,the ,golden ,bough ,a ,study in ,comparative ,religion ,by ,james ,george ,frazer1 ,m4,a4 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,new ,york and ,london ,mac,millan and ,co4 #ahid ,,contents ,dedication4 ,preface4 ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,king ,of ,the ,wood4 #a4--,the ,arician ,grove4 #b4--,primitive man and the supernatural4 #c4--;,incarnate gods4 #d4--,tree-worship4 #e4--,tree-worship in antiquity4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,perils ,of ,the ,soul4 #a4--,royal and priestly taboos4 #b4--,the nature of the soul4 #c4--,royal and priestly taboos 7continued74 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,killing ,the ,god4 #a4--,killing the divine king4 #b4--,killing the tree-spirit4 #c4--;,carrying out ,death4 #d4--;,adonis4 #e4--;,attis4 #f4--,osiris4 #g4--;,dionysus4 #h4--;,demeter and ,proserpine4 #i4--,lityerses4 ,footnotes ,cover ,art ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the above cover image was produced by the submitter at ,distributed ,proofreaders1 and is being placed into the public domain4 ,frontispiece ,,dedication4 ,to ,my ,friend ,,william ,,robertson ,,smith ,in ,gratitude ,and ,admiration ,,preface4 ,for some time ,i have been preparing a general work on primitive superstition and religion4 ,among the problems which had attracted my attention was the hitherto unexplained rule of the ,arician priesthood2 and last spring it happened that in the course of my reading ,i came across some facts which1 combined with others ,i had noted before1 suggested an explanation of the rule in question4 ,as the explanation1 if correct1 promised to throw light on some obscure features of primitive religion1 ,i resolved to develop it fully1 and1 detaching it from my general work1 to issue it as a separate study4 ,this book is the result4 ,now that the theory1 which necessarily presented itself to me at first in outline1 has been worked out in detail1 ,i cannot but feel that in some places ,i may have pushed it too far4 ,if this should prove to have been the case1 ,i will readily acknowledge and retract my error as soon as it is brought home to me4 ,meantime my essay may serve its purpose as a first attempt to solve a difficult problem1 and to bring a variety of scattered facts into some sort of order and system4 ,a justification is perhaps needed of the length at which ,i have dwelt upon the popular festivals observed by ,european peasants in spring1 at midsummer1 and at harvest4 ,it can hardly be too often repeated1 since it is not yet generally recognised1 that in spite of their fragmentary character the popular superstitions and customs of the peasantry are by far the fullest and most trustworthy evidence we possess as to the primitive religion of the ,aryans4 ,indeed the primitive ,aryan1 in all that regards his mental fibre and texture1 is not extinct4 ,he is amongst us to this day4 ,the great intellectual and moral forces which have revolutionised the educated world have scarcely affected the peasant4 ,in his inmost beliefs he is what his forefathers were in the days when forest trees still grew and squirrels played on the ground where ,rome and ,london now stand4 ,hence every inquiry into the primitive religion of the ,aryans should either start from the superstitious beliefs and observances of the peasantry1 or should at least be constantly checked and controlled by reference to them4 ,compared with the evidence afforded by living tradition1 the testimony of ancient books on the subject of early religion is worth very little4 ,for literature accelerates the advance of thought at a rate which leaves the slow progress of opinion by word of mouth at an immeasurable distance behind4 ,two or three generations of literature may do more to change thought than two or three thousand years of traditional life4 ,but the mass of the people who do not read books remain unaffected by the mental revolution wrought by literature2 and so it has come about that in ,europe at the present day the superstitious beliefs and practices which have been handed down by word of mouth are generally of a far more archaic type than the religion depicted in the most ancient literature of the ,aryan race4 ,it is on these grounds that1 in discussing the meaning and origin of an ancient ,italian priesthood1 ,i have devoted so much attention to the popular customs and superstitions of modern ,europe4 ,in this part of my subject ,i have made great use of the works of the late ,w4 ,mannhardt1 without which1 indeed1 my book could scarcely have been written4 ,fully recognising the truth of the principles which ,i have imperfectly stated1 ,mannhardt set himself systematically to collect1 compare1 and explain the living superstitions of the peasantry4 ,of this wide field the special department which he marked out for himself was the religion of the woodman and the farmer1 in other words1 the superstitious beliefs and rites connected with trees and cultivated plants4 ,by oral inquiry1 and by printed questions scattered broadcast over ,europe1 as well as by ransacking the literature of folk-lore1 he collected a mass of evidence1 part of which he published in a series of admirable works4 ,but his health1 always feeble1 broke down before he could complete the comprehensive and really vast scheme which he had planned1 and at his too early death much of his precious materials remained unpublished4 ,his manuscripts are now deposited in the ,university ,library at ,berlin1 and in the interest of the study to which he devoted his life it is greatly to be desired that they should be examined1 and that such portions of them as he has not utilised in his books should be given to the world4 ,of his published works the most important are1 first1 two tracts1 ,roggenwolf und ,roggenhund1 ,danzig #ahfe 7second edition1 ,danzig1 #ahff71 and ,die ,korndmonen1 ,berlin1 #ahfh4 ,these little works were put forward by him tentatively1 in the hope of exciting interest in his inquiries and thereby securing the help of others in pursuing them4 ,but1 except from a few learned societies1 they met with very little attention4 ,undeterred by the cold reception accorded to his efforts he worked steadily on1 and in #ahge published his chief work1 ,der ,baumkultus der ,germanen und ihrer ,nachbarstmme4 ,this was followed in #ahgg by ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte4 ,his ,mythologische ,forschungen1 a posthumous work1 appeared in #ahhd47a7 ,much as ,i owe to ,mannhardt1 ,i owe still more to my friend ,professor ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 ,my interest in the early history of society was first excited by the works of ,dr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 which opened up a mental vista undreamed of by me before4 ,but it is a long step from a lively interest in a subject to a systematic study of it2 and that ,i took this step is due to the influence of my friend ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 ,the debt which ,i owe to the vast stores of his knowledge1 the abundance and fertility of his ideas1 and his unwearied kindness1 can scarcely be overestimated4 ,those who know his writings may form some1 though a very inadequate1 conception of the extent to which ,i have been influenced by him4 ,the views of sacrifice set forth in his article 8,sacrifice0 in the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 and further developed in his recent work1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 mark a new departure in the historical study of religion1 and ample traces of them will be found in this book4 ,indeed the central idea of my essay--the conception of the slain god--is derived directly1 ,i believe1 from my friend4 ,but it is due to him to add that he is in no way responsible for the general explanation which ,i have offered of the custom of slaying the god4 ,he has read the greater part of the proofs in circumstances which enhanced the kindness1 and has made many valuable suggestions which ,i have usually adopted2 but except where he is cited by name1 or where the views expressed coincide with those of his published works1 he is not to be regarded as necessarily assenting to any of the theories propounded in this book4 ,the works of ,professor ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken of ,leyden have been of great service in directing me to the best original authorities on the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 a very important field to the ethnologist4 ,to the courtesy of the ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor1 ,m4,a41 of ,pitsligo1 ,i am indebted for some interesting communications which will be found acknowledged in their proper places4 ,mr4 ,francis ,darwin has kindly allowed me to consult him on some botanical questions4 ,the manuscript authorities to which ,i occasionally refer are answers to a list of ethnological questions which ,i am circulating4 ,most of them will1 ,i hope1 be published in the ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,the drawing of the ,golden ,bough which adorns the cover is from the pencil of my friend ,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,middleton4 ,the constant interest and sympathy which he has shown in the progress of the book have been a great help and encouragement to me in writing it4 ,the ,index has been compiled by ,mr4 ,a4 ,rogers1 of the ,university ,library1 ,cambridge4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,,trinity ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 #hth ,march #ahij4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,wood4 8,the still glassy lake that sleeps ,beneath ,aricia's trees-- ,those trees in whose dim shadow ,the ghastly priest doth reign1 ,the priest who slew the slayer1 ,and shall himself be slain40 ,,macaulay4 #a4--,the ,arician ,grove4 ,who does not know ,turner's picture of the ,golden ,bough8 ,the scene1 suffused with the golden glow of imagination in which the divine mind of ,turner steeped and transfigured even the fairest natural landscape1 is a dream-like vision of the little woodland lake of ,nemi1 8,diana's ,mirror10 as it was called by the ancients4 ,no one who has seen that calm water1 lapped in a green hollow of the ,alban hills1 can ever forget it4 ,the two characteristic ,italian villages which slumber on its banks1 and the equally ,italian palazzo whose terraced gardens descend steeply to the lake1 hardly break the stillness and even the solitariness of the scene4 ,dian herself might still linger by this lonely shore1 still haunt these woodlands wild4 ,in antiquity this sylvan landscape was the scene of a strange and recurring tragedy4 ,on the northern shore of the lake1 right under the precipitous cliffs on which the modern village of ,nemi is perched1 stood the sacred grove and sanctuary of ,diana ,nemorensis1 or ,diana of the ,wood47#b7 ,the lake and the grove were sometimes known as the lake and grove of ,aricia47#c7 ,but the town of ,aricia 7the modern ,la ,riccia7 was situated about three miles off1 at the foot of the ,alban ,mount1 and separated by a steep descent from the lake1 which lies in a small crater-like hollow on the mountain side4 ,in this sacred grove there grew a certain tree round which at any time of the day and probably far into the night a strange figure might be seen to prowl4 ,in his hand he carried a drawn sword1 and he kept peering warily about him as if every instant he expected to be set upon by an enemy47#d7 ,he was a priest and a murderer2 and the man for whom he looked was sooner or later to murder him and hold the priesthood in his stead4 ,such was the rule of the sanctuary4 ,a candidate for the priesthood could only succeed to office by slaying the priest1 and having slain him he held office till he was himself slain by a stronger or a craftier4 ,this strange rule has no parallel in classical antiquity1 and cannot be explained from it4 ,to find an explanation we must go farther afield4 ,no one will probably deny that such a custom savours of a barbarous age and1 surviving into imperial times1 stands out in striking isolation from the polished ,italian society of the day1 like a primeval rock rising from a smooth-shaven lawn4 ,it is the very rudeness and barbarity of the custom which allow us a hope of explaining it4 ,for recent researches into the early history of man have revealed the essential similarity with which1 under many superficial differences1 the human mind has elaborated its first crude philosophy of life4 ,accordingly if we can show that a barbarous custom1 like that of the priesthood of ,nemi1 has existed elsewhere2 if we can detect the motives which led to its institution2 if we can prove that these motives have operated widely1 perhaps universally1 in human society1 producing in varied circumstances a variety of institutions specifically different but generically alike2 if we can show1 lastly1 that these very motives1 with some of their derivative institutions1 were actually at work in classical antiquity2 then we may fairly infer that at a remoter age the same motives gave birth to the priesthood of ,nemi4 ,such an inference1 in default of direct evidence as to how the priesthood did actually arise1 can never amount to demonstration4 ,but it will be more or less probable according to the degree of completeness with which it fulfils the conditions indicated above4 ,the object of this book is1 by meeting these conditions1 to offer a fairly probable explanation of the priesthood of ,nemi4 ,i begin by setting forth the few facts and legends which have come down to us on the subject4 ,according to one story the worship of ,diana at ,nemi was instituted by ,orestes1 who1 after killing ,thoas1 ,king of the ,tauric ,chersonese 7the ,crimea71 fled with his sister to ,italy1 bringing with him the image of the ,tauric ,diana4 ,the bloody ritual which legend ascribed to that goddess is familiar to classical readers2 it is said that every stranger who landed on the shore was sacrificed on her altar4 ,but transported to ,italy1 the rite assumed a milder form4 ,within the sanctuary at ,nemi grew a certain tree of which no branch might be broken4 ,only a runaway slave was allowed to break off1 if he could1 one of its boughs4 ,success in the attempt entitled him to fight the priest in single combat1 and if he slew him he reigned in his stead with the title of ,king of the ,wood 7,rex ,nemorensis74 ,tradition averred that the fateful branch was that ,golden ,bough which1 at the ,sibyl's bidding1 ,aeneas plucked before he essayed the perilous journey to the world of the dead4 ,the flight of the slave represented1 it was said1 the flight of ,orestes2 his combat with the priest was a reminiscence of the human sacrifices once offered to the ,tauric ,diana4 ,this rule of succession by the sword was observed down to imperial times2 for amongst his other freaks ,caligula1 thinking that the priest of ,nemi had held office too long1 hired a more stalwart ruffian to slay him47#e7 ,of the worship of ,diana at ,nemi two leading features can still be made out4 ,first1 from the votive-offerings found in modern times on the site1 it appears that she was especially worshipped by women desirous of children or of an easy delivery47#f7 ,second1 fire seems to have played a foremost part in her ritual4 ,for during her annual festival1 celebrated at the hottest time of the year1 her grove was lit up by a multitude of torches1 whose ruddy glare was reflected by the waters of the lake2 and throughout the length and breadth of ,italy the day was kept with holy rites at every domestic hearth47#g7 ,moreover1 women whose prayers had been heard by the goddess brought lighted torches to the grove in fulfilment of their vows47#h7 ,lastly1 the title of ,vesta borne by the ,arician ,diana7#i7 points almost certainly to the maintenance of a perpetual holy fire in her sanctuary4 ,at her annual festival all young people went through a purificatory ceremony in her honour2 dogs were crowned2 and the feast consisted of a young kid1 wine1 and cakes1 served up piping hot on platters of leaves47#aj7 ,but ,diana did not reign alone in her grove at ,nemi4 ,two lesser divinities shared her forest sanctuary4 ,one was ,egeria1 the nymph of the clear water which1 bubbling from the basaltic rocks1 used to fall in graceful cascades into the lake at the place called ,le ,mole47#aa7 ,according to one story the grove was first consecrated to ,diana by a ,manius ,egerius1 who was the ancestor of a long and distinguished line4 ,hence the proverb 8,there are many ,manii at ,ariciae40 ,others explained the proverb very differently4 ,they said it meant that there were a great many ugly and deformed people1 and they referred to the word ,mania which meant a bogey or bugbear to frighten children47#ab7 ,the other of these minor deities was ,virbius4 ,legend had it that ,virbius was the youthful ,greek hero ,hippolytus1 who had been killed by his horses on the sea-shore of the ,saronic ,gulf4 ,him1 to please ,diana1 the leech ,aesculapius brought to life again by his simples4 ,but ,jupiter1 indignant that a mortal man should return from the gates of death1 thrust down the meddling leech himself to ,hades2 and ,diana1 for the love she bore ,hippolytus1 carried him away to ,italy and hid him from the angry god in the dells of ,nemi1 where he reigned a forest king under the name of ,virbius4 ,horses were excluded from the grove and sanctuary1 because horses had killed ,hippolytus47#ac7 ,some thought that ,virbius was the sun4 ,it was unlawful to touch his image47#ad7 ,his worship was cared for by a special priest1 the ,flamen ,virbialis47#ae7 ,such then are the facts and theories bequeathed to us by antiquity on the subject of the priesthood of ,nemi4 ,from materials so slight and scanty it is impossible to extract a solution of the problem4 ,it remains to try whether the survey of a wider field may not yield us the clue we seek4 ,the questions to be answered are two3 first1 why had the priest to slay his predecessor8 and second1 why1 before he slew him1 had he to pluck the ,golden ,bough8 ,the rest of this book will be an attempt to answer these questions4 #b4--,primitive man and the supernatural4 ,the first point on which we fasten is the priest's title4 ,why was he called the ,king of the ,wood8 why was his office spoken of as a ,kingdom87#af7 ,the union of a royal title with priestly duties was common in ancient ,italy and ,greece4 ,at ,rome and in other ,italian cities there was a priest called the ,sacrificial ,king or ,king of the ,sacred ,rites 7,rex ,sacrificulus or ,rex ,sacrorum71 and his wife bore the title of ,queen of the ,sacred ,rites47#ag7 ,in republican ,athens the second magistrate of the state was called the ,king1 and his wife the ,queen2 the functions of both were religious47#ah7 ,many other ,greek democracies had titular kings1 whose duties1 so far as they are known1 seem to have been priestly47#ai7 ,at ,rome the tradition was that the ,sacrificial ,king had been appointed after the expulsion of the kings in order to offer the sacrifices which had been previously offered by the kings47#bj7 ,in ,greece a similar view appears to have prevailed as to the origin of the priestly kings47#ba7 ,in itself the view is not improbable1 and it is borne out by the example of ,sparta1 the only purely ,greek state which retained the kingly form of government in historical times4 ,for in ,sparta all state sacrifices were offered by the kings as descendants of the god47#bb7 ,this combination of priestly functions with royal authority is familiar to every one4 ,asia ,minor1 for example1 was the seat of various great religious capitals peopled by thousands of 8sacred slaves10 and ruled by pontiffs who wielded at once temporal and spiritual authority1 like the popes of mediaeval ,rome4 ,such priest-ridden cities were ,zela and ,pessinus47#bc7 ,teutonic kings1 again1 in the old heathen days seem to have stood in the position1 and exercised the powers of high priests47#bd7 ,the ,emperors of ,china offer public sacrifices1 the details of which are regulated by the ritual books47#be7 ,it is needless1 however1 to multiply examples of what is the rule rather than the exception in the early history of the kingship4 ,but when we have said that the ancient kings were commonly priests also1 we are far from having exhausted the religious aspect of their office4 ,in those days the divinity that hedges a king was no empty form of speech but the expression of a sober belief4 ,kings were revered1 in many cases not merely as priests1 that is1 as intercessors between man and god1 but as themselves gods1 able to bestow upon their subjects and worshippers those blessings which are commonly supposed to be beyond the reach of man1 and are sought1 if at all1 only by prayer and sacrifice offered to superhuman and invisible beings4 ,thus kings are often expected to give rain and sunshine in due season1 to make the crops grow1 and so on4 ,strange as this expectation appears to us1 it is quite of a piece with early modes of thought4 ,a savage hardly conceives the distinction commonly drawn by more advanced peoples between the natural and the supernatural4 ,to him the world is mostly worked by supernatural agents1 that is1 by personal beings acting on impulses and motives like his own1 liable like him to be moved by appeals to their pity1 their fears1 and their hopes4 ,in a world so conceived he sees no limit to his power of influencing the course of nature to his own advantage4 ,prayers1 promises1 or threats may secure him fine weather and an abundant crop from the gods2 and if a god should happen1 as he sometimes believes1 to become incarnate in his own person1 then he need appeal to no higher power2 he1 the savage1 possesses in himself all the supernatural powers necessary to further his own well-being and that of his fellow men4 ,this is one way in which the idea of a man-god is reached4 ,but there is another4 ,side by side with the view of the world as pervaded by spiritual forces1 primitive man has another conception in which we may detect a germ of the modern notion of natural law or the view of nature as a series of events occurring in an invariable order without the intervention of personal agency4 ,the germ of which ,i speak is involved in that sympathetic magic1 as it may be called1 which plays a large part in most systems of superstition4 ,one of the principles of sympathetic magic is that any effect may be produced by imitating it4 ,to take a few instances4 ,if it is wished to kill a person an image of him is made and then destroyed2 and it is believed that through a certain physical sympathy between the person and his image1 the man feels the injuries done to the image as if they were done to his own body1 and that when it is destroyed he must simultaneously perish4 ,again1 in ,morocco a fowl or a pigeon may sometimes be seen with a little red bundle tied to its foot4 ,the bundle contains a charm1 and it is believed that as the charm is kept in constant motion by the bird a corresponding restlessness is kept up in the mind of him or her against whom the charm is directed47#bf7 ,in ,nias when a wild pig has fallen into the pit prepared for it1 it is taken out and its back is rubbed with nine fallen leaves1 in the belief that this will make nine more wild pigs fall into the pit just as the nine leaves fell from the tree47#bg7 ,when a ,cambodian hunter has set his nets and taken nothing1 he strips himself naked1 goes some way off1 then strolls up to the net as if he did not see it1 lets himself be caught in it and cries1 8,hillo6 what's this8 ,i'm afraid ,i'm caught40 ,after that the net is sure to catch game47#bh7 ,in ,thringen the man who sows flax carries the seed in a long bag which reaches from his shoulders to his knees1 and he walks with long strides1 so that the bag sways to and fro on his back4 ,it is believed that this will cause the flax crop to wave in the wind47#bi7 ,in the interior of ,sumatra the rice is sown by women who1 in sowing1 let their hair hang loose down their back1 in order that the rice may grow luxuriantly and have long stalks47#cj7 ,again1 magic sympathy is supposed to exist between a man and any severed portion of his person1 as his hair or nails2 so that whoever gets possession of hair or nails may work his will1 at any distance1 upon the person from whom they were cut4 ,this superstition is world-wide4 ,further1 the sympathy in question exists between friends and relations1 especially at critical times4 ,hence1 for example1 the elaborate code of rules which regulates the conduct of persons left at home while a party of their friends is out fishing or hunting or on the war-path4 ,it is thought that if the persons left at home broke these rules their absent friends would suffer an injury1 corresponding in its nature to the breach of the rule4 ,thus when a ,dyak is out head-hunting1 his wife or1 if he is unmarried1 his sister1 must wear a sword day and night in order that he may always be thinking of his weapons2 and she may not sleep during the day nor go to bed before two in the morning1 lest her husband or brother should thereby be surprised in his sleep by an enemy47#ca7 ,in ,laos when an elephant hunter is setting out for the chase he warns his wife not to cut her hair or oil her body in his absence2 for if she cut her hair the elephant would burst the toils1 if she oiled herself it would slip through them47#cb7 ,in all these cases 7and similar instances might be multiplied indefinitely7 an action is performed or avoided1 because its performance is believed to entail good or bad consequences of a sort resembling the act itself4 ,sometimes the magic sympathy takes effect not so much through an act as through a supposed resemblance of qualities4 ,thus some ,bechuanas wear a ferret as a charm because1 being very tenacious of life1 it will make them difficult to kill47#cc7 ,others wear a certain insect1 mutilated but living1 for a similar purpose47#cd7 ,other ,bechuana warriors wear the hair of an ox among their own hair and the skin of a frog on their mantle1 because a frog is slippery and the ox from which the hair has been taken has no horns and is therefore hard to catch2 so the warrior who is provided with these charms believes that he will be as hard to hold as the ox and the frog47#ce7 ,thus we see that in sympathetic magic one event is supposed to be followed necessarily and invariably by another1 without the intervention of any spiritual or personal agency4 ,this is1 in fact1 the modern conception of physical causation2 the conception1 indeed1 is misapplied1 but it is there none the less4 ,here1 then1 we have another mode in which primitive man seeks to bend nature to his wishes4 ,there is1 perhaps1 hardly a savage who does not fancy himself possessed of this power of influencing the course of nature by sympathetic magic2 a man-god1 on this view1 is only an individual who is believed to enjoy this common power in an unusually high degree4 ,thus1 whereas a man-god of the former or inspired type derives his divinity from a deity who has taken up his abode in a tabernacle of flesh1 a man-god of the latter type draws his supernatural power from a certain physical sympathy with nature4 ,he is not merely the receptacle of a divine spirit4 ,his whole being1 body and soul1 is so delicately attuned to the harmony of the world that a touch of his hand or a turn of his head may send a thrill vibrating through the universal framework of things2 and conversely his divine organism is acutely sensitive to such slight changes of environment as would leave ordinary mortals wholly unaffected4 ,but the line between these two types of man-god1 however sharply we may draw it in theory1 is seldom to be traced with precision in practice1 and in what follows ,i shall not insist on it4 ,to readers long familiarised with the conception of natural law1 the belief of primitive man that he can rule the elements must be so foreign that it may be well to illustrate it by examples4 ,when we have seen that in early society men who make no pretence at all of being gods do nevertheless commonly believe themselves to be invested with supernatural powers1 we shall have the less difficulty in comprehending the extraordinary range of powers ascribed to individuals who are actually regarded as divine4 ,of all natural phenomena there are perhaps none which civilised man feels himself more powerless to influence than the rain1 the sun1 and the wind4 ,yet all these are commonly supposed by savages to be in some degree under their control4 ,to begin with rain-making4 ,in a village near ,dorpat in ,russia1 when rain was much wanted1 three men used to climb up the fir-trees of an old sacred grove4 ,one of them drummed with a hammer on a kettle or small cask to imitate thunder2 the second knocked two fire-brands together and made the sparks fly1 to imitate lightning2 and the third1 who was called 8the rain-maker10 had a bunch of twigs with which he sprinkled water from a vessel on all sides47#cf7 ,this is an example of sympathetic magic2 the desired event is supposed to be produced by imitating it4 ,rain is often thus made by imitation4 ,in ,halmahera 7,gilolo71 a large island to the west of ,new ,guinea1 a wizard makes rain by dipping a branch of a particular kind of tree in water and sprinkling the ground with it47#cg7 ,in ,ceram it is enough to dedicate the bark of a certain tree to the spirits and lay it in water47#ch7 ,in ,new ,britain the rain-maker wraps some leaves of a red and green striped creeper in a banana-leaf1 moistens the bundle with water and buries it in the ground2 then he imitates with his mouth the plashing of rain47#ci7 ,amongst the ,omaha ,indians of ,north ,america1 when the corn is withering for want of rain1 the members of the sacred ,buffalo ,society fill a large vessel with water and dance four times round it4 ,one of them drinks some of the water and spirts it into the air1 making a fine spray in imitation of a mist or drizzling rain4 ,then he upsets the vessel1 spilling the water on the ground2 whereupon the dancers fall down and drink up the water1 getting mud all over their faces4 ,lastly they spirt the water into the air1 making a fine mist4 ,this saves the corn47#dj7 ,amongst the ,australian ,wotjobaluk the rain-maker dipped a bunch of his own hair in water1 sucked out the water and squirted it westward1 or he twirled the ball round his head making a spray like rain47#da7 ,squirting water from the mouth is also a ,west ,african way of making rain47#db7 ,another mode is to dip a particular stone in water or sprinkle water on it4 ,in a ,samoan village a certain stone was carefully housed as the representative of the rain-making god2 and in time of drought his priests carried the stone in procession1 and dipped it in a stream47#dc7 ,in the ,ta-ta-thi tribe of ,new ,south ,wales the rain-maker breaks off a piece of quartz crystal and spits it towards the sky2 the rest of the crystal he wraps in emu feathers1 soaks both crystal and feathers in water1 and carefully hides them47#dd7 ,in the ,keramin tribe of ,new ,south ,wales the wizard retires to the bed of a creek1 drops water on a round flat stone1 then covers up and conceals it47#de7 ,the ,fountain of ,baranton1 of romantic fame1 in the forest of ,brcilien1 used to be resorted to by peasants when they needed rain2 they caught some of the water in a tankard and threw it on a slab near the spring47#df7 ,when some of the ,apache ,indians wish for rain1 they take water from a certain spring and throw it on a particular point high up on a rock2 the clouds then soon gather and rain begins to fall47#dg7 ,there is a lonely tarn on ,snowdon called ,dulyn or the ,black ,lake1 lying 8in a dismal dingle surrounded by high and dangerous rocks40 ,a row of stepping stones runs out into the lake2 and if any one steps on the stones and throws water so as to wet the farthest stone1 which is called the ,red ,altar1 8it is but a chance that you do not get rain before night1 even when it is hot weather407#dh7 ,in these cases it is probable that1 as in ,samoa1 the stone is regarded as in some sort divine4 ,this appears from the custom sometimes observed of dipping the cross in the ,fountain of ,baranton1 to procure rain2 for this is plainly a substitute for the older way of throwing the water on the stone47#di7 ,in ,mingrelia1 to get rain they dip a holy image in water daily till it rains47#ej7 ,in ,navarre the image of ,st4 ,peter was taken to a river1 where some prayed to him for rain1 but others called out to duck him in the water47#ea7 ,here the dipping in the water is used as a threat2 but originally it was probably a sympathetic charm1 as in the following instance4 ,in ,new ,caledonia the rain-makers blackened themselves all over1 dug up a dead body1 took the bones to a cave1 jointed them1 and hung the skeleton over some taro leaves4 ,water was poured over the skeleton to run down on the leaves4 8,they supposed that the soul of the departed took up the water1 made rain of it1 and showered it down again407#eb7 ,the same motive comes clearly out in a mode of making rain which is practised by various peoples of ,south ,eastern ,europe4 ,in time of drought the ,servians strip a girl1 clothe her from head to foot in grass1 herbs1 and flowers1 even her face being hidden with them4 ,thus disguised she is called the ,dodola1 and goes through the village with a troop of girls4 ,they stop before every house2 the ,dodola dances1 while the other girls form a ring round her singing one of the ,dodola songs1 and the housewife pours a pail of water over her4 ,one of the songs they sing runs thus-- 8,we go through the village2 ,the clouds go in the sky2 ,we go faster1 ,faster go the clouds2 ,they have overtaken us1 ,and wetted the corn and the vine40 ,a similar custom is observed by the ,greeks1 ,bulgarians1 and ,roumanians47#ec7 ,in such customs the leaf-dressed girl represents the spirit of vegetation1 and drenching her with water is an imitation of rain4 ,in ,russia1 in the ,government of ,kursk1 when rain is much wanted1 the women seize a passing stranger and throw him into the river1 or souse him from head to foot47#ed7 ,later on we shall see that a passing stranger is often1 as here1 taken for a god or spirit4 ,amongst the ,minahassa of ,north ,celebes the priest bathes as a rain-charm47#ee7 ,in the ,caucasian ,province of ,georgia1 when a drought has lasted long1 marriageable girls are yoked in couples with an ox-yoke on their shoulders1 a priest holds the reins1 and thus harnessed they wade through rivers1 puddles1 and marshes1 praying1 screaming1 weeping1 and laughing47#ef7 ,in a district of ,transylvania1 when the ground is parched with drought1 some girls strip themselves naked1 and1 led by an older woman1 who is also naked1 they steal a harrow and carry it across the field to a brook1 where they set it afloat4 ,next they sit on the harrow and keep a tiny flame burning on each corner of it for an hour4 ,then they leave the harrow in the water and go home47#eg7 ,a similar rain-charm is resorted to in ,india2 naked women drag a plough across the field by night47#eh7 ,it is not said that they plunge the plough into a stream or sprinkle it with water4 ,but the charm would hardly be complete without it4 ,sometimes the charm works through an animal4 ,to procure rain the ,peruvians used to set a black sheep in a field1 poured chica over it1 and gave it nothing to eat till rain fell47#ei7 ,in a district of ,sumatra all the women of the village1 scantily clad1 go to the river1 wade into it1 and splash each other with the water4 ,a black cat is thrown into the water and made to swim about for a while1 then allowed to escape to the bank1 pursued by the splashing of the women47#fj7 ,in these cases the colour of the animal is part of the charm2 being black it will darken the sky with rain-clouds4 ,so the ,bechuanas burn the stomach of an ox at evening1 because they say1 8the black smoke will gather the clouds1 and cause the rain to come407#fa7 ,the ,timorese sacrifice a black pig for rain1 a white or red one for sunshine47#fb7 ,the ,garos offer a black goat on the top of a very high mountain in time of drought47#fc7 ,sometimes people try to coerce the rain-god into giving rain4 ,in ,china a huge dragon made of paper or wood1 representing the rain-god1 is carried about in procession2 but if no rain follows1 it is cursed and torn in pieces47#fd7 ,in the like circumstances the ,feloupes of ,senegambia throw down their fetishes and drag them about the fields1 cursing them till rain falls47#fe7 ,some ,indians of the ,orinoco worshipped toads and kept them in vessels in order to obtain from them rain or sunshine as might be required2 when their prayers were not answered they beat the toads47#ff7 ,killing a frog is a ,european rain-charm47#fg7 ,when the spirits withhold rain or sunshine1 the ,comanches whip a slave2 if the gods prove obstinate1 the victim is almost flayed alive47#fh7 ,here the human being may represent the god1 like the leaf-clad ,dodola4 ,when the rice-crop is endangered by long drought1 the governor of ,battambang1 a province of ,siam1 goes in great state to a certain pagoda and prays to ,buddha for rain4 ,then accompanied by his suite and followed by an enormous crowd he adjourns to a plain behind the pagoda4 ,here a dummy figure has been made up1 dressed in bright colours1 and placed in the middle of the plain4 ,a wild music begins to play2 maddened by the din of drums and cymbals and crackers1 and goaded on by their drivers1 the elephants charge down on the dummy and trample it to pieces4 ,after this1 ,buddha will soon give rain47#fi7 ,another way of constraining the rain-god is to disturb him in his haunts4 ,this seems the reason why rain is supposed to be the consequence of troubling a sacred spring4 ,the ,dards believe that if a cowskin or anything impure is placed in certain springs1 storms will follow47#gj7 ,gervasius mentions a spring into which if a stone or a stick were thrown1 rain would at once issue from it and drench the thrower47#ga7 ,there was a fountain in ,munster such that if it were touched or even looked at by a human being1 it would at once flood the whole province with rain47#gb7 ,sometimes an appeal is made to the pity of the gods4 ,when their corn is being burnt up by the sun1 the ,zulus look out for a 8heaven-bird10 kill it1 and throw it into a pool4 ,then the heaven melts with tenderness for the death of the bird2 8it wails for it by raining1 wailing a funeral wail407#gc7 ,in times of drought the ,guanches of ,teneriffe led their sheep to sacred ground1 and there they separated the lambs from their dams1 that their plaintive bleating might touch the heart of the god47#gd7 ,a peculiar mode of making rain was adopted by the heathen ,arabs4 ,they tied two sorts of bushes to the tails and hind-legs of their cattle1 and setting fire to the bushes drove the cattle to the top of a mountain1 praying for rain47#ge7 ,this may be1 as ,wellhausen suggests17#gf7 an imitation of lightning on the horizon4 ,but it may also be a way of threatening the sky2 as some ,west ,african rain-makers put a pot of inflammable materials on the fire and blow up the flames1 threatening that if heaven does not soon give rain they will send up a flame which will set the sky on fire47#gg7 ,the ,dieyerie of ,south ,australia have a way of their own of making rain4 ,a hole is dug about twelve feet long and eight or ten broad1 and over this hole a hut of logs and branches is made4 ,two men1 supposed to have received a special inspiration from ,mooramoora 7the ,good ,spirit71 are bled by an old and influential man with a sharp flint inside the arm2 the blood is made to flow on the other men of the tribe who sit huddled together4 ,at the same time the two bleeding men throw handfuls of down1 some of which adheres to the blood1 while the rest floats in the air4 ,the blood is thought to represent the rain1 and the down the clouds4 ,during the ceremony two large stones are placed in the middle of the hut2 they stand for gathering clouds and presage rain4 ,then the men who were bled carry away the stones for about fifteen miles and place them as high as they can in the tallest tree4 ,meanwhile1 the other men gather gypsum1 pound it fine1 and throw it into a water-hole4 ,this the ,mooramoora is supposed to see1 and at once he causes the clouds to appear in the sky4 ,lastly1 the men surround the hut1 butt at it with their heads1 force their way in1 and reappear on the other side1 repeating this till the hut is wrecked4 ,in doing this they are forbidden to use their hands or arms2 but when the heavy logs alone remain1 they are allowed to pull them out with their hands4 8,the piercing of the hut with their heads symbolises the piercing of the clouds2 the fall of the hut1 the fall of rain407#gh7 ,another ,australian mode of rain-making is to burn human hair47#gi7 ,like other peoples the ,greeks and ,romans sought to procure rain by magic1 when prayers and processions7#hj7 had proved ineffectual4 ,for example1 in ,arcadia1 when the corn and trees were parched with drought1 the priest of ,zeus dipped an oak branch into a certain spring on ,mount ,lycaeus4 ,thus troubled1 the water sent up a misty cloud1 from which rain soon fell upon the land47#ha7 ,a similar mode of making rain is still practised1 as we have seen1 in ,halmahera near ,new ,guinea4 ,the people of ,crannon in ,thessaly had a bronze chariot which they kept in a temple4 ,when they desired a shower they shook the chariot and the shower fell47#hb7 ,probably the rattling of the chariot was meant to imitate thunder2 we have already seen that in ,russia mock thunder and lightning form part of a rain-charm4 ,the mythical ,salmoneus of ,thessaly made mock thunder by dragging bronze kettles behind his chariot or by driving over a bronze bridge1 while he hurled blazing torches in imitation of lightning4 ,it was his impious wish to mimic the thundering car of ,zeus as it rolled across the vault of heaven47#hc7 ,near a temple of ,mars1 outside the walls of ,rome1 there was kept a certain stone known as the lapis manalis4 ,in time of drought the stone was dragged into ,rome and this was supposed to bring down rain immediately47#hd7 ,there were ,etruscan wizards who made rain or discovered springs of water1 it is not certain which4 ,they were thought to bring the rain or the water out of their bellies47#he7 ,the legendary ,telchines in ,rhodes are described as magicians who could change their shape and bring clouds1 rain1 and snow47#hf7 ,again1 primitive man fancies he can make the sun to shine1 and can hasten or stay its going down4 ,at an eclipse the ,ojebways used to think that the sun was being extinguished4 ,so they shot fire-tipped arrows in the air1 hoping thus to rekindle his expiring light47#hg7 ,conversely during an eclipse of the moon some ,indian tribes of the ,orinoco used to bury lighted brands in the ground2 because1 said they1 if the moon were to be extinguished1 all fire on earth would be extinguished with her1 except such as was hidden from her sight47#hh7 ,in ,new ,caledonia when a wizard desires to make sunshine1 he takes some plants and corals to the burial-ground1 and makes them into a bundle1 adding two locks of hair cut from a living child 7his own child if possible71 also two teeth or an entire jawbone from the skeleton of an ancestor4 ,he then climbs a high mountain whose top catches the first rays of the morning sun4 ,here he deposits three sorts of plants on a flat stone1 places a branch of dry coral beside them1 and hangs the bundle of charms over the stone4 ,next morning he returns to this rude altar1 and at the moment when the sun rises from the sea he kindles a fire on the altar4 ,as the smoke rises1 he rubs the stone with the dry coral1 invokes his ancestors and says3 8,sun6 ,i do this that you may be burning hot1 and eat up all the clouds in the sky40 ,the same ceremony is repeated at sunset47#hi7 ,when the sun rises behind clouds--a rare event in the bright sky of ,southern ,africa--the ,sun clan of the ,bechuanas say that he is grieving their heart4 ,all work stands still1 and all the food of the previous day is given to matrons or old women4 ,they may eat it and may share it with the children they are nursing1 but no one else may taste it4 ,the people go down to the river and wash themselves all over4 ,each man throws into the river a stone taken from his domestic hearth1 and replaces it with one picked up in the bed of the river4 ,on their return to the village the chief kindles a fire in his hut1 and all his subjects come and get a light from it4 ,a general dance follows47#ij7 ,in these cases it seems that the lighting of the flame on earth is supposed to rekindle the solar fire4 ,such a belief comes naturally to people who1 like the ,sun clan of the ,bechuanas1 deem themselves the veritable kinsmen of the sun4 ,the ,melanesians make sunshine by means of a mock sun4 ,a round stone is wound about with red braid and stuck with owl's feathers to represent rays2 it is then hung on a high tree4 ,or the stone is laid on the ground with white rods radiating from it to imitate sunbeams47#ia7 ,sometimes the mode of making sunshine is the converse of that of making rain4 ,thus we have seen that a white or red pig is sacrificed for sunshine1 as a black one is sacrificed for rain47#ib7 ,some of the ,new ,caledonians drench a skeleton to make rain1 but burn it to make sunshine47#ic7 ,in a pass of the ,peruvian ,andes stand two ruined towers on opposite hills4 ,iron hooks are clamped into their walls for the purpose of stretching a net from one tower to the other4 ,the net is intended to catch the sun47#id7 ,on the top of a small hill in ,fiji grew a patch of reeds1 and travellers who feared to be belated used to tie the tops of a handful of reeds together to detain the sun from going down47#ie7 ,the intention perhaps was to entangle the sun in the reeds1 just as the ,peruvians try to catch him in the net4 ,stories of men who have caught the sun in a noose are widely spread47#if7 ,jerome of ,prague1 travelling among the heathen ,lithuanians early in the fifteenth century1 found a tribe who worshipped the sun and venerated a large iron hammer4 ,the priests told him that once the sun had been invisible for several months1 because a powerful king had shut it up in a strong tower2 but the signs of the zodiac had broken open the tower with this very hammer and released the sun4 ,therefore they adored the hammer47#ig7 ,when an ,australian blackfellow wishes to stay the sun from going down till he gets home1 he places a sod in the fork of a tree1 exactly facing the setting sun47#ih7 ,for the same purpose an ,indian of ,yucatan1 journeying westward1 places a stone in a tree or pulls out some of his eyelashes and blows them towards the sun47#ii7 ,south ,african natives1 in travelling1 will put a stone in a branch of a tree or place some grass on the path with a stone over it1 believing that this will cause their friends to keep the meal waiting till their arrival47#ajj7 ,in these1 as in previous examples1 the purpose apparently is to retard the sun4 ,but why should the act of putting a stone or a sod in a tree be supposed to effect this8 ,a partial explanation is suggested by another ,australian custom4 ,in their journeys the natives are accustomed to place stones in trees at different heights from the ground in order to indicate the height of the sun in the sky at the moment when they passed the particular tree4 ,those who follow are thus made aware of the time of day when their friends in advance passed the spot47#aja7 ,possibly the natives1 thus accustomed to mark the sun's progress1 may have slipped into the confusion of imagining that to mark the sun's progress was to arrest it at the point marked4 ,on the other hand1 to make it go down faster1 the ,australians throw sand into the air and blow with their mouths towards the sun47#ajb7 ,once more1 the savage thinks he can make the wind to blow or to be still4 ,when the day is hot and a ,yakut has a long way to go1 he takes a stone which he has chanced to find in an animal or fish1 winds a horse-hair several times round it1 and ties it to a stick4 ,he then waves the stick about1 uttering a spell4 ,soon a cool breeze begins to blow47#ajc7 ,the ,wind clan of the ,omahas flap their blankets to start a breeze which will drive away the mosquitoes47#ajd7 ,when a ,haida ,indian wishes to obtain a fair wind1 he fasts1 shoots a raven1 singes it in the fire1 and then going to the edge of the sea sweeps it over the surface of the water four times in the direction in which he wishes the wind to blow4 ,he then throws the raven behind him1 but afterwards picks it up and sets it in a sitting posture at the foot of a spruce-tree1 facing towards the required wind4 ,propping its beak open with a stick1 he requests a fair wind for a certain number of days2 then going away he lies covered up in his mantle till another ,indian asks him for how many days he has desired the wind1 which question he answers47#aje7 ,when a sorcerer in ,new ,britain wishes to make a wind blow in a certain direction1 he throws burnt lime in the air1 chanting a song all the time4 ,then he waves sprigs of ginger and other plants about1 throws them up and catches them4 ,next he makes a small fire with these sprigs on the spot where the lime has fallen thickest1 and walks round the fire chanting4 ,lastly1 he takes the ashes and throws them on the water47#ajf7 ,on the altar of ,fladda's chapel1 in the island of ,fladdahuan 7one of the ,hebrides71 lay a round bluish stone which was always moist4 ,windbound fishermen walked sunwise round the chapel and then poured water on the stone1 whereupon a favourable breeze was sure to spring up47#ajg7 ,in ,finnland wizards used to sell wind to storm-staid mariners4 ,the wind was enclosed in three knots2 if they undid the first knot1 a moderate wind sprang up2 if the second1 it blew half a gale2 if the third1 a hurricane47#ajh7 ,the same thing is said to have been done by wizards and witches in ,lappland1 in the island of ,lewis1 and in the ,isle of ,man47#aji7 ,a ,norwegian witch has boasted of sinking a ship by opening a bag in which she had shut up a wind47#aaj7 ,ulysses received the winds in a leather bag from ,aeolus1 ,king of the ,winds47#aaa7 ,so ,perdoytus1 the ,lithuanian wind-god1 keeps the winds enclosed in a leather bag2 when they escape from it he pursues them1 beats them1 and shuts them up again47#aab7 ,the ,motumotu in ,new ,guinea think that storms are sent by an ,oiabu sorcerer2 for each wind he has a bamboo which he opens at pleasure47#aac7 ,but here we have passed from custom 7with which alone we are at present concerned7 into mythology4 ,shetland seamen still buy winds from old women who claim to rule the storms4 ,there are now in ,lerwick old women who live by selling wind47#aad7 ,when the ,hottentots wish to make the wind drop1 they take one of their fattest skins and hang it on the end of a pole1 believing that by blowing the skin down the wind will lose all its force and must itself fall47#aae7 ,in some parts of ,austria1 during a heavy storm1 it is customary to open the window and throw out a handful of meal1 chaff1 or feathers1 saying to the wind1 8,there1 that's for you1 stop607#aaf7 ,once when north-westerly winds had kept the ice long on the coast1 and food was getting scarce1 the ,eskimos of ,alaska performed a ceremony to make a calm4 ,a fire was kindled on the shore and the men gathered round it and chanted4 ,an old man then stepped up to the fire and in a coaxing voice invited the demon of the wind to come under the fire and warm himself4 ,when he was supposed to have arrived1 a vessel of water1 to which each man present had contributed1 was thrown on the fire by an old man1 and immediately a flight of arrows sped towards the spot where the fire had been4 ,they thought that the demon would not stay where he had been so badly treated4 ,to complete the effect1 guns were discharged in various directions1 and the captain of a ,european vessel was asked to fire on the wind with cannon47#aag7 ,when the wind blows down their huts1 the ,payaguas in ,south ,america snatch up firebrands and run against the wind menacing it with the blazing brands1 while others beat the air with their fists to frighten the storm47#aah7 ,when the ,guaycurus are threatened by a severe storm the men go out armed1 and the women and children scream their loudest to intimidate the demon47#aai7 ,during a tempest the inhabitants of a ,batta village in ,sumatra have been seen to rush from their houses armed with sword and lance4 ,the ,raja placed himself at their head1 and with shouts and yells they hewed and hacked at the invisible foe4 ,an old woman was observed to be especially active in defending her house1 slashing the air right and left with a long sabre47#abj7 ,in the light of these examples a story told by ,herodotus1 which his modern critics have treated as a fable1 is perfectly credible4 ,he says1 without however vouching for the truth of the tale1 that once in the land of the ,psylli1 the modern ,tripoli1 the wind blowing from the ,sahara had dried up all the water-tanks4 ,so the people took counsel and marched in a body to make war on the south wind4 ,but when they entered the desert1 the simoom swept down on them and buried them to a man47#aba7 ,the story may well have been told by one who watched them disappearing1 in battle array1 with drums and cymbals beating1 into the red cloud of whirling sand4 ,it is still said of the ,bedouins of ,eastern ,africa that 8no whirlwind ever sweeps across the path without being pursued by a dozen savages with drawn creeses1 who stab into the centre of the dusty column in order to drive away the evil spirit that is believed to be riding on the blast407#abb7 ,so in ,australia the huge columns of red sand that move rapidly across a desert tract are thought by the blackfellows to be spirits passing along4 ,once an athletic young black ran after one of these moving columns to kill it with boomerangs4 ,he was away two or three hours and came back very weary1 saying he had killed ,koochee 7the demon71 but that ,koochee had growled at him and he must die47#abc7 ,even where these dust columns are not attacked they are still regarded with awe4 ,in some parts of ,india they are supposed to be bhuts going to bathe in the ,ganges47#abd7 ,californian ,indians think that they are happy souls ascending to the heavenly land47#abe7 ,when a gust lifts the hay in the meadow1 the ,breton peasant throws a knife or a fork at it to prevent the devil from carrying off the hay47#abf7 ,german peasants throw a knife or a hat at a whirlwind because there is a witch or a wizard in it47#abg7 #c4--;,incarnate gods4 ,these examples1 drawn from the beliefs and practices of rude peoples all over the world1 may suffice to prove that the savage1 whether ,european or otherwise1 fails to recognise those limitations to his power over nature which seem so obvious to us4 ,in a society where every man is supposed to be endowed more or less with powers which we should call supernatural1 it is plain that the distinction between gods and men is somewhat blurred1 or rather has scarcely emerged4 ,the conception of gods as supernatural beings entirely distinct from and superior to man1 and wielding powers to which he possesses nothing comparable in degree and hardly even in kind1 has been slowly evolved in the course of history4 ,at first the supernatural agents are not regarded as greatly1 if at all1 superior to man2 for they may be frightened and coerced by him into doing his will4 ,at this stage of thought the world is viewed as a great democracy2 all beings in it1 whether natural or supernatural1 are supposed to stand on a footing of tolerable equality4 ,but with the growth of his knowledge man learns to realise more clearly the vastness of nature and his own littleness and feebleness in presence of it4 ,the recognition of his own helplessness does not1 however1 carry with it a corresponding belief in the impotence of those supernatural beings with which his imagination peoples the universe4 ,on the contrary it enhances his conception of their power4 ,for the idea of the world as a system of impersonal forces acting in accordance with fixed and invariable laws has not yet fully dawned or darkened upon him4 ,the germ of the idea he certainly has1 and he acts upon it1 not only in magic art1 but in much of the business of daily life4 ,but the idea remains undeveloped1 and so far as he attempts consciously to explain the world he lives in1 he pictures it as the manifestation of conscious will and personal agency4 ,if then he feels himself to be so frail and slight1 how vast and powerful must he deem the beings who control the gigantic machinery of nature6 ,thus as his old sense of equality with the gods slowly vanishes1 he resigns at the same time the hope of directing the course of nature by his own unaided resources1 that is1 by magic1 and looks more and more to the gods as the sole repositories of those supernatural powers which he once claimed to share with them4 ,with the first advance of knowledge1 therefore1 prayer and sacrifice assume the leading place in religious ritual2 and magic1 which once ranked with them as a legitimate equal1 is gradually relegated to the background and sinks to the level of a black art4 ,it is now regarded as an encroachment1 at once vain and impious1 on the domain of the gods1 and as such encounters the steady opposition of the priests1 whose reputation and influence gain or lose with those of their gods4 ,hence1 when at a late period the distinction between religion and superstition has emerged1 we find that sacrifice and prayer are the resource of the pious and enlightened portion of the community1 while magic is the refuge of the superstitious and ignorant4 ,but when1 still later1 the conception of the elemental forces as personal agents is giving way to the recognition of natural law2 then magic1 based as it implicitly is on the idea of a necessary and invariable sequence of cause and effect1 independent of personal will1 reappears from the obscurity and discredit into which it had fallen1 and by investigating the causal sequences in nature1 directly prepares the way for science4 ,alchemy leads up to chemistry4 ,the notion of a man-god or of a human being endowed with divine or supernatural powers1 belongs essentially to that earlier period of religious history in which gods and men are still viewed as beings of much the same order1 and before they are divided by the impassable gulf which1 to later thought1 opens out between them4 ,strange1 therefore1 as may seem to us the idea of a god incarnate in human form1 it has nothing very startling for early man1 who sees in a man-god or a god-man only a higher degree of the same supernatural powers which he arrogates in perfect good faith to himself4 ,such incarnate gods are common in rude society4 ,the incarnation may be temporary or permanent4 ,in the former case1 the incarnation--commonly known as inspiration or possession--reveals itself in supernatural knowledge rather than in supernatural power4 ,in other words1 its usual manifestations are divination and prophesy rather than miracles4 ,on the other hand1 when the incarnation is not merely temporary1 when the divine spirit has permanently taken up its abode in a human body1 the god-man is usually expected to vindicate his character by working miracles4 ,only we have to remember that by men at this stage of thought miracles are not considered as breaches of natural law4 ,not conceiving the existence of natural law1 primitive man cannot conceive a breach of it4 ,a miracle is to him merely an unusually striking manifestation of a common power4 ,the belief in temporary incarnation or inspiration is world-wide4 ,certain persons are supposed to be possessed from time to time by a spirit or deity2 while the possession lasts1 their own personality lies in abeyance1 the presence of the spirit is revealed by convulsive shiverings and shakings of the man's whole body1 by wild gestures and excited looks1 all of which are referred1 not to the man himself1 but to the spirit which has entered into him2 and in this abnormal state all his utterances are accepted as the voice of the god or spirit dwelling in him and speaking through him4 ,in ,mangaia the priests in whom the gods took up their abode from time to time were called 8god-boxes0 or1 for shortness1 8gods40 ,before giving oracles as gods1 they drank an intoxicating liquor1 and in the frenzy thus produced their wild words were received as the voice of the god47#abh7 ,but examples of such temporary inspiration are so common in every part of the world and are now so familiar through books on ethnology1 that it is needless to cite illustrations of the general principle47#abi7 ,it may be well1 however1 to refer to two particular modes of producing temporary inspiration1 because they are perhaps less known than some others1 and because we shall have occasion to refer to them later on4 ,one of these modes of producing inspiration is by sucking the fresh blood of a sacrificed victim4 ,in the temple of ,apollo ,diradiotes at ,argos1 a lamb was sacrificed by night once a month2 a woman1 who had to observe a rule of chastity1 tasted the blood of the lamb1 and thus being inspired by the god she prophesied or divined47#acj7 ,at ,aegira in ,achaea the priestess of ,earth drank the fresh blood of a bull before she descended into the cave to prophesy47#aca7 ,in ,southern ,india a devil-dancer 8drinks the blood of the sacrifice1 putting the throat of the decapitated goat to his mouth4 ,then1 as if he had acquired new life1 he begins to brandish his staff of bells1 and to dance with a quick but wild unsteady step4 ,suddenly the afflatus descends4 ,there is no mistaking that glare1 or those frantic leaps4 ,he snorts1 he stares1 he gyrates4 ,the demon has now taken bodily possession of him2 and1 though he retains the power of utterance and of motion1 both are under the demon's control1 and his separate consciousness is in abeyance4444 ,the devil-dancer is now worshipped as a present deity1 and every bystander consults him respecting his disease1 his wants1 the welfare of his absent relatives1 the offerings to be made for the accomplishment of his wishes1 and1 in short1 respecting everything for which superhuman knowledge is supposed to be available407#acb7 ,at a festival of the ,minahassa in northern ,celebes1 after a pig has been killed1 the priest rushes furiously at it1 thrusts his head into the carcass and drinks of the blood4 ,then he is dragged away from it by force and set on a chair1 whereupon he begins to prophesy how the rice crop will turn out that year4 ,a second time he runs at the carcass and drinks of the blood2 a second time he is forced into the chair and continues his predictions4 ,it is thought there is a spirit in him which possesses the power of prophecy47#acc7 ,at ,rhetra1 a great religious capital of the ,western ,slavs1 the priest tasted the blood of the sacrificed oxen and sheep in order the better to prophesy47#acd7 ,the true test of a ,dainyal or diviner among some of the ,hindoo ,koosh tribes is to suck the blood from the neck of a decapitated goat47#ace7 ,the other mode of producing temporary inspiration1 to which ,i shall here refer1 is by means of a branch or leaves of a sacred tree4 ,thus in the ,hindoo ,koosh a fire is kindled with twigs of the sacred cedar2 and the ,dainyal or sibyl1 with a cloth over her head1 inhales the thick pungent smoke till she is seized with convulsions and falls senseless to the ground4 ,soon she rises and raises a shrill chant1 which is caught up and loudly repeated by her audience47#acf7 ,so ,apollo's prophetess ate the sacred laurel before she prophesied47#acg7 ,it is worth observing that many peoples expect the victim as well as the priest or prophet to give signs of inspiration by convulsive movements of the body2 and if the animal remains obstinately steady1 they esteem it unfit for sacrifice4 ,thus when the ,yakuts sacrifice to an evil spirit1 the beast must bellow and roll about1 which is considered a token that the evil spirit has entered into it47#ach7 ,apollo's prophetess could give no oracles unless the victim to be sacrificed trembled in every limb when the wine was poured on its head4 ,but for ordinary ,greek sacrifices it was enough that the victim should shake its head2 to make it do so1 water was poured on it47#aci7 ,many other peoples 7,tonquinese1 ,hindoos1 ,chuwash1 etc47 have adopted the same test of a suitable victim2 they pour water or wine on its head2 if the animal shakes its head it is accepted for sacrifice2 if it does not1 it is rejected47#adj7 ,the person temporarily inspired is believed to acquire1 not merely divine knowledge1 but also1 at least occasionally1 divine power4 ,in ,cambodia1 when an epidemic breaks out1 the inhabitants of several villages unite and go with a band of music at their head to look for the man whom the local god is believed to have chosen for his temporary incarnation4 ,when found1 the man is taken to the altar of the god1 where the mystery of incarnation takes place4 ,then the man becomes an object of veneration to his fellows1 who implore him to protect the village against the plague47#ada7 ,the image of ,apollo at ,hyl in ,phocis was believed to impart superhuman strength4 ,sacred men1 inspired by it1 leaped down precipices1 tore up huge trees by the roots1 and carried them on their backs along the narrowest defiles47#adb7 ,the feats performed by inspired dervishes belong to the same class4 ,thus far we have seen that the savage1 failing to discern the limits of his ability to control nature1 ascribes to himself and to all men certain powers which we should now call supernatural4 ,further1 we have seen that over and above this general supernaturalism1 some persons are supposed to be inspired for short periods by a divine spirit1 and thus temporarily to enjoy the knowledge and power of the indwelling deity4 ,from beliefs like these it is an easy step to the conviction that certain men are permanently possessed by a deity1 or in some other undefined way are endued with so high a degree of supernatural powers as to be ranked as gods and to receive the homage of prayer and sacrifice4 ,sometimes these human gods are restricted to purely supernatural or spiritual functions4 ,sometimes they exercise supreme political power in addition4 ,in the latter case they are kings as well as gods1 and the government is a theocracy4 ,i shall give examples of both4 ,in the ,marquesas ,islands there was a class of men who were deified in their life-time4 ,they were supposed to wield a supernatural power over the elements2 they could give abundant harvests or smite the ground with barrenness2 and they could inflict disease or death4 ,human sacrifices were offered to them to avert their wrath4 ,there were not many of them1 at the most one or two in each island4 ,they lived in mystic seclusion4 ,their powers were sometimes1 but not always1 hereditary4 ,a missionary has described one of these human gods from personal observation4 ,the god was a very old man who lived in a large house within an enclosure4 ,in the house was a kind of altar1 and on the beams of the house and on the trees round it were hung human skeletons1 head down4 ,no one entered the enclosure1 except the persons dedicated to the service of the god2 only on days when human victims were sacrificed might ordinary people penetrate into the precinct4 ,this human god received more sacrifices than all the other gods2 often he would sit on a sort of scaffold in front of his house and call for two or three human victims at a time4 ,they were always brought1 for the terror he inspired was extreme4 ,he was invoked all over the island1 and offerings were sent to him from every side47#adc7 ,again1 of the ,south ,sea ,islands in general we are told that each island had a man who represented or personified the divinity4 ,such men were called gods1 and their substance was confounded with that of the deity4 ,the man-god was sometimes the king himself2 oftener he was a priest or subordinate chief47#add7 ,tanatoa1 ,king of ,raiatea1 was deified by a certain ceremony performed at the chief temple4 8,as one of the divinities of his subjects1 therefore1 the king was worshipped1 consulted as an oracle and had sacrifices and prayers offered to him407#ade7 ,this was not an exceptional case4 ,the kings of the island regularly enjoyed divine honours1 being deified at the time of their accession47#adf7 ,at his inauguration the king of ,tahiti received a sacred girdle of red and yellow feathers1 8which not only raised him to the highest earthly station1 but identified him with their gods407#adg7 ,the gods of ,samoa generally appeared in animal form1 but sometimes they were permanently incarnate in men1 who gave oracles1 received offerings 7occasionally of human flesh71 healed the sick1 answered prayers1 and so on47#adh7 ,in regard to the old religion of the ,fijians1 and especially of the inhabitants of ,somo-somo1 it is said that 8there appears to be no certain line of demarcation between departed spirits and gods1 nor between gods and living men1 for many of the priests and old chiefs are considered as sacred persons1 and not a few of them will also claim to themselves the right of divinity4 #8,i am a god1' ,tuikilakila would say2 and he believed it too407#adi7 ,in the ,pelew ,islands it is believed that every god can take possession of a man and speak through him4 ,the possession may be either temporary or permanent2 in the latter case the chosen person is called a korong4 ,the god is free in his choice1 so the position of korong is not hereditary4 ,after the death of a korong the god is for some time unrepresented1 until he suddenly makes his appearance in a new ,avatar4 ,the person thus chosen gives signs of the divine presence by behaving in a strange way2 he gapes1 runs about1 and performs a number of senseless acts4 ,at first people laugh at him1 but his sacred mission is in time recognised1 and he is invited to assume his proper position in the state4 ,generally this position is a distinguished one and confers on him a powerful influence over the whole community4 ,in some of the islands the god is political sovereign of the land2 and hence his new incarnation1 however humble his origin1 is raised to the same high rank1 and rules1 as god and king1 over all the other chiefs47#aej7 ,in time of public calamity1 as during war or pestilence1 some of the ,molucca ,islanders used to celebrate a festival of heaven4 ,if no good result followed1 they bought a slave1 took him at the next festival to the place of sacrifice1 and set him on a raised place under a certain bamboo-tree4 ,this tree represented heaven and had been honoured as its image at previous festivals4 ,the portion of the sacrifice which had previously been offered to heaven was now given to the slave1 who ate and drank it in the name and stead of heaven4 ,henceforth the slave was well treated1 kept for the festivals of heaven1 and employed to represent heaven and receive the offerings in its name47#aea7 ,in ,tonquin every village chooses its guardian spirit1 often in the form of an animal1 as a dog1 tiger1 cat1 or serpent4 ,sometimes a living person is selected as patron-divinity4 ,thus a beggar persuaded the people of a village that he was their guardian spirit2 so they loaded him with honours and entertained him with their best47#aeb7 ,in ,india 8every king is regarded as little short of a present god407#aec7 ,the ,indian law-book of ,manu goes farther and says that 8even an infant king must not be despised from an idea that he is a mere mortal2 for he is a great deity in human form407#aed7 ,there is said to be a sect in ,orissa who worship the ,queen of ,england as their chief divinity4 ,and to this day in ,india all living persons remarkable for great strength or valour or for supposed miraculous powers run the risk of being worshipped as gods4 ,thus1 a sect in the ,punjaub worshipped a deity whom they called ,nikkal ,sen4 ,this ,nikkal ,sen was no other than the redoubted ,general ,nicholson1 and nothing that the general could do or say damped the enthusiasm of his adorers4 ,the more he punished them1 the greater grew the religious awe with which they worshipped him47#aee7 ,amongst the ,todas1 a pastoral people of the ,neilgherry ,hills of ,southern ,india1 the dairy is a sanctuary1 and the milkman 7pll7 who attends to it is a god4 ,on being asked whether the ,todas salute the sun1 one of these divine milkmen replied1 8,those poor fellows do so1 but ,i10 tapping his chest1 8,i1 a god6 why should ,i salute the sun80 ,every one1 even his own father1 prostrates himself before the milkman1 and no one would dare to refuse him anything4 ,no human being1 except another milkman1 may touch him2 and he gives oracles to all who consult him1 speaking with the voice of a god47#aef7 ,the ,king of ,iddah told the ,english officers of the ,niger ,expedition1 8,god made me after his own image2 ,i am all the same as ,god2 and ,he appointed me a king407#aeg7 ,sometimes1 at the death of the human incarnation1 the divine spirit transmigrates into another man4 ,in the kingdom of ,kaffa1 in ,eastern ,africa1 the heathen part of the people worship a spirit called ,dece1 to whom they offer prayer and sacrifice1 and whom they invoke on all important occasions4 ,this spirit is incarnate in the grand magician or pope1 a person of great wealth and influence1 ranking almost with the king1 and wielding the spiritual1 as the king wields the temporal1 power4 ,it happened that1 shortly before the arrival of a ,christian missionary in the kingdom1 this ,african pope died1 and the priests1 fearing that the missionary would assume the position vacated by the deceased pope1 declared that the ,dece had passed into the king1 who henceforth1 uniting the spiritual with the temporal power1 reigned as god and king47#aeh7 ,before beginning to work at the salt-pans in a ,laosian village1 the workmen offer sacrifice to a local divinity4 ,this divinity is incarnate in a woman and transmigrates at her death into another woman47#aei7 ,in ,bhotan the spiritual head of the government is a person called the ,dhurma ,raja1 who is supposed to be a perpetual incarnation of the deity4 ,at his death the new incarnate god shows himself in an infant by the refusal of his mother's milk and a preference for that of a cow47#afj7 ,the ,buddhist ,tartars believe in a great number of living ,buddhas1 who officiate as ,grand ,lamas at the head of the most important monasteries4 ,when one of these ,grand ,lamas dies his disciples do not sorrow1 for they know that he will soon reappear1 being born in the form of an infant4 ,their only anxiety is to discover the place of his birth4 ,if at this time they see a rainbow they take it as a sign sent them by the departed ,lama to guide them to his cradle4 ,sometimes the divine infant himself reveals his identity4 8,i am the ,grand ,lama10 he says1 8the living ,buddha of such and such a temple4 ,take me to my old monastery4 ,i am its immortal head40 ,in whatever way the birthplace of the ,buddha is revealed1 whether by the ,buddha's own avowal or by the sign in the sky1 tents are struck1 and the joyful pilgrims1 often headed by the king or one of the most illustrious of the royal family1 set forth to find and bring home the infant god4 ,generally he is born in ,tibet1 the holy land1 and to reach him the caravan has often to traverse the most frightful deserts4 ,when at last they find the child they fall down and worship him4 ,before1 however1 he is acknowledged as the ,grand ,lama whom they seek he must satisfy them of his identity4 ,he is asked the name of the monastery of which he claims to be the head1 how far off it is1 and how many monks live in it2 he must also describe the habits of the deceased ,grand ,lama and the manner of his death4 ,then various articles1 as prayer-books1 tea-pots1 and cups1 are placed before him1 and he has to point out those used by himself in his previous life4 ,if he does so without a mistake his claims are admitted1 and he is conducted in triumph to the monastery47#afa7 ,at the head of all the ,lamas is the ,dalai ,lama of ,lhasa1 the ,rome of ,tibet4 ,he is regarded as a living god and at death his divine and immortal spirit is born again in a child4 ,according to some accounts the mode of discovering the ,dalai ,lama is similar to the method1 already described1 of discovering an ordinary ,grand ,lama4 ,other accounts speak of an election by lot4 ,wherever he is born1 the trees and plants1 it is said1 put forth green leaves2 at his bidding flowers bloom and springs of water rise2 and his presence diffuses heavenly blessings4 ,his palace stands on a commanding height2 its gilded cupolas are seen sparkling in the sunlight for miles47#afb7 ,issuing from the sultry valleys upon the lofty plateau of the ,colombian ,andes1 the ,spanish conquerors were astonished to find1 in contrast to the savage hordes they had left in the sweltering jungles below1 a people enjoying a fair degree of civilisation1 practising agriculture1 and living under a government which ,humboldt has compared to the theocracies of ,tibet and ,japan4 ,these were the ,chibchas1 ,muyscas1 or ,mozcas1 divided into two kingdoms1 with capitals at ,bogota and ,tunja1 but united apparently in spiritual allegiance to the high pontiff of ,sogamozo or ,iraca4 ,by a long and ascetic novitiate1 this ghostly ruler was reputed to have acquired such sanctity that the waters and the rain obeyed him1 and the weather depended on his will47#afc7 ,weather kings are common in ,africa4 ,thus the ,waganda of ,central ,africa believe in a god of ,lake ,nyanza1 who sometimes takes up his abode in a man or woman4 ,the incarnate god is much feared by all the people1 including the king and the chiefs4 ,he is consulted as an oracle2 by his word he can inflict or heal sickness1 withhold rain1 and cause famine4 ,large presents are made him when his advice is sought47#afd7 ,often the king himself is supposed to control the weather4 ,the king of ,loango is honoured by his people 8as though he were a god2 and he is called ,sambee and ,pango1 which mean god4 ,they believe that he can let them have rain when he likes2 and once a year1 in ,december1 which is the time they want rain1 the people come to beg of him to grant it to them40 ,on this occasion the king1 standing on his throne1 shoots an arrow into the air1 which is supposed to bring on rain47#afe7 ,much the same is said of the king of ,mombaza47#aff7 ,the king of ,quiteva1 in ,eastern ,africa1 ranks with the deity2 8indeed1 the ,caffres acknowledge no other gods than their monarch1 and to him they address those prayers which other nations are wont to prefer to heaven4444 ,hence these unfortunate beings1 under the persuasion that their king is a deity1 exhaust their utmost means and ruin themselves in gifts to obtain with more facility what they need4 ,thus1 prostrate at his feet1 they implore of him1 when the weather long continues dry1 to intercede with heaven that they may have rain2 and when too much rain has fallen1 that they may have fair weather2 thus1 also1 in case of winds1 storms1 and everything1 they would either deprecate or implore407#afg7 ,amongst the ,barotse1 a tribe on the upper ,zambesi1 8there is an old1 but waning belief1 that a chief is a demigod1 and in heavy thunderstorms the ,barotse flock to the chief's yard for protection from the lightning4 ,i have been greatly distressed at seeing them fall on their knees before the chief1 entreating him to open the water-pots of heaven and send rain upon their gardens4444 ,the king's servants declare themselves to be invincible1 because they are the servants of ,god 7meaning the king7407#afh7 ,the chief of ,mowat1 ,new ,guinea1 is believed to have the power of affecting the growth of crops for good or ill1 and of coaxing the dugong and turtle to come from all parts and allow themselves to be taken47#afi7 ,amongst the ,antaymours of ,madagascar the king is responsible for the growth of the crops and for every misfortune that befalls the people47#agj7 ,in many places the king is punished if rain does not fall and the crops do not turn out well4 ,thus1 in some parts of ,west ,africa1 when prayers and offerings presented to the king have failed to procure rain1 his subjects bind him with ropes and take him by force to the grave of his forefathers1 that he may obtain from them the needed rain47#aga7 ,it appears that the ,scythians also1 when food was scarce1 put their king in bonds47#agb7 ,the ,banjars in ,west ,africa ascribe to their king the power of causing rain or fine weather4 ,so long as the weather is fine they load him with presents of grain and cattle4 ,but if long drought or rain threatens to spoil the crops1 they insult and beat him till the weather changes47#agc7 ,when the harvest fails or the surf on the coast is too heavy to allow of fishing1 the people of ,loango accuse their king of a 8bad heart0 and depose him47#agd7 ,on the ,pepper ,coast the high priest or ,bodio is responsible for the health of the community1 the fertility of the earth1 and the abundance of fish in the sea and rivers2 and if the country suffers in any of these respects the ,bodio is deposed from his office47#age7 ,so the ,burgundians of old deposed their king if the crops failed47#agf7 ,some peoples have gone further and killed their kings in times of scarcity4 ,thus1 in the time of the ,swedish king ,domalde a mighty famine broke out1 which lasted several years1 and could be stayed by the blood neither of beasts nor of men4 ,so1 in a great popular assembly held at ,upsala1 the chiefs decided that king ,domalde himself was the cause of the scarcity and must be sacrificed for good seasons4 ,so they slew him and smeared with his blood the altars of the gods4 ,again1 we are told that the ,swedes always attributed good or bad crops to their kings as the cause4 ,now1 in the reign of ,king ,olaf1 there came dear times and famine1 and the people thought that the fault was the king's1 because he was sparing in his sacrifices4 ,so1 mustering an army1 they marched against him1 surrounded his dwelling1 and burned him in it1 8giving him to ,odin as a sacrifice for good crops407#agg7 ,in #ahad1 a pestilence having broken out among the reindeer of the ,chukch1 the ,shamans declared that the beloved chief ,koch must be sacrificed to the angry gods2 so the chief's own son stabbed him with a dagger47#agh7 ,on the coral island of ,niu1 or ,savage ,island1 in the ,south ,pacific1 there formerly reigned a line of kings4 ,but as the kings were also high priests1 and were supposed to make the food grow1 the people became angry with them in times of scarcity and killed them2 till at last1 as one after another was killed1 no one would be king1 and the monarchy came to an end47#agi7 ,as in these cases the divine kings1 so in ancient ,egypt the divine beasts1 were responsible for the course of nature4 ,when pestilence and other calamities had fallen on the land1 in consequence of a long and severe drought1 the priests took the sacred animals secretly by night1 and threatened them1 but if the evil did not abate they slew the beasts47#ahj7 ,from this survey of the religious position occupied by the king in rude societies we may infer that the claim to divine and supernatural powers put forward by the monarchs of great historical empires like those of ,egypt1 ,mexico1 and ,peru1 was not the simple outcome of inflated vanity or the empty expression of a grovelling adulation2 it was merely a survival and extension of the old savage apotheosis of living kings4 ,thus1 for example1 as children of the ,sun the ,incas of ,peru were revered like gods2 they could do no wrong1 and no one dreamed of offending against the person1 honour1 or property of the monarch or of any of the royal race4 ,hence1 too1 the ,incas did not1 like most people1 look on sickness as an evil4 ,they considered it a messenger sent from their father the ,sun to call his son to come and rest with him in heaven4 ,therefore the usual words in which an ,inca announced his approaching end were these3 8,my father calls me to come and rest with him40 ,they would not oppose their father's will by offering sacrifice for recovery1 but openly declared that he had called them to his rest47#aha7 ,the ,mexican kings at their accession took an oath that they would make the sun to shine1 the clouds to give rain1 the rivers to flow1 and the earth to bring forth fruits in abundance47#ahb7 ,by ,chinese custom the emperor is deemed responsible if the drought be at all severe1 and many are the self-condemnatory edicts on this subject published in the pages of the ,peking ,gazette4 ,however it is rather as a high priest than as a god that the ,chinese emperor bears the blame2 for in extreme cases he seeks to remedy the evil by personally offering prayers and sacrifices to heaven47#ahc7 ,the ,parthian monarchs of the ,arsacid house styled themselves brothers of the sun and moon and were worshipped as deities4 ,it was esteemed sacrilege to strike even a private member of the ,arsacid family in a brawl47#ahd7 ,the kings of ,egypt were deified in their lifetime1 and their worship was celebrated in special temples and by special priests4 ,indeed the worship of the kings sometimes cast that of the gods into the shade4 ,thus in the reign of ,merenra a high official declared that he had built many holy places in order that the spirits of the king1 the ever-living ,merenra1 might be invoked 8more than all the gods407#ahe7 ,the ,king of ,egypt seems to have shared with the sacred animals the blame of any failure of the crops47#ahf7 ,he was addressed as 8,lord of heaven1 lord of earth1 sun1 life of the whole world1 lord of time1 measurer of the sun's course1 ,tum for men1 lord of well-being1 creator of the harvest1 maker and fashioner of mortals1 bestower of breath upon all men1 giver of life to all the host of gods1 pillar of heaven1 threshold of the earth1 weigher of the equipoise of both worlds1 lord of rich gifts1 increaser of the corn0 etc47#ahg7 ,yet1 as we should expect1 the exalted powers thus ascribed to the king differed in degree rather than in kind from those which every ,egyptian claimed for himself4 ,tiele observes that 8as every good man at his death became ,osiris1 as every one in danger or need could by the use of magic sentences assume the form of a deity1 it is quite comprehensible how the king1 not only after death1 but already during his life1 was placed on a level with the deity407#ahh7 ,thus it appears that the same union of sacred functions with a royal title which meets us in the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1 the ,sacrificial ,king at ,rome and the ,king ,archon at ,athens1 occurs frequently outside the limits of classical antiquity and is a common feature of societies at all stages from barbarism to civilisation4 ,further1 it appears that the royal priest is often a king in fact as well as in name1 swaying the sceptre as well as the crosier4 ,all this confirms the tradition of the origin of the titular and priestly kings in the republics of ancient ,greece and ,italy4 ,at least by showing that the combination of spiritual and temporal power1 of which ,graeco-,italian tradition preserved the memory1 has actually existed in many places1 we have obviated any suspicion of improbability that might have attached to the tradition4 ,therefore we may now fairly ask1 ,may not the ,king of the ,wood have had an origin like that which a probable tradition assigns to the ,sacrificial ,king of ,rome and the ,king ,archon of ,athens8 ,in other words1 may not his predecessors in office have been a line of kings whom a republican revolution stripped of their political power1 leaving them only their religious functions and the shadow of a crown8 ,there are at least two reasons for answering this question in the negative4 ,one reason is drawn from the abode of the priest of ,nemi2 the other from his title1 the ,king of the ,wood4 ,if his predecessors had been kings in the ordinary sense1 he would surely have been found residing1 like the fallen kings of ,rome and ,athens1 in the city of which the sceptre had passed from him4 ,this city must have been ,aricia1 for there was none nearer4 ,but ,aricia1 as we have seen1 was three miles off from his forest sanctuary by the lake shore4 ,if he reigned1 it was not in the city1 but in the greenwood4 ,again his title1 ,king of the ,wood1 hardly allows us to suppose that he had ever been a king in the common sense of the word4 ,more likely he was a king of nature1 and of a special side of nature1 namely1 the woods from which he took his title4 ,if we could find instances of what we may call departmental kings of nature1 that is of persons supposed to rule over particular elements or aspects of nature1 they would probably present a closer analogy to the ,king of the ,wood than the divine kings we have been hitherto considering1 whose control of nature is general rather than special4 ,instances of such departmental kings are not wanting4 ,on a hill at ,bomma 7the mouth of the ,congo7 dwells ,namvulu ,vumu1 ,king of the ,rain and ,storm47#ahi7 ,of some of the tribes on the ,upper ,nile we are told that they have no kings in the common sense2 the only persons whom they acknowledge as such are the ,kings of the ,rain1 ,mata ,kodou1 who are credited with the power of giving rain at the proper time1 that is in the rainy season4 ,before the rains begin to fall at the end of ,march the country is a parched and arid desert2 and the cattle1 which form the people's chief wealth1 perish for lack of grass4 ,so1 when the end of ,march draws on1 each householder betakes himself to the ,king of the ,rain and offers him a cow that he may make the rain to fall soon4 ,if no shower falls1 the people assemble and demand that the king shall give them rain2 and if the sky still continues cloudless1 they rip up his belly in which he is believed to keep the storms4 ,amongst the ,bari tribe one of these ,rain ,kings made rain by sprinkling water on the ground out of a hand-bell47#aij7 ,among tribes on the outskirts of ,abyssinia a similar office exists and has been thus described by an observer4 8,the priesthood of the ,alfai1 as he is called by the ,barea and ,kunma1 is a remarkable one2 he is believed to be able to make rain4 ,this office formerly existed among the ,algeds and appears to be still common to the ,nuba negroes4 ,the ,alfai of the ,bareas1 who is also consulted by the northern ,kunma1 lives near ,tembdere on a mountain alone with his family4 ,the people bring him tribute in the form of clothes and fruits1 and cultivate for him a large field of his own4 ,he is a kind of king1 and his office passes by inheritance to his brother or sister's son4 ,he is supposed to conjure down rain and to drive away the locusts4 ,but if he disappoints the people's expectation and a great drought arises in the land1 the ,alfai is stoned to death1 and his nearest relations are obliged to cast the first stone at him4 ,when we passed through the country1 the office of ,alfai was still held by an old man2 but ,i heard that rain-making had proved too dangerous for him and that he had renounced his office407#aia7 ,in the backwoods of ,cambodia live two mysterious sovereigns known as the ,king of the ,fire and the ,king of the ,water4 ,their fame is spread all over the south of the great ,indo-,chinese peninsula2 but only a faint echo of it has reached the ,west4 ,no ,european1 so far as is known1 has ever seen them2 and their very existence might have passed for a fable1 were it not that till a few years ago communications were regularly maintained between them and the ,king of ,cambodia1 who year by year exchanged presents with them4 ,the ,cambodian gifts were passed from tribe to tribe till they reached their destination2 for no ,cambodian would essay the long and perilous journey4 ,the tribe amongst whom the ,kings of ,fire and ,water reside is the ,chrais or ,jaray1 a race with ,european features but a sallow complexion1 inhabiting the forest-clad mountains and high plateaux which separate ,cambodia from ,annam4 ,their royal functions are of a purely mystic or spiritual order2 they have no political authority2 they are simple peasants1 living by the sweat of their brow and the offerings of the faithful4 ,according to one account they live in absolute solitude1 never meeting each other and never seeing a human face4 ,they inhabit successively seven towers perched upon seven mountains1 and every year they pass from one tower to another4 ,people come furtively and cast within their reach what is needful for their subsistence4 ,the kingship lasts seven years1 the time necessary to inhabit all the towers successively2 but many die before their time is out4 ,the offices are hereditary in one or 7according to others7 two royal families1 who enjoy high consideration1 have revenues assigned to them1 and are exempt from the necessity of tilling the ground4 ,but naturally the dignity is not coveted1 and when a vacancy occurs1 all eligible men 7they must be strong and have children7 flee and hide themselves4 ,another account1 admitting the reluctance of the hereditary candidates to accept the crown1 does not countenance the report of their hermit-like seclusion in the seven towers4 ,for it represents the people as prostrating themselves before the mystic kings whenever they appear in public1 it being thought that a terrible hurricane would burst over the country if this mark of homage were omitted4 ,the same report says that the ,fire ,king1 the more important of the two1 and whose supernatural powers have never been questioned1 officiates at marriages1 festivals1 and sacrifices in honour of the ,yan4 ,on these occasions a special place is set apart for him2 and the path by which he approaches is spread with white cotton cloths4 ,a reason for confining the royal dignity to the same family is that this family is in possession of certain famous talismans which would lose their virtue or disappear if they passed out of the family4 ,these talismans are three3 the fruit of a creeper called ,cui1 gathered ages ago but still fresh and green2 a rattan1 also very old and still not dry2 lastly a sword containing a ,yan or spirit1 who guards it constantly and works miracles with it4 ,to this wondrous brand sacrifices of buffaloes1 pigs1 fowls1 and ducks are offered for rain4 ,it is kept swathed in cotton and silk2 and amongst the annual presents sent by the ,king of ,cambodia were rich stuffs to wrap the sacred sword4 ,in return the ,kings of ,fire and ,water sent him a huge wax candle and two calabashes1 one full of rice and the other of sesame4 ,the candle bore the impress of the ,fire ,king's middle finger4 ,probably the candle was thought to contain the seed of fire1 which the ,cambodian monarch thus received once a year fresh from the ,fire ,king himself4 ,the holy candle was kept for sacred uses4 ,on reaching the capital of ,cambodia it was entrusted to the ,brahmans1 who laid it up beside the regalia1 and with the wax made tapers which were burned on the altars on solemn days4 ,as the candle was the special gift of the ,fire ,king1 we may conjecture that the rice and sesame were the special gift of the ,water ,king4 ,the latter was doubtless king of rain as well as of water1 and the fruits of the earth were boons conferred by him on men4 ,in times of calamity1 as during plague1 floods1 and war1 a little of this sacred rice and sesame was scattered on the ground 8to appease the wrath of the maleficent spirits407#aib7 ,these1 then1 are examples of what ,i have called departmental kings of nature4 ,but it is a far cry to ,italy from the forests of ,cambodia and the sources of the ,nile4 ,and though ,kings of ,rain1 ,water and ,fire have been found1 we have still to discover a ,king of the ,wood to match the ,arician priest who bore that title4 ,perhaps we shall find him nearer home4 #d4--,tree-worship4 ,in the religious history of the ,aryan race in ,europe the worship of trees has played an important part4 ,nothing could be more natural4 ,for at the dawn of history ,europe was covered with immense primeval forests1 in which the scattered clearings must have appeared like islets in an ocean of green4 ,down to the first century before our era the ,hercynian forest stretched eastward from the ,rhine for a distance at once vast and unknown2 ,germans whom ,caesar questioned had travelled for two months through it without reaching the end47#aic7 ,in our own country the wealds of ,kent1 ,surrey1 and ,sussex are remnants of the great forest of ,anderida1 which once clothed the whole of the south eastern portion of the island4 ,westward it seems to have stretched till it joined another forest that extended from ,hampshire to ,devon4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,ii the citizens of ,london still hunted the wild bull and the boar in the forest of ,hampstead4 ,even under the later ,plantagenets the royal forests were sixty-eight in number4 ,in the forest of ,arden it was said that down to modern times a squirrel might leap from tree to tree for nearly the whole length of ,warwickshire47#aid7 ,the excavation of prehistoric pile-villages in the valley of the ,po has shown that long before the rise and probably the foundation of ,rome the north of ,italy was covered with dense forests of elms1 chestnuts1 and especially of oaks47#aie7 ,archaeology is here confirmed by history2 for classical writers contain many references to ,italian forests which have now disappeared47#aif7 ,in ,greece the woods of the present day are a mere fraction of those which clothed great tracts in antiquity1 and which at a more remote epoch may have spanned the ,greek peninsula from sea to sea47#aig7 ,from an examination of the ,teutonic words for 8temple0 ,grimm has made it probable that amongst the ,germans the oldest sanctuaries were natural woods47#aih7 ,however this may be1 tree-worship is well attested for all the great ,european families of the ,aryan stock4 ,amongst the ,celts the oak-worship of the ,druids is familiar to every one47#aii7 ,sacred groves were common among the ancient ,germans1 and tree-worship is hardly extinct amongst their descendants at the present day47#bjj7 ,at ,upsala1 the old religious capital of ,sweden1 there was a sacred grove in which every tree was regarded as divine47#bja7 ,amongst the ancient ,prussians 7a ,slavonian people7 the central feature of religion was the reverence for the sacred oaks1 of which the chief stood at ,romove1 tended by a hierarchy of priests who kept up a perpetual fire of oak-wood in the holy grove47#bjb7 ,the ,lithuanians were not converted to ,christianity till towards the close of the fourteenth century1 and amongst them at the date of their conversion the worship of trees was prominent47#bjc7 ,proofs of the prevalence of tree-worship in ancient ,greece and ,italy are abundant47#bjd7 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 in the ancient world was this antique form of religion better preserved than in the heart of the great metropolis itself4 ,in the ,forum1 the busy centre of ,roman life1 the sacred fig-tree of ,romulus was worshipped down to the days of the empire1 and the withering of its trunk was enough to spread consternation through the city47#bje7 ,again1 on the slope of the ,palatine ,hill grew a cornel-tree which was esteemed one of the most sacred objects in ,rome4 ,whenever the tree appeared to a passer-by to be drooping1 he set up a hue and cry which was echoed by the people in the street1 and soon a crowd might be seen running from all sides with buckets of water1 as if 7says ,plutarch7 they were hastening to put out a fire47#bjf7 ,but it is necessary to examine in some detail the notions on which tree-worship is based4 ,to the savage the world in general is animate1 and trees are no exception to the rule4 ,he thinks that they have souls like his own and he treats them accordingly4 ,thus the ,wanika in ,eastern ,africa fancy that every tree and especially every cocoa-nut tree has its spirit3 8the destruction of a cocoa-nut tree is regarded as equivalent to matricide1 because that tree gives them life and nourishment1 as a mother does her child407#bjg7 ,siamese monks1 believing that there are souls everywhere and that to destroy anything whatever is forcibly to dispossess a soul1 will not break a branch of a tree 8as they will not break the arm of an innocent person407#bjh7 ,these monks1 of course1 are ,buddhists4 ,but ,buddhist animism is not a philosophical theory4 ,it is simply a common savage dogma incorporated in the system of an historical religion4 ,to suppose with ,benfey and others that the theories of animism and transmigration current among rude peoples of ,asia are derived from ,buddhism is to reverse the facts4 ,buddhism in this respect borrowed from savagery1 not savagery from ,buddhism4 ,again1 the ,dyaks ascribe souls to trees and do not dare to cut down an old tree4 ,in some places1 when an old tree has been blown down1 they set it up1 smear it with blood1 and deck it with flags 8to appease the soul of the tree407#bji7 ,people in ,congo place calabashes of palm-wine at the foot of certain trees for the trees to drink when they are thirsty47#baj7 ,in ,india shrubs and trees are formally married to