screw rests on the bearing where the screw shaft passes out through the stern-post of the ship4 ,to prevent the water that leaks in through this bearing from penetrating into the screw alley1 there is a bulkhead with a stuffing-box round the screw shaft1 a short distance forward of the stern-post4 ,to enable access to be gained to the bearing1 a tube was provided leading down from the main-deck4 ,this was intended to be fitted with appliances for pumping air in so as to drive the water out1 and to admit men to get at the bearing under air pressure4 ,another arrangement was also provided for the same purpose4 ,on the after side of the stern-post was placed a ring of india-rubber2 and1 by pulling in the screw-shaft1 the screw was pressed tightly against the india-rubber ring1 which prevented the water from entering4 ,by means of this arrangement the stern-bearing was examined and repaired at ,southampton4 ,the screw propeller has four blades1 and is #bd feet in diameter and #dd feet pitch4 ,the paddlewheels were #ef feet in diameter1 with #cj floats1 each #ac feet broad and #c feet deep4 ,over the boiler rooms run two tunnels2 one of them 7,v7 serves as a passage to enable the engineers to pass from one compartment to another throughout the part of the ship occupied by the boilers and engines4 ,the openings leading from the tunnel to the engine or boiler rooms are provided with watertight doors1 which can be shut in the event of any of the compartments getting full of water4 ,the other tunnel 7,w7 serves as a passage for the steampipe1 which leads from the boilers to the engines4 ,though the boilers are divided into two sets1 one for the paddle engines and one for the screw1 the steampipes are connected1 so that the whole of the ten boilers1 or any of them1 may be used to supply steam for either of the engines4 ,in one point a deviation was made from ,mr4 ,brunel's arrangements4 ,it was his intention that there should be no apertures in the water-tight bulkheads except at the tunnel 7,v71 from which the various boiler and engine rooms were to be entered by openings1 to be closed by water-tight doors4 ,the tunnel was placed high up1 so that in the event of a leak there might be ample time to close the door4 ,the inconvenience of ascending and descending by ladders was1 however1 considered an evil2 and it was found necessary at times to carry coals from one compartment to another4 ,for these reasons1 upon the requirement of the ,board of ,trade1 doorways1 fitted with sliding doors1 which can be closed by handles on the upper deck1 have been cut in the bulkheads between the boiler rooms4 ,this arrangement exists in other ships2 and in the #8,great ,eastern1' even without closing these doors1 there are eight watertight compartments4 ,at the stern of the ship 7,y7 on the main-deck are arrangements for working cables1 similar to those at the bow4 ,these appliances are required when the ship has to be moored so as not to swing with the tide2 and they would allow of the ship's riding by the stern instead of by the bow1 which it might often be useful for her to do in narrow waters4 ,on the lower deck 7,y71 at the stern of the ship1 is a spare tiller and wheel for working the rudder1 in case anything goes wrong with the main tiller1 which is on the upper deck4 ,the weight of the rudder is carried on the lower deck by a grooved collar1 resting on a ring of cannon balls4 ,the compartment 7,x7 immediately aft of the screw engine room is for cargo4 ,the saloons and cabins are all in the middle of the length of the ship1 where there is least motion4 ,the usual plan of putting the first-class passengers at the stern was not adopted1 and they were placed forward4 ,as the smoke generally drifts towards the stern of a ship1 the first-class passengers in the #8,great ,eastern' are not annoyed by the smoke1 or by the dust and smell from the boiler and engine rooms4 ,the transverse section shows the arrangement of the cabins4 ,mr4 ,brunel intended that the upper saloons 7,t7 should be used as sitting-rooms1 and the lower saloons 7,s and ,u7 as dining-rooms4 ,these were to be lit and ventilated by shafts on either side of the upper saloons1 rising up to the skylights on deck4 ,the smell of dinner was thus to be kept away from the sitting-rooms4 ,the cabins 7,z7 on either side were to be approached from the saloons by passages and steps1 as shown on the section4 ,the saloon marked 7,q7 is the first-class1 and 7,r7 the ladies' saloon4 ,the ship is rigged with six masts4 ,the arrangements of the masts and rigging were especially intended for the ,eastern voyages4 ,at the extreme bow and stern are low masts1 which carry trysails and staysails4 ,the sails on these masts were chiefly intended for manuvring the ship4 ,she also has three large masts1 the lower masts being of iron4 ,the two foremost of these are square-rigged1 and all three of them have trysails and staysails4 ,the aftermost of the three was also made strong enough to be fitted with square yards1 in the event of its being desirable to rig it in that manner4 ,aft of the three principal masts is a large mast1 only intended to be rigged with fore-and-aft canvas4 ,the ship has no bowsprit1 the stay of the foremost mast being attached to the stem inside the bulwarks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the beginning of ,june #ahfj1 the ship made a trip from ,southampton down the ,channel1 as far as the ,start ,lighthouse and back1 to try her engines2 and on ,june #ag she sailed for ,new ,york1 under the command of ,captain ,vine ,hall1 who had succeeded ,captain ,harrison4 ,she arrived there1 after a prosperous voyage1 on ,june #bh1 and was received with great enthusiasm4 ,the ship left ,new ,york on ,august #af1 and1 having called at ,halifax1 arrived at ,milford ,haven on ,august #bf4 ,in the course of these two voyages the stern-bearing of the screw-shaft1 which was in white metal1 had worn down between two and three inches4 ,with the view of allowing for any depression of the stern-bearing1 the lengths of the screw-shaft were not rigidly connected throughout1 but the end length1 attached to the screw1 was coupled to the remainder of the shaft by a universal joint1 consisting of two double cranks4 ,thus the two shafts might be1 to a considerable extent1 out of line1 and yet revolve efficiently4 ,when the ship returned to ,milford ,haven1 a gridiron was prepared on the beach1 and she was grounded on it2 and the screw-shaft was drawn in4 ,by this time it had become the general opinion that a shaft cased with brass1 and running in lignum-vit bearings1 was the best4 ,a lathe and machinery for making the shaft revolve were provided1 and fixed in the stern of the ship2 the shaft was turned1 and brass collars shrunk on4 ,the bearing was made with lignum-vit1 and the brass-covered shaft replaced in it4 ,it has since worked well1 and has shown no signs of wear4 ,the ship1 commanded by ,captain ,william ,thompson1 left ,milford ,haven for ,new ,york on ,may #a1 #ahfa1 and returned to ,liverpool from ,new ,york on ,june #d1 having made an average speed of #ac knots on the outward and #ad knots on the homeward voyage4 ,at this time the ,government determined to send her out with troops to ,quebec1 and she was fitted up for that purpose4 ,she took upwards of #b1ejj troops1 and about #dj passengers4 ,there were1 altogether1 about #c1jjj persons on board1 and #bjj artillery horses4 ,scarcely any of the troops were placed in the regular passenger part of the ship1 as they were accommodated in the cargo departments 7,h1 ,x74 ,thus a much greater number of men might have been carried in her with perfect comfort4 ,she was commanded on this voyage by ,captain ,james ,kennedy1 of the ,inman service4 ,she left ,liverpool on ,june #bg1 and arrived at ,quebec on ,july #g4 ,she returned to ,liverpool with about #ejj passengers in ,august4 ,by this time her superiority had become recognised by the regular travellers between ,england and ,america4 ,those who had been in her found that1 while they passed other ships rolling and pitching in the sea1 the deck of the #8,great ,eastern' was so steady that it was difficult to believe that there was a gale blowing2#agd and when1 after a continuance of heavy weather1 she began to roll1 the motion was so slow and easy as to be comparatively unimportant4 ,when she left ,liverpool again1 there were a considerable number of passengers1 and it seemed as if her success was ensured4 ,she started under the command of ,captain ,james ,walker1 on ,september #aj1 and three days afterwards encountered a severe ,atlantic gale4 ,the ship was behaving well1 when one of the boats1 which hung on davits outside the ship forward of the paddlewheels1 got adrift on the weather side4 ,fears were entertained that it might foul the paddlewheel1 and the captain determined to cut it away4 ,the direction of the ship was altered1 in order that the boat might float clear4 ,the ship then resumed her course2 but shortly afterwards fell off1 with her broadside to the sea4 ,relieving tackles having been put to assist the men at the wheel1 the tiller was kept hard over1 to bring the ship's head to the wind2 but with no effect4 ,towards evening1 as the seas beat heavily against her side1 first one paddlewheel and then the other was destroyed1 being completely torn away from the central bosses4 ,during the night she lay in a helpless condition4 ,the gale had been of some duration1 and the waves being large and long1 the ship was placed in a very unfavourable position to receive them2 and she rolled considerably4 ,the next morning1 when an officer went to examine the auxiliary tiller on the lower deck1 he discovered that the rudder-head was twisted short off1 just above the point where it entered the ship4 ,the rudder was still in its place4 ,the accident had most likely happened on the previous evening1 when the ship fell off her course4 ,it had not been noticed by the men at the helm1 perhaps because there were so many of them at the wheel and relieving-tackles that they held one against the other2 and the broken parts of the rudder-head1 grinding together1 threw jerks on to the tiller4 ,the fracture of the rudder-head was caused by the badness of the workmanship in the interior of the forging4 ,attempts were made to get sail on the ship1 but without much success2 and with the hope of bringing her head to wind1 the screw engines were reversed4 ,as soon as the ship was driven astern by the screw1 the rudder1 being uncontrolled1 was forced round by the rush of water1 and it knocked away the after stern-post4#age ,no other harm was done1 as the rudder is secured by a pin into the heel of the ship1 and by a collar round the rudder-head1 attached to the hull above water4 ,steps were then taken to get command over the rudder4 ,chains were wrapped round the stump of the rudder-head inside the ship1 and a certain amount of control was thus obtained4 ,a more effective plan was at the same time carried into execution4 ,a man was lowered by a rope from the stern of the ship1 who hove a piece of wood1 with a line attached to it1 through the screw-opening4 ,the wood with the end of the line was caught with a boat-hook2 and a rope1 and afterwards a hawser1 and then a piece of the ship's chain cable were passed through behind the rudder4 ,the two ends of the chain cable were brought together at the stern of the ship1 and a large shackle put round both parts of the chain1 and shaken down till it held them together4 ,in the edge of the rudder-blade a notch had been made by the rudder striking against the screw1 and into this notch the shackle was made to drop4 ,in this way two chains or pennants had been attached to the back of the rudder4 ,one of these was brought to each side of the ship1 and they were hauled on by means of the stern capstan4 ,the ship then turned homeward1 and the weather having moderated1 she arrived off ,cork harbour on the afternoon of ,september #ag4 ,by this time the chains round the rudder had shifted1 and were of little service2 and before night it began to blow heavily towards the shore4 ,it was dangerous for the ship to remain on a lee shore2 and1 although the steering-gear was out of order1 the captain wisely determined to take advantage of the ship's head pointing in the right direction1 and steamed out to sea4 ,three days afterwards the ship1 assisted by several small steamers1 was got safely into ,cork harbour1 a temporary tiller was attached to the stump of the rudder-head1 and she proceeded to ,milford ,haven1 where she was placed on the gridiron1 and her after stern-post and paddlewheels replaced4 ,the accident had proved that the original paddlewheels might with advantage have been made stronger1 and in the new wheels the bracing was increased4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ship1 under the command of ,captain ,walter ,paton1 left ,milford ,haven for ,new ,york on ,may #g1 #ahfb1 and returned to ,liverpool on ,june #aa4 ,she left again on ,july #a1 and returned on ,august #f4 ,besides the number of passengers the ship accommodated1 she carried a considerable amount of cargo2 she brought over large quantities of grain and provisions4 ,the custom of carrying this class of freight in steam-ships received a great impulse from the success of the #8,great ,eastern' in the traffic4 ,as it was found that the shallowness of the bar at ,sandy ,hook prevented her taking full advantage of her carrying power1 she had on this voyage followed the route along ,long ,island ,sound1 so as to arrive close to ,new ,york in deep water1 and on her return voyage she brought as much as #e1cjj tons of cargo in bulk1 which with #d1cej tons of coal gave her a mean draught of #bh feet4 ,she left ,liverpool on ,august #ag1 and arrived off ,montauk ,point1 at the entrance to ,long ,island ,sound1 at about two in the morning of the #bgth1 to take in the pilot4 ,while stopping1 a loud rumbling noise was heard1 and presently the ship heeled slightly over to one side4 ,the pilot1 when he came on board1 said that the ship had passed over a reef of sunken rocks1 which was not marked on the charts4 ,it was at the same time found that many of the spaces between the double skins were full of water4 ,the ship went on to ,new ,york1 and most of the passengers landed in ignorance of an accident which in any other vessel would have been fatal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,steps were at once taken to examine the damage1 and the divers reported a large fracture in the outer skin #hj feet long and about #aj feet broad4 ,they also discovered afterwards several smaller fractures4 ,it was considered that this damage might be mended while the vessel was afloat1 and a very skilful arrangement1 contrived by ,messrs4 ,renwick1 of ,new ,york1 was adopted4 ,a large wooden barge was made with a gunwale shaped to fit the ship's side1 and two wooden passages leading down into the barge4 ,it was placed so as to cover the large fracture1 and was secured by chains passed round the bottom of the ship4 ,the joint between the gunwale of the barge and the ship's side was made water-tight2 the water was pumped out1 and men and materials passed down through the shafts4 ,by the exertions of those engaged in this difficult operation1 the great fracture was repaired1 and the ship returned to ,england in the beginning of #ahfc4 ,a gridiron was made at ,birkenhead2 the ship was placed on it1 and the repairs were proceeded with under the direction of ,mr4 ,brereton1 who at ,mr4 ,brunel's death succeeded him as engineer to the ,great ,ship ,company4 ,on examination1 it was found that fractures had been made in ten separate places in the outer skin4 ,the ship started again in ,may #ahfc1 and made three voyages to ,new ,york and home4 ,at this time1 however1 there was a severe competition with other vessels1 and the ,company could not afford to run the ship unremuneratively for any length of time4 ,in #ahfd she passed into the hands of a new company1 which consisted almost entirely of those who1 from their belief in the capabilities of the ship1 had found the money for starting her again after each of her successive misfortunes4 ,the ship lay idle for some months1 and was then chartered by the ,telegraph ,construction and ,maintenance ,company4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the #8,great ,eastern' had in the course of the four years from #ahfj to #ahfc made nine voyages across the ,atlantic and back4 ,though this was not the route for which she had been intended1 it had given her many opportunities of showing her merits4 ,adverse fortune had added to these opportunities1 and had at the same time demonstrated the necessity of many of the precautions which ,mr4 ,brunel had taken to ensure her safety4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the construction of the hull of the ship has been proved by experience to possess the advantages anticipated by ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,its strength as a whole has been proved by the absence of all signs of weakness in the heavy weather she encountered on several occasions1 and especially in the gale of #ahfa1 when her rudder was disabled4 ,the strength of the ship has since been fully tested by the enormous loads she has carried while on telegraph cable expeditions4 ,the importance of the double skin was shown on the occasion of her grinding over the rocks at ,montauk ,point1 when so large a number of leaks were made in all parts of her bottom that no ordinary system of bulkheads would have saved her from foundering4 ,moreover1 the space between the two skins was sufficient to allow of the outer skin and the webs being crushed to the extent of three feet1 while they at the same time acted as a buffer and prevented the inner skin from coming in contact with the rock4 ,the engines have not had any opportunity of working at high speed in the long voyages for which they were intended1 but in the rapid and comparatively short passages made by the ship across the ,atlantic they worked with great regularity and success4 ,although they were commenced seventeen years ago1 they are still fine specimens of marine engines1 and bear witness to the care taken by their builders in their design and manufacture4 ,of the points on which ,mr4 ,brunel laid stress1 and which1 as he remarked1 #8involve no other risk than that of being useless2 they cannot do mischief1' many have now come to be considered essential parts of good marine engines4 ,he thought it of great importance that the steam cylinders should be jacketed1 especially at the ends2 and it was intended that the high-pressure steam for this purpose should be taken from the auxiliary boilers4 ,this plan was1 however1 not adopted4 ,mr4 ,brunel was also anxious that the steam should be heated immediately before it entered the cylinders1 and that fresh water should be supplied for the boilers by using the same water over again4 ,arrangements for effecting these objects have since been brought into general use4 ,the advantage of having several cylinders to each engine was shown while the ship was running to ,america4 ,part of the valve-gear of one of the paddle-engine cylinders gave way1 the engines were stopped for four hours1 and the ship was propelled by the screw alone4 ,the cylinder was disconnected and turned back out of the way1 and the engines worked efficiently with three cylinders for four passages across the ,atlantic4 ,the average speed of the ship on those voyages in which her performances were fairly tested was about #ac knots4 ,on two occasions she made the voyage from ,new ,york to ,liverpool at an average speed of #ad knots2 and she maintained her speed in rough weather and head winds to a much greater extent than is the case in smaller vessels4 ,by having two sets of engines1 the ship was saved from serious disaster at ,holyhead1 and again in the gale of ,september #ahfa4 ,the great handiness of the ship is one of the many beneficial results of the use of both paddles and screw4 ,by working the paddlewheels astern and the screw ahead1 she can be kept from moving forward or backward1 and at the same time the stream of water from the screw1 acting on the rudder1 makes her answer her helm and turn round on her centre4 ,by modifying the speed of the two engines1 she may be made to creep slowly forward2 and as the rudder is in the full rush of the water driven back by the screw1 the ship has practically as much steering power as she has when moving rapidly4 ,the importance of this power of controlling her when passing through narrow channels1 in entering and leaving port1 can scarcely be over-estimated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the career of the #8,great ,eastern' since the formation of the present ,great ,eastern ,steam-,ship ,company1 has been prosperous4 ,in the commencement of the year #ahfd1 when ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field had succeeded in reviving the project of laying the ,atlantic cable1 the ,telegraph ,construction and ,maintenance ,company took the contract for laying it1 and hired the #8,great ,eastern4' ,she was brought round to ,sheerness1 where the cable tanks were fitted into her4 ,one tank was placed in the forward cargo compartment1 and another in the after cargo compartment2 and the largest tank was placed over the middle screw boiler room1 the funnel being removed4 ,therefore1 during the cable-laying expeditions1 the ship only used eight of her boilers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of the laying of the ,atlantic cable is well known4 ,the #8,great ,eastern' started from ,valentia on ,june #bc1 #ahfe1 under the command of ,captain 7now ,sir ,james7 ,anderson1 and the cable was laid more than half way across the ,atlantic2 but1 on hauling in to recover a fault1 it was broken1 and dropped to the bottom of the sea4 ,the grappling tackle was not sufficiently strong4 ,the cable was three times partially raised1 and each time lost2 and the expedition returned to ,england defeated1 but with the knowledge that ultimate success was certain4 ,the engineers and scientific men on board the #8,great ,eastern' drew up a memorandum as to the results of this expedition1 and1 among other things1 stated--#8,that the steam-ship 8,great ,eastern10 from her size and constant steadiness1 and from the control over her afforded by the joint use of paddles and screw1 renders it safe to lay an ,atlantic cable in any weather4'#agf ,sufficient additional cable was made to lay a second one and to finish the old cable when it should be recovered4 ,the ship started again on ,july #ac1 #ahff1 and laid the cable across the ,atlantic without the slightest mishap4 ,she then returned1 and after three weeks of hard work1 the end of the cable which had been lost the year before was picked up1 and completed to ,newfoundland4 ,on her return to ,england there did not seem to be any immediate employment for her in cable laying1 and the tanks were taken out4 ,in the following year a company was formed in ,france to charter the ship1 and to work her between ,new ,york and ,brest during the ,french ,exhibition4 ,she made one voyage from ,liverpool to ,new ,york and back to ,brest and ,liverpool2 but the undertaking was a commercial failure4 ,she remained at ,liverpool till ,october #ahfh1 when it was proposed to lay a cable from ,france to ,america2 and she came round to her former berth at ,sheerness4 ,tanks were made in the fore and aft cargo spaces1 and a very large tank1 #ge feet in diameter1 was placed amidships4 ,the bulkheads were cut partially away to make room for it1 the ship being strengthened above and below4 ,she started on this expedition from ,brest under the command of ,captain ,robert ,halpin1 and encountered very heavy weather4 ,the cable was laid successfully4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ship then returned to ,england1 and was fitted out for the greatest adventure she has yet undertaken4 ,she was to proceed with a full cargo of cable round the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,bombay1 to lay it thence to ,aden1 and from ,aden a portion of the way up the ,red ,sea4 ,with her cable and coals1 on leaving ,england1 she drew #cd feet #f inches1 with the enormous displacement of #cb1gbd tons4 ,she laid the cable with perfect success1 and returned to ,england4 99 99 99 99 99 ,throughout all these cable-laying expeditions1 and especially in the work of picking up the ,atlantic cable of #ahfe1 the good qualities of the ship have been fully exhibited4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the later voyages of the #8,great ,eastern' were undertaken for the accomplishment of a work in which ,mr4 ,brunel had felt a great interest4 ,in #ahef1 ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field came over to this country in order to consult ,english engineers and scientific men upon his project of an ,atlantic cable4 ,it is stated in a work written by ,dr4 ,field1#agg that-- ,from the beginning ,mr4 ,brunel showed the warmest interest in the undertaking1 and made many suggestions in regard to the form of the cable and the manner in which it should be laid4 ,he was then building the #8,great ,eastern1' and one day he took ,mr4 ,field down to ,blackwall to see it1 and said1 #8,there is the ship to lay the ,atlantic cable4' ,it appears1 however1 from drawings in ,mr4 ,brunel's sketch-books that at this time1 and again in #aheh1 he thought that it would be better to have a vessel specially built for the work4 ,he was throughout sanguine as to the ultimate success of the undertaking1 as is shown by the following extract from a letter written in ,december #ahef3-- ,i would suggest a more moderate expression of doubts of the successful results of the ,american cable4 ,the impossibility of running steamers profitably over the surface of the same sea was1 though it is now denied1 asserted and proved from established facts just as clearly as the impossibility asserted now to exist in respect of the electric telegraph4 ,it is a pity in these days to lay down any such dogma4 ,every day's experience proves that nine-tenths of them are refuted2 that the circumstances do not prove to be such as are assumed1 or the difficulties are overcome2 and however correct the arguments may have been1 the result is not as predicted4 ,the #8,great ,eastern' has not yet been engaged on the work for which she was originally designed by ,mr4 ,brunel2 but her employment in the promotion of great scientific enterprises has been an occupation worthy of her connection with his name4 ,,note 7p4 #cie74 ,dimensions of the #8,great ,eastern' ,steam-ship4 ,extreme length1 #fic feet ,length between perpendiculars1 #fhj ,breadth1 #hc ,depth1 #eh ,greatest draught of water1 #cj ,registered tonnage1 #ac1cdc tons ,gross tonnage1 #ah1iae ,displacement at #cj feet draught1 #bg1dai ,,dimensions ,,of ,,paddle-,,engines4 7#a1jjj nominal horse-power47 ,number of cylinders1 #d ,diameter of cylinders1 #f feet #b inches ,length of stroke1 #ad feet ,number of boilers1 #d ,,dimensions ,,of ,,screw-,,engines4 7#a1fjj nominal horse-power47 ,number of cylinders1 #d ,diameter of cylinders1 #g feet ,length of stroke1 #d ,number of boilers1 #f ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,dock ,,and ,,pier ,,works4 ,a4,d4 #ahca--ahei4 ,,tatis #bf--ed4 ,,monkwearmouth ,,docks1 #ahca--;,,bristol ,,docks1 ,,floating ,,harbour1 #ahcb--,,proposed ,,works ,,at ,,portishead--,,new ,,lock ,,at ,,bristol1 #ahde--,,plymouth ,,great ,,western ,,docks1 #ahdg--;,,briton ,,ferry ,,docks1 #ahea--;,,brentford ,,dock1 #ahef--,,pier ,,at ,,milford ,,haven1 #aheg4 ,mr4 ,brunel's dock and pier works are interesting1 not only in their general features1 but also in the details of their construction2 and the plans he made for large docks at ,monkwearmouth in #ahca1 which he carried out on a smaller scale shortly afterwards1 were among the earliest of his independent designs4 ,with the exception of the gates of this dock1 which are of timber1 all the dock gates ,mr4 ,brunel constructed are of wrought iron4 ,this material had been employed in ship-building before ,mr4 ,brunel adopted it for the gates of the new lock at ,bristol1 and it was also beginning to be extensively used for bridge girders4 ,at the same time that he introduced the use of wrought iron into dock gates1 he constructed them with a large amount of buoyancy1 in order that they might be moved easily1 while being opened and shut4 ,the dock and pier works which he constructed are at ,monkwearmouth1 ,bristol1 ,plymouth1 ,briton ,ferry1 ,brentford1 and at ,neyland1 ,milford ,haven4 ,they will be described in this order1 which is nearly that of the dates of their construction4 ,monkwearmouth ,docks4 ,the town of ,monkwearmouth is situated at the mouth of the river ,wear1 on the north side1 and opposite to the towns of ,sunderland and ,bishopwearmouth1 which extend for about a mile along the south side4 ,in order to improve the entrance of the river1 and to diminish the sand-banks which lay near its mouth1 piers were proposed as early as the middle of the last century1 and were partly built on both sides of the river before the year #ahjj4 ,from that date until #ahca1 although the question of making docks had been considered1 and designs proposed by different engineers1 no steps had been taken for their construction1 and the only works executed for the improvement of the port were the extension and alteration of the piers already existing4 ,in #ahca designs for docks to accommodate the increasing traffic were made simultaneously by ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,giles4 ,mr4 ,brunel's docks were to have been on the north side of the river1 and to have had an area of #be acres1 with quays1 warehouses1 c4 ,mr4 ,giles's were to have been on the south side4 ,neither of these schemes was approved of by ,parliament2 but shortly afterwards a private company was formed for the construction of a dock on a plan designed by ,mr4 ,brunel1 though on a much smaller scale than his scheme of #ahca1 the dock being only about #f acres in area1 with a tidal basin of about an acre and a half4 ,the company encountered considerable opposition from the authorities of the town of ,sunderland1 but succeeded in obtaining a royal charter for the construction of the dock4 ,they subsequently obtained an ,act of ,parliament empowering them to make the entrance from the dock to the river4 ,the dock was constructed1 and eventually became the property of the ,north ,eastern ,railway ,company1 to whom it now belongs2 they have erected coal drops along the quay1 and have made it a shipping place for collieries connected with their railway4 ,the work was begun in #ahcd1 and the dock and tidal basin occupy part of the site chosen by ,mr4 ,brunel for his larger scheme of #ahca4 ,the quay wall was built with a curved batter1 the chord line joining the top and bottom having an inclination of #a in #e4 ,the masonry was carried up in courses1 and made solid by filling every part thoroughly with mortar4 ,a course at the face and at the back of the wall was built up2 an abundance of mortar was then spread in the heart of the wall1 and the stones built in the mortar4 ,thus no crevices could be left in any part of the work1 and the back of the wall was soundly built throughout4 ,the entrance to the dock is #de feet wide1 with side walls of the same profile as the quay wall4 ,except at the gate floors1 there is a segmental invert of dressed stone of such curvature that it is #f feet #f inches lower in the middle than at the side walls4 ,the gate floors are formed with inverts1 curved to correspond with the under sides of the gates4 ,the masonry of the entrance was executed within a four-sided coffer-dam1 the sides of which were slightly convex outwards4 ,this coffer-dam was constructed in the usual way1 there being two rows of close piling with puddle between them2 and it was strengthened by internal horizontal shores which connected the opposite sides1 and by diagonal bracing4 ,the piles were driven until they met with so much resistance as to render it unsafe to drive them farther4 ,when the ground inside the coffer-dam was excavated1 it was found that the piles had been driven into sand and gravel1 and that1 to enable the masonry to be built on a good foundation1 it would be necessary to excavate about #g or #h feet below the piles4 ,they were therefore driven down gradually1 as the ground was removed from the inside1 until the requisite depth was obtained4 ,the whole coffer-dam was thus an immense caisson1 the sides of which were lowered by gradual driving1 instead of being simultaneously forced down by weights4 ,the masonry of the walls of the tidal basin is similar to that of the walls of the dock2 some parts of the foundation were laid by means of a diving-bell4 ,in the entrance between the dock and the tidal basin there is a pair of gates pointing inwards1 which serves to retain the water in the dock during the fall of the tide1 and there is also a pair of storm gates pointing outwards1 which protects the inner pair from the force of the waves4 ,the construction of both pairs of gates is similar4 ,the two leaves of each pair meet at an angle of #abe4 ,each leaf is about #cj feet long2 the bottom beams are curved to the form of the segment of a circle2 the height at the meeting-post is #bg feet1 and at the heel post #bb feet 7see woodcut1 fig4 #ag74 ,this arrangement is1 to a greater or less extent1 followed in the dock gates ,mr4 ,brunel afterwards constructed4 ,by raising the pivot1 the gate floor can be made of ample strength1 and the cills and heel-posts are free from mud and deposit4 ,the gates are constructed of horizontal beams of yellow pine timber1 #ba inches thick1 placed close together for a height of #ab feet above the bottom4 ,above this there are beams of timber and of cast iron at intervals4 ,the whole is planked over on the inner side with #d-;inch planking4 ,the heel-post and meeting-post are socketed into cast-iron uprights1 which also receive the ends of the horizontal beams4 ,to preserve the gate from any change of form1 a diagonal iron tie-bar extends from the top of the heel-post to the timber beams forming the lower part of the gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,monkwearmouth ,dock ,gates4 ,elevation4 ,section4 ,plan4 ,scale of feet4 ,nearly under each meeting-post is placed a bevelled cast-iron wheel1 #ah inches in diameter1 which supports part of the weight of the gate4 ,there are four sluices in each leaf1 placed in pairs1 with a small interval between them4 ,each pair of sluices counterbalances the weight of the other pair by being attached to opposite ends of a lever at the top of the gate4 ,a screw works in the segment of a large worm-wheel formed on the end of the lever1 and1 being turned round1 opens and shuts the sluices4 ,after the timber work of the gate had been fitted together1 it was taken to pieces1 and subjected to the preserving process called ,kyanising1 which consists in immersing the wood in a solution of corrosive sublimate4 ,this process has been so successful1 that when the gates were recently taken out for examination the timber was found to be nearly perfect1 only slight surface repairs being required in one or two places4 ,the great bulk of light wood at the bottom of these gates gives them a certain amount of flotation at all times of tide4 ,after the gates had been in use many years it was found that one of the wheels had been detached for some time1 but the buoyancy of the gate had prevented any mischief resulting4 ,the buoyancy of the lower part of the gate is somewhat analogous to that of the air-chamber which ,mr4 ,brunel introduced afterwards in his wrought-iron dock gates4 ,bristol ,docks4 ,about the year #ahjd that portion of the river ,avon which flows in a serpentine course through the city of ,bristol was enclosed1 and the water in it retained at a constant level1 a new cut or shorter channel being made for the river4 ,the portion separated1 called the ,floating ,harbour1 or ,float1 is about two miles long and #ajj yards broad4 ,at its lower end it is connected with the river by the ,cumberland ,basin1 a half-tide basin1 with two locks1 and at its upper end by a feeder1 which brings the water of the ,avon into it1 the river in dry weather being stopped from passing into the new cut by the ,neetham ,dam1 ,about half-way up1 the ,float is entered on the north side by the river ,frome2 and1 a little above this junction1 it is crossed by the ,prince's ,street drawbridge1 which divides it into two parts4 ,about #agj feet above the bridge the ,float is connected with the new cut by another basin with a lock1 called ,bathurst ,basin4 ,mud and other deposits had accumulated to such an extent in the ,floating ,harbour1 that at the end of the year #ahcb the directors of the ,dock ,company employed ,mr4 ,brunel to suggest remedial measures4 ,in order to effect his object at the least possible cost1 he proposed certain works1 together with an improved system of managing the water of the river1 so as to allow more of it to pass through the ,floating ,harbour1 by means of which great benefit might fairly be anticipated4#agh ,he remarked that1-- ,by systematically following this course1 the object of which is simply to keep in continual action all the means1 however small1 which can at the moment be brought to bear1 and thus day by day to remove or neutralise1 or merely diminish 7as the case may be71 the continual deposit which is going on--in fact1 by applying a constantly acting remedy to oppose a constantly acting evil--,i have little doubt that the formation of shoals similar to the existing ones may be entirely prevented1 or at all events that they will be of such a nature as to be easily removed by two or three yearly scourings1 and without that time and labour which are now expended with so little effect4 ,it should be observed that the yearly scourings1 which became so objectionable to the trade1 were not introduced by ,mr4 ,brunel1 but were part of the original arrangements of the docks4 ,after the reception of ,mr4 ,brunel's report1 the ,dock ,company executed the works which he required1 namely1 the ,sluice1 ,trunk1 and ,drag-,boat2 but his other recommendations1 as to scouring and increased supply of water1 were only acted upon to a limited extent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #ahdb the ,directors again asked ,mr4 ,brunel to report1 in conjunction with ,captain ,claxton1 upon #8what further measures are requisite for keeping the ,floating ,harbour more clear of mud than it has been for a few years4' ,mr4 ,brunel thereupon made a report to the ,directors4 ,after having referred to his previous reports of #ahcc and #ahcd1 he remarked that #8the efficiency of the whole system then recommended and adopted1 and subsequently partially carried out1 depended entirely and was founded on the supposition of the then existing mud-banks and shoals being first removed1 and the ,float deepened at once to the full extent required1' according to the plans which he had pointed out2 and that #8the increasing the supply of water through the ,float was one of those means on which he had most insisted' as necessary for keeping it clean and preventing its becoming a settling reservoir4 ,he then continued1-- ,the sluice at ,prince's ,street ,bridge1 the trunk--or syphon1 as it was originally1 and perhaps more correctly1 called--at the underfalls1 and the drag-boat have alone been brought into operation4 ,these were originally intended as mere aids1 which1 in conjunction with the increased supply of water1 were expected1 after the complete deepening of the ,float1 to be sufficient1 with two or three yearly scourings1 to keep it to the required depth3 these were 7perhaps unfortunately7 found so effective as to induce a hope that they might be depended upon solely for the removal of the evil4 ,the permanent interests of the port were1 ,i cannot but think1 sacrificed to temporary convenience3 the scourings which were required as a preliminary step to restore the ,float to its original state1 or to that which was said to have been its former state1 and which is now required1 were indefinitely postponed4 ,a material improvement being notwithstanding soon perceptible from the first effects of the drag-boat and the removal of mud through the trunk1 the periodical scourings which formed part of the system approved of for adoption were in a great measure given up to the objections of the traders4 ,the precautions actually necessary against admitting into the ,float the tide water of the ,avon1 heavily charged with mud1 were gradually sacrificed for the same reasons4 ,from all these and many other1 but very similar1 circumstances no further progress has been made since the first improvement1 which was felt to be1 and which unquestionably was at the time1 very considerable4 ,for until this period it had been the general practice to lighten all deeply laden vessels at the entrance of the ,float2 and1 notwithstanding this precaution1 it must be in the recollection of everybody that it was a common sight to see several large vessels aground at various shoals in the ,float1 and unable1 without further discharging the cargoes1 and without great consumption of time1 labour1 and ropes1 to get up to the quays4 ,for several years past the grounding of the deepest vessels has been the exception1 not the rule1 but during all this period it has been one continued and almost vain attempt to struggle against the old difficulties with insufficient means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the removal of such deposits as will still be formed1 ,i propose two means2 and first as regards those deposits which are continually going on4 ,these are formed almost entirely of mud1 which1 from its want of consistency when first deposited1 the great quantity and the large surface over which it extends1 as well as the great depth of water1 cannot1 as ,i have frequently explained1 be easily or economically removed by the ordinary process of dredging3 for this reason ,i originally proposed the drag-boat in conjunction with the trunk at the underfalls1 and which has1 so far as it has been applied1 completely answered my expectations4 ,i should now propose a similar arrangement for the upper float4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i should propose to make the additional drag-boat thus required of rather greater power than that now in use1 and to construct it so that a chain of dredging-buckets could be hereafter attached to the shaft2 and1 secondly1 for the purposes of deepening the hard bottom of the float1 and of removing those banks of hard materials which have either always existed1 or have been allowed to accumulate1 dredging must be resorted to4 ,but ,i should be disposed to attempt hand dredging or spooning in the first instance2 for1 although the depth of water is great1 ,i believe the work could be executed as cheaply1 or nearly so1 as by the steam dredging1 as the original outlay of capital would of course be much less1 while the facility of working at several points at once1 or of moving from one berth to another as the convenience of the trade would best allow1 would be much greater2 the operation also would be much more under command1 which1 taking into consideration the possibility of undermining the foundations of the quay walls or buildings1 is not an unimportant advantage4 ,when the required depths are once obtained1 the natural deposits even of the harder description may probably be easily removed by the drag-boat or by the occasional use of hand dredging4 ,the recommendations contained in this report were not adopted4 ,in #ahci ,mr4 ,brunel1 in a report to a ,committee of the ,council of the ,city of ,bristol1 suggested several improvements connected with the ,port1 almost all of which have since been undertaken4 ,he proposed to straighten and widen the course of the river1 and to make new locks1 both from the river to ,cumberland ,basin and from that basin to the ,floating ,harbour1 or1 as an alternative1 to construct docks at ,sea ,mills1 a creek on the ,avon1 about two miles below ,bristol4 ,he also proposed to construct a large pier at ,portishead4 ,the rise of tide is there sometimes #de feet1 and the velocity of rise or fall as much as #aj feet per hour4 ,there is also a great deposit of mud by the ,severn4 ,mr4 ,brunel considered that these circumstances rendered a fixed structure undesirable1 and he therefore recommended a floating pier4 ,he said3-- ,i propose two or three vessels of #cjj or #bjj feet of length1 built of iron1 as the material cheapest and best adapted to the purpose1 of #af-;feet or #bj-;feet draft of water1 and about #cj feet beam1 moored close stem and stern1 so as to form one continuous floating body4 ,any steamboat or other vessel alongside will of course be on the same level as the pier2 the passengers1 on disembarking1 will at once be on a level platform or deck1 under shelter1 where the luggage or goods can also be placed2 and the communication with the shore will be effected without steps4444 ,such a pier would afford stowage for almost any quantity of coals1 fresh water1 and general goods1 which could be stored here for embarkation4 ,in #ahdg1 after an ,act had been obtained for making a railway from ,bristol to ,portishead1 with a pier at the latter place1 ,mr4 ,brunel designed the pier on the plan described in his report of #ahci2 but the project was not carried out4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as has been already mentioned1 the communication between the lower part of the ,floating ,harbour and the river ,avon is through the ,cumberland ,basin2 between this basin and the river were two locks1 made at the time that the ,floating ,harbour was constructed4 ,owing to the increased size of merchant vessels1 it had long been in contemplation to enlarge the entrance4 ,at the time when the #8,great ,britain' was built1 the northern lock was so narrow that a portion of the upper masonry had to be removed in order to give room for the ship to pass from the basin to the river on a spring tide4 ,it was then felt that the enlargement of one of the locks could no longer be delayed1 and ,mr4 ,brunel was asked to adapt the narrower or southern entrance lock to the passage of the largest vessels4 ,between the two locks was a pier1 from which vessels were guided1 and the gates opened or shut4 ,the elongation of the lock was limited by the length of this pier1 as it could not be extended towards the river without diminishing the area of entrance1 nor could it be extended upwards without lessening the area of ,cumberland ,basin4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 although hampered by this restriction1 succeeded in obtaining a lock of considerable length4 ,he constructed the gates of a single leaf1 and placed the upper gate outside the lock so as to shut against the upper end of the middle pier1 and to swing back when opened into a recess in the side wall of the ,cumberland ,basin4 ,he thus avoided the necessity of finding room on the pier for the machinery to open one of the leaves of the upper gate4 ,had the gate been in two leaves1 the lock would have been shortened from #cj to #dj feet4 ,at the lower end he placed the gate as near the river as possible2 and1 lest the end of the middle pier should not be strong enough to withstand the pressure1 he secured the quoin stones1 against which the gate closed1 by horizontal wrought-iron bars at different levels1 built into the side wall of the lock4 ,the lock is #bfb feet in length between the gates1 and #ed feet wide at the narrowest part4 ,the masonry is of plain character1 all the part below the ashlar coping being of ordinary fitted rubble of great thickness1 solidly built with hydraulic lime mortar4 ,the ground behind the wall consisted of a wet silty clay1 causing a great pressure against the masonry4 ,the under part of the body of the lock is formed to a semi-oval cross1 section4 ,the works were commenced by the construction of coffer-dams at each end4 ,in #ahdf1 when the masonry was approaching completion1 a very high tide took place1 and a portion of the upper dam gave way4 ,as some work still remained to be done at the sill and apron of the lower gate1 ,mr4 ,brunel decided to make a brick dam in the middle of the lock1 where the masonry had been completed4 ,this brick dam was a horizontal arch built on the bottom of the lock1 up to the level of the water in the ,floating ,harbour4 ,the abutments were formed by the masonry of the lock walls1 which was notched to receive the bricks of the arch rings4 ,the dam was #bh feet high1 only #h feet thick at the bottom1 and #c feet thick at the top4 ,it was set in ,roman cement1 and was completely water-tight4 ,it was easily and rapidly made1 and the cost was small1 as compared with what would have been the cost of repairing the upper dam4 ,in this lock the chief point of interest consists in its being the first in which wrought-iron gates were introduced1 these gates being at the same time made buoyant4 ,floating caissons had been previously used at the entrances to graving docks1 and in similar situations2 indeed at ,bristol1 a caisson had long been employed at ,prince's ,street ,bridge1 to separate one part of the ,floating ,harbour from the other4 ,the buoyant gates of the ,bristol ,docks differ essentially from these vessels1 inasmuch as1 instead of requiring to be floated into their places1 they turn on a hinge1 and do not rise or fall vertically4 ,the gates are provided with wheels1 but only a small part of the weight rests on them1 as the gates are rendered buoyant by large air-chambers1 formed in the lower part of them4 ,the upper and lower gates are alike in construction and dimensions1 so that it is only necessary to describe one of them4 7,see woodcut1 fig4 #ah47 ,the extreme length of the gate is #eh feet1 and the extreme height #bi feet4 ,in the middle it is about #aj feet wide1 the width diminishing to #c feet at the top4 ,in plan it is curved to resist the pressure of the water4 ,the gate when closed is not at right angles to the direction of the length of the lock1 but is at an angle of about #ab4 ,the length is thus scarcely increased1 while the travel in being opened and shut is much reduced4 ,the top is at the level of the water in the ,floating ,harbour2 so that1 when the tide falls1 the water in the ,cumberland ,basin may be retained at the same height as in the ,float4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,bristol ,dock ,gate4 ,elevation4 ,section ,a4 ,b4 ,section ,c4 ,d4 ,plan4 ,scale of feet4 ,the air-chamber is formed by two water-tight decks of wrought-iron plating1 one at the level of half-tide1 the other a short distance above the bottom of the gate4 ,above the deck forming the top of the air-chamber1 the water1 as the tide rises1 flows freely into the interior of the gate1 through openings in the face next the dock1 so that when the water is level with the top of the gate1 the part above the air-chamber is full of water1 which flows out again if the level of the water falls4 ,in ordinary working the gate only needs to be opened or shut when the water is above the level of half-tide1 and therefore at these times the whole of the air-chamber is immersed4 ,to whatever height the water rises above this level1 the buoyancy remains almost the same1 the only change being caused by the displacement of the iron of the upper part4 ,this displacement1 when the water is level with the top of the gate1 amounts to about six tons4 ,the size of the air-chamber is so arranged that when the water is level with the top of the gate it is just afloat2 and at half-tide1 when the water is at the level of the top of the air-chamber1 there is a weight of about six tons on the wheels4#agi ,the gate is provided with a sluice1 by which water may be admitted into the air-chamber1 or allowed to escape when the water outside is at a lower level2 there is also a pump1 by which leakage water may be extracted4 ,the volume of the air-chamber may thus be altered at will1 and the buoyancy may be modified so as to counteract the effect of the weight of any mud which may be deposited upon the decks of the gate4 ,there are in each gate two very large double sluices1 which are used for working the lock1 and for lowering the water in the ,cumberland ,basin to meet the tide4 ,they are also used for scouring away the mud4 ,the shutting pieces of the gates1 which bear against the granite masonry and form a water-tight joint1 were made of ,honduras mahogany1 a very durable wood for the purpose4 ,the timber is bedded in creosoted felt and bolted to the gates2 and the pieces are still sound1 after the lapse of more than twenty years4 ,underneath the