each other or to idols47#baa7 ,in the ,north ,west ,provinces of ,india a marriage ceremony is performed in honour of a newly-planted orchard2 a man holding the ,salagram represents the bridegroom1 and another holding the sacred ,tulsi 7,ocymum sanctum7 represents the bride47#bab7 ,on ,christmas ,eve ,german peasants used to tie fruit-trees together with straw ropes to make them bear fruit1 saying that the trees were thus married47#bac7 ,in the ,moluccas when the clove-trees are in blossom they are treated like pregnant women4 ,no noise must be made near them2 no light or fire must be carried past them at night2 no one must approach them with his hat on1 but must uncover his head4 ,these precautions are observed lest the tree should be frightened and bear no fruit1 or should drop its fruit too soon1 like the untimely delivery of a woman who has been frightened in her pregnancy47#bad7 ,so when the paddy 7rice7 is in bloom the ,javanese say it is pregnant and make no noises 7fire no guns1 etc47 near the field1 fearing that if they did so the crop would be all straw and no grain47#bae7 ,in ,orissa1 also1 growing rice is 8considered as a pregnant woman1 and the same ceremonies are observed with regard to it as in the case of human females407#baf7 ,conceived as animate1 trees are necessarily supposed to feel injuries done to them4 ,when an oak is being felled 8it gives a kind of shriekes or groanes1 that may be heard a mile off1 as if it were the genius of the oake lamenting4 ,e4 ,wyld1 ,esq41 hath heard it severall times407#bag7 ,the ,ojebways 8very seldom cut down green or living trees1 from the idea that it puts them to pain1 and some of their medicine-men profess to have heard the wailing of the trees under the axe407#bah7 ,old peasants in some parts of ,austria still believe that forest-trees are animate1 and will not allow an incision to be made in the bark without special cause2 they have heard from their fathers that the tree feels the cut not less than a wounded man his hurt4 ,in felling a tree they beg its pardon47#bai7 ,so in ,jarkino the woodman craves pardon of the tree he cuts down47#bbj7 ,again1 when a tree is cut it is thought to bleed4 ,some ,indians dare not cut a certain plant1 because there comes out a red juice which they take for the blood of the plant47#bba7 ,in ,samoa there was a grove of trees which no one dared cut4 ,once some strangers tried to do so1 but blood flowed from the tree1 and the sacrilegious strangers fell ill and died47#bbb7 ,till #ahee there was a sacred larch-tree at ,nauders1 in the ,tyrol1 which was thought to bleed whenever it was cut2 moreover the steel was supposed to penetrate the woodman's body to the same depth that it penetrated the tree1 and the wound on the tree and on the man's body healed together47#bbc7 ,sometimes it is the souls of the dead which are believed to animate the trees4 ,the ,dieyerie tribe of ,south ,australia regard as very sacred certain trees1 which are supposed to be their fathers transformed2 hence they will not cut the trees down1 and protest against the settlers doing so47#bbd7 ,some of the ,philippine ,islanders believe that the souls of their forefathers are in certain trees1 which they therefore spare4 ,if obliged to fell one of these trees they excuse themselves to it by saying that it was the priest who made them fell it47#bbe7 ,in an ,annamite story an old fisherman makes an incision in the trunk of a tree which has drifted ashore2 but blood flows from the cut1 and it appears that an empress with her three daughters1 who had been cast into the sea1 are embodied in the tree47#bbf7 ,the story of ,polydorus will occur to readers of ,virgil4 ,in these cases the spirit is viewed as incorporate in the tree2 it animates the tree and must suffer and die with it4 ,but1 according to another and no doubt later view1 the tree is not the body1 but merely the abode of the tree-spirit1 which can quit the injured tree as men quit a dilapidated house4 ,thus when the ,pelew ,islanders are felling a tree1 they conjure the spirit of the tree to leave it and settle on another47#bbg7 ,the ,pdams of ,assam think that when a child is lost it has been stolen by the spirits of the wood4 ,so they retaliate on the spirits by cutting down trees till they find the child4 ,the spirits1 fearing to be left without a tree in which to lodge1 give up the child1 and it is found in the fork of a tree47#bbh7 ,before the ,katodis fell a forest-tree1 they choose a tree of the same kind and worship it by presenting a cocoa-nut1 burning incense1 applying a red pigment1 and begging it to bless the undertaking47#bbi7 ,the intention1 perhaps1 is to induce the spirit of the former tree to shift its quarters to the latter4 ,in clearing a wood1 a ,galeleze must not cut down the last tree till the spirit in it has been induced to go away47#bcj7 ,the ,mundaris have sacred groves which were left standing when the land was cleared1 lest the sylvan gods1 disquieted at the felling of the trees1 should abandon the place47#bca7 ,the ,miris in ,assam are unwilling to break up new land for cultivation so long as there is fallow land available2 for they fear to offend the spirits of the woods by cutting down trees unnecessarily47#bcb7 ,in ,sumatra1 so soon as a tree is felled1 a young tree is planted on the stump2 and some betel and a few small coins are also placed on it47#bcc7 ,here the purpose is unmistakable4 ,the spirit of the tree is offered a new home in the young tree planted on the stump of the old one1 and the offering of betel and money is meant to compensate him for the disturbance he has suffered4 ,so in the island of ,chedooba1 on felling a large tree1 one of the woodmen was always ready with a green sprig1 which he ran and placed on the middle of the stump the instant the tree fell47#bcd7 ,for the same purpose ,german woodmen make a cross upon the stump while the tree is falling1 in the belief that this enables the spirit of the tree to live upon the stump47#bce7 ,thus the tree is regarded1 sometimes as the body1 sometimes as merely the house of the tree-spirit2 and when we read of sacred trees which may not be cut down because they are the seat of spirits1 it is not always possible to say with certainty in which way the presence of the spirit in the tree is conceived4 ,in the following cases1 perhaps1 the trees are conceived as the dwelling-place of the spirits rather than as their bodies4 ,the old ,prussians1 it is said1 believed that gods inhabited high trees1 such as oaks1 from which they gave audible answers to inquirers2 hence these trees were not felled1 but worshipped as the homes of divinities47#bcf7 ,the great oak at ,romove was the especial dwelling-place of the god2 it was veiled with a cloth1 which was1 however1 removed to allow worshippers to see the sacred tree47#bcg7 ,the ,battas of ,sumatra have been known to refuse to cut down certain trees because they were the abode of mighty spirits which would resent the injury47#bch7 ,the ,curka ,coles of ,india believe that the tops of trees are inhabited by spirits which are disturbed by the cutting down of the trees and will take vengeance47#bci7 ,the ,samogitians thought that if any one ventured to injure certain groves1 or the birds or beasts in them1 the spirits would make his hands or feet crooked47#bdj7 ,even where no mention is made of wood-spirits1 we may generally assume that when a grove is sacred and inviolable1 it is so because it is believed to be either inhabited or animated by sylvan deities4 ,in ,livonia there is a sacred grove in which1 if any man fells a tree or breaks a branch1 he will die within the year47#bda7 ,the ,wotjaks have sacred groves4 ,a ,russian who ventured to hew a tree in one of them fell sick and died next day47#bdb7 ,sacrifices offered at cutting down trees are doubtless meant to appease the wood-spirits4 ,in ,gilgit it is usual to sprinkle goat's blood on a tree of any kind before cutting it down47#bdc7 ,before thinning a grove a ,roman farmer had to sacrifice a pig to the god or goddess of the grove47#bdd7 ,the priestly college of the ,arval ,brothers at ,rome had to make expiation when a rotten bough fell to the ground in the sacred grove1 or when an old tree was blown down by a storm or dragged down by a weight of snow on its branches47#bde7 ,when a tree comes to be viewed1 no longer as the body of the tree-spirit1 but simply as its dwelling-place which it can quit at pleasure1 an important advance has been made in religious thought4 ,animism is passing into polytheism4 ,in other words1 instead of regarding each tree as a living and conscious being1 man now sees in it merely a lifeless1 inert mass1 tenanted for a longer or shorter time by a supernatural being who1 as he can pass freely from tree to tree1 thereby enjoys a certain right of possession or lordship over the trees1 and1 ceasing to be a tree-soul1 becomes a forest god4 ,as soon as the tree-spirit is thus in a measure disengaged from each particular tree1 he begins to change his shape and assume the body of a man1 in virtue of a general tendency of early thought to clothe all abstract spiritual beings in concrete human form4 ,hence in classical art the sylvan deities are depicted in human shape1 their woodland character being denoted by a branch or some equally obvious symbol47#bdf7 ,but this change of shape does not affect the essential character of the tree-spirit4 ,the powers which he exercised as a tree-soul incorporate in a tree1 he still continues to wield as a god of trees4 ,this ,i shall now prove in detail4 ,i shall show1 first1 that trees considered as animate beings are credited with the power of making the rain to fall1 the sun to shine1 flocks and herds to multiply1 and women to bring forth easily2 and1 second1 that the very same powers are attributed to tree-gods conceived as anthropomorphic beings or as actually incarnate in living men4 ,first1 then1 trees or tree-spirits are believed to give rain and sunshine4 ,when the missionary ,jerome of ,prague was persuading the heathen ,lithuanians to fell their sacred groves1 a multitude of women besought the ,prince of ,lithuania to stop him1 saying that with the woods he was destroying the house of god from which they had been wont to get rain and sunshine47#bdg7 ,the ,mundaris in ,assam think if a tree in the sacred grove is felled1 the sylvan gods evince their displeasure by withholding rain47#bdh7 ,in ,cambodia each village or province has its sacred tree1 the abode of a spirit4 ,if the rains are late1 the people sacrifice to the tree47#bdi7 ,to extort rain from the tree-spirit a branch is sometimes dipped in water1 as we have seen above47#bej7 ,in such cases the spirit is doubtless supposed to be immanent in the branch1 and the water thus applied to the spirit produces rain by a sort of sympathetic magic1 exactly as we saw that in ,new ,caledonia the rain-makers pour water on a skeleton1 believing that the soul of the deceased will convert the water into rain47#bea7 ,there is hardly room to doubt that ,mannhardt is right in explaining as a rain-charm the ,european custom of drenching with water the trees which are cut at certain popular festivals1 as midsummer1 ,whitsuntide1 and harvest47#beb7 ,again1 tree-spirits make the crops to grow4 ,amongst the ,mundaris every village has its sacred grove1 and 8the grove deities are held responsible for the crops1 and are especially honoured at all the great agricultural festivals407#bec7 ,the negroes of the ,gold ,coast are in the habit of sacrificing at the foot of certain tall trees1 and they think that if one of these trees were felled1 all the fruits of the earth would perish47#bed7 ,swedish peasants stick a leafy branch in each furrow of their corn-fields1 believing that this will ensure an abundant crop47#bee7 ,the same idea comes out in the ,german and ,french custom of the ,harvest-,may4 ,this is a large branch or a whole tree1 which is decked with ears of corn1 brought home on the last waggon from the harvest-field1 and fastened on the roof of the farmhouse or of the barn1 where it remains for a year4 ,mannhardt has proved that this branch or tree embodies the tree-spirit conceived as the spirit of vegetation in general1 whose vivifying and fructifying influence is thus brought to bear upon the corn in particular4 ,hence in ,swabia the ,harvest-,may is fastened amongst the last stalks of corn left standing on the field2 in other places it is planted on the cornfield and the last sheaf cut is fastened to its trunk47#bef7 ,the ,harvest-,may of ,germany has its counterpart in the eiresione of ancient ,greece47#beg7 ,the eiresione was a branch of olive or laurel1 bound about with ribbons and hung with a variety of fruits4 ,this branch was carried in procession at a harvest festival and was fastened over the door of the house1 where it remained for a year4 ,the object of preserving the ,harvest-,may or the eiresione for a year is that the life-giving virtue of the bough may foster the growth of the crops throughout the year4 ,by the end of the year the virtue of the bough is supposed to be exhausted and it is replaced by a new one4 ,following a similar train of thought some of the ,dyaks of ,sarawak are careful at the rice harvest to take up the roots of a certain bulbous plant1 which bears a beautiful crown of white and fragrant flowers4 ,these roots are preserved with the rice in the granary and are planted again with the seed-rice in the following season2 for the ,dyaks say that the rice will not grow unless a plant of this sort be in the field47#beh7 ,customs like that of the ,harvest-,may appear to exist in ,india and ,africa4 ,at a harvest festival of the ,lhoosai of ,s4 ,e4 ,india the chief goes with his people into the forest and fells a large tree1 which is then carried into the village and set up in the midst4 ,sacrifice is offered1 and spirits and rice are poured over the tree4 ,the ceremony closes with a feast and a dance1 at which the unmarried men and girls are the only performers47#bei7 ,among the ,bechuanas the hack-thorn is very sacred1 and it would be a serious offence to cut a bough from it and carry it into the village during the rainy season4 ,but when the corn is ripe in the ear the people go with axes1 and each man brings home a branch of the sacred hack-thorn1 with which they repair the village cattle-yard47#bfj7 ,many tribes of ,s4 ,e4 ,africa will not cut down timber while the corn is green1 fearing that if they did so1 the crops would be destroyed by blight1 hail1 or early frost47#bfa7 ,again1 the fructifying power of the tree is put forth at seed-time as well as at harvest4 ,among the ,aryan tribes of ,gilgit1 on the north-western frontier of ,india1 the sacred tree is the ,chili1 a species of cedar 7,juniperus excelsa74 ,at the beginning of wheat-sowing the people receive from the ,raja's granary a quantity of wheat1 which is placed in a skin mixed with sprigs of the sacred cedar4 ,a large bonfire of the cedar wood is lighted1 and the wheat which is to be sown is held over the smoke4 ,the rest is ground and made into a large cake1 which is baked on the same fire and given to the ploughman47#bfb7 ,here the intention of fertilising the seed by means of the sacred cedar is unmistakable4 ,in all these cases the power of fostering the growth of crops1 and1 in general1 of cultivated plants1 is ascribed to trees4 ,the ascription is not unnatural4 ,for the tree is the largest and most powerful member of the vegetable kingdom1 and man is familiar with it before he takes to cultivating corn4 ,hence he naturally places the feebler and1 to him1 newer plant under the dominion of the older and more powerful4 ,again1 the tree-spirit makes the herds to multiply and blesses women with offspring4 ,the sacred ,chili or cedar of ,gilgit was supposed to possess this virtue in addition to that of fertilising the corn4 ,at the commencement of wheat-sowing three chosen unmarried youths1 after undergoing daily washing and purification for three days1 used to start for the mountain where the cedars grew1 taking with them wine1 oil1 bread1 and fruit of every kind4 ,having found a suitable tree they sprinkled the wine and oil on it1 while they ate the bread and fruit as a sacrificial feast4 ,then they cut off the branch and brought it to the village1 where1 amid general rejoicing1 it was placed on a large stone beside running water4 8,a goat was then sacrificed1 its blood poured over the cedar branch1 and a wild dance took place1 in which weapons were brandished about1 and the head of the slaughtered goat was borne aloft1 after which it was set up as a mark for arrows and bullet-practice4 ,every good shot was rewarded with a gourd full of wine and some of the flesh of the goat4 ,when the flesh was finished the bones were thrown into the stream and a general ablution took place1 after which every man went to his house taking with him a spray of the cedar4 ,on arrival at his house he found the door shut in his face1 and on his knocking for admission1 his wife asked1 #8,what have you brought8' ,to which he answered1 #8,if you want children1 ,i have brought them to you2 if you want food1 ,i have brought it2 if you want cattle1 ,i have brought them2 whatever you want1 ,i have it4' ,the door was then opened and he entered with his cedar spray4 ,the wife then took some of the leaves and pouring wine and water on them placed them on the fire1 and the rest were sprinkled with flour and suspended from the ceiling4 ,she then sprinkled flour on her husband's head and shoulders1 and addressed him thus3 #8,ai ,shiri ,bagerthum1 son of the fairies1 you have come from far6' ,shiri ,bagerthum1 #8the dreadful king1' being the form of address to the cedar when praying for wants to be fulfilled4 ,the next day the wife baked a number of cakes1 and taking them with her1 drove the family goats to the ,chili stone4 ,when they were collected round the stone1 she began to pelt them with pebbles1 invoking the ,chili at the same time4 ,according to the direction in which the goats ran off1 omens were drawn as to the number and sex of the kids expected during the ensuing year4 ,walnuts and pomegranates were then placed on the ,chili stone1 the cakes were distributed and eaten1 and the goats followed to pasture in whatever direction they showed a disposition to go4 ,for five days afterwards this song was sung in all the houses3-- #8,dread ,fairy ,king1 ,i sacrifice before you1 ,how nobly do you stand6 you have filled up my house1 ,you have brought me a wife when ,i had not one1 ,instead of daughters you have given me sons4 ,you have shown me the ways of right1 ,you have given me many children4' 07#bfc7 ,here the driving of the goats to the stone on which the cedar had been placed is clearly meant to impart to them the fertilising influence of the cedar4 ,in ,europe the ,may-tree 7,may-pole7 is supposed to possess similar powers over both women and cattle4 ,in some parts of ,germany on the #ast of ,may the peasants set up ,may-trees at the doors of stables and byres1 one ,may-tree for each horse and cow2 this is thought to make the cows yield much milk47#bfd7 ,camden says of the ,irish1 8,they fancy a green bough of a tree1 fastened on ,may-day against the house1 will produce plenty of milk that summer407#bfe7 ,on the #b;d of ,july some of the ,wends used to set up an oak-tree in the middle of the village with an iron cock fastened to its top2 then they danced round it1 and drove the cattle round it to make them thrive47#bff7 ,some of the ,esthonians believe in a mischievous spirit called ,metsik1 who lives in the forest and has the weal of the cattle in his hands4 ,every year a new image of him is prepared4 ,on an appointed day all the villagers assemble and make a straw man1 dress him in clothes1 and take him to the common pasture land of the village4 ,here the figure is fastened to a high tree1 round which the people dance noisily4 ,on almost every day of the year prayer and sacrifice are offered to him that he may protect the cattle4 ,sometimes the image of ,metsik is made of a corn-sheaf and fastened to a tall tree in the wood4 ,the people perform strange antics before it to induce ,metsik to guard the corn and the cattle47#bfg7 ,the ,circassians regard the pear-tree as the protector of cattle4 ,so they cut down a young pear-tree in the forest1 branch it1 and carry it home1 where it is adored as a divinity4 ,almost every house has one such pear-tree4 ,in autumn1 on the day of the festival1 it is carried into the house with great ceremony to the sound of music and amid the joyous cries of all the inmates1 who compliment it on its fortunate arrival4 ,it is covered with candles1 and a cheese is fastened to its top4 ,round about it they eat1 drink1 and sing4 ,then they bid it good-bye and take it back to the courtyard1 where it remains for the rest of the year1 set up against the wall1 without receiving any mark of respect47#bfh7 ,the common ,european custom of placing a green bush on ,may ,day before the house of a beloved maiden probably originated in the belief of the fertilising power of the tree-spirit47#bfi7 ,amongst the ,kara-,kirgiz barren women roll themselves on the ground under a solitary apple-tree1 in order to obtain offspring47#bgj7 ,lastly1 the power of granting to women an easy delivery at child-birth is ascribed to trees both in ,sweden and ,africa4 ,in some districts of ,sweden there was formerly a brdtrd or guardian-tree 7lime1 ash1 or elm7 in the neighbourhood of every farm4 ,no one would pluck a single leaf of the sacred tree1 any injury to which was punished by ill-luck or sickness4 ,pregnant women used to clasp the tree in their arms in order to ensure an easy delivery47#bga7 ,in some negro tribes of the ,congo region pregnant women make themselves garments out of the bark of a certain sacred tree1 because they believe that this tree delivers them from the dangers that attend child-bearing47#bgb7 ,the story that ,leto clasped a palm-tree and an olive-tree or two laurel-trees when she was about to give birth to ,apollo and ,artemis perhaps points to a similar ,greek belief in the efficacy of certain trees to facilitate delivery47#bgc7 ,from this review of the beneficent qualities commonly ascribed to tree-spirits1 it is easy to understand why customs like the ,may-tree or ,may-pole have prevailed so widely and figured so prominently in the popular festivals of ,european peasants4 ,in spring or early summer or even on ,midsummer ,day1 it was and still is in many parts of ,europe the custom to go out to the woods1 cut down a tree and bring it into the village1 where it is set up amid general rejoicings4 ,or the people cut branches in the woods1 and fasten them on every house4 ,the intention of these customs is to bring home to the village1 and to each house1 the blessings which the tree-spirit has in its power to bestow4 ,hence the custom in some places of planting a ,may-tree before every house1 or of carrying the village ,may-tree from door to door1 that every household may receive its share of the blessing4 ,out of the mass of evidence on this subject a few examples may be selected4 ,sir ,henry ,piers1 in his ,description of ,westmeath1 writing in #afhb says3 8,on ,may-eve1 every family sets up before their door a green bush1 strewed over with yellow flowers1 which the meadows yield plentifully4 ,in countries where timber is plentiful1 they erect tall slender trees1 which stand high1 and they continue almost the whole year2 so as a stranger would go nigh to imagine that they were all signs of ale-sellers1 and that all houses were ale-houses407#bgd7 ,in ,northamptonshire a young tree ten or twelve feet high used to be planted before each house on ,may ,day so as to appear growing47#bge7 8,an antient custom1 still retained by the ,cornish1 is that of decking their doors and porches on the #ast of ,may with green boughs of sycamore and hawthorn1 and of planting trees1 or rather stumps of trees1 before their houses407#bgf7 ,in the north of ,england it was formerly the custom for young people to rise very early on the morning of the #ast of ,may1 and go out with music into the woods1 where they broke branches and adorned them with nosegays and crowns of flowers4 ,this done1 they returned about sunrise and fastened the flower-decked branches over the doors and windows of their houses47#bgg7 ,at ,abingdon in ,berkshire young people formerly went about in groups on ,may morning1 singing a carol of which the following are some of the verses-- 8,we've been rambling all the night2 ,and sometime of this day2 ,and now returning back again1 ,we bring a garland gay4 8,a garland gay we bring you here2 ,and at your door we stand2 ,it is a sprout well budded out1 ,the work of our ,lord's hand407#bgh7 ,at the villages of ,saffron ,walden and ,debden in ,essex on the #ast of ,may little girls go about in parties from door to door singing a song almost identical with the above and carrying garlands2 a doll dressed in white is usually placed in the middle of each garland47#bgi7 ,at ,seven ,oaks on ,may ,day the children carry boughs and garlands from house to house1 begging for pence4 ,the garlands consist of two hoops interlaced crosswise1 and covered with blue and yellow flowers from the woods and hedges47#bhj7 ,in some villages of the ,vosges ,mountains on the first ,sunday of ,may young girls go in bands from house to house1 singing a song in praise of ,may1 in which mention is made of the 8bread and meal that come in ,may40 ,if money is given them1 they fasten a green bough to the door2 if it is refused1 they wish the family many children and no bread to feed them47#bha7 ,in ,mayenne 7,france71 boys who bore the name of ,maillotins used to go about from farm to farm on the #ast of ,may singing carols1 for which they received money or a drink2 they planted a small tree or a branch of a tree47#bhb7 ,on the ,thursday before ,whitsunday the ,russian villagers 8go out into the woods1 sing songs1 weave garlands1 and cut down a young birch-tree1 which they dress up in woman's clothes1 or adorn with many-coloured shreds and ribbons4 ,after that comes a feast1 at the end of which they take the dressed-up birch-tree1 carry it home to their village with joyful dance and song1 and set it up in one of the houses1 where it remains as an honoured guest till ,whitsunday4 ,on the two intervening days they pay visits to the house where their #8guest' is2 but on the third day1 ,whitsunday1 they take her to a stream and fling her into its waters10 throwing their garlands after her4 8,all over ,russia every village and every town is turned1 a little before ,whitsunday1 into a sort of garden4 ,everywhere along the streets the young birch-trees stand in rows1 every house and every room is adorned with boughs1 even the engines upon the railway are for the time decked with green leaves407#bhc7 ,in this ,russian custom the dressing of the birch in woman's clothes shows how clearly the tree is conceived as personal2 and the throwing it into a stream is most probably a rain-charm4 ,in some villages of ,altmark it was formerly the custom for serving-men1 grooms1 and cowherds to go from farm to farm at ,whitsuntide distributing crowns made of birch-branches and flowers to the farmers2 these crowns were hung up in the houses and left till the following year47#bhd7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,zabern in ,alsace bands of people go about carrying ,may-trees4 ,amongst them is a man dressed in a white shirt1 with his face blackened2 in front of him is carried a large ,may-tree1 but each member of the band also carries a smaller one4 ,one of the company carries a huge basket in which he collects eggs1 bacon1 etc47#bhe7 ,in some parts of ,sweden on the eve of ,may ,day lads go about carrying each a bunch of fresh-gathered birch twigs1 wholly or partially in leaf4 ,with the village fiddler at their head they go from house to house singing ,may songs2 the purport of which is a prayer for fine weather1 a plentiful harvest1 and worldly and spiritual blessings4 ,one of them carries a basket in which he collects gifts of eggs and the like4 ,if they are well received they stick a leafy twig in the roof over the cottage door47#bhf7 ,but in ,sweden midsummer is the season when these ceremonies are chiefly observed4 ,on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john 7#bc;d ,june7 the houses are thoroughly cleansed and garnished with green boughs and flowers4 ,young fir-trees are raised at the door-way and elsewhere about the homestead2 and very often small umbrageous arbours are constructed in the garden4 ,in ,stockholm on this day a leaf-market is held at which thousands of ,may-poles 7,maj ,stnger7 six inches to twelve feet high1 decorated with leaves1 flowers1 slips of coloured paper1 gilt egg-shells1 strung on reeds1 etc4 are exposed for sale4 ,bonfires are lit on the hills and the people dance round them and jump over them4 ,but the chief event of the day is setting up the ,may-pole4 ,this consists of a straight and tall spruce-pine tree1 stripped of its branches4 8,at times hoops and at others pieces of wood1 placed crosswise1 are attached to it at intervals2 whilst at others it is provided with bows1 representing so to say1 a man with his arms akimbo4 ,from top to bottom not only the #8,maj ,stng' 7,may-pole7 itself1 but the hoops1 bows1 etc4 are ornamented with leaves1 flowers1 slips of various cloth1 gilt egg-shells1 etc42 and on the top of it is a large vane1 or it may be a flag40 ,the raising of the ,may-pole1 the decoration of which is done by the village maidens1 is an affair of much ceremony2 the people flock to it from all quarters and dance round it in a great ring47#bhg7 ,in some parts of ,bohemia also a ,may-pole or midsummer-tree is erected on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,the lads fetch a tall fir or pine from the wood and set it up on a height1 where the girls deck it with nosegays1 garlands1 and red ribbons4 ,then they pile brushwood1 dry wood1 and other combustible materials about the tree1 and1 when darkness has fallen1 set the whole on fire4 ,while the fire was burning the lads used to climb up the tree and fetch down the garlands and ribbons which the girls had fastened to it2 but as this led to accidents1 the custom has been forbidden4 ,sometimes the young people fling burning besoms into the air1 or run shouting down hill with them4 ,when the tree is consumed1 the young men and their sweethearts stand on opposite sides of the fire1 and look at each other through garlands and through the fire1 to see whether they will be true lovers and will wed4 ,then they throw the garlands thrice across the smouldering fire to each other4 ,when the blaze has died down1 the couples join hands and leap thrice across the glowing embers4 ,the singed garlands are taken home1 and kept carefully in the house throughout the year4 ,whenever a thunder-storm bursts1 part of the garlands are burned on the hearth2 and when the cattle are sick or are calving1 they get a portion of the garlands to eat4 ,the charred embers of the bonfire are stuck in the cornfields and meadows and on the roof of the house1 to keep house and field from bad weather and injury47#bhh7 ,it is hardly necessary to illustrate the custom of setting up a village ,may-tree or ,may-pole on ,may ,day4 ,one point only--the renewal of the village ,may-tree--requires to be noticed4 ,in ,england the village ,may-pole seems as a rule1 at least in later times1 to have been permanent1 not renewed from year to year47#bhi7 ,sometimes1 however1 it was renewed annually4 ,thus1 ,borlase says of the ,cornish people3 8,from towns they make incursions1 on ,may-eve1 into the country1 cut down a tall elm1 bring it into the town with rejoicings1 and having fitted a straight taper pole to the end of it1 and painted it1 erect it in the most public part1 and upon holidays and festivals dress it with garlands of flowers or ensigns and streamers407#bij7 ,an annual renewal seems also to be implied in the description by ,stubbs1 a ,puritanical writer1 of the custom of drawing home the ,may-pole by twenty or forty yoke of oxen47#bia7 ,in some parts of ,germany and ,austria the ,may-tree or ,whitsuntide-tree is renewed annually1 a fresh tree being felled and set up47#bib7 ,we can hardly doubt that originally the practice everywhere was to set up a new ,may-tree every year4 ,as the object of the custom was to bring in the fructifying spirit of vegetation1 newly awakened in spring1 the end would have been defeated if1 instead of a living tree1 green and sappy1 an old withered one had been erected year after year or allowed to stand permanently4 ,when1 however1 the meaning of the custom had been forgotten1 and the ,may-tree was regarded simply as a centre for holiday merrymaking1 people saw no reason for felling a fresh tree every year1 and preferred to let the same tree stand permanently1 only decking it with fresh flowers on ,may ,day4 ,but even when the ,may-pole had thus become a fixture1 the need of giving it the appearance of being a green tree1 not a dead pole1 was sometimes felt4 ,thus at ,weverham in ,cheshire 8are two ,may-poles1 which are decorated on this day 7,may ,day7 with all due attention to the ancient solemnity2 the sides are hung with garlands1 and the top terminated by a birch or other tall slender tree with its leaves on2 the bark being peeled1 and the stem spliced to the pole1 so as to give the appearance of one tree from the summit407#bic7 ,thus the renewal of the ,may-tree is like the renewal of the ,harvest-,may2 each is intended to secure a fresh portion of the fertilising spirit of vegetation1 and to preserve it throughout the year4 ,but whereas the efficacy of the ,harvest-,may is restricted to promoting the growth of the crops1 that of the ,may-tree or ,may-branch extends also1 as we have seen1 to women and cattle4 ,lastly1 it is worth noting that the old ,may-tree is sometimes burned at the end of the year4 ,thus in the district of ,prague young people break pieces off the public ,may-tree and place them behind the holy pictures in their rooms1 where they remain till next ,may ,day1 and are then burned on the hearth47#bid7 ,in ,wrtemberg the bushes which are set up on the houses on ,palm ,sunday are sometimes left there for a year and then burnt47#bie7 ,the eiresione 7the ,harvest-,may of ,greece7 was perhaps burned at the end of the year47#bif7 ,so much for the tree-spirit conceived as incorporate or immanent in the tree4 ,we have now to show that the tree-spirit is often conceived and represented as detached from the tree and clothed in human form1 and even as embodied in living men or women4 ,the evidence for this anthropomorphic representation of the tree-spirit is largely to be found in the popular customs of ,european peasantry4 ,there is an instructive class of cases in which the tree-spirit is represented simultaneously in vegetable form and in human form1 which are set side by side as if for the express purpose of explaining each other4 ,in these cases the human representative of the tree-spirit is sometimes a doll or puppet1 sometimes a living person2 but whether a puppet or a person1 it is placed beside a tree or bough2 so that together the person or puppet1 and the tree or bough1 form a sort of bilingual inscription1 the one being1 so to speak1 a translation of the other4 ,here1 therefore1 there is no room left for doubt that the spirit of the tree is actually represented in human form4 ,thus in ,bohemia1 on the fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 young people throw a puppet called ,death into the water2 then the girls go into the wood1 cut down a young tree1 and fasten to it a puppet dressed in white clothes to look like a woman2 with this tree and puppet they go from house to house collecting gratuities and singing songs with the refrain-- 8,we carry ,death out of the village1 ,we bring ,summer into the village407#big7 ,here1 as we shall see later on1 the 8,summer0 is the spirit of vegetation returning or reviving in spring4 ,in some places in this country children go about asking for pence with some small imitations of ,may-poles1 and with a finely dressed doll which they call the ,lady of the ,may47#bih7 ,in these cases the tree and the puppet are obviously regarded as equivalent4 ,at ,thann1 in ,alsace1 a girl called the ,little ,may ,rose1 dressed in white1 carries a small ,may-tree1 which is gay with garlands and ribbons4 ,her companions collect gifts from door to door1 singing a song-- 8,little ,may ,rose turn round three times1 ,let us look at you round and round6 ,rose of the ,may1 come to the greenwood away1 ,we will be merry all4 ,so we go from the ,may to the roses40 ,in the course of the song a wish is expressed that those who give nothing may lose their fowls by the marten1 that their vine may bear no clusters1 their tree no nuts1 their field no corn2 the produce of the year is supposed to depend on the gifts offered to these ,may singers47#bii7 ,here and in the cases mentioned above1 where children go about with green boughs on ,may ,day singing and collecting money1 the meaning is that with the spirit of vegetation they bring plenty and good luck to the house1 and they expect to be paid for the service4 ,in ,russian ,lithuania1 on the #ast of ,may1 they used to set up a green tree before the village4 ,then the rustic swains chose the prettiest girl1 crowned her1 swathed her in birch branches and set her beside the ,may-tree1 where they danced1 sang1 and shouted 8,o ,may6 ,o ,may607#cjj7 ,in ,brie 7,isle de ,france7 a ,may-tree is set up in the midst of the village2 its top is crowned with flowers2 lower down it is twined with leaves and twigs1 still lower with huge green branches4 ,the girls dance round it1 and at the same time a lad wrapt in leaves and called ,father ,may is led about47#cja7 ,in ,bavaria1 on the #b;d of ,may1 a ,walber 787 tree is erected before a tavern1 and a man dances round it1 enveloped in straw from head to foot in such a way that the ears of corn unite above his head to form a crown4 ,he is called the ,walber1 and used to be led in solemn procession through the streets1 which were adorned with sprigs of birch47#cjb7 ,in ,carinthia1 on ,st4 ,george's ,day 7#bdth ,april71 the young people deck with flowers and garlands a tree which has been felled on the eve of the festival4 ,the tree is then carried in procession1 accompanied with music and joyful acclamations1 the chief figure in the procession being the ,green ,george1 a young fellow clad from head to foot in green birch branches4 ,at the close of the ceremonies the ,green ,george1 that is an effigy of him1 is thrown into the water4 ,it is the aim of the lad who acts ,green ,george to step out of his leafy envelope and substitute the effigy so adroitly that no one shall perceive the change4 ,in many places1 however1 the lad himself who plays the part of ,green ,george is ducked in a river or pond1 with the express intention of thus ensuring rain to make the fields and meadows green in summer4 ,in some places the cattle are crowned and driven from their stalls to the accompaniment of a song-- 8,green ,george we bring1 ,green ,george we accompany1 ,may he feed our herds well1 ,if not1 to the water with him407#cjc7 ,here we see that the same powers of making rain and fostering the cattle1 which are ascribed to the tree-spirit regarded as incorporate in the tree1 are also attributed to the tree-spirit represented by a living man4 ,an example of the double representation of the spirit of vegetation by a tree and a living man is reported from ,bengal4 ,the ,oraons have a festival in spring while the sl trees are in blossom1 because they think that at this time the marriage of earth is celebrated and the sl flowers are necessary for the ceremony4 ,on an appointed day the villagers go with their priest to the ,sarna1 the sacred grove1 a remnant of the old sl forest in which a goddess ,sarna ,burhi1 or woman of the grove1 is supposed to dwell4 ,she is thought to have great influence on the rain2 and the priest arriving with his party at the grove sacrifices to her five fowls1 of which a morsel is given to each person present4 ,then they gather the sl flowers and return laden with them to the village4 ,next day the priest visits every house1 carrying the flowers in a wide open basket4 ,the women of each house bring out water to wash his feet as he approaches1 and kneeling make him an obeisance4 ,then he dances with them and places some of the sl flowers over the door of the house and in the women's hair4 ,no sooner is this done than the women empty their water-jugs over him1 drenching him to the skin4 ,a feast follows1 and the young people1 with sl flowers in their hair1 dance all night on the village green47#cjd7 ,here1 the equivalence of the flower-bearing priest to the goddess of the flowering-tree comes out plainly4 ,for she is supposed to influence the rain1 and the drenching of the priest with water is1 doubtless1 like the ducking of the ,green ,george in ,bavaria1 a rain-charm4 ,thus the priest1 as if he were the tree goddess herself1 goes from door to door dispensing rain and bestowing fruitfulness on each house1 but especially on the women4 ,without citing more examples to the same effect1 we may sum up the result of the preceding paragraphs in the words of ,mannhardt4 8,the customs quoted suffice to establish with certainty the conclusion that in these spring processions the spirit of vegetation is often represented both by the ,may-tree and in addition by a man dressed in green leaves or flowers or by a girl similarly adorned4 ,it is the same spirit which animates the tree and is active in the inferior plants and which we have recognised in the ,may-tree and the ,harvest-,may4 ,quite consistently the spirit is also supposed to manifest his presence in the first flower of spring and reveals himself both in a girl representing a ,may-rose1 and also1 as giver of harvest1 in the person of the ,walber4 ,the procession with this representative of the divinity was supposed to produce the same beneficial effects on the fowls1 the fruit-trees1 and the crops as the presence of the deity himself4 ,in other words1 the mummer was regarded not as an image but as an actual representative of the spirit of vegetation2 hence the wish expressed by the attendants on the ,may-rose and the ,may-tree that those who refuse them gifts of eggs1 bacon1 etc4 may have no share in the blessings which it is in the power of the itinerant spirit to bestow4 ,we may conclude that these begging processions with ,may-trees or ,may-boughs from door to door 7#8bringing the ,may or the summer'7 had everywhere originally a serious and1 so to speak1 sacramental significance2 people really believed that the god of growth was present unseen in the bough2 by the procession he was brought to each house to bestow his blessing4 ,the names ,may1 ,father ,may1 ,may ,lady1 ,queen of the ,may1 by which the anthropomorphic spirit of vegetation is often denoted1 show that the conception of the spirit of vegetation is blent with a personification of the season at which his powers are most strikingly manifested407#cje7 ,thus far we have seen that the tree-spirit or the spirit of vegetation in general is represented either in vegetable form alone1 as by a tree1 bough1 or flower2 or in vegetable and human form simultaneously1 as by a tree1 bough1 or flower in combination with a puppet or a living person4 ,it remains to show that the representation of him by a tree1 bough1 or flower is sometimes entirely dropped1 while the representation of him by a living person remains4 ,in this case the representative character of the person is generally marked by dressing him or her in leaves or flowers2 sometimes too it is indicated by the name he or she bears4 ,we saw that in ,russia at ,whitsuntide a birch-tree is dressed in woman's clothes and set up in the house4 ,clearly equivalent to this is the custom observed on ,whit-,monday by ,russian girls in the district of ,pinsk4 ,they choose the prettiest of their number1 envelop her in a mass of foliage taken from the birch-trees and maples1 and carry her about through the village4 ,in a district of ,little ,russia they take round a 8poplar10 represented by a girl wearing bright flowers in her hair47#cjf7 ,in the ,dpartement de l',ain 7,france7 on the #ast of ,may eight or ten boys unite1 clothe one of their number in leaves1 and go from house to house begging47#cjg7 ,at ,whitsuntide in ,holland poor women used to go about begging with a little girl called ,whitsuntide ,flower 7,pinxterbloem1 perhaps a kind of iris72 she was decked with flowers and sat in a waggon4 ,in ,north ,brabant she wears the flowers from which she takes her name and a song is sung-- 8,whitsuntide ,flower ,turn yourself once round407#cjh7 ,in ,ruhla 7,thringen7 as soon as the trees begin to grow green in spring1 the children assemble on a ,sunday and go out into the woods1 where they choose one of their playmates to be the ,little ,leaf ,man4 ,they break branches from the trees and twine them about the child till only his shoes peep out from the leafy mantle4 ,holes are made in it for him to see through1 and two of the children lead the ,little ,leaf ,man that he may not stumble or fall4 ,singing and dancing they take him from house to house1 asking for gifts of food 7eggs1 cream1 sausage1 cakes74 ,lastly they sprinkle the ,leaf ,man with water and feast on the food they have collected47#cji7 ,in ,england the best-known example of these leaf-clad mummers is the ,jack-in-the-,green1 a chimney-sweeper who walks encased in a pyramidal-shaped framework of wicker-work1 which is covered with holly and ivy1 and surmounted by a crown of flowers and ribbons4 ,thus arrayed he dances on ,may ,day at the head of a troop of chimney-sweeps1 who collect pence47#caj7 ,in some parts also of ,france a young fellow is encased in a wicker framework covered with leaves and is led about47#caa7 ,in ,frickthal 7,aargau7 a similar frame of basketwork is called the ,whitsuntide ,basket4 ,as soon as the trees begin to bud1 a spot is chosen in the wood1 and here the village lads make the frame with all secrecy1 lest others should forestall them4 ,leafy branches are twined round two hoops1 one of which rests on the shoulders of the wearer1 the other encircles his calves2 holes are made for his eyes and mouth2 and a large nosegay crowns the whole4 ,in this guise he appears suddenly in the village at the hour of vespers1 preceded by three boys blowing on horns made of willow bark4 ,the great object of his supporters is to set up the ,whitsuntide ,basket beside the village well1 and to keep it and him there1 despite the efforts of the lads from neighbouring villages1 who seek to carry off the ,whitsuntide ,basket and set it up at their own well47#cab7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,ertingen 7,wrtemberg7 a masker of the same sort1 known as the ,lazy ,man 7,latzmann71 goes about the village on ,midsummer ,day2 he is hidden under a great pyramidal or conical frame of wicker-work1 ten or twelve feet high1 which is completely covered with sprigs of fir4 ,he has a bell which he rings as he goes1 and he is attended by a suite of persons dressed up in character--a footman1 a colonel1 a butcher1 an angel1 the devil1 the doctor1 etc4 ,they march in ,indian file and halt before every house1 where each of them speaks in character1 except the ,lazy ,man1 who says nothing4 ,with what they get by begging from door to door they hold a feast47#cac7 ,in the class of cases of which the above are specimens it is obvious that the leaf-clad person who is led about is equivalent to the ,may-tree1 ,may-bough1 or ,may-doll1 which is carried from house to house by children begging4 ,both are representatives of the beneficent spirit of vegetation1 whose visit to the house is recompensed by a present of money or food4 ,often the leaf-clad person who represents the spirit of vegetation is known as the king or the queen2 thus1 for example1 he or she is called the ,may ,king1 ,whitsuntide ,king1 ,queen of ,may1 and so on4 ,these titles1 as ,mannhardt observes1 imply that the spirit incorporate in vegetation is a ruler1 whose creative power extends far and wide47#cad7 ,in a village near ,salzwedel a ,may-tree is set up at ,whitsuntide and the boys race to it2 he who reaches it first is king2 a garland of flowers is put round his neck and in his hand he carries a ,may-bush1 with which1 as the procession moves along1 he sweeps away the dew4 ,at each house they sing a song1 wishing the inmates good luck1 referring to the 8black cow in the stall milking white milk1 black hen on the nest laying white eggs10 and begging a gift of eggs1 bacon1 etc47#cae7 ,in some villages of ,brunswick at ,whitsuntide a ,may ,king is completely enveloped in a ,may-bush4 ,in some parts of ,thringen also they have a ,may ,king at ,whitsuntide1 but he is got up rather differently4 ,a frame of wood is made in which a man can stand2 it is completely covered with birch boughs and is surmounted by a crown of birch and flowers1 in which a bell is fastened4 ,this frame is placed in the wood and the ,may ,king gets into it4 ,the rest go out and look for him1 and when they have found him they lead him back into the village to the magistrate1 the clergyman1 and others1 who have to guess who is in the verdurous frame4 ,if they guess wrong1 the ,may ,king rings his bell by shaking his head1 and a forfeit of beer or the like must be paid by the unsuccessful guesser47#caf7 ,in some parts of ,bohemia on ,whit-,monday the young fellows disguise themselves in tall caps of birch bark adorned with flowers4 ,one of them is dressed as a king and dragged on a sledge to the village green1 and if on the way they pass a pool the sledge is always overturned into it4 ,arrived at the green they gather round the king2 the crier jumps on a stone or climbs up a tree and recites lampoons about each house and its inmates4 ,afterwards the disguises of bark are stripped off and they go about the village in holiday attire1 carrying a ,may-tree and begging4 ,cakes1 eggs1 and corn are sometimes given them47#cag7 ,at ,grossvargula1 near ,langensalza1 in last century a ,grass ,king used to be led about in procession at ,whitsuntide4 ,he was encased in a pyramid of poplar branches1 the top of which was adorned with a royal crown of branches and flowers4 ,he rode on horseback with the leafy pyramid over him1 so that its lower end touched the ground1 and an opening was left in it only for his face4 ,surrounded by a cavalcade of young fellows1 he rode in procession to the town hall1 the parsonage1 etc41 where they all got a drink of beer4 ,then under the seven lindens of the neighbouring ,sommerberg1 the ,grass ,king was stripped of his green casing2 the crown was handed to the ,mayor1 and the branches were stuck in the flax fields in order to make the flax grow tall47#cah7 ,in this last trait the fertilising influence ascribed to the representative of the tree-spirit comes out clearly4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,pilsen 7,bohemia7 a conical hut of green branches1 without any door1 is erected at ,whitsuntide in the midst of the village4 ,to this hut rides a troop of village lads with a king at their head4 ,he wears a sword at his side and a sugar-loaf hat of rushes on his head4 ,in his train are a judge1 a crier1 and a personage called the ,frog-flayer or ,hangman4 ,this last is a sort of ragged merryandrew1 wearing a rusty old sword and bestriding a sorry hack4 ,on reaching the hut the crier dismounts and goes round it looking for a door4 ,finding none1 he says1 8,ah1 this is perhaps an enchanted castle2 the witches creep through the leaves and need no door40 ,at last he draws his sword and hews his way into the hut1 where there is a chair1 on which he seats himself and proceeds to criticise in rhyme the girls1 farmers1 and farm-servants of the neighbourhood4 ,when this is over1 the ,frog-flayer steps forward and1 after exhibiting a cage with frogs in it1 sets up a gallows on which he hangs the frogs in a row47#cai7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,plas the ceremony differs in some points4 ,the king and his soldiers are completely clad in bark1 adorned with flowers and ribbons2 they all carry swords and ride horses1 which are gay with green branches and flowers4 ,while the village dames and girls are being criticised at the arbour1 a frog is secretly pinched and poked by the crier till it quacks4 ,sentence of death is passed on the frog by the king2 the hangman beheads it and flings the bleeding body among the spectators4 ,lastly1 the king is driven from the hut and pursued by the soldiers47#cbj7 ,the pinching and beheading of the frog are doubtless1 as ,mannhardt observes17#cba7 a rain-charm4 ,we have seen7#cbb7 that some ,indians of the ,orinoco beat frogs for the express purpose of producing rain1 and that killing a frog is a ,german rain-charm4 ,often the spirit of vegetation in spring is represented by a queen instead of a king4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,libchowic 7,bohemia71 on the fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 girls dressed in white and wearing the first spring flowers1 as violets and daisies1 in their hair1 lead about the village a girl who is called the ,queen and is crowned with flowers4 ,during the procession1 which is conducted with great solemnity1 none of the girls may stand still1 but must keep whirling round continually and singing4 ,in every house the ,queen announces the arrival of spring and wishes the inmates good luck and blessings1 for which she receives presents47#cbc7 ,in ,german ,hungary the girls choose the prettiest girl to be their ,whitsuntide ,queen1 fasten a towering wreath on her brow1 and carry her singing through the streets4 ,at every house they stop1 sing old ballads1 and receive presents47#cbd7 ,in the south-east of ,ireland on ,may ,day the prettiest girl used to be chosen ,queen of the district for twelve months4 ,she was crowned with wild flowers2 feasting1 dancing1 and rustic sports followed1 and were closed by a grand procession in the evening4 ,during her year of office she presided over rural gatherings of young people at dances and merrymakings4 ,if she married before next ,may ,day her authority was at an end1 but her successor was not elected till that day came round47#cbe7 ,the ,may ,queen is common in ,france7#cbf7 and familiar in ,england4 ,again the spirit of vegetation is sometimes represented by a king and queen1 a lord and lady1 or a bridegroom and bride4 ,here again the parallelism holds between the anthropomorphic and the vegetable representation of the tree-spirit1 for we have seen above that trees are sometimes married to each other47#cbg7 ,in a village near ,kniggrtz 7,bohemia7 on ,whit-,monday the children play the king's game1 at which a king and a queen march about under a canopy1 the queen wearing a garland1 and the youngest girl carrying two wreaths on a plate behind them4 ,they are attended by boys and girls called groom's men and bridesmaids1 and they go from house to house collecting gifts47#cbh7 ,near ,grenoble1 in ,france1 a king and queen are chosen on the #ast of ,may and are set on a throne for all to see47#cbi7 ,at ,headington1 near ,oxford1 children used to carry garlands from door to door on ,may ,day4 ,each garland was carried by two girls1 and they were followed by a lord and lady--a boy and girl linked together by a white handkerchief1 of which each held an end1 and dressed with ribbons1 sashes1 and flowers4 ,at each door they sang a verse-- 8,gentlemen and ladies1 ,we wish you happy ,may2 ,we come to show you a garland1 ,because it is ,may-day40 ,on receiving money the lord put his arm about his lady's waist and kissed her47#ccj7 ,in some ,saxon villages at ,whitsuntide a lad and a lass disguise themselves and hide in the bushes or high grass outside the village4 ,then the whole village goes out with music 8to seek the bridal pair40 ,when they find the couple they all gather round them1 the music strikes up1 and the bridal pair is led merrily to the village4 ,in the evening they dance4 ,in some places the bridal pair is called the prince and the princess47#cca7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,brianon 7,dauphin7 on ,may ,day the lads wrap up in green leaves a young fellow whose sweetheart has deserted him or married another4 ,he lies down on the ground and feigns to be asleep4 ,then a girl who likes him1 and would marry him1 comes and wakes him1 and raising him up offers him her arm and a flag4 ,so they go to the alehouse1 where the pair lead off the dancing4 ,but they must marry within the year1 or they are treated as old bachelor and old maid1 and are debarred the company of the young folk4 ,the lad is called the bridegroom of the month of ,may 7le fianc du mois de ,may74 ,in the alehouse he puts off his garment of leaves1 out of which1 mixed with flowers1 his partner in the dance makes a nosegay1 and wears it at her breast next day1 when he leads her again to the alehouse47#ccb7 ,like this is a ,russian custom observed in the district of ,nerechta on the ,thursday before ,whitsunday4 ,the girls go out into a birch-wood1 wind a girdle or band round a stately birch1 twist its lower branches into a wreath1 and kiss each other in pairs through the wreath4 ,the girls who kiss through the wreath call each other gossips4 ,then one of the girls steps forward1 and mimicking a drunken man1 flings herself on the ground1 rolls on the grass1 and feigns to go fast asleep4 ,another girl wakens the pretended sleeper and kisses him2 then the whole bevy trips singing through the wood to twine garlands1 which they throw into the water4 ,in the fate of the garlands floating on the stream they read their own47#ccc7 ,in this custom the rle of the sleeper was probably at one time sustained by a lad4 ,in these ,french and ,russian customs we have a forsaken bridegroom1 in the following a forsaken bride4 ,on ,shrove ,tuesday the ,slovenes of ,oberkrain drag a straw puppet with joyous cries up and down the village2 then they throw it into the water or burn it1 and from the height of the flames they judge of the abundance of the next harvest4 ,the noisy crew is followed by a female masker1 who drags a great board by a string and gives out that she is a forsaken bride47#ccd7 ,viewed in the light of what has gone before1 the awakening of the forsaken sleeper in these ceremonies probably represents the revival of vegetation in spring4 ,but it is not easy to assign their respective rles to the forsaken bridegroom and to the girl who wakes him from his slumber4 ,is the sleeper the leafless forest or the bare earth of winter8 ,is the girl who wakens him the fresh verdure or the genial sunshine of spring8 ,it is hardly possible1 on the evidence before us1 to answer these questions4 ,the ,oraons of ,bengal1 it may be remembered1 celebrate the marriage of earth in the springtime1 when the sl-tree is in blossom4 ,but from this we can hardly argue that in the ,european ceremonies the sleeping bridegroom is 8the dreaming earth0 and the girl the spring blossoms4 ,in the ,highlands of ,scotland the revival of vegetation in spring used to be graphically represented as follows4 ,on ,candlemas day 7#b;d ,february7 in the ,hebrides 8the mistress and servants of each family take a sheaf of oats1 and dress it up in women's apparel1 put it in a large basket1 and lay a wooden club by it1 and this they call ,brd's bed2 and then the mistress and servants cry three times1 ,brd is come1 ,brd is welcome4 ,this they do just before going to bed1 and when they rise in the morning they look among the ashes1 expecting to see the impression of ,brd's club there2 which if they do they reckon it a true presage of a good crop and prosperous year1 and the contrary they take as an ill omen407#cce7 ,the same custom is described by another witness thus3 8,upon the night before ,candlemas it is usual to make a bed with corn and hay1 over which some blankets are laid1 in a part of the house near the door4 ,when it is ready1 a person goes out and repeats three times1 444 #8,bridget1 ,bridget1 come in2 thy bed is ready4' ,one or more candles are left burning near it all night407#ccf7 ,often the marriage of the spirit of vegetation in spring1 though not directly represented1 is implied by naming the human representative of the spirit 8the ,bride10 and dressing her in wedding attire4 ,thus in some villages of ,altmark at ,whitsuntide1 while the boys go about carrying a ,may-tree or leading a boy enveloped in leaves and flowers1 the girls lead about the ,may ,bride1 a girl dressed as a bride with a great nosegay in her hair4 ,they go from house to house1 the ,may ,bride singing a song in which she asks for a present1 and tells the inmates of each house that if they give her something they will themselves have something the whole year through2 but if they give her nothing they will themselves have nothing47#ccg7 ,in some parts of ,westphalia two girls lead a flower-crowned girl called 8the ,whitsuntide ,bride0 from door to door1 singing a song in which they ask for eggs47#cch7 ,in ,bresse in the month of ,may a girl called la ,marie is tricked out with ribbons and nosegays and is led about by a gallant4 ,she is preceded by a lad carrying a green ,may-tree1 and appropriate verses are sung47#cci7 #e4--,tree-worship in antiquity4 ,such then are some of the ways in which the tree-spirit or the spirit of vegetation is represented in the customs of our ,european peasantry4 ,from the remarkable persistence and similarity of such customs all over ,europe we are justified in concluding that tree-worship was once an important element in the religion of the ,aryan race in ,europe1 and that the rites and ceremonies of the worship were marked by great uniformity everywhere1 and did not substantially differ from those which are still or were till lately observed by our peasants at their spring and midsummer festivals4 ,for these rites bear internal marks of great antiquity1 and this internal evidence is confirmed by the resemblance which the rites bear to those of rude peoples elsewhere47#cdj7 ,therefore it is hardly rash to infer1 from this consensus of popular customs1 that the ,greeks and ,romans1 like the other ,aryan peoples of ,europe1 once practised forms of tree-worship similar to those which are still kept up by our peasantry4 ,in the palmy days of ancient civilisation1 no doubt1 the worship had sunk to the level of vulgar superstition and rustic merrymaking1 as it has done among ourselves4 ,we need not therefore be surprised that the traces of such popular rites are few and slight in ancient literature4 ,they are not less so in the polite literature of modern ,europe2 and the negative argument cannot be allowed to go for more in the one case than in the other4 ,enough1 however1 of positive evidence remains to confirm the presumption drawn from analogy4 ,much of this evidence has been collected and analysed with his usual learning and judgment by ,w4 ,mannhardt47#cda7 ,here ,i shall content myself with citing certain ,greek festivals which seem to be the classical equivalents of an ,english ,may ,day in the olden time4 ,every few years the ,boeotians of ,plataea held a festival which they called the ,little ,daedala4 ,on the day of the festival they went out into an ancient oak forest1 the trees of which were of gigantic girth4 ,here they set some boiled meat on the ground1 and watched the birds that gathered round it4 ,when a raven was observed to carry off a piece of the meat and settle on an oak1 the people followed it and cut down the tree4 ,with the wood of the tree they made an image1 dressed it as a bride1 and placed it on a bullock-cart with a bridesmaid beside it4 ,it seems then to have been drawn to the banks of the river ,asopus and back to the town1 attended by a piping and dancing crowd4 ,after the festival the image was put away and kept till the celebration of the ,great ,daedala1 which fell only once in sixty years4 ,on this great occasion all the images that had accumulated from the celebrations of the ,little ,daedala were dragged on carts in solemn procession to the river ,asopus1 and then to the top of ,mount ,cithaeron4 ,here an altar had been constructed of square blocks of wood fitted together and surmounted by a heap of brushwood4 ,animals were sacrificed by being burned on the altar1 and the altar itself1 together with the images1 were consumed by the flames4 ,the blaze1 we are told1 rose to a prodigious height and was seen for many miles4 ,to explain the origin of the festival it was said that once upon a time ,hera had quarrelled with ,zeus and left him in high dudgeon4 ,to lure her back ,zeus gave out that he was about to marry the nymph ,plataea1 daughter of the river ,asopus4 ,he caused a wooden image to be made1 dressed and veiled as a bride1 and conveyed on a bullock-cart4 ,transported with rage and jealousy1 ,hera flew to the cart1 and tearing off the veil of the pretended bride1 discovered the deceit that had been practised on her4 ,her rage was now changed to laughter1 and she became reconciled to her husband ,zeus47#cdb7 ,the resemblance of this festival to some of the ,european spring and midsummer festivals is tolerably close4 ,we have seen that in ,russia at ,whitsuntide the villagers go out into the wood1 fell a birch-tree1 dress it in woman's clothes1 and bring it back to the village with dance and song4 ,on the third day it is thrown into the water47#cdc7 ,again1 we have seen that in ,bohemia on ,midsummer ,eve the village lads fell a tall fir or pine-tree in the wood and set it up on a height1 where it is adorned with garlands1 nosegays1 and ribbons1 and afterwards burnt47#cdd7 ,the reason for burning the tree will appear afterwards2 the custom itself is not uncommon in modern ,europe4 ,in some parts of the ,pyrenees a tall and slender tree is cut down on ,may ,day and kept till ,midsummer ,eve4 ,it is then rolled to the top of a hill1 set up1 and burned47#cde7 ,in ,angoulme on ,st4 ,peter's ,day1 #bith ,june1 a tall leafy poplar is set up in the market-place and burned47#cdf7 ,in ,cornwall 8there was formerly a great bonfire on midsummer-eve2 a large summer pole was fixed in the centre1 round which the fuel was heaped up4 ,it had a large bush on the top of it407#cdg7 ,in ,dublin on ,may-morning boys used to go out and cut a ,may-bush1 bring it back to town1 and then burn it47#cdh7 ,probably the ,boeotian festival belonged to the same class of rites4 ,it represented the marriage of the powers of vegetation in spring or midsummer1 just as the same event is represented in modern ,europe by a ,king and ,queen or a ,lord and ,lady of the ,may4 ,in the ,boeotian1 as in the ,russian1 ceremony the tree dressed as a woman represents the ,english ,may-pole and ,may-queen in one4 ,all such ceremonies1 it must be remembered1 are not1 or at least were not originally1 mere spectacular or dramatic exhibitions4 ,they are magical charms designed to produce the effect which they dramatically represent4 ,if the revival of vegetation in spring is represented by the awakening of a sleeper1 the representation is intended actually to quicken the growth of leaves and blossoms2 if the marriage of the powers of vegetation is represented by a ,king and ,queen of ,may1 the idea is that the powers so represented will really be rendered more productive by the ceremony4 ,in short1 all these spring and midsummer festivals fall under the head of sympathetic magic4 ,the event which it is desired to bring about is represented dramatically1 and the very representation is believed to effect1 or at least to contribute to1 the production of the desired event4 ,in the case of the ,daedala the story of ,hera's quarrel with ,zeus and her sullen retirement may perhaps without straining be interpreted as a mythical expression for a bad season and the failure of the crops4 ,the same disastrous effects were attributed to the anger and seclusion of ,demeter after the loss of her daughter ,proserpine47#cdi7 ,now the institution of a festival is often explained by a mythical story of the occurrence upon a particular occasion of those very calamities which it is the real object of the festival to avert2 so that if we know the myth told to account for the historical origin of the festival1 we can often infer from it the real intention with which the festival was celebrated4 ,if1 therefore1 the origin of the ,daedala was explained by a story of a failure of crops and consequent famine1 we may infer that the real object of the festival was to prevent the occurrence of such disasters2 and1 if ,i am right in my interpretation of the festival1 the object was supposed to be effected by a dramatic representation of the marriage of the divinities most concerned with the production of vegetation47#cej7 ,the marriage of ,zeus and ,hera was dramatically represented at annual festivals in various parts of ,greece17#cea7 and it is at least a fair conjecture that the nature and intention of these ceremonies were such as ,i have assigned to the ,plataean festival of the ,daedala2 in other words1 that ,zeus and ,hera at these festivals were the ,greek equivalents of the ,lord and ,lady of the ,may4 ,homer's glowing picture of ,zeus and ,hera couched on fresh hyacinths and crocuses17#ceb7 like ,milton's description of the dalliance of ,zephyr and ,aurora1 8as he met her once a-,maying10 was perhaps painted from the life4 ,still more confidently may the same character be vindicated for the annual marriage at ,athens of the ,queen to ,dionysus in the ,flowery ,month 7,anthesterion7 of spring47#cec7 ,for ,dionysus1 as we shall see later on1 was essentially a god of vegetation1 and the ,queen at ,athens was a purely religious or priestly functionary47#ced7 ,therefore at their annual marriage in spring he can hardly have been anything but a ,king1 and she a ,queen1 of ,may4 ,the women who attended the ,queen at the marriage ceremony would correspond to the bridesmaids who wait on the ,may-queen47#cee7 ,again1 the story1 dear to poets and artists1 of the forsaken and sleeping ,ariadne waked and wedded by ,dionysus1 resembles so closely the little drama acted by ,french peasants of the ,alps on ,may ,day7#cef7 that1 considering the character of ,dionysus as a god of vegetation1 we can hardly help regarding it as the description of a spring ceremony corresponding to the ,french one4 ,in point of fact the marriage of ,dionysus and ,ariadne is believed by ,preller to have been acted every spring in ,crete47#ceg7 ,his evidence1 indeed1 is inconclusive1 but the view itself is probable4 ,if ,i am right in instituting the comparison1 the chief difference between the ,french and the ,greek ceremonies must have been that in the former the sleeper was the forsaken bridegroom1 in the latter the forsaken bride2 and the group of stars in the sky1 in which fancy saw ,ariadne's wedding-crown17#ceh7 could only have been a translation to heaven of the garland worn by the ,greek girl who played the ,queen of ,may4 ,on the whole1 alike from the analogy of modern folk-custom and from the facts of ancient ritual and mythology1 we are justified in concluding that the archaic forms of tree-worship disclosed by the spring and midsummer festivals of our peasants were practised by the ,greeks and ,romans in prehistoric times4 ,do then these forms of tree-worship help to explain the priesthood of ,aricia1 the subject of our inquiry8 ,i believe they do4 ,in the first place the attributes of ,diana1 the goddess of the ,arician grove1 are those of a tree-spirit or sylvan deity4 ,her sanctuaries were in groves1 indeed every grove was her sanctuary17#cei7 and she is often associated with the wood-god ,silvanus in inscriptions47#cfj7 ,like a tree-spirit1 she helped women in travail1 and in this respect her reputation appears to have stood high at the ,arician grove1 if we may judge from the votive offerings found on the spot47#cfa7 ,again1 she was the patroness of wild animals27#cfb7 just as in ,finland the wood-god ,tapio was believed to care for the wild creatures that roamed the wood1 they being considered his cattle47#cfc7 ,so1 too1 the ,samogitians deemed the birds and beasts of the woods sacred1 doubtless because they were under the protection of the god of the wood47#cfd7 ,again1 there are indications that domestic cattle were protected by ,diana17#cfe7 as they certainly were supposed to be by ,silvanus47#cff7 ,but we have seen that special influence over cattle is ascribed to wood-spirits2 in ,finland the herds enjoyed the protection of the wood-gods both while they were in their stalls and while they strayed in the forest47#cfg7 ,lastly1 in the sacred spring which bubbled1 and the perpetual fire which seems to have burned in the ,arician grove17#cfh7 we may perhaps detect traces of other attributes of forest gods1 the power1 namely1 to make the rain to fall and the sun to shine47#cfi7 ,this last attribute perhaps explains why ,virbius1 the companion deity of ,diana at ,nemi1 was by some believed to be the sun47#cgj7 ,thus the cult of the ,arician grove was essentially that of a tree-spirit or wood deity4 ,but our examination of ,european folk-custom demonstrated that a tree-spirit is frequently represented by a living person1 who is regarded as an embodiment of the tree-spirit and possessed of its fertilising powers2 and our previous survey of primitive belief proved that this conception of a god incarnate in a living man is common among rude races4 ,further we have seen that the living person who is believed to embody in himself the tree-spirit is often called a king1 in which respect1 again1 he strictly represents the tree-spirit4 ,for the sacred cedar of the ,gilgit tribes is called1 as we have seen1 8the ,dreadful ,king027#cga7 and the chief forest god of the ,finns1 by name ,tapio1 represented as an old man with a brown beard1 a high hat of fir-cones and a coat of tree-moss1 was styled the ,wood ,king1 ,lord of the ,woodland1 ,golden ,king of the ,wood47#cgb7 ,may not then the ,king of the ,wood in the ,arician grove have been1 like the ,king of ,may1 the ,grass ,king1 and the like1 an incarnation of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation8 ,his title1 his sacred office1 and his residence in the grove all point to this conclusion1 which is confirmed by his relation to the ,golden ,bough4 ,for since the ,king of the ,wood could only be assailed by him who had plucked the ,golden ,bough1 his life was safe from assault so long as the bough or the tree on which it grew remained uninjured4 ,in a sense1 therefore1 his life was bound up with that of the tree2 and thus to some extent he stood to the tree in the same relation in which the incorporate or immanent tree-spirit stands to it4 ,the representation of the tree-spirit both by the ,king of the ,wood and by the ,golden ,bough 7for it will hardly be disputed that the ,golden ,bough was looked upon as a very special manifestation of the divine life of the grove7 need not surprise us1 since we have found that the tree-spirit is not unfrequently thus represented in double1 first by a tree or a bough1 and second by a living person4 ,on the whole then1 if we consider his double character as king and priest1 his relation to the ,golden ,bough1 and the strictly woodland character of the divinity of the grove1 we may provisionally assume that the ,king of the ,wood1 like the ,may ,king and his congeners of ,northern ,europe1 was deemed a living incarnation of the tree-spirit4 ,as such he would be credited with those miraculous powers of sending rain and sunshine1 making the crops to grow1 women to bring forth1 and flocks and herds to multiply1 which are popularly ascribed to the tree-spirit itself4 ,the reputed possessor of powers so exalted must have been a very important personage1 and in point of fact his influence appears to have extended far and wide4 ,for7#cgc7 in the days when the champaign country around was still parcelled out among the petty tribes who composed the ,latin ,league1 the sacred grove on the ,alban ,mountain is known to have been an object of their common reverence and care4 ,and just as the kings of ,cambodia used to send offerings to the mystic ,kings of ,fire and ,water far in the dim depths of the tropical forest1 so1 we may well believe1 from all sides of the broad ,latian plain the eyes and steps of ,italian pilgrims turned to the quarter where1 standing sharply out against the faint blue line of the ,apennines or the deeper blue of the distant sea1 the ,alban ,mountain rose before them1 the home of the mysterious priest of ,nemi1 the ,king of the ,wood4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,perils ,,of ,,the ,,soul4 8,o liebe flchtige ,seele ,dir ist so bang und weh60 ,,heine4 #a4--,royal and priestly taboos4 ,in the preceding chapter we saw that in early society the king or priest is often thought to be endowed with supernatural powers or to be an incarnation of a deity2 in consequence of which the course of nature is supposed to be more or less under his control1 and he is held responsible for bad weather1 failure of the crops1 and similar calamities4 ,thus far it appears to be assumed that the king's power over nature1 like that over his subjects and slaves1 is exerted through definite acts of will2 and therefore if drought1 famine1 pestilence1 or storms arise1 the people attribute the misfortune to the negligence or guilt of their king1 and punish him accordingly with stripes and bonds1 or1 if he remains obdurate1 with deposition and death4 ,sometimes1 however1 the course of nature1 while regarded as dependent on the king1 is supposed to be partly independent of his will4 ,his person is considered1 if we may express it so1 as the dynamical centre of the universe1 from which lines of force radiate to all quarters of the heaven2 so that any motion of his--the turning of his head1 the lifting of his hand--instantaneously affects and may seriously disturb some part of nature4 ,he is the point of support on which hangs the balance of the world2 and the slightest irregularity on his part may overthrow the delicate equipoise4 ,the greatest care must1 therefore1 be taken both by and of him2 and his whole life1 down to its minutest details1 must be so regulated that no act of his1 voluntary or involuntary1 may disarrange or upset the established order of nature4 ,of this class of monarchs the ,mikado or ,dairi1 the spiritual emperor of ,japan1 is a typical example4 ,he is an incarnation of the sun goddess1 the deity who rules the universe1 gods and men included2 once a year all the gods wait upon him and spend a month at his court4 ,during that month1 the name of which means 8without gods10 no one frequents the temples1 for they are believed to be deserted47#cgd7 ,the following description of the ,mikado's mode of life was written about two hundred years ago37#cge7-- 8,even to this day the princes descended of this family1 more particularly those who sit on the throne1 are looked upon as persons most holy in themselves1 and as ,popes by birth4 ,and1 in order to preserve these advantageous notions in the minds of their subjects1 they are obliged to take an uncommon care of their sacred persons1 and to do such things1 which1 examined according to the customs of other nations1 would be thought ridiculous and impertinent4 ,it will not be improper to give a few instances of it4 ,he thinks that it would be very prejudicial to his dignity and holiness to touch the ground with his feet2 for this reason1 when he intends to go anywhere1 he must be carried thither on men's shoulders4 ,much less will they suffer that he should expose his sacred person to the open air1 and the sun is not thought worthy to shine on his head4 ,there is such a holiness ascribed to all the parts of his body1 that he dares to cut off neither his hair1 nor his beard1 nor his nails4 ,however1 lest he should grow too dirty1 they may clean him in the night when he is asleep2 because1 they say1 that which is taken from his body at that time hath been stolen from him1 and that such a theft doth not prejudice his holiness or dignity4 ,in ancient times1 he was obliged to sit on the throne for some hours every morning1 with the imperial crown on his head1 but to sit altogether like a statue1 without stirring either hands or feet1 head or eyes1 nor indeed any part of his body1 because1 by this means1 it was thought that he could preserve peace and tranquillity in his empire2 for if1 unfortunately1 he turned himself on one side or the other1 or if he looked a good while towards any part of his dominions1 it was apprehended that war1 famine1 fire1 or some great misfortune was near at hand to desolate the country4 ,but it having been afterwards discovered that the imperial crown was the palladium which by its mobility could preserve peace in the empire1 it was thought expedient to deliver his imperial person1 consecrated only to idleness and pleasures1 from this burthensome duty1 and therefore the crown is at present placed on the throne for some hours every morning4 ,his victuals must be dressed every time in new pots1 and served at table in new dishes3 both are very clean and neat1 but made only of common clay2 that without any considerable expense they may be laid aside1 or broken1 after they have served once4 ,they are generally broke1 for fear they should come into the hands of laymen1 for they believe religiously that if any layman should presume to eat his food out of these sacred dishes1 it would swell and inflame his mouth and throat4 ,the like ill effect is dreaded from the ,dairi's sacred habits2 for they believe that if a layman should wear them1 without the ,emperor's express leave or command1 they would occasion swellings and pains in all parts of his body40 ,to the same effect an earlier account of the ,mikado says3 8,it was considered as a shameful degradation for him even to touch the ground with his foot4 ,the sun and moon were not even permitted to shine upon his head4 ,none of the superfluities of the body were ever taken from him1 neither his hair1 his beard1 nor his nails were cut4 ,whatever he eat was dressed in new vessels407#cgf7 ,similar priestly or rather divine kings are found1 at a lower level of barbarism1 on the west coast of ,africa4 ,at ,shark ,point near ,cape ,padron1 in ,lower ,guinea1 lives the priestly king ,kukulu1 alone in a wood4 ,he may not touch a woman nor leave his house2 indeed he may not even quit his chair1 in which he is obliged to sleep sitting1 for if he lay down no wind would arise and navigation would be stopped4 ,he regulates storms1 and in general maintains a wholesome and equable state of the atmosphere47#cgg7 ,in the kingdom of ,congo 7,west ,africa7 there was a supreme pontiff called ,chitom or ,chitomb1 whom the negroes regarded as a god on earth and all powerful in heaven4 ,hence before they would taste the new crops they offered him the first-fruits1 fearing that manifold misfortunes would befall them if they broke this rule4 ,when he left his residence to visit other places within his jurisdiction1 all married people had to observe strict continence the whole time he was out2 for it was supposed that any act of incontinence would prove fatal to him4 ,and if he were to die a natural death1 they thought that the world would perish1 and the earth1 which he alone sustained by his power and merit1 would immediately be annihilated47#cgh7 ,amongst the semi-barbarous nations of the ,new ,world1 at the date of the ,spanish conquest1 there were found hierarchies or theocracies like those of ,japan4 ,some of these we have already noticed47#cgi7 ,but the high pontiff of the ,zapotecs in ,southern ,mexico appears to have presented a still closer parallel to the ,mikado4 ,a powerful rival to the king himself1 this spiritual lord governed ,yopaa1 one of the chief cities of the kingdom1 with absolute dominion4 ,it is impossible1 we are told1 to over-rate the reverence in which he was held4 ,he was looked on as a god whom the earth was not worthy to hold nor the sun to shine upon4 ,he profaned his sanctity if he even touched the ground with his foot4 ,the officers who bore his palanquin on their shoulders were members of the highest families2 he hardly deigned to look on anything around him2 and all who met him fell with their faces to the earth1 fearing that death would overtake them if they saw even his shadow4 ,a rule of continence was regularly imposed on the ,zapotec priests1 especially upon the high pontiff2 but 8on certain days in each year1 which were generally celebrated with feasts and dances1 it was customary for the high priest to become drunk4 ,while in this state1 seeming to belong neither to heaven nor to earth1 one of the most beautiful of the virgins consecrated to the service of the gods was brought to him40 ,if the child she bore him was a son1 he was brought up as a prince of the blood1 and the eldest son succeeded his father on the pontifical throne47#chj7 ,the supernatural powers attributed to this pontiff are not specified1 but probably they resembled those of the ,mikado and ,chitom4 ,wherever1 as in ,japan and ,west ,africa1 it is supposed that the order of nature1 and even the existence of the world1 is bound up with the life of the king or priest1 it is clear that he must be regarded by his subjects as a source both of infinite blessing and of infinite danger4 ,on the one hand1 the people have to thank him for the rain and sunshine which foster the fruits of the earth1 for the wind which brings ships to their coasts1 and even for the existence of the earth beneath their feet4 ,but what he gives he can refuse2 and so close is the dependence of nature on his person1 so delicate the balance of the system of forces whereof he is the centre1 that the slightest irregularity on his part may set up a tremor which shall shake the earth to its foundations4 ,and if nature may be disturbed by the slightest involuntary act of the king1 it is easy to conceive the convulsion which his death might occasion4 ,the death of the ,chitom1 as we have seen1 was thought to entail the destruction of the world4 ,clearly1 therefore1 out of a regard for their own safety1 which might be imperilled by any rash act of the king1 and still more by his death1 the people will exact of their king or priest a strict conformity to those rules1 the observance of which is necessary for his own preservation1 and consequently for the preservation of his people and the world4 ,the idea that early kingdoms are despotisms in which the people exist only for the sovereign1 is wholly inapplicable to the monarchies we are considering4 ,on the contrary1 the sovereign in them exists only for his subjects2 his life is only valuable so long as he discharges the duties of his position by ordering the course of nature for his people's benefit4 ,so soon as he fails to do so the care1 the devotion1 the religious homage which they had hitherto lavished on him1 cease and are changed into hatred and contempt2 he is dismissed ignominiously1 and may be thankful if he escapes with his life4 ,worshipped as a god by them one day1 he is killed by them as a criminal the next4 ,but in this changed behaviour of the people there is nothing capricious or inconsistent4 ,on the contrary1 their conduct is entirely of a piece4 ,if their king is their god1 he is or should be also their preserver2 and if he will not preserve them1 he must make room for another who will4 ,so long1 however1 as he answers their expectations1 there is no limit to the care which they take of him1 and which they compel him to take of himself4 ,a king of this sort lives hedged in by a ceremonious etiquette1 a network of prohibitions and observances1 of which the intention is not to contribute to his dignity1 much less to his comfort1 but to restrain him from conduct which1 by disturbing the harmony of nature1 might involve himself1 his people1 and the universe in one common catastrophe4 ,far from adding to his comfort1 these observances1 by trammelling his every act1 annihilate his freedom and often render the very life1 which it is their object to preserve1 a burden and sorrow to him4 ,of the supernaturally endowed kings of ,loango it is said that the more powerful a king is1 the more taboos is he bound to observe2 they regulate all his actions1 his walking and his standing1 his eating and drinking1 his sleeping and waking47#cha7 ,to these restraints the heir to the throne is subject from infancy2 but as he advances in life the number of abstinences and ceremonies which he must observe increases1 8until at the moment that he ascends the throne he is lost in the ocean of rites and taboos407#chb7 ,the kings of ,egypt1 as we have seen17#chc7 were worshipped as gods1 and the routine of their daily life was regulated in every detail by precise and unvarying rules4 8,the life of the kings of ,egypt10 says ,diodorus17#chd7 8was not like that of other monarchs who are irresponsible and may do just what they choose2 on the contrary1 everything was fixed for them by law1 not only their official duties1 but even the details of their daily life4444 ,the hours both of day and night were arranged at which the king had to do1 not what he pleased1 but what was prescribed for him4444 ,for not only were the times appointed at which he should transact public business or sit in judgment2 but the very hours for his walking and bathing and sleeping with his wife1 and1 in short1 performing every act of life1 were all settled4 ,custom enjoined a simple diet2 the only flesh he might eat was veal and goose1 and he might only drink a prescribed quantity of wine40 ,of the taboos imposed on priests1 the rules of life observed by the ,flamen ,dialis at ,rome furnish a striking example4 ,as the worship of ,virbius at ,nemi was conducted1 as we have seen17#che7 by a ,flamen1 who may possibly have been the ,king of the ,wood himself1 and whose mode of life may have resembled that of the ,roman ,flamen1 these rules have a special interest for us4 ,they were such as the following3 ,the ,flamen ,dialis might not ride or even touch a horse1 nor see an army under arms1 nor wear a ring which was not broken1 nor have a knot on any part of his garments2 no fire except a sacred fire might be taken out of his house2 he might not touch wheaten flour or leavened bread2 he might not touch or even name a goat1 a dog1 raw meat1 beans1 and ivy2 he might not walk under a vine2 the feet of his bed had to be daubed with mud2 his hair could be cut only by a free man and with a bronze knife1 and his hair and nails when cut had to be buried under a lucky tree2 he might not touch a dead body nor enter a place where one was burned2 he might not see work being done on holy days2 he might not be uncovered in the open air2 if a man in bonds were taken into his house1 he had to be unbound and the cords had to be drawn up through a hole in the roof and so let down into the street4 ,his wife1 the ,flaminica1 had to observe nearly the same rules1 and others of her own besides4 ,she might not ascend more than three steps of the kind of staircase called ,greek2 at a certain festival she might not comb her hair2 the leather of her shoes might not be made from a beast that had died a natural death1 but only from one that had been slain or sacrificed2 if she heard thunder she was tabooed till she had offered an expiatory sacrifice47#chf7 ,the burdensome observances attached to the royal or priestly office produced their natural effect4 ,either men refused to accept the office1 which hence tended to fall into abeyance2 or accepting it1 they sank under its weight into spiritless creatures1 cloistered recluses1 from whose nerveless fingers the reigns of government slipped into the firmer grasp of men who were often content to wield the reality of sovereignty without its name4 ,in some countries this rift in the supreme power deepened into a total and permanent separation of the spiritual and temporal powers1 the old royal house retaining their purely religious functions1 while the civil government passed into the hands of a younger and more vigorous race4 ,to take examples4 ,we saw7#chg7 that in ,cambodia it is often necessary to force the kingships of ,fire and ,water upon the reluctant successors1 and that in ,savage ,island the monarchy actually came to an end because at last no one could be induced to accept the dangerous distinction47#chh7 ,in some parts of ,west ,africa1 when the king dies1 a family council is secretly held to determine his successor4 ,he on whom the choice falls is suddenly seized1 bound1 and thrown into the fetish-house1 where he is kept in durance till he consents to accept the crown4 ,sometimes the heir finds means of evading the honour which it is sought to thrust upon him2 a ferocious chief has been known to go about constantly armed1 resolute to resist by force any attempt to set him on the throne47#chi7 ,the ,mikados of ,japan seem early to have resorted to the expedient of transferring the honours and burdens of supreme power to their infant children2 and the rise of the ,tycoons1 long the temporal sovereigns of the country1 is traced to the abdication of a certain ,mikado in favour of his three-year-old son4 ,the sovereignty having been wrested by a usurper from the infant prince1 the cause of the ,mikado was championed by ,yoritomo1 a man of spirit and conduct1 who overthrew the usurper and restored to the ,mikado the shadow1 while he retained for himself the substance1 of power4 ,he bequeathed to his descendants the dignity he had won1 and thus became the founder of the line of ,tycoons4 ,down to the latter half of the sixteenth century the ,tycoons were active and efficient rulers2 but the same fate overtook them which had befallen the ,mikados2 entangled in the same inextricable web of custom and law1 they degenerated into mere puppets1 hardly stirring from their palaces and occupied in a perpetual round of empty ceremonies1 while the real business of government was managed by the council of state47#cij7 ,in ,tonquin the monarchy ran a similar course4 ,living like his predecessors in effeminacy and sloth1 the king was driven from the throne by an ambitious adventurer named ,mack1 who from a fisherman had risen to be ,grand ,mandarin4 ,but the king's brother ,tring put down the usurper and restored the king1 retaining1 however1 for himself and his descendants the dignity of general of all the forces4 ,thenceforward the kings or dovas1 though vested with the title and pomp of sovereignty1 ceased to govern4 ,while they lived secluded in their palaces1 all real political power was wielded by the hereditary generals or chovas47#cia7 ,the custom regularly observed by the ,tahitian kings of abdicating on the birth of a son1 who was immediately proclaimed sovereign and received his father's homage1 may perhaps have originated1 like the similar custom occasionally practised by the ,mikados1 in a wish to shift to other shoulders the irksome burden of royalty2 for in ,tahiti as elsewhere the sovereign was subjected to a system of vexatious restrictions47#cib7 ,in ,mangaia1 another ,polynesian island1 religious and civil authority were lodged in separate hands1 spiritual functions being discharged by a line of hereditary kings1 while the temporal government was entrusted from time to time to a victorious war-chief1 whose investiture1 however1 had to be completed by the king4 ,to the latter were assigned the best lands1 and he received daily offerings of the choicest food47#cic7 ,american examples of the partition of authority between an emperor and a pope have already been cited from the early history of ,mexico and ,colombia47#cid7 #b4--,the nature of the soul4 ,but if the object of the taboos observed by a divine king or priest is to preserve his life1 the question arises1 ,how is their observance supposed to effect this end8 ,to understand this we must know the nature of the danger which threatens the king's life1 and which it is the intention of the taboos to guard against4 ,we must1 therefore1 ask3 ,what does early man understand by death8 ,to what causes does he attribute it8 ,and how does he think it may be guarded against8 ,as the savage commonly explains the processes of inanimate nature by supposing that they are produced by living beings working in or behind the phenomena1 so he explains the phenomena of life itself4 ,if an animal lives and moves1 it can only be1 he thinks1 because there is a little animal inside which moves it4 ,if a man lives and moves1 it can only be because he has a little man inside who moves him4 ,the animal inside the animal1 the man inside the man1 is the soul4 ,and as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul1 so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence2 sleep or trance being the temporary1 death being the permanent absence of the soul4 ,hence if death be the permanent absence of the soul1 the way to guard against it is either to prevent the soul from leaving the body1 or1 if it does depart1 to secure that it shall return4 ,the precautions adopted by savages to secure one or other of these ends take the form of prohibitions or taboos1 which are nothing but rules intended to ensure either the continued presence or the return of the soul4 ,in short1 they are life-preservers or life-guards4 ,these general statements will now be illustrated by examples4 ,addressing some ,australian blacks1 a ,european missionary said1 8,i am not one1 as you think1 but two40 ,upon this they laughed4 8,you may laugh as much as you like10 continued the missionary1 8,i tell you that ,i am two in one2 this great body that you see is one2 within that there is another little one which is not visible4 ,the great body dies1 and is buried1 but the little body flies away when the great one dies40 ,to this some of the blacks replied1 8,yes1 yes4 ,we also are two1 we also have a little body within the breast40 ,on being asked where the little body went after death1 some said it went behind the bush1 others said it went into the sea1 and some said they did not know47#cie7 ,the ,hurons thought that the soul had a head and body1 arms and legs2 in short1 that it was a complete little model of the man himself47#cif7 ,the ,eskimos believe that 8the soul exhibits the same shape as the body it belongs to1 but is of a more subtle and ethereal nature407#cig7 ,so exact is the resemblance of the mannikin to the man1 in other words1 of the soul to the body1 that1 as there are fat bodies and thin bodies1 so there are fat souls and thin souls27#cih7 as there are heavy bodies and light bodies1 long bodies and short bodies1 so there are heavy souls and light souls1 long souls and short souls4 ,the people of ,nias 7an island to the west of ,sumatra7 think that every man1 before he is born1 is asked how long or how heavy a soul he would like1 and a soul of the desired weight or length is measured out to him4 ,the heaviest soul ever given out weighs about ten grammes4 ,the length of a man's life is proportioned to the length of his soul2 children who die young had short souls47#cii7 ,sometimes1 however1 as we shall see1 the human soul is conceived not in human but in animal form4 ,the soul is commonly supposed to escape by the natural openings of the body1 especially the mouth and nostrils4 ,hence in ,celebes they sometimes fasten fish-hooks to a sick man's nose1 navel1 and feet1 so that if his soul should try to escape it may be hooked and held fast47#djj7 ,one of the 8properties0 of a ,haida medicine-man is a hollow bone1 in which he bottles up departing souls1 and so restores them to their owners47#dja7 ,the ,marquesans used to hold the mouth and nose of a dying man1 in order to keep him in life1 by preventing his soul from escaping47#djb7 ,when any one yawns in their presence the ,hindus always snap their thumbs1 believing that this will hinder the soul from issuing through the open mouth47#djc7 ,the ,itonamas in ,south ,america seal up the eyes1 nose1 and mouth of a dying person1 in case his ghost should get out and carry off other people47#djd7 ,in ,southern ,celebes1 to prevent the escape of a woman's soul at childbirth1 the nurse ties a band as tightly as possible round the body of the expectant mother47#dje7 ,and lest the soul of the babe should escape and be lost as soon as it is born1 the ,alfoers of ,celebes1 when a birth is about to take place1 are careful to close every opening in the house1 even the keyhole2 and they stop up every chink and cranny in the walls4 ,also they tie up the mouths of all animals inside and outside the house1 for fear one of them might swallow the child's soul4 ,for a similar reason all persons present in the house1 even the mother herself1 are obliged to keep their mouths shut the whole time the birth is taking place4 ,when the question was put1 ,why they did not hold their noses also1 lest the child's soul should get into one of them8 the answer was that breath being exhaled as well as inhaled through the nostrils1 the soul would be expelled before it could have time to settle down47#djf7 ,often the soul is conceived as a bird ready to take flight4 ,this conception has probably left traces in most languages17#djg7 and it lingers as a metaphor in poetry4 ,but what is metaphor to a modern ,european poet was sober earnest to his savage ancestor1 and is still so to many people4 ,the ,malays carry out the conception in question to its practical conclusion4 ,if the soul is a bird on the wing1 it may be attracted by rice1 and so prevented from taking its perilous flight4 ,thus in ,java when a child is placed on the ground for the first time 7a moment which uncultured people seem to regard as especially dangerous71 it is put in a hen-coop and the mother makes a clucking sound1 as if she were calling hens47#djh7 ,amongst the ,battas of ,sumatra1 when a man returns from a dangerous enterprise1 grains of rice are placed on his head1 and these grains are called padiruma tondi1 that is1 8means to make the soul 7tondi7 stay at home40 ,in ,java also rice is placed on the head of persons who have escaped a great danger or have returned home unexpectedly after it had been supposed that they were lost47#dji7 ,in ,celebes they think that a bridegroom's soul is apt to fly away at marriage1 so coloured rice is scattered over him to induce it to stay4 ,and1 in general1 at festivals in ,south ,celebes rice is strewed on the head of the person in whose honour the festival is held1 with the object of detaining his soul1 which at such times is in especial danger of being lured away by envious demons47#daj7 ,the soul of a sleeper is supposed to wander away from his body and actually to visit the very places of which he dreams4 ,but this absence of the soul has its dangers1 for if from any cause it should be permanently detained away from the body1 the person1 deprived of his soul1 must die47#daa7 ,many causes may detain the sleeper's soul4 ,thus1 his soul may meet the soul of another sleeper and the two souls may fight2 if a ,guinea negro wakens with sore bones in the morning1 he thinks that his soul has been thrashed by another soul in sleep47#dab7 ,or it may meet the soul of a person just deceased and be carried off by it2 hence in the ,aru ,islands the inmates of a house will not sleep the night after a death has taken place in it1 because the soul of the deceased is supposed to be still in the house and they fear to meet it in a dream47#dac7 ,again1 the soul may be prevented by physical force from returning4 ,the ,santals tell how a man fell asleep1 and growing very thirsty1 his soul1 in the form of a lizard1 left his body and entered a pitcher of water to drink4 ,just then the owner of the pitcher happened to cover it2 so the soul could not return to the body and the man died4 ,while his friends were preparing to burn the body some one uncovered the pitcher to get water4 ,the lizard thus escaped and returned to the body1 which immediately revived2 so the man rose up and asked his friends why they were weeping4 ,they told him they thought he was dead and were about to burn his body4 ,he said he had been down a well to get water but had found it hard to get out and had just returned4 ,so they saw it all47#dad7 ,a similar story is reported from ,transylvania as follows4 ,in the account of a witch's trial at ,mhlbach last century it is said that a woman had engaged two men to work in her vineyard4 ,after noon they all lay down to rest as usual4 ,an hour later the men got up and tried to waken the woman1 but could not4 ,she lay motionless with her mouth wide open4 ,they came back at sunset and still she lay like a corpse4 ,just at that moment a big fly came buzzing past1 which one of the men caught and shut up in his leathern pouch4 ,then they tried again to waken the woman but could not4 ,afterwards they let out the fly2 it flew straight into the woman's mouth and she awoke4 ,on seeing this the men had no further doubt that she was a witch47#dae7 ,it is a common rule with primitive people not to waken a sleeper1 because his soul is away and might not have time to get back2 so if the man wakened without his soul1 he would fall sick4 ,if it is absolutely necessary to waken a sleeper1 it must be done very gradually1 to allow the soul time to return47#daf7 ,in ,bombay it is thought equivalent to murder to change the appearance of a sleeper1 as by painting his face in fantastic colours or giving moustaches to a sleeping woman4 ,for when the soul returns1 it will not be able to recognise its body and the person will die47#dag7 ,the ,servians believe that the soul of a sleeping witch often leaves her body in the form of a butterfly4 ,if during its absence her body be turned round1 so that her feet are placed where her head was before1 the butterfly soul will not find its way back into her body through the mouth1 and the witch will die47#dah7 ,but in order that a man's soul should quit his body1 it is not necessary that he should be asleep4 ,it may quit him in his waking hours1 and then sickness or 7if the absence is prolonged7 death will be the result4 ,thus the ,mongols sometimes explain sickness by supposing that the patient's soul is absent1 and either does not care to return to its body or cannot find the way back4 ,to secure the return of the soul it is therefore necessary on the one hand to make its body as attractive as possible1 and on the other hand to show it the way home4 ,to make the body attractive all the sick man's best clothes and most valued possessions are placed beside him2 he is washed1 incensed1 and made as comfortable as possible2 and all his friends march thrice round the hut calling out the sick man's name and coaxing his soul to return4 ,to help the soul to find its way back a coloured cord is stretched from the patient's head to the door of the hut4 ,the priest in his robes reads a list of the horrors of hell and the dangers incurred by souls which wilfully absent themselves from their bodies4 ,then turning to the assembled friends and the patient he asks1 8,is it come80 ,all answer ,yes1 and bowing to the returning soul throw seed over the sick man4 ,the cord which guided the soul back is then rolled up and placed round the patient's neck1 who must wear it for seven days without taking it off4 ,no one may frighten or hurt him1 lest his soul1 not yet familiar with its body1 should again take flight47#dai7 ,in an ,indian story a king conveys his soul into the dead body of a ,brahman1 and a hunchback conveys his soul into the deserted body of the king4 ,the hunchback is now king and the king is a ,brahman4 ,however1 the hunchback is induced to show his skill by transferring his soul to the dead body of a parrot1 and the king seizes the opportunity to regain possession of his own body47#dbj7 ,in another ,indian story a ,brahman reanimates the dead body of a king by conveying his own soul into it4 ,meantime the ,brahman's body has been burnt1 and his soul is obliged to remain in the body of the king47#dba7 ,the departure of the soul is not always voluntary4 ,it may be extracted from the body against its will by ghosts1 demons1 or sorcerers4 ,hence1 when a funeral is passing the house1 the ,karens of ,burma tie their children with a special kind of string to a particular part of the house1 in case the souls of the children should leave their bodies and go into the corpse which is passing4 ,the children are kept tied in this way until the corpse is out of sight47#dbb7 ,and after the corpse has been laid in the grave1 but before the earth has been filled in1 the mourners and friends range themselves round the grave1 each with a bamboo split lengthwise in one hand and a little stick in the other2 each man thrusts his bamboo into the grave1 and drawing the stick along the groove of the bamboo points out to his soul that in this way it may easily climb up out of the grave4 ,while the earth is being filled in1 the bamboos are kept out of the way1 lest the souls should be in them1 and so should be inadvertently buried with the earth as it is being thrown into the grave2 and when the people leave the spot they carry away the bamboos1 begging their souls to come with them47#dbc7 ,further1 on returning from the grave each ,karen provides himself with three little hooks made of branches of trees1 and calling his spirit to follow him1 at short intervals1 as he returns1 he makes a motion as if hooking it1 and then thrusts the hook into the ground4 ,this is done to prevent the soul of the living from staying behind with the soul of the dead47#dbd7 ,when a mother dies leaving a young baby1 the ,burmese think that the 8butterfly0 or soul of the baby follows that of the mother1 and that if it is not recovered the child must die4 ,so a wise woman is called in to get back the baby's soul4 ,she places a mirror near the corpse1 and on the mirror a piece of feathery cotton down4 ,holding a cloth in her open hands at the foot of the mirror1 she with wild words entreats the mother not to take with her the 8butterfly0 or soul of her child1 but to send it back4 ,as the gossamer down slips from the face of the mirror she catches it in the cloth and tenderly places it on the baby's breast4 ,the same ceremony is sometimes observed when one of two children that have played together dies1 and is thought to be luring away the soul of its playmate to the spirit-land4 ,it is sometimes performed also for a bereaved husband or wife47#dbe7 ,in the ,island of ,keisar 7,east ,indies7 it is thought imprudent to go near a grave at night1 lest the ghosts should catch and keep the soul of the passer-by47#dbf7 ,the ,key ,islanders believe that the souls of their forefathers1 angry at not receiving food1 make people sick by detaining their souls4 ,so they lay offerings of food on the grave and beg their ancestors to allow the soul of the sick to return or to drive it home speedily if it should be lingering by the way47#dbg7 ,in ,bolang ,mongondo1 a district in the west of ,celebes1 all sickness is ascribed to the ancestral spirits who have carried off the patient's soul4 ,the object therefore is to bring back the patient's soul and restore it to the sufferer4 ,an eye-witness has thus described the attempted cure of a sick boy4 ,the priestesses1 who acted as physicians1 made a doll of cloth and fastened it to the point of a spear1 which an old woman held upright4 ,round this doll the priestesses danced1 uttering charms1 and chirruping as when one calls a dog4 ,then the old woman lowered the point of the spear a little1 so that the priestesses could reach the doll4 ,by this time the soul of the sick boy was supposed to be in the doll1 having been brought into it by the incantations4 ,so the priestesses approached it cautiously on tiptoe and caught the soul in the many-coloured cloths which they had been waving in the air4 ,then they laid the soul on the boy's head1 that is1 they wrapped his head in the cloth in which the soul was supposed to be1 and stood still for some moments with great gravity1 holding their hands on the patient's head4 ,suddenly there was a jerk1 the priestesses whispered and shook their heads1 and the cloth was taken off--the soul had escaped4 ,the priestesses gave chase to it1 running round and round the house1 clucking and gesticulating as if they were driving hens into a poultry-yard4 ,at last they recaptured the soul at the foot of the stair and restored it to its owner as before47#dbh7 ,much in the same way an ,australian medicine-man will sometimes bring the lost soul of a sick man into a puppet and restore it to the patient by pressing the puppet to his breast47#dbi7 ,in ,uea1 one of the ,loyalty ,islands1 the souls of the dead seem to have been credited with the power of stealing the souls of the living4 ,for when a man was sick the soul-doctor would go with a large troop of men and women to the graveyard4 ,here the men played on flutes and the women whistled softly to lure the soul home4 ,after this had gone on for some time they formed in procession and moved homewards1 the flutes playing and the women whistling all the way1 leading back the wandering soul and driving it gently along with open palms4 ,on entering the patient's dwelling they commanded the soul in a loud voice to enter his body47#dcj7 ,in ,madagascar1 when a sick man had lost his soul1 his friends went to the family tomb1 and making a hole in it1 begged the soul of the patient's father to give them a soul for his son1 who had none4 ,so saying they clapped a bonnet on the hole1 and folding up the soul in the bonnet1 brought it to the patient1 who put the bonnet on his head1 and thus received a new soul or got back his old one47#dca7 ,often the abduction of a man's soul is set down to demons4 ,the ,annamites believe that when a man meets a demon and speaks to him1 the demon inhales the man's breath and soul47#dcb7 ,when a ,dyak is about to leave a forest through which he has been walking alone1 he never forgets to ask the demons to give him back his soul1 for it may be that some forest-devil has carried it off4 ,for the abduction of a soul may take place without its owner being aware of his loss1 and it may happen either while he is awake or asleep47#dcc7 ,in the ,moluccas when a man is unwell it is thought that some devil has carried away his soul to the tree1 mountain1 or hill where he 7the devil7 dwells4 ,a sorcerer having pointed out the devil's abode1 the friends of the patient carry thither cooked rice1 fruit1 fish1 raw eggs1 a hen1 a chicken1 a silken robe1 gold1 armlets1 etc4 ,having set out the food in order they pray1 saying3 8,we come to offer to you1 ,o devil1 this offering of food1 clothes1 gold1 etc42 take it and release the soul of the patient for whom we pray4 ,let it return to his body and he who now is sick shall be made whole40 ,then they eat a little and let the hen loose as a ransom for the soul of the patient2 also they put down the raw eggs2 but the silken robe1 the gold1 and the armlets they take home with them4 ,as soon as they are come to the house they place a flat bowl containing the offerings which have been brought back at the sick man's head1 and say to him3 8,now is your soul released1 and you shall fare well and live to gray hairs on the earth407#dcd7 ,a more modern account from the same region describes how the friend of the patient1 after depositing his offerings on the spot where the missing soul is supposed to be1 calls out thrice the name of the sick person1 adding1 8,come with me1 come with me40 ,then he returns1 making a motion with a cloth as if he had caught the soul in it4 ,he must not look to right or left or speak a word to any one he meets1 but must go straight to the patient's house4 ,at the door he stands1 and calling out the sick person's name1 asks whether he is returned4 ,being answered from within that he is returned1 he enters and lays the cloth in which he has caught the soul on the patient's throat1 saying1 8,now you are returned to the house40 ,sometimes a substitute is provided2 a doll1 dressed up in gay clothing and tinsel1 is offered to the demon in exchange for the patient's soul with these words1 8,give us back the ugly one which you have taken away and receive this pretty one instead407#dce7 ,similarly the ,mongols make up a horse of birch-bark and a doll1 and invite the demon to take the doll instead of the patient and to ride away on the horse47#dcf7 ,demons are especially feared by persons who have just entered on a new house4 ,hence at a house-warming among the ,alfoers of ,celebes the priest performs a ceremony for the purpose of restoring their souls to the inmates4 ,he hangs up a bag at the place of sacrifice and then goes through a list of the gods4 ,there are so many of them that this takes him the whole night through without stopping4 ,in the morning he offers the gods an egg and some rice4 ,by this time the souls of the household are supposed to be gathered in the bag4 ,so the priest takes the bag1 and holding it on the head of the master of the house says1 8,here you have your soul--go 7soul7 to-morrow away again40 ,he then does the same1 saying the same words1 to the housewife and all the other members of the family47#dcg7 ,amongst the same ,alfoers one way of recovering a sick man's soul is to let down a bowl by a belt out of a window and fish for the soul till it is caught in the bowl and hauled up47#dch7 ,among the same people1 when a priest is bringing back a sick man's soul which he has caught in a cloth1 he is preceded by a girl holding the large leaf of a certain palm over his head as an umbrella to keep him and the soul from getting wet1 in case it should rain2 and he is followed by a man brandishing a sword to deter other souls from any attempt at rescuing the captured soul47#dci7 ,the ,samoans tell how two young wizards1 passing a house where a chief lay very sick1 saw a company of gods from the mountain sitting in the doorway4 ,they were handing from one to another the soul of the dying chief4 ,it was wrapped in a leaf1 and had been passed from the gods inside the house to those sitting in the doorway4 ,one of the gods handed the soul to one of the wizards1 taking him for a god in the dark1 for it was night4 ,then all the gods rose up and went away2 but the wizard kept the chief's soul4 ,in the morning some women went with a present of fine mats to fetch a famous physician4 ,the wizards were sitting on the shore as the women passed1 and they said to the women1 8,give us the mats and we will heal him40 ,so they went to the chief's house4 ,he was very ill1 his jaw hung down1 and his end seemed near4 ,but the wizards undid the leaf and let the soul into him again1 and forthwith he brightened up and lived47#ddj7 ,the ,battas of ,sumatra believe that the soul of a living man may transmigrate into the body of an animal4 ,hence1 for example1 the doctor is sometimes desired to extract the patient's soul from the body of a fowl1 in which it has been hidden away by an evil spirit47#dda7 ,sometimes the lost soul is brought back in a visible shape4 ,in ,melanesia a woman knowing that a neighbour was at the point of death heard a rustling in her house1 as of a moth fluttering1 just at the moment when a noise of weeping and lamentation told her that the soul was flown4 ,she caught the fluttering thing between her hands and ran with it1 crying out that she had caught the soul4 ,but though she opened her hands above the mouth of the corpse1 it did not revive47#ddb7 ,the ,salish or ,flathead ,indians of ,oregon believe that a man's soul may be separated for a time from his body without causing death and without the man being aware of his loss4 ,it is necessary1 however1 that the lost soul should be soon found and restored to the man or he will die4 ,the name of the man who has lost his soul is revealed in a dream to the medicine-man1 who hastens to inform the sufferer of his loss4 ,generally a number of men have sustained a like loss at the same time2 all their names are revealed to the medicine-man1 and all employ him to recover their souls4 ,the whole night long these soulless men go about the village from lodge to lodge1 dancing and singing4 ,towards daybreak they go into a separate lodge1 which is closed up so as to be totally dark4 ,a small hole is then made in the roof1 through which the medicine-man1 with a bunch of feathers1 brushes in the souls1 in the shape of bits of bone and the like1 which he receives on a piece of matting4 ,a fire is next kindled1 by the light of which the medicine-man sorts out the souls4 ,first he puts aside the souls of dead people1 of which there are usually several2 for if he were to give the soul of a dead person to a living man1 the man would die instantly4 ,next he picks out the souls of all the persons present1 and making them all to sit down before him1 he takes the soul of each1 in the shape of a splinter of bone1 wood1 or shell1 and placing it on the owner's head1 pats it with many prayers and contortions till it descends into the heart and so resumes its proper place47#ddc7 ,in ,amboina the sorcerer1 to recover a soul detained by demons1 plucks a branch from a tree1 and waving it to and fro as if to catch something1 calls out the sick man's name4 ,returning he strikes the patient over the head and body with the branch1 into which the lost soul is supposed to have passed1 and from which it returns to the patient47#ddd7 ,in the ,babar ,islands offerings for evil spirits are laid at the root of a great tree 7wokiorai71 from which a leaf is plucked and pressed on the patient's forehead and breast2 the lost soul1 which is in the leaf1 is thus restored to its owner47#dde7 ,in some other islands of the same seas1 when a man returns ill and speechless from the forest1 it is inferred that the evil spirits which dwell in the great trees have caught and kept his soul4 ,offerings of food are therefore left under a tree and the soul is brought home in a piece of wax47#ddf7 ,amongst the ,dyaks of ,sarawak the priest conjures the lost soul into a cup1 where it is seen by the uninitiated as a lock of hair1 but by the initiated as a miniature human being4 ,this is supposed to be thrust by the priest into a hole in the top of the patient's head47#ddg7 ,in ,nias the sick man's soul is restored to him in the shape of a firefly1 visible only to the sorcerer1 who catches it in a cloth and places it on the forehead of the patient47#ddh7 ,again1 souls may be extracted from their bodies or detained on their wanderings not only by ghosts and demons but also by men1 especially by sorcerers4 ,in ,fiji if a criminal refused to confess1 the chief sent for a scarf with which 8to catch away the soul of the rogue40 ,at the sight1 or even at the mention of the scarf the culprit generally made a clean breast4 ,for if he did not1 the scarf would be waved over his head till his soul was caught in it1 when it would be carefully folded up and nailed to the end of a chief's canoe2 and for want of his soul the criminal would pine and die47#ddi7 ,the sorcerers of ,danger ,island used to set snares for souls4 ,the snares were made of stout cinet1 about fifteen to thirty feet long1 with loops on either side of different sizes1 to suit the different sizes of souls2 for fat souls there were large loops1 for thin souls there were small ones4 ,when a man was sick against whom the sorcerers had a grudge1 they set up these soul-snares near his house and watched for the flight of his soul4 ,if in the shape of a bird or an insect it was caught in the snare the man would infallibly die47#dej7 ,among the ,sereres of ,senegambia1 when a man wishes to revenge himself on his enemy he goes to the ,fitaure 7chief and priest in one71 and prevails on him by presents to conjure the soul of his enemy into a large jar of red earthenware1 which is then deposited under a consecrated tree4 ,the man whose soul is shut up in the jar soon dies47#dea7 ,some of the ,congo negroes think that enchanters can get possession of human souls1 and enclosing them in tusks of ivory1 sell them to the white man1 who makes them work for him in his country under the sea4 ,it is believed that very many of the coast labourers are men thus obtained2 so when these people go to trade they often look anxiously about for their dead relations4 ,the man whose soul is thus sold into slavery will die 8in due course1 if not at the time407#deb7 ,in ,hawaii there were sorcerers who caught souls of living people1 shut them up in calabashes1 and gave them to people to eat4 ,by squeezing a captured soul in their hands they discovered the place where people had been secretly buried47#dec7 ,amongst the ,canadian ,indians1 when a wizard wished to kill a man1 he sent out his familiar spirits1 who brought him the victim's soul in the shape of a stone or the like4 ,the wizard struck the soul with a sword or an axe till it bled profusely1 and as it bled the man to whom it belonged languished and died47#ded7 ,in ,amboina if a doctor is convinced that a patient's soul has been carried away by a demon beyond recovery1 he seeks to supply its place with a soul abstracted from another man4 ,for this purpose he goes by night to a house and asks1 8,who's there80 ,if an inmate is incautious enough to answer1 the doctor takes up from before the door a clod of earth1 into which the soul of the person who replied is believed to have passed4 ,this clod the doctor lays under the sick man's pillow1 and performs certain ceremonies by which the stolen soul is conveyed into the patient's body4 ,then as he goes home the doctor fires two shots to frighten the soul from returning to its proper owner47#dee7 ,a ,karen wizard will catch the wandering soul of a sleeper and transfer it to the body of a dead man4 ,the latter1 therefore1 comes to life as the former dies4 ,but the friends of the sleeper in turn engage a wizard to steal the soul of another sleeper1 who dies as the first sleeper comes to life4 ,in this way an indefinite succession of deaths and resurrections is supposed to take place47#def7 ,the ,indians of the ,nass ,river1 ,british ,columbia1 think that a doctor may swallow his patient's soul by mistake4 ,a doctor who is believed to have done so is made by the other doctors to stand over the patient1 while one of them thrusts his fingers down the doctor's throat1 another kneads him in the stomach with his knuckles1 and a third slaps him on the back4 ,if the soul is not in him after all1 and if the same process has been repeated upon all the doctors without success1 it is concluded that the soul must be in the head-doctor's box4 ,a party of doctors1 therefore1 waits upon him at his house and requests him to produce his box4 ,when he has done so and arranged its contents on a new mat1 they take him and hold him up by the heels with his head in a hole in the floor4 ,in this position they wash his head1 and 8any water remaining from the ablution is taken and poured upon the sick man's head407#deg7 ,other examples of the recall and recovery of souls will be found referred to beneath47#deh7 ,but the spiritual dangers ,i have enumerated are not the only ones which beset the savage4 ,often he regards his shadow or reflection as his soul1 or at all events as a vital part of himself1 and as such it is necessarily a source of danger to him4 ,for if it is trampled upon1 struck1 or stabbed1 he will feel the injury as if it were done to his person2 and if it is detached from him entirely 7as he believes that it may be7 he will die4 ,in the island of ,wetar there are magicians who can make a man ill by stabbing his shadow with a pike or hacking it with a sword47#dei7 ,after ,sankara had destroyed the ,buddhists in ,india1 it is said that he journeyed to ,nepaul1 where he had some difference of opinion with the ,grand ,lama4 ,to prove his supernatural powers1 he soared into the air4 ,but as he mounted up1 the ,grand ,lama1 perceiving his shadow swaying and wavering on the ground1 struck his knife into it and down fell ,sankara and broke his neck47#dfj7 ,in the ,babar ,islands the demons get power over a man's soul by holding fast his shadow1 or by striking and wounding it47#dfa7 ,there are stones in ,melanesia on which1 if a man's shadow falls1 the demon of the stone can draw out his soul47#dfb7 ,in ,amboina and ,uliase1 two islands near the equator1 and where1 therefore1 there is little or no shadow cast at noon1 it is a rule not to go out of the house at mid-day1 because it is supposed that by doing so a man may lose the shadow of his soul47#dfc7 ,the ,mangaians tell of a mighty warrior1 ,tukaitawa1 whose strength waxed and waned with the length of his shadow4 ,in the morning1 when his shadow fell longest1 his strength was greatest2 but as the shadow shortened towards noon his strength ebbed with it1 till exactly at noon it reached its lowest point2 then1 as the shadow stretched out in the afternoon1 his strength returned4 ,a certain hero discovered the secret of ,tukaitawa's strength and slew him at noon47#dfd7 ,it is possible that even in lands outside the tropics the fact of the diminished shadow at noon may have contributed1 even if it did not give rise1 to the superstitious dread with which that hour has been viewed by various peoples1 as by the ,greeks1 ancient and modern1 and by the ,roumanians of ,transylvania47#dfe7 ,in this fact1 too1 we may perhaps detect the reason why noon was chosen by the ,greeks as the hour for sacrificing to the shadowless dead47#dff7 ,the ancients believed that in ,arabia if a hyaena trod on a man's shadow it deprived him of the power of speech and motion2 and that if a dog1 standing on a roof in the moonlight1 cast a shadow on the ground and a hyaena trod on it1 the dog would fall down as if dragged with a rope47#dfg7 ,clearly in these cases the shadow1 if not equivalent to the soul1 is at least regarded as a living part of the man or the animal1 so that injury done to the shadow is felt by the person or animal as if it were done to his body4 ,whoever entered the sanctuary of ,zeus on ,mount ,lycaeus in ,arcadia was believed to lose his shadow and to die within the year47#dfh7 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 does the equivalence of the shadow to the life or soul come out more clearly than in some customs practised to this day in ,south-,eastern ,europe4 ,in modern ,greece1 when the foundation of a new building is being laid1 it is the custom to kill a cock1 a ram1 or a lamb1 and to let its blood flow on the foundation stone1 under which the animal is afterwards buried4 ,the object of the sacrifice is to give strength and stability to the building4 ,but sometimes1 instead of killing an animal1 the builder entices a man to the foundation stone1 secretly measures his body1 or a part of it1 or his shadow1 and buries the measure under the foundation stone2 or he lays the foundation stone upon the man's shadow4 ,it is believed that the man will die within the year47#dfi7 ,the ,bulgarians still observe a similar custom4 ,if they cannot get a human shadow they measure the shadow of the first animal that comes that way47#dgj7 ,the ,roumanians of ,transylvania think that he whose shadow is thus immured will die within forty days2 so persons passing by a building which is in course of erection may hear a warning cry1 8,beware lest they take thy shadow60 ,not long ago there were still shadow-traders whose business it was to provide architects with the shadows necessary for securing their walls47#dga7 ,in these cases the measure of the shadow is looked on as equivalent to the shadow itself1 and to bury it is to bury the life or soul of the man1 who1 deprived of it1 must die4 ,thus the custom is a substitute for the old custom of immuring a living person in the walls1 or crushing him under the foundation stone of a new building1 in order to give strength and durability to the structure4 ,as some peoples believe a man's soul to be in his shadow1 so other 7or the same7 peoples believe it to be in his reflection in water or a mirror4 ,thus 8the ,andamanese do not regard their shadows but their reflections 7in any mirror7 as their souls407#dgb7 ,some of the ,fijians thought that man has two souls1 a light one and a dark one2 the dark one goes to ,hades1 the light one is his reflection in water or a mirror47#dgc7 ,when the ,motumotu of ,new ,guinea first saw their likenesses in a looking-glass they thought that their reflections were their souls47#dgd7 ,the reflection-soul1 being external to the man1 is exposed to much the same dangers as the shadow-soul4 ,as the shadow may be stabbed1 so may the reflection4 ,hence an ,aztec mode of keeping sorcerers from the house was to leave a vessel of water with a knife in it behind the door4 ,when a sorcerer entered he was so much alarmed at seeing his reflection in the water transfixed by a knife that he turned and fled47#dge7 ,the ,zulus will not look into a dark pool because they think there is a beast in it which will take away their reflections1 so that they die47#dgf7 ,the ,basutos say that crocodiles have the power of thus killing a man by dragging his reflection under water47#dgg7 ,in ,saddle ,island 7,melanesia7 there is a pool 8into which if any one looks he dies2 the malignant spirit takes hold upon his life by means of his reflection on the water407#dgh7 ,we can now understand why it was a maxim both in ancient ,india and ancient ,greece not to look at one's reflection in water1 and why the ,greeks regarded it as an omen of death if a man dreamed of seeing himself so reflected47#dgi7 ,they feared that the water-spirits would drag the person's reflection 7soul7 under water1 leaving him soulless to die4 ,this was probably the origin of the classical story of the beautiful ,narcissus1 who pined and died in consequence of seeing his reflection in the water4 ,the explanation that he died for love of his own fair image was probably devised later1 after the old meaning of the story was forgotten4 ,the same ancient belief lingers1 in a faded form1 in the ,english superstition that whoever sees a water-fairy must pine and die4 8,alas1 the moon should ever beam ,to show what man should never see6-- ,i saw a maiden on a stream1 ,and fair was she6 8,i staid to watch1 a little space1 ,her parted lips if she would sing2 ,the waters closed above her face ,with many a ring4 8,i know my life will fade away1 ,i know that ,i must vainly pine1 ,for ,i am made of mortal clay1 ,but she's divine60 ,further1 we can now explain the widespread custom of covering up mirrors or turning them to the wall after a death has taken place in the house4 ,it is feared that the soul1 projected out of the person in the shape of his reflection in the mirror1 may be carried off by the ghost of the departed1 which is commonly supposed to linger about the house till the burial4 ,the custom is thus exactly parallel to the ,aru custom of not sleeping in a house after a death for fear that the soul1 projected out of the body in a dream1 may meet the ghost and be carried off by it47#dhj7 ,in ,oldenburg it is thought that if a person sees his image in a mirror after a death he will die himself4 ,so all the mirrors in the house are covered up with white cloth47#dha7 ,in some parts of ,germany after a death not only the mirrors but everything that shines or glitters 7windows1 clocks1 etc47 is covered up17#dhb7 doubtless because they might reflect a person's image4 ,the same custom of covering up mirrors or turning them to the wall after a death prevails in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,madagascar47#dhc7 ,the ,suni ,mohammedans of ,bombay cover with a cloth the mirror in the room of a dying man and do not remove it until the corpse is carried out for burial4 ,they also cover the looking-glasses in their bedrooms before retiring to rest at night47#dhd7 ,the reason why sick people should not see themselves in a mirror1 and why the mirror in a sick-room is therefore covered up17#dhe7 is also plain2 in time of sickness1 when the soul might take flight so easily1 it is particularly dangerous to project the soul out of the body by means of the reflection in a mirror4 ,the rule is therefore precisely parallel to the rule observed by some peoples of not allowing sick people to sleep27#dhf7 for in sleep the soul is projected out of the body1 and there is always a risk that it may not return4 8,in the opinion of the ,raskolniks a mirror is an accursed thing1 invented by the devil107#dhg7 perhaps on account of the mirror's supposed power of drawing out the soul in the reflection and so facilitating its capture4 ,as with shadows and reflections1 so with portraits2 they are often believed to contain the soul of the person portrayed4 ,people who hold this belief are naturally loth to have their likenesses taken2 for if the portrait is the soul1 or at least a vital part of the person portrayed1 whoever possesses the portrait will be able to exercise a fatal influence over the original of it4 ,thus the ,canelos ,indians of ,south ,america think that their soul is carried away in their picture4 ,two of them having been photographed were so alarmed that they came back next day on purpose to ask if it were really true that their souls had been taken away47#dhh7 ,when ,mr4 ,joseph ,thomson tried to photograph some of the ,wa-teita in ,eastern ,africa1 they imagined that he was a magician trying to get possession of their souls1 and that if he got their likenesses they themselves would be entirely at his mercy47#dhi7 ,an ,indian1 whose portrait the ,prince of ,wied wished to get1 refused to let himself be drawn1 because he believed it would cause his death47#dij7 ,the ,mandans also thought that they would soon die if their portrait was in the hands of another2 they wished at least to have the artist's picture as a kind of antidote or guarantee47#dia7 ,the same belief still lingers in various parts of ,europe4 ,some old women in the ,greek island of ,carpathus were very angry a few years ago at having their likenesses drawn1 thinking that in consequence they would pine and die47#dib7 ,some people in ,russia object to having their silhouettes taken1 fearing that if this is done they will die before the year is out47#dic7 ,there are persons in the ,west of ,scotland 8who refuse to have their likeness taken lest it prove unlucky2 and give as instances the cases of several of their friends who never had a day's health after being photographed407#did7 #c4--,royal and priestly taboos 7continued74 ,so much for the primitive conceptions of the soul and the dangers to which it is exposed4 ,these conceptions are not limited to one people or country2 with variations of detail they are found all over the world1 and survive1 as we have seen1 in modern ,europe4 ,beliefs so deep-seated and so widespread must necessarily have contributed to shape the mould in which the early kingship was cast4 ,for if every individual was at such pains to save his own soul from the perils which threatened it from so many sides1 how much more carefully must he have been guarded upon whose life hung the welfare and even the existence of the whole people1 and whom therefore it was the common interest of all to preserve8 ,therefore we should expect to find the king's life protected by a system of precautions or safeguards still more numerous and minute than those which in primitive society every man adopts for the safety of his own soul4 ,now in point of fact the life of the early kings is regulated1 as we have seen and shall see more fully presently1 by a very exact code of rules4 ,may we not then conjecture that these rules are the very safeguards which on priori grounds we expect to find adopted for the protection of the king's life8 ,an examination of the rules themselves confirms this conjecture4 ,for from this it appears that some of the rules observed by the kings are identical with those observed by private persons out of regard for the safety of their souls2 and even of those which seem peculiar to the king1 many1 if not all1 are most readily explained on the hypothesis that they are nothing but safeguards or lifeguards of the king4 ,i will now enumerate some of these royal rules or taboos1 offering on each of them such comments and explanations as may serve to set the original intention of the rule in its proper light4 ,as the object of the royal taboos is to isolate the king from all sources of danger1 their general effect is to compel him to live in a state of seclusion1 more or less complete1 according to the number and stringency of the taboos he observes4 ,now of all sources of danger none are more dreaded by the savage than magic and witchcraft1 and he suspects all strangers of practising these black arts4 ,to guard against the baneful influence exerted voluntarily or involuntarily by strangers is therefore an elementary dictate of savage prudence4 ,hence before strangers are allowed to enter a district1 or at least before they are permitted to mingle freely with the people of the district1 certain ceremonies are often performed by the natives of the country for the purpose of disarming the strangers of their magical powers1 of counteracting the baneful influence which is believed to emanate from them1 or of disinfecting1 so to speak1 the tainted atmosphere by which they are supposed to be surrounded4 ,thus in the island of ,nanumea 7,south ,pacific7 strangers from ships or from other islands were not allowed to communicate with the people until they all1 or a few as representatives of the rest1 had been taken to each of the four temples in the island1 and prayers offered that the god would avert any disease or treachery which these strangers might have brought with them4 ,meat offerings were also laid upon the altars1 accompanied by songs and dances in honour of the god4 ,while these ceremonies were going on1 all the people except the priests and their attendants kept out of sight47#die7 ,on returning from an attempted ascent of the great ,african mountain ,kilimanjaro1 which is believed by the neighbouring tribes to be tenanted by dangerous demons1 ,mr4 ,new and his party1 as soon as they reached the border of the inhabited country1 were disenchanted by the inhabitants1 being sprinkled with 8a professionally prepared liquor1 supposed to possess the potency of neutralising evil influences1 and removing the spell of wicked spirits407#dif7 ,in the interior of ,yoruba 7,west ,africa7 the sentinels at the gates of towns often oblige ,european travellers to wait till nightfall before they admit them1 the fear being that if the strangers were admitted by day the devils would enter behind them47#dig7 ,amongst the ,ot ,danoms of ,borneo it is the custom that strangers entering the territory should pay to the natives a certain sum1 which is spent in the sacrifice of animals 7buffaloes or pigs7 to the spirits of the land and water1 in order to reconcile them to the presence of the strangers1 and to induce them not to withdraw their favour from the people of the land1 but to bless the rice-harvest1 etc47#dih7 ,the men of a certain district in ,borneo1 fearing to look upon a ,european traveller lest he should make them ill1 warned their wives and children not to go near him4 ,these who could not restrain their curiosity killed fowls to appease the evil spirits and smeared themselves with the blood47#dii7 ,in ,laos before a stranger can be accorded hospitality the master of the house must offer sacrifice to the ancestral spirits2 otherwise the spirits would be offended and would send disease on the inmates47#ejj7 ,in the ,mentawej ,islands when a stranger enters a house where there are children1 the father or other member of the family takes the ornament which the children wear in their hair and hands it to the stranger1 who holds it in his hands for a while and then gives it back to him4 ,this is thought to protect the children from the evil effect which the sight of a stranger might have upon them47#eja7 ,at ,shepherd's ,isle ,captain ,moresby had to be disenchanted before he was allowed to land his boat's crew4 ,when he leaped ashore a devil-man seized his right hand and waved a bunch of palm leaves over the captain's head4 ,then 8he placed the leaves in my left hand1 putting a small green twig into his mouth1 still holding me fast1 and then1 as if with great effort1 drew the twig from his mouth--this was extracting the evil spirit--after which he blew violently1 as if to speed it away4 ,i now held a twig between my teeth1 and he went through the same process40 ,then the two raced round a couple of sticks fixed in the ground and bent to an angle at the top1 which had leaves tied to it4 ,after some more ceremonies the devil-man concluded by leaping to the level of ,captain ,moresby's shoulders 7his hands resting on the captain's shoulders7 several times1 8as if to show that he had conquered the devil1 and was now trampling him into the earth407#ejb7 ,north ,american ,indians 8have an idea that strangers1 particularly white strangers1 are ofttimes accompanied by evil spirits4 ,of these they have great dread1 as creating and delighting in mischief4 ,one of the duties of the medicine chief is to exorcise these spirits4 ,i have sometimes ridden into or through a camp where ,i was unknown or unexpected1 to be confronted by a tall1 half-naked savage1 standing in the middle of the circle of lodges1 and yelling in a sing-song1 nasal tone1 a string of unintelligible words407#ejc7 ,when ,crevaux was travelling in ,south ,america he entered a village of the ,apalai ,indians4 ,a few moments after his arrival some of the ,indians brought him a number of large black ants1 of a species whose bite is painful1 fastened on palm leaves4 ,then all the people of the village1 without distinction of age or sex1 presented themselves to him1 and he had to sting them all with the ants on their faces1 thighs1 etc4 ,sometimes when he applied the ants too tenderly they called out 8,more6 more60 and were not satisfied till their skin was thickly studded with tiny swellings like what might have been produced by whipping them with nettles47#ejd7 ,the object of this ceremony is made plain by the custom observed in ,amboina and ,uliase of sprinkling sick people with pungent spices1 such as ginger and cloves1 chewed fine1 in order by the prickling sensation to drive away the demon of disease which may be clinging to their persons47#eje7 ,with a similar intention some of the natives of ,borneo and ,celebes sprinkle rice upon the head or body of a person supposed to be infested by dangerous spirits2 a fowl is then brought1 which1 by picking up the rice from the person's head or body1 removes along with it the spirit or ghost which is clinging like a burr to his skin4 ,this is done1 for example1 to persons who have attended a funeral1 and who may therefore be supposed to be infested by the ghost of the deceased47#ejf7 ,similarly ,basutos1 who have carried a corpse to the grave1 have their hands scratched with a knife from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the forefinger1 and magic stuff is rubbed into the wound17#ejg7 for the purpose1 no doubt1 of removing the ghost which may be adhering to their skin4 ,the people of ,nias carefully scrub and scour the weapons and clothes which they buy1 in order to efface all connection between the things and the persons from whom they bought them47#ejh7 ,it is probable that the same dread of strangers1 rather than any desire to do them honour1 is the motive of certain ceremonies which are sometimes observed at their reception1 but of which the intention is not directly stated4 ,in ,afghanistan and in some parts of ,persia the traveller1 before he enters a village1 is frequently received with a sacrifice of animal life or food1 or of fire and incense4 ,the recent ,afghan ,boundary ,mission1 in passing by villages in ,afghanistan1 was often met with fire and incense47#eji7 ,sometimes a tray of lighted embers is thrown under the hoofs of the traveller's horse1 with the words1 8,you are welcome407#eaj7 ,on entering a village in ,central ,africa ,emin ,pasha was received with the sacrifice of two goats2 their blood was sprinkled on the path and the chief stepped over the blood to greet ,emin47#eaa7 ,amongst the ,eskimos of ,cumberland ,inlet1 when a stranger arrives at an encampment1 the sorcerer goes out to meet him4 ,the stranger folds his arms and inclines his head to one side1 so as to expose his cheek1 upon which the sorcerer deals a terrible blow1 sometimes felling him to the ground4 ,next the sorcerer in his turn presents his cheek and receives a buffet from the stranger4 ,then they kiss each other1 the ceremony is over1 and the stranger is hospitably received by all47#eab7 ,sometimes the dread of strangers and their magic is too great to allow of their reception on any terms4 ,thus when ,speke arrived at a certain village the natives shut their doors against him1 8because they had never before seen a white man nor the tin boxes that the men were carrying3 #8,who knows1' they said1 #8but that these very boxes are the plundering ,watuta transformed and come to kill us8 ,you cannot be admitted4' ,no persuasion could avail with them1 and the party had to proceed to the next village407#eac7 ,the fear thus entertained of alien visitors is often mutual4 ,entering a strange land1 the savage feels that he is treading enchanted ground1 and he takes steps to guard against the demons that haunt it and the magical arts of its inhabitants4 ,thus on going to a strange land the ,maoris performed certain ceremonies to make it noa 7common71 lest it might have been previously tapu 7sacred747#ead7 ,when ,baron ,miklucho-,maclay was approaching a village on the ,maclay ,coast of ,new ,guinea1 one of the natives who accompanied him broke a branch from a tree and going aside whispered to it for a while2 then going up to each member of the party1 one after another1 he spat something upon his back and gave him some blows with the branch4 ,lastly1 he went into the forest and buried the branch under withered leaves in the thickest part of the jungle4 ,this ceremony was believed to protect the party against all treachery and danger in the village they were approaching47#eae7 ,the idea probably was that the malignant influences were drawn off from the persons into the branch and buried with it in the depths of the forest4 ,in ,australia1 when a strange tribe has been invited into a district and is approaching the encampment of the tribe which owns the land1 8the strangers carry lighted bark or burning sticks in their hands1 for the purpose1 they say1 of clearing and purifying the air407#eaf7 ,so when two ,greek armies were advancing to the onset1 sacred men used to march in front of each1 bearing lighted torches1 which they flung into the space between the hosts and then retired unmolested47#eag7 ,again1 it is thought that a man who has been on a journey may have contracted some magic evil from the strangers with whom he has been brought into contact4 ,hence on returning home1 before he is readmitted to the society of his tribe and friends1 he has to undergo certain purificatory ceremonies4 ,thus the ,bechuanas 8cleanse or purify themselves after journeys by shaving their heads1 etc41 lest they should have contracted from strangers some evil by witchcraft or sorcery407#eah7 ,in some parts of ,western ,africa when a man returns home after a long absence1 before he is allowed to visit his wife1 he must wash his person with a particular fluid1 and receive from the sorcerer a certain mark on his forehead1 in order to counteract any magic spell which a stranger woman may have cast on him in his absence1 and which might be communicated through him to the women of his village47#eai7 ,two ,hindoo ambassadors1 who had been sent to ,england by a native prince and had returned to ,india1 were considered to have so polluted themselves by contact with strangers that nothing but being born again could restore them to purity4 8,for the purpose of regeneration it is directed to make an image of pure gold of the female power of nature1 in the shape either of a woman or of a cow4 ,in this statue the person to be regenerated is enclosed1 and dragged through the usual channel4 ,as a statue of pure gold and of proper dimensions would be too expensive1 it is sufficient to make an image of the sacred ,yoni1 through which the person to be regenerated is to pass40 ,such an image of pure gold was made at the prince's command1 and his ambassadors were born again by being dragged through it47#ebj7 ,when ,damaras return home after a long absence1 they are given a small portion of the fat of particular animals which is supposed to possess certain virtues47#eba7 ,in some of the ,moluccas1 when a brother or young blood-relation returns from a long journey1 a young girl awaits him at the door with a caladi leaf in her hand and water in the leaf4 ,she throws the water over his face and bids him welcome47#ebb7 ,the natives of ,savage ,island 7,south ,pacific7 invariably killed1 not only all strangers in distress who were drifted to their shores1 but also any of their own people who had gone away in a ship and returned home4 ,this was done out of dread of disease4 ,long after they began to venture out to ships they would not immediately use the things they obtained from them1 but hung them up in quarantine for weeks in the bush47#ebc7 ,when precautions like these are taken on behalf of the people in general against the malignant influence supposed to be exercised by strangers1 we shall not be surprised to find that special measures are adopted to protect the king from the same insidious danger4 ,in the middle ages the envoys who visited a ,tartar ,khan were obliged to pass between two fires before they were admitted to his presence1 and the gifts they brought were also carried between the fires4 ,the reason assigned for the custom was that the fire purged away any magic influence which the strangers might mean to exercise over the ,khan47#ebd7 ,when subject chiefs come with their retinues to visit ,kalamba 7the most powerful chief of the ,bashilange in the ,congo ,basin7 for the first time or after being rebellious1 they have to bathe1 men and women together1 in two brooks on two successive days1 passing the nights in the open air in the market-place4 ,after the second bath they proceed1 entirely naked1 to the house of ,kalamba1 who makes a long white mark on the breast and forehead of each of them4 ,then they return to the market-place and dress1 after which they undergo the pepper ordeal4 ,pepper is dropped into the eyes of each of them1 and while this is being done the sufferer has to make a confession of all his sins1 to answer all questions that may be put to him1 and to take certain vows4 ,this ends the ceremony1 and the strangers are now free to take up their quarters in the town for as long as they choose to remain47#ebe7 ,at ,kilema1 in ,eastern ,africa1 when a stranger arrives1 a medicine is made out of a certain plant or a tree fetched from a distance1 mixed with the blood of a sheep or goat4 ,with this mixture the stranger is besmeared or besprinkled before he is admitted to the presence of the king47#ebf7 ,the ,king of ,monomotapa 7,south-,east ,africa7 might not wear any foreign stuffs for fear of their being poisoned47#ebg7 ,the ,king of ,kakongo 7,west ,africa7 might not possess or even touch ,european goods1 except metals1 arms1 and articles made of wood and ivory4 ,persons wearing foreign stuffs were very careful to keep at a distance from his person1 lest they should touch him47#ebh7 ,the ,king of ,loango might not look upon the house of a white man47#ebi7 ,in the opinion of savages the acts of eating and drinking are attended with special danger2 for at these times the soul may escape from the mouth1 or be extracted by the magic arts of an enemy present4 ,precautions are therefore taken to guard against these dangers4 ,thus of the ,battas of ,sumatra it is said that 8since the soul can leave the body1 they always take care to prevent their soul from straying on occasions when they have most need of it4 ,but it is only possible to prevent the soul from straying when one is in the house4 ,at feasts one may find the whole house shut up1 in order that the soul 7tondi7 may stay and enjoy the good things set before it407#ecj7 ,in ,fiji persons who suspected others of plotting against them avoided eating in their presence1 or were careful to leave no fragment of food behind47#eca7 ,the ,zafimanelo in ,madagascar lock their doors when they eat1 and hardly any one ever sees them eating47#ecb7 ,the ,warua will not allow any one to see them eating and drinking1 being doubly particular that no person of the opposite sex shall see them doing so4 8,i had to pay a man to let me see him drink2 ,i could not make a man let a woman see him drink40 ,when offered a drink of pombe they often ask that a cloth may be held up to hide them whilst drinking4 ,further1 each man and woman must cook for themselves2 each person must have his own fire47#ecc7 ,if these are the ordinary precautions taken by common people1 the precautions taken by kings are extraordinary4 ,the ,king of ,loango may not be seen eating or drinking by man or beast under pain of death4 ,a favourite dog having broken into the room where the king was dining1 the king ordered it to be killed on the spot4 ,once the king's own son1 a boy of twelve years old1 inadvertently saw the king drink4 ,immediately the king ordered him to be finely apparelled and feasted1 after which he commanded him to be cut in quarters1 and carried about the city with a proclamation that he had seen the king drink4 8,when the king has a mind to drink1 he has a cup of wine brought2 he that brings it has a bell in his hand1 and as soon as he has delivered the cup to the king he turns his face from him and rings the bell1 on which all present fall down with their faces to the ground1 and continue so till the king has drank4444 ,his eating is much in the same style1 for which he has a house on purpose1 where his victuals are set upon a bensa or table3 which he goes to and shuts the door2 when he has done1 he knocks and comes out4 ,so that none ever see the king eat or drink4 ,for it is believed that if any one should1 the king shall immediately die407#ecd7 ,the rules observed by the neighbouring ,king of ,kakongo were similar2 it was thought that the king would die if any of his subjects were to see him drink47#ece7 ,it is a capital offence to see the ,king of ,dahomey at his meals4 ,when he drinks in public1 as he does on extraordinary occasions1 he hides himself behind a curtain1 or handkerchiefs are held up round his head1 and all the people throw themselves with their faces to the earth47#ecf7 ,any one who saw the ,muato ,jamwo 7a great potentate in the ,congo ,basin7 eating or drinking would certainly be put to death47#ecg7 ,when the ,king of ,tonga ate all the people turned their backs to him47#ech7 ,in the palace of the ,persian kings there were two dining-rooms opposite each other2 in one of them the king dined1 in the other his guests4 ,he could see them through a curtain on the door1 but they could not see him4 ,generally the king took his meals alone2 but sometimes his wife or some of his sons dined with him47#eci7 ,in these cases1 however1 the intention may perhaps be to hinder evil influences from entering the body rather than to prevent the escape of the soul4 ,to the former rather than to the latter motive is to be ascribed the custom observed by some ,african sultans of veiling their faces4 ,the ,sultan of ,darfur wraps up his face with a piece of white muslin1 which goes round his head several times1 covering his mouth and nose first1 and then his forehead1 so that only his eyes are visible4 ,the same custom of veiling the face as a mark of sovereignty is said to be observed in other parts of ,central ,africa47#edj7 ,the ,sultan of ,wadai always speaks from behind a curtain2 no one sees his face except his intimates and a few favoured persons47#eda7 ,amongst the ,touaregs of the ,sahara all the men 7but not the women7 keep the lower part of their face1 especially the mouth1 veiled constantly2 the veil is never put off1 not even in eating or sleeping47#edb7 ,in ,samoa a man whose family god was the turtle might not eat a turtle1 and if he helped a neighbour to cut up and cook one he had to wear a bandage tied over his mouth1 lest an embryo turtle should slip down his throat1 grow up1 and be his death47#edc7 ,in ,west ,timor a speaker holds his right hand before his mouth in speaking lest a demon should enter his body1 and lest the person with whom he converses should harm the speaker's soul by magic47#edd7 ,in ,new ,south ,wales for some time after his initiation into the tribal mysteries1 a young blackfellow 7whose soul at this time is in a critical state7 must always cover his mouth with a rug when a woman is present47#ede7 ,popular expressions in the language of civilised peoples1 such as to have one's heart in one's mouth1 show how natural is the idea that the life or soul may escape by the mouth or nostrils47#edf7 ,by an extension of the like precaution kings are sometimes forbidden ever to leave their palaces2 or1 if they are allowed to do so1 their subjects are forbidden to see them abroad4 ,we have seen that the priestly king at ,shark ,point1 ,west ,africa1 may never quit his house or even his chair1 in which he is obliged to sleep sitting47#edg7 ,after his coronation the ,king of ,loango is confined to his palace1 which he may not leave47#edh7 ,the ,king of ,ibo 7,west ,africa7 8does not step out of his house into the town unless a human sacrifice is made to propitiate the gods3 on this account he never goes out beyond the precincts of his premises407#edi7 ,the kings of ,aethiopia were worshipped as gods1 but were mostly kept shut up in their palaces47#eej7 ,the kings of ,sabaea 7,sheba71 the spice country of ,arabia1 were not allowed to go out of their palaces2 if they did so1 the mob stoned them to death47#eea7 ,but at the top of the palace there was a window with a chain attached to it4 ,if any man deemed he had suffered wrong1 he pulled the chain1 and the king perceived him and called him in and gave judgment47#eeb7 ,so to this day the kings of ,corea1 whose persons are sacred and receive 8honours almost divine10 are shut up in their palace from the age of twelve or fifteen2 and if a suitor wishes to obtain justice of the king he sometimes lights a great bonfire on a mountain facing the palace2 the king sees the fire and informs himself of the case47#eec7 ,the ,king of ,tonquin was permitted to appear abroad twice or thrice a year for the performance of certain religious ceremonies2 but the people were not allowed to look at him4 ,the day before he came forth notice was given to all the inhabitants of the city and country to keep from the way the king was to go2 the women were obliged to remain in their houses and durst not show themselves under pain of death1 a penalty which was carried out on the spot if any one disobeyed the order1 even through ignorance4 ,thus the king was invisible to all but his troops and the officers of his suite47#eed7 ,in ,mandalay a stout lattice-paling1 six feet high and carefully kept in repair1 lined every street in the walled city and all those in the suburbs through which the king was likely at any time to pass4 ,behind this paling1 which stood two feet or so from the houses1 all the people had to stay when the king or any of the queens went out4 ,any one who was caught outside it by the beadles after the procession had started was severely handled1 and might think himself lucky if he got off with a beating4 ,no one was supposed to look through the holes in the lattice-work1 which were besides partly stopped up with flowering shrubs47#eee7 ,again1 magic mischief may be wrought upon a man through the remains of the food he has partaken of1 or the dishes out of which he has eaten4 ,thus the ,narrinyeri in ,south ,australia think that if a man eats of the sacred animal 7totem7 of his tribe1 and an enemy gets hold of a portion of the flesh1 the latter can make it grow in the inside of the eater1 and so cause his death4 ,therefore when a man eats of his totem he is careful to eat it all or else to conceal or destroy the remains47#eef7 ,in ,tana1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 people bury or throw into the sea the leavings of their food1 lest these should fall into the hands of the disease-makers4 ,for if a disease-maker finds the remnants of a meal1 say the skin of a banana1 he picks it up and burns it slowly in the fire4 ,as it burns the person who ate the banana falls ill and sends to the disease-maker1 offering him presents if he will stop burning the banana skin47#eeg7 ,hence no one may touch the food which the ,king of ,loango leaves upon his plate2 it is buried in a hole in the ground4 ,and no one may drink out of the king's vessel47#eeh7 ,similarly no man may drink out of the same cup or glass with the ,king of ,fida 7in ,guinea72 8he hath always one kept particularly for himself2 and that which hath but once touched another's lips he never uses more1 though it be made of metal that may be cleansed by fire407#eei7 ,amongst the ,alfoers of ,celebes there is a priest called the ,leleen1 whose duty appears to be to make the rice grow4 ,his functions begin about a month before the rice is sown1 and end after the crop is housed4 ,during this time he has to observe certain taboos2 amongst others he may not eat or drink with any one else1 and he may drink out of no vessel but his own47#efj7 ,we have seen that the ,mikado's food was cooked every day in new pots and served up in new dishes2 both pots and dishes were of common clay1 in order that they might be broken or laid aside after they had been once used4 ,they were generally broken1 for it was believed that if any one else ate his food out of these sacred dishes his mouth and throat would become swollen and inflamed4 ,the same ill effect was thought to be experienced by any one who should wear the ,mikado's clothes without his leave2 he would have swellings and pains all over his body47#efa7 ,in the evil effects thus supposed to follow upon the use of the ,mikado's vessels or clothes we see that other side of the divine king's or god-man's character to which attention has been already called4 ,the divine person is a source of danger as well as of blessing2 he must not only be guarded1 he must also be guarded against4 ,his sacred organism1 so delicate that a touch may disorder it1 is also electrically charged with a powerful spiritual force which may discharge itself with fatal effect on whatever comes in contact with it4 ,hence the isolation of the man-god is quite as necessary for the safety of others as for his own4 ,his divinity is a fire1 which1 under proper restraints1 confers endless blessings1 but1 if rashly touched or allowed to break bounds1 burns and destroys what it touches4 ,hence the disastrous effects supposed to attend a breach of taboo2 the offender has thrust his hand into the divine fire1 which shrivels up and consumes him on the spot4 ,to take an example from the taboo we are considering4 ,it happened that a ,new ,zealand chief of high rank and great sanctity had left the remains of his dinner by the wayside4 ,a slave1 a stout1 hungry fellow1 coming up after the chief had gone1 saw the unfinished dinner1 and ate it up without asking questions4 ,hardly had he finished when he was informed by a horror-stricken spectator that the food of which he had eaten was the chief's4 8,i knew the unfortunate delinquent well4 ,he was remarkable for courage1 and had signalised himself in the wars of the tribe4444 ,no sooner did he hear the fatal news than he was seized by the most extraordinary convulsions and cramp in the stomach1 which never ceased till he died1 about sundown the same day4 ,he was a strong man1 in the prime of life1 and if any pakeha ,european freethinker should have said he was not killed by the tapu taboo of the chief1 which had been communicated to the food by contact1 he would have been listened to with feelings of contempt for his ignorance and inability to understand plain and direct evidence407#efb7 ,this is not a solitary case4 ,a ,maori woman having eaten of some fruit1 and being afterwards told that the fruit had being taken from a tabooed place1 exclaimed that the spirit of the chief whose sanctity had been thus profaned would kill her4 ,this was in the afternoon1 and next day by twelve o'clock she was dead47#efc7 ,an observer who knows the ,maoris well1 says1 8,tapu taboo is an awful weapon4 ,i have seen a strong young man die the same day he was tapued2 the victims die under it as though their strength ran out as water407#efd7 ,a ,maori chief's tinder-box was once the means of killing several persons2 for having been lost by him1 and found by some men who used it to light their pipes1 they died of fright on learning to whom it had belonged4 ,so too the garments of a high ,new ,zealand chief will kill any one else who wears them4 ,a chief was observed by a missionary to throw down a precipice a blanket which he found too heavy to carry4 ,being asked by the missionary why he did not leave it on a tree for the use of a future traveller1 the chief replied that 8it was the fear of its being taken by another which caused him to throw it where he did1 for if it were worn1 his tapu0 7i4e4 his spiritual power communicated by contact to the blanket and through the blanket to the man7 8would kill the person407#efe7 ,no wonder therefore that the savage should rank these human divinities amongst what he regards as the dangerous classes1 and should impose exactly the same restraints upon the one as upon the other4 ,for instance1 those who have defiled themselves by touching a dead body are regarded by the ,maoris as in a very dangerous state1 and are sedulously shunned and isolated4 ,but the taboos observed by and towards these defiled persons 7e4g4 they may not touch food with their hands1 and the vessels used by them may not be used by other people7 are identical with those observed by and towards sacred chiefs47#eff7 ,and1 in general1 the prohibition to use the dress1 vessels1 etc41 of certain persons and the effects supposed to follow an infraction of the rule are exactly the same whether the persons to whom the things belong are sacred or what we might call unclean and polluted4 ,as the garments which have been touched by a sacred chief kill those who handle them1 so do the things which have been touched by a menstruous woman4 ,an ,australian blackfellow1 who discovered that his wife had lain on his blanket at her menstrual period1 killed her and died of terror himself within a fortnight47#efg7 ,hence ,australian women at these times are forbidden under pain of death to touch anything that men use4 ,they are also secluded at child-birth1 and all vessels used by them during their seclusion are burned47#efh7 ,amongst some of the ,indians of ,north ,america also women at menstruation are forbidden to touch men's utensils1 which would be so defiled by their touch that their subsequent use would be attended by certain mischief or misfortune47#efi7 ,amongst the ,eskimo of ,alaska no one will willingly drink out of the same cup or eat out of the same dish that has been used by a woman at her confinement until it has been purified by certain incantations47#egj7 ,amongst some of the ,tinneh ,indians of ,north ,america the dishes out of which girls eat during their seclusion at puberty 8are used by no other person1 and wholly devoted to their own use407#ega7 ,again amongst some ,indian tribes of ,north ,america men who have slain enemies are considered to be in a state of uncleanness1 and will not eat or drink out of any dish or smoke out of any pipe but their own for a considerable time after the slaughter1 and no one will willingly use their dishes or pipes4 ,they live in a kind of seclusion during this time1 at the end of which all the dishes and pipes used by them during their seclusion are burned47#egb7 ,amongst the ,kafirs1 boys at circumcision live secluded in a special hut1 and when they are healed all the vessels which they had used during their seclusion and the boyish mantles which they had hitherto worn are burned together with the hut47#egc7 ,when a young ,indian brave is out on the war-path for the first time the vessels he eats and drinks out of must be touched by no one else47#egd7 ,thus the rules of ceremonial purity observed by divine kings1 chiefs1 and priests1 by homicides1 women at child-birth1 and so on1 are in some respects alike4 ,to us these different classes of persons appear to differ totally in character and condition2 some of them we should call holy1 others we might pronounce unclean and polluted4 ,but the savage makes no such moral distinction between them2 the conceptions of holiness and pollution are not yet differentiated in his mind4 ,to him the common feature of all these persons is that they are dangerous and in danger1 and the danger in which they stand and to which they expose others is what we should call spiritual or supernatural1 that is1 imaginary4 ,the danger1 however1 is not less real because it is imaginary2 imagination acts upon man as really as does gravitation1 and may kill him as certainly as a dose of prussic acid4 ,to seclude these persons from the rest of the world so that the dreaded spiritual danger shall neither reach them1 nor spread from them1 is the object of the taboos which they have to observe4 ,these taboos act1 so to say1 as electrical insulators to preserve the spiritual force with which these persons are charged from suffering or inflicting harm by contact with the outer world47#ege7 ,no one was allowed to touch the body of the ,king or ,queen of ,tahiti27#egf7 and no one may touch the ,king of ,cambodia1 for any purpose whatever1 without his express command4 ,in ,july #ahgd the king was thrown from his carriage and lay insensible on the ground1 but not one of his suite dared to touch him2 a ,european coming to the spot carried the injured monarch to his palace47#egg7 ,no one may touch the ,king of ,corea2 and if he deigns to touch a subject1 the spot touched becomes sacred1 and the person thus honoured must wear a visible mark 7generally a cord of red silk7 for the rest of his life4 ,above all1 no iron may touch the king's body4 ,in #ahjj ,king ,tieng-tsong-tai-oang died of a tumour in the back1 no one dreaming of employing the lancet1 which would probably have saved his life4 ,it is said that one king suffered terribly from an abscess in the lip1 till his physician called in a jester1 whose antics made the king laugh heartily1 and so the abscess burst47#egh7 ,roman and ,sabine priests might not be shaved with iron but only with bronze razors or shears27#egi7 and whenever an iron graving-tool was brought into the sacred grove of the ,arval ,brothers at ,rome for the purpose of cutting an inscription in stone1 an expiatory sacrifice of a lamb and a pig was offered1 which was repeated when the graving-tool was removed from the grove47#ehj7 ,in ,crete sacrifices were offered to ,menedemus without the use of iron1 because1 it was said1 ,menedemus had been killed by an iron weapon in the ,trojan war47#eha7 ,the ,archon of ,plataeae might not touch iron2 but once a year1 at the annual commemoration of the men who fell at the battle of ,plataeae1 he was allowed to carry a sword wherewith to sacrifice a bull47#ehb7 ,to this day a ,hottentot priest never uses an iron knife1 but always a sharp splint of quartz in sacrificing an animal or circumcising a lad47#ehc7 ,amongst the ,moquis of ,arizona stone knives1 hatchets1 etc41 have passed out of common use1 but are retained in religious ceremonies47#ehd7 ,negroes of the ,gold ,coast remove all iron or steel from their person when they consult their fetish47#ehe7 ,the men who made the need-fire in ,scotland had to divest themselves of all metal47#ehf7 ,in making the clavie 7a kind of ,yule-tide fire-wheel7 at ,burghead1 no hammer may be used2 the hammering must be done with a stone47#ehg7 ,amongst the ,jews no iron tool was used in building the temple at ,jerusalem or in making an altar47#ehh7 ,the old wooden bridge 7,pons ,sublicius7 at ,rome1 which was considered sacred1 was made and had to be kept in repair without the use of iron or bronze47#ehi7 ,it was expressly provided by law that the temple of ,jupiter ,liber at ,furfo might be repaired with iron tools47#eij7 ,the council chamber at ,cyzicus was constructed of wood without any iron nails1 the beams being so arranged that they could be taken out and replaced47#eia7 ,the late ,raja ,vijyanagram1 a member of the ,viceroy's ,council1 and described as one of the most enlightened and estimable of ,hindu princes1 would not allow iron to be used in the construction of buildings within his territory1 believing that its use would inevitably be followed by small-pox and other epidemics47#eib7 ,this superstitious objection to iron perhaps dates from that early time in the history of society when iron was still a novelty1 and as such was viewed by many with suspicion and dislike4 ,for everything new is apt to excite the awe and dread of the savage4 8,it is a curious superstition10 says a recent pioneer in ,borneo1 8this of the ,dusuns1 to attribute anything--whether good or bad1 lucky or unlucky--that happens to them to something novel which has arrived in their country4 ,for instance1 my living in ,kindram has caused the intensely hot weather we have experienced of late407#eic7 ,the first introduction of iron ploughshares into ,poland having been followed by a succession of bad harvests1 the farmers attributed the badness of the crops to the iron ploughshares1 and discarded them for the old wooden ones47#eid7 ,the general dislike of innovation1 which always makes itself strongly felt in the sphere of religion1 is sufficient by itself to account for the superstitious aversion to iron entertained by kings and priests and attributed by them to the gods2 possibly this aversion may have been intensified in places by some such accidental cause as the series of bad seasons which cast discredit on iron ploughshares in ,poland4 ,but the disfavour in which iron is held by the gods and their ministers has another side4 ,the very fact that iron is deemed obnoxious to spirits furnishes men with a weapon which may be turned against the spirits when occasion serves4 ,as their dislike of iron is supposed to be so great that they will not approach persons and things protected by the obnoxious metal1 iron may obviously be employed as a charm for banning ghosts and other dangerous spirits4 ,and it often is so used4 ,thus when ,scotch fishermen were at sea1 and one of them happened to take the name of ,god in vain1 the first man who heard him called out 8,cauld airn10 at which every man of the crew grasped the nearest bit of iron and held it between his hands for a while47#eie7 ,in ,morocco iron is considered a great protection against demons2 hence it is usual to place a knife or dagger under a sick man's pillow47#eif7 ,in ,india 8the mourner who performs the ceremony of putting fire into the dead person's mouth carries with him a piece of iron3 it may be a key or a knife1 or a simple piece of iron1 and during the whole time of his separation 7for he is unclean for a certain time1 and no one will either touch him or eat or drink with him1 neither can he change his clothes7#eig77 he carries the piece of iron about with him to keep off the evil spirit4 ,in ,calcutta the ,bengali clerks in the ,government ,offices used to wear a small key on one of their fingers when they had been chief mourners407#eih7 ,in the north-east of ,scotland immediately after a death had taken place1 a piece of iron1 such as a nail or a knitting-wire1 used to be stuck into all the meal1 butter1 cheese1 flesh1 and whisky in the house1 8to prevent death from entering them40 ,the neglect of this precaution is said to have been closely followed by the corruption of the food and drink2 the whisky has been known to become as white as milk47#eii7 ,when iron is used as a protective charm after a death1 as in these ,hindu and ,scotch customs1 the spirit against which it is directed is the ghost of the deceased47#fjj7 ,there is a priestly king to the north of ,zengwih in ,burma1 revered by the ,sotih as the highest spiritual and temporal authority1 into whose house no weapon or cutting instrument may be brought47#fja7 ,this rule may perhaps be explained by a custom observed by various peoples after a death2 they refrain from the use of sharp instruments so long as the ghost of the deceased is supposed to be near1 lest they should wound it4 ,thus after a death the ,roumanians of ,transylvania are careful not to leave a knife lying with the sharp edge uppermost as long as the corpse remains in the house1 8or else the soul will be forced to ride on the blade407#fjb7 ,for seven days after a death1 the corpse being still in the house1 the ,chinese abstain from the use of knives and needles1 and even of chopsticks1 eating their food with their fingers47#fjc7 ,amongst the ,innuit 7,eskimos7 of ,alaska for four days after a death the women in the village do no sewing1 and for five days the men do not cut wood with an axe47#fjd7 ,on the third1 sixth1 ninth1 and fortieth days after the funeral the old ,prussians and ,lithuanians used to prepare a meal1 to which1 standing at the door1 they invited the soul of the deceased4 ,at these meals they sat silent round the table and used no knives1 and the women who served up the food were also without knives4 ,if any morsels fell from the table they were left lying there for the lonely souls that had no living relations or friends to feed them4 ,when the meal was over the priest took a broom and swept the souls out of the house1 saying1 8,dear souls1 ye have eaten and drunk4 ,go forth1 go forth407#fje7 ,in cutting the nails and combing the hair of a dead prince in ,south ,celebes only the back of the knife and of the comb may be used47#fjf7 ,the ,germans say that a knife should not be left edge upwards1 because ,god and the spirits dwell there1 or because it will cut the face of ,god and the angels47#fjg7 ,we can now understand why no cutting instrument may be taken into the house of the ,burmese pontiff4 ,like so many priestly kings1 he is probably regarded as divine1 and it is therefore right that his sacred spirit should not be exposed to the risk of being cut or wounded whenever it quits his body to hover invisible in the air or to fly on some distant mission4 ,we have seen that the ,flamen ,dialis was forbidden to touch or even name raw flesh47#fjh7 ,in the ,pelew ,islands when a raid has been made on a village and a head carried off1 the relations of the slain man are tabooed and have to submit to certain observances in order to escape the wrath of his ghost4 ,they are shut up in the house1 touch no raw flesh1 and chew beetel over which an incantation has been uttered by the exorcist4 ,after this the ghost of the slaughtered man goes away to the enemy's country in pursuit of his murderer47#fji7 ,the taboo is probably based on the common belief that the soul or spirit of the animal is in the blood4 ,as tabooed persons are believed to be in a perilous state--for example1 the relations of the slain man are liable to the attacks of his indignant ghost--it is especially necessary to isolate them from contact with spirits2 hence the prohibition to touch raw meat4 ,but as usual the taboo is only the special enforcement in particular circumstances of a general rule2 in other words1 its observance is particularly enjoined in circumstances which are supposed especially to call for its application1 but apart from such special circumstances the prohibition is also observed1 though less strictly1 as an ordinary rule of life4 ,thus some of the ,esthonians will not taste blood because they believe that it contains the animal's soul1 which would enter the body of the person who tasted the blood47#faj7 ,some ,indian tribes of ,north ,america1 8through a strong principle of religion1 abstain in the strictest manner from eating the blood of any animal1 as it contains the life and spirit of the beast40 ,these ,indians 8commonly pull their new-killed venison 7before they dress it7 several times through the smoke and flame of the fire1 both by the way of a sacrifice and to consume the blood1 life1 or animal spirits of the beast1 which with them would be a most horrid abomination to eat407#faa7 ,many of the ,slave1 ,hare1 and ,dogrib ,indians scruple to taste the blood of game2 hunters of the former tribes collect the blood in the animal's paunch and bury it in the snow47#fab7 ,jewish hunters poured out the blood of the game they had killed and covered it up with dust4 ,they would not taste the blood1 believing that the soul or life of the animal was in the blood1 or actually was the blood47#fac7 ,the same belief was held by the ,romans17#fad7 and is shared by the ,arabs17#fae7 and by some of the ,papuan tribes of ,new ,guinea47#faf7 ,it is a common rule that royal blood must not be shed upon the ground4 ,hence when a king or one of his family is to be put to death a mode of execution is devised by which the royal blood shall not be spilt upon the earth4 ,about the year #afhh the generalissimo of the army rebelled against the ,king of ,siam and put him to death 8after the manner of royal criminals1 or as princes of the blood are treated when convicted of capital crimes1 which is by putting them into a large iron caldron1 and pounding them to pieces with wooden pestles1 because none of their royal blood must be spilt on the ground1 it being1 by their religion1 thought great impiety to contaminate the divine blood by mixing it with earth407#fag7 ,other ,siamese modes of executing a royal person are starvation1 suffocation1 stretching him on a scarlet cloth and thrusting a billet of odoriferous 8saunders wood0 into his stomach17#fah7 or lastly1 sewing him up in a leather sack with a large stone and throwing him into the river2 sometimes the sufferer's neck is broken with sandal-wood clubs before he is thrown into the water47#fai7 ,when ,kublai ,khan defeated and took his uncle ,nayan1 who had rebelled against him1 he caused ,nayan to be put to death by being wrapt in a carpet and tossed to and fro till he died1 8because he would not have the blood of his ,line ,imperial spilt upon the ground or exposed in the eye of ,heaven and before the ,sun407#fbj7 8,friar ,ricold mentions the ,tartar maxim3 #8,one ,khan will put another to death to get possession of the throne1 but he takes great care that the blood be not spilt4 ,for they say that it is highly improper that the blood of the ,great ,khan should be spilt upon the ground2 so they cause the victim to be smothered somehow or other4' ,the like feeling prevails at the court of ,burma1 where a peculiar mode of execution without bloodshed is reserved for princes of the blood407#fba7 ,in ,tonquin the ordinary mode of execution is beheading1 but persons of the blood royal are strangled47#fbb7 ,in ,ashantee the blood of none of the royal family may be shed2 if one of them is guilty of a great crime he is drowned in the river ,dah47#fbc7 ,in ,madagascar the blood of nobles might not be shed2 hence when four ,christians of that class were to be executed they were burned alive47#fbd7 ,when a young king of ,uganda comes of age all his brothers are burnt except two or three1 who are preserved to keep up the succession47#fbe7 ,the reluctance to shed royal blood seems to be only a particular case of a general reluctance to shed blood or at least to allow it to fall on the ground4 ,marco ,polo tells us that in his day persons found on the streets of ,cambaluc 7,pekin7 at unseasonable hours were arrested1 and if found guilty of a misdemeanour were beaten with a stick4 8,under this punishment people sometimes die1 but they adopt it in order to eschew bloodshed1 for their ,bacsis say that it is an evil thing to shed man's blood407#fbf7 ,when ,captain ,christian was shot by the ,manx ,government at the ,restoration in #affj1 the spot on which he stood was covered with white blankets1 that his blood might not fall on the ground47#fbg7 ,amongst some primitive peoples1 when the blood of a tribesman has to be shed it is not suffered to fall upon the ground1 but is received upon the bodies of his fellow tribesmen4 ,thus in some ,australian tribes boys who are being circumcised are laid on a platform1 formed by the living bodies of the tribesmen27#fbh7 and when a boy's tooth is knocked out as an initiatory ceremony1 he is seated on the shoulders of a man1 on whose breast the blood flows and may not be wiped away47#fbi7 ,when ,australian blacks bleed each other as a cure for headache1 and so on1 they are very careful not to spill any of the blood on the ground1 but sprinkle it on each other47#fcj7 ,we have already seen that in the ,australian ceremony for making rain the blood which is supposed to imitate the rain is received upon the bodies of the tribesmen47#fca7 ,in ,south ,celebes at child-birth a female slave stands under the house 7the houses being raised on posts above the ground7 and receives in a basin on her head the blood which trickles through the bamboo floor47#fcb7 ,the unwillingness to shed blood is extended by some peoples to the blood of animals4 ,when the ,wanika in ,eastern ,africa kill their cattle for food1 8they either stone or beat the animal to death1 so as not to shed the blood407#fcc7 ,amongst the ,damaras cattle killed for food are suffocated1 but when sacrificed they are speared to death47#fcd7 ,but like most pastoral tribes in ,africa1 both the ,wanika and ,damaras very seldom kill their cattle1 which are indeed commonly invested with a kind of sanctity47#fce7 ,in killing an animal for food the ,easter ,islanders do not shed its blood1 but stun it or suffocate it in smoke47#fcf7 ,the explanation of the reluctance to shed blood on the ground is probably to be found in the belief that the soul is in the blood1 and that therefore any ground on which it may fall necessarily becomes taboo or sacred4 ,in ,new ,zealand anything upon which even a drop of a high chief's blood chances to fall becomes taboo or sacred to him4 ,for instance1 a party of natives having come to visit a chief in a fine new canoe1 the chief got into it1 but in doing so a splinter entered his foot1 and the blood trickled on the canoe1 which at once became sacred to him4 ,the owner jumped out1 dragged the canoe ashore opposite the chief's house1 and left it there4 ,again1 a chief in entering a missionary's house knocked his head against a beam1 and the blood flowed4 ,the natives said that in former times the house would have belonged to the chief47#fcg7 ,as usually happens with taboos of universal application1 the prohibition to spill the blood of a tribesman on the ground applies with peculiar stringency to chiefs and kings1 and is observed in their case long after it has ceased to be observed in the case of others4 ,we have seen that the ,flamen ,dialis was not allowed to walk under a trellised vine47#fch7 ,the reason for this prohibition was perhaps as follows4 ,it has been shown that plants are considered as animate beings which bleed when cut1 the red juice which exudes from some plants being regarded as the blood of the plant47#fci7 ,the juice of the grape is therefore naturally conceived as the blood of the vine47#fdj7 ,and since1 as we have just seen1 the soul is often believed to be in the blood1 the juice of the grape is regarded as the soul1 or as containing the soul1 of the vine4 ,this belief is strengthened by the intoxicating effects of wine4 ,for1 according to primitive notions1 all abnormal mental states1 such as intoxication or madness1 are caused by the entrance of a spirit into the person2 such mental states1 in other words1 are regarded as forms of possession or inspiration4 ,wine1 therefore1 is considered on two distinct grounds as a spirit or containing a spirit2 first because1 as a red juice1 it is identified with the blood of the plant1 and second because it intoxicates or inspires4 ,therefore if the ,flamen ,dialis had walked under a trellised vine1 the spirit of the vine1 embodied in the clusters of grapes1 would have been immediately over his head and might have touched it1 which for a person like him in a state of permanent taboo7#fda7 would have been highly dangerous4 ,this interpretation of the prohibition will be made probable if we can show1 first1 that wine has been actually viewed by some peoples as blood and intoxication as inspiration produced by drinking the blood2 and1 second1 that it is often considered dangerous1 especially for tabooed persons1 to have either blood or a living person over their heads4 ,with regard to the first point1 we are informed by ,plutarch that of old the ,egyptian kings neither drank wine nor offered it in libations to the gods1 because they held it to be the blood of beings who had once fought against the gods1 the vine having sprung from their rotting bodies2 and the frenzy of intoxication was explained by the supposition that the drunken man was filled with the blood of the enemies of the gods47#fdb7 ,the ,aztecs regarded pulque or the wine of the country as bad1 on account of the wild deeds which men did under its influence4 ,but these wild deeds were believed to be the acts1 not of the drunken man1 but of the wine-god by whom he was possessed and inspired2 and so seriously was this theory of inspiration held that if any one spoke ill of or insulted a tipsy man1 he was liable to be punished for disrespect to the wine-god incarnate in his votary4 ,hence1 says ,sahagun1 it was believed1 not without ground1 that the ,indians intoxicated themselves on purpose to commit with impunity crimes for which they would certainly have been punished if they had committed them sober47#fdc7 ,thus it appears that on the primitive view intoxication or the inspiration produced by wine is exactly parallel to the inspiration produced by drinking the blood of animals47#fdd7 ,the soul or life is in the blood1 and wine is the blood of the vine4 ,hence whoever drinks the blood of an animal is inspired with the soul of the animal or of the god1 who1 as we have seen17#fde7 is often supposed to enter into the animal before it is slain2 and whoever drinks wine drinks the blood1 and so receives into himself the soul or spirit1 of the god of the vine4 ,with regard to the second point1 the fear of passing under blood or under a living person1 we are told that some of the ,australian blacks have a dread of passing under a leaning tree or even under the rails of a fence4 ,the reason they give is that a woman may have been upon the tree or fence1 and some blood from her may have fallen on it and might fall from it on them47#fdf7 ,in ,ugi1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 a man will never1 if he can help it1 pass under a tree which has fallen across the path1 for the reason that a woman may have stepped over it before him47#fdg7 ,amongst the ,karens of ,burma 8going under a house1 especially if there are females within1 is avoided2 as is also the passing under trees of which the branches extend downwards in a particular direction1 and the butt-end of fallen trees1 etc407#fdh7 ,the ,siamese think it unlucky to pass under a rope on which women's clothes are hung1 and to avert evil consequences the person who has done so must build a chapel to the earth-spirit47#fdi7 ,probably in all such cases the rule is based on a fear of being brought into contact with blood1 especially the blood of women4 ,from a like fear a ,maori will never lean his back against the wall of a native house47#fej7 ,for the blood of women is believed to have disastrous effects upon males4 ,in the ,encounter ,bay tribe of ,south ,australia boys are warned that if they see the blood of women they will early become gray-headed and their strength will fail prematurely47#fea7 ,men of the ,booandik tribe think that if they see the blood of their women they will not be able to fight against their enemies and will be killed2 if the sun dazzles their eyes at a fight1 the first woman they afterwards meet is sure to get a blow from their club47#feb7 ,in the island of ,wetar it is thought that if a man or a lad comes upon a woman's blood he will be unfortunate in war and other undertakings1 and that any precautions he may take to avoid the misfortune will be vain47#fec7 ,the people of ,ceram also believe that men who see women's blood will be wounded in battle47#fed7 ,similarly the ,ovaherer 7,damaras7 of ,south ,africa think that if they see a lying-in woman shortly after child-birth they will become weaklings and will be shot when they go to war47#fee7 ,it is an ,esthonian belief that men who see women's blood will suffer from an eruption on the skin47#fef7 ,again1 the reason for not passing under dangerous objects1 like a vine or women's blood1 is a fear that they may come in contact with the head2 for among primitive people the head is peculiarly sacred4 ,the special sanctity attributed to it is sometimes explained by a belief that it is the seat of a spirit which is very sensitive to injury or disrespect4 ,thus the ,karens suppose that a being called the tso resides in the upper part of the head1 and while it retains its seat no harm can befall the person from the efforts of the seven ,kelahs1 or personified passions4 8,but if the tso becomes heedless or weak certain evil to the person is the result4 ,hence the head is carefully attended to1 and all possible pains are taken to provide such dress and attire as will be pleasing to the tso407#feg7 ,the ,siamese think that a spirit called ,khuan1 or ,chom ,kuan1 dwells in the human head1 of which it is the guardian spirit4 ,the spirit must be carefully protected from injury of every kind2 hence the act of shaving or cutting the hair is accompanied with many ceremonies4 ,the ,khuan is very sensitive on points of honour1 and would feel mortally insulted if the head in which he resides were touched by the hand of a stranger4 ,when ,dr4 ,bastian1 in conversation with a brother of the king of ,siam1 raised his hand to touch the prince's skull in order to illustrate some medical remarks he was making1 a sullen and threatening murmur bursting from the lips of the crouching courtiers warned him of the breach of etiquette he had committed1 for in ,siam there is no greater insult to a man of rank than to touch his head4 ,if a ,siamese touch the head of another with his foot1 both of them must build chapels to the earth-spirit to avert the omen4 ,nor does the guardian spirit of the head like to have the hair washed too often2 it might injure or incommode him4 ,it was a grand solemnity when the king of ,burmah's head was washed with water taken from the middle of the river4 ,whenever the native professor1 from whom ,dr4 ,bastian took lessons in ,burmese at ,mandalay1 had his head washed1 which took place as a rule once a month1 he was generally absent for three days together1 that time being consumed in preparing for1 and recovering from1 the operation of head-washing4 ,dr4 ,bastian's custom of washing his head daily gave rise to much remark47#feh7 ,again1 the ,burmese think it an indignity to have any one1 especially a woman1 over their heads1 and for this reason ,burmese houses have never more than one story4 ,the houses are raised on posts above the ground1 and whenever anything fell through the floor ,dr4 ,bastian had always difficulty in persuading a servant to fetch it from under the house4 ,in ,rangoon a priest1 summoned to the bedside of a sick man1 climbed up a ladder and got in at the window rather than ascend the staircase1 to reach which he must have passed under a gallery4 ,a pious ,burman of ,rangoon1 finding some images of ,buddha in a ship's cabin1 offered a high price for them1 that they might not be degraded by sailors walking over them on the deck47#fei7 ,similarily the ,cambodians esteem it a grave offence to touch a man's head2 some of them will not enter a place where anything whatever is suspended over their heads2 and the meanest ,cambodian would never consent to live under an inhabited room4 ,hence the houses are built of one story only2 and even the ,government respects the prejudice by never placing a prisoner in the stocks under the floor of a house1 though the houses are raised high above the ground47#ffj7 ,the same superstition exists amongst the ,malays2 for an early traveller reports that in ,java people 8wear nothing on their heads1 and say that nothing must be on their heads 444 and if any person were to put his hand upon their head they would kill him2 and they do not build houses with storeys1 in order that they may not walk over each other's heads407#ffa7 ,it is also found in full force throughout ,polynesia4 ,thus of ,gattanewa1 a ,marquesan chief1 it is said that 8to touch the top of his head1 or any thing which had been on his head was sacrilege4 ,to pass over his head was an indignity never to be forgotten4 ,gattanewa1 nay1 all his family1 scorned to pass a gateway which is ever closed1 or a house with a door2 all must be as open and free as their unrestrained manners4 ,he would pass under nothing that had been raised by the hand of man1 if there was a possibility of getting round or over it4 ,often have ,i seen him walk the whole length of our barrier1 in preference to passing between our water-casks2 and at the risk of his life scramble over the loose stones of a wall1 rather than go through the gateway407#ffb7 ,marquesan women have been known to refuse to go on the decks of ships for fear of passing over the heads of chiefs who might be below47#ffc7 ,but it was not the ,marquesan chiefs only whose heads were sacred2 the head of every ,marquesan was taboo1 and might neither be touched nor stepped over by another2 even a father might not step over the head of his sleeping child47#ffd7 ,no one was allowed to be over the head of the king of ,tonga47#ffe7 ,in ,hawaii 7the ,sandwich ,islands7 if a man climbed upon a chief's house or upon the wall of his yard1 he was put to death2 if his shadow fell on a chief1 he was put to death2 if he walked in the shadow of a chief's house with his head painted white or decked with a garland or wetted with water1 he was put to death47#fff7 ,in ,tahiti any one who stood over the king or queen1 or passed his hand over their heads1 might be put to death47#ffg7 ,until certain rites were performed over it1 a ,tahitian infant was especially taboo2 whatever touched the child's head1 while it was in this state1 became sacred and was deposited in a consecrated place railed in for the purpose at the child's house4 ,if a branch of a tree touched the child's head1 the tree was cut down2 and if in its fall it injured another tree so as to penetrate the bark1 that tree also was cut down as unclean and unfit for use4 ,after the rites were performed1 these special taboos ceased2 but the head of a ,tahitian was always sacred1 he never carried anything on it1 and to touch it