gate are two wheels1 slightly conical1 #c feet diameter and #a foot wide1 which travel on level cast-iron rails let into the masonry of the gate floor4 ,there is no heel-post such as is usual in dock gates1 but the gate is hinged to the masonry by wrought-iron collars and a wrought-iron pin about #h inches diameter1 which is passed through them4 ,any portion of the weight of the gate which is not supported by the flotation of the air-chamber is borne entirely by the wheels1 the arrangement at the hinge being merely for the purpose of retaining the gate in its position and guiding it in opening or shutting4 ,the gate is moved by chains1 which are attached to the barrels of powerful crabs1 and conveyed through passages formed in the masonry2 at the lower ends of these are chain rollers or broad sheaves1 round which the chains pass4 ,the sheaves are fluted on the circumference1 to ensure their turning readily4 ,when the gates are nearly afloat1 they can be moved with great ease2 but at the time of their construction it was considered essential to provide machinery sufficiently powerful to open and close them at low water1 when the whole weight of each gate1 nearly one hundred tons1 rests on the wheels4 ,the crabs and chains were therefore made much stronger1 and were more difficult to move1 than if they had been merely designed to work the gate under ordinary conditions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the gates were constructed in ,bristol at the ,great ,western ,steamship ,works in #ahdg4 ,after the lower gate had been tested and proved to be water-tight1 it was launched1 and floated with the front surface nearly level4 ,the positions it would assume under different conditions had been calculated beforehand4 ,before it was fixed1 the gate was made to float nearly upright by the admission of water2 it was then towed to its place1 and brought into correct position4 ,the hinge-pin was dropped through the collars1 and by admitting water into it1 the gate was sunk1 so that it rested upon its wheels4 ,this operation had to be performed at high water1 which only lasted for a short time4 ,in fixing the upper gate1 the water was kept up to the proper level by the lower gate1 and therefore there was no need to do the work quickly4 ,plymouth ,great ,western ,docks4 ,as it was considered probable that1 on the completion of railway communication1 mail packets and other large ocean steamers might make ,plymouth their port of departure1 a company was formed in #ahdf for the construction of a dock in ,mill-bay1 a large inlet in ,plymouth ,sound near the entrance to the ,hamoaze4 ,the bay was already protected from the prevailing winds by a pier at its eastern side constructed by ,mr4 ,rendel4 ,it was decided to form a wet dock and graving dock at the inner end of the bay1 and to make quay walls along the side of the outer part1 to join the existing pier4 ,a floating pier for large vessels afterwards became part of the scheme4 ,in #ahdg preliminary trials were made as to the best means of excavating in deep water the limestone rock of which part of the bottom of the bay consisted2 some quay walls were also constructed and made use of by the shipping4 ,at the end of #ahea a contract was entered into for the execution of the whole of the works remaining to be completed2 the most important of these were the entrance1 the graving dock1 and the completion of the floating basin4 ,the progress of the undertaking was much facilitated by ,mr4 ,brunel giving his sanction to the proposal of the contractors to form a stone and earth embankment across the mouth of the bay1 instead of employing the usual timber coffer-dams4 ,this embankment1 which completely answered its purpose1 was finished by the middle of #ahec4 ,the works now proceeded steadily until they were completed1 and at the end of the year #ahef the dock was opened4 ,the middle of the embankment was cut through1 and an entrance channel dredged to a level of #h feet below low water4 ,the remainder of the dam1 being partly protected by masonry walling1 was used as a quay1 and served for the protection of the outer basin4 ,mr4 ,brunel had prepared the foundation1 and had intended to build a pier to shelter the entrance gate from the sea1 and to assist in pointing long vessels4 ,the want of this shelter was felt in the gale of ,october #aheg1 when the gates were thrown down4 ,in order to avoid any future casualty1 storm gates1 or framed struts reaching down to low water level1 were placed immediately behind the entrance gates1 so as to support them against heavy seas4 ,the dock1 which is of oblong shape1 has an area of #ac acres1 and a length of quay wall of #c1dij feet4 ,the greater part has a depth of #bb feet below high water at spring tides1 or #af feet at neap tides2 the remainder is #d feet deeper1 or the same depth as the channel in the outer basin4 ,the walls are #h feet thick at bottom1 and #c feet at top1 and are built to a curved batter4 ,they reach generally to a depth of #e feet below low water1 and rest on concrete #ab feet thick1 carried down until a rock foundation is reached1 which in some places is as much as #dj feet below the bottom of the dock4 ,to accommodate the larger paddlewheel steamers1 the entrances to the basin and graving dock were made #hj feet in width4 ,the dock is entered through a short passage1 the sill being #ac feet below low water4 ,the masonry of this entrance has curved battering sides1 with a segmental invert4 ,the entrance is closed by a pair of wrought-iron buoyant gates1 which meet at an angle of #abg4 ,each gate is #dh feet long1 and weighs seventy-five tons1 the breadth being #h feet in the middle1 curving to #b feet at the ends4 ,there are six horizontal decks and four vertical bulkheads4 ,the depth at the heel-post is #bb feet1 and at the meeting-post #ce feet 7see woodcut1 fig4 #ai74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,plymouth ,dock ,gates4 ,elevation4 ,section ,a4 ,b4 ,plan4 ,scale of feet4 ,in each gate is an air-chamber1 the top of which is at half-tide level2 and its volume is such that when the gate is wholly immersed there is a small downward pressure4#ahj ,under each gate1 near the meeting-post1 is placed a wheel1 which supports part of the weight4 ,this wheel is so arranged that it can be easily removed for repair4 ,the heel-posts are of cast iron1 planed and ground in place against the polished surface of the granite hollow quoins so as to form a water-tight joint4 ,there are large scouring culverts behind the side walls of the entrance2 but for the purpose of regulating the level of the water in the dock1 and of discharging a large volume of water readily1 without having to overcome the friction of ordinary sluice valve faces1 each gate is furnished with a cylindrical valve1 of the following description3-- ,from an opening in the side of the gate next the dock there is a large curved pipe or sluice-way1 which terminates inside the body of the gate1 with a circular horizontal orifice about #e feet in diameter4 ,the opening is covered by a short length of vertical pipe of the same diameter1 reaching above high water1 the bottom edge making a water-tight joint4 ,this pipe can be raised or lowered by a screw at the top of the gate4 ,when raised a short distance it allows the water from the dock to flow out between the bottom of the movable pipe and the orifice of the sluice-way into an isolated compartment of the gate1 and to escape by an opening provided in the outer face4 ,the movable pipe is guided by rollers1 and from the construction the pressures on it are balanced4 ,the entrance to the graving dock1 #hj feet wide1 is closed by a pair of gates of the same dimensions and construction as those of the entrance4 ,this dock is #chj feet long1 #ib feet wide1 and has a depth of #bh feet over the sill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the floating pier was erected in ,mill-bay in #aheb1 to accommodate the steam-shipping trade4 ,it consists of a pontoon with a bridge leading to it4 ,the pontoon is a large wrought-iron vessel of nearly rectangular cross-section1 #cjj feet long1 with #dj feet breadth of beam1 and a depth of #ag feet4 ,it is loaded so as to draw #aj feet of water1 and is capable of storing #d1jjj tons of coals4 ,to connect the pontoon with the shore there is an iron bridge1 working upon hinges1 in two spans of #abe feet each4 ,the connection between the two spans was supported on a timber pier1 and was made so as to be movable vertically1 and capable of being adjusted by a crab and counterbalance weights4 ,by means of this arrangement a uniform gradient over the whole length of the bridge could be obtained at any time of tide1 for the convenience of heavily laden carts passing to and from the pontoon4 ,briton ,ferry ,docks4 ,in #ahdf a company was formed to establish docks in ,baglan ,bay at ,briton ,ferry1 near the mouth of the river ,neath2 but nothing was done until #ahea1 when the necessary powers were obtained under an ,act of ,parliament4 ,from the vicinity of the proposed docks to the ,south ,wales and ,vale of ,neath ,railways1 a large amount of trade was anticipated2 and in #ahec an ,act was obtained for the ,south ,wales ,mineral ,railway1 which was intended to terminate at the docks1 and was expected to bring a large traffic in coals and other minerals4 ,the dock works were begun soon afterwards1 but the earthwork was not completed1 nor the construction of the gate commenced1 until the year #aheh4 ,the docks were completed1 after ,mr4 ,brunel's death1 by ,mr4 ,brereton1 and were formally opened on ,august #bb1 #ahfa4 ,they consist of an outer tidal basin of about #g acres1 and an inner floating basin of about #aa acres1 with a depth of water of #bg feet at spring tides1 and #af feet at neap tides4 ,the two basins are connected by a passage or entrance of #ej feet in width1 with curved battering walls and an invert1 closed by a gate of a single leaf4 ,an important advantage of single gates is that the sill and quoins may be in one plane1 and that the troublesome and costly fitting of the hollow quoins is avoided4 ,the sill was laid #f feet below what was then the low-water level1 as it was thought that future improvements might reduce the bar at the entrance of the river ,neath to that level4 ,this has already been nearly accomplished4#aha ,the total length of the docks is a little over half a mile1 and the average breadth is about #djj feet4 ,they are connected with the ,south ,wales ,railway by branch railways4 ,with the exception of the walls dividing the two basins near the entrance gate1 the sides of the dock are not constructed with masonry quay walls1 in the ordinary manner1 but are formed in a very inexpensive manner of slopes pitched with furnace slag1 obtained from the copper smelting works on the ,neath river1 with jetties at intervals for the shipping4 ,besides being suitable for the soft clay in which the dock is made1 this plan is specially adapted for mineral traffic1 as the work of loading or discharging a cargo of minerals can only be properly carried on at the point where fixed machinery is provided for the purpose4 ,this machinery may be placed as conveniently on projecting jetties as on a dock wall4 ,the traffic1 which consists mainly of coals and metals1 is accommodated at the jetties1 which are furnished with cranes for loading and unloading the vessels employed in the metal and iron ore trade1 and with tipping-frames1 which discharge the coals into the ships4 ,these cranes and tipping-frames are worked by hydraulic machinery4 ,in order to facilitate the entrance of vessels from the river ,neath to the tidal basin1 and to protect it from the sea1 two pier-heads were built1 one at each side of the basin at the point where it joins the river4 ,these piers are of timber piling and framework1 filled in with copper slag2 the entrance between them is #cjj feet wide4 ,they were constructed after ,mr4 ,brunel's death4 ,the gate is a wrought-iron buoyant gate1 with five vertical partitions or bulkheads and six decks4 ,the length is #ef feet2 the depth in the middle is #ca feet #f inches1 and at the sides #bf feet #f inches4 ,the breadth in the middle is #i feet1 and is curved to #b feet at the ends 7see woodcut1 fig4 #bj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,briton ,ferry ,dock ,gate4 ,elevation4 ,section ,a4 ,b4 ,plan4 ,scale of feet4 ,the air-chamber1 which is similar to that of the ,plymouth gates1 is placed so that the top is at the level of high-water neap tides1 about half-way up the gate4 ,there are two sluices at low-water level1 each having an area of #h square feet4 ,the entrance invert being subject to the influx of sand from the outer basin1 and to the deposit of coal rubbish dropped into the dock1 ,mr4 ,brunel decided in this gate not to use wheels1 but to make the hinge and heel-post strong enough to carry the whole weight of the gate1 even if it were unsupported by the buoyancy of the air-chamber4 ,the heel-post is a massive piece of cast iron2 the bottom part is bored out1 and into it is fitted a cast-iron cylindrical pin1 #a foot #f inches diameter and #g feet #f inches long4 ,on this are ground discs of steel1 lubricated with oil1 whereon the gate rests and turns4 ,thus the surfaces exposed to friction are above the sand or grit at the bottom of the dock4 ,the lower end of the pin fits into a cast-iron socket fastened to the masonry1 and is prevented from turning round by being made hexagonal4 ,the sides of the hexagon have sufficient play to enable the gate to adjust itself1 when shut1 to the masonry sill1 so as to be water-tight4 ,the top of the heel-post works in a brass bush1 #ah inches diameter and #ae inches broad1 enclosed in a massive wrought-iron collar1 which is strongly fastened by anchor chains to the masonry4 ,after the gate was completed the strength of the hinge was tested by moving the gate before the water was admitted into the dock4 ,the only resistance to the motion of the gate is the slight friction at the hinge4 ,no coffer-dam was used in the construction of this work1 but advantage was taken of a large bank of slag and earth enclosing a portion of the site of the dock4 ,this was extended and raised1 and a sea dam formed4 ,the dam was cut through when the works were completed1 and a channel dredged to the depth of #f feet below low water4 ,brentford ,dock4 ,in #ahee an ,act was obtained for making a dock on the ,thames at ,brentford1 and a railway to join the ,great ,western ,railway at ,southall4 ,the dock has an area of about #c acres4 ,the works were begun in ,july #ahef1 and were completed1 and the dock opened1 three years later4 ,the walls are founded in the ,london clay1 which here underlies a bed of gravel of some thickness2 from this there was a considerable influx of water4 ,the chief peculiarity of the dock is the form of construction adopted for the sides4 ,piers of brickwork1 #aj feet long and #b feet #c inches thick1 are placed at right angles to the sides of the dock at intervals of #bf feet4 ,the backs of these piers are connected by horizontal arches1 carried up with a curved batter4 ,the piers are about #bj feet high1 and arches are turned upon them1 which support the front part of the quay1 and meet the horizontal arches at the backs of the piers4 ,thus the sides of the dock consist of a series of vaults1 arched over at the top1 and also at the back towards the pressure of the earth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,brentford ,dock ,gate4 ,elevation4 ,section ,a4 ,b4 ,plan4 ,scale of feet4 ,the thickness of the horizontal arches which form the bulk of the wall is only #c feet1 but these are so strengthened by the piers in front1 that a wall strong enough to resist the pressure of the earth behind it was obtained by means of a very small quantity of brickwork4 ,along one side of the dock the piers are #ca feet long1 in order that coal barges may lie with part of their length in the vaults between the piers while their cargo is being put on board4 ,by this arrangement the barges have their longest dimension at right angles to the side of the dock1 and a much greater number can be accommodated than if each occupied a space alongside the quay wall4 ,the contents of the coal trucks are tipped into the barges through sloping shoots4 ,the entrance has a clear width of #cj feet1 and is closed by a single wrought-iron buoyant gate1 which1 like the ,bristol gates1 is1 when shut1 not quite at right angles to the entrance4 ,the gate is #cc feet long1 #ai feet high1 #b feet #f inches wide at the middle1 curved to #a foot #f inches at the sides1 and weighs sixteen and a half tons4 ,it is divided into compartments by four decks and two vertical bulkheads4 ,the air-chamber occupies the whole space below one of the decks1 #g feet #f inches above the bottom 7see woodcut1 fig4 #ba72 and there are two sluices1 each having an opening of #d feet by #b feet4 ,this gate1 like that at ,briton ,ferry1 has no wheel under it1 the weight being carried upon the pivot4 ,in order to avoid side strains upon the pivot and top collar1 a counterbalance arm is fastened on the top of the gate4 ,this is formed of two cast-iron girders1 bolted together and enclosing weights between them4 ,the ends of these girders project beyond the heel-post over the quay1 as in canal lock gates1 and carry the machinery by which the gate is turned1 as there are no crabs1 chains1 or chain rollers4 ,instead of these1 a cast-iron circular rack is fixed on the top of the masonry1 in which a pinion works1 turned by gearing fixed to the end of the counterbalance4 ,this gate turns with remarkable freedom1 and the current of water running into the dock on a spring tide opens it completely4 ,pier at ,neyland1 ,milford ,haven4 ,the ,south ,wales ,railway was originally intended to terminate at ,fishguard1 on the north coast of ,pembrokeshire1 with the view of securing a large quantity of ,irish traffic1 the distance across the channel to the ,irish coast at ,wexford being only #fj miles1 less than the distance from ,holyhead to ,kingstown4 ,it was1 however1 ultimately decided to form a terminus1 which would accommodate the ordinary ,irish traffic1 and would not require such an extensive outlay on harbour works as would have been necessary on the northern coast4 ,with this object1 the inlet or natural harbour of ,milford ,haven was examined1 and the ,south ,wales ,railway was carried to ,neyland ,point1 opposite ,pembroke1 where the position is sheltered1 and there is deep water at all times of tide for the largest vessels4 ,the pier at ,neyland1 or ,new ,milford1 which was made in #aheg1 consists of a timber viaduct1 with a pontoon at the end1 #aej feet long and #db feet beam1 loaded so as to draw about #g feet4 ,there is a depth of #af feet alongside it at low water1 and it is connected with the shore by a landing bridge4 ,the pontoon is made of wrought iron1 and has three transverse and two longitudinal bulkheads4 ,it is moored by chain cables1 which pass through two large hawse pipes1 extending from the bottom nearly up to the deck1 with cast-iron mouthpieces at their lower ends4 ,the cables passing through these are anchored firmly to the ground at a considerable distance from the pontoon4 ,the pontoon was intended to be the centre of several others1 which were to be moored in deeper water4 ,the rise of tide being sometimes as much as #be feet1 it was necessary that the landing bridge should be of considerable length1 in order that there should be a moderate inclination at all times of tide4 ,it is accordingly made in one span of #bje feet4 ,it consists of two plate-iron side girders1 of the uniform depth throughout of #ad feet1 and width of #b feet #f inches4 ,these are placed #ab feet #f inches apart1 the roadway being between them4 ,the ends of the girders which rest on the pontoon are provided with cast-iron wheels1 #a foot #f inches in diameter4 ,the pier has since been extended by additional pontoons1 which were those used in the floating of the ,saltash ,bridge4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,works4 ,,the ,,great ,,exhibition ,,of #ahea--,,the ,,crystal ,,palace ,,water ,,towers1 #ahec--,,polygonal ,,rifle1 #aheb--;,,gunnery ,,experiments1 #ahed--;,,floating ,,gun-,,carriage1 #ahed--,,renkioi ,,hospital ,,buildings1 #ahee4 ,there are several matters of importance in which ,mr4 ,brunel was engaged1 which could not under any system of classification be introduced into the preceding chapters2 these are therefore collected under one head of #8miscellaneous works4' ,the first of these is his connection with the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,he was from the beginning one of the most zealous supporters of this undertaking1 and was appointed a member of the ,committee of the ,section of ,machinery1 whose duty it was to classify the objects to be exhibited in that department4 ,upon the question of awarding prizes to exhibitors1 ,mr4 ,brunel held a very decided opinion adverse to the plan ultimately adopted4 ,in a letter to the ,chairman of the ,committee1 dated ,march #aa1 #ahej1 he writes3-- ,i am sorry to say that ,i am obliged to leave town to-night4 ,we are summoned to-morrow1 it appears1 on the subject of prizes4 ,not being a member of the ,commission1 ,i have perhaps no right to express an opinion upon a principle which seems to have been adopted--that of giving prizes--but as applied to machinery ,i suppose ,i may4 ,i strongly disapprove of any prizes being offered in our section4 #a4 ,i believe it is quite unnecessary4 #b4 ,i believe it will be impossible to define beforehand the subjects for which any limited number and amount of prizes are to be promised1 the subjects are so indefinitely numerous2 and like the building1 however large it may be made1 will not be large enough to hold all that is sent1 so as regards the prizes1 however numerous the subjects1 they may very likely not embrace the very things which turn out to be most deserving4 #c4 ,i believe it will be impossible to distribute any limited number of prizes with justice1 and quite impossible to satisfy the public4 ,two machines for the same purpose may be remarkable--one for its ingenuity and beauty of workmanship1 but of doubtful practical economy in application2 the other clumsy1 and not well made1 but apparently likely to have the germs of much good--there are thousands1 or rather an infinity1 of shades of degrees and qualities of merit4 ,and lastly1 ,i believe the prizes will be mischievous1 as conferring undue advantages in many cases upon a thing well displayed1 and well got up1 and will be sought for and obtained for puffing purposes4 ,the opportunity of exhibition ,i believe will be quite sufficient to induce all the competition we can desire4 ,i think money prizes quite a mistake1 and medals or distinctions pretty nearly as bad4 ,i hope you hold the same views1 but ,i send you mine4 ,mr4 ,brunel's views found no favour at the time2 but subsequent experience has convinced those best able to form a sound judgment in the matter1 that #8no prizes of any kind should be awarded' in ,international ,exhibitions4#ahb ,mr4 ,brunel was also a ,member of the ,building ,committee2 and he accepted the office of ,chairman and ,reporter of the ,jury for ,class ,,vii41 on ,civil ,engineering1 ,architecture1 and ,building ,contrivances4 ,he took a very active part in the proceedings of the ,building ,committee4 ,designs were invited1 and two hundred and forty-five were sent in4 ,none of these were considered satisfactory by the ,committee1 and they submitted to the ,royal ,commission a design of their own1 the principal feature of which was a dome #bjj feet in diameter4 ,mr4 ,brunel was responsible as a member of the ,committee for the plans prepared by them1 and as regards the dome may be said to have designed it himself1 but he expressed strong objections to the substantial and expensive buildings which it was proposed to erect in brickwork4 ,his idea was that the building should be in what he called the #8railway shed style2' and he wished to produce effect rather by the construction of the roofs1 c41 than by any architectural elevation4 ,when1 therefore1 the plans of the ,building ,committee failed to meet with public approval1 and the late ,sir ,joseph ,paxton submitted his well-known design1 ,mr4 ,brunel gave it his cordial support1 and defended it against its detractors4 ,he thus spoke of it in the report of the ,jury of ,class ,,vii4 ,as regards ,mr4 ,paxton's claim1 amid the competition of the whole of ,europe1 he proposed that mode and form of construction of building which appeared on first sight1 and has since proved to be1 the best adapted in every respect for the purpose for which it was intended4 ,the design possessed this merit of fitness for its object in a singular manner4 ,there was no startling novelty in any one point which could lead astray the judgment of those who had to determine upon the choice of plan1 or which could in the first instance obtain1 still less permanently secure1 the good opinion of the public4 ,as regards the form of outline1 which is most simple1 several designs nearly resembling it had been submitted in the general competition4 ,as to the material1 several proposals had been previously made to cover the whole area to be enclosed with glass1 and iron would of necessity be employed for the framing2 but in the combination of form and materials1 in the particular mode of applying those materials1 and in the adaptation of the forms to be selected to their convenient use1 as well as in the various details by which the whole was rendered perfect1 the design was entirely distinct in character from all that had been proposed1 and appeared at once to have the one single merit of being exactly that which was required for the purposes in view4 ,the design as realised has completely fulfilled every condition of utility4 ,the award of ,council ,medals 7the highest prize given7 was recommended to ,sir ,joseph ,paxton1 and to the contractors1 ,messrs4 ,fox1 ,henderson and ,co4 ,in a later part of the report1 in announcing the recommendation of a ,council ,medal to ,his ,royal ,highness ,prince ,albert1 for the model dwelling houses which were erected near the ,exhibition building1 and exhibited by the ,prince1 ,mr4 ,brunel spoke in emphatic language of the magnitude and importance of the results which would follow from the introduction of improved dwellings for the working classes4#ahc 99 99 99 99 99 ,when the ,crystal ,palace ,company was formed in order to purchase the ,exhibition building and erect it1 with additions1 at ,sydenham1 ,mr4 ,brunel took a great interest in the project1 and frequently went down to examine the progress of the building and gardens1 and the beautiful architectural courts which were to be the chief attraction in the interior of the ,palace4 ,the water towers1 which are so conspicuous a feature in the building1 were designed by him4 ,the towers are #bhd feet high1 and carry near the top tanks #dg feet in diameter and #ch feet high1 holding #a1bjj tons of water4 ,the foundations required great care in their construction4 ,the tanks had to be placed at a height of more than #bjj feet1 and the towers1 which1 with their load1 weighed fully #c1jjj tons each1 had to rest on the sloping side of a clay hill4 ,there was also the possibility that by the bursting of a pipe a large quantity of water might be suddenly discharged1 and so cause a slip in the surrounding ground4 ,mr4 ,brunel carried the foundations down to a considerable depth1 forming a large base of ,portland cement concrete1 and placing on it a cone of brickwork in cement1 rising up to the ground level4 ,the towers are twelve-sided1 with two hollow cast-iron columns at each angle4 ,the height of the building below the tanks is divided into ten stories1 and at each floor there is a strong wrought-iron diaphragm1 or shelf1 #e feet wide4 ,the columns are also connected by strong diagonal bracing in the sides of the tower4 ,the tanks are made of wrought iron1 and the water pipes are placed in the interior of the tower4 ,mr4 ,brunel did not think it would be prudent to form any of the columns of the towers into pipes1 lest the expansion due to the temperature of the water should cause unequal support to be given to the tanks4 ,in ,july #ahee1 the pipes were proved1 and the towers were completed shortly afterwards4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the remainder of this chapter will relate to matters which have but little in common with the subjects of the earlier part of it2 but the change is hardly less marked than that which took place in the nature of the questions which occupied public attention within a few years of the close of the ,great ,exhibition4 ,polygonal ,rifle4 ,in ,october #aheb1 ,mr4 ,brunel consulted ,mr4 ,westley ,richards1 of ,birmingham1 as to the manufacture of a rifle #8for the purpose of determining whether there was anything in a crotchet he had upon the subject4' ,the rifle was made by ,mr4 ,westley ,richards according to ,mr4 ,brunel's directions1 and finished in ,may #ahed4 ,many experiments were tried with it1 at ,birmingham and at ,manchester1 in the spring of #ahee1 and afterwards at ,woolwich2 and its performances obtained great notoriety4 ,the history of this rifle1 and the objects ,mr4 ,brunel had in view in its design1 will be understood from the following letters to ,mr4 ,westley ,richards3-- ,i4 ,october #be1 #aheb4 ,i have long wanted to try an experiment with a rifle1 for the purpose of determining whether there is anything in a crotchet ,i have upon the subject1 but ,i have been deterred from attempting it from the feeling that in these abominable patenting days 7,i hate patents7 the chances were1 that if1 in the progress of my experiments1 any new result1 good or bad1 were observed1 or a workman should think he saw something1 a patent would be taken over my head1 and1 to say the least1 ,i should be stopped in pursuing my own investigation1 as has happened to me more than once4 ,i have also been deterred by my not knowing whether the existing machinery for rifling barrels would enable me to obtain an increasing or varying twist from one end of the barrel to the other1 as this would be necessary to make the experiment1 and ,i should not care to incur the expense of a machine on purpose4 ,my introduction to you1 through our mutual friend ,whateley1 induces me to make the enquiry whether your apparatus or mode of rifling enables you to give such a twist1 and if so1 whether you could and would make me a barrel4 ,if so1 ,i will trouble you with an explanation of my scheme1 as ,i should have no secrets with you4 ,,ii4 ,february #g1 #ahec4 ,i take this opportunity of mentioning again the subject ,i once wrote or spoke to you about4 ,i want a rifle barrel made octagon shaped inside1 the octagon having a twist rather more than usual1 and an increasing twist1 say twice as much at the mouth of the piece as at the breech4 ,can you make me such a barrel for an experiment8 ,i will explain to you the object when we meet1 as it can only be done viva voce4 ,,iii4 ,the following letter was written to ,mr4 ,westley ,richards in answer to a request that ,mr4 ,brunel would permit him to obtain a license from ,mr4 7now ,sir ,joseph7 ,whitworth to make rifles of a polygonal shape4 ,mr4 ,whitworth had obtained a patent for improvements in cannons1 guns1 and fire-arms1 in ,february #ahee1 and in his complete specification1 dated ,may #cj1 #ahee1 he had for the first time claimed-- ,firstly1 the several combinations of parts forming1 when put together1 the barrels of ordnance1 or fire-arms1 having a polygonal spiral shape4 ,secondly1 the use of the spirally-shaped segments4 ,thirdly1 the adoption of the polygonal spiral for rifled ordnance and fire-arms4 ,fourthly1 the combination of parts forming the breech-loading apparatus4 ,november #bf1 #aheh4 ,i am obliged to you for your communication on the subject of the octagon gun1 and in acknowledging your courtesy and gentlemanly feeling ,i would add that it is only what ,i always felt ,i could rely upon from you4 ,i beg you will not hesitate to take out a license from ,mr4 ,whitworth for octagon guns 7if1 as a matter of business1 you think it convenient to do so7 on account of any prior claim which you may know ,i could set up1 and if you get a license for a nominal consideration1 as ,i understand you can1 of course as a man of business you should do so4 ,i have no intention of interfering with ,mr4 ,whitworth's patent1 even to indulge the feeling ,i have against all patents and protective laws1 which ,i consider have become the curse of the day1 and the sources of the greatest injury to inventors and manufacturers1 and still more to the public2 and ,i should also be very sorry even to annoy my friend ,mr4 ,whitworth merely for the sake of showing that ,i had previously made the gun 7at least you made it for me71 and ,i believe others have preceded me1 which he has patented2 and ,i assure you that ,i shall not consider your taking out a license as in any way a denial of this fact1 of which you are cognisant4 ,i have never seen ,whitworth's patent2 what is it exactly that he does patent8 ,it cannot be merely the polygon1 because1 even if nobody had preceded me1 that would have been already a copy of mine1 which not only was made before he began his investigation1 but was lent by me1 at your request1 to him1 ,i think before his patent4 ,my rifle is1 ,i am told1 doing quite wonders at ,woolwich1 and ,i begin to think there must be something in the principle which ,i intended to introduce into it1 and which is totally different from what ,i understood to be ,whitworth's4 ,i sought to use a comparatively loose ball1 but which ,i thought would centre itself1 both in position and direction1 to the axis of the barrel by the peculiar action of a polygon within a polygon acted upon by an increasing pitch1 and it really seems from the results as if my theory was correct4#ahd ,gunnery ,experiments4 ,in #ahed ,mr4 ,brunel took up warmly the question of improvement in large guns1 which was then attracting the attention of several scientific men4 ,the friendship which had for some years previously existed between him and ,mr4 7now ,sir ,william7 ,armstrong1 of ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 gave ,mr4 ,brunel opportunities for discussing these matters1 with a view to their being carried into practical effect4 ,the following extracts from a letter written by ,mr4 ,brunel1 in ,april #ahee1 to ,mr4 ,james ,nasmyth1 explain generally his opinions at that time upon the construction of large guns3-- ,from what ,i have observed of the operation of fractures under sudden1 quick-acting forces--such as bursting of guns1 and fractures under blows1 as in our railway smashes--,i have arrived deliberately by observation at the conclusion1 which every mechanical-minded man arrives at more or less by intuition1 that homogeneity and equality of tension and of elasticity in the parts are necessary for strength to resist a violent strain applied suddenly in its full force1 which ,i will call a blow4 ,my impression1 from the result of observation1 is1 that this operates much more than is generally assumed4 ,if you suppose a bar1 say an axle of uniform section and uniform quality in every respect1 it will bear bending into extraordinary forms even by a blow2 and if you assume that portions of it become more tenacious and stronger1 but remain equally elastic1 the ultimate strength of this bar will not1 ,i think1 be materially increased or diminished2 but if you suppose the elasticity of these portions either increased or diminished1 ,i believe the ultimate strength of the bar under a blow is diminished4 ,in like manner1 ,i imagine that in the section of a gun barrel1 if portions are more or less elastic than others1 or at all different in their character1 not only many points of fracture may be determined on1 but that the whole may be rendered much less able to resist the violent explosion4 ,the strain produced by the explosion and the plane of fracture is almost certain to be in a plane passing through the longitudinal axis1 and therefore ,i had assumed that one would avoid as much as possible having any variation of quality which fagotting must produce to some extent in planes in this direction4 ,to attain this end1 ,i had endeavoured to scheme some way of welding up #8cheeses' or discs1 which might be hammered up splendidly homogeneous of the full diameter and of a considerable thickness1 and ,i wish that you would scheme the best way of welding them together4 ,i should suppose that the centre surface might be welded1 and wedges welded in all round1 or some other mode devised1 bearing in mind that the strain in any plane transverse to the axis is small1 only that arising from the recoil of the breech and the friction of the shot4 ,i have also an impression that something harder than ordinary wrought iron is wanted for the inner surface to resist the explosion4 ,this you might give probably in fagotting up4 ,i am trying the effect--as much for the amusement of the thing as with any great expectation--of a cylinder of hardish material wrapped round with iron wire1 laid on with a certain amount of tension proportioned to the diameter4 ,such a barrel ought to be strong--whether practically successful is another thing4 ,the scheme of making a gun with the barrel wrapped round with wire1 which is referred to in this letter1 was one which ,mr4 ,brunel and ,mr4 ,armstrong were very desirous of making the subject of actual experiment4 ,whether or not it would under their hands have become practically successful1 could not be ascertained1 as they were obliged to abandon the project1 in consequence of the wire covering being patented1 in ,may #ahee1 by ,mr4 ,longridge4 ,the following letter to ,mr4 ,armstrong relates to the same subject1 and is interesting not only as showing ,mr4 ,brunel's correct appreciation of a principle which is the essence of the coil system of constructing guns1 but as further illustrating his objections to the patent laws3-- ,june #h1 #ahee4 ,have you ever done anything towards my experiment of the wire gun8 ,i have been anxious for some time past to learn about it1 but have waited to see you2 to-day ,i learn that ,longridge is taking out a patent for it4 ,i daresay it is his own idea1 and ,i only regret it1 as ,i suppose it will now prevent my pursuing it2 and ,i think it likely that with your assistance we should have succeeded in making at least as good a gun as he will4 ,the principle ,i am disposed to think good2 the success would depend upon the practical application1 and but for these patents1 the more competitors the better for the public4 ,as it is1 competition is destroyed4 ,let me know if you had done anything4 ,pray let me know also what you are doing about your own1 in which ,i feel equally interested4 ,mr4 ,brunel had also considered the advantages of making the bore of the gun polygonal1 with a projectile shaped to fit it4 ,he had a portion of cannon tube and a projectile made by ,mr4 ,armstrong in the beginning of #ahee1 but he did not himself pursue the question further4 ,indeed1 after the middle of the year #ahef1 when the works of the #8,great ,eastern' steam-ship began to occupy a large portion of his time1 ,mr4 ,brunel was unable any longer to take part in gunnery investigations2 but he watched with unabated interest the proceedings of those friends who have continued their experiments1 with the great practical success of which he lived to see only the beginning4 ,floating ,gun-,carriage4 ,the plan of a gun-boat1 or1 as it would be more correctly called1 a floating gun-carriage1 which ,mr4 ,brunel designed for an attack on ,cronstadt and other ,baltic forts during the ,russian war1 is clearly described in the following memorandum1 which he drew up for the information of the ,admiralty3-- ,december #bj1 #ahee4 ,the principle is simply the fixing a very heavy gun in a floating shot-proof chamber or casemate1 exposing the smallest possible surface2 that surface to be of such a form as to be struck by shot only at a very oblique angle2 and the gun being a fixture1 with the means only of elevating and depressing to an extent of #aj or #ab degrees1 but with no lateral motion1 the port or embrasure need be only of the size of the muzzle of the gun1 so that the gun1 the men working the gun1 and everything on board will be perfectly protected4 ,the gun will be directed by elevating the breech1 and by slewing the vessel slightly and slowly backwards and forwards across the line of aim1 by means afterwards explained4 ,the men loading the gun will simply load as quickly as they can1 and when the gun is loaded push out a trigger4 ,the governor or person directing the gun will stand behind the hood or chamber1 looking direct at the object through a telescope of low power1 fixed horizontally in the axis of the vessel1 and made to move vertically parallel with the axis of the gun1 and mounted with reflectors2 so that both telescope and man are completely under cover1 and he1 keeping the vessel truly in range and the elevation correct1 will only touch the trigger whenever his line of sight crosses the object4 ,the vessel will carry a small engine1 of power sufficient to drive it for a short time at a good speed1 say eight or nine knots1 and at other times to keep up a small forward motion to counteract the recoil1 and to keep the vessel's head moving a few degrees right and left across the line of range4 ,a sufficient portion of the vessel to contain and to float the gun1 ammunition1 and engine1 will be shot-proof4 ,a fore-body and after-body1 the top of which will be fleur-d'eau1 or a few inches under water1 will be added1 to give such a form of entrance and run as will admit of the vessel attaining the speed mentioned2 but these parts will be mere shells1 and may be full of water1 and if damaged by shot will not affect the buoyancy of the float1 besides which1 not being above the surface of the water1 they cannot be much exposed to injury4 ,the mode of propelling may be by a screw1 but ,i prefer the #8jet1' which1 whether an economical mode of propelling or not1 is a sufficiently good one for this purpose1 and exposes nothing whatever to be injured by shot4#ahe ,whether propelled by jet or not1 ,i should have two small lateral jets for directing the vessel1 such jets being governed by two cocks handled by the gunner4 ,such a mode of directing the aim by a man under cover looking through a telescope1 with one hand directing the gun and the other on the trigger1 will admit of an almost unlimited degree of accuracy4 ,the gun being in a perfectly shot-proof casemate1 machinery may be adapted to expedite the loading of the gun2 and it is not difficult to make a mechanical arrangement by which the shot and cartridge shall be lifted up to the gun1 inserted1 and rammed home1 at a rate far exceeding anything that can now be done by hand2 and as the weight and clumsiness of the gun1 the carriage1 and machinery are of no object1 ,i think ,i can make a breech-loading gun capable of carrying #ab-;inch solid shot with a full charge1 which may be loaded and discharged at the rate of two or three per minute2 but the principle of mounting a gun in such a float is equally applicable to a common gun1 which might still be loaded mechanically4 ,a few loopholes may be provided through which a fire could be kept up from a couple of heavy swivel rifles1 carrying1 say #f-oz4 shot1 which would pierce any mantelets or other cover likely next year to be provided against ordinary rifles4 ,a battery1 say of twelve such guns1 should probably have also two1 or perhaps three1 shot-proof vessels of about the same size without guns1 but pierced with a longitudinal fin or ridge1 like a wall1 standing1 say #aj feet above the water1 and #ej or #fj feet long1 strong enough to stand the direct blow of heavy shot at long range1 or the oblique blow of the same shot at short range1 and which could be placed as screens or traverses to cover the flanks of the battery against distant shot4 ,against vertical fire ,i cannot suggest any defence3 the point of attack must be selected to avoid it4 ,the covering vessels may be provided also with loop-holes for heavy swivels4 ,there should also be two or three small and comparatively light1 but shot-proof vessels1 to run in and bring out a disabled gun-boat4 ,these last-named auxiliary unarmed boats form an essential part of the system4 ,in all probability the enemy have by this time thrown stones and other obstacles1 and placed infernal machines round the detached fort1 to impede a close approach4 ,they cannot1 however1 have covered a very large surface1 so that1 with some previous sounding1 an approach may be found and a position taken up4 ,the auxiliary boats should therefore have strong bottoms under the engine-room1 and the rest of the body be so subdivided into compartments that they would be proof against serious damage from rocks and infernal machines1 and be able to run in under fire and ascertain if obstructions exist1 and find the channel if they do4 ,a battery of such guns could be placed at various points out of range1 say at #c1jjj yards1 at which distance they would hardly attract attention by daylight1 and would not be visible in the twilight of night1 and could then be concentrated in a few minutes at the point selected for attack within safe breeching distance1 say #bej yards2 and1 if twenty-four shot per minute1 of #bjj lbs4 to #bej lbs4 each1 thrown with a full charge at #bej yards1 can be directed against a small surface of any stone wall yet built 7which is pierced with embrasures71 the effect ought to be great and rapid4 ,i believe1 moreover1 that the means of directing the aim will be so effective that if the embrasures can be seen a shell or shot may always be sent in with certainty at #bej yards1 and the enemy's guns dismounted4 ,such vessels can rapidly change their position1 retreat or advance1 be replaced by fresh ones1 or withdrawn altogether4 ,the means of transport of such vessels to the seat of war1 although a secondary consideration1 has been considered4 ,they might easily be placed in an outer shell of iron of a good form1 which could be rigged complete1 and so constructed as to give up its burden when arrived in the seas where it is to act--in fact1 a ship of the class of small screw colliers1 made to open at the bows and its contents floated out ready for action2 but the gun-boat itself1 when lightened of ammunition1 and the gun lowered to the bottom as ballast1 and fitted up with bulwarks1 and a light movable iron chamber1 forming a water-tight forecastle-deck reaching back1 say #cj feet1 and schooner-rigged1 will1 ,i undertake to say1 make a very fair sea boat4 ,probably no compasses could be #8corrected' to be trusted to in such a mass of iron1 but a compass fixed to the mizenmast1 say at #cj feet from the deck1 would be all that could be required4 ,immediately abaft the hood or gun-chamber there would be a space under cover from shot where a companion and skylight could be fitted up when at sea1 and through which light and air could be obtained at all times when fitted for service4 ,the funnel1 if ever used when the vessel is not in action1 would be removed for fighting1 and the steam and smoke ejected through an oblique aperture right aft4 ,the only point to be determined by experiment is whether a moderate thickness of iron of the best quality will stand heavy shot at short range striking very obliquely1 say at the worst at an angle of #cj degrees4 ,by the form of the proposed vessel1 however1 when placed in position at #bej yards of any of the ,cronstadt forts1 it could not be struck at #cj degrees1 and probably #ii out of #ajj shots that hit would graze at an angle of #aj to #bj degrees4 ,a small part only round the port1 or what may be more correctly termed the muzzle-hole1 could be struck with a direct blow4 ,there is every reason to believe that slabs of iron of good quality of #d inches thick would stand against such grazing1 provided they are put together without being weakened by holes and with some other precautions1 and that sound forgings of #aj or #ab inches thick1 if of sufficient weight in a single piece1 would stand the direct blow4 ,i do not believe that less than this would be safe against #fh-lb41 or1 as we must expect to meet with1 #abj-lb4 shot at short range1 even when struck obliquely1 and this thickness can be applied without requiring1 with the gun ammunition1 c41 more than #f feet #i inches1 say #g feet draught of water4 ,another inch of thickness would require another foot of draught2 but if it has been ascertained that the charts are correct1 there would appear to be #aj to #ae feet of water close up to the principal detached forts1 and it would be an immense advantage to take #i feet draught of water1 and have an unquestionably invulnerable skin4 ,if it were considered desirable to construct such a battery1 it is now barely possible to do it in time for the coming season2 but if possible1 it could only be rendered so by ascertaining exactly the dimension and form of iron that each of the large makers could turn out with their present tools1 and according to their present experience and habits1 and to design the details to suit their existing means1 sacrificing probably much that would render the result more perfect for the sake of rendering it possible to obtain anything in time4 ,no doubt promises and even contracts could easily be obtained for making anything in any given time1 and zealous and honest efforts afterwards made to effect what had been undertaken2 but if the slightest attempt is made that involves new tools or new practices1 promises and contracts will not effect impossibilities1 and the probability is that the short time still available will be lost4 ,while all the preparations shall be made on the assumption that the result is attainable and will be successful1 trials must be made1 without loss of time1 on the several points to be determined--as to the resistance of the iron1 c4 ,if they fail1 the expense incurred up to that time in preparing for the whole work will not have been great4 ,if they succeed1 it is just possible that by great exertions but1 above all1 by judicious and methodical plans of proceeding1 a complete battery might be launched ready for service in five months4 ,lastly1 ,i should observe that although the main feature of the plan is the resisting the effects of the enemy's shot by always exposing an oblique surface1 yet the chances of fatal damage would be small if such vessels were to run the gauntlet1 at night1 through the deep channel1 and get into the waters east of ,cronstadt4 ,or if this is very desirable1 as ,i should think it must be1 nothing is easier than to lift the whole flotilla over the shoal water and launch them into the deep water beyond4 ,mr4 ,brunel had matured these plans in ,september #ahed1 and they were then brought under the notice of the ,admiralty2 but no steps were taken to test the practicability of the scheme4 ,he was1 however1 induced to make a further representation to the ,admiralty in the following ,july4 ,he wrote1-- ,having endeavoured ineffectually several times at the commencement of the war to impress upon members of the ,government the great advantages that might be derived from the use of iron floating batteries or gun-boats1 if properly constructed1 ,i made another effort at the close of the last year's campaign1 but early enough to have allowed of the construction of what ,i proposed before the opening of the ,baltic in the present year1 and caused my plans to be submitted to the ,admiralty through a friend4 ,they were not approved1 and ,i should judge from the answer ,i received that they were not understood1 and ,i was never applied to for an explanation4 ,i had no object in view but the public good1 and ,i therefore kept the idea1 such as it was1 unpublished1 believing the principle to be sound and good1 and that the day would come when it might be usefully applied1 and the more usefully to this country if not previously publicly discussed4 ,i have no other object to serve now2 but after the clear proof that ,i was correct in the opinion ,i shared with so many other persons of the entire inability of any of the present floating ships1 boats1 or war engines to cope with any moderately constructed and well-armed land battery1 ,i think it right once more1 and this time more formally1 to urge upon ,government the consideration of the construction of armaments mechanically constructed and properly fitted for the special object4 ,i beg to say that ,i do not mean a consideration in the ordinary mode1 by the able and practical1 but still executive officers of departments1 whether engineers or