was an offence47#ffh7 ,the head of a ,maori chief was so sacred that 8if he only touched it with his fingers1 he was obliged immediately to apply them to his nose1 and snuff up the sanctity which they had acquired by the touch1 and thus restore it to the part from whence it was taken407#ffi7 ,in some circumstances the tabooed person is forbidden to touch his head at all4 ,thus in ,north ,america1 ,tinneh girls at puberty1 ,creek lads during the year of their initiation into manhood1 and young braves on their first war-path1 are forbidden to scratch their heads with their fingers1 and are provided with a stick for the purpose47#fgj7 ,but to return to the ,maoris4 ,on account of the sacredness of his head 8a chief could not blow the fire with his mouth1 for the breath being sacred1 communicated his sanctity to it1 and a brand might be taken by a slave1 or a man of another tribe1 or the fire might be used for other purposes1 such as cooking1 and so cause his death407#fga7 ,it is a crime for a sacred person in ,new ,zealand to leave his comb1 or anything else which has touched his head1 in a place where food has been cooked1 or to suffer another person to drink out of any vessel which has touched his lips4 ,hence when a chief wishes to drink he never puts his lips to the vessel1 but holds his hands close to his mouth so as to form a hollow1 into which water is poured by another person1 and thence is allowed to flow into his mouth4 ,if a light is needed for his pipe1 the burning ember taken from the fire must be thrown away as soon as it is used2 for the pipe becomes sacred because it has touched his mouth2 the coal becomes sacred because it has touched the pipe2 and if a particle of the sacred cinder were replaced on the common fire1 the fire would also become sacred and could no longer be used for cooking47#fgb7 ,some ,maori chiefs1 like other ,polynesians1 object to go down into a ship's cabin from fear of people passing over their heads47#fgc7 ,dire misfortune was thought by the ,maoris to await those who entered a house where any article of animal food was suspended over their heads4 8,a dead pigeon1 or a piece of pork hung from the roof was a better protection from molestation than a sentinel407#fgd7 ,if ,i am right1 the reason for the special objection to having animal food over the head is the fear of bringing the sacred head into contact with the spirit of the animal2 just as the reason why the ,flamen ,dialis might not walk under a vine was the fear of bringing his sacred head into contact with the spirit of the vine4 ,when the head was considered so sacred that it might not even be touched without grave offence1 it is obvious that the cutting of the hair must have been a delicate and difficult operation4 ,the difficulties and dangers which1 on the primitive view1 beset the operation are of two kinds4 ,there is first the danger of disturbing the spirit of the head1 which may be injured in the process and may revenge itself upon the person who molests him4 ,secondly1 there is the difficulty of disposing of the shorn locks4 ,for the savage believes that the sympathetic connection which exists between himself and every part of his body continues to exist even after the physical connection has been severed1 and that therefore he will suffer from any harm that may befall the severed parts of his body1 such as the clippings of his hair or the parings of his nails4 ,accordingly he takes care that these severed portions of himself shall not be left in places where they might either be exposed to accidental injury or fall into the hands of malicious persons who might work magic on them to his detriment or death4 ,such dangers are common to all1 but sacred persons have more to fear from them than ordinary people1 so the precautions taken by them are proportionately stringent4 ,the simplest way of evading the danger is of course not to cut the hair at all2 and this is the expedient adopted where the danger is thought to be more than usually great4 ,the ,frankish kings were not allowed to cut their hair47#fge7 ,a ,haida medicine-man may neither cut nor comb his hair1 so it is always long and tangled47#fgf7 ,amongst the ,alfoers of ,celebes the ,leleen or priest who looks after the rice-fields may not cut his hair during the time that he exercises his special functions1 that is1 from a month before the rice is sown until it is housed47#fgg7 ,in ,ceram men do not cut their hair3 if married men did so1 they would lose their wives2 if young men did so1 they would grow weak and enervated47#fgh7 ,in ,timorlaut1 married men may not cut their hair for the same reason as in ,ceram1 but widowers and men on a journey may do so after offering a fowl or a pig in sacrifice47#fgi7 ,here men on a journey are specially permitted to cut their hair2 but elsewhere men travelling abroad have been in the habit of leaving their hair uncut until their return4 ,the reason for the latter custom is probably the danger to which1 as we have seen1 a traveller is believed to be exposed from the magic arts of the strangers amongst whom he sojourns2 if they got possession of his shorn hair1 they might work his destruction through it4 ,the ,egyptians on a journey kept their hair uncut till they returned home47#fhj7 8,at ,tif when a man returned from a journey his first duty was to visit the ,rabba and poll his hair407#fha7 ,the custom of keeping the hair unshorn during a dangerous expedition seems to have been observed1 at least occasionally1 by the ,romans47#fhb7 ,achilles kept unshorn his yellow hair1 because his father had vowed to offer it to the river ,sperchius if ever his son came home from the wars beyond the sea47#fhc7 ,again1 men who have taken a vow of vengeance sometimes keep their hair unshorn till they have fulfilled their vow4 ,thus of the ,marquesans we are told that 8occasionally they have their head entirely shaved1 except one lock on the crown1 which is worn loose or put up in a knot4 ,but the latter mode of wearing the hair is only adopted by them when they have a solemn vow1 as to revenge the death of some near relation1 etc4 ,in such case the lock is never cut off until they have fulfilled their promise407#fhd7 ,six thousand ,saxons once swore that they would not cut their hair nor shave their beards until they had taken vengeance on their enemies47#fhe7 ,on one occasion a ,hawaiian taboo is said to have lasted thirty years 8during which the men were not allowed to trim their beards1 etc407#fhf7 ,while his vow lasted1 a ,nazarite might not have his hair cut3 8,all the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor come upon his head407#fhg7 ,possibly in this case there was a special objection to touching the tabooed man's head with iron4 ,the ,roman priests1 as we have seen1 were shorn with bronze knives4 ,the same feeling probably gave rise to the ,european rule that a child's nails should not be cut during the first year1 but that if it is absolutely necessary to shorten them they should be bitten off by the mother or nurse47#fhh7 ,for in all parts of the world a young child is believed to be especially exposed to supernatural dangers1 and particular precautions are taken to guard it against them2 in other words1 the child is under a number of taboos1 of which the rule just mentioned is one4 8,among ,hindus the usual custom seems to be that the nails of a first-born child are cut at the age of six months4 ,with other children a year or two is allowed to elapse407#fhi7 ,the ,slave1 ,hare1 and ,dogrib ,indians of ,north ,america do not cut the nails of female children till they are four years of age47#fij7 ,in some parts of ,germany it is thought that if a child's hair is combed in its first year the child will be unlucky27#fia7 or that if a boy's hair is cut before his seventh year he will have no courage47#fib7 ,but when it is necessary to cut the hair1 precautions are taken to lessen the dangers which are supposed to attend the operation4 ,amongst the ,maoris many spells were uttered at hair-cutting2 one1 for example1 was spoken to consecrate the obsidian knife with which the hair was cut2 another was pronounced to avert the thunder and lightning which hair-cutting was believed to cause47#fic7 8,he who has had his hair cut is in the immediate charge of the ,atua 7spirit72 he is removed from the contact and society of his family and his tribe2 he dare not touch his food himself2 it is put into his mouth by another person2 nor can he for some days resume his accustomed occupations or associate with his fellow men407#fid7 ,the person who cuts the hair is also tabooed2 his hands having been in contact with a sacred head1 he may not touch food with them or engage in any other employment2 he is fed by another person with food cooked over a sacred fire4 ,he cannot be released from the taboo before the following day1 when he rubs his hands with potato or fern root which has been cooked on a sacred fire2 and this food having been taken to the head of the family in the female line and eaten by her1 his hands are freed from the taboo4 ,in some parts of ,new ,zealand the most sacred day of the year was that appointed for hair-cutting2 the people assembled in large numbers on that day from all the neighbourhood47#fie7 ,it is an affair of state when the king of ,cambodia's hair is cut4 ,the priests place on the barber's fingers certain old rings set with large stones1 which are supposed to contain spirits favourable to the kings1 and during the operation the ,brahmans keep up a noisy music to drive away the evil spirits47#fif7 ,the hair and nails of the ,mikado could only be cut while he was asleep17#fig7 perhaps because his soul being then absent from his body1 there was less chance of injuring it with the shears4 ,but even when the hair and nails have been safely cut1 there remains the difficulty of disposing of them1 for their owner believes himself liable to suffer from any harm that may befall them4 ,thus1 an ,australian girl1 sick of a fever1 attributed her illness to the fact that some months before a young man had come behind her and cut off a lock of her hair2 she was sure he had buried it and that it was rotting4 8,her hair10 she said1 8was rotting somewhere1 and her ,marm-bu-la 7kidney fat7 was wasting away1 and when her hair had completely rotted1 she would die407#fih7 ,a ,marquesan chief told ,lieutenant ,gamble that he was extremely ill1 the ,happah tribe having stolen a lock of his hair and buried it in a plantain leaf for the purpose of taking his life4 ,lieut4 ,gamble argued with him1 but in vain2 die he must unless the hair and the plantain leaf were brought back to him2 and to obtain them he had offered the ,happahs the greater part of his property4 ,he complained of excessive pain in the head1 breast and sides47#fii7 ,when an ,australian blackfellow wishes to get rid of his wife1 he cuts off a lock of her hair in her sleep1 ties it to his spear-thrower1 and goes with it to a neighbouring tribe1 where he gives it to a friend4 ,his friend sticks the spear-thrower up every night before the camp fire1 and when it falls down it is a sign that his wife is dead47#gjj7 ,the way in which the charm operates was explained to ,mr4 ,howitt by a ,mirajuri man4 8,you see10 he said1 8when a blackfellow doctor gets hold of something belonging to a man and roasts it with things1 and sings over it1 the fire catches hold of the smell of the man1 and that settles the poor fellow407#gja7 ,in ,germany it is a common notion that if birds find a person's cut hair1 and build their nests with it1 the person will suffer from headache27#gjb7 sometimes it is thought that he will have an eruption on the head47#gjc7 ,again it is thought that cut or combed out hair may disturb the weather by producing rain and hail1 thunder and lightning4 ,we have seen that in ,new ,zealand a spell was uttered at hair-cutting to avert thunder and lightning4 ,in the ,tirol1 witches are supposed to use cut or combed out hair to make hail-stones or thunder-storms with47#gjd7 ,thlinket ,indians have been known to attribute stormy weather to the fact that a girl had combed her hair outside of the house47#gje7 ,the ,romans seem to have held similar views1 for it was a maxim with them that no one on shipboard should cut his hair or nails except in a storm17#gjf7 that is1 when the mischief was already done4 ,in ,west ,africa1 when the ,mani of ,chitombe or ,jumba died1 the people used to run in crowds to the corpse and tear out his hair1 teeth1 and nails1 which they kept as a rain-charm1 believing that otherwise no rain would fall4 ,the ,makoko of ,anzikos begged the missionaries to give him half their beards as a rain-charm47#gjg7 ,in some ,victorian tribes the sorcerer used to burn human hair in time of drought2 it was never burned at other times for fear of causing a deluge of rain4 ,also when the river was low1 the sorcerer would place human hair in the stream to increase the supply of water47#gjh7 ,to preserve the cut hair and nails from injury and from the dangerous uses to which they may be put by sorcerers1 it is necessary to deposit them in some safe place4 ,hence the natives of the ,maldives carefully keep the cuttings of their hair and nails and bury them1 with a little water1 in the cemeteries2 8for they would not for the world tread upon them nor cast them in the fire1 for they say that they are part of their body and demand burial as it does2 and1 indeed1 they fold them neatly in cotton2 and most of them like to be shaved at the gates of temples and mosques407#gji7 ,in ,new ,zealand the severed hair was deposited on some sacred spot of ground 8to protect it from being touched accidentally or designedly by any one407#gaj7 ,the shorn locks of a chief were gathered with much care and placed in an adjoining cemetery47#gaa7 ,the ,tahitians buried the cuttings of their hair at the temples47#gab7 ,the cut hair and nails of the ,flamen ,dialis were buried under a lucky tree47#gac7 ,the hair of the ,vestal virgins was hung upon an ancient lotus-tree47#gad7 ,in ,germany the clippings of hair used often to be buried under an elder-bush47#gae7 ,in ,oldenburg cut hair and nails are wrapt in a cloth which is deposited in a hole in an elder-tree three days before the new moon2 the hole is then plugged up47#gaf7 ,in the ,west of ,northumberland it is thought that if the first parings of a child's nails are buried under an ash-tree1 the child will turn out a fine singer47#gag7 ,in ,amboina before a child may taste sago-pap for the first time1 the father cuts off a lock of the child's hair which he buries under a sago palm47#gah7 ,in the ,aru ,islands1 when a child is able to run alone1 a female relation cuts off a lock of its hair and deposits it on a banana-tree47#gai7 ,in the island of ,roti it is thought that the first hair which a child gets is not his own and that1 if it is not cut off1 it will make him weak and ill4 ,hence1 when the child is about a month old1 his hair is cut off with much ceremony4 ,as each of the friends who are invited to the ceremony enters the house he goes up to the child1 cuts off a little of its hair and drops it into a cocoa-nut shell full of water4 ,afterwards the father or another relation takes the hair and packs it into a little bag made of leaves1 which he fastens to the top of a palm-tree4 ,then he gives the leaves of the palm a good shaking1 climbs down1 and goes home without speaking to any one47#gbj7 ,indians of the ,yukon territory1 ,alaska1 do not throw away their cut hair and nails1 but tie them up in little bundles and place them in the crotches of trees or anywhere where they will not be disturbed by animals4 ,for 8they have a superstition that disease will follow the disturbance of such remains by animals407#gba7 ,the clipped hair and nails are often buried in any secret place1 not necessarily in a temple or cemetery or under a tree1 as in the cases already mentioned4 ,in ,swabia it is said that cut hair should be buried in a place where neither sun nor moon shines1 therefore in the ground1 under a stone1 etc47#gbb7 ,in ,danzig it is buried in a bag under the threshold47#gbc7 ,in ,ugi1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 men bury their hair lest it should fall into the hands of an enemy who would make magic with it and so bring sickness or calamity on them47#gbd7 ,the ,zend ,avesta directs that the clippings of hair and the parings of nails shall be placed in separate holes1 and that three1 six1 or nine furrows shall be drawn round each hole with a metal knife47#gbe7 ,in the ,grihya-,stras it is provided that the hair cut from a child's head at the end of the first1 third1 fifth1 or seventh year shall be buried in the earth at a place covered with grass or in the neighbourhood of water47#gbf7 ,the ,madi or ,moru tribe of ,central ,africa bury the parings of their nails in the ground47#gbg7 ,the ,kafirs carry still further this dread of allowing any portion of themselves to fall into the hands of an enemy2 for not only do they bury their cut hair and nails in a sacred place1 but when one of them cleans the head of another he preserves the insects which he finds1 8carefully delivering them to the person to whom they originally appertained1 supposing1 according to their theory1 that as they derived their support from the blood of the man from whom they were taken1 should they be killed by another the blood of his neighbour would be in his possession1 thus placing in his hands the power of some superhuman influence407#gbh7 ,amongst the ,wanyoro of ,central ,africa all cuttings of the hair and nails are carefully stored under the bed and afterwards strewed about among the tall grass47#gbi7 ,in ,north ,guinea they are carefully hidden 7it is not said where7 8in order that they may not be used as a fetish for the destruction of him to whom they belong407#gcj7 ,in ,bolang ,mongondo 7,celebes7 the first hair cut from a child's head is kept in a young cocoa-nut1 which is commonly hung on the front of the house1 under the roof47#gca7 ,sometimes the severed hair and nails are preserved1 not to prevent them from falling into the hands of a magician1 but that the owner may have them at the resurrection of the body1 to which some races look forward4 ,thus the ,incas of ,peru 8took extreme care to preserve the nail-parings and the hairs that were shorn off or torn out with a comb2 placing them in holes or niches in the walls1 and if they fell out1 any other ,indian that saw them picked them up and put them in their places again4 ,i very often asked different ,indians1 at various times1 why they did this1 in order to see what they would say1 and they all replied in the same words1 saying1 #8,know that all persons who are born must return to life' 7they have no word to express resuscitation71 #8and the souls must rise out of their tombs with all that belonged to their bodies4 ,we1 therefore1 in order that we may not have to search for our hair and nails at a time when there will be much hurry and confusion1 place them in one place1 that they may be brought together more conveniently1 and1 whenever it is possible1 we are also careful to spit in one place4' 07#gcb7 ,in ,chile this custom of stuffing the shorn hair into holes in the wall is still observed1 it being thought the height of imprudence to throw the hair away47#gcc7 ,similarly the ,turks never throw away the parings of their nails1 but carefully keep them in cracks of the walls or of the boards1 in the belief that they will be needed at the resurrection47#gcd7 ,some of the ,esthonians keep the parings of their finger and toe nails in their bosom1 in order to have them at hand when they are asked for them at the day of judgment47#gce7 ,the ,fors of ,central ,africa object to cut any one else's nails1 for should the part cut off be lost and not delivered into its owner's hands1 it will have to be made up to him somehow or other after death4 ,the parings are buried in the ground47#gcf7 ,to spit upon the hair before throwing it away is thought in some parts of ,europe sufficient to prevent its being used by witches47#gcg7 ,spitting as a protective charm is well known4 ,some people burn their loose hair to save it from falling into the power of sorcerers4 ,this is done by the ,patagonians and some of the ,victorian tribes47#gch7 ,the ,makololo of ,south ,africa either burn it or bury it secretly17#gci7 and the same alternative is sometimes adopted by the ,tirolese47#gdj7 ,cut and combed out hair is burned in ,pomerania and sometimes at ,lige47#gda7 ,in ,norway the parings of nails are either burned or buried1 lest the elves or the ,finns should find them and make them into bullets wherewith to shoot the cattle47#gdb7 ,this destruction of the hair or nails plainly involves an inconsistency of thought4 ,the object of the destruction is avowedly to prevent these severed portions of the body from being used by sorcerers4 ,but the possibility of their being so used depends upon the supposed sympathetic connection between them and the man from whom they were severed4 ,and if this sympathetic connection still exists1 clearly these severed portions cannot be destroyed without injury to the man4 ,before leaving this subject1 on which ,i have perhaps dwelt too long1 it may be well to call attention to the motive assigned for cutting a young child's hair in ,roti47#gdc7 ,in that island the first hair is regarded as a danger to the child1 and its removal is intended to avert the danger4 ,the reason of this may be that as a young child is almost universally supposed to be in a tabooed or dangerous state1 it is necessary1 in removing the taboo1 to destroy the separable parts of the child's body on the ground that they are infected1 so to say1 by the virus of the taboo and as such are dangerous4 ,the cutting of the child's hair would thus be exactly parallel to the destruction of the vessels which have been used by a tabooed person47#gdd7 ,this view is borne out by a practice1 observed by some ,australians1 of burning off part of a woman's hair after childbirth as well as burning every vessel which has been used by her during her seclusion47#gde7 ,here the burning of the woman's hair seems plainly intended to serve the same purpose as the burning of the vessels used by her2 and as the vessels are burned because they are believed to be tainted with a dangerous infection1 so1 we must suppose1 is also the hair4 ,we can1 therefore1 understand the importance attached by many peoples to the first cutting of a child's hair and the elaborate ceremonies by which the operation is accompanied47#gdf7 ,again1 we can understand why a man should poll his head after a journey47#gdg7 ,for we have seen that a traveller is often believed to contract a dangerous infection from strangers and that1 therefore1 on his return home he is obliged to submit to various purificatory ceremonies before he is allowed to mingle freely with his own people47#gdh7 ,on my hypothesis the polling of the hair is simply one of these purificatory or disinfectant ceremonies4 ,the cutting of the hair after a vow may have the same meaning4 ,it is a way of ridding the man of what has been infected by the dangerous state of taboo1 sanctity1 or uncleanness 7for all these are only different expressions for the same primitive conception7 under which he laboured during the continuance of the vow4 ,similarly at some ,hindu places of pilgrimage on the banks of rivers men who have committed great crimes or are troubled by uneasy consciences have every hair shaved off by professional barbers before they plunge into the sacred stream1 from which 8they emerge new creatures1 with all the accumulated guilt of a long life effaced407#gdi7 ,as might have been expected1 the superstitions of the savage cluster thick about the subject of food2 and he abstains from eating many animals and plants1 wholesome enough in themselves1 but which for one reason or another he considers would prove dangerous or fatal to the eater4 ,examples of such abstinence are too familiar and far too numerous to quote4 ,but if the ordinary man is thus deterred by superstitious fear from partaking of various foods1 the restraints of this kind which are laid upon sacred or tabooed persons1 such as kings and priests1 are still more numerous and stringent4 ,we have already seen that the ,flamen ,dialis was forbidden to eat or even name several plants and animals1 and that the flesh diet of the ,egyptian kings was restricted to veal and goose47#gej7 ,the ,gangas or fetish priests of the ,loango ,coast are forbidden to eat or even see a variety of animals and fish1 in consequence of which their flesh diet is extremely limited2 often they live only on herbs and roots1 though they may drink fresh blood47#gea7 ,the heir to the throne of ,loango is forbidden from infancy to eat pork2 from early childhood he is interdicted the use of the cola fruit in company2 at puberty he is taught by a priest not to partake of fowls except such as he has himself killed and cooked2 and so the number of taboos goes on increasing with his years47#geb7 ,in ,fernando ,po the king after installation is forbidden to eat cocco 7arum acaule71 deer1 and porcupine1 which are the ordinary foods of the people47#gec7 ,amongst the ,murrams of ,manipur 7a district of ,eastern ,india1 on the border of ,burma71 8there are many prohibitions in regard to the food1 both animal and vegetable1 which the chief should eat1 and the ,murrams say the chief's post must be a very uncomfortable one407#ged7 ,to explain the ultimate reason why any particular food is prohibited to a whole tribe or to certain of its members would commonly require a far more intimate knowledge of the history and beliefs of the tribe than we possess4 ,the general motive of such prohibitions is doubtless the same which underlies the whole taboo system1 namely1 the conservation of the tribe and the individual4 ,it would be easy to extend the list of royal and priestly taboos1 but the above may suffice as specimens4 ,to conclude this part of our subject it only remains to state summarily the general conclusions to which our inquiries have thus far conducted us4 ,we have seen that in savage or barbarous society there are often found men to whom the superstition of their fellows ascribes a controlling influence over the general course of nature4 ,such men are accordingly adored and treated as gods4 ,whether these human divinities also hold temporal sway over the lives and fortunes of their fellows1 or whether their functions are purely spiritual and supernatural1 in other words1 whether they are kings as well as gods or only the latter1 is a distinction which hardly concerns us here4 ,their supposed divinity is the essential fact with which we have to deal4 ,in virtue of it they are a pledge and guarantee to their worshippers of the continuance and orderly succession of those physical phenomena upon which mankind depends for subsistence4 ,naturally1 therefore1 the life and health of such a god-man are matters of anxious concern to the people whose welfare and even existence are bound up with his2 naturally he is constrained by them to conform to such rules as the wit of early man has devised for averting the ills to which flesh is heir1 including the last ill1 death4 ,these rules1 as an examination of them has shown1 are nothing but the maxims with which1 on the primitive view1 every man of common prudence must comply if he would live long in the land4 ,but while in the case of ordinary men the observance of the rules is left to the choice of the individual1 in the case of the god-man it is enforced under penalty of dismissal from his high station1 or even of death4 ,for his worshippers have far too great a stake in his life to allow him to play fast and loose with it4 ,therefore all the quaint superstitions1 the old-world maxims1 the venerable saws which the ingenuity of savage philosophers elaborated long ago1 and which old women at chimney corners still impart as treasures of great price to their descendants gathered round the cottage fire on winter evenings--all these antique fancies clustered1 all these cobwebs of the brain were spun about the path of the old king1 the human god1 who1 immeshed in them like a fly in the toils of a spider1 could hardly stir a limb for the threads of custom1 8light as air but strong as links of iron10 that crossing and recrossing each other in an endless maze bound him fast within a network of observances from which death or deposition alone could release him4 ,to students of the past the life of the old kings and priests thus teems with instruction4 ,in it was summed up all that passed for wisdom when the world was young4 ,it was the perfect pattern after which every man strove to shape his life2 a faultless model constructed with rigorous accuracy upon the lines laid down by a barbarous philosophy4 ,crude and false as that philosophy may seem to us1 it would be unjust to deny it the merit of logical consistency4 ,starting from a conception of the vital principle as a tiny being or soul existing in1 but distinct and separable from1 the living being1 it deduces for the practical guidance of life a system of rules which in general hangs well together and forms a fairly complete and harmonious whole4 ,the flaw--and it is a fatal one--of the system lies not in its reasoning1 but in its premises2 in its conception of the nature of life1 not in any irrelevancy of the conclusions which it draws from that conception4 ,but to stigmatise these premises as ridiculous because we can easily detect their falseness1 would be ungrateful as well as unphilosophical4 ,we stand upon the foundation reared by the generations that have gone before1 and we can but dimly realise the painful and prolonged efforts which it has cost humanity to struggle up to the point1 no very exalted one after all1 which we have reached4 ,our gratitude is due to the nameless and forgotten toilers1 whose patient thought and active exertions have largely made us what we are4 ,the amount of new knowledge which one age1 certainly which one man1 can add to the common store is small1 and it argues stupidity or dishonesty1 besides ingratitude1 to ignore the heap while vaunting the few grains which it may have been our privilege to add to it4 ,there is indeed little danger at present of undervaluing the contributions which modern times and even classical antiquity have made to the general advancement of our race4 ,but when we pass these limits1 the case is different4 ,contempt and ridicule or abhorrence and denunciation are too often the only recognition vouchsafed to the savage and his ways4 ,yet of the benefactors whom we are bound thankfully to commemorate1 many1 perhaps most1 were savages4 ,for when all is said and done our resemblances to the savage are still far more numerous than our differences from him2 and what we have in common with him1 and deliberately retain as true and useful1 we owe to our savage forefathers who slowly acquired by experience and transmitted to us by inheritance those seemingly fundamental ideas which we are apt to regard as original and intuitive4 ,we are like heirs to a fortune which has been handed down for so many ages that the memory of those who built it up is lost1 and its possessors for the time being regard it as having been an original and unalterable possession of their race since the beginning of the world4 ,but reflection and inquiry should satisfy us that to our predecessors we are indebted for much of what we thought most our own1 and that their errors were not wilful extravagances or the ravings of insanity1 but simply hypotheses1 justifiable as such at the time when they were propounded1 but which a fuller experience has proved to be inadequate4 ,it is only by the successive testing of hypotheses and rejection of the false that truth is at last elicited4 ,after all1 what we call truth is only the hypothesis which is found to work best4 ,therefore in reviewing the opinions and practices of ruder ages and races we shall do well to look with leniency upon their errors as inevitable slips made in the search for truth1 and to give them the benefit of that indulgence which we may one day stand in need of ourselves3 cum excusatione itaque veteres audiendi sunt4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,killing ,,the ,,god4 8,sed adhuc supersunt aliae superstitiones1 quarum secreta pandenda sunt1 444 ut et in istis profanis religionibus sciatis mortes esse hominum consecratas40--,,firmicus ,,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 c4 #f4 #a4--,killing the divine king4 ,lacking the idea of eternal duration primitive man naturally supposes the gods to be mortal like himself4 ,the ,greenlanders believed that a wind could kill their most powerful god1 and that he would certainly die if he touched a dog4 ,when they heard of the ,christian ,god1 they kept asking if he never died1 and being informed that he did not1 they were much surprised and said that he must be a very great god indeed47#gee7 ,in answer to the inquiries of ,colonel ,dodge1 a ,north ,american ,indian stated that the world was made by the ,great ,spirit4 ,being asked which ,great ,spirit he meant1 the good one or the bad one1 8,oh1 neither of them0 replied he1 8the ,great ,spirit that made the world is dead long ago4 ,he could not possibly have lived as long as this407#gef7 ,a tribe in the ,philippine ,islands told the ,spanish conquerors that the grave of the ,creator was upon the top of ,mount ,cabunian47#geg7 ,heitsi-eibib1 a god or divine hero of the ,hottentots1 died several times and came to life again4 ,his graves are generally to be met with in narrow passes between mountains47#geh7 ,the grave of ,zeus1 the great god of ,greece1 was shown to visitors in ,crete as late as about the beginning of our era47#gei7 ,the body of ,dionysus was buried at ,delphi beside the golden statue of ,apollo1 and his tomb bore the inscription1 8,here lies ,dionysus dead1 the son of ,semele407#gfj7 ,according to one account1 ,apollo himself was buried at ,delphi2 for ,pythagoras is said to have carved an inscription on his tomb1 setting forth how the god had been killed by the python and buried under the tripod47#gfa7 ,cronus was buried in ,sicily17#gfb7 and the graves of ,hermes1 ,aphrodite1 and ,ares were shown in ,hermopolis1 ,cyprus1 and ,thrace47#gfc7 ,if the great invisible gods are thus supposed to die1 it is not to be expected that a god who dwells in the flesh and blood of a man should escape the same fate4 ,now primitive peoples1 as we have seen1 sometimes believe that their safety and even that of the world is bound up with the life of one of these god-men or human incarnations of the divinity4 ,naturally1 therefore1 they take the utmost care of his life1 out of a regard for their own4 ,but no amount of care and precaution will prevent the man-god from growing old and feeble and at last dying4 ,his worshippers have to lay their account with this sad necessity and to meet it as best they can4 ,the danger is a formidable one2 for if the course of nature is dependent on the man-god's life1 what catastrophes may not be expected from the gradual enfeeblement of his powers and their final extinction in death8 ,there is only one way of averting these dangers4 ,the man-god must be killed as soon as he shows symptoms that his powers are beginning to fail1 and his soul must be transferred to a vigorous successor before it has been seriously impaired by the threatened decay4 ,the advantages of thus putting the man-god to death instead of allowing him to die of old age and disease are1 to the savage1 obvious enough4 ,for if the man-god dies what we call a natural death1 it means1 according to the savage1 that his soul has either voluntarily departed from his body and refuses to return1 or more commonly that it has been extracted or at least detained in its wanderings by a demon or sorcerer47#gfd7 ,in any of these cases the soul of the man-god is lost to his worshippers2 and with it their prosperity is gone and their very existence endangered4 ,even if they could arrange to catch the soul of the dying god as it left his lips or his nostrils and so transfer it to a successor1 this would not effect their purpose2 for1 thus dying of disease1 his soul would necessarily leave his body in the last stage of weakness and exhaustion1 and as such it would continue to drag out a feeble existence in the body to which it might be transferred4 ,whereas by killing him his worshippers could1 in the first place1 make sure of catching his soul as it escaped and transferring it to a suitable successor2 and1 in the second place1 by killing him before his natural force was abated1 they would secure that the world should not fall into decay with the decay of the man-god4 ,every purpose1 therefore1 was answered1 and all dangers averted by thus killing the man-god and transferring his soul1 while yet at its prime1 to a vigorous successor4 ,some of the reasons for preferring a violent death to the slow death of old age or disease are obviously as applicable to common men as to the man-god4 ,thus the ,mangaians think that 8the spirits of those who die a natural death are excessively feeble and weak1 as their bodies were at dissolution2 whereas the spirits of those who are slain in battle are strong and vigorous1 their bodies not having been reduced by disease407#gfe7 ,hence1 men sometimes prefer to kill themselves or to be killed before they grow feeble1 in order that in the future life their souls may start fresh and vigorous as they left their bodies1 instead of decrepit and worn out with age and disease4 ,thus in ,fiji1 8self-immolation is by no means rare1 and they believe that as they leave this life1 so they will remain ever after4 ,this forms a powerful motive to escape from decrepitude1 or from a crippled condition1 by a voluntary death407#gff7 ,or1 as another observer of the ,fijians puts it more fully1 8the custom of voluntary suicide on the part of the old men1 which is among their most extraordinary usages1 is also connected with their superstitions respecting a future life4 ,they believe that persons enter upon the delights of their elysium with the same faculties1 mental and physical1 that they possess at the hour of death1 in short1 that the spiritual life commences where the corporeal existence terminates4 ,with these views1 it is natural that they should desire to pass through this change before their mental and bodily powers are so enfeebled by age as to deprive them of their capacity for enjoyment4 ,to this motive must be added the contempt which attaches to physical weakness among a nation of warriors1 and the wrongs and insults which await those who are no longer able to protect themselves4 ,when therefore a man finds his strength declining with the advance of age1 and feels that he will soon be unequal to discharge the duties of this life1 and to partake in the pleasures of that which is to come1 he calls together his relations1 and tells them that he is now worn out and useless1 that he sees they are all ashamed of him1 and that he has determined to be buried40 ,so on a day appointed they meet and bury him alive47#gfg7 ,in ,vat 7,new ,hebrides7 the aged were buried alive at their own request4 ,it was considered a disgrace to the family of an old chief if he was not buried alive47#gfh7 ,of the ,kamants1 a ,jewish tribe in ,abyssinia1 it is reported that 8they never let a person die a natural death1 but if any of their relatives is nearly expiring1 the priest of the village is called to cut his throat2 if this be omitted1 they believe that the departed soul has not entered the mansions of the blessed407#gfi7 ,but it is with the death of the god-man--the divine king or priest--that we are here especially concerned4 ,the people of ,congo believed1 as we have seen1 that if their pontiff the ,chitom were to die a natural death1 the world would perish1 and the earth1 which he alone sustained by his power and merit1 would immediately be annihilated4 ,accordingly when he fell ill and seemed likely to die1 the man who was destined to be his successor entered the pontiff's house with a rope or a club and strangled or clubbed him to death47#ggj7 ,the ,ethiopian kings of ,meroe were worshipped as gods2 but whenever the priests chose1 they sent a messenger to the king1 ordering him to die1 and alleging an oracle of the gods as their authority for the command4 ,this command the kings always obeyed down to the reign of ,ergamenes1 a contemporary of ,ptolemy ,,ii1 ,king of ,egypt4 ,having received a ,greek education which emancipated him from the superstitions of his countrymen1 ,ergamenes ventured to disregard the command of the priests1 and1 entering the ,golden ,temple with a body of soldiers1 put the priests to the sword47#gga7 ,in the kingdom of ,unyoro in ,central ,africa1 custom still requires that as soon as the king falls seriously ill or begins to break up from age1 he shall be killed by his own wives2 for1 according to an old prophecy1 the throne will pass away from the dynasty in the event of the king dying a natural death47#ggb7 ,when the king of ,kibanga1 on the ,upper ,congo1 seems near his end1 the sorcerers put a rope round his neck1 which they draw gradually tighter till he dies47#ggc7 ,it seems to have been a ,zulu custom to put the king to death as soon as he began to have wrinkles or gray hairs4 ,at least this seems implied in the following passage1 written by one who resided for some time at the court of the notorious ,zulu tyrant ,chaka1 in the early part of this century3 8,the extraordinary violence of the king's rage with me was mainly occasioned by that absurd nostrum1 the hair oil1 with the notion of which ,mr4 ,farewell had impressed him as being a specific for removing all indications of age4 ,from the first moment of his having heard that such a preparation was attainable1 he evinced a solicitude to procure it1 and on every occasion never forgot to remind us of his anxiety respecting it2 more especially on our departure on the mission his injunctions were particularly directed to this object4 ,it will be seen that it is one of the barbarous customs of the ,zoolas in their choice or election of their kings that he must neither have wrinkles nor gray hairs1 as they are both distinguishing marks of disqualification for becoming a monarch of a warlike people4 ,it is also equally indispensable that their king should never exhibit those proofs of having become unfit and incompetent to reign2 it is therefore important that they should conceal these indications so long as they possibly can4 ,chaka had become greatly apprehensive of the approach of gray hairs2 which would at once be the signal for him to prepare to make his exit from this sublunary world1 it being always followed by the death of the monarch407#ggd7 ,the custom of putting kings to death as soon as they suffered from any personal defect prevailed two centuries ago in the ,kafir kingdoms of ,sofala1 to the north of the present ,zululand4 ,these kings of ,sofala1 as we have seen17#gge7 were regarded as gods by their people1 being entreated to give rain or sunshine1 according as each might be wanted4 ,nevertheless a slight bodily blemish1 such as the loss of a tooth1 was considered a sufficient cause for putting one of these god-men to death1 as we learn from the following passage of an old historian4 8,contiguous to the domains of the ,quiteva the king of the country bordering on the river ,sofala1 are those of another prince called ,sedanda4 ,this prince becoming afflicted with leprosy1 resolved on following implicitly the laws of the country1 and poisoning himself1 conceiving his malady to be incurable1 or at least that it would render him so loathsome in the eyes of his people that they would with difficulty recognise him4 ,in consequence he nominated his successor1 holding as his opinion that sovereigns who should serve in all things as an example to their people ought to have no defect whatever1 even in their persons2 that when any defects may chance to befall them they cease to be worthy of life and of governing their dominions2 and preferring death in compliance with this law to life1 with the reproach of having been its violator4 ,but this law was not observed with equal scrupulosity by one of the ,quitevas1 who1 having lost a tooth and feeling no disposition to follow the practice of his predecessors1 published to the people that he had lost a front tooth1 in order that when they might behold1 they yet might be able to recognise him2 declaring at the same time that he was resolved on living and reigning as long as he could1 esteeming his existence requisite for the welfare of his subjects4 ,he at the same time loudly condemned the practice of his predecessors1 whom he taxed with imprudence1 nay1 even with madness1 for having condemned themselves to death for casual accidents to their persons1 confessing plainly that it would be with much regret1 even when the course of nature should bring him to his end1 that he should submit to die4 ,he observed1 moreover1 that no reasonable being1 much less a monarch1 ought to anticipate the scythe of time2 and1 abrogating this mortal law1 he ordained that all his successors1 if sane1 should follow the precedent he gave1 and the new law established by him407#ggf7 ,this ,king of ,sofala was1 therefore1 a bold reformer like ,ergamenes1 ,king of ,ethiopia4 ,we may conjecture that the ground for putting the ,ethiopian kings to death was1 as in the case of the ,zulu and ,sofala kings1 the appearance on their person of any bodily defect or sign of decay2 and that the oracle which the priests alleged as the authority for the royal execution was to the effect that great calamities would result from the reign of a king who had any blemish on his body2 just as an oracle warned ,sparta against a 8lame reign10 that is1 the reign of a lame king47#ggg7 ,this conjecture is confirmed by the fact that the kings of ,ethiopia were chosen for their size1 strength1 and beauty long before the custom of killing them was abolished47#ggh7 ,to this day the ,sultan of ,wadi must have no obvious bodily defect1 and a king of ,angoy cannot be crowned if he has a single blemish1 such as a broken or filed tooth or the scar of an old wound47#ggi7 ,it is only natural1 therefore1 to suppose1 especially with the other ,african examples before us1 that any bodily defect or symptom of old age appearing on the person of the ,ethiopian monarch was the signal for his execution4 ,at a later time it is recorded that if the ,king of ,ethiopia became maimed in any part of his body all his courtiers had to suffer the same mutilation47#ghj7 ,but this rule may perhaps have been instituted at the time when the custom of killing the king for any personal defect was abolished2 instead of compelling the king to die because1 e4g41 he had lost a tooth1 all his subjects would be obliged to lose a tooth1 and thus the invidious superiority of the subjects over the king would be cancelled4 ,a rule of this sort is still observed in the same region at the court of the ,sultans of ,darfur4 ,when the ,sultan coughs1 every one makes the sound ts ts by striking the tongue against the root of the upper teeth2 when he sneezes1 the whole assembly utters a sound like the cry of the jeko2 when he falls off his horse1 all his followers must fall off likewise2 if any one of them remains in the saddle1 no matter how high his rank1 he is laid on the ground and beaten47#gha7 ,at the court of the ,king of ,uganda in ,central ,africa1 when the king laughs1 every one laughs2 when he sneezes1 every one sneezes2 when he has a cold1 every one pretends to have a cold2 when he has his hair cut1 so has every one47#ghb7 ,at the court of ,boni in ,celebes it is a rule that whatever the king does all the courtiers must do4 ,if he stands1 they stand2 if he sits1 they sit2 if he falls off his horse1 they fall off their horses2 if he bathes1 they bathe1 and passers-by must go into the water in the dress1 good or bad1 which they happen to have on47#ghc7 ,but to return to the death of the divine man4 ,the old ,prussians acknowledged as their supreme lord a ruler who governed them in the name of the gods1 and was known as ,god's ,mouth 7,kirwaido74 ,when he felt himself weak and ill1 if he wished to leave a good name behind him1 he had a great heap made of thorn-bushes and straw1 on which he mounted and delivered a long sermon to the people1 exhorting them to serve the gods and promising to go to the gods and speak for the people4 ,then he took some of the perpetual fire which burned in front of the holy oak-tree1 and lighting the pile with it burned himself to death47#ghd7 ,in the cases hitherto described1 the divine king or priest is suffered by his people to retain office until some outward defect1 some visible symptom of failing health or advancing age warns them that he is no longer equal to the discharge of his divine duties2 but not until such symptoms have made their appearance is he put to death4 ,some peoples1 however1 appear to have thought it unsafe to wait for even the slightest symptom of decay and have preferred to kill the king while he was still in the full vigour of life4 ,accordingly1 they have fixed a term beyond which he might not reign1 and at the close of which he must die1 the term fixed upon being short enough to exclude the probability of his degenerating physically in the interval4 ,in some parts of ,southern ,india the period fixed was twelve years4 ,thus1 according to an old traveller1 in the province of ,quilacare 8,there is a ,gentile house of prayer1 in which there is an idol which they hold in great account1 and every twelve years they celebrate a great feast to it1 whither all the ,gentiles go as to a jubilee4 ,this temple possesses many lands and much revenue2 it is a very great affair4 ,this province has a king over it2 who has not more than twelve years to reign from jubilee to jubilee4 ,his manner of living is in this wise1 that is to say1 when the twelve years are completed1 on the day of this feast there assemble together innumerable people1 and much money is spent in giving food to ,bramans4 ,the king has a wooden scaffolding made1 spread over with silken hangings2 and on that day he goes to bathe at a tank with great ceremonies and sound of music1 after that he comes to the idol and prays to it1 and mounts on to the scaffolding1 and there before all the people he takes some very sharp knives and begins to cut off his nose1 and then his ears and his lips and all his members and as much flesh of himself as he can2 and he throws it away very hurriedly until so much of his blood is spilled that he begins to faint1 and then he cuts his throat himself4 ,and he performs this sacrifice to the idol2 and whoever desires to reign other twelve years1 and undertake this martyrdom for love of the idol1 has to be present looking on at this2 and from that place they raise him up as king407#ghe7 ,formerly the ,samorin or ,king of ,calicut1 on the ,malabar coast1 had also to cut his throat in public at the end of a twelve years' reign4 ,but towards the end of the seventeenth century the rule had been modified as follows3 8,a new custom is followed by the modern ,samorins1 that jubilee is proclaimed throughout his dominions1 at the end of twelve years1 and a tent is pitched for him in a spacious plain1 and a great feast is celebrated for ten or twelve days1 with mirth and jollity1 guns firing night and day1 so at the end of the feast any four of the guests that have a mind to gain a crown by a desperate action1 in fighting their way through #cj or #dj1jjj of his guards1 and kill the ,samorin in his tent1 he that kills him succeeds him in his empire4 ,in anno #afie1 one those jubilees happened1 and the tent pitched near ,pennany1 a sea-port of his1 about fifteen leagues to the southward of ,calicut4 ,there were but three men that would venture on that desperate action1 who fell in1 with sword and target among the guard1 and1 after they had killed and wounded many were themselves killed4 ,one of the desperados had a nephew of fifteen or sixteen years of age1 that kept close by his uncle in the attack on the guards1 and1 when he saw him fall1 the youth got through the guards into the tent1 and made a stroke at his ,majesty's head1 and had certainly despatched him1 if a large brass lamp which was burning over his head1 had not marred the blow2 but1 before he could make another he was killed by the guards2 and1 ,i believe1 the same ,samorin reigns yet4 ,i chanced to come that time along the coast and heard the guns for two or three days and nights successively407#ghf7 ,in some places it appears that the people could not trust the king to remain in full bodily and mental vigour for more than a year2 hence at the end of a year's reign he was put to death1 and a new king appointed to reign in his turn a year1 and suffer death at the end of it4 ,at least this is the conclusion to which the following evidence points4 ,according to the historian ,berosus1 who as a ,babylonian priest spoke with ample knowledge1 there was annually celebrated in ,babylon a festival called the ,sacaea4 ,it began on the #afth day of the month ,lous1 and lasted for five days4 ,during these five days masters and servants changed places1 the servants giving orders and the masters obeying them4 ,a prisoner condemned to death was dressed in the king's robes1 seated on the king's throne1 allowed to issue whatever commands he pleased1 to eat1 drink1 and enjoy himself1 and to lie with the king's concubines4 ,but at the end of the five days he was stripped of his royal robes1 scourged1 and crucified47#ghg7 ,this custom might perhaps have been explained as merely a grim jest perpetrated in a season of jollity at the expense of an unhappy criminal4 ,but one circumstance--the leave given to the mock king to enjoy the king's concubines--is decisive against this interpretation4 ,considering the jealous seclusion of an oriental despot's harem we may be quite certain that permission to invade it would never have been granted by the despot1 least of all to a condemned criminal1 except for the very gravest cause4 ,this cause could hardly be other than that the condemned man was about to die in the king's stead1 and that to make the substitution perfect it was necessary he should enjoy the full rights of royalty during his brief reign4 ,there is nothing surprising in this substitution4 ,the rule that the king must be put to death either on the appearance of any symptom of bodily decay or at the end of a fixed period is certainly one which1 sooner or later1 the kings would seek to abolish or modify4 ,we have seen that in ,ethiopia and ,sofala the rule was boldly set aside by enlightened monarchs2 and that in ,calicut the old custom of killing the king at the end of twelve years was changed into a permission granted to any one at the end of the twelve years' period to attack the king1 and1 in the event of killing him1 to reign in his stead2 though1 as the king took care at these times to be surrounded by his guards1 the permission was little more than a form4 ,another way of modifying the stern old rule is seen in the ,babylonian custom just described4 ,when the time drew near for the king to be put to death 7in ,babylon this appears to have been at the end of a single year's reign7 he abdicated for a few days1 during which a temporary king reigned and suffered in his stead4 ,at first the temporary king may have been an innocent person1 possibly a member of the king's own family2 but with the growth of civilisation the sacrifice of an innocent person would be revolting to the public sentiment1 and accordingly a condemned criminal would be invested with the brief and fatal sovereignty4 ,in the sequel we shall find other examples of a dying criminal representing a dying god4 ,for we must not forget that the king is slain in his character of a god1 his death and resurrection1 as the only means of perpetuating the divine life unimpaired1 being deemed necessary for the salvation of his people and the world4 ,in some places this modified form of the old custom has been further softened down4 ,the king still abdicates annually for a short time and his place is filled by a more or less nominal sovereign2 but at the close of his short reign the latter is no longer killed1 though sometimes a mock execution still survives as a memorial of the time when he was actually put to death4 ,to take examples4 ,in the month of ,mac 7,february7 the ,king of ,cambodia annually abdicated for three days4 ,during this time he performed no act of authority1 he did not touch the seals1 he did not even receive the revenues which fell due4 ,in his stead there reigned a temporary king called ,sdach ,mac1 that is1 ,king ,february4 ,the office of temporary king was hereditary in a family distantly connected with the royal house1 the sons succeeding the fathers and the younger brothers the elder brothers1 just as in the succession to the real sovereignty4 ,on a favourable day fixed by the astrologers the temporary king was conducted by the mandarins in triumphal procession4 ,he rode one of the royal elephants1 seated in the royal palanquin1 and escorted by soldiers who1 dressed in appropriate costumes1 represented the neighbouring peoples of ,siam1 ,annam1 ,laos1 and so on4 ,instead of the golden crown he wore a peaked white cap1 and his regalia1 instead of being of gold encrusted with diamonds1 were of rough wood4 ,after paying homage to the real king1 from whom he received the sovereignty for three days1 together with all the revenues accruing during that time 7though this last custom has been omitted for some time71 he moved in procession round the palace and through the streets of the capital4 ,on the third day1 after the usual procession1 the temporary king gave orders that the elephants should trample under foot the 8mountain of rice10 which was a scaffold of bamboo surrounded by sheaves of rice4 ,the people gathered up the rice1 each man taking home a little with him to secure a good harvest4 ,some of it was also taken to the king1 who had it cooked and presented to the monks47#ghh7 ,in ,siam on the sixth day of the moon in the sixth month 7the end of ,april7 a temporary king is appointed1 who for three days enjoys the royal prerogatives1 the real king remaining shut up in his palace4 ,this temporary king sends his numerous satellites in all directions to seize and confiscate whatever they can find in the bazaar and open shops2 even the ships and junks which arrive in harbour during the three days are confiscated to him and must be redeemed4 ,he goes to a field in the middle of the city1 whither is brought a gilded plough drawn by gaily-decked oxen4 ,after the plough has been anointed and the oxen rubbed with incense1 the mock king traces nine furrows with the plough1 followed by aged dames of the palace scattering the first seed of the season4 ,as soon as the nine furrows are drawn1 the crowd of spectators rushes in and scrambles for the seed which has just been sown1 believing that1 mixed with the seed-rice1 it will ensure a plentiful crop4 ,then the oxen are unyoked1 and rice1 maize1 sesame1 sago1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 melons1 etc4 are set before them2 whatever they eat first will1 it is thought1 be dear in the year following1 though some people interpret the omen in the opposite sense4 ,during this time the temporary king stands leaning against a tree with his right foot resting on his left knee4 ,from standing thus on one foot he is popularly known as ,king ,hop2 but his official title is ,phaya ,phollathep1 8,lord of the ,heavenly ,hosts407#ghi7 ,he is a sort of ,minister of ,agriculture2 all disputes about fields1 rice1 and so on1 are referred to him4 ,there is moreover another ceremony in which he personates the king4 ,it takes place in the second month 7which falls in the cold season7 and lasts three days4 ,he is conducted in procession to an open place opposite the ,temple of the ,brahmans1 where there are a number of poles dressed like ,may-poles1 upon which the ,brahmans swing4 ,all the while that they swing and dance1 the ,lord of the ,heavenly ,hosts has to stand on one foot upon a seat which is made of bricks plastered over1 covered with a white cloth1 and hung with tapestry4 ,he is supported by a wooden frame with a gilt canopy1 and two ,brahmans stand one on each side of him4 ,the dancing ,brahmans carry buffalo horns with which they draw water from a large copper caldron and sprinkle it on the people2 this is supposed to bring good luck1 causing the people to dwell in peace and quiet1 health and prosperity4 ,the time during which the ,lord of the ,heavenly ,hosts has to stand on one foot is about three hours4 ,this is thought 8to prove the dispositions of the ,devattas and spirits40 ,if he lets his foot down 8he is liable to forfeit his property and have his family enslaved by the king2 as it is believed to be a bad omen1 portending destruction to the state1 and instability to the throne4 ,but if he stand firm he is believed to have gained a victory over evil spirits1 and he has moreover the privilege1 ostensibly at least1 of seizing any ship which may enter the harbour during these three days1 and taking its contents1 and also of entering any open shop in the town and carrying away what he chooses407#gij7 ,in ,upper ,egypt on the first day of the solar year by ,coptic reckoning1 that is on #ajth ,september1 when the ,nile has generally reached its highest point1 the regular government is suspended for three days and every town chooses its own ruler4 ,this temporary lord wears a sort of tall fool's cap and a long flaxen beard1 and is enveloped in a strange mantle4 ,with a wand of office in his hand and attended by men disguised as scribes1 executioners1 etc41 he proceeds to the ,governor's house4 ,the latter allows himself to be deposed2 and the mock king1 mounting the throne1 holds a tribunal1 to the decisions of which even the governor and his officials must bow4 ,after three days the mock king is condemned to death2 the envelope or shell in which he was encased is committed to the flames1 and from its ashes the ,fellah creeps forth47#gia7 ,sometimes the temporary king occupies the throne1 not annually1 but once for all at the beginning of each reign4 ,thus in the kingdom of ,jambi 7in ,sumatra7 it is the custom that at the beginning of a new reign a man of the people should occupy the throne and exercise the royal prerogatives for a single day4 ,the origin of the custom is explained by a tradition that there were once five royal brothers1 the four elder of whom all declined the crown on the ground of various bodily defects1 leaving it to their youngest brother4 ,but the eldest occupied the throne for one day1 and reserved for his descendants a similar privilege at the beginning of every reign4 ,thus the office of temporary king is hereditary in a family akin to the royal house47#gib7 ,in ,bilaspur it seems to be the custom1 after the death of a ,rajah1 for a ,brahman to eat rice out of the dead ,rajah's hand1 and then to occupy the throne for a year4 ,at the end of the year the ,brahman receives presents and is dismissed from the territory1 being forbidden apparently to return4 8,the idea seems to be that the spirit of the ,rj enters into the ,brhman who eats the khr 7rice and milk7 out of his hand when he is dead1 as the ,brahman is apparently carefully watched during the whole year1 and not allowed to go away40 ,the same or a similar custom is believed to obtain among the hill states about ,kngr47#gic7 ,at the installation of a prince of ,carinthia a peasant1 in whose family the office was hereditary1 ascended a marble stone which stood surrounded by meadows in a spacious valley2 on his right stood a black mother-cow1 on his left an ugly mare4 ,a rustic crowd gathered about him4 ,then the future prince1 dressed as a peasant and carrying a shepherd's staff1 drew near1 attended by courtiers and magistrates4 ,on perceiving him the peasant called out1 8,who is this whom ,i see coming so proudly along80 ,the people answered1 8,the prince of the land40 ,the peasant was then prevailed on to surrender the marble seat to the prince on condition of receiving sixty pence1 the cow and mare1 and exemption from taxes4 ,but before yielding his place he gave the prince a light blow on the cheek47#gid7 ,some points about these temporary kings deserve to be specially noticed before we pass to the next branch of the evidence4 ,in the first place1 the ,cambodian and ,siamese examples bring clearly out the fact that it is especially the divine or supernatural functions of the king which are transferred to his temporary substitute4 ,this appears from the belief that by keeping up his foot the temporary king of ,siam gained a victory over the evil spirits2 whereas by letting it down he imperilled the existence of the state4 ,again1 the ,cambodian ceremony of trampling down the 8mountain of rice10 and the ,siamese ceremony of opening the ploughing and sowing1 are charms to produce a plentiful harvest1 as appears from the belief that those who carry home some of the trampled rice or of the seed sown will thereby secure a good crop4 ,but the task of making the crops grow1 thus deputed to the temporary kings1 is one of the supernatural functions regularly supposed to be discharged by kings in primitive society4 ,the rule that the mock king must stand on one foot upon a raised seat in the rice-field was perhaps originally meant as a charm to make the crop grow high2 at least this was the object of a similar ceremony observed by the old ,prussians4 ,the tallest girl1 standing on one foot upon a seat1 with her lap full of cakes1 a cup of brandy in her right hand and a piece of elm-bark or linden-bark in her left1 prayed to the god ,waizganthos that the flax might grow as high as she was standing4 ,then1 after draining the cup1 she had it refilled1 and poured the brandy on the ground as an offering to ,waizganthos1 and threw down the cakes for his attendant sprites4 ,if she remained steady on one foot throughout the ceremony1 it was an omen that the flax crop would be good2 but if she let her foot down1 it was feared that the crop might fail47#gie7 ,the gilded plough with which the ,siamese mock king opens the ploughing may be compared with the bronze ploughs which the ,etruscans employed at the ceremony of founding cities27#gif7 in both cases the use of iron was probably forbidden on superstitious grounds47#gig7 ,another point to notice about these temporary kings is that in two places 7,cambodia and ,jambi7 they come of a stock which is believed to be akin to the royal family4 ,if the view here taken of the origin of these temporary kingships is correct1 the fact that the temporary king is sometimes of the same race as the real king admits of a ready explanation4 ,when the king first succeeded in getting the life of another accepted as a sacrifice in lieu of his own1 he would have to show that the death of that other would serve the purpose quite as well as his own would have done4 ,now it was as a god that the king had to die2 therefore the substitute who died for him had to be invested1 at least for the occasion1 with the divine attributes of the king4 ,this1 as we have just seen1 was certainly the case with the temporary kings of ,siam and ,cambodia2 they were invested with the supernatural functions1 which in an earlier stage of society were the special attributes of the king4 ,but no one could so well represent the king in his divine character as his son1 who might be supposed to share the divine afflatus of his father4 ,no one1 therefore1 could so appropriately die for the king and1 through him1 for the whole people1 as the king's son4 ,there is evidence that amongst the ,semites of ,western ,asia 7the very region where the redemption of the king's life by the sacrifice of another comes out so unmistakably in the ,sacaean festival7 the king1 in a time of national danger1 sometimes gave his own son to die as a sacrifice for the people4 ,thus ,philo of ,byblus1 in his work on the ,jews1 says3 8,it was an ancient custom in a crisis of great danger that the ruler of a city or nation should give his beloved son to die for the whole people1 as a ransom offered to the avenging demons2 and the children thus offered were slain with mystic rites4 ,so ,cronus1 whom the ,phoenicians call ,israel1 being king of the land and having an only-begotten son called ,jeoud 7for in the ,phoenician tongue ,jeoud signifies #8only-begotten'71 dressed him in royal robes and sacrificed him upon an altar in a time of war1 when the country was in great danger from the enemy407#gih7 ,when the ,king of ,moab was besieged by the ,israelites and hard beset1 he took his eldest son1 who should have reigned in his stead1 and offered him for a burnt offering on the wall47#gii7 ,but amongst the ,semites the practice of sacrificing their children was not confined to kings4 ,in times of great calamity1 such as pestilence1 drought1 or defeat in war1 the ,phoenicians used to sacrifice one of their dearest to ,baal4 8,phoenician history10 says an ancient writer1 8is full of such sacrifices407#hjj7 ,when the ,carthaginians were defeated and besieged by ,agathocles1 they ascribed their disasters to the wrath of ,baal2 for whereas in former times they had been wont to sacrifice to him their own children1 they had latterly fallen into the habit of buying children and rearing them to be victims4 ,so1 to appease the angry god1 two hundred children of the noblest families were picked out for sacrifice1 and the tale of victims was swelled by not less than three hundred more who volunteered to die for the fatherland4 ,they were sacrificed by being placed1 one by one1 on the sloping hands of the brazen image1 from which they rolled into a pit of fire47#hja7 ,if an aristocracy thus adopted the practice of sacrificing other people's children instead of their own1 kings may very well have followed or set the example4 ,a final mitigation of the custom would be the substitution of condemned criminals for innocent victims4 ,such a substitution is known to have taken place in the human sacrifices annually offered in ,rhodes to ,baal47#hjb7 ,the custom of sacrificing children1 especially the first born1 is not peculiarly ,semitic4 ,in some tribes of ,new ,south ,wales the first-born child of every woman was eaten by the tribe as part of a religious ceremony47#hjc7 ,the ,indians of ,florida sacrificed their first-born male children47#hjd7 ,amongst the people of ,senjero in ,eastern ,africa we are told that many families 8must offer up their first-born sons as sacrifices1 because once upon a time1 when summer and winter were jumbled together in a bad season1 and the fruits of the earth would not ripen1 the soothsayers enjoined it4 ,at that time a great pillar of iron is said to have stood at the entrance of the capital1 which by the advice of the soothsayers was broken down by order of the king1 upon which the seasons became regular again4 ,to avert the recurrence of such a confusion of the seasons1 the soothsayers are reported to have enjoined the king to pour human blood once a year on the base of the broken shaft of the pillar1 and also upon the throne4 ,since then certain families are obliged to deliver up their first-born sons1 who are sacrificed at an appointed time407#hje7 ,the heathen ,russians often sacrificed their first-born to the god ,perun47#hjf7 ,the condemnation and pretended death by fire of the mock king in ,egypt is probably a reminiscence of a real custom of burning him4 ,evidence of a practice of burning divine personages will be forthcoming later on4 ,in ,bilaspur the expulsion of the ,brahman who had occupied the king's throne for a year is perhaps a substitute for putting him to death4 ,the explanation here given of the custom of killing divine persons assumes1 or at least is readily combined with1 the idea that the soul of the slain divinity is transmitted to his successor4 ,of this transmission ,i have no direct proof2 and so far a link in the chain of evidence is wanting4 ,but if ,i cannot prove by actual examples this succession to the soul of the slain god1 it can at least be made probable that such a succession was supposed to take place4 ,for it has been already shown that the soul of the incarnate deity is often supposed to transmigrate at death into another incarnation27#hjg7 and if this takes place when the death is a natural one1 there seems no reason why it should not take place when the death is a violent one4 ,certainly the idea that the soul of a dying person may be transmitted to his successor is perfectly familiar to primitive peoples4 ,in ,nias the eldest son usually succeeds his father in the chieftainship4 ,but if from any bodily or mental defect the eldest son is incapacitated from ruling1 the father determines in his life-time which of his sons shall succeed him4 ,in order1 however1 to establish his right of succession it is necessary that the son upon whom his father's choice falls shall catch in his mouth or in a bag the last breath1 and with it the soul1 of the dying chief4 ,for whoever catches his last breath is chief equally with the appointed successor4 ,hence the other brothers1 and sometimes also strangers1 crowd round the dying man to catch his soul as it passes4 ,the houses in ,nias are raised above the ground on posts1 and it has happened that when the dying man lay with his face on the floor1 one of the candidates has bored a hole in the floor and sucked in the chief's last breath through a bamboo tube4 ,when the chief has no son1 his soul is caught in a bag1 which is fastened to an image made to represent the deceased2 the soul is then believed to pass into the image47#hjh7 ,amongst the ,takilis or ,carrier ,indians of ,north-,west ,america1 when a corpse is burned the priest pretends to catch the soul of the deceased in his hands1 which he closes with many gesticulations4 ,he then communicates the captured soul to the dead man's successor by throwing his hands towards and blowing upon him4 ,the person to whom the soul is thus communicated takes the name and rank of the deceased4 ,on the death of a chief the priest thus fills a responsible and influential position1 for he may transmit the soul to whom he will1 though1 doubtless1 he generally follows the regular line of succession47#hji7 ,algonkin women who wished to become mothers flocked to the side of a dying person in the hope of receiving and being impregnated by the passing soul4 ,amongst the ,seminoles of ,florida when a woman died in childbed the infant was held over her face to receive her parting spirit47#haj7 ,the ,romans caught the breath of dying friends in their mouths1 and so received into themselves the soul of the departed47#haa7 ,the same custom is said to be still practised in ,lancashire47#hab7 ,we may therefore fairly suppose that when the divine king or priest is put to death his spirit is believed to pass into his successor4 #b4--,killing the tree-spirit4 ,it remains to ask what light the custom of killing the divine king or priest sheds upon the subject of our inquiry4 ,in the first chapter we saw reason to suppose that the ,king of the ,wood was regarded as an incarnation of the tree-spirit or of the spirit of vegetation1 and that as such he would be endowed1 in the belief of his worshippers1 with a supernatural power of making the trees to bear fruit1 the crops to grow1 and so on4 ,his life must therefore have been held very precious by his worshippers1 and was probably hedged in by a system of elaborate precautions or taboos like those by which1 in so many places1 the life of the god-man has been guarded against the malignant influence of demons and sorcerers4 ,but we have seen that the very value attached to the life of the man-god necessitates his violent death as the only means of preserving it from the inevitable decay of age4 ,the same reasoning would apply to the ,king of the ,wood2 he too had to be killed in order that the divine spirit1 incarnate in him1 might be transferred in unabated vigour to his successor4 ,the rule that he held office till a stronger should slay him might be supposed to secure both the preservation of his divine life in full vigour and its transference to a suitable successor as soon as that vigour began to be impaired4 ,for so long as he could maintain his position by the strong hand1 it might be inferred that his natural force was not abated2 whereas his defeat and death at the hands of another proved that his strength was beginning to fail and that it was time his divine life should be lodged in a less dilapidated tabernacle4 ,this explanation of the rule that the ,king of the ,wood had to be slain by his successor at least renders that rule perfectly intelligible4 ,moreover it is countenanced by the analogy of the ,chitomb1 upon whose life the existence of the world was supposed to hang1 and who was therefore slain by his successor as soon as he showed signs of breaking up4 ,again1 the terms on which in later times the ,king of ,calicut held office are identical with those attached to the office of ,king of the ,wood1 except that whereas the former might be assailed by a candidate at any time1 the ,king of ,calicut might only be attacked once every twelve years4 ,but as the leave granted to the ,king of ,calicut to reign so long as he could defend himself against all comers was a mitigation of the old rule which set a fixed term to his life1 so we may conjecture that the similar permission granted to the ,king of the ,wood was a mitigation of an older custom of putting him to death at the end of a set period4 ,in both cases the new rule gave to the god-man at least a chance for his life1 which under the old rule was denied him2 and people probably reconciled themselves to the change by reflecting that so long as the god-man could maintain himself by the sword against all assaults1 there was no reason to apprehend that the fatal decay had set in4 ,the conjecture that the ,king of the ,wood was formerly put to death at the expiry of a set term1 without being allowed a chance for his life1 will be confirmed if evidence can be adduced of a custom of periodically killing his counterparts1 the human representatives of the tree-spirit1 in ,northern ,europe4 ,now in point of fact such a custom has left unmistakable traces of itself in the rural festivals of the peasantry4 ,to take examples4 ,in ,lower ,bavaria the ,whitsuntide representative of the tree-spirit--the ,pfingstl as he was called--was clad from top to toe in leaves and flowers4 ,on his head he wore a high pointed cap1 the ends of which rested on his shoulders1 only two holes being left in it for his eyes4 ,the cap was covered with water flowers and surmounted with a nosegay of peonies4 ,the sleeves of his coat were also made of water-plants1 and the rest of his body was enveloped in alder and hazel leaves4 ,on each side of him marched a boy holding up one of the ,pfingstl's arms4 ,these two boys carried drawn swords1 and so did most of the others who formed the procession4 ,they stopped at every house where they hoped to receive a present2 and the people1 in hiding1 soused the leaf-clad boy with water4 ,all rejoiced when he was well drenched4 ,finally he waded into the brook up to his middle2 whereupon one of the boys1 standing on the bridge1 pretended to cut off his head47#hac7 ,at ,wurmlingen in ,swabia a score of young fellows dress themselves on ,whit-,monday in white shirts and white trousers1 with red scarves round their waists and swords hanging from the scarves4 ,they ride on horse-back into the wood1 led by two trumpeters blowing their trumpets4 ,in the wood they cut down leafy oak branches1 in which they envelop from head to foot him who was the last of their number to ride out of the village4 ,his legs1 however1 are encased separately1 so that he may be able to mount his horse again4 ,further1 they give him a long artificial neck1 with an artificial head and a false face on the top of it4 ,then a ,may-tree is cut1 generally an aspen or beech about ten feet high2 and being decked with coloured handkerchiefs and ribbons it is entrusted to a special 8,may-bearer40 ,the cavalcade then returns with music and song to the village4 ,amongst the personages who figure in the procession are a ,moorish king with a sooty face and a crown on his head1 a ,dr4 ,iron-,beard1 a corporal1 and an executioner4 ,they halt on the village green1 and each of the characters makes a speech in rhyme4 ,the executioner announces that the leaf-clad man has been condemned to death and cuts off his false head4 ,then the riders race to the ,may-tree1 which has been set up a little way off4 ,the first man who succeeds in wrenching it from the ground as he gallops past keeps it with all its decorations4 ,the ceremony is observed every second or third year47#had7 ,in ,saxony and ,thringen there is a ,whitsuntide ceremony called 8chasing the ,wild ,man out of the bush10 or 8fetching the ,wild ,man out of the wood40 ,a young fellow is enveloped in leaves or moss and called the ,wild ,man4 ,he hides in the wood and the other lads of the village go out to seek him4 ,they find him1 lead him captive out of the wood1 and fire at him with blank muskets4 ,he falls like dead to the ground1 but a lad dressed as a doctor bleeds him1 and he comes to life again4 ,at this they rejoice and binding him fast on a waggon take him to the village1 where they tell all the people how they have caught the ,wild ,man4 ,at every house they receive a gift47#hae7 ,in the ,erzgebirge the following custom was annually observed at ,shrovetide about the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,two men disguised as ,wild ,men1 the one in brushwood and moss1 the other in straw1 were led about the streets1 and at last taken to the market-place1 where they were chased up and down1 shot and stabbed4 ,before falling they reeled about with strange gestures and spirted blood on the people from bladders which they carried4 ,when they were down1 the huntsmen placed them on boards and carried them to the alehouse1 the miners marching beside them and winding blasts on their mining tools as if they had taken a noble head of game47#haf7 ,a very similar ,shrovetide custom is still observed in the neighbourhood of ,schluckenau 7,bohemia74 ,a man dressed up as a ,wild ,man is chased through several streets till he comes to a narrow lane across which a cord is stretched4 ,he stumbles over the cord and1 falling to the ground1 is overtaken and caught by his pursuers4 ,the executioner runs up and stabs with his sword a bladder filled with blood which the ,wild ,man wears round his body2 so the ,wild ,man dies1 while a stream of blood reddens the ground4 ,next day a straw-man1 made up to look like the ,wild ,man1 is placed on a litter1 and1 accompanied by a great crowd1 is taken to a pool into which it is thrown by the executioner4 ,the ceremony is called 8burying the ,carnival407#hag7 ,in ,semic 7,bohemia7 the custom of beheading the ,king is observed on ,whit-,monday4 ,a troop of young people disguise themselves2 each is girt with a girdle of bark and carries a wooden sword and a trumpet of willow-bark4 ,the ,king wears a robe of tree-bark adorned with flowers1 on his head is a crown of bark decked with flowers and branches1 his feet are wound about with ferns1 a mask hides his face1 and for a sceptre he has a hawthorn switch in his hand4 ,a lad leads him through the village by a rope fastened to his foot1 while the rest dance about1 blow their trumpets1 and whistle4 ,in every farmhouse the ,king is chased round the room1 and one of the troop1 amid much noise and outcry1 strikes with his sword a blow on the ,king's robe of bark till it rings again4 ,then a gratuity is demanded47#hah7 ,the ceremony of decapitation1 which is here somewhat slurred over1 is carried out with a greater semblance of reality in other parts of ,bohemia4 ,thus in some villages of the ,kniggrtz district on ,whit-,monday the girls assemble under one lime-tree and the young men under another1 all dressed in their best and tricked out with ribbons4 ,the young men twine a garland for the ,queen and the girls for the ,king4 ,when they have chosen the ,king and ,queen they all go in procession1 two and two1 to the alehouse1 from the balcony of which the crier proclaims the names of the ,king and ,queen4 ,both are then invested with the insignia of their dignity and are crowned with the garlands1 while the music plays up4 ,then some one gets on a bench and accuses the ,king of various offences1 such as ill-treating the cattle4 ,the ,king appeals to witnesses and a trial ensues1 at the close of which the judge1 who carries a white wand as his badge of office1 pronounces a verdict of 8guilty0 or 8not guilty40 ,if the verdict is 8guilty0 the judge breaks his wand1 the ,king kneels on a white cloth1 all heads are bared1 and a soldier sets three or four hats1 one above the other1 on the ,king's head4 ,the judge then pronounces the word 8guilty0 thrice in a loud voice1 and orders the crier to behead the ,king4 ,the crier obeys by striking off the ,king's hats with his wooden sword47#hai7 ,but perhaps1 for our purpose1 the most instructive of these mimic executions is the following ,bohemian one1 which has been in part described already47#hbj7 ,in some places of the ,pilsen district 7,bohemia7 on ,whit-,monday the ,king is dressed in bark1 ornamented with flowers and ribbons2 he wears a crown of gilt paper and rides a horse1 which is also decked with flowers4 ,attended by a judge1 an executioner and other characters1 and followed by a train of soldiers1 all mounted1 he rides to the village square1 where a hut or arbour of green boughs has been erected under the ,may-trees1 which are firs1 freshly cut1 peeled to the top1 and dressed with flowers and ribbons4 ,after the dames and maidens of the village have been criticised and a frog beheaded1 in the way already described1 the cavalcade rides to a place previously determined upon1 in a straight1 broad street4 ,here they draw up in two lines and the ,king takes to flight4 ,he is given a short start and rides off at full speed1 pursued by the whole troop4 ,if they fail to catch him he remains ,king for another year1 and his companions must pay his score at the alehouse in the evening4 ,but if they overtake and catch him he is scourged with hazel rods or beaten with the wooden swords and compelled to dismount4 ,then the executioner asks1 8,shall ,i behead this ,king80 ,the answer is given1 8,behead him20 the executioner brandishes his axe1 and with the words1 8,one1 two1 three1 let the ,king headless be60 he strikes off the ,king's crown4 ,amid the loud cries of the bystanders the ,king sinks to the ground2 then he is laid on a bier and carried to the nearest farmhouse47#hba7 ,in the personages who are thus slain in mimicry it is impossible not to recognise representatives of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation1 as he is supposed to manifest himself in spring4 ,the bark1 leaves1 and flowers in which the actors are dressed1 and the season of the year at which they appear1 show that they belong to the same class as the ,grass ,king1 ,king of the ,may1 ,jack-in-the-,green1 and other representatives of the vernal spirit of vegetation which we examined in the first chapter4 ,as if to remove any possible doubt on this head1 we find that in two cases7#hbb7 these slain men are brought into direct connection with ,may-trees1 which are 7as we have seen7 the impersonal1 as the ,may ,king1 ,grass ,king1 etc41 are the personal representatives of the tree-spirit4 ,the drenching of the ,pfingstl with water and his wading up to the middle into the brook are1 therefore1 no doubt rain-charms like those which have been already described47#hbc7 ,but if these personages represent1 as they certainly do1 the spirit of vegetation in spring1 the question arises1 ,why kill them8 ,what is the object of slaying the spirit of vegetation at any time and above all in spring1 when his services are most wanted8 ,the only answer to this question seems to be given in the explanation already proposed of the custom of killing the divine king or priest4 ,the divine life1 incarnate in a material and mortal body1 is liable to be tainted and corrupted by the weakness of the frail medium in which it is for a time enshrined2 and if it is to be saved from the increasing enfeeblement which it must necessarily share with its human incarnation as he advances in years1 it must be detached from him before1 or at least as soon as1 he exhibits signs of decay1 in order to be transferred to a vigorous successor4 ,this is done by killing the old representative of the god and conveying the divine spirit from him to a new incarnation4 ,the killing of the god1 that is1 of his human incarnation1 is1 therefore1 only a necessary step to his revival or resurrection in a better form4 ,far from being an extinction of the divine spirit1 it is only the beginning of a purer and stronger manifestation of it4 ,if this explanation holds good of the custom of killing divine kings and priests in general1 it is still more obviously applicable to the custom of annually killing the representative of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation in spring4 ,for the decay of vegetation in winter is readily interpreted by primitive man as an enfeeblement of the spirit of vegetation2 the spirit has 7he thinks7 grown old and weak and must therefore be renovated by being slain and brought to life in a younger and fresher form4 ,thus the killing of the representative of the tree-spirit in spring is regarded as a means to promote and quicken the growth of vegetation4 ,for the killing of the tree-spirit is associated always 7we must suppose7 implicitly1 and sometimes explicitly also1 with a revival or resurrection of him in a more youthful and vigorous form4 ,thus in the ,saxon and ,thringen custom1 after the ,wild ,man has been shot he is brought to life again by a doctor27#hbd7 and in the ,wurmlingen ceremony there figures a ,dr4 ,iron-,beard1 who probably once played a similar part2 certainly in another spring ceremony 7to be described presently7 ,dr4 ,iron-,beard pretends to restore a dead man to life4 ,but of this revival or resurrection of the god we shall have more to say anon4 ,the points of similarity between these ,north ,european personages and the subject of our inquiry--the ,king of the ,wood or priest of ,nemi--are sufficiently striking4 ,in these northern maskers we see kings1 whose dress of bark and leaves1 along with the hut of green boughs and the fir-trees under which they hold their court1 proclaim them unmistakably as1 like their ,italian counterpart1 ,kings of the ,wood4 ,like him they die a violent death2 but like him they may escape from it for a time by their bodily strength and agility2 for in several of these northern customs the flight and pursuit of the king is a prominent part of the ceremony1 and in one case at least if the king can outrun his pursuers he retains his life and his office for another year4 ,in this last case1 in fact1 the king holds office on condition of running for his life once a year1 just as the ,king of ,calicut in later times held office on condition of defending his life against all comers once every twelve years1 and just as the priest of ,nemi held office on condition of defending himself against any assault at any time4 ,in all these cases the life of the god-man is prolonged on condition of showing1 in a severe physical contest of fight or flight1 that his bodily strength is not decayed1 and that1 therefore1 the violent death1 which sooner or later is inevitable1 may for the present be postponed4 ,with regard to flight it is noticeable that flight figured conspicuously both in the legend and the practice of the ,king of the ,wood4 ,he had to be a runaway slave 7fugitivus7 in memory of the flight of ,orestes1 the traditional founder of the worship2 hence the ,kings of the ,wood are described by an ancient writer as 8both strong of hand and fleet of foot407#hbe7 ,perhaps if we knew the ritual of the ,arician grove fully we might find that the king was allowed a chance for his life by flight1 like his ,bohemian brother4 ,we may conjecture that the annual flight of the priestly king at ,rome 7regifugium77#hbf7 was at first a flight of the same kind2 in other words1 that he was originally one of those divine kings who are either put to death after a fixed period or allowed to prove by the strong hand or the fleet foot that their divinity is vigorous and unimpaired4 ,one more point of resemblance may be noted between the ,italian ,king of the ,wood and his northern counterparts4 ,in ,saxony and ,thringen the representative of the tree-spirit1 after being killed1 is brought to life again by a doctor4 ,this is exactly what legend affirmed to have happened to the first ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1 ,hippolytus or ,virbius1 who after he had been killed by his horses was restored to life by the physician ,aesculapius47#hbg7 ,such a legend tallies well with the theory that the slaying of the ,king of the ,wood was only a step to his revival or resurrection in his successor4 ,it has been assumed that the mock killing of the ,wild ,man and of the ,king in ,north ,european folk-custom is a modern substitute for an ancient custom of killing them in earnest4 ,those who best know the tenacity of life possessed by folk-custom and its tendency1 with the growth of civilisation1 to dwindle from solemn ritual into mere pageant and pastime1 will be least likely to question the truth of this assumption4 ,that human sacrifices were commonly offered by the ancestors of the civilised races of ,north ,europe 7,celts1 ,teutons1 and ,slavs7 is certain47#hbh7 ,it is not1 therefore1 surprising that the modern peasant should do in mimicry what his forefathers did in reality4 ,we know as a matter of fact that in other parts of the world mock human sacrifices have been substituted for real ones4 ,thus ,captain ,bourke was informed by an old chief that the ,indians of ,arizona used to offer human sacrifices at the ,feast of ,fire when the days are shortest4 ,the victim had his throat cut1 his breast opened1 and his heart taken out by one of the priests4 ,this custom was abolished by the ,mexicans1 but for a long time afterwards a modified form of it was secretly observed as follows4 ,the victim1 generally a young man1 had his throat cut1 and blood was allowed to flow freely2 but the medicine-men sprinkled 8medicine0 on the gash1 which soon healed up1 and the man recovered47#hbi7 ,so in the ritual of ,artemis at ,halae in ,attica1 a man's throat was cut and the blood allowed to gush out1 but he was not killed47#hcj7 ,at the funeral of a chief in ,nias slaves are sacrificed2 a little of their hair is cut off1 and then they are beheaded4 ,the victims are generally purchased for the purpose1 and their number is proportioned to the wealth and power of the deceased4 ,but if the number required is excessively great or cannot be procured1 some of the chief's own slaves undergo a sham sacrifice4 ,they are told1 and believe1 that they are about to be decapitated2 their heads are placed on a log and their necks struck with the back of a sword4 ,the fright drives some of them crazy47#hca7 ,when a ,hindoo has killed or ill-treated an ape1 a bird of prey of a certain kind1 or a cobra capella1 in the presence of the worshippers of ,vishnu1 he must expiate his offence by the pretended sacrifice and resurrection of a human being4 ,an incision is made in the victim's arm1 the blood flows1 he grows faint1 falls1 and feigns to die4 ,afterwards he is brought to life by being sprinkled with blood drawn from the thigh of a worshipper of ,vishnu4 ,the crowd of spectators is fully convinced of the reality of this simulated death and resurrection47#hcb7 ,sometimes the mock sacrifice is carried out1 not on a living person but on an image4 ,thus an ,indian law-book1 the ,calica ,puran1 prescribes that when the sacrifice of lions1 tigers1 or human beings is required1 an image of a lion1 tiger1 or man shall be made with butter1 paste1 or barley meal1 and sacrificed instead47#hcc7 ,some of the ,gonds of ,india formerly offered human sacrifices2 they now sacrifice straw-men instead47#hcd7 ,colonel ,dalton was told that in some of their villages the ,bhagats 7,hindooised ,oraons7 8annually make an image of a man in wood1 put clothes and ornaments on it1 and present it before the altar of a ,mahdeo4 ,the person who officiates as priest on the occasion says3 #8,o1 ,mahdeo1 we sacrifice this man to you according to ancient customs4 ,give us rain in due season1 and a plentiful harvest4' ,then with one stroke of the axe the head of the image is struck off1 and the body is removed and buried407#hce7 #c4--;,carrying out ,death4 ,thus far ,i have offered an explanation of the rule which required that the priest of ,nemi should be slain by his successor4 ,the explanation claims to be no more than probable2 our scanty knowledge of the custom and of its history forbids it to be more4 ,but its probability will be augmented in proportion to the extent to which the motives and modes of thought which it assumes can be proved to have operated in primitive society4 ,hitherto the god with whose death and resurrection we have been chiefly concerned has been the tree-god4 ,tree-worship may perhaps be regarded 7though this is a conjecture7 as occupying an intermediate place in the history of religion1 between the religion of the hunter and shepherd on the one side1 whose gods are mostly animals1 and the religion of the husbandman on the other hand1 in whose worship the cultivated plants play a leading part4 ,if then ,i can show that the custom of killing the god and the belief in his resurrection originated1 or at least existed1 in the hunting and pastoral stage of society1 when the slain god was an animal1 and survived into the agricultural stage1 when the slain god was the corn or a human being representing the corn1 the probability of my explanation will have been considerably increased4 ,this ,i shall attempt to do in the remainder of this chapter1 in the course of which ,i hope to clear up some obscurities which still remain1 and to answer some objections which may have suggested themselves to the reader4 ,we start from the point at which we left off--the spring customs of ,european peasantry4 ,besides the ceremonies already described there are two kindred sets of observances in which the simulated death of a divine or supernatural being is a leading feature4 ,these observances are commonly known as 8,burying the ,carnival10 and 8,driving or carrying out ,death40 ,both customs are chiefly practised1 or at least best known1 on ,german and ,slavonic ground4 ,the former custom is observed on the last day of the ,carnival1 namely1 ,shrove ,tuesday 7,fastnacht71 or on the first day of ,lent1 namely1 ,ash ,wednesday4 ,the latter custom is commonly observed on the ,fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 which hence gets the name of ,dead ,sunday 7,todtensonntag72 but in some places it is observed a week earlier2 in others again1 as amongst the ,czechs of ,bohemia1 a week later4 ,originally the date of the celebration of the 8,carrying out ,death0 appears not to have been fixed1 but to have depended on the appearance of the first swallow or of some other natural phenomenon47#hcf7 ,a ,bohemian form of the custom of 8,burying the ,carnival0 has been already described47#hcg7 ,the following ,swabian form is obviously similar4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,tbingen on ,shrove ,tuesday a straw-man1 called the ,shrovetide ,bear1 is made up2 he is dressed in a pair of old trousers1 and a fresh black-pudding or two squirts filled with blood are inserted in his neck4 ,after a formal condemnation he is beheaded1 laid in a coffin1 and on ,ash ,wednesday is buried in the churchyard4 ,this is called 8,burying the ,carnival0 78die ,fastnacht vergraben0747#hch7 ,amongst some of the ,saxons of ,transylvania the ,carnival is hung4 ,thus at ,braller on ,ash ,wednesday or ,shrove ,tuesday two white and two chestnut horses draw a sledge on which is placed a straw-man swathed in a white cloth2 beside him is a cart-wheel which is kept turning round4 ,two lads disguised as old men follow the sledge lamenting4 ,the rest of the village lads1 mounted on horseback and decked with ribbons1 accompany the procession1 which is headed by two girls crowned with evergreen and drawn in a waggon or sledge4 ,a trial is held under a tree1 at which lads disguised as soldiers pronounce sentence of death4 ,the two old men try to rescue the straw-man and to fly with him1 but to no purpose2 he is caught by the two girls and handed over to the executioner1 who hangs him on a tree4 ,in vain the old men try to climb up the tree and take him down2 they always tumble down1 and at last in despair they throw themselves on the ground and weep and howl for the hanged man4 ,an official then makes a speech in which he declares that the ,carnival was condemned to death because he had done them harm1 by wearing out their shoes and making them tired and sleepy47#hci7 ,at the 8,burial of ,carnival0 in ,lechrain1 a man dressed as a woman in black clothes is carried on a litter or bier by four men2 he is lamented over by men disguised as women in black clothes1 then thrown down before the village dung-heap1 drenched with water1 buried in the dung-heap1 and covered with straw47#hdj7 ,similarly in ,schrzingen1 near ,schmberg1 the 8,carnival 7,shrovetide7 ,fool0 was carried all about the village on a bier1 preceded by a man dressed in white1 and followed by a devil who was dressed in black and carried chains1 which he clanked4 ,one of the train collected gifts4 ,after the procession the ,fool was buried under straw and dung47#hda7 ,in ,rottweil the 8,carnival ,fool0 is made drunk on ,ash ,wednesday and buried under straw amid loud lamentation47#hdb7 ,in ,wurmlingen the ,fool is represented by a young fellow enveloped in straw1 who is led about the village by a rope as a 8,bear0 on ,shrove ,tuesday and the preceding day4 ,he dances to the flute4 ,then on ,ash ,wednesday a straw-man is made1 placed on a trough1 carried out of the village to the sound of drums and mournful music1 and buried in a field47#hdc7 ,in ,altdorf and ,weingarten on ,ash ,wednesday the ,fool1 represented by a straw-man1 is carried about and then thrown into the water to the accompaniment of melancholy music4 ,in other villages of ,swabia the part of fool is played by a live person1 who is thrown into the water after being carried about in procession47#hdd7 ,at ,balwe1 in ,westphalia1 a straw-man is made on ,shrove ,tuesday and thrown into the river amid rejoicings4 ,this is called1 as usual1 8,burying the ,carnival407#hde7 ,on the evening of ,shrove ,tuesday1 the ,esthonians make a straw figure called metsik or 8wood-spirit20 one year it is dressed with a man's coat and hat1 next year with a hood and a petticoat4 ,this figure is stuck on a long pole1 carried across the boundary of the village with loud cries of joy1 and fastened to the top of a tree in the wood4 ,the ceremony is believed to be a protection against all kinds of misfortune47#hdf7 ,sometimes the resurrection of the pretended dead person is enacted4 ,thus1 in some parts of ,swabia1 on ,shrove ,tuesday ,dr4 ,iron-,beard professes to bleed a sick man1 who thereupon falls as dead to the ground2 but the doctor at last restores him to life by blowing air into him through a tube47#hdg7 ,in the ,harz mountains1 when ,carnival is over1 a man is laid on a baking-trough and carried with dirges to a grave2 but in the grave1 instead of the man1 a glass of brandy is placed4 ,a speech is delivered and then the people return to the village-green or meeting-place1 where they smoke the long clay pipes which are distributed at funerals4 ,on the morning of ,shrove ,tuesday in the following year the brandy is dug up and the festival begins by every one tasting the brandy which1 as the phrase goes1 has come to life again47#hdh7 ,the ceremony of 8,carrying out ,death0 presents much the same features as 8,burying the ,carnival20 except that the figure of ,death is oftener drowned or burned than buried1 and that the carrying out of ,death is generally followed by a ceremony1 or at least accompanied by a profession1 of bringing in ,summer1 ,spring1 or ,life4 ,thus1 in some villages of ,thringen on the ,fourth ,sunday of ,lent1 the children used to carry a puppet of birchen twigs through the village1 and then threw it into a pool1 while they sang1 8,we carry the old ,death out behind the herdsman's old house2 we have got ,summer1 and ,kroden's787 power is destroyed407#hdi7 ,in one village of ,thringen 7,dobschwitz near ,gera71 the ceremony of 8,driving out ,death0 is still annually observed on the #ast of ,march4 ,the young people make up a figure of straw or the like materials1 dress it in old clothes which they have begged from the houses in the village1 and carry it out and throw it into the river4 ,on returning to the village they announce the fact to the people1 and receive eggs and other victuals as a reward4 ,in other villages of ,thringen1 in which the population was originally ,slavonic1 the carrying out of the puppet is accompanied with the singing of a song1 which begins1 8,now we carry ,death out of the village and ,spring into the village407#hej7 ,in ,bohemia the children go out with a straw-man1 representing ,death1 to the end of the village1 where they burn it1 singing-- 8,now carry we ,death out of the village1 ,the new ,summer into the village1 ,welcome dear ,summer1 ,green little corn607#hea7 ,at ,tabor 7,bohemia7 the figure of ,death is carried out of the town and flung from a high rock into the water1 while they sing-- 8,death swims on the water1 ,summer will soon be here1 ,we carried ,death away for you1 ,we brought the ,summer4 ,and do thou1 ,o holy ,marketa1 ,give us a good year ,for wheat and for rye407#heb7 ,in other parts of ,bohemia they carry ,death to the end of the village1 singing-- 8,we carry ,death out of the village1 ,and the ,new ,year into the village4 ,dear ,spring1 we bid you welcome1 ,green grass1 we bid you welcome40 ,behind the village they erect a pyre1 on which they burn the straw figure1 reviling and scoffing at it the while4 ,then they return1 singing-- 8,we have carried away ,death1 ,and brought ,life back4 ,he has taken up his quarters in the village1 ,therefore sing joyous songs407#hec7 ,at ,nrnberg1 girls of seven to eighteen years of age1 dressed in their best1 carry through the streets a little open coffin in which is a doll1 hidden under a shroud4 ,others carry a beech branch1 with an apple fastened to it for a head1 in an open box4 ,they sing1 8,we carry ,death into the water1 it is well10 or1 8,we carry ,death into the water1 carry him in and out again407#hed7 ,the effigy of ,death is often regarded with fear and treated with marks of hatred and contempt4 ,in ,lusatia the figure is sometimes made to look in at the window of a house1 and it is believed that some one in the house will die within the year unless his life is redeemed by the payment of money47#hee7 ,again1 after throwing the effigy away1 the bearers sometimes run home lest ,death should follow them2 and if one of them falls in running1 it is believed that he will die within the year47#hef7 ,at ,chrudim1 in ,bohemia1 the figure of ,death is made out of a cross1 with a head and mask stuck at the top1 and a shirt stretched out on it4 ,on the ,fifth ,sunday in ,lent the boys take this effigy to the nearest brook or pool1 and standing in a line throw it into the water4 ,then they all plunge in after it2 but as soon as it is caught no one more may enter the water4 ,the boy who did not enter the water or entered it last will die within the year1 and he is obliged to carry the ,death back to the village4 ,the effigy is then burned47#heg7 ,on the other hand it is believed that no one will die within the year in the house out of which the figure of ,death has been carried27#heh7 and the village out of which ,death has been driven is sometimes supposed to be protected against sickness and plague47#hei7 ,in some villages of ,austrian ,silesia on the ,saturday before ,dead ,sunday an effigy is made of old clothes1 hay1 and straw1 for the purpose of driving ,death out of the village4 ,on ,sunday the people1 armed with sticks and straps1 assemble before the house where the figure is lodged4 ,four lads then draw the effigy by cords through the village amid exultant shouts1 while all the others beat it with their sticks and straps4 ,on reaching a field which belongs to a neighbouring village they lay down the figure1 cudgel it soundly1 and scatter the fragments over the field4 ,the people believe that the village from which ,death has been thus carried out will be safe from any infectious disease for the whole year47#hfj7 ,in ,slavonia the figure of ,death is cudgelled and then rent in two47#hfa7 ,in ,poland the effigy1 made of hemp and straw1 is flung into a pool or swamp with the words1 8,the devil take thee407#hfb7 ,the custom of 8sawing the ,old ,woman10 which is or used to be observed in ,italy and ,spain on the ,fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 is doubtless1 as ,grimm supposes1 merely another form of the custom of 8carrying out ,death40 ,a great hideous figure representing the oldest woman of the village was dragged out and sawn in two1 amid a prodigious noise made with cow-bells1 pots and pans1 etc47#hfc7 ,in ,palermo the ceremony used to be still more realistic4 ,at ,mid-,lent an old woman was drawn through the streets on a cart1 attended by two men dressed in the costume of the ,compagnia de',bianchi1 a society or religious order whose function it was to attend and console prisoners condemned to death4 ,a scaffold was erected in a public square2 the old woman mounted it1 and two mock executioners proceeded1 amid a storm of huzzas and hand-clapping1 to saw through her neck or rather through a bladder of blood which had been previously fitted to her neck4 ,the blood gushed out and the old woman pretended to swoon and die4 ,the last of these mock executions took place in #agcg47hfd7 ,at ,florence1 during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 the ,old ,woman was represented by a figure stuffed with walnuts and dried figs and fastened to the top of a ladder4 ,at ,mid-,lent this effigy was sawn through the middle under the ,loggie of the ,mercato ,nuovo1 and as the dried fruits tumbled out they were scrambled for by the crowd4 ,a trace of the custom is still to be seen in the practice1 observed by urchins1 of secretly pinning paper ladders to the shoulders of women of the lower classes who happen to show themselves in the streets on the morning of ,mid-,lent47#hfe7 ,a similar custom is observed by urchins in ,rome2 and at ,naples on the #ast of ,april boys cut strips of cloth into the shape of saws1 smear them with gypsum1 and strike passers-by with their 8saws0 on the back1 thus imprinting the figure of a saw upon their clothes47#hff7 ,at ,montalto in ,calabria boys go about at ,mid-,lent with little saws made of cane and jeer at old people1 who therefore generally stay indoors on that day4 ,the ,calabrian women meet together at this time and feast on figs1 chestnuts1 honey1 etc42 this they call 8sawing the ,old ,woman0--a reminiscence probably of a custom like the old ,florentine one47#hfg7 ,in ,barcelona on the day in question boys run about the streets1 some with saws1 others with billets of wood1 others again with cloths in which they collect gratuities4 ,they sing a song in which it is said that they are looking for the oldest woman of the city for the purpose of sawing her in two in honour of ,mid-,lent2 at last1 pretending to have found her1 they saw something in two and burn it4 ,a like custom is found amongst the ,south ,slavs4 ,in ,lent the ,croats tell their children that at noon an old woman is being sawn in two outside the gates2 and in ,carniola also the saying is current that at ,mid-,lent an old woman is taken out of the village and sawn in two4 ,the ,north ,slavonian expression for keeping ,mid-,lent is bbu rezati1 that is1 8sawing the ,old ,wife407#hfh7 ,in the preceding ceremonies the return of ,spring1 ,summer1 or ,life1 as a sequel to the expulsion of ,death1 is only implied or at most announced4 ,in the following ceremonies it is plainly enacted4 ,in some parts of ,bohemia the effigy of ,death is buried at sunset2 then the girls go out into the wood and cut down a young tree with a green crown1 hang a doll dressed as a woman on it1 deck the whole with green1 red1 and white ribbons1 and march in procession with their ,lto 7,summer7 into the village1 collecting gifts and singing-- 8,we carried ,death out of the village1 ,we are carrying ,summer into the village407#hfi7 ,in many ,silesian villages the figure of ,death1 after being treated with respect1 is stripped of its clothes and flung with curses into the water1 or torn in pieces in a field4 ,then a fir-tree adorned with ribbons1 coloured egg-shells1 and motley bits of cloth1 is carried through the streets by boys who collect pennies and sing-- 8,we have carried ,death out1 ,we are bringing the dear ,summer back1 ,the ,summer and the ,may ,and all the flowers gay407#hgj7 ,at ,eisenach on the ,fourth ,sunday in ,lent young people used to fasten a straw-man1 representing ,death1 to a wheel1 which they trundled to the top of a hill4 ,then setting fire to the figure they allowed it and the wheel to roll downhill4 ,next they cut a tall fir-tree1 tricked it out with ribbons1 and set it up in the plain4 ,the men then climbed the tree to fetch down the ribbons47#hga7 ,in ,upper ,lusatia the figure of ,death1 made of straw and rags1 is dressed in a veil furnished by the last bride and a shirt furnished by the house in which the last death occurred4 ,thus arrayed the figure is stuck on the end of a long pole and carried at full speed by the tallest and strongest girl1 while the rest pelt the effigy with sticks and stones4 ,whoever hits it will be sure to live through the year4 ,in this way ,death is carried out of the village and thrown into the water or over the boundary of the next village4 ,on their way home each one breaks a green branch and carries it gaily with him till he reaches the village1 when he throws it away4 ,sometimes the young people of the next village1 upon whose land the figure has been thrown1 run after them and hurl it back1 not wishing to have ,death among them4 ,hence the two parties occasionally come to blows47#hgb7 ,in these cases ,death is represented by the puppet which is thrown away1 ,summer or ,life by the branches or trees which are brought back4 ,but sometimes a new potency of life seems to be attributed to the image of ,death itself1 and by a kind of resurrection it becomes the instrument of the general revival4 ,thus in some parts of ,lusatia women alone are concerned in carrying out ,death1 and suffer no male to meddle with it4 ,attired in mourning1 which they wear the whole day1 they make a puppet of straw1 clothe it in a white shirt1 and give it a broom in one hand and a scythe in the other4 ,singing songs and pursued by urchins throwing stones1 they carry the puppet to the village boundary1 where they tear it in pieces4 ,then they cut down a fine tree1 hang the shirt on it1 and carry it home singing47#hgc7 ,on the ,feast of ,ascension the ,saxons of a village near ,hermanstadt 7,transylvania7 observe the ceremony of 8carrying out ,death0 in the following manner4 ,after forenoon church all the school-girls repair to the house of one of their number1 and there dress up the ,death4 ,this is done by tying a threshed-out corn-sheaf into the rough semblance of a head and body1 while the arms are simulated by a broomstick stuck horizontally4 ,the figure is dressed in the ,sunday clothes of a village matron4 ,it is then displayed at the window that all people may see it on their way to afternoon church4 ,as soon as vespers are over the girls seize the effigy and1 singing a hymn1 carry it in procession round the village4 ,boys are excluded from the procession4 ,after the procession has traversed the village from end to end1 the figure is taken to another house and stripped of its attire2 the naked straw bundle is then thrown out of the window to the boys1 who carry it off and fling it into the nearest stream4 ,this is the first act of the drama4 ,in the second1 one of the girls is solemnly invested with the clothes and ornaments previously worn by the figure of ,death1 and1 like it1 is led in procession round the village to the singing of the same hymns as before4 ,the ceremony ends with a feast at the house of the girl who acted the chief part2 as before1 the boys are excluded4 8,according to popular belief1 it is allowed to eat fruit only after this day1 as now the #8,death1' that is1 the unwholesomeness--has been expelled from them4 ,also the river in which the ,death has been drowned may now be considered fit for public bathing4 ,if this ceremony be neglected in the village where it is customary1 such neglect is supposed to entail death to one of the young people1 or loss of virtue to a girl407#hgd7 ,in the first of these two ceremonies the tree which is brought home after the destruction of the figure of ,death is plainly equivalent to the trees or branches which1 in the preceding customs1 were brought back as representatives of ,summer or ,life1 after ,death had been thrown away or destroyed4 ,but the transference of the shirt worn by the effigy of ,death to the tree clearly indicates that the tree is a kind of revivification1 in a new form1 of the destroyed effigy47#hge7 ,this comes out also in the ,transylvanian custom2 the dressing of a girl in the clothes worn by the ,death1 and the leading her about the village to the same songs which had been sung when the ,death was being carried about1 show that she is intended to be a kind of resuscitation of the being whose effigy has just been destroyed4 ,these examples therefore suggest that the ,death whose demolition is represented in these ceremonies cannot be regarded as the purely destructive agent which we understand by ,death4 ,if the tree which is brought back as an embodiment of the reviving vegetation of spring is clothed in the shirt worn by the ,death which has been just destroyed1 the object certainly cannot be to check and counteract the revival of vegetation2 it can only be to foster and promote it4 ,therefore the being which has just been destroyed--the so-called ,death--must be supposed to be endowed with a vivifying and quickening influence1 which it can communicate to the vegetable and even the animal world4 ,this ascription of a life-giving virtue to the figure of ,death is put beyond a doubt by the custom1 observed in some places1 of taking pieces of the straw effigy of ,death and placing them in the fields to make the crops grow1 or in the manger to make the cattle thrive4 ,thus in ,spachendorf 7,austrian ,silesia7 the figure of ,death made of straw1 brushwood1 and rags1 is carried out with wild songs to an open place outside the village and there burned1 and while it is burning a general struggle takes place for the pieces1 which are pulled out of the flames with bare hands4 ,each one who secures a fragment of the effigy ties it to a branch of the largest tree in his garden1 or buries it in his field1 in the belief that this causes the crops to grow better47#hgf7 ,in the ,troppau district 7,austrian ,silesia7 the straw figure which the boys make on the ,fourth ,sunday in ,lent is dressed by the girls in woman's clothes and hung with ribbons1 necklace1 and garlands4 ,attached to a long pole it is carried out of the village1 followed by a troop of young people of both sexes1 who alternately frolic1 lament1 and sing songs4 ,arrived at its destination--a field outside the village--the figure is stripped of its clothes and ornaments2 then the crowd rushes on it and tears it to bits1 scuffling for the fragments4 ,every one tries to get a wisp of the straw of which the effigy was made1 because such a wisp1 placed in the manger1 is believed to make the cattle thrive47#hgg7 ,or the straw is put in the hens' nest1 it being supposed that this prevents the hens from carrying away their eggs1 and makes them brood much better47#hgh7 ,the same attribution of a fertilising power to the figure of ,death appears in the belief that if the bearers of the figure1 after throwing it away1 meet cattle and strike them with their sticks1 this will render the cattle prolific47#hgi7 ,perhaps the sticks had been previously used to beat the ,death17#hhj7 and so had acquired the fertilising power ascribed to the effigy4 ,in ,leipzig at ,mid-,lent men and women of the lowest class used to carry through all the streets a straw effigy of ,death1 which they exhibited to young wives1 and finally threw into the river1 alleging that this made young wives fruitful1 cleansed the city1 and averted the plague and other sickness from the inhabitants for that year47#hha7 ,it seems hardly possible to separate from the ,may-trees the trees or branches which are brought into the village after the destruction of the ,death4 ,the bearers who bring them in profess to be bringing in the ,summer27#hhb7 therefore the trees obviously represent the ,summer2 and the doll which is sometimes attached to the ,summer-tree is a duplicate representative of the ,summer1 just as the ,may is sometimes represented at the same time by a ,may-tree and a ,may ,lady47#hhc7 ,further1 the ,summer-trees are adorned like ,may-trees with ribbons1 etc42 like ,may-trees1 when large1 they are planted in the ground and climbed up2 and like ,may-trees1 when small1 they are carried from door to door by boys or girls singing songs and collecting money47#hhd7 ,and as if to demonstrate the identity of the two sets of customs the bearers of the ,summer-tree sometimes announce that they are bringing in the ,summer and the ,may47#hhe7 ,the customs1 therefore1 of bringing in the ,may and bringing in the ,summer are essentially the same2 and the ,summer-tree is merely another form of the ,may-tree1 the only distinction 7besides that of name7 being in the time at which they are respectively brought in2 for while the ,may-tree is usually fetched in on the #ast of ,may or at ,whitsuntide1 the ,summer-tree is fetched in on the ,fourth ,sunday in ,lent4 ,therefore1 if the explanation here adopted of the ,may-tree 7namely1 that it is an embodiment of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation7 is correct1 the ,summer-tree must likewise be an embodiment of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation4 ,but we have seen that the ,summer-tree is in some cases a revivification of the effigy of ,death4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that in these cases the effigy called ,death must be an embodiment of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation4 ,this inference is confirmed1 first1 by the vivifying and fertilising influence which the fragments of the effigy of ,death are believed to exercise both on vegetable and on animal life27#hhf7 for this influence1 as we saw in the first chapter1 is supposed to be a special attribute of the tree-spirit4 ,it is confirmed1 secondly1 by observing that the effigy of ,death is sometimes composed of birchen twigs1 of the branch of a beech-tree1 of a threshed-out corn-sheaf1 or of hemp27#hhg7 and that sometimes it is hung on a little tree and so carried about by girls collecting money17#hhh7 just as is done with the ,may-tree and the ,may ,lady1 and with the ,summer-tree and the doll attached to it4 ,in short we are driven to regard the expulsion of ,death and the bringing in of ,summer as1 in some cases at least1 merely another form of that death and resuscitation of the spirit of vegetation in spring which we saw enacted in the killing and resurrection of the ,wild ,man47#hhi7 ,the burial and resurrection of the ,carnival is probably another way of expressing the same idea4 ,the burying of the representative of the ,carnival under a dung-heap is natural1 if he is supposed to possess a quickening and fertilising influence like that ascribed to the effigy of ,death4 ,by the ,esthonians1 indeed1 the straw figure which is carried out of the village in the usual way on ,shrove ,tuesday is not called the ,carnival1 but the ,wood-spirit 7,metsik71 and the identity of it with the wood-spirit is further shown by fixing it to the top of a tree in the wood1 where it remains for a year1 and is besought almost daily with prayers and offerings to protect the herds2 for like a true wood-spirit the ,metsik is a patron of cattle4 ,sometimes the ,metsik is made of sheafs of corn47#hij7 ,therefore1 we may fairly conjecture that the names ,carnival1 ,death1 and ,summer1 are comparatively late and inadequate expressions for the beings personified or embodied in the customs described4 ,the very abstractness of the names bespeaks a modern origin2 the personification of times and seasons like the ,carnival and ,summer1 or of an abstract notion like death1 is hardly primitive4 ,but the ceremonies themselves bear the stamp of a dateless antiquity2 therefore we can hardly help supposing that in their origin the ideas which they embodied were of a more simple and concrete order4 ,the conception of a tree1 perhaps of a particular kind of tree 7for some savages have no word for tree in general71 or even of an individual tree1 is sufficiently concrete to supply a basis from which by a gradual process of generalisation the wider conception of a spirit of vegetation might be reached4 ,but this general conception of vegetation would readily be confounded with the season in which it manifests itself2 hence the substitution of ,spring1 ,summer1 or ,may for the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation would be easy and natural4 ,again the concrete notion of the dying tree or dying vegetation would by a similar process of generalisation glide into a notion of death in general2 so that instead of the carrying out of the dying or dead vegetation in spring 7as a preliminary to its revival7 we should in time get a carrying out of ,death itself4 ,the view that in these spring ceremonies ,death meant originally the dying or dead vegetation of winter has the high support of ,w4 ,mannhardt2 and he confirms it by the analogy of the name ,death as applied to the spirit of the ripe corn4 ,commonly the spirit of the ripe corn is conceived1 not as dead1 but as old1 and hence it goes by the name of the ,old ,man or the ,old ,woman4 ,but in some places the last sheaf cut at harvest1 which is generally believed to be the seat of the corn spirit1 is called 8the ,dead ,one20 children are warned against entering the corn-fields because ,death sits in the corn2 and1 in a game played by ,saxon children in ,transylvania at the maize harvest1 ,death is represented by a child completely covered with maize leaves47#hia7 ,the supposition that behind the conceptions of ,death1 ,carnival1 ,summer1 etc41 as embodied in these spring ceremonies1 there lurk older and more concrete notions is to a certain extent countenanced by the fact that in ,russia funeral ceremonies like those of 8,burying the ,carnival0 and 8,carrying out ,death0 are celebrated under the names1 not of ,death or the ,carnival1 but of certain mythic figures1 ,kostrubonko1 ,kostroma1 ,kupalo1 ,lada1 and ,yarilo4 ,these ,russian ceremonies are observed both in spring and at midsummer4 ,thus 8in ,little ,russia it used to be the custom at ,eastertide to celebrate the funeral of a being called ,kostrubonko1 the deity of the spring4 ,a circle was formed of singers who moved slowly around a girl who lay on the ground as if dead1 and as they went they sang-- #8,dead1 dead is our ,kostrubonko6 ,dead1 dead is our dear one6' until the girl suddenly sprang up1 on which the chorus joyfully exclaimed-- #8,come to life1 come to life has our ,kostrubonko6 ,come to life1 come to life has our dear one6' 07#hib7 ,on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john 7,midsummer ,eve7 a figure of ,kupalo is made of straw and 8is dressed in woman's clothes1 with a necklace and a floral crown4 ,then a tree is felled1 and1 after being decked with ribbons1 is set up on some chosen spot4 ,near this tree1 to which they give the name of ,marena ,winter or ,death1 the straw figure is placed1 together with a table1 on which stand spirits and viands4 ,afterwards a bonfire is lit1 and the young men and maidens jump over it in couples1 carrying the figure with them4 ,on the next day they strip the tree and the figure of their ornaments1 and throw them both into a stream407#hic7 ,on ,st4 ,peter's ,day 7#bith ,june7 or on the following ,sunday1 8the ,funeral of ,kostroma0 or of ,lada or of ,yarilo is celebrated in ,russia4 ,in the ,governments of ,penza and ,simbirsk the 8funeral0 used to be represented as follows4 ,a bonfire was kindled on the #bhth of ,june1 and on the next day the maidens chose one of their number to play the part of ,kostroma4 ,her companions saluted her with deep obeisances1 placed her on a board1 and carried her to the bank of a stream4 ,there they bathed her in the water1 while the oldest girl made a basket of lime-tree bark and beat it like a drum4 ,then they returned to the village and ended the day with processions1 games1 and dances47#hid7 ,in the ,murom district1 ,kostroma was represented by a straw figure dressed in woman's clothes and flowers4 ,this was laid in a trough and carried with songs to the bank of a lake or river4 ,here the crowd divided into two sides1 of which the one attacked and the other defended the figure4 ,at last the assailants gained the day1 stripped the figure of its dress and ornaments1 tore it in pieces1 trod the straw of which it was made under foot1 and flung it into the stream2 while the defenders of the figure hid their faces in their hands and pretended to bewail the death of ,kostroma47#hie7 ,in the district of ,kostroma the burial of ,yarilo was celebrated on the #bith or #cjth of ,june4 ,the people chose an old man and gave him a small coffin containing a ,priapus-like figure representing ,yarilo4 ,this he carried out of the town1 followed by women chanting dirges and expressing by their gestures grief and despair4 ,in the open fields a grave was dug1 and into it the figure was lowered amid weeping and wailing1 after which games and dances were begun1 8calling to mind the funeral games celebrated in old times by the pagan ,slavonians407#hif7 ,in ,little ,russia the figure of ,yarilo was laid in a coffin and carried through the streets after sunset surrounded by drunken women1 who kept repeating mournfully1 8,he is dead6 he is dead60 ,the men lifted and shook the figure as if they were trying to recall the dead man to life4 ,then they said to the women1 8,women1 weep not4 ,i know what is sweeter than honey40 ,but the women continued to lament and chant1 as they do at funerals4 8,of what was he guilty8 ,he was so good4 ,he will arise no more4 ,o how shall we part from thee8 ,what is life without thee8 ,arise1 if only for a brief hour4 ,but he rises not1 he rises not40 ,at last the ,yarilo was buried in a grave47#hig7 ,these ,russian customs are plainly of the same nature as those which in ,austria and ,germany are known as 8,burying the ,carnival0 and 8,carrying out ,death40 ,therefore if my interpretation of the latter is right1 the ,russian ,kostroma1 ,yarilo1 etc4 must also have been originally embodiments of the spirit of vegetation1 and their death must have been regarded as a necessary preliminary to their revival4 ,the revival as a sequel to the death is enacted in the first of the ceremonies described1 the death and resurrection of ,kostrubonko4 ,the reason why in some of these ,russian ceremonies the death of the spirit of vegetation is celebrated at midsummer may be that the decline of summer is dated from ,midsummer ,day1 after which the days begin to shorten1 and the sun sets out on his downward journey-- 8,to the darksome hollows ,where the frosts of winter lie40 ,such a turning-point of the year1 when vegetation might be thought to share the incipient though still almost imperceptible decay of summer1 might very well be chosen by primitive man as a fit moment for resorting to those magic ceremonies by which he hopes to stay the decline1 or at least to ensure the revival1 of plant life4 ,but while the death of vegetation appears to have been represented in all1 and its revival in some1 of these spring and midsummer ceremonies1 there are features in some of them which can hardly be explained on this hypothesis alone4 ,the solemn funeral1 the lamentations1 and the mourning attire1 which often characterise these ceremonies1 are indeed appropriate at the death of the beneficent spirit of vegetation4 ,but what shall we say of the glee with which the effigy is often carried out1 of the sticks and stones with which it is assailed1 and the taunts and curses which are hurled at it8 ,what shall we say of the dread of the effigy evinced by the haste with which the bearers scamper home as soon as they have thrown it away1 and by the belief that some one must soon die in any house into which it has looked8 ,this dread might perhaps be explained by a belief that there is a certain infectiousness in the dead spirit of vegetation which renders its approach dangerous4 ,but this explanation1 besides being rather strained1 does not cover the rejoicings which often attend the carrying out of ,death4 ,we must therefore recognise two distinct and seemingly opposite features in these ceremonies2 on the one hand1 sorrow for the death1 and affection and respect for the dead2 on the other hand1 fear and hatred of the dead1 and rejoicings at his death4 ,how the former of these features is to be explained ,i have attempted to show2 how the latter came to be so closely associated with the former is a question which ,i shall try to answer in the sequel4 ,before we quit these ,european customs to go farther afield1 it will be well to notice that occasionally the expulsion of ,death or of a mythic being is conducted without any visible representative of the personage expelled4 ,thus at ,knigshain1 near ,grlitz 7,silesia71 all the villagers1 young and old1 used to go out with straw torches to the top of a neighbouring hill1 called ,todtenstein 7,death-stone71 where they lit their torches1 and so returned home singing1 8,we have driven out ,death1 we are bringing back ,summer407#hih7 ,in ,albania young people light torches of resinous wood on ,easter ,eve1 and march in procession through the village brandishing them4 ,at last they throw the torches into the river1 saying1 8,ha1 ,kore1 we fling you into the river1 like these torches1 that you may return no more40 ,some say that the intention of the ceremony is to drive out winter2 but ,kore is conceived as a malignant being who devours children47#hii7 ,in the ,knagr district1 ,india1 there is a custom observed by young girls in spring which closely resembles some of the ,european spring ceremonies just described4 ,it is called the ,ral ,ka mel1 or fair of ,rali1 the ,ral being a small painted earthen image of ,siva or ,prvat4 ,it lasts through most of ,chet 7,march-,april7 up to the ,sankrnt of ,baiskh 7,april71 and is in vogue all over the ,knagr district4 ,its celebration is entirely confined to young girls4 ,on a morning in ,march all the young girls of the village take small baskets of db grass and flowers to a certain fixed spot1 where they throw them in a heap4 ,round this heap they stand in a circle and sing4 ,this goes on every day for ten days1 till the heap of grass and flowers has reached a fair height4 ,then they cut in the jungle two branches having three prongs at one end1 and place them1 prongs downwards1 over the heap of flowers1 so as to make two tripods or pyramids4 ,on the single uppermost points of these branches they get an image-maker to construct two clay images1 one to represent ,siva1 and the other ,prvat4 ,the girls then divide themselves into two parties1 one for ,siva and one for ,prvat1 and marry the images in the usual way1 leaving out no part of the ceremony4 ,after the marriage they have a feast1 the cost of which is defrayed by contributions solicited from their parents4 ,then at the next ,sankrnt 7,baiskh7 they all go together to the riverside1 throw the images into a deep pool1 and weep over the place1 as though they were performing funeral obsequies4 ,the boys of the neighbourhood often annoy them by diving after the images1 bringing them up1 and waving them about while the girls are crying over them4 ,the object of the fair is said to be to secure a good husband47#ijj7 ,that in this ,indian ceremony the deities ,siva and ,prvat are conceived as spirits of vegetation seems to be proved by the fact that their images are placed on branches over a heap of grass and flowers4 ,here1 as often in ,european folk-custom1 the divinities of vegetation are represented in duplicate1 by plants and by puppets4 ,the marriage of these ,indian deities in spring corresponds to the ,european ceremonies in which the marriage of the vernal spirits of vegetation is represented by the ,king and ,queen of ,may1 the ,may ,bride1 ,bridegroom of the ,may1 etc47#ija7 ,the throwing of the images into the water1 and the mourning for them1 are the equivalents of the ,european customs of throwing the dead spirit of vegetation 7under the name of ,death1 ,yarilo1 ,kostroma1 etc47 into the water and lamenting over it4 ,again1 in ,india1 as often in ,europe1 the rite is performed exclusively by females4 ,the notion that the ceremony was effective for procuring husbands to the girls can be explained by the quickening and fertilising influence which the spirit of vegetation is believed to exert upon human and animal1 as well as upon vegetable life47#ijb7 #d4--;,adonis4 ,but it is in ,egypt and ,western ,asia that the death and resurrection of vegetation appear to have been most widely celebrated with ceremonies like those of modern ,europe4 ,under the names of ,osiris1 ,adonis1 ,thammuz1 ,attis1 and ,dionysus1 the ,egyptians1 ,syrians1 ,babylonians1 ,phrygians1 and ,greeks represented the decay and revival of vegetation with rites which1 as the ancients themselves recognised1 were substantially the same1 and which find their parallels in the spring and midsummer customs of our ,european peasantry4 ,the nature and worship of these deities have been discussed at length by many learned writers2 all that ,i propose to do is to sketch those salient features in their ritual and legends which seem to establish the view here taken of their nature4 ,we begin with ,adonis or ,thammuz4 ,the worship of ,adonis was practised by the ,semitic peoples of ,syria1 from whom it was borrowed by the ,greeks as early at least as the fifth century before ,christ4 ,the name ,adonis is the ,phoenician ,adon1 8lord407#ijc7 ,he was said to have been a fair youth1 beloved by ,aphrodite 7the ,semitic ,astarte71 but slain by a boar in his youthful prime4 ,his death was annually lamented with a bitter wailing1 chiefly by women2 images of him1 dressed to resemble corpses1 were carried out as to burial and then thrown into the sea or into springs27#ijd7 and in some places his revival was celebrated on the following day47#ije7 ,but the ceremonies varied somewhat both in the manner and the season of their celebration in different places4 ,at ,alexandria images of ,adonis and ,aphrodite were displayed on two couches2 beside them were set ripe fruits of all kinds1 cakes1 plants growing in flower pots1 and green bowers twined with anise4 ,the marriage of the lovers was celebrated one day1 and on the next the image of ,adonis was borne by women attired as mourners1 with streaming hair and bared breasts1 to the sea-shore and committed to the waves47#ijf7 ,the date at which this ,alexandrian ceremony was observed is not expressly stated2 but from the mention of the ripe fruits it has been inferred that it took place in late summer47#ijg7 ,at ,byblus the death of ,adonis was annually mourned with weeping1 wailing1 and beating of the breast2 but next day he was believed to come to life again and ascend up to heaven in the presence of his worshippers47#ijh7 ,this celebration appears to have taken place in spring2 for its date was determined by the discoloration of the river ,adonis1 and this has been observed by modern travellers to occur in spring4 ,at that season the red earth washed down from the mountains by the rain tinges the water of the river and even the sea for a great way with a blood-red hue1 and the crimson stain was believed to be the blood of ,adonis1 annually wounded to death by the boar on ,mount ,lebanon47#iji7 ,again1 the red anemone7#iaj7 was said to have sprung from the blood of ,adonis2 and as the anemone blooms in ,syria about ,easter1 this is a fresh proof that the festival of ,adonis1 or at least one of his festivals1 was celebrated in spring4 ,the name of the flower is probably derived from ,naaman 78darling071 which seems to have been an epithet of ,adonis4 ,the ,arabs still call the anemone 8wounds of the ,naaman407#iaa7 ,the resemblance of these ceremonies to the ,indian and ,european ceremonies previously described is obvious4 ,in particular1 apart from the somewhat doubtful date of its celebration1 the ,alexandrian ceremony is almost identical with the ,indian4 ,in both of them the marriage of two divinities1 whose connection with vegetation seems indicated by the fresh plants with which they are surrounded1 is celebrated in effigy1 and the effigies are afterwards mourned over and thrown into the water47#iab7 ,from the similarity of these customs to each other and to the spring and midsummer customs of modern ,europe we should naturally expect that they all admit of a common explanation4 ,hence1 if the explanation here adopted of the latter is correct1 the ceremony of the death and resurrection of ,adonis must also have been a representation of the decay and revival of vegetation4 ,the inference thus based on the similarity of the customs is confirmed by the following features in the legend and ritual of ,adonis4 ,his connection with vegetation comes out at once in the common story of his birth4 ,he was said to have been born from a myrrh-tree1 the bark of which bursting1 after a ten months' gestation1 allowed the lovely infant to come forth4 ,according to some1 a boar rent the bark with his tusk and so opened a passage for the babe4 ,a faint rationalistic colour was given to the legend by saying that his mother was a woman named ,myrrh1 who had been turned into a myrrh-tree soon after she had conceived the child47#iac7 ,again the story that ,adonis spent half1 or according to others a third1 of the year in the lower world and the rest of it in the upper world17#iad7 is explained most simply and naturally by supposing that he represented vegetation1 especially the corn1 which lies buried in the earth half the year and reappears above ground the other half4 ,certainly of the annual phenomena of nature there is none which suggests so obviously the idea of a yearly death and resurrection as the disappearance and reappearance of vegetation in autumn and spring4 ,adonis has been taken for the sun2 but there is nothing in the sun's annual course within the temperate and tropical zones to suggest that he is dead for half or a third of the year and alive for the other half or two-thirds4 ,he might1 indeed1 be conceived as weakened in winter17#iae7 but dead he could not be thought to be2 his daily reappearance contradicts the supposition4 ,within the arctic circle1 where the sun annually disappears for a continuous period of from twenty-four hours to six months1 according to the latitude1 his annual death and resurrection would certainly be an obvious idea2 but no one has suggested that the ,adonis worship came from those regions4 ,on the other hand the annual death and revival of vegetation is a conception which readily presents itself to men in every stage of savagery and civilisation2 and the vastness of the scale on which this yearly decay and regeneration takes place1 together with man's intimate dependence on it for subsistence1 combine to render it the most striking annual phenomenon in nature1 at least within the temperate zones4 ,it is no wonder that a phenomenon so important1 so striking1 and so universal should1 by suggesting similar ideas1 have given rise to similar rites in many lands4 ,we may1 therefore1 accept as probable an explanation of the ,adonis worship which accords so well with the facts of nature and with the analogy of similar rites in other lands1 and which besides is countenanced by a considerable body of opinion amongst the ancients themselves47#iaf7 ,the character of ,thammuz or ,adonis as a corn-spirit comes out plainly in an account of his festival given by an ,arabic writer of the tenth century4 ,in describing the rites and sacrifices observed at the different seasons of the year by the heathen ,syrians of ,harran1 he says3--8,thammuz 7,july74 ,in the middle of this month is the festival of el-,bgt1 that is1 of the weeping women1 and this is the ,t-uz festival1 which is celebrated in honour of the god ,t-uz4 ,the women bewail him1 because his lord slew him so cruelly1 ground his bones in a mill1 and then scattered them to the wind4 ,the women 7during this festival7 eat nothing which has been ground in a mill1 but limit their diet to steeped wheat1 sweet vetches1 dates1 raisins1 and the like407#iag7 ,thammuz 7of which ,t-uz is only another form of pronunciation7 is here like ,burns's ,john ,barleycorn-- 8,they wasted1 o'er a scorching flame1 ,the marrow of his bones2 ,but a miller us'd him worst of all1 ,for he crush'd him between two stones407#iah7 ,but perhaps the best proof that ,adonis was a deity of vegetation is furnished by the gardens of ,adonis1 as they were called4 ,these were baskets or pots filled with earth1 in which wheat1 barley1 lettuces1 fennel1 and various kinds of flowers were sown and tended for eight days1 chiefly or exclusively by women4 ,fostered by the sun's heat1 the plants shot up rapidly1 but having no root withered as rapidly away1 and at the end of eight days were carried out with the images of the dead ,adonis1 and flung with them into the sea or into springs47#iai7 ,at ,athens these ceremonies were observed at midsummer4 ,for we know that the fleet which ,athens fitted out against ,syracuse1 and by the destruction of which her power was permanently crippled1 sailed at midsummer1 and by an ominous coincidence the sombre rites of ,adonis were being celebrated at the very time4 ,as the troops marched down to the harbour to embark1 the streets through which they passed were lined with coffins and corpse-like effigies1 and the air was rent with the noise of women wailing for the dead ,adonis4 ,the circumstance cast a gloom over the sailing of the most splendid armament that ,athens ever sent to sea47#ibj7 ,these gardens of ,adonis are most naturally interpreted as representatives of ,adonis or manifestations of his power2 they represented him1 true to his original nature1 in vegetable form1 while the images of him1 with which they were carried out and cast into the water1 represented him in his later anthropomorphic form4 ,all these ,adonis ceremonies1 if ,i am right1 were originally intended as charms to promote the growth and revival of vegetation2 and the principle by which they were supposed to produce this effect was sympathetic magic4 ,as was explained in the first chapter1 primitive people suppose that by representing or mimicking the effect which they desire to produce they actually help to produce it2 thus by sprinkling water they make rain1 by lighting a fire they make sunshine1 and so on4 ,similarly by mimicking the growth of crops1 they hope to insure a good harvest4 ,the rapid growth of the wheat and barley in the gardens of ,adonis was intended to make the corn shoot up2 and the throwing of the gardens and of the images into the water was a charm to secure a due supply of fertilising rain47#iba7 ,the same1 ,i take it1 was the object of throwing the effigies of ,death and the ,carnival into water in the corresponding ceremonies of modern ,europe4 ,we have seen that the custom of drenching a leaf-clad person 7who undoubtedly personifies vegetation7 with water is still resorted to in ,europe for the express purpose of producing rain47#ibb7 ,similarly the custom of throwing water on the last corn cut at harvest1 or on the person who brings it home 7a custom observed in ,germany and ,france1 and till quite lately in ,england and ,scotland71 is in some places practised with the avowed intent to procure rain for the next year's crops4 ,thus in ,wallachia and amongst the ,roumanians of ,transylvania1 when a girl is bringing home a crown made of the last ears of corn cut at harvest1 all who meet her hasten to throw water on her1 and two farm-servants are placed at the door for the purpose2 for they believe that if this were not done1 the crops next year would perish from drought47#ibc7 ,so amongst the ,saxons of ,transylvania1 the person who wears the wreath made of the last corn cut 7sometimes the reaper who cut the last corn also wears the wreath7 is drenched with water to the skin2 for the wetter he is the better will be next year's harvest1 and the more grain there will be threshed out47#ibd7 ,at the spring ploughing in ,prussia1 when the ploughmen and sowers returned in the evening from their work in the fields1 the farmer's wife and the servants used to splash water over them4 ,the ploughmen and sowers retorted by seizing every one1 throwing them into the pond1 and ducking them under the water4 ,the farmer's wife might claim exemption on payment of a forfeit2 but every one else had to be ducked4 ,by observing this custom they hoped to ensure a due supply of rain for the seed47#ibe7 ,also after harvest in ,prussia1 the person who wore a wreath made of the last corn cut was drenched with water1 while a prayer was uttered that 8as the corn had sprung up and multiplied through the water1 so it might spring up and multiply in the barn and granary407#ibf7 ,in a ,babylonian legend1 the goddess ,istar 7,astarte1 ,aphrodite7 descends to ,hades to fetch the water of life with which to restore to life the dead ,thammuz1 and it appears that the water was thrown over him at a great mourning ceremony1 at which men and women stood round the funeral pyre of ,thammuz lamenting47#ibg7 ,this legend1 as ,mannhardt points out1 is probably a mythical explanation of a ,babylonian festival resembling the ,syrian festival of ,adonis4 ,at this festival1 which doubtless took place in the month ,thammuz 7,june-,july77#ibh7 and therefore about midsummer1 the dead ,thammuz was probably represented in effigy1 water was poured over him1 and he came to life again4 ,this ,babylonian legend is1 therefore1 of importance1 since it confirms the view that the purpose for which the images and gardens of ,adonis were thrown into the water was to effect the resurrection of the god1 that is1 to secure the revival of vegetation4 ,the connection of ,thammuz with vegetation is proved by a fragment of a ,babylonian hymn1 in which ,thammuz is described as dwelling in the midst of a great tree at the centre of the earth47#ibi7 ,the opinion that the gardens of ,adonis are essentially charms to promote the growth of vegetation1 especially of the crops1 and that they belong to the same class of customs as those spring and midsummer folk-customs of modern ,europe which have been described1 does not rest for its evidence merely on the intrinsic probability of the case4 ,fortunately1 we are able to show that gardens of ,adonis 7if we may use the expression in a general sense7 are still planted1 first1 by a primitive race at their sowing season1 and1 second1 by ,european peasants at midsummer4 ,amongst the ,oraons and ,mundas of ,bengal1 when the time comes for planting out the rice which has been grown in seed-beds1 a party of young people of both sexes go to the forest and cut a young ,karma tree1 or the branch of one4 ,bearing it in triumph they return dancing1 singing1 and beating drums1 and plant it in the middle of the village dancing-ground4 ,a sacrifice is offered to the tree2 and next morning the youth of both sexes1 linked arm-in-arm1 dance in a great circle round the ,karma tree1 which is decked with strips of coloured cloth and sham bracelets and necklets of plaited straw4 ,as a preparation for the festival1 the daughters of the head-man of the village cultivate blades of barley in a peculiar way4 ,the seed is sown in moist1 sandy soil1 mixed with turmeric1 and the blades sprout and unfold of a pale yellow or primrose colour4 ,on the day of the festival the girls take up these blades and carry them in baskets to the dancing-ground1 where1 prostrating themselves reverentially1 they place some of the plants before the ,karma tree4 ,finally1 the ,karma tree is taken away and thrown into a stream or tank47#icj7 ,the meaning of planting these barley blades and then presenting them to the ,karma tree is hardly open to question4 ,we have seen that trees are supposed to exercise a quickening influence upon the growth of crops1 and that amongst the very people in question--the ,mundas or ,mundaris--8the grove deities are held responsible for the crops407#ica7 ,therefore1 when at the season for planting out the rice the ,mundas bring in a tree and treat it with so much respect1 their object can only be to foster thereby the growth of the rice which is about to be planted out2 and the custom of causing barley blades to sprout rapidly and then presenting them to the tree must be intended to subserve the same purpose1 perhaps by reminding the tree-spirit of his duty towards the crops1 and stimulating his activity by this visible example of rapid vegetable growth4 ,the throwing of the ,karma tree into the water is to be interpreted as a rain-charm4 ,whether the barley blades are also thrown into the water is not said2 but1 if my interpretation of the custom is right1 probably they are so4 ,a distinction between this ,bengal custom and the ,greek rites of ,adonis is that in the former the tree-spirit appears in his original form as a tree2 whereas in the ,adonis worship he appears in anthropomorphic form1 represented as a dead man1 though his vegetable nature is indicated by the gardens of ,adonis1 which are1 so to say1 a secondary manifestation of his original power as a tree-spirit4 ,in ,sardinia the gardens of ,adonis are still planted in connection with the great midsummer festival which bears the name of ,st4 ,john4 ,at the end of ,march or on the #ast of ,april a young man of the village presents himself to a girl and asks her to be his comare 7gossip or sweetheart71 offering to be her compare4 ,the invitation is considered as an honour by the girl's family1 and is gladly accepted4 ,at the end of ,may the girl makes a pot of the bark of the cork-tree1 fills it with earth1 and sows a handful of wheat and barley in it4 ,the pot being placed in the sun and often watered1 the corn sprouts rapidly and has a good head by ,midsummer ,eve 7,st4 ,john's ,eve1 #bc;d ,june74 ,the pot is then called ,erme or ,nenneri4 ,on ,st4 ,john's ,day the young man and the girl1 dressed in their best1 accompanied by a long retinue and preceded by children gambolling and frolicking1 move in procession to a church outside the village4 ,here they break the pot by throwing it against the door of the church4 ,then they sit down in a ring on the grass and eat eggs and herbs to the music of flutes4 ,wine is mixed in a cup and passed round1 each one drinking as it passes4 ,then they join hands and sing 8,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john0 7,compare e comare di ,san ,giovanni7 over and over again1 the flutes playing the while4 ,when they tire of singing1 they stand up and dance gaily in a ring till evening4 ,this is the general ,sardinian custom4 ,as practised at ,ozieri it has some special features4 ,in ,may the pots are made of cork-bark and planted with corn1 as already described4 ,then on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john the window-sills are draped with rich cloths1 on which the pots are placed1 adorned with crimson and blue silk and ribbons of various colours4 ,on each of the pots they used formerly to place a statuette or cloth doll dressed as a woman1 or a ,priapus-like figure made of paste2 but this custom1 rigorously forbidden by the ,church1 has fallen into disuse4 ,the village swains go about in a troop to look at the pots and their decorations and to wait for the girls1 who assemble on the public square to celebrate the festival4 ,here a great bonfire is kindled1 round which they dance and make merry4 ,those who wish to be 8,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john0 act as follows4 ,the young man stands on one side of the bonfire and the girl on the other1 and they1 in a manner1 join hands by each grasping one end of a long stick1 which they pass three times backwards and forwards across the fire1 thus thrusting their hands thrice rapidly into the flames4 ,this seals their relationship to each other4 ,dancing and music go on till late at night47#icb7 ,the correspondence of these ,sardinian pots of grain to the gardens of ,adonis seems complete1 and the images formerly placed in them answer to the images of ,adonis which accompanied his gardens4 ,this ,sardinian custom is one of those midsummer customs1 once celebrated in many parts of ,europe1 a chief feature of which is the great bonfire round which people dance and over which they leap4 ,examples of these customs have already been cited from ,sweden and ,bohemia47#icc7 ,these examples sufficiently prove the connection of the midsummer bonfire with vegetation2 for both in ,sweden and ,bohemia an essential part of the festival is the raising of a ,may-pole or ,midsummer-tree1 which in ,bohemia is burned in the bonfire4 ,again1 in the ,russian midsummer ceremony cited above17#icd7 the straw figure of ,kupalo1 the representative of vegetation1 is placed beside a ,may-pole or ,midsummer-tree and then carried to and fro across a bonfire4 ,kupalo is here represented in duplicate1 in tree-form by the ,midsummer-tree1 and in anthropomorphic form by the straw effigy1 just as ,adonis was represented both by an image and a garden of ,adonis2 and the duplicate representatives of ,kupalo1 like those of ,adonis1 are finally cast into water4 ,in the ,sardinian custom the ,gossips or ,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john probably correspond to the ,lord and ,lady or ,king and ,queen of ,may4 ,in the province of ,blekinge 7,sweden71 part of the midsummer festival is the election of a ,midsummer ,bride1 who chooses her bridegroom2 a collection is made for the pair1 who for the time being are looked upon as man and wife47#ice7 ,such ,midsummer pairs are probably1 like the ,may pairs1 representatives of the spirit of vegetation in its reproductive capacity2 they represent in flesh and blood what the images of ,siva and ,prvat in the ,indian ceremony1 and the images of ,adonis and ,aphrodite in the ,alexandrian ceremony1 represented in effigy4 ,the reason why ceremonies whose aim is to foster the growth of vegetation should thus be associated with bonfires2 why in particular the representative of vegetation should be burned in tree-form or passed across the fire in effigy or in the form of a living couple1 will be explained later on4 ,here it is enough to have proved the fact of such association and therefore to have obviated the objection which might have been raised to my interpretation of the ,sardinian custom1 on the ground that the bonfires have nothing to do with vegetation4 ,one more piece of evidence may here be given to prove the contrary4 ,in some parts of ,germany young men and girls leap over midsummer bonfires for the express purpose of making the hemp or flax grow tall47#icf7 ,we may1 therefore1 assume that in the ,sardinian custom the blades of wheat and barley which are forced on in pots for the midsummer festival1 and which correspond so closely to the gardens of ,adonis1 form one of those widely-spread midsummer ceremonies1 the original object of which was to promote the growth of vegetation1 and especially of the crops4 ,but as1 by an easy extension of ideas1 the spirit of vegetation was believed to exercise a beneficent influence over human as well as animal life1 the gardens of ,adonis would be supposed1 like the ,may-trees or ,may-boughs1 to bring good luck to the family or to the individual who planted them2 and even after the idea had been abandoned that they operated actively to bring good luck1 omens might still be drawn from them as to the good or bad fortune of families or individuals4 ,it is thus that magic dwindles into divination4 ,accordingly we find modes of divination practised at midsummer which resemble more or less closely the gardens of ,adonis4 ,thus an anonymous ,italian writer of the sixteenth century has recorded that it was customary to sow barley and wheat a few days before the festival of ,st4 ,john 7,midsummer ,day7 and also before that of ,st4 ,vitus2 and it was believed that the person for whom they were sown would be fortunate and get a good husband or a good wife1 if the grain sprouted well2 but if they sprouted ill1 he or she would be unlucky47#icg7 ,in various parts of ,italy and all over ,sicily it is still customary to put plants in water or in earth on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john1 and from the manner in which they are found to be blooming or fading on ,st4 ,john's ,day omens are drawn1 especially as to fortune in love4 ,amongst the plants used for this purpose are ,ciuri di ,s4 ,giuvanni 7,st4 ,john's wort87 and nettles47#ich7 ,in ,prussia two hundred years ago the farmers used to send out their servants1 especially their maids1 to gather ,st4 ,john's wort on ,midsummer ,eve or ,midsummer ,day 7,st4 ,john's ,day74 ,when they had fetched it1 the farmer took as many plants as there were persons and stuck them in the wall or between the beams2 and it was thought that the person whose plant did not bloom would soon fall sick or die4 ,the rest of the plants were tied in a bundle1 fastened to the end of a pole1 and set up at the gate or wherever the corn would be brought in at the next harvest4 ,this bundle was called ,kupole2 the ceremony was known as ,kupole's festival2 and at it the farmer prayed for a good crop of hay1 etc47#ici7 ,this ,prussian custom is particularly notable1 inasmuch as it strongly confirms the opinion expressed above that ,kupalo 7doubtless identical with ,kupole7 was originally a deity of vegetation47#idj7 ,for here ,kupalo is represented by a bundle of plants specially associated with midsummer in folk-custom2 and her influence over vegetation is plainly signified by placing her plant-formed representative over the place where the harvest is brought in1 as well as by the prayers for a good crop which are uttered on the occasion4 ,a fresh argument is thus supplied in support of the conclusion that the ,death1 whose analogy to ,kupalo1 ,yarilo1 etc41 has been shown1 was originally a personification of vegetation1 more especially of vegetation as dying or dead in winter4 ,further1 my interpretation of the gardens of ,adonis is confirmed by finding that in this ,prussian custom the very same kind of plants are used to form the gardens of ,adonis 7as we may call them7 and the image of the deity4 ,nothing could set in a stronger light the truth of the view that the gardens of ,adonis are merely another manifestation of the god himself4 ,the last example of the gardens of ,adonis which ,i shall cite is the following4 ,at the approach of ,easter1 ,sicilian women sow wheat1 lentils1 and canary-seed in plates1 which are kept in the dark and watered every two days4 ,the plants soon shoot up2 the stalks are tied together with red ribbons1 and the plates containing them are placed on the sepulchres which1 with effigies of the dead ,christ1 are made up in ,roman ,catholic and ,greek churches on ,good ,friday17#ida7 just as the gardens of ,adonis were placed on the grave of the dead ,adonis47#idb7 ,the whole custom--sepulchres as well as plates of sprouting grain--is probably nothing but a continuation1 under a different name1 of the ,adonis worship4 #e4--;,attis4 ,the next of those gods1 whose supposed death and resurrection struck such deep roots into the religious faith and ritual of ,western ,asia1 is ,attis4 ,he was to ,phrygia what ,adonis was to ,syria4 ,like ,adonis1 he appears to have been a god of vegetation1 and his death and resurrection were annually mourned and rejoiced over at a festival in spring4 ,the legends and rites of the two gods were so much alike that the ancients themselves sometimes identified them47#idc7 ,attis was said to have been a fair youth who was beloved by the great ,phrygian goddess ,cybele4 ,two different accounts of his death were current4 ,according to the one1 he was killed by a boar1 like ,adonis4 ,according to the other1 he mutilated himself under a pine-tree1 and died from the effusion of blood4 ,the latter is said to have been the local story told by the people of ,pessinus1 a great centre of ,cybele worship1 and the whole legend of which it forms a part is stamped with a character of rudeness and savagery that speaks strongly for its antiquity47#idd7 ,but the genuineness of the other story seems also vouched for by the fact that his worshippers1 especially the people of ,pessinus1 abstained from eating swine47#ide7 ,after his death ,attis is said to have been changed into a pine-tree47#idf7 ,the ceremonies observed at his festival are not very fully known1 but their general order appears to have been as follows47#idg7 ,at the spring equinox 7#bb;d ,march7 a pine-tree was cut in the woods and brought into the sanctuary of ,cybele1 where it was treated as a divinity4 ,it was adorned with woollen bands and wreaths of violets1 for violets were said to have sprung from the blood of ,attis1 as anemones from the blood of ,adonis2 and the effigy of a young man was attached to the middle of the tree47#idh7 ,on the second day 7#bc;d ,march7 the chief ceremony seems to have been a blowing of trumpets47#idi7 ,the third day 7#bdth ,march7 was known as the ,day of ,blood3 the high priest drew blood from his arms and presented it as an offering47#iej7 ,it was perhaps on this day or night that the mourning for ,attis took place over an effigy1 which was afterwards solemnly buried47#iea7 ,the fourth day 7#beth ,march7 was the ,festival of ,joy 7,hilaria71 at which the resurrection of ,attis was probably celebrated--at least the celebration of his resurrection seems to have followed closely upon that of his death47#ieb7 ,the ,roman festival closed on #bgth ,march with a procession to the brook ,almo1 in which the bullock-cart of the goddess1 her image1 and other sacred objects were bathed4 ,but this bath of the goddess is known to have also formed part of her festival in her ,asiatic home4 ,on returning from the water the cart and oxen were strewn with fresh spring flowers47#iec7 ,the original character of ,attis as a tree-spirit is brought out plainly by the part which the pine-tree plays in his legend and ritual4 ,the story that he was a human being transformed into a pine-tree is only one of those transparent attempts at rationalising the old beliefs which meet us so frequently in mythology4 ,his tree origin is further attested by the story that he was born of a virgin1 who conceived by putting in her bosom a ripe almond or pomegranate47#ied7 ,the bringing in of the pine-tree from the wood1 decked with violets and woollen bands1 corresponds to bringing in the ,may-tree or ,summer-tree in modern folk-custom2 and the effigy which was attached to the pine-tree was only a duplicate representative of the tree-spirit or ,attis4 ,at what point of the ceremonies the violets and the effigy were attached to the tree is not said1 but we should assume this to be done after the mimic death and burial of ,attis4 ,the fastening of his effigy to the tree would then be a representation of his coming to life again in tree-form1 just as the placing of the shirt of the effigy of ,death upon a tree represents the revival of the spirit of vegetation in a new form47#iee7 ,after being attached to the tree1 the effigy was kept for a year and then burned47#ief7 ,we have seen that this was apparently sometimes done with the ,may-pole27#ieg7 and we shall see presently that the effigy of the corn-spirit1 made at harvest1 is often preserved till it is replaced by a new effigy at next year's harvest4 ,the original intention of thus preserving the effigy for a year and then replacing it by a new one was doubtless to maintain the spirit of vegetation in fresh and vigorous life4 ,the bathing of the image of ,cybele was probably a rain-charm1 like the throwing of the effigies of ,death and of ,adonis into the water4 ,like tree-spirits in general1 ,attis appears to have been conceived as exercising power over the growth of corn1 or even to have been identified with the corn4 ,one of his epithets was 8very fruitful20 he was addressed as the 8reaped green 7or yellow7 ear of corn10 and the story of his sufferings1 death1 and resurrection was interpreted as the ripe grain wounded by the reaper1 buried in the granary1 and coming to life again when sown in the ground47#ieh7 ,his worshippers abstained from eating seeds and the roots of vegetables17#iei7 just as at the ,adonis ceremonies women abstained from eating corn ground in a mill4 ,such acts would probably have been esteemed a sacrilegious partaking of the life or of the bruised and broken body of the god4 ,from inscriptions it appears that both at ,pessinus and ,rome the high priest of ,cybele was regularly called ,attis47#ifj7 ,it is therefore a reasonable conjecture that the high priest played the part of the legendary ,attis at the annual festival47#ifa7 ,we have seen that on the ,day of ,blood he drew blood from his arms1 and this may have been an imitation of the self-inflicted death of ,attis under the pine-tree4 ,it is not inconsistent with this supposition that ,attis was also represented at these ceremonies by an effigy2 for we have already had cases in which the divine being is first represented by a living person and afterwards by an effigy1 which is then burned or otherwise destroyed47#ifb7 ,perhaps we may go a step farther and conjecture that this mimic killing of the priest 7if it was such71 accompanied by a real effusion of his blood1 was in ,phrygia1 as it has been elsewhere1 a substitute for a human sacrifice which in earlier times was actually offered4 ,professor ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 whose authority on all questions relating to ,phrygia no one will dispute1 is of opinion that at these ,phrygian ceremonies 8the representative of the god was probably slain each year by a cruel death1 just as the god himself died407#ifc7 ,we know from ,strabo7#ifd7 that the priests of ,pessinus were at one time potentates as well as priests2 they may1 therefore1 have belonged to that class of divine kings or popes whose duty it was to die each year for their people and the world4 ,as a god of vegetation1 annually slain1 the representative of ,attis would be parallel to the ,wild ,man1 the ,king1 etc41 of north ,european folk-custom1 and to the ,italian priest of ,nemi4 #f4--,osiris4 ,there seem to be some grounds for believing that ,osiris1 the great god of ancient ,egypt1 was one of those personifications of vegetation1 whose annual death and resurrection have been celebrated in so many lands4 ,but as the chief of the gods he appears to have absorbed the attributes of other deities1 so that his character and rites present a complex of heterogeneous elements which1 with the scanty evidence at our disposal1 it is hardly possible to sort out4 ,it may be worth while1 however1 to put together some of the facts which lend support to the view that ,osiris or at least one of the deities out of whom he was compounded was a god of vegetation1 analogous to ,adonis and ,attis4 ,the outline of his myth is as follows47#ife7 ,osiris was the son of the earth-god ,qeb 7or ,seb1 as the name is sometimes transliterated747#iff7 ,reigning as a king on earth1 he reclaimed the ,egyptians from savagery1 gave them laws1 and taught them to worship the gods4 ,before his time the ,egyptians had been cannibals4 ,but ,isis1 the sister and wife of ,osiris1 discovered wheat and barley growing wild1 and ,osiris introduced the cultivation of these grains amongst his people1 who forthwith abandoned cannibalism and took kindly to a corn diet47#ifg7 ,afterwards ,osiris travelled over the world diffusing the blessings of civilisation wherever he went4 ,but on his return his brother ,set 7whom the ,greeks called ,typhon71 with seventy-two others1 plotted against him1 and having inveigled him into a beautifully decorated coffer1 they nailed it down on him1 soldered it fast with molten lead1 and flung it into the ,nile4 ,it floated down to the sea4 ,this happened on the #agth day of the month ,athyr4 ,isis put on mourning1 and wandered disconsolately up and down seeking the body1 till at last she found it at ,byblus1 on the ,syrian coast1 whither it had drifted with the waves4 ,an erica tree had shot up and enfolded the coffer within its stem1 and the ,king of ,byblus1 admiring the fine growth of the tree1 had caused it to be cut down and converted into a pillar of his palace4 ,from him ,isis obtained leave to open the trunk of the tree1 and having taken out the coffer1 she carried it away with her4 ,but she left it to visit her son ,horus at ,butus in the ,delta1 and ,typhon found the coffer as he was hunting a boar by the light of a full moon47#ifh7 ,he recognised the body of ,osiris1 rent it into fourteen pieces1 and scattered them abroad4 ,isis sailed up and down the marshes in a papyrus boat seeking the fragments1 and as she found each she buried it4 ,hence many graves of ,osiris were shown in ,egypt4 ,others said that ,isis left an effigy of ,osiris in every city1 pretending it was his body1 in order that ,osiris might be worshipped in many places1 and to prevent ,typhon from discovering the real corpse4 ,afterwards her son ,horus fought against ,typhon1 conquered him1 and bound him fast4 ,but ,isis1 to whom he had been delivered1 loosed his bonds and let him go4 ,this angered ,horus1 and he pulled the crown from his mother's head2 but ,hermes replaced it with a helmet made in the shape of a cow's head4 ,typhon was subsequently defeated in two other battles4 ,the rest of the myth included the dismemberment of ,horus and the beheading of ,isis4 ,so much for the myth of ,osiris4 ,of the annual rites with which his death and burial were celebrated we unfortunately know very little4 ,the mourning lasted five days17#ifi7 from the #hth to the #abth of the month ,athyr47#igj7 ,the ceremonies began with the 8earth-ploughing10 that is1 with the opening of the field labours1 when the waters of the ,nile are sinking4 ,the other rites included the search for the mangled body of ,osiris1 the rejoicings at its discovery1 and its solemn burial4 ,the burial took place on the #aath of ,november1 and was accompanied by the recitation of lamentations from the liturgical books4 ,these lamentations1 of which several copies have been discovered in modern times1 were put in the mouth of ,isis and ,nephthys1 sisters of ,osiris4 8,in form and substance10 says ,brugsch1 8they vividly recall the dirges chanted at the ,adonis' rites over the dead god407#iga7 ,next day was the joyous festival of ,sokari1 that being the name under which the hawk-headed ,osiris of ,memphis was invoked4 ,the solemn processions of priests which on this day wound round the temples with all the pomp of banners1 images1 and sacred emblems1 were amongst the most stately pageants that ancient ,egypt could show4 ,the whole festival ended on the #afth of ,november with a special rite called the erection of the ,tatu1 ,tat1 or ,ded pillar47#igb7 ,this pillar appears from the monuments to have been a column with cross bars at the top1 like the yards of a mast1 or more exactly like the superposed capitals of a pillar47#igc7 ,on a ,theban tomb the king himself1 assisted by his relations and a priest1 is represented hauling at the ropes by which the pillar is being raised4 ,the pillar was interpreted1 at least in later ,egyptian theology1 as the backbone of ,osiris4 ,it might very well be a conventional representation of a tree stripped of its leaves2 and if ,osiris was a tree-spirit1 the bare trunk and branches of a tree might naturally be described as his backbone4 ,the erection of the column would then be1 as ,erman interprets it1 a representation of the resurrection of ,osiris1 which1 as we learn from ,plutarch1 appears to have been celebrated at his mysteries47#igd7 ,perhaps the ceremony which ,plutarch describes as taking place on the third day of the festival 7the #aith day of the month ,athyr7 may also have referred to the resurrection4 ,he says that on that day the priests carried the sacred ark down to the sea4 ,within the ark was a golden casket1 into which drinking-water was poured4 ,a shout then went up that ,osiris was found4 ,then some mould was mixed with water1 and out of the paste thus formed a crescent-shaped image was fashioned1 which was then dressed in robes and adorned47#ige7 ,the general similarity of the myth and ritual of ,osiris to those of ,adonis and ,attis is obvious4 ,in all three cases we see a god whose untimely and violent death is mourned by a loving goddess and annually celebrated by their worshippers4 ,the character of ,osiris as a deity of vegetation is brought out by the legend that he was the first to teach men the use of corn1 and by the fact that his annual festival began with ploughing the earth4 ,he is said also to have introduced the cultivation of the vine47#igf7 ,in one of the chambers dedicated to ,osiris in the great temple of ,isis at ,philae the dead body of ,osiris is represented with stalks of corn springing from it1 and a priest is watering the stalks from a pitcher which he holds in his hand4 ,the accompanying inscription sets forth that 8,this is the form of him whom one may not name1 ,osiris of the mysteries1 who springs from the returning waters407#igg7 ,it would seem impossible to devise a more graphic way of representing ,osiris as a personification of the corn2 while the inscription proves that this personification was the kernel of the mysteries of the god1 the innermost secret that was only revealed to the initiated4 ,in estimating the mythical character of ,osiris very great weight must be given to this monument4 ,the legend that his mangled remains were scattered up and down the land may be a mythical way of expressing either the sowing or the winnowing of the grain4 ,the latter interpretation is supported by the story that ,isis placed the severed limbs of ,osiris on a corn-sieve47#igh7 ,or the legend may be a reminiscence of the custom of slaying a human victim 7probably considered as a representative of the corn-spirit7 and distributing his flesh or scattering his ashes over the fields to fertilise them4 ,we have already seen that in modern ,europe the figure of 8,death0 is sometimes torn in pieces1 and that the fragments are then buried in the fields to make the crops grow well47#igi7 ,later on we shall meet with examples of human victims being treated in the same way4 ,with regard to the ancient ,egyptians1 we have it on the authority of ,manetho that they used to burn red-haired men and scatter their ashes with winnowing-fans47#ihj7 ,that this custom was not1 as might perhaps have been supposed1 a mere way of wreaking their spite on foreigners1 amongst whom rather than amongst the native ,egyptians red-haired people would generally be found1 appears from the fact that the oxen which were sacrificed had also to be red2 a single black or white hair found on a beast would have disqualified it for the sacrifice47#iha7 ,the red hair of the human victims was thus probably essential2 the fact that they were generally foreigners was only accidental4 ,if1 as ,i conjecture1 these human sacrifices were intended to promote the growth of the crops--and the winnowing of their ashes seems to support this view--red-haired victims were perhaps selected as best fitted to represent the spirit of the golden grain4 ,for when a god is represented by a living person1 it is natural that the human representative should be chosen on the ground of his supposed resemblance to the god4 ,hence the ancient ,mexicans1 conceiving the maize as a personal being who went through the whole course of life between seed-time and harvest1 sacrificed new-born babes when the maize was sown1 older children when it had sprouted1 and so on till it was fully ripe1 when they sacrificed old men47#ihb7 ,a name for ,osiris was the 8crop0 or 8harvest027#ihc7 and the ancients sometimes explained him as a personification of the corn47#ihd7 ,but ,osiris was not only a corn-spirit2 he was also a tree-spirit1 and this was probably his original character2 for1 as we have already observed1 the corn-spirit seems to be only an extension of the older tree-spirit4 ,his character as a tree-spirit was represented very graphically in a ceremony described by ,firmicus ,maternus47#ihe7 ,a pine-tree was cut down1 the centre was hollowed out1 and with the wood thus excavated an image of ,osiris was made1 which was then 8buried0 in the hollow of the tree4 ,here1 again1 it is hard to imagine how the conception of a tree as tenanted by a personal being could be more plainly expressed4 ,the image of ,osiris thus made was kept for a year and then burned1 exactly as was done with the image of ,attis which was attached to the pine-tree4 ,the ceremony of cutting the tree1 as described by ,firmicus ,maternus1 appears to be alluded to by ,plutarch47#ihf7 ,it was probably the ritual counterpart of the mythical discovery of the body of ,osiris enclosed in the erica tree4 ,we may conjecture that the erection of the ,tatu pillar at the close of the annual festival of ,osiris7#ihg7 was identical with the ceremony described by ,firmicus2 it is to be noted that in the myth the erica tree formed a pillar in the ,king's house4 ,like the similar custom of cutting a pine-tree and fastening an image to it in the rites of ,attis1 the ceremony perhaps belonged to that class of customs of which the bringing in the ,may-pole is among the most familiar4 ,as to the pine-tree in particular1 at ,denderah the tree of ,osiris is a conifer1 and the coffer containing the body of ,osiris is here represented as enclosed within the tree47#ihh7 ,a pine-cone is often represented on the monuments as offered to ,osiris1 and a ,,ms4 of the ,louvre speaks of the cedar as sprung from ,osiris47#ihi7 ,the sycamore and the tamarisk are also his trees4 ,in inscriptions he is spoken of as residing in them27#iij7 and his mother ,nut is frequently represented in a sycamore47#iia7 ,in a sepulchre at ,how 7,diospolis ,parva7 a tamarisk is represented overshadowing the coffer of ,osiris2 and in the series of sculptures which represent the mystic history of ,osiris in the great temple of ,isis at ,philae1 a tamarisk is depicted with two men pouring water on it4 ,the inscription on this last monument leaves no doubt1 says ,brugsch1 that the verdure of the earth is believed to be connected with the verdure of the tree1 and that the sculpture refers to the grave of ,osiris at ,philae1 of which ,plutarch says that it was overshadowed by a methide plant1 taller than any olive-tree4 ,this sculpture1 it may be observed1 occurs in the same chamber in which ,osiris is represented as a corpse with ears of corn sprouting from him47#iib7 ,in inscriptions ,osiris is referred to as 8the one in the tree10 8the solitary one in the acacia10 etc47#iic7 ,on the monuments he sometimes appears as a mummy covered with a tree or with plants47#iid7 ,it accords with the character of ,osiris as a tree-spirit that his worshippers were forbidden to injure fruit-trees1 and with his character as a god of vegetation in general that they were not allowed to stop up wells of water1 which are so important for purposes of irrigation in hot southern lands47#iie7 ,the original meaning of the goddess ,isis is still more difficult to determine than that of her brother and husband ,osiris4 ,her attributes and epithets were so numerous that in the hieroglyphics she is called 8the many-named10 8the thousand-named10 and in ,greek inscriptions 8the myriad-named407#iif7 ,tiele confesses candidly that 8it is now impossible to tell precisely to what natural phenomena the character of ,isis at first referred407#iig7 ,mr4 ,renouf states that ,isis was the ,dawn17#iih7 but without assigning any reason whatever for the identification4 ,there are at least some grounds for seeing in her a goddess of corn4 ,according to ,diodorus1 whose authority appears to have been the ,egyptian historian ,manetho1 the discovery of wheat and barley was attributed to ,isis1 and at her festivals stalks of these grains were carried in procession to commemorate the boon she had conferred on men4 ,further1 at harvest-time1 when the ,egyptian reapers had cut the first stalks1 they laid them down and beat their breasts1 lamenting and calling upon ,isis47#iii7 ,amongst the epithets by which she is designated on the inscriptions are 8creatress of the green crop10 8the green one1 whose greenness is like the greenness of the earth10 and 8mistress of bread407#ajjj7 ,according to ,brugsch she is 8not only the creatress of the fresh verdure of vegetation which covers the earth1 but is actually the green corn-field itself1 which is personified as a goddess407#ajja7 ,this is confirmed by her epithet ,sochit or ,sochet1 meaning 8a corn-field10 a sense which the word still retains in ,coptic47#ajjb7 ,it is in this character of a corn-goddess that the ,greeks conceived ,isis1 for they identified her with ,demeter47#ajjc7 ,in a ,greek epigram she is described as 8she who has given birth to the fruits of the earth10 and 8the mother of the ears of corn107#ajjd7 and in a hymn composed in her honour she speaks of herself as 8queen of the wheat-field10 and is described as 8charged with the care of the fruitful furrow's wheat-rich path407#ajje7 ,osiris has been sometimes interpreted as the sun-god2 and this view has been held by so many distinguished writers in modern times that a few words of reply seem called for4 ,if we inquire on what evidence ,osiris has been identified with the sun or the sun-god1 it will be found on examination that the evidence is minute in quantity and dubious1 where it is not absolutely worthless1 in quality4 ,the diligent ,jablonski1 the first modern scholar to collect and examine the testimony of classical writers on ,egyptian religion1 says that it can be shown in many ways that ,osiris is the sun1 and that he could produce a cloud of witnesses to prove it1 but that it is needless to do so1 since no learned man is ignorant of the fact47#ajjf7 ,of the writers whom he condescends to quote1 the only two who expressly identify ,osiris with the sun are ,diodorus and ,macrobius4 ,the passage in ,diodorus runs thus37#ajjg7 8,it is said that the aboriginal inhabitants of ,egypt1 looking up to the sky1 and smitten with awe and wonder at the nature of the universe1 supposed that there were two gods1 eternal and primeval1 the sun and the moon1 of whom they named the sun ,osiris and the moon ,isis40 ,even if ,diodorus's authority for this statement is ,manetho1 as there is some ground for believing17#ajjh7 little or no weight can be attached to it4 ,for it is plainly a philosophical1 and therefore a late1 explanation of the first beginnings of ,egyptian religion1 reminding us of ,kant's familiar saying about the starry heavens and the moral law rather than of the rude traditions of a primitive people4 ,jablonski's second authority1 ,macrobius1 is no better but rather worse4 ,for ,macrobius was the father of that large family of mythologists who resolve all or most gods into the sun4 ,according to him ,mercury was the sun1 ,mars was the sun1 ,janus was the sun1 ,saturn was the sun1 so was ,jupiter1 also ,nemesis1 likewise ,pan1 etc47#ajji7 ,it was1 therefore1 nearly a matter of course that he should identify ,osiris with the sun47#ajaj7 ,but apart from the general principle1 so frankly enunciated by ,professor ,maspero1 that all the gods are the sun 78,comme tous les dieux1 ,osiris est le soleil0717#ajaa7 ,macrobius has not much cause to show for identifying ,osiris in particular with the sun4 ,he argues that ,osiris must be the sun because an eye was one of his symbols4 ,the premise is correct17#ajab7 but what exactly it has to do with the conclusion is not clear4 ,the opinion that ,osiris was the sun is also mentioned1 but not accepted1 by ,plutarch17#ajac7 and it is referred to by ,firmicus ,maternus47#ajad7 ,amongst modern ,egyptologists1 ,lepsius1 in identifying ,osiris with the sun1 appears to rely mainly on the passage of ,diodorus already quoted4 ,but the monuments1 he adds1 also show 8that down to a late time ,osiris was sometimes conceived as ,ra4 ,in this quality he is named ,osiris-,ra even in the #8,book of the ,dead1' and ,isis is often called #8the royal consort of ,ra4' 07#ajae7 ,that ,ra was both the physical sun and the sun-god is of course undisputed2 but with every deference for the authority of so great a scholar as ,lepsius1 it may be doubted whether such identification can be taken as evidence of the original character of ,osiris4 ,for the religion of ancient ,egypt7#ajaf7 may be described as a confederacy of local cults which1 while maintaining against each other a certain measure of jealous and even hostile independence1 were yet constantly subjected to the fusing and amalgamating action of political centralisation and philosophical reflection4 ,the history of the religion appears to have largely consisted of a struggle between these opposite forces or tendencies4 ,on the one side there was the conservative tendency to preserve the local cults with all their distinctive features1 fresh1 sharp1 and crisp1 as they had been handed down from an immemorial past4 ,on the other side there was the progressive tendency1 favoured by the gradual fusion of the people under a powerful central government1 first to dull the edge of these provincial distinctions1 and finally to break them down completely and merge them in a single national religion4 ,the conservative party probably mustered in its ranks the great bulk of the people1 their prejudices and affections being warmly enlisted in favour of the local deity1 with whose temple and rites they had been familiar from childhood2 and the popular aversion to change1 based on the endearing effect of old association1 must have been strongly reinforced by the less disinterested opposition of the local clergy1 whose material interests would necessarily suffer with any decay of their shrines4 ,on the other hand the kings1 whose power and glory rose with the political and ecclesiastical consolidation of the nation1 were the natural champions of religious unity2 and their efforts would be seconded by the cultured and reflecting minority1 who could hardly fail to be shocked by the many barbarous and revolting elements in the local rites4 ,as usual in such cases1 the process of religious unification appears to have been largely effected by discovering points of similarity1 real or imaginary1 between various local gods1 which were thereupon declared to be only different names or manifestations of the same god4 ,of the deities who thus acted as centres of attraction1 absorbing in themselves a multitude of minor divinities1 by far the most important was the sun-god ,ra4 ,there appear to have been few gods in ,egypt who were not at one time or other identified with him4 ,ammon of ,thebes1 ,horus of the ,east1 ,horus of ,edfu1 ,chnum of ,elephantine1 ,atum of ,heliopolis1 all were regarded as one god1 the sun4 ,even the water-god ,sobk1 in spite of his crocodile shape1 did not escape the same fate4 ,indeed one king1 ,amenhtep ,,iv1 undertook to sweep away all the old gods at a stroke and replace them by a single god1 the 8great living disc of the sun407#ajag7 ,in the hymns composed in his honour1 this deity is referred to as 8the living disc of the sun1 besides whom there is none other40 ,he is said to have made 8the far heaven0 and 8men1 beasts1 and birds2 he strengtheneth the eyes with his beams1 and when he showeth himself1 all flowers live and grow1 the meadows flourish at his upgoing and are drunken at his sight1 all cattle skip on their feet1 and the birds that are in the marsh flutter for joy40 ,it is he 8who bringeth the years1 createth the months1 maketh the days1 calculateth the hours1 the lord of time1 by whom men reckon40 ,in his zeal for the unity of god1 the king commanded to erase the names of all other gods from the monuments1 and to destroy their images4 ,his rage was particularly directed against the god ,ammon1 whose name and likeness were effaced wherever they were found2 even the sanctity of the tomb was violated in order to destroy the memorials of the hated god4 ,in some of the halls of the great temples at ,carnac1 ,luxor1 and other places1 all the names of the gods1 with a few chance exceptions1 were scratched out4 ,in no inscription cut in this king's reign was any god mentioned save the sun4 ,he even changed his own name1 ,amenhtep1 because it was compounded of ,ammon1 and took instead the name of ,chuen-'eten1 8gleam of the sun's disc40 ,his death was followed by a violent reaction4 ,the old gods were reinstated in their rank and privileges2 their names and images were restored2 and new temples were built4 ,but all the shrines and palaces reared by the late king were thrown down2 even the sculptures that referred to him and to his god in rock-tombs and on the sides of hills were erased or filled up with stucco2 his name appears on no later monument1 and was carefully omitted from all official lists4 ,this attempt of ,king ,amenhtep ,,iv is only an extreme example of a tendency which appears to have been at work on the religion of ,egypt as far back as we can trace it4 ,therefore1 to come back to our point1 in attempting to discover the original character of any ,egyptian god1 no weight can be given to the identification of him with other gods1 least of all with the sun-god ,ra4 ,far from helping to follow up the trail1 these identifications only cross and confuse it4 ,the best evidence for the original character of the ,egyptian gods is to be found in their ritual and myths1 so far as these are known 7which unfortunately is little enough71 and in the figured representations of them on the monuments4 ,it is on evidence drawn from these sources that ,i rely mainly for the interpretation of ,osiris as a deity of vegetation4 ,amongst a younger generation of scholars1 ,tiele is of opinion that ,osiris is the sun1 because 8in the hymns1 his accession to the throne of his father is compared to the rising of the sun1 and it is even said of him in so many words3 #8,he glitters on the horizon1 he sends out rays of light from his double feather and inundates the world with it1 as the sun from out the highest heaven4' 07#ajah7 ,by the same token ,marie ,antoinette must have been a goddess of the morning star1 because ,burke saw her at ,versailles 8just above the horizon1 decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she just began to move in1--glittering like the morning star1 full of life1 and splendour1 and joy40 ,if such comparisons prove anything1 they prove that ,osiris was not the sun4 ,there are always two terms to a comparison2 a thing cannot be compared to itself4 ,but ,tiele also appeals to the monuments4 ,what is his evidence8 ,osiris is sometimes represented by a figure surmounted by 8the so-called ,tat pillar1 entirely made up of a kind of superimposed capitals1 one of which has a rude face scratched upon it40 ,tiele is of opinion that this rude face is 8intended1 no doubt1 to represent the shining sun407#ajai7 ,if every 8rude face scratched0 is to be taken as a symbol of the shining sun1 sun-worship will be discovered in some unexpected places4 ,but1 on the whole1 ,tiele1 like ,jablonski1 prudently keeps to the high ground of vague generalities1 and the result of his occasional descents to the level of facts is not such as to encourage him to prolong his stay4 8,were we to come down to details10 he says1 8and to attend to slight variations1 we should be lost in an ocean of symbolism and mysticism407#ajbj7 ,this is like ,de ,quincey's attitude towards murder4 8,general principles ,i will suggest4 ,but as to any particular case1 once for all ,i will have nothing to do with it40 ,there is no having a man who takes such lofty ground4 ,mr4 ,le ,page ,renouf also considers that ,osiris is the sun17#ajba7 and his position is still stronger than ,tiele's4 ,for whereas ,tiele produces bad arguments for his view1 ,mr4 ,renouf produces none at all1 and therefore cannot possibly be confuted4 ,the ground upon which some recent writers seem chiefly to rely for the identification of ,osiris with the sun is that the story of his death fits better with the solar phenomena than with any other in nature4 ,it may readily be admitted that the daily appearance and disappearance of the sun might very naturally be expressed by a myth of his death and resurrection2 and writers who regard ,osiris as the sun are careful to emphasise the fact that it is the diurnal1 and not the annual1 course of the sun to which they understand the myth to apply4 ,mr4 ,renouf expressly admits that the ,egyptian sun cannot with any show of reason be described as dead in winter47#ajbb7 ,but if his daily death was the theme of the legend1 why was it celebrated by an annual ceremony8 ,this fact alone seems fatal to the interpretation of the myth as descriptive of sunset and sunrise4 ,again1 though the sun may be said to die daily1 in what sense can he be said to be torn in pieces87#ajbc7 ,in the course of our inquiry1 it has1 ,i trust1 been made clear that there is another natural phenomenon to which the conception of death and resurrection is as applicable as to sunset and sunrise1 and which1 as a matter of fact has been so conceived and represented in folk-custom4 ,this phenomenon is the annual growth and decay of vegetation4 ,a strong reason for interpreting the death of ,osiris as the decay of vegetation rather than as the sunset is to be found in the general 7though not unanimous7 voice of antiquity1 which classed together the worship and myths of ,osiris1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,dionysus1 and ,demeter1 as religions of essentially the same type47#ajbd7 ,the consensus of ancient opinion on this subject seems too great to be rejected as a mere fancy4 ,so closely did the rites of ,osiris resemble those of ,adonis at ,byblus that some of the people of ,byblus themselves maintained that it was ,osiris and not ,adonis whose death was mourned by them47#ajbe7 ,such a view could certainly not have been held if the rituals of the two gods had not been so alike as to be almost indistinguishable4 ,again1 ,herodotus found the similarity between the rites of ,osiris and ,dionysus so great1 that he thought it impossible the latter could have arisen independently2 they must1 he thought1 have been recently borrowed1 with slight alterations1 by the ,greeks from the ,egyptians47#ajbf7 ,again1 ,plutarch1 a very intelligent student of comparative religion1 insists upon the detailed resemblance of the rites of ,osiris to those of ,dionysus47#ajbg7 ,we cannot reject the evidence of such intelligent and trustworthy witnesses on plain matters of fact which fell under their own cognisance4 ,their explanations of the worships it is indeed possible to reject1 for the meaning of religious cults is often open to question2 but resemblances of ritual are matters of observation4 ,therefore1 those who explain ,osiris as the sun are driven to the alternative of either dismissing as mistaken the testimony of antiquity to the similarity of the rites of ,osiris1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,dionysus1 and ,demeter1 or of interpreting all these rites as sun-worship4 ,no modern scholar has fairly faced and accepted either side of this alternative4 ,to accept the former would be to affirm that we know the rites of these deities better than the men who practised1 or at least who witnessed them4 ,to accept the latter would involve a wrenching1 clipping1 mangling1 and distorting of myth and ritual from which even ,macrobius shrank47#ajbh7 ,on the other hand1 the view that the essence of all these rites was the mimic death and revival of vegetation1 explains them separately and collectively in an easy and natural way1 and harmonises with the general testimony borne by antiquity to their substantial similarity4 ,the evidence for thus explaining ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris has now been presented to the reader2 it remains to do the same for ,dionysus and ,demeter4 #g4--;,dionysus4 ,the ,greek god ,dionysus or ,bacchus7#ajbi7 is best known as the god of the vine1 but he was also a god of trees in general4 ,thus we are told that almost all the ,greeks sacrificed to 8,dionysus of the tree407#ajcj7 ,in ,boeotia one of his titles was 8,dionysus in the tree407#ajca7 ,his image was often merely an upright post1 without arms1 but draped in a mantle1 with a bearded mask to represent the head1 and with leafy boughs projecting from the head or body to show the nature of the deity47#ajcb7 ,on a vase his rude effigy is depicted appearing out of a low tree or bush47#ajcc7 ,he was the patron of cultivated trees27#ajcd7 prayers were offered to him that he would make the trees grow27#ajce7 and he was especially honoured by husbandmen1 chiefly fruit-growers1 who set up an image of him1 in the shape of a natural tree-stump1 in their orchards47#ajcf7 ,he was said to have discovered all tree-fruits1 amongst which apples and figs are particularly mentioned27#ajcg7 and he was himself spoken of as doing a husbandman's work47#ajch7 ,he was referred to as 8well-fruited10 8he of the green fruit10 and 8making the fruit to grow407#ajci7 ,one of his titles was 8teeming0 or 8bursting0 7as of sap or blossoms727#ajdj7 and there was a ,flowery ,dionysus in ,attica and at ,patrae in ,achaea47#ajda7 ,amongst the trees particularly sacred to him1 in addition to the vine1 was the pine-tree47#ajdb7 ,the ,delphic oracle commanded the ,corinthians to worship a particular pine-tree 8equally with the god10 so they made two images of ,dionysus out of it1 with red faces and