ship-builders1 because ,i believe that ,i must be myself1 from my practical experience in this particular branch1 at least as competent1 if not more so1 to judge in questions of mechanical construction1 whether it be the forging or casting of a gun of large dimensions1 or the construction of a vessel fit for navigation and capable of resisting shot1 or the best mode of propelling such a vessel--on all which branches ,i have had much and tolerably successful practice2 but ,i ask on public grounds for the deliberate consideration by men of judgment and experience in the military branch of the subject1 such as the attack upon a fortified place1 of which ,i cannot pretend to be a competent judge1 and by men in a position to be able to express freely their independent opinions of the advantages that might be attained by the principle ,i propose1 if capable of being successfully carried out4 ,although the want of efficient gun-boats was then severely felt1 this letter appears to have produced no effect upon the ,board of ,admiralty4 ,but the friend who had originally brought the matter under the notice of the ,board took the bold step of writing to ,lord ,palmerston1 and acquainting him with what had passed4 ,lord ,palmerston at once saw the importance of investigating the subject1 and sent for ,mr4 ,brunel1 who explained the plans to him4 ,lord ,palmerston then asked him to see the officials at the ,admiralty4 ,mr4 ,brunel did so2 but great delay followed4 ,it was1 however1 unimportant1 as hostilities soon afterwards terminated1 and there was no further need of gun-boats1 good or bad4 ,this project did not exist only in the outline in which it is described in the memorandum given above4 ,mr4 ,brunel had worked out all the calculations of displacement1 c41 and had made designs and models for the boat and its various appliances1 and had been for some months in constant communication with ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,armstrong upon the form and construction of the gun4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this will be a fitting place to mention that in #ahee ,captain ,cowper ,coles1 ,c4,b41 showed ,mr4 ,brunel the designs for his shot-proof raft1 the principle of which was afterwards developed in the turret ship4 ,mr4 ,brunel gave ,captain ,coles the benefit of his advice on the various questions involved1 and allowed him to use the services of his principal draughtsman1 and to have the drawings got out in his office without expense4 ,captain ,coles1 in a lecture which he delivered at the ,united ,service ,institution on ,june #bi1 #ahfj1 warmly acknowledged the obligations he was under to ,mr4 ,brunel for this act of kindness and generosity1 and said that it had greatly encouraged him to persevere in bringing his plans into public notice4 ,renkioi ,hospital4 ,in ,february #ahee1 after the first winter of the allied armies in the ,crimea1 ,mr4 ,brunel was asked by the ,war ,department to undertake the design and construction of hospital buildings for the ,east4 ,he replied 7on the same day that he received this application1 ,february #af7 that his #8time and best exertions would be1 without any limitations1 entirely at the service of ,government4' ,he was accordingly appointed as engineer1 and proceeded to design and superintend the manufacture of the required buildings and all their internal arrangements4 ,they were sent out under his supervision1 and erected at ,renkioi1 on the ,dardanelles4 ,all use for the buildings was ended with the conclusion of peace2 but1 for the seven months during which they were occupied1 they added much to the comfort of more than thirteen hundred sick and wounded soldiers4 ,many of the special arrangements adopted at ,mr4 ,brunel's suggestion have been since brought into general use2 and the success of these buildings was1 to a considerable extent1 influential in leading the ,americans to construct similar hospitals during their civil war4 ,these are now 7#ahgj7 being copied in the ,german armies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of the ,renkioi hospital buildings is a striking instance of the zeal with which ,mr4 ,brunel entered into any undertaking which had a claim upon his assistance1 of the varied experience and fertility of invention which he could bring to bear upon any subject1 however remote it might seem to be from his ordinary occupations1 and of the minute personal attention he was accustomed to give to every detail1 as the only certain means of ensuring success4 ,mr4 ,brunel entered upon his duties on ,february #af1 and reported to the ,war ,office on ,march #e that he had not lost any time nor spared any exertion or any means in his power to forward the important business he had undertaken4 ,he stated that he availed himself freely of the advice and assistance of all persons to whom he could apply with any prospect of advantage2 and he added1 #8,it is most gratifying to be able to state that from everybody ,i have received the most zealous and cordial assistance1 and found it sufficient to mention the object of my enquiries to obtain immediately every assistance ,i could possibly require4' ,an experimental ward was erected a few days afterwards on the premises of the ,great ,western ,railway at ,paddington1 and was carefully criticised by competent persons2 and1 the plans having been approved of1 specifications were made1 with drawings of the various parts1 and tenders were invited for the construction of the buildings4 ,the following paper gives a description of the buildings1 and was written by ,mr4 ,brunel in order to satisfy the curiosity of his friends3l-- ,march #ahee4 ,the conditions that it was considered necessary to lay down in designing these buildings were1-- ,first4 ,that they should be capable of adapting themselves to any plot of ground that might be selected1 whatever its form1 level1 or inclination1 within reasonable limits4 ,secondly4 ,that each set of buildings should be capable of being easily extended from one holding #ejj patients to one for #a1jjj or #a1ejj1 or whatever might be the limit which sanitary or other conditions might prescribe4 ,thirdly4 ,that when erected they might be sure to contain every comfort which it would be possible under the circumstances to afford4 ,and-- ,fourthly4 ,that they should be very portable1 and of the cheapest construction4 ,the mode in which it has been sought to comply with these conditions is as follows3--#ahf ,the whole hospital will consist of a number of separate buildings1 each sufficiently large to admit of the most economical construction1 but otherwise small and compact enough to be easily placed on ground with a considerable slope1 without the necessity of placing the floor of any part below the level of the ground1 or of having any considerable height of foundation to carry up under any other part4 ,these separate buildings have been made all of the same size and shape2 so that1 with an indefinite length of open corridor to connect the various parts1 they may be arranged in any form1 to suit the levels and shape of the ground4 ,each building1 except those designed for stores and general purposes1 is made to contain in itself all that is absolutely essential for an independent hospital ward-room2 so that1 by the lengthening of the corridors1 and the addition of any number of these buildings1 the hospital may be extended to any degree4 ,to ensure the necessary comforts1 and particularly to provide against the contingency of any cargo of materials not arriving on the spot in time1 each building contains within itself two ward-rooms1 one nurse's room1 a small store-room1 bath-room1 and surgery1 water-closets1 lavatories1 and ventilating apparatus4 ,the ward-room is made wide enough and high enough to ensure a good space of air to each bed1 even if these should be unduly crowded4 ,each building contains two ward-rooms1 intended for twenty-six beds each1 which is found in practice to be a size of room admitting of proper control and supervision4 ,with respect to closets and lavatories1 after examining and considering everything that has been done1 both in hospitals of the best description and poor-houses of the cheapest construction1 it was found that the requisite security for cleanliness and the greatest amount of economy of labour1 and of consumption of water1 could be obtained by a cheap description of water-closet designed for the purpose2 and with the same object of diminishing the amount of labour and the waste of water1 and securing cleanliness without depending upon the constant attention of assistants1 fixed basins for lavatories and mechanical appliances for supplying and drawing off water were adopted4 ,as a protection against heat1 experience in hot climates and experiments made expressly for the purpose satisfactorily proved that a covering of extremely thin and highly polished tin1 which reflects all direct rays of heat1 was the cheapest1 lightest1 and most effective protection1 and every piece of woodwork not covered with tin is to be whitewashed externally4 ,internally the lime-wash has a slight tint of colour1 to take off the glare4#ahg ,to secure ventilation in a hot climate with low buildings extending over a large area1 and therefore incapable of being connected with any general system of ventilation1 it was considered that forcing in fresh air by a small mechanical apparatus attached to each building would be the only effective means4 ,each ward-room is therefore furnished with a small fan1 or rotatory air-pump1 which1 easily worked by one man1 is found capable of supplying #a1jjj to #a1ejj cubic feet of air per minute1 or #bj to #cj feet for each patient4 ,this air is conveyed along the centre of the floors of each ward-room1 and rising up under foot-boards placed under the tables1 is found to flow over the floor to every part of the room4 ,besides this mechanical supply of air1 opening windows are provided along the whole length of the eaves1 and spaces left immediately beneath the roof at the two gables1 amply sufficient together to ventilate the rooms thoroughly if any breezes are stirring1 without the help of the fan4 ,the light is admitted by a long range of narrow windows1 immediately under the eaves1 which protect them from the direct rays of the sun4 ,these windows open1 and are provided with shutters inside1 which exclude the light1 but admit the air4 ,by forcing the air into the room1 instead of drawing it out1 the entrance of bad air from the closets1 drains1 or any surrounding nuisances is prevented4 ,the fan is placed at the opposite end to the closets and drains2 and all the fans being in the open corridor1 the workmen can be seen by a single sentry1 and kept to their work4 ,the buildings1 as now constructed1 are adapted to protect the interior from external heat4 ,should winter come while they are still in use1 the framework is adapted to receive an internal lining of boarding1 and the interstices can be filled with a non-conductor4 ,two buildings1 of the same form and dimensions1 are fitted up with every convenience as store-rooms and apothecaries' dispensaries4 ,an iron kitchen1 slightly detached from the wooden buildings1 fitted up with every contrivance capable of cooking for from #ejj to #a1jjj patients1 is attached4 ,a similar building of iron is fitted up with all the machinery lately introduced in the baths and washhouses of ,london for washing and drying in the minimum space1 and with the least amount of labour4 ,if an aggregate of buildings should be placed in one spot for more than #a1jjj patients1 a second kitchen would be added1 but the single washhouse would be sufficient4 ,with each set of buildings is sent a pumping apparatus1 a small general reservoir1 and a sufficient length of main1 with all its branches1 to supply water to every detached building2 and all the pipes and branches are of such construction as to admit of being put together without any soldering or cement4 ,a system of drains is provided1 formed of wooden trunks properly prepared1 and of sufficient extent to form a complete and perfect system of drainage from every building to a safe distance from the general hospital4#ahh ,a number of small buildings1 intended to be detached from the main body1 are provided for residences for the officers and servants of the establishment1 and for a small detachment of soldiers4 ,a slaughter-house and store-yard and some other appurtenances are also provided1 the extent of which depends on the circumstances of each case4 ,the construction of each building has been studied with very great care1 so as to secure the minimum amount of material1 the least possible amount of work in construction or erection1 and the means of arranging all the parts in separate packages capable each of being carried by two men2 and the result is that each building is the cheapest and lightest that has yet been constructed in proportion to the area covered4 ,for the transport of the materials to the spot selected1 two sailing-vessels and three steamboats1 capable of carrying one hospital for #a1jjj men1 which is the first about to be sent out1 have been secured4 ,in each vessel is sent a certain number of complete buildings1 with every detail1 including their proportion of water-pipes and drains1 closets1 lavatories1 baths1 c41 and a small amount of surplus material and tools2 and in each of two separate vessels are sent a set of pumps and mains1 and a kitchen and washhouse4 ,so that by no accident1 mistake1 or confusion1 short of the loss of several of the ships1 can there fail to be a certain amount of hospital accommodation1 provided with every comfort and essential4 ,the peculiar circumstances under which these establishments are likely to be placed have required not only peculiarities of construction1 but these1 in turn1 have required numerous provisions and details specially designed for the case4 ,as all the buildings1 except the kitchen and washhouse1 are entirely constructed of wood1 it is considered essential that no stove or fire-place of any description should be allowed in any part1 except in the iron buildings2 in these there is provision for an ample supply of hot water1 but each ward-building is provided with a small boiler1 heated by candles1 which by experiment have been found amply sufficient for all that can be required4 ,candles are to be used exclusively for lighting1 and lamps and lanterns have been constructed for the purpose4 ,a proper supply of fire-engines is provided1 and other precautionary measures are adopted against fire4 ,the condition of portability requiring that the walls and roofs should be of the thinnest and slightest possible construction1 protection against heat has been provided for in the manner before referred to1 and good ventilation secured by mechanical means4 ,but1 in addition to this1 there is a very simple provision made for passing the air over a considerable extent of water surface2 which would not only cool it1 but diminish the effect of excessive dryness1 which is said to be occasionally in this climate more oppressive than even the temperature4 ,as the space in the wards is very liable to be encroached upon1 and the beds crowded1 portable baths have been designed1 into which the more helpless patients can be lifted1 and lowered1 on a frame or sack1 without requiring space for assistants to stand around1 or with the bath placed only at the foot of the bed4 ,the kitchen and laundry have each required many special contrivances4 ,the instructions given to ,mr4 ,brunton1 the engineer1 who has been sent out for the purpose of erecting these buildings1 are1 to commence by determining on his plan of arrangement to suit the peculiarities of the ground1 and then to construct the complete system of drainage and to lay on the water supply before the buildings are rendered capable of receiving patients2 and all the arrangements of the details are designed with the view of obtaining1 as the first conditions1 a perfect system of drainage1 a good supply of water1 free ventilation1 and the most perfect cleanliness1 quite independent of labour and of the continued attention of assistants2 these conditions being assumed as essentials1 preceding even the mere covering in of space and providing shelter for patients4 ,the cost of these buildings1 delivered ready for shipment1 will be from #ahl4 to #bbl4 per bed1 allowing #a1jjj cubic feet of space in each ward-room to each bed4 ,if pressing emergency should lead to the beds being placed closer1 and fifty per cent4 more patients should be introduced1 it is believed that the perfect system of ventilation which is secured would render these hospitals very superior to any now in use for the army4 ,of the cost above named1 about #abl4 per bed is that due to the ward-rooms themselves1 with all their conveniences attached1 and the rest arises from the cost of the store-rooms1 kitchen1 machinery1 residences1 and appurtenances4 ,the cargo space required for their conveyance is about a ton and a half to a ton and three-quarters measurement per bed4 ,as the buildings were completed the work of transport was commenced2 and twenty-three steamers and sailing-vessels were despatched1 containing altogether about #aa1ejj tons measurement of materials and stores4 ,the first vessel arrived out on ,may #g1 #ahee1 and the last on ,december #e1 in the same year4 ,meanwhile the important question of the site for the hospital buildings was being determined by ,dr4 ,parkes1 the ,medical ,superintendent1 with the assistance of ,mr4 ,brunton1 who was in constant communication with ,mr4 ,brunel on the subject4 ,after visiting various places1 ,dr4 ,parkes finally selected a spot near the village of ,renkioi1 on the ,dardanelles4 ,in a report which he addressed to the ,secretary of ,state for ,war upon the formation and general management of the hospital1 he thus describes #8the nature of the site1 and the means which were used in the formation of the hospital3'-- ,the piece of land on which the hospital was placed was a shelving bank of a light1 porous1 sandy soil1 resting on marl2 it contained about #bgj acres1 stretched tongue-like into the waters of the ,dardanelles1 and was bounded inland by a low range of sandstone hills1 which were themselves backed by rather lofty ranges of oolitic limestone1 intersected by deep ravines4 ,the tongue of land formed two bays1 north and south1 in both of which was good anchorage for ships1 and as the wind blew almost always up or down the ,dardanelles1 i4e4 from the north-east or south-west1 one or other of these bays was comparatively calm in all winds except those which came infrequently from the west4 ,the position of the spot was on the ,asiatic coast1 nine miles from the mouth of the ,dardanelles1 in lat4 #dj #b1 long4 #bf #ba4 ,it was the site of the port of an old ,greek city1 the ancient ,ophrynium4 ,the extreme point of this tongue of land was about #aj feet above the sea1 but from this point it rose regularly and gradually to about #ajj feet above the sea4 ,an admirable fall was thus given for drainage1 and so gradual was the rise that the wooden houses were placed on the ground without terracing or excavation1 whereby very great expense was saved4 ,the extreme length from the point to a spot too steep for the erection of houses was about half a mile1 and we were enabled thus to place down the centre of the tongue of land no less than thirty-four houses1 capable of holding #a1ejj sick1 in one long line on either side of the central corridor1 an arrangement which facilitated very greatly the laying of both water-pipes and drain-tubes4 ,in fact1 we were able to carry out the plan which ,mr4 ,brunel had suggested as the best4 ,there was enough space on the tongue of land1 on either side of this long central line1 for two shorter parallel lines of seventeen houses each4 ,these two lines were placed one to the north1 and the other to the south of the large central hospital4 ,each was capable of containing #gej men1 and one of them to the north was nearly completed when the declaration of peace put a stop to the works4 ,on the sides of the hills in rear were numerous small springs of excellent water1 which were collected together and conveyed in earthenware pipes to a large reservoir1 placed by ,mr4 ,brunton #gj feet above the highest house1 which was itself about #fj feet above the sea4 ,from this reservoir the water was carried in iron pipes down the centre of the long corridor1 and at every ward 7which was placed at intervals at either side of the corridor7 a leaden service-pipe came off1 and led an abundant and never-ceasing supply into the ward cisterns1 which supplied the baths1 lavatories1 and closets4 ,by this arrangement all necessity for pumping water was avoided1 and the sewers were able to be flushed very perfectly4 ,the lavatories and closets were placed at the ends of the wards most remote from the corridor1 and immediately outside them ran the two main sewers1 which at their sea terminations were carried some distance into the ,dardanelles4 ,the plan of the hospital may be at once understood by imagining a covered way1 open at the sides1 and #bb feet wide1 running nearly east and west1 and reaching for a length of more than a third of a mile1 on either side of which stood1 at intervals of #bg feet on the south side1 and in most cases #id feet on the north1 the thirty-four houses1 each of which1 as already said1 was #ajj feet long1 #dj feet wide1 #ab feet high at the eaves1 and #be in the centre1 and was capable of containing fifty patients1 with an allowance of nearly #a1cjj cubic feet of air for each man4 ,some portion of this space was occupied by the closets and some small rooms used as orderlies' and bath-rooms4 ,thirty of these houses were used as wards2 four were used as dispensaries and purveyor's stores4 ,a drawing by ,mr4 ,brunton1 showing the arrangements of one of the wards1 is attached4#ahi ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,,renkioi ,,hospital4 ,,ward ,,building4 ,a4 ,corridor ,b4 ,ward room ,c4 ,orderlies' bed-room ,d4 ,bath-room ,e4 ,medical officer ,f4 ,lavatory1 c4 g4 ,ventilating fan h4 ,ventilating air-trunk i4 ,main drain j4 ,tables in wards ,transverse ,section4 ,longitudinal ,section4 ,ground plan4 ,scale of feet4 ,to the south of each division of ten houses was placed an iron kitchen1 which afforded the necessary accommodation for preparing #ejj diets4 ,at the inland extremity of the corridor were placed two iron laundries1 the water from which 7some #d1jjj gallons daily7 was passed into the sewers4 ,beyond the laundries were placed on either side the wooden houses of the medical and other officers1 who were thus able to see down either side of this long line1 and to preserve to a certain extent surveillance over the patients4 ,the two smaller hospitals were constructed on a similar plan1 each range having1 however1 only one iron laundry inland1 and one iron kitchen in the centre of the range4 ,about half a mile from the hospital1 close to the sea in the south bay1 three store-houses were erected1 and a railway led from an adjacent jetty or pier by the side of these store-houses to the centre of the main hospital4 ,had the war continued1 it would have been carried to the north pier and bay1 and would also have had a branch running along the corridor of each hospital1 so as to deposit the sick at the very doors of the wards into which they were to go4 ,nothing could exceed the simplicity of the whole arrangement2 it was a repetition of similar parts throughout2 and experience enables me to say1 that nothing could be better adapted for a hospital than this system of isolated buildings1 between every one of which was a large body of moving air1 rendering ventilation easy1 and communication of disease from ward to ward impossible4 ,the introduction of the covered way connecting the various houses was a happy idea4 ,in the summer this corridor was left quite open at the sides1 and formed a cool walk for the convalescents2 while in winter we boarded up its north side1 so that in the coldest blasts of the northern wind the men were protected1 and were able to leave their wards and to take exercise4 ,i need only further observe that1 in order to secure perfect ventilation1 not only were openings left under the eaves and in the gables of the buildings 7which could be closed in cold weather71 but air-shafts were placed under the floors through which #a1jjj cubic feet of air per minute could be forced into the wards by fans placed in the corridor and worked by hand see fig4 #bb4 ,as the amount of wind at ,renkioi was always considerable1 we never had occasion to use these machines2 but had the hospital been placed in a less airy situation1 they would have been of the greatest use4 ,for the construction of this hospital every necessary part was sent out by ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,the houses were erected with great care by ,mr4 ,brunton1 assisted by ,mr4 ,eassie1 jun41 and by eighteen ,english workmen 7thirteen carpenters1 one pipelayer1 three plumbers1 and one smith7 sent out for this purpose4 ,on account of the size and height of the houses 7which were many times the size of the largest ,crimean huts71 the framework was obliged to be put together very carefully1 and ,mr4 ,brunton felt it necessary to employ none but the ,english workmen on this duty2 consequently the erection of the houses took much longer time than we originally anticipated2 but during the winter we had reason to be satisfied that ,mr4 ,brunton had done wisely1 for1 in spite of the heavy winds we often had1 no finished house was ever damaged1 except in one or two instances to a very slight amount4 ,the erection of the houses was commenced on ,may #ba1 #ahee4 ,on ,july #ab1 ,i reported the hospital ready for #cjj sick2 on ,august #aa1 it was ready for #ejj1 and on ,december #d1 for #a1jjj sick4 ,by ,january #ahef1 viz4 seven months after its commencement1 it was ready for #a1ejj sick2 and when the works were discontinued1 at the end of ,march #ahef1 we could1 with a little pressure1 have admitted #b1bjj patients4 ,in about three months more this immense establishment for #c1jjj sick could have been finished and in full activity4 ,on the working of the system1 ,dr4 ,parkes says in his report3-- ,although the hospital was ready for #cjj patients on ,july #ab1 #ahee1 we were not called on to receive sick till ,october #b4 ,from that time till ,february #aa1 eleven ships arrived from ,balaclava and ,smyrna4444 ,after ,february #aa1 #ahef1 we received no more sick4 ,the total number of military patients who were received from these ships was #a1bdd1 and1 in addition1 #hg soldiers were admitted1 either from the guard at ,renkioi or ,abydos1 from transport ships which touched at ,renkioi1 or from the ,english soldiers attached to the ,osmanli ,horse stationed at the town of ,dardanelles during the summer and autumn4 ,the total number of admissions was #a1cca-- ,cured #ifa ,invalided #cbj ,deaths #ej ,besides the military patients1 we admitted #gg civilians4444 ,the total number of patients actually treated was #a1djh1 the largest number at any one time #fdb4444 ,the anticipations we had formed of the health of the spot and of its adaptability for a hospital were quite confirmed by the experience of more than a year4 ,the winter was mild1 and the climate seemed especially adapted for pulmonary complaints1 of which we had a large number4 ,the changes of temperature1 it is true1 were very sudden and great2 but as the men had warm wards1 these changes were not felt1 and there were few days in which the most delicate consumptive patient could not get out into the sheltered corridor for a short time during the day4 ,the construction of the hospital was admirably adapted for men recovering from illness4 ,as all the wards were on the ground1 as soon as a man could crawl he could get into the air either in the cool and sheltered corridor or in the spaces round the hospital4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,april and ,may #ahef the greater number of the patients had been either discharged or invalided home1 and 444 the medical and nursing staff was reduced more than one-half1 and 444 in the middle of ,july the remaining staff was sent home4 ,all the stores which were likely to be used or to sell well in ,england were sent home1 and everything else was sold on the ground4 ,major ,chads1 with twenty soldiers1 and ,mr4 ,brunton remained behind1 to superintend the sale of the buildings1 which took place on ,september #bj4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,professional ,,opinions ,,and ,,practice4 ,,scheme ,,of ,,the ,,chapter--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,position ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,companies ,,of ,,which ,,he ,,was ,,engineer--,,letter ,,on ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,railway ,,works ,,in ,,italy 7,,march #d1 #ahde7--,,letter ,,on ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,joint ,,engineer 7,,october #af1 #ahdc7--,,letter ,,on ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,consulting ,,engineer 7,,december #cj1 #ahea7--,,letter ,,on ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,engineer ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,contractors 7,,may #bf1 #ahed7--,,letters ,,on ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,engineer ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,directors 7,,april #ae1 #ahej2 ,,december #f1 #ahea2 ,,january #bb1 #aheg7--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,assistants--,,letters ,,on ,,interference ,,of ,,directors ,,with ,,the ,,assistant ,,engineers 7,,january #ai1 #ahdb2 ,,january #bh1 #ahdb2 ,,january #ab1 #ahea7--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,pupils--,,his ,,relations ,,with ,,other ,,engineers--,,inventors--,,letter ,,in ,,reply ,,to ,,an ,,inventor 7,,september #ag1 #ahdg7--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,views ,,as ,,to ,,state ,,interference--,,letter ,,on ,,the ,,royal ,,commission ,,on ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,iron ,,to ,,railway ,,structures 7,,march #ac1 #ahdh7--,,letter ,,on ,a ,,proposal ,,to ,,obtain ,,the ,,recognition ,,in ,,england ,,of ,,decorations ,,conferred ,,at ,,the ,,paris ,,exhibition ,,of #ahee 7,,february #i1 #ahef7--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,opinion ,,on ,,the ,,patent ,,laws--,,memorandum ,,for ,,evidence ,,before ,,the ,,select ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,lords ,,on ,,the ,,patent ,,laws1 #ahea--;,,extract ,,from ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,patent ,,laws1 ,,made ,,by ,,mr4 ,,brunel ,,at ,a ,,meeting ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,arts 7,,march #bf1 #ahef74 ,it is proposed in the earlier part of this chapter to describe1 principally by extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's correspondence1 the position occupied by him in regard to the ,companies which he served1 and to the various classes of persons with whom he acted in the discharge of his duties as engineer to those ,companies4 ,these selections are followed by extracts relating to questions of general professional interest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first point to be considered is1 his relations with the ,companies which employed him as their engineer1 and with the ,directors who formed the governing body4 ,mr4 ,brunel conceived that he was1 by virtue of his appointment as engineer1 the sole and confidential adviser of the ,company in all matters relating to the construction and mechanical working of the undertaking4 ,he did not permit any one to be associated with him in the supreme control over those matters which were in his department2 and the moment he thought that confidence was no longer placed in him1 he was prepared at every sacrifice to resign his office4 ,but1 as long as he was supported by the ,directors1 he thoroughly identified himself with their cause1 and he never allowed considerations of health or convenience or pecuniary advantage to interfere with the performance of any service which he could render them4 ,the fearless independence of his position1 combined with his absolute devotion to the interests of his employers1 was no doubt the secret of the immense influence he acquired1 and of the affectionate esteem with which he was regarded by those whom he served4 ,on the ,direction of ,railway ,works4 ,march #d1 #ahde4 ,i have well considered the communication which you did me the honour of making on the part of the ,government of ,his ,majesty the ,king of ,sardinia with reference to my undertaking the direction of the works of the proposed railway from ,genoa to ,alessandria1 about to be executed by the ,government itself4444 ,in the first place ,i assume that if the direction of the works be confided to me as the engineer1 the same degree of confidence will be placed in me1 and the same authority will result from that confidence1 as would be the case in ,england--that is to say1 ,i should be the confidential adviser of the ,government in all engineering questions connected with this railway1 my communications would in all matters be made direct with the ,government1 and as long as ,i continued to be responsible for the direction of the works no other engineer would be consulted or allowed to interfere4 ,of course ,i claim no right to direct anything but that which has the sanction of the ,government2 but ,i should claim to be their sole adviser on all engineering points 7connected with the construction of the railway71 and to possess their entire confidence2 and also that1 if any portion of that full confidence were at any time withdrawn1 the fact should be immediately communicated to me2 when1 after making every possible arrangement to prevent inconvenience to the ,government1 ,i might withdraw from the direction of the work4 ,this is the position which an engineer of any standing occupies in this country1 whether acting for the ,government or for individuals2 and ,i believe it to be as fully essential for the success of the proposed undertaking1 and as necessary for the interests of ,his ,majesty's ,government as for my satisfaction1 that ,i should be placed in a similar position4 ,the circumstance of my being a foreigner1 of my being rarely present to meet objections1 if any are raised1 of the unavoidable frequency of real as well as apparent failures in works of such variety and so numerous as those which occur on this line1 of the difficulties which always attend the introduction of novelties and everything connected with a railway1 the rapid mode of its construction1 the necessity which experience has proved of frequently adopting apparently hasty and hazardous methods to prevent the evil consequences of protracted delays1--all this will be novelty with you as it was a few years ago in ,england1 all these circumstances combine to render it peculiarly essential to the satisfactory progress of the undertaking that it should be well known to all parties that full and entire confidence is placed in me by the ,government4 ,it will of course also be necessary that all parties acting under me in the direction of the works should feel that their appointment or dismissal depends entirely upon me4 ,in return for the confidence thus placed in me and the authority given to me1 ,i should of course know no interest but that of the ,government4 ,if the ,government is willing to appoint me engineer according to this definition of my position1 ,i shall feel pride in the appointment1 and ,i shall devote my best energies to the accomplishment of one of the finest and most interesting works of the day4444 ,on the ,position of ,joint ,engineer4 ,october #af1 #ahdc4 ,the contents of your letter of yesterday take me quite by surprise2 the expression you use of joint-engineership implies a view of our relative position diametrically opposed to the views which ,i have plainly and unequivocally expressed to you and to the ,directors when such a thing as joint-engineership was proposed to and rejected by me4444 ,you wind up your letter by saying #8we have accepted the duty of joint-engineers1' c41 and you add a postscript requesting me to lay your letter before the ,directors3 this ,i should have been obliged to do without any such request4 ,i never accepted the duty of joint-engineer2 ,i have always refused to do so4 ,i thought ,i had made this very clear both to you and the ,directors on several occasions2 indeed ,i often feared that ,i expressed myself too strongly instead of leaving it capable of misapprehension4444 ,on the ,position of ,consulting ,engineer4 ,december #cj1 #ahea4 ,i shall be happy to act in any capacity 7subject to the exception ,i will further explain7 which can be useful to your ,company2 444 but the exception ,i have to make is one which perhaps resolves itself merely into a question of name4 ,the term #8,consulting ,engineer' is a very vague one1 and in practice has been too much used to mean a man who for a consideration sells his name1 but nothing more4 ,now ,i never connect myself with an engineering work except as the ,directing ,engineer1 who1 under the ,directors1 has the sole responsibility and control of the engineering1 and is therefore #8,the ,engineer2' and ,i have always objected to the term #8,consulting ,engineer4' 444 ,in a railway the only works to be constructed are engineering works1 and there can really be only one engineer2 and in your case especially1 where1 as ,i apprehend1 the contractor is part of the company1 and has to be treated with consideration1 and perhaps less vigorously1 at all events differently from an ordinary contractor1 considerable management and discretion will be required of your engineer1 and a degree of responsibility which ,i would only undertake if sole engineer4 ,possibly this is what you meant1 and that ,i alone see the distinction1 but it is an important one with which you may not be so familiar as ,i am4 ,on the ,position of the ,engineer in ,relation to the ,contractors4 ,may #bf1 #ahed4 ,i have in due course taken steps to prepare a report for the ,directors on the state of the work1 but you must not apply to the contractors for such reports4 ,in the first place1 it would lead to ridiculous contradictions1 inasmuch as most likely my reports would differ materially from theirs2 and also it would reverse the whole order of things4 ,i must alone1 so long at least as ,i am the professional adviser of the ,company1 be the medium of communication with contractors in all matters which the terms of the contract refer to me4 ,i am very particular about the regularity of all these forms1 because1 although1 while all goes smooth1 they are of no consequence1 yet if1 unfortunately1 any little difficulties arise1 then it is unpleasant and difficult to alter a previous course4 ,i would ask1 then1 that all official communications with the contractors should be made through me1 and that1 even as regards these1 we should confer together before any formal resolution should at any time be passed1 so as to be sure that it is properly worded1 and that no awkward precedent is established4 ,you may have seen that a great appeal case before the ,lords1 affecting claims of some hundreds of thousands1 has just been finally decided in favour of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company after fourteen years of litigation2#aij and this favourable decision was entirely obtained by carefully prepared specifications1 and by my not having departed in any single case1 in years of correspondence1 from the letter and spirit of the contract1 and particularly from the fact--strongly commented upon by ,lords ,cranworth and ,brougham--that ,i had maintained my position of umpire between the ,company and contractor4 ,it is1 then1 as essential to the ,company as to the contractor and to me that ,i should maintain that position4 ,on the ,relations between the ,engineer and the ,directors4 ,i4 ,april #ae1 #ahej4 ,you will remember that on the #bnd of ,november last ,i addressed you a letter on the subject of my acting as umpire in several cases of reference between the ,company and contractors1 who were raising heavy claims against the ,company1 in which ,i expressed my readiness to act in a very responsible1 laborious1 and thankless position4444 ,i am also still acting1 so far as my services can be useful1 as your engineer2 and in arranging with contractors1 c41 there is even now much remaining to be done4 ,as long as ,i enjoy your full confidence1 it would be a great pleasure to me1 although the profit might for the present be small1 to continue your engineer1 looking forward1 as ,i do1 at no distant period to the completion of the works2 but the changes that have lately taken place in the ,board1 and the excitement which has been displayed by some of your proprietors in effecting those changes--such excitement as is too apt frequently to lead men to form most unjust and erroneous opinions of the trustworthiness of those who have been long engaged in their service--very naturally causes anxiety4 ,i1 and you who have been acting with me for so long1 know that ,i have always advised you honestly1 and ,i hope generally wisely1 on such matters as ,i have been consulted upon1 notwithstanding my known connection with other and sometimes conflicting interests4 ,but new men may not have the same confidence in me1 and ,i cannot afford to run the risk of any doubts being entertained upon the subject4 ,i must therefore beg of you to bring the matter before the ,board formally1 and if it is desired that ,i should continue to act as your engineer1 that ,i may have it clearly understood that ,i do so with the full concurrence of the ,board as now constituted1 and particularly of the new ,directors2 and that to render the expression of their confidence clear1 ,i wish them to understand that ,i am quite ready to tender them my resignation if they do not feel that confidence1 and that such resignation cannot prejudice any of the cases under arbitration before me1 as ,i undertook them upon the express understanding that it was as agreed umpire1 and not as engineer to the ,company4 ,i shall only add that by being engineer to a ,company1 ,i mean acting in perfect confidence with the ,directors on matters generally1 as ,i have been in the habit of doing4 ,,ii4 ,december #f1 #ahea4 ,i really cannot consent to forego in this case the rule ,i lay down for myself in my professional business1 which is to yield as far as ,i comfortably can to the mere wishes of ,directors in the mode in which ,i direct the works they may order1 but not beyond this point--and if the ,directors of any body claim the right to control the staff which ,i think necessary to carry on my work1 ,i concede the right at once1 and resign the direction of that staff4 ,the staff for constructing engineering works is not a permanent establishment1 which can be extended or restricted just as a ,board of ,directors may determine2 it is much more of the character of a personal staff attached to the engineer-in-chief1 and by means of which he is enabled to take great responsibility upon himself1 both in respect of the works which he executes1 and the settlement of large amounts of payments1 in which settlement both the company and the contractors are very much at his mercy4 ,it is the duty of an engineer of course to study economy as well as efficiency in his staff1 and to pay attention to the wishes of the ,directors so far as he can2 but he must be the ultimate judge of the number and the persons of that staff4 ,at least1 that is my rule1 and ,i cannot depart from it in this case4 ,i should wish to state this as respectfully as possible to the ,board1 but at the same time to state it clearly4 ,,iii4 ,january #bb1 #aheg4 444,i have replied very fully to the observations of the ,directors1 but having done so ,i must again place my resignation in the hands of the ,directors4 ,a ,board of ,directors has a perfect right to dispense with the services of an engineer1 or to lay down any rules of conduct they may think fit1 and to engineer the works themselves1 either as a body or by appointing one of their members1 if they think fit2 but if they desire to have the advice and responsibility of any respectable engineer--at all events1 if they wish to have mine--they must place the usual amount of confidence in me2 and as long as ,i am engineer they must leave me to conduct the engineering1 and must act as if they assumed that ,i was more able to advise the ,board upon all the usual practical questions of engineering than any one of the ,directors4 ,admitting as ,i do the full right of a ,board of ,directors to determine whether they will have an engineer or not1 if they have one they must trust him to do his own work4 ,as a mere question of time it would be impossible that ,i could be constantly entering into long explanations of the most trifling character upon points on which ,i must be by far the most competent judge--and in fact the competent and responsible judge1 expressly employed1 and paid professionally because ,i am so4 ,if individual ,directors are more competent than their engineer1 let them assume the office and the responsibility2 but do not have a divided responsibility4 ,i am most happy at all times to receive any hints or suggestions from any body whether ,directors or not1 but ,i cannot undertake the labour of replying to them all1 neither can ,i act as engineer to a ,board of ,directors who1 either as a body or by one or two of their members1 make a practice of taking upon themselves to judge of those details of which ,i must be assumed to be the competent judge1 and thereby interfering with my proper duties4 ,if the engineer is not assumed to be worthy of trust both in respect of zeal in the interests of the ,company1 and very superior to any one of the ,directors as regards experience1 and ability to carry out what the ,directors may determine upon1 he is not fit to be the engineer2 but if he is so1 he must be left to carry out those details of his department of the business4 ,these are the general principles upon which alone ,i can act4 ,it is1 from the nature of the case1 impossible by any extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's correspondence to give an adequate idea of the position which he occupied in relation to his assistants4 ,there was so much personal intercourse between them that letter writing was but little resorted to4 ,his relations with them were of the most affectionate and intimate kind1 and were maintained without any ostentation or outward show4 ,he was in the habit of placing entire confidence in his subordinates as long as he considered that they deserved it2 and1 while he preserved his own proper position1 he was always ready to shield them from the interference of others4 ,the letters which are printed below are evidence of this4 ,when1 on the other hand1 anything occurred to displease him in the conduct of his assistants1 he was eager to give the offender a chance of retrieving his position2 and he was always ready to help them in any difficulties4 ,on ,interference of ,directors with the ,assistant ,engineers4 ,i4 ,january #ai1 #ahdb4 ,while ,i am upon the subject1 and as ,i have referred to the impolicy of ,directors taking notice of little things1 and as ,i speak freely to you1 ,i will mention that ,i have observed with pain on some occasions this tendency2 and ,i will give one instance of what ,i must call most unwise interference4 ,it was lately1 and unfortunately at the same moment as this complaint1 intimated that a pair of boxing gloves had been seen in one of the ,company's offices1 and that the ,directors had observed it4 ,now ,i really do not know why a gentlemanly and industrious young man like ---- should be subject to have his trifling actions remarked upon more than ,i myself1 unless the observer gave him credit for a much more gentle temper than ,i possess2 because ,i confess1 if any man had taken upon himself to remark upon my having gone to the pantomime1 which ,i always do at ,christmas1 no respect for ,directors or any other officer would have restrained me4 ,i will do my best to keep my team in order2 but ,i cannot do it if my master sits by me1 and amuses himself by touching them up with the whip4 ,,ii4 ,january #bh1 #ahdb4 ,i am much obliged to you for your letter4 ,i am sorry to find1 however1 that the impression1 a very erroneous one as ,i believe1 remains upon your mind that the assistant engineers are predisposed to encourage1 or at all events allow1 improper conduct on the part either of contractors or the inferior agents of the ,company4444 ,from some experience in these matters it is that ,i have come to the conclusion that it is wise 7however strange you may think the doctrine to be7 to shut one's ears and eyes really and truly to everything which does not come forward in such a shape as to demand and admit of an enquiry2 and it is for this reason also that ,i do entertain the opinion very strongly 7in which you appear to differ from me71 that it is not the interest1 it is not wise1 and therefore only it is not the duty of ,directors to look after1 or to see into1 the smaller details of the conduct of an establishment which1 being of a very temporary1 changing1 and uncertain character1 cannot at the best be conducted with the discipline and regularity of a permanent establishment1 in which the parties have their clearly defined and unchanging duties1 and look forward to the permanent occupation of their places as their means of support4 ,at all events1 when the ,directors see anything they think desirable to correct or to modify1 they can fully communicate it to me without the possibility of giving to me any soreness of feeling1 which it is always desirable not to excite1 even in the case of the lowest menial whose best services one wishes to have and use4 ,,iii4 ,december #ab1 #ahea4 ,with reference to your letter of ,december #aa1 stating that the ,directors #8are satisfied that great irregularities have existed1 and that they feel it to be their duty1 and will not hesitate on any occasion1 to represent to me any irregularity on the part of my staff that may come to their knowledge1' ,i am almost afraid1 unless in a short note you may have failed to convey to me the meaning of the ,directors1 that they greatly misunderstand my feelings on the subject2 my great desire1 as great as1 possibly greater than even that of the ,directors1 who cannot feel so personally responsible as ,i do for the efficiency of my staff--my great desire ,i say is to hear immediately from anybody1 and particularly of course from a ,director1 of any supposed irregularity2 and ,i should feel that ,i had ground of complaint even if any such report or any suspicion of any irregularity were not immediately communicated to me4 ,the moment that the ,directors could doubt my being as anxious as they can be to know and to remedy any irregularity1 or that they should look upon me in such matters otherwise than as one of themselves1 ,i should feel that ,i had lost their confidence1 and could no longer carry on satisfactorily to myself my duties1 and should therefore resign them4 ,such must1 ,i beg1 be our relative position as regards the future2 and carrying out this principle as regards the past1 ,i must beg of them to tell me explicitly what are the irregularities to which they refer as having been committed4 ,i ought to be fully informed of such things--indeed1 nothing ought to be suspected even without my knowing2 for if ,i ought not to know1 who ought8 ,as a matter of form1 and to be strictly correct1 ,i must guard myself against being supposed to mean that ,i could desire or approve of what the ,directors ,i am sure would also disapprove of--namely1 a system of fault-seeking--because in a very numerous staff or body of men1 particularly where they have not the benefit of permanent situations1 the perfection of regularity cannot be hoped for2 what ,i principally seek and require of my assistants is an honest discharge of their duties1 and any departure from this it is well known amongst them ,i never overlook4 ,have the goodness1 therefore1 to ascertain for me1 and to let me know immediately1 what these irregularities have been4 ,a few words may here be added on ,mr4 ,brunel's practice in reference to taking pupils4 ,although many of his assistants had been his pupils1 he did not encourage young men to come to him with the object of learning their profession in his office4 ,he never absolutely declined to take pupils2 but he endeavoured1 by fixing a high premium1 to reduce the number of applicants4 ,he did not profess to do more for his pupils than to give them the opportunities of seeing work1 afforded by his office1 and the chance of being afterwards employed as his assistants4 ,he attached much importance to private study of mathematics and other branches of science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,passing on to the position assumed by ,mr4 ,brunel in his relations to the profession at large2--it may be stated in a few words1 that he was desirous on all occasions of promoting its welfare by encouraging friendly intercourse among its members1 by healing strife1 by suppressing as far as he could all cant or pretension1 and by setting his face steadfastly against all attempts to fetter the freedom of invention or to lessen the independence of engineers by ,state patronage or control4 ,it may appear strange to affirm of one who was foremost in almost all the professional contests of his time1 that he was zealous in healing strife2 but it is nevertheless true that ,mr4 ,brunel1 while he was a bold and uncompromising advocate of his own schemes1 was at the same time untiring in his exertions to limit the area of controversy1 to confine it strictly within its proper bounds1 and to divest it of all personality or of anything which could lead to unpleasant feeling or annoyance4 ,his endeavours to this end were greatly helped by the friendly relations which he maintained at all times with his professional brethren4 ,he never allowed any divergence of opinion to interfere with private friendship2 and1 even in the height of controversy1 he was glad to give1 and ready to ask for1 advice on matters connected with the scientific departments of civil engineering4 ,it is but seldom that extracts have been made from ,mr4 ,brunel's private journals2 but it may be permitted1 in illustration of what has been said on this point1 to give the following passage1 written during the great contests of the year #ahdf4 ,may #e1 #ahdf4 ,i am just returned from spending an evening with ,r4 ,stephenson4 ,it is very delightful1 in the midst of our incessant personal professional contests1 carried to the extreme limit of fair opposition1 to meet him on a perfectly friendly footing1 and discuss engineering points4444 ,again ,i cannot help recording the great pleasure ,i derive from these occasional though rare meetings4 ,mr4 ,brunel's opinions on the working of the patent laws will be given below1 as following more fitly after extracts from his correspondence relating to the position of his profession in regard to the ,government2 but1 before entering upon that subject1 a few words may be said in reference to a class of persons who formed a very large proportion of his correspondents--the class of #8,inventors4' ,he used to receive numerous applications from persons who had invented1 or who thought they had invented1 some useful contrivance1 from a locomotive which would save fifty per cent4 in fuel over those then in use1 to a machine which1 as ,mr4 ,brunel assured its inventor1 #8would not even have a tendency to move4' ,he was always ready to encourage inventions which seemed likely to produce good results1 and to enquire into their merits1 if they were patented2 but not otherwise1 lest it should be said that confidence had been placed in him4 ,the following is one of the many letters he had to write in answer to requests of this nature4 ,september #ag1 #ahdg4 ,i could not have complied with your request of giving any opinion upon the merits of the invention4 ,simple as such an act may be1 it too frequently involves one in controversy2 and ,i never found1 before ,i made the rule not to give opinions1 that my advice was ever followed1 if it was to discourage the inventor from further expense and trouble4 ,i should tell you in this case that the idea of dovetailing1 which in your first letter ,i find was the principle of the invention1 had long before been worked out in every shape and form that ingenuity or blundering could possibly give it4 ,upon the important question how far1 if at all1 the practice of civil engineers should be subject to ,state control1 ,mr4 ,brunel held very decided views4 ,he was strongly opposed both to any interference on the part of the ,state with the freedom of civil engineers in the conduct of their professional work1 and to the recognition of merit by the bestowal of honours or rewards4 ,on the ,royal ,commission on the ,application of ,iron to ,railway ,structures4#aia ,march #ac1 #ahdh4 ,i regret that the ,commissioners should have done me the honour of requesting #8my opinion upon the enquiry referred to them2' because1 as it is known to one or more of these ,commissioners that ,i have expressed very strongly1 both publicly and privately1 my doubts of the advantage of such an enquiry1 and my fears of its being1 on the contrary1 productive of much mischief1 both to science and to the profession1 it would expose me to a charge of weakness and of inconsistency if ,i were now to refrain from expressing those opinions1 which otherwise ,i had no idea of intruding upon the ,commissioners2 and1 indeed1 ,i had hoped that1 by making those opinions known to some of the members1 ,i might have been passed over1 and not invited to assist in the proceedings4 ,i shall be most happy to communicate1 as ,i am at all times most anxious to do1 any knowledge which ,i may obtain in the course of my practice1 and such intercommunication of ideas and of experience amongst engineers ,i believe to be most useful2 but the attempt to collect and re-issue as facts1 with the stamp of authority1 all that may be offered gratuitously to a ,commission in the shape of evidence or opinions1 to stamp with the same mark of value statements and facts1 hasty opinions and well-considered and matured convictions1 the good and the bad1 the metal and the dross 7and simple courtesy to the donors must prevent the ,commissioners from attempting to draw distinctions which might appear invidious7--this1 ,i believe1 always has rendered1 and always will render1 such collections of miscalled evidence injurious instead of advantageous to science2 and the facts or statements and opinions so collected will form generally1 ,i believe1 a lower average of information than that which is already in the possession1 or at least within the reach1 of those who have occasion to study the subject3 for it is remarkable that in this particular enquiry the ,commissioners can have no peculiar means of obtaining1 and1 as ,i believe1 cannot hope to get better or more extended information than that possessed by any one of the principal engineers of the day2 while they will be compelled to receive and to publish much that a prudent man1 acting on his own responsibility1 would either not have attended to1 or would silently have rejected4 ,this1 however1 is perhaps a negative evil1 or1 at most1 one which cannot much affect the proceedings of the well-informed in our profession2 but the mischief which ,i anticipate is much more dangerous to the progress of science4 ,if the ,commission is to enquire into the conditions #8to be observed1' it is to be presumed that they will give the result of their enquiries2 or1 in other words1 that they will lay down1 or at least suggest1 #8rules' and #8conditions to be 7hereafter7 observed' in the construction of bridges1 or1 in other words1 embarrass and shackle the progress of improvement to-morrow by recording and registering as law the prejudices or errors of to-day4 ,nothing1 ,i believe1 has tended more to distinguish advantageously the profession of engineering in ,england and in ,america1 nothing has conduced more to the great advance made in our profession and to our pre-eminence in the real practical application of the science1 than the absence of all rgles de l'art--a term which ,i fear is now going to be translated into ,english by the words #8conditions to be observed4' ,no man1 however bold or however high he may stand in his profession1 can resist the benumbing effect of rules laid down by authority4 ,occupied as leading men are1 they could not afford the time1 or trouble1 or responsibility of constantly fighting against them--they would be compelled to abandon all idea of improving upon them2 while incompetent men might commit the grossest blunder provided they followed the rules4 ,for1 in the simplest branch of construction1 rules may be followed literally without any security as to the result4 ,there is hardly a branch of engineering that could have been selected which in its present state is less capable of being made the subject of fixed laws or instructions than the application of iron to railway structures1 and certainly there is no branch in which there is more room for improvement1 or which offers so many different channels or directions for that improvement4 ,in the quality of the material1 the workmanship1 or the mode of manufacture1 and in the application of it1 there is every imaginable variety1 there is room for almost any imaginable degree or nature of improvement2 and unless the ,commissioners are endowed with prophetic powers1 it is impossible that they can now foresee what may be the result of changes in any one of these conditions4#aib 444 ,what rules or #8conditions to be observed' could be drawn up now that would not become1 not merely worthless1 but totally erroneous and misleading1 under such improved circumstances8 ,but above all1 ,i fear--nay1 ,i feel convinced--that any attempt to establish any rules1 any publication of opinions which may create or guide public prejudice1 any suggestions coming from authority1 must close the door to improvement in any direction but that pointed out by the ,commissioners1 and must tend to lead and direct1 and therefore to control and to limit1 the number of the roads now open for advance4 ,i believe that nothing could tend more to arrest improvement than such assistance1 and that any attempt to fix now1 or at any given period1 the conditions to be thereafter observed in the mode of construction of any specific work of art1 and thus to dictate for the present and for the future the theory which is to be adopted as the correct one in any branch of engineering1 is contrary to all sound philosophy1 and will be productive of great mischief1 in tending to check and to control the extent and direction of all improvements1 and preventing that rapid advance in the useful application of science to mechanics which has resulted from the free exercise of engineering skill in this country1 subjected as it ever is1 under the present system1 to the severe and unerring control and test of competing skill and of public opinion4 ,devoted as ,i am to my profession1 ,i see with fear and regret that this tendency to legislate and to rule1 which is the fashion of the day1 is flowing in our direction4 ,i must repeat my regret that circumstances should have forced me to intrude these my opinions upon the ,commissioners2 but1 for the reasons ,i have before given1 the application to me1 after the part ,i have taken1 left me no alternative2 but having expressed my opinions1 and respectfully protested against the objects and proceedings of the ,commissioners1 ,i shall feel it my duty to attend to their summons1 and afford any information in my power4 ,on a ,proposal to obtain the ,recognition in ,england of ,decorations conferred at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahee4 ,february #i1 #ahef4 ,i regretted to be under the necessity of declining to sign the memorial that was brought to me by a gentleman introducing himself with your card1 without an opportunity of explaining to you my reasons2 and it would be difficult to do so satisfactorily without an opportunity of personal explanation4 ,in a few words1 however1 ,i will state that ,i disapprove strongly1 and after full consideration1 of any introduction into ,england of the system of distinctions conferred by ,government upon individuals1 whether engaged in professions1 arts1 or manufactures1 whose merits can be so much better and more surely marked by public opinion4 ,in countries where public opinion is not so searching and so powerful as in ,england1 the evils of favouritism may be out-balanced by the advantages of some means of distinguishing men4 ,i admit the possibility1 though ,i doubt the fact2 but ,i feel sure that the evils would be far greater than the advantages in ,england4 ,the few cases of knighthood conferred in ,england generally follow public opinion1 though ,i should not wish to see this system carried further4 ,such being my opinion1 ,i could not consistently ask for my own letter of ,chevalier de la ,lgion d',honneur being recognised here4 ,on the question of the patent laws1 ,mr4 ,brunel held the opinion that the system of protecting inventions by means of letters patent was productive of immense evil4 ,the prominent part which he took in all discussions upon this subject exposed him to much adverse criticism1 which was perhaps the more freely bestowed1 because it was felt that he was a very formidable opponent1 not only from the force of his arguments1 but also from the authority with which he spoke4 ,he was1 from the necessity of his position as a civil engineer1 himself an inventor2 he had in his staff and among those with whom he acted many inventors2 he did not1 therefore1 underrate the benefits conferred on science by those who1 by inventing1 add to its resources4 ,he was continually being trammelled and thwarted in his various undertakings by patents1 and he therefore could judge of their evil effects upon the progress of practical engineering2 and1 lastly1 he had the best possible means of judging of their effects upon the inventors themselves1 both from his opportunities of becoming acquainted with the fate of others1 and from his own experience4 ,his father1 ,sir ,isambard ,brunel1 had taken out patents for most of his inventions1 and1 as ,mr4 ,brunel stated before the ,house of ,lords ,committee of #ahea1 with very unfortunate results1 especially in the case of the carbonic-gas engine 7see ,note ,b to ,chapter ,i72 where1 if they had not been obliged to work secretly1 in order to conceal the process before the patent was granted1 they could have obtained valuable advice1 which might either have led to an earlier abandonment of the project1 or to its improvement in those points in which it failed4 ,mr4 ,brunel drew up the following statement when asked to give evidence before the ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,lords in #ahea4 ,his evidence will be found at p4 #bdf of the ,minutes of ,evidence 7ordered to be printed ,july #a1 #ahea74 ,memorandum for ,evidence before the ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,lords on the ,patent ,laws1 #ahea4 ,i have for many years had considerable experience of the operation of patents4 ,i have been engaged under my father in the working out of numerous inventions of his1 and the taking out of patents on his account1 also in advising others professionally with him1 and by myself1 and have been engaged in numerous questions of disputes resulting from patents2 and ,i have had frequent occasion to use the patents and inventions of others4 ,i have also had to introduce improvements of my own without patents1 and to defend my use of them against patents4 ,i have thus for the last twenty-eight years been in the midst of everything connected with inventions1 and in constant contact with the operation of the patent laws4 ,i have been behind the scenes the whole time4 ,the result has been that ,i have never taken out a patent myself1 or ever thought of doing so2 and ,i have gradually become convinced that the whole system of patents is1 in the present advanced state of arts and science and manufactures1 productive of immense evil4 ,i think that it does nothing of what it professes to do1 and which ,i believe to be impracticable in the present state of things1 but that1 on the contrary1 it impedes everything it means to encourage1 and ruins the class it professes to protect1 and that it is productive of immense mischief to the public4 ,i should wish to observe that my opinions are not formed from any theory1 or from any consideration of what are or ought to be the laws of patents1 or whether the details of such laws are capable of improvement or otherwise2 but they are simply the result of a very long and tolerably intimate knowledge of the operation of the hope of protection held out1 and the operation of that protection such as it can be when obtained2 and these results do not1 in my opinion1 depend at all upon any question of whether patents are cheap or dear1 whether they are granted sparingly or profusely1 by a simple or by complicated machinery2 it is the ruinous effects upon the class of inventors1 of the false dreams and hopes excited by the system1 and the injurious effect upon improvements of the greater or less degree of exclusive privilege which is attained1 which ,i have had constantly before my eyes for so many years1 and which must be increased by any real improvement of the patent laws4 ,i should1 therefore1 be an advocate for very cheap patents granted with great facility1 to the poor illiterate workman1 as well as to the rich manufacturer with his counsel and agents1 and as well protected as legal ingenuity can devise4 ,if the system is good in principle it must bear extension1 but ,i believe it could not stand a twelvemonth under such a test--every evil now inherent in the system would be greatly increased in quantity1 and the absurdities which are now ascribed to errors of detail would all become so evident that the system would be abandoned by universal consent4 ,i believe1 paradoxical as it may seem1 that the privileges thus promised and granted to inventors are most injurious to them4 ,to understand this1 it must be known and borne in mind that useful inventions or improvements in the present day1 certainly in nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand1 are not new discoveries1 but generally slight modifications of what is already in use2 judicious applications of known principles and of well-known and common parts of machinery1 or of common substances1 very often mere revivals or re-inventions of something which had many times previously been thought of1 and perhaps tried1 and failed from the want only of some substance or of some tool which has since been introduced4 ,i believe that the most useful and novel inventions and improvements of the present day are mere progressive steps in a highly wrought and highly advanced system1 suggested by1 and dependent on1 other previous steps1 their whole value and the means of their application probably dependent on the success of some or many other inventions1 some old1 some new4 ,i think also that really good improvements are not the result of inspiration2 they are not1 strictly speaking1 inventions1 but more or less the results of an observing mind1 brought to bear upon circumstances as they arise1 with an intimate knowledge of what has already been done1 or what might now be done1 by means of the present improved state of things1 and that in most cases they result from a demand which circumstances happen to create4 ,the consequence is that most good things are being thought of by many persons at the same time2 and if there were publicity and freedom of communication1 instead of concealment and mystery1 ten times or a hundred times the number of useful ideas would be generated by each man1 and with less mental effort and far less expenditure of time and money4 ,in the present state of things1 if a man thinks he has invented something1 he immediately dreams of a patent1 and of a fortune to be made by it4 ,if he is a rich man he loses his money1 and no great harm is done2 but if he is a workman1 and a poor man1 his thoughts are divided between scheming at his machine in secret1 and scheming at the mode of raising money to carry it out4 ,he does not consult his fellow-workmen1 or men engaged in the same pursuits1 as to whether the same thing had ever been tried1 why it had failed1 what are the difficulties1 or 7what is most probable7 whether something better is not already known1 and waiting only the demand4 ,in nine cases out of ten he devotes his time and money to the idea1 instead of pursuing his legitimate and natural pursuits4 ,in elaborating this idea his whole thoughts are turned to the means of making it different from what he may happen to know of similar ideas1 so that he may secure a patent1 rather than to an honest endeavour to obtain the most useful result4 ,he does not make use of other good ideas which may be already patented or in use1 even if he knows of them1 because his sole object thenceforth is not improvement1 but #8exclusive right4' ,after much time and money spent in experiments1 he takes out a patent4 ,i will assume that the mere patent costs him nothing1 but the waste of time and money in elaborating his idea is generally considerable1 and far more serious in its effects upon the man than the payment of the fees now demanded for a patent4 ,when his patent is complete1 and his invention published1 the chances are1 and ever will be1 one hundred or one thousand to one that it is not worth a sixpence as an exclusive right which others will buy of him3 every chance is against him4 ,in the first place it must be a good thing1 it must be an improvement upon the very #8best thing' of the same sort3 the chances are of course great against this4 ,secondly4--,it must be new1 nothing of the sort must have been in use before--how very few things can be devised which will bear this test4 ,i do not know of half-a-dozen clear cases of distinctly new inventions since ,i have been acquainted with machinery and science2 and1 judging from analogy1 ,i cannot bring my mind to believe that these would bear the test of a strict and searching enquiry by interested parties4 ,the chances are then immensely against his invention1 if good enough to be disputed1 proving to be new enough to stand as giving a claim to exclusiveness4 ,thirdly4--,it must not depend for its success upon the use of some other exclusive and privileged invention1 or else of course it is of little saleable value1 even if not an infringement upon the previous patent4 ,fourthly4--,there must be a demand existing or creatable for the article produced2 or1 like many other good things1 it will be out of time1 and drop accordingly4 ,fifthly4--,he must find some parties whose interest it is to encourage the introduction of the change1 and who have the means of combating those interests which are embarked in previous monopolies4 ,since all these conditions are necessary for success1 it is not surprising that the result should be1 as ,i am positive that it is in practice1 that the aggregate of individual benefit derived by the exclusive privileges granted1 is greatly below the aggregate expenditure of time and money involved in the production of the whole1 taking the good and bad2 but the proportion of the aggregate benefits as compared with the cost to the real inventor is still less4 ,it is known to all persons acquainted with the subject that1 in nine cases out of ten of successful inventions1 the patents are not beneficially enjoyed by the original inventor4 ,and it always must be so4 ,the mere original invention forms generally but a small part of the whole business or merit of bringing into useful operation any new thing4 ,judgment1 a knowledge of the world1 and of business and other qualities not particularly belonging to inventors1 are just as requisite as mere ingenuity1 although they are not the subject of protection4 ,capital and connection are also generally required4 ,all these command1 as they ought to do1 a large share in the ultimate profits1 but it is rare that an inventor at once finds such a partner4 ,the invention generally changes hands once or twice1 or oftener1 till some chance brings it into operation2 and ultimately it is 7as must be admitted by all who know anything about these matters7 very rarely1 even in the case of good things1 that the party who originated the subject of the patent has ultimately any large beneficial interest in it2 and certainly1 from these and all the other causes mentioned1 it is an undoubted fact that inventors1 on the whole1 make a heavy annual loss1 quite irrespective of mere patent fees1 by inventions and patents1 and that patents are not therefore a benefit to the present class of inventors1 and particularly not to the poorer members of the class4 ,without the hopes of any exclusive privileges1 ,i believe that a clever man would produce many more good ideas1 and derive much more easily some benefit from them4 ,it is true that he will aim only at earning a few pounds instead of dreaming of thousands2 but he will earn these few pounds frequently1 and without interfering with his daily pursuits2 on the contrary1 he will make himself more useful4 ,an observing man sees what he thinks to be a mode of increasing the production of a certain machine or manufacturing operation in which he is engaged1 or a better mode than that which he is acquainted with of producing some article4 ,in all probability the same circumstances which led him to make the observation have attracted the attention of others before him2 perhaps1 at the same time1 a little free communication with his fellow-work men or with other manufacturers or men of science would show him that there were insuperable difficulties1 and he would turn his attention at once to other things1 or that there were better ways of doing the same thing1 or1 by pointing out difficulties1 enable him to avoid useless investigations1 or to make a change that would vastly improve his scheme2 or he would communicate his ideas1 instead of wasting his time in elaborating them1 which very possibly others more acquainted with the particular branch would do much better than he2 if he is a workman1 his master would give him something for the idea1 or if not1 his value as a workman would soon become known4 ,it is a great error to suppose that stupid men can live upon the clever man's brains if they are all left free scope in the use of their intellect2 but if by artificial means an exclusive right or property in an idea can be secured1 then of course the thief may steal the idea1 and having registered his property in it1 his inferiority of intellect is more than counterbalanced4 ,intelligent men who would always be suggesting improvements in a manufactory would soon become necessary1 and would be valued accordingly4 ,a manufacturer who was not surrounded by such assistants would stand no chance in the general competition1 and what is necessary and valuable will in ,england fetch its price2 and thus clever workmen will get well paid1 and earn much more1 and that more healthily1 than the whole body of schemers now do4 ,the impediments thrown in the way of improvements by the existence of patents will hardly be credited by those who are not familiar with the operation of them4 ,in the present state of things they create such barriers that it is almost wonderful that any improvements can be effected4 ,it will not be difficult to understand that1 from the infinite number of patents that are now taken out1 it is hardly possible to devise a mechanism or a chemical combination that does not1 in some shape or other1 form part of some previous invention or process4 ,this would be the case even if patents were only taken out to secure real1 or what are believed to be real1 inventions4 ,but the shoals of patents have brought into existence animals to feed upon them4 ,there is a trade which nothing can destroy as long as patents last1 and which must increase with the increase of patent1 whatever may be the mode of granting them4 ,patents are taken out even in very general terms1 so as to embrace everything that can resemble some probable or imaginary improvement1 and then1 like a spider in his web1 the patentee watches for his victims4 ,besides this1 the honest but trading patentee1 the more completely to secure a monopoly1 often takes out several separate patents for nearly the same thing in different forms1 some avowedly worthless4 ,in doing this1 without even intending it1 he includes combinations1 any beneficial application of which perhaps never crossed his mind1 and which1 in the shape in which he suggested them were good for nothing1 but which nevertheless more or less prevent anybody else from touching them1 even to make a good thing4 ,again1 the most respectable houses take out patents merely to secure a monopoly of some one form of article without much regard to the superiority of it4 ,the result of all this is that it is almost impossible now to introduce the slightest real improvement in anything without infringing upon some patent1 and exposing oneself to be proceeded against by some patentee4 ,the extent to which improvements are impeded by this state of things is hardly conceivable1 except to those who1 like myself1 are daily suffering under it4 ,there is another very serious evil produced by the system4 ,in taking out a patent1 the necessity for avoiding all claim to anything that can be shown to have been patented or in common use before compels you in most cases to seek rather what part of it can best be patented than what it is that is good in the invention4 ,comparatively trivial points are frequently patented in order to secure the monopoly of that which1 although it constitutes the merit of the invention1 may not happen to be so new in every respect as to admit of a patent4 ,when the patent is taken1 other modes of carrying out the real invention are discovered2 these modes are patented and the original patentee is obliged to lose the benefit of his invention or to buy up these new patents4 ,there are instances where enormous sums have been spent in this manner to protect an original invention4 ,and1 lastly1 there is an evil which acts like a numbing disease on all improvements2 a patentee frequently dares not himself introduce improvements in any apparatus or process which he has patented1 for fear of thus injuring his patent2 and ,i have seen numerous cases of very important inventions where all improvement has been thus checked and resisted by the very parties most capable of effecting them1 and who would have brought great talent and zeal to the work if they had been free4 ,extract from ,observations on the ,patent ,laws made by ,mr4 ,brunel at a ,meeting of the ,society of ,arts4 ,march #bh1 #ahef4 ,he did not agree at all as to the advantages of patents4 ,he quite agreed as to the desirability of protecting1 as far as possible1 a man's property1 whether it was in the power of invention1 or any other good thing that was within him1 and still more would he protect in every possible way the property in inventions of those who possessed but little other property--the powers of the inventor and the ingenuity of the workman2 but1 having had some considerable experience with patentees1 manufacturers1 and workmen1 he was of opinion that any practical benefits derived from the patent laws did not compensate for the injury inflicted4 ,he believed1 on the contrary1 that both the inventors and the public greatly suffered from the attempt to protect inventions4 ,he had had great experience on this subject1 being compelled daily to examine inventions of various kinds1 and having himself constantly to invent in the occupations in which he was engaged4 ,having1 then1 all his life1 been connected with inventors and workmen1 he had witnessed the injury1 the waste of mind1 the waste of time1 the excitement of false hopes1 the vast waste of money1 caused by the patent laws1 in fact1 all the evils which generally resulted from the attempt to protect that which did not naturally admit of protection4 ,he agreed as to the abstract desirability of protecting inventors in some way1 provided it did not foster unhealthy invention1 as he thought it desirable to protect every species of property that existed4 ,he was disposed to encourage every step towards facilitating the obtaining patents2 he hoped they would be made dirt cheap1 as he thought that would be the most effectual way of destroying them altogether4 ,therefore1 whenever he had been consulted on the subject of the patent laws1 he had always advocated the rendering of patents as open and free and cheap as possible2 in the first place1 because he saw no reason for attaching a price to them1 and next1 because they would sooner arrive where the principle would be fully tested4 ,we were already nearly arrived at that state of things when engineers were almost brought to a dead stand in their attempt to introduce improvements1 from the excess of protection4 ,he found that he could hardly introduce the slightest improvement in his own machinery without being stopped by a patent4 ,he could mention a striking instance1 in which1 a few months ago1 wishing to introduce an improvement that he thought would have been valuable to the public in a large work on which he was engaged1 he had no sooner entered upon it1 with a willingness to incur considerable expense in the preliminary requirements and in the trial of it1 than he was stopped by a patentee2 but he was fortunate enough to find that another patent existed of the same thing1 and a week after a third appeared4 ,there was thus1 fortunately1 a probability that1 by the destruction of all value in any of the patents1 he might be able to continue the improvements he was desirous of introducing4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,private ,,life4 ,,reminiscences ,,of ,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,private ,,life--,,removal ,,to #ah ,,duke ,,street1 ,,westminster--,,his ,,marriage1 #ahcf--,,special ,,constable ,,in #ahdh--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,love ,,of ,,art--,,his ,,journey ,,to ,,italy1 #ahdb--;,,accident ,,with ,,the ,,half-,,sovereign1 #ahdc--,,purchase ,,of ,,property ,,in ,,devonshire1 #ahdg--;,,his ,,life ,,at ,,watcombe--,,the ,,launch ,,of ,,the #8,,great ,,eastern1' #aheg--,,mr4 ,,brunel',s ,,failing ,,health--,,journeys ,,to ,,switzerland ,,and ,,egypt1 #aheh--,,letter ,,from ,,phil 7,,february #ab1 #ahei7--;,,his ,,last ,,illness--,,his ,,death 7,,september #ae1 #ahei7--;,,funeral--,,address ,,of ,,joseph ,,locke1 ,,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,,at ,,the ,,institution ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers 7,,november #h1 #ahei74 ,under any circumstances1 and by whomsoever made1 the attempt to describe ,mr4 ,brunel's home life must fail to satisfy those who knew him1 and who remember him in the midst of his family or among his friends4 ,but those who did not know him1 except as a professional man1 or who are only acquainted with his works1 will expect to find in these pages some account of his private life1 and of the manner in which he spent those brief intervals of relaxation which he permitted himself to enjoy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although ,mr4 ,brunel was never an idle man1 he was able1 until he obtained business on his own account1 to enjoy many amusements from which in after life he was completely debarred4 ,this arose partly from his work under his father being near his own home and his friends1 and partly from the power he possessed1 and which never deserted him1 of being able to throw aside cares and anxieties and to join with the utmost zest in passing amusements4 ,the following letter1 relating to this time1 is written by one who was ,mr4 ,brunel's constant companion during the period to which it refers3-- ,june #bh1 #ahgj4 #8,dear ,isambard ,brunel1--,i will endeavour to supply you with some reminiscences of your father1 before he became a public man1 and was engrossed by the very severe labour of his profession4 #8,the most striking feature in his character as a young man1 and one which afterwards produced such great results1 was an entire abnegation of self in his intercourse with his friends and associates4 #8,his influence among them was unbounded1 but never sought by him2 it was the result of his love of fair play1 of his uniform kindness and willingness to assist them1 of the confidence he inspired in his judgment1 and of the simplicity and high-mindedness of his character4 #8,from #ahbd to #ahcb he joined his friends in every manly sport2 and when1 after his accident at the ,tunnel1 he was obliged to withdraw from more violent exercise1 he was still ready to co-operate in the arrangements required to give effect to whatever was in hand4 #8,whether in boating1 in pic-nic parties1 or in private theatricals1 he was always the life and soul of the party2 for his skilful arrangements1 as well as his never-failing invention and power of adaptation of whatever came to hand1 made him the invariable leader in every amusement or sport in which he took part4 #8,to ensure the success of his friends in a rowing match against time1 from ,london to ,oxford and back1 in #ahbh1 he designed and superintended the building of a four-oared boat1 which1 in length and in the proportion of its length to its breadth1 far exceeded any boat of the kind which had then been seen on the ,thames4 #8,during that portion of the period to which these notes refer1 when your father was engaged at the ,tunnel works1 the freshness and energy with which he joined in the amusements of his friends after many consecutive days and nights spent in the ,tunnel--for frequently he did not go to bed1 ,i might almost say1 for weeks together--surprised them all4 #8,his power of doing without sleep for long intervals was most remarkable4 ,he also possessed the power1 which ,i have never seen equalled in any other man1 of maintaining a calm and even temper1 never showing irritation even when he was bearing an amount of mental and bodily fatigue which few could have sustained4 ,his presence of mind and courage never failed him1 and it was especially exhibited after the first irruption of water into the ,tunnel1 when he descended in the diving-bell to examine the extent of the disturbance of the bed of the river1 and the injury1 if any1 which had been done to the brickwork4 #8,the bell could not be lowered deep enough1 and he dropped himself out of the bell1 holding on by a rope1 and ascertained by careful examination that the brickwork was uninjured4 #8,he was several minutes in the water2 and upon this fact being stated1 many persons1 and ,i think the officers of the ,royal ,humane ,society1 denied the possibility of his retaining his consciousness so long in the water1 forgetting1 which he did not1 that his lungs were filled with air at two and a half atmospheres' pressure4 #8,in #ahcj1 he joined the ,surrey ,yeomanry and attended drill1 and was out with the troop to which he belonged on several occasions4 #8,in this capacity he was as popular as in every other2 but his remarkable talent in obtaining personal influence1 even among those with whom he was comparatively a stranger1 was about this time most usefully exhibited during the election of his brother-in-law as member for ,lambeth4 #8,he made friends and conciliated opponents among all classes of electors--especially among working men1 large bodies of whom he met on several occasions--and among all shades of politicians2 and to his energy1 good judgment and skilful arrangement of electioneering details1 which were not then so well understood as they now are1 very much of the success achieved was due4 #8,no one1 ,i believe1 ever saw him out of temper or heard him utter an ill-natured word4 ,he often said that spite and ill-nature were the most expensive luxuries in life2 and his advice1 then often sought1 was given with that clearness and decision1 and that absence of all prejudice1 which characterised his opinions in after-life4 #8,all his friends of his own age were attached to him in no ordinary degree1 and they watched every step in his future career with pride and interest4 #8,in fact1 he was a joyous1 open-hearted1 considerate friend1 willing to contribute to the pleasure and enjoyment of those about him2 well knowing his own power1 but never intruding it to the annoyance of others1 unless he was thwarted or opposed by pretentious ignorance2 and then1 though at times decided and severe in his remarks1 he generally preferred leaving such individuals to themselves1 rather than1 by noticing them1 to give prominence to their deficiencies4 #8,his appreciation of character was so exact1 and his dislike to anything approaching to vulgarity in thought or action or to undue assumption was so decided1 that to be his friend soon became a distinction2 and the extent to which his society was sought1 not only in private life1 but in the scientific world1 at this early period1 marked strongly the distinguishing features of his mind and character4 #8,in #ahbe and #ahbf he attended the morning lectures at the ,royal ,institution1 and the eagerness and rapidity with which he followed the chemical discoveries which were then being made by ,mr4 ,faraday1 showed the facility with which he gained and retained scientific knowledge4 #8,to write more would lead me to the events of a later period of his life1 in the history of which you require no aid from me2 nevertheless1 ,i cannot refrain from adding a few words upon your father's personal and professional character1 which was not1 in my opinion1 adequately appreciated by the public4 #8,his professional friends before his death1 and his private friends at all times1 well knew the genius1 the intense energy1 and indefatigable industry with which every principle and detail of his profession was mastered2 and both knew and valued the high moral tone which pervaded every act of his life4 #8,the public1 however1 did not see him under the same circumstances4 #8,their imperfect acquaintance with his character arose in a great degree from his disregard of popular approbation1 for he was never so satisfied with his own work as to feel himself entitled to receive praise in the adulatory style of modern writing1 and he preferred to work quietly in his own sphere1 and to rely on the intrinsic merits of his undertakings bringing their reward1 rather than to court temporary popularity4 #8,the rapidity with which he gained a high position as a civil engineer is the best evidence of his talents4 ,he passed almost direct from boyhood to an equality with any one then in the profession--a position attained by the rapidity and accuracy with which he could apply theory to practice1 and support his conclusions by mathematical demonstrations4 #8,this knowledge1 always used without ostentation1 soon placed him above most of his contemporaries2 and his intimate acquaintance with the strength and peculiarities of the various materials he had to employ1 and of the best and most economical mode of applying them1 impressed both directors and contractors with a degree of confidence in his estimates and opinions which no one had before possessed4 #8,his power of observation was singularly accurate2 he was not satisfied with a hasty or superficial examination1 nor with the mere assertion of a fact2 his mind required evidence of its correctness before he could receive and adopt it4 ,i may illustrate this by a reference to the experiments he made with ,french mesmerists1 and the pains he took to expose the farce of table-turning and its accompanying follies4 #8,my object1 however1 by this addition to my note1 is to dwell upon the fact that he left a mark upon his profession which cannot be obliterated4 ,he set up a high standard of professional excellence1 and endeavoured to impress on all who were associated with him1 or under him professionally1 that to attain the highest honours required the strictest integrity1 sound mathematical knowledge1 originality and accuracy of thought and expression1 both in viva voce descriptions and in designs and working drawings1 and a practical acquaintance with the durability and strength of materials1 so as to know the best conditions under which each might be applied4 #8,it was his excellence in these respects1 when still young1 which soon earned for him a great reputation as a witness before the ,committees of the ,houses of ,parliament4 #8,his calmness and unobtrusive manner1 when under severe examination1 or while attending public meetings1 led many to think him cold1 and regardless of the feelings or interests of those with whom he was associated2 but nothing was further from his character1 as every one knew who was engaged in the consultations upon the result of which future proceedings depended4 #8,he was a prudent and cautious1 but bold adviser1 and a warm-hearted and generous friend4 #8,yours faithfully1 #8,w4 ,,hawes4 #8,isambard ,brunel1 ,esq4' ,the events of the year #ahce brought with them1 not unnaturally1 other changes4 ,at the beginning of #ahcf1 he removed to #ah ,duke ,street1 ,westminster1 a large house looking on ,st4 ,james's ,park1 and now 7#ahgj7 the last in the street1 next to the new ,india ,office4 ,in ,july of the same year he married the eldest daughter of the late ,william ,horsley1 and granddaughter of ,doctor ,callcott4 ,of this marriage there was issue two sons and a daughter1 all of whom survive him4 ,although1 as will be presently mentioned1 he afterwards bought some property in ,devonshire1 the ,duke ,street house was always his home4 ,he spent his life there1 having his offices on the lower floors4 ,he had no wish to enter ,parliament1 although it had been more than once suggested to him to do so1 and his work prevented his taking an active share1 as an inhabitant of ,westminster1 in the concerns of his neighbourhood4 ,the only occasion on which he took a prominent part in local affairs was as a special constable in ,april #ahdh1 when he acted as one of the two #8leaders' of the special constables in the district between ,great ,george ,street and ,downing ,street4 ,he was not without experience of the duties of a special constable1 as he had been sworn in during the ,bristol riots of #ahcj1 and on that occasion saw active service4 ,happily1 matters were better managed in ,london1 and no actual collision took place between the constables1 or the military1 and the mob4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the extent to which ,mr4 ,brunel kept his works in his own hands1 and under his own superintendence1 made it necessary for him to have a large amount of office accommodation2 and the inconvenience of having branch offices in the streets near his house led him1 in #ahdh1 to enlarge his offices3 with this object he added the adjoining house1 #ag ,duke ,street1 which he rebuilt4 ,a large room on the ground floor1 looking on the ,park1 was thenceforward his own office1 and the room above was made the dining-room4 ,it was decorated in the ,elizabethan style1 and was to have contained a collection of pictures illustrative of scenes in #8,shakespeare1' painted for him by the principal artists of the day4 ,this project was never completely carried out1 but several pictures 7about ten in all7 were painted and hung up1 among them the #8,titania' of ,sir ,edwin ,landseer4 ,these subjects are again referred to in the following letter3-- ,february1 #ahgj4 #8,my dear ,isambard1--,you ask me to jot down for you any reminiscences ,i have of your father's love and feeling for art4 #8,i remember with singular distinctness the first time ,i ever saw him1 when ,i was a lad of fourteen1 and had just obtained my studentship at the ,royal ,academy4 ,he criticised with great keenness and judgment a drawing which ,i had with me1 and at the same time gave me a lesson on paper straining4 ,from that time till his death he was my most intimate friend4 ,being naturally imbued with artistic taste and perception of a very high order1 his critical remarks were always of great value1 and were made with an amount of good humour which softened their occasionally somewhat trying pungency4 ,he had a remarkably accurate eye for proportion1 as well as taste for form4 ,this is evinced in every line to be found in his sketch books1 and in all the architectural features of his various works4 #8,so small an incident as the choice of colour in the original carriages of the ,great ,western ,railway1 and any decorative work called for on the line1 gave public evidence of his taste in colour2 but those who remember the gradual arrangement and fitting up of his house in ,duke ,street will want no assurance from me of your father's rare artistic feeling4 ,he passed1 ,i believe1 the pleasantest of his leisure moments in decorating that house1 and well do ,i remember our visits in search of rare furniture1 china1 bronzes1 c41 with which he filled it1 till it became one of the most remarkable and attractive houses in ,london4 ,its interest was greatly increased when he formed that magnificent dining-room1 now1 with the house of which it was a part1 pulled down4 ,this room1 hung with pictures1 with its richly carved fireplace1 doorways1 and ceiling1 its silken hangings and ,venetian mirrors1 lighted up on one of the many festive gatherings frequent in that hospitable house1 formed a scene which none will forget who had the privilege of taking part in it4 ,when from time to time he went abroad1 and especially in his visit to ,venice in #aheb1 he added to his collection by purchases made with great judgment and skill4 ,in buying pictures1 your father evinced a taste often found in men of refined mind and feeling--viz4 a repugnance to works1 however excellent in themselves1 where violent action was represented4 ,he preferred pictures where the subject partook more of the suggestive than the positive1 and where a considerable scope was left in which the imagination of the spectator might disport itself4 ,this feeling was displayed in a great love of landscape art1 and in the keenest appreciation of the beauties of nature4 ,it is an interesting fact to record1 and one which ,i often heard him mention1 when his friends were admiring his beautiful grounds at ,watcombe1 that in the old posting days1 when travelling on the cliff road between ,teignmouth and ,torquay1 he constantly stopped the carriage to get out and admire the view which he had discovered from a field at ,watcombe1 little thinking then that it would ultimately be the site of his intended country home4 #8,when your father and ,i went to ,italy together in #ahdb1 posting from ,westminster to ,rome and back again1 ,i had ample opportunities of observing his love and enthusiasm for nature and art4 #8,overwhelmed as he was with work in ,england at the time1 it was no easy matter for him to leave the country for a couple of months2 and ,i remember that our starting at all was uncertain up to the last moment2 and that1 an hour before quitting ,london1 it was only by a coup de thtre1 which he most adroitly performed1 that he escaped the serving of a subpna1 the bearer of which had actually penetrated to the dining-room door in ,duke ,street4 #8,we left ,london one evening in ,april #ahdb4 ,during our journey we constantly passed several consecutive days and nights in the carriage2 and ,i am sure there was not one of our waking hours in which some incident of interest did not occur4 #8,i remember your father agreeing with me1 that our experiences merely of post-boys and their various characteristics would be worthy of recording in detail--from ,newman's two smart lads1 who took us the first stage out of ,london1 on to the genuine 8postillon0 7boots and all7 we found at ,calais2 then to the wild young brigands 7in appearance7 who1 inspired by the prospect of extra 8buon mano10 whirled us along the road from ,civita ,vecchia towards ,rome1 and winding up with the stolid ,german who rose slowly in his stirrups1 and distracted us by a melancholy performance on the horn slung round him1 and which no entreaty would induce him to give up4 #8,we posted from ,calais1 vi ,paris1 to ,chlons-sur-,sane1 marvelling the whole way whereabouts 8,la ,belle ,france0 was to be found2 for a drearier and more utterly monotonous ride of something like #hjj miles it is impossible to conceive4 ,from ,chlons we went down the river to ,lyons1 then onwards1 visiting ,nismes1 and through ,arles to ,toulon4 #8,from ,toulon we went through ,cannes and ,nice and along the lovely ,cornice road to ,genoa4 ,your father was intensely delighted with this portion of the journey4 ,those wonderfully picturesque towns1 with their roccoco churches looking like toys1 and painted all over upon the principle of colour generally developed in that species of art1 especially interested him4 ,the streets were so narrow that it was sometimes doubtful whether the carriage could be squeezed through1 and more than once it grazed the houses on either side as it passed on4 #8,the work for which your father had come to ,italy commenced at ,genoa1 and he was met there by a staff appointed by the ,government to accompany him during his stay4 #8,while at ,genoa he came to me one morning and said1 that1 in consequence of some delay1 he had a week in which to make complete holiday1 and