gilt bodies47#ajdc7 ,in art a wand1 tipped with a pine-cone1 is commonly carried by the god or his worshippers47#ajdd7 ,again1 the ivy and the fig-tree were especially associated with him4 ,in the ,attic township of ,acharnae there was a ,dionysus ,ivy27#ajde7 at ,lacedaemon there was a ,fig ,dionysus2 and in ,naxos1 where figs were called meilicha1 there was a ,dionysus ,meilichios1 the face of whose image was made of fig-wood47#ajdf7 ,like the other gods of vegetation whom we have been considering1 ,dionysus was believed to have died a violent death1 but to have been brought to life again2 and his sufferings1 death1 and resurrection were enacted in his sacred rites4 ,the ,cretan myth1 as related by ,firmicus1 ran thus4 ,he was said to have been the bastard son of ,jupiter 7,zeus71 a ,cretan king4 ,going abroad1 ,jupiter transferred the throne and sceptre to the child ,dionysus1 but1 knowing that his wife ,juno 7,hera7 cherished a jealous dislike of the child1 he entrusted ,dionysus to the care of guards upon whose fidelity he believed he could rely4 ,juno1 however1 bribed the guards1 and amusing the child with toys and a cunningly-wrought looking-glass lured him into an ambush1 where her satellites1 the ,titans1 rushed upon him1 cut him limb from limb1 boiled his body with various herbs and ate it4 ,but his sister ,minerva1 who had shared in the deed1 kept his heart and gave it to ,jupiter on his return1 revealing to him the whole history of the crime4 ,in his rage1 ,jupiter put the ,titans to death by torture1 and1 to soothe his grief for the loss of his son1 made an image in which he enclosed the child's heart1 and then built a temple in his honour47#ajdg7 ,in this version a ,euhemeristic turn has been given to the myth by representing ,jupiter and ,juno 7,zeus and ,hera7 as a king and queen of ,crete4 ,the guards referred to are the mythical ,curetes who danced a war-dance round the infant ,dionysus as they are said to have done round the infant ,zeus47#ajdh7 ,pomegranates were supposed to have sprung from the blood of ,dionysus17#ajdi7 as anemones from the blood of ,adonis and violets from the blood of ,attis4 ,according to some1 the severed limbs of ,dionysus were pieced together1 at the command of ,zeus1 by ,apollo1 who buried them on ,parnassus47#ajej7 ,the grave of ,dionysus was shown in the ,delphic temple beside a golden statue of ,apollo47#ajea7 ,thus far the resurrection of the slain god is not mentioned1 but in other versions of the myth it is variously related4 ,one version1 which represented ,dionysus as a son of ,demeter1 averred that his mother pieced together his mangled limbs and made him young again47#ajeb7 ,in others it is simply said that shortly after his burial he rose from the dead and ascended up to heaven27#ajec7 or that ,zeus raised him up as he lay mortally wounded27#ajed7 or that ,zeus swallowed the heart of ,dionysus and then begat him afresh by ,semele17#ajee7 who in the common legend figures as mother of ,dionysus4 ,or1 again1 the heart was pounded up and given in a potion to ,semele1 who thereby conceived him47#ajef7 ,turning from the myth to the ritual1 we find that the ,cretans celebrated a biennial7#ajeg7 festival at which the sufferings and death of ,dionysus were represented in every detail47#ajeh7 ,where the resurrection formed part of the myth1 it also was enacted at the rites17#ajei7 and it even appears that a general doctrine of resurrection1 or at least of immortality1 was inculcated on the worshippers2 for ,plutarch1 writing to console his wife on the death of their infant daughter1 comforts her with the thought of the immortality of the soul as taught by tradition and revealed in the mysteries of ,dionysus47#ajfj7 ,a different form of the myth of the death and resurrection of ,dionysus is that he descended into ,hades to bring up his mother ,semele from the dead47#ajfa7 ,the local ,argive tradition was that he descended through the ,alcyonian lake2 and his return from the lower world1 in other words his resurrection1 was annually celebrated on the spot by the ,argives1 who summoned him from the water by trumpet blasts1 while they threw a lamb into the lake as an offering to the warder of the dead47#ajfb7 ,whether this was a spring festival does not appear1 but the ,lydians certainly celebrated the advent of ,dionysus in spring2 the god was supposed to bring the season with him47#ajfc7 ,deities of vegetation1 who are supposed to pass a certain portion of each year underground1 naturally come to be regarded as gods of the lower world or of the dead4 ,both ,dionysus and ,osiris were so conceived47#ajfd7 ,a feature in the mythical character of ,dionysus1 which at first sight appears inconsistent with his nature as a deity of vegetation1 is that he was often conceived and represented in animal shape1 especially in the form1 or at least with the horns1 of a bull4 ,thus he is spoken of as 8cow-born10 8bull10 8bull-shaped10 8bull-faced10 8bull-browed10 8bull-horned10 8horn-bearing10 8two-horned10 8horned407#ajfe7 ,he was believed to appear1 at least occasionally1 as a bull47#ajff7 ,his images were often1 as at ,cyzicus1 made in bull shape17#ajfg7 or with bull horns27#ajfh7 and he was painted with horns47#ajfi7 ,types of the horned ,dionysus are found amongst the surviving monuments of antiquity47#ajgj7 ,on one statuette he appears clad in a bull's hide1 the head1 horns1 and hoofs hanging down behind47#ajga7 ,at his festivals ,dionysus was believed to appear in bull form4 ,the women of ,elis hailed him as a bull1 and prayed him to come with his bull's-foot4 ,they sang1 8,come here1 ,dionysus1 to thy holy temple by the sea2 come with the ,graces to thy temple1 rushing with thy bull's-foot1 ,o goodly bull1 ,o goodly bull607#ajgb7 ,according to the myth1 it was in the shape of a bull that he was torn to pieces by the ,titans27#ajgc7 and the ,cretans1 in representing the sufferings and death of ,dionysus1 tore a live bull to pieces with their teeth47#ajgd7 ,indeed1 the rending and devouring of live bulls and calves appear to have been a regular feature of the ,dionysiac rites47#ajge7 ,the practice of representing the god in bull form or with some of the features of a bull1 the belief that he appeared in bull form to his worshippers at the sacred rites1 and the legend that it was in bull form that he had been torn in pieces--all these facts taken together leave no room to doubt that in rending and devouring a live bull at his festival his worshippers believed that they were killing the god1 eating his flesh1 and drinking his blood4 ,another animal whose form ,dionysus assumed was the goat4 ,one of his names was 8,kid407#ajgf7 ,to save him from the wrath of ,hera1 his father ,zeus changed him into a kid27#ajgg7 and when the gods fled to ,egypt to escape the fury of ,typhon1 ,dionysus was turned into a goat47#ajgh7 ,hence when his worshippers rent in pieces a live goat and devoured it raw17#ajgi7 they must have believed that they were eating the body and blood of the god4 ,this custom of killing a god in animal form1 which we shall examine more fully presently1 belongs to a very early stage in human culture1 and is apt in later times to be misunderstood4 ,the advance of thought tends to strip the old animal and plant gods of their bestial and vegetable husk1 and to leave their human attributes 7which are always the kernel of the conception7 as the final and sole residuum4 ,in other words1 animal and plant gods tend to become purely anthropomorphic4 ,when they have become wholly or nearly so1 the animals and plants which were at first the deities themselves1 still retain a vague and ill-understood connection with the anthropomorphic gods which have been developed out of them4 ,the origin of the relationship between the deity and the animal or plant having been forgotten1 various stories are invented to explain it4 ,these explanations may follow one of two lines according as they are based on the habitual or on the exceptional treatment of the sacred animal or plant4 ,the sacred animal was habitually spared1 and only exceptionally slain2 and accordingly the myth might be devised to explain either why it was spared or why it was killed4 ,devised for the former purpose1 the myth would tell of some service rendered to the deity by the animal2 devised for the latter purpose1 the myth would tell of some injury inflicted by the animal on the god4 ,the reason given for sacrificing goats to ,dionysus is an example of a myth of the latter sort4 ,they were sacrificed to him1 it was said1 because they injured the vine47#ajhj7 ,now the goat1 as we have seen1 was originally an embodiment of the god himself4 ,but when the god had divested himself of his animal character and had become essentially anthropomorphic1 the killing of the goat in his worship came to be regarded no longer as a slaying of the god himself1 but as a sacrifice to him2 and since some reason had to be assigned why the goat in particular should be sacrificed1 it was alleged that this was a punishment inflicted on the goat for injuring the vine1 the object of the god's especial care4 ,thus we have the strange spectacle of a god sacrificed to himself on the ground that he is his own enemy4 ,and as the god is supposed to partake of the victim offered to him1 it follows that1 when the victim is the god's old self1 the god eats of his own flesh4 ,hence the goat-god ,dionysus is represented as eating raw goat's blood27#ajha7 and the bull-god ,dionysus is called 8eater of bulls407#ajhb7 ,on the analogy of these instances we may conjecture that wherever a god is described as the eater of a particular animal1 the animal in question was originally nothing but the god himself47#ajhc7 ,all this1 however1 does not explain why a deity of vegetation should appear in animal form4 ,but the consideration of this point had better be deferred till we have discussed the character and attributes of ,demeter4 ,meantime it remains to point out that in some places1 instead of an animal1 a human being was torn in pieces at the rites of ,dionysus4 ,this was the custom in ,chios and ,tenedos27#ajhd7 and at ,potniae in ,boeotia the tradition ran that it had been formerly the custom to sacrifice to the goat-smiting ,dionysus a child1 for whom a goat was afterwards substituted47#ajhe7 ,at ,orchomenus the human victim was taken from the women of a certain family1 called the ,oleiae4 ,at the annual festival the priest of ,dionysus pursued these women with a drawn sword1 and if he overtook one of them he had a right to slay her4 ,this right was exercised as late as ,plutarch's time47#ajhf7 ,as the slain bull or goat represented the slain god1 so1 we may suppose1 the human victim also represented him4 ,it is possible1 however1 that a tradition of human sacrifice may sometimes have been a mere misinterpretation of a sacrificial ritual in which an animal victim was treated as a human being4 ,for example1 at ,tenedos the new-born calf sacrificed to ,dionysus was shod in buskins1 and the mother cow was tended like a woman in child-bed47#ajhg7 #h4--;,demeter and ,proserpine4 ,the ,greek myth of ,demeter and ,proserpine is substantially identical with the ,syrian myth of ,aphrodite 7,astarte7 and ,adonis1 the ,phrygian myth of ,cybele and ,attis1 and the ,egyptian myth of ,isis and ,osiris4 ,in the ,greek myth1 as in its ,asiatic and ,egyptian counterparts1 a goddess--,demeter--mourns the loss of a loved one--,proserpine--who personifies the vegetation1 more especially the corn1 which dies in summer7#ajhh7 to revive in spring4 ,but in the ,greek myth the loved and lost one is the daughter instead of the husband or lover of the goddess2 and the mother as well as the daughter is a goddess of the corn47#ajhi7 ,thus1 as modern scholars have recognised17#ajij7 ,demeter and ,proserpine are merely a mythical reduplication of the same natural phenomenon4 ,proserpine1 so ran the ,greek myth17#ajia7 was gathering flowers when the earth gaped1 and ,pluto1 lord of the ,dead1 issuing from the abyss1 carried her off on his golden car to be his bride in the gloomy subterranean world4 ,her sorrowing mother ,demeter sought her over land and sea1 and learning from the ,sun her daughter's fate1 she suffered not the seed to grow1 but kept it hidden in the ground1 so that the whole race of men would have died of hunger if ,zeus had not sent and fetched ,proserpine from the nether world4 ,finally it was agreed that ,proserpine should spend a third1 or according to others a half17#ajib7 of each year with ,pluto underground1 but should come forth in spring to dwell with her mother and the gods in the upper world4 ,her annual death and resurrection1 that is1 her annual descent into the under world and her ascension from it1 appear to have been represented in her rites47#ajic7 ,with regard to the name ,demeter1 it has been plausibly argued by ,mannhardt7#ajid7 that the first part of the word is derived from dai1 a ,cretan word for 8barley027#ajie7 and that thus ,demeter means the ,barley-mother or the ,corn-mother2 for the root of the word appears to have been applied to different kinds of grain by different branches of the ,aryans1 and even of the ,greeks themselves47#ajif7 ,as ,crete appears to have been one of the most ancient seats of the worship of ,demeter17#ajig7 it is not surprising that her name should be of ,cretan origin4 ,this explanation of the name ,demeter is supported by a host of analogies which the diligence of ,mannhardt has collected from modern ,european folk-lore1 and of which the following are specimens4 ,in ,germany the corn is very commonly personified under the name of the ,corn-mother4 ,thus in spring1 when the wind sets the corn in wave-like motion1 the peasants say1 8,there comes the ,corn-mother10 or 8,the ,corn-mother is running over the field10 or 8,the ,corn-mother is going through the corn407#ajih7 ,when children wish to go into the fields to pull the blue corn-flowers or the red poppies1 they are told not to do so1 because the ,corn-mother is sitting in the corn and will catch them47#ajii7 ,or again she is called1 according to the crop1 the ,rye-mother or the ,pea-mother1 and children are warned against straying in the rye or among the peas by threats of the ,rye-mother or the ,pea-mother4 ,in ,norway also the ,pea-mother is said to sit among the peas47#aajj7 ,similar expressions are current among the ,slavs4 ,the ,poles and ,czechs warn children against the ,corn-mother who sits in the corn4 ,or they call her the ,old ,corn-woman1 and say that she sits in the corn and strangles the children who tread it down47#aaja7 ,the ,lithuanians say1 8,the ,old ,rye-woman sits in the corn407#aajb7 ,again the ,corn-mother is believed to make the crop grow4 ,thus in the neighbourhood of ,magdeburg it is sometimes said1 8,it will be a good year for flax2 the ,flax-mother has been seen40 ,at ,dinkelsbhl 7,bavaria7 down to fifteen or twenty years ago1 people believed that when the crops on a particular farm compared unfavourably with those of the neighbourhood1 the reason was that the ,corn-mother had punished the farmer for his sins47#aajc7 ,in a village of ,styria it is said that the ,corn-mother1 in the shape of a female puppet made out of the last sheaf of corn and dressed in white1 may be seen at midnight in the corn-fields1 which she fertilises by passing through them2 but if she is angry with a farmer1 she withers up all his corn47#aajd7 ,further1 the ,corn-mother plays an important part in harvest customs4 ,she is believed to be present in the handful of corn which is left standing last on the field2 and with the cutting of this last handful she is caught1 or driven away1 or killed4 ,in the first of these cases1 the last sheaf is carried joyfully home and honoured as a divine being4 ,it is placed in the barn1 and at threshing the corn-spirit appears again47#aaje7 ,in the district of ,hadeln 7,hanover7 the reapers stand round the last sheaf and beat it with sticks in order to drive the ,corn-mother out of it4 ,they call to each other1 8,there she is6 hit her6 ,take care she doesn't catch you60 ,the beating goes on till the grain is completely threshed out2 then the ,corn-mother is believed to be driven away47#aajf7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,danzig the person who cuts the last ears of corn makes them into a doll1 which is called the ,corn-mother or the ,old ,woman1 and is brought home on the last waggon47#aajg7 ,in some parts of ,holstein the last sheaf is dressed in woman's clothes and called the ,corn-mother4 ,it is carried home on the last waggon1 and then thoroughly drenched with water4 ,the drenching with water is doubtless a rain-charm47#aajh7 ,in the district of ,bruck in ,styria the last sheaf1 called the ,corn-mother1 is made up into the shape of a woman by the oldest married woman in the village1 of an age from fifty to fifty-five years4 ,the finest ears are plucked out of it and made into a wreath1 which1 twined with flowers1 is carried on her head by the prettiest girl of the village to the farmer or squire1 while the ,corn-mother is laid down in the barn to keep off the mice47#aaji7 ,in other villages of the same district the ,corn-mother1 at the close of harvest1 is carried by two lads at the top of a pole4 ,they march behind the girl who wears the wreath to the squire's house1 and while he receives the wreath and hangs it up in the hall1 the ,corn-mother is placed on the top of a pile of wood1 where she is the centre of the harvest supper and dance4 ,afterwards she is hung up in the barn and remains there till the threshing is over4 ,the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the son of the ,corn-mother2 he is tied up in the ,corn-mother1 beaten1 and carried through the village4 ,the wreath is dedicated in church on the following ,sunday2 and on ,easter ,eve the grain is rubbed out of it by a seven years' old girl and scattered amongst the young corn4 ,at ,christmas the straw of the wreath is placed in the manger to make the cattle thrive47#aaaj7 ,here the fertilising power of the ,corn-mother is plainly brought out by scattering the seed taken from her body 7for the wreath is made out of the ,corn-mother7 among the new corn2 and her influence over animal life is indicated by placing the straw in the manger4 ,at ,westerhsen in ,saxony the last corn cut is made in the shape of a woman decked with ribbons and cloth4 ,it is fastened on a pole and brought home on the last waggon4 ,one of the people on the waggon keeps waving the pole1 so that the figure moves as if alive4 ,it is placed on the threshing-floor1 and stays there till the threshing is done47#aaaa7 ,amongst the ,slavs also the last sheaf is known as the ,rye-mother1 the ,wheat-mother1 the ,oats-mother1 the ,barley-mother1 etc41 according to the crop4 ,in the district of ,tarnow1 ,galicia1 the wreath made out of the last stalks is called the ,wheat-mother1 ,rye-mother1 or ,pea-mother4 ,it is placed on a girl's head and kept till spring1 when some of the grain is mixed with the seed-corn47#aaab7 ,here again the fertilising power of the ,corn-mother is indicated4 ,in ,france1 also1 in the neighbourhood of ,auxerre1 the last sheaf goes by the name of the ,mother of the ,wheat1 ,mother of the ,barley1 ,mother of the ,rye1 or ,mother of the ,oats4 ,it is left standing in the field till the last waggon is about to wend homewards4 ,then a puppet is made out of it1 dressed with clothes belonging to the farmer1 and adorned with a crown and a blue or white scarf4 ,a branch of a tree is stuck in the breast of the puppet1 which is now called the ,ceres4 ,at the dance in the evening the ,ceres is placed in the middle of the floor1 and the reaper who reaped fastest dances round it with the prettiest girl for his partner4 ,after the dance a pyre is made4 ,all the girls1 each wearing a wreath1 strip the puppet1 pull it to pieces1 and place it on the pyre1 along with the flowers with which it was adorned4 ,then the girl who was the first to finish reaping sets fire to the pile1 and all pray that ,ceres may give a fruitful year4 ,here1 as ,mannhardt observes1 the old custom has remained intact1 though the name ,ceres is a bit of schoolmaster's learning47#aaac7 ,in ,upper ,britanny the last sheaf is always made into human shape2 but if the farmer is a married man1 it is made double and consists of a little corn-puppet placed inside of a large one4 ,this is called the ,mother-sheaf4 ,it is delivered to the farmer's wife1 who unties it and gives drink-money in return47#aaad7 ,sometimes the last sheaf is called1 not the ,corn-mother1 but the ,harvest-mother or the ,great ,mother4 ,in the province of ,osnabrck 7,hanover7 it is called the ,harvest-mother2 it is made up in female form1 and then the reapers dance about with it4 ,in some parts of ,westphalia the last sheaf at the rye harvest is made especially heavy by fastening stones in it4 ,it is brought home on the last waggon and is called the ,great ,mother1 though no special shape is given it4 ,in the district of ,erfurt a very heavy sheaf 7not necessarily the last7 is called the ,great ,mother1 and is carried on the last waggon to the barn1 where it is lifted down by all hands amid a fire of jokes47#aaae7 ,sometimes again the last sheaf is called the ,grandmother1 and is adorned with flowers1 ribbons1 and a woman's apron4 ,in ,east ,prussia1 at the rye or wheat harvest1 the reapers call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf1 8,you are getting the ,old ,grandmother40 ,in the neighbourhood of ,magdeburg the men and women servants strive who shall get the last sheaf1 called the ,grandmother4 ,whoever gets it will be married in the next year1 but his or her spouse will be old2 if a girl gets it1 she will marry a widower2 if a man gets it1 he will marry an old crone4 ,in ,silesia the ,grandmother--a huge bundle made up of three or four sheaves by the person who tied the last sheaf--was formerly fashioned into a rude likeness of the human form47#aaaf7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,belfast the last sheaf is sometimes called ,granny4 ,it is not cut in the usual way1 but all the reapers throw their sickles at it and try to bring it down4 ,it is plaited and kept till the 7next87 autumn4 ,whoever gets it will marry in the course of the year47#aaag7 ,oftener the last sheaf is called the ,old ,woman or the ,old ,man4 ,in ,germany it is often shaped and dressed as a woman1 and the person who cuts it or binds it is said to 8get the ,old ,woman407#aaah7 ,at ,altisheim in ,swabia when all the corn of a farm has been cut except a single strip1 all the reapers stand in a row before the strip2 each cuts his share rapidly1 and he who gives the last cut 8has the ,old ,woman407#aaai7 ,when the sheaves are being set up in heaps1 the person who gets hold of the ,old ,woman1 which is the largest and thickest of all the sheaves1 is jeered at by the rest1 who sing out to him1 8,he has the ,old ,woman and must keep her407#aabj7 ,the woman who binds the last sheaf is sometimes herself called the ,old ,woman1 and it is said that she will be married in the next year47#aaba7 ,in ,neusaass1 ,west ,prussia1 both the last sheaf--which is dressed up in jacket1 hat and ribbons--and the woman who binds it are called the ,old ,woman4 ,together they are brought home on the last waggon and are drenched with water47#aabb7 ,at ,hornkampe1 near ,tiegenhof 7,west ,prussia71 when a man or woman lags behind the rest in binding the corn1 the other reapers dress up the last sheaf in the form of a man or woman1 and this figure goes by the laggard's name1 as 8the old ,michael10 8the idle ,trine40 ,it is brought home on the last waggon1 and1 as it nears the house1 the bystanders call out to the laggard1 8,you have got the ,old ,woman and must keep her407#aabc7 ,in these customs1 as ,mannhardt has remarked1 the person who is called by the same name as the last sheaf and sits beside it on the last waggon is obviously identified with it2 he or she represents the corn-spirit which has been caught in the last sheaf2 in other words1 the corn-spirit is represented in duplicate1 by a human being and by a sheaf47#aabd7 ,the identification of the person with the sheaf is made still clearer by the custom of wrapping up in the last sheaf the person who cuts or binds it4 ,thus at ,hermsdorf in ,silesia it used to be the regular custom to tie up in the last sheaf the woman who had bound it47#aabe7 ,at ,weiden in ,bavaria it is the cutter1 not the binder1 of the last sheaf who is tied up in it47#aabf7 ,here the person wrapt up in the corn represents the corn-spirit1 exactly as a person wrapt in branches or leaves represents the tree-spirit47#aabg7 ,the last sheaf1 designated as the ,old ,woman1 is often distinguished from the other sheaves by its size and weight4 ,thus in some villages of ,west ,prussia the ,old ,woman is made twice as long and thick as a common sheaf1 and a stone is fastened in the middle of it4 ,sometimes it is made so heavy that a man can barely lift it47#aabh7 ,sometimes eight or nine sheaves are tied together to make the ,old ,woman1 and the man who sets it up complains of its weight47#aabi7 ,at ,itzgrund1 in ,saxe-,coburg1 the last sheaf1 called the ,old ,woman1 is made large with the express intention of thereby securing a good crop next year47#aacj7 ,thus the custom of making the last sheaf unusually large or heavy is a charm1 working by sympathetic magic1 to secure a large and heavy crop in the following year4 ,in ,denmark also the last sheaf is made larger than the others1 and is called the ,old ,rye-woman or the ,old ,barley-woman4 ,no one likes to bind it1 because whoever does so will1 it is believed1 marry an old man or an old woman4 ,sometimes the last wheat-sheaf1 called the ,old ,wheat-woman1 is made up in human shape1 with head1 arms1 and legs1 is dressed in clothes and carried home on the last waggon1 the harvesters sitting beside it1 drinking and huzzaing47#aaca7 ,of the person who binds the last sheaf it is said1 8,she 7or he7 is the ,old ,rye-woman407#aacb7 ,in ,scotland1 when the last corn was cut after ,hallowmas1 the female figure made out of it was sometimes called the ,carlin or ,carline1 i4e4 the ,old ,woman4 ,but if cut before ,hallowmas1 it was called the ,maiden2 if cut after sunset1 it was called the ,witch1 being supposed to bring bad luck47#aacc7 ,we shall return to the ,maiden presently4 ,in ,county ,antrim1 down to a few years ago1 when the sickle was finally expelled by the reaping machine1 the few stalks of corn left standing last on the field were plaited together2 then the reapers1 blindfolded1 threw their sickles at the plaited corn1 and whoever happened to cut it through took it home with him and put it over his door4 ,this bunch of corn was called the ,carley7#aacd7--probably the same word as ,carlin4 ,similar customs are observed by ,slavonic peoples4 ,thus in ,poland the last sheaf is commonly called the ,baba1 that is1 the ,old ,woman4 8,in the last sheaf10 it is said1 8sits the ,baba40 ,the sheaf itself is also called the ,baba1 and is sometimes composed of twelve smaller sheaves lashed together47#aace7 ,in some parts of ,bohemia the ,baba1 made out of the last sheaf1 has the figure of a woman with a great straw hat4 ,it is carried home on the last harvest-waggon and delivered1 along with a garland1 to the farmer by two girls4 ,in binding the sheaves the women strive not to be last1 for she who binds the last sheaf will have a child next year47#aacf7 ,the last sheaf is tied up with others into a large bundle1 and a green branch is stuck on the top of it47#aacg7 ,sometimes the harvesters call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf1 8,she has the ,baba10 or 8,she is the ,baba40 ,she has then to make a puppet1 sometimes in female1 sometimes in male form1 out of the corn2 the puppet is occasionally dressed with clothes1 often with flowers and ribbons only4 ,the cutter of the last stalks1 as well as the binder of the last sheaf1 was also called ,baba2 and a doll1 called the ,harvest-woman1 was made out of the last sheaf and adorned with ribbons4 ,the oldest reaper had to dance1 first with this doll1 and then with the farmer's wife47#aach7 ,in the district of ,cracow1 when a man binds the last sheaf1 they say1 8,the ,grandfather is sitting in it20 when a woman binds it1 they say1 8,the ,baba is sitting in it10 and the woman herself is wrapt up in the sheaf1 so that only her head projects out of it4 ,thus encased in the sheaf1 she is carried on the last harvest-waggon to the house1 where she is drenched with water by the whole family4 ,she remains in the sheaf till the dance is over1 and for a year she retains the name of ,baba47#aaci7 ,in ,lithuania the name for the last sheaf is ,boba 7,old ,woman71 answering to the ,polish name ,baba4 ,the ,boba is said to sit in the corn which is left standing last47#aadj7 ,the person who binds the last sheaf or digs the last potato is the subject of much banter1 and receives and long retains the name of the ,old ,rye-woman or the ,old ,potato-woman47#aada7 ,the last sheaf--the ,boba--is made into the form of a woman1 carried solemnly through the village on the last harvest-waggon1 and drenched with water at the farmer's house2 then every one dances with it47#aadb7 ,in ,russia also the last sheaf is often shaped and dressed as a woman1 and carried with dance and song to the farmhouse4 ,out of the last sheaf the ,bulgarians make a doll which they call the ,corn-queen or ,corn-mother2 it is dressed in a woman's shirt1 carried round the village1 and then thrown into the river in order to secure plenty of rain and dew for the next year's crop4 ,or it is burned and the ashes strewn on the fields1 doubtless to fertilise them47#aadc7 ,the name ,queen1 as applied to the last sheaf1 has its analogies in ,northern ,europe4 ,thus ,brand quotes from ,hutchinson's ,history of ,northumberland the following3 8,i have seen1 in some places1 an image apparelled in great finery1 crowned with flowers1 a sheaf of corn placed under her arm1 and a sycle in her hand1 carried out of the village in the morning of the conclusive reaping day1 with music and much clamour of the reapers1 into the field1 where it stands fixed on a pole all day1 and when the reaping is done1 is brought home in like manner4 ,this they call the ,harvest ,queen1 and it represents the ,roman ,ceres407#aadd7 ,from ,cambridge also ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke reported that 8at the ,hawkie harvest-home1 as it is called1 ,i have seen a clown dressed in woman's clothes1 having his face painted1 his head decorated with ears of corn1 and bearing about him other symbols of ,ceres1 carried in a waggon1 with great pomp and loud shouts1 through the streets1 the horses being covered with white sheets2 and when ,i inquired the meaning of the ceremony1 was answered by the people1 that they were drawing the ,harvest ,queen407#aade7 ,often the customs we have been examining are practised1 not on the harvest field1 but on the threshing-floor4 ,the spirit of the corn1 fleeing before the reapers as they cut down the corn1 quits the cut corn and takes refuge in the barn1 where it appears in the last sheaf threshed1 either to perish under the blows of the flail or to flee thence to the still unthreshed corn of a neighbouring farm47#aadf7 ,thus the last corn to be threshed is called the ,mother-corn or the ,old ,woman4 ,sometimes the person who gives the last stroke with the flail is called the ,old ,woman1 and is wrapt in the straw of the last sheaf1 or has a bundle of straw fastened on his back4 ,whether wrapt in the straw or carrying it on his back1 he is carted through the village amid general laughter4 ,in some districts of ,bavaria1 ,thringen1 etc41 the man who threshes the last sheaf is said to have the ,old ,woman or the ,old ,corn-woman2 he is tied up in straw1 carried or carted about the village1 and set down at last on the dunghill1 or taken to the threshing-floor of a neighbouring farmer who has not finished his threshing47#aadg7 ,in ,poland the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called ,baba 7,old ,woman72 he is wrapt in corn and wheeled through the village47#aadh7 ,sometimes in ,lithuania the last sheaf is not threshed1 but is fashioned into female shape and carried to the barn of a neighbour who has not finished his threshing47#aadi7 ,in some parts of ,sweden1 when a stranger woman appears on the threshing-floor1 a flail is put round her body1 stalks of corn are wound round her neck1 a crown of ears is placed on her head1 and the threshers call out1 8,behold the ,corn-woman40 ,here the stranger woman1 thus suddenly appearing1 is taken to be the corn-spirit who has just been expelled by the flails from the corn-stalks47#aaej7 ,in other cases the farmer's wife represents the corn-spirit4 ,thus in the ,commune of ,salign1 ,canton de ,poiret 7,vende71 the farmer's wife1 along with the last sheaf1 is tied up in a sheet1 placed on a litter1 and carried to the threshing machine1 under which she is shoved4 ,then the woman is drawn out and the sheaf is threshed by itself1 but the woman is tossed in the sheet 7in imitation of winnowing747#aaea7 ,it would be impossible to express more clearly the identification of the woman with the corn than by this graphic imitation of threshing and winnowing her4 ,in these customs the spirit of the ripe corn is regarded as old1 or at least as of mature age4 ,hence the names of ,mother1 ,grandmother1 ,old ,woman1 etc4 ,but in other cases the corn-spirit is conceived as young1 sometimes as a child who is separated from its mother by the stroke of the sickle4 ,this last view appears in the ,polish custom of calling out to the man who cuts the last handful of corn1 8,you have cut the navel-string407#aaeb7 ,in some districts of ,west ,prussia the figure made out of the last sheaf is called the ,bastard1 and a boy is wrapt up in it4 ,the woman who binds the last sheaf and represents the ,corn-mother1 is told that she is about to be brought to bed2 she cries like a woman in travail1 and an old woman in the character of grandmother acts as midwife4 ,at last a cry is raised that the child is born2 whereupon the boy who is tied up in the sheaf whimpers and squalls like an infant4 ,the grandmother wraps a sack1 in imitation of swaddling bands1 round the pretended baby1 and it is carried joyfully to the barn1 lest it catch cold in the open air47#aaec7 ,in other parts of ,north ,germany1 the last sheaf1 or the puppet made out of it1 is called the ,child1 the ,harvest ,child1 etc4 ,in the ,north of ,england the last handful of corn was cut by the prettiest girl and dressed up as the ,corn ,baby or ,kern ,baby2 it was brought home to music1 set up in a conspicuous place at the harvest supper1 and generally kept in the parlour for the rest of the year4 ,the girl who cut it was the ,harvest ,queen47#aaed7 ,in ,kent the ,ivy ,girl is 7or was7 8a figure composed of some of the best corn the field produces1 and made as well as they can into a human shape2 this is afterwards curiously dressed by the women1 and adorned with paper trimmings1 cut to resemble a cap1 ruffles1 handkerchief1 etc41 of the finest lace4 ,it is brought home with the last load of corn from the field upon the waggon1 and they suppose entitles them to a supper at the expense of the employer407#aaee7 ,in the neighbourhood of ,balquhidder1 ,perthshire1 the last handful of corn is cut by the youngest girl on the field1 and is made into the rude form of a female doll1 clad in a paper dress1 and decked with ribbons4 ,it is called the ,maiden1 and is kept in the farmhouse1 generally above the chimney1 for a good while1 sometimes till the ,maiden of the next year is brought in4 ,the writer of this book witnessed the ceremony of cutting the ,maiden at ,balquhidder in ,september #ahhh47aaef7 ,on some farms on the ,gareloch1 ,dumbartonshire1 about sixty years ago the last handful of standing corn was called the ,maiden4 ,it was divided in two1 plaited1 and then cut with the sickle by a girl1 who1 it was thought1 would be lucky and would soon be married4 ,when it was cut the reapers gathered together and threw their sickles in the air4 ,the ,maiden was dressed with ribbons and hung in the kitchen near the roof1 where it was kept for several years with the date attached4 ,sometimes five or six ,maidens might be seen hanging at once on hooks4 ,the harvest supper was called the ,kirn47#aaeg7 ,in other farms on the ,gareloch the last handful of corn was called the ,maidenhead or the ,head2 it was neatly plaited1 sometimes decked with ribbons1 and hung in the kitchen for a year1 when the grain was given to the poultry47#aaeh7 ,in the ,north of ,scotland1 the ,maiden is kept till ,christmas morning1 and then divided among the cattle 8to make them thrive all the year round407#aaei7 ,in ,aberdeenshire also the last sheaf 7called the clyack sheaf7 was formerly cut1 as it is still cut at ,balquhidder1 by the youngest girl on the field2 then it was dressed in woman's clothes1 carried home in triumph1 and kept till ,christmas or ,new ,year's morning1 when it was given to a mare in foal1 or1 failing such1 to the oldest cow47#aafj7 ,lastly1 a somewhat maturer1 but still youthful age is assigned to the corn-spirit by the appellations of ,bride1 ,oats-bride1 and ,wheat-bride1 which in ,germany and ,scotland are sometimes bestowed both on the last sheaf and on the woman who binds it47#aafa7 ,sometimes the idea implied in these names is worked out more fully by representing the productive powers of vegetation as bride and bridegroom4 ,thus in some parts of ,germany a man and woman dressed in straw and called the ,oats-wife and the ,oats-man1 or the ,oats-bride and the ,oats-bridegroom dance at the harvest festival2 then the corn-stalks are plucked from their bodies till they stand as bare as a stubble field4 ,in ,silesia1 the woman who binds the last sheaf is called the ,wheat-bride or the ,oats-bride4 ,with the harvest crown on her head1 a bridegroom by her side1 and attended by bridesmaids1 she is brought to the farmhouse with all the solemnity of a wedding procession47#aafb7 ,the harvest customs just described are strikingly analogous to the spring customs which we reviewed in the first chapter4 7#a47 ,as in the spring customs the tree-spirit is represented both by a tree and by a person17#aafc7 so in the harvest customs the corn-spirit is represented both by the last sheaf and by the person who cuts or binds or threshes it4 ,the equivalence of the person to the sheaf is shown by giving him or her the same name as the sheaf1 or vice vers2 by wrapping him or her in the sheaf2 and by the rule observed in some places1 that when the sheaf is called the ,mother1 it must be cut by the oldest married woman2 but when it is called the ,maiden1 it must be cut by the youngest girl47#aafd7 ,here the age of the personal representative of the corn-spirit corresponds with that of the supposed age of the corn-spirit1 just as the human victims offered by the ,mexicans to promote the growth of the maize varied with the age of the maize47#aafe7 ,for in the ,mexican1 as in the ,european1 custom the human beings were probably representatives of the corn-spirit rather than victims offered to him4 7#b47 ,again1 the same fertilising influence which the tree-spirit is supposed to exert over vegetation1 cattle1 and even women7#aaff7 is ascribed to the corn-spirit4 ,thus1 its supposed influence on vegetation is shown by the practice of taking some of the grain of the last sheaf 7in which the corn-spirit is regularly supposed to be present71 and scattering it among the young corn in spring47#aafg7 ,its influence on cattle is shown by giving the straw of the last sheaf to the cattle at ,christmas with the express intention of making them thrive47#aafh7 ,lastly1 its influence on women is indicated by the custom of delivering the ,mother-sheaf1 made into the likeness of a pregnant woman1 to the farmer's wife27#aafi7 by the belief that the woman who binds the last sheaf will have a child next year27#aagj7 perhaps1 too1 by the idea that the person who gets it will marry next year47#aaga7 ,plainly1 therefore1 these spring and harvest customs are based on the same ancient modes of thought1 and form parts of the same primitive heathendom1 which was doubtless practised by our forefathers long before the dawn of history1 as it is practised to this day by many of their descendants4 ,amongst the marks of a primitive religion1 we may note the following3-- 7#a47 ,no special class of persons is set apart for the performance of the rites2 in other words1 there are no priests4 ,the rites may be performed by any one1 as occasion demands4 7#b47 ,no special places are set apart for the performance of the rites2 in other words1 there are no temples4 ,the rites may be performed anywhere1 as occasion demands4 7#c47 ,spirits1 not gods1 are recognised4 7a47 ,as distinguished from gods1 spirits are restricted in their operations to definite departments of nature4 ,their names are general1 not proper4 ,their attributes are generic1 rather than individual2 in other words1 there is an indefinite number of spirits of each class1 and the individuals of a class are all much alike2 they have no definitely marked individuality2 no accepted traditions are current as to their origin1 life1 adventures1 and character4 7b47 ,on the other hand gods1 as distinguished from spirits1 are not exclusively restricted in their operations to definite departments of nature4 ,it is true that there is generally some one department over which they preside as their special province2 but they are not rigorously confined to it2 they can exert their power for good or evil in many other spheres of nature and life4 ,again1 they bear individual or proper names1 such as ,ceres1 ,proserpine1 ,bacchus2 and their individual characters and histories are fixed by current myths and the representations of art4 7#d47 ,the rites are magical rather than propitiatory4 ,in other words1 the desired objects are attained1 not by propitiating the favour of divine beings through sacrifice1 prayer1 and praise1 but by ceremonies which1 as has been explained17#aagb7 are believed to influence the course of nature directly through a physical sympathy or resemblance between the rite and the effect which it is the intention of the rite to produce4 ,judged by these tests1 the spring and harvest customs of our ,european peasantry deserve to rank as primitive4 ,for no special class of persons and no special places are set exclusively apart for their performance2 they may be performed by any one1 master or man1 mistress or maid1 boy or girl2 they are practised1 not in temples or churches1 but in the woods and meadows1 beside brooks1 in barns1 on harvest fields and cottage floors4 ,the supernatural beings whose existence is taken for granted in them are spirits rather than deities2 their functions are limited to certain well-defined departments of nature2 their names are general1 like the ,barley-mother1 the ,old ,woman1 the ,maiden1 not proper names like ,ceres1 ,proserpine1 ,bacchus4 ,their generic attributes are known1 but their individual histories and characters are not the subject of myths4 ,for they exist in classes rather than as individuals1 and the members of each class are indistinguishable4 ,for example1 every farm has its ,corn-mother1 or its ,old ,woman1 or its ,maiden2 but every ,corn-mother is much like every other ,corn-mother1 and so with the ,old ,women and ,maidens4 ,lastly1 in these harvest1 as in the spring1 customs1 the ritual is magical rather than propitiatory4 ,this is shown by throwing the ,corn-mother into the river in order to secure rain and dew for the crops27#aagc7 by making the ,old ,woman heavy in order to get a heavy crop next year27#aagd7 by strewing grain from the last sheaf amongst the young crops in spring27#aage7 and giving the last sheaf to the cattle to make them thrive47#aagf7 ,further1 the custom of keeping the puppet--the representative of the corn-spirit--till next harvest1 is a charm to maintain the corn-spirit in life and activity throughout the year47#aagg7 ,this is proved by a similar custom observed by the ancient ,peruvians1 and thus described by the historian ,acosta4 8,they take a certain portion of the most fruitefull of the ,mays i4e4 maize that growes in their farmes1 the which they put in a certaine granary which they doe call ,pirua1 with certaine ceremonies1 watching three nightes2 they put this ,mays in the richest garments they have1 and beeing thus wrapped and dressed1 they worship this ,pirua1 and hold it in great veneration1 saying it is the mother of the mays of their inheritances1 and that by this means the mays augments and is preserved4 ,in this moneth the sixth month1 answering to ,may they make a particular sacrifice1 and the witches demaund of this ,pirua1 if it hath strength sufficient to continue untill the next yeare2 and if it answers no1 then they carry this ,mays to the farme to burne1 whence they brought it1 according to every man's power2 then they make another ,pirua1 with the same ceremonies1 saying that they renue it1 to the end the seede of ,mays may not perish1 and if it answers that it hath force sufficient to last longer1 they leave it untill the next yeare4 ,this foolish vanity continueth to this day1 and it is very common amongest the ,indians to have these ,piruas407#aagh7 ,there seems to be some error in this description of the custom4 ,probably it was the dressed-up bunch of maize1 not the granary 7,pirua71 which was worshipped by the ,peruvians and regarded as the ,mother of the ,maize4 ,this is confirmed by what we know of the ,peruvian custom from another source4 ,the ,peruvians1 we are told1 believed all useful plants to be animated by a divine being who causes their growth4 ,according to the particular plant1 these divine beings were called the ,maize-mother 7,zara-mama71 the ,quinoa-mother 7,quinoa-mama71 the ,cocoa-mother 7,coca-mama71 and the ,potato-mother 7,axo-mama74 ,figures of these divine mothers were made respectively of ears of maize and leaves of the quinoa and cocoa plants2 they were dressed in women's clothes and worshipped4 ,thus the ,maize-mother was represented by a puppet made of stalks of maize1 dressed in full female attire2 and the ,indians believed that 8as mother1 it had the power of producing and giving birth to much maize407#aagi7 ,probably1 therefore1 ,acosta misunderstood his informant1 and the ,mother of the ,maize which he describes was not the granary 7,pirua7 but the bunch of maize dressed in rich vestments4 ,the ,peruvian ,mother of the ,maize1 like the harvest ,maiden at ,balquhidder1 was kept for a year in order that by her means the corn might grow and multiply4 ,but lest her strength might not suffice to last out the year1 she was asked in the course of the year how she felt1 and if she answered that she felt weak1 she was burned and a fresh ,mother of the ,maize made1 8to the end the seede of ,mays may not perish40 ,here1 it may be observed1 we have a strong confirmation of the explanation already given of the custom of killing the god1 both periodically and occasionally4 ,the ,mother of the ,maize was allowed1 as a rule1 to live through a year1 that being the period during which her strength might reasonably be supposed to last unimpaired2 but on any symptom of her strength failing she was put to death and a fresh and vigorous ,mother of the ,maize took her place1 lest the maize which depended on her for its existence should languish and decay4 ,hardly less clearly does the same train of thought come out in the harvest customs formerly observed by the ,zapotecs of ,mexico4 ,at harvest the priests1 attended by the nobles and people1 went in procession to the maize fields1 where they picked out the largest and finest sheaf4 ,this they took with great ceremony to the town or village1 and placed it in the temple upon an altar adorned with wild flowers4 ,after sacrificing to the harvest god1 the priests carefully wrapt up the sheaf in fine linen and kept it till seed-time4 ,then the priests and nobles met again at the temple1 one of them bringing the skin of a wild beast1 elaborately ornamented1 in which the linen cloth containing the sheaf was enveloped4 ,the sheaf was then carried once more in procession to the field from which it had been taken4 ,here a small cavity or subterranean chamber had been prepared1 in which the precious sheaf was deposited1 wrapt in its various envelopes4 ,after sacrifice had been offered to the gods of the fields for an abundant crop1 the chamber was closed and covered over with earth4 ,immediately thereafter the sowing began4 ,finally1 when the time of harvest drew near1 the buried sheaf was solemnly disinterred by the priests1 who distributed the grain to all who asked for it4 ,the packets of grain so distributed were carefully preserved as talismans till the harvest47#aahj7 ,in these ceremonies1 which continued to be annually celebrated long after the ,spanish conquest1 the intention of keeping the finest sheaf buried in the maize field from seed-time to harvest was undoubtedly to quicken the growth of the maize4 ,in the ,punjaub1 to the east of the ,jumna1 when the cotton boles begin to burst1 it is usual 8to select the largest plant in the field1 and having sprinkled it with butter-milk and rice-water1 it is bound all over with pieces of cotton1 taken from the other plants of the field4 ,this selected plant is called ,sirdar1 or ,bhogalda1 i4e4 mother-cotton1 from bhogla1 a name sometimes given to a large cotton-pod1 and da 7for daiya7 a mother1 and after salutations are made to it1 prayers are offered that the other plants may resemble it in the richness of their produce407#aaha7 ,if the reader still feels any doubts as to the original meaning of the harvest customs practised by our peasantry1 these doubts may be dispelled by comparing the harvest customs of the ,dyaks of ,borneo4 ,at harvest the ,dyaks of ,northern ,borneo have a special feast1 the object of which is 8to secure the soul of the rice1 which if not so detained1 the produce of their farms would speedily rot and decay40 ,the mode of securing the soul of the rice varies in different tribes4 ,sometimes the priest catches it1 in the form of a few grains of rice1 in a white cloth4 ,sometimes a large shed is erected outside the village1 and near it is reared a high and spacious altar4 ,the corner-posts of the altar are lofty bamboos with leafy tops1 from one of which there hangs a long narrow streamer of white cloth4 ,here gaily-dressed men and women dance with slow and solemn steps4 ,suddenly the elders and priests rush at the white streamer1 seize the end of it1 and begin dancing and swaying to and fro1 amid a burst of wild music and the yells of the spectators4 ,an elder leaps on the altar and shakes the bamboos violently1 whereupon small stones1 bunches of hair and grains of rice fall at the feet of the dancers and are carefully picked up by attendants4 ,these grains of rice are the soul of the rice4 ,at sowing-time some of this soul of the rice is planted with the other seeds1 8and is thus propagated and communicated407#aahb7 ,the same need of securing the soul of the rice1 if the crop is to thrive1 is keenly felt by the ,karens of ,burma4 ,when a rice-field does not flourish1 they suppose that the soul 7kelah7 of the rice is in some way detained from the rice4 ,if the soul cannot be called back1 the crop will fail4 ,the following formula is used in recalling the kelah 7soul7 of the rice3 8,o come1 rice-kelah1 come6 ,come to the field4 ,come to the rice4 ,with seed of each gender1 come4 ,come from the river ,kho1 come from the river ,kaw2 from the place where they meet1 come4 ,come from the ,west1 come from the ,east4 ,from the throat of the bird1 from the maw of the ape1 from the throat of the elephant4 ,come from the sources of rivers and their mouths4 ,come from the country of the ,shan and ,burman4 ,from the distant kingdoms come4 ,from all granaries come4 ,o rice-kelah1 come to the rice407#aahc7 ,again1 the ,european custom of representing the corn-spirit in the double form of bride and bridegroom7#aahd7 is paralleled by a custom observed at the rice-harvest in ,java4 ,before the reapers begin to cut the rice1 the priest or sorcerer picks out a number of ears of rice1 which are tied together1 smeared with ointment1 and adorned with flowers4 ,thus decked out1 the ears are called the padi-pngantn1 that is1 the ,rice-bride and the ,rice-bridegroom2 their wedding feast is celebrated1 and the cutting of the rice begins immediately afterwards4 ,later on1 when the rice is being got in1 a bridal chamber is partitioned off in the barn1 and furnished with a new mat1 a lamp1 and all kinds of toilet articles4 ,sheaves of rice1 to represent the wedding guests1 are placed beside the ,rice-bride and the ,rice-bridegroom4 ,not till this has been done may the whole harvest be housed in the barn4 ,and for the first forty days after the rice has been housed1 no one may enter the barn1 for fear of disturbing the newly-wedded pair47#aahe7 ,compared with the ,corn-mother of ,germany and the harvest ,maiden of ,balquhidder1 the ,demeter and ,proserpine of ,greece are late products of religious growth4 ,but1 as ,aryans1 the ,greeks must at one time or another have observed harvest customs like those which are still practised by ,celts1 ,teutons1 and ,slavs1 and which1 far beyond the limits of the ,aryan world1 have been practised by the ,incas of ,peru1 the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 and the ,malays of ,java--a sufficient proof that the ideas on which these customs rest are not confined to any one race1 but naturally suggest themselves to all untutored peoples engaged in agriculture4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that ,demeter and ,proserpine1 those stately and beautiful figures of ,greek mythology1 grew out of the same simple beliefs and practices which still prevail among our modern peasantry1 and that they were represented by rude dolls made out of the yellow sheaves on many a harvest-field long before their breathing images were wrought in bronze and marble by the master hands of ,phidias and ,praxiteles4 ,a reminiscence of that olden time--a scent1 so to say1 of the harvest-field--lingered to the last in the title of the ,maiden 7,kore7 by which ,proserpine was commonly known4 ,thus if the prototype of ,demeter is the ,corn-mother of ,germany1 the prototype of ,proserpine is the harvest ,maiden1 which1 autumn after autumn1 is still made from the last sheaf on the ,braes of ,balquhidder4 ,indeed if we knew more about the peasant-farmers of ancient ,greece we should probably find that even in classical times they continued annually to fashion their ,corn-mothers 7,demeters7 and ,maidens 7,proserpines7 out of the ripe corn on the harvest fields4 ,but unfortunately the ,demeter and ,proserpine whom we know are the denizens of towns1 the majestic inhabitants of lordly temples2 it was for such divinities alone that the refined writers of antiquity had eyes2 the rude rites performed by rustics amongst the corn were beneath their notice4 ,even if they noticed them1 they probably never dreamed of any connection between the puppet of corn-stalks on the sunny stubble-field and the marble divinity in the shady coolness of the temple4 ,still the writings even of these town-bred and cultured persons afford us an occasional glimpse of a ,demeter as rude as the rudest that a remote ,german village can show4 ,thus the story that ,iasion begat a child ,plutus 78wealth10 8abundance07 by ,demeter on a thrice-ploughed field17#aahf7 may be compared with the ,west ,prussian custom of the mock birth of a child on the harvest field47#aahg7 ,in this ,prussian custom the pretended mother represents the ,corn-mother 7ytniamatka72 the pretended child represents the ,corn-baby1 and the whole ceremony is a charm to ensure a crop next year47#aahh7 ,there are other folk-customs1 observed both in spring and at harvest1 with which the legend of the begetting of the child ,plutus is probably still more intimately connected4 ,their general purport is to impart fertility to the fields by performing1 or at least mimicking1 upon them the process of procreation47#aahi7 ,another glimpse of the savage under the civilised ,demeter will be afforded farther on1 when we come to deal with another aspect of these agricultural divinities4 ,the reader may have observed that in modern folk-customs the corn-spirit is generally represented either by a ,corn-mother 7,old ,woman1 etc47 or by a ,maiden 7,corn-baby1 etc471 not both by a ,corn-mother and by a ,maiden4 ,why then did the ,greeks represent the corn both as a mother and a daughter8 ,in the ,breton custom the mother-sheaf--a large figure made out of the last sheaf with a small corn-doll inside of it--clearly represents both the ,corn-mother and the ,corn-daughter1 the latter still unborn47#aaij7 ,again1 in the ,prussian custom just described1 the woman who plays the part of ,corn-mother represents the ripe corn2 the child appears to represent next year's corn1 which may be regarded1 naturally enough1 as the child of this year's corn1 since it is from the seed of this year's harvest that next year's corn will spring4 ,demeter would thus be the ripe corn of this year2 ,proserpine the seed-corn taken from it and sown in autumn1 to reappear in spring4 ,the descent of ,proserpine into the lower world7#aaia7 would thus be a mythical expression for the sowing of the seed2 her reappearance in spring7#aaib7 would express the sprouting of the young corn4 ,thus the ,proserpine of this year becomes the ,demeter of the next1 and this may very well have been the original form of the myth4 ,but when with the advance of religious thought the corn came to be personified1 no longer as a being that went through the whole cycle of birth1 growth1 reproduction1 and death within a year1 but as an immortal goddess1 consistency requires that one of the two personifications1 the mother or the daughter1 should be sacrificed4 ,but the double conception of the corn as mother and daughter was too old and too deeply rooted in the popular mind to be eradicated by logic1 and so room had to be found in the reformed myth both for mother and daughter4 ,this was done by assigning to ,proserpine the rle of the corn sown in autumn and sprouting in spring1 while ,demeter was left to play the somewhat vague and ill-defined part of mother of the corn1 who laments its annual disappearance underground1 and rejoices over its reappearance in spring4 ,thus instead of a regular succession of divine beings1 each living a year and then giving birth to her successor1 the reformed myth exhibits the conception of two divine and immortal beings1 one of whom annually disappears into and reappears from the ground1 while the other has little to do but to weep and rejoice at the appropriate times4 ,this explanation of the double personification of the corn in ,greek myth assumes that both personifications 7,demeter and ,proserpine7 are original4 ,but if we assume that the ,greek myth started with a single personification1 the after-growth of a second personification may perhaps be explained as follows4 ,on looking over the peasant harvest customs which have been passed under review1 it may be noticed that they involve two distinct conceptions of the corn-spirit4 ,for whereas in some of the customs the corn-spirit is treated as immanent in the corn1 in others it is regarded as external to it4 ,thus when a particular sheaf is called by the name of the corn-spirit1 and is dressed in clothes and treated with reverence17#aaic7 the corn-spirit is clearly regarded as immanent in the corn4 ,but when the corn-spirit is said to make the corn grow by passing through it1 or to blight the corn of those against whom she has a grudge17#aaid7 she is clearly conceived as quite separate from1 though exercising power over1 the corn4 ,conceived in the latter way the corn-spirit is in a fair way to become a deity of the corn1 if she has not become so already4 ,of these two conceptions1 that of the corn-spirit as immanent in the corn is doubtless the older1 since the view of nature as animated by indwelling spirits appears to have generally preceded the view of it as controlled by deities external to it2 to put it shortly1 animism precedes deism4 ,in the harvest customs of our ,european peasantry the conception of the corn-spirit as immanent appears to be the prevalent one2 the conception of it as external occurs rather as an exception4 ,in ,greek mythology1 on the other hand1 ,demeter is distinctly conceived in the latter way2 she is the deity of the corn rather than the spirit immanent in it47#aaie7 ,the process of thought which seems to be chiefly instrumental in producing the transition from the one mode of conception to the other is anthropomorphism1 or the gradual investment of the immanent spirits with more and more of the attributes of humanity4 ,as men emerge from savagery the tendency to anthropomorphise or humanise their divinities gains strength2 and the more anthropomorphic these become1 the wider is the breach which severs them from those natural objects of which they were at first merely the animating spirits or souls4 ,but in the progress upwards from savagery1 men of the same generation do not march abreast2 and though the anthropomorphic gods may satisfy the religious wants of more advanced individuals1 the more backward members of the community will cling by preference to the older animistic notions4 ,now when the spirit of any natural object 7as the corn7 has been invested with human qualities1 detached from the object1 and converted into a deity controlling it1 the object itself is1 by the withdrawal of its spirit1 left inanimate1 it becomes1 so to say1 a spiritual vacuum4 ,but the popular fancy1 intolerant of such a vacuum1 in other words1 unable to conceive anything as inanimate1 immediately creates a fresh mythical being1 with which it peoples the vacant object4 ,thus the same natural object is now represented in mythology by two separate beings2 first1 by the old spirit now separated from it and raised to the rank of a deity2 second1 by the new spirit1 freshly created by the popular fancy to supply the place vacated by the old spirit on its elevation to a higher sphere4 ,the problem for mythology now is1 having got two separate personifications of the same object1 what to do with them8 ,how are their relations to each other to be adjusted1 and room found for both in the mythological system8 ,when the old spirit or new deity is conceived as creating or producing the object in question1 the problem is easily solved4 ,since the object is believed to be produced by the old spirit1 and animated by the new one1 the latter1 as the soul of the object1 must also owe its existence to the former2 thus the old spirit will stand to the new one as producer to produced1 that is 7in mythology71 as parent to child1 and if both spirits are conceived as female1 their relation will be that of mother and daughter4 ,in this way1 starting from a single personification of the corn as female1 mythology might in time reach a double personification of it as mother and daughter4 ,it would be very rash to affirm that this was the way in which the myth of ,demeter and ,proserpine actually took shape2 but it seems a legitimate conjecture that the reduplication of deities1 of which ,demeter and ,proserpine furnish an example1 may sometimes have arisen in the way indicated4 ,for example1 among the pairs of deities whom we have been considering1 it has been shown that there are grounds for regarding both ,isis and her companion god ,osiris as personifications of the corn47#aaif7 ,on the hypothesis just suggested1 ,isis would be the old corn-spirit1 and ,osiris would be the newer one1 whose relationship to the old spirit was variously explained as that of brother1 husband1 and son27#aaig7 for of course mythology would always be free to account for the coexistence of the two divinities in more ways than one4 ,further1 this hypothesis offers at least a possible explanation of the relation of ,virbius to the ,arician ,diana4 ,the latter1 as we have seen17#aaih7 was a tree-goddess2 and if1 as ,i have conjectured1 the ,flamen ,virbialis was no other than the priest of ,nemi himself1 that is1 the ,king of the ,wood1 ,virbius must also have been a tree-spirit4 ,on the present hypothesis he was the newer tree-spirit1 whose relation to the old tree-spirit 7,diana7 was explained by representing him as her favourite or lover4 ,it must not1 however1 be forgotten that this proposed explanation of such pairs of deities as ,demeter and ,proserpine1 ,isis and ,osiris1 ,diana and ,virbius1 is purely conjectural1 and is only given for what it is worth4 #i4--,lityerses4 ,in the preceding pages an attempt has been made to show that in the ,corn-mother and harvest ,maiden of ,northern ,europe we have the prototypes of ,demeter and ,proserpine4 ,but an essential feature is still wanting to complete the resemblance4 ,a leading incident in the ,greek myth is the death and resurrection of ,proserpine2 it is this incident which1 coupled with the nature of the goddess as a deity of vegetation1 links the myth with the cults of ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 and ,dionysus2 and it is in virtue of this incident that the myth is considered in this chapter4 ,it remains1 therefore1 to see whether the conception of the annual death and resurrection of a god1 which figures so prominently in these great ,greek and ,oriental worships1 has not also its origin in the rustic rites observed by reapers and vine-dressers amongst the corn-shocks and the vines4 ,our general ignorance of the popular superstitions and customs of the ancients has already been confessed4 ,but the obscurity which thus hangs over the first beginnings of ancient religion is fortunately dissipated to some extent in the present case4 ,the worships of ,osiris1 ,adonis1 and ,attis had their respective seats1 as we have seen1 in ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,phrygia2 and in each of these countries certain harvest and vintage customs are known to have been observed1 the resemblance of which to each other and to the national rites struck the ancients themselves1 and1 compared with the harvest customs of modern peasants and barbarians1 seem to throw some light on the origin of the rites in question4 ,it has been already mentioned1 on the authority of ,diodorus1 that in ancient ,egypt the reapers were wont to lament over the first sheaf cut1 invoking ,isis as the goddess to whom they owed the discovery of corn47#aaii7 ,to the plaintive song or cry sung or uttered by ,egyptian reapers the ,greeks gave the name of ,maneros1 and explained the name by a story that ,maneros1 the only son of the first ,egyptian king1 invented agriculture1 and1 dying an untimely death1 was thus lamented by the people47#abjj7 ,it appears1 however1 that the name ,maneros is due to a misunderstanding of the formula m-ne-hra1 8come thou back10 which has been discovered in various ,egyptian writings1 for example in the dirge of ,isis in the ,book of the ,dead47#abja7 ,hence we may suppose that the cry m-ne-hra was chanted by the reapers over the cut corn as a dirge for the death of the corn-spirit 7,isis or ,osiris7 and a prayer for its return4 ,as the cry was raised over the first ears reaped1 it would seem that the corn-spirit was believed by the ,egyptians to be present in the first corn cut and to die under the sickle4 ,we have seen that in ,java the first ears of rice are taken to represent the ,corn-bride and the ,corn-bridegroom47#abjb7 ,in parts of ,russia the first sheaf is treated much in the same way that the last sheaf is treated elsewhere4 ,it is reaped by the mistress herself1 taken home and set in the place of honour near the holy pictures2 afterwards it is threshed separately1 and some of its grain is mixed with the next year's seed-corn47#abjc7 ,in ,phoenicia and ,western ,asia a plaintive song1 like that chanted by the ,egyptian corn-reapers1 was sung at the vintage and probably 7to judge by analogy7 also at harvest4 ,this ,phoenician song was called by the ,greeks ,linus or ,ailinus and explained1 like ,maneros1 as a lament for the death of a youth named ,linus47#abjd7 ,according to one story ,linus was brought up by a shepherd1 but torn to pieces by his dogs47#abje7 ,but1 like ,maneros1 the name ,linus or ,ailinus appears to have originated in a verbal misunderstanding1 and to be nothing more than the cry ai lanu1 that is 8woe to us10 which the ,phoenicians probably uttered in mourning for ,adonis27#abjf7 at least ,sappho seems to have regarded ,adonis and ,linus as equivalent47#abjg7 ,in ,bithynia a like mournful ditty1 called ,bormus or ,borimus1 was chanted by ,mariandynian reapers4 ,bormus was said to have been a handsome youth1 the son of ,king ,upias or of a wealthy and distinguished man4 ,one summer day1 watching the reapers at work in his fields1 he went to fetch them a drink of water and was never heard of more4 ,so the reapers sought for him1 calling him in plaintive strains1 which they continued to use ever afterwards47#abjh7 ,in ,phrygia the corresponding song1 sung by harvesters both at reaping and at threshing1 was called ,lityerses4 ,according to one story1 ,lityerses was a bastard son of ,midas1 ,king of ,phrygia4 ,he used to reap the corn1 and had an enormous appetite4 ,when a stranger happened to enter the corn-field or to pass by it1 ,lityerses gave him plenty to eat and drink1 then took him to the corn-fields on the banks of the ,maeander and compelled him to reap along with him4 ,lastly1 he used to wrap the stranger in a sheaf1 cut off his head with a sickle1 and carry away his body1 wrapt in the corn stalks4 ,but at last he was himself slain by ,hercules1 who threw his body into the river47#abji7 ,as ,hercules was probably reported to have slain ,lityerses in the same way that ,lityerses slew others 7as ,theseus treated ,sinis and ,sciron71 we may infer that ,lityerses used to throw the bodies of his victims into the river4 ,according to another version of the story1 ,lityerses1 a son of ,midas1 used to challenge people to a reaping match with him1 and if he vanquished them he used to thrash them2 but one day he met with a stronger reaper1 who slew him47#abaj7 ,there are some grounds for supposing that in these stories of ,lityerses we have the description of a ,phrygian harvest custom in accordance with which certain persons1 especially strangers passing the harvest field1 were regularly regarded as embodiments of the corn-spirit and as such were seized by the reapers1 wrapt in sheaves1 and beheaded1 their bodies1 bound up in the corn-stalks1 being afterwards thrown into water as a rain-charm4 ,the grounds for this supposition are1 first1 the resemblance of the ,lityerses story to the harvest customs of ,european peasantry1 and1 second1 the fact that human beings have been commonly killed by savage races to promote the fertility of the fields4 ,we will examine these grounds successively1 beginning with the former4 ,in comparing the story with the harvest customs of ,europe17#abaa7 three points deserve special attention1 namely3 ,i4 the reaping match and the binding of persons in the sheaves2 ,,ii4 the killing of the corn-spirit or his representatives2 ,,iii4 the treatment of visitors to the harvest-field or of strangers passing it4 ,i4 ,in regard to the first head1 we have seen that in modern ,europe the person who cuts or binds or threshes the last sheaf is often exposed to rough treatment at the hands of his fellow-labourers4 ,for example1 he is bound up in the last sheaf1 and1 thus encased1 is carried or carted about1 beaten1 drenched with water1 thrown on a dunghill1 etc4 ,or1 if he is spared this horseplay1 he is at least the subject of ridicule or is believed destined to suffer some misfortune in the course of the year4 ,hence the harvesters are naturally reluctant to give the last cut at reaping or the last stroke at threshing or to bind the last sheaf1 and towards the close of the work this reluctance produces an emulation among the labourers1 each striving to finish his task as fast as possible1 in order that he may escape the invidious distinction of being last47#abab7 ,for example1 in the neighbourhood of ,danzig1 when the winter corn is cut and mostly bound up in sheaves1 the portion which still remains to be bound is divided amongst the women binders1 each of whom receives a swath of equal length to bind4 ,a crowd of reapers1 children1 and idlers gathers round to witness the contest1 and at the word1 8,seize the ,old ,man10 the women fall to work1 all binding their allotted swaths as hard as they can4 ,the spectators watch them narrowly1 and the woman who cannot keep pace with the rest and consequently binds the last sheaf has to carry the ,old ,man 7that is1 the last sheaf made up in the form of a man7 to the farmhouse and deliver it to the farmer with the words1 8,here ,i bring you the ,old ,man40 ,at the supper which follows1 the ,old ,man is placed at the table and receives an abundant portion of food which1 as he cannot eat it1 falls to the share of the woman who carried him4 ,afterwards the ,old ,man is placed in the yard and all the people dance round him4 ,or the woman who bound the last sheaf dances for a good while with the ,old ,man1 while the rest form a ring round them2 afterwards they all1 one after the other1 dance a single round with him4 ,further1 the woman who bound the last sheaf goes herself by the name of the ,old ,man till the next harvest1 and is often mocked with the cry1 8,here comes the ,old ,man407#abac7 ,at ,aschbach1 ,bavaria1 when the reaping is nearly finished1 the reapers say1 8,now we will drive out the ,old ,man40 ,each of them sets himself to reap a patch of corn and reaps as fast as he can2 he who cuts the last handful or the last stalk is greeted by the rest with an exulting cry1 8,you have the ,old ,man40 ,sometimes a black mask is fastened on the reaper's face and he is dressed in woman's clothes2 or if the reaper is a woman1 she is dressed in man's clothes2 a dance follows4 ,at the supper the ,old ,man gets twice as large a portion of food as the others4 ,at threshing1 the proceedings are the same2 the person who gives the last stroke is said to have the ,old ,man47#abad7 ,these examples illustrate the contests in reaping1 threshing1 and binding which take place amongst the harvesters1 on account of their unwillingness to suffer the ridicule and personal inconvenience attaching to the individual who happens to finish his work last4 ,it will be remembered that the person who is last at reaping1 binding1 or threshing1 is regarded as the representative of the corn-spirit17#abae7 and this idea is more fully expressed by binding him or her in corn-stalks4 ,the latter custom has been already illustrated1 but a few more instances may be added4 ,at ,kloxin1 near ,stettin1 the harvesters call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf1 8,you have the ,old ,man1 and must keep him40 ,the ,old ,man is a great bundle of corn decked with flowers and ribbons1 and fashioned into a rude semblance of the human form4 ,it is fastened on a rake or strapped on a horse1 and brought with music to the village4 ,in delivering the ,old ,man to the farmer1 the woman says-- 8,here1 dear ,sir1 is the ,old ,man4 ,he can stay no longer on the field1 ,he can hide himself no longer1 ,he must come into the village4 ,ladies and gentlemen1 pray be so kind ,as to give the ,old ,man a present40 ,forty or fifty years ago the custom was to tie up the woman herself in pease-straw1 and bring her with music to the farmhouse1 where the harvesters danced with her till the pease-straw fell off47#abaf7 ,in other villages round ,stettin1 when the last harvest-waggon is being loaded1 there is a regular race amongst the women1 each striving not to be last4 ,for she who places the last sheaf on the waggon is called the ,old ,man1 and is completely swathed in corn-stalks2 she is also decked with flowers1 and flowers and a helmet of straw are placed on her head4 ,in solemn procession she carries the harvest-crown to the squire1 over whose head she holds it while she utters a string of good wishes4 ,at the dance which follows1 the ,old ,man has the right to choose his 7or rather her7 partner2 it is an honour to dance with him47#abag7 ,at ,blankenfelde1 in the district of ,potsdam1 the woman who binds the last sheaf at the rye-harvest is saluted with the cry1 8,you have the ,old ,man40 ,a woman is then tied up in the last sheaf in such a way that only her head is left free2 her hair also is covered with a cap made of rye-stalks1 adorned with ribbons and flowers4 ,she is called the ,harvest-man1 and must keep dancing in front of the last harvest-waggon till it reaches the squire's house1 where she receives a present1 and is released from her envelope of corn47#abah7 ,at ,gommern1 near ,magdeburg1 the reaper who cuts the last ears of corn is often wrapt up in corn-stalks so completely that it is hard to see whether there is a man in the bundle or not4 ,thus wrapt up he is taken by another stalwart reaper on his back1 and carried round the field amid the joyous cries of the harvesters47#abai7 ,at ,neuhausen1 near ,merseburg1 the person who binds the last sheaf is wrapt in ears of oats and saluted as the ,oats-man1 whereupon the others dance round him47#abbj7 ,at ,brie1 ,isle de ,france1 the farmer himself is tied up in the first sheaf47#abba7 ,at the harvest-home at ,udvarhely1 ,transylvania1 a person is encased in corn-stalks1 and wears on his head a crown made out of the last ears cut4 ,on reaching the village he is soused with water over and over47#abbb7 ,at ,dingelstedt1 in the district of ,erfurt1 about fifty years ago it was the custom to tie up a man in the last sheaf4 ,he was called the ,old ,man1 and was brought home on the last waggon1 amid huzzas and music4 ,on reaching the farmyard he was rolled round the barn and drenched with water47#abbc7 ,at ,nrdlingen1 ,bavaria1 the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is wrapt in straw and rolled on the threshing-floor47#abbd7 ,in some parts of ,oberpfalz1 ,bavaria1 he is said to 8get the ,old ,man10 is wrapt in straw1 and carried to a neighbour who has not yet finished his threshing47#abbe7 ,in ,thringen a sausage is stuck in the last sheaf at threshing1 and thrown1 with the sheaf1 on the threshing-floor4 ,it is called the ,barrenwurst or ,banzenwurst1 and is eaten by all the threshers4 ,after they have eaten it a man is encased in pease-straw1 and thus attired is led through the village47#abbf7 8,in all these cases the idea is that the spirit of the corn--the ,old ,man of vegetation--is driven out of the corn last cut or last threshed1 and lives in the barn during the winter4 ,at sowing-time he goes out again to the fields to resume his activity as animating force among the sprouting corn407#abbg7 ,much the same ideas are attached to the last corn in ,india2 for we are told that in the ,central ,provinces1 8when the reaping is nearly done1 about a bisv1 say a rood of land1 of corn is left standing in the cultivator's last field1 and the reapers rest a little4 ,then they rush at this bisv1 tear it up1 and cast it into the air1 shouting victory to ,omkr ,mahrj or ,jhmj1 or ,rmj ,ds1 etc41 according to their respective possessions4 ,a sheaf is made up of this corn1 tied to a bamboo1 and stuck up in the last harvest cart1 and carried home in triumph4 ,it is fastened up in the threshing-floor to a tree1 or to the cattle-shed1 where its services are essential in averting the evil-eye407#abbh7 ,,ii4 ,passing to the second point of comparison between the ,lityerses story and ,european harvest customs1 we have now to see that in the latter the corn-spirit is often believed to be killed at reaping or threshing4 ,in the ,romsdal and other parts of ,norway1 when the haymaking is over1 the people say that 8the ,old ,hay-man has been killed40 ,in some parts of ,bavaria the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said to have killed the ,corn-man1 the ,oats-man1 or the ,wheat-man1 according to the crop47#abbi7 ,in the ,canton of ,tillot1 in ,lothringen1 at threshing the last corn the men keep time with their flails1 calling out as they thresh1 8,we are killing the ,old ,woman6 ,we are killing the ,old ,woman60 ,if there is an old woman in the house she is warned to save herself1 or she will be struck dead47#abcj7 ,in ,lithuania1 near ,ragnit1 the last handful of corn is left standing by itself1 with the words1 8,the ,old ,woman 7,boba7 is sitting in there40 ,then a young reaper whets his scythe1 and1 with a strong sweep1 cuts down the handful4 ,it is now said of him that 8,he has cut off the ,boba's head20 and he receives a gratuity from the farmer and a jugful of water over his head from the farmer's wife47#abca7 ,according to another account1 every ,lithuanian reaper makes haste to finish his task2 for the ,old ,rye-woman lives in the last stalks1 and whoever cuts the last stalks kills the ,old ,rye-woman1 and by killing her he brings trouble on himself47#abcb7 ,in ,wilkischken 7district of ,tilsit7 the man who cuts the last corn goes by the name of 8,the killer of the ,rye-woman407#abcc7 ,in ,lithuania1 again1 the corn-spirit is believed to be killed at threshing as well as at reaping4 ,when only a single pile of corn remains to be threshed1 all the threshers suddenly step back a few paces1 as if at the word of command4 ,then they fall to work plying their flails with the utmost rapidity and vehemence1 till they come to the last bundle4 ,upon this they fling themselves with almost frantic fury1 straining every nerve1 and raining blows on it till the word 8,halt60 rings out sharply from the leader4 ,the man whose flail is the last to fall after the command to stop has been given is immediately surrounded by all the rest1 crying out that 8,he has struck the ,old ,rye-woman dead40 ,he has to expiate the deed by treating them to brandy2 and1 like the man who cuts the last corn1 he is known as 8,the killer of the ,old ,rye-woman407#abcd7 ,sometimes in ,lithuania the slain corn-spirit was represented by a puppet4 ,thus a female figure was made out of corn-stalks1 dressed in clothes1 and placed on the threshing-floor1 under the heap of corn which was to be threshed last4 ,whoever thereafter gave the last stroke at threshing 8struck the ,old ,woman dead407#abce7 ,we have already had examples of burning the figure which represents the corn-spirit47#abcf7 ,sometimes1 again1 the corn-spirit is represented by a man1 who lies down under the last corn2 it is threshed upon his body1 and the people say that 8the ,old ,man is being beaten to death407#abcg7 ,we have already seen that sometimes the farmer's wife is thrust1 together with the last sheaf1 under the threshing-machine1 as if to thresh her1 and that afterwards a pretence is made of winnowing her47#abch7 ,at ,volders1 in the ,tyrol1 husks of corn are stuck behind the neck of the man who gives the last stroke at threshing1 and he is throttled with a straw garland4 ,if he is tall1 it is believed that the corn will be tall next year4 ,then he is tied on a bundle and flung into the river47#abci7 ,in ,carinthia1 the thresher who gave the last stroke1 and the person who untied the last sheaf on the threshing-floor1 are bound hand and foot with straw bands1 and crowns of straw are placed on their heads4 ,then they are tied1 face to face1 on a sledge1 dragged through the village1 and flung into a brook47#abdj7 ,the custom of throwing the representative of the corn-spirit into a stream1 like that of drenching him with water1 is1 as usual1 a rain-charm47#abda7 ,,iii4 ,thus far the representatives of the corn-spirit have generally been the man or woman who cuts1 binds1 or threshes the last corn4 ,we now come to the cases in which the corn-spirit is represented either by a stranger passing the harvest-field 7as in the ,lityerses tale71 or by a visitor entering it for the first time4 ,all over ,germany it is customary for the reapers or threshers to lay hold of passing strangers and bind them with a rope made of corn-stalks1 till they pay a forfeit2 and when the farmer himself or one of his guests enters the field or the threshing-floor for the first time1 he is treated in the same way4 ,sometimes the rope is only tied round his arm or his feet or his neck47#abdb7 ,but sometimes he is regularly swathed in corn4 ,thus at ,solr in ,norway1 whoever enters the field1 be he the master or a stranger1 is tied up in a sheaf and must pay a ransom4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,soest1 when the farmer visits the flax-pullers for the first time1 he is completely enveloped in flax4 ,passers-by are also surrounded by the women1 tied up in flax1 and compelled to stand brandy47#abdc7 ,at ,nrdlingen strangers are caught with straw ropes and tied up in a sheaf till they pay a forfeit4 ,at ,brie1 ,isle de ,france1 when any one who does not belong to the farm passes by the harvest-field1 the reapers give chase4 ,if they catch him1 they bind him in a sheaf and bite him1 one after the other1 in the forehead1 crying 8,you shall carry the key of the field407#abdd7 8,to have the key0 is an expression used by harvesters elsewhere in the sense of to cut or bind or thresh the last sheaf27#abde7 hence1 it is equivalent to the phrases 8,you have the ,old ,man10 8,you are the ,old ,man10 which are addressed to the cutter1 binder1 or thresher of the last sheaf4 ,therefore1 when a stranger1 as at ,brie1 is tied up in a sheaf and told that he will 8carry the key of the field10 it is as much as to say that he is the ,old ,man1 that is1 an embodiment of the corn-spirit4 ,thus1 like ,lityerses1 modern reapers lay hold of a passing stranger and tie him up in a sheaf4 ,it is not to be expected that they should complete the parallel by cutting off his head2 but if they do not take such a strong step1 their language and gestures are at least indicative of a desire to do so4 ,for instance1 in ,mecklenburg on the first clay of reaping1 if the master or mistress or a stranger enters the field1 or merely passes by it1 all the mowers face towards him and sharpen their scythes1 clashing their whet-stones against them in unison1 as if they were making ready to mow4 ,then the woman who leads the mowers steps up to him and ties a band round his left arm4 ,he must ransom himself by payment of a forfeit47#abdf7 ,near ,ratzeburg when the master or other person of mark enters the field or passes by it1 all the harvesters stop work and march towards him in a body1 the men with their scythes in front4 ,on meeting him they form up in line1 men and women4 ,the men stick the poles of their scythes in the ground1 as they do in whetting them2 then they take off their caps and hang them on the scythes1 while their leader stands forward and makes a speech4 ,when he has done1 they all whet their scythes in measured time very loudly1 after which they put on their caps4 ,two of the women binders then come forward2 one of them ties the master or stranger 7as the case may be7 with corn-ears or with a silken band2 the other delivers a rhyming address4 ,the following are specimens of the speeches made by the reaper on these occasions4 ,in some parts of ,pomerania every passer-by is stopped1 his way being barred with a corn-rope4 ,the reapers form a circle round him and sharpen their scythes1 while their leader says-- 8,the men are ready1 ,the scythes are bent1 ,the corn is great and small1 ,the gentleman must be mowed40 ,then the process of whetting the scythes is repeated47#abdg7 ,at ,ramin1 in the district of ,stettin1 the stranger1 standing encircled by the reapers1 is thus addressed-- 8,we'll stroke the gentleman ,with our naked sword1 ,wherewith we shear meadows and fields4 ,we shear princes and lords4 ,labourers are often athirst2 ,if the gentleman will stand beer and brandy ,the joke will soon be over4 ,but1 if our prayer he does not like1 ,the sword has a right to strike407#abdh7 ,that in these customs the whetting of the scythes is really meant as a preliminary to mowing appears from the following variation of the preceding customs4 ,in the district of ,lneburg when any one enters the harvest-field1 he is asked whether he will engage a good fellow4 ,if he says yes1 the harvesters mow some swaths1 yelling and screaming1 and then ask him for drink-money47#abdi7 ,on the threshing-floor strangers are also regarded as embodiments of the corn-spirit1 and are treated accordingly4 ,at ,wiedingharde in ,schleswig when a stranger comes to the threshing-floor he is asked 8,shall ,i teach you the flail-dance80 ,if he says yes1 they put the arms of the threshing-flail round his neck 7as if he were a sheaf of corn71 and press them together so tightly that he is nearly choked47#abej7 ,in some parishes of ,wermland 7,sweden7 when a stranger enters the threshing-floor where the threshers are at work1 they say that 8they will teach him the threshing-song40 ,then they put a flail round his neck and a straw rope about his body4 ,also1 as we have seen1 if a stranger woman enters the threshing-floor1 the threshers put a flail round her body and a wreath of corn-stalks round her neck1 and call out1 8,see the ,corn-woman6 ,see6 that is how the ,corn-maiden looks607#abea7 ,in these customs1 observed both on the harvest-field and on the threshing-floor1 a passing stranger is regarded as a personification of the corn1 in other words1 as the corn-spirit2 and a show is made of treating him like the corn by mowing1 binding1 and threshing him4 ,if the reader still doubts whether ,european peasants can really regard a passing stranger in this light1 the following custom should set their doubts at rest4 ,during the madder-harvest in the ,dutch province of ,zealand a stranger passing by a field where the people are digging the madder-roots will sometimes call out to them ,koortspillers 7a term of reproach74 ,upon this1 two of the fleetest runners make after him1 and1 if they catch him1 they bring him back to the madder-field and bury him in the earth up to his middle at least1 jeering at him the while2 then they ease nature before his face47#abeb7 ,this last act is to be explained as follows4 ,the spirit of the corn and of other cultivated plants is sometimes conceived1 not as immanent in the plant1 but as its owner2 hence the cutting of the corn at harvest1 the digging of the roots1 and the gathering of fruit from the fruit-trees are each and all of them acts of spoliation1 which strip him of his property and reduce him to poverty4 ,hence he is often known as 8the ,poor ,man0 or 8the ,poor ,woman40 ,thus in the neighbourhood of ,eisenach a small sheaf is sometimes left standing on the field for 8the ,poor ,old ,woman407#abec7 ,at ,marksuhl1 near ,eisenach1 the puppet formed out of the last sheaf is itself called 8the ,poor ,woman40 ,at ,alt ,lest in ,silesia the man who binds the last sheaf is called the ,beggar-man47#abed7 ,in a village near ,roeskilde1 in ,zealand 7,denmark71 old-fashioned peasants sometimes make up the last sheaf into a rude puppet1 which is called the ,rye-beggar47#abee7 ,in ,southern ,schonen the sheaf which is bound last is called the ,beggar2 it is made bigger than the rest and is sometimes dressed in clothes4 ,in the district of ,olmtz the last sheaf is called the ,beggar2 it is given to an old woman1 who must carry it home1 limping on one foot47#abef7 ,thus when the corn-spirit is conceived as a being who is robbed of his store and impoverished by the harvesters1 it is natural that his representative--the passing stranger--should upbraid them2 and it is equally natural that they should seek to disable him from pursuing them and recapturing the stolen property4 ,now1 it is an old superstition that by easing nature on the spot where a robbery is committed1 the robbers secure themselves1 for a certain time1 against interruption47#abeg7 ,the fact1 therefore1 that the madder-diggers resort to this proceeding in presence of the stranger proves that they consider themselves robbers and him as the person robbed4 ,regarded as such1 he must be the natural owner of the madder-roots2 that is1 their spirit or demon2 and this conception is carried out by burying him1 like the madder-roots1 in the ground47#abeh7 ,the ,greeks1 it may be observed1 were quite familiar with the idea that a passing stranger may be a god4 ,homer says that the gods in the likeness of foreigners roam up and down cities47#abei7 ,thus in these harvest-customs of modern ,europe the person who cuts1 binds1 or threshes the last corn is treated as an embodiment of the corn-spirit by being wrapt up in sheaves1 killed in mimicry by agricultural implements1 and thrown into the water47#abfj7 ,these coincidences with the ,lityerses story seem to prove that the latter is a genuine description of an old ,phrygian harvest-custom4 ,but since in the modern parallels the killing of the personal representative of the corn-spirit is necessarily omitted or at most enacted only in mimicry1 it is necessary to show that in rude society human beings have been commonly killed as an agricultural ceremony to promote the fertility of the fields4 ,the following examples will make this plain4 ,the ,indians of ,guayaquil 7,ecuador7 used to sacrifice human blood and the hearts of men when they sowed their fields47#abfa7 ,at a ,mexican harvest-festival1 when the first-fruits of the season were offered to the sun1 a criminal was placed between two immense stones1 balanced opposite each other1 and was crushed by them as they fell together4 ,his remains were buried1 and a feast and dance followed4 ,this sacrifice was known as 8the meeting of the stones407#abfb7 ,another series of human sacrifices offered in ,mexico to make the maize thrive has been already referred to47#abfc7 ,the ,pawnees annually sacrificed a human victim in spring when they sowed their fields4 ,the sacrifice was believed to have been enjoined on them by the ,morning ,star1 or by a certain bird which the ,morning ,star had sent to them as its messenger4 ,the bird was stuffed and preserved as a powerful 8medicine40 ,they thought that an omission of this sacrifice would be followed by the total failure of the crops of maize1 beans1 and pumpkins4 ,the victim was a captive of either sex4 ,he was clad in the gayest and most costly attire1 was fattened on the choicest food1 and carefully kept in ignorance of his doom4 ,when he was fat enough1 they bound him to a cross in the presence of the multitude1 danced a solemn dance1 then cleft his head with a tomahawk and shot him with arrows4 ,according to one trader1 the squaws then cut pieces of flesh from the victim's body1 with which they greased their hoes2 but this was denied by another trader who had been present at the ceremony4 ,immediately after the sacrifice the people proceeded to plant their fields4 ,a particular account has been preserved of the sacrifice of a ,sioux girl by the ,pawnees in ,april #ahcg or #ahch4 ,the girl had been kept for six months and well treated4 ,two days before the sacrifice she was led from wigwam to wigwam1 accompanied by the whole council of chiefs and warriors4 ,at each lodge she received a small billet of wood and a little paint1 which she handed to the warrior next to her4 ,in this way she called at every wigwam1 receiving at each the same present of wood and paint4 ,on the #bb;d of ,april she was taken out to be sacrificed1 attended by the warriors1 each of whom carried two pieces of wood which he had received from her hands4 ,she was burned for some time over a slow fire1 and then shot to death with arrows4 ,the chief sacrificer next tore out her heart and devoured it4 ,while her flesh was still warm it was cut in small pieces from the bones1 put in little baskets1 and taken to a neighbouring cornfield4 ,here the head chief took a piece of the flesh from a basket and squeezed a drop of blood upon the newly-deposited grains of corn4 ,his example was followed by the rest1 till all the seed had been sprinkled with the blood2 it was then covered up with earth47#abfd7 ,a ,west ,african queen used to sacrifice a man and woman in the month of ,march4 ,they were killed with spades and hoes1 and their bodies buried in the middle of a field which had just been tilled47#abfe7 ,at ,lagos in ,guinea it was the custom annually to impale a young girl alive soon after the spring equinox in order to secure good crops4 ,along with her were sacrificed sheep and goats1 which1 with yams1 heads of maize1 and plantains1 were hung on stakes on each side of her4 ,the victims were bred up for the purpose in the king's seraglio1 and their minds had been so powerfully wrought upon by the fetish men that they went cheerfully to their fate47#abff7 ,a similar sacrifice is still annually offered at ,benin1 ,guinea47#abfg7 ,the ,marimos1 a ,bechuana tribe1 sacrifice a human being for the crops4 ,the victim chosen is generally a short1 stout man4 ,he is seized by violence or intoxicated and taken to the fields1 where he is killed amongst the wheat to serve as 8seed0 7so they phrase it74 ,after his blood has coagulated in the sun it is burned along with the frontal bone1 the flesh attached to it1 and the brain2 the ashes are then scattered over the ground to fertilise it4 ,the rest of the body is eaten47#abfh7 ,the ,gonds of ,india1 a ,dravidian race1 kidnapped ,brahman boys1 and kept them as victims to be sacrificed on various occasions4 ,at sowing and reaping1 after a triumphal procession1 one of the lads was slain by being punctured with a poisoned arrow4 ,his blood was then sprinkled over the ploughed field or the ripe crop1 and his flesh was devoured47#abfi7 ,but the best known case of human sacrifices1 systematically offered to ensure good crops1 is supplied by the ,khonds or ,kandhs1 another ,dravidian race in ,bengal4 ,our knowledge of them is derived from the accounts written by ,british officers who1 forty or fifty years ago1 were engaged in putting them down47#abgj7 ,the sacrifices were offered to the ,earth ,goddess1 ,tari ,pennu or ,bera ,pennu1 and were believed to ensure good crops and immunity from all disease and accidents4 ,in particular1 they were considered necessary in the cultivation of turmeric1 the ,khonds arguing that the turmeric could not have a deep red colour without the shedding of blood47#abga7 ,the victim or ,meriah was acceptable to the goddess only if he had been purchased1 or had been born a victim--that is1 the son of a victim father--or had been devoted as a child by his father or guardian4 ,khonds in distress often sold their children for victims1 8considering the beatification of their souls certain1 and their death1 for the benefit of mankind1 the most honourable possible40 ,a man of the ,panua tribe was once seen to load a ,khond with curses1 and finally to spit in his face1 because the ,khond had sold for a victim his own child1 whom the ,panua had wished to marry4 ,a party of ,khonds1 who saw this1 immediately pressed forward to comfort the seller of his child1 saying1 8,your child has died that all the world may live1 and the ,earth ,goddess herself will wipe that spittle from your face407#abgb7 ,the victims were often kept for years before they were sacrificed4 ,being regarded as consecrated beings1 they were treated with extreme affection1 mingled with deference1 and were welcomed wherever they went4 ,a ,meriah youth1 on attaining maturity1 was generally given a wife1 who was herself usually a ,meriah or victim2 and with her he received a portion of land and farm-stock4 ,their offspring were also victims4 ,human sacrifices were offered to the ,earth ,goddess by tribes1 branches of tribes1 or villages1 both at periodical festivals and on extraordinary occasions4 ,the periodical sacrifices were generally so arranged by tribes and divisions of tribes that each head of a family was enabled1 at least once a year1 to procure a shred of flesh for his fields1 generally about the time when his chief crop was laid down47#abgc7 ,the mode of performing these tribal sacrifices was as follows4 ,ten or twelve days before the sacrifice1 the victim was devoted by cutting off his hair1 which1 until then1 was kept unshorn4 ,crowds of men and women assembled to witness the sacrifice2 none might be excluded1 since the sacrifice was declared to be 8for all mankind40 ,it was preceded by several days of wild revelry and gross debauchery47#abgd7 ,on the day before the sacrifice the victim1 dressed in a new garment1 was led forth from the village in solemn procession1 with music and dancing1 to the ,meriah grove1 which was a clump of high forest trees standing a little way from the village and untouched by the axe4 ,in this grove the victim was tied to a post1 which was sometimes placed between two plants of the sankissar shrub4 ,he was then anointed with oil1 ghee1 and turmeric1 and adorned with flowers2 and 8a species of reverence1 which it is not easy to distinguish from adoration10 was paid to him throughout the day47#abge7 ,a great struggle now arose to obtain the smallest relic from his person2 a particle of the turmeric paste with which he was smeared1 or a drop of his spittle1 was esteemed of sovereign virtue1 especially by the women4 ,the crowd danced round the post to music1 and1 addressing the earth1 said1 8,o ,god1 we offer this sacrifice to you2 give us good crops1 seasons1 and health407#abgf7 ,on the last morning the