gave me the choice of ,florence or ,rome4 ,i need scarcely say that ,i chose ,rome1 and for three days we were in the ,eternal ,city1 seeing more in that time than those to whom we related our proceedings could believe4 #8,how well do ,i remember our entering ,rome by the gate on the ,civita ,vecchia road1 and standing up in the carriage to get our first view of ,st4 ,peter's1 and1 having seen it1 the blank look of disappointment we turned on each other at the sight6 ,but the interior of the great church as far exceeded our expectations as the exterior had fallen short of them4 #8,we were back at ,genoa to the minute your father had appointed2 and the work being completed there1 we went on to ,turin4 ,here we were in time to be present at the ,court balls and ceremonies consequent upon the marriage of the present ,king of ,italy4 #8,from ,turin we proceeded to ,milan4 #8,at ,milan your father parted from his staff1 and completed the work he had undertaken as far as it was necessary to do so in ,italy4 ,from ,milan1 therefore1 our journey home was one of uninterrupted enjoyment through those glorious ,lombard towns to ,venice1 which happily we reached in a gondola from ,mestre1 and not by a railway viaduct2 then through the ,tyrol to ,munich1 and so down the ,rhine to ,belgium1 reaching home from ,antwerp4 #8,thus was completed an expedition in which there was neither hitch nor disagreeable adventure of any kind1 and upon which ,i look back with unmixed pleasure4 #8,the next and last time that your father and ,i journeyed on the ,continent together was in ,april #ahdh1 when he wished to see ,paris in ,republican garb1 and asked me to accompany him4 #8,we were there for some days1 and1 armed with cards of admission1 on which our names were inscribed with the prefix of 8,citoyen10 heard and saw the various celebrities of the hour4 #8,affectionately yours1 ,j4 ,c4 ,,horsley4 #8,isambard ,brunel1 ,esq4' ,within less than a year of ,mr4 ,brunel's return from his visit to ,italy1 a strange accident happened to him1 which placed his life in great jeopardy4 ,on ,april #c1 #ahdc1 he was amusing some children at his house by the exhibition of conjuring tricks1 when1 in pretending to pass a half-sovereign from his ear to his mouth1 the coin he had placed in his mouth slipped down his throat4 ,after a few days he began to suffer from a troublesome cough1 and on ,april #ah ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie was consulted4 ,the nature of the accident and the course of treatment adopted are described in the following letter from ,mr4 ,brunel's brother-in-law1 the late ,dr4 ,seth ,thompson1 which was published in the #8,times' newspaper of ,may #af1 #ahdc3-- ,i shall be much obliged by your giving insertion to the following statement of the treatment pursued by ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie in the case of ,mr4 ,brunel1 it being the wish of ,mr4 ,brunel and his friends that the true facts should be known1 as a just tribute to the skill of this eminent surgeon1 and as a guide to future practice4 ,the accident happened on ,april #c2 ,sir ,b4 ,brodie was consulted on the #ahth1 and his opinion was that the half-sovereign had passed into the windpipe4 ,the following day ,mr4 ,brunel strengthened this opinion by a simple experiment4 ,he bent his head and shoulders over a chair1 and distinctly felt the coin drop towards the glottis2 whilst raising himself a violent fit of coughing came on1 which ceased after a few minutes4 ,he repeated this a second time1 with the same results4 ,a consultation was held on the #bbnd1 at which it was decided that conclusive evidence existed of the half-sovereign having passed into the windpipe1 that it was probably lodged at the bottom of the right bronchus1 and that it was movable4 ,it was determined that every effort should be made for its removal1 and that for this purpose an apparatus should be constructed for inverting the body of the patient1 in order that the weight of the coin might assist the natural effort to expel it by coughing4 ,the first experiment was made on the #beth4 ,the body of the patient being inverted1 and the back gently struck with the hand between the shoulders1 violent cough came on1 but of so convulsive and alarming a nature that danger was apprehended1 and the experiment was discontinued4 ,on this occasion the coin was again moved from its situation1 and slipped towards the glottis4 ,on the #bgth tracheotomy was performed by ,sir ,b4 ,brodie1 assisted by ,mr4 ,aston ,key1 with the intention of extracting the coin by the forceps1 if possible1 or1 in the event of this failing1 with the expectation that the opening in the windpipe would facilitate a repetition of the experiment of the #bbnd4 ,on this occasion1 and subsequently on ,may #b1 the introduction of the forceps was attended with so much irritation1 that it could not be persevered in without danger to life4 ,on the #crd another consultation was held1 when ,mr4 ,lawrence and ,mr4 ,stanley entirely confirmed the views of ,sir ,b4 ,brodie and ,mr4 ,key1 and it was agreed that the experiment of inversion should be repeated as soon as ,mr4 ,brunel had recovered sufficient strength1 the incision in the windpipe being kept open4 ,on ,saturday1 the #acth1 ,mr4 ,brunel was again placed on the apparatus1 the body inverted1 and the back gently struck4 ,after two or three coughs1 he felt the coin quit its place on the right side of the chest1 and in a few seconds it dropped from his mouth without exciting in its passage through the glottis any distress or inconvenience1 the opening in the windpipe preventing any spasmodic action of the glottis4 ,in this remarkable case the following circumstances appear to be worthy of note--that a piece of gold remained in the air-tube for six weeks1 quite movable1 and without exciting any inflammatory action1 the breathing entirely undisturbed1 and the only symptoms of its presence occasional uneasiness on the right side of the chest and frequent fits of coughing2 that an accurate diagnosis was formed without being able to obtain any assistance from the stethoscope1 although the chest was repeatedly and carefully examined2 and also that1 a fair trial having been given to the forceps1 the application of this instrument to the removal of a body of this peculiar form from the bottom of the bronchus was proved to be attended with great risk to life1 while the cautious and well-considered plan of treatment above detailed was attended with complete success1 and without risk4 ,during the time that ,mr4 ,brunel was in danger the public excitement was intense4 ,his high professional position1 the extraordinary nature of the accident1 and the greatness of the loss1 were the result to prove fatal1 made his condition and the chances of his recovery an engrossing topic of conversation2 and1 when the news was spread that #8it is out1' the message needed no explanation4 ,that the result was successful was due1 not only to the skill of the surgeons engaged1 and to the anxious care with which those who nursed him left nothing undone to ensure his safety1 but also to the remarkable coolness which ,mr4 ,brunel himself displayed throughout4 ,from the first he took part in the consultations which were held on his case1 and assisted materially in determining the course of treatment which should be pursued4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ten years which followed were the most prosperous in ,mr4 ,brunel's life2 he had attained to great eminence in his profession1 and was still in the enjoyment of robust health4 ,but the results of the gauge controversy and the fierce contests which followed it1 and1 above all1 the failure of the ,atmospheric ,system on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 caused him grave anxiety and sorrow4 ,critics have erred greatly in representing him as a man who1 in order to accomplish some vast design1 thought but little of the distress which follows want of success in commercial enterprises4 ,so far from its being true that ,mr4 ,brunel was indifferent to the interests of his employers1 his private journals show that throughout 7to use his own words7 #8the incessant warfare in which he was engaged' he was earnestly desiring peace and endeavouring to secure it1 and that in times of difficulty1 such as the trial of the ,atmospheric ,system and the launch of the #8,great ,eastern1' his chief thoughts were for those who would suffer through the failure of his plans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the midst of his professional occupations he was able occasionally1 though rarely1 to enjoy the society of his friends4 ,after the session was over1 in #ahdd and #ahde1 he went to ,italy on business1 and in #ahdf to ,switzerland for a short holiday4 ,in #ahdg the ,south ,devon ,railway was occupying his attention1 and he determined to take a house at ,torquay4 ,while there1 the important character of his railway works in ,devonshire and ,cornwall led him to think of making a more permanent settlement in that part of the country4 ,after a good deal of hesitation between various places1 he fixed upon a spot at ,watcombe1 about three miles from ,torquay1 on the ,teignmouth turnpike road4 ,he made his first purchase of land in the autumn of #ahdg2 and from that time to within a year of his death the improvement of this property was his chief delight4 ,he had always a great love and appreciation of beautiful scenery1 and in his choice of a place in which to plant and build he provided amply for his complete gratification4 ,the principal view1 which1 if the house had been built1 would have been the view from the terrace1 is one of the loveliest in that part of ,devonshire4 ,on one side is the sea1 and on the other the range of ,dartmoor1 while in front is spread undulating country1 bounded by the hills on the further side of ,torbay1 the bay itself looking like a lake1 being shut in by the hills above ,torquay4 ,when ,mr4 ,brunel bought this property it consisted of fields divided by hedgerows2 but1 assisted by ,mr4 ,william ,nesfield1 he laid it out in plantations of choice trees4 ,the occupation of arranging them gave him unfailing pleasure2 and1 although he could seldom spare more than a few days' holiday at a time1 there can be little doubt that the happiest hours of his life were spent in walking about in the gardens with his wife and children1 and discussing the condition and prospects of his favourite trees4#aic ,he could not1 of course1 take a prominent part in the affairs of the parish1 but he was always ready to assist in any work that had been taken in hand4 ,he will be long remembered there by his friends in every rank of life4 ,in purchasing this property in ,devonshire1 ,mr4 ,brunel had looked forward to retiring gradually from active professional life1 #8to draw in and make room for others1' and to spend a greater portion of his time in the country4 ,it may well be questioned whether he would have been happy in giving up work while yet in middle life2 but the wisdom of his resolve was not to be put to the test4 ,from the beginning of the year #aheb the #8,great ,eastern' steam-ship began to occupy his time and thoughts4 ,as the works progressed he was more and more tied to ,london2 and the large pecuniary investment he had made in the shares of the company caused him to hesitate before proceeding with the building of his house4 ,thus the hopes he had formed for making his home in ,devonshire faded gradually away1 and were at length extinguished by the failure of his health4 99 99 99 99 99 ,many things had happened in the earlier part of #aheg which gave him pleasure4 ,in ,june he received1 in company with ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 the honorary degree of ,doctor in ,civil ,law from the ,university of ,oxford4#aid ,in the summer he paid several visits to ,devonshire1 and at the beginning of ,september the floating of the first truss of the ,saltash bridge was successfully accomplished4 ,the history of the launch of the #8,great ,eastern1' which was commenced in ,november1 has been already told4 ,throughout all the disappointments he then endured ,mr4 ,brunel took comfort from the sympathy of valued friends1 and from those higher sources of consolation on which it was his habit to rely4 ,he paid for his exertions a heavy price1 for they left him broken in health and already suffering from the disease of which in a little more than eighteen mouths afterwards he died4#aie 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,may #aheh ,mr4 ,brunel went to ,vichy1 and thence to ,switzerland1 returning home in the autumn by way of ,holland4 ,when at ,lucerne he went up the ,righi1 and was so charmed with it that1 instead of spending only a night there1 he remained a week1 working at the designs for the ,eastern ,bengal ,railway4 ,it was on his return to ,england in ,september that the alarming nature of his illness was ascertained4 ,after anxious consultation with ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie and ,dr4 ,bright1 he was ordered to spend the winter in ,egypt1 in the hope that he might return in the ,march or ,april following in restored health4 ,he was very unwilling to be so long absent from ,england1 especially as a new company had just been formed to finish the #8,great ,eastern1' and the contracts for her completion were about to be let4 ,however1 it was thought that very serious consequences might follow if he remained at home2 and in the beginning of ,december he left for ,alexandria1 with his wife and younger son4 ,having stayed there a day or two1 they went on to ,cairo1 where they found ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson4 ,he and ,mr4 ,brunel dined together on ,christmas ,day4 ,on ,december #cj the journey up the ,nile commenced4 ,on ,january #ba they arrived at ,thebes1 and spent some days there4 ,mr4 ,brunel was able to ride about on a donkey1 and made some sketches of the celebrated ruins in the neighbourhood4#aif ,they reached ,assouan on ,february #b1 and made preparations for ascending the cataracts4 ,they went as far as ,dakkeh1 and got back to ,assouan on ,february #ai4 ,the following letter from ,mr4 ,brunel to his sister1 ,lady ,hawes1 describes some of the scenes through which he passed3-- ,phil1 ,february #ab1 #ahei4 ,i now write to you from a charming place2 but ,assouan1 which ,i left to come here1 is also beautiful1 and ,i will speak of that first4 ,it is strange that so little is said in the guide books of the picturesque beauty of these places4 ,approaching ,assouan1 you glide through a reef of rocks1 large boulders of granite polished by the action of the water charged with sand4 ,you arrive at a charming bay or lake of perfectly still water and studded with these singular jet-black or red rock islands4 ,in the distance you see a continuation of the river1 with distant islands shut in by mountains1 of beautiful colours1 some a lilac sandstone1 some the bright red yellow of the sands of the desert4 ,above the promontories the water excursions are delicious4 ,you enter at once among the islands of the ,cataracts1 fantastic forms of granite heaps of boulders split and worn into singular shapes4 ,after spending a week at ,assouan1 with a trip by land to ,phil1 ,i was so charmed with the appearance of the ,cataracts as seen from the shore1 and with the deliciously quiet repose of ,phil1 that ,i determined to get a boat1 and sleep a few nights there4 ,we succeeded in hiring a country boat laden with dates1 and emptied her1 and fitted up her three cabins4#aig ,we put our cook and dragoman and provisions1 c41 on board1 and some men1 and went up the ,cataract4 ,it was a most amusing affair1 and most beautiful and curious scenery all the way4 ,it is a long rapid of three miles1 and perhaps one mile wide1 full of rocky islands and isolated rocks4 ,a bird's-eye view hardly shows a free passage1 and some of the more rapid falls are between rocks not forty feet wide--in appearance not twenty4 ,although they do not drag the boats up perpendicular falls of three or four feet1 as the travellers' books tell you1 they really do drag the boats up rushes of water which1 until ,i had seen it1 and had then calculated the power required1 ,i should imprudently have said could not be effected4 ,we were dragged up at one place a gush of water1 what might fairly be called a fall of about three feet1 the water rushing past very formidably1 and between rocks seemingly not more than wide enough to let our boat pass1 and this only by some thirty-five men at three or four ropes1 the men standing in the water and on the rocks in all directions1 shouting1 plunging into the water1 swimming across the top or bottom of the fall1 just as they wanted1 then getting under the boat to push it off rocks1 all with an immense expenditure of noise and apparent confusion and want of plan1 yet on the whole properly and successfully4 ,we were probably twenty or thirty minutes getting up this one1 sometimes bumping hard on one rock1 sometimes on another1 and jammed hard first on one side and then on the other1 the boat all the time on the fall with ropes all strained1 sometimes going up a foot or two1 sometimes losing it1 till at last we crept to the top1 and sailed quietly on in a perfectly smooth lake4 ,these efforts up the different falls had been going on for nearly eight hours1 and the relief from noise was delicious4 ,we selected a quiet spot under the temples of ,phil4444 ,our poultry-yard is on the sandbank1 where fowls1 pigeons1 and turkeys are walking about loose1 and1 like all animals in this country1 perfectly tame4 ,yes1 they walk up and catch a pigeon to be killed when you like4 ,in the midst of these and of the small birds which always walk and fly about us1 have been walking for hours this morning three or four large eagles1 who1 with the politeness peculiar to animals here1 pay no attention to our fowls1 nor do they to the eagles4 ,but here ,i am entering on the anomalies and contradictions of ,egypt1 which would fill volumes4 ,after leaving ,egypt1 ,mr4 ,brunel went to ,naples and ,rome1 where he spent ,easter1 and he returned to ,england in the middle of ,may4 ,when abroad1 ,mr4 ,brunel made sight-seeing a pleasure rather than a business2 thus in ,egypt he preferred to visit frequently the same places1 and rather to enjoy that which he knew gave him pleasure1 than to hurry about with the object of seeing all that was to be seen4 ,at ,phil he stopped more than a week1 and at ,thebes he spent more time in a small outlying temple near ,karnac than in the great ruin itself4 ,so also at ,rome he went frequently to the ,colosseum1 and he spent many hours in the interior of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,shortly after his return to ,england he went to ,plymouth1 and over the ,saltash bridge and other parts of the ,cornwall ,railway1 which had been opened during his absence abroad4 ,although it had by this time become certain that the disease under which he laboured had assumed a fatal character1 he continued to give unremitting attention to his various professional duties2 and in order to be nearer the #8,great ,eastern1' he took a house at ,sydenham1 and removed there with his family in the beginning of ,august4 ,almost every day he went to the great ship and superintended the preparations for getting her to sea4 ,she was advertised to sail on ,september #f1 and ,mr4 ,brunel had intended going round in her to ,weymouth4 ,he was on board early on the morning of the #eth1 and his memorandum book has1 under that date1 an entry of some unfinished work which had to be looked after4 ,towards midday he felt symptoms of failing power1 and went home to his house in ,duke ,street1 when it became evident that he had been attacked with paralysis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at one time it seemed possible that he might recover2 but on the tenth day after his seizure1 ,thursday1 ,september #ae1 all hope was taken away4 ,in the afternoon he spoke to those who watched around him1 calling them to him by their names2 as evening closed in he gradually sank1 and died at half-past ten1 quietly and without pain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the funeral was on ,september #bj1 at the ,kensal ,green ,cemetery4 ,along the road leading to the chapel many hundreds of his private and professional friends1 his neighbours among the tradespeople of ,westminster1 the ,council of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 and the servants of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 had assembled1 and1 with his family1 followed his body to its place of burial1 in the grave of his father and mother4#aih ,it would be improper here to attempt to enter into a general criticism of ,mr4 ,brunel's works1 or to determine the position which he is entitled to occupy among civil engineers4 ,that task has yet to be accomplished1 and must be undertaken by those who can claim to be impartial judges4 ,it has been the object of this book to provide1 as far as possible1 the materials on which a just judgment of his career can be based4 ,but it may be permitted1 in conclusion1 to place on record the following testimony to the high position held by ,mr4 ,brunel in the esteem of his contemporaries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on ,november #h1 #ahei1 at the first meeting of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers after the death of ,mr4 ,brunel and of ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,locke1 ,m4,p41 the ,president1 rose and said-- #8,i cannot permit the occasion of opening a new session to pass without alluding to the irreparable loss which the ,institution has sustained by the death1 during the recess1 of its two most honoured and distinguished members4 #8,in the midst of difficulties of no ordinary kind1 with an ardour rarely equalled1 and an application both of body and mind almost beyond the limit of physical endurance1 in the full pursuit of a great and cherished idea1 ,brunel was suddenly struck down1 before he had accomplished the task which his daring genius had set before him4 #8,following in the footsteps of his distinguished parent1 ,sir ,isambard ,brunel1 his early career1 even from its commencement1 was remarkable for originality in the conception of the works confided to him4 ,as his experience increased1 his confidence in his own powers augmented2 and the ,great ,western ,railway1 with its broad-gauge line1 colossal engines1 large carriages1 and bold designs of every description1 was carried onward1 and ultimately embraced a wide district of the country4 #8,the same feeling induced1 in steam navigation1 the successive construction of the 8,great ,western0 steamer1 the largest vessel of the time1 until superseded by the 8,great ,britain10 which was in its turn eclipsed by the 8,great ,eastern10 the most gigantic experiment of the age4 #8,the ,great ,ship was ,brunel's peculiar child2 he applied himself to it in a manner which could not fail to command respect2 and1 if he did not live to see its final and successful completion1 he saw enough1 in his later hours1 to sustain him in the belief that his idea would ultimately become a triumphant reality4 #8,the shock which the loss of ,brunel created was yet felt1 when we were startled by an announcement that another of our esteemed members had been summoned from us4#aii 99 99 99 99 99 #8,it is not my intention at this time to give even an outline of the works achieved by our two departed friends4 ,their lives and labours1 however1 are before us2 and it will be our own fault if we fail to draw from them useful lessons for our own guidance4 ,man is not perfect1 and it is not to be expected that he should be always successful2 and1 as in the midst of success we sometimes learn great truths before unknown to us1 so also we often discover in failure the causes which frustrate our best directed efforts4 ,our two friends may probably form no exception to the general rule2 but1 judging by the position they had each secured1 and by the universal respect and sympathy which the public has manifested for their loss1 and remembering the brilliant ingenuity of argument1 as well as the more homely appeals to their own long experience1 often heard in this hall1 we are well assured that they have not laboured in vain4 #8,we1 at least1 who are benefited by their successes1 who feel that our ,institution has reason to be proud of its association with such names as ,brunel and ,stephenson1 have a duty to perform2 and that duty is1 to honour their memory and emulate their example4' ,,appendix ,i4 7,see ,chapter ,v4 on the ,broad ,gauge1 p4 #ii47 ,report to the ,board of ,directors of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company4 ,august #ahch4 ,,gentlemen1--,as the endeavour to obtain the opinions and reports of ,mr4 ,walker1 ,mr4 ,stephenson1 and ,mr4 ,wood1 prior to the next half-yearly meeting1 has not been successful1 ,i am anxious to record more fully than ,i have previously done1 and to combine them into one report1 my own views and opinions upon the success of the several plans which have been adopted at my recommendation in the formation and in the working of our line2 and in justice to myself and to these plans1 and indeed to enable others to arrive at any just conclusion as to the result which has been attained1 or as to the probable ultimate success or advantages of the system1 it is necessary that ,i should enter very fully1 ,i fear even tediously1 into a recapitulation of the circumstances1 peculiar to this railway1 which led to the consideration and the adoption of these plans1 which some call innovations and wide deviations from the results of past experience1 but the majority of which ,i will undertake to show are merely adaptations of those plans to our particular circumstances4 ,it will be necessary also that ,i should refer to all the numerous difficulties which we have had to encounter1 which have necessarily prevented the perfect working of these plans in the first instance1 but which have been overcome1 or which are gradually and successively diminishing2 and1 finally1 ,i am prepared to show that1 notwithstanding the novelty of the circumstances1 and the difficulties and delays which at the outset invariably attend any alteration1 however necessary1 or however desirable1 from the accustomed mode of proceeding1 and notwithstanding the violent prejudices excited against us1 and the increased difficulties caused by these prejudices1 the result is still such as to justify the attempt which has been made1 and to show that in the main features1 if not in all the details1 the system hitherto followed is good1 and ought to be pursued4 ,the peculiarity of the circumstances of this railway1 to which ,i would more particularly refer1 and which have frequently been mentioned1 consists in the unusually favourable gradients and curves which we have been able to obtain4 ,with the capability of carrying the line upwards of fifty miles out of ,london on almost a dead level1 and without any objectionable curve1 and having beyond this1 and for the whole distance to ,bristol1 excellent gradients1 it was thought that unusually high speed might easily be attained1 and that the very large extent of passenger traffic which such a line would certainly command would ensure a return for any advantages which could be offered to the public1 either in increased speed or increased accommodations4 ,with this view every possible attention was paid to the improvement of the line as originally laid down in the parliamentary plans4 ,we ultimately succeeded in determining a maximum gradient of #d feet per mile1 which could be maintained for the unusual distance1 before mentioned1 of upwards of fifty miles from ,london1 and also between ,bristol and ,bath1 comprehending those parts of the line on which the principal portion of the passenger traffic will be carried4 ,the attainment of high speed appeared to involve the question of the width of gauge1 and on this point accordingly ,i expressed my opinion at a very early period4 ,it has been asserted that #d feet #h inches1 the width adopted on the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 is exactly the proper width for all railways1 and that to adopt any other dimension is to deviate from a positive rule which experience has proved correct2 but such an assertion can be maintained by no reasoning4 ,admitting1 for the sake of argument1 that1 under the particular circumstances in which it has been tried1 #d feet #h inches has been proved the best possible dimension1 the question would still remain--,what are the best dimensions under the circumstances8 ,although a breadth of #d feet #h inches has been found to create a certain resistance on curves of a certain radius1 a greater breadth would produce only the same resistance on curves of greater radius4 ,if carriages and engines1 and more particularly if wheels and axles of a certain weight1 have not been found inconvenient upon one railway1 greater weights may be employed and the same results obtained on a railway with better gradients4 ,to adopt a gauge of the same number of inches on the ,great ,western ,railway as on the ,grand ,junction ,railway1 would in fact amount practically to the use of a different gauge in similar railways4 ,the gauge which is well adapted to the one is not well adapted to the other1 unless1 indeed1 some mysterious cause exists which has never yet been explained for the empirical law which would fix the gauge under all circumstances4 ,fortunately this no longer requires to be argued1 as too many authorities may now be quoted in support of a very considerable deviation from this prescribed width1 and in every case this change has been an increase4 ,i take it for granted that1 in determining the dimensions in each case1 due regard has been had to the curves and gradients of the line1 which ought to form a most essential1 if not the principal1 condition4 ,in the ,report of the ,commissioners upon ,irish ,railways1 the arguments are identically the same with those which ,i used when first addressing you on the subject in my ,report of ,october #ahce4 ,the mechanical advantage to be gained by increasing the diameter of the carriage-wheels is pointed out1 the necessity1 to attain this1 of increasing the width of way1 the dimensions of the bridges1 tunnels1 and other principal works1 not being materially affected by this2 but1 on the other hand1 the circumstance which limits this increase being the curves on the line1 and the increased proportional resistance on inclinations 7and on this account it is stated to be almost solely applicable to very level lines72 and1 lastly1 the increased expense1 which could be justified only by a great traffic4 ,the whole is clearly argued in a general point of view1 and then applied to the particular case1 and the result of this application is the recommendation of the adoption of #f feet #b inches on the ,irish railways4 ,thus1 an increase in the breadth of way to attain one particular object--viz4 the capability of increasing the diameter of the carriage-wheels without raising the bodies of the carriages--is admitted to be most desirable1 but is limited by certain circumstances1 namely1 the gradients and curves of the line1 and the extent of traffic4 ,every argument here adduced1 and every calculation made1 would tend to the adoption of about #g feet on the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,the gradients of the lines laid down by the ,irish ,commission are considerably steeper than those of the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 and four and five times the inclination of those on the ,great ,western ,railway2 the curves are by no means of very large radius1 and indeed the ,commissioners1 after fixing the gauge of #f feet #b inches1 express their opinion1 that upon examination into the question of curves1 with a view to economy1 they do not find that the effect is so injurious as might have been anticipated1 and imply therefore that curves1 generally considered of small radius on our ,english lines1 are not incompatible with the #f feet #b inch gauge2 and1 lastly1 the traffic1 instead of being unusually large1 so as to justify any expense beyond that absolutely required1 is such as to render assistance from ,government necessary to ensure a return for the capital embarked4 ,as compared with this1 what are the circumstances in our case8 ,the object to be attained is the placing an ordinary coach body1 which is upwards of #f feet #f inches in width1 between the wheels4 ,this necessarily involves a gauge of rail of about #f feet #aj inches to #f feet #aa inches1 but #g feet allows of its being done easily2 it allows1 moreover1 of a different arrangement of the body3 it admits all sorts of carriages1 stage-coaches1 and carts to be carried between the wheels4 ,and what are the limits in the case of the ,great ,western ,railway1 as compared to those on ,irish railways8 ,gradients of one-fifth the inclination1 very favourable curves1 and probably the largest traffic in ,england4 ,i think it unnecessary to say another word to show that the ,irish ,commissioners would have arrived at #g feet on the ,great ,western ,railway by exactly the same train of argument that led them to adopt #f feet #b inches in the case then before them4 ,all these arguments were advanced by me in my first ,report to you1 and the subject was well considered4 ,the circumstance of the ,great ,western ,railway1 and other principal railways likely to extend beyond it1 having no connection with other lines then made1 leaving us free from any prescribed dimension1 the #g-;feet gauge was ultimately determined upon4 ,many objections were certainly urged against it3 the deviation from the established #d feet #h inches was then considered as the abandonment of the principle3 this1 however1 was a mere assertion1 unsupported even by plausible argument1 and was gradually disused2 but objections were still urged1 that the original cost of construction of all the works connected with the formation of the line must be greatly increased2 that the carriages must be so much stronger2 that they would be proportionally heavier2 that they would not run round the curves1 and would be more liable to run off the rails2 and particularly1 that the increased length of the axles would render them liable to be broken3 and these objections were not advanced as difficulties which1 as existing in all railways1 might be somewhat increased by the increase of gauge1 but as peculiar to this1 and fatal to the system4 ,with regard to the first objection1 namely1 the increased cost in the original construction of the line1 if there be any1 it is a question of calculation which is easily estimated1 and was so estimated before the increased gauge was determined upon4 ,here1 however1 preconceived opinions have been allowed weight in lieu of arguments and calculations2 cause and effect are mixed up1 and without much consideration it was assumed at once that an increased gauge necessarily involved increased width of way1 and dimensions of bridges1 tunnels1 c4 ,yet such is not the case within the limits we are now treating of3 a #g-;feet rail requires no wider bridge or tunnel than a #e-;feet2 the breadth is governed by a maximum width allowed for a loaded waggon1 or the largest load to be carried on the railway1 and the clear space to be allowed on either side beyond this4 ,on the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway this total breadth is only #i feet #aj inches1 and the bridge and viaducts need only have been twice this1 or #ai feet #h inches2 #i feet #aj inches was found1 however1 rather too small1 and in the ,london and ,birmingham1 with the same width of way1 this was increased to #aa feet by widening the interval between the two rails4 ,in the space of #aa feet1 allowed for each rail1 a #g-;feet gauge might be placed just as well as a #e-;feet1 leaving the bridges1 tunnels1 and viaducts exactly the same2 but #aa feet was thought by some still too narrow3 and when it is remembered that this barely allows a width of #aj feet for loads1 whether of cotton1 wool1 agricultural produce1 or other light goods1 and which are liable also to be displaced in travelling1 #ac feet 7which has been fixed upon in the ,great ,western ,railway1 and which limits the maximum breadth1 under any circumstances1 to about #ab feet7 will not be found excessive4 ,it is this which makes the minimum width1 actually required under bridges and tunnels1 #bf feet instead of #bb feet1 and not the increased gauge4 ,the earthwork is slightly affected by the gauge1 but only to the extent of #b feet on the embankment1 and not quite so much in the cuttings2 but what1 in practice1 has been the result8 ,the bridges over the railway on the ,london and ,birmingham are #cj feet1 and the width of viaducts #bh feet2 on the ,great ,western ,railway they are both #cj feet2 no great expense is therefore incurred on these items1 and certainly a very small one compared to the increased space gained1 which1 as ,i have stated1 is from #aj to #ab feet4 ,in the tunnels exists the greatest difference2 on the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 which ,i refer to as being the best and most analogous case to that of the ,great ,western ,railway1 the tunnels are #bd feet wide4 ,on the ,great ,western ,railway the constant width of #cj feet is maintained1 more with a view of diminishing the objections to tunnels1 and maintaining the same minimum space which hereafter may form a limit to the size and form of everything carried on the railway1 than from such a width being absolutely necessary4 ,without pretending to find fault with the dimensions fixed1 and which have1 no doubt1 been well considered1 upon the works on other lines1 ,i may state that the principle which has governed has been to fix the minimum width1 and to make all the works the same1 considering it unnecessary to have a greater width between the parapet walls of a viaduct1 which admits of being altered1 than between the sides of a tunnel which cannot be altered4 ,the embankments on the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway are #bf feet1 on the ,great ,western #cj feet1 making an excess of about six and a half per cent4 on the actual quantity of earthwork4 ,the difference in the quantity of land required is under half an acre to a mile4 ,on the whole1 the increased dimensions from #aj to #ab feet will not cause any average increased expense in the construction of the works1 and purchase of land1 of above seven per cent4--eight per cent4 having originally been assumed in my ,report in #ahce as the excess to be provided for4 ,with respect to the weight of the carriages1 although we have wheels of #d feet diameter1 instead of #c feet1 which1 of course1 involves an increased weight quite independent of the increase of width1 and although the space allowed for each passenger is a trifle more1 and the height of the body greater1 yet the gross weight per passenger is somewhat less4 ,tons cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 ,a ,birmingham first-class coach weighs #c #ag #b #j ,which with #ah passengers at #ae to the ton #a #d #j #j ---------------- #e #a #b #j ,or #fca lbs4 per passenger ,a ,great ,western first-class weighs #d #ad #j #j ,and with #bd passengers #a #ab #j #j ---------------- #f #f #j #j ,or #ehh lbs4 per passenger ,and our #f-wheeled first-class #f #aa #j #j ,with #cb passengers #b #b #b #j ---------------- #h #ac #b #j ,or #fjj lbs4 per passenger ,being an average of #eid lbs4 on the two carriages4 ,this saving of weight does not arise from the increased width1 and is notwithstanding the increased strength of the framing and the increased diameter and weight of the wheels2 ,i have not weighed our second-class open carriages1 but ,i should think the same proportion would exist4 ,as to the breaking of axles or running off the line1 the practical result has been that1 from some cause or other1 we have been almost perfectly free from those very objections which have been felt so seriously on some other lines4 ,far from breaking any engine axles1 not even a single cranked axle has been strained1 although the engines have been subjected to rather severe trials4 ,one of our largest having1 a short time back1 been sent along the line at night1 when it was not expected1 came in collision with some ballast waggons1 and was thrown off the line nearly #f feet2 none of the axles were bent1 or even strained in the least1 although the front of the carriage1 a piece of oak of very large scantling1 was shattered4 ,after ten weeks' running1 one solitary instance has occurred of a carriage in a train getting off the line and dragging another with it1 and which was not discovered till after running a mile and a half4 ,as the carriage was in the middle of the train1 and one end of the axle was thrown completely out of the axle guard1 there must evidently have been some extraordinary cause--possibly a plank thrown across the railway by a blow from the carriage which preceded1 and which might have produced the same effect on any railway2 and at any rate it was a strong trial to the axle1 which was not broken1 but merely restored to its place1 and the carriage sent on to ,london4 ,the same mode of reasoning which has by some been used in favour of the #d feet #h inches gauge1 if applied here1 would prove that long axles are stronger than short1 and wide rails best adapted for curves4 ,all that ,i think proved1 however1 is this--that the increased tendency of the axles to break1 or of the wheels to run off the rails1 is so slight that it is more than counterbalanced by the increased steadiness from the width of the base1 and the absence of those violent strains which arise from irregularity on the gauge and the harshness of the ordinary construction of rails4 ,in fact1 not one of the objections originally urged against the practical working of the wide gauge has been found to exist1 while the object sought for is obtained1 namely1 the capability of increasing at any future period the diameter of the wheels1 which cannot be done1 however desirable it may hereafter be found1 with the old width of rail4 ,this may be said to be only prospective2 but1 in the meantime1 contingent advantages are sensibly felt in the increased lateral steadiness of the carriages and engines1 and the greater space which is afforded for the works of the locomotives4 ,and here ,i wish particularly to call your attention to the fact that this prospective advantage--this absence of a most inconvenient limit to the reduction of the friction1 which1 with our gradients1 forms four-fifths or eighty per cent4 of the total resistance--was the object sought for1 and that1 at the time of recommending it1 ,i expressly stated as follows3--#8,i am not by any means prepared at present to recommend any particular size of wheel1 or even any great increase of the present dimensions4 ,i believe they will be materially increased2 but my great object would be in every possible way to render each part capable of improvement1 and to remove what appears an obstacle to any great progress in such a very important point as the diameter of the wheels1 upon which the resistance1 which governs the cost of transport and the speed that may be obtained1 so materially depends4' ,these advantages were considered important by you1 they are now considered so by many others2 and certainly everything which has occurred in the practical working of the line confirms me in my conviction that we have secured a most valuable power to the ,great ,western ,railway1 and that it would be folly to abandon it4 ,the next point ,i shall consider is the construction of the engines1 the modifications in which1 necessary to adapt them to higher speeds than usual1 have1 like the increased width of gauge1 been condemned as innovations4 ,i shall not attempt to argue with those who consider any increase of speed unnecessary4 ,the public will always prefer that conveyance which is most perfect1 and speed within reasonable limits is a material ingredient in perfection in travelling4 ,a rate of thirty-five to forty miles an hour is not unfrequently attained at present on other railways in descending planes1 or with light loads on a level1 and is found practically to be attended with no inconvenience4 ,to maintain such a speed with regularity on a level line1 with moderate loads1 is therefore quite practicable1 and unquestionably desirable4 ,with this view the engines were constructed1 but nothing new was required or recommended by me4 ,a certain velocity of the piston is considered the most advantageous4 ,the engines intended for slow speeds have always had the driving wheels small in proportion to the length of stroke of the piston4 ,the faster engines have had a different proportion2 the wheels have been larger1 or the strokes of the piston shorter4 ,from the somewhat clamorous objections raised against the large wheels1 and the construction of the ,great ,western ,railway engines1 and the opinions rather freely expressed of my judgment in directing this construction1 it would naturally be supposed that some established principle had been departed from1 and that ,i had recommended this departure4 ,the facts are1 that a certain velocity of piston being found most advantageous1 ,i fixed this velocity1 so that the engines should be adapted to run thirty-five miles an hour1 and capable of running forty--as the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway engines are best calculated for twenty to twenty-five1 but capable of running easily up to thirty and thirty-five miles per hour2 and fixing also the load which the engine was to be capable of drawing1 ,i left the form of construction and the proportions entirely to the manufacturers1 stipulating merely that they should submit detail drawings to me for my approval4 ,this was the substance of the circular1 which1 with your sanction1 was sent to several of the most experienced manufacturers4 ,most of these manufacturers1 of their own accord1 and without previous communication with me1 adopted the large wheels1 as a necessary consequence of the speed required4 ,the recommendation coming from such quarters1 there can be no necessity for defending my opinion in its favour2 neither have ,i now the slightest doubt of its correctness4 ,as it has been supposed that the manufacturers may have been compelled or induced by me to adopt certain modes of construction1 or certain dimensions1 in other parts by a specification--a practice which has been adopted on some lines--and that these restrictions may have embarrassed them1 ,i should wish to take this opportunity to state distinctly that such is not the case4 ,i have indeed strongly recommended to their consideration the advantages of having very large and well-formed steam passages1 which generally they have adopted1 and with good results2 and with this single exception1 if it can be considered one1 they have been left unfettered by me 7perhaps too much so7 and uninfluenced1 except indeed by the prejudices and fears of those by whom they have been surrounded1 which have by no means diminished the difficulties ,i have had to contend with4 ,the principal proportions of these engines being those which have been recommended by the most able experimentalists and writers1 and these having been adopted by the most experienced makers1 it is difficult to understand who can constitute themselves objectors1 or what can be their objections4 ,even if these engines had not been found effective1 at least it must be admitted that the best and most liberal means had been adopted to procure them2 but ,i am far from asking such an admission4 ,the engines1 ,i think1 have proved to be well adapted to the particular task for which they were calculated--namely1 high speeds--but circumstances prevent their being beneficially applied to this purpose at present1 and they are1 therefore1 working under great disadvantages4 ,an engine constructed expressly for a high velocity cannot1 of course1 be well adapted to exert great power at a low speed2 neither can it be well adapted for stopping frequently and regaining its speed4 ,but such was not the intention when these engines were made1 neither will it be the case when the arrangements on the line are complete2 in the meantime1 our average rate of travelling is much greater than it was either on the ,grand ,junction or the ,birmingham ,railway within the same period of the opening4 ,i have but one serious objection to make to our present engines1 and for this1 strange as it may seem1 ,i feel that we are mainly indebted to those who have been most loud in their complaints--,i refer to the unnecessary weight of the engines4 ,there is nothing in the wide gauge which involves any considerable increased weight in the engine4 ,an engine of the same power and capacity for speed1 whether for a #d-;feet #h-;inch rail1 or for a #g-;feet rail1 will have identically the same boiler1 the same fire-box1 the same cylinder and piston1 and other working gear1 the same side frames1 and the same wheels2 the axles and the cross-framing will alone differ1 and upon these alone need there be any increase2 but1 if these were doubled in weight1 the difference upon the whole engine would be immaterial4 ,but the repeated assertion1 frequently professing to come from experienced authorities1 and repeated until it was supposed to be proved1 that the increased gauge must require increased strength and great power1 was not without its indirect effect upon the manufacturers4 ,unnecessary dimensions have been given to many parts1 and the weight thereby increased--rather tending1 as ,i believe1 to diminish than to add to the strength of the whole4 ,i thought then1 and ,i believe now1 that it would have been unwise in this case to have resisted the general opinion1 and taken upon myself the responsibility which belonged to the manufacturers2 but ,i need not now hesitate to say that a very considerable reduction may be effected1 and that no such unusual precautions are necessary to meet these anticipated strains and resistances--such being1 in fact1 imaginary4 ,it cannot surprise anybody that1 under such circumstances1 attention was more occupied in endeavouring to meet these imaginary prejudiced objections1 than in boldly taking advantage of the new circumstances1 and that a piece of machinery constructed under such disadvantages was not likely to be a fair sample of what might be done4 ,i am happy to say1 however1 that the result of the trials that have been made has entirely destroyed all credit in these alarmists with the manufacturer1 and that we may hope in future to have the benefits of the free exercise of the intelligence and practical knowledge of engine-manufacturers4 ,the mode of laying the rails is the next point which ,i shall consider4 ,it may appear strange that ,i should again in this case disclaim having attempted anything perfectly new2 yet regard to truth compels me to do so4 ,i have recommended1 in the case of the ,great ,western1 the principle of a continuous bearing of timber under the rail1 instead of isolated supports--an old system recently revived1 and as such ,i described it in my ,report of ,january #ahcf2 the result of many hundred miles laid in this manner in ,america1 and of some detached portions of railways in ,england1 was quite sufficient to prove that the system was attended with many advantages2 but since we first adopted it these proofs have been multiplied--there need now be no apprehension4 ,there are railways in full work1 upon which the experiment has been tried sufficiently to prove beyond doubt1 to those willing to be convinced1 that a permanent way in continuous bearings of wood may be constructed1 in which the motion will be much smoother1 the noise less1 and consequently--for they are effects produced by the same cause--the wear and tear of the machinery much less4 ,such a plan is certainly best adapted for high speeds1 and this is the system recommended by me and adopted on our road4 ,there are1 no doubt1 different modes of construction1 and that which ,i have adopted as an improvement upon others may1 on the contrary1 be attended with disadvantages4 ,for the system ,i will strenuously contend4 ,but ,i should be sorry to enter with any such determined feeling into a discussion of the merits of the particular mode of construction4 ,i would refer to my last ,report for the reasons which influenced me1 and the objects ,i had in view in introducing the piling2 that part which had been made under my own eye answered fully all my expectations4 ,here the piles did answer their purpose1 and no inconvenience resulted from their use4 ,the difficulties which we have since encountered1 the bad state in which the line was for a considerable time1 and which is only recently improved1 have undoubtedly been aggravated1 if not caused1 by these piles2 but not1 as ,i believe1 from a defect in the principle as applied in our case1 where the line is mostly in cutting1 or on the surface1 but from defective execution2 for1 notwithstanding the determination to allow sufficient time for this most important operation1 yet1 to make up for previous delays and loss of time1 it became necessary at last to force forward the work more rapidly than was at all consistent with due care in the execution2 and during the whole of this period ,i was most unfortunately prevented by a serious accident from even seeing the work almost until the day of opening1 when ,i ought to have personally superintended the whole4 ,i do not mean that the work was neglected by those whose duty it was to supply my place--far from it2 but in such a case1 a new work cannot be properly directed except under the eye of the master4 ,following exactly the plan which had succeeded on the first piece completed1 several serious faults were committed4 ,a much greater density and firmness of packing is required than was previously supposed2 the mode of packing adopted1 and the material selected1 in the first instance1 have proved defective elsewhere2 and over a great extent in the line1 particularly in the clay cuttings1 and where the work was at last most hurried1 it has been badly executed4 ,but many parts have stood well from the commencement2 others are fast improving2 and ,i have the satisfaction1 although a very painful one1 of seeing that if1 in the first instance1 a foundation of coarse gravel had been everywhere well rammed in before the timbers had been laid1 and the packing formed upon this1 we should1 from the outset1 have obtained as solid a road as we have now over a great part of the line4 ,what we have been able to effect since the opening of the line has necessarily been a slow1 expensive1 and laborious operation4 ,we have been compelled to open the ground1 and excavate it to a depth of #ah inches under the longitudinal timbers1 and this without interrupting the traffic3 to remove the whole of the material thus obtained from off the line1 and to replace it by coarse ballast2 and not having the means of sufficiently consolidating this ballast by ramming while the timber is in its place1 the packing has to be repeated once or twice after it has been compressed by the passing of the trains4 ,this new packing1 however1 does stand1 and in a few weeks ,i expect the line will be in a very different state from that in which it has been1 or indeed now is4 ,from what ,i have described as the result which can now be1 and might have been1 obtained from the commencement1 it will be inferred that ,i am disposed still to defend the system of piling4 ,i certainly could not abandon it from conviction of its inefficiency1 for ,i see proofs of the contrary2 and ,i feel that under similar circumstances ,i could now prevent the mischief which has occurred4 ,upon that portion of the line where the permanent way must next be formed1 piling could not be resorted to1 the ground being a solid hard chalk for many miles4 ,i had intended1 however1 recommending the same principle1 but in a different form1 holding down the longitudinals by small iron rods driven into the chalk2 but the same objection could not exist1 because the chalk cannot yield under the timbers like clay1 or even gravel4 ,but ,i should wish most anxiously to avoid anything like an obstinate adherence to a plan1 if the object which ,i believe essential can be obtained by other means1 particularly when1 that plan being my own1 ,i may be somewhat prejudiced in its favour4 ,i find that the system of piling involves considerable expenses in the first construction1 and requires perhaps too great a perfection in the whole work1 and that if the whole or a part of this cost were expended in increased scantling of timber and weight of metal1 that a very solid continuous rail would be formed4 ,for this as a principle1 as for the width of gauge1 ,i am prepared to contend1 and to stand or fall by it1 believing it to be a most essential improvement1 where high speeds are to be obtained4 ,i strongly urge upon you not to hesitate upon these two main points1 which1 combined with what may be termed the natural advantages of the line1 will eventually secure to you a superiority which1 under other circumstances1 cannot be obtained4 ,as regards the expense of forming the permanent way on this principle1 ,i am quite prepared to maintain what ,i have on a former occasion advanced3 that even on the system which we have adopted between ,london and ,maidenhead1 the total cost does not materially exceed that of a well-constructed line with stone blocks4 ,i did not make in the outset an exact estimate of the cost of either mode2 ,i was unable to obtain the cost which has actually been incurred on other lines2 but a comparative estimate was made1 and the result of that comparison led me to state that the one might exceed the other by #ejjl4 a mile4 ,the actual cost of our permanent way appears1 by the detailed account which has been made out1 to have been above #i1jjjl41 including expenses of under-draining and forming the surfaces which cannot be included in the cost given in other cases1 because that drainage 7although ,i believe generally forming part of the plan7 is not yet constructed4 ,this sum includes the sidings at the stations1 switches1 joints1 and other contingencies1 and also the expenses incurred during the first month of working the line1 and which1 as ,i have before stated1 consisted in removing and replacing work which had been improperly executed4 ,these items will make a considerable reduction2 and besides these1 larger reductions may be effected in parts of the work which were new1 and1 from the circumstances naturally attending a first attempt1 were not so economically conducted as they might be1 or indeed1 as they were towards the close of the works1 when the different parts were let by contract4 ,taking the prices at which the work was latterly actually executed1 #h1jjjl4 per mile would be a liberal allowance for our future proceeding1 even adopting the same system2 and with a modified system1 such as that suggested of simple longitudinal bearers of large scantling1 and a rail of fifty-four pounds per yard1 at the present high price of iron1 the cost1 calculated upon our actual past expenditure1 would not exceed #g1djjl4 per mile4 ,this1 ,i am aware1 is a larger sum than that which has usually been assumed as the cost of the permanent way4 ,i cannot prove that others have cost more1 or even so much as this1 as ,i have nothing but the published accounts to refer to2 but this ,i can state1 and prove if necessary1 that rails and blocks1 such as are now being adopted on the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway1 would upon our line cost at least as much4 ,the prime cost of rails and chairs delivered on the line would alone amount to half the money2 and nothing is1 perhaps1 more certain than that the experience of other lines within the last two or three years has proved that this part of the construction of a railway is unavoidably much more expensive than was ever calculated for at the time our estimates were made4 ,i am1 gentlemen1 your obedient servant1 7,signed7 ,i4 ,k4 ,,brunel4 ,,appendix ,,ii4 7,see ,chapter ,,ix4 on the #8,great ,britain' ,steam-,ship1 p4 #bed47 ,report to the ,directors of the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company4 ,october #ahdj4 ,,gentlemen1--,i have now the pleasure to lay before you the result of the different experiments which ,i have made1 and of the best consideration ,i have been enabled to give to the subject of the screw propeller4 ,the observations which ,i have to make are naturally divided under two principal heads1 namely3 first1 the simple question of the applicability and efficiency of the screw considered merely as a means of propelling a vessel1 compared with the ordinary paddlewheel2 and1 secondly1 the general advantages or disadvantages attending its use4 ,the consideration of the comparative efficiency of the screw as a means of propelling1 of course embraces the whole question1 not merely of the effect produced1 but also that of the proportionate power absorbed in producing that effect4 ,with respect to the mere effect of a screw1 the performance of the #8,archimedes' has proved1 in a satisfactory and undeniable manner1 that a screw acting against the water with a surface even much smaller than that offered by the paddle-boards of a well-proportioned paddlewheel1 will propel the ship at a very fair speed1 but at what expense of power this effect has been produced is not so evident4 ,i shall first examine into the principal cause of what amounts practically to a loss of power1 and which is common in a greater or less degree to all modes of propelling a vessel by exerting a pressure against the water as against a fixed point4 ,the resistance1 whether to the surface of a screw1 or of a paddle-board1 or of the blade of an oar1 or any other propelling body1 offered by the fluid against which it acts1 is of course not perfect1 and there is a certain amount of yielding1 commonly called the slip1 of the paddlewheel2 the amount thus slipped causes a considerable waste of power1 inasmuch as the full power of the engine is expended through the entire space passed over by the paddles or other propelling surface1 while the useful effect produced is only equal to the same power expended over the space through which the vessel passes3 this loss frequently amounts to one-quarter1 and even one-third1 of the whole power employed4 ,to investigate theoretically the amount of slip due to any given form and quantity of surface1 involves much more complicated calculations than have generally been applied1 and would indeed require data which we hardly possess2 but fortunately we have had the means of making experiments1 the results of which enable us to determine the comparative slip of the paddle and of the screw1 with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes4 ,the screw in use on board the #8,archimedes' is #e feet #i inches diameter1 with a pitch of #h feet--that is to say1 in making one revolution the thread of the screw advances #h feet2 the area of the screw1 considered as a disc of the same diameter1 or the extent of the surface of water which is acted upon in the direction of the axis of the vessel1 is therefore about #bf feet1 without deducting the section of the shaft-bearing1 c4 ,the midship section of the vessel when ,i experimented upon her was1 according to ,mr4 ,patterson's estimate1 #abb feet2 the ratio of the resisting surface to the midship section being therefore as #a to #dg1 which is a small proportion2 and the form of the vessel is by no means peculiarly good as a steamboat4 ,this proportion of propelling surface to midship section is much smaller--that is1 the area of the screw is much less in proportion to the size of the vessel than is the area of paddle-boards immersed in steamboats generally4 ,the average paddle-board immersed and really effective is rather difficult to estimate1 as allowances must be made for the disturbance of the water1 when the wheel is in motion2 but this average in the #8,great ,western' measured perpendicularly--that is1 allowing for the obliquity of the paddle--cannot be less than #ahj to #bjj feet1 say only #ahj1 while the midship section averages about #dfb feet2 the surface of paddle is therefore about #a_/bef of the midship section4 ,i will now give the comparative effects of these different propelling surfaces in these two cases4 ,i have made very accurate experiments upon the comparative rate of the #8,archimedes1' and of the space passed through by the screw1 and was enabled to determine this ratio with great certainty4 ,the average of a number of trials gave the following results3 ,rate of ship1 #ej1hfg feet per hour1 or about #h knots4 ,space passed through by screw due to the number of revolutions1 #fe1fhe feet4 ,the average rate of vessel being to that of screw therefore as #a to #abiac4 ,in the performances of the #8,great ,western1' upon an average of #bj voyages the ratio has been as #a to #abiig2 but1 separating from these #bj such voyages as were unusually short or long1 and taking only such as1 occupying #ad1 #ae1 or #af days1 may be considered as giving a fair average of the speed of the ship when not adversely affected by the wind or heavy seas1 the average of these #ac voyages give #a to #abhc2 and leaving out again those of #af days1 and taking only #h voyages of #ad and #ae days1 the average gives a ratio of #a to #abgahg4 ,of these1 #e voyages of #ae days give #a to #abijgg1 and #c #ad #a to #abcija4 ,the last three1 however1 were short passages and homeward1 when the currents and winds have been in favour1 and consequently we may safely say that the ratio must be above #a to #abci2 and after making every allowance for the effect of swell and other impediments 7the experiments upon the #8,archimedes' being made in smooth water71 the average of the #h 7#e of which were homeward voyages with favourable current and wind and the vessel in good trim71 giving a ratio of #a to #abg1 may be taken as a fair average4 ,the comparison between the #8,archimedes' and the #8,great ,western' will therefore stand thus-- ,area of ,propelling ,difference of ,speed of ,surface1 the ,midship ,vessel and ,propelling ,section being #aj4 ,surface1 or amount of ,slip1 the ratio of ,vessel being #aj4 #8,archimedes1' screw #jbjc #jbiac #8,great ,western1' paddle #jcia #jbgjh ,showing an amount of slip in the #8,great ,western' very nearly equal to that of the #8,archimedes1' while the ratio of the propelling surface to the midship section in the case of the screw is little more than half that of the paddle-boards in the #8,great ,western4' ,in taking the average of the eight voyages of the #8,great ,western' with favourable winds as ,i have done1 ,i believe ,i have made full allowance for the different circumstances of smooth water and sea2 but there is ample room in the above comparison to make even greater allowance for these circumstances1 and still to leave a result which would prove that with similar areas the screw would meet with at least equal1 if not a greater resistance1 and consequently will slip as little or less than the ordinary paddle-board4 ,i subjoin a table also1 taken from a well-known work on the steam-engine 7,tredgold's71 of the slip of a number of vessels1 of which in every case the surface of paddle immersed is far greater in proportion to the midship section than that of the screw in the #8,archimedes4' ,rate of ,paddle1 that of ,ship being #a4 ,medea #aeie ,flamer #adhc ,firebrand #aeja ,columbine #aebi ,salamander #abjjbjj ,dee #acff ,firefly #acfd ,firebrand1 as altered #abie ,phito #abae ,monarch #acbc ,magnet #acaj ,meteor #adij ,carron #abhg ,average #acha ,great ,western #abg ,archimedes #abi ,this list shows that the result in the #8,great ,western1' with which ship ,i have made the comparison1 is in itself a favourable one1 and that compared with many others the #8,archimedes' would stand much better4 ,this apparent superiority of the screw over the paddle as regards the resistance offered to it by the water may at first appear startling1 but there is a great mistake committed in assuming that the action of the screw is a very oblique action1 tending rather to drive the water laterally with a rotatory motion than to push it steadily backwards4 ,having witnessed and carefully observed the degree and the nature of the disturbance in the water caused by the screw1 and comparing this with the violent displacement of the water by the action of paddle-boards1 even under the most favourable circumstances1 ,i no longer feel surprised4 ,the mass of water pushed backwards by the action of the screw appears to be very large1 spreading from the screw probably in the form of an inverted cone1 but there is little or no appearance of any rotatory motion1 and the surface of the water is not put into rapid motion as in the case of the paddlewheel1 which may be observed to impart a considerable velocity to the water1 probably for a small depth only1 but over a very large space4 ,as regards the oblique action also1 a great mistake appears to have been generally made1 and very naturally made1 by most persons when first considering the working of the screw4 ,it is generally assumed that the inclined plane formed by the thread of the screw strikes the particles of water at that angle and with the velocity of the revolution of the screw1 but it is forgotten that the screw is moving forward with the ship1 and therefore that the angle at which the water is struck by the plane is diminished by all that much that the ship with the screw advances--indeed1 it is evident that if the ship advanced the whole amount of the pitch of the screw1 the screw1 oblique as it appears1 and rapidly as it revolves1 would not strike the water at all1 but simply glide through4 ,the angle at which any given part of the screw does in fact strike the water is only equal to the difference between the angle to which that part of the screw is formed and the angle or direction in which it moves by the compound motion of the revolution of the screw and of the forward motion of the ship and screw2 and1 contrary to one's hastily imbibed notions of the action of the screw1 this angle at which the plane of the screw is driven against the particles of water1 is in such a screw as that of the #8,archimedes' very nearly equal over the greater portion of the surface1 diminishing to nothing at the centre2 and the motion imparted to the water1 although perpendicular to the plane of the screw in point of direction1 is small in extent or velocity1 being also nearly the same over the whole surface of the screw1 except close to the centre1 where it is infinitely small4 ,in the #8,archimedes' screw1 which appears to the eye so oblique1 and the centre part of which would appear to act flat against the water1 only causing it to revolve1 the outer circumference being #ah feet and the slip #a foot #h inches1 the angle at which this outer edge acts upon the water is only one in #aa4 ,the total amount of motion imparted to the water at right angles to the plane of the screw by one entire revolution even at the outer edge is not quite equal to the slip1 being only #afg foot4 ,the rotatory motion is still less1 the total distance to which any particle of water is displaced laterally1 or at right angles to the axis of the ship1 by one entire revolution of the screw being at the outer edge only #jfi foot1 and the maximum distance being in any screw only equal to half the slip1 and occurring at that part of the screw where the circumference is equal to the advance of the ship due to one revolution4 ,this maximum of lateral motion is #ji foot1 and takes place at #jii foot1 or about #a foot from the centre4 ,in this mode of considering the direction at which the particles of water are acted upon by the plate of the screw ,i have taken no notice of the effect of the friction upon the surface of the screw1 which1 causing to be carried with it a film of water1 will modify more or less according to the degree of smoothness of the surface the effect of the screw upon the water2 and towards the centre this friction1 however smooth the surface may be made1 will gradually become equal to1 and at last greater than1 the propelling effect of that part of the screw2 but this defect applies only to a very small portion of the whole area of the screw1 and the absence of any very violent impulse to the water in a direction approaching to a right angle with the axis of the vessel1 and which has always been assumed as an unavoidable evil in the screw1 will account for the absence ,i have observed upon of any apparent rotatory motion4 ,i would not pretend1 however1 to advance these circumstances which ,i have observed1 or these reasonings1 as arguments whereon to found an opinion of the action of the screw1 the facts as proved by the experiments are what ,i rely upon2 but it is satisfactory to be able to account for the results by circumstances actually observed1 and the reasons which suggest themselves4 ,the effect of a propelling surface in the form of a screw1 and moving at a certain velocity1 as compared with an equal surface moving at the same velocity but applied in the shape of paddle-boards1 having been ascertained1 it remains to determine the comparative power required to give motion to that surface4 ,the difficulty of determining this with any degree of accuracy from any experiments which we could make on board the #8,archimedes' was very great1 but considering such results as ,i could obtain in conjunction with experiments which ,i have since made in our own works1 and with the results upon steamboats recorded by others1 and of those of experiments made by ,colonel ,beaufoy on the resistance of bodies in water1 ,i think we may arrive at approximate conclusions sufficiently accurate for our purpose1 and which may safely be relied upon4 ,in the case of the #8,archimedes' the engines were certainly not effective well-working engines1 the proportions of the gearing or wheel-work between the engine and the screw was bad--such that the engine could not attain its proper speed--the friction of the gearing 7which1 whether it be a source of resistance necessarily attending the use of the screw or not1 ,i shall consider afterwards7 was very great1 and the surface of the screw itself1 which ,i had an opportunity of examining out of water1 was so rough as necessarily to create very much more friction than would be caused by a tolerably smooth metallic surface4 ,with all these sources of resistance1 and under these unfavourable circumstances1 the power calculated for the effective pressure on the piston and without deduction for friction or other causes1 which1 for the sake of distinction hereafter1 ,i shall call the gross power1 was about #ade horses1 the speed of the vessel being about #h knots per hour1 as actually measured by the land1 and full #i knots as measured with great care by heaving the common log1 the midship section being1 as before stated1 #abb feet1 and the lines of the vessel not so good as those of fast boats2 comparing this with the gross power of the #8,great ,western' engines when propelling that vessel at the same velocity1 with the advantage of better lines and the other advantages arising from greater dimensions1 there does not appear any such discrepancy as to indicate any loss of power by the use of the screw in the #8,archimedes'2 on the contrary1 the power expended in the #8,great ,western' is actually as great as that in the #8,archimedes1' as compared with their relative midship sections--and if any great allowance is to be made for the circumstances which ,i have referred to of larger dimensions and better lines1 there would appear to be actually less power expended in proportion to the dimensions and form of the #8,archimedes' than in the #8,great ,western4' ,the results obtained with the #8,great ,western1' which as regards speed are similar to those of the #8,archimedes1' are necessarily taken from experiments made when she was rather deep1 and the speed thereby reduced to #gi knots2 but ,i have compared these with results reduced by calculations from experiments at higher speeds1 and ,i find them agree satisfactorily--indeed1 at the draft and consequent immersion of paddles when in this state1 ,i consider the #8,great ,western' as very nearly at her best as regards economy of power and effect produced4 ,i should observe that the particular experiments from which the following calculations are deduced were made with the #8,great ,western' in smooth water in the ,severn4 ,i have added also some calculations deduced from data given by ,tredgold as to the performance of the #8,ruby1' a good boat with immense surface of paddle-board4 ,the comparison stands thus3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,great ,,western ,,archimedes ,,ruby ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,actual ,,dimensions3 ,midship section #ebj #abb #fc ,area of board immersed #bcj --- #fd ,area of a disc of diameter of screw --- #bf -- ,,relative ,,dimensions ,,and ,,power3 ,area of propelling surface1 midship section being #a #jddb #jbac #ajaf ,gross power expended for one square foot of midship section #ajbc #ajbf #jigf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the speed being the same1 viz41 #gi knots1 the power expended is as nearly as possible the same in the three1 and equal to one horse-power gross to one foot of midship section2 while the relative propelling surface in the #8,archimedes' is equal to only half that of the #8,great ,western1' and one-fifth that of the #8,ruby4' ,this gross horse-power1 it will be observed1 is about equal to one-half a nominal horse-power4 ,i have made several comparisons with recorded observations made on board the #8,great ,western' at different times1 and with experiments made in other vessels1 and ,i find the same result2 in estimating the powers used more particularly in some comparisons with the #8,great ,western1' ,i have taken the mean pressure as ascertained on both sides of the piston1 while in the #8,archimedes' ,i only obtained that on the top of the piston1 which appears generally to be the best1 and consequently the estimate is made unfavourably to the #8,archimedes4' ,such general results are all that ,i could obtain from the experiments on board the #8,archimedes1' but since that time ,i have made some experiments upon the friction of a plate of metal in water1 and have compared these results with the experiments of ,colonel ,beaufoy1 and the conclusion ,i have come to is that the power absorbed by friction in a well-made screw1 apart from all question of the means adopted for working it1 would not be such as to interfere with its beneficial application4 ,the resistance created by the screw itself arises principally from two sources--the resistance to the cutting edge and the tail-edge1 and the friction of the surface in contact with the water4 ,the amount of the first may of course be reduced to an unlimited extent by having a fine edge1 and practically such edge ought to be much finer than that of the screw of the #8,archimedes4' ,the friction upon the surface will of course materially depend upon the smoothness of that surface1 and in the #8,archimedes' it was very rough1 the iron being corroded at many places1 with exfoliations and small holes--the corrosion arising apparently from the galvanic effect produced by the iron and the ship's copper4 ,the great number of revolutions required in the screw as compared with those of the paddlewheel1 leads a person to assume1 without much consideration1 that a very high velocity is given to the cutting edges and to the surface of the screw1 and consequently that great friction must be produced--this velocity is not1 however1 nearly so great as it at first appears4 ,in the present screw of the #8,archimedes' the velocity of the extreme point1 following its oblique or spiral course1 is only about three times that of the vessel1 while the average velocity of either of these knife edges or of the surface is not twice that of the vessel4 ,now without determining what the actual amount of these resistances may be1 we can at once satisfy ourselves that it cannot be very considerable1 by comparing it 7which we have the means of doing7 with the resistance caused by the cutwater and any given portion of the ship's bottom4 ,the resistance of a knife-edge will be about as the square of the velocity1 and if we assume the surface friction to increase in the ratio determined by ,colonel ,beaufoy--namely1 at the #ageth power1 or as the #dth root of the #gth power of the velocity--then the resistance of the knife-edge will be equal to the resistance of a similar edge of about five and a-half times the length of the diameter of the screw moving at the same rate as the vessel1 and the surface friction will be equal to that of a piece of the ship's bottom about six and five-eighth times the area of the screw--or1 in the case of the #8,archimedes1' the additional power absorbed by the friction of the screw would be about equal to that absorbed by the friction of little more than twice the space of the dead wood which had been cut out to receive the screw--while the knife-edges would be about equivalent to three knife-edges immersed in the water1 of the same depth as the ship's stem4 ,the actual amount of power absorbed in driving the #8,archimedes' screw was probably about twenty horse-power gross1 or from ten to twelve nominal horse-power2 but ,i have no doubt that a screw of similar diameter and in good condition would not absorb half that power3 and this amount may be still further1 and very much reduced1 by increasing the relative size of the screw to that of the ship1 and thereby reducing the slip1 and proportionately reducing the number of revolutions required4 ,the great extent to which this is capable of being carried will at once be seen when ,i state that if the ship's progress were made to be #g feet instead of #f feet to each revolution of the screw1 which a very slight increase of diameter and pitch of screw would effect1 the power absorbed in driving the screw would be diminished in the ratio of the #fbd #fg to #gbd #gg--that is1 as #f-ae_/d to #g-ae_/d1 or about as #c to #b4 ,i must repeat here the observation ,i have previously made1 and remind you that these calculations are not introduced as proving1 but merely as explaining1 that which appears to me proved by the general results of the experiments on the #8,archimedes'--namely1 that the effect produced was1 considering all the circumstances1 fully proportionate to the power expended1 while the experiments and calculations which ,i have since made also satisfy me that these results may be very much improved upon4 ,as regards the first of the two heads under which ,i stated that ,i proposed to consider the subject1 namely1 the mere efficiency of the screw as a propeller1 ,i think but one conclusion can be drawn from the results of the experiments quoted1 and that is1 that as compared with the ordinary paddlewheel of sea-going steamers1 the screw is1 both as regards the effect produced1 and the proportionate power required to obtain that effect1 an efficient propeller4 ,i limit the comparison to the ordinary paddlewheels of sea-going steamers1 first1 because those are the circumstances which we have alone to consider2 and1 secondly1 because it is possible1 by increasing the diameter and breadth of the paddles1 which1 for the attainment of an adequate object is practicable to any extent in a mere river boat1 to render the action of the common paddle all but perfect1 and probably more effective than any other propeller4 ,in considering the advantages and disadvantages likely to attend the use of the screw propeller1 ,i will1 commencing with the latter1 consider such objections as have been advanced by others1 as well as those which may have occurred to myself4 ,the only objections1 however1 which ,i think worth consideration are3-- ,first4 ,the necessity of a peculiar form of vessel4 ,secondly4 ,the situation of the screw under water1 and consequently to a certain extent unseen and inaccessible1 and the liability to injury from its position from grounding or in other ways4 ,thirdly4 ,the probability of its being lifted out of water when the ship pitched deep4 ,fourthly4 ,the difficulty of getting up the required number of revolutions1 and the great defects of the mode employed in the #8,archimedes1' and the shaking caused by the machinery4 ,as regards the form of vessel1 undoubtedly a shallow boat1 intended for shallow waters1 would be very unfit for the application of the screw1 which would probably require a greater depth of water than the whole draft of the vessel2 but ,i see no defect or difficulty of this description in the vessel now under consideration1 nor can ,i anticipate any in any vessel this ,company is likely to be interested in2 a clean run is the most essential condition1 and ,i should suppose no ship was ever built in which this principle of form was carried to a greater extent than in our new iron ship4 ,her present form ,i believe to be excellent for the screw1 and with a very slight dropping of the keel towards the stern1 which can easily be done now without any expense1 assisted by the different trim1 which1 as ,i shall presently show1 will be effected by the use of the screw1 the required draft of water will be attained4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be as well to mention here1 that the diameter of the screw1 if in the same ratio to the midship section as in the #8,archimedes1' would be only #ab feet #c inches1 my friend ,captain ,claxton having made a mistake upon this point in calculating it at #af feet1 and that if increased only to #ad feet #d inches1 the diminution referred to in a former part of my ,report of one-third in the power lost in working the screw would be effected2 considering the speed we wish to attain1 probably #ae feet #f inches would be a good diameter4 ,upon the whole ,i think the vessel is as well fitted for a screw as she is for paddles1 and much better adapted for either than the #8,archimedes2' but if originally intended for a screw1 possibly some trifling modification in the form and construction1 principally of the keel near the stern1 might have been introduced which would have rendered the whole a more perfect job than she would now be if altered--but the absence of this would in no way lessen the efficiency of the screw1 and ,i cannot think that any alteration we might now be obliged to make would exceed in cost the sum of #bjjl4 ,secondly1 the inaccessibility of the screw and liability to damage2 this appears to me the objection most plausible1 but ,i cannot say that ,i attach much weight to it1 particularly in the case of a vessel intended for long voyages and across the ocean4 ,during the whole passage in deep water ,i consider the screw far less exposed to injury than a paddlewheel1 and that the chances of injury are so remote that even if it were quite inaccessible it would still be altogether safer than paddles1 which are so much exposed2 but it is by no means inaccessible1 the screw may be rendered stationary at any time or during any weather1 when it would be barely safe to stop the engines with common paddles1 and when it would be very difficult to do anything to the paddles even if the engines were stopped1 while the whole of the screw1 bearings1 c41 may easily be examined and felt from above1 and1 if necessary1 men sent down with common diving jackets and hoods to replace bearings1 or attach tackle to move the screw1 or clear away any obstacle entangled in it4 ,when in port ,i still think the chances of injury very remote2 an inspection of our model will satisfy you that from the form and size of her midship section the vessel cannot lay in any position in which the screw would touch the ground1 while at that time the whole screw may be very easily examined and replaced without any necessity for going into dock4 ,thirdly1 the probability of its being lifted out of water when the ship pitches deep4 ,this appears at first to be a very natural and an unavoidable objection1 but the result of observations proves that the motion of vessels1 of steamers at least1 is not such as to cause the apprehended difficulty4 ,among the observations made on board the #8,great ,western' steam-ship by ,mr4 ,berkeley ,claxton1 under my direction1 were measurements of the angles of rolling and pitching1 and from these it was evident that the vessel never pitches to so great an angle as that to which she rises2 such a result might indeed have been anticipated by considering the form of the vessel forward and aft1 and the circumstance that a steamer is almost invariably meeting or passing the seas1 or1 if overtaken by them1 is still going at a good rate1 which reduces the relative speed of the sea2 consequently1 although the vessel may be frequently thrown up very violently forward1 yet the stern1 which has no displacement under water1 settles down quietly and heavily upon the surface2 or1 considering it in another way1 the variation of displacement at the stern is very rapid1 falling off almost to nothing at a few feet below the water-line1 and spreading out to a great extent at a few feet above1 whilst forward the difference of displacement is comparatively small1 the centre of motion1 therefore1 is thrown very far aft1 and while the bows1 which are also opposed to the first shock1 are thrown alternately high out of water or plunged deeply into it1 the stern floats nearly steady1 the vessel resting on its broad counter nearly as the centre of motion3 whatever may be the explanation such is the operation1 not only as measured by instruments1 but more particularly as observed since1 practically4 ,in the #8,great ,western' the whole cutwater and1 it is said1 a considerable length of keel1 is frequently seen out of water from the bowsprit1 while astern it is very doubtful whether more than half the stern part was ever seen2 marks have been made by my direction on the rudder to observe this2 as yet the #i-;foot mark is the lowest seen1 and this occurring rarely1 and for very short intervals4 ,in the #8,archimedes1' during a voyage performed in her by ,mr4 ,guppy from ,bristol to ,liverpool1 and during which they were exposed on more than one occasion to violent pitching1 the screw 7which can be watched from the deck7 never was uncovered2 and ,mr4 ,smith and others on board the #8,archimedes1' whose whole conduct was such as to inspire unusual confidence in all information obtained from them1 assured me that such was always the case4 ,in the voyage to ,oporto and back1 in which ,i sent ,mr4 ,berkeley ,claxton1 he made the same observation2 these facts1 in conjunction with previous and subsequent observations on board the #8,great ,western1' convince me that nothing is to be feared on this head2 but even if the screw were occasionally to be partly exposed1 ,i know of no evil consequences likely to ensue1 as ,i shall clearly point out when referring to the advantages of this propeller over the common paddle4 ,fourthly1 the difficulty of getting up the required number of revolutions1 and the great defects of the mode employed in the #8,archimedes4' ,upon this point certainly the #8,archimedes' offers but a miserable example1 and the result is almost enough to prejudice the mind of any person against the whole scheme2 the proportions of the gearing1 as ,i have before stated1 are so bad that the engines appear1 even to the eye1 to labour ineffectually to get up their speed4 ,the required speed of the screw is not nearly attained1 while the noise and tremor caused by the machinery is such as to render the vessel uninhabitable1 and perfectly unfit for passengers1 ,i should almost say for a crew4 ,i never attached much importance to these circumstances1 because ,i felt convinced that such a mere mechanical difficulty would by some means be overcome1 if1 as ,i confess ,i did not then at all anticipate1 the screw itself should prove efficient4 ,the most simple and effectual means of overcoming all objections on these heads always appeared to me to be by the use of straps instead of gearing2 and all my experience1 and ,i have seen a great deal of the working of machinery by straps and ropes in the numerous works executed by my father1 led me to the conclusion that there existed no difficulty whatever in sending the necessary power through a rope or hemp strap1 but ,i was hardly prepared to find the result so entirely satisfactory as it has proved to be4 ,in an experiment made in your works at the yard1 ,i have sent through two small whale lines1 a power equal to about one-thirtieth of that which would be required in the strap if used in the new ship1 and this without any slip or straining of the rope which would be injurious in practice1 and without any peculiar means of ensuring adhesion to the drums2 so that we have ascertained beyond doubt that sixty such whale lines upon a drum of only #d feet #c inches diameter is adequate to our wants1 but if we suppose seventy lines of superior manufacture to that used in the experiments with a perfect mode of tightening and working upon a drum of #f feet diameter1 all of which can easily be had1 it will ensure the perfect and easy working of a mode of obtaining the required number of revolutions of the screw without noise or tremor4 ,the strap in question would be only about #c feet or #c feet #c inches broad1 easily replaced piecemeal1 and even1 if necessary1 without stopping the engines4 ,all the difficulties enumerated under the fifth head may be considered as entirely overcome1 or rather as ceasing to exist2 and so far from the working of the screw involving difficulties and unavoidable friction1 noise1 or tremor1 it may be worked with unquestionable and perfect facility1 and as compared even with the best-made paddles in smooth water1 the whole machine will be noiseless4 ,it is almost unnecessary that ,i should say that the screw1 apart from the gearing in use on board the #8,archimedes1' cannot and does not produce the slightest tremor or noise--it was with some difficulty1 and at least only by attentively listening1 that the revolutions of the screw could be counted1 even when disconnected and free from the noise of the engine or gearing and the vessel being towed1 and then only from some defect in the bearings or the shaft of the screw causing a slight beat4 ,in thus answering the objections supposed to have been urged against the use of the screw1 ,i may probably have appeared to see everything in a favourable light2 unhesitatingly ,i admit that it is so1 and that both formerly when ,i was completely sceptical as to the mere efficiency of the screw as a propeller1 and since my doubts on that head have been removed1 ,i always felt that upon all other points the screw possessed every superiority that could be desired over a common paddlewheel for a sea-going vessel4 ,i shall now proceed to point out the principal advantages peculiar to the use of the screw2 they are-- ,first4 ,a considerable saving of weight1 and that principally top weight4 ,secondly4 ,the admitting of a better and simpler form of vessel1 having greater stiffness with the same quantity of material1 and offering less resistance to head wind and seas1 and affording more available space within4 ,thirdly4 ,the operation of the screw being unaffected by the trim or the rolling of the vessel1 and allowing of the free use of sails1 with the capability of entirely disconnecting the screw or of varying the multiplying motion so as to adapt the power of the engine to the circumstance either of strong adverse winds or scudding4 ,fourthly4 ,perfect regularity of motion and freedom from the possibility of violent shocks to the engines4 ,fifthly4 ,the singularly increased power of steering given to the vessel--and ,sixthly4 ,the great reduction in the breadth of beam4 ,i have gone into some detail in calculating the weights of the parts which are not common to the two systems1 and ,i find that the difference1 or actual diminution in weight in favour of the screw as applied to our new ship1 is upwards of ninety-five tons2 but that a much greater weight even than this is transposed from the top of the ship to the bottom--no less a mass than one hundred and sixty tons is removed from the level of the paddle-shaft or from about #aj feet above the water-line1 and replaced by sixty-five tons at about #g feet below the water-line2 not only is buoyancy1 and consequently proportionate space for cargo1 gained to the extent of the difference1 but the relief to the labouring of the vessel in bad weather from the change of position must be immense4 ,if the reverse were under consideration1 if in a vessel fitted for sea1 however stiff in trim or form1 it were suggested to remove sixty-five tons of her ballast1 and to place one hundred and sixty tons upon her deck1 and thus navigate her across the ,atlantic in all weathers1 it would probably be considered1 not merely as highly dangerous1 but as actually impossible4 ,although such an opinion as that it would be impracticable we now know would be incorrect1 yet the extent of the beneficial change is much more striking when considered in this way4 ,as regards the trim of the ship1 about one hundred and forty-five tons would be removed from nearly the centre of flotation1 and the balance of fifty tons added and distributed over the after part1 principally quite aft4 ,i have not calculated the exact effect of this upon her trim2 it would only bring her down by the stern1 and this is a defect which there seems1 as we too well know1 never any difficulty in remedying4 ,secondly4 ,the simplifying and improving the form of the ship--both as regards strength and mass exposed to the wind and sea4 ,the necessity of contracting the midships of a steamer1 and making her completely wall-sided1 and forming a sort of recess to receive the paddles1 interferes considerably with the framing of the ship4 ,in a wooden ship of the size of our new one the whole beam of the ship would have to be contracted in order to carry the planking through in a direct line and obtain the requisite fore and aft tie as has been done in the #8,great ,western'2 in the new ship the almost infinite resources afforded by the material used1 enabled us to expand the sides and obtain breadth of beam for cabin room1 both before and abaft the paddles1 and contract the sides at the paddles as seen upon the plan2 but in order to strengthen this part1 so evidently weak by form1 much contrivance and much material was required4 ,by dispensing with paddles1 the best form of ship is left free to be adopted2 perfect lines may be preserved1 more equal strength obtained with increased space1 and the whole mass of paddle-boxes and their accompanying sponsons and deck-houses swept away1 and the resistance of these huge wings to head winds or seas entirely avoided4 ,the space gained by avoiding the contraction is calculated by ,mr4 ,patterson to amount to two hundred tons measurement2 this would be entirely gained1 and would not even involve increased dues or tolls1 as it would be added to the engine-room2 it would therefore perhaps counterbalance any loss of room caused by the shaft conveying the movement from the engine to the screw1 but ,i believe this nominal increase at one part would not be so great1 while in fact the ship would really be more compact1 and1 though to a very small extent1 a smaller ship1 as the sponsons would be removed4 ,the third point of advantage named is perhaps the most important4 ,with paddles1 the action is materially affected by the depth of immersion2 when the vessel is deep1 and consequently the paddles deep1 their action is impeded1 a greater part of the power of the engine is absorbed in driving the paddle1 the speed of the engine is reduced and the effect diminished2 when too light also the paddles do not take sufficient hold of the water1 the amount of slip increases and power is wasted2 in rolling the same effects are produced1 and thus at those times when the greatest effect is required1 namely1 with deep immersion or in bad weather to overcome the increased resistance offered to the vessel1 the propelling power is least effective1 and ,captain ,hoskins actually estimates this loss as occasionally equal to two-thirds the whole power4 ,the bad effects of one paddle being immersed too deeply1 and the other not sufficiently1 also prevents the free use of the sails2 and it must often occur that the impediment thus offered to the working of the paddles more than counterbalances the good effects of a tolerably fair wind4 ,with the screw the effect is constant1 at least unaffected by the position or motion of the ship1 whether deep or light the screw acts nearly the same1 and as to rolling or heeling over1 the screw would work equally well 7as long as it be immersed7 if the vessel were on her beam-ends or bottom upwards4 ,the screw therefore leaves the ship free to be used as a sailing-vessel to any extent that other circumstances will admit of1 and as long as the sails draw there can generally be no doubt that the wind is assisting the ship4 ,the screw may also be thrown in and out of gear at any time and during any weather1 either in case of accident to the engines1 or in the event of her scudding before a gale of wind1 when the engine would be useless2 this last1 however1 ,i do not consider a probable occurrence1 particularly if another arrangement of which the screw is susceptible be taken advantage of4 ,if the motion be conveyed by a strap1 as ,i have recommended1 there is no difficulty in having two or even three drums on the screw-shaft of different diameters1 and thus when the resistance to the ship is very much increased by strong head winds1 deep draught1 and other causes1 to use the slow motion and obtain an increased propelling force1 or when1 on the contrary1 the vessel is running before the wind to use the quick motion--by which1 in both cases1 a great increase of speed would be attained4 ,this is in fact obtaining at once and by simple means all those advantages1 and to a much fuller extent1 which are aimed at in the reefing-paddles4 ,fourthly1 great regularity of motion is naturally consequent upon the screw being unaffected by the rolling of the ship1 and upon its being immersed and not exposed therefore to blows from the sea1 and except in the case of its being lifted out of water1 the resistance is perfectly uniform and perfectly smooth4 ,an engine could not have a work less capable of causing any jar or shock as to the effect2 even if lifted partially out of water the variation of resistance would be as easy or soft1 to use a mechanical term1 as possible1 while the extent of the variation could never approach to that to which paddles continually expose an engine4 ,a heavy sea or a deep plunge will occasionally bring the engines nearly to a stand2 while at other moments1 if the engineers are to be believed1 the paddles are left free and the engines run away at a fearful speed4 ,i am inclined to think this description of the effects somewhat exaggerated2 but certainly the screw cannot by possibility be exposed to the same variations as the paddles--it cannot be stopped by the action of the sea1 indeed1 being wholly immersed1 the resistance cannot be increased at all1 while under no circumstances can it be relieved to the extent to which paddles are1 which may both on some rare occasions be quite out of the water2 and therefore whether the resistance of the screw is so constant as ,i believe it to be1 or not1 yet as compared with that offered by paddles1 it is certainly all but perfectly constant4 ,fifthly1 the effect upon the steerage is singular1 the mass of water put into motion by the thrust of the screw is thrown directly upon the rudder1 and the consequence is not only that when the ship is going at any given rate1 the rudder is passing through the water at a greater rate1 and consequently is more sensible1 and acts more powerfully upon the ship2 but even when the ship has no way1 but the screw is at work1 the rudder is acted upon by water moving perhaps at two or three knots per hour1 and the vessel is still under command--this must be a most important power to possess in a ship1 and must materially diminish many of the greatest dangers arising from a strong head wind and sea1 and at the same time and under the same circumstances must increase the speed by improving the steerage4 ,and lastly1 her diminished breadth of beam4 ,important as this alteration would be to any vessel1 it is peculiarly so as connected with ,bristol2 the total breadth1 including paddle-boxes1 would be at least #gh feet2 with the screw1 and taking all the increased beam that might be convenient1 it would be under #ej--very nearly #cj feet of difference4 ,one of the principal objections to her coming up the river would be removed1 and the dock gates might easily be made to receive her4#bja ,there are many other points upon which comparisons may be drawn1 but ,i am not aware that any very important differences exist4 ,as regards first cost ,i believe there would be little difference--if any1 it would be in favour of the screw2 as a reduction of ninety-five tons of iron can hardly fail to cause some saving1 although some portion of the substituted machinery may be more costly per ton4 ,as regards wear and tear ,i can have no doubt that some considerable saving would be effected2 the paddles are a constant source of trouble and expense1 and seem never