orgies1 which had been scarcely interrupted during the night1 were resumed1 and continued till noon1 when they ceased1 and the assembly proceeded to consummate the sacrifice4 ,the victim was again anointed with oil1 and each person touched the anointed part1 and wiped the oil on his own head4 ,in some places the victim was then taken in procession round the village1 from door to door1 where some plucked hair from his head1 and others begged for a drop of his spittle1 with which they anointed their heads47#abgg7 ,as the victim might not be bound nor make any show of resistance1 the bones of his arms and1 if necessary1 his legs were broken2 but often this precaution was rendered unnecessary by stupefying him with opium47#abgh7 ,the mode of putting him to death varied in different places4 ,one of the commonest modes seems to have been strangulation1 or squeezing to death4 ,the branch of a green tree was cleft several feet down the middle2 the victim's neck 7in other places1 his chest7 was inserted in the cleft1 which the priest1 aided by his assistants1 strove with all his force to close47#abgi7 ,then he wounded the victim slightly with his axe1 whereupon the crowd rushed at the victim and cut the flesh from the bones1 leaving the head and bowels untouched4 ,sometimes he was cut up alive47#abhj7 ,in ,chinna ,kimedy he was dragged along the fields1 surrounded by the crowd1 who1 avoiding his head and intestines1 hacked the flesh from his body with their knives till he died47#abha7 ,another very common mode of sacrifice in the same district was to fasten the victim to the proboscis of a wooden elephant1 which revolved on a stout post1 and1 as it whirled round1 the crowd cut the flesh from the victim while life remained4 ,in some villages ,major ,campbell found as many as fourteen of these wooden elephants1 which had been used at sacrifices47#abhb7 ,in one district the victim was put to death slowly by fire4 ,a low stage was formed1 sloping on either side like a roof2 upon it the victim was placed1 his limbs wound round with cords to confine his struggles4 ,fires were then lighted and hot brands applied1 to make him roll up and down the slopes of the stage as long as possible2 for the more tears he shed the more abundant would be the supply of rain4 ,next day the body was cut to pieces47#abhc7 ,the flesh cut from the victim was instantly taken home by the persons who had been deputed by each village to bring it4 ,to secure its rapid arrival1 it was sometimes forwarded by relays of men1 and conveyed with postal fleetness fifty or sixty miles47#abhd7 ,in each village all who stayed at home fasted rigidly until the flesh arrived4 ,the bearer deposited it in the place of public assembly1 where it was received by the priest and the heads of families4 ,the priest divided it into two portions1 one of which he offered to the ,earth ,goddess by burying it in a hole in the ground with his back turned1 and without looking4 ,then each man added a little earth to bury it1 and the priest poured water on the spot from a hill gourd4 ,the other portion of flesh he divided into as many shares as there were heads of houses present4 ,each head of a house rolled his shred of flesh in leaves1 and buried it in his favourite field1 placing it in the earth behind his back without looking47#abhe7 ,in some places each man carried his portion of flesh to the stream which watered his fields1 and there hung it on a pole47#abhf7 ,for three days thereafter no house was swept2 and1 in one district1 strict silence was observed1 no fire might be given out1 no wood cut1 and no strangers received4 ,the remains of the human victim 7namely1 the head1 bowels1 and bones7 were watched by strong parties the night after the sacrifice2 and next morning they were burned1 along with a whole sheep1 on a funeral pile4 ,the ashes were scattered over the fields1 laid as paste over the houses and granaries1 or mixed with the new corn to preserve it from insects47#abhg7 ,sometimes1 however1 the head and bones were buried1 not burnt47#abhh7 ,after the suppression of the human sacrifices1 inferior victims were substituted in some places2 for instance1 in the capital of ,chinna ,kimedy a goat took the place of a human victim47#abhi7 ,in these ,khond sacrifices the ,meriahs are represented by our authorities as victims offered to propitiate the ,earth ,goddess4 ,but from the treatment of the victims both before and after death it appears that the custom cannot be explained as merely a propitiatory sacrifice4 ,a part of the flesh certainly was offered to the ,earth ,goddess1 but the rest of the flesh was buried by each householder in his fields1 and the ashes of the other parts of the body were scattered over the fields1 laid as paste on the granaries1 or mixed with the new corn4 ,these latter customs imply that to the body of the ,meriah there was ascribed a direct or intrinsic power of making the crops to grow1 quite independent of the indirect efficacy which it might have as an offering to secure the good-will of the deity4 ,in other words1 the flesh and ashes of the victim were believed to be endowed with a magical or physical power of fertilising the land4 ,the same intrinsic power was ascribed to the blood and tears of the ,meriah1 his blood causing the redness of the turmeric and his tears producing rain2 for it can hardly be doubted that1 originally at least1 the tears were supposed to produce rain1 not merely to prognosticate it4 ,similarly the custom of pouring water on the buried flesh of the ,meriah was no doubt a rain-charm4 ,again1 intrinsic supernatural power as an attribute of the ,meriah appears in the sovereign virtue believed to reside in anything that came from his person1 as his hair or spittle4 ,the ascription of such power to the ,meriah indicates that he was much more than a mere man sacrificed to propitiate a deity4 ,once more1 the extreme reverence paid him points to the same conclusion4 ,major ,campbell speaks of the ,meriah as 8being regarded as something more than mortal107#abij7 and ,major ,macpherson says1 8,a species of reverence1 which it is not easy to distinguish from adoration1 is paid to him407#abia7 ,in short1 the ,meriah appears to have been regarded as divine4 ,as such1 he may originally have represented the ,earth deity or perhaps a deity of vegetation2 though in later times he came to be regarded rather as a victim offered to a deity than as himself an incarnate deity4 ,this later view of the ,meriah as a victim rather than a god may perhaps have received undue emphasis from the ,european writers who have described the ,khond religion4 ,habituated to the later idea of sacrifice as an offering made to a god for the purpose of conciliating his favour1 ,european observers are apt to interpret all religious slaughter in this sense1 and to suppose that wherever such slaughter takes place1 there must necessarily be a deity to whom the slaughter is believed by the slayers to be acceptable4 ,thus their preconceived ideas unconsciously colour and warp their descriptions of savage rites4 ,the same custom of killing the representative of a god1 of which strong traces appear in the ,khond sacrifices1 may perhaps be detected in some of the other human sacrifices described above4 ,thus the ashes of the slaughtered ,marimo were scattered over the fields2 the blood of the ,brahman lad was put on the crop and field2 and the blood of the ,sioux girl was allowed to trickle on the seed47#abib7 ,again1 the identification of the victim with the corn1 in other words1 the view that he is an embodiment or spirit of the corn1 is brought out in the pains which seem to be taken to secure a physical correspondence between him and the natural object which he embodies or represents4 ,thus the ,mexicans killed young victims for the young corn and old ones for the ripe corn2 the ,marimos sacrifice1 as 8seed10 a short1 fat man1 the shortness of his stature corresponding to that of the young corn1 his fatness to the condition which it is desired that the crops may attain2 and the ,pawnees fattened their victims probably with the same view4 ,again1 the identification of the victim with the corn comes out in the ,african custom of killing him with spades and hoes1 and the ,mexican custom of grinding him1 like corn1 between two stones4 ,one more point in these savage customs deserves to be noted4 ,the ,pawnee chief devoured the heart of the ,sioux girl1 and the ,marimos and ,gonds ate the victim's flesh4 ,if1 as we suppose1 the victim was regarded as divine1 it follows that in eating his flesh his worshippers were partaking of the body of their god4 ,to this point we shall return later on4 ,the savage rites just described offer analogies to the harvest customs of ,europe4 ,thus the fertilising virtue ascribed to the corn-spirit is shown equally in the savage custom of mixing the victim's blood or ashes with the seed-corn and the ,european custom of mixing the grain from the last sheaf with the young corn in spring47#abic7 ,again1 the identification of the person with the corn appears alike in the savage custom of adapting the age and stature of the victim to the age and stature 7actual or expected7 of the crop2 in the ,scotch and ,styrian rules that when the corn-spirit is conceived as the ,maiden the last corn shall be cut by a young maiden1 but when it is conceived as the ,corn-mother it shall be cut by an old woman27#abid7 in the ,lothringian warning given to old women to save themselves when the ,old ,woman is being killed1 that is1 when the last corn is being threshed27#abie7 and in the ,tyrolese expectation that if the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is tall1 the next year's corn will be tall also47#abif7 ,further1 the same identification is implied in the savage custom of killing the representative of the corn-spirit with hoes or spades or by grinding him between stones1 and in the ,european custom of pretending to kill him with the scythe or the flail4 ,once more the ,khond custom of pouring water on the buried flesh of the victim is parallel to the ,european customs of pouring water on the personal representative of the corn-spirit or plunging him into a stream47#abig7 ,both the ,khond and the ,european customs are rain-charms4 ,to return now to the ,lityerses story4 ,it has been shown that in rude society human beings have been commonly killed to promote the growth of the crops4 ,there is therefore no improbability in the supposition that they may once have been killed for a like purpose in ,phrygia and ,europe2 and when ,phrygian legend and ,european folk-custom1 closely agreeing with each other1 point to the conclusion that men were so slain1 we are bound1 provisionally at least1 to accept the conclusion4 ,further1 both the ,lityerses story and ,european harvest customs agree in indicating that the person slain was slain as a representative of the corn-spirit1 and this indication is in harmony with the view which savages appear to take of the victim slain to make the crops flourish4 ,on the whole1 then1 we may fairly suppose that both in ,phrygia and in ,europe the representative of the corn-spirit was annually killed upon the harvest-field4 ,grounds have been already shown for believing that similarly in ,europe the representative of the tree-spirit was annually slain4 ,the proofs of these two remarkable and closely analogous customs are entirely independent of each other4 ,their coincidence seems to furnish fresh presumption in favour of both4 ,to the question1 how was the representative of the corn-spirit chosen8 one answer has been already given4 ,both the ,lityerses story and ,european folk-custom show that passing strangers were regarded as manifestations of the corn-spirit escaping from the cut or threshed corn1 and as such were seized and slain4 ,but this is not the only answer which the evidence suggests4 ,according to one version of the ,phrygian legend the victims of ,lityerses were not passing strangers but persons whom he had vanquished in a reaping contest2 and though it is not said that he killed1 but only that he thrashed them1 we can hardly avoid supposing that in one version of the story the vanquished reapers1 like the strangers in the other version1 were said to have been wrapt up by ,lityerses in corn-sheaves and so beheaded4 ,the supposition is countenanced by ,european harvest-customs4 ,we have seen that in ,europe there is sometimes a contest amongst the reapers to avoid being last1 and that the person who is vanquished in this competition1 that is1 who cuts the last corn1 is often roughly handled4 ,it is true we have not found that a pretence is made of killing him2 but on the other hand we have found that a pretence is made of killing the man who gives the last stroke at threshing1 that is1 who is vanquished in the threshing contest47#abih7 ,now1 since it is in the character of representative of the corn-spirit that the thresher of the last corn is slain in mimicry1 and since the same representative character attaches 7as we have seen7 to the cutter and binder as well as to the thresher of the last corn1 and since the same repugnance is evinced by harvesters to be last in any one of these labours1 we may conjecture that a pretence has been commonly made of killing the reaper and binder as well as the thresher of the last corn1 and that in ancient times this killing was actually carried out4 ,this conjecture is corroborated by the common superstition that whoever cuts the last corn must die soon47#abii7 ,sometimes it is thought that the person who binds the last sheaf on the field will die in the course of next year47#acjj7 ,the reason for fixing on the reaper1 binder1 or thresher of the last corn as the representative of the corn-spirit may be this4 ,the corn-spirit is supposed to lurk as long as he can in the corn1 retreating before the reapers1 the binders1 and the threshers at their work4 ,but when he is forcibly expelled from his ultimate refuge in the last corn cut or the last sheaf bound or the last grain threshed1 he necessarily assumes some other form than that of the corn-stalks which had hitherto been his garments or body4 ,and what form can the expelled corn-spirit assume more naturally than that of the person who stands nearest to the corn from which he 7the corn-spirit7 has just been expelled8 ,but the person in question is necessarily the reaper1 binder1 or thresher of the last corn4 ,he or she1 therefore1 is seized and treated as the corn-spirit himself4 ,thus the person who was killed on the harvest-field as the representative of the corn-spirit may have been either a passing stranger or the harvester who was last at reaping1 binding1 or threshing4 ,but there is a third possibility1 to which ancient legend and modern folk-custom alike point4 ,lityerses not only put strangers to death2 he was himself slain1 and probably in the same way as he had slain others1 namely1 by being wrapt in a corn-sheaf1 beheaded1 and cast into the river2 and it is implied that this happened to ,lityerses on his own land4 ,similarly in modern harvest-customs the pretence of killing appears to be carried out quite as often on the person of the master 7farmer or squire7 as on that of strangers47#acja7 ,now when we remember that ,lityerses was said to have been the son of the ,king of ,phrygia1 and combine with this the tradition that he was put to death1 apparently as a representative of the corn-spirit1 we are led to conjecture that we have here another trace of the custom of annually slaying one of those divine or priestly kings who are known to have held ghostly sway in many parts of ,western ,asia and particularly in ,phrygia4 ,the custom appears1 as we have seen17#acjb7 to have been so far modified in places that the king's son was slain in the king's stead4 ,of the custom thus modified the story of ,lityerses would therefore be a reminiscence4 ,turning now to the relation of the ,phrygian ,lityerses to the ,phrygian ,attis1 it may be remembered that at ,pessinus--the seat of a priestly kingship--the high-priest appears to have been annually slain in the character of ,attis1 a god of vegetation1 and that ,attis was described by an ancient authority as 8a reaped ear of corn407#acjc7 ,thus ,attis1 as an embodiment of the corn-spirit1 annually slain in the person of his representative1 might be thought to be ultimately identical with ,lityerses1 the latter being simply the rustic prototype out of which the state religion of ,attis was developed4 ,it may have been so2 but1 on the other hand1 the analogy of ,european folk-custom warns us that amongst the same people two distinct deities of vegetation may have their separate personal representatives1 both of whom are slain in the character of gods at different times of the year4 ,for in ,europe1 as we have seen1 it appears that one man was commonly slain in the character of the tree-spirit in spring1 and another in the character of the corn-spirit in autumn4 ,it may have been so in ,phrygia also4 ,attis was especially a tree-god1 and his connection with corn may have been only such an extension of the power of a tree-spirit as is indicated in customs like the ,harvest-,may47#acjd7 ,again1 the representative of ,attis appears to have been slain in spring2 whereas ,lityerses must have been slain in summer or autumn1 according to the time of the harvest in ,phrygia47#acje7 ,on the whole1 then1 while we are not justified in regarding ,lityerses as the prototype of ,attis1 the two may be regarded as parallel products of the same religious idea1 and may have stood to each other as in ,europe the ,old ,man of harvest stands to the ,wild ,man1 the ,leaf ,man1 etc41 of spring4 ,both were spirits or deities of vegetation1 and the personal representatives of both were annually slain4 ,but whereas the ,attis worship became elevated into the dignity of a state religion and spread to ,italy1 the rites of ,lityerses seem never to have passed the limits of their native ,phrygia1 and always retained their character of rustic ceremonies performed by peasants on the harvest-field4 ,at most a few villages may have clubbed together1 as amongst the ,khonds1 to procure a human victim to be slain as representative of the corn-spirit for their common benefit4 ,such victims may have been drawn from the families of priestly kings or kinglets1 which would account for the legendary character of ,lityerses as the son of a ,phrygian king4 ,when villages did not so club together1 each village or farm may have procured its own representative of the corn-spirit by dooming to death either a passing stranger or the harvester who cut1 bound1 or threshed the last sheaf4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that in ,phrygia1 as in ,europe1 the old barbarous custom of killing a man on the harvest-field or the threshing-floor had doubtless passed into a mere pretence long before the classical era1 and was probably regarded by the reapers and threshers themselves as no more than a rough jest which the license of a harvest-home permitted them to play off on a passing stranger1 a comrade1 or even on their master himself4 ,i have dwelt on the ,lityerses song at length because it affords so many points of comparison with ,european and savage folk-custom4 ,the other harvest songs of ,western ,asia and ,egypt1 to which attention has been called above17#acjf7 may now be dismissed much more briefly4 ,the similarity of the ,bithynian ,bormus7#acjg7 to the ,phrygian ,lityerses helps to bear out the interpretation which has been given of the latter4 ,bormus1 whose death or rather disappearance was annually mourned by the reapers in a plaintive song1 was1 like ,lityerses1 a king's son or at least the son of a wealthy and distinguished man4 ,the reapers whom he watched were at work on his own fields1 and he disappeared in going to fetch water for them2 according to one version of the story he was carried off by the 7water7 nymphs47#acjh7 ,viewed in the light of the ,lityerses story and of ,european folk-custom1 this disappearance of ,bormus is probably a reminiscence of the custom of binding the farmer himself in a corn-sheaf and throwing him into the water4 ,the mournful strain which the reapers sang was probably a lamentation over the death of the corn-spirit1 slain either in the cut corn or in the person of a human representative2 and the call which they addressed to him may have been a prayer that the corn-spirit might return in fresh vigour next year4 ,the ,phoenician ,linus song was sung at the vintage1 at least in the west of ,asia ,minor1 as we learn from ,homer2 and this1 combined with the legend of ,syleus1 suggests that in ancient times passing strangers were handled by vintagers and vine-diggers in much the same way as they are said to have been handled by the reaper ,lityerses4 ,the ,lydian ,syleus1 so ran the legend1 compelled passers-by to dig for him in his vineyard1 till ,hercules came and killed him and dug up his vines by the roots47#acji7 ,this seems to be the outline of a legend like that of ,lityerses2 but neither ancient writers nor modern folk-custom enable us to fill in the details47#acaj7 ,but1 further1 the ,linus song was probably sung also by ,phoenician reapers1 for ,herodotus compares it to the ,maneros song1 which1 as we have seen1 was a lament raised by ,egyptian reapers over the cut corn4 ,further1 ,linus was identified with ,adonis1 and ,adonis has some claims to be regarded as especially a corn-deity47#acaa7 ,thus the ,linus lament1 as sung at harvest1 would be identical with the ,adonis lament2 each would be the lamentation raised by reapers over the dead corn-spirit4 ,but whereas ,adonis1 like ,attis1 grew into a stately figure of mythology1 adored and mourned in splendid cities far beyond the limits of his ,phoenician home1 ,linus appears to have remained a simple ditty sung by reapers and vintagers among the corn-sheaves and the vines4 ,the analogy of ,lityerses and of folk-custom1 both ,european and savage1 suggests that in ,phoenicia the slain corn-spirit--the dead ,adonis--may formerly have been represented by a human victim2 and this suggestion is possibly supported by the ,harrn legend that ,thammuz 7,adonis7 was slain by his cruel lord1 who ground his bones in a mill and scattered them to the wind47#acab7 ,for in ,mexico1 as we have seen1 the human victim at harvest was crushed between two stones2 and both in ,india and ,africa the ashes of the victim were scattered over the fields47#acac7 ,but the ,harrn legend may be only a mythical way of expressing the grinding of corn in the mill and the scattering of the seed4 ,it seems worth suggesting that the mock king who was annually killed at the ,babylonian festival of the ,sacaea on the #afth of the month ,lous may have represented ,thammuz himself4 ,for the historian ,berosus1 who records the festival and its date1 probably used the ,macedonian calendar1 since he dedicated his history to ,antiochus ,soter2 and in his day the ,macedonian month ,lous appears to have corresponded to the ,babylonian month ,thammuz47#acad7 ,if this conjecture is right1 the view that the mock king at the ,sacaea was slain in the character of a god would be established4 ,there is a good deal more evidence that in ,egypt the slain corn-spirit--the dead ,osiris--was represented by a human victim1 whom the reapers slew on the harvest-field1 mourning his death in a dirge1 to which the ,greeks1 through a verbal misunderstanding1 gave the name of ,maneros47#acae7 ,for the legend of ,busiris seems to preserve a reminiscence of human sacrifices once offered by the ,egyptians in connection with the worship of ,osiris4 ,busiris was said to have been an ,egyptian king who sacrificed all strangers on the altar of ,zeus4 ,the origin of the custom was traced to a barrenness which afflicted the land of ,egypt for nine years4 ,a ,cyprian seer informed ,busiris that the barrenness would cease if a man were annually sacrificed to ,zeus4 ,so ,busiris instituted the sacrifice4 ,but when ,hercules came to ,egypt1 and was being dragged to the altar to be sacrificed1 he burst his bonds and slew ,busiris and his son47#acaf7 ,here then is a legend that in ,egypt a human victim was annually sacrificed to prevent the failure of the crops1 and a belief is implied that an omission of the sacrifice would have entailed a recurrence of that infertility which it was the object of the sacrifice to prevent4 ,so the ,pawnees1 as we have seen1 believed that an omission of the human sacrifice at planting would have been followed by a total failure of their crops4 ,the name ,busiris was in reality the name of a city1 pe-,asar1 8the house of ,osiris07#acag7 the city being so called because it contained the grave of ,osiris4 ,the human sacrifices were said to have been offered at his grave1 and the victims were red-haired men1 whose ashes were scattered abroad by means of winnowing-fans47#acah7 ,in the light of the foregoing discussion1 this ,egyptian tradition admits of a consistent and fairly probable explanation4 ,osiris1 the corn-spirit1 was annually represented at harvest by a stranger1 whose red hair made him a suitable representative of the ripe corn4 ,this man1 in his representative character1 was slain on the harvest-field1 and mourned by the reapers1 who prayed at the same time that the corn-spirit might revive and return 7m-ne-rha1 ,maneros7 with renewed vigour in the following year4 ,finally1 the victim1 or some part of him1 was burned1 and the ashes scattered by winnowing-fans over the fields to fertilise them4 ,here the choice of the representative on the ground of his resemblance to the corn which he was to represent agrees with the ,mexican and ,african customs already described47#acai7 ,similarly the ,romans sacrificed red-haired puppies in spring1 in the belief that the crops would thus grow ripe and ruddy27#acbj7 and to this day in sowing wheat a ,bavarian sower will sometimes wear a golden ring1 that the corn may grow yellow47#acba7 ,again1 the scattering of the ,egyptian victim's ashes is identical with the ,marimo and ,khond custom47#acbb7 ,his identification with the corn comes out again in the fact that his ashes were winnowed2 just as in ,vende a pretence is made of threshing and winnowing the farmer's wife1 regarded as an embodiment of the corn-spirit2 or as in ,mexico the victim was ground between stones2 or as in ,africa he was slain with spades and hoes47#acbc7 ,the story that the fragments of ,osiris's body were scattered up and down the land1 and buried by ,isis on the spots where they lay17#acbd7 may very well be a reminiscence of a custom1 like that observed by the ,khonds1 of dividing the human victim in pieces and burying the pieces1 often at intervals of many miles from each other1 in the fields4 ,however1 it is possible that the story of the dismemberment of ,osiris1 like the similar story told of ,thammuz1 may have been simply a mythical expression for the scattering of the seed4 ,once more1 the story that the body of ,osiris enclosed in a coffer was thrown by ,typhon into the ,nile perhaps points to a custom of throwing the body of the victim1 or at least a portion of it1 into the ,nile as a rain-charm1 or rather to make the ,nile rise4 ,for a similar purpose ,phrygian reapers seem to have thrown the headless bodies of their victims1 wrapt in corn-sheaves1 into a river1 and the ,khonds poured water on the buried flesh of the human victim4 ,probably when ,osiris ceased to be represented by a human victim1 an effigy of him was annually thrown into the ,nile1 just as the effigy of his ,syrian counterpart1 ,adonis1 used to be thrown into the sea at ,alexandria4 ,or water may have been simply poured over it1 as on the monument already mentioned a priest is seen pouring water over the body of ,osiris1 from which corn stalks are sprouting4 ,the accompanying inscription1 8,this is ,osiris of the mysteries1 who springs from the returning waters10 bears out the view that at the mysteries of ,osiris a water-charm or irrigation-charm was regularly performed by pouring water on his effigy1 or by throwing it into the ,nile4 ,it may be objected that the red-haired victims were slain as representatives not of ,osiris1 but of his enemy ,typhon2 for the victims were called ,typhonian1 and red was the colour of ,typhon1 black the colour of ,osiris47#acbe7 ,the answer to this objection must be reserved for the present4 ,meantime it may be pointed out that if ,osiris is often represented on the monuments as black1 he is still more commonly depicted as green17#acbf7 appropriately enough for a corn-god1 who may be conceived as black while the seed is under ground1 but as green after it has sprouted4 ,so the ,greeks recognised both a green and a black ,demeter17#acbg7 and sacrificed to the green ,demeter in spring with mirth and gladness47#acbh7 ,thus1 if ,i am right1 the key to the mysteries of ,osiris is furnished by the melancholy cry of the ,egyptian reapers1 which down to ,roman times could be heard year after year sounding across the fields1 announcing the death of the corn-spirit1 the rustic prototype of ,osiris4 ,similar cries1 as we have seen1 were also heard on all the harvest-fields of ,western ,asia4 ,by the ancients they are spoken of as songs2 but to judge from the analysis of the names ,linus and ,maneros1 they probably consisted only of a few words uttered in a prolonged musical note which could be heard for a great distance4 ,such sonorous and long-drawn cries1 raised by a number of strong voices in concert1 must have had a striking effect1 and could hardly fail to arrest the attention of any traveller who happened to be within hearing4 ,the sounds1 repeated again and again1 could probably be distinguished with tolerable ease even at a distance2 but to a ,greek traveller in ,asia or ,egypt the foreign words would commonly convey no meaning1 and he might take them1 not unnaturally1 for the name of some one 7,maneros1 ,linos1 ,lityerses1 ,bormus71 upon whom the reapers were calling4 ,and if his journey led him through more countries than one1 as ,bithynia and ,phrygia1 or ,phoenicia and ,egypt1 while the corn was being reaped1 he would have an opportunity of comparing the various harvest cries of the different peoples4 ,thus we can readily account for the fact that these harvest cries were so often noted and compared with each other by the ,greeks4 ,whereas1 if they had been regular songs1 they could not have been heard at such distances1 and therefore could not have attracted the attention of so many travellers2 and1 moreover1 even if the traveller were within hearing of them1 he could not so easily have picked out the words4 ,to this day ,devonshire reapers utter cries of the same sort1 and perform on the field a ceremony exactly analogous to that in which1 if ,i am not mistaken1 the rites of ,osiris originated4 ,the cry and the ceremony are thus described by an observer who wrote in the first half of this century4 8,after the wheat is all cut1 on most farms in the north of ,devon1 the harvest people have a custom of #8crying the neck4' ,i believe that this practice is seldom omitted on any large farm in that part of the country4 ,it is done in this way4 ,an old man1 or some one else well acquainted with the ceremonies used on the occasion 7when the labourers are reaping the last field of wheat71 goes round to the shocks and sheaves1 and picks out a little bundle of all the best ears he can find2 this bundle he ties up very neat and trim1 and plats and arranges the straws very tastefully4 ,this is called #8the neck' of wheat1 or wheaten-ears4 ,after the field is cut out1 and the pitcher once more circulated1 the reapers1 binders1 and the women1 stand round in a circle4 ,the person with #8the neck' stands in the centre1 grasping it with both his hands4 ,he first stoops and holds it near the ground1 and all the men forming the ring take off their hats1 stooping and holding them with both hands towards the ground4 ,they then all begin at once in a very prolonged and harmonious tone to cry #8the neck6' at the same time slowly raising themselves upright1 and elevating their arms and hats above their heads2 the person with #8the neck' also raising it on high4 ,this is done three times4 ,they then change their cry to #8wee yen6'--#8way yen6'--which they sound in the same prolonged and slow manner as before1 with singular harmony and effect1 three times4 ,this last cry is accompanied by the same movements of the body and arms as in crying #8the neck4'444 ,after having thus repeated #8the neck' three times1 and #8wee yen1' or #8way yen1' as often1 they all burst out into a kind of loud and joyous laugh1 flinging up their hats and caps into the air1 capering about and perhaps kissing the girls4 ,one of them then gets #8the neck' and runs as hard as he can down to the farmhouse1 where the dairymaid or one of the young female domestics stands at the door prepared with a pail of water4 ,if he who holds #8the neck' can manage to get into the house1 in any way unseen1 or openly1 by any other way than the door at which the girl stands with the pail of water1 then he may lawfully kiss her2 but1 if otherwise1 he is regularly soused with the contents of the bucket4 ,on a fine still autumn evening1 the #8crying of the neck' has a wonderful effect at a distance1 far finer than that of the ,turkish muezzin1 which ,lord ,byron eulogises so much1 and which he says is preferable to all the bells in ,christendom4 ,i have once or twice heard upwards of twenty men cry it1 and sometimes joined by an equal number of female voices4 ,about three years back1 on some high grounds1 where our people were harvesting1 ,i heard six or seven #8necks' cried in one night1 although ,i know that some of them were four miles off4 ,they are heard through the quiet evening air1 at a considerable distance sometimes407#acbi7 ,again1 ,mrs4 ,bray tells how1 travelling in ,devonshire1 8she saw a party of reapers standing in a circle on a rising ground1 holding their sickles aloft4 ,one in the middle held up some ears of corn tied together with flowers1 and the party shouted three times 7what she writes as7 #8,arnack1 arnack1 arnack1 we haven1 we haven1 we haven4' ,they went home1 accompanied by women and children carrying boughs of flowers1 shouting and singing4 ,the man-servant who attended ,mrs4 ,bray1 said1 #8it was only the people making their games1 as they always did1 to the spirit of harvest4' 07#accj7 ,here1 as ,miss ,burne remarks1 8 #8arnack1 we haven6' is obviously in the ,devon dialect1 #8a neck 7or nack76 we have un6' 0 8,the neck0 is generally hung up in the farmhouse1 where it sometimes remains for two or three years47#acca7 ,a similar custom is still observed in some parts of ,cornwall1 as ,i am informed by my friend ,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,middleton4 8,the last sheaf is decked with ribbons4 ,two strong-voiced men are chosen and placed 7one with the sheaf7 on opposite sides of a valley4 ,one shouts1 #8,i've gotten it4' ,the other shouts1 #8,what hast gotten8' ,the first answers1 #8,i'se gotten the neck4' 0 ,in these ,devonshire and ,cornish customs a particular bunch of ears1 generally the last left standing17#accb7 is conceived as the neck of the corn-spirit1 who is consequently beheaded when the bunch is cut down4 ,similarly in ,shropshire the name 8neck10 or 8the gander's neck10 used to be commonly given to the last handful of ears left standing in the middle of the field1 when all the rest of the corn was cut4 ,it was plaited together1 and the reapers1 standing ten or twenty paces off1 threw their sickles at it4 ,whoever cut it through was said to have cut off the gander's neck4 ,the 8neck0 was taken to the farmer's wife1 who was supposed to keep it in the house 8for good luck0 till the next harvest came round47#accc7 ,near ,trves1 the man who reaps the last standing corn 8cuts the goat's neck off407#accd7 ,at ,faslane1 on the ,gareloch 7,dumbartonshire71 the last handful of standing corn was sometimes called the 8head407#acce7 ,at ,aurich1 in ,east ,friesland1 the man who reaps the last corn 8cuts the hare's tail off407#accf7 ,in mowing down the last corner of a field ,french reapers sometimes call out1 8,we have the cat by the tail407#accg7 ,in ,bresse 7,bourgogne7 the last sheaf represented the fox4 ,beside it a score of ears were left standing to form the tail1 and each reaper1 going back some paces1 threw his sickle at it4 ,he who succeeded in severing it 8cut off the fox's tail10 and a cry of 8,you cou cou60 was raised in his honour47#acch7 ,these examples leave no room to doubt the meaning of the ,devonshire and ,cornish expression 8the neck10 as applied to the last sheaf4 ,the corn-spirit is conceived in human or animal form1 and the last standing corn is part of its body--its neck1 its head1 or its tail4 ,sometimes1 as we have seen1 it is regarded as the navel-string47#acci7 ,lastly1 the ,devonshire custom of drenching with water the person who brings in 8the neck0 is a rain-charm1 such as we have had many examples of4 ,its parallel in the mysteries of ,osiris was the custom of pouring water on the image of ,osiris or on the person who represented him4 ,in ,germany cries of ,waul6 or ,wol6 or ,wld6 are sometimes raised by the reapers at cutting the last corn4 ,thus in some places the last patch of standing corn was called the ,waul-rye2 a stick decked with flowers was inserted in it1 and the ears were fastened to the stick4 ,then all the reapers took off their hats and cried thrice1 ,waul6 ,waul6 ,waul6 ,sometimes they accompany the cry by clashing with their whetstones on their scythes47#acdj7 ,,footnotes #a ,for the sake of brevity ,i have sometimes1 in the notes1 referred to ,mannhardt's works respectively as ,roggenwolf 7the references are to the pages of the first edition71 ,korndmonen1 ,b4 ,k41 ,a4 ,w4 ,f41 and ,m4 ,f4 #b ,the site was excavated in #ahhe by ,sir ,john ,savile ,lumley1 ,english ambassador at ,rome4 ,for a general description of the site and excavations1 see the ,athenaeum1 #ajth ,october #ahhe4 ,for details of the finds see ,bulletino dell' ,instituto di ,corrispondenza ,archeologica1 #ahhe1 pp4 #adi sqq41 #bbe sqq4 #c ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #gef2 ,cato quoted by ,priscian1 see ,peter's ,historic4 ,roman4 ,fragmenta1 p4 #eb 7lat4 ed472 ,statius1 ,sylv4 iii4 #a1 #ef4 #d 1 1 1 is ,strabo's description 7v4 #c1 #ab71 who may have seen him 8pacing there alone40 #e ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #acf sqq42 ,servius1 ad l42 ,strabo1 v4 #c1 #ab2 ,pausanias1 ii4 #bg2 ,solinus1 ii4 #aa2 ,suetonius1 ,caligula1 #ce4 ,for the title 8,king of the ,wood10 see ,suetonius1 l4c42 and compare ,statius1 ,sylv4 iii4 #a1 #ee sq4-- 8,jamque dies aderat1 profugis cum regibus aptum ,fumat ,aricinum ,triviae nemus20 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #bga1 8,regna tenent fortesque manu1 pedibusque fugaces20 id4 ,ars am4 i4 #bei sq4-- 8,ecce suburbanae templum nemorale ,dianae1 ,partaque per gladios regna nocente manu40 #f ,bulletino dell' ,instituto1 #ahhe1 p4 #aec sq42 ,athenaeum1 #ajth ,october #ahhe2 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1#c i4 #cag4 ,of these votive offerings some represent women with children in their arms2 one represents a delivery1 etc4 #g ,statius1 ,sylv4 iii4 #a1 #eb sqq4 ,from ,martial1 xii4 #fg1 it has been inferred that the ,arician festival fell on the #acth of ,august4 ,the inference1 however1 does not seem conclusive4 ,statius's expression is3-- 8,tempus erat1 caeli cum ardentissimus axis ,incumbit terris1 ictusque ,hyperione multo ,acer anhelantes incendit ,sirius agros40 #h ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #bfi2 ,propertius1 iii4 #bd 7#cj71 #i sq4 ed4 ,paley4 #i ,inscript4 ,lat4 ed4 ,orelli1 ,no4 #adee4 #aj ,statius1 l4c42 ,gratius ,faliscus1 v4 #dhc sqq4 #aa ,athenaeum1 #ajth ,october #ahhe4 ,the water was diverted a few years ago to supply ,albano4 ,for ,egeria1 compare ,strabo1 v4 #c1 #ab2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #bgc sqq42 id4 ,met4 xv4 #dhg sqq4 #ab ,festus1 p4 #ade1 ed4 ,mller2 ,schol4 on ,persius1 vi4 #ef ap4 ,jahn on ,macrobius1 i4 #g1 #ce4 #ac ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #gfa sqq42 ,servius1 ad l42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #bfe sq42 id4 ,met4 xv4 #dig sqq42 ,pausanias1 ii4 #bg4 #ad ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #ggf4 #ae ,inscript4 ,lat4 ed4 ,orelli1 ,nos4 #bbab1 #djbb4 ,the inscription ,no4 #adeg 7,orelli7 is said to be spurious4 #af ,see above1 p4 #d1 note #a4 #ag ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b #cba sqq4 #ah ,g4 ,gilbert1 ,handbuch der griechischen ,staatsalterthmer1 i4 #bda sq4 #ai ,gilbert1 op4 cit4 ii4 #cbc sq4 #bj ,livy1 ii4 #b1 #a2 ,dionysius ,halic4 iv4 #gd1 #d4 #ba ,demosthenes1 contra ,neacr4 #gd1 p4 #acgj4 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #fc4 #bb ,xenophon1 ,repub4 ,lac4 c4 #ae1 cp4 id4 #ac2 ,aristotle1 ,pol4 iii4 #ad1 #c4 #bc ,strabo1 xii4 #c1 #cg4 #e1 #c2 cp4 xi4 #d1 #g4 xii4 #b1 #c4 #b1 #f4 #c1 #ca sq4 #c1 #cd4 #h1 #i4 #h1 #ad4 ,but see ,encyc4 ,brit41 art4 8,priest10 xix4 #gbi4 #bd ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1 p4 #bdc4 #be ,see the ,l-,k 7,legge's translation71 passim4 #bf ,a4 ,leared1 ,morocco and the ,moors1 p4 #bgb4 #bg ,j4 ,w4 ,thomas1 8,de jacht op het eiland ,nias10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxvi4 #bgg4 #bh ,e4 ,aymonier1 8,notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des ,cambodgiens10 in ,cochinchine ,franaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af1 p4 #aeg4 #bi ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bah1 ,no4 #cf4 #cj ,van ,hasselt1 ,volksbeschrijving van ,midden-,sumatra1 p4 #cbc4 #ca ,j4 ,c4 ,e4 ,tromp1 8,de ,rambai en ,sebroeang ,dajaks10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxv4 #aah4 #cb ,e4 ,aymonier1 ,notes sur le ,laos1 p4 #be sq4 #cc ,j4 ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south ,africa 7second journey71 ii4 #bjf2 ,barnabas ,shaw1 ,memorials of ,south ,africa1 p4 #ff4 #cd ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #bga sq4 #ce ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #bgb4 #cf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #cdb1 note4 #cg ,c4 ,f4 ,h4 ,campen 8,de ,godsdienstbegrippen der ,halmaherasche ,alfoeren10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxvii4 #ddg4 #ch ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #aad4 #ci ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,im ,bismarck ,archipel1 p4 #adc4 #dj ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1 8,omaha ,sociology10 in ,third ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington71 p4 #cdg4 ,cp4 ,charlevoix1 ,voyage dans l',amrique septentrionale1 ii4 #ahg4 #da ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xvi4 #ce4 ,cp4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #ih4 #db ,labat1 ,relation historique de l',ethiopie occidentale1 ii4 #ahj4 #dc ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ade4 #dd ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiv4 #cfb4 #de ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 l4c4 ,cp4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 ii4 #cgg4 #df ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #ahd2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie#d i4 #did4 ,cp4 ,san-,marte1 ,die ,arthur ,sage1 pp4 #aje sq41 #aec sqq4 #dg ,the ,american ,antiquarian1 viii4 #cci4 #dh ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #ahe sq4 #di ,ib4 p4 #ahg4 ,so at the fountain of ,sainte ,anne1 near ,gevez1 in ,brittany4 ,sbillot1 ,traditions et ,superstitions de la ,haute ,bretagne1 i4 #gb4 #ej ,lamberti1 8,relation de la ,colchide ou ,mingrlie10 ,voyages au ,nord1 vii4 #agd 7,amsterdam1 #agbe74 #ea ,le ,brun1 ,histoire critique des pratiques superstitieuses 7,amsterdam1 #agcc71 i4 #bde sq4 #eb ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cde sq4 #ec ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cbi sqq42 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d i4 #dic sq42 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,jahr und seine ,tage in ,meinung und ,brauch der ,romnen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #ag2 ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 ii4 #ac4 #ed ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cca4 #ee ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 8,de ,minahasa in #ahbe10 ,tijdschrift v4 ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xviii4 #ebd4 #ef ,j4 ,reinegg1 ,beschreibung des ,kaukasus1 ii4 #aad4 #eg ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eec2 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 ii4 #dj4 #eh ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 ,nos4 #agc1 #eac4 #ei ,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 bk4 v4 ch4 #bh4 #fj ,a4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 ,volksbeschrijving van ,midden-,sumatra1 p4 #cbj sq4 #fa ,south ,african ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 #cd4 #fb ,j4 ,s4 ,g4 ,gramberg1 8,eene maand in de binnenlanden van ,timor10 in ,verhandelingen van het ,bataviansch ,genootschap van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxxvi4 #bji4 #fc ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #hh4 #fd ,huc1 ,l'empire chinois1 i4 #bda4 #fe ,brenger-,fraud1 ,les peuplades de la ,sngambie1 p4 #bia4 #ff ,colombia1 being a geographical etc4 account of that country1 i4 #fdb sq42 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,culturlander des alten ,amerika1 ii4 #baf4 #fg ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus ,westfalen1 ii4 p4 #hj2 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 ii4 #ac4 #fh ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 i4 #ebj4 #fi ,brien1 8,aperu sur la province de ,battambang10 in ,cochinchine franaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #be1 p4 #f sq4 #gj ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #ie4 #ga ,gervasius von ,tilburg1 ed4 ,liebrecht1 p4 #da sq4 #gb ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 ,topography of ,ireland1 ch4 #g4 ,cp4 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #cda note4 #gc ,callaway1 ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 p4 #djg sq4 #gd ,reclus1 ,nouvelle ,gographie ,universelle1 xii4 #ajj4 #ge ,rasmussen1 ,additamenta ad historiam ,arabum ante ,islamismum1 p4 #fg sq4 #gf ,reste arabischen ,heidentumes1 p4 #aeg4 #gg ,labat1 ,relation historique de l',ethiopie occidentale1 ii4 #ahj4 #gh ,s4 ,gason1 8,the ,dieyerie tribe10 in ,native ,tribes of ,s4 ,australia1 p4 #bgf sqq4 #gi ,w4 ,stanbridge1 8,on the ,aborigines of ,victoria10 in ,trans4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 of ,london1 i4 #cjj4 #hj ,marcus ,antoninus1 v4 #g2 ,petronius1 #dd2 ,tertullian1 ,apolog4 #dj2 cp4 id4 #bb and #bc4 #ha ,pausanias1 viii4 #ch1 #d4 #hb ,antigonus1 ,histor4 ,mirab4 #ae 7,script4 mirab4 ,graeci1 ed4 ,westermann1 p4 #fe74 #hc ,apollodorus1 ,bibl4 i4 #i1 #g2 ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #ehe sqq42 ,servius on ,virgil1 l4c4 #hd ,festus1 svv4 aquaelicium and manalem lapidem1 pp4 #b1 #abh1 ed4 ,mller2 ,nonius ,marcellus1 sv4 trullum1 p4 #fcg1 ed4 ,quicherat2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iii4 #age2 ,fulgentius1 ,expos4 serm4 antiq41 sv4 manales lapides1 ,mythogr4 ,lat4 ed4 ,staveren1 p4 #gfi sq4 #he ,nonius ,marcellus1 sv4 aquilex1 p4 #fi1 ed4 ,quicherat4 ,in favour of taking aquilex as rain-maker is the use of aquaelicium in the sense of rain-making4 ,cp4 ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,die ,etrusker1 ed4 ,w4 ,deecke1 ii4 #cah sq4 #hf ,diodorus1 v4 #ee4 #hg ,peter ,jones1 ,history of the ,ojebway ,indians1 p4 #hd4 #hh ,gumilla1 ,histoire de l',ornoque1 iii4 #bdc sq4 #hi ,glaumont1 8,usages1 murs et coutumes des ,no-,caldoniens10 in ,revue d' ,ethnographie1 vi4 #aaf4 #ij ,arbousset et ,daumas1 ,voyage d'exploration au ,nord-est de la ,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne-,esprance1 p4 #cej sq4 ,for the kinship with the sacred object 7tchem7 from which the clan takes its name1 see ib4 pp4 #cej1 #dbb1 #dbd4 ,other people have claimed kindred with the sun1 as the ,natchez of ,north ,america 7,voyages au ,nord1 v4 #bd7 and the ,incas of ,peru4 #ia ,codrington1 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,instit4 x4 #bgh4 #ib ,above1 p4 #ah4 #ic ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cdf4 ,see above1 p4 #af4 #id ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iv4 #agd4 ,the name of the place is ,andahuayllas4 #ie ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bej4 #if ,schoolcraft1 ,the ,american ,indians1 p4 #ig sqq42 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #fa sq42 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bjj sq4 #ig ,aeneas ,sylvius1 ,opera 7,ble1 #aega71 p4 #dah4 #ih ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ii4 #ccd2 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 i4 #ej4 #ii ,fancourt1 ,history of ,yucatan1 p4 #aah4 #ajj ,south ,african ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 #cd4 #aja ,e4 ,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals of ,expeditions of ,discovery into ,central ,australia1 ii4 #cfe4 #ajb ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 iii4 #ade4 #ajc ,gmelin1 ,reise durch ,sibirien1 ii4 #eaj4 #ajd ,third ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington71 p4 #bda4 #aje ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 8,on the ,haida ,indians of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands10 ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 ,report of progress for #ahgh-ahgi1 p4 #abd ,b4 #ajf ,w4 ,powell1 ,wanderings in a ,wild ,country1 p4 #afi4 #ajg ,miss ,c4 ,f4 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,in the ,hebrides1 p4 #aff sq42 ,martin1 8,description of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #fbg4 #ajh ,olaus ,magnus1 ,gentium ,septentr4 ,hist4 iii4 #ae4 #aji ,scheffer1 ,lapponia1 p4 #add2 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,in the ,hebrides1 p4 #bed sq42 ,train1 ,account of the ,isle of ,man1 ii4 #aff4 #aaj ,c4 ,leemius1 ,de ,lapponibus ,finmarchiae etc4 commentatio1 p4 #ded4 #aaa ,odyssey1 x4 #ai sqq4 #aab ,e4 ,veckenstedt1 ,die ,mythen1 ,sagen1 und ,legenden der ,zamaiten 7,litauer71 i4 #aec4 #aac ,j4 ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #agg4 #aad ,rogers1 ,social ,life in ,scotland1 iii4 #bbj2 ,sir ,w4 ,scott1 ,pirate1 note to ch4 vii42 ,shaks4 ,macbeth1 ,act i4 ,sc4 #c1 l4 #aa4 #aae ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique 7,amsterdam1 #afhf71 p4 #chi4 #aaf ,a4 ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus ,oesterreichisch ,schlesien1 ii4 #bei4 #aag ,arctic ,papers for the ,expedition of #ahge 7,r4 ,geogr4 ,soc471 p4 #bgd4 #aah ,azara1 ,voyages dans l',amrique ,mridionale1 ii4 #acg4 #aai ,charlevoix1 ,histoire du ,paraguay1 i4 #gd4 #abj ,w4 ,a4 ,henry1 8,bijdrage tot de ,kennis der ,bataklanden10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xvii4 #bc sq4 #aba ,herodotus1 iv4 #agc2 ,aulus ,gellius1 xvi4 #aa4 #abb ,harris1 ,highlands of ,ethiopia1 i4 #ceb4 #abc ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #deg sq42 cp4 id4 ii4 #bgj2 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiii4 p4 #aid note4 #abd ,denzil ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,settlement ,report of the ,panipat ,tahsil and ,karnal ,parganah of the ,karnal ,district1 p4 #aed4 #abe ,stephen ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california1 p4 #cbh4 #abf ,sbillot1 ,coutumes populaires de la ,haute-,bretagne1 p4 #cjb sq4 #abg ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #he4 #abh ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ce4 #abi ,see for examples ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1#b ii4 #aca sqq4 #acj ,pausanias1 ii4 #bd1 #a4 is the expression4 #aca ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #adg4 ,pausanias 7vii4 #be1 #ac7 mentions the draught of bull's blood as an ordeal to test the chastity of the priestess4 ,doubtless it was thought to serve both purposes4 #acb ,caldwell1 8,on demonolatry in ,southern ,india10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1 i4 #aja sq4 #acc ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 8,de ,minahasa in #ahbe10 ,tijdschrift v4 ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xviii4 #eag sq4 ,cp4 ,n4 ,graafland1 ,de ,minahassa1 i4 #abb2 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et la recherche de ,la ,perouse1 v4 #ddc4 #acd ,f4 ,j4 ,mone1 ,geschichte des ,heidenthums im nrdlichen ,europa1 i4 #ahh4 #ace ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #if4 ,for other instances of priests or representatives of the deity drinking the warm blood of the victim1 cp4 ,tijdschrift v4 ,nederlandsch ,indi1 #ahdi1 p4 #cie2 ,oldfield1 ,sketches from ,nipal1 ii4 #bif sq42 ,asiatic ,researches1 iv4 #dj1 #da1 #ej1 #eb 7#hvo4 ed472 ,paul ,soleillet1 ,l',afrique ,occidentale1 p4 #abc sq4 ,to snuff up the savour of the sacrifice was similarly supposed to produce inspiration4 ,tertullian1 ,apologet4 #bc4 #acf ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #ig4 #acg ,lucian1 ,bis accus41 ,i2 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 ad ,lycophr41 #f4 #ach ,vambery1 ,das ,trkenvolk1 p4 #aeh4 #aci ,plutarch1 ,de defect4 oracul4 #df1 #di4 #adj ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 ii4 #cg2 ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 xvi4 #bcj sq42 ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 ,no4 #gba2 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1 i4 #ajc2 ,s4 ,mateer1 ,the ,land of ,charity1 #baf2 id41 ,native ,life in ,travancore1 p4 #id2 ,a4 ,c4 ,lyall1 ,asiatic ,studies1 p4 #ad2 ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #aca2 ,pallas1 ,reisen in verschiedenen ,provinzen des russischen ,reiches1 i4 #ia2 ,vambery1 ,das ,trkenvolk1 p4 #dhe2 ,erman1 ,archiv fr wissenschaftliche ,kunde von ,russland1 i4 #cgg4 ,when the ,rao of ,kachh sacrifices a buffalo1 water is sprinkled between its horns2 if it shakes its head1 it is unsuitable2 if it nods its head1 it is sacrificed4 ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 ,no4 #iaa4 ,this is probably a modern misinterpretation of the old custom4 #ada ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #agg sq4 #adb ,pausanias1 x4 #cb1 #f4 #adc ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises1 pp4 #bbf1 #bdj sq4 #add ,moerenhout1 ,voyages aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocan1 i4 #dgi2 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iii4 #id4 #ade ,tyerman and ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 ,china1 ,india1 etc41 i4 #ebd2 cp4 p4 #ebi sq4 #adf ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ebi sq4 #adg ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iii4 #ajh4 #adh ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #cg1 #dh1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #gc4 #adi ,hazlewood in ,erskine's ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 p4 #bdf sq4 ,cp4 ,wilkes's ,narrative of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #hg4 #aej ,kubary1 8,die ,religion der ,pelauer10 in ,bastian's ,allerlei aus ,volks- und ,menschenkunde1 i4 #cj sqq4 #aea ,f4 ,valentyn1 ,oud en nieuw ,oost-,indin1 iii4 #g sq4 #aeb ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iv4 #chc4 #aec ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,life and ,thought in ,india1 p4 #bei4 #aed ,the ,laws of ,manu1 vii4 #h1 trans4 by ,g4 ,bhler4 #aee ,monier ,williams1 op4 cit4 p4 #bei sq4 #aef ,marshall1 ,travels among the ,todas1 pp4 #acf1 #acg2 cp4 pp4 #ada1 #adb2 ,metz1 ,tribes of the ,neilgherry ,hills1 p4 #ai sqq4 #aeg ,allen and ,thomson1 ,narrative of the ,expedition to the ,river ,niger in #ahda1 i4 #bhh4 #aeh ,g4 ,massaja1 ,i miei trentacinque anni di missione nell' alta ,etiopia 7,rome and ,milan1 #ahhh71 v4 #ec sq4 #aei ,e4 ,aymonier1 ,notes sur le ,laos1 p4 #ada sq4 #afj ,robinson1 ,descriptive ,account of ,assam1 p4 #cdb sq42 ,asiatic ,researches1 xv4 #adf4 #afa ,huc1 ,souvenirs d'un ,voyage dans la ,tartarie et le ,thibet1 i4 #bgi sqq4 ed4 #abmo4 #afb ,huc1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bgi1 #cdg sq42 ,meiners1 ,geschichte der ,religionen1 i4 #cce sq42 ,georgi1 ,beschreibung aller ,nationen des ,russischen ,reichs1 p4 #dae2 ,a4 ,erman1 ,travels in ,siberia1 ii4 #cjc sqq42 ,journal of the ,roy4 ,geogr4 ,soc41 xxxviii4 7#ahfh71 #afh1 #afi2 ,proceedings of the ,roy4 ,geogr4 ,soc4 ,n4,s4 vii4 7#ahhe7 #fg4 ,in the ,journal ,roy4 ,geogr4 ,soc41 l4c41 the ,lama in question is called the ,lama ,gr2 but the context shows that he is the great ,lama of ,lhasa4 #afc ,alex4 von4 ,humboldt1 ,researches concerning the ,institutions and ,monuments of the ,ancient ,inhabitants of ,america1 ii4 #ajf sqq42 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 iv4 #ceb sqq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 ,geschichte der ,amerikanischen ,urreligionen1 p4 #dcj sq42 ,martius1 ,zur ,ethnographie ,amerikas1 p4 #dee2 ,bastian1 ,die ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 ii4 #bjd sq4 #afd ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 8,notes on the ,waganda ,tribe of ,central ,africa10 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 xiii4 #gfb2 ,c4 ,t4 ,wilson and ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 ,uganda and the ,egyptian ,soudan1 i4 #bjf4 #afe 8,the ,strange ,adventures of ,andrew ,battel10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #ccj2 ,proyart1 8,history of ,loango1 ,kakongo1 and other ,kingdoms in ,africa10 in ,pinkerton1 xvi4 #egg2 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #cce4 #aff ,ogilby1 ,africa1 p4 #fae2 ,dapper1 op4 cit4 p4 #djj4 #afg ,dos ,santos1 8,history of ,eastern ,ethiopia10 in ,pinkerton1 ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #fhb1 #fhg sq4 #afh ,f4 ,s4 ,arnot1 ,garenganze2 or1 ,seven ,years' ,pioneer ,mission ,work in ,central ,africa1 ,london1 ,n4,d4 7preface dated ,march #ahhi71 p4 #gh4 #afi ,,ms4 notes by ,e4 ,beardmore4 #agj ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ii4 #dci4 #aga ,labat1 ,relation historique de l',ethiopie ,occidentale1 ii4 #agb-agf4 #agb ,schol4 on ,apollonius ,rhod4 ii4 #abdh4 4 2 1 1 4 #agc ,h4 ,hecquard1 ,reise an der ,kste und in das ,innere von ,west ,afrika1 p4 #gh4 #agd ,bastian1 ,die ,deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #ced1 ii4 #bcj4 #age ,j4 ,leighton ,wilson1 ,west ,afrika1 p4 #ic 7,german translation74 #agf ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxviii4 #e1 #ad4 #agg ,snorro ,starleson1 ,chronicle of the ,kings of ,norway 7trans1 by ,s4 ,laing71 saga i4 chs4 #ah1 #dg4 ,cp4 ,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde1 p4 #g2 ,scheffer1 ,upsalia1 p4 #acg4 #agh ,c4 ,russwurm1 8,aberglaube in ,russland10 in ,zeitschrift fr ,deutsche ,mythologie und ,sittenkunde1 iv4 #afb2 ,liebrecht1 op4 cit41 p4 #ae4 #agi ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cjd sq4 #ahj ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #gc4 #aha ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,first ,part of the ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas1 bk4 ii4 chs4 #h and #ae 7vol4 i4 pp4 #aca1 #aee1 ,markham's ,trans47 #ahb ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #adf4 #ahc ,dennys1 ,folk-lore of ,china1 p4 #abe4 #ahd ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxiii4 #f1 #e and #f4 #ahe ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #ajc sq4 ,on the worship of the kings see also ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1 i4 #eb2 ,a4 ,erman1 ,aegypten und aegyptisches ,leben im ,altertum1 p4 #ia sqq42 ,v4 von ,strauss und ,carnen1 ,die altgyptischen ,gtter und ,gttersagen1 p4 #dfg sqq4 #ahf ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxviii4 #e1 #ad2 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #gc4 #ahg ,v4 von ,strauss und ,carnen1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgj4 #ahh ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #aje4 ,the ,babylonian and ,assyrian kings seem also to have been regarded as gods2 at least the oldest names of the kings on the monuments are preceded by a star1 the mark for 8god40 ,but there is no trace in ,babylon and ,assyria of temples and priests for the worship of the kings4 ,see ,tiele1 ,babylonisch-,assyrische ,geschichte1 p4 #dib sq4 #ahi ,bastian1 ,die ,deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 ii4 #bcj4 #aij 8,excursion de ,m4 ,brun-,rollet dans la rgion suprieure du ,nil10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie1 ,paris1 #aheb1 pt4 ii4 p4 #dba sqq4 #aia ,w4 ,munzinger1 ,ostafrikanische ,studien1 p4 #dgd 7,schaffhausen1 #ahfd74 #aib ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #dcb-dcf2 ,aymonier1 8,notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des ,cambodgens10 in ,cochinchine ,franaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af1 p4 #agb sq42 id41 ,notes sur le ,laos1 p4 #fj4 #aic ,caesar1 ,bell4 ,gall4 vi4 #be4 #aid ,elton1 ,origins of ,english ,history1 pp4 #c1 #ajf sq41 #bbd4 #aie ,w4 ,helbig1 ,die ,italiker in der ,poebene1 p4 #be sq4 #aif ,h4 ,nissen1 ,italische ,landeskunde1 p4 #dca sqq4 #aig ,neumann und ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland1 p4 #ceg sqq4 #aih ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #ec sqq4 #aii ,the locus classicus is ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bdi sqq4 #bjj ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4 i4 #ef sqq4 #bja ,adam of ,bremen1 ,descriptio ,insul4 ,aquil4 p4 #bg4 #bjb 8,prisca antiquorum ,prutenorum religio10 in ,respublica sive ,status ,regni ,poloniae1 ,lituaniae1 ,prussiae1 ,livoniae1 etc4 7,elzevir1 #afbg71 p4 #cba sq42 ,dusburg1 ,chronicon ,prussiae1 ed4 ,hartknoch1 p4 #gi2 ,hartknoch1 ,alt- und ,neues ,preussen1 p4 #aaf sqq4 #bjc ,mathias ,michov1 8,de ,sarmatia ,asiana atque ,europea10 in ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum 7,paris1 #aecb71 pp4 #dee sq4 #def wrongly numbered #dde1 #ddf2 ,martin ,cromer1 ,de origine et rebus gestis ,polonorum 7,basel1 #aefh71 p4 #bda4 #bjd ,see ,btticher1 ,der ,baumkultus der ,hellenen4 #bje ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xv4 #gg2 ,tacitus1 ,ann4 xiii4 #eh4 #bjf ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bj4 #bjg ,j4 ,l4 ,krapf1 ,travels1 ,researches1 and ,missionary ,labours during an ,eighteen ,years' ,residence in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #aih4 #bjh ,loubere1 ,historical ,relation of the ,kingdom of ,siam1 p4 #abf4 #bji ,hupe 8,over de godsdienst1 zeden1 enz4 der ,dajakker's0 in ,tijdschrift voor ,nerland's ,indi1 #ahdf1 dl4 iii4 #aeh4 #baj ,merolla1 8,voyage to ,congo10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #bcf4 #baa ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,life and ,thought in ,india1 p4 #ccd sq4 #bab ,sir ,henry ,m4 ,elliot and ,j4 ,beames1 ,memoirs on the ,history etc4 of the ,races of the ,north ,western ,provinces of ,india1 i4 #bcc4 #bac ,die gestriegelte ,rockenphilosophie 7,chemnitz1 #agei71 p4 #bci sq42 ,u4 ,jahn1 ,die deutsche ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und ,viehzucht1 p4 #bad sqq4 #bad ,van ,schmid1 8,aanteekeningen1 nopens de zeden1 gewoonten en gebruiken1 etc41 der bevolking van de eilanden ,saparoea1 etc40 in ,tijdschrift v4 ,nerland's ,indi1 #ahdc1 dl4 ii4 #fje2 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #aef4 #bae ,van ,hovell1 ,ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de ,oeliasers1 p4 #fb4 #baf ,the ,indian ,antiquary1 i4 #agj4 #bag ,j4 ,aubrey1 ,remaines of ,gentilisme1 p4 #bdg4 #bah ,peter ,jones's ,history of the ,ojebway ,indians1 p4 #ajd4 #bai ,a4 ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus sterreichisch-,schlesien1 ii4 #cj4 #bbj ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #aed2 cp4 id41 ,die ,vlker des estlichen ,asien1 ii4 #deg sq41 iii4 #bea sq41 iv4 #db sq4 #bba ,loubere1 ,siam1 p4 #abf4 #bbb ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fc4 #bbc ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #ce sq4 #bbd ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #bhj4 #bbe ,blumentritt1 8,der ,ahnencultus und die religisen ,anschauungen der ,malaien des ,philippinen-,archipels10 in ,mittheilungen der ,wiener ,geogr4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahhb1 p4 #afe sq4 #bbf ,landes1 8,contes et lgendes annamites10 ,no4 #i1 in ,cochinchine ,franaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #bj1 p4 #caj4 #bbg ,kubary in ,bastian's ,allerlei aus ,mensch-und ,volkenkunde1 i4 #eb4 #bbh ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #be2 ,bastian1 ,volkerstmme am ,brahmaputra1 p4 #cg4 #bbi ,journal ,r4 ,asiatic ,society1 vii4 7#ahdc7 #bi4 #bcj ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #ag4 #bca ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 pp4 #ahf1 #ahh2 cp4 ,bastian1 ,volkerstmme am ,brahmaputra1 p4 #i4 #bcb ,dalton1 op4 cit4 p4 #cc2 ,bastian1 op4 cit4 p4 #af4 ,cp4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #abe4 #bcc ,van ,hasselt1 ,volksbeschrijving van ,midden-,sumatra1 p4 #aef4 #bcd ,handbook of ,folk-lore1 p4 #ai 7proof74 #bce ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #hc4 #bcf ,erasmus ,stella1 8,de ,borussiae antiquitatibus10 in ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum1 p4 #eaj2 ,lasiczki 7,lasicius71 8,de diis ,samagitarum caeterorumque ,sarmatarum10 in ,respublica sive ,status ,regni ,poloniae1 ,lituaniae1 ,prussiae1 ,livoniae1 etc4 7,elzevir1 #afbg71 p4 #bii sq4 ,there is a good and cheap reprint of ,lasiczki's work by ,w4 ,mannhardt in ,magazin herausgegeben von der ,lettisch-,literarischen ,gesellschaft1 xiv4 #hb sqq4 7,mitau1 #ahfh74 #bcg ,simon ,grnau1 ,preussische ,chronik1 ed4 ,perlbach 7,leipzig #ahgf71 p4 #hi2 8,prisca antiquorum ,prutenorum religio10 in ,respublica sive ,status ,regni ,poloniae etc41 p4 #cba4 #bch ,b4 ,hagen1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,battareligion10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxviii4 #ecj note4 #bci ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 i4 #acd4 #bdj ,matthias ,michov1 in ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum1 p4 #deg4 #bda ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d1 i4 #dig2 cp4 ii4 #edj1 #eda4 #bdb ,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjaken1 p4 #abd4 #bdc ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #aaf4 #bdd ,cato1 ,de agri cultura1 #aci4 #bde ,henzen1 ,acta fratrum arvalium 7,berlin1 #ahgd71 p4 #ach4 #bdf ,on the representations of ,silvanus1 the ,roman wood-god1 see ,jordan in ,preller's ,rmische ,mythologie1#c i4 #cic note2 ,baumeister1 ,denkmler des classischen ,altertums1 iii4 #affe sq4 ,a good representation of ,silvanus bearing a pine branch is given in the ,sale ,catalogue of ,h4 ,hoffmann1 ,paris1 #ahhh1 pt4 ii4 #bdg ,aeneas ,sylvius1 ,opera 7,ble1 #aega71 p4 #dah wrongly numbered #dbj2 cp4 ,erasmus ,stella1 8,de ,borussiae antiquitatibus10 in ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum1 p4 #eaj4 #bdh ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #ahf4 #bdi ,aymonier in ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af1 p4 #age sq4 #bej ,see above1 pp4 #ac1 #ba4 #bea ,above1 p4 #af4 #beb ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 pp4 #aeh1 #aei1 #agj1 #aig1 #bad1 #cea1 #ead4 #bec ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #ahh4 #bed ,labat1 ,voyage du ,chevalier des ,marchais en ,guine1 ,isles voisines1 et ,cayenne 7,paris1 #agcj71 i4 #cch4 #bee ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bff4 #bef ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #aij sqq4 #beg ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #bab sqq4 #beh ,h4 ,low1 ,sarawak1 p4 #bgd4 #bei ,t4 ,h4 ,lewin1 ,wild ,races of ,south-eastern ,india1 p4 #bgj4 #bfj ,j4 ,mackenzie1 ,ten years north of the ,orange ,river1 p4 #che4 #bfa ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,,ms4 notes4 #bfb ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #ajc sq4 #bfc ,biddulph1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajf sq4 #bfd ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #afa2 ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #cig42 ,a4 ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus sterreichisch-,schlesien1 ii4 #bhf2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #baj4 #bfe ,quoted by ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bbg1 ,bohn's ed4 #bff ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #agd4 #bfg ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10 ,verhandlungen der ,estnischen ,gesell4 zu ,dorpat1 vii4 #aj sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #djg sq4 #bfh ,potocki1 ,voyage dans les steps d',astrakhan et du ,caucase 7,paris1 #ahbi71 i4 #cji4 #bfi ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #afc sqq4 ,to his authorities add1 for ,sardinia1 ,r4 ,tennant1 ,sardinia and its ,resources 7,rome and ,london1 #ahhe71 p4 #ahe sq4 #bgj ,radloff1 ,proben der ,volkslitteratur der nrdlichen ,trkischen ,stmme1 v4 #b4 #bga ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #ea sq4 #bgb ,merolla1 8,voyage to ,congo10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #bcf sq4 #bgc ,btticher1 ,der ,baumkultus der ,hellenen1 p4 #cj sq4 #bgd ,quoted by ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bdf 7ed4 ,bohn74 #bge ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #bed4 #bgf ,borlase1 cited by ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #bbb4 #bgg ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #bab sq4 #bgh ,dyer1 ,popular ,british ,customs1 p4 #bcc4 #bgi ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #egh2 ,dyer1 op4 cit4 p4 #bcg sq4 #bhj ,dyer1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdc4 #bha ,e4 ,cortet1 ,ftes religieuses1 p4 #afg sqq4 #bhb ,revue des ,traditions populaires1 ii4 #bjj4 #bhc ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bcd sq4 #bhd ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen1 p4 #cae4 #bhe ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #afb4 #bhf ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bce4 #bhg ,l4 ,lloyd1 op4 cit4 p4 #beg sqq4 #bhh ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #cjh sq4 #bhi ,hone1 ,every-day ,book1 i4 #edg sqq42 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #ega4 #bij ,quoted by ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcg4 #bia ,id41 op4 cit4 i4 #bce4 #bib ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #afi sq4 note4 #bic ,hone1 ,every-day ,book1 ii4 #eig sq4 #bid ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bag2 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eff4 #bie ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #gd sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #eff4 #bif ,aristophanes1 ,plutus1 #ajed2 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #bbb sq4 #big ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #hf sqq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #aef4 #bih ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #egc4 #bii ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cab4 #cjj ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cac4 #cja ,ib4 p4 #cad4 #cjb ,bavaria1 ,landes-und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iii4 #ceg2 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cab sq4 #cjc ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cac sq4 #cjd ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bfa4 #cje ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cae sq4 #cjf ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bcd4 #cjg ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cah4 #cjh ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cah2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #feg4 #cji ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cbj2 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #baa4 #caj ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cbb2 ,hone1 ,every-day ,book1 i4 #ehc sqq42 ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #bcj sq4 #caa ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cbc4 #cab ,ib4 #cac ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #aad sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cbe4 #cad ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cda sq4 #cae ,kuhn und ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #chj4 #caf ,kuhn und ,schwartz1 op4 cit4 p4 #chd2 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cdb4 #cag ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfj sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cdb sq4 #cah ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cdg sq42 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bjc4 #cai ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bec sqq4 #cbj ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfb2 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cec sq4 #cba ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cee4 #cbb ,above1 p4 #ah4 #cbc ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #ic2 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cdd4 #cbd ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cdc sq4 #cbe ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #bgj sq4 #cbf ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #cdd sq42 ,cortet1 ,ftes religieuses1 p4 #afj sqq42 ,monnier1 ,traditions populaires compares1 p4 #bhb sqq42 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,rminiscences populaires de la ,provence1 p4 #a sqq4 #cbg ,above1 p4 #fj4 #cbh ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfe sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dbb4 #cbi ,monnier1 ,traditions populaires compares1 p4 #cjd2 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dbc4 #ccj ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bcc sq4 ,bohn's ed42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dbd4 #cca ,e4 ,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,sachsen und ,thringen1 p4 #aea sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dca sq4 #ccb ,this custom was told to ,mannhardt by a ,french prisoner in the war of #ahgj-ga1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dcd4 #ccc ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dcd sq4 #ccd ,ib4 p4 #dce4 #cce ,martin1 8,description of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #fac2 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dcf4 #ccf ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 from the ,,mss4 of ,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre4 ,edited by ,alex4 ,allardyce 7,edinburgh1 #ahhh71 ii4 #ddg4 #ccg ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen1 p4 #cah sqq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dcg4 #cch ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dch4 #cci ,monnier1 ,traditions populaires compares1 p4 #bhc sq42 ,cortet1 ,ftes religieuses1 p4 #afb sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #dci sq4 #cdj ,above1 pp4 #fi sqq41 #he4 #cda ,see especially his ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte4 #cdb ,pausanias1 ix4 #c2 ,plutarch1 ap4 ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 iii4 #a sq4 #cdc ,above1 p4 #gf sq4 #cdd ,above1 p4 #gi4 #cde ,b4 ,k4 p4 #agg4 #cdf ,b4 ,k4 p4 #agg sq4 #cdg ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cah1 ,bohn's ed42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #agh4 #cdh ,hone1 ,every-day ,book1 ii4 #eie sq42 ,b4 ,k4 p4 #agh4 #cdi ,pausanias1 viii4 #db4 #cej ,once upon a time the ,wotjaks of ,russia1 being distressed by a series of bad harvests1 ascribed the calamity to the wrath of one of their gods1 ,keremet1 at being unmarried4 ,so they went in procession to the sacred grove1 riding on gaily-decked waggons1 as they do when they are fetching home a bride4 ,at the sacred grove they feasted all night1 and next morning they cut in the grove a square piece of turf which they took home with them4 8,what they meant by this marriage ceremony10 says the writer who reports it1 8it is not easy to imagine4 ,perhaps1 as ,bechterew thinks1 they meant to marry ,keremet to the kindly and fruitful mukyl'c in1 the earth-wife1 in order that she might influence him for good40--,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjken1 eine ethnologische ,studie 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 p4 #acg4 #cea ,at ,cnossus in ,crete1 ,diodorus1 v4 #gb2 at ,samos1 ,lactantius1 ,instit4 i4 #ag2 at ,athens1 ,photius1 sv4 2 ,etymolog4 ,magn4 sv4 1 p4 #dfh4 #eb4 #ceb ,iliad1 xiv4 #cdg sqq4 #cec ,demosthenes1 ,neaer4 #gc sqq4 p4 #acfi sq42 ,hesychius1 svv4 and 2 ,etymol4 ,magn4 sv4 2 ,pollux1 viii4 #ajh2 ,aug4 ,mommsen1 ,heortologie1 p4 #ceg sqq42 ,hermann1 ,gottesdienstliche ,alterthmer1#b #cb4 #ae1 #eh4 #aa sqq4 #ced ,above1 p4 #g4 #cee ,above1 p4 #id4 #cef ,above1 p4 #ie sq4 #ceg ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythol4#c i4 #eei4 #ceh ,hyginus1 ,astronomica1 i4 #e4 #cei ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #ccb1 nam1 ut diximus1 et omnis quercus ,jovi est consecrata1 et omnis lucus ,dianae4 #cfj ,roscher's ,lexikon d4 ,griech4 u4 ,rm4 ,mythologie1 c4 #ajje4 #cfa ,see above1 p4 #d4 ,for ,diana in this character1 see ,roscher1 op4 cit4 c4 #ajjg4 #cfb ,roscher1 c4 #ajjf sq4 #cfc ,castren1 ,finnische ,mythologie1 p4 #ig4 #cfd ,mathias ,michov1 8,de ,sarmatia ,asiana atque ,europea10 in ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum1 p4 #deg4 #cfe ,livy1 i4 #de2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #d4 #cff ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #fjj sq41 with ,servius's note4 #cfg ,castren1 op4 cit4 p4 #ig sq4 #cfh ,above1 p4 #d sq4 #cfi ,above1 p4 #ff sq4 #cgj ,above1 p4 #f4 #cga ,above1 p4 #ga4 #cgb ,castren1 ,finnische ,mythologie1 pp4 #ib1 #ie4 #cgc ,historic4 ,roman4 ,fragm4 ed4 ,peter1 p4 #eb 7first ed47 #cgd ,manners and ,customs of the ,japanese in the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,from recent ,dutch ,visitors to ,japan1 and the ,german of ,dr4 ,ph4 ,fr4 von ,siebold 7,london1 #ahda71 p4 #ada sqq4 #cge ,kaempfer1 8,history of ,japan10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 vii4 #gaf sq4 #cgf ,caron1 8,account of ,japan10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 vii4 #fac4 ,compare ,varenius1 ,descriptio regni ,japoniae1 p4 #aa1 ,nunquam attingebant 7quemadmodum et hodie id observat7 pedes ipsius terram3 radiis ,solis caput nunquam illustrabatur3 in apertum arem non procedebat1 etc4 #cgg ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #bhg sq42 cp4 id41 p4 #cec sq4 #cgh ,labat1 ,relation historique de l',ethiopie ,occidentale1 i4 #bed sqq4 #cgi ,above1 pp4 #dd1 #di4 #chj ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,hist4 des nations civilises du ,mexique et de l',amrique-centrale1 iii4 #bi sq42 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #adb sq4 #cha ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #cee4 #chb ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #ccf4 #chc ,p4 #di sq4 #chd ,bibl4 ,hist4 i4 #gj4 #che ,p4 #f4 #chf ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #aji-aab2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #adf2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4 vv4 #agi1 #ddh1 iv4 #eah2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #af1 #h sq42 ,festus1 p4 #afa ,a1 ed4 ,mller4 ,for more details see ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b #cbf sqq4 #chg ,p4 #ed4 #chh ,p4 #dh4 #chi ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #ced sq42 ii4 #i1 #aa4 #cij ,manners and ,customs of the ,japanese1 pp4 #aii sqq4 #cee sqq4 #cia ,richard1 8,history of ,tonquin10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 #gdd sqq4 #cib ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iii4 #ii sqq4 ed4 #ahcf4 #cic ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #bic sqq4 #cid ,pp4 #dd1 #aac4 #cie ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 vii4 #bhb4 #cif ,relations des ,jesuites1 #afcd1 p4 #ag2 id41 #afcf1 p4 #ajd2 id41 #afci1 p4 #dc 7,canadian reprint74 #cig ,h4 ,rink1 ,tales and ,traditions of the ,eskimo1 p4 #cf4 #cih ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #aga4 #cii ,h4 ,sundermann1 8,die ,insel ,nias und die ,mission daselbst10 in ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 bd4 xi4 ,october #ahhd1 p4 #dec4 #djj ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,over de ,bissoes of heidensche priesters en priesteressen der ,boeginezen1 p4 #bd4 #dja ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 8,on the ,haida ,indians of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands10 in ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 ,report of ,progress for #ahgh-ahgi1 pp4 #abc ,b1 #aci ,b4 #djb ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 vi4 #cig sq4 #djc ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #ffe4 #djd ,d',orbigny1 ,l',homme ,amricain1 ii4 #bda2 ,transact4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 of ,london1 iii4 #cbb sq42 ,bastian1 ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 i4 #dgf4 #dje ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes1 p4 #ed4 #djf ,zimmermann1 ,die ,inseln des ,indischen und ,stillen ,meeres1 ii4 #chf sq4 #djg ,cp4 the ,greek 1 1 etc4 #djh ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,het animisme bij de volken van den ,indischen ,archipel10 in ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 p4 #idd4 #dji ,wilken1 l4c4 #daj ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes1 p4 #cc2 id41 ,over de ,bissoes of heidensche priesters en priesteressen der ,boeginezen1 p4 #i sq42 id41 ,makassaarsch-,hollandsch ,woordenboek1 svv4 ,korre and soemg1 pp4 #da1 #efi4 ,of these two words1 the former means the sound made in calling fowls1 and the latter means the soul4 ,the expression for the ceremonies described in the text is pakorre soemg4 #daa ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 his ,life and ,notions1 ii4 #ajj4 #dab ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 ,west ,afrika1 p4 #afb sq4 7,german translation74 #dac ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #bfg4 ,for detention of sleeper's soul by spirits and consequent illness1 see also ,mason1 quoted in ,bastian's ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #chg note4 #dad ,indian ,antiquary1 #ahgh1 vii4 #bgc2 ,bastian1 ,vlkerstmme am ,brahmaputra1 p4 #abg4 ,similar story 7lizard form of soul not mentioned7 told by ,hindus1 ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 ,no4 #fgi4 #dae ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 ii4 #bg sq4 ,a similar story is told in ,holland1 ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1 ,nederlandsche ,sagen1 ,no4 #bea1 p4 #cdd sq4 ,the stories of ,hermotimus and ,king ,gunthram belong to the same class4 ,in the latter the king's soul comes out of his mouth as a small reptile4 ,the soul of ,aristeas issued from his mouth in the form of a raven4 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 vii4 #agd2 ,lucian1 ,muse4 ,encom4 #g2 ,paulus1 ,hist4 ,langobardorum1 iii4 #cd4 ,in an ,east ,indian story of the same type the sleeper's soul issues from his nose in the form of a cricket4 ,wilken in ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 p4 #idj4 ,in a ,swabian story a girl's soul creeps out of her mouth in the form of a white mouse4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 i4 #cjc4 #daf ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 ii4 #ajc2 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #chi2 ,blumentritt1 8,der ,ahnencultus und die religisen ,anschauungen der ,malaien des ,philippinen-,archipels10 in ,mittheilungen d4 ,wiener ,geogr4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahhb1 p4 #bji2 ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #ddj2 id41 8,die ,landschaft ,dawan oder ,west-,timor10 in ,deutsche ,geographische ,bltter1 x4 #bhj4 #dag ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 ,no4 #ecj4 #dah ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #aag sq4 #dai ,bastian1 ,die ,seele und ihre ,erscheinungwesen in der ,ethnographie1 p4 #cf4 #dbj ,pantschatantra1 ,benfey1 p4 #abd sqq4 #dba ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 trans4 ,tawney1 i4 #ba sq4 #dbb ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 8,on the ,karens10 in ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 iv4 #caa4 #dbc ,a4 ,r4 ,m',mahon1 ,the ,karens of the ,golden ,chersonese1 p4 #cah4 #dbd ,f4 ,mason1 8,physical ,character of the ,karens10 in ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 #ahff1 pt4 ii4 p4 #bh sq4 #dbe ,c4 ,j4 ,s4 ,f4 ,forbes1 ,british ,burma1 p4 #ii sq42 ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 ii4 #ajb2 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #chi4 #dbf ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #dad4 #dbg ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #bba sq4 #dbh ,n4 ,ph4 ,wilken en ,j4 ,a4 ,schwarz1 8,het heidendom en de ,islam in ,bolaang ,mongondou10 in ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 #ahfg1 xi4 #bfc sq4 #dbi ,james ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #eg sq4 #dcj ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #aga sq4 #dca ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,het animisme10 in ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 p4 #icg4 #dcb ,landes1 8,contes et lgendes annamites10 ,no4 #gf in ,cochinchine ,franaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #bc1 p4 #hj4 #dcc ,perelaer1 ,ethnographische ,beschrijving der ,dajaks1 p4 #bf sq4 #dcd ,fr4 ,valentyn1 ,oud en nieuw ,oost-,indien1 iii4 #ac sq4 #dce ,van ,schmidt1 8,aanteekeningen1 nopens de zeden1 gewoonten en gebruiken1 benevens de vooroordeelen en bijgelovigheden der bevolking van de eilanden ,saparoea1 ,haroekoe1 ,noessa ,laut1 en van een gedeelte van de zuidkust van ,ceram10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,nerland's ,indie1 #ahdc1 dl4 ii4 #eaa sqq4 #dcf ,bastian1 ,die ,seele1 p4 #cf sq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,gmelin1 ,reise durch ,sibirien1 ii4 #cei sq4 #dcg ,p4 ,n4 ,wilken1 8,bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der ,alfoeren in de ,minahassa10 in ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 #ahfc1 vii4 #adf sq4 ,why the priest1 after restoring the soul1 tells it to go away again1 is not clear4 #dch ,riedel1 8,de ,minahassa in #ahbe10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xviii4 #ebc4 #dci ,n4 ,graafland1 ,de ,minahassa1 i4 #cbg sq4 #ddj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #adb sq4 #dda ,j4 ,b4 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane en ,bila-stroomgebied op het eiland ,sumatra10 in ,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ii4 de ,serie1 dl4 iii41 ,afdeeling3 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #b 7#ahhf71 p4 #cjb4 #ddb ,codrington1 8,religious ,beliefs and ,practices in ,melanesia10 in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 x4 #bha4 #ddc ,horatio ,hale1 ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 p4 #bjh sq4 ,cp4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition 7,london1 #ahde71 iv4 #ddh sq4 #ddd ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #gg sq4 #dde ,ib4 p4 #cef sq4 #ddf ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #cgf4 #ddg ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1 i4 #ahi4 ,sometimes the souls resemble cotton seeds 7ib47 ,cp4 id4 i4 #ahc4 #ddh ,nieuwenhuisen en ,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het ,eiland ,nias10 in ,verhandel4 van het ,batav4 ,genootsch4 van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 #aaf2 ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel1 p4 #agd4 #ddi ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bej4 #dej ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #aga2 id41 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #aha sqq4 #dea ,l4 ,j4 ,b4 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,les ,peuplades de la ,sngambie 7,paris1 #ahgi71 p4 #bgg4 #deb ,w4 ,h4 ,bentley1 ,life on the ,congo 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4 #ga4 #dec ,bastian1 ,allerlei aus ,volks-und ,menschenkunde 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 i4 #aai4 #ded ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcg1 p4 #ej4 #dee ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #gh sq4 #def ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 8,on the ,karens10 in ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 iv4 #cjg4 #deg ,j4 ,b4 ,mc,cullagh in ,the ,church ,missionary ,gleaner1 xiv4 ,no4 #afd 7,august #ahhg71 p4 #ia4 ,the same account is copied from the 8,north ,star0 7,sitka1 ,alaska1 ,december #ahhh71 in ,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 ii4 #gd sq4 ,mr4 ,mc,cullagh's account 7which is closely followed in the text7 of the latter part of the custom is not quite clear4 ,it would seem that failing to find the soul in the head-doctor's box it occurs to them that he may have swallowed it1 as the other doctors were at first supposed to have done4 ,with a view of testing this hypothesis they hold him up by the heels to empty out the soul2 and as the water with which his head is washed may possibly contain the missing soul1 it is poured on the patient's head to restore the soul to him4 ,we have already seen that the recovered soul is often conveyed into the sick person's head4 #deh ,riedel1 ,de ,topantunuasu of oorspronkelijke volksstammen van ,central ,selebes 7overgedrukt uit de ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 #e;e volgr4 i471 p4 #ag2 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane en ,bila-stroomgebied10 in ,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ii4 de ,serie1 dl4 iii41 ,afdeeling3 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #b 7#ahhf71 p4 #cjj sq42 ,priklonski1 8,die ,jakuten10 in ,bastian's ,allerlei aus ,volks-und ,menschenkunde1 ii4 #bah sq42 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #chh1 iii4 #bcf2 id41 ,vlkerstmme am ,brahmaputra1 p4 #bc2 id41 8,hgelstmme ,assam's10 in ,verhandlungen d4 ,berlin4 ,gesell4 f4 ,anthropol4 ,ethnol4 und ,urgeschichte1 #ahha1 p4 #aef2 ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 i4 #bhc sq41 ii4 #aja sq42 ,sproat1 ,scenes and ,studies of ,savage ,life1 p4 #bad2 ,doolittle1 ,social ,life of the ,chinese1 p4 #aaj sq4 7ed4 ,paxton ,hood72 ,t4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bdb2 ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 8,on the ,karens10 in ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 iv4 #cji sq42 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,on some ,australian ,beliefs10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,instit4 xiii4 #ahg sq42 id41 8,on ,australian ,medicine ,men10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xvi4 #da2 ,e4 ,p4 ,houghton1 8,on the ,land ,dayaks of ,upper ,sarawak10 in ,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london1 iii4 #aif sq42 ,l4 ,dahle1 8,sikidy and ,vintana10 in ,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar ,annual1 xi4 7#ahhg7 p4 #cbj sq42 ,c4 ,leemius1 ,de ,lapponibus ,finmarchiae eorumque lingua1 vita et religione pristina commentatio 7,copenhagen1 #agfg71 p4 #daf sq4 ,some time ago my friend ,professor ,w4 ,robertson ,smith suggested to me that the practice of hunting souls1 which is denounced in ,ezekiel xiii4 #ag sqq4 must have been akin to those described in the text4 #dei ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #ddj4 #dfj ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 v4 #dee4 #dfa ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdj4 #dfb ,codrington1 8,religious ,beliefs and ,practices in ,melanesia10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,instit4 x4 #bha4 #dfc ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #fa4 #dfd ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #bhd sqq4 #dfe ,bernard ,schmidt1 ,das ,volksleben der ,neugriechen1 pp4 #id sqq41 #aai sq42 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #igb2 ,rochholz1 ,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch1 i4 #fb sqq42 ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 i4 #cca4 #dff ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,ran4 #bic4 #dfg ,aristotle ,mirab4 ,auscult4 #ade 7#aeg72 ,geoponica1 xv4 #a4 ,in the latter passage1 for we must read 4 1 an emendation necessitated by the context1 and confirmed by the passage of ,damr quoted and translated by ,bochart1 ,hierozoicon1 i4 c4 #hcc1 8cum ad lunam calcat umbram canis1 qui supra tectura est1 canis ad eam scil4 hyaenam decidit1 et ea illum devorat40 ,cp4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #abb4 #dfh ,pausanias1 viii4 #ch1 #f2 ,polybius1 xvi4 #ab1 #g2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,graec4 #ci4 #dfi ,b4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,volksleben der ,neugriechen1 p4 #aif sq4 #dgj ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #abg4 #dga ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,jahr und seine ,tage in ,meinung und ,brauch der ,romnen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #bg2 ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 ii4 #ag sq4 #dgb ,e4 ,h4 ,mann1 ,aboriginal ,inhabitants of the ,andaman ,islands1 p4 #id4 #dgc ,williams1 ,fiji1 i4 #bda4 #dgd ,james ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4 #agj4 #dge ,sahagun1 ,histoire gnrale des choses de la ,nouvelle-,espagne 7,paris1 #ahhj71 p4 #cad4 ,the ,chinese hang brass mirrors over the idols in their houses1 because it is thought that evil spirits entering the house and seeing themselves in the mirrors will be scared away 7,china ,review1 ii4 #afd74 #dgf ,callaway1 ,nursery ,tales1 ,traditions1 and ,histories of the ,zulus1 p4 #cdb4 #dgg ,arbousset et ,daumas1 ,voyage d'exploration au ,nord-est de la ,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne-,esprance1 p4 #ab4 #dgh ,codrington1 8,religious ,beliefs and ,practices in ,melanesia10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,instit4 x4 #cac4 #dgi ,fragmenta ,philosoph4 ,graec4 ed4 ,mullach1 i4 #eaj2 ,artemidorus1 ,onirocr4 ii4 #g2 ,laws of ,manu1 iv4 #ch4 #dhj ,see above1 p4 #abe sq4 #dha ,wattke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1#b #gbf4 #dhb ,ib4 #dhc ,folk-lore ,journal1 iii4 #bha2 ,dyer1 ,english ,folk-lore1 p4 #aji2 ,j4 ,napier1 ,folk-lore1 or ,superstitious ,beliefs in the ,west of ,scotland1 p4 #fj2 ,ellis1 ,history of ,madagascar1 i4 #bch2 ,revue d',ethnographie1 v4 #bae4 #dhd ,punjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #ijf4 #dhe ,folk-lore ,journal1 vi4 #ade sq42 ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii41 ,no4 #cgh4 #dhf ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xv4 #hb sqq4 #dhg ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #aag4 ,the objection1 however1 may be merely ,puritanical4 ,professor ,w4 ,robertson ,smith informs me that the peculiarities of the ,raskolniks are largely due to exaggerated ,puritanism4 #dhh ,a4 ,simson1 8,notes on the ,jivaros and ,canelos ,indians10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 ix4 #cib4 #dhi ,j4 ,thomson1 ,through ,masai ,land1 p4 #hf4 #dij ,maximilian ,prinz zu ,wied1 ,reise in das ,innere ,nord-,amerika1 i4 #dag4 #dia ,ib4 ii4 #aff4 #dib 8,a far-off ,greek ,island10 ,blackwood's ,magazine1 ,february #ahhf1 p4 #bce4 #dic ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #aag4 #did ,james ,napier1 ,folk-lore3 or1 ,superstitious ,beliefs in the ,west of ,scotland1 p4 #adb4 ,for more examples of the same sort1 see ,r4 ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen und ,vergleiche1 ,neue ,folge 7,leipzig1 #ahhi71 p4 #ah sqq4 #die ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bia sq4 #dif ,charles ,new1 ,life1 ,wanderings1 and ,labours in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #dcb4 ,cp4 ib4 pp4 #djj1 #djb4 ,for the demons on ,mt4 ,kilimanjaro1 see also ,krapf1 ,travels1 ,researches etc4 in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #aib4 #dig ,pierre ,bouche1 ,la ,cte des ,esclaves et le ,dahomey1 p4 #acc4 #dih ,c4 ,a4 ,l4 ,m4 ,schwaner1 ,borneo1 ii4 #gg4 #dii ,ib4 ii4 #afg4 #ejj ,e4 ,aymonier1 ,notes sur le ,laos1 p4 #aif4 #eja ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel1 p4 #aih4 #ejb ,capt4 ,john ,moresby1 ,discoveries and ,surveys in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #ajb sq4 #ejc ,r4 ,i4 ,dodge1 ,our ,wild ,indians 7,hartford1 ,conn42 #ahhf71 p4 #aai4 #ejd ,j4 ,crevaux1 ,voyages dans l',amrique du ,sud1 p4 #cjj4 #eje ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #gh4 #ejf ,perelaer1 ,ethnographische ,beschrijving der ,dajaks1 pp4 #dd1 #ed1 #beb2 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes1 p4 #di4 #ejg ,h4 ,grtzner1 8,ueber die ,gebruche der ,basutho10 in ,verhandl4 d4 ,berlin4 ,gesell4 f4 ,anthropologie1 etc4 #ahgg1 p4 #hd sq4 #ejh ,nieuwenhuisen en ,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het eiland ,nias10 in ,verhandel4 v4 h4 ,batav4 ,genootsch4 v4 ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 #bf4 #eji ,journal of the ,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1 i4 #ce4 #eaj ,e4 ,o',donovan1 ,the ,merv ,oasis 7,london1 #ahhb71 ii4 #eh4 #eaa ,emin ,pasha in ,central ,africa1 being a ,collection of his ,letters and ,journals 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #ajg4 #eab ,narrative of the ,second ,arctic ,expedition made by ,charles ,f4 ,hall4 ,edited by ,prof4 ,j4 ,g4 ,nourse1 ,u4,s4,n4 7,washington1 #ahgi71 p4 #bfi note4 #eac ,j4 ,a4 ,grant1 ,a ,walk across ,africa1 p4 #ajd sq4 #ead ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #ajc4 #eae ,n4 von ,miklucho-,maclay1 8,ethnologische ,bemerkungen ber die ,papuas der ,maclay-,kste in ,neu-,guinea10 in ,natuurkundig ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indie1 xxxvi4 #cag sq4 #eaf ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #acd4 #eag ,scholiast on ,euripides1 ,phoeniss4 #acgg4 ,these men were sacred to the war-god 7,ares71 and were always spared in battle4 #eah ,john ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south ,africa1 being a ,narrative of a ,second ,journey in the ,interior of that ,country1 ii4 #bje4 #eai ,ladislaus ,magyar1 ,reisen in ,sd-,afrika1 p4 #bjc4 #ebj ,asiatick ,researches1 vi4 #ece sq4 ed4 #dto 7p4 #ecg sq4 ed4 #hvo74 #eba ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bbc4 #ebb ,franois ,valentyn1 ,oud en nieuw ,oost-,indin1 iii4 #af4 #ebc ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cje sq4 #ebd ,de ,plano ,carpini1 ,historia ,mongolorum quos nos ,tartaros appellamus1 ed4 ,d',avezac 7,paris1 #ahch71 cap4 iii4 iii4 p4 #fbg1 cap4 ult4 i4 x4 p4 #gdd1 and ,appendix1 p4 #gge2 8,travels of ,william de ,rubriquis into ,tartary and ,china10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 vii4 #hb sq4 #ebe ,paul ,pogge1 8,bericht ber die ,station ,mukenge10 in ,mittheilungen der ,afrikanischen ,gesellschaft in ,deutschland1 iv4 7#ahhc-ahhe7 #ahb sq4 #ebf ,j4 ,l4 ,krapf1 ,travels1 ,researches1 and ,missionary ,labours during an ,eighteen ,years' ,residence in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #beb sq4 #ebg ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #cia4 #ebh ,proyart1 8,history of ,loango1 ,kakongo10 etc41 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #ehc2 ,dapper1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdj2 ,j4 ,ogilby1 ,africa 7,london1 #afgj71 p4 #eba4 ,cp4 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #bhh4 #ebi ,bastian1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfh sq4 #ecj ,j4 ,b4 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane-en ,bila-,stroomgebied op het eiland ,sumatra10 in ,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ii4 de ,serie1 dl4 iii41 ,afdeeling3 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #cjj4 #eca ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bdi4 #ecb ,j4 ,richardson1 8,tanala ,customs1 ,superstitions and ,beliefs10 in ,the ,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1 ,no4 ii4 p4 #bai4 #ecc ,lieut4 ,cameron1 ,across ,africa1 ii4 #ga 7ed4 #ahgg72 id41 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 vi4 #agc4 #ecd 8,adventures of ,andrew ,battel10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #ccj2 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #ccj2 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #bfb sq42 ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 ,abeokuta and the ,cameroons ,mountains1 i4 #adg4 #ece ,proyart's 8,history of ,loango1 ,kakongo10 etc41 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #ehd4 #ecf ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 ,west ,afrika1 p4 #adh 7,german trans472 ,john ,duncan1 ,travels in ,western ,africa1 i4 #bbb4 ,cp4 ,w4 ,w4 ,reade1 ,savage ,africa1 p4 #edc4 #ecg ,paul ,pogge1 ,im ,reiche des ,muato ,jamwo 7,berlin1 #ahhj71 p4 #bca4 #ech ,capt4 ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #cgd 7ed4 #ahji74 #eci ,heraclides ,cumanus in ,athenaeus1 iv4 #ade ,b-,d4 #edj ,mohammed ,ibn-,omar el ,tounsy1 ,voyage au ,darfour 7,paris1 #ahde71 p4 #bjc2 ,travels of an ,arab ,merchant ,mohammed ,ibn-,omar el ,tounsy in ,soudan1 abridged from the ,french 7of ,perron7 by ,bayle ,st4 ,john1 p4 #ia sq4 #eda ,mohammed ,ibn-,omar el ,tounsy1 ,voyage au ,ouady 7,paris1 #ahea71 p4 #cge4 #edb ,h4 ,duveyrier1 ,exploration du ,sahara4 ,les ,touareg du ,nord1 p4 #cia sq42 ,reclus1 ,nouvelle ,gographie ,universelle1 xi4 #hch sq42 ,james ,richardson1 ,travels in the ,great ,desert of ,sahara1 ii4 #bjh4 ,amongst the ,arabs men sometimes veiled their faces4 ,wellhausen1 ,reste ,arabischen ,heidentumes1 p4 #adf4 #edc ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fg sq4 #edd ,riedel1 8,die ,landschaft ,dawan oder ,west-,timor10 in ,deutsche ,geographische ,blatter1 x4 #bcj4 #ede ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,on some ,australian ,ceremonies of ,initiation10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiii4 #def4 #edf ,compare ,dio ,chrysostomus1 ,orat4 xxxii4 i4 #dag1 ed4 ,dindorf2 mihi anima in naso esse1 stabam tanquam mortuus1 ,petronius1 ,sat4 #fb2 in primis labris animam habere1 ,seneca1 ,natur ,quaest4 iii4 praef4 #af4 #edg ,see above1 p4 #aab4 #edh ,bastian1 ,die ,loango-,kste1 i4 #bfc4 ,however1 a case is recorded in which he marched out to war 7ib4 i4 #bfh sq47 #edi ,s4 ,crowther and ,j4 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,the ,gospel on the ,banks of the ,niger1 p4 #dcc4 ,on p4 #cgi mention is made of the king's 8annual appearance to the public10 but this may have taken place within 8the precincts of his premises40 #eej ,strabo1 xvii4 #b1 #b1 1 4 #eea ,strabo1 xvi4 #d1 #ai2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #dg4 #eeb ,heraclides ,cumanus in ,athenaeus1 #eag ,b4,c4 #eec ,ch4 ,dallet1 ,histoire de l'glise de ,core 7,paris1 #ahgd71 i4 xxiv-xxvi4 ,the king sometimes1 though rarely1 leaves his palace4 ,when he does so1 notice is given beforehand to the people4 ,all doors must be shut and each householder must kneel before his threshold with a broom and a dust-pan in his hand4 ,all windows1 especially the upper ones1 must be sealed with slips of paper1 lest some one should look down upon the king4 ,w4 ,e4 ,griffis1 ,corea1 the ,hermit ,nation1 p4 #bbb4 #eed ,richard1 8,history of ,tonquin10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 #gdf4 #eee ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 i4 #cjh sq4 #eef ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #fc2 ,taplin1 8,notes on the mixed races of ,australia10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 iv4 #ec4 #eeg ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cbj sq4 #eeh ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #ccj4 #eei ,bosman's 8,guinea10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #dhg4 #efj ,p4 ,n4 ,wilken1 8,bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der ,alfoeren in de ,minahassa10 in ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xi4 7#ahfc7 #abf4 #efa ,kaempfer's 8,history of ,japan10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 vii4 #gag4 #efb ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #if sq4 #efc ,w4 ,brown1 ,new ,zealand and its ,aborigines 7,london1 #ahde71 p4 #gf4 ,for more examples of the same kind see ib4 p4 #gg sq4 #efd ,e4 ,tregear1 8,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xix4 #ajj4 #efe ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui3 or1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1#b p4 #afd4 #eff ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand1 i4 #aja sqq42 ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 pp4 #id1 #ajd sqq4 #efg ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 ix4 #deh4 #efh ,w4 ,ridley1 8,report on ,australian ,languages and ,traditions10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 ii4 #bfh4 #efi ,alexander ,mackenzie1 ,voyages from ,montreal through the ,continent of ,north ,america1 cxxiii4 #egj ,report of the ,international ,polar ,expedition to ,point ,barrow1 ,alaska 7,washington1 #ahhe71 p4 #df4 #ega 8,customs of the ,new ,caledonian ,women10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 vii4 #bjf4 #egb ,s4 ,hearne1 ,a ,journey from ,prince of ,wales's ,fort in ,hudson's ,bay to the ,northern ,ocean1 p4 #bjd sqq4 #egc ,l4 ,alberti1 ,de ,kaffers 7,amsterdam1 #ahaj71 p4 #gf sq42 ,h4 ,lichtenstein1 ,reisen im sdlichen ,afrika1 i4 #dbg4 #egd ,narrative of the ,captivity and ,adventures of ,john ,tanner 7,london1 #ahcj71 p4 #abb4 #ege ,on the nature of taboo1 see especially ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #adb sqq4 #dbg sqq4 #egf ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iii4 #ajb4 #egg ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #bbf4 #egh ,ch4 ,dallet1 ,histoire de l'glise de ,core1 i4 xxiv4 sq42 ,griffis1 ,corea1 the ,hermit ,nation1 p4 #bai4 #egi ,macrobius1 ,sat4 v4 #ai1 #ac2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4 #ddh2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mens4 i4 #ca4 #ehj ,acta ,fratrum ,arvalium1 ed4 ,henzen1 pp4 #abh-ace2 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b 7,das ,sacralwesen71 p4 #dei sq4 #eha ,callimachus1 referred to by the ,old ,scholiast on ,ovid1 ,ibis4 ,see ,callimachus1 ed4 ,blomfield1 p4 #baf2 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #fhf4 #ehb ,plutarch1 ,aristides1 #ba4 ,this passage ,i owe to ,mr4 ,w4 ,wyse4 #ehc ,theophilus ,hahn1 ,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being of the ,khoi-,khoi1 p4 #bb4 #ehd ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke1 ,the ,snake ,dance of the ,moquis of ,arizona1 p4 #agh sq4 #ehe ,c4 ,f4 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,in the ,hebrides 7ed4 #ahhc71 p4 #aie4 #ehf ,james ,logan1 ,the ,scottish ,gael 7ed4 ,alex4 ,stewart71 ii4 #fh sq4 #ehg ,c4 ,f4 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,in the ,hebrides1 p4 #bbf2 ,e4 ,j4 ,guthrie1 ,old ,scottish ,customs1 p4 #bbc4 #ehh #a ,kings vi4 #g2 ,exodus xx4 #be4 #ehi ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,antiquit4 ,roman1 iii4 #de1 v4 #bd2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #i2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxvi4 #ajj4 #eij ,acta ,fratrum ,arvalium1 ed4 ,henzen1 p4 #acb2 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 i4 ,no4 #fjc4 #eia ,pliny1 l4c4 #eib ,indian ,antiquary1 x4 7#ahha7 #cfd4 #eic ,frank ,hatton1 ,north ,borneo 7#ahhf71 p4 #bcc4 #eid ,alexand4 ,guagninus1 8,de ducatu ,samogitiae10 in ,respublica sive ,status ,regni ,poloniae1 ,lituaniae1 ,prussiae1 ,livoniae etc4 7,elzevir1 #afbg71 p4 #bgf2 ,johan4 ,lasicius1 8,de diis ,samogitarum caeterorumque ,sarmatum10 in ,respublica1 etc4 7ut supra71 p4 #bid 7p4 #hd ed4 ,mannhardt1 in ,magazin herausgeg4 von der ,lettisch-,literr4 ,gesellsch4 bd4 xiv47 #eie ,e4 ,j4 ,guthrie1 ,old ,scottish ,customs1 p4 #adi2 ,ch4 ,rogers1 ,social ,life in ,scotland 7,london1 #ahhf71 iii4 #bah4 #eif ,a4 ,leared1 ,morocco and the ,moors1 p4 #bgc4 #eig ,the reader may observe how closely the taboos laid upon mourners resemble those laid upon kings4 ,from what has gone before the reason of the resemblance is obvious4 #eih ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 ,no4 #bhb4 #eii ,walter ,gregor1 ,the ,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of ,scotland1 p4 #bjf4 #fjj ,this is expressly said in ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 ,no4 #hdf4 ,on iron as a protective charm see also ,liebrecht1 ,gervasius von ,tilbury1 p4 #ii sqq42 id41 ,zur ,volkskunde1 p4 #caa2 ,l4 ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg1 #bcc2 ,wattke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube#b1 #dad sq42 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #adj2 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 #acb note4 #fja ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des ostlichen ,asien1 i4 #acf4 #fjb ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 i4 #cab2 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,jahr und seine ,tage in ,meinung und ,brauch der ,romnen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #dj4 #fjc ,j4 ,h4 ,gray1 ,china1 i4 #bhh4 #fjd ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1 ,alaska and its ,resources1 p4 #adf2 id4 in ,american ,naturalist1 xii4 #g4 #fje ,jo4 ,meletius1 8,de religione et sacrificiis veterum ,borussorum10 in ,de ,russorum ,muscovitarum et ,tartarorum religione1 sacrificiis1 nuptiarum1 funerum ritu 7,spires1 #aehb71 p4 #bfc2 ,hartknoch1 ,alt und neues ,preussen 7,frankfort and ,leipzig1 #afhd71 p4 #ahg sq4 #fjf ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes1 p4 #acf4 #fjg ,tettau und ,temme1 ,die ,volkssagen ,ostpreussens1 ,litthauens und ,westpreussens1 p4 #bhe2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d iii4 #ded2 cp4 id4 pp4 #dda1 #dfi2 ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1 p4 #aih4 #fjh ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #aaj2 ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae1 #ab4 #fji ,j4 ,kubary1 ,die socialen ,einrichtungen der ,pelauer 7,berlin1 #ahhe71 p4 #abf sq4 #faj ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und ussern ,leben der ,ehsten 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahgf71 pp4 #ddh1 #dgh4 #faa ,james ,adair1 ,history of the ,american ,indians1 pp4 #acd1 #aag4 #fab ,e4 ,petitot1 ,monographie des ,dn-,dindji1 p4 #gf4 #fac ,leviticus xvii4 #aj-ad4 ,the ,hebrew word translated 8life0 in the ,english version of verse #aa means also 8soul0 7marginal note in the ,revised ,version74 ,cp4 ,deuteronomy xii4 #bc-be4 #fad ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 v4 #gi2 cp4 id4 on ,aen4 iii4 #fg4 #fae ,j4 ,wellhausen1 ,reste ,arabischen ,heidentumes1 p4 #bag4 #faf ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai 7,schiedam1 #ahfc71 p4 #gg4 #fag ,hamilton's 8,account of the ,east ,indies10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 viii4 #dfi4 ,cp4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #cdi1 note #b4 #fah ,de la ,loubere1 ,a ,new ,historical ,account of the ,kingdom of ,siam 7,london1 #afic71 p4 #ajd sq4 #fai ,pallegoix1 ,description du ,royaume ,thai ou ,siam1 i4 #bga1 #cfe sq4 #fbj ,marco ,polo1 trans4 by ,col4 ,h4 ,yule 7#b;d ed4 #ahge71 i4 #cce4 #fba ,col4 ,h4 ,yule on ,marco ,polo1 l4c4 #fbb ,baron's 8,description of the ,kingdom of ,tonqueen10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 #fia4 #fbc ,t4 ,e4 ,bowdich1 ,mission from ,cape ,coast ,castle to ,ashantee 7,london1 #ahgc71 p4 #bjg4 #fbd ,sibree1 ,madagascar and its ,people1 p4 #dcj4 #fbe ,c4 ,t4 ,wilson and ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 ,uganda and the ,egyptian ,soudan1 i4 #bjj4 #fbf ,marco ,polo1 i4 #cii1 ,yule's translation1 #b;d ed4 #fbg ,sir ,walter ,scott1 note #b to ,peveril of the ,peak1 ch4 v4 #fbh ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #bcj2 ,e4 ,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals of ,expeditions of ,discovery into ,central ,australia1 ii4 #cce2 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #ge note4 #fbi ,collins1 ,account of the ,english ,colony of ,new ,south ,wales 7,london1 #agih71 p4 #ehj4 #fcj ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #bbd sq42 ,angas1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 i4 #aaj sq4 #fca ,above1 p4 #bj4 #fcb ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes1 p4 #ec4 #fcc ,lieut4 ,emery1 in ,journal of the ,r4 ,geogr4 ,soc4 iii4 #bhb4 #fcd ,ch4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bbd4 #fce ,ch4 ,new1 ,life1 ,wanderings1 and ,labours in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #abd2 ,francis ,galton1 8,domestication of ,animals10 in ,transactions of the ,ethnolog4 ,soc4 of ,london1 iii4 #ace4 ,on the original sanctity of domestic animals1 see above all ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #bfc sqq41 #bgg sqq4 #fcf ,l4 ,linton ,palmer1 8,a ,visit to ,easter ,island10 in ,journ4 ,r4 ,geogr4 ,soc4 xl4 7#ahgj7 #aga4 #fcg ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui2 or1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1#b p4 #afd sq4 #fch ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #aab2 ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae1 #ac4 #fci ,above1 p4 #fa sq4 #fdj ,cp4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 op4 cit4 p4 #bac sq4 #fda ,dialis cotidie feriatus est1 ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae1 #af4 #fdb ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 c4 #f4 ,a myth apparently akin to this has been preserved in some native ,egyptian writings4 ,see ,ad4 ,erman1 ,aegypten und aegyptisches ,leben im ,altertum1 p4 #cfd4 #fdc ,bernardino de ,sahagun1 ,histoire gnrale des choses de la ,nouvelle-,espagne1 traduite par ,jourdanet et ,simon 7,paris1 #ahhj71 p4 #df sq4 #fdd ,see above1 p4 #cd sq4 #fde ,p4 #ce4 #fdf ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race 7,melbourne and ,london1 #ahhg71 iii4 #agi4 #fdg ,h4 ,b4 ,guppy1 ,the ,solomon ,islands and their ,natives 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4 #da4 #fdh ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 8,on the ,karens10 in ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 iv4 7#ahed7 #cab4 #fdi ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #bcj4 #fej ,for the reason see ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #aab sq41 #bib4 #fea ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #ahf4 #feb ,mrs4 ,james ,smith1 ,the ,booandik ,tribe1 p4 #e4 #fec ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #dej4 #fed ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #aci2 cp4 id4 p4 #bji4 #fee ,e4 ,dannert1 8,customs of the ,ovaherero at the ,birth of a ,child40 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 #fc4 #fef ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem innern und ussern ,leben der ,ehsten1 p4 #dge4 #feg ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 8,on the ,karens10 in ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 iv4 #caa sq4 #feh ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #bef1 iii4 #ga1 #bcj1 #bce sq4 #fei ,bastian1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aej2 ,sangermano1 ,description of the ,burmese ,empire 7,rangoon1 #ahhe71 p4 #aca2 ,c4 ,f4 ,s4 ,forbes1 ,british ,burma1 p4 #ccd2 ,shway ,yoe1 ,the ,burman1 i4 #ia4 #ffj ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #agh1 #chh4 #ffa ,duarte ,barbosa1 ,description of the ,coasts of ,east ,africa and ,malabar in the beginning of the ,sixteenth ,century 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahff71 p4 #aig4 #ffb ,david ,porter1 ,journal of a ,cruise made to the ,pacific ,ocean in the ,u4,s4 ,frigate ,essex 7,new ,york1 #ahbb71 ii4 #fe4 #ffc ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises1 p4 #bfb4 #ffd ,langsdorff1 ,reise um die ,welt1 i4 #aae sq4 #ffe ,capt4 ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbg 7ed4 #ahji74 #fff ,jules ,remy1 ,ka ,mooolelo ,hawaii1 ,histoire de ,l',archipel ,havaiien 7,paris and ,leipzig1 #ahfb71 p4 #aei4 #ffg ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iii4 #ajb4 #ffh ,james ,wilson1 ,a ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean 7,london1 #agii74 p4 #ced sq4 #ffi ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui3 or1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 p4 #afe4 #fgj 8,customs of the ,new ,caledonian ,women10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 vii4 #bjf2 ,b4 ,hawkins1 8,sketch of the ,creek ,country10 in ,collections of the ,georgia ,historical ,society1 iii4 pt4 i4 7,savannah1 #ahdh71 p4 #gh2 ,a4 ,s4 ,gatschet1 ,migration ,legend of the ,creek ,indians1 i4 #ahe2 ,narrative of the ,captivity and ,adventures of ,john ,tanner 7,london1 #ahcj71 p4 #abb2 ,kohl1 ,kitschi-,gami1 ii4 #afh4 #fga ,r4 ,taylor1 l4c4 #fgb ,e4 ,shortland1 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #bic2 id41 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #ajg1 sq4 #fgc ,j4 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et la recherche de ,la ,prouse1 excut sous son commandement sur la corvette ,astrolabe4 ,histoire du ,voyage1 ii4 #ecd4 #fgd ,r4 ,a4 ,cruise1 ,journal of a ,ten ,months' ,residence in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahbc71 p4 #ahg2 ,dumont ,d',urville1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ecc2 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahea71 p4 #cj4 #fge ,agathias i4 #c2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1 p4 #bci sqq4 #fgf ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 8,on the ,haida ,indians of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands10 in ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 ,report of ,progress for #ahgh-gi1 p4 #abc ,b4 #fgg ,p4 ,n4 ,wilken1 8,bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der ,alfoeren in de ,minahassa10 in ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelingvenootschap1 vii4 7#ahfc7 p4 #abf4 #fgh ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #acg4 #fgi ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #bib sq4 #fhj ,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #ah4 #fha ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 p4 #aeb sq4 #fhb ,valerius ,flaccus1 ,argonaut1 i4 #cgh sq43-- 8,tectus et ,eurytion servato colla capillo1 ,quem pater ,aonias reducem tondebit ad aras40 #fhc ,homer1 ,iliad1 xxiii4 #ada sqq4 #fhd ,d4 ,porter1 ,journal of a ,cruise made to the ,pacific ,ocean1 ii4 #abj4 #fhe ,paulus ,diaconus1 ,hist4 ,langobard4 iii4 #g4 #fhf ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #chg4 #fhg ,numbers vi4 #e4 #fhh ,j4 ,a4 ,e4 ,khler1 ,volksbrauch1 etc4 im ,voigtlande1 p4 #dbd2 ,w4 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 p4 #af sq42 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #beh2 ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche und ,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes1#b ,nos4 #df1 #gb2 ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1 ,beitrage zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #bjh 7,no4 #de71 #bji 7,no4 #ec72 ,knoop1 ,volkssagen1 ,erzhlungen1 etc4 aus dem stlichen ,hinterpommern1 p4 #aeg 7,no4 #bc72 ,e4 ,veckenstedt1 ,wendische ,sagen1 ,mrchen und aberglubische ,gebruche1 p4 #dde2 ,j4 ,haltrieh1 ,zur ,volkskunde der ,siebenbrger ,sachsen1 p4 #cac2 ,e4 ,krause1 8,aberglubische ,kuren u4 sonstiger ,aberglaube in ,berlin10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xv4 #hd4 #fhi ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #ajib4 #fij ,g4 ,gibbs1 8,notes on the ,tinneh or ,chepewyan ,indians of ,british and ,russian ,america10 in ,annual ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 #ahff1 p4 #cje2 ,w4 ,dall1 ,alaska and its ,resources1 p4 #bjb4 ,the reason alleged by the ,indians 7that if the girls' nails were cut sooner the girls would be lazy and unable to embroider in porcupine quill-work7 is probably a late invention1 like the reasons assigned in ,europe for the similar custom 7the commonest being that the child would become a thief74 #fia ,knoop1 l4c4 #fib ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #bji 7,no4 #eg74 #fic ,r4 ,taylor1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 p4 #bjf sqq4 #fid ,richard ,a4 ,cruise1 ,journal of a ,ten ,months' ,residence in ,new ,zealand1 p4 #bhc sq4 ,cp4 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et la recherche de ,la ,prouse4 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb71 ii4 #ecc4 #fie ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #ajh sqq42 ,taylor1 l4c4 #fif ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #bbf sq4 #fig ,see above1 p4 #aaa4 #fih ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #dfh sq4 #fii ,d4 ,porter1 ,journal of a ,cruise made to the ,pacific ,ocean1 ii4 #ahh4 #gjj ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #cf4 #gja ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,on ,australian ,medicine-men10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xvi4 #bg4 ,cp4 ,e4 ,palmer1 8,notes on some ,australian ,tribes10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiii4 #bic2 ,james ,bonwick1 ,daily ,life of the ,tasmanians1 p4 #agh2 ,james ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #ahg2 ,j4 ,s4 ,polack1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,new ,zealanders1 i4 #bhb2 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #bgj2 ,langsdorff1 ,reise um die ,welt1 i4 #acd sq4 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand1 i4 #gi1 #aaf sq42 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #cfd2 ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche und ,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes1#b ,no4 #agh4 #gjb ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #eji2 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #beh2 ,j4 ,a4 ,e4 ,khler1 ,volksbrauch etc4 im ,voigtlande1 p4 #dbe2 ,a4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bhb2 ,zingerle1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #ahj2 ,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #bbd 7,no4 #bgc74 #gjc ,zingerle1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #aha4 #gjd ,zingerle1 op4 cit4 ,nos4 #agf1 #agi4 #gje ,a4 ,krause1 ,die ,tlinkit-,indianer4 7,jena1 #ahhe71 p4 #cjj4 #gjf ,petronius1 ,sat4 #ajd4 #gjg ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #bca sq42 id41 ,ein ,besuch in ,san ,salvador1 p4 #aag4 #gjh ,w4 ,stanbridge1 8,on the ,aborigines of ,victoria10 in ,transact4 ,ethnolog4 ,soc4 of ,london1 i4 #cjj4 #gji ,franois ,pyrard1 ,voyages to the ,east ,indies1 the ,maldives1 the ,moluccas1 and ,brazil4 ,translated by ,albert ,gray 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahhg71 i4 #aaj sq4 #gaj ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #aaj4 #gaa ,polack1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,new ,zealanders1 i4 #ch sq4 #gab ,james ,wilson1 ,a ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #cee4 #gac ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae1 #ae4 #gad ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bce2 ,festus1 s4v4 capillatam vel capillarem arborem4 #gae ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1#b #dfd4 #gaf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,germanische ,mythen1 p4 #fcj4 #gag ,w4 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 p4 #ag4 #gah ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #gd4 #gai ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfe4 #gbj ,g4 ,heijmering 8,zeden en gewoonten op het eiland ,rottie10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,nerland's ,indie 7#ahdc71 dl4 ii4 #fcd-fcg4 #gba ,w4 ,dall1 ,alaska and its ,resources1 p4 #ed2 ,f4 ,whymper1 8,the ,natives of the ,youkon ,river10 in ,transact4 ,ethnolog4 ,soc4 of ,london1 vii4 #agd4 #gbb ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #eji4 #gbc ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,germanische ,mythen1 p4 #fcj4 #gbd ,h4 ,b4 ,guppy1 ,the ,solomon ,islands and their ,natives1 p4 #ed4 #gbe ,fargaard1 xvii4 #gbf ,grihya-,stras1 translated by ,h4 ,oldenberg 7,oxford1 #ahhf71 vol4 i4 p4 #eg4 #gbg ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 8,notes on the ,madi or ,moru tribe of ,central ,africa10 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 xii4 7#ahhb-hd7 p4 #ccb4 #gbh ,a4 ,steedman1 ,wanderings and ,adventures in the ,interior of ,southern ,africa 7,london1 #ahce71 i4 #bff4 #gbi ,emin ,pasha in ,central ,africa1 being a ,collection of his ,letters and ,journals 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #gd4 #gcj ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 ,west ,afrika1 p4 #aei 7,german trans47 #gca ,n4 ,p4 ,wilken en ,j4 ,a4 ,schwarz1 8,allerlei over het land en volk van ,bolaang ,mongondou10 in ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xi4 7#ahfg7 p4 #cbb4 #gcb ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,first part of the ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas1 bk4 ii4 ch4 #g 7vol4 i4 p4 #abg1 ,markham's translation74 #gcc ,mlusine1 #ahgh1 c4 #ehc sq4 #gcd ,the ,people of ,turkey1 by a ,consul's daughter and wife1 ii4 #bej4 #gce ,boecler-,kreutzwald1 ,der ,ehsten aberglubische ,gebruche1 ,weisen und ,gewohnheiten1 p4 #aci2 ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem innern und ussern ,leben der ,ehsten1 p4 #dia4 #gcf ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 8,notes on the ,for tribe of ,central ,africa10 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 xiii4 7#ahhd-hf7 p4 #bcj4 #gcg ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche und ,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes1#b ,nos4 #agf1 #ehj2 ,mlusine1 #ahgh1 c4 #gi4 #gch ,musters1 8,on the ,races of ,patagonia10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 i4 #aig2 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #cf4 #gci ,david ,livingstone1 ,narrative of ,expedition to the ,zambesi1 p4 #df sq4 #gdj ,zingerle1 op4 cit4 ,nos4 #agg1 #agi1 #ahj4 #gda ,m4 ,jahn1 ,hexenwesen und ,zauberei in ,pommern1 p4 #ae2 ,mlusine1 #ahgh1 c4 #gi4 #gdb ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,indogermanische ,mythen1 ii4 ,achilleis 7,berlin1 #ahhg71 p4 #ebc4 #gdc ,above1 p4 #bja4 #gdd ,above1 pp4 #afg1 #afi sqq4 #gde ,w4 ,ridley1 8,report on ,australian ,languages and ,traditions10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 ii4 #bfh4 #gdf ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,ueber das ,haaropfer und einige andere ,trauergebruche bei den ,vlkern ,indonesiens1 p4 #id sqq42 ,h4 ,ploss1 ,das ,kind in ,branch und ,sitte der ,vlker#b i4 #bhi sqq4 #gdg ,above1 p4 #aid4 #gdh ,above1 p4 #aeg sq4 #gdi ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,thought and ,life in ,india1 p4 #cge4 #gej ,above1 p4 #aag4 #gea ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 ii4 #agj4 ,the blood may be drunk by them as a medium of inspiration4 ,see above1 p4 #cd sq4 #geb ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #ccf4 #gec ,t4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 ,impressions of ,western ,africa 7,london1 #aheh71 p4 #aih4 #ged ,g4 ,watt 7quoting ,col4 ,w4 ,j4 ,m',culloch71 8,the ,aboriginal ,tribes of ,manipur10 in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xvi4 #cfj4 #gee ,meiners1 ,geschichte der ,religionen1 i4 #dh4 #gef ,r4 ,i4 ,dodge1 ,our ,wild ,indians1 p4 #aab4 #geg ,blumentritt1 8,der ,ahnencultus und die relig4 ,anschauungen der ,malaien des ,philippinen-,archipels10 in ,mittheilungen d4 ,wiener ,geogr4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahhb1 p4 #aih4 #geh ,theophilus ,hahn1 ,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being of the ,khoi-,khoi1 pp4 #ef1 #fi4 #gei ,diodorus1 iii4 #fa2 ,pomponius ,mela1 ii4 #g1 #aab2 ,minucius ,felix1 ,octavius1 #ba4 #gfj ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2 ,philochorus1 ,fragm4 #bb1 in ,mller's ,fragm4 ,hist4 ,graec4 i4 p4 #chg4 #gfa ,porphyry1 ,vit4 ,pythag4 #af4 #gfb ,philochorus1 ,fr4 #ahd1 in ,fragm4 ,hist4 ,graec4 ii4 p4 #dad4 #gfc ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #egd sq4 #gfd ,see above1 p4 #aba sqq4 #gfe ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #afc4 #gff ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition 7,london1 #ahde71 iii4 #if4 #gfg ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnology and ,philology1 by ,h4 ,hale 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #fe4 ,cp4 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #ahc2 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 p4 #bdh4 #gfh ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cce4 #gfi ,martin ,flad1 ,a ,short ,description of the ,falasha and ,kamants in ,abyssinia1 p4 #ai4 #ggj ,j4 ,b4 ,labat1 ,relation historique de l',ethiopie ,occidentale1 i4 #bfj sq42 ,w4 ,winwood ,reade1 ,savage ,africa1 p4 #cfb4 #gga ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #f2 ,strabo1 xvii4 #b1 #c4 #ggb ,emin ,pasha in ,central ,africa1 being a ,collection of his ,letters and ,journals 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #ia4 #ggc ,p4 ,guillem1 8,credenze religiose dei ,negri di ,kibanga nell' ,alto ,congo10 in ,archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari1 vii4 7#ahhh7 p4 #bca4 #ggd ,nathaniel ,isaacs1 ,travels and ,adventures in ,eastern ,africa1 i4 p4 #bie sq41 cp4 pp4 #bcb1 #bij sq4 #gge ,above1 p4 #de sq4 #ggf ,dos ,santos1 8,history of ,eastern ,ethiopia0 7published at ,paris in #afhd71 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #fhd4 #ggg ,plutarch1 ,agesilaus1 #c4 #ggh ,herodotus1 iii4 #bj2 ,aristotle1 ,politics1 iv4 #d1 #d2 ,athenaeus1 xiii4 p4 #eff4 ,according to ,nicolaus ,damascenus 7,fr4 #adb1 in ,fragm4 ,historic4 ,graecor4 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 p4 #dfc71 the handsomest and bravest man was only raised to the throne when the king had no heirs1 the heirs being the sons of his sisters4 ,but this limitation is not mentioned by the other authorities4 ,among the ,gordioi the fattest man was chosen king2 among the ,syrakoi1 the tallest1 or the man with the longest head4 ,zenobius1 v4 #be4 #ggi ,g4 ,nachtigal1 ,sahar und ,sdn 7,leipzig1 #ahhi71 iii4 #bbe2 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 i4 #bbj4 #ghj ,strabo1 xvii4 #b1 #c2 ,diodorus1 iii4 #g4 #gha ,mohammed ,ebn-,omar ,el-,tounsy1 ,voyage au ,darfour 7,paris1 #ahde71 p4 #afb sq42 ,travels of an ,arab ,merchant in ,soudan1 abridged from the ,french by ,bayle ,st4 ,john 7,london1 #ahed71 p4 #gh2 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris7 ,i,vme ,srie1 iv4 7#aheb7 p4 #eci sq4 #ghb ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 8,notes on the ,waganda ,tribe of ,central ,africa10 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 xiii4 7#ahhd-ahhf7 p4 #gaa4 #ghc ,narrative of events in ,borneo and ,celebes1 from the ,journals of ,james ,brooke1 ,esq41 ,rajah of ,sarawak4 ,by ,captain ,r4 ,mundy1 i4 #acd4 #ghd ,simon ,grunau1 ,preussische ,chronik1 herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,m4 ,perlbach 7,leipzig1 #ahgf71 i4 p4 #ig4 #ghe ,barbosa1 ,a ,description of the ,coasts of ,east ,africa and ,malabar in the beginning of the ,sixteenth ,century 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahff71 p4 #agb sq4 #ghf ,alex4 ,hamilton1 8,a new ,account of the ,east ,indies10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 viii4 #cgd4 #ghg ,athenaeus1 xiv4 p4 #fci c2 ,dio ,chrysostom1 ,orat4 iv4 p4 #fi sq4 7vol4 i4 p4 #gf1 ed4 ,dindorf74 ,dio ,chrysostom does not mention his authority1 but it was probably either ,berosus or ,ctesias4 ,though the execution of the mock king is not mentioned in the passage of ,berosus cited by ,athenaeus1 the omission is probably due to the fact that the mention of it was not germane to ,athenaeus's purpose1 which was simply to give a list of festivals at which masters waited on their servants4 ,that the was put to death is further shown by ,macrobius1 ,sat4 iii4 #g1 #f1 8,animas vero sacratorum hominum quos zanas ,graeci vocant1 dis debitas aestimabant10 where for zanas we should probably read with ,liebrecht1 in ,philologus1 xxii4 #gaj1 and ,bachofen1 ,die ,sage von ,tanaquil1 p4 #eb1 note #af4 ,the custom1 so far as appears from our authorities1 does not date from before the ,persian domination in ,babylon2 but probably it was much older4 ,in the passage of ,dio ,chrysostom should be translated 8crucified0 7or 8impaled071 not 8hung40 ,it is strange that this1 the regular1 sense of 1 as applied to executions1 should not be noticed even in the latest edition of ,liddell and ,scott's ,greek ,lexicon4 ,hanging1 though a mode of suicide1 was not a mode of execution in antiquity either in the east or west4 ,in one of the passages cited by ,l4 and ,s4 for the sense 8to hang0 7,plutarch1 ,caes4 #b71 the context proves that the meaning is 8to crucify40 #ghh ,e4 ,aymonier1 ,notice sur le ,cambodge1 p4 #fa2 ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #cbg sq4 ,for the connection of the temporary king's family with the royal house1 see ,aymonier1 op4 cit4 p4 #cf sq4 #ghi ,pallegoix1 ,description du ,royaume ,thai ou ,siam1 i4 #bej2 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #cje-cji1 #ebf-ebh2 ,turpin1 ,history of ,siam1 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 #eha sq4 ,bowring 7,siam1 i4 #aeh sq47 copies1 as usual1 from ,pallegoix4 #gij ,lieut4 ,col4 ,james ,low1 8,on the ,laws of ,muung ,thai or ,siam10 in ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 i4 7,singapore1 #ahdg7 p4 #cci2 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #ih1 #cad1 #ebf sq4 #gia ,c4 ,b4 ,klunzinger1 ,bilder aus ,ober-gypten1 der ,wste und dem ,rothen ,meere1 p4 #ahj sq4 #gib ,j4 ,w4 ,boers1 8,oud volksgebruik in het ,rijk van ,jambi10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,nerland's ,indi1 iii4 7#ahdj71 dl4 i4 #cgb sqq4 #gic ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #fgd4 #gid ,aeneas ,sylvius1 ,opera 7,ble1 #aega71 p4 #dji sq42 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1 p4 #bec4 ,according to ,grimm 7who does not refer to ,aeneas ,sylvius7 the cow and mare stood beside the prince1 not the peasant4 #gie ,lasicius1 8,de diis ,samagitarum caeterorumque ,sarmatarum10 in ,respublica sive ,status ,regni ,poloniae1 ,lituaniae1 ,prussiae1 ,livoniae1 etc4 7,elzevir1 #afbg71 p4 #cjf sq42 id4 edited by ,w4 ,mannhardt in ,magazin herausgegeben von der ,lettisch-,literrischen ,gesellschaft1 xiv4 #ia sq4 #gif ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 v4 #ai1 #ac4 #gig ,see above1 p4 #agb sqq4 #gih ,philo of ,byblus1 quoted by ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 i4 #aj1 #bi sq4 #gii #b ,kings iii4 #bg4 #hjj ,porphyry1 ,de abstin4 ii4 #ef4 #hja ,diodorus1 xx4 #ad4 #hjb ,porphyry1 ,de abstin4 ii4 #ed4 #hjc ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ii4 #caa4 #hjd ,strachey1 ,historie of travaille into ,virginia ,britannia 7,hakluyt ,society71 p4 #hd4 #hje ,j4 ,l4 ,krapf1 ,travels1 ,researches1 and ,missionary ,labours during an ,eighteen ,years' ,residence in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #fi sq4 ,dr4 ,krapf1 who reports the custom at second hand1 thinks that the existence of the pillar may be doubted1 but that the rest of the story harmonises well enough with ,african superstition4 #hjf ,f4 ,j4 ,mone1 ,geschichte des ,heidenthums im nrdlichen ,europa1 i4 #aai4 #hjg ,above1 p4 #db sqq4 #hjh ,nieuwenhuisen en ,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het eiland ,nias10 in ,verhandelingen van het ,batav4 ,genootschap van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 #he2 ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel1 p4 #afj2 ,chatelin1 8,godsdienst en bijgeloof der ,niassers10 in ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxvi4 #adb sq42 ,sundermann1 8,die ,insel ,nias und die ,mission daselbst10 in ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xi4 #dde4 #hji ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition 7,london1 #ahde71 iv4 #dec2 ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 by ,h4 ,hale1 p4 #bjc4 #haj ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bgj sq4 #haa ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iv4 #fhe2 ,cicero1 ,in ,verr4 ii4 #e1 #de2 ,k4 ,f4 ,hermann1 ,griech4 ,privatalterthmer1 ed4 ,blumner1 p4 #cfb note #a4 #hab ,harland and ,wilkinson1 ,lancashire ,folk-lore1 p4 #g sq4 #hac ,fr4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #bce sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cbj sq4 #had ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 pp4 #dji-dai2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cdi sq4 #hae ,e4 ,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,sachsen und ,thringen1 p4 #aed sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cce sq4 #haf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #ccf4 #hag ,reinsberg--,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #fa2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #ccf sq4 #hah ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfc2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cdc4 #hai ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfi sq4 #hbj ,see above1 p4 #ib sq4 #hba ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfd sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cec sq4 #hbb ,see pp4 #bdc1 #bdf4 #hbc ,see p4 #ae sqq4 #hbd ,see p4 #bdc4 #hbe ,above1 p4 #d4 #hbf ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b #cbc sq4 #hbg ,see above1 p4 #f4 #hbh ,caesar1 ,bell4 ,gall4 vi4 #af2 ,adam of ,bremen1 ,descript4 ,insul4 ,aquil4 c4 #bg2 ,olaus ,magnus1 iii4 #f2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #ce sqq42 ,mone1 ,geschichte des nordischen ,heidenthums1 i4 #fi1 #aai1 #abj1 #adi1 #ahg sq4 #hbi ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke1 ,snake ,dance of the ,moquis of ,arizona1 p4 #aif sq4 #hcj ,euripides1 ,iphig4 in ,taur4 #adeh sqq4 #hca ,nieuwenhuisen en ,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het eiland ,nias10 in ,verhandelingen van het ,batav4 ,genootsch4 van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 #dc4 #hcb ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ,moeurs1 ,institutions et ,crmonies des ,peuples de l',inde1 i4 #aea sq4 #hcc 8,the ,rudhirdhyy1 or sanguinary chapter10 translated from the ,calica ,puran by ,w4 ,c4 ,blaquiere1 in ,asiatick ,researches1 v4 #cgf 7#hvo4 ed4 ,london1 #ahjg74 #hcd ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bha4 #hce ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #beh sq4 #hcf ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fde2 ,k4 ,haupt1 ,sagenbuch der ,lausitz1 ii4 #eh2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #hf sq42 id41 ,das festliche ,jahr1 p4 #gg sq4 ,the ,fourth ,sunday in ,lent is also known as ,mid-,lent1 because it falls in the middle of ,lent1 or as ,laetare from the first word of the liturgy for the day4 ,in the ,roman ,calendar it is the ,sunday of the ,rose1 ,domenica rosae4 #hcg ,see p4 #bdd4 #hch ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebrache aus ,schwaben1 p4 #cga4 #hci ,j4 ,haltrich1 ,zur ,volkskunde der ,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,wien1 #ahhe71 p4 #bhd sq4 #hdj ,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain1 p4 #afb sqq42 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #daa4 #hda ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben p4 #cgd2 cp4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmlichesaus ,schwaben1 ii4 #ee4 #hdb ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4 p4 #cgb4 #hdc ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4 p4 #cgc4 #hdd ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cgc1 #cgd4 #hde ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus ,westfalen1 ii4 #acj4 #hdf ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und usseren ,leben der ,ehsten1 p4 #cec4 #hdg ,e4 ,meier1 op4 cit4 p4 #cgd4 #hdh ,h4 ,prhle1 ,harzbilder1 p4 #ed4 #hdi ,aug4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #aic4 #hej ,witzschel1 op4 cit4 p4 #aii4 #hea ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdb4 #heb ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #ij sq4 #hec ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 op4 cit4 p4 #ia4 #hed ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fci sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dab4 #hee ,grimm1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fdd2 ,k4 ,haupt1 ,sagenbuch der ,lausitz1 ii4 #ee4 #hef ,grimm1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fdj1 #fdc4 #heg ,vernalecken1 ,mythen und ,bruche des ,volkes in ,oesterreich1 p4 #bid sq42 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #ij4 #heh ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdj4 #hei ,j4 ,a4 ,e4 ,khler1 ,volksbrauch1 ,aberglauben1 ,sagen und andre alte ,ueberlieferungen im ,voigtlande1 p4 #aga4 #hfj ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche ,jahr1 p4 #hj4 #hfa ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #baa4 #hfb ,ib4 p4 #baj4 #hfc ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #feb2 ,h4 ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 in ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4 ,f4 xxx4 7#ahge7 p4 #aia sq4 #hfd ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e feste popolari siciliane 7,palermo1 #ahha71 p4 #bjg sq4 #hfe ,archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari1 iv4 7#ahhe7 p4 #bid sq4 #hff ,h4 ,usener1 op4 cit4 p4 #aic4 #hfg ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della ,calabria citeriore 7,cosenza1 #ahhd71 p4 #dc sq4 #hfh ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #feb2 ,h4 ,usener1 8,italische ,mythen10 in ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4 ,f4 xxx4 #ahge1 p4 #aia sq4 #hfi ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #hi sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #aef4 ,this custom has been already referred to4 ,see p4 #hb4 #hgj ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche ,jahr1 p4 #hb2 ,philo vom ,walde1 ,schlesien in ,sage und ,brauch 7,n4,d4 preface dated #ahhc71 p4 #abb4 #hga ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #aib sq4 #hgb ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdc sq42 ,k4 ,haupt1 ,sagenbuch der ,lausitz1 ii4 #ed sq42 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dab sq42 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #baa4 #hgc ,grimm1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fdd2 ,k4 ,haupt1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ee4 #hgd ,e4 ,gerard1 ,the ,land beyond the ,forest1 ii4 #dg-di4 #hge ,this is also the view taken of the custom by ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dai4 #hgf ,vernalecken1 ,mythen und ,bruche des ,volkes in ,oesterreich1 p4 #bic sq4 #hgg ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche ,jahr1 p4 #hb4 #hgh ,philo vom ,walde1 ,schlesien in ,sage und ,brauch1 p4 #abb4 #hgi ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdj sq4 #hhj ,see above1 p4 #bfj4 #hha ,k4 ,schwenk1 ,die ,mythologie der ,slawen1 p4 #bag sq4 #hhb ,above1 p4 #bfc4 #hhc ,see above1 pp4 #hc1 #bfc4 #hhd ,above1 p4 #bfc1 and ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdd2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #hg sq4 #hhe ,above1 p4 #bfc4 #hhf ,see above1 p4 #bff sqq4 #hhg ,above1 pp4 #beg1 #bei1 #bfe2 and ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d ii4 #fdc4 #hhh ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #hh4 ,sometimes the effigy of ,death 7without a tree7 is carried round by boys who collect gratuities4 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4#d ii4 #fdd4 #hhi ,above1 p4 #bdc4 #hij ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und usseren ,leben der ,ehsten1 p4 #cec2 ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10 in ,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4 ,heft #b1 p4 #aj sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #djg sq4 #hia ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #dag-dba4 #hib ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bba4 #hic ,ralston1 op4 cit4 p4 #bda4 #hid ,ralston1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdc sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dad4 #hie ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dad sq42 ,ralston1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdd4 #hif ,ralston1 op4 cit4 p4 #bde2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #daf4 #hig ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c42 ,ralston1 l4c4 #hih ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d ii4 #fdd4 #hii ,j4 ,g4 von ,hahn1 ,albanesische ,studien1 i4 #afj4 #ijj ,captain ,r4 ,c4 ,temple1 in ,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 7#ahhb7 p4 #big sq4 #ija ,see above1 p4 #id sqq4 #ijb ,above1 p4 #gj sqq4 #ijc ,baudissin1 ,studien zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte1 i4 #bii2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bgd4 #ijd ,plutarch1 ,alcibiades1 #ah2 ,zenobius1 ,centur4 i4 #di2 ,theocritus1 xv4 #acb sq42 ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 xi4 #eij4 #ije ,besides ,lucian 7cited below7 see ,jerome1 ,comment4 in ,ezechiel4 viii4 #ad1 in qua 7solemnitate7 plangitur quasi mortuus1 et postea reviviscens1 canitur atque laudatur 444 interfectionem et resurrectionem ,adonidis planctu et gaudio prosequens4 #ijf ,theocritus1 xv4 #ijg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgg4 #ijh ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #f4 ,the words imply that the ascension was supposed to take place in the presence1 if not before the eyes1 of the worshipping crowds4 #iji ,lucian1 op4 cit4 #h4 ,the discoloration of the river and the sea was observed by ,maundrell on #ag_/bgth ,march #afif_/afig4 ,see his 8,journey from ,aleppo to ,jerusalem10 in ,bohn's ,early ,travels in ,palestine1 edited by ,thomas ,wright1 p4 #daa4 ,renan observed the discoloration at the beginning of ,february2 ,baudissin1 ,studien1 i4 #bih 7referring to ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie1 p4 #bhc74 ,milton's lines will occur to most readers4 #iaj ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #gce1 compared with ,bion i4 #ff4 ,the latter1 however1 makes the anemone spring from the tears1 as the rose from the blood of ,adonis4 #iaa ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 8,ctesias and the ,semramis legend10 in ,english ,historical ,review1 ,april #ahhg1 following ,lagarde4 #iab ,in the ,alexandrian ceremony1 however1 it appears to have been the image of ,adonis only which was thrown into the sea4 #iac ,apollodorus1 ,biblioth4 iii4 #ad1 #d2 ,schol4 on ,theocritus1 i4 #aji2 ,antoninus ,liberalis1 #cd2 ,tzetzes on ,lycophron1 #hbi2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #dhi sqq42 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 v4 #gb1 and on ,bucol4 x4 #ah2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #eh1 #afd2 ,fulgentius1 iii4 #h4 ,the word ,myrrha or ,smyrna is borrowed from the ,phoenician 7,liddell and ,scott1 ,greek ,lexicon1 s4v4 74 ,hence the mother's name1 as well as the son's1 was taken directly from the ,semites4 #iad ,schol4 on ,theocritus1 iii4 #dh2 ,hyginus1 ,astronom4 ii4 #g2 ,lucian1 ,dialog4 deor4 xi4 #a2 ,cornutus1 ,de natura deorum1 #bh1 p4 #afc sq4 ed4 ,osannus2 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #ad1 #d4 #iae ,thus1 after the autumnal equinox the ,egyptians celebrated the 8nativity of the sun's walking-sticks10 because1 as the sun declined daily in the sky1 and his heat and light diminished1 he was supposed to need a staff with which to support his steps4 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #eb4 #iaf ,schol4 on ,theocritus1 iii4 #dh1 1 1 1 1 4 4 ,jerome on ,ezech4 c4 viii4 #ad4 ,eadem gentilitas hujuscemodi fabulas poetarum1 quae habent turpitudinem1 interpretatur subtiliter interfectionem et resurrectionem ,adonidis planctu et gaudio prosequens3 quorum alterum in seminibus1 quae moriuntur in terra1 alterum in segetibus1 quibus mortua semina renascuntur1 ostendi putat4 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xix4 #a1 #aa1 in sollemnibus ,adonidis sacris1 quod simulacrum aliquod esse frugum adultarum religiones mysticae docent4 ,id4 xxii4 #i1 #ae1 amato ,veneris1 ut fabulae fingunt1 apri dente ferali deleto1 quod in adulto flore sectarum est indicium frugum4 ,clemens ,alexandr4 ,hom4 #f1 #aa 7quoted by ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bha71 4 ,etymolog4 ,magn4 2 2 1 4 ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 iii4 #aa1 #i1 4 #iag ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 ii4 #bg2 id41 ,ueber ,tammz und die ,menschenverehrung bei den alten ,babyloniern1 p4 #ch4 #iah ,the comparison is due to ,felix ,liebrecht 7,zur ,volkskunde1 p4 #bei74 #iai ,for the authorities see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bgi1 note #b1 and p4 #bhj1 note #b2 to which add ,diogenianus1 i4 #ad2 ,plutarch1 ,de sera num4 vind4 #ag4 ,women only are mentioned as planting the gardens of ,adonis by ,plutarch1 l4c42 ,julian1 ,convivium1 p4 #cbi ed4 ,spanheim 7p4 #dbc ed4 ,hertlein72 ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 xi4 #eij4 ,on the other hand ,diogenianus1 l4c4 says 4 #ibj ,plutarch1 ,alcibiades1 #ah2 id41 ,nicias1 #ac4 ,the date of the sailing of the fleet is given by ,thucydides1 vi4 #cj1 4 #iba ,in hot southern countries like ,egypt and the ,semitic regions of ,western ,asia1 where vegetation depends chiefly or entirely upon irrigation1 the purpose of the charm is doubtless to secure a plentiful flow of water in the streams4 ,but as the ultimate object and the charms for securing it are the same in both cases1 it has not been thought necessary always to point out the distinction4 #ibb ,see above1 p4 #af4 #ibc ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #bad2 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,jahr und seine ,tage in ,meinung und ,brauch der ,romnen ,siebenbrgens1 p4 #ah sq4 #ibd ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens 7,hermanstadt1 #ahhj71 p4 #bd2 ,wsissocki1 ,sitten und ,brauch der ,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,hamburg1 #ahhh71 p4 #cb4 #ibe ,matthus ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae1 #ee2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #bad sq4 note4 #ibf ,praetorius1 op4 cit41 #fj2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #bae1 note4 #ibg ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,religion of the ancient ,babylonians 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhg71 p4 #bba sqq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bge4 #ibh ,according to ,jerome 7on ,ezechiel1 viii4 #ad71 ,thammuz was ,june2 but according to modern scholars the month corresponded rather to ,july1 or to part of ,june and part of ,july4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #baj2 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #bge4 ,my friend1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 informs me that owing to the variations of the local ,syrian calendars the month ,thammuz fell in different places at different times1 from midsummer to autumn1 or from ,june to ,september4 #ibi ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 op4 cit4 p4 #bch4 #icj ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bei4 #ica ,above1 p4 #fg4 #icb ,antonio ,bresciani1 ,dei costumi dell' isola di ,sardegna comparati cogli antichissimi popoli orientali 7,rome and ,turin1 #ahff71 p4 #dbg sq42 ,r4 ,tennant1 ,sardinia and its ,resources 7,rome and ,london1 #ahhe71 p4 #ahg2 ,s4 ,gabriele1 8,usi dei contadini della ,sardegna10 ,archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari1 vii4 7#ahhh7 p4 #dfi sq4 ,tennant says that the pots are kept in a dark warm place1 and that the children leap across the fire4 #icc ,see ch4 i4 p4 #gh sq4 #icd ,p4 #bgb4 #ice ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #beg4 #icf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dfd2 ,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain1 p4 #ahc4 #icg ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e feste popolari siciliane1 p4 #bif sq4 #ich ,g4 ,pitr1 op4 cit4 p4 #cjb sq42 ,antonio de ,nino1 ,usi ,abruzzesi1 i4 #ee sq42 ,gubernatis1 ,usi ,nuziali1 p4 #ci sq4 ,cp4 ,archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari1 i4 #ace4 ,at ,smyrna a blossom of the agnus castus is used on ,st4 ,john's ,day for a similar purpose1 but the mode in which the omens are drawn is somewhat different1 ,archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari1 vii4 7#ahhh7 p4 #abh sq4 #ici ,matthus ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae1 herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,w4 ,pierson 7,berlin1 #ahga71 p4 #ef4 #idj ,see p4 #bgd sq4 #ida ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e feste popolari siciliane1 p4 #baa4 ,a similar custom is observed at ,cosenza in ,calabria4 ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la tradizione greco-latina1 etc41 p4 #ej4 ,for the ,easter ceremonies in the ,greek ,church1 see ,r4 ,a4 ,arnold1 ,from the ,levant 7,london1 #ahfh71 i4 #bea sqq4 #idb 1 ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 xi4 #eij4 #idc ,hippolytus1 ,refut4 omn4 haeres4 v4 #i1 p4 #afh1 ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin2 ,socrates1 ,hist4 ,eccles4 iii4 #bc1 #ea sqq4 p4 #bjd4 #idd ,that ,attis was killed by a boar was stated by ,hermesianax1 an elegiac poet of the fourth century ,b4,c4 7,pausanias1 vii4 #ag72 cp4 ,schol4 on ,nicander1 ,alex4 #h4 ,the other story is told by ,arnobius 7,adversus nationes1 v4 #e sqq47 on the authority of ,timotheus1 an otherwise unknown writer1 who professed to derive it ex reconditis antiquitatum libris et ex intimis mysteriis4 ,it is obviously identical with the account which ,pausanias mentions 7l4c47 as the story current in ,pessinus4 #ide ,pausanias1 vii4 #ag2 ,julian1 ,orat4 v4 #agg ,b4 #idf ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #ajc sqq4 #idg ,on the festival see especially ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b #cgj sqq42 ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits grecques et romaines1 i4 p4 #afhe sq4 7article 8,cyble072 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bia sqq42 id41 ,baumkultus1 p4 #egb sqq4 #idh ,julian1 ,orat4 v4 #afh c2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #da2 ,arnobius1 ,advers4 nationes1 v4 cc4 #g1 #af sq42 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profan4 relig4 #bg4 #idi ,julian1 l4c4 and #afi ,c4 #iej ,trebellius ,pollio1 ,claudius1 #d2 ,tertullian1 ,apologet4 #be4 ,for other references1 see ,marquardt1 l4c4 #iea ,diodorus1 iii4 #ei2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de err4 profan4 relig4 #c2 ,arnobius1 ,advers4 nat4 v4 #af2 ,schol4 on ,nicander1 ,alex4 #h2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ix4 #aaf2 ,arrian1 ,tactica1 #cc4 ,the ceremony described in ,firmicus ,maternus1 c4 #bb 7nocte quadam simulacrum in lectica supinum ponitur et per numeros digestis fletibus plangitur4444 ,idolum sepelis4 ,idolum plangis1 etc471 may very well be the mourning and funeral rites of ,attis1 to which he had more briefly referred in c4 #c4 #ieb ,on the ,hilaria see ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ba1 #aj2 ,julian1 ,orat4 v4 #afh ,d1 #afi ,d2 ,damascius1 ,vita ,isidori1 in ,photius1 p4 #cde ,a #e sqq4 ed4 ,bekker4 ,on the resurrection1 see ,firmicus ,maternus1 #c1 reginae suae amorem ,phryges cum luctibus annuis consecrarunt1 et ut satis iratae mulieri facerent aut ut paenitenti solacium quaererent1 quem paulo ante sepelierant revixisse jactarunt4444 ,mortem ipsius i4e4 of ,attis dicunt1 quod semina collecta conduntur1 vitam rursus quod jacta semina annuis vicibus reconduntur renascuntur1 ,c4 ,halm4 ,again cp4 id4 #bb1 ,idolum sepelis4 ,idolum plangis1 idolum de sepultura proferis1 et miser cum haec feceris gaudes2 and ,damascius1 l4c4 2 4 ,this last passage1 compared with the formula in ,firmicus ,maternus1 c4 #bb 2 1 makes it probable that the ceremony described by ,firmicus1 c4 #bb1 is the resurrection of ,attis4 #iec ,ovid1 ,fast4 iv4 #ccg sqq42 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxiii4 #c4 ,for other references see ,marquardt and ,mannhardt1 ll4 cc4 #ied ,pausanias1 vii4 #ag2 ,arnobius1 ,adv4 nationes1 v4 #f42 cp4 ,hippolytus1 ,refut4 omn4 haeres4 v4 #i1 pp4 #aff1 #afh4 #iee ,see above1 p4 #bfd sq4 #ief ,firmicus ,maternus1 #bg4 #ieg ,above1 p4 #ha4 #ieh ,hippolytus1 ,ref4 omn4 haeres4 v4 cc4 #h1 #i1 pp4 #afb1 #afh2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore prof4 relig4 #c4 #iei ,julian1 ,orat4 v4 #agd ,a ,b4 #ifj ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1#e i4 #def1 note #d2 ,roscher1 ,ausfhrliches ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 c4 #gbd4 ,cp4 ,polybius1 xxii4 #bj 7#ah74 #ifa ,the conjecture is that of ,henzen in ,annal4 d4 ,inst4 #ahef1 p4 #aaj1 referred to in ,roscher1 l4c4 #ifb ,see pp4 #hd1 #bca4 #ifc ,article 8,phrygia10 in ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ninth ed4 xviii4 #hec4 #ifd xii4 #e1 #c4 #ife ,the myth1 in a connected form1 is only known from ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 cc4 #ac-ai4 ,some additional details1 recovered from ,egyptian sources1 will be found in the work of ,adolf ,erman1 ,aegypten und aegyptisches ,leben im ,altertum1 p4 #cfe sqq4 #iff ,le ,page ,renouf1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgi1 p4 #aaj2 ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #fad2 ,ad4 ,erman1 l4c42 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1 i4 #ef sq4 #ifg ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ac2 ,diodorus1 i4 #ad2 ,tibullus1 i4 #g1 #bi sqq4 #ifh ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #h4 #ifi ,so ,brugsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #fag4 ,plutarch1 op4 cit4 #ci1 says four days1 beginning with the #agth of the month ,athyr4 #igj ,in the ,alexandrian year the month ,athyr corresponded to ,november4 ,but as the old ,egyptian year was vague1 that is1 made no use of intercalation1 the astronomical date of each festival varied from year to year1 till it had passed through the whole cycle of the astronomical year4 ,from the fact1 therefore1 that1 when the calendar became fixed1 ,athyr fell in ,november1 no inference can be drawn as to the date at which the death of ,osiris was originally celebrated4 ,it is thus perfectly possible that it may have been originally a harvest festival1 though the ,egyptian harvest falls1 not in ,november1 but in ,april2 cp4 ,selden1 ,de diis ,syris1 p4 #cce sq42 ,parthey on ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 c4 #ci4 #iga ,brugsch1 l4c4 ,for a specimen of these lamentations see ,brugsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #fca sq42 ,records of the ,past1 ii4 #aai sqq4 ,for the annual ceremonies of finding and burying ,osiris1 see also ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #b #c2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iv4 #fji4 #igb ,brugsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #fag sq42 ,erman1 ,aegypten und aegyptisches ,leben im ,altertum1 p4 #cgg sq4 #igc ,erman1 l4c42 ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #ahgh71 iii4 #fh1 #hb2 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #df4 #igd ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce4 1 4 #ige ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ci4 #igf ,tibullus1 i4 #g1 #cc sqq4 #igg ,brugsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #fba4 #igh ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #aff4 #igi ,above1 p4 #bfg4 #ihj ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #gc1 cp4 #cc2 ,diodorus1 i4 #hh4 #iha ,plutarch1 op4 cit4 #ca2 ,herodotus1 ii4 #ch4 #ihb ,herrera1 quoted by ,bastian1 ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 ii4 #fci4 #ihc ,lefbure1 ,le mythe ,osirien 7,paris1 #ahgd-ge71 p4 #ahh4 #ihd ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #b1 #f1 defensores eorum volunt addere physicam rationem1 frugum semina ,osirim dicentes esse2 ,isim terram1 ,tyfonem calorem3 et quia maturatae fruges calore ad vitam hominum colliguntur et divisae a terrae consortia separantur et rursus adpropinquante hieme seminantur1 hanc volunt esse mortem ,osiridis1 cum fruges recondunt1 inventionem vero1 cum fruges genitali terrae fomento conceptae annua rursus coeperint procreatione generari2 ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 iii4 #aa1 #ca1 1 4 4 #ihe ,op4 cit4 #bg1 #a4 #ihf ,isis et ,osiris1 #ba1 4 4 ,again1 c4 #db1 2 4 #ihg ,see above1 p4 #cjd4 #ihh ,lefbure1 ,le mythe ,osirien1 pp4 #aid1 #aih1 referring to ,mariette1 ,denderah1 iv4 #ff and #gb4 #ihi ,lefbure1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aie1 #aig4 #iij ,birch1 in ,wilkinson's ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #ahgh71 iii4 #hd4 #iia ,wilkinson1 op4 cit4 iii4 #fc sq42 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 #ef1 #fj4 #iib ,wilkinson1 op4 cit4 iii4 #cdi sq42 ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #fba2 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #bj4 ,in ,plutarch l4c4 ,parthey proposes to read for 1 and this conjecture appears to be accepted by ,wilkinson1 l4c4 #iic ,lefbure1 ,le mythe ,osirien1 p4 #aia4 #iid ,lefbure1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahh4 #iie ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce4 ,one of the points in which the myths of ,isis and ,demeter agree1 is that both goddesses in their search for the loved and lost one are said to have sat down1 sad at heart and weary1 on the edge of a well4 ,hence those who had been initiated at ,eleusis were forbidden to sit on a well4 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ae2 ,homer1 ,hymn to ,demeter1 #ih sq42 ,pausanias1 i4 #ci1 #a2 ,apollodorus1 i4 #e1 #a2 ,nicander1 ,theriaca1 #dhf2 ,clemens ,alex41 ,protrept4 ii4 #bj4 #iif ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #fde4 #iig ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,history of ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #eg4 #iih ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgi1 p4 #aaa4 #iii ,diodorus1 i4 #ad4 ,eusebius 7,praeparat4 ,evang4 iii4 #c7 quotes from ,diodorus 7i4 #aa-ac7 a long passage on the early religion of ,egypt1 prefacing the quotation 7c4 #b7 with the remark 1 1 which seems to imply that ,diodorus epitomised ,manetho4 #ajjj ,brugsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdg4 #ajja ,brugsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdi4 #ajjb ,brugsch1l4c4 #ajjc ,herodotus1 ii4 #ei1 #aef2 ,diodorus1 i4 #ac1 #be1 #if2 ,apollodorus1 ii4 #a1 #c2 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 in ,lycophron4 #bab4 #ajjd ,antholog4 ,planud4 #bfd1 #a4 #ajje ,orphica1 ed4 ,abel1 p4 #bie sqq4 #ajjf ,jablonski1 ,pantheon ,aegyptiorum 7,frankfurt1 #agej71 i4 #abe sq4 #ajjg i4 #aa4 #ajjh ,see p4 #caj1 note4 #ajji ,see the ,saturnalia1 bk4 i4 #ajaj ,saturn4 i4 #ba1 #aa4 #ajaa ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne des peuples de l',orient#d 7,paris1 #ahhf71 p4 #ce4 #ajab ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #ahgh71 iii4 #cec4 #ajac ,isis et ,osiris1 #eb4 #ajad ,de errore profan4 religionum1 #h4 #ajae ,lepsius1 8,ueber den ersten aegyptischen ,gtterkreis und seine geschichtlich-mythologische ,entstehung10 in ,abhandlungen der kniglichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften zu ,berlin1 #ahea1 p4 #aid sq4 #ajaf ,the view here taken of the history of ,egyptian religion is based on the sketch in ,erman's ,aegypten und aegyptisches ,leben im ,altertum1 p4 #cea sqq4 #ajag ,on this attempted revolution in religion see ,lepsius in ,verhandl4 d4 knigl4 ,akad4 d4 ,wissensch4 zu ,berlin1 #ahea1 pp4 #aif-bja2 ,erman1 op4 cit4 p4 #cee sqq4 #ajah ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #dd4 #ajai ,tiele1 op4 cit4 p4 #df4 #ajbj ,ib4 p4 #de4 #ajba ,le ,page ,renouf1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgi1 p4 #aaa sqq4 #ajbb ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgi1 p4 #aac4 ,cp4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne1#d p4 #ce2 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 #ee1 #eg4 #ajbc ,there are far more plausible grounds for identifying ,osiris with the moon than with the sun--#a4 ,he was said to have lived or reigned twenty-eight years2 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 cc4 #ac1 #db4 ,this might be taken as a mythical expression for a lunar month4 #b4 ,his body was rent into fourteen pieces 7ib4 cc4 #ah1 #db74 ,this might be interpreted of the moon on the wane1 losing a piece of itself on each of the fourteen days which make up the second half of a lunation4 ,it is expressly mentioned that ,typhon found the body of ,osiris at the full moon 7ib4 #h72 thus the dismemberment of the god would begin with the waning of the moon4 #c4 ,in a hymn supposed to be addressed by ,isis to ,osiris1 it is said that ,thoth 8,placeth thy soul in the bark ,ma-at1 ,in that name which is thine1 of ,,god ,,moon40 ,and again1 8,thou who comest to us as a child each month1 ,we do not cease to contemplate thee1 ,thine emanation heightens the brilliancy ,of the stars of ,orion in the firmament10 etc4 ,records of the ,past1 i4 #aba sq42 ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #fbi sq4 ,here then ,osiris is identified with the moon in set terms4 ,if in the same hymn he is said to 8illuminate us like ,ra0 7the sun71 this1 as we have already seen1 is no reason for identifying him with the sun1 but quite the contrary4 #d4 ,at the new moon of the month ,phanemoth1 being the beginning of spring1 the ,egyptians celebrated what they called 8the entry of ,osiris into the moon40 ,plutarch1 ,is4 et ,os4 #dc4 #e4 ,the bull ,apis1 which was regarded as an image of the soul of ,osiris 7,is4 et ,os4 cc4 #bj1 #bi71 was born of a cow which was believed to have been impregnated by the moon 7ib4 #dc74 #f4 ,once a year1 at the full moon1 pigs were sacrificed simultaneously to the moon and ,osiris4 ,herodotus1 ii4 #dg2 ,plutarch1 ,is4 et ,os4 #h4 ,the relation of the pig to ,osiris will be examined later on4 ,without attempting to explain in detail why a god of vegetation1 as ,i take ,osiris to have been1 should have been brought into such close connection with the moon1 ,i may refer to the intimate relation which is vulgarly believed to subsist between the growth of vegetation and the phases of the moon4 ,see e4g4 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bba1 xvi4 #aij1 xvii4 #ajh1 #bae1 xviii4 #bjj1 #bbh1 #cjh1 #cad2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 iii4 #aj1 #c2 ,aulus ,gellius1 xx4 #h1 #g2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 vii4 #af1 #bi sq4 ,many examples are furnished by the ancient writers on agriculture1 e4g4 ,cato1 #cg1 #d2 ,varro1 i4 #cg2 ,geoponica1 i4 #f4 #ajbd ,herodotus1 ii4 #db1 #di1 #ei1 #add1 #aef2 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ac1 #ce2 id41 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 iv4 #e1 #c2 ,diodorus1 i4 #ac1 #be1 #if1 iv4 #a2 ,orphica1 ,hymn #db2 ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 iii4 #aa1 #ca2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 xi4 #bhg2 id41 on ,georg4 i4 #aff2 ,hippolytus1 ,refut4 omn4 haeres4 v4 #i1 p4 #afh2 ,socrates1 ,eccles4 ,hist4 iii4 #bc1 p4 #bjd2 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 in ,lycophron1 #bab2 1 xxii4 #b1 in ,mythographi ,graeci1 ed4 ,westermann1 p4 #cfh2 ,nonnus1 ,dionys4 iv4 #bfi sq42 ,cornutus1 ,de natura deorum1 c4 #bh2 ,clemens ,alexandr4 ,protrept4 ii4 #ai2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profan4 relig4 #g4 #ajbe ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #g4 #ajbf ,herodotus1 ii4 #di4 #ajbg ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce4 #ajbh ,osiris1 ,attis1 ,adonis1 and ,dionysus were all explained by him as the sun2 but he stopped short at ,demeter 7,ceres71 whom1 however1 he interpreted as the moon4 ,see the ,saturnalia1 bk4 i4 #ajbi ,on ,dionysus in general see ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1#c i4 #edd sqq42 ,fr4 ,lenormant1 article 8,bacchus0 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits grecques et romaines1 i4 #eia sqq42 ,voigt and ,thraemer's article 8,dionysus10 in ,roscher's ,ausfhrliches ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 c4 #ajbi sqq4 #ajcj ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 v4 #c1 1 1 4 #ajca ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 #ajcb ,see the pictures of his images1 taken from ancient vases1 in ,btticher1 ,baumkultus der ,hellenen1 plates #db1 #dc1 #dc;,a1 #dc;,b1 #dd2 ,daremberg et ,saglio1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfa1 #fbf4 #ajcc ,daremberg et ,saglio1 op4 cit4 i4 #fbf4 #ajcd ,cornutus1 ,de natura deorum1 #cj4 #ajce ,pindar1 quoted by ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce4 #ajcf ,maximus ,tyrius1 ,dissertat4 viii4 #a4 #ajcg ,athenaeus1 iii4 pp4 #gh ,c1 #hb ,d4 #ajch ,himerius1 ,orat4 i4 #aj1 4 #ajci ,orphica1 ,hymn l4 #d1 liii4 #h4 #ajdj ,aelian1 ,var4 ,hist4 iii4 #da2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 ,cp4 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 v4 #h1 #c4 #ajda ,pausanias1 i4 #ca1 #d2 id4 vii4 #ba1 #f 7#b74 #ajdb ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 v4 #c4 #ajdc ,pausanias1 ii4 #b1 #f 7#e7 sq4 ,pausanias does not mention the kind of tree2 but from ,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #ajfd sqq41 and ,philostratus1 ,imag4 i4 #ag 7#ah71 we may infer that it was a pine2 though ,theocritus 7xxvi4 #aa7 speaks of it as a mastich-tree4 #ajdd ,mller-,wieseler1 ,denkmler der alten ,kunst1 ii4 pl4 xxxii4 sqq42 ,baumeister1 ,denkmler des klassischen ,altertums1 i4 figures #dhi1 #dia1 #dib1 #die4 ,cp4 ,lenormant in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 i4 #fbc2 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #gjj4 #ajde ,pausanias1 i4 #ca1 #f 7#c74 #ajdf ,athenaeus1 iii4 p4 #gh ,c4 #ajdg ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #f4 #ajdh ,clemens ,alexandr41 ,protrept4 ii4 #ag4 ,cp4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #aaaa sqq4 #ajdi ,clemens ,alexandr41 ,protrept4 ii4 #ai4 #ajej ,clemens ,alexandr41 ,protrept4 ii4 #ah2 ,proclus on ,plato's ,timaeus1 iii4 #bjj ,d1 quoted by ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #efb1 and by ,abel1 ,orphica1 p4 #bcd4 ,others said that the mangled body was pieced together1 not by ,apollo but by ,rhea4 ,cornutus1 ,de natura deorum1 #cj4 #ajea ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #egb sqq4 ,for a conjectural restoration of the temple1 based on ancient authorities and an examination of the scanty remains1 see an article by ,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,middleton1 in ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 vol4 ix4 p4 #bhb sqq4 #ajeb ,diodorus1 iii4 #fb4 #ajec ,macrobius1 ,comment4 in ,somn4 ,scip4 i4 #ab1 #ab2 ,scriptores rerum mythicarum ,latini tres ,romae nuper reperti 7commonly referred to as ,mythographi ,vaticani71 ed4 ,g4 ,h4 ,bode 7,cellis1 #ahcd71 iii4 #ab1 #e1 p4 #bdf2 ,origen1 c4 ,cels4 iv4 #aga1 quoted by ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #gac4 #ajed ,himerius1 ,orat4 ix4 #d4 #ajee ,proclus1 ,hymn to ,minerva1 in ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #efa2 ,orphica1 ed4 ,abel1 p4 #bce4 #ajef ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #afg4 #ajeg ,the festivals of ,dionysus were biennial in many places4 ,see ,schmann1 ,griechische ,alterthmer1#c ii4 #ejj sqq4 7,the terms for the festival were 1 both terms of the series being included in the numeration1 in accordance with the ancient mode of reckoning47 ,probably the festivals were formerly annual and the period was afterwards lengthened1 as has happened with other festivals4 ,see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #agb1 #age2 #dia1 #ecc sq41 #eih4 ,some of the festivals of ,dionysus1 however1 were annual4 #ajeh ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de err4 prof4 relig4 #f4 #ajei ,mythogr4 ,vatic4 ed4 ,bode1 l4c4 #ajfj ,plutarch1 ,consol4 ad uxor4 #aj4 ,cp4 id41 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2 id41 ,de ei ,delphico1 #i2 id41 ,de esu carnium1 i4 #g4 #ajfa ,pausanias1 ii4 #ca1 #b1 and #cg1 #e2 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #e1 #c4 #ajfb ,pausanias1 ii4 #cg1 #e sq42 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2 id41 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 iv4 #f1 #b4 #ajfc ,himerius1 ,orat4 iii4 #f1 xiv4 #g4 #ajfd ,for ,dionysus1 see ,lenormant in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 i4 #fcb4 ,for ,osiris1 see ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #ahgh71 iii4 #fe4 #ajfe ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2 id41 ,quaest4 ,graec4 #cf2 ,athenaeus1 xi4 #dgf ,a2 ,clemens ,alexandr41 ,protrept4 ii4 #af2 ,orphica1 ,hymn xxx4 vv4 #c1 #d1 xlv4 #a1 lii4 #b1 liii4 #h2 ,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #ii2 ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #ceg2 ,nicander1 ,alexipharmaca1 #ca2 ,lucian1 ,bacchus1 #b4 #ajff ,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #ibj sqq41 #ajag4 #ajfg ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2 ,athenaeus1 l4c4 #ajfh ,diodorus1 iii4 #fd1 #b1 iv4 #d1 #b2 ,cornutus1 ,de natura deorum1 #cj4 #ajfi ,diodorus1 l4c42 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 in ,lycophr4 #bji2 ,philostratus1 ,imagines1 i4 #ad 7#ae74 #ajgj ,mller-,wieseler1 ,denkmler der alten ,kunst1 ii4 pl4 xxxiii42 ,daremberg et ,saglio1 i4 #fai sq41 #fca2 ,roscher1 ,ausfhrl4 ,lexikon1 i4 c4 #aadi sqq4 #ajga ,welcker1 ,alte ,denkmler1 v4 taf4 #b4 #ajgb ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,graec4 #cf2 id41 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce4 #ajgc ,nonnus1 ,dionys4 vi4 #bje4 #ajgd ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profan4 religionum1 #f4 #ajge ,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #gce sqq42 ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #ceg4 #ajgf ,hesychius1 s4v4 1 on which there is a marginal gloss 1 1 2 ,stephanus ,byzant4 s4v4 4 ,the title is probably to be explained in the same way4 ,homer1 ,hymn xxxiv4 #b2 ,porphyry1 ,de abstin4 iii4 #ag2 ,dionysius1 ,perieg4 #egf2 ,etymolog4 ,magnum1 p4 #cga1 #eg4 #ajgg ,apollodorus1 iii4 #d1 #c4 #ajgh ,ovid1 ,metam4 v4 #cbi2 ,antoninus ,liberalis1 #bh2 ,mythogr4 ,vatic4 ed4 ,bode1 i4 #hf1 p4 #bi4 #ajgi ,arnobius1 ,adv4 nationes1 v4 #ai4 ,cp4 ,suidas1 s4v4 4 ,as fawns appear to have been also torn in pieces at the rites of ,dionysus 7,photius1 s4v4 2 ,harpocration1 s4v4 71 it is probable that the fawn was another of the god's embodiments4 ,but of this there seems no direct evidence4 ,fawn-skins were worn both by the god and his worshippers 7,cornutus1 ,de natura deorum1 c4 #cj74 ,similarly the female ,bacchanals wore goat-skins 7,hesychius1 s4v4 74 #ajhj ,varro1 ,de re rustica i4 #b1 #ai2 ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #chj1 and ,servius1 ad ,i41 and on ,aen4 iii4 #aah2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #cec sqq42 id41 ,metam4 xv4 #aad sq42 ,cornutus1 ,de natura deorum1 #cj4 #ajha ,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #ach sq4 1 4 #ajhb ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #ceg4 #ajhc ,hera at ,sparta1 ,pausanias1 iii4 #ae1 #i 7cp4 the representation of ,hera clad in a goat's skin1 with the animal's head and horns over her head1 ,mller-,wieseler1 ,denkmler der alten ,kunst1 i4 ,no4 #bii ,b72 ,apollo at ,elis1 ,athenaeus1 #cdf ,b2 ,artemis in ,samos1 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 cp4 id41 s4v4 4 ,divine titles derived from killing animals are probably to be similarly explained1 as ,dionysus 1 ,pausanias ix4 #h1 #b2 ,rhea or ,hecate 1 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 in ,lycophr4 #gg2 ,apollo 1 ,sophocles1 ,electra1 #f2 ,apollo 1 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxiv4 #gj4 #ajhd ,porphyry1 ,de abstin4 ii4 #ee4 #ajhe ,pausanias1 ix4 #h1 #b4 #ajhf ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,graec4 #ch4 #ajhg ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,an4 xii4 #cd4 ,cp4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 i4 #bhf sqq4 #ajhh ,it is to be remembered that on the ,mediterranean coasts the harvest never falls so late as autumn4 #ajhi ,on ,demeter as a corn-goddess see ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #bbd sqq42 on ,proserpine in the same character see ,cornutus1 ,de nat4 deor4 c4 #bh2 ,varro in ,augustine1 ,civ4 ,dei1 vii4 #bj2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore prof4 relig4 #ag4 ,in his careful account of ,demeter as a corn-goddess ,mannhardt appears to have overlooked the very important statement of ,hippolytus 7,refut4 omn4 haeres4 v4 #h1 p4 #afb1 ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin7 that at the initiation into the ,eleusinian mysteries 7the most famous of all the rites of ,demeter7 the central mystery revealed to the initiated was a reaped ear of corn4 #ajij ,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre1 ii4 #ecb2 ,preller1 in ,pauly's ,real-,encyclopdie fr class4 ,alterthumswiss4 vi4 #ajg2 ,lenormant1 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits grecques et romaines1 i4 pt4 ii4 #ajdg sqq4 #ajia ,homer1 ,hymn to ,demeter2 ,apollodorus1 i4 #e2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #dbe sqq42 id41 ,metam4 v4 #che sqq4 #ajib ,a third1 according to ,homer1 ,h4 to ,demeter1 #cii1 and ,apollodorus1 i4 #e1 #c2 a half1 according to ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #fad2 id41 ,metam4 v4 #efg2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #adf4 #ajic ,schmann1 ,griech4 ,alterthmer1#c ii4 #cic2 ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythologie1#c i4 #fbh sq41 #fdd sq41 #fej sq4 ,the evidence of the ancients on this head1 though not full and definite1 seems sufficient4 ,see ,diodorus1 v4 #d2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 cc4 #g1 #bg2 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #fi2 ,apuleius1 ,met4 vi4 #b2 ,clemens ,alex41 ,protrept4 ii4 #ab1 #ag4 #ajid ,mythol4 ,forschungen1 p4 #bib sqq4 #ajie ,etymol4 ,magnum1 p4 #bfd1 #ab sq4 #ajif ,o4 ,schrader1 ,sprachvergleichung und ,urgeschichte#b 7,jena1 #ahij71 pp4 #dji1 #dbb2 ,v4 ,hehn1 ,kulturpflanzen und ,hausthiere in ihrem ,uebergang aus ,asien1#d p4 #ed4 is doubtless equivalent etymologically to 1 which is often taken to be spelt1 but this seems uncertain4 #ajig ,hesiod1 ,theog4 #iga2 ,lenormant1 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 i4 pt4 ii4 p4 #ajbi4 #ajih ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #bif4 #ajii ,ib4 p4 #big4 #aajj ,ib4 p4 #big sq4 #aaja ,ib4 p4 #bii4 #aajb ,ib4 p4 #cjj4 #aajc ,ib4 p4 #caj4 #aajd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #caj sq4 #aaje ,ib4 p4 #caf4 #aajf ,ib4 p4 #caf4 #aajg ,ib4 p4 #caf sq4 #aajh ,see above1 pp4 #af sq41 #bhf sq4 #aaji ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cag4 #aaaj ,ib4 p4 #cag sq4 #aaaa ,ib4 p4 #cah4 #aaab ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #cah4 #aaac ,ib4 p4 #cah sq4 #aaad ,sbillot1 ,coutumes populaires de la ,haute-,bretagne1 p4 #cjf4 #aaae ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #cai4 #aaaf ,ib4 p4 #cbj4 #aaag ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #cba4 #aaah ,ib4 pp4 #cba1 #cbc1 #cbe sq4 #aaai ,ib4 p4 #cbc2 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #bai1 ,no4 #djc4 #aabj ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbe4 #aaba ,ib4 p4 #cbc4 #aabb ,ib4 #aabc ,ib4 p4 #cbc sq4 #aabd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbd4 #aabe ,ib4 p4 #cbj4 #aabf ,ib4 p4 #cbe4 #aabg ,see abbove1 p4 #hc sqq4 #aabh ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbd4 #aabi ,ib4 p4 #cbd sq4 #aacj ,ib4 p4 #cbe4 #aaca ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbg4 #aacb ,ib4 p4 #cbh4 #aacc ,jamieson1 ,dictionary of the ,scottish ,language1 s4v4 8,maiden02 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forschungen1 p4 #cbf4 #aacd ,communicated by my friend ,prof4 ,w4 ,ridgeway1 of ,queen's ,college1 ,cork4 #aace ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbh4 #aacf ,ib4 #aacg ,ib4 p4 #cbh sq4 #aach ,ib4 p4 #cbi4 #aaci ,ib4 p4 #ccj4 #aadj ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #ccj4 #aada ,ib4 p4 #cca4 #aadb ,ib4 p4 #cca4 #aadc ,ib4 p4 #ccb4 #aadd ,hutchinson1 ,history of ,northumberland1 ii4 ad finem1 #ag1 quoted by ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bj1 ,bohn's ed4 #aade ,quoted by ,brand1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bb4 #aadf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #ccc sq4 #aadg ,ib4 p4 #ccd4 #aadh ,ib4 p4 #ccd4 #aadi ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #ccf4 #aaej ,ib4 p4 #ccf4 #aaea ,ib4 p4 #ccf2 ,baumkultus1 p4 #fab4 #aaeb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #bh4 #aaec ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c4 #aaed ,ib42 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 p4 #hg2 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bj1 ,bohn's ed42 ,chambers's ,book of ,days1 ii4 #cgg sq4 ,cp4 ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #ej4 #aaee ,brand1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ba sq4 #aaef ,folk-lore ,journal1 vi4 #bfh sq4 #aaeg ,from information supplied by ,archie ,leitch1 gardener1 ,rowmore1 ,garelochhead4 #aaeh ,communicated by ,mr4 ,macfarlane of ,faslane1 ,gareloch4 #aaei ,jamieson1 ,dictionary of the ,scottish ,language1 s4v4 8,maiden40 #aafj ,w4 ,gregor1 in ,revue des ,traditions populaires1 iii4 #ecc 7#dhe ,b72 id41 ,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of ,scotland1 p4 #ahb4 ,an old ,scottish name for the ,maiden 7autumnalis nymphula7 was ,rapegyrne4 ,see ,fordun1 ,scotichron4 ii4 #dah1 quoted in ,jamieson's ,dict4 of the ,scottish ,language1 s4v4 8,rapegyrne40 #aafa ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #cj2 ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #ej4 #aafb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c42 ,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,sachsen und ,thringen1 p4 #afj sq4 #aafc ,see above1 p4 #hc sqq4 #aafd ,above1 pp4 #ccc1 #cdd4 #aafe ,above1 p4 #cjg4 #aaff ,above1 p4 #fg sqq4 #aafg ,above1 pp4 #ccd1 #cce4 #aafh ,above1 pp4 #ccd1 #cde4 #aafi ,see above1 p4 #cce sq4 #aagj ,above1 p4 #cdj2 cp4 ,kuhn1 ,westflische ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen1 ii4 ,no4 #eaf4 #aaga ,above1 pp4 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cde4 #aagb ,see above1 p4 #i sqq4 #aagc ,above1 p4 #cda4 #aagd ,above1 p4 #cch4 #aage ,above1 p4 #ccd1 cp4 #cce4 #aagf ,above1 pp4 #ccd1 #cde4 #aagg ,above1 p4 #cdd sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,korndmonen1 pp4 #g1 #bf4 ,amongst the ,wends the last sheaf1 made into a puppet and called the ,old ,man1 is hung in the hall till next year's ,old ,man is brought in4 ,schulenburg1 ,wendisches ,volksthum1 p4 #adg4 ,in ,inverness and ,sutherland the ,maiden is kept till the next harvest4 ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 #ej1 #ec sq4 ,cp4 ,kuhn1 ,westflische ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen1 ii4 ,nos4 #eja1 #eag4 #aagh ,acosta1 ,hist4 of the ,indies1 v4 c4 #bh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgd 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahhj74 #aagi ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #cdb sq4 ,mannhardt's authority is a ,spanish tract 7,carta pastoral de exortacion e instruccion contra las idolatrias de los ,indios del arobispado de ,lima7 by ,pedro de ,villagomez1 ,archbishop of ,lima1 published at ,lima in #afdi1 and communicated to ,mannhardt by ,j4 ,j4 v4 ,tschudi4 #aahj ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations civilises du ,mexique1 iii4 #dj sqq4 #aaha ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot1 ,supplemental ,glossary of ,terms used in the ,north ,western ,provinces1 edited by ,j4 ,beames1 i4 #bed4 #aahb ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1#b i4 #ahg1 #aib sqq4 #aahc ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 8,on the ,karens10 in ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 iv4 #cji4 #aahd ,see above1 p4 #cdf4 #aahe ,veth1 ,java1 i4 #ebd-ebf4 #aahf ,homer1 ,od4 v4 #abe sqq42 ,hesiod1 ,theog4 #ifi sqq4 #aahg ,see above1 p4 #cdc sq4 #aahh ,it is possible that a ceremony performed in a ,cyprian worship of ,ariadne may have been of this nature4 ,plutarch1 ,theseus1 #bj1 4 ,we have already seen grounds for regarding ,ariadne as a goddess or spirit of vegetation 7above1 p4 #ajd74 ,if1 however1 the reference is to the ,syro-,macedonian calendar1 in which ,gorpiaeus corresponds to ,september 7,daremberg et ,saglio1 i4 #hca71 the ceremony could not have been a harvest celebration1 but may have been a vintage one4 ,amongst the ,minnitarees in ,north ,america1 the ,prince of ,neuwied saw a tall strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk of maize out of her stomach2 the object of the ceremony was to secure a good crop of maize in the following year4 ,maximilian1 ,prinz zu ,wied1 ,reise in das innere ,nord-,amerika1 ii4 #bfi4 #aahi ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #dfh sq41 #dhj sqq42 id41 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bhh sq42 id41 ,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #adf sqq41 #cdj sqq42 ,van ,hovell1 ,ambon en de ,oeliasers1 p4 #fb sq42 ,wilken1 in ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 pp4 #ieh1 #ifc sq4 ,cp4 ,marco ,polo1 trans4 ,yule1#b i4 #bab sq4 #aaij ,see above1 p4 #cce sq4 #aaia ,cp4 ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythol4#c i4 #fbh1 note #c4 ,in ,greece the annual descent of ,proserpine appears to have taken place at the ,great ,eleusinian ,mysteries and at the ,thesmophoria1 that is1 about the time of the autumn sowing4 ,but in ,sicily her descent seems to have been celebrated when the corn was fully ripe 7,diodorus1 v4 #d71 that is1 in summer4 #aaib ,homer1 ,hymn to ,demeter1 #dja sqq42 ,preller1 l4c4 #aaic ,in some places it was customary to kneel down before the last sheaf1 in others to kiss it4 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,korndmonen1 #bf2 id41 ,mytholog4 ,forschungen1 p4 #cci2 ,folk-lore ,journal1 vi4 #bgj4 #aaid ,above1 p4 #ccb sq4 #aaie ,in the ,homeric ,hymn to ,demeter1 she is represented as controlling the growth of the corn4 ,see above1 p4 #cca4 #aaif ,see above1 pp4 #cje sqq41 #cji sqq4 #aaig ,pauly1 ,real-,encyclopadie der class4 ,alterthumswiss4 v4 #ajaa4 #aaih ,above1 p4 #aje sq4 #aaii ,diodorus1 i4 #ad1 444 ,for we should perhaps read 1 which is supported by the following 4 #abjj ,herodotus1 ii4 #gi2 ,pollux1 iv4 #ed2 ,pausanias1 ix4 #bi2 ,athenaeus1 #fbj ,a4 #abja ,brugsch1 ,adonisklage und ,linoslied1 p4 #bd4 #abjb ,above1 p4 #cee4 #abjc ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bdi sq4 #abjd ,homer1 ,il4 xviii4 #egj2 ,herodotus1 ii4 #gi2 ,pausanias1 ix4 #bi2 ,conon1 ,narrat4 #ai4 ,for the form ,ailinus see ,suidas1 s4v42 ,euripides1 ,orestes1 #acie2 ,sophocles1 ,ajax1 #fbg4 ,cp4 ,moschus1 ,idyl4 iii4 #a2 ,callimachus1 ,hymn to ,apollo1 #bj4 #abje ,conon1 l4c4 #abjf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 p4 #bha4 #abjg ,pausanias1 l4c4 #abjh ,pollux1 iv4 #ed2 ,athenaeus1 #fai ,f1 #fbj ,a2 ,hesychius1 svv4 and 4 #abji ,the story was told by ,sositheus in his play of ,daphnis4 ,his verses have been preserved in the tract of an anonymous writer4 ,see ,scriptores rerum mirabilium1 ed4 ,westermann1 p4 #bbj2 also ,athenaeus1 #dae ,b2 ,schol4 on ,theocritus1 x4 #da2 ,photius1 ,suidas1 and ,hesychius1 s4v4 ,lityerses2 ,apostolius1 x4 #gd4 ,photius mentions the sickle4 ,lityerses is the subject of a special study by ,mannhardt 7,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #a sqq471 whom ,i follow4 #abaj ,pollux1 iv4 #ed4 #abaa ,in this comparison ,i closely follow ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ah sqq4 #abab ,cp4 above1 p4 #cdj4 ,on the other hand1 the last sheaf is sometimes an object of desire and emulation4 ,see p4 #ccf4 ,it is so at ,balquhidder also1 ,folk-lore ,journal1 vi4 #bfi2 and it was formerly so on the ,gareloch1 ,dumbartonshire1 where there was a competition for the honour of cutting it1 several handfuls of standing corn being concealed under sheaves4--7,from the information of ,archie ,leitch4 ,see note on p4 #cde74 #abac ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ai sq4 #abad ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #bj2 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #bag4 #abae ,above1 p4 #cdf sq4 #abaf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #bb4 #abag ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #bb4 #abah ,ib4 p4 #bb sq4 #abai ,ib4 p4 #bc4 #abbj ,ib4 p4 #bc sq4 #abba ,ib4 p4 #bd4 #abbb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #bd4 #abbc ,ib4 p4 #bd4 #abbd ,ib4 p4 #bd sq4 #abbe ,ib4 p4 #be4 #abbf ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bbc4 #abbg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #be sq4 #abbh ,c4 ,a4 ,elliot1 ,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1 p4 #agh1 quoted in ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 ,nos4 #h1 #afh4 #abbi ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ca4 #abcj ,ib4 p4 #ccd4 #abca ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ccj4 #abcb ,ib4 #abcc ,ib4 p4 #cca4 #abcd ,ib4 p4 #cce4 #abce ,ib4 p4 #cce4 #abcf ,above1 pp4 #cce1 #cda1 #cej4 #abcg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,korndm41 p4 #bf4 #abch ,above1 p4 #cdc4 #abci ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ej4 #abdj ,ib4 p4 #ej sq4 #abda ,see above1 pp4 #bhf sq41 #ccc1 #ccg1 #cdj1 #cda4 #abdb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cb sqq4 ,cp4 ,revue des ,traditions populaires1 iii4 #eih4 #abdc ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 p4 #ce sq4 #abdd ,ib4 p4 #cf4 #abde ,for the evidence1 see ib4 p4 #cf1 note #b4 ,the idea which lies at the bottom of the phrase seems to be explained by the following ,cingalese custom4 8,there is a curious custom of the threshing-floor called #8,goigote'--the tying of the cultivator's knot4 ,when a sheaf of corn has been threshed out1 before it is removed the grain is heaped up and the threshers1 generally six in number1 sit round it1 and taking a few stalks1 with the ears of corn attached1 jointly tie a knot and bury it in the heap4 ,it is left there until all the sheaves have been threshed and the corn winnowed and measured4 ,the object of this ceremony is to prevent the devils from diminishing the quantity of corn in the heap40 ,c4 ,j4 ,r4 ,le ,mesurier1 8,customs and ,superstitions connected with the ,cultivation of ,rice in the ,southern ,province of ,ceylon10 in ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s41 xvii4 7#ahhe7 #cga4 ,the 8key0 in the ,european custom is probably intended to serve the same purpose as the 8knot0 in the ,cingalese custom4 #abdf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #ci4 #abdg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ci sq4 #abdh ,ib4 p4 #dj4 ,for the speeches made by the woman who binds the stranger or the master1 see ib4 p4 #da2 ,lemke1 ,volksthmliches in ,ostpreussen1 i4 #bc sq4 #abdi ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #da sq4 #abej ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #db4 #abea ,ib4 p4 #db4 ,see above1 p4 #cdc4 ,in ,thringen a being called the ,rush-cutter used to be much dreaded4 ,on the morning of ,st4 ,john's ,day he was wont to walk through the fields with sickles tied to his ankles cutting avenues in the corn as he walked4 ,to detect him1 seven bundles of brushwood were silently threshed with the flail on the threshing-floor1 and the stranger who appeared at the door of the barn during the threshing was the ,rush-cutter4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bba4 ,with the ,binsenschneider compare the ,bilschneider4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #baj sq4 #abeb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dg sq4 #abec ,ib4 p4 #dh4 ,to prevent a rationalistic explanation of this custom1 which1 like most rationalistic explanations of folk-custom1 would be wrong1 it may be pointed out that a little of the crop is sometimes left on the field for the spirit under other names than 8the ,poor ,old ,woman40 ,thus in a village of the ,tilsit district1 the last sheaf was left standing on the field 8for the ,old ,rye-woman40 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ccg4 ,in ,neftenbach 7,canton of ,zrich7 the first three ears of corn reaped are thrown away on the field 8to satisfy the ,corn-mother and to make the next year's crop abundant40 ,ib4 ,in ,thringen when the after-grass 7,grummet7 is being got in1 a little heap is left lying on the field2 it belongs to 8the ,little ,wood-woman0 in return for the blessing she has bestowed4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #bbd4 ,at ,kupferberg1 ,bavaria1 some corn is left standing on the field when the rest has been cut4 ,of this corn left standing1 they say that 8it belongs to the ,old ,woman10 to whom it is dedicated in the following words-- 8,we give it to the ,old ,woman2 ,she shall keep it4 ,next year may she be to us ,as kind as this time she has been40 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #ccg sq4 ,these last expressions are quite conclusive4 ,see also ,mannhardt1 ,korndmonen1 p4 #g sq4 ,in ,russia a patch of unreaped corn is left in the field and the ears are knotted together2 this is called 8the plaiting of the beard of ,volos40 8,the unreaped patch is looked upon as tabooed2 and it is believed that if any one meddles with it he will shrivel up1 and become twisted like the interwoven ears40 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bea4 ,in the ,north-east of ,scotland a few stalks were sometimes left unreaped for the benefit of 8the aul' man40 ,w4 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of ,scotland1 p4 #ahb4 ,here 8the aul' man0 is probably the equivalent of the ,old ,man 7der ,alte7 of ,germany4 #abed ,m4 ,f4 p4 #dh4 #abee ,ib4 p4 #dh sq4 #abef ,ib4 p4 #di4 #abeg ,ib4 p4 #di sq42 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1#b #djj2 ,tppen1 ,aberglaube aus ,masuren1#b p4 #eg4 #abeh ,the explanation of the custom is ,mannhardt's4 ,m4 ,f4 p4 #di4 #abei ,odyssey1 xvii4 #dhe sqq4 ,cp4 ,plato1 ,sophist1 #baf ,a4 #abfj ,for throwing him into the water1 see p4 #cgd4 #abfa ,cieza de ,leon1 ,travels1 translated by ,markham1 p4 #bjc 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfd74 #abfb ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations civilises du ,mexique1 i4 #bgd2 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #cdj4 #abfc ,bastian1 ,die ,culturlnder des alten ,amerika1 ii4 #fci 7quoting ,herrara74 ,see above1 p4 #cjg4 #abfd ,e4 ,james1 ,account of an ,expedition from ,pittsburgh to the ,rocky ,mountains1 ii4 #hj sq42 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 v4 #gg sqq42 ,de ,smet1 ,voyages aux ,montagnes ,rocheuses1 nouvelle ed4 #ahgc1 p4 #aba sqq4 ,the accounts by ,schoolcraft and ,de ,smet of the sacrifice of the ,sioux girl are independent and supplement each other4 #abfe ,labat1 ,relation historique de l',ethiopie occidentale1 i4 #chj4 #abff ,john ,adams1 ,sketches taken during ,ten ,voyages in ,africa between the years #aghf and #ahjj1 p4 #be4 #abfg ,p4 ,bouche1 ,la ,cte des ,esclaves1 p4 #acb4 #abfh ,arbousset et ,daumas1 ,voyage d'exploration au ,nord-est de la ,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne-,esperance1 p4 #aag sq4 #abfi ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 ,no4 #gba4 #abgj ,major ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 ,memorials of ,service in ,india1 p4 #aac sq42 ,major-,general ,john ,campbell1 ,wild ,tribes of ,khondistan1 pp4 #eb-eh1 etc4 #abga ,j4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #ef4 #abgb ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4 #aae sq4 #abgc ,ib4 p4 #aac4 #abgd ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4 #aag sq42 ,j4 ,campbell1 p4 #aab4 #abge ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 p4 #aah4 #abgf ,j4 ,campbell1 p4 #ed4 #abgg ,ib4 pp4 #ee1 #aab4 #abgh ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 p4 #aai2 ,j4 ,campbell1 p4 #aac4 #abgi ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 p4 #abg4 ,instead of the branch of a green tree1 ,campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos 7p4 #eg7 or a slit bamboo 7p4 #ahb74 #abhj ,j4 ,campbell1 pp4 #ef1 #eh1 #abj4 #abha ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bhh1 quoting ,colonel ,campbell's ,report4 #abhb ,j4 ,campbell1 p4 #abf4 ,the elephant represented the ,earth ,goddess herself1 who was here conceived in elephant-form2 ,campbell1 pp4 #ea1 #abf4 ,in the hill tracts of ,goomsur she was represented in peacock-form1 and the post to which the victim was bound bore the effigy of a peacock1 ,campbell1 p4 #ed4 #abhc ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 p4 #acj4 #abhd ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bhh1 referring to ,colonel ,campbell's ,report4 #abhe ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 p4 #abi4 ,cp4 ,j4 ,campbell1 pp4 #ee1 #eh1 #aac1 #aba1 #ahg4 #abhf ,j4 ,campbell1 p4 #ahb4 #abhg ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 p4 #abh2 ,dalton1 l4c4 #abhh ,j4 ,campbell1 pp4 #ee1 #ahb4 #abhi ,j4 ,campbell1 p4 #ahg4 #abij ,j4 ,campbell1 p4 #aab4 #abia ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 p4 #aah4 #abib ,above1 pp4 #chc1 #chd4 #abic ,above1 pp4 #ccd1 #cce4 #abid ,above1 pp4 #ccc1 #cdd1 #cde4 #abie ,above1 p4 #cgb4 #abif ,above1 p4 #cgd4 #abig ,above1 pp4 #bhf sq41 #ccg1 #cdj1 #cgd4 #abih ,above1 p4 #cgd4 #abii ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,korndmonen1 p4 #e4 #acjj ,pfannenschmid1 ,germanische ,erntefeste1 p4 #ih4 #acja ,above1 p4 #cgf sq4 #acjb ,above1 p4 #bce4 #acjc ,above1 p4 #bii4 #acjd ,above1 p4 #fh4 #acje ,i do not know when the corn is reaped in ,phrygia2 but considering the high upland character of the country1 harvest is probably later there than on the coasts of the ,mediterranean4 #acjf ,above1 p4 #cfd sq4 #acjg ,above1 p4 #cfe4 #acjh ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 #acji ,apollodorus1 ii4 #f1 #c4 #acaj ,the scurrilities exchanged in both ancient and modern times between vine-dressers1 vintagers1 and passers-by seem to belong to a different category4 ,see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ec sq4 #acaa ,above1 p4 #bhb sqq4 #acab ,above1 p4 #bhc sq4 #acac ,above1 pp4 #cha1 #chd1 #chi4 #acad ,for this fact of the probable correspondence of the months1 which supplies so welcome a confirmation of the conjecture in the text1 ,i am indebted to my friend ,professor ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 who furnishes me with the following note3 8,in the ,syro-,macedonian calendar ,lous represents ,ab1 not ,tammuz4 ,was it different in ,babylon8 ,i think it was1 and one month different1 at least in the early times of the ,greek monarchy in ,asia4 ,for we know from a ,babylonian observation in the ,almagest 7,ideler1 ,i4 #cif7 that in #bbi ,b4,c4 ,xanthicus began on ,february #bf4 ,it was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon1 not ,nisan but ,adar1 and consequently ,lous answered to the lunar month ,tammuz40 #acae ,above1 p4 #cfd4 #acaf ,apollodorus1 ii4 #e1 #aa2 ,schol4 on ,apollonius ,rhodius1 iv4 #acif2 ,plutarch1 ,parall4 #ch4 ,herodotus 7ii4 #de7 discredits the idea that the ,egyptians ever offered human sacrifices4 ,but his authority is not to be weighed against that of ,manetho 7,plutarch1 ,is4 et ,os4 #gc71 who affirms that they did4 #acag ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 #eg4 #acah ,diodorus1 i4 #hh2 ,plutarch1 ,is4 et ,os4 #gc2 cp4 id41 #cj1 #cc4 #acai ,above1 pp4 #cjg1 #chc1 #cia4 #acbj ,festus1 s4v4 ,catularia4 ,cp4 id41 s4v4 rutilae canes2 ,columella1 x4 #cdc2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #ije sqq42 ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xviii4 #ad4 #acba ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 #bjg1 ,no4 #cfb2 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iii4 #cdc4 #acbb ,above1 pp4 #chd1 #chi4 #acbc ,above1 pp4 #cha1 #chc4 #acbd ,plutarch1 ,is4 et ,os4 #ah4 #acbe ,plutarch1 ,is4 et ,os4 #bb1 #cj1 #ca1 #cc1 #gc4 #acbf ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7ed4 #ahgh71 iii4 #ha4 #acbg ,pausanias1 i4 #bb1 #c1 viii4 #e1 #h1 viii4 #db1 #a #acbh ,cornutus1 ,de nat4 deor4 c4 #bh4 #acbi ,hone1 ,every-day ,book1 ii4 c4 #aagj sq4 #accj ,miss ,c4 ,s4 ,burne and ,miss ,g4 ,f4 ,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore1 p4 #cgb sq41 referring to ,mrs4 ,bray's ,traditions of ,devon1 i4 #ccj4 #acca ,hone1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aagb4 #accb ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bj 7,bohn's ed472 ,burne and ,jackson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cga4 #accc ,burne and ,jackson1 l4c4 #accd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ahe4 #acce ,see above1 p4 #cde4 #accf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch4 p4 #ahe4 #accg ,ib4 #acch ,revue des ,traditions populaires1 ii4 #ejj4 #acci ,above1 p4 #cdc4 #acdj ,u4 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und ,viehzucht1 pp4 #aff-afi2 ,pfannenschmid1 ,germanische ,erntefeste1 p4 #ajd sq42 ,kuhn1 ,westflische ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen1 ii4 ,nos4 #dia1 #dib2 ,kuhn und ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #cie1 ,no4 #ig2 ,lynker1 ,deutsche ,sagen und ,sitten in hessischen ,gauen1 p4 #bef1 ,no4 #cdj4