to be capable of being kept in good repair2 indeed1 they are huge and comparatively light frameworks subjected to extraordinary and constantly repeated shocks1 each arm receiving direct about #bfj1jjj very sharp blows per voyage1 independently of the more violent shocks from heavy seas1 while the screw can be subjected to no such constant source of mischief4 ,from all that ,i have said it must be evident to you1 gentlemen1 that my opinion is strong and decided in favour of the advantage of employing the screw in the new ship2 it certainly is so4 ,i am fully aware of the responsibility ,i take upon myself by giving this advice1 ,i am also fully sensible of the large amount we have at stake1 and ,i have not forgotten the nature and tone of the observations which have on more occasions than one been so freely made by individuals upon the course we have hitherto pursued2 although1 and ,i have pleasure in referring to the fact1 this course has in every instance where results have been obtained proved successful2 but my conviction of the wisdom1 ,i may almost say the necessity1 of our adopting the improvement ,i now recommend is too strong1 and ,i feel it is too well founded1 for me to hesitate or to shrink from the responsibility4 ,i think ,i have hardly advanced an opinion which ,i have not supported1 and in most cases preceded1 by a statement of facts1 leaving no doubt as to the correctness and safety of relying on these opinions2 still it would be too much to hope that my mode of laying before you these facts which ,i have collected and the opinions ,i have formed could produce as strong a conviction in your minds as the consideration of them has in my own2 but if you bear in mind that the actual results of the fair and full trial of the #8,archimedes' for several months has completely established the fact of the efficiency of the screw as a propeller2 that the experiments ,i have made1 as well as the general and apparent results of her working1 have equally satisfactorily explained the fact of the power required being no greater in proportion to the effect produced than in the #8,great ,western' steam-ship1 and many other good steamboats2 and that these results are satisfactorily explained by theory1 you cannot fail to draw the same conclusion that ,i have done as to the general question of at least the equal efficiency of the screw4 ,as to the comparisons ,i have drawn between the general and what ,i may call the indirect advantages of the one mode of propelling over the other1 they seem to me so evident that ,i am disposed to apologise to you for having occupied your time in pointing them out1 and we have the satisfaction of knowing that they are now very generally admitted1 particularly by practical men4 ,in conclusion1 ,i must observe that much more detailed information and recorded results than appear on the face of this ,report have been required to enable me to form correct comparisons1 and to reduce to calculation and to actual figures and amounts many results observed2 and that it would have been impossible for me to have given you such clear and positive facts on many most important points without the very detailed observations made and recorded by ,mr4 ,berkeley ,claxton in the several voyages of the #8,great ,western1' and also in one on board the #8,archimedes4' ,the information obtained from these logs has been1 and may still be1 of the greatest importance to us in our future working1 and ,i have much pleasure in adding that the manner in which my directions were carried out was highly creditable to ,mr4 ,berkeley ,claxton1 who1 ,i think1 has conferred a great benefit on the ,company by his labours4 ,i have to express also my thanks to my friends ,captain ,claxton and ,mr4 ,guppy for their assistance in the various experiments which have been made1 and in working out the results4 ,i am1 ,gentlemen1 ,yours very faithfully1 7,signed7 ,i4 ,k4 ,,brunel4 ,,index #8,adelaide' steam-ship1 built under ,mr4 ,brunel's directions1 #bij ,admiralty1 ,mr4 ,brunel's connection with the1 respecting the screw propeller1 #bhc4 ,communication with the1 on floating gun-carriage1 #dei ,airy1 ,g4 ,b41 ,astronomer ,royal1 member of the ,gauge ,commission1 #aag4 ,correspondence with ,mr4 ,brunel on astronomical observations for the #8,great ,eastern1' #cba ,angarrack1 viaduct at1 #ahi #8,archimedes' steamer1 the screw propeller used in the1 #bec4 ,experiments made in the1 #bed ,armstrong1 ,sir ,w4 ,g4 ,his hydraulic machinery at ,paddington station1 #he note4#a ,engaged with ,mr4 ,brunel on gunnery investigations1 #deb4 ,letter to1 #ded1 #dfa ,atlantic cable expeditions of the #8,great ,eastern1' #dab4 ,loss of the first cable1 #dab4 ,a second one laid1 and the first recovered1 #dac4 ,the ,french cable of #ahfi1 #dac ,atmospheric system of propulsion on railways1 #aca4 ,description of this method of traction1 #acd4 ,history of its introduction prior to #ahdd1 #acf4 ,mr4 ,brunel's views respecting it1 #acg4 ,his report recommending its adoption on the ,south ,devon ,railway1 #ach4 ,grounds of his recommendation1 #adb4 ,select ,committee on1 #add4 ,working of the system1 #aec4 ,imperfections of engines1 #aed1 and longitudinal valve1 #aeg4 ,mr4 ,brunel's report on the failure of the ,atmospheric apparatus1 #aei4 ,abandonment of the system1 #afd ,australian ,mail ,company1 ,mr4 ,brunel appointed engineer of the1 #bij ,barlow1 ,professor ,p41 member of the ,gauge ,commission1 #aag ,barlow1 ,w4 ,h41 #eg ,bath1 station at1 #hd ,bath1 bridges at1 #age1 #agi ,bathford1 bridge at1 #age ,beamish1 ,richard1 his account of ,sir ,isambard ,brunel's block machinery at ,portsmouth1 quoted1 #c4 ,joins the ,thames ,tunnel works1 #ba ,bennett1 ,joseph1 ,mr4 ,brunel's secretary1 #ib ,berks and ,hants ,railway1 #hh ,birmingham and ,oxford ,junction ,railway1 #ij ,birmingham1 ,great ,western extension to1 #abd ,birth of ,mr4 ,brunel1 #a ,blake1 ,h4 ,w41 consulted by ,mr4 ,brunel on the #8,great ,eastern1' #big ,block machinery at ,portsmouth1 ,sir ,isambard ,brunel's1 #b ,bourbon1 ,ile de1 ,sir ,isambard ,brunel's suspension bridges for the1 #e4 ,description of them1 #dj ,bourne viaduct1 #aha ,box ,tunnel1 #gj note#a1 #gb1 #ha4 ,criticism as to its safety1 #ha4 ,letter from ,mr4 ,brunel on the1 #ha ,bremner1 ,a41 #bfc1 #bhj ,brentford1 dock at1 #ddj ,brentford1 extension of the ,great ,western ,railway to1 #hf ,brereton1 ,robert ,pearson1 chief of ,mr4 ,brunel's engineering staff1 #ib1 #baj1 #bae note#a1 #bag note#a1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #dcg1 #dch note#a ,brickwork1 use of1 #ei4 ,bridges in1 #agb ,bridges1 suspension1 ,sir ,isambard ,brunel's3 in the ,ile de ,bourbon1 #e1 #dj2 designs for the ,serpentine1 and for the ,thames at ,kingston1 #e4 ,mr4 ,brunel's3 at ,clifton1 #df2 ,charing ,cross1 #ei ,bridges1 railway1 #aga4 #a4 ,brickwork and masonry bridges1 #agb4 ,flying bridges1 #agf4 ,skew bridges1 #agg4 ,letter from ,mr4 ,brunel on bridge construction1 #agh4 #b4 ,timber bridges and viaducts1 #agi4 #c4 ,cast-iron bridges1 #aij4 #d4 ,wrought-iron bridges1 #aib4 ,girder bridges1 #aic4 ,opening bridges1 #aie4 ,trussed bridges1 #aii4 ,extracts from letters on bridges of large span1 #bab note#a4 ,experiments on matters connected with bridge construction1 #bbg ,bristol1 ,mr4 ,brunel's early connection with1 #eh1 #fd4 ,station at1 #hd4 ,bridges at1 #age1 #aie4 ,floating ,harbour1 #dbb4 ,proposed improvement of the port1 #dbf4 ,new lock at1 #dbg ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway1 #hf ,bristol and ,gloucester ,railway1 #ij ,bristol and ,south ,wales ,union ,railway1 #ij ,briton ,ferry ,docks1 #dcg ,broad ,gauge4 ,see ,gauge ,brunel1 ,sir ,marc ,isambard1 birth of1 #b4 ,arrives in ,england1 #b4 ,marries ,miss ,sophia ,kingdom1 #b4 ,designs the ,block machinery at ,portsmouth1 #b4 ,veneering machinery1 #e4 ,shoe machinery1 #e4 ,designs suspension bridges for the ,ile de ,bourbon1 #e1 #dj4 ,experiments on carbonic acid gas1 #e1 #db4 ,proposes the ,thames ,tunnel1 #e4 ,extracts from his ,journal relating to the ,rotherhithe shaft1 #aj4 ,extracts from his ,journal relating to the works at the ,thames ,tunnel up to ,january #ahbh1 #af4 ,his death1 #ci4 ,hoop iron introduced by1 in brickwork1 #agg4 ,designed a large timber bridge to cross the ,neva1 #baa note#b ,bullo ,pill opening bridge1 #aig ,caermarthen1 opening bridge at1 #aih ,carbonic acid gas1 experiments on1 by ,sir ,isambard ,brunel and ,mr4 ,brunel1 #e1 #db ,cast-iron bridges1 #aij4 ,mr4 ,brunel's views as to the use of cast iron in bridge construction1 #aij1 #aib ,cheltenham and ,great ,western ,union ,railway1 #hh ,chepstow bridge1 #bjc4 ,mode of forming piers1 #bjc4 ,description of superstructure1 #bjf4 ,floating and erection1 #bji ,clarke1 ,seymour1 #aag ,claxton1 ,captain1 #eg4 ,assists ,mr4 ,brunel at the floating of the ,chepstow bridge1 #baj4 ,and the ,saltash bridge1 #bbb4 ,appointed ,managing ,director of the ,great ,western ,steam-,ship ,company1 #bcd1 #bdb1 #bdg4 ,letter to1 from ,mr4 ,brunel1 on the #8,great ,britain1' #bfd4 ,goes to ,dundrum to carry out ,mr4 ,brunel's plans for the protection of the #8,great ,britain1' #bgb4 ,letter to1 from ,mr4 ,brunel1 on the breakwater1 #bgb4 ,report of1 on breakwater1 #bgd4 ,superintends floating of the #8,great ,britain1' #bhj4 ,consulted by ,mr4 ,brunel on the #8,great ,eastern1' #bia1 #big4 ,floating ,harbour1 ,bristol1 #dbd ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge1 origin of the1 #dg4 ,mr4 ,brunel's designs1 #dg4 ,rejected by ,mr4 ,telford1 #ea4 ,mr4 ,telford's own design1 #eb4 ,second competition1 #eb4 ,mr4 ,brunel successful1 and appointed engineer1 #ec4 ,the site described1 #ed4 ,description of the design1 #ee4 ,architectural features1 #ef4 ,commencement of the work1 #ef4 ,completed1 #eg ,coles1 ,captain ,cowper1 #dfa ,construction of works1 letter on1 #agh ,continuous girders1 #bjh ,cork and ,youghal ,railway1 #ia ,cornwall ,railway1 #hg4 ,viaducts on1 #ahe ,crystal ,palace at ,sydenham1 water-towers of the1 #ddh ,cylinders1 of ,chepstow bridge1 method of sinking the1 #bjd4 ,the great cylinder of the ,royal ,albert ,bridge1 #bad ,dalkey ,railway1 ,atmospheric ,system on1 #aca ,dartmouth and ,torbay ,railway1 #hg ,death of ,mr4 ,brunel1 #ebj ,dock and pier works3 ,monkwearmouth1 #dah2 ,bristol1 #dbb2 ,plymouth1 #dcc2 ,briton ,ferry1 #dcg2 ,brentford1 #ddj2 ,neyland1 #ddc ,draught1 ,mr4 ,brunel's paper on1 #aja note#a ,dublin1 railway to ,wicklow from1 #ia ,dundrum ,bay1 stranding of the #8,great ,britain' in1 #bfc ,early life of ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,he goes to school at ,chelsea1 #d2 at ,brighton1 #d2 at ,paris1 #e4 ,employed in his father's office1 #e4 ,engaged at the ,thames ,tunnel1 #f4 ,references by ,sir ,i4 ,brunel to his exertions1 #ag1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #be1 #cc4 ,appointed resident engineer1 #be note#a4 ,first irruption of the river1 #bi4 ,second irruption1 #ce4 ,accident1 #cf4 ,visit to ,plymouth1 #df ,eastern ,bengal ,railway1 #ia1 #aie1 #eag ,eastern ,counties ,railway1 gauge adopted on the1 #aje ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company1 formation of the1 #bia4 ,see #8,great ,eastern' ,egypt1 visit to1 #eag ,electric telegraph1 application of the1 in connection with railways1 #aee ,engineer1 ,mr4 ,brunel's view of the position of1 #dge4 ,of joint-engineer1 #dgf4 ,of consulting engineer1 #dgg4 ,of the position of the engineer in relation to the contractors1 #dgg4 ,to the ,directors1 #dgh4 ,remarks on interference of ,directors with assistant engineers1 #dha4 ,on ,state control over engineering works1 #dhf ,experiments3 ,strength of timber1 #ahb1 #bbg4 ,cast-iron girders1 #aij1 #aia4 ,wrought-iron girder1 #aic4 ,riveting1 #aid1 #bbh4 ,continuous beams1 #bji1 #bbi4 ,bridge construction1 #bbg4 ,ropes and chains1 #bbh4 ,friction1 #cdh1 #cfh1 #che ,faraday1 ,m41 his experiments on the liquefaction of gases1 #db4 ,consulted by ,mr4 ,brunel on the ,kyanising process1 #ahi ,field1 ,cyrus1 #daa1 #dad ,field1 ,j41 consulted by ,mr4 ,brunel on the #8,great ,eastern1' #big ,floating gun-carriage1 #ded ,floating harbour at ,bristol1 #dbb ,floating pier1 proposed at ,portishead1 #dbf4 ,in ,mill ,bay1 #dcf ,florence and ,pistoja ,railway1 #ia ,flying bridges1 #agf ,ford1 ,captain ,robert1 consulted by ,mr4 ,brunel on the #8,great ,eastern1' #big ,friction1 experiments and observations on1 #cdh1 #cfh1 #che ,froude1 ,w41 letter to1 describing floating of the #8,great ,eastern1' #chi ,gathampton1 bridge at1 #agd ,genoa1 ,novi1 and ,alessandria ,railway1 #ia ,gauge of railways1 difference between the broad and narrow1 #ii4 ,origin of the ordinary gauge1 #ii4 ,adoption of the broad gauge on the ,great ,western ,railway1 #aja1 #ajf4 ,reasons for its adoption1 #ajb4 ,attacks on1 #ajf4 ,reports of ,mr4 ,wood and ,mr4 ,hawkshaw on1 #ajg4 ,report by ,mr4 ,brunel on1 #ajg4 ,northern extension1 #aaf4 ,inconveniences of a break of gauge1 #aaf4 ,royal ,commission on the gauge question1 #aag4 ,report of the ,commissioners1 #aag4 #8,observations on the ,report1' #aai4 ,report of the ,board of ,trade1 #abb4 ,act for regulating gauge1 #abb4 ,the mixed gauge1 #abd4 ,summary of the advantages of the broad gauge1 #abg4 ,partial abandonment of the broad gauge1 #abg1 #abi4 ,report on the broad gauge1 #ebe ,gilbert1 ,davies1 appointed referee in the second competition for the ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge1 #eb4 ,recommends ,mr4 ,brunel's design1 #ec ,girder bridges1 #aic ,glennie1 ,w41 #bae note#a ,gloucester1 opening bridges near1 #aif ,gloucester and ,dean ,forest ,railway1 #hh ,gooch1 ,sir ,daniel1 #aag1 #aai4 ,experiments by1 #abe ,gravatt1 ,william1 an assistant engineer at the ,thames ,tunnel1 #bf #8,great ,britain' steam-ship1 commencement of the1 #bdg4 ,report on the engines1 #bdi4 ,adoption of the screw propeller1 #bed4 ,principal features of her design1 #bee4 ,arrives in the ,thames1 #bfa4 ,her voyages1 #bfb4 ,stranded in ,dundrum ,bay1 #bfc4 ,letter from ,mr4 ,brunel on the subject1 #bfd4 ,his reports to the ,directors1 #bfg1 #bgc4 ,construction of breakwater1 #bgd4 ,floating of the ship1 #bhj4 ,her subsequent history1 #bhb4 ,dimensions of ship and engines1 #bhb #8,great ,eastern' steam-ship1 origin of the project1 #bia4 ,memorandum by ,mr4 ,brunel to the ,directors of the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company1 #bib4 ,he is appointed engineer1 #bic4 ,letter on the form and dimensions of the ship1 #bid4 ,report on mode of proceeding1 #bif4 ,on enquiries relating to the draught and form of the vessel1 #big4 ,on the dimensions1 #bii4 ,tenders invited1 #cjj4 ,report on tenders1 #cja4 ,commencement of the work1 #cjd4 ,extracts from ,mr4 ,brunel's memoranda1 #cjd1 #caj4 ,letters on his position as engineer1 #caa4 ,report describing the ship1 #cae4 ,letter to the ,astronomer ,royal1 #cba4 ,the observers' department in the ship1 #cbb4 ,captain ,harrison appointed to the command1 #cbc4 ,memorandum on the management of the ship1 #cbd4 ,letter on the duties of chief engineer1 #cce4 ,suspension and resumption of the works1 #cci4 ,reasons for launching the ship broadside to the river1 #cdj4 ,adoption of iron sliding-surfaces1 #cdc4 ,the ways and cradles1 #cde4 ,motive power1 #cdh4 ,checking gear1 #cea4 ,river tackle1 #ceb4 ,letter to ,captain ,harrison on the river tackle1 #ced4 ,letter to the ,directors respecting the operation of launching1 #cee4 ,memorandum of arrangements and intended mode of proceeding1 #cef4 ,particular instructions1 #ceh4 ,final preparations1 #cei4 ,commencement of the launch1 #cfj4 ,accident at one of the drums1 #cfa4 ,failure of the first attempt1 #cfb4 ,second attempt1 #cfd4 ,report on operations1 #cff4 ,progress of the launch1 #cfh4 ,suspension of operations1 #cgf4 ,report and memorandum1 #cgg4 ,re-commencement1 #cgi4 ,floating of the ship1 #chb4 ,experiments and observations on friction1 #che4 ,letter to ,mr4 ,w4 ,froude1 describing the floating1 #chi4 ,formation of the ,great ,ship ,company1 #cic4 ,progress of the works to ,mr4 ,brunel's last illness1 #cic4 ,completion of the ship1 #cic4 ,voyage to ,weymouth1 #cic4 ,explosion of water-heater1 #cic4 ,storm at ,holyhead1 #cie4 ,description of the ship1 #cif4 ,her first voyages to ,new ,york1 #djc4 ,to ,quebec1 with troops1 #djd4 ,accident to rudder1 and loss of paddlewheels1 #dje4 ,voyages in #ahfb1 #djg4 ,accident off ,montauk ,point1 #djg4 ,formation of ,great ,eastern ,steam-,ship ,company1 #dji4 ,remarks on performance of ship1 #dji4 ,employed in laying ,atlantic cables1 #dab4 ,the ,indian cable1 #dad4 ,dimensions of ship and engines1 #daf ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 ,mr4 ,brunel's opinion respecting prizes to exhibitors1 #dde4 ,his part in the work of the ,building ,committee1 #ddf4 ,supports ,sir ,joseph ,paxton's design1 #ddg ,great ,western ,hotel1 #hf ,great ,western ,railway1 origin of the1 #fc4 ,mr4 ,brunel appointed engineer1 #fd4 ,survey of the country1 #fe4 ,bill for a line from ,london to ,reading1 and ,bath to ,bristol1 read a second time1 and referred to a committee1 #ff4 ,opposition to the ,bill1 #fg4 ,plan of entering ,london1 #fh4 ,mr4 ,brunel's cross-examination1 #fi4 ,the ,bill passed by the ,commons1 but thrown out in the ,lords1 #gj4 ,a ,bill for the whole line introduced1 read a second time1 and committed1 #ga4 ,evidence taken before the ,commons' ,committee1 #gb4 ,evidence before the ,lords' ,committee1 #gc4 ,the ,bill receives the ,royal ,assent1 #gd4 ,construction of the line1 #hj4 ,opening from ,london to ,bristol1 #hj4 ,levels and inclines1 #hj1 #ajd4 ,the ,box ,tunnel1 #ha4 ,the ,bath and ,bristol stations1 #hd4 ,paddington station1 #hd4 ,branches and extensions of the railway1 #hf1 #hh1 #ij4 ,adoption of the broad gauge1 #ajf4 ,the permanent way1 #ajh1 #aaa4 ,meeting of shareholders on broad gauge1 #aaa4 ,extension of the ,great ,western system1 #aaf #8,great ,western' steam-ship1 formation of the company1 #bcc4 ,details of the construction of the vessel1 #bcd note#b4 ,report on the selection of the builders of the engines1 #bce4 ,controversy with ,dr4 ,lardner1 #bcg4 ,launch of the vessel1 and voyage to ,london1 #bda4 ,return to ,bristol1 #bdb4 ,fire on board1 and accident to ,mr4 ,brunel1 #bdb4 ,first voyage to ,new ,york1 #bdc4 ,subsequent history1 #bdd4 ,dimensions of ship and engines1 #bde ,gunnery experiments1 #deb ,guppy1 ,t4 ,r41 #adh1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bdg1 #bec1 #bed4 ,letter to1 on iron-ship building1 #bei ,hammond1 ,j4 ,w41 #fe1 #ib ,hanwell1 bridge at1 destroyed by fire1 #aij ,hanwell viaduct1 #agb ,harrison1 ,captain1 #bbc4 ,appointed commander of the #8,great ,eastern1' #cbc4 ,letter to1 on the river tackle1 #ced4 ,at the launch1 #cfb1 #cgj1 #chb1 #cib ,haverfordwest1 opening bridge at1 #aih ,hawkshaw1 ,j41 #eg4 ,report on broad gauge and permanent way1 #ajg ,henley branch of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #hf ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge1 #eg1 #ei ,india1 railway works in1 #ia ,indian ,cable expedition of the #8,great ,eastern1' #dad ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 #eaf note#b1 #eba ,inventors1 communications with1 #dhe ,ireland1 railway works in1 #ij ,italy1 ,mr4 ,brunel's railway works in1 #ia1 #eaj ,ivybridge viaduct1 #ahb ,kennet1 bridge over the river1 #age ,kidwelly1 opening bridge at1 #aih ,kyanising process1 #ahi1 #dba ,landore1 viaduct at1 #ahc ,lane1 ,michael1 #bi ,lardner1 ,dr41 #aad note#a4 ,opinions respecting ocean steam navigation1 #bcg ,llansamlet1 flying arches near1 #agf ,llynvi ,valley ,railway1 #hi ,locke1 ,joseph1 #fb1 #gd4 ,his address on the death of ,mr4 ,brunel1 #eba ,locomotive power1 comparison of1 with stationary power1 #adb1 #aff ,loughor1 opening bridge at1 #aig ,maidenhead bridge1 #if1 #agc ,masonry1 bridges in1 #agb ,maudslay and ,field1 #ae1 #adh1 #bcf1 #bhd ,milford ,haven1 #hh1 #ddc ,monkwearmouth1 docks at1 #dag1 #dah ,moulsford1 bridge at1 #agd ,nasmyth1 ,james1 his steam hammer designed1 #beb note#a4 ,letter to1 on gunnery experiments1 #deb ,neath1 improvement of river1 #dch note#a ,newport viaduct1 #ahe1 #aii ,neyland1 pier at1 #ddc ,ocean steam navigation1 ,mr4 ,brunel's connection with1 #bca1 #cac ,opening bridges1 #aie ,oxford1 ,mr4 ,brunel created a ,doctor in ,civil ,law at1 #eaf ,oxford and ,rugby extension of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #ij1 #aaf ,oxford branch of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #hf ,oxford1 ,worcester1 and ,wolverhampton ,railway1 #ij1 #aaf ,paddington station1 #hd ,paris ,exhibition of #ahee1 letter on decorations conferred at1 #dhi ,parkes1 ,dr41 medical superintendent of ,renkioi ,hospital1 #dfh4 ,report of1 on hospital buildings1 #dfh ,patent laws1 ,mr4 ,brunel's opinions on the1 #bab note1#a #dej1 #dea1 #ded1 #dhe1 #dhi1 #dig ,patterson1 ,w41 #bcd1 #bdg1 #bfc ,paxton1 ,sir ,joseph1 his design for the ,great ,exhibition building1 #ddg ,permanent way on the ,great ,western ,railway1 #ajh1 #ece ,plymouth ,great ,western ,docks1 #dcc ,polygonal rifle1 #ddi ,portishead1 proposed pier at1 #dbf ,prince ,consort1 ,h4,r4,h4 the1 opens the ,royal ,albert ,bridge1 #bbf4 ,present at floating of the #8,great ,britain1' #bei ,private life of ,mr4 ,brunel1 #dii4 ,early reminiscences1 #ejj4 ,removal to ,duke ,street1 and marriage1 #eje4 ,his taste in art1 #ejf4 ,first journey to ,italy1 #ejh4 ,half-sovereign accident1 #eaa4 ,purchase of property in ,devonshire1 #ead4 ,life at ,watcombe1 #eae4 ,failing health1 #eaf4 ,journeys to ,switzerland and ,egypt1 #eaf4 ,letter from ,phil1 #eag4 ,his last illness1 #ebj ,quaker's ,yard1 viaduct at1 #hi ,railways1 sketch of1 in ,england prior to #ahcc1 #fa4 ,extent of ,mr4 ,brunel's1 #gi4 ,great ,western1 #hj4 ,branches to ,oxford1 #hf4 ,windsor1 #hf4 ,wycombe1 #hf4 ,uxbridge1 #hf4 ,henley1 #hf4 ,brentford1 #hf4 ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway1 #hf4 ,south ,devon1 #hg4 ,south ,devon and ,tavistock1 #hg4 ,cornwall1 #hg4 ,branch lines now incorporated with ,great ,western ,railway3 ,berks and ,hants1 #hh4 ,wilts and ,somerset1 #hh4 ,cheltenham and ,great ,western ,union1 #hh4 ,gloucester and ,dean ,forest1 #hh4 ,the ,south ,wales1 #hh4 ,the ,taff ,vale1 #hi4 ,the ,vale of ,neath1 #hi4 ,the ,llynvi ,valley1 #hi4 ,the ,south ,wales ,mineral1 #hi4 ,bristol and ,south ,wales ,union1 #ij4 ,bristol and ,gloucester1 #ij4 ,the ,oxford and ,rugby1 #ij4 ,birmingham and ,oxford ,junction1 #ij4 ,oxford1 ,worcester1 and ,wolverhampton1 #ij4 ,ireland1 #ij4 ,italy1 #ia4 ,india 7,eastern ,bengal71 #ia ,railway ,structures1 letter on the ,royal ,commission on the ,application of ,iron to1 #aib1 #dhf #8,rattler' steam-ship1 trials with the1 #bhg ,rendel1 ,j4 ,m41 #baa1 #dcc ,renkioi1 hospital buildings at1 #dfa4 ,description of the buildings1 #dfc4 ,dr4 ,parkes's report on the formation and general management of the hospital1 #dfh ,rennie1 ,g4 and ,j41 #adh ,richards1 ,westley1 letters to1 on polygonal rifle1 #dej ,riveting1 experiments on1 #aid1 #bbh ,ropes and chains1 experiments on1 #bbh ,rotherhithe shaft of the ,thames ,tunnel1 construction of the1 #i ,royal ,albert ,bridge at ,saltash1 #baa4 ,plans for crossing the river ,tamar at ,saltash1 #baa4 ,trial cylinder for centre pier1 #bac4 ,report on making bridge for a single line1 #bad4 ,mode of construction of centre pier1 #bad4 ,description of superstructure1 #bah4 ,floating of first truss1 #bba4 ,lifting of first truss1 #bbd4 ,floating and lifting of second truss1 #bbe4 ,opening by ,h4,r4,h4 the ,prince ,consort1 #bbf ,royal ,society1 #eaf note#a ,russell1 ,j4 ,scott1 builds the #8,victoria' and #8,adelaide1' #bij4 ,assists ,mr4 ,brunel in maturing designs of the #8,great ,eastern1' #bia1 #bib1 #big4 ,letter to1 on the form and dimensions of the ship1 #bid4 ,tender accepted for hull and paddle-engines1 #cja ,st4 ,mary's viaduct1 #aha ,st4 ,pinnock viaduct1 #ahf ,saltash bridge4 ,see ,royal ,albert ,bridge ,samuda1 ,j41 #aca1 #acd1 #adh1 #afj ,saunders1 ,c4 ,a41 #ib1 #aag1 #aai ,screw propeller1 the1 adopted for the #8,great ,britain1' #bed4 ,communications on1 with the ,board of ,admiralty1 #bhc4 ,trials with the #8,polyphemus1' #bhd4 ,with the #8,rattler1' #bhg4 ,report recommending adoption of1 #eci ,shield1 ,thames ,tunnel1 the1 #aa1 #ab #8,sirius' steam-ship1 #bda ,skew bridges1 #agg ,smith1 ,f4 ,p41 the screw propeller1 #bec1 #bhg4 ,consulted by ,mr4 ,brunel on the #8,great ,eastern1' #big1 #bih ,smith1 ,sir ,f41 member of the ,gauge ,commission1 #aag ,smyth1 ,c4 ,piazzi1 ,astronomer ,royal for ,scotland1 correspondence with ,mr4 ,brunel on astronomical instruments for the #8,great ,eastern1' #cbb ,sonning ,cutting brickwork bridge1 #age4 ,timber bridge1 #agi ,south ,devon and ,tavistock ,railway1 #hg4 ,viaducts1 #ahh ,south ,devon ,railway1 #hg4 ,course of the line1 #acb4 ,atmospheric ,system adopted on the1 #ach4 ,viaducts1 #ahb ,south ,wales ,mineral ,railway1 #hi ,south ,wales ,railway1 #hh4 ,viaducts1 #ahc1 #aid ,standard drawings1 #agb note#b ,stationary and locomotive power1 comparison of1 #adb1 #aff ,statue of ,mr4 ,brunel1 #ebj note#a ,stephenson1 ,george1 #fa1 #fb1 #gj1 #gd1 #ii ,stephenson1 ,robert1 #fb1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #acd ,atmospheric ,system1 #acf1 #acg note#a1 #ach1 #add4 ,conway and ,britannia bridges1 #bba1 #bbc4 ,launch of the #8,great ,eastern1' #cge1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cgh1 #chd note#a1 #dhe1 #eaf1 #eag1 #eba ,stonehouse viaduct1 #aha ,taff ,vale ,railway1 #hi1 #ajd note#a ,tamar1 plans for crossing the river1 #e note#b1 #df1 #baa ,telford1 ,t41 appointed referee to decide upon the plans for the ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge1 #ea4 ,rejects ,mr4 ,brunel's plan1 #ea4 ,designs one himself1 #eb4 ,his plan described1 #eb ,thames ,tunnel1 project of1 first occupies ,sir ,isambard ,brunel's attention1 #e4 ,plans suggested for the construction of a tunnel1 #f4 ,borings1 #g4 ,remarks on borings1 #h note#a4 ,commencement of the work1 #i4 ,construction of the ,rotherhithe shaft1 #i4 ,description of the shield1 #ab4 ,journals of ,sir ,i4 ,brunel of the progress of the work1 #aj1 #aa1 #af4 ,mr4 ,brunel appointed resident engineer of1 #be note#a4 ,first irruption of the river1 #bi4 ,second irruption1 #ce4 ,works suspended1 #cg4 ,resumed1 #ch4 ,the ,wapping shaft1 #ch4 ,completed and opened1 #ci4 ,its subsequent history1 #ci note#a ,thompson1 ,dr4 ,seth4 ,letter on the half-sovereign accident1 #eaa ,timber bridges and viaducts1 #agi ,timber1 experiments on strength of1 #ahb1 #bbg ,torquay branch of the ,south ,devon ,railway1 #hg ,trussed bridges1 #aii ,uxbridge branch of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #hf ,vale of ,neath ,railway1 #hi4 ,viaducts1 #aga ,vick1 ,alderman ,william1 his bequest for a bridge at ,clifton1 #dg #8,victoria' steam-ship1 built under ,mr4 ,brunel's direction1 #bij ,vignoles1 ,c41 #gd ,walker1 ,j41 #ajg ,walkham viaduct1 #ahi ,wapping shaft of the ,thames ,tunnel1 construction of the1 #ch ,watcombe1 ,mr4 ,brunel's life at1 #ead ,watt1 ,james ,co41 #adh4 ,tender accepted for screw engines of the #8,great ,eastern1' #cja ,west ,cornwall ,railway1 #hg4 ,viaducts1 #ahi ,westminster ,abbey1 memorial window in1 #ebj note#a ,wilts and ,somerset ,railway1 #hh ,windsor branch of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #hf ,windsor bridge1 #bjj4 ,description of superstructure1 #bjj4 ,mode of forming piers1 #bja ,wire gun1 #dec ,witness1 ,mr4 ,brunel's reputation as a1 #fi1 #ic1 #eje ,wood1 ,nicholas1 #aja4 ,report on broad gauge and permanent way1 #ajg ,wrought-iron bridges1 #aib ,wrought-iron girder1 experiments on1 #aic ,wyatt1 ,sir ,m4 ,d41 #hd ,wycombe extension of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #hf ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street 99 99 99 99 99 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 known method of makng known method of making pg #de consits merely of consists merely of pg #aji every calcluation every calculation pg #ebg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 #a ,to avoid confusion1 ,sir ,isambard ,brunel has been called throughout by that designation1 the one by which he is generally known3 he was knighted on ,march #bd1 #ahda4 ,his ,life has been written by ,mr4 ,richard ,beamish1 ,f4,r4,s4 7,london1 #ahfb47 #b ,lady ,brunel survived her husband five years4 ,of their children1 three lived to maturity1 one son1 ,isambard ,kingdom1 and two daughters1 ,sophia1 wife of the late ,sir ,benjamin ,hawes1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,under ,secretary of ,state for ,war1 and ,emma1 wife of the ,rev4 ,george ,harrison1 ,rector of ,sutcombe4 #c ,he was sent to ,paris to recover his knowledge of ,french1 which had got rather rusty at school1 and also to study mathematics4 ,he retained through life a great admiration of the method of teaching this subject which was adopted in ,france4 ,in addition to the time spent in the study of mathematics and languages1 ,mr4 ,brunel occupied himself on his holidays in examining the various engineering works going on in ,paris1 and he used to send his father drawings and descriptions of them4 #d ,sir ,isambard was also consulted upon a proposed suspension bridge over the ,tamar at ,saltash1 where ,mr4 ,brunel subsequently built the ,royal ,albert ,bridge4 #e ,this history has been written by ,mr4 ,beamish in his ,life of ,sir ,isambard ,brunel1 pp4 #bjb-cjd1 and also1 up to the year #ahbh1 in the very valuable work by ,mr4 ,henry ,law1 ,c4,e41 entitled #8,a ,memoir of the several ,operations1 and the ,construction1 of the ,thames ,tunnel1' and published by the late ,mr4 ,weale in his ,quarterly ,papers on ,engineering4 #f ,for an account of these earlier attempts see ,law1 pp4 #c-g4 #g ,this expectation does not seem to have been realised1 as there was never any considerable traffic through the ,thames ,tunnel4 ,perhaps1 however1 it would have been otherwise had the large descents for carriages and horses been constructed4 #h ,the results obtained by these borings were no doubt fallacious1 but not to the extent which has sometimes been imagined4 ,at a meeting of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 in ,november #ahdi1 ,dean ,buckland called attention to #8the evils arising from the ignorance of the engineers who reported to ,sir ,isambard ,brunel1 previous to the commencement of the ,thames ,tunnel1 that the whole of the bottom of the river at that spot was ,london clay4' ,whereupon ,mr4 ,brunel rose and said1 that he #8agreed that knowledge of every kind was most desirable1 and that it would be well if engineers were generally much better informed on many subjects which would be useful1 and more particularly on matters connected with geology2 at the same time he could not admit that they were deficient in that knowledge of the surface of the earth which was necessary for the purpose of guiding them in their work4 ,it might be true that many members of the profession were1 like himself1 not perfectly well acquainted with the minute geological characteristics of the soils they had to deal with1 but he thought the education and the practical experience of the profession generally rendered them well acquainted with those features and characteristics which were necessary for their guidance in the design or execution of work4 ,he must also say a few words in defence of those persons 7now nearly all dead7 who made the borings in the ,thames1 and were stated to have made so fallacious a report previous to the commencement of the ,tunnel4 ,now1 although that statement had by constant repetition become a sort of historical fact1 it was really only one of those popular fallacies which obtained too ready credence in the world4 ,the position of the ,tunnel was not determined by any report1 or by the result of any borings1 but with a view to establishing a communication between particular localities for encouraging the traffic which was anticipated from the facility of access to the docks1 and for other local reasons1 such as the general direction of the roads and streets on both shores4 ,after the position was settled1 and not until then1 borings were made to ascertain what soils might be expected in that part of the river4 ,it must be remembered that these borings were made full twenty-five years ago1 when boring in the bed of a river through a depth of water of nearly thirty feet was not an ordinary occurrence4 ,the tool then generally employed was the worm1 and tubes were not even used in such cases4 ,the borings showed the existence in that spot of something which1 in the ordinary acceptation of the term1 might have been inadvertently called ,london clay1 but he had no recollection of its geological designation having ever been thought of4 ,it was reported and shown to be a very fair clay for working in4444 ,the errors which were made in giving the results of the borings did not1 in fact1 arise from ignorance1 but from mechanical defects in the tools1 for it was subsequently discovered that the worm frequently carried a portion of the upper tenacious clay through the softer strata beneath1 and brought it up again4 ,the tenacious clay might have been called ,london clay1 but no value was attached to that particular designation2 they cared little in engineering for its denomination1 provided it was of a good tenacious quality4 ,this mistake in terms 7supposing it to have occurred7 could not have had any influence on after proceedings2 for1 before the ,tunnel was far advanced1 he conducted with great care a series of borings extending across the ,thames1 and1 as he used improved tools and worked through tubes1 the holes were kept so dry that a candle was frequently lowered down to the bottom in order to see the amount of infiltration4 ,by this means he was enabled to construct a correct section of the bed of the ,thames at that spot1 showing every layer of shells and gravel as well as every variation of the surface of the silt1 c4 ,he entered more at length into these details than might perhaps appear necessary1 because he felt it was incumbent upon those who had the conduct of works to show that they did not proceed so ignorantly or so recklessly as had been assumed1 in the design or execution of large undertakings4' #i ,the paragraphs in small type1 without any reference1 are from ,sir ,isambard's journals4 ,the sentences inserted at the side are his marginal summary4 ,occasionally a few words are added 7in square brackets7 by way of explanation4 #aj ,the shaft subsequently made on the ,wapping shore was sunk to its full depth without any under-pinning4 #aa ,professor ,rankine1 in his work on ,civil ,engineering1 p4 #eii1 describes the ,thames ,tunnel works under the significant heading #8,tunnelling in ,mud4' #ab ,proceedings ,inst4 ,c4 ,e4 i4 #cd4 ,the circumstances which led ,sir ,isambard to conceive the idea of a shield1 and the earlier designs he made for it1 are described1 with illustrations1 by ,mr4 ,law1 pp4 #g-aj4 #ac ,mr4 ,law's memoir contains a detailed description of every part of the shield1 illustrated by careful drawings4 #ad ,mr4 ,beamish had joined the works on ,august #g4 #ae ,on ,november #bj ,mr4 ,brunel mentions in his diary that he had #8passed seven days out of the last ten in the ,tunnel4 ,for nine days on an average #bj hours per day in the ,tunnel and #c to sleep4' #af ,on the previous day ,mr4 ,brunel had been formally appointed resident engineer4 #ag ,mr4 ,gravatt had been appointed an assistant engineer six months before4 #ah ,sir ,isambard's journal of this eventful night consists--as he was not himself present--of ,mr4 ,beamish's journal1 with a few words in warm commendation of that gentleman's #8judgment1 coolness1 and courage1' followed by observations upon the stability of the shield4 ,he then gives a statement made by ,mr4 ,gravatt1 and taken down in shorthand4 ,no extracts are given in the text from ,mr4 ,beamish's narrative1 as he has already inserted it in a condensed form in his ,life of ,sir ,isambard ,brunel1 pp4 #bdd-bdh4 #ai ,mr4 ,michael ,lane1 at this time foreman bricklayer1 became one of ,mr4 ,brunel's most valued assistants1 and was employed by him on the ,monkwearmouth ,docks and the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,after filling various posts in the service of that company1 he was in #ahfj appointed their principal engineer1 an office which he held till his death1 in ,february1 #ahfh4 #bj ,on this occasion an amusing incident occurred4 ,mr4 ,brunel was exceedingly unwilling to permit his visitors to make this expedition into the arch2 but on the assurance that they could all swim perfectly well1 he consented to take them1 with the understanding that1 if he jumped overboard1 they were immediately to follow his example1 and swim after him to the shaft4 ,while they were in the arch ,mr4 ,brunel 7as ,sir ,isambard mentions7 fell overboard4 ,as soon as he recovered himself1 and turned to swim back to the boat1 he remembered that he had unwittingly given to his companions the signal to jump out into the water4 ,he was much amused1 on looking up1 to see that they were not swimming after him1 but were still sitting in the boat clinging to the gunwale1 with faces expressive of blank despair4 #ba ,mr4 ,brunel's comment in his diary is as follows3--#8,without ascribing any particular merit to myself1 ,i cannot help observing1 for my future guidance1 that being alone1 and giving few but clear orders1 and those always to the men who were to execute them1 ,i succeeded in an operation not altogether mean1 and which a very trifling want of precaution or order might have caused to be a total failure4' #bb ,on ,january #ae1 #ahbh1 the ,directors of the ,thames ,tunnel ,company passed the following resolution1 which they ordered to be advertised in the ,times1 ,new ,times1 ,herald1 ,ledger1 and ,courier3--#8,that this court1 having heard with great admiration of the intrepid courage and presence of mind displayed by ,mr4 ,isambard ,brunel1 the company's resident engineer1 when the ,thames broke into the ,tunnel on the morning of the #abth instant1 are desirous to give their public testimony to his calm and energetic endeavours1 and to that generous principle which induced him to put his own life in more imminent hazard to save the lives of the men under his immediate care4' #bc ,the ,thames ,tunnel was not successful as a commercial undertaking2 but it has always been considered1 especially by foreigners1 one of the most interesting sights in ,london1 and has been visited by several millions of persons4 ,in #ahfe it was purchased by the ,east ,london ,railway ,company1 and trains now 7,march1 #ahgj7 run through it4 ,the possibility of using the ,tunnel as a railway had been considered in ,mr4 ,brunel's lifetime1 and the idea was approved of by him4 #bd ,this description is based on the translation given by ,mr4 ,drewry 7,suspension ,bridges1 ,london1 #ahcb1 p4 #ge71 from the ,mmoire sur les ,ponts ,suspendus1 by ,m4 ,navier 7,paris1 #ahbc1 p4 #di74 ,m4 ,navier saw the bridges when they were erected at ,sheffield in ,may #ahbc4 #be ,the dimensions of these designs were as follows3-- 7a47 ,length of floor #hij feet4 ,distance between points of suspension #ihj ,length of chain #a1cjj ,with a capacity to bear excessive load of #fej tons4 7b47 ,length of floor #iaf feet4 ,distance between points of suspension #a1afj ,length of chain #a1dfh ,with capacity to bear excessive load of #fej tons4 #bf ,on plate ,i4 is given 7fig4 #a7 a facsimile on a smaller scale of the drawing sent in by ,mr4 ,brunel for the last-mentioned 7b7 of these two designs4 #bg ,see below1 p4 #fj4 #bh ,see above1 p4 #db4 #bi ,the dimensions proposed in this design were as follows3-- ,distance between points of suspension #fjj feet4 ,versed sine #fj ,width of roadway #cb #cj ,a few days before this ceremony1 an iron bar1 #a inch diameter1 and about #a1jjj feet in length1 was hung across the valley from ,clifton ,rocks to ,leigh ,down1 to facilitate the works4 ,it was traversed by a basket pulled by ropes4 ,the first few journeys of this machine were somewhat perilous4 ,it was intended that ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,brunel should be the first passengers2 but1 when all was ready1 one of ,mr4 ,brunel's assistants started on a clandestine trial trip1 and owing to a bend in the bar1 the basket stuck half way1 and the mast of a passing steamer caught in the rope4 ,the rope was however cut1 and he was drawn back4 ,when the apparatus had been put to rights1 on another occasion1 when ,mr4 ,brunel was in the basket1 it got jammed1 and he had to climb up the connecting link and get upon the bar1 before he could release the basket4 #ca ,span #gjb feet #c inches4 ,versed sine #gj ,roadway above high-water #bdh #cb ,plate ,i4 fig4 #b 7p4 #di71 shows an elevation of the bridge according to the designs on which it was commenced4 #cc ,see ,mr4 ,brunel's remarks3--,proceedings ,inst4 ,c4 ,e4 for #ahda1 pp4 #gh1 #gi4 #cd ,rollers on an arched surface had been used previously in several bridges4 #ce ,the chains were used in the construction of the ,saltash bridge4 #cf ,speech of the ,chairman1 the late ,captain ,mark ,huish1 at the first general meeting1 ,august #b1 #ahfa4 #cg ,some re-arrangement of ,mr4 ,brunel's design was rendered necessary in order to adapt the ,hungerford bridge chains to the ,clifton bridge1 and there are three chains instead of two1 as in ,mr4 ,brunel's design4 ,the platform is stiffened by wrought-iron girders instead of by timber trussing1 and the whole bridge is stiffened transversely by the wrought-iron girders at the sides1 which are connected throughout by diagonal bracing4 ,the clear width of the bridge is #cj feet1 #e feet less than originally intended4 ,it should be added1 that no attempt has been made to complete the towers according to ,mr4 ,brunel's architectural designs4 #ch ,a graphic account of this famous parliamentary contest will be found in the third volume of ,mr4 ,smiles' ,lives of the ,engineers1 chapter xi4 #ci ,see ,mr4 ,smiles' ,life of ,george ,stephenson1 p4 #cbe4 #dj ,see ,mr4 ,smiles' ,lives of the ,engineers1 vol4 iii4 chap4 xv4 #da ,by means of the railway 7it was said7 goods would be conveyed with ease from ,london to ,reading in three or four hours1 and from ,bath to ,bristol in one hour4 #db ,during ,mr4 ,stephenson's cross-examination1 several questions were put to him as to the dangerous consequences which might be expected to result from travelling through a tunnel a thousand yards long4 ,at length he lost all patience at the ignorance displayed by the questions put to him by counsel1 and the following passage of arms took place3-- #8,mr4 ,stephenson4 ,i wish you had a little engineering knowledge--you would not talk to me so4 ,counsel4 ,i feel the disadvantage4 ,mr4 ,stephenson4 ,i am sure you must4' ,in other parts of the engineering evidence there are some statements which read strangely enough at the present day1 as for example the following3 #8,the noise of two trains passing in a tunnel would shake the nerves of this assembly4 ,i do not know such a noise4 ,no passenger would be induced to go twice4' #dc ,at this time the ,lords' committees were open to all peers who chose to sit on them1 and it was not considered indecorous for peers who had not attended any of the previous sittings to vote on the division4 #dd ,the ,great ,western ,railway was constructed with but few deviations from the line sanctioned in #ahce4 ,the only alteration of any importance was at the ,london end1 where1 by an ,act passed in #ahcf1 the line was taken to ,paddington1 instead of joining the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway near ,kensal ,green4 ,this change of plan was rendered necessary by reason of a difficulty having arisen between the two companies as to the terms of their agreement1 and not1 as has been often stated1 in consequence of the adoption of the broad gauge on the ,great ,western line4 #de ,sir ,william ,armstrong's hydraulic machinery at ,paddington is described by him in a communication printed in the ,report of the ,british ,association for #ahed1 p4 #dah3 #8,i have also applied it water pressure machinery extensively to railway purposes chiefly under the direction of ,mr4 ,brunel1 who has found a multitude of cases involving lifting or traction power in which it may be made available4 ,most of these applications are well exemplified at the new station of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company in ,london1 where the loading and unloading of trucks1 the hoisting into warehouses1 the lifting of loaded trucks from one level to another1 the moving of turn-tables1 and the hauling of trucks and traversing machines are all performed1 or about to be so1 by means of hydraulic pressure supplied by one central steam engine with connected accumulators4' #df ,see p4 #ajd4 #dg ,no copy of this report can be found2 but documents of subsequent date sufficiently indicate the nature of the arguments ,mr4 ,brunel used in it4 ,mr4 ,brunel had about this time given much attention to the principles of wheel carriages1 as is manifested by an interesting article #8,on ,draught' written by him for the work on #8,the ,horse1' published by the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 #dh ,with regard to this point1 ,mr4 ,brunel afterwards admitted that he had held a mistaken opinion4 ,in speaking of his reasons for adopting the narrow gauge on the ,taff ,vale ,railway in #ahch1 he said before the ,gauge ,commission3--#8,one of the reasons1 ,i remember1 was one which would not influence me now2 but at that time ,i certainly assumed that the effect of curves was such1 that the radius of the curve might be measured in units of the gauge1 in which ,i have since found myself to have been mistaken4' #di ,see ,mr4 ,brunel's report of ,august #ahch1 printed in ,appendix ,i4 p4 #ebh4 ,this plan was never adopted1 as it was found desirable upon the broad gauge to use still wider carriages overhanging the wheels2 but advantage was taken of the broader base to use wheels of greater diameter4 ,however1 in the saloon carriages1 where ease of travelling was the chief object aimed at1 the bodies were placed within the wheels4 #ej ,in the course of constructing the earth-works of a railway1 the contractors were accustomed to lay down temporary ways or lines of rail1 for the earth waggons to travel upon4 ,when these were done with1 the proper road for the trains was laid down2 and this1 to distinguish it from the former one1 was called the permanent way4 #ea ,see ,wood ,on ,railways1 #crd4 edit4 #ahch1 p4 #aea4 #eb ,a full description of the original road of the ,great ,western ,railway1 communicated by ,mr4 ,brunel1 will be found in ,wood's ,treatise on ,railroads1 #crd edit4 #ahch1 p4 #gjh4 #ec ,at this time ,mr4 ,brunel was confined to the house by the effects of his accident on board the #8,great ,western' steam-ship 7see p4 #bdb74 ,had he been on the spot1 he would have been able to give the work careful consideration during its progress1 and to judge of the expediency of proceeding with the plan4 #ed ,the continuity of the timbers diminishes the risk of trains leaving the line from small imperfections in the permanent way4 ,and1 should a train leave the rails1 the injury to the carriages and to the road is generally less serious than it is when the wheels of a carriage off the rails come into repeated and violent contact with the cross sleepers4 ,instances have frequently occurred where carriages which have left the rails have run considerable distances on the longitudinal timbers without injury4 #ee ,this experiment excited the greatest interest1 and it was long afterwards related how ,mr4 ,brunel1 by the stroke of a hammer1 had knocked to pieces the scientific deductions of ,dr4 ,lardner1 who1 as was well known1 had prompted ,mr4 ,wood's decision in this matter4 ,mr4 ,brunel was so much impressed with the great influence which the operation of the blast-pipe had on the working of the locomotive that he afterwards investigated the whole subject1 and made further experiments to determine whether or not it might be expedient to abandon the steam blast1 and to maintain the draught in the chimney with a fan worked by a rotary steam jet4 #ef ,the inconveniences of a break of gauge had already been brought into notice4 ,one of the narrow-gauge companies1 the ,midland1 worked two existing lines of railway1 one between ,birmingham and ,gloucester1 laid on the narrow gauge1 and another between ,bristol and ,gloucester1 on the broad gauge2 and thus there was a break of gauge at ,gloucester4 #eg ,it should1 however1 be added1 that the ,commissioners had stated in the body of their report3 #8,we feel it a duty to observe here1 that the public are mainly indebted for the present rate of speed1 and the increased accommodation of the railway carriages1 to the genius of ,mr4 ,brunel and the liberality of the ,great ,western ,company4' #eh ,these experiments will be found in the ,appendix to the ,report of the ,commissioners of ,railways1 respecting railway communication between ,london and ,birmingham 7ordered to be printed ,may #bb1 #ahdh74 #ei ,this was fully borne out afterwards1 the express trains running in the same time1 #c hours1 over both routes1 though the length of the broad-gauge line was #abi miles1 as against #aac of the narrow4 ,similar favourable results have been since exhibited in the competition between the broad and narrow gauge lines to ,exeter4 #fj ,among many important advances in railway travelling made on the ,great ,western ,railway1 it may be mentioned that it was on this line that express trains running long distances without stopping were first introduced2 and that1 in #ahde1 within about a year of the completion of the line to ,exeter1 express trains ran from ,london to ,exeter1 #aid miles1 in #d hours4 ,this rate of travelling1 which was accomplished without difficulty by the broad gauge in its early days1 has scarcely been exceeded since on any railway4 #fa ,even in the locomotives when of equal power1 ,mr4 ,brunel calculated that the extra weight was not more than about #ejj lbs4 ,the extra cost of the ,great ,western ,railway was only1 including land1 from #cjjl4 to #ejjl4 per mile1 or less than #aj per cent4 of the whole2 although ,mr4 ,brunel had taken advantage of the broad gauge to get carriage bodies #b feet wider than was then usual4 ,the wide carriages and waggons were found less costly than the narrow ones in proportion to the load they carried4 #fb ,the apparatus patented in #ahci by ,mr4 ,samuel ,clegg and ,messrs4 ,jacob and ,joseph ,samuda1 and improved from time to time by them1 was that adopted in almost all the attempts made in this country to introduce the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,in reckoning up the force which was available for mastering the practical difficulties of the undertaking1 the death1 in #ahdd1 of ,mr4 ,jacob ,samuda must be considered to have been to his brother1 and to all others concerned1 a great and irreparable loss4 #fc ,a considerable amount of engine power was necessarily consumed in exhausting the tube before the passage of the train commenced2 and it might at first sight appear that this work was wasted1 and that it was only the work which the engine performed during the passage of the train which was useful in traction4 ,this1 however1 was not the case2 for1 as was admitted by the more scientific of the opponents of the ,atmospheric ,system1 the power employed in anticipatory pumping was work legitimately stored up and re-delivered in relief of the engines during the passage of the train4 ,a waste of power incidental to the ,atmospheric ,system was indicated by the heat of the air which was delivered by the exhausting pumps4 ,this waste1 however1 amounted on the average to only #aj per cent4 of the total work done4 ,a further source of waste of power was the friction of the air passing along the tube to the exhausting pumps2 this waste was found to amount1 on the average1 to from #aj to #ae per cent4 of the total work done4 #fd ,this was almost the only case in which ,mr4 ,stephenson approved of the application of the ,system4 ,before the ,croydon and ,epsom ,committee1 in answer to the question1 #8,does the ,atmospheric railway give you any power of using practically and usefully steeper inclines than the locomotive railways8' ,mr4 ,stephenson said1 #8,yes1 ,i think it does1 but still at a very inordinate loss of power2 still it is within the scope of the ,atmospheric ,system under particular circumstances4 ,i remember a case where it might be advantageous4 ,mr4 ,brunel went to ,italy for the purpose of laying out a line there1 and from ,genoa over the ,apennines he had to form a line2 it would probably rise #ae or #bj miles at #a in #ajj or #a in #fj or #gj4 ,where there is that continuous line of ascent1 where no stoppages are required1 where the locomotive is totally inapplicable1 there ,i can conceive nothing more eligible than the ,atmospheric plan' 7p4 #hj74 #fe ,the length of the line was #eb miles1 but as it was considered that auxiliary stationary power would in any case be necessary on the #aj miles of very steep inclines1 the cost of the ,atmospheric apparatus is taken on #da miles4 #ff ,it must be remembered that beyond the ,south ,devon ,railway was the projected railway through ,cornwall1 which1 with its long and heavy gradients1 was1 in all its features1 even more suitable than the ,south ,devon for the application of the ,atmospheric ,system4 ,had that system succeeded1 and been introduced on the ,cornwall ,railway1 a very great saving might have been made in the cost of the works of this line4 #fg ,i4e4 before the ,croydon and ,epsom ,committee4 ,see above1 p4 #ach4 #fh ,it will be found on pp4 #ce-eb of the ,minutes of ,evidence taken before the ,atmospheric ,committee 7ordered to be printed ,april #bd1 #ahde74 #fi ,this appeared with sufficient clearness from the general comparison between vacuum1 weight of train1 and speed4 ,the exact appropriation of the force employed was shown by some dynamometric experiments made on the line4 ,the highest speed recorded was #fh miles per hour1 with a train of #bh tons1 the speed averaging #fd miles per hour for four level miles of the line1 the vacuum being #af inches4 ,this speed should have exhibited a resistance of about #ba lbs4 per ton1 or #ehh lbs41 as the running resistance or friction1 and #fde lbs4 for the resistance of the air2 in all #a1bcc lbs4 ,now1 the pressure due to #af inches of vacuum on the piston is #a1cij lbs41 which gives #aeg lbs4 as the friction of the piston2 a result which corresponds sufficiently well with a direct dynamometric experiment4 ,going to the other extreme1 there are numerous records of trains of #ajj tons which attained1 on a level of four miles in length1 average speeds of from #cj to #ce miles per hour1 with #afe inches of vacuum1 one train of #ajc tons going #cbd miles per hour with #afi inches of vacuum4 #gj ,this valve consisted of a number of long delicate blades of spring steel1 arranged parallel to each other1 as in a musical box1 but with wider intervals4 ,these plates rested on a series of truly faced bars1 which crossed the end of the air-passage4 ,the slightest pressure outwards lifted the springs2 and as the area of opening was large1 a very free passage was given to the air4 ,on the current ceasing1 the blades instantly1 yet without shock1 replaced themselves in contact with the bars1 clipping them tightly under a very small reverse pressure1 and effectually closing the passage4 ,their merit consisted in their being almost without weight1 and thus promptly re-closing the aperture by a delicate elastic reaction4 #ga ,trains frequently arrived late on the ,atmospheric portion of the ,south ,devon ,railway1 owing to its being at the end of the long trunk line from ,london to ,exeter1 and having at its other end a locomotive line contending with very heavy gradients4 #gb ,it may be mentioned that1 from the date of the abandonment of the ,atmospheric ,system1 he refused to receive any remuneration for his professional services as engineer beyond a nominal retaining fee4 #gc ,see above1 p4 #ach4 #gd ,these quantities are the result of the experiments made in ,september #ahdg4 ,they agree with what is now the received opinion of authorities on train resistances1 and represent favourably the case for the locomotives at the time of ,mr4 ,brunel's report in ,august #ahdd4 ,at the time when ,mr4 ,brunel wrote his report of ,august #ahdd1 the weight of a locomotive1 as has been said1 bore a higher ratio to its power4 #ge ,it must be borne in mind that all the inconveniences attending the use of auxiliary locomotives must be encountered1 or else the excessive dead weight of an engine powerful enough to take a train up the steepest gradient in a hilly district must accompany it for the whole length of that part of the line4 #gf ,no dynamometer was used in these experiments1 but all other requisite data were recorded with the greatest exactness1 and the horse-power employed may be deduced by means of the scale of resistance which the subsequent dynamomotric trials supply4 ,moreover1 the result above arrived at for the consumption of coke is verified by an examination of published indicator diagrams taken off the same engine on another occasion4 #gg ,it would of course be impossible here to give a description of all ,mr4 ,brunel's bridges1 or even to refer to the most important of them with that minuteness which would be required if this were a book written for professional use4 ,the following publications may be consulted3--,bourne's ,history and ,description of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #ahdf2 ,brees' ,railway ,practice1 #ahcg2 ,simms' ,public ,works of ,great ,britain1 #ahch2 ,proceedings of ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 vols4 #ad1 #be1 and generally2 ,molinos et ,pronnier1 ,construction des ,ponts ,mtalliques1 #aheg2 ,humber's ,cast and ,wrought-,iron ,bridge ,construction1 #ahfa2 and ,humber's ,record of ,engineering for #ahff4 ,at the end of the description of many of the bridges in this chapter a note has been given of publications in which the bridge has been referred to4 #gh ,in the early days of the ,great ,western ,railway special designs were made for every one of the ordinary bridges over and under the railway2 but when1 in consequence of the rapid extension of the ,great ,western system1 the number of bridges to be designed became very large1 ,mr4 ,brunel had a set of #8standard drawings' prepared and engraved1 which embodied the experience gained1 and contained designs suitable for various situations4 ,the contract drawings were made by adapting to the particular circumstances of each case the standard drawing which was most applicable to it4 ,this system1 besides securing uniformity of construction1 introduced a considerable amount of economy2 since1 the standard drawings being based upon the results arrived at in an extensive practice1 the proper structural arrangements and dimensions were indicated with far greater accuracy than could be attained in a reasonable time by an independent calculation in each individual case4 #gi ,it was called the #8,wharncliffe ,viaduct1' in acknowledgment of the services rendered to the ,company by the late ,lord ,wharncliffe as ,chairman of the ,committee in the ,house of ,lords4 ,drawings of this bridge are given in ,simms' ,public ,works of ,great ,britain1 #ahch1 pl4 #ed1 #ee1 and #ef2 and in ,bourne's ,history and ,description of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #ahdf4 #hj ,at the back of retaining walls1 such as the abutments and wing walls of bridges which were subject to the pressure of earth behind them1 ,mr4 ,brunel introduced what were termed #8sailing courses1' projecting shelves corbelled out at the back of the wall4 ,the weight of earth resting on these shelves virtually increased the weight of the back of the wall1 and assisted it in resisting the forward pressure of the earth4 #ha ,during the construction of the bridge a part of the crown of the eastern arch proved defective1 in consequence of the cement in the middle of the brickwork not having set sufficiently at the time when the centering was eased4 ,apprehensions which had been entertained by some as to the safety of the structure were groundless1 for when the defective part was taken out and replaced1 no further trouble was experienced4 ,the bridge has stood well1 and has shown none of those symptoms which an overstrained structure exhibits4 #hb ,simms' ,public ,works of ,great ,britain1 pl4 #eg1 #eh2 ,bourne's ,history and ,description of the ,great ,western ,railway1 p4 #cf4 #hc ,when ,mr4 ,brunel for architectural effect employed ,gothic or pointed arches1 he occasionally made the main part of the arch of a form different from the curve visible on the face1 but he more frequently made it of the same pointed form throughout4 ,in this case he did not obtain equilibrium by loading the crown1 but he kept the line of pressure sufficiently within the thickness of the arch by strengthening the haunches4 #hd ,brees' ,railway ,practice1 pl4 #db4 #he ,there is an illustration of this bridge in ,bourne's ,history and ,description of the ,great ,western ,railway4 #hf ,joggles are small pieces of hard wood or cast-iron of rectangular cross section1 placed between two beams1 and fitted carefully into notches cut across them4 ,the beams are then bolted firmly together4 ,the object is to stop the slipping which would occur between the two surfaces if the beams were merely laid one on the other and loaded1 and so to make two pieces of equal size act as one of double the depth1 and therefore of four times the strength of a single piece4 ,in #ahda ,mr4 ,brunel made experiments to satisfy himself of the strength gained by this method2 and he afterwards perfected the arrangement by ensuring an exact fit in the notches by tightening up the joggles with wrought-iron wedges4 #hg ,a drawing of this bridge is appended to the ,report of the ,commission on the ,application of ,iron to ,railway ,structures1 #ahdi4 #hh ,mr4 ,brunel1 by taking care in his timber structures to distribute the load uniformly1 was frequently able to dispense with costly foundations4 ,on one occasion a timber viaduct #cj feet high was placed upon a broad platform resting on an old embankment upwards of #ej feet in height4 ,a similar arrangement was adopted by him in some cases on slips in embankments which it would have been uncertain and expensive to make up with earthwork4 #hi ,for a description of this viaduct1 see ,proceedings ,inst4 ,c4 ,e41 vol4 xiv4 for #ahed-e1 p4 #dib4 #ij ,mr4 ,brunel about this time introduced a great improvement in the manufacture of wrought-iron bolts for bridges1 when these1 as is usually the case are screwed at the ends4 ,a screw cannot be made on a bolt without the metal being cut into to the extent of the depth of the thread1 and the strength thereby considerably reduced4 ,the section1 taken at the bottom of the thread1 is much smaller than that of the bolt2 and1 moreover1 owing to the abrupt change at the commencement of the thread1 the strength is not so great as that due to the reduced sectional area4 ,the improvement consisted in swelling out the iron of the end of the bolt where the thread was to be made1 so that the diameter1 at the deepest part of the thread1 should be fully equal to that of the bolt4 ,the saving of metal by this improvement1 especially in the case of long bolts1 is very considerable4 #ia ,an arrangement was introduced by ,mr4 ,brunel to prevent any disturbance in the permanent way by a settlement of the embankments at the ends of the viaducts4 ,there were no large abutments and wing walls1 but the end of the viaduct was formed with a queen truss in the parapet1 which rested on a platform on the top of the embankment slope4 ,in any slight settlement of the earth1 the end of the viaduct sunk with it1 and the permanent way was not disturbed4 ,wedges were provided to raise the ends of the trusses and readjust their level4 ,this was an important provision1 as it applied to about #fj cases on the ,cornwall ,railway4 #ib ,the simple arrangement of the timber-work was specially arranged with a view to giving facility for replacing portions of it1 should they decay4 #ic ,the viaducts on the ,cornwall ,railway between ,plymouth and ,truro are thirty-four in number4 ,of these there are nineteen which have from six to twenty openings1 and are from #hj to #aec feet in height4 ,the aggregate length of these nineteen viaducts is nearly #b miles4 #id ,a drawing showing this form of section is appended to the ,report of the ,commission on the ,application of ,iron to ,railway ,structures1 #ahdi4 #ie ,the remainder of this letter is printed in ,chapter ,,xvi4 p4 #dhf4 #if ,mr4 ,brunel was thoroughly conversant with the principles of mathematical analysis1 and was able with great readiness to apply it in practice2 but at the same time he preferred1 when it was possible1 to use geometrical methods of solution for engineering problems4 #ig ,in the note at the end of this chapter mention is made of some experiments made by ,mr4 ,brunel on riveted joints4 #ih ,see above1 p4 #ahe4 #ii ,a description of this bridge is given in ,humber's ,bridge ,construction1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbh1 and vol4 ii4 pl4 #gj1 #ga1 #gb2 ,molinos et ,pronnier1 ,construction des ,ponts ,mtalliques1 p4 #cbh1 pl4 #bj1 #ba1 #bb4 #ajj ,see ,proceedings ,inst4 ,c4,e41 for #ahdg-h1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ach4 #aja ,after some perseverance1 ,mr4 ,brunel succeeded in getting these unusually large links1 which were #bj feet long1 rolled in a single piece without welding on the eyes4 ,he had to go down himself to the manufactory in order to get the men into the way of doing the work4 #ajb ,see note at the end of this chapter for experiments on ropes and chains4 ,the crabs were designed and made specially for this duty4 ,each had two barrels1 grooved to receive the chain1 which was passed several times round both barrels1 so as to get sufficient grip2 and it was in this way possible to wind in with the crabs any length of chain without having to stop to fleet1 as would have been the case had a single-barrelled crab been used4 ,these crabs were subsequently used at the floating of the ,saltash trusses1 and at the launch of the #8,great ,eastern4' ,a similar arrangement was applied in the paying-out machinery of the ,atlantic cable1 and is still used for the picking-up gear in the #8,great ,eastern4' #ajc ,see ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #8,iron ,bridges1' vol4 xii4 p4 #fja2 ,molinos et ,pronnier1 ,construction des ,ponts ,mtalliques1 p4 #cbj1 pl4 #bc1 #bd1 #be4 #ajd ,these would have been magnificent specimens of timber-work1 and a design for somewhat similar trusses had at one time been prepared for the ,chepstow ,bridge4 ,it is worthy of mention that ,sir ,isambard ,brunel at one time designed a timber arched bridge of #hjj feet span to cross the ,neva at ,st4 ,petersburg4 #aje ,before the work was begun ,mr4 ,brunel made calculations to determine whether or not it might be desirable to cross the river with one span of #hej feet1 in order to avoid the great depth at the centre pier4 ,a few extracts from letters relating to bridges of large span will be interesting3 #8,january #ca1 #aheb4 #8,i have revised my calculation as to a span of #a1jjj feet1 and find that even with the loads and limitations of strains which ,i adopt--namely a proper thickness of ballast1 and a possible load of a train of engines without tenders1 and a limitation under such a load of #e tons' strain per square inch1 that a span of #a1jjj feet may be made in ,england of the very best workmanship1 and sent out and erected for ,i should say safely #bej1jjjl41 of course a single way--another #bej1jjjl4 ought1 ,i should think1 to cover the rest of the bridge4 ,i should like to explain to you the mode ,i should propose for raising such a bridge1 weighing #g1jjj tons4 #8,december #a1 #aheb4 ,as you ask me my opinion of the advisability of patenting your bridge1 ,i give it you2 though you will probably be the first person who will have followed such advice if you do so1 and might safely patent such a novel mode of using advice4 ,in my opinion you cannot patent the bridge4 ,without detracting in the least from your merit of invention1 the form has been so frequently and exactly applied that no patent could hold4 ,the ,saltash bridge now just advertised for letting is exactly on the same principle as regards form2 and this is so old to my knowledge that ,i can claim no invention1 and the use of cast iron for such purpose is also incapable of being patented4 ,there is much that is good in your bridge1 and you deserve credit1 but you would find innumerable claimants to dispute1 and successfully1 your attempt to claim a monopoly by a patent--,i myself for one4 ,besides1 ,i see it published in a book4 #8,may #cj1 #ahed4 #8,as to your present enquiry1 ,i do not think that what ,i am doing at ,saltash would be applicable in this case2 but without being guilty of great presumption1 ,i think ,i may say that if the same plan will not do1 it is fair to assume that the same brains which concocted the plan to suit the difficulties of the ,tamar might very likely find the means of overcoming those of the ,severn4 ,if ,i should be able to suggest a feasible plan1 and there should be found people ready to make it1 ,i shall have the satisfaction of bridging the ,severn as well as the ,tamar4' #ajf ,it has of course been impossible to refer to the points on which ,mr4 ,brunel was aided1 in his different works1 by the suggestions of his assistants2 but it may be mentioned here that1 as appears from one of ,mr4 ,brunel's letters1 the plan of working under a diving-bell had been proposed by ,mr4 ,william ,glennie1 his assistant1 before he knew that ,mr4 ,brunel had decided to adopt it4 ,mr4 ,brunel also mentions in another letter that the #8very simple and effectual manner' of applying the pneumatic apparatus1 by forming the annular space round the circumference of the bottom of the cylinder1 was suggested to him by ,mr4 ,brereton1 when the method of constructing the cylinder was being finally settled4 #ajg ,in the ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 vol4 xxi4 #ahfa-b1 will be found a paper by ,mr4 ,brereton1 giving a detailed description of the means employed for the construction of the central pier4 #ajh ,shortly after ,mr4 ,brunel's death some of his friends on the ,board of the ,cornwall ,railway placed the following inscription1 in raised letters1 over the lard archways--,i4 ,k4 ,,brunel1 ,,engineer1 #ahei4 #aji ,a portion of the chains used were those which had been made for the ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge1 ,mr4 ,brunel's earliest design4 #aaj ,though it is convenient to explain the nature of the strains in the ,saltash bridge as an arch and suspension bridge combined1 it is not intended to imply that there is any virtual difference between this truss and the one at ,chepstow1 for in both the strain on the tube counteracts the strain on the chains1 though the one tube is curved and the other straight4 #aaa ,humber's ,bridge ,construction1 vol4 i4 p4 #bca2 vol4 ii4 pl4 #gh1 #gi1 #hj4 #aab ,this load amounted to two and three quarter tons per foot run1 in addition to the weight of the truss4 ,under this load the central deflection was about #e inches4 ,the strain on the iron of the tube and of the chains with a load of one ton per foot run1 in addition to the weight of the truss1 flooring1 and ballast1 is under four tons per square inch4 #aac ,the difficult operations of floating and lifting the superstructures of the ,chepstow and ,saltash bridges were carried out entirely by ,mr4 ,brunel and his assistants1 there being no contractor engaged in1 or responsible for1 the work in either case4 #aad ,a photograph taken shortly after the floating of the second tube forms the frontispiece of the first volume of ,humber's ,bridge ,construction4 #aae ,see above pp4 #aij and #aic4 #aaf ,it has been observed with much truth that full justice has not been done to ,mr4 ,brunel's exertions in this department of practical science4--,see #8,address of ,george ,parker ,bidder1 ,esq41 on his election as ,president of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,january #aj1 #ahfj4' #aag ,captain ,claxton died on ,march #bg1 #ahfh1 in his #gith year4 ,the manuscript of this and the three following chapters was fortunately completed in time to be submitted to him4 ,he spared no trouble either in giving or procuring original documents and other materials for all parts of this book1 in the preparation of which he took the liveliest interest4 #aah ,to enable the ship to resist the action of the heavy ,atlantic waves1 especial pains were taken to give her great longitudinal strength4 ,the ribs were of oak1 of scantling equal to that of line-of-battle ships4 ,they were placed close together1 and caulked within and without before the planking was put on4 ,they were dowelled and bolted in pairs2 and there were also four rows of #a-;inch iron bolts1 #bd feet long1 and scarfing about #d feet1 which ran longitudinally through the whole length of the bottom frames of the ship4 ,she was closely trussed with iron and wooden diagonals and shelf pieces1 which1 with the whole of her upper works1 were fastened with bolts and nuts to a much greater extent than had hitherto been the practice4 ,the principal dimensions of the hull and engines are given in the note to this chapter 7p4 #bde74 #aai ,the engines as designed by ,messrs4 ,maudslay were beam engines1 although ,mr4 ,brunel had strongly urged them to adopt the more compact form of direct-acting engines4 ,they1 however1 thought it better not to depart from what was then the usual form4 #abj ,steam and its ,uses1 by ,dr4 ,lardner1 #ahef4 ,chapter on #8,steam ,navigation1' section #aj4 #aba #8,an exposition of the advantages of the proposed ,railway from ,limerick to ,waterford4' #abb ,the ,steam ,engine3 its ,application to ,navigation and ,railways1 with ,plain ,maxims for ,railway ,speculators1 #eth edition1 #ahcf1 p4 #cjg4 #abc ,it is right to add that1 according to the report given in the ,athenum newspaper of the meetings of the ,british ,association at ,liverpool in ,september #ahcg1 #8,dr4 ,lardner addressed the section 7,mechanical7 on his old subject1 the application of steam to long voyages4 ,his remarks and calculations were to a great extent identical with those brought forward by him last year at ,bristol1 and published long since in his work on the steam-engine1 but the conclusions were somewhat varied4 ,the ,doctor did not now deny that the voyage might be practicable1 but he did not believe that it would be profitable' 7,athenum1 ,september #bc1 #ahcg74 ,dr4 ,lardner was answered by several speakers1 and among them by ,mr4 ,guppy1 who pointed out in much detail the unreliable character of ,dr4 ,lardner's data2 while nothing was suggested about commercial profits or subsidies4 ,it may therefore be inferred that ,dr4 ,lardner's arguments as to the consumption of fuel remained the same1 although he may have abandoned the conclusion which legitimately followed from them--namely1 that the long voyages were practically impossible4 ,the ,report in the ,bristol ,mirror newspaper of the same date 7copied from the ,liverpool ,standard7 is as follows3--#8,dr4 ,lardner's speech was little beyond a repetition of his discourse last year in ,bristol1 re-published by him in the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,the voyage to ,america by steam he treated as practicable1 but so uncertain as to render a profitable result hopeless4444 ,during nearly all the year there was an adverse west wind1 and the ,gulf ,stream was to be avoided4' #abd ,she had only seven passengers on board2 fifty1 it is stated1 were deterred from going in her by hearing of the fire4 #abe ,these engines were to have had two cylinders of #hh inches diameter4 #abf ,it is interesting1 in connection with this subject1 to mention the following circumstance4 ,at ,mr4 ,brunel's recommendation1 ,mr4 ,humphrys consulted ,mr4 ,james ,nasmyth as to the best means of forging the large paddle-shaft2 as they could not get any manufacturer to undertake it4 ,to accomplish this forging ,mr4 ,nasmyth designed his steam-hammer1 and though it was not then erected in ,bristol1 in consequence of the alteration of the form of the engines of the #8,great ,britain1' it soon afterwards came into general use4 #abg ,in the ,minute ,book of this date it is mentioned as a reason for postponing any decision on the subject1 that ,mr4 ,brunel was making #8final1' and afterwards #8further1' experiments4 #abh ,see ,mr4 ,guppy's paper1 printed in the ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers for #ahde1 p4 #aea4 #abi ,this report is printed in ,appendix ,,ii4 p4 #eci4 ,the paragraphs in which ,mr4 ,brunel describes the advantages of the screw propeller will be found at page #eeb4 #acj ,a description of ,mr4 ,humphrys' trunk engines is given in ,tredgold's work on the steam engine 7ed4 #ahch71 p4 #cij4 #aca ,the balanced rudder1 which is peculiarly applicable to screw ships1 has encountered much opposition2 but it has lately been successfully introduced by ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,reed1 ,c4,b41 into vessels designed by him for the ,royal ,navy4 #acb ,it maybe convenient here to state that the dock in which the #8,great ,britain' was built led into the ,floating ,harbour1 which is a portion of the channel of the river ,avon closed in4 ,the ,floating ,harbour communicates through the ,cumberland ,basin with the river4 #acc ,one of the consequences of the publication of this report was1 that ,mr4 ,brunel received so many letters containing suggestions for lifting and floating the ship1 that he was obliged to have a circular letter printed declining assistance2 and more than four hundred letters were also received by the ,company's secretary4 #acd #8,the 8,great ,britain0 ,steam-,ship4 ,extracts from the letters of ,captain ,claxton1 ,r4,n41 to ,i4 ,k4 ,brunel1 ,esq41 and the ,directors4 ,bristol1 #ahdg4' ,mr4 ,bremner's apparatus is also described in a paper read by him at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 and printed in the twenty-first volume of the ,transactions1 p4 #afj4 ,accurate illustrations of the break-water and floating apparatus will be found in the ,illustrated ,london ,news of ,august #ba1 #ahdg4 ,in publishing the correspondence to which reference has been made1 the ,directors acknowledge their obligations to all concerned in the arduous task of saving the #8,great ,britain2' and they add--#8to ,mr4 ,brunel above all their thanks are most due1 for opening their eyes to what might be accomplished1 and for taking upon himself the responsibility of her release1 provided that ,captain ,claxton was employed to carry out his views4' #ace ,sir ,e4 ,parry was at that time ,controller of ,steam ,machinery1 and a warm supporter of those who desired to make a fair trial of the screw propeller4 #acf ,bourne1 on the ,screw ,propeller1 ed4 #ahfg1 p4 #bfc4 #acg ,the records of these trials1 found among ,mr4 ,brunel's papers1 show results which coincide in all material points with those given by ,mr4 ,bourne at p4 #bhd of his work on the ,screw ,propeller1 ed4 #ahfg4 #ach ,bourne1 ,appendix1 p4 xxxiii4 #aci ,the letter to ,mr4 ,guppy of ,august #ahdc 7given above1 p4 #bei7 contains a reference to some of ,mr4 ,brunel's ideas upon iron shipbuilding1 subsequent to the date of the design of the #8,great ,britain4' #adj ,extract from a memorandum by ,mr4 ,brunel 7dated ,february #be1 #ahed7 on the early history of the great ship4 #ada ,so ,mr4 ,brunel wrote to the secretary when excusing his own absence from the meeting on account of illness4 #adb ,mr4 ,brunel concludes this report by indicating the best mode of contracting for the construction of the ship and engines1 and suggests that an examination should be made of the river ,hooghly4 #adc ,from the great length of this report it has been necessary to omit the less important paragraphs4 #add ,the passages which are omitted refer to the relative cost and merits of the different tenders4 #ade ,two years later ,mr4 ,brunel spoke of the success of the screw engines as #8a most grave question upon which hangs ,i fear to think how much4' #adf ,mr4 ,geach was one of the most zealous friends of the great ship4 ,his death1 within a year after the commencement of the work1 was the first of her many misfortunes4 #adg ,stringent conditions as to jacketing were introduced into the contracts2 but they were not enforced by ,mr4 ,brunel1 in deference to the strong objections urged by the makers4 ,he much regretted this concession4 #adh ,the destination of the ship as proposed at this time was ,australia4 #adi ,the power of blowing off the steam without noise is of great importance1 and ,mr4 ,brunel made many experiments on the point4 ,the noise of the steam blowing off1 when the engines of a ship are stopped for fear of an impending collision or other accident1 is so great1 that it is almost impossible to hear any orders that may be given4 #aej ,the screw propeller of #8,agamemnon' was broken in a trial trip outside ,plymouth ,sound1 on ,november #i1 #ahec2 and the result was that1 from not having efficient governors1 the engines flew round at an alarming speed4 #aea ,mr4 ,russell's works4 ,the ship was built in a yard immediately adjoining them4 #aeb ,see1 for example1 an article in the ,quarterly ,review of ,march #ahef1 entitled #8,the ,triton and the ,minnows4' #aec ,it must be remembered that this report describes the ship as she was at that time designed by ,mr4 ,brunel4 #aed ,extract from memoranda of ,october #e1 #ahee3-- #8,by constant observation1 to lay down position and course of ship1 and correct compasses4 #8,to record speed of ship through water by logs4 #8,revolution of engines4 #8,force and direction of wind4 #8,draught and trim of ship1 sails carried1 c4 #8,temperature and peculiarities of sea water4 #8,as the result of these observations1 to plot down hour by hour the position of the ship1 to compute the speed1 variations of compass1 the direction and force of current1 and true direction and force of the wind4' #aee ,mr4 ,brunel also proposed to have charts prepared for the route of the great ship to ,australia and ,calcutta1 similar in character to some which were made under his directions for the route of the #8,great ,western' to ,new ,york1 which he described as follows3-- #8,when we started the 8,great ,western0 to ,new ,york1 ,i had a chart drawn and engraved of the sea 7that is1 the lines of latitude and longitude1 and the bearings of the compass1 and the coast and soundings7 on a cylindrical projection of a great circle from ,bristol to ,new ,york2 and we found it very useful for the captain to see his great circle sailing1 and to see how much he was deviating from it4' #aef ,captain ,harrison's command of the #8,great ,eastern' after she left the river was unhappily of but short duration1 as he was drowned by the accidental upsetting of his boat in ,southampton ,water on ,january #ba1 #ahfj1 four months after ,mr4 ,brunel's death4 #aeg ,with this paper ,mr4 ,brunel enclosed a letter1 in which he points out with great earnestness the responsibility of his own position4 ,after calling the ,directors' attention to the important step they were about to take1 he proceeds3-- #8,i am not pointing out a danger without being prepared to propose a remedy4 ,the same man who1 after he has been selected and appointed on account of his previous character as a sailor1 and as an experienced naval man1 would probably feel disposed to reject advice coming from those who do not profess to be sailors1 and to resist directions which might appear to him as trenching upon his authority1 or as implying doubts of his ability1 could have no such feeling 7if he is a sensible man and fit for the position7 if his attention had been drawn to these views before his appointment1 and if he accepts the trust reposed in him on the understanding that he is expected to pay attention to these opinions1 and if1 as ,i shall urge upon the ,directors to ascertain1 he entertains no objection to the adoption of them1 and agrees to follow the principles of action which ,i hope to induce the ,directors to adopt as rules in the navigation of the ship4 #8,i propose therefore to lay before the ,directors the result of my anxious consideration of this subject1 to urge upon them the adoption of my views1 and1 if they adopt them1 to urge that they should make it a condition in the selection and appointment of a commander that such views are approved of and adopted by him4 #8,this is a strong and plainly stated request1 but not more strongly put than ,i feel that the occasion requires4 #8,i have an immense stake in the success of this enterprise4 ,i do not refer merely to my pecuniary investment2 but1 as affecting my professional reputation1 my stake is much deeper2 as1 although ,i was accidentally led by circumstances into proposing the plan we have adopted1 and the ,company was not originally formed to carry it out1 and although the plan when proposed was well weighed and considered by men competent to judge1 at all events1 upon the prospects as a commercial speculation1 and although it was adopted by them1 and therefore they must share in the responsibility1 and although many may share with me in the credit of our success2 yet there is no doubt that ,i should have to bear solely and very heavily the blame of a failure4 ,on this ground alone1 therefore1 the ,directors1 ,i am sure1 will willingly allow me to urge my views strongly1 and will excuse the length at which ,i do so4 ,but ,i shall rely upon satisfying them that my views and opinion should command their concurrence on their own merits2 and with this preface1 which has already reached an undue length1 ,i will lay before them a paper on the subject1 most of which has been written for some time in anticipation of the present circumstances1 and having been thus written at different periods is1 ,i fear1 somewhat disjointed1 and wanting in arrangement1 and therefore much longer than it might have been4' #aeh ,shortly after the publication of this report1 ,mr4 ,brunel received a letter from ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,bull1 of ,buffalo1 ,u4,s4,a41 encouraging him to adopt the plan of launching sideways1 as that was the way in which the large steamboats of the ,american lakes were launched4 ,in the course of a correspondence which ensued1 ,mr4 ,bull gave much information as to the manner in which these launches were effected4 ,he advocated a free launch for the #8,great ,eastern4' #aei ,for an account of this and other experiments and observations on friction1 see note ,a at the end of this chapter4 #afj ,the power mentioned here as applied for starting the ship was two hydraulic presses1 to overcome adhesion at the first start4 ,the river tackle was relied on to overcome the friction4 #afa ,see below1 note ,a1 p4 #chi4 #afb ,the reason for stopping was lest the ship should float at high water during the night4 #afc ,it remained a doubtful point whether or not the bow cradle was stopped by the brakes4 ,subsequent experience favoured the opinion that it had stopped of itself4 #afd ,the ship had always been spoken of as the #8,great ,eastern1' and this name was specially agreeable to ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,it was not a point on which he set much store1 but his views were pretty well known2 and1 as the name had not been of his choosing1 but had rather grown out of the name of the ,company1 and the natural association of ideas with his first ship1 the #8,great ,western1' it might reasonably have been supposed that it would have been adopted4 ,but some fastidious person suggested that the name was objectionable1 as consisting of two adjectives4 ,a list of names was prepared and submitted to ,mr4 ,brunel on the day of the launch at the moment when he was busiest4 ,he said off-hand that they might call it #8,tom ,thumb' if they liked4 ,the ,directors1 however1 selected the name #8,leviathan1' and so the ship was christened4 ,the new name never stuck to the ship1 and she was registered as the #8,great ,eastern4' #afe ,the action of an hydraulic press is limited to the length of stroke of the ram4 ,hence1 as soon as the ship moved a distance equal to the length of the stroke1 it became necessary to relieve the water pressure in the cylinder1 to pull back the ram into it1 and to insert between the ram of the press and the cradle an additional length of timber4 ,this operation of pulling back the ram and putting in another length of timber was called #8fleeting' the press1 a term used in many mechanical operations when the motive arrangements are reinstated in their primary position ready for a further advance in the work4 #aff ,on this occasion ,mr4 ,brunel had his way1 and there were not a dozen spectators in the yard4 #afg ,see note ,a at the end of the chapter4 #afh ,at this time the friction when the ship was in motion was not much greater than it had been on previous occasions2 but1 the adhesion being greatly increased1 a large excess of power became stored up in the elasticity of the abutments and the chains4 ,this excess of power1 on the ship commencing to move1 discharged itself in giving her velocity1 and therefore she moved by short slips1 instead of by a gradual motion1 as had been the case previously1 when the resistance due to friction and that due to adhesion had been more nearly equal4 ,for observations on the friction1 see note ,a at the end of the chapter4 #afi ,mr4 ,stephenson went with ,mr4 ,brunel into all the facts relative to the operations and all the experience gained therefrom1 and examined carefully the investigations which had been made by means of self-recording apparatus1 and which showed that the friction diminished as the velocity increased4 ,so struck was ,mr4 ,stephenson at these results that he urged ,mr4 ,brunel on no account to neglect having the brakes properly attended to2 lest the great adhesion should cause a large amount of stored-up power1 which might give the ship such a velocity that the force of gravity might exceed that of the friction4 ,the brakes had not been hitherto neglected2 but1 in conformity with ,mr4 ,stephenson's suggestion1 it was thenceforward made a rule that1 when a moderate amount of slack had been overhauled from the drums1 the brakes should be put down1 on a signal being given that the pressure in the presses was rising4 #agj ,mr4 ,brunel received a great many suggestions for launching the ship4 ,puncheons1 gas1 artillery1 and especially levers1 were among the appliances recommended4 ,with the desire of behaving civilly to well-meaning persons who were wishing to do him a service1 ,mr4 ,brunel adopted a plan similar to that which he had found useful when the #8,great ,britain' was on shore4 ,he had a circular letter printed1 thanking his correspondents for their suggestions1 but saying that the number of such communications had become so great that it was impossible for him to do more than cause the receipt to be acknowledged1 with thanks for the intentions of the parties writing4 ,this plan had1 however1 the effect of increasing the number of his correspondents1 as several of them wrote a second time to express their regret that their letters had had no better effect than to be classed with the numerous communications which ,mr4 ,brunel said he had received on the same subject1 which had seemed unworthy of his notice2 and they explained that though other people's schemes were1 no doubt1 worthless1 still that their own1 if adopted1 would launch the ship4 #aga ,the number of the presses being almost doubled1 but the resistance of the ship not being much greater than before1 the elastic compression of the abutments was less than it had been previously1 so that when the ship moved there was much less work stored up to give it velocity2 therefore the slides were shorter than they had been before4 #agb ,among the many congratulations which ,mr4 ,brunel received on the completion of the launch1 there was perhaps none which pleased him more than the following letter from ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 who had been prevented by illness from being present at the concluding operations1 the critical character of which he had fully appreciated3-- ,february #a1 #aheh4 ,,my ,,dear ,,brunel1--,i slept last night like a top1 after ,i received your message4 ,i got desperately anxious all day1 but my doctor would not permit me to venture so far away as ,millwall4 ,i do1 my good friend1 most sincerely congratulate you on the arrival of the conclusion of your anxiety4 ,yours sincerely1 ,,robert ,,stephenson4 ,a letter from ,mr4 ,brunel to his friend ,mr4 ,froude1 describing the floating1 is given in note ,b to this chapter4 #agc ,the principal dimensions of the ship and engines are given in the note to this chapter1 p4 #daf4 #agd ,during the last-mentioned voyage1 returning from ,quebec1 a north-easterly wind blew with a velocity of from #cj to #dj miles an hour4 ,for the first #bd hours the ship paid no attention to the sea2 the next day1 the wind remaining the same1 but the sea having got more swell on1 the ship began to roll slowly and sedately1 the rolls gradually increasing up to about #i degrees on either side of the perpendicular1 and dying out again1 and then recommencing4 #age ,between the screw and the rudder was what was termed the after stern-post1 which had no duty to perform except to steady the heel of the ship1 into which the rudder was stepped4 #agf ,before the ship was finished1 ,mr4 ,brunel had her stability and rolling carefully investigated4 ,calculations were made to ascertain the position of her centre of gravity and the other necessary elements for determining her stability and period of rolling4 ,he also had a model made1 with arrangements for altering the levels of weights placed inside4 ,by this means the results of the calculations were verified4 ,it was determined that the ship would make a single roll from one side to the other in about six seconds4 ,while she was in the ,thames a steamer struck the hulk alongside and gave the great ship a slight impulse4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 who was on board1 took advantage of the opportunity to observe the period of the roll she made1 and was pleased at finding it agree with the calculated period4 ,it is to the investigations initiated at that time by ,mr4 ,brunel that are due the great steps since made in the knowledge of the laws which govern the rolling of ships4 ,had ,mr4 ,brunel lived he would no doubt have taken the same pains to record the rolling of the #8,great ,eastern' as he had in the case of the #8,great ,western' when1 in #ahci1 he sent an assistant to ,america and back1 who took observations of the rolling and pitching of that vessel in several voyages4 ,these observations were made by a simple angle-measuring instrument1 adjusted by the visible level line of the horizon1 and not by the fallacious method of noting down the swings of a pendulum4 ,the #8,great ,eastern' remains almost perfectly steady in ordinary rough seas4 ,when the seas become very long1 so that their period is nearly the same as that of the ship1 she rolls2 though the number of degrees on either side of the perpendicular is not large4 ,by stowing the weights of cargo high in the ship1 the tendency to roll has been much diminished1 and when engaged in cable laying1 with the enormous weights in the cable tanks all placed above the lower deck1 she is remarkably steady4 #agg ,history of the ,atlantic ,telegraph3 ,new ,york1 #ahff4 #agh ,it may be desirable to give a short explanation of these works1 which consisted principally of a sluice1 a trunk1 and a drag-boat4 ,the ,sluice was made in the abutment of ,prince's ,street ,bridge1 and was intended to create a scour after the water had been let off from either side of the float1 the opening at the bridge being closed by a caisson which had long been in use when 7as was formerly the case7 the upper part of the float was scoured through ,bathurst ,basin4 ,the ,trunk1 near the entrance from ,cumberland ,basin1 is a wooden culvert between the floating harbour and the river4 ,as much of the mud as could be dragged there was deposited at the entrance of the trunk1 and1 when the tide was low in the new channel of the ,avon1 sluices were opened1 and the water rushed through from the floating harbour1 carrying the mud with it4 ,the ,drag-,boat was fitted with a steam-engine which worked a large windlass with three compartments1 round two of which chains were passed and fixed to posts on the quays1 and the boat was dragged backwards and forwards4 ,the third compartment of the windlass worked a chain which elevated or depressed a scraper1 attached to a long pole at the stern1 and secured from swerving by a chain-bridle which passed under the boat4 ,the scraper stirred up the mud1 and deposited the more solid parts at the entrance of the trunk4 ,mr4 ,brunel also desired that the float boards of the ,neetham ,dam should be put into proper working order2 and that they should be altered so that1 in times of land floods1 the whole or a considerable portion of the excess of water should be retained1 and passed through the feeder2 and that even the water of spring tides should be allowed to pass the dam1 and then be stopped back for the same purpose4 #agi ,the advantage of forming an air-chamber in the lower part of the gate1 and allowing the water to enter above it1 is that when the size of the air-chamber is properly adjusted to the weight of the gate1 there need not come on the wheels1 while moving1 more than a trifling amount of weight4 #ahj ,the arrangements of a buoyant gate have been explained above1 p4 #dbi4 #aha ,in the year #ahef and afterwards1 ,mr4 ,brunel was engaged in improving the navigable channel of the river ,neath1 at its embouchure into the ,bristol ,channel4 ,a bank of furnace slag1 for directing the course of the river1 had been made previously by ,mr4 ,palmer1 and continued as far seawards as it was then thought could be done with safety4 ,mr4 ,brunel carried a training bank still farther1 and succeeded in cutting off a bend of the river2 ,mr4 ,brereton has since extended the navigable channel in a straight line to low-water mark1 a distance of two miles2 and the bar has been lowered to within #a foot of the level of the dock sill4 #ahb ,reports on the ,paris ,universal ,exhibition #ahfg vol4 i41 p4 xxiv4 #aid #ahc ,when1 at the close of the ,exhibition1 ,mr4 ,brunel was compelled1 much against his will1 to accept a pecuniary acknowledgment of his services1 he spent the money in the erection of model cottages at ,barton1 a village near his property in ,devonshire4 #ahd ,see ,report of the ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,commons on ,ordnance1 #ahfc1 ,minutes of ,evidence and ,appendix 7ordered to be printed ,july #bc1 #ahfc73--p4 #cjf1 ,report of ,ordnance ,select ,committee2 p4 #dd1 ,statement of ,mr4 ,whitworth2 p4 #ef1 ,evidence of ,mr4 ,whitworth 7,q4 #acbi-accg72 pp4 #eh1 #ei1 the same 7,q4 #ache-adaj72 pp4 #djb1 #djc1 ,papers delivered in by ,mr4 ,isambard ,brunel2 p4 #aaj1 ,further ,evidence of ,mr4 ,whitworth 7,q4 #bede-beea72 p4 #aab1 the same 7,q4 #bfjb-bfaj72 p4 #edh1 ,letter from ,mr4 ,westley ,richards to ,mr4 ,isambard ,brunel4 #ahe ,captain ,claxton1 at ,mr4 ,brunel's desire1 went for a voyage in ,messrs4 ,ruthven's vessel1 the #8,enterprise1' in order to test her performances4 #ahf ,this appears to be the only instance in which ,mr4 ,brunel printed an account of any of his works4 #ahg ,on this application of tin for the covering of the roof1 ,dr4 ,parkes observes 7,manual of ,practical ,hygiene1 ,london1 #ahfi1 p4 #cag73--#8;,in the ,crimean ,war the roofs of ,renkioi ,hospital1 on the ,dardanelles1 were covered with polished tin2 it was found1 however1 somewhat difficult to place it so as to exclude rain1 and the surface soon became tarnished4 ,the thermometric experiments did not show a greater lessening of heat than #c ,fahr4 below houses not tin-coated4' #ahh #8,at ,renkioi1 in ,turkey1 ,mr4 ,brunel supplied square wooden sewers about #ae inches to the side2 they were tarred inside1 and acted most admirably without leakage for fifteen months1 till the end of the war4 ,the water-closets 7,jennings's simple syphon71 arranged with a small water-box below the cistern1 to economise water1 never got out of order1 and in fact the drainage of the hospital was literally perfect4 ,i have little doubt such well-tarred wooden sewers would last two or three years' 7,parkes's ,manual of ,practical ,hygiene1 p4 #fce74 #ahi ,the woodcut1 fig4 #bb1 is a reduction of part of this drawing4 #aij ,the case of ,ranger v4 the ,great ,western ,railway ,company4 #aia ,see above1 p4 #aib4 #aib ,the remainder of this letter is printed above1 p4 #aib4 #aic ,although ,mr4 ,brunel endeavoured1 as far as possible1 to lay aside work during his visits to ,watcombe1 he found occasions for the use of his mechanical knowledge4 ,he prepared tools for transplanting young trees2 he did not1 however1 succeed in making them flourish as well as before they were transplanted1 though he attended to the work himself1 and took care that a large amount of earth was moved with the tree4 ,the bridge of rough poles across the turnpike road between ,teignmouth and ,torquay is as good of its kind as his larger works4 #aid ,on ,june #aj1 #ahcj1 when he was twenty-four years old1 ,mr4 ,brunel was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,he subsequently became a member of most of the other scientific societies2 but he rarely attended any meetings1 except those of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 #aie ,at the beginning of #aheh1 on the expiration of ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson's term of office as ,president of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,mr4 ,brunel came next in rotation for election2 but his failing health1 and the pressure of his professional duties1 led him to request that he might not then be put in nomination4--- ,see ,inaugural ,address of ,john ,fowler1 ,esq41 ,january #i1 #ahff4 #aif ,a drawing of their ,nile boat1 the #8,florence1' which he made for his daughter1 exhibits the same beautiful minuteness which appears in all his early sketches for the ,clifton bridge and ,great ,western ,railway4 #aig ,mr4 ,brunel's ,nile boat1 being of iron1 could not safely go up the ,cataracts4 #aih ,a few weeks after ,mr4 ,brunel's death1 a meeting of his friends was held1 when it was determined to raise some memorial to him4 ,a statue was made by the late ,baron ,marochetti1 and a site for it promised by the ,first ,commissioner of ,works2 but it has not yet been erected4 ,mr4 ,brunel's family1 by the permission of the ,dean of ,westminster1 have placed a memorial window in the north aisle of the nave of ,westminster ,abbey4 ,along the bottom of the window 7which consists of two lights1 each #bc feet #f inches high and #d feet wide1 surmounted by a quatrefoil opening1 #f feet #f inches across7 is the ,inscription1 #8,,in ,,memory ,,of ,,isambard ,,kingdom ,,brunel1 ,,civil ,,engineer4 ,,born ,,april #i1 #ahjf4 ,,departed ,,this ,,life1 ,,september #ae1 #ahei4' ,over this are four allegorical figures 7two in each light73 ,fortitude1 ,justice1 ,faith1 and ,charity4 ,the upper part of the window consists of six panels1 divided by a pattern work of lilies and pomegranates4 ,the panels contain subjects from the history of the ,temple4 ,the three subjects in the western light represent scenes from the ,old ,testament--viz4 the ,dedication of the ,temple by ,solomon1 the ,finding of the ,book of the ,law by ,hilkiah1 and the ,laying the ,foundations of the ,second ,temple4 ,the subjects in the eastern light are from the ,new ,testament--viz4 ,simeon ,blessing the ,infant ,saviour1 ,christ ,disputing with the ,doctors1 and ,the ,disciples pointing out to ,christ the ,buildings of the ,temple4 ,in the heads of each light are angels kneeling1 and in the quatrefoil is a representation of ,our ,lord in ,glory1 surrounded by angels4 ,the work was placed in the hands of ,mr4 ,r4 ,norman ,shaw1 architect1 who prepared the general design1 arranged the scale of the various figures1 and designed the ornamental pattern work4 ,the figure subjects were drawn by ,mr4 ,henry ,holiday1 and the whole design was executed in glass by ,messrs4 ,heaton1 ,butler1 ,bayne4 #aii ,mr4 ,locke here spoke in feeling language of ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson4 #bjj ,there appears1 from the table1 to be an immense extent of paddle-board to this vessel1 if the table be correct--greater than the midship section4 #bja ,in a ,report by ,mr4 ,brunel on improvements in the port of ,bristol1 dated ,december #bf1 #ahci1 the following passage occurs3 #8,a great change is unquestionably about to take place in the carriage of merchandise by sea1 a change similar1 though possibly not so striking1 as that which has so suddenly been effected by railways in land carriage4 ,to ensure the speed which the passenger traffic demands1 great size in the vessels is required2 in the course of a very few years we shall find ,atlantic steamers desirous of taking #ejj or #fjj tons of cargo to make up their draught4'